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ST.  BASIL'S  SEMINARY 

TORONTO,  CANADA 


LIBRARY 


GIFT  OF 

St.  John's  Seminary 
Plymouth,  Michigan. 


, 


"  Ut  Christian*  ita  tt  Romant  tttis.''     "As  you  are  children  of  Christ,  so  b«  you  children  of  Rome,1' 
Ex  Dictts  5.  Patncti,  !n  Libro  Artnacana,  foL  9, 

The  Irish 
Ecclesiastical    Record 

a  JtattjjltJ  Journal,  imfcer  Episcopal  Sanction. 
WttB-nM  gear  i      JANUARY  1006       f  fourt&  *m'e** 

No.  457.         J          jAWUAKX»;igQ«>,  [    Vol.  XIX. 

The  Church  in  1905. 

jm  LRev.  James  MacCaffrey,  S.T.L.,  Maynooth  College. 

'  Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine.' 

Revr  /.  O'Neill,  Ph.D.,  Carlow  College. 

The  Catholic  Church  and  Human  Liberty. — V. 

Rev,  Daniel  Coghlan,  D.D.,  Maynooth  College.  * 

The  Vatican  Edition  of  Plain  Chant. 

J||  Rev.  H.  Beiverunge,  Maynooth  College. 

General  Notes. 

I  The  Philosophy  of  Immanence.    Augustine  Birrell  on  Universities.    The  '  Minerva ' 

for  1905-1906.    Statistics  of  the  World. 

The  Editor. 

M     Notes  and  Queries. 

THEOLOGY.  Rev.  /.  M.  Harly,  Maynooth  Collegs. 

Who  is  the  '  Proprius  Parochus '  of  '  Vagi '  ?    Transference  of  Masses  to  the  Bishop. 

LITURGY.  Rev,  Patrick  Morrisroe,  Maynoolh  College. 

>J|  Exequial  Mass.    Preface  of  Mass  during  the  Quaranf  Ore.     Lights  in  Church  during 

Benediction.     Meaning  of  '  Rubeus  '  as  Liturgical  Colour.     The  Confraternity  of 


Christian  Doctrine, 


Documents. 


His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  and  the  Poles.    His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  and  the 
Marooites.    The  Confraternity  of  Mount  Carmel. 


Notices  of  Books. 


The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    Recollections  of  William  O'Brien,  M.P.    The  Life  of 
Count  Arthur  Moore. 


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THE  IRISH 
ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 


ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


J&tmtijlfj  3ournal,  unfcer  Episcopal  Sanction 


VOLUME   XIX. 
JANUARY    TO   JUNE,     1906 


jfourti)  Series 


DUBLIN 
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1906 
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TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


VA.OB 

A  Scholastic  Discussion.    By  Rev.  Edward  Nagle,  S.'T.L.        -  138 

Bloocjjof  St.  JanuariusAThe.     By  Rev.  Richard  Fleming,  c.c.  13* 

~~""Tn!irdtaaYXogue~at1  Bobbio.     By  the  Editor      -           -  446 

^Catechism.     By  Very  Rev.  Patrick  Boyle,  c.vr.                                    -  206 

*•-— Catechism  in  Higher  Schools.     By  Very  Rev.  Patrick  Boyle,  C.M.     -  504 

Catholic  Church    and  Human    Liberty,    The.       By    Rev.    Daniel 

Coghlan,  D.D.                                              -  31 

Compulsory  Education.     By  Rev.  P.  J.  Dowling,  C.M.                        -  316 

CorreaponDence:— 

The  Maintenance  of  Invalid  Priests                       -  374 

Documents  :— 

Absolution  '  in  articulo  mortis  '  -  550 

Appointment  of  Confessors  of  Nnns  -  183 

Bequests  for  Masses  -  -  273 
Biblical  Criticism,  Letter  of  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  to  the 

Bishop  of  La  Rochelle  on  -  \/~  -  544 

Bishop's  Control  over  the  ringing  of  Bells  -  -  547 
Daily  Communion,  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 

Council  regarding          -  -  -  -  -  -376 

Days  on  which  Exequial  Offices  are  Prohibited  -  -  545 
Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council  on  Students 

in  Seminaries  -  .....  548 
Decree  granting  Indulgences  for  Daily  Communion  without  the 

onus  of  Weekly  Confession  -  -  469 
Encyclical  of  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  te  the  French  Bishops, 

Clergy,  and  People  -  551 

Exequial  Offices  Prohibited,  days  on  which  they  are  -  -  545 

Gregorian  Chant,  approved  Edition  of  the  -  546 

His  Holiness  Pius  X  and  the  Poles  89 

His  Holiness  Pius  X  and  the  Maronites  -  90 

Indulgences  for  Saturday  Devotion  to  Immaculate  Virgin  -  179 

Indulgences  for  the  Franciscan  Rosary  -  -  376 
Letter  of  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  to  the  Bishop  of  La 

Rochelle  on  Biblical  Criticism  -  544 

Liturgical  Questions,  Some  Solution  of  -  ^  •  467 

Mount  Carmel,  Confraternity  of  -  91 

Musical  Instruments  at  Sacred  Functions  -  178 

Pope  Pius  X  and  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris  -  -  463 


DOCUMENTS — amtinwd 

Pope  Pius  X  and  the  German  Catholics  184 

Privilege  of  Secular  Priests  in  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  182 

Privilege  of  Way  of  the  Cross  in.  newly -erected  Churches  180 

Questions  on  Indulgences                             -  468 

Removal  of  a  Parish  Priest             -                       -                        -  181 

Ringing  of  Bells,  Bishop's  Ccntrol  over  the  547 

Sacred  Vestments  and  Pall  of  Chalice  at  Requiem  Mass  466 

Translation  of  Requiem  Mass  465 
Students  in  Seminaries,  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 

the  Council  on                           -                                    -  548 

Vicar  Capitular  and  Diocesan  Throne  and  Crozier  465 

Decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  and  some  Questions  about  the  Mass, 

The.    By  Rev.  Daniel  Coghlan,  D.D.  247 

Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart.     By  Rev.  D.  Dineen,  D.D.  231 

Evolution  ;  Darwin  and  the  Abb6  Loisy.    By  Rev.  Daniel  Coghlan, 

D.D.                       •  481 

Father  Denifle,  O.P.    By  Rev.  Michael  O'Kane,  O.P.  97 

Father  Quigley,  The  Trial  and  Execution  of.     By  R.  J.  Kelly,  B.L.   -  528 

General  "Wotes:— 

Augustine  Birrell  on  Universities    -  67 

Cardinal  Perrand     ....  254 

Decision  of  the  Holy  See  on  •  Daily  Communion  '  365 

Diplomatic  Relations  of  England  with  the  Vatican  167 

Immanence,  The  Philosophy  of  64 

Intemperance,  St.  Bernard  on                     -  364 
***>•  Monsignor  Capel      ....                        -.169 

Social  Action  of  the  Italian  Clergy             .            .            *  257 

St.  Bernard  on  Intemperance          ....  364 

Statistics  of  Marriage                      -                                    .  166 

Statistics  of  the  World        ......  71 

The  Clergy  in  Parliament  -                                    -            -            -  166 

The  Dublin  Review  .......  165 

The  Irish  Theological  Quarterly      •           -            •            -            -  170 

The  Minerva  for  1905-1906              .....  69 

The  Key  to  the  World's  Progress               ....  363 

The  Origin  of  Life   .......  362 

•Kyriale'and  its  Critics,  The  Vatican  Edition  of  the.      By  Rev. 

T.  A.  Burge,  O.S.B.              ......  334 

•Kyriale;'  The  Vatican,  a  Rejoinder.    By  Rev.  H.  Bewerunge        -  421 

Lord  Randolph  Churchill.     By  Very  Rev.  T.  P.  Gilmartin,  D.D.       -  153 

Hotes  and  (Rueries;— 

LITURGY  (By  Rev.  P.  Morrisroe)  : — 

Baptism,  Questions  about               .....  266 

Betudictio  Mensae                 .            .            .            .            .            -  176 

Blessed  Eucharist,  Questions  about  2<56 

Blessing  of  Children,  The               .....  27, 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS  Vll 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  —  continued. 

Ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  Preaching    -                        -  455 

Christian  Doctrine,  The  Confraternity  of  84 

Decree  concerning  Confraternity  of  Mount  Carmel            -  174 

De  Missa  in  Aliena  Ecclesia  539 

Exequial  Mass                                    -  80 

Lights  in  Church  during  Benediction         -  83 

Mass  to  be  said  in  certain  Church              -  174 

Meaning  of  '  Rubeus  '  as  Liturgical  Colour                                    -  83 

Midnight  Mass,  Privileges  of                                                 -  537 

Oil  in  Sanctuary  Lamps      -  458 

Orationes  in  Missis  de  Rtquie                                      •                          -  370 

Prayers  at  Mass  sub  unica  Conclusione       ...  461 

Preface  of  Mass  during  the  Quarant  Ore                ...  82 

Questions  about  Baptism,  Blessed  Eucharist,  Scapulars,  etc.      -  266 

Whether  a  Painting  of  the  Crucifixion  may  serve  as  Altar  Cross  460 

THEOLOGY  (By  Rev.  J.  M.  Harty)  :  — 

Advent  Fast              -                                    ....  262 

Age  at  which  Obligation  of  Fasting  ceases            -                       -  368 

Case  of  Restitution               -                        ....  454 

Delegated  Jurisdiction  to  hear  Confessions  outside  the  Territory 

of  the  Delegating  Authority     -                        ...  266 

Fast  and  the  Use  of  Porridge          ......  262 

Frequent  Communion          -           -           -           ...           —  45» 

"""""index,  Rules  of  the                                     ....  3g6 

Milk,  Use  of  on  Fast  Days              .....  263 

Restitution,  Case  of                        .....  454 

Rules  of  the  Index  366 
Transference  of  Masses  to  the  Bishop        -                                    -77 

Vagi.  Proprius  Parochus  of  75 

Weekly  Confession  aad  Indulgences           •                                    •  454 


•notices  of 

Addresses  to  Cardinal  Newman,  284;  A  History  of  Modern 
England,  188  ;  Alphonsus  Liguori,  St.,  Life  of,  280;  A  Lad  of 
the  O'Friels,  567  ;  Arthur  Moore,  Life  of  Count,  95  ;  Antipris- 
cilleana,  471  ;  Aspects  of  Anglicanism,  382  ;  Aubrey  Beardsley, 
Last  Letters  of,  4§o  ;  Catholic  Ideals  in  Social  Life,  476  ; 
Catholic  Truth  Society  Publications,  192  ;  Classical  Greek, 
Short  Grammar  of,  187  ;  Clerical  Managers  and  the  Board 
of  National  Education,  571  ^jfeDenifle._Father,  Life  of,  288  ; 
Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus7""~285  ;  Directoire 
Canonique  a  1'  Usage  des  Congregationes  a  voeux  Simples,  191  ; 
Enchiridion  Symbolorum  et  Definitionum,  478;  Gilbert,  Sir 
John  T.,  Life  of,  190  ;  Granville,  Lord,  Life  of,  186;  Illustrated 
Story  of  Five  Years'  Tour  in  America,  564  ;  Irish  Catholics  and 
Trinity  College,  561;  Irish  Education:  As  it  is  and  as  it 
should  be,  568  ;  Is  Ireland  a  Dying  Nation  ?  566  ;  Kyriale  seu 
Ordjnarium  Missae,  189  ;  La  Cite  de  la  Paix,  574  ;  Le  Maitre 


Vlli  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS — continued. 

e*  1'EIdve,  Fra  Angelico  et  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  383JpL'Histoire 
du  Concordat  de  1801,  190^  Meditations  on  Christian  Doctrine, 
568;  My  Queen  and  My  Mother,  472  ;  Out  of  Due  Time,  471  ; 
Paris  Manuscript  of  St.  Patrick's  Latin  Writings,  288 ; 
Recollections  of  William  O'Brien,  M.P.,93  ;  ScAtAn  TIA  b'pjxeAti, 
381;  SeAnm6ij\i  ttluije  TluA'6Apo.  1m1eAbAj\  A  Ti-Aon,  564; 
Sketches  in  History,  Chiefly  Ecclesiastical,  473  ;  St.  Columba's, 
570 ;  Summa  Theologia  ad  modum  Commentarii  in  Aquinatis 
Summae,  286;  The  Consecration  of  a  Bishop,  570;  The  Life 
of  Lord  Granville,  186 ;  The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  92 ;  Tha 
Science  of  the  Spiritual  Life,  576;  The  Spirit  of  Sacrifice, 
285  ;  The  Suffering  Man  God,  480;  The  Tradition  of  Scripture, 
573  ;  The  Truth  of  Christianity,  283  ;  The  Yoke  of  Christ,  570. 
Philosophy  and  Religion,  Thoughts  on.  By  Rev.  P.  Coffey,  D.PH.  193,  385 
Plain  Chant,  The  Vatican  Edition  of.  By  Rev.  H.  Bewerunge  44 

Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine.     By  Rev.  ].  O'Neill,  PH.D.  -  21,  113, 

4°3i 5i6 

Sacred  Heart,  Devotion  to  the.     By  Rev.  D.  Dineen,  D.D.      -  231 
The  Church  and   the  Schools  in  Countries  of  different  Religious 

Denominations.     By  Rev.  Daniel  Coghlan,  D.D.  346 

The  Church  in  1905.    By  Rev.  James  MacCaffrey,  S.T.L.  i 

ugh.!  Transference,  A  Study  in.     By  Rev.  Patrick  Sheridan        -  497 

rial  and  Execution  of  Father  Quigley,  The.     By  R.  J.  Kelly,  B.L.    -  528 

Unbelief,  The  Foundation  of.     By  Rev.  James  MacCaffrey,  S.T.L.      -  289 


THE    CHURCH    IN    1905 

THE  year  1905  is  past  and  gone.    In  many  respects  it 
will  be  an  eventful  one  in  history.   Political  events 
of  capital  importance  for  Europe,  and  for  the  world, 
have  succeeded  one  another  with  alarming  rapidity. 
The  fall  of  Port  Arthur,  the  defeat  at  Mukden,  the  capture 
or  annihilation  of  the  Russian  fleet,  shattered  the  political 
power  of  the  Muscovite  Empire  for  generations,  while  they 
brought  to  a  crisis  at  home  the  long-increasing  demand 
for  representative  government.     By  the  peace  of  Portsmouth 
and  the   offensive    and  defensive  alliance  with   England, 
Japan,  which  till  recent  days  was  a  negligible  factor  in 
political  concerts,  is  advanced  to  the  rank  of  a  first-rate 
power,  and  the  prospect  of  the  awakening  and  resurrection 
of  the  Eastern  races  has  reached  a  new  stage  on  the  road 
of  probability.     Nor  has  Western  Europe  been  unaffected 
by  these  events.     France,  obliged  by  the  Russian  defeats 
to  seek  some  new  safeguard  against  the  Teutonic  invasions, 
has  reversed  her  traditional  policy  of  opposition  to  England  ; 
while  as  a  counter-move  in  the  game  of  politics  the  Kaiser 
turns  his  sympathetic  gaze  towards  his  suffering  brother 
of  Russia.     The  Dual  Empires,  too,  have  had  unpleasant 
experiences.     Norway  and  Sweden  mutually  agreed  to  part 
company  ;  Austria  and  Hungary  would  have  been  better 
had  they  followed  the  example  thus  set,  and,  who  knows, 
but  before  another  year  has  passed  for  us,  a    still  more 
interesting  separation  may  not  have  been  decreed  ? 

FOURTH  SERIES,   VOL.   XIX. — JANUARY,    1906.  A 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


In  Catholic  circles,  too,  the  year  just  passed  has  not 
been  an  altogether  uneventful  one.  The  life  of  the  Church, 
like  that  of  the  individual,  is  to  be  a  life  of  warfare. 
She  has  had  her  crosses  and  defeats,  but  she  has  also  had 
her  consolations.  Under  the  present  illustrious  Pontiff, 
whose  motto  is,  the  renewal  of  all  things  in  Christ,  she  has 
freed  herself  more  and  more  from  the  nets  of  diplomatic 
entanglements,  to  the  strengthening  of  her  own  innate 
powers  of  defence.  We  are  not  of  those  who  think  that  in 
the  days  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  Church  reached  her  prime, 
and  that  the  remainder  of  her  course  must  be  marked  by 
signs  of  senility  and  decay.  New  developments  in  social 
and  educational  circles,  though  at  first  apparently  anta- 
gonistic, but  open  new  spheres  for  her  activity  and  new 
fields  for  her  conquest,  and  it  only  requires  a  man  and  a 
policy  to  ensure  success.  Never  before  did  the  Church 
stand  in  a  higher  or  better  position.  Old  abuses,  which  for 
centuries  crippled  her  power,  have  been  eradicated  ;  the  doles 
of  State  assistance  with  their  consequences  of  slavery  and 
silence  have  disappeared,  or  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  in 
the  present  conditions  of  the  world  may  they  never  return  ; 
the  union  of  the  different  parts  with  one  another  and  with 
Rome  is  closer  and  more  sympathetic  than  it  had  ever 
been  ;  new  activities  have  been  developed,  new  weapons  of 
defence  have  been  pressed  into  the  service,  new  policies 
more  in  conformity  with  modern  developments  have 
been  initiated,  and  with  courage,  patience,  and  withal 
prudence,  the  ultimate  triumph  is,  we  are  convinced, 
assured. 

Pius  X  has  himself  set  the  example  of  activity.  With 
the  keen  eye  of  a  general  marshalling  his  forces  for  the 
fray  he  has  seen  the  weak  spots,  and  he  has  had  the  courage 
to  point  them  out.  The  Commissions  for  the  reforming 
of  Canon  Law,  for  the  improvement  of  Church  Music,  for 
the  unravelling  of  the  Biblical  problem,  have  engaged  his 
sympathetic  attention  ;  the  multiplication  of  congregations 
and  of  offices,  and  of  dignities,  has  not  escaped  his  eagle 
scrutiny ;  his  desire  to  give  all  parts  of  the  Church  due 
representation  in  the  College  of  Cardinals  has  been  ex- 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


amplified  by  the  appointment  of  a  South  American  Prelate  ; 
new  life  has  been  infused  into  the  Roman  Universities  ; 
Apostolic  Visitors  have  been  appointed  for  Italy ;  the 
initiation  of  Provincial  instead  of  Diocesan  Seminaries  is,  we 
believe,  under  consideration.  His  Encyclicals,  too,  on  the 
Social  Question  in  Italy,  on  the  Teaching  of  Christian  Doctrine 
throughout  the  world,  his  letter  to  the  Austrian  Prelates 
on  the  '  Los  von  Rom '  movement  in  the  Dual  Empire, 
his  many  consistorial  references  to  the  present  policy  of 
the  French  Republic,  have  aroused  universal  interest. 
What  is  best  for  the  present  circumstances,  not  what  is 
most  in  conformity  with  traditions  is  his  aim  ;  and  friends 
and  foes  alike  admit  that  Pius  X  is  not  to  be  debarred  by 
difficulties  from  carrying  his  view  into  practice. 

Politically,  too,  the  power  of  the  Holy  See  has  been 
sufficiently  demonstrated.  The  representative  of  the  Pope 
undertook,  and  successfully  carried  out,  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  contending  parties,  an  arbitration  between  Brazil 
and  Bolivia,  and  later  between  Brazil  and  Peru ;  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  has  expressed  his  anxiety  to  have  a 
regularly  accredited  Ambassador  of  Rome  at  St.  Peters- 
burgh  ;  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  and  the  ruler  of  China 
were  anxious  for  a  Papal  representative  at  Constan- 
tinople and  Pekin ;  the  Mikado  received,  in  his  island 
kingdom,  with  every  mark  of  honour,  the  Extraordinary 
Envoy  of  the  Pope  ;  the  Kaiser  is  well  known  to  be  playing 
at  Rome  for  the  place  vacated  by  France  ;  the  new  King 
of  Norway  officially  notified  his  accession  to  the  throne  to 
the  Holy  See — the  first  official  communication  between 
Rome  and  Norway  since  the  Reformation  ;  while  in  the 
forthcoming  assembly  of  the  Powers  at  the  Hague,  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  Holy  See  will  secure  the  repre- 
sentation in  their  councils  that  had  been  previously  refused. 

In  Italy  the  relations  between  Church  and  State,  though 
remaining  essentially  the  same,  have  been  considerably 
modified.  A  spirit  of  mutual  forbearance  and  conciliation 
has  taken  the  place  of  the  bitter  opposition  consequent 
upon  the  events  of  1870.  The  utter  rout  of  the  forces  of 
anarchy  and  disorder  brought  about  by  the  union  of  Italian 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


conservatives  has  not  been  without  its  lesson  to  the  Vatican 
and  the  Quirnial.  Italy  has  refused  to  follow  in  the  wake 
of  the  anti-Catholic  party  in  France,  but  she  intends  to 
profit  by  it,  in  securing  for  herself,  in  part  at  least,  the 
French  Protectorate  over  the  Catholic  missions.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  his  Whitsuntide  Encyclical,  Pius  X  urged 
the  Catholics  to  throw  themselves  into  the  social  work,  to 
form  associations  on  the  model  of  the  German  Catholic 
Associations,  to  dispute  the  ground  with  the  anti-Catholic 
socialists,  and,  eventually,  to  form  a  Catholic  party  to 
defend  Catholic  interests  in  Italy,  as  the  Centre  defends 
them  in  Germany.  It  was  an  appeal  for  the  union  of  the 
conservative  and  radical  elements  into  which  the  Catholic 
ranks  in  Italy  had  been  long  divided.  Three  men,  dis- 
tinguished in  economic  circles,  were  appointed  to  draft 
the  constitution  of  the  new  organization,  and  have  since 
then  given  the  fruits  of  their  labour  to  the  world.  But, 
unfortunately,  for  the  present,  the  Christian  Democrats,  or 
Autonomists,  as  they  are  called,  have  not  ceased  in  their 
campaign  of  opposition.  We  are  not,  however,  without 
hope  that  under  the  stress  of  circumstances  the  present 
bitterness  will  pass  away,  and  all  Italian  Catholics  will  be 
found  united  in  their  allegiance  to  the  policy  sketched  by 
Pius  X. 

There  has  been  a  marked  revival  of  Catholic  life  through- 
out Italy.  In  the  municipal  elections  the  Catholics,  either 
alone  or  in  alliance  with  some  friendly  party,  achieved 
some  notable  successes  ;  the  Holy  Father's  discourses  to 
the  children  and  the  grown-up  people  of  Rome  have  excited 
the  greatest  interest ;  the  efforts  of  the  Catholic  bishops 
to  help  the  poor  Italian  emigrants  have  won  the  marked 
recognition  of  the  Government  and  of  the  King;  the  jubilee 
of  Bishop  Bonnomelli  of  Cremona,  who  had  done  so  much 
for  the  Italians  in  the  East,  was  a  national  festival  for 
Italy,  while  the  death  of  Mgr.  Scalabrini  of  Piacenza,  the 
friend  of  the  Italian  emigrants  of  the  West,  was  lamented 
as  a  national  loss.  The  attitude  of  the  leaders  in  the 
literary  world  has  been  considerably  modified  towards 
the  Church.  Giovanni  Pascoli  sang  the  golden  jubilee  of 


THE   CHURCH  IN   1905 


Mgr.  Bonnomelli.  Fogazzaro  organized  the  celebrations  in 
honour  of  Cardinal  Capecaltro,  and  Graf  has  recently 
announced  his  conversion  to  the  Catholic  faith.  The 
social  works  initiated  by  the  clergy  and  by  the  people,  of 
which  the  diocese  of  Bergamo  is  a  standing  example,  con- 
tinue to  spread  rapidly  ;  and  on  the  whole,  despite  the 
divisions  in  Catholic  ranks,  the  Church  has  no  reason  to 
regret  her  progress  in  Italy  during  the  year  just  passed. 
In  France  the  policy  initiated  by  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau, 
and  in  greater  part  carried  out  by  M.  Combes  has,  at  last, 
under  M.  Rouvier,  been  brought  to  a  successful  issue. 
The  Church  and  State  are  finally  divorced.  The  decree 
that  went  forth  so  often  from  the  Masonic  lodges  has  in  the 
end  received  the  approval  of  the  Chamber  and  the  Senate, 
and  the  signature  of  the  President  of  the  French  Republic- 
France  as  an  official  Catholic  nation  has  ceased  to  exist. 
For  Catholics  throughout  the  world,  but  more  especially 
for  Irish  Catholics,  the  news  has  been  a  cruel  blow,  but, 
it  was  one  for  which  they  were  prepared.  They  may 
indeed  have  hoped  that  the  Church  would  have  made  a 
better  struggle,  they  may  have  counted  too  much  upon 
the  traditional  devotion  and  generosity  of  the  French 
nation,  they  may  have  thought  that  even  in  the  last  moment 
a  man^would  arise  capable  of  repairing  the  blunders  of  the 
past,  and  welding  together  the  friends  of  religion  and  of 
liberty,  but  still  they  knew  that,  sooner  or  later,  the 
divorce  must  come. 

The  important  question  must  now  be  faced,  what  is 
to  be  done  under  the  new  conditions  ?  According  to  the 
new  law  the  Republic  will  no  longer  recognize  officially 
any  ^religion,  and  will  give  no  aid  to  its  support.  The 
Budget  of  Worship  and  all  departmental  and  communal 
estimates  for  religious  expenses  will  be  supressed.  The 
ministers  of  religion  who  are  over  sixty  years  of  age,  and 
who  have  given,  at  least,  thirty  years  service,  are  to  receive 
as  a  pension  two- thirds  of  their  present  salary,  those  over 
forty-five,  and  who  have  given  over  twenty  years  work, 
receive  one-half,  and  all  others  will  receive  their  full  salary 
for  the  first  year  after  the  separation,  two-thirds  for  the 


6  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

second,  one-half  for  the  third,  one-third  for  the  fourth, 
and  henceforth  the  State  will  recognize  no  obligations 
towards  them. 

The  property  of  the  Church  in  France — cathedrals, 
churches,  seminaries,  presbyteries,  with  all  their  belongings 
— will  be  transferred  to  the  Associations  of  Worship 
which  will  take  the  place,  in  a  certain  sense,  of  the  present 
fabriques.  These  associations,  whose  sole  object  is  to 
be  religious,  are  to  consist  of  seven  persons  in  a  parish 
of  one  thousand  people,  of  fifteen  if  the  parish  has  over 
a  thousand  and  under  20,000,  and  of  twenty-five  if  the 
population  be  greater.  These  parochial  associations  can 
unite  together  with  a  central  direction  and  adminstration, 
and  thus  the  religious  associations  in  a  diocese  may  be 
joined  together  for  diocesan  interests.  They  will  be  re- 
cognized by  the  Government  as  legal  corporations,  and  wiU 
enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  such.  They  are  to  give  an  account 
of  their  work  to  the  people  once  a  year,  and  their  financial 
status  is  to  be  examined  by  governmental  departments. 

On  this  point  there  are  two  restrictions  to  be  noted, 
one  of  which  is  injurious  to  the  Church  and  the  other 
distinctly  favourable.  These  associations  can  build  up  a 
reserve  fund,  but  the  extent  of  that  reserve  is  strictly 
limited.  For  associations  with  5,000  francs  of  revenue 
they  can  accumulate  only  a  sum  equal  to  three  times 
their  annual  expense,  and  for  the  others  the  reserve  fund 
must  not  exceed  six  times  their  annual  outlay.  The 
reserve  must  be  securely  invested  ;  but  in  addition  they 
may  also  accumulate  a  special  fund,  to  be  placed  in  certain 
investments,  for  the  buying,  construction,  repair  or 
decoration  of  property  suitable  for  the  objects  of  the 
association.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  understood,  though 
the  final  decision  rests  with  the  Council  of  State,  that  no 
association  will  be  recognized  unless  its  priest  is  in  a 
position  to  perform  the  usual  duties  of  a  Catholic  priest, 
that  is  to  say,  that  he  is  in  subjection  to  his  bishop  who 
is  himself  in  communion  with  Rome.  If  this  interpreta- 
tion be  given  to  the  law,  the  danger  of  schism  will  be, 
to  a  great  extent,  removed. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  1905 


To  these  associations  of  worship  will  be  handed  over 
most  of  the  Church  property,  the  cathedrals,  churches, 
seminaries,  presbyteries,  etc.,  with  this  difference  that  in 
case  of  the  churches  they  are  to  be  handed  over  gratuitously, 
but  in  the  case  of  archiepiscopal  and  episcopal  houses, 
they  are  given  for  only  two  years,  and  the  seminaries  and 
presbyteries  for  five  years.  On  the  expiration  of  these 
terms  they  become  the  property  of  the  State  or  department 
or  commune.  But  beside  this  movable  and  immovable 
property,  the  associations  can  obtain  funds  by  gifts,  by 
collections,  by  fees  for  religious  ceremonies,  by  foundations, 
by  hiring  out  the  seats  and  places  in  the  church,  and  in 
many  other  ways,  the  only  restriction  being  that  they  can 
receive  no  help  from  the  State  under  any  title  whatsoever. 

Regulations  for  securing  public  order  are  also  intro- 
duced. Religious  gatherings  are  under  the  surveillance 
of  the  police  ;  with  the  mayor  lies  the  regulating  of  pro- 
cessions and  of  ringing  the  bells  ;  heavy  fines  are  levelled 
against  anyone  forcing  another  to  join  a  religious  function 
or  to  contribute  to  its  expenses,  against  ministers  of 
religion  defaming  by  sermon  or  public  notice  any  citizen 
of  France,  against  any  minister  of  religion  who  would 
encourage  resistance  to  the  laws,  or  whose  sermons  would 
tend  to  rouse  one  party  against  another.  These  are  the 
principal  clauses  of  the  Bill  of  Separation. 

Now,  there  are  two  lines  of  opinion  in  France  regarding 
the  action  that  should  be  taken  in  the  present  circumstances. 
One  party  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  new  law. 
They  would  not  organize  these  associations  of  worship 
nor  give  any  countenance  to  their  organization ;  they 
maintain  that  such  associations  introduce  democratic 
elements  into  the  Church,  essentially  at  variance  with  her 
Divine  constitution.  Besides,  they  argue,  the  present  law 
is  but  the  beginning  of  the  persecution.  The  anti-religious 
elements  are  not  content,  and,  as  a  result,  the  very  earliest 
opportunity  will  be  utilized  to  place  on  the  statute-book 
still  more  stringent  measures.  But  another,  and  we  think 
a  wiser,  party  stoutly  maintain  that  Catholics  should  be 
up  and  doing,  that  they  should  begin  at  once  the  work 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  organization,  that  the  principle  of  lay  control  of  the 
finances,  though  not  the  usual  system,  is,  still,  not  in 
opposition  to  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  that  the  fear 
of  future  robbery  should  not  prevent  the  householder 
from  fortifying  his  house  against  attack.  They  point 
out,  too,  that  what  the  Church  has  lost  in  funds  she  has 
gained  in  freedom ;  that  the  appointment  of  bishops,  which 
hitherto  rested  with  the  Government,  will  now  be  vested 
in  the  Holy  See,  which  will  appoint  men,  not  for  their 
political  services  or  their  readiness  to  meet  the  wishes 
of  the  secular  power,  but  for  their  ability  and  readiness 
to  defend  the  interests  of  the  Church  ;  that  the  fourteen 
Sees  now  lying  vacant  on  account  of  the  action  of  the  pre- 
sent Ministry  can  at  once  be  filled,  and  that  with  good  bishops 
to  guide  the  fortunes  of  the  Church,  the  present  crisis  will 
soon  pass  away,  and  in  the  end  Catholicity  will  progress 
as  it  has  progressed  in  the  English-speaking  countries. 

The  opinions  of  these  latter  will,  we  trust,  prevail,  but 
until  the  regulations  of  the  Council  of  State  for  the  en- 
forcement of  the  law  are  seen,  and  especially  until  the  Holy 
Father  has  spoken,  it  is  not  safe  to  give  a  very  definite 
opinion.  Pius  X  has  followed  the  course  of  events  in 
France  with  anxious  attention.  He  has  heard  the  views 
of  all  parties  expounded  by  their  ablest  exponents ;  he  has 
around  him  many  devoted  counsellors  who  are  in  close 
touch  with  the  state  of  affairs  in  France  ;  he  has  no  interests 
to  seek  except  the  welfare  of  the  Church,  and,  therefore, 
he  is  in  a  position  to  pronounce  an  impartial  verdict 
on  the  new  law,  and  to  give  an  authoritative  declaration 
on  the  policy  which  should  be  adopted  by  French 
Catholics.  We  are  confident  that  he  will  soon  publish  his 
views,  and  we  trust  that  they  will  be  loyally  accepted 
by  all. 

But,  if  Catholics  have  reason  to  regret  the  state  of 
affairs  in  France,  they  have  still  better  grounds  to  rejoice 
at  the  position  of  the  Church  in  the  German  Empire. 
What  a  change  since  the  days  of  the  Kulturkampf  under 
the  Iron  Chancellor  ?  The  Kulturkampf  and  its  authors 
are  gone,  but  the  fruit  of  their  work  remains,  and  is  repre- 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


sented  by  the  Centre  party  in  the  Reichstag,  which  party 
in  itself  is  typical  of  the  perfectly  organized  forces  of  German 
Catholicism.  It  is  now  the  most  powerful  section  of  the 
German  representatives,  counting  one  hundred  pledged 
members,  and.  in  union  with  the  Alsatians,  Poles,  Guelfs,  etc., 
can  command  over  one  hundred  and  thirty  votes  on  any 
religious  question.  The  Emperor  perfectly  recognizes  that 
the  Centre  is  the  only  real  bulwark  against  the  advancing 
tide  of  Socialism,  and  hence  his  readiness  to  comply  with  the 
demands  of  the  party.  Nor  are  there  any  signs  of  weakness 
or  decay  to  be  found  in  the  Centre.  The  recent  elections  in 
Bavaria  were  a  sweeping  triumph  for  the  Catholics  over 
the  Liberals,  and  in  Baden,  too,  they  have  achieved  some 
notable  successes.  The  Catholic  Congress  held  this  year 
in  Strasburg,  was  even  more  imposing  than  before,  and 
the  utmost  unanimity  marked  the  proceedings.  Per- 
secution was  advantageous  to  Germany.  It  welded 
together  the  Catholic  forces,  and  we  are  not  without  hope 
that  it  may  produce  the  same  effect  in  France. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  development  in  the 
Empire  during  the  past  year  was  the  attacks  made  upon 
the  Catholic  student  societies  at  the  German  universities. 
For  over  sixty  years  the  Catholic  societies  have  existed 
at  the  universities.  The  necessity  for  such  separate 
foundations  will  be  evident,  if  it  be  remembered  that  most 
of  the  student  bodies  are  organized  on  a  duelling  basis, 
or  recognize  the  lawfulness  of  such  forms  of  '  satisfaction^ 
The  motto  of  the  Catholic  societies,  on  the  contrary,  is 
religion,  science  and  good-fellowship.  In  recent  years 
many  new  societies  were  formed,  the  work  of  organization 
was  perfected,  and  the  Catholics  had  secured  a  position 
at  the  German  universities  that  they  could  have  never 
hoped  for  without  such  union.  The  result  was  noticeable, 
both  in  the  tone  of  the  universities  themselves,  and  in 
the  public  life  of  the  country. 

The  extreme  Protestant  parties  took  alarm  at  the  spread 
and  success  of  the  movement.  The  Evangelische  Bund, 
corresponding  more  or  less  with  '  The  Protestant  Alliance  ' 
of  these  countries,  passed  resolutions  condemning  the 


10  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Catholic  student  societies,  and  calling  upon  the  Government 
to  suppress  them.  Their  cry  was  the  freedom  of  university 
life.  Young  men,  they  said,  going  to  the  universities  should 
begin  life  without  guiding  strings,  they  should  be  at 
liberty  to  select  for  themselves  in  religion  and  politics, 
and  the  Catholic  societies  were  a  menace  to  the  intellectual 
and  political  life  of  the  Empire.  The  agitation  soon  spread. 
Jena  was  the  first  place  to  adopt  their  resolutions  and  the 
technical  schools  of  Hanover  were  not  slow  to  follow  the 
example,  and  in  the  February  Re-union  at  Eisenach  the 
decree  of  dissolution  against  the  Catholic  societies  was 
pronounced.  The  matter  was  brought  before  the  Reichstag. 
The  Catholic  students  were  ably  defended  by  Dr.  Porsch, 
himself  a  member  of  a  Catholic  student  society — and  the 
Chamber  was  practically  unanimous  in  condemning  the 
agitation. 

In  May,  the  Minister  of  Education  summoned  the 
Rectors  of  the  universities  to  a  conference,  and  the  student 
societies  were  one  of  the  items  for  discussion.  The  Minister 
insisted  that  the  students  were  free  to  do  as  they  pleased 
, — to  join  any  or  no  society — and  he  called  upon  the  rectors 
to  allow  no  intimidation  or  persecution  of  the  free  cor- 
porations. His  instructions  did  not  put  an  end  to  the 
controversy,  a  campaign  of  boycott  was  initiated,  but  the 
Catholic  students  were  not  to  be  easily  crushed.  Their 
answer  to  the  agitation  was  the  foundation  of  many  new- 
societies,  and  nobody  who  saw  them  march  through  the 
streets  of  Freiburg  to  High  Mass,  last  summer,  or  through 
Strasburg  at  the  Catholic  Re-union  of  Germany,  could  have 
any  fear  that  they  mean  to  barter  one  iota  of  their  freedom 
or  their  principles,  even  at  the  bidding  of  the  Evangelische 
Bund. 

For  Catholics  throughout  the  Russian  Empire  the  recent 
disasters  have  not  been  without  good  fruit.  Religious 
as  well  as  political  liberty  has  been  granted  by  the  recent 
Imperial  decrees.  But  in  no  other  part  of  the  Empire  has 
the  Church  benefited  more  than  in  Poland.  There  the 
freedom  of  religion  was  hedged  round  by  many  restrictions. 
The  priests  were  at  best  only  ticket-of-leave  men ;  they 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


could  not  go  outside  their  parish  without  special  per- 
mission, and  re-unions  were  almost  an  impossibility.  Reli- 
gious instruction  in  Polish  was  forbidden,  and  in  the  schools 
Polish  was  ruthlessly  pursued.  But  the  recent  war  dis- 
asters put  an  end  to  such  autocratic  rule.  The  Russian 
popular  assembly  is  certain  to  be  favourable  to  Poland, 
as  is  shown  in  the  resolutions  of  the  Zemstovs  in 
Moscow. 

The  first  result  of  the  Imperial  decrees  may  be  seen  in  the 
territory  of  the  '  Uniate '  Ruthenians.  These  unfortunate 
people  were  betrayed  by  their  Metropolitan.  They  had 
been  in  communion  with  Rome,  but  their  Primate  joined 
the  '  orthodox '  Church  years  ago,  and  they  suddenly 
found  themselves  registered  as  orthodox.  They  were  com- 
manded to  conform  to  the  orthodox  religion,  their  priests 
were  banished,  their  churches  sequestrated.  Persecution 
followed  persecution,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Holy 
See,  but  the  poor  unfortunate  people  refused  to  accept  the 
orthodox  faith.  The  result  was  that  they  were  left  without 
the  Sacraments  of  the  Church,  except  Baptism,  which  they 
administered  themselves  ;  they  assembled  in  the  woods  or 
private  houses  for  their  devotions.  They  remained  devoted 
to  Rome  in  spirit,  though  separated  from  it  by  force,  and, 
as  soon  as  the  Imperial  ukase  appeared  they  hastened  to 
put  themselves  into  communication  with  Rome.  The 
result  is  that  the  Church  has  gained  an  immense  number 
of  recruits  in  the  last  six  months;  by  many  it  is  estimated 
that  over  half  a  million  have  declared  themselves  Catholics, 
anxious  to  remain  in  submission  to  Rome.  Whole  villages 
have  turned  over  at  the  same  time.  These  are  only  the 
first  fruits  of  the  new  awakening  in  Russia,  and  still  more 
important  developments  may  be  expected  in  the  near 
future. 

The  state  of  Catholicity  in  the  Dual  Empire  (Austria 
and  Hungary)  is  not  entirely  satisfactory.  We  fear  that 
there,  too,  the  evils  of  State  control  are  only  too  visible 
and  that  an  effort  must  be  made  if  the  Church  is  to  main- 
tain her  position.  But  it  is  pleasing  to  know  that  there  is 
new  life  and  energy  in  the  Catholic  ranks.  After  the 


12  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Papal  Letter  to  the  Austrian  Bishops  on  the  '  Los  von 
Rom  '  movement — a  proselytizing  movement  adopted  by 
the  Pan-Germanic  party — serious  steps  are  being  taken  to 
combat  the  evils.  Societies  are  being  formed,  churches  are 
being  built,  collections  are  being  organized  to  send  priests 
into  the  districts  hitherto  neglected.  The  religious  char- 
acter of  the  schools  is  engaging  serious  attention,  and  an 
effort  is  being  made  to  found  a  new  Catholic  University  at 
Salzbourgh.  How  far  such  a  step  is  prudent  in  Austria 
at  present,  we  leave  it  to  the  organizers  to  determine. 
Unfortunately,  the  Catholic  parties  are  not  unanimous  in 
regard  to  the  line  of  action  to  be  pursued,  and  the  present 
political  troubles  between  Austria  and  Hungary  have 
tended  to  throw  the  religious  programme  into  the  back- 
ground. But  the  recent  re-union  of  the  Austrian  Catholics 
may  help  to  put  an  end  to  their  dissensions,  and  if  they 
were  only  united,  the  new  energy  in  the  Catholic  ranks 
would  give  us  hope  for  the  future  of  Austria. 

We  can  merely  glance  at  the  remaining  Continental 
countries.  In  Belgium  the  Catholic  party  still  controls 
the  Government,  and  bids  fair  to  control  it  for  a  long 
time  to  come,  though  we  are  still  uncertain  whether  it  is 
wise  to  identify  the  interests  of  the  Church  with  the  for- 
tunes of  a  political  party  so  closely  as  has  been  done  ;  in 
Holland  the  Catholics  form  about  one-third  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  the  Catholic  representatives  hold  the  balance  of 
power  between  the  Evangelicals  and  the  Socialists  ;  in 
Switzerland  the  position  of  the  Catholics  could  hardly  be 
more  encouraging  ;  in  Sweden  there  is  a  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  two  thousand,  with  a  Vicar-Apostolic  and  sixteen 
priests  ;  in  Norway  the  number  is  a  little  higher  ;  in 
Denmark  the  figure  reaches  about  seven  thousand.  Spain, 
if  anything,  has  improved  under  its  excellent  young 
Catholic  king,  and  Portugal  is  no  worse  than  it  has  been 
for  years. 

Before  passing  to  other  countries  it  might  be  well  to 
to  call  attention  to  the  serious  struggle  which  the  Church 
is  forced  to  sustain  throughout  the  world  in  defence  of 
religious  education.  In  Ireland  and  England  our  readers 


THE  CHURCH  IN  1905  13 

are  perfectly  familiar  with  the  difficulties  of  the  situation  ; 
in  France  religion  has  been  banished  from  the  schools,  but 
we  hope  the  scholars  are  still  not  neglected  ;  in  Italy  reli- 
gious instruction  used  to  be  given  unless  the  parents  object 
— now,  unfortunately,  the  parents  must  demand  it ;  in 
Austria  and  Belgium  there  is  danger  brewing  ;  in  America 
separate  schools  still  keep  their  flag  flying,  as  is  shown  by 
the  Sheedy  Report  in  the  recent  blue  book  on  education  ; 
in  Canada  the  Laurier  compromise  has  secured  Catholic 
teachers  for  Catholic  children  in  the  north-western  terri- 
tories ;  in  Australia  the  bishops  have  reasons  for  protesting 
against  the  system  ;  and  in  New  Zealand  the  united  Hier- 
archy have  registered  their  objection  against  wholesale 
Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools.  The  cause  of  religious 
education  is  a  sacred  one  and  an  important  one,  and  from 
this  brief  epitome  of  the  state  of  affairs  throughout  the 
world,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  enemies  of  the  Church 
are  sparing  no  pains  to  secure  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
secularism.  It  behoves  Catholics  to  note  the  turn  which 
affairs  are  taking,  and  to  determine  upon  the  line  of  defence 
best  suited  to  modern  requirements. 

In  the  United  States  Catholics  have  no  reason  to  regret 
the  work  that  has  been  done  in  recent  years.  According 
to  the  Wiltzius  Directory  (1905)  there  are  now  under  the 
United  States  jurisdiction,  22,127,354  Catholics — that  is  to 
say,  about  twelve  millions  on  the  mainland,  over  one 
million  in  Porto  Rico,  and  seven  millions  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  Great  sacrifices  are  being  made  to  maintain  the 
separate  Catholic  schools.  New  York  alone  has  paid  out 
4,839,000  dollars  for  its  sixty  schools,  frequented  by  40,000 
pupils,  and  their  annual  cost  exceeds  320,000  dollars.  By 
the  recent  decision  of  the  President  we  understand  that  the 
Indian  Catholic  schools  can  receive  an  endowment  from  the 
funds  annually  devoted  to  the  Indians  in  lieu  of  regular 
government  withdrawn  since  1899.  New  dioceses  have  been 
formed,  and  new  activity  is  evidenced  by  the  Federation 
of  Catholic  Workmen's  Societies,  and,  in  the  literary  world, 
by  the  project  of  publishing  a  scholarly  and  scientific 
Catholic  encyclopaedia. 


14  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  need  of  such  a  publication  has  long  been  felt. 
Encyclopaedias,  indeed,  there  are  in  sufficient  numbers  in 
the  English  language,  but  a  glance  at  a  few  of  the  articles 
will  be  sufficient  to  prove  how  little  the  writers  understood 
or  appreciated  Catholic  beliefs  and  sentiments.  It  is 
to  such  books  that  Catholics  must  at  present  have 
recourse,  if  they  want  to  procure  the  information 
they  require ;  and  the  influence  for  evil  upon  their 
readers  is  sufficiently  evident  from  the  work  the  Ency- 
clopaedists did  in  undermining  the  faith  of  the  French 
nation.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  number  of  Catholic  scholars  in 
America  have  determined  to  do  for  the  English  language 
what  has  been  already  done  for  the  French  and  the  German. 
The  names  of  the  committee,  embracing,  as  it  does,  the  fore- 
most Catholic  scholars  in  America,  some  of  them  Pro- 
fessors at  the  Catholic  University,  are  a  sufficient  guarantee 
that  the  work  will  be  done  in  a  scholarly  style.  Writers 
have  been  secured  throughout  the  English-speaking  Catholic 
world,  and  the  publishers  are  prepared  to  spare  no  expense 
to  make  the  encyclopaedia  not  unworthy  of  the  Catholic 
faith.  We  wish  the  project  every  success. 

There  is,  too,  another  institution  on  American  soil  to 
which  Irish  Catholics  turn  with  sympathy  and  confidence 
— the  Catholic  University  at  Washington.  They  look  to- 
it  as  the  crowning  and  completion  of  the  great  work  of 
education  done  by  Catholics  in  the  States  ;  they  recognize 
its  necessity,  they  know  its  capabilities,  and  they  are  con- 
fident that  under  its  present  management  it  will  satisfy 
all  their  expectations.  Difficulties  it  has  met  with,  we 
admit,  friends  have  not  rallied  round  it  as  they  might 
have  done  ;  its  financial  reverses  would  have  broken  the 
courage  of  less  devoted  labourers ;  but,  as  Cardinal  Gibbons 
put  it  in  his  memorable  letter,  the  honour  of  Catholic 
America  is  pledged  for  its  success,  and  Catholic  America 
seldom  knows  failure.  The  Pope  has  blessed  the  work, 
the  bishops  are  at  present  unanimous  in  its  support ;  an 
annual  collection  taken  up  through  the  States  about  the 
beginning  of  Advent  has  been  inaugurated  ;  the  present 
financial  status,  though  far  from  perfect,  is  reassuring  ; 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


and  with  its  excellent  staff  we  are  confident  the  number  of 
its  students  will  equal  that  of  the  leading  American  uni- 
versities. It  requires  time,  no  doubt,  before  the  necessity 
of  such  an  institution  is  recognized  in  certain  circles, 
but  nowadays  we  would  fain  believe  that  the  recognition 
is  universal. 

In  Australia  and  New  Zealand  the  progress  of  the 
Church  has  been  completely  satisfactory.  In  1904  a 
great  Catholic  Congress  was  held  at  Melbourne,  attended 
by  representatives  from  all  parts  of  Australia,  and  the 
report  of  the  proceedings  prove  beyond  doubt  the  vitality 
and  the  advance  of  the  Church  in  Australia.  During  the 
present  year  the  Australian  Hierarchy  met  together  at 
Sydney,  under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Moran,  and  in 
their  joint  pastoral  issued  to  the  Australian  people  the 
progress  in  the  Church  is  sufficiently  indicated  :  — 

The  period  [they  say]  has  been  one  of  quiet  growth  and 
consolidation  rather  than  of  that  pioneer  missionary  expansion 
which  was  distinctive  of  earlier  periods  of  our  history.  Our 
Catholic  population  in  Australia  has  grown  to  something  over 
a  million  (1,011,550).  The  clergy  number  over  thirteen  hundred  ; 
the  teaching  brothers  over  six  hundred  ;  the  nuns  over  five 
thousand  five  hundred.  We  maintain  thirty-three  colleges  for 
boys,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  boarding  schools  for 
girls  ;  two  hundred  and  fifteen  superior  day-schools,  ten  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  primary  schools,  ninety-four  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  the  children  in  Catholic  schools  number  over 
one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand.  From  these  figures 
it  can  be  seen  that  although  ours  is  a  land  which  has  developed 
and  grown  with  the  rapidity  of  adolescence,  the  Church  has 
progressed  also,  even  so  as  to  keep  well  to  the  front  among  the 
most  progressive  institutions  of  the  country. 

The  news  of  the  progress  of  Catholicity  in  Australia 
was  welcome  to  Catholics  throughout  the  world  but  especially 
did  it  send  a  thrill  of  pleasure  through  Irish  hearts.  Under 
the  Southern  Cross  many  of  our  exiled  countrymen  have 
found  a  home,  and  the  interests  of  the  Church  there  are 
in  the  hands  of  Irish  ecclesiastics.  Their  devotion  to  their 
Mother  Church  and  country  was  appropriately  expressed 
in  their  address  to  the  Hierarchy  of  Ireland,  and  in  the 
name  of  Catholic  Australia  Cardinal  Moran,  a  few  days  ago, 


1 6  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

sent  his  touching  message  of  sympathy  to  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Irish  nation. 

For  the  Catholic  Missions,  too,  the  year  1905  has  not 
been  an  unfavourable  one.  It  was  feared  that  the  religious 
disturbances  in  France  would  have  had  a  disastrous  effect 
in  places  far  remote  from  France,  for,  as  everyone  knows, 
French  Catholics  have  been  the  mainstays  of  missionary 
efforts  during  the  last  one  hundred  years.  French  men 
and  French  money  were  freely  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Church,  and  we  are  confident,  even  in  these  dark  days, 
that  God  will  not  desert  a  nation  which  has  done  so  much 
to  spread  the  Gospel  light.  It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  the 
banishment  or  suppression  of  the  religious  Orders  and  the 
diplomatic  rupture  with  the  Vatican  have  had  injurious 
effects  on  the  Catholic  missions  ;  and  nowadays  with  the 
separation  of  Church  and  State,  when  the  people  will  be 
obliged  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  their  pastors  and  of 
the  Church,  it  will  be  impossible  to  expect  that  there  will 
not  be  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of  French  contributions 
to  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  and  other  kindred  societies. 

But  the  Providence  of  God  is  watching  over  the  Church. 
If  one  race  or  nation  fail,  another  arises  to  take  its  place. 
Germany,  which  till  recent  years  did  comparatively  little 
in  the  missionary  field,  is  rapidly  coming  to  the  front. 
Numerous  societies  have  been  established  throughout 
Austria  and  Germany  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  for 
collecting  funds  and  for  training  missioners.  The  Em- 
peror, too,  is  not  unconscious  of  the  advantage  such  efforts 
might  bring  to  the  State  in  developing  the  sphere  of  German 
influence  in  distant  lands.  He  recognizes  to  the  full,  what 
France  has  gained  by  its  protectorate  over  the  Christian 
missions  of  the  East,  and  in  the  present  crisis  he  hopes  that 
Germany  might  occupy  the  place  vacated  by  its  rival. 
America,  too,  bids  fair  to  excel  in  its  contributions 
towards  the  funds  of  the  Catholic  missions.  It  was  only 
in  1897  that  the  Council  of  American  Bishops  officially 
took  up  the  work  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  and 
warmly  recommended  it  to  the  generosity  of  American 
Catholics.  Nor  has  their  appeal  been  long  without  a 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


gratifying  response.  According  to  the  most  recent  reports 
the  diocese  of  Boston  has  actually  contributed  more  money 
than  the  great  diocese  of  Lyons,  which  is  the  home  of  the 
organization,  and  which  for  eighty-  two  years  has  headed 
the  list  ;  and  many  other  American  dioceses  have  been 
almost  equally  generous  in  their  subscriptions.  There  is, 
then,  no  fear  that  the  Catholic  missionary  forces  will  be 
crippled  for  want  of  funds,  and,  despite  the  few  reverses 
which  even  this  year  they  have  met  with,  the  progress  of 
the  missions  has  been  steady  and  re-assuring. 

In  England,  during  the  year  that  is  passed,  the  question 
of  education  has  been  most  prominent  in  Catholic  quarters, 
The  Bill  of  1902,  though  good,  in  so  far  as  it  recognizes  the 
rights  of  parents  to  the  religious  education  of  their  children, 
has  not  been  working  so  smoothly  as  many  of  its  sup- 
porters anticipated.  When  the  local  authorities  are  un- 
friendly, difficulties  of  all  kinds  have  been  put  in  the  way 
of  the  Catholic  schools.  The  premises  were  condemned, 
or  the  teachers  were  underpaid,  as  in  London,  or  the  ne- 
cessity for  separate  schools  was  disregarded.  With  patience 
and  determination  perhaps  the  difficulties  will  pass  away  ; 
but}  without  professing  to  possess  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  all  its  workings,  we  must  admit  that  we  have  for  the 
future  the  gravest  fears. 

The  limit  of  compromise  has  at  least  been  reached, 
and,  we  think,  Catholics  can  surrender  nothing  more  without 
surrendering  principles  for  which  the  Catholic  Church  has 
maintained  many  a  severe  struggle.  Hence  it  is  that 
friends  were  shocked  and  alarmed  at  one  incident  in  the 
history  of  the  school  question  last  year,  namely,  what  was 
known  as  the  Bradford  Concordat.  There,  the  Catholic 
authorities  seemed  to  have  agreed  to  hand  over  a  Catholic 
secondary  school  to  the  management  of  a  committee, 
two-thirds  of  whom  were  to  be  elected  by  the  City  Council 
and  only  one-third  by  the  trustees.  Teachers  were  to  be 
appointed  without  any  reference  to  their  religious  beliefs^ 
and  no  religious  education  was  to  be  given  in  school  hours, 
or  to  be  paid  for  from  the  public  rates.  The  principle  of 
Catholic  teachers  for  Catholic  children  is,  we  think,  the  main 

VOL.  XIX.  B 


l8  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

contention  of  the  Catholics,  and  no  compromise  surrendering 
such    a   principle    could    be    tolerated.     Fortunately,    the 
Catholic  Education  Council  promptly  condemned  the  Con- 
cordat, the  Bishops  expressed  their  approval  of  the  form 
and  substance  of  the  condemnation,  and,  as  a  result,  the 
Catholics  who  had  signed  the  agreement  withdrew  from  the 
understanding.    Such  weakness,  though  in  the  most  difficult 
circumstances,  does  much  to  injure  the  Catholic  position. 
What  fortune  the  present  year  may  have  in  store  for 
the  Catholic  schools  of  England  we  do  not  profess  to  know. 
The  policy  of  the  Liberal  Government  depends  upon  so 
many  factors,  at  present  uncertain,  that  no  man,  short  of 
a  prophet,  could  hope  to  foretell  what  the  next  few  months 
may  bring  to  light.     That  the  Education  Act  of  1902  will 
be  modified  we  have  very  little  doubt ;  but  that  the  Catholic 
schools  of   England   will  suffer  by  the  modifications  we 
have  not   the  slightest   fear.     The  separate  treatment  of 
Catholic  schools  may,  indeed,  be  the  solution,  and  though 
the  separate  treatment  has  been  time  and  again  severely 
criticised,  we  are  not  yet  convinced  that  it  involves  any 
certain  risk  of  future  ruin.     It  would,  indeed,  be  a  privilege> 
but  it  would  be  a  privilege  for  which  Catholics  have  made 
a  sacrifice  never  made,  and  never  likely  to  be  made,  by 
any  other  Christian  denomination.    It  would  be  a  privilege, 
too,  guaranteed  by  a  Liberal  Government,  and  Tory  Ad- 
ministrations, are  not,  from  their  principles,  opposed  to  such 
privileges.     But  whatever  be  the  plan  proposed,   of  one 
thing  we  are  confident,  and  that  is,  that  the  interests  of  the 
Catholic  schools  of  England  are  safe  in  the  hands  of  the 
Irish  party.     However  much  the  party  may  have  reason 
to  resent  the  attitude  of  some  of  the  leaders  and  organs 
of  English  Catholic  Toryism,  they  have  pledged  themselves 
to  maintain  the  cause  of  Catholic  education,  and  they  are 
not  accustomed  to  shirk  their  pledges.     But  if  they  are 
prepared  to  do  the  work,  if  they  are  prepared  to  undertake 
the  responsibility,  and  in  their  present  position  the  responsi- 
bility is  a  serious  one,  surely  they  should  be  allowed  to 
measure  the  ground  for  themselves,  and  to  select  the  spot 
best  suited  for  manoeuvring. 


THE  CHURCH  IN   1905 


In  Ireland,  too,  the  Education  question,  primary, 
secondary,  and  University,  has  been  the  main  topic  of  dis- 
cussion in  Catholic  circles  during  the  year  1905.  The 
Commissioners  of  National  Education  by  their  amalgamation 
tendencies,  and  their  withdrawal  of  fees  for  the  teaching  of 
the  Irish  language,  have  aroused  popular  feeling  against 
them  as  it  has  hardly  ever  before  been  aroused.  How  long 
they  can  continue  under  present  circumstances  in  setting 
at  defiance  the  protests  of  managers,  teachers,  and  people 
yet  remains  to  be  seen.  Thinking  men  are  at  last  waking 
up  to  recognize  the  anomalous  position  which  Trinity 
College  holds  in  the  educational  advance  of  the  Irish  nation. 
If  indeed  it  were  an  Irish  University,  progressive  with  the 
progress  of  the  times,  anxious  for  the  development  of  the 
mental  and  material  resources  of  Ireland,  proud  of  the 
Irish  literary  and  historical  treasures  left  to  it  to  unfold  — 
we  could  well  understand  why  Dublin  University  should 
exercise  a  predominant  influence  over  secondary  and 
primary  education  in  Ireland.  But,  there  it  stands  on 
Irish  soil  indeed,  but  almost  the  only  English  institution 
which  has  remained  for  centuries  uninfluenced  by  its  Irish 
surroundings.  With  its  immense  revenues,  drawn  for  the 
most  part  from  Irish  sources,  it  has  persistently  refused  to 
suit  its  teaching  to  Irish  requirements  or  Irish  sentiments, 
with  the  result  that  foreigners  have  had  to  be  summoned 
to  superintend  the  industrial  development,  and  foreign 
scholars  —  French  and  German  and  Italian  and  Danish  — 
have  had  to  undertake  the  publication  of  Irish  manuscripts, 
many  of  which  are  safely  lodged  in  the  Library  of  Trinity 
College.  Unfitted  by  its  constitution  to  advance  with  the 
progress  of  the  times,  it  has  either  stood  still  or  gone  back 
when  similar  institutions  were  advancing,  and  now  it 
stands  an  object  of  contempt  for  any  one  who  understands 
the  work  a  national  university  should  accomplish.  Yet,  it  is 
such  an  establishment  as  this,  itself  above  all  examination 
or  supervision,  outside  the  sphere  of  every  commission  or 
report,  that  manages  to  control,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
secondary  and  primary  education  of  the  country.  We 
trust  that  the  recognition  of  such  an  anomaly  will  soon  be 


20  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

universal,  and  that  the  recognition  may  brin  gthe  country 
relief  from  such  a  reactionary  influence. 

The  University  grievance  was  well  kept  before  public 
attention  during  the  year.  This  is  in  itself  a  distinct 
gain,  for  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  some 
settlement  is,  the  fact  that  the  mass  of  the  people  have 
never  realized  the  importance  and  necessity  of  such  an 
institution.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  the  Trinity  College 
Scholarships — consisting  partly  of  College  foundations  and 
partly  from  funds  supplied  by  Sir  John  Nutting — opened 
the  eyes  of  the  people  that  Trinity  College,  with  its  falling 
numbers  and  its  shattered  reputation,  was  willing  to  stoop 
to  any  methods  that  might  fill  its  vacant  halls.  The 
proposers  of  such  a  plan  must  surely  have  lived  all  their 
lives  inside  the  walls  of  Trinity  College,  else  they  would 
have  better  realized  the  feelings  which  such  a  bribe  was 
likely  to  evoke  amongst  the  Irish  people.  The  Bishops 
promptly  expressed  their  condemnation  of  such  a  scheme, 
and  strengthened  their  condemnation  by  establishing  a 
number  of  Scholarships  themselves  for  the  most  promising 
Intermediate  students.  The  scheme  of  Scholarships  has 
been  taken  up  by  some  representative  bodies  throughout 
the  country,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  this  direction  some 
little  might  be  done,  not  indeed  to  solve  the  question, 
but  to  relieve  the  most  glaring  wants  of  the  present  in- 
tolerable position.  But  as  things  stand  at  present,  where 
there  is  no  guarantee  of  permanency,  representation,  or 
effective  control,  the  people  will  never  rally  whole-heartedly 
to  such  a  scheme.  Still  the  number  of  new  forces  and 
elements  in  the  field  give  us  hope  for  the  future  of  the 
question.  The  Gaelic  League,  the  Graduates'  Association, 
the  Maynooth  Union — not  to  speak  of  a  host  of  individuals 
— have  each  in  turn  submitted  their  views  on  the  situation, 
and  suggested  the  remedies  which  they  thought  best.  It 
may  be  that  with  the  advent  of  the  new  Government  the 
prospect  of  a  settlement  will  be  brighter,  but  at  the  worst 
they  cannot  be  darker  than  under  the  last  Administration. 

JAMES  MACCAFFREY. 


RELIGION  AS  A   CREDIBLE;  DOCTRINE 

AS  no  satisfactoryTanswer  has  yet  been  given,  from 
a  Catholic  standpoint,  to  Mr.  Mallock's  work  on 
the  Credibility  of  Religion,  we  have  thought  that  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  out  of  sight  without  some 
notice  from  us.  Immortality,  Free-will,  and  the  Existence 
of  God — Mr.  Mallock  understands  by  Religion,  assent 
to  the  existence  of  these  three  things  as  objective  facts 
— have  ever  been  absorbing  themes  of  philosophical 
speculation.  But  other  and  more  personal  motives  have 
led  us  to  the  study  of  Mr.  Mallock's  book.  Religion  as  a 
Credible  Doctrine  is  of  particular  interest  to  students  of  Neo- 
Scholastic  philosophy,  for  this  reason,  that  it  purposes  to 
be  a  reasoned  denial  of  the  possibility  of  Neo-Scholasticism. 
Neo-Scholasticism  professes  to  base  on  the  findings  of 
modern  science  an  intellectualistic  thesis  affirming  the 
existence  of  God,  Free-will,  and  Immortality  as  objective 
certainties.  Mr.  Mallock  concludes  200  pages  of  detailed 
argument  thus  : — 

If  we  fix  our  minds  on  the  great  primary  doctrines  .  .  . 
and  if  we  compare  them  honestly  with  the  actual  facts  of  the 
universe,  as  science,  by  research  and  experiment,  is  day 
after  day  revealing  them,  we  find  that  these  doctrines  thus 
tested  are  reduced  to  dreams  and  impossibilities — that  in  the 
universe  of  law  and  reason  there  is  nowhere  a  place  left  for 
them. 

There  is  more.  Mr.  Mallock  proceeds  to  build  up  what 
he  has  thrown  down.  How  ?  As  Kant  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  by  proving  that  Practical  Reason — or,  as  Mr. 
Mallock  calls  it,  '  the  subjective  value  of  things  which  make 
up  the  practical  life  of  all  men ' — postulates  Free-will, 
Immortality,  and  God.  This  conclusion  opened  up  a  new 
problem.  Kant,  living  in  the  eighteenth  century,  might 
write  a  *  Critic  of  Pure  Reason  '  and  a  '  Critic  of  Practical 
Reason,'  and  bestow  on  posterity  the  legacy  of  their  re- 


22  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

conciliation,  but  Mr.  Mallock,  writing  in  the  twentieth 
century,  was  bound  to  face  frankly  the  problem  of  the 
reconciliation  of  two  contradictory  conclusions.  Honesty 
is  at  times  inconvenient,  whatever  the  makers  of  proverbs 
may  say.  While  loudly  disclaiming  any  intentions  of 
emulating  Hegel,  Mr.  Mallock  closes  his  book  as  follows  : — 

Here,  then,  we  find  ourselves  standing  between  two  worlds 
— the  cosmic  world,  with  all  that  is  implied  in  it,  on  the  one 
hand  ;  and  the  moral  world,  with  all  that  is  implied  in  it,  on 
the  other.  Such  being  the  case,  when  we  consider  either  of 
these  two  worlds  separately,  we  assert,  as  reasonable  men, 
that  each  is  no  less  real  than  the  other ;  in  experience,  more- 
over, both  these  worlds  are  united  ;  and  yet,  when  the  intellect 
compares  them,  we  find  that  the  two  are  contradictory.  As 
reasonable  beings  we  can  unite  these  two  incompatible  worlds 
in  a  single  reasonable  synthesis  by  one  means  only  ;  .  .  . 
we  must  learn,  in  short,  that  with  regard  to  the  deep  things 
of  life,  that  the  fact  of  our  adopting  a  creed  which  involves 
an  assent  to  contradictories  is  not  a  sign  that  our  creed  is  useless 
or  absurd.  .  .  . 

In  reviewing  Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine  we  are 
bound  therefore  to  enter  on  a  treatment  of  such  interesting 
problems  as  the  possibility  of  Neo-Scholasticism,  the  value 
of  the  Kantian  Basis  of  Metaphysics,  and  the  value  of 
Neo-Hegelianism. 

A  word  about  method.  Mr.  Mallock  singles  out  Father 
Maher,  Father  O'Driscoll,  and  Dr.  W.  G.  Ward,  as  ex- 
ponents of  Neo-Scholasticism.  Precisely  these  reasons  that 
urged  Mr.  Mallock  to  mention  these  great  names  dispense 
us  from  a  like  task.  These  three  writers,  in  '  virtue  of 
their  position  and  the  scope  of  their  works,  are  widely 
representative  rather  than  great  or  original.'  In  omitting 
their  names,  therefore,  we  do  not  change  in  any  way  the 
terms  of  the  combat.  Father  Maher  and  Father  O'Driscoll 
have  replied.  Both  have  preferred  to  point  out  where 
Mr.  Mallock  misrepresented  them,  rather  than  to  enter 
on  a  direct  refutation. 

For  the  rest,  we  intend  to  reproduce  faithfully  Mr. 
Mallock's  thought,  that  readers  may  have  it  before  their 
minds  when  reading  our  criticism.  While  leaving  to  the 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  23 

reader  the  decision  of  the  worth  of  our  own  efforts,  we  are 
confident  that  we  have  loyally  set  forth  every  argument 
and  fact  of  importance  adduced  by  Mr.  Mallock  in  favour 
of  his  theories. 

I.— MR.    MALLOCK    ON    IMMORTALITY 

The  first  argument  generally  advanced  by  religious 
apologists  runs  thus  :  Intellect  is  a  faculty  specifically 
distinct  from  sense  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  its 
acts,  and  particularly  that  act  known  as  self-conscious- 
ness, display  aptitudes  fundamentally  opposed  to  the  known 
properties  of  matter.  Such  absolute  contrariety,  which,  be 
it  noted,  is  admitted  by  atheistic  scientists,  proves  that  the 
intellect,  or  the  rational  soul  of  man,  is  essentially  distinct 
from  the  body,  and  is  therefore  capable  of  surviving  it.  A 
belated,  and  self-contradictory,  and  yet  most  popular 
fallacy — is  Mr.  Mallock's  comment  on  this  argument. 

Everyone  assents  to  the  unimaginable  nature  of  the 
connexion  between  consciousness  and  organized  matter ; 
but  everyone,  including  our  religious  apologists,  admits 
that  this  connexion  is  a  fact.  Now,  asks  Mr.  Mallock,  is 
not  the  alleged  fact  of  necessary  separability  just  as  dim- 
cult  to  imagine,  and  just  as  contrary  to  analogy,  as  the 
admitted  fact  of  connexion  ?  The  argument  is  an  assump- 
tion that  the  unimaginable  cannot  exist ;  whereas,  the 
very  phenomenon  of  the  admitted  connexion  is  unimagin- 
able, and  one  alternative  explanation  of  it  is  just  as 
unimaginable  as  the  other.  Again,  the  religious  apologist 
admits  the  unimaginable  in  admitting  that  spatial  pressure 
can  excite  non-spatial  pain.  And  if  non-spatial  pain  can- 
not exist,  as  the  religious  apologist  holds  it  cannot,  without 
the  spatial  pressure  that  excites  it,  how  can  it  be  self- 
evident  that  non-spatial  intellect  is  essentially  independent 
of  the  operations  of  the  spatial  brain  ? 

Finally,  there  is  the  same  apparent  contrariety  between 
the  consciousness  of  the  brute  and  matter  as  there  is  between 
matter  and  the  consciousness  of  man,  and  therefore  this 
first  argument  of  the  religious  apologist  shows  that  pigs 
have  immortal  souls,  or  does  nothing  to  show  that  men 
have. 


24  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  second  argument  of  the  religious  apologist  is  an 
attempt  to  demonstrate,  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  ob- 
servation, that  man  and  man  only  possesses  the  various 
faculties  that  comprise  Intellect — attention,  judgment, 
reflection,  self-consciousness,  the  formation  of  concepts, 
and  the  processes  of  reasoning.  Let  us  take  these  faculties 
seriatim,  observes  Mr.  Mallock,  and  see  if  observation  and 
experience  warrant  us  in  maintaining  that  in  all  living 
creatures,  with  the  sole  exception  of  man,  all  trace  of  every 
one  of  these  faculties  is  wanting. 

Let  us  begin  with  attention,  judgment,  and  reflection. 

Does  the  elephant  when  he  feels  a  bridge,  before  he"  will 
trust  his  weight  to  it,  not  judge  and  reflect  in  an  obvious  and 
appreciable  manner  ?  Does  not  a  dog  judge  and  reflect  when 
he  moves  aside  just  in  time  to  avoid  a  stone  thrown  at  him, 
the  speed  of  which  he  must  have  accurately  gauged,  discri- 
minating between  swift  and  slow  ?  And  yet  again,  do  animals 
never  show  attention  ?  Does  a  horse,  a  dog,  or  a  deer,  hearing 
some  sound,  never  start,  then  stand  motionless,  and  then  bound 
away  ? 

Next,  let  us  take  self -consciousness.  The  question  is 
not — as  the  religious  apologist  puts  it — whether  there  is 
not  an  obvious  difference  between  the  operations  of  the 
mind  of  a  Descartes  speculating  on  the  Ego,  and  any  opera- 
tion we  can  assign  to  the  mind  of  a  dog,  an  ape,  or  an 
elephant,  but  whether  the  highest  mental  operations  of 
dog,  ape,  or  elephant  are  inferior  in  a  greater  degree  to 
those  of  a  new-born  baby,  than  those  of  the  new-born  baby, 
speechless,  and  so  wanting  in  reason,  that  it  does  not  know 
that  its  own  leg  is  its  own,  are  inferior  to  the  mental  opera- 
tions of  the  poet,  the  mathematician,  and  the  philosopher. 
We  are  inquiring  whether  the  animal  nature  has  really  an 
unbroken  connection  with  human  nature,  or  no ;  and, 
therefore,  we  must  take  on  the  one  hand  the  faculties  of 
the  higher  animals,  and  on  the  other  those^of  the  new- 
born babe. 

Is  there,  then,  the  smallest  warrant  for  saying  that  the 
highest  animal  at  the  highest  stage  of  its  development 
recognizes  itself  as  an  Ego  in  a  manner  demonstrably 
different  from  that  in  which  the  human  being  recognizes 


RELIGION  A9  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  25 

itself  at  its  lowest  stage.  Baby,  for  a  considerable,  time_does 
not  know  it  has  a  self  ;  and  even  when  its  mental  develop- 
ment has  begun  to  be  clearly  perceptible — when  it  first 
cries  for  its  pap-bottle,  or  for  a  piece  of  rubber  to  bite 
upon — who  can  say  that  its  consciousness  of  its  own  self 
is  clearer  than  that  of  a  dog  fighting  for  a  bone  with  an- 
other dog  ?  If  there  is  no  break — and  we  know  there  is 
none — between  the  consciousness  of  the  full-grown  man  and 
the  baby's,  how  can  we  pretend  that,  as  an  actual  and 
demonstrable  fact,  an  impassable  gulf  yawns  between  the 
baby's  consciousness  and  the  dog's  ? 

But  now,  observes  Mr.  Mallock,  we  approach  the 
apologist's  citadel — the  formation  of  concepts.  The  essence 
of  a  concept  is  this  :  it  is  a  general  idea  of  a  thing  as  distinct 
from  any  particular  specimen  of  it — for  instance,  a  general 
idea  of  milk  as  distinct  from  the  milk  in  this  jug  or  in 
that  jug.  The  apologist  maintains  that  the  philosophy  of 
the  cradle  abounds  in  such  concepts — for  instance,  '  milk 
nice,'  or  the  infant  naturalist's  classification  of  the  first 
horse  as  a  '  big  bow-wow.'  The  animal,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  conscious  of  nothing  but  a  multitude  of  individual  things. 
But,  rejoins  Mr.  Mallock,  does  not  a  cat  realize  as  a  fact, 
which  is  true  generally,  that  milk  is  nice,  just  as  clearly 
as  a  child  does  ?  It  knows  by  the  look  and  smell  of  it 
without  tasting  it  that  the  milk  in  this  particular  saucer 
is  a  specimen  of  a  fluid  whose  niceness  it  has  learnt  already. 
Does  not  the  dog  recognize  other  dogs  as  creatures  belong- 
ing to  the  same  species  as  its  own  ?  Do  not  cows  and 
horses,  who  have  been  at  first  frightened  by  trains,  reach, 
when  they  have  ceased  to  be  frightened  by  them,  to  some 
such  conclusion  as,  '  trains  not  dangerous  '  ?  The  animal's 
judgments  are  at  all  events  more  clear  than  the  baby's, 
and  certainly  do  not  show  signs  of  so  great  a  distance 
from  the  child's,  as  the  child's  show  from  those  of  the 
mature  philosopher. 

Having  thus  satisfied  himself  of  the  insufficiency  of 
these  two  main  contentions  of  the  religious  apologist, 
Mr.  Mallock  passes  on  to  the  examination  of  some  less 
important  arguments. 


26 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


Firstly,  it  is  asserted  that  men  alone  are  capable  of 
disinterested  and  reasonable  affection.  Is  this  true  ? 
How  is  it  evident  that  the  dog  who  watches  by  his  dead 
master's  body  is  animated  by  a  feeling  of  a  kind  radically 
different  from  the  feelings  of  a  human  mother  who  watches 
by  her  dead  child  ? 

Secondly,  it  is  maintained  that  animals,  unlike  men, 
make  no  progress.  This  statement,  according  to  Mr. 
Mallock,  is  the  very  reverse  of  the  truth,  if  we  apply  it  to 
mankind  at  large.  Tribes  of  savages  exist  to-day,  who  are 
still  in  the  condition  of  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age.  While 
in  itself  the  Stone  Age  reduces,  in  point  of  duration,  the 
age  of  historical  progress  to  less  than  a  bustling  yesterday 
in  the  life  of  a  man  of  sixty.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
progress  of  man  in  the  arts  is  admittedly  due,  in  a  very 
great  degree  to  a  purely  physical  superiority — the  adapt- 
able human  hand.  If  men,  then,  with  human  hands  have 
remained  stationary  for  countless  thousands  of  years, 
why  need  the  fact  that  animals  have  remained  stationary 
also  prove  that,  besides  lacking  the  hand,  they  must  have 
been  lacking  in  every  faculty  that  can  be  called  intellectual 
likewise  ? 

Thirdly,  the  apologists  tell  us  that  Physiology  cannot 
locate  the  higher  mental  faculties.  It  seems,  therefore, 
that  the  higher  mental  faculties  can  employ,  within  limits, 
any  portion  of  the  brain  indifferently  ;  and  it  is  concluded 
that  these  higher  faculties  are  demonstrably  separable 
from  matter.  This  alleged  fact,  observes  Mr.  Mallock,  is 
one  no  physiologist  will  admit.  Some  religious  apologists 
base  the  fact  on  Goltz's  experiments.  Unfortunately  for 
them,  Goltz's  experiements  were  made  on  dogs ! 

Fourthly,  Science,  according  to  these  apologists,  cannot 
point  any  difference  between  the  animal  brain  and  the 
human  brain  sufficient  to  account  for  the  admitted  superi- 
ority of  man's  powers  ;  therefore,  man's  superior  powers 
are  demonstrably  independent  of  the  brain.  What  is  the 
fact  ?  Flechsig,  a  distinguished  physiologist,  and  one 
cited  frequently  by  apologists,  declares  that  in  the  thought- 
centres  of  the  brain,  which  are  distinguished  by  their 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  27 

structure  from  the  sense-centres,  man  does  possess  precisely 
that  degree  of  peculiarity  which  analogy  might  lead  us  to 
expect  as  an  explanation  of  his  mental  pre-eminence. 

Finally,  all  these  apologetic  arguments  are  based  on  the 
supposition  that  by  observation,  inference,  or  otherwise, 
we  can  learn,  with  approximate  accuracy,  what  the  mental 
life  of  the  animals  is.  Yet  these  same  apologists  admit 
that  '  our  assurance  with  regard  to  their  (the  animals) 
subjective  states  can  never  be  more  than  a  remote  con- 
jectural opinion.'  What,  then,  becomes  of  the  whole 
argument  in  favour  of  man's  immortality  ? 

At  this  point,  Mr.  Mallock  passes  on  to  consider  the 
case  of  the  other  side.  '  We  have  listened  to  religious 
dualism  attacking  scientific  monism.  Let  us  now  listen  to 
scientific  monism  as  stating  its  own  case  :  it  attacks  religious 
dualism.' 

To  enable  his  readers  to  grasp  the  full  strength  of  the 
scientific,  Mr.  Mallock  insists  on  the  fact,  and  cites  names 
thereto,  that  modern  apologists  recognize  the  claim  put 
forward  by  science  to  interpret  the  universe  so  far  as  the 
universe  is  accessible  to  it,  and  recognize  also  the  sub- 
stantial truth  of  the  conclusions  which  thus  far  it  has 
reached.  That  evolution,  for  instance,  explains  a  vast 
number  of  phenomena  which  were  formerly  regarded  as 
due  to  separate  acts  of  God,  that  it  explains,  in  particular, 
the  variety  of  living  species  as  a  result  of  a  continuous  and 
single  process  rather  than  as  a  result  of  a  number  of  isolated 
and  arbitrary  interferences — this  all  educated  apologists  are 
in  these  days  eager  to  declare  that  they  accept  as  fully, 
and  with  as  little  fear,  as  their  opponents.  Yet,  they  are 
ever  nervously  on  the  watch  to  discover  limitations  and 
flaws.  They  fail  to  understand  that  whilst,  on  the  one 
hand,  lacunae  have  been  discovered  in  the  class  of  evidence 
with  which,  in  a  special  manner,  the  name  of  Darwin  is 
associated,  other  evidences  of  the  doctrine  for  which  Darwin 
contended — namely,  the  essential  unity  of  man  with  the  other 
animals — have  accumulated  in  overwhelming  strength 
and  have  done  more  to  make  the  doctrine  a  demonstrable 
indeed  a  visible,  fact,  than  any  of  the  detected  lacunae 


28  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

have  done,  or  can  do,  to  cast  doubt  upon  it.  Thus,  within 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  has  been 
demonstrated,  firstly,  that  the  evolution  of  the  individual 
man  is  identical  with  the  evolution  of  the  animals  most 
closely  allied  to  him ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  organic 
evolution  of  the  individual — human  and  animal  equally — 
is  in  each  case  an  epitome  of  the  long  evolution  of  the 
species.  We  will  deal  with  these  two  facts  separately. 

And,  first,  for  the  comparison  of  the  embryonic  evolu- 
tion of  man  and  the  allied  animals.  The  first  act  of  the 
great  drama  of  conception  is  common  to  man  and  to  the 
animals  most  nearly  allied  to  him — one  of  those  minute, 
ciliated  cells,  known  as  spermatozoa,  is  admitted  within 
the  female  ovum,  and  the  egg-cell,  barren  of  itself,  becomes 
the  source  of  life.  As  the  drama  proceeds,  the  identity  of 
its  incidents,  in  all  these  cases,  continues ;  not  only  that, 
but  the  mode  of  origin  in  the  parent  body  of  these  two 
protagonists,  the  male  cell  and  the  female  cell,  is  the  same- 
*  The  embryo  of  the  man  and  of  the  anthropoid  ape  retain 
their  resemblance  much  later — at  an  advanced  stage  of 
development — when  their  distinction  from  the  embryos  of 
other  animals  may  be  seen  at  a  glance.'  It  is  impossible 
to  elucidate  such  facts  as  these,  except  by  the  assumption 
that  these  animals  have  a  common  parentage. 

But,  pursues  Mr.  Mallock,  more  important  embryo- 
logical  discoveries  remain.  Ontogenesis  is  the  brief  and 
rapid  recapitulation  of  phylogenesis  :  that  is  to  say, — 
alike  in  the  case  of  man,  and  of  the  animal  species  gener- 
ally, that  gradual  and  slow  development  of  the  species 
from  lower  forms  to  higher  may  be  seen  taking  place  with 
the  rapidity  of  a  brief  epitome  in  the  embryo  of  each  indi- 
vidual living  creature  from  the  moment  of  its  conception 
till  the  final  moment  of  its  birth.  Of  this  truth  it  will 
be  enough  to  give  two  illustrations. 

One  is  the  fact  that  in  the  embryo  of  man  and  of  the 
allied  animals,  the  gill-clefts  of  our  far-off  aquatic  ancestors 
emerge  and  subsequently  disappear.  Thus,  the  supposition 
of  aquatic  ancestry,  treated  with  such  injudicious  scorn  by 
the  theologians,  is  attested  afresh  by  the  evidence  of  a 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  29 

living  document  every  time  a  child  is  conceived  and  grows 
to  maturity  within  the  womb, 

A  second,  and  more  familiar  fact,  gives  us  a  daily  minia- 
ture reproduction  of  the  great  process  of  evolution,  in 
virtue  of  which  we  are  men,  and  not  frog-like  things  our- 
selves— it  is  the  transformation  of  the  tadpole,  an  animal 
that  swims  in  the  water,  into  a  frog,  an  animal  that  hops 
on  land.  We  have  here  the  ancient  development  of  the 
land  animals  from  the  fishes  re-enacted  for  us  in  the  open 
light  of  day. 

And  there  is  more  to  add.  As  the  embryo  of  the  baby 
recapitulates  the  evolution  of  man  as  an  organism,  so  does 
the  progress  of  the  baby  from  an  unthinking  to  a  thinking 
being  recapitulate  the  evolution  of  the  specifically  human 
intellect  ;  and  each  mother  who  has  watched  with  pride, 
as  something  peculiar  and  original,  the  growth  of  her 
child's  mind,  from  the  days  of  the  cradle  to  the  days  of 
the  first  lesson  book,  has  really  been  watching,  compressed 
into  a  few  brief  years,  the  stupendous  process  which  began 
in  the  darkest  abyss  of  time,  and  connects  our  thoughts, 
like  our  bodies,  with  the  primary  living  substance — whether 
that  be  wholly  identical  with  matter  or  no. 

What  are  the  existing  lacunae  in  that  mass  of  circum- 
stantial evidence  collected  by  evolutionists  compared  to 
the  overwhelming  unanimity  with  which  all  this  cloud  of 
witnesses  declare  that  all  life  is,  in  kind  and  origin,  the 
same  ?  The  history  of  religious  apologists  of  recent  years 
has  been  that  of  a  long  series  of  failures.  Time  after  time, 
scientific  conclusions  were  pronounced  false,  because  posi- 
tive proof  was  wanting  for  this  or  that  detail ;  and  lo  !  in 
the  midst  of  the  theological  jubilation  the  missing  proof 
has  often  been  found.  Such  occurrences  should  be  a 
warning  to  these  apologists  who  favour  the  gaps-in-existing- 
evidence  arguments. 

Before  quitting  the  question  of  man's  immortality, 
Mr.  Mallock  employs  an  argumentum  ad  hominem,  and  from 
the  satisfaction  he  takes  in  exposing  and  developing  it,  he 
clearly  thinks  that  he  is  giving  the  coup  de  grdoe.  When, 
asks  Mr.  Mallock,  is  this  imperishable  soul  introduced  into 


3°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

its  perishable  envelope  ?  At  the  moment  when  the  male 
spermatozoon  and  the  female  ovum  coalesced.  Now, 
argues  Mr.  Mallock,  since  the  entire  animal  life,  vegetative 
and  sentient,  is  one  ;  and  since  the  animal  life  is  derived 
entirely  from  the  parents,  and  the  indivisible  human  life 
is  not — it  follows,  that  whilst  the  animal  ovum  and  the 
animal  spermatozoon  contain  in  themselves  necessarily 
the  principle  of  life  from  the  first,  the  human  ovum  and 
the  human  spermatozoon  are,  before  their  coalescence, 
so  much  below  the  animal  that  they  do  not  contain  in 
themselves  any  principle  of  life  at  all.  Animal  life  arises 
from  organic  matter  that  is  living.  Human  life  from 
organic  matter  that  is  dead  ! 

If  we  look  back,  says  Mr.  Mallock,  over  this  aggregate 
of  facts  and  arguments,  one  conclusion  and  only  one,  leaps 
into  light,  that  whilst  life  endures,  the  individual  lives, 
dies — dies  as  the  rose  dies,  never  to  bloom  again ;  and  that 
the  mystery  of  the  man's  life  and  the  mystery  of  the  pig's 
are  one. 

Here  we  have  only  been  able  to  present  a  summary  of 
Mr.  Mallock's  arguments  on  one  particular  phase  of  the  great 
question  he  discusses.  Editorial  tyranny  compels  us  to  re- 
serve our  criticism  of  these  arguments  till  next  month. 

JOHN  O'NEILL,  PhfD. 


THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH    AND    HUMAN 
LIBERTY— V 

IN  my  last  article  I  described  the  position  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  relation  to  science  and  scientific  liberty  ;  and 
in  the  present  article  I  purpose  to  deal  with  the  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  relation  to  educa- 
tional liberty,  as  it  affects  the  Family,  the  State,  the  Founder 
of  a  private  school,  the  Teacher.  Are  Catholic  parents  free 
to  choose  the  school,  the  college,  the  university  they  think 
best,  for  the  education  of  their  children  ?  Is  the  Catholic 
State  free  to  adopt  the  system  of  education  it  considers  the 
most  perfect  and  the  most  suitable  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  time,  to  establish  a  neutral  or  purely  secular  system 
of  education,  to  oblige  by  law  all  children  to  attend  the 
State  schools  and  forbid  the  opening  of  private  schools  ? 
Are  the  laity  of  the  Catholic  Church  free  to  open  schools 
and  to  teach,  or  are  they  excluded  from  the  teaching  pro- 
fession ?  What  is  the  measure  of  freedom  accorded  to 
Catholic  teachers  in  the  course  of  instruction  which  they 
deliver  to  their  pupils  ? 

I  will  begin  with  a  brief  exposition  of  the  rights  and 
duties  of  parents  in  regard  to  the  education  of  their  children  ; 
then  I  will  pass  on  to  describe  how  schools  and  colleges  and 
universities  should  be  constituted,  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  Church,  in  Catholic  countries  ;  and  from  this  we  can 
infer  what  the  attitude  of  the  Church  is,  and  whether  it  is 
reasonable  or  unreasonable,  towards  freedom  of  education, 
whether  of  the  primary,  intermediate  or  university  order. 

i. 

Rationalist  socialists  advocate  the  theory  that  the  child 
is  born  not  into  the  family  but  into  the  State,  and  that  it 
is  the  State  and  not  the  parents  that  has  the  right  and  is 
directly  charged  with  the  duty  of  determining  the  manner 
of  the  rearing  and  education  of  the  infant  citizen.  But  here 
the  Church  intervenes  to  define  and  vindicate  the  rights 


32  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

and  liberties  of  parents  against  this  theory  of  the  absolutism 
of  the  State.  According  to  the  Catholic  theory  the  child 
is  born  into  the  family,  and  only  through  the  family  into 
the  State.  If  a  family  lived  apart,  isolated  and  separated 
from  all  those  aggregations  of  human  families  that  we  call 
States,  the  parents  surely  would  have  the  right  and  the 
duty  of  determining  and  supplying  the  means  of  physical 
subsistence  and  of  mental  and  moral  training  to  their 
children,  and  these  rights  are  not  surrendered  or  sacrificed 
by  entrance  into  the  corporate  civic  life  of  the  State.  Citi- 
zenship does  not  carry  with  it  the  loss  of  parental  rights, 
but  offers  to  parents  facilities  for  the  discharge  of  their 
parental  duties  through  the  ministry  of  others,  for  example 
in  schools,  which  would  not  exist  if  they  lived  isolated  and 
external  to  the  social  life  of  the  State.  It  is  not  the  province 
nor  indeed  the  practice  of  the  Civil  Authority  to  interfere 
in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  family,  in  the  domestic  arrange- 
ments, in  the  relations  between  father  and  son,  in  the 
system  of  education  which  a  mother  adopts  in  teaching 
her  infant  children,  whether  it  be  wholly  secular  or  wholly 
religious  or  a  combination  of  religious  and  secular  instruc- 
tion, but  only  to  correct  excesses  and  to  supplement  the 
efforts  or  supply  for  the  deficiency  or  inability  of  parents  by 
establishing  schools  for  the  education  of  the  young. 

In  the  miniature  kingdom  of  the  home  the  parents  reign 
supreme,  the  father  and  the  mother  are  the  king  and  queen, 
and  the  children  are  at  once  a  part  of  the  parental  being 
and  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  kingdom  of  the  household. 
And  how  are  the  parents  to  govern  the  household,  what  are 
their  duties  towards  their  youthful  subjects  ?  After  Bap- 
tism their  duties  are  of  a  material  order,  to  provide  for  the 
life  and  physical  development  of  the  infant  ;  but  with  the 
opening  and  expansion  of  reason  new  duties  succeed  one 
another,  to  minister  to  the  mind  suitable  religious  and  secular 
instruction  and  to  the  will  education  or  moral  formation, 
to^develop  a  sense  of  duty  towards  God,  towards  parents, 
towards  the  different  orders  of  superiors,  towards  mankind 
generally,  towards  oneself,  to  sow  the  seeds  of  good  habits, 
to  cultivate  a  great  admiration  for  Christian  and  civic  virtue 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND   HUMAN  LIBERTY    33 

and  a  feeling  of  disapproval  and  reprobation  of  vice  and 
particularly  of  national  vices.  They  are  bound  to  govern 
the  household  so  as  to  present  to  the  State,  when  their  child- 
ren come  to  have  independent  and  responsible  relations  with 
their  fellow-citizens  and  enter  into  the  life  of  direct  personal 
responsibility  to  the  civil  authority,  strong,  earnest,  indus- 
trious, trained,  educated,  morally-disciplined,  devoted  sub- 
jects ;  and  to  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  the  Church  men  of 
faith  and  of  hope  and  of  charity  and  of  obedience,  who  will 
combine  in  their  lives  the  virtues  of  good  citizens  and  good 
Christians. 

n. 

I  pass  on  to  consider  what  should  be  the  scope  and  con- 
stitution of  primary  schools  according  to  the  Catholic  ideal. 
Canonists '  distinguish  State  and  municipal  schools,  schools 
established  by  private  persons  or  associations  but  open  to  the 
general  public,  and  what  may  be  called  the  family  school, 
where  the  children  of  the  family  receive  instruction  from 
tutors  or  governesses. 

To  begin  with  the  last  :  Has  the  Church  the  right  to 
define  the  kind  of  education  that  should  be  given  in  the 
family  school  ?  Is  it  not  the  inalienable  right  of  parents 
to  determine  the  education  of  their  children  ?  Whence 
then  comes  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  the  programme  of  instruction  in  the  school  of  the 
home  ?  The  parents  have,  no  doubt,  the  right  to  determine 
the  education  of  their  children.  But  even  apart  from  the 
hypothesis  of  supernatural  religion  it  would  be  the  duty 
of  parents  to  provide  for  their  children,  together  with 
secular  instruction,  moral  and  religious  instruction  and 
education.  If  God  had  made  no  revelation  to  the  world 
parents  would  naturally  be  guided  in  choosing  a  course 
of  moral  instruction  for  their  children,  by  their  own  innate 
or  reasoned  conception  of  the  duties  imposed  by  the  natural 
law.  But  the  Christian  moral  code  is  founded  on  super- 
natural religion,  and  Catholics,  besides  their  subjection  to 
the  natural  law,  are  members  of  the  visible  divine  society 

1  Cf.  Cavagnis,  Institutions  Juris  Publici  Ecclesiastici  (ed.  tertia),  vol.  iii' 
1.  iv,  c.  i,  a.  iii,  from  whom  the  following  exposition  is  taken. 

VOL.    XIX.  C 


34  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  the  Church  to  which  they  owe  obedience,  and  they  recog- 
nize the  right  and  duty  of  their  religious  pastors  to  define 
the  obligations  of  parents  towards  their  children  as  they 
recognize  their  right  and  duty  to  define  the  obligations  of 
masters  towards  their  servants,  of  rulers  towards  their 
subjects,  and  of  mankind  generally  towards  God  and  the 
neighbour.  But  it  is  not  alone  indirectly  or  through  the 
jurisdiction  it  exercises  over  the  parents  that  the  Church 
acquires  authority  to  interfere  in  the  Christian  education 
of  the  young.  The  children  themselves,  who  are  inducted 
by  birth  into  the  family,  are  born  again  by  Baptism  into  the 
spiritual  kingdom  of  the  Church  and  so  become  the  subjects 
of  the  Church  and  the  objects  of  the  combined  care  and 
solicitude  of  their  parents  and  ecclesiastical  pastors. 

But,  it  will  be  asked,  what  is  the  extent  and  what  are 
the  limits  of  the  Church's  authority  to  take  cognizance  of 
the  family  course  of  education  ?  The  Church  claims  no 
authority  over  the  family  except  in  matters  of  faith  and 
morals.  With  the  course  of  secular  instruction  given  in 
the  household  she  does  not  interfere,  except,  as  canonists 
say,  in  a  negative  way,  that  nothing  be  taught  which  is 
contrary  to  faith  or  morals.  But  she  commands,  in  the 
exercise  of  her  positive  jurisdiction,  that  the  education  of 
the  home  shall  include  the  teaching  of  Christian  doctrine, 
she  claims  the  right  of  determining  a  programme  of  religious 
instruction  suitable  to  the  different  ages  of  children,  and 
while  not  claiming  the  right  of  approval  of  the  teacher  at 
his  appointment  she  claims  the  right  of  vigilance  over  the 
teacher  charged  with  religious  instruction  and  of  remon- 
strating and  ordering  his  removal  should  he  be  found  to  be 
teaching  doctrines  at  variance  with  the  formularies  and 
moral  principles  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Church  does 
not  command  that  every  school  exercise  in  the  family 
commence  and  end  with  prayer,  or  that  the  catechism  be 
taught  concurrently  with  every  secular  subject,  or  that  it 
be  taught  every  day,  or  that  it  be  taught  by  the  teacher 
who  is  employed  to  give  secular  instruction  ;  the  teachers 
employed  in  the  family  are  regarded  as  assistants  to  the 
parents  and  not  as  their  substitutes,  the  parents  may  prefer 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND  HUMAN  LIBERTY     35 

to  teach  the  catechism  themselves  or  get  it  taught  by  priests 
or  religious,  but  they  satisfy  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
if  in  the  home  system  of  education  religion  constitute  an 
obligatory  subject  in  the  programme  of  instruction. 

Practical  Catholics,  who  get  their  children  taught  by 
tutors  or  governesses  at  home,  fulfil  these  parental  duties 
spontaneously  from  a  sense  of  religious  duty  and  without 
the  need  of  admonition  from  their  ecclesiastical  pastors  ; 
and  I  only  refer  to  the  home  school  because  it  is  the  model 
of  what  the  system  of  education  in  the  State  schools  should 
be  to  satisfy  the  religious  convictions  and  obligations  of 
Catholic  parents. 

m. 

The  Church  the  State  and  the  Parent  meet  in  the  State 
school  and  demand  the  recognition  of  their  respective  rights 
and  the  equitable  adjustment  of  their  respective  claims. 
Let  me  observe  again  that  I  contemplate  at  present  only 
a  Catholic  country  where  the  Government,  the  Church^  the 
parents  the  teachers  and  children  are  Catholics,  where  the 
rights  of  the  Church  and  State  are  duly  defined  and  respected, 
where  there  is  no  encroachment  of  the  Civil  Power  on  the 
rights  of  the  Church  nor  of  the  Church  on  the  rights  of  the 
State.  What  then  are  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  Church 
and  State  and  Parent  in  respect  to  the  education  given  in 
primary  State  or  municipal  schools  ? 

The  State,  in  the  fulfilment  of  her  mission  to  promote 
the  natural  well-being  of  her  subjects,  establishes  primary 
schools  to  supplement  the  efforts  or  supply  for  the  inability 
of  parents  to  give  a  reasonable  education  to  their  children. 
In  this  her  authority  and  power  are  undisputed,  and  the 
Church  makes  no  claim  of  a  right  to  interfere  at  the  erection 
of  State  schools  or  in  their  maintenance  or  their  hygienic 
condition  or  their  equipment  or  the  programme  of  secular 
instruction  or  the  system  and  nature  of  the  secular  educa- 
tion given,  whether  it  be  literary  or  technical,  national  or 
neutral,  or  the  hours  of  school  or  the  duration  of  the  course 
of  primary  education.  Individual  churchmen  may  be 
.appointed  by  the  State  to  administer  the  laws  relating  to 


36  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  State  schools,  or  in  their  capacity  of  citizens  may 
interest  themselves  in  the  extension  and  improvement  of 
primary  secular  education  ;  but  the  Church  as  a  divine 
institution,  with  a  spiritual  mission  to  create  and  develop 
and  foster  the  supernatural  life  of  the  soul,  claims  no  other 
authority  over  the  sovereign  independence  of  the  State  in 
respect  to  secular  government  and  secular  education  in  State 
schools  than  the  negative  authority  that  requires  that 
nothing  shall  be  enacted  by  law  or  taught  in  schools  that 
is  contrary  to  faith  or  morals.  But  can  the  Church  forbid 
the  establishment  of  a  purely  secular  system  of  education  ? 
Can  she  command  that  religion  be  taught  in  the  State 
primary  schools  ?  Does  she  claim  the  right  of  appointing 
or  approving  the  teachers  to  be  appointed  ? 

It  might  be  argued  on  behalf  of  the  State  that  her  juris- 
diction is  confined  to  protecting  the  life  and  property  and 
promoting  the  natural  and  secular  well-being  of  her  subjects, 
that  she  may  relieve  parents  of  a  part  of  their  duty  towards 
their  children  though  not  of  the  whole  and  that  conse- 
quently, while  providing  secular  instruction,  she  may  leave 
to  the  Church  or  to  private  benevolent  religious  enter- 
prise ;or  to  the  care  of  the  parents  the  duty  of  instructing 
the  children  in  the  supernatural  truths  of  the  Catholic 
religion.  And  it  might  be  argued  that  this  is  a  legitimate 
theory  at  least  in  regard  to  day  schools  ;  because  in  the 
case  of  the  public  day  schools  as  in  the  case  of  the  home 
school  the  teachers  are  regarded  by  canonists  not  as 
substitutes  for.  but  as  assistants  to  the  parents,  the  school  and 
the  home  constitute  one  moral  educational  establishment, 
and  though  the  school  course  be  confined  to  secular  instruc- 
tion and  religion  be  taught  at  home  the  whole  system  of 
education  may  be  called  one  integral  system  of  combined 
secular  and  religious  instruction. 

But  the  Church  requires,  in  the  first  place,  that  the 
system  of  education  in  primary  boarding  schools,  where 
the  teachers  are  substitutes  for  the  parents  and  are 
charged  with  the  parental  obligations,  shall  combine 
religion  with  secular  instruction.  She  argues  and  insists 
from  her  experience  of  two  thousand  years  that,  though  in 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND  HUMAN  LIBERTY      37 

individual  cases  no  injury  may  be  sustained  from  a  divided 
education,  when  secular  instruction  is  commanded  by 
the  public  authority  of  the  State  and  received  in  the  public 
schools  and  religious  instruction  is  left  to  private  initiative 
and  enterprise,  religion  is  in  danger  of  being  unappreciated, 
undervalued,  regarded  as  unimportant  and  indifferently 
taught  if  not  altogether  neglected.  And  she  argues,  from 
the  instrinsic  nature  of  the  case,  that  mental  instruction 
does  not  complete  the  formation  of  youth,  that  schools  are 
established  not  alone  to  store  the  mind  with  the  rules  of 
grammar  and  arithmetic  and  similar  subjects,  and  teach 
the  art  of  reading  and  writing  and  keeping  accounts,  but 
to  inculcate  a  sense  of  moral  duty,  to  educate  the  will,  to 
teach  the  importance  of  good  habits,  to  direct  the  orderly 
evolution  of  the  whole  man.  . 

Moral  training  of  some  sort  is  therefore  at  all  times  and 
in  every  possible  condition  of  mankind  an  essential  part 
of  any  complete  system  of  primary  civic  education  ;  and 
surely  it  would  be  most  prejudicial  to  the  State  and  un- 
natural to  establish  a  system  of  education  which  should 
occupy  itself  solely  with  the  duty  of  filling  the  infant  mind 
with  the  rules  of  arithmetic,  grammar  and  the  like,  and 
exclude  from  its  programme  or  neglect  the  moral  formation 
of  the  future  citizen.  The  conception  of  moral  duty  would 
presuppose,  even  in  a  purely  natural  state  of  society,  cer- 
tain doctrinal  beliefs,  such  as  the  existence  and  .supreme 
sovereignty  of  God  and  the  responsibility  of  man,  but 
obviously  natural  ethics  would  not  presuppose  supernatural 
religion.  In  a  purely  natural  order  the  State  would  of 
course  instruct  children  only  in  the  principles  of  natural 
ethics  and  in  natural  religion.  But  in  the  hypothesis  of 
supernatural  revelation  the  revealed  moral  code  supple- 
ments and  takes  the  place  of  natural  ethics  ;  and  hence  we 
see  the  Christian  nations  conform  their  laws  and  their 
worship  and  their  day  of  rest  to  their  conception  of  the 
principles  of  Christian  morality.  And  as  the  Catholic 
State  conforms  to  the  rule  of  Christian  morality  in  its  laws 
and  public  worship  so,  the  Church  teaches,  the  moral 
training  given  in  the  schools  should  be  Christian  moral 


3§  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

training,  and  as  a  foundation  for  this  moral  training  the 
children  should  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  truths  of 
the  Christian  religion. 

And  though  it  is  true  that,  in  the  case  of  day  schools, 
canonists  speak  of  the  teachers  in  the  schools  as  assistants 
to  the  parents,  the  Church  requires  that  the  programme  of 
education  in  these  schools  as  well  as  in  boarding  schools 
should  include  the  teaching  of  Christian  doctrine.  For, 
again,  her  long  experience  teaches  her  that  when,  in  the 
school  system,  secular  subjects  alone  are  taught  by  the 
authority  of  the  State,  religion  is  in  danger  of  being  under- 
valued and  treated  as  relatively  unimportant  ;  and  though 
the  teachers  in  day  schools  are  considered  assistants  to  the 
parents  and  the  education  of  the  children  is  supposed  to 
be  completed  at  home,  the  State  schools  are  understood 
to  supply  a  complete  specific  course  of  primary  civic  educa- 
tion, and  should  therefore  include  the  teaching  of  the 
moral  system  and  religion  by  which  the  State  itself  and 
its  citizens  are  supposed  to  be  guided  even  in  their  public 
political  life  and  actions  ;  the  school  course  includes  all 
the  subjects  of  secular  instruction  though  these  subjects 
be  also  taught  by  the  parents,  and  why  therefore  should 
it  not  include  moral  training  though  the  catechism  be 
also  taught  at  home  by  the  parents  ? 

Christian  morality  therefore  and  the  doctrines  of  the 
Christian  religion  enter  into  the  programme  of  primary 
education  because  the  State,  the  parents,  the  teachers  and 
the  children  are  Catholics  ;  and  thus  by  reason  of  the 
obligation  of  teaching  Christian  morality  and  Christian 
doctrine  the  Church  has  positive  jurisdiction  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  the  religious  teaching  in  State  schools.  This,  again, 
does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  different  school  exer- 
cises should  begin  and  end  with  prayer,  or  that  the  cate- 
chism should  be  taught  at  every  class  or  every  day,  or 
that  it  should  be  taught  in  the  school  or  by  the  teacher 
who  is  employed  to  give  secular  instruction.  It  supposes 
only  the  fundamental  principle  that  the  system  of  educa- 
tion should  combine  religious  and  secular  instruction, 
that  the  school  authorities  should  include  catechism  in 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND  HUMAN  LIBERTY        39 

the  programme  of  obligatory  work  in  the  school  and  that 
the  Church  has  the  right  of  defining  how  much  catechism 
should  be  taught.  It  may  be  taught  by  the  teacher  charged 
with  secular  teaching  or  by  a  special  catechist  or  by  the 
priests  of  the  parish  :  it  may  be  taught  in  the  school  or  in 
the  church,  if  convenient  :  but  it  should  constitute  a  part 
of  the  obligatory  school  programme,  and  at  the  inspections 
made  or  examinations  held  in  the  school  the  teaching  of 
religion  ought  be  a  subject  of  inspection  and  examination 
like  the  secular  subjects  on  the  programme. 

Finally  it  follows  from  the  positive  jurisdiction  of  the 
Church  in  respect  to  supernatural  religion  that,  though  the 
State  has  the  right  of  appointing  the  teachers,  the  Church  has 
the  right  of  exercising  vigilance  over  or  giving  approbation  to 
teachers  charged  with  religious  instruction,  the  right  of 
demanding  the  dismissal  of  teachers  dangerous  to  the  faith 
or  morals  of  the  children,  and  the  right  of  exercising  vigil- 
ance over  the  schools  to  see  that  the  prescribed  programme 
of  religious  instruction  is  taught ;  '  hinc  legislatores  chris- 
tiani  solent  parochis,  qui  repraesentant  auctoritatem 
ecclesiasticam  in  suo  gradu  magis  immediato  cum  populo, 
jus  concedere  scholas  has  visitandi  et  interrogandi  pueros 
de  re  religiosa  ;  dicimus  Christianas,  qui  a  et  apud  acatholicos 
id  solet  adhuc  obtinere,  quia  principium  de  schola  laica  satis 
recens  est.'  Ecclesiastical  approbation  may  be  given  to 
teachers  by  including  religion  among  the  subjects  at  the 
examination  for  the  teacher's  diploma,  by  committing  this 
portion  of  the  examination  to  an  examiner  sanctioned  by 
the  Church,  and  by  the  examiner's  report  that  the  can- 
didates are  qualified  to  teach  Christian  doctrine.  When  a 
special  catechist  is  appointed  with  the  exclusive  duty  of 
teaching  the  catechism  in  school  the  Church  can  claim  the 
right  of  designating  the  catechist. 

IV. 

What  is  the  position  of  religion  in  intermediate  schools 
and  universities  ?  Does  the  Church  command  that  Christian 
doctrine  shall  constitute  a  part  of  the  obligatory  scholastic 


40  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

programme  of  the  teachers  and  students  ?  The  Church's 
authority  is  co-extensive  with  the  needs  of  souls,  and 
she  can  command  for  the  schools  and  for  the  non. 
scholar  world  the  course  and  mode  of  religious  instruction 
which  she  considers  necessary  or  useful  for  the  spiritual 
protection  and  improvement  of  her  children.  The  Church 
does  not  command  that  religion  be  a  part  of  the  obligatory 
programme  in  schools,  whether  primary  or  superior,  where 
only  a  particular  subject  is  taught  as,  for  example,  in 
medical  and  veterinary  and  technical  schools.  The  local 
pastors  may  make  special  provision  for  the  religious  in- 
struction and  protection  of  the  students  of  such  schools, 
but  religion  does  not  constitute,  by  the  general  law,  an 
obligatory  part  of  their  scholastic  programme.  Still  the 
same  religious  education  is  not  sufficient  for  all,  and  the 
Church  can  command  that  in  schools  where  a  full  course 
of  secondary  education  is  given  a  higher  course  of  moral 
and  religious  formation  and  education  form  a  part  of  the 
obligatory  programme  of  instruction.  This  should  include 
a  suitable  course  of  apologetics,  as  men  scientifically  edu- 
cated experience  more  difficulty  than  others  in  accepting 
truths  on  authority  and  require  to  be  instructed  in  the 
motives  of  credibility  to  understand  that  the  assent  of 
faith,  though  resting  on  authority,  is  perfectly  reasonable. 
The  scholastic  religious  education  of  the  laity  is  then 
complete.  Though  the  Church  naturally  establishes  a 
theological  faculty  in  her  own  universities,  outside  the 
theological  faculty  religion  does  not  constitute  in  univer- 
sities an  obligatory  part  of  the  scholastic  programme  of 
lectures  and  examinations.  Neither  does  the  Church  claim 
the  right  of  appointing  or  approving  the  professors  outside 
the  faculty  of  theology,  but  the  right  of  exercising  vigilance 
and  remonstrating  and  commanding  that  a  particular 
person  reasonably  suspected  or  proved  to  be  dangerous  to 
the  faith  or  morals  of  the  students  be  not  appointed  or  be 
deprived  of  his  appointment.  The  professors  should  be 
imbued  with  the  Catholic  spirit  and  teach  nothing  contrary 
to  religion.  But  the  students  are  supposed  to  have  com- 
pleted  their  scholastic  religiou.3  <•  education  and,  like  men 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND  HUMAN  LIBERTY       41 

in  the  world,  are  required  only  to  attend  the  university  or 
parochial  sermons  and  instructions  ;  but  it  is  desirable  that 
they  should  have  their  own  chapel  with  instructions  and 
conferences  suitable  to  the  peculiar  and  varying  wants  of 
university  students. 

v. 

I  come  now  to  the  questions  asked  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article  :  Are  Catholic  parents  free  to  choose  the  school,  the 
college,  the  university  they  wish  for  the  education  of  their 
children  ?  Is  the  Catholic  State  free  to  establish  a  purely 
secular  system  of  education  ?  Are  Catholic  laymen  ex- 
cluded from  the  teaching  profession  ?  What  is  the  measure 
of  freedom  allowed  to  the  teachers  themselves  ? 

I.  I  would  recall  a  distinction  frequently  made  during 
the  course  of  these  articles  between  physical  and  moral 
liberty.  Our  modern  non-Catholic  critics  generally  deny 
the  existence  of  physical  liberty  or  physical  power  of  self- 
determination,  and  should  hold  that  parents,  when  they 
send  their  children  to  a  particular  school  or  college  or 
university,  are  mechanically  determined  thereto  by  the 
physical  laws  of  nature,  or  if  they  act  spontaneously 
that  they  are  necessarily  determined  in  each  case  by  the 
force  of  character,  disposition,  advantages  to  be  gained 
and  the  like,  whereas  the  Catholic  Church  teaches  as  an 
article  of  faith  that  parents  have  the  power  of  determin- 
ing, by  the  self-determination  of  the  will,  where  they  shall 
send  their  children  to  school.  But  about  moral  liberty  ? 
Determinists,  having  reduced  man  to  the  nature  of  a  piece 
of  physical  or  ideal  mechanism,  are  rather  inconsistent  in 
their  denunciations  of  the  Catholic  Church  for  her  denial 
of  moral  liberty  ;  but  what  does  the  Church  say  ?  She 
says  that  the  question  cannot  be  decided  on  its  own 
immediate  merits  and  without  reference  to  more  funda- 
mental principles.  If  there  were  no  God,  she  says, 
morality  would  not  enter  into  the  programme  of  education: 
if  deism  were  true,  natural  religion  alone  would  con- 
stitute the  subject  of  religious  education  :  if  a  non. 
dogmatic  Christianity  had  been  established,  then  an 


42  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

undenominational  indeterminate  Christian  instruction 
should  be  given  in  the  schools  :  and  in  the  hypothesis  of 
the  divine  institution  of  a  definite  confession  of  faith,  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  Catholic  parents  are  bound  to  send  their 
children  to  Catholic  schools  and  colleges  where  they  are 
instructed  definitely  in  the  moral  system  and  doctrines  of 
the  Catholic  Church ;  but  among  the  approved  schools  to 
which  their  children  have  access  parents  have  the  right 
of  determining  and  choosing  the  school  to  which  they 
wish  to  send  their  children.  Parents  are  bound  absolutely 
to  be  diligent  in  the  moral  formation  of  their  children  : 
in  the  hypothesis  of  a  supernatural  revelation  and  religion 
they  are  bound  by  divine  law  to  instruct  their  children 
in  the  principles  of  supernatural  religion :  and  in  the 
hypothesis  of  a  divine  Church  to  which  they  own 
allegiance  they  are  responsible  to  her  for  their  observance  of 
divine  law,  they  are  subject  to  her  jurisdiction  and  to 
the  laws  that  relate  to  the  religious  education  of  their 
children. 

II.  Similarly,  the  Church  would   say,  Catholic  govern- 
ments   have   the   physical    power    of   establishing   purely 
secular  schools,  of  compelling  children  to  frequent  them, 
of  forbidding  the  opening    of  private   schools  ;   but   they 
cannot    lawfully  establish    a    purely  secular     system    of 
education,   nor  forbid  the  family  school  or  private  schools, 
nor  compel  all  children  to  frequent  the  State  schools,  even 
if  they  be  constituted  according  to  Catholic  principles. 

III.  Catholic  laymen  are  not  excluded  from  the  teaching 
profession.     They  may  establish  schools,  primary  or  inter- 
mediate, but  subject  to  the  general  rules  already  described 
for  combining  religion  with  secular  education. 

IV.  There  are  no  restrictions  on  the  teaching  liberty 
of  Catholics  except  those  imposed  by  the  creed  which  they 
profess  and  believe  to  be  true.    And  if  we  examine  carefully 
the  Catholic  creed  and  the  demonstrated  conclusions  of 
science  we  shall  find  that  the  truths  of  religion  harmonize 
admirably  with  the  conclusions  of  science,  that  there  is  no 
opposition  between   them,   that   the  truths   of   the  creed 
are  a  most  effective  protection  against  the  spurious  and 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  AND  HUMAN  LIBERTY     43 

unworthy  theories  that   are  not  unfrequently  advanced  in 
the  name  of  science. 

I  have  dealt  with  Catholic  education  in  this  paper  only 
in  relation  to  liberty,  and  as  it  should  be  conceived  and 
established  in  Catholic  countries.  I  hope  at  some  future 
time  to  offer  a  study  of  the  principles  that  guide  the  Church 
in  regulating  education  in  what  she  considers  abnormal 
conditions,  in  mixed  communities  where  the  State  system 
of  national  education  is  neutral  or  undenominational. 

DANIEL  COGHLAN. 


[    44     ] 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT 

THE  first  part  of  the  Vatican  edition  of  Plain  Chant, 
namely,  the  '  Kyriale,'  that  is,  the  part  containing 
the  chants  for  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Sanctus,  Agnus, 
and  Credo,  as  well  as  for  the  Ite,  Missa  est,  and  Benedicamus 
Domino  and  for  the  Asperges  and  Vidi  aquam,  has  appeared 
at  last.  It  had  been  waited  for  anxiously  and  with  some 
uneasiness.  It  was  an  open  secret  that  the  cause  of  the 
delay  lay  in  some  dissensions  amongst  the  members  of  the 
Pontifical  Commission.  When  this  difficulty  had  been 
overcome — we  shall  see  presently  in  what  manner — dis- 
concerting rumours  as  to  the  nature  of  the  forthcoming 
edition  got  abroad.  We  are  now  in  a  position  to  formulate 
an  opinion,  and  let  me  say  it  at  once,  the  result  before  us 
is  sorely  disappointing.  I  make  this  statement  with  the 
utmost  pain.  For  I  know  that  the  opponents  of  the 
attempted  return  to  the  tradition  will  rejoice,  and  many 
friends  of  the  old  chants  will  be  disheartened.  But  the 
truth  must  come  out  sooner  or  later,  and  it  is  best,  there- 
fore, to  let  it  be  known  at  once. 

Let  us  recall  what  has  happened.  In  his  Motu  Proprio 
on  Church  Music,  of  22nd  November,  1903,  Pope  Pius  X 
ordained  the  return  to  the  traditional  chant  of  the  Church. 
Accordingly,  in  a  Decree  of  8th  January,  1904,  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites,  withdrawing  the  former  decrees  in  favour 
of  the  Ratisbon  (Medicaean)  edition,  commanded  that  the 
traditional  form  of  Plain  Chant  should  be  introduced  into 
all  the  churches  as  soon  as  possible.  Soon  afterwards 
his  Holiness,  in  order  to  avoid  anything  like  a  monopoly 
in  the  chant  books,  conceived  the  idea  of  publishing  a 
Vatican  edition  of  Plain  Chant,  which  all  publishers,  cap- 
able of  doing  it  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  should  be  free 
to  reprint.  The  Benedictines  of  Solesmes  having,  with 
extraordinary  generosity,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Holy  See  the  result  of  their  long  continued  and  expensive 
studies  in  the  field  of  Plain  Chant,  Pius  X  published,  under 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT  45 

25th  April,  1904,  the  Motu  Proprio  concerning  the  '  Edizione 
Vaticana  dei  libri  liturgici  continenti  le  melodie  gregoriane,' 
from  which  I  must  quote  a  few  extracts.  The  document 
opens  thus  : — 

Col  Nostro  Motu  Proprio  del  22  Novembre  1903  e  col  susse- 
guente  Decreto,  pubblicato  per  Nostro  ordine  dalla  Congrega- 
zione dei  Sacri  Riti  1'8  Gennaio  1904,  abbiamo  restituito  alia 
Chiesa  Romana  1'antico  sup  canto  gregoriano,  quel  canto  che 
esse  ha  ereditata  dai  padri,  che  ha  custodito  gelosamente  nei 
suoi  codici  liturgici  e  che  gli  studi  piii  recenti  hanno  assai 
felicemente  ricondotto  alla^sua  primitiva  purezza. 

His  Holiness  then  proceeds  to  state  that  he  has  deter- 
mined on  a  Vatican  edition  of  the  chant,  and  lays  down 
a  number  of  directions  : — 

(a)  Le  melodie  della  Chiesa,  cosl  dette  gregoriane,  saranno 
restabilite  nella   loro  integrita  e  purezza  secondo  la    fede  dei 
codici  piu    antichi,  cosl    per6  che  si  tenga  particolare  conto 
eziandio  della  legittima  tradizione,  contenuta  nei  codici  lungo 
i  secoli,  e  dell'uso  pratico  della  odierna  liturgia. 

(b)  Per  la  speciale  Nostra  predilezione  verso  1'  Or  dine  di 
S.  Benedetto,  riconoscendo  1'opera  prestata  dai  monaci  bene- 
dettini  nella  restaurazione  delle  genuine  melodie  della  Chiesa 
Romana,  particolarmente  poi  da  quelli  della  Congregazione  di 
Francia  e  del  Monastero  di  Solesmes,  vogliamo  che  per  questa 
edizione,  la    redazione  delle  parti  che  contengono  il  canto,  sia 
affidata  in  modo  particolare  ai  monaci  della  Congregazione  di 
Francia  ed  al  Monastero  di  Solesmes. 

