Full text of "Rudimentary dictionary of terms used in architecture, civil, architecture, naval, building and construction : early and ecclesiastical art, engineering, civil, engineering, mechanical, fine art, mining, surveying, etc., to which are added explanatory observations on numerous subjects connected with practical art and science"

GIFT OF 
Mrs. S. 3. Llontague 




From the collection of the 



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Prelinger 
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San Francisco, California 
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Oje tfoorfoag on tfje sotttfj sitie of @reat i&ctusfjam Cjjurdj is 
of a "Date consfOcrablg anterior to tfye first ^otoarti'0 reign : it 
affortis a rjooti example of tlje rutie $tormau architecture so pre= 
balent in tfje Suffolk cjurcfjes. 




w< 

RUDIMENTARY 

DICTIONARY OF TERMS 

USED IN 

ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL, 

ARCHITECTURE, NAVAL, 

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION, 

EARLY AND ECCLESIASTICAL ART, 

ENGINEERING, CIVIL, 
ENGINEERING, MECHANICAL, 

FINE ART, 
MINING, SURVEYING, ETC. 



TO WHICH AEE ADDED 

EXPLANATORY OBSERVATIONS 

ON 
NUMEROUS SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH PRACTICAL ART AND SCIENCE. 



SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED. 

' Or 




EDITED AND PUBLISHED BY 

JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. 
1860. 



PRINTED BT 
JOHN EDWARD TAYLOR, LITTLE QUEEN STREET, 

LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. 



MRS. S. S. MONTAGUE 



PREFACE. 



IT was intended that the contents of this \vork should be 
comprised within the space of about one hundred and fifty 
pages, and thus form a single volume of the series of * Rudi- 
mentary Treatises ; ' but in the course of its compilation it 
soon became apparent that such confined limits were wholly 
inadequate to the admission of explanations of terms which, 
although not immediately connected with the subjects men- 
tioned in the title-page, were yet deemed essential to their 
further amplification : its utility as a book of reference will 
therefore, it is hoped, be found commensurate with its neces- 
sarily increased extent. 

Since the publication, in 1819, of Mr. Peter Nicholson's 
elaborate 'Architectural Dictionary,' in two quarto volumes, 
changes of vast import have occurred : the field of practical 
science has been widely extended, and proportionately occu- 
pied by a new generation of professional men and students ; 
important advances have been made in the arts of design 
and construction ; and the extended application of steam as 
a motive power has not only produced an extraordinary de- 
velopment of the means of internal communication, but 
surmounted those impediments which considerations of space 
and time formerly presented to the pursuits of men in quest 
of business or pleasure, thus influencing, to a great extent, 



vi PREFACE. 



the various operations by which the wants and luxuries of 
civilized life are supplied. 

In a ratio proportionate to the rapid extension of what 
may be strictly termed practical knowledge has the study of 
the more pleasurable sciences also progressed : archaeology, 
architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, geology, etc., 
have exercised a powerful and captivating influence, which has 
gradually led to the incorporation of societies or associations 
devoted to the cultivation and advancement of the several 
branches of human knowledge; and hence has arisen an 
extensive class of non-professional men, who, however duly 
acquainted with scientific principles, may yet be anxious to 
possess any easily available means of becoming familiar with 
the nomenclature and the technical language necessarily 
employed in a series of rudimentary treatises on the practical 
arts and sciences. 

Within the period already adverted to, much professional 
taste and skill have been displayed in the erection of public 
buildings, in the construction of engineering works of vast 
magnitude and importance (both at home and abroad), and 
in the invention of the improved machinery employed in the 
arts and manufactures of the country. These and similar 
causes have combined greatly to augment the ranks of a 
meritorious and useful class of men, among whom, more 
especially, new wants may be said to have been created, a 
class which comprises no inconsiderable number of ingenious 
operative engineers, artisans, etc. ; and to such this work 
may become interesting and useful, however insufficient it may 
prove to those already advanced in their professional pursuits. 

Should, however, the paucity of information contained in 
the following pages induce others more competent to the 
task, and who have sufficient leisure for the purpose, to 
devote their talents and time to the production of a more 



PREFACE. Vll 



comprehensive and more valuable compilation, some share of 
useful information will at least have been contributed to the 
means of supplying the wants of an improving age. 

The slender efforts here placed before the reader were ac- 
complished, by the aid of the lamp, after the hours usually 
devoted to the labours of business, and they are now, with 
the most humble pretensions, submitted to public approval. 
It has been well observed, that "the language of truth is 
simple :" no attempt has here been made to trace the deriva- 
tions of the scientific or technical terms which have been 
adopted ; they are given and explained as generally written, 
spoken, and understood at the present period, and care has been 
taken to avoid surreptitious or unauthorized versions, with 
the view of correctly guiding the student and the operative 
workman in the onward path of knowledge. 

Some analogous explanations and references may probably 
appear, at a first glance, as superfluous, and to detract from 
the merits of the work; but when it is considered how 
numerous and varied, in the present age, are the ramifications 
into which the employment of those engaged in the building 
and constructive arts has been extended, and how earnestly 
the searchers after technical terms and meanings must desire 
the acquisition of a knowledge of what may not inaptly be 
designated as a correct disposition of fine art, any unfavour- 
able impression of this nature, hastily formed, will probably 
be removed upon mature reflection, 

In referring to the series of ' Rudimentary Scientific Works* 
to which this ' Dictionary of Terms' will, it is presumed, be 
deemed an appropriate Companion, it is proper to mention 
that the first suggestion as to their publication emanated from 
the late Major- General Sir William Reid, of the Corps of 
Royal Engineers, and myself. Sir William kindly contributed, 
as a commencement, Professor Fownes's ' Rudimentary Che- 



Vlll PREFACE. 



mistry.' This elementary treatise, the first of the series, and 
to which the recommendation of Sir William Reid was limited, 
had been printed originally at his own expense, for the lau- 
dable and special purpose of adding to the numerous educa- 
tional and scientific works which he had already distributed 
among different classes in the West India colonies. 

To Major-General Portlock, R.E., E. B. Denison, Esq., Q.C., 
and to Alan Stevenson, Esq., of Edinburgh, James Peake, Esq., 
of Keyham (H.M.) Dockyard, Sir R. Macdonald Stephenson, 
Charles Wye Williams, Esq., of Liverpool, William Bland, Esq., 
of Hartlip, Kent, Hyde Clarke, Esq., David Gibbons, Esq., 
Joseph Gwilt, Esq., and to others who have so liberally con- 
tributed their aid in the production of the extensive treatises, 
I have to acknowledge my obligations. 

Of the First Edition 10,000 copies have been sold. The 
present Edition, the second, has been revised with care, and, 
it is hoped, will be found to be considerably improved. 



JOHN WEALE. 



59, High Holborn, 
May, 1860. 



LIST OF THE WORKS WHICH HAVE BEEN CONSULTED IN 
THE COMPILATION OF THIS DICTIONARY. 



Adcock's Rules and Data for the Steam Engine, etc. 12mo. 1839. 

Aide-Memoire to the Military Sciences. 3 vols. 8vo. 

Architectural Papers. 4 vols. 4to. 

Bartol's American Marine Boilers. 8vo. 1851. 

Blashfield's Terra Cotta Vases, etc. 4to. 1857. 

Britton's Architectural Dictionary. 4to. 1838. 

Buchanan's Technological Dictionary. 12mo. 1849. 

Practical Essays on Mill-work and on Machinery and Tools. 

2 vols. 8vo. Edited by George Rennie, 1841. 
Builder's (The) Dictionary. 2 vols. 4to. 1788. 
Bury's Styles of Architecture. 12mo. 1855. 
Calmet's Dictionary of the Bihle. 8vo. 1848. 
Campbell's Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. 12mo. 1849. 
Castell's Villas of the Ancients, fol. 1728. 
Clegg's Essay on the Architecture of Machinery. 4to. 1842. 

Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. 4to. 1848. 

Dana's Seaman's Vade Mecum. 12mo. 1856. 

Dempsey's Practical Railway Engineer. 4to. 1855. 

Dictionary of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. 8vo. 1810. 

Divers Works of Early Masters. 2 vols. imp. folio. 1847. 

Dobson's Student's Guide, by Garbett. 8vo. 1858-9. 

Dodd's (Ralph) Observations on Water. 18mo. 1805. 

Ensamples of Railway Making. 8vo. 1843. 

Engineer and Contractor's Pocket-Book for 1859. 

Engineering Papers. 6 vols. 4to. 

Ewbank's Hydraulics and Machinery. 8vo. New York, 1849. 

Fairbairn on Cast and Wrought Iron for Building Purposes. 8vo. 1858. 

Fergusson's Rock-Cut Temples of India : plates folio, text 8vo. 1845. 

Field's Chromatography. 8vo. 1841. 



LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 



^ Garbett (E. L.) on the Principles of Design in Architecture. 2 vols. 1852. 
1 Glossary of Architecture. 3 vols. Oxford, Parker. 1845. 

Greir's Mechanical Dictionary. 12mo. 1850. 

Gregory's Mathematics for Practical Men : large 8vo. 1848. 

Gwilt's (Joseph) Encyclopaedia of Architecture. 8vo. 1857. 

-edition of Sir William Chambers's Civil Architecture. 

2 vols. imperial 8vo. 1824. 

Notitia Architectonica Italiana. 8vo. 1818. 



Hamilton on Terms used in the Arts and Sciences. 12mo. 1825. 
Hann's Theoretical and Practical Mechanics. 8vo. 1849. 
Hann's etc. Theory and Practice of Bridges. 4 vols. in 3 : large 8vo. 1858. 
Holzapffel's Turnery and Mechanical Manipulation. 3 vols. 8vo. 1848. 
Homersham on Water Supply to Manchester and the adjacent Towns. 

8vo. 1849. 

Hunt's Tudor Architecture. 4to. 1830. 

Button's Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary. 2 vols. 4to. 1815. 
Jamieson's (Dr.) Dictionary of Mechanical Science. 4to. 1827. 

Mechanics for Practical Men. 8vo. 1830. 

Leeds's Rudimentary Treatise on the Orders of Architecture. 12mo. 1855. 
/Meason's Architecture of the Great Painters of Italy. 4to. 1828. 
Meteorological Society's Transactions, vol. i. large 8vo. 1839. 
National Encyclopaedia, by Mr. Charles Knight. 
I/ Nicholson's Architectural Dictionary. 2 vols. 4to. 1819. 

. Mechanical Exercises. 8vo. 1819. 

Normand's Parallel of the Orders of Architecture, by Pugin : folio. 1829. 
^ Palladio's Architecture, with Notes by Inigo Jones. 2 vols. folio. 1742. 
Pambour's Practical Treatise on Locomotive Engines. 8vo. 1840. 
Papers connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers. 10 vols. 

4to. 1835-1849. 
Papers and Practical Illustrations of Public Works, both British and 

American, royal 8vo. 

Pole on the Cornish Pumping Engine. 1 vol. 4to. folio plates. 1844. 
Pryce's Treatise on Mines and Minerals : folio. 1773. 
* Pugin's True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture. 4to. 1841. 
r Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture in England. 

4to. 1843. 
Reid (Major-General Sir Wm.) on the Law of Storms : large 8vo. 1850. 

Variable Winds : crown 8vo. 1857. 

Rennie's (Sir John) Harbours, Docks, and Coast Engineering. 2 vols. imp. 

folio. 1855. 

Repton's Theory and Practice of Landscape Architecture : large 4to. 1805. 
Rich's Companion to the Greek Lexicon and Latin Dictionary. 8vo. 1849. 
Smeaton's Reports. 4to. 1837. 



LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. XI 

Smith's Classical Dictionary: large 8vo. 1849. 

Stephenson's (Robert) Report on the Atmospheric Railway System. 4 to. 
1844. 

Stuart's Antiquities of Athens. 4 vols. folio. 

Taubert's Use of Field Artillery in Service, translated by Lieut. II. II. 
Maxwell. 1856. 

Templeton's Workshop Companion, 1858. 

Thorman's Taunus Railway. 4to. 1846. 

Tomlinson's Rudimentary Natural Philosophy. 12mo. 1856. 

Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 3 vols. 4to. 1835-40. 

Tredgoldon the Steam Engine. 2 vols. 4to. 1838-1849. 
Strength of Cast Iron. 8vo. 1842. 

Tredgold's Elementary Principles of Carpentry. 4to. 1856. 

Vitruvius's Civil Architecture, by Wilkins : imperial 4to. 1812. 

Watson's Account of Mines. 8vo. 1843. 

Wicksteed's Experimental Inquiry into Cornish Engines. 4to. 1845. 

Work on Cornish and Boulton and Watt Engines. 1846. 

Wightwick's Hints to Young Architects. 8vo. 1846. 

Williams (Chas. Wye) on Combustion. 2 vols. 12mo. 

Willis's (Professor) Architectural Nomenclature. 4to. Cambridge. 

System of Apparatus for the use of Lectures. 4to. 1841. 

And lastly, The Dictionary of Architecture, by the Architectural Publication 
Society, of which several Parts in folio have already appeared. To 
this really learned and valuable work I am indebted, and acknow- 
ledge with much pleasure and thankfulness the several extracts 
made from it, and testify to its great utility to the profession at 
large. 



ABB 



ABERRATION. 



ABS 



modation of a fraternity under 
ecclesiastical government. 

Abbey gate-house, & lodge forwarders 
or porters at the entrance of an 
abbey edifice. 

Abbot, the superior of a monastery of 
monks erected into an abbey or 
priory : there are various classes of 
abbots, as mitred, crosiered, car- 
dinal, regular, and commendatory 
abbots. 

Abbot's lodgings, in the early times of 
English ecclesiastical architecture, 
a complete house, with hall, chapel, 
and every convenience for the resi- 
dence of a spiritual baron. 

Abbreviate, to contract a word in 
writing or printing. 

Abbreviations, characters or marks 
over letters to signify either a word 
or syllable. 

Abel (John), an English architect of 
considerable notoriety, died in 
1674, aged 97 : built, during the 
periods of James I. and Charles I., 
the market-houses of Brecon, Here- 
ford, Weobly, with its school- 
house, Kingston, and Leominster, 
and the timberwork of the church 
at Abbeydore ; and being in Here- 
ford when the Scots besieged it 
in 1645, he constructed mills to 
grind corn, which were of great use 
to the besieged, and for which 
Charles I. afterwards made him 
one of his carpenters. 

Abele-tree, a species of white poplar. 

Aber, or Abber, the fall or emptying 
a lesser water into a greater, as of 
a brook into a river : hence several 
towns situated on or near the 
mouth of rivers generally derive 
the first parts of their names. 

Aberration, in astronomy, an appa- 
rent motion of the celestial bodies 
occasioned by the progressive mo- 
tion of light and the earth's annual 
motion in its orbit. 

Aberration, in optics, the deviation 
or dispersion of the rays of light 
when reflected by a lens, by which 
they are prevented from meeting 
or uniting in the same point, called 
the geometrical focus ; but spread 



over a small span, they produce a 
confusion of images. 

Ablactation, in gardening, the method 
of grafting. 

Ablaqueation, the opening of the 
ground around the roots of trees, 
for the admission of the air. 

Aboard, a nautical term, the inside of 
a ship, or to go on board. 

Abobe, unbaked bricks in Spain, used 
for the erection of cottages in Cas- 
tile and Leon. 

About-ship, the situation of a ship 
after she has tacked. 

About-sledge, the largest hammer em- 
ployed by smiths ; it is slung round 
near the extremity of the handle, 
and generally used by under work- 
men, called hammer-men. 

Abrasion, the effect produced by at- 
trition or rubbing. 

Abraum, a red clay, used in England 
to give a red colour to new maho- 
gany. 

Abreast, as when two ships have their 
sides parallel. 

Abreuvoir, a watering-place. 

Abreuvoir, in masonry, the interstice 
or joint between two stones to be 
filled up with mortar or cement. 

Abscissa, a geometrical term for a 
segment cut off from the straight 
line by an ordinate to a curve. 

Absis, or Apsis, the bowed or arched 
roof of an oven, room, or house. 

Absis, or Apsis, the ring or compass 
of a wheel. 

Absorbents, in chemistry, those earthy 
substances capable of uniting, by 
capillary attraction, a large pro- 
portion of water : such are mag- 
nesia, lime, and clay, when dry 
and porous. 

Absorbing-well, a shaft or boring for 
removing either the excess of drain- 
age-waters, or the foul waters pro- 
duced by manufacturing purposes. 

Absorption is the successive and inti- 
mate penetration of a gas, or a 
liquid, into any substance ; but fa- 
miliarly, the taking up moisture, 
in any material, by capillary at- 
traction. 

Abs thanes, a lower kind of nobility 



ABS 



ABUSES. 



ABU 



formerly in Scotland, but now ex- 
tinct. 

Abstract (To), a term used by arti- 
ficers and surveyors in arranging 
and apportioning theh work, to 
explain and price it. 

Abstract mathematics, otherwise de- 
nominated pure mathematics, that 
branch of the science which treats 
of simple properties, magnitude, 
figure, or quantity, absolutely and 
generally considered. 

Abstraction and absorption of heat is 
that process under which caloric, 
or heat, passes from any body to 
whatever surrounds it, or to any 
conducting substance with which 
it is in contact. 

Absurd, a term used in demonstrating 
converse propositions. 

Abundant number, a number whose 
aliquot parts, added together, make 
a sum which is greater than the 
number itself. 

Abuses: "Architecture," says Palladio, 
" being an imitatrix of Nature, de- 
lights in that which is most conso- 
nant with her prototype." Ancient 
edifices were built with wood, trees 
forming the columns ; and when 
architects began to build with 
stone, they made the columns to 
imitate the trunks of trees, taper- 
ing from their bases. Being thus 
originally of wood, and therefore 
liable to split when much loaded, 
they bound them with rings at top 
and bottom. Thus the bases and 
capitals in the different orders 
seem originally derived from these 
bandages, though they are now 
become essential ornaments. Thus 
also in entablatures, the triglyphs, 
modillions, and dentils represent 
the ends of those beams and tim- 
bers which are employed for the 
support of the floors and roofs. If 
therefore all these conditions be 
duly considered, those practices in 
building are highly to be repro- 
bated which are in opposition to 
that analogy which should exist 
between the original and its imi- 
tation, or which depart from Na- 



ture and the simplicity observable 
in all her works. 

Consoles or cartouches, which 
are of a scroll-like form, should 
never be employed for the appa- 
rent support of great weights, in 
place of columns or pilasters ; nor 
should they ever project from, or 
spring out of cornices. 

Pediments and frontispieces over 
doors and windows, or elsewhere, 
should on no account be broken or 
disconnected in the middle ; for 
the intention of these is to shelter 
the parts below from the rain, and 
this result is completely obviated 
by such a practice. 

The projecture of cornices, 
though for the purpose of shelter- 
ing buildings, should not be more 
than in due proportion to their 
height,whether or not accompanied 
by columns ; for if too heavy, they 
seem to threaten with danger those 
who are under them ; and if too 
small in projection, they do not 
properly perform their office. 

Again, those columns which are 
feigned to be composed of several 
pieces, by being jointed together 
with rings, should be carefully 
avoided, because the more solid 
and strong the columns appear, the 
better they seem to answer the pur- 
pose for which they were erected, 
which is securely to receive the 
superincumbent loading. 

There are many other abuses 
which the authority of great mas- 
ters may sanction, but not justify ; 
and such will readily occur to the 
student, and themselves point out 
that they ought to be avoided. 
'Abutment, the solid part of a pier 

from which the arch springs. 
Abutments, the extremities of a 
bridge, by which it joins upon the 
banks or sides of a river, etc. ; in 
carpentry and joinery, the junc- 
tions or meetings of two pieces of 
timber, of which the fibres of the 
one run perpendicular to the joint, 
and those of the other parallel to 
it. 



B 2 



ABU 



ACCESSES. 



ACE 



A'tuttah, the buttings or boundaries 
of land. 

Acacio, a heavy, durable wood, of the 
red mahogany character, but darker 
and plainer : it is highly esteemed 
in ship-building. 

Academia, in antiquity, a villa or plea- 
sure-house in one of the suburbs 
of Athens, where Plato and other 
philosophers assembled. 

Academician, a member of a society 
or academy instituted for the cul- 
tivation of the arts and sciences. 

Academy-figure is a drawing or de- 
sign, done after a model, with 

j, crayon or pencil. 

^Acanthus, the plant Branca ursina, in 
English bear 's-breech, the leaves of 
which are imitated in decorating 
the Corinthian and Composite ca- 
pitals of columns. 

Accelerated motion, a force acting in- 
cessantly upon a body; called also a 
constant or uniformly accelerating 
force when the velocity increases 
equally in equal times : the force of 
gravity near the earth's surface is 
of this kind ; it generates a velo- 
city of 32 feet in each second of 
time ; that is, a body, after falling 
one second, acquires a velocity of 
32 feet ; after falling two seconds, 
it will acquire a velocity of 2 x 32 
feet ; after three seconds, a velocity 
of 3 x 32 feet, and so on. 

Accelerating force, in physics, the 
force which accelerates the motion 
or velocity of bodies ; it is equal 
to, or expressed by, the quotient 
arising from the motion or absolute 
force, divided by the mass or the 
weight of the body moved. 

Accelerative or retardative force, is 
commonly understood to be that 
which affects the velocity only, or 
that by which the velocity is ac- 
celerated or retarded; it is equal 
or proportional to the motive force 
directly, and to the mass or body 
moved inversely. 

Accesses, approaches or passages of 
communication between the va- 
rious apartments of a building, as 
corridors. 



Accessible, in surveying, a place -winch 
admits of having a distance or 
length of ground measured from 
it ; or such a height or depth as 
can be measured by the application 
of a proper instrument. 

Accessories, or accompaniments, in 
painting, secondary objects to the 
principal one in a picture, intro- 
duced as explanatory and illus- 
trative of the scene : sometimes 
they are considered as solely con- 
tributing to the general effect and 
harmony of the piece. 

Accidental point, in perspective, the 
point in which a right line drawn 
from the eye, parallel to another 
right line, cuts the picture or per 
spective plane. 

Acclivity, the slope or steepness of a 
line or plane inclined to the hori- 
zon, taken upwards; in contra- 
distinction to declivity, which is 
taken downwards. 

Accouplement, in carpentry, a tie or 
brace, or the entire work when 
framed. 

Accretion, in physics, the growth or 
increase of an organized body. 

Accubitus, a room annexed to large 
churches, in which the clergy oc- 
casionally reposed. 

Aceric acid, in chemistry, an acid 
formed from the juice of the maple- 
tree. 

Acerra, in antiquity, an altar erected, 
among the Romans, near the bed 
of a person deceased, on which his 
friends daily offered incense until 
his burial. 

Aces (a sea term), hooks for the 
chains. 

Acestides, the chimneys of furnaces 
where brass was made ; they were 
contrived to be narrow at top, on 
purpose to receive and collect the 
fumes of the melting metal, in or- 
der that cadmia might be produced 
in greater quantities. 

Acetate of lead, sugar of lead, a 
compound of acetic acid and 
lead. 

Acetate of potash, a compound of 
acetic acid and potash, produced 



ACH 



ACROTERIA. 



ACT 



by dissolving carbonate of potash 
in distilled vinegar. 

Achievement, the ensigns armorial of 
a family. 

Achleitner (Simon) was master of 
the works at St. Stephen's, in 
Vienna, 1481. 

Achromatic, a term expressing ab- 
sence of colour ; in optics, applied 
to telescopes invented to remedy 
aberrations and colours. 

Achromatic, without colour, is ap- 
plied in decorations to total absence 
of colour : mere white and black, 
or white and gold, may be consi- 
dered in this sense achromatic. 

Acids, in chemistry, are sour to the 
taste, and convert vegetable blues 
to a red colour ; they combine with 
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, 
and form, with them, the well- 
known compounds named salts. 

Acinose, a term applied to iron ore 
found in masses, and of several 
colours. 

Acisculis, a small pick used by ma- 
sons, having one end like that of 
a hammer and the other pointed. 

A-cock-bill, in navigation, the situ- 
ation of the yards when they are 
topped up at an angle with the 
deck ; the situation of an anchor 
when it hangs to the cat-head by 
the ring only. 

Acolyte, in the ancient church, a 
person who trimmed the lamps, 
prepared for the sacrament, etc. 

Acorn, the seed of oak : imitations 
of it are much used in architec- 
ture, and it is sometimes intro- 
duced instead of the egg in the 
Roman ovolo. 

Acoumeter, an instrument invented 
by Itard for estimating the extent 
of the sense of hearing. 

Acoustics, the doctrine or theory of 
sounds, consisting of diacoustics, 
or direct sounds, and catacoustics, 
or reflecting sounds. 

Acre, a measure of land, containing, 
by the ordinance for measuring 
land in the time of Edward I., 160 
perches or square poles of land ; 
and as the statute length of a pole 



is 5 yards, or 16 feet, the acre 
contains 4840 square yards, or 
43,560 square feet. The chain 
with which land is now commonly 
measured, invented by Gunter, is 
4 poles, or 22 yards, in length; and 
the acre is therefore just 10 square 
chains ; and as a mile contains 
1760 yards, or 80 chains, in length, 
the square mile is equal to 640 
acres. The acre, in surveying, is 
divided into 4 roods, and the rood 
into 4 perches. 

Acrolithes, in sculpture, statues, the 
extremities of which are formed of 
stone. 

Acropolis, a building strictly appli- 
cable to a Greek city, and usually 
erected upon a hill, rock, or some 
natural elevation, and devoted to a 
magnificent temple ; also a tower, 
castle, or citadel. 

Acrostolion, in ancient naval archi- 
tecture, an ornament of the prow 
or forecastle of a ship, chiefly of 
war, most frequently circular or 
spiral. 

Acroteria, small pedestals at the 
angles and vertex of a pediment : 
the gate of the Agora at Athens is 
the only instance in which they 
appear in Grecian buildings. 

Actinometer : Sir John Herschel, at 
the third meeting of the British 
Association, submitted an instru- 
ment for measuring at any instant 
the direct heating power of the 
solar ray : it affords a dynamical 
measure of the solar radiation, by 
receiving a quantity of heat per 
second, or any short space of time, 
on a surface exposed to the sun. 
In making observations with this 
instrument, it should be freely ex- 
posed in the shade for one minute, 
and the variation read ; afterwards 
expose it for the same time to the 
solar action, and again note it ; and 
lastly, repeat the experiment in the 
shade : the mean of the two varia- 
tions in the shade being subducted 
from the variation in the sun, the 
excess gives the dilatation per mi- 
nute due to the sun's ravs the 



ACT 



ADMEASUREMENT. 



quantity subducted being the elfe*ct 
of the other causes at the time. 

Action, in painting or sculpture, the 
posture, attitude, expressive of the 
passion the painter or carver would 
convey to the mind of a spectator. 

Actus, a Roman measure of length, 
equal to 120 Roman feet. 

Acute angle, in geometry, less than a 
right angle, and measured by less 
than 90 or a quadrant of a circle. 

Acute-angled cone, that in which the 
opposite sides make an acute at the 
vertex, or whose axis, in a right 
cone, makes less than half a right 
angle with the side. 

Acute-angled section of a cone, an el- 
lipsis made by a plane cutting both 
sides of an acute-angled cone. 

Acute-angled triangle, that in which 
the three angles are all acute. 

Adam (Wm.), an architect of Scot- 
land, died about 1760, designed 
and built several edifices. 

Adam (John), of Edinburgh, son of 
the above, executed several designs 
in Scotland. 

Adam (Robert), second son of Wil- 
liam : he and his brother James 
executed very many veiy splendid 
buildings in England and Scotland, 
more particularly in London, the 
Adelphi, Portland-place, Lans- 
downe-house, and other noble- 
men's houses. 

Mr. Weale purchased several 
unpublished (and posthumous) 
plates at the sale of the effects in 
Albemarle-street in 1822, which 
he published as a third or supple- 
mentary volume to the two vo- 
lumes sometime previously pub- 
lished. 

Adam (James), architect, also a son 
of William Adam, died in Albe- 
marle-street in 1794, was with his 
brother Robert the intimate friend 
of Clerisseau, Zucchi, and patrons 
of other celebrated French and Ita- 
lian artists. 

Adam (William), architect, another 
son of the same William, built 
several houses in Whitehall, died 
in 1822, aged 84. 



Adamant, a very hard stone, used by 
the ancients for cutting and polish- 
ing other hard stones and glass. 

Adeling, a title of honour given to 
the children of princes among the 
Anglo-Saxons. 

Adhesion, the force with which differ- 
ent bodies remain attached to each 
other when brought into contact. 

Adit, the passage or approach to a 
house; applied also to the hori- 
zontal shaft of a mine, driven for 
the purposes of ventilating, water- 
ing, or draining. 

Adit-level, in mining, a horizontal 
excavation through which the wa- 
ter is drawn by the engine. 

Adjacent angle, in geometry, an angle 
immediately contiguous to another, 
so that one side is common to both. 

Adjutage (Ajutage}, or jet-d'eau, a 
tube fitted to the aperture of a ves- 
sel through which water is to be 
played. 

Admeasurement, the measuring or 
finding the dimensions and quan- 
tity of a thing by the application 
of a standard or rule. 

Admeasurement, a process in the art 
of mensuration for measuring and 
determining dimensions of work. 

Adonia, a festival celebrated in ho- 
nour of Aphrodite and Adonis in 
most of the Grecian cities. 

Adrift, the condition of a vessel 
broken from her moorings. 

Adytum, the most sacred place in the 
heathen temples ; the Holy of Ho- 
lies ; in Christian architecture, the 
chancel or altar-end of a church. 

Adze, an edged tool used to chip sur- 
faces in a horizontal direction ; the 
axe being employed to chop mate- 
rials in vertical positions. 

sEbrechts (H.) was with Louis Ger- 
brandt and Klas Huygens, in 1499, 
to build the town-hall at Gonda, 
in Holland. 

JEcclesiolo, in Domesday Book, a 
chapel subordinate to the mother 
church. 

JEdes, an inferior kind of temple ; in 
Christian architecture, a chapel ; 
also sometimes applied to a house. 



MDl 



.EGINA MARBLES. 



jEdicula, a small chapel, house, or 
building of any kind; not unfre- 
quently applied to the niches of 
tabernacles in a wall which held 
statues of the lares or penates. 

JEgina marbles: C. R. Cockerell, Esq., 
visited Athens with Mr. Foster in 
1811. In examining the temples 
of Athens, with their lamented 
friend and companion, the Baron 
Haller, some details, of singular 
interest and novelty, induced them 
to form the project of excavating 
the Temple of Jupiter at ^Egina, 
for the purpose of ascertaining how 
far these might be found common 
to other remains of Grecian archi- 
tecture, as well as for the general 
object of advancing their stu- 
dies. 

The jEginetan statues furnish 
the only illustrations of the heroic 
costume and armour, as described 
by Homer, ^Eschylus, and the ear- 
liest Grecian writers ; and the great 
nicety of execution in the smallest 
details corresponds perfectly with 
the exactness which the poets have 
observed in their description : a 
minute and scrupulous attention 
is paid to each tie and fastening ; 
and as if the whole had been of- 
fered to the severest scrutiny, the 
parts never seen were equally fur- 
nished with exact resemblance of 
each particular detail in the most 
ancient coins of Corinth, Sybaris, 
Posidonia, and the earliest Greek 
cities of Italy, as well as of Ionia, 
which were much earlier proficients 
in arts than those of Greece Pro- 
per ; and in the vases of the most 
archaic style (commonly in black 
on a red ground) we trace the cha- 
racter which is developed and ex- 
plained in these statues. 

The magnificent statue of Mi- 
nerva, who, by her action, seems 
from Olympus to have just alighted 
to animate the combat by her pre- 
sence, we have the most antique 
costume hitherto known to us. 
The form of the ^Egis is singular, 
nor have we seen it before in 



sculpture, surrounded with the 
tassels, the noise of which was 
said to have dismayed her oppo- 
nents : we know such a sort of 
appendage to have been in much 
earlier use than the more usual 
one of the serpents. These were 
undoubtedly of brass, or some me- 
tal, which has disappeared; they 
were fastened by rivets of lead, 
most of which still remained. The 
holes by which the Gorgon's head 
was attached to her breast were 
evident, and the whole of the ./Egis 
was painted with scales in en- 
caustic; they could not however 
be discovered. 

The lion's head attached to the 
extreme tile of this temple was 
found perfect, and in the blocking, 
which carries the Chimaera, was a 
sinking, corresponding with the 
thickness of the plinth, to which 
the legs were attached. 

The whole of the ornaments in- 
dicated on the several members of 
the cornice were painted on the 
marble in encaustic; as are the 
extreme tiles, forming the upper 
moulding of the pediment ; and on 
the stone of which the whole tem- 
ple was constructed, is a thin coat 
or varnish of very fine and hard 
plaster. 

jfigricanes, a name given to rams' 
heads when sculptured on friezes, 
altars, etc. 

jfigyptilla, a species of Egyptian or- 
nament. 

JEmasia, a fence, or fence-wall. 

JEolipile, in hydraulics, an instrument 
consisting of a hollow metallic ball 
with a slender neck or pipe pro- 
ceeding from it, which, being filled 
with water, produces a violent blast 
of wind. 

JEolus, a small portable machine for 
refreshing and changing the air of 
apartments. 

JEolus (in mythology, the god of 
winds), the name of a ventilator, 
or a machine used to extract foul 
air out of rooms. 

, a treasury among the Ro- 



AER 



ESTHETICS. 



AGN 



mans ; the place where public ^mo- 
ney was deposited. 

Serial perspective, the relative appa- 
rent recession of objects from the 
foreground, owing to the quantity 
of air interposed between them and 
the spectator. 

;Ero, according to Vitruvius, a bas- 
ket to carry earth in, used by the 
Romans. 

Aero-dynamics, the science relating 
to the active powers or forces of 
gaseous fluids. 

Aerology, the doctrine or science of 
the air. 

Aerometer, an instrument contrived 
to ascertain the mean bulk of 
gases. 

Aerometry, the science of measuring 
the air, its powers and proper- 
ties. 

Aeronautics, the art of sailing or 
floating in the air. 

Aerostatics, the doctrine of the 
weight, pressure, and balance of 
the air and atmosphere. 

JErugo, rust, more especially that of 
copper, verdigris. 

^Esthetics, the power of perception by 
means of the senses : the word im- 
plies the perception and the study 
of those qualities which constitute 
the beautiful and artistic, and form 
the finer essence of all productions 
of fine art ; it carries with it, there- 
fore, a more exact and philosophic 
meaning than the word ' taste :' in 
its adjective form, in which it more 
frequently occurs, it is particularly 
useful, as no adequate epithet can 
be substituted for it. Thus we speak 
of the 'aesthetic sense,' of 'aesthetic 
feeling/ or ' study,' or ' principles,' 
etc. ; but we cannot correctly say, 
the 'tasteful sense/ or 'tasteful 
study.' 

Mstuarium, a description of the an- 
cient baths, to the flue from hypo- 
caustum or stove to chambers. 

JEsymnium, a building in Megara ; 
so called from ^Esymnius, its 
founder, who erected that edifice, 
which consisted of a council-hall 
round t?ie tomb of his countrymen 



who died in battle against the Per- 
sians. 

JEthousa, the portico on the sunny 
side of the court of a Greek dwell- 
ing. 

Aetoma, a pediment, or the tympanum 
of a pediment. 

Affection, in painting, the represen- 
tation of any passions, whereby they 
appear to be animated, and swell 
to the sight. 

Affections in general: 1, character, 
qualities, disposition, nature, spirit, 
temper, temperament, idiosyncrasy, 
cast, or frame of mind or soul ; 2, 
personal affections ; 3, prospective 
affections ; 4, contemplative affec- 
tions ; 5, extrinsic affections, so- 
cial affections, diffusive sympathe- 
tic affections, special sympathetic 
affections, retrospective sympathe- 
tic affections, moral obligations, 
moral sentiments, moral practice, 
institutions, religious affections, 
doctrines, sentiments, acts of reli- 
gion, religious institutions. 

Affinity, in chemistry, the power by 
which the ultimate particles of 
matter are made to unite, and kept 
united. 

Afflux, a flow of electric matter to a 
globe and conductor, in opposition 
to efflux, from them. 

After, in ship-building, implies a con- 
nection, as belonging to the after- 
body, after-timber, etc. 
^ Ay alma, a sculptural ornament or 
image. 

Ager, a Roman acre of land. 

Agger, a heap or mound of any kind, 
formed of stone, wood, or earth. 

Agglutination, the cohesion of bodies. 

Aggregation, in chemistry, the col- 
lection of bodies, solid, fluid, or 
gaseous. 

Agiasterium, the sanctuary, which is 
the basilicae of the Latin Church. 

Agnolo (B. I)'), born in 1459, ex- 
celled in inlaid works, and exe- 
cuted at Florence, besides some 
coffers in walnut-wood, a large 
figure-frame, described by Vasari : 
he was also the most celebrated 
carver of his time. 



8 



AGN 



AIR-PUMP. 



AIR 



Agnolo (D. D'), a son of the pre- 
ceding, Baccio : was also a wood- 
carver as well as an architect. 

Agnolo (G. D') another son of Baccio : 
besides wood-carving, he gave more 
attention to architecture. 

Ayora, a place of public assembly, in 
a Greek city, for the transaction 
of all public business; a market- 
place. 

-'Agrafe, a French term used by buil- 
ders for small cramps employed in 
fixing chimney-pieces, etc. 

Ayrippa (Camillus), a distinguished 
Milanese architect of the sixteenth 
century. 

* Aguilla, an obelisk, or the spire of a 
church-tower. 

A-hull, the condition of a vessel when 
she has all her sails furled, and her 
helm lashed a-lee. 

Aile, the wing, the inward portico, 
on each side of a church or other 
large building, supported by pil- 
lars within. 

Air-brick, an iron box used in walls, 
and usually made to the size of a 
brick, but with one of its faces 
formed into a grating. 

Air-casing, the sheet-iron casing 
which surrounds the base of the 
chimney of a steam-vessel, to pre- 
vent too great a transmission of 
heat to the deck. 

Air-drains, cavities between the ex- 
ternal walls of a building, protected 
by a wall towards the earth, which 
is thus prevented from causing 
dampness. 

Air-escape, a contrivance for letting 
off the air from water-pipes. 

Air-holes, those made for admitting 
air to ventilate apartments. 

Air-machine, in raining, the apparatus 
used for forcing purer air into or 
withdrawing foul air from parts 
badly ventilated. 

Air-pipes, in mining, tubes or pipes 
of iron or wood, for ventilating 
under ground, or for the convey- 
ance of fresh air into levels having 
but one communication with the 
atmosphere, and no current of air : 
also used for clearing foul air from 



the holds of ships or other close 
places. 

Air-pump, a pneumatic instrument, 
by means of which the air is ex- 
hausted out of the proper vessels : 
its effects are produced by the elas- 
ticity of the air; and as at each 
stroke of the pump only a part of 
the remaining air is withdrawn, an 
absolute vacuum cannot be ob- 
tained, although so near an ap- 
proximation to it may be had as 
to remove the general effects of 
the atmosphere. In steam-engines, 
the proportion of the air-pump, as 
given by Watt, is usually about 
two-thirds of the diameter of the 
cylinder, when the length of the 
stroke of the air-bucket is half the 
length of the stroke of the steam- 
piston. The area of the passages 
between the condenser and the 
air-pump should never be less than 
one-fourth of the area of the air- 
pump. The apertures through the 
air-bucket should have the same 
proportion ; and, if convenient, the 
discharging flap or valve should be 
made larger. The capacity of the 
condenser should at least be equal 
to that of the air-pump ; but, when 
convenience will admit of it, the 
larger it is the better. 

Air-pump bucket, an open piston, 
with valves on the upper surface, 
opening upwards, so as to admit 
the air and water in the down- 
stroke, and lift it with the up- 
stroke of the pump. 

Air-pump rod, the rod for connecting 
the bucket to the beam. 

Air-shaft, in mining, a passage made 
for the air by digging. 

Air-tint, in painting, the tint by 
which the distant parts of a land- 
scape are rendered more distinct, 
or sometimes giving a misty appear- 
ance to the whole : it is generally 
compounded of a blue-grey, occa- 
sionally approaching to purple. 

Air-trap, a trap immersed in water, 
to prevent foul air arising from 
sewers or drains. 

Air-valve, applied to steam boilers 



B 3 



AIR 



AIR-VESSEL. 



ALG 



for the purpose of preventing the 
formation of a vacuum when the 
steam is condensing in the boiler. 

Air-vessel, the closed cylinder con- 
nected to the discharge-pipe of a 
force-pump, and by the action of 
which the water ejected by the pis- 
ton or plunger of the pump enters 
the cylinder and compresses the air 
within ; it acts as a spring during 
the return stroke, and thus renders 
the stream constant ; also a cham- 
ber containing air, attached to 
pumps and other water-engines, for 
the purpose of making the dis- 
charge constant when the supply 
is intermittent. 

Aisle, the side-passage or division of 
a church, partially separated from 
the nave and choir by columns or 
piers. 

Aitre, a hearth or chimney. 

Ajambe, the French term for a win- 
dow : it differs from the usual 
French window in having four or 
more casements, with separate 
hinges and fastenings complete, 
instead of two upright ones, which 
they generally have. 

Alabaster, a species of gypsum, a mi- 
neral substance, chemically termed 
sulphate of lime; also a box or 
vase for holding perfumes and oint- 
ments, so called because originally 
made of alabaster, and for which 
the variety called onyx-alabaster 
was usually employed. 

Alba, a beacon or lighthouse. 

Albarium, white-wash ; according to 
Pliny and Vitruvius, a white stucco 
or plaster, made of a pure kind of 
lime burned from marble, and used 
to spread over the roofs of houses. 

Albarium opus, according to Vitru- 
vius, a species of stuccowork. 

Alberti (Leone Battista), the son of 
a noble Florentine, born at Genoa 
in 1406 : an architect of some ce- 
lebrity, and an author on the sub- 
jects of architecture and paint- 
ing. 

Albertolli (G.), the son of an archi- 
tect, born at Bedana in 1742 : was 
an architect of repute, and pub- 



blished some works on ornament 
of refined taste. 

Alcha, a cellar, pantry, or an apart- 
ment for the reception of drinking 
vessels. 

Alchemist, one skilled in the art of 
alchemy or chemistry. 

Alchemy, that branch of chemistry 
which presumes the transmutation 
of metals : Lord Bacon calls it the 
art of distilling or drawing quint- 
essences out of metals by fire. 

Alcohol, in chemistry, a pure spirit. 

Alcoholometer, an instrument for as- 
certaining the strength of spirits. 

Alcorans, in oriental architecture, 
high slender towers attached to 
mosques, in which the Koran is 
read. 

Alcove, a recess in a chamber, or a 
recess separated from other parts 
of the room by columns, antae, and 
balusters. 

Alder, a wood formerly much used. 
The common alder seldom exceeds 
40 feet in height, is very durable 
under water, and was used for the 
piles of the Rialto at Venice, the 
buildings at Ravenna, etc. : it was 
formerly much used for pipes, 
pumps, and sluices. 

Aldrich (Henry), dean of Christ 
Church, Oxford, born in 1647 : he 
was distinguished for his architec- 
tural attainments, and published a 
work on its elements. 

Aleaceria, a palace, castle, or other 
large edifice. 

Aleatorium, an apartment in a Roman 
house appropriated to the use of 
persons playing with dice. 

A-lee, a term used to denote the posi- 
tion of the helm when it is put in 
the opposite direction from that in 
which the wind blows. 

Alembic, in chemistry, a vessel used 
in distillation. 

Aleois, loopholes in the walls of a cas- 
tle or fortification, through which 
arrows may be discharged. 

Algebra, literal arithmetic, or the 
science by which quantity, and the 
operations of quantity, are ex- 
pressed by conventional symbols. 



10 



ALH 



ALTAR. 



ALT 



Alhambra, in Saracenic architecture, 
the royal palace of the kings of 
Granada. 

Alien priories, cells or small religious 
houses erected in different coun- 
tries, and distinguished as alien 
from their dependence on large 
foreign monasteries. 

Alipterion, in ancient Rome, a room 
wherein bathers anointed them- 
selves. 

Aliquot part, such part of a number 
as will exactly divide it without a 
remainder ; a part as, being taken 
or repeated a certain number of 
times, exactly makes up or is equal 
to the whole : thus 1 is an aliquot 
part of 6, or any other whole num- 
ber. 

Alkalimeter, an instrument for mea- 
suring and determining the quan- 
tity and strength of alkalies. 

Allette, used to express a small wing 
of a building; also applied to a 
pilaster or buttress. 

Alley, a passage from one part of a 
building to another ; a passage or 
court with houses. 

Alligation, one of the rules of arith- 
metic, by which are resolved ques- 
tions which relate to the com- 
pounding or mixing together of 
divers simples or ingredients. 

Allorium, a piazza, corridor, or co- 
vered way in the flank of a building. 

Alloy, baser metal, commonly mixed 
with the precious metals. 

Alluminate (To), in painting, to wash 
prints with alum-water, to keep 
the colours from sinking or run- 
ning. 

Alluminate (To), to enlighten; to 
give grace, light, and ornament. 

Alluvium, the debris occasioned by 
causes still in operation, as deposits 
left by the action of rivers, floods, 
and torrents. 

Almacantar, lines parallel to the ho- 
rizon, and conceived to pass through 
every degree of the meridian. 

Almasia, in old records, the archives 
of a church ; a library. 

Almehrab, a niche in the mosques of 
the Arabs, for praying. 



11 



Almond-furnace, a furnace used by 
refiners, and called a sweep, for 
separating all sorts of metals from 
cinders, etc. 

Almond-tree, a hard, heavy, oily, or 
resinous kind of wood, somewhat 
pliable. 

Almonry, a room or place where alms 
were formerly distributed to the 
poor. 

Almshouse, a house for the reception 
and support of the poor. 

Aloof, in navigation, to keep the ship 
near the wind when sailing upon a 
quarter wind. 

Alquifore, lead ore found in Cornwall, 
and used by potters to green-var- 
nish their wares. 

Alrunae, small images carved out of 
roots of trees, and anciently held in 
much veneration by the northern 
nations. 

Altar, an elevated table of either 
stone, marble, or wood, dedicated 
to the ceremonies of religious wor- 
ship. " And Noah builded an altar 
unto the Lord ; and took of every 
clean beast, and of every clean 
fowl, and offered burnt-offerings 
on the altar." 

Altar-piece, the ornamental sculpture 
or painting behind the altar in a 
Christian church. 

Altar-screen, the back of an altar, or 
the partition by which the choir is 
separated from the presbytery and 
lady-chapel. 

Altars, among the Greeks, according 
to Wilkins's ' Vitruvius,' faced the 
east, and were placed lower than 
the statues arranged about the cella, 
in order that those who offered up 
prayers and sacrifices might know, 
from their different heights, to 
what particular deities the several 
altars were consecrated. 

Altare chori, a reading-desk in a 
church. 

Altare farum, the lustre, chandelier, 
or cresset, suspended over an al- 
tar. 

Altimetry, the art of taking or mea- 
suring altitudes or heights. 

Altitude, of a figure, the length of a 



A.ND 



ANNULAR ENGINE. 



ANN 



Andron, an apartment, cloister, jor 
gallery, assigned to the male part 
of a monastic establishment ; ap- 
plied also to the space in a church 
by which the men were separated 
from the women. 
Anemography, a description of the 

winds. 

Anemometer, an instrument for mea- 
suring the force of the wind. 
Anemoscope, a machine to denote 
the changes of the wind or wea- 
ther. 

Angiportum, among the ancients, a 
narrow lane between two rows of 
houses. 

Angle, in geometry, the mutual in- 
clination of two lines meeting in a 
point. 

Angle-bar, in joinery, the upright bar 
at the angle of a polygonal win- 
dow. 

Angle-bead, a vertical bead, com- 
monly of wood, fixed to an exte- 
rior angle, and flush with the sur- 
face of the plaster, etc. of rooms, 
arches, etc. 

Angle-brace, in carpentry, timber 
fixed to the two extremities of a 
piece of quadrangular framing, 
making it to partake of the form 
of an octagon. 

Angle-bracket, a bracket placed in 
the vertex of an angle, and not at 
right angles with the sides. 
Angle-capital, used in Ionic capitals 
to the flank columns which have 
their volutes placed at an angle of 
45 with the planes of the front 
and returning friezes. 
Angle-float, in plastering, a float made 
to any internal angle to the planes 
of both sides of a room. 
Angle-modillion, a modillion placed in 
a direction parallel to a diagonal 
drawn through a cornice at its 
mitring. 

Angle-staff', vertical head, generally 
of wood, fixed to exterior angles 
of a building flush with the service 
of the plaster. 

Angle of application, the angle which 
the line of direction of a power 
gives the lever it acts upon. 



Angle of inclination, the angle an in- 
clined plane makes with the horizon. 

Angle of traction, the angle which 
the direction of a power makes 
with the inclined plane. 

Angular modillions, those which are 
placed at the return of a cornice 
in the diagonal vertical plane, pass- 
ing through the angle or mitre of 
the cornice. 

Angular perspective, a term applied 
to the horizontal lines, both of the 
front and end of a building, con- 
verging to vanishing points, and 
terminating in the horizon ; it is 
sometimes called oblique perspec- 
tive. 

Anlace, a falchion or sword, shaped 
like a scythe. 

Annealing, the process of softening 
and restoring the malleability of 
metals, by heating and allowing 
them to cool very slowly ; and by 
which means glass, cast-iron, and 
steel, may be united to other sub- 
stances. 

Annatto, in chemistry, a reddish-yel- 
low vegetable dye, obtained from 
the seeds of the Bixa Orellana, and 
used for colouring cheese. 
Annicut, the Hindostanee term for a 
weir or dam : it is a stoppage built 
out in a river from a bank, as a 
pier or breakwater, and made use 
of in the Indian rivers to intercept 
the current of the stream, and di- 
vert a portion of its waters into 
channels or reservoirs for agricul- 
tural purposes. 

Annular engine, a direct-action ma- 
rine engine, having two concentric 
cylinders ; the annular space is 
fitted with a piston which is at- 
tached to a T-shaped cross-head by 
two piston-rods : the cross-head is 
formed by two plates with a space 
between for the connecting-rod to 
vibrate, and the lower end slides 
within the inner cylinder, and is 
connected to the crank. This ar- 
rangement has been patented by 
Messrs. Maudslay. 

Annular vault, a vaulted roof sup- 
ported on circular walls. 



14 



ANN 



ANTEFIX^E. 



ANT 



^Annulated columns, those clustered 
together or joined by rings or 
bands. 

Annulet, in architecture, a small 
square member in the Doric capi- 
tal ; also the name of a small flat 
moulding. 

Anston, a parish in Yorkshire from 
whence the stone used for the 
Houses of Parliament have been 
brought. 

Antarala, the inner vestibule of a 
Hindoo temple. 

Antee, square pilasters terminating 
the walls of a temple : when a 
temple had no portico in front, two 
columns were made to intervene 
between the anta?, and the aspect 
of the temple was said to be in 
antis. 

Antechamber, a room or passage to 
an inner chamber, for the accom- 
modation of servants and persons 
in waiting. 

Ante-capitulum, part of a cloister be- 
fore the door of a chapter-house. 
vAntefixce. (by some called Greek tiles), 
upright ornamental blocks placed 
at intervals on the cornice along 
the side of a roof, to conceal or 
rather terminate the ridges formed 
by the overlapping of the roof-tiles ; 
also heads of lions, etc., for water- 
spouts below the eaves of temples. 

Antemural, a term applied to the 
outward wall of a castle ; or that 
which separates a presbytery from 
a choir ; also to a barbican en- 
trance before a castle. 

Antepagmenta, or Antepagmenlum, 
the jamb of a door-case. 

Ante-parallels, in geometry, lines 
which make equal angles with two 
other lines, but in a contrary direc- 
tion. 

Ante-portico, a term sometimes used 
to denote an outer porch or vesti- 
bule ; the propylaeum in classic 
architecture. 

Anterides, buttresses for strengthen- 
ing walls. 

Ante- solarium, a balcony facing the 
sun. 

Ante-venna, an awning or projecting 



roof of woodwork ; a wooden or 
pent-house before a shop. 

Anthepsa, a Grecian vessel used for 
boiling water or keeping it hot ; a 
cooking utensil. 

Anthracite, a coal not bituminous, 
found principally in South Wales 
and in the United States. 

dntics, in architecture, figures of men, 
beasts, etc., placed as ornaments to 
buildings. 

Anticum, a porch before a door. 

Antilia, an ancient machine similar 
to the modern pump. 

Antimensium, a portable altar or con- 
secrated table, used as a substitute 
for a proper altar. 

Antimeter, an optical instrument for 
measuring angles. 

Antimony, a metal usually found in a 
crude state combined with sulphur, 
of a bluish-white colour, crystal- 
line texture, brittle, and easily pul- 
verized : it does not oxidate at 
ordinary temperatures in the air, 
but, when heated, it burns with a 
light flame, producing the oxide ; 
it fuses at 800, and volatilizes at 
a white heat. 

Antimony yellow, a preparation of 
antimony, of a deeper colour than 
Naples yellow, and similar in its 
properties : it is principally used 
in enamel and porcelain painting, 
and is very various in tint ; that 
of a bright colour is not affected 
by foul air, although blackened by 
sugar of lead. 

* Antipagments, ornaments in carved 
work on the architrave, jambs, 
posts, or puncheons of doors. 

Antiquarium, a repository for antique 
monuments. 

Antoine (J. D.), born in Paris in 
1733: became in after-years an 
architect of a high position ; built 
several noble edifices, in Paris 
principally; died in 1807. 

Antrellum, a small grave or grotto ; 
also a small temple. 

Antrum, an early temple for Christian 
worship. 

Antrum tumbale, a sepulchral cave or 
grotto. 



15 



ANT 



APPIAN WAY. 



APP 



Antwerp blue, Hght- coloured, and 
somewhat brighter than Prussian 
blue, or ferro-prussiate of alumine, 
having more of the terrene basis, 
but all the other qualities of that 
pigment, except its extreme depth. 
Haarlem blue is a similar pigment. 

Antwerp brown, a preparation of as- 
phaltum, ground in strong drying 
oil, by which it becomes less liable 
to crack. 

Anvil, a large block of iron with a 
very hard, smooth, horizontal sur- 
face on the top, in which there is 
a hole at one end, for the purpose 
of inserting various tools, and a 
strong steel chisel, on which a piece 
of iron may be laid, and cut through 
by a blow with a hammer. 

A-pecJc, a nautical term implying that 
the cable is hove taut, so as to bring 
the vessel nearly over her anchor : 
the yards are a-peek when they are 
topped up by contrary lifts. 
* Aperture, an opening in a wall, door- 
way, or window. 

Apex, the top or highest point of a 
cone, mountain, pyramid, spire, 
roof, etc. 

Apiary, a place where bees are kept. 

Aplome, a mineral of a deep orange- 
colour. 

Aplustre, in early naval architecture, 
a carved tablet fixed on the extre- 
mity of a ship's head, or ensign. 

Apodyterium, a dressing-room or 
anteroom to a bath in Roman vil- 
las, contiguous to the laconicum. 

Apophyge, in architecture, that part 
of a column between the upper 
fillet of the base and the cylindrical 
shaft, which is usually curved into 
it by a concave sweep or inverted 
cavetto. 

Apostles (the) of Jesus Christ were his 
chief disciples, whom he invested 
with his authority, filled with his 
spirit, and instructed particularly 
in his doctrines and services : they 
were chosen to raise the edifice of 
his Church, and, after his resurrec- 
tion, sent into all the world, com- 
missioned to preach, to baptize, and 
to work miracles. The names of 



16 



the twelve were: 1, Peter; 2, An- 
drew; 3, John; 4, Philip; 5, James, 
major; 6, Bartholomew; 7, Thomas; 
8, Matthew; 9, Simon; 10, Jude; 
11, James, minor ; 12, Judas Isca- 
riot. The last betrayed his mas- 
ter, and having hanged himself, 
Matthias was chosen in his place. 

Apostles (the), in the tables of sym- 
bols of the early ages, were repre- 
sented by twelve sheep or lambs 
issuing from Bethlehem and Jeru- 
salem, cities of Christ's birth and 
death. 

Apotheca, a place in the upper part 
of the house, in which the Romans 
frequently placed their wines in 
earthen amphorae ; also an apothe- 
cary's shop, a cabinet, storehouse, 
etc. 

Apothesis, a recess on the south side 
of the chancel of a church, fitted 
up with shelves for books, vest- 
ments, etc. 

Apparatus, a term denoting a com- 
plete set of instruments belonging 
to an artist or a mechanist. 

Appian way, a celebrated road lead- 
ing from Rome to Brundusium : so 
named from Appius Claudius. 

Appii forum, the forum built by Ap- 
pius, the Roman consul, about fifty 
miles distant from Rome, near the 
modern town of Piperno, on the 
way to Naples. The uses to which 
the Romans applied the forum were 
so various, that it is not easy to as- 
certain the nature of the building. 
It might have been a place for the 
distribution of justice, or for hold- 
ing a market. The Three Ta- 
verns' were nearer to Rome than 
the Appii Forum, as Cicero inti- 
mates, who, in going from Rome, 
a little before he came to the fo- 
rum of Appius, arrived at the Three 
Taverns ; so that probably the chief 
number of Christians waited for the 
Apostle Paul at a place of refresh- 
ment, while some of their number 
went forward to meet him, and 
respecfully to acquaint him with 
their expectation of seeing him 
among them. 



APP 



ARCADE. 



ARC 



Apple-tree, a wood generally hard and 
close, and of reddish-brown tints, 
used commonly in Tunbridge tur- 
nery, etc. 

Apricot-tree, a native wood of Arme- 
nia, used by the French in turnery. 
v Apron, the sill or lower part of a win- 
dow; a platform or flooring of plank 
raised at the entrance of a dock : in 
naval architecture, a piece of curved 
timber fixed behind the lower part 
of the stern of a ship. 

Apsis, the east end of a church or 
chancel ; sometimes applied to a 
canopy over an altar; also to a 
circle about a star or planet. 

Apsis gradata, a bishop's throne in 
cathedral churches. 

Aquafortis, in chemistry, nitric acid 
diluted : the more concentrated is 
named spirit of nitre. 

Aquamale, a holy-water basin. 

Aqua regia, nitro-muriatic acid; a 
compound of two parts nitric acid 
and one part muriatic acid. 

Aquatinta, in the arts, engraving 
which resembles drawings in In- 
dian ink. 

Aqueduct, a conduit for water: a con- 
struction of stone or timber, built 
on uneven ground, to preserve the 
level of water, and convey it by a 
canal from one place to another. 

Aquemola, a water-mill. 

Aquila, a reading-desk, so called from 
its shape being that of an eagle 
with extended wings, supported by 
a pedestal. 

'''Arabesque, generally applied to a style 
of ornament for pilasters, friezes, 
etc., as those painted by Raffaelle 
in the Vatican. 

*" Arabo-tedesco, a term applied to the 
Moorish style of buildings in Spain, 
etc. 

Ara diynitatis, an altar at which none 
but the highest ecclesiastics per- 
form divine rites. 

Araeostyle, in architecture, the great- 
est interval or distance which can 
be made between columns, that is, 
eight modules or four diameters ; 
also a species of temple which has 
its columns placed widely asunder. 



Arbor, a spindle or axis upon which a 
ring or wheel is turned in a lathe. 

Arbor Dianas, in chemistry, crystals 
formed by the combination of sil- 
ver and mercury. 

Arbores, brass branches for lights sus- 
pended from ceilings. 

Arboretum, a grove of trees in a park, 
pleasure-ground, or garden. 

Arbor vitce, a tree which attains to a 
height of from 40 to 50 feet ; its 
wood is of a reddish colour, very 
light, soft, and fine-grained, and is 
much used in house carpentry. 
Arc, in geometry, part of the circum- 
ference of a circle, or any curve 
lying between two points ; a bow, 
vault, or arch. 

Area, a place in a vaulted chamber 
for sepulchral purposes ; an exca- 
vation before the basement story 
of a house ; an enclosed space ; a 
chest in which the Romans depo- 
sited their money: the word is also 
used to signify a beam of wood 
which has a groove or channel hol- 
lowed in it from one end to the 
other. 

^Arcade, a series of recesses with 
arched ceilings or soffits ; a covered 
passage : in modern appliances, a 
vaulted avenue, now much in vogue, 
more particularly in Paris. Ar- 
cades, though less magnificent than 
colonnades, are of extraordinary 
beauty when well contrived, afford- 
ing shade from the sun and shelter 
from the rain. Though not so mag- 
nificent as colonnades, they are 
stronger, more solid, and less ex- 
pensive. They are proper for tri- 
umphal entrances, gates of cities, of 
palaces, of gardens, and of parks ; 
for public squares, markets, or large 
courts in general, and for all aper- 
tures that require an extraordinary 
width. 

THEIR ORNAMENTS. The piers 
of arcades may be decorated with 
columns, pilasters, niches, and aper- 
tures of different forms. The arch 
itself may be turned either with 
rockworked or plain rustic arch- 
stones or voussoirs, or with an 



17 



ARC 



ARCH. 



ARC 



archivolt properly moulded. The 
keystone is generally carved in the 
form of a console, or sculptured 
with some head, or the like. The 
archivolt springs from an impost or 
plat-band, or sometimes from co- 
lumns ; but this is not to be prac- 
tised except in cases of the most 
urgent nature, for its makes neither 
substantial nor beautiful work. 

In arches that are of large dimen- 
sions, the keystone should never be 
omitted ; its carving, however, may 
be dispensed with, if expense be an 
object. When the piers are deco- 
rated with disengaged columns, the 
entablature must break round over 
the columns; and the columns, 
whether engaged or not, should 
stand either on a pedestal or high 
plinth, by which means they will 
not only be kept dry, but their 
bases will likewise be protected 
from accidental damage. Arches 
must always rise from an impost or 
a plat-band; and if there be no 
keystone to the archivolt, its sum- 
mit should be kept down from the 
under side of the architrave of the 
accompanying order, at least half 
the distance that it would be, were 
a keystone employed, in order that 
the disagreeable appearance of the 
acute angle which it would other- 
wise form with the architrave may 
be avoided. 

THEIR PROPORTIONS. The 
height of arches to the under side 
of their crowns should not exceed 
twice their clear width, nor should 
it be much less; the piers not less 
than one-third the breadth of the 
arch, nor more than two-thirds ; 
but the piers at the angles should 
be wider than the other piers by 
one-half, or one-fourth at least. 

Area, in Roman architecture, the 
gutters of the cavedium. 

Arc-boutant, a kind of arched but- 
tress formed of a flat arch, or part 
of an arch, and abutting against the 
feet or sides of another arch or 
vault, to support them, and prevent 
them from bursting or giving way. 



Arcella, in mediaeval architecture, a 
cheese-room. 

*Arch, the curved part of a building, 
supported at its extremities only, 
and concave towards the earth ; a 
vaulted roof, or dome, constructed 
either with bricks, stone, or other 
materials : the arch of a bridge is 
formed of segments of a circle, 
elliptical or catenarian ; in Christian 
architecture, arches display twenty- 
two varieties of form. Arches 
are used in large intercolumni- 
ations of spacious buildings; in 
porticoes, both within and without 
temples ; in public halls, as ceil- 
ings, the courts of palaces, cloisters, 
theatres, and amphitheatres : they 
are also used to cover the cellars in 
the foundations of houses and pow- 
der-magazines ; also as buttresses 
and counterforts, to support large 
walls laid deep in the earth ; 
for triumphal arches, gates, win- 
dows, etc. ; and, above all, for the 
foundations of bridges and aque- 
ducts: they are supported by piers, 
abutments, imposts, etc. Arches 
are of several kinds, circular, ellip- 
tical, cycloidal, catenarian, etc., ac- 
cording as their curve is in the form 
of a circle, ellipse, cycloid, cate- 
nary, etc. Arches are to be found 
in the Greek theatres, stadia, and 
gymnasia, some of them erected 
probably 400 years before Christ. 
The most ancient arches of which 
we have correct data are those of 
the cloacae at Rome. The Emperor 
Hadrian threw a bridge over the 
Cephisus, between the territories of 
Attica and Eleusis, on the most 
frequented road of Greece. 

1 Arch (theory of the). This important 
subject has exercised the talents 
and ingenuity of some of the great- 
est mathematicians in modern 
times, and many different solutions 
have been given to the various pro- 
blems connected with it ; but, as 
the greater part of them are founded 
on suppositions that have no exist- 
ence whatever either in nature or 
practice, they have had a tendency 



18 



ARC 



ARCH. 



ARC 



rather to mislead than direct those 
who are engaged in the operations 
of bridge-building. Dr. Olinthus 
Gregory, in the preface to his ex- 
cellent work on 'Mechanics,' states, 
that "theoretical and practical men 
will most effectually promote their 
mutual interests, not by aifecting 
to despise each other, but by blend- 
ing their efforts ; and further, that 
an essential service will be done to 
mechanical science, by endeavour- 
ing to make all the scattered rays 
of light they have separately thrown 
upon this region of human know- 
ledge converge to one point. 
Gauthey, speaking of the theory of 
La Hire, observes that such analy- 
tical researches are founded on hy- 
potheses which every day's experi- 
ence contradicts. The following are 
the principal writers on the equili- 
brium of the arch. In 1691, the ce- 
lebrated mathematicians, Leibnitz, 
Huygens, James and John Ber- 
nouilli, solved the problem of the 
catenary curve : it was soon per- 
ceived that this was precisely the 
curve that should be given to an 
arch of which the materials were in- 
finitely small and of equal weight, 
in order that all its parts may be 
in equilibrium. In the ' Philoso- 
phical Transactions' for the year 
1697, it is stated that David Gre- 
gory first noticed this identity ; but 
his mode of argument, though suf- 
ficiently rigorous, appears not to be 
so perspicuous as could be desired. 
In one of the posthumous works of 
James Bernouilli, two direct solu- 
tions of this problem are given, 
founded on the different modes of 
viewing the action of the voussoirs : 
the first is clear, simple, and precise, 
and easily leads to the equation of 
the curve, which he shows to be 
the catenary inyerted ; the second 
requires a little correction, which 
Cramer, the editor of his works, 
has pointed out. In 1695, La 
Hire, in his ' Treatise on Mecha- 
nics,' laid down, from the theory of 
the wedge, the proportion accord- 

19 



ing to which the absolute weight 
of the materials of masonry ought 
to be increased from the keystone 
to the springing in a semicircular 
arch. The historian of the ' Acade- 
my of Sciences' relates, in the vo- 
lume for the year 1704, that Parent 
determined on the same principle, 
but only by points, the figure of the 
extrados of an arch, the intrados 
being a semicircle, and found the 
force or thrust of a similar arch 
against the piers. In the ' Memoirs 
of the Academy of Sciences' for the 
year 1712, La Hire gave an inves- 
tigation of the thrusts in arches 
under a point of view suggested by 
his own experiments : he supposed 
that arches, the piers of which had 
not solidity enough to resist the 
thrust, split towards the haunches 
at an elevation of about 45 degrees 
above the springings or impost ; he 
consequently regarded the upper 
part of the arch as a wedge that 
tends to separate or overturn the 
abutments, and determined, on the 
theory of the wedge and the lever, 
the dimensions which they ought 
to have to resist this single effort. 
Couplet, in a memoir composed of 
two parts, the first of which was 
printed in the volume of the Aca- 
demy for 1 729, treats of the thrusts 
of arches and the thickness of the 
voussoirs, by considering the mate- 
rials infinitely small, and capable of 
sliding over each other without any 
pressure or friction. But, as this 
hypothesis is not exactly conform- 
able to experiment, the second part 
of the memoir, printed in the vo- 
lume for 1730, resumes the ques- 
tion by supposing that the mate- 
rials have not the power of sliding 
over each other, but that they can 
raise themselves and separate by 
minute rotatory motions. It can- 
not however be said that Couplet 
has added materially to the theo- 
ries of La Hire and Parent, and 
none of them treated the subject, 
either in theory and practice, in 
such a satisfactory manner as was 



ARC 



ARCH. 



ARC 



afterwards done by Coulomb. ^Sub- 
sequently a memoir was published 
by Bouguer on the curve lines that 
are most proper for the formation 
of the arches of domes. He con- 
siders that there may be an infinite 
number of curve lines employed 
for this purpose, and points out 
the mode of selecting them. He 
lays it down uniformly that the 
voussoirs have their surfaces infi- 
nitely smooth, and establishes, ou 
this hypothesis, the conditions of 
equilibrium in each horizontal 
course of the dome, but has not 
given any method of investigating 
the thrusts of arches of this kind, 
nor of the forces that act upon the 
masonry when the generating curve 
is subjected to given conditions. In 
1770, Bossut gave investigations of 
arches of the different kinds, in 
two memoirs, which were printed 
among those of the Academy of 
Sciences for the years 1 774 and 
1776 : he appears to have been 
engaged in this in consequence 
of some disputes concerning the 
dome of the French Pantheon, 
begun by the celebrated architect 
Soufflot, and finished from his de- 
signs. In 1772, Dr. Hutton pub- 
lished his principles of bridges, in 
which he investigated the form of 
curves for the intrados of an arch, 
the extrados being given, and vice 
versa. He set out by developing 
the properties of the equilibrated 
polygon, which is extremely useful 
in the equilibrium of structures. 
Mr. Attwood has written a disserta- 
tion on the construction of arches 
on the same principles as La Hire. 

'Arch, in architecture, a concave struc- 
ture raised or turned upon a mould, 
called the centering, in form of the 
arc of a curve, and serving as the 
inward support of some superstruc- 
ture. Sir Henry Wotton says, "An 
arch is nothing but a narrow or 
contracted vault ; and a vault is a 
dilated arch." 

Arch, in geometry, a part of any 
curved line, as of a circle or ellipsis. 



' Arch, in masonry, a part of a building 
suspended over a hollow, and con- 
cave towards the area of the hol- 
low : the top of the wall or walls 
which receives the first archstones 
is technically called the abutment 
or springing. 

Arch, in mining, a piece of ground left 
unworked. 

Arch-band, applied by workmen to 
that portion of an arch or rib 
which is seen below the general 
surface of vaulting. 

Arch-brick, a wedge-shaped brick 
employed in the construction of 
arches. 

Arch-buttress, a piece of insulated 
masonry usually named a flying- 
buttress, extending from the clere- 
story of a church and over the roof 
of its aisle, where it rests on the 
buttress of the outer wall. 

Arch of equilibration, that which is in 
equilibrium in all its parts, having 
no tendency to break in one part 
more than in another. 

Arch, triumphal, a building of which 
an arch is the principal feature, 
usually raised to commemorate 
some great achievement. 

Archaeology, the study of ancient art, 
but more particularly that of the 
middle ages. 

Arched, in mining: the roads in a 
mine, when built with stones or 
bricks, are generally arched level 
drifts. 

Archeion, a recess in a Grecian tem- 
ple, for the reception of the trea- 
sures of the deity to whom the 
temple was dedicated. 

Archeion, in Athens, the office in 
which the decrees of the people 
and other state documents were 
preserved. 

Arches, Norman, semicircular, which 
form continued to the latest date 
of this style, and is frequently in- 
termixed with pointed arches, even 
when other parts had advanced 
into the next style, of which the 
Temple Church is an instance. 

There are some Norman arches 
more than a semicircle, the horse- 



20 



ARC 



ARCHITECTURE. 



ARC 



shoe,' and a few instances of a 
double arch. 

Archetus, a saw for cutting stones : 
Muratori used the terra for a crane 
or pulley for raising stones to the 
upper part of a building. 

Archimedes screw-propeller, in 1836, 
was launched by T. P. Smith, pa- 
tentee. The vessel 232 tons, 125 
feet long, 21 feet 10 inches beam, 
80-horse power. 

Archimedean screw, a machine in- 
vented by Archimedes for raising 
water ; also now applied to propel 
vessels through water. 

Archiepiscopal palace, the dwelling 
of an archbishop. 

Architect, a person skilled in the art 
of building ; one who forms plans 
and designs for edifices, conducts 
the work, and directs the secondary 
artificers employed ; and whose 
emoluments are generally 5 per 
cent, on the amount of money ex- 
pended. 

Architecture, a science applicable to 
the art of constructing domestic, 
ecclesiastical, municipal, palatial, 
or other buildings, and the adorn- 
ment of the same according to the 
rules of the several orders, Doric, 
Ionic, and Corinthian, also the Tus- 
can and Composite, from Roman 
models, or other styles, each for its 
purpose, such as is usually called 
Gothic architecture, and modes 
subservient to climate and fashion, 
or caprice. " Architecture," says 
Palladio, " being grounded upon 
rules taken from the imitation of 
Nature, admits of nothing that is 
contrary or foreign to that order 
which Nature has prescribed to all 
things. An architect is not re- 
strained from departing sometimes 
from common methods or usage, 
provided such variation be agree- 
able and natural." 

The public at large has a claim 
over the architecture of a country. 
It is common property, inasmuch 
as it involves the national taste and 
character ; and no man has a right 
to pass off his own barbarous in- 



ventions as the national taste, and 
to hand down to posterity his own 
ignorance and disgrace to become 
a satire and a libel on the know- 
ledge and taste of his age. 
Architecture, the Orders of. Among 
the ancients, the use of the orders 
was very frequent ; many parts of 
their cities were provided with spa- 
cious porticoes, their temples were 
surrounded with colonnades, and 
their theatres, baths, basilicae, tri- 
umphal arches, mausolea, bridges, 
and other public buildings were 
profusely enriched with columns ; 
as were likewise the courts, vesti- 
bules, and halls of their private 
villas and houses. 

In pure architecture, says A. W. 
Pugin, the smallest detail should 
have a meaning or serve a purpose ; 
and even the construction itself 
should vary with the material em- 
ployed, and the designs should be 
adapted to the material in which 
they are executed. 

Strange as it may appear at first 
sight, it is in pointed architecture 
alone that these great principles 
have been carried out : we may be 
enabled to illustrate them from the 
vast cathedral to the simplest erec- 
tion. Moreover, the architects of 
the middle ages were the first who 
turned the natural properties of 
the various materials to their full 
account, and made their mechanism 
a vehicle for their art. The won- 
derful strength and solidity of their 
buildings are the result, not of 
quantity or size of the stones em- 
ployed, but of the art of their dis- 
position. 

The two following pages contain 
a synopsis of the proportions of 
the Orders, and of various exam- 
ples of each, compiled by Mr. 
W. H. Leeds for Pugin's edition 
of Normand's ' Parallel of the Or- 
ders.' 



21 



ARC ARCHITECTURE. 


Names of the Orders. 


Base. 


Column. 


Capital. 


Archi- 
trave. 


Frieze. 


TUSCAN. 
Palladio . . 


3 -a 

3 1 tL 

1 
1 
1 
1 


i i * 

3 a o. 

700 
7 1 
600 
700 

5 1 
5 1 
4 15 
5 25 
6 20 
8 10 
5 1 
600 
7 1 18 
7 1 
800 
800 
8 1 
800 
800 


41 1 1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

28 
1 
1 23 
284 
)6 
25$ 
23 
23 
1 2| 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


B -a 

1 I i. 

1 5 

o i 24 

1 
25 

1 144 
20 

;; 4 

9 
16 


i-g . 

3 S 

26 
9 

5 

o 194 

25 ( 

o 24 

7 
14 




Serlio 


Vignola 


DORIC. 






































1 

2 

5 




16 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 

o 19 

18J 


Doric Order at Albano .... 


. . . 


Palladio 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
25 

o o 234 

1 0| 
1 
1 
22 
22 
20 

o o 204 
o o 224 

1 84 
21 
25 
23 
20 

o o 224 

24 
234 






Viola 


IONIC. 

Temple on the Ilissus .... 
Temple of Minerva Polias, Athens 
Temple of Erechtheus, Athens . 
Temple of Fortuna Virilis . . 
Theatre of Marcellus .... 
Baths of Diocletian . . 


800 
9 1 
900 
8 1 24 
900 
8 1 
9 
8 1 15 
900 
7 1 
800 

10 
9 1 15 
9 15 
9 1 
10 6| 
10 15 
9 1 164 
9 1 44 


1 94 

o i 134 

1 10 
29 

o i 14 

o i 14 

1 U 

o o 264 
o i 04 

1 

o i 14 

24 

o 27 

11 
15 
6| 
10 

o 71 

o 124 

18 
83 
16 
63 
94 
94 







144 

o 54 

11 




o o 27 


25 

214 


84 
13 
4 
6 
15 

o 74 




21 
11| 

o 164 
o 124 
o 134 

12fc 

o 1-23 

12 
14 
13fc 
14* 
15 

91 
134 


8 
12 
15 



16 
15 

144 
10 
9 
15 

1 254 


285 
$ 
28 
27 
28 
15 

o 224 



QJ 
27i 

12; 

10 
133 
13 
9i 
12 
15 
105 
14; 
10 

10 
9: 
23, 
2 
15 
7 


14 
25 
14 

1; 
15 


Palladio 




Vignola 




Alberti 


CORINTHIAN. 
Lantern of Demosthenes, Athens 
Temple of Jupiter Olympius, do. 
Incantada at Salonica .... 
Arch of Theseus, Athens . . . 
Temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome 
Temple of Jupiter Tonans 
Portico of the Pantheon . . . 
Interior of the Pantheon . . . 


Temple of Antoninus and Faustina 


24 

o o 204 

24 


9 1 6 
10 
9 1 7 


Arch of Constantine .... 
Temple of Mars the Avenger. . 
Basilica of Antoninus .... 
Temple of the Sibyl, Tivoli . . 
Palladio . ...... 


23 
164 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

23 
20 
22 

o i 14 

1 
1 


10 113 
9 25 
9 1 
10 
10 
900 
900 

10 6 
9 1 10 

10 o 293 

10 
9 1 15 
10 

500 




Vignola 
Serlio 


Alberti . . ... 


COMPOSITE. 
Arch of Titus 


Arch of Septimius Severus . . 


Palladio 






Caryatides of the Temple of 1 
Pandrosus / 



22 



ARCHITECTURE. 



ARC 



lice. 


Entabla- 
ture. 


Interco- 
umniation 


Diameter of 
column. 


Architecture, qualities of. There 
is perhaps no subject on which 






. 




persons are more apt to differ in 


0. 


Hi 


Hi 


feet, inches. 


their opinions than on the beauty 
of a building. In architecture the 


j j 


i 1 224 






creative power of Nature herself is 





1 1 






the model imitated. It is an art 


10 


1 110 






wliicli ciDDCfils dircctlv to the un- 




















derstanding, and has not the means 


26 


200 


2 20 
21 ft 


6 1 j^ 


of flattering the senses in the same 


28* 


2 Oil 

1 1 12 


1 
2 10 


6 l/Q- 
7 0'03 


way as the sister arts: hence its 


74 


2 44 


2 25 




productions are not universally ap- 


25 


1 1 18 


3 1 5 


2' s'- 10 


preciated. The beautiful models 






2 15 


. 


of Nature, however, are the index 


" 






4 4*05 


and guide of the painter and sculp- 


63 


1 1 23J 






tor * a successful imitation of these 


5 


1 1 20 








16 


203 






models, even without an advance 


8 


1 23 


2 1 15 


. . . 


on the part of the artist towards 


17 


207 


4 11 




those higher intellectual beauties 


15 
10 


200 
1 1 25 


. . . 


. . . 


which distinguish the historical 


10 


1 1 25 






painter, is capable of affecting us 










with very agreeable sensations. 


2 


2 16 


2 15 


1 9'4 


The object of an artist's inquiry is 


74 


2 174 


300 


2 9'4 
2 3'8 


not so much to investigate meta- 


104 


2 174 


1 1 20 
215 


3 2 


physically the cause of beauty in 


6 

16 


2 25f 
1 18 






the productions of his art, as to 


16 

12 


1 19 
1 25 


2 74 


. . . 


study the effects that flow from 
those which by the common con- 




15 







sent of ages are esteemed beautiful, 


2 
10 


o 244 

1 10 


. . . 


. . . 


and thus shorten his road by an a 










priori method. It is in this way 


20 


2 204 


206 


1 2 


that he will more readily obtain 


18 


1 1 27 


300 


2 11-3 


infonnation on those qualities 


13* 


2 7 


3 24 


2 5' 9" 


which act on the understanding 


164 

95 


2 014 
2 1 6* 

2 11| 


1 1 5 
1 1 34 


4 10& 
4 8i% 


and excite our affections by means 
of the beautiful result they exhibit. 


24 " 


2 l6| 


2 15 


4 11 


These qualities may be classed as 


21* 


2 15^ 


2 24 


3 8 T V 


follows : 


254 


2 284 


. . . 


3 6 


MAGNITUDE AND SOLIDITY, as 


224 


2 164 
2 26| 


1 1 14 
1 1 


4 1 ^ 


qualities which affect the eye. 


284 


2 234 




2 UTO 


ORDER AND HARMONY, as quali- 




. . . 


1 284 


5 ITO 


ties which affect the understanding. 


3 


1 112^ 


1 1 10^ 
2 14 


A l 


RICHNESS AND SIMPLICITY, as 


174 


1 1 24 


2 


2 4? 


qualities which excite the affec- 


19 


203 


200 




tions,-^-in which taste is the prin- 





210 
1 1 16 


2 20 




cipal guide. These qualities an- 


10 


1 1 10 






swer to the three divisions which 










those who have written on archi- 


2 


2 1 2 


. . . 


2 10 : % 


tecture have usually adopted, 


84 
21 


2 19 
2 194 


, . 


2 Ofk 


namely 


20 


200 






CONSTRUCTION, in which the 


16J 


1 1 27 






chief requisites are solidity and 





2 1 






strength. 


) 


1 1 254 


. . . 


. . . 


DESIGN OR DISPOSITION, in 



ARC 



ARCHITECTURE. 



ARC 



which the principal requisites are 
order and harmony. 

DECORATION, whose requisites 
are richness or simplicity, accord- 
ing to the nature of the composi- 
tion. 

That there are, however, many 
other circumstances which tend to 
the production of an agreeable and 
beautiful result, is sufficiently ob- 
vious : one of them should be more 
particularly noticed, because there 
can be no doubt of its influence in 
the excitement of our admiration 
of the splendid monuments of Gre- 
cian art ; it is an association with 
the times and countries which are 
most hallowed in our imagination. 
It is difficult for us to see them, 
even in their modern copies, with- 
out feeling them operate upon our 
minds, as relics of those polished 
nations where they first arose, and 
of that great people by whom they 
were afterwards borrowed. 

The business of an architect re- 
quires him rather to be a learned 
judge than a skilful operator ; and 
when he knows how to direct and 
instruct others with precision, to 
examine, judge, and value their 
performances with masterly accu- 
racy, he may truly be said to have 
acquired all that most men can ac- 
quire : there are but few instances 
of such prodigies as Michael An- 
gelo Buonarroti, who was at once 
the first architect, painter, geome- 
trician, anatomist, and sculptor of 
his time. 

Vitruvius furthermore observes, 
that an art enriched with such 
variety of knowledge is only to be 
learned by long and constant appli- 
cation ; and advises his contempo- 
raries never to assume the title of 
architects till they are perfect mas- 
ters of their own profession, and of 
the arts and sciences with which it 
is connected ; a caution that even 
in the present times may perhaps 
not be unnecessary. 
Architecture, Naval, the art of con- 
structing ships and vessels to float 



on the waters. Naval architecture 
has suffered more than most other 
sciences by the arbitrary systems 
of those interested in its improve- 
ment. Disregarding the fundamen- 
tal principles of all floating bodies, 
and too hastily giving up as hope- 
less the attainment of a theory 
combining experiment with esta- 
blished scientific principles, they 
have contented themselves with 
ingeniously inventing mechanical 
methods of forming the designs of 
ships' bodies, which they did not 
even pretend to prove had any 
connection with the properties of 
the machine necessary to insure 
the qualities conducive to its in- 
tended use. For instance, some 
invented methods of forming ships' 
bodies of arcs of circles ; others, of 
arcs of ellipses, parabolas, or of 
whatever curve they might arbi 
trarily assume. They did not at- 
tempt to show that these curves 
possessed any property which would 
render a ship a faster sailer, a more 
weatherly or safer ship, than any 
other curves which might have 
been adopted in the construction 
of the ship's body. 

Architholw, a round chamber, the 
sudatorium of a Roman bath. 

Architrave, the lower of the three 
principal members of the entabla- 
ture of an order, being the chief 
beam resting immediately on the 
column. 

Architrave cornice, an entablature 
consisting of an architrave and cor- 
nice only, without the interposition 
of a frieze. 

Architrave doors, those which have 
an architrave on the jambs and 
over the door. 

Architrave windows, of timber, arc 
usually an ogee raised out of th( 
solid timber, with a roll over it. 

Archivolt, a collection of member: 
in the face of an arch, coucentrii 
with the intrados, and supporte( 
by imposts. 

Archivolt of the arch of a bridge, 
the curve line formed by the uppe 



24 



\RC 



AKK. 



ARK 



sides of the arch-stones in the face 
of the work ; it is sometimes un- 
derstood to be the whole set of 
arch-stones which appear in the 
face of the work. 

Archivoltum, a cesspool or common 
sewer. 

Archway, an aperture in a building 
covered with a vault. 

Arcs doubleaux, a French term for 
arch-hand, and employed by Eng- 
lish writers from the time of De 
i'Orme, etc. 

Arcunio (M.), born in Rome, was 
both an architect and painter, 
died about 1640. 

Arcnla, a small coffer or box. 

Arcus, an area in the form of an 
ancient basilica. 

At-cus, an arch : a true arch is formed 
of a series of wedge-like stones or 
of bricks supporting each other, 
and all bound together by their 
mutual pressure. 

Arcus-toralis, in medieval architec- 
ture, the lattice separating the 
choir from the nave in a basilica. 

Arcutio, a machine consisting of 
hoops. 

Ardeme (John) was clerk of the 
work at the building of the monu- 
ment in Westminster Abbey Church 
to King Henry V., who died in 
1422. 

Ardesia, a slate used in Italy for 
covering roofs. 

Area, in geometry, the superficial 
content of any figure. 

Areas, in computing the superficial 
content of land, are generally ex- 
pressed in statute acres, roods, and 
perches. The acre is equal to 10 
square chains of 66 feet, or 22 
yards in length. 

Area drain, a narrow area drain not 
covered, on the basement floor of 
a building, to remedy or prevent 
dampness in the connecting walls. 

Area wall, the wall which forms the 
sides of an area. 

Arena, the area or floor of an amphi- 
theatre. 

Arenarium, an amphitheatre, ceme- 
tery, crypt, or sepulchre. 



Areometer, an instrument for measu- 
ring the density or gravity of fluids. 

Areopagus, the court in which the 
Areopagites, or supreme judges of 
Athens, assembled. 

Areostylos, intercolumniations, when 
their distance from each other is 
four diameters. 

Arerde, reared, built, or raised up. 

Argand lamp, a lamp with a circular 
wick, through which a current of 
air passes. 

Arayrocopeion, the mint at Athens. 

Aristotele (G.F.), architect and sculp- 
tor, commenced, from the designs 
of Raffaelle, the Palazzo Pandol- 
fini at Florence; he died in 1530. 

Ark, a shelter, a place of protection 
from floods : in the time of Moses, 
a coffer or sort of bark, in shape 
and appearance like a chest or 
trunk ; also described by Moses as 
a little wicker basket, in which he 
was exposed on the Nile. The 
ancients inform us that the Egyp- 
tians used on the Nile barks made 
of bulrushes. 

Ark, a chest used in farm-houses for 
keeping meal or flour. 

Ark (Noah's) : " And this is the fash- 
ion which thou shalt make it of: the 
length of the ark shall be three 
hundred cubits, the breadth of it 
fifty cubits, and the height of it 
thirty cubits." It is supposed by 
some authors to have been a mere 
variationfromtheordinaryconstruc- 
tion of houses for residence, chang- 
ingits character from that of a house 
for standing to that of a house for 
floating. Niebuhr compares it with 
ordinary houses of the East, the 
sides of which are constructed of 
upright supports of timber, plas- 
tered over with clay. The appli- 
cation of canes, split and laid across 
these quarterings, is very like the 
usage of laths, which are common 
everywhere. The same may be 
said of a coating of bitumen, a 
substance employed on account of 
its property of resisting water; and 
the mode of its application might 
be similar to our plastering. It is 



25 



ARC 



ARCHITECTURE. 



ARC 



which the principal requisites are 
order and harmony. 

DECORATION, whose requisites 
are richness or simplicity, accord- 
ing to the nature of the composi- 
tion. 

That there are, however, many 
other circumstances which tend to 
the production of an agreeable and 
beautiful result, is sufficiently ob- 
vious : one of them should be more 
particularly noticed, because there 
can be no doubt of its influence in 
the excitement of our admiration 
of the splendid monuments of Gre- 
cian art ; it is an association with 
the times and countries which are 
most hallowed in our imagination. 
It is difficult for us to see them, 
even in their modern copies, with- 
out feeling them operate upon our 
minds, as relics of those polished 
nations where they first arose, and 
of that great people by whom they 
were afterwards borrowed. 

The business of an architect re- 
quires him rather to be a learned 
judge than a skilful operator ; and 
when he knows how to direct and 
instruct others with precision, to 
examine, judge, and value their 
performances with masterly accu- 
racy, he may truly be said to have 
acquired all that most men can ac- 
quire : there are but few instances 
of such prodigies as Michael An- 
gelo Buonarroti, who was at once 
the first architect, painter, geome- 
trician, anatomist, and sculptor of 
his time. 

Vitruvius furthermore observes, 
that an art enriched with such 
variety of knowledge is only to be 
learned by long and constant appli- 
cation ; and advises his contempo- 
raries never to assume the title of 
architects till they are perfect mas- 
ters of their own profession, and of 
the arts and sciences with which it 
is connected ; a caution that even 
in the present times may perhaps 
not be unnecessary. 
Architecture, Naval, the art of con- 
structing ships and vessels to float 



on the waters. Naval architecture 
has suffered more than most other 
sciences by the arbitrary systems 
of those interested in its improve- 
ment. Disregarding the fundamen- 
tal principles of all floating bodies, 
and too hastily giving up as hope- 
less the attainment of a theory 
combining experiment with esta- 
blished scientific principles, they 
have contented themselves with 
ingeniously inventing mechanical 
methods of forming the designs of 
ships' bodies, which they did not 
even pretend to prove had any 
connection with the properties of 
the machine necessary to insure 
the qualities conducive to its in- 
tended use. For instance, some 
invented methods of forming ships' 
bodies of arcs of circles ; others, of 
arcs of ellipses, parabolas, or of 
whatever curve they might arbi- 
trarily assume. They did not at- 
tempt to show that these curves 
possessed any property which would 
render a ship a faster sailer, a more 
weatherly or safer ship, than any 
other curves which might have 
been adopted in the construction 
of the ship's body. 

Architholus, a round chamber, the 
sudatorium of a Roman bath. 

Architrave, the lower of the three 
principal members of the entabla- 
ture of an order, being the chief 
beam resting immediately on the 
column. 

Architrave cornice, an entablature 
consisting of an architrave and cor- 
nice only, without the interposition 
of a frieze. 

Architrave doors, those which have 
an architrave on the jambs and 
over the door. 

Architrave windows, of timber, are 
usually an ogee raised out of the 
solid timber, with a roll over it. 

Archivolt, a collection of members 
in the face of an arch, concentric 
with the intrados, and supported 
by imposts. 

Archivolt of the arch of a bridge, 
the curve line formed by the uppei 



24 



ARK. 



ARK 



sides of the arch-stones in the face 
of the work ; it is sometimes un- 
derstood to be the whole set of 
arch-stones which appear in the 
face of the work. 
! Archivoltum, a cesspool or common 

sewer. 

! Archway, an aperture in a building 
covered with a vault. 

Arcs doublcaux, a French term for 
arch-band, and employed by Eng- 
lish writers from the time of De 
I'Orme, etc. 

Arconio (M.), born in Rome, was 
both an architect and painter, 
died about 1640. 

Arcula, a small coffer or box. 

Arcus, an area in the form of an 
ancient basilica. 

Arcus, an arch : a true arch is formed 
of a series of wedge-like stones or 
of bricks supporting each other, 
and all bound together by their 
mutual pressure. 

Arcus-toralis, in medieval architec- 
ture, the lattice separating the 
choir from the nave in a basilica. 

Arcutio, a machine consisting of 

hoops. 

j Ardeme (John) was clerk of the 
work at the building of the monu- 
ment in Westminster Abbey Church 
to King Henry V., who died in 
1422. 

Ardesia, a slate used in Italy for 
covering roofs. 

Area, in geometry, the superficial 
content of any figure. 

Areas, in computing the superficial 
content of land, are generally ex- 
pressed in statute acres, roods, and 
perches. The acre is equal to 10 
square chains of 66 feet, or 22 
yards in length. 

Area drain, a narrow area drain not 
covered, on the basement floor of 
a building, to remedy or prevent 
dampness in the connecting walls. 

Area wall, the wall which forms the 
sides of an area. 

Arena, the area or floor of an amphi- 
theatre. 

Arenarium, an amphitheatre, ceme- 
tery, crypt, or sepulchre. 



Areometer, an instrument for measu- 
ring the density or gravity of fluids. 

Areopagus, the court in which the 
Areopagites, or supreme judges of 
Athens, assembled. 

Areostylos, intercolumniations, when 
their distance from each other is 
four diameters. 

Arerde, reared, built, or raised up. 

Argand lamp, a lamp with a circular 
wick, through which a current of 
air passes. * 

Argyrocopeion, the mint at Athens. 

Aristotele (G.F.), architect and sculp- 
tor, commenced, from the designs 
of Raffaelle, the Palazzo Pandol- 
fini at Florence; he died in 1530. 

Ark, a shelter, a place of protection 
from floods : in the time of Moses, 
a coffer or sort of bark, in shape 
and appearance like a chest or 
trunk ; also described by Moses as 
a little wicker basket, in which he 
was exposed on the Nile. The 
ancients inform us that the Egyp- 
tians used on the Nile barks made 
of bulrushes. 

Ark, a chest used in farm-houses for 
keeping meal or flour. 

Ark (Noah's} : " And this is the fash- 
ion which thou shalt make it of : the 
length of the ark shall be three 
hundred cubits, the breadth of it 
fifty cubits, and the height of it 
thirty cubits." It is supposed by 
some authors to have been a mere 
variation from the ordinary construc- 
tion of houses for residence, chang- 
ingits character from that of a house 
for standing to that of a house for 
floating. Niebuhr compares it with 
ordinary houses of the East, the 
sides of which are constructed of 
upright supports of timber, plas- 
tered over with clay. The appli- 
cation of canes, split and laid across 
these quarterings, is very like the 
usage of laths, which are common 
everywhere. The same may be 
said of a coating of bitumen, a 
substance employed on account of 
its property of resisting water; and 
the mode of its application might 
be similar to our plastering. It is 



ARM 



ASPHALTUM. 



ART 



probable however that Noak's a^k 
resembled the Egyptian boats in 
form; and if we reckon the Hebrew- 
cubit at 21 inches, the ark of Noah 
was 512 feet long, 87 wide, and 
52 high ; and the internal capacity 
of it was 357,600 cubical cubits. 
If we suppose the cubit to be only 
18 inches, its length was 450 feet, 
its width 75, and its height 45. 
Its figure was an oblong square, 
and the covering had a declivity to 
carry off water. Its length ex- 
ceeded that of most churches in 
Europe. The wood used for the 
ark was called gopher-wood, square 
pieces of cedar or box, or woods 
that do not quickly perish : by some 
it has been supposed to have been 
constructed of cypress-wood. 

Armarium, a niche or cupboard near 

the side of an altar. 
i Armenian architecture, the edifices 
in Armenia, erected previously to 
the cultivation of a Graeco-Roman 
architecture, supposed A. D. 260- 
314. 

Armilla, an ornament worn by Greek 
men and women as a bracelet or an 
armlet. 

! Armour, a defensive clothing of me- 
tal. 

Armoury, a storehouse or room in 
which armour is preserved. 

Arnotto (colour), the name of a ve- 
getable substance from the West 
Indies, of an orange-red colour, 
soluble in water and spirit of wine, 
but very fugitive and changeable, 
and not adapted for painting. It is 
principally used by the dyer, and 
in colouring cheese. It is also an 
ingredient in lacquering. 

Aronade, embattled, a junction of 
several lines forming indentations. 

Arragonite, a remarkable form of 
carbonate of lime, found in differ- 
ent shapes, from hexagonal prisma- 
tic crystals of coralloid masses. 

Arris, in joinery and masonry, the 
line of concourse, edge, or meeting 
of two surfaces. 

Arris fillet, a slight piece of timber 
of a triangular section, used in 



raising the slates against chimney- 
shafts, etc. 

Arris gutter, a wooden gutter of the 
V form, fixed to the eaves of a 
building. 

Arris-wise, in bricklaying, tiles laid 
diagonally. 

Arshin, a Russian measure of length, 
equal to 2 feet English. 

Arsenal, a building for naval or mili- 
tary stores. 

Arsenic, a metal of a crystalline 
appearance, and very brittle. It 
sublimes out of the air unchanged 
at 360, but in air it is oxidated, 
and becomes arsenious acid : it is 
occasionally found alone, but is ge- 
nerally combined with nickel, co- 
balt, and other metals. 

Artesian wells, so called from a mode 
practised at Artois, in France, in 
boring for water. 

Arthur's oven : According to the tes- 
timony of Boethius, we had a spe- 
cimen of one of the Roman temples 
in Britain, built in the time of Ves- 
pasian, remaining in that singular 
little structure called Arthur's oven, 
not far from the Wall of Antoninus. 
He says, according to tradition, 
there was an inscription on a stone 
declaring that the building was 
erected by Vespasian, in honour of 
the Emperor Claudius and the God- 
dess Victory. It had a tessellated 
pavement. It was 19 feet 6 inches 
in diameter within, arched towards 
the top, with around aperture (like 
that of the Pantheon at Rome) in 
the midst of the dome 11 feet 6 
inches diameter, and the utmost 
height to the periphery, or edge of 
this aperture, from the floor, 22 feet 
{query, within or without, i. e. the 
lowest or highest periphery of the 
aperture ?). 

At a little distance from the top, 
beneath the circular opening in 
the midst of the dome, was a small 
square window on one side, and 
round the inside, resting on the 
floor, were stone seats, and against 
the wall on the south side an altar ; 
the door of entrance, which had a 



ART 



ARTIFICER. 



ASS 



regular Roman arch, being placed 
under the square window. 

Arthur's oven was pulled down 
about 1743, by Sir Michael Bruce 
of Stonehouse, near Falkirk, for 
the sake of the stones ; but with 
little profit to himself, for the stones 
were used in constructing a mill- 
dam, which was soon carried away 
by a flood. See the ' Antiquarian 
Repertory,' vol. iii. p. 73; also Pen- 
nant's ' Tour in Scotland,' pt. i. 
p. 242, and pt. ii. p. 228; and 
General Roy's ' Military Antiqui- 
ties,' pi. 36 ; and Gordon's ' Itin. 
Septentr.,' p. 24, tab. 

Few Roman arches existing in 
Britain, few, it appears probable, 
were ever erected in it by that 
people, and those of no great mag- 
nificence, the arch was probably 
a recent invention when the Ro- 
mans had possession of this island. 

Artificer, one who possesses a supe- 
rior knowledge as an artist or ma- 
nufacturer. 

Asarotum, a kind of chequered pave- 
ment used by the Romans. 

Ash, a superior wood, of British 
growth, of a brownish white with 
a shade of green : it is tough and 
elastic, and superior to any other 
wood exposed to sudden shocks 
and strains ; used for frames of 
machines, wheel carriages, inside 
work of furniture, etc. 

Asheley (Hector), a famous master 
mason in the times of Henry VII. 
and VIII. 

Ashlar, a term applied to common or 
freestones as they come out of the 
quarry. By ashlar is also meant 
the facing of squared stones on the 
front of a building : if the work be 
so smoothed as to take out the 
marks of the tools by which the 
stones were first cut, it is called 
plane ashlar; if figured, tooled ash- 
lar, or random tooled, or chiselled, 
or bousted, or pointed: if the stones 
project from the joints, it is said to 
be rusticated. 

Ashlar, or Aehelor, hewn stone, used 
for the facings of walls. 



Ashlering, in carpentry, the fixing ol 
short upright quarterings between 
the rafters and the floor. 

Ash-pan, in locomotive engines, an 
iron box, open to the front only, 
attached to the fire-box to receive 
the ashes from the fire. 

Ashpitel (W. H.), architect and en- 
gineer, born in 1776, was exten- 
sively employed in some very im- 
portant public works : his reputa- 
tion was of a dignified character ; 
he died 20th April, 1852. His 
son, now in practice, is of equal 
merit. 

' 'Aspect, in architecture, the front si- 
tuation of a building, or direction 
towards any point. 

Asphalt, native bitumen used with 
pitch as a substitute for pave- 
ment. 

Asphaltum, a bituminous substance, 
used for pavements and as a build- 
ing material. 

Asphaltum, called also Bitumen, 
Mineral Pitch, etc. ; it is a resinous 
substance rendered brown by the 
action of the fire, natural or artifi- 
cial. The substances employed in 
painting under this name are the 
residua of the distillation of various 
resinous and bituminous matters 
in preparing their essential oils, 
and are all black and glossy like 
common pitch, which differs from 
them only in having been less 
acted upon by fire, and in their 
being softer. Asphaltum is prin- 
cipally used in oil-painting: for 
which purpose it is first dissolved 
in oil of turpentine, by which it is 
fitted for glazing and shading. Its 
fine brown colour and perfect 
transparency are lures to its free 
use with many artists, notwith- 
standing the certain destruction 
which awaits the work on which 
it is much employed, owing to its 
disposition to contract and crack 
from changes of temperature and 
the atmosphere. 

Assay, to examine and prove metals. 

Assay balance, a very accurate ba- 
lance, used in determining the 



27 



c2 



ASS 



ASSURANCE. 



ASS 



exact weights of very smftll 
bodies. 

Assaying, ascertaining the qualities 
of gold and silver with respect to 
.* their purity. 

/Assemblage, in carpentry and joinery, 
framing, dovetailing, etc. 

Assemblage of the Orders, in archi- 
tecture, the placing of columns 
upon one another in the several 
ranges. 

Assembly room, the room or suite of 
rooms appropriated to the recep- 
tion of large parties, for balls, etc. 
; Asser, a term used by Vitruvius for a 
rafter, carrying the tile of a roof. 

Asserts, small rafters immediately 
beneath the tiles of a roof. 

Assize Court, an edifice erected for 
the accommodation of the officials 
and the public at the sessions of 
the judges of the superior courts. 

Assula or Astula, chippings of blocks 
of stone, small marble slabs. 

Assurance, or Insurance, a contract 
to make good a loss. 

Assurance Companies, or Societies, 
afford protection to persons from 
the chances or hazards to which 
their property or interests may be 
exposed. 

Assurance on human life is a con- ! 
tract by which a certain amount of j 
capital is secured at the expiration ! 
of a stipulated period, either by ' 
the payment of a specified sum at 
the time of effecting the assurance, 
or by the annual payment of a 
smaller amount, according to the 
age of a person whose life is as- 
sured. 

A person, with the view of secu- 
ring a certain sum of money to 
his family after his death, desires to 
effect an assurance, either for a 
determinate period, as one, three, 
five, seven, ten, or more years, or 
for the whole term of his life. In 
the first case, if the person whose 
life is assured, die before the expi- 
ration of the term specified in the 
policy, his inheritors receive the 
amount for which the assurance ! 
has been effected ; but, if the as- | 



sured live beyond that period, they 
receive nothing, and the assurer 
reaps the advantage of the contin- 
gency. In the latter case, that 
is, by assurance for the whole term 
of life, the inheritors are entitled 
to receive the amount named in 
the policy, upon proof of the death 
of the person whose life has been 
assured. To prevent the forfei- 
ture of the policy, it is in all cases 
essentially important that the con- 
ditions upon which it has been 
granted be strictly complied with. 
The calculation as to the amount 
of premium should be made ac- 
cording to mathematical expecta- 
tion, that is, equitably as to both 
parties, allowing a fair rate of pro- 
fit to the party granting the assu- 
rance. If the terms for assuring 
100 be required, for one year, 
the probability must depend on the 
age of the person whose life is pro- 
posed to be assured ; and in equity 
the sum to be paid should be equal 
to the value of the expectation, 
multiplied by the probability of its 
being obtained. Should the age of 
the person be 40 years, the proba- 
bility of death in the course of the 
year will be, according to the ta- 
bles of mortality generally adopted, 
dHifTj an( l tn * s fr act i n > multi- 
plied by 100, gives the price of the 
assurance, namely, 174 nearly. 
The result, according to the tables 
of mortality used in France, is 
1-89. This is the rate charged by 
the General Assurance Company ' 
established at Brussels; but the 
' Belgic and Strangers' Union So- 
ciety' charges at the rate of T87. 
Both societies adopt Dubillard's 
table of mortality, which is depo- 
sited in the Bureau of Longitude in 
Paris. 

The profit to the assurer thus ap- 
pears to be reduced to the interest 
on the sum paid by the assured ; 
but persons in health being alone 
accepted, the chance of profit 
thereby becomes considerable. For 
a longer term than one year, the 



ASS 



ATTACAMITE. 



ATM 



calculations are made on an esti- 
mate of the probable amount of 
interest derivable from the pre- 
mium paid by the assurer. 

Assynt marble, a white and greyish- 
white British marble, found in 
Sutherlandshire. 

Astel, in mining, a board or plank, 
an arch or ceiling of boards, over 
the men's heads in a mine, to pro- 
tect them. 

Astragal, a small moulding, whose 
contour is circular, at the neck of 
the shafts of columns, next the apo- 
physes : it also occurs in the base 
of Ionic columns, and below the 
fasciae of the Corinthian epistylium. 

Astralish (mining), is that ore of 
gold which lies as yet in its first 
state or condition. 

Assyrian Architecture, of the period 
of Nineveh and the lower dynas- 
ties, see examples of style in the 
British Museum. 

Astronomy, a mixed mathematical 
science, which treats of the hea- 
venly bodies, their motions, pe- 
riods, eclipses, magnitudes, etc., 
and of the causes on which they 
depend: the knowledge of astro- 
nomy is essential in navigation 
and in measuring the earth's sur- 
face : the diameter of this, the 
third planet in the system, is 7924 
miles and 7 furlongs. 

Astylar, a term which expresses the 
absence of columns or pilasters, 
where they might otherwise be 
supposed to occur. 

Astyllen, in mining, a small ward or 
stoppage in an adit or mine, to pre- 
vent the free and full passage of 
water, by damming up. 

Asylum, in the Greek States, the tem- 
ples, altars, sacred groves, and 
statues of the gods ; a place pro- 
vided for the protection of debtors 
and criminals who fled for refuge. 

Atacamite, prismatoidal green mala- 
chite, a native muriate of copper. 

Athanor, an ancient term for a metal 
furnace. 

Athenaeum, a school founded by the 
Emperor Hadrian, at Rome, for the 



promotion of literary and scientific 
studies. 

Athwart -hawse, the situation of a 
ship when driven by the wind or 
tide across the fore-part of another. 

^Atlantes, in architecture, male figures; 
used similarly to the female Carya- 
tides, in place of columns. 

Atmosphere, the invisible elastic fluid 
which surrounds the earth to an 
unknown (exact) height, and par- 
takes of all its motions ; the con- 
stituent parts are air, water, car- 
bonic acid gas, and unknown 
bodies. The atmosphere is mea- 
sured by a column of mercury of 
29-922 inches, which has been 
adopted in France as the mean 
height of the barometer at the 
surface of the sea. 

Atmospheric currents, in high lati- 
tudes, when undisturbed, are west- 
erly, particularly in the winter sea- 
son. If storms and gales revolve 
by a fixed law, and we are able, by 
studying these disturbing causes of 
the usual atmospheric currents, to 
distinguish revolving gales, it is 
likely that voyages may be short- 
ened. The indications of a revolv- 
ing gale are, a descending barome- 
ter, and a regularly veering wind. 

Atmospheric engine, an engine in 
which the steam is admitted only 
to the under side of the piston 
for the up-stroke ; it is then con- 
densed, and the top of the cylinder 
being open, the down-stroke is 
caused by the pressure of the at- 
mosphere. Marine engines on this 
principle have three cylinders con- 
nected to one crank-shaft, to ob- 
tain uniformity of motion. 

Atmospheric raihvay. The conclu- 
sions drawn by Mr. R. Stephenson 
are as follows : 1st, That the atmo- 
spheric system is not an economical 
mode of transmitting power, and 
inferior in this respect both to loco- 
motive engines and stationary en- 
gines with ropes. 2ndly, That it is 
not calculated practically to ac- 
quire and maintain higher veloci- 
ties than are comprised in the pre- 



ATM 



ATMOSPHERE. 



ATT 



sent working of locomotive en- 
gines. 3rdly, That it would not, in 
the majority of instances, produce 
economy in the original construc- 
tion of railways, and in many 
would most materially augment 
their cost. 4thly, That on some 
short railways, where the traffic 
is large, admitting of trains of mo- 
derate weight, but requiring high 
velocities and frequent departures, 
and where the face of the country 
is such as to preclude the use of 
gradients suitable for locomotive 
engines, the atmospheric system 
would prove the most eligible. 
5thly, That on short lines of rail- 
way, say four or fivo miles in 
length, in the vicinity of large 
towns, where frequent and rapid 
communication is required between 
the termini alone, the atmospheric 
system might be advantageously 
applied. 6thly, That on short 
lines, such as the Blackwall Rail- 
way, where the traffic is chiefly 
derived from intermediate points, 
requiring frequent stoppages be- 
tween the termini, the atmospheric 
system is inapplicable, being much 
inferior to the plan of disconnect- 
ing the carriages from a rope, for 
the accommodation of the inter- 
mediate traffic. 7thly, That on 
long lines of railway, the requisites 
of a large traffic cannot be attained 
by so inflexible a system as the 
atmospheric, in which the efficient 
operation of the whole depends so 
completely upon the perfect per- 
formance of each individual section 
of the machinery. 

Atmospheric vapour. Deluc proves 
the amount of force and vapour in 
a vacuum of any given dimensions 
is equal to its force and quantity 
in an equal volume of air at the 
same temperature, or that the tem- 
perature of the air will determine 
the force and quantity of vapour 
held in it. M. le Roi, however, 
first observed the temperature at 
which dew commences to be de- 
posited, as a rule of ascertaining 



the moisture of the atmosphere. 
Dr. Dalton investigated the force 
of vapour of every temperature, 
from zero to the boiling-point of 
water (Fahrenheit), and expressed 
this force by the weight of the 
mercurial column it could support 
in the tube of the barometer. 
Dalton and Le Roi find the clear 
point by pouring cold water into a 
glass, and marking the temperature 
at which it just ceases to deposit 
dew on the sides of the glass in 
the open air. The temperature 
here observed is the point at which 
dew would begin to be formed. 
From this Dalton infers not only 
the force exerted by the vapour, 
but also its amount in a perpen- 
dicular column of the whole atmo- 
sphere, and likewise the force of 
evaporation at the time of obser- 
vation. 

Atomic weights, or atoms, are the 
quantities in which the different 
objects of chemistry, simple or 
compound, combine with each 
other, referred to a common body, 
taken as unity. 

Atr amentum, a dye made of soot 
mixed with burnt resin or pitch, 
used by the ancients, particularly 
by painters ; used also as a varnish. 

Atrium, a term applied by the Ro- 
mans to a particular part of a pri- 
vate house : the court or hall of a 
Greek or Roman house entered 
immediately from the fauces of the 
vestibulum. 

Altai, Attle, Adall, Addle, in mining, 
corrupt, impure off-casts, found in 
the working of mines. 

Attic base, the base of a column of 
upper and lower torus, a scotia, 
and fillets between them. 

Attic Order, a low order of architec- 
ture, used over a principal order, 
never with columns, but with antfe 
or small pilasters. 

Attics should not be less than one- 
quarter nor more than one-third 
of the order they surmount : they 
are frequently decorated with small 
short pilasters, whose breadth 



ATT 



AVILOR. 



AXI 



ought to be equal to the upper 
diameter of the column underneath 
them, and their projection usually 
not more than one-quarter of their 
breadth. 

Attic story, the upper story of a house 
when the ceiling is square with 
the sides, by which it is distin- 
guished from a common garret. 

Atticurgus, a term applied by Vitru- 
vius to the base of a column, which 
he describes as divided by a scotia 
or trochilus, with a fillet above 
and below, and beneath all a plinth. 

Attle, in mining, rubbish, deads, re- 
fuse, or stony matter. 

Attributes, in architecture, symbols 
given to figures, or disposed as 
ornaments on a building, to indi- 
cate a distinguished character. 

Attrition, the rubbing of bodies one 
against another, so as to destroy 
their surfaces. 

Auditorium, an apartment in monas- 
teries for the reception of strangers ; 
also, a place where the Roman ora- 
tors and poets recited their com- 
positions. 

Auger, a tool for boring large holes ; 
it consists of a wooden handle, ter- 
minated at the bottom with steel. 

Aula, an area or open place ; in ancient 
Roman architecture, a court or hall. 

Auleolum, a small church or chapel. 

Aureola, a crown of glory, given by 
statuaries, etc., to saints, etc., to 
denote the victory they have ob- 
tained. 

Aurificina, a place for melting and 
refining gold, etc. 

Aurum, anciently, gold. 

Automaton, an apparently self-acting 
machine, constructed of weights, 
levers, pulleys, and springs, by 
means of which it continues in 
motion for a definite period. 

Autometer, an instrument to measure 
the quantity of moisture. 

Auxiliary, or cushion rafter, a term 
applied to the raking-piece of the 
truss in a green post. 

Aidant mure, an outward wall. 

Avenue, a passage from one part of 
a building to another. 



Aviary, an apartment or building for 
the keeping of birds. 

Avilor (A. C. d'), architect, born in 
Paris in 1653. The companion 
with Desgodotz as travelling pupil 
to Rome in 1674 : both were cap- 
tured by Tunisian corsairs ; at Tunis 
Avilor designed and executed a 
mosque; was ransomed in 1676: 
published several works, principally 
of the styles of Louis XIV. and 
Louis XV. : died in 1700. 

Avolta, a place vaulted or arched over. 

A-weather, a term applied to the 
helm of a ship when it is put in 
the direction from which the wind 
blows. 

Awning, a covering of canvas over the 
the deck of a vessel, or over a boat, 
as shelter from the sun or rain. 

Axal section, a section through the 
axis of a body. 

Axes, the timbers of a roof which 
form two sides of a triangle, the 
tignum being the base : more gene- 
rally termed Principals. 

Axe, or broad axe, a tool used in 
hewing timber. 

Axiom, a self-evident truth. 

Axis, in architecture, an imaginary 
line through the centre of a column, 
etc., or its geometrical representa- 
tion : where different members are 
placed over each other, so that the 
same vertical line, on the elevation, 
divides them equally, they are said 
to be on the same axis, although 
they may be on different planes : 
thus, triglyphs and modillions are 
so arranged, that one coincides with 
the axis or line of axis of each co- 
lumn : in like manner, the windows 
or other openings in the several 
stories of a fafade must all be in 
the same respective axis, whethei 
they are all of the same breadth 
or not. 

Axis, in geometry, the straight line 
in a plane figure, about which it 
revolves to produce or generate a 
solid. 

Axis, in mechanics : the axis of a 
balance is the line upon which it 
moves Ot* turns. 



AXI 



AXLE. 



AZU 



Axis, in turning, an imaginary lifle 
passing longitudinally through the 
middle of the body to be turned, 
from one point to the other of the 
two cones, by which the work is 
suspended, or between the back 
centre and the centre of the collar 
of the puppet which supports the 
end of the mandril at the chuck. 

Axis of a circle or sphere, any line 
drawn through the centre, and ter- 
minated at the circumference on 
both sides. 

Axis of a cone, the line from the ver- 
tex to the centre of the base. 

Axis of a cylinder, the line from the 
centre of the one end to that of 
the other. 

Axis in peritrochio, a wheel and axle, 
one of the five mechanical powers, 
or simple machines; contrived 
chiefly for the raising of weights 
to a considerable height, as water 
from a well, etc. 

Axis of rotation, of any solid, the 
line about which the body really 
revolves when it is put in motion. 

Axle bearing, in locomotive engines, 
the gun-metal, or other metal bear- 
ing, under which the axle journal 
revolves : it is nicely fitted to the 
journal, and lubricated by a si- 
phon, to reduce, as far as practi- 
cable, the friction on the journal. 

Axle, in locomotive engines, journal, 
or neck, the part of the axle turned 
and polished for revolving in the 
axle-box bearing. 

Axle, leading, in locomotive engines, 
the front axle of the engine : eight- 
wheeled engines have two axles in 
front of the driving wheel axle, and 
they are often called leading axles. 

Axle, trailing, the last axle of the en- 
gine, usually placed under the foot- 
plate: in Stephenson's and Cramp- 
ton's patent engines, the driving 
wheel axle is the last axle. 

Axles, in locomotive engines, the iron 
shafts supporting the engine, and 
on which the wheels are fixed. 

Axles, driving wheel, in locomotive 
engines, with inside cylinders, this 
is a cranked axle; with outside 



cylinders, it is a straight axle ; it 
is called the driving axle because 
the connecting-rods and eccentric- 
rods connect this axle to the pis- 
tons, slide-valves, and pumps, and 
by converting the rectilinear mo- 
tion of the piston into a rotatory 
one, it propels or drives the engine 
in the direction required. 

Axle-box, in locomotive engines, the 
box (usually cast iron) fitted up 
with a metal bearing in it, which 
rests upon the polished part of the 
axle. 

Axle-box cover, in locomotive en- 
gines, the plate of iron (usually 
lined with leather) fitted to the 
top of the axle-box to keep the oil 
clean, and also from shaking out 
by the motion of the engine. 

Axle-box siphon, in locomotive en- 
gines, the small tubes fitted into 
the top of the axle-box for feeding 
oil on to the axle journal as it re- 
volves : the oil is fed by a piece of 
cotton or worsted, having one end 
introduced into these pipes, and 
the other end lying down amongst 
the oil in the axle-box. 

Axle-guards, or horn-plates, in loco- 
motive engines, the parts of the 
frame in which the axle-box slides 
up and down, as acted upon by 
the springs. 

Axle-guard stays, in locomotive en- 
gines, the iron rods bolted to the 
frame and to all the ends of the 
j axle-guards, to strengthen them. 

Azimuth compass, an instrument used 
at sea for finding the sun's magne- 
tic azimuth. 

Azimuth dial, a dial of which the 
style or gnomon is perpendicular 
to the plane of the horizon 

Azote, called also Nitrogen, a gas 
which forms an important consti- 
tuent of atmospheric air, etc., but 
which, when breathed alone, de- 
stroys life. 

Azure, blue colour ; in painting, a 
bright and florid tint of blue, equal 
in force to ultramarine with the 
addition of a little white. 



BAB 



BABEL. 



BAG 



BABEL, Tower of, built by the poste- 
rity of Noah, after the Flood ; re- 
markable for its great height, and 
for the disappointment of the 
builders by the confusion of their 
language. It was erected in the plain 
of Shinar, upon the banks of the 
great river Euphrates, and near the 
place where the famous city of Ba- 
bylon subsequently stood. " Let us 
build us a city and a tower whose 
top may reach unto heaven." Gen. 
xi. 4. " The name of it is called 
Babel, because the Lord did there 
confound the language of all the 
earth, and from thence did the 
Lord scatter them abroad upon the 
face of all the earth." Ib. xi. 9. 

Babylonian architecture takes its ap- 
pellation from the magnificence and 
extent of the public buildings of 
Babylon. This city was founded 
by Nimrod about 1665 years before 
Christ: its walls were fifty cubits 
thick and 200 in height, built of 
bricks made from the earth dug 
out of the ditch that surrounded 
the city. In the walls were 100 
gates made of brass ; the jambs 
and lintels were made of the same 
metal. 

Babylonian engine. An engine, to 
raise water from the Euphrates to 
supply the hanging gardens of Ba- 
bylon, was constructed and used in 
this the most ancient and splendid 
city of the early age, founded by 
the builders of Babel and enlarged 
by Nimrod, extended and beauti- 
fied by Semiramis. This engine 
greatly exceeded in the pei'pendi- 
cular the height to which the 
water was elevated by it. Extensive 
terraces were formed one above 
another to the top of the city 
walls ; and to supply them with 
the necessary moisture, the engine 
was erected, of which no account 
is known at the present time. 

Bac, in navigation, a praam or ferry- 
boat. 



Bac, in brewing, a cooler. 

Baccalaureus, an ecclesiastical appa- 
ritor or verger, who carries a staff 
of office. 

Bacca, a light-house, watch-tower, or 
beacon. 

Baccharis, ploughman's spikenard. 

Baccio della Porta, called Fra Barto- 
lommeo, born 1469 ; of the Floren- 
tine school ; he taught the use of 
the lay figure. 

Back, the back of a lode is the part 
of it nearest the surface ; the back 
of a level is that part of the lode 
extending above it to within a 
short distance of the level above. 

Back-board, in turning, that part of 
the lathe which is sustained by the 
four legs, and which sustains the 
pillars that support the puppet- 
bar : the back-board is only used 
in the best constructed lathes. 

Back centre screw, the screw for set- 
ting up the back centre of a lathe, 
to the work to be turned, after the 
puppet-head has been fixed. 

Backed, a sea phrase, to back an an- 
chor, to carry out a smaller one 
ahead of the one by which the ves- 
sel rides, to take off some of the 
strain. 

Background, in painting, is the space 
of ground behind the principal ob- 
jects of the picture. 

Back joint, applied by masons to a 
rebate such as that made on the 
inner side of the jamb of a chimney- 
piece to receive a slip. 

Back-links, the links in a parallel mo- 
tion which connect the air-pump 
rod to the beam. 

Back of a hip, in carpentry, is the 
upper edge of a rafter between two 
sides of a hipped roof, formed to an 
angle, so as to range with the raft- 
ers on each side of it. 

Back of a ivindouf, the board or wain- 
scoting between the sash-frames 
and the floor, uniting with the two 
elbows in the same plane with the 
shutters : when framed it is com- 



BAG 



BAKEHOUSE. 



BAL 



monly with single panels, wifti 
mouldings on the framing corre- 
sponding with the doors, shutters, 
etc., in the apartment in which it 
is fixed. 

Back-painting, the art of painting 
mezzotinto prints, on plate or 
crown glass, with oil colours. 

Backs, in carpentry, the principal 
rafters of a roof. 

Back-staff, an instrument nvented by 
Capt. Davis for a sea quadrant, so 
named because the back of the ob- 
server is turned towards the sun 
when using it. 

Back-stays, long ropes from the top- 
mast heads to both sides of the 
ship, where they are extended to 
the channels. 

Back-stay stool, a short piece of plank 
fitted for the security of the dead- 
eyes and chains for the backstays, 
though sometimes the channels are 
left long enough at the after end 
for the back-stays to be fitted 
thereto. 

Bac-maker, a cooper who makes 
liquor-bacs, etc. 

Baculometry, the art of measuring 
either accessible or inaccessible 
distances or lines, by the help of 
baculi, staves, or rods. 

Baculus, a branch of hazel, used for 
the discovery of mines, springs, 
etc. 

Badigeon, in statuary, a mixture of 
plaster and freestone sifted and 
ground together, used by statuaries 
to repair defects in their work. 

Baguette, a small moulding, like the 
astragal : when enriched with foli- 
age, it is called a chaplet ; when 
plain, a head. 

Bagnio, a bath. 

Bagpipe. To bagpipe the mizen is 
to lay it aback by bringing the 
sheet to the weather-mizen rig- 
ging- 

Bailey, an area of ground, a court, 
within the walls of a fortress ; 
in modern acceptation, frequently 
applied to a prison. 

Baird (Mr.), in 1816, constructed a 
steamboat in St. Petersburg. 



Bakehouse, an apartment with an 
oven to bake bread. 

Baker's central rule for the construc- 
tion of equations, is a method of 
constructing all equations not ex- 
ceeding the fourth degree. 

Bal, a term used in mining. 

Balance, Hydrostatic, an instrument 
which determines the specific gra- 
vity of fluids and solids by weigh- 
ing them in water. 

Balance, or equilibrium, in a picture, 
is when the forms of objects, the 
lights, shades, colours, and expres- 
sions, are happily adapted to each 
other, and no one figure or colour 
overpowers or obscures the rest. 
When a building is seen in one 
corner of a picture, it is frequently 
balanced by something in the other; 
even a large bird will produce the 
effect. 

Balance, one of the six simple powers 
in mechanics, chiefly used in de- 
termining the equality or differ- 
ence in heavy bodies, and conse- 
quently their masses or quantities 
of matter. Balances of various 
kinds are commonly used as the 
common balance, the bent lever 
balance, the Roman balance, and 
the Swedish or Danish balance 
for the adjustment of differences in 
weights, etc. 

Balance, in hydrostatics, an instru- 
ment for determining the specific 
gravity of bodies. 

Balance (The) of a clock or watch, 
the part which, by the regularity 
of its motion, determines the beat 
or strike. 

Balance-gates, in hydraulic engineer- 
ing, may be described by referring 
to those made for the Compensation 
Reservoir of the East London Wa- 
ter-works. These gates were de- 
signed for the purpose of discharg- 
ing the body of water collected in 
the reservoir during the rise of the 
tide, in order to supply the mills 
lower down the river Lea, which 
might otherwise have been injured 
by the amount withdrawn from the 
river by the pumping-engines of 



BAL 



BALL. 



BAL 



the Water Company. They differ 
in construction from common 
flood-gates, being made to work 
upon a vertical shaft or spindle as 
a centre, and having an equal sur- 
face of gate on each side of that 
centre ; so that whatever pressure 
of water there may be on one side 
of the gate tending to force it open, 
there is as great a pressure on the 
opposite leaf to keep it shut. 

Balance-reef, a reef in a spanker or 
fore-aft mainsail, which runs from 
the outer head caving diagonally to 
the tack ; it is the closest reef, and 
makes the sail triangular. 

Balastre, the finest gold-cloth, manu- 
factured at Vienna. 
! Balcony, a projection in the front of a 
house or other building, supported 
by consoles or columns, sometimes 
applied to the interiors of theatres, 
and for public convenience in large 
buildings. 

Balcony, the projecting gallery in the 
stern of large ships. 

Baldachin, a canopy supported by 
columns, and raised over altars, 
tombs, etc. 

Baldachino, in architecture, an open 
building supported by columns and 
covered with a canopy, frequently 
placed over an altar. 

Bale : to bale a boat is to throw water 
out of her. 

Batista, in practical geometry, the 
same as the geometrical cross, 
called the Jacob's staff. 

Balistic pendulum, an instrument 
used for measuring the velocity of 
a cannon-ball, i.e. the force of gun- 
powder. It consists, in its simplest 
form, of a beam which can swing 
on a fixed axis at one end, while 
the ball strikes the other end ; and 
the angle through which that end 
moves being known, the velocity 
of the cannon-ball may be com- 
puted. 

Balistics, the art of throwing missive 
weapons by means of an engine. 

Balistraria, a room in fortified build- 
ings, in which the crossbows were 
deposited. 



35 



Balk, a great beam. 

Ball, any spherical body, either na- 
tural or artificial. 

Ballast, for ships, the materials for 
which are gravel, iron, or stone, or 
any heavy substance, to stow away 
in the hold, to bring a ship to a 
proper water-line when unladen, 
to counterbalance the effect of the 
wind on the masts, and to give sta- 
bility. 

Ball-cock, a hollow globe of metal at- 
tached to the end of a lever, which 
turns the stop-cock of a cistern- 
pipe by floating on the surface of 
the water, thereby regulating the 
supply. 

Ball-flower, an ornament like a ball, 
placed in a circular flower, the pe- 
tals of which form a cap round it ; 
it belongs to the decorated style of 
the fourteenth century. 

Ball-lever, a lever of metal having a. 
ball affixed at one end as a weight, 
which assists in closing again the 
plug or valve of a cistern after it 
has been pulled up to obtain a sup- 
ply of water. 

Ball of a pendulum, the weight at tne 
bottom of it ; sometimes called the 
bob. 

Balister or Baluster, the lateral part 
of a scroll in the capital of the 
Ionic column; a little pillar-rail, 
such as are on the outside of 
cloisters. 

Ball and socket, an instrument made 
of brass, with a perpetual screw, so 
as to move horizontally, vertically, 
or obliquely : used for the managing 
of surveying and astronomical in- 
struments. 

Ballon, is a round globe on the top 
of a pillar. 

Balloon or Baston, a mould at the 
base of a column called a Tore. 

Balloon, a spheroidal hollow body, 
capable of floating in the air by 
means of its inflation with gas spe- 
cifically lighter than the air. 

Balloon, a globe placed on the top of 
a pillar or pediment, as an acroter 
or crowning. 

Balls, in electricity, are two pieces of 



BAL 



BALUSTRADES. 



BAN 



cork or pith of elder-tree, nicety 
turned in a lathe to the size of a 
small pea, and suspended by means 
of delicate threads, 

Balk-staff, a quarter-staff. 

Ball-valves, the valves in the force- 
pumps of a locomotive engine : the 
balls are turned and ground truly 
spherical, so as to fit watertight 
into the valve-seats in every posi- 
tion. 

Balneac, in Greek, signifies a bath or 
bathing-vessel. 

Balteum, a band or girdle, according 
to Vitruvius : this word is used to 
denote the moulding on the bolsters 
or sides of the Ionic capital. 

Baltei, the bands in the flanks of 
Ionic pulvinated capitals. Balteum 
and balteus were generally used by 
the Romans to signify the belt by 
which the sword or quiver was 
suspended. 

Baluster, a small column or pillar 
used in a balustrade. Balusters are 
generally placed round the gallery 
in the stern and the quarter gallery 
of large ships. 

Balustrade, a series or row of balus- 
ters, joined by a rail, serving for a 
rest to the arms, or as a fence or 
enclosure to balconies, altars, stair- 
cases, etc. 

Balustrades, when intended for use, 
as against windows, on flights of 
steps, terraces, and the like, should 
not be more than three feet six 
inches, nor less than three feet in 
height. When used for ornament, 
as on the summit of a building, 
their height may be from two- 
thirds to four-fifths of the entabla- 
ture whereon they are employed ; 
and this proportion is to be taken 
exclusive of their zoccolo or plinth, 
so that from the proper point of 
sight the whole balustrade may be 
exposed to view. There are vari- 
ous species of balusters ; if single- 
bellied, the best way is to divide 
the total height of the space al- 
lotted for the balustrade into thir- 
teen equal parts, the height of 
the baluster to be eight, of the base 



three, and of the cornice two of 
those parts ; or divide the total 
height into fourteen parts, making 
the baluster eight, the base four, 
and the cornice two. If double- 
bellied, the height should be divi- 
ded into fourteen parts, two of 
which are to be given to the cor- 
nice, three to the base, and the re- 
mainder to the baluster. 

The distance between two balus- 
ters should not be more than half 
the diameter of the baluster in its 
thickest part, nor less than one- 
third of it ; but on inclined planes 
the intervals should not be quite so 
wide. 

Bancalia, cushions or coverings for 
seats and benches. 

Band, in architecture, denotes any flat 
low member, or moulding, that is 
broad and not very deep. 

Banded column, a support which has 
its body interrupted at intervals by 
one or more broad projecting cinc- 
tures, etc. 

Bandle, an Irish measure of two fee 
in length. 

Bandlet, a small fillet, or flat mould- 
ing. 

Bandrol, a little flag or streamer 
affixed to the top of masts. 

Bank, a long piece of timber. 

Bank, a carpenter's term for a piece 
of fir-wood unslit, from 4 to 10 
inches square, and of any length. 

Bank : to double-bank an oar, is to 
have it pulled by two men. 

Banker (7%e),in bricklaying, a bench 
from 6 to 12 feet in length, used 
for preparing the bricks for gauged 
work. 

Banker, a cushion or covering for a 
seat. 

Banker browded, cushions embroid- 
ered. 

Banneret, anciently a knight made in 
the field, with a ceremony of cut- 
ting off the point of his standard 
and making it as if it were a banner. 

Banquet, the raised footway adjoin- 
ing to the parapet on the sides of a 
bridge. 
Banqueting house or room, a house 



BAN 



BAR IRON. 



BAR 



or room where public feasts are 
given. 

Bantam-work, painted or carved work, 
resembling that of japan, only more 
gaudy. 

Baptaterium, a back-mill or fulling- 
mill. 

Baptistery, a place or edifice where 
baptism is performed. A basin, 
pool, or place for bathing. 

Bar, a barrier, gatehouse : in law, a 
place where counsellors plead. 

Bar, a bank or shoal at the entrance 
of a harbour. 

Bar of ground, in mining, any course 
of vein which runs across a lode, or 
different from those in its vicinity. 

Bar iron, long prismatic pieces of 
iron, being rectangular parallelopi- 
peds, prepared from pig iron, so as 
to be malleable, for the use of black- 
smiths for the method of joining 
bars. 

Barberry-wood is of small size, re- 
sembling alder, and is straight and 
tenacious. 

Barbacan, or Barbican, in the middle 
ages, a fort at the entrance of a 
bridge, or the outlet of a city ; the 
part of a fortress where watch and 
ward was kept. 

Barbacan, a long narrow canal or 
passage for water in Wales, where 
buildings are liable to be overflowed, 
likewise to drain off water from a 
terrace. 

| Bar-master, among miners, the per- 
son who keeps the gauge or dish for 
measuring the ore. 

J Bar of the port, a billet thrust through 
the rings that serve to shut up the 
portholes of a ship. 

Barbarelli (Giorgio), of Castelfranco, 
known by the name of Giorgione, 
of the Venetian School of Painting. 
He died in 1511, at the age of 34. 

Barcella, a vessel containing incense. 

Barcon, a luggage-vessel used in the 
Mediterranean. 

Bardiglione, a blue variety of anhy- 
drite, cut and polished for orna- 
mental purposes. 

Bare poles, the condition of a ship 
when she has no sail set. 



37 



Bari, the portion of a slate showing 
the gauge, and on which the water 
falls. 

Barge, a large double-banked boat 
used by the commander of a vessel 
in the navy. 

Barge-board, a front or facing to 
conceal the barge couples, laths, 
tiles, thatch, etc. Barge-boards 
(or, more properly, verge-boards), 
pendants, pinnacles, and brackets, 
being the chief decorations of 
houses in early domestic archi- 
tecture, should always be made of 
strong oak, and left to acquire by 
age a grey hue ; and not of slight 
deal, painted, as is now the too 
frequent practice. 

Barge-couple, in architecture, a beam 
mortised into another, to strengthen 
the building. 

Barge-course, a part of the tiling or 
thatching of a roof, projecting over 
the gable, and filled up with boards, 
mortar, etc. 

Bargh-master, a surveyor of mines. 

Bargmote, a court held concerning 
the affairs of mines. 

Barium, a metal that exists in the 
sulphate and carbonate of barytes ; 
found in nature in great abund- 
ance. 

Barker's mill, an hydraulic machine 
much in use. 

Barkery, a tan-house ; also a sheep- 
cote. 

Bark hert, a seat in large gardens, a 
resting-place. 

Barmkyn, the rampart or outer forti- 
fication of a castle. 

Barn, a covered farm-building for 
laying up grain, hay, straw, etc. 

Barnacle, a shellfish often found on 
a vessel's bottom. 

Barocci (Federigo), of the Roman 
school, in the style of Correggio, a 
style best calculated to reform an 
age which had neglected the true 
principles of art, particularly colour- 
ing and chiaroscuro. 

Barometer and Sympiesometer. The 
barometer is a measure for the 
weight of the atmosphere, or its 
pressure on the surface of the globe. 



BAR 



BAROMETER. 