(c)  I  lavori  cosl  preparati  saranno  sottomessi  all'esame  ed 
alia  revisione  della  speciale  Commissione  romana,  da  Noi  re- 
centemente    a    questo    fine    istituita.     .     .     .     Dovri    inoltre 
procedere  nei  suo  esame  con  la  massima  diligenza,  non  per- 
mettendo  che  nulla  sia  pubblicato,  di  cui  non  si  possa  dare 
ragione   conveniente   e   sufficiente.     .     .     .     Che  se   nella   re- 
visione  delle   melodie   occorressero   dimcolta   per  ragione   del 
testo  liturgico,  la  Commissione  dovr&  consultare  1'altra  Com- 
missione storico-liturgica,  gia  precedentamente  istituita  presso 
la  Nostra  Congregazione  dei  Sacri  Riti.     .     .     . 

(d)  L'approvazione  da  darsi  da  Noi  e  dalla  Nostra  Con- 
gregazione  dei   Sacri   Riti   ai  libri  di  canto  cosl  composti  e 
pubblicati  sara  di  tal   natura  che  a  niuno  sara  piii   lecito  di 
approvare  libri  liturgici,   se  questi,   eziandio  nelle  parti   che 
contengono  il  canto,  o  non  siano  del  tutto  conformi  all' edizione 
pubblicata  dalla  Tippgrafia  Vaticana  sotto  i  Nostri  auspici,  o 
per  lo  meno,  a  giudizio  della  Commissione,  non  siano  per  tal 
modo  conformi,  che  le  varianti  introdotte  si  dimonstrino  pro- 
venire  dall'autoriti  di  altre  buoni  codici  gregoriani. 


46  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  about  the  meaning 
of  this  document.  Mark  how,  in  the  opening,  his  Holiness 
speaks  of  the  chant  as  having  been  guarded  by  the  Church 
jealously  in  her  codices,  and  as  having  been  restored  to  its 
primitive  purity.  Then,  under  (a)  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mission is  clearly  denned.  The  melodies  are  to  be  re- 
established in  their  integrity  and  purity.  As  criterion  for 
this  is  to  be  taken,  in  the  first  instance,  the  reading  of  the 
oldest  codices.  In  the  second  place,  however,  account  is 
to  be  taken  of  the  legitimate  tradition  contained  in  the 
codices  of  later  centuries.  This  is  necessary,  particularly 
as  some  melodies  are  not  contained  in  the  oldest  codices. 
Such  is  the  case,  for  instance,  with  a  large  number  of  melo- 
dies of  the  '  Kyriale,'  which  are  not  of  Gregorian  origin, 
but  were  composed  centuries  afterwards,  some  of  them 
even  later  than  the  eleventh  century,  the  date  of  our 
earliest  staff  notation  MSS.  Moreover,  it  is  conceivable 
that  in  some  particular  point  the  oldest  MSS.  may  be 
wrong,  as  each  of  them  represents  the  tradition  of  merely 
one  place.  It  would  be  the  business  of  scientific  criticism 
in  such  an  instance  to  determine  the  original  version  from 
later  evidence.  Finally,  the  practical  use  of  the  present 
Liturgy  is  to  be  taken  into  account.  This  is  necessary, 
because  in  some  cases  the  wording  of  the  liturgical  text 
has  been  slightly  altered  in  our  modern  liturgical  books. 
In  such  cases  the  original  melodies  must  be  adapted  to  the 
new  wording,  unless,  indeed,  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
can  be  induced  to  restore  the  original  wording,  for  which 
the  Pope  makes  provision  under  (c)t 

Again,  under  (c)  the  Commission  is  directed  to  see  that 
nothing  should  be  published  which  could  not  be  properly 
accounted  for.  The  meaning  of  this  is  plain.  It  would 
be  absurd  to  suppose  that  the  President  of  the  Commission 
could  '  account '  for  a  passage  by  saying :  '  This  seems  to 
me  beautiful ;  therefore,  I  have  put  it  in.' 

Altogether  the  document  is  most  wise  and  statesman- 
like, and  we  had  reason  to  expect  something  very  perfect 
as  the  outcome  of  it.  But  then  something  unexpected 
happened,  as  the  novelist  says.  By  a  letter  of  his  Eminence 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT  47 

Cardinal  Merry  del  Val,  dated  24th  June,  1905,  Dom  Pothier, 
the  President  of  the  Commission,  was  made  the  sole  judge 
of  the  version  of  the  new  edition,  and  the  other  members 
were  reduced  to  the  position  of  his  helpers.  What  led  up 
to  this  decision  is  not  public  history,  and  I  have  no  desire 
to  lift  the  curtain.  Let  it  suffice  to  judge  the  proceedings 
by  their  result. 

Ostensibly  the  cry  got  up  against  the  redactors,  the 
Solesmes  monks,  was  that  of  '  archaism.'  I  need  not  go 
into  the  question  of  archaism  at  length.  Dom  Cagin  has 
dealt  with  it  admirably  in  the  Rassegna  Gregoriana,  of 
July- August,  1905.  I  will  make  only  one  remark.  I 
could  understand  a  modern  musician  objecting  to  Plain 
Chant  altogether,  because  it  is  archaic.  But  if  we  accept 
at  all  the  chant  of  thirteen  centuries  ago,  what  difference 
does  it  make  whether  a  phrase  here  and  there  is  a  little 
more  or  less  *  archaic  '  ? 

It  seems  that  Dom  Pothier  himself  not  long  ago 
differed  very  much  from  those  who  now  talk  of  '  archaism,' 
for,  speaking  of  the  variants  of  the  Plain  Chant  melodies 
that  crept  in  in  the  course  of  time,  he  said  : — 

Toutes  ces  variantes  s'expliquent  et,  a  certains  points  de 
vue,  peuvent  plus  ou  moms  se  justifier,  mais  aucune  d'elles  ne 
constitue  un  progr^s.  La  maniere  plus  simple  et  plus  ddgagee 
de  la  melodic  primitive  est  aussi  la  plus  douce  et  la  plus  dis- 
tinguee,  celle  qui  a  pour  elle,  avec  le  merite  de  Tantiquite,  celui 
de  1'art  et  du  bon  goilt. l 

And  Father  Lhoumeau,  his  pupil,  and  but  the  echo  of 
his  master,  says  : — 

Cet  examen  d'une  simple  melodic  nous  amene  a  des  conclu- 
sions qui  ressortent  de  1'etat  general  du  chant  gregorien,  car 
ce  que  nous  voyons  ici  se  retrouve  partout.  Si  Ton  veut  re- 
staurer  1'art  gregorien  il  faut  toujour  revenir  aux  sources,  et  ce 
qu'il  y  a  de  plus  ancien,  c'est  ce  qu'il  y  a  de  plus  pur, 
de  plus  artistique,  et  non  pas  seulement  de  plus  archa'ique, 
comme  peuvent  le  croire  certaines  gens.a 

1  Revue  du  chant  grtgorien,  i5th  December,  1896,  p.  70. 
*  Ibid..  15th  June,  1895,  P-  l&9' 


48  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

In  the  Preface,  too,  of  his  Liber  Gradualis  of  1895,  Dom 
Pothier  claims  that  he  always  has  followed  the  authority 
of  the  oldest  codices. 

But  we  need  not  delay  over  this,  for,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  question  of  '  archaism  '  has  not  really  much  to  do  with 
the  changes  from  the  original  made  in  the  Vatican  edition. 

Dom  Pothier,  as  soon  as  he  had  got  a  free  hand,  set  to 
work  vigorously,  and  at  the  Gregorian  Congress  in  Stras- 
burg  last  August,  it  was  announced  that  the  last  sheet 
of  the  *  Kyriale '  had  got  the  final  'Imprimatur.  At  the 
same  time  the  Commission,  that  is  to  say,  the  majority  of 
the  members  present  in  Strasburg,  declared  that  the 
*  Kyriale  '  represented  the  fruit  of  the  long  and  enlightened 
labour  of  the  monks  of  Solesmes.  We  shall  see  how  much 
truth  there  is  in  this.  For,  as  generally  known,  the  Solesmes 
Benedictines  make  the  reading  of  the  MSS.  their  supreme 
law. 

To  get  any  definite  information  on  the  relation  of  the 
'  Kyriale '  to  the  MSS.,  my  only  way  was  to  go  to 
Appuldurcombe,  the  present  home  of  the  Solesmes  Bene- 
dictines, and  study  the  MSS.  They  have  there  over 
four  hundred  of  the  best  codices  in  photographic  re- 
production— the  material  on  which  the  Vatican  edition  is 
based — and  with  that  same  generosity  with  which  they 
offered  the  result  of  their  studies  to  the  Holy  See,  they 
place  their  library  at  the  disposal  of  students.  Accord- 
ingly I  went  there,  and  I  now  publish  the  result  of  my 
investigations.  Within  the  time  at  my  disposal  it  was 
not  possible  for  me  to  go  into  all  the  cases  where  the 
Vatican  edition  seems  to  deviate  from  the  authentic  version. 
Giulio  Bas,  one  of  the  consultors  of  the  Commission,  in  a 
letter  to  the  Giornale  d'ltalia,  states  that  they  number 
130.  Accordingly  I  left  aside,  of  set  purpose,  all  the  cases 
that  presented  difficulty,  that  would  require  anything  like 
a  careful  weighing  of  the  evidence,  to  get  at  the  true  version, 
and  confined  myself  to  those  where  the  Vatican  edition  is 
glaringly  at  variance  with  the  reading  of  the  MSS.  And, 
alas  !  as  the  patient  reader  will  soon  see,  they  are  only 
too  many. 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT  49 

Before  I  take  up  the  pieces  contained  in  the  '  Kyriale  * 
one  by  one,  I  have  to  make  a  couple  of  general  reflections. 
The  first  concerns  the  German  tradition  of  the  chant, 
for  which  Dom  Pothier  shows  a  strange  predilection.  One 
of  the  chief  peculiarities  of  this  German  tradition  is  the 
frequent  substitution  of  the  minor  third  a  —  c  for  the 
second  a  —  bb  or  a  —  b.  Is  this  tradition  a  'legitimate 
tradition '  ?  I  should  think  not.  It  detaches  itself  at  one 
point  from  the  general  current  of  tradition  which  flows 
from  the  time  that  we  first  can  trace  it,  down  to  our  own 
days,  and  remains  in  opposition  to  it  ever  afterwards.  It 
may  have  a  certain  title  to  continued  separate  existence, 
but  it  has  no  claim  to  general  acceptance.  But  there  is 
more.  I  do  not  for  a  moment  believe  that  Dom  Pothier 
is  going  to  accept  this  German  tradition  in  its  entirety. 

g - 

Surely  he  is  not  going  to  make  us  sing  (i)         1'~*  * 

Sta-tu-  it 
instead  of  (2) 


Sta-tu-  it 

There  is  a  question,  therefore,  of  making  a  selection. 
On  what  principle,  then,  is  this  selection  to  be  made  ? 
The  aesthetic  taste  of  an  individual  ?  Dom  H.  Gaisser, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Commission,  in 
an  interview  recently  published  in  the  Katholische  Kirchen- 
zeitung,  and  again  in  the  Giornale  di  Roma,  of  3rd  Decem- 
ber, 1905,  points  out  the  danger  and  instability  of  such  a 
criterion.  He  reminds  us  that  not  only  is  taste  an  indi- 
vidual thing,  varying  greatly  in  different  people,  but  it  is 
also  dependent,  to  a  very  great  extent,  on  what  one  has 
been  accustomed  to.  Those,  therefore,  that  have  been 
accustomed  to  the  '  Kyriale '  of  Dom  Pothier's  Liber 
Gradualis,  including  Dom  Pothier  himself,  will  be  pre- 
judiced in  favour  of  the  readings  which,  for  some  reason  or 

VOL.   XIX.  D 


50  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

othfr,   got   into  that   publication.     To  give   an   example, 
the  Vatican  '  Kyriale,'  in  accordance  with  the  Liber  Gra- 


dualis,  has  the  'Paschal'  Kyrie  thus:  (3)     i 


K^-ri-  e 
All  the  MSS.,  except  the  German  ones,  have  : 


(4)      * 


Kf-  ri-  e 

To  me  it  seems  that  the  double  ac  of  the  Vatican  version 
is  decidedly  tautological,  and  that  the  older  version  with 
its  gradual  rise  first  to  b  and  then  to  c  is  immensely  superior. 
Dom  Pothier  evidently  thinks  differently.  But  I  believe 
he  has  stated  that  in  some  cases  he  made  too  much  con- 
cession to  the  modern  taste  in  the  '  Kyriale  '  of  his  Liber 
Graduates,  and  accordingly  those  pieces  have  been  changed 
in  the  Vatican  edition.  What  guarantee  have  we  that  after 
a  few  years  he  will  not  find  that  he  made  too  much  con- 
cession to  the  German  tradition  ? 

My  next  remark  is  about  the  reciting  note  of  the  8th 
mode.  It  often  happens  that  in  the  course  of  a 
melody  a  number  of  syllables  are  recited  on  one  note. 
For  such  recitation  the  Gregorian  melodies  had,  in  the 
8th  mode,  the  note  b,  while  the  reciting  note  of  the  psalmody 
in  that  mode  seems  always  to  have  been  c,  as  at  present. 
Thus  we  find  in  the  Antiphon  Vidi  aquam  this  passage  : 


.  .    .       a 


{  . 

et   omnes,  ad  quos  perve-nit   a-   qua    i-sta 

In  the  course  of  centuries  this  reciting  note,  owing  probably 
to  causes  similar  to  those  that  brought  about  the  German 


THE   VATICAN   EDITION   OF  PLAIN  CHANT          51 

tradition  mentioned  above,  was  almost  universally  changed 
into  c.     Thus,  the  Liber  Gradualis  has 


(6)       ^T 


a8  '  ' 


et  omnes,  ad  quos  perve-nit 

It  seems  to  me  that  in  many  cases  this  change  has  been 
to  the  detriment  of  the  melody.  Thus  in  the  example  (5), 
the  gradual  rise  of  the  melody,  which  rests  first  on  b,  then 
on  c,  and  finally  rises,  on  ista,  to  d,  constitutes  a  great 
beauty,  which  is  lost  in  the  version  at  (6).  Still,  as  the 
change  was  almost  universal,  I  could  understand  the 
position  of  those  who  claim  that  it  should  be  maintained. 
But  what  does  the  Vatican  edition  do  ?  It  evidently  goes 
on  the  principle  of  '  pleasing  both  parties,'  and  gives  half 
the  recitation  to  c,  half  to  b,  thus  : 


(7) 


et   omnes,  ad  quos  perve-nit 


Three  syllables  on  c,  three  on  b,  nothing  could  be  fairer, 
and  nobody  has  any  right  to  complain  !  The  procedure  is 
a  great  testimony  to  Dom  Pothier's  amiability,  but  what 
about  his  critical  judgment  ? 

In  this  same  Vidi  aquam  we  find  the  following  :  — 


(8) 


6-— fr 


tern-  plo 
The  MSS.  are  divided  as  to  the  figure  on   the  first  syllable 

f~ 


•,*_  i" 

of  tempio,  some/tehave    (ga)  •    f    '      others  (gb)   j[ 


HHHt- 


the  best  have  (gc) 


52  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  version  of  the  Vatican  edition  is  not  found  in  any 
single  one  ! 

At  dextro  and  the  alleluja  immediately  following,  all  the 
oldest  MSS.  except  the  German  have  a  b  g  a  and  g  a  b  a  b. 
The  Vatican  edition  follows  the  German  tradition  in  sub- 
stituting c  for  b. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  Kyrie  of  the  Mass  I 
(Tempore  Paschali).  I  have  now  only  to  call  attention  to 
the  difference  in  the  final  figure  of  examples  (3)  and  (4). 
All  older  MSS.,  neumatic  and  in  staff  notation,  of  all  coun- 
tries have  the  Pressus  as  at  (4),  only  German  MSS.  of  later 
origin  have  the  reading  (3)  adopted  by  the  Vaticana. 

A  very  striking  fact  is  met  with  in  the  Gloria  of  this 
Mass.  All  MSS.  and  printed  editions  down  to  the  nine- 
teenth century  ascribe  this  Gloria  to  the  yth  mode,  ending 
it  on  g.  The  edition  of  Reims-Cambrai  (1851),  was  the 
first  to  change  the  ending  to  b  and  thus  make  the  Gloria 
a  4th  tone  melody.  The  Vatican  edition  sides  with  Reims- 
Cambrai  !  In  this  Gloria  also  the  German  substitution  of 
c  for  b  has  been  accepted  at  excelsis,  hominibus,  and  the 
corresponding  places. 

In  the  Agnus  Dei  nine  MSS.  of  France,  England,  Spain, 
and  Metz  have  on  Dei  the  figure  a  b  d  ;  one  German, 
one  Italian,  and  one  French  have  g  b  d.  The  Vaticana 
follows  the  minority. 

The  Kyrie  of  Mass  II  (Kyrie  Fons  bonitatis)  has  been 
dealt  with,  in  a  masterly  fashion,  by  Dom  Beyssac  in  the 
Rassegna  Gregoriana,  November-December,  1904,  where 
the  MSi  evidence  is  subjected  to  a  thorough  examination. 
I  can  confine  myself,  therefore,  to  giving  some  extracts 
showing  the  difference  between  the  version  of  the  MSS. 


£ 


a% 


a 
J 


^ 


K^-ri-  e  Chri-ste  Ky-  ri-  e 


1  The  last  note  of  this  example  ought  to  be  g  instead  of  a. 


THE   VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT 


53 


and  that 

of  the  Vaticana 

•  •  •          i     •  •  •     — 

a  i  Jn         « 

'%•  :•      3-3S 

•  •  "  •  %        • 

%  •       •     *  * 

H- 

• 

i  • 
Ky-rie             Chri-ste 

OH:    n 

^ 

% 

-  ri-  e 


In  the  Gloria  of  this  Mass  all  the  MSS.  have  at    propter 


magnam  gloriam  tuam :    (12) 


e- 


glo-      ri-  am  tu-  am 


Dom  Pothier  writes  :  (13)        ffi 


glo-    ri-  am  tu-  am 

The  i  second  Agnus  of  this  Mass  is  an  adaptation  of  a 
trope.  All  the  MSS.  without  tropes  repeat  the  melody  of 
the  first  Agnus. 

In  the  first  Christe  of  Mass  III,  all  the  MSS.  have  e  g  g  a. 
Dom  Pothier  changes  this  into  e  f  g  a. 

In  the  Gloria  all  the  MSS.  have  a  Podatus  on  the  final 
syllables  of  Domine  Deus  and  Domine  Fili.  The  Vaticana 
has  single  notes. 

The  intonation  of  the  Sanctus  is  thus  in  the  Vaticana : 


d4) 


San- 


ctus 


This  piece  is  found  in  eight  MSS.     Seven  of  these  have 
gab,  one  has  gaccbagf.     Dom  Pothier  takes  the  latter 


54  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

version,  but  omits  the  b  after  c  c.  The  reason  for  this 
change  is  easy  to  guess.  It  is  to  avoid  that  diaboltts  in 
musica  of  the  medieval  theorists,  the  tritone.  I  admit 
that  the  tritone  sometimes  causes  a  little  difficulty  to 
modern  ears.  But  if  we  are  to  eliminate  all  the  tritones 
from  the  Gregorian  melodies,  what  is  to  become  of  them  ? 
And  if  we  are  to  make  this  concession  to  the  modern  taste, 
why  not  change  other  things  as  well,  why  not,  for  instance, 
sharpen  the  leading  note  ?  I  think  that  the  full  tone 
under  the  tonic  causes  far  more  difficulty  to  the  modern 
musician  than  a  few  tritones.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  one 
case,  as  we  shall  see  below  (Gloria  of  No.  VII),  Dom  Pothier 
has  sharpened  the  leading  note.  So  we  cannot  know  what 
may  happen  before  the  Vatican  edition  is  completed.  But 
why  not  go  a  step  farther  and  do  away  with  the  antiquated 
modes  altogether,  and  present  all  pieces  of  Plain  Chant 
either  in  the  major  or  the  minor  mode  ?  And,  finally, 
why  retain  that  puzzling  rhythm  of  Plain  Chant  ?  Why 
not  re-write  it  nicely  with  bars  in  {,  f,  and  f  time  ?  I 
must  confess  I  see  no  satisfactory  answer  to  these  questions! 
Once  we  leave  the  firm  ground  of  the  tradition,  we  get  into 
shifting  sands,  and  there  is  no  stopping  anywhere. 

In  the  Agnus  of  this  Mass  all  MSS.  are  agreed  in  having 
a  single  note  on  the  first  syllable  of  Dei.  The  Vaticana 
has  three.  All  MSS.  are  agreed  in  having  a  Quilisma  on 
tollis.  The  Vaticana  has  a  simple  Podatus.  All  MSS.  are 

agreed   i •  8% The  g •  fl   % 

in  .  J  B.         Vaticana  .  •  ***— 


reading  '  reads : 

pecca-          ta  pecca-    ta 

All  MSS.  are  agreed  in  placing  e  on  the  accented  syllable 
of  miserere.  The  Vaticana  has  /.  The  melody  of  the  second 
Agnus  in  the  Vaticana  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  MS. 

In  the  Gloria  of  Mass  IV,  the  vast  majority  of  the 
MSS.  have  the  last  figure  on,  Glorificamus  te  as  g  /  e. 
The  Vaticana  has  g  g  e. 

The  Agnus  of  Mass  V  is  found  in  two  MSS.     At  tollis 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT         55 

and  miserere  the^one  has  b,  the  other  £>[>.  The  Vaticana 
has  c. 

In  Mass  VI,  in  the  second  last  Kyrie,  nearly  all  the 
oldest  MSS.  have  two  notes  on  the  second  syllable,  and 
nearly  aUVMSS.  mark  a  b\>.  The  Vaticana  has  one  note  on 
ri  and  has  6fl. 

In  the  Gloria  the  vast  majority  of  MSS.  have  two  notes 
on  the, final  syllable  of  excelsis.  The  Vaticana  has  one. 
At  the  first,  peccata  all  the  MSS.  that  have  substantially  the 
reading  of  the  Vaticana,  have  the  figure  a  b  c.  No  MS. 
whatever  has  a  c  as  the  Vaticana.  Of  the  Amen  several 
variants  are  found,  but  not  amongst  them  the  version  of 
the  Vaticana. 

In  the  Kyrie  of  Mass  VII,  the  vast  majority  of  the  MSS. 
and  all  the  best,  place  the  Clivis  a  f  on  the  second  syllable 
of  eleison.  The  Vaticana  places  it  on  the  first. 

The  Gloria  is  found  only  in  some  English  MSS.  They 
all  write  it  in'c  and  have  a  flat  at  the  cadence  of  Deus  Pater 

•i 

omnipotens.  The  Vaticana  writes  it  in  /  and  omits  the 
flat,  thus  sharpening  the  leading  note,  as  mentioned 
above.  At  Cum  sancto  Spiritu  the  MSS.  read 


the  Vaticana      . 

(18)  -^r-i 


Spi-      ri-tu  Spi-    ri-tu 

The  Agnus  of  Mass  VIII  is  found  only  in  one  MS.  (Paris 
Bibl.  Nat.  Lat.,  905  fol.  A.).  On  tollis  it  has  the  notes  /  e  d  c, 
Dom  Pothier  changes  this  into  f  d  d  c.  At  mundi  the  MS. 
nas  /  g  g  /,  Dom  Pothier  writes  /  g  /.  On  the  second  syl- 
lable of  miserere  the  MS.  has  g,  Dom  Pothier  writes  g  a.  On 
the  second  Dei,  the  MS.  has  c  a  6  c,  Dom  Pothier  writes 
cage.  At  the  second  tollis  the  MS.  has  a  gag,  Dom  Pothier 
writes  a  g  a.  It  is  hard  to  suppress  one's  indignation  at 
this.  But  we  have  a  long  way  to  travel  yet.  So  I  hurry 
on  with  the  bare  enumeration  of  facts. 

In  the  Gloria  of  Mass  IX  aU  old  MSS.  have  c  on  the 
first  syllable  of  deprecationem,  Dom  Pothier  has  d.  At 


56  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Cum  (sancto  Sp.)  thirty-nine  MSS.  have  e,  three  have  d  et 
Dom  Pothier  follows  the  minority. 


In  the  Sanctus  the  MSS.  write  (19)      •  ,  o 


Sa-  ba-       oth 


Dom  Pothier  (20) 


Sa-         ba-  oth 


Similarly  at  Domini.  The  figure  at  Deus  is  found  in  no 
MS.  At  tua  most  MSS.  have  6>  a  g  a.  No  MS.  has  the 
reading  of  the  Vaticana,  b\>  a  g. 


In  the  Agnus  the  Vaticana  writes  (21) 


De- 


Of  eighteen       g — •  f»  Two  have    *  • — aa  \ 

MSS.  sixteen       — |^g (23)  1% 

have  (22) 

De-    i  De-          i 

The  version  of  the  Vaticana  finds,  therefore,  no  authority 
at  all  in  the  MSS.  Similarly  the  note  on  qui  in  the  second 
Agnus  is  not  found  in  any  MS. 

The  Kyrie  of  Mass  X,  which  is  the  older  form  of  that 
in  No.  IX,  is  found  in  three  MSS.  All  three  have  double 
notes  on  the  accented  syllable  of  eleison.  The  Vaticana  has 
single  notes. 

The  Gloria  is  found  only  in  one  MS.,  the  one  published 
with  the  Sarum  Gradual  by  the  Plainsong  and  Mediaeval 
Music  Society.  The  Amen  runs  thus" in  this  MS. 


(24) 


A-  men. 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN   CHANT          57 


^ 


Dom  Pothier  changes  this  into  (25) 


A-  men. 

The  Sanctus  of  this  Mass  is  not  found  anywhere.  It 
seems  to  be  Dom  Pothier's  own  composition.  The  same 
holds  of  the  Sanctus  No.  Ill,  and  the  Agnus  No.  II,  of  the 
Cantus  ad  libitum.  Now  there  is  not,  of  course,  any  objec- 
tion to  Dom  Pothier  or  anybody  else  composing  new  pieces 
of  Church  music,  and  if  they  select  to  write  in  the  style  of 
the  Gregorian  music,  they  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  do  so. 
But  I  certainly  think  that  such  compositions  ought  to  have 
no  place  in  the  Vatican  edition,  which  purports  to  be  a 
collection  of  medieval  music.  There  might  be  some  excuse 
in  the  case  of  new  texts,  for  which  no  melody  exists,  though 
I  should  consider  it  better  to  arrange  some  existing  melody 
to  them,  as  was  the  general  usage  from  the  seventh  to  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass,  however, 
for  which  we  have  such  a  large  number  of  medieval  pieces, 
such  a  procedure  is  altogether  unwarranted. 

In  the  Kyrie  of  Mass  XI  the  vast  majority  of  MSS. 
have  on  Christe  the  figure  deb  a  and  suppress,  in  the  second 
eleison,  the  /  g  a  bfr  of  the  first.  Dom  Pothier  skips  the  b 
on  Christe,  and  writes  the  second  eleison  like  the  first.  For 
the  second  Kyrie  the  vast  majority  of  MSS.  have  either 


(26)  P"   STU          or  (27) 


K^-ri-    e  K^-ri-  e 


Dom  Pothier  writes  (28) 


Ky-ri-    e 

In  the  Gloria  eight  MSS.,  and  these  not  very  good  onesj 


58 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


Qui   se-des 


Some  sixty  have      -g ^ 

(30)  ^   •     J" 


3 


Qui  se-   des 

The  Vaticana  sides  with  the  minority. 

In  the  Gloria  of  Mass  XII  at  Filius  Patris  two  Treves 
MSS.  end  e  e,  twenty-five  others  have  e  f.  The  Vaticana 
has  e  e,  though  in  the  corresponding  place  at  tu  solus  sanctus 
it  has  e  /. 

For  the  Gloria  of  Mass  XIII  there  is  only  one  MS.     It 


has  the  intonation  thus 


* 


• 

a 


a 


G16-ri-  a     in   excelsis  De-     o 
Dom  Pothier  cuts  out  the  /  on  in.    Later  on  the  MS.  has 


• 


i 


(32) 

D6mi-ne  De-  us,  Agnus  De-  i,  Fi-  li-  us  Patris 

Dom  Pothier  changes  the  c  on  Agnus  into  /,  thereby  losing 
the  pretty  effect  of  the  varied  middle  phrase  !     Could  any- 
thing be  more  discreditable  to  an  editor  ? 
The  Sanctus  is  found  in  two  MSS.,  Worcester  and,  Sarum. 


Worcester  has 
(33) 


Sarum  has  (34) 


D6mi-ni.    Ho-sanna 


D6-mi-ni.    Ho-sanna 


Dom  Pothier 
writes  (35) 


i 

.     ^ 

•  • 

•  • 

** 

• 

D6mi-ni.    Ho-sanna 


THE    VATICAN  EDITION  OF  PLAIN  CHANT          59 

In  the  Kyrie  of  Mass  XIV  all  the  MSS.  have  a  (,  in  the 
second  Kyrie  melody.  The  Vaticana  omits  it.  In  the 
Gloria,  on  the  last  syllable  of  miserere,  practically  all  MSS. 
have  a  four-note  Climacus ;  the  Vaticana  has  three  notes. 
In  the  A  men  the  German  codices  are  followed  against  all 
the  others. 

In  the  Kyrie  of  Mass  XV  the  second  eleison  takes  the 
reading  of  one  MS.  against  forty.  In  the  Gloria,  at  Tu 
solus  Dominus,  most  MSS.  have  the  intonation  e  g  a  or 
g  a  a.  No  MS.  has  the  reading  of  the  Vaticana. 

In  the  Agnus  of  Mass  XVI,  on  the  last  syllable  of  the 
first  miserere,  one  MS.  has  a  Clivis,  thirty-seven  have  a 
Podatus.  The  Vaticana  has  a  Clivis. 

For  the  second  Kyrie  of  Mass  XVII  the  sources  are  one 
MS.  and  one  printed  book,  both  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Both  divide  the  figure  on  eleison  after  a  (c  b\>  a  g  a  \  f  e  g) 
as  the  Ratisbon  Edition  and  the  Missal  (Benedicamus  for 
Advent  and  Lent)  do.  The  Vaticana  writes  the  notes  a  f  e 
as  a  Climacus. 

For  the  figure  on  the  second  syllable  of  Hosanna  in 
the  Sanctus  the  MS.  evidence  is :  one  for,  thirty-four 
against. 

In  the  Kyrie  of  Mass  XVIII  all  the  MSS.  that  have  that 
melody  give  three  notes  to  the  first  syllable  of  the  second 
eleison.  The  Vaticana  has  two. 

In  the  first  Credo,  at  visibilium  and  in  all  the  corres- 
ponding phrases,  two  MSS.  of  the  late  fifteenth  century 
have  a,  all  the  others  g.  The  Vaticana  has  a.  At  Genit  um 
one  MS.  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  followed  against  all 
others. 

At  de  Spiritu  only  the  Cistercians  and  Dominicans  share 
the  reading  of  the  Vaticana.  At  venturi  the  vast  majority 
of  the  MSS.  and  all  the  old  ones  end  on  d,  not  on  e,  as  the 
Vaticana  does. 

We  come  now  to  the  Cantus  ad  libitum.  In  passing 
I  may  note  that  the  Kyrie  II  has  only  two  Christe,  evidently 
an  oversight.  The  Kyrie  VI  is  a  later  form  of  the  Paschal 
Kyrie  dealt  with  above.  I  may  remark  that  here  we 
meet  the  Pressus  c  b  b  g,  that  is  simplified  in  the  other 


60  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

version.  Another  trifle  is  that  in  the  first  Christe  the 
eleison  has  a  different  melody  from  the  former  version. 
The  MSS.  have  both  melodies,  but  each  MS.  gives  the  same 
form  for  both  the  older  and  the  later  version. 

Kyrie  X  is  the  older  form  of  No.  XI  in  the  body  of 
the  book.  Here  we  find  for  the  second  Kyrie  the  melody 
given  above  as  No.  27.  The  last  Kyrie,  however,  is  not 
found  in  any  MS.  as  given  in  the  Vaticana. 

In  the  Gloria  I  we  are  met  by  an  interesting  psycho- 
logical problem.  We  have  seen  that  in  many  cases  Dom 
Pothier  showed  a  curious  leaning  towards  the  German 
tradition.  Now  this  Gloria,  attributed  to  Pope  Leo  IX> 
belongs  mainly  to  the  German  tradition.  Accordingly  we 
find  very  frequently  the  third  a  c.  Thus,  the  miserere 
nobis  runs  in  the  MSS.  as  follows : 


(36) 


mi-  se-re-re     nobis 


What  does  Dom  Pothier  do  ?     He  changes  the  first  c  into 
b  !     Qui  potest  capere,  capiat. 

For  the  Gloria  II  we  have  three  MSS.     They  are  agreed 




in  writing  - '  •  "  3  •  Dom  Pothier  -  L-«-!'  g  •- 

(37)  writes  (38) 

homi-ni-bus  homi-ni-bus 

At  deprecationem  nostram  the  MSS.  have  e  e  for  nostram. 
Dom  Pothier  writes  d  d,  although  in  the  corresponding 
place,  at  unigenite,  he  has  e. 

For  Gloria  III  there  are  nine  MSS.  They  have  a 
Pressus  at  excelsis  (g  f  f  e)  and  double  d  at  te  (Laudamus 
U,  etc.)  Dom  Pothier  has  a  simple  Climacus  and  a  single 
d.  At  Domine  Deus,  Rex  coelestis  six  MSS.  have 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF    PLAIN   CHANT          6 1 


(39) 

9.  . 

Dom  Pothier's 
version  (40) 

-L.      a       % 

a  . 

*•    J 

*  a  P.  r 

1  —  •  —  r>  —  • 

Do-  mi- 

ne 

Ddmi-  ne 

is  not  found  in  any  MS.     Similarly,  the  melody  of  the  final 
Patris  is  not  found  in  any  MS. 

We  have  come  to  the  end  of  our  weary  journey.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  see  any  definite  principle  in  all  the 
cases  where  Dom  Pothier  has  defied  the  evidence  of  the 
MSS.  In  some  cases,  as  we  have  seen,  he  followed  a  special 
current  of  tradition  against  the  general  tradition  ;  in  others 
a  morbid  fear  of  the  tritone  made  him  introduce  changes  j 
But  for  most  cases  the  only  actuating  principle  that  could 
be  assigned  is  his  *  aesthetic  taste,'  or  shall  we  say,  his 
whim  ?  In  any  case  it  is  clear  that  he  has  given  up  his 
role  as  restorer  of  the  ancient  melodies,  and  has  joined  the 
rank  of  the  '  reformers.' 

It  is  a  melancholy  sight,  this  procession  of  the  '  reformers' 
as  they  pass  through  the  centuries,  although  they  are 
headed  by  a  St.  Bernard.  He  at  least,  or  rather  his  musical 
adviser,  Guido,  the  Abbot  of  Cherlieu,  had  some  show  of 
reason  for  his  changes.  For  it  was  on  the  Scriptural  autho- 
rity of  the  In  psalterio  decachordo  psallam  tibi  that  he  cut 
down  all  the  melodies  exceeding  the  ten-note  compass. 
The  Cistercians  were  followed  in  a  mild  way  by  the  Domini- 
cans, who  looked  upon  the  repetion  of  melodic  phrases, 
and  upon  the  melisma  at  the  end  of  the  Alleluja  verses  as 
redundant.  There  is  a  gap  then  until  we  come  to  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  cry  of  '  Barbarisms  ' 
was  got  up,  and  eventually,  in  1614  and  1615,  the  Medicaea 
resulted.  And  now  they  come  in  regular  succession  through 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  each  subsequent 
editor  improving  on  his  predecessor,  and  according  to  his 
own  peculiar  '  aesthetic  taste '  mutilating  the  poor  Gre- 
gorian melodies,  until  at  last  they  richly  deserved  the  general 
contempt  into  which  they  had  fallen.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  need  of  a  return  was  felt.  But  still  editors 


62  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  reform  to  some  extent. 
Thus,  to  mention  only  a  couple,  we  have  the  edition  of 
Reims-Cambrai  still  yielding  to  the  fear  of  '  barbarisms,' 
and  the  edition  of  Cologne  reducing  all  Gregorian  rhythm 
to  duple  time.  All  these  editions  have  come  and  gone, 
and  now  in  their  wake  we  find  the  Vaticana,  really  the 
saddest  spectacle  of  all,  because  none  of  the  others  were 
the  direct  outcome  of  an  act  of  the  central  authority  of  the 
Church. 

What  next  ?  One  thing  is  certain  to  me.  The  Vaticana 
cannot  last.  Dom  Pothier  has,  indeed,  already  got  a  con- 
siderable number  of  authoritative  pronouncements  in 
favour  of  his  edition.  There  was  first  a  letter  from  Cardinal 
Merry  del  Val,  of  3rd  April,  1905,  of  which  Professor  Wagner 
gives  some  extracts  in  a  paper  published  for  the  Gregorian 
Congress  at  Strasburg.  Then  the  other  letter  of  24th 
June,  quoted  above,  and  finally  two  decrees  of  the  S.R.C., 
dated  nth  August  and  i4th  August,  which,  to  some  extent, 
annul  the  wise  and  liberal  regulations  as  to  other  editions, 
laid  down  in  the  Motu  Proprio  of  25th  April,  1904,  sub  (d) 
quoted  above.  But  what  is  this  compared  with  the  for- 
midable array  of  decrees  that  backed  up  the  Medicaea  ? 
And  yet,  with  one  stroke  of  the  pen,  an  enlightened  and 
determined  Pope  cancelled  them  all.  No,  this  question 
cannot  be  settled  by  decrees.  If  the  Vaticana  cannot  stand 
on  the  strength  of  its  intrinsic  excellence,  no  artificial 
propping  up  by  decrees  will  prevent  it  from  tumbling 
down. 

But  what  are  we  to  do  ?  The  best  thing,  in  my  opinion, 
would  be,  if  the  Solesmes  Benedictines  would  publish  the 
MS.  version  of  the  '  Kyriale.'  It  seems  to  me  that  the 
whole  world,  as  far  as  it  is  interested  in  Plain  Chant,  is 
anxious  to  know  the  MS.  version  of  it,  and  the  monks  of 
Solesmes  would  satisfy  a  general  demand  by  publishing 
that.  But  if  for  some  reason  or  other  they  should  choose 
not  to  do  so,  or  if  Dom  Pothier,  through  the  power  of  the 
Congregation  of  Rites,  should  succeed  in  preventing  the 
original  form  of  the  melodies  of  the  Church  from  being 
published,  then  we  shall  have  to  be  satisfied  with  the 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION   OF   PLAIN    CHANT         63 

Vatican  edition  for  a  time.  We  may  console  ourselves  by 
the  thought  that  of  all  existing  editions  the  Vatican  edition 
is  decidedly  the  best.  If  we  compare  it  with  the  *  Kyriale  ' 
of  the  Liber  Graduates  or  Liber  Usualis,  we  find  not  only 
many  of  their  melodies  much  improved,  but  also  a  con- 
siderable number  of  new  ones  added,  some  of  them  of 
great  beauty,  particularly  the  older  and  simpler  forms  of 
the  As^erges  and  of  the  Kyrie  de  Beata  and  in  Dominicis 
Per  annum.  The  labours  of  the  Solesmes  monks  have  not 
all  been  in  vain.  But  I  hope  still  that  before  long  the 
unconditioned  return  to  the  tradition,  so  happily  inaugu- 
rated by  the  early  acts  of  our  reigning  Pontiff,  will  be 
fully  accomplished. 

H.  BEWERUNGE. 


64 


GENERAL   NOTES 
THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  IMMANENCE 

THE  scene  changes  rapidly  in  France.  The  French  mind  is 
ever  active  and  restless.  Some  few  years  ago  the  question  which 
mainly  occupied  the  thoughts  of  ecclesiastics  in  that  country 
was  whether  Father  Hecker  was  a  saint  or  not,  whether  there 
are  passive  as  well  as  active  virtues,  virtues  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  allows  to  lie  dormant  for  years,  perhaps  for  centuries, 
and  stirs  to  life  and  action  when  He  pleases,  according  to 
His  own  will  and  the  requirements  of  the  age.  Pope  Leo  XIII 
settled  that  controversy. 

Then  the  Abbe  Loisy  startled  the  ecclesiastical  world  with 
his  book  L'Evangile  et  L'Eglise,  soon  to  be  followed  by  a  reply 
to  his  critics  in  another  small  volume,  Autour  d'un  Petit  Livre. 
In  both  these  works,  which  were  intended  as  his  reply  to  Das 
Wesen  des  Christentums,  of  Professor  Adolph  Harnack  of  Berlin, 
the  Abbe  whittled  down  the  essence  of  Christianity  to  very 
small  proportions  indeed.  He  discarded  with  little  ceremony 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  and  indeed  everything  in  the  other 
Gospels  that  stood  in  the  way  of  his  theories.  He  attributed 
motives  to  the  sacred  writers  and  proceeded  to  reject  what  he 
thought  might  be  ascribed  to  these  motives.  One  got  up  from 
the  perusal  of  his  book  without  knowing  whether  he  still  clung 
on  to  the  Divinity  of  our  Lord.  He  held  a  theory  utterly  incom- 
patible with  the  teaching  of  theologians  as  to  the  knowledge  of 
Christ.  Our  Lord,  according  to  him,  did  not  realise  for  a  long 
time  that  He  was  the  Messiah,  and  when  at  last  he  became 
conscious  of  the  fact,  He  had  no  complete  conception  of  its 
significance.  The  coming  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  in  a  vague 
way,  was  all  that  He  anticipated.  The  Abbe  indeed  protested 
that  he  judged  only  from  the  evidence  of  the  Gospel  taken  as  a 
human  document,  and  did  not  presume  to  set  aside  anything  that 
was  essential  in  the  teaching  of  the  Church.  But  his  works 
speak  for  him,  and  their  disturbing  tendency  could  not  be 
denied.  They  were  condemned,  and  the  author  disappeared  both 
from  his  chair  in  the  Sorbonne  and  from  the  public  view. 

No  sooner,  however,  had  the  Abb6  Loisy  gone  under  tern- 


porary  eclipse  than  a  new  band  of  apologists  came  to  the  front. 
They  are  partisans  of  what  they  call  the  '  Philosophy  of 
Immanence.'  Some  of  them  are  laymen,  like  M.  Blondel,  a 
University  Professor,  M.  Edouard  Le  Roy,  a  distinguished  mathe- 
matician, and  M.Fonsegrive,  editor  of  the  Quinzaine  ;  others  are 
priests,  amongst  whom  the  most  prominent  are  the  Oratorian 
Abbe  Laberthonniere,  the  Abbe"  Jules  Martin,  and  the  Abb6 
Charles  Denis.  Most  of  the  articles  expository  of  the  new  system 
have  appeared  in  the  Annales  de  Philosophie  Chretienne.  But  as 
that  review  does  not  circulate  very  widely  amongst  the  general 
public,  the  principal  articles  have  been  published  in  book  form 
by  their  authors,1  and  a  resume"  of  the  system  was  recently 
contributed  to  the  Quinzaine  by  M.  Edouard  Le  Roy. 

It  was  this  last  article  that  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  For 
doctrines  that  had  hitherto  been  expressed  in  very  obscure  pro- 
lixity were  now  formulated  in  fairly  intelligible  language.  The 
article  was  severely  condemned  by  the  Bishop  of  Nancy,  Mgr. 
Turinaz,  who  wrote  a  pamphlet  against  it.  Cardinals  Perraud 
and  Coulli6  lost  no  time  in  congratulating  the  author  of  the 
pamphlet,  and  denouncing  the  new  apologetics  as  foolish  and 
absurd. 

In  the  course  of  the  controversy  the  new  system  was  opposed 
chiefly  by  the  Abbe"  Fontaine  in  his  Infiltrations  Kantiennes  et 
Protestantes,  by  Pere  Le  Bachelet,  S.  J.,  in  De  I' Apologetique  Tradi- 
tionnelle  et  V Apologetique  Moderne,  by  the  Abbe  de  Sertillanges, 
the  Abbe  de  Grandmaison,  and  others  in  various  reviews. 

But  what  is  this  new  doctrine  ?  In  the  first  place  Scholastic 
Philosophy  is  put  aside  as  a  phase  of  Christian  thought,  good 
in  its  day,  admirable  as  a  synthesis,  interesting  as  the  apparatus 
of  former  ages,  but  no  longer  capable  of  establishing  harmony 
between  reason  and  faith,  between  revelation  and  science,  be- 
tween dogma  and  philosophy.  Its  arguments  are  valid  only 
for  those  who  have  the  faith  already.  It  presupposes  faith.  It 
is  of  no  value  when  addressed  to  the  unbelievers  of  our  time. 
If  we  wish  to  influence  our  contemporaries  we  must  enter  into 
their  difficulties,  see  how  far  we  can  adopt  their  point  of  view 
and  their  methods,  and  lead  them  gently  to  the  fold  of  salvation 
by  a  path  that  they  are  willing  to  tread.  Miracles  and  pro- 
phecies have  no  longer  any  demonstrative  value  for  those  who 

1  L' Action,  by  M;  Blondel;   La  Demonstration  Pkilosophique,  by  the 
Abb<§  Martin. 

VOL.   XIX.  E 


66  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

are  versed  in  the  philosophy  most  widely  received  in  our  day. 
They  are,  like  all  other  external  things,  merely  phenomena. 
What  matters  to  us  is  internal,  permanent,  immanent.  There 
is  no  equation  whatever  between  what  we  feel  and  see  and  what 
we  think.  Thought  itself  is  an  act,  and  the  abstraction  which 
expresses  it  is  merely  a  symbol,  and  as  such  incapable  of  expres- 
sing it  completely.  What  we  know,  even  of  ourselves,  is  not 
the  full  measure  of  what  we  are.  But  the  important  thing  is 
what  we  do  know,  not  what  we  express,  and  still  less  what  is 
outside  us.  It  is  in  that  interior  consciousness  that  we  must 
seek  both  light  and  guidance.  It  is  there  we  must  settle  with 
ourselves  the  sense  and  form  in  which  we  can  accept  the  dogmas, 
formularies,  and  teaching  of  the  Church.  And  as  this  con- 
sciousness is  never  at  rest  but  always  in  fieri,  we  are  bound  to 
follow  its  guidance  whithersoever  it  may  lead  us.  It  is  there 
that  reason  has  its  seat  and  its  autonomy  ;  but  it  is  there  also 
that  the  existence  of  a  supernatural  order  is  most  fully  realized, 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  directly  exercises  His  power,  that  the 
Christian  religion  in  all  its  beauty  and  grandeur  wins  our 
allegiance  and  faith.  Doctrinal  and  religious  convictions  are 
acquired  by  a  process  as  mysterious  as  faith  itself,  and  have  but 
little  to  do  with  metaphysics  or  science.  We  feel  within  us  that 
both  are  true  in  their  domain  and  that  is  enough.  The  link 
between  them  is  in  ourselves,  immanent  and  permanent.  There 
is  no  reciprocal  dependence  of  one  on  the  other.  Intellectual 
and  speculative  knowledge  is  entirely  independent  of  knowledge 
of  the  exterior  world.  And  what  is  recognized  within  us  as 
right  and  true  the  intensity  of  the  trained  will  must  communicate 
to  others.  Faith  is  not  acquired  by  any  process  of  reasoning. 
It  comes  from  above  ;  and  he  who  receives  the  gift  is  con. 
vinced  of  its  truth  with  a  more  solid  and  all  pervading 
conviction  than  any  human  knowledge  can  beget.  The 
Author  of  our  nature  has  implanted  in  us  the  need  of  the 
supernatural,  without  which  we  are  incomplete  and  unsatisfied. 
In  that  inmost  fortress  of  our  conscious  being  we  recognize 
that  need  and  all  that  results  from  it — the  Redemption,  the 
Gospel,  the  Church.  The  authority  of  the  Church  is  a  moral 
necessity  :  but  its  definitions  and  decrees  tell  us  what  is  wrong 
rather  than  the  metaphysical  sense  of  what  is  right  and  true. 
That  is  for  ourselves,  each  one  according  to  his  own  light  and 
conscious  condition. 

Such  are  the  fundamental  outlines  of  this  new  system.    It  is 


GENERAL  NOTES  67 


phenomenalist,  subject! vist,  idealist,  with  Kant ;  voluntarist 
with  Schopenhauer  ;  monist  and  evolutionist  with  Hegel.  It 
has  in  addition  to  other  serious  disadvantages  as  an  apologetic 
system  of  Christian  and  Catholic  philosophy  this  one,  that  in 
some  of  its  main  proposals  it  comes  into  direct  collision  with  the 
Dogmatic  Constitution  of  the  Vatican  Council,  which  says  : — 

'  Ut  nihilominus  fidei  nostrae  obsequium  rationi  consen- 
taneum  esset  voluit  Deus  cum  internis  Spiritus  Sancti  auxiliis 
externa  jungi  revelationis  suae  argumenta,  facta  scilicet  divina, 
atque  imprimis  miracula  et  prophetias,  quae  cum  Dei  omnipo- 
tentiam  et  infinitam  scientiam  luculenter  commonstrent,  divinae 
revelationis  signa  sunt  certissima  et  omnium  intelligentiae 
accomodata.' 

It  is  undoubtedly  a  good  and  wholesome  sign  of  the  times 
to  see  both  clergy  and  laity  in  France  so  much  alive  to  the 
necessity  of  meeting  their  contemporaries  as  far  as  possible 
on  their  own  ground  ;  but  it  is  also  an  object  lesson  in  the 
danger  of  laymen  and  priests  who  have  not  a  true  grasp  of  the 
principles  of  Theology,  setting  themselves  up  as  founders  of 
new  systems  and  as  renovators  of  the  great  bulwarks  of 
tradition.  If  it  be  possible  for  the  Church  in  any  sense  to  come 
to  terms  with  the  philosophy  most  in  vogue  at  the  present  day 
in  the  non- Catholic  and  scientific  world,  it  must  be  done  by 
thoroughly  trained  theologians  and  equally  experienced  philo- 
sophers. The  worst  of  it  is,  that  the  best  trained  theologians 
and  philosophers  are,  to  a  great  extent,  leaving  the  field  open 
to  men  whose  good  intentions  nobody  will  question,  but  whose 
equipment  for  the  task  is  neither  singly  nor  collectively  what 
it  should  be.  Perhaps  there  are  better  days  in  store  for  us. 
Faxit  Deus! 


AUGUSTINE    BIRRELL    ON    UNIVERSITIES 

MR.  AUGUSTINE  BIRRELL,  who  now  controls  the  '  Board  of 
Education  '  in  England,  has  written  a  very  interesting  essay  on 
'  The  Ideal  University.'  It  is  published  in  a  volume  of 
Miscellanies  (Elliot  &  Stock,  1902).  In  discussing  the  question 
of  the  patronage  and  general  management  of  a  University, 
he  says  that  the  nation  at  large  should  be  interested  in  it. 

'  The  history  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  during  the  last 
century,'  he  writes,  '  proves  the  result  of  national  indifference,' 


68  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

and  in  support  of  that  opinion  he  quotes  the  author  of  Terrae 
Filius,  who  says  : — 

'  I  have  known  a  profligate  debauchee  chosen  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy,  and  a  fellow  who  never  looked  upon  the 
stars  soberly  in  his  life,  Professor  of  Astronomy.  We  have  had 
History  Professors  who  never  read  anything  to  qualify  them 
for  it  but  Tom  Thumb,  Jack  the  Giant  Killer,  Don  Belianis  of 
Greece,  and  such  like  valuable  records.  We  have  had  number- 
less Professors  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic,  who  scarce  under- 
stood their  mother  tongue,  and  not  long  ago  a  famous  gamester 
and  stock-jobber  was  elected  Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity.' 

And,  farther  on  : — 

'  An  ideal  patron  is,  perhaps,  a  contradiction  in  terms,  but 
if  it  is  to  be  found  anywhere  it  will  be,  I  believe,  in  a  small 
combination  of  men  of  high  character,  reputation,  and  general 
learning,  who  may  be  trusted  to  act  independently  and  judi- 
ciously. The  head  of  a  political  department,  a  town,  or  county 
council  !  Retro  me  Sathanas.  These  are  persons  that  stand  self- 
condemned.  They  have  not  the  time,  the  temper,  the  disposi- 
tion, or  indeed  any  single  one  of  the  necessary  qualifications. 
The  existing  professors  of  the  University,  though  they  might 
well  be  represented  on  the  Board  of  Selection,  should  not  have, 
in  an  ideal  University,  a  predominant  influence  upon  it ;  and 
especially  should  the  Board  be  confined  to  one  Universityjof 
whose  exclusive  interests  they  should  be  fiery  partisans,  and 
with  whose  fortunes  and  reputation  they  should  be  as  closely 
as  possible  allied.' 


Finally  on  the  question  of  a  site  he  writes  :- 


'  I  will  end  where  a  more  dexterous  orator  probably  would 
have  begun,  with  the  site  of  my  ideal  University.  Much  has 
been  written,  much  can  still  be  written,  on  this  golden  theme. 
Had  one  the  eye  of  an  old  Benedictine  or  Cistercian  monk, 
seeking  where  to  establish  a  religious  house  of  his  Order  to  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  comfort  of  the  brethren,  one  might  enlarge 
upon  soils  and  prospects,  on  water-meadows  and  trout  streams  : 
dreams  of  Tintern  and  of  Fountains,  of  Wye  and  Tweed  might 
cross  the  inward  eye — that  is,  the  "  bliss  of  solitude  " — but 
standing  where  I  do,  in 

"  Streaming  London's  central  roar," 

amid  the  huge  population  of  the  mightiest  and  richest,  though 
not  the  most  beautiful  or  the  most  beauty-loving  city  the 
world  has  ever  known,  I  have  already  found  the  object  of  my 


GENERAL  NOTES  69 

search.  When  all  is  said  and  done,  what  is  more  stimulating  to 
the  mind  of  man  than  the  vast  tide  of  population  as  it  pours 
through  the  arteries  of  a  great  city  ?  Where  else  in  the  wide 
world  is  there  so  powerful  a  magnet  as  London  ?  Not  a  day 
passes  but  hundreds  are  drawn  within  her  grasp.  Where  else 
are  there,  can  there  be,  so  many  young  creatures  richly  endowed 
with  natural  gifts  capable  of  cultivation,  astir  with  the  uneasi- 
ness of  youth,  seeing  the  vision  of  the  world,  feeling  the  "  wild 
pulsation,"  hearing  their  days  before  them  and  the  tumult  of 
their  lives,  and  yearning  for  the  large  excitement  that  the 
coming  years  may  yield  ?  If  ever  there  was  a  theatre  for  aca- 
demical actors,  it  is  London.  If  ever  there  was  a  people  and 
an  age  that  needed  the  higher  Education,  we  are  that  people, 
and  we  live  in  that  age." 


THE    MINERVA    FOR    1905-1906 

THE  Minerva,  which  is  a  '  Directory  '  for  the  Universities  of 
the  world,  published  annually  by  Triibner  of  Strasburg, 
gives,  amongst  other  things,  the  statistics  of  students,  together 
with  the  names  of  the  authorities  and  staffs  of  the  various 
universities.  In  last  year's  issue  we  noticed  that  the  Rector 
of  the  University  of  Vienna,  with  6,205  students,  was  a 
Catholic  priest,  the  Rev.  Franz  Schindler,  Professor  of 
Theology.  This  year  the  post  is  occupied  by  Dr.  von 
Philippsberg,  a  professor  of  law.  In  the  German  and 
Austrian  Universities  the  rector  is  changed  every  year, 
and  is  usually  selected  in  turn  from  the  different  faculties. 
Last  year  the  Rector  of  the  University  of  Bonn,  with 
3,217  students,  was  the  Rev.  Johann  Heinrich  Schrors, 
Professor  of  Theology  in  the  Catholic  Faculty.  This  year  the 
Rectorship  is  occupied  by  Professor  Jacobi,  of  the  Philosophical 
Faculty.  Last  year  the  Rector  of  Wiirzburg,  with  1,321  students, 
was  the  Rev.  Sebastian  Merkle,  a  Catholic  priest  and  Professor 
of  Church  History.  This  year  the  post  is  occupied  by  Professor 
Theodore  Boveri,  from  the  Philosophical  Faculty  (Science  and 
Mathematics  section). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Rector  of  the  Czech  University  at 
Prague,  with  3,487  students,  is  this  year  a  Catholic  priest,  the 
Rev.  Antonin  Vrestal,  Professor  of  Theology  ;  whilst  in  the  same 
city  a  Catholic  priest  has  been  replaced  as  Rector  of  the  German 
University,  with  1,335  students,  by  Dr.  Josef  Ulbrich,  Professor 


7°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  Law.  In  the  year  1895  the  number  of  students^at  these  two 
universities  was,  respectively  : — 

German  University        .         .         .1,192 
Czech  University  .          .          .  2,519 

In  the  year  1905,  the  figures  are, 

German  University        .          .          .  1,335 
Czech  University  .          .          .  3,487 

Thus  it  will  be  seen,  whilst  the  Czech  University  is  forging 
ahead,  the  German  establishment  is  almost  stationary. 

The  University  of  Munich,  with  4,766  students,  has  also 
this  year  a  Catholic  priest  at  its  head,  Dr.  Otto  Bardenhewer, 
author  of  various  works  on  Scripture  and  Patrology. 

The  University  of  Louvain  in  1895  had  1,475  students  ;  this 
year  it  has  2,148.  The  Catholic  University  of  Freiburg  in 
Switzerland  had  308  students  in  1895.  It  has  now  558.  The 
Catholic  University  of  America,  which  had  60  students  in  1895, 
has  now  123. 

The  number  of  students  attending  the  Universities  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  in  the  years  1895  and  1905,  is  as  follows  : — 


ENGLAND. 

1895. 

1905. 

Oxford 

3,256 

3,572 

Cambridge 

2,895 

2,879 

London  (Univ.  Colls.) 

1,500 

2,631 

Manchester     . 

928 

1,097 

Liverpool 

Not  given 

900 

Leeds 

1,116 

1,278 

Durham1 

400 

2,i35 

Birmingham 

623 

Not  given 

Bristol 

584 

1,164 

Aberystwyth 

360 

453 

Bangor 

Not  given 

329 

Cardiff 

170 

651 

SCOTLAND. 

Edinburgh 

2,924 

3,140 

Glasgow 

2,080 

2,272 

Aberdeen 

812 

1,100 

St.  Andrews 

199 

287 

Dundee 

7i 

217 

1  Durham  now  includes  the  Medical  School  and  College  of  Science  in 
Newcaitle-on-Tyne. 


GENERAL    NOTES  7 1 


IRELAND. 

1895. 

1905. 

Dublin  University  (Trin.  Coll.)    1,124 

950 

Belfast 

Not  given 

395 

Cork 

245 

2IO 

Galway 

Not  given 

106 

Amongst  the  largest  Foreign  Universities, 

are  :  — 

Paris 

11,010 

12,980 

Vienna 

6,714 

6,205 

Madrid 

5,829 

5,196 

Berlin 

4,807 

6,279 

Naples 

4,881 

4,918 

Munich 

3,754 

4,766 

Harvard 

3,290 

4,136 

St.  Petersburg 

2,804 

4,562 

Yale 

2,350 

3,i38 

Chicago 

1,587 

4,58o 

STATISTICS    OF    THE    WORLD 

THE  following  statistics  of  population,  according  to  the 
most  recent  census,  are  taken  from  Kurschner's  fahrbuch  fur 
1906 : — 

GERMAN  EMPIRE,  56,367,178. 

Protestants,  35,231,104  ;  Catholics,  20,321,441 ;  Other  Christians 
210,265  ;  Jews,  586,833. 

The  chief  States  of  the  Empire  are  represented  as  follows  : — 

Prussia,  34,472,509. 

Protestants,  21,817,577  ;  Catholics,  12,110,229  ;  Other  Christians^ 
142,498  ;  Jews,  392,322. 

Bavaria,  6,176,057. 
Catholics,  4,362,563  ;  Protestants,  1,749,206  ;  Jews,  54,928. 

Baden,  1,867,944. 
Catholics,  1,131,413 ;  Protestants,  704,058  ;  Jews,  26,132. 

Wurtemberg,  2,169,480. 
Protestants,  1,497,299  ;  Catholics,  650,311 ;  Jews,  11,916. 

Kingdom  of  Saxony,  4,202,216. 
Protestants,  3,972,063  ;  Catholics,  197,005  ;  Jews,  12,416. 


72  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Alsace-Lorraine,  1,719,470. 
Catholics,  1,310,391 ;  Protestants,  37,278 ;  Jews,  32,264. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    EMPIRE,   45,405,257. 

Catholics,  35,570,870;  Protestants,  4,224,095;  Greek  Orthodox 
or  Oriental  Church,  3,423,175  ;  Jews,  2,076,277. 

Austria,  26,150,708. 

Catholics,  Latin  Rite,  20,660,279  ;  Catholics  of  Greek,  Ruthenian 
and  Armenian  Rites,  3,136,535 — total  Catholics,  23,796,814 ; 
Protestants,  494,011 ;  Greek  Oriental  Church,  607,462 ; 
Jews,  1,224,899. 

Hungary,  19,254,559. 

Catholics,  Latin  Rite,  9,919,913  ;  Catholics  of  Greek,  Armenian 
and  Ruthenian  Rites,  1,854,143 — total  Catholics,  11,774,056; 
Protestants,  3,730,084 ;  Greek,  Orthodox  or  Oriental, 
Church,  2,815,713  ;  Jews,  851,378. 

RUSSIA,  128,797,534. 

They  are  divided  as  follows,  Russia  in  Europe,  105,843,997  ; 
Russia  in  Asia,  22,953,537.    The  religious  statistics  are  : — 
Greek   Orthodox,    89,606,106;   Roman   Catholics,    11,420,227; 

Protestants,  6,213,237  ;  Other  Christians,  1,224,032  ;  Jews, 

5,189,401 ;  Mahommedans,  13,889,421. 

FRANCE,  38,961,945. 

In  every  thousand  of  the  population  980  are  Catholics,  16 
Protestants,  i  Jew,  other  denominations,  3. 

France  has  upwards  of  50,000,000  subjects  in  her  colonies ; 
but  the  proportion  off  Catholics  amongst  them  is  not  given. 

ITALY,  33,218,223. 

The  Directory  says  that  Italy  is  almost  exclusively  Catholic, 
there  being  in  the  country  only  65,596  Protestants,  and  35,617 
Jews. 

SPAIN,  18,618,086. 

All  Catholics,  except  8,000  Protestants  and  about  1,000 
Jews. 

PORTUGAL,  12,693,132. 
All  Catholics,  except  500  Protestants  and  200  Jews. 

BELGIUM,  6,985,219. 
All  Catholics,  except  20,000  Protestants  and  4,000  Jews. 


GENERAL  NOTES  73 


HOLLAND,  5,430,973- 
Protestants,  3,068,129  ;  Catholics,  1,798,915 ;  Jews,  103, 

TURKEY,  24,028,900. 

In  every  hundred,  50  are  Mohammedans,  40  Greek  Orthodox, 
4  Catholics,  and  i  Jew. 

GREECE,  2,433,806. 
Greek  Orthodox,  except  24,000  Mahommedans  and  600  Jews. 

DENMARK,  2,464,770. 

All  Lutherans,  except  5,373  Catholics,  5,501  Baptists,  3,476 
Jews. 

SWEDEN,  5,221,291. 

All  Protestants,  except  37,000  Baptists,  1,390  Catholics, 
3,402  Jews. 

NORWAY,  2,240,032. 

All  Protestants,  except  10,286  Methodists,  5,674  Baptists, 
1,969  Catholics. 

SWITZERLAND,  3,3i5»443- 
Protestants,  1,916,157  ;  Catholics,  1,379,664  ;  Jews,  12,264. 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND,  42,940,000. 

In  every  thousand  of  the  population,  131  are  Catholics,  575 
Anglicans,  46  Scotch  Established  Church,  246  Dissenters,  and 
2  Jews.  The  total  population  of  the  British  Colonies  and 
Possessions  Beyond  the  Seas  is  given  at  355,372,000. 

CHINA,  330,130,000. 

This  includes  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  Turkestan, 
All  Confucians  and  Buddhists,  except  20,000,000  Mahommedans 
about  1,000,000  Catholics,  and  1,000,000  Protestants. 

JAPAN,  48,35i,764- 
Nearly  all  Shinto  and  Buddhists. 

UNITED  STATES,  76,303,387. 

Of  these  66,990,802  are  whites  ;  8,840,789  negro  and  mulatto  ; 
266,760  Indians  ;  119,050  Chinese  ;  85,986  Japanese.  The  effort 
to  classify  them  according  to  religious  persuasion  has  been  given 
up  in  despair.  We  are  simply  told  that  they  are  divided  into 
a  hundred  different  sects. 

CANADA,  5,372,000 
Statistics  of  religion  not  given. 


74 


THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 


Argentine  Republic    5,160,983 

Bolivia          .          .     1,734,000 

Brazil 

Chili    . 

Columbia 

Costa  Rica   . 

.     1,572,797 
.     4,160,000 


Cuba 
Dominica 
Ecuador 
Guatemala 


SOUTH  AMERICA,  63,147,271. 
All  Catholics  :— 

Haiti  . 
Honduras 
14,400,000 

3,173,783 
3,917,000 
322,618 


1,272,000 
1,364,678 


Mexico 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Salvador 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


1,294,400 

543,741 

13,605,929 

429,310 

400,000 

635,571 
4,559,550 
1,050,912 

978,048 
2,590,981 


AUSTRALIA,  4,086,933. 

In  every  thousand  of  the  population  699  are  Protestants, 
238  Catholics,  4  Jews,  12  heathens,  and  47  unregistered. 

TOTAL  POPULATION  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Europe,  401,542,000  ;  Asia,  822,718,000 ;  Africa,  142,567,000 ; 
America,  148,012,000;  Oceania,4,  086,933. — Total,  1,518,925,933. 


J.     F.   HOGAN,   D.D. 


[    75    ] 


Iftotes  anb  (Queries 

THEOLOGY 

WHO  IS  THE  'PROPRIT7S  PAROOHTJS'  OF  'VAQI'? 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — The  parish  priest  of  parish  A  assists  at  the 
marriage  of  vagi  in  parish  B,  without  the  license  of  the  local 
pastor.  Is  the  marriage  valid  ?  I  always  thought  that  the 
parish  priest  of  the  place  where  the  marriage  is  contracted  is 
the  proprius  parochus  of  vagi,  but  some  doubt  has  arisen  in  my 
mind,  owing  to  teaching  of  Genicot,  vol.  ii.,  page  551,  who  says 
that  according  to  St.  Alphonsus  any  parish  priest  can  anywhere 
validly  assist  at  the  marriage  of  vagi. 

SUBSCRIBER. 

The  question  raised  by  our  correspondent  has  been  often 
discussed  by  theologians,1  some  of  whom  hold,  principally 
on  the  authority  of  Sanchez  and  St.  Alphonsus,  that  any 
parish  priest  in  the  world  can  validly  assist  at  the  marriage 
of  vagi  even  outside  his  own  parish,  and  others* — the  vast 
majority — maintain  that  only  the  parish  priest  of  the 
place  where  the  marriage  is  contracted,  or  another  priest, 
by  his  permission,  can  so  act.  We  accept  the  latter  opinion 
for  the  following  reasons. 

The  general  principle  which  governs  the  reception  of 
the  Sacraments  by  vagi,  subjects  them  to  the  parish  priest 
in  whose  territory  they  happen  to  be.  No  law  of  the  Church, 
decision  of  a  Roman  Congregation,  or  reason  derived  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  makes  an  exception  of  the  Sacrament 
of  Matrimony. 

Again,  there  is  a  twofold  connexion — the  one  local  and 
the  other  personal — by  which  anybody  can  be  subject  to  a 
parish  priest  in  regard  of  marriage,  since  the  decree  Tametsi 
is  local  and  personal  in  its  binding  force.  It  is  evident  that 
vagi  have  a  local  connexion  only  with  the  parish  priest 

'Genicot,  vol.  ii.,  n.  551. 

*Lehmkuhl,  vol.  ii.,  n.  776  ;  Wernz,  n.  178  ;  Feije,  n.  238  ;  Rosset,  n. 
2178. 


76  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

in  whose  parish  they  are  at  the  time  ;  nor  have  they  a  per- 
sonal connexion  with  any  parish  priest  of  whom  they  are 
not  subjects  by  reason  of  a  domicile  or  quasi-domicile  in  his 
parish.  Hence  the  local  parish  priest,  and  he  alone,  can 
validly  assist,  and  delegate  other  priests  to  assist,  at  the 
marriage  of  vagi. 

The  argument  put  forward  on  the  other  side — that  there 
is  no  reason  why  vagi  should  apply  to  one  parish  priest 
rather  than  to  another — is  quite  invalid,  because  by  their 
presence  in  the  parish  vagi  have  a  local  connection  with  the 
pastor  of  that  place  ;  all  the  argument  proves  is  that  vagi  can 
submit  themselves  to  any  parish  priest  by  going  into  his 
parish. 

Moreover,  in  an  authoritative  document x  Benedict  XIV, 
expressly  states  that  the  parish  priest  of  the  place  where 
vagi  are  is  their  proprius  parochus  in  the  sense  of  Trent  :— 
'  Ipsorum  (vagorum)  parochus  is  dicitur  in  quorum  (cujus  ?) 
ditione  versantur ;  quod  pariter  asserendum  est,  licet  alter 
solum  ex  illis,  qui  conjugium  petunt,  vagantium  numero 
adscribantur.'  This  plain  official  statement  leaves  little 
room  for  doubt  about  the  true  doctrine. 

Hence  we  hold  that  the  opinion  of  Lehmkuhl,  etc.,  is 
the  only  one  which  has  speculative  probability  in  its  favour  ; 
nor  can  we  admit  that  the  other  view  is  probable  in  practice 
on  account  of  extrinsic  authority,  because  there  are  few  who 
hold  it,  and  because  it  is  wrongly  attributed  to  Sanchez 
and  St.  Alphonsus.  Sanchez  2  says  of  vagi  : — 

Hinc  infertur,  si  quis  pristinum  domicilium  omnino  deserens, 
iter  agat,  aut  naviget  anirao  acquirendi  novum  domicilium  dum 
nondum  acquisivit,  incipiens  habitare,  posse  eum  coram  quo- 
cunque  parocho  contrahere  matrimonium.  Quia  est  vagus,  et 
nulli  subditus  :  ut  probavi  n.  2.  Item  quia  potest  cuicumque 
fateri,  tanquam  vagus,  ut  diximus  n.  5  et  6.  Ergo  et  coram 
quocunque  parocho  contrahere  matrimonium. 

In  this  passage  Sanchez  says  that  a  vagus  can  be  married 
before  any  parish  priest,  but  he  does  not  say  that  any  parish 
priest  can  assist  at  the  marriage  outside  his  own  parish  ;  on 

1  Instr.  33,  n.  10.  -  De  Matrimonio,  i.  3,  disp.  xxv.,  n.  13. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  77 

the  contrary,  his  argument  shows  that  he  speaks  of  a  parish 
priest  who  is  in  his  parish,  because  he  bases  his  teaching  on 
a  parity  between  Matrimony  and  Penance.  But  only  the 
local  parish  priest,  or  another  priest  having  delegated  juris- 
diction for  the  parish,  can  absolve  a  vagus,  a  doctrine  which 
Sanchez  held  as  is  clear  from  a  previous  paragraph,  n.  5, 
in  which  he  proves  that  any  parish  priest  can  absolve  vagi  : 
'  Ubique  (vagi)  sortiuntur  forum,  possuntque  pro  delictis 
alibi  commissis  puniri,'  an  axiom  which  holds  only  so  long 
as  the  delinquent  is  in  the  territory  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  concerned. 

St.  Liguori  is  also  credited  with  the  same  view  because 
he  said  : — '  Commune  est,  quod  vagi  possunt  contrahere 
coram  quovis  parocho,  ita  Sanchez,'  etc.1  Now  St.  Alphonsus 
asserts  that  any  parish  priest  can  assist  at  these  marriages, 
but  he  does  not  say  that  he  can  do  so  outside  his  own 
parish,  which  is  an  entirely  different  thing. 

We  agree,  therefore,  with  those  theologians  who  hold 
that  the  only  safe  doctrine  is  contained  in  the  clear  autho- 
ritative statement  of  Benedict  XIV,  who  declares  that  the 
parish  priest  of  vagi  is  he  in  whose  parish  they  happen  to  be 
at  the  time  of  marriage. 

TRANSFERENCE  OP  MASSES  TO  THE  BISHOP. 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — I  get  intentions  for  Masses  from  day  to 
day,  and  have  always  on  hands  just  about  the  number  I  can  say 
in  one  month.  But  special  occasions  occur,  corpse-house  Masses, 
nuptial  Masses,  etc.  Now  I  find  on  several  occasions  that 
although  I  have  only  as  many  Masses  as  I  can  easily  say  in  a 
month  from  any  fixed  date,  still  owing  to  the  unforeseen  cir- 
cumstances I  have  mentioned,  some  of  these  are  on  hands Afive 
or  six  days  more  than  a  month  from  the  date  I  received  them. 
Can  I  keep  these  intentions,  seeing  that  I  have  more  than  I 
can  easily  discharge  within  a  month  from  the  present  date,  or 
must  I  forward  them  to  the  Bishop  ? 

SACERDOS. 

In  the  case  stated  by  our  correspondent  there  is  no 

1  Vol.  ii.  n.  1089. 


78  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

obligation  to  transfer  the  honoraria  to  the  Bishop,  although 
there  is  one  to  celebrate  the  Masses  at  once. 

The  time  available  for  the  lawful  celebration  of  Masses 
must  be  reckoned  according  to  moral  estimation  and  not 
on  strict  mathematical  lines.  Hence,  when  a  month  is 
allowed,  any  term  within  five  weeks  would,  probably,  be 
included  therein  ;  and  consequently  a  priest  who  can  cele- 
brate the  remaining  Masses  within  that  period  is  not  bound 
to  transfer  them  to  the  Ordinary. 

Moreover,  the  decree  Ut  debita  allows  any  delay  in  cele- 
brating Masses,  and  in  transferring  them  to  the  Bishop, 
which  is  in  accordance  with  the  reasonably  presumed  con- 
sent of  the  donor  ;  such  consent  seems  to  exist  in  the  present 
case  for  a  delay  of  a  few  days,  since  the  priest  can  celebrate 
the  Masses  in  a  shorter  time  than  the  Bishop  can  hope  to 
have  them  said  ;  and  since  the  Bishop  could,  in  conformity 
with  the  decree,  hand  back  these  Masses  to  the  same  priest 
who  is  without  superfluous  honoraria.  Hence  the  Masses 
can  be  lawfuUy  retained  in  the  circumstances. 

What  has  been  said  so  far  is  independent  of  a  further 
question  which  arises  in  connexion  with  the  article  that 
commands  the  transference  of  unfulfilled  obligations  to  the 
Ordinary.  Having  indicated  the  time  available  for  the 
celebration  of  manual  Masses  the  decree  gives,  in  its  fourth 
article,  an  authentic  interpretation  of  that  part  of  the  decree 
Vigilanti  which  ordered  that  Masses  be  given  to  the  Bishop 
after  a  year  : — 

Ad  tollendas  ambiguitates,  Emi.  Patres  declarant  ac  statuunt 
tempus  his  verbis  praefmitum  ita  esse  accipiendum,  ut  pro 
missis  fundatis  aut  alicui  beneficio  adnexis  obligatio  eas  de- 
ponendi  decurrat  a  fine  illius  anni  intra  quern  onera  impleri 
debuissent ;  pro  missis  vero  manualibus  obligatio  eas  deponendi 
incipiat  post  annum  a  die  suscepti  oneris,  si  agatur  de  magno 
missarum  numero ;  salvis  praescriptionibus  praecedenlis  articuli 
pro  minore  missarum  numero  aut,  diversa  voluntate  offerentium. 

Do  the  words  referring  to  a  small  number  of  Masses  imply 
that  these  must  be  given  to  the  Bishop  as  soon  as  the  avail- 
able time  for  celebrating  them  has  elapsed  ;  or  do  they  mean 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  79 

that,  although  the  decree  Vigilanti  continues  to  rule  them 
they  must  nevertheless  be  celebrated  under  pain  of  sin  within 
the  times  specified  in  a  previous  article  ;  or  do  they  state 
that  the  decree  Vigilanti  has  no  reference  to  them,  the  pro- 
visions of  a  previous  article  in  regard  to  the  lawful  time  of 
their  celebration  being  considered  sufficient  ?  If  the  first 
interpretation  is  correct  they  must  be  given  to  the  Bishop 
as  soon  as  the  time  for  celebrating  them  has  elapsed,  unless 
the  donor  wishes  them  to  be  retained  ;  if  one  of  the  other 
interpretations  is  accurate  they  need  not  be  transferred  at 
least  till  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  first  is  urged  by  the  fact  that  the  article  expresses 
the  intention  of  removing  difficulties  concerning  the  mean- 
ing of  the  decree  Vigilanti,  and,  unless  the  time  when  the 
decree  insists  on  the  transference  of  a  small  number  of 
Masses  is  indicated  in  the  words  salvis  praescriptionibus,  etc., 
the  principal  difficulty  of  the  case  remains  to  be  solved. 
It  might  also  be  fairly  said  that,  in  the  context,  the  natural 
meaning  of  the  phrase  salvis  praescriptionibus,  etc.,  is,  that 
in  the  matter  of  giving  honoraria  to  the  Bishop,  the  time 
mentioned  in  a  previous  article  is  obligatory. 

The  second  is  favoured  by  the  absence  of  any  definite 
reference  in  a  previous  article  which  the  fourth  commands 
to  be  observed,  to  this  obligation  of  transferring  honoraria  ; 
and  also  by  the  fact  that  when  there  is  question  of  a  large 
number  of  Masses  to  be  personally  celebrated,  some  of  them 
must  be  said  before  the  end  of  the  year,  and  yet  there  is  no 
obligation  of  giving  them  to  the  Bishop  till  the  year  has 
expired. 

The  third  seems  to  be  entirely  excluded  by  the  univer- 
sality of  the  obligation  imposed  by  the  decree  Vigilanti 
which  says  : — '  Omnes  .  .  .  utcunque  ad  missarum  onera 
implenda  obligati,  sive  ecclesiastici,  sive  laici  in  fine  cujus- 
libet  anni  missarum  onera  quae  reliqua  sunt,  et  quibus 
nondum  satisfecerint,  propriis  Ordinariis  tradant  juxta 
modum  ab  iis  definiendum';  nor  is  there  any  sign  of  a  revo- 
cation of  this  provision,  which  would  now  free  a  small 
number  of  Masses  from  the  rule  laid  down  for  them  by  the 
decree  Vigilanti. 


80  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Although  the  first  interpretation  seems  the  most  prob- 
able, still  the  decree  Ut  debita  is  hardly  so  clear  as  to  exclude 
the  second  as  improbable,  which  can  in  consequence  be 
adopted  in  practice  till  an  authentic  decision  shall  be  given. 
Hence  there  is  an  additional  reason  for  not  transferring  to 
the  Ordinary  the  few  remaining  Masses  which  a  priest  can 
celebrate  personally  or  by  another  within  five  or  six  days. 

J.  M.  HARTY. 
LITURGY 

EXEQUIAL     MASS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — In  the  Diocese  to  which  I  belong,  though 
there  is  no  Diocesan  law,  there  is  a  long  standing  custom  that 
the  least  number  of  priests  necessary  for  a  Missa  Cantata  de 
requie  should  be  five,  and  for  a  Missa  Solemnis  de  requie, 
thirteen. 

I  would  like  to  know — (i)  What  is  the  least  number  required 
by  the  general  law  of  the  Church  for  a  Missa  Cantata  de  requie  ? 
(2)  If,  notwithstanding  the  Diocesan  custom  referred  to,  any 
justification  can  be  alleged  for  a  priest  who  holds  a  Missa  Cantata 
de  requie,  without  having  invited  the  minimum  (five)  where  this 
attendance  could  be  easily  procured  ?  (3)  Is  it  justifiable  to 
substitute  the  Missa  Cantata  de  requie  for  the  ordinary  parochial 
low  Mass,  considering  many  business  people,  who  wished  to 
assist  at  a  low  Mass  only,  are  unduly  delayed  ? 

A  reply  in  an  early  number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  would 
oblige,  yours  faithfully, 

IGNOTUS. 

The  Exequial  Mass  contemplated  by  the  Rubrics,  and 
referred  to  by  the  Roman  Ritual1  as  desirable  on  the  death 
of  a  member  of  the  faithful,  is  a  Solemn  Mass  de  requie  cele- 
brated with  deacon  and  sub-deacon,  or  at  least  a  Missa 
Cantata.  It  is  only  to  these  that  the  privileges  apply  that 
have  been  so  generously  granted  by  the  Church.  Evidently, 
then,  the  Exequial  Mass  is  entitled  to  a  certain  degree  of 
solemnity,  without  which  it  cannot  take  place.  As  far  as 

'Tit.  vi.,  c.  i.  n.  4. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  8l 

we  can  ascertain  there  is  no  general  law  laying  down  the 
minimum  number  of  priests  that  should  be  present  to 
render  legitimate  either  the  solemn  Requiem  Mass  or  the 
Missa  Cantata.  All  that  is  required  seems  to  be  that  there 
should  be  a  sufficient  number  of  sacred  ministers  about  the 
altar  and  of  singers  in  the  choir  to  ensure  that  the  function 
will  be  carried  out  with  due  decorum.  From  this  point  of 
view  numbers  do  not  count,  for  one  priest  in  the  choir  who 
can  sing  will  lend  more  religious  eclat  to  the  ceremony  than 
half-a-dozen  who  cannot  sing.  If  the  Office  is  recited 
before  the  Mass,  as  it  ought  to  be,  then  there  should  be 
enough  of  priests  or  clerics  present  to  recite  it  properly. 
Diocesan  legislation  can,  however,  step  in  and  declare  the 
conditions  under  which  the  Exequial  Office  is  likely  to  be 
carried  out  properly,  and  where  there  is  a  ruling  on  the 
matter  it  must,  of  course,  be  adhered  to.  We  think  that 
where  such  a  regulation  exists  there  can  be  no  justification 
for  disregarding  it,  where  compliance  with  it  entails  no 
difficulty  or  inconvenience. 

The  Roman  Ritual1  says :  'Si  quis  die  festo  sit  sepeliendus 
Missa  propria  pro  Defunctis  praesente  cadavere  celebrari 
poterit :  dum  tamen  Conventualis  Missa  et  Officia  divina 
non  impediantur,  et  magna  diei  celebritas  non  obstet.' 
Now  the  parochial  Mass  is  one  of  the  things  that  cannot  be 
neglected,  and  hence,  per  se,  the  Exequial  Mass  cannot  be 
substituted  for  it.2  Moreover,  the  Parish  priest  is  bound 
to  apply  the  Mass  pro  populo,  and  the  Exequial  Mass  is  not 
allowed  unless  it  is  said  pro  defuncto.  Hence,  where  there 
is  only  one  Mass  in  a  parish  church  the  case  is  clear.  Sup- 
posing there  are  two  Masses  in  a  church  on  a  Sunday,  may 
the  Exequial  Mass  be  substituted  for  one  of  them  ?  We 
think  it  may,  at  least  according  to  the  general  law  of  the 
Church,which  contemplates  only  one  parochial  Mass  properly 
so  called,  unless  there  is  some  diocesan  regulation,  or  some 
other  inconvenience  that  would  forbid  it.  We  assume,  of 
course,  that  the  Missa  de  requie  can  be  properly  carried  out, 

'Tit.  vi.,  c.  i.  n.  5.  \S.C.R.  Deer.  n.  4024. 

VOL.   XIX.  F 


82  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  priests  available  for  this 
purpose,  and  that  it  does  not  prevent  the  performance  of 
any  necessary  parochial  functions.  The  Exequial  Mass 
should  supersede  that  one  of  the  two  Masses  said  on  a 
Sunday,  which  is  the  less  important,  and  with  which  the 
sermon  or  devotions  are  not  connected. 


PREFACE  OF  MASS  DUBINGt  THE    QTJARANT'   QBE. 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Will  you  kindly  answer  in  the  I.  E.  RECORD 
the  following  question  : — What  Preface  should  be  said  in  the 
Mass  of  the  Forty  Hours'  Exposition,  when  it  takes  places 
(i)  on  the  First  Sunday  of  Advent,  and  (2)  when  it  takes  place 
on  the  Second  Sunday  of  Advent,  when  that  Sunday  falls  within 
the  Octave  of  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  ? 

In  the  first  case  the  Mass  to  be  said  is  the  Mass  of  the  Sunday, 
with  a  commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  but  I  am 
doubtful  whether  the  Preface  should  be  of  the  Sunday,  De 
Trinitate — or  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  De  Nativitate. 

In  the  second  case,  the  Second  Sunday  of  Advent,  when 
that  Sunday  falls  within  the  Octave  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, the  Mass  should  also,  I  believe,  be  of  the  Sunday,  with 
a  commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  only,  but  as  three 
Prefaces  occur — that  of  the  Sunday,  the  Blessed  Sacrament* 
and  the  Blessed  Virgin — I  do  not  know  which  should  be  said. 

DUBIUS. 

In  the  first  instance  the  Preface  to  be  said  is  that  of  the 
Sunday,  De  Trinitate.  There  is  no  change  to  be  introduced 
into  the  Mass  of  the  day  on  account  of  the  Exposition 
except  the  commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  under 
the  same  conclusion  as  the  prayer  of  the  Mass.  In  the  second 
case  the  Preface  should  be  De  B.V.M.  Here  again  the 
Exposition  makes  no  change  in  the  Mass  of  the  day  except 
the  Commemoration,  and  the  Preface  of  the  Octave  takes 
precedence  over  that  of  the  Sunday. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  83 

MEANING-    OF    'RUBEUS'    AS    LITURGICAL    COLOUR 
LIGHTS    IN    CHURCH    DURING    BENEDICTION 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — May  I  trouble  you  to  let  me  know  through 
the  I.  E.  RECORD — (i)  What  is  meant  by  the  colour  '  Rubeus,' 
which  is  prescribed  by  the  Rubrics  for  the  Masses  of  certain 
feasts  ?  Will  any  one  of  the  manifold  varieties  of  '  Red  '  suffice  ? 
(2)  Is  it  rubrical  to  have  candles  lighted  in  a  church  during  Mass 
or  Benediction  ? — I  am,  yours  faithfully, 

G.  D. 

1.  Red  is  one  of  the  primary  colours,  and  has  various 
shades  or  hues  from  the  bright  scarlet  to  the  sombre  purple. 
We  would  say  that  any  of  these  tints,  so  long  as  it  can 
popularly   be   designated    '  Rubeus,'    fulfils   the   liturgical 
requirement.     As  the  symbol  of  fire  and  blood,  red  testifies 
burning  charity  and  consuming  self-sacrifice.     It  is  appro- 
priately used,  therefore,  on  the  Feasts  of  the  Sacred  Passion 
of  our  Saviour,  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  the  Martyrs. 
The  Spouse  in  the  Canticles    is  '  candidus  et  rubicundus.' 

2.  We  presume  that  there  is  question  of  the  lights  that 
burn  before  statues,  and  that  our  correspondent  wishes  to 
know  if  these  lights  may  be  retained  during  Mass  or  Bene- 
diction.    In  a  previous  issue  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  1  we  dis- 
cussed the  propriety  of  these  lights,  and  concluded  that 
they  are  not  forbidden  by  any  ecclesiastical  enactment, 
provided  that  they  do  not  give  rise  to  the  danger  of  de- 
tracting from  the  worship  and  adoration  due  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  or  of  confounding  the  cultus  duliae  of  the  images 
of  the  saints  with  the  cultus  latriae  which  is  to  be  rendered 
absolutely  to  God  Himself  and  relatively  to  the  material 
things   which   represent    Him.     The   question   was   asked 
whether  images  and  statues  in  the  locality  of  the  High 
Altar  on  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed  should 
be  covered  during  the  Exposition  of  the  Forty  Hours,  and 
the  reply  was,  *  Negative  :  et  solum  tegenda  est  imago  quae 
extat  in  Altari  in  quo  fit  exposition 

In  1874  another  question  was  asked  : — *  Permittitur  ne 
vel  saltern  toleratur  antiqua  consuetudo  tenendi  sacras 

1  Sept.  1904,  pp.  256-8.  *  S.  R.  C.  Deer.,  n.  3241. 


84  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

magines  detectas  in  Capella  vel  Altari,  stante  Expositione 
Quadraginta  Horarum  ? '  In  the  reply  the  matter  was 
referred  to  the  discretion  and  prudence  of  the  Ordinary. 
If,  then,  images,  except  in  accordance  with  the  first  Decree 
given — those  on  the  High  Altar — may  remain  uncovered 
and  exposed  during  the  Forty  Hours'  Adoration,  there  is 
no  reason  why  lights  should  not  be  used  before  them. 
But  on  this  occasion,  lest  they  should  attract  too  much 
attention  to  the  detriment  of  what  is  due  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  the  lights  should  be  used  very  sparingly. 

THE  CONFRATBBNITY  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOOTBINB— (continued) 
FORMALITIES   OF   CANONICAL   ERECTION 

THE  Bull  Quaecunque,  issued  by  Clement  VIII  in  1604, 
lays  down  in  detail  all  the  things  that  are  to  be  observed 
in  the  establishment  of  Confraternities.  According  to  this 
constitution,  supplemented  by  subsequent  decisions  and 
regulations  of  the  Pope  and  the  various  Congregations,  the 
following  must  be  carefully  attended  to. 

A  parish  priest  about  to  set  up  any  Confraternity  in  his 
parish  should,  as  a  first  preliminary,  seek  the  counsel  and 
authorization  of  his  Ordinary.  As  a  general  rule  Bishops 
have  jure  ordinario,  the  power  of  erecting  confraternities 
within  the  limits  of  their  dioceses.  This  faculty  does  not 
belong  to  the  Vicar-General  without  express  mention.  In 
regard  to  confraternities  that  are  associated  with  certain 
religious  Orders,  the  powers  of  canonical  erection  are  vested 
in  the  Generals  of  these  Orders  exclusively,  and  may  not  be 
exercised  by  Bishops  independently  of  special  delegation 
by  the  Holy  See.  The  erection  of  a  Confraternity  is  one 
thing,  however,  and  the  aggregation  or  affiliation,  by  which 
the  confrerie  becomes  a  participator  in  the  privileges  and 
indulgences  enjoyed  by  the  Arch-confraternity  of  the  same 
name  in  Rome,  is  quite  another,  and  power  to  erect  did  not 
always  presuppose  the  faculty  of  affiliating.  The  erection 
was  often  a  condition  on  the  fulfilment  of  which  affiliation 
was  obtained  from  the  Arch-confraternity.  As  far  as  our 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  85 

country  is  concerned  this  distinction  is  of  no  practical  im- 
portance, for  by  an  Instruction  issued  by  the  Propaganda  in 
June,  1889,  Bishops  subject  to  it  have  full  powers  for  estab- 
lishing all  Confraternities  and  Sodalities  approved  by  the 
Holy  See,  and  for  granting  to  them  all  the  privileges  and 
favours  which  affiliation  could  confer.  To  be  able,  however, 
to  endow  the  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary  with  the  very 
special  privileges  that  are  peculiar  to  it,  recourse  must  be 
had  to  the  General  of  the  Dominicans.  Bishops,  then,  have 
the  plenitude  of  power,  as  regards  the  Confraternity  of 
Christian  Doctrine.  The  authorization  of  the  Bishop  should 
be  in  writing,  and  should  be  deposited  in  the  archives  of  the 
parish  or  Confraternity,  so  that  if  the  canonicity  of  the 
erection  were  ever  called  into  question,  this  documentary 
evidence  might  silence  all  doubts.  When  the  requisite  per- 
mission is  being  sought  for  the  erection  of  the  Society,  the 
statutes  or  rules  by  which  it  is  to  be  controlled  should  be 
submitted  for  episcopal  approval.  These  rules  should  be 
simple  and  modelled  upon  what  is  demanded  by  the  end 
of  the  Confraternity  and  the  means  and  practical  method 
of  giving  it  effect.  What  has  been  said  in  the  last  number 
of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  about  the  regulations  for  working  the 
Confraternity  in  Rome  will  supply  suggestions  for  drawing 
up  a  code  of  rules  that  will  be  suitable  to  the  needs  of  each 
place,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  Bishops  can  modify 
the  statutes  of  the  Arch-confraternity  so  as  to  make  them 
practical  and  workable  in  their  dioceses.  The  appointment 
of  a  Director  must  be  also  made  by  the  Bishop,  and  it  would 
be  of  advantage  if  the  priest  so  nominated  were  also  to 
receive  the  power  of  delegating  another  priest  to  act  in  his 
stead,  in  case  he  ever  found  it  impossible  or  inconvenient  to 
discharge  the  duties  in  person.  Mention  of  this  fact  should 
be  made  in  the  statutes.  In  nominating  the  Director  the 
Bishop  will  give  him  all  requisite  faculties  for  blessing 
badges  and  medals  and  imparting  all  the  Indulgences  of  the 
Society.  Since  1861  Bishops  have  the  power  of  appointing 
the  parochi  pro  tempore  as  Rectors  and  Directors  of  the 
various  _Confraterni  ties.  The  next  thing  is  the  reception 


86  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  associates  or  members.  In  all  Confraternities  the  actual 
entry  of  the  names  is  essential.  If  there  is  a  canonically 
erected  branch  in  the  parish,  it  is  enough  to  enter  the  names 
on  the  register  of  this  branch.  If  there  is  no  canonically 
erected  branch,  then  the  names  must  be  sent  on  from  time 
to  time  to  some  place  where  such  a  branch  exists.  The 
Director  himself,  or  some  one  duly  authorized  by  him,  makes 
entry  of  the  names.  If  the  Director  should  not  happen  to 
write  the  list,  it  would  be  well  if  he  initialled  it  to  give  it 
the  sanction  of  his  authority.  This  enrolment  comprises 
the  essentials  of  reception.  For  most  Confraternities  there 
is  a  special  formula,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  special  one 
for  the  Confraternity  of  Christian  Doctrine.  The  general 
form  will  be  quite  sufficient.  As  we  have  not  found  it  in 
the  Roman  Ritual  we  give  it  here  : — 

Auctoritate  mihi  concessa  Ego  vos  (te)  recipio  et  adscribo 
Confraternitatis  Doctrinae  Christianae  vosque  participes  facio 
omnium  gratianim,  Indulgentiarum,  privilegiorum,  bonorumque 
spiritualium  ejusdem  Confraternitatis  in  nomine  Patris,  etc. 

On  the  occasion  of  inaugurating,  or  re-establishing  the 
Confraternity  of  Christian  Doctrine,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  surround  the  simple  reception  of  members  with  more  or 
less  solemnity.  The  nature  of  the  Confraternity  being 
explained  to  the  people  beforehand  and  the  advantages  of 
membership  being  put  before  them,  a  convenient  hour 
might  be  selected  for  the  enrolment  of  members  when  it 
would  be  possible  to  have  Benediction  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament. 

RULES   OF  THE   CONFRATERNITY 

We  have  come  across  a  copy  of  the  Provincial  Statutes 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Dublin,  published  in  1831,  which 
contains  in  the  Appendix  the  rules  for  the  Confraternity  of 
the  Christian  Doctrine.  As  some  of  our  readers  have  been 
anxious  to  know  where  they  might  procure  a  copy  of  these 
rules,  we  gladly  publish  them.  They  may  not  be  alto- 
gether suitable  to  the  conditions  of  modern  times,  or  to  the 
circumstances  of  particular  places,  but  they  will  afford  a 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES 


basis  to  go  upon,  and  may  be  modified,  with  the  authority 
of  the  Bishop,  wherever  necessary: — 

1.  The  object  of  this  Society  is  to  promote,  amongst  all 
classes  of  the  faithful,  the  knowledge  of  the  Christian  Doctrine, 
and  is  to  be  in  all  things  under  the  special  care  and  superintend- 
ence of  the  parochial  clergy. 

2.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  Treasurer   are  to  be 
elected  by  ballot,  on  the  first  Sunday  of  January  in  each  year, 
and  a  Secretary  is  to  be  appointed  by  the  President.     The 
election  of  these  officers  must  be  confirmed  by  the  Parish  Priest 
{Director). 

3.  The  members  are  also  to  be  chosen  by  ballot ;  but  no 
person  can  be  proposed  until  he  shall  have  obtained  a  written 
•certificate  from  some  one  of  the  parochial  clergy,  and  he  cannot 
be  voted  into  the  Society,  until  he  shall  have  been  employed  for 
two  months  in  discharging  the  duty  of  a  member. 

4.  A  meeting  of  all  the  members  shall  be  held  on  the  first 
Sunday  of  each  month,  at  which  anything  regarding  the  welfare 
of  the  Society  shall  be  discussed  and  determined.     If  possible, 
one  of  the  clergy  (Director)  shall  attend  this  meeting. 

5.  A  Committee  of  five  shall  be  chosen  on  the  first  Sunday 
of  each  quarter,  and  these,  with  the  President,  Vice-President, 
and  clergy  shall  arrange   the  classes,    appoint   the  teachers, 
award    the    premiums,  and  transact  all    the  other    business 
of  the  Society. 

6.  The  teachers  of  each  class  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
charged  with  the  instruction  of  the  children  in  their  own  neigh- 
bourhood, and  are,  at  all  times,  to  watch  over  the  conduct  of  their 
pupils. 

7.  There  shah1  be  a  public  examination  held  the  first  week 
of  May  in  each  year,  and  the  premiums  shall  be  distributed  on 
the  third   Sunday  of  the  same  month,  by  the  Priests  in    the 
church. 

8.  Each  member,  when  enrolled  in  the  Society,  is  to  pay  One 
Shilling,  and  One  Penny  a  month  afterwards.     The  Treasurer 
shall  pay  no  money  unless  he  receives  a  written  order   signed 
by  the  President. 

9.  Any  member  absent  from  Catechism  for  three  successive 
Sundays  without  some  very  good  reason,  or  who  shall  allow  his 
subscription  to  be  three  months  in  arrear,  shah1  first  be  admonished 
by  the  President  to  discharge  his  duty  more  regularly,  and,  if 
he  neglect  such  admonition,  he  shall  no  longer  be  considered  a 
member  of  the  Society,  and  must  be  re-elected  if  he  wish  to 
return. 

- 10.  Any  member  who  shall  frequent  public-houses,  or  give 
bad  example  in  the  parish,  must  be  expelled  from  the  Society. 
Members  are  exhorted  to  approach  Holy  Communion  the  first 
Sunday  of  each  month,  in  order  to  gain  the  Plenary  Indulgence. 


88  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Rule  5  is  the  most  important.  It  should  provide  for  (a) 
the  attendance  and  classification  of  the  pupils  ;  (b)  pro- 
gramme of  instruction  suitable  to  each  grade  ;  (c)  books  to 
be  used  ;  (d)  appointment  of  teachers,  notaries  to  record 
na/nes  of  absentees,  prefects  to  arrange  pupils  in  their  proper 
places  and  grades,  and  be  generally  helpful  during  the  classes ; 
(e)  time  at  which  instructions  are  given  and  their  duration  ; 
(/)  officers  to  look  up  the  absentees  and  bring  them  in. 

Rule  9.  Persons  may  become  members  of  the  Society, 
even  though  they  do  not  participate  actively  in  the  Sunday 
classes,  provided  they  undertake  to  promote  the  welfare: 
of  the  Society  in  any  of  the  ways  indicated  in  last  issue. 

P.   MORRISROE. 


DOCUMENTS 

BIS  HOLINESS  POPS  PIUS  X  AND  THE  POLES 

EX  ACTIS  SUMMI   PONTIFICIS   ET  E  SECRETAR     BREVIUM 

ALLOCUTIO  SSMI.  AD  JUVENES  CATHOLICOS  STUDENTES  POLONIAE, 

DIE   24  APRIL.    1905. 

Maximae  sint  tibi  grates,  Venerabilis  Frater,1  qui  diserta 
allocutione  dilectos  filios  coram  Nobis  ostendens  iucunditatem 
ac  solatium  animo  Nostro  attulisti.  Si  enim  semper  et  praecipue 
cordi  Nobis  est  iuventus,  verbis  satis  significare  non  possumus, 
quantum  gaudii  Nobis  afferat  conspectus  uvenum  Gentis 
Polonae,  cuius  et  praeclara  spirat  memoria  gestarum  rerum  et 
magnam  erga  hanc  Sanctam  Sedem  coniunctam .  cum  fiducia 
pietatem  agnovimus. 

Hi  enim  fratres  sunt  illorum,  qui  sicut  perbelle  meministi, 
ineunte  saeculo  XIII,  ferventi  religionis  ardore  incensi  innumeri 
in  Syriam  et  Palaestinam  dimicantes  convenerunt,  ut  loca 
sanctissimis  Redemptions  nostrae  mysteriis  consecrata  recu- 
perarent  et  christiani  nominis  hostes  ad  catholicam  veritatem 
converterent.  Hi  filii  sunt  illorum  patrum,  qui  tremefacta 
Europa  ad  impetus  hostium  praepotentium,  pectorum  suorum 
praesidia  inter  primes  insignibus  proeliis  opposuerunt :  iidem 
religionis  et  civilis  cultus  vindices  acerimi,  fidissimique  custodes- 
Hi  sunt  iuvenes,  qui  macte  virtute  saeculi  fallacias  et  malorum 
exempla  caventes,  ad  omnem  christianam  laudem  animose  con- 
tendunt,  nee  postrema  cura  ea  est  aliis  prodesse  exemplo, 
scilicet  ut  multi  numerentur,  qui  cum  illis  rerum  omnium, 
quae  honestae  sint  communione  iungantur. 

Dum  porro  vos,  dilecti  Filii,  non  degeneres  virtutis  patrum 
gaudenter  perspicimus,  praeclaras  voluntates  vestras  omni,  ut 
par  est,  commendatione  prosequimur,  atque  animos  etiam 
vobis  ultro  addimus,  ut  studiis  vestris  earn  gloriam  sectemini 
quae  in  probanda  Deo  et  Ecclesiae  fide  vestra  continetur.  Quod 
si  in  hac  via  fideliter  institeritis,  minime  dubitamus  lucem 
exempli  vestri  plurimum  valituram,  ut  plures  ea  excitati,  ac 
tristi  eorum  conditione  permoti,  qui  saeculi  erroribus  anguntur, 

1  Illmo.  ac  Revmo.  Archiep.  Leopoliensi. 


9°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

sesse  vobis  socios  adsciscant  et  ad  certandum  bonum  certamen 
alacritatem  vestram  studeant  aemulari. 

Haec  autem  omnia  pro  ingenii  vestri  docilitate  feliciter 
consecuturos  confidimus,  praesertim  cum  noverimus  vestrum 
moderatores  et  magistros,  quorum  multos  praesentes  laetanter 
conspicimus,  collatis  in  unum  viribus  et  consiliis,  cuncta  quae 
in  illis  sunt  adhibere,  ut  vestrum  omnium  animi  in  catholicae 
professionis  officiis  roborata  virtute  ct  subsidiis  auctis  con- 
firmentur  et  praestent. 

Vobis  propterea,  electi  iuvenes,  eximii  magistri,  et  tibi  in 
primis,  Venerabilis  Frater,  qui  omnes  singulari  charitate  permoti 
ad  Nos  adiistis,  gratum  animum  Nostrum  nominatim  profitemur, 
pariterque  petimus,  ut  civibus  vestris  quos  ut  amantissimos 
iilios  habemus  maxime  caros,  paternam  benevolentiam  Nostram 
reduces  testari  velitis :  quibus  vobisque  cunctis  vestrisque 
f  amiliis  et  universae  Polonae  Genti  caelestium  auspicem  munerurn 
Apostolicam  benedictionem  ex  intimo  cordis  affectu  in  Domino 
impertimus. 

Pius  PP.  X. 

HIS  HOLINESS  POPB  PIUS  X  AND  THE  MARONITBS 

EX  ACTIS   SUMMI   PONTIFICIS    ET  E  SECRETAR.    BREVIUM 

PIUS  X  GENTI  MARONITAE  DE  PIETATIS  OBSERVANTIAEQUE    TESTI- 

MONIIS   GRATULATUR 

PIUS  PP.  X. 

Venerabilis  Frater,1  salutem  et  Apostolicam  benedictionem. 

Maronitarum  cum  Apostolica  Sede  coniunctionem  neces- 
situdinis,  ab  avis  et  maioribus  singularem,  egregie  proximis 
diebus  testata  sunt  officia,  quae  tu,  Venerabilis  Frater,  et  nonnulli 
tecum  Episcopi  nobilesque,  de  Clero  et  populo  viri  complures, 
totius  gentis  vestrae  nomine,  praesentes  Nobis  praestitistis. 
Equidem  pergrata  perque  iucunda  haec  Nobis  accidisse  osten- 
dimus  :  iterum  vero  profitemur  libenter,  Nos  pietatis  obser- 
vantiaeque  vestrae  testimoniis  suaviter  affectos  esse,  gratiamque 
vobis  agimus  de  Petriana  stipe  caeterisque  muneribus,  quibus 
istam  ipsam  pietatem  pro  facilitate  probastis.  Praesertim 
laudare  satis  non  possumus  earn,  quam  perspeximus  in  vobis, 
tuendae  promovendaeque  catholicae  fidei  constantiam  :  quam 

1  Illmo.  ac  Revmo.  Domino  Eliae  Petro  Huayek,  Patriarchae  Maroni- 
iarum,  Antiochiae. 


DOCUMENTS 


quidem  Orientalibus,  qui  ab  Ecclesia  Romana  dissident,  salutari 
et  exemplo  et  incitamento  esse  intelligimus. — Haec,  quamquam 
significavimus  coram,  tamen  his  etiam  litteris  significata  volui- 
mus ;  earn  nempe  ob  causam,  ut  paternus  Noster  in  omnes 
dilectos  filios  Maronitas  animus  constaret  luculentius.  Neque 
enim  commissuri  unquam  sumus,  ut  minus  a  Nobis  diligi  quam 
a  Decessoribus  Nostris  videamini. — Vos  interea  vestraque  omnia 
enixe  divinae  benignitati  commendamus,  atque  auspicem 
caelestium  bonorum,  testemque  praecipuae  benevolentiae  Nostrae 
tibi  Venerabilis  Prater,  et  reliquis  Venerabilibus  Episcopis 
universaeque  genti  Maronitarum  Apostolicam  benedictionem 
peramanter  in  Domino  impertimus. 

Datum  Romae  apud  S.  Petrum,  die  XXIX  lunii,  festo 
Apostolorum  Principum,  anno  MDCCCCV,  Pontificatus  Nostri 
secundo. 

Pius  PP.  X. 

THE  CONFBATJERNITY  OF  MOUNT   OAKMEL, 

E   SACRA   CONGREGATIONE   INDULGENTIARUM 

SANANTUR     RECEPTIONES     AD      CONFRATERNITATEM     B.M.V.    DE 
MONTE   CARMELO   USQUE   NUNC  INVALIDE  PERACTAE 

Bme.  Pater, 

P.  Praepositus  Generalis  Carmelitarum  Discalceatorum  ad 
Sacrorum  Pedum  osculum  provolutus,  exponit  S.V.  non  raro 
contingere  ut  christifideles,  qui  ad  Conftem.  B.M.V.  de  Monte 
Carmelo  admitti  postulant,  invalide  recipiantur,  turn  ob  omissam 
nominum  inscriptionem,  turn  ob  aliam  causam.  Ne  itaque 
praefati  christifideles  gratiis  et  privileges  memoratae  confti. 
concessis  inculpatim  priventur,  Orator  S.V.  humiliter  exorat, 
quatenus  receptiones  ad  eamdem  conftem.  quacumque  ex 
causa  usque  ad  hanc  diem  invalide  peractas,  benigne  sanare 
dignetur. 

Et  Deus,  etc. 

S.  C.  Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis  praeposita,  utendo 
facultatibus  a  SS.  D.  N.  Pio  Pp.  X,  sibi  specialiter  tributis, 
petitam  sanationem  benigne  concessit.  Contrariis  quibus- 
cumque  non  obstantibus.  Datum  Romae  ex  Secria.  eiusdem 
S.C.,  die  28  lunii  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Praef. 
Pro  Secrio.  :  IOSEPHUS  M.  Cancus.  COSELLI,  SuUus. 


t  92  ] 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 

THE  SACRIFICE  OF  THE  MASS  :  An  Historical  and  Doctrinal 
Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice. 
By  the  Very  Rev.  Alex.  MacDonald,  D.D.,  V.G. 
New  York :  Christian  Press  Association  Publishing 
Company. 

IN  an  age  when  Protestants  no  longer  cling  to  the  extreme 
principle  of  the  one  rule  of  faith,  founded  on  each  one's  individual 
reading  of  the  sense  of  Scripture,  but  appeal  to  the  early  centuries 
of  Christianity  as  witnesses  to  dogmatic  truth,  works  such  as. 
that  under  notice  are  very  much  in  season.  For  Catholics,  too,, 
both  those  who  view  Dogma  from  the  standpoint  of  the  pro- 
fessed critic,  and  those  who  humbly  submit  to  take  teaching 
from  others,  the  historical  method  of  dealing  with  Theology 
is  increasingly  important. 

The  present  work  is  a  historico-theological  examination  of 
the  central  idea  in  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice.  In  the  early  portion 
of  his  volume  the  author  discusses  the  subject  of  sacrifice  in 
general,  and  both  from  appeals  to  the  voice  of  Tradition,  and 
from  a  detailed  examination  of  the  history  of  sacrifice,  he  shows 
conclusively  that  the  destruction  of  the  Victim  was  in  all  cases 
the  essential  notion  in  this  particular  sort  of  worship.  He 
proves,  consequently,  that  the  view  held  by  some  of  the  older 
theologians,  and  revived  in  later  days,  which  would  see  in  sacri- 
fice", merely  a  common  meal,  a  sacred  banquet,  eaten  by  the  wor- 
shippers in  communion  with  the  Deity,  has  no  historical  or 
traditional  evidence  to  support  it,  besides  being  in  direct  con- 
flict with  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 

He  next  considers  the  Mass  itself,  andjseeks  for  the  formal 
constituent  of  the  sacrifice  therein.  In  doing  so,  he  proposes 
to  himself  to  show  that  the  Scholastic  explanations,  which  so- 
generally  obtain  in  the  schools  of  to-day,  are  founded  on  prin- 
ciples unknown  to  the  Fathers  as  well  as  to  the  earlier  schoolmen  ; 
nay,  are  quite  at  variance  with  the  pure  Patristic  idea.  The 
Fathers  are  quoted,  and  in  our  opinion,  quoted  justly,  to  prove 
that  theyjield  the  Mass  to  be  the  same  sacrifice  at  that  offered 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  93 

at  the  Last  Supper  and  on  Calvary.  Modern  theologians,  no 
doubt,  say  the  same  ;  but  since  they  explain  the  immolation  of 
our  Lord  in  the  Mass  as  consisting  in  His  being  reduced  to  the 
state  of  food  and  drink,  Dr.  MacDonald  would  have  it  that  this 
is  to  set  up  a  new  sacrificial  action  in  place  of  that  insisted  on 
by  the  Fathers,  according  to  whom  there  is  not  merely  specific 
but  even  numerical  identity  between  (what  are  called)  the  two 
sacrifices,  and  an  identity  not  only  as  to  Priest  and  Victim,  but 
also  as  to  the  sacrificial  action  in  both.  Much  better  to  keep  to 
the  old  view  :  in  the  Supper-room,  Christ  offered  up  the  first 
Eucharistic  sacrifice,  and  as  this  oblation  virtually  contained 
the  bloody  oblation  of  Himself  some  hours  later,  He  may  be 
regarded  as  judicially  slain,  even  before  the  Jews  laid  hands  on 
Him  in  the  Garden.  The  Last  Supper,  then,  with  the  subse- 
quent Crucifixion,  is  in  reality  the  first  Christian  Passover,  and 
in  the  Mass  the  moment  of  the  Supper  and  the  moment  of  the 
Crucifixion — two  moments,  which,  by  reason  of  the  connexion 
between  them,  are  really  one — are  repeated,  or  rather  are  con- 
tinued, for  evermore. 

The  author  sets  forth  his  views  in  language  that  is  always 
clear  and  telling,  and  strong  by  its  moderation.  From  what 
we  have  said,  it  will  be  inferred  that  the  point  of  view  taken  up 
is  an  interesting,  and,  in  some  degree,  a  novel  one  ;  but  there  is 
abundance  of  quotation,  as  well  as  theological  reasoning,  to  show 
that  it  is  but  the  old,  and  in  the  author's  mind,  the  true  and 
consistent  view  revived. 

J.S. 

RECOLLECTIONS    OF    WILLIAM    O'BRIEN,    M.P.    London : 
Macmillan  &  Co.     1905.     8vo.     145.   net. 

WHATEVER  our  opinion  may  be  of  Mr.  O'Brien's  politics, 
we  must  recognize  that  he  has  written  a  fascinating  book. 
It  is  indeed  the  best  thing'  in  the  way  of  literature  that  we 
have  yet  seen  from  him.  Not  that  it  is  entirely  free  from 
his  peculiar  defects  _.of  excessive  emphasis,  exaggerated  state- 
ment and  harrowing,  almost  agonizing  sentiment ;  but  it  is 
more  self-possessed,  calm,  and  controlled  than  anything  that 
has  yet  come  from  the  same  author. 

Mr.  O'Brien  seems  to  have  constantly  before  him  the 
object  of  converting  Englishmen  to  sounder  views  on  Irish 


94  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

politics.  The  same  we  remarked  in  his  early  novel  When 
we  were  Boys.  It  is  a  laudable  object,  and  we  believe  that 
this  last  volume  will  be  a  powerful  instrument  in  the  task 
of  securing  it.  It  will,  in  our  opinion,  be  impossible  for  any 
Englishman  to  read  some  of  the  chapters  in  this  book, 
particularly  those  on  the  Forster  regime,  without  feeling 
ashamed  of  the  folly  that  is  there  revealed  to  all  the  world. 
Possibly  in  furtherance  of  his  main  purpose,  Mr.  O'Brien 
goes  farther  in  the  way  of  concession  to  British  prejudices 
than  the  majority  of  Irishmen  would  be  prepared  to  go.  Thus, 
for  instance,  we  come  across  passages  which  cast  a  vivid  side- 
light on  Mr.  O'Brien's  views  on  education.  Writing  about  the 
mixed  school  in  Mallow — the  polite  establishment  of  the  Misses 
Babington,  in  which  his  mother  was  educated — Mr.  O'Brien 
says  : — 

'  In  the  Misses  Babington's  polite  establishment,  the  girls 
gentle  and  simple,  Protestant  and  Catholic,  seemed  to  have 
mingled  together  with  an  amenity  which,  I  am  afraid,  is 
wanting  in  the  more  recent  relations  of  classes  and  creeds  in 
Ireland,  and  which  served  in  a  surprising  degree  to  mitigate 
the  brutality  of  the  strict  letter  of  the  law  in  pre-emancipation 
days.  Quite  half  the  families  with  whom  my  earliest  recol- 
lections of  small  dances  and  games  of  forfeits  are  associated, 
belonging  to  one  or  other  of  the  half-dozen  Protestant  sects 
which  had  their  conventicles  in  Mallow — to  which  of  them,  or 
for  what  reasons,  it  never  struck  us  to  inquire,  no  more  than  it 
struck  the  occupants  of  the  old  graveyard,  where  Protestant 
and  Catholic  reposed  side  by  side.' 

After  having  graduated  in  two  elementary  schools  in 
Mallow,  Mr.  O'Brien  was  sent  for  his  classical  education  to  the 
Protestant  '  Diocesan  College '  of  Cloyne.  Here  he  tells  us  : — 

'  Three-fourths  of  the  pupils  were  Protestants.  Here  again 
my  experience  of  the  commingling  of  classes  and  creeds  was 
of  the  same  happy  character  as  all  my  early  recollections  in 
Mallow.' 

Those  who  wish  to  have  proof  of  the  influence  of  the  classics 
on  a  man's  life  will  read  the  following  with  interest  : — 

'  I  knew  all  about  Virgil  before  I  could  ever  read  a  page 
of  Shakespeare.  I  could  construct  trashy  Greek  verses  at  a 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  95 

time  when  my  hand-writing  in  English  was  little  above  the 
dignity  of  pot-hooks.  I  could  tell  nearly  every  battle  of  the 
Peloponnesian  wars,  as  Grote  told  them,  years  before  I  had  heard 
of  Crecy  or  Agincourt.  ...  At  twelve  years  of  age  pro- 
foundly ignorant  of  all  that  was  modern,  I  could  rattle  through 
all  the  common  school  classics — even  Livy's  gnarled  sentences 
and  Herodotus'  Egyptian  adventures — with  a  facility,  and 
even  joy,  that  sometimes  made  "Old  Edward's"  eyes  beam 
at  me  over  his  spectacles.' 

And  yet  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  all  this  has  had  a 
very  classical  result.  Intellectually  and  in  all  other  respects 
Mr.  O'Brien  seems  to  be  more  of  the  Gothic  than  of  the 
Classic  build. 

In  his  references  to  education,  however,  it  is  only  fair  to 
say  that  he  roundly  condemns  the  Queen's  Colleges,  and  says 
that  he  could  never  look  on  the  college  in  Cork  as  an  Alma 
Mater  t  although  he  had  carried  off  some  of  its  highest  prizes. 

In  his  conclusions  on  the  policy  of  the  Fenians,  to  whom 
he  at  one  time  belonged,  he  says  : — '  The  moral  influence  of 
the  Secret  Society  is  wholly  bad.  A  life  of  conflict  with  the 
Church  demoralises  all  except  the  most  stoical.' 

Another  feature  of  the  book,  and  one  which  has  pleased 
us  more  than  any  other,  is  the  author's  memorial  of  Dr.  Croke. 
Mr.  O'Brien  says  he  has  only  contributed  one  stone  to  the 
monument  which  he  hopes  will  be  one  day  erected  to  the 
memory  of  that  great  Archbishop.  We  re-echo  the  hope,  and 
we  note,  with  satisfaction,  that  Mr.  O'Brien's  contribution 
is  a  precious  one.  We  should  like  to  give  some  extracts  from 
Mr.  O'Brien's  references  to  the  Archbishop  ;  but  no  extracts 
will  give  a  satisfactory  impression  of  this  book.  It  must  be 
•ead  and  judged  as  a  whole. 

J.  F.  H. 

THE  LIFE  OF  COUNT  ARTHUR  MOORE.  By  Rev.  Albert 
Barry,  C.SS.R.  Dublin  :  M.  H.  Gill  &  Son.  1905. 
35.  6d.  net. 

WE  are  glad  that  the  life  of  Count  Arthur  Moore  has  not  been 
allowed  to  pass  away  without  a  suitable  memorial,  and  we  con- 
gratulate Father  Barry  on  the  handsome  volume  in  which  he  has 
perpetuated  it  for  us.  Count  Moore  was  a  thoroughly  good 
man,  a  sterling  patriot,  according  to  his  own  conception  of  the 


96  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

word,  and  a  Catholic  of  whom  Ireland  had  reason  to  be  proud 
Of  his  devotion  to  the  Church  he  gave  the  most  generous  and 
life-long  proofs,  and  of  his  desire  to  benefit  the  Irish  people 
and  to  improve  their  condition,  there  is  ample  testimony  in 
this  volume.  The  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  in  his  admirable 
Preface,  sums  up  the  various  activities  of  the  late  Count  in 
language  which  could  not  be  excelled  by  us,  and  we  commend 
it  to  the  attention  of  our  readers.  For  our  part  we  have  only 
to  say,  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  life  of  the  Church  and  of 
the  country  that  appealed  to  all  that  is  best  and  noblest  in 
Irishmen  and  Catholics  that  did  not  appeal  to  Count  Moore. 
The  holy  places  in  Palestine  which  he  visited  so  often,  the  holy 
places  of  Rome  in  which  he  was  almost  as  much  at  home  as  his 
friend  Marrucchi,  the  holy  places  of  Ireland  which  he  did  so 
much  to  perpetuate,  were  always  in  his  heart.  The  poor  and 
the  suffering  had  no  more  practical  benefactor.  Catholic  edu- 
cation in  all  its  grades  had  no  more  staunch  supporter.  '  The 
Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Ireland '  counted  him  as  one  of  its 
Vice- Presidents,  and  one  of  its  most  active  members.  Catholic 
soldiers  and  sailors  looked  up  to  him  as  one  of  their  most  devoted 
friends. 

All  this  is  made  clear  and  patent  in  the  pages  of  Father 
Barry.  But  behind  it  all  there  was  the  refined  and  polished 
gentleman  who  never  obtruded  his  generosity  or  zeal,  and  who 
won  the  hearts  of  those  who  approached  him  by  his  kind  and 
gentle  manners. 

He  may  have  been  sometimes  a  little  rash  and  impulsive  ; 
but  if  that  is  a  defect  it  is  one  which  Irishmen  readily  overlook. 
It  was,  in  any  case,  outbalanced  by  so-  many  virtues  that  it 
scarcely  deserves  to  be  reckoned.  With  great  pleasure  we  re- 
commend this  biography,  which  we  should  be  glad  to  see  in 
every_.reading-room  and  every  private  library  in  the  country. 
Its  influence  will  be  for  good  wherever  it  is  read,  and  the  words 
of  Scripture  will  be  verified  that  '  A  good  life  hath  its  measure 
of  days,  but  a  good  name  'shall  live  for  ever.' 