BAR 



It is well known that it is owing 
to the atmospheric pressure that 
water rises in a common pump after 
the air has been drawn from the 
barrel, but that the height to which 
it can be raised by this means is 
limited, and does not much exceeds 
30 feet. A little more than 30 feet 
of water, therefore, balances the 
atmosphere. Mercury being about 
twelve times heavier than water, 
about 30 inches of mercury will 
also counterpoise the atmosphere. 
The principle of the barometer is 
simple. If a tube, about 3 feet 
long, closed at one end and open at 
the other, be filled with mercury, 
and, with the open end stopped 
by a finger, this tube be reversed, 
and placed upright in a cup partly 
filled with the same liquid, the 
mercury in the tube, iu ordinary 
states of the weather, will descend 
to 30 inches, measured from the 
surface of the fluid in the cup, and 
not much lower. The mercury is 
sustained in the tube by the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere on the sur- 
face of the fluid in the cup. Such 
a tube and cup, so filled, would in 
fact be a barometer ; and if a move- 
able index were added to it, this 
simple instrument would indicate 
the changes which take place in the 
atmospheric pressure. The Sympie- 
someter is a more delicate instru- 
ment for measuring the atmosphe- 
ric pressure ; but it is also a more 
complicated one than the mercurial 
barometer, and it would be best un- 
derstood by inspection. The upper 
part of the tube contains hydrogen 
gas, which is elastic ; and the lower 
part, including the well, contains 
oil. By this compound construc- 
tion, whilst the length of the tube 
is less than that of the mercurial 
barometer, the index, or scale for 
measuringthe pressure, is increased. 
Hydrogen gas being very sensibly 
affected by all changes of tempe- 
rature, the index, by which the at- 
mospheric pressure is read, requires 
to be set according to the actual 



temperature, before the atmospheric 
pressure can be read off. 

Since mercury expands by heat, 
a correction for temperature is also 
required for the mercurial barome- 
ter, when exact calculations are to 
be made ; and for this reason ba- 
rometers usually have a thermome- 
ter attached to them, in order that 
the temperature may be read off, 
and recorded at the same time that 
the barometer is registered. 

The atmosphere is supposed to 
extend to about the height of 50 
miles, and its density to diminish 
from the surface of the globe up- 
wards, in a geometrical ratio. 

Thus, when observations are made 
on land, above the level of the sea, 
a correction is required for altitude, 
since the weight of the atmosphere 
diminishes as we ascend. It is 
owing to this that we are enabled 
to determine the height of moun- 
tains by barometers, and that aero- 
nauts compute the altitude to which 
they ascend in balloons. 

The cause of the oscillations of 
the barometer in a gale of wind 
was first explained by the late Mr. 
Redfield, of New Yo'rk. A quan- 
tity of fluid in a cup, put in rapid 
circular motion, gives a represen- 
tation of the form of that portion 
of the atmosphere which is within 
the limits of a storm. A whirlwind 
which sets an extended portion of 
the atmosphere in a state of rapid 
revolution, diminishes the pressure 
over a corresponding portion of the 
earth's surface, and most of all at 
the centre of the whirl, where the 
depth of the compressing column 
of air will be least. 

The principle of the barometer 
should be explained in all works 
on navigation, and in all schools 
where navigation is taught. 

The following is a table for the 
correction to be applied to the ob- 
served height of the mercury, to 
reduce it to the freezing point, at 
32 Fahrenheit, or zero of the Cen- 
tigrade scale. 



BAR BAROMETER. BAR 


Reduction of the English Barometer to the Freezing Point, or to 32 on 


Fahrenheit's Scale. Subtractive. (From Galbraith's Tables.} 






PART I. For Mercury only. 


PART n. Mercury and Brass 


C 






Temp. 


Height of the Barom. in inches. 


Height of the Barom. in Inches 


2 






Fah. 


Cent. 


28 In. 


29 In. 


30 In. 


31 In. 


28 In. 


29 In. 


30 In. 


31 In. 


fts 
Q 








32 




o-oo 


o-oooo 


o-oooo 


o-oooo 


o-oooo 


0-0088 


0-0091 


0-0094 


0-0097 


2 






34 


I'll 


0-0056 


0-0058 


0-0060 


0-0062 


0-0138 


0-0143 


0-0148 


0-0152 


5 






36 


2'22 


0-0112 


0-0116 


0-0120 


0-0124 


0-0188 


0-0194 


0-0201 


0-0208 


7 






38 


3-33 


0-0168 


0-0174 


0-0180 


0-0186 


0-0238 


0-0246 


0-0255 


0-0263 


9 






40 


4-44 


0-0224 


0'0232 


0-0240 


0-0248 


0-0288 


0-0298 


0-0309 


0-0319 


11 






42 


5'55 


0-0280 


0-0290 


0-0300 


0-0310 


0-0338 


0-0350 


0-036-2 


0-0374 


12 






44 


666 


0-0336 


0-0348 


0-0360 


0-0372 


0-0388 


0402 


0-0416 


0-0430 


14 






46 


777 


0-0392 


0'04 06 


0-0420 


0-0434 


0-0438 


0-0454 


O'04/O 


0485 


16 






48 


8-88 


0-0448 


0-0464 


0-0480 


0-0496 


0-0488 


0-0506 


0-0523 


0-0541 


17 






50 


lO'OO 


0-0504 


0-0522 


0-0540 


0-0558 


0'0538 


0-0558 


0-0577 


0-0596 


19 






52 


11-11 


0-0559 


0-05/9 


0-0599 


0-0619 


0-0588 


o 0609 


0-0630 


0-0652 


21 






54 


12-22 


0-0615 


0-0637 


0-0659 


0-0681 


0-0638 


0-0661 


0-0684 


0-0707 


23 






56 


13-33 


0-0671 


0-0695 


0-0719 


0-0743 


0-0688 


0-0713 


0-0738 


0-0762 


25 






58 


14-44 


0-0727 


0-0753 


0-0779 


0-0805 


0-0/38 


0'0765 


0-0791 


0-0818 


26 






60 


15-55 


0-0783 


0-0811 


0-0839 


0-0867 


0-0788 


0-0817 


0-0845 


0-0873 


28 






62 


16-66 


0-0838 


0-0868 


0-0898 


0-0928 


0838 


0-0868 


0-0898 


0-0928 


30 






64 


1777 


0-0894 


0-0926 


0-0958 


0-0990 


0888 


0-09^0 


0-0951 


0-0983 


32 






66 


18-88 


0-OQ50 


0-0984 


0-1018 


0-1051 


0938 


0-0971 


0-1005 


0-1039 


34 






68 


20'CO 


0-1005 


0-1041 


0-10/7 


0-1113 


0988 


0-J023 


0-1058 


0-1094 


36 






70 


21-11 


0-1061 


0-1099 


0-1137 


0-1175 


1037 


0-1075 


0-1112 


0-1149 


38 






72 


22-22 


1117 


0-1156 


1196 


0-12.^6 


1087 


0-1126 


0-1165 


0-1204 


40 






74 


23-33 


11/2 


0-1214 


1256 


0-1298 


1137 


0-1178 


0-1218 


0-1259 


42 






76 


24-44 


1228 


0-12/1 


1315 


0-1359 


1187 


0-1229 


0-1272 


0-1314 


44 






78 


25-55 


1283 


0-1329 


1375 


0-1421 


1237 


0-1281 


0-1325 


0-1369 


45 






80 


2666 


1339 


0-1387 


1434 


0-1482 


1286 


0-1332 


0-1378 


1424 


47 






82 


27-77 


1394 


0-1444 


1494 


0'1544 


1336 


0-1384 


0-1432 


1479 


49 






84 


28-88 


1450 


0-1502 


1553 


0-1605 


1386 


0-1435 


0-1485 


1534 


51 






86 


30-00 


1505 


0-1559 


1613 


0'1667 


0-1435 


0-1486 


0-1538 


1589 


53 






88 


31-11 


0-1561 


0-1616 


1672 


0-1728 


0-1485 


0-1538 


0-1501 


1644 


54 






90 


32-22 


0-1617 


0-1674 


1731 


0-1790 


0-1535 


0-1589 


0-1644 


1699 


56 






P. P. for 


0. 4 0. 8 1. 2 1. 6 2. 


0. 4 0. 8 1. 2 1. 6 2. 








Temp- F- + 


12 24 35 47 59 


10 21 31 42 52 






Baroscope, an instrument for finding 


for retaining the water of that river 


out the variations of the air, or 


at a sufficient height to irrigate the 


weather-glass. 


summer crops. The dam consists of 


Barouche, a coach without a roof. 


a curved quay, 4,500 feet in length ; 


Barozzi, otherwise Vignola, a dis- 


and two sluice-gates are placed at 


tinguished architect and painter, 


the head of the Delta, one on the 


born 1507, died in 1573. 


Rosetta, the other on the Damietta 


Barque, a three-masted vessel having 


branch, at a distance of half a 


her fore and main masts rigged like 


league from each other. 


a ship's, and her mizen-mast like 


Barrel, in machinery, is a term ap- 


the main-mast of a schooner, with 


plied generally to anything hollow 


no sail upon it but a spanker. 


and cylindrical. 


Barra, in the middle ages, a tower or 


Barrow, in mining, a heap of dead 


bar at one end of a bridge. 


attle, rubbish, etc. 


Barracks, buildings for the lodgment 


Barrow, in salt-works, wicker cases 


of soldiers. 


almost in the shape of a sugar 


Barrage, a mound or dyke to raise 


loaf, in which the salt is put to 


the waters of a river. One of the 


drain. 


most remarkable works of this 


Barrows, or tumuli, monuments of 


kind is the Barrage of the Nile, 


the greatest antiquity, raised as se- 



39 



BAR 



BASE-COURT. 



pulchres for the interment of the 
great. 

Barry (James), a painter, was born 
in Cork, October 1741, and died in 
the 65th year of his age. 

Bars, straight pieces of timber or 
metal that run across from one 
part of a machine to another. 

Bartholomeus (Alfred), architect, born 
in 1801, published some excellent 
works for study and use, died in 
1844. 

Partisan, a wooden tower; a turret 
on the top of a house, castle, or 
church tower ; a balcony or platform, 
within a parapet on the roof of 
any building ; in architecture, bar- 
tisans are small overhanging turrets, 
which project from the angles on 
the top of a tower, or from the 
parapet or other parts of a building. 

Barton, the demesne lands of a manor, 
a manor house ; the fields, a fold- 
yard, or outhouse. 

Barton house, a term used in the 
southern and western counties to 
express a farm-building, outhouse, 
and appurtenances. 

Bar wood, an African wood, in pieces 
four to five feet long. It is used 
as red dip-wood, also for violin 
bows, ramrods, and in turning. 

Barytes, a heavy mineral, found in 
copper-mines, and formerly named 
' ponderous spar ; ' it has a caustic, 
alkaline taste, and is extremely 
poisonous. 

Basalt, a variety of trap-rock, hard and 
heavy, usually of a dark green or 
brownish-black colour, composed 
of augite and felspar, with some 
iron and olivine ; it frequently oc- 
curs in a columnar form. 

Basanite, a variety of schistose horn- 
stone, called also Lydian stone. 

Bascule bridge, a bridge to lift, to ac- 
commodate a passing for shipping. 

Base of a figure, in geometry, denotes 
the lowest part of its perimeter. 

Base of a conic section is a right 
line in the parabola and hyperbola 
formed by the common intersection 
of the cutting plane and the base 
of the cone. 



40 



Base, in architecture, the lower pai 
or member of a column, on whic 
the shaft stands. 

Base-court, the outer or lower yar 
of a castle, appropriated to stable; 
offices, etc. 

Base-line, in perspective, the commo 
section of a picture and the gee 
metrical plane. 

Base-line, in surveying, a line, mea 
sured with the greatest possiol 
exactness, on which a series of trl 
angles are constructed, in order t 
determine the position of object 
and places. The measurement o 
degrees of the meridian, for th 
purpose of ascertaining the size o 
the earth, has been undertaken ii 
various countries, with extrenn 
accuracy. The arc measured b; 
the French extended from Dun 
kirk to the southernmost point o 
the Balearic Islands, including 
120 22' 14", having its centn 
halfway between the Equator anc 
the North Pole. Another survej 
of this kind was performed on 
part of the shore of Pennsylvania 
which happens to be so straight 
and level as to admit of a line ol 
more than ISOmilesbeingmeasured 
directly without triangulation. Very 
long lines have also been measured 
(trigonometrically) by order of the 
English Government, both at home 
and in India, the mean result oi 
which makes the earth's axis 7898 
miles, 5 furlongs, 16 yards, and the 
diameter of the Equator 7924 miles 
7 furlongs. 

Basement, the lower story or floor oi 
a building; the story of a house 
below the level of the ground. 
Basements. As an alternative for 
employing orders upon orders, the 
ground-floor is made to assume the 
appearance of a basement, and the 
order that decorates the principal 
story placed thereupon : in such 
cases the basement should not be 
higher than the order it supports, 
nor lower than one-half the height 
of the order ; but if a basement be 
introduced merely for the purpose 



BAS 



BASILICA. 



BAS 



of raising the principal or ground- 
floor, it may be three, four, five, or 
six feet high, at pleasure. 

These basement stories are gene- 
rally in rock-worked or plain rus- 
tics ; and in no case should the 
height of a rustic course be less 
than one module of the order rest- 
ing on the basement, nor should it 
ever much exceed it : their joints, 
if square, ought not to be broader 
than one-eighth of the height of 
the rustic, or narrower than one- 
tenth, and their depth should equal 
their breadth ; if chamfered, the 
whole joint may be one-quarter to 
one-third the height of the rustic, 
the joint being always right-angled. 
When the basement is high, it is 
sometimes crowned with a cor- 
nice, but a plat-band is more com- 
monly used. Gvjilt. 
Basenet, a helmet. 
Base-plate'^ the foundation-plate of an 

engine. 

Basevi (George), an architect of con- 
siderable taste, born in 1794, acci- 
dentally killed in 1845. 
Basil, to grind the edge of a tool to 

an angle. 

Basilica, in the time of the Romans, 
a public hall or court of judicature. 
After the conversion of the Em- 
peror Constantine to Christianity, 
these edifices were converted into 
Christian churches. The Basilicce 
of the Romans were the types from 
which the early Christian places of 
worship were taken ; and the ruins 
of these buildings were the chief 
materials used. In several instances 
the columns that divide the centre 
part of the church from the aisles 
have been taken from other edifices, 
either on account of the want of 
artists capable of executing any- 
thing equal to them, or the haste 
with which they were erected. The 
expedient that was adopted tends 
to show that proportion was not 
considered ; some columns were 
reduced from their former height, 
and others mounted on pedestals, 
to suit the purposes to which they 



41 



were applied. Besides this total 
disregard to proportion in the shafts 
of the columns, capitals and bases 
were applied without any consider- 
ation to their fitness. The heathen 
basilicae, generally situated in the 
forums, were of rectangular form, 
and divided into three or five parts 
by rows of columns parallel to the 
length of the building; another 
colonnade at the extremity crossed 
the former at right-angles, and in 
the middle of the end wall was a 
semicircular recess, in which was 
situated the tribune of the judge. 
These basilicae had likewise galle- 
ries over the aisles, in which com- 
mercial or other business was 
transacted ; but in the Christian 
churches this was appropriated to 
the women, who (as in the Jewish 
synagogues) were not allowed to 
join with the men in the lower 
parts of the building. These gal- 
leries were omitted in the after 
basilicae, and one of the aisles was 
retained solely for their use. Six 
of the principal churches or basi- 
licae at Rome are attributed to the 
zeal of Constantine. The basilicae 
of St. John de Lateran, St. Peter, 
St. Laurentius, St. Paul, St. Agnes, 
and St. Stephen were built by him, 
besides the baptisterium that bears 
his name. 

The Christian Basilica may be 
sketched as follows : 

1. The 4trium, or court of en- 
trance, usually surrounded by a 
columned portico as in the heathen 
temples. This was an addition to the 
heathen basilica. 

2. The Portico, in front of the 
building, called the Narthex or 
Scourge reserved for the catechu- 
mens and penitents, the former 
being confined to its precincts till 
baptism, the latter till ecclesiastical 
absolution. 

3. In the interior, the central 
area, or nave, parted from its side- 
aisles by rows of columns in the 
smaller churches single.in the larger 
double ; the rows next the nave 



BAS 



BASINS. 



HA! 



almost invariably supported* round 
arches instead of an unbroken archi- 
trave, and upon these arches rested 
the main walls of the building ; the 
walls were pierced with windows, 
under which often ran lines of 
mosaic ; both nave and aisles were 
crowned with a wooden roof, and 
under that of the aisles Triforia, or 
galleries, as in their pagan proto- 
types, were sometimes provided for 
the women. 

4. The Cancellum, Chancel, or 
Choii the upper part of the 
nave, raised two or three steps, 
railed off or separated by a low 
wall, and appropriated to the sing- 
ers and inferior clergy ; within it, 
sometimes on the same side, more 
frequently on the opposite, stood 
the Ambones, or desks, that on the 
left for reading the Gospel, that 
on the right for the Epistle ; the 
Paschal candlestick, emblematic of 
revealed religion, being fixed adja- 
cent to the former. The congre- 
gation stood on either side the can- 
cellum, the men to the right, the 
women to the left, as in the heathen 
basilicas. 

5. The Triumphal Arch, intro- 
ducing from the central nave into 
the sanctuary, and thus figurative 
of the transition through death 
from the Church Militant on earth 
to the Church Triumphant in 
Heaven, respectively symbolized by 
the nave and sanctuary : subjects 
allusive to this triumph, the Sa- 
viour in glory or the Vision of the 
New Jerusalem of the Apocalypse, 
were usually represented on it in 
mosaic. 

6. The Transept, Presbytery, or 
Sanctuary, elevated by steps, in 
the centre of which stood the altar, 
originally uncovered, but after- 
wards surmounted by a ciborium 
or tabernacle supported by small 
pillars. 

7. The Tribune or Absis, within 
which, overlooking the church, 
arose the throne of the bishop, 
flanked to the right and left by the 



of his attendant clergy. Th 
side-aisles were terminated b; 
similar absides of smaller propor 
tions. 

8. Lastly, the Crypt, beneath th< 
sanctuary, generally half-sunk be 
low the level of the earth, an opei 
screen or grating admitting a sigh 
of its interior from the nave, and o 
the Confession, the tomb or shrine 
containing the relics of the sainl 
or martyr. The theory of a primitive 
church presumed it to be built ovei 
a catacomb. S. Agnes, S. Lorenzo, 
S. Martino, S. Prassede, and a few 
others at Rome actually are so; 
but as this could rarely be the 
case elsewhere, artificial catacombs 
or crypts were dug to represent 
them. 

At Rome, the Basilica of San 
Lorenzo, situated about a mile from 
the city on the Via Tiburtina. 

The Basilica of Santl Croce in 
Gierusalemme. 

The Basilica of San Giovanni 
in Laterano, the cathedral church 
of Rome, called the metropolitan 
church of the Christian world ; it is 
also sometimes named the Basilica 
Constantiniana. 

The Basilica of San Sebastiano 
fuori le mura. 

The Basilica of Santa Maria 
Maggiore, which is also sometimes 
called the Basilica Laberiana. 

The Basilica of Santa Maria in 
Trastevere. 

The remaining Basilica is either 
that of San Pietro in Vaticano, or 
of San Paolo fuori le mura ; indeed 
both of them ought to be included 
in the number, as they have respec- 
tively the Porta Santa. 
Basilicula, a shrine, oratory, or ceno- 
taph. 

Basins and ewers. In early times, 
before the cleanly custom of using 
a fork was practised, the hands 
were frequently washed during 
dinner : a basin and ewer were 
handed for that purpose by an at- 
tendant. At the feast given by 
Henry VIII. to the French am". 



42 



BAS 



BATH. 



BAT 



bassadors, there were three ewry 
boards ; one for the king, another 
for the queen, and the third for the 
princes, etc. 

Basin, a concave piece of metal made 
use of by opticians to grind their 
convex glasses in. 

Basin, a reservatory of water; a 
canal ; a pond ; a dock for repair- 
ing ships. 

Basset. The basset or outcrop means 
the emergence at the surface of the 
different mineral strata from be- 
neath each other. 

Basset, or Outfall, applied to open- 
ings from or into mines to the sur- 
face. 

Bas-relief, orBasso-rilievo, low or flat 
relief, applied to sculpture con 
nected more or less with a plane 
surface, and of which the figures do 
not project in their full proportions. 

Bast, lime-tree bark made into ropes 
and mats. 

Bastard stucco, a three-coated plas- 
ter, the first generally roughing in 
or rendering; the second floating, 
as in trowelled stucco ; but the 
finishing coat contains a little hair 
besides the sand : it is not hand- 
floated, and the trowelling is done 
with less labour than in what is 
called trowelled stucco. 

Bastard-toothed file, in smithing, that 
employed after the rubber. 

Bastard wheel, a flat bevel-wheel, or 
one which is a near approach to a 
spur-wheel. 

Bastida, in the twelfth century, a 
place of defence, a fortress. 

Bastille, a prison; a castle, tower, 
fortress., or any place of defence. 

Bastion, a rampart, bulwark, or 
earthen mound. 

Batardeau, a coffer-dam, or case of 
piling without a bottom, for build- 
ing the piers of a bridge. 

Batch, in mining, a certain quantity of 
ore sent to the surface by any pair 
of men. 

Bateau, a light boat, long in propor- 
tion to its breadth. 

Bateman liyht, a window in which 
the sides of the aperture are left to 



43 



admit light, an upright, and the 
bottom horizontal. 
Bath, a receptacle for water, in which 
to plunge, wash, or bathe the body. 
Among the Romans, baths were 
erected magnificent both in style 
and purpose, and many of them of 
great architectural beauty. In later 
times the bath was always used by 
the Romans before they went to 
their supper. The rich generally 
had hot and cold baths in their 
own houses ; and it was not till the 
time of Augustus that the baths 
assumed an air of grandeur and 
magnificence. The situation chosen 
for baths ought to be sheltered 
from the north and north-east. 
The caldaria and tepidaria should 
be made to receive their light from 
the west : or, should local circum- 
stances not admit of this dispo- 
sition, they may both be made to 
face the south, because the general 
time of bathing is from midday un- 
til sunset. One thing necessary to 
be observed is, that the caldaria of 
that division of the bath which is 
appropriated to the women should 
be contiguous to that exclusively 
used by the men, and have the 
same aspect ; for then the cop- 
pers of both may be heated from 
the same furnace. Three brazen 
vessels are fixed over the furnace, 
which are severally called calda- 
rium, tepidarium,and frigidarium : 
they are so arranged, that whatever 
heated water is taken from the 
first, it is replaced by warm water 
from the second, the deficiency of 
which is supplied, in a similar man- 
ner, from the third. The concave 
coverings of the small tubes of both 
baths are likewise heated from the 
same furnace. The insulated stages 
of the caldaria are thus constructed: 
the floor is made inclining towards 
the furnace, so that if a ball were 
placed upon any part of it, it would 
not remain at rest, but take a direc- 
tion towards the mouth ; by which 
means the flame will more easily 
pervade the interval between the 



BAT 



BATTERY. 



BAY 



floors, which is paved with tiles a 
foot and a half square : upon the 
floor, earthen props, eight inches 
each way, are arranged at such in- 
tervals as to receive upon them 
square tiles two feet in length : the 
props are two feet in height ; the 
tiles which form them are cemented 
with clay and hair mixed together. 
The square tiles which they support 
form the substratum of the pave- 
ment of the caldaria. 
Bath metal, a mixed metal, otherwise 

called Prince's metal. 
Bath-stone, Bath oolite ; minute glo- 
bules, cemented together by yel- 
lowish earthy calcareous matter ; it 
is much used in building, but is not 
a lasting material. It is soft when 
quarried, but hardens by exposure 
to the air. 

Batifolium, a movable wooden tower 
used by besiegers in attacking a 
fortress. 

Batten, in carpentry, a scantling of 
wooden stuff, from two to four 
inches broad, and about one thick, 
principally used for wainscot, on 
which also are bradded, on the plain 
boards, also batten doors, those 
which resemble wainscot-doors, but 
are not so, for in wainscot-doors 
the panels are grooved in the fram- 
ing. 

Eat fens (nautical), thin strips of wood 
put around the hatches to keep the 
tarpaulin down ; also put upon 
rigging to keep it from chafing. 
A large batten widened at the end, 
and put upon rigging, is called a 
Scotchman. 

Batter, to displace a portion of the 
iron of any bar or other piece by 
the blow of a hammer, so as to 
flatten or compress it inwardly, and 
spread it outwardly on all sides 
around the place of impact. 
Batter, a term applied to walls built 
out of the upright, or gently sloping 
inwards ; wharf walls and retain- 
ing walls built to support embank- 
ments. 

Batter, the leaning back of the up- 
per part of the face of a wall, so as 



to make the plumb-line fall within 
the base. 

Battery, in electricity, a combination 
of coated surfaces of glass, com- 
monly jars, so connected that they 
may be charged at once and dis- 
charged by means of a common 
conductor. 

Battlement, an open or interrupted 
parapet on the roof of a building; 
a parapet with embrasures. 

Battory, a name given by the Hans 
Towns to their country-houses 
and warehouses in foreign coun- 
tries. 

Baugium, an outhouse or domestic 
office. 

Baulk, a piece of foreign fir or deal, 
from 8 to 16 inches square, being 
the trunk of a tree of that species 
of wood ; generally brought to a 
square for the use of building. 

Bawdrick, a cord or thong for the 
clapper of a bell ; a sword-belt ; a 
jewel. 

Bawk, a cross-beam in the roof of a 
house which unites and supports 
the rafters ; a tie-beam. 

Bay, a division of a roof or vaulting 
of a building, consisting of the 
space between the beams or arches. 
A part of a window between the 
mullions is often called a bay or 
day. 

Bay, in plastering, the space between 
the skreeds, prepared for regulating 
and working the floating-rule. 

Bay of joists, the joisting between 
two binding joists, or between two 
girders when binding joists are not 
used. 

Bay of roofing, the small rafters and 
their supporting purlins between 
two principal rafters. 

Bay-salt, salt obtained by evaporating 
sea-water in shallow ponds by the 
heat of the sun ; it is of a dark grey 
colour, and contains iodine. 

Bay-tree, a native of Italy and Greece ; 
it grows to the height of thirty 
feet, and its wood is aromatic. 

Bay-window, an oriel window; a win- 
dow jutting outwards; frequently 
called a bow-window. 



44 



BAY 



BEAMS. 



Bayeux tapestry, ordered to be work- 
ed by Matilda, the Queen of Wil- 
liam the Conqueror. 

Bazaar, a market-place. 

Beacon, a post or buoy placed over a 
shoal or bank, to warn vessels off: 
also a signal-mark on land ; a tower 
placed on an eminence, with a light 
to warn against the approach of 
danger. 

Beaconc.ge, dues levied for the main- 

x tenance of beacons. 

Bead, a small globular ornament used 
in ancient and modern architec- 
ture. 

Bead and Butt work, in carpentry, 
framing in which the panels are 
flush, having beads stuck or run 
upon the two edges, the grain of the 
wood being in the direction of them. 

Bead and quirk, a bead stuck on the 
edge of a piece of stuff, flush with 
its surface. 

Bead-butt and square-work, framing 
with bead and butt on one side ; 
and square on the other : used in 
doors. 

Bead-plane, a moulding plane of a 
semi-cylindric contour, generally 
used in sticking a moulding of the 
same name on the edge or on the 
side close to the arris. 

Beak, the crooked end of a piece of 
iron, to hold anything fast. 

Beak, a small pendent fillet, forming 
a channel behind, to prevent water 
from running down the lower bed 
of the cornice. 

Beak-head, a small platform at the 
fore-part of the upper deck in large 
ships. 

Beak-iron, the conic part of the an- 
vil, with its base attached to the 
side, and its axis horizontal. 

Re aking -joint, the joint formed by the 
meeting of several heading joints 
in one continued line, which is 
sometimes the case in folded floors. 

Beam, a horizontal piece of iron or 
timber, used to resist a force or 
weight, as a tie-beam, where it acts 
as a string, or chain, by its ten- 
sion ; as a collar-beam, where it 
acts by compression ; as a bres- 



summer, where it resists a trans- 
verse insisting weight. 
Beam, in steam-engines, a large lever 
turning upon a centre, and forming 
the medium of communication be- 
tween the piston-rod and the crank- 
shaft. 

Beam of an anchor, the straight part 
or shank to which the hooks are 
fastened. 

Beams. FORMS OF BEAMS. In the 
construction of beams, it is ne- 
cessary that their form should be 
such that they will be equally 
strong throughout; or, in other 
words, that they will offer an equal 
resistance to fracture in all their 
parts, and will, therefore, be equally 
liable to break at one part of their 
length as at another. 

If a beam be fixed at one end 
and loaded at the other, and the 
breadth uniform throughout its 
length, then, that the beam may be 
equally strong throughout, its form 
must be that of a parabola. 

This form is generally used in 
the beams of steam-engines; and 
in double-acting steam-engines the 
beam is strained sometimes from 
one side, and sometimes from the 
other ; therefore, both the sides 
should be of the same form. 

Mr. Emerson gives the load that 

may be safely borne by a square 

inch rod of each of the following : 

Ibs. avoird. 

Iron rod an inch square "I ^ A , nn 
will bear . . . .} /b > 4 0< 

Brass ...... 35,600 

Hempen rope . . . 19,600 

Ivory ...... 15,700 

7,850 

6,070 
5,360 
5,000 
5,000 
4,760 
. 2Q() 

430 
914 

prac- 



elder, 



Elm, ash, beech 
Walnut, plum 
Red fir, holly, 

plane, crab . . . 
Cherry, hazel . . . 
Alder, asp, birch, wil- \ 
low ...... J 

Lead ...... 

Freestone ..... 

He also gives the following 



45 



BEA 



BEAMS. 



BEA 



tical rule, viz. That a cylinder, the 
diameter of which is d inches, 
loaded to one-fourth of its absolute 
strength, will carry as follows : 

cwt. 

Iron 135 x d 2 

Good rope ... 22 x d 2 

Oak 14 x <P 

Fir 9 x d 2 

He also adds, that a cylindric rod 
of good clean fir, of an inch cir- 
cumference, drawn in length, will 
bear at its extremity 400 Ibs. ; and 
that a spar of fir, 2 inches diameter, 
will bear about 7 tons, but not more. 
A rod of good iron, of an inch 
circumference, will bear nearly 3 
tons weight. 

A good hempen rope, of an inch 
circumference, will bear 1000 Ibs. 
being at its extremity. 

Mr. Barlow gives the following 
table as a mean derived from his 
experiments on the strength of 
direct cohesion on a square inch of 
the following : 

Ibs. 
Box, about .... 20,000 

Ash 17,000 

Teak 15,000 

Fir 12,000 

Beech 11,500 

Oak 10,000 

Pear 9,800 

Mahogany .... 8,000 

TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF 
BEAMS, ETC. The transverse 
strength of rectangular beams, or 
the resistance which they offer to 
fracture, is as the breadth and 
square of the depth : therefore, if 
two rectangular beams have the 
same depth, their strengths are to 
each other as their breadths ; but 
if their breadths are the same, 
then their strengths are to each 
other as the squares of their depths. 

The transverse strengths of 
square beams are as the cubes of 
the breadths or depths. Also, in 
cylindrical beams, the transverse 
strengths are as the cubes of the 
diameters. 



Thus, if a beam which is one foot 
broad and one foot deep, support a 
given weight, then a beam of the 
same depth, and two feet broad, 
will support double the weight. 

But if a beam be one foot broad 
and two feet deep, it will support 
four times as much as a beam one 
foot broad and one foot deep. 

If a beam one foot square sup- 
port a given weight, then a beam 
two feet square will support eight 
times as much. Also, a cylinder 
of two inches in diameter will sup- 
port eight times as much as a cy- 
linder one inch in diameter. 

The following table of data is 
extracted from tables in Barlow's 



Teak 2,462 

English oak .... 1,672 

Canadian do 1,766 

Dantzic do 1,457 

Adriatic do 1,383 

Ash 2,026 

Beech 1,556 

Elm 1,013 

Pitch pine 1,632 

Red pine 1,341 

New England fir . . . 1,102 

Riga fir 1,108 

Mar Forest fir. . . . 1,262 

Larch 1,127 

Beam-ends. A ship is said to be on 
her beam-ends when she inclines 
very much on one side, so that her 
beams approach to a vertical posi- 
tion. 

Beam-engine, generally a land en- 
gine, which has the top of the pis- 
ton-rod connected to one end of a 
lever or beam ; by a contrivance 
called a parallel motion, the beam 
vibrates upon a central axis, and 
communicates the motion of the 
piston to the crank by means of a 
connecting-rod attached to the 
other end of the beam, and also 
gives motion to the various parts. 
Beam filling, the brickwork, or ma- 
sonry, brought up from the level 
of the under to the upper sides of 
beams. 
Beam gudgeons, the bearings on the 



46 



SEA 



BEDS. 



BED 



centre of the beam, or the central 
pivot upon which it vibrates. 

Beam of a balance, the horizontal 
piece of iron from the ends of 
which the scales are suspended. 

Beams, in naval architecture, strong 
thick pieces of timber stretching 
across the ship from side to side, to 
support the decks : they are sus- 
tained at each end by thick planks 
in the ship's side, called clamps, 
upon which they rest. 

Bearer, anything used by way of sup- 
port to another weight. 

Bearer, in turning, that part of the 
lathe which supports the puppets. 

Bearing, the distance that a beam 
or rafter is suspended in the clear : 
thus, if a piece of timber rests upon 
two opposite walls, the span of the 
void is called the bearing, and not 
the whole length of the timber. 

Bearing, that part of a shaft or 
spindle which is in contact with 
the supports. 

Hearing, a word used in describing 
a plaster figure copied from the 
antique. It is generally said, if 
the drawing or outline of a figure 
has not the same bearings or angles 
of inclination as the original pos- 
esses, that it is out in all its 
bearings. 

Bearing, in heraldry, the figures on 
a coat of arms ; a coat of arms in 
general. 

Bearing, the direction of an object 
from the person looking. In ship- 
ping,the bearings of a vessel are the 
widest part of her below the plank- 
sheer ; that part of her hull which 
is on the water-line when she is at 
anchor and in her proper trim. 

Beat away, in mining, to excavate ; 
usually applied to hard ground. 

Beating, in navigation, the operation 
of making progress at sea against 
the wind. 

[Beaufet, a cupboard or niche. 

Beaufrey, a beam or joist. 

Beau ideal, in painting, that beauty 
which is freed from the deformity 
and the peculiarity found in nature 
in all individuals of a species. 



Beauty, in architecture, consists of 
the following qualities : magnitude 
and strength, order and harmony, 
richness and simplicity ; Construc- 
tion, in which the chief requisites 
are magnitude and strength, order 
and harmony ; Decoration, whose 
requisites are richness or simplicity, 
according to the nature of the com- 
position. 

Beazley (Saml.), an architect of re- 
putation, particularly in the con- 
struction of theatres ; he also 
executed with success many other 
buildings. Born 1786 ; died in 
1851. 

Becalm, to intercept the wind by al- 
ternate tacks. 

Beck, a little river or brook. 

BecJc, an English weight containing 
sixteen English pounds, or two 
gallons. 

Becket, a piece of rope, placed so as 
to confine a spar or another rope ; 
a handle made of rope in the form 
of a circle. 

Bed of a brick, the horizontal sur- 
faces as disposed in a wall. 

Bed, a term used in masonry to de- 
scribe the direction in which the 
natural strata in stones lie ; it is 
also applied to the top and bottom 
surface of stones when worked for 
building. 

Bed, in mining, a seam or horizontal 
vein of ore. 

Beds, of stonework, are the parallel 
surfaces which intersect the face 
of the work in lines parallel to the 
horizon. 

Beds and Bedding. Feather - beds, 
bolsters, and pillows, filled with 
feathers and down, with mattresses 
and every other comfort of this 
kind, seem to have been as well 
known to, and enjoyed by, the su- 
perior orders of society three cen- 
turies ago, as they are now. Di- 
rections are, however, mentioned 
as having been given in the reign 
of Henry VIII. " to examine every 
night the straw of the king's bed, 
that no daggers might be con- 
cealed." 



47 



BED 



BEECHWOOD. 



BEF 



Beds (Trussing) were beds which 
packed into chests, for travelling ; 
and, considering the frequent re- 
movals, these must have been the 
most convenient kind. John of 
Ghent seems to have always slept 
in such beds, as by his will it ap- 
pears that he demised to his wife 
all the beds made for his body, 
" called in England trussing-beds ;" 
and the " best chambers " of both 
Master Fermor and Sir Adrian Fos- 
kewe had trussing-beds. 

Bed-chambers: in Tudor times the 
furniture of these apartments, in 
great houses, was of the same gor- 
geous character as that in the chief 
rooms; and the paraphernalia of an 
ancient dressing-table yielded only 
in the splendour and costliness of 
plate, to the cupboard of the great 
chamber, or the altar of the chapel. 
Like the hall, the state bed-cham- 
ber had a high place, on which 
were placed the 'standing bed' and 
the 'truckle-bed :' on the former lay 
the lord, and on the latter his at- 
tendant. 

Beddern, a refectory. 

Bedding -stone, used in bricklaying, a 
straight piece of marble : its use is 
to try the rubbed side of the brick; 
first, to square, to prove whether 
the surface of the brick be straight ; 
secondly, to fit it upon the leading 
skewback, or leading end of the 
arch. 

Bed-mouldings. This may be under- 
stood as a collective term for all 
the mouldings beneath the corona 
or principal projecting member of 
a cornice, which, without bed- 
mouldings, would appear too much 
like a mere shelf. 

Bed-plate, the foundation-plate of a 
marine or a direct-action engine. 

Bedsteads ; in Tudor times the posts, 
head-boards, and canopies or sper- 
vers of bedsteads were curiously 
wrought and carved in oak, walnut, 
box, and other woods, and variously 
painted and gilt. Ginger-colour, 
hatched with gold, was a favou- 
rite style, but purple and crimson 



were also used in their decoration. 

Bede, among miners, a kind of pick- 
axe used for separating the ores 
from the rocks in which they lie. 

Bedesmen, almsmen who prayed for 
their benefactors and founders. 

Bede-house, an almshouse or hospi- 
tal. 

Beech, a species of timber very much 
used by artificers : while young, it 
possesses great toughness, and is 
of a white colour: the cohesive 
strength of this timber requires 
12,225 Ibs. weight to tear asunder 
a piece one square inch in thick- 
ness. 

Beech-wood, common in Buckingham- 
shire and Sussex as the best ; about 
fifty feet high and thirty inches in 
diameter; white, brown, and black 
colour : it is used for piles in wet 
foundations ; is used also, for its 
uniform texture and closeness, in 
in-door works, as the frames of 
machines, bedsteads, and furniture ; 
also for planes, tools, lathe-chucks, 
keys, cogs of machinery, brushes, 
handles, etc. 

Beef-wood, red-coloured wood, gene- 
rally applied to Botany Bay oak. 

Beer-drawing machines are contriv- 
ances by means of which beer is 
drawn from a barrel or cask. 

Beer or Bere stone, composed chiefly 
of carbonate of lime, friable and 
with partial indurations. It is ex- 
tensively quarried at Bere, or Beer, 
in Devon. 

Bees, pieces of plank bolted to the 
outer end of the bowsprit, to score 
the fore-topmast stays through. 

Beetle, or Maul, a large mallet to 
knock the corners of framed work, 
and to set it in its proper position : 
the handle is about three feet in 
length. 

Beetle, or Boytle, a wooden instru- 
ment or hammer for driving piles, 
stakes, wedges, etc. 

Before the beam, in naval architec- 
ture, is an arc of the horizon com- 
prehended between a line which 
crosses a ship's length at right an- 
gles, and some object at a distance 



48 



BEH 



BELL. 



BEX 



before it ; or between the line of 
the beam, and that point of the 
compass which she stems. 

Behr (Geo. Hen.), published in 1732 
a work on Strasburg Cathedral. 

Belace, Belage, or to Belay, to fasten 
any running rope when it is haled, 
that it cannot run forth again ; to 
mend a rope by laying one end over 
another. 

Belandre, in navigation, a sort of Nor- 
man vessel. 

Belay, to make a rope fast by turns 
round a pin or coil, without hitch- 
ing or seizing it. 

Belfry, that part of the tower of a 
church which contains bells. 

Bell (Henry), late of Glasgow, who, 
in 1812, tried Symington's plan for 
navigating by propulsion a steam- 
vessel on the Clyde. The vessel 
('The Comet') was 25 tons bur- 
den, 40 feet long and 10 feet beam, 
with a steam-engine of four-horse 
power, which succeeded. 

Bell, a metallic instrument rung in the 
belfry of a church for the attend- 
ance of divine worship, and upon 
occasions of rejoicing ; composed 
of three parts of copper and one of 
tin, called bell-metal. 

Bell : the body of a Corinthian or 
Composite capital, supposing the 
foliage stripped off, is called the 
bell; the same is applied also to 
the early English and other capitals 
in Gothic architecture which in 
any degree partake of this form. 

Bell-cage, a timber frame, also called 
Belfry, carrying one or more large 
bells. 

Bell-canopy, a canopy containing a 
bell in harness. 

Bell-chamber, the room containing 
one or more large bells in harness. 

Bell-cot, a structure presenting the 
appearance of a steeple. 

Bell-crank, a bent lever, used for 
changing a vertical into a horizon- 
tal motion. 

Bell-gable, a term applied to the gable 
of a religious edifice, having a plain 
or ornamental niche for the recep- 
tion of one or more bells. 



Bell-trap, a contrivance, usually air- 
tight, consisting of an inverted cup, 
the edges of which dip into a 
trench, gutter, or canal holding 
water, and formed at the top of 
a pipe, for the purpose of prevent- 
ing foul smells ascending from the 
drain into the air. 

Bellows, the instrument for blowing 
a fire, with an internal cavity so 
contrived as to be of greater or less 
capacity by reciprocating motion, 
and to draw in air at one place while 
the capacity is upon the increase, 
and discharge it by another while 
upon the decrease. The bellows are 
placed behind the forge with a 
pipe, and are worked by means of 
a lever, called a rocket. Ster.m 
machinery is now much used lor 
blowing furnaces. 

Belloius, or water blowing-engine, is a, 
machine in which the stream of air 
is supplied by the flowing of water. 

Belly, the hollow part of a compass 
timber, the round part of which is 
called the back. 

Belt, in building, a string-course and 
blocking-course ; a course of stones 
projecting from a wall, either 
moulded, plain, fluted, or enriched. 

Belvedere, a turret, lantern, or cupola, 
raised above the roof of a building. 
It is sometimes applied in Italy to 
open galleries or corridors. 

Belzoni (G.), an explorer of Egyptian 
antiquities; died in 1823. 

Bema, an ambo, or reading-desk ; a 
raised structure for the seat or 
throne of a bishop. 

Bema, the sanctuary, presbytery, or 
chancel of a church. 

Bema, in Greek, the platform from 
which the orators spoke in the 
Athenaeum. 

Bema, a bishop's throne. 

Ben-alive, a Cornish term in mining. 

Bench, for cai-penters and joiners to 
do their work on, usually 10 or 12 
feet in length, and about 2^ feet in 
width. 

Bench-mark, in surveying, is applied 
to a mark showing the starting- 

, point in levelling along a line, and 



BEN 



BEVEL. 



BEY 



to similar marks affixed at conve- 
nient distances to substantiaUor 
permanent objects, to show the ex- 
act points upon which the levelling 
staffs were placed when the various 
levels were read, thus facilitating 
reference and correction. 

Bench-planes. The jack-plane, the 
trying-plane, the long-plane, the 
jointer, and the smoothing-plane, 
are called bench-planes. 

Bench-table, a low stone seat round 
the interior of the walls of many 
churches. 

Bend, in mining, indurated clay; a 
name given by miners to any indu- 
rated argillaceous substance. 

Bend, the form of the ship from the 
keel to the top of the side, as the 
midship bend, etc. 

Bends, the strongest parts of a ves- 
sel's side, to which the beams, 
knees, and futtocks are bolted. 

Bending-strakes, two st rakes wrought 
near the coverings of the deck, 
worked all fore and aft, about one 
inch or one inch and a half thicker 
than the rest of the deck, and let 
down between the beams and ledges 
so that the upper side is even with 
the rest. 

Bending of timber. The process of 
bending wood to any required curve 
depends on the property of heat, as 
i . < pressure increases the elasticity 
of the wood. 

Benefice, a church endowed with a 
revenue for the performance of 
divine service. 

Benefier, a vessel to contain holy 
water ; a font, or piscina. 

Ben-heyl, in Cornish mining, rich in 
tin. 

Ken tick-shrouds, formerly used, and 
extending from the futtock-staves 
to the opposite channels of a vessel. 

Benzine, the bicarburet of hydrogen, 
procured by heating benzoic acid 
with lime. 

Bergamo, a coarse tapestry. 

Bergmote, a court held on a hill, for 
the decision of controversies among 
miners. 

Berne machine, for rooting up trees ; 



50 



the invention of Peter Sommcr, of 
Berne. 

Berth, the place where a vessel lies ; 
the place in which a man sleeps. 

Berth, convenient sea-room to moor 
a ship. 

Bertying a ship, the rising up of the 
ship's sides. 

Beryl, a pellucid gum, of a bluish- 
green colour, found in the East 
Indies, Peru, etc.; used by artists. 

BetheVs patent for preserving wood. 
This patent was taken out in 
1838, and consists in thoroughly 
impregnating the wood with oil of 
tar containing creosote and a crude 
solution of acetate of iron. 

7>V//y, in mechanics, an instrument to 
break open doors. 

Bet on, the French name for concrete : 
bet on is composed by first mixing 
the proper proportions of lime and 
sand, either by hand or by a pug- 
mill, in the same manner as for 
ordinary mortar. 

Bevel, any angle except one of 90 de- 
grees. " 

Bevel, in bricklaying, is for drawing 
the soffit-line on the face of the 
bricks. 

Bevel, in joinery : one side is said to 
be bevelled with respect to another, 
when the angle formed by these 
two sides is greater or less than a 
right angle. 

Bevel gear, in mechanics, denotes a 
species of wheel-work where the 
axis or shaft of the leader or driver 
forms an angle withthe axis or shaft 
of the follower or the driven. In 
practice it is requisite to have finite 
and sensible teeth in bevel gear : 
these are made similarly to those of 
spur gear, except that in the latter 
they are parallel, while in bevel gear 
they diminish in length and thick- 
ness in approaching the apex of the 
cone : the teeth are of any breadth, 
according to the strength required. 
Bevel gearing is stronger, works 
smoother, and has superseded the 
face-wheel and trundle. 

Bevelling, in ship-building, the wind- 
ing of a timber, etc., agreeably to 



BEV 



BIMEDIAL LINE. 



BIR 



directions given from the mould- 
loft. 

Bevel-wheel, a wheel having teeth 
formed so as to work at an angle 
either greater or less than half a 
right angle. 

Bibbs, in ship-building, pieces of tim- 
ber bolted to the hounds of a mast, 
to support the trestle-trees. 

B'lhlvttheca, in Greek, the place, apart- 
ment, or building where books 
were kept. 

Bicarbide of hydrogen. This gas is 
known by the names of light car- 
buretted hydrogen, marsh-gas, fire- 
damp, and gas of the acetates. It 
is discharged from fissures in coal 
in large quantities, and from the 
bottoms of the pools in which there 
is vegetable matter. 

Bice, a blue colour used in painting, 
prepared from the Lapis Armenius. 

Bice, or Bise, in painting, a pale blue 
colour, procured by the reduction 
of salt to a fine powder. 

Bicellum, the dwelling of a tradesman, 
having under it two vaults, for the 
reception of merchandise. 

Bichoca, a turret or watch-tower. 

Bier-balk, the church-road for burials. 

Bifrons, in sculpture, double-fronted 
or faced, usually applied to Janus. 

Biyelf, an arch or chamber. 

Bigg, to build. 

Bigger, a builder. 

Bight, the double part of a rope when 
it is folded, in contradistinction 
from the ends. 

i Bilander, a small vessel with two 
masts, used chiefly in the canals of 
the Low Countries. 

Bilboes, large bars or bolts of iron, 
with shackles sliding on them, used 
for criminals. 

Bilage, the breadth of a floor of a 
ship when she lies aground. 

Bilge-pump, that which is applied to 
the side of a ship, to exhaust or 
pump out the bilge-water. 

Bilection-mouldings, those surround- 
ing the panels, and projecting 
before the face of a door, gate, 
etc. 

Bilge, that part of the floor of a ship 



which approaches nearer to a hori- 
zontal than to a perpendicular di- 
rection. 

Bilge-pump, the forcing-pump worked 
by a marine engine, to discharge 
the bilge-water from the vessel. 

Bilge-pump rod, the plunger-rod, or 
rod connecting the piston of the 
bilge-pump to one of the side- 
levers. 

Bill, the point at the extremity of the 
fluke of an anchor. 

Billet-moulding, an ornament used in 
string-courses and the archivolts of 
windows and doors. 

Billiard-room. The apartment pre- 
pared for the reception of a billiard 
table, and therefore requiring to be 
of specific dimensions. 

Billion, in numbers, the sum of a mil- 
lion of millions. 

Bills, the ends of compass or knee- 
timber. 

Bimedial line, in geometry, the sum 
of two medials. When medial lines, 
equal only in power and containing 
a rational rectangle, are compound- 
ed, the whole will be irrational 
with respect to either of the two ; 
this is called a first birnedial line ; 
but if two medial lines, commen- 
surable only in power, and con- 
taining a medial rectangle, be com- 
pounded, the whole will be irra- 
tional, and is then called a second 
bimedial line. 

Binary, in arithmetic, double. 

Binder, one who undertakes to keep 
a mine open. 

Binding -joints, those beams in a floor 
which support transversely the 
bridgings above and the ceiling- 
joists below. 

Bindings, the iron wrought round the 
dead-eyes. 

Binnacle, a box near the helm, con- 
taining the compass. 

Binocular telescope, one to which both 
eyes may be applied. 

Bins, for wine, open subdivisions in a 
cellar for the reception of bottles. 

Birch-wood, a forest tree, common to 
Europe and North America; an 
excellent wood for turning, being 



51 D 2 



BIU 



BITUMEN. 



BLA 



of light colour, compact, and easily 
worked. 

Bird (Edward), painter, born at Wol- 
verhampton, April 1772, died No- 
vember 1819. 

Bird's-eye perspective is of two kinds, 
angular and parallel : it is used in 
the drawings of extensive buildings 
having spacious courts and gardens, 
as palaces, colleges, asylums, etc. 
The observer is supposed to be on 
an eminence, and looking down on 
the building, as from a steeple or 
mountain. 

Bird's -mouth, in carpentry, an interior 
angle or notch cut in the end of a 
piece of timber for its reception on 
the edge of a pole or plate. It sig- 
nifies also the internal angle of a 
polygon. 

Bireme, a vessel with two banks or 
tiers of oars. 

Birhomboidctl, having a surface of 
twelve rhombic faces, which, being 
taken six and six, and prolonged 
till they intercept each other, would 
form two different rhombs. 

Birthing, ilie, working a top side, bulk- 
heads, etc. 

Bisection, in geometry, the division of 
any quantity into two equal parts. 

Bishops, prelates holding baronies of 
the King or of the Pope, and exer- 
cising ecclesiastical jurisdiction over 
a certain extent of territory, called 
their diocese. 

Bismuth. This metal is found native, 
crystallized in cakes, which gene- 
rally contain small quantities of 
silver; it is also combined with 
oxygen, arsenic, and sulphur. 

Bispia, abishopric or episcopal palace. 

Bissextile, or leap-year, a year con- 
sisting of 366 days, happening once 
every four years, by the addition of 
a day in the month of February, to 
recover the six hours which the 
sun spends in his course each year, 
beyond the 365 days usually allow- 
ed for it. 

Bistre, a brown pigment, extracted 
by watery solution from the soot 
of wood fires, when it retains a 
strong pyroligneous scent. It is 



52 



of a wax-like texture, and of a ci- 
trine-brown colour, perfectly dura- 
ble. It has been much used as a 
water-colour, particularly by the 
old masters, in tinting drawings 
and shading sketches, previously to 
Indian ink coming into general use 
for such purposes. In oil, it dries 
with the greatest difficulty. 

Bisturres, small towers placed at in- 
tervals in the walls of a fortress, 
forming a barbican. 

Bit, an instrument for boring holes in 
wood, etc. 

Bitter (a sea term), a turn of a cable 
about the timbers called bitts, when 
the ship lies at anchor. When a 
ship is stopped by the cable, she is 
said to be brought up by a bitter. 

Bitternut-wood, a native of America, 
is a large timber wood, measuring 
30 inches when squared ; plain and 
soft in the grain, like walnut. 

Bitts, in ship-building, perpendicular 
pieces of timber going through the 
deck, placed to secure anything to. 
The cables are fastened to them, if 
there is no windlass. There are 
also bitts to secure the windlass, 
and each side of the heel of the 
bowsprit. 

Bitumen, a name for a number of 
inflammable mineral substances, 
known under the names of naph- 
tha, mineral tar, mineral pitch, 
sea- wax, asphalte, elastic bitumen, 
or mineral caoutchouc, jet, mineral 
coal, etc. 

Bituminous cement, a factitious sub- 
stance, used for pavements, for 
roofs, and other useful purposes. 

Bituminous limestone, a limestone of 
a lamellar structure. 

Black, the last and the lowest in the 
series or scale of descending co- 
lours ; the opposite extreme from 
white ; the maximum of colour. 
To be perfect, it must be neutral 
with respect to colours individually, 
and absolutely transparent, or desti- 
tute of reflective power in regard 
to light, its use in painting being 
to represent shade or depth, of 
which it is the element in a picture 



BLA 



BLAST. 



BLA 



and in colours, as white is of light. 

Black-band iron-stone, discovered by 
Mr. David Mushet, in 1801, while 
engaged in the erection of the 
Calder Iron-works. Great prejudice 
was excited against him by the 
iron-masters, in presuming to class 
the wild coals of the country with 
iron-stones fit and proper for the 
blast furnace ; yet that discovery 
has elevated Scotland to a consi- 
derable rank amongst the iron- 
making nations of Europe, and pro- 
duces an annual average income of 
16,500 to Sir W. Alexander, Bart. 

Black Botany Bay wood is the hardest 
and most wasteful of all woods ; 
some of the finest, however, if well 
selected, exceeds all woods for ec- 
centric turning. 

Black chalk is an indurated black 
clay, of the texture of white chalk : 
its principal use is for cutting into 
the crayons which are employed in 
sketching and drawing. 

Black dye : the ingredients of black 
dye are logwood, Aleppo galls, ver- 
digris, and sulphate of iron, or green 
vitriol. 

Black iron, malleable iron, in contra- 
distinction to that which is tinned, 
called white iron. 

Black Jack, in mining, blende. 

Black lead, plumbago, or graphite, is 
a native carburet of iron, or oxide 
of carbon, found principally at Bor- 
rodale in Cumberland; consumed 
in large quantities in the formation 
of crayons and black-lead pencils 
for writing, sketching, designing, 
and drawing. 

Black marble. The marble called in 
commerce Nero Antico, and Egyp- 
tian black, is the most beautiful 
black marble without any ad- 
mixture of other colours. In Eng- 
land the chief quarries of uniform 
colours and texture are at Ashford, 
Bake well, Derby, etc. 

Black ochre, a variety of the mine- 
ral black, combined with iron and 
alluvial clay. 

Black tin, tin ore when dressed, stamp- 
ed, and washed, ready for melting. 

53 



Black wadd, one of the ores of man- 
ganese, used as a drying ingredient 
in paints. 

Blade, in joinery, is expressive of any 
part of a tool that is broad and 
thin, as the blade of an axe, of an 
adze, of a chisel, of a square : the 
blade of a saw is more frequently 
called the plate. 

Blades, the principal rafters or breaks 
of a roof. 

Blanc d' argent, or silver- white. This 
is a false appellation for a white 
lead, called also French white. It 
is first produced in the form of 
drops, is exquisitely white, but is 
of less body then flake white, and 
has all the properties of the best 
white leads ; but, being liable to 
the same changes, is unfit for gene- 
ral use as a water-colour, though 
good in oil or varnish. 

Blake (William), a poor but meritori- 
ous artist, was born in London, in 
November 1757. The Canterbury 
Pilgrimage was designed by him. 
His first work was, however, the 
Songs of Innocence ; his next, the 
Gates of Paradise. Poverty-stricken 
as he was, his cheerfulness never 
forsook him ; he uttered no com- 
plaint, he contracted no debt, and 
continued to the last manly and in- 
dependent. 

Blast, the air introduced into a fur- 
nace. 

Blasting of stone, from rocks and 
beds of stone, for the purpose of 
quarrying and shaping stones to be 
used for building purposes : the 
ordinary implements used are the 
jumper or cutting-tool, the ham- 
mer, and scraper. For the process 
and its effect, see Sir John Bur- 
goyne's Rudimentary Volume on 
Blasting, etc. 

Blast-pipe, the waste steam-pipe of 
an engine, but more particularly 
applied to locomotive engines : in 
the latter it leads from the exhaust 
passages of the cylinders into the 
chimney, and is of great use for 
forming the draught through the 
fire-tubes, as each jet of steam 



BLE 



BLENDING. 



BLO 



emitted creates a partial vacuum in 
the chimney, which is immediately 
filled hy a current of air rushing 
through the fire-grate. 

Bleaching, an art divided into branches, 
bleaching of vegetable and animal 
substances requiring different pro- 
cesses for whitening them. 

Blend, a mineral substance resem- 
bling lead. 

Blende, in mining, an ore of zinc, 
composed of iron, zinc, sulphur, si- 
lex, and water : on being scratched, 
it emits a phosphoric light. 

Blending and melting, in colouring or 
painting, are synonymous terms. 
They imply the method of laying 
different tints on buildings, trees, 
etc., so that they may mingle to- 
gether while wet, and render it 
impossible to discover where one 
colour begins and another ends. 
A variety of tints of nearly the 
same tone, employed on the same 
object and on the same part, gives 
a richness and mellowness to the 
effect ; while the outline, insensibly 
melting into the background, and 
artfully disappearing, binds the ob- 
jects together, and preserves them 
in unison. 

Bleostaning, mosaic pavement. 

Block, a lump of wood or stone. 

Blocks, pieces of wood in which the 
sheaves or pulleys run, and through 
which the ropes pass. 

Block cornices and entablatures are 
frequently used to finish plain build- 
ings, where none of the regular or- 
ders have been employed. Of this 
kind there is a very beautiful one 
composed byVignola, much used in 
Italy, and employed by Sir Christo- 
pher Wren to finish the second 
design of St. Paul's cathedral. 

Block-house, a building erected by be- 
siegers for the investment of a cas- 
tle. Block-houses were erected in 
the time of Henry VIII. on the 
south and south-western coast of 
England. 

Blocking-course, a course of masonry 
or brick-work, laid on the top of a 
cornice crowning a wall. 



54 



Blockings, small pieces of wood, fitted 
in, or glued, or fixed to the interior 
angle of two boards or other pieces, 
in order to give strength to the joint. 

Block -machinery, the machinery for 
manufacturing ships' blocks, in- 
vented by the elder Brunei, and 
adjusted by the late Dr. Gregory. 

Block-tin, tin cast into blocks or in- 
gots. 

Blondel (F.), architect, was born at 
Ribemont, in Picardy, in 1617. 
Principally employed in the con- 
struction of fortresses, and pub- 
lished several scientific works. 

Blondel (J. P.), architect, son of the 
preceding, born in Paris, 1705. 
He published several very beautiful 
works. 

Blondel (J. F.), architecte du Roi, 
was born at Rouen, in 1683, and 
stated to be a brother of Frat^ois. 
He was extensively employed as 
an architect and decorator by the 
Court, and published many beauti- 
ful works. 

Blondel (J. B.), architect to the city 
of Paris. Last of the family. He 
constructed the Temple, Marche 
St. Germain, etc. 

Blood-red heat, the degree of heat 
which is only necessary to reduce 
the protuberances on coarse iron 
by the hammer, in order to prepare 
it for the file, the iron being pre- 
viously brought to its shape. This 
heat is also used in punching small 
pieces of iron. 

Bloom, a mass of iron after having un- 
dergone the first hammering. 

Bloom (a), in iron- works, is in form 
a square piece 2 feet long. 

Blower, in mining, a smelter. 

Blowing, the projection of air into a 
furnace, in a strong and rapid cur- 
rent, for the purpose of increasing 
combustion. 

Blow-off cock, the stop-cock in the 
blow-off pipe. 

Blow-off pipe, the pipe fixed to the 
bottom of a boiler, for discharging 
the sediment, which is effected by 
blowing through a portion of the 
water from the boiler. 



BLO 



BLOW-PIPE. 



BLO 



Blow-pipe. The blow-pipe is a most 
valuable little instrument to the 
mineralogist, as its effects are strik- 
ing, rapid, well characterized, and 
pass immediately under the eye of 
the operator. The most efficacious 
flame is produced by a regular, mo- 
derate stream of air ; while the act 
of blowing with more force only 
has the effect of fatiguing the mus- 
cles of the cheeks, oppressing the 
chest, and at the same time renders 
the flame unsteady. 

The student should fill his mouth 
with air, so as to innate the cheeks 
moderately,and continue to breathe 
without letting the air in the mouth 
escape ; the blow-pipe may then be 
introduced between the lips, and 
while the breathing is carried on 
through the medium of the nose, 
the cheeks will expel a stream of 
air through the blow-pipe ; and by 
replenishing the mouth at each ex- 
piration, and merely discharging 
the surplus air through the nostrils, 
a facility will be acquired of keep- 
ing up a constant stream of air. 

The best flame for the purpose 
of this instrument is that of a thick 
wax candle, such as are made for 
the lamps of carriages, the wick 
being snuffed to such a length as 
to occasion a strong combustion : 
it should be deflected a little to one 
side, and the current of air directed 
along its surface towards the point : 
a well-defined cone will be pro- 
duced, consisting of an external 
yellow, and an internal blue flame. 
At the point of the former, calcina- 
tion, the oxidation of metals, roast- 
ing of ores to expel the sulphur 
and other volatile ingredients, may 
be accomplished ; and by the ex- 
treme point of the latter (which 
affords the most intense heat) fu- 
sion, the deoxidation of metals, and 
all those operations which require 
the highest temperature, will be 
effected. The piece of mineral to 
be examined must necessarily be 
supported on some substance ; and 
for the earths, or any subject not 



being metallic, or requiring the 
operation of a flux, a spoon or pair 
of forceps made of platina will be 
found useful ; but, as the metals 
and most of the fluxes act on pla- 
tina, the most serviceable support, 
for general purposes, will be a piece 
of sound, well-burnt charcoal, with 
the bark scraped off, as free as pos- 
sible from knots or cracks : the 
piece of mineral to be examined 
should not in general be larger than 
a pepper-corn, which should be 
placed in a hollow made in the 
charcoal ; and the first impression 
of the heat should be very gentle, 
as the sudden application of a high 
temperature is extremely liable to 
destroy those effects which it is 
most material to observe. Many 
substances decrepitate immediately 
they become hot ; and when that is 
found to be the case, they should 
be heated red, under circumstances 
which will prevent their escape : 
this may be effected, with the 
earthy minerals, by wrapping them 
in a piece of platina foil, and, with 
the metallic ores, by confining them 
between two pieces of charcoal, 
driving the point of the flame 
through a small groove towards the 
place where the mineral is fixed, by 
which means a sort of reverberating 
furnace may be formed. The prin- 
cipal phenomena to be noticed are, 
phosphorescence, ebullition, intu- 
mescence, the exhalation of vapours 
having the odour either of sulphur 
or garlic (the latter arising from 
the presence of arsenic), decrepita- 
tion, fusibility ; and, amongst the 
fusible minerals, whether the pro- 
duce is a transparent glass, an 
opaque enamel, or a bead of metal. 
Having first made some observa- 
tions on a particle of the mineral 
alone, either the residue or a fresh 
piece should be examined with the 
addition of a flux, more particularly 
in the case of the ores, as the na- 
ture of the metal may be generally 
decided by the colour with which 
it tinges the substance used. The 



BLO 



BLUE. 



BOA 



most eligible flux is glass of borax : 
a piece about half the size of a j)ea 
being placed on the charcoal, is to 
be heated till it melts ; the particle 
of ore being then taken in a pair of 
forceps, is to be pressed down in it, 
and the heat applied; or, should 
the mineral not be inclined to de- 
crepitate, it may be laid on the 
charcoal, and two or three pieces 
of glass of borax, about the size of 
a pin's head, placed over it ; and on 
using the blow-pipe, the whole will 
form itself into a globular bead. 

Blow-valve, the ' snifting valve ' of a 
condensing engine. 

Blue, one of the seven primitive co- 
lours of the rays of light, into which 
they are divided when refracted 
through a glass prism. 

Blue-black is a well-burnt and levi- 
gated charcoal, of a cool, neutral 
colour, and not differing from the 
common Frankfort black. Blue- 
black was formerly much employed 
in painting, etc. 

Blue carmine is a blue oxide of mo- 
lybdena, of which little is known 
as a substance or as a pigment. 
It is said to be of a beautiful blue 
colour, and durable in a strong 
light, but is subject to be changed 
in hue by other substances, and 
blackened by foul air: we may 
conjecture, therefore, that it is not 
of much value in painting. 

Blue dyes, indigo, Prussian blue, log- 
wood, bilberry, etc. 

Bluing, the process of heating iron, 
and some other metals, until they 
assume a blue colour. 

Blue John, fluor spar, called so by 
Derbyshire miners. 

Blue ochre is a mineral colour of rare 
occurrence, found with iron pyrites 
in Cornwall, and also in North 
America, and is a subphosphate of 
iron. What Indian red is to the 
colour red, and the Oxford ochre 
to yellow, this is to other blue co- 
lours. They class in likeness of 
character: hence it is admirable 
rather for the modesty and solidity, 
than for the brilliancy of its colour. 



Blue pigments, found in common, are 
Prussian blue, mountain blue, Bre- 
men blue, iron blue, cobalt blue, 
smalt, charcoal blue, ultramarine, 
indigo, litmus, and blue cake. 

Blue tint, in colouring, is made of 
ultramarine and white, mixed to a 
lightish azure. It is a pleasant 
working colour, and with it should 
be blended the gradations in a pic- 
ture. It follows the yellows, and 
with them it makes the greens ; 
and with the red it produces the 
purples. No colour is so proper 
for blending down or softening the 
lights into keeping. In pictures of 
less value, Antwerp blue may be 
substituted for ultramarine. 

Blue verditer is a blue oxide of cop- 
per, or precipitate of the nitrate of 
copper by lime, and is of a beauti- 
ful light-blue colour. It is little 
affected by light ; but time, damp, 
and impure air turn it green, and 
ultimately blacken it, changes 
Vvhich ensue even more rapidly in 
oil than in water: it is, therefore, 
Ly no means an eligible pigment in 
oil, and is principally confined to 
distemper, painting, and the uses 
of the paper-stainer, though it. has 
been found to stand well, many 
years, in water-colour drawings and 
crayon paintings, when kept dry. 

Blue vitriol, sulphate of copper. 

Bluff: a bluff-bowed or bluff-headed 
vessel is one which is full and 
square forward. 

Blunk, heavy cotton cloth : the term 
is used in Scotland. 

Board, a substance of wood contained 
between two parallel planes ; as 
when the baulk is divided into se- 
veral pieces by the pit-saw, the 
pieces are called boards. 

Board, in nautical language, the line 
over which a ship runs between 
tack and tack. To board is to en- 
ter a ship. 

Boarding -floors are those covered 
with boards : the operation of 
boarding floors should commence 
as soon as the windows are in, and 
the plaster dry. 



BOA 



BOILERS. 



BOI 



Boarding-joists, joists in naked floor- 
ing, to which the boards are fixed. 

Boarding -pike, a pike used by sailors 
in boarding an enemy's vessel. 

Boasting, in masonry, the paring of a 
stone with a broad chisel and 
mallet. 

Boasting, in sculpture or carving, is 
the rough cutting of a stone to form 
the outline of a statue or ornament. 

Boats, small open vessels, impelled on 
the water by rowing or sailing, 
having different uses, dimensions, 
etc., either for river or sea service. 

Boat-hook, an iron hook with a sharp 
point, fixed on a pole, at the extre- 
mity. 

Boatswain, a warrant officer in the 
navy, who has the charge of the 
rigging, and calls the crew to duty. 

Bob, the miner's engine-beam. 

Bob, of a pendulum, is the metallic 
weight which is attached to the 
lower extremity of a pendulum-rod. 

Bobstay- holes, those in the fore-part 
of the knee of the head, for the se- 
curity of the bobstay. 

Bob-stays, used to confine the bow- 
sprit down to the stem or the cut- 
water. 

Bocatorium, anciently a slaughter- 
house. 

Bodium, a crypt, or subterraneous 
chapel. 

Body, in physics or natural philoso- 
phy, any solid or extended palpable 
substance. 

Body, or solid, in geometry, has three 
dimensions, length, breadth, and 
thickness. Bodies are either hard, 
soft, or elastic. 

Body-plan, in naval architectural 
drawing, sectional parts showing 
fore and after parts of a vessel. 

Boeria, anciently a manor-house or 
large country dwelling, 

Bog, soft, marshy, and spongy matter, 
or quagmire. Railroads have been 
made across bogs in Lancashire and 
in America, by draining, etc., and 
in the latter by piling as well as 
draining. 

Bog-iron ore, an iron ore discoverable 
in boggy land. 



57 



Boiler, a wrought-iron vessel contain 
ing water, to which heat is applied 
for the generation of steam. Boilers 
are made of various forms, accord- 
ing to the nature of their applica- 
tion, and are constructed so as to 
obtain the largest heating surface 
with the least cubical content. 

Boilers. A boiler for 20-horse power is 
usually 15 feet long and 6 feet wide ; 
therefore 90 feet of surface, or 4^ 
feet to 1 -horse power ; a boiler for 
1 4-horse power, 60 feet of surface, 
or 4'3 feet to 1-horse power; but 
engineers allow 5 feet of surface to 
1-horse power, and Mr. Hicks, of 
Bolton, proportions his boilers at 
the rate of 5 square feet of hori- 
zontal surface of water to each horse- 
power : Mr. Watt allows 25 cubic 
feet of space to each horse-power. 

Boilers. Iron cement is far preferable 
to any other material for making 
iron joints : it has the excellent 
property, that it becomes more 
sound and tight the longer it stands, 
so that cemented joints which at 
first may be a little leaky, soon be- 
come perfectly tight. The follow- 
ing is the best mode of preparing 
this iron cement : take 16 parts of 
iron filings, free from rust; 3 parts 
powdered sal-ammoniac (muriate 
of ammonia) ; and 2 parts of flower 
of sulphur : mix all together inti- 
mately, and preserve the compound 
in a stoppered vessel, kept in a dry 
place, until it is wanted for use. 
Then take 1 part of the mixture, 
add it to 12 parts of clean iron 
filings, and mix this new compound 
with so much water as will bring it 
to the consistence of a paste, hav- 
ing previously added to the water 
a few drops of sulphuric acid. In- 
stead of filings of hammered iron, 
filings, turnings, or borings of cast 
iron may be used ; cement, how- 
ever, made entirely of cast iron is 
not so tenacious and firm as if of 
wrought iron ; it sooner crumbles 
and breaks away. It is better to 
add a certain quantity, at least one- 
third, of the latter to the former. 



BOI 



BOILERS. 



BON 



There is but little ground to fear 
for the soundness of a well-riveted 
iron boiler ; for in time the action 
of rust and deposit will stop almost 
any crevices. In order, however, to 
take all precaution, it is to be re- 
commended that some clammy sub- 
stance, such as horse-dung, bran, 
coarse meal, or potatoes, should be 
boiled in the vessel before it is used. 
A very small quantity also of the 
same kind of substance may be put 
into the boiler when first set to 
work : this will find its way into the 
crevices by the pressure within, 
and, gradually hardening, will soon 
render the vessel perfectly sound. 

Boilers. Copper is more tough and 
less liable to crack than iron, and 
is a most excellent material for 
high-pressure boilers : it has, how- 
ever, a less cohesive power; and 
therefore a greater thickness of me- 
tal is necessary to produce an equal 
strength : but since copper boilers 
never fly in pieces in case of explo- 
sion, it is not necessary to be too 
scrupulous in regard to this point. 
Even when the metal is thin, espe- 
cially if the diameter is not great, 
the use of copper removes all dan- 
ger of destructive explosion, since 
at most only a simple tearing asun- 
der of the metal will ensue. 

Boiling, or ebullition, the agitation of 
fluids, arising from the action of 
fire, etc. 

Bole, an argillaceous mineral, having 
a conchoidal fracture, an internal 
lustre, and a shining streak. 

Bollards, large posts set in the ground 
at each side of the docks, to lash 
and secure hawsers for docking and 
undocking ships. 

Bollard timbers, in a ship, two tim- 
bers within the stern, one on each 
side of the bowsprit, to secure its 
end. 

Bolognese School, in painting, a Lom- 
bard school, founded by Caracci. 

Bolognese School, the great painters 
of which were, Francia Agostino, 
b. 1558, d. 1601; Domenichino, 
b. 1581, d. 1641 ; Guido Remi, b. 

58 



1575, d. 1642; Gio. Lanfranco, b. 
1678, d. 1744 ; Ludovico Caracci, 
b. 1555, d. 1619; Annibale Ca- 
racci, b. 1560, d. 1609; Francesco 
Albani.b. 1578,d. 1660; Guercino, 
b. 1590, d. 1666. 

Bolognian stone is derived from sul- 
phate of baryta by calcination and 
exposure to the rays of the sun. 

Bolster, a piece of timber placed upon 
the upper or lower cheek, worked 
up about half the depth of the 
hawse-holes, and cut away for the 
easement of the cable, and to pre- 
vent its rubbing the cheek ; like- 
wise the solid piece of timber that 
is bolted to the ship's side, on which 
the stantients for the linings of the 
anchors are placed ; or any other 
small piece fixed under the gun- 
wale, to prevent the main sheet 
from being rubbed, etc. 

Bolster, a tool used for punching 
holes and for making bolts. 

Bolster of a capital, the flank of the 
Ionic capital. 

Bolt, a cylindrical pin of iron or other 
metal, used for various purposes of 
fastening, planking, etc. 

Bolt-auger, an auger of a large size, 
used by shipbuilders. 

Bolt-rope, the rope to which the edges 
of sails are sewed, to strengthen 
them. 

Bolt-screwing machine, a machine for 
screwing bolts, by fixing the bolt- 
head to a revolving chuck, and 
causing the end which it is required 
to screw to enter a set of dies, which 
advance as the bolt revolves. 

Bolts, large iron pins. 

Bolts, long cylindrical bars of iron or 
copper, used to secure or unite the 
different parts of a vessel ; the prin- 
cipal ironwork for fastening and 
securing the ship. 

Bomb-vessel, a strong-built vessel 
carrying heavy metal for bombard- 
ment. 

Bomb-ketch, a ship or vessel built 
with large beams, for carrying and 
raising of mortars at sea. 

Bonarroti ( Michel angiolo), born 
1474, pupil of Doinenico Ghir- 



BON 



BONING. 



BOR 



landajo, painter, sculptor, and 
architect : the most eminent of 
his country for his very great ac- 
quirements in the arts in which 
he so eminently practised. 

Bond, in masonry, is that connection 
of lapping the stones upon one 
another in the carrying up of the 
work so as to form an inseparable 
mass of building. 

Bond, in bricklaying and masonry, is 
the arrangement or placing of 
bricks, etc., so as to form a secure 
mass of building. 

Bonders, Bond-stones, Binding stones, 
stones which reach a considerable 
distance into, or entirely through, 
a wall, for the purpose of binding 
it together. 

Bond stones, are placed in the thick- 
ness of a wall, at right-angles to its 
face, to bind securely together. 

Bond, in carpentry, a term among 
workmen, to make good bond by 
fastening two or more pieces to- 
gether, either tenoned, mortising, 
or dovetailing. 

Bond timber, pieces of timber used to 
bind in brickwork especially. The 
naked flooring being laid, in carry- 
ing up the second story bond tim- 
bers must be introduced opposite 
to all horizontal mouldings, as bases 
and surfaces. It is also customary 
to put a row of bond timber in 
the middle of the story, of greater 
strength than those for the bases 
and surfaces. 

Bongrace (a sea term), is a frame of 
old ropes or junks of cables, laid at 
the bows, sterns, and sides of ships 
sailing in cold latitudes, to preserve 
them from damage by flakes of ice. 

Bone-brown and Ivory-brown, pro- 
duced by torrefying or roasting 
bone and ivory, till, by partial 
charring, they become of a brown 
colour throughout. 

Boning, in carpentry and masonry, the 
art of making a plane surface by 
the guidance of the eye : joiners 
try up their work by boning with 
two straight-edges, v\ bicli determine 
whether it be in or out of winding, 



59 



that is to say, whether the surface 
be twisted or a plane. 

Bonnet, in navigation, an additional 
piece of canvas attached to the foot 
of a jib, or a schooner's foresail, 
by lacings, taken off in bad weather. 

Bonnets, the cast-iron plates which 
cover the openings in the valve- 
chambers of a pump : the openings 
are made so that ready access can 
be had when the valves need re- 
pairing. 

Bonney (mining), a distinct bed of 
ore, that communicates with no 
vein. 

Bonnington. In landscape his practice 
was to sketch in the outline and 
general character, and then make 
accurate studies of the local light 
and shade and colour. 

Boom, in ship-building, a long pole 
run out from different places in the 
ship, to extend the bottoms of par- 
ticular sails, as jib-boom, flying- 
jib-boom, studding-sail-boom, etc. 

Boomkin, in ship-building, a beam of 
timber projecting from each bow 
of a ship, to extend the clue or 
lower corner of the foresail to wind- 
ward. 

Boor, a parlour, bedchamber, or in- 
ner room. 

Booth, a stall or standing in a fair or 
market. 

Boot-topping, scraping off the grease, 
or other matter, which may be on 
a vessel's bottom, and daubing it 
over with tallow. 

Borax, in chemistry, a salt in appear- 
ance like crystals of alum ; an arti- 
ficial salt used for soldering metals. 

Borcer, an instrument of iron, steel- 
pointed, to bore holes in large rocks, 
in order to blow them up with gun- 
powder. 

Bord, anciently a cottage. 

Bore, in hydrography, a sudden and 
abrupt influx of the tide into a 
river or narrow strait. 

Boreas, the north wind. 

Borer, a boring instrument, with a 
piece of steel at the end, called a 
boring-bolt. 

Boring, the art of perforating or mak- 



BOR 



BORING. 



EOT 



ing a hole through any solid body ; 
as boring the earth for watef; 
boring water-pipes, either wood, 
iron, zinc, or lead ; boring cannon, 
etc. 

Boring. Modern steam-engines depend 
on the improved method of boring 
their cylinders. The cylinder to be 
bored is firmly fixed with its axis 
parallel to the direction in which 
the borer is to move : the cutting 
apparatus moves along a bar of iron 
accurately turned to a cylindrical 
form. 

Boring-bar, a bar of a small horizontal 
boring-machine : it is used for bor- 
ing the brasses of plummer-blocks, 
by means of a cutter fixed in it. 

Boring -collar, in turning, a machine 
having a plate with conical holes 
of different diameters : the plate is 
movable upon a centre, which is 
equidistant from the centres or 
axes of the conical holes ; the axes 
are placed in the circumference of 
a circle. The use of the boring- 
collar is to support the end of a 
long body that is to be turned hol- 
low, and which would otherwise 
be too long to be supported by a 
cjiuck. 

Boring-lathe, a lathe used for boring 
wheels or short cylinders. The 
wheel or cylinder is fixed on a large 
chuck, screwed to the mandril of a 
lathe. 

Boring -mac nine, a machine for turn- 
ing the inside of a cylinder. 

Boromino (F.), born in Bissano, near 
the Lago di Lugano, in 1509. He 
was architect in the service of the 
family of the Visconti, and was 
architect of superb taste ; many of 
his buildings are finely portrayed 
in M. Letarouilly's great work on 
Rome. 

Boron, in chemistry, is an olive-green 
powder, which, heated out of the 
air, becomes harder, and darker in 
colour : it burns brilliantly when 
heated in air or oxygen, forming 
boracic acid. 

Bosco (Jean de Sacro), a celebrated 
mathematician of the thirteenth 

60 



century, who was so called from Ho- 
lywood, a town in England of that 
name, which was his birth-place. 
After studying in the University of 
Oxford, he went to Paris and ac- 
quired great reputation by his 
knowledge of mathematics. He has 
left two works, valuable for their 
time, one entitled, ' De Sphjera 
Mundi ; ' the other, ' De Compute 
Ecclesiastico.' They are printed in 
one volume. 

Boss, a sculptured keystone or carved 
piece of wood, or moulded plaster, 
placed at intervals of ribs or groins 
in vaulted and flat roofs of Gothic 
structures. 

Boss, a short trough for holding mor- 
tar when tiling a roof : it is hung 
to the laths. 

Bossage, projecting stones laid rough 
in building, to be afterwards cut 
into mouldings or ornaments. 

Bosquet, a French expression for a 
piece of ground in gardens, en- 
closed by a palisade or high hedge- 
row of trees, etc. 

Botany Bay oak, resembling in colour 
full red mahogany, is used as ve- 
neer for the backs of brushes, turn- 
ery, etc. 

Bottle-glass, a composition of sand 
and lime, clay, and alkaline ashes 
of any kind. 

Bottom - captain, a superintendent 
over the miners in the bottoms. 

Bottom-heat, artificial temperature, 
produced in hothouses. 

Bottom-lift, in mining, the deepest 
or bottom tier of pumps. 

Bottom-rail, in joinery, the lowest 
rail of a door. 

Bottoms, in mining, the deepest work- 
ing parts of a mine, wrought either 
by sloping, driving, or otherwise 
breaking the lode. 

Bottoms in fork. In Cornwall, when 
all the bottoms are unwatered, they 
say, ' the bottoms are in fork ;' 
and to draw out the water from 
them, or any dippa, or any other 
particular part of a mine, is said to 
be ' forking the water ;' and when 
accomplished, such dippa, etc., is 



BOU 


BOW. BOW 


' in fork.' Likewise when an en- 
gine has drawn out all the water, 


Bovey coal, wood-coal found at Bovey, 
in Devonshire. 


they say, ' the engine 


is in fork.' 


Bow, the round part of a ship forward. 


Boudoir, a small retiring-room. 


Bow, anciently an arch or gateway. 


Boulders, fragments of 


rocks -trans- 


Bow-compass, for drawing arches of 


ported by water, and found on the 


very large aisles ; it consists of a 


sea-shore. 




beam of wood or brass with three 


Boulder walls, walls built of the above. 


long screws that bend a lath of 


Boultine, in architecture, a convex 


wood or steel to any arch. The 


moulding, whose periphery is a 


term also denotes small compasses 


quarter of a circle, next below the 


employed in describing arcs too 


plinth in the Doric 


and Tuscan 


small to be accurately drawn by 


orders. 




the common compasses. 


Bounds, in mining, signifies the right 


Bow and string bridge, or bow-string 


to tin ore over a given 


district. 


or tension bridge ; in which the 


Boulevard, promenades around a city, 


horizontal thrust of the arch, or 


shaded by avenues of trees. 


trussed beam, is resisted by means 


Bourgeois (Nicolas), an Augustin, was 


of a horizontal tie attached as 


the inventor of the pont-tournant. 


nearly as possible to the chord line 


A reward of 1200 livres a year was 


of the arch. 


offered to him who should invent 


Bow and string beam, a beam so 


a movable bridge to be placed over 


trussed that the tendency of the 


the ditch of the Tuileries. 


straight part to sag when loaded 


Bourse, a public edifice 


for the as- 


is counteracted to some extent by 


semblage of merchants to consult 


the tension upon its two ends, by 


on matters of business or money, 


a bow of wood or metal attached 


an exchange. 




to those extremities. 


Boutant ; in architecture, 


an arc-bou- 


Bower cables, for ships. 


tant is an arch, or buttress, serving 


Table showing the different kinds 


to sustain a vault, and 


which is it- 


of best bower cables at present em- 


self sustained by some strong wall 


ployed in the British navy, with the 


or massive pile. 




corresponding iron cables, and the 


Bova, anciently a wine-cellar. proof-strain for each : 




Best bower hempen 






Diameter and 






cables, 


100 fathoms. 


Number 
f\f 


Breaking 


weight of the bolt 


Strain 


Hates of Ships. 


Cir- 
cumf. 


Weight. 


01 

threads 
in each. 


strain by 
experiment. 


of the iron cable 
substituted for 
the preceding. 


for the 
proof. 




in. 


cwt. qr. Ib. 




tons. cwt. qr. 




tons. 


First-rate, large . 


25 


114 2 7 


3240 


t 


s 




middle 


24 


105 2 17 


2988 


< 


ol V 




small . 


23 


96 2 27 


2736] 




I 2& inches. 


I'Sl 


Second-rate . . 


23 


96 2 27 


2736 J. 


114 


1 218 cwt. 


' 


Third, large . . 


23 


96 2 27 


2736 J 




J 




small . . 


22 


89 12 


25201 




f 2 inches. 


> 


Fourth, 60 guns . 


21 


80 22 


2268 J 


89 


1186 cwt. 2 qrs. 


/72 


58 do. . 


19 


66 21 


1872 




f 1| inch. 


V 


50 do. . 




62 1 14 


1764 


. 


I 170 cwt. 2 qrs. 


|63 


Fifth, 48 do. . 


18 


58 2 6 


1656 


63 


\ 




46 do. I 
42 do. J 


174 


56 1 


1584 




1 If inch. 
j 145 cwt. 3 qrs. 


} 


Sixth, 28 do. . 


144 


38 21 


1080 


40 


r If inch. 
1 87 cwt. 2 qrs. 


} 


Ship, sloop . . 


134 


33 10 


936 


, , 


f Uinch. 




Brig, large . . 


134 


33 10 


936 




\ 74 cwt. 3 qrs. 


J28 


Ditto small . . 


11 


21 2 15 


612 





r 14 inch. 
1 6l cwt. 1 qr. 


}23 



61 



BOW 



BOWLS. 



BRA 



From the preceding Table the im- 
mense advantage of iron cables wfll 
be distinctly seen, and particularly 
when it is considered that a hempen 
cable, on a rocky bottom, is de- 
stroyed in a few months, while the 
other will sustain no perceptible 
injury. 

Bow and string girder, a wrought- 
iron bow and string girder, pa- 
tented by Mr. G. Nasmyth. 

Bower, anciently a small enriched 
chamber for ladies; a private room, 
or parlour, in ancient castles and 
mansions. 

Bower, a working anchor, the cable of 
which is bent and veered through 
the hawse-hole. 

Bower, in navigation, two anchors 
thus named from their being car- 
ried at the bow. 

Boweric, in the East Indies, a well 
descended by steps. 

Bow-grace, a frame of old rope or 
junk, placed round the bows and 
sides of a vessel, to prevent the ice 
from injuring her. 

Bowge (a sea term), a rope fastened 
to the middle of the sail, to make 
it stand closer to the wind. 

Bow-line, in navigation, a rope lead- 
ing forward from the leach of a 
square sail, to keep the leach well 
out, when sailing close-hauled. 

Bowling-alley, a place where the game 
and exercise of bowling is carried 
on. 

Bowl, bowling, or bowline (in a ship), 
a round space at the head of the 
mast for men to stand in. 

Bowling-green. Bowling, an ancient 
English game, which was usually 
attached to the private grounds 
during the 16th, 17th, and 18th 
centuries. 

Bowls of silver were used as drinking- 
glasses are now, before the intro- 
duction of glass for such purposes ; 
they were of small sizes, in ' nests' 
fitting one within another. Of the 
larger-sized bowl, the most distin- 
guished are the mazer and the 
wassail. Mazer is a term applied 
to large goblets, of every kind of 

62 



material ; but the best authors 
agree that its derivation is from 
maeser, which, in Dutch, means 
maple ; and therefore that a mazer 
bowl was originally one formed of 
maple-wood. 
v Bow-saw, a saw used for cutting the 
thin edges of wood into curves. 

Bowse, to pull upon a tackle. 

Bowse away, a sea phrase, to pull 
all together. 

Bowsprit, in ship-building, a large 
boom or mast which projects for- 
ward over the stem to carry sail. 

Bowtel, the shaft of a clustered pillar, 
or a shaft attached to the jambs of 
a door or window. 

Box, for mitring, a trough for cutting 
mitres : it has three sides, and is 
open at the ends, with cuts in the 
vertical sides at angles of 45 with 
them. 

Box-drain, an underground drain 
built of brick and stone, and of a 
rectangular section. 

Box of a rib-saw, two thin iron plates 
fixed to a handle, in one of which 
plates an opening is made for the 
reception of a wedge, by which it 
is fixed to the saw. 

Box-haul, to veer a ship in a manner 
when it is impossible to tack. 

Box the compass, to repeat thirty-two 
points of the compass in order. 

Boxing-off, throwing the head sails 
aback, to force the ship's head ra- 
pidly off the wind. 

Boxings of a window, the cases oppo- 
site each other on each side of a 
window, into which the shutters 
are folded. 

Box-wood is of a yellow colour, in- 
clining to orange ; is a sound and 
useful wood, measuring from 2 to 
6 feet long, and 2^ to 12 inches in 
diameter : it is much used by wood- 
engravers; for clarionets, flutes; for 
carpenters' rules, drawing-scales, 
etc. Much of it comes from Box 
Hill, in Surrey, and from several 
districts in Gloucestershire, also 
from other parts of Europe. 

Boziga, anciently a house or dwelling. 

Brace, a piece of slanting timber, used 



BRA 



BRAMAH'S PRESS. 



BRA 



in truss partitions, or in framed 
roofs, in order to form a triangle, 
and thereby rendering the frame 
immovable : when a brace is used 
by way of support to a rafter, it is 
called a strut : braces in partitions 
and span roofs are always, or should 
be, disposed in pairs, and placed in 
opposite directions. 

Brace, an instrument into which a 
vernier is fixed ; also part of the 
press-drill. 

Brace, a rope by which a yard is 
turned about. 

Braces, that security for the rudder 
which is fixed to the stern-post and 
to the bottom of a ship. 

Bracket plummer-llock, a support for 
a shaft to revolve in, formed so 
that it can be fixed vertically to the 
frame of a machine, or to a wall. 

Brackets, ornaments : the hair bracket 
in ship-building is the boundary 
of the aft-part of the figure of the 
head, the lower part of which ends 
with the fore-part of the upper 
cheek. The console bracket is a 
light piece of ornament at the fore- 
part of the quarter-gallery, some- 
times called a canting-hose. 

Brackets, the cheeks of the carriage 
of a mortar; a cramping-iron to 
stay timber- work ; also stays set 
under a shelf, to support it. 

Bracket-stairs. " The same method 
must be observed, with regard to 
taking the dimensions and laying 
down the plan and section, as in 
dogling-stairs. In all stairs what- 
ever, after having ascertained the 
number of steps, take a rod the 
height of the story, from the surface 
of the lower floor to the surface of 
the upper floor; divide the rod into 
as many equal parts as there are to 
be risers ; then, if you have a level 
surface to work upon below the 
stairs, try each one of the risers as 
you go on : this will prevent any 
defect." 

Brad, a small nail with a projecting 
head on one edge. 

Brad-awl, the smallest boring tool 
used by a carpenter ; its handle is 



63 



the frustum of a cone tapering 
downwards ; the steel part is also 
conical, but tapering upwards, and 
the cutting edge is the meeting of 
two basils, ground equally from 
each side. 

Brails, in navigation, ropes by which 
the foot or lower corners of fore- 
and-aft sails are hauled up. 

Brake, the apparatus used for retard- 
ing the motion of a wheel by friction 
upon its periphery. 

Brake, the handle of a ship's pump. 

Brake, a machine used in dressing flax. 

Brake-wheel, the wheel acted upon 
by a brake. 

Bramah's hydrostatic press consists 
in the application of water to en- 
gines, so as to cause them to act 
with immense force ; in others, 
to communicate the motion and 
powers of one part of a machine 
to some other part of the same 
machine. 

This press was constructed in 
Woolwich dockyard for testing 
iron cables, and the strain is pro- 
duced by hydrostatic pressure : its 
amount is estimated by a system 
of levers balanced on knife-edges, 
which act quite independently of 
the strain upon the machine, and 
exhibit sensibly a change of pres- 
sure of th of a ton, even when the 
total strain amounts to 100 tons. 

This proving-machine was con- 
structed by Messrs. Bramah, of 
Pirnlico, and is doubtless one of 
the most perfect of the kind which 
has been executed. It consists of 
two cast-iron sides, cast in lengths 
of 9 feet each, with proper flanges 
for abutting against each other, 
and for fixing the whole to sleepers 
resting on a secure stone founda- 
tion. The whole length of the 
frame is 104| feet, equal to th the 
length of a cable for a first-rate ; so 
that the cables are tested in that 
number of detached lengths, which 
are afterwards united by shackle- 
bolts. The press is securely bolted 
down at one end of the frame, and 
the cylinder is open at both ends. 



BRA 



BRASS. 



BRA 



The solid piston is 5 inches ^in 
diameter in front and 10 inches 
behind, so that the surface of pres- 
sure is the difference of the two, viz. 



The system of levers hung on 
knife-edges is attached to the other 
end of the frame, and the cable is 
attached by bolt-links to this and 
to the end of the piston-rod. The 
levers being properly balanced, and 
the cable attached to a short arm 
rising above the axis, this draws the 
other arm downwards; and at a 
distance equal to twelve times the 
short arm, is a descending pin and 
ball, acting in a cup placed on the 
upper part of the arm of the second 
lever, and this again acls on a third. 
The first two levers are under the 
floor, and pass ultimately into an 
adjacent room, where a scale carry- 
ing weights is conveniently placed, 
and the whole combination is such 
that every pound in the scale 
is the measure of a ton strain : 
the whole acts with such precision 
that th of a pound, more or less, 
in the scale, very sensibly affects 
the balance. At the same place 
is situated a scale, acted upon 
by the water-pressure from the 
charge-pipe of the press, and the 
valve in this pipe is of such dimen- 
sions that, together with the lever 
by which it acts, the power is again 
such that a pound should balance 
a ton ; but the friction is here so 
great that it requires several pounds 
to make a sensible change in the 
apparent balance, and for this rea- 
son this scale is never used. The 
forcing-pumps are in another adja- 
cent room, and are worked by han- 
dles, after the manner of a fire en- 
gine. At first, six pistons are act- 
ing, and the operation proceeds 
quickly; but as the pressure and 
strains increase, the barrels are suc- 
cessively shut off, till at length the 
whole power of the men is em- 

64 



ployed on one pair of pumps only, 
and on this the action is conti- 
nued till the proofstrain is brought 
on the cable. A communication is 
then opened between the cistern 
and cylinder, and everything is 
again restored to equilibrium. 

Bramley Fall stone, a sandstone of 
the Millstone Grit formation quar- 
ried in the township of Bramley in 
Yorkshire. 

Branch, in mining, a leader, string, 
or rib of ore, that runs in a lode ; 
or if a lode is divided into several 
strings, they are called branches, 
whether they contain ore or not : 
likewise strings of ore which run 
transversely into the lode are called 
branches ; and so are all veins that 
are small, dead or alive, i. e. whe- 
ther they contain ore or not. 

Branched-worfc, carved and sculp- 
tured leaves and branches in monu- 
ments and friezes. 

Branches, anciently the ribs of groin- 
ed ceilings. 

Brandishing or Brattishing, a term 
used for carved-work, as a crest, 
battlement, or other parapet. 

Brandrith, a fence or rail round the 
opening of a well. 

Brass, a factitious metal, made of 
copper and zinc. 

Brass, in the middle ages, a plate of 
metal inserted or affixed to a flat 
gravestone. 

Brasses (Sepulchral], monumental 
plates of brass or mixed metal, an- 
ciently called latten, inlaid on large 
slabs of stone, which usually form 
part of the pavement of a church, 
and represent in their outline, or 
by lines engraved upon them, the 
figure of the deceased. 

Brattishing, anciently, carved open- 
work. 

Bray, anciently, a bank or earthen 
mound. 

Brazil-wood, the wood of Ccesalpinia 
echinata, which yields a red dye : 
it is imported principally from Per- 
nambuco : the tree is large, crook- 
ed, and knotty ; and the bark is 
thick, and equals the third or fourth 



BRA 



BREAK. 



BRE 



of its diameter. Its principal use 
is for dyeing : the best pieces are 
selected for violin-bows and turn- 
ery. 

Braziletto-wood is of a ruddy orange 
colour, principally used for dyeing, 
and for turnery and violin-bows. 

Brazing, the soldering together of 
edges of iron, copper, brass, etc., 
with an alloy of brass and zinc 
called spelter solder. 

Breadth is applied to painting when 
the colours and shadows are broad 
and massive, such as the lights and 
shadows of the drapery ; and when 
the eye is not checked and dis- 
tracted by numerous little cavities, 
but glides easily over the whole. 
Breadth of colouring is a promi- 
nent character in the painting of 
all great masters. 

Break, in shipping. To break bulk, is 
to begin to unload. 

Break, a projection or recess from the 
surface or wall of a building. 

Break joint, constructively, to dis- 
allow two joints to occur over each 
other. 

Breaker, a small cask for water. 

Breaking down, in sawing, is dividing 
the baulk into boards or planks. 

Breaking joint, in joinery, is not to 
allow two joints to come together. 

Breakwater, a human contrivance 
to ward off and diminish the force 
of waves, to protect harbours, sta- 
tions, etc., from the violence of tem- 
pestuous gales. Some stupendous 
works have been executed for these 
purposes, especially that at Ply- 
mouth, by the late John Rennie. 

Breaming, cleaning a ship's bottom 
by burning. 

Breast, in mining, the face of coal- 
workings. 

Breast-fast, a rope used to confine a 
vessel sideways to a wharf or to 
some other vessel. 

Breast-hooks, pieces of compass or 
knee-timber, placed withinside a 
ship, to keep the bows together. 
The deck-holes are fayed to the 
timbers, and placed in the direction 
of the decks : the rest are placed 

65 



one between each deck, and as 
many in the hold as are thought 
needful ; all of which should be 
placed square with the body of the 
ship, and fayed on the planks. 
Breast-hooks are the chief security 
to keep the ship's bows together ; 
therefore they require to be very 
strong and well secured. 

Breast-knees are placed in the for- 
ward part of a vessel, across the 
stem, to unite the bows on each 
side. 

Breast-plate, that in which the end 
of the drill opposite the boring 
end is inserted. 

Breast-rail, the upper rail of the bal- 
cony or of the breastwork on the 
quarter-deck. 

Breast-rope, a rope passed round a 
man in the chains, while taking 
soundings. 

Breast-wheel, in mill- work, a form of 
water-wheel in which the water is 
delivered to the float-boards at a 
point somewhat between the bot- 
tom and top. Buckets are seldom 
employed on breast-wheels. 

Breastwork, the stantients with rails 
on the quarter-deck and forecastle. 
The breastwork fitted on the up- 
per deck of such ships as have no 
quarter-deck serves to distinguish 
the main-deck from the quarter- 
deck. 

Breastwork, a mass of earth raised 
to protect troops from the fire of 
an enemy. 

Breech, the angle of a knee-timber, 
the inside of which is called the 
throat. 

Breechings, in a ship, are ropes by 
which the guns are lashed fast or 
fastened to the ship's side. 

Breeze, small ashes and cinders used 
instead of coal for the burning of 
bricks. 

Breostweall, anciently, a breast-high 
wall. 

Bressummer, a beam supporting a su- 
perincumbent part of an exterior 
wall, and running longitudinally 
below that part. 

Brest, in architecture, is that co- 



BRE 



BRICKS. 



BRI 



lumn which is called the thorus or 
tore. 

Bretachia, anciently, wooden towers, 
attached to fortified towns. 

Brewhouse, a building specially built 
and appropriated for the brewing 
of beer. 

Brick. " Let us make brick, and 
burn them thoroughly. And they 
had brick for stone, and slime had 
they for mortar." Gen. xi. 3. 

Bricks are a kind of factitious stone, 
composed of argillaceous earth, and 
frequently a certain portion of sand, 
and cinders of sea-coal (called 
breeze), tempered together with 
water, dried in the sun, and burnt 
in a kiln, or in a heap or stack 
called a clamp. For good brick- 
making, the earth should be of the 
purest kind, dug in autumn, and 
exposed during the winter's frost ; 
this allows the air to penetrate, 
and divide the earth particles, and 
facilitates the subsequent opera- 
tions of mixing and tempering. 

The Romans made bricks of va- 
rious sizes, from 1 foot to 2 feet in 
length, from 7 inches to 9 inches in 
breadth, and from 3^ inches to 1$ 
in thickness. Roman bricks found 
in the old Roman wall at Veru- 
lam, compared with modern bricks, 
show the superiority of the old 
to the new, the Roman bricks be- 
ing lighter and better burnt than 
the modern. 

The brick remains of the period 
of the Roman empire are more en- 
tire than the stone. Bricks were 
found at Toulouse, quite sharp at 
the edges, and not altered by time ; 
they measured 14 inches long, 
9 inches broad, and 1 thick. 
These bricks formed the founda- 
tion all around the building. The 
arches were formed of them for 
entrances ; and round, large, water- 
worn pebbles of quartz, with mor- 
tar, formed the walls of the Circus, 
resting on the brick arches. 

Mr. Layard, in his work on Ni- 
neveh, says "The soil, an alluvial 
deposit, was rich and tenacious: the 

66 



builders moistened it with water, 
and adding a little chopped straw, 
that it might be more firmly bound 
together, they formed it into 
squares, which, when dried by the 
heat of the sun, served them as 
bricks. In that climate, the pro- 
cess required but two or three days. 
Such were the earliest building 
materials, and as they are used to 
this day, almost exclusively, in the 
same country. 

"The Assyrians appear to have 
made much less use of bricks baked 
in the furnace than the Babylo- 
nians, no masses of brickwork, 
such as are everywhere found in 
Babylonia Proper, existing to the 
north of that province. Common 
clay moistened with water, and 
mixed with a little stubble, formed, 
as it does to this day, the mortar 
used in buildings ; but, however 
simple the materials, they have suc- 
cessfully resisted the ravages of 
time, and still mark the stupendous 
nature of the Assyrian structures. 

" This mode of brick-making is 
described by Sanchoniathon : The 
people of Tyre invented the art of 
brick-making and of building of 
huts; after them came two brothers: 
one of them, Chrysor or Hyphaes- 
tus, was the first who sailed in 
boats ; his brother invented the way 
of making walls with bricks. From 
the generation were born two 
youths, one called Technites and 
the other Genius Autochthon. They 
discovered the method of mingling 
stubble with the loam of the bricks, 
and drying them in the sun ; they 
also invented tiling." 
Bricks. Some of Palladio's finest ex- 
amples are of brick : the cortile of 
the Carita at Venice is an instance. 
The interiors of the Redentore and 
St. Giorgio, in the same city, have 
but a coat of plaster on them ; the 
beautiful Palazzo Thiene at Vicenza, 
at least that part which was exe- 
cuted, is left with its rockworked 
basement in brickwork chipped out. 
Form alone fastens on the mind in 



BRI 



BRIDGE. 



BRI 



works of art ; the rest is meretri- 
cious, if used as a substitute to su- 
persede this grand desideratum. 

Brick-axe, used for axing off the 
soffits of bricks to the saw-cuttings, 
and the sides to the lines drawn : 
as the bricks are always rubbed 
smooth after axing, the more truly 
they are axed, the less labour there 
will be in rubbing. 

Brick groins, the intersecting or meet- 
ing of two circles upon their dia- 
gonal elevations, drawn upon the 
different sides of a square, whose 
principal strength lies in the united 
force of elevation divided by geo- 
metrical proportions to one certain 
gravity. 

Bricklaying, the art by which bricks 
are joined and cemented, so as to 
adhere as one body. This art, in 
London, includes the business of 
walling, tiling, and paving with 
bricks or tiles. 

Brick-nogging, brickwork carried up 
and filled in between timber fra- 
ming. 

Brick trimmer, a brick arch abutting 
upon the wooden trimmer under 
the slab of a fire-place, to prevent 
the communication of fire. 

Brick-trowel, a tool used for taking up 
mortar and spreading it on the top 
of a wall, to cement together the 
bricks, etc. 

Bridge, a constructed platform, sup- 
ported at intervals, or at remote 
points, for the purpose of a road- 
way over a strait, an inlet or arm 
of the sea, a river or other stream 
of water, a canal, a valley or other 
depression, or over another road : 
it is distinguished from a cause- 
way, or embanked or other con- 
tinuously supported roadway, and 
from a raft, by being so borne at 
intervals or at remote points. 
Constructions of the nature and 
general form and arrangement of 
bridges, such as aqueducts and 
viaducts ; the former, being to lead 
or carry streams of water or canals, 
and the latter, to carry roads or 
railways upon the same, or nearly 



the same level, over depressions, 
are in practice considered as bridges, 
although they are not such in the 
commonly received sense of the 
term. Taken, however, in the 
sense which the most plausible ety- 
mology that has been suggested of 
the term would require, the word 
'bridge' being formed by prefixing 
the constructive be to ridge, a 
bridge is an elevated construction 
upon, or over a depression, and 
between depressed points. 

There are bridges built of the 
materials, stone, brick, iron, timber, 
wire, and on the principles of sus- 
pension ; for the explanation of 
which, see the word Suspension. 

The bridge across the Zab, at 
Lizari, is of basket-work. Stakes 
are firmly fastened together with 
twigs, forming a long hurdle, reach- 
ing from one side of the river to 
the other. The two ends are laid 
upon beams, resting upon piers on 
the opposite banks. Both the 
beams and the basket-work are 
kept in their places by heavy stones 
heaped upon them. Animals, as 
well as men, are able to cross over 
this frail structure, which swings 
to and fro, and seems ready to give 
way at every step. These bridges 
are of frequent occurrence in the 
Tiejari mountains. 

Bridges. The principal object to be 
observed in forming the plan of a 
bridge, is to give a suitable and 
convenient aperture to the arches, 
so as to afford a free vent to the 
waters of sudden floods o-r inunda- 
tions, and to secure the solidity and 
duration of the edifice by a skilful 
construction. The solidity of a 
bridge depends almost entirely on 
the manner in which its foundations 
are laid. When these are once pro- 
perly arranged, the upper part may 
be erected either with simplicity 
or elegance, without impairing in 
any degree the durability of the 
structure. Experience has proved 
that many bridges either decay, or 
are swept away by sudden floods, 



BRI 



BRITTLENESS. 



BRO 



by reason of the defective mode of 
fixing their foundations, while very 
few suffer from an unskilful con- 
struction of the piles or arches. 
This latter defect, however, is easy 
of correction, nor is it difficult 
to prevent the consequences that 
might be expected from it. 

In the projection of a bridge, 
five principal points are necessary 
to be considered, first, the choice 
of its position or locality ; secondly, 
the vent, or egress that must be 
allowed to the river ; thirdly, the 
form of the arches ; fourthly, the 
size of the arches ; fifthly, the 
breadth of the bridge. 

Bridge-board, or notch-board, a board 
on which the ends of the steps of 
wooden stairs are fastened. 

Bridged gutters are made with boards 
supported by bearers, and covered 
above with lead. 

Bridge-stone, a stone laid from the 
pavement to the entrance -door of 
a house, over a sunk area, and sup- 
ported by an arch. 

Bridging -floors, floors in which bridg- 
ing-joists are used. 

Bridging-joists are the smallest beams 
in naked floorings, for supporting 
the boarding for walking upon. 

Bridging-pieces, pieces placed be- 
tween two opposite beams, to pre- 
vent their nearer approach, as 
rafters, braces, struts, etc. 

Bridle, the spans of rope attached to 
the leaches of square sails, to which 
the bowlines are made fast. 

Bridle-cable, in navigation. When 
a vessel is moored by laying down 
a cable upon the ground, with an 
anchor at each end, then another 
cable attached to the middle of the 
ground cable is called bridle-cable. 

Bridle-part, the foremost part, used 
for stowing the anchors. 

Brig, a square-rigged vessel with two 
masts. 

Brine-pump, the pump in a steam- 
ship, used occasionally for drawing 
off a sufficient quantity of water, to 
prevent the salt from depositing in 
the boiler. 

68 



Brettingham (M.), an architect of 
some eminence of more than a cen- 
tury ago ; built Norfolk House, in 
St. James's Square, in 1742; Lang- 
ley Park, in Norfolk, in 1740-44, 

/ etc. 

Brittleness, in iron, is a want of tena- 
city or strength, so as to be easily 
broken by pressure or impact : 
when iron is made too hot, so as 
to be nearly in a state of fusion, 
or so hard as to resist the action 
of the file, this is called the dispo- 
sition of cast iron. 

Broach, an old English term for a 
spire ; still in use in some parts of 
the country to denote a spire 
Springing from the tower without 
any intermediate parapet. 

Broach-to, to fall off so much, when 
going free, as to bring the wind 
round on the other quarter, and 
take the sails aback. 

Broadside, the whole side of a vessel. 

Broken back, the state of a vessel 
when she is so loosened as to droop 
at each end. 

Bromine, in chemistry, is found com- 
bined with silver in a few ores, also 
in sea-water and salt-springs ; as 
bromide of potassium, sodium, or 
magnesium. 

Brontern, in Greek architecture, bra- 
zen vessels placed under the floor 
of a theatre, with stones in them, 
to imitate thunder. 

Bronze, a compound metal, made of 
from 6 to 12 parts of tin and 100 
parts of copper. 

Brood, in mining, any heterogeneous 
mixture among tin or copper ore, 
as Mundick, Black Jack, etc. 

Browning, a process by which the 
surfaces of articles of iron acquire 
a shining brown lustre : the mate- 
rial used to produce this is the 
chloride of antimony. 

Brown (Sir Samuel), Captain, R.N. 
engineer of the chain-pier at 
Brighton; he was the first to in- 
troduce the bar-link. 

Sir S. Brown has stated that at 
Brighton he found the impetus 
of the waves during heavy gales 



BRO 



BUFFET. 



BUF 



was " equal to SOlbs. to a foot upon 
a cylindrical column of 12 inches 
diameter." The hydrostatical pres- 
sure of a wave only 1^ foot high 
is equal to 801b. upon a square 
foot. 

Brown ink. Various compounds were 
used in sketching by Claude, Rem- 
brandt, and many of the old mas- 
ters, the principal of which were 
solutions of bistre and sepia. 

Brown ochre, Spruce ochre, or Ochre 
de Rue, a kind of dark-coloured 
yellow ochre : it is much em- 
ployed, and affords useful and per- 
manent tints. This and all natural 
ochres require grinding and wash- 
ing over, to separate them from 
extraneous substances ; and they 
acquire depth and redness by burn- 
ing. 

Brown-pink, a fine glazing colour 
having but little strength of body. 
In the flesh, it should never join or 
mix with the lights, because this 
colour and white antipathize and 
mix of a warm dirty hue ; for which 
reason their joinings should be 
blended with a cold middle tint. 

Brown-post, a name given by some 
builders to a beam laid across a 
building. 

Brown spar, a magnesian carbonate 
of lime, tinged by oxide of iron and 
manganese. 

Bruiser, a concave tool used in grind- 
ing the specula of telescopes. 

Brunswick green, a pigment com- 
posed of carbonate of copper with 
chalk or lime. 

Brush-wheels are used in light ma- 
chinery, to turn each other by 
means of bristles or brushes fixed 
to their circumference. 

Buata, anciently an arch of chamber ; 
a crypt. 

Bucca, anciently an almonry. 

Bucentaur, the name of the once ce- 
lebrated galley of Venice, used by 
the Doge on Ascension-day, to ce- 
lebrate the wedding of the Adria- 
tic, by dropping a ring into that sea. 

Backers, in mining, bruisers of the 
ore. 



G9 



Buckets, in water-wheels, a series of 
cavities placed on the circumfer- 
ence of the wheel, and into which 
the water is delivered, to set the 
wheel in motion. By the revolu- 
tion of the wheel the buckets are 
alternately placed so as to receive 
the water, and inverted so as to 
discharge it, the loaded side al- 
ways descending. 

Bucking, in mining, a term applied to 
a method of breaking the poor foul 
copper ore smaller by hand, with 
small flat irons, called bucking- 
irons, into order to wash and se- 
parate the pure ore from the use- 
less waste : the same term is used 
in the lead-mines ; but Pettus, in 
his ' Plata Miner,' gives it the sig- 
nification of washing or wet-stamp- 
ing ores. 

Bucking-iron, in mining, the tool with 
which the ore is pulverized. 

Buckler, a shield of armour, anciently 
used in war. 

Bucklers, in ships, blocks of wood 
made to fit in the hawse-holes, or 
holes in the half-ports, when at 
sea. 

'"^Bucranes, in sculpture, the heads of 
oxen, flayed and lacerated, some- 
times represented on friezes. 

Buddie, in mining, a pit dug in the 
earth near the stamping-mill, 7 feet 
long, 3 feet wide, and 2 feet 
deep, where the stamped tin is cu- 
riously washed from its impuri- 
ties by water constantly running 
through the huddle, while a boy, 
called a buddle-boy, is standing 
in the body of it, and working 
both with a shovel and with his 
feet. 

Budget, a pocket used by tilers for 
holding the nails in lathing for 
tiling. 

Buffers, rods with enlarged ends or 
striking-blocks projecting from the 
ends of the frame of a railway 
carriage, and attached to springs, 
for deadening the shocks received 
from the engines. 

Buffet, a table with long narrow 
shelves over it ; a convenient 



BUH 



BUILDINGS. 



BUL 



piece of furniture for a sitting 
room. 

Buhl, unburnished gold. 

Buhl-work, ornamental furniture, in 
which tortoise-shell is inlaid with 
wood and brass. 

Builder, a term applied both in civil 
and naval architecture : in the for- 
mer the builder is mostly employed 
under the superintendence of an 
architect, by contract, or at mea- 
sure and value ; in the latter, under 
the naval architect, mostly by 
contract. 

Building, the art which comprises all 
the operations of an architect in 
building with stone, brick, timber, 
iron, cement, etc. 

Buildings. Of the aspects best adapted 
to convenience and health, for the 
different kinds of buildings, Vitru- 
vius writes : " The principles which 
should be attended to in allotting 
to each kind of building an appro- 
priate aspect remain to be explain- 
ed : the winter eating-rooms and 
baths ought to face the winter- 
west, because the use of them re- 
quires that they should be light at 
the time of the sun's setting : be- 
sides which, the western sun, be- 
ing immediately opposite to them, 
renders their temperature mild at 
the close of the day. The sleeping 
apartments and libraries should be 
made to front the east, because the 
morning light is necessary for them; 
and books are better preserved 
when the air and light are received 
from that quarter. When libraries 
have a southern or western aspect, 
they admit those winds which, at 
the same time that they carry with 
them moths, instil also damp va- 
pours into the books, which, in 
process of time, cause their decay. 
The vernal and autumnal triclinia 
should face the east, because the 
windows being turned from the 
sun's rays, whose heat increases as 
the sun advances towards the west, 
their temperature is cool at the 
hours they are generally used. The 
summer triclinia should front the 

70 



north ; because, having that aspect, 
they will be least exposed to the 
sun, and the temperature of the 
apartments will be grateful, at the 
same time that it is conducive to 
health. No other aspect possesses 
equal advantages ; for the sun, dur- 
ing the solstice, would render the 
air of all others sultry. This as- 
pect is necessary for pinacothecffi 
and the apartments in which the 
pursuits of embroidery and paint- 
ing are followed, because the 
colours used in works of this 
kind retain their brightness longer 
when exposed to an equable and 
regular light." Wilkins's Vit. 
p. 220. 

Buildings Act, an Act of Parliament 
passed in the 18th and 19th of 
Victoria, to regulate the construc- 
tion of buildings generally, and 
appurtenances thereto, and to de- 
termine their supervision by dis- 
trict surveyors and referees. 

Building of beams, the joining of two 
or several pieces of timber together 
in one thickness, and of several 
pieces in one length, by means of 
bolts, so as to form a beam of given 
dimensions, which it would be im- 
possible to obtain from a single 
piece of timber. 

Baleuteria, among the Greeks, coun- 
cil-chambers or public halls. 

Bulge, that part of a ship which 
bulges out at the floor-heads, to 
assist the ship when taking the 
ground. 

Bulge-way, a large piece of timber, 
or pieces bolted together, making 
one solid piece, placed under the 
bulge of a ship, to support her 
launch. The support of the bulge- 
ways to lie on is called ways, which 
sometimes are placed straight and 
sometimes cumber : but if they do 
cumber, it should be truly circu- 
lar; though sometimes the curve 
is quicker at the lower part, but 
this is liable to strain the sheer of 
the ship. Their extreme distance 
is generally about one-third the 
breadth of the ship, but this must 



BUL 



BURDEN. 



BUR 



depend on the form of the mid- 
ship bend. 

Bulk,ihe contents of the hold of a ship. 

Bulkar, a beam or rafter. 

Bulk-heads, partitions built up in se- 
veral parts of a ship, to form and 
separate the various apartments. 

Bullantic, so-called ornamental capi- 
tal letters, used in apostolic bulls. 

Bullen-nails, such as have roundheads 
with short shanks, turned and lac- 
quered, used principally for hang- 
ings of rooms. 

Bullet-wood, from the West Indies, 
is the produce of a large tree with 
a white sap ; is of a greenish ha- 
zel, close and hard ; used in the 
country for building purposes. 

Bullet-wood, another species, from 
Berbice, is of a hazel-brown colour, 
adapted to general and eccentric 
turning. 

BulCs-eye, a small circular aperture 
for the admission of light or air. 

Bull's-eye, a small oval block of hard 
wood without sheaves, having a 
groove round the outside, and a 
hole in the middle. 

Bulwarks, the woodwork round a 
vessel, above her deck, consisting 
of boards fastened to stanchions 
and timber-heads. 

Bumboats, those which lie alongside 
a vessel in port with provisions for 
sale. 

Bumpkins, pieces fitted above the 
main-rail in the head, which ex- 
tend nearly as far forward as the 
fore-part of the knee of the head, 
and are for the use of hauling down 
the fore-tack. 

Bunch, or Bunchy: a mine that is 
sometimes rich and at other times 
poor, is said to be lunchy. 

Bunch, or Squat, in mining, a quan- 
tity of ore, of small extent, more 
than a stone and not so much as a 
course : a mine is said to be bunchy 
when these are found in place of a 
regular lode. 

Bundle -pillar, a column or pier, with 
others of small dimensions attached 
to it. 

Bunny, in mining, of tin or copper 

71 



ore ; a sombrero in Alonzo Barba ; 
a pipe of ore ; a great collection 
of ore without any vein coming into 
or going out from it. 

Bunt of a sail, the middle part formed 
into a bag or cavity, that it may 
gather more wind. 

Buntine, thin woollen stuff, of which 
a ship's colours are made. 

Bunt-line cloth, the lining sewed up 
the sail in the direction of the 
bunt-line, to prevent the rope from 
chafing the sail. 

Bunt-lines, ropes fastened to cringles 
on the bottoms of the square sails, 
to draw them up to their yards. 

Buoy, a cask, or block of wood, fast- 
ened by a rope to an anchor, to 
point out shoals or particular spots. 

Burden, in mining, the tops or heads 
of Streamwork which lie over the 
stream of tin, and which must be 
first cleansed. 

Burdon, a pilgrim's staff. 

Bureau, a chamber or office for the 
transaction of state or business af- 
fairs. 

' -'Surges, the Persian word for Towers, 
evidently the same as the Gothic 
burgh ; a fortified dwelling or en- 
closed town. Gird or gard is in 
Persian a city or fortress, which 
approximates to garth, an enclo- 
sure in the Gothic : hence garden. 
But a castle, comprehendingtowers 
and walls, is in Persian calaa. 

Burgundy pitch, a resin collected 
from the spruce fir. 

Burgus, anciently a number of houses 
protected by a fortress. 

Burgward, anciently the custody or 

keeping of a castle. 
* Burgwork, anciently applied to a 
castle or borough. 

Burin, an engraver's instrument ; a 
graver. 

Burners, for gas-light. Coal gas has 
now been used for the purposes of 
artificial illumination nearly fifty 
years, and the burners sanctioned 
by the companies at the present 
day are of several shapes. 

Carburetted hydrogen of the spe- 
cific gravity '390 (which is about 



BUR 



BURNERS. 



BUR 



the density of gas when arrived at 
the point where it has to be burnt) 
requires two volumes of pure oxy- 
gen for its complete combustion 
and conversion into carbonic acid 
and water. Atmospheric air con- 
tains, in its pure state, twenty per 
cent, of oxygen, in populous 
towns less ; but twenty per cent, 
may be taken as a fair average : 
1 cubic foot of carburetted hydro- 
gen then requires for its proper 
combustion 10 cubic feet of air ; if 
less be admitted on to the flame, a 
quantity of free carbon will escape 
(from its not finding a proper vo- 
lume of oxygen for conversion into 
carbonic acid), and be deposited 
in the form of dense black smoke. 
When the flame from an Argand 
burner is turned up high, the air 
which rushes through the interior 
ring becomes decomposed before it 
can reach the air on the top of the 
flame, which consequently burns 
in one undivided mass, the gas 
being in part unconsumed, the 
products unconverted, and carbon 
deposited abundantly. 

If an excess of air is admitted, it 
would appear at first to be of no 
consequence, but it will be found 
that the quantity of nitrogen ac- 
companying this excess has a ten- 
dency to extinguish the flame, while 
it takes no part in the elective affi- 
nity constantly going on between 
the several elementary gases, viz. 
hydrogen, oxygen, and the vapour 
of carbon ; and also that the quan- 
tity of atmospheric air passing 
through the flame unchanged, tends 
to reduce the temperature below 
that necessary for ignition, and 
therefore to diminish the quantity 
of light. For the proper combus- 
tion of the gas, neither more nor 
less air than the exact quantity re- 
quired for the formation of carbonic 
acid and water can be admitted 
through the flame without being 
injurious. It is not possible practi- 
cally to regulate the supply of air 
to such a nicety : it is preferred 

72 



therefore to diminish the quantity 
of light by having a slight excess oi 
air rather than to produce smoke 
by a deficiency, the former being 
unquestionably the least evil. 

Burnet (James), a landscape painter : 
died in 1816, aged 28 years. 

Burning-glass, a glass lens, which, 
being exposed directly to the sun, 
refracts the rays which fall upon 
it into a focus. 

Burning-house, the furnace in which 
tin ores are calcined, to sublime 
the sulphur from pyrites : the latter 
being thus decomposed, are more 
readily removed by washing. 

Burnisher, a tool used for smoothing 
and polishing a rough surface. A- 
gates, polished steel, ivory, etc. 
are used for burnishing. 

Burnt Carmine is, according to its 
name, the carmine of cochineal par- 
tially charred till it resembles in 
colour the purple of gold, for the 
uses of which in miniature anc 
water painting it excels. 

Burnt Sienna earth is, as its name 
implies, the Terra di Sienna burnt 
and is of an orange-russet colour. 

Burnt Umber, a pigment obtainec 
from a fossil substance, which wher 
burnt assumes a deeper and more 
russet hue : it contains manganese 
and iron, and is very drying in oil 
in which it is employed as a dryer 
It is a fine warm brown, and a gooc 
working strong colour, of great use 
for the hair of the human head, anc 
mixes finely with the warm shade 

Burnt Verdigris is an olive-coloured 
oxide of copper deprived of acid, 
It dries well in oil, and is more 
durable, and in other respects an 
improved and more eligilfle pig- 
ment than in its original state. 

Burre-stone, a mill-stone which is 
almost pure silex : the best kind 
is of a whitish colour. 

Burrock, a small weir or dam, where 
wheels are laid in a river for catch- 
ing fish. 

Burrow, in mining, the heap or heaps 
of attle, deads, or earth (void oi 
ore), which are raised out of a mine, 



BUR 



BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 



BYZ 



and commonly lie around the 
shafts ; any heap or hillock of 
deads or waste. 

Burr-pump, a bilge-pump worked by 
a bar of wood pulled up and down 
by a rope fastened by the middle. 

Bursa, a bag ; a purse used in the 
middle ages for the purposes of a 
little college or hall for students. 

Bursar, one to whom a stipend is 
paid cut of a fund set apart for poor 
students ; the treasurer of a college. 

Bursary, the treasury of a college. 

Burthen, the weight or measure of 
capacity of a ship. Multiply the 
length of the keel, the inner mid- 
ship breadth, and the depth from 
the main deck, to the plank joining 
the keelson together ; and the pro- 
duct, divided by 94, gives the ton- 
nage or burthen. 

Burton, a manor; a manor-house. 

Burton, in a ship, a small tackle of 
two single blocks, named from the 
inventor. 

Bush, in machinery, a piece of metal 
fitted into the plummer-block of a 
shaft in which the journal turns. 
The guide of a sliding-rod also 
bears the same name. 

Bush, a circular piece of iron or other 
metal, let into the sheaves of such 
blocks as have iron pins, to prevent 
their \yearing. 

Bushel, a dry measure of 8 gallons or 
4 pecks. 

Bush-harrow, an implement used in 
harrowing grass lands. 

Buskin, a high shoe or boot worn 
anciently, in tragedy, on the stage. 

Bushnell( David), A.M., of Saybrook, 
in Connecticut, in 1776 invented 
several machines for the annoyance 
of shipping: he destroyed a vessel 
in the charge of Commodore Sim- 
monds, whose report to the Admi- 
ralty was published. 

Buss, a small sea-vessel used in the 
herring fishery. 

Bust, in sculpture, the head, neck, 
and breast of human figure. 

Bustum, anciently a tomb. 

But, the end of a plank where it 
unites with another. 



73 



But-hinges, those employed in the 
hanging of doors,, shutters, etc, 

Butmen cheeks, the two solid sides of 
a mortise varying in thickness. 

* Butments, the supports on which the 

feet of arches stand. 

Butterfly -valve, the double valve of 
an air-pump bucket, consisting of 
two clack-valves, having the joints 
opposite and on each side of the 
pump-rod. 

Butteris, an instrument of steel set in 
a wooden handle, used by farriers 
for paring the hoof of a horse. 

Butternut-wood is of large size, and 
is produced in New Brunswick. 
The propagation of this tree is very 
easy, either from the cuttings or 
from the nut. 

Buttery, a cellar in which butts of 
wine are kept ; aplace for provisions. 

Buttock, the round part of a ship 
abaft, from the wing transom to the 
upper water-line, or lower down. 

Button (in smithery), a brass knob of 
a lock serving to open or shut a 
door. 

Button (in carpentry), a piece of wood 

upon a nail, to keep a door close. 
i/Buttress,\\\Goi}\\c architectural struc- 
tures, a pilaster, pier, or masonry 
added to and standing out from the 
exterior of a wall. Buttresses are 
usually divided into several heights, 
each of which projects less from the 
wall as they ascend. 
y 'But tress, a piece of strong wall that 
stands on the outside of another 
wall, to support it. 

By, said of a vessel when her head is 
lower in the water than her stern ; 
if her stern is lower in the water, 
she is by the stern. 

Byard, a piece of leather across the 
breast, used by those who drag the 

., sledges in coal-pits. 

* Byzantine Architecture. About the 

year A.D. 828, Constantino, who 
had previously resided at Rome, 
commenced his new capital in the 
East, which was called after his 
name, and in May, 330, was so- 
lemnly dedicated to the Virgin 
Mary. He adorned it with so 



CAB 



GABBLING. 



CAB 



many stately edifices that it nearly 
equalled the ancient capital itself: 
he here built a cathedral dedicated 
to Santa Sophia, or the Eternal Wis- 
dom, and a church to the Apostles. 
This cathedral, having been twice 
destroyed by fire, was finally rebuilt 
about 532 A.B., by Justinian, who 
had invited the celebrated architect 
Anthemius to Constantinople for 
that purpose. It was completed in 
six years from the time of laying 
the first stone. 

The Emperor, in his admiration 
of this magnificent edifice, is said to 
have exclaimed, " I have vanquished 
thee, Solomon :" and with justice 
might he glorify himself, for the 
dome of St. Sophia is the largest in 
the world, and the more to be ad- 
mired in its construction from the 
lowness of the curvature. 

This church, after twelve centu- 
ries, remains the same, with the ex- 
ception of the mode of worship to 
which it is devoted. It still retains 
its former name, but the Maho- 
metans, instead of the Christians, 
possess it. 

This is the earliest Byzantine 
building extant, totally dissimilar 
in arrangement to the Christian 
churches in the empire. 

The plan of the interior is that of 
a Greek cross, the four arms of 
which are of equal length ; the cen- 
tral part is a square, the sides are 
about 115 feet in length. At each 
angle of the square a massive pier 
has been carried, 86 feet in height 
from the pavement, and four semi- 
circular arches stretch across the 



intervals over the sides of thesquare, 
and rest on the piers. The interior 
angles between the four piers are 
filled up in a concave form. At 
145 feet from the ground is the level 
of the springing of the dome, which 
is 115 feet in diameter; the form 
is a segment of a circle, and the 
height is equal to one-sixth of its 
diameter at the base. On both the 
eastern and western side of the 
square is a semicircular recess, with 
domes that rest against the main 
arches, and assist in resisting the 
lateral thrust. On the north and 
south sides of the square are vesti- 
bules forming a square on the plan. 
Above the vestibules are galleries 
appropriated to women during the 
performance of worship. The whole 
church is surrounded by cloisters, 
and enclosed by walls. 

The total cost of St. Sophia has 
been reckoned at the lowest com- 
putation to have exceeded one mil- 
lion pounds ; as before the building 
was four feet out of the ground, its 
cost had amounted to a sum equi- 
valent to 200,000 sterling. 

Besides this cathedral, Justinian 
is said to have built, at Constanti- 
nople, twenty-five churches to the 
honour of Christ, the Virgin, and 
the Saints ; he also built A church 
to St. John at Ephesus, and another 
to the Virgin at Jerusalem : the 
bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts 
erected by this emperor were nu- 
merously distributed throughout 
the empire. 
Byzanteum artificium, mosaic-work. 



c. 



GABBLING. The process in the manu- 
facture of iron, which in Glouces- 
tershire is called ' scabbling,' or, 
more correctly, ' cabbling,' may be 
thus described. When the cast or 
pig-iron has been subjected to the 
influence of a refinery, the product 
is called ' Finery :' it is then carried 



74 



to the forge, and smelted in a fur- 
nace with charcoal: in a short time, 
a large ball, about 2cwt.,is formed 
by working with an iron bar ; this 
ball is then taken to a large ham- 
mer, and beaten into a flat oval or 
oblong shape, from 2 to 4 inches 
in thickness : this is allowed to 



CAB 



CALCULATING MACHINES. 



CAL 



cool, when ' cabbling ' commences, j 
which is simply breaking up this 
flat iron into small pieces. Men 
are especially allocated for this ope- 
ration, and are named ' cabblers.' 
The pieces of iron obtained by 
cabbling are then heated in another 
furnace almost to fusion, hammered 
down into shape, and ultimately 
drawn out into bar-iron. 

Cabin, a room or apartment in a ship 
where any of the officers usually re- 
side, and also used in passenger ves- 
sels for the residence of passengers. 

Cabinet pictures, usually denominated 
so, are small valuable paintings 
from the old masters, painted on 
copper, panel, or canvas. Modern 
subjects, if painted small in size, 
should equally be called Cabinet. 

Cabinets, in Tudor times, were of 
massive proportions, carved in oak, 
ebony, walnut, and other woods, 
inlaid. Some of them answered 
the double purpose of depositories 
and cupboards for plate, from 
having drawers and recesses, or 
ambries, enclosed by doors ; and 
broad shelves between the tiers of 
turned columns were conspicuous 
objects in these apartments. 

Cable, a thick stout rope, made of 

> hemp, etc., to keep a ship at anchor. 

Cable-moulding ,abead or torus mould- 
ing, cut in imitation of the twisting 
of a rope, much used in the later 
period of the Norman style. 

^Cabling, a round moulding, frequently 
used in the flutes of columns, pilas- 
ters, etc. 

Cadmia, a stone, out of which brass 
is tried ; brass ore. 

Caduceus, an emblem or attribute of 
Mercury : a rod entwined by two 
winged serpents. 

Calatura (Greek), a branch of the 
fine arts, under which all sorts of or- 
namental work in metal, except ac- 
tual statues, appear to be included. 

Caementicius, built of unhewn stones ; 
large irregular masses laid together 
without mortar, having the inter- 
stices filled in with small chippings. 

Caen stone, a peculiar quality of stone 



used for building purposes, prin- 
cipally for Gothic structures ; it is 
taken from quarries in Normandy. 

Cayework, the uppermost carved work 
of the hull of a ship. 

Caisson, a wooden frame or box with 
a flat bottom, made of strong 
timbers firmly connected together ; 
"used for laying the foundations of 
a bridge in situations where the 
coffer-dam cannot be adopted. 

Caisson, a name given to the sunk 
panels of various geometrical forms 
symmetrically disposed in flat or 
vaulted ceilings, or in soffits gene- 
rally. 

Cal, in Cornish mining, a kind of iron 
Gossan stone found in the bryle and 
backs of lodes, much of the colour 
of old iron ; reckoned a poor brood 
with tin. 

Calcar, a small oven or reverberatory 
furnace, in which the first calcina- 
tion of sand and potashes is made 
for turning them into frit, from 
which glass is ultimately made. 

Calcareous earth, the same as lime, 
and of which there are various 
combinations, as marble, limestone, 
marl, gypsum, etc. 

Calcatorium, among the Romans, a 
raised platform of masonry in the 
cellar attached to a vineyard. 

Calcination, the process of subjecting 
a body to the action of fire, to drive 
off the volatile parts, whereby it is 
reduced to a condition that it may 
be converted into a powder : thus 
marble is converted into lime by 
driving off the carbonic acid and 
water ; and gypsum, alum, borax, 
and other saline bodies are said to 
be calcined when they are deprived 
of their water of crystallization. 

Calcium, the metallic basis of lime. 

Calcography, writing, engraving, etc. 

Calculating machines are of early in- 
vention ; but recently Mr. Babbage 
has completed a calculating ma- 
chine surpassing all previous ones ; 
the machine accomplishes the ad- 
ditions of numbers by the move- 
ments of a number of cylinders 
having on the convex surface of 



CAL 



CALORIC SHIP. 



CAL 



each the series of numbers 1234 
5678 90; and the operations 
are of two kinds : by the first the 
additions are made, and by the 
second there is introduced the 1, 
which should be carried to the 
ten's place every time that the sum 
of the two numbers is greater than 
10, etc. 

Caldarium, the hot bath. The vase 
which supplied the hot bath was 
likewise so termed. According to 
Vitruvius, the thermal chamber in 
a set of baths. 

Calender, a mechanical engine for 
dressing and finishing cloths. 

Calends, in Roman antiquity, the first 
day of every month. 

Caliber or Caliper compasses ; com- 
passes made with bowed or arched 
legs, for the purpose of taking the 
diameter of any round body. 

Caliber, an instrument used by car- 
penters, joiners, and bricklayers, to 
see whether their work be well 
squared. 

Calico, a cloth made from cotton- 
wool, like linens : the origin of the 
name is from Calicut, in India. 

Calico-printing, the art of applying 
coloured patterns on a white or 
coloured ground of linen or cotton. 

Calidnets, pipes or canals disposed 
along the walls of houses and 
apartments ; used by the ancients 
for conveying heat to several re- 
mote parts of the house. 

Caligraphy, fair or good writing. 

Calin, a mineral, like lead and tin. 

Calk, a Cornish term for lime. 

Callipers, a species of compasses with 
legs of a circular form, used to take 
the thickness or diameter of work, 
either circular or flat ; used also to 
take the interior size of holes. 

Callipers, in turning, compasses with 
each of the legs bent into the form 
of a curve, so that when shut the 
points are united ; and the curves, 
being equal and opposite, enclose a 
space. The use of the callipers is 
to try the work in the act of turn- 
ing, in order to ascertain the dia- 
meter or the diameters of the 



various parts. As the points stand 
nearer together at the greatest 
required diameter than the parts 
of the legs above, the callipers are 
well adapted to the use intended. 

Callys or jR/&zs(Cornish),hard, smart ; 
the most common and agreeable 
stratum in our mine country, 
usually called killas. 

Caloric, the matter and cause of heat. 

Caloric (Ericsson's) ship has under- 
gone a great experiment in naviga- 
tion. Wise men have long pondered 
the idea which Captain Ericsson is 
working out patiently and hope- 
fully. The need of new motors has 
become more manifest with the 
advance of time and commercial 
prosperity. Electricity has been 
tried, and has not succeeded. Ca- 
loric was something never known 
in its best sense until now, and the 
credit is due to Captain Ericsson 
of directing attention to an old 
agent of which new applications 
may produce the most remark- 
able results. The experiment now 
making is no ephemeral fancy, but 
is the work of a quarter of a century 
of mature reflection and diligent 
inquiry. The ingenious projector 
under whose auspices it is carried 
forward has devoted his best ener- 
gies to the task, and it will not 
fail through want of forecast, judg- 
ment, or ability. 

Calorific, in chemistry, the quality of 
producing heat. 

Calorimeter, an instrument to measure 
the heat given out by a body in 
cooling by the quantity of ice it 
melts. 

Calotte, a round cavity or depressure 
in form of a cap or cup. 

Calquing, the process of copying or 
transferring a drawing. It is ef- 
fected by rubbing over the back of 
the original with a fine powder of 
red chalk or black lead; the smeared 
side is then laid on a sheet of paper, 
and the lines of the drawing are 
traced by a blunt-pointed needle, 
which imprints them on the paper 
underneath. Another method is to 



CAL 



CAMBER-SLIP. 



CAM 



hold the drawing up to a window 
with a sheet of paper before it : 
the outlines will appear through, 
and may he penciled off without 
damage to the original. 

Calyon, flint or pehble stone, used in 
building walls, etc. 

Cam, in steam machinery, a plate with 
curved sides, triangular or other- 
wise, fixed upon a revolving shaft, 
for changing the uniform rotatory 
motion into an irregular rectilinear 
motion. It is sometimes used for 
moving the slide-valves. 

Camaieu,3iierm used in painting when 
there is only one colour, the light 
and shades being of gold, or on a 
golden and azure ground. It is 
chiefly used to represent basso- 
rilievo. 

Camber, the convexity of a beam upon 
the upper surface, in order that it 
may not become concave by its own 
weight, or by the binder it may have 
to sustain, in the course of time. 

Camber-beams, are those used in the 
flats of truncated roofs, and raised 
in the middle with an obtuse angle, 
for discharging the rain-water to- 
wards both sides of the roof. 

Camber-slip, a piece of wood, gene- 
rally about half an inch thick, with 
at least one curved edge rising 
about 1 inch in 6 feet, for drawing 
the soffit-lines of straight arches : 
when the other edge is curved, it 
rises only to about one-half of the 
other, viz. about half an inch in 6 
feet, for the purpose of drawing the 
upper side of the arch so as to pre- 
vent it from becoming hollow by 
the settling of the bricks. The 
upper edge of the arch is not always 
cambered, some persons preferring 
it to be straight. The bricklayer 
is always provided with a camber- 
slip, which, being sufficiently long, 
answers to many different widths 
of openings : when he has done 
drawing his arch, he gives the 
camber-slip to the carpenter, in 
order to form the centre to the 
required curve of the soffit. 

Cambering, a sea phrase, used when 



a deck is higher in the middle than 
at the ends. 

Camel, the name of a machine used 
by the Dutch for carrying vessels 
heavily laden over the sand-banks 
in the Zuyder Zee. 

Camera (Greek), an arched or vaulted 
roof, covering, or ceiling, formed by 
circular bands or beams of wood, 
over the intervals of which a coating 
of lath and plaster was spread: 
they resembled, in their construc- 
tion, the hooped awnings now 
commonly in use. 

Camera-lucida, and Camera-obscura, 
(the light and dark chamber,) the 
names given to two methods, simi- 
lar in principle, of throwing images 
of external objects upon plane or 
curved surfaces, for the purpose of 
drawing or amusement : in the first 
contrivance there is no chamber; 
but as it was the last invented, and 
as its predecessor had been called 
the 'camera-obscura,' it was termed 
the ' camera-lucida.' 

Camerated, a term applied to the roof 
of a church. 

Cameron (C.), architect ; published in 
1772 and 1775, editions of the 
work on the Baths of the Romans. 

Games, the slender rods of metal used 
by glaziers as turned lead; they 
are usually cast in lengths which 
measure 12 or 14 inches. 

Caminus, according to Pliny, a smelt- 
ing furnace. 

Campance or Campanulce or Guttce, 
the drops of the Doric architrave. 

Campanile, from the Italian, a bell- 
tower, principally used for church 
purposes, but now sometimes for 
domestic edifices. 

Campanini, a species of marble taken 
out of the mountain of Carrara, in 
Tuscany ; so called because, when 
wrought, it imitates the sound of 
a bell. 

Campanologia, the art or science of 
ringing of bells. 

Campbell (C.), an architect of his 
period of some celebrity ; erected 
several of the large mansions of 
the nobility and gentry of this 



CAM 



CANAL NAVIGATION. 



CAN 



country, and first published hig 
great work, entitled ' Vitruvius 
Britannicus,' in 1715. 

Camphor-wood is imported from Chi- 
na and the Indies in logs and planks 
of large size, and used in England 
for cabinet-work and turnery. 

Campus Martins, a district outside 
the walls of ancient Rome, between 
the Quirinal and Pincian Mounts 
and the Tiber, dedicated to Mars : 
there public exercises were per- 
formed, and the consuls and other 
magistrates elected : it was adorned 
with statues, columns, arches, etc., 
and much frequented by the citizens. 

Camus de Mezieres (M. le), born at 
Paris in 1721, and died in 1789 : 
he was the architect of the Halle 
au Ble and other buildings, and the 
author of several valuable profes- 
sional works. 

Cam-wood, the best and hardest of 
the red dye-woods : it is brought, 
from Africa, and used in ornamental 
and eccentric turnery. 

Can, a term used in Scotland for a 
chimney-pot. 

Canal of the larmier, in architecture, 
the hollowed plafond or soffit of a 
cornice, which makes the pendent 
mouchette. 

Canal of the volute, in the Ionic 
capital, is the face of the circum- 
volutions enclosed by a listel. 

Canal Navigation, or river and inland 
navigation, or internal communi- 
cation by water, terms severally 
expressed. The origin of inland 
navigation is involved in great ob- 
scurity. The ancient inhabitants of 
every part of the globe wherewith 
history has made us acquainted, 
were alive to the benefits resulting 
from the adoption of inland navi- 
gation: in England, the first on 
record is the Caerdike, cut by the 
Romans. Subsequently, very many 
very important ones, particularly 
those by Brindlay, under the direc- 
tion of the celebrated Duke of 
Bridgewater ; and as late as 1829, 
the science of canal engineering 
was in active operation. Canals in 



France for ' grande navigation' are 
made 33 feet 4 inches wide upon 
the floor-line, and 49 feet 6 inches 
upon the water-line, by 5 feet 5 
inches depth of water. The locks 
are 106 feet 8 inches long by about 
17 feet wide ; the towing-paths 
13 feet wide. Canals for 'petite 
navigation ' are made only 33 feet 
4 inches wide upon the water-line, 
and 22 feet on the floor, with a 
depth of water of 5 feet. The locks 
are 100 feet long by 9 feet 1 inch 
wide. Some of theFrench canals for 
steam navigation have locks from 
26 to 40 feet wide, and of lengths 
between 150 and 233 feet in clear 
of gates. In England, no very 
definite rule appears to be followed 
in fixing the dimensions of canals. 
Those executed for the internal 
important lines vary from 31 to 48 
feet upon the water-line, with an 
average depth of about 5 feet. The 
locks are generally 70 feet in length 
by 14 feet 6 inches to 18 feet wide. 
Small canals, in the mining dis- 
tricts, have in some cases been 
executed with a width of not more 
than 16 feet on the water-line, and 
they range from that to 28 feet. 
The locks are made of the same 
length as for large canals, but of 
only half the width. Ship-canals 
have been made of ihuch larger 
dimensions, such as the Caledonian 
Canal, which has in part 122 feet 
upon the water-line, with a depth 
of 20 feet. The Gloucester and 
Berkeley Canal has a water-line of 
70 feet and a depth of 18 feet. 
The Thames and Medway had a 
width of 50 feet by a depth of 7 
feet ; the Ulverstone, 65 feet by 15 
feet : the locks being in proportion 
to the size of the canals. In the 
United States the same irregularity 
occurs in the dimensions of canals 
as in our own country. 

Canal, an artificial watercourse for 
connecting rivers and lakes ; a 
navigable communication. 

Canalis, in Latin, a water-pipe or 
gutter ; used in architecture for any 



CAN 



CANDLESTICKS. 



CAN 



channel, such as the flutings of 
columns ; the channel between the 
volutes of an Ionic column. 

Canary-wood, from South America, 
is a sound, light, orange-coloured 
wood, used for cabinet-work, mus- 
ketry, and turnery. 

Cancelli, among the Romans, iron 
gratings and trellis-work ; in mo- 
dern buildings, latticed windows 
made with cross-bars of wood, iron, 
lead, etc. 

Candela, a candle, made either of 
wax or tallow ; used generally by 
the Romans before the invention 
of lamps. 

Candelabrum, originally a candlestick, 
but afterwards used to support 
lamps. 

Candlemas, the popular name for the 
feast of the Purification of the 
Virgin Mary, February 2, derived 
from the lights which were then 
distributed and carried about in 
procession. 

Candlestick of gold ( The} was made 
by Moses for the service of the 
Temple, and consisted wholly of 
pure gold : it had seven branches, 
upon the extremities of which were 
seven gold lamps, which were 
fed with pure olive oil, and lighted 
every evening by the priest on 
duty : it was used in the holy place, 
and served to illumine the altar of 
incense and the table of shew- 
bread, which stood in the same 
chamber. 

Candlesticks. The magnificence of 
these articles was at first displayed 
in chapels and in domestic apart- 
ments, as banquets in early times 
were given by daylight. We find 
them, however, of very costly de- 
scriptions. In Henry the Eighth's 
temporary banqueting - room, at 
Greenwich, the " candlestykes were 
of antyke worke, which bare little 
torchetts of white waxe : these 
candlestykes were polished lyke 
ambre." 

Canyica-wood, from South America, is 
of a light and yellow-brown colour, 
used for cabinet-work and turnery. 

79 



Can-hooks, strings with flat hooks at 
each end, used for hoisting barrels 
or light casks. 

Canopy, a covering or hood, the en- 
riched projecting head to a niche 
or tabernacle. The tablet or drip- 
stone, whether straight or circular, 
over the heads of doors or windows, 
if enriched, is so called. 
^Canopy, in Gothic architecture, an 
ornamental projection over doors, 
windows, etc. ; a covering over 
niches, tombs, etc. 

Cant, a term used among carpenters 
to express the cutting off the angle 
of a square. 

Canted, applied to a pillar or turret 
when the plan is of a polygonal 
form. 

Canterbury (John), born at Tewks- 
bury, was clerk of the works of 
King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 
of which College he was a Fellow 
in 1451. 

Canterbury (Michael of), erected in 
1291-93, the Cross in Westcheap, 
London, which was the handsomest, 
except Charing, of all that were 
erected to the memory of Queen 
Eleanor. 

Canterii, beams of wood in the frame- 
work of a roof, extending from the 
ridge to the eaves, corresponding 
to the rafters of a modern roof. 
The word canterii was also applied 
to two inclining reeds fixed in the 
ground some distance asunder and 
meeting at the top, for the support 
of vines. 

Cantharus, a fountain or cistern in 
the atrium or court-yard before 
ancient churches, at which persons 
washed before they entered the 
sacred buildings. 

Canthus, in Greek and Latin, the 
tire of a wheel ; a hoop of iron 
or bronze fastened on to the felloe, 
to preserve the wood from abra- 
sion. 

Cantilevers are horizontal rows of 
timbers, projecting at right angles 
from the naked part of a wall, for. 
sustaining the eaves or othermould- 
ings. 



CAN 



CAPITAL. 



CAP 



Cantling. The lower of two courses 
of burnt bricks, which are placet 
on the top of a clamp before fire is 
applied. 

Cant -moulding, a bevelled surface, 
neither perpendicular to the horizon 
nor to the vertical surface to which 
it may be attached. 

Cantoned, in architecture, is when the 
corner of a building is adorned 
with a pilaster, an angular column, 
rustic quoins, or anything that 
projects beyond the wall. 

Cant-pieces, in ships, pieces of timber 
fastened to the angles of fishes and 
side-trees, to supply any part that 
may prove rotten. 

Cant-timbers, in ship-building, those 
timbers or ribs of the ship which 
are situated afore or abaft, or at the 
two ends, where the ship grows 
narrower below. 

Cant-timber abaft, the chock upon 
which the spanker-boom rests when 
the sail is not set. 

Cantuar. The signature of the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, is thus 
abbreviated, the Christian name 
being usually prefixed. 

Canvas, the cloth of which the sails 
of ships are made. 

Caoutchouc, a substance produced by 
the siphonia elastica, the ficus elas- 
ti'.a, and the urceola elastica, and 
many other American and Asiatic 
trees. It is often termed Indian- 
rubber, from its use in removing 
pencil traces from paper. There are 
various chemical properties which 
render caoutchouc valuable in the 
arts, but elasticity and impervious- 
ness to water are those for which 
it is most prized. It is worked into 
a great variety of useful things for 
dress and for domestic purposes. 

Cap, a thick, strong block of wood, 
with two holes through it, one 
square and the other round, used in 
ship-building to confine together 
the head of a mast and the lower 
part of that next above it. 

Capacity, the same in sense as content 
or volume in pure mathematics. 
In physics it generally signifies the 

80 



power of holding or retaining : thus 
we speak of the capacity of a body 
for heat, etc. 

Capel, in mining, a stone composed of 
quartz, schorl, and hornblende, 
usually occurring in one or both 
walls of a lode, and more frequently 
accompanying tin than copper ores. 

Capillary attraction and repulsion. 
These names have been given to the 
properties of matter which cause 
the ascent above or descent below 
the level of the surrounding fluid 
which takes place when a tube of 
small diameter is dipped into water, I 
mercury, etc. 

"Capital, in architecture, the head or 
uppermost part of a column or pi- 
laster. The capitals of the columns 
constitute the principal and most 
obvious indicia! mark of the re- 
spective orders. For those of each 
of the three classes or orders a cer- 
tain character conformable with the 
rest of the order is to be observed ; 
but that attended to, further re- 
striction is unnecessary. Between 
several examples, all decidedly re- 
ferable to one and the same order, 
very great special differences occur, 
and there might easily be a very 
great many more. Although the 
capital itself is indispensable, it is 
so only aesthetically, and not out of 
positive necessity. The necessity is 
only artistic: decoration of the kind 
there must be, but the express 
mode of it is one of those matters 
which should be left to design, to 
which it properly belongs. Capitals 
are just as legitimate subjects for 
the exercise of taste and invention 
as anything else in decorative de- 
sign. The capital is only an orna- 
mental head to the column, and 
therefore admits of being as freely 
designed as any other piece of orna- 
ment, on the conditions of its being 
accordant in character with the 
rest of the order, and of forming an 
agreeable transition from the shaft 
of the column to the architrave. 

Capitolium, a temple or citadel at 
Home, on the Tarpeian rock : it was 



CAP 



CARAVANSERAI. 



CAR 



finished by Tarquinius Superbus, 
and consecrated by the consul M. 
Horatius, was burnt in the time 
of Marius, and rebuilt by Sylla, 
destroyed a second and a third time 
in the troubles under Vitellius and 
Vespasian, and lastly raised again 
by Domitian. Its name was derived 
from the discovery of the head of 
Tolius, during the excavation of 
the earth for the foundation. Q. 
Catulus consecrated it to Jupiter 
Capitolinus, and covered it with 
gilded brass tiles. The steep ascent 
of the rock was mounted by 100 
steps on the side of the forum. In 
the temple were statues of gold and 
silver, vessels of those metals and 
of crystal, and 3000 brass tables, 
on which the Roman laws were 
engraved. 

Caple (in Cornwall) stone is some- 
thing like limestone, but will not 
burn. The walls of most lodes 
are of this kind, and therefore it is 
common to call a lode by the name 
of its caple : those veins which 
abound with it are termed caples 
or caple-lodes. 

Capreoli, the pieces of timber on a 
roof which serve to uphold the 
axes or principals. A fork inclined 
so as to afford support to anything 
was formerly called a Capreolus. 

Capsa or Capsula, a box for holding 
books among the Romans : these 
boxes were usually made of beech 
wood, and were cylindrical in form. 

Capsize, to overturn. 

Capstan, in naval architecture, a 
strong massive piece of timber let 
down through the decks of a ship, 
and resting its foot or axis, which 
is shod with iron, in an iron socket, 
called a saucer, fixed on a wooden 
block or standard, called the step, 
resting on the beams. 

Captain, in mining, an experienced 
miner ; one who directs and over- 
sees the workmen and business of 
a mine. 

Caracol, a term sometimes used for a 
staircase in a helix or spiral form. 

Caradoc formation, the uppermost of 



the two great divisions of the lower 
Silurian strata of Murchison, seen 
principally in Shropshire, Worces- 
tershire, Somersetshire, etc., and on 
the eastern borders of Wales. 

Caravanserai, a building in the East, 
expressed in our version of the 
Scripture by the term Inn ; in 
Turkey it is understood to be 
a place of accommodation, for 
strangers and travellers : they are 
built at proper distances through 
the roads of the Turkish dominions, 
and afford the indigent and weary 
traveller an asylum from the in- 
clemency of the weather. 

Carbon, a non-metallic elementary 
solid body, which is widely diffused 
throughout nature. The purest and 
at the same time the rarest formed 
which it occurs is that of the dia- 
mond ; the more common states in 
which it is met with are those of 
anthracite, graphite, and coal : an- 
other form is that of charcoal. 

Carbonate, a salt composed of car- 
bonic acid and a base. The chief 
varieties are described under their 
alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. 

Carburet, a compound of carbon with 
nitrogen, metals, etc. 

Carcase (The) of a building is the 
naked walls and the rough timber- 
work of the flooring and quarter 
partitions, before the building is 
plastered or the floors laid. 

Carcase-roofing, that which supports 
the covering by a grated frame of 
timber-work. 

Career, a prison or gaol. The Roman 
prisons were divided into three 
stories, one above the other, each 
of which was appropriated to dis- 
tinct purposes. 

Card-making machine, an arrange- 
ment of wires used in the cotton 
manufacture, for disentangling the 
fibres of cotton preparatory to 
spinning. 

Cardo, a pivot and socket, an appa- 
ratus by means of which the doors 
of the ancients were fixed in their 
places, and made to revolve in 
opening and shutting. 



81 



E3 



CAR 



CARLISLE TABLES. 



CAR 



Careening, the operation of heaving 
a ship down on one side by the 
application of a strong purchase to 
her masts, which are properly sup- 
ported for the occasion to prevent 
their breaking with so great a 
strain, and by which means, one 
side of the bottom being elevated 
above the surface of the water, it 
may be cleansed or repaired. 
Carina, according to Cicero, the keel 
or lowest piece of timber in the 
framework of a ship. 
Cartings, short pieces of timber rang- 
ing fore and aft from one deck- 
beam to another, into which their 
ends are mortised : they are used 
to sustain and fortify the smaller 
beams of the ship. 
Carlisle Tables, so called from the 
more recent mode of making cal- 
culations of the value of annuities 
on lives, based on the average du- 
ration of human life, as taken at 
Carlisle, in Cumberland. The value 
of a life annuity depends upon the 
manner in which it is presumed a 
large number of persons, similarly 
situated with the buyer, would die 
off successively. Various tables of 
these decrements of life, as they 
are called, have been constructed 
from observations made among 
different classes of lives. Some 
make the mortality greater than 
others ; and, of course, tables which 
give a large mortality, give the 
value of the annuity smaller than 
those which suppose men to live 
longer. Those who buy annuities 
would therefore be glad to be rated 
according to tables of high mor- 
tality, or low expectation of life ; 
while those who sell them would 
prefer receiving the price indicated 
by tables which give a lower rate 
oif mortality. Hence arise bar- 
gains or stipulations according to 
either the Northampton or Carlisle 
tabulated rating of the duration of 
life. In assurances the reverse is 
the case : the shorter the time 
which a man is supposed to live, 
the more must he pay the office, 

82 



that the latter may at his death 
have accumulated wherewithal to 
pay the amount. The Northamp- 
ton tables, formed by Dr. Price, 
from observations of burials at 
Northampton, as compared with 
all other tables of authority, give 
too high a mortality at all the 
younger and middle ages of life, 
and, consequently, too low a value 
of the annuity. The Carlisle tables, 
formed by Mr. Milne, give much 
less mortality than most of the 
old tables, and therefore a higher 
value of the annuities : they have 
been proved to represent the actual 
state of life among the middle 
classes. 

Carlovingian Architecture. French 
authors establish two epochs of art, 
under the terms Merovingian (from 
Clovis toPepin, 481-751) and Car- 
lovingian (from Pepin to Hugh 
Capet, 751-987). 

Carmine (colour], a name originally 
given only to fine specimens of the 
tinctures of kermes and cochineal, 
and denoting generally at present 
any pigment which resembles them 
in beauty, richness of colour, and 
fineness of texture : hence we hear 
of blue and other coloured car- 
mines, though the term is princi- 
pally confined to the crimson and 
scarlet colours produced from co- 
chineal by the agency of tin. 

Cam, in Cornish mining, a rock ; a 
heap of rocks ; a high rock. 

Carnagioni (of the Italians), a colour 
which differs from terra puzzuoli 
in its hue ; in which respect, other 
variations and denominations are 
produced by dressing and com- 
pounding. 

Carol, a small closet or enclosure to 
sit and read in. 

Carpenter's square : the stock and 
blade are formed, in one piece, of 
plate-iron, and the instrument is 
thus constructed : one leg is 18 
inches in length, numbered from 
the exterior angle ; the bottoms of 
the figures are adjacent to the in- 
terior edge of the square, and con- 



CAR 



CARPENTRY. 



CAR 



sequently their tops to the exterior 
edge : the other leg is 12 inches in 
length, and numbered from the 
extremity towards the angle ; the 
figures are read from the internal 
angle, as in the other side; and 
each of the legs is about an inch 
broad. It is not only used as a 
square, but also as a level, and as a 
rule : its application as a square 
and as a rule is so easy as not to 
require any example ; but its use 
as a level, in taking angles, may be 
thus illustrated : suppose it were 
required to take the angle which 
the heel of a rafter makes with the 
back, apply the end of the short 
leg of the square to the heel-point 
of the rafter, and the edge of the 
square level across the plate ; ex- 
tend a line from the ridge to the 
heel-point, and where this line cuts 
the perpendicular leg of the square, 
mark the inches : this will show 
how far it deviates from the square 
in 12 inches. 

Carpenter's took : the principal tools 
used in the rougher operations of 
carpentry are the axe, the adze, 
the chisel, the saw, the mortise 
and tenon-gauge, the square, the 
plumb-rule, the level, the auger, 
the crow, and the draw-bore-pin, 
or hook-pin, for draw-boring. 

Carpentry is the art of combining 
pieces of timber for the support 
of any considerable weight or pres- 
sure. 

The theory of carpentrv is 
founded on two distinct branches 
of mechanical science : the one in- 
forms us how strains are propagated 
through a system of framing; the 
other, how to proportion the re- 
sistance of its parts, so that all may 
be sufficiently strong to resist the 
strains to which they are exposed. 
The one determines the stability 
of position, the other the stability 
of resistance. Each of these may 
be considered in the most simple 
manner the subject admits of, with 
the addition of rules and practical 
remarks. 



Timber is wrought into various 
forms according to the principles 
of geometry ; and these forms are 
to be preserved in their original 
shape only by adjusting the stress 
and strain according to the laws of 
mechanics. Hence the importance 
of studying both these sciences 
is evident, and particularly the 
latter ; for unless the stress and 
strain be accurately adjusted, the 
most careful attention to geometri- 
cal rules, and the most skilful work- 
manship, will be exerted in vain. 
If, for instance, the centre of ah 
arch were to be drawn and worked 
ever so truly to the curve required, 
what would it avail if the centre 
changed its form with every course 
of stone laid upon it ? And it must 
be remarked, that this is not an 
imaginary case, but one that has 
frequently happened ; and not only 
to men ignorant of mechanics, but 
to some of the most celebrated 
engineers that France ever pro- 
duced. 

The engineers of our own coun- 
try have been more successful, 
having succeeded in gradually in- 
troducing a better principle of con- 
structing centres than our neigh- 
bours. The greatest defect of the 
English centres is now an excess 
of strength, which, on principles of 
economy, it would be desirable to 
avoid in erections for temporary 
purposes. 

Carpentry, in civil architecture, is 
the art of employing timber in the 
construction of buildings. 

The first operation of dividing a 
piece of timber into scantlings, or 
boards, by means of the pit-saw, 
belongs to sawing, and is previous 
to anything done in carpentry. 

The tools employed by the 
carpenter are a ripping-saw, a 
hand-saw, an axe, an adze, a 
socket-chisel, a firmer-chisel, a rip- 
ping chisel, an auger, a gimlet, a 
hammer, a mallet, a pair of pincers, 
and sometimes planes ; but as these 
are not necessarily used, they are 



CAR 



CARVING. 



CAR 



described under the head of joi- 
nery, in which they are absolutely 
necessary. 

Carr (John), born 1723, at Horbury, 
near Wakefield, in Yorkshire, com- 
menced his career as a working 
mason; afterwards settling in York 
as an architect, in 1750, he executed 
many fine and expensive buildings ; 
died in 1807. 

Carrara marble, a species of white 
marble : it is distinguished from 
the Parian or statuary marble by 
being harder and less bright. It 
takes its name from Carrara, in 
Italy. 

Carrel, a pew, closet, or desk, with a 
seat placed under a window, where 
the monks were engaged in copying 
writings. 

Carriage of a stair, the timber which 
supports the steps. 

Carriclc-bend, a kind of knot. Car- 
rick-bitts are the windlass-bitts. 

Carrier, the piece of iron which is 
fixed by a set-screw on the end of 
a shaft or spindle to be turned in 
a lathe, to carry it round by the 
action of the driver of the centre 
chuck. 

Carry away, a sea-term, to break a 
spar or part a rope. 

Carthusian buildings, Charter-house. 
The characteristic features of 
these buildings are austere, and to 
the Benedictine rule. The monas- 
teries of this order had generally 
two courts : the smaller, next the 
entrance, contained the priorial 
residence and the buildings allot- 
ted to secular purposes. Females 
were not only excluded from the 
court, but from the church. 

Cartoon, a distemper-coloured draw- 
ing, made on paper, linen, parch- 
ment, etc., of the exact pattern of 
a design intended to be executed 
either in tapestry, mosaics, or on 
glass : such are Raphael's divine 
pictures in Hampton Court Pa- 
lace. 

Cartoon, in painting, a design drawn 
on strong paper, sometimes after- 
wards calqued through, and trans- 

84 



ferred on the fresh plaster of a 
wall, to be painted in fresco. 

Cartouche, the same as modillion, 
except that it is exclusively used 
to signify the blocks or modillions 
on the eaves of a house. 

Cartouche, an ornament representing 
a scroll of paper. 

Carucru, or Chica, a new pigment, 
of a soft powdery texture and rich 
morone colour, first brought from 
South America by Lieut. Mawe. 

Carving and inlaying of woods had 
become pretty general at the latter 
end of the sixteenth century. " At 
Hardwick, in Derbyshire (1570), 
the wood-work, in several of the 
principal apartments, is oak, inlaid 
with ebony ornaments on the 
panels and stiles. The doors and 
shutters of ' Mary Queen of Scot's 
room,' as it is called, are framed 
in panels of light wood, inlaid 
with profiles of the Caesars, and 
other enrichments ; the stiles, of 
darker coloured oak. In the state- 
room, the walls are divided, at 
about half the height, by a string- 
ing, the upper part filled with 
landscapes, figures, and animals, 
relieved in plaster, and painted in 
their proper colours on white 
ground ; and the lower division 
hung with tapestry. The chimney 
front is entirely occupied by a 
large armorial compartment, re- 
lieved in plaster and emblazoned." 

Caryates or Caryatides (Greek), fi- 
gures used instead of columns, 
employed in architecture to repre- 
sent the portraiture of the defeated 
Persians after the subjugation of 
the Caryatae. The male figures are j 
denominated Persians, Telamones, 
or Atlantides ; the female, Caryans 
or Caryatides. 

1 'Caryatides, anthropostylar pillars or 
human figures (usually female ones) 
employed instead of columns to 
support an entablature. Such fi- 
gures ought always to be perfectly 
free from all attitudinizing, and to 
appear to support their burden 
without any effort. Some very 



CAS 



CASTING. 



CAS 



matter-of-fact critics object to ca- 
ryatides as being at the best only 
beautiful absurdities ; as if statues 
so applied were particularly liable 
to be mistaken for living persons 
subjected to a more severe punish- 
ment than that of being posted up 
in a niche, or on the top of a 
building. 

Casa, according to Vitruvius, a cot- 
tage ; a small country-house. 

Cased tin, in Cornish mining, that 
which is re-framed by the gentlest 
current of water, and prevented 
from running off the frame by turf 
placed at the bottom. 

Case-hardening. The hardness and 
polish of steel may be united, in a 
certain degree, with the firmness 
and cheapness of malleable iron, 
by what is called case-hardening, 
an operation much practised and 
of considerable use. 

Casement, a frame enclosing part of 
the glazing of a window, with 
hinges to open and shut ; also an 
early English name for a deep 
hollow moulding. 

'Casement, the same as ' scotia,' the 
name of a hollowed moulding. 

Casements, sashes or glass frames 
opening on hinges and revolving 
upon one of the vertical edges. 

Cases, in Cornwall, very small fissures 
in the strata of the earth, through 
which small streams of water flow 
when they are opened by the work- 
ing underground, greatly to the 
hindrance of the workmen. 

Casing of timber-work, the plastering 
a house all over on the outside with 
mortar and then striking it wet by 
a ruler with the corner of a trowel, 
or the like instrument, to make it 
resemble the joints of freestone, 
by which means the whole house 
appears as if built thereof. 

Casino. The Italian name used at 
first for a small house, afterwards 
a pleasure-house in a garden, and 
then for a place of relaxation in 
town. 

Cassel earth, or Castle earth, an 
ochreous pigment of a brown co- 



85 



lour, more inclined to the russet 
hue. 

Cassia Fistula is a native vegetable 
pigment, though it is more com- 
monly used as a medicinal drug. 

Cast, to pay a vessel's head off, in 
getting under \vay, on the tack she 
is to sail upon. 

Cast after cast, in Cornwall, is throw- 
ing up of tin stuff, etc., from one 
stage of boards to another, each 
cast about 5 or 6 feet high. 

Castella, square towers in the ce- 
lebrated Roman wall of Severus, 
which was raised to separate Eng- 
land from Scotland. 

Castellated, built in imitation of an 
ancient castle. 

Castellum, the receptacle in which 
the water was collected and heated 
for the public baths of the Romans; 
a castle. 

Casting, among sculptors, the taking 
casts of impressions of figures, 
busts, medals, leaves, etc. 

Casting of draperies : by this term is 
implied the distribution of the 
folds, and draperies are said to be 
well cast when the folds are dis- 
tributed in such a manner as to 
appear rather the result of mere 
chance than of art, study, or labour. 
In that manner or style of painting, 
which is called the grand, the folds 
of the draperies should be great, 
and as few as possible, because 
their rich simplicity is more sus- 
ceptible of great lights ; but it is 
an error to design draperies too 
heavy and cumbersome, for they 
ought to be suitable to the figures, 
with a combination of ease and 
grandeur. Order, contrast, and a 
variety of stuffs and folds, consti- 
tute the elegance of draperies ; and 
diversity of colours in these stuffs 
contributes extremely to the har- 
mony of the whole in historic com- 
positions. 

Casting or Warping, in joinery, is the 
bending of the surfaces of a piece 
of wood from their original posi- 
tion, either by the weight of the 
wood or by an unequal exposure to 



CAS 



CASTLE. 



CAT 



the weather, or by the unequal tex- 
ture of the wood. 

Cast-iron framing, for mill-work, 
possesses great superiority over 
that of timber, for constructing 
the framing. It is not only much 
more durable, but, from the uni- 
formity of its texture, may be con- 
verted into any shape, so as to give 
it great advantage in arranging the 
materials with respect to strength, 
and proportioning it to the stress 
it has to sustain. 

Cast-iron shoes for roofs. A practice 
has been recently introduced into 
the , construction of roofs having 
the beams of wood, of protecting 
their extremities from the damp 
and consequent decay to which 
they are liable, by resting imme- 
diately in contact with the brick 
or stone work of the walls of the 
building. This is effected by what 
the workmen call cast-iron shoes, 
which are attached to the ends of 
the tie-beams by means of bolts, 
nuts, etc. 

The iron shoe itself, of course, 
takes various forms, according to 
circumstances and the situation 
where it is introduced, and the 
particular views of the architect 
who employs it. 

In cases where, from the nature 
of the work carried on, every part 
is exposed to great heat and mois- 
ture, the defence afforded by such 
an attachment is of great import- 
ance ; the wood, unless thus pro- 
tected, being of course very liable 
to decay in those parts where damp 
and moisture might accumulate. 

Castle, a fortified arid strong man- 
sion, situated and constructed and 
arranged for the purpose of pro- 
tecting its inmates against the as- 
saults of enemies ; in modern use, 
domestic residences of the nobi- 
lity and gentry, without the neces- 
sity of being garrisoned by armed 
men. 

Cat, the tackle used to hoist the an- 
chor up to the cat-head. 

Catacombs, subterraneous vaults or 

8G 



excavations used as burying-places. 

Catadrome, a tilt-yard, or place where 
horses run for prizes ; also an en- 
gine like a crane, used by builders 
to draw up or let down any weight. 

Catafalco, a decoration of sculpture, 
painting, etc., raised on a timber 
scaffold, to show a coffin or tomb 
in a funeral solemnity. 

Catagraph, the first draught of a 
picture. 

Catamaran, a name given both in the , 
East and West Indies to some kinds 
of rafts, which are used in short 
navigations along the sea-shore. 

Cataract, a contrivance applied to 
Cornish engines for regulating the 
number of strokes per minute : it 
consists of a small pump fixed on 
a cistern ; the piston is raised at 
each stroke of the engine by a 
tappet on the plug-rod, and the 
water rises into the cylinder of the 
pump ; it is then forced through a 
cock by means of counterweights 
attached to a cross-head on the 
pump piston-rod : when the water 
has been forced back into the 
cistern, a series of levers, acting on 
a rising rod, loosen catches which 
allow weights to act, by means of 
levers, to open or shut the steam, 
equilibrium, and exhaust valves. 

Cataractes, a cataract, cascade, or 
sudden fall of water from a higher 
to a lower level ; according to 
Pliny, a sluice, flood-gate, or lock 
in a river. 

Catch, a contrivance in machinery, 
acting on the principle of a latch. 

Catenary, in the higher geometry, a 
mechanical curve which a chain or 
rope forms itself into by its own 
weight, when hung freely between 
two points of suspension, whether 
these points be in the same hori- 
zontal plane or not. 

Catgut, in turnery, the string which 
connects the fly and the mandril. 

Cat-harpin, an iron leg used to con- 
fine the upper part of the rigging 
to the mast. 

Catharpings, small ropes in a ship, 
running in little blocks, from one 



CAT 



CATHEDRALS. 



CAU 



side of the shroud to another, near 
the deck. 

Cat-head, in naval architecture, a 
large square piece of timber, one 
end of which is fastened upon the 
forecastle and the other end pro- 
jects without the how, so as to keep 
the anchor clear of the ship when 
it is being drawn up by a tackle. 

Cathedra, according to Horace, a chair 
without arms; according to Juve- 
nal, a chair with a long deep seat. 

Cathedral, the principal church of a 
diocese, in which the bishop's 
throne is placed. 

Very few of the Gothic cathe- 
drals on the Continent have the 
tower or spire springing from the 
centre of the cross, and resting 
on four pillars, to balance the 
thrusts of the ranges of arches 
centering there ; nor have those of 
Strasburg, Ulm, Vienna, Orleans, 
or Antwerp. " The distribution of 
light in a Gothic cathedral is ad- 
mirably adapted to the grandeur of 
the edifice, and produces that effect 
which a painter aims at in his 
picture. At the entrance at the 
west, the window being placed high, 
there is a low-toned light on the 
lower part of the pillars, and a 
shadow on the pavement, which, as 
we walk up the nave, graduates into 
light from the choir. The east 
window, always the broadest and 
the highest, pours in a greater body 
of light than is to be found in any 
other kind of building. The altar, 
rather in shadow, surrounded by 
this strong light, gives additional 
effect by contrast. The light from 
the transept windows is softened 
down by painted glass. The small 
windows, placed high along the 
aisles, enlighten their roofs, but 
the lower part of the pillars and 
floor remain in shadow." 

Cathedral (the very ancient) of Usum- 
bar and other Armenian churches 
in Georgia have an arcade sur- 
rounding the outside of the build- 
ing, of which the arches are in the 
flattened Gothic style : the same 

87 



form prevails in the windows, doors, 
etc., in the body of the church. 
These structures are of an earlier 
date than any Gothic architecture 
in Italy. 

Catherine-wheel, in architecture, an 
ornament that occurs in the upper 
part of the north and south tran- 
septs of ancient cathedrals. 

Catherwood (Frederick), architect, 
born in London 1799: his travels 
were extensive ; had much to do 
both in North and South America ; 
was lost in the Arctic in 1854. 

Cathetus. The eye of the volute is 
so termed because its position is 
determined, in an Ionic or voluted 
capital, by a line let down from the 
point in which the volute generates. 

Cathimia, a subterraneous mineral 
vein, out of which gold and silver 
are dug. 

Cat's-paw, a hitch made in a rope. 

Cauliculus, the volute or twist under 
the flower in the Corinthian capital. 

Caulking, in naval architecture, the 
art of driving a quantity of oakum, 
i.e. old ropes untwisted and soft- 
ened, into the seams of the planks, 
to keep out the water. 

Gaunter and Caunting, in Cornish 
mining, Contra : when two lodes 
run across, the one, with respect to 
the other, is called a counter or 
contra lode. 

Cans (S. de), born in France, was 
drawing-master to Henry Prince of 
Wales : he published several scien- 
tific works. Died in 1614. 

Caus (J. de), of Dieppe, brother of 
the above, hydraulic engineer. 

Causeway, a carriage-road. 

Cautions in Architectural Construc- 
tion. 

UNION OF NEW AND OLD WORK. 

In attaching any new work to a 
building, every allowance must be 
made for the sinking of the footings 
under pressure, and for the settle- 
ment of the masonry into itself. 
Thus, while it is necessary that a 
vertical groove, or indent, be made 
in the old work, to receive a cor- 



CAU 



CAUTIONS IN 



CAU 



responding piece of the new, it js 
still more essential that a freedom 
for the downward motion of the 
latter should be secured : otherwise, 
if it be tightly toothed and bonded 
into the old work, the result illus- 
trated in the annexed sketch may 
be anticipated. 




UNION OF ASHLAR FACING WITH 
BRICK OR RUBBLE BACKING. 

The same caution required in 
the latter case must be here equally 
observed. The backing (composed 
of small material and much mor- 
tar) will settle more than the face ; 
and the latter will consequently 




bulge. This is easily remedied by 
computing, and allowing for, the 
difference of settlement ; and by a 
due regard to the occasional bond- 
ing of the ashlar, so as to make 
the wall one substance, instead of 
two differently conditioned. The 
preceding sketch illustrates the 
consequence of weight pressing 

88 



upon unbonded ashlar and upon 
yielding rubble. 

INVERTED ARCHES. 

Inverted arches must be used 
cautiously. Here is an instance, 




in which the points A and A were 
prevented by the inverted arch 
from sinking with the points B B, 
which latter sunk the more from 
the pressure of the arch c in the 
direction of the dotted lines. It 
is not uncommon for the young 
architect to affect precautionary 
science, without a due considera- 
tion of the peculiar circumstances 
of his case. 

DRAINAGE, ETC. 

Always endeavour, if possible, to 
get your water-closet cess-pit out- 
side the building, so that it may 
be approached for cleansing with- 
out disturbing the interior. Be 
careful in the efficient use of dip- 
draps to prevent the ascent of rats 
from the outer sewer into the 
drains which are under the floors 
of the house. Rats are destructive 
in their operations, and if they die 
in the drain, prove, for a length 
of time, an unbearable nuisance. 
Drains may serve every purpose of 
carrying off soil and water; but 
the slightest opening in their upper 
part will allow the escape of effluvia 
into the space under the ground 
flooring, and thence into the rooms, 
unless that space be thoroughly 
ventilated with grated openings, 
allowing a thorough draught, or, 



'CAU 



CONSTRUCTION. 



CAU 



at least, a free ingress of fresh air, 
and equal egress of foul. In the 
application of covered dry areas 
round the excavated basements of 
buildings, on no account omit their 
entire ventilation. If this be not 
attended to, the main walling, 
which they are intended to preserve 
from damp, may remain even more 
continually moist than if in imme- 
diate connection with the natural 
ground. Moisture frequently rises 
up the walling from below its foun- 
dation, and, exuding from the face 
of the masonry, remains confined, 
unless it evaporate and escape. 
Without means to this end, a co- 
vered area will be merely a recep- 
tacle for damp, and may keep the 
masonry continually wet, even when 
the ground outside is perfectly dry. 
Be especially cautious that the 
water from the rain- pipes of the 
roofs and flats be not conducted 
by them into the foundations. 

FIRE OPENINGS. 

It will save much subsequent 
trouble and disturbance of masonry, 
to be assured as to the size and 
character of the stoves, grates, 
ranges, etc., which the proprietor 
will employ. In the kitchen and 
cooking-rooms, especially, precau- 
tionary care should be taken in 
suiting the openings to the intended 
apparatus. Do riot forget to be 
prepared for a smoke-jack, etc. 

DWARF WALLS. 

In constructing these, do not 
omit the holes, etc., necessary for 
under-floor ventilation. 

PAVING. 

Be careful that the bottom, on 
which fine paving is laid, be dry 
and free from staining material. 
Common lime mortar is often in- 
jurious to pavements. Portland 
paving is especially liable to be 
disfigured by it. 

WROUGHT STONE-WORK. 

In putting wrought stone-work 
together, iron is to be avoided as 

89 



the certain cause of its subsequent 
destruction. The stone cornices, 
architraves, and dressings of many 
a noble mansion have been brought 
into premature ruin by the con- 
traction and expansion of iron 
under the effects of cold and heat. 
But there are careless contractors 
who will allow their Corinthian 
capitals and fluted shafts to be 
ruined, even before the entablature 
surmounts them ; and the young 
architect will not, therefore, omit 
to insert a clause in his specifica- 
tion (and to be peremptory in its 
enforcement), that all cut stone- 
work be securely preserved, during 
the progress of the building, with 
wood casing. It is surprising how 
grossly indifferent each class of 
artificers is to the work of the 
others. It is still more surprising 
to observe how frequently they 
seem indifferent to the preserva- 
tion of their own. 

SLATING. 

Get rid of the masons and plas- 
terers and plumbers before your 
slaters begin. The injury done to 
slating by the afterwork of chim- 
ney-tops, etc., is much to be 
dreaded. The cementitious ' stop- 
ping ' to a roof will not be effi- 
ciently done without close super- 
vision : the ridge, hip, and valley 
courses will not be properly formed 
of large cut slates, nor will every 
slate have its two nails, unless the 
architect see to it. 

PLASTERING. 

Clear may be your specification 
in forbidding salt sand, but, if your 
work be carried on in the vicinity 
of any estuary, the chances are 
(unless you be deemed cruelly 
strict) that the surface of your in- 
ternal walls will vary with the 
weather, from damp to dry, like a 
seaweed, and throw out salt in 
abundance. 

BEAMS, JOISTS, AND OTHER TIMBERS. 
LINTELS, BOND, PARTITION'S. 

It is the office of walls to carry 



CAU 



CAUTIONS IN 



CAU 



beams, etc. ; and that of beams to 
stay the walls from falling otfl- 
wards or inwards : but it is the 
duty of architects to see that the 
wood- work which supplants ma- 
sonry does not weaken the latter ; 
t. e. that the ends of timbers in- 
serted into walls may not, by com- 
pression or decay, leave the su- 
perincumbent masonry to loosen 
downwards. Thus, the beam A, 
though entering only a portion of 




the wall,presses uponthe thorough- 
stone e, which throws the weight 
upon the whole wall, and has, by 
means of an iron plate c, a hold to 
secure its perpendicularity. The 
cover-stone c presses on the surface 
of the timber to confirm its secu- 
rity : but should the timber rot, 
the cover-stone will not sink, be- 
cause sustained by the side-stones 
dd. To prevent rot, the backing 
and side-stones are left free of the 
timber, so that air 
may traverse round 
it. The habit of plac- 
ing the ends of beams 
on a template, as G, 
is bad. The only jus- 
tification of the employment of 
wood, so built into the walls, is 
when it forms a continuous plate, 
that it may act as a bond to pre- 
serve the perfect horizontal level of 
joists, which, however, should ex- 





tend a little beyond the plate, so as 
to have a bearing also on the solid 
of the wall. Careful inspection 



will then so manage the construc- 
tion of the wall in this part, as to 
leave it but little weakened by the 
air-hollows required for the plate 




and joists : unless, indeed, it be 
very thin, as only one brick, for 
instance, when no law of common 
sense can justify the use of conti- 
nuous bond. Where joists uninter- 
ruptedly cross a thin wall, which 
is to support another story of ma- 
sonry, let there only be one plate, 
thin, and on its edge, in the centre 
of the wall, so that at least a brick 
on edge may be placed on each 
side of it, to fill up the intervals 
between the joists, and give solid 
support to the superincumbent 
masonry. On no account let the 
upper part of the wall be separated 
from the lower by a mere layer of 
perishable wood, or supported by 
a range of joists on their edge. It 
has often been seen that iron hoop- 
ing should be more used than it is 
as the internal bonding of walls. 
At the same time it must be re- 
membered that bond timbering is 
necessary, at intervals, to receive 
the nails of the battening. When, 
however, the wall is thin, it may 
be imperative to avoid its use, 
employing old oak bats for that 
purpose. In short, let it be the 
care of the young architect, so to 
contrive the union of his masonry 
and carpentry, as that the entire 
removal of the latter may leave the 



90 



;AU 



CONSTRUCTION. 



CAU 



former secure in its own strength. 
In the use of lintels especially, he 
should be cautious. They are use- 
ful as bonds to unite the tops of 
piers, and as means for the fixing 
of the joinery ; but they ought 
never to be trusted to as a lasting 
support of masonry, that support 
being always really afforded by the 
relieving segment arch above the 
lintel. A bressummer may be 
termed a large lintel ; and by its 
adoption here, at least, the support 
of the masonry is truly intended. 
The use of the bressummer, in shop- 
front openings, is an evil necessity 
to which an architect must often 
submit ; and all that he can do, is 
to make the best of a bad job, by 
wrought -iron trussing, which will 
at least give adequate strength, 
though it may not ensure perma- 
nent durability. If time spare it, 
fire may destroy it ; and the latter 
evil is not to be met even by iron, 
which, if wrought, will bend, if 
cast, will crack, with heat. Let 
the arch, then, or some modifica- 
tion of it, be always used, if pos- 
sible. 

Partitions of wood should not be 
left to the sagacity of the carpenter. 
Under all circumstances where they 
have to support themselves over 
voids, or to bear, or participate in 
the bearing of, a pressure from 
above, they should be considered 




by the architect in his specifica- 
tion, and carefully studied in 
making the working drawings. It 

91 



is not enough merely to say, that 
" they are to be trussed so as to pre- 
vent any injury to ceilings by their 
own pressure;" marginal sketches 
should be made, showing the dis- 
position of the skeleton framing, 
with whatever iron-work is neces- 
sary to its security. See, for in- 
stance, what a carpenter may do, 
unless well directed : a roof c, 
bearing partly on the partition A, 
when it should have borne only on 
the walls ; and, instead of distress- 
ing the partition, should hare 
rather held it suspended : the par- 
tition A bearing down with its own 
weight, and that of the roof, on 
the floor B, instead of being so 
truss-framed in its length as to 
leave the floor unconscious of its 
existence. No ignorance in the 
young architect is presumed as to 
the manner of doing these things ; 
he is merely admonished not to 
imagine that they are so obvious as 
to be done without his guidance. 
In the framing of roofs, give a 




maximum strength to the purlins : 
the undulating surface of a weakly- 
purlined roof will soon proclaim 
its defect in this particular. The 
position of the principals should 
not be observable from without. 

FLOORS J SIMPLE AND FRAMED, ETC. 

For permanent and uniform 
strength, there is no floor so good 
as one composed of simple joists, 
stiffened by cross-bonding : but, in 
very large rooms, there is more 
economy in the compound floor of 
binders and joists, or of joists, 
binders, and girders. There may 
be particular reasons for girders, 
etc.; as, when the weight of the 
floor has to be thrown upon 



CAU 



CAUTIONS. 



CAU 



piers, and not on a continuous 
wall of uniform strength : but 
the usual motive to the use of the 
compound floor, in rooms which 
exceed 18 or 20 feet in width, is a 
legitimate economy of materials. 
It is only necessary to caution the 
young practitioner on the necessity 
of considering, that girders have to 
perform the duty of cross-walls ; 
that they should be trussed to 
prevent their ' sagging ' even with 
their own weight ; that their scant- 
ling should allow for the weakening 
effect of the cuttings made into 
their substance to receive the tim- 
bers they support ; that their truss- 
es should be wholly of iron (and 
not partially of oak) ; and, espe- 
cially, that the end of each girder, 
instead of being notched on perish- 
able templates of wood, and closely 
surrounded with mortar and ma- 
sonry, should be housed in a cavity 
with an iron holding-plate ; or 
inserted into a cast-iron boxing, 
notched into a thorough - stone, 
leaving a space (however small) 
for the air to circulate about it, 




and prevent rot. The failure of 
a girder sometimes involves the 
failure of all the rest of the floor : 
and, though all timbers inserted 
in masonry should have a more 
careful regard to their preservation 
from decay than it is usual to be- 
stow, it will be readily admitted, 
that too much care cannot be given 
to those leading bearing timbers, 
without the permanent duration of 
which the durability of the large 
remainder is of no avail. 

ROOFS. 
The same remarks, applying to 

92 



the extremities of girders, apply 
also to tie-beams. 

CEILINGS. 

To procure a good ceiling in 
single-joist floors it is necessary 
there should be ceiling-joists cross- 
ing below the others : and it is a 
question whether the ceiling-joists, 
under double-framed floors, instead 
of being chase-mortised into the 
binders, should not be in unbroken 
lengths nailed under the binders. 
Where the ceiling-joists (as under 
roofs) are likely to be trodden 
upon, they must be well secured. 

SOUND BOARDING. 

Always consider whether the 
occupants of any particular room 
will be annoyed by noises from the 
rooms below or above. Sound 
boarding and pugging considerably 
increase the weight of the floor, 
the scantling of whose timbers 
should therefore be thought upon. 
Watercloset partitions should be 
well pugged. 

MICE IN PARTITIONS AND SKIRT- 
INGS. 

The space behind the skirtings 
is often a thoroughfare 
for mice, which also 
contrive to travel from 
floor to floor in the 
hollows of the quarter- 
partitions, and become 
in several ways a great 
nuisance. Plaster or 
wood stopping is not 
. always so efficacious as 
the use of broken glass 
in those secret passages which they 
are prone to frequent. 

COVERINGS TO GUTTERS, CISTERNS, 
ETC. 

The liability of gutters and 
cisterns to become choked with 
snow, or filled up with leaves, etc., 
renders it advisable to protect them 
with a boarded covering, which 
may preserve the under-current of 
water from receiving what may 




CEDARS. 



CED 



speedily produce a chokage or 
overflow. 

IKON COLUMNS, BEAMS, ETC. 

On this most important subject 
the young architect should not 
move a step without carefully con- 
sulting the experienced knowledge 
of the engineer. Tredgold's ' Prac- 
tical Essay on the Strength of Cast 
Iron ' should be well studied, 
whenever necessity compels the 
support of heavy and loaded su- 
perstructures by iron columns and 
beams. A careful computation of 
the weight of the mere building, 
added to that of its possible bur- 
then, with allowance for theoretical 
fallacy, and a due estimate of the 
increased strength of the hollow 
pillar, as compared with a solid 
one having the same amount of 
metal, must be made, examined, 
and re-examined, before the speci- 
fication be issued. 

Cavcedium, one of the courts of a 
Roman house, most commonly sur- 
rounded by a covered passage, 
having the middle area exposed to 
the air. There are five kinds of 
cavaedia, which, from their mode 
of construction, are severally deno- 
minated Tuscan, Corinthian, tetra- 
style, displuviatum, and testudi- 
natum. They are termed Tuscan 
when the beams which are thrown 
across the court have timbers and 
gutters extending diagonally from 
the angles made by the walls of the 
court to those made by the junction 
of the beams, and the rafters of the 
eaves are made to incline every 
way towards the centre of the 
compluvium. The timbers and 
compluvia of Corinthian cavaedia 
have a disposition, in all respects, 
similar ; but beams are made to 
project from the walls, and are 
supported upon columns arranged 
around the court. 

Cavazion, in architecture, the hollow 
trench made for laying the foun- 
dation of a building ; according to 

93 



Vitruvius, it ought to be one-sixth 
part of the height of the whole 
building. 

Cavetto, a hollow moulding whose 
profile is a quadrant of a circle ; 
principally used in cornices. 

Cavendish (the Hon. Henry), one of 
the most learned men in chemistry 
and the arts of his age. Born 10th 
October 1731 ; died 24th Febru- 
ary, 1810. An octavo volume, pub- 
lished by the Cavendish Society 
in 1851, very copiously adduces 
evidences of Mr. Cavendish's prior 
claim to the discovery of the theory 
of the composition of air and 
water : the volume contains many 
valuable papers on the life and 
experimental labours of Cavendish, 
and the relative merit of Cavendish ; 
on Watt and Lavoiser and others ; 
inquiries of the learned men of the 
latter end of the last, and the be- 
ginning of the present century. 

Cawk-stone, a mineral, akin to the 
white milky, mineral juice of lead 
mines. 

Caya, a kay or water-lock. 

Cede, an old English term for a ca- 
nopy. 

Cedar. Cedar-wood was known an d 
used in the earliest times, as in the 
construction of Solomon's Temple : 
great varieties are produced in the 
eastern and western parts of the 
world : it is used in ship-building, 
cabinet-work, pencil-making, and 
for various other purposes. 

Cedars of Lebanon, of great age and 
size, constitute a peculiar and very 
observable feature in the landscape 
of the suburbs of London, and are 
unusually numerous on the west 
and south-west sides as the ad- 
juncts of stately mansions or ele- 
gant villas, along the valley of the 
Thames. 

Poplars (Lombardy) are very 
freely introduced into the scenery 
around London. Beeches do not 
appear at home anywhere along the 
flat grounds near the Thames; but 
at Burnham, a little below Slough, 
there are some celebrated ones, 



CEI 



CEMENTS. 



CEM 



growing on a thin, light, gravelly 
soil, and Windsor Park contains 
some superb specimens. 

Chestnuts (of Spanish) we shall 
have some prodigious specimens to 
notice on a property of the Duke 
of Devonshire, near Chiswick. In 
Kensington Gardens, Greenwich 
Park, and other places, there are 
some very fine ones. It is a first- 
rate park tree for the low sheltered 
tract by the sides of the Thames, 
and is hardly enough esteemed. 

Ceiling, the upper side of an apart- 
ment, opposite to the floor, gene- 
rally finished with plastered work. 
Ceilings are set in two different 
ways : the best is where the setting- 
coat is composed of plaster and 
putty, commonly called ' gauge.' 
Common ceilings have plaster, but 
no hair: the latter is the same as 
the finishing coat in walls set for 
paper. 

Ceiling, the under covering of a roof, 
under the surface of the vaulting in 
vaulted rooms and buildings. Ceil- 
ings in buildings of any dimensions 
at either story are the upper or 
overhead surfaces of the rooms 
respectively. 

Ceilings. When ceilings are covered, 
the height of the cove should be 
regulated by the total height of the 
room. In proportioning the height 
of a room to its superficial dimen- 
sions, the best proportion for the 
cove is one-quarter of the whole 
height. 

Celerity is the velocity or swiftness 
of a body in motion ; or that affec- 
tion of a body in motion by which 
it can pass over a certain space in 
a certain time. 

Cell, an enclosed space within the 
walls of an ancient temple ; a term 
applied also to monkish sleeping- 
rooms in religious establishments. 

Cella, the body or principal part of a 
temple, anciently written cela. 
It is thought to be derived from 
celandus, to be concealed or shut 
out from public view ; because 
in early emple the cella could 

94 



only be entered by privileged 
persons. 

Cellarino, that part of the capital in 
the Roman, Doric, and Tuscan 
orders which is below the annulets 
under the ovolo. 

Cellular beam. A newly introduced 
application of wrought-iron to the 
' purposes of girders and beams, ir 
which wrought-iron plates are 
riveted with angle-irons in the 
form of a series of longitudinal 
cells with occasional struts. 

Cemetery, a place wherein the bodies 
of the dead are buried ; a church- 
yard or burying-ground. 

Cementation is the process of con- 
verting iron into steel, which is 
done by stratifying bars of iron ini 
charcoal, igniting it, and letting! 
them continue in a kiln in that state 
for five or six days : the carbon of 
the charcoal is thus absorbed by 
the iron, and the latter converted 
into steel. 

Cements, natural. When the propor- 
tion of clay in calcareous minerals 
exceeds 27 to 30 per cent., it is 
seldom that they can be converted 
into lime by calcination ; but they 
then furnish a kind of natural ce- 
ment, which may be employed in 
the same manner as plaster of Paris, 
by pulverizing it, and kneading it 
with a certain quantity of water. 

There are some natural cements 
which do not set in water for many 
days, and some which harden in 
less than a quarter of an hour : 
these last are the only ones which 
have been made use of at present. 
Though very useful in circum- 
stances where a quick solidification 
is indispensable, they are far from 
affording, in ordinary cases, the 
advantages of hydraulic mortars or 
cements of good quality. In fact, 
they merely adhere to the stone, 
owing to the roughness of its sur- 
face, and the entanglement result- 
ing from it ; and, however dexterous 
or experienced the workman may 
be who makes use of them,he will 
be unable to connect the different 



CEM 



CEMENTS. 



CEM 



parts of his masonry in one conti- 
nuous bond by means of them. 
This statement must be understood 
to apply only to cements which 
harden while in contact with bricks 
under water, because the adhesion 
of such as dry in the open air is 
well known to be much greater 
than what would be caused merely 
by asperities of the surface. It is 
not uncommon to see from twenty 
to thirty bricks stuck to one an- 
other by Roman cement, and pro- 
jecting at right angles from the 
side of a wall, as a proof of the 
excellence of the composition ; and 
an instance has been mentioned in 
which thirty-three bricks were suc- 
cessfully supported in this manner. 
Now, if we assume the weight of a 
brick and its corresponding joint 
of cement to be 6 ft>s., and their 
thickness, when the bricks were 
joined one to another in the man- 
ner above alluded to (in which the 
longest dimension of the brick was 
placed vertically), to be 2^ inches, 
then the cohesive force necessary 
to unite the first brick to the wall, 
with sufficient firmness to bear the 
strain occasioned by the weight of 
the remaining thirty-two supported 
by it, must have been nearly Qllfes. 
per square inch, or equivalent to a 
direct load of 3640 fts. upon its 
whole surface of about 40 square 
inches. 

That which is in England very 
improperly termed Roman cement 
is nothing more than a natural ce- 
ment, resulting from a slight calci- 
nation of a calcareous mineral, 
containing about 31 per cent, of 
ochreous clay,and a few hundredths 
of carbonate of magnesia and man- 
ganese. A very great consumption 
of this cement takes place in Lon- 
don ; but its use will infallibly be- 
come restricted, in proportion as 
the mortars of eminently hydraulic 
lime shall become better known, 
and, in consequence, better appre- 
ciated. 

Very recently, natural cements 

95 



have been found in Russia and in 
France. They may be composed at 
once by properly calcining mix- 
tures made in the average propor- 
tions of 66 parts of ochreous clay 
to 100 parts of chalk. It is fair, 
however, to admit, that no artificial 
product has yet been proved to 
equal the English cement in point 
of hardness. 

The pure calcareous substances, 
when imperfectly calcined, become 
converted into sub-carbonates, pos- 
sessed of certain properties. These 
properties are to afford a powder, 
which, when kneaded with water 
in the same way as plaster of Paris, 
acquires in it, at first, a consistency 
more or less firm, but which does 
not continue its progress at the 
same rate. 

The argillaceous limestones, and 
the artificial mixtures of pure lime 
and clay in the proportions requi- 
site to constitute hydraulic lime by 
the ordinary calcination, become 
natural or artificial cements when 
they have been subjected merely 
to a simple incandescence, kept up 
for some hours, or even for some 
minutes. This result, which has 
often occurred in the course of 
first experiments in burning the 
artificial hydraulic limestones, has 
been equally observed in Russia by 
Colonel Raucourt ; and M. Lacor- 
daire, Engineer of Roads, has not 
only fully verified it with respect 
to the different argillaceous lime- 
stones of the neighbourhood of 
Pouilly, but has also made a use- 
ful and happy application of it in 
the works which have been erected 
at the junction of the Burgundy 
canal ; both in transforming these 
limestones into natural cements, 
and in turning to account the large 
quantity of half-burnt lime which 
is found in the upper layers of the 
kilns, when the intensity and du- 
ration of the heat is so regulated 
as not to exceed the limit proper 
for the lower strata of the charge. 

The history of these new cements 



CEN 



CENTRE FRAMES. 



CEN 



will not be complete until authentic 
and multiplied experiments shall 
have established their power to 
resist the effects of air and frost, 
and the degree of adhesion with 
which they unite to the building- 
stone. 

Cenotaphium, a cenotaph, an empty 
or honorary tomb, erected by the 
Greeks as a memorial of a person 
whose body was buried elsewhere, 
or not found for burial. 

Censitores, surveyors of the Roman 
aqueducts. 

Centaur, poetically, and in ancient 
mythology, a being represented as 
half man half horse ; the Sagitta- 
rius of the Zodiac. 

Centering, temporary supports, prin- 
cipally of timber, placed and affixed 
under vaults and arches to sustain 
them while they are in course of 
building. Much ingenuity is dis- 
played in the centering for bridges 
and tunnels. 

Centigrade, the division into grades 
or degrees by hundredth parts ; 
called also centesimal. 

Central forces, the powers which 
cause a moving body to tend to- 
wards or recede from the centre of 
motion. When a body is made 
to revolve in a circle round some 
r xed point, it will have a continued 
tendency to fly off in a straight line 
at a tangent in the circle, which 
tendency is called the centrifugal 
force ; and the opposing power by 
which the body is retained in the 
circular path is called the centri- 
petal force. 

Centre, any timber frame, or set of 
frames, for supporting the arch- 
stones of a bridge during the con- 
struction of an arch. 

The qualities of a food centre 
consist in its being a sufficient sup- 
port for the weight or pressure of 
the arch-stones, without any sen- 
sible change of form taking place 
throughout the whole progress of 
the work, from the springing of 
the arch to the fixing of the key- 
stone : it should be capable of being 

96 



easily and safely removed, and de- 
signed so that it may be erected at 
a comparatively small expense. 

In navigable rivers, where a cer- 
tain space must be left for the pas- 
sage of vessels, and in deep and 
rapid rivers, where it is difficult to 
establish intermediate supports, 
and where much is to be appre- 
hended from sudden floods, the 
frames should span the whole width 
of the archway, or be framed so as 
to leave a considerable portion of 
the archway unoccupied. In such 
cases, a considerable degree of art 
is required to make the centre an 
effectual support for the arch- 
stones, particularly when the arch 
is large. But in narrow rivers, and 
in those where the above-mentioned 
inconveniences do not interfere 
with the work, the framing may be 
constructed upon horizontal tie- 
beams, supported in several places 
by piles, or frames fixed in the bed 
of the river ; and the construction 
is comparatively easy. 

In large arches, when the arch- 
stones are laid to a considerable 
height, they often force the centre 
out of form, by causing it to rise 
at the crown ; and it is sometimes 
necessary to load the centre at the 
crown to prevent such rising ; but 
this is a very imperfect remedy. 
Notwithstanding the subject has 
been considered by several very 
eminent men, their works are not 
much calculated to instruct the 
carpenter how to avoid this diffi- 
culty : indeed, their object seems 
to have been exclusively to calcu- 
late the strength of a centre already 
designed, instead of showing the 
principles on which it ought to 
be contrived ; and even in calcu- 
lating the strength, they are very 
imperfect guides, because they have 
hot attempted to find what forces 
would derange a centre, but only 
the force that might be supported 
without fracture. 

Centre, in a general sense, denotes a 
point equally remote from the ex- 



CEN 



CENTRE-BIT. 



CEN 



tremes of a line, surface, or solid : 
the word signifies a point. 

Centre-bit, in joinery, an instrument 
with a projecting conical point 
nearly in the middle, called the 
centre of the bit : on the narrow 
vertical surface, the one most re- 
mote from the centre, is a tooth 
with a cutting edge. The under 
edge of the bit on the other side of 
the centre has a projecting edge 
inclined forward. The horizontal 
section of this bit upwards is a 
rectangle. The axis of the small 
cone in the centre is in the same 
straight line as that of the stock ; 
the cutting edge of the tooth is 
more prominent than the projecting 
edge on the other side of the cen- 
tre, and the vertex of the conic 
centre is still more prominent than 
the cutting edge of the tooth. 

The use of the centre-bit is to 
form a cylindric excavation, having 
the upper point of the axis of the 
intended hole given on the surface 
of the wood. The centre of the bit 
is first fixed in this point ; then, by 
placing the axis of the stock and 
bit in the axis of the hole intended 
to be bored, with the head of the 
stock against the breast, and by 
turning the stock swiftly round by 
means of the handle, the hollow 
cone made by the centre will cause 
the point of the tooth to move in 
the circumference of a circle, and 
cut the cylindric surface progres- 
sively as it is turned round, while 
the projecting edge upon the other 
side of the centre will cut out the 
cone in a spiral-formed shaving. 
Centre-bits are of various sizes, for 
bores of different diameters. 

Centre-chuck, a chuck which can be 
screwed on the mandril of a lathe, 
and has a hardened steel cone or 
centre fixed in it ; also a projecting 
arm or driver. 

Centre-drill, a small drill used for 
making a short hole in the ends of 
a shaft about to be turned, for the 
entrance of the lathe centres. 

Centre of attraction of a body is that 



97 



point into which, if all its matter 
were collected, its action upon any 
remote particle would still be the 
same as it is while the body retains 
its own proper form ; or it is that 
point to which bodies tend by 
their own gravity, or about which 
a planet revolves as a centre, being 
attracted or impelled towards it by 
the action of gravity. The common 
centre of attraction of two or more 
bodies is used to denote that point 
in which, if a particle of matter 
were placed, the action of each 
body upon it would be equal, and 
where it will remain in equilibrium, 
having no tendency to move one 
way rather than another. 

Centre of a circle, that point in a 
circle which is equally distant from 
etery point of the circumference, 
being that from which the circle 
is described. 

Centre of a conic section, that point 
which bisects any diameter, or that 
point in which all the diameters 
intersect each other. This point 
in an ellipse is within the figure, in 
the hyperbola without, and in the 
parabola it is at an infinite distance. 

Centre of conversion, a mechanical 
term, the signification of which may 
be thus conceived : if a stick be 
laid on stagnant water, and drawn 
by a thread fastened to it, so that 
the thread makes always the same 
angle with it, the stick will be 
found to turn about a certain point, 
which point is called the ' centre 
of conversion.' 

Centre of a curve of the higher kind, 
is the point where two diameters 
concur ; and when all the diameters 
concur in the same point, it is 
called the general centre. 

Centre of a dial, that point where 
the gnomon or style, placed paral- 
lel to the axis of the earth, inter- 
sects the plane of the dial. 

Centre of an equilibrium is the same 
with respect to bodies immersed in 
a fluid as the centre of gravity is 
to bodies in free space ; or it is a 
certain point on which, if a body, 



CEN 



CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 



CEN 



or system of bodies, be suspended^ 
they will rest in any position. 

Centre of friction is that point in the 
base of a body on which it revolves, 
in which, if the whole surface of 
the base and the mass of the body- 
were collected and made to revolve 
about the centre of the base of the 
given body, the angular velocity 
destroyed by its friction would be 
equal to the angular velocity de- 
stroyed in the given body by its 
friction in the same time. 

Centre of gravity of any body, or sys- 
tem of bodies, is that point upon 
which the body or system of bodies 
acted upon only by the force of 
gravity will balance itself in all 
positions ; or it is a point on which, 
when supported, the body or sys- 
tem will be supported, however it 
may be situated in other respects. 
Hence it follows, that if a line or 
plane passing through the centre 
of gravity be supported, the body 
or system will also be supported ; 
and conversely, if a body or system 
balance itself upon a line or plane, 
in all positions, the centre of gravity 
is in that line or plane. In a simi- 
lar manner it will appear, that if a 
body rest in equilibrio when sus- 
pended from any point, the centre 
of gravity of that body or system 
is in the perpendicular let fall from 
the centre of suspension ; and on 
these principles depends the me- 
chanical method of finding the cen- 
tre of gravity of bodies. 

Centre of gyration, that point in a 
body revolving on an axis, into 
which, if the matter of the whole 
body were collected, the same an- 
gular velocity would be generated 
by the same moving force. 

Centre of motion of a body is a fixed 
point about which the body is 
moved ; and the axis of motion is 
the fixed axis about which it moves. 

Centre of oscillation, the point in 
which the whole of the matter 
must be collected, in order that the 
time of oscillation may be the same 
as when it is distributed. 



98 



Centre of percussion, that point of a 
revolving body which would strike 
an obstacle with the same force as 
if the whole of the matter were 
collected in it. 

Centre of position, in mechanics, de- 
notes a point of any body, or system 
of bodies, so selected that we may 
properly estimate the situation and 
motion of the body or system by 
those points. 

Centre of pressure, or metacentre of 
a fluid against a plane, is that point 
against which a force being applied, 
equal and contrary to the whole 
pressure, it will sustain it, so as 
that the body pressed on will not 
incline to either side. This is the 
same as the centre of percussion, 
supposing the axis of motion to be 
at the intersection of this plane 
with the surface of the fluid ; and 
the centre of pressure upon a plane 
parallel to the horizon, or upon any 
plane where the pressure is uni- 
form, is the same as the centre of 
gravity of that plane. 

Centre of spontaneous rotation, that 
point which remains at rest the 
instant a body is struck, or about 
w r hich the body begins to revolve. 
If a body of any size or form, after 
rotatory or gyratory motions, be 
left entirely to itself, it will always 
have three principal axes of rota- 
tion ; that is, all the rotary motions 
by which it is effected may be con- 
stantly reduced to three, which are 
performed round three axes per- 
pendicular to each other, passing 
through the centre of gravity, and 
always preserving the same position 
in absolute space, while the centre 
of gravity is at rest, or moves uni- 
formly forward in a right line. 

Centre phonic, in acoustics, the place 
where the speaker stands in mak- 
ing polysyllabical and articulate 
echoes. 

Centre phonocamptic, the place or 
object which returns the voice. 

Centre-punch., a small piece of steel 
with a hardened point at one end. 

Centres, in turnery, are the two cones 



CEN 



CHAINS. 



CHA 



with their axes horizontally posited 
for sustaining the body while it is 
turned. 

Centre-velic or Velic-point, the centre 
of gravity of an equivalent sail, or 
that single sail whose position and 
magnitude are such as cause it to 
be acted upon by the wind when 
the vessel is sailing, so that the 
motion shall be the same as that 
which takes place while the sails 
have their usual positions. 

Centrifugal force is that force by 
which a body revolving about a 
centre, or about another body, has 
a tendency to recede from it. 

Centrifugal pump, a machine for 
raising water by centrifugal force 
combined with the pressure of the 
atmosphere. 

Centripetal force is that force by 
which a body is perpetually urged 
onwards to a centre, and thereby 
made to revolve in a curve instead 
of a right line. 

Ceramics, a term for all the varieties 
of baked or burnt clay. 

Ctrium, a metal discovered in 1803 
by Berzelius, and named after the 
planet Ceres. It is brittle, white, 
and volatile in a very intense heat : 
it is not acted upon by nitric acid, 
but is dissolved in aqua regia, nitro- 
hydrochloric acid. 

Cesspool, a receptacle, sunk below the 
level of a drain from a privy or 
water-closet, for the sediment 
which would otherwise choke the 
drain. 

Cerceau (A. du), architect : practised 
in France in 1575, and built se- 
veral magnificent palaces and 
mansions for Royalty and for the 
nobility. 

Cerceau (J. A. du), architect : born in 
1516, at Orleans ; died in 1592. 
He published valuable books on the 
architecture of the period. 

Ckafery, a forge in an iron mill, 
wherein the iron is wrought into 
bars. 

Chain, in surveying, is a lineal mea- 
sure, consisting of a certain number 
of iron links, usually 100, serving 

99 



to take the dimensions of fields, 
etc. : at every tenth link is usually 
fastened a small brass plate, with 
a figure engraved upon it, or else 
cut into different shapes, to show 
how many links it is from one end 
of the chain. 

Chains, strong links or plates of iron, 
the lower ends of which are bolted 
through a ship's side to the tim- 
bers. 

Chain-plates, plates of iron bolted to 
the side of a ship, to which the 
chains and dead-eyes of the lower 
rigging are connected. 

Chain-pump, an hydraulic machine 
for raising water. It is made of 
different lengths, and consists of 
two collateral square barrels and 
an endless chain of pistons of 
the same form, fixed at proper 
distances. 

Chain- timber, in brick-building, a 
timber of large dimensions placed 
in the middle of the height of a 
story, for imparting strength. 

Chairs. Anciently, in most apart- 
ments we find " two great chayers :" 
these were arm-chairs, with stuffed 
backs and sides, entirely covered, 
and similar to the lounging-chairs 
of the present day. Others are 
described as 'Flemish chairs,' 
' scrolled chairs/ and < turned 
chairs,' wrought in ebony, walnut, 
cherry-tree, etc., with high backs, 
either stuffed in one long upright 
panel, or filled with wicker- work,etc. 

Chalcedony, a precious stone, in co- 
lour like a carbuncle; by some trans- 
lated from the Scriptures as ' eme- 
rald.' 

Ckalcidicum, among the Romans, a 
large, low, and deep porch, covered 
with its own roof, supported on 
pilasters, and appended to the en- 
trance-front of a building, where 
it protected the principal doorway, 
and formed a grand entrance to the 
whole edifice. 

Chalcidria, chambers attached to a 
basilica ; they were built at one end 
when the situation would allow. 

Chalcoyrapher, an engraver in copper. 



F 2 



CHA 



CHANTING. 



CHA 



Chalice, the cup used for the wine at 
the celebration of the Eucharist. 

Chalinque, >a boat which is almost of 
a square building, used in Italy. 

Chalk, in geology, forms the higher 
part of the series or group termed 
cretaceous : it is composed of nearly 
44 parts of carbonic acid and 56 
parts of lime. 

Chamber of a mine, the place where 
the powder is fixed. 

Chambers (Sir William), born in 
Stockholm in 1725, was an emi- 
nent architect of the reign of 
George III. In the year 1768 was 
instituted the Royal Academy, to 
the establishment of which Cham- 
bers was principally instrumental. 
In 1775 he was appointed by the 
Government to construct the mag- 
nificent edifice of Somerset House, 
which was commenced in the fol- 
lowing year. Sir William Cham- 
bers had social intimacy with Drs. 
Johnson, Goldsmith, Burney, and 
Garrick, and other literary men of 
his day ; he published several ar- 
chitectural works, among them the 
celebrated work on the decorative 
part of civil architecture, which 
Mr. Joseph Gwilt has re-edited and 
improved. Died in London 1796. 

Chambers, according to Palladio, are 
made either arched or with a flat 
ceiling: if in the last way, the height 
from the floor to the joist above 
ought to be equal to their breadth ; 
and the chambers of the second 
story must be a sixth part less than 
them in height. 

Chambranle, an ornament in masonry 
and joiners' work which borders 
the sides of doors, windows, and 
chimneys. 

Chandry, an apartment in a prince's 
house, where the candles and other 
lights are kept. 

Chamfer. An edge or arris, taken off 
equally on the two sides which form 
it, leaves what is called a chamfer, 
or a chamfered edge. If the arris 
be taken off more on one side than 
the other, it is said to be splayed 
or bevelled. 

100 



^"Chamfering, the process of cutting the 
edge or the end of anything bevel 
or aslope. 
Champ, the flat surface of a wall. 

^Champe, the field or ground on which 

carving is raised. 

Champ de Mars : in French history, 
the public assemblies of the Franks 
are said to have been held in an 
open field, and in the month of 
March ; whence the name. 
Chancel, the choir or eastern part of 
a church appropriated to the use of 
those who officiate in the perform- 
ance of the services, and separated 
from the nave and other portions 
in which the congregation assemble, 
sometimes by a screen. 
Channel, in hydrography, the deepest 
part of a river, harbour, or strait, 
which is most convenient for the 
track of shipping ; also an arm of 
the sea running between an island 
and the main, or continent, as the 
British Channel, etc. 

'Channelling, in architecture, perpen- 
dicular channels, or cavities, cut 
along the shaft of a column or 
pilaster. 

Channels, broad pieces of plank bolted 
edgewise to the outside of a vessel, 
used for spreading the lower rig- 
ging- 

i Chant, Chanting. The word ' chant ' 
is derived from the Latin Cantus, 
which signifies singing ; a song, a 
lune, or melody, the sound of a 
trumpet, crowing of a cock (whence 
this bird is called ' chanticleer ') : 
it also signifies the frequent repe- 
tition of the same thing. The word 
chant is not confined to merely a 
melody consisting of several notes ; 
it may consist of one only : in this 
case it is called, in church music, 
' intonation,' although in Gregorian 
music the word intonation has a 
somewhat different signification. 
(See Gregorian Chant.} Hence 
chanting is reciting in a musical 
tone, and is peculiarly adapted to 
a dignified utterance of the sublime 
language of the Liturgy. Chant- 
ing or intoning on a monotone, or 



CHA 



CHAPEL. 



CHE 



single sound, is the simplest and 
easiest method of reading and re- 
sponding the various prayers, ex- 
hortations, litanies, suffrages, Kyrie 
eleisons, Allelujahs, Gloria Patri, 
and the Amens, and is eminently 
more dignified and solemn than 
when there is neither elevation nor 
depression of the voice at any one 
termination. In chanting the 
greater and lesser Canticles, the 
Te Deum, Jubilate, Benedicite, 
Benedictus, Athanasian Creed, Ve- 
nite exultemus, Magnificat, Can- 
tate Domino, Nunc dimittis, Deus 
misereatur, as also the prose 
Psalms, the chant may consist of 
more than one tone, although it is 
preferable to use a small number. 
The method of chanting the Psalter 
in the English church is different 
from that adopted on the Conti- 
nent, where it appears to be go- 
verned by no rule; whereas the 
Gregorian chant is governed en- 
tirely by rule. 

Chantlate, in building, a piece of 
wood fastened near the ends of the 
rafters, and projecting beyond the 
wall, to support two or three rows 
of tiles, so placed to hinder the 
rain-water from trickling down the 
sides of the walls. 

Chantry, an ecclesiastical benefice or 
endowment to provide for the 
chanting of masses. 

Chapel, a small building attached 
anciently to various parts of large 
churches or cathedrals, and sepa- 
rately dedicated ; also a detached 
building for divine service : in Eng- 
land chapels are sometimes called 
chapels of ease, built for the ac- 
commodation of an increasing po- 
pulation. 

Chapelling, wearing a ship round, 
when taken aback, without bracing 
the head-yards. 

Chapiter, the capital of a column. 

Chaplet, in architecture, a small orna- 
ment carved into round beads, etc. 

Chapman (Admiral), born in the last 
century, in Sweden, of English 
descent. His naval architectural 

101 



works on men-of-war and mer- 
chant-vessels are, as examples of 
principles, to practice the most 
eminent. The plates are drawn to 
a large scale, both in English and 
Swedish measurements. 

Chaps, the two planes or flat parts of 
a vice or pair of tongs or pliers, for 
holding anything fast, and which 
are generally roughed with teeth. 

Chapter-house, an establishment for 
Deans and Prebendaries of cathe- 
drals and collegiate churches ; the 
apartment or hall in which the 
monks and canons of a monastic 
establishment conduct their affairs 
connected with ecclesiastical regu- 
lations. 

Char or Chare, to hew, to work 
charred stone; hewn stone. 

Character, in a picture, is giving to 
the different objects their appro- 
priate and distinguishing appear- 
ance. 

Charcoal consists mainly of carbon 
procured from the decomposition 
of wood by burning. This ope- 
ration is generally conducted in 
pits made in the ground, and in 
iron cylinders. Wood is essentially 
composed of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen. Charcoal has the same 
pr<0|)erties : it is black, lighter than 
water, and full of pores, occasioned 
by the expulsion of the bodies vo- 
latilized. 

Charge, in electricity, is the accumu- 
lation of the electric matter on one 
surface of an electric, as a pane of 
glass, Leyden phial, etc., whilst an 
equal quantity passes off from the 
opposite surface. 

Charge, in mining : any quantity of 
ore put at one time into a furnace 
to fuse is called a ' charge ;' letting 
it out is called ' tapping.' 

Chargers, large dishes, sometimes de- 
scribed as ' flat pieces.' 

Chdtelet, the common gaol and ses- 
sion-house in the city of Paris. 

Cheeks, the shears orbed of the lathe 
as made with two pieces for con- 
ducting the puppets. 

Cheeks, the projection on each side 



CHE 



CHEMISTRY. 



CHE 



of a mast, upon which the trestle- 
trees rest ; the sides of the sheet* 
of a block. 

Cheeks. Two upright, equal and si- 
milar parts of any piece of timber 
work, as the sides of a dormer- 
window. 

Cheeks (of a mortise) are the two 
solid parts upon the sides of the 
mortise. The thickness of each 
cheek should not be less than the 
thickness of the mortise, except 
mouldings on the stiles require it 
to be otherwise. 

Cheerly, quickly ; with a will. 

Chemistry. The science of chemistry 
has for its object the study of the 
nature and properties of the dif- 
ferent substances of which the 
earth, the waters, the air, and their 
inhabitants (namely, plants and 
animals), are composed. In a 
word, it embraces the study of 
Everything under heaven accessible 
to man. In its highest branches 
it aims at discovering the laws or 
rules which regulate the formation 
of chemical compounds generally ; 
and in its useful applications it has 
been already exceedingly service- 
able in directing and improving 
the various arts of common life, as 
agriculture, the working of mftals, 
dyeing, and many other pursuits. 
It serves also to guide the medical 
man in the preparation of his re- 
medies, and also occasionally in 
distinguishing between diseases 
which are in other respects much 
alike. There is, indeed, scarcely a 
situation in life in which a know- 
ledge of chemistry may not prove 
directly useful. It is a science the 
study of which, from its simplest 
beginnings to its highest attempts, 
is rendered delightful by the con- 
stant succession of new and inter- 
esting things brought before the 
eye and the mind. 

Cherry-tree, a hard, close-grained 
wood, of a pale red-brown colour : 
when stained with lime, and oiled 
and varnished, it resembles maho- 
gany, and is used for furniture, etc. 

102 



Chess-trees, pieces of oak fitted to 
the sides of a vessel, abaft the fore- 
chains, with a sheave in them, to 
board the main-tack to ; not much 
used. 

Chest, a piece of furniture for the re- 
ception of all kinds of goods, par- 
ticularly household conveniences, 
deposited therein for security, and 
for plate ; placed also in churches, 
for the keeping of the holy ves- 
sels, vestments, etc. : the seaman's 
chest contains all the personalities 
of a sailor. 

Coffers and chests were the 
general repositories for articles of 
every kind ; writings, apparel, food, 
and even fuel, were kept within 
them. Many of these chests which 
were raised on feet to protect them 
from damp and vermin, were beau- 
tifully ornamented with carving 
and other sumptuous enrichments. 
Large trunks, in which clothes, 
hangings, etc., were packed for 
removal, were called ' Trussing 
Chests :' they were substantially 
made, and bound in every direction 
with iron straps, wrought into fan- 
ciful forms, and secured by locks 
of artful and curious contrivance. 
Two " standard chests " were de- 
livered to the laundress of King 
Henry VI1L; " the one to keep the 
cleane stuff, and the other to keep 
the stuff that had been occupied." 
" In ivory coffers," says Grameo, 
" I have stuffed my crowns ; in 
cypress chests, my arras, counter- 
points, etc." Cypress-wood was 
selected for its rare properties of 
neither rottingnor becomingworm- 
eaten. 

Chestnut wood is very durable, and 
was formerly much used in house 
carpentry and furniture. 

Cheval defrise, a square or octagonal 
beam of wood, from 6 to 9 feet in 
length, and pierced by iron rods or 
wooden pickets 6 feet long, which 
are pointed at each end, and shod 
with iron : the pickets are placed 
6 inches asunder, and pass through 
two opposite faces of the beam, in 



CHE 



CHIMNEY-PIECES. 



CHI 



directions alternately at right an- 
gles to each other, the cheval 
resting on the ground at the lower 
extremity of the pickets. 
Chevet, the termination of a church 
behind the high altar, when of a 
semicircular or polygonal form. 
'Chevron, a moulding of a zig-zag cha- 
racter, of the Norman style parti- 
cularly, but sometimes to be found 
with the pointed arch. 
Chiaro-oscuro, a drawing made in two 
colours, black and white ; also the 
art of advantageously distributing 
the lights and shadows which ought 
to appear in a picture, as well for 
the repose and satisfaction of the 
eye as for the effect of the whole 
together. 
Chief point (in do.) is the uppermost 

part of an escutcheon. 
Chiliad, an assemblage of several 
things ranged by thousands ; ap- 
plied also to tables of logarithms, 
which were at first divided into 
thousands. 

Chiliaedron, a solid figure of a thou- 
sand faces. 

Chiliagon, in geometry, a regular 
plane figure of a thousand sides 
and angles. 

Chimes, a set of bells tuned to the 
modern musical scale, and struck 
by hammers acted on by a pinned 
cylinder, or barrel, which revolves 
by means of clock-work : also ap- 
plied to the music or tune pro- 
duced by mechanical means from 
the bells in a steeple, tower, or 
common clock. 

Chimney, in locomotive engines. The 
chimney is regulated in size for 
each engine so as to act in union 
with the blast-pipe, to produce a 
proper blast on the fire. This is 
done by each exhaust of steam 
from the cylinders creating a partial 
vacuum in the chimney : hence a 
rush of air takes place through the 
fire and tubes to fill this vacuum ; 
nd these successive rushes of air 
blow the fire.' This vacuum ranges 
from 2 to 8 inches of a water-gauge. 
The mild blast produces the least 

103 



vacuum and the least consumption 
of fuel. 

Chimney-pieces. The Egyptians, the 
Greeks, and the Romans, to whom 
architecture is so much indebted 
in other respects, living in warm 
climates, where fires in the apart- 
ments were seldom necessary, have 
thrown hut little light on this 
branch of the science. Palladio 
only mentions two, which stood in 
the middle of the rooms, and con- 
sisted of columns, supporting archi- 
traves, whereon were placed the 
pyramids or funnels through which 
the smoke was conveyed. Scamozzi 
mentions only three in his time, 
placed similarly. In England, Inigo 
Jones designed some very elaborate 
chimney-pieces. The size of the 
chimney must depend upon the 
dimensions of the room wherein it 
is placed: the chimney should 
always be situated so as to be im- 
mediately seen by those who enter : 
the middle of the side partition 
wall is the best place in halls, sa- 
loons, and other rooms of passage, 
to which the principal entrances 
are commonly in the middle of the 
front or of the back wall; but 
in drawing-rooms, dressing-rooms, 
etc., the middle of the back wall 
is the best situation ; the chimney 
being then farthest removed from 
the doors of communication. 
Chinese architecture, a style peculiar 
to China, where the material em- 
ployed is principally wood. It is 
a style not congenial to English 
taste or climate : its monstrosity 
may be seen at Brighton. 
Chinese Yellow (colour), a very bright 
sulphuret of arsenic, brought from 
China. 
Chinse, to thrust oakum into seams 

with a small iron. 

Chisel, a tool with the lower part in 
the form of a wedge, for cutting 
iron plate or bar, and with the 
upper part flat, to receive the blows 
of a hammer, in order to force the 
cutting edge through the substance 
of the iron. 



CHI 



CHISELS. 



CHI 



Chisel, an instrument used by car- 
penters. The large chisels used by, 
millwrights for heavy work are 
generally composed of iron and 
steel welded together. Chisels are 
also employed in turning, and they 
are driven more or less by blows : 
those used by the joiners are similar; 
but those used by cabinet-makers 
are straight across the end. 

Chisels in general. A chisel is an 
edge tool for cutting wood, either 
by leaning on it or by striking it 
with a mallet. The lower part of the 
chisel is the frustrum of a cuneus 
or wedge ; the cutting edge is al- 
ways on and generally at right 
angles to the side. The basil is 
ground entirely from one side. 
The two sides taper in a small de- 
gree upwards, but the two narrow 
surfaces taper downwards in a 
greater degree. The upper part of 
the iron has a shoulder, which is a 
plane surface at right angles to the 
middle line of the chisel. From 
this plane surface rises a prong in 
the form of a square pyramid, the 
middle line of which is the same as 
the middle line of the cuneus or 
wedge : the prong is inserted and 
fixed in a socket of a piece of wood 
of the same form : this piece of 
wood is called the handle, and is 
generally the frustrum of an octa- 
gonal pyramid, the middle line of 
which is the same as that of the 
chisel : the tapering sides of the 
handle diminish downwards, and 
terminate upwards in an octagonal 
dome. The use of the shoulder is 
for preventing the prong from split- 
ting the handle while being struck 
with the mallet. The chisel is 
made stronger from the cutting 
edge to the shoulder, as it is some- 
times used as a lever, the prop 
being at or very near the middle, 
the power at the handle, and the 
resistance at the cutting-edge. 
Some chisels are made with iron 
on one side and steel on the other, 
and others consist entirely of steel. 
There are several kinds of chisels, 

104 



as the mortise-chisel, the ripping- 
chisel, and the socket-chisel. 

Chisel, the firmer, is formed in the 
lower part similar to the socket- 
chisel ; but each of the edges above 
the prismoidal part falls into an 
equal concavity, and diminishes 
upwards until the substance of the 
metal between the concave narrow 
surfaces becomes equal in thickness 
to the substance of that between 
the other two sides, produced in a 
straight line, and meeting a protu- 
berance projecting equally on each 
side. The firmer chisel is used by 
carpenters and joiners in cutting 
away the superfluous wood by thin 
chips : the best are made of cast 
steel. When there is a great deal 
of superfluous wood to be cut away, 
sometimes a stronger chisel, con- 
sisting of an iron back and steel 
face, is first used, by driving it into 
the wood with a mallet ; and then 
a slighter one, consisting entirely of 
steel sharpened to a very fine edge, 
is used in the finish. The first 
used is called a firmer, and the last 
a paring chisel, in the application of 
which only the shoulder or hand is 
employed in forcing it into the wood. 

Chisel, the mortise, is made exceed- 
ingly strong, for cutting out a 
rectangular prismatic cavity across 
the fibres, quite through or very 
deep in a piece of wood, for the 
purpose of inserting a rectangular 
pin of the same form on the end of 
another piece, and thereby uniting 
the two. The cavity is called a 
mortise, and the pin inserted a 
tenon ; and the chisel used for cut- 
ting out the cavity is, therefore, 
called a mortise-chisel. As the 
thickness of this chisel from the 
face to the back is great, in order 
to withstand the percussive force 
of the mallet, and as the angle 
which the basil makes .with the 
face is about 25, the slant dimen- 
sion of the basil is very great. This 
chisel is only used by percussive 
force given by the mallet. 

Chisel, the ripping, is only an old 



CHI 



CHORAGIC MONUMENTS. 



CHR 



socket-chisel used in cutting holes 
in walls for inserting plugs, and for 
separating wood that has been 
nailed together, etc. 

Chisel, the socket, is used for cutting 
excavations : the lower part is a 
prisraoid, the sides of which taper 
in a small degree upwards, and the 
edges considerably down wards: one 
side consists of steel, and the other 
of iron. The under end is ground 
into the form of a wedge, forming 
the basil on the iron side, and the 
cutting edge on the lower end of 
the steel face. From the upper end 
of the prismoidal part rises the 
frustrum of a hollow cone, in- 
creasing in diameter upwards : the 
cavity or socket contains a handle 
of wood of the same conic form : 
the axis of the handle, the hollow 
cone, and the middle line of the 
frustrum, are all in the same straight 
line. The socket-chisel, which is 
commonly about 1^ or 1^ inch 
broad, is chiefly used in cutting 
mortises, and may be said to be the 
same as the mortise-chisel em- 
ployed in joinery. 

Chisel, in turnery, a flat tool, skewed 
in a small degree at the end, and 
bevelled from each side, so as to 
make the cutting edge in the 
middle of its thickness. 

Chock, in navigation, a wedge used to 
secure anything with, or for any- 
thing to rest upon. The long-boat 
rests upon two large chocks when 
it is stowed. 

Chocolate lead, a pigment prepared 
by calcinating oxide of lead with 
about a third of that of copper, 
and reducing the compound to a 
uniform tint by levigation. 

Choke. An adit is said to be choked 
when any earth or stone falls in 
and prevents the current of water 
through it : the place or part so 
filled is called ' the choke.' 

Chopping -block, a block of wood used 
for reducing bricks to their intended 
form by axing them : it is made of 
any chance piece that can be ob- 
tained, and commonly from 6 to 8 



inches square, supported generally 
upon two 14 -inch brick piers, if two 
men are to work at it ; but if four 
men, the chopping-block must be 
lengthened and supported by three 
piers, and so on, according to the 
number : it is about 2 feet 3 inches 
in height. 

Choragic monuments, in Grecian story, 
monuments in honour of those 
who had gained a prize as choragus, 
or leader of the play and choruses. 

Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 
known as the Lantern of De- 
mosthenes, was built in the lllth 
Olympiad, and is still entire : it is 
considered the most exquisite and 
perfect specimen of the orders. 

Choragic monument of Thrasycles, 
etc., now the church of our Lady of 
the Grotto. It is built against the 
rock of the Acropolis : above it 
stand two columns, on which tripods 
have been placed, and on each side 
of it the rock has been chiseled 
away in such form as evidently 
shows that similar buildings had 
been erected contiguous to it. 

Chord, in geometry, is the right line 
joining the extremities of any arc 
of a circle. 

Chorobates (Greek), an instrument 
for determining the slope of an 
aqueduct, and the levels of the 
country through which it was to 
pass. It differed but slightly from 
a common carpenter's level, which 
consists of a straight rule support- 
ing a perpendicular piece, against 
which hangs a plumb-line. 

Chorography,i}\e&ri of making a map 
of a particular country or province, 
or of teaching geography. 

Chromatics, a division of the science 
of optics, by which the properties 
of the colours of light and of 
natural bodies are illustrated. 

Chromaseape, or optical chromatics : 
there are three species of optical 
effects of colours, that of refrac- 
tion of prisms and lenses, that of 
the transmission of light through 
transparent media, and that of the 
reflection of specula, etc. 



105 



F 3 



:HR 



CHRONOMETRICAL GOVERNOR. 



CHU 



Chromate of mercury is improperly . 
classed as a red with vermillion ; 
for though it is of a bright ochreous 
red colour in powder, it is, when 
ground, of a bright orange ochre 
hue, and affords, with white, very 
pure orange-culoured tints. 
Chromatics, the science of the rela- 
tions of light, shade, and colours. 
Chrome greens are compound pig- 
ments of which chrome yellow is 
the principal colouring substance. 
Chrome orange is a beautiful orange 
pigment,andoneof the mostdurable 
and least exceptionable chromates 
of lead, but not of iron. 
Chrome yellow is a pigment of modern 
introduction into general use, and 
of which there are many varieties, 
mostly chromates of lead, in which 
the latter metal more or less 
abounds. They are distinguished by 
the pureness, beauty, and brilliancy 
of their colours, which qualities 
are great temptations to their use 
in the hands of the painter ; they 
are, however, far from unexception- 
able pigments. 

Chromium, a very rare metal, found 
either in the form of chromate of 
lead or chromate of iron. 
Chronometer, a time-keeper, used for 
determining the longitude at sea, 
and for other purposes where great 
accuracy is required. 
Chronometrical governor, an improved 
regulator for rendering the mean 
velocity of an engine uniform. The 
mechanism is as follows : a spindle 
placed vertically has a pulley fixed 
upon the top, to receive motionfrom 
the crank-shaft ; below the pulley 
two bevel'wheels of equal diameters 
are placed face to face ; the upper 
wheel is fixed to the spindle, and 
the lower one is free to turn upon 
it, and has an arm or crank attached 
to its under side, to act as a driver 
for the pendulous ball : between the 
two wheels, and communicating 
with them, is a third wheel, fixed 
upon a spindle placed horizontally, 
and connected at one end with the 
vertical spindle, so as to turn round 

106 



it ; the other end is supported by a 
carnage resting upon a plate, and 
is connected with a spring or coun- 
ter weight on one side, and on the 
other side with the throttle-valve ; 
the ball being suspended from a 
sperical bearing near the top of 
the rod. The spring is adjusted 
so that when the velocity of the 
engine is as required, the upper and 
lower wheels revolve at the same 
speed : when the velocity increases, 
the centrifugal force causes the ball 
to rise, and retards the motion of 
the lower wheel ; then the inter- 
mediate wheel distends the spring, 
and moves forward upon the lower 
wheel as a rack, and closes the 
throttle-valve : when the velocity 
diminishes, the ball falls, and the 
lower wheel requires less power, so 
that the spring pulls back the inter- 
mediate wheel and opens the valve. 
The above is a modification of Mr. 
James Wood's governor, and is 
patented by Mr. C. W. Siemans. 

Chrysolite, a precious stone, probably 
the tenth on the high-priest's pec- 
toral, bearing the name of Zebulon : 
it is transparent, the colour of gold, 
with a mixture of green, which dis- 
plays a fine lustre. 

Chuck, a piece of wood or metal fixed 
on the end of the mandril for keep- 
ing fast the body to be turned. 

Church Music. By this term is com- 
monly understood all music set to 
words of a sacred character : hence 
we have not only the language of 
Scripture set to music in the shape 
of anthems, etc., but also metrical 
versions and paraphrases thereof, 
used and considered by many as 
church music. Indeed it too often 
happens that these are adapted to 
secular melodies melodies not ori- 
ginally intended to be applied to 
words of a sacred character, and yet 
the music is then termed sacred, 
probably from an idea that there is 
no such thing as sacred and profane 
music. But this is a great error 
and arises solely from ignorance o: 
the existence of sacred music, we 



CHU 



CHURCH MUSIC. 



CHU 



mean especially church music. Ex- 
amine any of the ancient authorized 
liturgical books, and there will be 
found an order of music that can- 
not be mistaken for profane, which 
is not only sacred in its character, 
but eminently grand, dignified, 
noble, and sublime ; in short, it is 
for church purposes so superior to 
all other music, that it alone can 
properly be called church music. 

Church music is the music of the 
holy offices, is that music in which 
ihewholechtirch,priests and people, 
can participate. It is easy to exe- 
cute, being simple and plain (plain 
chant). It can be sung by every 
one, and is always most majestic 
when sung by all ; hence it is also 
called the full chant (cantus ple- 
nus). For a long period, and until 
very lately, scarcely a remnant of 
church music was to be found, even 
in those places where we had a 
right to expect to find it : the plain 
chant was banished entirely in some 
places, and mutilated in others, so 
that it could scarcely be discerned ; 
but it is now being restored, and 
we hear the priest intoning his part 
in the offices of morning and evening 
prayer, and the people singing, in 
response, the ancient authorized 
melodies of the church ; we hear 
the Psalter chanted to fine old (so 
called) Gregorian tones ; we hear 
the Litany chanted to its own proper 
music, that of the church : we also 
hear the soul-stirring music in the 
Communion office, the Gloria in ex- 
celsis, the Credo, and Sanctus ; the 
latter moreover in its proper place. 
We can have also, if so disposed, 
the church music for the matri- 
monial,baptismal, and burial offices, 
as well as an immense variety of 
tunes for the metrical psalms, of a 
true church character, unlike any 
other kind of music, and which is 
truly church music, inasmuch as it 
is the church's peculiar property, 
and would be totally misused in 
any other place. Our definition of 
church music is, music which is 

107 



adapted for the services and pur- 
poses of the church, and unfit for 
any other place or purpose. 

Church music, such as is here 
shortly defined, is unisonous; and 
harmonized music is not fit for 
congregational purposes ; it is pro- 
per only in those parts of divine 
worship which may be called extra- 
liturgical, such as the anthem. 
Singing harmonized chants, canti- 
cles, Te Deum, etc., is thrusting out 
the congregation, that is, the chief 
part of the church present. The 
harmonies should be left entirely 
to the discretion of an intelligent 
organist, to be executed on the 
organ alone. Harmonized music 
requires accomplished and well- 
informed musicians for its perform- 
ance, and can be sung only by the 
few. The anthem, in cathedral 
worship, is edifying only when it is 
performed by the choir-men in a 
masterly manner, not only with 
correct musical execution, but with 
care and attention, to develop all 
the piety, sublimity, grandeur, dig- 
nity, and whatever else the music 
is capable of. 

Before the latter half of the 15th 
century, the liturgy was chanted in 
unison ; and it is from this period 
we can trace the gradual departure 
from the rigid church style of mu- 
sic, in the compositions of Josquin 
de Pres especially. In the early 
part of the 16th century, we find 
that Adrian Willaert, who was 
made singing-master at St. Mark's, 
Venice, was the first who harmo- 
nized the psalm melodies for two or 
more choirs ; then followed the mo- 
tet, or harmonized antiphon, which 
before had been chanted in unison, 
as it is done at this day in the Ro- 
man Catholic chapels in England, 
where there are not accomplished 
singing men to perform the motet. 
During this century, the use of 
harmony had not only driven the 
people away from their part in the 
performance of ths service, but 
also corrupted the music itself so 



CHU 



CINQUE-CENTO. 



CIR 



much, that it was only saved from 
being wholly forbidden by the 
grave and devotional motets and 
other compositions of the renown- 
ed Palestrina, whose works were 
imitated with great success by the 
disciples of his school, and this in 
a very eminent degree by the Eng- 
glish church musicians. The har- 
monies used by Tallis, Morley, 
Gibbons, and the rest of the mas- 
ters of church music of this age, 
are truly sublime. 

Church ornament consists principally 
of the painted and stained glass 
windows of the emblem of the 
Trinity, of the passion of our Lord, 
of the evangelists, sacred mono- 
grams, statues of the holy apostles, 
of the holy evangelists, and of 
the saints commemorated by the 
church. 

Church in rotunda, that whose plan 
is a perfect circle, in imitation of 
the Pantheon. 
Chymol, a hinge, anciently called a 

grimmer. 
Ciborium, an arch supported by four 

pillars placed over the high altar. 
I Cilery, in architecture, the drapery 
or leavage that is wrought upon 
the head of pillars. 
Cill, the timber or stone at the foot. 
Ground-cills are the timbers on 
the ground which support the posts 
and superstructure. 
Cimellare, the vestry or roam where 
plate, vestments, and other rich 
things belonging to the church are 
kept. 

! Cincture, a ring, list, or fillet at the 
top and bottom of a column, serv- 
ing to divide the shaft from the 
capital and its base. 
Cinder-frame, in locomotive engines, 
a wire-work frame placed in front 
of the tubes, to arrest the ascent 
of large pieces of ignited coke. 
Cinque-cento, a term generally archi- 
tecturally applied to the Revival of 
art, co-eval with the early Tudor 
style in England and the Renais- 
sance style in France. In 1506 
the church of St. Peter's at Rome 

108 



was commenced by Bramante, the 
greatest monument of the revived 
classical or Cinque-cento style of 
architecture, and on the death of 
Bramante, in 1514, the great Raf- 
faello continued the building. The 
Loggia Vaticano is a monument of 
his fame for its design and orna- 
mentation. 

Cinque-cento, literally five hundred, 
or the fifth Century, generally ap- 
plied to the period of the Revival 
of the arts in Italy and even sub- 
sequently. The ornament was of 
an enriched kind, much applied by 
the Italians, and since by the French. 
^Cinque-foil, an ornamental foliation 
or feathering, used in the arches 
of the lights and tracery of wind- 
dows, panellings, etc. 
Cinque Ports, the sea-port towns of 
Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, 
and Romney, to which three others 
were afterwards added, viz. Win- 
chelsea, Rye, and Seaford. These 
towns possess peculiar privileges, 
and are under the government of a 
Lord Warden. 

Cipher, a secret mode of writing. 
Cipollino, is a name given by the Ita- 
lians to an impure marble, which 
containing veins of schistose, de- 
composes and falls off in flakes like 
the coats of an onion. 
Cippus (Latin), a low column, some- 
times round, but more frequently 
rectangular, used as a sepulchral 
monument. 

Circinus, a pair of compasses. Those 
used by statuaries, architects, ma- 
sons, carpenters, etc., were often 
represented on their tombs. 
Circinus, according to Vitruvius, a 
pair of compasses employed by 
architects, carpenters, etc., for de- 
scribing circles, measuring dis- 
tances, and taking the thickness of 
solids. 

Circle, a plain figure contained by 
one line, which is called the cir- 
cumference, and is such that all 
straight lines drawn from a certain 
point within the figure to the cir- 
cumference are equal to one an- 



CIR 



CIRCULAR. 



CLA 



other, and this point is called the 
centre of the circle. 

The circumference of a circle is 
known to be about 3' 141 59 times 
its diameter," or, in other words, 
the ratio of the circumference to 
the diameter is represented by 
3*14159 : for this number writers 
generally put the Greek letter IT. 

Circular sailing, is that which is 
performed in the arch of a great 
circle. 

'Circular saw. Circular saws, revolv- 
ing upon an axis, have the advan- 
tage that they act continually in 
the same direction, and no force is 
lost by a backward stroke : they 
are also susceptible of much greater 
velocity than the reciprocating 
saws, an advantage which enables 
them to cut more smoothly : used 
principally for cutting mahogany 
for veneering, and for other woods 
cut into thin layers. 

Circus, an area used by the Romans 
for chariot-races and horse-races, 
and for other public sports. 

Cissoid of Diocles, in the higher geo- 
metry, a curve line of the second 
order. 

Cistern. There were cisterns through- 
out Palestine, in cities and in pri- 
vate houses. As the cities were 
mostly built on mountains, and the 
rains fall in Judea at two seasons 
only (spring and autumn), people 
were obliged to keep water in ves- 
sels. There are cisterns of very 
large dimensions at this day in Pa- 
lestine. Near Bethlehem are the 
cisterns or pools of Solomon : they 
are three in number, situated in 
the sloping hollow of a mountain, 
one above another, so that the 
waters of the uppermost descend 
into the second, and those of the 
second descend into the third. 
The breadth is nearly the same in 
all, between 80 and 90 paces, but 
the length varies : the first is about 
160 paces long; the second, 200 ; 
the third, 220. These pools for- 
merly supplied the town of Beth- 
lehem and the city of Jerusalem 

109 



with water. Wells and cisterns, 
fountains and springs, are seldom 
correctly described in Scripture. 

Cistern, in the steam-engine, the 
vessel which surrounds the con- 
denser, and contains the injection 
water. 

Cisterna, an artificial tank or reser- 
voir, sunk in the ground and co- 
vered in with a roof, for the pur- 
pose of collecting and preserving 
good water for the use of a house- 
hold. Near the baths of Titus are 
nine subterraneous cisterns, 17i 
feet wide, 12 feet high, and above 
137 feet long. 

Citrine, or the colour of the citron, 
is the first of the tertiary class of 
colours, or ultimate compounds of 
the primary triad, yellow, red, and 
blue, in which yellow is the archeus 
or predominating colour, and blue 
the extreme subordinate ; for ci- 
trine being an immediate compound 
of the secondaries, orange and 
green, of both which yellow is a 
constituent, the latter colour is of 
double occurrence therein, while 
the other two primaries enter singly 
into the composition of citrine ; 
its mean or middle hue compre- 
hending eight blue, five red, and 
six yellow, of equal intensities. 

Citrine lake is a durable and better 
drying species of brown pink, pre- 
pared from the quercitron bark. 

City, a town, an incorporated town, 
a town having had a bishop's see. 

Clack, the valve of a pump piston; 
the can-lead, in Derbyshire. 

Clacks, in locomotive engines, the 
complete valves of the pumps where 
the ball-valve is enclosed in a 
frame or cage, to limit its rise, and 
guide its fall into the steam-tight 
seat of the orifice of the pipe. 

Clack-box, in locomotive engines, the 
box fitted on to the boiler where 
a ball-clack is placed, to close the 
orifice of the feed-pipe, and pre- 
vent steam or hot water reaching 
the pumps. The ball of the clack 
is raised from its seat by the stroke 
of the pump-plunger forcing the 



CLA 



CLASSIC ORDERS. 



CLI 



water against it, which water then 
passes into the boiler, while the 
instant fall of the ball prevents 
egress from the boiler. 

Clack-door, a square iron-plate screw- 
ed on to the side of a bottom-pump, 
or small bore for convenience of 
changing the clack or valve. 

Clack-seats, in locomotive engines, 
two recesses in each pump, for the 
clacks to fit into. 

Clack-valve, in the steam-engine, a 
flat valve in the cold-water pump, 
with a hinge joint. 

Clamp, a kiln built above the ground, 
for the purpose of burning bricks 
in: 

Clamp, a piece of wood fixed to the 
end of a board by mortise and 
tenon, or by groove and tongue, 
so that the fibres of the one piece, 
thus fixed, traverse those of the 
board, and by this means prevent 
it from casting : the piece at the 
end is called a clamp, and the board 
is said to be clamped. 

Clamps, in naval architecture, thick 
planks in a ship's side, which sup- 
port the ends of the beams. 

Clamping, in joinery : when a piece 
of board is fitted with the grain to 
the end of another piece of board 
across the grain, the first board is 
said to be clamped. 

Clamp-nails, used to fasten on clamps 
in the building of ships. 

Clasp-nails, are such with heads, 
brought into a little compass, so 
that they will sink into the wood. 

Classic Orders, in architecture : of 
these there are but three, the 
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian : two 
others, the Tuscan and Composite, 
are often improperly classed with 
them, and the whole denominated 
' the five orders of architecture.' 

Claude Roman, architect of Paris ; 
he designed and executed the grand 
altar, and, in consideration of the 
merit of that work, was permitted 
to be buried before the image of 
the Virgin, which he had chosen 
for the place of his interment ; he 
died in 1675, aged 65. 

110 



Claustura, brushwood for fences and 
hedges. 

Cleading, in locomotive engines, is 
usually made of narrow strips of 
timber, neatly fitted round the 
boiler and fire-box, to prevent the 
radiation of the heat. Externally, 
this is sometimes covered with 
zinc, and a coating of dry hair felt 
is commonly placed between the 
boiler and the timber, for the same 
purpose. 

Clear, in architecture, inside work. 

Clearing the deads, a term for clearing 
a shaft or drift, etc. 

Cleat, a piece of wood used in different 
parts of a vessel to belay ropes to. 

Cleavage, in geology, is an indicator 
of peculiar fossility in certain 
rocks, which is independent of, 
and meets at a considerable angle, 
the surfaces of lamination or de- 
position. Clay slate furnishes the 
best examples of this phenomenon. 

Cleithral, a covered Greek temple. 

Cleithros, an enclosed place ; a temple 
whose roof covers or encloses it. 

Clench-dolts, in a ship, clenched at 
the ends where they come through. 

Clench-nails, are such as will drive 
without splitting the board, and 
draw without breaking. 

Clepsydra, an instrument anciently 
used by the Egyptians to measure 
time by the running of water out 
of one vessel into another ; which 
we call an hour-glass. 

Clerestory, an upper story or row of 
windows in a Gothic church, rising 
clear above the adjoining parts of 
the building. 

Clew, the lower corner of square- 
sails, and the after corner of a fore- 
and-aft sail. 

Clew-garnet, a rope for hauling up 
the clew of a fore-sail or main- 
sail in a square-rigged vessel. 

Clew-line, a rope for hauling up the 
clew of a square-sail : the clew- 
garnite is the clew-line of a course. 

Clicket, a latch-key ; the latch of a 
door. 

Clinch, in navigation, the great ring 
connected with themooring-chains. 



COAL. 



COA 



Clinch, a. half-hitch stopped to its 

own part. 

Clinker-bar, in steam-engines, the bar 
fixed across the top of the ash-pit 
for supporting the rods used for 
clearing the fire-bars. 

Clinkers, bricks which, by the vio- 
lence of the fire, are run together 
and glazed over ; hard bricks im- 
ported from Holland, so called. 

Cloaca, a common sewer. The term 
cloaca is generally used in reference 
to those spacious subterraneous 
vaults, either of stone or brick, 
through which the foul waters of 
the city, as well as all the streams 
brought to Rome by the aque- 
ducts, finally discharged themselves 
into the Tiber ; according to Livy, 
a large subterranean canal, con- 
structed of masonry or brick-work, 
for the purpose of carrying off the 
rain-water from the streets of a 
town, and the impurities from 
private houses, which were thus 
discharged into some neighbouring 
river. 

Cloacarium, the sewers-rate ; a tax 
which was levied in Home for the 
expenses of cleansing and repair- 
ing the sewers. 

Cloister, a covered ambulatory, form- 
ing part of a monastic or collegiate 
establishment. Cloisters are always 
attached to a college cathedral, 
and arranged round three or four 
sides of a quadrangular area, with 
large windows, not often glazed, 
looking into the quadrangle. 

Close-hauled, a term applied to a ves- 
sel sailing with her yards braced 
up so as to get as much as possible 
to windward. 

Closer, a brick-back inserted where 
the distance will not permit of a 
brick in length. 

Closet, a small chamber or private 
room. 

Clout-nails, used for nailing clouts on 
the axle-trees of the carriage. 

Clove-hitch, two half-hitches round a 
spar or other rope. 

Clove-hook, an iron clasp, in two 
parts, moving upon the same pivot 

111 



and overlapping one another, used 
for bending chain-sheets to the 
clews of sails. 

Clubbing, drifting down a current 
with an anchor out. 

Club-haul, to bring a vessel's head 
round on the other tack, by letting 
go the lee anchor, and cutting or 
slipping the cable. 

Clue garnets, in navigation, tackles 
fixed to the clews or lower corners 
of the fore and main sail, to clew 
them up to the yards. 

Clustered column, a pier which con- 
sists of several columns or shafts 
clustered together. 

Clutch, an apparatus for engaging or 
disengaging two shafts : it consists 
of two pieces of metal formed so 
that when placed together, project- 
ing pieces on one (made to slide 
to and fro on the shaft, but turn 
with it) fit into recesses in the 
other, which is fixed on the driving 
shaft, so that the first being pulled 
back, its shaft will remain at rest. 

Coaking, in ship-building, uniting 
pieces of spar by means of tabular 
projections, formed by cutting 
away the solid of one piece into 
a hollow, so as to make a projection 
in the other in such a manner that 
they may correctly fit, the buts pre- 
venting the pieces from drawing 
asunder. 

Coal belongs to the third series of 
the Wernerian principle, viz. car- 
boniferous rocks, coal-measures, 
carboniferous limestone, and old 
red sandstone ; it is admitted to be 
of vegetable origin, and comprises 
1. Lignites, a species of mineral 
charcoal or intermediate gradation 
from wood to coal ; 2. Ordinary 
bituminous coal, of numerous va- 
rieties ; 3. Anthracite, found gene- 
rally in connection with the lowest 
portion of the third series, and 
sometimes in the primary rocks 
themselves. Coal, then, appears to 
have been formed of large vegetable 
masses, of considerable extent, in 
strata varying from a few inches 
to many feet in depth, the strata 



COA 



COBALT. 



COC 



alternating with rocks wonder- 
fully uniform, and consisting, in* 
most cases, of the following : sand- 
stone, slate clay or shale, fire-clay, 
ironstone, limestone, etc. Rocks 
are found participating of both 
clay and sandstone texture, greatly 
predominating. The coal-beds are 
indiscriminately accompanied by 
rocks either of sandstone or shale, 
which often rest upon fire-clay. It 
is in the shale accompanying the 
coal that the fossil impressions are 
so numerous; they are seldom 
found in the sandstones, or in the 
shales considerably distant from 
the coal-beds. The organic remains 
of coal formation consist of many 
shells of freshwater origin. The 
fossils, with land plants, occur in 
great abundance and variety, be- 
longing to extinct species, but 
bearing considerable analogy to 
those now growing only in tropical 
climates. These plants are mostly 
succulent, and are of enormous 
growth. 

Coal-gas, carburetted hydrogen ; coal- 
gas, when freed from the obnoxious 
foreign gas, may be propelled in 
streams out of small apertures, 
which, when lighted, from jets of 
flame, and are called gas-lights. 

Coal-tar, tar made from bituminous 
coal. 

Coamings, in ships, raised work round 
the hatches, to prevent water from 
getting down into the hold. 

Coat. Mast-coat is a piece of canvas 
tarred or painted, placed round a 
mast or bowsprit where it enters 
the deck. 

Coat, in building, a stratum or thick- 
ness of plaster- work. 

Cob (Cornish), to break or bruise: 
a cobber, a bruiser of tin. Cobbed 
ore is spoiled which is broken out 
of the solid large stones with 
sledges, and not put to water, 
being the best ore: the same as 
bing ore in the lead-mines. 

Cobalt (among miners), the damps 
of mines, so very fatal to the 
workmen. 



Cobalt. The ancient name for this 
mineral is not known. Theophras- 
tus mentions its use for staining 
glass. No cobalt has been disco- 
vered in any of the remains of 
ancient painting. It makes a co- 
lour, according to Vitruvius, be- 
tween scarlet and purple. 

In chemistry, a metal, when 
pure, of a white colour, inclining 
to bluish or steel gray : at the com- j 
mon temperature its specific gra- 
vity is more than 8'5. 

Cobalt-blue is the name now appro- 
priated to the modern improved 
blue prepared with metallic cobalt, 
or its oxides, although it properly 
belongs to a class of pigments in- 
cluding Saxon blue, Dutch ultra- 
marine, Thenard's blue, royal blue, 
Hungary blue, smalt, Zaffoe or 
enamel blue, and Dumont's blue. 
These differ principally in their 
degrees of purity, from the nature 
of the earths with which they are 
compounded. 

Cobalt-green. There are two pig- 
ments of this denomination, the 
one a compound of cobalt-blue and 
chromic yellow, which partakes of 
the qualities of those pigments, and 
may be formed on the pallet. 

Caboose, the place where the victuals 
are cooked on board of merchant 
and passenger ships. 

Cob-wall, a wall built of unburnt clay 
mixed with straw. 

Cochineal is extremely rich in the 
finest red colouring matter, and has 
been long employed in scarlet dye- 
ing, and in the manufacture of 
carmine. 

Cochlea, a term used by the ancients 
to denote something of a spiral 
form ; a spiral pump for raising 
water, etc. 

Cock, or stop-cock, a kind of valve 
contrived for the purpose of per- 
mitting or arresting at pleasure the 
flow of a liquid through a pipe. 

Cock-boat, a small boat used on rivers. 

Cock-pit, that part of a ship which is 
appropriated to the use of the sur- 
geon, being the place where the 



COG 



COHESION. 



COH 



wounded are dressed : it is near 
the hatchway, and under the 
lower gun-deck. 

Cockle, the skiorl of the Swedes and 
the schorl of the Germans : a la- 
minated mineral substance of a 
blackish brown colour, like tin. 

Cocoa-wood, the heart of which is 
seldom sound, is much used in 
turnery. 

Coctilis, according to Pliny, a brick 
hardened by burning. 

Cock-water (among miners), a stream 
of water brought into a trough to 
wash away the sand from tin-ore. 

Cod-line, an eighteen-thread line. 

Co-efficients, in algebra, are numbers 
or letters prefixed to other letters 
or unknown quantities, into which 
they are supposed to be multiplied ; 
and therefore with such letters, or 
the quantities represented by them, 
making a product, or co-efficient 
product. 

Coigne, a corner ; a wooden wedge. 

Coining (in the tin works), is the 
weighing and stamping the blocks 
of tin. 

Coelum, according to Vitruvius, a 
soffit or ceiling. 

Comobium, anciently a monastery of 
monks or friars. 

C6fer, in Cornish mining, a small 
wooden trough which receives the 
tin claused from its impurities or 
slime. 

Coffee-tree, a wood of a light greenish 
brown, close-grained, and small in 
stature, sometimes used by cabi- 
net-makers. 

Coffer, a deep panel in a ceiling; also 
applied to a casket for keeping 
jewels, and sometimes to a chest. 

Coffer-dam, a hollow space formed 
by a double range of piles, with 
clay rammed in between, for the 
purpose of constructing an en- 
trance lock to a canal, dock, or 
basin, or for the piers of a bridge. 

Coffin, in Cornish mining, old work- 
ings which were all worked open 
to grass, without any shafts, by dig- 
ging and casting up the thin stuff 
from one stall of boards to another. 

113 



Coffin, a wooden case in which a 
dead body is placed, sometimes en- 
cased in lead : anciently, stone 
coffins were used for interment. 

Cog, the wooden tooth of a large 
wheel. 

Cog-teeth are formed of a different 
material from the body of the 
wheel : a timber tooth on a cog- 
wheel is one made of wood, when 
the teeth stand perpendicularly to 
the plane of the wheel. 

Cog-wheel, an iron wheel with wooden 
teeth or cogs. 

Cohesion of fluids. M. Monge and 
others assert that the phenomena 
of capillary tubes are referable to 
the cohesive attraction of the su- 
perficial particles only of the fluids 
employed, and that the surface 
must consequently be formed into 
curves of the nature of linteariae, 
which are supposed to be the re- 
sults of a uniform tension of a 
surface resisting the pressure of a 
fluid, either uniform or varying 
according to a given law. 

Cohesion, the attraction which takes 
place between the particles of bo- 
dies, denoting that force by which 
the particles firmly cohere. 

Cohesion and resistance of fluids, as 
examined by the force of torsion. 
Pressure does not augment the 
friction ; on the contrary, the re- 
sistance is greater when the im- 
mersion is only partial. Greasing 
wood does not lessen the friction : 
the friction of oil is 17 times as 
great as that of water. A part of 
the friction is proportional to the 
velocity : the constant part is al- 
most insensible. Thus a circle -195 
metre in diameter, turning in water 
with a velocity equal to '14m. in 1", 
meets a resistance equivalent to 
a weight of 1 gramme acting on 
a lever of '143 m. The portion 
proportional to the velocity is e- 
quivalent to '042 gr. for a surface 
equal to twice such a circle moving 
in its own direction with a velocity 
of -01 m. 

Cohesive strength of materials. The 



COI 



COKE. 



COK 



force of cohesion may be defined 
to be that force by which the fibre* 
or particles of a body resist sepa- 
ration, and is proportioned to the 
number of fibres in the body, or in 
the area of its section. 

Coiling, a serpentine winding of ropes, 
by which they occupy a small space, 
and are not liable to be entangled in 
working the sails of a ship., 

Coin, or quoin, the angle of a building; 
used also for the machicolation of 
a wall. 

Coke, charred pitcoal. The most va- 
luable of the secondary products of 
a gas establishment is coke. The 
best kind is obtainedfrom coalwhen 
carbonized in large masses, in ovens 
constructed on purpose. In a gas 
manufactory, the production of 
coke being of minor importance to 
the formation of good gas, it is ge- 
nerally of an inferior quality to that 
made in coke ovens, where it is the 
primary, and indeed sole object for 
which the coal is carbonized. But 
gas-coke is excellent for many pur- 
poses in the arts and manufactures, 
producing as clear a fire as that of 
the first quality, though it is neither 
so lasting nor so free from slag : for 
domestic use, however, it is unob- 
jectionable, and may be burnt both 
in the drawing-room and kitchen 
with economy and comfort. 

The distinguishing characters of 
good coke are, first, a clean, granu- 
lar fracture in any direction, with 
a pearly lustre, inclining to that 
exhibited by cast-iron. Secondly, 
density, or close proximity of its 
particles, which adhere together in 
masses, and specific gravity of 1*10, 
or rather higher. Thirdly, when 
exposed to a white heat, it con- 
sumes entirely away, without leav- 
ing either slag or ashes. 

It is invariably the case that the 
quality of the coke is inversely as 
that of the gas. The manufacturer 
must not expect to produce both of 
the best quality. The process by 
which the best gas is made gene- 
rally leaves the coke light, spongy, 

114 



and friable, although an increase of 
quantity is gained ; for the simple 
reason, that the degree of heat and 
other circumstances required to 
form perfect coke must be entirely 
changed when gas of a high specific 
gravity is to be obtained. Thus 
large masses of coal exposed to a 
red heat in close vessels are acted 
upon by slow degrees, the external | 
portions preventing heat from pene- 
trating into the interior until most 
of the bituminous portions are given 
off in condensable vapour, or as 
charcoal and free hydrogen ; the 
after products being light carbu- 
retted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, 
and carbonic-acid gases. The re- 
sidue is a carbon of a dense granular 
composition. 

Coke, as prepared for use in locomo- 
tive and other steam-engines, may 
be regarded as purified coal, or coal 
from which the extraneous matters 
not conducive to combustion have 
been expelled by the application of 
heat. It appears from experiments 
that the heating power of every 
description of fuel, whether coal, 
coke, wood, lignite, turf, or peat, 
is proportional to the quantity of 
carbon it contains, and that from 
83 to 86 per cent, of this element 
enters into the composition of any 
given weight of Newcastle, D urham , 
or Lancashire coal, the other in- 
gredients being hydrogen, azote, 
oxygen, and ashes. The exact pro- 
cess which takes place in the con- 
version of coal into coke is not yet 
thoroughly understood, although 
the result can be readily estimated, 
and is found to depend, to a con- 
siderable extent, upon the manner 
in which the process is performed. 
Thus, by coking in close ovens, 
Welsh coal loses about 30 per cent, 
of its weight ; but if the coking 
be effected in uncovered heaps of 
coarse lumps, as it often is in the 
Welsh coal and iron districts (where 
abundance is allowed, as the excuse 
for extravagance and waste), the 
loss of weight is from 50 to 55 



COL 



COLLAR. 



COL 



per cent. While the weight is thus 
diminished by coking in close 
ovens, the bulk is increased from 
22 to 23 per cent. The rapid and 
complete combustion of the carbon 
which takes place in the burning 
of coke has the effect of preventing, 
to a considerable extent, the emis- 
sion of that palpable smoke which 
arises from the combustion of coal ; 
and for this property coke was 
resorted to for use in locomotive 
engines, when the non-emission of 
smoke was imposed as one of the 
conditions upon which railway 
companies were empowered by Act 
of Parliament. The practical ad- 
vantages since found to be derived 
from the burning of coke instead 
of coal are, its greater power in 
evaporating water and producing 
steam, and the less rapid destruc- 
tion of the boiler which ensues 
from its employment. 

Colarin, the little frieze of the capital 
of the Tuscan and Doric column, 
placed between the astragal and 
the annulets. 

Cold chisel, a piece of steel flattened 
and sharpened at one end, which 
is properly tempered, so that it 
may be used for cutting metal. 

Cold-harbour, an inn ; a shelter from 
the cold ; a protection on the way- 
side for travellers benighted or 
benumbed. 

Cold short iron, iron in an impure 
state. 

Cold-water well and reservoir. To 
effect the condensation of steam, 
the water is very commonly raised, 
by means of the cold-water pump, 
from a reservoir or well. This ab- 
sorbs from the engine some portion 
of its power. Indeed, when the 
wells are deep, the quantity of 
power thus expended is so great, 
that the condensing system can 
no longer be judiciously applied. 
This may be known by the follow- 
ing investigation : 

Rule. Multiply the weight of 
water, in pounds, by the feet 
through which it passes in a minute, 



and divide the product by 33,000 ; 
the quotient will exhibit, friction 
excluded, the horses' power ex- 
pended. 

Example. To condense 103; 

Weight of cold water 10 ft. 
per gallon, at 62 of tem- 
perature, 

Engine, nominal power . . 4 horses. 

Water, per horse power . . 4 gals. 

Lift of do., or height 
raised, 230 feet per minute. 



Hence 



4 x 40 x 230 
33,000 



power. 



Cold-water pump, the pump for sup- 
plying the water for condensation. 

Collar, in ships, an eye in the end or 
bight of a shroud or stay, to go 
over the mast-head. 

Collar, in turnery, a ring inserted in 
the puppet for holding the end of 
the mandril next the chuck, in 
order to make the spindle run 
freely and exactly. 

Collar, a plate of metal screwed down 
upon the stuffing-box of a steam- 
engine, with a hole to allow the 
piston-rod to pass through. 

Collar of a shaft, the timber and 
boarding used to secure the upper- 
most part of a shaft in loose rub- 
ble from falling in. 

Collar-beam, a beam framed across 
and between two principal rafters. 

Collision, in mechanics. Whenever 
two bodies act on each other so as 
to change the direction of their 
relative motions, by means of any 
forces which preserve their activity 
undiminished at equal distances on 
every side, the relative velocities 
with which the bodies approach to 
or recede from each other will al- 
ways be equal at equal distances. 

Colliquation, smelting or dissolving 
anything by heat. 

Colluviarium, anciently a well or 
opening formed at intervals in the 
channel of an aqueduct for procu- 
ring a free current of air along its 
course, and to facilitate the ope- 
ration of clearing away foul depo- 
sits left by the waters. 



115 



COL 



COLOURS, SYMBOLIC. 



COL 



Cologne earth is a native pigment, 
similar to the Vandyke brown iif 
its uses and properties as a colour. 

Colonnade, a range of columns, 
whether attached or insulated, and 
supporting an entablature. 

Colosseum, a name given to the theatre 
of Vespasian, either from its mag- 
nitude or from its colossal statue 
of Nero ; also the name of a fine 
building in the Regent's Park. 

Colossus, a statue of gigantic dimen- 
sions, or very much beyond the 
proportions of nature. 

Colour. The term colour being used 
synonymously for pigment is the 
cause of much ambiguity, particu- 
larly when speaking of colours as 
sensible or in the abstract; it would 
be well, therefore, if the term pig- 
ment were alone used to denote 
the material colours of the pallet. 

Colouring, in painting, the art of dis- 
posing the tints, so as to produce 
either an imitation of the natural 
colours of the objects represented, 
or force and brightness of effect. 
Although a subject inferior to many 
others which the painter must 
study, this is yet of sufficient im- 
portance to employ a considerable 
share of his attention ; and to 
excel in it, he must be well ac- 
quainted with that part of optics 
which has the nature of light and 
colours for its object. Light, how- 
ever simple and uncompounded it 
may appear, is nevertheless made 
up, as it were, of several distinct 
substances; and the number and 
quantity of component parts have 
been happily discovered by the 
moderns. 

Colours (symbolic), in antiquity, the 
middle ages, and modern times. 
The history of symbolic colours is 
but little known. Colours had 
the same signification amongst all 
nations of the remotest antiquity : 
this conformity indicates a com- 
mon origin, which extends to the 
earliest state' of humanity, and 
develops its highest energies in the 
religion of Persia : the dualism of 

116 



light and darkness presents, in 
effect, the two types of colours 
which become the symbols of two 
principles, benevolence and male- 
volence. The ancients admitted 
but two primitive colours, white 
and black, whence all others are 
derived. 

The language of colours, inti- 
mately connected with religion, 
passed into India, China, Egypt, 
Greece, and Rome, and re-ap- 
peared in the middle ages ; the 
large windows of Gothic cathedrals 
found their explanation in the 
books of the Zends, the Vedas, 
and the paintings of the Egyptian 
temples. 

Among the Egyptians, the pro- 
phets did not allow metal-founders 
or statuaries to represent the gods, 
lest they should deviate from the 
rules. 

At Rome, the penalty of death 
was incurred by selling or being 
clothed in a purple stuff. At this 
day, in China, any one who wears 
or buys clothes with the prohibited 
design of the dragon or phoenix, 
is subjected to 300 stripes and 
three years' banishment. 

Symbolism explains this severity 
of laws and customs : to each co- 
lour, to each pattern, appertained 
a religious or political idea: to 
change or to alter it was a crime 
of apostasy or of rebellion. 

Archaeologists have remarked 
that Indian and Egyptian paint- 
ings, and those of Greek origin, 
named Etruscan, are composed of 
plain tints of a brilliant colour, 
but without demi-tints ; the pat- 
tern and the colour had a necessary 
signification, it was essentially 
restrictive : perspective, chiaro- 
oscuro, and demi-tints, would have 
led to confusion. 

Christianity, in recalling these 
forgotten significations, restores a 
new energy to the language of 
colours : the doctrine taught by 
Christ was not therefore new, since 
it borrowed the symbols of ancient 



COL 



COLOURS, SYMBOLIC. 



COL 



religions. The Son of God, in lead- 
ing back mankind to the truth, 
came not to change, but to fulfil 
the law; this law was the worship 
of the true God. 

The three languages of colours, 
divine, consecrated, and profane, 
classify, in Europe, the three estates 
of society, the clergy, the nobles, 
and the people. 

The large glass windows of 
Christian churches, like the paint- 
ings of Egypt, have a double sig- 
nification, the apparent and the 
hidden ; the one is for the uniniti- 
ated, and the other applies itself to 
the mystic creeds. The theocratic 
era lasts to the Renaissance; at this 
epoch, symbolic expressions are ex- 
tinct; the divine language of co- 
lours is forgotten, painting be- 
came an art, and was no longer a 
science. 

The aristocratic era commences ; 
and symbolism, banished from the 
church, takes refuge at the court: 
disdained by painting, it is found 
again in heraldry. Modern paint- 
ing still preserves its symbolism in 
church pictures : St. John wears a 
green robe, Christ and the Virgin 
are likewise draped in red and blue, 
and God in white. 

Natural philosophy recognizes 
seven colours, which form the solar 
ray, decomposed by the prism ; 
namely, violet, indigo, blue, green, 
yellow, orange, and red. Painting 
admits but five primitives, the 
first and last of which are rejected 
by natural philosophy, white, 
yellow, red, blue, and black. 
From the combination of these five 
colours every hue is produced. 

According to symbolism, two 
principles produce all colours, light 
and darkness. 

Light is represented by white, 
and darkness by black ; but light 
does not exist but by fire, the sym- 
bol of which is red : setting out 
from this basis, symbolism admits 
two primitive colours, red and 
white. Black was considered as 

117 



the negation of colours, and at- 
tributed to the spirit of darkness ; 
red is the symbol of divine love ; 
white, the symbol of divine wis- 
dom. From these two attributes of 
God, love and wisdom, the creation 
| of the universe emanates. 

Secondary colours represent dif- 
ferent combinations of the two 
principles ; yellow emanates from 
red and white ; it is the symbol of 
revelation of the love and of the 
wisdom of God. 

Blue emanates likewise from red 
and white ; it indicates divine wis- 
dom manifested by life, by the 
spirit or the breath of God (air, 
azure) ; it is the symbol of the 
spirit of truth. 

Green is formed by the union of 
yellow and blue ; it indicates the 
manifestation of love and wisdom 
in action ; it was the symbol of 
charity, and of the regeneration of 
the soul by works. 

Gold and yellow were, in Chris- 
tian symbolism, the emblems of 
faith : St. Peter was represented 
by the illuminators and minia- 
turists of the middle ages with a 
golden-yellow robe, and the rod or 
the key in his hand. 