J.  F.  H. 


"  Ut  Chfisliani  it*  tt  Kotnani  si'tis.''      "As  you  are  children  of  Christ,  so  ba  you  children  of  Rome.  ' 
Ex  Dictis  5.  Patncti.  In  Ltbro  Armacano,  tol.  q, 

The  Irish 
Ecclesiastical    Record 


ffcat 


No.  458. 


Journal,  untor  Episcopal  Sanction, 


]      FEBRUARY,  1906.      [ 


$  ems. 
Vol.  XIX. 


Father  Denifle,  O.P. 

Rev.  Michael  O'Kan".,  O.P.,  Limerick. 
<  Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine.'-— II. 

Rev.  J.  O'Neill,  Ph.D.,  Carlow  College. 
The  Blood  of  St.  Januarius. 

Rev.  Richard  Fleming,  C.C.,  Greystones. 
A  Scholastic  Discussion. 

Rev.  Edward  Nagle,  Clonmel. 
Lord  Randolph  Churchill. 
Very  Rev.  T.  P.  Gilmartin,  D.D.,   Vice-Pres.,  Maynooth  College. 

General  Notes 


'The  Dublin  Review 

Relations  with  the  Vatican. 


.'    Statistics  of  Marriage.   The  Clergy  in  Parliament.   Diplomatic 
is  Vatican,  Monsignor  Capel.   '  The  Irish  Theological  Quarterly.' 

The  Editor. 
Notes  and  Queries. 

LITURGY.  Rev.  Patrick  Morrisroe,  Maynooth  College. 

Decree  concerning:  Confraternity  of  Mount  Carmel,  Mass  to  be  said  in  certain 
Church.  'Beaedictio  Mensae.' 

Documents. 

The  Use  of  Musical  Instruments  at  Sacred  Functions.  Indulgences  for  Saturday 
Devotion  to  the  Immaculate  Virgin.  Pmilege  of  the  Way  of  the  Cross  in 
newly-erected  Churches.  Removal  ofa  Parish  Priest.  Indult  granting  permission 
to  Secular  Priests  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  to  say  a  Votive  Mass  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  on  Saturdays.  Appointment  of  Confessors  of  Nuns. 
Pope  Pius  X,  and  the  German  Catholics. 

Notices  of  Books. 


I'usage  des  Congregations  a  vceux  simples.    Catholic  Truth  Society  Publications. 


Nihit  Obstai. 

GlRALDUS  MOLLOY,  S.T.D. 
Censor  £>ep. 

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ifr  GULIELMUS, 

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thorough  training  in  the  ART  of  staining  and  painting  Glass  in  England.  The  disheartening 
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ADVICE  conscientiously  given  on  jStained  Glass  Decoration. 

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FATHER  DENIFLE,  O.P. 

IN  the  death  of  Father  Denifle,  which  occurred  unex- 
pectedly at  Munich  on  the   loth  of  last  June,  the 
Dominican  Order  has  lost  one  of  its  most  celebrated 
members,     and    the    Catholic    Church    one    of    her 
staunchest  defenders.     He  was  on  his  way  to  Cambridge 
to  receive   the   degree   of   Doctor    of    Letters,  which  the 
University  had  decided  to    confer  upon  him  for  his  dis- 
tinguished merits  in  historical  research,  when  the  hand  of 
death  struck  him  down. 

Joseph  Denifle  was  born  in  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  at  the 
village  of  Imst,  in  Ober-in-Thal,  in  1844.  His  father,  who  was 
schoolmaster  and  organist  of  the  village,  taught  him  music, 
for  which  the  lad  showed  considerable  talent.  He  made 
his  elementary  studies  at  the  cathedral  school  for  choristers 
in  Brixen,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  entered  the  Domi- 
nican novitiate  at  Gratz  in  Styria.  It  was  the  study  of 
the  Conferences  of  Pere  Lacordaire  that  decided  young 
Denifle  to  take  this  step.  He  was  professed  on  the  5th  of 
October,  1862,  and  exchanged  his  name  of  Joseph  for 
Henry  Suso,  of  whose  life  and  writings  he  was  afterwards 
to  make  a  special  study.  After  his  philosophical  and 
theological  studies  which  he  made  at  Gratz,  at  Rome, 
and  at  St.  Maximin,  in  France,  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1866.  In  1870,  when  he  took  his  degrees  in  theology, 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  Gratz,  and  taught  for  ten 
years. 

FOURTH  SERIES,  VOL.  XIX.—  FEBRUARY,  1906.  C 


9  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

During  the  years  of  his  professorship,  Denifle  preached 
in  the  cathedral  at  Gratz,  and  in  the  principal  cities  of 
of  Austria.  The  subject-matter  of  his  sermons  was  pub- 
lished in  a  volume  of  exceptional  merit,  Die  Katholische 
Kirche  und  das  Ziel  der  Menscheit  (The  Catholic  Church 
and  the  End  of  Humanity).1  He  relieved  the  monotony 
of  a  professor's  life  by  a  close  study  of  German  mysticism 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  place  occupied  by  the 
Dominicans  in  the  mystic  movement  of  that  period  had 
for  him  a  special  attraction,  and  in  1873  he  gave  to  the 
world  the  charming  volume,  Das  geistliche  Leben,  Blumen- 
lese  aus  den  Deutschen  Mystikern  und  Gottesfreunden  des 
14  Jahrhunderts.z  The  author  in  this  work,  which  contains 
2,500  passages,  has  co-ordinated  the  most  striking  texts  of 
the  principal  mystics,  in  accordance  with  the  three  degrees 
of  Christian  perfection — the  purgative,  the  illuminative, 
and  the  unitive — and  he  shows  such  a  marvellous  grasp 
of  his  subject  that  those  who  knew  his  methods  and  his 
almost  phenomenal  powers  of  application  were  led  to 
expect  works  of  higher  and  still  greater  critical  value. 
A  series  of  studies  on  *  The  Friends  of  God,'3  and  his  efforts 
to  restore  to  the  '  Friend  of  God  in  Oberland  '  his  true 
identity,  instead  of  confounding  him,  as  had  been  hitherto 
done,  with  Nicholas  of  Basle,  were  partially  crowned  with 
success,  and  drew  the  attention  of  the  learned  to  his  novel 
methods  of  criticism.4  Five  years  subsequently  he  proved 
that  the  *  Friend  of  God  '  never  existed,  and  that  the  works 
which  were  published  under  this  name  were  written  by 


1  We  wish  to  express  our  indebtedness  for  many  of  these  biographical 
facts,  to  the  article  of  Mgr.  Kirsch,  a  distinguished  friend  of  Father  Denifle, 
in  the  Revue  d'Histoire  Ecclesiastique,  also  to  the  article  by  M.  Pelzer 
in  the  Revue  Neo-Scolastique,  and  to  an  article  by  P6re  Conlon,  O.P., 
in  the  Annales  Dominicaines. 

*  '  The  Spiritual  Life,  an  Anthology  of  German  Mystics  and  Friends 
of  God  in  the  fourteenth  century.'     A  French  translation  and  adaptation 
of  this  work  has  been  published  by  the  Countess  of  Flavigny,  under  the 
direction  of  the  author — La  Vie  spirituette  d'apres  les  Mystiques  allemands 
uu  xiv.  siecle. 

1  Cf.,  Alzog,  Universal  Church  History,  vol.  iii.,  p.  128. 

*  These  studies  were    published    in    the   Historisch-politische  Blatter, 
vol.  Ixxv.,  1875,  pp.  17,  93,  245,  340. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O.P.  99 

Rulman  Merswin.1  Denifle  was  recognized,  in  a  very 
short  time  after  the  publication  of  these  studies,  as  a 
specialist  in  German  mysticism,  and  his  splendid  powers 
and  sound  criticism  proved  that  he  had  no  equal  on  this 
subject.  In  1874,  Preger  published  the  History  of  German 
Mysticism  (Die  Geschickte  der  deutschen  Mystik),  which 
contained  many  inaccuracies,  and  was  wanting  in  the 
critical  value  which  such  a  work  demanded.  In  a  series 
of  articles,  published  in  a  leading  review,2  Denifle  handled 
the  work  with  great  severity,  and  fearlessly  pointed  out 
to  the  author  that  he  did  not  possess  the  qualifications 
for  the  due  accomplishment  of  the  work  he  had  set  him- 
self to  perform.  About  this  time  he  announced  the  publi- 
cation of  a  work  on  German  mysticism  which  should  treat 
of  Tauler  and  Suso,  but  with  the  exception  of  some  articles 
which  appeared  later  the  work  was  never  completed. 

His  controversy  with  Preger  prepared  the  way  for  a 
critical  editon  of  the  works  of  Henry  Suso,  but  as  he  was 
called  to  Rome,  only  the  first  volume  of  the  work  was 
published.8  Denifle  devoted  a  considerable  time  to  the 
study  of  Tauler  and  published  his  book  on  spiritual  poverty,4 
and  two  years  later  he  published  a  critical  study  on  the 
conversion  of  Tauler.5( 

These  studies  on  Suso  and  Tauler  brought  about  a 
controversy  with  Jundt,  who  published  about  the  same  time 
a  work  on  the  '  Friends  of  God '  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  in  an  appendix  criticized  some  of  Denifle's  conclusions. 
In  two  articles  published  in  the  Historisch-politisch  Blatter? 

1  These  studies  appeared  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsches  Alterthum 
und  deutsche  Litteratur  (vol.  xxiv.,  1880,  and  vol.  xxv.,  1881).  Under 
the  general  heading,  '  Die  Dichtungen  des  Gottesfreundes  im  Oberland,' 
Denifle  examines  in  turn  ;  ( i )  '  Das  Meisterbuch  '  (vol.  xxiy.  p.  200)  ; 
(2)  '  Die  Proteusnatur  des  Gottesfreundes  '  (p.  280)  ;  (3)  '  Die  Romreise 
des  Gottesfreundes '  (p.  301);  (4)  'Die  Dichtungen  Rulman  Merswins  ' 
(p.  463) ;  and  in  an  Epilogue,  vol.  xxv.,  p.  101,  he  draws  his  conclusions. 

1  '  Eine  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Mystik,'  Historisch-politische  Blatter, 
vol.  Ixxv.,  1875,  PP-  679,  771,  903. 

1  Die  Schriften  des  sel.  Heinrich  Seuse,  t.  i.,  Deutsche  Schriften,  Munich, 
1880. 

4  Das  Buck  von  der  geistlicher  Armuth,  bekannt  als  Johann  Tauler s 
Nachfolgung  des  armen  Lebens  Christi,  Munich,  1877. 

&  Tauler s  Bekehrung  kritisch  untersucht,  Strasburg,   1879. 

e  Vol.  Ixxxiv.,  1879,  pp.  797,  878,  'Taulers  Bekehrung  Antikritik  gegen 
A.  Jundt.' 


100  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Denifle  defended  himself  against  the  criticisms  of  Jundt 
and  pointed  out  many  defects  in  the  work,  which  seems 
to  have  escaped  its  author.  Father  Denifle  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Mgr.  Greith,  Bishop  of  St.  Gall,  who  was 
also  an  interested  student  of  the  works  of  Dominican 
mystics.  The  bishop  induced  him  to  write  the  life  of 
Margaret  of  Kentzingen,  which  appeared  with  notes  in 
the  Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsches  Alterthum.1 

The  German  mystics  always  possessed  a  peculiar  charm 
for  him,  and  we  find  him  returning  to  them  again  and  again 
in  several  articles  which  he  subsequently  published.  His 
sympathies  were  drawn  to  Master  Eckhart,  and  several 
articles  appeared,  in  different  reviews,  on  the  acts  of  the 
process  against  Eckhart  in  1327,  on  his  doctrine,  on  his 
Latin  writings,  and  on  his  birth-place.2  These  studies 
on  the  famous  mystic  constitute  an  epoch  in  the  literature 
of  German  mysticism,  and  place  Master  Eckhart  in  a  new 
light.  He  was  not  born  at  Strasburg,  as  it  was  hitherto 
generally  believed,  but  at  Hochheim,  a  district  of  Thuringia, 
about  two  leagues  north  of  Gotha.  His  German  sermons 
and  writings  represent  but  a  very  small  portion  of  his  work, 
the  greater  part  being  written  in  Latin.  He  is  not  the 
pantheist  that  history  represents  him,  as  he  does  not 
identify  God  and  the  creature  inasmuch  as  the  creature  is 
but  a  manifestation  of  God,  but  inasmuch  as  the  being  of 
God  so  fills  and  permeates  all  creation  that  God  is  the 
formal  being  of  all  creatures.  Denifle  arrived  at  this 
conclusion  from  a  minute  and  exhaustive  study  of  the 
Opus  Tripartitum,  the  manuscript  of  which  he  found  in 
the  library  of  Erfurt,  and  of  which,  at  the  time,  he  publi- 

1  T.  xix.,  1876,  p.  478  ;  Das  Leben  der  Margaretha  von  Kentzingen. 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  des  Gottesfreundes  im  Oberland.  This  work, 
says  Pere  Conlon,  placed  Denifle  in  the  first  rank  of  writers  on  mysticism. 
It  received  unbounded  praise  in  the  leading  German  reviews,  and  proved 
its  author  to  be  a  man  of  vast  learning  and  phenomenal  powers  of  research. 
Annales  Dominicaines ,  September,  1905. 

*  '  Aktenstucke  zu  Meister  Eckharts  Prozess  '  (Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsches 
Alterthum,  vol.  xxix.,  p.  259) ;  '  Meister  Eckharts  lateinische  Schriften 
und  die  Grundanschung  seiner  Lehre '  (Arch,  fiir  Litter  atur  und  Kirchen- 
eeschichte  des  Mittelnlters,  t.  ii.,pp.  417,  652) ;  '  Das  Causanische  Exemplar 
lateinischer  Schriften  Eckharts  in  Cues '  (Ibid.,  p.  673) ;  '  Die  Heimath 
Meuter  Eckharts'  (Ibid.,  t.  v.,  p.  349). 


FATHER   DENIFLE,  O.P.  IOI 

shed  the  most  important  passages.  Before  this  manuscript 
appeared  in  print,  he  came  upon  a  second,  more  accurate 
and  more  complete  in  detail,  in  the  library  of  the  hospital 
of  Cuse-sur-Moselle,  written  in  1444  at  the  instance  of 
Cardinal  Nicholas  de  Cues,  which  confirmed  the  conclusions 
he  had  already  arrived  at  from  the  study  of  the  first. 

Eckhart  was  no  enemy  of  scholasticism,  as  some  writers 
on  mysticism  assert l : — 

Their  judgments  upon  the  philosophical  talents  of  Eckhart 
[says  Denifle]  should  bring  joy  to  all  scholastics.  They  claim 
him  (Eckhart)  as  the  herald  of  the  philosophy  and  theology  of 
the  future,  as  the  father  of  Christian  philosophy,  as  one  of  the 
most  original  thinkers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  they  were  not 
aware  that  the  admiration  they  expressed  for  the  philosophy 
of  Eckhart,  was  simply  addressed,  in  its  due  and  lawful  measure, 
to  the  mother  from  whose  bosom  Eckhart  had  been  nourished, 
namely,  scholasticism,  whose  doctrines  we  meet,  for  the  first 
time,  though  not  in  the  measure  to  be  desired,  in  his  German 
writings.3 

In  his  controversies  with  Preger.  Denifle  always  insisted 
that  without  a  profound  knowledge  of  scholastic  philosophy 
and  theology  a  proper  understanding  of  the  mystics  is 
impossible  : — 

The  historian  of  German  mysticism  [he  writes]  should  be 
profoundly  versed  in  scholasticism,  especially  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Thomas  ;  otherwise  he  displaces  the  mystics  from  the 
historical  surroundings  to  which  they  belong.  He  will  deny 
that  they  themselves  are  but  the  term  of  an  evolution  which 
is  a  fact,  and  he  will  never  understand  their  terminology  still 
less  their  doctrines.8 

In  an  able  article  that  appeared  in  1888,  Denifle  un- 
masked the  plagiarist  Nicholas  of  Strasburg,  who  had 
copied  almost  entirely  the  writings  of  John  of  Paris,  and 
circulated  them  as  his  own.*  Thus  the  mystical  life  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  personified  in  Henry  Suso,  Margaret 
of  Kentzingen,  Tauler,  and  Eckhart,  occupied  the  hours 

1  Preger,  Ch.  Schmidt,  etc. 

*  Archiv.  fur  Litter  atur  und  Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittelalters,  vol.  ii., 
p.  424. 

*  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  532. 

4'Der  Plagiator  Nicolaus  von  Strassburg.'  ibid.,  vol.  iv.,  1888,  p.  312. 


102  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  he  was  able  to  spare  from  his  duties  as  professor. 
His  labours  on  German  mysticism  earned  for  him  a  reputa- 
tion that  was  not  confined  to  Austria  and  Germany.  The 
excellence  of  his  work  did  not  escape  the  Master-General, 
who  determined  to  call  him  to  Rome,  and  open  up  a 
wider  field  for  his  investigations.  He  left  Gratz  for  Rome 
in  1880,  as  the  socius  of  the  General  for  German-speaking 
countries,  and  he  was  destined  to  spend  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  the  Eternal  City. 

In  Rome  he  found  a  new  sphere  for  his  activity,  but 
for  want  of  documents  he  had  to  defer  his  studies  on  the 
mystics.  In  the  Roman  archives  and  libraries,  however,  he 
found  material  to  resolve  questions  that  had  long  occupied 
his  thoughts.  In  1878,  Leo  XIII  addressed  his  Encyclical 
letter — Acterni  Patris — to  the  Catholic  world  on  the  revival 
of  the  study  of  scholasticism,  and  especially  the  study  of 
St.  Thomas,  the  prince  of  scholastics.  He  determined  to 
bring  out  a  new  and  critical  edition  of  the  works  of  the 
Angelic  Doctor,  and  Denifle,  who  even  then  occupied  the 
first  rank  among  paleographers,  was  selected  as  one  of 
the  editors.  The  work  was  not  congenial  to  his  spirit, 
which  required  a  wider  and  more  comprehensive  field 
for  the  exercise  of  its  powers  than  textual  criticism  would 
allow,  and  consequently,  after  a  few  months,  he  begged 
to  be  relieved  of  the  task.1 

In  the  course  of  his  studies  on  German  mysticism, 
Denifle  was  struck  by  the  number  of  existing  prophecies 
which  announced  impending  calamities  on  the  Church 
and  society.  In  Rome  he  had  an  opportunity  of  examining 
them  still  more  closely,  with  a  result  that  he  himself  could 
hardly  have  foreseen.  Leo  XIII  had  thrown  open  the 
archives  of  the  Vatican,  and  at  the  instance  of  Cardinal 
Hergenrother,  the  archivist,  Denifle  was,  to  his  own  great 
delight,  appointed  sub-archivist.  He  first  intended,  says 
M.  Pelzer,  to  give  an  exact  account  of  the  prophecies 

1  During  the  winter  of  1882-1883,  Denifle  was  sent  to  Spain  to  collect 
and  collate  manuscripts  for  the  Leonine  edition,  but  as  one  of  his  colleagues 
told  the  writer  of  this  article,  he  was  much  more  occupied  in  collecting 
matter  on  the  theologians  and  mystics  of  the  Middle  Ages  than  in  collating 
the  manuscripts  of  St.  Thomas. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O.P.  103 

of  the  fourteenth  century,  which  announced  impending 
calamities,  and  this  further  led  him  to  the  study  of  similar 
prophecies  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth.  In  studying  the 
Abbot  Joachim  and  the  Eternal  Gospel,  and  its  vicissitudes 
at  the  University  of  Paris,  he  found  that  the  knowledge 
then  possessed  on  these  subjects  was  absolutely  inadequate, 
and  that  comparatively  little  was  known  of  the  dispute 
between  the  University  of  Paris  and  the  Mendicant  Orders. 
Denifle  forthwith  conceived  the  project  of  publishing  a  work 
on  the  University  of  Paris  and  the  Mendicant  Orders,  in 
which  the  Eternal  Gospel  should  be  studied  in  an  appendix.1 
While  preparing  this  work,  having  discovered  that  nearly 
all  the  authors  who  had  written  on  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  notably  Du  Boulay,  in  his  Historia  Universitatis 
Parisiensis,  had  been  deceived  on  the  origin  of  the  Uni- 
versity, Denifle  took  up  the  work  from  the  beginning, 
and  determined  to  study  the  schools  of  the  University  of 
Paris  from  its  foundation  till  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  undertook,  at  the  same  time,  to  write  a  history 
of  the  other  universities  of  Europe.  The  first  volume 
appeared  at  Berlin  in  1885,  under  the  general  title,  Die 
Universitaten  des  Mittelalters  bis  1400.  He  had  designed 
to  complete  the  work  in  five  volumes.  The  first  volume 
(Entstehung  und  Griindungsgeschichte  der  mittelalterlichen 
Universitaten  bis  1400)  opens  (pp.  1-40)  with  a  study  on 
the  designation  of  the  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages 
(universitas,  studium  generate,  academia,  gynasium) ;  next  the 
author  treats  of  the  rise  of  Paris  and  Bologna  (pp.  40- 
218) ;  then  the  other  universities  of  Europe  up  to  1400 
(pp.  219-652).  The  universities  are  then  studied  in  their 
relation  to  the  schools  that  had  preceeded  them  (pp.1 
652-742) ;  in  the  causes  that  led  to  their  establishment 
(pp.  743-791) ;  and  the  volume  closes  with  conclusions 
which  the  author  has  drawn  from  the  text,  and  some 
additions  and  appendices  (pp.  800-814). 

The  appearance  of  this  volume  determined  the  General 
Council  of  the  Faculties  of  Paris  to  ask  Denifle  to  undertake 

1  He  afterwards  published  some  articles  on  the  Eternal  Gospel ; 
'  Das  Evangelium  aeternum  und  die  Commission  zu  Anagni,'  Archiv.,  i.. 
pp.  49-98  ;  '  Protokoll  der  Commission  zu  Anagni,'  ibid.,  pp.  99-142. 


104  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

a  work  much  more  vast  in  extent.  Under  its  patronage, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  M.  Emile  Chatelain,  professor 
of  paleography  at  the  Sorbonne,  Denifle  began  to  collect 
and  edit,  with  notes,  all  the  documents  relating  to  the 
University  of  Paris  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century 
till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth.  The  first  volume1  appeared 
in  1889,  and  was  published  at  the  expense  of  the  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction.  It  was  awarded  a  prize  of  10,000 
francs,  and  Denifle  was  decorated  with  the  badge  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour.  The  four  volumes  already  published 
appeared  at  intervals  during  the  next  ten  years.  The 
first  treats  of  the  period  from  1200,  when  Philippe  Auguste 
guaranteed  by  privilege  the  personal  safety  of  the  students 
of  Paris  to  the  reign  of  Philippe  le  Bel  in  1285  ;2  the  second 
to  the  reign  of  Jean  le  Bon;3  the  third  to  the  death  of 
Clement  VII  in  1394  ;*  the  fourth  to  the  reform  of  the 
University  in  I454.5  For  the  fifth  volume,  which  is  yet 
unpublished,  Denifle  had  reserved  the  schism,  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Benedict  XIII,  the  general  and  provincial  Councils, 
the  errors  of  Wicklifle,  and  the  controversies  of  the  Council 
of  Constance.  He  decided  to  publish  apart — under  the 
general  title,  Actuarium  Chartularii  Universitatis  Parisiensis 
— documents  relating  to  the  study  of  arts  in  the  four  great 
national  Universities.  Only  two  volumes  were  published 
in  1894  and  1897.  They  contain  the  *  Liber  procuratorum 
nationis  Anglicanae  (Alemanniae) ' — the  first  for  the  years 
I333-I4o6  ;  the  second  for  the  years  1406-1466.' 

1  '  Chartularium  Universitatis  Parisiensis  sub  auspiciis  consilii  generalis 
facultatum  Parisiensium  ex  diversis  bibliothecis  tabulariisque  collegit  et 
cum  authenticis  cards  contulit  Henricus  Denifle,  O.P.,  in  archivio  Sedis 
Apostolicae  vicarius,  auxiliante  Aemilio  Chatelain,  bibliotheca^  Uni- 
versitatis in  Sorbona  conservatore  adjuncto.' 

1  Paris,  Delalain  Frdres,  1889,  pp.  xxxvi.,  714. 

"Published  1891,  pp.  xxiii.,  808. 

4  Published  1894,  pp.  xxxvii.,  777. 

'Published  1897,  pp.  xxxvi.,  835. 

'  M.  Marcel  Fournier,  in  his  work  Les  slatuts  et  privileges  des  Uni 
versites  Franqaises,  criticized  the  author  of  the  Chartularium,  but  he  had 
no  conception  of  the  manner  of  man  with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  Denifle 
published  a  brochure,  Les  Universes  Franqaises  au  moyen  age — Avis 
a  M.  Marcel  Fournier  (Paris,  1892),  in  which  he  gave  M.  Fournier  what 
he  did  not  in  the  least  expect,  and  in  another  article  which  appeared 
in  the  Revue  des  Bibliotheques  (1892),  '  Les  de!6gues  'rdes  Universites 
Francaises  au  concile  de  Constance,'  he  criticized  Fournier's  work  with 
great  severity,  and  brought  discredit  on  many  of  his  conclusions. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O  P.  105 


These  masterpieces  of  historical  erudition  earned  for 
Denifle  a  world-wide  fame  and  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  writers  on  the  Middle  Ages.  His  researches  in 
the  publication  of  the  Chartularium  brought  prominently 
before  him  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  Hundred  Years' 
War  on  the  churches  and  monasteries  of  France.  This 
important  factor  in  ecclesiastical  history  was  too  valuable 
to  be  dismissed,  and  Denifle,  with  characteristic  impetuosity, 
which  in  his  case  was  justified  by  the  marvellous  f  grasp 
of  his  comprehensive  mind,  which  was  always  occupied 
with  two  or  three  collateral  subjects  at  once,  interrupted 
his  work  to  study  the  300  volumes  in  folio  of  petitions 
addressed  to  the  Holy  See,  and  relating  to  the  material 
and  moral  calamities  that  the  Hundred  Years'  War  had 
brought  upon  the  Church  in  France.  The  work  appeared 
in  two  volumes,1  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  additions 
that  has  ever  been  made  to  the  history  of  the  Church  in 
France. 

In  studying  the  vast  field  which  his  researches  on  the 
University  of  Paris  covered,  he  gathered  together  an  in- 
comparable collection  of  documents,  which  he  published 
from  time  to  time  in  a  series  of  studies  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  Universities,2  and  which  in  all  probability 
he  intended  to  embody  in  the  work  which  his  labours 
for  the  French  Government  had  interrupted. 

The  works  of  Denifle  on  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
other  collateral  subjects  connected  with  it,  which  his  re- 
searches have  enabled  him  to  give  to  the  world,  will  prove 
of  immense  value  to  all  future  historians  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  may  with  justice  be  said  that  he  has  revived  and  clothed 

1  Vol.  i.f  La  desolation  des  eglises,  monasteres  et  hopitauxen  Franc? 
pendant  la  guerre  de  Cent  ans  (Paris, i  897) ;  Vol.  ii.,  La,  guerre  de  Cent 
ans  et  la  desolation  des  eglises,  monasteres  et  hopitaux  en  France  (Paris, 
1899). 

1 '  Die  Sentenzen  Abaelards  und  die  Bearbeitungen  seiner  Theologie 
vor  Mitte  des  12  Jahrhunderts,'  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  402-469,  584-624  ; 
'  Die  Sentenzen  Rolands,  nachmals  Papstes  Alexander  III  '  (Freiburg, 
I89i);  '  Quellen  zur  Gelehrtengeschichte  des  Predigerordens  im  13  und 
14  Jahrhunderts,'  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  165-248  ;  '  Die  Handschriften  der 
Bibelcorrektorien  de  13  Jahrhunderts,'  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  263-311,  471-601. 
Denifle  has  published  several  other  studies  of  the  highest  importance 
for  the  study  of  scholasticism,  cf.,  Pelzer,  Revue  Nto-Scolastique.  August, 
1905- 


106  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

with  a  new  interest  all  the  subjects  he  has  treated  in  his 
work  ;  and  if  we  may  not  give  him  the  place  of  a  pioneer 
in  the  history  of  university  education  in  the  fourteenth, 
fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries,  we  are  absolutely  safe 
in  asserting  that  no  one  has  treated  this  period  with 
such  profound  science  and  judgment,  with  such  unerring 
criticism  and  wealth  of  erudition,  as  he.  He  has  eliminated 
errors  and  legends  in  which  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages 
abounded ;  he  has  settled  for  ever,  as  historical  facts,  a 
number  of  points  that  were  hitherto  doubtful,  and  brought 
to  light  others  that  were  completely  unknown  ;  and  he 
has  furnished  materials  that  will  be  indispensable  for 
future  writers  on  the  Middle  Ages. 

He  will  remain  [says  M.  Pelzer]  the  indispensable  guide 
for  those  who  undertake  the  historical  study  of  medieval 
civilization,  of  the  Catholic  Church,  of  Luther  and  Luther- 
anism,  of  France  and  England,  of  Germany  and  Italy  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  of  the  teaching  of  universities, 
of  Papal  diplomacy,  of  philosophy,  of  law,  of  mysticism  and 
of  exegesis. 

His  history  of  the  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages  outclasses 
the  work  of  Du  Boulay,  who  was  hitherto  the  great  authority 
on  the  subject.  His  conclusions  are  always  safe,  because 
they  are  drawn,  wherever  possible,  from  manuscript 
sources,  and  he  has  opened  up,  in  his  edition  of  the 
Chartularium,  one  of  the  richest  mines  of  historical  learning 
that  has  ever  been  given  to  the  world. 

The  University  of  Paris  was,  for  a  long  time,  the  first 
school  in  Europe,  and  students  of  every  nation  flocked 
to  it  in  large  numbers.  Its  scientific  importance  began 
to  diminish  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  it  became  rather 
a  national  institution  than  a  cosmopolitan  seat  of  learning. 
Thus  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  every  political 
event  in  France  was  discussed  in  the  University,  which, 
at  the  time,  was  regarded  as  on  equal  footing  with  the 
Bishop  of  Paris,  the  King  and  Parliament.1 

Father  Denifle  [says  M.  Pelzer]  does  not  confine  himself  to 

1  C/.,  Mgr.  Kirsch  in  a  study  which  he  consecrated  to  the  work  of 
Denifle  in  the  Revue  Thomiste — '  L'Universite  de  Paris  au  moyen  age' — 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  661-685. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O.P,  107 

the  mere  collecting  and  publishing  of  the  original  documents 
relating  to  the  University,  numbers  of  which  exist  not  only  in 
Paris,  but  in  several  other  archives  and  libraries.  He  has 
added  to  a  critical  text  numerous  notes  on  persons  mentioned 
in  the  documents,  on  events  and  on  the  existing  manuscripts 
of  the  works  which  he  uses  in  the  compilation  of  the  Chartu- 
larium  itself.  He  has  made  the  reading  of  it  easy  for  the  student 
by  the  annexation  of  a  double  table  :  one  chronological,  which 
reproduces  the  regests  of  documents  published ;  the  other 
onomastic,  which  gives  the  required  information  on  the  names 
cited,  and  their  titles,  etc.  Thus  the  second  and  fourth  volumes 
contain  respectively  3,000  and  4,500  proper  names.  The 
edition  is  prefaced  by  long  introductions  in  which  Denifle 
studies,  on  broad  lines,  some  results  of  his  researches,  on  the 
institutions,  the  persons,  and  the  events  to  which  the  docu- 
ments refer.  He  corrects  opinions  that  had  hitherto  been 
erroneously  received,  and  gives  his  own  conclusions,  based 
on  a  wealth  of  evidence,  on  which  future  historians  may 
confidently  rely. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  do  justice  in  the  space  allowed 
us,  to  the  work  Denifle  has  accomplished  for  the  history 
of  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology.  We  can  but  refer 
the  reader  to  a  noble  article  that  M.  Pelzer  of  Louvain 
has  written  on  Denifle,  in  the  Revue  Neo-Scolastique,  the 
official  organ  of  the  first  school  of  scholastic  philosophy 
in  Europe.  Denifle' s  studies  on  Abelard  and  his  disciples, 
on  the  Abbot  Joachim  and  the  Eternal  Gospel,  bring  to 
light  facts  that  had  been  long  unknown,  clear  up  doubts 
that  had  existed  for  centuries,  and  dispel  legends  that  had 
supplanted  truth  for  generations. 

In  the  midst  of  his  labours  on  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  the  calamities  of  the  churches  and  monasteries  during 
the  Hundred  Years'  War,  Denifle  was  struck  by  the  ex- 
traordinary decadence  among  the  secular  and  regular 
clergy  during  the  fifteenth  century.  In  studying  the 
sources  of  this  decadence,  and  pursuing  its  evolution,  he 
was  brought  face  to  face,  in  the  third  decade  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  with  numbers  of  priests  and  religious  who  lived 
in  open  violation  of  their  sacred  vows,  and  who,  to  the 
indifference  which  was  characteristic  of  the  period,  added 
the  denial  of  religious  beliefs  that  had  hitherto  been  held 
sacred.  He  found  Luther  at  their  head,  and  he  determined 


108  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

to  devote  his  energies  to  unmasking  the  hyprocrisy  and 
wickedness  of  the  apostate. 

Having  found  Luther  at  their  head  [says  M.  Pelzer],  he 
undertook  the  regressive  study  of  the  reformer  to  the  beginning  of 
his  teaching.  To  check  the  results  of  his  researches,  he  retraced 
his  steps  and  followed,  in  an  inverse  direction,  the  evolution 
of  Luther  year  by  year.  He  wished  to  determine,  in  the  life 
of  Luther,  the  psychological  moment  that  would  enable  him 
to  understand  the  personality  of  the  apostate  and  to  explain 
his  rSle  as  the  leader  of  a  sect. 

In  1903,  the  first  volume  of  his  monumental  work  on 
Luther  appeared.1  The  first  edition  was  exhausted  in  a 
month,  and  a  second  was  urgently  demanded.  Denifle 
recast  the  first  volume  and  divided  it  into  three  volumes, 
the  first  of  which  appeared  in  1904,  and  the  second  a  few 
days  before  his  death.  The  second  volume  is  composed 
of  a  large  number  of  texts  on  justification.  Each  of  these 
texts  has  an  introduction,  and  is  borrowed  from  Patristic 
and  medieval  theologians  and  exegetes,  as  the  title  of  the 
volume  indicates.2  The  end  the  author  had  in  view  in 
this  volume  was  the  complete  refutation  of  the  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  Lutheranism, — justification  by  faith 
without  works.  He  wished  to  test  the  affirmation  of 
Luther,  that,  with  the  exception  of  St.  Augustine,  all  the 
interpreters  of  Scripture,  in  the  Western  Church,  understood 
the  text  of  St.  Paul*  relating  to  justification  as  he  had 
expounded  it.  In  this  volume  the  doctrines  of  Luther  are 
confronted  by  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers,  and  of  medieval 
exegetes  and  theologians.  He  proves  that  Luther  had  a 
most  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  golden  age  of  scholas- 
ticism, and  even  that  was  acquired  through  the  school 
of  Occam,  and  he  also  shows  how  this  ignorance  has 
been  perpetuated,  and  is  characteristic  of  the  best  treatises 
of  contemporary  Protestant  theology.  He  criticises  severely 
numerous  citations  taken  from  St.  Augustine,  Venerable 

1  Luther  und  Luthertum  in  der  ersten  Entwickelun^  quellenmassiq 
dargestellt,  vol.  i.  (Mainz,  1903). 

1  Luther  und  Luthertum,  Die  eibendliindischen  Schriftauslege-r  bis 
Luther  uber  Justitia  Dei  (Rom.  i.  17)  und  Justificatio  (Mainz,  1905). 

'  Rom.  i.  17. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O,P.  109 

Bede,  St.  Bernard,  and  the  scholastics,  in  the  great  edition 
of  the  works  of  Luther,  which  the  editors  were  not  able 
to  identify.  Two  of  them,  however,  have  had  the  generosity 
to  do  justice  to  the  learning  of  Denifle.  Professor  Kohler 
says  :  *  His  knowledge  of  medieval  literature  is  astonishing,' 
and  Kawerau  speaks  of  *  his  incomparable  knowledge  of 
ancient  ecclesiastical  literature,  and  his  marvellous  grasp 
of  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages.'  The  appearance  of 
Denifle's  book  on  Luther  raised  a  storm  among  the  Pro- 
testants of  Germany,  and  created  what  may,  with  justice, 
be  called  a  panic.  Harnack  and  Seeberg,  and  a  number 
of  others,  entered  the  lists  against  Denifle  to  defend  their 
idol  whom  he  had  damaged  beyond  hope  of  repair,  but 
their  literary  reputation  suffered  seriously  in  the  attempt, 
and  they  soon  discovered  that  they  had  to  deal  with  a  giant, 
sure  of  his  own  strength  as  he  was  certain  of  the  justice 
of  his  cause.  He  demolished  their  arguments  in  a  pamphlet 
which  he  published  in  1904^  and  Luther  shall  remain, 
for  all  time  to  come,  the  discredited  hypocrite  that  the 
German  Dominican  has  proved  him  to  have  been.  The 
publication  of  the  third  volume  was  announced  for  the 
end  of  1905,  and  the  second  volume,  which  Denifle  had 
time  to  prepare  before  his  death,  is  to  be  published  this 
year. 

To  the  works  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  and 
which  represent  but  a  part  of  the  immense  labours  of  the 
learned  Dominican,  we  must  add  another  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Rome  in  1888, — Specimina  paleographica  Regcsto- 
rum  Romanorum  Pontificum.  The  life  of  Denifle  was  a 
life  of  intense  activity,  and  from  1880  till  1905  not  a  single 
year  passed  without  some  volume  from  the  pen  of  this 
literary  giant.  Articles  on  a  vast  variety  of  subjects 
appeared  in  the  leading  periodicals  of  Germany  and 
France,2  and  from  1885,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Father  Ehrle,  S.J.,  the  Archives  fur  Litter atur  und  Kirchen- 

t  Luther  in  rationalistischer  und  Christlicher  Beleuchtung  Prinzipitlle 
Auseinandersetzung  mit  A.  Harnack  und  R.  Seeberg,  (Mainz,  1904). 

*  Cf .  Deutsche  Litter  atur zeitung  ;  Mtmoires  de  la  Societe^de  I'histoire 
de  Paris  et  de  I' lie  de  France ;  Zeitschrift  fiir  Katholische  Theohgie ; 
Historisches  Jahrbuch  ;  Revue  des  Bibliotheques  ;  Revue  Thomiste 


HO  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

°eschi,chte  dcs  Mittelalters  appeared  regularly  till  his  death, 
and  its  pages  contain  many  of  his  best  and  most  original 
works. 

In  his  preface  to  the  History  of  the  Universities  of  the 
Middle  Ages,1  he  explains  the  method  he  rigidly  adherred 
to  in  all  his  historical  studies  : — 

The  analytic  method  [he  says]  is  the  only  one  that  guides 
us  to  the  discovery  of  truth  ;  it  saves  us  from  an  error  into  which 
we  often  fall,  and  which  results  in  the  seeking  of  proofs  in 
support  of  preconceived  ideas  and  assertions,  to  the  complete 
obscuring  of  the  common  adage — qui  nimis  probat  nihil  probat. 
I  am  convinced  that  in  using  the  synthetic  method  we  cannot 
arrive  at  solid  conclusions,  in  a  field  of  research  where  much 
has  yet  to  be  done,  and  where  we  must  first  of  all  establish 
particular  facts.  We  run  the  risk  of  taking  as  general  what 
is,  in  reality,  particular ;  of  basing  conclusions  on  defective 
inductions,  regarding  as  particular  incidents,  universal  facts, 
and  of^confounding  different  epochs.  I  do  not  like  such  con- 
clusionsj^aSjthe  following  :  It  has  been  thus  in  this  place,  and 
in  that  j  century  ;  therefore  it  has  been  the  same  elsewhere, 
and  in  antecedent  and  subsequent  centuries.  We  do  much  more 
for  historical  science  by  confining  ourselves  to  the  domain  of 
facts  and  mastering  them  one  by  one. 

It  was  characteristic  of  Denifle  to  go  to  original  sources 
even  when  published  matter  was  available.  His  numerous 
researches  had  familiarized  him  with  the  contents  of  the 
principal  archives  and  libraries  of  Europe,  to  an  extent 
that  he  knew  exactly  what  they  contained  relating  to  the 
life  and  works  of  any  scholastic.  When  engaged  on  any 
work  he  was  never  satisfied  till  he  had  collated  every 
manuscript  that  he  could  find  of  the  work  itself,  and 
arranged  and  classified  every  document  he  could  discover 
bearing  upon  it.  In  an  interesting  study  on  Denifle's 
personality,2  Mgr.  Ehses  says  that  there  was  nothing 
mechanical  about  his  work.  He  examined  every  document 
that  passed  through  his  hands  minutely,  though  he  might 
not  have  been  able,  at  the  time,  to  make  immediate  use 
of  it.  It  was  due  to  his  analytic  method  and  to  his  passion 
for  original  research  that  the  historical  works  of  Denifle 

1  Cf.,  pp.  xxiii.  et  sq. 

*  KOlnische    Volkszcitung,  July   15,   1905. 


FATHER  DENIFLE,  O.P.  Ill 

are  so  accurate  and  trustworthy,  and  that  future  writers 
will  be  able  to  rely  upon  them  with  complete  confidence. 

This  article  would  be  incomplete  if,  having  noticed  the 
life-work  of  Denifle,  we  omitted  to  say  something  of  his 
original  personality.  In  appearance  he  was  tall  and  slight 
with  piercing  blue  eyes,  and  dark  auburn  hair  which  he 
generally  wore  long  ;  he  was  extremely  abrupt  in  manner, 
and  his  intense  application  to  whatever  work  he  had  in 
hand  made  him,  at  times,  totally  unconscious  of  his  sur- 
roundings. He  was  frank,  sometimes  to  the  verge  of 
rudeness,  in  conversation,  and  in  his  writings  he  expressed 
his  views  of  men  and  things  with  almost  brutal  severity. 
He  speaks  of  the  '  lies '  of  Preger,  and  the  '  romancing  ' 
of  Reuter,  two  opponents  whom  he  had  to  castigate  in 
some  of  his  controversies.  He  warns  all  who  may  be 
inclined  to  trifle  with  truth  of  this  side  of  his  character  : — 

Since  my  childhood  [he  wrote  in  1903],  I  have  regarded 
frankness  and  probity  as  the  basis  of  intercourse  with  my  fellow- 
man.  For  thirty  years  I  have  fought  many  a  hard  fight,  but 
there  is  one  thing  that  my  opponents  will  always  grant  me. 
They  know  how  they  stand  with  me  ;  they  know  that  my  methods 
are  open  and  straightforward,  and  that  I  neither  involve  nor 
conceal  my  thoughts.  If  I  discover  a  lie,  I  call  it  a  lie  ;  and 
if  I  detect  a  trick,  a  duplicity,  or  a  forgery,  I  designate  it  by 
these  words.1 

As  he  tells  us,  in  his  preface  to  Luther  und  Luthertwn,  he 
wishes  to  strike  the  reformer  to  the  heart.  He  knew  the 
unpopularity  his  work  would  bring  upon  himself,  and  the 
storm  of  hate  that  should  burst  upon  him,  but  as  he  says — 

Someone  had  at  last  to  do  it,  and  to  submit  willingly  to 
air,  the  ignominy  that  the  world  reserves  for  him  who  con- 
scientiously announces  the  truth  such  as  it  appears  to^him, 
and  gives  things  their  proper  names ;  who  relates  not  only  facts 
— even  the  most  unpalatable — but  who  draws  from  them  their 
logical  conclusions,  because  he  knows  from  experience  that 
Protestant  readers  do  not  do  so,  when  this  subject  is  in  question.2 

With  all  the  cares  and  preoccupations  which  his  literary 

1  Luther  in  rationalistischer  und  Christlicher  Beleuchtune,  p.   5. 
.  6. 


112  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

labours  entailed,  he  was  always  prepared  to  look  after 
the  spiritual  interests  of  those  who  sought  his  guidance. 
Whole  families  of  the  highest  rank  and  greatest  distinction 
were  under  his  spiritual  direction.  In  his  private  life 
he  was  the  simplest  of  men.  During  the  hours  of  mental 
relaxation  he  was  amused  by  the  simplest  jest,  and  he 
took  great  delight  in  challenging  the  lay-brothers  to  a  game 
of  draughts.  He  had  the  spiritual  charge  of  them  for  years, 
and  he  seldom  failed  to  turn  up  at  their  recreations,  and 
enter  with  great  zest  into  their  simple  amusements. 

Father  Denifle  was  a  member  of  the  most  illustrious 
academies  of  Europe — of  Vienna,  Prague,  Gottingen,  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres  of  Paris. 
He  had  several  decorations  from  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
which  are  only  given  to  those  who  are  distinguished  in 
science  and  art,  and  besides  these  he  received  the  order 
of  the  Iron  Crown.  He  was  decorated  by  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  France  enrolled  him 
in  her  Legion  of  Honour.  A  few  years  ago  he  received  the 
Doctorate  from  the  Academy  of  Munster  in  Westphalia, 
and  the  University  of  Cracow  placed  him  among  the 
doctors  in  her  roll  of  honour.  A  tardy  recognition,  but 
none  the  less  appreciated,  came  from  the  Protestant 
University  of  Cambridge,  but  on  his  way  to  receive  it 
God  called  the  labourer  to  his  reward,  and,  we  trust,  gave 
him  a  more  glorious  decoration  than  any  man  has  to 
bestow. 

MICHAEL  M.  O'KANE,  O.P. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE 

II. — CRITICISM 

MR.  MALLOCK'S  reasons  for  rejecting  the  spirituality 
of  the  soul,  as  proved  from  self-consciousness,  may 
be  briefly  put  thus  :  Everyone  admits  that  we  can- 
not imagine  how  the  thing  called  matter  and  the  thing  called 
mind  are  connected  in  man ;  yet  everyone  admits  that  they 
are  united  in  point  of  fact.  Is  it  not,  therefore,  just  as 
reasonable  to  hold  that  they  are  one  indivisible  thing,  as  to 
hold  that  they  are  two  distinct  things  ?  Their  connection 
is  unimaginable,  yet  it  is  a  fact,  why  should  the  unimagin- 
ability  of  their  oneness  necessarily  prove  their  duality  ? 
Because,  we  venture  to  assert,  that  Mr.  Mallock  has  not 
grasped  the  precise  point  of  the  argument.  We  admit 
freely  that  we  cannot  explain  how  mind  and  matter  are 
united  in  man,  but  we  deny  that  this  forces  us  to  accept 
their  oneness.  If  the  act  of  self-consciousness  is  proven 
independent  of  matter,  then  the  soul,  the  entire  principle 
of  that  action,  must  be  independent  of  matter.  Operari 
sequitur  esse.  Now,  '  the  act  of  self-consciousness  implies 
absolute  identity  between  myself  thinking  about  some- 
thing, and  myself  thinking  on  that  thinking  self : '  it  is  an 
instance  of  the  complete  or  perfect  reflection  of  an  agent 
back  upon  itself.  An  action  of  this  kind  is  in  open  and 
direct  conflict  with  all  the  fundamental  characteristics  of 
matter  as  known  to  physical  science.  Atom  A  may  act 
on  atom  B,  but  atom  A  could  not  turn  back  on  atom  A 
without  assuming  a  character  absolutely  contradictory  to 
the  essential  nature  of  matter.  Therefore,  this  act  of  self- 
consciousness  is  not  the  act  of  anything  intrinsically  de- 
pendent on  matter.  I  may  not  know,  I  do  not  know, 
how  matter  and  mind  are  connected,  but  I  am  absolutely 
certain  that  the  thing  within  me,  which  is  the  source  of 
self-consciousness,  and  which  all  agree  to  call  mind,  must 
be  intrinsically  independent  of  my  material  organism,  of 

VOL.    XIX.  H 


114  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

matter.  Unity  is  essentially  repugnant,  duality  must  be 
accepted.  Imaginability  has  nothing  to  say  with  the 
question. 

-Mr.  ,  Mallock  confounds  two  different  .things  carefully  dis- 
tinguished by  me,  the  simplicity  and  the  spirituality  of  mental 
activities.  He  then  represents  me  as  proving  the  spirituality 
of  the  soul  by,  the  non-spatial  character.' of  its  activities.  .  .  . 
My  answer  is  to  refer  the  reader  to  page  469,  where  I  explicitly 
point  out  the  difference  between! the^ :  spirituality  and  the  sim- 
plicity or  non-spatial  character  of  a  mental  activity.  I  there 
state  formally  at  the  beginning  of  the  thesis  concerning  the 
spirituality  of  the  soul  that  the  principle  of  conscious  life  in  the 
lower  animals  though  non-spatial  is  yet  not  spiritual.  I  then 
prove,  not  from  consciousness — which  the  animals  possess — 
but  from  self-consciousness,  from  thought  and  from  free  volition, 
of  which  animals  are  devoid,  that  the  human  soul  isjspiritual. 
Nowhere  in  this  proof  do  I  appeal  to  the  non-spatial  quality  of 
consciousness.  My  argument  is  not,  it  is  unimaginable  how 
non-spatial  consciousness  can  be  dependent  on  an  extended 
organism,  but  that  it  is  absolutely  unthinkable  that  self- 
consciousness,  thought,  or  free  volition  can  be  acts  of  a  bodily 
organ.1 

Let  us  see  if  Mr.  Mallock  presents  a  stronger  case  against 
the  second  main  contention  of  the  apologist.  The  first 
thing  that  strikes  Mr.  Mallock's  readers  is  that  he  does  not 
devote  a  single  line  to  that  proof  which  the  apologist  is 
bound  to  furnish  in  favour  of  this  part  of  his  thesis.  Mr. 
Mallock  contents  himself  with  stating  the  conclusion  with- 
out a  word  of  explanation  of  the  terms  involved,  and  then 
proceeds  to  marshal  against  that  conclusion  an  array  of 
facts.  We  intend  to  supply  the  lacunae.  We  intend — to 
use  Mr.  Mallock's  words — to  ask  our  readers  '  to  accept 
the  statement  that  men  possess  certain  faculties  of  which, 
in  other  living  creatures,  there  is  not  even  a  trace,  on 
grounds  similar  to  those  on  which  all  of  us  do  accept  the 
statement  that  men  can  boil  tea-kettles,  and  other  living 
creatures  cannot,'  namely,  on  the  grounds  of  the  ordinary 
methods  of  observation.  And,  then,  we  shall  discuss  Mr. 
Mallock's  objections  in  detail. 

'  Maher's  Psychology,  p.  606.  Many  able  Neo-Scholastics  deny  that 
the  principle  of  life  in  irrational  animals  is  simple,  and  deny  that 
sensations  are  simple.  Mercier,  Psychologie,  p.  351,  sixth  edition; 
Fontaine,  La  Sensation  et  La  Pensee,  pp.  29-32  ;  Nys,  Cosmologie,  pp. 
202-206. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  115 

The  thesis  of  the  apologist  is :  Science  proves  that  man, 
and  man  alone,  is  capable  of  certain  manifestations  which 
indubitably  demand  spirituality  of  intellect,  namely, 
rational  language,  morality,  religion,  and  that  progress 
which  results  from  individuality.  We  shall  first  prove 
this  thesis,  and  then  apply  it. 

Rational  language  is,  according  to  Mr.  Mivart,1  *  the 
external  manifestation  by  sound  or  gesture,  of  general  con- 
ceptions : — not  emotional  expressions,  or  the  manifestations 
of  sensible  impressions,  but  enunciations  of  distinct  judg- 
ments as  to  "  the  what,"  "  the  how,"  "  the  wherefore."  ' 
And,  in  1889,  Max  Muller,2  as  President  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Section  of  the  British  Association,  said  : — 

If  all  true  science  is  based  on  facts,  the  fact  remains  that 
no  animal  has  even  found  what  we  mean  by  a  language  ;  and 
we  are  fully  justified,  therefore,  in  holding  with  Bunsen  and 
Humbolt,  as  against  Darwin  and  Romanes,  that  there  is  a 
specific  difference  between  the  human  animal  and  all  other 
animals,  and  that  the  difference  consists  in  language  as  the 
outward  manifestation  of  what  the  Greeks  mean  by  Logos. 

Morality  does  not  here  mean  that  feeling  inspired  by 
fear  of  chastisement,  but  that  shame  inspired  by  the  viola- 
tion of  inflexible  laws  made  known  to  each  man  through 
the  voice  of  conscience.  Now,  every  nation  has  its  own 
laws,  and  every  state  of  civilization  has  had,  and  has,  its 
own  peculiar  practices  on  such  essential  matters  as  chastity, 
property,  and  human  life.  Still  the  untiring  efforts  of 
ethnographists  and  naturalists  have  brought  to  light  this 
fact,  that  there  was,  or  is,  no  known  race,  however  bar- 
barous and  degraded,  that  had  not,  or  has  not,  adopted 
customs  and  established  sanctions  which  prove  the  exist- 
ence of,  and  assure  respect  for,  the  moral  notions.  Who 
has  ever  seriously  maintained,  with  any  show  of  proof, 
that  the  animals  respect  or  recognize  the  moral  notions  ? 

Religion,  in  so  far  as  it  implies  belief  in  a  superior 
Being,  or  beings,  capable  of  influencing  our  destiny,  and 
also  the  persuasion  that  some  part  of  our  being  will  survive 

1  The  Old  Riddle  and  the  Newest  Answer,  p.  75. 
*M.  Duilhe  de  Saint-Projet,  Apologie,  p.  397. 


Il6  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

death  is  also  found  among  every  race  of  men.  Some  years 
ago,  evolutionists  made  great  capital  out  of  the  fact  that 
certain  races  of  savages  were  atheistic.  Scientists,  with 
no  apologetic  leanings,  have  proved  the  falseness  of  this 
view.  '  J'ai  cherche  Patheisme  avec  le  plus  grand  soin. 
Je  ne  1'ai  rencontre  nulle  part,  si  ce  n'est  a  1'etat  erratique, 
chez  quelques  sectes  philosophiques  des  nations  les  plus 
anciennment  civilisees.'1  Who  has  ever  spoken  of  the  religion 
of  the  brute  ? 

Progress  is  another  characteristic  of  man.  What  a 
change  from  the  world  of  the  pre-historic  man  of  the  qua- 
ternary period  to  the  world  of  to-day.  The  rude  arms 
and  utensils  of  the  pre-historic  races  are  jealously  treasured 
in  our  museums,  and  rightly  so,  for  they  are  our  legacy 
from  our  earliest  discovered  ancestors.  Yet,  how  primitive 
are  these  instruments,  and  how  far  on  are  we  not  gone, 
from  the  cradle  days  of  our  race.  How  many  sciences,  how 
many  industries,  how  many  religions,  how  many  styles  of 
architecture,  how  many  arts,  how  many  inventions  for  the 
comfort  and  pleasure  of  men,  how  many  different  fashions 
in  dress  and  clothing  have  not  come  and  gone  through 
the  various  centuries  ?  And  to-day,  the  rush  of  progress 
is  faster  than  ever.  But  the  dumb  creatures  about  us  ! 
Truly,  they  seem  not  of  us  :  they  do  not  even  appear  to 
realise  that  things  are  changing  around  them.  The  throb 
of  human  progress  awakes  no  responsive  chord  within 
them  :  they  are  heedless  of  the  feverish  rush  of  humanity 
towards  the  goal  of  happiness.  It  has  ever  been  so  with 
them.  Never  through  the  roll  of  the  centuries  have  they 
shown  any  trace  of  personal  initiative.  From  the  first  they 
have  shivered  as  men  did  when  the  bitter  blasts  blew, 
and  when  the  frost  and  snow  encircled  them  ;  from  the  first, 
they  have  had  certain  tasks  to  fulfil,  and  when  the  sun  set 
and  darkness  came  down,  they,  too,  like  men,  betook  them- 
selves to  rest.  They  must  have  then  felt  the  same  need  of 
physical  comforts  as  men  did  ;  yet,  they  never  lit  a  fire 
against  the  winter's  cold,  never  donned  a  garment  to  keep 

1  yuatrefages,  Introduction  a  I' 'etudes  des  races  humaines,  p.  278. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  117 

out  the  sleet,  never  built  a  shelter  for  the  night,  never  made 
a  tool  to  help  them  at  their  toil.  They  have  lived  as  long, 
and  longer,  than  man  on  the  earth.  Yet,  at  all  times  and 
in  all  places,  uniformity  and  stability  have  marked  the 
conduct  of  the  individuals  within  each  species.  No  pro- 
gress, no  change. 

Here,  then,  are  facts  as  palpable  as  the  boiling  of  tea- 
kettles :  man  is  capable  of  rational  speech,  man  is  religious 
man  is  moral,  man  is  capable  of  personal  progress,  and  of 
profiting  of  the  progress  of  others — and  man  alone  is  cap- 
able of  these  things.  Within  these  sacred  precincts  no 
animal  has  ever  entered.  And  the  question  arises,  why  is 
man  capable  of  such  things  ?  A  moment's  introspection 
gives  us  the  answer.  Each  man  discovers  within  himself 
acts  of  two  kinds  :  the  eyes  see,  the  ears  hear,  the  imagina- 
tion imagines  objects  of  such  and  such  size,  of  such  and  such 
colour,  of  such  and  such  proportions. 

But  there  are  acts  of  another  kind.  Each  human  being 
can  convince  himself  by  personal  observation  that  his 
inner  faculties  can  grasp  ideas  and  principles  which  have 
no  connection  with  matter  or  with  sense — abstract  and 
universal  ideas,  which  ignore  or  prescind  from  all  indi- 
vidualizing conditions.  For  instance,  my  concept  of  man 
represents  the  nature  or  essence  of  man,  and  is  applicable 
to  each  one  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  human  beings 
scattered  everywhere  throughout  the  globe.  It  represents 
only  the  essential  attributes  of  man,  and  prescinds 
from  colour,  shape,  size,  or  any  other  individualizing 
factor.  I  turn  over  the  leaves  of  my  Shakespeare — Hamlet, 
Macbeth,  Romeo,  Caesar,  etc.,  loom  up  before  my  mind, 
with  oh  !  so  many  masterly- tinted  individualizing  traits. 
Yet,  my  concept  never  varies,  it  is  one,  and  it  is  found 
beneath  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  these  creations  of 
genius,  everywhere  the  same,  everywhere  man,  everywhere 
the  one  human  nature.  Now,  a  concept  of  this  kind  cannot 
come  from  a  faculty  intrinsically  dependent  on  sense. 
Sensations,  however  reproduced,  aggregated,  blended,  or 
refined,  are  material  phenomena,  and  include  a  set  of 
individualizing  conditions,  and  are  applicable  only  to 


Il8  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

objects  that  are  characterized  by  these  conditions.  A 
sensation,  therefore,  is  not  abstract,  not  universal.  Now, 
the  existence  of  universal  ideas  and  concepts,  altogether 
removed  from  sense  and  matter,  alone  accounts  for  these 
four  distinguishing  facts,  and  alone  accounts  for  their 
absence  in  the  animals. 

Thus,  rational  language  implies  the  transference  of 
thought,  and  since  the  sensible  image  varies  from  moment 
to  moment,  and  from  individual  to  individual,  this  trans- 
ference would  be  impossible  if  there  were  not  behind  the 
image  a  universal  and  abstract  concept,  independent  of 
all  fleeting  influences,  and  conveying  to  my  neighbours 
exactly  that  which  I  wish  to  convey.  Again,  in  every 
proposition,  the  predicate  is  abstract,  and  Max  Muller  tells 
us  that  all  names  were  originally  terms  conveying  some 
general  attribute  of  the  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  given 
an  intellect  capable  of  knowing  the  abstract  and  the  uni- 
versal, the  possessors  cannot  fail  to  establish  a  medium  of 
intercourse.  '  The  reflective  activity  of  the  intellect,  com- 
bined with  the  social  instinct,  would  inevitably  lead  these 
beings  to  manifest  their  ideas  to  each  other,  were  such 
ideas  in  existence.' 

Morality  presupposes  necessary  and  universal  principles 
of  conduct,  be  they  few  or  many.  The  notions  of  good  and 
evil  binding  at  all  times  and  in  all  circumstances — notions 
and  principles  that  can  be  grasped  only  by  an  intellect 
capable  of  universal  and  abstract  ideas.  Therefore,  it  is 
that  man  is  moral,  and  the  brute  not. 

Religion,  even  restricted  to  the  narrow  limits  of  our 
definition,  implies  that  man  has  seen  his  own  littleness, 
and  has  sought  out  the  author  of  himself  and  of  all  those 
fleeting  things  about  him — effort  that  involves  the  prin- 
ciple of  causality.  And,  then,  observing  his  own  superi- 
ority to  all  about  him,  he  thought  on  the  future,  and 
felt  somehow  that  all  did  not  end  as  his  body  stiffened 
out  in  death.  Every  step  here  demands  an  intellect  not 
shut  up  within  the  narrow  barriers  of  sense  and  matter,  an 
intellect  capable  of  the  universal  and  the  abstract.  And, 
therefore,  man  has  got  his  temples,  and  the  brute  his  lair. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE 

Progress — why  are  animals  condemned  to  psychical 
fixity,  why  ever  the  slaves  of  nature,  and  why  is  man 
master  of  all  about  him,  and  capable  of  every  form  of 
progress  ?  Again,  because  man  grasps  the  universal  and 
the  abstract,  and  because  the  animal  does  not.  The  first 
human  being  looked  out  on  the  vast  world,  conceived  the 
plan  of  such  and  such  an  action,  chose  the  means  thereto, 
and  accomplished  it  in  his  own  way.  His  successor  felt 
the  same  needs,  but  conceived  another  way  of  satisfying 
them,  and  so  reached  the  same  goal  by  another  path. 
Thus,  as  each  man  faced  the  problems  of  life  for  himself, 
the  human  intellect,  in  virtue  of  its  universal  and  abstrac- 
tive potentiality,  pointed  out  ever  new  means  to  old  ends  ; 
and  progress  grew  from  generation  to  generation,  from, 
century  to  century.  Why  did  the  brute  creation  remain 
outside  all  this  ?  Why  did  it  not  even  learn  the  lesson  by 
force  of  example  ?  Because  nature  denied  brutes  the 
power  :  it  fixed  one  mode  of  action  for  them,  varied  it  from 
species  to  species,  but  within  the  same  species  never  so 
much  as  suggested  another  to  them.  Brutes  lacked  that 
faculty,  which  presents  an  ideal,  capable  of  being  em- 
bodied in  diverse  forms  according  to  the  end  in  view  :  in 
a  word,  a  faculty  capable  of  conceiving  the  abstract  and 
the  universal.  Invention  and  progress  are  due  to  the 
application  of  universal  concepts  to  matter  and  material 
phenomena.  The  brute  has  never  made  the  slightest 
progress,  never  invented  anything.  He  had  ever  as  much 
need  of  invention  and  of  progress,  as  much  incitement 
thereto  as  man.  What  can  have  been  wanting  save  the 
universal  idea  ?  Is  it  for  a  moment  tenable  that  the 
brute  conceived  the  same  ideas  as  man,  felt  the  same 
needs,  and  yet  stood  still,  stands  still  to-day,  and  will 
stand  still  for  ever  ? 

Man,  therefore,  to  sum  up,  is  proven  possessed  of  uni- 
versal and  abstract  ideas,  and  the  animals  are  proven 
wanting  in  such  ideas.  Now,  a  faculty  is  judged  by  its 
acts,  and  the  nature  of  the  principle  of  any  faculty  by 
the  nature  of  the  faculty  itself.  Therefore  we  conclude  that 
the  human  faculty  of  intellect  is  intrinsically  independent 


120  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  sense  ;  and  therefore,  further,  that  the  human  soul, 
principle  of  the  intellect,  is  intrinsically  independent 
of  sense,  that  is,  spiritual.  The  same  argument  proves 
that  the  animal  soul  is  not  spiritual.  Here,  then,  with  all 
the  evidence  of  the  *  tea-kettle '  methods,  we  reach  the 
conclusion  that  there  is  a  difference,  not  of  degree,  but  of 
nature,  between  the  soul  of  man  and  the  soul  of  the  brute. 
Let  us  see  if  Mr.  Mallock's  facts  invalidate  our  thesis. 

Does  Mr.  Mallock's  elephant  judge  and  reflect  ?  No 
one  can  pretend  to  know  the  elephant's  mind,  and,  there- 
fore, his  claims  to  intellect  must  be  weighed  by  his  actions. 
Elephants,  since  their  appearance  on  the  earth,  have  never 
invented  a  single  tool,  never  given  a  sign  of  progress.  With 
such  proof  to  their  complete  want  of  judgment  and  re- 
flection, are  we  to  accept  Mr.  Mallock's  example  as  proof 
of  the  possession  of  these  faculties  ?  Is  it  not  infinitely 
more  rational  to  explain  this  act  by  means  of  those  faculties 
which  elephants  have  ever  given  proof  of — by  the  faculties 
of  sense-perception  and  by  the  association  of  sense-per- 
ceptions. May  not  the  sight  of  the  rapid,  flowing  water 
have  suggested  to  the  elephant  that  act  of  caution  ?  Or, 
it  may  be,  that  Jumbo  has  just  come  away  from  his  foun- 
tain, and  the  sense-association  of  the  non-resisting  power 
of  water  revives  in  his  brain  at  the  sight  of  the  colourless 
liquid.  A  hundred  means  of  explaining  the  elephant's 
action  through  the  sole  means  of  sense,  and  sense-co-ordina- 
tion are  possible,  while  to  introduce  into  his  brain  the  act 
of  human  judgment  and  of  human  reflection  is  wholly 
unnecessary,  and  so  opposed  to  past  elephantine  history 
as  to  be  wholly  inadmissible. 

The  dog,  by  sad  experience,  knows  that  he  is  not  im- 
penetrable, sees  the  missile  coming,  and  dodges  it.  Sight 
and  touch  and  sensitive  memory  of  co-ordinated  sensations 
account  for  all.  But,  insists  Mr.  Mallock,  the  dog  gauges 
the  speed  ?  Why  suppose  that  he  does  ?  Does  a  man, 
when  avoiding  a  similar  missile,  make  a  mathematical 
calculation  ? 

The  attention  of  the  horse,  the  dog,  the  deer  ?  Yes, 
we  admit  that  the  horse,  the  dog,  theMeer^are  capable  of 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  12 1 

attention,  so  far  as  attention  means  mere  intensification 
of  sensuous  consciousness.  But  the  attention  which  marks 
off  man  from  the  brute  is  of  quite  another  order  :  it  is  the 
special  application  of  intellectual  energy  to  any  object ; 
it  is,  therefore,  a  wholly  internal  act,  known  only  to  our 
own  consciousness  and  presupposes  an  intellectual  faculty. 
And  so,  too,  with  the  judgment  and  the  reflection  proper 
to  human  nature.  Human  judgment  is  an  act  of  intellect, 
by  which  the  mind  combines  or  separates  two  attributes 
by  affirmation  or  denial.  Human  reflection  is  intellectual 
attention  to  our  own  states.  Attention,  reflection,  and 
judgment,  as  proper  to  man,  are  internal  acts,  which  imply 
the  possession  of  intellect,  and  which  can  be  proved  only 
by  external  manifestation  of  a  very  specific  kind.  Animals 
have  in  all  their  history  positively  proved  that  they  do  not 
possess  an  intellect  such  as  man  possesses.  They  cannot, 
therefore,  be  capable  of  acts  of  supersensuous  attention, 
judgment,  or  reflection.  All  their  acts  are  explicable  by 
purely  sensuous  faculties  and  sense-co-ordination. 

In  his  opening  remarks  on.  the  facts  against  self- 
consciousness,  Mr.  Mallock  wastes  to  no  purpose  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  eloquence.  No  apologist  of  note  holds 
that  baby  crying  for  the  pap-bottle  has  a  consciousness 
of  self  clearer  than  that  of  the  dog  who  fights  for  a  bone 
with  another  dog.  What  every  apologist  does  hold  is, 
that  the  newly-born  babe  possesses  that  faculty  called 
intellect.  That  faculty,  however,  depends  on  certain 
material  images  that  it  may  enter  into  exercise,  and 
students  of  infant  physiology  have  shown  that  the  infant 
organism  is  not  sufficiently  developed  to  permit  the  proper 
and  complete  action  of  the  intellect.  The  infant  senses  must 
be  trained,  the  infant  brain  must  be  developed  along  certain 
lines,  and  its  various  parts  be  properly  differentiated — 
all  this  demands  time,  and  so  far  as  science  can  say  at 
present,  two  years  or  even  less  in  very  favourable  circum- 
stances, and  in  other  less  favourable  circumstances  five 
or  even  six  years.  But  this  development  being  completed, 
the  infant  gives  proof  of  intelligence.  The  intelligence 
of  the^infant^is  proved  by  signs  of  intelligence,  when 


122 


prompted  thereto.  That  the  highest  animal  at  the  highest 
stage  does  not  possess  an  intellect  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  no  amount  of  training,  no  amount  of  careful  education, 
will  bring  him  to  the  point  of  giving  even  one  unmistak- 
able proof  of  the  possession  of  that  faculty.  The  infant  is 
not  then  in  the  animal  stage  of  evolution,  it  is  merely  a 
being  following  the  laws  of  development  proper  to  that 
quite  specific  nature,  called  human  nature.  Every  organ- 
ism demands  a  certain  time  that  it  may  reach  mature 
development,  so  does  the  human  organism.  The  human 
intellect  is  extrinsically  dependent  on  that  human  organism, 
it  is  natural,  therefore,  that  it  cannot  evidence  its  presence 
until  that  organism  reaches  a  certain  stage  of  perfection. 
In  the  case  of  the  other  animals,  even  where  their  organism 
has  reached  its  full  perfection,  the  signs  of  intellect  are 
wanting.  Use  up  all  the  means  that  human  ingenuity 
can  suggest,  and  still  the  remotest  sign  of  intelligence  is 
not  forthcoming.  Why  ?  Because  the  principle  of  that 
intellect  is  wanting — the  spiritual  soul.1 

Before  we  pass  on  to  the  facts  on  universal  ideas,  we 
may  remark,  that  though  Mr.  Mallock  speaks  of  self- 
consciousness  in  this  part  of  his  essay,  his  objection  has 
not  touched  that  point  at  all.  Self-consciousness  is  the 
knowledge  which  the  mind  has  of  its  acts  as  being  its  own. 
It  demands  a  spiritual  faculty,  and  since  the  animal  proves 
positively  that  he  has  got  no  such  faculty,  it  follows  that 
the  animal  cannot  be  self-conscious.  That  man  is  self- 
conscious  is  verifiable  for  each  one  for  himself :  at  what 
precise  moment  the  infant  acquires  this  power  is  another 
question,  and  a  delicate  one,  but  a  question  that  does  not 
touch  our  thesis. 

General  concepts  represent  the  essence  of  some  subject 
in  an  abstract  fashion,  ignoring  or  prescinding  from  all 
accidental  individualizing  conditions.  To  establish  their 
existence,  the  psychologist  describes  the  marks  which 
distinguish  them,  and  then  appeals  to  each  man's  internal 
experience  ;  or,  again,  he  may  deduce  their  existence  from 

1  See  Mivart's  Origin  of  Human  Reason, 


RELIGION  AS   A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  123 

the  nature  of  the  acts  placed  by  man  or  animal.  We  have 
proved  that  the  animals  give  positive  proof  of  the  absence 
of  such  concepts.  The  cat's  recognition  of  milk,  the  dog's 
recognition  of  his  fellow-dog,  the  growing  familiarity  of 
horse  and  cow  with  the  passing  train — all  these  are  explic- 
able on  the  grounds  of  association  of  sensuous  images  and 
of  sensuous  memory.  The  cat  has  seen  and  tasted  milk, 
and  the  memory  of  the  sweet,  white  liquid  remains  with 
him — no  need  of  a  universal  concept  to  enable  him  to 
recognise  milk  when  he  sees  it  again.  Like  grouping  of 
sensuous  and  concrete  associations  explains  the  dog's 
knowledge  of  his  fellow-dog.  The  cow  and  the  horse  have 
oft-times  run  away,  and  have  seen  that  the  train  did  not 
follow,  but  passed  them  by — why  should  their  ceasing  to 
run  one  day  mean  that  they  had  grasped  a  universal  idea  : 
this  big,  black,  puffing  something  has  never  done  them 
any  harm,  has  never  done  other  than  pass  them  by  with 
snorts  and  smoke.  Perception  of  concrete  facts  explain 
their  growing  ease  in  its  presence. 

The  sorrowing  animal  beside  his  master's  bier  is  in- 
capable of  exactly  the  same  feelings  as  those  of  the  desolate 
mother  for  this  reason,  that  his  actions  through  life  prove 
him  devoid  of  intellect.  That  does  not  prevent  him  from 
feeling  intense  sorrow.  No  one  dreams  of  denying, — and 
the  most  orthodox  apologist  has  not  the  slightest  interest 
in  denying, — that  animals  are  capable  of  intense  affection. 

As  to  the  objection  on  progress,  we  have  discussed  its 
value,  and  found  it  to  be  null.  Two  further  points  remain. 
The  Stone  Age,  writes  Mr.  Mallock,  makes  our  historical 
age  a  bustling  yesterday  in  the  life  of  a  man  of  sixty,  and 
men  made  no  progress  during  that  age ;  further,  even 
to-day,  tribes  of  savages  exist  who  are  still  in  the  condition 
of  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age. 

We  do  not  contest  that  the  Stone  Age  is  immeasurably 
longer  than  that  of  historical  progress.  How  much  longer 
it  was,  no  one  can  tell  us.  The  documents  that  enable 
us  to  retrace  and  re-picture  that  age  are  few,  but  they  are 
very  precious,  for  they  prove  to  demonstration  the  exist- 
ence of  an  intellect  capable  of  the  universal  and  the  abstract. 


124  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

These  primitive  men  have  left  us  the  indubitable  signs 
of  intelligence  in  their  weapons,  their  instruments, 
their  works  of  art,  their  funeral  pyres.  Euclid  gave  no 
proof  of  genius  in  his  deductions  from  his  fundamental 
theorems  :  he  did  give  such  proof  in  inventing  the  funda- 
mental theorems.  And  so  these  men  of  the  Stone  Age 
gave  signal  proof  of  genius,  even  in  the  invention  of  their 
rude  arrows  and  hatchets.  They  led  a  wandering  life  : 
their  forms  of  industry  were  elementary  ;  yet  they  pro- 
gressed, they  multiplied  gradually  their  conquests  over 
nature.  At  the  neolithic  epoch,  they  show  signs  of  fairly 
advanced  civilization,  though  they  did  not  yet  employ 
the  metals  :  at  the  paleolithic  epoch,  the  men  of  the  Made- 
leine were  capable  workmen  and  capable  artists.  Mr. 
Mallock  seems  to  ask  :  Why  did  not  these  primitive  men 
progress  as  quickly  as  we  to-day  ?  The  question  is  puerile. 
To  what  is  our  progress  of  to-day  due  to,  if  not  to  the 
labours  of  so  many  preceding  generations  ?  If  we  started 
as  the  men  of  the  Stone  Age  started,  how  far  on  would  we 
have  got  ?  Again,  these  men  had  not  at  all  the  same 
cravings  and  motives  for  progress  as  we  have.  Few  in 
numbers,  they  led  a  simple  life,  sustained  by  the  super- 
abundant products  of  the  yet  untrodden  earth.  Their 
numbers  multiplied,  and  then  the  race  for  life  began.  But 
however  simple  that  primitive  life,  the  remains  prove  it  to 
have  been  lived  by  beings  at  once  intelligent  and  pro- 
gressive. 

The  savages  of  to-day  ?  First,  it  is  perfectly  evident 
that  those  modern  savages  are  intelligent  beings.  Visit 
them  in  their  huts,  speak  to  them,  follow  them  in  their 
hunts,  and  you  find  in  them  that  faculty  of  intellect  which 
you  recognize  to  be  your  own.  Rational  language,  religion, 
morality,  and  the  capability  of  individual  progress — these 
are  inalienably  theirs,  the  signs  of  their  manhood  and  of 
their  intellectuality.  Under  the  influences  of  education, 
these  modern  savages  reveal  all  the  capability  of  the 
ordinary  civilized  man.  No  doubt,  therefore,  of  the  com- 
munity of  nature  between  the  two.  Now,  to  the  precise 
ooint  of  Mr.  Mallock's  objection — the  want  of  progress. 


RELIGION  AS   A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  125 

That  objection  rests  on  the  false  assumption  that  the 
modern  savage  is  a  retrograde.  Modern  scientific  research 
proves  that  the  modern  savage  is  a  degraded  specimen  of 
humanity,  a  man  fallen  and  falling  from  his  high  estate. 
Facts  prove  that  the  ancestors  of  these  savages  were  more 
educated,  more  civilized,  more  comfortable  than  their 
present-day  progeny.  The  hall-marks  of  an  extinct  and 
more  elevated  civilization  hang  about  them  still.  The 
richness  and  complexity  of  their  language,  the  treasured 
remains  of  better  days  in  painting  and  sculpture,  their 
religious  traditions  point  to  a  state  of  civilization  and  of 
culture  much  superior  to  that  which  obtains  to-day.  This 
thesis  has  the  confirmation  of  other  historical  evidence. 
Tribes  of  modern  savages  are  known  to  have  lost  more 
and  more  that  civilization,  which  they  possessed  when 
their  existence  first  became  known  to  Europeans.  And 
yet,  these  tribes  have  never  lost  the  signs  of  intelligence. 
Banished  by  his  white  brother  to  inhospitable  climes, 
whese  his  utmost  efforts  can  barely  eke  out  a  miserable 
existence,  the  bitter  struggle  for  life  robs  the  poor  savage 
of  his  ancient  dignity  and  culture ;  yet,  when  a  cruel  des- 
tiny has  overcome  him  and  his,  and  has  left  but  one  living 
specimen  to  pine  away  in  loneliness  and  in  misery,  that 
derelict  of  an  extinct  race  retains  to  the  last  those  spiritual 
faculties  that  are  the  glory  and  the  mark  of  his  manhood. 

But,  insists  Mr.  Mallock,  human  progress  is  due  to 
the  human  hand  !  Has  not  the  modern  savage  had  all 
through  the  centuries  as  perfect  a  hand  as  the  European  ? 
The  cause  of  progress  must,  therefore,  lie  outside  the  hand. 
And  how  many  instances  have  been  known  of  men  from 
whom  nature  or  accident  have  taken  away  the  hand,  who 
have  acquired  perfect  skill  in  writing  and  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  Surely  the  human  foot  is  not  as  adaptable  as  the 
fore-paw  of  the  gorilla  for  such  purposes  ;  and  in  the  face 
of  such  facts  as  we  have  noted,  who  can  maintain  that 
handless  men  would  have  remained  stationary,  or  that 
gorillas  have  remained  stationary  merely  because  their 
fore-paw  was  not  as  perfectly  formed  as  the  human  hand  ? 

To  the  first   of   Mr.   Mallock's  objections  as  regards 


126  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

physiology,  and  the  localization  of  cerebral  functions,  we 
may  reply,  transeat.  No  apologist  employs  such  an  argu- 
ment. What  apologists  do  say  is,  that  the  scientific 
opponents  of  localization  at  least  prove  *  that  the  principle 
which  dominates  the  living  organism,'  whether  of  man  or 
animal,  '  has  within  certain  limits  the  power  of  adapting 
to  its  needs,  and  employing  as  its  instruments,  other  than 
the  normal  portions  of  the  cerebrum.' 

With  regard  to  Flechsig's  thought-centres,  or  to  employ 
Flechsig's  own  terminology,  '  association-  or  coagitation- 
centres,'  they  certainly  do  not  account  for  man's  superi- 
ority. Flechsig  describes  these  higher  centres  as  '  appa- 
ratus, which  combine  the  activities  of  the  various  special 
senses,  inner  and  outer,  into  higher  unities.  They  are 
association-centres  of  sense-impressions  of  different  quali- 
ties, visual,  auditory,  etc.'  After  what  has  been  said  in 
proving  the  spirituality  of  the  soul,  and  according  to  the 
teachings  of  that  host  of  scientists  who  style  themselves 
parallelists,  it  is  obvious  that  such  a  theory  as  Flechsig's 
does  nothing  to  show  the  superiority  of  man  over  the 
brute.  Scholastic  apologists  maintain  the  extrinsic  de- 
pendence of  intellect  on  the  brain,  and,  therefore,  if 
Flechsig's  theory  of  association-centres  stands  the  tests 
of  experience  and  verification,  they  welcome  it  as  one  more 
contribution  to  philosophy.  The  higher  intellectual  acti- 
vity of  man  postulates  a  more  perfect  cerebrum  as  a  condi- 
tion of  action,  but  no  mass  of  cerebral  matter,  however 
associated,  can  account  for  the  phenomenon  known  as 
thought. 

,-  But,  after  all,  asks  Mr.  Mallock,  what  does  the  religious 
apologist  know  of  the  subjective  states  of  the  brute  ? 
Nothing  directly,  something  indirectly.  Our  arguments  to 
distinguish  man  from  the  brute  have  been  based  on  ex- 
ternal facts — speech,  religion,  morality,  progress.  Spiritual 
faculties  alone  explained  these  facts,  and,  as  we  saw,  the 
presence  of  these  spiritual  faculties,  plus  the  absence  of 
these  external  facts  throughout  so  many  centuries,  and  in 
such  circumstances  as  those  in  which  the  animals  found 
themselves,  is  admissible.  Therefore,  we  concluded,  man 


RELIGION  AS  A    CREDIBLE   DOCTRINE  127 

is  spiritual  and  immortal,  and  the  brute  is  not.  Is  this 
argument  rendered  valueless,  is  it  even  touched,  by  the 
admission  that  we  know  nothing  directly  of  the  subjective 
states  of  the  brute  ? 

Confident  of  the  hopeless  discomfiture  of  the  apologist 
at  this  stage,  Mr.  Mallock  proceeds  cruelly  to  pile  on  the 
agony  by  stating  the  case  of  scientific  monism  against 
dualism. 

.  Mr.  Mallock  begins  by  declaring  that  modern  educated 
apologists  admit  evolution.  Yes,  but  of  a  very  specific 
kind.  The  apologist  postulates  an  absolute  break  between 
organic  and  inorganic  matter,1  between  the  vegetable  and 
the  animal  kingdoms,  between  man — that  is,  at  least,  as  a 
whole, — and  the  other  animals  ;  and  he  maintains  that  such 
evolution  as  has  taken  place  resulted  from  a  law  imposed 
and  executed  by  the  Creator.  We  do  not  insinuate  that 
all  apologists  admit  evolution,  nor  that  apologists  ought 
to  admit  evolution  ;  we  merely  state  how  far  any  apologist 
can  admit  evolution.  And  now  let  us  examine  those 
proofs  which  Mr.  Mallock  declares  to  have  done  more  to 
make  the  *  doctrine  for  which  Darwin  contended — namely, 
the  essential  unity  of  man  with  the  other  animals — a  de- 
monstrable, indeed  a  visible,  fact  than  any  of  the  detected 
lacunae  have  done,  or  can  do,  to  cast  doubt  on  it.' 

We  admit  the  three  facts  :  that  is,  that  the  conceptional 
and  embryonic  stages  are  alike  in  man  and  in  the  higher 
animals  up  to  an  advanced  stage  of  development,  that 
gill-clefts  emerge  and  subsequently  disappear  in  the  human 
embryo,  that  the  tadpole  changes  daily  into  a  frog.  The 
conclusion  read  into  these  facts,  namely,  the  essential  unity 
of  man  with  the  other  animals,  we  reject. 

In  the  first  place,  even  if  evolution  is  admissible  for 
man's  body,  it  cannot  account  for  his  soul.  We  hope  to 
have  proved  indisputably  that  the  human  soul  is  trans- 
cendentally  different  in  nature  from  the  soul  of  the 
brute,  and  no  evolutionist  holds  that  evolution  can  create 

1  i.e.,  Science  has  not  yet  proved  the  physical  possibility  of  the  passage. 
Professor  Burke's  experiments  demand  further  investigation  before  they 
can  be  accepted  as  final. 


128  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

anything.  Evolution  modifies  things  already  existing.  The 
human  soul  is  something  wholly  new,  wholly  different  from 
all  other  things.  It  was  not,  therefore,  evolved. 

Secondly,  we  deny  that  the  three  facts  mentioned 
•prove  the  evolution  of  the  human  body.  Because  the  human 
act  of  conception  resembles  the  animal  act  of  conception, 
are  we  to  conclude  to  a  common,  primitive  parentage  ? 
Is  it  not  at  least  an  equally  probable  hypothesis  that  God 
— if  He  exists,  a  point  to  be  discussed  later  on — was  pleased 
to  have  it  so  ? 

Again,  ontogenesis  is  the  brief  and  rapid  recapitulation 
of  phylogenesis.  Father  Gerard,  S.J.,  asks  somewhere  : 
'  Is  it  a  proof  of  a  theory  to  translate  its  terms  into  Greek  ?  ' 
And  with  regard  to  this  so-called  law,  Carl  Vogt  is  cited  by 
Quatrefages,  and  with  approval,  as  saying  * : — 

This  law,  which  I  have  long  held  as  well  founded,  is  abso- 
lutely and  radically  false.  Attentive  study  of  embryology 
shows  us,  in  fact,  that  embryos  have  their  own  conditions 
suitable  to  themselves,  very  different  from  those  of  adults. 

In  other  words,  the  human  being  as  well  as  the  other 
animals,  pass  through  certain  embryonic  phases,  wholly 
and  solely  because  these  forms  are  the  best  suited  for  the 
purposes  of  existence  at  each  respective  stage.  Again, 
embryology  tells  other  tales  that  Mr.  Mallock  has  con- 
veniently forgotten.  Some  frogs  are  never  tadpoles,  and 
some  newts  breed  as  tadpoles  !  Are  these  latter  climbing 
down  their  genealogical  trees  ?  Plants,  too,  do  not  climb 
their  genealogical  trees  ;  and  yet  they,  too,  are  subject  to 
evolution,  if  evolution  be  a  fact.  Is  there  not,  therefore, 
some  other  reason  for  the  fact  that  animals  do  climb  their 
genealogical  trees  ?  Further,  as  '  each  cell  or  embryo  is 
determined  to  be  one  sort  of  animal  and  no  other,  and 
can  live  at  all  only  on  condition  of  developing  towards  the 
prescribed  form,'  it  follows  that  even  if  '  the  development 
of  the  individual  is  an  epitome  of  that  of  the  species,  the 
latter  must,  like  the  former,  be  due  to  the  action  of  definite 
innate  laws  unconsciously  carrying  out'definite  preordained 

1  The  Old  Riddle  and  the  Newest  Answer,  p.  194. 


RELIGION   AS   A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE 

ends  and  purposes.  Thus  whatever  evidence  the  embry- 
onic forms  may  be  supposed  to  afford  in  support  of 
Evolution,  'they  are  one  evident  disproof  of  the  possi- 
bility of  evolutionary  monistic  theories.' 

Let  us  follow  Quatrefages  in  his  development  of  the 
chief  argument  against  the  evolution  of  man's  body — its 
revelations  will  bring  to  light  some  of  those  lacunae,  which, 
for  Mr.  Mallock,  are  wholly  minimised  by  the  three  facts 
just  discussed.  The  distinguished  naturalist  accepts  for 
the  moment  the  evolutionistic  data,  and  proves  that  on 
evolutionistic  principles  the  human  organism  cannot  have 
come  from  the  animal.1 

Evolution  is  based  on  two  principles:  (i)  Ontogenesis 
is  the  brief  and  rapid  recapitulation  of  phylogenesis ;  (2) 
the  law  of  permanent  Characterization,  which  means  that 
if  an  organism  is  once  modified  in  a  definite  direction,  it 
retains  the  mark  of  this  modification  during  further 
stages. 

Now,  the  human  embryo  follows  the  development  of 
the  other  animals  up  to  the  point  where  the  marsupials 
enter  on  the  scene  :  afterwards,  the  human  embryo  follows 
a  mode  of  development  peculiar  to  itself.  According, 
therefore,  to  the  first  principle,  man  is  sprung  not  from 
the  monkey,  but  from  the  marsupials. 

According  to  the  second  principle,  two  distinct  organic 
types  can  spring  from  a  common  ancestor,  but  one  cannot 
come  from  the  other.  Man  and  monkey  are  two  such 
distinct  organic  types.  They  possess  the  same  organs, 
but  they  have  these  organs  arranged  after  plans  completely 
different.  Man  is  a  walker,  monkey  a  climber.  And  this 
principle  leads  us  to  connect  man  with  the  didelphys  of 
the  kangaroo  family. 

Haeckel  does  not  accept  these  logical  conclusions ;  he 
holds  that  the  actual  man  is  sprung  from  the  pithecoid 
man,  and  that  the  pithecoid  man,  as  well  as  the  catarr- 
hiniens  sans  queue,  is  sprung  from  the  group  of  catarr- 
hieniens  a  queue.  Thus,  while  Quatrefages  postulates  at 

1  De  Quatrefages,  L'Espece  Humaine,  c.  xi. 
VOL.    XIX. 


130  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

least  four  intermediary  types  between  man  and  the  known 
animals,  Haeckel  postulates  only  one. 

Where    are   these   intermediary   types — these    missing 
links — be  they  one  or  many,  to  be  found  ?     Why  have  they 
disappeared   in   the   struggle   for   existence,   whereas   the 
ancestors  of  the  anthropomorphic  apes  have  survived  ? 
Were  our  ancestors  less  fitted  to  survive  than  those  of  the 
monkey  family  ?    Haeckel  can  only  reply  that   though 
pithecoid  man   exists  no  longer,   he  must   have  existed 
sometime.    If  he  did  exist,  and  if,  though  our  ancestor, 
he  was  less  worthy  of  existence  than  the  ancestor  of  the 
dumb  apes  about  us,  and  therefore  went  down  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  surely  we  must  find  some  traces  of 
him  in  the  geological  records.     If  our  ancestor,  he  was  not 
made  of  salt,  and  must,  therefore,  have  left  some  traces 
of  himself  in  the  earth  like  all  other  animals.     The  trans- 
formation of  a  species  is  admittedly  a  slow  process,  and 
therefore  the  missing  links  must  have  lived  a  long  time 
on  the  earth,  and  must  have  been  exceedingly  numerous. 
Yet,  all  efforts  to  discover  the  missing  links  of  this  par- 
ticular chain  have  been  fruitless.     The  bowels  of  the  earth 
have  been  torn  open,  and  many  wondrous  things  of  the 
past  brought  to  light.     Not  a  trace,  however,  of  our  so- 
called  ancestor  or  ancestors  !     We  have  men  and  monkeys, 
the  ancestors  and  the  posterity  of  monkeys,  men  and  mar- 
supials, and  the  ancestors  and    posterity  of  marsupials — 
in  a  word,  all  the  data  that  can  be  desired  to  form  a  judg- 
ment, but  the  links  that  ought  to  hold  together  this  evolu- 
tionistic  chain  are  not  to   be  found  !     Why  ?     Common 
sense,  and  fair  interpretation  of  the  scientific  facts,  warrant 
us   in   replying :    Because   these   particular   links   of   the 
evolutionistic  chain  were  never  forged.1 

As  to  Mr.  Mallock's  paragraph  about  the  evolution  of 
the  human  intellect  from  the  primary  substance,  it  does 
not  contain  a  word  of  proof,  and  it  is  evident  at  this  point 
that  it  is  a  delicious  bit  of  monistic  poesy  deserving  as  much 
credence  as  Dante's  Vision  of  Hell. 

1  Though  this  argument  shows  that  the  arguments  in  favour  of  the 
evolution  of  the  human  body  are  less  complete  than  Mr  Mallock  con- 
tends, it  does  not  disprove  all  probability  of  that  evolution. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE   DOCTRINE 

The  danger  of  arguments  from  gaps-in-evidence  is  as 
evident  to  the  apologists  as  to  their  opponents.  And 
certainly  a  science  which  has  had  its  Bathythius  and  its 
Colorado  Beetle  cannot  afford  to  throw  stones. 

With  regard  to  the  time  of  origin  of  the  human  soul, 
there  are  two  opinions.  St.  Thomas  maintained  that 
1  during  the  early  history  of  its  existence  the  human  foetus 
passes  through  a  series  of  transitional  stages  in  which  it 
is  successively  informed  by  the  vegetative,  the  sentient, 
and  finally  by  the  rational  soul.'  Others  maintain  that 
the  rational  soul  '  is  created  and  infused  into  the  new 
being  in  the  originating  of  life  in  conception.'  Clearly, 
Mr.  Mallock's  objection  cannot  be  formulated  against  St. 
Thomas's  view.  Nor  for  the  same  reason  is  it  valid  against 
the  second  view  :  no  one  holds  that  the  human  ovum  and 
human  spermatozoon,  principles  of  conception,  are  dead. 
They  are  living  when — in  the  second  view — God,  at  the 
moment  of  conception,  creates  and  infuses  the  human  soul 
into  the  organism  formed  by  the  coalescence  of  the  human 
ovum  and  the  human  spermatozoon  :  at  the  same  moment 
the  other  vital  principal  disappears,  and  the  rational  soul 
exercises  its  functions.  Not  an  instant  intervenes  between 
the  disappearance  of  the  one  and  the  appearance  of  the 
other.  All  is  simultaneous. 

To  repeat  Mr.  Mallock's  words,  if  we  look  back  over 
this  aggregate  of  facts  and  arguments,  one  conclusion  and 
only  one  leaps  into  light,  that  whilst  man  endures,  the 
animal  dies — dies  as  the  roses  die,  never  to  bloom  again  ; 
and  that  the  mystery  of  man's  life,  and  the  mystery  of 
the  pig's  are — not  one. 

JOHN  O'NEILL. 


132     ] 


THE    BLOOD    OF    ST.    JANUARIUS 

IN  one  of  the  numerous  references  to  miracles  contained 
in  the  works  of  Cardinal  Newman,  he  mentions  the 
liquefaction  of  the  blood  of  St.  Januarius  as  one  of 
the  ecclesiastical,  as  distinguished  from  Gospel,  miracles, 
in  which  he  personally  believed  on  account  of  the  strong 
evidence  adduced  in  its  behalf. 

It  has  occurred  to  us  that  it  would  serve  a  useful  and 
edifying  purpose  if  we  laid  before  the  readers  of  the 
I.  E.  RECORD,  however  briefly  and  imperfectly,  some 
account  of  the  miracle  and^the  circumstances  by  which  it 
is  attended.  We  shall  preface  our  remarks  with  a  brief 
notice  of  the  saint.  He  was  Bishop  of  Benevento,  and 
flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  third  century  after 
Christ.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  persecution  by  Diocletian 
and  Maximian,  he  was  taken  to  Nola,  and  brought  before 
Timotheus,  the  Governor  of  Campania,  on  account  of  his 
profession  of  the  Christian  religion.  After  he  had  with- 
stood various  assaults  on  his  constancy,  he  was  at  last 
sentenced  to  be  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace,  through  which 
he  passed  wholly  unharmed.  On  the  following  day,  along 
with  a  number  of  fellow-martyrs,  he  was  exposed  to  the 
fury  of  wild  beasts,  which,  however,  contrary  to  their 
nature,  laid  themselves  down  in  tame  submission  at  his 
feet.  Timotheus,  again  pronouncing  sentence  of  death, 
was  struck  with  blindness,  but  immediately  healed  by  the 
powerful  intercession  of  the  saint,  a  miracle  which  con- 
verted nearly  five  thousand  men  on  the  spot.  The  un- 
grateful judge,  only  roused  to  further  fury  by  these 
occurrences,  caused  the  execution  of  Januarius  by  the 
sword  to  be  forthwith  carried  out.  The  body  was  ulti- 
mately removed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Naples  to  that  city, 
where  the  relic  became  very  famous  for  its  miracles,  especi- 
ally in  counteracting  the  more  dangerous  eruptions  of 
Vesuvius.  His  clotted  blood,  preserved  in  a  glass  phial, 


THE  BLOOD  OF  ST.  JANUARIUS  133 

even  to  this  day  is  wont  to  liquefy  and  bubble  up  as  if 
but  recently  shed  whensoever  it  is  placed  within  sight  of 
the  martyr's  head.  It  is  thus  solemnly  placed,  May  ist, 
and  September  igth,  each  year,  and  the  recurrence  of 
the  miracle  is  observed  by  the  Neapolitans  with  various 
festivities. 

What  a  strange  age  we  live  in  !  How  full  of  incon- 
sistencies !  On  the  one  hand  men  are  so  credulous  that 
any  impostor  who  with  loud  and  confident  voice  proclaims 
his  pretensions  to  the  public,  however  ridiculous  and 
blasphemous  they  may  be,  never  fails  to  find  ready  dupes 
to  follow  him  and  implicitly  believe  in  him.  Dowie  in 
America  is  a  striking  instance.  On  the  other  hand,  how 
obstinately  incredulous  men  are  ;  miracles  are  asserted  to 
take  place,  and  yet  they  are  so  confident  beforehand  that 
miracles  do  not  take  place,  or  cannot  take  place  that  they 
will  not  be  even  at  the  pains  to  examine  calmly  and  dis- 
passionately into  the  evidence. 

Here  is  a  constantly  recurring  miracle  which  any  one 
of  common  sense,  and  common  observation  can  verify 
for  himself.  The  blood  liquefies.  Of  this  there  can  be 
no  possible  doubt.  A  tradition  which  goes  back  very 
many  centuries  bears  witness  to  it,  and  the  illiterate  and 
the  learned,  the  man  of  the  much  maligned  Middle  Ages, 
and  the  most  up-to-date  man  of  science,  are  equally  com- 
petent to  ascertain  the  fact  of  liquefaction.  The  blood 
becomes  liquid  ;  it  is  not  a  mere  matter  of  more  or  less 
solid,  but  a  perfect  solid  and  a  perfect  liquid.  When  it  is 
in  the  solid  state,  it  you  shake  the  phial,  you  can  hear 
the  solid  matter  beating  against  the  glass,  and  thus  both 
eyes  and  ears  bear  witness  to  its  solidity.  While  at  other 
times  it  is  quite  evident  to  any  one  who  examines  the 
phial  that  it  is  a  pure  liquid  it  contains.  Formerly  the 
phials  were  not  kept  in  a  safe  (custodta)  as  at  present,  and 
history  relates  that  when  Charles  VIII  came  to  venerate 
the  relics  he  was  allowed  to  touch  the  hard  substance 
with  a  small  rod,  and  after  liquefaction,  touch  it  with  the 
same  rod,  and  withdraw  it  wet  with  blood.  There  are 
two  phials  ;  but  in  the  one  there  are  only  a  few  drops, 


134  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

while  in  the  other  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  ;  the 
latter,  of  course,  can  be  more  easily  observed,  and,  conse- 
quently, to  it  we  shall  confine  our  remarks. 

The  condition  of  the  blood  in  its  liquid  state  is  not 
uniform  ;  it  varies  in  its  colour  from  dark  brown  to  red 
and  likewise  in  its  density,  at  times  being  what  we  may 
call  a  thin  liquid,  at  other  times  thick,  so  as  to  adhere 
lightly  to  the  glass. 

The  liquefaction  takes  place  ;  the  next  question  is,  how 
it  takes  place.  Needless  to  say,  impiety  and  infidelity  have 
devised  various  hypotheses  to  explain  it  away.  These 
attempts  serve  one  good  purpose  :  they  bear  incontestable 
testimony  to  the  reality  of  the  fact.  No  one  nowadays 
suggests  the  possibility  of  fraud,  unless  indeed  some  self- 
confident  person,  who  has  merely  heard  of  the  miracle, 
and  gives  expression  to  his  own  prejudices. 

In  the  splendid  chapel  of  the  saint,  behind  the  altar 
and  under  the  bronze  statue,  are  two  niches  or  recesses  of 
metal,  in  the  one  is  the  silver  bust  in  which  is  preserved 
the  saint's  head  ;  in  the  other  the  monstrance  with  the 
reliquary  containing  the  two  phials.  There  are  four  keys 
for  the  doors  of  these  recesses  ;  two  in  the  hands  of  the 
Archbishop,  and  two  in  the  hands  of  the  municipal  autho- 
rities. For  the  past  four  centuries  a  committee  has  existed, 
formed  of  twelve  members  chosen  by  election  from  the 
different  wards  of  the  city,  whose  duty  and  privilege  it 
was  to  safeguard  the  relic  and  make  all  arrangements 
necessary  and  becoming  for  its  cultus.  Even  at  the  present 
day,  the  chairman  of  this  committee  is  the  Mayor  of  Naples. 
It  is  utterly  impossible  to  open  the  recess  and  remove  the 
relics,  or  interfere  with  them  in  any  way,  unless  both  parties, 
ecclesiastical  and  civil,  are  present  and  use  their  keys. 

Many  solid  bodies  become  liquid  under  the  influence  of 
heat.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  heat  should  be  ad- 
duced as  an  explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  But  not  all 
substances  are  thus  affected  by  heat ;  for  instance,  the 
contents  of  an  egg  are  not  dissolved  but  solidified  by  heat ; 
and  this  happens  likewise  in  the  case  of  blood.  Once  it  is 
removed  from  its  natural  place  in  the  veins  and  arteries 
of  the  human  body,  it  solidifies  more  and  more  in  pro- 


THE  BLOOD  OF   ST.  JANUARIUS  135 

portion  to  the  intensity  of  the  heat  applied  to  it.  There- 
fore, if  it  be  really  the  martyr's  blood  that  is  in  the  ohial, 
heat  is  not  the  explanation  i 

But  is  it  really  blood  ?  Some  sceptics  have  denied  it ; 
but  is  it  reasonable,  merely  in  order  to  support  our  opinions 
and  without  any  serious  grounds,  to  deny  a  fact  supported 
by  the  tradition  of  ages.  Let  us,  however,  grant  for  a 
moment  that  it  is  not  blood,  and  see  if  that  will  get  us  out 
of  the  difficulty.  Let  it  be  some  other  substance.  Surely 
it  is  an  elementary  law  of  physics  that  the  melting  point 
of  any  given  substance  is  fixed  and  invariable  at  a  given 
pressure,  and  that  its  temperature  will  remain  unaltered 
until  the  whole  mass  has  melted.  If  phosphorus  melts  at 
44°  centigrade,  then  a  substance  that  melts  under  the 
same  pressure  at  43°  is  not  phosporus,  or  at  least  is  adul- 
terated. If,  then,  the  contents  of  the  phial,  whatever  it 
be,  be  subject  to  the  laws  of  nature,  there  will  be  a  certain 
degree  of  heat  at  which  it  will  uniformly  liquefy.  Now,  on 
examination  we  find  the  exact  opposite.  Professor  Fergola, 
of  the  University  of  Naples,  has  left  on  record  that  at  the 
time  of  liquefaction,  May  2nd,  1795,  the  thermometer 
placed  beside  the  relics  stood  at  24°4 ;  May  4th,  at  26°4  ; 
5th,  23°8  ;  7th,  25°  ;  gth,  ig°4.  In  the  observations  taken 
by  Professors  Govi  and  De  Luca,  September,  1879,  and 
published  by  Professor  Punzo,  on  the  igth,  the  thermo- 
meter registered  30°  ;  22nd,  27°  ;  26th,  25°.  In  May,  1901, 
as  verified  by  Signor  Spirindeo,  the  temperature  was  i8°8. 
Anyone  who  takes  the  trouble  to  go  to  Naples  and  assist 
at  the  miracle  at  different  times  will  be  enabled,  by  his 
own  experience,  to  confirm  these  statements. 

Surely  it  is  incomprehensible  that  a  substance  remaining 
in  a  sealed  phial  should  liquefy  one  day  at  20°,  and  yet 
remain  solid  the  next  day  at  29°.  Let  it  be  observed, 
moreover,  that  it  passes  from  the  solid  to  the  fluid  state 
not  by  a  slow  process  but  quite  rapidly.  For  hours  it  may 
show  no  sign  whatever  of  softening,  and  then  in  a  minute 
or  two  it  is  a  perfect  liquid.  Not  less  mysterious  is  the 
difference  of  time  before  liquefaction  takes  place.  Con- 
sulting, again,  the  records  of  Professor  Fergola,  we  find  it 
happened  May  2nd,  temp.  24%  after  -a  delay  of  12  m. ; 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


May  2nd,  at  precisely  the  same  temperature,  after  2  m.  ; 
while  May  3rd,  temp.  25°,  it  delayed  41  m.  ;  on  the  8th, 
temp.  26°6,  it  delayed  23  m.  ;  while  on  the  gth,  temp. 
I9°4,  it  only  took  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Similar  facts  can 
be  verified  every  year  ;  they  are  borne  witness  to  by 
Humphrey  Davy,  Lavoisier,  Waterton,  Dumas,  Kotzebue, 
and  a  thousand  others  :  and  we  need  not  take  up  the  time 
of  our  intelligent  readers  in  showing  how  contrary  they  are 
to  the  known  laws  of  nature.  To  deny,  therefore,  that 
the  substance  is  really  blood  does  not  tend  to  make  the 
question  more  easy  of  solution. 

But,  is  it  really  blood  ?  Well,  in  the  first  place  we 
have  the  evidence  of  our  eyes.  Let  anyone  take  blood 
recently  shed,  attentively  examine  its  colour  and  appear- 
ance, and  he  will  be  convinced  it  is  really  blood  that  is  in 
the  phial.  Naturally,  the  guardians  of  the  relic,  out  of 
reverence,  will  not  suffer  it  to  be  subjected  to  chemical 
analysis  ;  but,  fortunately,  the  progress  of  science  has 
provided  us  with  a  method  which  we  can  employ  without 
being  wanting  in  reverence.  On  the  evening  of  September 
26th,  1902,  Professor  Raffaele  Januario,  of  the  Neapolitan 
University,  accompanied  by  other  professors  and  friends, 
was  allowed  to  examine  the  relic  by  spectrum  analysis. 
The  experiment  clearly^  proved  it  was  blood,  and  the 
Professor  exclaimed,  '  The  liquid  undoubtedly  is  blood  ;  and 
its  liquefaction,  under  such  extraordinary  and  varied  cir- 
cumstances, is  mysterious,  so  mysterious  that  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  assert  it  is  supernatural.' 

The  liquefaction,  then,  is  mysterious  enough  ;  but  it  is 
attended  by  another  circumstance  which  is  perhaps  still 
more  mysterious.  The  blood  increases  and  diminishes  in 
volume  during  the  various  solemn  expositions  of  the  relic 
that  take  place  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  this  circum- 
stance has  been  noticed  from  time  immemorial.  In  fact, 
so  full  at  times  is  the  phial,  that  it  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  blood  is  in  a  liquid  or  solid  state,  while 
on  ordinary  occasions  the  phial  is  but  two-thirds  full,  or 
even  less.  Even  if  it  were  not  blood,  but  some  liquid 
which  heat  increased  in  volume,  heat  would  not  be  an 
adequate  explanation.  If,  while  the  exposition  is  going 


THE   BLOOD   OF   ST    JANUARIUS  137 

on,  the  concourse  of  people  raise  the  surrounding  tempera- 
ture a  few  degrees,  this  would  not  occasion  so  considerable 
an  augmentation  of  volume  ;  besides,  how  then  would  it 
come  to  pass  that  if  it  happens  to  increase  in  May,  yet  in 
September,  when  the  heat  is  more  intense,  if  frequently 
diminishes.  The  same  agent,  under  the  same  conditions, 
cannot  produce  diametrically  opposite  results. 

The  increase,  moreover,  is  not  merely  in  the  apparent 
volume,  but,  in  the  mass  of  blood  itself.  This  results 

n 

clearly  from  ^experiments  conducted,  since  1901,  by  Pro- 
fessor Spirindeo.  He  weighed  the  blood  at  various  times, 
using  a  most  delicate  balance,  and  adopting  every  scientific 
precaution  ;  and  he  found  that  when  the  phial  was  full, 
it  weighed,  together  with  the  reliquary  in  which  it  is  en- 
closed, 1-015  chilogr.  ;  when  half-full  -987  chilogr.  ;  thus 
showing  a  difference  of  28  grms.,  which  would  be  about 
the  weight  of  24  or  25  cubic  centimetres  of  blood,  the 
amount  which  would  about  half  fill  the  phial.  The  ex- 
periments have  been  repeated  with  similar  results  by 
others.  September  igth,  1904,  weight  1-015  chilogr. ;  at 
6  o'clock,  p.m.,  2i6t,  1-004  chilogr.  ;  the  same  hour,  22nd, 
i- 008  chilogr. 

Considering  all  these  facts,  surely  the  reader  will  agree 
with  us  that  if  ever  there  was  a  miracle  this  is  one.  Facts 
are  facts,  however  unacceptable  the  inferences  may  be  to 
an  incredulous  mind.  But  those  who  believe  in  a  God 
Who  takes  an  intimate  interest  in  all  that  happens  here 
below,  Who  loves  His  children,  the  work  of  His  hands,  will 
not  be  surprised  that  He  is  pleased  to  make  use  of  miracles 
to  raise  their  minds  and  hearts  to  Him  ;  nay,  they  will  be 
on  the  look-out  for  such  manifestations,  and  will  humbly 
and  fervently  thank  Him  for  continuing  this  wondrous 
miracle  in  this  so-called  enlightened  age,  when  infidelity  is 
so  rampant,  and  for  affording  this  sensible  and  striking 
confirmation  of  the  teaching  of  Holy  Church  with  regard  to 
the  respect  and  veneration  due  to  the  relics  of  those  who, 
we  hold,  are  now,  by  their  merits,  exalted  to  a  high 
place  in  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

RICHARD  FLEMING,  c.c. 


138  r 


A    SCHOLASTIC    DISCUSSION 

I  PURPOSE,  in  these  pages,  to  discuss  a  question  to 
which  a  comparatively  meagre  space  is  allotted  in  our 
ordinary  theological  manuals  :  the  Nature  of  Divine 
Hope.  The  scope  of  the  inquiry  is  not,  how  are  we  to 
make  an  act  of  hope  ?  but,  rather,  what  it  is  that  we  do 
when  we  make  an  act  of  hope  ? — for  neither  the  theologians 
nor  the  faithful,  nor  the  teachers  nor  the  taught,  experience 
doubt  or  difficulty  in  the  actual  practice  of  the  virtue. 
The  subject,  therefore,  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  one  of 
direct  practical  bearing  upon  the  Christian  life  ;  but  to 
every  student  of  the  sacred  sciences  who  has  sedulously 
endeavoured  to  acquaint  himself  with  expert  opinion  upon 
it,  and  has  tried  to  solve  the  problem  for  himself,  it  presents 
many  serious  difficulties.  The  effort  to  overcome  such 
difficulties  will  always  have  attractions  for  the  lover  of 
theology,  and  this  must  be  my  apology  for  venturing  to 
tread  upon  ground  already  strewn  with  conflicting  theories 
and  unlooked-for  aspects  of  familiar  truths. 

At  the  outset  of  the  discussion,  it  will  be  well  to  recall 
some  preliminary  truths  bearing  thereon  :  i.  Hope  is  a 
theological  virtue  having  God  for  its  primary  material 
object  and  its  formal  object  as  well,  but  differing  from 
faith  and  charity  by  reason  of  the  precise  aspect  under 
which  it  regards  Him  ;  2.  The  material  object  embraces 
everything  for  which  we  can  hope, — hence  God  and  His 
grace,  our  own  good  works,  and  even  temporal  blessings, 
in  so  far  as  they  conduce  to  heaven  ;  3.  The  formal  object 
or  distinguishing  motive — actus  enim  et  virtutes  ex  motivis 
specificantur — is  variously  assigned  by  the  different  autho- 
rities. St.  Thomas  and  his  school  arguing  that  it  consists 
in  nothing  other  than  the  right  hand  of  God  going  out  to 
help  His  creatures  (virtutis  Dei  auxiliatrix) ;  Suarez,  and  not 
a  few  besides,  contending  that  in  it  lies  the  goodness  of 
God  to  us,  and  St.  Alphonsus  combining  the  two  theories 
into  one. 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  139 

The  first  thought  that  arises  in  our  minds  in  connection 
with  this  subject  is,  what  is  the  common-sense  view  of  hope 
in  general  ?  What  is  the  meaning  given  to  the  word  in 
ordinary  language  and  speech  ?  Does  it  coincide  with  the 
desire  of  an  absent  good  ? 

It  will  be  evident,  I  think,  on  consideration,  that  hope 
is  not  synonomous  with  desire.  It  is  at  once  the  witness 
of  experience  and  the  verdict  of  sound  philosophy  that 
absence  makes  the  heart  grow  fonder,  even  when  there 
is  very  little  prospect  of  satisfying  our  desire,  and  ac- 
cordingly very  little  hope.  We  might  yearn,  for  instance, 
with  an  insatiable  longing  for  an  absent  friend,  of  whose 
return  we  had  come  to  despair.  Who  has  not  known 
the  tireless  constancy  with  which  a  mother  prays  for  the 
return  of  an  exiled  son, — even  when  her  hope  has  all  but 
vanished  ?  Or,  to  put  the  matter  in  another  light,  who 
could  fail  to  observe  the  depth  of  our  country's  desire 
for  the  redress  of  her  grievances  even  hi  those  very  crises 
in  her  history  when  dissension  was  making  her  chances 
dwindle  to  vanishing  point  ?  A  drowning  man  will  grasp 
at  a  straw  in  his  last  extremity,  showing  that  his  desire 
of  safety  is  greatest  when  his  hope  is  faintest.  Indeed 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  we  long  all  the  more  for  the 
desired  object  when  we  see  it  receding  from  our  grasp. 

From  all  this  it  is  lawful  to  conclude  that  desire  and 
hope  must  be  specifically  distinct.  The  same  precise  reason 
cannot  make  a  man  at  once  weak  and  strong  in  his  love 
for  a  certain  object.  If  his  craving  for  it,  as  in  the  examples 
adduced,  be  so  engrossing  as  to  dominate  all  other  wishes, 
and  his  hope  at  the  same  time  but  slight,  it  seems  evident 
that  the  two  emotions  must  be  of  different  kinds,  and 
accounted  for  by  proportionately  different  motives.  When 
the  same  object  exercises  altogether  opposite  though 
simultaneous  influences  on  the  will,  it  is  clear  that  the 
explanation  of  the  opposition  must  be  sought  in  the 
diverse  aspects  towards  which  the  will  is  drawn,  or,  to 
put  it  in  scientific  terms,  in  the  different  formal  objects 
of  its  volitions. 

Having  endeavoured  thus  far  to  state  what    hope  is 


14°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

not,  we  must  now  proceed  to  state  what  it  is.  And  here 
again  we  may  take  our  stand  on  the  commonly-accepted 
meaning  of  the  word.  If  a  man  tells  us  that  he  has  a  strong 
hope  of  succeeding  in  a  difficult  enterprize,  we  take  him 
to  mean  that  he  is  confident  of  success.  When  we  hear 
people  say  that  all  their  hopes  are  centred  in  a  great  leader, 
a  great  general,  a  great  hero,  their  language  conveys  but 
one  meaning, — their  confidence  of  victory  is  in  their  chosen 
standard-bearer.  When  a  nation  rightly  struggling  for  free- 
dom, declares  that  its  hopes  are  placed  infa  great  tribune 
for  the  realization  of  its  aspirations,  it  indicates  that  it 
trusts  in  him  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  wishes.  When 
we  say  that  a  ray  of  hope  lights  up  a  dark  and  difficult 
situation  where  there  was  nought  but  despair  before, 
we  intend  to  convey  that  faintheartedness  has  given  way 
to  buoyancy  of  spirit  in  the  presence  of  a  possible  or 
probable  solution  of  the  difficulty.  When  relatives  who 
had  been  in  fear  and  trembling  for  the  fate  of  their  friends 
on  the  battle-field,  are  informed  that  the  fortunes  of  war 
are  becoming  propitious,  they  avow  that  they  hope  more 
strongly  than  they  had  hitherto  dared.  Do  they  mean 
that  they  had  grown  more  eager  for  their  loved  ones' 
return  ?';  No.  Their  desire  remains  the  same,  but  their 
spirits  are  cheered  and  their  hearts  elated  by  the  brightened 
prospects.  Hope,  then,  in  its  varying  degrees,  is  '  good 
heart,'  trust,  confidence. 

This  everyday  use  of  the  term  is  in  perfect  harmony 
with  the  explanation  of  St.  Thomas.  Here  are  the  words 
of  the  Angelic  Doctor  : — 

The  object  of  hope  must  have  four  conditions :  In  the 
first  place  it  must  be  good  ;  for  hope,  properly  speaking,  can 
only  have  to  do  with  good,  differing  in  this  form  from  fear, 
which  only  has  to  do  with  evil.  Secondly,  it  must  be  future, 
for  we  do  not  hope  with  regard  to  a  thing  already  possessed, 
and  herein  it  differs  from  joy,  which  relates  to  a  present  good. 
Thirdly,  it  must  be  something  difficult  of  attainment ;  for  no- 
body is  said  to  hope  for  what  is  easily  obtained,  wherein  it  differs 
from  desire  or  cupidity,  which  regard  the  absent,  absolutely 
speaking.  Fourthly,  it  must  be  possible  of  attainment ;  no 
one  hopes  for  what  he  cannot  reach,  and  in  this  it  differs  from 
despair. 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  141 

A  few  pages  further  on  he  again  points  out  that  it  is 
the  contrary  of  despair,  and  shows  that  although  an  object 
be  difficult  of  attainment,  it  can  draw  the  appetite  in  so 
far  as  it  is  possible  to  reach  it.  That  feature,  he  remarks, 
has  an  attracting  force  which  draws  us  towards  it.  These 
and  other  passages  of  St.  Thomas  show  that  he  places 
the  essential  element  of  hope,  not  in  the  love  ot  an  absent 
good,  but  rather  in  that  special  outgoing  of  the  heart 
to  the  happy  prospect  of  attaining  that  good.  And  as  it  is 
precisely  because  of  this  feature  in  the  desired  object 
that  we  are  trustful,  elated,  confident,  it  is  clear  that  the 
angel  of  the  schools  is  at  one  with  the  ordinary  man  in  his 
idea  of  hope. 

'  A  thing  can  be  possible  for  us  in  two  ways,*  St. 
Thomas  continues,  *  by  means  of  our  own  powers  or  by  the 
help  of  others.  Tn  so  far  as  we  hope  for  what  is  made 
possible  for  us  by  the  divine  assistance,  our  hope  touches 
God,  on  whose  assistance  it  rests.'  Accordingly  he  places  the 
essential  element  of  divine  hope  in  the  fact  that  it  springs 
from  the  motive  of  God's  unfailing  help.  The  theological 
virtues,  he  goes  on  to  declare,  do  not,  as  far  as  their  proper 
objects  are  concerned,  admit  of  that  golden  mean  which 
is  the  test  of  virtue  in  general.  Just  as  there  is  no  limit 
to  our  assent  of  faith,  resting  on  the  divine  authority, 
neither  is  there  a  limit  to  our  hope,  resting  on  the  divine 
assistance.  But,  he  reminds  us,  as  in  the  case  of  faith 
there  are  many  truths  besides  the  primary — God  Himself 
— to  be  believed  in,  so  in  hope  there  are  many  things  to 
be  expected  besides  the  beatific  vision,  and  with  regard 
to  these  secondary  material  objects  there  is  a  mean  to  be 
observed.  Having  laid  it  down  that  the  principal  material 
object  of  the  theological  virtues  is  God,  he  distinguishes 
their  formal  objects  thus  :  '  By  charity  we  adhere  to  God 
for  His  own  sake  ;  by  faith  inasmuch  as  He  is  for  us  the 
principle  of,  or  the  means  of  arriving  at,  truth  ;  by  hope 
inasmuch  as  He  is  the  means  by  which  we  attain  to  good 
— our  eternal  happiness.'  All  through  his  works,  in  fact, 
wherever  he  touches  on  the  matter,  he  either  expresses 
or  implies  that  the  ground-work,  the  ultimate  reason,  the 


142  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

formal  object  of  our  hope  is  the  right  hand  of  Omni- 
potence stretched  out  to  help  us.  At  times,  it  is  true, 
he  speaks  of  the  possession  of  God,  the  beatific  vision, 
our  last  end,  our  eternal  happiness,  as  the  object  of  our 
hope.  Not,  however,  without  having  over  and  over  again 
pointed  out  that  it  is  in  the  same  way  as  the  truths 
believed  by  faith  are  the  object  of  that  virtue. 

Suarez  maintains  that  the  view  which  he  himself  holds, 
— the  view,  namely,  to  which  I  referred  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  paper — is  the  one  which  St.  Thomas  held, 
'  whatever  some  may  say.'  This  very  same  expression, 
oddly  enough,  is  made  use  of  by  Mazzella  in  quoting  St. 
Thomas  in  favour  of  a  different  opinion.  With  all  due 
respect  for  these  great  names,  we  cannot  but  wonder  how 
any  reader  of  St.  Thomas's  writings, — especially  of  his 
Disputed  Questions,  one  of  which  deals  with  hope — could 
depart  from  the  interpretations  which  the  theologians  of  his 
own  Order  have  placed  upon  his  word.  To  place  the  matter 
beyond  doubt,  let  us  quote  another  passage  from  his 
works  : 

The  supreme  good,  which  is  eternal  life,  man  cannot  reach 
unless  with  the  help  of  God,  according  to  the  text  of  Romans  vi. 
23  :  '  By  the  grace  of  God  life  eternal ; '  and  therefore  the  hope 
of  attaining  eternal  life  has  two  objects,  eternal  life,  namely, 
which  one  hopes  for,  and  the  divine  assistance  from  which  he 
hopes  for  it ;  just  as  faith  likewise  has  two  objects,  the  truth, 
namely,  which  one  believes,  and  the  first  truth,  to  which  it  cor- 
responds. For  faith  is  not  a  virtue  unless  in  so  far  as  it  rests 
on  the  testimony  of  the  First  Truth,  so  as  to  believe  what  is 
manifested  thereby  according  to  the  text  of  Genesis  xv.  6  : 
4  Abraham  believed  in  God,  and  it  was  reputed  to  him  unto 
justice.'  Hence  hope  also  is  a  virtue  from  the  very  fact  that 
one  rests  on  the  help  of  the  divine  power  for  the  attainment 
of  eternal  life.  .  .  .  Just,  therefore,  as  the  formal  object 
of  faith  is  the  first  truth,  by  which,  as  by  a  kind  of  means,  he 
assents  to  the  things  which  are  believed,  which  are  the  material 
object  of  faith ;  so  also  the  formal  object  of  hope  is  the  help  of 
the  divine  power  and  piety  on  account  of  which  the  motive  of 
hope  tends  towards  the  things  hoped  for,  which  are  the 
material  object  of  hope. 

It  may  be  useful  to  draw  out  somewhat  further  this 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  143 

idea  of  virtue.  Let  us  compare  hope  with  faith.  In  the 
latter  we  have  an  (a)  assent  to  a  truth  on  the  (6)  authority 
of  (c)  God  revealing.  It  agrees  with  all  affirmative  judg- 
ments on  the  first  score.  On  the  second  head  it  differs 
from  science,  and  agrees  with  every  judgment  formed 
on  the  authority  of  another.  And  it  gets  its  ultimate 
specific  determination  from  the  fact  that  the  testimony 
relied  on  is  the  testimony  of  God.  Hope  is  a  (a)  gladness 
of  heart,  at  the  (b)  prospect  of  reaching  some  desirable 
end  by  (c)  means  of  God's  assistance.  Hence  like  faith 
it  has  something  in  common  with  the  remaining  acts  of 
the  general  class  to  which  it  belongs, — it  is  an  act  of  love. 
But  it  differs  from  ordinary  love  as  being  directed  towards 
the  possibility  or  likelihood  of  attaining  the  good  desired. 
And  finally,  as  faith  is  divine  when  the  authority  whose 
word  we  accept  is  divine,  so  hope  is  divine  when  the  helper 
on  whose  assistance  we  rely  is  divine.  An  ignorant  man 
who  had  never  heard  of  the  Supreme  Being  might  believe 
in  His  existence  on  the  mere  word  of  a  scientist,  but 
his  belief  would  be  human  faith,  not  divine.  Similarly 
a  Pelagian,  as  longs  a  he  remained  in  error,  could  never 
elicit  an  act  of  divine  hope.  He  might  long  for  heaven, 
as  an  absent,  arduous,  and  yet  realizable  good  ;  but  as  the 
source  of  his  confidence  to  attain  it  would  be  his  own 
natural  powers,  his  reliance  was  not  on  God,  and  not 
divine.  *  Accursed  be  the  man  who  trusteth  in  man ' 
(Jeremiah  xvii.)  His  confidence,  as  St.  Thomas  points  out, 
would  be  an  inordinate  human  hope,  directly  opposed 
to  the  virtue  of  magnanimity.  It  would  be  what  some 
theologians  call  Pelagian  presumption. 

It  is  pretty  plain  from  this  example  tnat  we  cannot 
describe  the  formal  object  of  theological  hope  as  the  In- 
finite Good,  our  reward,  absent,  arduous,  yet  possible  of 
attainment.  All  these  notes  are  to  be  found  in  the  vicious 
human  hope  of  a  Pelagian.  We  must  assign,  in  addition 
to  these  notes,  the  efficient  cause  that  renders  the  attain- 
ment possible.  To  omit  the  efficient  cause  in  treating  of 
divine  hope  would  leave  as  truncated  a  definition  of  the 
virtue  as  the  omission  of  the  source  of  the  authority  in  the 


144  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

case^of  faith.  And  it  makes  all  the 'difference  in  our 
assent  to  know  the  worth  of  the  authority  that  solicitates 
it.  It  may  be  of  very  little  value  and  may  therefore  beget 
a  very  feeble  faith  ;  or  it  may  be  of  infinite  value,  and 
thereby  beget  the  highest  certitude.  So,  too,  the  efficient 
cause  that  renders  a  desired  object  reachable  may  be  of 
very  limited  powers,  and  incapable,  on  that  account,  of 
stirring  up  a  strong  vigorous  hope  (erectio  animi) ;  or  it 
may  be  Omnipotence  itself,  and  thus  lift  up  the  soul  to  an 
unbounded  trust.  The  possibility  of  reaching  the  goal 
of  one's  ambition  is  the  feature  which  marks  off  one's  hope 
from  mere  desire  and  from  despair,  and  thus  far  may  be 
said  to  constitute  the  differentia  ultima  of  hope.  But 
if  our  hope  is  to  be  divine,  and  distinguished  as  such  from 
all  other  kinds,  it  must  be  so  in  its  distinctive  elements. 
Hence  no  definition  of  this  divine  virtue  can  be  adequate 
which  does  not  mark  it  off  by  reason  of  the  divine  power 
which  generates  and  sustains  it. 

This  brings  me  to  the  theory  of  Suarez.  He  contends 
that  the  formal  object  of  divine  hope  is  God,  as  our  supreme 
good.  He  excludes  altogether  from  the  motive  the  virtus 
Dei  auxiliatrix,  the  unfailing  help  of  God.  He  is  driven 
by  the  exigencies  of  his  theory  to  relegate  the  other  notes 
mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph  to  the  back-ground  of 
pre-requisite  conditions.  Hope,  he  says  truly,  must  be 
love.  And  therefore,  he  continues,  the  only  element 
than  can  enter  into  the  formal  object  is  the  goodness  of 
the  thing  hoped  for. 

If  one  were  to  reply,  '  Faith  is  an  assent,  and  therefore 
the  only  thing  that  can  enter  into  its  formal  object  is  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine  believed  in,'  it  would  be  interesting 
to  know  how  Suarez  would  endeavour  to  meet  the  difficulty. 
A  transference  of  his  reasoning  to  this  parallel  case  would 
exclude  the  authority  of  God  from  the  formal  object  of 
faith.  Undoubtedly,  faith  is  an  assent  to  the  truth  of 
some  proposition,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  only 
determinant  of  the  nature  of  the  intellectual  act  is  the 
truth  believed  in.  Might  we  not  assent  to  the  very  same 
truth, — the  existence  of  God,  let  us  say — because  of  the 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  145 

scientific  evidence  in  its  favour,  or  because  of  merely 
human  testimony,  or  finally,  on  account  of  the  authority 
of  God  revealing  it  ?  And  will  not  any  one  of  the  three 
acts  be  specifically  distinct  from  the  others  ?  Manifestly 
the  way  in  which  the  truth  is  presented  has  to  do  with 
the  nature  of  the  resultant  act.  It  gives  it  its  ultimate 
differentiating  characteristic,  its  formal  object.  (The 
doctrine  assented  to  is  only  the  generic  or  material 
object.)  Hope,  we  agree  with  Suarez,  is  an  act  of  love  ; 
but  the  only  determinant  of  its  formal  object  is  not  the 
goodness  of  the  object  hoped  for.  Otherwise  it  would  not 
differ  from  despair,  nor  from  mere  desire.  For  both  of 
these  emotions  centre  round  the  goodness  of  an  absent 
thing.  I  desire  a  thing  because  I  consider  it  good  for 
me  ;  but  that  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  make  me  hope  for 
it.  It  underlies  my  hope,  and  may  lead  up  to  it.  But 
the  reason  why  I  hope  is  the  chance  of  success  which  I 
see  before  me.  The  force  which  moves  the  will  in  this  case, 
as  St.  Thomas  points  out,  is  the  possibility  of  reaching 
what  we  long  for  ;  and  that  it  is  which  causes  the  different 
kind  of  act,  and  the  need  for  a  specifically  distinct  virtue. 
In  fact,  if  one  were  to  regard  this  feature  as  a  mere  condition 
of  divine  hope,  the  authority  of  God  should  be  regarded 
as  a  mere  condition  of  divine  faith. 

Underlying  the  theory  we  have  advanced  under  the 
shadow  of  the  great  name  of  St.  Thomas,  is  the  supposition 
that  the  ultima  differentia,  and  not  the  genus,  constitutes 
the  formal  object.  It  may  possibly  be  objected  that  the 
genus  should  not  be  excluded.  But  the  answer  is  on  the 
surface  :  the  latter  constitutes  the  material  object,  and 
cannot  be  otherwise  regarded.  When  we  look  for  the 
distinguishing  features  of  acts  or  virtues,  we  do  not  look 
for  those  in  which  they  agree  with  others,  but  rather  those 
in  which  they  differ.  The  theological  virtues  differ  from 
one  another  in  their  formal  objects,  or  differentiae  ultimae. 
They  agree  with  one  another  in  regard  feo  their  primary 
material  object  or  genus.  And  they  differ  from  all  other 
virtues  in  both  respects, — both  in  species  and  genus. 
The  whole  terminology  was  taken  originally  from  the 

VOL.  XIX.  K 


146  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Scholastic  doctrine  of  matter  and  form.  Seeing  that  the 
form,  as  Father  Maher  points  out  in  his  Psychology,  is  the 
last  ;\ compliment  of  reality,  the  final  determination,  it 
came  to  be  considered  analogous  to  the  ultima  differentia, 
while  the  germs  and  the  matter  were  regarded  as  similarly 
related  : — 

Germs  [says  Father  Clarke,  in  his  work  on  Logic]  expresses 
the  pars  determinabilis  tssentiae,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the  material  part,  inasmuch  as  the  matter  of  which  anything 
is  made  has  to  have  its  shape  or  essential  characteristic  given 
to  it  by  something  that  forms  or  informs  it.  It  represents 
the  wider  class,  but  has  somehow  to  be  limited  in  order  to  reach 
the  species  or  class,  which  is  said  to  contain  the  whole  essence. 
Differentia  represents  the  pars  determinans  essentiae,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  the  formal  part,  inasmuch  as  it  informs  or 
gives  the  form  to  the  matter,  and  gives  to  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  informed  mass  its  distinguishing  form  or  shape. 
It  represents  the  limiting  characteristic  which  has  to  be  added 
to  the  wider  class  in  order  to  limit  the  wider  class  as  aforesaid. 

Acts  and  virtues  are  classified  as  well  as  all  other 
objects  of  knowledge,  and  the  principle  of  classification  is 
that  laid  down  by  Father  Clarke.  But  as  it  is  the 
elements  in  the  object  embraced  that  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine the  instrinsic  nature  of  the  acts,  the  latter  are  said 
to  be  specified  by  their  objects.  To  the  genus  and 
differentia  of  the  intrinsic  constituents  correspond  the 
generic  or  material  and  specific  or  formal  objects.1 

To  return  once  more  to  the  theory  of  Suarez.  Besides 
the^reasons  which  we  have  already  dwelt  upon,  there  is 
another  very  striking  difficulty  against  it.  If  this  theory 
be  true,  we  must  enumerate  at  least  four  theological 
virtues, — contrary  to  the  universally  accepted  teaching. 
If  we  hold  that  the  goodness  of  God  to  us  enters,  wholly 
or  partially,  into  the  constitution  of  the  formal  object 
of  hope,  this  awkward  consequence  follows  logically  from 
the  line  of  argument  we  pursued  a  few  pages  back.  We 
laid  it  down  as  certain,  that  mere  desire  and  hope  are 
different  kinds  of  love.  Therefore,  if  the  mere  desire, 

1  Mazzella,  in  his  Grace  Tract  (pp.  30  and  31)  quotes  Maurus  and  Cajetan 
in  illustration  of  this  usage  of  the  terminology. 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  147 

apart  from  the  hope,  of  our  supreme  good,  be  possible, 
there  must  be  another  theological  virtue  to  elicit  it. 

This  difficulty  against  the  views  of  Suarez  might  be  met 
in  either  of  two  ways.  First,  by  denying  the  possibility 
of  mere  desire  of  heaven,  apart  from  hope  of  the  same. 
This  solution  of  the  difficulty  was  evidently  not  the  one 
chosen  by  the  great  Jesuit  himself,  for  he  admitted  the 
possibility  of  an  inefficacious  desire  of  heaven,  which  is 
not  hope.  Such  an  inefficacious  desire  would  be  really 
an  act  of  the  same  virtue  as  an  efficacious  desire,  just  as 
inefficacious  love  of  God  is  still  an  act  of  divine  charity. 
But  apart  from  Suarez'  admission  on  the  point,  we  cannot 
see  how  the  possibility  of  such  a  longing  can  be  denied. 
It  is  surely  not  necessary  that  we  should  always  have  the 
possibility  of  reaching  heaven  before  our  minds  ?  We  can 
abstract  from  many  thoughts  in  our  meditations  on  a 
subject,  and  why  not  from  this  ?  If  one  might  be  allowed 
to  appeal  to  experience  in  this  matter,  do  not  people,  in 
moments  of  worry  and  exhaustion,  often  wish  for  heaven 
without  actually  hoping  for  it  ?  The  other  solution  of 
the  difficulty  would  make  hope  and  desire  belong  to  the 
same  virtue.  It  is  a  consistent  view  of  the  case,  and  hence 
it  commended  itself  to  Suarez.  He  decided  that  the 
possibility  of  satisfying  our  desire  was  a  mere  condition 
necessary  to  be  known  before  we  could  have  hope.  Then 
he  concluded,  as  he  was  bound  to  do,  that  the  two  acts 
were  the  offspring  of  one  and  the  same  virtue.  Perhaps 
it  did  not  strike  him  that  the  very  same  reasoning  should 
lead  him  to  infer  that  hope  and  despair  are  also  the  off- 
spring of  the  same  virtue — the  desire  of  heaven  !  Nor 
could  he  have  remembered  that  St.  Thomas,  whose  ex- 
ponent and  follower  Suarez  professed  to  be  in  this  matter, 
emphatically  declared  hope  and  desire  specifically  distinct.1 

Another  consideration  that   should  weigh  with  us  in 


1  Laymann  and  others,  who  felt  the  force  of  the  objections  to  this  portion 
of  Suarez'  teaching,  contemplated  the  possibility  of  different  kinds  of  acts 
emanating  from  the  same  virtue.  This  view  is  so  utterly  inconsistent  with  a 
scientific  treatment  of  the  question,  and  so  opposed  to  all  our  conceptions  of 
the  virtues,  that  I  think  it  does  not  merit  serious  attention. 


I48  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

estimating  the  value  of  Suarez'  theory,  is  the  fact  that  if 
the  goodness  of  God  to  us  were  the  distinguishing  motive 
of  hope,  there  would  be  no  valid  reason  why  this  virtue 
should  not  remain  in  heaven.  Faith,  we  know,  will  be 
swallowed  up  in  vision  ;  charity  will  remain  substantially 
the  same  as  on  earth  ;  hope,  too, — if  Suarez  be  correct 
in  his  view, — should  remain  substantially  the  same.  It 
is  easy  to  see  how  the  authority  of  God  will  no  longer 
be  a  motive  of  assent  when  all  things  will  be  seen  by  a  light 
from  whose  presence  we  cannot  abstract.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  we  shall  no  longer  hope  in  God's  omnipotence  to 
bring  us  to  Himself,  seeing  that  we  enjoy  ensured  fruition. 
But  God  will  always  be  our  supreme  good,  and  as  such 
must  be  loved.  It  avails  not,  against  this  conclusion,  to 
point  out  that  He  will  no  longer  be  loved  as  possible  of 
attainment,  for  the  theory  in  question  makes  that  note  a 
mere  condition.  When  the  material  object  of  a  virtue 
and  the  formal  object,  are  present,  and  the  latter  actullay 
affects  or  clothes  the  former,  all  the  requisites  of  the  virtue 
are  at  hand,  and  no  condition  has  any  further  function  to 
discharge.  God  shall  always  be  before  our  eyes  in  heaven, 
and  His  goodness  to  us  can  never  be  shut  out  from  our 
sight.  We  shall,  therefore,  always  love  Him  as  the  source 
of  our  happiness.  Hence  it  follows  that  if  we  depart 
from  the  teaching  of  the  Angelic  Doctor,  which  lays  down 
the  future  prospect  of  eternal  life^as  the  source  of  our  hope 
here  below,  we  are  driven  to  admit  that  we  shall  carry 
that  earthly  virtue  into  the  bliss  of  the  heavenly  court. 

It  might  possibly  be  urged  against  the  opinion  we  have 
advocated,  that  trust  or  confidence  is  an  act  of  the  intellect, 
rather  than  of  the  will.  But  against  any  such  assumption 
we  are  met  by  the  full  force  of  theological  authority.  St. 
Thomas,  for  instance,  more  than  once  refers  trust  to  the 
will.  St.  Bonaventure  ascribes  to  hope  a  confidence  in  the 
person  on  whom  we  rely,  and  an  expectation  of  the  object 
hoped  for.  Suarez,  in  distinguishing  faith  from  hope, 
ascribes  trust  and  confidence  to  the  latter,  and  points  out 
that  faith  and  despair  can  co-exist.  Mazzella  refutes  the 
Reformation  notion  of  faith  by  proving  that  trust  is  an 


A   SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  149 

act  of  the  will.    And  for  that  matter  all  our  theologians  who 
have  written  since  the  sixteenth  century  use  this  very  same 
argument  against  the  so-called  faith  of  the  Protestants. 
i-     The  question  naturally  arises,  if  St.  Thomas's  view  of 
hope  be  the  correct  one,  to  what  virtue  are  we  to  ascribe 
the  love  of  concupiscence,  the  desire  for  God  because  He 
is    good    to    us  ?     Both    reason    and    authority  unite    in 
ascribing  it  to  love  of  self  in  the  laudable  sense.     '  Hope,' 
says  the  angel  of  the  schools,  '  presupposes  the  love  of  that 
which  we  hope  to  attain,  which  is  the  love  of  concupiscence, 
by  which  love  he  who  desires  a  good  loves  himself  more 
than  anything  else.'     With  him,  then,  this  kind  of  love 
is  charity  towards  oneself.     It  makes  us  love  ourselves 
for  our  own  sake,  and  others  because  of  ourselves.    Just 
as  by  divine  charity  I  love  God  in  myself,  by  this  I  love 
myself  in  God.     The  same  high  authority  deals  further 
with  this  subject  when  commenting  on  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
He  states  that  we  desire  God,  our  last  end,  by  a  twofold 
tendency — the  longing  for  His  glory,  and  the  longing  to 
enjoy  that  glory.     The  former  he  calls  the  love  of  God 
in  Himself,  the  latter  the  love  of  ourselves  in  God.     Cajetan, 
when   expounding   the    teaching   of     his   angelic   master, 
says,  that  in  one  sense  every  love  is  friendship, — towards 
others,  if  things  are  loved  for  their  own  sake  ;  towards 
ourselves,  if  the  things  be  loved  as  our  good.     Mazzella 
calls  concupiscence  a  love  of  God  which  does  not  rest  in 
Him,  but  wishes  good  to  ourselves  from  Him.     St.  Francis 
de  Sales  describes  it  as  tending  to  our  own  utility,  pleasure, 
or  satisfaction,   as   returning   to   ourselves.     St.   Bernard 
distinguishes  charity  from  inferior  love  of  God,  by  the 
fact  that  the  former  is  an  affection  for  Him,  not  as  good 
to  us,  but  as  good  in  Himself, — for  His  own  sake,  not  for 
ours.     Even  Suarez  explicitly  calls  concupiscence  self-love. 
And  when   Bolgeni,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  started  the  theory  that  concupiscence  and  charity 
were  identical,  Muzzarelli,  by  quotations  from  the  Fathers 
and  Doctors  of  the  Church,  showed  beyond  the  shadow 
of   a   doubt  that    the    traditional     view  identified    con- 
cupiscence and  self-love. 


150  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

In  this  connexion  it  is  interesting  to  recall  that  Luther, 
Calvin,  Baius,  and  their  followers  condemned  the  love 
of  concupiscence  as  sinful  self-love  that  sought  one's  own 
benefit  not  God's,  and  opposed  the  apostle's  teaching, 
'  charity  seeketh  not  her  own.'  And  to  this  objection 
Ripalda  replied  in  language  that  has  been  adopted  by  all 
our  theologians  : — > 

In  this  love  of  concupiscence,  by  which  a  man  loves  himself, 
turpitude  has  no  place ;  both  because  it  is  not  identical  with 
every  love  of  self  (non  fertur  in  seipsum  utcumque),  but  it  is 
a  love  of  oneself  as  blessed  and  just.  To  love  oneself,  however, 
as  blessed  and  just,  is  not  forbidden  but  rather  commanded, 
and  because  the  love  is  not  the  source  of  evil-doing  of  any  kind 
but  of  every  kind  of  good.  But  love  which  is  the  source  of  every 
kind  of  well-doing  is  not  bad,  for  the  good  tree  bringeth  forth 
good  fruit,  but  the  bad  tree  evil  fruit.  Therefore  there  can 
be  a  love  of  self  which  is  good  and  not  bad. 

Here,  then,  is  a  decisive  argument  against  the  theory 
of  Suarez.  His  view  of  divine  hope  would  put  it  outside 
the  list  of  the  theological  virtues  altogether.  It  would 
identify  hope  and  concupiscence,  and  therefore  make 
our  own  selves,  and  not  God,  the  ultimate  term  and  formal 
object  of  that  virtue.1  The  love  of  God  as  our  good  would 
be  not  merely  a  necessary  antecedent,  underlying  and, 
as  it  were,  leading  up  to  hope,  but  it  would  be  the  very 
essence  of  the  virtue.  The  moving  power  which  makes 
the  will  rejoice  and  be  glad  would  not  be  the  thought 
of  God's  strengthening  assistance,  but  one's  own  use  and 
benefit. 

A  careful  perusal fof  the  Sacred  Scripture  will  wonder- 
fully bear  out  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  : — 

Have  mercy  on  me,  O  God,  have  mercy  on  me,  for  my  soul 
trusteth  in  Thee ;  and  in  the  shadow  of  Thy  wings  will  I  hope 
(Ps.  Ixvi.)  My  God  is  my  Helper,  and  in  Him  will  I  put  my 
trust  (Ps.  xvii.)  In  this  will  I  be  confident ;  be  thou  my 
Helper  (Ps.  xxvi.)  In  Thee,  O  Lord  have  I  hoped.  .  .  . 
I  have  hoped  in  the  Lord.  ...  I  have  put  my  trust  in  the 
Lord  (Ps.  xxx.)  None  of  them  that  trust  in  Him  will  offend 
(Ps.  xxxiii.)  In  God  have  I  put  my  trust  ...  in  God 

1  The  love  of  concupiscence  is  sometimes  called  the  love  of  hope,  but 
the  meaaing  is  that  the  former  must  always  underlie  the  latter. 


A  SCHOLASTIC  DISCUSSION  I51 

have  I  hoped  (Ps.  Iv.)  Thou  shalt  have  confidence,  hope 
being  set  before  thee  (Job  xi.)  Macchabaeus  ever  trusted 
with  all  hope  that  God  would  help  him  (2  Mach.  vii.)  We 
should  not  trust  in  ourselves  but  in  God  (i  Corinthians  i.  8). 

We  might  quote  at  far  greater  length  from  the  sacred 
volume,  but  we  hasten  to  deal  with  a  theory  which  has 
found  credence  with  rather  a  large  number  of  latter-day 
theologians.  St.  Alphonsus,  Laymann,  and  Mazzella  con- 
tend that  as  hope  is  love  it  must  include  in  its  formal 
object  the  love  of  God  to  us  ;  but  that  as  it  is  more 
than  mere  ordinary  love  we  must  also  admit  the  mercy, 
omnipotence,  and  fidelity  of  God.  They  agree  with  Suarez 
in  regard  to  the  first  element,  and  largely  because  of  the 
reasons  he  assigns,  they  agree  with  St.  Thomas  regarding 
the  omnipotence  of  God,  for  the  reasons  which  he  put  for- 
ward. And  just  as  Suarez  is  very  dogmatic  in  claiming  the 
authority  of  St.  Thomasffor  his  view,  these  are  likewise 
positive  in  asserting  that  their  view  may  be  gleaned  from 
the  writings  of  the  Angelic  Doctor.  We  may  quote  the 
words  of  Mazzella  in  elucidation  of  their  view  : — 

That  must  be  the  formal  object  of  hope  into  which  the  act 
of  hope  is  resolved  in  its  ultimate  analysis.  To  the  question, 
why  do  you  desire  God  ?  we  reply,  because  He  is  good  to  us ; 
to  the  question,  why  do  you  hope  to  attain  to  God  ?  we  reply, 
because  God,  who  is  omnipotent,  merciful,  and  faithful,  promised 
it. 

Hence  they  admit  that  hope  implies  in  its  very  con- 
ception, the  reliance  on  the  person  whose  assistance  makes 
the  desired  object  possible.  Nevertheless  it  cannot  be 
accepted  any  more  than  the  theory  of  Suarez.  It  leaves 
the  door  open  for  the  admission  of  a  fourth  theological 
virtue,  divine  concupiscence.  Again,  it  is  altogether 
unscientific :  in  the  whole  range  of  moral  science,  no  such 
combination  of  motives  is  set  down  as  the  formal  object 
of  any  one  virtue,  as  each  motive  is  of  itself  sufficient  to 
constitute  a  virtue.  It  mixes  up  the  act  of  desire  and  the 
act  of  hope,  the  material  and  the  formal  objects.  Hence 
it  cannot  be  admitted  as  the  true  solution  of  the  difficulty. 

A  few  theologians  have  taken  the  mercy  of  God  alone 


152  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

as  the  distinguishing  motive  of  hope,  others  again,  such 
as  Juenin,  took  the  fidelity  of  God  to  His  promises.  We 
have  throughout  understood  St.  Thomas  to  include  but 
one  attribute  of  God  in  the  phrase  which  he  uses  to 
designate  his  opinion,  and  that  attribute  is  the  divine 
omnipotence.  The  exercise  of  the  latter  attribute  pre- 
supposes an  act  of  mercy  on  the  part  of  God,  and  likewise 
a  fidelity  to  His  promises  ;  but  we  regard  this  exercise  of 
clemency  and  faithfulness  as  preliminaries  to  the  bestowal 
of  help  and  grace.  And  in  like  manner  we  are  led  by  the 
consideration  of  His  boundless  mercy  and  unfailing  ad- 
herence to  His  word  to  place  all  our  hope  and  reliance  on 
the  limitless  resources  of  His  power.  Hence  I  conclude 
this  weary  paper  by  holding  that  the  sole  constituent  of 
the  formal  object  of  hope  is  the  omnipotence  of  God. 

EDWARD  NAGJJE. 


[     153 


LORD    RANDOLPH    CHURCHILL 

HIS  many  friends  and  admirers  will  be  consoled  to  know 
that  the  late  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  has  left  be- 
hind him  a  son  who  has  already  proved  himself 
worthy  of  his  father.  Mr.  Winston  Churchill  had  impressed 
the  public  imagination  with  his  pluck  and  daring  before 
he  took  to  literature — his  latest  work,  the  life  of  his  father, 
is  an  acknowledged  masterpiece  in  the  department  of 
letters,  his  election  honours  are  now  thick  upon  him,  and 
all  the  indications  go  to  foretell  for  him  a  career  more  com- 
plete and  not  less  brilliant  than  that  of  his  father.  It 
was  one  of  the  soft  traits  of  this  father's  character  that  he 
reverenced  his  own  father,  the  seventh  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
and  it  will  not  be  his  gifted  son's  least  glory  that  he  spent 
three  and  a  half  years  in  compiling  the  present  work, 
than  which  no  more  fitting  or  enduring  monument  could 
be  erected  to  the  memory  of  Lord  Randolph  Churchill. 
It  is  a  book  that  appeals  to  all  classes  of  readers  A 
consistent,  graphic,  and  at  times  thrilling  narrative  of  a 
chequered  and  tragic  life ;  it  is  at  the  same  tune  a  lucid 
summary  of  ten  years'  political  history  (1880-90)  told  for 
the  most  part  in  original  documents,  many  of  these  the 
private  letters  of  one  cabinet  minister  to  another,  and 
written  at  times  when  burning  questions  and  sharp  con- 
troversies agitated  all  classes  of  society  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Lord  Randolph,  it  appears,  had  a  habit  of 
keeping  all  his  letters,  and  the  writer  had  access  to  all 
his  father's  papers  which  filled  '  eleven  considerable  tin 
boxes.'  Where  memoranda  and  chatty  letters  do  not 
speak,  the  story  loses  nothing  in  the  hands  of  the  author 
who  had  mastered  his  subject,  who  has  inherited  his 
father's  courage  and  sympathies,  and  who  has  the  power, 
in  a  high  degree,  of  translating  his  thoughts  and  impres- 
sions into  flowing,  musical,  and  unencumbered  prose.  One 

1  Lord  Randolph  Churchill.     By  Winston  Spencer  Churchill,  M.P. 


154  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

impression,  above  all  others,  which  the  reader  will  carry 
away  from  the  perusal  of  these  two  volumes  is  that  with 
all  his  waywardness,  and  all  his  violence,  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill  possessed  qualities  of  character  which  should 
protect  his  name  from  oblivion,  viz.,  sympathy  with  the 
oppressed,  courage  to  trample  on  the  prejudices  of  his 
class,  courage  to  speak  his  mind,  political  sagacity  and 
steadfastness  in  unselfish  friendships.  He  was  the  exact 
opposite  of  the  prudent  politician.  He  could  on  an  occasion 
look  out  for  an  *  ace  of  trumps '  in  the  game  of  politics, 
but  the  reader  of  these  volumes  cannot  fail  to  be  con- 
vinced that  ill-starred  as  was  his  political  career,  his 
politics  were,  on  the  whole,"  consistent  and  sincere,  and 
deserved  a  better  fate. 


i. 

In  English  political  history,  Lord  Randolph  Churchill 
will  be  associated  more  than  any  other  of  his  contemporaries 
with  the  conception  and  propaganda  of  Tory  democracy. 
How  a  *  proud  sprig  of  the  nobility '  came  to  sympathise 
with  the  masses  may,  to  some  extent,  be  explained  by  the 
following  passage  : — 

But  in  the  year  1876,  an  event  happened  which  altered, 
darkened,  and  strengthened  his  whole  life  and  character. 
Engaging  in  his  brother's  quarrels,  with  fierce  and  reckless 
partisanship,  Lord  Randolph  incurred  the  deep  displeasure 
of  a  great  personage.  The  fashionable  world  no  longer  smiled. 
Powerful  enemies  were  anxious  to  humiliate  him.  His  own 
sensitiveness  and  pride  magnified  every  coldness  into  an  affront. 
London  became  odious  to  him.  The  breach  was  not  repaired 
for  more  thanjeight  years,  and  in  the  interval,  a  nature  originally 
genial  and  gay,  contracted  a  stern  and  bitter  quality,  a  harsh 
contempt  for  what  is  called  '  society,'  and  an  abiding  antagonism 
to  rank  and  authority.  If  this  misfortune  produced  in  Lord 
Randolph  characteristics  which  afterwards  hindered  or  injured 
his  public  work,  it  was  also  his  spur.  Without  it  he  might 
have  wasted  a  dozen  years  in  the  frivolous  and  expensive  pursuits 
of  the  silly  world  of  fashion  ;  without  it  he  would  probably 
never  have  developed  popular  sympathies  or  the  courage  to 
champion  democratic  causes.1 

1  Vol.  i.,  p.  74. 


LORD  RANDOLPH  CHURCHILL  155 

When  this  event  happened  he  was  twenty-seven  years 
of  age.  He  had  passed  through  Eton  without  distinction, 
had  got  his  degree  in  Oxford  in  1870  with  second  class 
honours,  was  M.P.  for  Woodstock  since  1874,  which  was 
also  the  year  of  his  marriage.  *  But  for  the  recurring 
ailments  to  which  his  delicate  constitution  was  subject, 
and  the  want  of  money  which  so  often  teases  a  young 
married  couple,  his  horizon  had  been  without  a  cloud, 
his  career  without  a  care,'  until  the  event  of  1876.  His 
residence  in  Ireland  during  the  next  four  years,  where  his 
father  was  Lord  Lieutenant,  was,  perhaps,  the  next  factor 
in  nurturing  his  democratic  sympathies. 

Before  Lord  Randolph  had  been  many  months  in  Ireland, 
he  began  to  form  strong  opinions  of  his  own  on  Irish  questions, 
and  to  take  a  keen  interest  in  politics  ...  At  Howth, 
and  in  Fitzgibbon's  company,  he  met  all  that  was  best  in  the 
Dublin  world.  ...  He  became  very  friendly  with  Mr. 
Butt,  who,  with  Father  Healy,  often  dined  at  the  little 
lodge,  and  laboured  genially  to  convert  Lady  Randolph  to 
Home  Rule.  Indeed  he  saw  a  great  deal  more  of  Nationalist 
politicans  than  his  elders  thought  prudent  or  proper.1 

He  was  [writes  Fitzgibbon]  always  on  the  move.  He  had 
the  reputation  of  an  Enfant  terrible.  Before  long  he  had  been 
in  Donegal,  in  Connemara,  and  all  over  the  place,  '  Hail 
fellow,  well  met '  with  everybody,  except  the  aristocrats  and 
the  old  Tories  ;  for  he  showed  symptoms  of  independence  of 
view,  and  of  likings  for  the  company  of  '  the  boys,'  which  led 
to  some  friction  with  the  staunch  Conservatives  and  strong 
Protestants  who  regarded  themselves  as  the  salt  of  the  earth.8 

The  popular  trend  of  his  sympathies  was  expressed 
for  the  first  time  at  Woodstock  in  1877,  in  a  speech  which 
gave  great  scandal  to  the  Tories,  and  for  which  his  father 
could  allege  no  excuse  except  that  Randolph  'must  either 
be  mad  or  have  been  singularly  affected  with  local 
champagne  or  claret.' 

I  have  no  hesitation  [he  said  on  that  occasion]  in  saying 
that  it  is  inattention  to  Irish  legislation  that  has  produced 
obstruction.  .  .  .  England  had  years  of  wrong,  years  of 
crime,  years  of  tyranny,  years  of  oppression,  years  of  general 
misgovernment  to  make  amends  for  in  Ireland.  The  Act  of 

i  Vol.  i.,  p.  82.  •  Vol.  i.,  p.  79. 


156  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

Union  was  passed,  and  in  the  passing  of  it  all  the  arsenal  of 
political  corruption  and  chicanery  was  exhausted,  to  inaugu- 
rate a  series  of  remedial  and  healing  measures  ;  and  if  that  Act 
had  not  been  productive  of  these  effects,  it  would  be  entitled 
to  be  unequivocally  condemned  by  history,  and  would,  perhaps, 
be  repealed  by  posterity.1 

The  man  who  held  these  and  kindred  views,  and  had  the 
courage  to  express  them,  was  bound  to  come  into  collision 
with  the  old  school  of  Toryism.  And  except  this  man 
had  rare  power  of  character,  he  would  simply  be  brushed 
aside  or  driven  into  the  opposite  camp.  Well,  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill  was  not  the  man  to  be  brushed  aside 
or  to  be  driven  to  anything.  With  magnificent  courage 
he  stuck  to  his  views.  He  was  as  free  from  reverence  for 
his  elders  as  he  was  from  fear  of  their  frowns.  Around 
him  grew  the  famous  Fourth  Party,  making  four  in  all 
who  sat  below  the  gangway  in  Parliament  in  the  early- 
Eighties,  and  were  as  much  a  source  of  irritation  to  the 
opposition  as  they  were  to  the  Government.  The  man 
1  with  the  fierce  moustache  and  note  of  interrogation 
head*  soon  became  a  power  in  Parliament  and  in  the 
country.  He  developed  the  faculty  of  speech — direct, 
cutting,  clear,  epigramatic  speech.  He  spared  no  man 
in  his  political  wrath.  Age,  reputation,  position,  blood 
had  no  glamour  for  him.  He  became  so  popular  with  the 
masses  that  his  party  were  obliged  *o  come  to  terms  with 
him,  and  in  1885  he  entered  Lord  Salisbury's  Cabinet  as 
Secretary  for  India.  His  one  bond  with  the  Conservative 
party,  besides  the  tie  of  sentiment,  was  his  opposition  to 
Home  Rule.  It  is  hard  to  understand  how  a  man  who 
sympathized  with  Arabi  Pasha,  with  the  Boers,  and  with 
the  Hellenic  nationalities,  could  refuse  political  inde- 
pendence to  one  of  the  oldest  nationalities  in  Europe  ; 
but  with  this  exception,  and  in  particular,  that  of  his 
Ulster  campaign  against  Home  Rule,  there  are  few  things 
in  his  political  career  which  do  not  hang  together  as  a 
logical,  consistent,  and  enlightened  course  of  action.  By 
his  fearless  advocacy  of  liberal  doctrines— -local  govern- 

1  Vol.  i.,  p.  91. 


LORD  RANDOLPH  CHURCHILL  157 

ment,  parliamentary  reform,  peace  and  economy — he  won 
for  the  Conservative  Party  that  democratic  support 
without  which  it  was  bound  to  drift  out  of  existence.  His 
programme  was  to  rally  the  masses  (under  the  banner  of 
Tory  democracy)  around  the  Throne,  the  Church,  and  the 
Conservative  Party.  Time  has  justified  the  wisdom  of 
his  policy.  It  is  not,  I  think,  too  much  to  say,  that  his 
untimely  disappearance  from  the  arena  of  English  politics 
was  a  national  disaster,  for  had  he  remained  there  since, 
it  is  likely  that  England  would  have  been  spared  the 
humiliation  of  the  Boer  War,,  and  that  the  Conservative 
Party  would  have  added  to,  the  Statute  Book  a  more 
liberal  English  Education  Act,  and  also  a  satisfactory 
measure  dealing  with  the  Irish  University  question. 

II. 

His  political  career,  however,  was  in  sad  contrast  with 
the  amplitude  and  consistency  of  his  political  programme  : — 

How  men  may  for  a  time  prosper  continually,  whatever 
they  do,  and  then  for  a  time  fail  continually  whatever  they  do, 
is  a^theme  in  support  of  which  history  and  romance  supply 
innumerable  examples.  This  chapter  marks  such  a  change 
in  the  character  of  the  story  I  have  to  tell.  Hitherto  the  life 
of  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  has  been  attended  by  almost 
unvarying  success.  His  most  powerful  enemies  had  become 
his  friends.  His  instinct  when  to  strike  and  when  to  stay 
was  unerring.  Fortune  seemed  to  shape  circumstances  to  his 
moods.  The  forces  which  should  have  controlled  him  became 
obedient  to  his  service.  The  frames  of  age  and  authority 
melted  at  his  advance,  and  rebuke  and  envy  pursued  him  idly. 
All  this  was  now  to  be  changed.  During  the  rest  of  his  public 
life,  he  encountered  nothing  but  disappointment  and  failure. 
First,  while  his  health  lasted,  the  political  situation  was  so 
unfavourable,  that,  although  his  talents  shone  all  the  brighter, 
he  could  effect  nothing.  Then  when  circumstances  offered 
again  a  promising  aspect,  the  physical  apparatus  broke  down. 
When  he  had  the  strength,  ^he  had  not  the  ^opportunity.  When 
opportunity  returned,  strength  had  fled.  So  that  at  first,  by 
sensible  gradations,  his  political  influence  steadily  diminished; 
and  afterwards,  by  a  more  rapid  progress,  he  declined  to  disease 
and  death.1 

This  passage    traces   graphically  the     comet-like  pall 

1  Vol.  ii.,  p.  29^. 


I58  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

of  his  political  fortune.     He  entered  Parliament  in  '74. 
He  made  the  Woodstock   speech    in   '77.     In   1881   the 
Times  and  the  Morning  Post  were  reporting  his  speeches 
verbatim,  while  Ministers  and  ex-Ministers  had  to  be  content 
with   reading  mutilated  outlines  of  their  utterances.     In 
1882,   he  had  become  the  most  popular  speaker  on  the 
Opposition  side  of  the   House  of  Commons.     When  Lord 
Salisbury  formed  '  the    Ministry  of  Caretakers '  in    1885, 
he  entered  the  Cabinet  as  Secretary  for  India,  and   when 
the  same  Prime  Minister  returned  to  power  in  1886,  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
and  Leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.     Now  begins  the 
backward  course.     *  He  was  a  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
without  a  budget,  a  Leader  of  the  House   of  Commons 
but  for  a  single  session,  a  victor  without  the  spoils.*    It 
would  seem  that  they  were  the  same  forces  which  directed 
his  forward  and  backward  course.     '  He  contained  in  his 
nature  and  in  his  policy  all  the  "["elements   necessary  to 
ruin   and  success.'     Lord   Randolph  was  possessed   of  a 
'  stormy  and  rebellious  nature.'    When  Secretary  for  India 
he  tendered  his  resignation  because  the  Queen  communi- 
cated privately  with  the  Viceroy  of    India  on  a  matter 
in  which  he  thought  he  should  have  been  consulted  ;  but 
the  affair  about  which  the  communication  was  made  was 
settled  to  his  satisfaction,  and  there  the   matter  ended. 
Feeling  his  obligation  now  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
to  be  true  to  the  programme  of  policy  enunciated  in  his 
published  speeches,  he  set  about  insisting  in  the  Cabinet 
on  a  reduction  in  the  proposed  estimates  for  the  Army 
and  Navy.     The  Cabinet,  however,  held  out  against  him, 
and  on  the  morning  of  23rd  December,   1886,  the  public 
were   '  startled  to  read  in  the  Times  the  announcement 
that  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  had  resigned  the  offices  of 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  Leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  had  retired  altogether  from  the  Govern- 
ment.' 

A  fraction  of  the  common-stock  political  prudence  would 
have  induced  Lord  Randolph  to  give  way  on  what  was 
in  itself  a  small  point.  In  that  case  he  might  long  continue 


LORD  RANDOLPH  CHURCHILL 


to  exercise  a  potent  influence  in  the  chief  council  of  "the 
empire,  and  would,  perhaps,  trace  out  for  himself  an  orbit 
as  wide  and  symetrical  as  that  of  Gladstone  ;  but  prudence 
was  no  part  of  his  composition.  He  was  in  the  habit  of 
railing  one  of  his  prudent  colleagues  '  old  tutissimus.' 
It  was  by  what  the  world  would  call  imprudence  that  he 
attained  one  of  the  most  coveted  prizes  that  can  fall  to  the 
lot  of  a  politician,  and  now  by  what  the  same  world  would 
acclaim  an  act  of  imprudence,  he  allowed  it  to  slip  from 
his  fingers.  Was  it  not  merely  a  question  of  reducing 
millions  by  some  thousands  ?  But  it  was  not,  it  seems, 
altogether  an  inability  on  his  part  to  be  accommodating  j 
Behind  the  small  issue  in  which  he  refused  to  yield,  there 
was,  we  are  told,  radical  divergence  of  view  from  his 
chief  in  matters  of  general  policy. 

^  The  action  of  Lord  Randolph  in  resigning  the  office  he 
held  in  such  a  manner,  and  on  such  an  occasion,  has  two  aspects 
—  a  smaller  and  a  larger.     Both  are   partly  true  :  neither  by 
itself  is  comprehensive.     The  smaller  aspect  is  that  of  a  proud, 
sincere,  over-strained  man,  conceiving  himself  bound  to  fight 
certain  issues,  at  whatever  cost  to  himself  —  believing  at  each 
moment  that    victory  would    be    won,^and  drawn  by    every 
movement  further  into  a  position  from  which  he  could  not  or 
would    not    retreat.    The    larger    aspect    deserves    somewhat 
longer  consideration.    The  differences  between  the  Chancellor 
of  the  ^  Exchequer  and  his  colleagues  were  matters   of  detail. 
.     .     .      The  difference  between  the  Leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  the  Prime  Minister  was  fundamental.     .     .     . 
It  was  a  difference  of  belief  of  character,  of    aspiration  —  and 
by  nothing  could  it  ever  have  been  adjusted.    There  were  many 
considerations   and   influences   which   worked   powerfully   for 
their  agreement.     .     .     .     But  the  gulf  which  separated  the 
fiery  leader  of  Tory  democracy  —  with  his  bold  plans  of  reform 
and  dreams  of  change     .     .     .    from  the  old-fashioned  con- 
servative statesman,  the  head  of  a  High  Church  and  high  Tory 
family,  versed  in  diplomacy    .     .     .     was  a  gulf,  no  mutual 
needs,  no  common  interests,  no   personal  likings  could  per- 
manently   bridge.    They    represented     schools    of     political 
philosophy.     .     .     .     Sooner  or  later   the  breach  must  here 
come.1 

Whether  he  was  wise  or  not  in  resigning  it  is  anyhow 

1  Vol.,  p.  ii.  240. 


160  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

his  son's  view,  that  having  resigned  he  did  the  wrong 
thing  in  not  fighting  '  on  the  large  ground  of  the  unsatisfied 
aspirations  of  Tory  democracy  '  : — 

Two  courses  therefore  presented  themselves  at  the  outset : 
either  to  fight  on  the  large  ground  of  the  unsatisfied  aspirations 
of  Tory  democracy  .  .  .  or  on  the  smaller  ground  of  the 
Estimates.  The  first  involved  a  downright  assault  upon  the 
Conservative  Government,  an  irreparable  breach  with  its  leaders. 
.  .  .  The  second  whittled  the  difference  down  to  a  question 
of  not  very  important  figures.  .  .  .  The  one  promised  a 
chance  of  successful  strife,  the  other  offered  a  prospect  of  re- 
conciliation. .  .  .  But  in  all  respects  save  one,  the  first 
was  the  path  of  courage,  of  consistency  and  perhaps  of  prudence 
also.  It  suited  his  nature.  It  freed  his  hands.  It  justified 
and  explained  his  action  in  a  manner  which  the  people  could 
easily  understand.  '  I  fondly  hoped  to  make  the  Conservative 
party  the  instrument  of  Tory  democracy.  It  was  a  idle,  an 
idle  schoolboy's  dream.  I  must  look  elsewhere.'  No  doubt 
that  was  the  road  to  tread.  It  might  have  ended  in  Liberalism  ; 
but  from  that  he  would  not  at  a  later  date  have  shrunk.1 

Had  he  joined  the  Liberals  he  would  only  have  done 
what  Gladstone  before  him  did,  and  clearly  in  this  direction 
lay  the  star  of  his  political  hope.  Had  he  done  so,  and 
had  he  been  blessed  with  the  usual  span  of  life,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  imagine  what  might  now  be  his  place  in  public 
life.  But  remaining  as  he  did  a  Conservative,  he  could 
not  but  feel  keenly  the  loss  of  place  and  influence  which 
were  the  co-natural  term  of  his  hitherto  brilliant  career. 
Such  a  sacrifice  without  a  compensating  reward  was  more 
than  even  his  strangely  rugged  nature  could  well  bear, 
and  though  he  worked  on,  and  worked  effectively  within 
the  party  when  he  was  not  travelling  abroad,  the  oppor- 
tunity of  asserting  his  natural  position  did  not  return 
until  his  health  was  completely  shattered.  He  died  on 
January  24th,  1894,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-five,  only 
too  well  illustrating  the  motto  of  his  house,  Fiel  pero 
Desdichado. 

in. 

Irishmen  will  find  very  much  to  interest  them  in  these 
two  volumes.     Reference  has  already  been  made  to  Lord 

1  Vol.  ii.,  p.  279. 


LORD  RANDOLPH  CHURCHILL  l6l 

Randolph's  attitude  towards  Home  Rule.  It  would  seem 
that  at  least  one  of  the  grounds  of  his  objection  to  repeal 
of  the  Union  was  the  loss  the  House  of  Commons  would 
sustain  by  the  absence  of  the  Irish  members  : — 

He  could  not  vote  for  Home  Rule  [he  said  in  the  Woodstock 
speech  of  '77]  because  without  the  Irish  members  more  than 
one-third  of  the  life  and  soul  of  the  House  of  Commons  would 
be  lost.  'Who  is  it  but  the  Irish  whose  eloquence  so  often 
commands  our  admiration,  whose  irresistible  humour  compels 
our  laughter,  whose  fiery  outbursts  provoke  our  passions. 
Banish  them  and  the  House  of  Commons  composed  only  of 
Englishmen  and  Scotchmen  would  sink  to  the  condition  of  a 
vestry.' 1 

If  he  remained  in  a  Coercion  Cabinet,   Coercion  was 
certainly  not  agreeable  to  him,  and  if  he  played  what  he 
calls  the  '  ace  of  trumps  '  in  exciting  Ulster  to  fight  against 
Home  Rule,  he  did  much  otherwise  to  atone  for  what  was 
certainly  a  grave  fault.     When  the  Reform  Bill  was  going 
through  Committee  in  1884,  Mr.  Brodrick  moved  to  omit 
Ireland  from  the  scope  of  the  new  franchise,  and  in  support- 
ing this  motion,   recourse  was  had  to  an  argument  first 
advanced  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  member  for  Westminster, 
who  had  asked  if  Irish  peasants  who  lived  in  mud  cabins 
should  be  entrusted  with  a  vote.     Lord  Randolph  begged 
Mr.  Brodrick  to  withdraw    his    amendment,  and  in  the 
course  of  his  speech  replied  to  the  '  mud-cabin '  argument 
so  effectively,  that  it  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.     He 
was  friendly  towards  Irish  members  when  it  was  the  fashion 
to  scowl  at   them   as  rebels.     It  was  through  his  active 
co-operation  with  Lord  Justice  Fitzgibbon,  Mr.  Sexton, 
and  Mr.  Healy  that  the  Irish  Educational  Endownments 
Bill  was  rushed  through  Parliament  in  the  last  week  of 
its  term  in  1885. 

He  was  a  consistent,  generous,  and  zealous  advocate 
of  the  claims  of  Ireland  to  a  Catholic  University,  not 
altogether  it  appears  from  love  of  Ireland,  but  also  because 
it  was  good  English  policy.  Here  is  a  plan  of  '  University 

1  Vol.  i.,  p.  90. 
VOL.    XIX.  L 


162  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

(Ireland)  Education  '  which  he  submitted  to  Lord  Salisbury 
as  part  of  the  Tory  programme  for  the  Parliament  '86  : — 

1.  The  transference  of   Cork  College  to  a  Catholic  Board 
of  Management. 

2.  The  endowment  of  the  Catholic  University  College  in 
Dublin. 

$3.  The  establishment  of  a  Catholic  College  in  Armagh. 
4.  The  transference  of  the  Belfast  College  to  a  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Management. 

On  November  2ist,  1887,  he  wrote  to  Lord  Justice 
Fitzgibbon  :  '  I  will  assent  to  and  assume  parliamentary 
responsibility  for  any  scheme  which  you  and  the  Arch- 
bishop can  agree  upon,'  and  on  July  i4th,  1888,  he  writes 
to  him  again  :  '  I  wish  very  much  we  could  meet  the 
Archbishop's  views.'  Had  he  remained  in  the  Cabinet 
he  might  have  been  instrumental  in  remedying  a  crying 
and  calamitous  grievance  which  still  remains  unredressed. 
but  as  it  was,  his  views  and  sympathies  were  without 
tangible  issue.  He  must  be  also  credited  with  a  desire 
to  do  justice  to  the  Christian  Brothers.  As  late  as 
November,  1892,  he  wrote  to  Lord  Justice  Fitzgibbon  : — 

I  hope  John|Morley  will  make  a  final  adjustment  of  the 
grievances  of  those  poor  Christian  Brothers.  If  I  can  usefully 
make  any  representations  to  him,  instruct  me.  We  have  always 
been  very  good  friends. 

His  speech  during  the  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons 
in  March,  1890,  on  the  report  of  the  Parnell  Commission, 
was  one  of  the  many  sensations  of  the  time.  It  is 
graphically  described  here  even  to  the  incident  of  the 
glass  of  water  : — 

At  length  he  began  to  speak  louder.  '  The  procedure  which 
we  are  called)  upon  to  stamp  to  night  is  a  procedure  which 
would  undoubtedly  have  been  gladly  resorted  to  by  the  Tudors 
and  their  judges.  It  is  a  procedure  of  an  arbitrary  and 
tyrannical  character,  used  against  individuals  who  are  political 
opponents  of  the  Government  of  the  day,  procedure  such  as 
Parliament  has  for  generations  struggled  against  and  resisted. 
.  .  .  It  is  a  procedure  such  as  would  have  startled  even  Lord 
Eldon ;  it  is  a  procedure  such  as  Lords  Lyndhurst  and  Brougham 
would  have  protested  against.  .  .  .  But  a  Nemesis  awaits 
a  Government  that  adopts  unconstitutional  methods.  What,' 


LORD   RANDOLPH  CHURCHILL  163 

he  asked,  '  has  been  the  result  of  this  uprootal  of  constitutional 
practice  ?  What  has  been  the  one  result  ? '  Then  in  a  fierce 
whisper,  hissing  through  the^  House,  '  Pigott  !  ' — then  in  an 
outburst  of  uncontrollable  passion  and  disgust — '  a  man,  a 
thing,  a  reptile,  a  monster — Pigott !  ' — then  again,  with  a  pause 
at  which  the  house  shuddered,  '  Pigott !  Pigott !  Pigott !  n 

No  wonder  that  after  this  passionate  outburst  he  was 
denounced  by  the  Conservative  Press  once  more — perhaps 
now  for  the  twentieth  time — as  a  traitor ;  so  that  the 
contention  of  the  author  may  be  admitted,  that  notwith- 
standing his  attitude  towards  Gladstonian  Home  Rule, 
*  Ireland  was  a  loser  by  his  downfall.' 

IV. 

Great  as  is  the  political  interest  attaching  to  this  brilliant 
work,  the  portraiture  of  the  man  is  perhaps  its  most 
fascinating  feature.  Lord  Randolph  was  a  unique  and 
picturesque  character.  Reserved  and  haughty  with 
strangers,  particularly  with  snobs,  he  was  '  merry,  frank, 
and  cheerful '  with  his  friends.  If  he  called  eminent 
personages  hard  names  in  political  warfare,  he  could  atone 
for  this  fault  by  the  '  old-fashioned  courtliness  of  his 
manners '  in  society. 

*  He  was  the  most  courtly  man  I  ever  met,'  observed  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  later  years  to  Mr.  Morley.  At  one  dinner  at  Brook 
House,  Mr.  Gladstone  had  talked  with  great  vivacity  and  freedom, 
and  held  everyone  breathless.  '  And  that/  said  Lord  Randolph 
to  a  Liberal  Unionist  friend  as /they  walked  out  of  the  room 
together,  '  that  is  the  man  you  have  left  ?  How  could  you 
have  done  it  ?  '2 

A  wit  himself  and  brilliant  conversationalist,  he  was 
most  at  home  in  the  society  of  clever  unconventional  people. 
When  exhausted  one  time  from  his  labours,  he  wrote  to 
his  friend  Lord  Justice  Fitzgibbon  :  '  Many  thanks  for  your 
letter  and  telegram.  My  complete  physical  restoration 
depends  on  an  evening  with  Father  James  Healy.'  He 
was  capable  of  forming  sudden,  strong,  and  enduring 
friendships.  One  of  these  was  with  Viscount  Landaff ,  then 
Mr.  Mathews,  a  Catholic  barrister  whom  he  got  appointed 

1  Vol.  ii.,  p.  416.  *  Vol.  ii.,  p.  433. 


164  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Home  Secretary  in  1886.  Such  an  unusual  appointment 
called  forth  a  strong  protest  '  against  the  elevation  of 
Roman  Catholics  to  positions  of  power,'  on  the  grounds  of 
danger  to  the  State,  from  the  Scottish  Protestant  Alliance. 
This  was  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer's  immediate 
reply  to  the  Secretary  of  *he  Association  : — 

TREASURY  CHAMBERS, 

WHITEHALL,  September  g. 
SIR, 

I  beg  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  enclosing  a 
copy  of  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Directors  of  the  Scottish 
Protestant  Alliance,  and,  in  reply,  to  remark  that  I  observe 
with  astonishment  and  regret,  that  in  this  age  of  enlighten- 
ment and  general  toleration,  persons  professing  to  be  educated 
and  intelligent  can  arrive  at  conclusions  so  senseless  and 
irrational  as  these  which  are  set  forth  in  the  aforesaid  resolution. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Yours  faithfully, 

RANDOLPH  S.   CHURCHILL. 

He  was  unaffected,  reckless,  and  brilliant  in  his  private 
letters  as  he  was  in  his  conversation.  In  fact  his  freedom 
and  piquancy  of  speech  were  nowhere  so  unrestrained, 
so  much  so,  that  the  author  found  himself  obliged  to  make 
a  selection  for  the  present  publication. 

His  letters  from  abroad  contain  graphic  and  humorous 
descriptions  of  his  experiences  and  impressions.  He 
travelled  in  India,  Egypt,  South  Africa,  Russia,  Germany, 
France,  Norway,  and  descriptions  of  his  interviews  and 
feastings  with  such  men  as  the  Czar  of  Russia  and  Bismarck 
are  written  in  the  same  free  off-hand  way  as  are  his  accounts 
of  tiger  hunts  in  India,  and  lion  hunts  in  South  Africa. 
But  his  private  life  was  not  all  enjoyment.  Nervous 
irritability,  fits  of  despondency,  disgust  with  politics,  above 
all  the  shadow  of  approaching  death  supply  the  sombre 
tints.  Altogether  he  was  a  man  whom  his  enemies  must 
forgive  for  his  noble  qualities,  and  whose  claim  to  a 
cherished  place  in  the  memory  of  his  generation  no  one 
will  dispute. 

T.  P.  GILMARTIN. 


[     165    I 


GENERAL    NOTES 

THE  DUBLIN  REVIEW* 

THE  Dublin  Review  has  got  a  new  editor,  and  put  on  a  new 
suit.  I  do  not  very  much  admire  the  cut  and  make  up  of  the 
latter  ;  but  I  do  admire  the  work  of  the  editor.  Mr.  Wilfrid 
Ward  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  judicious  of  Catholic  apo- 
logists at  the  present  day,  and  his  accession  to  the  editorship 
of  the  Dublin  Review  will  be  warmly  welcomed  in  all  English- 
speaking  countries.  Conservative  without  being  reactionary, 
progressive  without  being  disloyal,  he  is  a  man  in  whom 
Catholics  can  have  the  fullest  confidence,  and  readily  acknowledge 
as  one  of  their  spokesmen.  Of  course  the  Church  gives  carte 
blanche  to  nobody,  lay  or  cleric  ;  but  in  anything  that  Mr.  Ward 
has  written,  even  in  those  directions  in  which  he  has  gone  farthest 
in  concession,  there  is  a  singular  absence  of  that  disposition  to 
indulge  in  fads,  novelties,  harsh  criticism,  and  proofs  of  inde- 
pendence which  make  much  of  the  work,  otherwise  in  many 
respects  valuable,  of  some  of  his  Catholic  countrymen,  so 
disagreeable. 

In  the  present  number  I  suppose  the  unsigned  articles  on 
'  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,'  on  '  The  Destroyed  Letters,'  and  on 
'  The  Functions  of  Prejudice,'  may  be  attributed  to  the  editor. 
They  are  all  valuable.  The  opening  article  is  a  good  com- 
mentary on  Father  Rickaby's  recent  translation,  and  is  an 
implied  declaration  of  policy  to  which  anyone  might  subscribe. 
The  article  on  the  '  Destroyed  Letters  '  contains  a  very  welcome 
announcement,  and  vindicates  Cardinal  Manning  from  some 
of  the  ugliest  aspersions  cast  upon  him  by  Mr.  Gladstone  and 
Mr.  Purcell.  Lord  Llandaff  describes  his  election  for  Dun- 
garvan  in  1868,  and  shows  a  much  more  kindly  feeling  towards 
Ireland  and  Irishmen  than  his  attitude  towards  them  when 
he  was  in  power  in  the  Tory  Government  would  lead  one  to 
suspect. 

I  should  not  fail  to  welcome  the  valuable  contribution  of 
Professor  Phillimore  on  '  Leonidas  of  Tarentum.'  I  trust  the 
Editor  will  cultivate  this  contributor  and  others  like  him.  One 
such  article  is  worth  a  dozen  treatises  on  generalities.  Most 
attractive  and  readable  also  is  Dom  Gasquet's  paper  on  his 


166  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

'  Impressions  of  America.'  Father  Thurston's  archaeological 
paper  on  the  '  Praetorium  '  is  valuable  for  Scriptural  students  ; 
whilst  the  article  on  '  The  Letters  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  ' 
cannot  fail  to  stimulate  interest  in  a  subject  of  which  more  is 
sure  to  be  heard.  Altogether  I  can  congratulate  the  readers 
of  the  Dublin  Review,  as  well  as  its  new  Editor. 

STATISTICS  OF  MARRIAGE 

Kurschner's  Jahrbuch  for  1906  gives  an  interesting  table 
showing  the  propertion  of  married  men  and  women  per  1,000 
of  the  population,  in  various  European  countries.  Only  those 
above  fifteen  years  of  age  are  reckoned. 

MEN 

Germany  . .         . .         . .  547 

Austria     . .         . .         . .         . .  535 

Italy         548 

France       . .          . .          . .          . .  551 

Belgium . .  507 

Holland     . .          . .          . .          . .  516 

Switzerland          . .          . .          . .  487 

England  and  Wales       . .          . .  536 

Scotland   . .         . .         . .         . .  477 

Ireland      . .          . .          . .          . .  382 

Ireland  has  the  lowest  proportion  per  thousand  of  married 
men  and  women,  of  all  the  countries  given,  and  although  she  has 
a  fair  proportion  of  widows  and  widowers  (58  men  and  132 
women)  still  she  has  by  far  the  highest  proportion  of  unmarried 
adults,  viz.,  559-3  men  and  496-6  women. 

THE  CLERGY  IN  PARLIAMENT 

IN  the  same  German  Official  Directory,  I  find  that  in  the 
Imperial  Parliament  of  the  German  Empire — the  Reichstag — 
which  is  composed  of  397  members,  there  are  no  less  than  twenty- 
one  Catholic  priests,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  are  Dr. 
Hitze,  Professor  at  the  University  of  Miinster  ;  Father  Dasbach, 
of  Treves ;  Provost  von  Jadsweski,  of  Schroda  in  Prussian 
Poland ;  Archpriest  Frank,  of  Ratibor ;  Father  Delsor,  of 
Alsace ;  Dean  Schaedler,  of  Bamberg ;  Canon  Pischler,  of 
Passau  ;  Mgr.  Lender  of  Baden  ;  Father  Leser.  of  Ravensburg, 
etc.,  etc. 

In  the  Upper  Chamber  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  there  are 


GENERAL    NOTES  167 


two  Bishops,  Cardinal  Kopp  and  Mgr.  Jacobi,  Bishop  of  Hilde- 
sheim  ;  and  in  the  Lower  Chamber  there  are  twelve  priests. 
In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  the  Archbishop  of  Freiburg  is 
ex  officio  member  of  the  Upper  Chamber.  In  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Hesse  the  Bishop  of  Mayence  and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dresden  enjoy  a  similar  privilege.  In 
Bavaria,  the  Archbishops  of  Munich  and  Bamberg  and  the 
Bishop  of  Passau  have  seats  in  the  Upper  House,  and  nine 
priests  are  members  of  the  Lower  House. 

In  Wurtemburg  there  is  a  peculiar  constitution.  The  Upper 
House  consisting  of  31  territorial  magnates.  The  Lower  House 
is  made  up  of  93  members,  63  of  whom  are  elected,  and  20 
nominated  by  the  Crown,  or  [hold  their  position  ex  officio. 
Amongst  the  latter  the  Bishop  of  Rotenburg  and  two  other 
dignitaries  of  the  Catholic  Church  are  always  included  ;  but 
there  are  other  priests  elected  in  Wurtemburg. 

In  Austria,  there  are  in  the  Upper  Chamber,  '  Herrnhaus,' 
at  Vienna,  six  Cardinals,  six  Archbishops,  six  Prince-Bishops, 
and  several  Abbots.  In  the  Upper  House  of  Hungary,  the 
'  House  of  Magnates,'  as  it  is  called,  there  are  ten  or  twelve 
Bishops,  and  several  abbots  and  prelates. 

In  Ireland,  a  priest,  bishop,  or  even  Cardinal,  could  not  be 
a  member  of  a  District  Council.  Quite  recently  a  great  de- 
monstration took  place  at  Armagh,  because  the  local  clergy 
were  allowed  to  vote  at  municipal  and  parliamentary  elections. 
And  yet  Ireland  is  a  priest-ridden  country,  and  we  live  under 
the  most  liberal  and  well-disposed  government  in  the  world  ! 
And  when  anything  has  to  be  done  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  people,  the  question  is  asked,  '  Why  don't  the  priests 
do  it  ? ' 

DIPLOMATIC  RELATIONS  WITH  THE  VATICAN 

MR.  HERBERT  PAUL,  who  has  recently  been  returned  again 
to  Parliament,  describes  in  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of 
Modern  England  the  efforts  made  by  Lord  Palmerston,  in  1848, 
to  establish  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Vatican  : — 

'  On  the  iyth  of  Februray,  1848,  nine  months  earlier  than 
the  flight  of  the  Pope,  Lord  Lansdowne  moved  in  the  House  of 
Lords  the  second  reading  of  a|Bill  for  authorizing  diplomatic 
relations  with  the  Court  of  Rome.  This  was  really^Palmerston's 
Bill,  and  indeed* thejvhole  of  his  foreignfpolicyiwas  played,  as 


168  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


he  himself  put  it,  off  his  own  bat.  The  Bill  was  the  direct  result 
of  Lord  Minto's  singular  mission  to  Italy  in  1847,  and  on  principle 
it  was  difficult  to  oppose.  The  Pope  was  a  temporal  sovereign, 
and  five-sixths  of  the  Irish  people  owned  him  as  their  spiritual 
head.  Some  lawyers  thought  that  the  Queen  might,  without 
statutory  authority,  appoint  an  envoy  to  Rome,  and  receive 
an  ambassador  from  the  Pope.  But  the  balance  of  opinion  was 
the  other  way,  and  it  was  considered  safer  to  proceed  by  legis- 
lation. The  principle  of  the  measure  was  supported  by  Lord 
Stanley,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  Bishop  Thirlwall.  Its 
only  prominent  antagonist  was  Bishop  Philpotts  of  Exeter, 
a  militant  churchman  of  the  fiercest  type,  who  inspired  awe 
without  inspiring  esteem.  No  worse  charge  was  ever  made 
against  "  Harry  of  Exeter "  than  that  he  had  supported 
Catholic  Emancipation  to  get  a  bishopric  from  the  Duke.  But 
in  controversy  he  did  not  always  display  a  Christian  temper, 
and  he  seemed  to  be  rather  orthodox  than  pious.  Bishop 
Thirlwall's  philosophic  intellect  almost  always  took  a  states- 
manlike view  of  political  questions,  and  Lord  Stanley,  having 
been  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  knew  the  value  of  a  good 
understanding  with  the  Vatican.  Although  the  Bill  was  read 
a  second  time  by  the  Peers  without  a  division,  a  curious  mis- 
hap befell  it  in  committee,  which  ultimately  rendered  it  useless 
for  all  practical  purposes.  Lord  Eglinton,  whose  name  is 
known  in  fields  more  attractive  than  politics,  carried  by  a 
majority  of  three  votes  an  amendment  providing  that  the 
Papal  representative  at  the  Court  of  St.  James  should  not  be 
a  priest.  The  Bill  was  read  a  second  time  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  on  the  lyth,  by  a  majority  of  79,  and  Mr.  Gladstone 
spoke  in  support  of  it.  But  the  Pope  declined  to  send  a  layman 
to  represent  him,  and  it  became  a  dead  letter.  Mr.  Disraeli, 
who  was  perhaps  the  best  Leader  of  the  Opposition  the  House  of 
Commons  has  ever  seen,  took  the  opportunity  of  commenting 
on  Lord  Minto's  roving  errand  "  to  teach  politics  in  the  country 
in  which  Machiavelli  was  born  "  '  (Vol.  i.,  pp.  102-103). 

Lord  Edmund  Fitzmaurice,  in  his  Life  of  Lord  Granville 
(Vol.  ii.,  pp.  281-282),  gives  the  following  historical  account  of 
the  same  project : — 

'  The  attempt  to  enter  into  diplomatic  relations  with  Rome 
has  had  a  chequered  history.  The  memories  associated  with 
the  Earl  of  Castlemaine's  embassy  to  Rome  in  1687  were  still 
profoundly  cherished  by  every  Irish  Protestant — the  mission 
which  Bishop  Burnet  had  denounced  as  "  high  treason  by  law  " 
and  had  even  made  Lord  Chancellor  Jeffreys  "  uneasy."  It 
had  ended  in  the  Earl  of  Castlemaine  being  tried  on  the  capital 


GENERAL  NOTES  169 


charge  "  for  going  as  an  ambassador  to  Rome,"  and  he  was  sent 
to  the  Tower,  although  he  pleaded  that  "  he  did  not  go  to  Rome 
for  any  religious  purpose,  but  only  to  show  courtesy  to  a  tem- 
poral prince. and  for  a  secular  purpose."  From  that  time 
nothing  more  was  heard  of  embassies  to  Rome  till  1848,  when 
it  was  thought  that  a  more  open  procedure  might  be  safest  to 
follow  after  all. 

'  In  that  year  a  Bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  of  Lords 
to  enable  Her  Majesty  to  open  and  carry  on  diplomatic  relations 
'  with  the  Court  of  Rome,"  and  this  Bill  ultimately  became  law, 
but  subject  to  an  alteration  which,  curiously  enough,  eventually 
proved  fatal  to  it.  On  the  motion  of  the  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  words  "  Sovereign  of  the  Roman 
States  "  were  substituted  in  the  Bill  for  the  words  just  quoted, 
and  in  consequence  when,  in  October,  1870,  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  ceased  to  be  "  Sovereign  of  the  Roman  States,"  the 
Statute  Law  Revision  Committee  considered  themselves  justified 
in  proposing  the  repeal  of  the  Act  as  obsolete,  and  succeeded 
in  the  attempt. 

'  The  Act  was  enabling  only,  and  while  it  was  on  the  Statute 
Book  from  which  it  was  so  soon  to  disappear,  no  public  appoint- 
ment was  made  under  its  terms  ;  but  the  practice  grew  up  of 
allowing  a  Secretary  of  Legation,  nominally  appointed  to  the 
Grand  Ducal  Court  of  Tuscany,  to  reside  at  Rome,  where  he 
was  regarded  as  de  facto  Minister  to  the  Vatican,  but  was  always 
prepared  to  assert  that,  like  the  Earl  of  Castlemaine,  he  was 
there  for  secular  purposes  only ;  and  even  this  arrangement 
came  to  an  end  when  Mr.  Jervoise  was  withdrawn  from  Rome 
by  Lord  Derby,  and  no  other  appointment  made.' 

MONSIGNOR  CAPEL. 

SOME  months  ago  I  received  the  following  post  card  : — 

'  ARNO,  CALIFORNIA, 

'  July  i$th. 
'  REV.  ANDJDEAR  FATHER, 

'  I  take  the  liberty  to  send  you"arcopy  of  Father  Wyman's 
Certainty  in  Religion.  You  may  deem  it  worthy  of  being  called 
to  the  attention  of  the  readers  of  the  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL 
RECOFTI 

'  Very  respectfully  yours, 

'  T.  J.  CAPEL.' 

This  is  the  well-known  Mgr.  Capel,  whom  Disraeli  introduced 
as  Mgr.  Catesby  into  his  famous  novel  Lothair.  In  the  same 
work,  Cardinal  Manning  appeared  as  Cardinal  Grandison.  Both 
were  indefatigable,  according  to  the  old  politician,  in  their 


17°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

efforts  to  propagate  Catholicism  in  society  as  well  as  inljthe 
intellectual  world.  Irish  priests  will  be  glad  to  hear  that  Mgr. 
Capel  is  still  flourishing  under  the  favourable  sky  of  California. 
The  author  of  the  little  volume  about  which  Mgr.  Capel 
writes,  is  a  convert ;  and  that  indicates  that  the  zeal  of  the 
'  Apostle  of  the  genteel,'  as  he  used  to  be  called,  is  not  yet  dead. 
Father  Wyman  is  a  Paulist  and,  like  all  the  members  of  the 
New  York  Community,  a  learned  and  zealous  man.  There  is 
nothing  new  in  his  book  (New  York  :  Columbus  Press),  but  old 
arguments  are  presented  in  a  new  and  fascinating  style.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  in  the  part  of  the  book  that  deals  with 
the  theory  of  knowledge,  and  with  the  prophecies  and  their 
fulfilment. 

'  THE   IRISH  THEOLOGICAL   QUARTERLY  ' 

THE  great  awakening  in  the  intellectual  life  of  Ireland  finds  its 
latest  expression  in  the  Irish  Theological  Quarterly,  the  success 
of  which  has  already  surpassed  the  most  sanguine  expectations 
of  its  promoters.  For  many  years  I  have  found  it  difficult  to 
accommodate  as  speedily  and  as  fully  as  I  could  wish  the  nu- 
merous contributors  who  sought  a  share  of  the  space  at  my 
disposal,  and  I  am  heartily  glad  that  they  have  found  another 
and  most  valuable  outlet  for  their  activity ;  the  more  so,  as  I 
have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  I.  E.  RECORD  will  not  in 
any  way  be  deprived  of  the  co-operation  of  those  who  have 
undertaken  this  new  enterprise. 

The  principle  underlying  Dr.  McDonald's  opening  article 
is  one  with  which  I  have  always  had  much  sympathy,  that 
men  must  be  taken  as  they  are,  in  their  concrete,  and  the  truths 
of  religion  brought  home  to  them  in  such  form  as  is  most  likely 
to  reach  them  and  influence  them.  This  by  no  means  implies 
a  rejection  of  the  old  arguments,  or  an  admission  of  their  in- 
validity. It  is,  in  many  respects,  rather  an  application  of  old 
arguments  and  of  what  is  older  and  better  than  all  arguments, 
reason  itself,  to  the  difficulties  and  troubles  of  those  who  are 
seeking  to  solve  the  riddle  of  their  lives.  If  Mr.  Mallock,  and 
people  who  think  with  him,  refuse  to  find  any  help  in  the  origin 
of  life,  or  in  the  moral  argument,  or  in  the  dissipation  of  energy, 
it  is  no  harm  at  least  to  try  the  effect  upon  them  of  a  closer 
study  of  the  origin  of  Free  Will  and  of  Universal  Ideas.  Whether 
the  result  will  be  more  satisfactory  who  can  tell  ? 


GENERAL  NOTES  171 

In  his  paper  on  '  Socialism '  there  seems  to  me  to  be  great 
force  in  what  he  says  about  the  '  accumulated  stores '  that 
are  the  common  heritage  of  all  men,  and  for  which  all  men  have 
a  perfect  right  to  exact  the  fair  and  full  value.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  a  source  of  satisfaction  to  see  him  remind  his  readers  of 
democratic  sympathies  that,  as  it  is  '  unwise  to  put  limits  to 
the  march  of  a  nation/  it  is  equally  impolitic  to  put  chains  on 
individual  endeavour  and  weight  it  down  with  impossible 
impediments. 

Wealth  confers  benefits  second  only  to  those  of  labour  itself. 

'  If  it  offends  some  [says  M.  Thiers1],  it  excites  others, 
encourages,  animates,  sustains  them  ;  and  society  finds  in  it 
so  many  advantages  for  the  generality  of  its  members  that  it 
ignores  the  grumbling  and  discontent  of  the  few.  After  all, 
manual  labour  is  not  the  only  kind  of  labour.  You  must  also 
have  men  to  apply  the  compass  to  paper,  to  study  the  move- 
ments of  the  stars,  to  teach  us  how  to  cross  the  seas.  You  must 
have  men  to  study  the  annals  and  the  efforts  of  other  nations, 
to  discover  the  cause  of  the  prosperity  and  decay  of  empires, 
and  to  teach  us  how  to  rule.  It  is  not  the  man  who  from  day  to 
day  remains  bent  over  his  machine,  or  over  the  soil,  who  will 
have  leisure  for  such  pursuits.  You  may  indeed  find  a  peasant 
who  will  one  day  turn  out  to  be  the  great  Sforza,  or  a  com- 
positor in  a  printing-house  to  become  Benjamin  Franklin.  But 
these  exceptions  are  rare.  It  is  rather  the  sons  of  the  toiler, 
raised  above  their  condition  by  a  laborious  father,  who  will 
mount  the  steps  of  the  social  ladder  and  reach  the  sublime 
heights  of  thought. 

*  The  father  was  a  peasant,  a  workman,  a  sailor.  The  son 
will  be  a  farmer,  a  manufacturer,  the  captain  of  a  ship.  The 
grandson  will  be  a  banker,  a  surgeon,  a  barrister,  perhaps  one 
day  head  of  the  State.  .  .  .  Thus  the  human  vegetation  operates, 
and  little  by  little  is  formed  the  wealthy  class  of  society,  which 
is  called  idle  but  is  not  so  ;  for  the  work  of  the  mind  is  value 
for  that  of  the  hands,  and  must  ever  succeed  it  if  society  is  not 
to  return  to  barbarism.  I  recognize  that  amongst  these  rich 
people  there  will  be  some,  unworthy  sons  of  wise  fathers,  who 
will  spend  their  days  at  the  gaming-table  and  their  nights  at 
pleasure,  who  will  become  stupid  with  drink,  dissipating  in 
idleness  and  debauchery  their  youth,  their  health,  and  their 
fortune.  That  is  all  true.  But  they  will  soon  enough  be  pun- 
ished. Their  career  blighted  before  its  time,  their  fortune  lost, 
they  will  wander  sad,  disfigured,  and  poor,  before  those  palaces 
which  their  fathers  had  built  and  which  now  must  pass  into 

1  La  Propriety,  p.  66. 


172  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  possession  of  wiser  and  better  men.  In  a  generation  you 
see  labour  rewarded  in  the  father  and  idleness  punished  in  the 
son.  O  Envy,  implacable  envy,  art  thou  not  satisfied  ? 

'  But  are  all  the  children  of  the  rich  of  this  description  ?  It  is 
true  that  they  do  not  dig,  nor  spin,  nor  wield  the  hammer  in  the 
forge.  But,  do  they  not  read,  study,  teach,  discover,  govern  ? 
If  it  is  not  the  rich  man  who  always  makes  the  discoveries  that 
contribute  to  our  welfare,  it  is  he  sometimes.  It  is  he  who 
encourages  them.  It  is  he  who  contributes  to  form  the  learned 
public  for  whom  the  modest  savant  labours.  It  is  he  who  has 
large  libraries,  who  reads  Sophocles,  Virgil,  Dante,  Galileo, 
Descartes,  Bossuet,  Moliere,  Racine,  Montesquieu.  If  it  is  not 
he,  it  is  at  his  house,  around  him,  near  him,  that  they  are  read, 
criticized,  appreciated,  and  that  you  find  that  enlightened, 
polished  society,  with  fine  taste  and  trained  judgment,  for  which 
genius  writes,  sings,  and  paints.  Sometimes  he  will  not  be  satis- 
fied with  admiring  the  works  of  eminent  minds  ;  he  will  produce 
some  of  his  own.  He  will  be  the  rich  Sallust,  the  rich  Seneca, 
the  rich  Montaigne,  the  rich  Buffon,  the  rich  Lavoisier,  the 
rich  De  Medici,  founders  of  that  republic  which  was  most  fruitful 
in  riches  and  in  art,  which  gave  to  the  world  Dante,  Petrarch, 
Boccaccio,  Machiavelli,  Galileo,  Ghiberti,  Brunelleschi,  Dona- 
tello,  Poggio,  Politiano,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Michelangelo.' 

These  are  certainly  considerations  which  must  not  be  left 
out  of  calculation  in  endeavouring  to  fix  the  boundaries  of  social 
rights.  If  the  natural  incentive  to  work  is  removed,  the  work 
is  sure  to  fail. 

The  most  important  part  of  Dr.  MacRory's  paper  is  that  in 
which  he  deals  with  the  theory  of  the  '  crude  scientific  notions 
of  the  age,'  and  '  loose  historical  methods '  which  have  been 
supported  by  such  a  large  number  of  writers  on  Biblical  subjects 
in  recent  times.  This  is  a  question  which  we  hope  will  be  dealt 
with  more  fully ;  for  just  as  our  curiosity  was  keenly  aroused 
we  saw  that  space  limits  would  compel  us  to  restrain  it  for 
three  months  more. 

Dr.  Harty  contributes  an  article  on  '  Fetal  Life,'  which  is 
useful  both  from  the  theoretical  and  practical  point  of  view. 
Father  MacCaffrey  is  laying  the  foundation  of  a  most  valuable 
work  in  his  paper  on  '  Rome  and  Ireland.'  It  is  critical  and 
argumentative  from  beginning  to  end.  His  introduction  on 
'  Pre-Patrician  Christianity,'  and  his  discussion  of  Zimmer's 
theory  about  Palladius  and  St.  Patrick,  are  the  most  hopeful 
things  of  their  kind  that  have  appeared  in  our  time.  Some 


GENERAL  NOTES  173 

people  may  prefer  fine  writing  and  a  florid  style,  but  Father 
MacCaffrey  has  adopted  the  style  which  is  most  effective  in 
these  days  of  facts  and  analysis.  It  is  the  style  which  has  been 
adopted  by  the  most  successful  of  German  ecclesiastical  his- 
torians, amongst  others  Rettberg,  Hauck,  Friederich,  Bellesheim. 

I  welcome,  with  particular  pleasure,  Dr.  Toner's  paper  on 
the  '  Kenotic  Theory '  of  Dr.  Gore,  or  '  Depotentiation  of  the 
Logos.'  This  opens  up  a  vast  field  of  utility  for  a  young  pro- 
fessor, already  learned  and  well  trained,  who  may  be  trusted 
to  give  a  good  account  of  himself  in  anything  that  he  under- 
takes. It  is  only  natural  that  in  the  Anglican  Church  there 
should  be  '  variations '  now  as  there  have  always  been.  This 
latest  '  variation  '  in  doctrine  is  clearly  explained  and  put  to 
the  test  of  the  '  Rule  of  Faith,'  and  will  be  put  to  a  further 
test  in  the  next  number. 

The  size,  form,  and  production  of  the  Quarterly  excite  my 
envy  as  well  as  my  admiration.  The  new  ship  has  been  launched 
under  an  able  captain.  It  has  made  its  first  voyage  safely  and 
pleasantly.  May  it  have  many  others  equally  safe  and 
pleasant. 

J.    F.    HOGAN,    D.D 


[     174    1 


LITURGY 

DECREE     CONCERNING:     CONFRATERNITY     OF 

MOUNT     CARMEL 

WE  would  call  the  attention  of  our  readers  to  an  im- 
portant Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  which 
was  published  in  the  last  issue  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD.  The 
Decree  has  been  issued  at  the  instance  of  the  General  of 
the  Discalced  Carmelites  (who  have  this  Confraternity 
under  their  special  protection  and  patronage),  and  has 
for  its  purpose  the  reinvalidation  of  all  the  receptions 
into  the  Society  which  might  possibly  happen  to  be  invalid 
from  non-compliance  with  any  of  the  essential  conditions 
for  securing  membership.  Priests,  therefore,  who  may  have 
reason  to  be  scrupulous  lest,  owing  to  the  omission  of  any 
of  the  necessary  formalities  for  a  valid  reception — such 
as  the  inscription  of  names,  etc. — persons  so  received 
might  be  deprived  of  the  advantages,  privileges,  and  favours 
attached  to  the  Confraternity,  will  be  pleased  to  know 
that  possible  defects  of  the  kind  have  been  made  good 
up  to  28th  June,  1905,  the  date  of  the  Decree,  and  that 
all  persons  received  up  to  this  date  will  not  be  deprived 
of  their  Indulgences  owing  to  the  non-fulfilment  of  any 
technical  requirement. 

MASS     TO     BE     SAID    IN     CERTAIN     CHURCH 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — An  answer  to  the  two  following  dubia 
will  much  oblige  : — 

A  pastor  has  charge  of  two  churches  in  the  united  parishes 
of  B.  Michael  and  St.  Colman.  He  lives  beside  the  church  of 
B.  Michael ;  but  as  St.  Colman's  feast  (29th  October)  has  been 
kept  from  time  immemorial  as  a  parish  holiday  in  the  church 
and  parish  bearing  his  name,  the  pastor,  rightly,  as  he  hopes, 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  175 

considers  St.  Colman  the  titular  is  ecclesice,  and  recites  his  Office 
Ut  duplex  i  cl.  cum  Oct. 

Now,  the  doubt  occurred  in  connection  with  the  celebration 
of  Mass  on  the  octave  day  of  St.  Colman,  during  the  past  year, 
in  the  church  of  B.  Michael.  The  pastor  had  to  say  Mass  on 
the  occasion  not  in  St.  Colman's  church,  but  in  B.  Michael's ; 
and  as  this  church  and  parish  had  no  connection  with  St.  Colman 
he  felt  doubtful  as  to  whether  he  should  say  the  Mass  of  the 
Oct.  of  St.  Colman  or  the  Mass  in  the  general  Ordo  for  the  day 
— that  is,  the  Mass  of  the  Maternity  of  the  B.V.M.  Please  say 
which  Mass  ought  to  have  been  said  in  the  circumstances. 

The  pastor  in  question  does  his  duty  correctly  in 
celebrating  the  feast  of  the  Titular,  St.  Colman.  He  is 
bound  to  celebrate  the  feasts  of  the  Titulars  of  the  two 
churches  which  are  committed  to  his  charge,  for  all  the 
necessary  conditions,  making  their  celebration  obligatory, 
appear  to  be  present.  The  due  celebration  includes,  of 
course,  the  saying  of  the  office  and  Mass  on  the  feast-day, 
and  on  all  the  days  inf.  oct.  on  which  they  may  be  said  in 
accordance  with  the  Rubrics.  On  the  octave  day  of  St. 
Colman's  Feast,  the  pastor,  we  assume,  recites  the  office 
of  the  octave.  If  he  were  saying  Mass  in  the  church  of 
the  Saint,  he  should  also  say  it  in  conformity  with  his 
office.  He  has  to  celebrate,  however,  for  some  reason, 
not  in  the  church  of  St.  Colman,  but  in  that  of  Blessed 
Michael,  and  he  hesitates  about  the  Mass  he  should  select. 
What  is  the  right  thing  for  him  to  do  ?  In  other  words, 
is  he  to  arrange  the  Mass  in  harmony  with  the  office  he 
recites,  or,  rather,  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  church  in 
which  he  celebrates,  that  is,  with  the  office  of  the  General 
Calendar  ?  The  principle  governing  the  solution  of  the 
case  has  been  laid  down  by  the  general  Decree  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites,  Urbis  et  orbis,  dated  gth  July,  1895, 
which  directs  that  the  selection  of  the  Mass  in  aliena 
Ecclesia  is  to  be  determined  not  by  the  Calendar  of  the. 
celebrant,  but  by  that  of  the  church  in  which  the  Mass 
is  said.  In  the  contingency  contemplated,  therefore,  he 
should  celebrate  the  Mass  of  the  Maternity  of  the  B.V.M. 


176  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

We  need  not  add  that  the  making  provision  for  these 
particular  offices,  such  as  the  Titulars  of  churches  and 
Patrons  of  places  will  introduce  a  certain  dislocation  in  the 
offices  of  the  general  Calendar,  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  a 
most  laudable,  as  well  as  an  obligatory,  work  to  carry  out 
these  celebrations  in  the  spirit  of  the  Liturgy.  In  some  cases 
the  Titulars  or  Patrons  will  be  Divine  Persons  or  Mysteries, 
whose  feasts  enjoy  all  the  rank  and  dignity  that  the  Church 
can  bestow  on  them  ;  in  others  they  may  be  the  same  as 
the  cathedral,  or  diocesan  patrons,  whose  offices  are  fully 
provided  for  in  the  diocese  :  and  in  all  instances  the  titular 
or  patron  will  be  at  least  a  Saint  of  such  eminent  standing 
that  his  feast-day  will  be  assigned  a  place  on  the  General, 
or,  at  least,  on  the  Diocesan  Calendar,  so  that  the  only  thing 
necessary  will  be  to  celebrate  it  as  a  double  of  the  first 
class  within  an  octave.  This  will  involve  more  than  making 
suitable  provision  for  the  octave  day. 

<  BENEDIOTIO     MENS  AE  ' 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — In  some  religious  communities,  which  have 
no  special  rite,  the  custom  prevails  of  omitting  the  Benedicite 
at  the  beginning  of  the  grace  before  meals  on  certain  feasts, 
for  which  a  change  of  Versicle  is  prescribed  in  the  Breviary,  as 
e.g.,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  and  Easter.  It  seems  to  me  that 
there  is  no  authority  for  this  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Breviary. 
Can  the  omission  be  justified  aliunde  ? — I  am,  yours  faithfully, 

SACERDOS. 

We  quite  agree  with  our  correspondent  that  there  is 
no  justification  for  omitting  the  Benedicite  at  the  beginning 
of  the  form  of  blessing  before  meals.  So  far  from  sanction- 
ing the  omission  the  Rubric  in  the  Roman  Breviary  implies 
that  this  appropriate  preamble  should  always  be  said. 
For,  having  given  the  formulae  suitable  to  the  various 
meals — before  each  of  which  the  Benedicite  is  distinctly 
introduced — it  states  in  an  explicit  Rubric  that  the  changes 
to  be  made  on  special  occasions  affect  only  the  Versicle 
and  Psalms.  '  Praedictus  modus  benedicendi  mensam 


NOTES  AND   QUERIES  177 

et  agendi  gratias  servatur  omni  tempore  .  .  .  praeter- 
quam  diebus  infrascriptis  quibus  V.V.  et  Psalmi  tantum 
variantur.'  The  Rubricists  who  notice  the  Benedictio 
Mensae,  similarly  insinuate  that  the  initial  Benedicite 
is  always  to  be  retained,  and  that  the  changes  rendered 
necessary  by  special  feasts  and  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  occur  only  in  the  places  already  mentioned.  Thus 
Appeltern  :  *  Adsunt  nonnulla  tempora  in  quibus  bene- 
dictio  et  gratiarum  actio  sunt  quidem  ut  in  communi 
formula,  sed  variantur  Versiculi  et  Psalmi .M 

P.  MORRISROE. 


1  Manuale  Liturgicum,  vol.  ii.,  p.  250. 
VOL.    XIX 


DOCUMENTS 

THE  USE  OF  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS   AT    SACRED 
FUNCTIONS 

E  SACRA   CONGREGATIONE  RITUUM 
COMPOSTELLANA 

CIRCA   USUM  MUSICORUM  INSTRUMENTORUM  IN   SACRIS 
FUNCTIONIBUS 

Emus,  et  Rmus.  Dims.  Cardinalis  losephus  M.  de  Herrera  y  de 
la  Iglesia,  Archiepiscopus  Compostellanus,  ad  Sacram  Rituum 
Congregationem  mittens  elenchum  turn  festorum,  quae  in  sua 
ecclesia  Gathedrali  solemniter  celebrantur  cum  musica  vocali  et 
instrumental!,  vulgo  orquesta ;  turn  instrumentorum,  quibus 
musici  utuntur  in  iisdem  solemnitatibus  :  atque  insuper  inter- 
pretationem  authenticam  habere  desiderans  super  iis,  quae 
Sanctissimus  Dominus  Noster  Pius  Papa  X  in  Motu  proprio 
super  musica  sacra  statuit,  nempe  :  "  Aliquoties,  servatis  ser- 
vandis,  admitti  possunt  alia  musica  instrumenta,  sed  annuente 
Episcopo,  ut  Caeremoniale  Episcoporum  praecipit,'  eidem  Sacrae 
Congregationi  sequentia  dubia  enodanda  reverenter  proposuit, 
videlicet : 

I.  An,  et  in  quibus  festis  permitti  possit  usus  instrumen- 
torum quae  (vulgo  violines,  violas,  violoncello,  contrabafo,  flauta, 
clarinetes,  fagots,  trompas)  in  elencho  recensentur  ? 

II.  An  permitti  possit  usus  instrumentorum  in  Officio  et 
Missa  defunctorum  ? 

III.  An    proscribendus    sit    in    ecclesiis    parochialibus   et 
conventualibus    usus    organi    dicti    harmonium  in    Omcio    et 
Missa  defunctorum  ? 

Sacra  porro  rituum  Congregatio  ad  relationem  subscripti 
Secretarii,  exquisite  voto  Commissionis  super  Musica  et  Cantu 
sarcro  rescribendum  censuit : 

Ad  I.  Ad  primam  part  em  Affirmative  ;  an  secundam  partem, 
in  illis  functionibus  et  temporibus,  in  quibus  sonus  organi 
aliorumque  instrumentorum  non  prohibetur  a  Caeremoniali 
Episcoporum,  a  praedicto  Motu  proprio  .et  a  Deretis  S.R.C. 
uti  in  Pisana  20  Martii  1903,  et  in  Compostellana  8  lanuarii 
1904,  super  Triduo  Maioris  Hebdomadae  ;  verum  iuxta  prudens 
Ordinarii  arbitrium  in  singulis  casibus  cum  dispensations  a  lege 


DOCUMENTS  179 


et  praxi  communi   adhibendi  in  sacris  functionibus  cantum 
gregorianum  vel  musicam  polyphonicam  aut  aliam  probatam. 

Ad  II.  In  Officio  Negative  ;  in  Missa  et  Absolutione  post 
Missam,  prouti  in  response  ad  I  et  servatis  servandis,  ita  ut 
sonus  organi  aliorumque  instrumentorum  tantum  ad  sustinendas 
voces  adhibeatur,  et  sileant  instrumenta  cum  silet  cantus, 
iuxta  Caeremoniale  Episcoporum,  lib,  I,  cap.  28,  n.  13. 

Ad  III.  Provisum  in  praecedenti. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit,  die  15  Aprilis  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.  ifcS. 

D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secretaries. 

INDULGENCES    FOR    SATURDAY    DEVOTION    TO    THE 

IMMACULATE  VIRGIN 

E   SACRA  CONGREGATIONE   INDULGENTIARUM 

DECRETUM   URBIS   ET  ORBIS 

INDULG.   CONCEDUNTUR  PRO  PIO  EXERCITIO  IN  OBSEQUIUM  DEI- 
PARAE  IMMACULATAE  PRIMIS  CUIUSQUE  MENSIS  SABBATIS 

Rmus.  P.  Dominicus  Reuter,  Minister  Generalis  Ordinis  FF. 
Min.  Conventualium,  nuper  exposuit,  se  anno  quinquagesimo 
mox  expleto,  ex  quo  dogma  de  Immaculato  Bmae.  Virginis 
Conceptu  proclamatum  est,  veterem  praxim,  fere  oblivioni 
datam,  revocasse,  exhibendi  nimirum  peculiarem  cultum  Virgini 
Deiparae  singulis  primis  cuiusque  mensis  sabbatis,  in  obsequium 
tarn  singularis  privilegii  intuitu  meritorum  Christi  eidem  Virgini 
collati ;  quam  piam  praxim  f.  r.  Clemens  XIV  litteris  aplicis 
d.  d.  10  lunii  1774  indulgentia  biscentum  dieram  iam  ditavit, 
acquirenda  a  christifidelibus,  qui  memoratis  sabbatis  praefati 
Ordinis  ecclesias  adivissent. 

Porro  quum  tarn  laudabile  exercitium,  nunc  denuo  pro- 
positum,  vehementissimo  cordis  affectu  christifideles  sint  pro- 
sequuti,  ne  huiusmodi  tepescat  pietas,  sed  imo  ferventior  in 
posterum  evadat,  idem  Minister  Generalis  humillimas  preces 
SSmo.  Dno.  Nro.  Pio  PP.  X.  admovit,  ut  christifidelibus,  qui 
singulis  primis  sabbatis,  vel  etiam  dominicis,  baud  interruptis, 
infra  spatium  duodecim  mensium  sacramentali  poenitentia  rite 
expiati  sacraque  mensa  refecti,  sive  precibus,  sive  quoque 
meditationibus  ad  honorem  Virginis  absque  original!  macula 
concepta  aliquamdiu  vacaverint,  simulque  ad  mentum  Sancti- 


l8o  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

tatis  Suae  oraverint,  plenariam  indulgentiam,  defunctis  quoque 
applicabilem,  memoratis  sabbatis  vel  dominicis  lucrandam, 
tribuere  dignaretur. 

Sanctitas  vero  Sua,  votis  Rmi.  P.  Ministri  Generalis  ob- 
secundare  exoptans,  ut  erga  Dei  Matrem  magis  foveatur  fidelium 
religio,  in  omnibus  pro  gratia  iuxta  preces  benigne  annuere 
dignata  est.  Praesenti  in  perpetuum  valituro.  Contrariis 
quibuscumque  non  obstantibus. 

Datum  Romae  e  Secretaria  Sacra  Congregationis  Indul- 
gentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis  praepositae,  die  i  Julii  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Praef. 
L.  ifcS. 

*  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

PRIVILEGE  OF  THE  WAY  OF  THE  OEOSS  IN  NKWL.T- 

ERECTED   CHURCHES 

E   SACRA   CONGREGATIONE   INDULGENTIARUM 

IN  CASU  ECCLESIAE  REAEDIFICATAE  FERE  IN  EODEM  LOCO  ET 
SUB  EODEM  TITULO,  PRIVILEGIUM  VIAE  CRUCIS  TRANSFERTUR 
SINE  NOVA  ERECTIONE 

Fr.  Bonaventura  Marrani,  Ordinis  FF.  Minorum  Procurator 
Generalis,  ab  hac  S.  Congregatione  Indulgentiarum  sequentis 
dubii  solutionem  humiliter  expostulat : 

Ex  Decreto  huius  S.C.  in  una  Leodien,  d.  d.  9  Augusti  1843 
indulgentiae  non  cessant,  si,  destructa  veteri  Ecclesia,  nova 
aedificetur  fere  in  eo  loco,  ubi  vetus  existebat,  et  sub  eodem 
titulo.  Quaeritur  : 

Utrum  praefata  resolutio  applicetur  etiam  Stationibus  S. 
Viae  Crucis  legitime  erectis,  ita  ut  in  casu  Ecclesiae  ex  toto 
reaedificatae  fere  in  eodem  loco  et  sub  eodem  titulo  praeexistens 
privilegium  S.  Viae  Crucis  non  cesset,  si  S.  Via  Crucis,  quae 
in  veteri  Ecclesia  destructa  legitime  erecta  extabat,  salva  sub- 
stantia,  ast  sine  nova  erectione  in  Ecclesiam  reaedificatam, 
prout  dictum  est,  transferatur  ? 

S.  Congregatio  Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis  praeposita, 
audito  Consultorum  voto,  proposito  dubio  respondendum 
mandavit :  Affirmative. 

Datum  Romae  ex  Secretaria  eiusdem  S.C.,  die  7  lunii  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Praef. 
L.  *S. 

%>  DIOMEDES  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 
IOSEPHUS  M.  Cancus.  COSELLI, 


DOCUMENTS  l8l 


BEMOVAt,     Off     A     PABISH     PBIEST 

E  SACRA   CONGREGATIONE    EPISCOPORUM    ET   REGULARIUM 

PONENTE   EMO.    AC   RMO 
CARDINALI    ANDREA   STEINHUBER 

DIE   13   MAII   1904 
BAMBERGEN — TRANSLATIONS 

Confirmatur  remotio  oeconomica  cuiusdam  parochi  inamo- 
vibilis,  ob  illius  gravissima  dissidia  cum  magistratibus  civilibus, 
necnon  et  populi  scandalum,  illiusque  translatio  ad  aliud  bene- 
ficium  simplex. 

In  dioecesi  Herbipolensi,  loannes  N a.  1897  renuntiatus 

est  parochus  cuiusdam  loci,  sed  anno  insequenti  cum  auctorita- 
ticus  civilibus  gravia  habere  coepit  dissidia,  quae  in  dies  magis 
excreverunt  hac  etiam  de  causa,  quod,  iuxta  eges  Bavariae, 
parochiali  muneri  omcium  est  adnexum  regendi  et  inspiciendi 
publicas  scholas  Gubernii  nomine  et  mandato.  Res  itaque  eo 
processerunt  ut  Ordinarius  dioecesanus  postquam  pluries  paco- 
chum  graviter  admonuerit,  tandem  decreto  praesertim  29  Febr. 
1901  renuntiationem  paroeciae  et  optionem  ad  simplex  bene- 
ficium  imposuit.  Sed  quum  parochus  parum  curaret  de  episco- 
pali  decreto,  gravioresque  dissensiones  cum  civili  potestate 
imprudenter  foveret,  Episcopus  iterum  decreto  15  Martii  1901 
praescriptam  translationem  illi  intra  tres  dies  sub  poena 
remotionis  a  paroecia  implendam  iussit ;  addita  insuper  prima 
monitione  canonica  ob  neglectum  praeceptum  petendi  aliud 
beneficium  simplex. 

Parochus  loannes  N . . . .  ad  Archiepiscopum  Bambergensem 
ab  hoc  decreto  appellavit,  qui  tamen  die  31  Octobris  1901  sen- 
tentiam  Episcopi  Herbipolensis  plene  confirmavit.  Tune  paro- 
chus, posthabito  iure  provocandi  in  tertia  instantia  apud  tertium 
Bavariae  Episcopum  a  Nuntio  Apostolico  eligendum  vigore 
privilegii  a  Pio  IX  per  Breve  Nemo  ignorat  concessi,  maluit 
supremo  Sedis  Apostolicae  iudicio  sistere. 

Ad  sustinenda  iura  sua,  praedictus  parochus  loannes  N. 
contendit  iniuste  canonicam  monitionem  ab  Ordinario  sibi  fuisse 
inflictam.  In  decreto  enim  29  Febr.  1901  nullum  praeceptum 
continebatur,  sed  merum  Episcopi  desiderium  quoad  paroeciae 
renuntiationem.  Hinc,  quum  nemo  teneatur  propriis  iuribus 
valedicere  ad  votum  superioris  implendum,  parochiali  beneficio 
non  valedixit ;  eo  vel  magis  quod  in  Episcopi  decreto  nulla  suae 


1 82  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

decisionis  ratio  afferebatur.  Insuper  addit  contra  canonicas 
sanctiones  et  praecipue  contra  Cone.  Trid.  (Sess.  21,  c.  6  de 
Reform.)  militare  impositam  sibi  a  paroecia  amotionem  ; 
utpote  quod  Episcopus  veram  rerum  cognitionem  nee  habuit, 
nee  habere  voluit,  quum  et  testes  audire  et  inquisitionem  pera- 
gere  neglexisset.  De  caetero  dissidium  cum  laica  auctoritate, 
de  quo  ipsa  tantum  est  iudex  competens,  non  est  ratio  sufficiens 
ut  Episcopus  parochum  inamovibilem  destituere  possit. 

At  ex  adverse,  Archiepiscopus  Bambergensis  animadvertit 
Episcopum  Herbipolensem,  nee  in  procedendo,  nee  in  iudicando 
minime  errasse.  Non  erravit  in  procedendo  :  turn  quia  Epis- 
copus est  incompetens  in  iudicandis  dissidiis  exortis  parochum 
tamquam  Inspectorem  scholasticum  inter  et  civiles  magistrate, 
quod  ad  Gubernium  pertinet ;  turn  quia  accusationes  adversus 
parochum  prolatae  et  per  ipsius  rei  conf essionem  et  per  publicam 
notorietatem  satis  in  propatulo  erant,  quin  opus  esset  testes 
audiendi  atque  inquisitionem  instituendi  canonicam.  Sed  neque 
Episcopus  erravit  in  iudicando  :  turn  quia  parochus  in  morali 
impossibilitate  versabatur  absque  gravi  fidelium  scandalo, 
fungendi  munere  parochiali  ob  notissima  dissidia,  turn  quia  in 
potestate  Ordinarii  est  ut  decreta  vim  rei  iudicatae  habentia 
monitione  canonica  urgeat,  et  tandem  executioni  tradat.  Hinc 
ad 

DUBIUM 

An  et  quomodo  sit  confirmandum  decretum  Rmi.  Archiepiscopi 
Bambergen.  in  casu  ? 

Responsum  fuit  :  Decretum  esse  confirmandum. 

1NDULT  GRANTING  PERMISSION  TO  SECULAR  PRIESTS  OP 
THE  THIRD  ORDER  OF  ST.  FRANCIS  TO  SAY  A  VOTIVE 
MASS  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION  ON  SATURDAYS 

ET    SACRA  CONGREGATIONE   RITUUM 

INDULTUM    PRO    SACERDOTIBUS    SAECULARIBUS    III,    ORD.    S.    FR. 
DICENDI  MISSAM  VOTIVAM  DE  IMM.   SINGULIS  SABBATIS 

Cupiens  Reverendissimus  Pater  Frater  Bonaventura  Marrani, 
Procurator  Generalis  Ordinis  Minorum,  ut  cultus  erga  Imm. 
Deiparae  Virginis  Conceptionem  magis  magisque  augeatur, 
atque  omnis  controversia  tollatur  circa  Missam  votivam  de 
eadem  Imm.  Cone,  ex  Apostolicae  Sedis  Indulto  concessam 
Franciscalibus  Familiis,  a  Sanctissimo  Domino  Nostro  Pio 
Papa  X  humillimis  precibus  flagitavit : 


DOCUMENTS  183 


I.  Ut  Sacerdotes  etiam  saeculares,  Tertio  Ordini  Sancti 
Francisci  adscripti,  qui  Kalendario  Romano-Seraphico  utuntur, 
quoties  vel  in  private  Oratorio  vel  in  Ecclesiis  trium  Ordinum 
Sancti  Francisci  Sacrum  faciant,  singulis  per  annum  Sabbatis 
Missam  votivam  de  Immaculata  Beatae  Mariae  Virginis  Con- 
ceptione  legere  valeant,  prouti  Alumnis  vel  Cappellanis  trium 
Ordinum  Regularium  permittitur ;  quemadmodum  nempe 
Sacerdotibus  Tertii  Ordinis  Praedicatorum  conceditur  Feria 
IV  et  Sabbato  per  annum,  etiam  Festo  duplici  minori  ac  maiori 
impeditis,  Missam  Sanctissmi  Rosarii  '  Salve  radix '  iisdem  in 
casibus  celebrare.1 

II.  Ut  Sacerdotes  e  primo  ac  Tertio  Ordine  Regulari  Sancti 
Francisci  Sacrum  facturi  in  Oratoriis  privatis  extra  Coenobium 
positis,  sicuti  Kalendarium  Romano-Seraphicum  possunt  ac 
debent  adhibere,  ita  valeant  Missam  votivam  de  Immaculata 
Beatae  Mariae  Virginis  Conceptione  celebrare,  prouti  in  Ecclesiis 
ipsius  Ordinis  conceditur ;  ne  secus,  ac  praesertim  Religiosi 
extra  Coenobium  rem  divinam  oblaturi  eodem  uti  privilegio 
impediantur,  ipsis  admodum  salutari. 

Sanctitas  porro  Sua,  referente  infrascripto  Cardinal!  Sac- 
rorum  Rituum  Congregationi  Pro-Praefecto,  benigne  annuere 
dignata  est  pro  gratia  iuxta  preces  :  servatis  Rubricis.  Con- 
tariis  non  obstantibus  quibuscumque. 

Die  22  Martii  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.  *S. 

&  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

APPOINTMENT     OF     CONFESSORS     OF     NUNS 
B    SACRA    CONGREGATIONE      BPISCOPORUM      ET  RBGULARIUM 

CIRCA  DESIGNATIONEM  CONFESSARII  PRO  MONASTERIIS  MONIALIUM 

ET  SORORUM 

Petrus  Gonzales  et  Estrada  Episcopus  S.  Christophon  de 
Habana,  omne  illicitum  vitare  cupiens,  a  Sacra  Episcoporum 
et  Regularium  Congregatione  sequentium  dubiorum  solutionem 
humillime  postulat ;  nimirum  : 

I.  An  Episcopus  licite  valeat  confessarium  ordinarium  monia- 

1  Indultum  praesens  valet  etiam  de  Ecclesiis  ad  Tertium  Ordinem 
saecularem  Sancti  Patris  Nostri  Francisci  reapse  pertinentibus,  si  in  eis 
Kalendarium  Romano-Seraphicum  observetur,  etiamque  vim  habet  pro  Vigilia 
proque  Integra  Octava  Immaculatae  Conceptionis. 


184  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Hum  unius  Monasterii  pro  alius  Monasterii  monialium  ordinario 
confessario  designare  ? — Et  quatenus  negative, 

II.  An  Episcopus  confessarium  ordinarium  monialium  unius 
Monasterii  ad  munus  ordinarii  confessarii  sororum  votorum  sim- 
plicium  eligere  queat  ? — Et  quatenus  negative, 

III.  Utrum  Episcopus  unum  confessarium  ordinarium  pro 
duabus  Communitatibus  Sororum  possit  licite  deputare  ? 

IV.  An  prohibitum  sit  Regularibus  confessarios  ordinaries 
sororum   votorum  simplicium  esse,   sicut  pro  monialibus  eis 
vetitum  est  ? 

Et  Sacra  Congregatio  Erum.  ac  Rrum.  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalium 
Negotiis  et  Consultationibus  Episcoporum  et  Regularium  prae- 
positae,  omnibus  sedulo  perpensis,  respondendum  esse  censuit* 
prout  respondet : 

Ad  I.  Affirmative. 

Ad  II  et  III.  Provisum  in  primo. 

Ad  IV.  Affirmative. 

Romae,  die  i  Septembris  1905. 

D.  Card.  FERRATA,  Praef. 
L.  *  S. 

PHILIPPUS  GIUSTINI,  Secretariat. 

POPE     PITTS     X    AND     THE     GERMAN     CATHOLICS 

EX   ACT1S   SUMMI    PONTIFICIS   ET  E    SECRETAR.    BREVIUM 

PIUS  X  CEMMENDAT  CATHOLICORUM  GERMANORUM  LII  CONVENTUM, 

MOX    ARGENTORATI    COGENDUM 

Dilecto    Filio    Burguburn,    ac    Praesidi   coetus    Conventui   LII 

Catholicorum  Germaniae  apparando,  Argentoratum. 
Dilecte  Fili,  salutem  et  Apostolicam  benedictionem. 

Habiti  quotannis  coetus  catholicorum  Germaniae  in  earn 
Nos  opinionem  adduci  quotidie  magis  iusserunt,  congressiones 
easdem,  quo  plures  numero  de  successione  recensentur,  eo  etiam 
digniores  et  prae  se  ferre  apparatus  et  edere  fructus.  Huius 
sane  solatium  rei  communes  nunc  confirmavere  litterae,  Nobis 
a  te  datae  atque  a  praesidibus  caeteris,  quum  proximo  ador- 
nando  coetui  studeretis  :  vestrarum  enim  curarum  ea  potissima 
fuit,  aperire  ex  ordine  omnia  quaecumque  erunt  disceptanda 
congressui,  sensusque  declarare  simul,  quorum  ductu  convenietis. 
Neque  modica  ista  est  Nobis  gaudendi,  et  gratulandi  opportu- 
nitas  :  quid  enim  quam  fecundam  Germanorum  alacritatem 
expetere  possimus  amplius  ad  inserendam  propagandamque 


DOCUMENTS  185 


religionem  ?  Causae  equidem  in  disputatione  versabuntur  graves 
salubresque,  atque  eaedem  admultiplicem  christianae  vitae 
necessitatem  peridoneae.  Nam  quibus  maxime,  pro  conditione 
temporum  expediat  viis  fidei  nostrae  et  Apostolicae  Sedis  cultum 
provehere,  proximorum  sententias,  catholica  praelucente  doc- 
trina,  humane  ac  rite  vereri,  expeditiones  adiuvare  sacras,  in- 
tegritati  morum  prospicere,  tenuium  fortunam  sublevare,  locu- 
pletum  alere  inopumque  amicam  conspirationem,  sacri  denique 
civilisque  principatus  concordiae  consulere,  in  hisce,  quemad- 
modum  nunciasti,  maximi  momenti  rebus  vestra  debet  se  pru- 
dentia  probare.  Quod  autem  decretum  vobis  sit  accedere  ad 
disserendum  eo  animo,  ut  hinc  Nostra  Decessorisque  Nostri 
Leonis  XIII  fel.  rec.  prae  oculis  documenta  habeatis,  inde 
hortamenta  Pauli  deducatis  ad  usum,  qui  spiritu  actus  ac  re. 
pletus  Dei,  omnia  nostra  iussit  in  charitate  fieri,  vehementis 
haec  Nobis  origo  voluptatis  est ;  compertum  namque  et  explo- 
ratum  habemus  quam  multum  emolumenti  consueverint  qui  haec 
sequi  lumina  et  praecepta  studeant,  e  collatis  consiliis  percipere. 
Nee  minus  oblecta  coire  vos  in  civitatem  nobilem,  antiquam  et 
piam  ;  cui  gloriae  est  in  Episcopatu  Romano  Pontificem  dedisse 
insignem,  et  coelo  Sanctissimam  peperisse  sobolem,  et  artibus 
monumenta  illustria  suppeditasse.  Spem  ideo  firmam  fovemus, 
auspiciis  Praesulis  Argentinensis  vestraque  diligentia  prosperam 
apparando  felicemque  celebrando  coetui  debere  operam  impendi- 
Quoniam  vero  a  summae  clementiae  Deo,  quippe  ipse  est  consilii 
boni  largitor,  implorandam  censetis  in  primis  opem,  eius  in  vos 
atque  in  labores  vestros  devocamus  ardentes  gratiam,  testemque 
votorum  animi  Nostri  Apostolicam  benedictionem  turn  vobis 
praesidibus,  turn  singulis  e  conventu  sodalibus  peramanter  in 
Domino  impertimus. 

Datum  Romae,  die  14  Augusti  1905. 

PIUS  PP.  X. 


186 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 

THE  LIFE  OF  GRANVILLE  GEORGE  LEVESON  GOWER.  Second 
Earl  of  Granville,  K.G.  1815-1891.  By  Lord  Edmond 
Fitzmaurice.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1905.  2  vols. 
8vo.  305.  net. 

THE  Life  of  Lord  Granville  has  been  pronounced  by  English 
reviewers  one  of  the  most  important  that  has  appeared 
in  recent  times  on  account  of  the  letters  and  memoranda  of 
Queen  Victoria  which  it  makes  public  for  the  first  time.  It 
is,  no  doubt,  very  interesting  to  notice  the  vigorous  style 
in  which  her  late  Majesty  knocked  some  of  her  Ministers  on 
the  knuckles,  and  the  almost  unmeasured  language  in  which 
she  denounced  others,  expressing  a  hope  that  some  means 
would  be  found  of  letting  them  know  what  she  thought  of 
them. 

But  for  Irish  readers  there  are  chapters  of  this  work,  that 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Queen,  still  more  interesting  and 
important.  The  most  prominent  is  the  chapter  on  '  Ireland ' 
in  the  second  volume,  and  the  chapter  on  '  Home  Rule.' 

In  the  former  of  these  we  get  the  whole  story  of  the 
Errington  mission  to  Rome  in  1882,  and  a  great  insight  into 
the  intrigues  and  manoeuvres  by  which  it  was  surrounded. 
Letters  from  Lord  Granville  to  Lord  Emly,  from  Sir  William 
Harcourt  to  Lord  Granville,  frcm  Lord  Granville  to  Lord 
Spencer,  etc.,  throw  a  flood  of  light  on  the  whole  affair.  The 
part  played  by  Lord  O'Hagan,  Lady  Herbert,  Sir  Augustus 
Paget,  and  others  is  referred  to.  The  informal,  credentials 
given  by  Lord  Granville  to  Mr.  Errington  are  set  forth.  The 
following  passage  in  a  letter  from  Lord  Granville  to  Mr. 
Gladstone  will  give  an  idea  of  the  interest  of  the  chapter  :  — 

'  I  have  received  a  letter  from  Errington  complaining  that 
his  nose  was  out  of  joint  in  consequence  of  the  attitude  Manning 
was  taking,  strongly  criticising  the  Pope's  Irish  policy,  which 
the  Cardinal  said  was  alienating  the  Catholic  population,  and 
advising  the  Pope  to^send  a  letter  of  thanks  to  Archbishop 
Croke.' 

Anyone  who  wishes  to  present  to  the  public  a  faithful  account 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  187 

of  the  events  of  those  days,  or  to  learn  them  accurately  for 
himself,  must  read  this  book.  It  cannot  be  done  without. 
Lord  Granville  was  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  during  that 
time.  He  had  his  hand  at  the  helm,  and  in  all  foreign  negotia- 
tions it  was  he  who  set  the  machinery  going. 

History  is  now  being  made  on  all  this  period.  The  bio- 
graphies of  Mr.  W.  H.  Forster,  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  Lord  Granville, 
Lord  Randolph  Churchill,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  recently 
published  works  of  Mr.  Davitt1  and  Mr.  O'Brien*  on  the  other, 
are  forming  public  opinion  on  these  events.  Several  of  them 
make  opposite  charges  against  the  clergy  of  Ireland.  The 
English  writers  accuse  them  of  complicity  in  revolution  and 
injustice,  Mr.  Davitt  of  subservient  and  slavish  cowardice  and 
incompetence.  The  clergy  require  a  champion.  Exoriare 
aliquis  I 

The  chapter  on  '  Home  Rule '  is  sad  reading  for  Irishmen  ; 
for  when  the  idea  of  self-government  first  began  to  be  enter- 
tained, the  interests  of  Ireland  were  like  a  game  of  chance 
in  the  hands  of  British  statesmen.  It  was  a  toss  up  with  many 
of  them,  as  we  clearly  see  from  the  evidence  of  this  biography, 
as  to  whether  Ireland  was  to  have  Home  Rule  or  Coercion  or, 
nothing  at  all. 

Altogether  we  commend  the  perusal  of  this  work  to  our 
readers.  It  will  help  them  to  form  a  juster  estimate  of  past 
events,  and  to  shape  their  future  conduct  by  enlightened 
experience.  J.  F.  H. 

A  SHORT  GRAMMAR  OF  CLASSICAL  GREEK.  By  Adolf 
Kaegi.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Rev.  J.  A. 
Kleist,  S.J.  St.  Louis.  Mo.:  B.  Herder,  17  South 
Broadway. 

ACCORDING  to  the  prevailing  English  standard,  proficiency 
in  the  classics  is  measured  by  one's  ability  to  solve  what  may 
be  termed  the  equation  of  idiom.  A  piece  of  English  prose, 
thoroughly  reflective,  in  all  its  finer  shades,  of  the  English 
mind,  is  selected  as  a  test  of  scholarship  for  translation  into 
Greek  or  Latin.  Each  sentence  is  carefully  examined  and  is 
found,  as  a  rule,  to  draw  its  strength  mainly  from  its  use  of 

1  The  Fall  of  Feudalism  in  Ireland,  by  Michael  Davitt. 
1  Recollections  of  William  O'Brien,  M.P. 


l88  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

prepositions,  its  beauty  from  the  epithet  or  the  literary  refer- 
ence or  the  half-formed  metre,  so  often  hidden  from  the  author 
himself.  The  essence  of  the  passage  must  be  represented  in 
the  classical  language,  and  an  equivalent  for  each  accident 
must  be  sought  out,  so  that  the  version  may  produce  upon  its 
readers  all  the  effects  of  the  original.  Such  a  version  is  accepted 
as  a  proof  of  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  classical  and  the 
modern  mind. 

In  Germany,  less  time  is  devoted  to  composition  and  more 
to  reading,  with  the  result  that  the  German  boy  in  an  advanced 
class  reads  Homer  or  Thucydides  with  much  greater  ease  than 
an  English-trained  boy  of  the  same  age  and  ability.  Com- 
position is  not  looked  on  as  an  end,  but  as  a  means.  This 
explains  at  once  the  scope  and  object  of  Kaegi's  Short  Greek 
Grammar.  It  contains  the  essentials  of  grammar  for  school 
purposes.  All  else  is  suppressed  or  relegated  to  small  print. 
Thus,  within  the  compass  of  two  hundred  pages,  the  young 
scholar  finds  all  the  forms  and  laws  which  he  should  know 
before  attempting  an  author. 