Christianity restored truth to 
mankind, and reinstated symbolic 
language in its original purity. In 
the Transfiguration, the counte- 
nance of our Lord became resplen- 
dent as the sun, and his vesture 
shone like the light. Such, in their 
highest energy, are the symbols of 
divine love and wisdom. The angel 
who rolled away the stone from 
the sepulchre reproduced them in 
an inferior order, his face shone 
like lightning, and his robe was 
white as snow. Finally, in the last 
degree, appeared the just, in robes 
washed white in the blood of the 
Lamb. The artists of the middle 
ages preserved their precious tra- 
ditions, and gave to Jesus Christ, 
after the resurrection, a white or 
red costume. 
Columbaria, the holes left in walls 



COL 



COMBUSTION. 



COM 



for the insertion of pieces of tim- 
ber; so called from resembling 
tbe niches of a pigeon-house. The 
niches of a mausoleum, made to 
receive the cineral urns, were like- 
wise termed columbaria. The co- 
lumbarium was a place of sepul- 
ture used for the ashes of the 
Romans, after the custom of burn- 
ing the dead had been introduced 
among them. 

Columen, the term applied to the 
upright timbers of a roof, corre- 
sponding to the modern kingposts. 

Column, in architecture, a member 
of a cylindrical form, placed up- 
right for support of buildings, 
principally wrought in stone, and 
made decorative in conformity to 
the order and style of architectural 
composition. It consists of a base, 
a shaft or body, and a capital, and 
differs from the pilaster, which is 
square on the plan. 

Columns, in architecture, ac- 
cording to Vitruvius, were of the 
three orders. The proportions of 
Corinthian columns are in every 
respect, excepting their capitals, 
similar to those of Ionic ; although 
their form is more graceful and 
proportionably more delicate, by 
reason of the greater height of the 
capitals; for Ionic capitals are a 
third part only of the lower dia- 
meter of the columns, whereas 
the Corinthian capital is equal 
in height to an entire diameter. 
The peculiar character of the ca- 
pitals, which admits of their being 
higher than those of Ionic co- 
lumns by two-thirds of a diameter, 
gives beauty to them, bypermitting 
an increase of the height without 
violating the laws of symmetry. 

Combustion, the operation of fire 
upon an inflammable substance, 
by which it smokes, flames, and is 
reduced to ashes. 

Few or no chemical combinations 
can take place without a disturb- 
ance in the equilibrium of caloric 
in the substances to be so com- 
bined ; and when caloric is thereby 

118 



evolved in sufficient extent and 
rapidity, and when one or all the 
bodies engaged may be freely com- 
bustible, ignition takes place. 
When this is unintentional, or is 
the result of ignorance or care- 
lessness, it is convenient to call it 
spontaneous combustion. Thus we 
frequently hear of hayricks, etc., 
on fire ; occasionally of carts 
loaded with quicklimebeing burned 
by the rain falling upon the lime. 
There are also somewhat apocry- 
phal accounts of coal in coal-yards 
being destroyed in like manner. 
But the most important instance 
of this class, as far as regards the 
preservation of Government esta- 
blishments, is the combustion that 
infallibly and rapidly ensues when 
greasy hemp, flax, or cotton, is 
allowed to remain loosely heaped 
together, in any quantity, in a 
confined unventilated space. Full 
proof of this has been made by 
experiment in the dockyards ; and 
there is much reason to attribute 
many fires in former days to care- 
lessness in the rope-walks and 
hemp-stores ; in consequence of 
which, rigorous orders have been 
of late years issued as to the im- 
mediate disposal of loose oakum 
and hemp sweepings all more or 
less greased or oiled. The very 
oil-rags used by engravers iu clean- 
ing plates, when heaped together 
to any amount, will be consumed 
in a few hours. 

The combination in question 
seems to be between the oil and 
the oxygen of the atmosphere. 
Oil has always an affinity for 
oxygen ; though, when the bulk of 
the former is considerable in pro- 
portion to the surface, the action 
is but feeble, and the results not 
ordinarily appreciable : but in the 
case of admixture of such fibrous 
vegetable bodies as hemp, flax, or 
cotton with oily matters, where 
the ratio of surface to solidity is 
great, and when the conditions for 
accumulating heat are favourable, 



COM 



COMPARTMENT. 



COM 



this accumulation soon produces 
ignition amongst such inflammable 
bodies as those just enumerated. 

Come. ' Come home ;' said of an an- 
chor when it is broken from the 
ground, and drags. To ' come up ' 
a rope or tackle, is to slack it off. 

Commandry, a religious house be- 
longing to a body of knights of 
the order of St. Bernard and St. 
Anthony. 

Commissure, the joins between two 
stones, in masonry. 

Common pitch, an old term still ap- 
plied by country workmen to a 
roof in which the length of the 
rafters is about three-fourths of 
the entire span. 

Common sewer of Rome : it was near 
the Senatorian bridge, and was 16 
feet in diameter. 

Communication valves, the valves in 
a steam-pipe which connects two 
boilers to an engine, for cutting off 
the communication between either* 
boiler and the engine. 

Communion table, a piece of church 
furniture usually placed near the 
wall of the east end of the chan- 
cel, and enclosed by rails, within 
which the clergyman stands to 
administer the Sacrament. 

Companion, a wooden covering over 
the staircase to a ship's cabin. 

Compartition, the division or distri- 
bution of the ground-plan of an 
edifice into its various apartments. 

Compartment of the streets within 
a city. According to Palladio, re- 
gard must be always had to the 
temperature of the air, and also to 
the region of heaven, or the cli- 
mate under which the place is 
situated ; because where the air is 
cold or temperate, there the streets 
ought to be made large and noble, 
since thereby the city will become 
more wholesome, convenient, and 
beautiful : it being certain that 
the less piercing, and the freer the 
air is, the less will it offend the 
head ; and therefore the more a 
town is situated in a cold place, or 
in a piercing air, and the houses are 

119 



high, the longer ought the streets 
to be made, that they may be vi- 
sited by the sun in every part. 

Compartment, a division or separate 
part of a general design. 

Compass (Harris's magneto-electric). 
The inventor's object, in the appli- 
cation of his discovery of the stea- 
dying action of the copper ring, 
" is the combination of great sensi- 
tiveness with stability and simpli- 
city of construction ; so that while 
the needle is free to obey the mag- 
netic force of the earth in the most 
perfect way, it yet remains tran- 
quil amidst the disturbing motions 
to which a ship is exposed ; and 
this stability is obtained without 
the aid of friction or other me- 
chanical impediment, which often 
produce an apparent steadiness or 
rather sluggishness of the com- 
pass (arising from indifference to 
motion), at the expense of ac- 
curacy. 

" When the horizontal position 
of the card is disturbed by any 
alteration of dip incidental to a 
change of latitude, it is to be cor- 
rected by moving the silver sliders 
on the needle. 

" Should the compass be out of 
use, care must be taken to let the 
needle hang freely in the meridian ; 
and if put into a store-room, or 
otherwise set by, the card and 
needle should be removed alto- 
gether, and placed with the needle 
downward in the shallow box pro- 
vided for it, the north point being 
on that part of the keeper marked 
with a cross, thus x . A good 
compass is liable to deterioration 
and damage when stowed away 
without regard to its magnetic 
properties, and without due care 
being taken to preserve the agate 
and the point of suspension in a 
perfect state." 

Compasses, an instrument with two 
long legs, working on a centre pin 
at one extremity ; used for draw- 
ing circles, measuring distances, 
setting out work, etc. 



COM 



COMPOSITION. 



COM 



Compass-headed, in ancient architec- 
ture, circular. 

Compass-plane, in joinery, a tool si- 
milar to the sraoothing-plane in 
size and shape, but the sole is 
convex, and the convexity is in 
the direction of the length of the 
plane. The use of the compass- 
plane is to form a concave cylin- 
drical surface, when the wood to 
be wrought upon is bent with the 
fibres in the direction of the curve, 
which is in a plane surface perpen- 
dicular to the axis of the cylinder : 
consequently, compass-planes must 
be of various sizes, in order to 
accommodate different diameters. 

Compass-roof, a roof in which the 
braces of the timbers are inclined 
so as to form a sort of arch. 

Compass-saw, in joinery, a tool for 
cutting the surfaces of wood into 
curved surfaces : for this purpose it 
is narrow, without a back, thicker 
on the cutting edge, as the teeth 
have no set : the plate is about 
an inch broad, next to the handle, 
and diminishes to about one quar- 
ter of an inch at the other extre- 
mity ; there are about five teeth in 
the inch: the handle is single. 

Compass-window, a bay window, or 
oriel. 

Complement (the) of an arch or angle 
is what it wants of 90 degrees : thus 
the complement of 50 is 40, and 
the complement of 40 is 50. 

Compluvium (Latin), the interval be- 
tween the roofs of porticoes which 
surround the cavsedium. The rain 
was admitted through this opening 
and fell upon the area below, 
which was termed by some authors 
the impluvium. 

Composite Order: by some considered 
not a distinct order, but a variety 
of the Corinthian. For its height 
and proportion, see Architecture, 
Orders. 

Care must be taken in Compo- 
site as well as in Corinthian capi- 
tals, that the feet of the lower 
leaves do not project beyond the 
upper part of the column, as at 

120 



St. Carlo, in the Corso at Rome, 
and at the Banqueting-house in 
London ; for nothing can be uglier. 
Neither are these leaves, as they 
mount, to bend forwards, as in 
many of the antiques, and in some 
modern buildings, because they 
then hide a considerable part of 
the upper row of leaves, and give 
a stunted disagreeable form to the 
whole capital. The different divi- 
sions of the acanthus-leaf, and 
bunches of olive or parsley which 
compose the total of each leaf, 
must be firmly marked, and massed 
in a very distinct manner : the 
stems that spring from between 
the upper leaves are to be kept 
low upon the vase of the capital, 
while rising between the leaves, 
then spring gradually forwards, to 
form the different volutes ; and 
the ornaments, which sometimes 
are used to adorn the sides of the 
, angular volutes, are never to pro- 
ject beyond the fillets between 
which they are confined. 

Composition of motion, in mechanics, 
an assemblage of several directions 
of motion resulting from several 
powers acting in different though 
not in opposite directions. 

Composition, in painting, is a tasteful 
and proper distribution of the ob- 
jects of a picture, in grouping, in 
the attitudes, in the draperies and 
the management of the back- 
ground. In architecture, the seve- 
ral parts which constitute a temple 
ought to be subject to the laws of 
symmetry, the principles of which 
should be familiar to all who pro- 
fess the science of architecture. 
Symmetry results from proportion, 
which, in the Greek language, is 
termed analogy. Proportion is the 
commensuration of the various 
constituent parts with the whole ; 
in the existence of which, sym- 
metry is found to consist ; for no 
building can possess the attributes 
of composition in which symmetry 
and proportion are disregarded, 
nor unless there exists that perfect 



COM 



CONCRETE. 



CON 



conformation of parts which may 
be observed in a well-formed hu- 
man being. 

Compound arch, according to Profes- 
sor Willis, an arch which has the 
archivolt moulded or formed into a 
series of square recesses and angles, 
on the principle that " it may be 
resolved into a number of concen- 
tric archways successively placed 
within and behind each other." 

Compound pier, a term applied to a 
clustered column. 

Compression, the result of pressing 
or squeezing matter so as to set its 
parts nearer to each other, and to 
make it occupy less space. 

Computation, the method of esti- 
mating time, weights, measures, 
etc. 

Concamerate, to arch over. 

Concameratio, arched work. 

Concave, a term denoting the curvi- 
linear vacuity of hollow bodies. 

Concentric, having a common centre ; 
as concentric circles, ellipses, etc. 

Concha, according to Dr. Whewell, a 
term for the concave ribless sur- 
face of a vault. 

Conclave, a private or secret council ; 
an inner room for meeting pri- 
vately. 

Concluding line, a small line leading 
through the centre of the steps of 
a rope or Jacob's ladder. 

Concrete, a composition of lime, 
sand, pebbles, or other materials, 
now commonly used for the foun- 
dations of buildings. The general 
employment of the mixtuie of 
lime and gravel, commonly known 
by the name of concrete, in all 
foundations where, from the nature 
of the soil, precautions against 
partial settlements appear neces- 
sary, and the great probability of 
an extension of its use in situa- 
tions where the materials of which 
it is composed are easily and 
cheaply procured, must of course 
render it a subject of great inte- 
rest to the engineer. Much va- 
luable information on this subject 
will be found in a prize essay by 

121 



Mr. G. Godwin, published in the 
' Transactions of the Institute of 
British Architects.' In this essay, 
many instances are brought for- 
ward of the employment by the 
ancients of a mixture analogous 
to concrete, both for foundations 
and for walls. Several cases are 
also mentioned in which, of late 
years, it has been used advanta- 
geously for foundations, by some 
of the most distinguished architects 
and civil engineers. In these lat- 
ter instances, the proportion of the 
ingredients varies from one of lime 
and two of gravel, to one of lime 
and twelve of gravel, the lime 
being in most cases Dorking lime, 
and the gravel, Thames ballast. 
The proportion, however, most 
commonly used now, in and about 
London, is one of lime to seven of 
ballast; though, from experiments 
made at the building of the West- 
minster New Bridewell, it would 
appear that one of lime to eight of 
ballast made the most perfect con- 
cretion. 

Concrete, compounded solely of 
lime and screened stones, will 
never assume a consistence at all 
equal to that of which sand forms 
a part. The north wing of Buck- 
ingham Palace affords an instance 
of this : it was first erected on a 
mass of concrete composed of lime 
and stones, and when subsequent 
alterations made it necessary to 
take down the building and remove 
the foundation, this was found not 
to have concreted into a mass. 

Mr. Godwin states, as the result 
of several experiments, that two 
parts of stones and one of sand, 
with sufficient lime (dependent on 
the quality of the material) to 
make good mortar with the latter, 
formed the best concrete. As the 
quality of the concrete depends, 
therefore, on the goodness of the 
mortar composed of the lime and 
sand, and as this must vary with 
the quality of the lime, no fixed 
proportions can of course be laid 



CON 



CONCRETE. 



CON 



down which will suit every case. 
The proportions must be deter-" 
mined by experiment ; but in no 
case should the quantity of sand 
be less than double that of the 
lime. 

The best mode of compounding 
the concrete is to thoroughly mix 
the lime, previously ground, with 
the ballast in a dry state ; sufficient 
water being then thrown over it to 
effect a perfect mixture, it should 
be turned over at least twice with 
shovels, and then wheeled away 
instantly for use. In some cases, 
where a great quantity of concrete 
has to be used, it has been found 
advisable to employ a pug-mill to 
mix the ingredients : in every case 
it should be used hot. 

With regard to the quantity of 
water that should be employed in 
forming concrete, there is some 
difference of opinion ; but as it is 
usually desirable that the mass 
should set as rapidly as possible, it 
is not advisable to use more water 
than is necessary to bring about a 
perfect mixture of the ingredients. 
A great change of bulk takes place 
in the ingredients of concrete when 
mixed together : a cubic yard of 
ballast, with the due proportion of 
lime and water, will not make a 
cubic yard of concrete. Mr. God- 
win, from several experiments made 
with Thames ballast, concludes that 
the diminution is about one-fifth. 
To form a cubic yard, therefore, of 
concrete, the proportion of lime 
being ^th of the quantity of ballast, 
it requires about 30 cubic feet of 
ballast, and 3| cubic feet of ground 
lime, with sufficient water to effect 
the admixture. 

An expansion takes place in the 
concrete during the slaking of the 
lime, of which an important use 
has been made in the underpinning 
of walls : the amount of this ex- 
pansion has been found to be about 
fths of an inch to every foot in 
height; and the size thus gained, 
the concrete never loses. 

122 



The examples from which the 
above rules are deduced are princi- 
pally of buildings erected in or 
about London ; the lime used is 
chiefly from Dorking, and the bal- 
last from the Thames. It is very 
desirable that a more extended 
collection of facts should be made, 
that the proportions of the mate- 
rials, when other limes and gravels 
are used, should be stated, in order 
that some certain rules may be laid 
down by which the employment of 
concrete may be regulated under 
the various circumstances which 
continually present themselves in 
practice. 

The Dorking and Hailing limes 
are slightly hydraulic. Will com- 
mon limes, such as chalk, and 
common stone-lirne, answer for 
forming foundations of concrete, 
where the soil, although damp, is 
not exposed to running water ? Is 
it possible, even with hydraulic 
lime, to form a mass of concrete in 
running water ? If common lime 
will not answer, may it not be 
made efficient by a slight mixture 
of cement ? These, and questions 
similar to these, are of great in- 
terest; and facts which elucidate 
them will be valuable contributions 
to the stock of knowledge on this 
subject. 

It is a question for consideration, 
whether a great variety of sizes in 
the materials used would not form 
the most solid as well as the hardest 
wall. The walls of the fortress of 
Ciudad Rodrigo, in Spain, are of 
concrete. The marks of the boards 
which retained the semi-fluid mat- 
ter in their construction are every- 
where perfectly visible ; and besides 
sand and gravel, there are every- 
where large quantities of round 
boulder-stones in the walls, from 
4 to 6 inches in diameter, procured 
from the ground around the city, 
which is everywhere covered with 
them. 

Condensation, the conversion of va- 
pour into water by cold. 



CON 



CONDUCTION, ELECTRICAL. 



CON 



Condenser, in steam-engines, the ves- 
sel connected with the exhaust-port 
of the cylinder of a low-pressure 
engine, and also with the air-pump, 
by a passage at the bottom fitted 
by the foot-valve of the pump : it 
receives the steam from the cylin- 
der, and condenses it by a jet of 
cold water, thus forming a vacuum 
for the return stroke : the water, 
air, etc., are then drawn off by the 
air-pump, and discharged into the 
hot well. 

Conditorium, a secret place ; a sepul- 
chre ; a vault. 

Conduction, electrical, a series of 
phenomena in electricity, giving 
origin to a classification of sub- 
stances as conductors of electricity. 
The substances which properly 
come under this conducting or non- 
electric class are principally as fol- 
lows : 

LIST OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. 

Every metallic substance known. 

Well-burned charcoal. 

Plumbago. 

Concentrated and diluted acids, 

and saline fluids. 

Water, and moist vegetable matter. 
Living animal matter. 
Flame smoke steam. 

The distinctive difference in the 
conducting and non - conducting 
property of bodies may be readily 
illustrated in the following way : 
Excite a glass tube and wire, and 
bring the ball of the wire into 
contact with any of the electrics, 
as a rod of glass, a stick of sealing- 
wax, or brimstone rendered per- 
fectly dry : the attractive power of 
the ball and wire, together with 
the tube, will not be in any sensi- 
ble degree impaired. Let the elec- 
trified ball now touch the walls of 
the room or other conducting sub- 
stance communicating with the 
ground ; the attractive power will 
instantly vanish. 

It is evident from these facts 
that all electric substances are non- 
conductors or insulators, as they 
are appropriately termed ; whilst, 



on the other hand, non-electric 
substances are transmitters or con- 
ductors of electrical action. When, 
therefore, any conducting sub- 
stance is placed on an electrical 
support, such as a rod of glass or 
shell-lac, it is considered to be 
insulated, and is termed an insu- 
lated conductor; when electrified 
by contact with any excited or 
other electrified body, it is said 
to be charged. The electrical 
charge thus communicated to an 
insulated conductor appears to be 
collected about its surface, and to 
be rather dependent on that than 
on the solid content. Thus, if two 
metallic spheres or cylinders, the 
one solid, the other hollow and 
extremely light, be suspended by 
silk lines, or placed on dry insu- 
lating supports, and be charged by 
contacts with an excited tube, the 
attractive energy of each upon any 
light substance presented to it will 
be found quite alike in each. In 
this experiment the insulators must 
be very dry and perfect. 

The best insulating substances 
are of the vitreous and resinous 
class, such as shell-lac, brimstone, 
dry glass rods, vitrified and crys- 
talline bodies : to these may be 
added silk. 

The best conducting substances 
are principally metallic bodies, sa- 
line fluids, and common charcoal. 

It should, however, be here un- 
derstood, that modern researches, 
especially those of Faraday, lead us 
to conclude that there are really 
no substances which perfectly con- 
duct or perfectly obstruct electrical 
action. The insulating and con- 
ducting power is, in fact, a differ- 
ence of degree only : still, the ex- 
treme differences are so great, that 
if classed in relation to such dif- 
ferences, those at the extremes of 
the series admit of being considered 
the one as insulators, the other as 
conductors ; whilst the interme- 
diate terms are made up of sub- 
stances which may be considered 



r, 9 



CON 



CONICAL POINTS. 



CON 



as imperfect, taken as either. Con- 
versely, every substance is capable 
of excitation by friction ; yet the 
differences in this respect are so 
great as to admit of some bodies 
being called electrics and others 
non-electrics, with an intermediate 
class between these extremes, 
which may be termed imperfect 
electrics. 

Series of conductors and insu- 
lators. Metals and concentrated 
acids are found at the conducting 
extremity of such a series, shell- 
lac, brimstone, all vitreous and 
resinous bodies, at the other or 
electric extremity ; whilst the im- 
perfect or intermediate substances 
comprise such matter as common 
earth and stones, dry chalk, mar- 
ble, porcelain, paper, and alkaline 
matter. 

The attractive power evinced by 
any electrical body in a state of 
excitation, although the first and 
usually the most evident electrical 
effect, is yet not the only force 
which seems to result from this 
curious condition of common mat- 
ter. On a closer examination of 
the phenomena, a new class of 
facts present themselves, of re- 
markable interest. If the excita- 
tion be considerable, and the at- 
tracted body insulated, it will, after 
being drawn into contact with the 
electrified substance, rebound from 
it with great violence, as if repelled 
by some new power, and will not 
be again attracted until it has had 
conducting communication with 
the earth, or some other mass of 
matter capable of reducing it to its 
original condition before the con- 
tact. 

Conduit, a structure forming a reser- 
voir for water, and from which it 
is drawn for use. 

Cone, a solid body having a circular 
base, and its other extremity ter- 
minating in a single point or vertex. 
Cones are either right or oblique. 

Cone-plate, a strong plate of cast iron 
fixed vertically to the bed of a lathe, 

124 



with a conical hole in it, to form a 
support for the end of a shaft 
which it is required to bore. 

Confessional, a recess or seat in which 
the priest sits to hear the confes- 
sions of penitents. 

Conge, another name for the echinus 
or quarter-round, as also for the 
cavetto : the former is called the 
swelling conge, the latter the hol- 
low conge. 

Conic sections, the curves formed by 
the intersection of a circular cone 
and a plane ; the former being 
either oblique or right. 

Conical points, in turnery, the cones 
fixed in the pillars for supporting 
the body to be turned : that on the 
right hand is called the fore centre, 
and that on the left hand, the back 
centre. 

Conissinet, the stone which crowns a 
pier, or that lies immediately over 
the capital of the impost, and 
under the sweep. The bed of it is 
level below, and curved above, 
receiving the first rise or spring of 
the arch or vault. 

Conisterium, an apartment in the pa- 
laestra, in which sand was kept for 
sprinkling the athletae, after they 
had been anointed. 

Connecting-rods, in locomotive en- 
gines, the strong iron rods which 
connect the piston to the driving- 
wheel axle, and thus give motion 
to all the machinery. 

Connecting-rods, in locomotive en- 
gines, outside or side rods, those 
which connect together the wheels 
of good engines. They are seen 
outside the wheels, making an ir- 
regular forward motion, like water- 
men rowing a boat. By connect- 
ing the wheels together, one pair 
cannot slip without the others, 
and the greatest practicable adhe- 
sion is thus obtained. 

Connecting-rod straps, in locomotive 
engines, strong pieces of iron bent 
like the letter c, which fit the 
ends of the connecting-rod; and 
into which the axle-bearing is fitted 
in two parts. They are attached 



CON 



CONSERVATORY. 



CON 



to their respective ends of the rod 
by keys and cotters, which are 
taken out, and the half of the 
bearing also, when a connecting- 
rod has to be put on. The strap 
and half-bearing are then brought 
over the axle or cross-head, the 
other half-bearing put into the 
strap, the end of the rod brought 
up against the bearing, and se- 
cured by the keys and cotters. 
Taking off a rod is of course the 
reverse of putting one on. 

Connecting-rod bearings, in locomo- 
tive engines, the gun-metal or 
composition metal bearings fitted 
into the straps, to suit the parti- 
cular part they are to work on. 

Conning, directing the helmsman in 
steering a vessel. 

Conservation, the ceremony of sanc- 
tifying or making holy. 

Conservatory, a superior kind of 
greenhouse, for preserving curious 
and rare exotic plants. It is made 
with beds of the finest composts, 
into which the trees and plants are 
removed for culture and preser- 
vation. Its construction is more 
capacious than the ordinary green- 
house, and it is furnished in a 
superior style, provided with a 
free admission of light, and, in 
addition, with flues or boiling- 
water pipes to raise the tempera- 
ture when necessary, and also 
contrivances for the introduction 
of fresh air. 

Consideration (the), which one onght 
to have before he begins to build. 
Palladio says, " The first thing that 
requires our consideration, when 
we are about to build, is the plan, 
and the upright of the edifice we 
propose to erect." Three things, 
according to Vitruvius, are chiefly 
to be considered, without which a 
building cannot be of any value. 
These are, conveniency, solidity, 
and beauty : for no edifice can be 
allowed to be perfect, if it be com- 
modious and not durable; or, if 
being durable, it be subject to 
many inconveniences ; or if having 



both solidity and conveniency, it 
has no beauty or uniformity. 

Consistory court, a spiritual court, ! 
formerly held in the nave of the 
cathedral church. 

''Console, a bracket or truss, mostly 
with scrolls or volutes at the two 
ends, of unequal size and con- i 
trasted, but connected by a flowing 
line from the back of the upper I 
one to the inner convolving face of \ 
the lower. 

Constant white, permanent white, or j 
barytic white, is a sulphate of ha- i 
rytes, and, when well prepared and ; 
free from acid, is one of the best ! 
whites for water-painting, being of 
superior body in water, but desti- 
tute of this quality in oil. 

Construction, in architecture : for this 
the chief requisites are, magnitude 
and strength, and the art of distri- 
buting the different forces and 
strains of the parts and materials 
of a building in so scientific a 
manner as to avoid failure and to 
insure durability. 

Continuous imposts, according to Pro- 
fessor Willis, are the mouldings of 
an arch which are continued with- 
out interruption down the uprights 
to the ground or base, the impost 
point having no mark or distinc- 
tion of any kind. 

Contouring (surveying altitudes and 
levels). This term is applied to 
the outline of any figure, and con- 
sequently to that of any section of 
a solid body ; but when used pro- 
fessionally, in connection with the 
forms of ground, or of works of 
defence, the outline of a horizontal 
section of the ground, or works, is 
alone to be understood by it. 

When the forms of ground, or 
works, are described by contours, 
or horizontal sections, these sec- 
tions are taken at some fixed ver- 
tical interval from each other, 
suited to the scale of the drawing, 
or to the subject in hand; and the 
distance of each, above or below 
some assumed plane of compari- 
son, is given in figures at the most 



125 



CON 



COPPER. 



COR 



convenient places on the plan. 
When the scale of the drawing r3 
about 100 feet to an inch, 2 or 3 
feet will be found a convenient 
vertical interval between the con- 
tours ; and however large the scale 
of the plan, it will scarcely be 
found necessary to obtain contours 
with a less vertical interval than 2 
feet. If the scale of the plan be 
about 250 feet to an inch, or the 
ordinary special survey scale of 4 
chains to an inch, 5 feet will prove 
a convenient vertical interval : and 
with a horizontal scale of from 500 
to 800 feet per inch, 10 feet may 
be taken as the vertical interval. 

In tracing and surveying the 
contours of ground, the following 
process may be adopted : com- 
plete the survey of the occupation 
of the ground, the streams, etc., 
and determine carefully the alti- 
tudes of the trigonometrical points 
employed above the intended place 
of comparison ; take an accurate 
trace from the plot of one of the 
triangles, which, if the distances 
between the trigonometrical points 
are properly proportioned to the 
scale of the plan, will generally be 
a convenient piece in point of size 
to contour ; take this trace to the 
ground, and find upon the ground, 
and mark upon the trace the points 
where each of the intended con- 
tours will cut the boundary lines of 
the triangle. 

Contraction, the effect of cold upon 
a warm body, causing a diminution 
in its size by the particles ap- 
proaching each other. 

Contramure, an out-wall built about 
the wall of a city or fortification. 

Convent, a building appropriated to 
religious persons ; a nunnery. 

Convocation and Convocators, or par- 
liament of tinners. All Stannary 
laws are enacted by the several 
convocations, and carry with them 
all the force and law of acts of 
parliament. 

Coopertorium, the roof of a building. 

Co-ordinates, in the theorv of curves, 



any absciss and its corresponding 
ordinate. 

Cope (to), to jut out as a wall. 

Cope (to), to cover over an arch. 

Coping, the reversing course of a 
wall, either flat or sloping on the 
upper surface, to throw off water. 

Coppe-house, anciently a tool-house. 

Copper, one of the six primitive 
metals, and the most ductile and 
malleable after gold and silver. Of 
this metal and lapis calaminaris is 
made brass, which is comparatively 
a modern invention. 

Copper green (colour); the appellation 
of a class rather than of an indi- 
vidual pigment, under which are 
comprehended verdigris, verditer, 
malachite, mineral green, green 
bice, Scheele's green, Schweinfurt 
or Vienna green, Hungary green, 
emerald green, true Brunswick 
green, lake green, mountain green, 
African green, French green, Saxon 
green, Persian green, patent green, 
marine green, Olympian green, etc. 
The general characteristic of these 
greens is brightness of colour, well 
suited to the purposes of house- 
painting, but not adapted to the 
modesty of nature in fine art. 

Coral wood is of a fine red colour, 
hard, and polishable. 

Corbel, or Corbeille, a short piece of 
timber or stone let into a wall half 
its length or more, as the burthen 
superimposed may require, to carry 
a weight above it, and projecting 
from the general face of the work: 
it is carved in various fanciful ways ; 
the commonest form is, however, 
that of an ogee. 

^Corbel, in Gothic architecture, a pro- 
jecting stone or piece of timber 
which supports a superincumbent 
weight. 

Corbel-table, a cornice supported by 
corbels. 

Corbie steps, steps up the sides of a 
gable, found in old houses in Flan- 
ders, Holland, etc. 

Corbona, in mining, a dropper from a 

lode in irregular masses. 
-Corbs, ornaments in architecture. 



126 



COR 



CORONA. 



COR 



Cordon, the edge of stone on the out- 
side of a building. 
Core, with the Cornish tinmen, is a 

division of time and lahour. 
Corinthian Order. The three columns 
in the Campo Vaccino, supposed 
remains of the temple of Jupiter 
Stator, are generally allowed to be 
the most perfect models of the 
Corinthian order amongst the an- 
tiques at Rome. Palladio, in his 
fourth book, where he gives the 
whole profile at large, acknow- 
ledges that he never had seen any 
work better executed, or more deli- 
cately finished ; that its parts are 
beautifully formed, well-propor- 
tioned, and skilfully combined ; all 
which last qualities are certainly 
signified by his benissimo intesi. 

With these favourable senti- 
ments, it is extraordinary that, in 
his design of the Corinthian order, 
he should have so very considerably 
deviated from this excellent origi- 
nal as scarcely to leave the smallest 
shadow of resemblance. 

Vignola, in his Corinthian pro- 
file, has chiefly imitated the above- 
mentioned fragment, and the inte- 
rior order of the Pantheon, another 
very perfect model. His compo- 
sition is uncommonly beautiful, 
and, without dispute, superior to 
that of any other master: he art- 
fully collected all the perfections 
of his originals, and formed a whole 
far preferable to either of them. 

Corinthian Brass. Gold, silver, and 
copper, casually mixed together at 
the burning of the city of Corinth, 
there being a great many statues 
and vessels melted down and so 
embodied. 

Corner-stones, in architecture, the two 
stones which stand one in each joint 
of the chimney. 

Corneus, a kind of tin ore, found in 
black columns, with irregular sides, 

/ and terminating in prisms. 

Cornice, the projection, consisting of 
several members, which crowns or 
finishes an entablature, or the body 
or part to which it is annexed. The 

127 



cornice used on a pedestal is called 
the cap of the pedestal. 

Cornish engine, a single-acting beam 
engine, used for raising water ; the 
steam is worked very expansively, 
and used for the down-stroke only, 
to raise an immense weight, fas- 
tened to the pump-rod, at the end 
of the beam : the steam having 
acted for the down-stroke, and the 
entrance-valve being closed, a com- 
munication is formed between the 
top and bottom of the cylinder, by 
lifting a valve in the steam passage, 
called an equilibrium valve ; the 
pressures on the piston are thus 
equalized, and the weight acts to 
force the water up, and raise the 
piston. 

^Cornucopia, or horn of plenty; among 
architects, painters, etc., it is repre- 
sented under the figure of a large 
horn, out of which issue fruit, 
flowers, etc. 

Corollary, an inference or deduction. 

Coromandel wood, the produce of 
Ceylon and the coast of India, is 
shipped in logs and planks from 
Bombay and Madras ; it is of a red 
hazel-brown colour, handsome for 
furniture wood, and turns well. 

Corona, the members constituting the 
uppermost of the three divisions of 
the entablature of a portico, or any 
other building in which columns 
are introduced ; this division is 
termed cornice. 

Corona, that flat, square, and massy 
member of a cornice, more usually 
called the drip or larmier, whose 
situation is between the cymatium 
above and the bed-moulding below; 
its use is to carry the water drop 
by drop from the building. 

Corporate cloth, a linen cloth or nap- 
kin spread upon the altar, on which 
the host and chalice are placed at 
the mass in the Catholic service. 

Corpse-gate, a covered place at the 
entrance to a churchyard, intended 
to shelter the corpse and mourners 
from rain. 

Correggio (Antonio Allegri); of the 
Lombard school he acquired the art 



COR 



COTTON. 



COU 



of modelling. His early style was 
acquired probably from Andrejf 
Mantegna. 

^Corridor, a gallery or open communi- 
cation to the different apartments 
of a house. 

Corrugated Iron, a design for the 
strength of iron beams or girders, 
in the employment of corrugated 
sheet iron. This was the subject 
of a patent, granted in 1848 to 
Mr. J. H. Porter, " for an improved 
mode of applying corrugated iron 
in the formation of fire-proof floors, 
roofs, and other structures." 

Coma, the name given by Vitruvius to 
a platband or square fascia whose 
height is more than its projecture. 

Cortile, a small court enclosed by the 
divisions or appurtenances of a 
building. 

Cords, in the middle ages, a court 
surrounded by edifices. 

Coryceum, a room similar to a tennis- 
court. 

Cosecant of an arch, the complement 
of another to 90 degrees. 

Costean pits, in Cornish mining, are 
shallow pits sunk to trace or find tin. 

Costeaning, in mining, the discover- 
ing of lodes by sinking pits in their 
vicinity, and drawing transversely 
to their supposed direction. 

Cot, in nautical phraseology, a bed- 
frame suspended from the beams 
of the ship, or otherwise. 

Cotangent, is the tangent of any com- 
plemental arch, or what the arch 
wants of a quadrant or 90 degrees. 

Cotton, a white woolly or downy 
substance, found in a brown bud, 
produced by a shrub, the leaves of 
which resemble those of the syca- 
more-tree. The bud, which grows 
as large as a pigeon's egg, turns 
black when ripe, and divides at 
top into three parts ; the cotton is 
as white as snow, and with the 
heat of the sun swells to the size 
of a pullet's egg. Scripture speaks 
of cotton. 

Cotton manufactures and trade. Cot- 
ton was woven by the Hindoos and 
Chinese many centuries before the 

128 



Christian era. The Egyptians are 
supposed to have imported woven 
cotton before the plant had begun 
to be cultivated in their country, 
and the Romans received woven 
cotton from India long before the 
cotton-plant was known in Europe. 
The extension of the manufacture 
of it has now become enormous. 
The export of cotton goods from 
England, in 1846, was 25,600,693 
in value. 

The distinctive names by which 
cotton is known in commerce are 
mostly derived from the countries 
which produce it ; the exceptions 
are, sea-island cotton, and upland 
cotton. The former of these was 
first cultivated in the low sandy 
islands near the coastof Charleston, 
in America, while the latter is 
grown in the inner or upland 
country. The sea-island cotton is 
the finest of the several varieties. 
The upland is often called Bowed 
Cotton. 

The spinning of cotton into the 
form of yarn or thread requires 
many preparatory processes ; but 
the inventions and improvements 
in machinery that have been ef- 
fected in recent years have rendered 
the process simple and of great 
national value. 

Cotton and Calico printing, the art 
of staining woven fabrics of cotton 
with various figures and colours. 

Cotton, ffun, is prepared with cotton 
wool, and explodes at 400 Fahr. 
Gunpowder explodes at 600. 

Couched, laid close, as in a stratum. 

Couissinet. (See Conissinet.} 

Coulisse, any piece of timber which 
has grooves in it ; also pieces of 
wood which hold the floodgates in 
a sluice. 

Counter, that part of a vessel between 
the bottom of the stern and the 
wing transom and buttock. 

Counterfort, a pier, buttress, or ob- 
lique wall, built up against a wall 
to strengthen and support it. 

Counter-gauge, in carpentry, a method 
of measuring joints by transferring 



cou 



COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 



COU 



the breadth of a mortise to the 
place on another timber where the 
tenon is to be made. 

Counter-lath, in tiling, a lath placed 
by the eye. 

Counterpoise, any weight which, 
placed in opposition to another 
weight, produces an equilibrium ; 
but it is more commonly used to 
denote the weight used in the Ro- 
man balance, or steelyard. 

Countersinks, in joinery, are bits for j 
widening the upper part of a hole j 
in wood or iron, for the head of a i 
screw or pin, and have a conical j 
head. Those for wood have one 
cutter in the conic surface, and 
have the cutting edge more remote 
from the axis of the cone than any 
other part of the surface. Coun- 
tersinks for brass have eleven or 
twelve cutters round the conic sur- 
face, so that the horizontal section 
represents a circular saw. These 
are called rose-countersinks. The 
conic angle at the vertex is about 
90 degrees. Countersinks for iron 
have two cutting edges, forming an 
obtuse angle. 

I Counterview, in painting, a contrast 
or situation in which two things 
illustrate or set off each other. 

Counters, in ships, two parts of a ship 
called the upper and lower counter. 

Count-house, a reckoning-house, in 
Derbyshire ; a house or room on 
the mine used for keeping accounts 
of the products, etc. 

Country residences. There are im- 
portant advantages which deserve 
to be brought into notice, whether 
for comfort and convenience, for 
gratifying taste or fashion. Addi- 
tional rooms appropriated for new 
purposes are often requisite. For- 
merly a gallery, although there were 
no works of art to fill it, was a ne- 
cessary part of a mansion ; of late 
years, the billiard-room and the 
conservatory enter into the arrange- 
ments of an architect ; and a suit 
of well-planned nursery-rooms have 
been made a necessary part of the 
plan of a country mansion. The 

129 < 



gallery is again about to resume its 
importance, and perhaps we may 
hereafter imitate the Romans in 
having covered walks contiguous 
to the house, in order to enjoy 
fresh air in the many rainy and 
snowy days at a country residence 
in an English winter. The irregu- 
lar style admits of such additions, 
arid loses nothing of the picturesque 
effect. The exterior decorations of 
terraces, parterres, stairs of com- 
munication, and different gardens 
filled with groups of the many 
flowering shrubs and plants, are ad- 
mirably in harmony with this style 
of architecture. While we thus 
decorate closely around the house, 
it becomes less necessary to sacri- 
fice so much to the park. The 
masonry of such irregular archi- 
tecture requires not the expen- 
sive labour bestowed on a Grecian 
or Roman mansion. The whole 
should be in rough rubble-work, 
excepting the parapets, the corners, 
the windows, and doors. Many 
very good designs of castellated 
dwellings have been, in the execu- 
tion, deprived of their effect, by 
being built of smooth, hewn free- 
stone. If circular or square towers 
are introduced in a composition of 
the irregular style, they should, in 
every case, be of great dimensions, 
as much for their being applied to 
useful rooms, as to produce that 
grandeur of appearance which bulk 
in towers always gives. 

The Country-seats of the Ita- 
lians have been copied by most civi- 
lized nations of Europe ; celebrated 
by poets, visited and admired by 
travellers : they have not, however, 
been described or represented as 
they deserve. They are so ar- 
ranged as to produce the best 
effect, and advantage of the nature 
of the site has been taken with 
admirable skill. The regularities 
of the gardens accompany the de- 
coration, and support the architec- 
ture. (See Parker's 'Villa Rus- 
tica,' recently published.) 



cou 



COUPLINGS. 



COW 



Couple-close, a pair of spars of a roof; 
also used by heralds as a diminu-* 
tive of the chevron. 

Coupled columns. When, from the 
extent between columns sometimes 
necessary for the introduction of 
doors, windows, niches, or other 
decorations, neither the eustylos 
nor the diastylos intercolumniation 
can be used, coupled columns are 
frequently introduced. In this case 
two sistylos intercolumniations are 
used ; the column which would 
otherwise occupy the middle of the 
space being brought to the distance 
of only half a diameter (or suffi- 
cient room for the projection of 
the capitals) from the extreme 
column. The middle space will 
then be three diameters and a half. 
This species has been called araeo- 
sistylos. When buildings are small, 
the intercolumniations will not re- 
quire such particular attention to 
the foregoing rules, for columns 
should never be placed nearer to 
each other than three feet, which 
will allow for the easy passage of 
a bulky person. 

Coupling, in machinery, is the name 
given to various arrangements by 
which the parts of a machine may 
be connected or disconnected at 
pleasure, or by which a machine 
may be disengaged from, or re- 
engaged with, a revolving wheel or 
shaft, through which it receives 
motion from a steam-engine, water- 
wheel, or other prime mover. 
Couplings, in mill-work : it is fre- 
quently necessary to convey motion 
much farther than would be prac- 
ticable by any one shaft, and there- 
fore often requisite to connect two 
or more shafts together. These 
connections are denominated cou- 
plings, and may be divided into two 
classes: 1st, Those having two 
bearings ; 2ndly, Those having one 
bearing. Couplings having two 
bearings have been long in use, 
and before those having one bear- 
ing, and are generally more simple 
in their construction. 

130 



Coupling-box, a metal box for joining 
the ends of two shafts, so that they 
may revolve together. 
Course, a continuous range of stones 
or bricks, of uniform height, in the 
wall of a building. 

Course, in Cornish mining, is a tin 
or copper course; a phrase for 
working of the lode. 
Courses, sails that hang from a ship's 
lower yards : the fore-sail is called 
the fore-course, and the main-sail 
the main-course. 

Courts of Justice: there were in 
Rome twelve halls or courts of 
justice, where causes were heard 
and tried : they were adorned with 
statues, fine columns, and porticoes 
with double rows of columns. 
/Cove, a cave, a recess ; any kind of 
concave moulding; the concavity 
of an arch or of a ceiling. 
Coved ceiling, the upper surface of an 
apartment formed in an arched or 
coved shape at its junction with 
the side walls. 

Covenants of the Old and New Testa- 
ment (The Two), in the Table of 
Symbols of the early ages, are re- 
presented by the wheel in the 
middle of a wheel. Ezek. i. 1 6. 
Cover, in slating, the part of the slate 
that is hidden; the exposed part 
being called the margin. 
Cover-way, in roofing, the recess or 
internal angle left to receive the 
covering. 

Cover, a turret or cupola on the rooi 
of a hall or kitchen, pierced at the 
sides to let out smoke or steam. 
Covie or Covey, a pantry. 
Coving, the exterior projection of the 
upper parts of a building beyond 
the limits of the ground-plan. 
Coving, a term applied to houses, etc., 
that project over the ground-plot. 
Coving of a fireplace, the vertical 
sides, inclining backwards and in- 
wards, for the purpose of reflecting 
the heat. 

Cowl, a cover for the top of a chim- 
ney, made to turn round by the 
wind, and used to facilitate the 
escape of smoke. 



cox 



CRANK. 



CRE 



] Cowner, an arch part of a ship's stern. 
j Coxswain, the person who steers a 

hoat, and has charge of her. 
! Crab, a wooden apparatus, something 
like a capstan, hut not furnished 
with a drum-head ; it is used for 
similar purposes, with holes made 
to insert the bars. 

Crab, a machine with three claws, 
used to launch ships, to heave 
them into the dock, or off the quay. 

Cradle, a frame placed under the bot- 
tom of a ship, in order to conduct 
her steadily into the water when 
she is to be launched, at which 
time it supports her weight while 
she slides down the descent or 
sloping passage, called the Ways, 
which are for this purpose daubed 
with soap or tallow. 

Craft, a general name for all sorts of 
vessels employed to load or dis- 
charge merchant ships, or to carry 
alongside or return the guns, stores, 
or provisions of a man-of-war : such 
are lighters, hoys, barges, etc. 

Cramp, a short bar of iron, with its 
ends bent so as to form three sides 
of a parallelogram : at one end a 
set-screw is inserted, so that two 
pieces of metal, being placed be- 
tween, can be held firmly together 
by the screw. 

Crane, a machine used for hoisting and 
lifting stones, ponderous weights, 
and heavy goods, principally at 
wharfs and warehouses, now much 
employed for hoisting heavy build- 
ing materials ; also as travelling 
cranes on framed scaffolding, for 
the assistance of masons, brick- 
layers, anji other artisans in build- 
ing, saving the time and labour 
formerly so much prolonged in the 
execution of the work to be done. 

Cranes, pieces of iron or timber at a 
vessel's sides, used to stow boats 
or spars upon. 

Crank, the condition of a vessel when 
she is inclined to lean over a good 
deal, arid cannot bear much sail : 
this may be owing to her construc- 
tion, or to her stowage. 

Crank, the arms projecting from the 

131 



main shaft of an engine, joined to- 
gether at the outer ends. 

Crank, in mechanics, a square piece 
projecting from a spindle, serving 
by its rotation to raise and fall the 
pistons of engines : it also denotes 
the iron support for a lantern, and 
the iron made fast to the stock of 
a bell. 

Crank, in machinery, is a bend in an 
axle, by which a reciprocating mo- 
tion in a rod is made to produce a 
revolving motion of an axle and of 
a wheel which may be connected 
with it. 

Crank, in turning that part of the 
axle of the fly which is bent into 
three knees, or right angles, and 
three projecting parts : one of the 
parts is parallel to the axis, and 
has the upper part of the crank- 
hook collared round it. 

Crank-axle, the driving axle con- 
nected to the piston-rods of a loco- 
motive engine. 

Crank-hook, in turning, sometimes 
also called the connecting-rod, as it 
connects the treadle and the fly. 

Crank-pin, the cylindrical piece join- 
ing the ends of the crank arms, 
and attached to the connecting- 
rod, or, in vibrating engines, to 
the piston-rod : if the crank has 
only one arm, the pin projects 
from the end of it. 

Crayon, a chalk ; a species of mate- 
rial for drawing. Black chalk, 
found in Italy, white chalk, found 
in France, and red chalk, form 
three of the best varieties of cra- 
yons : each has its own peculiar 
value as a drawing material. 

Creates, in mining, the work or tin 
in the middle part of the huddle 
or dressing. 

Credence, the small table at the side 
of the altar, or communion table, 
on which the bread and wine were 
formerly placed before they were 
consecrated. 

Creeper, an iron instrument like a 
grapnel, with four claws, used for 
dragging the bottom of a harbour 
or river, to find anything lost. 



CRE 



CROSS. 



CRO 



Cremona school of painting, Boc- v 
caccio Boccaccino bears the same* 
character among the Cremonese, 
as Ghirlandajo, Mantegna, Vanucci, 
etc., in their respective schools. 
Caraillo Boccaccino was the chief 
master of this school, grounded in 
the ancient maxims of his father. 

Crenelle, the embrasure of a battle- 
ment, or loopholes. 

Crepido, according to Pliny, any 
raised basement upon which other 
things are built or supported, as of 
a temple, altar, obelisk, etc. 

Crescent, or half-moon. 

Cresset, a candlestick or lamp to 
contain a light. 

Crest, a term in heraldry ; the orna- 
ment of the helmet. 

Creste, the ornamented finishing sur- 
rounding a screen or canopy of a 
building. 

Crest-tiles, those used to cover the j 
ridge of a roof, upon which they 
fit on the principle of a saddle. 

Creux, a kind of sculpture, when the 
lines and figures are cut and formed 
within the face of the plate. 

Cringle, a short piece of rope with 
each end spliced into the bolt-rope 
of a sail, confining an iron ring or 
thimble. 

Criplings, short spars at the sides of 
houses. 

Crista, a crest ; the apex or highest 

part of a shrine. 

Brockets, ornaments of foliage or 
animals running up the back of a 
pediment, arch-pinnacle, or spire, 
from the corbels below to the 
finial above, in which latter the 
crockets on both sides appear to 
merge. Projecting leaves, flowers, 
or bunches of foliage, used in 
Gothic architecture to decorate the 
angles of spires, canopies, pinna- 
cles, etc. 

Cromlech, in British antiquity, high, 
broad, and flat stones, raised upon 
other stones set on end, apparently 
for the purpose of an altar. 
Crop, ore or tin of the first quality, 
after it is dressed or cleaned for 
smelting. 

132 



Crosette, a truss, or console, in the 
flank or return of an architrave of 
a door, window, or other aperture 
in a wall. 

Crosettes, in decoration, the trusses 
or consoles on the flanks of the 
architrave, under the cornice. 

Cross-beam, a beam laid across an- 
other. In a ship, a great piece of 
timber so called, crossing two 
others, called bites, and to which 
the cable is fastened, when a ship 
rides at anchor. 

Cross-jack, in a ship, is a small yard 
flung at the upper end of the 
mizen-mast under the top. 

Cross, a gibbet constructed of two 
pieces of wood placed transversely, 
whether they cross each other at 
right angles at the top, like a T, 
or in the middle of their length, 
like an X. 

Cross, the symbol of the Christian 
religion. 

Cross, cross crusse, cross-bar, cross 
yoffan, cross lode, either a vein of 
a metallic nature, or a soft earth, 
clay, or flookan, like a vein, which 
unheads and intersects the true 
lode. 

Cross-bars, round bars of iron bent 
at each end, used as levers to turn 
the shank of an anchor. 

Cross-chocks, pieces of timber fayed 
across the deadwood amidships, to 
make good the deficiency of the 
heels of the lower futtocks. 

Cross (church), or a Greek cross, that 
in which the length of the trans- 
verse part is equal to that of the 
nave ; so called because most of 
the Greek churches were built in 
that form. 

Cross (church), or a Latin cross, that 
whose nave is longer than the cross 
part, as in most Gothic churches. 

Cross-grained stuff, in joinery, wood 
having its fibres running in con- 
trary positions to the surfaces, and 
which consequently cannot be made 
perfectly smooth when planed in 
one direction, without turning it 
or turning the plane. 

Cross-heads, in locomotive engines, 



CRO 



CRYPT. 



CRY 



the part of the motion into which 
the piston-rod is fitted on the cy- 
linder side and the connecting-rod 
attached on the driving wheel axle 
side. 

Cross-head guides, in locomotive en- 
gines, the parallel bars between 
which the cross-head moves in a 
right line with the cylinder and 
driving wheel axle : they are also 
called motion bars. 

Cross-head blocks, in locomotive en- 
gines, the parts which slide between 
the parallel guides. The ends of 
the cross-head are fitted into these 
blocks. The cross-head, cross- 
head guides, and block, constitute 
what is called ' the motion of the 
engine.' 

Cross-head, in the steam-engine, a 
cross-bar fixed centrally on the top 
of a piston-rod, and connected to 
the beam: its motion is confined 
to a direct line by guides at each 
end ; or, in the side-lever and beam 
engines, by an apparatus called a 
' parallel motion.' 

Cross-jack : the cross-jack yard is the 
lower yard on the mizen-mast. 

Cross-spales, pieces of timber placed 
across a vessel, and nailed to the 
frames, to keep the sides together 
until the knees are bolted. 

Cross-somer, a beam of timber. 

Cross-springer, in groined vaulting, 
the rib which extends diagonally 
from one pier to another. 

Cross-trees, pieces of oak supported 
by the cheeks and trestle-trees at 
the mast-heads, to sustain the tops 
on the lower mast, and to spread 
the top-gallant rigging at the top- 
mast head. 

Cross vaulting is formed by the inter- 
section of two or more simple 
vaults of arch-work. 

Crotchet, a support, or piece of wood 
fitted into another to sustain it. 
Also crooked pieces of iron, used 
on board sloops and long-boats. 

Croud, or Crowde, a crypt, or under- 
croft of a church. 

Crow, in mechanics, an iron lever, 
made with a sharp point at one 

133 



end, and two claws at the other ; 
used in heaving and purchasing 
great weights. 

Crow-foot, a number of small lines 
rove through to suspend an awning. 

Crown, in geometry, a plane ring in- 
cluded between two concentric 
perimeters, generated by the mo- 
tion of part of a right line round 
the centre, to which the moving 
part is not contiguous. 

Crown of an anchor, the place where 

the arms are joined to the shank. 
''Crown of an arch, that line or point 
upon its surface which is the 
highest or most elevated from its 
springing. 

Crown-post, the middle post of a 
trussed roof. 

Crown-wheels. Circular motion is 
communicated at right angles by 
means of teeth or cogs situated 
parallel to the axis of the wheel. 
Wheels thus formed are denomi- 
nated ' crown' or ' contrate wheels : ' 
they act either upon a common 
pinion or upon a lantern. 

Crozier, the pastoral staff of a bishop 
or mitred abbot, having the head 
curled round somewhat in the 
manner of a shepherd's crook. 

Crucifix, a representation of our 
blessed Saviour on the cross. 

Crustce, figures or images in low 
relief, embossed upon plate. 

Crustarius, an artist; an engraver 
for inlaid work, etc. 

Crutch, a knee or piece of knee 
timber, placed inside a vessel to 
secure the heels of the cant-tim- 
bers abaft. 

Cryophorus, an instrument by which 
the freezing qualities of the atmo- 
sphere may be ascertained. 

Crypt, a vault beneath a building, 
either entirely or partly under- 
ground, frequently under churches 
and cathedrals. 

Crypta, or Crypt, among the Romans, 
any long narrow vault, whether 
wholly or partially below the level 
of the earth. 

Crypto Portico, an enclosed gallery 
or portico having a wall with 



CTE 



CUPBOARDS. 



CUP 



openings or windows in it, instead 
of columns at the side. 

Ctesibica machina, a double-actioned 
forcing-pump invented byCtesibius 
of Alexandria. 

Cuare (Cornish), a quarry of stones. 

Cubature, the cubing of a solid, or 
measuring of the space compre- 
hended in a solid, as in a cone, 
pyramid, cylinder, etc. 

Cube, in geometry, a regular or solid 
body consisting of six square and 
six equal faces and sides, and its 
angles all right and therefore 
equal. 

Cube, or Hexahedron, a solid regular 
body, consisting of six equal square 
sides. 

Cubes, or Cube numbers in arithmetic, 
and the theory of numbers, are 
those whose cube-root is a com- 
plete integer ; or they are numbers 
produced by multiplying a given 
number twice into itself, or by the 
multiplication of three equal fac- 
tors. 

Cube-root, of a number, say 8, the 
number which multiplied into itself 
twice will produce 8, namely, 2 ; 
or it is that number by which, if 
you divide a number twice, the 
quotient will be equal to itself. 

Cubic foot of water, what a vessel 
one foot square and one foot deep 
will hold. 

Cubicule, among the Romans, a bed- 
chamber, tent, or balcony. 

Cubiculum, according to Pliny, a 
room furnished with a sofa or bed. 

Cubile, the ground-work or lowest 
course of stones in a building. 

Cubit, a measure used among the 
ancients, and which the Hebrews 
call ' amma,' the mother of other 
measures. A cubit was originally 
the distance from the elbow to the 
extremity of the middle finger ; 
which is the fourth part of a well- 
proportioned man's stature. 

Cubital, a bolster or cushion for the 
elbow to rest upon, for invalids. 

Cuboch, a name for the unit or in- 
teger of a power, being the effect 
produced by one cubic foot of 

134 



water in one foot perpendicular 
descent. 

Cuckold's -neck, a knot by which a 
rope is secured to a spar, the two 
parts of the rope crossing each 
other and seized together. 

Cuddy, a cabin in the fore part of a 
boat. 

Culage, the laying up a ship in the 
dock, to be repaired. 

Cul-de-four of a niche, arched roof of 
a niche, on a circular plan, a sphe- 
rical vault. 

Cul-de-lampe, for several decorations 

both of masonry and ironery. 
1 Cullis, a gutter in a roof; any groove 
or channel. 

Culm, stone coal, resembling the Kil- 
kenny coal of Ireland. 

Culmen, the roof of a house or 
church. 

Culverhouse, a dove-cot or pigeon- 
house. 

Culvert, an arched drain for the pas- 
sage of water. 

Culvert, an arched passage or bridge 
beneath a road, canal, or railway. 

Culver-tail, to dove-tail. 

Cuneus, the wedge. 

Cuneus, the division of the audience 
part of a theatre comprehended 
between two adjoining scalaria or 
staircases which lead from one 
pra3cinctio to another: so called 
from its form, which resembles a 
wedge. The foremost cunei were 
termed ' cavea prima ;' the middle, 
'cavea media;' and the uppermost, 
' cavea summa.' The whole of the 
audience part, exclusive of the or- 
chestra, was likewise called ' cavea.' 

Cupboards answered in some respects 
to the sideboards of the present 
day. They were sometimes mere 
planched tops, resting on trestles, 
or fixed with legs against the 
wall ; at others, framed on stages, 
rising one above another, and 
moveable : these were called 
' joined cupboards,' occasionally 
carved, and, like tables, covered 
with carpets. At the marriage of 
Prince Arthur, son of Henry VII., 
in the hall was a triangular cup- 



CUP 



CYCLOIDAL CURVES. 



CYC 



board, five stages high, set with' 
plate, valued at 1200, entirely 
ornamental ; and in the " utter 
chamber," where the princess 
dined, was another cupboard, " set 
with gold plate, garnished with 
stone and pearl," and valued at 
20,000. 

'Cupola, a small room, either circular 
or polygonal, standing on the top 
of a dome : by some it is called 
a lantern. 

Cupola, a spherical or spheroidal 
covering to a building, or any part 
of it. 

Cup-valve, for a steam-engine : it re- 
sembles a conical valve, made to 
fit a cover in the form of a vase or 
of the portion of a sphere. 

Curia, in architecture; the building 
in which the highest council of the 
Roman state assembled, described 
by Vitruvius as being adjacent to 
the agora or forum. 

Cur ling -stuff, in joinery, that which 
is produced by the winding or 
coiling of the fibres round the 
boughs of a tree, when they begin 
to shoot out of the trunk. 

Current '; a stream or flux of water in 
any direction. The setting of the 
current is that point of the com- 
pass towards which the waters 
run ; and the drift of a current is 
the rate it runs per hour. 

Curtilage, a term formerly applied to 
the division or boundary of mano- 
rial lands. 

Curve, in geometry, a line wherein 
the several points of which it con- 
sists tend several ways, or are po- 
sited towards different quarters. 

Curvilinear, consisting of curved 
lines. 

Cushion- capital, the capital of a co- 
lumn so sculptured as to resemble 
a cushion pressed down by the 
weight of its entablature. 

Cushions and window -pillows were, in 
Tudor times, stuffed not unlike 
the woolsack of the Lord Chancel- 
lor in round, square, and oblong 
shapes, covered with carpet-work, 
velvet, or embroidery ; the family 

135 



arms frequently supplying the de- 
vice. 



, an ornament generally in Gothic 
windows or doors ; it is to be found 
in the concave bends of stone-work. 

'Cusps, projecting points forming the 
featherings or foliation in Gothic 
tracery, archery, panels, etc. 

Cut, in mining, to intersect a vein, 
branch, or lode, by driving hori- 
zontally or sinking perpendicularly 
at right angles. 

Cutter, a small boat ; also a kind of 
sloop. 

Cutting. Cutting instruments act in 
dividing bodies upon the same 
principle as the wedge. The blade 
of the instrument is in general a 
thin wedge, but the edge itself is 
usually much more obtuse. 

Cutwater, in a ship, is the sharp part 
of the head under the beak or 
figure. 

Cycle, a round of time ; a space in 
which the same revolution begins 
again ; a periodical space of time. 
A lunar cycle is a period of nine- 
teen years. A solar cycle is a 
period of twenty-eight years, after 
which the days of the month re- 
turn to the same days of the week. 

Cyclograph, or Arcograph, an instru- 
ment for drawing arcs of circles 
without centres, used in architec- 
tural aitd engineering drawings 
when the centres are too distant 
to be conveniently accessible. 

Cycloidal curves are defined as fol- 
lows : 1. When a circle is made to 
rotate on a rectilinear basis, the 
figure described on the plane of 
the basis by any point in the plane 
of the circle is called a trochoid : 
a circle concentric with the gene- 
rating circle, and passing through 
the describing circle. 2. If the 
describing point is in the circum- 
ference of the rotating circle, the 
two circles coincide, and the curve 
is called a cycloid. 3. If a circular 
basis be substituted for a rectilinear 
one, the trochoid will become an 
epitrochoid, and the cycloid an 
epicycloid. 



CYC 



CYPRESS-TREE. 



CYZ 



Cyclopean Architecture, a class of 
building supposed to have preceded 
the invention of the classic orders 
in Greece, and attributed to the 
Cyclopes. 

Cyclopean wall, the oldest example of 
mason-work in Italy: in town-walls 
only has this style of building been 
used. The history of its origin is 
obscure. A large irregular mass 
of stone, having three, four, five, 
or more sides, hewn only on the 
irregular sides to be built upon, 
begins a wall : to this mass others 
are added, the sides of which are 
made to fit the irregular sides of 
the first block ; and on these again 
others of similar forms are built in 
the same manner. 

Cyclostylar, relating to a structure 
composed of a circular range of 
columns without a core; with a 
core, the range would be a peri- 
style. 

Cylinder, a body having two flat sur- 
faces and one circular : for in- 
stance, a roller is a cylinder. 

Cylinder, a roller used for levelling 
and condensating the ground in 
agricultural and other operations. 

Cylinders, in steam-engines, hollow 
cylindrical vessels : within the cy- 
linder the steam exerts its power 
upon the piston, which, by means 
of its rod, transmits it to the other 
parts of the engine. In locomotive 
engines, hollow vessels, usually 
made of cast-iron, and bored out 
accurately, into which pistons are 
fitted steam-tight, yet easily mov- 
able by the pressure of the steam. 

Cylinder cocks, in steam-engines, 
cocks placed in convenient parts 
of the cylinder for admitting oil to 
lubricate the piston, or by which 
to blow out the condensed steam, 
or any deposit in the cylinders. 

Cylinder cover, in steam-engines, the 
lid bolted to a flanch round the top 
of a cylinder, so as to be perfectly 



136 



steam-tight : it has a stuffing-box 
cast in the centre, through which 
the piston-rod alternates. 

Cylindrical vault, a vault without 
groins, resting upon two parallel 
walls. 

Cylindrical walling is that erected 
upon a circular plan, forming a 
cylinder, or a part less than a cy- 
linder, according as the plan is an 
entire circumference or a less por- 
tion. 

Cyling, anciently ceiling, 

Cyma, called also cymatium, its name 
arising from its resemblance to a 
wave ; a moulding which is hollow 
in its upper part, and swelling be- 
low. There are two sorts, the 
Cyma recta, just described, and 
the Cyma reversa, whose upper- 
part swells, whilst the lower part 
is hollow. 

Cymatium, a moulding whose section 
or profile is convex below and con- 
cave above, somewhat resembling 
the letter S. 

Cymatium, in sculpture, carved work, 
resembling rolling waves. 

Cymophane, a mineral of a green 
colour, resembling the chrysoberyl. 

Cypress-tree, one of the evergreens ; 
very proper to mix with pines and 
firs in forming clumps. The wood 
of the cypress is very valuable, 
when grown to a size fit for planks, 
which dimension it attains in as 
short a time as oak. It was much 
used by the ancients, and was em- 
ployed in the original doors of St. 
Peter's at Rome, which, on being 
replaced, after six hundred years, 
by gates of brass, were found to be 
perfectly free from decay, and with- 
in to have retained part of the ori- 
ginal odour of the wood. 

Cyrtostyle, a circular projecting por- 
tico. 

Cyzicenus, anciently a hall decorated 
with sculpture. 



DAC 



DAGUERREOTYPE. 



DAT 



13. 



DACTYLUS, a Greek measure of 
length, the sixteenth part of an 

/ English foot. 

Dado, a terra for the die or plane 
face of a pedestal. The dado em- 
ployed in the interior of buildings 
is a continuous pedestal, with a 
plinth and base moulding, and a 
cornice or dado moulding sur- 

. mounting the die. 
'Dado, the solid block or cube forming 
the body of a pedestal, in classical 
architecture, between the base 
mouldings and cornice; an archi- 
tectural arrangement of mouldings, 
etc., round the lower part of the 
wails of a room. 

Dagger, in ship-building, a piece of 
timber that crosses all the poppets 
of the bulge-ways, to keep them 
together: the plank that secures 
the heads of the poppets is called 
the dagger-plank. 

Dagger knees are lodging knees, with 
side arms cast down and bolted 
through the clamp : they are placed 
at the lower decks of some ships, 
instead of hanging knees, to pre- 
serve as much stowage in the hold 
as possible. 

Daguerreotype, sun drawing ; na- 
ture's drawing by the aid of light. 
It was the invention of two French- 
men, M. Daguerre and M. Niepce. 
The invention consists of the fix- 
ation of the images formed on the 
focus of the camera-obscura ; is 
made on very smooth surfaces of 
pure silver plated on copper. 

Dairy-house, a place for keeping milk. 

Dais, in early domestic architecture, 
the chief seat at the high board or 
principal table (cross-table) in a 
baronial hall ; also the principal 
table itself, and the raised part of 
the floor on which it is placed. 

Dais, a canopy to cover an altar, 
throne, or tribunal ; the chief or 
upper table in a monastery. 

Dam, a bank or obstruction built 
across a river or stream, for the 

137 



purpose of raising the level of the 
water on the opposite side of it. 
Dams built for the purpose of in- 
land navigation, or for that of se- 
curing a water power, may be con- 
sidered as having a more permanent 
character. 

Damascus steel, a sort of steel brought 
from the Levant, greatly esteemed 
for the manufacture of cutting in- 
struments. 

Damasquine, a term applied to orna- 
mental work of gold or silver, in- 
crusted on iron or steel. 

Damonico or Monicon, an iron ochre, 
being a compound of terra di sienna 
and Roman ochre, burnt, and hav- 
ing all their qualities : it is rather 
more russet in hue than the orange 
de Mars, has considerable transpa- 
rency, is rich and durable in colour, 
and affords good flesh tints. 

Damper, a valve placed in a chimney, 
to diminish the draught when the 
heat is too intense. 

Damper, in locomotive engines, a kind 
of iron Venetian blind, fixed to the 
smoke-box end of the boiler, in 
front of the tubes : it is shut down 
when the engine is standing, and 
thus stops the draught and econo- 
mizes fuel ; but it is opened when 
the engine is running. 

Damps : various kinds of permanently 
elastic fluids generated in mines 
are thus named by the miners : 
choke-damps consist mostly of 
carbonic acid gas, and fire-damps 
of carburetted hydrogen gas. 

Dancette, in heraldry, zigzag or 
chevron fret ; seen in Norman 
buildings. 

Dark ages were periods when the 
monks and ecclesiastics were the 
only learned persons : when reli- 
gion, law, politics, and physics were 
administered and controlled by the 
clergy, denominated clerks. 

Data useful in various calculations of 
the properties of materials. [The 
data correspond to the mean tern- 



DAT 



DATA. 



DAT 



perature and pressure of the atmo- 
sphere ; the materials are assumeti 
to be dry, and the temperature is 
measured by Fahrenheit's scale.] 

AIR. Specific gravity, 0-0012; 
weight of a cubic foot, 0-0753 Ibs., 
or 527 grains (Shuckburgh) ; 13"3 
cubic feet, or 17 cylindric feet of 
air, weigh 1 Ib. ; it expands -^-^ or 
00208 of its bulk at 32 by the 
addition of one degree of heat. 
(Dulong and Petit.) 

ASH. Specific gravity, 0'76 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 47'51bs.; 
weight of a bar 1 foot long and 1 
inch square, 0'33 Ibs. ; will bear 
without permanent alteration a 
strain of 3540 Ibs. upon a square 
inch, and an extension of -^^ of its 
length ; weight of modulus of elas- 
ticity for a base of an inch square, 
1,640,000 Ibs. ; height of modulus 
of elasticity, 4,970,000 feet ; mo- 
dulus of resilience, 7'6 ; specific 
resilience, 10. (Calculated from 
Barlow's experiments.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0'23 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 2-6 ; and its stiffness, 0-089. 

ATMOSPHERE. Mean pressureof, 
at London, 28'89 inches of mercury 
= 14-18 Ibs. upon a square inch. 
(Royal Society.) The pressure of 
the atmosphere is usually estimated 
at 30 inches of mercury, which is 
very nearly 13f Ibs. upon a square 
inch, and equivalent to a column 
of water 34 feet high. 

BEECH. Specific gravity, 0'696 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 45'3 Ibs. ; 
weight of a bar 1 foot long and 
1 inch square, 0'3151b. ; will bear 
without permanent alteration on a 
square inch, 2360 Ibs., and an ex- 
tension of -g-^y of its length ; weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base 
of an inch square, 1, 345,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
4,600,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 4-14 ; specific resilience, 6. 
(Calculated from Barlow's Experi- 
ments.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0*15 ; its extensi- 



bility, 2-1 ; and its stiffness, 0'073. 

BRASS, cast. Specific gravity, 
8.37 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
523 Ibs.; weight of a bar 1 foot long 
and 1 inch square, 3'63 Ibs. ; ex- 
pands -5^0-77 of its length by one 
degree of heat (Troughton) ; melts 
at 1869 (Daniell); cohesive force 
of a square inch, 18,000 Ibs. (Ren- 
nie); will bear on a square inch 
without permanent alteration, 
6700 Ibs., and an extension in 
length of rgVa > weight of modulus 
of elasticity for a base of an inch 
square, 8,930,000 Ibs.; height of 
modulus of elasticity, 2,406,000 
feet ; modulus of resilience, 5 ; 
specific resilience, - 6. (Tredgold). 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-435 ; its extensi- 
bility, 0-9; and its stiffness, 0-49. 

BRICK. Specific gravity, 1 841 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 115 Ibs. ; 
absorbs -^ of its weight of water ; 
cohesive force of a square inch, 
275 Ibs. (Tredgold) ; is crushed by 
a force of 562 Ibs. on a square 
inch (Rennie.) 

BRICK-WORK. Weight of a cubic 
foot of newly built, 117 Ibs.; 
weight of a rod of new brick-work, 
16 tons. 

BRIDGES. When a bridge is 
covered with people, it is about 
equivalent to a load of 1 20 Ibs. on 
a superficial foot ; and this may be 
esteemed the greatest possible ex- 
traneous load that can be collected 
on a bridge; while one incapable 
of supporting this load cannot be 
deemed safe. 

BRONZE. See Gun-metal. 

CAST IRON. Specific gravity, 
7*207 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
450 Ibs. ; a bar 1 foot long and 1 
inch square weighs 3'21bs. nearly; 
it expands y^Wo of its len g tn b V 
one degree of heat (Roy) ; greatest 
change of length in the shade in 
this climate, TT V? greatest change 
of length when exposed to sun's 
rays, -^y^; melts at 3479 (Da- 
niell), and shrinks in cooling from 
' ff to ^ of its length (Muschet); 



138 



DAT 



DATA. 



DAT 



is crushed by a force of 93,000 Ibs. 
upon a square inch (Rennie) ; will 
bear without permanent alteration 
15,300 Ibs. upon a square inch, and 
an extension of -j-oV* of its length ; 
weight of modulus of elasticity, for 
abase 1 inch square, 18, 400,0001bs.; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
5,750,000 feet ; modulus of resi- 
lience, 127; specific resilience, 
1-76. (Tredgold.) 

CHALK. Specific gravity, 2-315 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 144'7 Ibs. ; 
is crushed by a force of 500 Ibs. on 
a square inch. (Rennie.) 

CLAY. Specific gravity, 2'0 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 125 Ibs. 

COAL, Newcastle. Specific gra- 
vity, 1-269 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
79'31 Ibs. A London chaldron of 
36 bushels weighs about 28 cwt., 
whence a bushel is 87 Ibs. (but is 
usually rated at 84 Ibs.) A New- 
castle chaldron, 53 cwt. (Smea- 
ton.) 

COPPER. Specific gravity, 8'75 
(Hatchett) ; weight of a cubic foot, 
549 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 3'811bs. ; 
expands in length by one degree of 
heat, 7 os T 5 o (Smeaton) ; melts at 
2548 (Daniell) ; cohesive force of 
a square inch, when hammered, 
33,000 Ibs. (Rennie.) 

EARTH, common. Specific gra- 
vity, 1-52 to 2-00; weight of a 
cubic foot, from 95 to 125 Ibs. 

ELM. Specific gravity, 0-544 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 34 Ibs. ; 
weight of a bar 1 foot long and 1 
inch square, 0-236 Ibs.; will bear on 
a square inch without permanent 
alteration, 3240 Ibs., and an ex- 
tension in length of -^\-^ ; weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base 
of an inch square, 1,340,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
5, 680, 000 -feet ; modulus of resi- 
lience, 7 '8 7 ; specific resilience, 
14-4. (Calculated from Barlow's 
Experiments.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-21 ; its extensi- 
bility, 2-9 ; and its stiffness, 0*073. 



FIR, red or yellow. Specific gra- 
vity, 0'557 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
34-8 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 0*242 Ib. ; 
will bear on a square inch without 
permanent alteration, 4290 Ibs. = 
2 tons nearly, and an extension in 
length of T f n ; weight of modulus 
of elasticity for a base of an inch 
square, 2,016, 000 Ibs. ; height of 
'modulus of elasticity, 8,330,000 
feet; modulus of resilience, 9'13; 
its specific resilience, 16'4. (Tred- 
gold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0'3 ; its extensibility, 
2-6, and its stiffness, 0'1154,= 

** 

FIR, white. Specific gravity, 0-47; 
weight of a cubic foot, 29'3 Ibs. ; 
weight of a bar 1 foot long and 
1 inch square, 0-204 Ib. ; will bear 
on a square inch without perma- 
nent alteration, 3630 Ibs., and an 
extension in length of -5-^ ; weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base 
of an inch square, 1,830,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
8,970,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 7'2 ; specific resilience, 15'3. 
(Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-23 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 2-4 ; and its stiffness, 0-1. 

FLOORS. The weight of a super- 
ficial foot of a floor is about 40 Ibs. 
when there is a ceiling, counter- 
floor, and iron girders. When a 
floor is covered with people, the 
load upon a superficial foot may be 
calculated at 120 Ibs. : therefore, 
1 20 + 40 = 160 Ibs. on a superficial 
foot is the least stress that ought to 
be taken in estimating the strength 
for the parts of a floor of a room. 

FORCE. See Gravity, Horse, etc. 

GRANITE, Aberdeen. Specific 
gravity, 2'625 ; weight of a cubic 
foot, 164 Ibs. ; is crushed by a force 
of 10-910 Ibs. upon a square inch. 
(Rennie.) 

GRAVEL. Weight of a cubic 
foot, about 120 Ibs. 

GRAVITY generates a velocity 



139 



DAT 



DATA. 



DAT 



of 32 feet in a second in a body 
falling from rest ; space described 
in the first second, 16 T ^ feet. 

GUN-METAL, cast (copper 8 
parts, tin 1). Specific gravity, 
8-153; weight of a cubic foot, 
509^ Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 3'54 Ibs. 
(Tredgold) ; expands in length by 
1 of heat, TO^OT (Smeaton) ; will 
bear on a square inch without pe'r- 
manent alteration, 10, 000 Ibs., and 
an extension in length of ^^ ; 
weight of modulus of elasticity for 
a base 1 inch square, 9,873,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
2,790,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, and specific resilience, not 
determined. (Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0'65 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 1-25 ; and its stiffness, 0-535. 

HORSE, of average power, pro- 
duces the greatest effect in draw- 
ing a load when exerting a force 
of 187^ Ibs. with a velocity of 2 
feet per second, working 8 hours 
in a day. (Tredgold.) A good 
horse can exert a force of 480 Ibs. 
for a short time. (Desaguliers.) 
.., In calculating the strength for 
horse machinery, the horse's power 
should be considered 400 Ibs. 

IRON, cast. See Cast Iron. 

Iron, malleable. Specific gravity, 
7"6 (Muschenbroek) ; weight of a 
cubic foot, 475 Ibs. ; weight of a 
bar 1 foot long and 1 inch square, 
3-3 Ibs. ; ditto, when hammered, 
3-4 Ibs.; expands in length by 1 of 
heat, TroVuo (Smeaton); good 
English iron will bear on a square 
inch without permanent alteration, 
17, 800 Ibs. = 8 tons nearly, and an 
extension in length of 1-4 00 ; cohe- 
sive force diminished -g^ 1 ^ by an 
elevation 1 of temperature ; weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base 
of an inch square, 24,920,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
7,550,000 feet ; modulus of resi- 
lience, and specific resilience, not 
determined. (Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 

140 



its strength is T12 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 0-86 ; and its stiffness, 1-3- 

LARCH. Specific gravity, -500 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 35 Ibs. ; 
weight of a bar 1 foot long and 
1 inch square, 0-243 Ib. ; will bear 
on a square inch without perma- 
nent alteration, 2065 Ibs., and an 
^extension in length of -^-^ ; weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base 
of an inch square, 10,074,000 Ibs. : 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
4,415,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 4; specific resilience, 7'1. 
(Calculated from Barlow's Experi- 
ments.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-136; its extensi- 
bility, 2-3 ; and its stiffness, 0-058. 

LEAD, cast. Specific gravity, 
11 '353 (Brisson); weight of a 
cubic foot, 709'5 Ibs.; weight of a 
bar 1 foot long and 1 inch square, 
4-94 Ibs.; expands in length by 1 
degree of heat, -^^ (Smeaton) ; 
melts at 612 (Crichton) ; will 
bear on a square inch without per- 
manent alteration, 1500 Ibs., and 
an extension in length of -5^; 
weight of modulus of elasticity for 
a base 1 inch square, 720, 000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
146,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 3-12; specific resilience, 
0-27 (Tredgold). 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-096 ; extensi- 
bility, 2-5; and its stiffness, 0'0385. 

MAHOGANY, Honduras. Specific 
gravity, 0'56 ; weight of a cubic 
foot, 35 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 0'243 Ib. ; 
will bear on a square inch without 
permanent alteration, 3800 Ibs., 
and an extension in length of ^^ ; 
weight of modulus of elasicity for 
a base 1 inch square, 1,596,000 Ibs.; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
6,570,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 9-047 ; specific resilience, 
16-1. (Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0-24 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 2-9 ; and its stiffness, 0'487. 



DAT 



DATA. 



DAT 



MAN. A man of average power 
produces the greatest effect when 
exerting a force of 31i Ihs. with a 
velocity of 2 feet per second, for 
10 hours in a day. (Tredgold.) A 
strong man will raise and carry 
from 250to3001bs. (Desaguliers.) 

MARBLE, white. Specific gra- 
vity, 2-706; weight of a cubic foot, 
169 Jbs; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 1*1 7 lb. ; 
cohesive force of a square inch, 
1811 Ibs. ; extensibility, -3^ of its 
length ; weight of modulus of elas- 
ticity for a base of an inch square, 
2,520,000 Ibs. ; height of modulus 
of elasticity, 2,150^000 feet ; mo- 
dulus of resilience at the point of 
fracture, 1"3 ; specific resilience at 
the point of fracture, 0'48 (Tred- 
gold) ; is crushed by a force of 
6060 Ibs. upon a square inch 
(Rennie). 

MERCURY. Specific gravity, 
13'568 (Brisson) ; weight of a 
cubic inch, 0'4948 lb. ; expands in 
bulk by 1 of heat, ^^ (Dnlong 
and Petit) ; weight of modulus of 
elasticity for a base of an inch 
square, 4,417,000 Ibs. ; height of 
modulus of elasticity, 750,000 feet. 
(Dr. Young, from Canton's Experi- 
ments.) 

OAK, good English. Specific 
gravity, 0'83; weight of a cubic 
foot, 52 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 0'36 lb. ; 
will bear upon a square inch with- 
out permanent alteration, 3960 Ibs., 
and an extension in length of -^-^ ; 
weight of modulus of elasticity for 
abase 1 inch square, 1,7 00,000- Ibs.; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
4,730,000 feet; modulus of resi- 
lience, 9'2; specific resilience, 11. 
(Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0*25 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 2'8 ; and its stiffness, 0-093. 

PENDULUM. Length of pendu- 
lum to vibrate seconds in the lati- 
tude of London, 39-1372 inches 
(Kater) ; ditto to vibrate half- 
seconds, 9'7843 inches. 

141 



PINE, American yellow. Specific 
gravity, 0'46 ; weight of a cubic 
foot, 26 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 
1 foot long and one inch square, 
0-186 lb. ; will bear on a square 
inch without permanent alteration, 
3900 Ibs., and an extension in length 
of 7Ti: 5 weight of modulus of elas- 
ticity for a base of an inch square, 
1, 600,000 Ibs. ; height of modulus 
of elasticity, 8,700,000 feet; mo- 
dulus of resilience, 9'4 ; specific 
resilience, 20. (Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as 
unity, its strength is 0'25 ; its ex- 
tensibility, 2'9 ; and its stiffness, 
0-087. 

PORPHYRY, red. Specific gra- 
vity, 2*871 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
179 Ibs. ; is crushed by a force of 
35, 568 Ibs. upon a square inch. 
(Gauthey.) 

ROPE, hempen. Weight of a 
common rope 1 foot long and 1 
inch in circumference, from 0*04 
to 0'46 lb. ; and a rope of this size 
should not be exposed to a strain 
greater than 200 Ibs. ; but in com- 
pounded ropes, such as cables, the 
greatest strain should exceed 
120 Ibs. ; and the weight of a ca- 
ble 1 foot in length and 1 inch 
in circumference does not exceed 
0'027 lb. The square of the circum- 
ference in inches multiplied by 
200 will give the number of pounds 
a rope may be loaded with ; and 
multiply by 120 instead of 200 for 
cables. Common ropes will bear a 
greater load with safety after they 
have been some time in use, in con- 
sequence of the tension of the fibres 
becoming equalized by repeated 
stretchings and partial untwisting. 
It has been imagined that the im- 
proved strength was gained by 
their being laid up in store ; but if 
they can there be preserved from 
deterioration, it is as much as can 
be expected. 

ROOFS. Weight of a square foot of 
Welsh rag slating, 11^ Ibs. ; weight 
of a square foot of plain tiling, 
16 Ibs. ; greatest force of the wind 



DAT 



DATA. 



DAT 



upon a superficial foot of roofing 
may be estimated at 40 Ibs. 

SLATE, Welsh. Specific gavity, 
2752 (Kirwan) ; weight of a cubic 
foot, 1 72 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 1-19 lb.; 
cohesive force of a square inch, 
1 1,500 Ibs. ; extension before frac- 
ture, y^^-o ; weight of modulus of 
elasticity for abase of an inch square, 
15,800,000 Ibs. ; height of modulus 
of elasticity, 13,240,000 feet ; mo- 
dulus of resilience, 8-4 ; specific re- 
silience, 2 (Tredgold). 

SLATE, Westmoreland. Cohe- 
sive force of a square inch, 7870 Ibs.; 
extension in length before fracture, 
__i__ ; weight of modulus of elas- 
ticity for a base of an inch square, 
12,900,000 Ibs. (Tredgold.) 

SLATE, Scotch. Cohesive force 
of a square inch, 9600 Ibs. ; exten- 
sion in length before fracture, Y^J? 
weight of modulus of elasticity for a 
base 1 inch square, 15, 790,000 Ibs. 
(Tredgold.) 

STEAM. Specific gravity at 212 
is to that of air at the mean tem- 
perature as 0-472 is to 1 (Thomson); 
weight of a cubic foot, 249 grains ; 
modulus of elasticity for a base of 
an inch square, 14f Ibs. ; when not 
in contact with water, expands 
_!_ of its bulk by 1 of heat (Gay- 
Lussac). 

STEEL. Specific gravity, 7*84 ; 
weight of a cubic foot, 490 Ibs. ; a 
bar I foot long arid 1 inch square 
weighs 3'4 Ibs.; it expands in length 
by 1 of heat, -^srinro (R5 r ) > tem - 
pered steel will bear without per- 
manent alteration, 45,000 Ibs.; co- 
hesive force of a square inch, 
130, 000 Ibs. (Rennie); cohesive 
force diminished -g.^^ by elevating 
the temperature 1 ; modulus of 
elasticity for a base of an inch 
square, 29,000,000 Ibs. ; height of 
modulus of elasticity, 8,530,000 
feet. (Dr. Young.) 

STONE, Portland. Specific gra- 
vity, 2~ 113; weight of a cubic foot, 
132 Ibs. ; weight of a prism 1 inch 
square and 1 foot long, 0-92 lb.; 



absorbs T ^ of its weight of water 
(R. Tredgold) ; is crushed by a 
force of 3729 Ibs. upon a square 
inch (Rennie); cohesive force of a 
square inch, 857 Ibs. ; extends be- 
fore fracture yrW ^ ^ ts l en g tn ; 
modulus of elasticity for a base of 
an inch square, 1,533,000 Ibs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
1,672,000 feet ; modulus of resi- 
lience at the point of fracture, 
0'5 ; specific resilience at the point 
of fracture, 0-23. (Tredgold.) 

STONE, Bath. Specific gravity, 
T975 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
123-4 Ibs. ; absorbs ^ of its weight 
of water (R. Tredgold) ; cohesive 
force of a square inch, 478 Ibs. 
(Tredgold.) 

STONE, Craigleith. Specific gra- 
vity, 2-362 ; weight of a cubic foot 
147-6 Ibs. absorbs $ of its weight 
of water; cohesive force of a square 
inch, 772 Ibs. (Tredgold); is crushed 
by a force of 5490 Ibs. upon a square 
inch (Rennie). 

STONE, Dundee. Specific gra- 
vity, 2-621 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
163-8 Ibs; absorbs ?TT part of its 
weight of water ; cohesive force of 
a square inch, 2661 Ibs. (Tredgold); 
is crushed by a force of 6630 Ibs. 
upon a square inch (Rennie). 

STONE-WORK. Weight of a cubic 
foot of rubble-work, about 140 Ibs. ; 
of hewn stone, 160 Ibs. 

TIN, cast. Specific gravity, 7*291 
(Brisson) ; weight of a cubic foot, 
455-7 Ibs. ; weight of a bar 1 foot 
long and 1 inch square, 3'165 Ibs. ; 
expands in length by 1 of heat, 
T-ii-nr (Smeaton) ; melts at 442 
(Crichton) ; will bear upon a square 
inch without permanent alteration, 
2880 Ibs., and an extension in 
length of Y^Vu ; modulus of elas- 
ticity for a base of an inch square, 
4,608,000; height of modulus of 
elasticity, 1,453, 000 feet ; modulus 
of resilience, 1-8; specific resili- 
ence, 0-247 (Tredgold). 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0'182 ; its extensibi- 
lity, 0-75 ; and its stiffness, 0'25. 



142 



DAT 



DEAD COLOURING. 



DEA 



WATER, river. Specific gravity, 
1-000 ; weight of a cubic foot, 
62-5 Ibs. ; weight of a cubic inch, 
252-525 grains ; weight of a prism 
1 foot long and 1 inch square, 
0-434 Ib. ; weight of an ale gallon 
of water, 10'2 Ibs. ; expands in bulk 
by 1 of heat, ^^ (Dalton) ; ex- 
pands in freezing, T r T of its bulk 
(Williams) ; and the expanding 
force of freezing water is about 
35,000 Ibs. upou a square inch, ac- 
cording to Muschenbroek's valua- 
tion ; modulus of elasticity for a 
base of an inch square, 326,0001bs.; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 
750,000 feet, or 22,100 atmo- 
spheres of 30 inches of mercury. 
(Dr. Young, from Canton's Expe- 
riments.) 

Water has a state of maximum 
density at or near 40, which is con- 
sidered an exception to the general 
law of expansion by heat : it is 
extremely improbable that there 
is anything more than an apparent 
exception, most likely arising from 
water at low temperatures absorb- 
ing a considerable quantity of air, 
which has the effect of expanding 
it, and consequently of causing the 
apparent anomaly. 

WATER, sea. Specific gravity, 
1-0271; weight of a cubic foot, 
64-2 Ibs. 

WATER is 828 times the density 
of air of the temperature 60, and 
barometer 30. 

WHALE-BONE. Specific gravity, 
1 -3 ; weight of a cubic foot, 8 1 Ibs. ; 
will bear a strain of 5600 Ibs. upon 
a square inch without permanent 
alteration, and an extension in 



length of 



modulus of elas- 



ticity for a base of an inch square, 
820,000 Ibs. ; height of modulus of 
elasticity, 1,458,000 feet; modulus 
of resilience, 38-3 ; specific resili- 
ence, 29. (Tredgold.) 

WIND. Greatest observed ve- 
locity, 159 feet per second (Ro- 
chon) ; force of wind with that ve- 
locity, about 57:| Ibs. on a square 
foot. 

143 



ZINC cast. Specific gravity, 
7-028 (Watson) ; weight of a cubic 
foot, 439lbs; weight of a bar 
1 inch square and 1 foot long, 
3-05 Ibs. ; expands in length by 1 
of heat, ^Y^J^ (Smeaton) ; melts 
at 648 (Daniell); will bear on a 
square inch without permanent al- 
teration, 5700 Ibs. = 0-365 cast 
iron, and an extension in length 

f Woo = i tna * f cast i ron 
(Tredgold); modulus of elasticity for 
a base of an inch square, 13,680,000 
Ibs. ; height of modulus of elasti- 
city, 4,480,000 feet; modulus of 
resilience, 2-4 ; specific resilience, 
0-34. (Tredgold.) 

Compared with cast iron as unity, 
its strength is 0'365 ; its extensi- 
bility, 0-5 ; and its stiffness, 0*76. 

Data, a term for such facts, things, 
or quantities as are given or known, 
in order thereby to find other things 
that are unknown. 

Davit, in navigation, a short boom 
fitted in the fore channel, to hoist 
the flukes of the anchor to the 
bow, which is called ' fishing the 
anchor.' 

David's -staff, an instrument used in 
navigation. 

Day, or Bay, in architecture, one of 
the lights or compartments between 
mullion and mullion, in the great 
windows of the pointed style. 

Days, in early domestic architecture, 
the bay or lights of a window ; the 
spaces between the mullions. 

Dead colouring is the first layer of 
colours, consisting usually of some 
shade of grey. Its design is to 
receive and preserve the finishing 
colours ; and it is called dead be- 
cause it is not seen when the work 
is completed. 

Dead doors, in ship-building, fitted to 
the outside of the quarter-gallery 
doors, in case the quarter-gallery 
should be carried away. 

Dead eyes, fixed in the channels, with 
three holes to receive the lanyard 
of the shrouds. 

Dead fiat, the nameof a midship board 

Dead lights, in navigation, wooden 



DE\ 



DECORATION. 



DEC 



shutters for the cabin windows, 
which are fastened on when fhe 
sea runs high. 

Dead-men 's-eyes (in a ship), small 
blocks or pulleys with many holes, 
but no shivers wherein run the 
laniers. 

Dead-neap, a low tide. 

Dead reckoning, the estimation which 
seamen make of the ship's place, 
by keeping an account of her way 
by the log, by the course steered, 
and by rectifying the whole by al- 
lowance for drift, leeway, etc. 

Dead rising, is that part of the ship 
that lies aft, between ber keel and 
floor timbers. 

Dead ropes, ropes which do not run 
in any block or pulley. 

Deads (among miners), the earth or 
other fossil substances which en- 
close the ore on every side. 

Dead shore, a piece of timber worked 
up in brick-work, to support a su- 
perincumbeut mass until the brick- 
work which is to carry it has set or 
become hard. 

Dead water, the eddy water imme- 
diately at the stern of a ship while 
under way. 

Dead wood, pieces of timber fayed 
on the keel to seat the flow-tim- 
bers on afore and abaft the floors, 
and continued as high as the cutting 
down of the floors. 

Deafening sound-boarding, the pug- 
ging used to prevent the passage of 
sound through wooden partitions. 

Dearn, a door-post, or threshold ; to 
conceal, or shut up. 

Deambulatory, an ambulatory or clois- 
ter for exercise ; also the aisles of 
a church, or the porticoes round 
the body of a church. 

Debacle, a great aqueous torrent, a 
breaking up and transport of mas- 
sive rocks and gravel by an enor- 
mous rush of water. 

Debris, fragments of rocks, boulders, 
gravel, sand, trunks of trees, etc., 
detached from the summits and 



sides of mountains by the effect of 
the elements. 

Decade, the sum of ten. 

Decagon, in geometry, a plain figure 
of ten sides. 

Decalogue, the Ten Commandments 
delivered to the Israelites from 
Mount Sinai, in which the moral 
law is summarily comprehended. 
The Jews call these precepts ' The 
Ten Words.'* In the building of 
new churches, and in the restora- 
tion of those of olden times, a pro- 
per and effective style of painting 
and embellishing the words of the 
ten commandments in face of the 
altar has been introduced. 

Decanicum, an ecclesiastical prison. 

Decastyle, in architecture : a temple 
is said to be decastyle when its por- 
tico contains ten columns in aline. 

Decastyle, a portico consisting of ten 
columns in front. 

Decempeda, a ten-foot rod employed 
by architects and surveyors for 
taking measurements. 

Decemremis, a vessel with ten banks 
of oars on a side. 

Decimal, the tenth part. 

Deck, the floor of a ship. 
"Decoration, the combination of orna- 
mental objects which are employed 
in great variety, principally for the 
interior and exterior of all kinds 
of edifices, and for purposes of art 
generally. Decoration, when judi- 
ciously introduced, becomes in 
many instances a language, intel- 
ligible only, however, when the 
artist is capable of speaking it 
correctly and the spectator ol 
comprehending it. It is then a 
system of hieroglyphic writing, 
and the building to which it is ap- 
plied becomes historical, and tells 
its tale more nobly and appro- 
priately than it can ever do through 
the undignified medium of mural 
inscriptions. Nothing can be more 
judicious or appropriate than the 
sculpture in the metopes and pedi- 



* To these the Saviour added another : " A. new commandment I give unto you, Thai 
ye love one another ; as I have loved you, that ye also love one another." (John xiii. 34. ] 

144 



DEC 



DEFINITIONS IN GEOMETRY. 



DEF 



ment of the Parthenon. Ornament 
here not only creates a variety on 
the surface of the work, but re- 
lates, by the aid of the sculptor, a 
history intimately connected with 
the religious and moral destination 
of the edifice to which it is applied. 

Decorative style of Gothic Architec- 
ture : first introduced in the reign 
of Edward I., it was matured in 
England, and prevailed during the 
greater part of the 14th century. 
Its distinguishing features, says Dr. 
Whewell, are characterized by its 
window-tracery, geometrical in the 
early instances, flowing in the 
later; but also, and perhaps bet- 
ter, by its triangular canopies, 
crocketed and finialed ; its niched 
buttresses, with triangular heads ; 
its peculiar mouldings, no longer a 
collection of equal rounds, with 
hollows like the early English, but 
an assemblage of various members, 
some broad, some narrow, beauti- 
fully grouped and proportioned. A 
capital with crumpled leaves, a 
peculiar base and pedestal, also 
belong to this style. ' 

Definitions in geometry : 

1. A point is that which hath 
no parts, or which hath no magni- 
tude. 

2. A line is length without 
breadth. 

3. A superficies has length and 
breadth. 

4. A solid is a figure of three di- 
mensions, having length, breadth, 
and thickness. Hence surfaces 
are extremities of solids, and lines 
the extremities of surfaces, and 
points the extremities of lines. 

If two lines will always coincide 
however applied, when any two 
points in the one coincide with 
the two points in the other, the 
two lines are called straight lines, 
or otherwise right lines. 

A curve continually changes its 
direction between its extreme 
points, or has no part straight. 

Parallel lines are always at the 
same distance, and will never meet, 

145 



though ever so far produced. Ob- 
lique right lines change their dis- 
tance, and would meet, if pro- 
duced. 

One line is perpendicular to an- 
other when it inclines no more to 
one side than another. 

A straight line is a tangent to a 
circle when it touches the circle 
without cutting, when both are 
produced. 

An angle is the inclination of 

two lines towards one another in 

the same plane, meeting in a point. 

Angles are either right, acute, 

or oblique. 

A right angle is that which is 
made by one line perpendicular to 
another, or when the angles on 
each side are equal. 

An acute angle is less than a 
right angle. 

An obtuse angle is greater than 
a right angle. 

A plane is a surface with which 
a straight line will everywhere 
coincide ; and is otherwise called 
a straight surface. 

Plane figures, bounded by right 
lines, have names according to the 
number of their sides, or of their 
angles, for they have as many sides 
as angles : the least number is 
three. 

An equilateral triangle is that 
whose three sides are equal. 

An isosceles triangle has only 
two sides equal. 

A scalene triangle has all sides 
unequal. 

A right-angled triangle has only 
one right angle. 

Other triangles are oblique- 
angled, and are either obtuse or 
acute. 

An acute-angled triangle has all 
its angles acute. 

An obtuse-angled triangle has 
one obtuse angle. 

A figure of four sides, or angles, 
is called a quadrilateral, or quad- 
rangle. 

A parallelogram is a quadrilate- 
ral, which has both pairs of its 



DEF 



DEFINITIONS IN GEOMETRY. 



DEF 



opposite sides parallel, and takes 
the following particular names : * 

A rectangle is a parallelogram, 
having all its angles right ones. 

A square is an equilateral rect- 
angle, having all its sides equal, 
and all its angles right angles. 

A rhombus is an equilateral 
parallelogram whose angles are 
oblique. 

A rhomboid is an oblique-angled 
parallelogram, and its opposite sides 
only are equal. 

A trapezium is a quadrilateral, 
which has neither pair of its sides 
parallel. 

A trapezoid has only one of its 
sides parallel. 

Plane figures, having more than 
four sides, are in general called 
polygons, and receive other parti- 
cular names according to the num- 
ber of their sides or angles. 

A pentagon is a polygon of five 
sides, a hexagon of six sides, a hep- 
tagon seven, an octagon eight, an 
enneagon nine, a decagon ten, an 
undecagon eleven, and a dodecagon 
twelve sides. 

A regular polygon has all its 
sides and its angles equal ; and if 
they are not equal, the polygon is 
irregular. 

An equilateral triangle is also a 
regular figure of three side?, and 
a square is one of four ; the former 
being called a trigon, and the latter 
a tetragon. 

A circle is a plane figure, 
bounded by a curve line, called 
the circumference, which is every- 
where equidistant, from a certain 
point within, called its centre. 

The radius of a circle is a right 
line drawn from the centre to the 
circumference. 

A diameter of a circle is a right 
line drawn through the centre, 
terminating on both sides of the 
circumference. 

An arc of a circle is any part of 
the circumference. 

A chord is a right line joining 
the extremities of an arc. 

146 



A segment is any part of a circle 
bounded by an arc and its chord. 

A semicircle is half a circle, or 
a segment cut off by the diameter. 

A sector is any part of a circle 
bounded by an arc, and two radii 
drawn to its extremities. 

A quadrant, or quarter of a cir- 
cle, is a sector having a quarter 
part of the circumference for its arc, 
and the two radii perpendicular to 
each other. 

The height or altitude of any 
figure is a perpendicular let fall 
from an angle or its vertex to the 
opposite side, called the base. 

The measure of any right-lined 
angle is an arc of any circle con- 
tained between the two lines which 
form the angle, the angular point 
being the centre. 

A solid is said to be cut by a 
plane when it is divided into two 
parts, of which the common sur- 
face of separation is a plane, and 
this plane is called a section. 
Definitions of solids : 

A prism is a solid, the ends of 
which are similar and equal paral- 
lel planes and the sides parallelo- 
grams. 

If the ends of the prism are per- 
pendicular to the sides, the prism 
is called a right prism. 

If the ends of the prism are 
oblique to the sides, the prism is 
called an oblique prism. 

If the ends and sides are equal 
squares, the prism is called a cube. 

If the base or ends are paral- 
lelograms, the solid is called a 
parallelopiped. 

If the bases and sides are rect- 
angles, the prism is called a rect- 
angular prism. 

If the ends are circles, the prism 
is called a cylinder. 

If the ends or bases are ellipses, 
the prism is called a cylindroid. 

A solid, standing upon any plane 
figure for its base, the sides of 
which are plane triangles, meeting 
in one point, is called a pyramid. 

The solid is denominated from 



DEF 



DEGREE. 



DEM 



its base, as a triangular pyramid 
is one upon a triangular base, a 
square pyramid one upon a square 
base, etc. 

If the base is a circle or an ellip- 
sis, then the pyramid is called a 
cone. 

If a solid be terminated by two 
dissimilar parallel planes as ends, 
and the remaining surfaces joining 
the ends be also planes, the solid 
is called a prismoid. 

If a part of a pyramid next to 
the vertex be cut off by a plane 
parallel to the base, the portion of 
the pyramid contained between the 
cutting plane and the base is called 
the frustum of a pyramid. 

A solid, the base of which is a 
rectangle, the four sides joining the 
base plane surfaces, and two oppo- 
site ones meeting in a line parallel 
to the base, is called a cuneus or 
wedge. 

A solid terminated by a surface 
which is everywhere equally dis- 
tant from a certain point within 
it is called a sphere or globe. 

If a sphere be cut by any two 
planes, the portion contained be- 
tween the planes is called a zone, 
and each of the parts contained by 
a plane and the curved surface is 
called a segment. 

If a semi-ellipsis, having an axis 
for its diameter, be revolved round 
this axis until it come to the place 
whence the motion began, the solid 
formed by the circumvolution is 
called a spheroid. 

If the spheroid be generated 
round the greater axis, the solid is 
called a prolate spheroid. 

If the solid be generated round 
the lesser axis, the solid is called 
an oblate spheroid. 

A solid of any of the above 
structures, hollow within, so as to 
contain a solid of the same struc- 
ture, is called a hollow solid. 
Deflayrator, an instrument for pro- 
ducing intense light and heat. 
Deflection, a term applied to the dis- 
tance by which a curve departs 



from another curve, or from, a 
straight line. 

Deflection, the deviation of a ship 
from its course. 

Degree, the 360th part of the circum- 
ference of a circle ; 60 geographical 
miles. 

Degree, consisting of three figures of 
three places, comprehending units, 
tens, and hundreds. 

Delen (Derk Von) painted temples, 
saloons, and colonnades, and was a 
perfect master of architectural em- 
bellishment. 

De VOrme (Philibert) claims the ho- 
nour of inventing the volute now 
most commonly used, and com- 
plains that others pretend to it 
because Palladio and Serlio have 
spoken of it before him. 

DeliqnifE, according toYitruvius, gut- 
ters, or drains. 

Delivery valve, the upper valve in 
the air-pump, or that through 
which the water is lifted into the 
hot well ; also used when speaking 
of any sort of pump. 

Delphica, a table made of marble or 
bronze, and resembling a tripod. 

Delving, to dig. 

Delubrum, a font or baptismal basin. 
In antiquity, a church, chapel, 
temple, or consecrated place. Also 
that part of a Roman temple in 
which the altar or statue of the 
deity was erected. 

Demesne, lands belonging to the lord 
of a manor, and which are conti- 
, guous to the manor-house. 
^Demi-relievo, in sculpture, half-raised 
figures from the plane, as if cut 
in two, and only half fixed to the 
plane. 

Demi-tint is that shade seen when 
the sun shines on a house, or any 
other object, making an angle of 
nearly 45 on the ground plane, or 
when it shines more on the front 
than on the end. 

Dendrometer, an instrument for the 
measuring of trees. 

Dendiculus, a member in the Ionic 
and Corinthian entablatures, occur- 
ring between the zophorus and 



147 H 2 



DEN 



DERRICK. 



DIA 



corona, and, properly speaking, a ( 
part of the latter : so called be-' 
cause it represents denticuli, or 
small teeth, placed at equal inter- 
vals apart. 

Dentils, ornaments resembling teeth, 
used in the bed-monldings of Ionic, 
Corinthian, and Composite cornices. 

Departure, in navigation, is the east- 
ing or westing of a ship with re- 
spect to the meridian from which 
it departed or sailed ; or it is the 
difference of longitude between the 
present meridian and where the last 
reckoning was made. 

Depression of the pole, in navigation : 
so many degrees as you sail from 
the pole towards the equator, so 
many you are said to depress the 
pole, because it becomes so much 
lower in the horizon. 

Derrick, a Cornish word for a miner. 

Derrick, in navigation, a tackle used 
at the outer quarters of the mizen- 
yard ; it also signifies a prop or 
support to sheers, etc. 

Derrick. Sheers and Gyn have one 
object in common, to find a point 
or fulcrum in space to which the 
pulley, in the shape of block and 
tackle, is to be supplied ; and this 
is effected by the above, on one, 
two, and three legs, respectively. 
In the derrick and sheers, stability 
is given by guys ; in the gyn, they 
are unnecessary. Wherever these 
guys are used, great attention must 
be paid to their being well fixed, or 
being (when requisite) duly eased- 
otf: when accidents occur from 
neglect in this respect, they are 
generally very severe. 

Describent, in geometry, is the line or 
surface from the motion of which 
a surface or body is supposed to 
be generated or described. 

Descriptive geometry : the applica- 
tion of geometrical rules to the 
representation of the figures and 
the various relations of the forms 
of bodies, in accordance to forms 
applicable to civil, military, and 
naval architecture, civil and me- 
chanical engineering, and the other 

148 



arts that require more correct sci- 
entific representations than have 
hitherto been afforded to the stu- 
dent. 

Desiccation, the chemical operation of 
drying bodies, sometimes effected 
by drying in the air, sometimes in 
warm chambers, by the air-pump, 
etc. 

Design, a term in the fine arts, is em- 
ployed first to signify the art of 
drawing or representing in lines 
the form of any object ; next it ex- 
presses that combination of inven- 
tion and purpose which enables the 
artist to compose a picture or a 
group, without reference to the 
material in which it is executed. 

Designing, the art of delineating or 
drawing the appearance of natural 
objects by lines. 

Destina, according to Vitruvius, a 
column or pillar to support an edi- 
fice. 

Detrampe, in painting, in water- 
colours. 

Device, an emblem or ensign for- 
merly borne on shields or em- 
broidered upon banners as a cogni- 
zance; contemporary, in the history 
of heraldry, with coat armour it- 
self. 

Device, in heraldry, painting, etc., any 
emblem used to represent a certain 
family, person, action, or quality, 
with a suitable motto, applied in a 
figurative sense. 

Diagonal, a line drawn from angle to 
angle. 

Diagonal rib, a projecting band of 
stone or timber passing diagon- 
ally from one angle of a vaulted 
ceiling across the centre to the 
opposite angle. 

Diagonal scale. Equidistant parallel 
lines cut all lines drawn across 
them into equal parts ; conse- 
quently a set of equidistant paral- 
lels laid down upon a ruler, with 
oblique lines of various lengths 
drawn across them, give with the 
compasses the means of imme- 
diately taking off various propor- 
tions of those lines. 



DIA 



DIES. 



DIE 



Diagram, a delineation of geometrical 
figures; a mathematical illustration. 

Diagraphic Art, the art of painting 
or engraving. 

Dial, an instrument for the measuring 
of time ; not mentioned in Scrip- 
ture before the reign of Ahaz, A.M. 
3262. It is not clearly ascertained, 
even after this time, how the Jews 
divided the time by hours. The 
word hour occurs first in Tobit, 
which may confirm the opinion 
that the invention of dials came 
from beyond the Euphrates. 

Dialling. In all dials, the gnomon 
represents the axis of the earth ; 
hence its angle with the horizon is 
the latitude of the place, and it 
lies in the plane of the meridian. 
There are a great variety of dials, 
according to whether they are hori- 
zontal, oblique, or vertical, and also 
depending on their aspect with re- 
ference to the sun, etc. 

Diamicton, according to Pliny, a term 
used by the Roman builders to 
designate a particular manner of 
constructing walls, the exterior of 
masonry and the interior of rub- 
ble. 

Diamond, a genus of precious stones 
of a fine pellucid substance of great 
hardness, and never debased by 
any admixture of earthy or other 
coarse matter. When pure, it is 
perfectly colourless. It is the most 
valuable of all gems, arid is found 
only in the East Indies and the 
Brazils. It is constituted solely of 
carbon in its densest, form. 

Diamond, glaziers 1 , the pencil dia- 
mond, used in cutting glass, is a 
small fractured piece of diamond. 

Diaper ornament, of flowers, applied 
to a plain surface, either carved 
or painted : if carved, the flowers 
are entirely sunk into the work 
below the general surface ; they 
are usually square, and placed close 
to each other, and are various in 
their pattern and design : it was 
first introduced in the early Eng- 
lish style in some of the principal 
Gothic structures in England. 

149 



Diaper, a panel or flat recessed sur- 
face covered with carving or other 
wrought work in low relief; a kind 
of linen cloth, wrought with figures 
in the process of weaving. 

Diastyle, an arrangement of columns 
in Grecian and Roman architecture, 
in which the intercolumniation or 
space between them is equal to 
three or four diameters of the 
shaft. 

Diathyra, the vestibule before the 
doors of a Greek house, corres- 
ponding with the prothyra of the 
Romans. 

Diatoni, the angle stones of a wall, 
wrought on two faces, and which, 
stretching beyond the stones above 
and below them, form a good band 
or tie to the work. 

Diatoni, according to Vitruvius, the 
girders or band-stones formerly 
employed in constructing walls ; 
corner stones. 

Diatretum, an enchased or curiously 
engraved vase or drinking-cup. 

Diaulon, a race-course, the circuit of 
which was two stadia, or 1200 feet; 
whence it was used to signify a 
measure of two stadia. 

Dicrotum, a boat with two oars. 

Die, the cube or dado of a pedestal. 

Die or Dye, a naked square cube : 
thus the body of a pedestal, or 
that part between its base and 
its cap, is called the die of the pe- 
destal. 

Dies, two pieces of hardened steel, 
which, when placed together, form ! 
a female screw (or a screw in a j 
nut) which has cutting edges, used j 
for making a screw on a bolt. 

Die-sinking : in the preparation of 
coined money and of medals, the 
most important feature is the en- 
graving of the die which is to form 
the stamp. The piece of steel is 
prepared with care, and brought 
to a soft state when about to be 
submitted to the hands of the en- 
graver. By the aid of small, fine, 
hardened steel tools, the engraver 
cuts away the steel until he has 
produced, in cavity or intaglio, an 



DIE 



DILAPIDATION. 



DIM 



exact reverse of the design for tli 
medal or coin. 

Dieu et mon droit, ' God and my 
right,' in heraldry ; the motto of 
the royal arms of England, first 
assumed by Richard I. 

Differential thermometer. This in- 
strument was invented by the same 
gentleman who contrived the pho- 
tometer and setherioscope, and 
was used by him in his investi- 
gations on heat. Its principal use 
to the meteorologist is to make 
experiments on the light and heat 
of the moon, etc., by concentrating 
its rays, by a lens upon the sentient 
ball. This can only be done when 
the moon is on the meridian. It 
is peculiarly adapted for measuring 
the effect of radiation. 

Digester, a boiler invented by Papin 
for raising water to a higher tem- 
perature than the common boiling 
point, 212: this is effected by 
forming a vessel somewhat resem- 
bling a kitchen pot ; the mouth is 
formed into a flat ring, so that a 
cover may be screwed tightly on ; 
this cover is furnished with a safety- 
valve, loaded to the required pres- 
sure. 

Digit, a finger; a term employed to 
signify any symbol of number from 
to 9 : thus ten (10) is a number 
of two digits. 

Digit, a measure of length, containing 
three-fourths of an inch. 

Diglyph, in architecture, an imperfect 
triglyph, with only two channels 
instead of three. 

Dilapidation, decay for want of repair ; 
not unfrequently a point of dispute 
between a party in possession of a 
house and another party having an 
interest therein. Where there is a 
right to use lands or houses, ques- 
tions will arise as to the manner in 
which they ought to be used, and 
by whom dilapidations, whether 
caused by accident or decay, ought 
to be supplied. The rights of par- 
ties with respect to immovable 
property so closely border on each 
other, and the line of demarcation 

150 



between them is so indistinct, that 
one man, in the fancied exercise of 
his right, is continually liable to 
encroach upon or disregard the 
right of another. No person, how- 
ever absolute his property in land, 
can put it to any use he pleases : 
his right to use it is restrained by 
the rights of his neighbour ; he is 
bound to take care that his manner 
of using does not interfere with 
the inoffensive and profitable occu- 
pation by his neighbour of his land. 
(See the second edition, just pub- 
lished, of Mr. Gibbons's elaborate 
work on the ' Law of Dilapidations 
and Nuisances.') 

Dilettante (Italian), an ardent admirer 
of the fine arts. The Dilettanti 
Society, consisting of many dis- 
tinguished noblemen and gentle- 
men, has done much to rescue the 
noble monuments of Grecian art 
from otherwise inevitable ruin. 

Dilleuing, a Cornish word for a method 
of washing or finishing the dress- 
ing of tin in very fine hair sieves. 

Diluvial formation, the superficial 
deposits of gravel, clay, sand, etc., 
which lie far from their original 
sites on hills, and in other situ- 
ations, to which no forces of water 
now in action could transport them. 

Dilving, in dressing tin ore, shaking 
it in a canvas sieve, in a tub of 
water, so that the waste flows over 
the rim of the sieve, leaving the 
tin behind. 

Dimension, a term used in the same 
sense as degree. 

Dimensions. 1. General dimensions: 
size, magnitude, dimension, bulk, 
volume, largeness, massiveness. 2. 
Linear dimensions. 3. Central. 

Diminution, a term expressing the 
gradual decrease of thickness in 
the upper part of a column. 

Diminution of columns. The shafts 
of columns are diminished in dia- 
meter as they rise, sometimes from 
the foot itself of the shaft, some- 
times from one-quarter, and some- 
times from one-third of its height. 
The diminution at top is seldom 



DIG 



DIVING-BELL. 



DIV 



less than one-eighth or more than 
one-sixth of the inferior diameter 
of the column. 

Dioptase or emerald copper, a crys- 
talized silicate of copper, the pri- 
mary form of which is a rhomboid. 
Its colour varies from emerald to 
blackish green : it is translucent 
and brittle. 

Dioptra, a geometrical instrument 
employed in measuring the altitude 
of distant objects, and for taking the 
levels of a source of water intended 
to be conveyed to a distance by 
means of an aqueduct. 

Diorama, a mode of scenic exhibi- 
tion invented by two French artists, 
Daguerre and Bouton. 

Dip, in mining, the greatest inclina- 
tion of a stratum to the hori- 
zon. 

Di Palito is a light yellow ochre, 
affording tints rather purer in co- 
lour than the stone ochre, but less 
so than Naples yellow. Many 
pleasing varieties of ochreous co- 
lours are produced by burning 
and compounding with lighter, 
brighter, and darker colours, but 
often very injudiciously and ad- 
versely to that simple economy of 
the palette which is favourable to 
the certainty of operation, effect, 
and durability. 

Diphryges, the scorial sediment, a 
calx of melted copper, gathered in 
the furnace when the metal was 
run out. 

Diplinthius, according to Vitruvius, 
two bricks thick. 

Dipping-needle, in navigation, a mag- 
netic needle, so hung that one end 
dips, or inclines to the horizon, and 
the other is proportionally elevated, 
forming an angle equal to the dip- 
ping of the needle at the place 
where the experiment is made. 

Dipping (among miners), the inter- 
ruption or breaking off of the vein 
of ore. 

Dipteral, having a double range of 
columns all round ; a dipteral tem- 
ple usually had eight in the front 
row of the end porticoes, and fifteen 

151 



at the sides, the columns at the 
angles being included in both. 

Dipteron, in ancient architecture, a 
temple surrounded with a double 
row of columns which form porti- 
coes, called wings or aisles. 

Dipteros, in Greek architecture, a 
temple with a double row of co- 
lumns on each of the four sides. 

Direct-action engine, an engine having 
the rotatory motion communicated 
to a crank placed directly over the 
cylinder, so as to save height, and 
lessen the weight of the engine : 
the term applies more particularly 
to marine engines. 

Discharging arch, an arch formed in 
the substance of a wall, to relieve 
the part which is below it from the 
superincumbent weight : it is fre- 
quently used over lintels and flat- 
headed openings. 

Discord, a term applied to painting 
when there is a disagreement of 
the parts or the colouring ; when 
the objects appear foreign to each 
other, and have an unpleasing and 
unnatural effect. 

Disembogue, to pour out at the mouth 
of a river. 

Distemper, in painting, the working- 
up of colours with something else 
besides mere water or oil. If the 
colours be prepared with the first, 
it is called limning ; and with the 
last, painting in oil. 

Distemper is a preparation of 
colours without oil, only mixed 
with size, whites of eggs, or any 
such proper glutinous or unctuous 
substance : with this kind of colour 
all the ancient pictures, before the 
year 1410, were painted, as also are 
the celebrated cartoons of Raphael. 

Disti Salvi built the Baptisteryof Pisa. 

Ditriglyph, an interval between two 
columns, admitting two triglyphs 
in the entablature ; used in the 
Doric order. 

Dividiculum, in Rome, a tower on an 
aqueduct, containing a large reser- 
voir. 

Diving-bell, a machine contrived for 
safely lowering a man to any rea- 



DIV 



DOCKS. 



DOC 



sonable depth under water, so that 
he may remain there for a consi-* 
derable time. 

Division of an Order. The general 
division of an Order being into two 
parts, namely, the column and en- 
tablature, the column is subdivided 
into three unequal parts, viz. the 
base, the shaft, and the capital. 
The entablature consists also of 
three unequal parts, which are, the 
architrave, the frieze, and the cor- 
nice. Each of these divisions con- 
sists of several smaller parts, which 
by their variety and peculiarity dis- 
tinguish the Orders from each other. 

Dock, a place artificially formed for 
the reception of ships, the entrance 
of which is generally closed by 
gates. There are two kinds of 
docks, dry docks and wet docks : 
the former are used for receiving 
ships for repair, the latter for the 
purpose of keeping vessels afloat. 

Docks are enclosed artificial re- 
ceptacles for shipping, and are 
usually formed by excavation of the 
soil and constructed walls of ma- 
sonry, with inlets and gates for ad- 
mittingthepassageof vessels. Docks 
are usually distinguished as wet 
docks or basins and dry or graving 
docks. The former of these are 
already described under the head 
Basin ; the latter may be described 
as follows : 

Graving docks, in which repairs 
of vessels are effected, are con- 
structed of various dimensions, ac- 
cording to the class of vessel for 
which provision is intended. Se- 
veral splendid works of this kind 
have, within the last few years, 
been executed in the English dock- 
yards. One of these the Eastern 
Dock in Her Majesty's Dockyard 
at Woolwich is 282 feet in ex- 
treme length, 81 feet in width on 
the ground level, and 39 feet in 
the bed. The depth from the 
ground level to the bed is 27 feet. 
The inclined sides and curved end 
of the masonry are formed into a 
series of steps or altars, by which 

152 



access is readily obtained to all 
parts of the dock, and fixing-places 
obtained for the struts with which 
the sides of the vessel under repair 
are maintained in an upright posi- 
tion, when the water is discharged 
from the dock. The river-wall of 
this structure was originally con- 
structed of concrete block-facings 
with rough concrete backings, ac- 
cording to a plan introduced i.ito 
this country by Mr. Ranger ; but 
these were abandoned, and granite 
facings substituted, the entire mass 
of the wall being supported on 
timber-piling. The whole of the 
piers, apron, and coffer-dam walls 
were executed by tide-work, in the 
following manner: a small space 
was surrounded by sheet-piling, 
which was carried up from 6 to 8 
feet above the level of low-water : 
into the enclosure thus formed a 
pipe from two 18-inch pumps, 
worked by a steam-engine, was 
led, and the pumps set to work as 
soon as the tide fell below the 
sheet-piling. The subsequent ex- 
cavation for the dock reached a 
bed of chalk, which was found to 
be sufficiently firm to dispense with 
the inverted arch of masonry usu- 
ally constructed beneath the bed of 
these docks, and the floor was con- 
sequently constructed of a hori- 
zontal paving of blocks of granite 

2 feet in thickness, each stone, 
being joggled to the adjacent stones 
with dove-tail joggles of Valentia 
slate bedded in cement. The river 
water is admitted into the dock 
through a culvert 5 feet high and 

3 feet wide, passing through each 
pier, and which culverts are worked 
by sluices of cast-iron. The front 
of the dock is closed with a caisson 
formed of plate-iron, fixed with 
rivets to ribs of angle-iron ; the 
form of the caisson being similar 
to that of a vessel, namely, with a 
continuous keel along the bottom 
and up each end, and a swelling 
outline tapering towards the end 
keels, and reduced to a width nearly 



DOC 



DOCKS. 



DOC 



parallel in the dock-level. This 
continuous keel, which is of oak, 
and formed in two pieces, fits into 
a recess in the masonry at the en- 
trance of the dock, and the admis- 
sion of water into it is regulated 
by sluices and pumps. 

From the description given of 
graving docks, it will be under- 
stood that their action and efficiency 
depend upon the command of an 
adequate depth of water, and a 
sufficient rise and fall of tide to 
leave the vessel dry or to float her, 
as occasion requires. The use of 
these docks also compels the re- 
tention of the vessel during the 
action of the tide, and thus in- 
volves a considerable lapse of time, 
which sometimes cannot be af- 
forded for trifling repairs or ex- 
amination of a vessel in active ser- 
vice. 

For situations in which no tide 
exists, a different arrangement be- 
comes necessary, and a construction 
called a ' slip ' is commonly substi- 
tuted for a graving dock. The 
slip which has been the most ex- 
tensively used is that known as 
' Morton's slip,' and which was 
secured by a patent dated March 
23, 1819, granted to T. Morton, 
for a method of dragging ships out 
of water for repairs, etc. This 
slip consists of an inclined plane, 
formed of timber framing laid upon 
suitable foundations of masonry, 
or cut in the surface of the rock. 
Upon this framing longitudinal 
metal racks are fixed, and a move- 
able carriage, upon which the ves- 
sel is received (by running the 
carriage to the lower part of the 
plane, beneath the water, and se- 
curing the vessel upon it), is fitted 
with cog-wheels, or other suitable 
apparatus for working upon these 
racks. The moving carriage con- 
sists of a succession of small strong 
blocks or carriages, any number of 
which may be connected together, 
according to the length of vessel 
to be hauled up. Each of these 



blocks or carriages, which are laid 
in corresponding pairs on each 
side of the central line of the slip, 
so as to leave a continuous inter- 
mediate space to receive the keel 
of the vessel, is fitted with rollers, 
upon which it may be moved trans- 
versely ; and thus the distance be- 
tween the two blocks of each pair, 
or on each side of the centre, may 
be adjusted according to the sec- 
tional form of the ship. These 
motions are ingeniously effected 
with the aid of cross-ropes or lines 
which are fixed to the blocks, and 
by which means the entire action 
of the apparatus is much facili- 
tated. The combined carriage, 
when loaded with the vessel, is 
hauled up the slip by cables at- 
tached to a drum apparatus, with 
suitable gearing fixed in a building 
at the head or upper end of the 
slip. The power required is of 
course in proportion to the weight 
to be hauled up, and to the rate of 
inclination of the slip, and is usu- 
ally supplied by a steam-engine. 

This principle is susceptible of 
being extended, so as to provide 
berths for several vessels with only 
one hauling-up slip and machinery. 
For this purpose it has been sug- 
gested to construct a series of 
frames arranged radially round a 
centre, and capable of motion and 
of adjustment, with one slip con- 
structed in such a direction as to 
correspond with a produced radius 
of the same circle. This arrange- 
ment, which would be similar to 
that of the polygonal engine-houses 
now erected on several lines of 
railway, offers great facilities for 
extended operations in the repair 
of vessels, but of course requires 
great space for the construction of 
the radial frames. 

In order to provide for cases in 
which sufficient tidal difference 
cannot be had for raising vessels of 
deep draughts on to a dry dock, 
floating docks have been introduced 
in North America, and found to 



DOC 



DOGS. 



DOG 



act satisfactorily. These floating^ 
docks are constructed with a buoy- 
ant bed or cradle, capable of sup- 
porting a vessel within the dock, 
with its keel above the surface of 
the water. This float or cradle is 
made in a box-like form, composed 
of strong logs, jointed firmly, and 
well caulked, so as to make it 
water-proof. The capacity of the 
float must be such that when freed 
from water by pumping, and loaded 
with the vessel, workmen, etc., it 
shall sustain the load with safety. 
The float moves within a recess 
of masonry, by which its motion 
is guided and secured. Suitable 
shores, blocks, struts, etc., are used 
in making the vessel steady within 
the float, which is fitted with valves 
in the lower part. The action of 
this floating dock is as follows : 
The cradle or float, being full of 
water (the valves being open), is 
sunk so that the vessel may be 
brought over it, and temporarily 
secured in position : the valves are 
then closed, and the pumps set to 
work to clear the water from the 
float, which rises in consequence, 
and brings up the vessel to a dry 
level. When the ship is again ready 
for sea, the opening of the valves 
admits the water, and sinks the 
float, leaving the vessel free above 
it to pass out of the dock. 

The docks and basins of London 
and Liverpool comprise some of 
the largest specimens of works of 
this kind. Those of the latter port 
were commenced in 1708, and con- 
sist of several docks of great ex- 
tent. The first public docks for 
merchant shipping in London were 
the West India Docks, opened in 
1805, the great basin of which is 
420 yards in length, and 230 yards 
in width. This is connected with 
the river by another basin of about 
three acres in area. The London 
Docks were commenced soon after 
the West India Docks, and opened 
in the same year, viz. 1805. The 
principal basin of these docks is 

154 



420 yards in length, and 276 yards 
in width. The East India Dock 
for unloading inwards is 470 yards 
in length, and 173 yards in width ; 
and that for loading outwards is 
260 yards in length, and 140 yards 
in width. The St. Katharine's 
Docks occupy an area of 24 acres. 

Dodecagon, in geometry, a figure of 
twelve angles and sides. 

Dodecahedron, in geometry, one of 
the regular bodies comprehended 
under twelve equal sides, each of 
which is a pentagon. 

Dodecastyle, a building having twelve 
columns in front. 

Dogs, or andirons, creepers, braziers, 
etc. Long after the general intro- 
duction of chimneys, wood was the 
ordinary fuel for all sorts of apart- 
ments. Coals formed no part of 
the ' liveries,' but wood was com- 
monly included in them. A ' cra- 
dle for sea-coal' is however fre- 
quently mentioned as belonging to 
the chief rooms in superior houses, 
though the usual way of warming, 
or rather airing, bed-chambers was 
with braziers or chafing dishes. 
Andirons are a larger and higher 
sort of irons, made to support the 
wood, and have usually long necks 
rising up before, to prevent the 
wood from falling upon the floor. 
Creepers are smaller and lower 
irons with short necks, or none at 
all, which are placed between the 
andirons, to keep the ends of the 
wood andthebrandsfrom the hearth, 
that the fire may burn more freely. 

Dog-kennel, a lodgement for dogs kept 
for the purpose of field sports : 
it is almost as invariable an ap- 
pendage to the manor-house as 
it was formerly to the baronial 
castle. Bishop Percy observes, 
" that a nobleman in the dark 
ages, retired within his castle, had 
neither books, nor newspapers, nor 
literary correspondence, nor visits, 
nor cards, to fill up his leisure : his 
only amusements were field sports; 
nor did the love for these decline 
in the Tudor period." 



DOG 



DOMES. 



DOM 



Dog-wood, a small underwood, free 
from silex : small splinters are used 
by watch-makers for cleaning out 
the pivot-holes of watches ; it is 
also used by butchers for making 
skewers. 

Dogger, a ship of about eighty tons 
burden, with a well in the middle, 
to bring fish alive to shore. 

Dolomite, massive magnesian lime- 
stone, used by the ancient sculptors 
in their best works. 

Dolphin, a technical term applied to 
the pipe and cover at a source for 
the supply of water. 

Dome, a term applied to a covering of 
the whole or part of a building: 
the word dome is strictly applied 
to the external part of the spheri- 
cal or polygonal roof, and cupola 
to the internal part. 

Dome or cupola, a roof, the base of 
which is a circle, an ellipsis, or a 
polygon, and its vertical section a 
curve line, concave towards the in- 
terior. Hence domes are called 
circular, elliptical, or polygonal, 
according to the figure of the base. 
The most usual form for a dome 
is the spherical, in which case its 
plan is a circle, the section a seg- 
ment of a circle. The top of a 
large dome is often finished with a 
lantcrii, which is supported by the 
framing of the dome. The interior 
and exterior forms of a dome are 
not often alike, and in the space 
between, a staircase to the lantern 
is generally made. According to 
the space left between the external 
and internal domes, the framing 
must be designed. Sometimes the 
framing may be trussed with ties 
across the opening; but often the 
interior dome rises so high that 
ties cannot be inserted. Accord- 
ingly, the construction of domes 
may be divided into two cases : 
viz. domes with horizontal ties, 
and those not having such ties. 

Dome, in locomotive-engines, the 
conical part of the boiler, forming 
a steam-chamber, and terminating 
the top of the fire-box part. In 

155 



a locomotive-engine the safety- 
valves are usually placed on the 
top of the dome or the body of the 
boiler. 

Dome-cover, in locomotive-engines, 
the brass or copper cover which 
encloses the dome, to prevent the 
radiation of heat. 

Dome Cathedral of Pisa, the first 
model of that Tuscan style of ar- 
chitecture, so solid, grave, and im- 
posing, neither Greek nor Gothic, 
was begun in the eleventh century; 
and in the thirteenth was founded 
the majestic church of Santa Maria 
dei Fiori at Florence, of which the 
dome equals in size that of St. 
Peter's at Rome, and was its 
model. 

Dome of St. Paul's Cathedral (the) is 
elliptical, and built of wood; it is 
confined by strong chains, consist- 
ing of iron bars : that of the Pan- 
theon at Rome is nearly circular, 
and its lower parts are so much 
thicker than its upper parts as to 
afford sufficient resistance to their 
pressure ; they are supported by 
walls of great thickness, and fur- 
nished with many projections which 
answer the purpose of abutments 
and buttresses. 

Domes in Asia are probably more 
ancient than in Italy. At Lanker- 
rood, at Dhay-nain, at Sin-sin, five 
or six days' journey south of Tehe- 
ran, in Persia, the towns are all de- 
serted : there are about a hundred 
large dwelling-houses quite entire, 
of a very singular construction. 
Each edifice stands separate, and 
is constructed of several central 
arches supporting a pointed dome; 
while smaller divisions project from 
the body of the building, also 
arched, and the whole finished 
with the greatest neatness, having 
remains of stucco-painted walls 
within. 

It is probable that the arch and 
vault and dome were not unknown 
to the nations in the East, beyond 
the Indies, in a very remote age ; 
but in Greece and in Asia Minor 



DOM 



DOMESTIC BUILDINGS AND CASTLES. 



DOM 



there are no traces of them before 9 
their introduction by the Romans. 
To the Romans they were familiar 
at a very early period of their his- 
tory ; a knowledge of which they 
borrowed perhaps from the Etrus- 
cans, or from the supposed extinct 
people who possessed a city on 
the site of Rome itself, before the 
Romans. 

Domestic Architecture in England. 
At the termination of the York and 
Lancaster wars, the fortified style 
of architecture was gradually aban- 
doned in England ; and as we had 
no other model of domestic archi- 
tecture than the gable and the cot- 
tage, by the duplication of this 
simple form, in various positions, 
was constructed what has been 
called the Old English Manor- 
house style. If we take a common 
two-floored English gable and cot- 
tage, add to it one, two, or three 
cottages side by side, of the same 
size, and, in order to gain rooms 
out of the roof on the sides of this 
double or triple cottage, raise gable 
ends either projecting from the 
ground to the top of the roof, or 
merely raised from the eaves-drop; 
if we insert broad low windows, 
divided by simple wooden or stone 
mullions, in these projecting gable 
ends, and similar windows at the 
ends of this double or triple cot- 
tage ; ornament the inclined sides 
of the gable ends above the eaves- 
drop by steps or small pinnacles, or 
both ; then add a parapet, plain or 
embattled, we have a manor-house 
in the most florid style. Many 
such houses came afterwards to be 
adorned by a centre of architec- 
tural decoration, in which Roman, 
Grecian, and Gothic were strangely 
mixed. There is, however, a cer- 
tain degree of antique-like gran- 
deur in such houses, which pro- 
duces a very striking impression. 
This step towards a better style 
took place before the time of Inigo 
Jones. 

"The mansion at South Elmham, 

156 



when entire, formed a quadrangle, 
as usual, of which stables and 
offices made up a part. The do- 
mestic and ecclesiastical styles are 
singularly combined in this build- 
ing, though the latter seems to 
predominate; and the occasional 
discovery of old floor-stones, of a 
sepulchral character, intimates that 
the projecting porch led to the 
chapel of the dwelling, not into 
the hall ; and yet the ceilings of 
the chambers where the two wings 
and upper windows are observed, 
on the right hand of the porch, are 
flat, divided into small squares by 
the girders above, and covered with 
plastered mouldings, in the manner 
usually seen in dwellings of an early 
period." 

Domestic buildings and castles. The 
towns and ordinary houses of the 
Normans were entirely built of 
wood, and, for the most part, are 
so to this day. Their castles, 
having but one destination, that 
of defence, aimed at nothing but 
strength in their plan or con- 
struction. A site was also selected 
which was already fortified by 
nature. 

The plan of the Norman castles 
was as nearly the same as the di- 
versity of ground would allow. 
The principal feature was always 
the keep, which contained the 
apartments of the lord of the cas- 
tle, and was also meant to be the 
last refuge of the garrison, if the 
outer works were forced. The keep 
was usually raised on an artificial 
mound, or placed on the edge of a 
precipice. The walls, strengthened 
in every way that art could devise, 
were of immense thickness, and 
composed of grouting poured in 
between two solid walls of stone. 
The facing consisted sometimes of 
irregular courses, and sometimes of 
small squared stones, after the Ro- 
man manner. Ashler was usually 
introduced at the angles of the 
building. The windows were few, 
and little more than chinks, unless 



DOM 



DOORS. 



DOO 



very high up, or turned to the 
court. The door of entrance could 
only be reached by a staircase. 
Under the keep were usually 
vaults, or dungeons, for the recep- 
tion of prisoners. The keep was 
enclosed in two courts surrounded 
by walls flanked with towers. The 
tower at the entrance was called 
the barbican, and served at once 
for an outwork and post of obser- 
vation. The whole fortress was 
defended by a moat. 

The remains of the Norman cas- 
tles which exist scarcely afford any 
specimens of early Norman con- 
struction, almost all these castles 
having been besieged, destroyed, 
and rebuilt, over and over again. 
The keep of Falaise is perhaps the 
only castellated remnant of early 
Norman times. The castle of Gi- 
zors, which was built by William 
Rufus, retains nothing of its origi- 
nal construction. 
Doorway (Anglo- 
Norman). The 
Anglo - Norman 
builders bestowed 
much pains and 
evinced consider- 
able artistic skill 
in very elaborately 
ornamenting the 
portal entrances 
to churches in 
their style of ar- 
chitecture, by a 
profusion of orna- 
mental mouldings 
and of sculpture. 
Very many ex- 
amples are to be 
met with in great 
variety in several 
of the counties of 
England, particu- 
larly in the coun- 
ties of Norfolk 
and Suffolk. The 
example repre- 
sented in the an- 
nexed engraving 
is a beautiful spe- 

157 



cimen taken from the church of St. 
Botolph, at Cove, in the county 
of Suffolk. 

Domus, a private house occupied by 
a single proprietor and his family. 