The  book  is  well  printed  and  thoroughly  up  to  date.  In 
the  latter  respect,  it  is  more  reliable  than  Goodwin.  This, 
however,  may  not  be  regarded  by  some  teachers  as  an  advantage. 
It  seems  strange  that  many,  through  a  spirit  of  conservatism, 
adhere  jealously  to  forms  and  derivations  which  often  enough 
have  been  rejected  by  the  very  men  on  whose  authority  they 
depend.  The  chief  defect  in  the  book  is  the  use  of  spaced 
instead  of  large  leaded  type  in  the  declensions.  The  price  is 
not  stated. 

The  translator  refers  in  his  preface  to  the  Exercises  which 
accompany  Kaegi's  Grammar.  We  should  be  glad  of  an  oppor- 
tunity of  noticing  them.  If  he  has  translated  them  as  carefully 
as  he  has  translated  the  Grammar,  they  should  be  very  useful. 

M.  S. 

A  HISTORY  OF  MODERN   ENGLAND.    By  Herbert   Paul. 

Vol.  iv.  8vo.  8s.  6d.  London  :  Macmillan  &  Co. 
THE  fourth  volume  of  Mr.  Herbert  Paul's  history  brings 
us  from  1875  to  1885.  The  most  interesting  chapters  in  it 
for  Irish  readers  are  those  on  '  The  Irish  Revolution '  and 
'  Lord  Spencer's  Task.'  Mr.  Paul  is,  in  many  respects,  friendly 
to  Ireland ;  but  his  superior  and  absurdly  arrogant  method 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  189 

of  pronouncing  dogmatic  judgments  is  trying  to  the  patience. 
With  the  substance  of  his  homilies  we  have  but  little  fault  to 
find.  It  is  the  form  that  is  irritating.  Apart  from  this  uniform 
defect,  this  volume  is  marked  by  the  same  brilliant  qualities 
as  the  proceeding  ones.  When  the  fifth  and  last  volume  appears 
Mr.  Herbert  Paul  will  have  accomplished  a  great  work,  and 
will  deserve  to  rank  amongst  the  first  historians  of  his  time. 

J.  F.  H. 

KYRIALE  SEU  ORDINARIUM  MISSAE  cum  Cantu  Gregoriano 
ad  exemplar  editionis  Vaticanae  concinnatum  et 
rhythmicis  signis  a  Solesmensibus  Monachis  diligenter 
ornatum.  No.  636.  Rome  et  Tournai  :  Descle"e, 
Lefebvre  et  Cie. 

KYRIALE  SEU  ORDINARIUM  MISSAE  juxta  editionem  Vati- 
canama  SS.  PP.  PioX.,  evulgatam.  Ratisbon  :  Pustet. 

KYRIALE  SIVE  ORDINARIUM  MISSAE  conforme  edition! 
Vaticanae  a  SS.  D.  N.  Pio  PP.  X.,  evulgatae.  Editio 
Schwann.  A.  Duesseldorf :  L.  Schwann. 

THERE  are  quite  a  number  of  publications  containing  the 
reprint  of  the  Vatican  Kyriale.  It  seems  that  the  publishers 
have  come  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  price,  for  what  may  be 
called  their  normal  edition  costs  in  each  case,  bound,  one 
shilling.  We  have  before  us  three  of  these  editions,  Pustet's, 
Schwann's,  and  DescleVs.  Descl£es,  however,  is  not  their 
normal  edition,  but  a  smaller  one — in  the  size  of  the  Liber 
Usualis.  Moreover,  it  has  the  rhythmical  signs  employed  in 
the  last-named  book,  namely,  the  prolongation  dot  and  the 
Episema.  In  addition,  we  find  a  new  sign  for  the  Strophicus, 
imitating  the  comma-like  shape  of  the  sign  in  the  earlier  MSS. 
We  think  this  is  a  decided  improvement,  as  evidently  the  Stro- 
phicus has  a  special  significance  in  the  neumatic  notation.  For 
the  rest,  this  new  edition  has  the  same  pleasing  and  quiet  forms 
as  the  earlier  editions  of  Messrs.  Desclde. 

Pustet  has  notes  of  a  different  shape.  They  are  slightly 
convex  both  above  and  below,  which  makes  the  angles  very 
sharp,  and  gives  a  very  lively  appearance  to  the  page.  The 
print  shows  the  usual  clearness  of  Pustet's  publications.  Schwann 
seems  to  have  the  largest  type  of  all.  In  shape  it  is  like 


1 90  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

DescleVs,  but  the  curvature  is  a  little  more  pronounced.  The 
page  looks  rather  black,  and  would  probably  be  improved,  if 
the  margin  was  left  a  little  wider.  His  paper  is  very  good,  and 
the  ornaments  are  in  excellent  style. 

H.  B. 

THE  LIFE  OF  SIR  JOHN  T.  GILBERT.    By  his  Wife,  Rosa 
Mulholland  Gilbert.   Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1905. 

FEW  men  of  the  last  generation  have  deserved  better  of  the 
Irish  people  than  the  subject  of  this  volume — Sir  John  Gilbert. 
By  his  researches  on  the  Irish  Records  he  led  the  way  in  a  work 
that  up  to  his  time  had  been  almost  entirely  neglected  and  his  pub- 
lications gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  investigation  of  Irish  History. 
A  glance  at  the  bibliography  of  his  works  in  Appendix  XV  of 
the  present  volume  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  work 
which  he  accomplished,  but  only  a  thorough  study  of  the  volumes 
themselves  can  lead  to  an  understanding  of  the  amount  of 
labour  which  their  publication  must  have  involved. 

His  History  of  the  City  of  Dublin,  A  Contemporary  History 
of  Affairs  in  Ireland  from  1641-1652,  The  History  of  the  Irish 
Confederates,  are  already  well  known  to  the  general  reader, 
but  these  represent  only  a  small  portion  of  his  notable  contri- 
butions to  the  history  of  Ireland. 

The  gifted  authoress  has  done  her  work  well.  She  gives  a 
fine  sketch  of  the  life  of  her  late  husband  ;  and,  what  is  better 
still,  she  includes  his  correspondence  with  the  leading  men  of 
his  time.  Many  of  the  letters  contain  much  information  of  an 
out-of-the-way  character,  and  all  of  them  are  exceedingly 
interesting. 

The  book  has  already  received  a  warm  welcome  not  only 
from  the  Irish  public,  but  in  every  quarter  where  the  name  of 
Sir  John  Gilbert  was  known.  It  deserves  such  a  welcome, 
and  we  can  confidently  recommend  it  to  our  readers  as  a  book 

well  worth  careful  perusal. 

J.   MACC. 

L'HISTOIRE    DU   CONCORDAT  DE  1801.     Par  L'Abbe  Em. 

SeVestre.     Paris:  Libraire  de  P.  Lethielleux. 
AT  the  present  time  when  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State  in  France  has  been  decreed,  this  volume  of  M.  l'Abb£ 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  I91 

SeVestre  is  very  opportune.  Chapters  I  and  II  deal  with  the 
negotiation  and  ratification  of  the  Concordat  in  Rome  and  in 
Paris.  Chapters  III  and  IV  give  a  detailed  account  of  its 
application  under  the  different  governments  from  the  year 
1802  to  the  fall  of  the  Second  Empire,  1870.  The  sixth  chapter 
deals  with  the  Third  Republic  and  the  Concordat.  The  seventh 
chapter  gives  a  good  account  of  the  actual  debates  on  the 
denunciation  of  the  Concordat  from  1900  to  1905. 

The  second  part  of  the  volume  deals  with  the  text  of  the 
Concordat,  and  is  one  of  the  best  commentaries  on  this  famous 
document  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  compares  the 
French  Concordat  with  similar  agreements  between  Rome  and 
other  countries  ;  and  also  with  the  Organic  articles,  showing 
how  these  latter  restricted  the  guaranteed  liberty  of  the  Church. 
The  third  part  deals  with  the  relations  which  should  exist  between 
the  Church  and  the  State,  and  gives  a  splendid  account  of  the 
opinions  of  those  opposed  to  the  Concordat.  In  an  Appendix 
all  the  documents  upon  which  the  author  relies  are  given  in  full. 

At  the  present  time,  when  the  Church  in  France  is  the  subject 
of  such  discussions,  we  know  of  no  book  which  we  could  more 
heartily  recommend. 

J.  MACC. 

DIRECTOIRE  CANONIQUE  A  L' USAGE  DES  CONGREGATIONS  A 
VCEUX  SIMPLES.  Dom  Pierre  Bastien,  O.S.B.  Maredsous 
1904. 

THERE  has  been  in  recent  times  a  wonderful  multiplication 
and  development  of  these  Congregations.  A  century  ago  only 
a  few  were  in  existence,  now  they  are  remarkably  numerous. 
But  more  impressive  even  than  the  sight  of  so  many  religious 
institutions  is  the  magnitude  and  the  variety  of  the  works 
which  these  Congregations  perform.  The  result  is,  that  their 
respective  vocations  have  created  the  need  of  large  additions 
to  Canon  Law.  Year  after  year  important  decrees  regarding 
religious  with  simple  vows  have  been  issued.  People  behold 
the  Congregations  spreading  in  all  directions  and  doing  good 
everywhere,  while  all  the  time  Rome  has  been  indicating  the 
ways  and  means  by  which  this  success  has  been  attained.  To 
anyone,  however,  who  is  not  a  specialist  in  ecclesiastical  legis- 
lation, it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  ~to  know  all  those 


IQ2  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

decrees  and  constitutions.  The  work  of  Dom  Bastien  explains 
them  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner.  Of  course  particular 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  far-reaching  Constitution  of  Leo 
XIII,  Conditae  a  Christo,  and  to  the  Normae,  published  by 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  The  decree 
Quemadmodum  regarding  frequent  Communion,  etc.,  and  the 
commentary  written  on  the  decree  by  Cardinal  Gennari,  one  of 
the  ablest  canonists  in  Rome,  will  also  be  of  great  use  to  con- 
fessors of  religious  communities.  Priests  and  nuns  that  desire 
to  get  reliable  information  about  the  laws  regarding  novitiates, 
the  nature  and  obligation  of  vows,  the  power  of  superiors,  the 
authority  of  bishops,  etc.,  will  find  it  in  this  admirable  Directoire 
Canonique,  which  has  been  honoured  with  a  letter  of  approval 
by  the  Cardinal  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars. 

J.  C. 

CATHOLIC  TRUTH  SOCIETY  PUBLICATIONS 

THE  English  '  Catholic  Truth  Society '  continues  its  good 
work  with  unabated  zeal.  We  congratulate  Mr.  Britten  and  his 
colleagues  on  the  recent  additions  to  their  valuable  store  of 
books.  Amongst  these  the  more  important  are  two  volumes, 
entitled  Paying  the  Price  and  other  Stories,  by  Father  David 
Beanie,  S.J.  ;  The  Education  Question,  by  His  Grace  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Westminster,  Dr.  Windle,  and  others  ;  Thoughts  for 
Creedless  Women,  by  Emily  Hickey ;  St.  Hildegarde  the  Pro- 
phetess ;  St.  Ethelburga  ;  Catholic  Answers  to  Protestant  Charges, 
by  G.  Elliot  Anstruther ;  To  Have  and  to  Hold,  by  M.  S.  Dalton ; 
Spiritual  Counsels  from  the  Letters  of  Fenelon,  by  Lady  Amabel 
Ker ;  Simple  Meditations  on  the  Life  of  Our  Lord,  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Oswald  Smith,  Abbot  of  Ampleforth,*[etc. 


Ut  Chri*ti**i  it*  ft  Kontani sffis.''     "  As  you  are  children  of  Omit,  so  ba  you  children  of  Rome." 
Ex  Did  is  S.  Patricii.  /»  Libra  Armacano,  foL  <). 

The  Irish 
icclesiastical    Record 

$t0ntf)lg  Journal,  tmter  (Episcopal  Sanction. 

C&i'ttgmmtfj  ^«at  1  TvyrAD^u     T   «A  f  J0uctf»  Sttiw. 

XT  1V1  r\  Jx  w  JTT  •    IQOOi  i       trni     VTV 

No.  459.         J  '      "  L    Vol.  AIA. 


Thoughts  on  Philosophy  and  Religion, 

Rev.  P.  Coffey,  D.Ph.^  Maynooth  College. 
Catechism. 

F«ry  ./ttev.  Patrick,  Boyle,  C.M.,  President,  Irish  College ;  Paris. 

Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart, 

Rev.  D.  Dinneen,  D.D.,  Youghal. 

The  Decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  and  some  Questions 
about  the  Mass. 

Rev.  Daniel  Coghlant  D.Dt)  Maynooth  College. 

General  Notes. 

Cardinal  Perraud.    Social  Action  of  the  Italian  Clergy,    New  Statistics. 

The  Editor. 
Notes  and  Queries. 

THEOLOGY.  Rev.  J.  M.  Harty,  Maynooth  College. 

Advent  Fast.  The  Fast  and  the  Use  of  Porridgre.  The  Use  of  Milk  on  Fast  Days. 
Delegated  Jurisdiction  to  hear  Confessions  outside  the  Territory  of  the  Delegating; 
Authority. 

LITURGY.  Rev.  Patrick  Morrisroe,  Maynooth  College. 

Questions  about  Baptism,  Blessed  Eucharist,  Scapulars.     Blessing  of  Children. 

Documents. 

Bequests  for  Masses— Decision  ot  Court  of  Appeal.  Indulgences  for  the  Franciscan 
Rosary. 

Notices  of  Books. 

Life  of  St.  Alphonsus  de' Lipfuori.  The  Truth  of  Christianity.  Addresses  to  Cardinal 
Newman  with  his  Replies.  Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  The  Spirit 


of  Sacrifice  and  the  Lite  of  Sa.-.rifice  in  the  Religious  State.  Shinn 
ad  Modam  Commentarii  in  Aquinatis  Suinmae.  Fr,  Deniile,  O.P. 
script  of  St.  Patrick's  Latin  Writings, 


ia  Theologica 
Paris  Maim- 


Nihil  Obstat.  RRfYWTJF    &• 

GIRALDUS  MOLLOY,  s.T.D.  DI^^WINXl    CC 
Censor  Defr 

tmpnmi  $otrst.  Publishers  and  Printers,  24  &  25 

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HIGH  GLASS  CLERICAL  TAILORING 

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THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION 


PHILOSOPHY  is,  I  fear,  not  quite  a  popular  study 
in  our  Colleges  and  Universities  in  recent  years. 
The  Physical  Sciences,  with  their    wonderful  dis- 
coveries and  captivating  theories,  hold  out  greater 
attractions  to  the  youthful    mind,   while  the  traditional 
method  of  teaching  Philosophy  has  rendered  it  anything  but 
attractive  to  the  unfortunate  beginner.     Its  real  attractions 
have  been  hidden  away  under  a  hard  and  repulsive-looking 
crust  of  half-Latin,  half-English  terminology,  beyond  which 
few  have  the  perseverance  to  penetrate,  and  which  none 
appear  to    have    the  courage  to  modify,  or,  mayhap,  to 
demolish. 

Perhaps  as  a  consequence  of  this,  Philosophy  has  been 
very  much  misunderstood  and  very  much  discredited, 
even  by  those  who,  in  other  circumstances,  would 
have  been  the  first  to  appreciate  it.  No  other  science 
has  suffered  from  so  many  misconceptions ;  and  that 
in  the  minds  of  Catholics  no  less  than  in  the  minds 
of  non-Catholics.  Many  a  smile  is  still  provoked  at 
the  mention  of  the  word  '  Metaphysics '  ;  and  those 
smiles  are  directed  at  the  thing  that  the  word  is  popularly 
supposed  to  mean,  namely  :  *  a  wild  dance  of  unintelligible 
speculations  in  the  air.'2  A  Scotchman  is  said  to  have 

1  Being  in  substance  a  Paper  read  before  the  Students'  Literary  Society, 
Maynooth  College. 

2  Rickaby's  General  Metaphysics  (Stonyhurst  Series),  preface,  p.  iv. 

FOURTH  SERIES,  VOL.  XIX. — MARCH,  IQO6.  N 


IQ4  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

defined  Metaphysics  in  the  following  way  :  '  When  the 
lad  that's  listnin'  doesn't  understand  what  the  lad  that's 
talkin'  is  sayin',  and  the  lad  that's  talkin'  doesn't  under- 
stand what  he's  sayin'  himself  :  that's  Metaphysics.'  The 
rebuke,  with  its  grim  humour,  is  not  wholly  undeserved. 
Something  like  that  is  what  certainly  does  often  pass  for 
Metaphysics.  Only  the  rebuke  falls  not  upon  Philosophy 
itself,  but  upon  the  heads  of  those,  in  all  ages,  who  have 
claimed  to  be  its  guardians  and  exponents. 

In  English-speaking  countries  the  cultivation  of  that 
vague  department  of  human  speculation  called  '  Modern 
Philosophy '  is  the  pursuit  of  the  comparative  few  :  to  the 
vast  majority  it  is  practically  unmeaning,  if  not  indeed 
positively  distasteful.  The  speculative  philosophers  are 
a  class  apart, — select  if  you  will,  but  dilettante, — without 
any  apparent  point  of  contact  with  the  lives  and  hopes 
of  the  people,  without  any  message  of  joy,  or  any  voice 
of  sympathy  for  the  sufferings  of  the  masses.  I  speak 
now  of  non-Catholic  Modern  Philosophy ;  and  what  I 
have  just  said  applies  to  Continental,  and  especially  to 
German,  as  well  as  to  English  Modern  Philosophy. 

Now,  why  has  all  this  Modern  Philosophy  gone  so  much 
adrift,  escaping  the  grasp  of  '  the  people '  ?  Why  has  it 
become  the  monopoly  of  '  the  few  '  and  grown  so  barren 
of  useful  fruit  for  the  hungering  minds  of  men  ?  Have 
its  disciples  made  good  its  fair  promises  of  wisdom  that 
they  should  not  be  called  to  account  ?  I  fear  they  have 
not,  and  I  think  the  reasons  are  not  far  to  seek.  These 
are  many  and  various,  no  doubt  ;  but  they  can  be  fairly 
summed  up  in  the  formula  that  Philosophy,  in  modern 
hands,  has  become  very  unreal.  Now  Reality  is  Truth, 
and  in  so  far  forth  as  Philosophy  breaks  with  Reality  it 
breaks  with  Truth.  It  becomes  hollow  and  vain  and 
unintelligible  :  it  ceases  to  have  a  meaning  or  a  message 
for  the  human  mind  and  heart,  and  becomes  a  mere 
empty  formalism. 

Abstraction  is  often  the  ignis  fatuus  of  the  speculative 
philosopher,  and  Unreality  is  the  morass  into  which  it 
lures  him.  Rightly  used,  abstraction  is  the  philosopher's 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       IQ5 

guiding  light ;  for  Philosophy  is  the  interpretation  of  things 
by  thought,  and  thought  is  abstract.  But  then,  too,  if 
thought  is  abstract  things  are  concrete  ;  and  this  is  just 
what  the  philosopher  is  in  danger  of  forgetting.  Uncon- 
sciously almost,  owing  to  his  familiarity  with  abstract 
thought,  he  proceeds  to  substitute  thoughts  for  things, 
and  drifts  complacently  away  into  a  dreamland  of  un- 
intelligibilities.  It  was  a  scholastic,  and  one  of  the  great 
scholastics, — Cardinal  Cajetan1 — who  warned  philosophers 
in  his  day  not  to  talk  m  the  air,  but  to  aim  at  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  real  things  of  the  Universe,  themselves 
of  course  included  ;  and  it  was  Descartes,  the  father  of 
Modern  Philosophy,  who  dreamt  the  delusive  dream  that 
he  could  unlock  the  mysteries  of  Concrete  Nature  by  the 
keys  of  Abstract  Mathematics.  His  attempt  to  replace 
Philosophy  by  a  '  Mathematique  Universelle '  was  doomed 
beforehand  to ( failure.  And  all  the  subsequent  efforts  of 
German  and  other  idealists  to  weave  a  Philosophy  of 
Nature  out  of  their  own  inner  consciousnesses,  were  not 
any  more  successful.  It  is  not  without  some  reason  that 
the  well  known  trilogy  of  German  names — Fichte,  Schelling, 
Hegel — is  given  as  a  reminder  of  the  unintelligible  depths 
that  human  thought  is  sometimes  capable  of  sounding. 

No,  Philosophy  is  not  true  unless  it  sails  close  to  Reality  ; 
and  as  long  as  it  keeps  there,  it  will  at  all  events 
avoid  outrageous  opposition  to  sound  common  sense.  By 
Reality  of  course  I  mean  not  merely  all  material  things. 
I  include  more  than  what  the  senses  become  aware  of  : 
I  mean  all  that  the  whole  mind  can  see  and  know.  And 
by  sound  common  sense  I  do  not  mean  ordinary  super- 
ficial observation,  but  that  more  judicious — and  perhaps, 
therefore,  less  common — use  of  one's  natural  intelligence. 
Those  are  reservations  I  make  ;  and  another  is  as  follows  : 
when  I  insist  that  Philosophy  ought  to  be  real,  and  ought 
to  cling  to  the  facts  of  life,  and  that  therefore  it  should  not 
become  unintelligible,  I  do  not  thereby  imply  that  it  cannot 
be  difficult,  but  must  be  simple  and  easy.  On  the  contrary, 

l  In  II,  Post  Analyt.,  cap.  13. 


196  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

being,  as  it  is,  the  highest,  fullest  and  deepest  human 
interpretation  of  the  totality  of  things,  it  naturally  demands 
the  most  careful  and  earnest  application  of  our  best  reason- 
ing powers.  In  the  preface  of  a  small  volume  on  Philo- 
sophy,1 I  recently  read  the  following  sentence  :  *  No  one 
can  be  a  philosopher  who  is  not  willing  to  think,  and  to 
think  hard,  on  his  own  account ;  no  book  or  teacher  can 
perform  the  operation  for  him.'  That  is  perfectly  true. 
The  book  or  teacher  may  indeed  help  him  to  think  for  him- 
self. They  can  never  do  much  more.  Indeed  they  often 
do  less ;  and  are  sometimes  even  not  so  much  an  aid  as 
an  obstacle  to  straightforward,  logical  thought. 

Now,  the  very  invitation  to  think  for  himself,  should, 
I  imagine,  attract  rather  than  repel  the  student.  And 
no  doubt  it  does  attract  him  ;  for  Philosophy  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  man's  innate  curiosity  to  know.  It  is  that 
questioning  sort  of  wonder  at  the  unexplained,  that 
admiratio  of  which  the  ancients  speak,  that  develops  the 
philosophical  thirst  for  knowledge  :  a  craving  that  finds 
expression  in  the  poet's  line  : — 

Felix  qui  potuit  rerum  cognoscere  causas. 

The  opening  mind  of  youth  feels  itself  borne  onwards  by 
this  natural  impulse  to  search  and  explain  the  unknown. 
In  knowledge  it  recognizes  its  own  power ;  and  by  progress  in 
knowledge  it  realizes  its  own  nobility  in  the  scale  of  created 
things.  Passing  from  the  study  of  external  Nature  to  the 
study  of  man  himself,  the  student  follows  the  selfsame 
mental  march  as  all  individuals  and  races  have  followed 
since  Socrates  told  his  strolling  disciples  to  learn  to  know 
themselves.  And  when  he  has  made  some  headway  in 
this  latter  study  he  will  begin  to  appreciate  the  force  of 
the  aphorism  that  *  'Tis  not  the  height  nor  yet  the  might 
but  the  mind  that  makes  the  man  ; '  if  he  does  not  even 
go  so  far  as  to  say  with  Sir  William  Hamilton  that  *  in 
the  world  there  is  nothing  great  but  man,  and  in  man  there 
is  nothing  great  but  mind  '  ! 

1 A  Brief  Introduction  to  Modern  Philosophy,  by  Arthur  Kenyon  Rogers, 
Ph.D.    NewYcrk:  Macmillan,  1901. 


THOUGHTS  ON   PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION 

Philosophy,  then,  has  its  own  natural  fascination  for 
us   in    spite  of-^or  is  it  because   of  ? — its    own    inherent 
difficulties.     That  there  are  obscurities  in  Philosophy — or 
mysteries  if  you  prefer  the  word — is  only  another  way  of 
saying  that   our  little   minds   are  limited.     Now,  it  may 
seem  quite  superfluous  to  observe  that  those  minds  of  ours 
are  not  the  measure  of  the  truth  of  things.    And  yet  I 
would  set  down — after  its  unreality — as  the  second  great 
cause   of    the  mistiness  and  vagueness  of  Modern  Philo- 
sophy, the  failure  to  realize,  or  the  unwillingness  to  admit, 
this  obvious  limitation,  this  palpable  inadequacy  of  the 
human  mind,  face  to  face  with  Reality.     Man  would  fain 
know  all  things ;   that   was   the  first  inordinate  craving 
born  of  human  pride.     And  pride  will  seek  to  satisfy  that 
craving,  even  by  feeding  it  on  delusions.     Pride  will  peer 
beyond  the  veil ;  and,  by  trying  to  know  the  unknowable, 
only  confuse  what  man  can  know.    But  sound  human 
Philosophy  has  no  such  wild  pretensions.     Its  aim  is  not 
to  lead  man  to  a  knowledge  of  all  things,  but  to  make 
him  know  well  the  little  he  can  know.     It  warns  its  dis- 
ciples, as  St.  Paul  did  the  Romans  :  '  Not  to  be  more  wise 
than  it  behoveth  to  be  wise,  but  to  be  wise  unto  sobriety.' 
But  some  men  do  not  like  to  have  to  admit  that  there  is 
a   Reality   above   them   which   they   cannot   understand  ; 
nor  do  they  care  to  confess  that  Nature  itself  beneath 
them  and  around  them  abounds  in  enigmas  which  may 
never,  perhaps,  be  solved.     Hence  the  spectacle  of  modern 
philosophers      who     discard    the    mysteries    of    revealed 
religion  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  proclaim 
the  whole  reality  of  the  world  to  be  simply  the  unconscious- 
conscious  product  of  the  evolution  of  mind  ! 

The  old  world  of  four  hundred  years  ago  witnessed  a 
strange  rebellion.  It  was  a  revolt  of  man  against  mystery 
imposed  on  him  by  authority  from  without.  He  would 
adopt  a  new  attitude  towards  the  content  of  Revelation, 
and  apply  new  principles  to  interpret  the  meaning  of 
Faith.  No  more  external  authority  for  him — he  would 
be  judge  and  teacher  himself.  By  his  own'private  inter- 
pretation of  Revealed  Truth  he  would  rationalize  his  belief, 


198  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

and  he  soon  explained  away  all  he  could  not  understand  f 
Traditional  Christianity  ceased  to  have  any  meaning  for 
him  as  a  Philosophy  of  Life.  He  soon  lost  all  hold 
on  the  supernatural ;  and  now  unenlightened,  unaided  and 
alone,  he  commenced  the  dreary,  hopeless  task  of  rearing 
a  stable  edifice  on  the  ever-shifting  quicksands  of  in- 
dividual reason.  The  eternal  questions  came  up  and 
clamoured  for  a  solution  :  Whence  and  Whither  and  Why  ? 
What  is  the  meaning  of  life  ?  What  is  man's  place  in  the 
Universe  ?  What  is  it  ?  and  what  is  he  ?  and  whither 
are  they  drifting  ?  But  reason  alone  is  slow  to  build 
up,  and  painful ;  and  it  often  selects,  as  materials, 
fancies  instead  of  realities.  Then,  too,  it  is  quick  to  de- 
molish, and  in  that  it  is  aided  by  passion.  I  think  Newman 
speaks  somewhere  of  the  all-corrosive  influence  of  the  mere 
reasoning  faculty  in  the  domain  of  Religion  and  Morals. 
No  wonder ;  for  unbridled  human  reason,  consciously  or 
unconsciously  accelerated  by  the  impetus  of  passion  and 
prejudice,  will  run  riot  through  the  most  sacred  human 
beliefs,  until  it  brings  the  cold  blight  of  embittered  doubt 
and  indifference  on  all  who  allow  it  an  undue  licence. 

These  things  it  has  done  in  non-Catholic  Modern  Philo- 
sophy. Wherever  this  latter  does  not  rest  in  despondent 
doubt  and  denial,  wherever  it  has  anything  positive  to  offer 
us  as  an  interpretation  of  things,  it  tries  to  satisfy  us  with 
some  sort  or  other  of  a  dreamy,  elusive  pantheism.  And 
that  simply  because  it  has  dethroned  God  and  deified 
Nature.  It  is  thus,  in  very  truth,  that  human  thought 
is  emancipated  by  Modern  Philosophy !  Well  may  it 
sing  of  itself  in  Tennyson's  words  : — 

I  take  possession  of  man's  mind  and  deed, 

I  heed  not  what  the  sects  may  brawl, 
I  sit  as  God,  holding  no  form  of  creed 
But  contemplating  all. 

But  there  are  sects  in  Philosophy  too  :  and  in  Modern 
Philosophy  a  veritable  Babel  of  them.  Where  is  the  modern 
philosopher  who  is  not  a  believer  in  some  sect — either  in 
his  own  or  somebody  else's  ?  People  call  them  schools  ;  and 
many  a  modern  philosopher's  ambition  seems  to  be  to 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION        199 

anchor  himself  in  some  school  for  a  while,  and  sooner  or 
later, — often  sooner, — to  start  a  school  of  his  own.  '  What 
system  of  Philosophy  do  you  teach  ?  ' — a  German  Uni- 
versity student  asked  a  youthful  privatdozent*  '  Is  it 
Kant,  or  Hegel,  or  Schopenhauer,  or  Hartmann,  you 
follow  ?  '  '  None  of  them  now,'  answered  the  other,  '  I 
am  teaching  my  own  system '  !  And  though  their  name 
is  legion — those  systems — they  are  all  preoccupied  more 
or  less  with  the  same  few  great,  fundamental  questions 
that  bear  on  Religion,  natural  and  revealed.  Nor  is  this 
to  be  wondered  at,  for,  in  the  world  in  which  they  move, 
Philosophy  has  taken  the  place  of  Faith.  But  it  is  a  little 
surprising  that  although  Philosophy  has  usurped  the  place 
of  religious  belief  it  seems  still  to  be  cultivated  more  as 
a  speculative  and  academic  pursuit  than  as  something 
intensely  practical  in  itself  and  fraught  with  momentous 
meaning  for  their  lives  and  destinies. 

To  us  believers  it  is  also  not  a  little  saddening  to  see 
those  revered  and  sacred  truths  of  human  Liberty  and 
Immortality,  of  God's  Existence  and  man's  Destiny,  so 
lightly  doubted,  and  so  easily  denied  or  perverted  by  men 
who  have  never  known  what  it  is  to  believe.  Multitudes  of 
those  men  are  excellent  men  morally,  but  their  intellectual 
attitude  is  not  a  little  puzzling.  La  Morale  laique, — 
Morality  without  Religion, — is  of  course  the  great  fetish, 
the  universal  fashion,  the  accepted  watchword  of  the 
infidel  of  the  present  day.  Yet  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
remark  that  without  the  sanctions  and  restraints  of  religion 
the  masses  of  humanity  would  make  short  work  of  '  Philo- 
sophical Morality  '  in  their  onward  and  downward  rush 
towards  the  bonum  delectabile.  It  might  be  all  very  well 
for  Nietzsche's  Uebermensch  in  Spencer's  millennium  of 
'  absolute  ethics  ; '  but  for  the  merely  human  crowds  who 
struggle  for  existence  and  for  pleasure  on  this  planet  of 
ours  it  would  soon  bring  society  to  a  crisis.  The  most, 
I  think,  that  can  be  said  for  the  morale  laique  is  this,  that 
it  may  furnish  the  more  enlightened  and  well-meaning 
few  with  considerations  of  personal  dignity  and  social 
justice,  strong  enough  to  secure  for  them  pure  and  up- 


200  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

right  lives.  Though  even  these,  if  they  were  men  of  thought, 
and  if  they  addressed  themselves  to  the  three  fundamental 
questions  of  God's  Existence,  and  man's  Liberty,  and 
Immortality,  would  not  be  likely  to  settle  down  in 
comfortable  unbelief. 

But  then,  you  see,  many  of  these, — educated  and  other- 
wise enlightened  men, — either  are  not  men  of  thought,  or, 
if  they  are,  it  is  not  about  these  matters  they  think  :  and 
so,  many  do  remain  in  the  profession  of  unbelief.  And 
those  who  do  think  about  fundamental  problems, — the 
professional  philosophers, — are  inclined  towards  infidelity 
and  prevented  from  believing  by  the  very  influences  of 
the  spirit  of  the  age  itself.  Outside  the  Catholic  Church 
it  is,  I  fear,  the  prevalent  impression  that  Philosophy  is 
incompatible  with  Faith,  that  it  is  necessarily  allied  to 
universal  criticism  and  universal  doubt,  that  the  philosopher 
must  be  free,  independent  of  all  the  sects  and  above  them 
all ;  and  that  he  is  compromised  by  the  profession  of  any 
intellectual  assent  of  Faith.  He  may  have  his  private 
beliefs  and  opinions  and  feelings,  of  course,  in  the  matter 
of  Religion.  But  then,  he  must  be  cautious  and  modest 
about  importing  these  into  the  speculative  and  practical 
system  he  offers  to  the  world  as  a  Philosophy  of  Life.  In 
other  words,  he  is  expected  to  give  a  critical  appreciation 
of  the  phenomenon  of  Religion,  as  of  all  other  phenomena. 
And  the  view  that  perhaps  meets  most  favour  just  now  is, 
that  Religion  is  a  peculiar  psychological  phenomenon, 
manifested  in  the  evolution  of  the  individual  and  of  the 
race ;  varying,  moreover,  in  its  manifestations  both  in 
individuals  and  in  races  ;  and  to  be  regarded,  accordingly, 
rather  as  an  outcome  of  sentiment,  and  a  sort  of  variable 
private  asset,  than  as  being  something  fixed  and  objective, 
claiming  intellectual  assent ;  rather  as  a  purely  personal 
and  subjective  curiosity  that  may  be  speculated  on  with 
due  philosophical  calm,  than  as  a  thing  of  such  enormous 
concern  that  the  philosopher  should  get  troubled  or  excited 
about  it :  above  all,  he  must  not  violate  good  taste,  nor  ruffle 
the  slumbering  indifference  of  his  fellows,  by  arousing  the 
odium  theologicum  of  the  dark  and  uncivilized  Middle  Ages  \ 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION        201 

Now,  it  appears  to  me  that  such  an  attitude  as  that 
is  as  great  an  insult  to  Philosophy  as  it  is  to  Religion, 
and  to  Reason  as  it  is  to  Faith.  For  if  it  is  a  necessity  of 
human  nature  to  bow  to  the  unexplained,  to  assent  to  the 
unseen,  then  Faith  is  natural  and  reasonable,  and  to 
reject  it  is  to  do  violence  to  Reason.  And  if  Philosophy 
is  the  sum-total  of  what  we  accept  and  believe  to  be  the 
meaning  and  explanation  of  the  world  and  of  man,  and 
according  to  which  we  are  to  regulate  our  lives,  then,  as 
Natural  Religion  of  some  sort  is  a  necessity  of  our  nature, 
and  is  included  in  that  Philosophy,  to  make  light  of  the 
former  is  to  be  disloyal  to  the  latter.  And  will  any 
philosopher  maintain  that  his  life  is  not  full  of  real  assents 
to  much  that  he  cannot  explain  ?  or  that  the  religion  which 
he  calls  his  '  Philosophy  of  Life '  is  a  system  free  from 
mystery  ?  No,  for  no  matter  who  he  may  be  who  sets 
out  to  solve  the  enigma  of  Life,  he  soon  stumbles  up  against 
one  hard  fact, — whether  he  may  resent  it  or  regard  it  as 
an  unpleasant  thing,  will  depend,  I  suppose,  upon  his 
temperament,  but  pleasant  or  unpleasant  it  is  a  fact,  and  it 
is  this  :  that  he  cannot  avoid  mystery,  that  his  explanation 
of  things  to  himself  and  for  himself  will  never  be  final 
or  complete  or  satisfacory.  Nor  will  he  ever  encounter 
any  other  individual  in  the  flesh  whose  efforts  to  escape 
mystery  will  have  been  a  success.  Nor  in  the  whole  range 
of  human  history  will  he  ever  hear  of  a  man  for  whom 
there  was  no  mystery, — with  the  exception  of  just  One, 
and  He  was  more  than  man.  Happy,  too,  will  our  philo- 
sopher be  if  he  learns  wisdom  from  that  One.  But  he 
may  not  have  heard  of  Him  and  may  not  know  Him  ; 
or,  hearing  about  Him,  he  may,  alas  !  choose  not  to  believe 
in  Him.  He  may  prefer  to  insist  that  human  reason  is 
able  to  find  out  for  itself  all  it  needs  to  know  ;  that  it 
cannot  and  ought  not  accept  what  it  does  not  understand  ; 
that  the  revealing  of  mysteries  to  man  by  God  would  be 
useless,  unmeaning,  impossible,  even  supposing  it  certain 
that  there  is  a  God.  Our  philosopher  may  follow  some 
such  line  of  thought  as  that,  or  some  other  of  the  in- 
numerable mazes  and  caprices  of  human  speculation  : 


202  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

much  of  his  system  will  always  depend  upon  the  surround- 
ings and  atmosphere  in  which  his  mind  develops.  But  one 
thing  is  certain,  let  him  turn  where  he  will,  think  how  he 
may,  he  will  not  avoid  mystery.  He  may  fly  from  the 
mysteries  of  Revealed  Religion,  but  by  rejecting  them,  he 
is  only  embracing  other  mysteries  perhaps  deeper  and 
more  difficult  still.  He  may  scoff  at  religious  beliefs,  and 
ridicule  Christian  dogmas  as  absurd  and  unmeaning. 
From  the  intellectual  height  of  his  Rationalism  he  may 
regard,  with  patronizing  pity,  the  '  bondage  '  and  '  super- 
stition '  of  the  faithful.  But  let  him  try  to  build  up  for 
himself  &  Philosophy  without  Religion,  a  Morality  without 
God,  and  I  promise  you  that  he  will  soon  get  reason  to  pause, 
and  to  modify  his  hasty  prejudices  against  religious  belief. 
Whether  he  likes  it  or  not,  he  will  soon  find  himself  in- 
volved in  a  veritable  maze  of  mysteries  :  the  glimmer  of 
his  own  feeble  rush-light  will  only  make  the  darkness  more 
obscure.  And  if  he  ignore  all  guidance  and  persist  in 
being  self-taught,  he  will  in  all  probability  render  to  real 
phantoms  and  fancies  the  homage  he  refused  to  apparent 
ones,  when  he  judged  the  mysteries  of  Revealed  Religion 
to  be  phantoms  and  nothing  more. 

The  Babel  of  Modern  Philosophy  bears  far  more  eloquent 
testimony  than  the  Christian  Religion  itself  to  the  wide- 
spread reign  of  mystery  both  in  Nature  and  above  it. 
The  very  extravagance  of  many  modern  systems  shows 
that  when  Reason  proudly  rebels  Against  mysteries  im- 
posed from  without,  it  is  often  rightly  punished  by  bowing 
itself  in  the  end  to  self-imposed  absurdities. 

When  Philosophy  is  interpreted  in  that  full  sense  of  a 
4  Philosophy  of  Life,' — a  Lebensphilosophie, — it  is  easy  for 
us,  Catholics,  to  realize  the  weight  of  eternal  consequences 
with  which  it  is  necessarily  laden.  For,  in  that  larger 
and  truer  meaning  of  the  word,  it  is  an  adequate  inter- 
pretation of  life,  arrived  at  by  man  using  his  natural  reason 
upon  all  available  data,  and  accepted  by  him  as  in  harmony 
with  his  nature  and  its  needs.  It  is  the  Sapientia  of 
the  Latins  :  the  solution  of  the  Riddle  of  Life  :  the 
answer  to  our  deepest  questionings  on  our  Origin, 


THOUGHTS  CN  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       203 

Nature  and  Destiny.  Thought  and  Action,  Truth  and 
Belief,  are  all  regulated  by  its  supreme  dictates.  All- 
embracing  in  its  aim  and  scope,  it  harmonizes  Reason 
and  Faith,  Knowledge  and  Mystery,  and  aims  at  estab- 
lishing within  us  an  abiding  city  of  God. 

It  tells  us  that  we  are  not  sufficient  for  ourselves. 
Reason  itself  tells  us  that  reason  itself  is  limited.  But 
then,  we,  Catholics,  have  been  brought  up  in  the  Faith  ; 
and  before  we  knew  we  believed  ;  and  we  have  never  had 
experience  of  what  unaided  reason  is  like.  Faith  went 
before,  and  gave  us  possession  of  precious  truths  that 
grew  into  our  souls  and  became,  as  it  were,  a  part  of  our 
nature.  That  God  exists  ;  that  we  were  created  by  Him 
and  for  Him,  immortal  and  free,  but  weak  and  finite  ; 
that  He  has  enlightened  our  minds  by  His  Truth  and 
strengthened  our  wills  by  His  Grace ;  that  at  first  He 
raised  us  up  beyond  our  natural  state,  and  that  He  redeemed 
us  when  we  fell ;  that  He  is  still  our  last  end,  and  that  the 
meaning  of  life  is  to  serve  Him  :  all  these  things  we  believed 
before  we  dreamt  of  asking  could  we  ever  have  known 
them  had  we  been  left  to  ourselves.  It  was  only  later  on 
we  began  to  reflect  and  examine.  And  then  we  thought 
it  so  reasonable,  nay  almost  natural,  that  God  should 
have  spoken  to  men  ;  and  that,  having  once  spoken  to  them, 
He  should  also  provide  them  with  a  sure  and  abiding 
means  of  interpreting  His  message. 

And  as  regards  the  contents  of  that  message,  we  are 
but  poorly  able  to  judge  how  far  it  actually  aids  our 
reason,  or  what  our  natural  powers,  if  left  to  themselves, 
could  achieve.  It  is  true  that  even  at  this  very  point — 
in  determining  the  limits  of  the  natural  light  of  reason— 
the  infallible  guardian  of  that  message  comes  to  our 
assistance.  For  it  tells  us  on  the  one  hand,  that  there  is 
in  man  the  power  of  convincing  himself  with  certainty 
that  there  is  a  Supreme  God  whose  creature  he  is,  immortal, 
and  free,  and  responsible  ;  on  the  other  hand,  that  men  in 
general  would  never  have  avoided  the  darkest  errors  in 
theory,  and  the  grossest  corruption  in  conduct,  without 
a  message  from  on  High.  These,  however,  are  but 


204  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

guiding  principles  that  define  the  extreme  limits  of  a  large 
domain  still  open  to  rational  speculation  :  and  the  fact 
remains  that  when  we,  Catholics,  begin  to  study  Philosophy 
we  are  in  the  peculiar  position  of  having  our  minds 
already  permeated  with  the  highest  and  noblest  truths, — 
the  Catholic  child  learns  more  Philosophy  from  the  penny 
catechism  than  many  a  pagan  philosopher  learns  in  a 
life-time, — so  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  for  us  to  dis- 
tinguish and  separate  from  our  whole  mental  treasure, 
the  truths  which  we  can  arrive  at  by  our  own  unaided 
reason  ;  and  to  build  these  up  into  the  rational  system 
which  we  understand  by  Philosophy  in  its  narrowest  and 
strictest  sense.1 

And  that  it  is  of  great  importance  to  make  such  a 
distinction,  and  to  make  it  accurately,  is  very  easily  shown. 
For,  firstly,  in  dealing  with  non-Catholics,  we  ought  to  be 
very  careful  not  to  present  to  them  in  the  merely  rational 
part  of  our  system,  any  elements  or  any  truths  which, 
though  appearing  demonstrable  to  our  receptive  minds, 
are  in  reality  borrowed  from  Revelation  either  in  whole 
or  in  part.  And  secondly,  it  is  no  less  important  that  we, 
Catholics,  should  have  a  purely  rational  philosophical 
system,  as  complete  as  human  reason  can  make  it,  to  set 
up  against  modern  erroneous  systems,  and  to  have  it  so 
evidently  superior  to  all  others  that  it  will  attract  all 
impartial  inquirers. 

One  of  the  greatest  tests  of  such  superiority  at  the  present 
day  is  the  all  round  harmony  and  conformity  of  the  system 
in  question  with  the  findings  of  the  various  natural  sciences. 
Hence  our  Philosophy  must  not  only  be  in  harmony  with 
Faith,  but  in  harmony  with  Science  as  well.  Not  only  so, 
but  it  must  be  based  and  built  on  the  sciences,  and  be  a 
positive  continuation  of  them,  arrived  at  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  selfsame  principles  of  natural  reason  and 
experience  as  have  built  up  the  sciences  themselves.  And 
if  I  have  been  emphasizing  in  these  pages  the  larger  view 
of  Philosophy  as  including  Faith,  and  the  relations  of 

1  Cf,  Laberthonniere.  Essais  de  philosophic  religieust,  pp.  xxiii.  and  201 ; 
Turinaz,  Une  tr^s-grave  Question,  p.  38. 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION         205 

Philosophy  in  the  narrower  sense  to  Religion  and  to  the 
Supernatural,  I  am  not  to  be  understood  as  implying 
that  this  Rational  Philosophy,  built  upon  the  sciences, 
and  carried  as  far  as  human  reason  will  bring  it,  is  of  a 
secondary  importance  in  itself,  or  that  the  Catholic  need 
not  cultivate  it  for  its  own  sake.  On  the  contrary,1  I 
consider  that  one  of  the  greatest  services  we  can  render 
to  the  Faith,  and  one  of  the  surest  ways  of  winning  the 
attention  and  respect  of  our  adversaries,  is  by  basing  our 
Philosophy  on  the  sciences,  cultivating  it  for  its  own  sake, 
and  thus  showing  that  the  Philosophy  to  which  the  sciences 
naturally  lead  is  precisely  that  Traditional  Philosophy  of 
the  Schools  which  has  always  been  in  harmony  with 
Supernatural  Truth. 

That    is   the    avowed    object    of    the   new    Scholastic 
Movement. 

P.  COFFEY,  D.Ph. 


1  Cf.  Articles  in  the  I.   E.   RECORD  (Jan.,  Feb.,  May  and  June,  1905), 
on  '  Philosophy  and  the  Sciences  in  Louvain.' 


[      206      ] 


CATECHISM 

AN  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  LEGISLATION,  TEXTS,  AND 

METHODS  * 

THE  mission  of  the  Church  is  to  teach  mankind. 
That  mission  she  fulfils  by  preaching.  Preaching 
produces  little  fruit  unless  it  is  adapted  to  the 
capacity  of  the  audience.  No  science  can  be  effectually 
taught  unless  the  teacher  begins  by  instruction  in  its  first 
principles.  Those  who  have  not  mastered  these  principles 
are  incapable  of  profiting  by  higher  instruction.  Instruction 
in  the  science  of  faith  and  morals  is  no  *  xception  to  this 
rule.  Hence,  the  Council  of  Trent  laid  on  all  pastors  of  souls, 
the  obligation  of  preaching  and  of  catechizing.  Hence, 
too,  the  Pope,  who  now  so  wisely  rules  the  Church,  has 
reminded  pastors  of  this  two-fold  obligation,  and  in  par- 
ticular of  the  obligation  of  catechizing.  To  ignorance  of 
the  elementary  truths  of  religion,  the  Holy  Father  attri- 
butes the  spirit  of  indifference  and  of  irreligion  to-day  so 
widespread.  Therefore,  he  regards  instruction  in  Christian 
Doctrine  as  one  of  the  most  important  duties  of  pastors, 
and  as  one  of  the  most  pressing  needs  of  the  Church.  It 
may,  then,  be  of  interest  at  the  present  time  to  study  the 
history  of  catechism,  and  to  examine,  first,  what  has  been 
the  legislation  of  the  Church  on  the  subject  of  instruction 
in  Christian  Doctrine  ;  secondly,  what  texts  have  been 
made  use  of  at  various  periods,  in  imparting  that  instruc- 

1  Sources : — Histoire  du  Catechisme  depuis  la  Naissancf  ue  V Eglise  jusqn' a 
nos  jours,  par  M.  1' Abbe  Hezard.  Paris :  Retaux,  1900. — Hefete,  Histoire  des 
Candles. — Duchesne,  Origines  du  Culte  Chretien.  3  edit.  Paris,  1903. — A  eta 
et  Deer  eta  S.  Concilii  Vaticani,  Collectio  Lacencis,  vol.  vii. — Wilkins,  Concilia 
Magnae  Britanniae  et  Hiberniae. — Histoire  des  livrcs  popidaires,  ou  de  la 
litter ature  deiColportage,  par  Charles  Nisard.  Paris,  1854. — Migne,  Patres 
Latini,  vols.  98  and  101. — Dom  Gasquet, '  Religions  Instruction  in  England 
in  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries,'  Dublin  Review,  October,  1893. 
— '  How  our  Fathers  were  taught  in  Catholic  days,'  Dublin  Review,  April, 
1897. — Mgr.  Dupanloup,  Entretiens  stir  la  predication  populaire.  Paris, 
1866. — Compendia  della  dottrina  cristiana  f/rescritto  d  SS.  Papa  Pio  X. 
Roma,  1905. 


CATECHISM  207 


tion  ;   and,  thirdly,  what  methods  have  been  followed  for 
the  efficient  communication  of  religious  knowledge. 


What  has  been  the  legislation  of  the  Church  with 
respect  to  instruction  in  Christian  Doctrine  ?  The  primi- 
tive Church  had  to  convert  a  world  which  was  pagan. 
The  mode  of  dealing  with  converts  was  fixed  by  a  custom 
which  had  the  force  of  law.  Aspirants  to  Baptism  were 
obliged  to  pass  through  the  catechumenate.  Catechumens 
were  admitted  to  be  present  at  the  instructions  in  the 
church.  After  a  period  of  probation,  they  were  enrolled 
amongst  the  candidates  qualified  for  Baptism,  and  then 
they  received  a  special  course  of  religious  instruction  to 
prepare  them  for  that  sacrament.  The  law  of  the  cate- 
chumenate continued  in  force  until  the  seventh  century. 
With  the  spread  of  religion  a  new  order  began  to  prevail. 
The  Church  had  to  deal  no  longer  with  converts,  but  with 
the  children  of  the  faithful  baptized  in  infancy.  What  rules 
did  she  prescribe  for  the  religious  instruction  of  youth  ? 
St.  Bede  is  a  witness  to  the  practices  of  the  eighth  century.1 
*  Priests,'  he  says,  in  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  York,  «  should 
be  appointed  in  every  village  to  instruct  the  people  in  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Creed.'  The  synod  of  Cloveshoe, 
in  747,  decreed  that  the  system  of  instruction  recommended 
by  St.  Bede  should  be  faithfully  followed.  The  Capitu- 
laries of  Charlemagne  in  the  ninth  century  urge  pastors 
to  instruct  their  flocks,  and  remind  parents  of  the  duty 
of  instructing  their  children  in  the  truths  of  faith.  A 
synod  held  in  Dublin,  in  1186,  ordered  that  the  children 
be  assembled  at  the  church  door  on  Sundays  to  receive 
instruction.2 

The  synod  of  Beziers,  in  1246,  and  that  of  Albi,  in  1254, 
decreed  that  on  all  Sundays  parish  priests  should  explain 
the  articles  of  the  Creed  in  a  clear  and  simple  style.  They 
decreed,  moreover,  that  children  from  the  age  of  seven 
should  be  brought  to  church  on  Sundays  and  festivals,  to 

1  Migne,  Patres  Latini.  vol,  98.  col.  939, 

2  Hefel6,  Historic  des  Candles,  vol.  vii.,  p.  523. 


208  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

be  taught  the  Pater,  Ave,  and  Credo.  In  1281,  the  synod 
of  Lambeth  commanded  pastors  to  give  instruction  in 
Christian  Doctrine,  and  to  repeat  the  same  four  times  a 
year. 

We  order  [says  the  synod],  that,  every  priest  in  charge  of 
a  flock,  do  four  times  a  year,  on  one  or  more  solemn  festivals, 
either  personally  or  by  some  one  else,  instruct  the  people  in 
the  vulgar  tongue,  simply  and  without  any  admixture  of 
subtle  distinctions,  in  the  fourteen  articles  of  the  Creed,  the  Ten 
Commandments  of  the  Decalogue,  the  two  precepts  of  the 
Gospel  that  is  of  true  charity,  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  with 
their  offshoots  the  Seven  Principal  Virtues,  and  the  Seven 
Sacraments. 1 

The  synod  of  Ely,  in  1364,  ordered  parish  priests  to 
preach  frequently,  and  to  explain  the  Ten  Commandments 
in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  see  that  children  were  taught 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  the  Hail  Mary,  and  the 
Sign  of  the  Cross.2  In  the  early  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  synod  of  Tortosa  (1429),  in  Spain,  directed  that 
bishops  should  draw  up  abridgments  of  Christian  Doctrine 
so  arranged  that  the  text  might  be  explained  in  seven  or 
eight  lessons ;  and  it  commanded  parish  priests  to  explain 
the  same  to  the  people  several  times  a  year  on  Sundays 
and  festivals.  The  synod  of  Toledo,  in  1473,  ordered  that 
the  Sundays  from  Septuagesima  to  Passiontide  be  devoted 
to  the  explanation  of  the  text  of  the  Catechism. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Council  of  Trent  deemed 
the  teaching  of  catechism  worthy  of  its  attention,  and  in 
its  twenty-fourth  session,  nth  November,  1563,  it  decreed 
as  follows  : — 

They  (Bishops)  shall  also  take  care,  that,  at  least  on  Sundays 
and  other  festivals,  the  children  in  every  parish  shall  be  dili- 
gently taught,  by  those  to  whom  that  duty  belongs,  the 
rudiments  of  faith,  and  obedience  to  God  and  to  their  parents, 
and,  if  need  be,  they  shall  enforce  this  obligation  even  by 
ecclesiastical  censures.1 

The  legislation  of  the  Council  was  obeyed.     St.  Charles 

1  Wilkins,  Concilia  Magnae  Britanniae,  vol.  ii.,  p.  54. 
a  Ibid.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  59. 
3  Canones  et  Dccreta  Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIV.,  cap.  iv. 


CATECHISM  209 


Borromeo,  so  zealous  for  every  work  of  reform,  set  the 
example.  He  instituted  confraternities  to  teach  Christian 
Doctrine,  and  drew  up  wise  rules  for  their  guidance.  The 
bishops  in  other  countries  were  not  slow  to  follow.  In 
Ireland  the  days  of  persecution  had  already  commenced,, 
but  in  those  sad  days  the  importance  of  teaching  Christian 
Doctrine  was  not  allowed  to  be  forgotten.  A  synod  of  the 
province  of  Tuam,  in  1630,  decreed  that  parish  priests, 
obliged  as  they  were  to  move  about  from  place  to  place, 
and  to  depend  on  the  hospitality  of  their  people,  should 
catechize  the  family  of  every  house  where  they  should 
spend  the  night.1  A  synod  of  the  same  province,  held  in 
1632,  exhorted  priests  to  catechize  on  Sundays  and  festivals. 
A  synod  of  the  province  of  Armagh,  in  i66o,2  decreed  that 
all  parish  priests  should  preach  or  catechize  on  Sundays 
and  holidays,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  five  shillings  of 
English  money  for  each  omission,  and  privation  of  benefice 
ipso  facto  should  the  omission  be  continued  for  ten  con- 
secutive weeks.  Another  synod  of  the  same  province, 
held  in  1687,  enacted  that  pastors  negligent  in  fulfilling 
the  duty  of  giving  instruction  should  be  suspended  ;  and, 
that  a  duly  qualified  assistant  be  given  to  incompetent 
pastors.  A  synod  of  the  province  of  Cashel,  in  1782, 
ordered  that  catechism  be  taught  on  Sundays  and  festivals 
either  in  the  English  or  Irish  tongue,  according  to  the. 
requirements  of  the  congregation. 

The  zeal  of  bishops  and  of  local  synods  was  stimulated 
from  time  to  time  by  the  action  of  the  Popes.  Clement 
VII,  in  an  Encyclical  dated  i5th  July,  1598,  urged  the 
importance  of  teaching  Christian  Doctrine.  Benedict  XIV, 
in  a  letter  dated  7th  February,  1742,  reminded  all  pastors 
of  the  necessity  of  instruction  in  catechism.  Succeeding 
pontiffs  were  no  less  earnest.  Pius  IX  spoke  in  the  most 
emphatic  terms  of  the  necessity  of  catechetical  instruction. 
In  our  own  days  Pius  X,  in  an  Encyclical  dated  i5th  April, 
1905,  has  renewed  the  precept  imposed  by  the  Council  of 

1  Renehan's  Collection,  Archbishops,  p.  491. 

2  Moran,  Memoirs  of  Primate  Plunkett,  p.  386. 

VOL.  XIX  O 


210  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Trent.  He  commands — (i)  That  the  children  shall  be  in- 
structed in  Christian  Doctrine  for  a  full  hour  on  all  Sundays 
and  holidays  throughout  the  year  ;  (2)  that  they  shall  be 
prepared  for  Confession  and  for  Confirmation  by  special 
discourses  on  several  days ;  (3)  that  children  shall  be  pre- 
pared for  First  Communion  by  daily  instruction  during 
Lent,  and,  if  need  be,  after  Easter  ;  (4)  that  Confrater- 
nities of  Christian  Doctrine  shall  be  established  in  every 
parish ;  (5)  that  in  cities  where  universities  or  higher 
schools  exist,  courses  of  higher  religious  instruction  shall 
be  established  ;  (6)  that  a  course  of  catechetical  instruction 
for  adults  be  given  in  churches  according  to  the  plan  marked 
out  by  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent.1 

ii. 

Such,  in  outline,  has  been  the  legislation  of  the  Church 
on  the  subject  of  catechetical  instruction.  Let  us  now 
pass  on  to  examine  what  have  been  the  texts  or  formulas 
on  which  that  instruction  has  been  based. 

In  the  early  Church  the  art  of  printing  was  unknown  ; 
the  art  of  writing  and  reading  was  an  accomplishment 
possessed  by  relatively  few.  Instruction,  therefore,  was 
necessarily  oral.  And  this  is  the  true  meaning  of  the 
word  catechism.  In  recent  times  the  term  has  been 
applied  to  books  containing  the  elements  of  knowledge  ; 
but  in  its  primary  sense,  catechism  is  instruction  given 
by  word  of  mouth.  But  the  matter  of  elementary  oral 
instruction  was  not  left  to  chance.  The  elements  of  re- 
ligious knowledge  were  imparted  according  to  a  well  denned 
plan.  New  converts  aspiring  to  be  admitted  to  the  ranks 
of  catechumens  were  first  taught  the  existence  of  God,  the 
fact  of  Revelation,  the  history  of  religion,  the  Incarnation, 
the  establishment  of  the  Church,  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
Resurrection.  They  were  forewarned  of  the  temptations 
to  which  they  might  be  exposed  by  scandals  within  and 
without  the  Church.  When  the  time  approached  for  the 

i  For  a  modification  of  these  rules  to  suit  the  condition  of  things  in 
Ireland,  see  I.  E.  RECORD,  December,  1905. 


CATECHISM  211 


reception  of  Baptism  they  were  instructed  in  the  articles 
of  the  Creed  and  taught  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They  were 
taught,  too,  the  obligation  of  observing  the  divine  law, 
and  avoiding  the  vices  which  it  condemns.  After  Baptism 
the  doctrine  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist  was  explained  to  themi 
All  this  is  manifest  from  the  Didache  or  Doctrine  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  from  the  treatise  of  St.  Augustine,  De 
Catechizandis  Rudibus,  from  the  Catacheses  of  St.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  and  from  the  seventh  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitution.  Thus,  from  the  earliest  times,  the  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Commandments,  and  the  prevalent 
vices  opposed  to  them,  together  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Sacraments,  formed  the  text  of  catechetical  instruction. 

In  course  of  time  compendiums  were  made  of  a  full 
course  of  catechism,  as  an  aid  to  teachers  and  learners. 
Amongst  such  collections  that  attributed  to  Alcuin,  and 
used  in  the  school  of  the  Palace  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
holds  a  prominent  place.  Its  title  is  Disputatio  puerorum 
per  interrogations  et  responsiones.1  It  treats,  under  the 
form  of  question  and  answer,  of  the  work  of  the  six  days  of 
Creation,  of  the  six  ages  of  the  world,  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  of  the  Church,  with  its  hierarchy,  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  Mass.  The  Disputatio  long  served  as  the 
type  of  a  catechism  for  the  instruction  of  youth.  Two 
centuries  later  St.  Bruno  of  Wurtzburg  made  it  the  basis 
of  a  catechism  for  his  diocese.  Nor  was  the  Disputatio 
the  only  catechism  of  the  period.  That  of  Kero,  a  monk 
of  St.  Gall's,  in  the  eighth  century,  no  doubt  an  echo  of 
the  practice  of  Ireland,  and  that  of  Olfried,  in  the  ninth 
century,  are  also  deserving  of  mention. 

In  the  twelfth  century  Honoratus  of  Autun  wrote  a 
summary  of  Christian  Doctrine,  in  the  form  of  question 
and  answer,  entitled  Elucidarium  sive  dialogus  de  Summa 
totius  Christianae  Theologiae.2  The  Elucidarium,  though 
open  to  criticism,  was  highly  esteemed,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  French  and  Italian.  An  early  French  edition, 


1  Migne,  Patres  Latini,  vol.  101,  col.  1098-1144. 
z  Ibid.,    vol.  174,  col.  1109-1176. 


212  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

published  at  Lyons  in  1480,  bears  on  the  first  page  the 
following  appreciation  :  '  Ung  tres  singulier  et  profitable 
livre  appelle  le  Lucydaire  ;  auquel  sont  declarees  toutes 
les  choses  ou  antendement  humain  peut  douter  touchant 
la  foy  Catholique.  Et  aussi  y  sont  contenues  les  peines 
d'enfer,'  in  fol.  goth.  37  ff,  2  col.  26. 1 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  taste  for  contrasts  created 
by  the  works  of  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  De  quinque  septenis 
seu  septenariis,  and  by  the  De  septem  septenariis  of  John 
Salisbury,  made  itself  felt  in  the  form  of  catechetical  in- 
struction. All  the  catechisms  of  that  period  treat  of  the 
seven  petitions  of  the  Pater,  the  seven  Sacraments,  the 
seven  deadly  sins,  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
the  seven  principal  virtues.  The  Creed  was  sometimes 
treated  as  consisting  of  two  series  of  seven  articles,  seven 
relative  to  the  Divinity,  and  seven  to  the  Humanity,  of 
Christ.  A  catechism  published  in  France  in  1279,  and 
entitled  Somme-le-Roi  is  arranged  on  this  plan.  Nor  was 
this  method  confined  to  France.  The  decree  of  the  synod 
of  Lambeth,  1281,  above  quoted,  directs  pastors  to  teach 
the  fourteen  articles  of  the  Creed,  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the  seven  deadly  sins,  the  seven  Sacraments,  and  the  seven 
principal  virtues.  One  of  the  earliest  books  printed  in 
England  by  Caxton,  in  1484,  was  an  edition  of  this  cate- 
chism, with  the  title,  The  Royal  Book. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Somme-le-Roi  was,  to  a 
certain  extent,  supplanted  by  a  work  of  Guy  de  Montrocher, 
bearing  the  title,  Manipulus  Curatorum.  The  first  and 
second  part  of  this  work  treated  of  pastoral  duties,  the 
third  of  catechetical  instruction.  The  points  treated  were 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Commandments,  the  feasts  of  the 
Church,  the  works  of  mercy,  and  the  Beatitudes. 

In  the  fifteenth  century,  the  celebrated  Gerson,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Paris,  published  a  short  treatise 
which,  to  a  large  extent,  eclipsed  its  predecessors.  It  bore 
the  title,  Opusculum  Tripartitum  de  praeceptis  Decalogi, 
de  Confessions  et  de  Arte  moriendi.  In  the  first  part  the 

1  Brunei,  Bibliographic. 


CATECHISM  213 


articles  of  the  Creed  were  explained  ;  the  second  treated 
of  the  sins  to  be  mentioned  in  confession  ;  the  third  part 
consisted  of  exhortations  appropriate  to  the  dying.  In  a 
short  preface  the  author  states  that  he  composed  this  little 
treatise  that  pastors  might  have  something  solid  and 
practical  to  read  to  their  people  on  Sundays  and  festivals, 
to  teach  them  for  what  end  and  by  whom  they  were  created, 
moreover,  what  they  are  bound  by  the  divine  law  to  believe, 
to  do,  or  to  avoid,  and  how  to  arise  from  sin.  The  cate- 
chism of  Gerson  was  long  held  in  esteem  in  France  ;  and  the 
bishops  had  it  inserted  in  their  rituals  and  ordered  the 
parish  priests  to  read  it  for  the  people  at  Mass  on  Sundays 
and  festivals.1 

The  spread  of  the  art  of  printing  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  the  production  and  diffusion  of  catechetical  literature. 
Popular  books  with  illustrations  were  printed  for  the 
use  of  the  rural  population.  One  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  those  popular  catechisms  was  the  Compost  et 
Kalendrier  des  bergiers,  or  Shepherd's  Almanack,  published 
in  1492.2  It  was  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  part 
contained  the  calendar,  with  the  changes  of  the  moon, 
a  list  of  festivals,  and  the  like.  The  second  part  treated 
of  the  *  Arbre  des  vices  et  Miroir  des  pecheurs,'  that  is, 
an  enumeration  of  the  seven  deadly  sins,  which  are  the 
trunks  from  which  innumerable  branches  spring ;  all 
united  in  one  root,  pride,  and  forming  a  tree.  Then  follows 
a  description  of  the  pains  of  hell,  such  as  Lazarus  was  re- 
presented to  have  described  to  Simon  the  Pharisee.  The 
third  part  treats  of  the  science  of  salvation,  namely  the 
Pater,  Ave,  the  Creed,  and  the  Commandments  of  God 
and  of  the  Church  ;  it  also  includes  the  garden  of  virtues, 
moral  and  theological,  and  points  out  how  they  may  be 
practised.  The  text  was  throughout  ornamented  with 
plates  illustrating  its  meaning.  The  book  concluded  with 
an  enumeration  of  the  symptoms  of  good  and  bad  health, 
and  the  rules  for  bleeding.  One  can  easily  see  how  much 

1  Joanis  Gersonis,  Of/era  Omnia.     Antwerp,  1706,  vol.  i.,  pp.  426-450. 

2  Histoire  des  livres  populates,  ou  de  la  literature  de  colportage  depuis 
le  XV  si&cle,  2  vols,  par  Charles  Nisard.     Paris,  1854,  vol.  i.,  pp.  108-150. 


214  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

solid    instruction    was    here    presented  in   a   popular  and 
attractive  form. 

The  fifteenth  century  was  prolific  in  popular  books  of 
this  class.  Amongst  them  may  be  mentioned  Le  Tresor 
des  humains,  1482  ;  L' Ordinaire  des  Chrestiens,  1464  ;  V Art 
de  bien  vivre,  et  de  bien  mourir,  1492,  the  first  part  of  which 
is  a  catechism  arranged  according  to  the  plan  of  Septenaries. 
To  this  period  belongs  the  Speculum  Christianorum,  com- 
posed by  the  monks  of  St.  Victor.  It  treats  of  (i)  what  a 
Christian  must  do,  and  what  he  must  avoid  ;  (2)  the  truths 
he  must  believe  ;  (3)  of  the  seven  petitions  of  the  Pater, 
the  seven  prerogatives  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  seven 
virtues,  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  seven  Beati- 
tudes ;  (4)  of  the  things  on  which  a  Christian  should  medi- 
tate, namely,  the  Passion,  Sin,  the  Pains  of  Hell,  and  the 
Joys  of  Heaven j 

At  the  same  period  appeared  a  book  of  like  character 
in  English,  called  Dives  et  Pauper,  *  a  compendious  treatise 
or  dialogue  of  Dives  and  Pauper,  that  is  to  say,  the  rich 
and  poor,  fructuously  treating  upon  the  Ten  Command- 
ments.'1 This  interesting  work  appeared  in  manuscript  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Printed  editions 
of  it  were  published  in  1493,  1496,  and  1536.  Pauper,*  or 
the  poor  man,  acts  the  part  of  teacher  in  the  dialogue, 
and  gives  to  Dives,  or  the  rich  man,  a  full  and  practical 
explanation  of  the  entire  matter  of  the  Decalogue. 

The  so-called  reformers  knew  the  value  of  popular 
books  of  instruction.  Luther's  catechism  was  published 
in  1520,  that  of  Calvin  in  1536.  The  Zurich  catechism 
followed  in  1639,  and  that  of  Heidelberg  in  1563.  To  meet 
the  danger  arising  from  books  of  this  class,  the  Council  of 
Trent  wisely  legislated  on  the  subject  of  catechetical  in- 
struction. Before  that  assembly  had  brought  its  labours  to 
a  close  a  celebrated  German  Jesuit,  Blessed  Peter  Canisius, 
published  in  the  Latin  language  at  Vienna,  in  1554,  a 
catechism  under  the  title,  Summa  Doctrinae  Christianae,  By 

1  See  an  article  in  the  Dublin  Review,  April,  1897,  by  the  Right  Rev. 
Abbot  Gasquet  :  '  How  our  Fathers  were  taught  in  Catholic  Days.' 


CATECHISM  215 


order  of  Ferdinand  I,  King  of  the  Romans,  the  catechism  of 
Canisius  was  adopted  as  the  text-book  for  religious  instruc  • 
tion  throughout  Germany.  The  zealous  and  saintly  author 
made  two  abbreviations  of  his  Summa,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  Parvus  Catechismus.  The  first  edition  of  this 
compendium  appeared  in  1556.  Numerous  editions  fol- 
lowed. The  little  catechism  was  translated  into  many 
languages.  St.  Charles  Borromeo  made  it  a  text-book 
in  his  seminary.  English  editions  of  the  catechism  ot 
Canisius  were  published  at  Louvain,  in  1567 ;  at  Paris,  in 
1588  ;  London,  1590 ;  Edinburgh,  1591 ;  Cambridge,  1595  ; 
St.  Omer's,  1622 ;  London,  1623.  A  Welsh  translation 
was  printed  in  Paris,  in  1609.  *  To  the  present  day  the 
catechism  of  Canisius  is  held  in  high  esteem  in  Germany. 
The  preservation  of  the  faith  in  that  country  in  the  six- 
teenth century  is  largely  due  to  the  solid  instruction 
it  contains. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  catechetical  instruction,  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  the  most  learned  and  experienced  ecclesiastics 
of  the  time,  to  draw  up  a  catechism  to  serve  as  a  guide 
to  pastors  in  imparting  religious  instruction.  The  labours 
of  the  committee  were  embodied  in  the  Catechismus 
Romanus,  or  Roman  Catechism,  which  was  approved  and 
published  by  Pius  V. 

At  the  request  of  Clement  VIII,  the  learned  Cardinal 
Bellarmine  made  a  compendium  of  the  Roman  catechism, 
which  was  published  with  the  approval  of  that  Pope, 
i5th  July,  1598.  Bellarmine's  catechism  was  still  further 
abridged,  by  the  author,  and  quickly  spread  throughout 
Christendom.  It  was  translated  into  fifty-six  different 
languages.  Editions  of  it  in  English  were  published  at 
Douay,  1604  ;  Rome,  1678  ;  without  press  mark  in  1680  ; 
and  in  London,  1839.  An  Irish  translation  of  Bellarmine's 
catechism  was  issued  by  the  Propaganda  Press  in  1628, 
and  again  in  1707.  Father  Theobald  Stapelton  pub- 
lished it  in  Latin  and  in  Irish  at  Brussels,  in  1639,  the 

1  Sommervogel,  Bibliothdque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  arts.  '  Canisius,' 
'  Bellarmine.1 


2l6  THE  IRISH  ECCLSIASTICAL  RECORD 

Irish  text  being  in  Roman  characters.  A  Welsh  trans- 
lation was  printed  at  St.  Omer's  in  1618. 

The  catechism  of  Bellarmine,  by  its  simplicity,  its  order, 
and  its  diffusion,  marks  an  epoch  in  catechetical  literature. 
It  has  served  as  the  type  of  catechisms  since  his  day. 
.Zealous  prelates  in  various  kingdoms  imitated  the  example 
of  Bellarmine,  and  published  catechisms  for  the  instruction 
of  their  subjects.  Amongst  them  Bossuet  holds  a  pro- 
minent place.  That  great  man,  who  could  rise  to  the  highest 
heights  of  eloquence,  could  also  adapt  himself  to  the 
simplest  intelligence.  For  the  instruction  of  his  flock*  he 
published  a  catechism  in  three  parts.  The  first,  or  elementary 
cetechism,  was  destined  for  children  preparing  for  Confirma- 
tion. The  second  part  was  more  developed,  and  was 
destined  for  the  instruction  of  those  about  to  receive  First 
Communion.  The  third  part  contained  an  explanation  of 
the  festivals  of  the  Church  throughout  the  year.  Bossuet 
encouraged  other  writers  capable  of  promoting  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth,  and  to  his  advice  and  persuasion  we  are 
indebted  for  the  historical  catechism  of  Fleury. 

Nor  were  Irish  ecclesiastics  less  active  than  those  of 
other  countries,  in  rendering  the  text  of  the  catechism 
accessible  to  their  people.  Besides  the  Irish  translation 
of  Beliarmine's  catechism,  above  referred  to,  many  other 
Irish  catechisms  were  published  since  the  sixteenth  century. 

First  amongst  them  stands  the  Irish  catechism  com- 
posed by  Primate  Creagh  while  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  of 
London,  in  1585.  In  1608,  Bonaventure  O'Hussey,  an 
Irish  Franciscan,  published  at  Louvain  a  catechism  in 
Irish,  which  was  reprinted  at  Antwerp,  in  1611,  and  1616, 
and  at  Rome  in  1707.  In  1612,  Father  O'Hussey  pub- 
lished a  poetical  edition  of  his  catechism  in  two  hundred 
and  forty  verses.  In  1660,  an  Irish  priest,  over  the  signature 
D.  D.,  J.  D.,  V.G.,  T.S.T.D.,  which  has  been  interpreted, 
1  Dom  D.  Joannes  Dowley,  Vic.-Gen.,  Tuamensis,  S.  Theo- 
logiae  Doctor,'  published  a  catechism  in  prose  and  verse — 
the  latter  at  least  being  that  of  O'Hussey — a  work  which 
was  reprinted  at  Louvain,  in  1728.  Another  Irish  Fran- 
ciscan, Francis  O'Mulloy,  published  at  Rome  a  catechism 


CATECHISM  217 


in  Irish  with  a  Latin  title,  Lucerna  Fidelium.  When  the 
editions  of  these  catechisms  were  exhausted,  Dr.  Andrew 
Donlevy,  Superior  of  the  Junior  Division  of  the  Irish  College 
in  Paris,  published  in  that  city,  in  1742,  a  catechism  in 
Irish  and  English,  remarkable  for  its  fulness  and  clearness. 
Donlevy's  catechism  was  reprinted  in  Dublin,  in  1822, 
under  editorship  of  Rev.  John  M'Encroe,  subsequently 
Dean  of  Sydney  ;  and  again  by  the  firm  of  Duffy  &  Co.,  in 
1848. 

In  1749,  the  Most  Rev.  Michael  O'Reilly,  Bishop  of 
Derry,  and  subsequently  Primate  of  all  Ireland,  published 
a  catechism  in  Irish  and  in  English,  which  was  generally 
adopted  in  Ulster,  and  the  English  edition  of  which  was  in 
general  use  in  the  province  of  Armagh  until  1875.  Dr. 
Nary,  of  Dublin,  published  a  catechism  in  English  for  the 
use  of  his  parish,  in  1720.  Dr.  De  Burgo,  O.P.,  published 
an  English  catechism  at  Lisbon,  in  1752.  Towards  the 
dose  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Dr.  James  Butler,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cashel,  published  a  catechism  in  English.  Of 
this  catechism,  Dr.  Troy,  in  a  letter  dated  30th  October, 
1777,  stated  that  he  '  thought  it  peculiarly  calculated  to 
promote  the  Christian  Doctrine  among  the  lower  classes 
of  the  people.' 1 

Butler's  catechism  was  translated  into  Irish  by  his 
successor,  Dr.  Bray,  for  the  use  of  those  unacquainted 
with  English.  The  English  edition  of  Butler's  catechism 
has  practically  superseded  all  others  in  Ireland.  A  new 
edition  of  it,  with  some  modifications  whereby  the  sub- 
stance of  each  question  is  repeated  in  the  answer,  was 
published  after  the  synod  of  Maynooth  in  1875,  and  is  now 
the  catechism  in  general  use  throughout  Ireland.  Some 
other  Irish  prelates  also  published  diocesan  catechisms. 
Amongst  them  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  M'Kenna  and 
Dr.  Coppinger,  of  Cloyne  and  Ross.  Dr.  O'Reilly  and  Dr. 
MacHale  of  Tuam,  whose  Irish  catechism  is  well  known  in 
the  Western  Province. 

So  many  editions  of  the  catechism  in  various  countries 

1  Renehan's  Archbishops,  p.  355. 


218  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

are  a  proof  of  the  zeal  of  the  bishops.  But  the  multipli- 
cation of  texts  was  not  without  inconveniences.  Differ- 
ences of  arrangement,  and  in  form  of  expression,  were 
inevitable.  Some  editors  aimed  at  a  theological  exposition, 
where  simplicity  would  have  been  more  appropriate. 
Important  points  were  occasionally  omitted  and  unimpor- 
tant questions  introduced.  Sometimes,  too,  an  excess  of 
rigour  appeared  in  the  statement  of  doctrine  or  of  moral 
obligations.  Moreover,  the  face  of  the  world  had  been 
changing.  More  than  in  ancient  times  men  pass  in  large 
numbers  from  one  country  to  another.  Finding  the 
Christian  Doctrine  explained  in  their  new  abodes  in  a 
different  order  from  that  to  which  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed emigrants  were,  to  some  extent,  embarrassed.  The 
clergy  were  no  less  perplexed  in  dealing  with  them. 
Gradually  a  desire  sprang  up  in  various  quarters  for  the 
adoption  of  a  universal  catechism. 

Provincial  Councils  discussed  the  subject.  The  synod 
of  Vienna  in  1858,  of  Prague  in  1860,  of  Cologne  in  1863, 
gave  expression  to  the  desire  that  a  common  text  should 
be  adopted.  When  the  Vatican  Council  assembled  in 
1869,  one  of  the  subjects  proposed  for  its  consideration 
was  the  adoption  of  a  universal  catechism.  A  schema 
was  submitted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Council  proposing 
for  adoption  the  Latin  text  of  Bellarmine's  catechism  : 
to  be  translated  into  the  vernacular  by  the  bishops  of  the 
various  countries.  The  question  was  discussed  in  four 
General  Congregations.  The  German  bishops  were  re- 
luctant to  abandon  the  catechism  of  Canisius.1  Mgr. 
Hefele  read  a  Memorandum  by  Cardinal  Raucher,  in 
which  his  Eminence  pointed  out  the  difficulties  which  a 
change  of  catechism  might  create  in  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Empire,  in  consequence  of  the  approval  by  the  government 
of  the  catechism  then  in  use.  The  Archbishop  of  Avignon, 
and  some  other  French  prelates,  put  forward  similar 
objections  to  a  change  of  catechism  in  France.  At  length 
in  the  fifty-first  General  Congregation  an  amended  schema 

1  Emilie  Ollivier,  L'tglise  et  I'Stat  au  Concile  du  Vatican,  vol.  ii.,  p.  262. 


CATECHISM  219 


was  submitted  for  discussion.  It  proposed  that  the  Pope 
should  publish  an  universal  catechism  in  Latin,  based  on 
that  of  Bellarmine  and  other  approved  catechisms  ;  that 
the  bishops  in  each  country  should  publish  a  translation 
of  the  Papal  catechism  in  the  vulgar  tongue  ;  and  that  they 
should  be  free  to  add  such  explanation  as  they  might  deem 
necessary  to  refute  local  errors,  provided  the  additions 
were  made  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  text. 

On  4th  May,  1870,  the  amended  scheme,  which  we  give 
below,  was  submitted  for  discussion.1  Five  hundred  and 
ninety-one  Fathers  were  present.  Of  these  491  voted 
Placet,  fifty-six  Non  Placet,  and  forty-four  Placet  juxta 
modam.  By  this  vote  the  principle  of  a  universal  text 
was  adopted.  But  the  question  of  Papal  Infallibility 
was  pressing  for  decision,  and  before  that  of  the  catechism 
could  be  reached  the  Council  was  adjourned.  But  the 
idea  of  a  universal  text  had  not  been  allowed  to  perish. 
In  1875,  the  Bishops  of  Ireland  adopted  a  common  text 
for  the  whole  country.  The  Bishops  of  the  United  States, 
assembled  at  Baltimore  in  1884,  recommended  the  use  of 
a  common  text  in  America.  The  Council  of  Latin  America, 

1  SCHEMA  CONSTITUTIONIS  DE  PARVO  CATECHISMO  JUXTA  EMENDATIONES  A 
GENERALI  CONGREGATIONS  ADMISSAS  REFORMATUM. 

Pius  episcopus,  servus  servorum  Dei,  sacro  approbante  Concilio,  ad 
perpetuam  rei  memoriam. 

De  confectione  et  usu  unius  parvi  Catechismi  pro  Universa   Ecclesia. 

Pia  Mater  Ecclesia  sponsi  sui  Salvatoris  Nostri  Jesu  Christi  monitis  et 
exemplis  edocta,  praecipuum  semper  curam  et  solicitudinem  erga  pueros 
impendit,  ut  lacte  coelestis  doctrinae  enutriti ;  ad  omnem  pietatis  rationem 
mature  informarentur.  Hinc  sacrosancta  Tridentina  Synodus  nedum 
episcopis  mandavit  ut  pueros  fidei  rudimenta  et  obedientiam  erga  Deum. 
et  parentes  diligenter  doceri  curarent,  sed  illud  praeterea  sibi  faciendum 
censuit  ut  certain  aliquam  formulam  et  rationem  traderet  Christiani  populi, 
ab  ipsis  fidei  rudimentis,  instituendi,  quam  in  omnibus  Ecclesiis  illi  se- 
querentur  quibus  legitimi  pastoris  et  doctoris  munus  esset  obeundum. 
Id  vero  cum  ab  ipsa  sancta  synodo  perfici  non  potuerit,  ex  ejusdem  votp, 
Apostolica  haec  Sedes  ad  optatum  exitum,  Catechismo  ad  Parochus  in 
lucem  edito,  feliciter  perduxit.  Neque  hie  constit ;  sed  Tridentinorum 
Patrum  menti  cumulatius  respondere  cupiens,  ut  unus  deinceps  idemque 
in  docendo  et  discendo  Christianam  doctrinam  ab  omnibus  teneretur, 
parvum  quoque  pro  pueris  erudiendis  Catechismum  a  venerabili  Cardinal! 
Bellarmino,  ipsa  jubente,  exaratum  approbavit,  omnibusque  Ordinariis, 
Parochis,  aliusque  ad  quos  spectat,  enixe  commendavit. 

Cum  autem  hac  nostra  aetate  ex  ingenti  in  diversis  Provinciis 
atque  etiam  dioecesibus  parvorum  Catechismorum  numero,  non  levia  oriri 


220  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

held  in  Rome  in  1900,  adopted  a  similar  resolution.  Last 
of  all,  in  a  letter  dated  i5th  July,  1905,  addressed  to  the 
Cardinal  Vicar,  his  Holiness  Pope  Pius  X  has  ordered  the 
adoption  of  a  uniform  text  of  catechism  in  Rome,  and  in 
the  suburban  dioceses,  and  has  expressed  a  desire  that 
the  same  text  shall  be  adopted  in  the  other  dioceses  through- 
out Italy.  By  the  adoption  of  a  common  text,  unity  of 
doctrine  is  better  preserved,  emigrants  from  one  country 
to  another  are  more  easily  instructed,  and  the  encroach- 
ments of  error  are  more  easily  guarded  against. 

The  catechism  now  published  by  order  of  the  Holy 
Father  deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice.  It  bears  the 
title  Compendia  delta  dottrina  cristiana,1  or  Compendium 
of  Christian  Doctrine.  It  contains  three  parts.  The 
first  part,  the  child's  catechism,  extends  over  three  chapters 
and  nine  pages.  The  second  part,  or  short  catechism,  in 
sixty-five  pages,  contains  five  sections  which  treat  of 
Faith,  Prayer,  the  Commandments  and  Sins,  the  Sacra- 
ments, and  the  Theological  Virtues.  Then  follows  the 
larger  catechism  with  a  similar  division.  The  first  part 
treats  of  the  articles  of  the  Creed,  and  under  the  ninth 
article,  six  sections  are  devoted  to  the  Church — (i)  the 

incommoda  compertum  est;  id  circo  Nos,  sacro  approbante  Concilio  ob 
oculos  habitis  imprimis  praedicto  Ven.  Card.  Bellarmini  Catechismo.  turn 
etiam  aliis  in  Christiano  populo  magis  pervulgatis  catechismis,  novum 
nostra  auctoritate  elucubrandum  curabimus,  quo  omnes  utantur,  sublata 
in  posterum  parvorum  catechismorum  varietate. 

Operam  vero  dabunt  in  singulis  provinciis  Patriarchae  vel  archi- 
episcopi,  collatis  prius  concilio  cum  suis  suffraganeis,  deinde  vero  cum 
aliis  archiepiscopis  ejusdem  regionis  et  idiomatis,  ut  illius  textus  in  vul- 
garem  linguam  fideliter  yertatur. 

Integrum  autem  erit  episcopis,  ejusdem  parvi  catechismi  usu  pro 
prima  fidelium  institutione  absque  ullis  additamentis  jugiter  retento,  ad 
eos  uberius  excolendos,  et  contra  errores,  qui  in  suis  forsan  regionibus 
grassantur,  praemuniendos,  ampliores  catecheticas  conficere  institutiones  ; 
quas  tamen,  si  cum  textu  praedicti  catechismi  et  non  seorsim  edere  volu- 
erint,  id  ita  fieri  debere  mandamus,  ut  textus  ipse  a  Nobis  praescriptus, 
ab  hujusmodi  institutionibus  patenter  distinctus  appareat. 

Denique  cum  parum  sit  catechismi  formulas  memoriae  a  fidelibus 
mandari,  nisi  ad  illas  pro  cujusque  captu  intelligendas  viva  voce  addu- 
cantur.  et  hac  ipsa  re  maxime  referat  ut  una  sit  tradendae  fidei,  et  ad 
omnia  pietatis  officia  populum  christianam  erudiendi  communis  regula 
atque  munus  impositum  est,  usum  memorati  catechismi  ad  Parochus,  uti 
saepe  alias  Praedecessores  Nostri,  ita  Nos  denuo  summopere  commendamus. 
— Acta  et  Decreta  SS.  Condi.  Vaticani,  Schema  XII,  Collectio  Lacencis, 
vol.  vii..  Appendix,  pp.  666,  667. 

1  Roma,  Tipografia  Vaticana,  1905. 


CATECHISM  221 


Church  in  general ;  (2)  the  Catholic  Church  ;  (3)  the  teaching 
Church  and  the  Church  taught  ;  (4)  the  Pope  and  the 
Bishops  ;  (5)  the  Communion  of  Saints  ;  (6)  those  without  the 
Church.  In  the  fourth  part,  which  treats  of  the  Sacraments, 
under  Penance  a  section  is  devoted  to  explain  the  doctrine 
of  Indulgences.  Under  Matrimony,  the  question  of  im- 
pediments, of  civil  marriage,  and  of  divorce  is  treated. 
In  the  fifth  part,  which  treats  of  the  virtues,  under  Faith 
a  section  is  devoted  to  the  explanation  of  the  meaning  of 
Scripture  and  Tradition,  and  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible. 
The  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Beatitudes  are  also 
explained.  To  the  text  of  the  catechism  are  added 
appendices.  The  first  of  these  is  a  catechism  of  the  festivals 
of  the  Church,  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  principal 
feasts  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  of  the  saints. 
Next  follows  a  succinct  history  of  religion,  as  contained 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  up  to  the  end  of  the  general  persecutions.  Then 
follows  a  brief  notice  of  the  heresies  and  the  general  councils, 
together  with  suggestions  how  to  study  religion  in  the 
history  of  the  Church.  The  little  volume  of  416  pages, 
I2mo,  closes  with  formulas  of  night  and  morning  prayers, 
prayers  for  confession  and  communion,  and  the  manner 
of  serving  Mass.  This  admirable  catechism  is,  perhaps, 
the  presage  of  the  universal  text  which,  no  doubt,  will 
one  day  be  adopted  throughout  the  Church. 

m. 

The  history  of  legislation  shows  us  the  mind  of  the 
Church  ;  that  of  texts  shows  the  efforts  that  have  been 
made  to  adopt  instruction  to  the  intelligence  of  the  young. 
But  legislation  and  texts  produce  little  fruit,  unless  in- 
struction be  imparted  with  method.  We  proceed,  therefore,, 
to  study  the  history  of  the  methods  which  have  been 
employed  in  catechetical  instruction.  In  the  early  Church 
the  teaching  of  Christian  Doctrine  was  carried  on  accord- 
ing to  a  well-defined  system.  Before  admission  to  the 
rank  of  catechumen,  converts  were  taught  the  principal 
mysteries  of  religion.  After  admission  they  were  gradually 


THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

initiated  in  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  Christianity, 
by  assisting  at  the  services  and  instructions  in  the  Church. 
When  their  conduct  gave  reason  to  hope  that  they  would 
loyally  bear  the  yoke  of  Christ,  they  were  permitted  to  have 
their  names  enrolled  as  candidates  for  Baptism.  That 
Sacrament  was  solemnly  administered  at  Easter  and  at 
Pentecost.  At  the  beginning  of  Lent,  a  careful  inquiry 
was  made  concerning  the  conduct  of  aspirants  to  Baptism. 
The  names  of  those  who  were  judged  competent  were  then 
enrolled. 

During  the  entire  Lent  they  assembled  daily  in  the 
church  to  receive  instruction.  Here  they  were  fully  in- 
structed in  the  truths  of  religion.  From  time  to  time 
the  exorcisms,  which  now  form  part  of  the  ceremonies  of 
Baptism,  were  performed.  As  Lent  advanced  the  text 
of  the  Creed  and  the  Pater  was  explained,  and  the 
candidates  were  required  to  commit  it  to  memory.  This 
was  called  the  traditio  symboli.  After  an  interval  of  some 
days  they  were  individually  examined,  and  made  to  repeat 
those  texts.  This  was  called  the  redditio  symboli.  Then 
they  were  obliged  to  renounce  Satan,  and  his  pomps  and 
works  ;  a  ceremony  full  of  meaning  at  a  time  when  the 
attractions  of  the  theatre,  and  the  arena,  and  the  circus 
exercised  such  fascination. 

At  length  on  Holy  Saturday  the  history  of  religion 
was  once  more  brought  before  them  by  the  reading  of  the 
prophecies,  which  still  form  a  part  of  the  Office  on  that  day. 
Then  Baptism  and  Confirmation  were  administered,  and  the 
neophytes  were  admitted  to  Holy  Communion.  During 
the  week  which  followed,  their  instruction  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  Holy  Eucharist  was  completed.  Such,  in  substance, 
was  the  method  of  instruction,  with  but  slight  modification 
in  detail,  followed  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 

In  the  account  of  her  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  the 
fourth  century,  given  by  Sylvia,  a  rich  lady  from  the  south 
of  France,  we  have  a  graphic  description  of  the  manner 
in  which  religious  instruction  was  imparted  in  the  East. 
She  speaks  of  the  preliminary  examination  at  the  beginning 
of  Lent  into  the  conduct  of  aspirants  to  Baptism,  of  the 


CATECHISM  223 


testimony  of  their  sponsors,  of  the  enrolment  of  their 
names.  Then  she  describes  their  instruction  by  the 
bishop  : — 

Commencing  with  Genesis  [she  writes],  he  goes  through  the 
entire  Scripture,  explaining  it,  first  literally,  and  then  spiritually. 
He  also  explains  during  those  days  all  that  relates  to  the 
Resurrection,  and  to  faith.  Now  this  is  called  catechizing. 
When  five  weeks  are  completed  from  the  commencement  of 
the  instruction  they  receive  the  symbol.  And  he  gives  the 
explanation  of  the  symbol,  first  literally  and  then  spiritually, 
by  means  of  the  Scriptures.  In  this  way  he  expounds  the 
symbol.  And  hence  it  comes  that  all  the  faithful  in  that  locality 
understand  the  Scripture  when  it  is  read  in  the  church,  because 
they  are  taught  it  during  those  forty  days  from  the  first  to  the 
third  hour,  for  the  catechism  lasts  for  three  hours.  .  .  . 
Then  one  by  one,  accompanied  by  their  sponsors,  they  repeat 
the  symbol. 

When  Easter  comes  Baptism  is  administered,  then 
further  instruction  is  given. 

And  as  the  bishop  preaches  and  explains  everything,  the 
applause  is  so  great  as  to  be  heard  outside  the  church.  And 
as  in  that  country  some  of  the  people  speak  both  Greek  and 
Syriac,  and  some  either  Greek  or  Syriac  only,  hence  as  the 
bishop,  though  he  should  know  Syriac,  speaks  only  in  Greek, 
and  never  in  Syriac,  a  priest  stands  beside  him,  who  interprets 
in  Syriac  what  he  says  in  Greek,  so  that  all  may  understand. 
.  .  .  And  if  there  be  Latins  present  who  understand  neither 
Greek  nor  Syrian,  the  bishop  instructs  them  also,  for  there  are 
brothers  and  sisters  who  know  Greek  and  Latin,  and  who  act 
as  interpreters.1 

The  Catechises  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom,  of  St.  Augustine,  St.  Ambrose,  and  St.  Cesarius  of 
Aries,  are  types  of  the  method  of  instruction  practised  in 
the  early  Church.  As  Fenelon  justly  remarks,1  it  was  the 
greatest  men  that  were  employed  to  give  those  instructions, 
hence  the  fruit  was  marvellous  and  now  seems  to  us  almost 
incredible. 

But  besides  the  solemn  religious  instructions  given 
as  a  preparation  for  Baptism,  in  certain  great  centres  there 

1  Perigrinatio  Silviae,  apud    Duchesne,  Origines  du    Culte  Chretien, 
3rd  edit.,  Appendix  3,  pp.  520-21. 
8  3  Dialogue  sur  I' Eloquence. 


224  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

were  catechetical  schools.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
was  that  of  Alexandria,  where  Pantenus,  and  Clement, 
and  Origen  taught.  The  works  of  Clement  show  what  the 
method  of  instruction  was.  His  Exhortatio  to  the  Gentiles, 
his  Pedagogue,  his  Stromata  or  miscellaneous  notes,  are  but 
a  summary  of  his  oral  teaching. 

Such  was  the  method  of  catechetical  instruction  in  use 
in  the  Church  until  the  seventh  century.  The  spread  of 
the  Gospel  and  the  disappearance  of  paganism  introduced 
a  new  order  of  things.  Those  now  requiring  instruction 
were  no  longer  converts,  but  Christians  baptized  in  infancy. 
For  their  instruction  new  methods  were  adopted.  The 
discipline  of  the  secret  disappears.  First  of  all,  as  we 
learn  from  St.  Cesarius  of  Aries,  parents  were  urged  to 
instruct  their  children  at  home,  in  the  dogmas  and  practices 
of  religion.  Sponsors  were  exhorted  to  teach  their  spiritual 
children  by  good  example.  But  the  duty  of  teaching 
Christian  Doctrine  was  in  a  special  manner  urged  upon  the 
clergy.  St.  Bede  in  a  letter  above  referred  to,  addressed  to 
Egbert,  Bishop  of  York,  exhorts  him  to  appoint  a  priest 
in  every  village  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  articles  of  the 
Creed  and  in  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  Synod  of  Cloveshoe  in 
747,  and  of  Calchut  in  787,  decreed  that  bishops  should 
visit  their  dioceses  annually ;  and  that  priests  should 
instruct  the  faithful  in  the  vulgar  tongue  in  the  Creed 
and  the  Pater.  It  is  manifest  from  the  Capitularies  and 
letters  of  Charlemagne,  that  in  the  ninth  century  the 
clergy  were  obliged  to  instruct  the  people  in  Christian 
Doctrine,  and  to  assure  themselves  that  parents  and 
sponsors  at  Baptism  knew  the  text  of  the  Creed  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  In  the  twelfth  century,  the  custom  was 
introduced,  as  we  learn  from  a  decree  of  a  synod  held  in 
Dublin  in  1186,  of  assembling  the  children  for  instruction 
at  the  church  door  on  Sundays. 

This  usage  appears  to  have  been  widespread.  For  the 
synod  of  Beziers,  in  1246,  and  that  of  Albi,  in  1254,  com- 
mand priests  to  explain  the  articles  of  the  Creed  in  a  clear 
and  simple  style,  on  Sundays  and  festivals.  And  they  add, 
that  the  children  shall  be  brought  to  church  on  Sundays 


CATECHISM  225 


and  festivals  to  be  taught    the  Pater,  Ave,  and   Credo. 
The  decree  of  the  synod  of  Lambeth,  already  referred  to, 
imposed   upon  priests   the  obligation   of  instructing   the 
people  in   a  simple  style  in   Christian  Doctrine.     Other 
synods  repeat  the  same  injunction  ;  and  add  that  priests 
shall  remind  the  people  to  instruct  their  children.     Con- 
fessors were  directed  to  inquire  of  parents  in  confession 
whether  they  had  fulfilled  that  duty.     From  all  these  facts 
we  gather  that  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  from  the 
eighth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  the  method  of  religious 
instruction  in  general  use  was  this  :  children  were  taught 
the  elements  of  religious    knowledge  at  home  ;    as  soon 
as  they  were  sufficiently  advanced  in  age  they  were  in 
structed  in  the  church  on  Sundays  and  festivals.   Moreover, 
the   general  character  of  parochial  instruction  was  cate- 
chetical.   Formal  sermons  were  rare.    An  instance  of  this 
is  to  be  found  in  one  of  the  earliest  books  published  by 
Caxton  in  1483.    The  book  contained  four  discourses  to 
be  delivered  to  the  people  on  Christian  Doctrine.    Now, 
the  decree  of  Lambeth  obliged  the  clergy,  to  repeat  those 
discourses  four  times  a  year.    Hence  we  are  justified  in 
concluding  that   at  least   sixteen  Sundays  in  each   year 
were   devoted    to  give   to   the   people  plain  catechetical 
instruction.     Such  a  method  could  not  fail  to  render  the 
faithful  familiar  with  the  dogmas  and  practices  of  religion. 
The  Council  of  Trent  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  methods 
of  religious  instruction.    Henceforward  instruction  in  the 
schools  and  instruction  in  the  church  go  hand  in  hand. 
The  teaching  of  catechism  in  school  became  an  established 
usage.     But   as  poverty  hindered  many  from   attending 
school  on  week-days,  the  synod  of  Cambrai,  1565,  decreed 
that  school-masters  should,  on  Sundays,  after  vespers,  teach 
those  unable  to  read  ;  and  chaplains  and  clerics  were  re- 
quired to  aid  in  the  good  work.    The  dioceses  of  Namur,. 
Tournay,  Arras,  and  St.  Omer's  adopted  the  legislation  of 
the  synod  of  Cambrai,  then  their  metropolis.    The  synod 
of  Malines,  in  1570,  urges  the  establishment  of  Sunday- 
schools  to  teach  the  poor  the  catechism  and  the  art  of 
reading  and  writing.    Thus    two  centuries   before  Robert 

VOL.    XIX.  P 


226  THE   IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

Raikes  organized  Protestant  Sunday-schools  in  Gloucester, 
Catholic  Sunday-schools  were  in  existence.  They  can  be 
traced  back  even  to  the  twelfth  century. 

The  better  to  carry  on  combined  secular  and  religious 
instruction,  confraternities  and  congregations  were  estab- 
lished to  undertake  the  work  of  teaching.  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  established  throughout  his  diocese  confraternities 
of  Christian  Doctrine.  St.  Joseph  Calasantius  founded 
an  Order,  named  Scolopi,  or  Of  the  Pious  Schools,  to  under- 
take the  education  of  youth.  Orders  of  women,  like  the 
Ursulines,  were  established  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
France  the  Venerable  Cesar  du  Bus  founded  the  Order  of 
Christian  Doctrine,  which  devoted  itself  to  education. 
The  great  Society  of  Jesus  held  aloft  the  banner  of  religion 
in  middle  and  higher  education.  St.  John  Baptist  de  la 
Salle  founded  the  Order  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
to  instruct  the  humbler  classes.  Learned  men,  like  Canisius, 
and  Bellarmine,  and  Bossuet,  endeavoured  to  produce 
texts  capable  of  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  children. 
Others,  like  Fleury,  published  text-books  of  the  history  of 
religion,  or  of  the  festivals  of  the  year.  Artists  lent  their 
aid,  and  illustrated  editions  of  the  catechism  rendered 
the  texts  more  interesting  and  instructive.  In  Rome  an 
illustrated  catechism  was  published  in  1587,  by  Father  John 
Baptist  Romano,  SJ.  At  Antwerp,  in  1589,  Christopher 
Plautus  printed  an  illustrated  edition  of  the  catechism  of 
Canisius.  At  Augsburg,  in  1614,  another  edition  of 
Canisius  was  published  with  one  hundred  and  three 
woodcuts.  At  Antwerp  another  illustrated  catechism,  with 
fifty- two  plates,  was  printed  in  1652,  and  sold  at  the 
moderate  price  of  two  sous.  In  France,  M.  Bourdoise, 
parish  priest  of  St.  Nicholas  de  Chardonnet,  made  use  of 
an  illustrated  catechism  for  the  instruction  of  the  young. 
Two  French  illustrated  catechisms  excelled  others  as  works 
of  art — one  published  in  1607  for  the  education  of  Louis 

XIII,  and  the  other  edited  for  the  instruction  of  Louis 

XIV,  and  afterwards  published  in  1645  with  the  title  of 
Catechisme    Royal.      In    the    eighteenth     and    nineteenth 
centuries  the  utility   of  illustrated  catechisms  has  been 


CATECHISM  227 

widely  recognized.  Many  such  catechisms  have  been  pub- 
lished ;  amongst  them  the  edition  of  the  catechism  of 
Bellarmine,  with  fifty  engravings  from  the  works  of  the  great 
masters,  published  by  Palme"  of  Paris  in  1884,  deserves 
mention. 

But,  excellent  as  is  the  method  of  teaching  catechism 
in  schools,  it  is  not  possible  in  all  countries,  and  even  where 
it  is  possible,  it  is  imperfect  unless  completed  by  instruction 
in  the  church.  Instruction  in  the  school  gives  a  knowledge 
of  the  text,  instruction  in  the  church  is  needed  to  impart 
an  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the  catechism.  In  all 
countries  catechetical  instruction  in  the  church  is  an  object 
of  solicitude.  But  in  no  country  has  it  been  so  highly 
systematized  as  in  France.  In  that  country  it  is  usual  to 
divide  catechetical  instruction  into  three  grades,  namely, 
the  elementary  grade,  for  children  between  the  age  of 
seven  and  nine  years  ;  the  first  communion  class  for  those 
between  nine  and  eleven,  and  lastly,  the  catechism  of 
perseverance  for  those  above  the  age  of  eleven.  The 
Reglement  des  Catechismes,  prescribed  by  Mgr.  Dupanloup, 
which  is  here  summarized,  will  show  the  method  adopted 
in  France. 

In  the  elementary  grade  the  catechism  class  lasts  an 
hour  and  a  half.  First  the  children  are  interrogated  on 
the  text  of  the  catechism  ;  in  the  second  place  they  are 
examined  on  the  subject  of  the  discourse  given  by  the 
priest  at  the  previous  class  ;  next  follows  a  discourse  of 
about  twenty  minutes'  duration  by  the  priest  in  charge  of 
the  catechism  explaining  the  text  of  the  catechism,  or 
giving  a  history  of  religion,  dwelling  on  the  history  of  the 
patriarchs  and  prophets,  on  the  coming  of  Christ,  the 
establishment  of  His  Church  and  the  institution  of  the 
Sacraments.  After  this  the  written  notes  of  the  previous 
discourse  are  examined.  Then  the  presiding  priest  gives 
a  short  practical  discourse  on  the  method  of  making  the 
Sign  of  the  Cross,  of  saying  morning  and  night  prayers,  of 
hearing  Mass  and  preparing  for  confession.  Lastly,  the 
Gospel  of  the  day  is  read,  and  a  short  explanation  of  its 
meaning  brings  the  exercise  to  a  close.  In  the  intervals, 


228  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

between  the  above  mentioned  exercises,  hymns  are  sung 
or  prayers  recited. 

In  the  first  communion  class  a  similar  method  is 
observed.  The  interrogations  are  made  on  the  text  of 
the  larger  catechism.  When  the  date  of  the  first  com- 
munion is  approaching  the  candidates  are  prepared  by 
special  instructions,  extending  over  about  two  months. 
During  that  period  the  future  communicants  are  assembled 
in  the  church  at  least  twice  a  week.  The  exercise  usually 
includes  Mass,  and  lasts  two  hours.  During  Mass  hymns 
are  sung  and  prayers  read  aloud,  then  follows  the  instruction 
as  above  described.  The  whole  catechism  is  gone  over. 
Particular  pains  are  taken  to  inculcate  the  duty  of  prayer,, 
and  to  prepare  the  children  for  a  general  confession. 
After  some  weeks'  instruction  the  children  are  examined, 
and  a  list  of  those  qualified  for  admission  to  first  com- 
munion is  prepared.  Special  instructions  are  then  given 
on  Holy  Mass  and  Holy  Communion.  The  candidates  are 
obliged  to  go  to  confession,  at  least  every  fifteen  days, 
at  this  period.  Finally,  the  preparation  for  first  com- 
munion is  brought  to  a  close  by  a  retreat  of  three  days* 
duration. 

The  day  of  first  communion  is  one  of  great  solemnity, 
and  on  the  day  which  follows,  the  first  communicants 
assemble  to  assist  at  a  Mass  of  thanksgiving.  For  eight 
days  they  continue  to  wear  the  white  dresses  or  badges 
which  they  wore  on  the  day  of  their  first  communion,  a 
usage  which  is  a  reminiscence  of  the  time  when  the 
catechumens  were  admitted  to  Holy  Communion  im- 
mediately after  Baptism,  and  for  eight  days  wore  white 
garments,  the  emblem  of  innocence  and  joy. 

After  first  communion  the  young  are  exhorted  to  fre- 
quent a  higher  course  of  catechism,  called  the  catechism  of 
perseverance.  The  same  order  of  exercises  is  observed 
as  in  the  catechism  of  first  communion.  In  some 
places  young  people  continue  to  attend  the  catechism  of 
perseverance  until  their  twentieth  year. 

The  co-operation  of  several  persons  is  necessary  to 
conduct  catechism  in  this  way.  Usually  in  large  parishes 


CATECHISM  229 


four  catechists  take  part  in  it.  One  presides  and  gives 
the  signal  for  the  various  exercises.  A  second  sees  that 
the  children  take  their  places  in  due  order,  and  notes  the 
absentees.  A  third  directs  the  singing  of  hymns.  A 
fourth  keeps  a  register  of  the  marks  obtained  by  the  children 
and  of  their  certificates  of  confession.  When  the  four 
catechists  are  priests,  each  gives  the  instruction  in  turn, 
but  the  admonitions  are  reserved  to  the  chief  catechist. 
Those  who  attend  the  catechism  of  perseverance  are 
recommended  to  communicate  every  month. 

It  is  manifest  that  children  who  have  prepared  for  their 
first  communion  by  a  four  years'  course  of  instruction, 
and  who  then  continue  to  attend  for  several  years  the 
catechism  of  perseverance,  must  possess  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  doctrine  and  practices  of  religion. 

In  recent  years  religious  instruction  is  being  steadily 
banished  from  primary  schools.  Hence  catechetical  in- 
struction in  the  church  has  become  more  necessary.  But 
in  large  centres  there  are  many  children,  such  as  errand 
boys,  sweeps,  circus  children,  who  can  hardly  be  reached 
by  ordinary  methods.  Even  these  are  provided  for. 
Confraternities  of  catechists  have  been  found  to  assist 
the  clergy  in  instructing  such  children.  In  Paris  alone, 
in  1900,  the  number  of  ladies  who  voluntarily  gave 
their  services  to  this  good  work  amounted  to  2,500,  and 
the  number  of  children  instructed  to  over  26,500.  In 
Paris,  too,  an  ambulant  school  has  been  provided  for  the 
jorains,  or  circus  children,  and  in  these  they  receive  both 
secular  and  religious  instruction. 

Such  is  a  summary  of  the  methods  which  have  been 
adopted  at  various  periods  in  imparting  religious  instruction. 
It  shows  how  zealously  the  Church  has  at  all  times  en- 
forced the  duty  of  teaching  Christian  Doctrine.  To  carry  on 
that  work  with  success,  many  elements  must  be  combined, 
parents  at  home,  teachers  in  the  schools,  and  the  clergy 
must  work  together.  The  knowledge  of  the  text  of  the 
catechism  is  not  enough.  The  catechism  must  be  known, 
it  must  be  understood,  it  must  be  reduced  to  practice. 
Teachers  in  the  schools  can  give  a  knowledge  of  the  text 


230  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  the  catechism.  It  is  the  office  of  the  clergy  to  explain, 
its  meaning  in  such  a  way  as  to  enlighten  the  intelligence 
of  the  young,  and  to  move  their  hearts  and  wills  to  practice 
it. 

This  [says  Pius  X]  is  the  office  of  the  catechist,  to  treat  some 
triith  pertaining  either  to  faith  or  Christian  morality,  and  to 
illustrate  it  in  every  possible  way  ;  and  as  the  end  of  instruction 
ought  to  be  an  amendment  of  life,  the  catechist  ought  to  draw 
a  parallel  between  what  God  commands  to  be  done,  and  what 
men  actually  do  :  then  by  means  of  carefully  chosen  examples, 
either  from  Sacred  Scripture,  or  ecclesiastical  history,  or  the 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  he  should  persuade  his  audience,  and  point 
out  to  them  clearly  a  rule  of  conduct,  and  conclude  by  exhorting 
all  present  to  dread  and  fly  vice,  and  pursue  virtue.1 

To  catechize  with  success  requires  greater  diligence 
than  any  other  kind  of  public  speaking.  It  is  easier, 
says  the  Holy  Father,  to  find  an  eloquent  preacher  than 
a  good  catechist.  Yet  catechetical  instruction  is  no  less 
noble  and  far  more  necessary  than  preaching.  It  is  the 
foundation  on  which  the  spiritual  life  of  the  people  depends. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  recent  legislation  of  the  Holy  Father 
may  stimulate  the  zeal  of  pastors,  and  elevate  still  more 
the  standard  of  religious  instruction. 

PATRICK  BOYLE,  C.M. 


1  Encyclical  on  Christian  Doctrine,  I5th  April,   1905. 


C  231    ] 


IT  had  been  my  original  intention    to  discuss,  in  one 
paper,  the  whole  question  of  devotion  to  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  our  Blessed   Lord,  in  its  varied  latter-day 
manifestations.     But    some    things    which    have    rather 
recently  come  within  the  limit  of  my  experience  insinuated 
the  belief  that  I  should  discharge  my  duty  of  speaking 
with  more  satisfaction  to  myself,  and  with  more  profit  to 
my  readers,  if  I  confined  my  attention,  in  this  article,  to 
the  devotion   in  its  daily  and  general  aspects,  reserving 
the  devotion  of  the  Nine  Fridays  for  separate  treatment. 

I  trust  I  shall  be  pardoned  if  I  discuss,  at  a  little  length, 
a  subject  which  I  referred  to  very  briefly  in  a  former  article, 
namely,  the  Catholic  idea  of  devotion  to  images  in  its 
relation  to  Catholic  practice.  I  have  no  intention  of  deal- 
ing with  the  question  in  the  hope  of  arriving  at  certainty 
in  detail — for  I  believe  such  hope  a  vain  presumption. 
I  would  speak  of  it  simply  because  I  feel  convinced  that 
discussion  of  the  matter,  though  it  cannot  lead  to  finality, 
may  lead  to  salutary  self-examination. 

The  Catholic  idea  in  the  matter  of  images — what  is  it  ? 
Solemn  definition  has  not  quite  decided  it  in  terms  of 
ultimate  analysis,  but  it  has  fixed  its  limits.  The 
Seventh  General  Council  of  the  Church,  held  at  Nice  in 
787,  to  put  a  stop  to  the  unholy  war  against  image-worship 
begun  by  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian  in  724,  decreed 
that  the  sacred  images  of  Christ,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
of  the  saints  should  be  restored  to  their  places  of  honour 
in  the  churches,  oratories,  and  private  dwellings.  It 
declared,  moreover,  that  it  is  lawful  to  honour  all  such 
images  with  a  true  and  sacred  respect  and  reverence  ;  but 
it  solemnly  warns  the  faithful  that  no  image  is  to  be  wor- 
shipped with  absolute,  supreme  worship,  for  such  worship 
it  declares  to  be  due  to  God  alone. 


232  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  sacred  Council  of  Trent,  it  is  true,  in  words  of 
grave  admonition,  reminds  the  bishops  of  the  Christian 
wcrld  of  the  solemn  obligation  which  is  laid  upon  them 
to  preserve  the  truth  and  purity  of  public  worship.  Yet, 
right  in  the  teeth  of  the  iconoclasm  of  the  so-called  re- 
formers, it  flings  the  sacred  challenge  of  the  Lord  : — 

The  images  of  Christ,  of  His  Virgin  Mother,  and  of  the  other 
saints,  are  to  be  kept  especially  in  the  churches,  and  are  to 
receive  due  honour  and  veneration  ;  not  that  we  believe  them 
to  possess  any  divinity  or  virtue  which  could  give  them  a  claim 
on  our  devotion  .  .  .  but  because  the  reverence  shown  to  them 
is  referred  to  the  prototypes  whom  they  represent ;  so  that 
through  the  images  which  we  kiss,  and  in  whose  presence  we 
uncover  the  head  and  bend  the  knee,  we  adore  Christ,  and 
reverence  the  saints  whose  image  they  bear.1 

In  my  former  article,  of  which  I  have  already  made 
mention,2  I  called  the  worship  paid  to  images,  relative. 
To  prevent  misconception,  let  me  observe  that  I  did  not 
thereby  mean  to  exclude,  of  necessity,  direct  reverence, 
that  is,  reverence  paid  directly  and  truly  to  the  image 
itself.  I  simply  wished  to  emphasize  the  declaration  of 
the  Seventh  General  Council,  that  to  no  image  whatsoever, 
therefore  to  no  image  of  Christ,  our  Lord,  to  no  represen- 
tation even  of  the  Divinity,  may  we  give  the  supreme 
worship  of  latria — as  also  to  interpret  shortly  the  evident 
sense  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  when  it  declares  that,  though 
we  are  to  give  to  images  the  honour  and  veneration  which 
is  their  due,  this  is  not  because  they  possess  in  themselves 
any  divinity  or  virtue  which  could  give  them  a  title  to 
our  reverence,  but  because  the  honour  paid  to  them  is 
referred  to  the  prototypes  whom  they  represent. 

This,  at  all  events,  is  a  something  above  the  plane  of 
dispute, — it  is  a  dogma  of  faith, — namely,  that  the  rever- 
ence due  to  images  is  a  reverence  sacred  and  real.  But 
the  question  not  unnaturally  arises,  and  is  worth  consider- 
ing a  little — what  is  the  precise  character  of  this  reverence, 
and  how  is  its  character  determined  ?  In  other  words,  is 
the  reverence  due  to  the  images  of  Christ,  His  Virgin 

1  Sessio  XXV  ,  De  Sacris  Imaginibus. 

2  I.  E.  RECORD,  Nov.,  1904. 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  233 

Mother,  and  the  other  saints,  always  of  quite  a  subordinate 
character,  no  matter  whom  the  images  represent ;  deter- 
mined, therefore,  at  least  in  substance,  by  the  fact  that 
every  image  is  a  sacred  symbol,  and  as  such,  worthy  of  our 
veneration  ?  Or  must  the  nature  of  the  reverence  be 
definitely  and  wholly  determined  by  the  dignity  of  the 
person  whom  the  image  has  been  fashioned  to  represent ; 
the  reverence  due  to  the  image  being  on  precisely  the  same 
level  as  that  given  to  the  prototype,  that  is,  co-ordinate 
though  relative  ? 

I  think  it  must  be  honestly  admitted  that  a  certain 
authoritative  answer  to  these  questions  is  a  something 
still  to  be  desired  ;  a  fact  which,  considering  the  practical 
character  of  the  matter  at  issue,  seems  to  me  to  constitute 
a  very  mysterious  phenomenon  in  the  economy  of  Catholic 
definition  and  discipline.  And  certainly  the  mystery  is 
not  lessened  when  we  turn  and  find  ourselves  face  to  face 
with  such  sharp  conflict  of  opinion  as  this  very  question 
has  given  rise  to  in  the  domain  of  Scholastic  theology. 

St.  Thomas,  prince  of  the  schoolmen,  holds — and  his 
opinion  has  been  accepted  by  many  of  the  greatest  names 
amongst  the  earlier  and  later  scholastics — that  the  reverence 
due  to  the  image  is  precisely  the  same  in  character  as  the 
reverence  due  to  the  prototype  ;  that,  by  the  one  individual 
act,  we  reverence  both  the  prototype  and  the  image,  giving 
to  the  former  the  fulness  of  homage  which  is  its  due  and 
yet  not  excluding  the  latter. 

Do  we,  therefore,  suppose  equality  of  dignity  and 
identity  of  title  ?  The  reply  of  course,  is  absolutely  in 
the  negative.  For  the  homage,  in  as  far  as  it  is  given  to 
the  original  is  absolute,  while  in  so  far  as  it  extends  to 
the  original,  it  is  purely  relative  ;  it  is  paid  to  the  original 
because  of  a  dignity  which  is  inherent,  to  the  image  because 
of  a  dignity  which  is  entirely  derivative.  By  an  act  of 
the  mind,  the  sacred  prototype  is  clothed  with  its  image 
as  with  a  garment,  and  being  thus  reverenced,  the  garment 
which  it  has  assumed,  that  is,  the  image,  becomes,  as  it 
were  by  accident,  a  sharer  in  the  honour.  The  honour  is, 
therefore,  relative,  because  founded  on,  and  the  result  of} 


234  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

a  relation  which  is  extrinsic  and  of  the  purely  intentional 
order. 

Hence,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  the  images  of  the 
saints  are  to  be  reverenced  with  the  reverence  of  dulia, 
those  of  our  Blessed  Lady  with  the  reverence  of  hyper- 
dulia,  and  those  of  the  Divinity  and  of  Christ  our  Lord 
with  the  reverence  of  latria. 

The  last  portion  of  this  statement  seems,  at  first  sight, 
to  fly  in  the  face  of  the  Seventh  General  Council,  which 
has  declared  that  to  no  image  whatsoever  may  we  give 
the  supreme  worship  of  latria.  That  no  such  opposition 
really  exists  or  was  ever  intended,  can  be  inferred  from 
the  fact,  which  we  are  surely  warranted  in  taking  for 
granted,  that  the  '  Angel  of  the  Schools '  was  perfectly 
aware  of  the  decree  in  which  this  prohibition  is  enunciated. 

The  ground  of  reconciliation  I  believe  to  be  partly 
historical,  and  partly  theological.  It  is  historical,  as 
supposing — which  must  be  fairly  evident — that  the  decree 
in  question  contemplates  the  existence  amongst  the  faithful 
of  a  view  of  images  which  was  either  altogether  supersti- 
tious, as  giving  to  images  a  sacred  dignity  in  their  own 
exclusive  right,  or  such  a  view  as  Cardinal  Bellarmine  holds 
to  be  the  true  one,  as  I  shall  explain  a  little  further  on. 
In  either  hypothesis,  theology  solves  the  difficulty  in 
question  ;  for,  then,  the  reverence  paid  to  images  could 
never  be  the  supreme  reverence  of  latria,  but  of  quite  an 
inferior  order,  if  paid  at  all.  In  St.  Thomas's  view  of  the 
office  of  images  and  of  the  proper  mode  of  giving  them 
reverence,  the  homage  given  to  the  images  of  our  Lord, 
or  of  the  Divinity,  would  be,  not  the  absolute  worship  of 
latria,  not  latria  by  definition,  not  latria  in  virtue  of  in- 
herent dignity,  but  the  relative  worship  of  latria,  latria , 
as  it  were,  by  accident,  latria  founded  on  a  borrowed, 
fleeting  dignity,  the  outcome  of  the  mind's  endeavour. 

Apart  from  the  great  and  hallowed  names  which  stand 
sponsor  for  this  opinion,  the  manner  of  worship  which  it 
advocates  does  seem  to  be  the  ideal.  While  according  to 
images  their  due  meed  of  reverence  and  their  true  internal 
significance,  it  ever  tends  to  keep  us  in  touch  with  the 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACKED  HEART  235 

prototypes.  In  this  view,  images  sweetly  and  silently 
introduce  us  to  the  court  of  heaven,  but  never  intrude. 
They  realize  their  office,  and  fulfil  it  faithfully  ;  in  their 
nature  mere  things  of  earth,  they  know  their  place  and 
keep  it. 

It  must  be  confessed,  at  the  same  time,  that  this  atti- 
tude towards  images,  when  reduced  to  practice,  is  not 
without  its  inconveniences  ;  nay,  for  the  uninstructed  or 
unthinking,  it  has  an  element  even  of  danger.  Through 
inadvertence,  or,  it  may  be,  through  ignorance,  it  is  very 
easy  to  confuse  or  even  pervert  the  relation  between  the 
image  and  its  prototype  ;  to  mistake  the  likeness  for  the 
original ;  to  forget  that  the  image  is  but  a  lifeless  figure, 
having  eyes  which  see  not  and  ears  which  cannot  hear  ; 
and,  thus,  to  give  to  a  soulless  canvas  or  a  senseless  piece  of 
sculptured  stone  or  of  clay  the  homage  and  reverence  due 
only  to  God  and  to  His  saints.  This  is  surely  a  corruptio 
optimi,  a  perversion  which  is  necessarily  tainted  with  the 
foul  taint  of  superstition,  and  which  may  dip  into  the 
fouler  pit  of  idolatry. 

Still,  the  opinion  advocated  by  St.  Thomas  seems  to 
have  held  its  ground,  practically  unchallenged,  from  his 
own  day  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
after. 

The  sacred  Council  of  Trent  very  significantly  deals 
with  the  question  of  devotion  to  images  under  the  heading, 
De  Reformatione  ('  Reform').  It  looked  out  upon  a  world 
of  dire  upheaval,  a  world  in  which  so  much  mischief  had 
been — and  was  still  being — worked  under  the  specious  plea 
of  *  reformation.'  It  was  fully  aware  that  the  Catholic 
attitude  towards  images,  and  the  abuses  incidental  to 
Catholic  practice,  had  furnished  one  of  the  strongest  pre- 
texts for  heretical  attack.  It  speaks  to  the  Christian 
world  in  solemn  words  of  encouragement  and  in  accents  of 
solemn  warning.  And  yet,  on  the  question  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  reverence  which  we  should  pay  to  images,  it 
has  thought  fit  to  speak  in  terms  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  strangely  indecisive. 

Not    so    the    great    Cardinal    Bellarmine.      Speaking 


236  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

generally,  it  may  be  safely  stated  that,  while  preserving  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  intact,  his  aim  seemed  to  be,  when 
dealing  with  the  heretics  with  whom  in  his  time  he  came 
face  to  face,  to  explain  and  defend  Christian  dogma  along 
the  lines  of  least  resistance.  Not  unnaturally,  he  con- 
sidered the  old  Scholastic  way  of  speaking  in  the  matter 
of  the  reverence  due  to  images,  as  very  much  open  to 
misrepresentation  ;  and  he  has  very  little  hesitation  about 
giving  his  thoughts  expression,  nor  does  he  mince  his  words 
in  the  process. 

Referring  l  to  the  opinion  advocated  by  St.  Thomas, 
Bellarmine  says  that  such  a  way  of  speaking  '  is  fraught 
with  danger ' — a  somewhat  exaggerated  presentation  of 
the  matter  ;  nay,  it  '  is  calculated  to  lead  the  faithful 
astray,  inasmuch  as  it  cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained 
without  a  multitude  of  subtle  distinctions,  which  the  authors 
themselves  do  not  understand ' — surely  the  Cardinal's 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  orthodoxy  must  have  led  his  judgment 
captive  here.  Lastly,  it  '  gives  heretics  an  opportunity 
of  more  freely  blaspheming ' — a  conclusion  drawn,  we  may 
presume,  from  his  own  observation  and  experience.  With 
regard  to  this  parting  shot,  I  may  remark  that  the  Cardinal 
does  not  undertake  to  prove  it ;  in  fact  it  belongs  to  that 
class  of  statements  which  can  be  just  as  safely  denied  as 
affirmed,  because  equally  incapable  of  being  satisfactorily 
proved  or  disproved. 

He  quite  admits  that  it  is  justifiable  to  reverence  images 
with  the  reverence  due  to  the  original,  provided  it  is  given 
as  it  were  by  accident,  and  relatively.  But  he  strongly 
asserts  that  such  a  way  of  showing  reverence  is  neither 
feasible,  nor  is  it  ever,  except  very  rarely,  adopted  by  the 
faithful.  2 

His  contention,  therefore,  is  that  we  ought  to  regard 
images  simply  as  sacred  things,  sacred  symbols  dedicated 
to  sacred  uses,  and,  as  such,  worthy  of  our  respect  and 
reverence  ;  not,  however,  of  such  reverence  as  we  would 
give  to  an  intelligent  being,  for  images  have  neither  mind 

1  De  Imaginibus,  lib.  2,  cap.  xxii. 

2  Ibid.,  cap.  xxiii. 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  237 

nor  sense,  nor  life,  but  with  a  certain  subordinate  character 
of  sacred  reverence.  The  respect  thus  paid  to  images  bears 
to  the  reverence  due  to  the  original  a  certain  relation  of 
analogy,  and  is  quite  incapable  of  being  classed  under  the 
same  immediate  heading.  The  reverence  given  to  the 
images  of  the  saints  the  Cardinal  would  call  not  dulia 
properly  so  called,  but  dulia  secundum  quid,  dulia  only  in 
a  sense,  a  very  imperfect  imitation  of  the  dulia  given  to 
the  saints  themselves,  just  as  the  image  itself  is  an  im- 
perfect reproduction  of  the  prototype.  In  a  like  sense 
the  reverence  given  to  images  of  our  Blessed  Lady  would 
be  hyperdulia  secundum  quid,  and  that  paid  to  images  of 
our  Divine  Lord,  latria  secundum  quid.1 

This  view  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  contrasted  with  the 
opinion  of  St.  Thomas,  would  explain  itself  somewhat 
after  the  following  fashion.  An  image  fresh  from  the  hands 
of  the  artificer,  and  made  to  resemble  in  some  sense  our 
Lady,  Queen  of  Heaven,  for  example,  by  that  very  fact 
puts  on  a  certain  inferior  kind  of  consecration  and  an 
abiding  character  of  sacredness.  It  has  a  sacred  office  ; 
it  is,  or  is  conceived  to  be,  a  representation  of  a  sacred 
prototype,  and,  as  such,  is  a  lasting  memento  or  reminder. 
This  precisely  is  its  function,  namely,  not  so  much  to 
represent  our  Lady,  as  to  help,  to  suggest,  devotion  to  her. 
And  from  the  character  of  its  office  follows  the  character 
of  the  veneration  which  is  its  due.  It  is  a  herald,  not  an 
ambassador.  It  has  a  certain  dignity  abiding  in  itself, 
though  not  of  itself  ;  such  dignity  must  necessarily  be  of 
quite  a  subordinate  character,  and  can,  therefore,  claim 
only  a  subordinate  character  of  veneration. 

If  the  purposes  of  controversy  and  dogmatic  defence 
be  alone  considered,  I  do  not  think  there  is  anyone  who 
could  wholly  disagree  with  this  contention  of  the  great 
Cardinal.  But  if  we  look  at  the  matter  from  the  point  of 
view  of  discipline  and  liturgy,  one  may  hesitate  a  little 
before  subscribing  to  his  opinion. 

It  is  quite  evident  indeed  that,  if  the  faithful  regard 
images  as  Cardinal  Bellarmine  contends  they  ought  and 

i  De  Imaginibus,  lib.  2,  cap.  xxv. 


238  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

almost  invariably  do,  idolatry  becomes  so  far  an  absolute 
impossibility.  For,  though  I  may  forget  the  purpose  of 
the  statue  which  I  venerate,  though  I  may  unduly  regard 
it  as  having  an  excellence  all  its  own,  and  consequently 
reverence  it  with  a  reverence  which  is  quite  unwarranted, 
because  unfounded,  still,  since  I  look  upon  this  excellence 
as  something  of  a  subordinate  character,  it  follows  that 
the  reverence  which  I  pay  it,  though  not  justifiable,  is  of 
a  subordinate  character  as  well.  My  reverence  is  misplaced 
and,  therefore,  superstitious,  but  cannot  run  into  the 
enormity  of  idolatry. 

But  there  is  another  view  of  the  question  which  makes 
the  opinion  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  compare  less  favourably 
with  that  of  the  older  schoolmen.  For,  the  image  is  the 
thing  which  our  eyes  can  see  and  our  hands  can  handle. 
Therefore,  to  give  the  image  an  office  and  a  dignity  of  its 
own,  definitely  distinct  from  the  prototype  whom  it  re- 
presents, is  necessarily  to  bring  the  image  well  into  the 
foreground  of  our  thoughts  and  to  keep  the  prototype 
somewhat  in  the  background.  At  any  rate,  it  may  be  fairly 
contened  that,  if  the  practice  which  the  Cardinal  so  strongly 
advocates  be  the  true  one  and  the  one  of  fact,  devotion  to 
images  does  not  of  necessity  connote  adequate,  conscious 
devotion  to  Christ  and  His  saints. 

But  perhaps  we  can,  by  one  individual  act  of  the  mind, 
reverence  the  image  with  the  lower  reverence  which  is  its 
due,  and  the  original  with  a  higher,  becoming  reverence  ? 
And  again,  is  not  reverence  shown  to  the  image,  though 
of  a  lower  order,  ultimately  resolvable  into  reverence 
shown  to  the  saint  ? 

The  second  question,  I  am  quite  prepared  to  answer  in 
the  affirmative — provided  I  am  allowed  to  qualify  my 
answer  by  another  question:  Will  any  saint  be  content 
with  such  devotion  or  reverence  as  the  normal  rule  of  our 
relations  towards  him  ? 

With  regard  to  the  first  question,  if  mere  possibility 
be  considered,  there  is  only  one  answer,  and  that  affir- 
mative. But,  a  posse  ad  esse  non  valet  ittatio — possibility 
and  fact  are  not  convertible  terms.  Such  composite 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  239 

reverence   is  possible,  but  is  it  likely  that   it    will  ever 
become  anything  like  a  rule  of  life  ? 

May  I  not  reverence  the  original  by  a  higher  and  inde- 
pendent act  of  reverence,  at  the  same  moment  that  I  am 
paying  lower  homage  to  the  image  ?  Of  course  I  may. 
But  is  there  not  some  danger  lest,  with  my  eyes  resting 
on  the  image,  I  may  forget  the  higher  and  more  funda- 
mental duty  ?  We  all  know  how  easily  our  senses  lead 
us,  and  the  knowledge  is  often  a  bitter  awakening. 

To  the  question — what  is  the  actual  attitude  of  the 
Catholic  mind  towards  images  ?  I  honestly  believe  a  definite 
answer  utterly  impossible.  That  Catholic  devotion  to 
images  has  always  meant  genuine  devotion  to  Christ  and 
His  saints,  it  would  be  idle  to  affirm  ;  that  it  has  been 
often  tinged  with  superstition,  it  would  be  just  as  idle  to 
deny  ;  to  deny  it  would  be  to  close  our  eyes  against  the 
clear  light  of  history.  That  all  Catholics,  who  give  the 
images  their  due  meed  of  reverence,  look  at  them  in  the 
same  way,  or,  that  the  same  individual  looks  at  them 
from  the  same  point  of  view  at  all  times  and  in  all  places, 
are  propositions  which  I  should  feel  very  little  hesitation 
in  doubting  or  even  denying. 

It  is  now  some  years  since  I  was  witness  to  an 
exhibition  of  Catholic  devotion  which  made  an  impression 
upon  me  beyond  the  power  of  years  to  destroy  or  weaken. 
It  was  in  the  afternoon  of  a  bright  harvest  day.  The 
slanting  rays  of  a  sweltering  autumn  sun  were  beating 
their  golden  light  against  the  sheaves  of  yellow  grain, 
which  a  score  of  men  and  women  were  busily  engaged  in 
saving.  Suddenly,  one  of  the  harvesters  called  attention 
to  something  passing  along  the  road  hard  by.  It  was  only 
a  statue  of  our  Blessed  Lady,  which  was  being  borne  from 
one  of  the  parish  chapels  to  another.  But  it  was  un- 
covered ;  as  it  were,  inviting  reverence.  All  looked  and 
saw — and  to  see  was  to  fall  upon  their  knees  and  pray.  It 
was  a  sight  not  to  be  forgotten,  a  sight  to  treasure  in  one's 
memory.  And  truly,  in  these  latter  days  of  weak  and 
calculating  faith,  it  is  only  memory  that  can  bring  such 
sterling  faith  in  cheering  vision  before  us. 


240  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

But,  to  my  purpose.  What  view  did  these  grand 
worshippers  take  of  that  statue  passing  by  ?  Did  they 
look  upon  it  merely  as  a  sacred  symbol,  a  suggestion,  an 
invitation  to  turn  their  thoughts  towards  her  whose  image 
it  was  supposed  to  bear  ?  It  may  be  that  they  really  did. 
But  to  me  they  seemed — and  still  they  seem — to  look  upon 
it  as  the  mystic  passing  of  their  Queen. 

I  began  this  discussion  by  a  confession  that  I  did  not 
open  it  with  a  view  to  saying  the  last  word  upon  the  matter. 
That  confession  I  think  I  have  amply  justified.  But,  I 
premised  as  well  that  I  trusted  the  discussion  would  not 
prove  quite  fruitless.  I  trust  so  still.  For  I  think  I  have 
proved  that  this  matter  of  devotion  to  images  means  a 
responsibility  which  cannot  be  shirked,  neither  in  the 
catechism  class,  nor  in  the  confessional,  nor  in  the  pulpit. 
Devotion  to  images  is  a  most  useful  and  a  most  salutary 
Catholic  practice ;  but  whatever  view  be  taken  of  the 
office  of  images,  this  devotion  can  never  be  wholly  free 
from  danger.  In  the  very  nature  of  things,  it  must  be  so  ; 
that  it  has  been  so,  more  than  one  page  of  authentic  Church 
history  could  furnish  proof.  The  moral  of  the  whole  dis- 
cussion is  crystallized  in  the  solemn  command  of  the  sacred 
Council  of  Trent,  that,  '  Everything  superstitious  in  the 
invocation  of  saints,  the  veneration  of  relics,  and  the  use 
of  images  be  removed,''  and  that  '  all  bishops  and  others 
to  whom  is  committed  the  office  of  teaching  .  .  .  should 
diligently  instruct  the  faithful  regarding  the  legitimate  use 
of  images.'  1 

So  far  I  do  not  seem  to  have  said  much  to  justify  the 
title  of  my  article.  To  remove  such  an  impression  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  image  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  in  a  church  is  the  geographical  centre 
round  which  rotate  very  many  of  the  daily  devotional 
practices  in  honour  of  the  adorable  Heart  of  our  Divine 
Lord.  It,  therefore,  becomes  practically  a  question  of 
specializing  my  criticism. 

It  is  a  dogma  of  Catholic  faith  that  Christ  as  Man  is  to 

1  Sess.  XXV.     The  italics  are  mine. 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  241 

be  reverenced  with  the  supreme  worship  of  latria.  The 
thesis  which  maintains  that  '  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  our  Blessed  Lord,  as  practised  by  Catholics  all  over 
the  world,  is  free  from  all  taint  of  superstition,' — though 
not  an  article  of  faith,  admits  neither  of  doubt  nor  denial, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  the  voice  of  the  Catholic  Church 
believing,  and  advocates  a  devotion  which  has  the  solemn 
approval  of  the  Apostolic  See.  It  is  also  certain  that  the 
material  object  of  this  devotion,  that  is,  the  Thing  which 
we  love  and  venerate,  is  the  living  Heart  of  Christ,  our 
Lord. 

It  would  fit  in  with  my  argument  here  to  draw  the 
attention  of  my  readers  to  an  interesting  rubrical  enact- 
ment, which  shows  very  clearly  the  anxiety  of  Holy  Church 
to  guard  this  cherished  devotion  against  all  danger  of 
superstitious  taint.  In  the  year  1857,  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  forbade  the  public  exposition  or  venera- 
tion of  representations  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  our  Blessed 
Lord  apart  from  the  full  figure.  The  prohibition  was  not 
quite  absolute,  inasmuch  as  it  left  it  within  the  discretion 
of  the  bishop  to  permit  such  representations,  if  he  thought 
fit. 

The  meaning  of  the  law  is  evident.  It  is  not  the  dead 
Heart,  but  the  living,  beating  Heart,  that  we  are  to  adore 
and  venerate. 

But  there  is  another  reason  which  might  well  have 
justified  such  an  enactment.  Theologians  discuss  the  ques- 
tion whether  we  may  venerate  the  Sacred  Heart  of  the  God- 
Man  with  a  reverence  less  than  divine.  To  give  an  answer  to 
such  a  question  is  not  my  concern  here.  I  merely  refer  to  it 
as  leading  up  to  the  proposition  on  which  all  are  neces- 
sarily agreed,  namely,  that  we  are  bound  to  reverence  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Christ,  primarily  and  in  the  first  instance 
at  least — if  not  exclusively — with  the  reverence  of  absolute 
adoration.  Not  that  the  Sacred  Heart  has  within  Its 
physical  composition  anything  which  constitutes  It  by 
nature  divine  ;  but  because,  in  virtue  of  the  hypostatic 
union,  it  is  the  Heart  of  God,  of  the  Second  Person  of  the 
adorable  Trinity  made  Man.  It  is  not  something  linked 

VOL.  XII.  Q 


242  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

with  Christ  our  Lord,  by  a  physical  bond  which  is  merely 
accidental,  as  were  the  garments  which  He  wore  as  He 
walked  by  the  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  Nor  is  Its  con- 
nection with  our  Divine  Lord  something  merely  intentional, 
merely  a  relation  of  contact  made  by  the  mind  of  the 
worshipper,  as  would  be  an  image  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
The  union  is  much  more  than  all  this,  of  an  order  infinitely 
higher.  It  is  real  and  physical,  it  is  intimate,  it  is  sub- 
stantial, that  is,  personal ;  so  supremely  intimate  that  to 
understand  Its  nature  is  quite  beyond  the  capacity  of 
human  comprehension — it  forms  one  of  the  chief  mysteries 
of  our  holy  faith. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  though  there  is  union 
the  most  undying  and  the  most  profound,  there  is  not, 
there  cannot  be,  identity.  The  Sacred  Heart  is,  and 
always  will  be,  human. 

Why,  then,  worship  It  as  a  thing  divine  ?  Because  It 
is  divine,  as  it  were,  by  participation.  Therefore,  we 
worship  It  not  quite  for  Its  own  sake,  but  because  we 
cannot  do  less  than  worship  Him  whose  very  Heart  It  is. 
And  when  we  pay  It  the  tribute  of  our  humble  adoration, 
He  is  always  before  our  minds  as  the  ultimate  governing 
reason  of  our  reverence  ;  and  of  a  surety,  we  must  believe 
Him  God  and  worship  Him  accordingly. 

It  is  just  here  that  the  prohibition  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  comes  in.  For  all  true  reverence  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  must  ultimately  resolve  itself  into  reverence 
towards  the  person  of  Christ.  What  more  helpful,  then, 
or  more  salutary,  than  that  the  image  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
should  always  form  part  of  a  whole,  which  represents,  as 
far  as  the  limitations  of  human  skill  permit,  the  living 
person  of  Christ,  our  Lord. 

Methinks  I  hear  around  me  just  now  a  subdued  and 
halting  chorus  of  question  and  expostulation  from  certain 
quarters  of  the  Church  Militant :  '  What  is  the  necessity 
for  a  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  a  church  at  all,  if  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  be  reserved  in  the  tabernacle  ?  Where 
does  its  usefulness  come  in  ?  A  statue  of  our  Lady  is  good 
and  helpful,  no  doubt,  for  it  is  a  visible,  constant  reminder 


243 


of  her  who  reigns  Queen  of  Heaven.  But  it  seems  quite 
otherwise  with  a  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart  placed  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  tabernacle.  What  need  of  a  lifeless  Heart 
to  remind  us  of  a  Living  One,  when  the  Living  Heart  is 
right  before  us  ?  And  if  we  needed  a  reminder  of  the 
Real  Presence,  have  we  not  got  it,  a  sure  and  a  safe  and 
an  unerring  one,  in  the  lamp  which  burns  before  the  altar 
of  the  Living  God  ? ' 

And  the  chorus  seems  to  swell  and  grow  insistent  : 
4  Are  not  the  abuses  which  are  the  daily  concomitant  of 
this  devotion,  as  practised  in  our  churches,  a  sufficient 
and  convincing  proof,  if  proof  were  needed,  that  a  statue 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  a  church  where  Christ  the  Living 
dwells,  is  rather  a  hindrance  than  a  help  ?  For  what  does 
our  modern  daily  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  too  often 
come  to  ?  Look  and  see — a  kneeling  figure,  a  lifeless  statue, 
a  fleeting  prayer,  a  lighted  candle, — behold  its  history.' 

What  answer  shall  I  make  to  all  these  indictments  ? 
I  do  not  find  the  task  an  easy  one.  As  a  personal  confes- 
sion, I  may  state  that  I  always  prefer  to  kneel  before  the 
living  tabernacle.  But  that  is  not  necessarily  more  than 
a  manifestation  of  individual  temperament.  At  the  same 
time,  I  must  confess  that  it  would  be  folly  to  deny  that  the 
statements  and  charges  just  enunciated  are  altogether 
without  foundation.  For  it  is  true  that,  in  the  daily  exer- 
cises of  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  churches  where 
the  Real  Presence  abides,  a  dead  Heart  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  a  living,  a  heart  of  stone  for  a  Heart  of  flesh  and 
blood,  a  something  far  less  than  human  for  a  Something 
by  assumption  divine. 

It  is  a  repetition  all  the  year  round  of  what  often  happens 
at  Christmas  time  when  the  Christmas  crib  is  erected. 
Worshippers,  old  and  young — and  for  the  young  the  prac- 
tise is  more  hurtful — come  and  pray  before  the  little  Babe 
in  the  manger,  and,  by  some  strange  fatality,  often  leave 
the  church  without  turning  their  thoughts,  even  for  a 
moment,  to  the  living  Prisoner  of  the  tabernacle.  They 
seem  to  have  forgotten  that  for  us,  the  Church  is  the  real 
stable,  and  the  manger  is  the  tabernacle. 


244  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL     RECORD 

Ought  we,  therefore,  remove  the  crib  from  its  quiet 
corner,  and  the  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart  from  its  pedestal  ? 
We  dare  not  answer  in  the  affirmative  ;  and  I  would 
not  though  I  dared.  To  begin  with,  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rity not  only  permits,  but  equivalently  approves  of,  such 
helps  to  devotion.  Moreover,  if  incidental  abuses  be  taken 
as  the  test  of  the  utility  of  sensible  objects  which  are  in- 
tended as  helps  to  true  devotion  and  reverence,  we  should  > 
if  we  wish  to  be  consistent,  identify  ourselves  with  the 
naked  ritual  of  utter  Protestantism,  and  refuse  to  have 
or  to  worship  any  sacred  image  whatsoever.  Until  it  is 
proved  that  a  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  a  church  is, 
on  the  whole,  more  harmful  than  helpful — and  we  have  at 
hand  no  evidence  sufficient  to  warrant  us  in  coming  to 
such  a  conclusion — every  consideration,  not  merely  of 
reverence  but  of  common  sense,  bids  us  hold  our  hand 
and  leave  the  statue  rest  in  its  place. 

But  I  think  I  am  not  giving  utterance  to  an  opinion 
peculiar  to  myself,  when  I  say  that  such  a  statue  so  placed 
may  very  easily  become  something  perilously  like  a  stumb- 
ling-block. For  it  is  not  as  a  statue  of  our  Lady  or  of 
St.  Anthony.  It  is  not  a  reminder  of  somebody  that  is  far 
away,  but  a  help  to  bring  us  nearer  still  in  thought  and 
affection  to  One  who  is  very  near. 

It,  therefore,  ought  ever  be  as  a  sacred  finger-post, 
across  which  is  written,  in  characters  which  the  eye  of 
faith  cannot  mistake,  the  legend,  *  To  the  Tabernacle.' 
Be  it  the  Lord's  ambassador,  or  His  herald,  or  what  you 
will,  its  significance  must  be  full  and  clear,  and  its  invita- 
tion imperative.  And  every  light  burning  before  it  is  an 
ignis  fatuus,  a  veritable  will-o'-the-wisp,  if  its  rays  do  not 
glance  off  the  statue  and,  like  the  star  of  Bethlehem,  rest 
above  the  living  Christ  in  His  cradle  on  the  altar,  beckoning 
the  faithful  to  follow  and  adore. 

How  far  is  such  an  ideal  realized  ?  To  give  a  practical 
answer  to  this  question,  one  or  two  things  must  be  borne 
in  mind.  The  formal  aim  of  a  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
is,  of  course,  to  promote  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart. 
Now,  whatever  be  the  objective  of  devotion  to  the  Sacred 


DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  245 

Heart  in  theory,  it  is  concreted  and  localized  in  devotion 
to  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The  test,  therefore,  and  the 
measure  of  the  success  or  failure  of  a  statue  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  in  a  church  is  the  measure  in  which  it  furthers 
devotion  to  our  Blessed  Lord  in  the  tabernacle. 

How  far,  then,  is  its  aim  realized  ?  Perfect,  or  even 
approximately  perfect,  realization  is  necessarily  out  of  the 
question  in  a  spiritual  effort  into  which  the  imperfect 
human  element  so  largely  enters.  But  is  the  realization 
even  moderately  satisfactory  ?  Is  it  such  as,  all  things 
considered  and  all  allowances  made,  one  might  reasonably 
expect  ?  That  it  is  so  in  some  cases,  in  many  cases,  I 
should  be  very  loth  to  deny.  But,  speaking  generally,  I 
am  afraid  that  only  the  blindest  of  blind  optimism  could 
afford  to  answer  these  questions  in  the  affirmative.  And 
even  this  statement  does  not  exhaust  the  truth,  as  it  seems 
to  me.  For  there  is  something  which  is  worse  than  failure 
— there  is  perversion.  And  it  has  sometimes  happened, 
owing  to  darkest  ignorance — the  result,  it  may  be,  of  even 
elementary  instruction  on  the  legitimate  use  of  images — 
that  a  statue  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  instead  of  being  a  positive 
help  towards  the  realization  of  its  purpose,  has  become  a 
positive  hindrance  thereto,  has  become,  in  its  own  despite, 
a  stumbling-block  and  a  rock  of  scandal.  I  speak  with  the 
energetic  conviction  of  an  eye-witness  ;  and  in  more  than 
one  church  in  Ireland  have  my  eyes  been  witness  to  the  evil. 

By  way  of  conclusion,  and  as  indicating  whither  mis- 
direction may  lead  in  this  region  of  Catholic  devotion, 
I  beg  leave  to  submit  a  contrast.  Firstly,  I  would  ask 
my  readers  to  cast  their  eyes  on  the  teeming  petitions  with 
which  the  enshrined  statues  in  our  churches  are  constantly 
besieged,  from  day  to  day  and  from  week  to  week,  petitions 
clad  in  countless  varying  hues,  but  few  of  them,  very 
few,  even  tinged  with  the  purple  red  of  Calvary,  or  with 
the  azure  blue  of  heaven.  Then,  I  would  bespeak  their 
attention  to  the  solemn  uplifting  voice  of  the  holy  Council 
of  Trent  :— 

Let  the  Bishops  diligently  teach  the  faithful  .  .  .  that  much 
fruit  may  be  derived  from  all  sacred  images ;  not  only  because 


246  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  faithful  are  thereby  reminded  of  the  gifts  and  benefits 
purchased  by  Christ  our  Lord,  but  also  because  the  salutary 
example  of  the  saints  and  the  miracles  which  God  has  worked 
through  their  instrumentality  are  brought  before  the  eyes  of 
the  people — to  the  end,  that,  for  all  these  things,  they  may  render 
due  thanks  ;  that  they  may  model  their  lives  according  to  the 
example  set  before  them  ;  that  they  may  be  led  to  adore  and 
love  God  in  their  hearts,  and  to  lead  godly  lives.1 

A  crown  of  contrast  and  I  have  done.  What  I  am  about 
to  state  will,  doubtless,  be  the  signal  for  some  of  my  readers 
to  hold  up  their  hands  in  horror  and  disbelief.  I  should 
like  to  be  an  unbeliever  myself,  but  unfortunately  I  speak 
from  open  knowledge.  And  I  speak  of  something  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  not  a  few,  is  a  natural  variation  of  the 
modern  phenomenon  often  called,  and  honestly  mistaken 
for,  devotion — though  others  would,  I  am  sure,  regard  it  as  a 
*rery  startling  development.  What,  I  ask,  would  the  vener- 
able Fathers  of  Trent  have  thought,  in  what  terms  would  they 
have  spoken,  of  the  action  of  Catholics  who,  having  deve- 
loped a  taste  or  a  passion  for  betting,  and  having  deter- 
mined to  gamble  on  a  horse-race  earnings  which  they  can 
ill  afford  to  mis-spend,  enter  the  sacred  temple  of  the 
Lord,  light  a  candle  at  a  shrine,  and,  on  bended  knee,  dare 
to  ask  one  of  the  saints  of  God — or  even  the  Queen  of 
Heaven  herself — to  direct  their  choice  aright,  or  to  crown 
their  choosing  with  success  ? 

I  have  inverted  the  usual  order,  and  kept  my  text  for 
the  end.  It  is  from  Cardinal  Newman  :  '  Only  this  I 
know  full  well  now  .  .  .  that  the  Catholic  Church  allows  no 
image  of  any  sort,  material  or  immaterial,  no  dogmatic 
symbol,  no  rite,  no  sacrament,  no  saint,  not  even  tie 
Blessed  Virgin  herself,  to  come  between  the  soul  and  its 
Creator.'  2 

D.    DlNNEEN. 


»Sess.  XXV.  *  Apologia,  chap.  iv..  §2. 


247 


IT  has  been  finally  decided,  by  the  important  decision 
delivered  in  the  Court  of  Appeal  on  Monday,  February 
5th,  that  bequests  for  Masses  are  valid  charitable 
gifts  in  Ireland,  though  there  be  no  direction  that  the 
Masses  shall  be  celebrated  in  public.  The  judgments  of  the 
Judges  not  unnaturally  differed  somewhat  in  their  con- 
ception and  exposition  of  the  manner  in  which  Masses 
celebrated  in  private  may  be  deemed  to  be  of  general 
public  use.  I  am  not,  however,  going  to  deal  with  the 
legal  aspects  of  this  important  decision,  but  I  take  occasion 
from  it  to  write  a  short  paper  on  some  questions  connected 
with  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  in  particular  with 
the  questions  referred  to  in  the  judgments  of  the  learned 
Judges  of  the  Court  of  Appeal. 

I, 

During  the  discussions  on  the  validity  of  Anglican 
Orders  some  erroneous  theories  about  the  essential  in- 
dependence and  the  efficacy  of  the  Mass,  which  had  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  the  text-books  of  theology, 
were  again  disinterred  from  the  tombs  to  which  oblivion 
had  charitably  consigned  them.  The  Pope  pronounced 
against  the  validity  of  Anglican  Orders  on  account  of  a 
defect  of  the  essential  form  of  ordination  and  defect  of 
intention.  Some  of  the  Anglican  divines  sought  to  parry 
the  blow  by  arguing  that  the  English  reformers  never 
denied  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice,  but 
only  repudiated  certain  erroneous  theories  that  had  been 
advanced  by  some  of  the  schoolmen  ;  that,  no  doubt, 
words  and  phrases  which  gave  special  prominence  to  the 
priestly  function  of  offering  sacrifice  were  struck  out  of 
the  liturgical  formularies,  but  only  as  a  protest  against  the 
pernicious  errors  that  had  been  taught  by  continental 


248  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

theologians ;  that  as  the  Church  determined  to  retain 
the  Eucharistic  sacrifice,  she  must  have  preserved  sub- 
stantially the  form  of  ordination,  and  that  surely  her 
bishops  had  the  intention  of  conferring,  when  they  gave 
orders,  the  power  of  offering  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice. 

Foremost  among  the  theological  offenders  referred  to 
was  Ambrosius  Catharinus.  When  the  heretics  urged 
against  the  true  sacrificial  character  of  the  Mass  the 
teaching  of  St.  Paul 1:  '  For  by  one  oblation  He  hath  per- 
fected for  ever  them  that  are  sanctified.  .  .  .  Now 
where  there  is  a  remission  of  these,  there  is  no  more  an 
oblation  for  sin.  .  .  .  And  if  we  sin  wilfully  after  having 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  there  is  now  left  no  sacrifice 
for  sins  ; '  Catharinus  replied  2  by  an  orginal  but  very 
erroneous  exposition  of  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  and  of 
the  relation  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Cross.  He  distinguished  two  classes  of  sins  to  be 
remitted,  original  sin  with  the  actual  sins  committed 
before  Baptism,  and  the  sins  committed  after  Baptism. 
Original  sin  and  the  actual  sins  committed  before 
Baptism  he  called  one  sin — which  he  also  called  the 
sin  of  the  Old  Testament — on  account  of  the  origin 
of  these  actual  sins,  as  he  said,  from  original  sin  ;  and  the 
sins  committed  after  Baptism  he  called  the  sins  of  the  New 
Testament.  According  to  Catharinus  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Cross  was  offered  for  the  sin  of  the  Old  Testament  alone, 
that  is,  for  original  sin  and  the  sins  committed  before 
Baptism,  and  employs  the  sacrament  of  Baptism  as  its 
secondary  cause  or  instrument  for  the  application  of  its 
merits  ;  and  its  superiority  over  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old 
Law  is  proved,  because  in  them  there  was  made  an  in- 
effective commemoration  of  the  Old  Testament  sin  every 
year,  whereas  it  was  effectively  remitted  by  a  single 
oblation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Calvary.  For  the  sins  of  the 
New  Testament,  he  said,  for  our  voluntary  sins,  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass  was  instituted,  and  employs  as  its  secondary 
cause  or  instrument  for  applying  its  merits,  the  sacra- 

i  Heb.,  x.  14.  18,  26.  »  In  Heb.  loc  cit. 


THE  DECISION  OF  THE  COURT  OF  APPEAL,  Etc.      249 

ment  of  Penance  ;  and  as  our  voluntary  sins  are  many, 
the  sacrifice  is  daily  repeated.  To  the  arguments  against 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
he  replied  that  the  Epistle  deals  solely  with  the  sacrifice 
for  the  sin  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  there  remains  no 
bloody  sacrifice  for  our  voluntary  sins  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  that  we  have  the  unbloody  sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
operating  through  its  own  proper  instrument,  the  sacrament 
of  Penance. 

This  opinion  Melchior  Canus  calls  '  deliratio,'  *•  and 
Vasquez  is  scarcely  less  complimentary  :  <  manifeste  ab- 
surda  et  contra  fidem  Catholicam  aperte  pugnat '  ;2  and 
theologians  teach  as  a  truth  of  faith  that  the  Mass  is  not 
an  independent  sacrifice,  nor  a  universal  cause  co-ordinate 
with  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  and  operating  through  the 
sacraments  as  secondary  causes  or  instruments,  but  a 
dependent  relative  sacrifice  occupying  the  position  of 
secondary  cause  or  instrument  for  applying  the  merits 
of  Calvary. 

The  next  to  be  pilloried  by  the  Anglicans  for  extravagant 
views  about  the  holy  sacrifice  are  Gabriel  and  Peter  Soto, 
who  are  accused  of  teaching  that  the  Mass,  by  divine 
institution,  has  the  power  of  remitting  mortal  sins  im- 
mediately, like  the  sacrament  of  Penance  ;  so  that  if  a  person 
who  had  committed  a  mortal  sin,  elicited  an  act  of  attrition 
for  his  sin  and  got  a  Mass  applied  for  himself,  he  would 
directly  and  immediately  obtain  pardon  through  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  as  through  the  sacrament  of  Penance. 
But,  as  Suarez  explains,  these  theologians  did  not  claim 
for  the  Mass  the  immediate  power  of  effectively  remitting 
mortal  sin,  but  they  taught,  in  opposition  to  the  view 
that  it  has  no  power  to  remit  mortal  sin,  that  the  Mass 
has  a  real  efficacy  for  the  remission  of  mortal  sin,  that  is, 
by  impetration,  by  obtaining  for  the  sinner  the  grace  of  per- 
fect contrition  or  attrition  with  the  sacrament  of  Penance. 

The  Mass,  therefore,  cannot  remit  mortal  sin  immediately, 
nor  more  probably  venial  sins,  but  indirectly  by  impetrating 

1  Dt  loeis  theologicis,  1.  xii.  c.  xii.  2  Disp.  ccxxi.,  c.  iv.  n.  35. 


250  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  grace  of  repentance  :  it  cannot  confer  immediately 
an  increase  of  sanctifying  grace,  but  only  by  obtaining 
for  us  greater  intensity  of  sorrow  for  past  sins  and  greater 
fervour  in  good  works  :  it  can  remit  the  temporal  punish- 
ment due  to  sin  immediately  ;  temporal  favours,  such  as 
recovery  from  illness,  success  in  life,  etc. :  it  can  impetrate 
for  us,  like  prayer,  but  not  infallibly,  either  immediately 
or  to  be  obtained  through  the  medium  of  natural  causes  : 
and  whatever  can  be  the  legitimate  object  of  prayer  can 
also  be  lawfully  asked  for  through  the  oblation  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

Finally,  few  if  any  unprejudiced  critics  will  admit 
that  the  Anglican  reformers  had  in  mind  only  the 
erroneous  teaching  of  Catharinus  and  the  somewhat 
ambiguous  views  of  Gabriel  and  Soto  when  they  enacted  : 
*  Wherefore  the  sacrifice  of  Masses,  in  which  it  was  commonly 
said  that  the  priests  did  offer  Christ  for  the  quick  and  the 
dead  to  have  remission  of  pain  and  guilt,  were  blasphemous 
fables  and  dangerous  deceits.*1 

n. 

I  will  next  very  briefly  consider  who  participate  in  the 
fruits  of  the  Mass,  and  how  the  Mass  though  celebrated 
in  private  may  be  of  public  general  use.  I  shall  regard 
the  Mass  not  as  a  private  devotion  of  the  priest,  or  of  the 
faithful  assisting  at  the  Mass,  or  of  the  Church  generally, 
but  as  a  sacrifice  offered  in  the  name  of  Christ.  The 
Mass  is  a  sacrifice  of  adoration,  of  praise  and  thanks- 
giving, of  propitiation  and  satisfaction  for  sin,  and  of 
impetration.  The  adoration  and  thanksgiving  of  the 
sacrifice  are  applied  not  to  creatures,  but  to  God,  and  in 
the  name  of  all  the  faithful.  And  thus,  as  the  Chief  Baron 
argued,  a  gift  for  Masses  is  a  gift  to  God  ;  and  inde- 
pendently of  its  propitiation  and  impetration  the  Mass 
is  of  general  benefit  as  an  act  of  worship  in  which  adora- 
tion and  thanksgiving  are  offered  to  God  on  behalf  of  all 
the  faithful.  There  remain  the  propitiation  and  impetra- 
tion of  the  sacrifice  ;  and  I  shall  consider  to  what  extent 

i  Art.  XXXI. 


THE  DECISION  OF  THE  COURT  OF  APPEAL,  Etc.    251 

we  participate  in  these  fruits  of  the  Mass  by  joining  in 
the  actual  oblation,  and  to  what  extent  by  having  Mass 
offered  for  us. 

1.  Suarez  teaches  that  the  priest  who  offers,  and  all 
who  assist  at  the  Mass,  or  co-operate  in  the  oblation  of  the 
holy  sacrifice,  receive  a  part  of  the  fruits  ex  opere  operato, 
by  reason  of  the  act  of  offering.    Vasquez  on  the  contrary 
holds  that  the  Mass,  like  the  sacraments,  acts  ex   opere 
operato,  not  in  favour  of  the  minister  or  by  reason  of  the 
act  of  offering,  but  in  favour  of  the  subjects  for  whom 
it  is  offered,  and  to  whom  its  fruits  are  applied. 

2.  Then    these  fruits  of   the  Mass,  and   especially  its 
satisfaction  for  sin,  are  applied   in  a  special  manner  to 
those  for  whom  the  holy  sacrifice  is  offered.     But  though 
the  Mass  be   offered  for   a  special  person  or  for  special 
persons,  by  the  law  of  the  Church    a  part  of  the  fruits 
of  every  Mass,  whether  celebrated  publicly  or  in  private, 
must  be  applied  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  faithful,  living 
and  dead  ;  though   it  is   disputed   whether  this,    general 
fruit   includes  impetration    and  propitiation,  or    is  only 
impetration.      Infidelity  to  this   duty  would  not  be,  of 
course,    blasphemous    or   heretical,  but    merely  a   grave 
violation  of  ecclesiastical  law.    Hence  the  Mass,  though 
celebrated  privately,  is  regarded   by  Catholics  as  an  act 
of  public  general  utility  ;  and  it  was  an  inadequate  and 
unsatisfactory  and  narrow  theory  of  law  that  the  Mass, 
as  was  supposed  in  previous  legal  decisions,  is  an  act  of 
public  use  to  Catholics  only  because  it  tends,  when  cele- 
brated in  a  public  church,  to  the  instruction  and  edification 
of  the  congregation  present  at  the  Mass ;  it  took  cognizance 
only  of  the  effects  of  the  Mass  ex  opere  operantis. 

ill. 

The  Lord  Chancellor  and  the  Lord  Chief  Baron  argued 
that  gifts  for  Masses  are  of  public  utility,  because  they  are 
a  partial  endowment  for  the  maintenance  of  a  minister 
of  religion.  « I  do  not  consider  the  money,*  the  Chief  Baron 
went  on  to  observe,  «  a  consideration  for  the  celebration. 
It  is  an  alms  to  the  clergyman,  accompanied  by  a  request 


252  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

for  the  celebration  of  Mass.  .  .  .  The  Church  then 
imposes  on  the  conscience  of  the  clergyman  an  obligation 
to  say  and  apply  the  Mass  for  the  prescribed  intention  ; 
but  the  obligation  is  one  to  the  Church  and  not  to  the 
testator.' 

The  relation  of  money  given  for  Masses  to  the  Masses 
themselves  is,  in  principle,  the  same  as  the  relation  of 
all  ecclesiastical  incomes  to  the  spiritual  functions  for 
which  they  are  given,  for  example,  the  administration  of 
sacraments,  preaching,  conducting  divine  service.  In  all 
Christian  communions  it  is  regarded  as  simony  to  sell  or 
buy  for  a  temporal  consideration  a  spiritual  ministration. 
But  in  all  Christian  communions  it  is  considered  lawful 
for  clergymen  to  accept  an  income,  whether  of  a  permanent 
or  casual  character  ;  though  there  is  considerable  diversity 
of  opinion  about  the  precise  title  and  obligation  of 
ecclesiastical  incomes.  I  will  speak  solely  of  honoraria  for 
Masses. 

De  Lugo  mentions  five  different  explanations  of  the 
obligation  of  honoraria  ;  but  of  these  I  shall  refer  only 
to  the  first  and  last.  Some  then,  with  whom  the  Chief 
Baron  agrees,  held  that  the  obligation  is  one  of  obedience 
alone ;  that  there  is  a  double  precept,  one  on  the  part  of 
the  people  of  maintaining  their  priests,  and  the  other  on 
the  part  of  the  priests  of  performing  for  their  people  the 
prescribed  ministrations.  But  the  more  common  opinion 
is  that,  independently  of  any  command  of  the  Church, 
there  is  an  obligation  of  justice  ;  without,  however,  re- 
garding the  general  income  as  a  consideration  for  the 
general  ministrations,  or  a  particular  gift  as  a  consideration 
for  a  particular  ministration.  If,  for  example,  the  teaching 
or  medical  professions  were  too  sacred  to  be  the  equivalents 
of  a  temporal  consideration,  a  district  would  yet  be  bound 
in  justice,  they  would  say,  to  support  its  doctor  or  teacher, 
and  the  doctor  and  teacher  would  be  bound  in  justice  to 
minister  in  their  districts.  And  so  the  priest  is  bound  in 
justice  to  say  Masses  for  honoraria  received  ;  and  the 
faithful  are  bound  in  justice  to  give  alms  for  the  support 
of  their  priests,  some  of  which  is  given  in  the  shape  of  a 


THE  DECISION  OF  THE  COURT  OF  APPEAL,  Etc.    253 

general  income  similar  to  their  general  duties,  and  some 
on  the  occasion  of  special  ministrations  in  behalf  of 
special  persons,  as  when  a  priest  offers  Mass  for  particular 
individuals.  But  the  title  is  specifically  the  same  for  the 
general  and  casual  income  :  the  income  is  received  as  an 
alms  for  maintenance  with  an  obligation  of  performing 
certain  spiritual  ministrations.  The  donor,  therefore,  of 
gifts  for  Masses  does  not  seek  his  or  her  own  interest  alone, 
but  also  contributes  to  the  maintenance  of  the  priest.  And 
so  the  theological  consideration  of  honoraria,  whether 
they  be  believed  to  impose  an  obligation  of  justice  or  of 
obedience  alone,  favoured  the  judgment  that  gifts  for 
Masses  are  of  public  utility,  as  being  a  partial  endowment 
of  a  minister  of  religion. 

DANIEL  COGHLAN. 


[    254    I 


GENERAL   NOTES 

CARDINAL   PERRAUD 

IRELAND  has  good  reason  to  lament  the  death  and  to  honour 
the  memory  of  Cardinal  Perraud.  At  a  time  when  her  people 
were  crushed  and  the  exterminator  was  at  work  all  over  the 
land  the  heart  of  Adolphe  Perraud  was  stirred  within  him, 
and  with  the  traditional  affection  of  Catholic  France  for  la 
Verte  Erin,  he  came  over  here,  spent  two  years  in  this  country, 
saw  everything  for  himself,  and  on  his  return,  published  two 
volumes  which  brought  the  Government  of  England  before  the 
tribunal  of  the  civilized  world.  Englishmen,  with  all  their  airs 
of  independence,  are  particularly  sensitive  to  the  verdict  of  that 
tribunal  when  once  the  case  is  presented  to  it.  Mr.  Gladstone, 
in  some  of  his  Home  Rule  speeches,  admitted  the  feelings  of 
shame  and  humiliation  with  which  he  read  the  works  of  Gustave 
de  Beaumont  and  Mgr.  Perraud.  For  although  Perraud  was 
an  ecclesiastic  and  a  bishop  he  was  also  an  Academician,  and  it 
was  felt  that  his  voice  was  heard  and  respected  in  France  ;  and 
the  voice  that  is  heard  in  France  soon  makes  itself  heard  to  the 
ends  of  the  world 

These  two  volumes  on  VIrlande  Contemporaine,  reveal  not 
only  a  warm  heart  but  a  great  mind.  They  show  with  what 
unlimited  pains  and  with  what  consummate  art  a  Frenchman 
of  the  better  class  acquires  his  facts  and  presents  them  to  the 
public.  The  historical  introduction,  the  system  of  land  tenure, 
education,  poor  laws,  evictions,  emigration,  religion,  everything 
is  dealt  with  as  if  that  alone  were  the  sole  object  of  inquiry. 
The  accumulative  result  was  overwhelming ;  and  the  gentle 
words  of  sympathy  with  which  the  work  concluded  were  worthy 
of  the  heart  and  hand  that  undertook  the  labour.  Who  knows 
what  influence  these  very  words  may  have  had  on  Mr.  Gladstone 
in  after  years  ? 

'  I  wish,'  wrote  Mgr.  Perraud,  '  that  after  having  read  this 
book  some  Englishman  with  a  heart  and  courage  for  the  good 
would  say  to  himself,  like  that  immortal  Wilberforce  who  swore 
that  he  would  know  no  rest  until  he  had  vanquished  slavery — 
"  I  shall  not  cease  to  labour,  to  write,  to  act  on  public  opinion, 
to  struggle,  and  to  agitate,  until  England  has  done  justice  to 


GENERAL   NOTES  255 


Ireland  and  wiped  out  the  last  trace  of  a  persecution  that  has 
been  carried  on  for  three  hundred  years." 

'  I  remember  one  day  in  the  Basilica  of  St.?  Peter  what  a 
great  emotion  took  possession  of  me  when  I  read  on  the  humble 
door  of  a  confessional  these  simple  words,  Gens  Hibernica,  and 
on  another,  Gens  Polona.  Thus,  I  said,  conquerors  have  been 
able  to  blot  out  from  the  map  of  the  world  the  very  name  of 
Poland,  the  glorious  Catholic  nation  of  Central  Europe.  Poli- 
ticians and  worldly  sages  take  but  little  interest  in  the  mis- 
fortunes of  Ireland,  because  she  suffered  in  the  cause  of  Catholi- 
cism. But  the  Holy  Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman  Church  has 
neither  admitted  this  suppression  nor  shared  in  this  indifference. 
Near  the  tombs  of  the  Holy  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  in  the 
centre  of  Catholicity,  she  guards  these  great  names,  immortal 
souvenirs,  watchwords  of  holy  and  invincible  hope.  Ireland  and 
Poland,  noble  sisters  who  have  suffered  so  much  and  who  suffer 
still  for  our  holy  faith,  hold  firm  in  your  hands  the  standards 
of  St.  Patrick  and  St.  Casimir  !  You  have  to  your  account  no 
dishonest  triumphs,  no  guilty  successes.  Through  the  long 
career  of  persecution  and  trial  through  which  Providence  has 
led  you  it  is  for  noble  causes  that  you  have  done  battle,  for 
justice  that  you  have  struggled  to  the  last  drop  of  your  blood. 
In  the  eyes  of  those  who  measure  all  things  by  success  you 
were  wrong  to  fight,  since  you  have  been  conquered  ;  your  ene- 
mies are  right  for  they  have  succeeded.  But  for  those  who 
look  to  the  morality  of  history  far  different  is  their  judgment. 
To  them  your  defeat  is  only  apparent  as  is  the  victory  of  your 
persecutors ;  for  besides  the  fact  that  God,  the  Master  of  the 
future,  can,  when  and  how  He  pleases,  give  you  back  what  the 
violence  of  politicians  has  wrested  from  you,  you  have  kept 
in  spite  of  your  enemies  the  treasure  of  which  they  wished, 
above  all  things,  to  despoil  you.  You  have  kept  it,  and  it  has 
increased  and  fructified  in  your  hands.  Like  the  Church,  your 
mother,  you  have  grown  great  under  persecution  ;  and  whilst 
the  triumphant  nations  are  going  to  sleep  in  indifference  and 
are  growing  sluggish  and  material  in  the  abundance  of  their 
gain,  you,  the  illustrious  victims  of  the  past  and  the  present, 
hold  up  to  the  eyes  of  the  world,  the  inextinguishable  torch  of 
faith,  and  hope,  and  love.  Have  courage  !  Your  trials  will 
not  last  for  ever.  The  works  of  iniquity  crumble  and  perish. 
•"  Vidi  impium  superexaltatum  et  elevatum  sicut  Cedros  Libani, 
et  ecce  non  erat  "  (Ps.  xxxvi.) ' 

Cardinal  Perraud,  soon  after  his  ordination,  joined  the 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  the  Congregation  of  which  Male- 
branche,  Morinus,  Thomassin,  Richard  Simon,  Massillon,  and 
Gratry  were  members ;  but  for  many  years  hej.occupied  the 


256  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

position  of  Professor  of  Church  History  at  the  Sor bonne.  It 
is  usual  to  have  at  least  one  bishop  in  the  Academy  founded 
by  Richelieu,  and  soon  after  the  death  of  Mgr.  Dupanloup, 
Mgr.  Perraud  was  elected  as  one  of  the  forty  immortals. 

He  looked  the  very  picture  of  a  medieval  bishop,  and  it 
was  said  that  he  was  cold  and  distant  in  his  manner.  That  he 
was  not  so  to  those  who  knew  him  well,  I  could  give  many 
proofs  ;  for  Cardinal  Perraud  was  the  intimate  associate  and  life- 
long friend  of  one  who  was  near  and  dear  to  me.  During  the 
time  he  was  writing  and  preparing  his  book  on  Ireland  they 
were  constantly  together  ;  and  when,  after  upwards  of  thirty 
years  in  the  service  of  the  French  clergy,  his  Irish  friend  was 
called  away  to  found  a  college  in  the  United  States,  I  find  in 
the  midst  of  a  long  correspondence  the  following  letter,  which 
whatever  else  it  may  be,  is  not  cold  or  distant  : — 

'  AUTUN,  25  Juin,  1884. 
'  DEAR  FATHER  HOGAN, 

'  Dans  quelques  jours  vous  terminerez  votre  longue  et  f  6conde 
mission  au  Grand  Seminaire  de  Paris,  et  vous  vous  disposerez  a 
franchir  les  mers  pour  vous  rendre  au  poste  oti  la  Providence 
vous  appelle. 

*  Ne    voudrez-vous  pas,  avant  de  vous  rendre  en  Irlande, 
ou  je  sais  que  vous  devez  aller  prendre  conge  de  votre  famille 
venir  recommender  a  Notre  Dame  de  Paray-le-Monial  le  S6mi- 
naire  de  Boston  et  me  donner  en  me'me  temps  la  consolation  d'une 
visite  ? 

'  Je  serai  a  Autun  toute  la  premiere  quinzaine  de  Juillet. 
Si  cette  combinaison  ne  vous  parait  pas  absolument  impossible 
laissez-moi  la  joie  de  vous  embrasser  et  de  vous  revoir  avant 
que  la  dynamite  ou  le  cholera  aient  dispose  de  nous. 

'  J'ai  re$u  il  y  a  quelques  semaines  une  lettre  de  Maxime 
du  Camp.  II  est  desole  de  votre  depart. 

'  Votre  bien  affectueusement  devoue  en  N.S.. 

^  '  ADOLPHE  Louis, 

1  Ev$que  d  Autun.' 

In  1899  he  wrote  him  a  long  letter  to  America,  telling  him 
that  he  had  been  very  ill,  and  was  near  '  going  over  to  the 
majority '  ;  and  he  adds  : — 

'DEAR FATHER  HOGAN, — Puisque  je  n'ai pas  ete dans  1'autre 
monde  je  garde  quelque  espoir  de  vous  revoir  dans  celui-ci. 

*  Votre  bien  affectueusement  devou6  en  N.S. 

'A.  L.  Card.  PERRAUD,  Ev.  d' Autun.' 


GENERAL   NOTES  257 


And  in  another  not  long  after,  he  concludes  a  business  letter 
with  the  words  : — 

'  DEAR  F.  H., — Nous  reverrons-nous  en  ce  monde  ou  seule- 
ment  dans  la  region  superoceanique  des  reunions  definitives  ?  ' 

They  are  both  now  in  the  region  superoceanique,  enjoying, 
I  hope  and  pray,  the  reward  of  their  labours  for  the  Church 
which  they  loved  and  served  so  faithfully. 


SOCIAL  ACTION  OF  THE  ITALIAN  CLERGY 

MR.  BOLTON  KING,  the  well  known  writer  on  Italian  insti- 
tutions and  history,  in  his  work  entitled  Italy  To-Day,  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  work  accomplished  by  the  Italian 
clergy  in  the  revival  of  industries,  co-operative  organization, 
and  other  forms  of  social  activity : — 

'  Their  social  programme,  as  drafted  at  the  Congress  of 
Rome  in  1894,  aims  at  the  building  up  of  the  "  Christian 
Catholic  Social  Order."  It  wishes  to  protect  and  develop 
the  property  of  charities  and  religious  corporations  as  a 
"  reserve  treasure  for  the  people  ;  "  to  protect  national 
and  municipal  estates,  which  are  to  be  used  for  the  public 
good  or  leased  to  the  poor  ;  to  encourage  and  protect  small 
properties ;  to  promote  tenancy  reform  by  long  leases  and 
compensation  for  improvements  ;  to  encourage  profit  sharing ; 
to  make  usury  illegal  and  regulate  the  operations  of  the  Stock 
Exchange ;  above  all,  to  promote  "  corporations "  both  of 
employers  and  workmen  if  possible,  of  workmen  alone  if  the 
employers  stand  aloof.  Their  municipal  programme  includes 
a  wage  clause  in  public  contracts,  a  fair  wage  for  employees, 
fair  rents  for  tenants  on  municipal  or  charitable  estates,  a  re- 
duction of  local  duties  on  articles  of  necessity,  and  a  vigorous 
administration  of  sanitary  and  factory  laws.  But  its  most  im- 
portant work  is  independent  of  State  action.  It  has  done  little 
in  the  towns,  but  in  parts  of  North  Italy  it  is  carrying  on  a  very 
valuable  work  among  the  peasants.  It  has  almost  monopo- 
lized the  Village  Bank  movement ;  and,  in  1899,  could  count 
800  affiliated  banks.  It  has  at  least  three  "  Rural  Unions  ~ 
to  defend  the  interests  of  all  agricultural  classes,  a  large  number 
of  small  friendly  societies,  a  few  co-operative  stores  and  co- 
operative dairies,  a  Hail  Insurance  Society,  besides  some  thirty 
People's  Banks  in  towns  to  make  credit  easy  to  the  small  trades- 
man and  artisan,  and  a  central  bank  at  Parma.  In  the  diocese 
of  Bergamo  it  has  carried  co-operation  among  the  peasants  to  a 
high  state  of  development '  (page  56). 

VOL.  xix.  R 


258  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

Further  on,  he  says  (page  183)  : — 

'  A  very  remarkable  movement  has  arisen  of  late  years, 
taking  shape  in  various  forms  of  co-operative  activity,  which 
promises  to  redeem  the  Italian  peasant  from  his  indigence. 
His  first  need  is  to  obtain  capital  on  easy  terms.  Till  recently, 
if  he  wanted  to  add  to  his  stock  or  plant  vines  or  mulberries, 
or  buy  new  instruments,  or  seed,  or  chemical  manures,  the  small 
farmer,  who  always  lives  from  hand  to  mouth,  has  had  to  borrow 
at  an  interest  of  from  4  to  12  per  cent,  per  month.  Under  such 
conditions  any  general  improvement  was  of  course  impossible. 
We  have  seen  how  the  Government  failed  to  meet  the  need. 
Some  of  the  larger  savings  banks  and  People's  Banks  offered 
easy  loans  to  agriculturists,  but  as  a  rule  they  required  better 
security  than  the  small  farmer  could  give,  and  though  they 
have  lent  a  considerable  amount  to  the  proprietors  and  larger 
farmers  they  have  only  here  and  there  reached  the  peasant. 
It  needed  something  more  popular  in  its  constitution,  more 
adapted  to  the  means  of  the  small  man  ;  and  the  want  has  been 
met  by  the  development  of  the  Village  Banks  (casse  rurali). 
They  owe  their  existence  to  Dr.  Wollemborg,  now  a  Deputy 
of  the  Constitutional  Left,  who,  copying  in  the  main  the  German 
Raffeisen  Banks,  founded  the  first  in  a  Lombard  village  in  1883. 
Nine  years  later,  when  there  were  nearly  more  than  sixty  of 
them,  the  Catholic  Congress  started  a  vigorous  propagandism 
in  their  favour,  and  since  then  they  have  spread  with  marvellous 
rapidity.  There  are  now  over  800  Catholic,  and  at  least  125 
unsectarian,  village  banks.  They  are  humble  institutions,  each 
confined  to  its  own  village  with  a  membership  usually  between 
twelve  and  fifty,  seldom  with  a  capital  of  more  than  £300  or 
£400,  lending  little  sums  (averaging  £8)  as  a  rule  for  three  or 
six  months  to  the  small  farmers  and  peasant  proprietors,  who 
are  the  majority  of  their  members.  Their  working  expenses 
are  very  low  ;  they  exactly  meet  the  wants  of  the  little  farmer, 
and  so  prudent  is  their  management  that  their  losses  hardly 
exceed  -05  per  cent,  of  their  loans.  Through  a  large  part  of 
Lombardy  and  Venezia  they  have  banished  the  usurer.  Exact 
statistics  of  their  operations  are  not  forthcoming,  but  two  years 
ago  they  had  a  membership  of  about  19,000  and  the  Catholic 
Congress  estimated  at  the  same  date  that  its  young  banks  alone 
hid  advanced  £280,000.  In  1897,  seventy-three  banks  in 
Piedmont  lent  £50,000,  and  had  deposits  exceeding  £48,000  ' 
(pages  183-4). 

Another  form  of  organization  is  found  in  the  Consorzi  Agrari. 

*  Their  chief  business  is  to  supply  chemical  manures,  which 
are  always  carefully  analyzed,  and  they  have  succeeded  in  re- 
ducing their  prices  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  Sometimes  they 


GENERAL  NOTES  259 

allow  credit  and  are  said  to  have  done  so  without  loss.  Prob- 
ably they  appeal  to  the  middling  rather  than  to  the  very  small 
farmer,  but  so  far  as  figures  go  they  are  of  even  greater  import- 
ance than  the  Village  Banks.  One  of  the  Milanese  societies 
did  a  business  of  nearly  £36,000  in  1898.  The  Agricultural 
Association  of  Friuli  came  hardly  behind  with  £30,000.  Alto- 
gether they  sold  £760,000  worth  of  stuff  in  1899.  Some  of  them 
are  developing  their  activities  in  various  directions.  They 
keep  high-class  rams  and  bulls,  or  lend  out  model  implements. 
They  have  done  much  to  encourage  co-operative  dairies  and 
agricultural  education,  they  agitate  for  a  reduction  of  railway 
rates  ;  in  Venetia  they  supply  good  maize  as  a  protection  against 
pellagra.  Here  and  there  they  have  made  a  few  essays  towards 
the  co-operative  sale  of  farm  produce.  Their  Federation,  which 
has  three  works  for  manufacturing  chemical  manures,  sends 
samples  to  every  parish  priest,  and  affixes  in  the  railway  stations 
tables  showing  the  relative  value  of  fertilizers.  So  important 
is  their  work  felt  to  be  that  Signer  Ferraris  has  recently  pro- 
posed that  federated  "  Agricultural  Unions  "  on  very  similar 
lines  should  be  established  by  the  State  in  every  district,  and 
that  all  rural  proprietors  should  be  deemed  to  be  at  least  nominal 
members.  His  scheme  amounts  to  a  huge  national  co-operative 
society,  embracing  all  agriculturists  and  supplying  most  of  their 
needs.  It  would  sell  them  manures  and  seed,  implements  and 
cattle,  and  work  in  close  co-operation  with  the  travelling  teachers 
of  Agriculture.  It  would  provide  for  agricultural  education. 
It  would  promote  the  co-operative  manufacture  of  wine,  and 
butter,  and  cheese,  and  olive  oil.  One  branch  of  its  work 
would  be  a  great  bank  for  agricultural  loans  at  4  per  cent,  for 
which  every  rural  post  office  would  act  as  an  agency  ;  and 
Signor  Ferraris  asks  that  the  deposits  in  the  Post  Office  Savings 
Bank,  amounting  to  £2,000,000  a  year,  should  form  part  of  its 
capital.  He  hopes  that  the  private  Savings  Banks  and  the 
People's  Banks  should  advance  an  equal  amount,  and  that  thus 
£4,000,000  a  year  would  be  put  at  the  disposal  of  Agriculture. 
It  is  a  gigantic  and  attractive  scheme,  but  in  spite  of  what  has 
been  done  in  Prussia,  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  any 
scheme  of  this  kind  is  desirable  or  possible  in  Italy.  If  the 
Consorzi  remain  voluntary  associations  as  now,  they  are  more 
likely  to  run  in  wholesome  channels  than  if  they  are  taken 
under  the  State's  paralysing  protection '  (page  186). 

NEW  STATISTICS 

IN  an  article  in  the  February  number  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  Professor  J.  W.  Taylor,  of  Birmingham  University, 
discusses  the  question  of  the  declining  birth-rate  in  Great 
Britain,  and  calls  attention  to  the  method  of  correcting 


260  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

official  statistics  recently  introduced  by  Drs.  Newsholme  and 
Stevenson.  One  of  the  remarkable  things  about  this  new  and 
more  scientific  method  is,  according  to  Professor  Taylor,  '  the 
extraordinary  position  it  gives  to  Ireland  as  heading  European 
peoples  in  fertility.' 

'  Ireland  (according  to  these  authorities)  has  a  low  crude 
birth-rate,  which  becomes  one  of  the  highest  in  Europe,  when 
correction  is  made  for  the  fact  that  only  76-5  per  1000  of  the 
population,  as  compared  with  117-0  in  England  and  Wales,  are 
wives  of  child-bearing  age,  only  32-5  per  cent,  of  the  women  aged 
15-45  being  married,  as  compared  with  46-8  per  cent,  in  England 
and  Wales.  .  .  .  The  low  crude  birth-rate  of  Ireland  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  child-bearing  population 
of  Ireland  has  been  transferred  to  America.  Those  remaining 
in  Ireland  who  are  of  child-bearing  age  are  adding  to  the  popu- 
lation at  a  much  higher  rate  than  the  corresponding  population 
of  England,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  corrected  legitimate 
birth-rate  of  Ireland  is  35-6  and  that  of  England  and  Wales 
27-3  per  1000  of  population  ....  Ireland  is  chiefly  a  Roman 
Catholic  country  in  which  preventive  measures  against  child- 
bearing  are  banned,  and  the  birth-rate  represents  in  the  main 
the  true  fertility  of  the  country,  while  in  Germany  and  in  England 
the  birth-rate  is  the  resultant  of  two  forces  the  relative  magni- 
tude of  which  is  unknown,  viz.,  natural  fertility  and  artificia 
measures  against  it.' 

The  following  are  the  concrete  results  between  1901-1904  : — 

Total  per  1000  Total 

of  Population  Legitimate 

Bavaria  ..  ..     40-37  35-59 

Austria  ..  ..     38-50  32-84 

Norway  ..  ..     37-79  35-62 

Sweden  . .  . .     36  •  19  32-90 

Ireland  . .  . .     36  •  08  35*59 

German  Empire  ••35*34  32-01 

Italy  ..  ..     33-71  31-17 

Scotland  ..  -.33*38  31*65 

Belgium  ..  ..     31-01  28-85 

England  and  Wales  . .     28  •  41  27-29 

France  ..  ..     21-63  19*29 

The  general  results  of  Professor  Taylor's  studies  are  as 
follows  : — 

'  It  is  no  good  trifling  with  facts— (i)  Our  birth-rate  is 
steadily  declining ;  (2)  this  is  due  to  artificial  prevention  ; 
(3)  the  illegitimate  birth-rate  is  affected  as  well  as  the  legitimate, 


GENERAL    NOTES  261 

and  from  the  same  cause :  therefore,  the  illegitimate  birth-rate 
is  no  longer  a  criterion  of  morality  ;  (4)  this  is  slowly  bringing 
grievous  physical,  moral,  and  social  evils  to  the  community.' 

In  a  recent  publication  of  the  Goerres-Gesellschaft  I  find 
some  remarkable  tables  presented  by  Dr.  Hans  Rost  of  Augs- 
burg. He  is  inquiring  into  the  natural  causes  of  crime  and 
particularly  suicide,  and  in  this  connection  he  studies  the  rela- 
tions between  crime  and  alcohol.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
tables  which  he  has  made  out  is  that  relating  to  Denmark.  Here 
we  find  the  consumption  of  alcohol  steadily  decreasing  for  sixty 
years,  and  with  it  a  corresponding  decrease  in  crime. 

Consumption  of  Alcohol    Number  of  Suicides 
in  litres,  per  head  to  the  million 

1831-1840     ..         ..       8-0  103 

1850-1854      ..  .-3*2  107 

1860-1864     ..  2-2  86 

1871-1875     ..         ..2-8  70 

I88I-I885       ....         1*7  67 

1886-1890     ..         ..1-5  66 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  recovery  of  its  political  indepen- 
dence has  synchronized  in  Norway  with  the  national  recovery 
from  drunkenness. 

J.  F.  HOGAN,  D.D. 


[      262       ] 

Botes  anb  (Queries 

THEOLOGY 

ADVENT  FAST 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — As  the  fast  formerly  falling  on  the  Saturdays 
of  Advent  has  been  changed  to  the  Wednesdays,  may  it  not 
be  argued  that  when  Christmas  falls  on  Saturday,  or  on  Friday, 
as  in  the  year  1903,  and  Saturday  is  consequently  not  a  fast 
day,  the  Wednesday  preceding  Christmas  Day  in  such  years 
should  not  be  marked  a  fast  day? 

SACERDOS. 

In  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  1880,  page  747,  and  1881,  page  51, 
his  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  then  President  of 
Maynooth,  dealt  at  length  with  this  practical  question. 
We  deem  it  sufficient  for  present  purposes  to  give  the 
conclusions  of  his  Grace's  articles,  referring  our  corres- 
pondent to  the  articles  themselves  for  a  full  discussion 
of  both  sides  of  the  question.  The  transference  of  the 
Advent  fast  from  Saturday  to  Wednesday  was  not  a 
translation  of  the  fast  of  individual  days  to  other  individual 
days,  but  rather  a  general  transfer  of  the  fast,  previously 
observed  on  Saturday,  to  Wednesday,  so  that  every 
Wednesday  falling  within  Advent  thereby  became  a  fast 
day.  This  conclusion  implies  that  even  though  a  par- 
ticular Saturday  of  any  week  would  not  have  been  a  fast 
day  according  to  the  old  system,  every  Wednesday  occur- 
ring in  Advent  is  a  fast  day  according  to  the  new  system, 
brought  into  existence  by  the  favourable  reply  of  the  Holy 
See  to  the  request  of  the  Irish  Bishops  made  in  1875.* 

THE    FAST    AND    THE    USE    OF    PORRIDGB 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Will  you  kindly  give  your  opinion  in  the 
next  number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  on  the  following  question 

1  Cf.  Maynooth  Statutes,  p.  352. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  263 

which  has  given  rise  to  some  controversy  ?  A  person  who  is 
bound  by  the  fast  may  take  eight  ounces  of  bread,  etc.,  for 
breakfast.  How  much  porridge  can  he  lawfully  take  ?  Can 
he  take  only  eight  ounces  of  porridge,  or  can  he  take  as  much 
as  eight  ounces  of  meal  will  amount  to  when  boiled  with  the 
necessary  quantity  of  water  ? 

JEJUNANS. 

There  are  two  lines  of  thought  to  be  found  in  theological 
works  on  the  question  proposed  for  solution,  for  while 
some  theologians  *  consider  that  the  Church,  in  ordering 
the  fast,  desires  not  merely  the  diminution  of  nourishment, 
but  also  the  absence  of  satiety,  others  2  of  equal  authority 
think  that  the  Church  regards  alone  the  diminution  of 
nutrition,  brought  about  by  the  use  of  a  smaller  quantity 
than  usual  of  those  foods  that  are  permissible  as  to  quality 
either  by  the  law  itself  or  by  legitimate  custom.  The 
former  maintain  that  as  much  porridge  may  not  be  taken 
at  the  collation  as  eight  ounces  of  meal  will  produce,  but 
the  latter  hold  that  it  is  lawful  to  take  as  much 
as  will  arise  from  eight  ounces  of  meal.  The  opinion  of 
these  latter  seems  reasonable  in  theory,  and  is  certainly 
safe  in  practice  on  account  of  the  authority  of  its  patrons. 

THE    USB    OF    MILK    ON    FAST    DATS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Now  that  Lent  is  not  far  off  I  would  like 
to  get  your  opinion  on  a  few  points  concerning  the  abstinence 
from  milk.  First  of  all,  I  take  it  for  granted  that  as  butter 
is  allowed  at  the  collation  a  person  may  use  milk  freely  at  the 
same  time ;  secondly,  that  although  butter  is  not  allowed  at 
the  smaller  collation  (of  two  ounces)  milk  may  be  used  to  colour 
tea,  etc. — say  about  one  of  milk  to  two  parts  of  tea,  etc. 

Supposing  these  few  points  to  be  correct,  I  would  like  to 
know — ist.  May  persons  who  are  bound  to  abstain  take  milk 
in  tea,  etc.,  as  often  as  they  wish  during  the  day  outside  the 
two  occasions  already  mentioned  ?  If  so,  may  they  use  it  freely, 
for  example,  may  it  be  a  fourth  of  the  drink  ? 

2nd.  As  milk  appears  to  take  the  place  of  wine  in  this 

1  S.  Alphonsus,  n.  1029;  Lehmkuhl,  i.  n.  1211. 

z  Genicot,  i.  n.  437 ;  Berardi,  Pravis  Cong.  ii.  n.  1474  ?  Noldin,  ii.  n.  672  ; 
Antonelli,  ii.  n.  495. 


264  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

country,  and  a  drink  of  wine  is  not  a  violation  of  the  law  of 
abstinence,  may  a  person  drink  milk  just  the  same  as  he  would 
wine,  etc.  ? 

3rd.  And  supposing  that  he  may  not,  would  you  consider 
the  drinking  of  a  cup  of  it  a  mortal  sin  ? 

An  answer  to  the  above  will  oblige. — Yours  faithfully, 

CONFESS  ARI  us 

In  replying  to  the  questions  of  our  correspondent  it 
is  necessary  to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  laws  of 
abstinence  and  fast.  The  general  law  of  abstinence 
prohibits  the  use  of  milk  during  the  whole  of  Lent, 
but  dispensation  has  introduced  a  relaxation  into  these 
countries,  by  reason  of  which  only  Ash  Wednesday,  Good 
Friday,  and  in  some  places  Spy  Wednesday,  come  under 
this  strict  abstinence.  On  these  days  milk  may  not  be  taken 
even  in  tea,  and  grave  matter  seems  to  be  the  same  as  in 
violation  of  the  fast. 

The  law  of  fast,  as  distinct  from  the  law  of  abstinence, 
prohibits  the  use  of  milk  in  the  same  way  as  it  forbids 
the  use  of  other  kinds  of  food.  Hence  milk,  like  butter, 
may  be  freely  taken  at  the  principal  meal,  as  also  at  the 
collation,  provided  such  an  amount  is  not  taken  as  will 
violate  the  regulations  of  custom  in  regard  to  quantity. 
Hence,  at  this  meal  milk  may  be  used  as  an  accompaniment  of 
bread,  etc.,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  sum  total  of  nutritious 
elements  consumed  does  not  exceed  what  is  equivalent  to 
eight  ounces  of  ordinary  food  like  white  bread.  Neither 
custom  nor  general  dispensation  allows  milk  at  the  light 
repast  which  is  usually  taken  in  the  evening  in  Ireland. 

There  seems  to  be  no  difficulty  in  determining,  at 
least  approximately,  the  quantity  of  milk  which  is  equiva- 
lent in  nutritive  elements  to  a  given  amount  of  bread, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  easy  to  find  out  how  much  milk  is 
required  for  grave  matter.  Taking  the  analysis  of  Dr. 
Parkes  as  correct,1  in  100  parts  of  white  bread  there  are 
40  parts  of  water,  8  of  proteids,  1*5  of  fats,  49-2  of  carbo- 
hydrates, and  1-3  of  salts  ;  while  in  100  parts  of  milk  there 

1  Chambers's  Encyclopadia.  art.  '  Diet.' 


NOTES  AND   QUERIES  265 

are  86-8  parts  of  water,  4  of  proteids,  3-7  of  fats,  4-8  of 
carbohydrates,  and  -7  of  salts.  The  nutritive  elements 
are  proteids,  fats,  and  carbohydrates ;  so  if  we  eliminate 
the  water  and  the  salts  we  can  find  by  a  simple  calculation 
the  amounts  of  food-stuff  in  a  quantity  of  bread  and  in 
the  same  weight  of  milk.  Expressed  in  terms  of  mechanical 
potential  energy,  one  ounce  of  fats  equals  35I-561  foot- 
tons,  one  ounce  of  proteids  equals  165-2  foot-tons,  and 
one  ounce  of  carbohydrates  equals  151-66  foot-tons  ;  hence 
one  ounce  of  fats,  2-12  ounces  of  proteids,  and  2-31  ounces 
of  carbohydrates  are  equivalent  to  one  another  in  food- 
stuff. By  reducing  proteids  and  carbohydrates  to  their 
equivalent  in  fats  we  find  that  in  100  parts  of  white  bread 
there  is  an  amount  of  nutrition  which  equals  26-47  parts 
of  fats,  while  in  100  parts  of  milk  the  nutritive  elements 
equal  7-66  parts  of  fats  ;  in  other  words  white  bread  is 
3-45  or  practically  three  and  one-half  times  more  nutritious 
than  the  same  weight  of  milk.  It  follows  that,  four  ounces 
of  bread  over  and  above  the  permitted  allowance,  being 
grave  matter,  fourteen  ounces  of  milk  are  required  for  the 
same.  In  an  ordinary  breakfast  cup  of  rich  milk  there 
are  about  eleven  ounces,  and,  consequently,  more  than  a 
breakfast  cup  of  milk  is  required  to  constitute  grave  matter. 

As  for  the  axiom  :  potus  non  frangit  jejunium,  only 
those  liquids  which  contain  small  quantities  of  nutritive 
matter  can  be  classed  under  '  potus.'  Water,  wine,  tea 
and  coffee  with  a  small  infusion  of  milk  and  sugar,  are 
such,  and  can,  consequently,  be  taken  as  often  and  as 
copiously  as  a  person  wishes.  Milk,  which  contains 
a  large  nutritive  element,  cannot  be  considered  *  potus.' 
One  part  of  milk  to  two  or  three  parts  of  tea  is,  as  it  seems 
to  us,  too  much  to  allow,  still,  it  is  better  not  to  disturb 
the  consciences  of  the  faithful  by  laying  down  very  rigid 
lines  for  them  when  they  are  not  likely  to  reach  the  limits 
of  grave  matter,  even  taking  coalescence  into  account. 

Though  we  have  not  followed  the  order  of  our  corres- 


1  The  figures  given  in   Chambers's  Encyclopedia  are   151  -56,  but  the 
context  shows  that  this  is  a  misprint. 


266  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

pondent,  we  hope  that  he  will  find  a  reply  to  all  his  queries 
in  what  has  been  said. 

DELEGATED    JURISDICTION     TO    HEAR     CONFESSIONS    OUT- 
SIDE THE  TERRITORY  OF  THE  DELEGATING  AUTHORITY 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — A  bishop  or  a  parish  priest  can  delegate 
another  priest  to  assist  validly  at  the  marriage  of  subjects 
outside  the  diocese  or  parish.  Is  the  same  true  of  jurisdiction 
to  hear  confessions  ?  An  answer  will  oblige. 

C.  C. 

Speaking  speculatively,  bishops  and  parish  priests  can 
give  jurisdiction  by  which  confessions  of  subjects  can  be 
heard  outside  their  territories.  A  parity  with  matrimony 
would  go  to  prove  this.  But  that  delegated  jurisdiction 
is  of  no  use  in  practice,  because  approbation  is  necessary 
for  the  valid  exercise  of  delegated  jurisdiction  in  regard  to 
confessions  of  seculars,  and  that  must  be  obtained  from  the 
bishop  of  the  place  where  the  confession  is  heard.  With 
approbation  the  confessor  receives  jurisdiction — from  what 
source  we  need  not  examine — whereby  he  can  hear  the 
confessions  of  penitents  who  are  *  peregrini  *  in  the  place. 
Hence  a  distinct  and  separate  concession  of  jurisdiction 
is  superfluous. 

J.  M.  HARTY. 

LITURGY 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  BAPTISM,  BLESSED  EUCHARIST, 
SCAPULARS,  Etc. 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — I  should  be  very  much  obliged  if  you  would 
solve  for  me,  in  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  the  following  questions  : — 

1.  Baptism. — When  godfather  of  child  is  not  actually  present 
at  the  ceremony,  is  it  necessary  that  someone  should  stand 
godfather  by  proxy  ? 

2.  If  neither  godfather  nor  godmother  touches  the  child 
during  Baptism  when  water  is  being  poured  over  the  head  of 
infant,  does  that  invalidate  their  spiritual  relationship  with 
the  child  ? 

3.  In  the  case  of  an  adult  is  it  proper  for  the  recipient  to 
stand  or  to  kneel  while  water  is  being  poured  ? 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  267 

4.  According  to  Lehmkuhl,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
water  do  not  fall  from  the  head  of  infant  into  baptismal  font. 
If  such  be  the  case,  is  it  proper,  whilst  holding  bowl  in  order 
to  catch  water  after  it  has    been  poured  over  child's  head,  to 
perform  the  ceremony  over  baptismal  font,  that  the  water 
may  not  drip  upon  the  floor  ? 

5.  Holy  Eucharist. — Do  the  Rubrics  require  that  in  extract- 
ing Blessed  Sacrament  from  ciborium,  for  administration  to 
the  sick,  that  the  priest  should  be  vested  in  cassock,  cotta 
and   stole,  or  is  it    sufficient  to  use  stole  only,  thrown   over 
clerical  coat  ? 

6.  Indulgence  'In  articulo  mortis.'    Is  confession  and  con- 
trition   followed  by  Extreme  Unction  only  (not  with  Holy 
Eucharist),    sufficient   claim   to    blessing  with  indulgence   in 
articulo  mortis  ? 

7.  Is  it  proper  in  all  cases  to  refuse  Holy  Communion  (pro 
tempore)  to  one  who  makes  confession  after  many  years  away 
from  church,  and  is  in  immediate  danger  of  death  ? 

8.  Could  you  let  me  know  in  what  book  I  should  be  able 
to  find  the  indulgences  given,  and  prayers  prescribed,  for  each 
and  all  the  scapulars  ? 

9.  Am  I  right  in  supposing  that  a  priest  who  has  privilege 
of  enrolling  in  all  the  scapulars,  has  power  also  to  enroll  him- 
self in  all  these  confraternities  ?     If  so,  what  is  the  formula 
to  be  used,  when  all  the  scapulars  are  joined  together,  and 
suspended  by  single  ribbon. 

JUVENIS. 

Some  of  the  queries  raised  by  our  correspondent  possess 
more  of  a  Theological  than  a  Rubrical  aspect,  but  as  their 
solution  does  not  involve  any  serious  difficulty,  and  as 
they  are  severally  treated  of  by  Rubricists,  we  shall 
presume  to  answer  them  here. 

i.  One  of  the  essential  conditions  for  the  exercise 
of  valid  sponsorship  is  that  the  patrinus  should  at 
least  touch  the  infant  whose  spiritual  paternity  he 
wishes  to  undertake  and  assume.  If  the  godfather 
cannot  be  present  in  person,  he  must  depute  some 
agent,  or  procurator,  to  perform  in  his  name  this 
all-important  act.  In  this  case  it  is  the  principal  who  is 
the  true  sponsor,  and  who,  consequently,  contracts  the 


268  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

impediment  of  spiritual  relationship,  and  incurs  all  the  other 
responsibilities  attaching  to  the  office  of  patrinus.  The 
view  maintaining  the  necessity  of  this  contact  with  the 
infant  on  the  part  of  the  sponsor,  either  -per  se  or  per 
procuratorem,  is  based  on  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
Ritual,  the  Canons  of  the  Church,  and  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which  speak  of  the  patrinus  as  levans,  tenens,  suscipiens, 
or  tangens,  etc.,  baptizatum.  None  of  these  words  will  be 
verified,  nor  will  the  office  connoted  by  the  least  exacting  of 
them  be  discharged,  unless  there  is  some  kind  of  contact 
between  the  sponsor  and  child.  To  be  valid,  Theologians 
lay  down  that  this  contact  must  have  the  following 
qualifications  : — (i)  It  must  be  real  and  physical  :  a 
merely  momentary,  or  moral  contact  is  not  enough. 
(2)  It  must  be  simultaneous,  at  least  morally,  with 
the  actual  administration  of  the  Sacrament  by  the 
minister.  (3)  While  it  is  not  necessary  that  contact 
should  take  place  on  the  flesh  of  the  infant,  yet  it 
must  be  exercised  on  some  part  of  the  body,  and 
not  on  the  clothes  merely,  of  the  baptizatus.  In  a 
word,  the  sponsor  must  perform  an  act  such  as,  in  the 
estimation  of  men,  may  be  construed  into  an  equivalent 
of  what  is  implied  by  the  Latin  word  tangens.  The  case 
of  an  adult  is  no  exception.  '  Nam  ceremonia  susceptionis 
ac  sustentationis  patrini  inducta  non  est  ab  Ecclesia  ad 
supplendam  corporis  imbecillitatem  sed  ad  significandam 
infantiam  et  imbecillitatem  spiritualem.'1  In  places  where 
the  child  is  held  by  the  godmother,  the  godfather  is  required 
merely  to  put  his  right  hand  on  or  under  the  right 
shoulder.* 

2.  If  neither  godfather  nor  godmother  touches  the  child, 
vel  per  se,  vel  per  procuratorem,  there  is  no  valid  sponsor- 
ship, and  consequently,  no  spiritual  relationship  contracted. 

3.  The   Rubric   supposes   that   the  catechumen  stands 
while  the  water  is  being  poured  on  his  head.     To  facilitate 
matters  for  the  minister  he  should  '  incline  forward,  his 
head  and  neck  being  uncovered,  and  his  hands  joined.'3 

1  Sanchez,  D.  56,  n.  5,  z  O'Kane.  Rubrics  of  Rom.  Kit.,  n.  343, 

s  O' Kane,  n.  372. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  269 

4.  The  basin,  or  vessel — pelvis  seu  bacile1 — necessary  to 
receive  the  water  which  has  been  poured  on  the  head, 
should  be  of  sufficiently  large  dimensions  for  the  purpose. 
If  this  is  so  then  it  will  be  impossible  for  any  drops  to 
escape,  and  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  vessel  is  held 
immediately  over  the  font  or  beside  it.    For  convenience' 
sake  the  latter  would  seem  to  be  the  better  way.    The 
water  thus  used  as  the  matter  of  the  Sacrament  should 
be  reverently  disposed  of,  and  the  basin  should  be  kept 
exclusively  for  use  in  the  Baptistery.     The  construction 
of  modern  fonts,  which  are  divided  into  two  compartments, 
renders  the  employment  of  any  vessel  quite  unnecessary. 

5.  The  Rubric  on  this  point8  assumes  that  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  carried  to  the  sick  in  solemn  procession, 
and  therefore  directs  that  the  priest  be  vested  in  soutane, 
surplice   and   stole   when   he   opens   the   tabernacle.     In 
these  countries,  where  the  priest  carries  the  Communion 
to  the  sick  privately  and  in  ordinary  dress,  Rubricists* 
do  not  insist  on  the  use  of  any  sacred  vestment  for  the 
purpose  of  merely  taking  the  pyx  from  the  tabernacle, 
unless  it  be  necessary  to  uncover  the  ciborium  in  order  to 
transfer  some  consecrated  particles  to  a  small  pyx.     In 
this  case  the  reverence  due  to  the  sacred  species  thus  exposed 
would  require  that  the  vestments  above  prescribed  should 
be  used,  and  also,  that  two  candles  should  be  lighted  on 
the  altar  whilst  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  being  transferred 
from  one  vessel  to  another.4 

6.  The  Benedictio  Apostolica  in  articulo  mortis  is  intended 
to  be  the  final  complement  of  the  consoling  rites  administered 
to  the  departing  soul.     Since  its  end  is  to  impart  the  full 
remission  of  all  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin,  the  recipient 
must   be   actuated   by   the   proper    dispositions,    comply 
with  the  necessary  conditions,  and,  if  possible,  perform 
everything  the  Church  requires  those  to  do  who  are  pre- 
paring soon  to  appear  before  the  Tribunal  of  their  God. 
If  it  be  impossible,  owing  to  the  suddenness  of  the  illness 

1  Kit.  Rom.  De  Bap.  Inf.,  c.  i.  n.  44.          -  Rit.  Rom.  De  Com.  Inf.  n.  12. 
3  O'Kane,  n.  801.  *  Wapelhorst,  Comp.  Lit.,  n.  284. 


270  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

and  the  want  of  facilities,  or  to  any  other  cause  short  of 
the  lack  of  proper  dispositions  in  the  dying  person,  to 
administer  all  the  Sacraments,  the  Apostolic  Indulgence 
may  nevertheless  be  given  if  it  is  likely  to  be  useful.  '  lis 
aegrotis  concedi  potest  qui,  etiam  culpabiliter,  non  fuerunt 
ab  incoepto  morbo  sacramentis  refecti,  subitoque  vergunt 
in  interitum  '  non  vero  '  excommunicatis  impoenitentibus 
et  qui  in  manifesto  peccato  mortali  moriuntur.'1  It  can 
be  given,  therefore,  in  every  case  except  one  of  manifest 
indisposition  and  impenitence. 

7.  The  Roman  Ritual  says  :  *  Fideles  omnes  ad  Sacram 
Communionem    admittendi   sunt,    exceptis   iis   qui    justa 
ratione  prohibentur.*    Whether  there  is  a  reasonable  cause 
for  advising  a  penitent,   who  gets   absolution,   to  defer 
Communion,  in  certain  circumstances,  for  a  short  time, 
with  a  view  to  securing  better  dispositions,  is  a  matter 
that  must  be  left  to  the  prudence  and  direction  of  the 
confessor.     Long  absence  from  church  and  from  the  practice 
of  religion,  is,  per  se,  no  reason  why  a  person  who  now 
comes   to   confession,   and   is   otherwise   quite   prepared, 
may  not  be  admitted  at  once  to  the  reception  of  the  Blessed 
Eucharist.     On  the  contrary  this  very  circumstance  may 
sometimes  dictate  the  advisability  of  receiving  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  to  give 
proof  of   a  reformed  life  and  obtain  grace  and  strength 
to  persevere  in  it. 

8.  Our  correspondent  will  find  all  the  information  he 
wants  about  scapulars,  etc.,  in  MaureL  (Indulgences,  etc.8). 
He  will  also  find  in  the  Roman  Ritual  the  formulae  for  the 
blessing  and  imposition  of  all  the  scapulars  sanctioned  by 
the  Holy  See.     These  formulae  may  not  be  abbreviated 
nor    can    the   common   form    be   used    without     special 
authorization .3     It   was  decided    by  the  Congregation  of 
Indulgences  that  a  priest  having  power  to  enrol  generally 
(indiscriminatim)  can  invest  himself  in  the  scapulars  for 
which  he  has  these  general  faculties. 

1  S.  C.  Ind.,  Sept.  1775. 

2  Published  by  Messrs.  Gill  &  Son,  Dublin. 

3  Rescripta  Auth.  n.  280. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  271 

THB    BLESSING    OF    CHILDREN 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — We  hear  fairly  often  of  the  dedication  of 
children  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  or  to  some  saint.  On  the 
occasion  of  such  dedication  some  ceremonies  are  used,  but 
recurrence  to  the  Roman  Ritual,  the  authorized  book  in  which 
one  might  expect  to  find  such  ceremonies,  gives  no  formula. 
Can  you  tell  us  something  of  the  matter  ?  In  so  doing,  you 
will  oblige, 

SACERDOS. 

The  Roman  Ritual1  contains  a  number  of '  Benedictiones' 
in  the  Appendices,  and  we  think  that  our  respected  corres- 
pondent might  find  among  these  some  one  that  would 
be  appropriate  to  the  purpose  in  view.  For  instance, 
among  the  blessings  which  are  not  reserved  we  find  the 
following  :  '  Benedictio  infantis  ; '  '  Benedictio  pueri  ad 
obtinendam  super  ipsum  misericordiam  Dei ;  *  '  Benedictio 
puerorum  cum  praesertim  in  Ecclesia  praesentantur ; " 
'  Benedictio  Vestium  et  Cinguli  quae  deferuntur  in  honorem 
B.M.V.,'  and  the  *  Benedictio  ad  omnia  '  which  has  a  kind 
of  universal  appropriateness.  Supposing,  then,  that  the 
children  are  brought  to  the  church  on  some  feast  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  or  on  the  feast  of  the  saint  to  whom  they 
are  to  be  dedicated,  and  the  third  blessing  above  mentioned 
is  employed — some  little  external  solemnity  being  also 
added — the  result  will  be  a  ceremony  that  will  lack  neither 
impressiveness  nor  appositeness. 

Our  correspondent,  we  persume,  has  heard  of  the  '  Union 
of  the  Holy  Childhood.'  Children  may  be  enrolled  in  this 
Association  from  their  tenderest  years,  and  thus  placed, 
in  their  helpless  infancy,  under  such  powerful  protectors 
as  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Holy  Angels,  St.  Joseph,  St. 
Francis  Xavier  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  graces,  too, 
attached  to  the  membership  will  help  to  conform  them 
in  innocence  and  all  the  other  virtues  to  the  Divine 
Infant,  and  to  realize  the  beautiful  characteristics  of 
this  Divine  Model.  The  formula  of  initiation  into  the 

i  Descl6e,  etc.,  Rome,  1902. 


272  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Union  is  given  in  the  Roman  Ritual  among  the  Bene- 
dictiones  reservatae.  Authority  to  establish  it  may  be 
had  from  the  bishop,  and  the  conditions  of  member- 
ship are  very  simple.  A  small  tax  is  paid  by  members. 
This  goes  to  assist  in  the  noble  and  heroic  work  of  bringing 
the  grace  of  Baptism  and  the  light  of  faith  to  the 
abandoned  infants  of  pagan  parents  in  heathen  countries. 

P.  MORRISROE. 


273 


DOCUMENTS 

BEQUEST    FOB,    MASSES— DECISION    OF    COURT    OF    APPEAL 

ON  February  5th,  in  the  Appeal  Court,  consisting  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  the  Lord  Chief  Baron,  Lord  Justice  FitzGibbon, 
and  Lord  Justice  Holmes,  judgment  was  given  in  the  case  of 
Felix  O'Hanlon  v.  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Logue. 

The  appeal  was  by  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Logue  against  an 
order  of  the  Master  of  th?  Rolls  declaring  that  a  gift  under  the 
will  of  the  late  Ellen  M'Loughlin,  of  Portadown,  dated  i8th 
July,  1891,  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  her  late 
husband,  her  children,  and  herself  was  void,  because  there  was 
no  direction  that  the  Masses  should  be  celebrated  in  public. 

D.  F.  Browne,  K.C.  ;  John  H.  Pigott,  and  Patrick  Walsh,  for 
the  Appellant ;  Samuel  Browne,  K.C.  and  George  Greene,  for 
the  heir-at-law,  when  ascertained  ;  Charles  Drttmgoole,  for  the- 
Plaintiff. 

THE  LORD  CHANCELLOR  said  : — 

In  this  case  Felix  O'Hanlon,  the  trustee  of  the  will  of  Ellen 
M'Loughlin,  applied  by  summons  to  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  to 
have  the  important  question  involved  in  the  appeal  decided, 
whether  a  gift  for  the  celebration  of  Masses  for  the  repose  of 
the  souls  of  her  named  relatives  and  herself  was  a  valid  charit- 
able gift,  though  the  will  contained  no  direction  that  such  Masses 
should  be  celebrated  in  public.  The  gift  is  contained  in  a 
direction  by  the  testatrix  to  her  trustees  to  sell,  in  the  events 
that  happened  the  leasehold  mentioned  in  the  will,  '  and  to  pay 
over  the  income  of  the  proceeds  from  time  to  time  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Primate  of  All  Ireland  for  the  time  being,  to  be  applied 
for  the  celebration  of  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  her 
late  husband,  her  children,  and  herself.'  The  Master  of  the 
Rolls  by  his  order  dated  the  I3th  July,  1905,  decided  that  this 
gift  is  void  ;  and  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Logue  has  appealed. 
It  would  have  been  impossible,  I  think,  for  the  Master  of  the 
Rolls,  having  regard  to  the  existing  decisions,  to  have  made  a 
different  order.  But  we  have  been  asked,  and  are  compelled 
to  reconsider  the  principle  upon  which  the  decisions  in  the 
Attorney-General  v.  Delany  and  the  Attorney-General  v.  Hall 

VOL.  xrx.  s 


274  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

rest ;  and  assuming  it  to  have  been  now  determined  in  this 
Court,  that  a  gift  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  to  be  celebrated  in  public,  is  a  valid  charitable  gift,  to 
consider  further,  whether  such  a  gift  is  valid,  though  there  be 
no  direction  for  celebration  in  public ;  in  other  words,  whether 
its  validity  as  a  charitable  gift  does  not  rest  upon  far  higher 
grounds  than  the  existence  of  a  direction  for  public  celebration. 
J  have  had  the  advantage  of  reading  the  elaborate  judgment 
which  will  be  delivered  by  the  Lord  Chief  Baron.  The  Court 
of  Exchequer,  presided  over  by  the  Lord  Chief  Baron,  decided 
in  the  Attorney-General  v.  Delany,  that  a  gift  simply  for  the 
celebration  of  Masses  was  not  a  valid  charitable  gift,  but  the 
Chief  Baron  expressed  his  opinion  that  such  a  gift  would  be  valid 
if  there  were  a  direction  that  the  Masses  should  be  celebrated  in 
public.  That  opinion  passed  into  decision  in  the  case  of  the 
Attorney- General  v.  Hall ;  and  in  this  Court  it  did  not  become 
necessary  for  our  decisions  to  go  beyond  that.  I  was  satisfied 
myself  that  the  very  point  before  us  would  arise  later,  and 
I  have  thought  that  there  was  no  valid  reason  for  differentiating 
between  the  two  classes  of  cases.  Lord  Justice  FitzGibbon, 
however,  did  not  shrink  from  considering  the  larger  question  on 
principle.  He  says  : — 

'  I  find  it  necessary  to  look  more  deeply  for  the  real  founda- 
tion of  the  law  which  the  Attorney-General  has  expressly  de- 
clined to  challenge,  viz.,  that  bequests  for  Masses  are  valid,  in 
order  to  see  whether  it  is  possible  to  base  their  validity  upon 
any  principle  which  will  not  also  establish  the  charitable  char- 
acter, irrespective  of  the  mode  of  celebration.' 

Further  consideration  has  satisfied  the  Chief  Baron  that  the 
validity  of  the  gift  as  a  charitable  one  does  depend  upon  a 
principle  which  is  irrespective  of  the  mode  of  celebration,  and 
I  concur  with  him  in  that  result. 

There  are  some  legal  propositions  germane  to  the  case, 
for  which  it  would  be  mere  pedantry  to  cite  authority,  viz., 
that  in  speaking  of  what  is  '  charitable,'  we  use  the  word  in 
the  artificial  sense,  which  is  derived  from  the  statutes  43rd 
Elizabeth,  chapter  4,  and  the  loth  Charles  II,  chapter  i— that 
included  amongst  charitable  objects  is  one  which,  according  to 
the  ideas  of  the  giver,  is  for  the  public  benefit,  and  that  a  gift 
for  the  advancement  of  '  religion  '  is  a  charitable  gift,  and  that 
the  Court,  in  applying  this  principle,  does  not  enter  into  an 
inquiry  as  to  the  truth  or  soundness  of  any  religious  doctrine, 


DOCUMENTS  275 


provided  it  be  not  contrary  to  morals,  and  contains  nothing 
contrary  to  law. 

All  religions  are  equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  and  this 
especially  applies  since  the  abolition  in  this  country  of  a  State 
Church.  Whether  the  subject  of  the  gift  be  religion  or  for  an 
educational  purpose,  the  Court  does  not  set  up  its  own  opinion. 
It  is  enough  that  it  is  not  illegal,  or  contrary  to  public  policy, 
or  opposed  to  the  settled  principles  of  morality.  A  remarkable 
illustration  is  furnished  by  the  decision  in  Webb  v.  Oldfield,  where 
the  gift  was  for  the  spread  of  vegetarian  principles — ideas  that 
might,  in  the  view  of  many,  be  erroneous  and  visionary.  It 
may  also  be  treated  as  settled  law  that  in  Ireland  a  gift  for 
Masses  in  not  illegal  as  a  superstitious  use.  On  that  point 
Read  v.  Hodgens  is  a  binding  authority,  and  the  case  of  the 
.Commissioners  of  Charitable  Donations  v.  Walsh  has  been 
treated  as  a  decision  to  the  same  effect,  though  it  may  well  be 
that  a  careful  examination  of  the  gifts  there  might  show,  as 
pointed  out  by  the  Lord  Chief  Baron,  that  one  gift  involved  a 
public  celebration,  and  the  other  an  endowment  of  religion. 

In  pre- Reformation  times  a  gift  for  Masses  was  valid  at 
•common  law,  and  charitable,  as  the  word  must  be  interpreted. 
In  Attorney- General  v.  Delany,  evidence  was  given  by  Dr. 
Delany  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  a  Mass.  He  states  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
Mass  is  a  true  and  real  sacrifice  offered  to  God  by  the  priest, 
not  in  his  own  person  only,  but  in  the  name  of  the  Church  whose 
minister  he  is.  Every  Mass,  on  whatever  occasion  said,  is 
offered  to  God  in  the  name  of  the  Church  to  propitiate  His 
anger,  to  return  thanks  for  His  benefits,  and  to  bring  down 
His  blessings  upon  the  whole  world.  Some  portions  of  the  Mass 
are  invariable,  and  some  are  variable.  Amongst  those  invari- 
able are  an  offering  of  the  Host  for  his  own  sins  and  for  all 
present ;  as  also  for  all  faithful  Christians,  both  living  and 
dead  ;  and  the  sacrifice  is  offered  for  the  Church  and  the  granting 
to  it  of  peace,  and  its  preservation.  It  includes  commemora- 
tion of  the  living  and  commemoration  of  the  dead  ;  and  he  states 
that  it  is  impossible,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
that  a  Mass  can  .be  offered  for  the  benefit  of  one  or  more  indi- 
viduals, living  or  dead,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  general  objects 
included  by  the  Church.  When  an  honorarium  is  given  for  the 
purpose  of  saying  a  Mass  for  a  departed  soul,  the  priest  is 
bound  to  say  it  with  that  intention,  but  that  obligation  may  be 


276  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

discharged  by  a  mental  act  of  the  priest ;  but  it  cannot  be 
discharged  by  the  ordinary  parochial  Mass  which  he  says  on 
Sundays  and  holidays.  Such  honoraria  for  Masses  form  portion 
of  the  ordinary  income  and  means  of  livelihood  of  priests, 
and  are  generally  in  Ireland  distributed  by  those  to  whom  the 
distribution  is  entrusted,  amongst  priests  whose  circumstances 
are  such  that  they  stand  in  need  of  the  assistance  offered. 

Such  is  the  evidence  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  a  Mass,  both 
generally  and  where  a  commemoration  of  named  dead  is  in- 
cluded. It  is  settled  by  authority  which  binds  us  that  where 
there  is  a  direction  to  celebrate  the  Mass  in  public  the  gift  is 
a  valid  charitable  one,  but  that  which  makes  it  charitable  is 
the  performance  of  an  act  of  the  Church  of  the  most  solemn 
kind,  which  results  in  benefit  to  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful, 
and  the  results  of  that  benefit  cannot  depend  upon  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  congregation. 

Furthermore,  adopting  the  evidence  of  Dr.  Delany,  it  seems 
to  me  that  the  bequest  of  a  sum  of  money  for  the  saying  of 
Masses  which  cannot  be  satisfied  by  the  ordinary  parochial  Mass, 
and  the  conferring  of  honoraria  upon  the  priests  who  celebrate 
the  Masses,  are  an  endowment  of  the  priest  who  celebrates  this 
solemn  sacrifice,  and,  therefore,  an  advancement  of  religion 
just  as  much  in  principle  as  the  erection  of  a  church  in  which 
they  might  be  said,  or  the  endowment  of  an  additional  priest 
to  celebrate  them.  Authority  is  not  needed  for  the  proposition 
that  a  gift  for  such  a  purpose  would  be  a  good  charitable  one. 
I  think  the  appeal  should  be  allowed,  and  the  question  answered 
according  to  the  result  of  our  decision. 

[We  are  obliged  to  hold  over  the  judgments  of  the  Lord 
Chief  Baron,  Lords  Justices  FitzGibbon  and  Holmes  till  next 
month.] 

INDULGENCES     FOB     THE     FRANCISCAN     BOSABY 

KX  ACTIS  SUMMI  PONTIFICIS  ET  E  SECRETAR.  BREVIUM 

PIUS   PP.    X. 

Ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam. 

INDULGENTIAE    CONCEDUNTUR    CHRISTIFIDELIBUS  RECITANTIBUS 
CORONAM  FRANCISCANAM  SEPTEM  GAUDIORUM  B.  MARIAE  VIRG. 

Dilectus  filius  Bonaventura  Marrani  Ordinis  Fratrum  Mi- 
norum  Procurator  Generalis  impense  cupiens  ut  erga  Deiparam 


DOCUMENTS  277 


Immaculatam  magis  magisque  Fidelium  cultus  augeatur,  re- 
tulit  ad  Nos  inter  multiplices  cultus  ac  pietatis  signification es 
in  eamdem  Beatissimam  Virginem  consuetas,  nobilem  sane  locum 
obtinere  laudabilem  earn  praxim,  ut  peculiari  Corona  Septem 
devote  recolantur  Gaudia,  quibus  Deipara  in  Annuntiatione, 
Visitatione,  Partu,  Adoratione  Magorum,  Inventione  Filii,  huius 
Resurrectione  et  ipsius  Divinae  Matris  in  coelum  Assumptione 
in  Deo  Salutari  suo  mirabiliter  exsultavit.  Hinc  factum  esse, 
ut  decessores  Nostri  Romani  Pontifices,  non  modo  speciale 
Festum  Septem  Gaudiorum  Beatae  Mariae  Virginis  cum  omcio 
ac  Missa  propria  agendum  plurimis  in  locis  permiserint ;  verum 
etiam  Fratribus  et  Sororibus  Ordinum  Seraphici  Patris  Fran- 
cisci  Assisiensis,  quos  inter  ipsa  devotio  maius  incrementum 
reperisse  noscitur,  Indulgentiam  Plenariam,  pluries  vel  eadem 
die  lucrandam,  benigne  concesserint.  Verum  idem  dilectus  filius 
Procurator  Generalis  Minorum  Fratrum  animo  perpendens 
devotionem  erga  Septem  Beatae  Mariae  Virginis  Gaudia  nullo 
adhuc  spirituali  lucro  cunctis  Fidelibus  communi  esse  exor- 
natam ;  probe  autem  noscens  eamdem  Gaudiorum  Coronam 
publice  in  ecclesiis  ipsiusmet  Ordinis  cum  aliorum  Fidelium 
interventu  recitari,  Nos  enixis  precibus  flagitavit,  ut  huic  Septem 
Gaudiorum  Virginis  Coronae,  prouti  iam  concessum  fuit  Coronea 
Septem  Virginis  eiusdem  Dolorum.  Plenarias  nonnullas  ac  par- 
tiales  Indulgentias  vel  ab  omnibus  Fidelibus  rite  lucrandas 
adiungere  de  Apostolica  Nostra  benignitate  dignaremur.  Nos 
autem  quibus  antiquius  nihil  est  neque  magis  gratum,  quam  ut 
per  universum  orbem  Fidelium  pietas  erga  Virginem  Immacu- 
latam latius  propagetur,  et  Divina  Mater  in  Gaudio  non  minus 
quam  in  Dolore  admirabilis,  pan  a  christiano  populo  recolatur 
obsequio,  votis  hisce  piis  ultro  libenterque  annuendum  existi- 
mavimus.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  de  Omnipotentis  Dei  misericordia 
ac  Beatorum  Petri  et  Pauli  Apostolorum  eius  eius  auctoritate 
confisi,  omnibus  et  singulis  Fidelibus  ex  utroque  sexu,  qui 
publicae  recitationi  Coronae  Septem  Gaudiorum  Beatae  Mariae 
Virginis  apud  Ecclesias  ubique  terrarum  exsistentes  trium 
Ordinum  Seraphici  Patris  habendae,  adstiterint,  easdem  tri- 
buimus  Indulgentias,  quas  Fratres  et  Sorores  eiusdem  Ordinis, 
quibuscum  sunt  in  recitatione  sociati,  promerentur.  Insuper 
iisdem  Fidelibus  admissorum  confessione  rite  expiatis  et  Angelo- 
um  pane  refectis,  qui  Coronam  eamdem  quotannis  turn  Festis 


278  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

cuiusque  e  Septem  Gaudiis,  cum  potioribus  Beatae  Mariae 
Virginis  Festivitatibus,  vel  quovis  die  intra  respectivi  Festi 
octiduum,  ad  cuiusque  eorum  lubitum  eligendo  pie  recitent, 
quo  ex  iis  die  id  agant,  Plenariam  ;  et  iis,  qui  singulis  anni 
Sabbatis  Coronam  eamdem  recitare  consueverint  uno  cuiusque 
mensis  die,  ad  lubitum  pariter  eligendo,  dummodo  vere  ut  supra 
poenitentes  et  confessi  ad  Sacram  Synaxim  accedant,  etiam 
Plenariam  ;  tandem  iis  qui  memoratam  Coronam  retineant, 
illamque  frequenter  in  vita  percurrerint,  in  cuiuslibet  eorum 
mortis  articulo,  si  vere  poenitentes  et  confessi  ac  Sacra  Com- 
munione  refecti,  vel  quatenus  id  facere  nequiverint,  saltern 
contriti  nomen  lesu  ore,  si  potuerint,  sin  minus  corde  devote 
invocaverint,  et  mortem  tamquam  peccati  stipendium  de  manu 
Domini  patienti  animo  acceperint,  similiter  Plenariam  omnium 
peccatorum  suorum  Indulgentiam  et  remissionem  misericorditer 
in  Domino  concedimus.  Praeterea  ipsis  Fidelibus  ex  utroque 
sexu,  ubique  terrarum  degentibus,  qui  contrite  saltern  corde» 
aliis  per  annum  Beatae  Mariae  Virginis  festis  diebus  Coronam 
eamdem  recitent,  de  numero  poenalium  dierum  in  forma  Eccle- 
siae  solita  trecentos  annos  ;  et  iis  qui  id  agant  diebus  de  prae 
cepto  festivis,  ducentos  annos  ;  quoties  vero  Coronam  ipsam 
quocumque  alio  anni  die  persolverint,  toties  illis  septuaginta 
annos  totidemque  quadragenas  ;  iis  tandem  Fidelibus  qui  Coro- 
nam memoratam  Septem  Virginis  Gaudiorum  apud  se  fideliter 
retinentes,  eamque  frequenter  recitantes,  quodvis  pietatis  opus 
in  Dei  honorem,  vel  in  spiritualem  aut  temporalem  proximorum 
utilitatem  item  contrito  corde  exercuerint,  sive  in  honorem 
Septem  Deiparae  Gaudiorum  Angelicam  Salutationem  septies 
recitaverint,  de  numero  similiter  poenalium  in  forma  Ecclesiae 
solita,  quoties  id  agant,  decem  annos  expungimus.  Porro 
largimur,  ut  excepta  Plenaria  Indulgentia  in  mortis  articulo 
lucranda,  Fidelibus  ipsis,  si  malint,  liceat  Plenariis  supradictis 
ac  partialibus  Indulgentiis  functorum  vita  labes  poenasque 
expiare.  Verum  praecipimus,  ut  in  omnibus  supradictis  pietatis 
operibus  rite  exercendis  Coronae  Gaudiorum  Virginis  a  Fidelibus 
adhibendae,  sint  a  Ministro  Generali  pro  tempore  Ordinis  Fra- 
trum  Minorum,  vel  ab  alio  Sacerdote  sive  saeculari,  sive  regulari, 
per  ipsum  deputando,  in  forma  Ecclesia  solita,  servatisque 
servandis,  benedictae.  Contrariis  non  obstantibus  quibus- 
cumque.  Praesentibus  perpetuis  futuris  temporibus  valituris. 
Volumus  autem  ut  praesentium  Litterarum  authenticum  ex- 


DOCUMENTS  279 


emplar  transmittatur  ad  Indulgentiarum  Congregationis  Secre- 
tariam,  alioquin  praesentes  nullae  sint :  utque  item  praesentium 
Litterarum  transumptis  seu  exemplis,  etiam  impressis,  manu 
alicuius  Notarii  public!  subscriptis  et  sigillo  personaein  ecclesi- 
astica  dignitate  constitutae  munitis,  eadem  prorsus  fides  adhi- 
beatur,  quae  adhibeatur  ipsis  praesentibus  si  forent  exhibitae 
vel  ostensae. 

Datum  Romae  apud  Sanctum  Petrum  sub  annulo  Piscatoris 
die  XV  Septembris  MCMV,  Pontificatus  Nostri  Anno  Tertio. 

Pro  Dno.  Card.  MACCHI. 

NICOLAUS  MARINI,  Subst. 

Praesentium  Litterarum  authenticum  exemplar  transmissum 
fuit  ad  hanc  Secretariam  Sacrae  Congregationis  Indulgentiis 
Sacrisque  Reliquiis  praepositae. 

In  quorum  fidem,  etc. 

Datum  Romae  ex  eadem  Secretaria  die  18  Septembris  1905. 

L.  ifrS. 

»>&  DIOMEDES  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

.rf*< 


[     28o    ] 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 

LIFE  OF  ST.  ALPHONSUS  DE'  LIGUORI,  Bishop  and  Doctor  of 
the  Church,  Founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Redeemer.  Written  in  French  by  Austin  Berthe, 
Priest  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  ; 
edited  in  English  by  Harold  Castle,  M.A.,  Priest  of  the 
same  Congregation.  Dublin  :  Duffy  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  1905. 

SPIRITUAL  writers  agree  that  the  reading  of  the  lives  of  the 
saints  is  most  useful.  The  saints  are  the  Gospel  in  practice, 
and  the  heroism  of  their  virtues  humbles  us.  Saint,  however, 
differs  from  saint.  So,  too,  do  the  authors  of  their  lives.  We 
have  under  consideration  the  Life  of  one  who  lived  nearly  a 
century ;  who  was  brought  into  contact  with  every  class  of 
society  ;  who  was  so  powerful  in  word  and  work,  and  who,  after 
a  long  life  of  spotless  innocence  and  astounding  industry,  has 
had  placed  on  his  head  one  of  the  brightest  diadems  of  glory. 
But  this  is  not  enough.  We  need,  moreover,  a  scholar  who 
knows  how  to  select  from  superabundant  materials  just  those 
things  which  enables  him  to  give  a  perfect  portrait  of  the  man 
and  the  saint.  We  venture  to  say,  that  for  judicious  selection, 
for  interweaving  of  incidents,  for  the  formation  of  his  pictures, 
for  each  chapter  is  a  picture,  few  will  surpass  Father  Berthe. 
He  makes  us  live  with  the  Saint,  and  our  interest  in  him,  in  his 
work  and  sufferings,  and  humiliations  and  triumphs,  grow  with 
every  page  we  read. 

The  late  Cardinal  Parocchi  was  so  charmed  with  Father 
Berthe's  book,  that  he  wrote  to  him,  '  The  Saint  is  profoundly 
studied  in  your  Life,  and  from  every  point  of  view.'  He  then 
mentions  how  he  was  an  example  to  seculars,  to  priests,  and 
bishops.  '  You  present,'  His  Eminence  continues,  '  to  us  an 
ascetical  writer  of  the  highest  order,  who  knew  how  to  select 
from  the  rich  stores  of  his  predecessors  the  most  safe  rules 
illustrated  by  examples,  enriched  by  tradition  making 
accessible  to  the  people  things  which  before  were  the  patri- 
mony of  priests  and  religious.  You  give  us,  Rev.  Father,  an 
apologist  of  our  faith  in  times  full  of  impiety,  but  above  all 
you  give  us  the  Doctor  of  Morals,  declared  such  by  the  Apostolic 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  281 

See,  recognized  as  such  and  venerated  by  the  whole  world.' 
He  then  refers  to  attacks  made  by  enemies  of  holiness  and 
truth,  on  one  whose  life  was  most  innocent,  and  who  would 
die  rather  than  tell  an  untruth,  and  concludes  : '  All  this,  Father 
Berthe,  is  luminous  in  your  work,  which  I  desire  to  see  trans- 
lated into  every  language  in  Europe.'  The  author  was  honoured 
by  a  Brief  from  the  late  Holy  Father,  Leo  XIII,  and  the  Italian 
edition  is  dedicated  to  Pius  X. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  in  a  short  review  an  idea  of  a  work 
which  runs  into  1,600  pages.  Let  us  begin  with  a  description 
of  the  Saint  : — 

'  Alphonsus  was  middle  height,  but  his  head  was  somewhat 
large  and  his  complexion  fair.  He  had  a  broad  forehead, 
a  beautiful  eye  a  little  blue,  an  aquiline  nose,  a  small 
mouth,  pleasant,  and  rather  smiling.  .  .  .  His  voice  was  musical 
and  clear,  and  however  large  the  church,  or  how  long  the  mis- 
sion, it  never  failed  him,  not  even  in  extreme  old  age.  His 
appearance  was  very  dignified,  with  a  manner  both  grave  and 
weighty,  yet  mingled  with  good  humour,  so  that  he  made  his 
conversation  pleasant  and  agreeable  to  all,  young  and  old. 
His  gifts  of  mind  were  admirable.  His  intellect  was  acute  and 
penetrating,  his  memory  ready  and  tenacious,  his  mind  clear 
and  well  arranged,  his  will  effective  and  strong.  These  are 
gifts  which  upheld  the  weight  of  his  literary  undertakings,  and 
did  so  much  for  the  church  of  Christ. 

'  His  temperament  was  irascible  rather  than  phlegmatic, 
but  by  the  dominion  of  his  virtue  he  made  it  peaceable  and 
gentle  beyond  belief.  Always  recollected  he  was  master  of  all 
the  movements  of  his  soul,  and  from  the  time  when  he  gave 
himself  altogether  to  God  (1723)  he  was  never  seen  to  be  sur- 
prised by  passion,  being  able  to  open  or  shut  at  will  the  door  of 
his  own  heart.  He  was  an  enemy  of  a  pleasant  and  easy  life, 
yet  the  more  austere  he  was  with  himself,  the  kinder  and  more 
compassionate  was  he  with  others.' 

To  life  in  the  bosom  of  a  model  family  succeeded  his  life  as 
lawyer,  as  cleric,  and  then  as  Priest.  In  each  case  the  author 
is  able  to  give  us  the  rules  that  regulated  the  conduct  of  Alphon- 
sus. The  lawyer,  the  Saint  says,  '  is  bound  to  thoroughly  study 
the  evidence,  so  as  to  put  the  case  in  the  best  way,  and  he  must 
do  this  with  as  much  care  as  though  his  own  interests  were  at 
stake  (page  9,  No.  3).  ...  Justice  and  probity  should  be  the 
lawyer's  two  companions,  and  he  should  regard  them  as  the 
apple  of  his  eye  '  (No.  7). 


282  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

After  his  unprecedented  success  as  a  lawyer  comes  his  con- 
version, which  the  author  gives  in  his  chapter,  '  The  Road  to 
Damascus '  (chapter  iii.)  ;  and  a  little  later  his  ordination.  In 
chapter  vi.,  '  The  Sacred  Fire,'  we  have  the  resolutions  of  the 
young  priest,  starting  with,  '  I  am  a  priest  ;  my  dignity  is  above 
that  of  the  angels  ;  my  life  therefore  should  be  one  of  angelic 
purity,  and  I  should  strive  that  it  should  be  so,  by  every  possible 
means  ;'  and  ending,  '  I  am  a  priest ;  it  is  my  duty  to  inspire 
others  with  a  love  of  virtue  and  glorify  the  eternal  priest,  Jesus 
Christ '  (page  41). 

Speaking  of  his  works,  the  reader  will  find  a  careful  descrip- 
tion and  appreciation  of  all  that  are  more  important,  and  al- 
though Father  Berthe  is  sometimes,  perhaps,  a  little  too  long, 
he  is  always  interesting,  for  he  gives  us  the  stand-point  of  the 
Saint.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Saint's  long  fight  for  his 
moral  teaching,  in  which  he  had  to  defend  himself  against 
friends  as  well  as  open  enemies. 