Doors (Antique). The Greeks in the 
temple of Minerva Polias, at 
Athens, and also the Romans in 
the temple of Vesta, or the Sibyl, 
at Tivoli, made the doors and win- 
dows smaller at top than at bot- 
tom : the architrave or dressing 
always constituted an agreeable 
decoration when in character with 
the building. Those of the win- 
dows in the Grecian temple have 
a projection, or what is sometimes 
termed a knee, at their upper angle; 
while those of the temple of Vesta, 
whose apertures have the same 
form, continue without interrup- 
tion, and are surmounted by a cor- 
nice ; but the cornice above the 
door is separated from the archi- 




DOO 



DORIC ORDER. 



DOR 



trave by a frieze, while the cornice, 
of the windows joins the archi- 
trave. In the temple of Minerva, 
the architrave of the windows rests 
only on a plain socle ; those of the 
temple of Vesta rest also on a socle 
or support, the face of which is sunk. 

Doors (Modern). There are two 
doors, designs of Vignola, which 
offer in their profiles and propor- 
tions a happy medium between the 
antique and modern compositions; 
and all other designs of this kind 
are either derived from them, or pos- 
sess a vague character which ren- 
ders them unworthy of imitation. 

There are breaks in the archi- 
trave, as in those of the temple 
of Minerva Polias ; and the ter- 
mination or lower extremity of 
these breaks determines the length 
of the consoles, which gives har- 
mony to the arrangement. These 
consoles are also placed against a 
second architrave, beyond which 
the first projects. The design of 
the door of the church of St. Lo- 
renzo is more regular. 

Doorways. In the Gothic, and the 
architecture of the middle ages, 
doorways are striking and impor- 
tant features, affording in the cha- 
racter of the mouldings and orna- 
ments the style and period of the 
edifice. 

Doric Order. The Doric order, says 
Palladio, was invented by the Do- 
rians and named from them, being 
a Grecian people which dwelt in 
Asia. If Doric columns are made 
alone without pilasters, they ought 
to be seven and a half or eight 
diameters high. The intercolumns 
are to be little less than three 
diameters of the columns ; and this 
manner of spacing the columns is 
by Vitruvius called Diastylos. 

The ancients employed the Doric 
in temples dedicated to Minerva, 
to Mars, and to Hercules, whose 
grave and manly dispositions suited 
well with the character of this 
order. Serlio says it is proper for 
churches dedicated to Jesus Christ, 

158 



to St. Paul, St. Peter, or any other 
saints remarkable for their forti- 
tude in exposing their lives and 
suffering for the Christian faith. 
Le Clerc recommends the use of 
it in all kinds of military build- 
ings ; as arsenals, gates of fortified 
places, guard-rooms, and similar 
structures. It may likewise be 
employed in the houses of generals 
or other martial men, in mauso- 
leums erected to their memory, or 
in triumphal bridges and arches 
built to celebrate their victories. 

Vitruvius himself makes the Do- 
ric column in porticoes higher by 
half a diameter than in temples ; 
and most modern architects have, 
on some occasions, followed his 
example. In private houses, there- 
fore, it may be 16, 16, or 16-| 
modules high ; in interior decora- 
tions, even seventeen modules, and 
sometimes perhaps a trifle more ; 
which increase in the height may be 
added entirely to the shaft, as in 
the Tuscan order, without changing 
either the base or capital. The 
entablature, too, may remain un- 
altered in all the aforesaid cases ; 
for it will be sufficiently bold with- 
out alteration. 

The height of the Doric column, 
including its capital and base, is 
sixteen modules ; and the height 
of the entablature, four modules ; 
the latter of which being divided 
into eight parts, two of them are 
given to the architrave, three to 
the frieze, and the remaining three 
to the cornice. 

In most of the antiques, the 
Doric column is executed without 
a base. Vitruvius likewise makes 
it without one ; the base, accord- 
ing to that author, having been 
first employed in the Ionic order, 
to imitate the sandal or covering 
of a woman's foot. Scamozzi 
blames this practice ; and most of 
the moderns have been of his opi- 
nion, the greatest part of them 
having employed the Attic base in 
this order. 



DOR 



DOVE-TAIL. 



DRA 



Dorman tree, a large beam lying 
across a room ; a joist, or sleeper. 

Dormer window, a window pierced 
through a sloping roof, and placed 
in a small gahle which rises on the 
side of the roof. 

Dormitory, a sleeping apartment ; a 
term formerly applied to the sleep- 
ing-room of the inmates of monas- 
teries and other religious houses. 

Dormond, a large beam lying across 
a room ; a joist, or sleeper : same 
as Dorman. 

Doron, a hand-breadth, or palm : 
among the Greeks, their bricks or 
tiles were termed tetradoron, four 
hands' breadth, or pentadoron, five 
hands broad; the word also im- 
plies a gift : hence, probably, the 
origin of the English word dowry. 

Dorture, a place to sleep in, a bed- 
chamber. " He led us to a gallery 

f like a dorture." 

Dosel, hangings round the walls of a 
hall, or at the east end, and some- 
times the sides, of the chancel of 
a church, made of tapestry or car- 
pet-work ; used also in churches, 
and frequently richly embroidered 
with silks, and gold and silver. 

Dosel, ornamental and rich stuff for 
the back of a chair, a throne, or a 
screen of ornamental woodwork. 

Double-acting pump, a pump which 
lifts and forces water at the same 
time, by means of a solid piston, 
and an entrance and exit-valve 
communicating with each side. 

Double-beat valve, a valve used in 
Cornish engines and water- works. 
It has two beats, or seatings, one 
above the other ; the bottom one 
is similar to an ordinary circular 
valve seating ; the top one is some- 
what less in diameter than the 
bottom one, and is supported from 
it by ribs, and forms a cover nearly 
the size of the inner passage. A 
shell with two beats to correspond 
with the seatings shuts the sides ; 
when raised (which requires but 
little power, as the fixed cover 
before mentioned bears nearly all 
the pressure, its diameter being 

159 



nearly equal to that of the shell) 
the steam or water escapes at the 
sides both of the top and bottom 
beat. 

Double-cylinder engine, a marine en- 
gine with two cylinders placed at 
right angles to the crank-shaft, and 
at a small distance apart, to give 
space for the vibration of the rod 
connecting the crank to the long 
end of a shaped cross-head, which 
slides in grooves between the cy- 
linders ; the upper ends of the 
cross-head are connected to the 
piston-rods. This form of engine 
is patented by Messrs. Maudslay. 

Doucine, a moulding, concave above 
and convex below. 

Dove-tail, in carpentry, a method of 
joining two boards together by 
letting one piece into another in 
the form of the tail of a dove, when 
that which is inserted has the ap- 
pearance of a wedge reversed. 

Dove-tailing, a method of fastening 
together two pieces of metal or 
wood by projecting bits cut in the 
form of dove-tails in one piece, to 
fit into corresponding hollows in 
the other. 

Dowel. A round dowel or coak is 
the piece of timber to which the 
felloes of a carriage-wheel are 
united. 

Dowsing cheeks, in ship-building, 
pieces fayed across the apron, and 
lapped on the knightheads or in- 
side stuff above the upper deck. 

Drabler, a small topsail. 

Drabs,\n salt-works, a kind of wooden 
box for holding the salt when 
taken out of the boiling pan. 

Draft-engine, an engine used for 
pumping. 

Drag -bar, a strong iron rod with 
eye-holes at each end, connecting 
a locomotive engine and tender by 
means of the drag-bolt and spring. 

Drag-bolt, the strong bolt coupling 
the drag-bar of a locomotive engine 
and tender together, and remov- 
able at pleasure. 

Drag-hook and chain, the strong chain 
and hook attached to the front of 



DRA 



DRAINAGE. 



DRA 



the engine buffer-bar, to connect, 
it on to any other locomotive en- 
gine or tender ; also attached to 
the drag-bars of goods-waggons. 

Drag-link, a link for connecting the 
cranks of two shafts ; it is used in 
marine engines for connecting the 
crank on the main-shaft to that on 
the inner paddle-shaft. 

Drag-spring, a strong spring placed j 
near the back of the tender. It is j 
attached by the ends to the drag- j 
bar which connects the engine and j 
tender, and by the centre to the 
drag-bar which connects the train 
to the tender. 

Dragon-beams are two strong braces 
which stand under a breast-sum- 
mer and meet in an angle on the 
shoulders of the king-piece. 

Dragon's blood (colour), a resinous 
substance brought from the East 
Indies. It is of a warm semi-trans- 
parent, rather dull -red colour, 
which is deepened by impure air, 
and darkened by light. There are 
two or three sorts, but that in drops 
is the best. White lead soon de- 
stroys it, and it dries with extreme 
difficulty in oil. It is sometimes 
used to colour varnishes and lac- 
quers, being soluble in oils and 
alcohol ; but notwithstanding it has 
been recommended as a pigment, it 
does not merit the attention of the 
artist. 

Drainage of marshes and fen lands. 
The steam-engine is used to raise 
the water above the level of those 
lands which lie too low to be drained 
by natural outfall, and also in situ- 
ations where the fall is not sufficient 
to carry off the superfluous water 
in time to prevent damage to the 
crops. 

Mr. Glynn has applied steam- 
power to the drainage of land in 
fifteen districts, all in England, 
chiefly in Cambridgeshire, Lincoln- 
shire, and Norfolk. The quantity 
of land so drained amounts to more 
than 125,000 acres, the engines em- 
ployed being seventeen in number, 
and their aggregate power 870 

160 



horses : the size of the engines 
varies from 20 to 80 horses. Mr. 
Glynn was also engaged in draining 
by steam power the Hammerbrook 
district, close by the city of Ham- 
burgh ; and in another level near 
to Rotterdam, an engine and ma- 
chinery with the requisite buildings 
have been erected from his plans 
by the Chevalier Conrad, and the 
works successfully carried into 
effect. 

In British Guiana the steam-en- 
gine has been made to answer the 
double purpose of drainage and irri- 
gation. Some of the sugar-planta- 
tions of Demerara are drained of 
the superfluous water during the 
rainy season, and watered during 
the dry season. 

In many of the swampy levels of 
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, 
much had been done to carry off the 
water by natural means, and many 
large cuts had been made and em- 
bankments formed, especially in 
the Bedford Level, which a'lone 
contains about 300,000 acres of 
fen-land ; the Great Level of the 
fens contains about 680,000, for- 
merly of little value, but now rich 
in corn and cattle. The general 
plan is to carry away the water 
coming off the higher grounds, and 
prevent it, as much as possible, 
from running down into the marsh 
by means of the catchwater drains, 
leaving the rain alone which falls 
upon the district to be dealt with 
by mechanical power. As the 
quantity of rain falling on the Great 
Level of the fens seldom exceeds 
26 inches in the year, and about 
two-thirds of this quantity is carried 
off by evaporation and absorption, 
or the growth of plants, it is only 
in extreme cases that 2 inches in 
depth require to be thrown off by 
the engines in any one month, 
which amounts to 1 cubic foot of 
water upon every square yard of 
land, or 7260 feet to the acre. 

The standard and accepted mea- 
sure of a horse's power is 33,000fos. 



DRA 



DRAINAGE. 



DRA 



raised 1 foot high in a minute, or 
3300fts. raised 10 feet high in the 
same time ; and as a cubic foot of 
water weighs 62^tbs., and a gallon 
of water 10tbs.,so one horse's power 
will raise and discharge, at a height 
of 10 feet, 330 gallons, or 52 T % 
cubic feet of water in a minute. 
Consequently this assumed excess 
of 7260 cubic feet of water fallen 
upon an acre of land will be raised 
and discharged at an elevation of 
10 feet in about two hours and 
twenty minutes. If the quantity 
of land be 1000 acres of fen or 
marsh, with the upland waters all 
banked out, the excess of rain, ac- 
cording to the foregoing estimate, 
will amount to 726,000 cubic feet. 
A steam-engine of 10-horse power 
will throw off this water in 232 
hours, or in less than twenty days, 
working twelve hours a day. This 
calculation has been found fully 
supported in practice. 

Although the rain due to any 
given month may fall in a few days, 
yet in such case much of it will be 
absorbed by the ground ; and the 
drains must be made of sufficient 
capacity to receive and contain the 
rain as it falls ; besides, in case of 
necessity, the engine may be made 
to work twenty hours a day in- 
stead of twelve, until the danger be 
past. 

The main drains have generally 
been cut 7 -5 feet deep, and of width 
sufficient to give them the required 
capacity to contain the excess of 
rain, arid to bring the water freely 
down to the engine. In some in- 
stances, where the districts are ex- 
tensive and their length great, it 
has been found necessary to make 
them somewhat deeper. 

In all cases where it has been 
requisite to use steam-power, Mr. 
Glynn has applied scoop-wheels to 
raise the water. These scoop-wheels 
somewhat resemble the undershot 
wheel of a water-mill, but instead 
of being turned by the impulse of 
the water, they are used to lift it, 

161 



and are kept in motion by the 
steam-engine. 

The floats or ladle-boards of the 
wheels are made of wood, and fitted 
to work in a trough or track of 
masonry ; they are generally made 
5 feet in length, that is to say, they 
are immersed 5 feet deep in the 
water, and their width or horizontal 
dimension varies from 20 inches to 
5 feet, according to the power of 
the engines employed, and the head 
of water to be overcome. The 
wheel-track at the lower end com- 
municates with the main drain, and 
at the higher end with the river ; 
the water in the river being kept 
out by a pair of pointing doors, 
like the lock-gates of a canal, which 
close when the engine ceases to 
work. The wheels themselves are 
made of cast-iron, formed in parts 
for convenience of transport. The 
float-boards are connected with the 
cast-iron part of the wheel by 
means of oak-starts, which are 
stepped into sockets cast in the 
circumference of the wheel to re- 
ceive them. 

There are cast-iron toothed seg- 
ments fitted to the wheel, into 
which works a pinion fixed upon 
the crank-shaft of the steam-en- 
gine. When the head of water in 
the river or delivering drain does 
not vary much, it is sufficient to 
have one speed for the wheel ; but 
where the tide rises in the river, 
it is desirable to have two speeds 
or powers of wheel-work, the one 
to be used at low rate, the other 
more powerful combination to act 
against the rising tide. But in 
most cases it is not requisite to 
raise the water more than 3 or 4 
feet higher than the surface of the 
land intended to be drained ; and 
even this is only necessary when 
the rive"rs are full between their 
banks, from a continuance of wet 
weather, or from upland floods. 
In some instances, the height of 
the water in the rivers being af- 
fected by the tide, the drainage by 



DRA 



DRAINAGE. 



DRA 



natural outfall can take place only 
during the ebb ; and here, in casfc 
of long continuing rains, the natu- 
ral drainage requires the assistance 
of mechanical power. 

It has been stated that the main 
drains have generally been made 
7^ feet deep, or more in larger dis- 
tricts, so that the water may never 
rise higher than within 18 inches 
or 2 feet of the surface of the 
ground, and the ladles or float- 
boards dip 5 feet below the water, 
leaving a foot in depth below the 
dip of the wheel, that the water 
may run freely to it, and to allow 
for the casual obstruction of weeds 
in the main drain, which, if it be 
sufficiently capacious and well 
formed, will bring down the water 
to the engine with a descent of 
3 inches in a mile. Suppose then 
that the wheel dips 5 feet below 
the surface of the water in the 
main drain, and that the water in 
the river into which this water 
must be raised and discharged has 
its level 5 feet above that in the 
drain, the wheel in such case will 
be said to have 10 feet head and 
dip, and ought to be made 28 or 
30 feet in diameter. 

Mr. Glynn has found it practi- 
cable to throw out the water against 
a head of 10 feet with a dip of 5 
feet, that is to say, 15 feet of head 
and dip, with a wheel of 35 feet in 
diameter ; but in another engine, 
more recently erected, he has made 
the wheel 40 feet in diameter. 
The engine that drives this wheel 
is of 80-horse power, and is situ- 
ated on the Ten-mile Bank, near 
Littlepool, in the Isle of Ely. The 
largest quantity of water delivered 
by one engine is from Deeping 
Fen, near Spalding ; this fen con- 
tains 25,000 acres, and is drained 
by two engines, one of 80 and one 
of 60-horse power. 

The 80-horse engine has awheel 
of 28 feet in diameter, with float- 
boards or ladles measuring 5^ feet 
by 5 feet, and moving with a mean 

162 



velocity of 6 feet per second ; so 
that the section of the stream is 
27^ feet, and the quantity dis- 
charged per second 165 cubic feet ; 
equal to more than 4^ tons of water 
in a second, or about 16,200 tons 
of water in an hour. 

It was in 1825 that these two 
engines were erected, and at that 
time the district was kept in a half- 
cultivated state by the help of forty- 
four windmills, the land at times 
being wholly under water. It now 
grows excellent wheat, producing 
from four to six quarters to the 
acre. In many districts, land has 
been purchased at from 10 to 20 
an acre, by persons who foresaw the 
consequences of these improve- 
ments, and which they could nov, 
sell at from 50 to 70 an acre. 
This increase in value has arisen, 
not only from the land beingcleared 
from the injurious effects of the 
water upon it, but from the im- 
proved system of cultivation it has 
enabled the farmers to adopt. 

The fen-lands in Cambridgeshire 
and great part of the neighbouring 
counties are formed of a rich black 
earth, consisting of decomposed 
vegetable matter, generally from 
6 feet to 10 feet thick, although in 
some places much thicker, resting 
upon a bed of blue gait, containing 
clay, lime, and sand. 
Draining, as applied to lands, towns, 
and buildings, is the art of drawing 
or conveying away refuse liquid 
and other matters, the accumula- 
tion of which would be detrimental 
to animal and vegetable existence. 

In that department which re- 
lates to lands, draining compre- 
hends also the methods of irriga- 
ting or supplying water for agri- 
cultural purposes, for which the 
natural supply is inadequate. Re- 
ferring to towns, and buildings, this 
art includes also, for the purpose of 
thorough cleansing, the artificial 
supply of water. 

According to this comprehensive 
definition, which will be found to 



DRA 



DRAINAGE OF LANDS. 



DRA 



have greater practical convenience 
than any more limited one, Drain- 
ing comprises observations of the 
relative levels of districts and of 
their geological structure ; of the 
several sources of water, and the 
amount of their products ; and the 
construction and arrangement of 
all the artificial appliances required 
for the supply, conduct, and dis- 
posal of water, and for conveying 
and discharging refuse matters 
generally. 

The sources of water are rains 
and the ocean. The former pass- 
ing into the earth, descend along 
the lower surfaces, and form streams 
and rivers ; or penetrate into some 
permeable media, and accumula- 
ting in subterranean depositories, 
form springs. An examination of 
the superficial and structural fea- 
tures of the soil enables us to esti- 
mate the quantity of water present 
in a district, and to determine the 
means that will be available for 
supplying the deficiency or dis- 
charging the excess. The same 
observations afford general infor- 
mation required in order to arrange 
the artificial channels, drains, 
sewers, etc., by which the supply 
and refuse matters are to be con- 
ducted and disposed of. 

Soils are retentive of water in 
proportion to their density and 
compactness. Thus, on clay-lands 
an excess of water is commonly 
found, while, from the porous tex- 
ture of gravel and loose sand, water 
passes rapidly away, and they are 
thus kept in a dry condition. 

The size of the channels or 
drains, by which the water is con- 
ducted away, will be adapted to the 
superficial extent to be drained, 
and the quantity of water due to 
the district, as computed from its 
relative position and structure. 
The construction of the drains will 
depend upon the materials of the 
soil, and the proximity of those 
suitable for the purpose. Generally, 
covered drains are far preferable to 

163 



open ones ; and those formed with 
a duct of earthen piping are more 
durable and economical than any 
others. The implements used are 
rods and levels, for measuring dis- 
tances and ascertaining inclinations 
of surface; tools for boring the 
soil, to examine substrata, and de- 
tect springs, consisting of augers, 
chisels, punches, etc. ; spades, 
shovels, and picks of various forms 
and dimensions ; and hoes, scoops, 
etc., for clearing out and finishing 
the form of drains. 

For the draining of towns and 
buildings, including the artificial 
supply of water, the best available 
sources such as rivers and springs 
are resorted to, and the advan- 
tageous use of these will require a 
careful consideration of the quali- 
ties of the water obtained, and its 
suitability for domestic and manu- 
facturing purposes. Arrangements 
are required for making the water 
furnished by rains available to the 
full extent, and rendering it and all 
other waters fit for use by subsi- 
dence, filtration, and purification. 

For discharging the refuse mat- 
ters from houses and other build- 
ings, and from streets and public 
thoroughfares, drains and sewers 
of various forms and materials are 
to be selected, made of ample di- 
mensions and permanent construc- 
tion, with such vertical inclination, 
and so arranged, that their con- 
tents shall always have a tendency 
to run off, and never suffer inter- 
ference from the discharge of other 
channels. 

As a final point to be observed 
in any system of town-drainage, 
that of the ultimate disposal of the 
refuse matters is one of the highest 
importance in both a sanatory and 
an economical point of view. Col- 
lected in proper reservoirs, and 
judiciously treated, these matters 
may be distributed in fertilizing 
streams over the fields and the 
gardens of the suburbs, and will 
thus realize immense value in im- 



DRA 



DRAWBRIDGE. 



DRA 



proved and augmented crops : al- 
lowed to accumulate in cesspoofs 
beneath human dwellings, they en- 
gender malignant and fatal disease, 
and if finally discharged into a 
river, by way of getting rid of them, 
they pollute waters otherwise 
wholesome, and, in dry seasons, 
send forth from the banks the most 
unhealthy gases. 

Drana, a drain or watercourse. 

Draught, In ship draughting,the draw- 
ing or design by which the ship is 
to be built, which is generally by a 
scale of one-fourth of an inch to a 
foot. 

Draute-chamber, a retiring or with- 
drawing room. 

Draw-bore, the pinning a mortise and 
tenon, by piercing the hole through 
the tenon nearer to the shoulder 
than the holes through the cheeks 
from the abutment in which the 
shoulder is to come in contact. 

Draw-bore pins, pieces of steel in the 
shape of the frustum of a cone, 
somewhat tapered, and inserted in 
handles with the greatest diameter 
next to the handle, for driving 
through the draw-bores of a mor- 
tise and tenon, in order to bring 
the shoulder of the rail close home 
to the abutment on the edge of the 
style : when this is effected, the 
draw-bore pins, when more than 
one are used, are taken out singly, 
and the holes filled up with wooden 
pegs. 

Drawbridge. All drawbridges are 
composed of two distinct parts, viz. 
the platform, which revolves on a 
horizontal axis, acting as a barrier 
or gate when in a vertical position, 
and becoming a bridge when in a 
horizontal position ; and the con- 
trivance necessary to balance the 
platform in every position. The 
equilibrium should be such that 
friction is the only force to be 
overcome in raising or lowering 
the platform. 

The chief difference between 
drawbridges lies in the arrange- 
ment of this latter contrivance; for 

164 



the platforms only differ in small 
details of construction, which have 
very little influence on the qualities 
which are essential to the arrange- 
ment of the balancing apparatus. 
These qualities remain the same, 
whether the drawbridges are used 
for closing communications in for- 
tified works, or merely for forming 
passages across navigable canals. 
They are principally as follows : 

1st. The whole system should 
possess sufficient strength to be 
perfectly free from danger in all 
positions and at all times, and 
should therefore be constructed 
of solid and lasting materials. 

2nd. A small number of men 
should be able to raise or lower 
the bridge in a short space of time. 
This quality requires all the parts 
to be in equilibrium when friction 
is not considered. 

3rd. The machinery for raising 
and lowering the bridge should not 
obstruct the communications either 
in front or in rear of the buttresses 
of the gateway where it is placed ; 
and also the space formed by rais- 
ing the bridge should be as wide 
as possible, for this space consti- 
tutes the chief use of the bridge. 

4th. The counterpoise and the 
machinery attached to it should be 
raised as little as possible above 
the platform when vertical, in or- 
der that it may not be much ex- 
posed to an enemy's fire, and that 
it may be easily covered by the ad- 
vanced works ; besides that, by 
raising it, the expense of construct- 
ing and the inconvenience of work- 
ing the machinery are increased, 
and the strength of the gateway or 
postern is sometimes diminished. 

5th. The counterpoise and its 
machinery should not be much be- 
low the level of the ground, and 
particularly very little below the 
level of the surface of the water 
in wet ditches. At all events, the 
descending parts should be enclosed 
in narrow shafts of masonry secure 
from damp. In order not to weaken 



DRA 



DREDGING. 



DRI 



the postern walls, they should be 
at least 3 feet in rear of them. 

Drawing is the art of representing 
objects on a flat surface by lines 
describing their forms and contours 
alone, independently of colour or 
even shadow, although the latter is 
closely allied with drawing, both in 
practice and theory. 

Drawings in pencil are sometimes re- 
quired to be fixed : this can be 
done by using water-starch made 
to the consistency of that employed 
by laundresses : it should be ap- 
plied with a broad camel's hair 
brush, as in varnishing. Isinglass, 
size, and rice-water are sometimes 
used, but are not so good as the 
first-named substance. 

Dredge's Suspension Bridge consists 
in making the chains of sufficient 
magnitude and strength at the 
points of suspension to support 
with safety the greatest permanent 
and contingent load to which, un- 
der the circumstances of locality, 
they are ever likely to be exposed ; 
and from thence, to taper or dimi- 
nish them gradually to the middle 
of the bridge, where the strain be- 
comes essentially evanescent. The 
gradual diminution of the chains, 
however, is not the only peculiarity 
which characterizes this mode of 
construction, and marks its utility. 
The suspending-rods or bars that 
support the platform, or roadway, 
instead of being hung vertically or 
at right angles to the plane of the 
horizon, are inclined to it in angles 
which vary in magnitude from the 
abutments to the middle of the 
bridge, where the obliquity, as well 
as the stress upon the chains, at- 
tains its minimum value. 

Dredging machines, mechanical con- 
trivances placed in the hull of a 
vessel, and floated in situations for 
the dredging and clearing away of 
deposited matter from the beds of 
rivers, canals, harbours, basins, etc. 
Some machines for these purposes 
are to be compared to harrows or 
shovels, which loosen the deposit 

165 



preparatory to its removal either 
by the action of the tide or stream ; 
but for the more general purposes 
of dredging, vast improvements 
have been effected. The machinery 
of the best construction is described 
in Weale's ' Quarterly Papers on 
Engineering.' 

Dressings, the mouldings and sculp- 
tured decorations of all kinds which 
are used on the walls and ceilings 
of a building for the purpose of 
ornament. 

Drift, a piece of hardened steel, 
notched at the sides and made 
slightly tapering : it is used for 
enlarging a hole in a piece of metal 
to a particular size by being driven 
through it. 

Drift, the horizontal force which an 
arch exerts with a tendency to 
overset the piers from which it 
springs. 

Drifts, in the sheer draught, are 
where the rails are cut off and 
ended with a scroll. Pieces fitted 
to form the drifts are called drift- 
pieces. 

Driftway, in mining, is a passage cut 
under the earth from shaft to shaft. 

Drill, a tool for cutting a circular 
hole in a piece of metal. 

Drilling machine, a machine for cut- 
ting circular holes in metal by 
means of a revolving drill. 

Drilling, the art of boring small holes. 
Drilling may be effected in a lathe. 
The drill is screwed upon the spin- 
dle, so that its point shall turn ex- 
actly opposite that of the screw in 
the shifting head. Various inge- 
nious improvements have recently 
been made. 

Drip, the projecting edge of a mould- 
ing channeled beneath, so that the 
rain will drip from it : the corona 
of the Italian architects. 

Dripstone, called also the 'label,' 
4 weather moulding,' and ' water 
table,' a projecting tablet or mould- 
ing over the heads of doorways, 
windows, archways, niches, etc. 

Driver, the foremost spur in the 
bulge-ways, the heel of which is 



DRI 



DRUMMOND LIGHT. 



DUT 



fayed to the foreside of the fore- 
most poppet, and the sides placed 
to look fore and aft in a ship. 

Driver, the bent piece of iron fixed in 
the centre chuck, and projecting 
over it to meet the carrier, and 
drive it forward. 

Driving shaft, any shaft which gives 
motion to another shaft. 

Driving springs, the springs fixed 
upon the boxes of the driving axle 
of a locomotive engine, to support 
the weight and to deaden the 
shocks caused by irregularities in 
the rails. 

Driving wheels, the large wheels of a 
locomotive engine, which are fixed 
upon the crank-axle or main shaft 
of the engine. 

Drop, in architecture, is an ornament 
of the columns of the Doric order, 
representing drops or little bells 
under the triglyphs. 

Drum, in architecture, the bell-formed 
part of the Corinthian and Compo- 
site capitals. 

Drum, a hollow cylinder fixed on a 
shaft, for driving another shaft by 
a band. 

Drummond light, a peculiar light in- 
vented by the late Captain Drum- 
mond, called a heliostat, which re- 
flected the sun's rays in sufficient 
all tin dance to render the station 
which was to be observed visible. 
This invention obviated the diffi- 
culty of distinguishing the stations 
chosen for the angular points of 
the triangles in a geodesical sur- 
vey : where those stations are many 
miles asunder, it is necessary to 
have recourse to illuminations even 
in daytime. 

Dry oil, nearly colourless, may be ob- 
tained by combining linseed or 
nut oil with litharge, and tritura- 
ting them together for a consider- 
able time ; this will produce a yel- 
lowish creamy substance, which 
being allowed to rest, soon becomes 
clear ; but if there be not time to 
wait, this fluid may be filtered 
through blotting paper : it is then 
transparent, but with a little colour, 

166 



which soon goes off when exposed 
to the light. 

Druxey, timber in a state of decay, 
with white spongy veins. 

Dryness is a term by which artists 
express the common defect of the 
early painters in oil, who had but 
little knowledge of the flowing con- 
tours which so elegantly show the 
delicate forms of the limbs and the 
insertions of the muscles ; the flesh 
in their colouring appearing hard 
and stiff, instead of expressing a 
pleasing softness. The draperies 
of those early painters, and parti- 
cularly of the Germans, concealed 
the limbs of the figures, without 
truth or elegance of choice ; and 
even in their best masters, the dra- 
peries very frequently either de- 
meaned or encumbered the figures. 

Dry-rot, a disease affecting timber, 
and particularly the oak employed 
for naval purposes. Many contri- 
vances are employed as remedies 
which have recently been patented, 
and have been successfully applied. 

Dub, to work with the adze. 

Ductilimeter, an instrument for com- 
paring the ductility of lead, tin, etc. 

Ductility is that property of bodies 
which admits of their being drawn 
out in length, while their diameter 
is diminished, without any actual 
fracture. Gold, silver, platinum, 
iron, copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, 
are ductile in the order here given : 
wire-drawing depends on ductility. 

Duma (in Cornish), frames of wood 
like the jambs of a door or the 
frame of a window ; set in loose 
ground in adits and places that are 
weak and liable to fall in or tumble 
down. 

Dungeon, a place of incarceration, 
formerly the principal tower or 
keep of a castle : it was always 
the strongest and least accessible 
part of a building. 

Durbar (Persian), a court or building 
where the sovereign or viceroy 
gives audience. 

Dutch Pink, English and Italian 
Pinks, are bright yellow colours 



BUT 



DYNAMICS. 



DYN 



used in distemper and for paper- 
staining, and other ordinary pur- 
poses. The pigment called ' stil,' 
or ' stil de grain,' is a similar pre- 
paration, and a very fugitive yel- 
low, the darker kind of which is 
called Brown Pink. 

Dutch School of Painting. This 
school of art cannot be said to 
possess the perfections that are to 
be observed in the Flemish school ; 
their subjects are derived from the 
tavern, the smith's shop, and from 
vulgar amusements of the rudest 
peasants. The expressions are suf- 
ficiently marked ; but it is the ex- 
pression of passions which debase, 
instead of ennobling human nature. 
It must be acknowledged, at the 
same time, that the Dutch painters 
have succeeded in several branches 
of the art. If they have chosen 
low subjects of imitation, they have 
represented them with great exact- 
ness ; and truth must always please. 
If they have not succeeded in most 
difficult parts of the chiaro-oscuro, 
they at least excel in the most 
striking, such as in light confined 
in a narrow space, night illumi- 
nated by the moon, or by torches, 
and the light of a smith's forge. 
The Dutch understand the grada- 
tions of colours. They have no 
rivals in landscape painting, con- 
sidered as the faithful represen- 
tation of a particular scene ; but 
they are far from equalling Titian, 
Poussin, Claude Lorraine, etc., who 
have carried to the greatest per- 
fection the ideal landscape ; and 
whose pictures, instead of being 
the topographical representation of 
certain places, are the combined 
result of everything beautiful in 
imagination or in nature. 

Dyeing is the art of staining textile 
substances with permanent co- 
lours. 

Dyke, in coal mining, the banks of 
basalt or whin, by which the coal 
strata are frequently divided. 

Dynamics, the science of moving 
powers, or of the action of forces 

167 



on solid bodies when the result of 
that action is motion. 

GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

1. The mass of a body is the 
quantity of matter of which it is 
composed, and is proportional to 
its weight, or to the force which 
must be applied to the body to 
prevent its gravitating to the earth, 
and which, being greater or less 
as the mass is greater or less, we 
regard as a measure of the mass 
itself. 

2. Density is a word by which 
we indicate the comparative close- 
ness or otherwise of the particles 
of bodies, and is synonymous with 
the term specific gravity. Those 
bodies which have the greatest 
number of particles, or the great- 
est quantity of matter, in a given 
magnitude, we call most dense; 
those which have the least quan- 
tity of matter, least dense. Thus 
lead is more dense than freestone ; 

freestone more dense than oak; 
and oak more dense than cork. 

3. The velocity with which a 
body in motion moves, is measured 
by the space over which it passes in 
any given time ; the unit usually 
assumed being one second. 

4. If the body passes over an 
equal space in each successive unit 
of time, the body is said to move 
uniformly, or to have a uniform 
velocity, and the measure of such 
velocity is the space actually passed 
over by the body in each second. 

5. If, however, the body passes 
over a greater space in each suc- 
cessive second than it did in the 
preceding, then it is said to move 
with an accelerated velocity : when 
the differences between the spaces 
moved over in any two successive 
seconds is the same, at whatever 
period of the body's motion they 
be taken, or in other words, when 
the successive spaces form an arith- 
metical progression, the body is 
said to move with a uniformly ac- 
celerated velocity ; but when the 
spaces passed over in successive 



DYN 



EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 



EAR 



seconds increase according to any 
other law, the body is then said to 
have its velocity variably accele- 
rated. 

6. If, on the other hand, the 
body passes over a smaller space in 
each successive second than it did 
in the preceding, then it is said to 
move with a retarded velocity ; 
which, if the successive spaces 
form a decreasing arithmetical 
series, is said to be uniformly re- 
tarded ; if otherwise, it is said to 
be variably retarded. 

7. The velocity of a body whose 
motion is variable is expressed at 
any moment by the space which it 
would pass over in a second, if its 
velocity at the moment spoken of 
were to continue uniform for that, 
period. , 

8. Mechanical effect is measured 
by the product of the mass or 
weight of the body into the space 
over which it has been moved ; no 



regard being had to the time occu- 
pied. The unit of mechanical effect 
is a weight of one pound raised 
through a space of one foot. 

9. The momentum of a body in 
motion means the mechanical effect 
which such a body will produce in 
a moment (or second) of time, and 
varies as the weight of the body 
multiplied by its velocity. 

10. The vis viva of a body in 
motion is the whole mechanical 
effect which it will produce in 
being brought to a state of rest, 
no regard being had to the time in 
which the effect is produced, and 
it varies as the weight of the body 
multiplied by the square of its 
velocity. 

Dynamometer, an instrument which 
measures anything to which the 
name of power has been given, 
whether that of an animal or other- 
wise. 

Dysodile, a papyraceous brown coal. 



E. 



Early English Architecture, the first 
of the pointed or Gothic styles of 
architecture used in England. It 
immediately succeeded the Norman 
towards the end of the 12th cen- 
tury, and gradually merged into 
the Decorated at the end of the 
13th. The mouldings consist of 
alternate rounds and deeply cut 
hollows, with small fillets, pro- 
ducing a strong effect of light and 
shadow. The arches are usually 
equilateral or lanced - shaped, 
though drop-arches are frequently 
met with, and sometimes point- 
ed segmented arches: trefoil and 
cinquefoil arches are also often 
used in small openings and panel- 
ings. The doorways of this style, 
in large buildings, are often divided 
into two by a single shaft or small 
pin, with a quatrefoil or other 
ornament. The windows are al- 
most universally of long and narrow 
proportions, and are used singly, 
or in combinations of two, three, 

168 



five, and seven : when thus com- 
bined, the space between them 
sometimes but little exceeds the 
width of the mullions of the latter 
styles. Groined ceilings are very 
common in this style. The pillars 
usually consist of small shafts ar- 
ranged round a larger circular pier, 
but others of a different kind are 
sometimes found. The capitals 
consist of plain mouldings, or are 
enriched with foliage and sculpture 
characteristic of the style. 

Earthwork. The patented excavator, 
an American invention, is capable, 
it is said, of cutting and levelling 
earthwork for the making of rail- 
ways and for other works at a cost 
considerably below manual labour, 
and has the additional advantage 
of saving much time : it forms an 
important consideration in railway 
making, but little used in England. 

Earth-table, the lowest course of stone 
that is seen in a building, level with 
the earth. 



EAS 



EFFECTS OF BUILDINGS. 



EFF 



Easel, for painters, the frame on 
which the canvas is laid, stretched 
for painting. 

East Indian Black-wood grows to an 
immense size, and is much used 
for making furniture. 

Easter, a movahle feast held in com- 
memoration of the Resurrection. 
Being the most important and most 
ancient in observance, it governs 
the other movable feasts through- 
out the year. 

Eaves, the lower edge of a sloping 
roof which overhangs the face of 
a wall, for the purpose of throwing 
off the water. 

Ebony wood is of several colours, as 
yellow, red, green, and black. The 
latter is always preferred, and is 
much used. It is imported princi- 
pally from the East, and is used for 
cabinet, mosaic, and turnery work, 
for flutes, handles of doors, knives, 
surgeons' instruments, piano-forte 
keys, etc. 

Eborarius, a term applied by tbe Ro- 
mans to a kind of ivory-work. 

Eccentric, or Excentric, a circular disc 
revolving within a strap or ring, 
and having its axis of revolution 
on one side of the centre. It is 
used as a substitute for a crank for 
giving a reciprocating motion to 
the slide-valve or to the feed-pump 
of a steam-engine. 

Eccentrics are circular sheaves with a 
hole for the driving-wheel axle, 
about two inches out of the centre of 
the sheave of a locomotive-engine, 
which thus makes it project some 
four inches more from the centre of 
the driving axle on one side than 
on the other. It is this eccentricity 
of motion which works the slide- 
valve gear and pumps in a very sa- 
tisfactory manner. Eccentrics are 
fitted in two parts, and secured to 
the axle by a hoop and setbolts. 

Eccentric hoops, hoops fitted round 
the projecting part of the eccentric 
sheaves of a locomotive-engine, to 
strengthen them. 

Eccentric rod and strap, the rod, the 
strap end of which encircles the 

169 



eccentric sheave, and the other end 
connects it with the quadrant, or 
rocking-shaft, according to the 
class of a locomotive-engine. In 
some engines the end is forked to 
go on the stud of the rocking- 
shaft, and opens out something 
like the letter V ; or when only 
one rod is used for both back and 
forward movements, it resembles 
the letter X. In other engines it 
is attached to the quadrants by a 
bolt, one rod for forward gear, and 
another rod for backward gear. 

Eccentric rod, the rod connecting the 
eccentric strap to the lever which 
moves the slide-valve. 

Eccentric strap, a brass ring formed 
by two pieces bolted together, and 
fixed to the eccentric rod : the 
ring fits a grooved part in the cir- 
cumference of the eccentric. 

Echinus, the egg and anchor, or egg 
and tongue ornament found carved 
on the ovolo, in classical architec- 
ture. 

Echinus, a member of the Doric capi- 
tal ; so called from its resemblance 
to the echinus, or large vase, in 
which drinking-cups were washed. 

Ecphora, the projection of any mem- 
ber or moulding before the face of 
the member or moulding next be- 
low it. 

Eduction pipe, the pipe from the ex- 
haust passage of the cylinder to the 
condenser. 

Effect is the art of giving to a draw- 
ing a striking appearance, or so- 
lemnity, awe, sadness, mirth, or 
tranquillity, by a judicious combi- 
nation of objects, and by strong 
light and shadow. It is a faithful 
representation of the appearance of 
nature, best seen under certain cir- 
cumstances and at certain times, 
such as morning effect, evening 
effect, twilight effect, and stormy 
effect, torch-light and candle-light 
effects, etc. 

Effects of buildings. " The site adapt- 
ed for buildings, and the accompa- 
niments of terraces, gardens, and 
other decorations to set off their 



EGG 



EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



ELA 



architectural designs, are subjects 
for consideration in which we are 
influenced by the desire to raise 
and extend the theory and practice 
to what we consider belongs to the 
art. It was in Italy, when the fine 
arts were in perfection, that the 
laying out great villas was prac- 
tised by artists who often combined 
the practice of painting and archi- 
ture ; and until it be adopted in 
England, the designs of the archi- 
tect never will have justice done to 
them in the execution. Our parks 
may be beautiful, our mansions 
faultless in design ; but nothing is 
more rare than to see the two pro- 
perly connected. Let the architect 
by study and observation qualify 
himself to include in his art the 
decorations around the immediate 
site of the intended building, toge- 
ther with its interior adornment, 
furniture, and upholstery, and the 
growing taste among the gentry of 
England will second such laudable 
efforts." 

Egg, in architecture, an ornament of 
that form, cut in the echinus or 
quarter round. 

Egyptian Architecture had its origin 
2222 years before Cbrist, and ad- 
vanced and flourished under dif- 
ferent dynasties. The first includes 
the two great dynasties of Theban 
princes, who governed Egypt dur- 
ing her " most high and palmy 
state," when Thebes sent forth her 
armies to distant conquest. In the 
second period is comprised the 
erection of the Pyramids. The 
third includes the reigns of the 
Ptolemies and earlier Caesars, un- 
der whom Egyptian architecture 
flourished in a second youth, and 
almost attained its original splen- 
dour. Egyptian architecture, so 
massive and so sombre, with its 
vast aisled halls without windows, 
its close files of gigantic columns, 
and its colossal statues, owes many 
characteristic forms and effects to 
earlier cavern temples in Ethiopia. 
One of the most striking peculiari- 

170 



ties of the style is the pyramidal 
character of the ascending lines : 
it is observed in the outline of the 
portal and the gigantic pylon, in 
walls, doorways, pedestals, and 
screens : it pervades the whole 
system, and must have been occa- 
sioned by circumstances connected 
with its origin. The representa- 
tions given in ancient paintings 
show a remarkable love of unifor- 
mity of arrangement of their do- 
mestic houses and gardens. In an 
ordinary house a number of cham- 
bers were ranged round a rectan- 
gular court, as at Pompeii. The 
larger mansions sometimes consist- 
ed of an assemblage of such courts, 
the whole occupying a square or 
oblong plot. Sometimes a central 
group of buildings was surrounded 
by a narrow court. A spacious area 
often extended from front to rear, 
with a chief and side entrances at 
either end : the exterior had no- 
thing of the ponderous character 
of temple structures, which would 
have been ill-suited to the wants 
and festivities of social life. Houses 
two and three stories high were 
common ; but large mansions ap- 
pear to have been low and extensive 
rather than lofty. The terraced top 
was covered by an awning or roof, 
supported on light graceful columns. 
Edioffraph, an instrument contrived 
forthe purpose of copying drawings. 
Elceing, in ship-building, a piece fitted 
to make good a deficiency in length 
on the lower part of the supporter 
under the cat-head, etc. ; likewise 
the piece of carved work under the 
lower end of the quarter-piece at 
the aft part of the quarter-gallery. 
Elastic, springy, having the power of 
returning to the form from which 
it was distorted. 

Elastic force of steam. The French 
reckon an atmosphere to be equal 
to a column of mercury '76 of a 
metre in height, which is only 
29'92 inches, and the boiling point 
of their thermometer is adapted 
thereto ; whereas, since about the 



ELB 



ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 



ELE 



commencement of the present cen- 
tury, the English have reckoned it 
to be 30 inches. This circumstance 
accounts in some degree for their 
scale of temperatures differing from 
Mr. Southern's. 

The French account of the occa- 
sion of making their experiments 
on the temperatures corresponding 
to different elasticities of steam, in 
1829, contains the following pas- 
sage : " Science did not then pos- 
sess this knowledge, and engineers 
appointed to superintend the con- 
struction of steam-engines had no 
other guidance than some discor- 
dant measures upon the tempera- 
tures which correspond to the elas- 
ticities between one and eight at- 
mospheres : for higher pressures 
there was no result of direct expe- 
riments, nor any theory which 
could supply the deficiency." 

Elbow, in architecture, an obtuse 
angle of a wall, building, etc. 

Elder-wood. The branches of the elder 
contain a very light kind of pith, 
which is used, when dried, for elec- 
trical purposes ; the wood is also 
frequently used for carpenter's 
rules, weavers' shuttles, etc. 

Electric Telegraph in India. Accord- 
ing to Dr. O'Shaughnessy's Report 
on the operations of the Electric 
Telegraph Department in India, the 
total number of despatches trans- 
mitted from 1st February, 1855, to 
31st January, 1856, was 9971, of 
which 8533 were private, and 1438 
public service despatches. Of 
these by far the greater part was 
between Bombay and Calcutta, and 
Bombay and Madras, showing that 
the commercial intelligence re- 
ceived by mail either from Europe 
or China is what gives the chief 
employment to the telegraph. Of 
the paid messages, not less than 
2864 were sent by native corre- 
spondents. There is every reason 
to conclude that the future income 
of the department will increase. 
While the European community are 
comparatively a very limited class, 



the native merchants, bankers, 
fundholders, and gentry, may be 
considered as innumerable. The 
number of native correspondents 
is accordingly increasing daily. 
Not only do they use the lines for 
financial business, but on the most 
delicate and secret matters affect- 
ing family arrangements, betrothals, 
marriages, and other domestic af- 
fairs, of which they treat with an 
absence of all disguise which is 
almost beyond belief. The receipts 
have averaged 10,089-1-2 rupees 
per month; of this the Calcutta 
office alone returns monthly 4433- 
12 rupees. The service despatches 
being estimated at the same rate, 
the work done in the year is not 
less than two lacs of rupees. When 
the whole line has acquired public 
confidence by being found punctual 
and accurate, the business will 
vastly increase. Terrible as are 
the thunderstorms which prevail 
over nearly all India, the precau- 
tions taken to prevent injuries to 
the offices or persons employed 
have proved completely successful, 
though the lines have been re- 
peatedly struck. 

Electrical state of the atmosphere. 
The electrical condition of the air 
in serene and tempestuous weather 
has been too much overlooked by 
meteorologists. The atmosphere 
is generally found to be in an elec- 
trical state. The apparatus for 
these observations is simply a me- 
tallic rod, insulated at its lower 
extremity, elevated at some height 
above the ground, arid communi- 
cating with an electroscope. Wheni 
the amenity of the weather will, 
permit, a kite should be raised, in 
the string of which a metallic wire 
should be interwoven ; this will 
collect the electricity of the higher 
regions of the air. The atmospbere 
is usually found to be positively 
electrified, and its electricity is 
stronger in the winter than in the 
summer, and during the day than 
in the night. 



171 



i 2 



ELE 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 



ELE 



Electricity (from elecirum, amber), 
was a name given at first to some 
peculiar effects observed on rub- 
bing that substance, and gradually 
extended to an immense collection 
of facts of a similar kind, as well 
as to the cause of these effects, 
whatever it may be, and to the 
science which investigates their 
laws. 

This science is sometimes divided 
into five or six branches, according 
to the modes in which electric ef- 
fects may be brought about. The 
term atmospheric electricity applies 
to that which is naturally exhibited 
at nearly all times, but especially 
in thunderstorms; common or 
frictional electricity, to that deve- 
loped by mere mechanical actions ; 
galvanism or voltaic electricity, to 
that developed by chemical action ; 
^errwo-electricity, by the action of 
heat ; wo^w^o-electricity, by that 
of magnetism ; and animal electri- 
city, by the will of certain fishes, 
which use this power as a defence. 
A more modern and comprehensive 
division is into 1. Electro-statics, 
or tensional electricity, referring to 
those effects in which the agency 
seems to have the equilibrium of 
its distribution disturbed, so as to 
be excessive or deficient in certain 
bodies, making them appear in dif- 
ferent states. 2. Electro-dynamics, 
or current electricity, describing 
those effects in which the agency 
appears to be moving from place to 
place, and displaying momentum. 

Electrum, from the Greek, a name 
given to amber, or to a mixture 
of metals composed of gold and 
silver. 

Elecirum, argentiferous gold; an alloy 
of silver. 

Elegance, in a design, is a manner 
which embellishes and heightens 
objects, either as to their form or 
colour, or both, without destroying 
or perverting truth. 

Elementary Instruction. Before en- 
tering into practice, it will be ne- 
cessary to bear the following rules 

172 



and tables always in mind; and 
although we are to suppose every 
one already well acquainted with 
them, they may yet possibly be 
found useful and essential here. 

SIGNS AND MARKS. 

+ Plus, or more : the sign of ad- 
dition ; as 5 + 6 = 11. 

Minus, or less: the sign of sub- 
traction, as 20 5 = 15. 

x Multiply by : the sign of multi- 
plication, as 8 x 9 = 72. 

-5- Divide by : the sign of division, 
as 16-7-4*=4. 

= Equal to : the sign of equality, 
as 27 cubic feet= I cubic yard. 

* \ Proportion : the sign of propor- 
tion, as 3 : 6 : : 8 : 16. 

f Fraction. 

$ Square root. <!/ Cube root. 

LINEAL MEASURE. 

7*92 inches .... 1 link. 
12 inches .... 1 foot. 

3 feet 1 yard. 

5 yards. 1 rod, pole, or perch. 

4 poles, 100 links . 1 chain. 
40 poies, 10 chains . 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs,! 760 yards,! mile. 
80 chains, 8000 links 1 mile. 

SaUARE OR SUPERFICIAL MEASURE. 

144 square inches 1 square foot. 
9 square feet . 1 square yard. 

30* square yards { > 

40 perches . . 1 rood. 

4 roods ... 1 acre. 

640 acres ... 1 square mile. 

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 

1728 solid inches . 1 cubic foot. 

27 solid feet . . 1 cubic yard. 

Proceeding to the various forms 

of plane surfaces, and the methods 

A 



ELE 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 



ELE 



of measuring them, am! beginning 
with the square, which has four 
equal sides and four right angles, 
as A, B, c, D, Rule: Multiply the 
given side hy itself, and the product 
is the area required. Ex. 12 x 12 
= 144. 

The next figure will he a paral- 
lelogram, or oblong square. Rule : 
Multiply the length by the breadth, 



and the product gives the area. 
Ex. 18'0"x6'0"=108'0". 

The next figure will be a rhom- 
bus, which has four sides all equal, 
but no right angle. Rule : Multi- 




ply the base by the perpendicular 
height, and the product is the area. 
Ex. 16'0"x 14'0" = 224'0". 

The next figure will be the 
rhomboid, which has its two sides 
equal and parallel, but no right 
angle : it is a long square pushed 



aside. Rule : Multiply the longer 
side by the perpendicular height 
or breadth, and the product is the 
area. Ex. 18' 0" x 5' 6" = 99' 0". 
The next will be a right-angled 



triangle, having one of its angles a 
true square, or just 90 degrees. 
Rule: Multiply one of the legs 
forming the right angle by half 
the other ; the product is the area. 
Ex. 16'0"^2 = 8 x 20'0" = 160'0". 
The next figure will be a tri- 
angle. Rule: Multiply the longest 
side by one- half the perpendicular, 




and the product is the content. 
Ex. 14' 0"-*-2 = 7' 0"x24' 0" = 
168' 0", area required. 

The next figure will be the tra- 
pezium, which consists of four un- 
equal sides, and four unequal an- 
gles ; it is, indeed, two triangles, 
and may be measured at twice, as 
shown in the preceding triangle, or 




by this Rule : Multiply the diagonal 
by one-half the sum of the two 
perpendiculars. Ex. 8' 0" + 4' 0" 
= 12' 0" -f- 2 = 6'0" x 20' 0" = 
120' 0", the area required. 

The next figure will be the area 
of a circle. Rule : Square the 
diameter, and multiply that pro- 




173 



ELE 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 



ELE 



duct by /ba4, a uccimai, uuu il\,\ 
prod ict "-ill he the portent. Fx. 
12' 0"x 12' O'=144' 0"x -7854 = 
113-0. 76. 

Th; next dia- 
gram will be a 
segment or part 
of a section of a 
circle : to mea- 
sure this, mul- 
tiply half the 
sum of the two 
arches by one 
of t c; ends, and 
the product will 
giv ; the area. 
Ex 24' 0" + 
18' 0" = 42' 0" 
-4-2 = 21'0"x 
2' 0" = 42' 0", 
w lich is the 
ar a required. 

Where the figure is found of 
the shape annexed, with two right 
ang es, and the sides not parallel, 




instead of dividing it and measuring 
it as a parallelogram and an angle, 
take the mean of the two per- 
pendiculars, and multiply by the 
length ; the product will give the 
area required. Ex. 12' 0" + 8' 0" 
= 20' 0"-r-2 = 10' 0"= x 32' 0" = 
320' 0". 

It is now necessary to take into 
consideration the methods of mea- 
suring solid or cubic bodies ; for 
example, to begin with a cube, viz. 
a solid bounded by six square sides, 
similar to a die 

Rule : Mul- ' 
tiply the side 
by itself, and 
the product by 
the side again ; 
the last pro- 
duct willbethe 
solid content. Ex. 6' 0" x 6' 0" = 
36' 0" x 6' 0" = 2]6' 0" cubic feet. 




The next figure 
is the parallelo- 
pipedon, or ob- 
long cube. Rule: 
Multiply the 
breadth by the 
depth, and that 
product by the 
length ; this last 
product will be 
the content of it. 
Ex. 6'0"x8'0" 
= 48'0"x32'0" 
= 1536' 0" = 
t he required con- 
tent of 'the paral- 
lelopipedon. 

Next proceed 
the prism, to measure 
which, find the area at 
the end, multiply that 
by the length. and that 
product is the content. 
Ex. Theperpendicular 
height, 6' 0" -f- 2 = 
3'0"x 12'0'^36'G" 
x32' 0"=1152' 0". 

The inclined plane 
and wedge may be 
measured by the same 
rule as the prism ; but 
the readier way is to 
multiply one-half of 
the thickness of the 
base bv its width, and 



\ 






17-1 



ELE 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 



ELO 



the perpendicular or length. 
Q" x 15' 0" = 45' 0" x 20' 0" 



that b 

Ex. 

= 900' 0" = content of inclined 

plane. 

This figure will be found in all 
earth-work, passing from cutting 
to embankment. 

Again, 6'0"x 15' 0" = 90' 0" x 
20' O''=1800' 0", content of the 
wedge. 

The next figure is a square pyra- 
mid, and the one-half of which is 
a very prominent formation in 
banks, and is measured by multi- 




plying the area of the base by one- 
third the height or length. Ex. 
6' 0" x 6' 0" = 36' 0" x 6' 0" = 
210' 0" content. 

Arriving now at the cylinder, 
this is measured by multiplying 



s 




the area of the base or end by the 
length. Ex. 12' 0" x 12' 0" = 
144' 0"x -7854 = 113-0976 x 20' 0" 
= 2260' 0". 

The cone is also measured by 
multiplying the area of the base by 
one-third the perpendicular height. 
Ex. 12' 0" x 12' 0" = 144' 0" x 
7854 = 113' 0"x 6' 8"= 753' 4". 

1 7?i 




The next figure is the frustum 
of a square pyramid, which also is 
a form peculiar in 
embankments and 
cuttings. Rule : 
To four times the 
area of the mean 
base add the area 
of each end, which 
divide by 6 ; mul- 
tiply the product 
by the length, you 
will find the con- 
tents. Ex. 4' 0" + 
6' 0'= 10' 0" ^- 2 
= 5' 0", the mean 
height of the base 
or thickness will be 
5 ' ; 5' 0" x 5' 0" 
= 25' O'x4' 0" = 
100 0" + 36' 0" = 
136'0"+16'0"=152'0"; 152'0" 
+ 6' 0"=25' 4"x 20' 0" = 506' 8" 
content. 

The same rule applies to the 
frustum of a cone. 
Elevation, an upright draught of a 

building, geometrically drawn. 
Elizabethan Architecture, the style 
which prevailed in England at the 
time of Queen Elizabeth, and im- 
mediately subsequent to the Tudor 
style of Henry VIII. 
Ellipse : this curve is one of the conic 
sections, and next in importance 
to the circle and the straight line. 
Ellipsis, an oval figure generated from 
the section of a cone by a plane 
cutting both sides of the cone, but 
not parallel to the base, and meet 
ing with the base when produced. 
Elliptic compasses, a term given to 
any machine for describing ellipses. 
Elliptograph, an instrument for draw- 
ing ellipses. 
Elm, a timber-tree, of European 
growth, and of which there are five 
species : mean size, 44 feet long, 
32 inches diameter : it is not liable 
to split, and bears the driving 01 
nails, bolts, etc. : much used in 
building ; also for the keels of ves- 
sels, and for wet foundations. 
Elongation, the act of lengthening. 



ELU 



EMBANKMENTS. 



EMB 



Elutriation, the separation of foul sub 
stances from pure, by pulverization. 

Elutriation, in metallurgy, the sepa- 
rating the lighter matters from the 
mixed ores or metals, by means of 
great quantities of fair water. 

Elvan (in Cornish), a hard close- 
grained stone, said to be a bastard 
limestone. 

Embankments, raised mounds or dykes 
to preserve the proper and useful 
course of rivers, etc. ; and also for 
forming a level line of railway. 

Embankments (some} executed on the 
Continent. On the banks of the 
Po, two sorts of dykes are used to 
prevent the river /rom overflowing 
during the winter, or the flood 
season. They are called ' in froldi ' 
when immediately upon the banks 
of the river, and ' in golene ' when 
at any considerable distance, as it 
is sometimes found advisable to 
allow the river to spread over a 
large surface of the adjacent valley, 
either for the purpose of admitting 
it to deposit the mud in suspension, 
or to allow it to lose its torrential 
character. The maintenance of 
the works of these dykes is con- 
fided to the Government engineers, 
who are under the control of a 
syndicate of the proprietors of the 
property most liable to be affected 
by inundations. When the river 
passes from one State to another, 
as from Piedmont to Modena, a 
mixed commission is charged with 
the joint superintendence. 

The Haarlem lake, besides the 
very remarkable steam-engines de- 
scribed by Mr. Dempsey, merits 
observation for the extensive works 
executed for the defence of the 
land, and for the canals reserved 
for the navigation. The enclosure 
dyke is 50,000 metres long, or 
rather more than 31 miles. It has 
two outfall dykes, which serve for 
the navigation, 9000 metres, about 
5 miles; one-half of which is 40 m - 
(131 ft. 2 in.) wide at the bottom 
or floor line; the other 43 m - 20 
(141 ft. 10 in.) 

176 



The ordinary tides are, at the 
flux, 2 ft. 4 in. above the scale or 
datum line at Amsterdam ; at the 
reflux, 2 ft. 8 in. below the same 
datum : the difference between 
high and low water is then, on the 
average, about 5 feet. With vio- 
lent winds from the N.W. however, 
the tides rise sometimes G ft. 6 in. 
above the average. The tides of 
the Y, near the lake, are + 16 C - (or 
6^ in.) and 23 C - (or 9 in.), giving 
a total variation of 1 ft. 3g in. 

The estimated cost of reclaiming 
the 18,000 hectares was 8 millions 
of florins, or 667,000 English, 
nearly, about 13 per acre. Pre- 
viously to undertaking this colos- 
sal work, the Zind Plass, of 4600 
hectares superficial (nearly 11,500 
acres), had been reclaimed at a cost 
of 3 millions of florins, or'J50,000; 
not far from 22 per acre. The 
heights of the enclosure dyke are 
+ or the datum line or mean 
level of the sea at Amsterdam. 

Embankment of the flooded part of 
the Amsterdam and Haarlem Rail- 
way. The bottom part consists of 
treble ranges of fascines, tied down 
by longitudinal poles 1 metre apart 
from centre to centre, and 25 c. 
diameter ; two double stakes at 
each end of the poles, and two ties 
in the intermediate distances. The 
interstices of the fascines and the 
space between the rows are filled in 
with sand. The upper part, form- 
ing the encasement for the ballast, 
is made of three rows of treble fas- 
cines, well staked, and wattled to- 
gether. 

A core of sand or clay, faced with 
step fascines, is made up to low- 
water mark. Upon this a bed of 
rushes, fastened down by stakes 
and wattles, is laid; and the upper 
portion of the bank is faced with 
fascines of a regular slope of 1 to 1. 

Embattled, a term applied to any 
building with a parapet, and having 
embrasures to resemble a battery. 

Emblema, an emblem, or inlaid orna- 
ment of divers colours. 



EMB 



ENGINEERING. 



ENG 



Emfjolus, in mechanics, a wedge ; an- 
ciently, among the Greeks, the prow 
or beak of a vessel, or a body of 
soldiers in the form of a wedge. 

Embolus, the movable part of a pump 
or syringe, named likewise the pis- 
ton or sucker. 

Embossing, forming work in relievo, 
whether cast or cut with a chisel ; 
or in modern times, the art of pro- 
ducing raised figures upon wood or 
other materials by means of pres- 
sure, either applied by a sudden 
blow, as in a stamping press, or in 
a more gradual manner, as by an 
ordinary screw or hydraulic press, 
or by means of revolving cylinders. 

Embrasure, the crenelles or interval 
between the merlons of a battle- 
ment. 

Embroidery, a mode of working de- 
vices on woven substances. 

Emerald green is a new colour of cop- 
per green upon a terrene base : it is 
the most vivid of this tribe of 
colours, being rather opaque, and 
powerfully reflective of light : it 
appears to be the most durable 
pigment of its class. 

Emissarium, a sluice, flood-gate, or 
channel by which an outlet is 
formed to carry off stagnant or foul 
water : according to Pliny, an arti- 
ficial canal, formed for the draining 
of stagnant waters. 

Emplecton, a method of constructing 
walls introduced by the Greeks and 
copied by the Roman architects, in 
which the outside surfaces on both 
sides were formed of ashlar laid in 
regular courses, and the central 
space between them filled in with 
rubble-work, layers of cross stones 
being placed at intervals in regular 
courses, and of sufficient size to ex- 
tend through the entire thickness 
of the wall, and so act as girders to 
bind the whole together. 

Emporium, a mart or factory, a large 
building containing ranges of bond- 
ing warehouses, in which foreign 
merchandise brought by sea is de- 
posited for sale. 

Enamelling, the art of using enamel, 

1 77 



which is divided into trasparent 
and opaque. The first is- employed 
for the purpose of ornamenting gold 
and silver; the second, commonly 
in the manufacture of watch and 
clock dials, and of plates for pic- 
tures, etc. 

Encarpa (Encarpus}, according to 
Vitruvius, festoons of carved fruit 
and flowers, employed as decorative 
ornaments. 

Encaustica, the art of encanslic 
painting, z'.e. in colours mixed with 
wax, and afterwards hardened by 
the action of fire. 

Encaustic painting, a kind of paint- 
ing in which by heating or burning 
in, the colours are rendered perma- 
nent in all their original splendour. 

Enchasing, the art of enriching and 
beautifying gold, silver, and other 
metal work, t>y some design or 
figure represented thereon in basso 
rilievo. 

Enclosure, a fence, a wall, or hedge, 
or other means of protection and 
security surrounding land. 

Endecagon, in geometry, a plane fi- 
gure of eleven sides and angles. 

End-irons, andirons or dogs, articles 
of household furniture, in earlier 
times, used in fire-places to sustain 
the ends of logs of wood. 

Engineering, Civil. This profession 
may be said to have originated in 
England about, the middle of the 
last century. Before that period, 
whenever the prospects of great 
profit induced individuals or bodies 
to incorporate themselves for the 
purpose of undertaking CN tensive 
systems of drainage, or for the 
supply of water, requiring the as- 
sistance of an engineer, recourse 
was generally had to those great 
masters of hydraulic engineering, 
the Dutch. True it is that some so- 
litary exceptions have occasionally 
been found; men who, like Sir 
Hugh Myddelton, combined a spe- 
culative turn of mind with some 
mechanical knowledge, and to 
these two qualities added an un- 
tiring energy of purpose, leading 



ENG 



ENGINEERING. 



ENG 



them to persevere in any under-* 
taking, even under the most dis- 
couraging circumstances. But 
these men were rare instances of 
a peculiar talent, which, though it 
thus displayed itself occasionally, 
was far too uncommon a gift to 
allow the possessors of it to form 
a class or profession. The case is 
very different now : a demand for 
this peculiar talent has been created 
of late years by the extraordinary 
development of our system of in- 
ternal communication, as well as 
by the application of steam to the 
purposes of our manufactures ; 
and employment is now found for 
hundreds where one was sufficient, 
not fifty years since, for the whole 
business of the country. So great 
indeed has been the demand, that 
the profession may be said to be 
divided into two distinct bodies, 
viz. those who turn their attention 
to subjects which come more par- 
ticularly within the scope of the 
duty of a civil engineer, such as 
docks, bridges, canals, railroads, 
etc., and those who devote them- 
selves altogether to the manufac- 
ture of machinery. The duties 
which are involved in the practice 
of these two branches of the pro- 
fession, though apparently dissimi- 
lar in character, are yet founded 
upon the same general principles ; 
and the acquirements which are 
necessary to enable the individual 
of one class to distinguish himself, 
or even to practise his profession 
with a moderate chance of success, 
will be found equally necessary for 
those of the other class. 

These acquirements are partly 
abstract and theoretical, and partly 
experimental or practical. A civil 
engineer should, in addition to the 
knowledge required to fit him as 
well as others for the active duties 
of life, have such a knowledge of 
mathematics as will enable him to 
investigate as well as to apply the 
rules laid down by writers on those 
branches of the mixed sciences to 



ENG 



ENGINEER. 



ENG 



sibly be called upon to plan and 
execute a work himself, and then, 
by degrees, with industry and ac- 
tivity, may work his way upwards 
in a profession where merit alone 
can lead to distinction. 

The course of the man who de- 
votes himself to the machinery 
branch of the profession differs but 
little, up to a certain point, from 
that just described : his theoretical 
acquirements should be the same, 
but the practical part of his edu- 
cation will commence at the bench, 
where he will learn the use of all 
the tools and machinery by working 
at them with his own hands : he 
will then be placed in the drawing 
room, and go through much the 
same routine of instruction as be- 
fore described, and will by degrees 
work his way up to the position 
of foreman; then, distinguishing 
himself by a power of applying 
general principles to particular 
cases, he will show himself capable 
of assuming the direction of an 
establishment for the manufacture 
of machinery. 

Engineer, Steam-boat. A steam-boat 
engineer is a person employed for 
the purpose of keeping the engine 
or engines of a steam-vessel in as 
efficient a state as possible, and to 
superintend their working. 

He must set the engines to work, 
regulate their speed, and stop them, 
as may be required. His duties 
while the engines are at work are 
various. He must take care that 
every moving part is properly lu- 
bricated ; that no steam is allowed 
to pass through valves or joints that 
ought to be steam-tight ; that no 
air is permitted to enter in any of 
the parts of the engine where it 
is essential that a vacuum should 
be kept up ; and that none of the 
bolts, or pins, or keys, work loose 
by the vibration, and shift their 
position, or come out of their 
places. He must also take care 
that none of the working parts be- 
come overheated by any undue 

170 



amount of friction, arising from 
any want of proper lubrication, 
any excessive tightness, or any 
other disturbing cause ; and if they 
should become overheated, he 
must take prompt and energetic 
measures to remedy the evil, and 
prevent any serious consequences 
arising therefrom. He must from 
time to time carefully observe the 
effect produced by the gradual wear 
of the working parts, so that if the 
truth or accuracy of any of these 
seems to be materially affected, he 
may take steps to rectify the defects 
when lying up in harbour. He must 
also be careful to observe if the 
frame of the engine ever begins to 
move or work in any way, and en- 
deavour to discover the cause, in 
order that it may be remedied when 
the engines are at rest. One of the 
most important of his duties is to 
take care that the engines are kept 
clean, and any grit or dirt prevented 
from getting into the bearings or 
moving parts : he must wipe away 
all oil and grease most carefully 
and completely as soon as they have 
passed through the bearings, and 
prevent them from running down 
the rods or remaining about the 
engine. 

The boiler requires his unremit- 
ting and particular attention, in 
order that the proper supply of 
steam, neither too much nor too 
little, may be generated for the en- 
gine. To ensure this, the manage- 
ment of the fires must be duly 
attended to, both in the supply of 
coal in the proper quantities at. the 
proper intervals, and in the perio- 
dical clearing of the fires from the 
earthy matters of the coal, which 
may have become vitrified in the 
furnace, and formed what are call- 
ed clinkers. By due attention to 
the former, the smoke in all well- 
proportioned boilers may be very 
greatly abated ; and, by due at- 
tention to both, the consumption 
of fuel (when the engines are pre- 
vented by a strong head-wind, or 



ENG 



ENGINEER. 



ENG 



by the deep immersion of the* 
paddle-wheels on the commence- 
ment of a long voyage, from making 
the proper number of strokes, and 
thus using the proper amount of 
steam) may be reduced in an equal 
or greater degree than has taken 
place in the consumption of steam. 
The due and constant supply of 
water to the boiler, to compensate 
for the constant evaporation of the 
water in the formation of the steam, 
must be assiduously attended to. 
Another of the most important of 
the duties of a steam-boat engineer, 
during the time that the engines 
are at work on a voyage at sea, 
is to attend to the degree to which 
the water in the boilers may be- 
come saturated with salt by thecon- 
tinued evaporation which is going 
on, and to take care that this satu- 
ration is not allowed to be carried 
to such an extent as that a deposi- 
tion of the salt and other matters 
contained in sea- water should take 
place. After the boilers have been 
in operation for three or four hours 
in salt water, so that the water in 
them has become brine, he ought to 
test the strength of it, that is, he 
ought to ascertain the degree of sa- 
turation to which it has reached, 
and continue this examination pe- 
riodically, whether the engines are 
fitted with an apparatus for the con- 
tinuous discharge of a portion of 
the brine, to be exchanged for a 
portion of sea-water, or whether 
this system of exchange is left en- 
tirely at his discretion, to be at- 
tended to by means of the common 
blow-off cocks. The best test is the 
common hydrometer, though the 
thermometer has hitherto been 
more commonly applied to this pur- 
pose, as the brine is considered to 
be of a proper strength when it boils 
under atmospheric pressure at a 
temperature 2 higher than that at 
which the common sea-water will 
boil at the same time, under the 
same circumstances. 

Before coming into port, it may 



occasionally be advantageous to 
take indicator diagrams, to see 
whether the action of the valves 
continues to be correct. 

The duties of a steam-boat en- 
gineer, on arriving in port after a 
long voyage, are also various, and 
equally important with those he has 
to perform when out at sea. Im- 
mediately on coming to anchor, it 
is a good practice to test the tight- 
ness of the steam-valves and pis- 
tons, by putting them in such a 
position that it can be seen if they 
allow any steam to pass when it 
ought not to do so. It' any im- 
perfections in these the most vital 
parts of the engines are discovered, 
he must draw out the valves, or 
lift the cylinder covers, to get at 
the pistons, and rectify the defects 
in the best manner that he can with 
the means within his power. He 
should also occasionally examine 
all the interior parts of the engines, 
and rectify any incipient defects. 
He must now also rectify any want 
of truth in the parallel motion or 
in any of the shafts or working 
parts caused by wear, and tighten 
or make good any of the fastenings 
of the frame if he has found them 
to be loose, and put to rights any 
other such defects. Any parts sub- 
ject to corrosion should be carefully 
examined, cleaned, and dried, and 
painted if need be. The water 
should be blown off out of the 
boilers as completely as possible, 
and all ashes and soot thoroughly 
cleaned out of the furnaces and 
flues as soon as possible. The fur- 
naces and flues must then be tho- 
roughly examined, and the slight- 
est leak or defect that can be 
discovered made good ; as it is 
especially important in a boiler to 
stop these defects at the first, as 
otherwise they spread very rapidly. 
No pains should be spared to dis- 
cover any suspected leak of steam 
on the top of the boiler, as nothing 
te*nds more to corrode and destroy 
a boiler than this. Inside the boil- 



ENG 



ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING. 



ENG 



ers, any scale that may have been 
deposited from the brine having 
been allowed to become too strong 
must be removed, and the whole 
thoroughly cleaned out from every 
part of the boiler, from below as 
well as from the tops and sides of 
the furnaces and flues. The take- 
up, the inside of the steam-chests, 
and of the roofs of the boilers, 
which are the parts most subject to 
corrosion from the interior, should 
he very carefully examined, and 
after being duly scraped andcleaned 
and dried, they should he well 
painted with two or three coats of 
red lead, or done over with some 
other preservative. 

The paddle-wheels should also 
be thoroughly examined, and any 
broken floats or hook-bolts replaced 
by new ones. The whole of the 
ironwork should be thoroughly 
scraped and cleaned, and, when 
dry, painted with three coats of 
red lead, or done over with black 
varnish, once every four months 
at least. "When in harbour, espe- 
cially if lying in a stream or tide- 
way, the wheels ought to be turned 
round every three or four days, to 
change the parts exposed to the 
action of the water, and thus pre- 
vent corrosion. The various kinds 
of the screw now in use should be 
well studied, and all circumstances 
connected* with its operations 
should be closely watched for every 
incident or change should be con- 
sidered as a new experiment. 

He must now also get his supply 
of stores made good, so as to be 
ready for another voyage. 

To qualify an engineer to per- 
form these duties, he should be 
trained as a mechanic, and be a fair 
workman in iron, brass, and wood. 
He should be able to work rot only 
at the lathe or vice, but also at a 
smith's forge. His education should 
be such as to make him able to keep 
accounts, and make notes in his log 
of all that occurs in the engine- 
room. He should have sufficient 



knowledge of mechanical drawing 
to enable him, in the event of any 
important part of the engines being 
broken when at a distance from any 
manufactory, to make such a draw- 
ing of it as would enable a manu- 
facturer to replace it. He should 
have some knowledge of the first 
principles of mechanics, a general 
knowledge of the leading principles 
of hydrostatics, hydraulics, and 
pneumatics, without which he can- 
not fully understand many of the 
principles carried on in the engine, 
and on which its power depends. 
Some knowledge of heat, of the 
theory of combustion, of ebullition, 
and of evaporation, may also be 
reckoned as almost indispensable : 
to which should be added, if pos- 
sible, an acquaintance with the sub- 
ject of steam, especially as regards 
its temperature, pressure, and latent 
heat. 

Engineer, Mechanical, one who is effi- 
cient in the invention, contrivance, 
putting together, and the adjust- 
ment of all kinds of machinery ; 
who is acquainted with the strength 
and quality of the material used, 
and who also possesses a thorough 
knowledge of the power of steam 
and the engine in all its modifica- 
tions, and the uses for which this 
motive power is applied : he should 
also be duly acquainted with mill- 
work of the several kinds, whether 
impelled by steam, water, or wind. 

English School of Painting. This 
school, which is but of recent date, 
is connected with the Royal Acade- 
my in London, instituted in 1766 ; 
and although as a school it did not 
exist before that period, yet since 
the revival of the arts, and the con- 
sequent encouragement given to 
them by the sovereigns of Europe, 
England has possessed portrait- 
painters of no inconsiderable abi- 
lity ; and it is probably owing to 
the remarkable partiality of the na- 
tion for this branch of the art, that 
historical painting has been, until 
recently, comparatively neglected. 



ENG 



ENTABLATURE. 



EPI 



Latterly, however, painters of the 
highest eminence in this superior 
hranch of the art havedistinguished 
themselves, and given earnest of 
the rise of a school that may, ere 
long, surpass others of the pre- 
sent age. 

English Varnish. When mastic var- 
nish is mixed with drying-oil which 
holds litharge in solution, the mix- 
ture soon assumes the appearance 
of a firm jelly ; which is strong in 
proportion as a greater quantity of 
litharge, and a stronger varnish, 
have been used. This substance 
holds its place on the palette. This 
mixture is particularly useful in 
glazing, for it flows freely under 
the brush. Instead of using brown 
drying-oil, it is preferable to use 
that prepared without fire. 

Entablature, those members of a por- 
tico which were constructed upon 
the columns, consisting of theepi- 
stylium, zophorus, and corona. Vi- 
truvius uses the words ornament a 
columnarum to signify these mem- 
bers ; and sometimes he includes 
the three several parts in the term 
epistylia. 

Entablature, the superstructure that 
lies horizontally upon the columns 
in the several orders or styles of 
architecture. It is divided into 
architrave, the part immediately 
above the column ; frieze, the cen- 
tral space ; and cornice, the upper 
projecting mouldings. Each of the 
orders has its appropriate entabla- 
ture, of which both the general 
height and the subdivisions are re- 
gulated by a scale of proportion 
derived from the diameter of the 
column. 

The entablature, though archi- 
tects frequently vary from the pro- 
portions here specified, may, as a 
general rule, be set up one-fourth 
the height of the column. The to- 
tal height thereof thus obtained is 
in all the orders, except the Doric, 
divided into ten parts, three of 
which are given to the architrave, 
three to the frieze, and four to the 



cornice. But in the Doric order 
the whole height should be divided 
into eight parts, and two given to 
the architrave, three to the frieze, 
and three to the cornice. The 
mouldings which form the detail 
of these leading features are best 
learned by reference to representa- 
tions of the orders at large. Pal- 
ladio and Vignola, the restorers of 
genuine architecture, are the au- 
thors whose works may be con- 
sulted with greatest advantage by 
those who desire to make any ad- 
vance in the science, and most par- 
ticularly by those who wish to ob- 
tain further knowledge on the use 
and abuse of its details. 

Entail, a term used in the middle 
ages to signify elaborated sculp- 
tured ornaments and carvings. 

Entasis, the swell of the shaft or co- 
lumns of either of the orders of ar- 
chitecture. 

Enterclose, a passage between two 
rooms in a house, or that leading 
from the door to the hall. 

Entresol, in architecture, a floor be- 
tween two other floors. The en- 
tresol consists of a low apartment 
usually placed above the first floor : 
in London, frequently between the 
ground floor and the first floor. 

Ephebeum, an apartment in the pa- 
laestra appropriated to wrestling 
and other athletic exercises. 

Epicycle, a little circle whose cen- 
tre is in the circumference of a 
greater. 

Epicycloid, a curve generated by the 
revolution of the periphery of a 
circle along the convex or concave 
part of another circle. 

Epicycloidal wheel, a wheel for con- 
verting circular into alternate mo- 
tion, or alternate into circular. 

Episcenium, a division of the scene of 
a Greek theatre : it sometimes con- 
sisted of three divisions made by 
ranges of columns one above the 
other : the lower was termed scena, 
and the others episcenia. 

Epistomium, the cock or spout of a 
water-pipe, or of any vessel contain- 



EPI 



ERA. 



EVA 



ing liquids to be drawn off in small 
quantities when required. 

Epistylium, the lower of three divi- 
sions of an entablature or super- 
structure upon the columns of a 
portico, formed by pieces extend- 
ing from centre to centre of two 
columns. 

Epistylium, the architrave or hori- 
zontal course resting immediately 
upon columns. Epistylar arcua- 
tion is the system in which co- 
lumns support arches instead of 
horizontal architraves and entab- 
latures. 

Epitithidas, a term applied by some 
writers, by way of distinction, to 
the cymatium on the sloping or 
raking cornices of a pediment, 
which superimposed moulding (as 
its name implies) was frequently 
largely developed, and enriched 
with an ornamental pattern. 

Epitithides, the upper members of the 
corona surmounting the fastigium 
of a temple, which was also con- 
tinued along the flanks. 

Epotides, in naval architecture, two 
thick blocks of wood, one on each 
side the prow of a galley, for ward- 
ing off the blows of the rostra of 
the enemy's vessel. 

Equation, an equal division : in alge- 
bra, a mutual comparing of things 
of different denominations : in as- 
tronomy, the difference between 
the apparent and mean motion of 
the sun. 

Equilateral, having all sides equal. 

Equilibrium, equipoise, equality of 
weight. 

Equilibrium valve, the valve in the 
steam passage of a Cornish engine 
for opening the communication be- 
tween the top and bottom of the 
cylinder, to render the pressure 
equal on both sides of the piston. 

Era. The year 5611 of the Jewish 
era commenced September 7, 1850 ; 
Ramadan, the month of abstinence 
observed by the Turks, July 11, 
1850 ; the year 1267 of the Mo- 
hammedan era, Nov. 6, 1850; and 
the Christian era, 1849 since the 



birth of Jesus Christ, for 1850 
years, on the 1st of January, 
1850. 

Erasement (applied to buildings and 
cities), entire destruction and de- 
molition. 

Ergastulum, a sort of prison or house 
of correction contiguous to the 
farms and country villas of the 
Romans. 

Ergata, a capstan or windlass. 

Erisma, an arch-buttress, shore-post, 
or prop, to hold up buildings. 

Euripus, an arm of the sea with land 
on both sides ; a canal, a pool, or 
stand of water; ditch, a trench 
or moat about a place ; a water-pipe 
of the smaller size, so made that 
the water therein may mount aloft : 
also an inlet or small creek. 

Escape, the scape of a column in ar- 
chitecture. 

Escutcheon, a shield charged with 
armorial hearings. 

Etching, a branch of engraving in 
which the lines are drawn by a 
stylus or etching-needle, on copper, 
steel, or stone, prepared by a che- 
mical process. 

Eudiometer, an instrument used to 
ascertain the purity of air, or rather 
the quantity of oxygen contained 
in any given bulk of elastic fluid. 

Eurythmy, in architecture, the exact 
proportion between all parts of a 
building. 

Eustyle,\\\ai intercolumniation which, 
as its name would import, the an- 
cients considered the most elegant, 
viz. two diameters and a quarter of 
the column. Vitruvius says, this 
manner of arranging columns ex- 
ceeds all others in strength, conve- 
nience, and beauty. 

Evangelists, The. In the Table of 
Symbols of the early ages, by the 
four Mystic Animals, Rev. iv. 7 : 
The Angel being assigned to St. 
Matthew, the Lion to St. Mark, 
the Ox to St. Luke, and the Eagle 
to St. John ; and the four rivers 
issuing from the Mount of Paradise 
to enter the earth, Gen. ii. 10. 

Evaporation, the transformation of a 



EVO 



EXPANSIVE STEAM. 



EXP 



liquid into a gaseous state by th 
action of heat. 

Evolute, a particular species of curve. 

Evolution, in geometry : the equable 
evolution of the periphery of a cir- 
cle, or any other curve, is such a 
gradual approach of the circum- 
ference to rectitude as that all the 
parts meet together, and equally 
evolve or unbend. 

Ewry, an office of household service, 
where the ewers, etc., were for- 
merly kept. 

Examen, the tongue on the beam of 
a balance, rising perpendicularly 
from the beam, and moving in an 
eye affixed to the same, by which 
it serves to point out the equality 
or inequality of weight between 
the objects in the scale. 

Excalefaction, heating or warm- 
ing. 

Exedra, an assembly-room or hall of 
conversation ; according to Vitru- 
vius, a large and handsome apart- 
ment; also a by-place, or jutty. 

Exedra, or Exhedra, the portico of 
the Grecian palaestra, in which dis- 
putations of the learned were held : 
so called from its containing a 
number of seats, generally open, 
like the pastas or vestibule of a 
Greek house. 

Exemplar, a pattern, plan, or model ; 
resemblance. 

Exhaust-port, the exit passage for the 
steam from a cylinder. 

Exhaust-valve, the valve in the educ- 
tion passage of the steam cylinder 
of a Cornish engine, placed between 
the cylinder and air-pump, and 
worked by the tappet motion, so as 
to open shortly after the equili- 
brium valve, and admit the steam 
to the condenser. 

Existence, being, entity, subsistence, 
reality, actuality, positiveness, ab- 
soluteness, fact. Verb : to be, to 
exist, have being, subsist, live, 
breathe. 

Expansion-joint, a stuffing-box joint 
connecting the steam-pipes, so as 
to allow one of them to slide 
within the enlarged end of the 



18/L 



other when the length increases 
by expansion. 

Expansion-valve, an auxiliary valve 
placed between the slide-valve and 
the steam cylinder : it is worked by 
a cam or other contrivance, so as 
to cut off the steam at a given pe- 
riod, and cause the remainder of 
the stroke to be performed by ex- 
pansion. 

Expansive steam. The expansive pro- 
perties of steam are now well un- 
derstood, and extensively applied 
to practice in manufacturing dis- 
tricts. In Cornwall, and in some 
other parts of the kingdom, the ap- 
plication is attended with highly 
beneficial results. But it should 
be stated that this system can be 
introduced with much greater ad- 
vantage in engines that are em- 
ployed in raising water, than in 
those which are entirely devoted 
to manufacturing purposes. In 
these last, the power is opposed to 
a continually varying resistance ; 
while, in the former, the resistance 
is commonly the same, or of equal 
intensity. 

To pumping engines, the adop- 
tion of the expansive system to an 
almost unlimited extent is recom- 
mended, even to the exclusion of 
any further ingress of steam to the 
cylinder after the piston has passed 
through but one-eighth or one- 
ninth of its stroke. 

Expansive steam may be thus 
explained : If we allow steam to 
flow into the cylinder of a steam- 
engine until the piston be de- 
pressed to one-half of the stroke, 
and then prevent the admission of 
any further quantity, the piston 
will, if the engine be properly 
weighted, continue its motion to 
the bottom. The pressure of the 
steam, so long as the supply is 
continued from the boiler, will be 
equal, it is presumed, to ten pounds 
upon the inch. With this force it 
will act upon the piston until it 
completes one-half of the stroke : 
the further supply of steam will 



EXP 



EXPRESSION. 



EXT 



then he excluded, arid that wuich 
is in the cylinder will expand as the 
piston descends, so that when the 
stroke is completed it will occupy 
the entire capacity. The pressure 
of the steam will then be halt' of 
its former amount, or five pounds 
upon the inch. 

During the descent of the pis- 
ton, the pressure of the steam does 
not suddenly decrease from ten 
pounds to five; but it gradually 
declines, through the successive 
intervals, until at the final point it 
yields that force. It is by this gra- 
dual expansion and diminution of 
pressure that the superior action is 
produced. 

Experiments on Brass. Dr. Young 
made some experiments on brass, 
from which he calculated the 
height of the modulus of elasticity 
of brass plate to be 4,940,000 feet, 
or 18, 000,000 Its. for its weight, to 
a base of 1 square inch. For wire 
of inferior brass he found the 
height to be 4,700,000 feet. 

As cast brass had not been sub- 
mitted to experiment, a cast bar 
of good brass was procured, with 
which the following experiment was 
made : 

The bar was filed true and regu- 
lar: its depth was 0'45 inch, and 
breadth 0'7 inch ; the distance be- 
tween the supports was 12 inches, 
and the scale suspended from the 
middle. 

Iba. inch. 

12 bent the bar 01 

23 0-02 



38 
52 



65 
110 

163 



f The bar was 
Q.QO | relieved seve- 

| it took no per- 
(^ceptible set. 



n A c 
} ' 05 



f Relieved, the 
\setwas-01. 
. 0-18 

|" slipped between the 
J supports, bent more 
] than 2 inches, but did 
! not break. 



Hence 52 Ibs. seems to be about 
the limit which could not be 
much exceeded without permanent 
change of structure. It is equiva- 
lent to a strain of 6700 Ibs. upon a 
square inch, and the corresponding 
extension is y^g- of its length. Ab- 
solute cohesion above 2 1,000 Ibs. 
per square inch. The modulus of 
elasticity according to this experi- 
ment is '8,930, 000 ibs. for a base of 
an inch square. The specific gra- 
vity of the brass is 8 37, whence 
we have 2,460,000 feet for the 
height of the modulus. 

Expression principally consists in re- 
presenting the human body and all 
its parts in the action suitable to 
it ; in exhibiting in the face the se- 
veral passions proper to the figures, 
and marking the motions they im- 
press on the other external parts. 

Expression, in painting, con- 
sists in the representation of those 
attitudes of the body, and varia- 
tions of the countenance which 
always accompany and indicate 
the immediate influence of the pas- 
sions on the mind. 

Expression of colour. Every pas 
sion and affection of the mind has 
its appropriate tint; and colour- 
ing, if properly adapted, lends its 
aid, with powerful effect, in the 
just discrimination and forcible ex- 
pression of them : it heightens joy, 
warms love, inflames anger, deep- 
ens sadness, and adds coldness to 
the cheek of death itself. 

External thermometer (the) should 
be a mercurial one, well exhausted 
of air, and the graduated scale di- 
vided to tenths of a degree, or into 
quarters of a degree, or with whole 
divisions large enough to be di- 
vided into as many parts by the 
eye. Choose a locality for the 
instrument, where it will be well 
exposed to the ambient air, apart 
from the reflection of sunbeams, 
etc., and where it may be dis- 
tinctly read off without inconve- 
nience. It should lie read off as 
quickly as possible. For uniformity 



185 



EXT 



FAHRENHEIT. 



FAN 



of system, it should be read off #t 
stated periods, the same time at 
which the barometer, etc., are 
noted, and carefully watched in 
the interim, to see whenever any 
remarkable change occurs ; before 
and after storms, during eclipses of 
the sun and moon, or the passage 
of dense clouds of vapour, etc. 
Extract of gamboge is the colouring 
matter of gamboge separated from 
its greenish gum and impurities by 
solution in alcohol and precipita- 
tion, by which means it acquires a 
powdery texture, rendering it mis- 
cible in oil, etc., and capable of 



FABER, a name given by the Romans 
to any artisan or mechanic who 
worked in hard materials. 

Fabrica, according to the Romans, 
the workshop of any mechanic. 

Fabrication, the art of building, con- 
struction. 

Fabrillia, according to Horace, me- 
chanics' tools. 

Facade, the face or front of any con- 
siderable building to a street, court, 
garden, or other place. 

Face-piece, in ship-building, a piece 
wrought on the fore-part of the 
knee of the head, to assist the con- 
version of the main-piece, and to 
shorten the upper bolts of the 
knee of the head. 

Fagg (sea term) the ends of those 
strands which do not go through 
the tops, when a cable or rope is 
closed. 

Fagot of Steel, 120 Ibs. weight. 

Faithful (the), (on the table of sym- 
bols of the early ages), represented 
by sheep, John x. 14 ; by fish, Matt, 
xii. 47 ; by doves eating grapes or 
ears of corn ; by stags, Psalm xlii. 
2 ; by date-trees or cedar-trees, 
Isaiah i. 13 ; Jerem. xvii. 8 ; by 
little children. 

Fahrenheit, a native of Dantzic, was 
born in 1686 : he invented the scale 
called after his name : he also im- 
proved the thermometer by sub- 

186 



use in glazing. It is at the same 
time improved in colour, and re- 
tains its original property of work- 
ing well in water and gum. 

Extrados, the exterior curve of an 
arch, measured on the top of the 
voussoirs, as opposed to the soffit 
or intrados. 

Eye, a name given to certain circular 
parts and apertures in architecture, 
but more especially to the central 
circle of the Ionic volute ; to the 
circular or oval window in a pedi- 
ment ; to a small skylight in a 
roof, or the aperture at the sum- 
mit of a cupola. 



stituting mercury instead of spirits 
of wine, and formed a new scale 
for the instrument, founded on ac- 
curate experiments, fixing the freez- 
ing point of water at 32, and that 
ot boiling at 212. 

Faldvtool, or folding stool, a portable 
seat made to fold up in the manner 
of a camp-stool : it was made either 
of metal or wood, and sometimes 
covered with rich silk. 

False red is a second red, Avhich 
is sometimes put under the first, 
to make it deeper. 

False stem in a ship, when the stem 
being too flat, another is fastened 
to it. 

False-roof, the space between the 
ceiling and the roof above it, whe- 
ther the ceiling is of plaster or a 
stone vault, as at King's College 
chapel, Cambridge, and St. Jacques 
church, Liege. 

Fan-tracery vaulting : this was used 
in late Perpendicular work, in 
which all the ribs that rise from 
the springing of the vault have the 
same curve, and diverge equally in 
every direction, producing an ef- 
fect like the bones of a fan : very 
fine examples of it exist in Henry 
the Vllth's chapel, Westminster, 
St. George's chapel, Windsor, and 
in King's College chapel, Cam- 
bridge. 



FAN 



FARM. 



FAU 



Fanal, a pharos or lighthouse, or the 
lantern placed in it. 

Fang, in mining, a niche cut in the 
side of an adit, or shaft, to serve 
as an air-course : sometimes a main 
of wood-pipes is called afanging. 

Fanners, vanes or flat discs revolving 
round a centre, so as to produce a 
current of air; generally used in- 
stead of bellows for forges. 

Fanum, a Roman temple or fane, usu- 
ally consecrated to some deity. 

Farm. Vitruvius says, " The mag- 
nitude of the buildings must de- 
pend wholly upon the quantity of 
land attached to them, and upon 
its produce. The number of courts 
and their dimensions must be pro- 
portioned to the herds of cattle 
and the quantity of oxen employed. 
The kitchen should be situated in 
the warmest part of the court, and 
the stable for the oxen contiguous 
to it : the stalls should be made 
to face the hearth and the east ; 
because when oxen are constantly 
exposed to light and heat, they be- 
come smooth-coated. No hus- 
bandman, however ignorant, will 
suffer cattle to face any other 
quarter of the heavens than the 
east. The width of the stables 
ought not to be less than ten nor 
more than fifteen feet, their length 
proportioned to the number of 
yokes, each of which should oc- 
cupy an extent of seventeen feet. 
The scalding-rooms should adjoin 
the kitchen, in order that the ope- 
ration of cleaning the utensils may 
be performed upon the spot. The 
courts for sheep, etc., should be 
so spacious as to allow not less 
than four and a half nor more 
than six feet to each animal. The 
granaries should be aboveground, 
and made to front, either the north 
or the north-east, in order that the 
grain may not be liable to fer- 
ment ; but, on the contrary, by ex- 
posure to a cold atmosphere, may 
be preserved a long time : all other 
aspects encourage the propagation 
of worms and insects destructive 

187 



to grain. The stables should be 
built in the warmest part of the 
villa most distant from the hearth ; 
because when horses are stalled 
near fire they become rough-coated. 
It is likewise expedient to have 
stalls for oxen at a distance from 
the kitchen, in the open air : these 
should be placed so as to front the 
east, because if they are led there 
to be fed in winter when the sky is 
unclouded they will improve in 
appearance. The barns, the hay- 
yards, the corn-chambers, and the 
mills ought to be without the walls; 
so that the farm may be less liable 
to accidents from fire." 

Farm, in Cornish mining, that part 
of the lord's fee which is taken for 
liberty to work in tin-mines only 
that are bounded, which is gene- 
rally one-fifteenth of the whole. 

Fascia, a flat architectural member in 
an entablature or elsewhere; a 
band or broad fillet. The architrave 
in the more elegant orders of archi- 
tecture is divided into three bands, 
which are called fasciae : the lower 
is called the first fascia, the middle 
one the second, and the upper one 
the third fascia. 

Fasciae, the bands of which the epi- 
stylium of the Ionic and Corinthian 
orders are composed. The ante- 
pagments of Ionic doorways were 
generally divided into three fasciae 
or corsae. Fasciae were also bands 
which the Romans were accus- 
tomed to bind round the legs. 

Fast and loose pulleys, two pulleys 
placed side by side on a shaft 
which is driven from another shaft 
by a band : when it is required to 
stop the shaft, the band is trans- 
ferred to the loose pulley. 

Fastigium, the pediment of a portico ; 
so called because it followed the 
form of the roof, which was made 
like a triangle, the sides being 
equally inclined, to carry off the 
water. In architecture, the sum- 
mit, apex, or ridge of a house or 
pediment. 

Faux, according to Vitruvius, a nar- 



FAY 



FENESTRATION. 



FEN 



row passage which formed a couj- 
munication between the two prin- 
cipal divisions of a Roman house, 
the atrium and peristylium. 

Fay, in ship-building, to join two 
pieces of timber close together. 

Feathering or foliation, an arrange- 
ment of small arcs or foils sepa- 
rated by projecting points or cusps, 
used as ornaments in the mould- 
ings of arches, etc., in Gothic archi- 
tecture. 

Feed-head, a cistern containing water 
and communicating with the boiler 
of a steam-engine by a pipe, to 
supply the boiler by the gravity of 
the water, the height being made 
sufficient to overcome the pressure 
within the boiler. 

Feed-pipe, the pipe leading from the 
feed-pump, or from an elevated 
cistern, to the bottom of the 
boiler of a locomotive engine. 

Feed-pipe cocks, those used to regulate 
the supply of water to the boiler of 
a locomotive engine, and the handle 
of which is placed conveniently to 
open and shut at pleasure. 

Feed-pipe strainer, or strum, a perfo- 
rated half-spherical piece of sheet- 
iron, after the manner of the rose 
end of a watering-pot: it is placed 
over the open end of the feed-pipe 
in the locomotive tender tank, to 
protect it. 

Feed-pipes, the copper pipes reaching 
from the clack-box to the pump 
and from the pump to the tender, 
to convey water to the boiler of a 
locomotive engine. 

Feed-pump, a forcing-pump, worked 
by the steam-engine, for supplying 
the boiler with water. 

Feed-pump plunger, the solid piston, 
or enlarged end of the pump-rod, 
fitting the stuffing-box of the pump 
of a steam-engine. 

Felling timber, the act of cutting 
down a full-grown tree, which 
doubtlessly should be done late in 
the autumn, when less moisture 
exists in all trees, and which ren- 
ders the timber less liable to dry- 
rot. 

188 



Felspar, a mineral of foliated structure. 

Felucca, in navigation, a little vessel 
used in the Mediterranean, capable 
of going either stem or stern fore- 
most ; also a small open boat, row- 
ed with six oars. 

Femerell, a lantern, louvre, or covering 
placed on the roof of a kitchen, 
hall, etc., for the purpose of venti- 
lation or the escape of smoke. 

Femur, in architecture, the long, flat 
projecting face between each chan- 
nel of a triglyph ; the thigh, or a 
covering for the thigh. 

Fender-piles, those driven to protect 
work either on land or in water. 

Fenders, to vessels or ships, are 
pieces of old ropes, or wooden 
billets, hung over the side to pre- 
vent injury from collision with 
other ships. 

Fender-bolls are iron pins for the 
protection of the sides of ships. 

Fenestella, the niche at the side of 
an altar containing the piscina, a 
vessel JT holding water to wash 
the hands of the officiating priest ; 
also a little window. 

Fenestra, a window, an entrance. 

Fenestrai : window-blinds, or case- 
ments closed with paper or cloth, 
instead of glass, are so termed. 

Fenestration, termed by the Germans 
Fenster-architektur, is, in contra- 
distinction to columniation, the 
system of construction and mode 
of design marked by windows. Fe- 
nestration and columniation are so 
far antagonistic and irreconcilable, 
that fenestration either interferes 
with the effect aimed at by colum- 
niation with insulated columns, as 
in a portico or colonnade, or re- 
duces it, as is the case with an 
engaged order, to something quite 
secondary and merely decorative. 
Astylar and fenestrated ought, 
therefore, to be merely convertible 
terms ; but as they are not, that of 
columnar fenestrated has been in- 
vented, to denote that mode of 
composition which unites fenestra- 
tion with the semblance, at least, 
of the other. Employed as a col- 



PER 



FINLAYSON'S TABLES. 



FIN 



lective term, fenestration serves to 
express the character of a building 
or design with regard to the win- 
dows generally: thus it is said, the 
fenestration is excellent, or the 
contrary, ornate or meagre, well 
arranged or too crowded, which 
last circumstance is a very common 
fault, and is destructive both of 
grandeur and of repose. 

Feretory, a bier, or coffin ; a tomb, 
or shrine, 

Ferrari (Gaudenzio), called by Vasari 
Gaudenzio Milanese, was ranked 
among the seven greatest painters 
in the world. 

Ferrule, a metal ring fixed on the 
handle of a tool to prevent the 
wood from splitting. 

Festoon, an ornament of carved work, 
representing a wreath or garland 
of flowers or leaves, or both inter- 
woven with each other : it is thick- 
est in the middle, and small at each 
extremity, a part often hanging 
down below the knot. 

Festoon, in architecture, an ornament 
of carved work, in the form of a 
wreath or garland of flowers, or 
leaves twisted together. 

Fictile, an earthen vessel or other 
article, moulded and baked. 

Fictor, among the Romans, an artist, 
a deviser, or potter. 

Fid-hammer, a tool ; a fidd at one 
end and a hammer at the other. 

Fidd is a piece of iron or wood to 
open the strands of ropes. 

Fife-rails of a ship are banisters on 
each side of the top of the poop. 

Figulus, an artist who makes figures 
and ornaments. 

Filagree, in the arts, a kind of en- 
richment in gold and silver. 

File, a well-known instrument having 
teeth on the surface for cutting 
metal, ivory, wood, etc. 

File, a strip or bar of steel, the sur- 
face of which is cut into fine points 
or teeth, which act by a species of 
cutting closely allied to abrasion. 
When the file is rubbed over the 
material to be operated upon, it cuts 
or abrades little shavings or shreds, 

189 



which, from their minuteness, are 
called file-dust, and in so doing the 
file produces minute and irregular 
furrows of nearly equal depth, leav- 
ing the surface that has been filed 
more or less smooth, according to 
the size of the teeth of the file, and 
more or less accurately shaped, ac- 
cording to the degree of skill used 
in the manipulation of the instru- 
ment. The files employed in the 
mechanical arts are almost endless 
in variety. 

Fillet, a small flat face or band, used 
principally between mouldings to 
separate them from each other in 
classical architecture: in the Gothic, 
Early English, or Decorated styles 
of architecture, it is also used upon 
larger mouldings and shafts. 

Finial, sometimes called a pinnacle, 
but more truly confined to the 
bunch of foliage which terminates 
pinnacles, canopies, pediments, etc., 
in Gothic architecture. 

Finite force, a force that acts for a 
finite time, such as the force of 
gravity. 

Finlaysorfs Tables of the value of life 
assurance and annuities differ in 
several respects widely from either 
the Northampton or the Carlisle 
calculated Tables. In framing them 
for Government annuities, from ob- 
servations made on the mortality in 
tontines and amongst the holders 
of Government annuities, Mr. Fin- 
layson, in his calculations, is in- 
clined to take a favourable view of 
the duration of human life, and his 
Tables coincide very nearly with 
the Carlisle, except that he makes 
a distinction between males and 
females, the latter being consi- 
dered rather longer lived than the 
former. As regards annuities, these 
observations may be thus illus- 
trated : the present value of an an- 
nuity of \ for the life of a person 
aged twenty-five, calculated at 4 
per cent, interest, would be, ac- 
cording to the 

. s. 
Northampton Tables 15 4 



FIR 



FIRE-BRICKS. 



FIR 



Carlisle Tables . . 17 6 
Government, Male . . 16 9 
Do. Female . 18 1 

Fire-bar frame, inalocomotive engine, 
a frame made to fit the fire-box on 
which the fire-bars rest: a plan of 
dropping all the bars at once by a 
movable frame, acted on by a lever 
and handle outside the fire-box, 
has been frequently tried, but the 
action of the intense heat soon puts 
it out of working order. 

Fire-bars, in a locomotive engine, 
wedge-shaped iron bars fitted to 
the fire-box with the thick side 
uppermost, to support the fire : the 
ends rest on a frame : they are in- 
clined inwards, with an air space 
between each, to promote combus- 
tion, and are jointed at one end, 
and supported by a rod at the 
other, so that the rod being with- 
drawn, the bars fall, and the fire- 
box is emptied. 

Fire-box, in a locomotive engine, the 
box (usually made of copper) in 
which the fire is placed. The out- 
side is of iron, separated from the 
copper fire-box by a space of about 
3 inches all round for water. 

Fire-box door, the door opening into 
the fire-box, facing the locomotive 
tender, by which coke is supplied 
to the fire. 

Fire-box partition: in large fire- 
boxes a division is made in the box, 
into which water is admitted: this 
division is about the height of the 
fire-box door, and divides the fire 
into two parts in a locomotive en- 
gine, thereby increasing the heating 
surface of the fire-box. 

Fire-box stays, in a locomotive engine, 
deep strong iron stays bolted to 
the top of the copper fire-box, to 
enable it to resist the pressure of 
the steam : round copper or iron 
stays are also used to connect the 
outside shell to the inside box, in 
the proportion of about one stay to 
every 4 square inches of flat surface. 

Fire-bricks are used for lining fur- 
naces, and for all kinds of brick- 
work exposed to intense heat which 

190 



would melt common bricks. They 
are made from a natural compound 
of silica and alumina, which, when 
free from lime and other fluxes, is 
infusible under the greatest heat to 
which it can be subjected. Oxide 
of iron, however, which is present 
in most clays, renders the clay fu- 
sible when the silica and alumina 
are nearly in equal proportions, and 
those fire-clays are the best in which 
the silica is greatly in excess over 
the alumina. When the alumina 
is in excess, broken crucibles, glass- 
house pots, and old fire-bricks, 
ground to powder, are substituted 
for the common siliceous sand used 
in the ordinary processes of brick- 
making, but which, in this case, 
would be injurious, as having a 
tendency to render the clay fusible. 

Fire-clay being an expensive ar- 
ticle, it is usual, when making fire- 
bricks at a distance from mines, 
to mix with it burnt clay, for the 
sake of economizing the clay and 
diminishing its contraction. Mr. 
Pellatt states that Stourbridge clay, 
when carefully picked, ground, and 
sifted, will bear, for brick-making, 
two proportions (by weight) of 
burnt clay to one of native clay. 

Fire-clay is found throughout the 
coal formation, but that of Stour- 
bridge is considered the best. The 
fire-clays of Newcastle and Glasgow 
are also much esteemed. Fire- 
bricks are brought to London from 
Stourbridge and from Wales ; the 
latter, however, will not stand such 
intense heat as the Stourbridge 
bricks. 

Fire-bricks are also made at the 
village of Hedgerly, near Windsor, 
of the sandy loam known by 
the name of Windsor loam, and 
these are much used in London 
for fire-work, and also by chemists 
for luting their furnaces, and for 
similar purposes. 

The relative merits of Windsor, 
Welsh, and Stourbridge fire-bricks 
are best shown by their value in 
the market. 



FIR 



FIREPROOF FLOORS. 



FIR 



The following Table shows the 
constituents of several infusible 
clays : 



iron ores, glass-making, etc., and 
sometimes for the linings of retort- 
ovens : for this latter purpose they 



Authority . . 


Dr. Ure. 


Vauquelin. 


Wrightson. 


Description. 


Kaolin, or 
porcelain 
clay. 


Plastic clay of 
Forge-les-eaux. 


Saggrer clay, from 
the Staffordshire 
potteries. 


Silica . . . 


52 


63 


54-38 


Alumina . . 


47 


16 


26-55 


Iron .... 


0-33 


8 


8-38 


Lime . . . 





1 





Carbonic acid . 





. 


3-14 


Water . . . 





10 


7-28 




99-33 


98 


99-73 


Remarks . . 


I 


Used for making 
glass-house pots 
and pottery. 


Used for making 
saggers and fire- 
bricks. 



The following prices are from 
the ' Conlractor's Pocket-Book for 
1850.' They include carriage to 
London and delivery on the works : 
Fire-bricks per M. . s. d. 
Windsor ... 5 8 
Welsh ... 8 12 
Stourbridge. .11 60 
Fire-bricks. The parts of furnaces 
exposed to heat are built of bricks 
made of a description of clay which 
is to different extents infusible, the 
qualities chosen for use being regu- 
lated by the degree of heat to which 
they are to be exposed. They are 
known in commerce by the names 
of Bristol, Stourbridge, Newcastle, 
Welsh, and Windsor bricks. The 
first of these are composed almost 
entirely of silex, and are infusible 
at the" greatest heat of the blast- 
furnace ; but they are very costly, 
and seldom used. The second 
quality are made from clay found 
in the neighbourhood of Stour- 
bridge, lying in a stratum of con- 
siderable thickness between the 
upper soil and the coal formations : 
they are used in the construction of 
furnaces required to resist great 
heat, such as those for smelting 

191 



are considered too expensive, ex- 
cept for the arch immediately over 
the furnace, as the heat is not in- 
tense. The third variety are com- 
posed of the clay lying above the 
coal measures in Northumberland, 
and for the construction of retort 
furnaces and ovens are the most 
desirable. 

Fire-damp, in coal-mines, is impure 
carburetted hydrogen. 

Fire-place, a space within a chimney- 
piece for the burning of fuel to 
warm the temperature of the air, 
and in communication with a shaft 
or chimney-flue. 

Fireproof floors. When a fire breaks 
out in London it destroys a whole 
building in spite of the prompt ef- 
forts of the Brigade ; this is owing 
to the materials used in the con- 
struction of houses being very in- 
flammable. In an enlightened 
country like England, so rich in 
iron, and commanding such power- 
ful means of action, we ought to 
have got rid altogether of wooden 
floors and roofs, which are so ex- 
pensive, so combustible, so apt to 
wear out. 

In Paris there are firms who 



FIR 



FIRES OF THE ANCIENTS. 



FIR 



manufacture iron roofs and floors. 
The Exhibition contained numerofis 
samples of this manufacture, espe- 
cially those exhibited by the Creu- 
sot Foundry, consisting of a flooring 
with its various modes of construc- 
tion, all worthy the attention of 
competent judges. The Creusot 
manufacture girders offering a re- 
sistance of 18 to 20 per cent, above 
that obtained by any other system, 
independently of the extra strength 
produced by the peculiar mode in 
which they are riveted. 

The usual price of iron girders 
in England is from 30 to 40 per 
cent, cheaper than in Paris, and the 
timber joists are from 30 to 40 per 
cent, dearer ; the former are gene- 
rally preferred in Paris on account 
of their greater durability and their 
being fireproof. 

There are firms supplying rolled 
iron girders in London ; plate gir- 
ders have been found by several 
builders more economical than 
rolled ones, and there is no lack of 
them. 

The iron girders are prevented 
from oxidation when imbedded in 
mortar, and not in plaster. 

In all the French systems the 
wooden floors ('parquets') are laid 
on small wooden joists, resting on 
the top of the main girders, which 
allows the ventilation required for 
preventing the ' dry rot.' 
Fire-tubes, or tube-flues, are those 
through which the fire passes, for 
obtaining a large heating surface, 
fixed longitudinally in the middle 
compartment of a locomotive en- 
gine, between the fire-box and 
smoke-box. 

Fires of the Ancients. Palladio says, 
" Finding that this subject about 
fires of the ancients had not been 
treated of distinctly by anybody, 
I resolved to compose something 
about it. We are ignorant of most 
things delivered thereupon by the 
ancients which might give us some 
light upon the matter : we must 
have recourse to the inventions of 

192 



later times, thereby gradually to 
obtain a more ample knowledge of 
it. The Romans were sensible that 
a continual flame and a great heat 
from live coals were hurtful to the 
eyes; they therefore went very 
wisely about finding out a remedy. 
They found how dangerous it was 
to carry fire about the house from 
one room to another. Stoves are 
an abominable invention : they 
cause a continual stench, swell the 
head, and make men drowsy, dull, 
and lazy. Most people that use 
them grow tender and weak : some 
cannot stir out of these rooms all 
the winter. The ancients used to 
light their fire in a small furnace 
under the earth. Thence they 
conveyed a great many tubes of 
different sizes into all the different 
stories and rooms of the house, 
which tubes or pipes were invisi- 
ble, but laid in the thickness of the 
walls and ceilings, just like water- 
pipes. Each of these opened at 
that part of the furnace which 
joined to the very wall of the house, 
and through these ascended the 
heat, which was let in whenever 
they had a mind it should, whether 
in dining-rooms, bed-chambers, or 
closets, much in the manner as we 
see the heat or steam of water 
contained in an alembic to ascend 
and warm the parts most distant 
from the fire-place. The heat in 
that manner used to spread so 
equally that it warmed the whole 
house alike. It is not so with 
chimneys or hearths; for if you 
stand near, you are scorched ; if at 
any distance, you are frozen ; but 
here a very mild warm air spreads 
all around, according as the fire 
that warms the pipes laid along the 
wall opposite to the hearth is more 
or less burning. Those pipes which 
dispensed the heat did not open 
into the very furnace, on purpose 
that neither smoke nor flame should 
get into them, but only a warm 
steam should enter, which they let 
out again ; thereby creating a con- 



FIR 



FLAMBLOYANT STYLE. 



FLE 



tinual moderate heat. The fire 
needed not to be large, provided 
it was continual, to supply those 
confined and enclosed pipes with a 
sufficient power of wanning. They 
dressed their meat at the mouth of 
the furnace; and all along the 
walls were disposed kettles, or 
other vessels, filled with hot water, 
to keep the meat warm." 

Fir-poles, small trunks of fir-trees, 
from 10 to 16 feet in length ; used 
in rustic buildings and out-houses. 

Fish, a machine employed to hoist 
and draw up the flukes of a ship's 
anchor towards the top of the bow, 
in order to stow it after it has 
been catted. 

Fissure, or Gulley, is that crack or 
split in the strata of the earth 
which is the receptacle of mineral 
particles, whose contents are styled 
a ' lode.' 

Fistuca, among the Romans, an in- 
strument used for ramming down 
pavements and threshing-floors, 
and the foundations of buildings. 

Fistula, a water-pipe, according to 
Vitruvius, who distinguishes three 
modes of conveying water : by 
leaden pipes, by earthen pipes, and 
by channels of masonry. 

Five species of temples (the). There 
are five species of temples : namely, 
the pycnostyle, in which the co- 
lumns are placed far apart ; the 
systyle, in which they are more 
remote ; the diastyle, whose co- 
lumns are at an ample distance 
from each other; the araeostyk, in 
which the intervals between the 
columns are too great ; and the 
eustyle, whose intercolumniations 
are justly proportioned. In the 
pycnostyle species the interval be- 
tween the columns is equal to one 
diameter and a half: there is an 
instance of this in the temple of 
Julius, and another in the temple 
of Venus, which is erected in the 
forum of Ca3sar: in all temples of 
this species the same interval be- 
tween the columns is observed. In 
the systyle species there should be 

193 



an interval between the columns 
equal to two diameters : this ar- 
rangement would leave the space 
between the plinths of the bases of 
the columns equal to the extent of 
the plinths themselves. 

Flag, a national colour, a standard. 

Flag, a stone for pavement. 

Flake-white is an English white lead, 
in the form of scales or plates, 
sometimes grey on the surface. It 
takes its name from its figure, is 
equal or sometimes superior to 
crems white, and is an oxidized 
carbonate of lead, not essentially 
differing from the best of the 
above. Other white leads seldom 
equal it in body ; and when levi- 
gated, it is called ' body-white.' 

Flamboyant Style of Architecture, 
the decorated and very ornamental 
style of architecture of French in- 
vention and use, and contemporary 
in France with the Perpendicular 
style in England. One of the most 
striking and universal features is 
the waving arrangements of the 
tracery of the windows, panels, etc. 
The foliage used for enrichments 
is well carved, and has a playful 
and frequently a good effect. 

Flanders varnish: dissolve grain 
mastic in alcohol : this operation is 
requisite to detach the impurities 
in the resin. The proportion of 
spirit ought to be sufficient to cover 
the mastic, and % part more. 

Planning, the internal splay of a win- 
dow-jamb. 

Flaring, in ship-building, over-hang- 
ing, as in the top side forward. 

Flatting, in house-painting, a mode 
of painting in oil in which the 
surface is left, when finished, with- 
out gloss. The material is pre- 
pared with a mixture of oil of tur- 
pentine, which secures the colours, 
and, when used in the finishing, 
leaves the paint quite dead. 

Flemish bricks are used for paving : 
seventy-two will pave a square 
yard : they are of a yellowish co- 
lour, and harder than the ordinary 
bricks. 



FLE 



FLORENTINE SCHOOL. 



FLO 



Flemish School of Painting. This 
school is highly recommended fb 
the lovers of the art by the disco- 
very, or at least the first practice, 
of painting in oil. It has been 
generally attributed to John Van 
Eyck, who was, it is said, accus- 
tomed to varnish his distemper 
pictures with a composition of oils, 
which was pleasing on account of 
the lustre it gave them. In the 
course of his practice he came to 
mix his colours with oil, instead of 
water, which he found rendered 
them brilliant without the trouble 
of varnishing. From this and sub- 
sequent experiments arose the art 
of painting in oil; and this won- 
derful discovery, whether made by 
Van Eyck or not, soon acquired 
notice all over Europe. The atten- 
tion of the Italian painters was soon 
excited. John of Bruges was the 
founder of painting as a profession 
in Flanders. Peter Paul Rubens 
was the founder of the art. 

Fleur-de-Lis, the ancient trophy of 
France. 

Flight, the stairs from one landing- 
place to another. 

Float, a flat piece of stone or other 
material attached to a valve in the 
feed-pipe of the boiler of a steam- 
engine, and supported upon the 
surface of the water by a counter- 
weight ; used either for showing 
the height of the water, or regu- 
lating the supply from the cistern. 

Flookan, in Cornish, an earth or clay 
of a slimy, glutinous consistence; 
in colour for the most part blue 
or white, or compounded of both. 

Floor-hollow, in ship-building, an el- 
liptical mould for the hollow of the 
floor-timbers and lower futtocks. 

Flooding, among miners, the inter- 
ception of ore by the crossing of 
a vein of earth or stone. 

Floors, in early English domestic ar- 
rangements, were generally covered 
with rushes, carpets being seldom 
used for such purposes even at the 
close of Elizabeth's reign, although 
instances occur of tapestry cloths 

194 



for the feet to rest upon as early 
as Edward I. It does not, indeed, 
appear to have been the custom 
at any time to leave floors bare, 
whether boarded or paved. Our 
poets, and particularly Shakespeare, 
all speak of rushes and other vege- 
table substances being strewed in 
the principal apartments. 

Floor-timbers, in ship-building, are 
those placed immediately across 
the keel, and upon which the bot- 
tom of the ship is framed. 

Floran, an exceedingly small-grained 
tin, scarcely perceivable in the 
stone, though perhaps very rich. 

Florentine lake colour is extracted 
from the shreds of scarlet cloth : 
the same may be said also of 
Chinese lake. 

Florentine School of Painting. This 
school is remarkable for greatness ; 
for attitudes seemingly in motion ; 
for a certain dark severity ; for an 
expression of strength by which 
grace is perhaps excluded ; and for 
a character of design approaching 
to the gigantic. The productions 
of this school may be considered 
as overcharged ; but it cannot be 
denied that they possess an ideal 
majesty which elevates human na- 
ture above mortality. The Tuscan 
artists, satisfied with commanding 
the admiration, seem to have con- 
sidered the art of pleasing as be- 
neath their notice. This school 
has an indisputable title to the 
veneration of all the lovers of the 
arts, as the first in Italy which cul- 
tivated them. 

Florentine School. Academies in Italy. 
In 1349 the painters established 
themselves into a religious frater- 
nity, which they denominated ' The 
Society of St." Luke.' This was 
not the first that had arisen in 
Italy, as Baldinucci affirms. 

Florid Gothic, or Florid English or 
Tudor, is a style of redundant or- 
namentation. The period is from 
1400-1537. There are many 
churches of the time of HenryVII. 
in Somersetshire. 



FLO 



FONT. 



FON 



Flotilla, a Spanish term for a num- 
ber of ships, or fleet. 

Flower-garden (the) " should be an 
object detached and distinct from 
the general scenery of the place ; 
and whether large or small, whe- 
ther varied or formal, it ought to 
be well protected from hares and 
smaller animals by an inner fence : 
within this enclosure rare plants 
of every description should be en- 
couraged, and a provision made of 
soil and aspect for every different 
class. Beds of bog-earth should 
be prepared for the American 
plants : the aquatic plants, some of 
which are peculiarly beautiful, 
should grow on the surface or 
near the edges of water. The nu- 
merous class of rock-plants should 
have beds of rugged stone pro- 
vided for their reception, with- 
out the affectation of such stones 
being the natural production of the 
soil ; but, above all, there should 
be poles or hoops for those kinds 
of creeping plants which sponta- 
neously form themselves into grace- 
ful festoons when encouraged and 
supported by art." 

There is no ornament of a flower- 
garden more appropriate than a 
conservatory or greenhouse, where 
the flower-garden is not too far 
from the house ; but amongst the 
refinements of modern luxury may 
be reckoned that of attaching a 
green-house to some room in the 
mansion. 

Fluccan, in mining, a soft, clayey sub- 
stance, generally found to accom- 
pany the cross-courses and slides. 

Fluke, in mining, the head of a 
charger; an instrument used for 
cleansing the hole previous to 
blasting. 

Fluor or Fluores, a soft, transparent 
kind of mineral concretion. 

Flush, a term common to workmen, 
and applied to surfaces which are 
on the same plane. 

Flutlngs or Flutes, the hollows or 
channels cut perpendicularly in the 
shafts of columns, etc., in classical 



architecture : they are used in the 
Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Com- 
posite orders. 

Flux, in metallurgy, saline matters 
which facilitate the fusion of ores 
and other substances which are not 
easily fusible in assays ; used also 
in the reduction of ores. 

Fly, in mechanics, that part of a 
machine which, being put in mo- 
tion, regulates the rest. 

Fly-wheel, a wheel with a heavy rim, 
fixed upon the crank-shaft of a land 
engine, for the purpose of equaliz- 
ing the motion by the centrifugal 
force absorbing the surplus force 
at one part of the action, to dis- 
tribute it again when the action is 
deficient. 

Flyers, stairs that go straight and do 
not wind, the fore and back part of 
each stair and the ends respectively 
being parallel to each other. 

Focus, among the Romans, an altar, 
a fireplace or hearth : hence the 
Latin motto, " Pro aris et focis," 
"for our altars and firesides." 

Fodina, a mine or quarry. 

Foye, Cornish, a forge or blowing- 
house for smelting tin. 

Foils, foliation ; the spaces between 
the cusps of the featherings of 
Gothic architecture. 

Fons, a font or a natural spring of 
water, frequently converted into or- 
namented fountains by the Greeks 
and the Romans. The latter also 
erected edifices of various degrees 
of splendour over natural springs, 
such as the grotto of Egeria. near 
Rome, where the natural cave is 
converted by the architect into a 
temple. 

Font, the vessel which contains the 
water for the purposes of baptism. 
The font is the only relic of our 
ancient architecture which in its 
form is at all analogous to the 
Grecian and Roman vases. The 
shape which has at different pe- 
riods been given to it is a subject 
of some interest. Norman fonts 
are generally square or circular; 
the first frequently placed on five 



195 



K 2 



FOG 



FORCING-PUMP. 



FOR 



legs ; but which may be the older 
form, the square or circle, is not 
yet known. The circular form 
continued to be much used during 
the Early English period ; so, occa- 
sionally, was the square. Through- 
out the continuance of the Deco- 
rated style, the octagon was gene- 
rally used, sometimes the hexagon. 
During the Perpendicular style, the 
octagon was almost always used. 
Until the Reformation, and occa- 
sionally after, dipping was prac- 
tised in this country. Pouring or 
sprinkling was not unusual pre- 
vious to the Reformation ; for as 
early as the year 754, pouring, in 
cases of necessity, was declared by 
Pope Stephen III. to be lawful; 
and in the year 1311, the Council 
of Ravenna declared dipping or 
sprinkling indifferent : yet dipping 
appears to have been in this coun- 
try the more usual mode. The 
Earl of Warwick, who was born in 
1831, was baptized by dipping: so 
Prince Arthur (eldest son of Henry 
VII.), King Edward VI., and Queen 
Elizabeth, were all baptized in a 
similar manner. 




Font of the time of Edward II. 

Foot, an ancient measure of tin, con- 
taining two gallons ; now a nominal 
measure, but in weight 60 Ibs. ; also 
a lineal measure of twelve inches. 

196 



Foot-pace, the dais or raised floor at 
the upper end of an ancient hall. 

Foot-plate, the platform on which the 
engine-man and fire-man of a lo- 
comotive engine attend to their 
duties. 

Foot-stall, the plinth or base of a 
pillar. 

Foot-valve, the valve in the passage 
between the condenser and air- 
pump of an engine, opening towards 
the air-pump. 

Foot-waleing, the plank withinside a 
ship, below the lower deck. 

Force of the wind. Air, when in 
continuous motion in one direction, 
becomes a" very useful agent of 
machinery, of greater or less energy 
according to thevelocity with which 
it moves. Were it not for its vari- 
ability in direction and force, and 
the consequent fluctuations in its 
supply, scarcely any more appro- 
priate first mover could generally 
be wished for ; and even with all 
its irregularity, it is still so useful 
as to require a separate considera- 
tion. 

The force with which air strikes 
against a moving surface, or with 
which the wind strikes against a 
quiescent surface, is nearly as the 
square of the velocity ; or, more 
correctly, the exponent of the ve- 
locity varies between 2'03 and 2'05; 
so that in most practical cases the 
exponent 2, or that of the square, 
may be employed without fear of 
error. 

Forceps, tongs used by smiths to take 
the hot metal from the fire. 

Force-pumps, the plunger-pumps for 
supplying the boiler of a locomo- 
tive engine : the plunger-rods are 
connected to the piston-rods of the 
steam cylinder. 

Forcer, in Cornish, a small pump 
worked by hand, used in sinking 
small simples, dippas, or pits. 

Forcing-pump (the) differs but little 
from a syringe : the latter receives 
and expels a liquid through the 
same passage, but the former has a 
separate pipe for its discharge, and 



FOR 



FORUM. 



FOR 



both the receiving and discharging 
orifices are covered with valves. 
By this arrangement it is not ne- 
cessary to remove a pump from the 
liquid to transfer the contents of its 
cylinder, as is done with the sy- 
ringe, hut the operation of forcing 
up water may be continuous, while 
the instrument is immovable. A 
forcing-pump, therefore, is merely 
a syringe furnished with an induc- 
tion and eduction valve, one 
through which water enters the 
cylinder, the other by which it es- 
capes from it. The ordinary forcing- 
pump has two valves : the cylinder 
is placed above the surface of the 
water to be raised, and consequently 
is charged by the pressure of the 
atmosphere : the machine, there- 
fore, is a compound one, differing 
from that described, which is purely 
a forcing-pump, the water entering 
its cylinder by gravity alone. 

Forecastle, a short deck at the fore- 
part of a ship, above the upper 
deck, on which castles were for- 
merly erected, or places to shelter 
the men in time of action. 

Fore-foot, the foremost piece of the 
keel of a vessel. 

Foreground, the front of a picture. 

Foreyn, an ancient term to signify a 
drain or cesspool. 

Forge, a smith's furnace for heating 
metals, to render them soft and 
more malleable. 

Fork, a short piece of steel which fits 
into one of the sockets or chucks 
of a lathe, and is used by wood- 
turners for carrying round the piece 
to be turned ; it is flattened at the 
end like a chisel, but has a pro- 
jecting centre-point, to prevent the 
wood from moving laterally. 

Fore-locks, in a ship, little flat wedge- 
like pieces of iron, used at the ends 
of bolts to keep the bolts from fly- 
ing out of the holes. 

Foreshorten, in painting, is when a 
head or face in a draught is made 
to appear shorter before. 

Form : 1. General form : figure, shape, 
configuration, make, formation, 



frame, construction, conformation, 
effbrmation, mould, fashion. 2. 
Special form. 3. Superficial form. 

Formosity, beauty, fairness, etc. 

Form-peys, an ancient term for form- 
pieces ; the lower terminations of 
mullions which are worked upon 
sills. 

Forms and motions of tools. The 
principles of action of all cutting 
tools, and of some others, whether 
guided by hand or by machinery, 
resolve themselves into the simple 
condition, that the work is the 
combined copy of the form of the 
tool and of the motion employed : 
thus the geometrical definitions 
employed convey the primary ideas 
of lines, superficies, and solids ; that 
is, the line results from the motion 
of a point, the superficies from the 
motion of a line, and the solid from 
the motion of a superficies. 

Formula (pi. Formulas), a prescribed 
rule in arithmetic or mathematics ; 
a maxim : in law, an action, process, 
or indictment. 

Formulary, a book containing set 
forms, rules, or models. 

Fornax, among the Romans, a kiln 
for baking pottery. 

Fortification, the science of military 
architecture; a defensive building. 

Forum, a large open space used by the 
Romans for the sale of merchan- 
dise, and for public assemblies ; 
also a court of justice. 

Forum and Basilica. The Greeks 
built their forum with spacious 
porticoes, two tiers in height, ar- 
ranged in a square form ; the co- 
lumns of the porticoes were placed 
at small intervals from each other, 
supporting stone or marble enta- 
blatures ; and galleries were made 
over the lacunaria of the lower 
porticoes, or places of exercise. 
In Italy, the mode of constructing 
the forum was different ; because, 
by a custom sanctioned by its anti- 
quity, the show of gladiators was 
exhibited there ; and therefore the 
intervals between the columns sur- 
rounding the area were greater. 



197 



FOS 



FOSSES D'AISANCES. 



FOS 



The lower porticoes were occupied 
as the offices of bankers, which sit- 
uation was calculated to facilitate 
the management of the public re- 
venue : the upper contained seats 
for the spectators of the diversions 
practised in the forum. 

Forward, the fore part of a ship. 

Fosses d' Aisances : the cesspools of 
Paris are so called ; and they are 
usually made 3 m -00 long in the 
clear by l m -70, by l m -50, to the 
springing of the semicircular head 
(9 ft. 10 in. x 5 ft. 7 in. x 4 ft. 11 
in. English, nearly) : a man-hole, 
l m -00 by O m -35 is left for the pur- 
poses of emptying and visiting them 
(3 ft. 3 -^ in. x 1ft. 2 in.). The walls 
which surround them, as well as 
the bottom, are exclusively formed 
of such materials as are most effi- 
cacious in preventing the filtra- 
tion of the matters contained with- 
in them. Of late years the usual 
custom has been to employ the 
meuliere, or mill-stone, bedded in 
mortar composed of lime and ce- 
ment, the inside being well point- 
ed, and rendered throughout with 
this mortar. No cesspool is al- 
lowed to be used until after an exam- 
ination, to be certified by the mu- 
nicipal authority. Any infiltration 
to a neighbour's property gives a 
title to damages, and the architect 
and builder are both responsible 

> for ten years to the proprietor, as 
also to the neighbours, in case any 
nuisance arises from defects in the 
execution of the works. 

When the cesspools require clean- 
ing, notice is given to the Board 
of Public Health ('aux Agents de la 
Saluhrite publiqne'), who authorize 
and direct the operations. In win- 
ter these are carried on between 
10 P.M. and 7 A.M.; and in sum- 
mer, between 11 P.M. and 6 A.M. 
The carts, as well as all the other 
material of the nightmen, are under 
the inspection of the above-named 
officers, and must be, as nearly as 
possible, both water-tight and air- 
tight. They contain not more than 



20 m -00 cube each, or nearly 71 ft. 
cube English. 

The contents of the cesspools are 
usually (especially in the modern 
houses) sufficiently fluid to allow 
of their extraction by pumps. In 
this case a small furnace is placed 
over the bung of the cart, to burn 
the gas as it rises : the bung itself 
is plastered over directly the cart 
is filled. When the contents are too 
solid to be pumped out, they are 
conveyed from below in small ves- 
sels of wrought iron, called ' tin- 
ettes,' holding about 3| feet ( T yh 
of a metre cube) each ; and the 
lids are plastered over before the 
vessels are removed from the cess- 
pool. 

Of late years a system of what 
are called 'fosses mobiles' has been 
introduced into the better class of 
houses. It consists of air-tight 
tubs, placed in a vault (rendered 
also as air-tight as possible), which 
receive the ends of the soil-pipes. 
These tubs are removed at stated 
intervals, the openings plastered 
over, and may in that state be 
transported at any time of the day. 
This system obviates the terrible in- 
fection of the old kind of cesspool, 
and is gaining rapidly. Indeed, as 
the French people are fond of gilt 
ornaments in their dwellings, and 
the gases from the cesspools turn 
them black at once, unless great 
precautions be observed in cover- 
ing them, whenever a cesspool is 
opened, it is easy to understand that 
the 'fosses mobiles,' which obviate 
this inconvenience, should become 
of general use. 

Until of late, all the carts were 
obliged to pass through the Bar- 
riere du Combat to deposit their 
contents at the laystalls of Mont- 
faucon ; but some new works have 
been constructed at Bony, so as to 
allow the suppression of this gigan- 
tic nuisance at the immediate gates 
of Paris. 

The cleaning of the cesspools of 
Paris is executed by several private 



FOS 



FOSSES D'AISANCES. 



FOS 



companies, the most important of 
which is ' La Compagnie Richer,' 
who do at least one-half of this 
business: their capital was about 
200,000, in land, plant.and build- 
ings. They employ 150 horses and 
300 men, of whom 60 are for the 
repairs of the plant. Their charge 
is 8f., 9f., and lOf. per metre cube 
(35 feet English, nearly), accord- 
ing to the distance. 

No cesspool is allowed to be used 
after being emptied until it has 
been visited by an ' Agent de la 
Salubrite,' to ascertain whether it 
be water-tight. 

The laystalls of Moritfancon con- 
sist of two large reservoirs, at a 
high level, into which the carts are 
emptied. These reservoirs are about 
2\ acres superficial, and apparently 
12 feet deep, with a dam between 
them, to allow of one being used 
when the other is being emptied. 
An overflow drain, with sluice-gates 
at each end, allows the liquid matter 
to run off to a large basin on a 
lower level, where it deposits any- 
thing which may be merely in a 
state of mechanical suspension. On 
the banks of this reservoir are some 
important sal-ammoniac works. In 
the centre is also a sluice-gate, which 
allows the surplus liquid matters to 
pass into two smaller reservoirs, 
where deposition takes place with- 
out any interference from the pump- 
ing apparatus of the chemical works. 
From thence the waters pass off into 
four other basins, in which any 
fertilizing properties they may con- 
tain are precipitated by means of 
straw, dead leaves, etc., and the 
water, comparatively pure, is at 
length let off into the main sewer, 
which discharges itself into the 
Seine, below Paris. The surface 
of the intermediate basins is about 
250 m> by 60 m - (or 3| acres) ; that 
of the four last basins is about 350 m> 
by 110 m - (or nearly 9 acres). 

These reservoirs do not belong 
to the city of Paris, and some diffi- 
culties have arisen from the pro- 

199 



posal to remove them : all the carts 
containing the night-soil being 
obliged to discharge at Montfau- 
con, the farming of the contents 
of the basins became a source of 
considerable profit. They were let 
on the last occasion for a sum of 
500,500francs per annum (20,020 
sterling) ; the previous letting hav- 
ing been 166,000 francs (6640 
sterling). The increased rent and 
the exorbitant wages paid during 
the republican excitement of 1848 
proved injurious to the company. 
The ground occupied by the town, 
moreover, is not sufficiently exten- 
sive for the operations connected 
with the manipulation of the ' pou- 
drette,' and the company were 
obliged to rent about 1\ acres more 
land for the purpose of spreading 
and drying the compost. The land 
necessary for this operation had 
been taken on lease by the out- 
going company, and they succeed- 
ed in obtaining a sum of 60,000 
for the remainder of their term, as 
no other land was to be had in the 
neighbourhood. 

Thereat and labour in conversion 
costs the company from 12,000 
to 16,000 per annum. The 'pou- 
drette ' is sold to agriculturists at 
8 francs le setier, a measure equal 
to 12 bushels English. 

In one plan adopted for empty- 
ing the cesspools, the carts are 
made of strong boiler plate ; they 
are placed under an air-pump, 
and exhausted ; the pipes are con- 
nected with the carts and the cess- 
pools, and the atmospheric pressure 
on the latter forces up the liquid 
contents. 

Investigations have been made 
respecting the general health of 
the workmen employed at Mont- 
faucon, the reservoir of all the ex- 
crementitious matter of a city which 
contains about 1,000,000 "inhabi- 
tants, and it has been ascertained, 
that although they were riot af- 
fected by the cholera in 1849, they 
are very short-lived men : acute 



FOS 



FOUNDATIONS. 