A  glance  at  the  table  of  contents  reveals  the  order  and 
variety  of  the  matter.  For  example,  in  Vol.  ii.,  after  his  con- 
secration, we  have,  '  A  General  Mission,'  '  Reformation  of  the 
Seminary,'  '  Pastoral  Visitations ;  '  and  then  comes  '  The 
Famine,'  which  bade  fair  to  destroy  everything.  Then  we 
have  '  Reformation  of  Morals,'  '  Promotions,'  '  Sacred  Func- 
tions,' from  which  we  pass  to  '  Father  Patuzzi,'  or  his  great 
combat  for  his  theology.  The  chapters  in  Vol.  i.,  '  The  Rector 
Major,'  '  The  Golden  Days,'  '  The  Saviour  of  Souls,'  are  charm- 
ing. One  sees  everywhere  the  greatness  of  Alphonsus'  souL 
Whatever  was  of  interest  to  the  Church  and  souls  was  full  of 
interest  for  him,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  his  letter  to  the  Cardinals 
after  the  death  of  Clement  XIV  (page  358),  and  his  correspond- 
ence, in  his  old  age,  with  the  Abbe"  Francis  Nonnotte  (page  446). 
The  aged  saint  was  in  desolation  to  find  the  efforts  of  this  noble 
priest  so  hampered  in  Paris,  that  he  had  to  get  his  refutation 
of  Voltaire  printed  in  Geneva.  When  the  Saint  heard  this,  he 
exclaimed  : — 

'  O  God  !  in  Paris  amongst  these  professors  there  is  not  one 
to  stand  up  against  so  great  a  monster,  and  such  an  enemy  of 
religion  and  the  Church.  And  the  refutation  of  his  errors  has  to- 
be  printed  not  in  Paris,  but  in  Geneva  ?  Alas,  for  us,  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Church  has  come  to  such  a  pass  in  Paris  that  it  can- 
not confront  an  unbeliever,  and  repress  his  audacity  !  Poor 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  283 

Archbishop  !  Poor  Church  !  This  sin  certainly  will  not  go 
unpunished.  Poor  France  !  I  weep  for  thee,  and  for  so  many 
poor  innocent  souls,  who  will  be  overwhelmed  in  thy  cala- 
mities.' 

This  zealous  priest  wrote,  in  1783,  to  a  friend,  about  the 
last  letter  he  had  received  from  our  Saint.  '  I  cannot  describe 
the  deep  feeling  with  which  the  little  letter  sent  me  by  our  holy 
Bishop,  Mgr.  Liguori,  filled  me.  I  look  on  him  as  the  Simeon 
of  the  Gospel,  to  whom  the  Holy  Ghost  has  made  known  such 
high  mysteries.  .  .  .' 

The  Saint's  own  great  trials  did  not  even  lessen  his  interest 
in  the  Church,  and  God  alone  knows  how  great  those  were.  We 
are  prepared  for  them  in  chapter  vi.  (page  463),  '  The  Hush 
before  the  Storm.'  The  storm  itself  is  described  in  the  chapters 
that  follow ;  but  it  was  more  than  a  storm,  it  was  a  tragedy, 
and  one  can  say  that  Alphonsus  died  on  the  Cross.  The  heart 
that  is  not  moved  by  the  sufferings  of  this  great  man  must  be 
hard  indeed — and  never  did  a  word  of  complaint  against  those 
who  were  the  agents  escape  his  lips. 

The  editor  has  added  valuable  Appendices.  The  first  gives 
notes  and  corrections,  the  second  an  admirable  Chronological 
Table,  the  third,  Missions  given  by  the  Saint,  fourth  a  list  of 
Confessions  of  the  holy  Founder's  companions ;  fifth,  Letters  used 
in  the  Life.  Then  follows  the  most  complete  Alphabetical 
Index.  Besides  a  very  full  Table  of  Contents  there  is  an 
Alphabetical  Index  in  each  volume. 

The  author,  the  editor,  and  his  helpers,  have  had  at  their 
disposal  all  the  sources  of  information,  with  the  result  that  we 
have  now,  in  English,  a  standard  life  of  this  great  Doctor  of  the 
Church. 


THE  TRUTH  OF  CHRISTIANITY  :  An  Examination  of  the 
more  Important  Arguments  for  and  against  Believing 
in  that  Religion.  By  Lt.-Col.  W.  H.  Thurton,  D.S.O. 
London  :  Wells,  Gardner,  Darton  &  Co.,  Ltd.  Fifth 
edition  (revised),  1905. 

PREVIOUS  editions  of  this  excellent  volume  have  been  warmly 
welcomed  by  leading  organs  of  almost  every  Christian  denomi- 
nation, and  we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  add  a  few  words  to  the 
chorus  of  commendation  it  has  received.  After  reading  the 


284  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

book  our  general  impression  is,  that  it  would  be  difficult  within 
the  same  compass  to  present  the  fundamental  arguments  in 
favour  of  theism  and  of  Christianity  in  a  simpler  or  more  solid 
and  convincing  way  than  Colonel  Thurton  has  done.  His 
reasoning  and  scholarship  leave  little  to  be  desired  ;  the  straight- 
forward directness  with  which  difficulties  are  met,  and  their 
value  allowed,  adds  considerable  force  to  his  argument ;  while 
the  style,  which  is  calm  and  unpretentious,  is  in  thorough  keep- 
ing with  the  general  moderation  maintained.  We  are  all  the 
more  gratified  with  the  unusual  merit  of  the  book,  as  it  comes 
from  the  pen  of  a  layman.  It  is  not  the  kind  of  book  that  will 
altogether  satisfy  the  advocates  of  the  new  Apologetics  ;  but 
we  are  old-fashioned  enough  to  believe  that,  side  by  side  with 
whatever  is  useful  in  the  new,  the  substance  of  the  old  Apolo- 
getics must  be  retained. 

P.  J-   T. 

ADDRESSES  TO  CARDINAL  NEWMAN  WITH  HIS  REPLIES,  etc. 
1879-81.  Edited  by  Rev.  W.  P.  Neville  (Cong.Orat.) 
London  :  Longmans,  1905. 

THE  publication  of  a  volume  like  this  may  appear  to  some 
to  be  uncalled  for,  and  in  the  case  of  any  other  than  Newman 
we  should  be  inclined  to  agree  with  that  view.  But  in  his  case, 
we  believe  the  public  is  sufficiently  interested  in  everything 
connected  with  the  great  events  in  his  career  to  welcome  a 
memorial  like  this,  of  one  of  the  most  notable  of  those  events 
— his  elevation  to  the  College  of  Cardinals.  To  Newman  himself, 
after  all  he  had  passed  through,  it  must  have  come  as  a  great 
triumph  and  a  glorious  vindication,  to  receive  the  very  highest 
and  strongest  pledge  of  trust  and  esteem  and  approval  which 
the  Head  of  the  Church  could  bestow  ;  and  we  want  to  know, 
as  this  volume  enables  us  to  know,  how  the  Catholic  world 
received  the  news  of  his  elevation,  and  more  especially  how  he 
himself  bore  the  burden  of  his  honour — what  thoughts  and 
feelings  were  uppermost  in  his  mind,  and  rose  to  his  lips  on  the 
occasion. 

Admirers  of  Newman  will  come  away  from  a  perusal  of 
his  replies  in  this  volume,  with  a  heightened  admiration  for  the 
purity  and  simplicity  of  his  character. 

P.  J.  T. 


NOTICES  OF   BOOKS  285 

DEVOTION  TO  THE  SACRED  HEART  OF  JESUS.  By  Rev. 
H.  Noldin,  SJ.  Authorized  translation  from  the 
German.  Revised  by  Rev.  W.  H.  Kent,  O.S.C.  New 
York  :  Benziger  Bros.,  1905. 

WE  are  glad  to  welcome  this  valuable  addition  to  our  English 
literature  on  Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart.  It  is  intended 
specially  for  priests  and  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  and 
represents  the  substance  of  instructions  on  this  devotion  given 
by  the  author  to  the  students  under  his  charge  in  the  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Innsbruck.  Father  Noldin  is  widely  and 
favourably  known  for  his  excellent  work  in  the  department  of 
Moral  Theology,  and  his  name  will  be  enough  to  recommend 
this  volume  to  those  who  know  him  as  a  theologian.  Priests 
and  students  will  find  in  the  body  of  the  work  just  the  kind  of 
material  they  are  often  in  search  of,  to  aid  them  in  preparing 
their  own  instructions  to  the  people  on  the  nature  and  object 
of  this  devotion,  and  the  grounds  and  motives  for  its  practice  ; 
and  in  the  Appendix  they  will  find  a  good  deal  of  useful  sub- 
sidiary matter.  We  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  this  little 
volume  to  our  readers. 

P.  J.  T. 

THE  SPIRIT  OF  SACRIFICE  AND  THE  LIFE  OF  SACRIFICE  IN 

THE  RELIGIOUS  STATE.     From  the  original  of  Rev. 

S.  M.  Giraud,  Mss.  Priest  of  our  Lady  of  La  Salette. 

Revised  by  Rev.  Herbert  Thurston,  SJ.     New  York  : 

Benziger  Bros.,  1905. 

THIS  volume  is  a  treatise  on  the  religious  life  viewed  as  a 
life  of  sacrifice.  Part  I.  explains  various  motives  on  the  prac- 
tice of  the  life  of  sacrifice  in  the  religious  state,  and  points  out 
the  excellence  of  that  practice.  In  Part  II.  the  novitiate ;  in 
Part  III.,  the  religious  vows ;  and  in  Part  IV.  the  community 
life  are  dealt  with  in  detail,  in  such  a  way  as  to  exhibit  every 
duty  and  circumstance  of  the  religious  life  in  its  relation  to  the 
spirit  of  sacrifice.  The  book  is  instructive  and  edifying,  and  will 
doubtless  be  welcomed  by  those  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  To 
people  living  in  the  world,  and  even  to  non-Catholics,  who  desire 
to  understand  the  true  inward  spirit  of  the  religious  life,  this 
book  may  safely  be  recommended.  The  style  is  better  than  in 
many  works  of  the  kind,  and  the  translation  reads  very  well. 
The  publishers  also  have  done  their  part  satisfactorily. 

P.  J.  T. 


286  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

SUMMA  THEOLOGICA  AD  MODUM  COMMENTARII  IN  AQUINATIS 
SUMMAE.  Auctore  L.  Janssens,  S.T.D.  Tomus  VI.  : 
Tractatus  De  Deo  Creatore  et  De  Angelis.  Friburgi 
Brisgoviae  :  Herder  (pp.  xxxiv.  +  1,048). 

FATHER  JANSSENS  has  already  done  so  much  well-known 
work  for  Theology,  it  is  almost  needless  to  state  that  the  present 
volume,  the  title  of  which  sufficiently  indicates  its  subject- 
matter,  is  replete  with  deep  thought  and  painstaking  research. 
The  author  accommodates  to  modern  needs  the  Summa  of  St. 
Thomas — a  work  for  which  the  theological  world  will  be 
grateful  to  him. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Father  Janssens  now  holds  the  re- 
sponsible position  of  Secretary  to  the  Biblical  Commission,  the 
part  of  his  work  that  is  of  greatest  interest  to  our  readers  is  his 
•chapters  on  the  Mosaic  Cosmogony.  He  begins  his  Scriptural 
discussion  by  laying  down  some  general  principles  which  he 
intends  to  follow,  the  chief  of  which  is  that  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  sacred  writer,  even  whilst  under  the  influence  of  divine 
inspiration,  should  be  free  from  error  in  regard  to  what  he  writes 
about  matters  which  the  Holy  Ghost  does  not  directly  intend. 
In  narrating,  for  instance,  the  wonderful  story  of  Josue,  pro- 
longing by  prayer  the  light  of  day  that  victory  might  be  gained, 
the  sacred  writer  could  not  merely,  by  accommodating  his  mode 
of  speech  to  the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  day,  state  that  '  the 
sun  stood,'  but  could  also  have  thought,  while  he  wrote  these 
words,  the  Copernican  theory  to  be  true,  and  the  Heliocentric 
teaching  false.  Father  Janssens  does  not  explain  how  this 
principle  can  be  reconciled  with  the  Encyclical  Providentissimus 
Deus. 

The  learned  author,  then,  proceeds  to  examine  critically  the 
text  of  Genesis,  the  historical  evolution  of  Catholic  interpre- 
tation of  the  Hexaemeron,  and  the  principal  opinions  which  hold 
the  field  in  present-day  criticism.  In  performing  this  last  task 
he  deals  with  two  broad  divisions  of  thought — the  historical 
theories  and  others.  Speaking  of  the  historical  theories  he 
examines  the  views  of  those  who  hold  the  literal  interpretation 
of  six  natural  days  of  twenty-four  hours  each,  and  who  explain 
the  different  strata  now  existing  within  the  earth's  surface  by 
an  appeal  either  to  the  upheavals  of  the  flood  or  to  the  con- 
vulsions of  nature  which  took  place  between  the  events  narrated 
in  the  first  and  those  told  in  subsequent  verses  of  Genesis. 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  287 

He  afterwards  discusses  and  carefully  weighs  the  arguments  for 
and  against  the  theories  which  maintain  that  the  days  of  Genesis 
are  long  periods  of  time. 

Passing  to  the  non-historical  theories  of  the  creation,  Father 
Janssens  divides  them  into  ideal  interpretations  which  are 
explained  with  or  without  visions,  and  traditionalist  opinions 
whether  these  connect  the  Biblical  Cosmogony  with  Gentile 
myths  or  explain  it  independently  of  them.  He  notes,  with 
justice,  that  the  ideal  and  traditionalist  interpretations  in  his 
dissertation  on  traditionalist  views  rather  supplement  than  con- 
tradict one  another.  He  subjects  to  criticism  the  opinion  of 
Father  Lenormant,  that  early  Gentile  myths  are  found  in  a 
purified  state  in  the  Mosaic  story  of  Creation  ;  and  also  the  more 
definite  theory  of  Father  Lagrange  that  the  Biblical  Cosmogony 
contains  vestiges  of  myths  deprived,  however,  of  their  mythical 
character,  and  that  it  holds  an  intermediate  place  between  the 
Babylonian  Cosmogony  which  is  Pantheistic  and  the  Phoenician 
which  is  Materialistic,  the  Mosaic  narration  showing  a  sub- 
stantial divergence  which  can  be  attributed  only  to  revelation 
and  inspiration. 

In  putting  forward  his  own  view  which  is  traditionalist, 
Father  Janssens  holds  that  the  Biblical  story  is  not  derived 
from  the  Cosmogony  of  Gentile  nations,  but  contains  vestiges 
of  a  remote  tradition  consigned  to  tablets  which  were  preserved 
amongst  the  Chaldeans,  and  brought  by  Abraham  into  the  land 
of  Canaan.  This  ancient  tradition  was  based  on  primitive 
revelation,  traces  of  which  remained  with  the  Babylonians 
and  Phoenicians,  and  which  so  coloured  their  myths  that  these 
must  of  necessity  have  had  points  of  contact  with  the  Mosaic 
story  of  Creation.  The  Chaldaean  tradition  was,  moreover, 
affected  by  the  astronomical,  geological,  and  zoological  theories 
of  ancient  days,  so  that  the  Biblical  narrative  derived  from  it 
could  not  but  have  had  some  similarity  with  the  Cosmogonies 
of  those  Gentile  peoples  who  held  the  same  scientific  views. 

The  remaining  parts  of  Father  Janssens'  monumental  work 
show  the  same  thorough  grasp  of  principles  and  the  same  com- 
mendable research  which  his  readers  will  find  in  his  Scriptural 
discussions.  We  warmly  congratulate  him  on  the  success  of 
his  laborious  undertaking. 

J.  M.  II. 


288  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

FR.DENIFLE,  O.P.  Dr.  Grabmann.   Mainz:  Kircheim.   1905. 

THE  numerous  admirers  of  the  deceased  will  be  grateful 
for  this  interesting  sketch.  It  is  from  the  pen  of  one  who  knew 
him  well,  Professor  Grabmann  of  Eichstatt.  Though  the 
pamphlet  is  small  (62  pages,  8vo),  it  contains  a  most  valuable 
account  of  Denifle's  labours  in  palaeography,"  criticism,  history, 
and  biography.  We  may  say  that,  putting  aside  his  many 
essays  and  articles  of  which  only  a  summary  could  be  given, 
all  his  large  works  are  fully  described — from  those  on  the  German 
Mystics,  Tauler,  Suso,  Eckhart,  etc.,  and  his  History  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  History  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  etc., 
to  his  last  publication,  Luther  und  Liithertum,  the  book  which 
caused  such  commotion  in  Protestant  circles  throughout 
Germany.  It  is  the  record  of  an  extraordinary  savant's  life, 
and  shows  that  Denifle  more  than  deserved  the  veneration  in 
which  he  was  held  by  all  the  learned  bodies  of  Europe.  The 
graceful  tribute  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  (page  55)  is 
sure  to  be  read  with  pleasure. 

R.  W. 

PARIS  MANUSCRIPT  OF  ST.  PATRICK'S  LATIN  WRITINGS. 
By  Newport  J.  D.  White.  Dublin :  Hodges  &  Figgis 
Price  6d. 

FROM  a  review  of  his  former  work  in  the  Analecta  Bollon- 
diana,  the  Editor  learned  that  one  of  the  oldest  MSS. — that  of 
St.  Patrick's  Confession — was  to  be  found  in  the  Biblioth6que 
Nationale,  at  Paris.  We  are  surprised  that  a  man  who  had  set 
himself  to  give  a  correct  edition  of  St.  Patrick's  writings  should 
have  been  ignorant  of  such  an  important  fact.  But,  unlike 
many  other  writers,  Dr.  White  paid  some  attention  to  his  re- 
viewers, and  immediately  set  himself  to  repair  the  defect  in  his 
previous  work.  The  result  of  his  examination  of  the  Paris  MS. 
is  contained  in  the  present  booklet,  and  we  heartily  commend 
it  to  all  who  are  interested  in  arriving  at  the  true  text  of  our 
Apostle's  Confession. 

J.  MACC. 


:',6V  Christian  tia  ft  Romani  sitis. ''      "As  you  are  children  of  Christ,  so  be  you  children  of  Rome.'1 
fx  Dictts  S.  Patncii,  In  Lt^ro  Armacano,  foL  q. 


Ecclesiastical    Record 


ri  Journal,  uufcrr  SFytsropal  Sanction, 


trt^ttttttfj  gear  1  AT-IT-.TT  * 

No.  460          J  APRIL,   I906. 


JFuurt^  Setfeg. 
Vol.  XIX. 


The  Foundation  of  Unbelief. 

Rev.  James  MacCaffrey,  S.T.L.,  Maynooth  College. 

Compulsory  Education. 

Rev.  P.  J.  Dowling,  C.M.y  Cork. 

The  Vatican  Edition  of  the  'Kyriale  '  and  its  Critics. 

Rev.  T.  A.  Surge,  O.S.B.,  Liverpool. 

The  Church  and  the  Schools  in  countries  of  different 
Religious  Denominations. 

Rev.  Daniel  Coghlan,  D.D..  Maynooth  College. 

General  Notes. 

The  Origin  of  Life.  _  The  Key  to  the  World's  Progress,    St.  Bernard  on  Intemperance. 
Daily  Communion. 

Notes  and  Queries. 

THEOLOGY.  Rev.  /.  M.  Harty,  D.D.,  Maynooth  College. 

Rules  of  the  Index.    Age  at  which  O  '  FSedatfrjSflescs, 

LITURGY.  Rev.  Patrick  Morrisroe,  Maynooih  College* 

1  Orationes  in  Missis  De  Requie,, 

Correspondence. 

The  Maintenance  of  Invalid  Priests. 

Documents. 

Decree  of  tiie  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council  regarding  '  Daily  Communion,' 

Notices  of  Books. 

VIA  bpf\&Mi.    Aspects  of  Anglicanism.    Le  Maitre  et  L'Elive, 


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THE    FOUNDATION    OF    UNBELIEF 


T 


i  HE  Bampton  Lectures  of  Dean  Mansel,'  says  a 
writer  in  an  English  review,  *  delivered  in  the 
University  of  Oxford  in  the  year  1859,  wi^  De 
long  remembered  by  those  who  were  then  in  resi- 
dence.'1 Nor  is  it  strange  that  this  should  be  so.  Clear, 
concise,  apparently  logical,  they  made  sceptics  of  many 
whose  faith  they  were  meant  to  strengthen.  In  these 
discourses,  intended  as  they  were  to  uphold  the  dogmas  of 
Christianity,  agnostics  profess  to  find  a  complete  and 
unanswerable  presentation  of  their  views.  Hence,  a  word 
about  them  here,  by  way  of  introduction,  may  not  be  out 
of  place. 

The  period  of  their  delivery  was  a  critical  one  for  the 
Protestant  Church  in  England.  The  philosophic  theories 
of  previous  writers,  of  men  such  as  Locke  and  Berkeley, 
and  Hume  and  Kant,  in  the  hands  of  their  less  reverent 
disciples,  were  working  havoc  with  the  traditional  beliefs 
of  the  educated  classes.  Revelation  and  supernatural 
religion  were  being  openly  assailed  by  men  who,  never- 
theless, admitted  the  existence  of  a  God  and  the  necessity 
of  divine  worship.  In  their  difficulties,  the  orthodox 
party  anxiously  looked  around  for  a  champion  who  might 
stay  the  onward  march  of  naturalism  by  a  brilliant 
exposure  of  the  weakness  of  its  position,  and  of  the  fallacies 

i  The  Month,  July,  1882. 

FOURTH  SERIES,  VOL.  XIX. — APRIL,  1906.  I 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


by  which  it  was  supported.     Their  choice  fell  upon  Dean 
Mansel,  and,  as  the  results  showed,  no  choice  could  have 
been  more  unfortunate.     From  that  day  Oxford  ceased  to 
be,  what  it  always  was,  the  home  of  conservatism  and, 
comparatively  speaking,  of  orthodoxy.     It  has  since  'been 
undoing  one  by  one,  whether  deliberately  or  under  com- 
pulsion, the  ties  which  bind  it  to  the  Church  of  Christ.'1 
The  method  of  defence  adopted  by  the  learned  lecturer 
was  well  calculated  to  secure  the  attention  of  his  audience, 
and  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled  philosopher  might  have  proved 
completely  successful.     He  undertook   to   show  that   the 
very   same    difficulties   by   which   unbelievers   sought    to 
overturn  the  Christian  revelation,  might  be  urged  with 
equal  force  against  all  who  ventured  any  positive  state- 
ment regarding  God.     You  reject,  he  argues,  the  Christian 
dogmas,  because  your  reason  cannot  perceive  their  truth  ; 
nay,  rather,  it  perceives  that  they  are  contradictory  and 
mutually  destructive.     But   examine  your  own  concepts 
regarding    the    divine    nature    and    attributes  —  concepts 
which  you  have  independently  of  revelation  —  and  you  will 
find  that  they,  too,  labour  under  the  same  defect.     They 
lead  only  to  confusion.     Nor  in  your  despair  of  finding 
truth  can  you  turn  to  Atheism  as  the  safe  harbour,  the 
only  secure  position  for  poor  human  intelligence,  for  the 
atheist    but   involves   himself    in   difficulties   even    more 
insurmountable. 

Yet,  the  escape  from  this  dilemma  must  be  evident  to 
any  thoughtful  observer.  God  does  not  wish  to  be  known 
by  human  intelligence.  He  is  entirely  outside  its  range  ; 
and  when,  in  their  mad  thirst  for  knowledge,  men  endeavour 
to  unveil  Him  by  their  natural  powers  they  are  acting  as 
inordinately,  and,  therefore,  as  unreasonably  as  they 
would  be,  were  they  to  give  full  rein  to  their  animal 
passions.  The  great  Creator  is  separated  from  us  by  an 
impassable  gulf  which  no  human  powers  can  ever  bridge. 
Hence,  at  the  very  outset,  men  must  distrust  their  reason 
and  accept  faith  as  the  only  safe  guide  towards  a  know- 
ledge of  the  Divinity.  '  Of  the  nature  and  attributes  of 

i  University  Sermon,  4th  June,  1882—  Canon  Liddon  (apud  the  Month). 


THE  FOUNDATION   OF    UNBELIEF  2QI 

God  in  His  Infinite  Being,'  the  Dean  declares,  '  Philosophy 
can  tell  us  nothing  ;  of  man's  inability  to  apprehend  that 
nature,  and  why  he  is  thus  unable,  she  tells  us  all  that  we 
can  know  and  all  that  we  need  know.' l 

The  Dean  was  unequalled  in  expounding  the  difficulty, 
but  his  reply  could  not  bear  analysis.  There  were  men 
in  England  who  had  long  been  thinking  that  the  dogmas 
declaring  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God  were  but  the 
delusive  figments  of  the  human  imagination,  and  that  He 
could  not  be  known,  Who,  if  He  exists,  must  be  outside  the 
field  of  mortal  cognition.  Imagine  their  surprise  when 
they  heard  expounded  from  the  Oxford  pulpit,  as  they 
themselves  could  never  have  expounded  them,  their  own 
most  cherished  convictions.  They  were  quick  enough  to 
perceive  that,  by  elevating  faith  at  the  expense  of  reason, 
the  learned  Dean  had  destroyed  the  very  foundations  of 
faith  itself,  and  prepared  the  way  for  denying  all  know- 
ledge of  God.  Professor  Huxley  boldly  proclaimed  that 
Agnosticism,  as  he  loved  to  call  his  system,  in  memory 
of  the  Athenian  Altar  to  the  Unknown  God,2  was  the  only 
possible  position  for  a  scientific  man.  Experience,  he 
contended,  was  the  only  guide  to  knowledge,  and  God  does 
not  fall  within  the  range  of  experience.  But,  though  Huxley 
is  the  most  violent,  he  is  by  no  means  the  ablest  champion 
of  the  new  belief.  The  writings  of  Herbert  Spencer,  in- 
teresting and  attractive  as  they  undoubtedly  are,  have 
contributed  most  to  its  dissemination  amongst  the  English 
people.  Hence  it  may  be  useful  in  the  beginning  to  briefly 
sketch  the  system  which  he  propounds. 

Spencer  himself  tells  us  that  his  philosophic  theory 
on  the  nature  of  human  knowledge  logically  forced  him 
to  join  the  Agnostic  ranks.3  On  the  one  hand,  against 

i  Lect.  viii.,  p.  26. 

*  ayv<ooT<a  6tto  (Acts  xvii.  23). 

3  c  And  this  feeling  is  not  likely  to  be  decreased  but  to  be  increased  by  that 
analysis  of  knowledge  which,  while  forcing  him  into  agnosticism,  yet  con- 
tinually prompts  him  to  imagine  some  solution  of  the  Great  Enigma  which  he 
knows  cannot  be  solved." — Nineteenth  Century,  Jan.  1884,  p.  12. 

About  this  article  of  Mr.  Spencer,  Frederic  Harrison  writes  :  '  It  is  the 
last  word  of  the  Agnostic  Philosophy  in  its  controversy  with  Theology.  That 
•word  is  decisive.' — Nineteenth  Century,  March,  1884  (apud  Ward's  Witnesses 
io  the  Unseen.) 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  idealists,  he  maintains  that  man  can  know  of  the 
existence  of  an  external  world,  of  something  outside 
and  beyond  himself.  Unless  this  be  conceded  physical 
science  can  be  but  a  dream.  On  the  other,  believing  as 
he  does  that  '  mind  and  nervous  action  are  the  subjective 
and  objective  faces  of  the  same  thing,'1  he  cannot 
consistently  admit  those  higher  intellectual  operations 
of  abstraction  and  intuition  for  which  the  followers  of 
Aristotle  and  the  schoolmen  contend.  According  to  him> 
then,  human  knowledge  is  limited  to  the  very  narrow  field 
of  sense-perception. 

Yet,  even  with  this  limitation  he  is  not  satisfied.  He 
contends  furthermore  that  man's  cognitive  faculties  cannot 
stretch  out  as  if  beyond  the  man  himself  into  the  external 
world,  and  grasp  things  as  they  really  are  in  themselves, 
with  their  several  attributes,  and  powers,  and  qualities,  and 
relations.  Man  can  know  only  his  own  sensations,  or, 
to  put  it  more  philosophically,  his  own  mental  phenomena, 
which  must  necessarily,  however,  be  produced  by  some 
external  agent  ;  he  can  compare  these  and  realize  their 
various  relations  of  co-existence  or  sequence — that  when 
one  appears  another  should  be  present  or  immediately 
succeed,  but  about  the  objective  agents  or  their  relations 
he  can  never  know  aught  for  certain.2  The  external 
reality  is  known  and  spoken  of  in  terms  of  his  own 
diverse  states  of  consciousness,  which  are  to  the  object 
outside  as  algebraic  symbols  to  the  quantities  they 
represent ;  and,  thus,  human  knowledge  is  relative  not 
absolute — of  subjective  phenomena,  not  of  external 
realities.  *  What  we  are  conscious  of  as  properties 
of  matter,  even  down  to  weight  and  resistance,  are  but 
subjective  affections  produced  by  objective  agencies 
which  are  unknown  and  unknowable.' 3 

Yet,  we  are  forced  to  conclude  '  that  behind  every  group 

1  Psychology,  Pt.  ii.,  p.  140. 

2  Spencer's  system  is  but  a  scientific  statement  of  the  principles  of  the 
whole  Agnostic  School.    Thus,  Huxley  says :  '  It  admits  of  no  doubt  that  all 
our  knowledge  is   a  knowledge  of  states  of  consciousness.' — (Lay   Sermons^ 

P-  373-) 

8  Psychology,  chap.  '  Relativity  of  Feelings.' 


THE   FOUNDATION  OF    UNBELIEF  293 

of  phenomenal  manifestations  '  there  is  some  *  persistent 
reality,  which  itself  '  remains  fixed  amid  appearances  that 
are  variable,'  and  '  which  must  forever  remain  inaccessible 
to  consciousness.' 1  Thus,  for  example,  walking  in  the 
garden  on  an  evening  in  autumn  we  pluck  an  apple  from 
the  tree  that  overshadows  our  path.  As  we  hold  it  in  our 
hands,  we  are  conscious  of  a  certain  form  and  colour,  of  a 
certain  weight,  and,  it  may  be,  of  a  certain  taste  and  smell. 
If  we  leave  it  outside  and  come  again  in  an  hour,  in  a  day, 
in  a  week,  or  a  month,  exactly  the  same  impressions  are 
produced.  May  we  not,  then,  safely  conclude  that  behind 
these  phenomena  and  producing  them  there  must  be  some 
permanent  reality,  nay,  more,  that  for  every  different 
4  cluster '  of  sensations  there  is  a  corresponding  object 
which  holds  them  together,  or,  at  least,  a  power  which 
energizes  differently,  and  still  is  uniform  in  its  differences  ? 
Thus,  we  arrive  at  our  notions  of  different  bodies,  and  by 
a  more  universal  classification  of  phenomena  at  our  notion 
of  matter. 

Nor  is  this  the  ultimate  stage ;  for  what  is  matter,  in 
itself,  but  a  mode,  by  which  the  unknown  and  unknowable 
agent  manifests  itself  to  our  consciousness  ?  This  agent  we 
indicate  by  the  symbol  Force,  drawing  our  inspiration  from 
an  analysis  of  our  own  activity.  And  so,  the  conclusion 
is  inevitably  forced  upon  us,  that  the  world  and  all  its 
countless  phenomena  are  but  the  ever  varying  manifesta- 
tions of  an  unknowable  force,  energizing  unceasingly  and 
everywhere,  which  is  outside  us  and  still  within  us  according 
to  its  different  modes.  '  Consequently,  the  final  outcome 
of  that  speculation  commenced  by  the  primitive  man  is, 
that  the  power  manifested  throughout  the  universe  dis- 
tinguished as  material  is  the  same  power  which  in  ourselves 
wells  up  under  the  form  of  consciousness.'  2 

Experience,  however,  teaches  us  that  the  relations 
between  these  mental  symbols  correspond  with  the  relations 
between  the  external  agents,  and  this  knowledge  is  sufficient 

1  Nineteenth  Century,  Jan.,  1884,  p.  10. 

2  Spencer,  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Jan.,  1884,  p.  9. 


294  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

for  everyday  life.  Indeed,  the  true  scientist  never  under- 
takes to  explain  what  things  are  in  themselves,  but,  ad- 
mitting the  existence  of  an  individual  cluster  of  phenomena, 
he  merely  strives  to  reduce  it  to  one  of  the  classes  already 
experienced  ;  and  as  his  experiments  proceed,  he  continues 
to  reduce  the  particular  classes  to  a  few  which  are 
inclusive  of  all  the  rest  till,  at  last,  a  time  comes  when 
he  must  bow  his  head  and  humbly  confess  that  science  can 
bring  him  no  further.  Knowledge  is  but  classification  of 
phenomena ;  how,  then,  could  the  most  universal  class 
be  known  ? 

While  man  is  thus  engaged,  his  intellect  is  being  employed 
in  its  own  proper  sphere,  and  its  conclusions  can  be  accepted 
with  certainty  ;  but  once  he  endeavours  to  pierce  the  veil 
which  enshrouds  the  objective  world  from  his  gaze,  once 
he  strives  to  conjure  up  in  his  mind  what  it  is  that  lies 
behind  and  how  it  exists  in  itself,  once  he  dares  to  transfer, 
what  are  in  reality  the  emotions  of  his  own  mind,  to  that 
which  is  outside  it,  he  is  merely  building  upon  a  foundation 
of  sand — he  is  only  leading  himself  into  a  hopeless  maze 
of  difficulties  and  contradictions. 

It  is  because  he  knows  this  that  the  really  scientific 
man  is  willing  to  spend  his  energies  on  the  phenomena 
which  lie  within  his  observation,  without  allowing  himself 
to  follow  the  beckonings  of  his  imagination — contenting 
himself  with  knowing  that  there  is  some  mighty  energy 
outside  which  manifests  itself  in  his  various  states  of  con- 
sciousness, but  which  as  it  is  in  reality  must  ever  remain 
for  him  unknowable  : — 

There  may  be  Absolute  Truth,  but  if  there  is,  it  is  out  of  _our 
reach.  It  is  possible  that  there  may  be  a  science  of  realities,  of 
abstract  being,  of  first  principles  and  a  priori  truths,  but  it  is 
up  in  the  heavens  far  above  our  heads,  and  we  must  be  content 
to  grovel  amid  things  of  earth,  to  build  up  as  best  we  can  our 
fragments  of  empirical  knowledge,  leaving  all  else  to  the  future.1 

Science  admits  its  inability  to  comprehend  this  mighty 
power  which  lies  beneath  phenomena ;  so,  too,  should 

i  •  The  Prevalence  of  Unbelief  '—the  Editor  (the  Month,  June,  1882). 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF   UNBELIEF  295 

religion.  By  professing  to  understand  something  about 
the  nature  and  attributes  of  the  ultimate  reality,  and 
picturing  it  to  its  devotees  as  endowed  with  magni- 
fied human  powers,  it  is  only  degrading  the  objects  of 
its  worship,  and  involving  its  disciples  in  hopeless 
contradictions. 

Thus,  the  theist  endeavours  to  account  for  the  world 
around  us  by  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Creator,  Him- 
self uncreated,  by  Whom  all  things  were  produced  from 
nothing,  yet,  creation  from  nothing  is  impossible  for  it  is 
Tinthinkable.1  Besides,  if  this  hypothesis  were  true,  He 
must  have  created  space  which  was,  therefore,  at  some 
period  non-existent,  and  space  could  never  have  been 
non-existent  because  its  non-existence  cannot  be 
conceived  by  any  process  of  imagination.  Again,  the 
supposition  of  a  self-existing  being  must  necessarily 
involve  the  supposition  of  infinite  past  time  ;  yet,  pile 
up  time  how  you  will,  it  could  not  have  been  infinite- 
it  must  have  had  a  beginning.  The  First  Cause,  too,  if 
there  be  a  First  Cause,  should  be,  as  is  evident,  both 
infinite  and  absolute,  but  how  could  He  possess  either 
attribute,  if  He  be  imagined  as  the  producer  of  the 
world  to  which  He  must  necessarily  stand  in  the  rela- 
tion of  a  producer,  and  the  production  of  which  must 
have  implied  some  change — of  addition  or  subtraction— 
in  His  own  mode  of  being  ?  Furthermore,  how  could 
the  Supreme  Creator  possess  infinite  power  and  yet 
be  unable  to  do  evil,  infinite  goodness  and  yet  the 
cause  of  sin,  infinite  justice  and  yet  always  full  of 
mercy,  infinite  freedom  and  yet  living  on  without  change 
or  alteration  ?  Such  are  a  few  of  the  contradictions  in 
which  Theism  involves  its  believers,  and  surely  it  would 
be  more  in  accordance  with  human  intelligence  and  more 
agreeable  to  the  ultimate  reality  to  honestly  confess  our 
ignorance,  and  bow  our  heads  in  silent  worship  before 


1  Spencer's  first  principle  and  •  Ultimate  Postulate '  is  that  whatever 
is  unthinkable  is  not  true,  and  that  is  true  whose  contradictory  is  un- 
thinkable. 


296  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  which  must  ever  remain  for  us  the   unknown   and 
'  unknowable.'  * 

Yet,  all  things  unite  in  proclaiming  the  existence  of  such 
a  power.  Unless  it  be  supposed  whence  are  the  phenomena 
of  sense  whose  relations  we  perceive  ?  Merely  relative  and 
symbolic  as  our  knowledge  is,  does  it  not  necessarily 
suppose  some  objective  being  of  which  it  is  the  symbol, 
and  must  not  science  in  its  most  advanced  stage  arrive  at 
that  absolute  reality  which  it  can  never  know  because  it 
can  never  classify  ?  Yes.  The  existence  of  this  ultimate 
reality  '  is  the  primary  datum  of  consciousness,'2  the  in- 
definite and  almost  imperceptible  concept  which  is  supposed 
by  all  cognition,  and  though  we  are  confined  to  mere 
phenomena,  '  yet  the  momentum  of  thought  inevitably 
carries  us  beyond  conditioned  to  unconditioned  existence 
as  this  ever  persists  in  us  as  the  body  of  a  thought  to  which 
we  can  give  no  shape.'3  'Hence  our  belief  in  objective 
reality,  a  belief  which  metaphysical  criticism,  cannot  for 
a  moment  shake.'  And,  thus,  '  amid  the  mysteries  which 
become  the  more  mysterious  the  more  they  are  thought 
about,  there  will  remain  the  one  absolute  certainty  that 
we  are  ever  in  presence  of  an  infinite  and  eternal  energy 
from  which  all  things  proceed.'  * 

There  is,  then,  according  to  Spencer,  a  first  cause,  an 
ultimate  reality,  an  infinite,  absolute  and  unconditioned 
existence,  but  we  can  never  know  aught  of  it  except  that 
it  is — whether  it  is  personal  or  impersonal,  endowed  with 
intelligence  or  unintelligent,  mind  or  matter.  It  is  the 
unknowable.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  us,  and  in  pur- 
suing it  we  are  like  the  child  that  for  hours  vainly  pursues 
its  own  shadow.  It  may  have  some  mode  of  existence 
far  transcending  anything  which  the  human  imagination 
can  ever  conceive,  and  our  clear  duty  is  to  recognize  that 

1 '  What  is  knowable,'  writes  Mr.  Balfour,  '  Spencer  appropriates  without 
•exception  for  Science  What  is  unknowable  he  abandons  without  reserve 
to  Religion.  Religion  has  the  "Real,"  Science  the  "Intelligible"  and 
"Relative."' — (Foundations  of  Belief ,  p.  285). 

2  First  Principles  (Spencer). 

*  Ibid. 

*  Ibid. 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF   UNBELIEF  297 

this  is  so,  to  admit  that  we  are  incapable  of  bringing  it 
within  the  sphere  of  our  cognition,  that  all  our  concepts 
of  it — for  we  cannot  help  conceiving  it — are  but  the  merest 
symbols  in  no  way  corresponding  with  the  reality.  This 
is  the  true  position  for  a  religious  man  to  assume.  Better 
any  day  an  honest  confession  of  ignorance  than  an  absurd 
pretence  of  knowing  what  can  never  be  known. 

Before  discussing  the  merits  of  a  system,  which,  in  the 
hands  of  a  writer  of  Spencer's  ability,  must  necessarily 
appear  plausible,  it  might  be  well  to  mention  that  this 
particular  form  of  error  is  by  no  means  of  recent  date, 
and  that  even  to-day  it  is  rejected  as  puerile  by  many  of 
the  ablest  scientific  men.  One  might  think,  as  the  writer 
was  often  tempted  to  think,  on  hearing  the  oft-repeated 
boast  that  the  dogmas  of  religion  were  fast  crumbling 
before  the  triumphal  march  of  science — that  some  new 
discovery  in  Philosophy  had  been  made,  or,  at  least,  that 
all  the  modern  scholars  were  ranged  in  the  Antitheistic 
camp — both  of  which  conclusions  would  be  equally  mis- 
leading. The  progress  of  knowledge  has  given  us  nothing 
new  in  this  matter  ;  it  has  only  helped  to  serve  up  in  a  more 
agreeable  form  what  is  as  old  as  the  days  of  Pyrrho  and 
his  disciples.  No  doubt,  Professor  Huxley  asserts  with 
more  warmth  than  courtesy,  that  '  those  who  believe 
that  God  created  the  world  have  not  yet  reached  that  stage 
of  emergence  from  ignorance  in  which  the  necessity  of  a 
discipline  to  enable  them  to  be  judges  has  as  yet  dawned 
upon  the  mind,'1  but  that  we  may  rightly  appreciate  the 
worth  of  such  generalizations  we  have  only  to  remember 
that  even  in  England  such  men  as  2  Faraday,  Lord  Kelvin, 
Professor  Stokes,  Sir  William  Siemens,  Balfour  Stewart, 
Tait,  Sir  Robert  Owen,  Clerk,  Maxwell,  Mivart  have  no 
fear  of  maintaining  that  '  the  existence  of  God,  the  Creator 
and  Preserver,  is  absolutely  evident.'3  Reassured  by  such 
trustworthy  support  from  the  physical  science  camp,  we 

i  The  Tablet,  Aug.  20,  i88i,apud  Ward's  Philosophy  of  Theism,  vol.  ii..p.  107. 

B  Vide  Zahm,  Catholic  Scitnce  and  Catholic  Scientists. 

8  The  Unseen  Universe,  p.  71,  ed.  5,  Profs.  Stewart  and  Tait.  We  have  not 
referred  to  Catholic  Scholars  like  Cauchy,  Ampere,  Le  Verrier,  Biot,  Pasteur, 
Becquerel,  Babinet,  Faye,  etc. 


298  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

can  proceed  with  more  confidence  and  self-possession  to 
examine  the  imposing  structure  built  by  the  ceaseless 
activity  of  the  man  whom  agnostics  love  to  call  *  our  great 
philosopher,' l  '  the  apostle  of  the  understanding.'  a 

Though  at  first  sight  Spencer's  system  appears  to 
have  at  least  the  merit  of  consistency,  yet  on  closer  examina- 
tion, one  may  discover  some  startling  breaks  in  his  chain 
of  argument,  bridged  over,  no  doubt,  by  an  imposing 
phraseology  ;  and,  what  is  still  more  dangerous  for  his 
reputation  as  a  philosopher,  not  a  few  inexplicable  con- 
tradictions. Beginning  with  the  fundamental  principle 
that  man  can  never  know  aught  but  the  relations  of 
phenomena,  and  that  all  else  is  but  a  delusion  and  a  dream, 
he  should  in  very  consistency  have  denied  that  we  can 
ever  know  for  certain  whether  any  objective  reality  exists 
beneath  this  world  of  appearances.  Indeed,  Professor 
Huxley,  in  this  respect  more  logical  than  '  his  philosopher,' 
appears  to  have  accepted  this  conclusion.  Yet  Spencer 
vehemently  contends  that  the  existence  of  an  ultimate 
reality  is  the  primary  datum  of  consciousness,  that — 

The  momentum  of  thought  [whatever  it  may  be  in  his 
system]  inevitably  carries  us  beyond  conditioned  to  un- 
conditioned existence,  as  this  ever  persists  in  us  as  the  body 
of  a  thought  to  which  we  can  give  no  shape,  [that  on  the 
recurrence  of  certain  phenomena]  we  are  compelled  by  the 
very  relativity  of  our  thoughts  to  think  of  these  in  relation  to 
a  primitive  cause,  and  the  idea  of  a  real  existence  which 
generated  them  becomes  nascent.* 

Now,  if  man's  knowledge  is  confined  completely  to  men- 
tal phenomena,  or,  as  Huxley  would  have  it,  '  states  of  con- 
sciousness,' how  can  he  ever  be  but  in  complete  ignorance  of 
all  else  save  his  own  sensations?  how  can  he  conjure  up  the 
concept — a  concept  which  Spencer  strangely  enough  admits 
to  be  objectively  true — of  an  Infinite  Being,  which  is  above 
his  powers  of  cognition  ?  If  our  highest  knowledge  consists 

1  Frederic  Harrison,  Nineteenth  Ctntury,  apud  Fr.  Gerard,  S.J. 
»  Prof.  Clifford  (apud  ibid). 
»  First  Principles. 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF    UNBELIEF  299 

only  in  the  better  classification  of  phenomena,  how  '  could 
the  momentum  of  thought '  carry  us  beyond  conditioned 
existence  into  another  and  a  real  world  ?  If  the  human 
mind  has  no  powers  of  intuition,  if  it  cannot  immediately 
perceive  some  judgments  as  necessarily  true  for  all  times 
and  places,  why  should  we  be  compelled  by  the  very  rela- 
tivity of  our  thoughts  to  refer  these  impressions  to  a  positive 
cause,  or  why  should  they  generate  in  us  the  notion  of  real 
existence  ?  Thus,  in  direct  contradiction  to  his  own  most 
cherished  canons,  Spencer  crosses  the  boundary  of  the  pheno- 
menal world,  and  tells  us  what  he  sees  ;  he  admits  that  the 
human  mind  has  the  power  of  abstracting  altogether  from 
the  individual  notes  and  rising  to  a  true  concept  of  the  uni- 
versal (in  this  case  the  Infinite),  and  he  confesses  the  objec- 
tive and  necessary  validity  of  the  judgment  which,  from  its 
very  nature,  the  mind  is  forced  to  pronounce,  that  whatever 
begins  to  be  must  have  a  cause.1 

Again,  Spencer's  fundamental  principle  is  that  knowledge 
is  merely  symbolic,  and  without  any  objective  validity.  But 
evidently  this  very  principle  itself  must  either  embody  an 
absolute  truth  or  not.  If  he  regards  it  as  absolutely  true, 
then,  at  the  very  start,  he  is  guilty  of  the  blunder  which  he 
asserts  to  have  been  the  great  blot  upon  all  philosophic 
sytems  till  the  days  of  his  '  Transfigured  Realism,'  namely, 
assuming  the  validity  of  a  metaphysical  principle,  which 
must  have  been  received  independently  of  experience,  and 
whose  validity  can  never  be  verified,  because  in  every 
attempt  to  do  so  its  validity  is  supposed.  He  thus  begins 
with  a  certain  assumption  upon  which  all  his  arguments  are 
based,  and  the  logical  conclusion  he  arrives  at  is  that  this 
assumption  must  be  false  !  If,  on  the  other  hand,  this  prin- 
ciple is  only  relatively  true,  as  is,  indeed,  all  human  know- 
ledge, then  why  should  he  have  spent  himself  in  '  unifying 

1  Professor  Clifford  says  of  Spencer's  Theory :  '  And,  accordingly,  he 
considers  that  there  is  something  different  from  our  perceptions,  the  changes 
in  which  correspond  in  a  certain  way  to  the  changes  in  the  worlds  we  per- 
ceive .  .  .  He  attempts  to  make  my  feelings  give  me  evidence  of  some- 
thing that  is  not  included  among  them.  A  careful  study  of  all  his  arguments 
has  only  convinced  me  over  again  that  the  attempt  is  hopeless.' — (Atheism,  bj 
Idallock.) 


300  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

philosophy,'  and  in  issuing  a  myriad  of  learned  treatises 
intended  to  force  his  conclusions  on  other  men  ?  If  human 
knowledge  is  only  relative,  then  it  may  vary  not  alone  for 
different  individuals,  but  even  for  the  different  stages  of 
development  of  the  same  individual ;  so  that,  for  all  he  can 
tell  to  the  contrary,  each  intellect  may  be  at  each  moment 
of  its  existence  its  own  standard  of  truth,  and  what  is 
true  for  one  man  and  for  one  time  may  not  be  so  for 
another.  This  is  the  logical  conclusion  of  his  system, 
if  he  only  had  the  courage  to  push  it  to  its  conclusions ; 
and  if  it  is,  his  days  might  have  been  more  profitably 
spent  than  in  a  fruitless  endeavour  to  force  the  world 
to  accept  as  truth  what  were  at  best  his  own  individual 
notions.  Dr.  Mivart  may  well  be  pardoned  when  he  speaks 
of  such  philosophy  as  '  intellectual  thimble-rigging  intended 
to  rob  the  human  mind  of  its  certainty.'1 

Furthermore,  if  man  can  know  nothing  about  the  exter- 
nal world,  how  is  it  possible  that  Spencer  can  speak  of  the 
relations  between  the  external  agents,  of  the  properties  of 
bodies,  of  Matter  and  Force.  No  doubt,  in  his  Psychology, 
he  tells  us  that  all  these  are  but  the  manifestations  of  the 
'  Eternal  Energy,'  but  he  should  be  consistent,  and  not 
write  in  other  places  as  if  he  knew  of  the  existence  of  different 
external  agents  having  different  powers  and  relations.  Let 
him  say  that  the  friends  who  hang  so  anxiously  on  his  words, 
and  whom  in  private  life  he  reveres,  the  species  of  animal 
life  which,  as  a  zoologist,  he  submits  to  examination,  the 
chemical  compounds  which  in  his  laboratory  he  reduces  to 
their  elements,  or  combines  in  still  more  complex  masses — 
let  him  say  that  all  these,  including  himself,  are  but  the 
various  manifestations  of  an  unknown  agent,  and  he  shall  be 
consistent  as  a  philosopher,  but  very  much  out  of  place  as  a 
scientist  or  as  a  man.  Unless  the  humorous  faculty  was 
but  indifferently  evolved,  the  conclusions  of  Spencer,  the 
philosopher,  must  have  proved  an  inexhaustible  source 
of  amusement  to  Spencer,  the  physicist  and  biologist, 
during  his  weary  years  of  labour. 

1  Truth  (speaking  of  systems  of  Idealism). 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF    UNBELIEF  30 1 

Again,  Spencer  indignantly  denies  to  man  any  intuitive 
faculty,  and  has  no  confidence  in  the  validity  of  inferences 
drawn  from  the  phenomena,  unless  in  so  far  as  they  can  be 
verified  by  experiment.  Yet,  as  Dr.  Ward l  so  clearly 
proved  against  another  adversary,  his  whole  system  presup- 
poses at  least  one  such  power,  and  the  validity  of  at  least  one 
unverified  inference.  He  tells  us,  for  example,  that  the 
atmosphere  has  the  property  we  call  weight,  and  if  we  ask 
for  a  proof,  he  refers  us  to  the  numberless  experiments  which 
he  has  witnessed.  If  we  inquire  how  he  can  be  certain  he 
ever  witnessed  such  experiments,  he  can  only  answer  that 
his  memory  is  unfaltering  in  its  testimony  about  them  ;  but, 
if  we  ask  further,  how  does  he  know  that  the  declarations  of 
memory  correspond  with  the  past  stages  of  consciousness, 
and  are  not  rather  the  delusive  constructions  of  the  human 
brain,  he  can  only  reply,  as  Mill  has  done,  that  we  cannot  go 
behind  memory — we  can  offer  no  proof  of  the  validity  of  its 
testimony,  and  we  must  be  content  to  accept  this  or  give 
up  the  pursuit  of  knowledge.  If  Spencer  trusts  his  mind 
in  this  one  department,  why  should  he  show  himself  so 
suspicious  of  all  its  other  declarations  ? 

Besides, '  the  uniformity  of  nature  ' — the  fixity  of  nature's 
laws — is,  according  to  Bain,2  the  most  fundamental  principle 
of  human  progress,  and  yet  how  is  it  perceived  by  man  ? 
Spencer  tells  us  that  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  the 
phenomenal  manifestations  of  the  objective  reality  is 
sufficient  for  everyday  life,  but  how  are  we  certain  that  these 
relations  will  ever  remain  the  same  ?  My  memory  tells  me 
that  on  every  occasion  on  which  I  saw  fire  applied  to  gun- 
powder an  explosion  followed,  every  time  a  vein  was  pierced 
blood  freely  flowed,  that  on  the  recurrence  of  the  spring 
months  all  things  seem  suddenly  endowed  with  a  new  life  and 
energy  ;  but  why  should  these  phenomena  necessarily  suc- 
ceed one  another,  and  all  human  progress  supposes  such 
succession  ?  We  can  arrive  at  such  a  conclusion  only  by 
arguing  from  what  was  to  what  must  be,  and  if  this  process 


Philosophy  of  Theism. 
Ibid. 


302  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  inference  be  valid,  why  should  it  lead  in  all  other  cases 
only  to  error  and  contradictions  ? 

But,  perhaps,  the  greatest  puzzle  in  Spencer's  system  is 
his  doctrine  about  the  unknowable  ;  for,  '  if  the  momentum 
of  thought  carries  us  beyond  the  world  of  phenomena,'  how 
can  he  assert  that  the  objective  reality  is  unknown  ?  Though 
our  concept  of  it  must  necessarily  be  imperfect,  yet  it  is  ever 
present  before  our  minds,  and  we  are  absolutely  certain  of 
its  existence.  But  might  not  the  same  process  which  led 
Spencer  thus  far  lead  him  with  equal  security  a  step  further  ? 
If  the  presence  of  his  own  mental  phenomena  forced  him  to 
admit  the  existence  of  an  ultimate  reality,  why  may  not 
the  presence  of  different  *  clusters '  of  phenomena  compel 
him  to  assert  that  the  objective  reality  is  modified  in  this  or 
that  particular  way  ?  There  is  the  same  data  for  arriving  at 
the  mode  of  being  as  at  the  being  itself,  and  if  he  does  not 
hesitate  to  swallow  the  camel,  why  should  he  strain  out 
the  gnat  ?  If  our  concept  of  it  as  existing  is  not  a  mere 
fictitious  symbol,  neither  can  be  our  concept  of  it  as  existing 
in  this  or  that  particular  way.  To  his  credit,  however,  be 
it  said,  it  is  only  in  his  Psychology  he  clings  to  such  views. 

Nor  does  his  acquaintance  with  the  unknowable  end 
here.  It  is  not  only  the  infinite,  the  absolute,  the  uncon- 
ditioned being,  the  ultimate  reality,  the  first  cause,  that 
which  underlies  all  phenomena,  and  which  is  manifested  in 
all  phenomena,  but,  he  says,  '  it  is  absolutely  certain  that  we 
are  in  the  presence  of  an  Infinite  Eternal  Energy  from  which 
all  things  proceed,'1  It  is  surely  a  consoling  spectacle  to  find 
the  philosopher  of  Agnosticism  asserting  that  there  is  a  Being 
which  must  remain  for  us  unknowable,  and  telling  us  almost 
in  the  same  sentence  that  it  is  infinite,  that  it  is  eternal,  that 
it  consists  not  of  several  energies  but  of  one,  that  from  it  all 
things  proceed,  and,  consequently,  are  distinguished.  Surely 
Spencer  is  not  consistent  in  calling  the  Being  unknowable 
about  which  he  has  such  reliable  and  definite  information, 
unless,  indeed,  he  meant  to  except  himself  from  the 
common  herd.2 

1  Article,  Nineteenth  Century,  January,  1884,  p.  12. 

2  Ibid. 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF  UNBELIEF  303 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  interesting  puzzles 
in  Spencer's  system,  of  which  one  would  naturally  desire 
a  solution,  but  the  limits  of  the  present  essay  preclude 
a  further  discussion.  Let  us  now  briefly  examine  the 
foundation  upon  which  the  whole  system  is  built,  namely, 
the  author's  theory  on  the  nature  of  human  knowledge. 
Nor  will  it  be  thought  strange  that  so  much  attention 
should  be  devoted  to  this  portion  of  our  subject,  if  his 
own  boastful  assertion  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the 
analysis  of  human  knowledge  must  ever  force  a  man  into 
Agnosticism.1  There  is  very  little  use  in  attempting  to 
purify  the  stream  unless  we  can  remove  the  pollution 
from  its  source.  Besides,  by  establishing  that  man  is 
capable  of  intellectual  acts,  which  are  completely  and 
essentially  different  from  sense-perceptions,  and  all  the  com- 
binations of  such,  and  which  must,  therefore,  suppose  a 
power  that  is  far  above  the  sensuous  faculties,  we  shall  have 
proved  that  there  must  be  in  man  a  substance  in  which  these 
powers  are  rooted,  which  is  itself  different  from  matter  and 
all  its  modifications — a  conclusion  which,  as  will  be  evident 
later  on,  is  all  important  in  an  argument  with  Spencer. 

In  his  desperate  efforts  at  combining  the  Idealist  with 
Materialistic  Philosophy,  he  has  fallen  into  the  characteristic 
errors  of  both  systems  without  the  apparent  consistency  of 
either.  According  to  his  theory,  since  human  knowledge  is 
limited  to  the  world  of  sensations,  of  the  vivid  order  or  of  the 
faint,2  man  can  have  no  knowledge  of  that  which  has  never 
been  so  experienced  as  to  make  an  impression  on  the  human 
organism,  and  even  the  knowledge  which  he  has,  is  not  of 
the  objective  things  as  they  are  .in  themselves,  but  only  of 
subjective  phenomena — in  other  words,  it  is  not  absolute 
but  only  relative. 

As  usual,  there  is  so  much  truth  underlying  Spencer's 
main  contentions,  that  one  is  forced  to  bewail  the  intellec- 
tual '  thimble-rigging  *  of  the  Kantian  School  of  Philosophy, 

i  Frederic  Harrison  on  Spencer's  '  Unknowable,"  Nineteenth  Century, 
1884,  apud  Ward's  Witnesses  of  the  Unseen. 

1  Vivid  sensations  are  these  which  are  produced  here  and  now  by  the 
external  agent.  Faint  sensations  are  the  reproductions  of  these  sensations 
which  have  been  previously  experienced. 


304  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

as  well  as  the  defences  of  revelation  founded  upon  them, 
which  are  equally  responsible  for  driving  him  into  the 
Agnostic  ranks. 

Without  doubt,  it  is  the  common  teaching  amongst 
the  followers  of  Aristotle  and  St.  Thomas,  that  all  know- 
ledge is  acquired  through  the  senses,  but  they  do  not  intend 
to  convey  by  this  that  the  senses  are  man's  highest  cognitive 
faculty,  or  that  sensations  are  his  most  perfect  intellectual 
product.  It  is  true  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  intellect 
which  was  not  previously  in  the  senses,  except,  as  Leibniz 
puts  it,  the  intellect  itself.1  The  sensitive  faculties  merely 
supply  the  material  upon  which  this  higher  power  works, 
and  any  system  which  pretends  to  unfold  the  genesis  of 
knowledge  whilst  ignoring  its  existence,  is  very  aptly  com- 
pared by  Dr.  Mivart  to  a  production  of  the  play  of  '  Hamlet' 
with  the  Prince  of  Denmark's  part  omitted.2 

No  doubt,  too,  since  truth  consists  in  the  relation  of  con- 
formity between  the  intellect  knowing  and  the  object  known, 
all  human  knowledge  must  be  essentially  relative,  and, 
furthermore,  since  the  perfection  with  which  any  power  per- 
forms its  specific  operations  depends  largely  on  the  disposi- 
tions, whether  internal  or  external,  by  which  it  is  well  or  in- 
differently fitted,  it  follows  that  the  accuracy  and  minute- 
ness of  this  conformity  will  vary  with  different  individuals, 
and  at  different  periods  of  life,  even  for  the  same  individual. 
But  though  thus  relative  and  varying,  it  is  in  all  cases  a 
more  or  less  perfect  conformity  with  the  objective  thing  ; 
it  is  not,  as  Spencer  would  have  us  believe,  a  mere  symbolic 
representation. 

Nor  do  we  assert  that  men  can  know  things  as  far  as  they 
can  be  known,  that  the  human  mind  is  like  a  two-edged 
sword,  reaching  unto  the  division  of  the  soul  and  of  the  spirit, 
of  the  joints  also,  and  of  the  marrow.  We  are  not  forgetful 
of  the  words  of  Ecclesiastes  3  :  <  As  thou  knowest  not  what 
•is  the  way  of  the  spirit,  nor  how  the  bones  are  joined  to- 
gether in  the  womb  of  her  that  is  with  child,  so  thou  knowest 

1  Tht  Great  Enigma  (Lilly). 

2  Nature  and  Thought  (Mivart). 
*  Chap,  ad.,  Terse  5. 


THE   FOUNDATION  OF  UNBELIEF  305 

not  the  works  of  God.'  But  we  do  fearlessly  assert  that 
human  knowledge  is  not  confined  to  sensations,  or  the  mere 
reproductions  of  sensations,  and  that  truth  is  not  measured 
by  subjective  and  variable  standards,  but  is  the  conformity 
of  the  intellect  with  the  objective  reality  outside  ;  that 
crossing  the  boundary  of  the  phenomenal  world,  man  can 
apprehend  the  realities  outside  with  their  several  qualities 
and  forms,  and  powers  and  relations,  and  that  by  observing 
the  operations  and  interplay  of  these  different  bodies,  he 
can  comprehend  in  some  measure  the  nature  of  that  which 
produces  the  subjective  phenomena,  and  is  itself  hidden 
from  the  senses. 

Fortunately  for  us,  Spencer  supplies  the  weapons  for  his 
own  refutation.  The  arguments  which  he  so  forcibly  urges 
against  the  Idealist  theories  will  lose  little,  if  any,  of  their 
force  when  turned  against  himself.  These  theories,  he 
asserts,  irreconcilable  as  they  are  with  the  postulates  of 
physical  science,  cannot  be  entertained  by  any  reasonable 
man.  But  will  the  demands  of  science  be  a  whit  more  satis- 
fied with  the  conclusions  at  which  he  arrives  ?  How  the 
physicist  would  stare  with  wonder,  were  he  told  that  the 
different  substances  with  which  he  deals  are  but  the  varying 
manifestations  of  the  same  unknowable  reality,  and  that 
4  the  properties  of  matter,  even  down  to  weight  and  resist- 
ance, are  but  subjective  affections  produced  by  objective 
agencies  which  are  unknown  and  unknowable.'  Physical 
science,  if  it  supposes  anything,  must  suppose  that  there 
exist  outside  the  mind  objects  numerically  and  substantially 
distinct,  with  certain  well-defined  forms  and  powers ;  certain 
clearly  marked  properties,  such  as  solidity,  extension,  resist- 
ance, and,  though  in  a  less  degree,  certain  qualities,  such  as 
colour,  taste,  and  smell.  Can  anyone  maintain  that  when 
the  physicist  combines  several  simple  substances  to  produce 
some  chemical  compound,  he  does  not  clearly  perceive  that 
he  is  dealing  with  bodies  which  are  distinct  and  endowed 
with  certain  properties  independently  of  his  mind  ?  Does 
he  not  know,  for  example,  that  gold  in  its  very  nature  differs 
from  silver,  oxygen  from  hydrogen,  carbon  from  potassium  ? 
Let  him  take  two  pieces  of  gold  and  iron,  let  him  do  with 
VOL.  xix.  u 


306  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

them  what  he  will,  *  heat  them  to  the  liquid  or  even  the 
gaseous  state,  colour  them,  mould  them  into  innumerable 
shapes,  and  yet,  through  all  these  changes,  one  will  remain 
gold  and  the  other  iron.' *  Surely  such  persistence  amidst 
such  changes  can  only  be  explained,  by  asserting  that  there  is 
in  each  some  objective  reality  which  is  shown  to  be  different, 
by  the  uniform  difference  of  energy  displayed  under  all  these 
varying  forms.  Can  he  bring  himself  to  believe  that  he  must 
ever  remain  in  ignorance  of  that  which  lies  behind  these 
various  '  clusters  '  of  phenomena,  that  when  Keppler  dis- 
covered his  laws  of  planetary  motion,  when  Le  Verrier  suc- 
cessfully predicted  for  years  the  discovery  of  the  planet 
Neptune,  when  Cuneus  received  the  rude  shock  which  was 
to  revolutionize  electricity,  they  knew  nothing  about  the 
external  world,  but  only  their  own  subjective  sensations  ? 
Evolution,  too,  says  Spencer,  would  be  in  the  Idealist  sys- 
tem but  a  dream.  But  let  him,  laying  aside  his  phraseology 
about  '  the  rhythmical  pulsations  of  myriads  of  suns  and  sys- 
tems,' '  the  pulsations  of  molecules  on  the  earth  in  harmony 
with  molecules  in  the  stars,'  '  the  thrilling  of  every  point  of 
space  with  an  infinity  of  vibrations,'  explain  the  doctrine  of 
Evolution  according  to  his  own  ideas  and  his  own  principles, 
and  if  we  are  not  convinced  we  shall  at  least  have  one 
other  proof— the  latest  and  most  striking — that  the  age  of 
miracles  is  not  long  since  gone. 

Such  a  conclusion,  too,  is  forced  upon  us  by  the  common 
sense  of  mankind.  Despite  the  eccentricities  of  philoso- 
phers, the  great  body  of  men  have  believed,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  believe,  that  they  know  of  the  existence  of  bodies 
outside  themselves,  distinct  and  endowed  with  certain  pro- 
perties. Until  the  mind  has  become  warped  by  prejudice, 
or  the  miserable  speculations  of  men  who  delight  in  destroy- 
ing rational  certainty,  a  man  would  never  dream  of  question- 
ing the  testimony  of  his  senses,  and  even  the  veriest  sceptic 
shows  himself  to  be  in  agreement  with  his  fellows  in  all  the 
practical  affairs  of  life.  Such  a  belief  is  natural  to  man  and 
cannot  be  misleading,  unless,  indeed,  we  accept  the  hypo- 

i  J.  E.  RBCORD,  January,  1887. 


THE   FOUNDATION   OF  UNBELIEF  3°7 

thesis  of  Huxley,  *  that  some  powerful  and  malicious  demon 
may  find  his  pleasure  in  deluding  and  in  making  us  at  every 
moment  believe  the  thing  which  is  not.' l 

Thus,  to-day,  my  memory  carries  me  back  over  the  years 
that  are  gone.  I  recall  with  a  vividness  that  is  startling, 
the  features,  and  looks,  and  words,  and  gestures  of  those 
who  have  long  since  passed  away.  The  place  where  they 
lived,  the  scenes  in  which  they  figured,  the  kindly  advices 
they  have  given,  the  circumstances  under  which  the  last 
farewells  were  said — all  these  rise  up  before  my  mind  with- 
out effort  and  almost  against  my  will,  and  am  I  to  believe 
as  Spencer  would  teach,  that  all  these  friends  of  earlier  days, 
are  but  the  varying  '  clusters  '  of  phenomena  under  which 
the  same  unknowable  being  manifested  itself,  and  of  which 
I,  too,  am  but  another  manifestation;  that  the  companions 
with  whom  I  converse  in  everyday  life,  the  words  that  they 
speak,  the  books  which  I  consult,  as  well  as  the  authors  who 
compile  them,  are  but  for  me  so  many  subjective  affections 
produced  by  some  external  agent  which  must  ever  remain 
unknown  ? 

Looking  across  the  scene  before  me,  as  I  stand  upon  one 
of  our  Irish  hills,  can  I  persuade  myself  that  all  the  objects 
that  I  see  are  but  clusters  of  phenomena  differing  only 
because  the  one  unknowable  being  energizes  differently  ?  All 
the  reality  and  half  the  poetry  of  life  would  have  disap- 
peared were  such  philosophy  true.  Against  such  doctrines 
I  have  the  testimony  of  my  own  nature,  the  common  sense 
of  mankind,  from  the  earliest  ages,  even  till  to-day,  the  won- 
derful adaptation  and  suitability  of  the  sensuous  faculties, 
the  conclusions  of  physical  science — the  very  admissions  of 
the  adversaries  themselves,  once  they  have  laid  aside  the 
r6le  of  philosophers  ;  and  backed  by  such  reliable  evidence, 
despite  Huxley's  imaginative  possibility  of  a  grinning  demon, 
I  shall  continue  to  trust,  as  I  have  always  trusted,  the  testi- 
mony of  the  senses  in  their  own  proper  sphere. 

But  is  all  human  knowledge  to  be  confined  to  mere  sen- 
suous perceptions  of  the  vivid  order  or  of  the  faint ;  is  that 

1  Huxley's  Lay  Sermont,  p.  356,  apud  Dr.  Ward's  Philosophy  of  Theism. 


308  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

which  we  call  the  concept  of  the  universal,  but  a  mere 
blurred  symbolic  representation,  formed  by  combining  the 
images  of  individuals  of  the  same  class  ;  are  man's  cognitive 
faculties  so  many  instruments  to  be  acted  upon  by 
things  outside  and  receive  impressions  thereof,  as  does  the 
photographer's  plate  ;  is  there  no  power  of  the  soul  which 
can  survey  the  whole  range  of  subjective  sensations  as  the 
senses  survey  the  external  world,  which  can  go  behind  the 
accidents  and  appearances  of  things,  and  apprehend  in  some 
way  the  reality  by  apprehending  its  operations,  combining  or 
dividing  the  concepts  of  the  essence  thus  formed  according 
as  it  perceives  that  some  necessarily  agree  or  disagree,  and 
using  these  necessary  judgments  as  principles  through  which 
by  comparison  it  may  arrive  at  other  truths  which  are  not 
at  first  sight  evident  ? 

We  assert  there  is  in  man  a  cognitive  faculty  transcend- 
ing all  the  faculties  of  sensation,  and  however  brilliantly 
Spencer  may  have  argued  against  such  conclusions,  still 
the  very  brilliancy  of  his  arguments  tend  to  convince  us 
the  more  that  he  was  led  by  other  guides  than  sense.  Self- 
analysis  will  show  that  there  are  within  us  actions  which 
essentially  differ  from  sensation,  and  which  must,  therefore, 
suppose  a  power  entirely  transcending  the  powers  by  which 
sensations  are  produced. 

And,  first,  there  is  the  idea  or  intellectual  concept,  which 
is  clearly  distinguishable  from  the  image  of  the  individual 
object  impressed  on  the  sensitive  organism.  No  doubt,  the 
idea  cannot  exist  without  some  accompanying  picture  in  the 
imagination,  but  though  always  co-existent  their  very  co- 
existence proves  them  to  be  distinct.  The  concept  pre- 
scinds altogether  from  the  accidental  and  individualizing 
notes,  and  represents  the  essence  of  the  thing  perceived  ;  it 
is,  therefore,  common  to  all  objects  of  this  particular  class, 
and  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  necessary  and  immutable.  The 
image,  on  the  contrary,  represents  only  the  concrete  indivi- 
dual thing  with  a  certain  figure  and  extension  and  qualities 
— it  is  in  no  way  common  to  the  class,  but  varies  for  the 
different  individuals.  The  proof  for  this  doctrine  is  not  far 
to  seek. 


THE  FOUNDATION  OF  UNBELIEF  309 

Let  each  man  analyse  his  own  acts  of  cognition,  and  see 
whether  or  not  he  can  distinguish  in  himself  the  intellectual 
concept  from  the  sensible  image  of  the  imagination.  When 
he  says,  for  example,  that  '  money  is  a  useful  commodity/ 
*  the  dog  is  a  useful  animal,'  that  amongst  plants  '  the  cryp- 
togramic  differ  completely  from  the  phanerogamic,'  he  can- 
not have  before  his  mind  merely  the  sensitive  image  produced 
upon  his  organism  by  some  individual,  for  he  speaks  not  of 
the  individual,  but  of  what  is  common  to  the  class.  Even 
Spencer  would  admit  words  are  but  the  external  expressions 
of  that  which  is  within  ;  and,  therefore,  independently  of  and 
superior  to  the  phantasm  there  must  be  another  picture 
representing  that  which  underlies  the  individualizing  notes, 
and  is  common  to  the  whole  class.  This  picture,  as  is  evi- 
dent, cannot  have  been  directly  produced  by  anything  out- 
side, for  it  exists  in  nothing  that  was  experienced.  It  can- 
not be  the  blurred  symbolic  representation  produced  by  the 
superposition  of  like  sensible  images,  for  even  such  super- 
position would  imply  a  power  of  self -reflection  and  classifica- 
tion utterly  inconsistent  with  our  notions  of  material  force  ; 
and,  besides,  even  if  such  a  generic  picture  were  produced, 
it  could  never  have,  as  Spencer  would  admit,  any  objective 
validity.  Yet,  that  our  mental  concept  faithfully  repre- 
sents that  which  is  common  to  members  of  the  class  inde- 
pendently of  individualizing  traits  may  be  proved  by  our  ex- 
periments— whenever  we  choose.  So  universally  admitted 
is  this,  that  were  one  to  deny  the  validity  of  such  concepts, 
he  would  be  forced  to  assert  that  nearly  all  human  language 
is  but  a  meaningless  medley  of  sounds  ;  for  in  most  cases,  it 
is  not  concerned  with  the  individual  concrete  thing,  and, 
therefore,  not  representing  the  sensitive  image,  it  would  re- 
present nothing.  There  is,  then,  in  the  mind  a  picture  for 
which  only  the  materials  have  been  supplied  by  the  sensuous 
faculty,  a  picture  which,  representative  of  no  concrete  par- 
ticular object  that  could  have  been  experienced,  yet  faith- 
fully represents  that  which  must  be  found  in  every  individual 
of  the  class  wherever  it  exists.  May  we  not  fairly  assert  that 
such  a  concept  is  essentially  different  from  the  perceptions 
of  sense,  and  therefore  requires  a  different  faculty  ? 


310  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Physical  science,  too,  supposes  such  concepts  and  sup- 
poses them  to  have  objective  validity — to  represent  some- 
thing which,  individualized  by  certain  accidental  notes  and 
traits,  must  be  common  to  all  the  members  of  a  class.  Is 
it  not  because  he  has  such  a  concept  of  the  substances  with 
which  he  deals,  that  the  scientist  can  be  absolutely  certain 
of  the  effects  which  they  will  produce,  and  is  it  not  upon 
the  validity  of  such  concepts  that  all  his  reasoning  and 
prediction  are  based  ? 

Again,  if  the  idea  is  but  a  faint  reproduction  of  that  which 
has  been  once  experienced,  how  do  we  arrive  at  our  notions 
of  these  things  which  never  could  in  any  way  affect  our 
senses  ?     How,  for  example,  has  Spencer  acquired  his  con- 
cepts of  '  something '  or  '  nothing,'  for  he  must  have  had 
some  picture  before  his  mind  when  he  tells  us  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  imagine  '  nothing  ever  becoming  something '  ? 
how  has  he  arrived  at  his  notions  of  '  existence,'  '  similarity,' 
'  disagreement,'  which  are  so  necessary  in  his  system  of 
knowledge  ?  what  sensitive  faculty  could  ever  conjure  up  for 
him  his  ideas  of  *  virtue/  '  morality,'  *  goodness,'  '  beauty,* 
'  religion,'  about  which  he  writes  so  learnedly  ?  and,  lastly, 
how  can  he  explain  the  fact  that  let  us  picture  to  ourselves 
man  as  we  will,  whether  young  or  old,  Negro  or  Mongolian, 
clean-shaven  or  bearded,  yet  behind  these  varying  forms 
there  is  something  in  the  mind  that  is  common  to  all,  and 
which  itself  remains  unchanged  ?     Further  proof  of  this  doc- 
trine is  needless,  for  its  accuracy  is  formally  admitted  by  such 
an  opponent  as  G.  H.  Lewes,1  and  substantially,  at  least,  by 
Spencer  himself.     He  would  not  deny  that  we  can  have  a 
symbolic  concept  of  '  the  farmer,'  for  example,  by  recalling  a 
few  typical  specimens,  and  remembering  that  they  could  be 
multiplied  indefinitely,  and  that  such  a  concept  is  reliable  in 
so  far  as  its  validity  can  be  testified  by  experience.     Now, 
were  there  ever  more  contradictions  involved  in  a  single 
paragraph  ?     How   could   we   ever  get   our  notions   of  a 
*  class,'  if  there  was  nothing  in  the  mind  but  the  impressions 
of  the  concrete  thing  ?     How  could  we  ever  know  that  the 

1  Matter's  Psychology. 


THE  FOUNDATION  OF  UNBELIEF  3H 

picture  we  conjure  up  represents  a  typical  specimen,  unless 
there  be  in  the  mind  a  concept  of  something  behind  the 
individualizing  notes  which  is  essential  and  common  to  all, 
and  if  such  a  representation  be  valid  every  time  we  test  it 
by  experiment,  why  may  we  not  conclude  that  it  is  always 
trustworthy  ?  Thus,  even  Spencer  is,  in  some  way,  forced 
to  admit  the  existence  of  the  intellectual  concept  differing 
essentially  from  sensations,  and  requiring,  therefore,  an 
essentially  different  faculty. 

When  the  intellect  has  thus  formed  from  the  individual 
objects  its  several  concepts,  it  perceives  immediately  that 
some  of  them  necessarily  agree  or  disagree,  so  that  to  sepa- 
rate or  combine  them  would  imply  a  positive  contradiction. 
It  sees  clearly  that  they  must  be  combined  or  divided,  and 
that   anything  else  would  be  contradictory  and  absurd. 
Thus,  when  the  several  terms  have  been  understood,  the 
mind  cannot  help  perceiving  as  true  for  all  times  and  places 
'  that  a  thing  cannot  be  and  not  be  at  the  same  time  '  (or  in 
the  concrete,  *  that  a  man  cannot  eat  his  cake  and  have  it 
too  '),  '  that  the  whole  must  be  greater  than  any  of  its  parts,' 
*  that  things  which  are  equal  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to 
one  another,'  *  that  three  and  two  are  five,'  *  that  whatever 
begins  to  be  must  have  had  a  cause.'     The  mind,  by  its  very 
constitution,  must  affirm  such  judgments — to  do  so  is  as 
natural  to  it  as  digestion  is  to  the  digestive  organs,  and  unless 
we  are  prepared  to  run  counter  to  our  own  very  nature,  how- 
ever we  may  have  got  it,  unless  we  are  resolved  without 
reason  or  proof  to  distrust  the  certain  testimony  of  our  intel- 
lect, we  must  accept  such  judgments  as  true,  independently 
of  our  mental  state,  of  matter  and  all  its  modifications, 
of  space  and  time  and  eternity,  and  by  this  very  admission, 
we  confess  that  all  that  is  within  us  is  not  a  mere  material 
power  to  be  acted  upon  by  other  material  things  outside. 

But,  it  may  be  said,  does  not  Mill  explain  the  necessity 
of  such  judgments  as  the  result  of  the  habitual  association  of 
two  ideas,  so  that  the  mind  cannot  possibly  conceive  them 
as  separated,  and  does  not  Spencer  improve  on  the  specula- 
tions of  Mill,  by  substituting  the  experience  and  peculiarly 
modified  organism  of  the  race  for  those  of  the  individual 


312  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

and,  thus,  accounting  for  our  necessary  judgments,  by  the 
peculiar  bent  which  our  mind  has  got  during  the  ages  in 
which  we  were  being  slowly  evolved  ?  We  join  such  concepts 
not  because  we  positively  see  them  agree,  but  because  in 
our  present  state  we  cannot  imagine  them  as  separated.  The 
necessity  arises  not  from  the  objective  evidence,  but  from 
the  impotence  of  our  mind,  and  hence,  no  conclusions  based 
upon  them  can  be  objectively  true. 

No  doubt,  such  hypotheses  are  put  forward,  but  let  him 
believe  them  who  can.  It  is  obvious  that  Mill's  theory  cannot 
be  a  sufficient  explanation,  if  the  mind  immediately,  and 
without  any  previous  association,  recognizes  the  necessary 
agreement  of  certain  concepts  once  they  have  been  formed, 
and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  can  conceive  as  divisible  and 
actually  divided  concepts  which  have  been  long  and  in- 
variably associated.  Now,  as  soon  as  the  terms  have  been 
explained  the  child  at  school,  for  example,  will  immediately 
affirm  the  necessary  truth  of  certain  judgments,  'that  three 
and  four  are  seven,'  that  '  the  whole  is  greater  than  any  of 
its  parts,'  that  '  two  straight  lines  cannot  enclose  a  space,' 
and  will  declare  that  their  contradictories  would  be  posi- 
tively absurd  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  though  it  knows 
well  by  experience  that  food,  if  not  daily,  at  least  at  reason- 
able intervals,  is  an  absolute  necessity  for  life,  yet  it  has  no 
difficulty  in  accepting  as  truthful  the  Gospel  narrative  of  the 
Redeemer's  fast  for  forty  days,  and  though  it  has  often  seen 
fire  shrivel  up  and  consume  whatever  came  within  its  reach, 
it  sees  no  contradiction  in  the  inspired  account  of  the  pre- 
servation of  the  children  in  the  fiery  furnace.  Nor  is  even 
Spencer's  genius  able  to  render  the  Associationist  theory 
defensible.  For  if  the  necessity  of  our  combining  two 
concepts  arises  completely  from  the  peculiar  bent  of  our 
organism,  produced  by  the  habitual  and  simultaneous 
recurrence  of  certain  phenomena,  why  was  not  a  like  effect 
produced  in  the  case  of  other  phenomena,  which  are  con- 
nected together  far  more  frequently  ?  And  though,  as  far  as 
we  know,  from  the  time  when  our  progenitors  first  formally 
made  their  appearance  upon  the  earth — however  they  may 
have  come  there — they  were  accustomed  to  see  water  always 


THE  FOUNDATION  OF  UNBELIEF  3*3 

flowing  with  the  incline,  the  leaves  falling  from  the  trees  at 
the  coming  of  the  winter's  wind,  extended  bodies  possessing 
the  attribute  of  impenetrability,  yet  we  have  no  difficulty  in 
believing  on  reliable  testimony  that  the  contrary  may  have 
occurred  in  a  particular  case.  On  the  other  hand,  could 
anyone  ever  persuade  us  that  the  part  may  be  at  any  time 
greater  than  the  whole,  or  that  the  non-existent  can  begin 
to  be  existent  without  some  extrinsic  force  ? 

Unlike  Spencer's,  our  first  principles  are  founded  on 
their  own  objective  evidence,  forcing  the  assent  of  the  mind, 
so  that  dissent  is  excluded  ;  and  it  is,  we  think,  because  his 
*  ultimate  postulate  that  whatever  is  unthinkable  must  be 
untrue '  is  based  not  on  the  objective  evidence,  and 
hence  for  the  intellect,  objective  truth,  but  on  the  impotence 
of  the  human  mind  to  arrive  at  anything  better,  that  his 
whole  system  is  vitiated.  Besides,  how  could  that  be 
'  ultimate '  which  itself  evidently  supposes  the  validity  of 
the  principle  of  contradiction  ?  That  objective  evidence  is 
the  ultimate  criterion  of  truth,  and  that  in  the  end  we  must 
accept  as  final  the  necessary  '  avouchments  '  of  the  intellect, 
is  proved  from  the  action  of  the  adversaries  themselves. 
When  they  loudly  appeal  to  *  experience  '  as  the  only  sure 
test,  one  may  reasonably  inquire  how  can  this  test  avail  un- 
less they  are  first  certain  they  exist,  that  they  are  now  ex- 
periencing certain  sensations,  that  they  have  had  in  the  past 
others  with  which  the  present  ones  are  compared,  and  how 
can  they  be  so  certain  unless  by  accepting  what  their  intel- 
lect avers  as  evident  ? 1  How  can  Spencer  even  be  sure  that 
the  words  which  he  spoke,  the  volumes  which  he  has  written, 
represent  in  any  way  what  was  in  his  mind,  and  not  rather 
the  contradictory,  unless  because  he  trusts  the  testimony 
of  the  intellect  ?  Thus,  the  conclusion  stands  that  there 
are  truths  which  are  independent  of  the  individual  and 
the  concrete — of  matter  and  all  its  modifications — of  this 
or  that  particular  time  or  place  or  circumstance — whose 
contradictory  is  seen  to  be  absolutely  impossible  and  the 

1  If  Agnostics  trust  the  testimonies  of  their  intellect  about  these  facts, 
why  should  they  refuse  to  accept  its  necessary  judgments,  e.g.,  '  that  what- 
ever begins  to  be  must  have  had  a  cause '  ? 


314  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

apprehension  of  which,  therefore,  supposes  a  power  higher 
than  that  of  sense. 

When  the  mind  is  thus  furnished  with  its  intellectual  con- 
cepts and  first  principles,  it  can  then  easily  arrive  by  com- 
parison at  other  truths  which  are  not  at  first  sight  evident. 
The  power  of  reasoning  is  as  natural  to  it  as  the  power  of  self- 
reflection,  of  memory,  of  intuition,  and  if  Spencer's  is  content 
to  trust  the  testimonies  of  these,  why  object  to  the  validity 
of  the  conclusions  of  reason  ?  In  mathematics,  for  example, 
granted  the  validity  of  the  primary  axioms,  the  truth  of  the 
consequent  deductions  cannot  be  denied — least  of  all  by  a 
man  of  Spencer's  mathematical  tastes.  Does  not  the  same 
hold  good  for  every  other  department  ?  Once  the  scientist 
has  got  his  intellectual  concepts,  which  are  representative  of 
the  essences  of  things,  once  he  has  got  his  first  principles, 
upon  which  all  knowledge  must  be  based,  once  he  is  certain 
that  his  faculties  may  be  trusted  when  they  tell  of  the  pre- 
sence of  the  concrete  individual  object  outside — does  he  not 
feel  that  he  has,  at  least,  a  consistent  and  reasonable  system 
of  philosophy,  and  that  he  is  standing  on  a  secure  founda- 
tion, instead  of  floating  around  in  a  world  of  sensations  and 
of  possibilities  of  sensation,  as  Huxley  and  Spencer  would 
have  him  to  believe  ?  If,  again,  our  senses  affirm  that  the 
fields  which  yesterday  were  green  are  to-day  covered  with  a 
coat  of  snow — are  we  unreasonable  if  we  infer  that  this 
phenomenon  must  have  had  a  cause,  and  if  we  proceed  to 
inquire  about  its  nature  ? 

Thus,  we  have  proved  against  Spencer — unless  the  argu- 
ments were  weakly  stated — that  the  theory  of  human  know- 
ledge upon  which  Theists  outside  of  the  Kantian  School 
base  their  convictions,  is  more  intelligible,  more  consistent, 
more  in  accordance  with  the  common  sense  of  mankind,  the 
requirements  of  our  own  nature,  the  postulates  of  physical 
science,  and  involves  far  less  difficulties  than  the  principles 
upon  which  scientific  Agnosticism  rests.  We  have  proved 
that  human  knowledge  is  not  confined  to  mere  phenomena, 
or  to  the  combinations  of  such  ;  that  there  is  a  power  in  man 
which  can  pierce  the  veil  that  hides  the  outer  world  from  his 
gaze,  and  apprehend  the  realities  that  lie  behind  these 


THE  FOUNDATION  OF  UNBELIEF  3*5 

relations,  which  passing  from  the  individual,  the  concrete,  the 
actual  can  rise  to  the  abstract,  the  possible,  the  unchange- 
able— a  power  which  itself  cannot  be  material,  since  it 
energizes  as  matter  never  could.  And  so,  having  firmly 
established  the  validity  of  his  methods  of  argument,  the 
Christian  philosopher  can  proceed  to  discuss  with  his 
opponents  the  existence  and  the  nature  of  the  First  Cause. 

JAMES  MACCAFFREY. 


COMPULSORY    EDUCATION 

SPEAKING   at  Carlow  on   January  3ist,  Most    Rev. 
Dr.  Foley  said  : — 

Lastly,  there  is  the  subject  of  education,  and  especially  of 
primary  education,  which  is  the  foundation  from  which  must 
spring  any  effort  that  may  be  made  to  better  and  brighten  the 
condition  of  the  great  body  of  the  people.  As  long  as  the 
average  attendance  at  the  Primary  Schools  remains  as  low  as 
it  is  in  the  schools  of  their  county  at  present,  and  as  long  as  the 
attendance  in  the  higher  standards  is  so  poor,  I  do  not  see 
that  much  progress  is  possible  towards  the  material  improve- 
ment in  the  great  mass  of  the  people.  The  present  average 
attendance  of  64  per  cent,  in  the  rural  schools  was  a  disgrace 
to  their  model  county.  It  should  be  at  least  75  per  cent. 

Some  time  ago,  Most  Rev.  Dr.  Healy,  in  the  course  of 
his  official  visitation  of  Clifden,  urged  the  local  authorities 
everywhere  to  put  the  compulsory  clauses  of  the  Education 
Act,  1902,  into  force.  *  What,'  said  he,  '  is  a  paltry  expen- 
diture of  a  few  pounds  on  its  working  compared  with  its 
material  uplifting  of  the  country  ?  '  Perhaps  in  view  of 
these  two  episcopal  utterances  on  compulsory  education, 
the  I.  E.  RECORD  may  devote  a  few  pages  to  some 
consideration  of  the  subject. 

In  the  past  history  of  our  people  it  is  painfully  evident 
that  though  they  had  an  ardent  love  of  knowledge,  yet  their 
condition  precluded  them  from  giving  education  that  pro- 
minence in  their  social  programme  that  it  demanded.  They 
were  engaged  in  a  struggle  for  their  very  being,  not  only 
as  Catholics,  but  even  as  Irishmen.  In  such  circumstances 
it  would  be  foolish  to  expect  that  a  mode  of  existence 
would  trouble  them  when  their  very  existence  itself  was 
threatened.  It  is  little  wonder  to-day  that,  as  a  con- 
sequence, we  find  them  behind  other  nations  in  many 
matters.  Prolonged  peace  has  given  others  an  opportunity 
of  rilling  in  their  social  programme  and  providing  them- 
selves with  these  advantages  that  distinguish  life  from 
mere  existence.  One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  Irish  mind 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION  3*7 

remains  undeveloped  and  the  Irish  character  crippled  is 
the  current  popular  view  as  regards  education.  Their 
best  friends  see  that  they  are  behindhand,  and  yet  the 
bulk  of  the  people  does  not  seem  to  realize  the  fact. 
What  is  worse,  deprived  as  they  have  been  themselves  of 
a  good  education,  the  parents  seem  reckless  of  the  injury 
they  are  doing  their  children,  by  either  keeping  them 
from  school  or  allowing  or  forcing  them  to  attend 
irregularly.  From  the  returns  of  the  National  Board  we 
find  that  there  are  nearly  400,000  children  of  school 
age  in  Ireland  who  either  do  not  attend  school,  or  do  so 
in  such  an  unsatisfactory  manner  that  their  attendance 
is  useless  from  an  educational  standpoint. 

The  average  Irishman  may  attend  a  meeting  in  favour 
of  University  Education,  but  it  is  mainly  his  implicit  faith 
in  the  leadership  of  his  bishop  or  priest  that  makes  him  do 
so,  not  from  a  genuine  perception  of  all  the  good  that  lies 
in  such  a  high  training  for  the  leaders  of  the  people.  As 
for  Technical  Education,  it  is  making,  if  not  a  bloody,  at 
least  a  difficult  entrance,  and  those  who  see  and  make  use 
of  its  advantages  are  not  five  per  cent,  of  the  available 
population.  We  are  a  long  way  as  yet  from  the  spectacle 
to  be  seen  in  some  of  the  continental  towns,  where  the 
artisans  come  in  their  hundreds  to  the  local  technical  school 
to  learn  what  would  seem  so  remote  from  their  daily  crafts 
as  drawing  and  mathematics.  What  hope  would  there  be 
amongst  us  at  present  for  those  winter  schools  of  Grund- 
twig,  that  have  been  working  in  Denmark  since  1844  ? 
Even  amongst  the  pupils  who  attend  our  technical  schools 
I  think  I  see  the  result  of  what  I  alluded  to  in  the  com- 
mencement. The  proportion  of  Protestants  who  attend  is 
far  in  excess  of  the  figure  given  by  the  religious  census. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they,  so  long  dominant,  have 
the  instinct  and  traditions  that  teach  them  the  value  of 
education.  With  regard  to  Primary  education,  the  bulk  of 
the  people,  under  the  expressive  name  of  '  schoolin','  still 
look  on  that  as  an  end,  instead  of  a  means  to  an  end. 
My  readers  know  that  with  regard  to  this  whole  subject  the 
progressive  nations  of  to-day  look  on  education  in  a  far 


3*8  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

different  light.  They  regard  it  as  the  breath  of  a  nation's 
nostrils.  They  freely  tax  themselves  to  bring  its  full 
advantages  within  their  reach,  they  make  any  sacrifice 
to  enable  their  children  to  avail  of  it  and  they  point  with 
pride  to  the  results  achieved. 

As  we  have  so  much  leeway  to  make  up  we  should  not 
lose  time  in  commencing,  and  in  the  hope  of  making  an  easy 
and  natural  beginning  I  ask  for  a  consideration  of  the 
claims  of  compulsory  education.  I  say  easy,  because  the 
law  is  there  to  our  hands,  it  needs  but  the  enforcement. 
Perhaps  a  consideration  of  our  leeway  may  awaken  some 
interest  in  the  means  of  covering  it.  Taking  the  usual 
standard  of  a  nation's  advancement  or  otherwise,  illiteracy, 
we  find  that  we  stand  thus,  compared  to  the  nations  that 
are  worth  copying,  the  year  giving  date  of  returns  : — 

TEST — ARMY   RECRUITS 

1901  German    Empire    . .  . .  0-05 

1900  Sweden  and  Norway  ..  0*08 

1900  Denmark  ..  ..  O'2O 

1901  Switzerland  . .  . .  0-13 

1902  Belgium       ..         ..  ..  9*39 

1901  Netherlands  ..  ..  2-30 

fTEST — SIGNING   MARRIAGE   CERTIFICATE 

1901     Scotland       ..         ..         ..     2*46 

1901     England       ..          ..          ..     3*00 

1901     Ireland         ..         ..         ..     7-90 

The  only  nation  of  this  class  that  has  anything  nearly 
as  high  in  illiteracy  as  Ireland  is  Belgium,  and  here  they 
have  been  playing  fast  and  loose  with  compulsory  educa- 
tion. Moreover,  the  ignorance  in  the  mining  districts  goes 
far  to  swell  the  percentage  of  illiterates.  If  a  separate  re- 
turn could  be  taken  of  the  non-mining  localities  the  result 
would  be  similar  to  that  of  other  countries.  Everyone 
knows  that  we  cannot  make  absolute  comparison  between 
countries,  because  there  is  not  the  same  standard  in  use, 
but  anyhow  we  can  see  the  value  of  the  above  tests.  The 
4  army  recruit '  seems  to  furnish  an  excellent  guide  in 
these  lands  where  conscription  prevails,  and  the  figures 
furnished  in  this  manner  show  us  what  marvellous  spread  of 


COMPULSORY    EDUCATION  3*9 

elementary  education  must  obtain  in  nearly  all  the  conti- 
nental States  given  above.  The  signing  of  the  marriage 
certificate,  used  as  a  standard  of  comparison,  puts  Ireland 
very  far  below  England  and  Scotland,  and  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  because  of  the  relative  lowness  of  the  marriage 
rate  in  Ireland,  the  figures  mean  even  more  than 
they  imply  at  first  glance.  Again,  we  have  yet  another 
way  of  applying  a  test.  The  voters  for  a  general  election 
are  supposed  to  be  of  some  social  status,  and  we  find  that 
about  one-sixth  of  the  population  of  these  countries  are 
electors.  In  1895,  the  total  voters  who  polled  in  England 
were  3,190,826,  and  the  illiterates  (whose  papers  were  read 
to  them  and  signed  for  them)  were  28,521.  In  Scotland, 
the  numbers  were  447,591,  and  the  illiterates  were  4,062, 
whilst  in  Ireland  we  have  the  surprising  figures  of  a 
total  of  220,506,  with  40,357  illiterates  !  The  proportions 
here  are  simply  alarming,  and  at  the  same  time  distressing 
to  the  last  degree.  One-fifth  of  those  men,  who  are  supposed 
to  decide  on  questions  of  the  greatest  political  import, 
are  unable  to  read  or  write  ! 

There  are  some  conclusions  that  I  think  can  be 
drawn  from  these  figures.  The  first  is,  all  true  Irishmen 
should  be  ashamed  of  the  fact  that  at  the  commencement 
of  the  twentieth  century  our  country  should  be  so  low  in  the 
scale  of  educated  lands.  But  there  are  other  and  more 
serious  considerations.  How  can  a  country  move  evenly 
towards  any  goal  of  educational,  political,  or  religious  char- 
acter, whose  people  are  divided  into  strata  so  widely  diver- 
gent? Taking  the  highest  object,  the  spiritual  welfare,  in 
the  first  place,  what  part  can  intellect  play  in  the  religion 
of  a  land,  when  we  know  that  one-tenth  of  our  people  are 
devoid  of  the  elements  of  education?  What  impression 
can  be  made  on  the  minds  of  such  people  by  the  discourses 
from  the  pulpit  ?  To  twenty  per  cent,  of  such  a  congrega- 
tion a  sermon  is  but  a  stream  of  language  on  which  a  few 
tokens  are  floating  that  the  untutored  mind  feebly  recog- 
nizes here  and  there.  What  a  small  modicum  of  religious 
truth  remains  in  the  mind  of  a  man  of  forty  who  has  never 
been  able  to  read  about  his  faith,  can  poorly  understand  a 


320  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

sermon,  and  has  scarcely  ever  refreshed  his  mind  on  what 
he  was  taught  in  the  Catechism  class  so  many  years 
ago  ?  Cardinal  Manning  said  that  if  a  priest  neglected 
his  studies  for  three  years,  he  should  require  to  begin  over 
again.  What  a  poor  residue  of  the  catechism  must  remain 
in  the  mind  of  one  who  never  read  it,  who  learned  it  by  rote, 
and  who  never  refreshed  an  idea  of  it.  I  think  that  the 
illiteracy  of  our  people  can  account  for  a  great  deal  of  the 
leakage  in  England  and  America.  Their  religion  being 
principally  of  an  emotional  nature,  without  a  backing  of 
intelligence,  perishes  by  a  natural  law  when  the  surround- 
ings become  frigidly  Protestant  in  character.  It  would  seem 
then  that  even  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  spiritual  well- 
being  the  priests  should  lay  to  heart  this  abnormal  illiteracy 
of  our  people. 

Again,  there  can  be  no  steady  and  uniform  social  im- 
provement in  a  people  of  whom  twenty  per  cent,  are  thus 
stunted  in  their  mind's  growth.  This  is  clear  from  a 
contrast  between  our  people  and  others.  In  a  land  like 
Switzerland,  or  Denmark,  or  Bavaria,  any  project  for  the 
well-being  of  the  people,  if  it  have  reason  to  recommend  it, 
is  taken  up  generally  in  a  brief  space  of  time.  The  experi- 
ments of  the  laboratory  of  to-day  are  the  property  of  the 
people  to-morrow.  Economic  theories  that  are  proved  to 
be  true  speedily  become  the  current  principles  of  everyday 
life.  There  is  not  that  heart-breaking  distrust  of  methods 
simply  because  they  are  new  or  savour  of  science,  nor  that 
self-satisfied  acceptance  of  childish  reasons  against  change. 
Anyone  who  compares  the  rapid  growth  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples in  every  department,  as  shown  in  these  well-educated 
countries,  and  the  slow  movement  of  similar  principles 
amongst  our  people,  will  realize  how  handicapped  we  are 
by  the  uneven  education  that  prevails  amongst  us.  A  very 
recent  example  may  be  adduced.  The  officials  of  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Consumption  report  that  the 
ravages  of  this  dreadful  plague  have  fallen  fifty  per  cent, 
in  England  during  the  last  few  years,  and  this  beneficial 
result  is  attributed  to  the  education  effected  through 
the  schools.  In  Ireland  the  consumption  record  is  going 
up.  The  people  are  as  reckless  to-day  with  regard  to 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION  321 

ordinary  precautions  as  they  were  twenty  years  ago.  This 
must  be  put  down  to  ignorance  as  the  principal  cause.  To 
show  how  the  ground-work  of  a  good  education  affects 
movements  of  this  kind,  I  may  quote  the  London  Times 
in  reference  to  the  people's  winter  schools  in  Denmark  : — 

Between  1870  and  1880,  when  Danish  agriculture  was  on 
the  brink  of  ruin,  and  it  became  necessary  to  turn  from  corn 
growing  to  dairy  work,  and  again,  in  1880,  when  co-operative 
dairies  were  required,  it  was  the  bright,  ready  intelligence  of 
the  old  high  school  pupils  (winter  school  pupils)  that  enabled 
the  requisite  changes  to  be  made  with  rapidity  and  success.1 

These  words  must  be  pondered  on  if  we  wish  to  seize 
their  full  meaning.     To  change  from  cultivation  to  dairying 
meant  to  this  people  to  break  with  the  traditions  of  cen- 
turies, to  look  at  this  life  and  the  markets  of  the  world 
from  a  totally  opposite  view.     It  meant  a  shifting  of  the 
value  of  their  land  and  of  their  labour,  a  changing  of  their 
methods,  even  to  the  smallest  routine  of  daily  life.     Even 
the  labour  of  the  sexes  had  to  assume  a  changed  value. 
Yet  all  this  was  accomplished,  and  most  successfully,  in  a 
few  years  !     The  revolution  was  made  easy  by  its  being 
accomplished  amongst  an  educated  people.     The  very  same 
process  had  to  be  gone  through  to  enable  Germany  to 
become  an  industrial  land  from  being  a  purely  agricultural 
one.     Yet  using  the  same  leverage  of  popular  education, 
the  change  has  been  effected,  and  with  phenomenal  success. 
How  long  would  it  take  such  a  movement  in  Ireland,  as  at 
present  educated  ?     With  how  many  broken   hearts    and 
shattered  frames  and  disappointed  lives  would  the  road 
be  strewn,  before  the  mass  of  the  people  would  take  courage 
to  tread  it. 

Lastly,  we  must  consider  the  case  of  the  teacher  and 
the  interests  of  the  pupils  that  attend  regularly.  There 
is  nothing  so  discouraging  to  a  teacher  as  irregular,  inter- 
mittent attendance  of  a  pupil.  No  real,  abiding  impression 
can  be  made  on  such  a  mind.  The  actual  knowledge 
imparted  is  forgotten  as  rapidly  as  it  is  taught.  From  a 
psychological  standpoint,  matters  are  even  worse.  The 

1  American  Educ.  Report,  1897,  vol.  i.,  p.  86. 
VOL.    XIX.  X 


322  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

formation  of  character  depends  on  the  acquisition  of  habits. 
What  habits  can  a  child  acquire  whose  only  permanent 
habit  seems  to  be  that  of  coming  spasmodically  to  school  ? 
As  regards  the  children  who  attend  regularly,  their  progress 
is  also  hampered  by  the  irregulars.  The  master  has  to 
give  the  latter  special  attention  in  order  to  help  them  to 
cover  the  ground  which  has  been  lost,  and  all  this  time  is 
taken  from  the  general  work  of  the  class. 

To  listen  to  the  '  cry  of  the  teacher  '  as  regards  attend- 
ance in  school  is  very  painful.  From  returns  I  got  recently 
I  can  lay  before  my  readers  some  proofs  of  the  awful 
apathy  that  exists  in  parents'  minds  where  the  education  of 
the  children  is  concerned.  Out  of  a  very  large  number  of 
representative  schools,  where  there  was  little  difficulty  in 
getting  the  children  to  and  fro,  I  learned  that  in  no  in- 
stance was  the  attendance  satisfactory  from  the  teacher's 
standpoint.  Mondays  and  Fridays  are  practically  dies 
non.  The  excuse  for  not  sending  the  child  on  Monday  is 
because  it  is  tired  after  Sunday  !  Often  it  is  the  father 
or  mother  that  is  '  tired,'  or  both  keeping  St.  Monday. 
The  invariable  reason  for  not  sending  the  children  on 
Friday  is  that,  *  it  being  the  last  day's  school,  it  is  not 
worth  while '  !  Thus  the  school-week  is  reduced  to  three 
days.  According  to  some  returns  Thursday  is  now  be- 
ginning to  show  a  noticeable  decrease  and  the  able  teacher 
who  called  attention  to  this  said  that  '  the  mothers  now 
think  they  are  conferring  a  wonderful  favour  on  you  when 
they  send  their  children  to  school.'  One  teacher — very 
enthusiastic,  but  disheartened — writes  :  *  During  my  twenty- 
two  years  as  teacher,  I  never  knew  of  the  same  set  of  pupils 
being  in  attendance  on  two  successive  days.  This  applies 
to  Cork,  Dublin,  Deny,  Armagh,  and  Down,  where  I 
taught.'  There  is  no  hope  whatsoever  of  dealing  with 
people  who  neglect  the  most  sacred  duty  to  their  children 
in  this  way,  save  by  having  a  Compulsory  Attendance  Act 
applied  to  the  whole  country,  and  very  vigorously  enforced. 
It  may  encourage  us  in  our  efforts  in  this  direction 
if  we  reflect  that  the  verdict  of  the  civilized  world  is  in 
favour  of  compulsory  attendance.  Through  a  mistaken 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION  323 

notion  of  liberty  the  English  legislator  is  to-day  the  one 
exception  to  the  rule.  He  will  muzzle  dogs,  force  the 
motorist  to  observe  a  maximum  speed,  he  will  tax  the 
window  panes  and  the  man-servants,  and  yet  all  this 
hampers  liberty.  But  he  will  allow  ignorant  and  un- 
natural parents  to  pour  out  a  horde  of  semi-brutal  off- 
spring on  society  every  year,  because,  forsooth,  the  liberty 
of  the  parent  must  not  be  interfered  with 

If  we  turn  to  the  pages  of  the  Statesman's  Year  Book, 
we  find  that  in  every  country  in  the  world  that  is  making 
any  progress,  primary  education  is  stamped  as  having 
two  characteristics,  *  compulsory  '  and  *  gratuitous.*  In 
Germany,  the  leader  of  the  educational  world,  not  alone 
are  parents  compelled  to  send  their  children  to  school  up 
to  a  certain  year,  but  the  children  are  compelled  to  attend 
continuation  schools  until  eighteen  years  of  age.  In  France, 
attendance  is  compulsory,  and  not  alone  that,  but  an 
employer  who  should  accept  of  the  service  of  a  boy  or 
girl  without  demanding  the  school  leaving  certificate, 
would  expose  himself  to  a  heavy  fine.  Even  little  States 
like  Montenegro,  and  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina,  tax  them- 
selves to  give  gratuitous  and  compulsory  education  to  the 
child.  Turkey,  with  all  her  effete  traditions,  is  ahead  of 
England  in  this  respect,  because  she  has  compulsory  edu- 
cation. We  cannot  do  better  in  Ireland  than  follow  such 
conspicuous  examples  as  are  given  us  by  the  enlightened 
peoples  that  have  adopted  this  law. 

It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  managers  of  the 
schools,  from  the  standpoint  of  religion,  of  patriotism,  of 
consideration  for  the  teachers  and  pupils,  will  take  the 
matter  into  their  earnest  consideration.  Any  excuse  that 
may  be  urged  might  be  put  forward  with  equal  force  in 
any  country  where  compulsory  education  prevails.  I  fear 
that  some  of  the  racial  characteristics  of  our  people  incline 
them  to  take  a  thoughtless  view  of  the  matter,  and  hence 
on  the  enlightened  action  of  the  managers  we  must  rely 
for  such  measures  in  regard  to  the  matter  as  will  bring  us 
up  to  the  level  of  the  progressive  countries  of  Europe. 

P.    J.    DOWLING,  C.M. 


[    324    1 


THE   VATICAN   EDITION   OF  THE   'KYRIALE' 
AND   ITS   CRITICS 

NO  sooner  had  the  Vatican  edition  of  the  Kyriale  appeared 
when,  to  the  surprise  of  many,  it  was  met  with  im- 
mediate and  stormy  opposition.  This  has  had  the 
effect  of  disturbing  the  minds  of  many  as  to  the  authority  of 
this  edition  ;  and,  although  the  official  acts  of  the  Holy  See 
stand  in  no  need  of  defence  before  the  Catholic  faithful,  it 
seems,  however,  advisable  that  some  reply  should  be  made 
and  the  real  worth  of  all  this  opposition  be  carefully  weighed. 
In  Italy  and  Germany  the  outcry  has  perhaps  been  the 
loudest ;  and  it  has  now  spread  to  our  islands.  Father 
Bewerunge,  in  his  article,  *  The  Vatican  Edition  of  Plain 
Chant '  (whose  inspiration  was  sought  at  Appuldurcombe), 
published  in  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  January,  1906,  has  now 
ranged  himself  among  the  opponents  of  the  Vaticana.  As 
far  as  I  can  judge,  his  criticisms  are  the  most  detailed  and 
searching  that  have  yet  appeared  ;  and  I  should  like  to  pay 
him  the  compliment  of  saying  that  if  we  can  offer  a  satis- 
factory answer  to  his  objections,  we  have  answered  all. 

Before  entering  upon  the  main  argument,  it  may  be  as 
well  to  correct  a  few  errors  of  fact.  On  page  44,  Mr.  G.  Bas 
is  described  as  '  one  of  the  Consultors  of  the  Commission.' 
This  is  not  the  case,  and  the  statement  has  caused  a  good 
deal  of  amusement  among  those  who  took  special  pains  that 
this  gentleman  should  be  kept  out  of  the  business.  If  Mr. 
Bas  states  that  '  the  cases  in  which  the  Vatican  differs  from 
"  the  authentic "  (that  is,  the  Appuldurcombe)  version, 
number  135,'  he  is  rendering  a  very  dubious  service  to  his 
friends,  for  this  information  could  only  be  obtained  by  a 
violation  of  the  Pontifical  secret.  But  a  much  more  serious 
error,  and  one  which  underlies  the  whole  article,  is  the 
statement  that  Dom  Pothier  was  made  '  the  sole  judge  of 
the  version  of  the  new  edition'  (page  47),  and  the  assumption 
throughout  that  Dom  Pothier  is  responsible  for  all  variants 
and  corrections.  Thus,  we  read  that  '  Dom  Pothier  shows 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'        325 

a  strange  predilection  for  the  German  tradition  of  the  Chant ; 
another  correction  is  supposed  to  bear  '  testimony  to  his 
amiability,  but  what  about  his  critical  judgment  ?'  (page  51). 
In  another  part  *  Pom  Pothier  changes  the  c.  .  .  .  Could 
anything  be  more  discreditable  to  an  editor  ?'  Another 
passage  is  due  to  '  his  whim  *  (page  61),  and  finally  the 
official  edition  is  termed  '  his  edition  '  (page  62).  There  is 
not  a  single  passage,  as  far  as  I  can  see,  in  which  the 
Pontifical  Commission  is  mentioned,  the  whole  brunt  of 
the  attack  falls  upon  Dom  Pothier,  and  on  him  alone. 

Now,  this  is  a  serious  and  fundamental  error  on  the  part 
of  the  critic,  which  vitiates  the  whole  of  his  contention. 
Dom  Pothier  was  not  'sole  judge,1  was  not  solely  responsible 
for  the  changes.  By  the  direction  of  the  Holy  Father,  Dom 
Pothier  was  '  entrusted  with  the  delicate  mission  of  revising 
and  correcting  the  edition,  and  in  this  work  he  will  seek  the 
assistance  of  the  other  members  of  the  Commission';1  and 
with  that  *  amiability  '  which  distinguishes  him,  we  may  be 
sure  that  Dom  Pothier  did  seek  and  accept  the  aid  and 
suggestions  of  the  other  members  of  the  Commission.  There 
is  not  a  single  correction,  not  a  single  one  of  the  versions  that 
Father  Bewerunge  condemns,  that  has  not  been  fully  dis- 
cussed and  approved,  by  the  major  pars  in  many  cases,  and 
in  every  case  by  the  sanior  pars,  of  the  Commission.  When 
we  find  such  men  as  Dr.  Wagner,  Dom  Janssens,  members 
of  the  Pontifical  Commission  ;  M.  Moissenet,  Canon  Gros- 
pellier,  M.  Gastoue,  Consultors,  publicly  extolling  and  de- 
fending the  versions  of  the  Vaticana,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
gather  that  they  have  thrown  in  their  lot  with  Dom  Pothier, 
and  accept  the  responsibility  for  the  character  of  the  edition. 
Against  such  a  weight  of  authority  and  learning,  we  have 
but  one  opponent,  the  Archaeological  School  of  Appuldur- 
combe,  from  whom  all  the  attacks,  directly  or  indirectly, 
emanate 

This  attribution  by  the  critic  of  the  whole  of  the  revision 
of  the  Kyriale  to  Dom  Pothier  alone  gives  rise  to  some 
unpleasant  reflections.  Did  Father  Bewerunge  learn  this  at 

1  Letter  of  Cardinal  Merry  del  Yal,  June  24,  1905. 


326  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Appuldurcombe,  where  he  repaired  for  the  material  of  his 
article  ?  But  at  Appuldurcombe,  if  anywhere,  the  true  facts 
of  the  case  were  well  known,  and  the  share  of  the  other 
members  of  the  Commission  in  the  corrections  well  under- 
stood. If,  then,  they  gave  their  champion  this  false  impres- 
sion, and  allowed  him  to  hold  up  Dom  Pothier  alone  to  the 
scorn  and  derision  of  the  public,  it  gives  rise,  I  say,  to  many 
unpleasant  reflections.  But  the  whole  statement  is  inaccu- 
rate, and  the  other  members  of  the  Commission  are  not  at 
all  grateful  to  Father  Bewerunge  for  the  manner  in  which 
he  completely  ignores  their  share  of  the  work. 

What,  then,  is  the  fundamental  position  that  Father 
Bewerunge  has  taken  up  in  his  criticisms  ?  It  is  that  the 
Pontifical  Commission  has  not  followed  in  every  minute 
detail  the  reading  of  the  majority  and  of  the  oldest  MSSj 
I  need  not  cite  passages  from  the  article,  for  I  fancy  the 
author  will  not  object  to  this  statement  of  his  position^ 
Now,  if  we  can  show  that  this  principle  is  unscientific, 
inartistic,  and  at  variance  with  the  terms  of  reference  of 
the  Commission,  the  whole  of  his  objections  must  fall  to 
the  ground. 

Father  Bewerunge,  in  his  article,  the  material  of  which 
he  declares  were  gathered  at  Appuldurcombe,  has  enrolled 
himself  as  a  disciple  of  that  school,  whose  cry  is  Archae- 
ology, and  nothing  but  Archaeology,  in  the  Chant.  Perhaps 
we  can  put  the  position  more  clearly  in  the  form  of 
question  and  answer. 

'  Is  there  not  such  a  thing  as  art  in  the  Gregorian  ?  ' — 
'  No,'  is  the  reply,  '  archaeology  is  the  only  art.'  '  But  is 
there  no  possibility  of  an  improvement  in  details  ?  ' — 'No  ; 
such  a  statement  is  an  archaeological  absurdity.'  '  Is 
there  no  place  for  a  development  in  tonality  and  music 
in  general  ?  ' — '  Absolutely  none.'  '  Still  the  universal 
practice  has  surely  some  title  to  recognition  ?  ' — '  None 
whatever.' 

This  little  dialogue  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the 
uncompromising  position  taken  up  by  the  School  of 
Appuldurcombe. 

And  what  is  this  archaeology  that  embraces  the  whole 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE1         3*7 

truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  of  the  Gregorian  ?  Dom 
Mocquereau  describes  it  for  us  in  the  article,  '  L'Ecole  Gre"- 
gorienne  de  Solesmes.'1  You  must  first  obtain,  at  very  heavy 
cost,  a  large  number  of  copies  of  the  ancient  MSS.  ;  only 
those  who  can  afford  the  expense  of  obtaining  these  repro- 
ductions are  entitled  to  enter  upon  the  study.  After 
obtaining  a  sufficient  number  of  copies,  you  proceed  to  take 
a  given  piece  of  chant  and  number  its  groups  and  neums. 
Write  underneath  in  horizontal  columns  all  the  versions  of 
each  group.  Count  up  the  agreements  and  the  differences, 
which  are  further  sub-divided  according  to  the  age  of  the 
MSS.  Tabulate  these  and  the  votes  of  the  oldest  MSS.  carry 
the  day.  If,  however,  the  votes  are  equal,  you  may  toss  up 
for  it,  or,  as  Dom  Mocquereau  euphemistically  puts  it, 
*  follow  the  proceeding  in  the  election  of  Matthias.'  All  this 
is  excellent  and  valuable  work,  and  I  am  far  from  any  wish 
to  disparage  it.  But,  we  may  ask,  is  this  science  ?  On  such  a 
system  as  this  anyone  could  undertake  to  restore  the  Grego- 
rian. It  is  unnecessary  to  have  any  artistic  gifts  ;  an  array 
of  statistical  tables  would  be  all  the  equipment  neccesary 
for  determining  the  text  of  the  music.  Nay,  a  man  might 
not  have  a  note  of  music  in  his  composition,  be  unable  to 
sing  the  most  common  interval,  and  yet  might,  on  this 
theory,  claim  the  right  to  reconstruct  the  Gregorian  with  his 
arithmetic  against  the  most  artistic  and  learned  master  of 
Plain-song.  Surely  this  argument  alone  should  be  a  reductio 
ad  absurdum  of  the  claim  of  the  Archaeological  School  to 
have  the  sole  voice  in  the  correction  of  the  Chant.  Such 
mechanical  proceedings  are  very  useful  and  meritorious, 
but  they  cannot  be  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  science. 

It  is  an  assumption  to  say  that  the  true  Gregorian  Chant 
is  contained  in  the  oldest  codices  alone.  Our  oldest  MSS. 
are  certainly  not  older  than  the  ninth  century.  A  good  two 
hundred  years  yawns  between  them  and  the  work  of  the 
great  Pontiff.  Are  we  sure  that  our  MSS.  faithfully  repre- 
sent the  reform  of  St.  Gregory  ?  Some  very  eminent  his- 
torians are  strongly  of  the  opposite  opinion.  In  any  case, 
—  • 

1  Rassegna  Gregoriana,  April,  1904. 


328  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

there  is  no  proof  for  the  assertion  of  our  archaeologists  ;  it 
amounts  to  little  more  than  a  probable  guess.  Is  this  a 
scientific  basis  on  which  to  claim  the  right  to  reform  Church 
music  in  the  name  of  archaeology  ?  It  is  still  possible  that 
some  day  the  libraries  of  Europe  may  disclose  a  MS.  of  the 
seventh  or  eighth  centuries,  and  then  what  would  happen  ? 
The  whole  of  the  statistical  tables,  the  whole  of  the  conclu- 
sions hitherto  come  to,  would  have  to  be  revised  and 
brought  into  conformity  with  each  new  discovery.  Is  this 
a  scientific  basis  to  rest  a  claim  so  proud  that  archaeology 
puts  forth  ?  And  must  the  music  of  the  Church  be 
dependent  upon  every  fresh  discovery  of  archaeology  ? 

But  there  is  something  more.  Is  it  quite  certain  that 
the  tradition  of  the  Chant  flowed  with  pure  and  undefiled 
stream  from  the  days  of  St.  Gregory  to  the  ninth  century  ? 
The  archaeologists  affirm  it.  But  this  is  far  from  certain. 
Dr.  Wagner,  in  his  recent  work,  Neumenkunde,  was  the 
first  to  point  out  that  in  the  centuries  immediately  after 
St.  Gregory  some  very  decided  attempts  were  made 
to  make  the  Chant  learned  and  accurate,  by  bending 
its  forms  to  the  prosody  of  classic  times,  or  the  Chronos 
of  the  Greeks.  Different  kinds  of  ornaments  and  fioriture 
were  also  introduced  about  this  time,  and,  under  Greek 
influence,  not  only  half-tones,  but  even  quarter-tones,  began 
to  be  cultivated.  All  this,  of  course,  was  exceedingly  dis- 
tasteful to  the  ordinary  singer  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  a 
struggle  ensued,  which  ended  finally  in  the  Latinization  of 
the  Chant,  not  only  in  the  melody,  but  also  in  the  execution. 
Had  it  not  been  for  this  successful  resistance  against  the 
designs  of  the  experts  and  theorists,  the  cantus  planus  would 
have  disappeared  from  the  Church  by  the  twelfth  century. 

Until  these  doubts  relating  to  the  composition  and  exe- 
cution of  the  melodies  by  the  masters  of  the  ninth  century 
can  be  dispelled,  we  must  be  allowed  to  suspend  our  judg- 
ment as  to  perfection  of  the  ancient  MSS.  in  their  smallest 
details.  A  scientific  basis  for  the  reform  of  the  Chant  can 
hardly  be  erected  on  such  unsteady  foundations.1 

1  One  of  the  most  eminent  historians  of  France  thus  expresses  himself 
on  this  question  :  'If  historical  research  is  directed  solely  to  the  discovery 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE' 

The  claims  of  archaeology  seem  to  ignore  the  point  of 
view  with  which  the  Church  regards  the  Chant,  which,  after 
all,  is  a  collection  of  compositions  of  all  times  and  countries, 
of  all  degrees  of  art  ;  but  all  distinguished  by  one  particular 
style.  Thus,  we  have  productions  of  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
those  of  the  Renaissance,  the  compositions  for  modern  and 
new  offices,  all  forming  the  body  of  song  that  passes  under 
the  name  of  the  Gregorian  Chant,  and  all  receiving  the  stamp 
of  the  Church's  authority,  as  '  possessing  in  the  highest 
degree  those  qualities  which  are  proper  to  the  liturgy  of  the 
Church.'1  But  the  archaeologists  would  have  us  believe  that 
there  is  a  certain  aristocracy  in  the  Church,  that  the  MSS.  of 
the  ninth  century  are  alone  of  pure  blood,  all  the  rest  of  low 
degree,  with  no  claim  to  associate  with  those  who  can  trace 
back  their  descent  to  Charlemagne.  We  often  wonder  how 
the  archaeologists  can  resign  themselves  to  the  chanting  of 
these  later  barbarisms,  which  they  are  compelled  so  fre- 
quently to  meet  with  in  the  course  of  the  Divine  Office.  But 
the  Church  has  to  deal  not  with  savants,  but  with  the  large 
body  of  the  faithful,  to  whom  all  such  questions  are  a  matter 
of  supreme  indifference,  and  she  will  continue  to  add  to,  to 
revise,  to  complete,  choral  books,  and  to  give  to  modern 
melodies  a  place  of  honour  in  her  liturgy  equal  to  that  of  the 
oldest  chant.  For  the  Plain  Chant  is  a  living  energy,  not  a 
musty  old  parchment,  an  energy  that,  like  the  coral  insect, 
is  ever  battling  with  the  demands  of  the  day  and  ever 
building  upon  the  old  foundations. 