FOU 



fevers, andgangrene on theslightest 
accident, carry them off in a fright- 
ful manner. Unfortunately the 
dwellers in the neighbourhood also 
are subject to the same action, and 
the mortality from these causes is 
very great. 

The action of the ' poudrette ' 
upon agriculture is somewhat ex- 
traordinary. In the time of Henri 
Quatre, the wines of Suresneswere 
highly esteemed : the vines pro- 
duced little, but of a superior 
quality: since the poudrette has 
been used to force them, the quan- 
tity of their produce has been in- 
creased, but the quality has totally 
changed : from a superior rank, the 
wines of the neighbourhood of Paris 
have fallen to that of what is vul- 
garly called ' du petit bleu.' 

Fossatum, a ditch, or a place fenced 
with a ditch or trench. 

Fossil, a mineral, many kinds of which 
are peculiarly and elegantly shaped. 

Fossiliferous, a geological term ap- 
plied to a district abounding in 
fossils. 

Foundations, according to Palladio, 
ought to be twice as thick as the 
walls to be raised upon them, so 
that both the quality of the earth 
and the greatness of the building 
are to be regarded, making the 
foundations larger in a soft and 
loose ground, or where there is a 
great weight to be supported. The 
plane of the trench must be as level 
as possible, so that the weight may 
press equally, and not incline more 
on one side than the other, which 
occasions the cleaving of the walls. 
For this reason the ancients were 
accustomed to pave the plane with 
Tivertine ; but we most commonly 
lay planks or beams to build on. 
The foundations ought to be made 
sloping, that is to say, to diminish 
as they rise ; but yet in such a 
manner that the middle of the wall 
above may fall plumb with the mid- 
dle of the lowest part ; which must 
be also observed in the diminution 
of walls above ground, because by 

200 



that means the building becomes 
much stronger than by making the 
diminution any other way. 

Sometimes, to avoid charges, 
(especially in marshy grounds, 
where there is a necessity to use 
piles,) foundations are arched like 
a bridge, and the walls are built 
upon those arches. In great build- 
ings it is very proper to make 
vents through the body of the 
walls from the foundations to the 
roof, because they let forth the 
winds and other vapours, which 
are very prejudicial to buildings : 
they lessen the charges, and are 
of no small convenience, espe- 
cially when there is occasion for 
winding-stairs from the bottom to 
the top. If it be necessary to 
construct vaults below ground, 
their foundations must be more 
substantial than the walls of the 
buildings which are to be raised 
upon them. The walls, pillars, 
and columns of the latter must 
be placed immediately over those 
below them, so that solid may bear 
upon solid ; for if walls or columns 
project beyond the substructure, 
their duration must necessarily be 
short. 

The value of concrete in founda- 
tions was rendered obvious in a 
building erected by Mr. Clegg at 
Fulham, in 1829. The foundation 
was a quicksand. After the exca- 
vation was got out to the depth of 
15 feet, an iron rod sunk, with 
little more than its own weight, 
15 feet more; it was, in fact, as 
bad a foundation as could possibly 
occur. In about twelve days after 
it was built, it had settled bodily 
down 16 inches, without a crack, 
or deviating in the least from the 
plumb. It therefore follows, that 
the only disadvantage attending a 
bad natural foundation is the ex- 
pense of making an artificial one. 
The following extract relates to the 
erection of an extensive building 
upon bad ground. 

" The building for the Albion 



FOU 



FOUNDATIONS. 



FOU 



Mills was erected upon a very soft 
soil, consisting of the ' marie ground' 
at the abutment of Blackfriars' 
Bridge : to avoid the danger of 
settlement in the walls, or the ne- 
cessity of going to a very unusual 
depth with the foundations, Mr. 
Rennie adopted the plan of forming 
inverted arches upon the ground 
over the whole space upon which 
the building was to stand, and for 
the bottom of the dock. For this 
purpose the ground upon which all 
the several walls were to be erected 
was rendered as solid as is usual 
for building by driving piles where 
necessary, and then several courses 
of large flat stones were laid to 
form the foundations of the several 
walls ; but to prevent any chance 
of these foundations being pressed 
down in case of the soft earth 
yielding to the incumbent weight, 
strong inverted arches were built 
upon the ground between the foun- 
dation courses of all the walls, so 
as to cover the whole surface in- 
cluded between the walls ; and the 
abutments or springings of the in- 
verted arches being built solid into 
the lower courses of the foundations, 
they could not sink unless all the 
ground beneath the arches had 
yielded to compression, as well as 
the ground immediatelybeneath the 
foundation of the wails. By this 
method the foundations of all the 
walls were joined together so as to 
for m one immense base,which would 
have been very capable of bearing 
the required weight, even if the 
grouiid had been of the consistency 
of mud ; for the whole building 
would have floated upon it as a 
ship floats in water ; and whatever 
sinking might have taken place, 
would have affected the whole 
building equally, so as to have 
avoided any partial depressions or 
derangement of the walls ; but the 
ground being made tolerably hard, 
in addition to this expedient of 
augmenting the bases by inverted 
arches, the building stood firm." 



When the foundation has been 
properly disposed of, the brick- 
work may be commenced. The 
bricks should be well burned, and 
set with a thin joint, four crosses 
not occupying more depth than 
llf inches. 

Foundations of Temples. In preparing 
foundations for works of this kind, 
it will be first necessary to dig down 
to a regular stratum, if such is to 
be met with ; and upon this the 
foundations, constructed with great 
attention to their strength, are to 
be laid : their solidity must be pro- 
portioned to the magnitude of the 
building 1n contemplation. The 
piers above-ground, below the co- 
lumns, should be thicker than the 
diameter of the columns they are 
to support by one-half, that these 
substructures, which are called ste- 
reobatae, on account of their sus- 
taining the whole weight, may be 
enabled by their greater solidity to 
support what is built upon them. 
The bases of the columns, when 
fixed, ought not to project before 
the face of the stereobata on either 
side. The intervals between the 
piers should either be made solid 
by means of piles, or arched over, 
so as to connect the piers. 

If no compact stratum is to be 
found, but the ground, on the con- 
trary, is loose or marshy to a great 
depth, trenches must be dug, and 
piles of charred alder, olive, or oak, j 
placed close together, be driven in 
by means of machines : the inter- 
vals between them should be filled 
up with charred timber, and upon 
this substratum the foundations 
should be formed with solid ma- 
sonry. The foundations being reared 
to the same level all round, the 
stylobate is next to be constructed. 
Upon this the columns are to be 
arranged, in the manner already 
described, at intervals which are 
determined by the species of temple 
intended to be built, whether pyc- 
nostyle, systyle, diastyle, or eustyle. 
In the araostyle species the co. 



201 



K3 



FOU 



FREEMASON. 



FRE 



lumns may be placed at any dis* 
tance asunder. 

Foundations of a Bridge : these con- 
sist, properly, of the underground 
work of the piers and abutments, 
which it is within the province of 
a civil engineer to construct : the 
necessity of firmness and solidity 
in the execution of such works 
will be deemed of importance just 
in proportion to the intended ex- 
tent and magnificence of the struc- 
ture they are designed to support. 

Foundemaunt, foundation. (Chaucer.") 

Foundery, in iron works, the space 
of six days. 

Foundry, a place where masses of 
metal are melted and run into 
moulds, so as to assume the re- 
quired form. 

Four-way -cock, a cock having two 
separate passages in the plug, and 
communicating with four pipes. 

Fox-tail wedging, in carpentry. This 
is done by sticking into the point 
of a wooden bolt a thin wedge of 
hard wood, which when the bolt 
reaches the bottom of the hole, 
splits, expands, and secures it. 

Frame, the strong frame-work, out- 
side the wheels, which supports the 
boiler and machinery on the axles 
of a locomotive engine. 

Frame, inside, in locomotive engines. 
Some engines have the support- 
ing frames within the wheels, and 
are called inside-framed engines. 
Besides this frame, resting on the 
axles, there are also other strong 
stays from the fire-box to the 
smoke-box, called inside framing 
or stays, for supporting the works 
and strengthening the boiler. 

Frames, the bends of timbers that are 
bolted together: in small ships there 
are two bolts in every shift of 
timber, and three in large ships. 
The bolts should be disposed clear 
of the chain and preventer-bolts, 
scupper, lodging knee-bolts, and 
port cells. 

Frankfort -black is said to be made of 
the lees of wine from which the 
tartar has been washed, by burn- 



ing in the manner of ivory-black. 
Fine Frankfort-black, though al- 
most confined to copper-plate 
printing, is one of the best black 
pigments we possess, being of a 
fine neutral colour, next in intensity 
to lamp-black, and more powerful 
than that of ivory. 

Frater-house, the refectory or hall of 
a monastic establishment. 

Fredstole, a seat near the altar. 

Freedom, in drawing, is a bold and 
spirited manner, with evident li- 
berty of the pencil ; i. e. where the 
drawing is apparently accomplish- 
ed with ease. 

Freemason, as applied to ancient ar- 
chitecture : a person learned in the 
art of building, more particularly 
in ecclesiastical construction, and 
who, by his learning in the science 
and his taste in the construction of 
edifices, travelled from one country 
to another, and executed models of 
everlasting renown. The term may 
also be applied to a free-stone 
mason, or a cutter and worker in 
stone, without reference to the so- 
ciety called Freemasons. 

Free-stone, building stone which may 
be easily cut into blocks and worked 
with a chisel ; so called from having 
no grain : it may therefore be cut 
in any direction. 

Free-stuff, that timber or stuff which 
is quite clean or without knots, 
and works easily, without tearing. 

French chalk is an indurated mag- 
nesian mineral, employed to re- 
move grease stains. 

French School of Painting. This 
school has been so different under 
different masters, that it is difficult 
to characterize it. Some of its 
artists have been formed on the 
Florentine and Lombard styles, 
others on the Roman, others on 
the Venetian, and a few of them 
have distinguished themselves by a 
style which may be called their 
own. In speaking in general terms 
of this school, it appears to have 
no peculiar character, and can only 
be distinguished by its aptitude to 



FRE 



FRIARS. 



FUL 



imitate easily any impressions ; and 
it may be added, speaking still in 
general terms, that it unites in a 
moderate degree the different parts 
of the art, without excelling in any 
one of them. 

Fresco, a kind of painting performed 
on fresh plaster, or on a wall co- 
vered with mortar not quite dry, 
and with water-colours. The plaster 
is only to he laid on as the painting 
proceeds, no more being done at 
once than the painter can despatch 
in a day. The colours, being pre- 
pared with water, and applied over 
plaster quite fresh, become incor- 
porated with the plaster, and re- 
tain their beauty fora great length 
of time. The Romans cut out 
plaster paintings on brick walls at 
Sparta, packed them up in wooden 
cases, and transported them to Rome. 
Fret, an ornament used in classical ar- 
chitecture, formed by small fillets in- 
tersecting each other at right angles. 
Friars (\\\Q orders of) in England and 
Wales, previous to their abolition, 
including the Nuns Minoresses, 
amounted to 

Black or Dominican friars . 54 
Grey or Franciscan friars . 62 
Minoresses or nuns of the 

order of St. Clare ... 4 
Friars of the order of the 
Holy Trinity for the re- 
demption of captives . . 12 
Order of the Carmelites or 

White friars .... 50 
Crutched or Crossed friars 10 

Austin friars 32 

Friars de poenitentia or of 

the sac 9 

Bethlernite friars .... 6 
Friction, the act of rubbing two bodies 
together, or the resistance in ma- 
chines caused by the contact of 
different moving parts. Friction is 
proportional to the pressure ; that 
is, everything remaining the same, 
the friction increases as the pres- 
sure increases. 

Friction-clutch, a shell or box fixed 
on the end of a driving shaft, fitted 
by a conical piece which slides on 

203 



a feather, or raised part, at the end 
of another shaft, so that it can be 
engaged at pleasure by the cone 
being forced into the shell by a 
lever or screw. This apparatus 
is very useful for driving machines, 
the parts of which are subjected to 
violent strains, as the pressure upon 
the clutch can be regulated so as to 
allow it to slide when the strain is 
too great to be borne safely by the 
machine. 

Frieze, the middle division of an en- 
tablature, that which lies between 
the architrave and the cornice. 

Frigatron, a Venetian vessel, built with 
a square stern, without any fore- 
mast, having only a main-mast and 
bowsprit. 

Frigidarium, the cold bathing-room 
in the baths of the ancients, as well 
as the vessel in which the cold water 
was received. 

The cold bath : the reservoir of 
cold water in the hypocaustum, or 
stove room, was termed ahenum 
frigidarium. 

Friths tool or Freedstool, a seat or chair 
near the altar, for those especially 
who sought the privilege of sanc- 
tuary. 

Frontal, or Fronter, the hanging 
with which the front of an altar 
was formerly covered. 

Fronton, a French word to express an 
ornament over a door or pediment. 

Frowy stuff, short or brittle and soft 
timber. 

Frumstall, a chief seat or mansion 
house. 

Fucus, a name given by the Romans 
to certain false dyes and paints. 

Fuel, the matter or aliment of fire. 

Fulcrum, the prop orsupport by which 
a lever is sustained. 

Fullers'' -earth, a soft unctuous marl, 
used by fullers in the process of 
cleansing cloth, etc. 

Fulling-mill, an engine or mill, in 
which cloth is cleansed by being 
beaten with hammers. 

Fulminating gold or silver, in che- 
mistry, ammonia combined with 
the oxides of gold or silver. 



UM 



FURNACE. 



PUT 



7 umarium, a chimney; an upper 
room used among the Romans for 
collecting the smoke from the 
lower apartments : used also for 
smoking or ripening wines. 
'uor, among carpenters, a piece 
nailed upon a rafter to strengthen 
it when decayed. 

Burling, in navigation, the wrapping 
up and binding of any sail close to 
the yard. 
? urlong, a measure of length, the 

eighth part of a mile. 
<*urnacc. The furnace is one of the 
mo:i important parts of the high- 
pressure engine. The whole action 
and power of the machine depend 
on its construction, and on the 
effect obtained from it, inasmuch 
as fire is the prime agent. Too 
much industry, exactitude, and in- 
timate knowledge of the subject, 
cannot be brought to bear on the 
construction of the furnace, in order 
to attain the two great objects of 
its action ; namely, first, to produce 
as perfect a combustion of the fuel 
as possible ; and secondly, to apply 
as much as possible of the heat so 
developed effectively to the boiler. 
These two requirements for a good 
furnace are, however, not so easily 
satisfied. Much remains to be ac- 
quired as to the conditions under 
which the whole of the caloric may 
be perfectly developed from the 
fuel, although the best manner of 
applying the heat to the boiler is 
well understood. 

Furniture : anterior to the Tudor age, 
household furniture was in gene- 
ral of a rude, substantial character; 
the tables were formed of boards 
or trestles, the seats of massive oak 
benches or stools, and the floors 
strewed with straw. 
Furniture of the hall: this consisted 
of but few articles, such as clumsy 
oak tables covered with carpet, 
benches or joined forms of the 
same material, and cupboards for 
plate, pewter, 'treene,' leather jugs, 
glass, etc., with a reredos or fire- 
iron in the centre of the floor, 



against which fagots were piled 
and burned, the smoke passing 
through an aperture in the roof; 
the fender, formed by a raised rim 
of stone or tile, and a 'fier fork ' and 
tongs. 

Furrings, slips of timber nailed to 
joists or rafters, in order to bring 
them to a level, and to range them 
into a straight surface, when the 
timbers are sagged, either by cast- 
ing, or by a set which they have 
obtained by their weight in the 
course of time. 

Fuseli (Henry), born 1741 at Zurich ; 
died April, 1825, aged eighty-four. 
He painted with little sympathy 
for repose ; he thought there was no 
dignity without action, no sublimity 
without exaggeration. He left 
upwards of eight hundred sketches, 
besides splendid pictures. 
Fusion, a founding or melting, running 

metals into fluids. 
Fust, the shaft of a column from the 

astragal to the capital. 
Fusarole, in architecture, a moulding 
or ornament placed immediately 
under the echinus in the Doric, 
Ionic, and Composite capitals ; 
the shaft of a column, pilaster or 
pillar, or that part comprehended 
between the shaft and the capital. 
Fustic, a wood of a species of mul- 
berry growing in most parts o1 
South America, the United States 
and the West Indies : it is a large 
and handsome tree, principally usec 
for dyeing greens and yellows, anc 
also in mosaic cabinet-work anc 
turnery. 

Futtock, in ship-building. Ever; 
single timber is called a futtock 
and distinguished by the termi 
lower, or first, second, third, etc. 
except the floors, long and half-tim 
bers, top timbers, stern timbers, etc 
Futtocks, the lower timbers raisei 
over the keel, and which hold th 
ship together. 

Futtock shrouds, in ship-rigging, sma] 
shrouds that go from the main 
mast, fore-mast, and mizen-mas 
shrouds to those of the top-mast. 



GAB 



GAMBOGE. 



GAM 



Gr. 



GABLE, the upright triangular end of 
a house, from the cornice or eaves 
to the top of the building, some- 
times called a sloped roof ; the up- 
per part of a wall, above the level 
of the eaves. Examples in Eng- 
lish and foreign Domestic and Go- 
thic architecture are various, and 
generally have a most picturesque 
effect. 

Goblets, small ornamental gables or 
canopies formed over tabernacles, 
niches, etc. 

Gad, in mining, a small punch of 
iron with a long wooden handle, 
used to break up the ore. 

Gaff, a sort of boom used in small 
ships to extend the upper edge of 
the mizen, and employed for the 
same purpose on those sails whose 
foremost edges are joined to the 
masts by hoops or lacings, and 
which are usually extended by a 
boom below: such are the main- 
sails of sloops, brigs, and schooners. 

Gage or Gauge, an instrument used 
for measuring the state of rare- 
faction in the air-pump, variations 
in 'the barometer, etc. ; a measure, 
a standard. 

Gainsborough, the painter, was born 
in 1727, in Sussex. His price for 
a portrait rose from 5 guineas to 
8, and until he had 40 guineas 
for a half and 100 guineas for 
a Avhole length. Like Reynolds, 
he painted standing in preference 
to sitting ; he rose early, com- 
menced painting between 9 and 10, 
worked 4 or 5 hours, and then 
gave up the rest of the day to visits 
and enjoyment. He died in 1788, 
in the 61st year of his age, and was 
buried in Kew churchyard. 

Gal, in Cornish, rusty iron ore. 

Galena, ore of silver and lead, after 

the silver is extracted. 
Galilee, a porch or chapel at the en- 
trance of a church. The galilee at 
Lincoln cathedral is a porch on the 
west side of the south transept : at 

205 



Ely cathedral it is a porch at the 
west end of the nave : at Durham 
it is a large chapel at the west end 
of the nave, which was built for the 
use of the women, who were not 
allowed to advance further into the 
church than the second pillar of the 
nave. 

Gallery, an apartment generally of 
greater length in proportion to the 
width, applied for the purpose of 
exhibiting pictures or sculpture : 
used formerly in early English Do- 
mestic architecture, in large houses, 
as a place of resort for dancing and 
other amusements. 

Galliot, a Dutch vessel, carrying a 
main and a mizen mast, and a large 
gaff main-sail. 

Gall-stone (colour), an animal cal- 
culus formed in the gall-bladder, 
principally of oxen. This concre- 
tion varies a little in colour, but is 
in general of a beautiful golden 
yellow, more powerful than gam- 
boge, and is highly reputed as a 
water-colour: nevertheless, its co- 
lour is soon changed and destroyed 
by strong light, though not subject 
to alteration by impure air. 

Galvanism comprises all those elec- 
trical phenomena arising from the 
chemical agency of certain metals 
with different fluids. 

Galvanometer, an instrument con- 
trived to measure minute quanti- 
ties of electricity. 

Gamboge, or, as it is variously written, 
Gumboge, Gambouge, Cambogia, 
Gambadium, etc., is brought from 
Cambaja, in India, and is the pro- 
duce of several kinds of trees. - It 
is, however, principally obtained 
from the tree called Gokathu,which 
grows in Ceylon and Siam. From 
the wounded leaves and young 
shoots the gamboge is collected in 
a liquid state, and dried. Gam- 
boge is a concrete vegetable sub- 
stance, of a gum-resinous nature, 
and beautiful yellow colour, bright 



GAM 



GARDENS. 



GAS 



and transparent, but not of a great* 
depth. When properly used, it is 
more durable than generally re- 
puted, both. in water and oil, and 
conduces, when mixed with other 
colours, to their stability and dura- 
bility, by means of its gum and 
resin. It is deepened in some de- 
gree by ammoniacal and impure 
air, and somewhat weakened, but 
not easily discoloured, by the ac- 
tion of light. 

Gammoning, in navigation, seven or 
eight turns of a rope passed over 
the bowsprit, and through a large 
hole in the stem or knee of the 
head, alternately, and serving to 
bind the inner quarter of the bow- 
sprit close down to the ship's stem, 
in order to enable it the better to 
support the stays of the fore-mast : 
after all the turns are drawn as 
firm as possible, the opposite ones 
are braced together under the bow- 
sprit by a frapping. 

Gammoning hole, a hole cut through 
the knee of the head, and some- 
times one under the standard in 
the head, for the use of gammon- 
ing the bowsprit. 

Garboard strake, the strake in the 
bottom that is wrought into the 
rabbet of the keel of a ship. 

Gardens. The ancient plans of gar- 
dens show that the Egyptians were 
not less fond than our ancestors of 
mathematical figures, of straight 
walks, architectural decorations, 
and vegetable avenues; and that 
they as thoroughly entered into 
the idea of seclusion and safety 
suggested by enclosures within en- 
closures. It has been remarked, 
that in some old English places 
there were almost as many walled 
compartments without as apart- 
ments within doors : the same may 
be said of Egyptian country-houses. 
This principle of seclusion and an 
excessive love of uniform arrange- 
ment are remarkably displayed in 
the plan of a large square garden 
given in Professor Rosellini's great 
work. 



As a subject for the painter, the 
materials which form the scenery 
of a garden are provided by Nature 
herself: the artist must therefore 
be satisfied with the degree of ex- 
pression which she has bestowed, 
and give the best possible disposi- 
tion to those scanty and intractable 
materials. In a landscape, on the 
contrary, the painter has the choice 
of the objects he intends to repre- 
sent, and can give whatever force 
or extent he pleases to the expres- 
sion he wishes to convey, as the 
whole range of scenery is before 
his eye. 

Garyoyle or Gurgoyle, a projecting 
spout used in Gothic architecture, 
to throw the water from the gutter 
of a building off the wall. 

Garland, an ornamental band used in 
Gothic work. 

Garnet, a hinge, now called a ' cross 
garnet ;' a red gem of various sizes. 

Garret, an upper apartment of a 
house, immediately under the roof. 

Garretting, small splinters of stone 
inserted in the joints of coarse 
masonry : they are stuck in after 
the work is built ; flint walls are 
very frequently garretted. 

Gas. All substances,vvhether animal, 
vegetable, or mineral, consisting of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
when exposed to a red heat, pro- 
duce various inflammable elastic 
fluids capable of furnishing artificial 
light. The evolution of this elastic 
fluid may be perceived during the 
combustion of coal in a common 
fire. The coal, when heated to a 
certain degree, swells and kindles, 
and frequently emits remarkably 
bright streams of flame, and after a 
certain period these appearances 
cease, and the coal glows with a 
red light, 

The flame produced from coal, 
oil, wax, tallow, or other bodies 
which are composed of carbon and 
hydrogen, proceeds from the pro- 
duction of carburetted hydrogen 
gas, evolved from the combustible 
body when in an ignited state. 



GAS 



GAS. 



GAS 



If coal, instead of being burnt 
in the ordinary way, be submitted 
to the temperature of ignition in 
close vessels, all its immediate con- 
stituent parts may be collected : 
the bituminous part is distilled 
over, in the form of coal-tar, etc., 
and a large quantity of an aqueous 
fluid is disengaged at the same 
time, mixed with a portion of es- 
sential oil and various ammoniacal 
salts. A large quantity of carbu- 
retted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, 
carbonic acid, and sulphuretted 
hydrogen, also make their appear- 
ance, together with small quantities 
of cyanogen, nitrogen, and free 
hydrogen, and the fixed base of the 
coal alone remains behind in the 
distillatory apparatus, in the form 
of a carbonaceous substance called 
coke. An analysis of the coal is 
effected by the process of destruc- 
tive distillation ; and the products 
which the coal furnishes may be 
separately collected in different 
vessels. 

The carburetted hydrogen, or 
coal-gas, when freed from the ob- 
noxious foreign gases, may be pro- 
pelled in streams out of small aper- 
tures, which, when lighted, form 
jets of flame, now called gas-lights. 

Mr. Croll has patented an in- 
vention for the purification of gas 
from ammonia, which is effected 
by means of dilute sulphuric acid 
applied between the condensers 
and the ordinary lime pu.-ifiers. 
The vessels are made either of wood 
or iron, and lined with lead, having 
a w r ash-plate similar to the wet-lime 
purifiers. The radiating bottom is 
formed of wooden bars, for the pur- 
pose of supporting the wash-plate 
and distributing the gas. In com- 
mencing the process, these vessels 
are charged with water and sulphu- 
ric acid in the proportion of 7 Ibs. 
of the latter to 100 gallons of the 
former. As the acid is neutralized 
by the ammonia contained in the 
gas passing through the vessels, 
the above proportion is kept up by 

207 



a continuous dropping or running 
of acid, regulated according to the 
quantity of ammonia contained in 
the gas, from a reservoir placed on 
the top of the saturator. This 
mode of supplying the acid is con- 
tinued until the specific gravity of 
the solution is at 11 70, or near the 
point of crystallization ; after which 
the supply of acid is discontinued, 
and the liquor retained in the vessel 
until neutralized : it is then drawn 
off and evaporated, and yields a 
pure sulphate of ammonia. 
Gas (distribution of, through mains). 
There is no branch of science con- 
nected with the subject of gas en- 
gineering so highly important as 
that which relates to its conveyance 
and distribution through pipes; 
there is none in which theory af- 
fords more assistance, and there is 
hardly any branch to which so lit- 
tle attention has been paid. The 
interests of a gas company are not 
best served by simply increasing 
the quantity of gas from the same 
quantity of coal, or improving the 
lime machinery, etc. The laying of 
street- mains forms the most consi- 
derable item in the outlay ; and by 
a judicious arrangement in the first 
instance, much may be saved both 
at first and last. 

It is for the purpose of rendering 
this branch of the science, and that 
of the passage of gas through pipes, 
perfectly plain, that the following 
observations are here given. 

When it is proposed to light any 
town, or district of a town, with 
gas, the first step to be taken is to 
ascertain the number of lights, 
both public and private, that will 
be required, with as much accu- 
racy as circumstances will permit ; 
the lengih of time such lights will 
have to burn, and the quantity of 
gas consumed by them per hour, 
making allowances for the increase 
of lamps that will probably be re- 
quired by the extension of the town. 
The size of the works themselves 
may be easily ascertained from this 



GAS 



GASOMETER. 



GAS 



calculation. It will then remaiij 
to fix upon a proper situation in 
which to erect them : the best local 
position is upon the hanks of a na- 
vigahle river or canal, and at the 
lowest available level, and the near- 
est approach to such a situation is 
advisable for obvious reasons. A 
map of the town must be obtained, 
or a survey made of the different 
streets and thoroughfares : running 
levels must be taken through them 
at several points, and their respec- 
tive heights marked with reference 
to the level of the works as a da- 
tum : upon this map all the mains 
must be drawn, also their branches, 
valves, and governors. Their ar- 
rangement must be such as to allow 
of a perfect circulation of the gas, 
and a nearly uniform pressure at 
the highest and lowest point. All 
the pipes upon the same level 
should be joined into one another, 
and no valves used but such as are 
necessary to shut off the gas for 
repair of mains. To supply a higher 
level, a governor should be placed 
at the summit of the 'lower level, 
with the lower main leading into 
it. The pipe or pipes for supplying 
the higher parts should proceed 
from the regulating vessel. A cel- 
lar may be appropriated for the 
reception of this vessel. One lead- 
ing main should be taken direct 
from the works to an equilibrium 
cylinder situated at some point 
from which several streets diverge, 
and no supply taken from this main 
until it has reached the cylinder. 
Branches suitable to the supply 
of each division of the district 
should lead from this cylinder. 
The supply of gas to the cylinder 
should be so regulated as to cause 
the gas to flow along the branches 
at an even pressure of about five- 
tenths of an inch. If the cylinder 
be at any considerable distance 
from the works, a smaller main, 
with increased pressure, may lead 
to it, its size being sufficient to 
equalize the discharge. 

208 



Supposing a district to be lighted 
requiring 1000 public or street 
lamps, and 7000 private burners, 
it is usually considered that each 
lamp on an average will consume 
5 cubic feet of gas per hour, there- 
fore 40,000 cubic feet will be re- 
quired to light the district for an 
hour ; and the leading main must 
be capable of delivering that quan- 
tity into the equilibrium cylinder 
in that time. To determine the 
size of this main, the probable in- 
crease of lamps must be taken into 
consideration ; and as that will de- 
pend so much upon circumstances 
in every instance, the judgment of 
the engineer alone can serve to re- 
gulate the additional area. If the 
increase should be beyond that 
which was expected, the gas must 
be forced through the leading main 
at a greater pressure. 

In the above example, if the 
diameter of main for a present con- 
sumption be 12 inches, and to se- 
cure an adequate supply at any 
future period its diameter be in- 
creased to 15 inches, the present 
working pressure may be reduced 
to 1 '5 of an inch instead of 3 inches ; 
and as the leakage will also be 
decreased, the extra-sized main 
will not be found disadvantageous 
even in the first instance. 
Gasometer, a reservoir of gas, with 
conveniences for measuring its 
volume. The simplest and most 
general in use consists of an iron 
vessel, open at the bottom, and 
inverted into a tank of water below 
the surface of the ground, having 
perfect freedom to rise and fall, 
and guided by upright rods fixed at 
several points in the circumference. 
The diameters and numbers of the 
vessels will vary according to the 
magnitude of the works to which 
the gasometer is attached, and the 
space to be occupied by it. If the 
works are situated in a town, where 
the ground is too valuable to allow 
an increased extent, a 'telescope 
gasometer' is employed. 



GAS 



GATES AND DOORS. 



GAU 



Gas-tar, commonly called coal-tar. 
\Vheu the manufacture of gas 
from coal was in its infancy, great 
advantages were expected to be 
derived from the coal-tar which 
distilled over with the inflammable 
gas. It was considered to be a 
substance possessing even superior 
properties to the vegetable tar for 
the preservation of timber and 
other perishable materials exposed 
to the influences of the weather. 

In the year 1665 a German 
chemist proposed to distil coal for 
the sole purpose of obtaining this 
tar, and in 1781 the Earl of Dun- 
donald took out a patent for col- 
lecting the tar which appeared 
during the formation of coke. Nei- 
ther scheme answered. After a 
few years' trial, coal-tar as a sub- 
stitute for vegetable tar fell into 
disuse. It was tried in the navy, 
and was found to give the timber a 
considerable degree of hardness, 
but not of durability. Its smell is 
extremely offensive ; and since that 
time it has been used only in 
places where that is of little conse- 
quence. The exposed part of the" 
machinery of a gas establishment 
may be protected by being coated 
with coal-tar. 

Gasket, plaited cord fastened to the 
sail-yards of a ship, and used to 
furl or tie up a sail firmly to the 
yard, byVrapping it round both six 
or seven times, the turns being at 
a competent distance from each 
other. 

Catchers, the after-leavings of tin. 

Gate-house, or park entrance, a struc- 
ture designed rather to produce an 
agreeable and picturesque effect, 
than to accord with any fixed rules 
or customs of art : such, indeed, 
was the practice towards the latter 
end of the sixteenth century, when 
it would appear, that most men 
wished to display their taste and 
learning in architecture. The gate- 
house also forms an entrance to a 
private mansion, to any public, 
municipal, or collegiate building, 

209 



or to a palace, etc. In the early 
English architecture, gate-houses, 
now sometimes called Lodges, were 
large and imposing structures, of 
great elegance. 

Gates and doors are generally, whe- 
ther arched or square, twice their 
breadth in height. The former 
may be ornamented with columns, 
pilasters, entablatures, pediments, 
rustics, imposts, archivolts, etc. ; 
the latter with architraves round 
the sides and top of the opening, 
and crowned with a frieze and cor- 
nice. The cornice in this case is 
very frequently supported with a 
console on each side. Columns, 
pilasters, and other ornaments are 
also sometimes employed in the 
decoration of doors. 

Inside doors should not be nar- 
rower than 2 feet 9 inches, nor is 
it needful that they exceed 6 feet 
in height ; entrance doors, 3 feet 
6 inches to 6 feet 6 inches broad 
in private dwellings : but in public 
buildings, where crowds assemble, 
they must be considerably enlarged. 
The smallest width for agate should 
be 8 feet 6 inches. 

As some general rule for the pro- 
portion of the architraves of com- 
mon dressings to doors may be 
useful, the following directions may 
be safely followed : Supposing the 
height of the aperture to represent 
the height of a column ; then, if an 
architrave, frieze, and cornice, or 
the first only, be desired, take them 
in the proportion that would serve 
for the order itself, and return the 
architrave down the sides of the 
door. The whole entablature over 
a square-headed door should never 
exceed one-third the height of such 
aperture. 

Gauge (pronounced gage], a measure 
by which the capacity or contents 
of a cask or vessel may be ascer- 
tained. Gauging is a term used in 
mensuration, and applied by engi- 
neers in their several operations. 
The gauge, as applied to railways, 
became a familiar term during the 



GAU 



GERMAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING. 



GEO 



antagonistic discussions respecting j 
the proper distance between the 
lines of rail ; and the battle of the 
gauges, which raged fiercely and ex- 
pensively, ended, like many similar 
contentions, in both parties spend- 
ing enormous sums of money, with- 
out the result of victory on either 
side. 

Gauge, a mixture of fine stuff and 
plaster, or putty and plaster, or 
coarse stuff and plaster ; used in 
finishing the best ceilings and for 
mouldings, and sometimes for set- 
ting walls. 

Gauge-cocks, two or three small cocks 
fixed in front of the boiler of a steam- 
engine, for the purpose of ascer- 
taining the height of the water. 

Gauge-glass, in locomotive engines, a 
strong glass tube, connected with 
the boiler by two cocks attached 
to the gauge-cock pedestal. The 
water is admitted to this tube by 
the lower cock, the steam by the 
upper cock. It thus becomes an 
index to what is going on inside 
the boiler, exhibiting the height 
or agitation of the water in it. A 
small cock is placed below the 
glass for blowing out any sediment 
which may be deposited in it. 

Gauge-lamp, in locomotive engines, 
a small lamp placed beside the 
gauge-glass at night, that the state 
of the water in the boiler may be 
seen by the engine-man. 

Gauntlet, in heraldry, an iron glove : 
in challenges, the gauntlet was 
thrown down in defiance. 

Gear, furniture, dress, harness : the 
term is also applied to the several 
working parts of a locomotive 
steam-engine. 

Generating surface, the heating sur- 
face of a boiler, or that on which 
heat is applied to generate steam. 

Gentese, in early English architecture, 
cusps or featherings in the arch of 
a doorway. 

Geodesy, the art of measuring and 
surveying of land. 

Geometry, the science of quantity, 
extension, or magnitude. 

210 



Geoscopy, a knowledge of the diffe- 
rent kinds of earth. 

German School of Painting. In early 
times, a school of painting can 
hardly be said to have existed in 
Germany : it was merely a suc- 
cession of single artists, who de- 
rived their manner from different 
sources of originality and imitation. 
There were some German painters 
of eminence when the art, emerg- 
ing from its barbarous state, first 
began to be cultivated in Europe; 
but as they were totally unac- 
quainted with the ancients, and had 
scarcely access to the works of their 
contemporaries in Italy, they copied 
Nature alone, with the exception 
of somewhat of that stiffness which 
forms the Gothic manner. This 
is by no means the case with their 
successors, some of whom were edu- 
cated in Flanders, and others in 
Italy. But if Mengs or Dietrich 
were comprehended in this school, 
there would be nothing peculiar to 
its manner discovered in their 
works. Albert Durer was the first 
German who corrected the bad 
taste of his countrymen : he ex- 
celled in engraving as well as in 
painting ; his genius was fertile, his 
compositions varied, his thoughts 
ingenious, and his colours brilliant. 
His works, though numerous, were 
finished with great exactness. For 
an account of this great man and 
his productions, see the ' Works of 
Divers Ancient Masters,' in two 
vols. folio, 1846. 

Geology (a treatise or discourse on 
the earth) " is a term which admits 
of a very wide interpretation, and 
naturally suggests to the mind in- 
quiries, 1st, into the formation 
and original condition of the earth ; 
2ndly, into the successive modifica- 
tions which it has undergone, and 
the agencies by which they have 
been effected ; and Srdly, into its 
present condition, and the agencies 
by which changes in that condition 
aje still effected. The first object 
of the geologist is to establish, on 



GIB 



GIRDERS. 



GIR 



the principles of inductive reason- 
ing, the science as it depends on 
each of these inquiries, and then to 
apply it to the practical purposes 
of life. It may be premised that a 
science is practicably valuable just 
in proportion as its facts have been 
discovered, and its laws established 
and studied ; for so long as we are 
uncertain whether a known result 
has proceeded from a definite cause, 
we are unable to apply the fact or 
circumstance to the elucidation of 
other facts or circumstances ; and 
so long as we are unacquainted 
with the properties of any sub- 
stance under our examination, we 
cannot declare with certainty what 
share it may have had in the phe- 
nomena we have observed. This 
may be illustrated by a reference 
to gunpowder. Its explosive qua- 
lity is the result of its composition, 
and we can only depend upon the 
results when we know that the 
compound has been accurately 
formed : to ensure, therefore, cer- 
tainty in the operations depending 
on it, we must take care that a 
proper standard of composition has 
been adhered to. In a similar man- 
ner we can only apply geology as a 
practical science when we have as- 
certained and made ourselves fami- 
liar with those facts which prove 
the first principles on which it has 
been founded to be correct and 
stable." See Col. Portlock's work 
in the Rudimentary Series, vol. 3. 

Gib and key, the fixed wedge and the 
driving wedge for tightening the 
strap which holds the brasses at 
the end of a connecting-rod in 
steam machinery. 

Gibbons (Grinling), the great carver. 
The time and place of his birth is 
unknown: he died 1721. 

Gimlet, a piece of steel of a cylin- 
drical form, having a transverse 
handle at the upper end, and at the 
other, a worm or screw, and a cy- 
lindric cavity, called the cup, above 
the screw, forming, in its trans- 
verse section, a crescent. Its use 

211 



is to bore small holes : the screw 
draws it forward in the wood, in the 
act of boring, while it is turned 
round by the handle: the angle 
formed by the exterior and interior 
cylinders cuts the fibres across, 
and the cup contains the core of 
wood so cut : the gimlet is turned 
round by the application of the 
fingers, on alternate sides of the 
wooden lever at the top. 

Gin, a machine, a pump worked by 
wheels. 

Giocondo (John) was born at Verona. 
About the middle of the 1 5th cen- 
tury he became a Dominican, and 
acquired great reputation in the 
sciences, the arts, the knowledge 
of ancient monuments and archi- 
tecture. He was called into France 
by Louis XII., and constructed at 
Paris the Pont-au-Change and the 
Pont St. Michel. He also con- 
structed other important works 
in Italy and other countries. He 
died at an advanced age in 1530. 

Giotto built the exquisitely slender 
tower of Florence in the 1 3th cen- 
tury in emulation of the stupendous 
spires which at that era were erec- 
ted in Germany and the Low Coun- 
tries. In Italy not a single spire 
is now seen. 

Giotto of the Florentine School. 
Painting in his hands became so 
elegant, that none of his school nor 
of any other, till the time of Ma- 
saccio, surpassed or even equalled 
him, at least in gracefulness of 
manner. Giotto was born in the 
country, and was bred a shepherd. 

Girders, the longitudinal beams in a 
floor. Girders are the chief sup- 
port of a framed floor : their depth 
is often limited by the size of the 
timber, but not always so ; there- 
fore the method of findingthe s 'ant- 
ling may be divided into more than 
in one case. Girders of wrought 
and cast iron are now extens vely 
used in the construction of bridges, 
to girt railroads, canals, etc , and 
many of them are of considerable 
span. 



GLA 



GLUE. 



GOD 



Gland,the pressing piece of a stuffing; 
box of a steam-engine. 

Glass : this artificial transparent sub- 
stance was introduced very early. 
Hollinshed says, an Englishman 
named Benedict Biscop, who had 
taken upon him the habit of a 
monk in Italy, came here with the 
Archbishop of Rome, in the year 
670, and brought painters, gla- 
ziers, and other such curious crafts- 
men into England for the first 
time. 

Glasses superseded small drinking- 
bowls; they were of Venetian 
manufacture, and probably first 
brought here in the 16th century. 
Earlier they do not appear to have 
been used in England ; nor to have 
come into much fashion till the 
time of Elizabeth. 

Glass water-gauge. See Gauge-glass. 

Glazing, the art of fixing glass to the 
sashes of windows, casements, etc., 
for the purpose of admitting the 
light of day ; anciently applied 
to the affixing to windows deco- 
rative, stained, and painted glass. 
A great many beautiful examples 
exist in this and other countries, 
of early designs, and of examples 
in the cinque-cento style : for the 
latter, see ' Divers Works of Early 
Masters,' 2 vols. folio, 1846. 

Glazing is also a term applied to the 
finishing of a drawing with some 
thin, transparent, and glossy tint, 
through which the first colours 
appear, and are heightened in their 
effect. 

Glebe, turf, soil ; land possessed as 
part of the revenue of an ecclesias- 
tical benefice. 

Glist, a shining black or brown mine- 
ral, of an iron cast. 

Glossocomon, a machine composed of 
several dented wheels with pinions, 
and used for raising great weights. 

Glue, a tenacious viscid matter, which 
is used as a cement by carpenters, 
joiners, etc. Glues are found to 
differ very much from each other 
in their consistence, colour, taste, 
smell, arid solubility. Some will 



dissolve in cold water, by agitation ; 
while others are soluble only at the 
point of ebullition. The best glue 
is generally admitted to be trans- 
parent, and of a brown-yellow co- 
lour, without either taste or smell. 
It is perfectly soluble in water, 
forming a viscous fluid, which when 
dry preserves both its tenacity and 
transparency in every part, and 
has solidity, colour, and viscidity, 
in proportion to the age and the 
strength of the animal from which 
it is produced. To distinguish 
good glue from bad, it is necessary 
to hold it between the eye and the 
light ; and if it appears of a strong 
dark brown colour, and free from 
cloudy or black spots, it may be 
pronounced to be good. The best 
glue may likewise be known by 
immersing it in cold water for 
three or four days, and if it swells 
powerfully without melting, and 
afterwards regains its former di- 
mensions and properties by being 
dried, the article is of the best 
quality. 

A small portion of finely levi- 
gated chalk is sometimes added to 
the common solution of glue in 
water, to strengthen it and fit it for 
standing the weather. 

A glue that will resist both fire 
and water may be prepared by 
mixing a handful of quicklime with 
four ounces of" linseed-oil, thorough- 
ly levigated, and then boiled to a 
good thickness, and kept in the 
shade, on tin plates, to dry. It 
may be rendered fit for use by 
boiling it over a fire in the ordi- 
nary manner. 

Glyphs, perpendicular flutings or 
channels u>ed in the Doric frieze. 

Gnomon, in dialling, is the style, pin, 
or cock of a dial, the shadow 
whereof points out the hours. 

Goblets, stones ; a measure or quan- 
tity, so called in the time of Ed- 
ward III. 

God the Father (in the Table of 
Symbols of the early ages) is in- 
dicated by a hand issuing from the 



GOL 



GOVERNOR. 



GOV 



symbol of heaven, Ezek. ii. 9, viii. 
3. God the Son, by a monogram 
and by the cross (the symbol of 
salvation); by a rock, 1 Cor. x. 4, 
Exod. xvii. 6 ; by a lamb, Isaiah 
Ivii. 7, frequently with a glory and 
carrying a cross ; by a pelican, 
Psalm cii. 6 ; by a vine, John xv. 1 ; 
by a lamp or candle, as light of 
the world, John ix. 5 ; by the pis- 
cis, a vesica piscis, a glory, shaped 
like a fish. God the Holy Ghost, 
by the dove, with usually an olive 
branch ; by water, either from the 
beak of the dove, or from a vase, 
John iv. 14 ; by a lamp or candle- 
stick, seven of which rang-ed to the 
right and left of the altar, to sig- 
nify the gifts of the Spirit, Rev. i. 2, 
iv. 5. 

Gola, the Italian term for cyma. 

Gold, a well-known valuable metal 
found in many parts of the world, 
but the greatest quantity was for- 
merly obtained from the coast of 
Guinea. The produce of California 
remains to be determined. Gold 
seems to be the most simple of all 
substances. It is spoken of in 
Scripture, and the use of it among 
the ancient Hebrews, in its native 
and mixed state, and for the same 
purposes as at present, was very 
common. The ark of the covenant 
was overlaid with pure gold; the 
mercy seat, the vessels and utensils 
belonging to the tabernacle, and 
those also of the House of the 
Lord, as well as the drinking- 
vessels of Solomon, were formed 
of this metal. 

Gold occurs, in the metallic state, 
nixed with several metals, but 
niore commonly with silver and 
copper, and sometimes pure. 

Gollen sulphur of antimony, golden 
ydlow, is the hydro-sulphuret of 
ar.iirnony, of an orange colour, 
which is destroyed by the action of 
strong light. It is a bad dryer in 
oil, injurious to many colours, and 
in no respect an eligible pigment 
either in oil or water. 

Gold purple, or Cassius 1 s purple preci- 

213 



pitate, the compound oxide which 
is precipitated upon mixing the 
solutions of gold and tin. It is not 
a bright, but a rich and powerful 
colour, of great durability, varying 
in degrees of transparency, and in 
hue from deep crimson to a mur- 
rey or dark purple : it is princi- 
pally used in miniature painting, 
and may well be employed in ena- 
mel painting. 

Gondola, a Venetian barge much or- 
namented, used in the canals of 
Venice for the convenience of the 
inhabitants: the common dimen- 
sions are 30 feet by 4 feet : each 
end is terminated by a very sharp 
point, which is raised perpendicu- 
larly to the full height of a man. 

Goniometer, an instrument for mea- 
suring angles and crystals. 

Gossan, an imperfect iron ore, com- 
monly of a tender rotten substance, 
and of a red or rusty iron colour. 

Gothic Architecture, usually so called. 
Both Mr. Britton and Mr. Pugin 
have treated of it by the name 
of ' Christian Architecture.' It had 
its rise from the Romanesque: this 
took its origin from Roman remains 
at the declension of that empire. 
It became Saxon, then Norman, 
and varied in its character with 
the maturity of years. It was Early 
English, Perpendicular, Decorated, 
Flamboyant, etc., till it lost its ec- 
clesiastical and monastic character 
in the Domestic, which prevailed 
in the Tudor style (Renaissance), 
followed by the Elizabethan, etc. 

Gouge, in carpentry, an instrument 
like a round hollow chisel. 

Governor, the apparatus for regulating 
the supply of steam to the cylinder 
so as to give a constant velocity to 
the engine. It consists of two balls 
suspended from a vertical spindle, 
and revolving with it : the suspend- 
ing rods are connected by arms to 
a sliding-piece which fits the spindle 
and acts upon a lever attached to a 
throttle-valve in the steam-pipe : 
the balls rise by the centrifugal 
force as the velocity increases, and 



GOV 



GOVERNOR. 



GRA 



close the valve : when the velocity 
diminishes, the balls fall, and open 
the valve. 

Governor, a contrivance for equalizing 
the motion of mills and machinery, 
as well as being used as above de- 
scribed. 

Governor balls, the solid metal balls 
fixed on the ends of the suspending 
rods of the governor. 

Governor (gas). The governor is a 
machine for regulating and equali- 
zing the flow of gas from the gaso- 
meters to the street-mains, and is 
much more perfect in its action 
than any slide-valve applied for 
that purpose requiring attendance. 
Its use is nowhere sufficiently ap- 
preciated. Had it been a compli- 
cated piece of machinery, or ex- 
pensive in its first cost and after- 
application, objections to its adop- 
tion would not have been surprising, 
but it is perfectly simple, its ac- 
tion is certain and unvarying, and 
its first cost inconsiderable. 

The velocity of gas in the mains 
and pipes of supply is, in the first 
instance, as various as there are 
differences in their altitudes and 
extent. A main at one place will 
furnish, with a certain pressure of 
gas, a flame one inch high ; while 
at a different altitude it will furnish 
a flame double that height. If, 
again, in the direction of the main 
there are many bends, angles, or 
contractions in its diameter, the 
velocity of the gas through it will 
vary considerably more than if it 
were direct and uniform. If the 
pipe be of any great length, and of 
uniform bore, but unequally fur- 
nished with branches, the burners 
will be unequally supplied with gas : 
those which are near its head will 
be supplied with a fuller stream of 
gas than those which are situated 
towards its termination. 

Independently of these differ- 
ences, arising from diversity of 
local positions, there will always be 
one great variation in the velocity 
of the gas, occasioned by the va- 

214 



riety of periods during which lights 
are required by different consumers 
supplied from the same main or 
system of pipes: for example, when 
a certain number of burners is to 
be supplied, and it happens that 
one-half are shut off sooner than 
the rest, the velocity of the gas in 
the mains will be materially in- 
creased, and the remaining lamps 
should be turned down ; but many 
would not be reduced, and much 
gas would be lost. 

Goivan, decomposed granite; but the 
term is sometimes applied to the 
solid rock. 

Gozzan, oxide of iron and quartz. 

Grace is taken for beauty, graceful 
form or agreeableness of person ; 
for form, friendship, and kindness; 
for certain gifts of God, which He 
bestows freely, when, where, and 
on whom He pleases : such are the 
gifts of miracles, prophecy, lan- 
guage, etc. 

Grace principally consists in the turn 
that a painter gives to his objects, 
to render them agreeable, even 
those that are inanimate. It is 
more seldom found in the face than 
in the manner; for our manner is 
produced every moment, and can 
create surprise. A woman can be 
beautiful but one way, yet she can 
be graceful a thousand. Grace is 
neither found in constrained nor in 
affected manners, but in a certain 
freedom and ease between two ex- 
tremes. 

Gradation, in painting and drawing, 
implies the gradual receding of 
objects into the remote distance, 
by a proper strength or due dimi- 
nution of light, shade, and colour, 
according to their different dis- 
tances, the quantity of light which 
shines upon them, and the medium 
of air through which they are seen. 

Gradient, a deviation from a level 
surface to an inclined plane. 

Graduation, the division of philo- 
sophical instruments into degrees 
and other minute parts. 

Grain tin, the finest tin, smelted with 



GRA 



GRAVITY. 



GRE 



charcoal ; also the ore of very rich 
tin sometimes found in the form of 
grains or pebbles. 

Grange, a monastic farming establish- 
ment: in ancient times it was com- 
mon to attach farm-houses and 
granaries to the estates of religious 
institutions. 

Granite, a natural stone of great 
strength, hardness, and durability ; 
much used in building: it is a 
primary and unstratified rock, con- 
sisting of quartz, mica, and felspar, 
each crystallized and cohering, but 
without any base or cement. 

Grapnel, in navigation, a sort of small 
anchor with four or five flukes or 
claws, commonly used for boats 
and small vessels. 

Graunge or Grange, a granary or 
farm belonging to a religious house. 
(Chaucer.) 

Gravel, a geological term applied to 
those sabulous soils, or assemblages 
of worn and rounded stones, which 
are found scattered on the surface 
of the earth. 

Graver, the burin of an engraver ; a 
square piece of steel fixed in a 
handle, and bevelled diagonally at 
the end : an instrument used for 
turning iron, after it has been 
roughed out by the ' heel tool,' is 
so called. 

Gravity is that power or force which 
causes bodies to approach each 
other. This universal principle, 
which pervades the whole system 
of nature, may be enunciated as 
follows : the mutual tendency of 
two bodies towards each other in- 
creases in the same proportion as 
their masses are increased, and the 
square of theirdistanceisdecreased; 
and it decreases in proportion as 
their masses are decreased, and as 
the square of their distance is in- 
creased. 

Gravity is also the force wherewith a 
body endeavours to descend to- 
wards the centre of the earth : this 
is called absolute gravity when the 
body tends downwards in free space, 
and relative gravity is the force it 

215 



endeavours to descend with in a 
fluid. Terrestrial gravity is that 
force by which bodies are urged 
towards the centre of the earth, 
and it is measured by the velocity 
generated in a second of time. Ex- 
periments show that a falling body 
describes 16^ feet in one second, 
and it has then acquired a velocity 
of 32 feet, which is therefore the 
true measure of the force of gravity. 

Gray colour is the third and last, 
being the nearest in relation of co- 
lour to black. In its common ac- 
ceptation, gray denotes a class of 
cool cinerous colours, faint in hue ; 
whence we have blue-grays, olive- 
grays, green -grays, purple- grays, 
and grays of all hues, in which 
blue predominates ; but no yellow 
or red grays, the predominance of 
such hues carrying the compounds 
into the classes of brown and mor- 
rone. 

Graywacke, a coarse slate ; in geo- 
logy, a secondary rock. 

Grease-cock, a short pipe fixed in the 
cylinder cover of a steam-engine, 
with two stop-cocks inserted at a 
short distance apart, and a funnel at 
the top for holding tallow. When 
the upper cock is opened, the tallow 
falls into the intermediate space ; 
the cock is then closed, and the 
lower one opened for the melted 
grease to enter the cylinder, and 
lubricate the piston without allow- 
ing the steam to escape. 

Great Circle sailing, the steering of a 
ship in the arch of a great circle 
of the sphere. The nearest course 
between two places. 

Green Cloth, the compting-house of 
the Kings' households. 

Greenhouse, a garden-house for choice 
flowers, etc. 

Greenvtrditeris, the same in substance 
as blue verditer, which is converted 
into green by boiling it. 

Green ebony wood, imported from the 
West Indies, is used for round 
rulers, turnery, marquetry-work, 
etc.; it is also much used for dyeing, 
and contains resinous matter. 



GRE 



GREGORIAN CHANT. 



GRE 



Greenheart wood, from the West In- 
dies, resembles cocoa wood in sife 
and bark, and is used for turnery 
and other works. 

Grees, steps ; also a staircase. 

Gregorian Chant: Cantus Gregoria- 
nus, Cantus Firmus, Cantus Planus 
or Plenus, in Latin ; Canto Firmo, 
in Italian ; Plein Chant, in French ; 
Plain Chant, in English ; and Choral, 
in German. This species of music 
is the most ancient of all, and is 
still the only one properly adapted 
to the ritual services of the Chris- 
tian churches. 

The Gregorian chant consists of 
a few notes, on which the words 
of the Liturgies are recited. The 
earliest specimens in existence con- 
sist of only one or two notes, and 
were used by St. Ambrose, at Milan, 
in the fourth century. The origin 
of this chant is traced to the earlier 
churches of Egypt, Thebes, Pales- 
tine, Arabia, Phoenicia, Syria, etc., 
from whence it was introduced into 
the church of Constantinople by 
St. John Chrysostom. St. Ambrose 
is said to have brought it into use 
in Milan, " after the custom of the 
inhabitants of the East," and from 
Milan it came to Rome " long be- 
fore the time of St. Gregory." But 
as, in the course of time, various 
mutations had taken place, St. Gre- 
gory, in order to reform and settle 
the music fcr the church, made a 
compilation of such as was fit for 
its use, and formed the first ritual 
book of music, or Roman Anti- 
phonarium. From the order which 
he gave it, and in consequence of 
this work of Gregory being after- 
wards established in the other (the 
Western) churches, it received the 
name Gregorian. We have very 
little of the music ascribed to Gre- 
gory himself, a specimen of which 
is given by Mr. Spencer in his work 
on the church modes, and is very 
grand. A portion of the old Gre- 
gorian chant is still used in our 
cathedrals in the so-called ' into- 
ning the service' by the minor 

216 



canons and also in the responses by 
the choir, but in a very mutilated 
form. But in the chanting of the 
prose Psalms, it is almost entirely 
abandoned ; the only specimen (and 
that somewhat mutilated) being 
the grand and well-known ' Tallis's 
chant.' There is a remarkable 
difference between the Gregorian 
melodies for the Psalter and Can- 
ticles (and which are called the 
eight tones} and those of a more 
modern date. No such thing as a 
double chant exists in Gregorian 
music, and the ' tones ' are formed 
on one general law ; i. e. a ' tone ' 
consists of one principal note, called 
the Dominant, z.e.the predominant 
or reciting note, upon which the 
principal part of each half-verse is 
chanted, the remainder being in- 
flected in cadences of one or several 
notes revolving (as it were) above 
and below the dominant, or ter- 
minating on the final of the mode ; 
and it is a law that the reciting 
parts are always (when the tone is 
regular) on the same note, viz. the 
dominant. There are very few 
instances of any deviation from 
this rule. In the modern system 
there seems to be a total absence 
of any rule of this sort, and the 
cadences, both in the middle of the 
verse and at the end, consist of a 
greater number of notes, and these 
of unequal value. Moreover, in the 
Gregorian chant no attention is 
paid to time; it is regulated entirely 
by emphasis and syllabic quantity, 
not by time and accent, as in mo- 
dern chanting. On Sundays and 
the greater festivals it is a rule to 
commence the ' tone ' with a few 
preliminary notes, called the into- 
nation, which serve as in inchoa- 
tion, or induction to the dominant, 
or reciting note : on other occa- 
sions, these initial notes are not 
used. For specimens of the adap- 
tation of these Gregorian tones or 
chants to the canticles, etc., of the 
English church, see the ' Hymnal/ 
by Mr. Spencer. 



GRE 



GROINS. 



GRO 



Gregorian music requires a no- 
bler and more rigid harmony than 
can be given in the modern system ; 
and its effects in the divine offices, 
when properly harmonized and 
performed, are far superior to any 
other kind of church music. 

Greut, or Grit, a kind of fossil body, 
consisting of sandy, rough, hard, 
earthy particles. 

Grey. See Gray. 

Griddle, a large wire sieve, used in- 
stead of a hurdle, for sifting and 
sorting copper ore as it rises from 
the mine. 

Grimbald, an architect, supposed to 
have introduced the style of ar- 
chitecture usually called Saxon 
into England. 

Grindstone, a cylindrical stone, on 
which, being turned round its axis, 
edge-tools are sharpened by apply- 
ing their edges to the convex sur- 
face. 

Gripe, the lower part of the knee of 
the head that connects with the 
foremost end of the keel of a vessel. 

Grit, coarse sand ; rough hard par- 
ticles of sandstone. 

Groin, the angle formed by an inter- 
section of vaults : most of the 
vaulted ceilings of the buildings of 
the middle ages were groined, and 
therefore called groined ceilings. 
During the early part of the Nor- 
man style the groins were left pur- 
posely plain, but afterwards they 
were invariably covered with ribs. 

Groins, in coast engineering. A groin 
is a frame of wood-work, con- 
structed across a beach, between 
high and low water, perpendicular 
to the general line of it, either to 
retain the shingle already accumu- 
lated, to recover it when lost, or to 
accumulate more at any particular 
point ; also to break and check the 
action of the waves. 

The component parts of a groin 
are piles, planking, land-ties, land 
tie-bars, blocks, tail-piles, and keys 
and screw-bolts. 

The length of a groin depends 
on the extent, and the requisite 



strength of its component parts on 
the nature of the beach on which 
it is to be constructed. Those at 
Eastbourne, on the coast of Sussex, 
of which the following is more 
particularly a description, are from 
150 to 250 feet in length, and the 
beach at that place being very 
rough, consisting of coarse heavy 
shingle and large boulders, they 
require to be composed of propor- 
tionally strong materials to resist 
its force. 

The piles are from 12 to 25 feet 
long, and 8 by 65 inches scantling, 
shod with iron. 

The planking is in lengths of 8, 
12, and 16 feet, 1\ inches thick, 
and with parallel edges. 

The land-ties are of rough timber 
from 20 to 25 feet long, and large 
enough at the butt-end to receive 
the bars. 

The land tie-bars are 1 3 ft. 6 in. 
long, and 12 by 5 in. scantling. 

The land tie-bar blocks are about 
2 feet long, and of the same scant- 
ling as the piles. 

The land-tie tail-keys are about 
2 feet 6 inches long, and 6 by 2 
inches scantling. 

The above materials are of oak 
or beech. 

The screw-bolts are of inch round j 
iron, 2 feet 9 inches and 2 feet I 
1-^inch long, in equal proportions, j 

The relative proportions of the 
component parts are, four piles, one 
land-tie with tail-piles and keys, 
one land tie-bar with two blocks, 
two long and two short bolts, about 
180 square feet of planking, and 
about 140 six-inch spikes for every 
17 feet in length; and the expense 
of a groin, constructed with mate- 
rials of the above dimensions, may 
be calculated at about 30 for the 
same length. 

GENERAL RULES OBSERVED IN 
THE CONSTRUCTION. 

When the object, in constructing 
a groin, is to recover shingle, or 
accumulate more, the first pile is 
driven at the high -water mark of 



217 



GRO 



GROTESQUE. 



GUI 



neap-tides, leaving its top level with 
that of spring-tides. The next & 
driven at the point on the sands, 
beyond the bottom of the shingle, 
to which the groin is to extend, 
leaving about 4 feet of it out of 
the beach. 

The tops of these two piles may 
be taken for the general slope of 
the groin, unless the beach should 
be very steep, and much curved, in 
which case it becomes necessary to 
follow its curvature in some degree. 
From the high-water mark of 
neap-tides, the piles are carried 
back nearly level to that of spring- 
tides, and as much further as may 
be considered necessary. 

The piles are driven 4 feet asun- 
der from centre to centre, and so 
as to admit the planking between 
them alternately, and they should 
be sunk about two-thirds of their 
length. 

The longest piles are placed be- 
tween the high -water mark of neap- 
tides and the bottom of the shingle, 
particularly from 20 to 40 feet 
below the former point. 

The planking is, if possible, car- 
ried down to about two-thirds from 
the tops of the piles, and kept pa- 
rallel with them. 

The land-ties are placed about 
one-third from the top of the plank- 
ing (supposing the latter to com- 
mence from the tops of the piles), 
and their tails are sunk to the level 
of the bottom of the planking, or 
as nearly so as possible. 
Grotesque. This term, which is now 
familiar among all the lovers of the 
art of painting, was by the Italians 
appropriated to that peculiar man- 
ner of composition and invention 
observed among the antique mo- 
numental paintings which were 
discovered in the subterraneous 
chambers that had been decorated 
in the times of the ancient Romans; 
and as the Italians apply the word 
Grotto to express every kind of 
cave or grot, all paintings which 
were in imitation of the antique 

218 



designs discovered in those cham- 
bers, which for ages had been 
covered with ruins, are grotesqued 
or grotesque, which is now applied 
to English subjects of a quaint and 
anomalous character. 
Grotesque, a name given to the light 
and fanciful ornaments used for- 
merly to characterize persons and 
things. 
Grotto, a natural or artificial cavern 

or cave. 

Grouan lode, any tin lode which 
abounds with rough gravel or sand. 
Ground-plate or ground-sill, the low- 
est plate of a wooden building for 
supporting the principal and other 
posts. 

Grounds, pieces of wood fixed to walls 
and partitions, with their surfaces 
flush with the plaster, to which the 
facings or finishings are attached. 
Ground table stones, the projecting 
course of stones in a wall above the 
plinth. 

Ground-ways, large pieces of timber 
laid across a ship or dock, and 
upon which the blocks are placed. 
Groundwork, in painting, that colour 
or part on which all the images 
are drawn. 

Grouping is the combining or joining 
objects in a picture for the satis- 
faction of the eye, and also for its 
repose ; and although a picture may 
consist of different groups, yet 
those groups of objects, managed 
by the chiaro-oscuro, should all 
tend to unity, and one only should 
predominate. 

Guag, Cornish. Tinners, holeinginto 
a place which has been wrought 
before, call it holeing in guag. 
Gudgeon, the iron pins fixed in a 
beam or wooden shaft for bearings. 
Gudgeons, in ship-building, are eyes 
driven into the stern-post, to hang 
the rudder on. 

Guide-blocks, pieces of metal with 
parallel sides, fitted on the ends of 
a cross-head of a steam-engine, to 
slide in grooves in the side frames, 
and keep the motion of the piston- 
rod in a direct line. 



GUI 



GUSSETS. 



HAL 



Guilloche, an ornament used in clas- 
sical architecture, formed by two 
or more intertwining bands. 

Gulf of ore .- a lode which throws 
up very great quantities of ore, and 
proves lasting and good in depth, 
is so called. 

Gum wood, or blue gum wood, is the 
produce of New South Wales, sent 
over in large logs and planks, simi- 
lar to dark Spanish mahogany : it is 
used in ship-building, etc. 

Gun-boats were first made in this 
country with condensing engines, 
but of late a few have been made 
with non-condensing or high- 
pressure engines, which latter kind 
are found more convenient where 
fresh supplies of fuel can be rea- 
dily obtained. 

Gundulf of Rochester, 1077-1107. 
His works are seen at Rochester, 
Canterbury, and Peterborough. 

Gun-metal, a mixed metal, an alloy 
of copper and tin. 

Gunnies, in Cornish, a term applied 
to breadth or width : single gun- 
nies are 3 feet wide. 

Gunter's chain, the chain in common 
use for measuring land : the length 
of the chain is 66 feet, or 22 yards, 
or 4 poles of 5 yards each ; it 
is divided into 100 links of 7'92 
inches each. See Acre. 

Gunwale, or gunnel, in ship-building, 
the piece of timber which reaches 
on either side of the ship from the 
half-deck to the forecastle. The 
plank that covers the heads of the 
timbers between the fore and 
main drifts. 

Gussets, .as understood in mechanical 
construction, are brackets or an- 
gular pieces of iron, to strengthen, 
to keep steady, and support a 
structure. In the construction of 



the rectangular covered openings 
of the Britannia and Conway iron 
bridges, gussets are used exten- 
sively in the interior, consisting of 
double triangular plates riveted to 
the bottom and sides of the plates 
of the bridge, as a series of brack- 
ets (and at the top and either side 
also), to aid to the strength and 
durability of these extraordinary 
works, and as a counter-effort to 
the tendency of strain on the lower 
sides to separate or open the joints, 
and on the upper side to force 
them closer together. 

Gusto, a term used by the Italians, 
signifying taste in the design of the 
attitudes, good arrangement, and 
composition of a picture. 

Gutta, ornaments resembling drops, 
placed in the epistylium of the 
Doric order below the triglyphs. 
They occur likewise in the under 
face of the mutules in the Doric 
corona. They are supposed to have 
originated from the intention to 
represent drops of water running 
off the roof, adhered to the under 
surface of the canterii or rafters of 
early buildings. 

Gybing, in navigation, the shifting of 
any boom-sail from one side of the 
mast to the other. 

Gymnasium, a public building used 
by the Greeks for the practice and 
exercise of gymnastics, or mus- 
cular development ; also a place, 
according to Vitruvius, for amuse- 
ments and scientific recreation. 

Gynosceum, in Greek architecture, 
the apartment of the females in the 
interior of the house ; the nursery. 

Gypsoplaste, a cast taken in plaster of 
Paris or white lime. 

Gypsum, sulphate of lime, called also 
plaster of Paris. 



H. 



HADE OF VEINS is the mining-term 
for that inclination which nearly 
all veins have from a perpendicular 
direction. Thus, a vein is said to 

219 L 2 



hade to the north when it inclines 
further north. In Weardale, the 
veins mostly hade to the south. 
Half -bloom, a round mass of metal, 



HAL 



HALF-TIMBERED HOUSES. 



HAR 



which comes out of the fining ^f 
an iron work. 

Half-pace, or Haute-pace, a raised 
floor in a bay window. 

Half-timbered houses : this mode of 
constructing domestic buildings 
was practised in England and on 
the Continent during the reigns of 
Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. It was 
peculiarly of a picturesque charac- 
ter ; the foundations and principal 
supports were of stout timber, and 
the interstices of the fronts were 
filled with plaster. In many cases 
the ornamental timber framing was 
of a dark colour, which, with the 
barge-board gable, gave the whole 
an exceedingly interesting appear- 
ance. There are yet remaining 
some very fine examples in England, 
particularly in the western and 
north-western counties. 

Half-timbers, in ship-building, those 
timbers in the cant-bodies which 
are answerable to the lower fut- 
tocks in the square body. 

Hall, the principal apartment in the 
domestic houses of the middle ages ; 
a place of assembly ; a spacious 
building attached to inns of court. 

Halliards, in navigation, the ropes or 
tackles usually employed to hoist 
or lower any sail on its respective 
mast. 

Holy-work folk, people who hold 
land for repairing or defending a 
church or tombs, on which account 
they were freed from feudal and 
military service. 

IlaUyings, the hangings of a hall. 

Halvans, in Cornish, the refuse ore. 

Ham (Saxon), a house, home, farm, 
or village. 

Hamburg lake is a colour of great 
power and depth ; rather purplish, 
or inclining to crimson : it dries 
with extreme difficulty, but differs 
in no other essential quality from 
other cochineal lakes. 

Hamlet, a street or village, a dwell- 
ing place. 

Hammer-beams, horizontal pieces of 
timber, frequently used in the roofs 
of old English buildings, in pairs 

220 



on the opposite sides of the same 
roof ; often used also in the prin- 
cipals of Gothic roofs, to strengthen 
the framing and to diminish the 
lateral pressure that falls upon the 
walls. 

Hances, in architecture, ends of ellip- 
tical arches, which are arcs of 
smaller circles than the scheme or 
middle part of the arch. 

Hand-brace, a tool for boring, con- 
sisting of a cranked spindle, at one 
end of which a broad head or 
breast-plate is attached by a swivel, 
so that it may remain stationary 
while the crank is turned ; at the 
other end is a socket, into which a 
drill can be fixed. 

Hand-drilling machine,*, small drilling 
machine turned by manual labour. 

Hand-gear, in a locomotive engine, 
the handles of the working gear, 
placed conveniently to the foot- 
plate so as to be within reach of 
the engine-man when he requires 
to use them for regulating the dif- 
ferent parts of the engine. 

Hand-hook, an instrument made by 
smiths to twist square iron. 

Hand-pump, in a locomotive engine, 
the pump placed by the side of the 
fire-box, to be worked by a hand- 
lever when the engine has to stand 
with steam up. 

Hand-railing, in a locomotive engine, 
the railing along the sides of the 
engine, to protect persons passing 
to the front of the engine for any 
necessary purpose. 

Hand-saw, a saw from 12 to 15 inches 
in length, fixed in an iron frame, 
with a handle at one end ; used for 
cutting wood or metal. 

Hand-screw, a jack, an instrument 
for raising heavy timber. 

Hand-spike, a wooden lever for mov- 
ing heavy things. 

Hand-vice, a small vice which is held 
in the hand. 

Harbourage, shelter, or entertainment. 
" Crave harbourage within [your 
city walls." Shakspeare. 

Harmony is the general accordance of 
the objects in a painting with one 



HAR 



HEALTH OF TOWNS. 



HEA 



another, and their subordination to 
the principal object ; so that all 
unite to constitute a pleasing whole. 
It is effected by a due combination 
of lights and shades, by the union 
and colour, or by such contrasts 
as are sufficient to relieve the dis- 
tant groups. 

Harmony of colours. Lessons in 
colouring have ever been given, not- 
withstanding it is a part so princi- 
pal in painting, that it has its rules 
founded on science and reason. 
Without such study, it is impos- 
sible that youth can acquire a good 
taste in colouring, or understand 
harmony. 

Harpinos, "pieces of oak which hold 
the timbers of the fore-and-aft 
cant-bodies till a ship is planked. 

Hatches, the coverings for the hatch- 
ways of a ship, made with ledges, 
and laid with oak or deal, and 
caulked. 

Hatches, flood-gates in a river to stop 
the current of the water. 

Hatching is shadowing with a black- 
lead pencil or pen : it is done either 
in straight lines or zigzag strokes, 
such as are seen in pencil draw- 
ings, or in pencilled backgrounds. 
It is used by engravers in etching. 

Hatchways, places in the middle of 
the decks of a vessel, for the con- 
venience of lowering down goods. 

Haul the wind, in navigation, to direct 
the ship's course nearer to the 
point of the compass from which 
the wind blows. 

Haunch of an arch, the part between 
the vertex and the springing. 

Hawker, a vessel built like a pink, 
but masted and rigged like a hoy. 

Haws, in Domesday Book, mansions 
or dwelling-houses. 

Hawse, in navigation, the situation of 
the cables before the ship's stern 
when she is moored with two an- 
chors forward from the starboard 
and larboard bow. 

Hawse-pieces,. tlie timbers in the bow 
of a ship whose sides are nearly 
parallel to the middle line. 
Hawthorn, a wood not much used, is 

221 



hard, and of a whitish colour, with 
a tinge of yellow. 

Hazel, a small underwood, which is 
very elastic, used for turning, for 
the handles of blacksmiths' chisels, 
for the hoops of casks, etc. 

Head-ledges, the thwartship pieces 
which frame the hatch-ways or 
ladder- ways of ships. 

Head-stocks, the frames which sup- 
port the centres of a lathe; viz. 
the mandril-frame and the poppet- 
head, or back centre frame. 

Head- tin, a preparation of tin-ore to- 
wards the fitting it for working 
into metal. 

Headers, in masonry, stones extend- 
ing over the thickness of a wall ; 
and in bricklaying, the bricks which 
are laid lengthwise across the thick- 
ness of the wall are called headers. 

Heads, tiles which are laid at the 
eaves of a house. 

Healing, the covering a roof with 
lead, tin, slates, etc. 

Health of Towns, a phrase recently 
coined to express the general pur- 
pose of public sanatory measures. 
These measures are based upon the 
principles of animal physiology, but 
had been recognized only in the 
curative policy of the physician, 
until the evils of their neglect were 
traced by statistical inquiries into 
the causes of disease ; and they are 
therefore now properly regarded as 
essential objects in the social eco- 
nomy of life. 

The human constitution is so 
formed that its health depends on 
an adequate supply of pure air, 
water, and light. Every circum- 
stance, therefore, which vitiates the 
quality, or reduces the due quan- 
tity, of these essentials, is injurious 
to health, and demands amendment 
or extinction. 

Thus the efficient supply of pure 
and attemperated air requires pro- 
per drainage and ventilation, warm- 
ing or cooling of all places in which 
human beings live or congregate : 
it also limits the minimum of size 
for the healthy habitations of men. 



HEA 



HEAT. 



HEA 



The plentiful supply of pure \va- 
ter necessitates suitable provision 
for obtaining and treating it, and 
the proscription of all arrangements 
which limit the service or injure 
its purity. Equally important with 
these conditions is the third one 
enumerated, which suggests the ne- 
cessity of so arranging and con- 
structing streets and buildings, that 
abundance of light may at all times 
be admitted into them. 

As measures auxiliary to these 
objects, and of great importance in 
the combined arrangements of so- 
ciety, public exercising and plea- 
sure grounds, baths and wash- 
houses, cooking apparatus, medical 
and remedial establishments, street 
accommodations, etc., command 
adoption, and, when adequately 
carried out, will tend to complete 
the physical requisites of the health 
of towns. 

Heat, in the ordinary application of 
the word, signifies, or rather im- 
plies, the sensation experienced 
upon touching a body hotter, or 
of a higher temperature, than the 
part or parts which we bring into 
contact with it : in another sense, 
it is used to express the cause of 
that sensation. To avoid any am- 
biguity that may arise from this 
double use of the same expression, 
it is usual and proper to employ 
the word caloric to signify the 
principle or cause of the sensation 
of heat. On touching a hot body, 
caloric passes from it, and excites 
the feeling of warmth : when we 
touch a body having a lower tem- 
perature than our hand, caloric 
passes from the hand to it, and 
thus arises the sensation of cold. 

Caloric is usually treated of as if 
it were a material substance ; but, 
like light and electricity, its true 
nature has yet to be determined. 

COMMUNICATION OF CALORIC. 

Caloric passes through different 
bodies with different degrees of ve- 
locity. This has led to the division 
of bodies into conductors and non- 
222 



conductors of caloric : the former 
includes such bodies as metals, 
which allow caloric to pass freely 
through their substance ; and the 
latter comprises those that do not 
give an easy passage to it, such as 
stones, glass, wood, charcoal, etc. 
Table of the relative conducting 

power of different bodies. 
Gold . . . 1000 
Platinum . . .981 
Silver . . .973 
Copper . . .898 
Iron . . .374 
Zinc . . . 363 
Tin . . . . 304 
Lead ... 180 
Marble ... 24 
Porcelain. . . 12-2 
Fire-brick -. . 11 
Fire-clay . . . 11 '4 
With Water as the standard. 
Water . . . 10 
Pine ... 39 
Lime ... 39 
Oak. . . . 33 
Elm ... 32 
Ash. . . . 31 
Apple ... 28 
Ebony ... 22 
Relative conducting power of dif- 
ferent substances compared wit ft 
each other. 

Hares' fur . .1-315 
Eider-down . . 1'305 
Beavers' fur . . 1'296 
Raw silk . . . 1-284 
Wool . . . 1-118 
Lamp-black . . 1-117 
Cotton . . . 1-046 
Lint . . . 1-032 

Charcoal . . . -937 
Ashes (wood) . . -927 
Sewing silk . . -917 
Air ... -576 

Relative conducting power of fluids. 
Mercury . . . I'OOO 
Water . . . -357 
Proof Spirit . . '312 
Alcohol (pure) . . '232 

RADIATION OF CALORIC. 

W'hen heated bodies are exposed 
to the air, they lose portions of 



HEA 



HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 



HE I 



their heat, by projection in right 
lines into space, from all parts of 
their surface. 

Bodies which radiate heat best, 
absorb it best. 

Radiation is affected by the na- 
ture of the surface of the body : 
thus black and rough surfaces ra- 
diate and absorb more heat than 
light and polished surfaces. 
Table of the radiating power of 

different bodies. 
Water . . .100 
Lamp-black . . 100 
Writing-paper . .100 
Glass ... 90 
Indian ink . . 88 
Bright lead . . 19 
Silver ... 12 
Blackened tin . . 100 
Clean do. . . 12 
Scraped do. . . 16 
Ice . . . . 85 
Mercury ... 20 
Polished iron . . 15 
Copper . . . 12 
Professor Leslie has proved, by a 
variety of experiments, that the 
heat which is propagated by radi- 
ation from different bodies varies 
with the nature of their external 
surfaces ; the quantity which flows 
in a given time from a body with a 
polished surface being much less 
than would flow from the same 
body with a rough surface. It 
therefore follows that the external 
surfaces of the steam-pipes of steam- 
engines and steam-cylinders should 
be as smooth as possible, and should 
be covered with any body which is 
a bad conductor of heat. 
Heaven (in the Table of Symbols of 
the early ages) is symbolized by 
the segment of a circle, sometimes 
of blue or of the three colours of 
the rainbow ; the Universe, by a 
globe of blue. 

Heckler (Jean Geo.), born in 1628, 
became in 1654 architect of the 
cathedral of Strasburg, and died 
in 1669. 

Heel tool, a tool used by turners for 
roughing out a piece of iron, or 

223 



turning it to somewhat near the 
intended size : it has a very acute 
cutting edge and an angular base 
or heel. 

Height of columns. The height of a 
column is measured by its diameter 
immediately above the base. 

Diameters high. 

The Tuscan column . 7 
The Ionic ... 9 
Corinthian and Composite 10 
In the above heights are included 
the capitals and bases, which are 
esteemed parts of the columns with 
which they are used. 
Heights and Distances. Trigonometry 
receives its principal practical ap- 
plication in the operations of sur- 
veying, and measuring heights and 
distances ; as, however, the methods 
of its application (depending on the 
peculiar circumstances of each case) 
are exceedingly various, no general 
rules can be specified. 

The instruments employed to 
measure angles are quadrants, sex- 
tants, theodolites, etc., the use of 
either of which may be sooner 
learned from an examination of the 
instruments themselves than from 
any description independently of 
them. For military men and for 
civil engineers, a good pocket sex- 
tant and an accurate micrometer 
(such as Cavallo's), attached to a 
telescope, are highly useful. For 
measuring small distances, as bases, 
50-feet and 100-feet chains and a 
portable box of graduated tape will 
be necessary. 

For the purposes of surveying, it 
is usual to employ a chain 66 feet 
in length, subdivided into 100 links, 
each 7'92 inches : the reason for 
using a chain of this length is, that 
ten of such square chains are equal 
to an acre, and therefore the acre- 
age of the several divisions of an 
estate is found with much greater 
facility when measured in chains 
and links, than when the measure- 
ments are taken in feet. 
Heil, to cover, to tile. Wat Tyler 
was called Wat the Heiler. 



HEL 



HERALDRY. 



HIN 



Helix, the small volute under the* 
abacus of a Corinthian capital. 

Helix, anything of a spiral form, whe- 
ther in one plane, as the spiral curve, 
or in different planes, as the screw. 

Hemlock spruce forms a large pro- 
portion of the evergreen forests of 
New Brunswick, and is abundantly 
multiplied in every favourable si- 
tuation. The wood of the hemlock 
spruce is firmer than that of the 
white pine ; although coarser, 
grained, it gives better hold to 
nails, and offers more resistance 
to the impression of other bodies. 

Hengin, a prison, or house of cor- 
rection. 

Heptagon, in geometry, a figure with 
seven sides or angles. 

Heraldry is a science intimately con- 
nected with the early history of 
Europe, its chivalry, its conquests, 
and the bearing of arms : it teaches 
how to blazon or explain in proper 
terms all that belongs to arms ; 
and how to marshal or dispose 
with extreme punctualness divers 
arms on a field. It is in its archae- 
ology and in precedent indisputable. 
It teaches whatever relates to the 
marshalling of solemn processions 
and other public ceremonies, at co- 
ronations, installations of Knights of 
the Garter, Knights Grand Cross of 
the Bath, Knights Companions, etc.; 
at the creation of peers, nuptials, 
christenings of princes, funerals, etc. 
It is, in fact, au important science, 
particularly in English history, in 
tracing the narrative of the families 
of the nobility and commoners, 
their holdings, their distinguishing 
qualifications, in arms, in literature, 
and in the arts. 

Hermce, statues of which only the 
head is carved, and sometimes a 
portion of the bust : square or cu- 
bical figures of the god Mercury, 
without legs and arms, anciently 
placed by the Greeks and Romans 
at their cross-ways. 

Herring-bone work, masonry in which 
the stones are laid aslant instead 
of being bedded flat. 

224 



Herse, a portcullis ; a frame whereon 
lighted candles were placed at the 
obsequies of distinguished persons. 

Heterogeneous, opposite or dissimilar 
in nature, as opposed to homo- 
geneous. 

Heums, in Cornwall, the sides of a 
calciner or burning-house furnace ; 
so called from their being formerly 
built with hewn moor-stone. 

Hexagon, in geometry, a figure of six 
sides or angles. 

Hexahedron, in geometry, one of the 
five regular solids, being the same 
with a cube. 

Heocastyle, a portico of six columns in 
front. 

Hcjcastylos, a frontage of six columns. 

Hexeres, a vessel with six banks of 
oars on each side. 

Hiatus, an aperture, a breach or de- 
fect. 

Hick's mandril, an arbor for turning 
rings : at the centre of the arbor 
there is a cone, round which, at 
equal distances, wedges are fitted 
into dove-tailed grooves, and are 
expanded to the bore of the ring 
by a nut acting on a screw at the 
end of the cone. 

Hickory or white walnut, a native of 
America. The wood of the young 
trees is exceedingly tough and flex- 
ible, and makes excellent hand- 
spikes, etc. 

Hieroglyphic, an emblem, a figure by 
which a word is implied ; the 
Egyptian art of writing in picture. 

High-pressure engine, a non-conden- 
sing steam-engine, worked by the 
excess of the pressure of the steam 
upon the piston above the pressure 
of the atmosphere : in this engine, 
after the steam has acted upon the 
piston, it passes through the educ- 
tion-pipe into the air. 

Hiling, the covering or roof of a 
building. 

Hinges, the joints on which doors, 
gates, etc., turn. 

Hinges. The diversity of forms into 
which door furniture has been re- 
solved is almost endless. Many of 
the ancient hinges were not only 



HIP 



HOGARTH. 



HOL 



wrought into scrolls and other flo- 
rid devices, but occasionally further 
enriched with inscriptions. 

Hip, the external angle formed by the 
meeting of the sloping sides of roofs 
which have their wall-plates run- 
ning in different directions. 

Hip-knob, a pinnacle, finial, or other 
similar ornament, placed on the 
top of the hips of a roof or the 
point of a gable. 

Hippodrome, a large plot of ground 
laid out for the exercise of horses ; 
among the Greeks, a race-course. 

Hogarth (William) was born in Lon- 
don in 1697. During his struggles 
to quit silver plate engraving and 
to fit himself for an artist, Ho- 
garth writes : " I had learned by 
practice to copy with tolerable cor- 
rectness in the ordinary way, but 
it occurred to me that there were 
many disadvantages attending this 
method of study, as having faulty 
originals, and even when the pic- 
tures or prints to be imitated were 
by the best masters, it was little 
more than pouring water out of one 
vessel into another;" again, " Many 
reasons led me to wish that I could 
find the shorter path, fix forms and 
characters in my mind, and instead 
of copying the lines, try to read the 
language, and, if possible, find the 
grammar of the art, by bringing 
into one focus the various observa- 
tions I had made, and then trying 
by my power on the canvas how 
far my plan enabled me to combine 
and apply them to practice. For 
this purpose I considered what va- 
rious ways, and to what different 
purposes, the memory might be 
applied ; and fell upon one most 
suitable to my situation and idle 
disposition ; laying it down as an 
axiom, that he who could by any 
means acquire and retain in his 
memory perfect ideas of the sub- 
jects he meant to draw, would have 
as clear a knowledge of the figure 
as a man who can write freely hath 
of the twenty-five letters of the al- 
phabet, arid their infinite combina- 

225 L 



tions." Hogarth supported him- 
self by the sale of his prints the 
prices of his paintings kept pace 
neither with his fame nor with his 
expectations. In January, 1745, 
he offered for sale the six paint- 
ings of the Harlot's Progress, the 
eight paintings of the Rake's Pro- 
gress, the Four Times a Day, and 
the Strolling Actresses, and received 
only 427. 7s. for his nineteen pic- 
tures. In June, 1750, the six pic- 
tures of Marriage-a-la-Mode were 
sold by public auction for 110; 
in 1797 they were sold to Anger- 
stein for 1381. The four Elec- 
tion Pictures, begun in 1755 and 
finished in 1758, were sold for 
200, and subsequently were sold 
to Sir John Soane for 1732. 

Hoggan, in Cornish, a hawthorn- 
berry, the tinner's pasty. 

Hogging, in ship-building, the convex 
appearance resembling the back of 
a hog, given to a ship after being 
first launched, by the dropping of 
the two extremities. 

Hogshead, a measure of 63 gallons. 

Hoist, an apparatus for raising bodies 
from the ground-floor of a building 
to a floor above. 

Holte (Henry), of York, designed in 
1612 several buildings. It is con- 
jectured that he designed and com- 
pleted the garden quadrangle build- 
ing at Merton in 1610, and the 
whole of Wadhain College cost 
11,360. 

Hollow newel, an opening in the mid- 
dle of a staircase, the steps only 
being supported at one end by the 
surrounding wall, the ends next the 
hollow unsupported; also a hollow 
groin, pier, of brick or stone, made 
behind the lock-gates of canals. 

Holly is a very clean, fine-grained 
wood, the whitest and most costly 
of those used by the Tunbridge- 
ware manufacturers : it is used for 
painted screens and a great variety 
of fancy and tasteful purposes. 

Holy Trinity (The), in the Table of 
Symbols of the early ages, by the 
three-coloured rainbow, encircling 



HOL 



HOPS. 



HOP 



our Saviour, the visible form of the 
Deity, who is sometimes seated on 
it, Ezek. i. 28, Rev. iv. 3 ; by the 
beams of light from the hand of 
Christ ; by the extension of the 
thumb, fore and middle fingers of 
the Saviour's hand as held in giving 
the benediction. 

Holy-water vessel, the vessel which 
contains the consecrated or holy 
water carried in religions proces- 
sions ; also the receptacle for holy 
water placed at the entrances of 
Roman Catholic churches. 

Holy-water stone, the stoup on which 
the holy-water vessel is placed. 

Holy - work folk, people who hold 
lands for repairing or defending a 
church or tombs, on which account 
they were freed from feudal and 
military service. 

Homestall, or Homestead, a mansion, 
house, or seat in the country; a 
farm, with the land adjoining. 

Homogeneous, a term applied to va- 
rious substances, to denote that 
they consist of similar parts, or 
parts of the same nature and 
kind. 

Hooding s- ends, the ends of planks 
which fit into the rabbets of the 
stem and stern-post of a ship. 

Hood-mould, a band or string over 
the head of a door, window, or 
other opening, in an ancient build- 
ing ; so called from its enclosing, as 
within a hood, the inferior mould- 
ings and the opening itself. 

Hood-moulding, a name given to the 
label-moulding. 

Hook-pins, taper iron pins, only with 
a hook head, to pin the frame of a 
roof or floor together. 

Hops, Hop-drying. The art of drying 
hops has been much improved 
of late years ; emulation amongst 
landlords and tenant-farmers, in 
regard to the construction of their 
oasts, has led to this. Hop-drying 
is a process of desiccation, of which 
the object is to drive off the su- 
perfluous moisture from the hops. 
Hot wind generally dries more 
quickly than a cold one; that which 

226 



has the highest temperature will 
absorb moisture from any sub- 
stance over which it passes more 
rapidly than the cooler current 
will. It is not, however, so gene- 
rally apprehended that the converse 
of the above proposition is also 
true, and that, with equal tempera- 
tures, that substance over which 
most air passes in a given time will 
part with a larger portion of its 
moisture. The application of the 
latter principle has been illustrated 
in low-temperature drying, which 
has been managed by introducing 
a considerable quantity of external 
air into the space beneath the hair, 
by knocking holes in the external 
walls. Experiments of this sort 
have been held to be conclusive as 
to the superiority of low-tempera- 
ture drying. This, however, is not 
exactly the case, because as much 
heat would pass through the hops 
as before, as long as the fires were 
kept up as usual ; and the true ex- 
planation of the circumstance is 
that the improved drying is due to 
the larger quantity of air passed 
through the hops, rather than to 
the temperature being reduced. If 
the fires had been lessened, the 
temperature might have been low- 
ered as much as was done by the 
admission of cold air ; but in that 
case the hops, instead of drying 
better, would have been found not 
to dry so well as at the higher 
temperature. The questions which 
are for consideration are, the quan- 
tity of air necessary to be admit- 
ted ; the mode of its admission ; 
the method of heating the air ; the 
proportion and construction of the 
kiln necessary to give full effect to 
the above arrangements. The quan- 
tity of air to be admitted is depen- 
dent upon the temperature at which 
the drying is to be conducted, and 
upon the weight of moisture to be 
evaporated. Air at various tem- 
peratures has an ascertained capa- 
city for moisture. When fully sa- 
turated, 



HOP 



HOPS. 



HOP 



Airat32deg. contains l-160th") 
59 l-80th | 

86 l-40th g 

113 l-20th I 

140 l-10th f Jf 

167 l-5th g 

194 2-5th I 

221 4-5thJ 

The capacity of air for moisture 
being doubled by each accession of 
27 degrees of Fahrenheit. If, then, 
we desire to know what quantity 
of air should be admitted to carry 
off a given weight of moisture at 
any of the above-named tempera- 
tures, we have only to multiply the 
weight of moisture by the increased 
capacity for moisture due to air raised 
from the temperature of the exter- 
nal atmosphere to that of the kiln. 
Supposing the weight of water to 
be evaporated to be 7 cwt., the 
temperature of the external air 59 
degrees, and that of the kiln 113 
degrees, 186 cwt. of air would be 
required to carry off this quantity 
of moisture. About 13 cubic feet 
of air weigh a pound, and rather 
more than 270,000 cubic feet of air 
must therefore be passed through 
the kiln during the time of drying. 
If we suppose this operation to be 
continued for ten hours, this will 
give 27,000 feet per hour, or about 
eight feet per second. To allow 
of the passage of so large a quan- 
tity of air, the openings for its ad- 
mission must be of a correspond- 
ing area ; and as it is better to ad- 
mit too much air than too little, it 
would be well to adopt something 
like the_ following proportions of 
openings : 

6 ft. superficial for a 1 6 ft. kiln. 
8 18 

10 20 

12 22 

The method of heating the kiln 
has been generally regarded as the 
most important point connected 
with hop-drying. The requisite 
conditions are, that the heating 
surfaces should be largely extended, 
and that the contact of the air- 

227 



currents with the heated material 
should be perfect over the whole 
surface. Where the former of 
these conditions does not obtain, a 
larger quantity of air cannot be 
heated. In an open fire, the heat- 
ing surfaces are nearly as the area 
of the fire-bars ; in a common 
cockle they may be estimated as 
about 2-2 to 1 ; and in the im- 
proved stove, or evaporator, they 
are as about 30 to 1. The pecu- 
liarities in the construction of the 
improved stove are: The situation 
of the fire in the centre or heart of 
the stove at a distance from the 
outer surfaces, which cannot there- 
fore become overheated to the ex- 
tent that takes place where the 
fuel is in direct contact with the 
sides. The exceedingly small size 
of the fire-grate as compared with 
the area of the fire bars, either of 
open fires or of ordinary cockles, 
and the consequent diminution in 
the consumption of fuel. It has 
been stated upon competent autho- 
rity that the cost of drying hops 
by ordinary cockles was about Wd. 
per cwt., as compared with 3*. 
where open fires and charcoal were 
used. By the improved stove, the 
loading of a sixteen-feet kiln might 
certainly be dried with one cwt. of 
coals. The more perfect combus- 
tion of the fuel effected by lining 
the furnace with fire-brick and the 
higher temperature thereby in- 
duced have much to do with the 
efficiency of the stove. The com- 
mon cockle being heated entirely 
by radiated heat, absorbs none of 
the heat from the smoke, which 
would escape at a very high tem- 
perature if a further portion of ca- 
loric were not abstracted from it 
in its circuit of the horizontal flues. 
The principle of bringing the air 
as it becomes warmed, in succes- 
sive contact with still more highly- 
heated portions of the stove, is pur- 
sued throughout. The sides of the 
stove are surrounded by a brick 
wall, at a distance of about six 



HOR 



HORSE-POWER. 



HOS 



inches from the stove at the nar- 
rowest part. This wall confines 
the air in its ascent, pressing it as 
it were against the sides, which are 
made to overhang, in order to give 
more perfect contact. On reaching 
the upper part of the side channels 
the current of warmed air is de- 
flected by inclined cast-iron plates, 
and made to traverse the pyramidal 
top of the stove, where it receives 
its last portion of heat, and then 
escapes upwards through the tubes 
with which the deflecting plates 
are perforated. It is desirable in 
building kilns to use every precau- 
tion to prevent the loss of heat by 
radiation to the surrounding atmo- 
sphere. This may be effected by 
building the external walls hollow, 
or with hollow bricks. An inner 
circle answers nearly the same pur- 
pose if there is a door to shut off 
the communication with the shed, 
and no openings through the ex- 
ternal walls. The roofs should 
also be plastered with lime and 
hair under the tiles before the in- 
ner plastering is done. Attention 
to this point and to carefully stop- 
ping all air-passages at the foot of 
the rafters, will prevent the con- 
densation of the reek upon the in- 
terior of the kiln. 

Hornbeam, a very tough and stringy 
European wood, used by millwrights 
for the cogs of wheels ; also for 
plumbers' dressers, or mallets, etc. 

Hornblende, a conspicuous ingredient 
in the composition of rocks, divided 
into common hornblende, horn- 
blende-schist, and basaltic horn- 
blende. 

Horn-stone, a. conchoidal and siliceous 
mineral substance, allied in compo- 
sition to flint, but of a more earthy 
texture. 

Horography, the art of constructing 
dials. 

Horologium, a name anciently given to 
any instrument for measuring time. 

Horse, a large round bar of iron fixed 
in the head of a ship. 

Horse, in navigation, the name of a 



rope reaching from the middle of a 
yard to its extremity, on which the 
sailors stand when they are loosing 
or reefing the sails. 

Horse-chestnut wood is one of the 
white woods used by the Tunbridge 
turners ; it is close and soft, even 
in the grain, and is much used for 
brush-backs, etc. 

Horse-power. Although horses are 
not all of one strength, yet there is 
a certain force now generally agreed 
upon among those who construct 
steam-engines, which force is de- 
nominated a horse's power, and 
hence steam-engines are distin- 
guished in size by the number of 
horses' power to which they are 
said to be equal. 

The measure of a mechanical 
effect equal to a horse's power has 
been much disputed: this, however, 
can be but a matter of little conse- 
quence, if the measure be generally 
understood, since there is no such 
thing as bringing it into any real 
measure. Some horses will perform 
double the work of others, and 
those of one country will work more 
than those of another. Desaguliers' 
measure is, that a horse will walk 
at the rate of 2| miles per hour, 
against a resistance of 2001bs.,and 
this gives, as a number for compa- 
rison, 44,000 ; that is, the raising 
of 1 Ib. 44,000 feet in a minute, or, 
what amounts to the same, the 
raising of 44,000 Ibs. 1 foot in a 
a minute. 

Emerson's measure is the same 
as Desaguliers', and Smeaton's re- 
sult is 22,9 16 Ibs. under the same 
circumstances. 

James Watt found, from repeated 
experiments, that 33,000 Ibs. 1 foot 
per minute was the average value 
of a horse's power : but his engines 
were calculated to work equal to 
44,000 Ibs. 1 foot per minute. 

-fir.P.,theabbreviationforhorse-power. 

Hortus, a garden or pleasure-ground. 

Hose-pipes, in locomotive engines, 
elastic pipes made of canvas, sa- 
turated with a solution of India- 



HOS 



HOT-AIR BLAST. 



HOT 



rubber, sometimes galvanized, and 
forming a good elastic connection 
between the engine and tender 
feed-pipes. They are now generally 
used in preference to ball-and- 
socket connections for conveying 
the steam to the tender. 

Hospitatia, anciently the doorways in 
the scene of a theatre on the right 
and left of the valvae regia3 or prin- 
cipal doorway ; so called because 
the movable scenes, representing 
inns or places appropriated for the 
reception of strangers, were placed 
near them. 

Hospitals were originally designed for 
the relief of poor and impotent per- 
sons, and the entertainment of tra- 
vellers upon the road, particularly 
of pilgrims, and therefore they 
were generally built upon the road- 
side ; in later time they have always 
been founded for fixed inhabitants ; 
before the spoliation, there existed 
in England above 358 of these 
houses of relief. 

Hostelry, or Hostry, anciently an inn. 

Hot-air blast. It was conceived that 
the presence of sulphur in the air 
was the cause of blast furnaces 
working irregularly and making 
bad iron in the summer months. 
Subsequently it was stated that one 
of the Muirkirk iron furnaces, in 
Scotland, situated at a considerable 
distance from the engine, did not 
work so well as the others, which 
led to the conjecture that the fric- 
tion of the air, in passing along the 
pipe, prevented an equal volume 
of the air getting to the distant 
furnace as to the one which was 
situated close by the engine : it was 
considered also, that by heating the 
air at the distant furnace, its volume 
would increase in the ratio of the 
known law, that air and gases ex- 
pand to double their bulk at 448 
temperature. 

Example : If 1000 cubic feet, 
say at 50 of Fahrenheit, were 
pressed by the engine in a given 
time, and heated to 600 of Fah- 
renheit, it would then be increased 



in volume to 2104-4, and so on for 
every thousand feet that would be 
blown into the furnace. In prose- 
cuting the experiments which this 
idea suggested, circumstances, how- 
ever, became apparent which in- 
duced a belief, that heating the air 
introduced for supporting combus- 
tion into air-furnaces materially in- 
creased its efficiency in this re- 
spect ; and with the view of putting 
these suspicions to the test, the 
following experiments were made. 

To the nozzle of a pair of common 
smith's bellows, a cast-iron vessel 
heated is attached from beneath, in 
the manner of a retort for gene- 
rating gas, and to this vessel the 
blow-pipe, by which the forge or 
furnace was blown, was also at- 
tached. The air from the bellows 
having thus to pass through the 
heated vessel above mentioned, was 
consequently heated to a high tem- 
perature before it entered the forge 
fire, and the result produced, in 
increasing the intensity of the heat 
in the furnace, was far beyond ex- 
pectation, and so evident as to make 
apparent the fallacy of the generally 
received opinion, that the coldness 
of the air of the atmosphere in the 
winter months was the cause of the 
best iron being then produced. 

In overthrowing the old theory, 
new principles in the process of 
iron-making were established. 

Experiments on the large scale, 
to reduce iron ore in a founder's 
cupola, were commenced at the 
Clyde Iron-works. These experi- 
ments were completely successful, 
and in consequence the invention 
was immediately adopted at the 
Calder Iron-works, where the blast, 
being made to pass through two 
retorts placed on each side of one 
of the large furnaces before entering 
the furnace, effected an instanta- 
neous change, both in the quantity 
and quality of iron produced, and 
a considerable saving of fuel. 

The whole of the furnaces at the 
Calder and Clyde Iron-works were 



229 



HOT 



HOUSE. 



HOU 



fitted up]on the principle of the hqt 
blast, and its use at these works 
continues to be attended with the 
utmost success; it has also been 
adopted at Wilsontown and Gart- 
shirrie Iron-works in Scotland, 
and at several works in England 
and France. 

The air as at first raised to 250 
of Fahrenheit, produced a saving of 
three-sevenths in every ton of pig- 
iron made, and the heating appa- 
ratus having since been enlarged, 
so as to increase the temperature of 
the blast to 600 Fahrenheit and 
upwards, a proportional saving of 
fuel is effected ; and an immense 
additional saving is also acquired 
by the use of raw coal instead of 
coke, which may now be adopted. 
By thus increasing the heat of the 
blast, the whole waste incurred in 
burning the coal into coke is avoided 
in the process of making iron. 

By the use of this invention, 
with three-sevenths of the fuel 
formerly employed in the cold-air 
process, the iron-maker is now 
enabled to make one-third more 
iron of a superior quality. 

Were the hot blast generally 
adopted, the saving to the country 
in the article of coal would be 
immense. In Britain, about 700,000 
tons of iron are made annually, of 
which 50,000 tons only are pro- 
duced in Scotland : on these 50,000 
tons would be saved, in the pro- 
cess of manufacture, 200,000 tons 
of coal annually. In England the 
saving would be in proportion to 
the strength and quality of the 
coal, and cannot be computed at 
less than 1,520,000 tons annually; 
and taking the price of coals at the 
low rate of four shillings per ton, 
a yearly saving of 296,000 ster- 
ling would be effected. 

Nor are the advantages of this 
invention solely confined to iron- 
making : by its use the founder can 
cast into roods an equal quantity 
of iron in much less time, and with 
a saving of nearly half the fuel 

230 



employed in the cold-air process ; 
and the blacksmith can produce in 
the same time one-third more work, 
with much less fuel than he for- 
merly required. 

In all the processes of metallur- 
gical science it will be found of the 
utmost importance in reducing the 
ores to a metallic state. 

Hospitium, in old writers, an inn or a 
monastery, built for the reception 
of strangers and travellers. 

Hot-house, a glass building used in 
gardening, and including stoves, 
conservatories, etc. 

Hot-water pump, the feed-pump of a 
condensing engine, for supplying 
the boiler from the hot well. 

Hot well, the vessel which receives 
the water from the air-pump. 

Hour-glass stand, a bracket or frame 
of iron for receiving the hour-glass. 
See ' Papers on Architecture,' vol. 
iii., which contains a good example. 
" By the side of the pulpit still 
remains the ancient hour-glass and 
frame." 

House, a place of residence. The pur- 
pose of a house being for dwelling, 
and that of tents being the same, 
they are called by one name in the 
Hebrew ; on the same principle, the 
Tabernacle of God, though only a 
tent, is sometimes called the Tem- 
ple, that is, the residence of God. 
The ordinary buildings or houses 
in the East have continued the same 
from the earliest ages, without the 
least alteration or improvement ; 
large doors, spacious chambers, 
marble pavements, cloistered courts, 
with fountains, etc., conveniences 
well adapted to the circumstances 
of these climates, where the sum- 
mer heats are generally intense. The 
streets of these cities, the better to 
shade them from tb.e sun, are usu- 
ally narrow, with sometimes a range 
of shops on each side. On enter- 
ing one of the principal houses, a 
porch or gateway will first be seen, 
with benches on each side, where 
the master of the family receives 
visits and despatches business. In 



HOU 



HOUSE. 



HOU 



houses of better fashion, the cham- 
bers are hung with velvet or 
damask from the middle of the 
wall downwards, and covered and 
adorned with velvet or damask 
hangings of white, blue, red, green, 
or other colours. The ceiling is 
generally of wainscot, either very 
artistically painted, or else thrown 
into a variety of panels with gilded 
mouldings, and with scrolls of the 
Koran, etc. The stairs are some- 
times placed in the porch, some- 
times at the entrance into the court. 
When there is one or more stories, 
they are afterwards continued, 
through one corner or other of the 
gallery, to the top of the house, 
whither they conduct through a 
door that is generally kept shut, 
to prevent their domestic animals 
from daubing the terrace, and 
thereby spoiling the water which 
falls from thence into the cisterns 
below the court, etc. Such in 
general are the manner and contri- 
vances of the Eastern houses ; and 
if it may be presumed that our 
Saviour, at the healing of the para- 
lytic, was preaching in a house of 
this fashion, it may, by attending 
only to the structure of it, throw 
some light on one circumstance of 
that history, which has given great 
offence to some unbelievers. The 
houses of the poorer class of people 
in the East are of very bad con- 
struction, consisting of mud walls, 
reeds, and rashes. In Constanti- 
nople everything is sacrificed to 
outside decorative show: built prin- 
cipally of wood, conflagrations are 
frequent and extensive. In earlier 
history, magnificence and refined 
luxury were combined with the 
highest and most noble examples of 
decorative art. The interior of the 
domestic residences and public edi- 
fices of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
surpassed every existing example. 
The houses of the Roman citizens 
partook also of the refinement of 
an age of art ; and modern Europe 
has noble examples of domestic 

231 



dwellings, coeval with the wealth 
of the country in which they are 
still to be found. In England, the 
domestic residence of the noble- 
man, the merchant, and the trader 
are, besides the elegances of their 
arrangements, models of comfort 
and health. 

Before a house is planned, the 
proprietor should describe the 
kind of house he wishes to be built. 
The architect is to consider what 
must be had, and what may be dis- 
pensed with. He ought to keep 
his plan as scrupulously within the 
expense proposed, as within the 
limits of the ground he is to build 
upon ; he is, in short, to enter into 
the views, the wishes, and the ideas 
of the gentleman who will inhabit 
the house proposed to be erected. 

Houses suitable to the different 
ranks of the community. Vitru- 
vius instructs us of those parts of 
private houses which are exclu- 
sively appropriated to individuals 
of the family, and in what manner 
these ought to be connected with 
the apartments into which strangers 
are admitted ; for there are several 
parts of a house which may not be 
approached by those who are riot 
of the household, unless expressly 
invited ; such as the sleeping-rooms, 
triclinia, baths, and those apart- 
ments which are in general use. 
The parts which are accessible to 
all, and into which any person may 
enter uninvited, are the vestibule, 
cavsedium, peristyle, and whatever 
others are built for similar pur- 
poses. 

Of the proportions of private 
houses, Vitruvius says : " Nothing 
ought to engage the attention of 
an architect more than the pro- 
portions of all the parts in the 
houses he constructs : after having 
determined upon such proportions 
as the necessity for the commen- 
suration of the parts with the entire 
building seems to require, the great- 
est judgment must be exercised in 
adapting them to the nature of the 



HOU 



HYDRAULICS. 



HYD 



spot, the use to which the edifice 
are designed, and the appearance 
they ought to assume ; and this 
must be done by making such addi- 
tions or deductions, that, although 
the proportions are not strictly what 
they ought to be, the eye may not 
be conscious wherein they fail. The 
same objects appear differently 
under dissimilar circumstances ; if 
near the ground or at a considerable 
elevation ; if in a confined space or 
an exposed situation. Under every 
peculiar circumstance, great judg- 
ment is necessary in calculating the 
effect which will be ultimately pro- 
duced. The impression made upon 
the sense of seeing is not always 
a correct image of the object ; for, 
in painting, columns, mutules, and 
statues are made to appear pro- 
jecting and detached, when, in fact, 
every object represented is in one 
and "the same plane. It becomes 
necessary, in the first place, to in- 
stitute laws of proportion, upon 
which all our calculations must be 
founded. According to these, the 
ground-plan, exhibiting the length 
and breadth of the whole work 
and the several parts of it, must be 
formed. When the magnitude of 
these is once determined, the parts 
must be arranged so as to produce 
that external beauty which suffers 
no doubt to arise in the minds of 
those who examine it as to the 
want of proportion in any part." 

The Greeks had a different way 
of building from the Romans ; for, 
as Vitruvius says, " instead of mak- 
ing porticoes or galleries and halls, 
they made the entry to their 
houses very narrow, placing on 
one side the stables, and the por- 
ter's lodge on the other. From 
this first entry one passed into a 
court, which had piazzas on three 
sides, and towards that of the 
south they made anti, or abut- 
ments of pilasters, which supported 
the joists of the ceiling more in- 
wards ; because that leaving some 
space between the one and the 



other, they had very large places, 
which they appointed for lodging 
to the mistress of the house, and 
to the men and women servants. 
On the same floor with these abut- 
ments there were some rooms which 
may be called antechambers, cham- 
bers and drawing-rooms, being 
every one just behind the other." 

House-bote, an allowance of timber 
out of the lord's wood, to support or 
repair a tenant's house. 

Housing, a tabernacle, or niche for a 
statue, was formerly so called. 

Hovel. The canopies over the heads 
of the statues of Richard II. and 
Queen Anne are called hovels or 
tabernacles. 

Howl, or To Howie, when the foot- 
hooks of a ship are scarfed into the 
ground-timbers, etc. 

Huel, a work, a mine, as huel stones, 
a tin mine. 

Hulk, in Cornwall, an old excavated 
working ; l to hulk the lode.' 

Hulk, or hull, the body of a ship. 

Hummums (Turkish), a sweating 
house. 

Hungarian machine, an hydraulic en- 
gine, a very ingenious application 
of the Hero jet-d'eau principle. 

Hydraletes, according to Strabo, a 
mill for grinding corn by water- 
power. 

Hydraulic belt, an endless double 
band of woollen cloth, passing over 
two rollers, the lower part of the 
belt being immersed in water : it is ; 
driven with a velocity of not less j 
than a thousand feet per minute, ' 
and the water contained between i 
the two surfaces is carried up and ! 
discharged, as it passes over the 
upper roller, by the pressure of the 
band. 

Hydraulic ram, a machine contrived 
to raise water by means of its own 
momentum. 

Hydraulics. The science of hydraulics 
teaches the method of estimating 
the swiftness and force of fluids in 
motion. The science is dignified 
by the name of hydrodynamics, or 
the application of dynamics to the 



HYD 



HYDRAULIC PRESS. 



HYD 



impulsion and flow of water and 
other liquids, as well as the forces 
with which they act upon bodies 
against which they strike, or which 
move in them. 

Hydrodynamics, the science of the 
laws of the motion of fluids, con- 
sisting of two branches. The 
science of hydraulics refers princi- 
pally to the machinery for conduct- 
ing fluids ; that of hydrostatics, 
to the pressure, equilibrium, and 
cohesion of fluids. 

Hydrogen. Hydrogen gas is com- 
monly obtained for experimental 
purposes by the decomposition of 
water: its name is derived from 
the Greek words meaning water 
and to generate. 

Hydrometer, an instrument for mea- 
suring the specific gravity of va- 
rious spirits and other liquids, by 
floating in them. 

Hydroscope, an instrument intended 
to mark the presence of water in 
air. 

Hydrostatic or Hydraulic Press, a 
machine adapted for giving great 
pressure in cases where little mo- 
tion is required. The contrivance 
of this apparatus is due to the ce- 
lebrated mechanician, Joseph Bra- 
mah, who obtained a patent for it 
on the 31st of March, 1796, under 
the title of ' certain new methods 
of producing and applying a more 
considerable degree of power to all 
kinds of mechanical apparatus and 
other machinery requiring motion 
and force, than by any means at 
present practised for that purpose.' 
The action of this press is founded 
upon the fundamental principle in 
hydrostatics, that " when a liquid 
mass is in equilibrium, under the 
action of forces of any kind, every 
molecule or part of the mass sus- 
tains an equal pressure in all direc- 
tions." From this it follows, that 
a pressure exerted on any portion 
of the surface of a confined mass of 
fluid is propagated throughout the 
mass, and transferred undiminished 
to the entire surface in contact 



with the water. The first sugges- 
tion of the hydraulic press is con- 
sidered to have been made by Pas- 
cal in the middle of the 17th cen- 
tury ; but Bramah was the first to 
carry this suggestion into practice, 
by devising and applying apparatus 
in various forms for the purpose of 
producing pressure. 

Since the data of its invention, 
the hydraulic press has been ex- 
tensively used in pressing goods of 
various kinds. Another of its most 
useful applications is to the testing 
Fig. i. 




of girders and beams of cast-iron. 
(See article BramaWs Hydrostatic 
Press.) Its latest and perhaps most 
remarkable duty is that of lifting 
the iron-work of tubular bridges en 
masse from the water-level to their 
final altitude. 

Hydrostatic presses consist es- 



233 



HYD 



HYDRAULIC PRESS. 



HYD 



sentially of two distinct parts, viz. 
the press, or machine in which the 
force acquired is applied, and the 
pumping apparatus, by which the 
water is forced into the press ; these 
two parts of the entire machine 
being connected only by the pipe 

Fig. 2. 




through which the water passes 
from one to the other. Of the ac- 
companying figures, Nos. 1 and 2 
show the main parts of the press, 
viz. the cylinder, into which the 
water is admitted ; the ram, or solid 
plunger or piston ; and the cross- 
head by which the pressure at the 
end of the ram is distributed over 
a lengthened surface for use. The 
figures show the cylinder as sup- 

2 34 



ported in a frame upon girders, in 
a manner similar to that adopted 
in raising the tubes of the railway 
bridge erected at Conway. 

Fig. 3 shows the section of a 
portable forcing-pump as commonly 
used for proving castings with the 
hydraulic press, for which purpose 
the press is applied horizontally, 
and mounted on an iron carriage 
for portability. But, however va- 
ried in arrangement for particular 
purposes, the pump and the press 
consist of the same essential parts, 
as follows : the pump comprises a 
cistern or kind of pail for contain- 
ing the water, and into which a 
barrel descends nearly to the bot- 
tom. The barrel is fitted with a 
plunger, by working which, the 
water is driven through a small 
tube or pipe into the press. The 
pump is furnished with a safety- 
valve, and also with a screw for 
letting off the water as required. 
The press consists of a strong hol- 
low cylinder of cast-iron, close at 
one end, and of a solid ram work- 
ing through the other end, the 
water-pipe being inserted through 
the metal of the cylinder in a water- 
tight screwed aperture. Fig. 1 is 
an elevation of the press ; fig. 2, a 
vertical section of the press, taken 
at right angles to the elevation ; 
and fig. 3, a vertical section of a 
pump : a is the cast-iron cylinder ; 
b, the ram ; c, the casing or frame 
of the cylinder ; d d are two cast- 
iron girders supporting the casing; 
e is the cast-iron cross-head ; //, 
two guide-rods ; g, the water-pipe 
from the pump, with a lever-valve 
at h, by closing which the pressure 
will be retained, should the pipe 
burst. On fig. 3,^' shows the other 
end of the water-pipe, which is at i 
screwed into a stuffing-box on the 
pump ; k is the lever of the safety- 
valve, a, which is cylindrical, and 
finished with a conical end, which 
fits a seating of similar form ; / is 
a standard bolted at m to the cover 
of the cistern, and having an eye- 



HYD 



HYDRAULIC PRESS. 



HYD 



boss at n, for guiding the plunger ; 
o p is a link pinned to the plunger ; 
q is the pail or cistern for holding 
the water; r, the barrel passing 
through an opening in the cover, 
and fixed to it with bolts and nuts ; 
*, the lower valve-seat, and conical 

Fig. 3. 




three-sided valve, the former being 
screwed into the end of the barrel ; 
t, a tube depending from the valve- 
seat s, and screwed upon it : this 
tube reaches nearly to 4he bottom 
of the cistern, and is perforated at 
the end with minute apertures, 
through which the water is ad- 
mitted without dirt or particles, 
which would injure the working of 

235 



the pump ; u is the plunger, which 
works through a stuffing-box on 
the top of the barrel, and is made 
with a slot at v, to receive the link 
o p, which is pinned to it and also 
to the pump-handle; w is the 
plunger-rod, screwed into the upper 
end of the plunger ; y, the pump- 
handle, jointed to the standard at x. 
During the first part of the action 
of the pump, while no great pres- 
sure is yet produced, the handle is 
pinned to the outer of these holes, 
as it makes a larger stroke with 
the piston, and thus saves time: 
the pin is afterwards removed to 
the inner hole, to have all the ad- 
vantage of the leverage, z is the 
upper or discharge valve, with a 
conical end : it is introduced from 
the top, and covered with a short 
screw, which likewise re- 
gulates the lift of the 
valve. This valve is form- 
ed by being simply filed 
flat out of the round. 
The rule for finding the increase 
of power commanded by the pump 
is derived, first, from the ratio of 
the areas of cross-section of plunger 
of pump and ram of press; and, 
secondly, from the ratio of the le- 
verage of the pump-handle. Thus 
suppose the plunger to be \ inch 
and the ram 6 inches in diameter, 
and the arms of the lever or handle 
as 1 to 4, the power will be thus 

found : 

.52 . 6 2 

multiplied by 1 : 4 

25 : 144, 
that is, 1 : 576. 

And thus a power equal to 201bs., 
applied on the end of the pump- 
handle, will produce a pressure 
equal to ll,5201bs. on the ram, or 
5 tons 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 121bs. 

Each of the presses applied at 
Conway was worked by a steam- 
engine having a horizontal cylinder 
17 inches in diameter and 16 inches 
stroke, with piston-rods working 
through stuffing-boxes at both ends 



HYD 



HYGROMETER. 



IDE 



of the cylinder. The piston-rods, 
worked two forcing-pumps, with 
plungers 1 T ^ inch diameter and 16 
inches stroke. The rams of these 
presses were each 5 feet 2 inches 
long and 18f inches in diameter, 
with a space nearly | inch wide 
around. The cylinders were 37 
inches diameter externally, and 20 
inches internally, the metal being 
8| inches in thickness: the orifice 
of the water-tubes f inch in dia- 
meter. 

Hydrostatic paradox. This may be 
explained upon the same principles 
as the mechanical powers ; and an 
explanation conducted in this man- 
ner strips it of its paradoxical ap- 
pearance. 

Hydrostatics, the science which treats 
of the mechanical properties of 
fluids; strictly speaking, the weight 
and equilibrium of fluids. The 
weight and equilibrium of fluids at 
rest are the objects of this science. 
When the equilibrium is destroyed, 
motion ensues ; and the science 
which considers the laws of fluids 
in motion is hydraulics. 

Hygrometer : this instrument is used 
to ascertain the quantity of mois- 
ture held in the atmosphere. There 
are several kinds of hygrometers 
in use,namely, De Luc's, Saussure's, 
Leslie's, and Professor Daniell's. 
The latter is considered preferable. 

Hypcethral, open above : in temples 
of this description the cella was 
in part exposed to the air: they 



had a double range of columns 
within the cella, dividing it into 
three alae, or aisles. The alas on 
either side were roofed, but that in 
the middle had no covering. 

Hypcethrum, a latticed window over 
the entrance-door of a temple. 

Hyperbola, a section of a cone made 
by a plane, so that the axis of the 
section inclines to the opposing leg 
of the cone, which in the parabola 
is parallel to it, and in the ellipse 
intersects it. 

Hyperthyrum, that part of the frame 
of a doorway which is over the 
supercilium. In Greek architec- 
ture, a frieze and cornice supported 
by friezes and consoles. 

Ifypocastanum, or chestnut brown, is 
a brown lake prepared from the 
horse-chestnut : it is transparent 
and rich in colour, warmer than 
brown pink, and very durable both 
in water and oil ; in the latter it 
dries moderately well. 

Hypocausis, among the Greeks, a fur- 
nace with flues running underneath 
the pavement of an apartment, to 
increase the temperature. 

Hypocaustum, the stove-room of a 
bath, in which was placed the prse- 
furnium for heating the caldaria. 

Hypogaeum, in ancient architecture, a 
name common to all the under- 
ground parts of a building. 

Hypotrachelium, that part of the ca- 
pital of a column which occurs be- 
tween the shaft and the annulets 
of the echinus. 



I. 



ICE-HOUSE, a subterranean chamber 
for preserving ice from the ordinary 
changes of temperature. 

Ich Dien, in heraldry, ' I serve.' 

Ichnography, in drawing. The ichno- 
graphy of a building represents the 
plan or groundwork ; the ortho- 
graphy, the front ; and the sceno- 
graphy, the whole building. 

Icosahedron, in geometry, a regular 
body or solid, consisting of twenty 
triangular pyramids. 

236 



Ideas. 1. Formation of ideas, intel 
lect, mind, understanding, reason* 
thinking principle, nous, sense, 
common sense, consciousness, ca- 
pacity, intelligence, intellection. 
2. Precursory conditions and ope- 
ration. 3. Materials for reasoning. 
4. Reasoning processes. 5. Results 
of reasoning. 6. Extension of 
thought. 7. Creative thought. 

Communication of Ideas. 1. 
Nature, of ideas communicated, 



IMA 



INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



IND 



meaning, signification, sense, modes 
of communication, means of com- 
municating ideas. 

Individual Volition. 1. Will, 
volition, free-will. 2. Prospective 
volition. 3. Voluntary action. 
4. Antagonism. 5. Results of 
voluntary action, intersocial voli- 
tion. 

Image, a term applied to a statue. 

Imbowment, an arch or vault. 

Immure, a wall or inclosure. " With- 
in whose strong immures." Shak- 
speare. 

Impages, the horizontal parts of the 
frame-work of doors, commonly 
termed rails. 

Impetus, in mechanics, violent ten- 
dency to any point, violent effort, 
force, momentum, motion. 

Impinge, in mechanics, to fall against, 
to strike against, to clash with. 

Impluvium, the cistern in the central 
part of the court or atrium of a 
Roman house, to receive the rain- 
water. 

Impost, the horizontal mouldings or 
capitals on the top of a pilaster, 
pillar, or pier, from which an arch 
springs : in classical architecture 
the form varies in the several orders. 
Sometimes the entablature of the 
order serves for the impost of an 
arch. 

Impost, archivolt, and key-stone. The 
height of the impost should be from 
one-ninth to one-seventh of the 
width of the aperture, and the 
breadth of the archivolt not more 
than an eighth nor less than a 
tenth of it. The breadth of the 
under-side of the key-stone should 
be the same as the breadth of the 
archivolt, and its sides, of course, 
concentric ; its length, once and a 
half its breadth, but not more than 
double its breadth. 

Impulsive force is that which acts 
during an extremely short time, 
and is so called because the forces 
that take place in any impulse, or 
impact, are speedily exhausted. 

Incise, to cut, to engrave, to carve. 

Inclined plane (the), in mechanics, is 

237 



a plane which makes with the hori- 
zontal plane any angle whatever, 
forming one of the simplest me- 
chanical powers. The inclination 
of the plane is measured by the 
angle formed by two lines drawn 
from the sloping and the hori- 
zontal plane, perpendicular to their 
common intersection. 

Increment, an increase, produce. 

Incrustation. If water, impregnated 
with calcareous matter, remains 
long in contact with extraneous 
substances, an earthy incrustation 
takes place that soon encloses the 
incrusted substance, which is then 
said to be petrified. 

Incrusted, in architecture, applied 
to walls or columns covered with 
precious marble or stone. 

Incumba, that part of a column or 
pillar on which the weight of a 
whole building lies. 

Indian Architecture consists of two 
distinct styles, the Buddhist and 
the Brahminical, the former being 
the earliest, and consisting of topes 
or tumuli, large domical buildings 
of brick or stone, either quite solid 
or containing one or more small 
chambers, in which are deposited 
relics, coins, and other similar ob- 
jects, which the greater number of 
them were erected to enshrine. 
The principal topes are now found 
in Ceylon and Afghanistan, but 
they also exist in Burmah and in 
other neighbouring countries. 

The next class of Buddhist 
buildings are the Chaitya halls, 
similar in plan and use to the early 
basilica : these exist principally in 
caves in India. And lastly, viharas 
or monasteries, in which the monks 
attached to the Chaitya halls re- 
sided: these also exist principally 
as caves in India, and as structural 
buildings in all countries where 
Buddhism is still practised. 

Brahminical or Hindoo architec- 
ture consists mostly of temples, pro- 
perly so called. These in almost 
every instance are towers, square in 
plan, or nearly so, built over the cell 



IND 



INDICATOR. 



INE 



or sanctum of the temple. In the 
south of India, the upper part forms' 
a right-lined pyramid; in the north, 
the outline is curvilinear, sometimes 
tapering to a spire. 

To these towers are attached 
porches of greater or less dimen- 
sions. In the north there are 
generally square halls without pil- 
lars in the south, as universally 
pillared sometimes attached, at 
others detached from the temple 
itself: in the latter case, in the 
south, some of the porches possess 
from 500 to 1000 pillars, though 
this is never the case in the north. 

These temples are generally sur- 
rounded by a square court : in the 
south, three, four, and sometimes 
even seven such enclosures sur- 
round the principal cell, the outer 
one being, in many instances, some 
miles in circumference. 

These Hindoo temples exist 
sometimes, though rarely, as rock- 
cut temples ; but generally they are 
structural. 

Between these styles comes a 
third, the Jaina style, being a mix- 
ture of the two, possessing some 
of the characteristics of both, and 
frequently displaying more ele- 
gance than the first, and less taw- 
driness than the other. By the 
introduction of domes, whose use 
was thus brought to great perfec- 
tion, an element was added which 
was a great improvement on the 
other two styles, and from which 
that of Jaina originated. 

The absence of the arch in all 
constructions of every age is gene- 
ral throughout India, as the prin- 
ciple was quite unknown. The 
upper parts of the buildings were 
supported on square piers or pil- 
lars, and from all sides of their 
capitals brackets projected equal 
to their width, and leaving gene- 
rally a space equal to three diame- 
ters between their greatest projec- 
tion, thus leaving only one-half of 
the whole length of the architrave 
unsupported ; but when a greater 

238 



space was required, a succession of 
projecting brackets, placed above 
each other, was adopted, sometimes 
meeting in the centre, and thus 
having the effect of the horizontal 
arch. 

Indian Ink : the pigment well known 
under this name is principally 
brought from China in oblong 
cakes, of a musky scent, prepared 
for painting in water, etc. 

Indian red, a colour, is brought from 
Bengal, and is a very rich iron ore, 
or peroxide of iron. It is an ano- 
malous red, of a purple-russet hue, 
of a good body, and valued, when 
fine, for the pureness and lakey 
tone of its tints. 

Indian yellow is a pigment long em- 
ployed in India and subsequently 
introduced generally into painting 
in European countries. It is im- 
ported in the form of balls, is of a 
fetid odour, and is produced from 
the urine of the camel. It has 
also been ascribed, in like manner, 
to the buffalo, or Indian cow, after 
feeding on mangoes ; but the latter 
statement is incorrect. Indian yel- 
low resists the sun's rays with sin- 
gular power in water-painting. 

Indicator, the apparatus for showing 
the force of the steam, and the 
state of exhaustion in the cylinder 
during the stroke. 

Inigo (Jones), born in London, was 
first employed at Oxford in 1635 ; 
he built the arcades and porticoes 
of the inner quadrangle of St. 
John's College with a gallery over ; 
also York-stairs, Strand; and his 
magnificent design for a royal 
palace at Whitehall has not yet 
been surpassed. 

Indigo, or Indian blue, is a pigment 
manufactured in the East and West 
Indies from several plants, but 
principally from the anil or indi- 
gofera. 

Inertia, the passiveness of matter: 
matter has not the power of putting 
itself into motion, neither has it 
the power of stopping itself when 
put into motion by the action of 



INF 



INTERCOLUMNIATION. 



INT 



an external force, as it requires as 
much force to stop a body as it 
requires to put it in motion. 

Inflammable air, hydrogen gas. 

Influx, in hydraulics, the act of flow- 
ing into any thing, as the tide into 
a bay or river. 

Injection-cock, the stop-cock in the 
ejection -pipe, for shutting off the 
supply of cold water used for the 
condensation of steam. 

Injection-pipe, the pipe through which 
the injection water passes to the 
condenser ; in a steam-vessel the 
injection-pipe is open to the sea, at 
the bottom of the vessel. 

Inn, or hostel, anciently a lodging- 
house, or a house of lodging and 
refreshment for travellers : houses 
for lodging the collegians at Cam- 
bridge and Oxford were so called. 

Inns of court, houses in which there 
are many lodgings for the accom- 
modation of students and practi- 
tioners at law. 

Innate force, in physics, the vis iner- 
tia?. 

Inner-post, in ship-building, a piece 
brought in *at the fore-side of the 
main-post, and generally continued 
as high as the wing-transom, to 
seat the other transoms upon. 

Insertum opus, according to Vitru- 
vius, a mode of building walls used 
by the Romans, in which the stones 
were small and unhewn, similar to 
what is now called rubble-work. 

Insulated columns, in architecture, 
are those which are unconnected 
with any wall or building. 

Intaglio, in sculpture, etc., anything 
that has figures engraved on it, so 
as to rise above the ground. 

Intense blue, indigo refined by so- 
lution and precipitation, in which 
state it is equal in colour to Ant- 
werp blue. By this process, indigo 
also becomes durable, and much 
more powerful, transparent, and 
deep. It washes and works well in 
water; and in other respects it has 
the common properties of indigo. 

Intercolumniation. The space be- 
tween two columns is called an in- 

239 



tercolumniation. When columns 
are attached to the wall, this space 
is not under such rigorous laws as 
when they are quite insulated ; for, 
in the latter case, real as well as 
apparent solidity requires them to 
be near each other, that they may 
better sustain the entablatures 
which it is their office to carry. 

DIFFERENT SORTS. The dif- 
ferent intercolumniations had the 
following names bestowed on them 
by the Greeks, and they still retain 
their ancient appellations : 
Pycnostylos, when the columns are 
once and a half of 
their diameter dis- 
tant from each other. 
Systylos . . when their distance 
from each other is 
two diameters. 

Eustylos . . when their distance 
from each other is 
two diameters and a 
quarter. 

Diastylos . . when their distance 
from each other is 
three diameters and 
quarter. 

Ara3ostylos. when their distance 
from each other is 
four diameters. 

In the Doric, however, the in- 
tercolumniation is regulated by the 
disposition of the triglj phs in the 
frieze ; for the triglyph ought al- 
ways to be placed over the centre 
of a column, and the metope should 
be square. In the Tuscan inter- 
val, the architraves being of wood, 
the space may be considerably ex- 
tended. 

A strict adherence to the above- 
named intervals between the co- 
lumns produces some irregularity 
in the arrangement of the modil- 
lions and dentils of the Corinthian, 
Ionic, and Composite cornices, 
which, though not offensive, is 
better avoided. Vignola therefore 
has, with some propriety, made his 
eustylos intercolumniation equal to 
two diameters and one-third in all 
but the Doric order. 



INT 



IODINE SCARLET. 



IOD 



Intercolumniations. Columns may be 
said to be either engaged or insu"- 
lated : when insulated, they are 
either placed very near the walls 
or at some considerable distance 
from them. 

With regard to engaged columns, 
or such as are near the walls of a 
building, the intercolumniations are 
not limited, but depend on the 
width of the arches, windows, 
niches, or other objects, and their 
decorations, placed within them. 
But columns that are entirely de- 
tached, and perform alone the office 
of supporting the entablature, as in 
peristyles, porches, and galleries, 
must be near each other, both for 
the sake of real and apparent so- 
lidity. 

The ancients had several man- 
ners of spacing their columns, 
which are described by Vitruvius 
in his third and fourth books. 
Those practised in the Ionic and 
Corinthian orders were, the pyc- 
nostyle, the systyle, the eustyle, 
the diastyle, and the araeostyle. 

In the Doric order they used 
other intercolumniations, regu- 
lating them by the triglyphs, of 
which one was always to be placed 
directly over the middle of each 
column, so that they were either 
systyle monotriglyph, of one dia- 
meter and a half; diastyle, or 
araeostyle : the Tuscan intervals 
were exceedingly wide, some of 
them being above seven diameters, 
which, as the architraves were of 
wood, was practicable. 

Vitruvius intended the five inter- 
columniations, mentioned in his 3rd 
book, merely for the Ionic and Co- 
rinthian orders ; the latter of which, 
according to him, differed from the 
former only in its capital; for, in the 
second and seventh chapters of his 
fourth book, he establishes other 
intervals for the Doric and Tuscan 
orders. Nevertheless, they have 
employed these intercolumniations 
in different orders. Palladio has 
used the systyle in the Corinthian 

240 



and the araeostyle in the Tuscan 
by which means the Corinthian 
peristyle, of which the character 
should be extreme delicacy ant 
lightness, becomes twice as strong 
and material as the Tuscan, o 
which the distinguishing characte- 
ristics ought to be extreme solidity 
Interdentals. The space between two 

dentals. 

| Interlignium, in ancient architecture 
the space between the ends of the 
tie-beams. 
Interpensivee, timbers in the roof ol 
the cavaedium, extending in a dia- 
gonal direction from the angles 
made by the walls of the court to 
the angles made by the junction ol 
the beams supporting the roof. 
Intrados, the soffit or under-surface 
of an arch, as opposed to extrados. 
In vacua, a void or empty space. 
Invention, in painting, consists prin- 
cipally in three things : first, the 
choice of a subject properly within 
the scope of art ; secondly, the sei- 
zure of the most striking and ener- 
getic moment of time, for represen- 
tation ; and lastly, the discovery 
and solution of such objects, and 
such probable incidental circum- 
stances, as, combined together, may 
best tend to develope the story, or 
augment the interest of the piece. 
The cartoons of Raphael furnish 
an example of genius and sagacity 
in this part of the art. 
Inverse, turned back or inverted ; op- 
posed to direct. 
Inverse ratio, when more requires 

less, or less requires more. 
Inverted arch, an arch of stone or 
brick, with the crown downwards, 
commonly used in the construction 
of tunnels. 

Iodine scarlet is a new pigment, of a 
peculiarly vivid and beautiful co- 
lour, exceeding even the brilliancy 
of vermilion. It has received se- 
veral false appellations, but is truly 
an iodide or biniodide of mercury, 
varying in degrees of intense red- 
ness. It has the body and opacity 
of vermilion, but should be used 



IOD 



IRON. 



IRQ 



with an ivory palette-knife, as iron 
and most rnetals change it to co- 
lours varying from yellow to black. 

Iodine yellow, ioduret of lead, is a 
precipitate from an acid solution of 
lead by an alkaline solution of 
iodine, of a bright yellow colour, 
which, from its active chemical affi- 
nities, and the little experience of 
its qualities in painting, is to be 
employed with doubt and caution. 

Ionic capital. The Greek architects 
must have possessed much science 
in the formation of curves of every 
description. We cannot generate 
the curve of the volute of an Ionic 
capital but by approximation ; but 
the inventors of the order must 
have known how to generate this 
and other curves in Greek architec- 
ture, on fixed principles ; so must 
the artist in vases, etc. Mr. Jop- 
ling is said to have discovered the 
true generic curve. 

Ionic Order : this, says Palladio, " had 
its origin in Ionia, a province of 
Asia ; and we read that the famous 
temple of Diana at Ephesus was 
built of that order. The column, 
with its capital and base, is nine 
modules high ; and by a module 
is understood the diameter of a 
column below. The architrave, 
frieze, and cornice, have the fifth 
part of the height of the column. 
When the columns are single, the 
inter-columns are of two diameters 
and a fourth part, and this is the 
most beautiful and commodious 
manner of all inter-columns, which 
Vitruvius calls eustylos." 

Amongst the ancients, the form 
of the Ionic profile appears to 
have been more positively deter- 
mined than that of any other order ; 
for in all the antiques at Rome, the 
temple of Concord excepted, it is 
exactly the same, and conformable 
to the description which Vitruvius 
has given of it. 

Modern artists have likewise been 
more unanimous in their opinions 
upon the subject ; all of them, ex- 
cepting Palladio and his imitators, 

241 



having employed the dentil cornice, 
and the other parts of the profile, 
nearly as they are found in the Co- 
liseum, the temple of Fortune, and 
the theatre of Marcellus. 

In Palladio's works we meet with 
three different Ionic entablatures, 
all of them very beautiful. The 
first is the true antique, which he 
has made use of at the palace of 
the Porti ; and in several doors and 
windows of the Thiene and Val- 
marana palaces, in Vicenza. The 
second is a very judicious imitation 
of the entablature in the temple of 
Concord, and is executed by him 
in the upper arcade of the basilica 
in the same city. The third, which 
is an invention of his own, being 
the same with that in his book, he 
has employed with some small dif- 
ference at the Chiericato palace, at 
the rotunda of Marchese Capra, 
and in various others of his build- 
ings in the Vicentine, or at Venice. 
Iron, the most useful and the most 
abundant of the metals, is found in 
various conditions of ore in most 
parts of the earth. Those ores 
which are principally worked for 
the production of the metal for 
manufacturing purposes, are either 
oxides or carbonates, that is. they 
contain the metal in a state of 
combination either with oxygen, 
or with oxygen and carbonic acid. 
The oxides are the best ores, and 
are found in vast beds in S\veden : 
the carbonates are inferior in point 
of strength and ductility, and there- 
fore require an extensive reduction. 
They form the greater portion of 
the iron ores of Britain. 

The principal varieties of the ox- 
ides of iron are, the magnetic; 
the massive, found in the north of 
Europe, and other parts of the 
world ; the micaceous, found in the 
lava of volcanoes, etc. ; and the 
red and brown haematites, found in 
Great Britain and Europe. The 
principal varieties of the carbo- 
nates are, the massive, found in 
Great Britain and Ireland, Europe, 



IRQ 



IRON. 



IRQ 



and America ; and also the argi^- 
laceous, commonly known as clay 
iron-stone, found abundantly in 
beds and coal deposits in England, 
Wales, and Scotland. 

Besidestheoxides and carbonates 
here enumerated, iron is found in 
large quantities in combination with 
sulphur; and the several compounds 
thus formed are known as pyrites, 
several varieties of which are found 
in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Ame- 
rica, and in many parts of England. 

Various artificial oxides of this 
metal are applied to medicine, dye- 
ing, and other purposes in the arts. 

The tenacity and strength of 
iron are impaired by its adultera- 
tion with foreign matters. Thus, 
of the oxides and carbonates, those 
are best in which the proportion 
of the metal is great. These qua- 
lities are further increased by fu- 
sion, and by the mechanical pro- 
cess of hammering; and this fact 
points to the main distinction in 
the kinds of iron as applied for 
manufacturing purposes, viz. foun- 
dry iron and forge iron. 

In the manufacture of iron, the 
first process is the reduction of the 
iron-stone or ore, technically called 
the mine, into the state of a metal. 
This is done by fusion in a furnace, 
with coke added to produce com- 
bustion, and limestone to act as a 
flux and assist the fusion of the ore. 
An artificial current of air is neces- 
sary to fuse the ore in these furnaces, 
which are therefore called blast fur- 
naces, and provided with tubes or 
tuyeres, through the tapered noz- 
zles of which strong currents of air 
are delivered to the interior of the 
furnace, the required velocity of the 
blasts being sustained by steam or 
other power. Formerly the air was 
thus introduced at the same tempe- 
rature as that of the external atmo- 
sphere ; but a plan has for many 
years been extensively adopted of 
previously heating the air for the 
blasts in separate vessels to a high 
temperature, by which the fusion 

242 



of the ore is so powerfully assisted, 
that the saving of fuel in the furnace 
is many times greater than the 
quantity used for the preparatory 
heating of the air. Furnaces thus 
supplied are termed hot-blast fur- 
naces, and the product is called hot- 
blast iron, while that made with un- 
heated air is called cold-blast iron. 
The cost of the process of reduc- 
tion with the hot blast being so 
much less than of that with the 
cold blast, the ultimate value of the 
former is of course also partly de- 
pendent upon the quality of the 
produce. On this head much differ- 
ence of opinionhas often been mani- 
fested, and with all the earnestness 
usually displayed in the advocacy 
of self-interest. The value of each 
process must, no doubt, arise from 
the completeness of the fusion pro- 
duced, and the separation effected 
between the iron and the impuri- 
ties combined with it in the ore. 
The hot-lplast furnace effects the 
fusion more readily than the cold- 
blast, but admits a larger combina- 
tion of cinders with the ore ; and 
the advantage which has been 
taken of this facility of adulteration, 
in order to reduce the cost of pro- 
duction, has doubtless led to the 
introduction into the market of 
many qualities of hot-blast iron 
which are inferior in strength to 
that made with the cold blast. The 
results of some of the most care- 
fully conducted experiments which 
have been made upon the strength 
of cast-iron, and published in the 
6th volume of the new series of 
' Memoirs of the Literary and Phi- 
losophical Society of Manchester,' 
show that the transverse strength 
of the cold-blast iron tried was 
about 2 per cent, greater than 
that of the hot-blast. The experi- 
ments here referred to were made 
upon rectangular bars 1 inch square, 
and 4 feet 6 inches long between 
the supports. The mean average 
breaking weights, placed at the 
middle of these bars, were 



IRQ 



Ibs. 



In 21 samples of hot- 
blast iron .... 445-5714 
In 22 samples of cold- 
blast iron .... 456*9090 
The metal is allowed to flow 
from the furnace into rude channels 
formedonthe surface of the ground, 
where it cools, and is taken up in 
the form of rough bars about 3 feet 
long, and each weighing nearly one 
cwt., which are technically called 
pigs. In the making of one ton of 
pig-iron in Staffordshire, the fol- 
lowing materials are used : 
Coal, 2 tons 5 cwt. 
If coke is used instead of coal, 

1 ton 17 cwt. 
Charred mine, or ore, 2 tons 

5 cwt. to 2 tons 10 cwt. 
Limestone, 13 cwt. to 16 cwt. 
In the condition of pig-iron, the 
metal forms the two staple de- 
scriptions of foundry iron and of 
forge iron, according to its quali- 
ties, and the proportion of carbon 
and oxygen which it contains. The 
several sorts of pig-iron are consi- 
dered to be six in number, and are 
thus distinguished: Nos. 1, 2, and 
3, foundry iron, of which the first 
two are never used for forge iron. 
No. 3, or dark grey, and also the 
fourth quality known as bright iron, 
are sometimes used for the foundry, 
and sometimes for the forge. The 
fifth and sixth sorts, known as 
mottled iron and white iron, are 
never used for the foundry. The 
order here observed corresponds 
with that of the proportion of car- 
bon and oxygen mixed with each 
kind of the iron, and also with thac 
of the fluidity to which the metal is 
reducible : it also corresponds with 
the scale of their softness and 
toughness. Thus, No. 1 has the 
most carbon and oxygen, and the 
white iron has the least. No. 1 is 
the most fluid when melted, and the 
white iron the least so. Again, No. 
1 is the softest, and the white iron 
the hardest ; and No. 1 is the tough- 
est, while the white iron is the 



IRON. IRQ 

most brittle. But white iron is the 
best adapted for conversion into 
malleable iron, while Nos. 1 and 2, 
foundry iron, contain so large a pro- 
portion of carbon and oxygen, that 
they are totally unfit to be manu- 
factured into bars. 

The conversion of pig-iron into 
malleable iron is effected by ex- 
tended processes, or subsequent to 
those by which the ore has been 
reduced to the form of pig. These 
processes are as follow : 
1. Refining. 2. Puddling, ham- 
mering, and rolling, 3. Cutting 
up, piling, and rolling; the 3rd 
series of operations being re- 
peated. 

The refining is for the purpose 
of separating a portion of the car- 
bon from the pig, and is performed 
in furnaces fitted with tuyeres for 
supplying a blast of air to the 
point of fusion. The metal run 
from the refining moulds is exceed- 
ingly brittle, and is then broken up 
into small pieces, and committed 
to the puddling or reverberatory 
furnace, to undergo a further puri- 
fication from the oxygen and car- 
bon which remain after the process 
of refining is accomplished. While 
in this furnace, the mass into which 
the pieces of refined metal become 
clustered is worked and stirred 
about by the workman or puddler, 
until its thickness and tenacity are 
so far increased that it may be 
formed into lumps, or balls, which 
the puddler does with tools adapt- 
ed to the purpose. 

The hammering or shingling is 
performed upon the balls or blooms 
of puddled iron, with a very heavy 
hammer, worked by a cam-wheel, 
and has the effect of improving the 
solidity of the metal, and reducing 
the balls into an oblong form, by 
which they are better prepared for 
the action of the rollers. 

The rolls or rollers are fitted to- 
gether in pairs, and so formed in 
the periphery and arranged in size, 
that open spaces are formed be- 



243 



M 2 



IRQ 



IRON. 



IRQ 



tween them, through which the 
metal is passed while hot ; and each* 
succeeding pair of rollers present- 
ing a smaller space, the iron which 
is drawn through them becomes 
proportionately reduced in size and 
increased in length. 

The metal has thus been convert- 
ed from a hard, brittle, and readily 
fusible substance into a malleable 
bar, which is soft, tough, and very 
difficult of fusion ; but it is still far 
from fit for the smith's use, being 
to a great extent unsound in struc- 
ture, imperfect in tenacity, and 
irregular on the surface. 

The third set of processes is 
now conirnenced by cutting up the 
puddled bars into lengths with 
powerful shears. These lengths, of 
various dimensions, according to 
the sized bars to be produced, are 
carefully piled up and heated in 
another furnace similar to the pud- 
dling furnace, and which is called 
the balling furnace. In this the 
bars are simply heated to a degree 
which admits of their becoming 
welded together in the pile and 
adapted for reduction to the form 
of finished bars in the rolls. 

The rolling is the last operation 
in the making of bar-iron. The 
metal is dn-vn successively through 
a series 01 rollers, that is, between 
the peripheries of each pair of 
rollers, and thus gradually reduced 
in size, increased in length, and 
freed from the cinder and other 
impurities which remain after the 
puddle - rolling has been per- 
formed. 

The last set of operations is some- 
times repeated in producing iron 
for superior purposes. The pro- 
cesses here described will give a 
general idea of the manufacture of 
iron from the native ore into the 
form of malleable bars ; and it may 
be readily conceived how an exten- 
sion and variation of the process of 
rolling may be made to produce the 
several other forms in which this 
metal is prepared for the construc- 

244 



tions of the engineer, the smith, 
and the machinist. 

As varieties of bar-iron may be 
mentioned, L, or angle-iron ; T, 
or tee-iron ; and H, or deck-beam 
iron ; which are prepared in several 
sizes for the construction of roofs, 
iron vessels, etc. The malleable 
rails used for railways are also 
produced by an arrangement of 
rollers. 

Boiler - plate iron, sheet - iron, 
hoop-iron, and nail rod-iron, are 
produced from the form of bars by 
the processes of heating and rolling, 
or hammering, as required. Boiler- 
plates require, according to the 
desired strength and size, several 
repetitions of heating, hammering, 
and rolling. Sheet-iron is distin- 
guished from boiler-plate by being 
thinner; hoop-iron is rolled ih the 
same manner as the bars, but be- 
tween rollers without grooves in 
their edges, the requisite thickness 
being effected by successive pas- 
sages through the rollers, which are 
brought nearer to each other at 
each process, by means of adjust- 
ing screws. Nail rod-iron is rolled 
in thin bars, which are, while still 
hot, passed between steel cutters 
that slit them up mto the form of 
small rods, which, although rough, 
are well fitted to be manufactured 
into nails. 

A very useful form of sheet-iron, 
which should be noticed, is that of 
corrugated iron, which is produced 
by passing the sheets between 
rollers having grooved peripheries. 
By this form, the strength or stiff- 
ness of the sheet is so much in- 
creased, that sheet-iron thus formed 
may be usefully applied to a great 
variety of purposes for which it is 
otherwise, owing to its thinness 
and pliability, utterly inadequate. 

By the combustion of charcoal 
with the coke, and the adaptation 
of a peculiar furnace in the process 
of smelting, Mr. Clay has succeeded 
in producing malleable iron direct 
from the ore, and thus materially 



IRQ 



ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



ITA 



reducing the series of processes 
here described. The results thus 
brought out are of a very interest- 
ing character, and promise to ac- 
quire a great practical value. Mr. 
Bessemer has patented most suc- 
cessfully some inventions for making 
iron and steel without the aid of 
puddling. See ' Engineer's Pocket 
Book ' for description. 

Iron. Moses forbade the Hebrews the 
use of any stones to form the altar 
of the Lord, which had been in any 
manner wrought with iron ; as if 
iron communicated pollution. He 
says, the stones of Palestine are of 
iron, that is, of hardness equal to 
iron, or, being smelted, they yielded 
iron. " An iron yoke " is a hard 
and insupportable dominion. " Iron 
sharpeneth iron," says the Wise 
Man, "so a man sharpeneth the 
countenance of his friend :" the pre- 
sence of a friend gives us more 
confidence and assurance. God 
threatens his ungrateful and per- 
fidious people with making the 
heavens iron, and the earth brass ; 
that is, to make the earth barren, 
and the air to produce no rain. 
Chariots of iron are chariots armed 
with iron, with spikes and scythes. 

Iron ship building, a new and a 
most successful mode of construc- 
tion of ships in the hull of iron, 
both for merchant and war pur- 
poses, and for passenger vessels, 
upon any scale of dimensions. See 
vol. 54, John Grantham on Iron 
Ship Building, in the 'Rudimen- 
tary ;' also separately, with ' Atlas 
of Practical Examples' in large en- 
gravings. 

Iron-stone, iron-bound stone, in colour 
of a bluish grey : it contains but 
little iron, and is hard to work. 

Iron-stone has the appearance of 
rusty-black shale, and, when laid 
together in large heaps, is so com- 
bustible that it ignites, leaving a 
calx of 60 per cent, of iron. It 
abounds in Scotland. Common 
iron-stone is also very abundant in 
connection with coal, and in former 

245 



times formed the principal supply, 
which induced the foundation of 
the Carron Iron-works. 

Iron-wood is imported from the Bra- 
zils, the East and West Indies, and 
other countries, in square and 
round logs, 6 to 9 inches and up- 
wards through. Its colours are 
very dark browns and reds : some- 
times it is streaked, and generally 
straight-grained ; used principally 
for ramrods, turnery, etc., and is 
extremely hard. 

Iron yellow, jaune de fer, or jaune de 
Mars, etc., is a bright iron ochre, 
prepared artificially, of the nature 
of sienna earth. The colours of 
iron exist in endless variety in na- 
ture, and are capable of the same 
variation by art, from sienna yel- 
low, through orange and red, to 
purple, brown, and black, among 
which are useful and valuable dis- 
tinctions, which are brighter and 
purer than native ochres. 

Irrigation, watering the ground. 

Isochronism, in mechanics, the per- 
forming of several things in equal 
times ; such as the vibrations of 
the pendulum. 

fsodomon, a building every way 
straight. 

Isodomos, in Greek architecture, ma- 
sonry cut and squared to the same 
height, so that, when laid, the 
courses were all regular and equal. 

Isometrical, projections and drawings 
so termed. 

Isoperimetrical, in geometry, such 
figures as have equal perimeters or 
circumferences. 

Isosceles, in geometry, a triangle that 
has only two sides equal. 

Isothermal, in chemistry, equal heat. 

Italian. Architecture,^, style now much 
appreciated, not only in Italy, but 
in England and France, was first in- 
troduced at the revival of classical 
architecture, and was subsequently 
much improved, and adapted to 
modern refinement. The architec- 
ture of Venice, Florence, Genoa, 
Rome and Sicily, afford to the 
architect a complete library of ex- 



ITA 



ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



ITA 



amples by the possession of tha 
several works published of the ar- 
chitecture of the palaces and man- 
sions of these cities. 

Respecting buildings originally 
erected in Italy, Mr. Jos. Gwilt has 
thus written : 

The Romans followed the Greeks 
in the general form of their temples, 
but added to their splendour by a 
greater richness of detail, and the 
employment of other orders. For 
the simple steps on which the Greek 
temple was elevated, they substi- 
tuted pedestals, and added a base to 
the Doric order. The climate pre- 
scribed a more elevated pediment ; 
but the luxury of the people was 
the cause of the preference given to 
the richer orders of architecture. 

TEMPLES, BRIDGES, AQ.UEDUCTS, 
COLUMNS, THEATRES, ETC. 

The chief temples of Rome were 
the Capitol, built on the Tar- 
peian or Capitoline mount, by Tar- 
quinius Superbus. (See Capito- 
lium.) No traces of it at present 
remain. The edifice of the Capitol 
was about 200 feet square, and con- 
tained three temples, consecrated 
to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. On 
the Capitol were also the temples 
of Terminus and Jupiter Feretrius, 
and the cottage of Romulus. 

The Pantheon, built by Agrippa, 
the son-in-law of Augustus, and 
dedicated to Mars and Venus, or 
more probably, from its name, to 
all the gods. Pope Boniface IV. 
consecrated it in honour of the Vir- 
gin Mary and All Saints, A.D. 607. 
It is now generally known by the 
name of the ' Rotunda ; ' its dia- 
meter between the axes of the 
columns is 147 feet: like most of 
the ancient buildings, it has fallen 
a prey to the spoiler. The Balda- 
chino in St. Peter's is indebted for 
its materials to the Pantheon of 
Agrippa. 

The temple of Apollo, on the 
Palatine hill, was built by Augus- 
tus : a temple of Diana stood on 
the Aventine. 

246 



The temple of Janus was sup- 
posed to have been built by Romu- 
lus ; that of Romulus by Papirius. 
Of those to the Sun and Moon, 
Fortuna Virilis, Vesta, Minerva 
Medica, Neptune, Antoninus and 
Faustina, Concord, Jupiter Stator, 
and most particularly of the tem- 
ple of Peace, considerable remains 
are fortunately still in being. The 
three magnificent arches now stand- 
ing of that last named, though of 
themselves majestic, convey but a 
faint idea of its pristine splendour. 
Of the temple of Jupiter Stator, 
whose columns, capitals, and en- 
tablatures were a perfect example 
of the Corinthian order, only three 
columns are in existence. The re- 
mains of the temples of Antoninus 
Pius, Claudius, Hercules, Jupiter 
Tonans, Isis, Romulus, and Venus 
and Cupid, are still interesting. 

No vestiges exist of the temples 
dedicated to Saturn, Juno, Mars 
bis Ultor, in the forum of Augus- 
tus, nor of numberless others that 
adorned the city. 

The temples of Balbec and Pal- 
myra are the last of the ancient 
Roman works that can lay claim to 
the appellation of classic architec- 
ture. In these, invention seems to 
have found its limits. The repro- 
duction and new adaptation of their 
detail is all that has been done by 
following artists. 

The Romans, not content with 
the quadrilateral temple, made use 
of the circular form, as in the Pan- 
theon, temple of Vesta, and others 
at Rome, and that of the Sibyl at 
Tivoli. Except their theatres, and 
the little work generally known by 
the name of the Lantern of Demo- 
sthenes, the Greeks have left no 
buildings on a circular plan. 

After the time of Diocletian, a 
new style prevailed in Italy. The 
basilica3 of Constantine, as they ex- 
isted previous to their restoration, 
and, in short, almost all the first 
Christian churches, were built out 
of the materials which the old tern- 



ITA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



pies afforded in abundance. The 
basilica of S. Paolo fuori le Mura 
still contains a large portion of the 
columns which had originally be- 
longed to the mausoleum of Adrian. 
The style of these basilicae may 
with propriety be termed Roman- 
Gothic. This was followed by the 
Greek-Gothic, of which examples 
may be found in most of the cities 
of Italy, as in St. Mark at Venice, 
the cathedral at Pisa (built by 
Buschetto da Dulichio, a Greek ar- 
chitect of the llth century), and 
in the baptistery and leaning cam- 
panile of the same city : specimens 
abound also in Bologna, Siena, Ve- 
nice, Viterbo, Rome, etc. They are 
chiefly the works of Nicola da Pisa 
and his scholars. 

At the time that the famous ca- 
thedral of Milan, the perfection of 
the Lombard-Gothic style, was in 
hand, Brunelleschi was advancing 
a step further, and had begun the 
restoration of classical architecture 
in the great cupola of Sta. M iria 
del Fiore at Florence; his prototype 
seeming to have been the temple 
of Minerva Medica, to which his 
work has sufficient resemblance to 
justify the allusion to it. He suc- 
ceeded in his enterprise, and thus 
gave a death-blow to the Italian- 
Gothic of all sorts. L. B. Alberti, 
Bramante, and Fra Giocondo re- 
stored the use of the orders; Michael 
Angelo, Raphael, Sangallo, Pal- 
ladio, and Scamozzi completed the 
change; the church of St. Peter 
rose, and every little city began to 
provide itself with a Duomo. 

The fora of the ancients were 
large squares surrounded by por- 
ticoes, which were applied to dif- 
ferent purposes. Some parts of 
them answered for market-places, 
other parts for the public meetings 
of the inhabitants, still other parts 
for courts of justice. The forum 
also occasionally afforded accom- 
modation for the shows of gladi- 
ators. Rome contained seventeen 
fora, of which fourteen were used 

247 



for the show and sale of goods, 
provisions, and merchandise, and 
were called Fora Venalia ; the other 
three were appropriated for civil 
and judicial proceedings, and hence 
called Fora Civilia et Judicialia. 
Of the latter sort was the forum 
of Trajan. 

The forum of Julius Caesar was 
far more splendid than the Forum 
Romanum : it cost upwards of 
800,000 sterling, and stood in 
the neighbourhood of the Campo 
Vaccino, to the east of the temples 
of Peace and of Antoninus and 
Faustina. 

In the vicinity of that last named 
was the forum of Augustus : the 
temple of Mars bis Ultor decora- 
ted the centre of it. 

The forum of Nerva, called also 
the Forum Transitorium, begun by 
Domitian, was decorated by Alex- 
ander Severus with colossal statues 
of the Emperors, some of which 
were equestrian. Parts of this forum 
are still in tolerable preservation. 

The forum of Trajan, which has 
lately been accurately traced by 
means of veryextensiveexcavations, 
and the demolition of a great num- 
ber of houses, was by far the most 
magnificent. The Trajan column 
formed one of its ornaments : the 
architect was Apollodorus, and its 
situation was between the forum of 
Nerva and the Capitol. 

The basilica (a term now applied 
to the cathedrals of Rome) was 
originally a court of justice. Like 
the forum, it was furnished with 
shops for the merchants and bank- 
ers. In the place called the Comi- 
tium were four basilicse,' viz. that 
of Paulus, the Basilica Opimia, 
Julia (built by Vitruvius), and Por- 
tia: besides thp;e, the most impor- 
tant were those of Sicinius, Sem- 
pronius, Caius and Lucius, Antoni- 
nus Pius, and the Basilica Argen- 
tariorum, or of the goldsmiths. 
Some of less consideration stood 
in the vicinity of the Forum Ro- 
manum. 



ITA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



The modern halls of Italy in 
some respects answer the purpose 
of the ancient basilicae. Those 
most worthy of notice are at Venice, 
Vicenza, Padua, and Brescia. 

Near the Tarpeian rock stood 
the famous prison built by Ancus 
Martius, which was afterwards call- 
ed Tullianum, from the additions 
thereto by Servius Tullius. The 
Curia Hostilia, where the Senate 
frequently met, was the Comitium : 
at its entrance, close to the tem- 
ple of Saturn, was the Milliarium 
Aureum, the central point from 
which all the roads to the different 
provinces diverged, and near to 
which ran the gallery constructed 
by Caligula, which joined the Pa- 
latine and Capitoline hills. It was 
constructed with eighty columns of 
white marble. 

The porticoes of Pompey, Au- 
gustus, Domitian, and Nero were 
the most celebrated of Rome. The 
first-named afforded a refreshing 
retreat from the sun's rays. The 
portico of Augustus was construct- 
ed with columns of African mar- 
ble, and was ornamented with fifty 
statues of the Danaides. Those 
of Nero, three in number, each 
three miles in length, were called 
Milliarise, on account of their ex- 
traordinary dimensions, forming a 
part of his palace. 

The pyramidal form was gene- 
rally applied to tombs. In the he- 
roic ages, a cone of earth, whose 
base was of considerable extent, 
covered the ashes of the person to 
be commemorated. This was the 
practice of the early ages. Men 
were, however, desirous of triumph- 
ing over death, and the Pyramids, 
as well as numberless other monu- 
ments, the names of whose authors 
are now lost, have proved the 
vanity of their desires : the memory 
of man must depend upon " deeds 
done in the flesh." 

The pyramid of Caius Cestius, a 
trifle conipared with those of Egypt, 
is yet enormous, considering the in- 

248 



dividual to whose memory it was 
erected. The tower of Cecilia Me- 
tella, called the Capo di Bove, on 
the Appian way, is a beautiful speci- j 
men of art. The Appian, Flami- 
nian, and Latin ways exhibit num- 
berless sepulchres of an interest- 
ing nature. Those which are found 
with the inscription D.M., or Diis 
Manibus, contain the ashes of the 
persons whose names they bear ; 
but theothers are mostly cenotaphs, 
the bodies having been deposited 
elsewhere. 

Triumphal arches may be rec- 
koned among the luxuries of the 
Romans. Nothing which could tend 
to perpetuate the fame of the con- 
queror was omitted in the design. 
Some of them were with two, some 
with three passages. The richest 
were on the Triumphal way. Those 
which also served as gates generally 
consisted of two openings, one for 
the carriages passing out of, the j 
other for carriages passing into the 
city. With the Greeks, a trophy 
erected on the field of battle was 
held of equal importance with the 
triumphal arch of the Romans, and 
a breach was sometimes made in 
the walls to admit the entry of the 
conqueror. 

The Roman Senate received the 
conqueror at the Porta Capena, 
near the Tiber, which was the en- 
trance to the city from the Appian 
way. 

The arch of Augustus at Rimini 
has but a single passage, about 33 
feet wide : it was crowned with a 
pediment, contrary to the usual 
practice. This was a beautiful spe- 
cimen, but it is much mutilated. 

That called the arch of the Gold- 
smiths at Rame is a curious exam- 
ple. It is very small, with a single 
opening, whose crowning is a flat 
lintel. 

The arch of Augustus at Susa, a 
smalltown just on the Italian side of 
Mount Cenis,is extremely elegant. 

Those of Aurelian and Janus are 
more singular than beautiful. 



ITA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



The arch of Pola in Istria is only 
curious on account of its affording 
a justification of the use of coupled 
columns, were the authority of the 
ancients necessary for the purpose : 
it was erected by Salvia Posthuma 
in honour of Sergius Lepidus and 
his two brothers. 

The arch of Trajan at Ancona is 
still in tolerable preservation. It 
has long since been stripped of its 
bronze ornaments, but their absence 
has not impaired its elegant pro- 
portions. 

The arches of Titus at Rome 
and Trajan at Benevento bear con- 
siderable resemblance to each other. 
That of Gavius at Verona, called 
' del Castel Vecchio,' no longer ex- 
ists. The precepts of Vitruvius 
have been confronted with his prac- 
tice in this arch ; but Vitruvius 
Cerdo, not Vitruvius Pollio, was 
the architect. 

The arches of Septimius Severus 
and of Constantine are with three 
openings. The latter is decorated 
with ornaments shamefully stripped 
off from the arch of Trajan, which 
from their absurd application, ren- 
der the barbarism of the robber 
more disgusting. 

Rome formerly contained eight 
bridges. The Pons Sublicius, built 
by Ancus Martius near the Tiber, 
was of timber, so framed as to re- 
quire no iron bolts or ties for its 
security. It stood at the foot of 
the Aventine, and was that which 
Horatius Codes defended. It was 
replaced by one of stone by ./Emilius 
Lepidus, and then had the name of 
JEmilianus. Tiberius afterwards 
repaired it. Finally, Antoninus 
Pius rebuilt it of marble, whence it 
obtained the name of Marmoratus. 

The Pons Triumphalis, near the 
Vatican, is in ruins : few vestiges 
of it exist. Those who triumphed 
passed over this bridge in their way 
"to the Capitol. 

The Pons Fabricius led to an 
island in the Tiber : it is now called 
Quattro Capi. That which led 



from the island to the right bank 
of the river was called Pons Cestius 
or Esquilinus : it was rebuilt during 
the reigns of the emperors Valen- 
tinian, Valens, and Gratian. 

Pons Janiculi, so called because 
it led to the Janiculum, and now 
known by the name of Ponte Sisto 
(from having been restored by Six- 
tus IV.), was of marble, and built 
by Antoninus Pius. 

Pons JElius, built by Julius Adri- 
anus, is still in existence. It is 
situated close to the mausoleum of 
Adrian. This having changed its 
name into that of Castel St. Angelo, 
the bridge has acquired a corre- 
sponding appellation. 

The Pons Milvius, now Ponte 
Molle, is a little way out of the city, 
on the road to Florence. On this 
bridge Cicero arrested the ambas- 
sadors of the Allobroges, and in its 
vicinity Constantine defeated Max- 
entius. 

Pons Senatorius, or Palatinus, is 
partly remaining, close to the Pa- 
tine mount. 

Ponte Salaro is over the Teve- 
rone, about three miles from Rome. 

The spans of the arches are gene- 
rally but small ; yet there are some 
few magnificent exceptions, as in 
the Ponte del Castel Vecchio at 
Verona. This consists of three 
arches, the largest of which is 170 
feet span ; its two other arches are 
smaller: they diminish from the 
city, the left bank of the river being 
considerably lower than the right. 
The bridge built by Augustus over 
the Nar, near Narni, on the Flami- 
nian way, was a single arch of 150 
feet span. In the later times of the 
city, bridges were decorated with 
trophies, colossal statues, triumphal 
arches, and the like. Such was the 
case with the Pons ^Elius and the 
bridge of Augustus at Rimini. 

The country round Rome is co- 
vered with the remains of aque- 
ducts, some of which conveyed the 
water to Rome from a distance of 
more than 60 miles. 



249 



M 3 



[TA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) * 
was built, according to Diodorus, 
by Appius Claudius, in the year of 
the city 441. The water which it 
supplied was collected from the 
neighbourhood of Frascati, and its 
summit was about 100 feet above 
the level of Rome. 

The second (Anio Vetus) was 
begun forty years after the last- 
named, by M. Curius Dentatus, and 
finished by Fulvius Flaccus : it was 
supplied from the country beyond 
Tivoli. Near Vicovaro it is cut 
through a rock upwards of a mile 
in length, in which part it is 5 feet 
high and 4 feet wide. The water 
of this aqueduct was not good, and 
therefore only used for the most 
ordinary purposes. 

The third (Aqua Martia) was 
supplied from a fountain at the ex- 
tremity of the mountains of the 
Peligni. The water entered the 
city by the Esquiline gate. This 
aqueduct was the work of Quintus 
Martius. 

The fourth (Aqua Tepula) was 
supplied from the vicinity of Fras- 
cati. 

The fifth (Aqua Julia) was about 
six miles long, and entered the city 
near the Porta Esquilina. 

The sixth (Aqua Virginis) was 
constructed by Agrippa thirteen 
years after that immediately pre- 
ceding. Its summit, in the terri- 
tory of Tusculum, was about eight 
miles from Rome, which it entered 
by the Pincian gate. This water 
still bears its ancient appellation, 
being called Acqua Vergine. 

The seventh (Aqua Alsietina, 
called also Augusta, from the use 
to which Augustus intended to ap- 
ply it for supplying his Naumachia) 
was brought from the lake whose 
name it bears. 

The eighth (Aqua Claudia), whose 
summit is about forty miles from 
Rome, was begun by Caligula, and 
completed by Claudius. It enters 
the city at the Porta Nevia, near 
the Esquiline mount. The quality 



of the water which this aqueduct 
supplies is better than that of any 
of the others. 

The ninth (Anio novus, to dis- 
tinguish it from the second-named 
water) was begun and finished by 
the same persons as the last-men- 
tioned. It is the water of the Anio, 
which, being exceedingly thick and 
muddy after the rains, is conveyed 
into a large reservoir at some little 
distance from Rome, to allow the 
mud to subside. 

The Acqua Felice is modern, and 
was erected by Sixtus V. in 1581. 
The Popes have, from time to 
time, been at considerable pains 
and expense in repairing and re- 
newing the aqueducts ; but the 
quantity of water delivered is con- 
stantly diminishing. In the ancient 
city, the total sum of the areas of 
the different pipes (which were 
about an inch in diameter) through 
which the above immense quantity 
of water was delivered, amounted 
to about 14,900 superficial inches; 
but the supply was subsequently 
reduced to 1170. 

The waters were collected in re- 
servoirs called castella, and thence 
were conveyed through the city in 
leaden pipes. The keepers of the 
reservoirs were called castellani. 
Agrippa alone built thirty of these 
reservoirs during his sedileship. 
There are five modern ones now 
standing in the city : one at the 
Porta Maggiore, Castello dell' Ac- 
qua Giulia, dell' Acqua Felice, dell' 
Acqua Paolina, and that called the 
Fountain of Trevi. 

In later times, the bath was al- 
ways used by the Romans before 
they went to their supper. The 
rich generally had hot and cold 
baths in their own houses ; and it 
was not till the time of Augustus 
that the baths assumed an air of 
grandeur and magnificence. They 
were called Thermae, that is, hot 
baths, though the same pile of 
building always contained cold as 
well as hot baths. Different au- 



ITA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



thors have reckoned as many as 
800 public baths in Rome. The 
chief were those of Agrippa, Nero, 
Titus, Domitian, Caracalla, Anto- 
ninus, and Diocletian. Their ves- 
tiges indicate the amazing magnifi- 
cence of the age in which they 
were erected. The pavements were 
mosaic, the vaulted ceilings were 
gilt and painted, and the walls in- 
crusted with the richest marbles. 
Some of the finest and best pre- 
served remains of ancient Greek 
sculpture have been restored to light 
from these edifices. It was from 
these that Raphael took the hint 
for his fantastic decorations of the 
Vatican, and the first restorers of 
art drew their resources. 

Dramatic entertainments were 
first introduced at Rome in the 
391st year of the city. In ancient 
times the people stood during the 
performance. For a considerable 
period the theatres were mere tem- 
porary buildings constructed of 
wood. The most splendid of these 
upon record was that of Marcus 
jEmilius Scaurus : it was magnifi- 
cently decorated, and was capable 
of containing 80,000 persons. 

It was in Pompey's second con- 
sulship that the first stone theatre 
was erected : this accommodated 
40,000 spectators. To avoid the 
animadversions of the Censors (for 
the magistracy did not yet sanction 
theatrical exhibitions), he dedicated 
it to Venus. 

Several other theatres afterwards 
arose : that of Marcellus can still 
be distinctly traced, and part of the 
circular faade, in tolerable pre- 
servation, is singularly elegant. 
The theatre of Balbus was also of 
considerable celebrity. 

The theatres were open at top 
to the heavens ; but in times of rain 
or excessive heat, means were pro- 
vided for covering them with a 
species of cloth awning, by which 
the inclemency of the weather 
might be wholly or partially exclu- 
ded. Their general form on the plan 

251 



was that of the letter D. The seats 
(gradus} rose behind each other, 
like steps. The front row was as- 
signed for the use of the senators 
and the ambassadors of foreign 
states. Fourteen rows behind this 
were reserved for the equites, and 
the rest were open for the public 
generally. The beautiful Olympic 
theatre, by Palladio, at Vicenza, 
was formed on the model of the 
ancient Roman theatres, and gives 
one an excellent idea of their 
effect. 

Like the theatres, amphitheatres 
were at first constructed of wood, 
and were only temporary. The first 
amphitheatre of stone was built by 
Statilius Taurus, at the desire of 
Augustus. 

Of all the monuments of anti- 
quity, none is capable of creating 
such sublime sensations in the mind 
as the stupendous amphitheatre 
generally called the Coliseum. It 
was commenced in tne time of 
Vespasian, and completed by Titus. 
The plan of it is oval, and its ac- 
commodation was for 87,000 spec- 
tators, who could enjoy the exhibi- 
tions therein without crowdingeach 
other. The part in which the gladi- 
ators fought was at the bottom, and 
was called the arena, from being 
usually covered with sand to absorb 
the blood spilt in the savage con- 
flicts for which it was used. The 
arena was encircled by a wall, called 
Ihe podium, which projected at top. 
The podium was fifteen or sixteen 
feet in height: immediately round 
it sat the senators and foreign am- 
bassadors. As in the theatres, the 
seats rose at the back of each 
other : fourteen rows in the rear of 
the podium being allotted to the 
equites, and the remainder to the 
public generally, who sat on the 
bare stone ; but cushions were pro- 
vided for the senators and equites. 
Though open to the sky, the build- 
ing was occasionally covered by 
means similar to those used in the 
theatres. 



ITA 



ITALIAN BUILDINGS. 



ITA 



The amphitheatre at Verona i^ 
still in excellent preservation. 

The Naumachise, or buildings for 
the exhibition of sham naval com- 
bats, were somewhat similar on 
their plans to the circi, to which 
purpose also sometimes these latter 
were appropriated. The amphithe- 
atres were, moreover, occasionally 
used for the same sort of display. 
Those of Augustus and Domitian 
were the most magnificent. 

The circus was a long narrow 
building, whose length was to its 
breadth generally as five to one: 
it was divided down the centre by 
an ornamented barrier, called the 
spina. These buildings were used 
for the celebration of games, racing, 
etc., sometimes also for making 
harangues to the people. 

The first circus of stone is attri- 
buted 1 1 Tarquin, and was situated 
between the Palatine and Aventine 
mounts. 

The Circus Maximus was much 
improved and altered by Julius 
Caesar, who supplied it with water 
for the purpose of occasionally 
using it as a naumachia. Augustus 
made great additions to it, deco- 
rating it with the famous obelisk 
which now stands in the Piazza del 
Popolo, where it was placed by 
Fontana in the year 1589, during 
the pontificate of Sixtus V. Being 
much dilapidated, it was repaired 
under Antoninus, and afterwards 
embellished with a second obelisk, 
which has found a resting-place in 
front of the church of St. John 
Lateran, where it was set up by 
the same Fontana. No vestiges of 
this circus remain. 

The circus of Flaminius, in the 
vicinity of the Pantheon of Agrippa, 
was of considerable dimensions, 
and very magnificent. 

The Circus Agonalis occupied 
the site of what is now known by 
the name of the Piazza Navona. 

The circus of Nero, upon a part 
whereof some portion of the basi- 
lica of St. Peter is seated, was a 

252 



splendid building. The obelisk 
now standing in the open circular 
piazza before St. Peter's belonged 
to this circus. 

Those of Florus, Antoninus, and 
Aurelian, are no longer even in 
ruins ; but that of Caracalla is suf- 
ficiently perfect to trace its plan 
and distribution. It was 738 feet 
in length. 

The streets, in the time of Au- 
gustus, were narrow and irregular. 
After the great fire in Nero's reign, 
the city was rebuilt with greater 
splendour. The streets were then 
set out straight, and considerably 
broader than before. Those houses 
wherein several families dwelt were 
called imula>. Domus was the ex- 
pression for a house occupied by 
one family only. 

We know little of the form of the 
Roman houses, though Vitruvius 
has described at sufficient length 
the different apartments of which 
they consisted. 

The small houses discovered in the 
ruins of Pompeii can bear but little 
if any resemblance to the houses of 
the opulent inhabitants of Rome. 
The most celebrated were those of 
the Gordians, P. Valerius Publicola, 
Caesar, Sallust, Mecajnas, Cicero, 
Verres, Augustus, and Lucullus. 
The Domus Aurea of Nero was 
probably the most magnificent in 
Rome. * The villa of Adrian, at 
Tivoli, was so extensive, that it al- 
most deserved the name of a city. 
Immense ruins of the palaces of 
the Caesars are still to be seen. 

Rome was decorated with num- 
berless pillars. The most remark- 
able are fortunately in an excellent 
state of preservation, namely, those 
of Trajan and Antoninus. 

The column of Trajan stood in 
that emperor's forum : it is about 
12 feet in diameter at its base, and 
(including the pedestal) is about 
125 feet in height. The ascent to 
the gallery on the top of the abacus 
of its capital is by 185 steps, each 
2 feet 9 inches long, winding round 



ITA 



ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. 



ITA 



the column, and lighted by 40 open- 
ings. A colossal statue of Trajan 
formerly crowned the top ; but St. 
Peter has long since deposed the 
Emperor. 

The column of Antoninus is 176 
feet high, its number of steps 106, 
with 56 openings for the admission 
of light. Sixtus V. caused its pe- 
destal to be cased, when, in 1589, 
the pillar was under repair. It was 
this pontiff who elevated St. Peter 
to his situation, as well on this as 
on the Trajan column. 

The great sewers of Rome are 
reputed to have been the work of 
Tarquinius Priscus. The Cloaca 
Maxima, which still carries some of 
the filth and waste water of Rome 
into the Tiber, was the work of 
Tarquinius Superbus. 

The public ways were not only 
some of the most stupendous, but 
also the most useful of the Roman 
works. 

The first road which the Romans 
paved was the Via Appia, so called 
because it was executed by order 
of Appius Claudius. He carried it 
as far as Capua, whence it was af- 
terwards continued to Brundusium 
in all, a distance of 350 miles. 
It is still entire in many places, 
though more than twenty centuries 
have elapsed since its construction. 
It was properly called ' Regina 
Viarum.' 

The Via Numicia led to Brindis 
(Brundusium) ; the Via Flatiinia 
to Rimini and Aquileia ; the Via 
Aurelia was along the coast of 
Etruria ; the Via Cassia ran to Mo- 
dena, between the Flaminian and 
Aurelian ways ; the Via ^Emilia 
extended from Rimini to Piacenza. 

The smaller ways were, the Via 
Pra3nestina to Palestrina (the an- 
cient Prseneste) ; Tiburtina to Ti- 
voli ; Ostiensis to Ostia ; Lauren- 
tina to Laurentum, south of Ostia; 
Salaria, etc. The cross-roads were 
called Diverticula. 

Italian architecture comprises so 
many diversities that it is hardly 

253 



possible to affix to it anything like 
a precise character, except by limit- 
ing it to a particular epoch or 
school, or to one special class of 
buildings; and even then the ex- 
ceptions may be more numerous 
than the examples referred to as a 
standard. With many vices and 
defects, it possesses many excel- 
lences and recommendations, and a 
variety of resources, which render 
it capable of being turned to far 
greater account than hitherto has 
been done. But if on the one 
hand it affords much scope to the 
architect, it calls on the other for 
the exercise of discriminating taste, 
one that not only rejects what is 
positively bad, but is capable of 
re-combining all the better ele- 
ments of the style, so as to impart 
to them originality and freshness, 
without forfeiting what is valuable 
in and characteristic of the style 
itself, so that, instead of appearing 
contrary to its genius, the novel 
forms and effects that may be pro- j 
duced shall seem to be beauties, 
which have merely been lying la- 
tent, and waiting for a discoverer 
to bring them to light. A style is 
to be judged of, not only retro- 
spectively by what it has produced, 
but prospectively also, according to 
what it is capable of supplying. 
Nevertheless, so far from being at 
all encouraged, such view of the 
subject is kept out of sight as much 
as possible ; and precedent is al- 
lowed to usurp such sway, that any 
departure from it, no matter in 
what spirit, is liable to be con- 
founded with and reprobated as 
capricious innovation, although the 
one proceeds quite in an opposite 
direction to the other. 
Italian church (the), in the front or 
facade, is never true to the internal 
structure ; it is always divided into 
two apparent stories, by two heights 
of pillars, or pilasters, and by win- 
dows, or alcoves ; but the greater 
number of churches in Rome have 
the outward look of large dwelling- 



ITA 



IVORY. 



JET 



houses, a highly ornamented centus, 
and wings less so, with two or three 
ranges of windows, not differing 
from a habitable house. 

Italian varnish, for painting, is pre- 
pared by incorporating over a slow 
fire two parts of linseed or nut oil 
with one part of litharge, ground 
fine. The mixture must be fre- 
quently stirred to quicken the 
operation. 

Ivory is first mentioned in the reign 
of Solomon : ivory was used in de- 
corating those boxes of perfumes 
whose odours were employed to 
exhilarate tne King's spirits. It is 
probable that Solomon, who traded 



in India, first brought thence ele- 
phants and ivory into Judaea. Ca- 
binets and wardrobes were orna- 
mented with ivory by marquetry- 
work. These were called ' houses 
of ivory.' " Eighty more chests 
of ivory, for your use and plea- 
sure," are enumerated in the letter 
which accompanied the very re- 
markable tribute of the Ethiopian 
queen, Candace, to Alexander the 
Great. 

Ivory-black and bone-black, ivory and 
bone charred to blackness by strong 
heat in closed vessels ; if skilfully 
prepared, they are eligible for oil 
and water painting. 



J. 



JACK, an instrument for raising a 
heavy weight through a short dis- 
tance ; it consists of a strong piece 
of wood, with an iron rack which is 
moved, by wheels fixed inside the 
wood, from a handle outside. 

Jack, in navigation, a flag or colour ; 
a small union flag. 

Jak-wood, a native of India, is im- 
ported in logs from 3 ft. to 5 ft. 
diameter ; the grain is coarse and 
crooked : used in cabinet-work, 
marquetry, and turning, and also 
for brush-backs. 

Jamb, in building, a supporter on 
either side, as the posts of a door. 

Jambs, the side pieces of any open- 
ing in a wall, which bear the piece 
that discharges the superincumbent 
weight of such wall. 

Janta, a machine extensively used 
in Bengal and other parts of India, 
to raise water for the irrigation of 
land. It consists of a hollow 
trough of wood, about 15 ft. long, 
6 inches wide, and 10 inches deep, 
and is placed on a horizontal beam 
lying on bamboos fixed in the bank 
of a pond or river : one end of the 
trough rests upon the bank, where 
a gutter is prepared to carry off the 
water, and the other end is dipped 
in the water by a man standing on 

254 



a stage, plunging it in with his 
foot. 

Janua, among the Romans, the street- 
door of a private house. 

Japanning, the art of painting and 
varnishing on wood, leather, metal, 
or paper, after the manner of the 
Japanese. 

Jasper is found along the shores of 
the Bay of Chaleur, and other lo- 
calities in the northern part of New 
Brunswick. 

Jaune mineral. This pigment is a 
chromate of lead, prepared in Pa- 
ris. The chrome-yellows have ob- 
tained other names from places or 
persons from whence they have 
been brought, or by whom they 
have been prepared, such as Jaune 
de Cologne, etc. 

Jesse (the root of), a term applica- 
ble to the genealogy of Christ, as 
affording subjects for the painter, 
sculptor, or embroiderer. 

Jet d"eau, a French expression, sig- 
nifying a fountain that throws up 
water to some height in the air. 

Jetty, a part of a building that pro- 
jects beyond the rest, and over- 
hangs the wall below, as the upper 
stories of timber houses, bay-win- 
dows, pent-houses, small turrets at 
the corners, etc. 



JET 



JOINERY. 



KEE 



Jetty, a projecting erection into the 
sea, partaking something of a pier, 
mostly constructed of timber, with 
open spaces for the sea to play. 

Jewry, a district, street, or place or 
locality, in which Jews formerly 
resided. 

Jib, the overhanging part of a crane, 
or a triangular frame with a pulley 
at the end, for the chain to pass 
over which leads from the crane. 

Jib, in navigation, the foremost sail 
of a ship. 

Jib-boom, a spar run out from the 
bowsprit. 

Jigger, a machine consisting of a 
piece of rope about 5 feet long, 
with a block at one end and a sheaf 
at the other, used to hold on the ca- 
ble when it is heaved into the ship 
by the revolution of the windlass. 

Jigging, in Cornwall, a method of 
dressing the smaller copper and 
lead ores, by the motion of a wire 
sieve in a kieve or vat of water. 

Joggle, a term in masonry, the art of 
joining and fitting the stones to- 
gether. 

Joinery, the art of joining, compre- 
hends all the fixed woodwork in- 
tended for ornament or conveni- 
ence in the interior of a house. 

Joint, the interstices between the 
stones or bricks in masonry and 
brickwork are so called. 

Joints, in carpentry, the secondary 
beams of a floor ; those pieces of 
timber framed into girders and 



KAGE, anciently applied to chantry 
chapels enclosed with lattices or 
screen work. 

Kaolin, aluminous earth ; the porce- 
lain earth of the Chinese. 

Kazer, in Cornwall, a sieve. 

Kedging, in navigation, a term used 
when a vessel is brought up or 
down a narrow river or over a bar. 

Keel (False), in ship-building, a strong 
thick piece of timber bolted to the 
bottom of the real keel, which is 
very useful in preserving it. 



summers, on which the boards of 
the floor are laid. 

Journal, a bearing of a shaft when it 
is between the points where the 
powers and resistance are applied ; 
a bearing subject to torsion. 

Jube, anciently, the rood-loft or gal- 
lery over the entrance into the 
choir of a cathedral or church. 

Jugumentum, the lintel of a door. 

Jumper, a long borer used by one 
person. 

Juniper wood, an aromatic and very 
durable kind of wood. 

Junk, an Indian or Chinese ship. 

Junk-ring, a ring fitting a groove 
round a piston, to make it steam- 
tight. The ring is turned accu- 
rately to the diameter of the cylin- 
der, and slightly hammered all 
round on the inside to increase its 
elasticity; it is then cut open, and 
put in its place : springs are some- 
times used for pressing it outward. 

Justice (Courts of). These places, 
according to Palladio, were an- 
ciently called Basilicae, where the 
judges attended to administer jus- 
tice, and where, sometimes, great 
and important affairs were trans- 
acted : whence we read, that the 
tribunes of the people caused to be 
taken away a column that inter- 
rupted their benches, from the Ba- 
silica Portia ; which was at Rome 
near the temple of Romulus and 
Remus, and is now the church of 
St. Cosmus and Damianus. 



Keels, in navigation, small vessels that 
carry coals down the river Tyne. 

Keelson, in ship-building, the piece 
of timber attached to a ship's keel. 

Keep, the chief tower or dungeon of 
a Norman castle. 

Keeping, in painting, is the observance 
of a due proportion in the general 
light and colouring of a picture, so 
that no part be too vivid or more 
glaring than another, but a proper 
harmony and gradation be evident 
in the whole performance. 



KEP 



KEY-STONE. 



KNI 



Kept down is a term implying gloomi- 
ness of tint, or an object so shaded 
with fuscous colour that its form 
can scarcely be determined ; which 
object is not intended to be seen 
by the spectator until he has re- 
gularly observed all the other parts 
of the painting, but which is ne- 
cessary to the composition. 

Kermes lake, an ancient pigment, per- 
haps the earliest of the European 
lakes : the name is probably derived 
from the Alkermes of the Arabians, 
from Kerraan, the ancient Carma- 
nia, on the borders of Persia. 

Kerned, a term applied to a heap of 
mundic or copper ore hardened by 
lying exposed to the sun. 

Ketch, in navigation, a vessel with 
masts and sails. 

Revels, in ship-building, answer the 
purpose of timber-heads, and are 
sometimes fixed to the spirketing 
on the quarter-deck, when the tim- 
ber-heads are deficient. 

Key, a term applied to a painting 
when one object, generally the prin- 
cipal one, is so worked up to its 
proper tone, strength of colour, 
etc., that the painter is compelled 
to finish the whole piece in a mas- 
terly manner : this is said to have 
been the practice of Titian. 

Key-grooving machine, a machine for 
cutting the grooves or key-ways in 
the boss of a wheel to be fixed on 
a shaft. 

Key-screw, a lever used for turning 
screws. 

Key-stone, the stone in an arch which 
is equally distant from its springing 
extremities. In a circular arch 
there will be two key-stones, one 
at the summit and the other at the 
bottom thereof: in semi-circular, 
semi-elliptical arches, etc., it is the 
highest stone, frequently sculp- 
tured on the face and return sides. 

Kiabooca-wood, or Amboyna-ivood, 
imported from Singapore, is very 
ornamental, and is used for small 
boxes and writing-desks. 

Kibbal, a bucket in which ore is raised 
from the mines. 

256 



Kieve, a vat or large iron-bound tub 
for washing of ores. 

Kilkenny marble, a fine black marble, 
full of shells and corolloid bodies. 

Killas, a clay slate occurring in dif- 
ferent parts of a mine. 

Killepe, anciently a gutter, groove, or 
channel. 

Kiln, a furnace for burning bricks and 
tiles, also limestone or chalk, to 
make lime; a place for drying malt 
or hops. 

Kilogramme (pronounced Kilo), a 
French weight, equivalent to 2 Ibs. 
3 oz. 5drs. 13 grs. avoirdupois. 

King-at-arms, in heraldry, a principal 
officer at arms. There are three : 
Garter, Norroy, and Clarencieux. 

King-post, the middle post of a rocf, 
standing in the tie-beam and reach- 
ing up to the ridge ; it is often 
formed into an octagonal column 
with capital and base, and small 
struts or bases, which are slightly 
curved, spreading from it above the 
capital to some other timbers. 

Kingston's valve, a flat valve forming 
the outlet of the blow-off pipe of a 
marine engine : it opens from the 
side of the vessel by turning a screw. 

King-wood, called also violet-wood, is 
imported from the Brazils : it has 
violet-streaked tints, and is used in 
turnery and small cabinet-work. 

Kirk, church, a term still used in 
Scotland, formerly so in England. 

Klinometer, or Clinometer, an instru- 
ment contrived to measure the in- 
clinations of stratified rocks, the 
declivity of mountains, and the dip 
of mineral strata. 

Knee, a term sometimes used for the 
return of the drip-stone at the 
spring of an arch. 

Kneller (Sir Godfrey), flourished dur- 
ing Charles II.'s reign. 

Knees, in ship - building, are the 
crooked pieces of oak timber, or 
iron, which secure the beams to 
the side of the ship. 

Knight-heads or bollard-timbers, the 
timbers on each side nearest the 
stem, and continued high enough 
to secure the bowsprit. 



KNI 



KYANIZING. 



KYA 



K/tits, small particles of lead ore. 

Knoekings, lead ore with spar, as cut 
from the veins. 

Knot or Knob, a boss ; a round bunch 
of leaves or flowers, or other orna- 
ment of a similar kind. 

Knuckle-timber, the foremost top 
timber in the ship that forms the 
buck-head ; the timbers abaft it, 
as far as the angle is continued, 
may be called knuckle-timbers. 

Krems, Crems, or Kremnitz white, 
a white carbonate of lead, named 
from Crerns or Krems, in Austria; 
also called Vienna white. 

Kyanizing and Bumettizing. Kyani- 
zing is a simple process by means 
of which timber, canvas, and cord- 
age, etc., may be preserved from 
the effect of dry-rot, and seasoned 
in a very short time. It was in- 
vented by Mr. Kyan, who obtained 
a patent for it, which was purchased 
by a Company called the ' Anti- 
Dry-rot Company,' constituted and 
empowered by Act of Parliament. 
The timber is prepared as fol- 
lows : a wooden tank is put together 
so that no metal of any kind can 
come in contact with the solution 
when the tank is charged. The 
solution consists of corrosive subli- 
mate and water, in the proportion 
of 1 11). of corrosive sublimate to 
10 gallons of water as a maximum 
strength, and 1 Ib. to 15 gallons as 
a minimum, according to the poro- 
sity or absorption of the timber 
subjected to the process. 

Oak and fir timber absorb nearly 
alike, but the domestic woods, such 
as beech, poplar, elm, etc., are more 
porous. 

An hydrometer will mark accu- 
rately the strength of the solution, 
water being (vide diagram); then, 
when the hydrometer sinks to 6, 
it denotes that the solution con- 
tains 1 Ib. of sublimate to 15 gallons 
of water ; when it rises to 1 7, 1 Ib. 
of sublimate to 5 gallons. 

As a general rule, when it stands 
midway between 5 and 10, the 
solution will be the proper strength. 



The corrosive sublimate will dis- 
solve best in tepid water. 



Water. 



~f 1 Ib. of cor. sub. to 
15 gal. of water. 

j- 1 Ib. to 10 gal. do. 



15 



1 Ib. to 5 gal. do. 



The period required for satu- 
rating timber depends on its thick- 
ness : 24 hours are required for 
each inch in thickness, for boards 
and small timbers. 

The timbers, after saturation, 
should be placed under a shed or 
cover from the sun and rain, to dry 
gradually. 

In about 14 days, deals and tim- 
ber not exceeding 3 inches in thick- 
ness will be perfectly dry and sea- 
soned, and fit for use. Large timbers 
will require a proportionate time, 
according to their thickness. 

The solution may be used ad 
infinitum, as its strength is not 
diminished ; but it will be advisable 
to ascertain occasionally by the 
hydrometer that it contains the re- 
quired proportions of corrosive sub- 
limate and water. 

Professor Faraday and the late 
Dr. Birkbeck have, with many 
other scientific men, testified in the 
strongest manner to the efficacy of 
this solution. The former says, 
with respect to the penetration of 
the solution by steeping, without 



257 



KYA 



KYANIZING AND BURNETTIZING. 



KYA 



pressure, that it may be tested by 
the application of a drop of hydro- 
sulphuret of ammonia, which will 
turn black on meeting with the 
mercury. 

In the cube of elm, the corrosive 
sublimate may be traced by the 
above test to the depth of from 
to of an inch ; by the test of 
voltaic action, from | to 1 inch. 

In the cube of oak, with the same 
test, it was found at i of an inch, 
but irregular, and apparently fol- 
lowing the fissures of the wood ; by 
voltaic action, not quite so far as 
in the elm. 

In the cube of fir, the penetra- 
tion was the least by the common 
test, ^ to ^ of an inch : by voltaic 
action, of an inch, the turpentine 
in the wood probably being the 
obstruction to penetration. 

From this testimony it is evident 
that when pressure is not used, the 
timber should be worked up into 
the form required before immer- 
sion. 

The patentees or Company, who 
have also the means of saturating 
with hydraulic pressure at their 
establishment, similar to that at 
Portsmouth Dockyard, under Sir 
William Burnett's process, grant 
licenses at the rate of 5*. per cubic 
foot, internal dimensions of the 
tank, and sell corrosive sublimate 
at 4*. per Ib. 

IJlb. is sufficient to saturate a 
load of timber of 50 cubic feet, at 
the rate of 1 Ib. of sublimate to 15 
gallons of water. 

The process has been for several 
years extensively used for sleepers 
on railroads. 

Several of the sleepers on the 
South-western Railway, which had 
been subjected to this process, were 
taken up, owing to their being 
decayed, particularly in the chalk 
districts. It was, however, stated 
by the engineer that they had 
been steeped at the Company's 
works in a hasty manner, and that 
he did not consider it conclusive 



against the process ; that he had 
never seen any wood decayed that 
had been steeped by the patentees. 
It is also said that neither Kyan's, 
Burnett's, nor Payne's process, can 
resist the combined effects of mois- 
ture and great heat, say 80 Fahr. 

BURNETTIZING. 

Burnettizing is the process by 
means of which timber, felt, can- 
vas, cordage, cottons, and woollens, 
may be preserved from dry-rot, 
mildew, moth, and premature de- 
cay. It takes its name from its 
inventor, Sir William Burnett, 
M.D., K.C.B.,F.R.S., of the Navy, 
who took out a patent for it in 
1837. 

It consists in immersing the va- 
rious substances above enumerated 
in a solution of chloride of zinc 
and water in a wooden tank, in the 
proportion of 1 Ib. of chloride of 
zinc to 4 gallons of water for wood, 
and 1 Ib. of the chloride to 5 gal- 
lons of water for the remainder of 
the articles, with the exception of 
felt, which requires 1 Ib. of the 
chloride to 2 gallons of water. 

Three-inch deals require to re- 
main in the tank or cistern six 
days, and all other woods in the 
same proportion, or two days per 
inch. They are then taken out and 
put under a shed, on their ends, to 
dry, and require for this purpose 
from fourteen days to three months, 
according to the thickness of the 
wood, when they are fit for use. 

The timber should be reduced to 
the scantling required for use before 
it is subjected to this process. 

Canvas, yarn for cordage, cottons, 
and woollens, require to be sus- 
pended in the solution for forty- 
eight hours. 

The process, however, with re- 
spect to timber, is much more ex- 
peditiously and effectively done by 
hydraulic pressure in her Majesty's 
dockyard at Portsmouth, where 
large quantities of timber, etc., are 
prepared for the use of the Royal 
Navy at the various dockyards in 



258 



KYA 



KYANIZING AND BURNETTIZING. 



KYA 



England, particularly for ships' 
magazines. 

There is a large wrought-iron 
tank, 52 feet in length and 6 feet 
in diameter, with a door 2 feet 6 
inches x 2 feet at each end for 
loading. 

Timber of all sizes and descrip- 
tions is put into this cylinder, which 
contains ahout twenty loads. As 
soon as it is filled, and the doors 
well secured both against external 
arid internal pressure, the air is ex- 
hausted in the cylinder, and also in 
the timber, by means of an air- 
pump worked by a small rotatory 
engine of 10-horse power, on the 
Earl of Dundonald's principle, un- 
til the barometer stands at 27: 
the valve leading to the air-pump 
is then shut, and the cock of a pipe 
leading from the tank, filled with 
the solution, to the cylinder, is 
turned : the solution rushes into 
the cylinder to fill up the partial 
vacuum, and about half-fills it, 
when the cock is turned, and the 
air-pump again set to work until 
the barometer stands at 27 3, when 
the same process is repeated, and 
the cylinder nearly filled with the 
solution. 

A pressure of 150 Ibs. per square 
inch is then obtained by means of 
a Bramah forcing-pump, connected 
with an iron copper or reservoir, 
filled with the solution, and com- 
municating with the cylinder by 
means of a pipe. This is worked 
by hand until a valve placed on the 
top of the cylinder, and loaded to 
the required gauge, begins to lift. 

The timber is then left in the 
cylinder, subject to this pressure, 
for eight hours, which is considered 
sufficient for the largest logs, even 
in a rough state. The solution 
being then drawn off into the tank, 
and the timber taken out of the 
cylinder, it is re-loaded, and the 
process repeated : the same solu- 
tion is used for two months, when 
fresh is prepared. 

The same process for drying the 

259 



timber thus saturated is adopted, 
as before stated. Canvas, felt, and 
yarn, etc., are not subjected to 
pressure. 

The felt is used as a lining to the 
magazines of men-of-war, between 
two thicknesses of wood ; also to 
cover over the steam-boilers of 
steam-ships: it is said to be ren- 
dered much less liable to combus- 
tion by the process. 

It is stated that in tropical cli- 
mates, more especially in Africa, 
the saturated canvas has stood the 
climate, when the unprepared, un- 
der similar circumstances, has ra- 
pidly decayed. 

Both Burnettizing and Kyani- 
zing offer great advantages to the 
engineer : 

1 st. Wood of every kind is ren- 
dered more durable, and is rapidly 
seasoned. 

2ndly. It brings into general 
use larch, poplar, and a variety of 
other indigenous woods, as well as 
American pine, etc., which, with- 
out the process, from being liable 
to rapid decay, and being much 
inferior to Baltic timber, are sel- 
dom used in public buildings. 

To the military engineer, these 
inventions offer still greater advan- 
tages. He is frequently called on, 
in distant colonies, to construct 
block-houses, stockades, bridges, 
and barracks, where the only ma- 
terial to be had in abundance is 
the tree standing in the forest : to 
him a few pounds of either ingre- 
dient would be invaluable, by en- 
abling him to season and render 
durable the timber a few days after 
it was cut down, and thus provide 
him with the ready means of ren- 
dering a distant post tenable in a 
short time by a small body of men, 
with the additional satisfaction of 
knowing that the work thus hastily 
erected would be found to be of a 
permanent nature. 

Kyste, a chest or coffin for the burial 
of the dead. 



LAB 



LAKE. 



LAN 



L. 



LABURNUM, a small dark-greenish 
broom-wood, is sometimes used in 
ornamental cabinet-work. 

Labyrinth, a series of hedges, mounds, 
or walls, with numerous winding 
passages ; intricate and winding 
walks in a garden. 

Lacing, a piece of compass or knee- 
timber, fayed to the back of the 
figure and the knee of the head 
of a ship, and bolted to each. 

Lacker, or Lacquer, a varnish applied 
upon tin, brass, and other metals, to 
preserve them from tarnishing, and 
to improve their colour. 

Lac lake is prepared from lac, an 
Indian drug. It resembles cochi- 
neal and kermes, being the produc- 
tion of a species of insect. Its co- 
lour is rich, transparent, and deep, 
less brilliant and more durable 
than those of cochineal and kermes, 
but inferior in both these respects 
to the colour of madder. 

Laconicum, among the ancients, the 
semicircular end of a bath ; a cir- 
cular stove, for the purpose of 
heating the sudatories, or sweating- 
rooms of a bath : the use of the 
dry bath is said to have been pre- 
valent among the Lacedaemonians. 

Lacunar, an arched roof or ceiling, 
more especially the planking or 
flooring above the porticoes. 

Lacunaria, the ceiling of the ambu- 
latory around the cella of a temple 
or of the portico. The beams, 
which extended from the wails to 
the entablature, were intersected 
by others ranged longitudinally : 
the square spaces made by these 
intersecting beams were contracted 
towards the top, and were some- 
times closed with single stones, 
which might occasionally be re- 
moved. 

Lacunars, in architecture, are panels 
or coffers in the ceilings of apart- 
ments, and sometimes in the sof- 
fits of the corona of the Ionic, 
Corinthian, and Composite orders. 

260 



Lade, a passage of water, the mouth 
of a river. 

Lady-chapel, a chapel dedicated to 
the blessed Virgin, 

Laines, courses laid in the building 
of walls. 

Lake (colour), a name derived from 
the lac or lacca of India, is the 
cognomen of a variety of transpa- 
rent red and other pigments of 
great beauty, prepared for the most 
part by precipitating coloured tinc- 
tures of dyeing drugs upon alumine 
and other earths, etc. The lakes 
are hence a numerous class of pig- 
ments, both with respect to the 
variety of their appellations and 
the substances from which they 
are prepared. The colouring mat- 
ter of common lake is Brazil wood, 
which affords a very fugitive co- 
lour. Superior red lakes are pre- 
pared from cochineal, lac, and 
kermes ; but the best of all are 
those prepared from the root of 
the rubia tinctoria, or madder- 
plant. See Lac lake. 

Lama, in mining, slime or schelm. 

Lamina, the extremely thin plates or 
layers of metal which compose the 
solid metal. 

Laminable, a term applied to metal 
which may be extended by pass- 
ing it between steel or hardened 
(chilled) cast-iron rollers. 

Laminated, disposed in layers or 
plates. When metal can be readily 
extended in all directions, under 
the hammer, it is said to be mal- 
leable, and when in fillets under 
the rolling-press, it is said to be 
laminable. 

Lamp-black, a soot of resinous woods 
obtained in the manufacturing of 
tar and turpentine. It is a pure 
carbonaceous substance of a fine 
texture, intensely black and per- 
fectly durable, which works well, 
but dries badly in oil. 

Lance wood, imported in long poles 
from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, 



LAN 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 



LAN 



from Cuba and Jamaica, is of a 
paler yellow than box-wood : it is 
selected for elastic works, as gig 
shafts, archery bows and springs, 
surveyors' rods, billiard cues, etc. 

Landscape. In landscape we find Na- 
ture employing broken colours in 
enharmonic consonance and variety, 
and equally true to picturesque re- 
lations : she employs also broken 
forms and figures in conjoint har- 
mony with colours, occasionally 
throwing into the composition a j 
regular form or a primary. 

Landscape Gardening. The outline i 
of a wood may sometimes be great, I 
and always beautiful, but the first 
requisite is irregularity. That a 
mixture of trees and underwood j 
should form a long straight line, I 
can never be natural ; and a sue- j 
cession of easy sweeps and gentle j 
rounds, each a portion of a greater I 
or less circle, composing altogether j 
a line literally serpentine, is, if pos- j 
sible, worse ; it is but a number of I 
regularities put together in a disor- 
derly manner, and equally distant 
from the beautiful, both of art and 
of nature. 

The true beauty of an outline 
consists more in breaks than in 
sweeps ; rather in angles than 
rounds ; in variety, not in succes- 
sion. The outline of a wood is a 
continued line, and small variations 
do not save it from the insipidity 
of sameness : one deep recess, one 
bold prominence, has more effect 
than twenty little irregularities ; 
and that one divides the line into 
parts, but no breach is thereby 
made in its unity : a continuation 
of wood always remains, the form 
of it only is altered, and the extent 
increased : the eye, which hurries 
to the extremity of whatever is 
uniform, delights to trace a varied 
line through all its intricacies, to 
pause from stage to stage, and so 
lengthen the progress. 

The parts must not, however, on 
that account, be multiplied till they 
are too minute to be interesting, 

261 



and so numerous as to create con- 
fusion : a few large parts should 
be more strongly distinguished in 
their forms, their directions, and 
their situations : each of these may 
afterwards be decorated with sub- 
ordinate varieties, and the mere 
growth of the plants will occasion 
some irregularity : on many occa- 
sions more will not be required. 
Every variety in the outline of a 
wood must be a prominence or a 
recess ; breadth in either is not so 
important as length to the one and 
depth to the other : if the former 
ends in an angle, or the latter di- 
minishes to a point, they have more 
force than a shallow dust or a 
dwarf excrescence, how wide so- 
ever : they are greater deviations 
from the continued line which they 
are intended to break, and their 
effect is to enlarge the wood itself. 

Every variety of outline hitherto 
mentioned may be traced by the 
underwood alone ; but frequently 
the same effects may be produced 
with more ease, and much more 
beauty, by a few trees standing out 
from the thicket, and belonging or 
seeming to belong to the wood, so 
as to make a part of its figure. 

The materials of natural land- 
scape are ground, wood, and water, 
to which man adds buildings, and 
adapts them to the scene : it is 
therefore from the artificial con- 
siderations of utility, convenience, 
and propriety, that a place derives 
its real value in the eyes of a man 
of taste : he will discover graces 
and defects in every situation ; he 
will be as much delighted with a 
bed of flowers as with a forest 
thicket, and he will be as much 
disgusted by the fanciful affecta- 
tion of rude nature in tame scenery 
as by the trimness of spruce art in 
that which is wild. 
Landscape Painting. The best paint- 
ers in landscape have studied in 
Italy or France, where the verdure 
of England is unknown : hence 
arises the habit acquired by the 



LAN 



LATHE. 



LAT 



connoisseur, of admiring the brown 
tints and arid foregrounds in the 
pictures of Claude and Poussin ; 
and from this cause he prefers the 
bistre sketches to the green paint- 
ings of Gainsborough. One of our 
best landscape painters studied in 
Ireland, where the soil is not so 
yellow as in England ; and his pic- 
tures, however beautiful in design 
and composition, are always cold 
and chalky. Autumn is the fa- 
vourite season of study for land- 
scape painters, when all nature 
verges towards decay, when the 
foliage changes its vivid green to 
brown and orange, and the lawns 
put on their russet hue : but the 
tints and verdant colouring of 
spring and summer will have su- 
perior charms to those who de- 
light in the perfection of nature, 
without perhaps ever considering 
whether they are adapted to the 
painter's landscape. 

Land Steward. A person solely occu- 
pied in the management and culti- 
vation of an estate should see to 
the production, advancement, and 
value of the land ; should be well 
acquainted with the pursuits and 
interests of country life ; should un- 
derstand the qualities of the soil 
and the proper manuring of the 
same, as well as the different com- 
binations of sand, gravel, loam, 
clay, chalk; he should be able to 
show what stock the pasture will 
maintain, what quantity of grain 
the arable land will produce, and 
what quantity of hay may be ex- 
pected from the meadows : with 
other requisite knowledge pertain- 
ing to farming, he will be able to 
form a fair estimate of the produce 
of the farm, to keep accounts, and 
ultimately acquire a taste for the 
erection of farm buildings and la- 
bourers' rural cottages, and also the 
arrangement of landscape, flower, 
and vegetable gardens. 

Laniard, in navigation, a stout piece 
of line or cord used to fasten and 
secure the shrouds, stays, or buoys. 

262 



Lantern, in architecture, a small 
structure on the top of a dome or 
in similar situations for the admis- 
sion of light, and the promotion of 
ventilation. It is generally made 
ornamental, and was much used in 
Gothic and Tudor architecture. 

Lanzi (Abbate Luigi), the author of 
the ' History of Painting in Italy,' 
was born in 1732 and died in 1810. 

Lapidarius, a lapidary, a stone-cutter. 

Lapis lazuli, a mineral which fur- 
nishes the valuable pigment called 
ultramarine. 

Lapis lydius, a variety of touchstone ; 
the schistose jasper of Brongniart, 
containing silica, iron, alumina, 
and charcoal. 

Laque minerale is a French pigment, 
a species of chromic orange. This 
name is also given to orange oxide 
of iron. 

Larboard, in navigation, the left-hand 
side of a ship, standing with face to 
the head : now the word ' Port ' is 
used. 

Larch, a tree, larchwood, much grown 
by the I Juke of Athol, in Scotland. 
There are three species, one Euro- 
pean and two American. 

Lardrose, a screen at the back of a 
seat behind an altar. 

Later, a brick or tile. Besides the 
Greeks and Romans, other ancient 
nations employed brick for build- 
ing to a great extent, especially the 
Babylonians and Egyptians. 

Lathe, a machine for turning metals 
or wood by causing the material to 
revolve upon central points, and be 
cut by a tool fixed in a slide-rest, 
or held by hand. 

The lathe is very ancient, and 
seems to have been known to the 
Greeks and Romans, but, till within 
the last half century, was a very 
rough and almost powerless ma- 
chine compared with the elegant, 
very powerful, and well constructed 
machine now in use. It is used for 
turning either metal or timber, and 
varies in size and construction, ac- 
cording to the nature of the work 
required. 



LAYER. 



LEA 



The construction of the present 
lathe is as follows : a long frame, 
called the lathe-bed, having a per- 
fectly planed surface, and a slot or 
mortise from end to end, is fixed at 
each end upon two short standards, 
and .upon one end of it a frame, 
called the head-stock or mandril- 
frame, is bolted : this frame carries 
the short shaft or mandril, upon 
which are the driving pulleys. The 
end of the mandril stands through 
the inner side of the frame, and is 
screwed so that a socket or centre 
chuck may be fixed on it : this 
chuck acts as a centre for the work 
to rest upon, and has a projecting 
arm or driver to carry it round with 
it. Another frame, called the back 
centre frame, capable of being fixed 
upon the lathe-bed at any distance 
from the front centre, has a cylin- 
der, with a pointed end or centre, 
at precisely the same height as the 
other, with two set-screws, one to 
adjust the centre piece, the other 
to fix it. The work is placed be- 
tween these two centres, and caused 
to revolve by a band passing over 
a pulley on the mandril, if the lathe 
is large, and by a treddle and band- 
wheel, if the lathe is small. 

In small lathes, the rest, upon 
which the tool is held, is fixed in 
a socket cast on a small slide by a 
set-screw : the slide is for adjust- 
ing its position, and is capable of 
being fixed at any part of the lathe- 
bed between the centres. 

In large lathes the slide-rest is 
always used. See Slide-rest. 

Lathe-bed, that part of a lathe on 
which the c poppet-head ' slides 
forward or backward to its required 
position. 

Latitude, breadth, width, extent ; in 
geography, the distance, north or 
south, from the equator, a great 
circle, equally distant from the 
poles, dividing the globe into equal 
parts, north and south. 

Latten, a mixed metal resembling 
brass. The monumental brasses in 
churches are called latten. 



Lattern-sail, in navigation, a long 
triangular sail used in xebecs, etc. 

Launders, in mining, tubes and gut- 
ters for the conveyance of water in 
mines, etc. 

Lavatory, a cistern or trough to wash 
in, used formerly in monasteries. 

Laver, brazen. Moses was directed 
to make, among other articles of 
furniture, for the services of the ta- 
bernacle, a laver of brass, borne by 
four cherubim, standing upon bases 
or pedestals, mounted on brazen 
wheels, and having handles belong- 
ing to them, by means of which they 
might be drawn and conveyed from 
one place to another, as they should 
be wanted. These lavers were 
double, composed of a basin which 
received the water that fell from 
another square vessel above it, from 
which the water was drawn by cocks. 
The whole work was of brass : the 
square vessel was adorned with the 
heads of a lion, an ox, and a cherub. 
Each of the lavers contained forty 
baths, or four bushels, forty-one 
pints, and forty cubic inches of 
Paris measure. 

Lay figure, a figure made of wood 
or cork, in imitation of the human 
body. It can be placed in any po- 
sition or attitude, and moves at 
every joint, on the principle of the 
ball and socket. It serves, when 
clothed, as a model for drapery 
and for foreshortening. The dress 
of the person is generally placed on 
the lay-figure after the head is 
taken, by which the painter finishes 
his entire portrait at leisure, with- 
out requiring the person to sit. 

Lazaretto, an hospital ship for the 
reception of the sick. 

Lead is a very heavy metal, suffici- 
ently well known. The mode of 
purifying it from the dross which 
is mixed with it, by subjecting it to 
a fierce flame, and melting off its 
scoria, furnishes several allusions 
in Scripture to God's purifying or 
punishing his people. It was one 
of the substances used for writing 
upon by the ancients. 



LEA 



LEVELLING. 



LEV 



Lead spar, sulphate of lead. 

Leader, a branch, rib, or string of ore, 
leading along to the lode. 

Leading springs, the springs fixed 
upon the leading axle-box of a 
locomotive engine, bearing the 
weight above. 

Leading wheels, the wheels of a loco- 
motive engine, which are placed 
before the driving wheels. 

Lease, holding of land or house for a 
term of years at a rent. 

Leaf, a water-course, or level for con- 
veyance of water. 

Leaves, a term applied to window- 
shutters, the folding-doors of clo- 
sets, etc. 

Leaving (in Cornish), or casualties, 
in tin, is the same as hanaways of 
copper or lead ore. 

Lectern or Lettern, the desk or stand 
on which the larger books used in 
the services of the Roman Catholic 
church are placed. In modern 
Protestant churches they are now 
often used, and are very ornamental 
in appearance, and far more ap- 
propriate than the cumbersome 
reading-desk. Lecterns are made 
sometimes of stone or marble, but 
usually of wood and brass, and 
generally are extremely well exe- 
cuted. 

Lectus, a bed or couch. 

Ledger, a large flat stone laid over a 
tomb : horizontal timbers used in 
forming scaffolding are also called 
ledgers. 

Ledgment, a string-course, or hori- 
zontal suite of mouldings, such as 
the base-mouldings of a building. 

Lee, in navigation, the side opposite | 
to the wind; as the lee-shore is j 
that on which the wind blows. 

Lely (Sir Peter), flourished in Charles 
ll.'s reign. 

Lembus, according to Plautus, a skiff 
or small boat, used for carrying a 
person from a ship to the shore. 

Lemon yellow, a beautiful light and 
vivid colour. In body and opacity 
it is nearly equal to Naples yellow 
and tnasticot, but much more pure 
and lucid in colour and tint, and at 

264 



the same time not liable to change 
by damp, sulphurous or impure air, 
or by the action of light, or by the 
steel palette-knife, or by mixture 
of white lead or other pigments, 
either in water or oil. 
Lessee, one to whom a lease is. given. 
Lessor, one who grants a lease. 
Levecel, anciently a pent-house, or a 
projecting roof over a window, 
door, etc. 

Level, an instrument for determining 
the heights of one place with re- 
spect to another. 

Levelling, the art by which the rela- 
tive heights of any number of 
points are determined. 

The height of a point is the 
vertical distance to which it is ele- 
vated or depressed, as compared 
with the true general surface of 
the earth. 

The earth is in form a spheroid. 
On laud we can nowhere trace its 
true geometric surface ; but the 
sea, when at rest, presents every- 
where a very near approximation 
to it, and hence the level of the 
sea has been assumed as the stan- 
dard to which all heights are to be 
referred. 

The absolute height, then, of any 
point is its vertical distance from 
the level of the sea: the relative 
height of two or more points, com- 
monly called their difference of 
level, is the difference of those 
vertical distances. 

A true level is any surface or 
line which is parallel to the true 
geometric surface of the earth ; 
every true level must, therefore, 
necessarily present a curve every- 
where perpendicular to the direc- 
tion of gravity. It is a beautiful 
property of fluids that in every 
situation, when at rest, their sur- 
face will present a true level. 

All points situated within the 
same true level are evidently at the 
same height. 

One point is said to be higher or 
lower than another, according as a 
true level traced through it passes 



LEV 



LIGHT. 



LIG 



above or below that point ; and 
the vertical distance at which it so 
passes is the measure of its relative 
height. 

In theory, levelling is extremely 
simple. It consists in tracing 
through space a series of level sur- 
faces, and finding their intersec- 
tions with vertical lines passing 
through the points whose relative 
height we wished to ascertain. 

Level (Road), a triangular frame of 
wood with a long straight base, and 
a plummet suspended by a thread 
from the vertex of the triangle. 
When the ground to which it is 
applied is level, the thread will co- 
incide with a line perpendicular to 
the base. 

A tool similar in principle to the 
above-mentioned is used by fitters, 
and is made of a plate of sheet- 
iron, two sides of which form a 
right angle, and the thread which 
suspends the plummet is parallel to 
the vertical side when the base is 
level. 

Level (Spirit}, a glass tube, closed at 
the ends, and nearly filled with 
water or spirits, fixed in a piece of 
wood or metal with a flat base, to 
which the tube is perfectly parallel. 
When placed upon a level surface, 
an air-bubble will be at the centre 
of the tube. 

Lever, the first mechanical power, 
being an inflexible straight bar, 
supported in a single point on a 
fulcrum or prop, called its centre 
of motion : it is used to elevate a 
great weight. 

Lever-valve, a safety-valve kept in its 
seat by the pressure of a lever with 
an adjustable weight. In locomo- 
tive engines a spring is used at the 
end of the lever, instead of the 
weight; and the pressure is regu- 
lated by a screw, and indicated on 
a brass plate. 

Levigation, the process of reducing 
hard bodies into subtile powder by 
grinding upon marble with a muller. 

Lewis, an instrument used by masons 
for hoisting, consisting of thin 

265 



wedges of iron, forming a dovetail, 
which is indented into a large stone 
for the purpose of moving it. 

Ley, a standard of metal ; contents in 
pure metal. 

Libella, a small balance ; a level used 
by carpenters and masons to taet 
flat surfaces. 

Libra, a pound weight; a balance, or 
a pair of scales : one of the twelve 
signs of the zodiac. 

Library, a room or rooms appropria- 
ted for the arrangement and keep- 
ing of books, fitted up with shelves 
to hold them, or furniture called 
book-cases, to which shelves are 
affixed for the same purpose. 

Lich-gate, a gate belonging to church- 
yards. 

Lifting-gear, the apparatus for lifting 
the safety-valves from within a 
boiler : it consists of levers con- 
nected to the valve and to a screw- 
worked by a handle outside the 
boiler. 

Lifts, in navigation, the ropes at the 
yard-arms, used to make the yards 
hang higher or lower, as required. 

Light. The meteorological pheno- 
mena induced by the action of light 
are, chiefly, atmospheric refraction, 
i, e. the temperature of the different 
strata of the atmosphere ; the tints 
which at certain times spread over 
the disc of the sun, the moon, and 
the stars; the various aspects of 
the waters of the ocean, of seas, 
and of lakes; the Fata Morgana, 
the mirage, and all those varied 
optical appearances which both 
celestial and terrestrial objects pre- 
sent when seen through atmosphe- 
ric strata of different degrees of 
elasticity. 

Light red is an ochre of a russet- 
orange hue ; principally valued for 
its tints. The common light red 
is brown ochre burnt ; but the prin- 
cipal yellow ochres afford this 
colour best ; and the brighter and 
better the yellow from which this 
pigment is prepared, the brighter 
will this red be, and the better j 
flesh tints will it afford with white. ! 



LIG 



LIMESTONE. 



LTM 



Lignum vita, or Guaiacum, is a verji 
hard and heavy wood, shipped from 
Cuba and other adjacent islands. 
When first cut, it is soft and easily 
worked ; hut it speedily becomes 
much harder on exposure to the 
ir. It is cross-grained, covered 
with a smooth yellow sap, like box, 
almost as hard as the wood, which 
is of a dull brownish-green, and 
contains a large quantity of the 
gum guaiacum, which is extracted 
for the purposes of medicine. The 
wood is used in machinery, and for 
rollers, presses, mills, pestles and 
mortars, sheaves for ships' blocks, 
skittle-balls, etc. 

Limber-boards, short pieces of plank 
fitted from the limber-strake to the 
keelson of a ship, butting at the 
sides of all the bulk-heads, that 
they may be easily taken up. 

Limber-strake, the strake of wood 
waleing nearest the keelson, from 
the upper side of which the depth 
in the hold of a vessel is measured. 

Lime, or Quicklime. When required 
perfectly pure, lime is obtained by 
heating to whiteness, in an open 
platinum crucible, precipitated car- 
bonate: most marbles yield it mo- 
derately pure ; but as prepared for 
ordinary purposes, by the calcina- 
tion of common limestone in a fur- 
nace with eoal, it is far otherwise. 

Limestone becomes lime on being de- 
prived of its carbonic acid and of 
the water it contains, whether hy- 
grometrically or in combination. 
The agent employed to effect this 
is heat. 

With the same heat, the calci- 
nation is effected with more ease 
and rapidity, in proportion as the 
stone is of a less compact texture 
than the stnallness in bulk of the 
fragments into which it is reduced, 
or to its being impregnated with 
a certain degree of humidity. 

The contact of the air is not in- 
dispensable, but it exercises a useful 
influence, especially in regard to 
argillaceous limestone. Moreover, 
no limestone can be converted into 

266 



lime in a vessel so close as to ren- 
der the escape of the carbonic acid 
impossible. 

Limestone which is pure, or 
nearly so, supports a white heat 
without inconvenience. Under the 
intense heat of the hydro-oxygen 
blow-pipe,this substance affords the 
brilliant light, the beautiful appli- 
cation of which to the microscope 
is now so well known. The com- 
pound limestone, on the other hand, 
alloyed in the proportions necessary 
to form hydraulic or eminently 
hydraulic lime, fuses easily. Its 
calcination demands certain pre- 
cautions : the heat ought never to 
be pushed beyond the common red 
heat, the intensity being made up 
for by its duration. 

The compound limestone, when 
too much burnt, is heavy, compact, 
dark-coloured, covered with a kind 
of enamel, especially about the an- 
gular parts ; it slakes with great 
difficulty, and gives a lime carbon- 
ized and without energy : some- 
times it will not slake at all, but 
becomes reduced, after some days' 
exposure to the air, to a harsh 
powder altogether inert. 

The pure and compound lime- 
stones, when insufficiently burnt, 
either refuse to slake, or slake only 
partially, leaving a solid kernel, a 
kind of sub-carbonate with excess 
of base. 

The calcining of calcareous mi- 
nerals constitutes the art of the 
lime-burner. According to situa- 
tion, either fire-wood, fagots, brush- 
wood, turf, or coal is used. 

Lime-kilns of various kinds have 
been suggested and tried. The 
forms of interior most generally 
adopted are, 1st, the upright rect- 
angular prism ; 2nd, the cylin- 
der ; 3rd, the cylinder surmounted 
by an erect cone slightly trun- 
cated ; 4th, a truncated inverted 
cone ; 5th, an ellipsoid of revolu- 
tion variously curvated, or an egg- 
shaped kiln. 

The rectangular kilns are in use 



LIM 



LIMESTONE. 



LIM 



in Nivernais, and in the south of 
France, in which are burnt, at the 
same time, limestone and bricks. 
The limestone occupies very nearly 
the lower half of the capacity. The 
upper is filled with bricks, or tiles, 
laid and packed edgewise. 

The cylindric kilns are princi- 
pally employed upon works which 
consume a large quantity of lime in 
a short time. They are termed 
' field-kilns ;' their construction is 
expeditious and economical, but 
precarious. Above a pointed oven- 
shaped vault, is raised, in the form 
of a tower, a high stack of lime- 
stone, which is enclosed by a cur- 
tain of rammed earth, and sup- 
ported outwardly by a coarse wat- 
tling, in which care is taken to 
leave an opening to introduce the 
fire beneath the vault. 

The kilns of the third kind are 
constructed in a solid and durable 
manner, like the four-sided kilns : 
no bricks are burnt in these ; the 
largest stones occupy the lower 
part of the cylinder ; the smaller 
pieces and fragments are thrown 
into the cone which surmounts it. 

The kilns of the fourth and fifth 
kind are specially intended for the 
burning with coal. 

The interior wall of the kiln is 
generally built with bricks, or other 
material unalterable by heat, ce- 
mented throughout a thickness of 
from 12 to 15 inches with a mix- 
ture of sand and refractory clay, 
beaten together. 

In the flare-kilns fed by logs or 
brushwood, the charge always rests 
upon one or two vaults built up 
dry with the materials of the charge 
itself. Underneath these vaults 
a small fire is lighted, which is 
gradually increased as they retire, 
in proportion as the draught esta- 
blishes itself and gains force. On 
reaching the exterior, the aperture 
at the eye of the kiln is suitably 
adjusted, and then kept constantly 
filled with the combustible. The 
air which rushes in carries the flame 

267 



to a distance over every point of the 
vaults : it insinuates itself by the 
joints, and is not long in extending 
the incandescence by degrees to the 
highest parts. 

There are some kinds of stone 
which the fire, however well re- 
gulated, seizes suddenly, and causes 
to fly with detonation : they can- 
not, without the risk of spoiling 
the charge, be used for the con- 
struction of the vaults and piers in 
loading the kiln. In such a case, 
materials which are free from this 
inconvenience are employed. 

Practice can alone indicate the 
time proper for the calcination. It 
varies with a multitude of circum- 
stances, such as the more or less 
green, more or less dry quality of 
the wood ; the direction of the 
wind, if it favour the draught, or 
otherwise, etc. The master-burners 
usually judge by the general settling 
of the charge, which varies from 
to . In a kiln of the capacity 
of from 211-8 to 264'75 cubic feet, 
the five lasts from 100 to 150 
hours. 

In the coal-kilns by slow heat, 
the stone and coal are mixed. Of 
all the methods of burning lime, 
this is certainly the most precarious 
and difficult, more especially when 
applied to the argillaceous lime- 
stone. A mere change in the du- 
ration or intensity of the wind, any 
dilapidation of the interior wall of 
the kiln, a too great inequality in 
the size of the fragments, are so 
many causes which may retard or 
accelerate the draught, and occasion 
irregular movements in the descent 
of the materials, which become 
locked together, form a vault, and 
precipitate at one time the coal, and 
another the stone, upon the same 
point : hence an excess or deficiency 
in the calcination. 

Sometimes a kiln works perfectly 
well for many weeks, and then all 
at once gets out of order without 
any visible cause. A mere change 
in the quality of the coal is suf 



2* 



LIM 



LIME. 



LIM 



ficient to lead the most experience^ 
lime-burner into error. In a word, 
the calcination by means of coal, 
and the slow heat, is an affair of 
cautious investigation and practice. 

The capacity of a furnace con- 
tributes, no less than does its form, 
to an equable and proper calcina- 
tion. There are limits beyond 
which they cannot be enlarged 
without serious evils. 

The bulk of coal burnt to pro- 
duce a cubic foot of lime neces- 
sarily varies with the hardness of [ 
the limestone used, but within 
narrow limits. 

The calcination of limestones j 
presents other important problems, j 
which can only be solved by expe- 
riment. 

Limes, hydraulic (artificial). Already 
the artificial limes have been ap- 
plied to a number of important 
works. In the canals of St. Martin 
and St. Maur they have almost ex- 
clusively been used, and nearly a 
thousand cubic metres have been 
employed within five years at the 
harbour of Toulon. These limes 
have served for the fabrication of 
the mortar for the foundations of 
several bridges, and their con- 
sumption is increasing daily in 
Paris and its environs. 

The artificial hydraulic limes are 
prepared by two methods ; the 
most perfect, but also the most 
expensive, consists in mixing with 
rich lime, slaked in any way, a 
certain proportion of clay, and cal- 
cining the mixture: this is termed 
' artificial Ume twice kilned* 

By the second process, any very 
soft calcareous substance is sub- 
stituted for the lime (such, for ex- 
ample, as chalk, or the tufas), 
which it is easy to bruise and re- 
duce to a paste with water. From 
this a great saving is derived, but 
at the same time an artificial lime 
perhaps of not quite so excellent a 
quality as by the first process, in con- 
sequence of the rather less perfect 
amalgamation of the mixture. In 

268 



fact, it is impossible, by mere me- 
chanical agency, to reduce calcare- 
ous substances to the same degree 
of fineness as slaked lime. Never- 
theless, this second process is the 
more generally followed, and the 
results to which it leads become 
more and more satisfactory. 

By a proper regulation of the 
proportions, a degree of energy 
may be given to the factitious lime, 
which will render it equal, if not 
superior, to the natural hydraulic 
limes. 

It is usual to take twenty parts of 
dry clay to eighty parts of very 
rich lime, or to one hundred and 
forty of carbonate of lime. But if 
the lime or its carbonate should 
already be at all mixed in the na- 
tural state, then fifteen parts of 
clay will be sufficient. Moreover, 
it is proper to determine the pro- 
portions for every locality. In 
fact, all clays do not resemble one 
another to such an extent as to 
admit of their being considered as 
identical: the finest and softest 
are the best. 

There is at Meudon, near Paris, 
a manufactory of artificial lime, set 
on foot by Messrs. Brian and St. 
Leger. The materials made use of 
are, the chalk of the country and 
the clay of Vaugirard, which is 
previously broken up into lumps of 
a moderate size. A millstone set 
up edgewise, and a strong wheel 
with spokes and felloes, firmly at- 
tached to a set of harrows and 
rakes, are set in movement by a two- 
horse gin, in a circular basin of 
about six feet and a half radius. 
In the middle of the basin is a 
pillar of masonry, on which turns 
the vertical arbor to which the 
whole system is fixed : into this j 
basin, to which water is conveyed 
by means of a cock, four measures ! 
of chalk are successively thrown, ! 
and one measure of clay. After an j 
hour and a half's working, about j 
fifty-three cubic feet (English) of a 
thin pulp is obtained, which is 



LINK-MOTION. 



LIN 



drawn off by means of a conduit, 
pierced horizontally on a level with 
the bottom of the basin. 

The fluid descends by its own 
weight; first into one excavation, 
then into a second, then a third, 
and so on to a fourth or fifth. 
These excavations communicate 
with one another at top. When 
the first is full, the fresh liquid, as 
it arrives, as well as the super- 
natant fluids, flow over into the 
second excavation ; from the second 
into the third, and so on to the 
last, the clear water from which 
drains off into a cesspool. Other 
excavations, cut in steps like the 
preceding, serve to receive the 
fresh products of the work, whilst 
the material in the first series ac- 
quires the consistency necessary 
for moulding. The smaller the 
depth of the pans in relation to 
their superficies, the sooner is the 
above-mentioned consistency ob- 
tained. 

The mass is now subdivided into 
solids of a regular form by means 
of a mould. This operation is 
executed with rapidity. A moulder, 
working by the piece, makes on an 
average five thousand prisms a day, 
which will measure 2 11 -8 cubic 
feet. These prisms are arranged 
on drying-shelves, where in a short 
time they acquire the degree of 
desiccation and hardness proper for 
calcination. At Paris a mixture of 
coke and coal is employed ; and 
the common mode of burning by 
slow heat rendered necessary by 
that kind of combustible. 

The artificial hydraulic limes are 
intended to supply the place of the 
natural ones in those countries 
where the argillaceous limestone 
is entirely wanting, and which are 
commonly sold in Paris. 
Lime-tree (the) is common in Europe, 
attains considerable size, is very 
light-coloured, fine and close in 
the grain, and is used in the con- 
struction of piano-fortes, harps, 
etc. : it is particularly suitable for 

2J9 



carving, from its even texture and 
freedom from knots. The works of 
Gibbons at Windsor Castle, and 
St. Paul's, London, are of the lime- 
tree. 

Limning, a term formerly applied to 
portrait-painting, is drawing or 
painting the body and limbs of the 
human figure. 

Linch-pin, the small pin, in'carts, etc., 
that is put at the ends of the axle- 
tree to confine the wheels on them 
steadily. 

Linear perspective is that which de- 
scribes or represents the position, 
magnitude, form, etc., of the se- 
veral lines or contours of objects, 
and expresses their diminution, in 
proportion to their distance from 
the eye. 

Link-motion, a new apparatus for re- 
versing steam-engines : it is used in 
locomotive engines instead of the 
reversing forks, and consists of a 
link with a slot from end to end, 
into which a guide-block fits, and 
is connected to the slide-valve rod : 
the rods of the two eccentrics are 
connected one to each end of the 
link, which is raised or lowered, or 
held in a central position, by appa- 
ratus attached to the centre of it, 
moved by the reversing lever. 
When the link is in a central po- 
sition with regard to the slide- 
valve rod, the guide-block remains 
stationary, as it is then at the centre 
upon which the link vibrates. When 
the link is up, the guide-block is at 
the lower end, and the slide receives 
motion from the backward eccen- 
tric. When the link is down, it 
receives motion from the forward 
eccentric. See plate 8, elaborately 
drawn and explained in Vol. 79*, 
in ' Rudimentary Series.' 

Links, in locomotive engines, are flat 
or round pieces of iron with round 
holes at each end : they are used 
to connect together, by bolts, dif- 
ferent parts of the mechanism of 
the engine. 

Linseed oil has the fullest body and 
dries better than anv of the three 



LIN 



LOCKS. 



LOG 



oils (linseed, nut, and poppy) in use 
with artists ; its colour is a stroflg 
yellow, but this effect does not 
arise from the action of the fire in 
extracting the oil, but from the 
pellicle which covers the grains, 
and which contains a strong co- 
louring matter soluble in oil. Lin- 
seed oil, cold drawn, is equally 
coloured with the other sorts, but, 
like that of wax, this colour is 
carried off by exposure to the sun. 

Lintel, a piece of timber or stone 
placed horizontally over a door- 
way or window, to support the 
superincumbent weight. 

Lintel. " And ye shall take a bunch 
of hyssop, and dip it in the blood 
that is in the basin, and strike the 
lintel and the two side-posts with 
the blood that is in the basin ; and 
none of you shall go out at the 
door of his house until the morn- 
ing/' Exodus xii. 22. 

Liquid rubiate, or Liquid madder lake, 
is a concentrated tincture of mad- 
der, of the most beautiful and per- 
fect rose-colour and transparency. 
It is used as a water-colour only in 
its simple state, diluted with pure 
water, with or without gum ; it 
dries in oil, by acting as a dryer 
to it. Mixed or ground with all 
other madder colours, with or with- 
out gum, it forms combinations 
which work freely in simple water, 
and produce the most beautiful and 
permanent effects. 

Lithography, the art of drawing and 
engraving onjstone, and taking im- 
pressions from the same at press, 
similarly to copper-plate printing, 
but differing in manipulation. 

Little winds, in mining, an under- 
ground shaft, sunk from the hori- 
zontal drift, by which the top of 
the winds communicates with the 
side or bottom of the great work- 
ing-shaft, 

Lloyd's Register. Lloyd's rules for 
British and foreign shipping exert 
a most essential and powerful in- 
fluence on the construction and 
science in the building of shipping 

270 



of this country as well as those of 
continental and transatlantic mari- 
time nations. Insurances from loss 
can only be made at Lloyd's by 
conforming to the rules laid down 
by competent surveyors. See Vol. 
5 i* in the ' Rudimentary Series.' 

Load water-line, the mark on a ship 
which the water makes when she is 
loaded. 

Loam, a natural mixture of sand and 
clay : in the neighbourhood of 
London, loam consists of fine red- 
dish-grey sand 87 parts, alumina 
13 parts = 100. 

Local colours are such as faithfully 
imitate those of a particular object, 
or such as are natural and proper 
for each particular object in a pic- 
ture ; and colour is distinguished 
by the term trial, because the place 
it fills requires that particular co- 
lour, in order to give a greater 
character of truth to the several 
colours around it. 

Lock> a mechanical contrivance to 
fasten a door, gate, or any place or 
thing for security. A vast deal of 
ingenuity has been exercised to 
prevent false openings : keys of va- 
rious kinds are made to fit the 
wards (interior contrivances), and 
prevent what is called picking, the 
key being made only to suit that 
belonging to the possessor. 

Lock, in inland navigation, a portion 
of a canal confined between a sluice- 
gate and a flood-gate, to facilitate 
the passage of boats in ascending 
or descending planes. 

Lockrand, a course of bond stones, or 
a bonding course, in masonry. 

Locks for canal and river navigation. 
The earliest approximation to what 
is now known by the name of lock, 
consisted of a simple dam formed 
across the bed of a river, so as to 
raise the water to such a height as 
to allow vessels to float along it. 
Where the river had a considerable 
fall with a strong current, it was 
necessary to have these dams at 
short distances from each other, 
otherwise the requisite depth of 



LOG 



LOCKS. 



LOG 



water could not be obtained. As 
the whole space between two of 
these dams was in fact the lock, 
it was necessary, in passing from 
one level to another, to run down 
the water for the whole of that 
distance, thereby causing consider- 
able delay, and a waste of water 
that would now be considered a 
serious evil. In China these dams 
are common, and they have also 
been used on the Continent. See 
Vol. 1 2 1 of the 'Rudimentary Series.' 
Locks with a double set of gates, but 
no chamber-walls, are now of ordi- 
nary construction. The evils at- 
tendant on the dams formerly 
constructed were in a great mea- 
sure removed by the introduction 
of double sets of gates or sluices, 
the upper set being constructed so 
near to the lower as only to leave 
room enough for the vessel or ves- 
sels to float between them. Framed 
gates were also used instead of se- 
parate beams and planks, because 
the space to be emptied or filled 
was so small that a very short time 
was required to pass the water, 
and there was no stream of suffi- 
cient strength to prevent their 
being easily opened. Where these 
locks are intended for rivers, it is 
usual to make a side cut or arti- 
ficial canal for the purposes of the 
navigation, and to leave the river- 
course for the passage of the sur- 
plus water. A quick bend of the 
river is generally chosen for one of 
these cuts ; and to keep the water 
in the upper part of the river to a 
sufficient height for navigation, a 
dam or weir is made across the old 
river-course at or below the point 
where the artificial cut quits it. 
The lock is then built at the most 
convenient part of the cut, and its 
fall made equal to the difference in 
the levels of the water at the top 
and at the bottom of the dam or 
weir. When a vessel is going up 
the river, she floats along the cut, 
and passes between the lower gates 
into the lock ; the lower gates are 

271 



then closed, and the valves or 
paddles of the upper gates being 
opened, the water flows into the 
lock, and rises to the level of the 
upper part of the river ; the upper 
gates are then opened, and the 
vessel floats out of the lock. The 
reverse of this operation conducts 
a vessel down the river. 

The abutments for the gates have 
been made of timber, brickwork, 
and masonry ; but when the double 
set of gates was first introduced, it 
was usual to leave the space be- 
tween the upper and lower gates 
unprotected by either timber or 
any kind of building. Of course 
the agitation of the water in the 
lock was constantly washing away 
the earthen banks, thereby causing 
a risk of their being broken down 
by such continued weakening ; and 
by enlarging the space between the 
two sets of gates, it occasioned a 
loss of time in emptying and filling, 
as well as a waste of water. 
Lock (common modern canal}. The 
difference of altitude between the 
upper and lower levels, where the 
locks are constructed, varies ac- 
cording to local circumstances. 
Where the ground is longitudinally 
steep and water plentiful, the locks 
are generally made of greater lift 
or fall than where the ground is 
comparatively flat and water scarce. 
It is evident, that where the super- 
ficial area of locks is the same, one 
having a rise of 12 feet would re- 
quire twice the quantity of water 
to fill it that would be requisite for 
one of 6 feet. Having many locks, 
however, of small lifts, instead of a 
few of greater, increases the ex- 
pense, as well as the time for pass- 
ing them. 

For narrow canals these locks 
are generally made about 80 feet 
long, and !\ to 8 feet wide in the 
chamber. On the Caledonian canal 
they are 180 feet long, 40 feet wide, 
and 30 feet deep. Locks are also 
made of every intermediate size. 

Lock-gates have till lately been 



LOG 



LOCKS. 



LOG 



made of timber; but in consequenqp 
of the difficulty of procuring it of 
sufficient size for those on the 
Caledonian canal, cast-iron was 
partially adopted for the heads, 
heels, and ribs. Iron gates, cast in 
one piece, have been used on the 
Ellesmere canal, as well as others 
with cast-iron framing and timber 
planking. 

Locks with side ponds. When water 
is scarce, it is common to construct 
side ponds, by which a considerable 
portion (in general one - half) is 
saved. The usual number of these 
ponds is two ; for it has been de- 
termined by experience, that when 
a greater number has been made 
use of, the loss occasioned by leak- 
age and evaporation has sometimes 
been more than equal to the ad- 
ditional quantity of water thus re- 
tained. 

Locks for the transit of vessels of 
different sizes. Where vessels of 
different sizes have to pass the 
same locks, three pairs of gates are 
sometimes placed instead of two, 
the distance between the upper 
and lower pairs being sufficient to 
admit the largest vessels, and that 
between the upper and middle pairs 
being adapted to the smaller class. 
By this contrivance, when a small 
vessel is to be passed through, the 
lowest pair of gates is not used; and 
when a large vessel goes through, 
the middle pair of gates is not 
worked. Thus it is evident that 
the quantity of water contained 
between the middle and lower pair 
of gates is saved when a small ves- 
sel passes, compared with what 
would be required were the middle 
set of gates omitted. 

Locks (parallel double - transit}. 
Where the transit is great, much 
time and water may be saved by a I 
double-transit lock, which is two | 
locks placed close to and parallel 
with each other, with a communi- 
cation between them, which can be 
opened or cut off at pleasure by 
valves or paddles. 

272 



As one of these locks is kept full 
and the other empty, a vessel in 
descending floats into the full one: 
the upper gates are then closed, 
and the water is run, by means of 
the connecting culvert, into the 
empty lock (the gates of which 
were previously closed), till the 
water in the two locks is on the 
same level, which will be when 
each is half-full: the connecting 
paddles are then closed, and the 
remaining half of the water in the 
descending lock is run into the 
lower canal. The next descending 
vessel has to be floated into the 
lock which remains half-filled, and 
which consequently requires only 
half a lock of water to be run from 
the upper pond to raise it to the 
proper level, and then that half is 
transferred to the lock previously 
used, to serve the next descending 
vessel ; but supposing a vessel to 
be ascending after the first descent, 
it will enter the empty lock, and 
receive a quarter-lock of water from 
that which remained half-filled: of 
course, three-quarters of a lock of 
water is now required from the 
upper canal to complete the filling. 
If a descending vessel next follows, 
it enters the full lock, and its water 
is run into the lock which was 
previously left a quarter-full; and 
when both have arrived at the same 
level, it is evident they will be each 
five-eighths full, and the succeeding 
descending vessel will require only 
three-eighths of a lock of water 
from the upper pond or canal. 
From these observations, it will be 
seen that the double-transit lock 
saves nearly one-half of the water 
which a common single lock would 
require. 

Sometimes the two parallel locks 
are made of different sizes, to suit 
the various descriptions of vessels 
that may have to pass. 
Locks connected longitudinally, com- 
monly called a Chain of Locks. 
When loss of water is of no conse- 
quence, a considerable expense is 



LOG 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG ! 



sometimes saved by placing the 
locks close together, without any 
intermediate pond ; for by passing 
from one immediately into the 
other, there is only required one 
pair of gates more than the number 
of locks so connected, besides a 
proportionate saving of masonry. 
Thus eight connected locks would 
only require nine pairs of gates ; 
whilst if they were detached, they 
would require sixteen pairs. But 
to show that these cannot be adopt- 
ed with propriety excepting where 
water is abundant, it is necessary 
to observe, that every two alternate 
ascending and descending vessels 
will require as many lockfuls of 
water as there are locks : for in- 
stance, if a vessel has just ascended, 
it has left all the locks full ; a de- 
scending vessel then enters the 
upper lock, and when its gates are 
closed, the water is run down : but 
all the locks below being previously 
filled, they cannot contain it, and 
it consequently passes over the 
gates or weirs of all of them into 
the lower canal : the vessel has by 
this means descended to the level of 
the second lock, the water in which 
must also be run into the lower 
canal, for the same reason as al- 
ready stated. When the water of 
all the locks has thus been run 
down, au ascending vessel will re- 
quire all these locks to be filled 
from the upper canal, which, how- 
ever, will be retained in the locks 
ready for the succeeding vessel to 
pass down. From this it will be 
evident, that where eight locks 
are connected, a descending vessel 
draws no water from the upper 
canal, because the locks are pre- 
viously all filled, but it empties 
eight locks of water into the lower 
canal : an ascending vessel, on the 
contrary, empties no water into 
the lower canal, because all the 
locks were previously emptied, but 
it draws eight lockfuls from the 
upper canal, in order to fill them : 
consequently, the passing of one 



ascending vessel, and one descend- 
ing, requires the expenditure of 
eight lockfuls of water. 

Other modes of passing vessels 
from one level to another, by sub- 
stituting machinery, either wholly 
or in part, have been adopted ; but 
these have either failed entirely, or 
have not been brought into general 
use. 

Locomotive Steam-engines, a class of 
travelling machines adapted either 
for railways or common roads, 
were originally designed for the 
latter, but did not succeed ; and 
roads were then made for them, 
called railways, on which they have 
been most successful. The principle 
of action being the same in both 
kinds, a description of the railway 
variety will explain the manner in 
which progressive motion is obtain- 
ed by the agency of steam. 

Locomotion or progression is the 
combined effect of a number of 
parts in each engine performing 
separate duties. The principal of 
these parts and the plan of their 
co-operation may be thus classed : 
1st. The parts which generate the 

steam. 
2nd. The parts which regulate the 

employment of the steam. 
3rd. The parts by which the driver 
controls the action of the engine. 
4th. The parts immediately con- 
cerned in producing locomotion. 
5th. The parts which excite the 

rapid combustion of the fuel. 
6th. The parts which supply water 

to the boiler. 
7th. The parts which support the 

engine on the rails. 
8th. The manner in which loco- 
motion is produced by these parts. 
In explaining them and their 
effect as thus arranged, we have 

1st. The parts which generate 
the steam, called the boiler, con- 
taining internally a fire-box, varying 
according to the dimensions of the 
engine from 25 (as in the ' Rocket') 
to 303 small tubes (as in the broad- 
gauge engines), a regulator, and 



LOG 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG 



a steam-pipe. Externally, a chiui- 
ney and two safety-valves are fixed 
to the boiler. 

2ndly, The parts which regulate 
the employment of the steam are,two 
slide-valves (covering the passages 
to and from the cylinders), attached 
to two sets of ' valve-gear,' worked 
by two eccentrics for the ' forward' 
and two other eccentrics for the 
' backward' motion of the engine ; 
but only two of them work at one 
time, the other two being what is 
called ' out of gear.' Four rods 
called eccentric-rods, encircling the 
eccentric-sheaves at one end, and 
jointed to the slide-valve gear at 
the other end, complete the con- 
nection of the slide-valves to the 
eccentrics fixed on the axle of the 
driving-wheels. 

Srdly, The parts by which the 
driver controls the action of the 
engine are, three sets of levers and 
rods connected to the slide-valve, 
eccentric-rods^regulator-valvesjand 
feed-pipe cocks, whereby he can 
' put on' or 'shut off' steam to the 
cylinders, water to the boiler, or 
place the slide-valves in a ' for- 
ward' or 'backward' position at 
his pleasure. These arrangements 
are usually called the ' hand-gear.' 

4thly, The parts immediately con- 
cerned in producing locomotion 
are, two cylinders, on which work 
two steam-tight pistons, fixed on 
the end of the piston-rods. On the 
open end of the piston-rods are 
also fixed T-pieces, called cross- 
heads, which slide between or 
round guide-bars, called motion- 
bars, fixed parallel with the cylin- 
ders. By this means the pistons 
can only move in a right line with 
the cylinders. Two strong rods, 
called connecting-rods, attach the 
cross-heads to the driving-wheels, 
or to a cranked axle when there is 
one used. Whether the pistons 
are connected to a cranked axle or 
to the arms of the driving-wheels, 
this connection is always made at 
an angle of 45 degrees to each 



other ; therefore the one piston is 
in the centre of the cylinder exert- 
ing its greatest power during that 
part of the stroke when the other 
piston is at the end of the cylinder 
exerting no power. (This excel- 
lent arrangement was amongst the 
first improvements introduced by 
the late Mr. G. Stephenson, in 
1814, who thus placed the locomo- 
tive in the same high position, as to 
efficiency, as was previously done 
for fixed engines by Watt.) The 
connection being thus completed 
between the pistons and the driv- 
ing-wheels, it is evident that any 
movement of the one must imme- 
diately act upon the other. 

5thiy The parts which excite the 
rapid combustion of the fuel re- 
quired in locomotive engines are, 
the chimney and a pipe called the 
blast-pipe, so made as to cover the 
exhausting passages from both cy- 
' linders, and terminating in the 
centre of the chimney, near the 
level of the top of the boiler. It 
is the escape, through this pipe, 
of each succeeding cylinderful of 
steam, or that portion of it allowed 
to escape by the slide-valves, which 
causes the ' beats ' or ' pulsations ' 
so distinctly audible when the 
locomotive is at work. 

6thly, The parts which supply 
water to the boiler are, two force- 
pumps, connected by two feed- 
pumps to the boiler, and to a re- 
servoir of water. The pumps are 
worked either from the cross-head, 
or from eccentrics on the axle of 
the driving wheels. 

7thly, The parts which support 
the engine are, 2, 4, or 6 wheels, 
besides the driving-wheels, a set of 
springs, and a strong frame on 
which the boiler and machinery are 
securely fixed. 

Sthly, The manner in which lo- 
comotion is produced from the co- 
operation of these several parts is 
as follows. The boiler is filled 
with water until it completely sur- 
rounds all the tubes and inside fire- 



274 



LOG 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG 



box. Fire is then applied, and in 
due time steam is generated from 
the water and collected between 
the surface of the water and the 
top of the boiler, until it has 
reached the pressure required. On 
the regulator being then opened, 
and the slide-valves placed in their 
working position by the driver, the 
steam passes from the boiler through 
the steam-pipe to the cylinders, 
where its force moves the pistons, 
which, being attached to the driv- 
ing-wheels (as has been explained), 
causes them to revolve, and thus 
produces locomotion. The slide- 
valves and pumps being wrought 
from some part set in motion by 
the piston, regulate the admission 
of steam to the cylinder, and of 
water to the boiler. When the 
steam has moved the piston to the 
end of the cylinder, a passage is 
opened for its escape to the atmo- 
sphere through the blast-pipe, and 
the velocity of this escaping steam 
creates a partial vacuum in the 
chimney, causing a rush or ' blast ' 
of air through the fire to fill this 
vacuum ; which blast excites the 
rapid combustion of the fuel, and 
consequent rapid generation of 
steam. This completes the duties 
of one admission of steam to the 
cylinders, until its escape to the 
atmosphere ; and when this escape 
has taken place, another admission 
of steam, to the opposite side of 
the piston, forces it back to the 
other end of the cylinder ; and by 
the medium of the crank, the re- 
ciprocating motion of the piston is 
converted into a rotatory one, and 
the locomotion begun by the first 
admission of steam to the cylinders 
is continued by the second and 
succeeding admissions.- 

The repetition of these simple 
operations has amazed and gratified 
the world, by safely conveying 
heavy passenger-trains at upwards 
of 70 miles an hour, and merchan- 
dise trains of 600 tons weight at 
25 miles per hour ! the mere idea 



of which, not many years since, 
would have been regarded as purely 
fabulous. 

Such is the modern railway loco- 
motive, an illustrative example of 
the genius of man ; but, like other 
important inventions, it is the 
joint production of many minds, 
and many more are still directed 
to its further improvement. The 
records of the Patent Office show, 
that from January, 1840, to the 
end of September, 1849, no less 
than 226 patents were enrolled, all 
of them more or less applicable 
to the steam-engine and its ap- 
pendages. Of these 226 patents, 
45 were enrolled during the first 
nine months of 1849. It has been 
remarked that steam-engines and 
railways were too matter-of-fact 
subjects for poets and painters; but 
from the above record it is evident 
that they deeply impress them- 
selves upon the inventive intellect 
of the world ; and if the prodigies 
performed by stearri remain un- 
sung or unportrayed, they dare, if 
not realize, the very sublimity of 
both poetry and painting ; for what 
more interesting scene to delineate 
than one of these stately machines 
moving safely along, at eagle-speed, 
the very elite of the land (including 
even the Royal Family), through 
districts rich in the historical as- 
sociations of past ages, and still 
teeming with the works of nature 
and of art ! Surely it cannot be 
that the subject is too lofty a one 
for poetical or pictorial illustration, 
for in greatness of idea lies the 
success of both. 

A brief review of the progress of 
locomotive engines is all that can 
be here given. It is now about 
2000 years since the powers of 
steam were recorded by Hero of 
Alexandria, but it is only 200 years 
(in 1650) since it was first usefully 
employed by the Marquis of Wor- 
cester. The first idea of using it 
for propelling carriages is generally 
ascribed to Dr. Robison, in 1759, 



LOG 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG 



when it was suggested by him to 
Watt,who included a steam -carriage" 
in hispatentsof 1769 and 1784, but 
never carried them out. In 1786, 
Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, had 
clear perceptions of the advantages 
of applying steam to waggons, 
boats, and mills ; but the want of 
friends and means compelled him 
to confine his exertions to steam- 
mills. From 1802 to 1805, Trevi- 
thick applied steam-carriages to 
both common roads and railways, 
with considerable success for first 
experiments ; and his engine, with 
Stephenson's improvements, is now 
the modern locomotive. About the 
year 1803, it appears that a Mr. 
Fredericks also made a steam-en- 
gine for a silver mine in Hanover, 
which, in 1811, was employed to 
convey their Majesties and suite of 
Westphalia over the mineral rail- 
way at considerable speed. This 
was probably the first royal trip on 
a railway. From 1805 up to 1814, 
invention was directed to ensure 
the adhesion of the wheels upon 
the rails ; and many ingenious plans 
were tried, some of which succeeded 
well at slow speeds, but were not 
calculated for high velocities. In 
1814, however, Mr. Blackett, of 
the Wylam Railway, reverting to 
Trevithick's plan, fully established 
the FACT, that on a level, or mo- 
derately inclined railway, the ad- 
hesion of a smooth iron wheel upon 
a smooth iron rail was sufficient 
to draw heavy loads. He tried both 
six and eight wheeled engines. In 
1814, Mr. Stephenson introduced 
two cylinders, or two complete 
steam-engines, to one locomotive. 
From this time up to 1829, the 
powerful opposition of the owners 
of other modes of conveyance 
greatly retarded the progress of j 
the locomotive engine; and so | 
strong was the feeling that they 
were not economical, that both 
Mr. Walker and Mr. Rastrick re- 
ported against them, in 1829. 
These reports, and one of a doubt- 



ful character by Telford, led to the 
offer of a prize of 500, in 1829, 
by the directors of the Liverpool 
and Manchester Railway, for the 
best locomotive engine, whose 
weight was not to exceed six tons. 
This proceeding gave an important 
impulse to locomotives, and ended 
in establishing their superiority 
over all other existing systems of 
travelling. Five competitors ap- 
peared, namely, Messrs. Stephen- 
son, Erickson, Hockworth, Burstal, 
and Brandreth. The machinery of 
the two last was not suitable, and 
did not proceed to trial. Mr. 
Stephenson's ' Rocket,' Mr. Erick- 
son's ' Novelty,' and Mr. Hock- 
worth's ' Sanspareil,' were all tried, 
and the prize was fairly won by the 
' Rocket,' which, after the trials 
were over, reached a speed of 35 
miles per hour, and the ' Novelty' 
about 24 miles per hour. 

The ' Rocket ' embraced the fire- 
box, tubes, and blast-pipe of the 
modern locomotive. 

The ' Novelty ' embraced the 
plan now much used on short lines, 
of carrying engine, fuel, and water, 
all on one frame. 

The ' Sanspareil ' embraced the 
blast-pipe of the modern engine, 
with the single returned tube of the 
older locomotives. From this it 
will be seen that this competition 
at once brought out the leading 
features which have since rendered 
the locomotive engine so popular 
throughout the world. 

From 1830,uptotheintroduction 
of the 7-feet gauge on the Great 
Western Railway, in 1838, no 
marked improvement took place in 
the locomotive, but the rivalry 
which sprang up between the 
gauges served greatly to develope 
their capabilities. 

Engines of a novel construction, 
having the boiler on one frame, and 
the machinery on another frame, 
were tried on the Great Western 
Railway ; also engines embracing 
Trevithick's plan of working the 



276 



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LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG 



driving-wheels by toothed wheels, 
fixed on a separate cranked axle, 
were tried, but all abandoned for 
engines modelled from one of 
Stephenson's ; and the last new 
Great Western engines only follow 
up his latest improvements and 
Gray's expansive slide-valve motion 
on a large scale. 

A number of patents have been 
enrolled for improving the loco- 
motive engine, but a few only have 
been reduced to practice. 

Amongst the more conspicuous 
of them are, Mr. Stephenson's im- 
provements in the slide-valve mo- 
tion ; Mr. Gray's expansive mo- 
tion ; Mr. Crampton's arrangement 
of wheels ; Mr. Bodmer's arrange- 
ment of four pistons in two cylin- 
ders ; Mr. M'Connell's tank engine ; 
Mr. Samuel's express engine; and 
Mr. Adam's steam-carriage. The 
improvements in the mechanism of 
the slide-valve motion, by Messrs. 
Stepbenson and Gray, have been 
widely adopted. Mr. Crampton 
has engines of his plan at work 
both in England and on the Con- 
tinent, which enable high driving- 
wheels to be used on the narrow 
gauge, without raising the centre 
of gravity. (For popular descrip- 
tion and illustration, see Vols. 78* 
and 79* in ' Rudimentary Series.') 

Mr. Bodmer's plan is to admit 
the steam between two pistons in 
one cylinder acting on two cranks, 
so as to compensate the strain on 
the frame and machinery. His 
engines work steadily, and are in- 
genious in construction. 

The tank engine carries on the 
same frame water and fuel, its tank 
for water being placed on the top 
of the boiler. This is the plan 
adopted on the Great Western Rail- 
way ; but on narrow-gauge lines 
the tank is usually placed below 
the boiler and framing, a better 
arrangement, where the machinery 
permits it to be done. 

Mr. Samuel's express engine 
weighed only 25 cwt., and con- 

265* 



veyed seven passengers at the rate 
of 30 miles per hour on the Eastern 
Counties Railway. 

Mr. Adam's steam-carriage is on 
this plan, with a very handsome 
carriage for passengers, all on one 
frame, and has been tried on some 
of the branch railways of both 
gauges. 

Having thus briefly glanced at 
the progress of the locomotive en- 
gine, it only remains as briefly to 
notice some important discussions 
which have agitated the mechani- 
cal world regarding them. 

From the earliest introduction of 
locomotives, four, six, or eight 
wheels appear to have been used, 
according to the designs of the ma- 
kers; but about 1840-1-2, an ani- 
mated discussion of the respective 
merits of the four and six wheeled 
engines was carried on in the co- 
lumns of the railway press. Both 
classes have their merits, and both 
classes had able advocates, but pub- 
lic opinion evidently tended in fa- 
vour of the six- wheeled engine as 
the safer of the two under all con- 
tingencies : hence the greater pro- 
portion of the present locomotives 
have six wheels. 

The gauge controversy of 1845 
6-7-8 led to the re-introduction of 
eight - wheeled engines on both 
gauges, weighing about 36 tons 
each, which realized speeds of about 
sixty and seventy miles per hour. 
The weight of these monster en- 
gines, it will be observed, is more 
than eight times that of the' Rocket' 
(4-^ tons), which won the prize in 
1 829, whilst the speed is only twice 
that of the Rocket ' (thirty-five 
miles) at that time. It is worthy 
of remark, that in 1829 the exist- 
ing engines of 10 to 16^ tons were 
considered as far too heavy, and the 
Liverpool and Manchester directors 
bound competitors not to exceed six 
tons weight. In 18 49, the same feel- 
ing prevailed, and the injury done 
to the railway by these 36-ton en- 
gines is much complained of, and 



LOG 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



LOG 



tank engines and steara-carriagjes 
embody this feeling in practice. 

A description of the locomotive 
can scarcely be closed without no- 
ticing the death of its great im- 
prover, Mr. G. Stephenson, who 
died in 1848, aged 68 years. 

He found the locomotive a very 
imperfect machine ; he left it in that 
efficient state that even the daring 
genius of a Brunei could only copy 
his plans for the 7 -feet gauge. This 
is another testimony to that far- 
seeing intellect which so early 
grasped the principal requisites for 
an efficient locomotive, and whose 
genius coped with and overcame 
the leading engineers of England, 
in 1829, by establishing both loco- 
motives and the Liverpool and 
Manchester Railway against all op- 
position, and from which sprang 
that system of railways which has 
added so immensely to theresources 
of the nation ay, of the world. 

Civil services, military services, 
naval services, and no services, have 
at all times been liberally rewarded 
by the Crown and Legislature ; 
but there are no such rewards, no 
ORDER OF MERIT for such men as 
the Stephensons,Watt, Arkwright, 
Field, the Kennies, Whitworth, 
etc., who are the mainstays of our 
progress, our greatness, and our 
power. This is wrong very wrong, 
and ought to be amended. How- 
ever, if the Crown forget, and 
the Legislature neglect such men, 
it is consolatory to know, that their 
names will be embalmed in the 
hearts of the people, whilst the 
profligacy of honours and rewards 
to those having no real claim on 
the gratitude of the nation is uni- 
sally condemned. 

Upon the Taunus Railway, an 
apparatus is in use, which, from its 
simplicity and efficiency, cannot 
easily be excelled. It is attached 
to the hinder part of the tender, 
and is used in case of emergency, 
as well as being constantly used 
when at the stations, where it is 



necessary to uncouple the engine 
and tender from the train, thereby 
saving great trouble, and with less 
danger to engine-men and fire-men, 
as they can disconnect at any speed 
or at any time, whether the engine 
and train are in motion or not. (For 
a better elucidation of this simple 
and ingenious contrivance, see the 
work on the ' Taunus Railway, '4 to.) 

Locker, a small closet or cupboard : 
lockers were used in churches to 
hold sacred relics. 

Locust-tree (the) of North America is 
of a greenish yellow ; is tough and 
durable, and used for trenails for 
ships, for posts, stakes, paling, etc. 

Lode, in mining, a vein of ore. 

Loft, a room in the roof of a build- 
ing ; a store-room in a theatre ; a 
depository for hay and corn in a 
stable : a music-loft ; a singing-loft ; 
a rood-loft in a church. 

Lofty tin, rich, massive, and rough 
tin. 

Log, in navigation, a small triangular 
piece of board balanced by a thin 
plate of lead so as to swim perpen- 
dicularly, and, being fixed to a line, 
measures the ship's way. 

Logarithms are the artificial numbers 
used to facilitate or abridge arith- 
metical calculations, and may be 
considered as expressing the rela- 
tion between an arithmetical and 
geometrical series of terms, or 
between ratios and the measures of 
ratios, and are the indices or expo- 
nents of a series of numbers in geo- 
metrical progression. The origin 
and nature of logarithms may be 
easily explained. 

In arithmetical series the quan- 
tities increase or decrease by the 
same difference, but in a geome- 
trical series they increase or dimi- 
nish by a common measure. The 
first of the following lines exhibits 
an arithmetical progression ; all the 
other lines are examples of geome- 
trical progression. 
10, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
21, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 
512. 



266* 



LOG 



LOMBARDIC SCHOOL. 



LOR 



31, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 

6561, 25683. 

41, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, etc. 
Here consider the upper line as 
the index to all the rest ; every 
term of it is the logarithm of a 
corresponding term in each of 
them ; and it is evident that an 
infinitude of other lines, or any one 
of the same lines, varying the point 
of commencement, and containing 
numbers in geometrical progres- 
sion, might be added, to all of which 
the same arithmetical series might 
furnish logarithms. M. Thoman, 
an ingenious French mathemati- 
cian employed by the Co. Credit 
Mobilier of Paris, has compiled a 
series of logarithmic tables to cal- 
culate the values and interests of 
moneys at every \ and ^ per cent. 

Logeum, the pulpitum or wooden 
stage of a theatre, placed upon the 
proscenium or permanent stage. 
In the Greek theatre the pulpitum 
extended into the orchestra beyond 
the proscenium. 

Logium, a hovel or outhouse. 

Logwood, from Campeachy, Jamaica, 
Honduras, etc., is largely used as a 
purple or dark-red dye-wood. 

Lomazzo (Gio. Paolo) of Milan, pupil 
of Cerva of Milan ; he published his 
treatise on painting in 1584, and 
which he condensed in his idea of 
the ' Temple of Painting,' printed 
in 1590. 

Lombardic Architecture, a style which 
immediately succeeded the decline 
of the Roman style. 

Lombardic School of Painting. The 
distiuguishingcharacteristicsofthis 
school are, grace, an agreeable taste 
for design, without great correct- 
ness, a mellowness of pencil, and 
a beautiful mixture of colours. An- 
tonio Allegri, called Correggio, was 
the father and the greatest orna- 
ment of this school : he began by 
imitating nature alone, but as he 
was chiefly delighted with the 
graceful, he was careful to purify 
his design; he made his figures 
elegant and large, and varied his 

267* 



outlines by frequent undulations, 
but was not always pure and cor- 
rect, though bold in his concep- 
tions. Correggio painted in oil, a 
kind of painting susceptible of the 
greatest delicacy and sweetness ; 
and as his character led him to 
cultivate the agreeable, he gave a 
pleasing, captivating tone to all his 
pictures. 

London and Nottingham whites. The 
best of these do not differ in any 
essential particulars materially, nor 
from the white leads of other ma- 
nufactories. The latter, being pre- 
pared from flake-white, is gene- 
rally the greyest of the two. The 
inferior white leads are adulterated 
with whiting or other substances, 
which injure them in body and 
brightness, dispose them to dry 
more slowly, to keep their place 
less firmly, and to discolour the oil 
with which they are applied. All 
the above are carbonates of lead, 
and liable to froth or bubble when 
used with aqueous, spiritous, or 
acid preparations. 

Longitude, length ; the distance of 
any part of the earth, east or west, 
from London, or any other given 
place. 

Long timbers, in ship-building, those 
timbers in the cant bodies which 
reach from the dead-wood to the 
second futtock-head. 

Loots, tin slime or sludge. 

Loof, in navigation, pronounced luff, 
a term applied when a ship going 
large before the wind, is brought 
close by the wind ; to put the helm 
towards the lee-side. 

Loop, a part of a block of cast-iron, 
broken or melted off from the rest. 

Loop, a rail of bars joined together 
like a gate, to be removed in and 
out at pleasure. 

Loop, a hinge of a door. 

Loop-hole, a narrow opening or cre- 
nelle used in the battlements of the 
castles of the early English. 

Lord of the land or tree, in Cornwall, 
the person in whose land the mine 
is ; therefore the part which he re- 



LOR 



MACHINERY. 



MAC 



serves to himself for liberty to wojk 
a mine in his land is the one-sixth, 
one-seventh, one-eighth, or any 
other proportion, free of expense, 



and called the ' dues' dish.' 

Lorication, the filling of walls with 
mortar. 

Louvre, a lantern ; a turret on the 
roof of an ancient hall or kitchen 
for the escape of smoke and for 
ventilation, now made an orna- 
mental and pleasing object. 

Low-pressure engine. (See Steam- 
engine.) Low-pressure steam- 
engine is when the steam-engine 

. *is worked at a low pressure of 
steam, when the steam is drawn 
off into a condenser apparatus. 

Loxodromics, art of oblique sailing 
by the rhomb, which always makes 
equal angles with every meridian. 

Lozenge, in geometry called a rhomb, 
and when the sides are unequal, a 
rhomboid ; in heraldry, a four-cor- 



nered figure, resembling a pane of 
glass in old casements. 

Lozenge moulding, a name given to 
the Norman style of mouldings and 
ornaments, which are shaped like 
lozenges. 

Lubricate,to make smooth or slippery. 

Lubricator, an oil-cup or other con- 
trivance for supplying oil or grease 
to rubbing surfaces, in order to 
diminish friction. 

Lucerna, an oil-lamp. The Greeks 
and Romans originally used can- 
dles ; but in later times these 
were chiefly confined to the houses 
of the lower classes. 

Lugsail, in navigation, a small sail 
hoisted occasionally on the mast 
of a boat or small vessel. 

Lychnus, a lamp suspended, or a pen- 
dent light. 

Lt/sis, some member above the corona 
of a podium, introduced in temples, 
and in the scene of a theatre. 



M. 



MACHINE ORGANA, defined by Vi- 
truvius, in his 10th book, as con- 
trivances for the concentration and 
application of force, which are 
known by the names of instru- 
ments, mechanical powers, ma- 
chines, engines, etc. 

Machinery, a general term applied to 
mechanical combinations of parts 
for creating power, or producing 
works which may otherwise be, 
more or less perfectly, made with 
the hands. The first class of these 
combinations is usually distin- 
guished by the name of engines ; 
the second, by that of machines. 

Engines, or machines for crea- 
ting or accumulating and applying 
power, are distinguished from each 
other according to the material 
employed in the creation of their 
power, as air-engines, water-en- 
gines, gas-engines, steam-engines, 
electric engines, etc. 

Machines employed in the ma- 
nufacturing arts are named accord- 
ing to their products, as lace-ma- 



chinery , rope-machinery, paper-ma- 
chines ; or to the processes they 
perform, as spinning-machinery, 
printing-machinery, sawing-ma- 
chinery, etc. 

The materials of which machine- 
ry is composed are, wood of various 
kinds, iron, brass, copper, and 
other metals, with flexible materials 
for bands, cords, etc., as wool, 
caoutchouc, and leather. 

The several parts of machinery 
are, frames, plummer-blocks, car- 
riages, bolts and nuts, pins, shafts, 
wheels, pinions, levers, cranks, 
springs, screws, pulleys, riggers, 
bands or belts, and cords, etc., 
studs, tappets, wedges, rods, cylin- 
ders, tubes, pistons, valves, buckets, 
floats, weights, beams, racks, chains, 
clutches, winches, etc. (See also 
Vols. 114 and 115, for popular 
elucidation, in the ' Rudimentary 
Series.') 

The power of engines, as distin- 
guished from machines, depends 
up6n the nature of the material 



268* 



MAC 



MADDER. 



MAG 



from which their power is gathered. 
The mere mechanical effect of every 
piece of machinery is calculable 
upon its combinations of certain 
elementary forms, commonly term- 
ed the mechanical powers, with 
deductions from the effect of these 
for friction between the parts, for 
rigidity of parts which are theore- 
tically supposed to be perfectly 
flexible, and for the elasticity of 
parts which are supposed to be 
perfectly rigid. 

The mechanical powers, some- 
times described as six in number, 
viz. the lever, the wheel and axle, 
the pulley, the inclined plane, the 
wedge, and the screw, are reduci- 
ble to two only, viz. the lever and 
the inclined plane, in each of which 
the effect produced is just as many 
times greater than the power em- 
ployed, as the space through which 
the power moves is greater than 
the space through which the effect 
is continued. Thus, if with a lever 
a weight be raised ten times greater 
than the weight or power by which 
it is raised, this weight or power 
will have to move through ten 
times as much space as the height 
through which the greater weight 
is raised. 

Propriety of form in the detail 
of machinery depends upon two 
circumstances. The first is, that 
the parts subject to wear and tear, 
and influenced by strains, should be 
capable of motion or adjustment : 
the second, that every portion 
should be equally strong, and pre- 
sent to the eye a uniform figure, 
or one that is consistent with its 
degree of action : theory, practice, 
and taste, all must combine to 
produce such. A great extent 
of beauty is attainable in all the 
details, but mathematical reasons 
cannot be given why a certain 
arrangement of lines should be 
preferable to another, provided 
they are equally strong. Truth 
does not strike us without the as- 
sistance of custom ; but so great is 



the force of custom, that unassisted 
by truth it has worked the greatest 
miracles ; and it certainly must be 
this universal Mentor which gives 
us the power to choose between 
forms. 

MaceUum, a market-place for all kinds 
of provisions. 

Maceria, a rough wall. 

Machicolations, openings formed for 
the purpose of defence at the top 
of castles and fortifications, by set- 
ting the parapet out on corbels, so 
as to project beyond the face of the 
wall. 

Madder carmine, or Field's carmine, 
is, as its name expresses, prepared 
from madder. It differs from the 
rose lakes of madder principally in 
texture, and in the greater rich- 
ness, depth, and transparency of its 
colour, which is of various hues, 
from rose-colour to crimson. 

Madder orange, or Orange lake, is a 
madder lake of an orange hue, va- 
rying from yellow to rose-colour 
and brown. 

Madder purple, Purple rubiate, or 
Field's purple, is a very rich and 
deep carmine, prepared from mad- 
der. Though not a brilliant pur- 
ple, its richness, durability, trans- 
parency, and superiority of colour, 
have given it the preference to the 
purple of gold purple, and to burnt 
carmine. 

Madder yellow is a preparation from 
the madder-root. The best is of a 
bright colour, resembling Indian 
yellow, but more powerful and 
transparent, though hardly equal 
to it in durability of hue ; metallic, 
terrene, and alkaline substances 
acting on and reddening it as they 
do gamboge : even alone, it has by 
time a natural tendency to change 
in appearance. 

Maeniana, seats in the upper porticoes 
of the Roman forum, from whence 
spectators witnessed the combats 
of gladiators. 

Magnase black is the best of all 
blacks for drying in oil without 
addition, or preparation of the oil : 



MAH 



MANNER. 



MAN 



it is a colour of vast body and 
tingeing power. 

Mahogany is a native of the West 
Indies and the country round the 
Bay of Honduras. It is said to be 
of rapid growth, and so large that 
its trunk often exceeds 40 feet in 
length and 6 feet in diameter. 
Spanish mahogany is imported from 
Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, St. Do- 
mingo, and some other of the West 
India Islands, in logs from about 
20 to 26 inches square and 10 feet 
long. It is close-grained and hard. 
There is also African mahogany. 
All the species are used for many 
purposes, more particularly for su- 
perior household furniture. 

Main links, the links in the parallel 
motion which connect the piston- 
rod to the beam of a steam-engine. 

Mainmast of a ship, a long piece of 
round timber, upright in the waist 
or middle of a ship. 

Malleable, in metallurgy, capable of 
being spread by heating or by 
rolling, a distinguishing character 
of metals, but more especially of 
gold. When flattened, it is said to 
be laminable ; when drawn as wire, 
ductile. 

Manacaybo is a furniture wood of 
moderate size, hard, as good as ma- 
hogany, and in appearance between 
that and tulip- wood. 

Manchineel, a large tree of the West 
Indies and South America : it 
possesses the general character of 
mahogany, but has a poisonous and 
unwholesome sap. 

Mandril, the spindle which carries 
the centre-chuck of a lathe, and 
communicates motion to the metal 
to be turned : in small lathes it is 
driven by a pulley. 

Mandril-frame, the head-stocks or 
frame bolted to the end of a lathe- 
bed, for the purpose of supporting 
the mandril. 

Mangrove, an aquatic tree, straight- 
grained, hard, and elastic : much 
used for ship-building. 

Man-hole, an opening in the top of a 
boiler, used as an entrance when 

270* 



the boiler requires cleaning : it is 
covered by a strong plate bolted to 
the boiler plating, so as to be steam- 
tight. 

Man-hole cover, a strong plate of iron, 
bolted over the man-hole so as to 
be removable when required. 

Manipulation, in mining, the manner 
of digging silver or other metals ; 
a term now generally applied to 
the means by which materials or 
effects are produced. 

Manner is that habitude which paint- 
ers have acquired, not only in the 
management of the pencil, but also 
in the principal parts of painting, 
invention, design, and colouring. 
It is by the manner in painting that 
a picture is judged to be by the 
hand of Titian, Tintoret, Guido, the 
Caracci, and others. Some masters 
have had a variety in their manners 
at different periods of life, and 
others have so constantly adhered 
to one manner, that those who have 
seen even a few of them will imme- 
diately know them, and judge of 
them without any risk of a mistake. 
The variety observable among ar- 
tists in their manner and taste 
arises from the practice of the dif- 
ferent schools in which they have 
received their instructions, or of the 
artists under whom they have stu- 
died. Yet there are many instances 
of great artists who have divested 
themselves of that early partiality 
to a peculiar manner, and have 
altered it so effectually as to fix on 
one abundantly more refined and 
better adapted to their peculiar 
genius, by which means they have 
arrived at excellence. Thus, for 
instance, Raphael proceeded, and 
acquired a much more elevated 
manner after he had quitted the 
school of Perugino. 

Mannerist, a term applicable to a 
painter whose pictures have no re- 
semblance to the beautiful varieties 
of nature,but discover an unpleasing 
and tasteless sameness. 

Manometer, an instrument intended 
to measure the rarefaction and con- 



MAN 



MASONRY. 



MAS 



densation of elastic fluids in confined 
circumstances, whether occasioned 
by variation of temperature or by 
actual destruction, or generation of 
portions of elastic fluids. 

Mansard roof, of French origin, from 
the name of the inventor ; a curb 
roof. 

Manse, a parsonage-house. 

Mansum capitale, the chief mansion, 
manor-house, or court of a lord. 

Mantelpiece, a beam across the open- 
ing of a fire-place, serving as a 
lintel or bressummer to support 
the masonry above, which is called 
the chimney-breast. 

Maple-wood is considered to be allied 
to the sycamore or the plane-tree ; 
its colour is pale : much used for 
picture-frames and Tunbridge ware. 

Marble, a kind of stone found in great 
masses, and dug out of pits or 
quarries. 

Marcus, a large iron-headed hammer. 

Margin, or Lock-rail, the flat part of 
the stile and rail of framed work. 

Marine engine, a steam-engine to pro- 
pel a ship. There are various kinds 
of them, the beam, direct-acting, 
oscillating, trunk, high-pressure 
as used in our new gun-boats, etc. 
(See Murray's work, Vols. 80 and 
81, in the 'Rudimentary Series.') 

Market. The market or forum in the 
cities of antiquity was different 
from the market in our English 
towns, where flesh meat, merchan- 
dise, etc., are usually sold. The 
Apostle Paul disputed with philo- 
sophers in the market at Athens : 
this and other evidences prove it 
to have been also a place of dispu- 
tation and public resort. 

Marline, a small line used for winding 
round ropes and cables. 

Marmoration, a building with marble. 

Marone is of a class of impure colours, 
composed of black and red, black 
and purple, or black and russet 
pigments, or with black and any 
other denomination of pigments in 
which red predominates. 

Marone lake is a preparation of mad- 
der, of great depth, transparency, 

271* 



and durability of colour : it works 
well in water, glazes and dries in 
oil, and is in all respects a good 
pigment : its hues are easily given 
with other pigments, but it is not 
much used. 

Marquetry, chequered or inlaid work ; 
work inlaid with variegation, a sort 
of veneering, representing flowers, 
birds, and other figures. 

Masaccio, of the Florentine School, a 
very eminent painter, and distin- 
guished for his foreshortenings and 
colouring. He died in 1443. 

Masonry. The early Roman archi- 
tecture, both in public and private 
buildings, was of far more durable 
materials, and of more accurate 
masonry than such as was executed 
in the decline of the Empire. It 
began to be uncemented blocks of 
stone, passed into the reticular work 
of the Republic, thence into the 
travertine, and descended into the 
mixture of tufo, and brick, and 
stucco facing. 

Marble is polished by being first 
rubbed with grit-stone, afterwards 
with pumice-stone, and lastly with 
emery or calcined tin. Marbles, 
with regard to their contexture and 
variegation of colour, are almost in- 
finite : some are black, some white, 
and some of a dove colour : the best 
kind of white marble is called 
statuary, which, when cut into thin 
slices, becomes almost transparent, 
which property the other kinds do 
not possess. Other species of mar- 
ble are streaked with clouds and 
veins. The texture of marble is not 
altogether understood, even by the 
best workmen ; but they generally 
know upon sight whether it will 
receive a polish or not. Some mar- 
bles are easily wrought, some are 
very hard, other kinds resist the 
tools altogether. Artificial marble, 
or Scagliola, is real marble pulver- 
ized and mixed with plaster, and is 
used in columns, basso-rilievos, and 
other ornaments. 

The chief kind of stone used in 
London is Portland stone, which 



MAS 



MATTER. 



MAX 



comes from the island of Portland, 
in Dorsetshire ; it is used for Build- 
ings in general, as strings, window- 
sills, balusters, steps, copings, etc., 
but under great weight or pressure 
it is apt to splinter, or flush at the 
joints. When it is recently quar- 
ried, it is soft and works easily, but 
acquires great hardness in course 
of time. St. Paul's cathedral and 
Westminster bridge are construct- 
ed of Portland stone. 

Purbeck stone comes from an 
island of the same name, also in 
Dorsetshire, and is mostly employed 
in rough work, as steps and paving. 

Yorkshire stone is also used 
where strength and durability are 
requisites, as in paving and coping. 

Ryegate stone is used for hearths, 
slabs, and covings. 

Mortar is used by masons in ce- 
menting their works. (See Brick- 
laying, Cements, Mortars, etc.) In 
setting marble or fine work, plaster 
of Paris is used, and in water-works, 
tarras is employed. 

Tarras is a coarse mortar, durable 
in water and in most situations. 
Dutch tarras is made of a soft rock- 
stone, found near Cologne, on the 
Rhine. It is burnt like lime, and 
reduced to powder by mills, from 
thence carried to Holland, whence 
it has acquired the name of Dutch 
tarras. It is very dear, on account 
of the great demand for it in the 
construction of aquatic works. 

An artificial tarras is formed of 
two parts of lime and one of plaster 
of Paris : another sort consists of 
one part of lime and two parts of 
well-sifted coal ashes. 
Masques, grotesque faces used to fill 
vacant places, on friezes, panels of 
doors, keys of arches, etc. 
Mast carlings, in ship-building, large 
timbers at the side of the mast 
rooms that are left deep enough to 
receive the cross-chocks. 
Mastic, a cement used for the plaster- 
ing of walls. 

Mastic varnish is easily prepared by 
digesting in a bottle, during a few 



hours, in a warm place, one part of 
dry picked resin with two parts or 
more of the oil of turpentine. 

Materiatio, according to Vitruvius, 
the timber-work of a roof. 

Materiation, felling of timber for 
building. 

Mathematics, a science which teaches 
to number and measure whatever 
is capable of it, comprised under 
lines, numbers, superficies,or solids. 

Matter and Motion. Quantities of 
matter in all bodies are in the com- 
pound ratio of their magnitude and 
densities ; for if the magnitudes are 
equal, the quantities of matter will 
be as the densities ; and if the den- 
sities are equal, the quantities of 
matter will be as the magnitudes : 
therefore, the quantities of matter 
are universally in the compound 
ratio of both. 

Matter. 1. Matter in general, ma- 
teriality, corporeity, corporality,ma- 
terialness, substantiality, physical 
condition. 2. Inorganic matter, 
solid matter, density, solidity, in- 
compressibility, cohesion, fluid 
matter, liquidity, liquidness,vapori- 
zation, specific fluids, fluids in mo- 
tion, organic matter. 

Maul-stick, a painter's stick, upon 
which he leans his hand when at 
work. 

Mauritius, of London 1086-1108 
built the cathedral of Old Saint 
Paul's. 

Mausoleum, a pompous funereal mo- 
nument, a costly sepulchre. 

Maximum and Minimum. The ex- 
tremes of temperature are no less 
important to the meteorologist than 
interesting to the general observer. 
They are obtained by the self-re- 
gistering thermometer. The first 
instrument of this kind was sug- 
gested by John Bernouilly. Several 
forms of thermometers were com- 
municated to the Royal Society by 
Lord Charles Cavendish. The next 
in point of time were the contri- 
vances of Fitzgerald and Crighton. 
Six, Rutherford, Keith, Blackadder, 
and Dr. Trail, greatly added to the 



272* 



MEA 



MEASUREMENT OF EARTHWORK. 



MEA 



stock of self-registering thermo- 
meters. There are two kinds in 
general use ; Mr. Six's, which is 
placed vertically, and Dr. Ruther- 
ford's, which is suspended horizon- 
tally. The latter is preferable on 
land, and, from its simplicity, has 
to a certain extent superseded the 
former. 

Mear, thirty-two yards of ground in 
a vein of ore. 

Measurement of earthwork. There 
are many works and tables pub- 
lished to facilitate the admeasure- 



ment of earth-work, which may be 
reduced in practice to the follow- 
ing geometrical forms, in one or 
more chains in length, as the case 
may be. The two chains marked 
B and c in the section will reduce I 
to the forms in the diagrams that 
follow. The dotted lines, fig. 1, 
show the section at the largest end, 
next to B in the section ; and the 
dotted line, fig. 2, shows the sec- 
tion at the smallest end, next to A 
in the section. 

The bottom piece, c, being re- 



Fig, i, 




duced to a parallel throughout, is 
measured by multiplying the area of 
Slopes 2 to 1 . 




Fig. 2. 



Slopes '2 to 1. 




the end by the length : the two 
273* 



banks being equal, it will measure 
thus : 15' 0" x 57' 0" x 132' 0". 

The piece B, the middle or wedge 
piece, being parallel horizontally 
only, is measured by taking one- 
half the vertical height : thus, 
3'6"x37' 0"x 132' 0". 

The two pieces B B form the two 
halves of a right-angled pyramid, 
and are measured by multiplying 
the area of the end by one-third 
the height: therefore 7' 0" x 14'0", 
the slope being 2 to 1, is equal to 
98' 0" ; the area of the two bases 
then, l / 0"x98'0 // x44'0' / , gives 
the cube quantity in the two. 
Measurement of shipping for tonnage 
(called the 'new measurement') 
was regulated in the 5th and 6th 
of George IV. By this Act certain 
rules were established for ascer- 
taining the tonnage of ships, as 
well on shore as afloat, and of ves- 
sels propelled by steam ; and the 
account of such tonnage, whenever 
the same shall have been ascer- 
tained according to the rules herein 
prescribed (except in the case of 
ships admeasured afloat), it is en- 
acted, shall be deemed the tonnage 
of such ships, and shall be repeated 



MEA 



MEASUREMENT OF SHIPPING. 



MEA 



in every subsequent registry, of 
such ships, unless any alteration 
shall have been made in their form 
and burthen, or unless it be disco- 
vered that the tonnage had been 
erroneously computed: and it is 
considered that the capacity of a 
ship is the fairest standard by which 
to regulate its tonnage ; that inter- 
nal measurements will afford the 
most accurate and convenient me- 
thod of ascertaining that capacity, 
and that the adoption of such a 
mode of admeasurement will tend 
to the interest of the ship-builder 
and the owner. 

It was enacted that the tonnage 
of every ship or vessel required by 
law to be registered shall, previous 
to her being registered, be mea- 
sured and ascertained while her 
hold is clear, and according to the 
following rule : Divide the length 
of the upper deck between the 
after-part of the stem and the fore- 
part of the stern-post into six equal 
parts. Depths : At the foremost, 
the middle, and the aftermost of 
those points of division, measure 
in feet and decimal parts of a foot 
the depths from the under side of 
the upper deck to the ceiling at 
the limber strake. In the case of a 
break in the upper deck, the depths 
are to be measured from a line 
stretched in a continuation of the 
deck. Breadths: Divide each of 
those three depths into five equal 
parts, and measure the inside 
breadths at the following points : 
at one-fifth and at four-fifths from 
the upper deck of the foremost and 
aftermost depths, and at two-fifths 
and four-fifths from the upper deck 
of the midship depth. Length : 
At half the midship depth measure 
the length of the vessel from the 
after-part of the stem to the fore- 
part of the stern-post, then to 
twice the midship depth add the 
foremost and the aftermost depths 
for the sum of the depths ; add to- 
gether the upper and lower breadths 
at the foremost division, three times 



the upper breadth and the lower 
breadth at the midship division, 
and the upper and twice the lower 
breadth at the after division, for 
the sum of the breadths ; then mul- 
tiply the sum of the depths by the 
sum of the breadths, and this pro- 
duct by the length, and divide the 
final product by three thousand five 
hundred, which will give the num- 
ber of tons for register. If the 
vessel have a poop or half-deck, or 
a break in the upper-deck, measure 
the inside mean length, breadth, 
and height of such part thereof as 
may be included within the bulk- 
head ; multiply these three mea- 
surements together, and dividing 
the product by 92-4, the quotient 
will be the number of tons to be 
added to the result as above found. 
In order to ascertain the tonnage 
of open vessels, the depths are to 
be measured from the upper edge 
of the upper strake. 

To ascertain the tonnage of steam 
vessels, it was also further enacted, 
that in each of the several rules 
prescribed, when applied for the 
purpose of ascertaining the tonnage 
of any ship or vessel propelled by 
steam, the tonnage due to the cu- 
bical contents of the engine-room 
shall be deducted from the total 
tonnage of the vessel as determined 
by the rules, and the remainder 
shall be deemed the true register 
tonnage of the said ship or vessel. 
The tonnage due to the cubical 
contents of the engine-room shall 
be determined in the follo\ving 
manner: measure the inside length 
of the engine-room in feet and de- 
cimal parts of a foot from the fore- 
most to the aftermost bulk-head, 
then multiply the said length by 
the depth of the ship or vessel at 
the midship division, as aforesaid, 
and the product by the inside 
breadth at the same division at 
two-fifths of the depth from the 
deck taken as aforesaid, and divide 
the last product by 92-4, and the 
quotient is deemed the tonnage 



tEA 



MECHANICS. 



MEC 



due to the cubical contents of the 
engine-room. 

feasurement of standing timber. 
Measure from the tree ten, twenty, 
thirty, etc., feet, and then plant the 
theodolite level : direct the tele- 
scope to the bottom of the tree, 
and observe the degree and tenth 
of depression ; and to the top of 
the tree, the degree and tenth of 
elevation. When the timber has 
been previously felled, it is custom- 
ary, in measuring, to girt a string 
round the middle of the tree, and 
fold it twice, which will give the 
fourth part of the girt, and which 
is considered the true side of the 
square ; then the length is mea- 
sured from the butt-end of the 
tree, so far up as the tree will hold 
half a foot girt, or, more properly 
speaking, quarter-girt ; that is, the 
line six inches when twice folded. 
Various tables are published, to 
assist the timber-measurer in the 
performance of his duty. All tim- 
ber is bought and sold by the load, 
and a load is estimated at forty 
feet of unhewn or rough timber, 
and fifty feet of hewn timber, which 
is supposed to weigh one ton, or 
twenty hundredweight. 
Measurement of base lines, the whole 
of the operations connected with 
the execution of a trigonometri- 
cal survey of a country, require 
the most scrupulous care, and a 
large amount of skill, that the 
many errors which are inseparable 
from the instruments that are used, 
and the several processes that 
must be followed, may be dimi- 
nished as far as practicable, and the 
necessary precautions taken, where- 
by the corrections to the observa- 
tions and measurements may be 
applied, so as to produce the 
greatest amount of accuracy with 
the least alteration of the given 
elements. 

Of these processes, the primary 
is that which consists in the accu- 
rate measurement of the distance 
between two stations A and B, 

275* 



designed to serve as the base, to 
which the whole extent of country 
intended to be surveyed, is to be 
referred. 

This measurement is generally 
expressed in terms of the standard 
of length of the country in which 
the operation is carried on, although 
the actual measurements may in 
the first instance have been given 
in terms of some other standard. 
It is not, however, requisite that 
the measurement of the base should 
precede the angular observations, 
and although generally it is first 
undertaken, it can be equally well 
done when every other portion of 
the work has been completed. 

The selection of a site for the 
base is a matter of considerable 
importance ; a level plain or ground 
with as little undulation as possible, 
and a distance varying from five to 
eight miles is to be preferred ; the 
extremities of the base being suf- 
ficiently elevated (either from the 
nature of the ground or by the use 
of an artificial stage) above the 
surrounding country to allow of 
other stations C and D being seen, 
and these should be so situated as 
to form well-conditioned triangles 
with the base A B, inasmuch as 
small errors in the measurement of 
very acute angles would produce 
large errors in the lengths of the 
sides deduced from them. 

It must not, however, be in- 
ferred, that a perfect level is ab- 
solutely requisite for the measure- 
ment of a base line. That situated 
on Salisbury Plain has now been 
twice measured, although there is 
a difference of level of 428 feet 
between its two extremities. 

Mechanical powers are contrivances 
by which we are enabled to sustain 
a great weight or overcome a great 
resistance by a small force. (See 
Machinery.) 

Mechanics, that branch of practical 
science which considers the laws of 
equilibrium and the motion of solid 
bodies ; the forces by which bodies, 



MEC 



MECHANICS. 



MEN 



whether animate or inanimate, may 
be made to act upon one another ; 
and the means by which these 
forces may be increased so as to 
overcome those which are more 
powerful. The term Mechanics was 
originally applied to the doctrine 
of equilibrium. It is now, how- 
ever, extended to the motion and 
equilibrium of all bodies, whether 
solid, fluid, or aeriform. The com- 
plete arrangement of mechanics is 
now made to embrace, besides, the 
pressure and tension of cords, the 
equilibrated polygon, the catenary 
curve, suspension bridges, the equi- 
librium of arches and the stability 
of their piers, the construction of 
oblique arches, the equilibrium of 
domes and vaults with revetments, 
the strength of materials, whether 
they he of wood or iron, dyna- 
mics (or the science of moving 
bodies), with hydrostatics, pneuma- 
tics, and hydraulics. 

Definitions are explanations of 
terms by means of other terras, the 
meanings of which are understood : 
we shall assume that the term 
weight will be accepted without 
explanation. 

DEF. Everything which has 
weight is called matter, and a 
body is a portion of matter limited 
in every direction. 

DEF. Space is that which con- 
tains or is capable of containing 
matter, and is continuous and in- 
finite. 

DEF. A body is said to be ab- 
solutely at rest as long as it re- 
mains in the same position in space; 
and to he absolutely in motion while 
it is in the act of changing its 
position in space. 

DEF. A body is said to be rela- 
tively at rest as long as it remains 
in the same position with respect 
to some other body with regard to 
which its state is to be considered; 
and to be relatively in motion while 
it is in the act of changing its 
position with respect to this body. 

The states of rest and motion 

276* 



which we have generally to con- 
sider are relative and not absolute. 
Thus we have to consider the mo- 
tion of a locomotive relatively to 
the surface of the earth, and not 
the absolute motion made up of 
this and that of the earth itself, 
and the motions of the parts of the 
engine relatively to the frame of 
the locomotive without regard to 
the motion of the whole along the 
road. 

DEF. Force is any cause which 
produces or tends to produce a 
change in the state of rest or mo- 
tion of a body. 

Forces are measured by the 
effects which they produce, and 
hence in considering effects of dif- 
ferent kinds different measures of 
forces may be introduced. 

When a body is acted upon by 
only a single force, a change in its 
state of rest or motion will always 
take place; but two or more forces 
acting on a body at the same time 
may counteract each other's effects, 
so that the body may be in exactly 
the same state as though these 
forces were not acting upon it. 

DEF. Two or more forces which 
counteract each other's effects are 
said to be in equilibrium. (From 
the Course of Mathematics for the 
use of Students at the Royal Mili- 
tary Academy, Woolwich, vol. iii.) 

Medallion, in architecture, any cir- 
cular tablet on which figures are 
embossed ; busts, etc. 

Mediaeval, relating to the middle ages. 

Member, a moulding ; either as a 
cornice of five members, or a base 
of three members, and applied to 
the subordinate parts of a building. 

Mensuration is the application of the 
science of arithmetic to geometry, 
by which we are enabled to dis- 
cover the magnitudeanddimensions 
of any geometrical figures, whether 
solid or superficial. To enable us 
to express this magnitude in deter- 
minate terms, it is necessary to 
assume some magnitude of the 
same kind as the unit, and then, by 



MER 



MERE, HAARLEMMER. 



MER 



stating how many times the given 
magnitude contains that unit, we 
obtain its measure. 

The different species of magni- 
tude which have most frequently 
to be determined are distinguish- 
able into six kinds, viz. 1. Length. 
2. Surface. 3. Solidity, or ca- 
pacity. 4. Force of gravity, com- 
monly called weight. 5. Angles. 
6. Time. 

Mere, or Meer, a name frequently 
given, in England and the Nether- 
lands, to inland lakes or sheets of 
fresh water, such as Windermere, 
Whittleseamere, Ugg-mere, So- 
ham-mere, in England, and the 
Egmonder meer, Purmer meer, and 
Haarlemmer meer, etc., in the Ne- 
therlands. The term is most fre- 
quently used in the latter country, 
where, prior to 1440, there were 
more than 150 meers, of which 85 
occupied an area of 177,832 acres, 
since drained and reclaimed, in the 
provinces of North and South Hol- 
land ; and where also the Haarlem- 
mer meer, covering an area of 
45,230 acres, is now in course of 
drainage. 

As the meers, in fen-lands, serve 
'as reservoirs to hold a portion of 
the surplus rain-water falling on 
the district of which they form a 
part, their being dyked off and 
drained, where of considerable ex- 
tent, has most important effects on 
the neighbouring lands, by con- 
tracting the area of the rese/voir 
or catch-water basin of the district. 
But as these drainages generally 
oblige improvements in the out- 
falls, their result is mostly benefi- 
cial to the other lands. 

The beds of the Dutch meers 
are from 10 to 20 feet below the 
level of the lowest point of the 
natural outfall in their districts ; 
consequently they are always 
drained by mechanical means. 
Windmills have been employed *to 
dra'in the land, in the Netherlands, 
from time immemorial; but the 
drainage of the meers was not com- 

277 



menced until 1440, about which 
period windmills and draining 
machinery were considerably im- 
proved; and as late as 1840, wind- 
mills for draining purposes conti- 
nued in favour with the Dutch 
engineers, in preference to steam 
engines ; and at that date, 12,000 
windmills were employed to drain 
the polders, in the Netherlands, 
and only five small steam-engines, 
the largest not exceeding 30-horse 
power : the average consumption 
of fuel was 20 Ibs. of coal per horse 
power per hour. 

In the English fens, steam had 
in a great measure superseded wind- 
mills for drainage purposes ; but 
the consumption of fuel was nearly 
as great as in the Dutch engines. 

In 1839, the Dutch States-Ge- 
neral decreed the drainage of the 
Haarlemmer meer, and voted eight 
millions of florins for that purpose, 
to which two millions more were 
subsequently added, making the 
total sum of 834,000. 

The Haarlemmer meer forms 
part of the great drainage district 
of Rhynland, which has an area of 
305,014 English acres : prior to 
1848, this area was occupied by 
56,609 acres of meers and water- 
courses, nearly all in communica- 
tion with each other, forming what 
is called the boezem, or catch-water 
basin of the district ; the surface of 
the water being maintained at the 
lowest level of natural sluiceage, 
by sluices at Katwyk into the North 
Sea, and at Sparndam and Halfweg 
into the Y, or the southern end of 
the Zuyder Zee. 

Above the boezem are 75,357 
acres drained into it by natural 
level ; and at depths from 2 feet 6 
inches to 4 feet below it are 170 
polders covering an area of 135,850 
acres; and 37,198 acres, divided 
into 28 polders which were for- 
merly meers. but are now drained, 
and whose beds are on an average 
14 ft. below the level of the boezem. 

The surplus rain and infiltration 



MER 



MERE, HAARLEMMER. 



MER 



waters from the 173,048 acres of 
polder-land are lifted into the b*oe- 
zem by the united action of 261 
large windmills, with an average 
force of 1500-horse power. 

The drainage of the Haarlemmer 
meer, which forms part of the boe- 
zem or basin, will deduct 45,230 
acres from its area, and reduce it 
to 11,379 acres, or th part of its 
former size : whilst the land surface 
drained into it will be increased 
from 229,657 to 293,735 acres. 

The average level of the boezem 
is 10 inches below the ordinary 
low water, and 27 inches below 
high-water mark in the Y or Zuy- 
der Zee ; and 7 inches above low 
water, and 57 inches below ordi- 
nary high water, in the North Sea. 

The bed of the Haarlem Lake is 
14 feet below the winter level of 
the boezem; and when drained, 
the maximum lift will be 16 feet 
6 inches to 17 feet, according to 
the state of the wind, which raises 
or depresses the surface of the wa- 
ter in the canals very considerably. 

The water contents of the Haar- 
lemmer meer to be pumped out, 
including the additional quantity 
arising from the surplus rain and 
infiltration during the draining, are 
estimated at 800,000,000 cubic 
metres or tons. 

The greatest quantity of monthly 
drainage when the meer is pumped 
out is estimated at 36,000,000 tons, 
and the annual average surplus of 
rain- water, etc., at 54,000,000 tons 
to be lifted, on an average, 16 feet. 

The Dutch engineers were gene- 
rally in favour of windmills, or a 
combination of windmills and 
steam-engines, for pumping out 
the meer; but in 1841, the late 
king, William II., by the advice of 
a commission, decreed that steam- 
engines only should be employed 
for the purpose; and in 1842, at 
the suggestion of two English en- 
gineers, Mr. Arthur Dean and Mr. 
Joseph Gibbs, it was determined 
to erect, and they were directed to 

278 



prepare the designs for, three 
steam-engines upon the high pres- 
sure, expansive, condensing prin- 
ciple, of the ordinary force of 350- 
horse power each, but capable of 
being worked on emergencies up 
to 500-horse power. 

The consumption of fuel was 
limited to 2 Ibs. of coal per horse 
power per hour. 

The three engines were named 
the ' Leeghwater,' ' Cruquius,' and 
' Lynden,' after three celebrated 
men who had at different periods 
proposed plans for draining the 
Haarlemmer meer. 

The ' Leeghwater ' was the first 
erected, to work eleven pumps of 
63 inches diameter, with 10-feet 
stroke in pumps and steam cylin- 
ders ; and the ' Cruquius ' and ' Lyn- 
den ' were afterwards constructed, 
to work eight pumps each, of 73 in. 
diameter, and with 10-feet stroke ; 
each engine is calculated to lift 66 
cubic metres of water per stroke. 

The accompanying sketch is a 
representation of the interior of 
the ' Lynden ' engine and engine- 
house, on the upper floor : the 
' Cruquius ' is on the same model ; 
but the ' Leeghwater ' has the inner 
ends of its eleven pump-beams ar- 
ranged under the great cross-head, 
instead of over it. 

Each engine has two steam cy- 
linders, placed concentrically, the 
one within the other, the outer of 
12 feet diameter, and the inner 
one of 7 feet diameter : both are 
secured to one bottom, and covered 
by one cover, but the inner cylin- 
der does not touch the cover 
within 1-g- inch : there are two 
pistons, 26 inches deep, the com- 
partments of which are fitted with 
cast-iron plates : the outer piston 
is annular, and has a packing on 
both sides : beneath this annular 
piston a constant vacuum is main- 
tained when working : the two pis- 
tons are connected by five piston- 
rods, as shown in the sketch, to a 
great cross-head or cap, the whole 



MER 



MERE, HAARLEMMER. 



MER 




mass weighing about 85 tons, and 
by eight connecting-rods the cap 
pistons are suspended from the in- 



ner ends of eight cast-iron balance- 
beams to the outer ends of which 
are hung the eight pump-pistons; 



279 



N 2 



MER 



MERE, HAARLEMMER. 



MER 



the action of the engines is therefore 
very simple : the steam being ap- 
plied under the inner piston, lifts 
both the pistons, the great cross- 
head, and inner ends of pump ba- 
lance-beams simultaneously, and the 
pump-pistons descend at the same 
time : by an hydraulic apparatus 
attached to the great cross-head, 
the dead weight of the pistons, etc., 
is arrested at the point to which it 
has been thrown up by the steam, 
and time is given for the valves of 
the pump-pistons to close before 
the down-stroke of the steam-pis- 
tons is made ; then, the equili- 
brium-valve being opened, the hy- 
draulic apparatus is liberated at 
the same moment, and the steam 
passing from beneath the small pis- 
ton, above both pistons, the pres- 
sure on both sides of the small 
one is equalized, whilst nearly two- 
thirds of the steam acts upon the 
annular piston against a vacuum, 
and in aid of the dead weight 
helps to make the down-stroke in 
the steam-cylinder, and the up- 
stroke in the pumps. The use of 
the two cylinders enables the en- 
gine-man, by judiciously altering 
the expansion in the small cylinder, 
to command his work at all times, 
without stopping the engine to 
take out, or put in, dead weight, as 
would be necessary for a single- 
acting one-cylinder engine, where 
dead weight only is used for lifting 
the water. It has frequently oc- 
curred that the load of an engine 
has been added to or diminished 
by 10 or 12 tons in the course of 
half an hour, by the action of gales 
of wind on the surface of the meer 
and boezem. Each engine has two 
air-pumps of 40 in. diameter, and 
5-feet stroke. The steam is cut off 
in the small cylinder at from one- 
fourth to two-thirds of the stroke, 
according to the load ; and after 
expanding through the remainder 
of the stroke, it is still further ex- 
panded in the large cylinder. 
The anticipated economy in con- 



sumption of fuel has been realized : 
when working with the net power 
of 350 horses, the average consump- 
tion is 2\ Ibs. of best Welsh coals, 
or 75 millions duty with 94 Ibs. of 
coal ; and on a late trial, the ' Cru- 
quius ' and ' Lynden ' engines were 
found to do a duty of 87 millions. 
The whole cost of machinery, 
buildings, coals, and wages, to 
pump out the lake, will not exceed 
150,000, whereas, by wind it 
would have cost 308,000, being 
a saving of 158,000; and there 
will also be a further economy upon 
the works in the bed of the lake, 
amounting to % 40,000 more, so 
that the total saving by steam over 
wind will be 200,000, and three 
years' time. 

To compensate the district of 
Rhynland for the loss of 45,230 
acres of the boezem or catch-water 
basin, a steam-engine of 200-horse 
power, driving 10 large scoop- 
wheels, has been erected at Sparn- 
dam to lift the boezem water over 
the tide in the Y, or base of the 
Zuyder Zee, where the rise is on 
an average only 17 inches. This 
engine has discharged 30,000,000 
tons of water in fifteen consecutive 
days. When the state of the boezem 
permits the ' Leeghwater,' ' Cru- 
quius.'and'Lynden' engines to work 
freely, they discharge on an aver- 
age 2,000,000 tons in twenty-four 
hours, and they are capable of doing 
this down to their full depth. In 
the month of June, 1849, the three 
engines discharged 60,000,000 tons 
water, and lowered the meer one 
foot; between the 1st of May and 
1st of December they had lowered 
the lake 5 feet, and by the autumn 
of 1850 dry land appeared. (See 
Table.} 

The 'Leeghwater,' 'Cruquius'and 
1 Lynden ' engines were contracted 
for jointly by the Hayle and Per- 
ran Foundry Companies, Cornwall, 
and were manufactured and erected 
under an able director. 

This once formidable meer is now 



MERES, DRAINAGE OF. 


Table, arranged chronologically, showing the Lakes, Meers, and Water-places 


which have been drained by mechanical means, and converted into Fertile 


Lands, in the Provinces of North and South Holland, in the Netherlands. 




NORTH HOLLAND. 


ii 


SOUTH HOLLAND. 


*8 






a 




P 


[)ate of 


Name of Lake, 




I <*> 


Name of Lake, 




I* 


Drain- 


Meer, or Water- 


Location near. 


g W 


Meer, or Water- 


Location near. 


gw 


age. 


place. 




.S 


place. 




JJ 


1440 


Nesch Meer 


Wervershoofd 


59 








1460 
1553 


Burghornder Do. 
The Zyp 


Burghorn 
Schagerbrug 


684 
9026 








1555 


Egmonder Meer 


Egmond 


0080 








1560 


Berger Do. 
Daal Do. 


Bergen 
Koedyk 


1:94 
285 








1561 


Vrooner Do. 


St. Pancras 


246 








1566 


Achter Do. 


Alkmaar 


78 










Kooi Do. 


Do. 


33 








1567 


Zwyns Do. 


Oudorp 


38 








1580 


Boekeler Do. 


Akersloot 


745 








1607 


Wog Do. 


Spierdyk 


1541 








1608-12 


The Beemster 


Purmerend 


6369 











The Weiring- ^ 
erwaard i 


Colkom 


3979 








1614 


.. 


.. 




Soetermeersche \ 
Meer J 


Soetermeer 


1285 


1616 


TjaarlingerMeer 


Warmenhuizen 


98 








l6l 8-22 


Purmer Do. 


Purmerend 


6260 








1622 


. . 






The Lisserpoel 


Lisse 


533 


1624 


Baarsdorper Do. 


Berk'hout 


4*01 


Hem Meer 


Sassenheim 


149 




TheEngeWor-y 


Near Worme- ~\ 


241 








M 


mer J 


meer J 










1625 


The Hr. HuO 
gowaard / 


Langendyk 


6904 








,, 


Broeker Meer { 


Broek & Wa- \ 
ter-land J 


638 








1625-28 


Belmer Do. 


Monnikendam 


3)0 










Buikslooter Do. 


Buiksloot 


772 








l&N 


The Groot Waal 


Berkhout 


138 










W r ormer Meer 


Gisp 


3786 








1626-29 








Diemer Meer 


Diemen 


1575 


1630 


Benning Do. 


Abbe'kerk 


245 










Harger & Pet- >. 
temer Polder / 


Petten 


987 








1631 


The Tien Meeren 


Haring Garspel 


4647 










The Drie Do. 


Oud Garspel 


730 










Kley Meer 


Koedyk 


147 








' 
' 


Kerk Do. 


Do. 


48 










Deble Do. 


Warmenhuizen 


31 










Greb Do. 


Do. 


201 








,, 


The Vier \ 
Meertjes J 


Medenblyk 


680 








)} 


Braak Meer 


Eerstwoude 


69 










Veenhuizer Do. 


Veenhuizen 


718 










Schals Do. 


Knollendam 


145 








1632 


Schremer Do. 


N.&S.Schermer 


12938 








1633 


The Vier i 
Meertjes / 


Obdam 


142 








1636 


Berk Meer 


Veenhuizen 


596 








1640 


Kolk Do. | 


Lambert Scha- \ 


220 








1642 


I 


gen J 




Slooter Meer 




199 


1643 


Star Do. 


Oostgrafdyk 


1447 








1644 


Noordeinder Do. 


Graft 


409 








1645 
1646 


Sap Do. 


The Ryp 


51 


The Wilde ) 
Veneen J 


Moerkapel 


1322 


1650 




.. 




Stom Meer 


Aalsmeer 


409 



981 



MERES, DRAINAGE OF. 


Hate of 
Drain- 
age. 


NORTH HOLLAND continual. 


Area drained 
in Eng. acres. 


SOUTH HOLLAND-ccmttnued. 


IArea drained 
in Eng. acres. 


Name of Lake, 
Meer, or Water- 
place. 


Location near. 


Name of Lake, 
Meer, or Water- 
place. 


Location near. 


1666 








Wassenarsche \ 
Polder J 


Rhynsaterwoude 


2488 


1663 


.. 






The Driemansi 
Do. ; 


Soetermeer 


2013 


16/4 


.. 




t ~ 


Horn Meer 


Aalsmeer 


441 


1700 


.. 


.. 




Binnenweg- " 
sche Polder J 


Zegwaard 


2247 










H. Geest Polder 


Leyrninden 


384 


1715 






|[ 


Goger Do. 


Alkemade 


607 


1727 


. . 






Katjes Do. 


Zevenhuizen 


772 


1736 






.. 


The Starre- ") 
vaarts Do. ) 


Stompwyk 


443 


1736-44 


.. 


.. 


.. 


The Vier Am. 1 
hachts Do. J 


Esselykerwoude 


518 


1741 


.. 


.. 




Vrieskoopsche \ 
Do. J 


Vriezekoop 


1325 


1/54-62 




.. 




Endragts Do. 


Zevenhuizen 


2473 


1758-59 


. . 




V 


Damhouder Do. 


Stompwyk 


949 


1759-65 


. . 






Novider Plas 


Hazerswoude 


8415 


1760-62 




.. 




Palenternsche \ 
Polder ; 


Zegwaard 


1279 


1763-66 








Ouwendyksche \ 
& Boe Do. J 


Esselykerwoude 


806 


1764 


. 


.. 




Bovenkerker Do. 


Amstelveen 


3412 










Great and Lit- T 






1767-68 


.. 







tie Kalko- \ 
vensche Do. J 


Oudshoorn 


1318 


|f 


. . 




m< 


TheGroote Do. 


Soetermeer 


1686 


1768-71 








Do. Do. 


Stompwyk 


11/8 


1772-77 




.. '.. 


*j 


Berkelsche Do. 


Berkel 


2171 


1/72-82 


.. 






Bleiswyksche \ 
Drainage / 


Bleiswyk 


8299 


1/73-80 


.. 


.. 




Schiebroksche i 
Polder / 


Shibroek 


1457 


1781-84 


.. 


.. 




Vendeer en \ 
Lyker Do. J 


Alkemade 


1373 


1782-89 


.. 


.. 




Pynakercke 'Jo. 


Pynacker 


1270 


1786-88 


.. 


.. 


.. 


Aarlander- \ 
veensche Do. / 


Aarlanderveen 


1171 


1788-91 


.. 


.. 




Zestienho- 1 
vensche Do. J 


Overschie 


1064 


1788-99 


.. 


.. 




Schieveensche i 
Do. / 


Ovcrschie 


654 


179<O 
18JOJ 


.. 


.. 


.. 


Mvdrechtschc \ 
Do. / 


Mydrecht 


2622 


1797) 








Niewekoopsche") 
en Zevenho- v 


Niewekoop 


1571 


1809.) 








venesche Do. J. 






1798-99 




.. 




Gnephoek en \ 
Vrowe Do. / 


Oudshoorn 


254 


17997 
1801 J 




.. 




Bieslandsche Do. 


Nootdorp 


333 


1810 


.. 


.. 


.. 


Kleine Slarre- \ 
vuartscheDo. J 


Leydschendam 


23 


1820 






__ 


Bylmer Meer 


Weesp 


1470 


1828-40 








The Zuid Plas 


Rotterdam 


14820 


1842 


.. 


.. 


.. 


Nootdorpsche > 
Plas 


Delft 


2500 




. 






Haarlem Lake'1 


Amsterdam, T 




1840-50 


.. 


.. 





(not yet com- > 
pleted) J 


Haarlem and > 
Leyden J 


45230 











In South Holland, acres 124505 








98557 


In North Do. Do. 98557 










Total Acres 2231)62 



MER 



MERIDIAN. 



MES 



a drained district, and is most pro- 
fitably occupied by industrial agri- 
cultural pursuits. 

It may be said in this instance, 
the Dutch have realized the fable 
of the ' Hare and the Tortoise : ' 
in 1840, the erection of a steam- 
engine of 30 or 40-horse power, 
for drainage purposes, was thought 
to be a bold step, whereas, under 
the guidance of English engineers, 
they have dared, between 1840 and 
1842, to erect the most gigantic 
steam machinery in the world. 

The low lands of the Nether- 
lands are divided into large drain- 
age districts, which have been em- 
banked against the inroads of the 
tides and river floods ; and the va- 
rious parts of a district are con- 
nected by what is called the boezem, 
or water-basin, or reservoir, formed 
by the rivers, lakes, meers, or water- 
places having their origin in the 
district, and serves to receive the 
water drained either naturally or 
artificially from the surrounding 
lands. The boezem is put into 
communication with the exterior 
waters of the rivers or sea by locks 
and sluices. All lands in a given 
drainage district above the level of 
the boezem, and draining naturally 
into it, are called ' boezem lands.' 
All lands lying below the boezem, 
and drained into it by machinery, 
are called polders. Of polders there 
are two kinds : the first are seldom 
more than 2 or 3 feet below the 
level of the boezem, which is em- 
banked above the natural surface 
of the land : of such polders there 
are upwards of 1000 in the pro- 
vince of South Holland only ; and 
they are kept dry by the aid of an 
immense number of windmills. Of 
the second class of polders there 
are 43 in North Holland and 43 in 
South Holland, as recorded in the 
precedingTable,and these are works 
of a formidable character, being, for 
the most part, the beds of lakes, or 
permanent sheets of water, varying 
in depth from 5 to 20 feet below 

283 



the boezem, and requiring powerful 
machinery to pump them out in 
the first instance, and to maintain 
them dry afterwards ; and as these 
lakes, etc., always form part of the 
boezem, or reservoir, of a much 
larger tract of land, their drainage 
frequently involves the construction 
of immense works, and seriously 
affects the prosperity of the whole 
district in which they are situate. 

The preceding Table will, as an 
apt illustration of the subject of 
draining large districts, be found 
important in engineering history. 

By the Table it will be seen that 
the North Hollanders had effected 
the drainage of nearly all their 
lakes, etc., as early as 1645, and 
they had then recovered 98,557 
acres of land forming their beds ; 
whereas the South Hollanders had 
in 1645 only drained five small 
lakes, whose area was only 3741 
acres. It must be observed that 
the South Holland drainages are of 
a much more extensive character 
than those of North Holland, and 
the difficulties to be overcome were 
much greater; and last, but not 
least, the North Hollanders were 
much richer than their neighbours. 
Of the 223,000 acres of lakes, etc., 
recorded in the Table, upwards of 
50,000 acres were formed artifi- 
cially, by dredging the peat pulp 
to the depth of 10 or 20 feet, to 
serve as fuel for domestic pur- 
poses, etc. 

Meridian, in astronomy, the line 
drawn from the north to the south, 
through the zenith, nadir, and poles, 
which line the sun crosses at noon. 

Merlon, the solid part of an embattled 
parapet, standing up between the 
embrasures. 

Merus, the plain surface between the 
channels of a triglyph. 

Mesaula, a passage, gallery, or lobby ; 
an entry or court. 

Messuage,^ dwelling-house,withsome 
land adjoining, as garden, orchard, 
etc., and all other conveniences be- 
longing to it. 



MES 



METALS. 



MET 



Nestling, brass ornaments ; candje- 
sticks ; sacred utensils used in 
Anglo-Saxon times. 

Metallurgy, the art of working me- 
tals, invented by Tubal-Cain, B. c. 
3608. "And Zillah also bare Tubal- 
Cain, an instructor of every arti- 
ficer in brass and iron." (Gen. iv. 
22.) In the earliest periods of his- 
tory, mention is made of the ex- 
cellence in working metals among 
the Egyptians. Some specimens of 
metal-work of an early date ex- 
ist, and modern fashion has also 
produced some very elaborate ex- 
amples. 

Metals are elementary bodies capable 
of combining with oxygen ; and 
many of them, during this combi- 
nation, exhibit the phenomenon of 
combustion. Seven metals only 
were formerly known ; but recently 
a much greater number has been 
added. Metals are distinguished 
by their great specific gravity, con- 
siderable tenacity, and hardness, 
opacity, and property of reflecting 
the greater part of the light which 
falls on their surface, giving rise to 
metallic lustre or brilliancy. Me- 
tals are the best conductors of 
caloric : their expansibilities are 
various, and are probably nearly in 
the order of their fusibilities. Mer- 
cury melts at so low a temperature, 
that it can be obtained in the solid 
state only at a very low tempera- 
ture; others,' as platina, can scarcely 
be melted by the most intense heat 
which we can excite. 

Metals employed in the mechanical 
arts. 

ANTIMONY is of a silvery white 
colour, brittle, and crystalline in its 
ordinary texture : it fuses at about 
800-: its specific gravity is 6712. 
BISMUTH is a brittle, white me- 
tal with a slight tint of red : its spe- 
cific gravity is 9 '822 : it fuses at 4 7 6, 
and always crystallizes on cooling. 
COPPER is the only metal, with 
the exception of titanium, which has 
a red colour: it has much lustre, 
is very malleable and ductile, and 

284 



exhales a peculiar smell when 
warmed or rubbed : it melts at a 
bright red or dull white heat, or at 
a temperature intermediate be- 
tween the fusing points of silver 
and gold = 1996 Fahr. : its specific 
gravity varies from 8-86 to 8*89, 
the former being the least density 
of cast copper ; the latter, the great- 
est of rolled or hammered copper. 

GOLD is of a deep and peculiar 
yellow colour ; it melts at a bright 
red heat, equivalent, according to 
Daniell, to 2016 Fahr., and when 
in fusion, appears of a brilliant 
greenish colour: its specific gra- 
vity is 19-3: it is so malleable, 
that it may be extended into leaves 
which do not exceed the -^ Ti . 1 uou th 
of an inch in thickness, or a single 
grain may be extended over 56 
square inches of surface. 

LEAD in colour is bluish-white : 
it has much brilliancy, is remark- 
ably flexible and soft, and leaves a 
black streak on paper. When han- 
dled, it exhales a peculiar odour : 
it melts at about 612, and by the 
united action of heat and air, is 
readily converted into an oxide. 
Its specific gravity, when pure, is 
11 '445 ; but the lead of commerce 
seldom exceeds 11-35. Lead is 
used, in a state of comparative 
purity, for roofs, cisterns, pipes, 
vessels for sulphuric acid, etc. 

MERCURY is a brilliant white 
metal, having much of the colour 
of silver. It has been known from 
remote ages. It is liquid at com- 
mon temperatures, solid and mal- 
leable at 40 Fahr., and contracts 
considerably at the moment of con- 
gelation : it boils and becomes va- 
pour at about 670 : its specific 
gravity at 60 is 13"5. In the solid 
state, its density exceeds 14. The 
specific gravity of mercurial vapour 
is 6-976. 

NICKEL is a white brilliant 
metal, which acts upon the magne- 
tic needle, and is itself capable of 
becoming a magnet. Its magnetism 
is more feeble than that of iron 



MET 



METALS. 



MET 



and vanishes at a heat somewhat 
helow redness. At 630 it is duc- 
tile and malleable : its specific gra- 
vity varies from 8'27 to 8 -40 when 
fused, and after hammering, from 
8-69 to 9-00. It is not oxidized hy 
exposure to air at common tempe- 
ratures ; but when heated in the 
air, it acquires various tints, like 
steel : at a red heat, it becomes 
coated by a grey oxide. 

PALLADIUM is of a dull white 
colour, malleable and ductile. Its 
specific gravity is about 11-3, or 
11-86 when laminated. It fuses at 
a temperature above that required 
for the fusion of gold. 

PLATINUM is a white metal, 
extremely difficult of fusion, and 
unaltered by the joint action of 
heat and air. It varies in den- 
sity from 21 to 2T5, according to 
the degree of mechanical compres- 
sion it has sustained. It is ex- 
tremely ductile, but cannot be 
beaten into such thin leaves as gold 
and silver. 

RHODIUM, discovered in 1803 
by Dr. Wollaston, is a white metal, 
very difficult effusion. Its specific 
gravity is about 11 ; it is extremely 
hard. When pure, the acids do not 
dissolve it. 

SILVER is of a more perfect 
white than any other metal : it has 
considerable brilliancy, and takes a 
high polish. Its specific gravity 
varies between 10'4, which is the 
density of cast silver, and 10 5 to 
10*6, which is the density of rolled 
or stamped silver. It is so mallea- 
ble and ductile, that it may be ex^ 
tended into leaves not exceeding a 
ten-thousandth of an inch in thick- 
ness, and drawn into wire much 
finer than a human hair. Silver 
melts at a bright red heat, estimated 
at 1873 Fahr., and when in fusion 
appears extremely brilliant. 

TIN has a silvery white colour, 
with a slight tint of yellow : it is 
malleable though sparingly ductile, 
Common tin-foil, which is obtained 
by beating out the metal, is not 

285 



more than y^Vvtii of an inch in 
thickness,and what is termed ' white 
Dutch metal ' is in much thinner 
leaves. Its specific gravity fluctuates 
from 7'28 to 7 '6, the highest being 
the purest metal. When bent, it 
occasions a peculiar crackling noise, 
arising from the destruction of co- 
hesion amongst its particles. When 
a bar of tin is rapidly bent back- 
wards and forwards several times 
successively, it becomes so hot that 
it cannot be held in the hand. 
When rubbed, it exhales a peculiar 
odour. It melts at 442, and by 
exposure to heat and air is gradu- 
aily converted into a protoxide. 

ZINC is a bluish-white metal, 
with considerable lustre; rather 
hard ; of a specific gravity of about 
6*8 in its usual state ; but when 
drawn into wire, or rolled into 
plates, its density is augmented to 
7 or 7'2. In its ordinary state, at 
common temperatures, it is tough, 
and with difficulty broken by blows 
of the hammer: it becomes very 
brittle when its temperature ap- 
proaches that of fusion, which is 
about 773; but at a temperature 
a little above 212, and between 
that and 300, it becomes ductile 
and malleable, and may be rolled 
into thin leaves, and drawn into 
moderately fine wire, which, how- 
ever, possesses but little tenacity. 
When a mass of zinc which has 
been fused is slowly cooled, its 
fracture exhibits a lamellar and 
prismatic crystalline texture. The 
pipes of the great organ in the 
town-hall at Birmingham, and in 
that of York cathedral, are made 
principally of sheet zinc. 

Aluminium, a newly discovered 
metal; see p. 12. 

Meteorology, the term now used for 
the purpose of designating the sci- 
ence which observes, registers, clas- 
sifies, and compares the various and 
varying phenomena of our atmo- 
sphere. It remarks, at the same 
time, the connection of those phe- 
nomena with the heavenly bodies, 

N3 



MET 



METEOROLOGY. 



MIL 



and with the solid and liquid rtla- 
terials of the earth, in reference to 
their reciprocal and combined in- 
fluence in determining the character 
of different climates, and with the 
view of learning the meteoric his- 
tory of every region of our globe, 
of ultimately investigating the laws 
of atmospheric change, the plan of 
meteoric action ; the theory, in fact, 
of meteorological phenomena, on 
which depend essentially the fit- 
ness of the various portions of the 
earth's surface for the production 
of different vegetable and other sub- 
stances and for the support of ani- 
mal life. 

Meteorological phenomena are not con- 
fined to the inferior regions of the 
atmosphere, but extend as far as 
observations have reached. It is 
possible their influence may extend 
universally, and therefore it is de- 
sirable to know whether there exists 
throughout space a medium, or con- 
ductor, or whether there is such a 
thing in nature as vacuum. Some 
have, it is true, endeavoured to re- 
concile opinions so diametrically 
opposed to each other,by suggesting 
that the universe, though infinite, 
is a plenum anu a void ! This (the 
doctrine of Leucippus) a recent au- 
thor declares to be really true; 
and some conceive that the New- 
tonian theory necessarily implies 
the reality of a void, the astrono- 
mical calculations on which that 
theory rests having been made 
without any allowance for the re- 
sistance to the motions of the 
planets,which might be experienced 
from a material medium. 

Metoche, the intervals between two 
denticuli in the Ionic entablature. 

Metope, the spaces between the tri- 
glyphs of the Doric frieze, which 
in the Parthenon, for instance, were 
filled in with sculpture; but in 
mo '.ern porticoes that are said to 
be after the Parthenon, they are 
mere blanks. 

Metre, a French measure, equal to 
39-3702 English inches. 

286 



Mezuzoth, a name given to certain 
pieces of parchment which were 
anciently fixed on the door-posts of 
houses. 

Mezzanine, a low intermediate story 
between two higher ones. 

Mezzo-relievo, projection of figures 
between alto- and basso-relievo ; 
demi-relievo. 

Mezzotinto,3i\imA of engraving nearly 
resembling painting, effected by 
scraping and burnishing the copper. 

Mica, an important ingredient in the 
composition of rocks, consisting of 
silica, alumina, oxide of iron, and 
potash : it is easily divided into 
laminae, even to the s-ooVo(7 tn P arfc 
of an inch, and is distinguishable 
from talc by its elasticity : in Russia 
it is used instead of window-glass. 

Micrometer, an instrument for mea- 
suring small spaces. 

Microscope, an optical instrument for 
rendering visible minute objects : 
the simple microscope has one lens 
only, and magnifies by permitting 
a near view of the object ; in the 
compound microscope, a focal image 
is again magnified by other lenses. 

Middle-ground is a term used, not to 
express the middle of a picture, but 
generally perspectively so ; some- 
times it is the highest part of a 
picture, and sometimes the second 
degree of shade. Pictures are di- 
vided into three parts : fore-ground, 
middle-ground, and back-ground. 

Middle-rail, the rail of a door which 
is upon a level with the hand when 
hanging freely : the lock of the door 
is generally fixed in this rail. 

Midship signifies the middle of a ship. 

Midship-bend, the broadest frame in 
the ship, called the ' dead-flat. ' 

Milestones. Pliny says, the miles on 
the Roman roads were distinguished 
by a pillar, or"a stone, set up at the 
end of each of them, and which was 
marked with one or more figures, 
signifying how far it was from the 
Milliarium Aureum, a pillar in the 
forum near the temple of Saturn, 
which had on it the figure I., so 
that the next pillar to it, which was 



MIL 



MILLS. 



MIN 



marked II., was but one mile from 
the standard pillar.and consequently 
the XIV. and XI. stones were but 
thirteen and ten miles from the 
forum. 

Millennium, a thousand years ; the 
term applied to that period of the 
Christian Church described in Re- 
velation, during which, according to 
many commentators, it is supposed 
that Jesus Christ will reign person- 
ally on the earth, that the bodies 
of martyrs and other eminent 
Christians will be raised from the 
dead, and in this renewed state 
constitute the subjects of His glo- 
rious kingdom. 

Milliare, a Roman mile, consisting 
of 1000 paces of 5 feet each, and 
therefore = 5000 feet: taking the 
Roman foot at 11-6496 English 
inches, the Roman mile would be 
1618 English yards, or 142 yards 
less than the English statute mile. 

Mills for the grinding of grain into 
flour are of several kinds : wind- 
mills, with sails to be impelled by 
the action of the wind, over-shot 
and under-shot ; and the horizon- 
tal or turbine water-wheels. Mill 
machinery is used for the grinding 
of tobacco into snuff, impelled by 
wind, particularly in Holland, where 
stupendous structures can be seen 
on the road from Rotterdam to the 
Hague. Mills are alsoused,propelled 
by steam or water, for the grinding 
of bark, preparing of flax, sawing 
of timber, and for the many and 
varied purposes in manufacture. 
In the ' Papers on Engineering,' 
vol. vi., will be found an interesting 
paper by Mr. Fairbairn on ' \Vatr- 
Wheels with Ventilated Buckets.' 

Millwrights' Planing Machine. This 
machine is similar in principle to 
the ordinary plaifing machine (see 
Planing Machine], except in cases 
where heavy work is required to be 
planed, when a machine with a 
movable tool and fixed table is 
used. The advantage of this ar- 
rangement is, that very large and 
heavy castings are planed, which 

287 



could not be moved to and fro, as 
in the ordinary machines, without 
great loss of power. It is placed 
over a pit made for the purpose, 
with steps to descend into it. The 
two side frames are bolted to the 
ground, and the table has a series 
of apertures for bolts to fix the 
work upon it, and can be raised or 
lowered to any required height by 
four strong screws, one at each 
corner. The horizontal and ver- 
tical slides are placed over the work 
in the usual manner, and are at- 
tached to a light frame, which, 
when the tool is adjusted to the 
work by the vertical slide, is moved 
to and fro, carrying with it the 
slides and tool, and at the end of 
each backward stroke a lappet, or 
other contrivance, sets the vertical 
slide and tool a little further across 
the table, until the entire surface is 
planed. 

Minaret, in Mohammedan architec- 
ture, a spire or steeple. 

Mind of Man. For the purposes of 
anatomy every skeleton may be 
useful, and may sufficiently tell the 
tale of the race'to which it belongs, 
but when we come to seek for high 
beauty and for approaches to per- 
fection, of how infinite a diversity, 
of what countless degrees, does 
form appear to be susceptible ! 
How difficult it is to find these, 
except in mere fragments ; and 
how dangerous does it prove, in 
dealing with objects, to treat the 
whole as a normal specimen, simply 
because parts are fine, or even su- 
perlative. When, again, we pass 
onward, and with the body regard 
also the mind of man, still greater 
is the range of difference, and still 
more rare is either the develop- 
ment of parts in a degree so high 
as to bring their single excellence 
near the ideal standard, or the ac- 
curate adjustment of their rela- 
tions to one another, or the com- 
pleteness of the aggregate which 
they form. (Gladstone.) 

Mineral Black is a native and impure 



MIN 



MINING. 



MIN 



oxide of carbon, of a soft textwre, 
found in Devonshire. 

Mineral Green is the commercial 
name of green lakes, prepared from 
the sulphate of copper. 

Mineralogy forms one of the three 
great divisions into which natural 
history or the knowledge of natu- 
ral objects has been classified ; the 
other two being botany, devoted to 
plants, and zoology, to animals. 
Mineralogy is also distinguished 
from geology, inasmuch as it re- 
gards the characters of minerals 
in detail, without regard to their 
formation and general distribution 
in the crust of the earth, which 
belong to geology. If the compo- 
sition of a mineral substance is to 
be considered, then mineralogy 
forms a portion of chemistry ; but 
in its more limited sense, mine- 
ralogy is the art of distinguishing 
mineral substances from each other, 
and the science of accurately de- 
scribing and arranging them, by 
what may be termed a natural clas- 
sification. 

Minerva in a speech expresses to Juno 
her resentment at the restraint put 
upon her by Jupiter. She accuses 
him of forgetting the services she 
had so often rendered to Hercules 
when he was oppressed by the la- 
bours that Eurystheus had laid 
upon him, and declares that it was 
she who effected his escape from 
Hades. (Gladstone.) 

Minerva in her capacity of a tradi- 
tive deity was with perfect consis- 
tency worshiped alike among Tro- 
jans and Greeks, Hellenic and Pe- 
lasgian tribes; there is nothing 
strange, then, in our finding her 
the patroness of a Pelasgian peo- 
ple. (Gladstone.) 

Mines. "Water-springs in mines are 
wrongly considered to be of great 
injury. It is true, the lifting of 
water by machinery from the deep 
mines is attended with expense, 
when they are so situated that' no 
level, drift, or watercourse can be 
obtained for that purpose ; but, on 

9Q 



the other hand, they are so abso- 
lutely necessary in mining, that in 
the very first process, a judicious 
miner, in boring down to his mine, 
previous to his sinking to or work- 
ing it, even in this simple act, 
cannot proceed very deep without 
water to work his bore-rod in ; and 
if the strata of the earth passed 
through does not produce it, he 
must pour it down the bore-hole, 
or he cannot proceed. When all 
his pits or shafts are sunk, and his 
mine opened, and ventilation is re- 
quired to expel inflammable air, 
fire, or black damp (as it is termed), 
nothing is superior to water. When 
this can be obtained, and made to 
run with facility through the mine 
and its various workings, it is found 
superior to air-furnaces of any kind 
for expelling the fulminating va- 
pours so destructive to the health 
and lives of the workmen employed. 

Mines in Scotland. The general cus- 
tom of Scotland provides for yield- 
ing to the landlord a royalty pro- 
portioned upon the net amount of 
sales at the colliery, in conjunction 
with a certain or sleeping rent pay- 
able half-yearly. The royalty pro- 
portion is sometimes so high as 
one-quarter the amount of sales, 
but generally one-eighth ; of late 
years many collieries have been let 
at one-twelfth and at one-four- 
teenth the amount of sales. 

Mining. There is an essential differ- 
ence between civil and military 
mining : in the former, the works 
are frequently carried on at consi- 
derable depths below the surface 
of the earth, and sometimes in solid 
rock ; whereas military mining is 
what may be termed superficial, 
and consequently the miner works 
through the m^re recent formations 
of earths and sands, which, from 
their little tenacity, he has to sup- 
port as he advances. For the bet- 
ter ventilation of military mines, a 
machine has been invented by Ser- 
geant Lewis, of the Royal Sappers 
and Miners ; and it has been con- 



MIN 



MIXED COLOURS. 



MOD 



jectured that Mr. Haig's patent 
pneumatic engine, invented for the 
purpose of purifying the holds of 
vessels, might also be successfully 
employed in mining operations. 

Minster, a cathedral, anciently a large 
church. (See Westminster Abbey.} 

Minute, a proportionate measure in 
architecture, by which the parts of 
the orders are regulated ; the six- 
tieth part of the lower diameter of 
the shaft of a column, written thus, 
10', i.e. ten minutes ; in geography 
and astronomy, the sixtieth part of 
a degree. 

Miserere, projecting brackets in the 
under side of the seats of stalls in 
churches ; they are always more 
or less ornamented with carvings of 
leaves and grotesque subjects. 

Mitre, an episcopal crown. In carpen- 
try, the line formed by the meeting 
of mouldings or other surfaces 
which intersect each other. If 
two pieces of wood be formed to 
equal angles, or if the two sides of 
each piece form equal inclinations, 
and thus be joined together at their 
common vertex, so as to make an 
angle double to that of either 
piece, they are said to be mitred 
together, and the joint is called 
4 the mitre.' 

Mitre-wheel, a wheel having teeth 
formed so as to work at an angle 
of 45 to the centre line of the 
shaft on which it is fixed, to move 
with another wheel of equal size, 
fixed on a shaft at right angles to 
the former one 

Mixed Citrine. There are two prin- 
ciples of combination, of which the 
artist may avail himself in pro^ 
ducing these colours ; the one being 
that of combining two original se- 
condaries, green and orange, in pro- 
ducing a citrine ; *the other, the 
uniting the three primaries in such 
a manner that yellow may predomi- 
nate in the case of citrine, and blue 
and red be subordinate in the com- 
pound. 

Mixed Greys are formed by the 
compounding of black and white, 

289 



which yields neutral greys, and of 
black and blue, black and purple, 
black and olive, etc. 

Mixed Greens, compounds of blue 
and yellow pigments, which may 
be formed by compounding them 
in the several ways of working, or 
by blending them in the propor- 
tions of the various hues required. 

Mixed Olive is compounded by unit- 
ing green and purple colours, or by 
adding to blue a smaller proportion 
of yellow and red, or by breaking 
much blue with little orange. 

Mixed Orange. Orange being a colour 
compounded of red and yellow, the 
place of original orange pigments 
may be supplied by a mixture of 
the two latter colours, by glazing 
one over the other; by stippling, 
or other modes of breaking and 
intermixing them in working, ac- 
cording to the nature of the work 
and the effect required. 

Mixed Purple. Purple being a se- 
condary colour, composed of blue 
and red, it follows of course that 
any blue and red pigments which 
are chemically at variance may be 
used in producing a mixed purple 
of any required hue, either by 
compounding or by grinding them 
together ready for use, or by com- 
bining them in the various modes 
of operation in painting. 

Mixed Russet. Orange, vermilion, 
and madder purple afford a com- 
pound russet pigment of a good 
and durable colour. 

Mizen-mast, in ship-rigging, the mast 
next the stern. 

Mock lead, wild lead, black lead, or 
black jack, a ponderous black mi- 
neral, which does not readily in- 
corporate in the fire ; a zinc ore. 

Model, a pattern used for moulding ; 
a machine or building executed in 
miniature. 

Modillion, a projecting bracket under 
the corona of the Corinthian and' 
Composite orders, and sometimes 
of the Roman Ionic. 

Module, a measure of proportion by 
which the parts of an order or of a 



MOL 



MONASTERIES. 



MON 



building are regulated in classical 
architecture ; considered generally 
as the diameter or semi-diameter 
of the lower end of the shaft of 
the column ; in other words, semi- 
diameter of the column, or 30 mi- 
nutes. 

Molecule, synonymous with atom, in 
physics, a very small mass or por- 
tion of any body. 

Molybdenum, a brittle and white glo- 
bulous metal. 

Momentum, in dynamics, is the force 
of a body in motion. When the 
motion of a body is considered with 
respect to the mass, or quantity of 
matter moved, as well as its ve- 
locity, it is called its momentum, 
or quantity of motion. The mo- 
mentum of a body is therefore in 
the compound ratio of its quantity 
of matter and velocity. 

Monastery, an establishment for the 
accommodation of a religious fra- 
ternity, who made it the receptacle 
of benevolence and charity for the 
poor and the way-worn. A con- 
siderable portion of the land was 
formerly occupied by the monas- 
teries and other religious houses 
which existed in Britain, and the 
endowments of these establish- 
ments subsequently became the 
foundation of the great wealth of 
some of the early aristocracy in 
England. 

Of the ample means enjoyed by 
the inmates of these cloistered sanc- 
tuaries, some idea may be formed 
from the following historical state- 
ment, translated from tb,e preface 
to the ' Ely Cartulary,' preserved in 
the Public Library at Cambridge. 
After the defeat and death of 
Harold, many of the leading men 
of the realm, who had strenuously 
opposed the Bastard, fled for re- 
fuge to Ely monastery, together 
with their friends, " laden with 
their richest treasures," and with- 
stood, for seven years, the im- 
petuous threatenings of the Nor- 
mans, until they were unexpectedly 
surprised. " Then a council being 

220 



held, it seemed advisable to implore 
the royal mercy ; upon which some 
were despatched to the king's 
court, at that time at Warwick, 
carrying rich treasures to the king, 
the gift of atonement and compen- 
sation of their misconduct ; with 
which the king was satisfied, but 
on these terms and conditions, 
that, during his pleasure, forty 
royal officers should be lodged at 
the expense of the monastery. * * 
The knights are sent for, they 
arrive, and are present with their 
household, every one of whom has 
under him a monk of the first order, 
as an officer under his earl, or a 
guest under his host. But the 
king ordered that the cellarer 
should dispense provisions to the 
officers and monks promiscuously 
in the public hall of the convent. In 
short, the officers with their earls, 
the guests with their hosts, the 
knights with their monks, the 
monks with their knights, were 
most grateful to each other; for 
each and all of them mutually 
afforded each other the offices of 
humanity." Afterfive years passed 
in this way, the knights were re- 
called by the Conqueror, to assist 
in punishing the unnatural wicked- 
ness of his son Robert ; and " they 
departed with grief; and our monks, 
wonderful to relate, lamented the 
departure of these most illustrious 
companions, heroic knights, and 
most pleasing guests, not only in 
tears, but in dismal bowlings and 
exclamations, and struck their 
breasts in despair, after the man- 
ner of a bride whose husband is 
unseasonably hurried from her 
sweet embraces to arms. . . All the 
monks accompanied the knights as 
far as Haddenham, with hymns, 
crosses, thuribals, processions, and 
every solemnity, and, when re- 
turned, took care to paint the arms 
of each knight on the walls of the 
refectory, to the perpetual remem- 
brance of the uncommon humanity 
of their military guests." In the 



MON 



MORTAR. 



MOR 



cartulary the names of the knights, 
forty in number, with their com- 
panions, are given ; and their arms 
are emblazoned on the margin. 

Monkey -wrench, a spanner with a 
movable jaw, which can be adjust- 
ed by a screw or wedge to the size 
of the nut which it is required to 
turn. 

Monogram, a cipher composed of two 
or more letters interwoven as an 
abbreviation of a name : monograms 
were common as distinctive marks 
on ancient coins, and were also 
used as seals. 

Monolithic, consisting of a single 
stone; statues, columns, and pillars 
were formed by the ancients out of 
large blocks of stone or marble. 

Monopteral, a temple which has no 
cella, but consists of columns dis- 
posed in the form of a circle, co- 
vered with a conical roof. 

Monota, a vase with one handle. 

Monotriglyph, the interval observed 
between the columns of a Doric 
portico, where a space is left suf- 
ficient for the insertion of one tri- 
glyph only between those imme- 
diately over two contiguous co- 
lumns. 

Monstrance, sometimes called Remon- 
strance, the vessel in which the 
consecrated wafer or host is placed 
while the congregation are blessed 
with it, in the Roman Catholic 
Church. In the ' Divers Works of 
Early Masters,' 2 vols. folio, will be 
found two of the rarest and >nost 
elaborate examples of tabernacles 
or canopies, in a compartment of 
either of which the casket or vessel 
containing the sacred vessel is de- 
posited. 

Monton, a heap of ore: a batch under 
process of amalgamation, varying 
in different mining districts. 

Monument, a mausoleum or tomb. 
Sepulchral monuments of the mid- 
dle ages still exist to a considerable 
extent, both here and on the Con- 
tinent. Monuments and tombs of 
modern date are designed from 
Classical and Gothic architecture, 

291 



and in many instances are beautiful 
examples of modern art. 

Moor, in Cornish, a root, or quantity 
of ore in a particular part of a lode, 
as a ' moor of ore,' a ' moor of tin.' 

Moorish, Mohammedan, or Saracenic 
Architecture, is a combination of 
Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman de- 
tails ; first established by the Arabs 
about the tenth century, and for 
oriental scenery of a pleasing cha- 
racter: its complicated ornament 
and lattice- work are rich and pecu- 
liar. Many existing examples are 
interesting ; but the style is not 
adapted to European usages and 
requirements. 

Moot-hall, or Moot-house, in Saxon 
times, a building appropriated to 
assemblies on public affairs; & guild- 
hall or town-hall; hotel de ville, etc. 

Mora wood. This tree is 100 feet 
high, and abundant ; it is close- 
grained, like teak, and superior to 
oak ; esteemed for ship-building. 

Moresque, a kind of painting, carving, 
etc., in the arabesque and grotesque 
styles of ornament. 

Mortar. The materials which are 
added to lime, in the formation of 
mortars or calcareous cements, are, 
1st, the different kinds of sand, 
properly so called ; 2nd, arenes ; 
3rd, psammites; 4th, clays; 5th, 
volcanic or pseudo-volcanic pro- 
ducts ; and 6th, artificial products 
arising from the calcination of the 
clays, the arenes, and the psam- 
mites ; and the rubbish and slag of 
manufactories, forges, etc. 

INGREDIENTS OF MORTAR. 

SAND. The granitic, schistose, 
and calcareous rocks, free-stones, 
etc., reduced to the state of hard 
and palpable grains, either by the 
agitation of water, or by spontane- 
ous disaggregation, give birth to 
the various kinds of sand. We dis- 
tinguish them from powders by 
their falling at once to the bottom, 
when thrown into limpid water, 
and that without altering its trans- 
parency in any sensible degree. 



MOR 



MORTAR. 



MOR 



The disaggregation of rock* is 
often accompanied by a decompo- 
sition which produces a powder: 
this powder renders the sand ' rich,' 
or, in other terms, susceptible of a 
certain cohesion, when tempered 
with water. Washed by rains and 
currents of water, it is soon freed 
from the pulverulent particles, and 
is deposited pure in the beds of 
rivers. This purity is often changed 
near the mouths of streams, and in 
the small rivulets whose tributaries 
flow over a bed of clay or mould : 
the sand mixes with vegetable de- 
bris and animal matters, and be- 
comes ' loamy.' The particles com- 
posing sand faithfully represent 
- those of the rocks whence they 
are derived. The granitic regions 
furnish quartz, felspar, and mica ; 
and the volcanic regions, lavas of 
all kinds. The tabular-shaped 
sands, whose particles are tender, 
are furnished by the schistose 
mountains. It is difficult for them 
to be transported far without be- 
ing reduced to powder. 

The calcareous sands are the 
least common, probably arising 
from the fact that rivers generally 
take their rise from primitive sum- 
mits, or such as are composed of 
primitive elements. The calcare- 
ous rocks, besides, are not suscep- 
tible of that kind of disaggregation 
which can be called granitic ; for 
if they be of a soft kind, they 
produce powder; if hard, scaly 
splinters. 

The partial and secondary revo- 
lutions of the globe have occasioned 
immense deposits of sand in situa- 
tions where now neither brooks 
nor rivers flow : these are the fos- 
sil sands ; and they should be care- 
fully distinguished from the virgin 
sands, which are still in their origi- 
nal site, and have not been operated 
on by the waters. 

The fossil sands generally exhibit 
a more angular grain than the sea 
or river sands ; but consist for the 
most part of the same elements, 

292 



sometimes pure, sometimes coloured 
by ochres, etc. 

Among the fossil sands is one 
very remarkable, the arene. Its 
properties entitle it to attention. 

ARENE is a sand, generally 
quartzose, with very irregular, un- 
equal grains, and mingled with 
yellow, red, brown, and sometimes 
white clay, in proportions varying 
from one to three-fourths of the 
whole volume. 

The arene almost always occu- 
pies the summits of the rounded 
and moderately-elevated hills: it 
sometimes constitutes entire hil- 
locks ; frequently it interposes it- 
self in large veins and seams in the 
clefts of calcareous rocks : it be- 
longs essentially to alluvial soils. 

PSAMMITES is a term applied to 
an assemblage of the grains of 
quartz, schist, felspar, and particles 
of mica, agglutinated by a variable 
cement. The varieties of these are 
very numerous : those which in 
appearance strongly resemble the 
free-stones and siliceous breccias 
belong to the class of rocks whose 
disaggregation furnishes sand, pro- 
perly so called. But the psam- 
mites, which are slaty, of a yellow, 
red, or brown colour, fine-grained, 
unctuous to the touch, producing 
a clayey paste with water, form a 
distinct species, and one which 
merits attention. 

These last belong to the primi- 
tive schistose formations : they do 
not and cannot exist except in situ : 
they are found in beds or veins, 
forming part of the schist of which 
they are merely a decomposition. 

CLAYS are earthy substances va- 
riously coloured, fine, soft to the 
touch, which diffuse in water with 
facility, forming with it a paste, 
which, when kneaded to a certain 
consistency, possesses unctuosity 
and tenacity, and may be drawn 
out and kneaded in every direction 
without separating. The clayey 
paste, when dried, retains its soli- 
dity, hardens in the fire, etc. 



MOR 



MORTAR. 



MOR 



Clays are essentially composed 
of silica and alumina : these two 
substances are adulterated by the 
presence of the oxide of iron, the 
carbonates of lime and magnesia, 
sulphuret of iron, and of vegetable 
combustible matter partly decom- 
posed. 

The clays are separated into four 
classes : viz. the refractory, which 
resist, without melting, the heat of 
the porcelain furnaces (140 Wedg- 
wood) ; the fusible clays ; the ef- 
fervescing or clayey marls ; and, 
lastly, the ochrey clays, coloured 
red or pure yellow by oxide of iron. 

The position of clays is very va- 
ried : they are found as veins in pri- 
mitive formations ; in hillocks, on 
the confines of the primitive chains ; 
in horizontal beds, or layers, in the 
secondary formations ; in threads, 
thin veins, or infiltrations, in chinks 
and hollows of calcareous masses ; 
lastly, in volcanic regions, where 
their formation is attributed to the 
decomposition of the compact lavas, 
and perhaps also, with some proba- 
bility, to miry eruptions. 
Mortar. Considered as a plastic 
material, mortar fit for moulding 
may be made to take every pos- 
sible form in moulds or shapes. 
To give it the appearance of stone, 
it should be made with fine colour- 
less sand, or rather with fine calca- 
reous powders derived from hard 
stones. 

Mortar contained in a mould may 
be beaten or rammed in the manner 
of pise, " a mode of building for- 
merly in use, whereby walls were 
formed by ramming and beating 
down earth, clay, etc., between up- 
right planks," and acquires by 
that means great compactness ; but 
an increase of resistance does not 
always result from this. 

In order that any material be 
beaten with effect, it is necessary 
that it should possess a certain de- 
gree of consistency, which is a mean 
between complete pulverulence and 
that state of ductility which con- 



stitutes a firm paste. No compres- 
sion is possible when the material 
escapes from under the rammer; 
and this is still practised by the 
builders in pise, who never employ 
any but earth slightly moistened. 
Mortar may always be prepared in 
this way, leaving it, after it has been 
worked in the ordinary manner, to 
undergo desiccation to a proper 
extent. 

The successive approximation of 
the particles of the compressed 
material to one another neces- 
sarily determines a foliated struc- 
ture, which, though it may not 
be perceived, is nevertheless real. 
Analogy will lead to the conclusion, 
that, in every possible case, a body 
thus formed ought to oppose a 
greater resistance to a tractile force 
in proportion as its direction forms 
a smaller angle with the plane of 
the laminae ; however, experience 
shows that this in general does not 
take place. The following has been 
determined in this respect : 

1st. Beating has the effect of 
augmenting the absolute resistance 
of mortars of rich limes and pure 
sand in every case, but in an un- 
equal manner. The greatest re- 
sistance assumes a direction per- 
pendicular to the planes of the 
laminae when the mortars are buried 
in a damp soil immediately after 
their fabrication. It remains pa- 
rallel to these same planes when 
the mortars have been exposed to 
the atmospheric influence. 

2nd. The eifect of beating is 
not constantly useful to mortars of 
hydraulic or eminently hydraulic 
limes, and calcareous or quartzose 
sands or powders, except in the 
case when these mortars are used 
under a damp soil. The greatest 
resistance is then in a direction 
perpendicular to the planes of these 
laminae, as with the mortars of rich 
limes ; but in the air, the superiority 
of the mortars which have been 
beaten over those which have not 
is only exhibited in one direction, 



293 



MOR 



MORTAR. 



MOR 



and that is parallel to the plane of 
the laminae. 

3rd. Beating becomes injurious 
in every case when the hydrates of 
the hydraulic or eminently hydrau- 
lic limes are employed without 
admixture, and subjected to the 
influence of a damp soil ; and is 
favourable to it only in the direc- 
tion parallel to the lamina when 
the stuff dries in the air. 

Considered as a plastic sub- 
stance, the numerous casts which 
have been moulded, both in the 
bas-relief and alto-relievo, prove 
that mortar receives and retains 
impressions well: their hardness 
is continually on the increase, and 
a kind of varnish, with which time 
covers them, gives them a strong 
resemblance to stone. 

One problem remains to be 
solved, viz. to discover a means of 
hastening the set of mortar with- 
out injuring its future qualities; 
and this, in order to avoid being 
obliged to multiply moulds indefi- 
nitely for the same casting. This 
last desideratum appears to be dif- 
ficult. The natural cements, which 
harden almost instantly in the air 
and in the water, when worked up 
like plaster of Paris, are subject to 
the inconvenience of being tinged 
brown. Such as are fabricated 
artificially, by calcining mixtures 
of lime and clay free from iron, 
do not stand the weather. 

Mortar of hydraulic lime may be 
employed as a plastic substance in 
a multitude of cases, in which the 
number of moulds is no inconve- 
nience. Such is the case in the pre- 
paration of artificial stones bearing 
mouldings, vases, or ornaments of 
any kind susceptible of formation 
by the rectilinear or circular move- 
ment of a profile. It is evident 
that it will then answer to set the 
mould in a trench, and run the 
profile along the clayey paste, pre- 
pared and arranged for that pur- 
pose. The economy which such 
a process would introduce into 



ornamental constructions is indeed 
incredible. 

Mortise, in carpentry, a hole cut in a 
piece of wood, to receive a corre- 
sponding projection formed upon 
another piece. 

Mortise and Tenon. The following 
rules may be referred to as data 
for the workman in ordinary prac- 
tice. 

The tenon, in general, may be 
taken at about one-third of the 
thickness of the wood. 

When the mortise and tenon are 
to lie horizontally, as the juncture 
will thus be unsupported, the tenon 
should not be more than one-fifth 
of the thickness of the stuff, in 
order that the strain on the upper 
surface of the tenoned piece may 
not split oflf the under-cheek of the 
mortise. 

When the piece that is tenoned 
is not to pass the end of the mor- 
tised piece, the tenon should be 
reduced one-third or one-fourth of 
its breadth, to prevent the necessity 
of opening one side of the tenon. 
As there is always some danger of 
splitting the end of the piece in 
which the mortise is made, the end 
beyond the mortise should, as often 
as possible, be made considerably 
longer than it is intended to re- 
main ; so that the tenon may be 
driven tightly in, and the super- 
fluous wood cut off afterwards. 

But the above regulations may 
be varied, according as the tenoned 
or mortised piece is weaker or 
stronger. 

The labour of making deep mor- 
tises, in hard wood, may be lessened, 
by first boring a number of holes 
with the auger in the part to be 
mortised, as the compartments be- 
tween may then more easily be cut 
away by the chisel. 

Before employing the saw to cut 
the shoulder of a tenon in neat 
work, if the line of its entrance be 
correctly determined by nicking 
the place with a paring chisel, 
there will be no danger of the 



294 



10S 



MOULDINGS. 



MOU 



wood being torn at the edges by 
the saw. 

As the neatness and durability 
of a juncture depend entirely on 
the sides of the mortise coming 
exactly in contact with the sides of 
the tenon, and as this is not easily 
performed when a mortise is to pass 
entirely through a piece of stuff, 
the space allotted for it should be 
first correctly gauged on both sides. 
One half is then to be cut from 
one side, and the other half from 
the opposite side ; and as any ir- 
regularities which may arise from 
an error in the direction of the 
chisel will thus be confined to the 
middle of the mortise, they will be 
of very little hindrance to the 
exact fitting of the sides of the 
mortise and tenon. Moreover, as 
the tenon is expanded by wedges 
after it is driven in, the sides of 
the mortise may, in a small degree, 
be inclined towards each other, 
near the shoulders of the tenon. 

M-roof, a roof formed by the junction 
of two common roofs with a vallum 
between them. 

Mosaic (The) books, and the other 
historical books of the Old Testa- 
ment, are not intended to present, 
and do not present, a picture of 
human society, or of our nature 
drawn at large. Their aim is to 
exhibit it in one master relation, 
and to do this with effect, they do 
it, to a great extent, exclusively. 
The Homeric materials for exhibit- 
ing that relation are different in 
kind as well as in degree ; but as 
they paint, and paint to the very 
life, the whole range of our nature 
and the entire circle of human 
action and experience, at an epoch 
much more nearly analogous to the 
patriarchal time than to any later 
age, the poems of Homer may be 
received in the philosophy of hu- 
man nature, as the complement of 
the earliest portion of the sacred 
records. (Gladstone.) 

Mosaic-work, the art of picturing 
with small pebbles and shells of 



various colours, pieces of glass, 
marble, etc., cemented on a ground 
of stucco. 

Mosque, a Mohammedan temple. 

Motif, that which suggests a hint 
or idea to an artist ; also the hint 
itself. 

Motion. The cross-head, cross-head 
guides, and blocks, in a locomotive 
engine, taken as a whole, are called 
" the motion." 

Motion (laws of). A body must con- 
tinue for ever in a state of rest, or 
in a state of uniform and rectili- 
neal motion, if it be not disturbed 
by the action of some external 
cause. The alteration of motion 
produced in a body by the action 
of any external force is always 
proportional to that force, and in 
the direction of the right line in 
which it acts. The action and re- 
action of bodies on one another 
are equal, and are exerted in op- 
posite directions. 

Motion of bodies on inclined planes. 
The force of an inclined plane 
bears the same proportion to the 
force of gravity as the height of 
the plane bears to its length ; that 
is, the force which accelerates the 
motion of a body down an inclined 
plane, is that fractional part of the 
force of gravity which is repre- 
sented by the height of the plane 
divided by its length. 

Mould, the model or pattern used by 
workmen as a guide in working 
mouldings and ornaments, in the 
casting of metal, and models of 
machinery. 

Mouldings, a term applied to all the 
varieties of outline or contour 
given to the angles of the various 
subordinate parts and features of 
buildings, whether projections or 
cavities, such as cornices, capitals, 
bases, door or window jambs, and 
heads, etc. There are eight sorts 
of regular mouldings, viz. the 
Ovolo, the Talon, the Cyma, the 
Cavetto, the Torus, the Astragal, 
the Scotia, and the Fillet. These 
mouldings are not to be used at 



295 



MOU 



MOULDINGS. 



MOU 



hazard, each having certain /itu- 
ations adapted to its reception, to 
which it must always be applied. 
Thus the ovolo and talon, from 
their peculiar form, seem intended 
to support other important mould- 
ings or members ; the cyma and 
cavetto, being of weaker contour, 
should only be used for the cover 
or shelter of other parts ; the torus 
and astragal, bearing a resemblance 
to a rope, appear calculated to bind 
and fortify the parts to which they 
are applied; the use of the fillet 
and scotia is to separate one mould- 
ing from another, and to give a 
variety to the general profile. The 



ovolo and talon are mostly placed 
in situations above the level of the 
eye; when below it, they should 
only be applied as crowning mem- 
bers. The place for the scotia is 
universally below the level of the 
eye. When the fillet is very wide, 
and used under the cyma of a cor- 
nice, it is termed a corona ; if un- 
der a corona* it is called a band. 

The curved contours of mould- 
ings are portions of either circles 
or ellipses. 

The principal mouldings, and the 
difference of their profiles in the 
Grecian and Roman styles, are here 
exhibited. 

ROMAN. 




Echinus or 
Ovolo. 



Cyma Recta. 



Cyma Re- 
versa. 



Scotia. 






Torus. I 




Moulding, the process of forming a 
cavity in sand or loam, in order to 
give its form to metal which is ap- 
plied in a fluid state ; an ornamen- 
tal cavity in wood, stone, or other 
suitable material. 



Mountain-blue. A very beautiful sub- 
stance of this kind, a carbonate of 
copper, both blue and green, is 
found in Cumberland. None of 
these blues of copper are, however, 
durable ; used in oil, they become 



296 



IOU 



MUSIC. 



MUS 



green, -and, as pigments, are pre- 
cisely of the character of verditers. 

fountain-green is a native carbonate 
of copper, combined with a white 
earth, and often striated with veins 
of mountain-blue, to which it bears 
the same relation that green ver- 
diter does to blue verditer; nor 
does it differ from these and other 
copper-greens in any property es- 
sential to the painter. 

M. S., an abbreviation commonly used 
on tomb-stones or monumental 
tablets for the Latin words Me- 
moriae Sacrum, ' Sacred to the Me- 
mory': the letters I.H.S. are often 
similarly applied in sacred edifices, 
for Jesus Hominum Salvator, 
' Jesus the Saviour of Men.' 

\fud-holes, the covered openings in 
the bottom of a boiler for discharg- 
ing the dirt and sediment. 

\fud-plugs, in locomotive engines 
tapered screw-plugs fitted into con- 
venient parts of the boiler, to admit 
of its being washed out by these 
plug-holes when necessary. 

Mulberry-tree, a wood of great va- 
riety, principally from Rio Janeiro, 
and very suitable for furniture. 

Mullion, the division between the 
lights of windows, screens, etc., in 
Gothic architecture : the styles or 
upright divisions in wainscoting 
are also sometimes called mullions. 

Mule-jenny, a machine used in the 
manufacture of cotton thread. 

Mun (Cornish), any fusible metal. 

MundicJc, an exceedingly ponderous 
mineral, whitish, beautiful and 
shining, but brittle. It is abundant 
in Cornish and Irish mines. 

Muniment -house, a strong, properly 
fire-proof apartment in public or 
private buildings, for the preser- 
vation of charters, deeds, seals, 
etc. 

Munnions, pieces that part the lights 
in a ship's stern and quarter-gallery. 

Munnions, in house-building, upright 
posts that divide the lights in a 
window-frame. 

Mummy, or Egyptian-brown, is a 
bituminous substance, combined 

297 



with animal remains brought from 
the catacombs of Egypt, -where 
liquid bitumen was employed three 
thousand years ago in embalming, 
in which office it has been com- 
bined, by a slow chemical change, 
during so many ages, with sub- 
stances which give it a more solid 
and lasting texture than simple 
asphaltum ; but in this respect it 
varies exceedingly. 

Mural, pertaining to a wall ; a monu- 
mental tablet affixed to a wall is a 
mural monument. 

Murometer, an instrument to measure 
small spaces. 

Murus, the wall of a Greek city, in 
contradistinction to Paries, the wall 
of a house, andMaceria, a boundary 
wall. 

Music. This word is derived from 
the Latin musica, and this again 
from the Greek adjective mousikos, 
which signifies, of or belonging to 
the Muses. As a substantive, the 
word mousikos, or in Latin musicus, 
a musician, means also a poet or 
an orator : and in the feminine 
gender signifies the liberal arts, but 
especially music, poetry, and elo- 
quence. The ancients, therefore, 
understood by music far more than 
has been attributed to it for some 
ages past. Music is now considered 
as the language of agreeable sounds, 
and is both a science and an art. 
As a science, it teaches the theory 
of musical sounds, their production 
by the vibrations of the air, the 
ratio of these vibrations, and also 
their times; likewise the various 
phenomena connected with musical 
sounds, the causes of discords, beats, 
etc., as well as the lengths of mu- 
sical strings and 1 pipes. The ma- 
thematical theory of music is part 
of the science of acoustics, or 
phonics, and is therefore one of the 
high mechanical sciences. As an 
art, music teaches the practical use 
of the science ; the scales or gamuts 
of sounds in a fixed succession, at 
fixed intervals from each other ; the 
permutations of their sounds; form- 



MUS 



NAOS. 



NAP 



ing an immense variety of melqdies. 
It teaches also the combination of 
these sounds according to certain 
received laws, forming thereby the 
most agreeable sensations on the 
ear, by producing a great variety of 
chords, composed of concordant 
sounds alone, or of a judicious ad- 
mixture of concordant and dissonal 
sounds. Practical music teaches 
also the use and performance of the 
several instruments of music, as 
also their peculiar functions; and 
herein is embraced thehuman voice, 
the most perfect and beautiful of 
all musical instruments. Music, 
therefore, is divided into two grand 
parts, viz. theoretical or scientific, 
and practical ; the former treating 
of the purely philosophical branch 
mathematically, the latter being 
confined solely to the production of 
musical compositions, and their per- 
formance. Practical music consists 
of several species, the highest of 
which is the ecclesiastical ; then 
follow the oratorio, opera, military, 
chamber,and ball-room species; and 



NAILS, used in building, are small 
metallic spikes serving to bind or 
fasten the parts together. There 
are several kinds of nails, called by 
numerous names. In the middle 
ages, nails were frequently used 
much ornamented, of which there 
are several very beautiful existing 
specimens, particularly in church 
doors and the gates of large man- 
sions. 

Naked, of a column or pilaster, the 
surface of the shaft where the 
mouldings are supposed to project. 

Naked, of a wall, the remote face 
whence the projectures take their 
rise. It is generally a plain sur- 
face, and when the plan is circular, 
the naked is the surface of a cy- 
linder, with its axis perpendicular 
to the horizon. 

Naked flooring, in carpentry, the 
whole assemblage or contignation 

298 



is divided into vocal and instru- 
mental music, each of these being 
variously subdivided. 

Musnud, in Persia, a throne, or chair 
of state. 

Mustaib, a wood from the Brazils, 
inferior to rosewood, but harder ; ; 
used at Sheffield for the handles of 
glaziers' and other knives, etc. 

Mutule, a projecting block worked 
under the corona of the Doric cor- 
nice, in the same situation as the 
modillions in the Corinthian and; 
Composite orders ; it is often made 
to slope downward towards the most ' 
prominent part, and has usually a 
number of small guttae or drops, 
worked on the under side. 

Myribhery, the Saxon name for a nun- 
nery : nuns were sometimes called 
Mynchies. 

Myoparo, a small piratical craft, em- 
ployed by the Saxon corsairs. 

Myriad, the number of 10,000 ; pro- 
verbially any great number. 

Myriametre, a French measure of 
10,000 metres. 



of timber-work for supporting the 
boarding of a floor on which to 
walk. Naked flooring consists of 
a row of parallel joists, called floor- 
joists. 

Naos, the chamber or enclosed apart- 
ment of a Greek temple. The part 
of the temple which stood before 
the naos, comprehended between 
the wall and the columns of the 
portico, was called the pronaos ; 
while the corresponding part be- 
hind was called the posticum. 

Naples yellow is a compound of the 
oxides of lead and antimony, an- 
ciently prepared at Naples under 
the name of Grallolina ; it is sup- 
posed also to have been a native 
production of Vesuvius and other 
volcanoes, and is a pigment of de- 
servedly considerable reputation. 
It is not so vivid a colour as patent 
yellow and turbith mineral, but i 8 



N T AP 



NASMYTH'S MACHINES. 



NAT 



variously of a pleasing, light, warm 
golden-yellow tint. Like most 
other yellows, it is opaque, and 
in this sense is of good body. It 
is not changed by the light of the 
sun, and may be used safely in oil 
or varnish, under the same man- 
agement as the whites of lead ; 
but like these latter pigments also, 
it is likely to change even to black- 
ness by damp and impure air when 
used as a water-colour, or unpro- 
tected by oil or varnish. 

Naphtha, a species of mineral oil or 
fluid bitumen, now commonly used 
for lamps. 

Narthex, a division in the early 
Christian churches in which the 
catechisms were said, and peni- 
tents admitted ; it was near the 
entrance, and separated 'from the 
rest of the church by a railing or 
screen. 

Nasmyttts patent direct -action steam- 
hammer is employed instead of the 
old helves or lift-hammers, and is 
worked by a connected high-pres- 
sure steam engine, which raises the 
hammer to any required height 
within its vertical range of motion, 
and in which it is guided by two 
planed guides. On the escape of 
the steam, when the valve of the 
cylinder is opened, the hammer 
falls on the work that lies on the 
anvil with the full force due to 
gravity, without scarcely any loss 
from friction. The instant the 
hammer has given its blow, the 
steam is again let in under the 
piston, and the same action is re- 
peated with ease and rapidity. 

Nasmyth's steam pile-driving engine. 
There are two grand or important 
features of novelty in this pile- 
driving engine, compared with all 
former contrivances for the like 
purpose. In the first place, by the 
employment of the steam-hammer 
action, the steam is made to act 
direct in raising up and letting fall 
the hammer, or monkey, without 
the intervention of any rotatory mo- 
tion ; while, in the second place, 

299 



another grand feature consists in 
the employment of the pile about 
to be driven, or raised up and 
planted in its situation by the ma- 
chine, by means of a windlass 
worked by a small detached steam 
engine. 

Some conception of the rapidity 
with which piles are driven by this 
machine may be formed, when it 
is stated that a pile measuring 60 
feet in length, and 14 inches 
square, can be driven 45 feet into 
stifFsoil, down to the rock below, in 
four minutes ; and such is the good 
effect resulting from the blows 
being given by a great mass of 
30 cwt. striking quickly but with 
small velocity of actual impact, that 
the head of the pile requires no 
hoop, and presents, after being 
driven, a neater appearance than it 
had when it was first placed under 
the hammer. 

Natural beds of stone are the surfaces 
from which the laminae are sepa- 
rated. It is all-important for the 
duration of stone walls, that the 
laminae should be placed perpendi- 
cular to the face of the work, and 
parallel to the horizon. 

Natural Philosophy takes an exten- 
sive range, -embracing the study of 
the collection of created beings 
and objects, and of those laws by 
which they are governed, all of 
them expressed in the term Nature. 
Natural objects are separated into 
two grand classes, the organic and 
inorganic ; the former being dis- 
tinguished by vital power or life : 
organic bodies admit of a marked 
distinction into animals and plants ; 
the science of Zoology describing 
and classifying the one, and that of 
Botany the other. These sciences 
admit of many subdivisions, and 
collectively with Mineralogy, that 
of Natural History. 

1. Geology, the science which has 
for its object the observation and 
description of the structure of the 
external crust of the globe ; Mine- 
ralogy taking account only of the 



NAT 



NAVE. 



NBA 



separate items of which the earth's 
crust is composed. 2. Chemistry, 
which may be regarded as atomic 
anatomy, its object being to de- 
compose bodies, to study the pro- 
perties of their elements, and the 
laws of combination. 3. Physics, 
or Natural Philosophy, which con- 
siders the general properties of all 
bodies. Natural philosophy is 
again subdivided into many dis- 
tinct sciences. The mutual action 
of forces and masses of matter 
produces in the latter either equi- 
librium or motion, and hence arise 
those two divisions of sciences, 
called Statics and Dynamics, which 
are again divided into Stereo-statics 
and Stereo-dynamics, as applied to 
solids ; Hydrostatics and Hydro- 
dynamics, as applied to liquids ; 
Electro-statics and Electro-dyna- 
mics, as applied to Electricity. 
The application of statics and dy- 
namics to air and other gaseous 
fluids is called Pneumatics. The 
application of dynamics to the arts 
of life has led to the composition 
and arrangement of the various 
machines for assisting the labour 
of man : this branch is called Me- 
chanics. The construction and per- 
formance of the various machines 
to raise water, or which are dri- 
ven by the motion of that fluid, 
belong to hydrodynamics, while 
the construction of works depend- 
ing on the equilibrium of liquids 
belongs to hydrostatics. Those 
machines which are driven by the 
wind depend on the application of 
pneumatics ; and all the varied 
phenomena of the atmosphere 
arising from the action of heat, 
light, electricity, and moisture, 
form the science of Meteorology. 
The phenomena of heat and elec- 
tricity also form separate sciences ; 
the latter admitting of five divi- 
sions, viz. electricity, magnetism, 
galvanism or voltaic electricity, 
thermo-electricity, and animal 
electricity. The phenomena of 
light, although included in the 



term Optics, are varied; namely, 
perspective, catoptrics, dioptrics, 
chromatics, physical optics, and 
polarization; to which may be 
added actino-chemistry. 

Naumachia, among the Greeks, a 
sea-fight; a spectacle. The term} 
was also applied to a circus encom-j 
passed with seats and porticoes, 1 
the pit of which, serving as an 
arena, was filled with water by 
means of pipes, for the exhibition 
of sea-fights. 

Naupegus, a shipwright. 

Nautical, pertaining to ships or sailors. 

Naval Architecture, the art of de- 
signing and constructing ships and 
vessels for the purposes of naviga- 
tion. 

Navale, a ship-dock or dockyard. 

Navalia, ship-building docks at Rome, 
where also ships were laid up and 
refitted. 

Navarchus, among the ancients, the 
name of a commander or admiral 
of a fleet. 

Nave, the body of a church west of 
the choir, in which the general 
congregation assemble. In large 
buildings it consists of a central 
division, with two or more aisles; 
and there are frequently, in foreign 
structures, several small chapels on 
the sides beyond the aisles. In 
mechanics, the central part of a 
wheel. 

Navel-hoods, in ship-building, pieces 
of plank, or thick stuff, wrought 
above and below the hawse-holes. 

Navis, in church furniture, a metal 
dish or vessel to contain frankin- 
cense. 

Neap, low, decrescent ; a term applied 
to the tides which happen when 
the moon is in the middle of her 
second and fourth quarters. The 
highest spring-tide is three days 
after the full or change ; the lowest 
neap-tide is four days before the 
full or change. 

Neapolitan School of painting, which 
possesses indisputable proofs of 
having in ancient times ranked 
among the first in Italy ; as in no 



300 



NBA 



NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 



NER 



part of that country do the re- 
mains of antiquity evince a more 
refined taste, nowhere do we find 
mosaics executed with more ele- 
gance, nor anything more beautiful 
than the subterranean chambers 
which are ornamented with his- 
torical designs arid grotesques. 

At the restoration of art, it had 
made little progress in Naples and 
her territories before Zingaro's 
time. His name was Antonio So- 
lario, originally a smith, and com- 
monly called lo Zingaro. His his- 
tory has something romantic in it, 
like that of Quintin Matsys. 

The most celebrated work of 
Zingaro's was in the choir of S. 
Severino, in fresco, representing in 
several compartments the life St. 
Benedict. He left numerous pic- j 
tures, and Madonnas of a beautiful \ 
form, in various churches of Naples, ! 
in that of S. Domenico Maggiore, 
where he painted a Dead Christ, 
and in that of S. Pier Martire, where ! 
he represented a S. Vincenzio. 

Two eminent artists of the Nea- 
politan School were Matteo da 
Siena and Antonella da Messina. I 
The latter is a name so illustrious i 
in the history of art, that he claims 
notice in the Sienese, Neapolitan, 
and Venetian Schools. 

It has already been observed j 
that at the commencement of the j 
sixteenth century, the art of paint- 
ing seemed in every country to have 
attained to maturity, and that every 
school assumed its own peculiar 
character. Naples however did 
not possess a manner so decided as 
that of other schools in Italy. 

A writer has observed that no 
part of Italy could boast of so many 
native artists. 

Their rapidity of execution was 
another effect of their genius, a 
quality which has been alike praised 
by the ancients and the moderns, 
when combined with other more 
requisite gifts of genius. But this 
despatch in general excludes cor- 
rect design, which from that cause 



is seldom found in that school. Nor 
do we find that it paid much at- 
tention to ideal perfection, as most 
of its professors, following the prac- 
tice of the naturalists, selected the 
character of their heads and the 
attributes of their figures from 
common life; some with more, 
and others with less discrimina- 
tion. With regard to colour this 
school changed its principles in con- 
formity to the taste of the times. 

The modern Neapolitan School 
is founded on the schools of Raffa- 
ello and Michelangiolo. 

The chief names are Andrea Sab- 
batini, Polidoro Caravaggio, Marco 
da Siena, Corenzio, Ribera Carrac- 
ciolo, Luca Giordano, and Solimene. 
Nebule moulding, an heraldic term. 
In architecture, an ornament of the 
zigzag form, but without angles : 
it is chiefly found in the remains of 
Saxon architecture, in ' the archi- 
volts of doors and windows. 
Neck of a capital, the space between 
the astragal on the shaft and the 
annulet of the capital in the Grecian- 
Doric order. 

Neck-mould, in architecture, a small 

convex moulding surrounding a 

column at the junction of the shaft 

and capital. 

Necrology, an obituary formerly kept 

in churches and monasteries. 
Needle, or Nail, in mining, a long 
taper piece of copper or iron, with 
a copper point ; used when stamp- 
ing the hole for blasting, to make 
by its insertion an aperture for a 
fusee or train. 
Needlework, a term anciently used 
for the framework of timber and 
plaster in old houses. 
Neo, a Greek term, to spin or twist a 
number of separate fibres of woo] 
or flax into a single thread. 
Ne plus ultra (Latin), the extreme 

of anything. 

Nervures, nerves or branches, a term 
applied by Prof. Willis, of Cam- 
bridge, to the ribs of a vaulted roof 
which bound the sides of any 
groined compartment. 



301 



NET 



NICHE. 



NON 



Net, or Neat, in commerce, that whjch 
is pure and unadulterated; the 
weight of any package after the 
tare has been deducted : some- 
times, but improperly, written nett. 

Newel, the central column round 
which the steps of a circular stair- 
case wind ; the principal post at 
the angles and foot of a stair- 
case. In the Tudor and Elizabe- 
than residences very beautiful ex- 
amples exist, adding much to the 
beauty of the staircase. 

Niche, in architecture, a cavity or 
hollow place in the thickness of a 
wall, in which to place a figure, a 
statue, vase, or ornament. Niches 
are made to partake of all the seg- 
ments under a semicircle : they are 
sometimes at an equal distance 
from the front, and parallel or 
square on the back with the front 
line, in which case they are called 
square recesses, or square niches. 
Occasionally small pediments were 
formed over them, supported on 
consoles, or small columns or pi- 
lasters placed at the sides of the 
niches. Anciently they were used 
in ecclesiastical buildings for sta- 
tues and shallow square recesses. 
The ruins of Palmyra exhibit niches 
of various kinds. Within the por- 
tico of the temple of the Sun there 
are two niches, etc. 

Niche, angular, one formed in the 
corner of a building. 

Niche, in carpentry, the wood-work 
to be lathed-over for plastering. 
The usual constructions of niches 
in carpentry are those with cylin- 
drical backs and spherical heads, 
called cylindro-spheric niches, the 
execution of which depends upon 
the principles of spheric sections. 

Niche, (/round, that which, instead of 
bearing on a massive base or dado, 
has its rise from the ground, as 
the niches of the portico of the 
Pantheon at Rome : their ordinary 
proportion is, two diameters in 
height, and one in width. Round 
or square niches are also formed. 

Nigged ashlar, stone hewn with a pick 

302 



or pointed hammer, instead of a 
chisel ; used principally at Aber- 
deen for the hewing of the hard 
granite. 

Nitrate of lime, nitric acid in com- 
bination with lime for a base, 
abounding in the mortar of old 
buildings. 

Nitrates, compounds, or salts, formed 
by the combination of nitric acid 
with alkalies, earths, and metallic 
oxides. 

Nitre, common saltpetre ; in chemis- 
try, nitrate of potash. 

Nodus, anciently, in our cathedrals, a 
knot, key-stone, or boss. 

Nog, in ship-building, a treenail driven 
through the heel of the shores 
which support a ship on the slip. 

Nogs, blocks of wood cut to the form 
and size of bricks, and inserted in 
the nterior walls of apartments as 
holds for the joinery. 

Nogs or Nays, in mining, square 
pieces of wood piled on each other 
to support the roof of a mine. 

Nagging, a kind of brickwork carried 
up in panels between quarters. 

Nogging-pieces are horizontal boards 
placed in brick-nogging, nailed to 
the quarters in order to strengthen 
the brickwork. 

Nomades, in antiquity, wandering, 
rude, or savage tribes. 

Nomenclature, the art of naming; a 
vocabulary or dictionary of techni- 
cal language peculiar to any art or 
science. 

Nonagon, a figure of nine sides and 
of as many angles. 

Non-condensing Engines are those 
made without that part of the ma- 
chine called a condenser, and with- 
out those contrivances essential to 
the ordinary construction of en- 
gines that condense the vapour into 
fluid. In non-condensing engines 
the steam escapes into the atmo- 
sphere, after having acted upon the 
piston. The effect is measured by 
the excess of the pressure of the 
steam upon the piston, less the 
friction of the engine above the 
pressure of the atmosphere. 



NON 



NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



Non-cdflductors, substances through 
which the electric fluid passes with 
considerable difficulty or not at all; 
such as glass, resin, sulphur, silk, 
hair, wool, the air, etc. ; but these 
become electric by friction. 
Nones, in the Roman calendar, the 
fifth day of January,February,April, 
June, August, September, Novem- 
ber, December ; and the seventh 
of March, May, July, and October. 

Noria, an hydraulic machine, com- 
mon in Spain for raising water. The 
engine consists of a vertical wheel 
of 20 feet diameter, on the circum- 
ference of which are fixed buckets, 
for the purpose of raising water out 
of wells, etc., communicating with 
a canal below,and emptying it into a 
reservoir above, placed by the side 
of the wheel. The buckets have a 
lateral orifice, to receive and dis- 
charge the water. The axis of the 
wheel is embraced by four small 
beams, crossing each other at right 
angles, tapering at the extremities, 
and forming eight little arms. This 
wheel is near the centre of the 
horse-walk, contiguous to the ver- 
tical axis, into the top of which the 
top beam is fixed: but near the 
bottom it is embraced by four little 
beams, forming eight arms similar 
to those above described, on the 
axis of the water-wheel. In the 
movement of the horse or mule, 
these horizontal arms, acting on 
cogs, take hold, each in succession, 
of those arms which are fixer' on 
the axis of the water-wheel, and 
keep it in rotation. 

Norma, a square for measuring right 
angles, used by carpenters, masons, 
and other artificers, to make their 
work rectangular. 

Normal line, in geometry, a phrase 
used for a perpendicular line. 

Norman Architecture. In Normandy, 
in the tenth century, when the 
Normans occupied Neustria, the 
churches in other parts of France 
were in imitation of the Roman 
style. The plan of the buildings 
came from Rome, and the round 

303 



arches, the pillars, and the mould- 
ings, which were employed in their 
construction, had the same origin. 
But the corrupt taste of a less 
civilized people covered the capitals 
and the portals with a crowd of 
such appalling images as a wild 
fancy was likely to suggest, and a 
rude hand to portray. 

The Normans, adopting the 
habitual plan and the established 
style, rejected the meretricious ac- 
cessories, and resolved to trust for 
success to the two great principles 
of size and elevation. The oldest 
of the Norman churches are the 
plainest, but even these aspire to 
dimensions which could not fail to 
command admiration. Their cha- 
racter is severe but sublime. At 
the same time, the Normans had 
the boldness to insist upon an ad- 
dition to their churches, which is 
admitted to be the grandest fea- 
ture and the chief ornament of ec- 
clesiastical buildings the central 
tower. Towers had, fortunately, 
become an integral part of churches 
before the Normans began to build 
in Neustria, but the few towers 
which at that time existed in other 
parts of France only adorned the 
western end. Size, elevation, sim- 
plicity, and strength, together with 
the central tower, are the archi- 
tectural peculiarities to which the 
Normans, as contradistinguished 
from the Franks, possess unde- 
niable claims. 

Norman workmanship was, at 
first, remarkable onlyfor its solidity. 
The walls were often built of rubble, 
faced with small squared stones, 
a manner of building which had 
been copied from the works which 
the Romans had left behind them 
in France. The pillars were, of 
course, composed of larger blocks. 
By degrees, and in buildings of 
importance, larger blocks were em- 
ployed in the walls ; but the joints 
were wide, and the mortar was 
coarse. In the time of William 
the Conqueror, greater neatness 



o2 



NOR 



NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



was accomplished ; the stones were 
squared, and the courses regular ; 
but the joints were still rather 
wide, and the mortar unsifted. 

Another mode of construction 
was with long, narrow stones, 
which were placed, not in hori- 
zontal courses, but alternately in- 
clined to the right and left, this, 
from the appearance it presented, 
was called the herring-bone fashion. 
It did not remain in use much 
after the eleventh century. 

The Norman walls were of great 
thickness, and were filled up with 
small stones, amongst which mortar 
was poured in hot. This was called 
grouting ; and in time the whole 
mass so hardened together as to ac- 
quire the consistence and strength 
of a solid rock. Such walls stood 
in no need of buttresses, through 
the means of which more advanced 
science afterwards obtained an equal 
amount of power at less labour and 
less expense. Buttresses, however, 
appear on the exterior of early Nor- 
man buildings, but seem to have 
been introduced only to relieve the 
baldness of the surface. They pro- 
ject so slightly that they can add 
but little support. In early Nor- 
man buildings the buttresses never 
rise above the cornice. 

The plan of the early Norman 
churches is always that of the 
basilica, with a semicircular recess 
at the end, which recess formed 
the choir. The larger churches 
have transepts and side aisles which 
are divided from the naves by ar- 
cades. The small churches have 
often neither side aisles nor tran- 
septs. The arches of the nave 
either rest on piers, to which half 
pillars are attached, or on single 
pillars, but hardly ever on those 
huge cylindrical piers which are 
commonly seen in the Norman 
churches of England. Indeed, the 
thick cylindrical piers of England 
are scarcely to be met with in all 
France, except in one or two crypts, 
where the known superincumbent 



weight justifies the prefefence of 
strength to beauty. 

In the churches of France, single 
pillars preceded piers ; the exact 
reverse of what might have been 
expected, were it not recollected to 
what an extent and degree France 
had become Roman, previous to 
the inroad of the Northern con- 
querors. The pillars have always 
capitals, which, at first, were per- 
fectly plain ; but, from the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century, were 
enriched with different kinds of 
foliage, to a certain degree depart- 
ing from, but still seeking to imi- 
tate, the Roman models. The half- 
pillars, which are attached to the 
ends of the piers, are always set 
back in recesses, or sinks ; the same 
is the case with the small pillars on 
the outside of the windows, as also 
with those of the portals. This is 
a characteristic difference between 
the Norman style and the Roman, 
the Norman pillars are recessed, 
the Roman project. 

The windows are always round- 
headed and undivided, and, exter- 
nally, have on each side a small 
recessed pillar, which supports an 
impost and moulding. 

In the gable, over the entrance 
door of churches, a small circular 
window is sometimes introduced. 

The windows of castles and of 
domestic buildings are usually di- 
vided by a single shaft. 

The portals are round-headed, 
and were gradually enriched by an 
increasing number of semicircular 
mouldings. The most common 
mouldings are the billet, the nail- 
head, the chevron, the zigzag or 
embattled frette, hatchet, nebule, 
star, rope, beak-head, dog-tooth, 
and, occasionally, different sorts of 
foliage, as the vine, the bay, the 
ivy. etc. (See Frontispiece.} 

The external cornice, under the 
eaves of churches, was sometimes 
a moulding describing a series of 
semicircles, under a projecting 
course, and sometimes a series of 



304 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



blocks. The ornamented corbels, 
on the exterior of churches, were 
adopted by the Normans before 
imagery was admitted into the in- 
terior of the edifice. 

The roofs of the early Norman 
churches were of wood, except the 
part over the semicircular chancel, 
which from the first was vaulted 
with stone. The side aisles were 
also vaulted with stone ; as were, 
sometimes, the comparatively small 
naves of village churches. The 
vaulting was composed either of 
small stones let into a bed of mor- 
tar or of tufa, or of a light calca- 
reous stone, which is found in many 
parts of Normandy. The most 
ancient vaulting is without ribs, 
and the most ancient ribs are with- 
out mouldings. % 

The dome vaulting over the side 
aisles of the abbey church at Bernay 
is the only specimen of the kind in 
Normandy. 

The first and purest Norman 
style prevailed till the latter part 
of the reign of William the Con- 
queror, from the early part of the 
tenth till nearly the end of the 
eleventh century. 

The abbey church of Bernay, 
begun in the first half of the 
eleventh century, is the oldest 
Norman building of any conse- 
quence which remains in its pri- 
mitive form. The architecture of 
the interior is plain to baldness, 
but the dimensions are impos : ng. 

The abbey churches of Jumieges 
and Cerisy were begun in the first 
half of the eleventh century. The 
Norman portions of the cathedral, 
and of the church of St. Taurin,at 
Evreux, as also of the church of 
Mont St. Michel, belong to the 
same period. 

St. Georges de Boscherville, and 
the two great churches at Caen, 
are splendid examples of the ar- 
chitecture of the time of William 
the Conqueror. 

In all these buildings the cha- 
racter of simplicity is preserved, 



but some ornament in the details 
begins to make its appearance be- 
fore the close of the Conqueror's 
reign, as, for instance, in the em- 
battled frette moulding round the 
arches of the nave of Matilda's 
church at Caen, in some parts of 
St. Georges de Boscherville, and 
other places. 

The florid Norman was already 
developed in the early part of the 
twelfth century. Of' this style a 
rich specimen is afforded in the 
arcade of the nave at Bayeux. 
The arches are ornamented with a 
multiplicity and variety of mould- 
ings of intricate design and elabo- 
rate execution. 

Another specimen of the florid 
Norman exists in the neighbour- 
hood of Bayeux, in the church of 
St. Gabriel, built by Robert of 
Gloucester (1128). 

The abbey church of Monti - 
villiers (1117), and the church at 
Graville, are instances of the florid 
style in all its exuberance. 
Norman Architecture in England. Of 
the architecture which existed in 
this country previous to the intro- 
duction of the Norman there are 
no certain vestiges. The most 
competent authorities have deemed 
that hardly anything which can 
be proved to be Saxon remains in 
existence. Parts of a few churches, 
which have all the marks of a very 
remote antiquity, and of which the 
style differs materially from the 
Norman, may be suspected to be 
Saxon. Their distinguishing fea- 
tures are a ruder imitation of the 
Roman, projecting instead of re- 
cessed pillars, and the combination 
of diagonal with perpendicular 
forms in the external ornaments of 
towers. Such is the case at the 
old church of Barton, in Lincoln- 
shire, and at Earl's Barton, in 
Northamptonshire. 

Some persons have imagined 
that the generality of the Saxon 
churches were merely timber build- 
ings, but this appears to be a mis- 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



take ; for in Domesday Book, which 
takes note of 1700 churches, one, 
and only one, is specified as being 
built of wood ; and Henry of Hunt- 
ingdon, speaking of a particular 
church, says, " It was not built of 
stone, but of wood, and covered 
with reeds, as is the custom in 
Scotland;" demonstrating that it 
was not the custom in England. 

Not only were the Saxon churches 
not merely timber buildings, but 
some of them were constructed at 
a considerable expense, and with 
much architectural ornament. 

In the seventh century, a church 
was built at Lincoln, which Bede 
says was of stone, and of good 
workmanship. The church of the 
monastery of Wearmouth was 
erected in 675, by Abbot Benedict 
Biscopius, a noble Northumbrian, 
who, at twenty-five years of age, 
detached himself from the service 
of King Oswy, and embraced a re- 
ligious life. He brought over 
masons from France to build his 
church in the Roman manner, and, 
when the building was nearly 
finished, he procured artificers from 
the same country, skilled in the 
mystery of making glass, to glaze 
the windows. 

The conventual church of Ripon, 
and the cathedral church of Hex- 
ham, were both built by Wilfrid, 
Bishop of York, in the second half 
of the seventh century ; and were 
both constructed of stone, and sup- 
ported by pillars and arches. Wil- 
frid also imported builders and 
artists from abroad from Rome, 
Italy, France, and other countries. 

In the eighth century, the mo- 
nastery of Croyland was built by 
Ethelbald, King of Mercia ; and the 
church of St. Peter at York was 
rebuilt by Archbishop Albert, and 
consecrated just before his death, 
which took place in 780. Alcuin 
describes this church as having 
pillars, arches, and porticoes. 

In the ninth century, the pro- 
gress of the arts was interrupted 



by the constant incursions of the 
Danes. All that had been done 
was destroyed ; and little more 
than repairs, and military works, 
could be undertaken till the peace- 
able reign of Edgar, in whose time 
the abbey of Ramsey was founded, 
and the church built by Ailwin, 
then alderman of all England. This 
church was built in six years, and 
finished in 974. It was in the 
form of a cross, and had pillars, 
arches, and two towers, one of 
which was supported by four pil- 
lars, or piers, in the middle of the 
building. This appears to have 
been the first English church that 
had a tower so situated, or that 
was built in the form of the cross. 

from these descriptions of the 
Saxon churches, preserved in the 
early chronicles, it appears that 
the Saxon style was, like that of 
every other country, an imitation 
of the Roman. The abbey church 
of Ramsey, which was one of the 
latest, and one of the most cele- 
brated of the works of the Saxons, 
was completed in six years. The 
last Saxon work of importance was 
the abbey church of Westminster, 
built by Edward the Confessor, and 
finished and consecrated in 1065, 
one year before the Conquest. This 
church is represented to have been 
of a different character from that 
of any preceding structure in Eng- 
land, and this difference undoubt- 
edly consisted in an approximation 
to the Norman method of building. 
Edward the Confessor had been 
brought up in Normandy, and was 
almost reproached for his incessant 
endeavours to introduce Norman 
customs and manners. 

The churches and monasteries 
which arose after the Conquest were 
constructed after a new manner of 
building. From all this it appears 
that there must have been a marked 
difference between the Saxon and j 
the Norman fabrics. But, as both ! 
were an imitation of the Roman, | 
the difference must have cons.jted 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



in the dimensions and the superior 
workmanship and magnificence of 
the new structures. It must have 
been the same style on a grander 
scale, and executed in a more sci- 
entific manner. 

At the time of the Conquest the 
Anglo-Saxons were in every respect 
a ruder and less civilized race than 
the Normans had by that time be- 
come. 

The earliest work of the Nor- 
mans which exists in this country 
was conducted by Gundulph, who, 
after rebuilding his cathedral at 
Rochester, was employed by Wil- 
liam to superintend the construc- 
tion of the White Tower, in the 
Tower of London, which contains 
within its walls perhaps the only 
ecclesiastical remnant of the Con- 
queror's time at present in ex- 
istence. 

In the course of the Conqueror's 
reign, several cathedrals, abbeys, 
and castles were built, none of 
which remain in their original 
state. A remnant of the Con- 
queror's time existed at Canter- 
bury till within these few years, 
the northern tower, at the west 
end of the cathedral. This was a 
part of the work of Lanfranc. The 
stones of which it was built were 
irregular, and the joints between 
the courses were wide. 

Several castles have the reputa- 
tion of being of the Conqueror's 
time, but, on a close investigrtion, 
will be found to have been rebuilt 
in after-years. Such is the case 
with the castles of Norwich, Ro- 
chester, the keep at Conisborough, 
and many others. 

Within less than a century after 
the Conquest almost all the ca- 
thedrals and abbey churches of 
England, besides innumerable pa- 
rish churches, were either wholly 
rebuilt or greatly improved by the 
Normans, on whom William and 
his successors conferred all the best 
ecclesiastical preferments. By the 
introduction of these Norman pre- 
307 



lates, the Norman style was rapidly 
diffused ; at first, however, so much 
affected by the state of art in this 
country, as to give to the English 
building the character of a Norman 
building of much greater antiquity. 

Rufus was a great builder ; his 
principal work was the great hall 
of his palace at Westminster. This 
hall, as it now exists, was altered 
by Richard II., but much of the 
original work was left, and during 
the late repairs, portions of this 
were visible. The lower part of 
the walls was faced with rubble ; 
the courses were irregular ; the 
joints wide. Remains of a tri- 
forium or gallery were discovered, 
which had been carried along the 
sides of the hall, half way up. The 
capitals of the pillars on which the 
round arches of this gallery rested 
were plain cubes. The whole of 
the workmanship was coarse. 

The plan of the churches erected 
about this time was the same as in 
Normandy. All were built with 
the semicircular chancel, which in 
England afterwards fell into such 
general disuse that few traces of its 
existence are to be found in this 
country. It is, however, to be 
traced in that of St. Bartholoim \v- 
le-Grand, in London (begun in 
1123), in the minster at York, at 
East Harn,Essex,and in otherplaces. 

The arches of the nave usually 
rested on those heavy cylindrical 
piers which in French churches 
are hardly ever to be found, except 
in crypts. Their prevalence in 
England must be ascribed to the 
inexpertness of the native work- 
men, and the probability is, that 
they had previously been adopted 
by the Saxons from their inability 
to imitate the Roman style in a 
more satisfactory manner. Some- 
times, to adorn the cylindrical piers, 
the Anglo-Normans introduced the 
spiral groove winding round them, 
with the net or lozenge - work 
spreading over them. 

The windows and the doors 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



were the same as in Normandy, 
and the Norman mouldings were 
gradually introduced with little 
alteration. 

The walls are remarkably thick, 
and without prominent buttresses. 

Specimens of the time of Rufus 
are to be seen in the choir, side 
aisles, and middle transept at Dur- 
ham ; in the walls of the lower 
part of the western facade of Lin- 
coln ; the towers and transept of 
St. Alban's; the oldest remaining 
parts of Winchester ; and the east 
end and cross aisle of Worcester. 

The walls in this reign were 
irregularly built, and the joints 
continued to be wide, as may be 
seen at Durham, Lincoln, Winches- 
ter, and other places. 

The style prevailed in the early 
part of the reign of Henry I., as 
may be seen by Jhe ruins of St. 
Botolph's priory, Colchester, which 
was built by Ernulph, a Norman 
monk, in the first years of that 
prince. Here are the same heavy 
cylindrical piers, the same stumpy 
proportions, the same poverty of 
mouldings. But in the course of 
this reign an impulse was given to 
architecture by one of those men 
of genius who affect the character 
of the age in which they live. 
Roger Poer, Bishop of Salisbury, a 
Norman by birth, and combining 
in himself the offices and the qua- 
lities which, in those times of 
constant commotion, were often 
united, was much distinguished as 
a prelate, a warrior, a statesman, 
and an architect. William of 
Malmesbury relates, that the walls 
which were built under the super- 
intendence of Roger of Salisbury 
were so smooth, and had such fine 
joints, that they seemed to be made 
of a single stone. Had fine joints 
been in use before, their appearance 
in the works of this prelate would 
not have been so much extolled. 
The admiration with which they 
are mentioned gives us the date of 
the first introduction of fine joints 



in the walls of English buildings. 
From this time progressive im- 
provement took place in other 
parts of the fabric. Something 
like decoration was added. The 
portals began to be enriched. The 
architecture of England ascended 
to the level of the architecture of 
Normandy in the time of William 
the Conqueror. 

Examples of the style of this 
reign may be seen in the naves at 
Gloucester, Norwich, Ely. Durham, 
and Southwell ; also in the lateral 
towers of Exeter cathedral, built 
by BishopWarlewast; in St. James's 
tower, Bury St. Edmund's ; in the 
ruins of the chapter-house at Ro- 
chester, built between 1114 and 
1125, by the same Ernulph who 
built St. Botolph's at Colchester, 
and who, on the death of Gundulph, 
was promoted to the see of Roches- 
ter ; in the portal of the round 
church at Cambridge ; in the 
nave of the church at Dunstable ; 
in Saint Bartholomew-le-Grand, 
London, which was begun in. 11 23 ; 
in St. Sepulchre's, Northampton, 
built by Simon de Liz, second earl 
of Northampton, on his return 
from the Holy Land, and who died 
in 1127 ; and in the abbey church 
of Tewkesbury, begun by Robert 
Fitz-Hamon (who died in 1107), 
and consecrated in 1123. 

EXAMPLES. Portal of the chap- 
ter-house at Durham, built by 
Bishop Galfrid Rufus, between 1 133 
and 1143; church of Castle Acre 
priory, Norfolk, consecrated in 
1148 ; church of St. Cross, Hamp- 
shire ; Hipon minster ; St. Frides- 
wide (now Christchurch), Oxford, 
begun not later than 1150, and 
finished in 1180. 

About this time, or a little later, 
Domestic architecture began to 
make its appearance in England, 
though, from the dimensions and 
arrangement of some of those build- 
ings which have come down to 
our time, it is difficult to determine 
whether all of them were destined 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



for dwelling-houses, or were only 
halls for public occasions, or for 
the courts of the feudal lords. 

Of these buildings the invariable 
plan is a parallelogram of two 
stories ; sometimes a double pa- 
rallelogram. The lower story was 
vaulted, as we have seen to have 
been the custom in Normandy, and 
it had no internal communication 
with the upper story. The upper 
story was approached by an exter- 
nal staircase, which probably was 
movable. The only fixed Norman 
staircase now extant is the one at 
Canterbury. 

The probability is that the lower 
story was occupied by the servants, 
and the upper story by the masters ; 
but in none of the buildings of this 
time now extant do there exist any 
traces of subdivisions. 

An example of Norman Domestic 
architecture existed in Southwark 
till within these few years. It was 
the hostelry or town residence of 
the priors of Lewes. The church of 
St. Olave, Southwark, was confirm- 
ed to the prior and convent of 
Lewes by William, second Earl 
Warren and Surrey, the son of the 
founder. Earl William died in 
1138. It appears, however, that 
the priors of Lewes rented a build- 
ing in 11 70 and 1186, for their oc- 
cupation in London ; from whence 
it may be concluded, that the hos- 
telry in question was not built till 
after that period. The gene-al 
features of the portion of the hos- 
telry which remained till lately 
nearly resembled those of the 
manor-house of Boothby Pagnel, 
Moyse's Hall, at BurySt. Edmund's, 
and the building which is called the 
Pythagoras School at Cambridge. 

In 1826 was still existing at 
Barneck, in Northamptonshire, a 
Norman manor-house, which was 
not built for defence. In this in- 
stance the hall, which was the 
principal feature, was on the ground 
floor, and had novaults underneath. 
The hall consisted of a centre and 



309 o 3 



two side aisles. The fine joints of 
the walls of this building denoted 
that it could not have been built 
much before the middle of the 
twelfth century. 

At Bury St. Edmund's is a Nor- 
man domestic building, which goes 
by the name of Moyse's Hall. 

AU Boothby Pagnel, in Lincoln- 
shire, is a Norman manor-house on 
nearly the same plan. In this are 
a fire-place and a chimney, which 
indicates that the building of which 
it forms a part cannot be older than 
the second half of the twelfth cen- 
tury. This edifice has windows in 
the ends as well as the sides, a 
circumstance which makes it evi- 
dent that to this building no others 
could have been attached. It is 
surrounded by a moat. 

At Christchurch, Hants,is a Nor- 
man remnant which has also a 
chimney. 

At Lincoln is a Norman domestic 
building which goes by the name 
of ' John of Gaunt's Stables,' but 
which, in fact, was the public meet- 
ing-house of a guild. It is so much 
enriched that it must be placed late 
in the reign of Henry II. 

These examples prove that about 
the middle of the twelfth century, 
mansions, distinct from castles for 
defence, began to be erected in 
England ; and that, independent of 
colleges, abbots' lodgings, and the 
habitable parts of convents, in- 
stances existed of Domestic archi- 
tecture. But it was long before 
dwelling-houses acquired a charac- 
ter bearing any relation to the qua- 
lity of the proprietor, or were con- 
structed with much regard to con- 
venience. 

Examples of the Norman style 
of the time of Henry II. are to be 
seen in the abbey gateway, Bristol ; 
in the Galilee, or chapel, at the 
west end of Durham,built byBishop 
Pudsey (1154 to 1197), together 
with the lateral portals of the 
nave ; in the new nave and great 
west portal of Rochester, etc. 



NOR 



ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 



NOR 



It was in the latter years of "the 
reign of Henry II. that the struggle 
between the Round and the Pointed 
styles, which is called the Transi- 
tion, hegan to take place in this 
country. 

Kirkstal abbey, in Yorkshire, was 
built in the thirty years preceding 
1183. The nave arches are pointed, 
but the pillars are massive, and the 
windows and portals are round. 
The church at Roche abbey, though 
equally in the Transition style, and 
having round - headed windows 
above pointed arches, Norman 
mouldings and capitals, yet is of a 
less heavy character. Both build- 
ings, however, denote that during 
those years the new style was only 
just beginning to be received in 
England. 

About the same time (1170), 
Archbishop Roger employed the 
Pointed style in the new crypt of 
York minster. 

But the early examples of the 
Transition, of which the dates are 
known with the most undoubted 
certainty, are the round part of 
the Temple church, London, which 
was consecrated in 1185, and the 
choir of Canterbury cathedral, 
which was rebuilt after the fire in 
1175, and in which the Pointed 
style was introduced by John of 
Sens, a French architect. Other 
instances are to be found in the 
great tower at the west end of Ely, 
built by Bishop Ridel, who died in 
1189; in the county hall of Oke- 
ham, Rutlandshire; in the abbey 
church of Glastonbury, etc. 

But the nave of Rochester and 
the nave of Peterborough, rebuilt 
between 11 70 and 1194, are proofs 
that the old fashion was not at once 
superseded by the new. 

Simultaneously with the intro- 
duction of the Transition style, 
hewn stone vaults appear to have 
been first thrown over the wider 
parts of English churches, which 
till then had been habitually roofed 
with wood. A stone vault was 



thrown over the new choir of Can- 
terbury, in 1174. It was customary 
before that time, to roof narrow 
spaces with plain cross-vaulting, 
but not to vault wide spaces with 
stone. Plain cross-vaulting of rub- 
ble, with and without ribs, had 
been adopted before in crypts, side 
aisles, and chancels. Barrel-vault- 
ing, we have seen, was introduced 
in the time of William the Con- 
queror. From the time that the 
choir of Canterbury was built, which 
was not long after, it became com- 
mon to throw stone vaults over the 
naves of the larger churches of 
Normandy, and huge stone vaults, 
plain at first, and gradually en- 
riched, became habitual in Eng- 
land. Prominent buttresses and 
flying buttresses, as in Normandy, 
followed in the train of the stone 
roofs. 

From this time, the Round style 
fell gradually into disuse; but at 
Fountains abbey, the foundations 
of which were laid in 1204, and 
which was in progress during the 
forty subsequent years, the win- 
dows and portals are still round- 
headed ; and an instance of a round 
portal is to be found at Ketton, in 
Rutlandshire, as late as 1252. 

During the reign of Henry III 
the Early Pointed style attained its 
most perfect condition. Fine ex. 
amples of this style are to be seer 
in the chapter-house, the transepts 
and part of the choir of Westmin 
ter abbey ; in the choir of St. Al 
ban's ; in the nave of Lincoln ; th< 
east end of Durham ; nave of Wor 
cester, 1224; nave and spire o 
Lichfield ; south transept of York 
and the older part of the choir o 
Southwell ; and in Salisbury ca 
thedral, which was begun in 1221 
and carried forward, without inter 
ruption, till it was completed. 

The establishment of the Pointe< 
style was attended with one re 
markable difference in Englan< 
and Normandy. In Normandy, tin 
semicircular chancel became, ge