What  does  all  the  indignation,  all  the  pother  of  the  arch- 
aeologists really  amount  too  ?  That  perhaps  one  note  in 
three  hundred  has  been  corrected  !  It  really  comes  to  little 
more.  And  even  this  is  an  exaggerated  estimate,  if  we  con- 
fine ourselves  to  the  oldest  MSS.  of  all.  For  the  Kyriale,  as 
is  well  known,  is  quite  in  a  different  condition  from  that  of 
the  Proper  of  the  Time  of  the  old  Offices.  The  Kyriale  chants, 
on  the  whole,  are  of  very  much  later  composition.  In  fact, 

of  the  ancient  documents  of  the  past  just  as  they  were  ;  the  traditional 
practice  is  not  bound  meekly  to  assimilate  the  results  of  this  investigation  ; 
it  ought  to  show  in  a  certain  measure  due  respect  for  the  work  of  time.' — 
Gevaert,   M&lopbe  antique,  p.   an. 
1  Motu  Propriot 


330  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  triple  invocation  of  the  Agnus  Dei  was  not  introduced 
into  the  liturgy  until  after  the  ninth  century.  Many  of  the 
melodies  are  compositions  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries.  And  still,  although  these  compositions  are 
acknowledged  to  be  distinctly  inferior  to  those  of  the  earlier 
centuries,  yet  we  are  invited  to  draw  up  statistical  tables,  to 
count  up  the  number  of  agreements,  and  to  adopt  towards 
the  corrupt  precisely  the  same  methods  to  be  employed  with 
the  incorrupt,  under  penalty  of  being  branded  as  arbitrary, 
whimsical,  and  unscientific,  if  we  disagree.  As  if  any  amount 
of  concordances  of  a  corrupt  version  could  establish  a  cor- 
rect reading  !  This,  I  maintain,  is  an  unscientific  method 
of  dealing  with  the  revision  of  the  Chant. 

But  if  this  claim  to  reform  music  by  archaeology  alone  be 
unscientific,  it  is  also  inartistic.  To  judge  from  the  writings 
of  the  archaeologists,  one  would  conclude  that  there  is 
no  art  in  the  Gregorian.  But,  in  turning  again  to 
Dom  Mocquereau's  article  above  mentioned,  '  L'Ecole 
Gr£gorienne  de  Solesmes,'  we  come  across  a  delightful 
passage  on  Gregorian  art,  which  quite  made  our  mouths 
water  at  the  prospect  of  the  interesting  discoveries  that 
the  archaeological  process  seemed  to  offer. 

Sometimes  [he  says],  and  not  uncommonly,  we  may  come 
across  some  very  curious  secrets  of  the  old  notation,  notably 
certain  equivalences,  which,  far  from  contradicting  some  teach- 
ing, go  far  to  strengthen  it.  Above  all,  we  may  discover  the 
laws  of  adaptation  of  the  same  melody  to  different  texts,  and 
we  recognize  how  often  these  rules  have  been  ignored  in  the 
adaptations  made  in  modern  times. 

It  is  here  that  we  can  probe  to  the  quick  the  methods  of 
composition  of  the  ancient  Gregorian  artists,  we  can  admire  the 
delicacy  of  their  taste,  the  variety  of  the  resources  at  their  com- 
mand, the  deftness  with  which  they  know  how  to  expand  or 
contract  a  melody  in  order  to  clothe  the  text  with  grace.  The 
art  which  they  display  in  these  circumstances  is  inimitable,  and 
the  aesthetic  rules  which  they  obey  are  lost  to  those  who  have 
not  the  means  that  our  statistical  tables  offer  of  analysing 
patiently  and  curiously  their  methods. 

Nothing  could  be  more  fascinating  than  these  prospects 
of  unfolding  the  art  of  the  Gregorian.  The  secrets  of  the 
neums,  the  methods  of  composition,]  the.  art  of  equiva- 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'         331 

lences,  of  adornment  and  development  of  melodies,  are 
precisely  the  points  on  which  the  musical  world  is  most 
anxious  to  have  a  systematic  expose,  for  the  chapter  has 
not  yet  been  written.  The  articles  regularly  contributed 
by  Dom  Pothier  for  a  number  of  years  to  the  Revue  du 
Chant  Gregorien  have  also  revealed  to  us  many  of  the 
secrets  of  the  art  of  the  Chant,  the  laws  of  cadences,  the 
characteristics  of  the  different  kinds  of  Gregorian  melodies, 
the  combinations  and  formulas  of  the  different  modes, 
the  relation  of  accent  to  text,  the  evolution  of  tonality, 
its  relations  with  evolution  of  the  accent  and  rhythm  of 
the  language,  these  have  been  unfolded  to  us  with  rare 
skill  and  insight  by  Dom  Pothier.  We  feel  here  that  we 
are  being  admitted  into  the  arcana  of  the  Chant,  that  an 
order  and  beauty  here  reigns  which  excludes  all  question  of 
arbitrary  proceeding.  Surely,  if  there  is  any  criterion  by 
which  we  should  proceed  to  the  editing  of  the  correct  text,  it 
should  be  that  which  applies  these  delicate  and  subtle  laws, 
that  can  only  be  grasped  by  those  who  are  equipped  with 
rare  musical  gifts  and  knowledge. 

After  Dom  Mocquereau's  happy  indication  of  the 
discoveries  that  had  followed  the  compilation  of  the 
statistical  tables,  one  naturally  looked  to  see  some  of 
these  principles  applied  to  the  elucidation  of  a  Gregorian 
text.  In  this  we  were  disappointed.  Dom  Beyssac,  of 
Appuldurcombe,  in  his  study  of  the  Kyrie,  Fons  bonitatis 
(which  Father  Bewerunge  terms  '  masterly '),  proposes 
to  restore  to  us  the  best  reading  of  this  melody.  Is  there 
any  application  of  the  principles  of  art,  so  charmingly 
sketched  by  Dom  Mocquereau,  bestowed  upon  this  task  ? 
Absolutely  none.  It  is  nothing  but  a  counting  of  MSS.,  the 
number  of  agreements,  the  determination  of  the  majority  of 
the  votes  ;  but  as  far  as  the  writer  of  the  article  is  concerned, 
the  art  of  the  Gregorian  might  be  non-existent.  The  same 
remarks  will  apply  to  the  whole  of  Father  Bewerunge's 
criticism;  it  is  again  merely  a  question  of  enumerating  MSS., 
of  pitting  one  nation  against  another,  while  of  the  principles 
of  Gregorian  art,  of  its  claims  in  any  recension  of  a  text, 
not  a  word  !  If  Dom  Mocquereau  has  made  the  important 


332  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

discoveries  of  the  principles  of  Gregorian  art,  which  he  pro- 
fesses to  have  made  from  his  statistical  tables,  he  seems  to 
have  taken  great  pains  to  lock  the  secret  up  in  his  own 
breast.  In  any  case  the  Archaeological  School  have  let 
it  be  clearly  understood  that  they  recognize  no  claims  of 
the  voice  of  art  of  the  Gregorian  in  the  preparation  of 
the  critical  edition. 

Now,  having  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  methods 
favoured  by  the  Archaeological  School  are  neither  scientific 
nor  artistic,  let  us  examine  how  far  they  are  in  harmony 
with  the  wishes  and  commands  of  the  Holy  See.  It  has 
long  been  recognized  as  a  dictate  of  practical  wisdom  that, 
when  a  Commission  is  appointed,  terms  of  reference  must 
be  imposed,  otherwise  there  would  be  great  danger  of  the 
members  wandering  off  at  their  own  sweet  will  into  the 
most  opposite  directions.  Nor  did  the  Holy  Father  neglect 
to  take  this  precaution  when  he  appointed  the  Commission 
for  the  Restoration  of  the  Gregorian  Chant,  on  April  25, 
1904.  The  terms  of  reference  of  the  Pontifical  document 
are  :  '  The  melodies  of  the  Church,  so-called  Gregorian, 
shall  be  restored  in  their  integrity  and  purity,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  the  more  ancient  codices,  but  in  such 
a  manner  that  particular  account  shall  be  taken  of  the 
legitimate  tradition  contained  in  the  later  codices  and  of 
the  practical  use  of  modern  liturgy.' 

The  three  points  which  the  Commissioners  are  directed  to 
observe  in  their  recension  are  :  (i)  The  more  ancient  codices ; 
(2)  the  legitimate  tradition  contained  in  later  codices ;  (3)  the 
practice  of  the  modern  liturgy.  These  terms  of  reference 
indicate  a  perfectly  intelligible  line  of  procedure,  but  they 
completely  exclude  the  platform  of  the  archaeologists.  The 
latter  admit  no  '  legitimate  tradition,'  beyond  the  ninth 
century;  in  their  eyes  'later  codices'  have  no  more  value 
than  the  evolution  of  the  Gregorian  art  which  they  represent. 
It  is  clear  that  those  who,  holding  such  views,  entered  the 
Commission,  would  find  themselves  bound  to  struggle 
against  the  terms  of  reference  imposed  by  the  Holy  Father. 
If  the  archaeologists  could  not  see  their  way  to  accept  the 
Papal  instructions,  an  impasse  was  bound  to  result.  And 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'         333 

so  it  happened,  in  point  of  fact.     The  history  of  the  dead- 
lock is  too  well  known  to  require  re-telling. 

It  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  Holy  Father  would 
yield.  Nothing  then  remained  for  him  but  to  override  the 
objections  of  the  opponents  and  give  Dom  Pothier,  who  was 
loyally  carrying  out  his  wishes,  the  supreme  direction  of  the 
work.  It  was  hoped  that  after  the  Head  of  the  Church  had 
given  such  a  decided  mark  of  his  disapproval  of  the  views  of 
the  archaeologists,  the  latter  would  have  had  the  good  grace 
to  yield  to  such  authoritative  decisions.  It  is  disappointing 
to  have  to  state  that  this  is  far  from  the  case.  Discomfited 
in  the  Commission,  they  have  now  transferred  their  opposi- 
tion to  the  Vaticana  to  the  public  Press,  and  the  numerous 
attacks  on  the  typical  edition  all  proceed  from  one  source, 
the  School  of  Appuldurcombe.  There  is  no  use  in  mincing 
matters  ;  by  their  attitude  they  have  placed  themselves  in 
direct  antagonism  to  the  Holy  Father  and  to  ecclesiastical 
authority.  It  is  true  they  claim  the  right  to  hold  their  views 
on  a  theoretical  question  ;  but  the  public  will  note  that  all 
the  same  they  are  attacking  principles  which  the  Holy 
Father  and  the  Sacred  Congregation  hold  very  strongly,  and 
that  the  archaeologists  are  striving  their  utmost  to  discredit 
these  principles  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church. 

Let  us  put  the  question  fairly  :  Is  the  Plain  Chant  to  be 
restored  for  the  sake  of  its  antiquity,  or  because  it  is  an 
admirable  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  the  faith  and  piety 
of  the  people  ?  Or,  in  other  words  :  Is  the  Plain  Chant  made 
for  man  or  man  made  for  the  Chant  ?  To  most  minds  the 
framing  of  this  question  brings  its  own  answer.  And  yet 
the  archaeologists  do  not  hesitate  to  state  that  man  was  made 
for  the  Chant,  and  not  vice  versa.  Dom  Mocquereau  main- 
tains l  that  the  Chant  '  must  be  taken  just  as  it  is  with 
its  good  and  bad  points.'  Even  if  it  is  a  question  of  restora- 
tion, it  must  not  be  an  adaptation  or  improvement,  but  the 
restoration  of  the  original.'  No  consideration  is  to  be  shown 
to  the  feelings  or  needs  of  the  singers.  If  the  old  forms  are 


11  L'evolution  dans  1'esthetique  et  la  tradition  Gr6gorienne,'  Rassegna 
Gregotiana,  1904. 


334  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

harsh  and  uncouth,  so  much  the  worse  for  the  singers.  They 
must  leave  the  Plain  Chant  alone.  The  same  writer  says  : 
'  Let  us  hope  we  have  done  for  ever  with  mutilations  in 
order  to  make  the  Chant  easier  to  sing  everywhere  and 
by  everyone.  Nobody  is  obliged  to  sing  the  Gregorian 
melodies.' l 

It  is  unmistakably  the  case  of  *  man  for  the  Chant,'  and 
not  '  the  Chant  for  man.'  We  seem  to  see  a  reproduction 
of  the  old  Pharasaism  that  jealously  guarded  the  forms  and 
overlooked  the  spirit  which  had  given  these  forms  their  life 
and  being. 

In  any  case,  this  is  not  the  object  of  the  Holy  Father.  In 
his  Motu  Proprio,  he  has  given  public  and  official  expression 
to  his  wish  that '  this  Chant  (Gregorian)  should  especially 
be  restored  for  the  use  of  the  people,  so  that  they  may 
take  a  more  active  part  in  the  services,  as  they  did  in  former 
times.'2  This  is  again  a  case  where  the  Holy  See  lays  down 
the  principle  that  the  Chant  is  meant  for  the  people,  to 
which  the  archaeologists  reply  that  they  see  no  reason  why 
attempts  should  be  made  '  to  make  the  Chant  easier  to  sing 
by  everyone  and  everywhere.' 

I  might  here  bring  my  article  to  an  end,  as  I  have  ad- 
duced abundant  proof  that  the  principles  upon  which  the 
archaeologists  have  founded  their  objections  to  the  Vaticana 
are  supported  by  neither  science,  art,  nor  authority.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  as  well,  in  order  to  avoid  all  suspicions  of 
shirking  the  question,  to  follow  the  critic  in  his  patient 

1  This  is  one  of  the  stock  objections  to  the  Vaticana.  Another  critic 
says  :  '  Dom  Ppthier  has  evidently  been  inspired  by  the  wish  to  come  to 
the  aid  of  choirs  whose  artistic  aspirations  are  very  limited,  and  whose 
means  of  execution  restricted.'  It  is  rather  amusing  to  note  the  incon- 
sistency of  the  archaeologists  on  this  point.  These  lovers  of  antiquity 
have  invented  certain  rhythmic  signs,  with  which  their  editions  are 
'  adorned,'  in  order  to  meet  the  wishes  of  these  very  singers  of  aspirations 
and  execution  so  limited.  Not  that  there  can  be  any  objection  to  such  a 
proceeding,  but  it  is  curiously  inconsistent  with  those  sneers  at  Dom 
Pothier  playing,  so  to  speak,  to  the  gallery.  The  amusing  part  is,  that 
these  rhythmic  signs  have  absolutely  no  claim  whatever  to  antiquity. 
No  author  of  medieval  times  can  be  quoted  in  support  of  their  theories 
of  binary  and  ternary  rhythms.  And  yet  these  sticklers  for  antiquity 
do  not  hesitate  to  introduce  into  their  notation  all  sorts  of  hybrid  modern 
signs  precisely  in  order  '  to  make  the  Chant  easier  to  be  sung  everywhere 
and  by  everyone.' 

a  Motu  Proprio,  ii.  3. 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'         335 

enumeration  of  the  examples  which  he  finds  so  faulty.  On 
page  49,  the  critic  offers  two  general  reflections.  The  first  is 
that  '  Dom  Pothier  shows  a  strange  predilection  for  the  Ger- 
man tradition  of  the  Chant.'  I  need  not  again  enter  into 
the  persistent  misrepresentation  which  makes  Dom  Pothier 
the  *  sole  judge  '  of  the  revision.  If  the  critic  had  been 
better  informed,  he  would  have  discovered,  with  some  sur- 
prise, that  the  so-called  German  readings  of  the  Kyriale  are 
met  with  in  MSS.  of  very  different  origin.  The  editors 
would  be  the  last  to  admit  that  they  have  shown  '  predilec- 
tion '  for  any  special  group  of  MSS.  ;  they  have  carefully 
weighed  the  claims  of  any  notable  portion  of  the  Gregorian 
tradition. 

If  Dom  Pothier  had  '  Germanized  '  the  Kyriale,  many 
more  e's  and  Us  would  have  disappeared  to  make 
place  for  /'s  and  c's.  But  if  the  editors  weigh  the  claims  of 
the  general  voice  of  tradition,  as  expressed  in  German, 
French,  Italian,  and  English  MSS.,  it  then  becomes  a  ques- 
tion of  making  a  selection.  Our  critic  dreads  such  an  idea 
and  sounds  a  note  of  alarm.  '  On  what  principle,  then,  is 
this  selection  to  be  made  ?  The  aesthetic  taste  of  an  indi- 
vidual ?*  And  he  quotes  Dom  Gaisser  to  point  out  the 
danger  and  instability  of  such  a  criterion.  He  is  ever  recur- 
ring to  this  point  of  '  the  taste  of  one  individual,'  meaning, 
of  course,  Dom  Pothier,  until  we  shall  begin  to  believe  he  is 
as  much  haunted  with  Dom  Pothier  as  Mr.  Dick  was  with 
King  Charles'  head.  This  perpetual  fear  of  anyone  ven- 
turing to  make  a  selection,  this  marked  distrust  of  the 
ability  and  science  of  any  person  whatsoever  to  form  a 
critical  judgment  is  characteristic  of  the  School  of  Archae- 
ology. It  is  fortunate  that  the  Holy  Father  believes  that 
there  are  still  artists  and  erudite  men  in  the  world  to  carry 
out  the  reform  he  has  so  much  at  heart. 

One  of  the  examples  over  which  the  critic  waxes  merry 
is  No.  7.  Referring  to  the  change  of  the  reciting  note  from 
b  to  c,  he  says  : — 

As  the  change  was  almost  universal,  I  could  understand  the 
position  of  those  who  claim  that  it  should  be  maintained.  But 
what  does  the  Vatican  edition  do  ?  It  evidently  goes  on  the 


336  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

principle  of '  pleasing  both  parties,'  and  gives  half  the  recitation 

7 


to  c,  half  to  b,  thus  :—       g-       fl    *—  — {5 


et  om-nes  ad  quos  per-ve-nit 

Three  syllables  on  c,  three  on  b,  nothing  could  be  fairer,  and 
nobody  has  any  right  to  complain  !  The  procedure  is  a  great 
testimony  to  Dom  Pothier's  amiability,  but  what  about  his 
critical  judgment  ?  (page  51). 

We  can  hardly  expect  the  archaeologists  to  enter  into 
the  niceties  of  Gregorian  art  that  are  displayed  in  the 
disposition  of  the  notes  over  ad  quos  and  pervenit.  The 
first  accentuate  and  determine  the  reciting  note,  while 
the  two  &'.«>  in  pervenit,  the  ancient  reading,  constitute 
a  modulation  properly  so-called  ;  the  second  serves  as 
a  binding  to  the  following  note.  It  is  thus  an  improvement 
of  the  old  reading  of  the  Liber  Graduate 
1  a 


C    •    •  3  • 


quos  per-ve-nit 

which  gave,  so  to  speak,  a  jolt  to  the  melody,  perhaps  not 
a  very  grave  fault,  but  certainly  not  very  perfect.  The 
editors  thus  combine  the  vigour  and  clearness  of  the  reciting 
note  c,  which  was  an  improvement  of  the  medievalists,  with 
the  smoothness  of  the  ancient  version.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  test,  not  of  '  Dom  Pothier's  amiability,  but  rather  of  his 
critical  judgment.'  We  can  hardly  expect  those  who  are 
pledged  to  the  archaeological  party  to  appreciate  such 
matters  of  art,  but  others  will  gain  therefrom  renewed 
confidence  in  the  skill  and  taste  of  the  revisers. 

The  critic  never  tires  of  repeating  that  the  different 
corrections  are  not  found  in  any  MSS.  To  this  I  can 
only  reply  that  in  not  a  single  case  has  any  correction 
been  adopted  which  is  not  justified  by  one  or  more  MSS. 
I  will,  however,  take  one  of  the  critic's  own  examples, 
and  show  the  method  he  adopts  to  prove  that  the  Vatican 
version  *  is  not  found  in  any  single  one  / '  In  order  to  still 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'        337 


further  impress  the  reader  with  this  charge,  he  makes  a 
special  appeal  to  his  eyes   by  printing  the  last  words  in 
italics.     Turn  to  example  8,  on  page  50,  he  says  :  '  In  the 
Vidi  aquam  we  find  the  following  : — 
8 


tern  -  plo 

*  The"MSS.,'  he  says,  '  are  divided  as  to  the  figure  on  the 
last  syllable  of  tempio  ;  some  have 
9a 


tern  -  plo 

etc.  The'version  of  the  Vatican  is  not  found  in  any  single 
one  ! '  The  reader  will  see  at  once  that  the  only  difference 
between  the  two  versions  is  the  liquescent  note  la  !  Now,  it 
is  well  known,  both  by  the  teaching  of  the  ancient  masters 
and  from  the  MSS.  themselves,  that  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
latitude  allowed  in  the  use  of  liquescent  notes.  As  Guy  of 
Arezzo  lays  down  :  '  Si  autem  eum  vis  plenius  proferre  non 
liquefaciens,  nihil  nocet.'1  In  the  example  9  (a),  the  lique- 
scent is  omitted,  in  the  Vaticana  it  is  inserted.  For  this 
grave  tampering  with  the  MSS.  the  editors  are  accused  of 
introducing  a  version  not  found  in  a  single  MSS. !  I  feel  sure 
this  is  quite  an  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  critic,  other- 
wise such  an  accusation  might  give  rise  to  unpleasant 
rejoinders. 

Example  10  of  the  Kyrie  (Fons  bonitatis)  has,  as  I  have 

remarked  above,  been  the  subject  of  a  special  study  by  the 

archaeologists,  and  the  Vatican  version  differs  in  one  or  two 

points  from  that  favoured  by  Appuldurcombe.     The  Vatican 

11 


version  is 

8  -1  Vt  a- 

335 

1    % 

% 

9. 

• 

Chri-ste 

VOL.   XIX. 


1  Gerbert,  Scriptores,  t.  ii. 


THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  recension  favoured  by  Dom  Beyssac  (supra)  and  Father 
Bewerunge  omits  the  two  a's  marked  with  asterisk,  and 
changes  the  e  into  d.  The  reasons  which  induced  the  editors 
to  change  the  d  into  e  seem  to  have  been  somewhat  of  this 
nature  :  In  the  primitive  version  the  d  would  be  followed 
by  b,  tristropha.  When  the  b  was  early  changed  to  c,  to  give 
more  precision  and  vigour  to  the  melody,  certain  copyists 
felt  the  necessity  of  changing  the  d  into  a  clivis,  e  d,  with 
stress  on  the  e  and  not  on  the  d.  The  d  then  became  super- 
fluous, and  the  editors  of  the  Vatican  suppressed  it,  thus 
restoring  to  the  ancient  phrase  the  freedom  of  the  primitive 
attack.  This  same  phrase  has  long  been  under  considera- 
tion, and  Dom  Pothier  in  discussing  it  some  years  back  held 
that  the  d  was  still  possible.  The  Commission,  however, 
voted  its  suppression.  These  views  will  not  commend  them- 
selves to  the  archaeologists,  but  they  will  show  the  impartial 
reader  the  scrupulous  care  and  art  that  the  editors  lavished 
over  every  phrase  of  the  Chant. 

i      In  examples  12  and  13,  Dom  Pothier  is  reproached  with 
changing  the  melody  of  all  the  MSS. 

12 


itc 


•• 

p. 

glo  -  ri-am 

is 
E-i 

into  =^-i — 


PR 

glo  -  ri-am 

But  the  critic  has  omitted  to  place  before  his  readers  the 
whole  of  the  passage,  or  they  would  quickly  see  the  reason 
why  the  editors  changed  it.  The  oldest  MSS.  have 


•  • 
ma-  gnam  glo  -  ri-  am 


This    is  a   case  where  the  *  variety  of    resources   at    the 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'        339 

command  of  the  ancient  Gregorian  artists '  were  evidently 
exhausted.      The  editors    very   cleverly  corrected  this    to 


ma-gnam  glo-ri-am 

a  correction  to  which  none  but  those  with  archaeological 
'  bees  in  their  bonnets  '  could  object. 

In  example  14,  the  critic  complains  that  the  Sanctus  of 
Mass  III.  does  not  follow  any  MSS. 
14 


y  ll 

E 

5  j 

3JH 

San    -    ctus 

The  older  version  put  a  b  instead  of  a  c  for  the  third  note, 
and  inserted  another  b  after  the  third  note.  The  editors,  he 
complains,  have  omitted  both  Vs.  The  reason  is  a  most 
obvious  one.  If  the  first  b  was  changed  into  c,  according  to 
the  traditional  demand  for  a  more  decided  note,  it  must  not 
be  left  behind,  but  suppressed.  The  second  b  would  induce 
that  position  of  the  tritone  against  which  nearly  eight 
centuries  of  musicians  have  protested. 

This  will  lead  us  to  the  discussion  of  the  views  of  the 
critic  on  the  nature  of  the  '  tritone.'  On  page  54,  after 
citing  the  above  example,  he  goes  on  to  say  : — 

The  reason  for  this  change  is  easy  to  guess.  It  is  to  avoid 
that  diabolus  in  musica  of  the  medieval  theorists,  the  tritone. 
I  admit  that  the  tritone  sometimes  causes  a  little  difficulty  to 
modern  ears.  But  if  we  are  to  eliminate  all  the  tritones  from 
the  Gregorian  melodies  what  is  to  become  of  them  ?  .  .  .  I  think 
that  the  full  tone  under  the  tonic  causes  far  more  difficulty  to 
the  modern  musician  than  a  few  tritones. 

Let  us  take  this  last  statement  first.  It  is  strange  that 
Father  Bewerunge  should  maintain  this  with  the  Irish 
melodies  ringing  around  him.  One  of  their  great  charms  is 
the  presence  of  the  flattened  seventh,  and  the  humblest  son 
and  daughter  of  Erin  in  England  and  Ireland  is  not  known  to 
experience  any  special  difficulty  in  singing  *  a  full  tone  below 


34°  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  tonic.'  But  with  the  tritone  it  is  different.  For  cen- 
turies the  European  ear  has  developed  a  decided  objection 
to  certain  positions  of  the  tritone.  This  is  one  of  those  cases 
of  '  legitimate  tradition  '  which  the  Holy  Father  has  directed 
the  editors  to  respect.  In  the  Vatican  edition  some  of  these 
repulsive  intervals  have  accordingly  been  removed.  It  is 
somewhat  surprising  that  Father  Bewerunge  has  not  called 
attention  to  these  departures  from  the  most  ancient  MSS. 
in  his  eagerness  to  establish  their  monopoly.  It  was, 
perhaps,  more  prudent  to  pass  them  by,  or  he  would  have 
badly  damaged  his  case  before  the  impartial  reader.  I 
will,  however,  supply  the  omission.  In  some  old  MSS.  we 

15  ; — 


find  the  following  :         •-*•— 

gratias     agi-mus  tibi 

Had  the  archaeologists  had  their  way,  we  should  have  had 
this  forced  down  our  throats  : 
16  ? 


4^ 


Hosan-na         in  ex-celsis 

Again  in  the  Agnus  of  Mass  IV.  (Cunctipotens  genitor 

Deus)  the  archaeologists  tried  actually  to  impose  on  us  these 

17  ? 

C   .   •  .. — 


horrors  : 


Ag-nus  De  -  i 
18  ? 


mi-se-re-re  no-bis 

We  must  remember  that  these  melodies  are  intended  to  be 
sung  by  the  ordinary  singer  whose  ear  is  almost^entirely 
educated  by  modern  tonality.  To  propose  such  things  to 
modern  singers  is  only  to  implant  in  them  a  deep  hatred  of 
the  Chant. 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'         341 

It  is  quite  intelligible  that  these  archaic  intervals  could 
be  rendered  more  or  less  familiar  to  a  community  of  reli- 
gious who  are  accustomed  to  no  other  style  of  music.  But 
the  Chant  is  intended,  not  for  the  chosen  few  who  can  give 
to  it  an  undivided  attention,  but  for  the  ordinary  singer 
nurtured  in  modern  tonality,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  '  take 
a  more  active  part  in  the  services  of  the  Church.'  Here, 
again,  we  see  that  archaeology,  in  crying  '  Hands  off  '  to  the 
average  chorister,  is  opposing  the  wishes  and  directions  of 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff. 

Are  these  objectionable  intervals,  however,  really  primi- 
tive ?  It  is  allowable  to  doubt  it.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely 
that  in  these  instances  the  fa  was  sharpened.  But  what  is 
certain  is  that  in  some  MSS.  the  Agnus  is  found  written  a 
tone  lower,  showing  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  felt 
that,  with  the  traditional  method  of  execution,  the 
notation  was  faulty.  It  was  therefore  written  thus  : 

19 
* 


1=1=3 


Ag-nus  De  -  i 

And  Dom  Pothier,  yielding  to  the  strong  feeling  on  the 
point,  expressed  by  many  members  of  the  Commission, 
agreed  to  write  it  in  the  sixth  mode  in  the  Vaticana,  whereby 
the  objectionable  interval  is  avoided.  In  the  face  of  these 
examples,  we  recognize  the  prudence,  and  are  grateful  for 
the  intervention,  of  the  Holy  Father,  who  has  delivered  us 
from  the  *  Chamber  of  Horrors  '  of  the  archaeologists.  This 
is  not  the  only  passage  where  the  rendering  seems  to  be  at 
variance  with  the  notation.  It  gives  rise  to  a  well-founded 
suspicion  that  some  of  the  old  MSS.  did  not  correctly  give 
the  intervals  that  were  actually  sung.  We  know  that  the 
most  ancient  MSS.  were  written  in  neums-accents,  which 
gave  no  idea  whatever  of  the  intervals.  It  was  only  by 
degrees  that  the  intervals  came  to  be  represented  in 
diastemmatic  notation,  first  with  one  line  then  with  two 
or  more.  But  for  a  long  time  the  outlines  of  the  melody 
were,  so  to  speak,  in  a  very  nebulous  state,  and  it  was 


342  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

impossible  that  under  these  circumstances  errors]  and 
variations  in  small  matters  should  not  creep  in.  And  yet 
we  are  asked  by  the  archaeologists  to  believe,  that  in 
these  long  periods  of  tentative  gropings  after  diastemmatic 
perfection,  not  a  secret  was  lost,  not  a  note  misplaced. 

The  critic  produces  nearly  fifty  more  passages  for  repro- 
bation, and  it  is  surely  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
discussion  on  each,  to  say  nothing  of  the  expense  of  furnish- 
ing musical  examples,  a  very  pressing  difficulty.  Of  these 
fifty,  eleven  are  distinctly  erroneous.  The  critic  complains 
that  in  the  Gloria  of  Mass  VII.  the  editors  omit  the  b\>  and 
sharpen  the  leading  note.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  only 
two  Vs  in  the  piece  and  both  of  them  are  flattened.  In  the 
Cantus  ad  libitum,  Kyrie  II.,  he  says  there  are  only  two 
Christe.  I  have  examined  three  editions,  and  in  all  I  find 
three  Christe.  In  Gloria  III.,  the  MSS.  give  a  double  d  at  7> 
in  Laudamus  Te\  the  critic  declares  'Dom  Pothier'  only  gives 
one.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  editors  have  given  the  double 
d.  Seven  other  statements  are  erroneous  in  their  assertion 
that  '  Dom  Pothier's '  version  is  unsupported  by  any  MSS. 
This,  as  I  have  shown  above,  is  altogether  inaccurate,  and 
an  imputation  on  the  venerable  Abbot's  honesty  of  purpose. 
Nearly  forty  out  of  the  incriminated  passages  are  con- 
demned for  the  guilt  of  not  following  the  statistical  tables  of 
Appuldurcombe.  I  have  at  length,  in  the  previous  part  of 
the  article,  discussed  the  value  of  this  archaeological  criterion. 
While  giving  it  all  due  importance,  I  have  endeavoured  to 
prove  that  it  has  not  the  right  to  claim  to  be  '  the  sole  judge  ' 
of  revision  of  Gregorian  melodies.  Moreover,  every  one  of 
the  changes  are  such  manifest  improvements  from  a  practical 
and  artistic  point  of  view  that  I  wonder  the  critic's  well- 
known  musical  taste  did  not  rise  in  judgment  against  his 
archaeological  prejudices.  I  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to 
give  an  extreme  example  of  this.  He  complains  (page  55) 


that  while  the  MSS.  give      '   SJ  •    •    ~S" 


tol-lis  pecca-ta 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE  'KYRIALE'        343 


21 


the  editors  write  I     H"  •      •  •  • 


tol-lis  pecca-ta 

4  It  is  hard,'  he  says,  '  to  suppress  one's  indignation  at  this.' 
What  it  is  that  has  so  stirred  the  critic's  bile  we  cannot 
understand.  For  years  he  has  probably  sung  the  Vatican 
version  without  a  qualm,  and  even  with  pleasure.  But 
now  that  the  version  of  the  MSS.  appears  (and  what  a 
clumsy  one,  too),  he  is  filled  with  holy  indignation  against 
those  who  have  hidden  from  him  such  a  pearl  of  melody  ! 

I  think  that  I  have  now  trespassed  quite  enough  upon 
my  readers'  patience,  but  I  have  some  confidence  that  they 
will  admit  that  we  have  good  and  solid  reasons  for  support- 
ing the  Vatican  edition  against  the  attacks  directed  against 
it.  These  attacks,  we  hold,  are  bound  to  fail,  for  on  the  scien- 
tific side  their  principles  are  so  feeble,  and  still  more  from 
the  point  of  view  of  authority,  in  that  they  are  in  direct 
antagonism  to  the  directions  of  the  Holy  See.  It  is  grati- 
fying to  be  able  to  record  that  the  new  Kyriale  is  spreading 
at  a  most  extraordinary  rate  throughout  the  world,  and  it 
will  soon  be  a  question  of  the  ancient  dictum  :  '  Securus 
judicat  orbis  terramm.' 

The  critic  indulges  in  some  melancholy  reflections  on  the 
4  procession  of  "  reformers,"  as  they  pass  through  the 
centuries,  although  they  are  headed  by  a  St.  Bernard.'  Is 
not  the  critic  at  fault  here  ?  Has  he  not  been  guilty  of  a 
most  important  omission  ?  Most  people  are  under  the  im- 
pression that  the  procession  of  reformers  was  '  headed  '  by 
St.  Gregory  the  Great.  Such  a  procession  was  far  from  a 
melancholy  sight  in  the  Church,  as  the  centenary  celebrations 
in  honour  of  St.  Gregory,  held  in  Rome  in  1904,  can  testify. 
St.  Bernard  hardly  deserves  to  be  included  in  the  same  cate- 
gory as  the  Medicean  reformers,  as  his  reform  was  chiefly 
confined  to  his  own  Congregation,  a  very  small  body  in  the 
Church. 

There  is,  however,  one  aspect  of  the  critic's  case,  which 
has  caused  a  good  deal  of  pain  in  his  readers,  and  that  is  the 


344  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

style  in  which  he  has  allowed  himself  to  speak  of  the  official 
acts  of  the  Holy  See.  Certainly  the  authorities  at  Rome 
would  be  the  last  in  the  world  to  attempt  to  stifle  discussion 
on  theoretical  and  scientific  questions  of  the  Chant  ;  but  the 
antagonists  should  surely  refrain  from  dragging  in  the 
official  acts  of  the  Sacred  Congregation.  I  am  sure  that  the 
critic  hardly  realizes  how  distressing  it  is  to  a  loyal  son  of  the 
Church  to  come  across  such  passages  as  these  :  '  One  thing  is 
certain  to  me,  the  Vaticana  cannot  stand.  Dom  Pothier  has, 
indeed,  already  got  a  considerable  number  of  authoritative 
pronouncements  in  favour  of  his  edition ' l  (page  62). 

How  has  Dom  Pothier  got  these  pronouncements  ?  Are 
we  invited  to  believe  that  the  Abbot  has  only  to  walk  into 
Cardinal  Tripepi's  office,  and  go  forth  with  the  documents 
desired,  much  in  the  same  way  as  we  get  passports  from  the 
Foreign  Office,  just  for  the  asking  ?  The  whole  situation 
would  be  too  amusing  to  those  who  know  something  of  Dom 
Pothier's  retiring  and  humble  ways,  were  it  not  that  the  re- 
spect and  authority  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  are  at  stake. 
It  is  neither  correct  nor  respectful  to  insinuate  that  Cardinal 
Tripepi  issues  decrees  for  the  whole  world  on  a  most  far- 
reaching  matter,  simply  at  the  dictate  of  another,  without 
any  sense  of  responsibility  of  his  exalted  position.  Had  the 
critic  known  something  of  the  personal  holiness  and  integrity 
of  this  Prince  of  the  Church,  he  would  have  realized  how 
singularly  unhappy  are  the  suggestions  that  anyone  could 
*  get '  at  him. 

But  this  is  not  all.  The  critic  goes  on  to  say  :  '  No,  this 
question  cannot  be  settled  by  decrees.  If  the  Vaticana  can- 
not stand  on  the  strength  of  its  intrinsic  excellence,  no  arti- 
ficial propping  up  by  decrees  will  prevent  it  from  tumbling 
down  '  (page  62).  This  is  really  going  too  far.  If  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Chant  of  the  Church  is  not  to  be  determined 
by  official  decrees  of  the  Holy  See,  by  what  is  it  then  to 
be  determined  ?  By  archaeology  ?  God  forbid  !  There  is 
always  danger  that  controversialists,  in  their  eagerness  to 
score  points,  lose  a  sense  of  the  proportion  of  things.  Surely 

J'  His  edition.'  This  is,  perhaps,  one  ofjthe,most  offensive  forms  of 
this  persistent  misrepresentation. 


THE  VATICAN  EDITION  OF  THE    KYRIALE '          345 

if  there  is  one  thing  clear,  as  the  Holy  Father  has  declared 
more  than  once,  it  is  that  the  Gregorian  Chant  is  '  the  patri- 
mony of  the  Church,'  and  it  belongs  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
and  to  him  alone,  to  settle  all  questions  relating  to  the  Chant  by 
his  decrees.  If  another  Pope  thought  fit  some  day  to  cut 
down  and  shorten  the  melodies  of  the  Gradual  (an  act  which 
some  people  would  gladly  welcome),  the  Church  would  not 
hesitate  to  obey.  It  is  surely  a  startling  proposition  to  put 
before  the  faithful,  that  the  settlement  of  the  Plain  Chant 
must  be  dependent  upon  the  studies  and  decisions  of  a  school 
of  archaeologists,  and  not  upon  Rome.  Even  if,  by  supposi- 
tion, the  archaeologists  were  to  succeed  in  impressing  upon 
the  Holy  See  their  views  and  contentions  (quod  Deus 
avertat  /)  how  would  the  '  question  then  be  settled  '  for  the 
Church  except  by  the  issue  of  *  official  decrees '  ?  As  well 
might  we  expect  the  Atlantic  to  retire  before  the  labours  of 
Mrs.  Partington,  as  to  expect  that  the  faithful  of  the  Church 
will  disregard  '  official  decrees,'  in  favour  of  an  unscientific, 
inartistic  school  of  archaeology.  This  is  the  only  distress- 
ing part  of  a  study  that  is  distinguished  by  most  careful  re- 
search and  a  thorough  grasp  of  all  the  details  of  the  edition, 
and  our  regret  is  all  the  keener  that  these  reflections  should 
have  proceeded  from  a  Professor  of  Maynooth,  a  College 
always  distinguished  for  its  almost  exuberant  loyalty  to 
the  Holy  See. 

Who  but  must  laugh,  if  such  a  man  there  be  ? 
Who  would  not  weep,  if  Atticus  were  he  ? 

T.    A.    BURGE,    O.S.B. 


[    346    ] 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  IN 
COUNTRIES  OF  DIFFERENT  RELIGIOUS 
DENOMINATIONS 

THE  primary  school  question  has  been  engaging  for 
a  considerable  time  and  still  continues  to  engage 
the  most  serious  attention  and  consideration  of 
thoughtful  men  of  all  shades  of  religious  and  political  belief 
in  these  countries.  Yet,  it  is  not  the  improvement  of  the 
programme  of  secular  education,  nor  the  greater  adapta- 
bility of  the  school  course  to  modern  conditions  and  present- 
day  requirements,  that  is  the  subject  of  all  this  anxious 
pre-occupation.  No  ;  it  is  rather  the  problem  of  the  sepa- 
ration or  union  and  mode  of  union  of  religious  and  secular 
instruction  in  tax-  and  rate-aided  schools  in  England.  It 
is  the  question,  whether  secular  instruction  alone  shall  be 
given  in  these  schools,  or  secular  and  religious  education 
combined  ;  and  in  the  latter  hypothesis  what  form  of  reli- 
gion shall  be  taught,  and  how  it  shall  be  taught,  in  a 
country  where  the  tax-payers  and  the  rate-payers  belong 
to  so  many  different  religious  denominations. 

I  have  already  described,1  in  a  previous  number  of  this 
journal,2  the  law  of  the  Church  relative  to  the  union  of  re- 
ligious and  secular  instruction  in  private  and  State  schools 
in  Catholic  countries.  And  I  now  proceed  to  fulfil  the  pro- 
mise then  given  of  explaining,  in  a  later  number,  the  prin- 
ciples which  guide  and  shape  the  educational  policy  of  the 
Church  in  countries  where  Catholics  live  side  by  side  with 
fellow-citizens  of  a  different  or  of  various  different  religious 
denominations.  But  to  prevent  misconception  of  the  ques- 
tion now  at  issue,  and  to  have  before  our  eyes  the  guidance 
of  the  Catholic  ideal  for  Catholic  States,  I  will  begin  by 
briefly  re-stating  the  law  of  the  Church  relative  to  combined 

i  Following  Cardinal  Cavagnis'  Institutiones  Juris  Publici  Ecclesiastici, 
1.  iv.,  c.  i.,  a.  iii.  (edit,  tertia) 

•I.  E.  RECORD,  January,  1906. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS        347 

religious  and  secular  education  in  the  State  schools  of 
Catholic  countries. 

According  then  to  the  Catholic  rule  children  can  be 
educated  in  their  parents'  home  by  tutors  and  governesses  : 
private  persons  too  can  open  and  conduct  schools  for  pri- 
mary and  higher  education  :  the  Church  can  establish  her 
own  schools  for  general  education,  for  the  State  has  no  right 
to  a  monopoly  even  in  secular  education  :  and,  finally,  the 
State,  of  course,  can  establish  and  endow  schools  and  col- 
leges for  a  "complete  course  of  civic  education  :  but  in  all 
Catholic  primary  and  intermediate  schools,  where  a  full 
course  of  education  is  given,  whether  they  be  established  by 
private  persons  by  the  State  or  by  the  Church,  ecclesiastical 
law  requires  that  the  system  of  instruction  shall  be  the 
system  of  combined  religious  and  secular  instruction.  This 
implies  that  in  Catholic  schools  religion  shall  be  included 
in  the  programme  of  obligatory  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the 
schools  ;  that  the  teachers  shall  be  Catholic  and  imbued 
with  the  Catholic  spirit ;  that  religious  instruction  shall 
be  given  some  time  during  the  obligatory  school  hours, 
for  if  religion  be  an  obligatory  school  subject  the  time 
during  which  it  is  taught  should  be  reckoned  obligatory 
school  time,  whether  it  be  taught  in  the  school  or  in  the 
church,  by  the  teacher  or  by  the  priests  of  the  parish  ;  and 
finally  that,  though  the  right  of  appointing  the  teachers 
belongs  to  the  State  or  municipal  or  rural  authority,  the 
representatives  of  ecclesiastical  authority  shall  have  the 
right  of  visiting  the  schools,  of  exercising  vigilance  to  see 
that  unworthy  teachers  be  not  appointed  or  continued  in 
office  and  that  the  moral  and  religious  formation  of  the 
children  be  diligently  and  zealously  attended  to,  not  merely 
by  teaching  the  words  of  the  catechism,  which  canonists 
call  instruction,  but  also  by  good  example,  by  application 
of  the  truths  taught  to  the  cultivation  of  the  character,  of 
the  will,  of  the  whole  man  as  a  Christian  and  as  a  citizen, 
which  canonists  call  education. 

Hence  the  claim  for  religious  teaching  in  State-aided 
schools  in  Catholic  countries — and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
non-Catholic  countries — is  not  a  question  of  the  ecclesi- 


348  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

astical  ownership  of  the  schools  or  right  of  managing  the 
schools  and  appointing  the  teachers,  of  bureaucratic  con- 
trol whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical  versus  popular  control ; 
nor  a  question  of  sacrificing,  or  neglecting,  or  undervaluing 
the  secular  side  of  education  in  deference  to  an  antiquated 
method  of  religious  education  ;  nor  a  question  of  fighting 
or  curbing  Democracy  in  the  interest  of  Aristocracies.  In 
Catholic  countries,  according  to  Catholic  canonists,  the 
State  schools  and  municipal  and  rural  schools  and  the 
appointment  of  teachers  are  vested  by  right  in  the  State  or 
municipal  or  rural  authority  and  can  be  under  popular 
control  as  much  as  similar  schools  in  America  or  Australia, 
and  the  programme  and  method  of  instruction  can  be  made 
as  perfect  and  modern  and  suitable  to  the  future  avocations 
of  the  children  and  to  the  economic  conditions  of  the  coun- 
try as  it  is  possible  for  them  to  be  ;  only,  the  local  authority, 
whether  aristocratic  or  democratic,  being  itself  Catholic 
and  the  parents  and  children  being  Catholic,  would  and 
should  according  to  Catholic  law  appoint  Catholic  teachers, 
the  programme  of  obligatory  school  teaching  should  in- 
clude Christian  doctrine,  religious  instruction  should  be 
given  some  time  during  school  hours  and  the  local  piiests 
should  have  access  to  the  schools  and  the  right  of  exercising 
vigilance  over  the  teaching  of  Christian  doctrine  and  the 
general  moral  atmosphere  of  the  schools. 

The  conditions  however  of  the  school  system  can  be 
such  in  a  particular  country,  as  when  primary  education 
is  administered  not  by  local  bodies  representative  of  the 
parents  of  the  children,  but  by  a  Board  half  Catholic 
and  half  Protestant,  that  the  Church  can  demand,  as 
a  condition  for  accepting  the  State  schools,  that  they 
be  placed  under  clerical  managership,  if  this  be  necessary 
to  prevent  danger  or  suspicion  of  attempts  at  proselytism, 
to  secure  that  Catholic  teachers  be  appointed  to  schools 
frequented  exclusively  or  mainly  by  Catholics  and  that 
the  children  be  instructed  in  the  faith  of  their  parents. 
But  this  is  due  to  the  special  circumstances  of  a 
particular  country  and  of  a  particular  educational  system 
and  is  not  an  essential  part,  in  all  circumstances,  of 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS       349 

the  Catholic  theory  of  combined  religious  and  secular 
instruction ;  and  it  is  for  the  Church  to  pronounce  authori- 
tatively, according  to  the  circumstances  of  place  and 
educational  system,  on  the  necessity  of  establishing  and 
continuing  ecclesiastical  control  if  the  schools  are  to  be 
freely  availed  of  by  Catholic  parents  for  the  education  of 
their  children. 

Such  in  substance  is  the  Catholic  law  respecting  the 
union  of  religious  and  secular  instruction  in  primary  and 
intermediate  schools  in  Catholic  countries.  I  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  examine  the  principles  that  determine  the  educa- 
tional policy  of  the  Church  in  non-Catholic  countries — and 
I  might  add  in  Catholic  countries  too,  when  the  law  of  the 
Church  in  regard  to  combined  religious  and  secular  instruc- 
tion is  disregarded.  I  will  examine  first,  generally,  the 
different  lines  of  policy  that  are  open  to  the  Church  ;  and 
secondly  what  the  actual  policy  of  the  Church  is  in  regard 
to  different  circumstances  and  educational  systems. 

I. 

There  is  no  one  inflexible  rule  of  Church  educational 
policy  applicable  to  all  the  varying  circumstances  in  which 
individual  Catholics  may  be  placed  in  non-Catholic  coun- 
tries. The  difficulty  that  arises  when  the  State  schools  are 
not  conducted  on  lines  acceptable  to  Catholics  is  not  a  dog- 
matic difficulty  that  might  be  solved  once  for  all  by  an 
authoritative  decision  of  the  Church,  but  a  moral  difficulty 
which  must  be  solved  or  coped  with  in  a  different  way  in 
different  times  and  places  and  conditions  of  government 
and  school  systems.  The  Church  is  the  mother  of  the  faith- 
ful, and  her  anxiety  and  solicitude  for  her  children  and  her 
direction  of  them  in  their  moral  difficulties  are  like  the 
anxiety  and  solicitude  and  provident  care  of  the  human 
parent.  There  are  places  of  amusement  and  spheres  of 
human  activity  and  forms  of  worldly  careers  which  parents 
would  absolutely  forbid  to  their  children.  There  are  others 
which  they  can  positively  and  heartily  approve.  There  are 
others  again  which  they  permit  and  recommend  because, 
though  they  do  not  fully  satisfy  the  parental  ideal,  they  can 


35°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

be  made  harmless  and  even  highly  advantageous  by  a  good 
will  and  effective  protective  measures.  And  I  suppose  there 
are  cases  where  rare  and  exceptional  prospects,  a  noble 
career,  a  brilliant  alliance,  appear  on  the  horizon,  but  the 
avenue  to  them  is  beset  with  most  serious  perils  and  the 
parents  cannot  bring  themselves  to  give  a  formal  and  ex- 
plicit approval  or  recommendation,  or  deliver  a  formal  pro- 
hibition, but  content  themselves  with  a  serious  and  solemn 
warning  of  the  dangers  of  such  a  career  or  of  such  an  alli- 
ance. And  so  it  is  with  the  Church.  There  are  educational 
systems  which  she  absolutely  condemns  and  prohibits ; 
others  she  declares  intrinsically  dangerous  to  faith  and 
morals  without  adding  a  further  ecclesiastical  prohibition  ; 
others  again  she  tolerates ;  and  others  she  formally  approves. 

1.  It  is  absolutely  forbidden  to  attend  schools  or  col- 
leges which  Catholics  cannot  enter  without  conforming  to 
non-Catholic  worship  and  renouncing  their  faith,  or  where 
attendance  at  lectures  on  false  doctrine  and  acceptance,  even 
if  it  be  only  external,  of  this  doctrine  form  an  obligatory 
part  of  the  course.     Attendance  at  such  schools  is  forbidden 
by  divine  law  independently  of  any  ecclesiastical  prohibition. 

2.  The  Church  declares  certain  schools  and  colleges,  '  to 
be  intrinsically  dangerous  to  faith  and  morals.'     What  is 
the  import  of  such  a  condemnation  ?     It  is  of  course  per 
se  unlawful,  by  the  natural  law,  to  frequent  institutions 
that  have  been  authoritatively  declared  intrinsically  dan- 
gerous to  faith  and  morals.     If  to  this  be  added  a  special 
ecclesiastical  prohibition,  it  binds  all  to  whom  the  prohi- 
bition is   addressed  without  exception  ;    for  ecclesiastical 
prohibitions   which  are   motived  by  and  founded  on  the 
presumption  of  general  danger  are  understood  to  bind  all 
to  whom  they  are  addressed  without  exception,  even  though 
the  reason  of  the  law  be  not  found  to  exist  in  particular 
cases.     But  in  the  absence  of  an  ecclesiastical  prohibition, 
formal  or  virtual,  the  prohibition  of  the  natural  law  notified 
by  the  declaration  that  certain  schools  or  colleges  are  in- 
trinsically dangerous  to  faith  and  morals  is  not  necessarily 
of  universal  application.     For  there  may  be  a  very  grave 
cause  or  necessity  for  attending  such  schools  or  colleges, 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  351 

and  there  may  be  no  danger  in  a  particular  case,  or  means 
may  be  taken  to  counteract  the  danger  to  faith  and  morals 
and  to  make  it  remote  ;  but  one  should  not  trust  his  own 
judgment  about  the  likelihood  and  means  of  escaping 
danger  in  schools  which  have  been  declared  by  the  Church 
to  be  intrinsically  dangerous  to  faith  and  morals. 

3.  Other  schools  there  are  concerning  which  the  Church 
declares,   '  that  they  can  be  tolerated.'     The  constitution 
of  these  schools  may  be  somewhat  different  in  different 
countries,  but  in  general  we  may  take  it  that,  though  they 
fall  short  of  the   Catholic   ideal  of   obligatory  combined 
religious  and  secular  instruction,  they  contain  no  special 
danger  to  faith  or  morals  and  tolerable  provision  is  made 
for  the  religious  instruction  of  the  children  attending  the 
schools  ;   and  these  schools  may  be  freely  availed  of  by 
Catholics. 

4.  Finally  the  Church  positively  approves  the  school 
system  and  the  schools  which  are  constituted  according  to 
the  provisions  of  canon  law  ;  where  Christian  doctrine  is  an 
obligatory  school  subject,  where  the  teachers  are  Catholics, 
and  where  religious  instruction  is  given  as  a  part  of  the 
obligatory  school  work  during  the  school  hours. 

These  are  the  usual  forms  of  ecclesiastical  policy  in 
regard  to  schools.  Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  atti- 
tude of  the  Church  towards  particular  educational  systems 
I  will  here  notice  an  argument  that  is  sometimes  advanced 
to  prove  that  the  Church  is  inconsistent  and  unfaithful  to 
her  fundamental  principles  in  the  matter  of  education.  It 
is  said  :  *  When  pleading  the  cause  of  Catholic  schools  and 
negotiating  with  governments,  ecclesiastical  authorities  lay 
stress  on  the  sacredness  and  inviolability  of  parental  rights 
and  argue  that  the  education  to  be  given  in  the  schools 
should  be  such  as  the  parents  desire  for  their  children  ;  but 
when  it  is  a  question  not  with  governments  but  with  the 
parents  themselves,  if  the  parents  wish  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  such  institutions  as  Trinity  College,  the  Queen's 
Colleges,  etc.,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  quickly  make  it 
evident  that  it  is  not  the  wishes  of  the  parents  but  the 
wishes  of  the  Church  that  have  to  be  consulted  in  the 


352  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

matter  of  education.  Hence  Catholic  apologists  should 
abandon  the  argument  from  the  sacred  and  inviolable 
rights  of  parents,  or  the  Church  should  discontinue  her 
interference  with  Catholic  parents  in  the  matter  of  education 
and  refrain  from  these  forms  of  condemnation  of  educa- 
tional systems  which  have  just  been  described.' 

This,  I  submit,  is  not  a  fair  presentment  of  the  Catholic 
position.  The  Catholic  Church  has  the  right  and  the  duty, 
which  her  lay  subjects  no  less  than  ecclesiastics  claim  and 
vindicate  for  her,  of  denning  the  rights  and  obligations  of 
parents  in  regard  to  the  education  of  their  children.  And 
the  Church  position  is  this,  both  before  parents  and  govern- 
ments :  parents  have  a  right  that  the  constitution  of  State- 
aided  schools  shall  be  such  that  they  can  send  their  children 
to  be  educated  in  them  without  violence  to  their  religious 
convictions  or  opposition  to  the  discipline  of  their  Church  ; 
the  wish  of  the  parent  acting  according  to  the  rule  of  his 
Church  and  religion  is  the  proper  criterium  of  the  kind  of 
education  his  children  should  receive.  If  she  were  treat- 
ing with  Catholic  governments  the  Church  could  interpose 
immediately  her  own  authority  as  well  as  the  argument  of 
parental  claims  ;  but  dealing  with  non-Catholic  governments, 
if  they  refuse  to  recognize  her  own  authority,  she  defines 
for  Catholic  parents  their  duties  in  regard  to  education, 
and  they  demand  a  Catholic  education  for  their  children  on 
the  ground  that  State-aided  education  should  be  such  that 
Catholic  parents  can  accept  it  for  their  children  without 
violence  to  their  religious  convictions  or  infidelity  to  the 
discipline  of  their  Church. 

II. 

I  will  now  deal  with  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards 
particular  systems  of  education.  It  is  unnecessary  to  speak 
of  those  systems  of  education  which  are  forbidden  by  divine 
law,  irrespective  of  the  laws  of  the  Church,  such  as  a  system 
that  would  demand  of  Catholics  conformity  to  Protestant 
worship.  Besides  these  we  can  consider  the  following  sys- 
tems of  education  :  absolute  secularism,  modified  secularism, 
secular  instruction  combined  with  undenominational  re- 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  353 

ligion,   secular    and    denominational    religious   instruction, 
combined. 

ABSOLUTE  SECULARISM 

What  is  absolute  or  pure  secularism  ?  I  understand  by 
it  the  political  and  educational  theory  which  teaches  that 
secular  instruction  alone  should  be  given  in  State-aided 
schools  and  that  there  should  be  no  religious  tests  for 
teachers.  Secularists  then  distinguish  between  moral 
training  and  religious  instruction,  and  while  excluding 
dogmatic  religion  they  seem  to  admit  generally  that 
moral  training  should  form  a  part  of  the  obligatory 
work  in  State  schools.  But  what  system  of  morality 
should  be  taught  ?  *  Lay  morality,'  which  is  atheistic 
or  positivist  or  agnostic  ?  or  deistic  ?  or  Christian  ? 
There's  the  rub.  All  accept  in  some  sense  the  formulae, 
*  Thou  shalt  not  kill,'  '  Thou  shalt  not  steal,'  '  Thou 
shalt  not  bear  false  testimony '  ;  but  what  shall  be 
taught  about  the  sanction  or  motive  of  these  Command- 
ments ?  It  is  not  permitted  in  purely  secularist  schools  to 
speak  of  God  or  the  God-Man,  Jesus  Christ,  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  or  of  a  future  life,  of  heaven  or  hell ;  and 
to  be  consistent  nothing  should  be  taught  about  the  sanc- 
tion or  motive  of  the  Commandments,  lest  in  schools  that 
are  accessible  to  all  and  are  paid  for  by  all  offence  should 
be  given  to  Christians  or  to  deists  or  to  agnostics  or  to 
atheists. 

It  sounds  plausible  to  say  that  the  State  is  bound  to 
give  only  a  secular  education.  The  expression,  secular 
education,  is  ambiguous  and  misleading.  The  Church  view 
and  the  correct  view  would  be  stated  by  saying  that 
State  schools,  even  in  pagan  countries,  should  give  a 
good  '  civic  education'  and  aim  at  forming  good  citizens. 
What  then  does  a  good  civic  education  imply  ?  Is 
it  enough  that  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  be  taught 
and  a  good  technical  or  professional  training  be  given  ? 
No  ;  a  good  civic  education  requires  that  children  shall 
be  taught  the  relations  of  subjects  to  their  rulers  and 
their  country,  the  duties  of  various  classes  of  mankind 
VOL.  xix.  z 


354  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

to  one  another,  the  positive  duties  and  prohibitions  of  the 
Commandments,  the  nobility  of  virtue  and  of  labour  and 
of  the  many  modest  avocations  of  the  humble  and  lowly 
in  the  world.  And  what  sanction  and  motive  shall  civic 
education  invoke  and  advance  for  the  observance  of  the 
Commandments  ?  Shall  the  children  be  taught  that  in 
the  distant  past  a  gregarious  mode  of  existence  appeared 
suddenly,  by  innate  variability,  amongst  our  brute  pro- 
genitors ;  that  it  was  found  useful  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  and  survived  ;  that  gregarious  existence  depends 
on  the  *  tribal  virtues '  opposed  to  dishonour,  disloyalty, 
murder,  injustice,  and  lying ;  that  these  virtues  have 
descended  to  us,  improved  and  developed,  by  heredity  ; 
that  they  should  be  respected  and  observed  as  beneficial 
to  ourselves  and  to  the  human  race  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  ?  Is  it  supposed  that  this  theory  is  true,  or  that, 
if  Christianity  disappeared,  it  could  restrain  and  keep 
within  the  bounds  of  civic  order  the  passions  of  the 
multitude  without  faith  in  a  Supreme  Ruler  or  a  future 
life,  without  hope  of  reward  or  fear  of  punishment  ?  Nor 
let  it  be  said  that  the  Church  can  supply  moral  training  ; 
for  surely  the  State  itself  should  establish  a  complete 
system  of  civic  education  in  its  schools. 

Then  Catholics  want  a  Christian,  a  Catholic  education 
for  their  children.  They  want  them  to  be  instructed  in 
supernatural  religion,  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Redemption,  in 
prayer,  in  the  sacraments,  in  the  worship  of  the  Church,  in 
the  nature  and  existence  and  beauty  and  advantages  of 
Church  life,  in  which,  unlike  individualism,  all  the  faithful 
profess  the  same  doctrine,  partake  of  the  same  sacraments, 
assist  at  the  same  sacrifice,  and  are  governed,  taught  and 
ministered  to  by  the  pastors  of  the  Church.  They  object 
to  separate  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect  from  the  culti- 
vation of  the  will,  or  secular  from  moral  and  religious  edu- 
cation. Experience  too  proves  that  when  secular  education 
alone  is  given  by  the  public  authority  of  the  school  religion 
is  in  danger  of  being  neglected.  This  is  realized  by  the 
friends  and  foes  of  religion  ;  and  thus  while  the  Church,  for 
the  protection  of  religion,  insists  on  the  union  of  religion 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  355 

and  secular  instruction  in  the  school,  continental  free- 
thinkers are  always  striving  for  the  exclusion  of  religion 
from  the  schools  for  the  express  purpose  of  destroying 
Christianity. 

The  Church  then  declares  secularist  or  neutral  schools, 
such  as  the  State  schools  of  America,  our  Model  Schools, 
the  Queen's  Colleges,  etc.,  to  be  '  intrinsically  dangerous 
to  faith  and  morals.'  It  is  Per  se  unlawful  for  Catholics 
to  frequent  such  schools.  If  they  are  prohibited  specially 
by  ecclesiastical  law  no  one  can  lawfully  send  his  children 
to  them.  But  in  the  absence  of  ecclesiastical  prohibition 
the  circumstances  can  be  such  that,  notwithstanding  the 
declaration  that  they  are  dangerous  to  faith  and  morals, 
it  would  be  lawful  to  avail  of  such  schools  ;  for  example, 
if  there  be  no  other  schools,  if  the  danger  to  faith 
and  morals  be  made  remote  and  if  satisfactory  provision  is 
made  elsewhere  for  the  religious  education  of  the  children. 

There  is  nothing  positively  wrong  in  reading  or  writing 
or  arithmetic,  etc.,  even  when  separated  from  religion  : 
secular  schools  are  condemned  not  for  anything  positively 
immoral,  but  for  their  incomplete  and  therefore  dangerous 
curriculum,  just  as  a  system  of  dietary  may  be  condemned 
as  well  for  its  insufficiency  as  for  its  poisonous  character. 
And  Catholics  who  through  necessity  lawfully  attend  secular 
schools  are  not  violating  ecclesiastical  law,  nor  are  they 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  but  they  are  supposed  to  be 
the  objects  of  the  special  vigilance  and  zeal  of  their 
spiritual  pastors. 

MODIFIED    SECULARI5M 

Modified  secularism  can  assume  a  multiplicity  of  forms  ; 
but  I  shall  speak  only  of  two.  The  National  School  System 
in  Ireland  is  a  secular  system.  It  makes  no  provision  for, 
but  rather  excludes  religious  instruction  from  the  obligatory 
work  of  the  legal  school  hours.  But  religious  instruction 
can  be  given  in  the  schools  outside  the  hours  of  secular 
instruction.  The  managers  are  generally  priests  or  minis- 
ters of  other  religious  denominations.  Though  there  are 
no  tests  the  teachers  are  of  the  same  religion  as  the 


356  THE   IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

generality  of  their  pupils.  And  hence  the  schools,  though 
theoretically  undenominational,  have  become  practically 
denominational ;  and  such  schools  are  said  to  be  tolerated 
by  the  Church. 

Another  interesting  form  of  modified  secularism  occurred 
in  the  diocese  of  St.  Paul,  U.S.A.  Archbishop  Ireland,  on 
account  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  parishes  of 
Faribault  and  Stillwater,  came  to  an  agreement  with  the 
municipal  authorities  by  which  Religious  were  appointed 
teachers  in  these  schools,  but  religious  instruction  was  not 
to  be  given  in  the  schools.  The  Religious  of  course  recog- 
nized the  Archbishop's  authority  in  the  matter  of  school 
books,  there  was  no  danger  of  false  or  immoral  teaching  in 
the  schools,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  religious 
instruction  of  the  Catholic  children  outside  of  school. 
Propaganda  decided  that  '  conventio  inita  a  R.P.D.  Joanne 
Ireland  relate  ad  scholas  de  Faribault  et  Stillwater, 
perpensis  omnibus  circumstantiis,  tolerari  posse.' 

SECULAR  AND   UNDENOMINATIONAL  RELIGIOUS 
INSTRUCTION  COMBINED 

Many  people  in  England,  including  Churchmen  and 
Nonconformists,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  for  the  State  of 
a  number  of  children  growing  up  without  any  religious  in- 
struction and  unable  or  unwilling  to  suggest  a  scheme  for 
denominational  religious  teaching  in  State  schools  advo- 
cate the  inclusion  of  undenominational  or  fundamental  re- 
ligion in  the  programme  of  obligatory  teaching  in  the  schools; 
but  still  there  should  be  no  religious  tests  for  teachers.  But 
what  is  undenominational  religion  ?  If  the  schools  are  to 
be  available  for  agnostics  it  can  include  only  the  religion  of 
the  great  Unknowable  and  of  '  lay  morality.'  If  they  are 
to  be  available  for  deists  and  Unitarians  the  programme  of 
religious  instruction  must  exclude  all  the  distinctive  truths 
of  the  Christian  religion.  And  if  the  prescribed  religion  be 
an  undenominational  Christian  religion,  the  fundamental 
religious  truths  about  which  all  Christians  agree,  what  shall 
we  say  that  it  includes  in  modern  times  ?  It  is  difficult  to 
define  it.  It  does  not  include  the  divinity  of  Christ,  nor  the 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS       357 

existence  of  supernatural  religion,  nor  our  redemption,  nor 
the  sacraments,  nor  the  inspiration  and  divine  authorship 
of^the  Holy  Scriptures,  nor  the  divine  origin  of  and 
necessity  of  membership  with  the  Church.  It  would 
seem  then  to  be  reduced  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible  or 
of  simple  Bible  lessons  and  truths  and  to  natural  morality  ; 
and  even  for  these  no  reasonable  sanction  or  motive  can  be 
alleged,  they  may  be  disbelieved  by  the  teacher  who  is 
charged  with  religious  instruction,  they  have  only  the 
sanction  of  Parliament  or  of  the  Board  of  Education.  Such 
a  scheme  of  education  scarcely  differs  in  theory  from  abso- 
lute secularism. 

This  system  of  secular  and  undenominational  religious 
instruction  combined  is  considered  by  the  Church  '  intrin- 
sically dangerous  to  faith  and  morals ';  and  the  same 
principles  apply  to  it  that  apply  to  the  system  of  absolute 
secularism  : — (i)  Generally  speaking  parents  cannot  with  a 
safe  conscience  send  their  children  to  these  undenominational 
schools.  (2)  Wherever  the  State  schools  combine  secular 
and  undenominational  religious  instruction  the  Church  ex- 
horts Catholics  to  establish  voluntary  Catholic  schools,  and 
everywhere  Catholics  respond  to  this  exhortation  of  the 
Church  in  a  spirit  of  wonderful  docility  and  sacrifice. 
(3)  Where  efficient  Catholic  schools  are  available,  if  a  Bishop 
forbids  parents  to  send  their  children  to  these  State  schools, 
no  one  can  lawfully  send  his  children  to  them.  (4)  But  in 
the  absence  of  a  special  prohibition,  circumstances  may  arise 
when  it  would  not  be  unlawful  to  send  Catholic  children  to 
such  schools,  for  example,  if  voluntary  Catholic  schools 
cannot  be  established,  if  it  becomes  a  choice  between  no 
education  and  education  that  includes  undenominational 
religion,  if  provision  is  made  elsewhere  for  the  denomina- 
tional religious  instruction  of  the  children,  and  if  the  danger 
to  faith  and  morals  can  be  made  remote.  For  undenomina- 
tional religious  teaching,  like  simple  Bible  lessons  and  moral 
instructions,  does  not  contain  anything  positively  wrong. 
Still  some  Prelates  have  a  grave  objection  to  subjecting  young 
children  to  such  teaching,  and  the  Church  prefers  that 
secular  subjects  alone  be  taught  in  mixed  schools  rather  than 


358  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  the  common  articles  of  faith  should  be  taught  in  the 
schools  and  denominational  religion  afterwards  in  the  homes. 
'Tutius  multo  esse  [judicavit]  ut  literarum  tantummodo 
humanarum  magisterium  fiat  in  scholis  promiscuis,  quam 
ut  fundamentales,  ut  aiunt,  et  communes  Religionis  Chris- 
tianae  articuli  restricte  tradantur,  reservata  singulis  sectia 
peculiar!  seorsum  eruditione.  Ita  enim  cum  pueris  agere 
periculosum  valde  videtur.'i 

SECULAR  AND   DENOMINATIONAL  RELIGIOUS   INSTRUC- 
TION COMBINED 

We  find  different  forms  of  this  system  according  as  re- 
ligious instruction  is  given  only  at  the  request  of  the  parents 
or  by  the  absolute  rule  of  the  school,  in  mixed  schools  or  in 
separate  schools  for  the  children  of  different  religious 
denominations. 

1.  In  Italy  the  primary  schools  are  under  the  control  of 
the    local    authorities.     Priests    are    sometimes  appointed 
teachers  and,  generally  speaking,  the  local  authorities  have 
religious  instruction  given  in  the  schools  if  the  parents  re- 
quest it  ;  so  much  so  that  to  exclude  the  catechism  from 
the  schools  the  Freemasons  and  Socialists   are  anxious  to 
transfer  the  control  of  the  primary  schools  to  the  central 
government.     This  system  does  not  come  up  to  the  Catholic 
ideal,  as  religion  should  be  an  obligatory  school  subject  for 
all  Catholics  ;  but  these  schools  are  said  to  be  tolerated. 

2.  The  other  two  forms  of  combined  secular  and  de- 
nominational  religious   instruction   exist   side  by  side   in 
Germany. 

Germany  has  long  worked  on  that  principle  (that  every 
child  must  be  educated  in  the  faith  of  its  parents),  and  the 
German  system  shows  us  how  easily  we  can  supply  it.  There, 
if  there  are  in  any  place  enough  Jewish,  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  children,  to  fill,  or  nearly  fill,  three  schools — each 
large  enough  to  do  good  work — a  school  for  each  denomination 
is  erected,  each  with  teachers  of  one  denomination  ;  and  all 
the  rate-payers  pay  towards  the  cost  of  the  three  schools. 

1  '  Istruzioni  sulle  scuole  miste  emanate  dalla  S.  Congregazione  di 
Propaganda  pel  Viscovi  Irlandesi ' — (Acta  et  Decreta,  Synodi  Plenariae 
Eporum.  Hiberniae  habitae  apud  Maynutiam,  p.  329). 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  359 

If  there  are  not  enough  children  to  fill  three  schools  of 
adequate  size,  one  school  receives  children  of  two  faiths,  the 
head  master  being  chosen  from  among  members  of  the  Church 
to  which  the  majority  of  the  parents  of  the  children  belong, 
and  the  second  teacher  from  the  members  of  the  other  Church. 
This  second  kind  of  school,  called  a  Simultanschule,  is  regarded 
in  most  parts  of  Germany  as  a  temporary  expedient  to  be  used 
only  till  there  are  enough  children  of  the  two  Churches  to  fill 
two  schools.1 

In  the  simultan  schools  as  in  the  schools  for  one  denomi- 
nation every  child  must  be  educated  in  the  faith  of  its 
parents  unless  exempted  under  the  *  conscience  clause,' 
but  children  are  not  exempted  unless  the  head  master  is 
assured  that  they  will  receive  religious  instruction  elsewhere 
from  a  person  of  the  faith  they  profess,  or  of  the  faith  which 
they  are  supposed  to  profess. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that,  of  these,  the  Church 
'  positively  approves  '  for  Catholics  the  separate  denomi- 
national school  and  '  tolerates,*  where  they  are  necessary, 
the  simultan  schools. 

III. 

Finally  a  few  words  about  the  English  school  question. 
At  this  moment  the  sympathy  of  all  Catholic  Irishmen  goes 
out  to  the  Bishops,  priests  and  Catholic  people  of  England 
in  their  anxiety  about  the  future  of  their  Catholic  schools. 

Since  1870  the  Voluntary  Schools  have  been  receiving 
aid  from  the  parliamentary  grants,  but  before  the  Bill  of 
1902  they  were  not  entitled  to  aid  from  the  rates.  The 
schools  during  this  period  were  thoroughly  Catholic  :  the 
managers  and  teachers  were  Catholic,  religious  instruction 
was  an  obligatory  part  of  the  school  course,  the  atmosphere 
of  the  schools  was  Catholic.  But  the  expenses  of  providing 
and  maintaining  well-equipped  schools,  and  of  paying  such 
salaries  as  would  command  the  service  of  good  teachers  were 
pressing  heavily  on  the  managers  of  the  Catholic  schools. 
Then  came  the  Bill  of  1902,  admitting  the  Voluntary  Schools 

1  The  Amendment  of  the  Education  Act  of  1902 :  by  Passive  Resistance 
or  by  a  more  Excellent  Way?  By  T.  C.  Horsfall  (Sherratt  A  Hughes, 
Manchester  and  London). 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

to  a  share  of  the  rates.  But  in  place  of  the  existing  man- 
agers the  Bill  provided  that  the  managers  should  consist  of 
foundation  managers  not  exceeding  four,  and  two  represent- 
ing the  local  authorities.  It  was  further  enacted  that 
religious  instruction  should  be  under  the  control  of  the 
managers.  However,  the  schools  still  remained  sub- 
stantially Catholic. 

But  the  Nonconformists  objected  that  in  the  present 
system  there  are  religious  tests  for  teachers,  that  rate-payers 
have  to  pay  for  teaching  doctrines  which  they  very  strongly 
condemn,  that  the  rate-payers  are  not  fairly  represented  on 
the  Board  of  Managers  of  Voluntary  Schools,  that  these 
schools  are  an  impediment  to  a  truly  National  system  of 
education ;  and  it  is  generally  supposed  that  Mr.  Birrell's 
Bill  will  propose  that  tests  shall  be  abolished  and  that  tax- 
and  rate-aided  schools  shall  be  placed  completely  under 
local  control. 

But  Catholic  and  Anglican  defenders  of  denominational- 
ism  fairly  reply  that  the  justice  or  injustice  of  religious  tests 
for  teachers  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  self-evident  truth  or  as 
a  decisive  principle  in  this  controversy  *  We  must  determine 
the  duties  of  an  office,  like  the  office  of  teacher,  before  we 
can  determine  the  qualifications  to  be  required  in  those  who 
seek  the  office.  If  children  are  to  be  educated  in  the  faith 
of  their  parents,  then  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some  means, 
whether  it  be  by  religious  tests  or  otherwise,  to  appoint 
Catholics  to  instruct  Catholic  children,  Anglicans  to  instruct 
Anglican  children,  Nonconformists  to  instruct  Noncon- 
formist children,  etc.  This  is  the  fundamental  question 
upon  which  the  appointment  of  denominational  teachers 
depends. 

And  if  Nonconformists  have  recourse  to  passive  resist- 
ance as  a  protest  against  paying  for  Catholic  education, 
may  not  Catholics  complain  of  paying  taxes  and  rates  for 
a  secular  or  undenominational  system  which  they  condemn  ? 
Nonconformists  undoubtedly  have  grievances  under  the  law 
as  it  stands  ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  their  grievances  are 
not  going  to  be  removed  by  creating  grievances  for  Catho- 
lics. In  a  country  of  various  religious  denominations 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  SCHOOLS 


there  must  be  give  and  take,  without  sacrificing  principle. 
Individual  claims  and  burdens  cannot  be  regulated  with 
mathematical  precision.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  same 
number  of  questions  in  grammar,  geography,  natural  his- 
tory, etc.,  be  taught  in  all  the  schools,  or  that  the  views  put 
forward  be  acceptable  to  all  the  rate-payers.  And  why 
should  it  be  objected  that  Catholics  teach  more  dogmatic 
truths  than  Nonconformists,  or  that  their  doctrines  are  not 
acceptable  to  the  rate-payers  ?  Parents  of  all  religious 
denominations  pay  rates  and  taxes  to  receive  for  their 
children  a  full  civic  education,  and  therefore  a  religious  educa- 
tion. In  a  country  of  so  many  religious  denominations  the 
State  cannot  satisfactorily  decide  on  a  system  of  religious 
education  except  by  educating  children  in  the  faith  of  their 
parents.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  legislation  which  is  to 
be  proposed  Catholic  schools  can  remain  organically  united 
with  the  National  system  of  education.  It  is  for  the  English 
Bishops  to  decide,  when  legislation  is  proposed,  whether 
they  can  accept  the  Liberal  proposals.  But  neither  in 
England  nor  anywhere  else  can  there  be  a  truly  National 
system  of  education,  except  on  paper,  unless  the  just  claims 
of  Catholics  and  other  denominationalists  for  religious 
education  are  respected. 

DANIEL  COGHLAN. 


362 


GENERAL   NOTES 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  LIFE 

THE  whole  world  was  interested  last  summer  when  the  news 
went  forth  that  a  professor  in  Cambridge  University,  Mr.  J. 
Butler  Burke,  had  discovered,  by  experiments  made  on  steri- 
lized gelatine  bouillon,  acted  on  by  radium,  that  organic  life 
had  been  developed  from  what  had  hitherto  been  regarded  as 
dead  matter.  In  his  volume  just  published,  on  The  Origin  of 
Life,  Mr.  Burke  has  reduced  his  discovery  to  more  modest  pro- 
portions. In  this  volume  he  has  described  with  great  care  and 
minuteness  the  interesting  experiments  which  he  and  others 
have  made  in  their  efforts  to  reach  the  solution  of  a  problem 
which  nature  has  not  hitherto  revealed.  He  holds  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  dead  matter  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  ; 
that  all  matter  is  endowed  with  certain  properties  which,  if  they 
do  not  constitute  life  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  do  not  at 
least  imply  absolute  inactivity.  He  takes  life  in  a  large  sense, 
and  anything  that  acts  upon  other  substances  and  induces 
chemical  change,  he  regards  as  in  the  broad  sense  living.  In 
the  borderland  between  living  matter  in  the  wide  and  the  strict 
sense,  he  places  mind-stuff  or  bioplasm  (as  distinct  from  proto- 
plasm) which  is  indeed  inorganic,  but  contains  '  the  germ  and 
mode  of  motion  of  vitality.'  It  is  not  a  seed  that  grows  on 
every  soil,  but  only  flourishes  in  the  chosen  environment  of 
beef-jelly.  It  is  indeed  in  the  inorganic  body  that  the  vital 
principle  resides,  and  the  vital  flux  of  radium  only  enables  it 
to  manifest  itself  in  the  organic  form.  The  blending  of  the 
organic  and  inorganic  world  has  not,  however,  yet  been  reached. 
It  is  the  goal  :  but  evidence  is  still  wanting  to  establish  the 
complete  connexion. 

The  product  of  radium  and  bouillon  which  he  has  observed 
in  his  experiment,  he  does  not  now  regard  as  having  established 
the  connexion,  but  '  as  being  the  nearest  approach  hitherto 
observed  between  visibly  living  and  apparently  not  living 
nature.  In  a  word,  on  the  borderline  between  what  we  call 
living  and  what  we  regard  or  have  regarded  as  dead.' 

Thus,  whilst  Mr.  Butler  Burke  does  not  adopt  in  the  usual 
sense  the  theory  of  biogenesis,  neither  does  he  admit  that  of 


GENERAL   NOTES  363 


abiogenesis.  His  whole  theory,  worked  out  with  great  learning, 
great  ability,  and  great  wealth  of  illustration  by  experiments 
with  radium  and  various  other  luminous  and  phosphorescent 
substances,  is  the  most  important  contribution  to  biological 
science  of  recent  times. 

From  his  theory  of  life  or  activity  of  some  kind  in  all  matter, 
Mr.  Burke  advances  rather  daringly  to  a  general  conception 
of  the  Universe,  which  does  not  seem  to  differ  very  much  from 
that  of  Hegel  and  his  followers.  A  conscious  universe,  of  which 
we  are  conscious  units ;  and  that  conscious  universe  being  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  all  things,  looks  very  like  a  pan- 
theistic vision.  No  doubt,  Mr.  Burke  endeavours  to  rescue  it 
from  the  commonplace  materialistic  theories  by  combining 
with  it,  in  a  tentative  fashion,  Berkeley's  system  of  Idealism. 
He  is  not  very  positive,  however,  in  his  speculations.  He  does 
not  appear  to  have  reached  finality  on  these  questions,  even  in 
his  own  mind  ;  and  there  is  a  singular  absence  of  dogmatism 
and  self-sufficiency  about  his  conclusions  which  in  no  way 
detracts  from  the  fascination  of  his  book,  and  from  the  value 
and  interest  of  his  experiments. 


THE  KEY  TO  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 

MR.  CHARLES  S.  DEVAS,  the  well  known  political  economist, 
has  just  published  a  work  of  the  highest  interest  and  value 
It  is  something  indeed  refreshing  and  uplifting  to  get  from  a 
man  of  his  vast  experience  of  the  world,  of  men  and  of 
books,  a  reasoned,  enlightened,  dispassionate  judgment  on  the 
ground  works  of  civilization  which  concludes  with  so  precious 
a  testimony  as  the  following^: — 

'  Lovers  gaze  fondly  on^the  likeness  of  one  they  love  ;  and 
gladly,  therefore,  should  we  gaze  on  the  authentic  portrait  of  the 
Church,  and  dwell  lovingly  on  the  features  of  the  never-failing 
friend  of  all  the  sons  of  men  :  this  Church,  who  by  her  very 
nature  is  the  loving  mother  of  us  all ;  the  mother  of  those  whose 
fresh  youth  is  not  yet  dimmed  by  sophistry  nor  made  crafty 
by  deception,  nor  soured  by  disappointment,  nor  hardened 
by  iniquity  ;  the  mother  who  may  be  thrust  aside  in  the  hour  of 
prosperity,  but  is  the  ever  ready  refuge,  to  whom  those  can 
turn  whose  burdens  are  heavy,  whose  hopes  are  shattered, 
whose  days  are  drawing  to  a  close,  whose  hearts  are  aching  with 
irremediable  sorrow.  Ah  !  indeed  in  this  dark  world  of  illusion 


364  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

it  is  worth  while  to  make  her  known  ;  for  to  know  her  is  to  love 
her.' 1 

In  a  series  of  succinct  but  luminous  chapters,  in  every  one 
of  which  the  reader  meets  with  something  striking  and  im- 
pressive, the  author  deals  with  '  The  Course  of  Civilization,' 
'  The  Course  of  Christianity,'  '  The  Church  and  Culture,' '  The 
Church  and  Prosperity,'  '  Christian  Morality,'  '  The  Church 
and  the  State,'  '  The  Social  Question,'  '  Scandals  and  Sanctity,' 
'  Liberty  of  Conscience,'  '  Heretics  and  Schismatics,'  '  Develop- 
ment,' '  Defeat  and  Victory'  '  Explanation  of  the  Miraculous.' 
From  the  passage  quoted  above  it  will  be  evident  that  these 
subjects  are  dealt  with  in  a  thoroughly  Christian  and  Catholic 
spirit.  But  what  I  should  like  to  call  attention  to  here  is  the 
great  and  varied  learning  of  the  author,  and  the  singular  beauty 
of  the  style  in  which  each  subject  is  treated.  I  should  like  to 
call  particular  attention  to  his  treatment  of  the  two  objections 
most  frequently  made  against  the  Church,  viz.,  that  she  is 
international  and  independent  (chap,  iv.,  p.  124). 

ST.  BERNARD  ON  INTEMPERANCE 

AUDI  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi  verba  :  Attendite  ne  corda 
vestra  graventur  crapula  et  ebrietate  (Luc.  xxi.  34).  Paulus  etiam 
Apostolus  castigando  suos  discipulos  ait :  Nolite  inebriari  vino 
in  quo  est  luxuria  (Ephes.  v.  18).  Et  Salomon  :  Luxuriosa  res 
est  vinum  et  tumultuosa  ebrietas  (Prov.  xx.  i).  Ne  intuearis 
vinum  quando  flavescit,  nee  cum  splenduerit  in  vitro  color  ejus  : 
Ingreditur  enim  blande,  sed  in  novissimo  mordebit  ut  coluber,  et 
quasi  serpens  venenum  effundit  (Prov.  xxiii.  31,  32).  Nullum 
secretum  est  ubi  ebrietas  est.  Multos  exterminavit  vinum  et 
perduxit  eos  ad  periculum  corporum  et  animarum.  Vinum  in 
jucunditatem  creatum  est  non  in  ebrietatem  (Eccli.  xxxi.  35). 
Ubicumque  saturitas  abundaverit  ibi  luxuria  dominabitur. 
Ventrem  distentum  cibis  et  vini  potationibus  irrigatum  voluptas 
luxuriae  sequitur.  Ebrietas  corpus  debilitat,  animam  illa- 
queat  :  ebrietas  generat  perturbationem  mentis  :  ebrietas  auget 
furorem  cordis  ;  ebrietas  nutrit  flammam  fornicationis  ;  ebrietas 
ita  alienat  mentem  ut  homo  nesciat  semetipsum  ;  homo  ebrius 
est  ita  a  semetipso  alienus  ut  nesciat  ubi  sit.  Plerisque  laus 

1  Tht  Key  to  the  World's  Progress.      By  Charles  S.  Devas,  M.A.  Oxon. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1906. 


GENERAL   NOTES  365 


est  multum  bibere  sed  non  inebriari ;  quos  propheta  increpat 
dicens  :  Vae  qui  potentes  estis  ad  bibendum  vinum  et  viri  fortes 
ad  miscendam  ebrietatem  ;  et  iterum  :  Vae  qui  consurgitis  mane 
ad  ebrietatem  sectandam  et  -potendum  usque  ad  vesperam  ut  vino 
aestuetis  (Isaias  v.  22,  n).  Etiam  Joel  propheta  clamat  dicens  : 
Expergiscimini,  ebrii,  et  fiete,  et  ululate  omnes  qui  bibitis  vinum 
in  dulcedine  (Joel  i.  5).  Non  dicet  qui  bibitis  vinum  in  necessi- 
tate, sed  qui  bibitis  vinum  in  dulcedine,  hoc  est  in  delectatione., 
Ebrietas  mortale  crimen  est  :  ebrietas  grave  peccatum  est : 
ebrietas  inter  homicidia  et  adulteria  et  fornicationes  reputatur  : 
ebrietas  ejicit,  hominem  a  regno  Dei ;  ebrietas  expellit  hominem 
a  paradise  :  ebrietas  demergit  hominem  in  infernum. — (De 
Modo  bene  Vivendi,  c.  xxv.) 

DECISION  OF  THE  HOLY  SEE  ON  '  DAILY  COMMUNION  ' 
IT  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  call  the  attention  of  the  clergy  to 
the  very  important  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Council  (which  I  give  at  page  376)  on  '  Daily  Communion.'  All 
controversies  as  to  the  dispositions  necessary  for  the  privilege 
of  being  admitted  to  Daily  Communion  are  by  this  Decree  set 
at  rest  for  ever.  All  Christians,  no  matter  what  their  occupa- 
tion or  condition,  who  are  in  the  state  of  grace  and  firmly  re- 
solved to  avoid  sin  in  the  future,  should  be  encouraged  to  receive 
the  Holy  Eucharist  every  day.  The  reasons  of  this  decision 
will  be  found  fully  set  forth  in  the  Decree. 

J.  F.  HOGAN,  D.D. 


Betes  anb  (Slueriee 

THEOLOGY 

BTJLES     OF     THE     INDEX 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — I  have  been  recently  asked  by  a  penitent 
whether  the  rules  of  the  Index  prohibiting  the  reading  of  con- 
demned books  are  binding  in  this  country.  Will  you  be  so  good 
as  to  reply  in  an  early  number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  to  the 
following  questions  : — (i)  Do  the  rules  of  the  Index  bind  in 
this  country  ?  (2)  If  they  do  bind,  who  can  grant  a  dispensation  ? 

CONFESSARIUS. 

I.  There  seems  to  be  no  reasonable  ground  for  denying 
that  the  rules  of  the  Index,  by  which  the  reading  of  certain 
books  is  forbidden  to  the  faithful,  bind  in  these  countries 
both  in  actu  primo  and  in  actu  secundo.  When  the  new 
rules  were  published  in  1896  they  were  promulgated  for  the 
whole  world  and  were  declared  binding  everywhere.  '  Ita- 
que  matura  deliberatione,  adhibitisque  S.R.E.  Cardinalibus 
e  sacro  Consilio  libris  notandis,  edere  Decreta  Generalia 
statuimus,  quae  infra  scripta,  unaque  cum  hac  Constitu- 
tione  conjunct  a  sunt  :  quibus  idem  sacrum  Consilium 
posthac  utatur  unice,  quibusque  catholici  homines  toto  orbe 
religiose  pareant,'  And  again,  '  Libri  ab  Apostolica  Sede 
damnati,  ubique  gentium  prohibit!  censeantur,  et  in  quod- 
cumque  vertantur  idioma*  This  proves  that  at  least  in  actu 
Primo  the  rules  of  the  Index  are  binding  in  these  countries. 

That  they  are  also  binding  in  actu  secundo  seems  clear. 
The  Cardinal-Archbishop  and  Bishops  of  England  asked  the 
Holy  See  whether  the  new  Constitution  was  or  was  not  in- 
tended to  supplant  the  status  quo  which  had  hitherto  existed 
in  their  country.  In  reply  the  Propaganda  sent  most  ample 
faculties  for  dispensation,  so  that  owing  to  the  special 
circumstances  of  the  country  they  should  be  fully  em- 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  367 

powered  '  to  modify  the  rigour  of  the  law  by  their  prudence 
and  counsel,  according  as  the  case  might  demand.'1 

That  the  Propaganda  gave  these  ample  faculties  of  dis- 
pensing, not  as  a  practical  way  of  getting  rid  of  a  difficulty, 
but  because  they  were  thought  necessary,  is  clear  from  the 
subsequent  decision  of  the  Index,  23rd  May,  1898,  which 
replied  in  the  affirmative  to  the  question  :  *  Utrum  dicta 
Constitutio  vim  obligatoriam  habeat  etiam  pro  regionibus 
britannici  idiomatis,  quas  tacita  dispensatione  frui  quidam 
arbitrantur  ?'  The  plain  meaning  of  this  affirmative  response 
is  that  not  merely  in  actu  primo,  but  also  in  actu  secundo, 
the  rules  of  the  Index  are  binding  in  these  countries,  since 
the  question  which  was  asked  had  reference  to  the  binding 
force  of  the  law  in  actu  secundo,  in  face  of  the  tacit  dispen- 
sation which  some  thought  to  exist. 

II.  The  Congregations  of  the  Inquisition,  Index,  and 
Propaganda  for  its  own  subjects,  can  give  general  permis- 
sion to  read  books  prohibited  by  special  or  general  decrees. 
Bishops  and  Prelates  having  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction 
can  give  permission  to  their  subjects  '  for  single  books  and 
only  in  urgent  cases  '  (art.  25).  The  Vicar-General,  having 
one  court  with  the  Bishop,  enjoys  this  power,  but  Vicars 
Forane  and  Parish  Priests  have  no  such  power,  except  in  so 
far  as  they  receive  it  from  the  Bishop  by  general  or  special 
delegation. 

Further  powers  are  at  times  granted  to  Bishops,  as 
witness  the  special  faculties,  already  mentioned,  granted 
to  the  English  Bishops.  In  the  Formula  Sexta  our  Bishops 
receive  powers  in  virtue  of  which  they  can  grant 
permission  to  read  books  prohibited  by  the  Index  (with 
some  exceptions  mentioned  in  the  Formula).  It  can, 
however,  be  granted  only  to  priests  who  are  known  to 
be  suitable  subjects  for  the  privilege,  and  only  ad  tempus. 
The  latter  phrase  excludes  permanent  permission,  but  a 
dispensation  once  granted  without  limitation,  probably 
lasts  till  it  is  revoked.2 


iCf.    Tablet,  1 8th  Dec.,  1897. 

a  Putzer,  pp.  54,  264,  and  Vermeersch,  p,  120. 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


AGE  AT  WHICH  OBLIGATION  OF  FASTING  CEASES 

REV.  DEAR  SIR,  —  Theologians  are,  I  believe,  unanimous  in 
teaching  that  when  persons  come  to  the  age  of  sixty,  they  are 
exempt  or  excused  from  the  law  of  fasting.  But  I  find  in  reading 
the  modern  authors,  that  many  of  them  —  and  these  of  note  — 
are  more  benign  in  their  teaching  on  this  point  with  regard 
to  the  '  devout  female  sex.'  They  hold  that  when  women 
come  to  the  age  of  fifty,  they  are  no  longer  obliged  by  the 
law  of  fasting.  I  have  no  opportunity  of  investigating  or 
becoming  acquainted  with  their  various  reasons  for  this  view. 
I  believe  their  principal  one  is  :  that  women  grow  old  and  feeble 
more  quickly  than  men,  and  therefore  are  less  constitutionally 
fitted  to  bear  up  against  the  rigours  of  fast.  If  that  be  their 
sole  reason  for  the  opinion,  I  fear  it  can  scarcely  be  sustained 
as  solidly  probable,  since  the  fact  itself  cannot  be  maintained 
undeniable,  according  to  the  experience  and  judgment  of  some 
of  the  ablest  of  modern  physiologists.  For  example,  Eschbach 
says  :  '  Quando  circa  hanc  aetatem  (50)  menstrus  fluxus  desinit 
saepe  mulieres  quasi  novas  vires  acquirere  videntur.' 

This  being  so,  the  reason  on  which  their  opinion  depends 
is  proved  fallacious,  and  consequently  the  opinion  itself  is  not 
probable  or  tenable,  according  to  the  recognized  rules  of  pro- 
babilism,  viz.  :  '  Supponitur  tamen  eorum  auctoritatem  non 
elidi,  vel  documento  aliquo  positive  .  .  .  vel  etiam  perspecta 
falsitate  .  .  .  erroneae  doctrinae  veterum  physicorum'  l 

Kindly,  then,  say  if  you  consider  the  above-mentioned 
opinion  of  these  modern  authors  safely  and  practically  probable, 
and  if  it  may  be  prudently  and  securely  preached  to  the  faith- 
ful ?  I  have  known  it  to  be  so  promulgated,  but  I  should  be 
chary  in  following  the  example,  especially  as  I  find  no  similar 
teaching  or  direction  put  forward  in  any  of  the  Lenten 
Regulations  of  our  Bishops. 

A  SUBSCRIBER. 

The  opinion  which  holds  that  women,  by  reason  of  ad- 
vancing years,  are  free  from  the  obligation  of  fasting  at  the 
age  of  fifty  is  maintained  by  many  modern  theologians,2  but 
it  can  scarcely  be  called  new,  since  Sanchez  3  held  it  in  his 

1  Vide  Genicot,  vol.  L,   p.  6l,  n.  66  29. 

1  Gury-Ballerini,  i.,  n.  509;  Palmieri,  ii.,  n.  1142;  Bucceroni,  i., 
p.  470  ;  Noldin,  n.  676;  Sabetti,  n.  337;  Slater,  p.  486;  Genicot,  i., 
n.  445,  who,  though  not  holding  the  opinion  speculatively,  still  looks 
on  it  as  probable  in  practice. 

•  ConsiL  v.,  c.  i,   4,  n.  6. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES 


day  and  some  of  the  older  theologians  with  him.  St. 
Alphonsus1  did  not  reject  it  as  improbable,  though  he 
did  not  vouch  for  its  probability.  The  argument  on 
which  it  rests  is  that  mentioned  by  our  correspondent  ; 
women,  it  is  said,  feel  the  weight  of  years  sooner  than  men, 
and  should,  in  consequence,  be  excused  from  the  fast  at  an 
earlier  age.  If  it  has  been  clearly  established  by  physio- 
logists that  this  argument  has  no  foundation  in  fact,  then 
the  view  that  has  been  built  on  it  cannot  be  looked  on  as 
probable.  But  if  the  argument  has  not  been  disproved, 
the  number  and  authority  of  the  theologians  who  hold  the 
opinion  would  seem  to  be  sufficient  to  make  it  probable. 

Eschbach2  maintains  that  women,  as  a  rule,  gain  new 
strength  about  the  age  of  fifty,  and  quotes  Drs.  Richard  and 
Brachet  in  his  favour.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Capell- 
mann,3  though  he  mentioned  the  opinion  of  Sanchez,  did 
not  reject  it  on  physiological  grounds,  as  he  would  have 
done  had  he  thought  the  argument  of  Sanchez  false.  At  the 
present  time  physiologists  seem  not  to  have  definitely  re- 
jected the  argument  on  which  the  opinion  is  based.  Black's 
Medical  Dictionary,  edited  by  Dr.  Cormie  (1906),  makes 
the  following  statement  :  '  In  women,  at  the  grand  climac- 
teric (about  fifty),  there  is  a  special  liability  to  bodily  and 
mental  weakness,  although  in  those  of  a  previously  robust 
constitution  any  such  change  is  generally  merely  temporary  ' 
(page  159).  Though  a  previously  robust  constitution  will 
generally  overcome  this  liability  to  weakness,  its  very  exist- 
ence makes  it  more  difficult  for  women  to  ward  off  the 
feebleness  of  old  age  ;  so  that  it  is  hard  to  hold  that  the  mild 
opinion  is  not  probable. 

Seeing  that  Bishops  have  no  power  to  settle  questions 
disputed  between  approved  theologians,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  in  their  Lenten  Regulations  they  do  not  refer  to  opinions 
which  are  at  most  probable,  especially  when  the  proba- 
bility arises,  to  a  great  extent,  from  extrinsic  authority. 

J.  M.  HARTY. 

AD.  1037. 

zDisp.   Phys.,  p.    52. 
8  Med.  Past.,  p.  95. 
VOL.  XIX.  2  A 


37°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

LITURGY 

'  ORATIONES    IN    MISSIS    DE    REQUIE ' 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — In  the  I.  E.  RECORD  of  November,  1883, 
under  the  heading,  Liturgical  Questions,  the  following  Quaeritur 
and  Decree  are  found  :  '  Utrum  in  Missis  quotidianis  de  Requie^ 
quae  in  plerisque  ecclesiis  Parochialibus  absque  ministris  a 
solo  celebrante  cantantur,  dicendae  sunt  tres  orationes  ?  an  vero 
una  ?  '  S.R.C.  resp.  :  '  Dicenda  una  oratio,'  13  July,  1883. 

I  assume — if  I  may — that  there  is  in  this  reply  an  a 
fortiori  argument  for  saying  only  one  prayer,  '  in  Missis  de 
Requie  quotidianis  Solemnibus.' 

In  the  Or  do,  page  xv.,  the  substance  of  a  Decree  of  30th 
June,  1896,  is  given  :  '  In  Missis  quotidianis  quibuscunque, 
sive  lectis,  sive  cum  cantu,  plures  sunt  dicendae  Orationes,  .  . 

Will  you  kindly  say  in  next  issue  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  if 
the  latter  Decree  annuls  the  former  in  either  or  both  cases  ? 

SACERDOS. 

The  General  Decree  of  June,  1896, l  has  considerably 
changed  and  modified  the  legislation  that  hitherto  prevailed, 
regarding  various  phases  of  Requiem  Masses.  To  the  points 
affected  by  the  new  Regulations  belong  the  number  and 
order  of  prayers  to  be  said  in  these  Masses.  Formerly  only 
one  prayer  was  to  be  said  in  Masses  de  Requiem  that  were 
either  solemnes  aut  cantatae.  Now  the  number  of  prayers, 
whether  in  solemn  or  in  private  Masses  for  the  Dead,  is  to  be 
determined  by  the  degree  of  intrinsic  solemnity  attached 
to  their  celebration,  in  virtue  of  which  they  assume  an  im- 
portance due  to  Offices  and  Masses  of  a  double  rite.  The 
solemnity  of  which  there  is  question  here  arises  from  the 
privileges  accorded  these  Masses  by  which  they  can  be  cele- 
brated on  days  when  the  ordinary  Requiem  (Quotidiana)  is 
forbidden,  and  even  transferred,  when  the  rite  of  the  day 
prohibits  them.  This,  we  take  it,  is  the  meaning  of  the  words 
of  the  Decree  :  '  Unam  tantum  dicendam  esse  orationem  in 
Missis  omnibus  quae  celebrantur  in  Commemoratione  Omnium 
Defunctorum  .  .  .  necnon  quandocumque  pro  defunctis  Missa 

1  Vide  I.  E.  RECORD. 


NOTES  AND   QUERIES 


solemniter  celebratur,  nempe  sub  ritu  qui  duplici  respondeat  ; 
ufan  Officio  quod  recilatur  post  acceptum  nuntium  de  alicujus 
obitu,  et  in  Anniversariis  late  sumptis.'  The  distinction,  then 
between  High  and  Low  Requiem  Masses  is  no  longer  a  guide 
in  determining  the  number  of  prayers  —  which  must  be  fixed 
rather  by  the  nature  of  the  occasion  on  which  Mass  is  said  — 
except  to  this  extent,  that  in  Missae  Quotidianae  Cantatae 
the  number  of  prayers  must  not  exceed  three,  while  in  Missae 
Quotidianae  Lectae  there  may  be  three,  five,  or  seven.  It 
may  be  well  if  under  a  few  headings  we  indicate  briefly 
the  application  of  the  new  legislation,  (a)  in  regard  to  the 
number  and  (b)  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  prayers  to 
be  said  in  the  various  classes  of  Requiem  Masses. 

I.  —  NUMBER   OF   PRAYERS 

1.  Only  one  prayer  is  to  be  said  in  Missae  de  Requiem  — 
whether  solemnes,  cantatae,  or  lectae  (low  or  private)  —  that 
are  celebrated  on  the  occasion  of  a  death  or  interment. 

2.  In  Missis  solemnibus  et  cantatis  celebrated  for  a  de- 
ceased person  on  the  third,  seventh,  and  thirtieth  day  from 
the  death  or  burial,  and  on  anniversaries,  whether  in  the 
strict  or  the  wide  sense,  only  one  prayer  is  to  be  said. 

3.  Similarly  only  one  prayer  is  to  be  said  in  the  Mass, 
solemnis  or  cantata,  celebrated  for  a  person  immediately  on 
receipt  of  the  news  of  his  death. 

4.  Outside  all  these  privileged  occasions,  that  is  to  say, 
in  the  ordinary  Missae  Quotidianae,  if  they  are  solemnes  or 
cantatae  three  prayers  and  only  three  are  to  be  said  ;  and  if 
they  are  lectae  then  at  least  three  must  be,  but  five  or  seven 
may  be,  said,  the  last  one  being  Fidelium.     If  on  the  occa- 
sions mentioned  in  (2)  and  (3)  a  Missa  lecta  is  permitted,  by 
the  current  rite,  only  one  prayer  is  recited. 

II.  —  SELECTION  OF  PRAYERS 

i.  In  die  obitus,  the  prayer  in  Masses  offered  for  a  de- 
ceased Pope,  Cardinal,  Bishop,  or  Priest,  must  correspond 
to  the  dignity  of  the  person  deceased,  and  is  found  among 
the  orationes  diver  sae.  For  clerics  inferior  to  a  Priest,  and 
for  laymen,  the  second  Mass  with  its  proper  oratio  is  taken. 


372  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

2.  In  diebus  3°,  7°,  30°  :  Mass  for  deceased  Popes,  Cardi- 
nals, Bishops,  and  Priests  regulated  as  above  ;  for  inferior 
clergy  and  lay  persons  second  Mass  is  taken  with  the  prayer 
Quaesumas  Domine. 

3.  In  die  anniversario,  et  anniversariis  :  as  above  for 
Priests  and  other  clergy  of  higher  dignity  ;  for  inferior  clergy 
and  lay  persons  the  third  Mass  is  taken  with  prayer  Deus 
Indulgentiarum,  the    necessary    changes   being    made    for 
gender  and  number. 

4.  In  Missa  pro  defuncto  post  acceptum  de  ejus  obitu  cele- 
brata  ;  for  Popes,  Cardinals,  Bishops,  and  Priests,  the  first 
Mass  is  taken  with  the  prayer  corresponding  to  the  dignity 
of  deceased  ;  for  inferior  clergy  and  lay  persons  the  second 
Mass  is  taken,  but  the  prayer  will  be  suitably  selected 
according  as  the  Mass  is  celebrated  either  before  the  inter- 
ment or  on  some  of  the  privileged  days,  or  outside  all  these 
occasions.     In  the  latter  case  an  appropriate  prayer  from 
the  Orationes  diversae  is  to  be  taken.1 

5.  In  Missis  Quotidianis  sive  solemnibus  sive  cantatis  :— 
(a)  If  said  pro  defuncto  vel  defuncta,  or  pro  certo  designatis 
the  first  prayer  must  be  appropriate  to  the  intention  of  the 
celebrant  and  selected   from  the   Orationes  diversae  :   the 
second  ad  libitum  :    and  the  third,  pro  omnibus  defunctis, 
scil.  Fidelium.     (b)  If  celebrated  pro  defunctis  in  genere  or 
non  certo  designatis,  whose  quality,  dignity,  or  number  is 
not  known,  the  prayers  must  be  said  in  order  given  in  the 
fourth  Mass  in  Missal. 

6.  In  Missis  Quotidianis  Defunctorum  lectis,  if  three  are 
said   they  will  be   arranged  as  the  circumstances  already 
noted  require  :  if  more  than  three  are  said  the  first  and 
second  will  be  selected  according  to  the  principles  already 
given.     The  last  will  be  the  Fidelium,  and  the  intermediate 
ad  libitum,  but  taken  from  those  assigned  in  the  Missal. 

III. — ORATIO  IMPERATA  PRO  DEFUNCTIS 

\    I  The  Bishop  can  prescribe  an  or atio  imperata  pro  Defunc- 
tis to  be  said  in  Masses  for  the  living  as  well  as  in  those  for 

1  Cf.  De  Herdt,  Prax.  Lit.,  v.  i.,  p.  72. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  373 

the  dead.  The  number  of  Missae  pro  Vivis,  however,  that 
admit  such  a  commemoration  according  to  present  discipline 
is  so  limited  that  it  is  almost  futile  to  order  it.  The  Masses, 
not  de  Requiem,  which  admit  it  are  those  of  simple  rite,  and 
even  these  do  not  always  permit  it.  With  regard  to  Re- 
quiem Masses  the  Cottecta  pro  Defunctis  imperata  (a)  is  not 
said  in  Masses  admitting  only  one  prayer  ;  (b)  in  Masses 
having  three  or  more  prayers,  the  oratio  imperata  must 
be  put  in  the  third  place,  the  Fidelium  being  last.1 

P.  MORRISROE. 


1  Cf.  Van  Der  Stappen,  De  Mis.  Rub.,  passim. 


[     374     ] 


CORRESPONDENCE 

THE    MAINTENANCE    OF    INVALID    PRIESTS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — In  the  September  and  October  numbers 
of  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  there  appeared  some  correspondence 
about  the  establishment  of  a  Home  for  Infirm  Priests.  I  am 
disposed  to  think  that  many  priests,  and  especially  those  who 
have  got  parochial  houses  built,  would  prefer  to  end  their  days 
amidst  the  scenes  of  their  labours — even  if  such  a  Home 
existed. 

But  to  solve  the  existing  difficulty  about  the  appointment 
of  a  curate  (or  of  an  additional  curate  as  the  case  may  be) 
to  the  assistance  of  infirm  parish  priests  in  charge  of  parishes 
which  are  inadequate  for  the  support  of  an  additional  priest, 
I  would  venture  to  suggest  for  the  consideration  of  your  readers 
an  arrangement  which  seems  to  me  both  natural  and  feasible. 
It  is  this  :  that  aged  parish  priests,  as  soon  as  their  infirmities 
render  necessary  the  appointment  of  another  priest  to  their 
assistance,  should,  upon  his  being  appointed,  receive,  or  become 
entitled  to  receive,  annually,  a  portion  of  the  Diocesan  Infirm 
Priests'  Fund,  except  of  course  in  a  case  where  there  would 
be  some  special  reason  to  the  contrary. 

If  this  arrangement  existed  in  every  diocese  there  would  be 
no  financial  difficulty  about  appointing  a  curate  even  to  a  poor 
parish  in  charge  of  a  parish  priest,  who,  through  age  or  in- 
firmity, would  be  unable  to  attend  to  the  spiritual  wants  of 
the  people.  For  the  curate,  on  his  appointment,  could  be 
assigned  a  congruous  and  adequate  portion  of  the  parochial 
revenues  ;  as  the  infirm  parish  priest's  portion  would  be  sub- 
sidized by  an  annual  sum  from  the  Diocesan  Infirm  Priests' 
Fund. 

By  this  arrangement  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  ask  an 
infirm  parish  priest  to  resign  the  parish  :  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  would  there  be  any  reason  to  defer  the  appointment  of  an 
assistant  priest  until  an  aged  parish  priest  would  have  become 
so  infirm  as  to  be  unable  to  perform  even  the  essential  functions 
of  the  mission — and  until  devotion  and  religion  among  his 
people  would  have  flagged  or  decayed. 

With   this   arrangement   existing,   then,   even   though   old 


CORRESPONDENCE  375 

and  infirm  parish  priests  might  cling  tenaciously  to  their 
parishes — '  as  they  sometimes  do/  according  to  a  writer  in 
the  October  number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD — their  presence  would 
not  be  an  obstacle,  but  perhaps  in  some  cases  rather  an  aid  to 
the  continuous  efficient  carrying  on  of  the  work  of  the  mission. 
The  arrangement  suggested,  it  may  be  said,  would  necessi- 
tate the  enlargement  of  the  Infirm  Priests'  Fund,  in  order  to 
meet  the  new  demand  that  would  come  upon  it.  But  should 
not  a  necessary  fund  be  enlarged  to  the  necessary  dimensions 
by  the  untied  contributions  of  the  clergy  and  laity  ?  (Vide 
'Acta  et  Decreta  Conciliorum  Provinciae  Tuamensis.' — Deer. 
'  Quum  Episcoporum  '  et  '  Quum  Justitia  '). — Faithfully  yours, 

A  C.C 


[  376  ] 


DOCUMENTS 

DEOBEE  OF  THE  SACKED  CONOBEOATION  OP  THE  COUNCIL 
BE&ABDINa  '  DAILY  COMMUNION  ' 

DECRETUM 
DE'QUOTIDIANA  ss.  EUCHARISTIAE  SUMPTIONE 

Sacra  Tridentina  Synodus,  perspectas  habens  ineffabiles  quae 
Christifidelibus  obveniunt  gratiarum  divitias,  sanctissimam 
Eucharistiam  sumentibus  (Sess.  22,  cap.  6)  ait :  Optaret  quidem 
sacrosancta  Synodus,  ut  in  singulis  Missis  fideles  adstantes  non 
solum  spirituali  affectu,  sed  sacramentali  etiam  Eucharistiae 
perceptione  communicarent.  Quae  verba  satis  aperte  produnt 
Ecclesiae  desiderium  ut  omnes  Christifideles  illo  coelesti  convivio 
quotidie  reficiantur,  et  pleniores  ex  eo  sanctificationis  hauriant 
effectus. 

Huiusmodi  vero  vota  cum  illo  cohaerent  desiderio,  quo 
Christus  Dominus  incensus  hoc  divinum  Sacramentum  instituit. 
Ipse  enim  nee  semel  nee  obscure  necessitatem  innuit  suae  carnis 
crebro  manducandae  suique  sanguinis  bibendi,  praesertim  his 
verbis  :  Hie  est  panis  de  coelo  descendens  ;  non  sicut  manduca- 
verunt  patres  vestri  manna  et  mortui  sunt :  qui  manducat  hunc 
panem  vivet  in  aeternum  (loan.  vi.  59).  Ex  qua  comparatione 
cibi  angelici  cum  pane  et  manna  facile  a  discipulis  intelligi 
poterat,  quemadmodum  pane  corpus  quotidie  nutritur,  et  manna 
in  deserto  Hebraei  quotidie  refecti  sunt,  ita  animam  christianam 
caelesti  pane  vesci  posse  quotidie  ac  recreari.  Insuper  quod  in 
oratione  Dominica  exposci  iubet  panem  nostrum  quotidianum, 
per  id  SS.  Ecclesiae  Patres  fere  unanimes  decent,  non  tarn 
materialem  panem,  corporis  escam,  quam  panem  eucharisticum 
quotidie  sumendum  intelligi  debere. 

Desiderium  vero  lesu  Christi  et  Ecclesiae,  ut  omnes  Christi- 
fideles quotidie  ad  sacrum  convivium  accedant,  in  eo  potissimum 
est  ut  Christifideles,  per  sacramentum  Deo  coniuncti,  robur  inde 
capiant  ad  compescendam  libidinem,  ad  leves  culpas  quae  quo- 
tidie occurrunt  abluendas,  et  ad  graviora  peccata,  quibus  humana 
fragilitas  est  obnoxia,  praecavenda  ;  non  autem  praecipue  ut 
Domini  honori,  ac  venerationi  consulatur,  nee  ut  sumentibus  id 
quasi  merces  aut  praemium  sit  suarum  virtutum  (S.  August 


DOCUMENTS  377 


Serm.  $7  in  Matth.  De  Orat.  Dom.,  v.  7).  Unde  S.  Tridentinum 
Concilium  Eucharistiam  vocat  antidotum  quo  liberemur  a  culpis 
quotidianis  el  a  peccatis  mortalibus  praeservemur  (Sess.  13,  cap.  2). 

Hanc  Dei  voluntatem  priores  Christifideles  probe  intelligen- 
tes,  quotidie  ad  hanc  vitae  ac  fortitudinis  mensam  accurrebant, 
Erant  -per  sever  antes  in  doctrina  Apostolorum  et  communications 
/ractionis  panis  (Act.  II.,  42).  Quod  saeculis  posterioribus 
etiam  factum  esse,  non  sine  magno  perfectionis  ac  sanctitatis 
emolument©,  Sancti  jPatres  atque  ecclesiastici  Scrip  tores 
tradiderunt. 

Defervescente  interim  pietate,  ac  potissimum  postea  lan- 
seniana  lue  undequaque  grassante,  disputari  coeptum  est  de 
dispositionibus,  quibus  ad  frequentem  et  quotidianam  Com- 
munionem  accedere  oporteat,  atque  alii  prae  aliis  maiores  ac 
difficiliores  tamquam  necessarias,  expostularunt.  Huiusmodi 
disceptationes  id  effecerunt,  ut  perpauci  digni  haberentur  qui 
SS.  EucharistianTquotidie  sumerent,  et  ex  tam  salutifero  sacra- 
mento  pleniores  effeetus  haurirent ;  contentis  caeteris  eo  refici 
aut  semel  in  anno,  aut  singulis  mensibus,  vel  unaquaquead 
summum  hebdomada.  Quin  etiam  eo  severitatis  ventum  est 
ut  a  frequentanda  caelesti  mensa  integri  coetus  excluderentur, 
uti  mercatorum,  aut  eorum  qui  essent  matrimonio  coniuncti. 

Nonnulli  tamen  in  contrariam  abierunt  sententiam.  Hi. 
arbitrati  Communionem  quotidianam  iure  divino  esse  praecep- 
tam,  de  dies  ulla  praeteriret  a  Communione  vacua,  praeter  alia 
a  probato  Ecclesiae  usu  aliena,  etiam  feria  VI  in  Parasceve 
Eucharistiam  sumendam  censebant,  et  ministrabant. 

Ad  haec  Sancta  Sedes  officio  proprio  non  defuit.  Nam  per 
decretum  huius  Sacri  Ordinis,  quod  incipit  Cum  ad  aures,  diei 
12  mensis  Februarii  anni  1679,  Innocentio  Pp.  XI  adprobante, 
errores  huiusmodi  damnavit  et  abusus  compescuit,  simul  de- 
clarans  omnes  cuiusvis  coetus,  mercatoribus  atque  conjugatis 
minime  exceptis,  ad  Communionis  frequentiam  admitti  posse, 
iuxta  singulorum  pietatem  et  sui  cuiusque  Confessarii  iudicium. 
Die  vero  7  mensis  Decembris  a.  1690,  per  decretum  Sanctissimus 
Dominus  noster  Alexandri  Pp.  VIII,  propositio  Baii,  puris- 
simum  Dei  amorem  absque  ullius  defectus  mixtione  requirens  ab 
iis  qui  ad  sacram  mensam  vellent  accedere,  proscripta  fuit. 

Virus  tamen  iansenianum,  quod  bonorum  etiam  animos  in- 
fecerat,  sub  specie  honoris  ac  venerationis  Eucharistiae  debiti, 
haud  penitus  evanuit.  Quaestio  de  dispositionibus  ad  freque'n- 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 


tandam  recte  ac  legitime  Communionem  Sanctae  Sedis  declara- 
tionibus  supervixit  ;  quo  factum  est  ut  nonnulli  etiam  boni 
nominis  Theologi,  raro  et  positis  compluribus  conditionibus, 
quotidianam  Communionem  fidelibus  permitti  posse  censuerint. 

Non  defuerunt  aliunde  viri  doctrina  ac  pietate  praediti,  qui 
faciliorem  aditum  praeberent  huic  tarn  salubri  Deoque  accepto 
usui,  docentes,  autoritate  Patrum,  nullum  Ecclesiae  praeceptum 
esse  circa  maiores  dispositiones  ad  quotidianam,  quam  ad  heb- 
domadariam  ut  menstruam  Communionem  ;  fructus  vero 
uberiores  longe  fore  ex  quotidiana  Communione,  quam  ex 
hebdomadaria  aut  menstrua. 

Quaestiones  super  hac  re  diebus  nostris  adauctae  sunt  et 
non  sine  acrimonia  exagitatae  ;  quibus  Confessariorum  mentes 
atque  fidelium  conscientiae  perturbantur,  cum  christianae 
pietatis  ac  fervoris  baud  mediocri  detrimento.  A  viris  idcirco 
praeclarissimis  ac  animarum  Pastoribus  SSmo.  Dno.  Nostro 
Pio  Pp.  X  enixae  pieces  porrectae  sunt,  ut  surpema  Sua  auc- 
toritate  quaestionem  de  dispositionibus  ad  Eucharistiam  quotidie 
sumendam  dirimere  dignaretur  ;  ita  ut  haec  saluberrima  ac  Deo 
acceptissima  consuetude  non  modo  non  minuatur  inter  fideles, 
sed  potius  augeatur  et  ubique  propagetur,  hisce  diebus  potis- 
simum,  quibus  Religio  ac  fides  catholica  undequaque  impetitur. 
ac  vera  Dei  charitas  et  pietas  baud  parum  desideratur.  Sanctitas 
vero  Sua,  cum  Ipsi  maxime  cordi  sit,  ea  qua  pollet  sollicitudine 
ac  studio,  ut  christianus  populus  ad  Sacrum  convivium  perquam 
frequenter  et  etiam  quotidie  advocetur  eiusque  fructibus  amplis- 
simis  potiatur,  quaestionem  praedictam  huic  Sacro  Ordini 
examinandam  ac  defmiendam  commisit. 

Sacra  igitur  Concilii  Congregatio  in  plenariis  Comitiis  diei 
16  mensis  Dec.  1905  hanc  rem  ad  examen  accuratissimum 
revocavit,  et  rationibus  hinc  inde  adductis  sedula  maturitate 
perpensis,  ea  quae  sequuntur  statuit  ac  declaravit  : 

1.  Communio    frequens    et    quotidiana,    utpote    a    Christo 
Domino  et  a  Catholica  Ecclesia  optatissima,  omnibus  Christi- 
fidelibus  cuiusvis  ordinis  aut  conditionis  pateat  ;  ita  ut  nemo, 
qui  in  statu  gratiae  sit  et  cum  recta  piaque  mente  ad  S.  Mensam 
accedat,  prohiberi  ab  ea  possit. 

2.  Recta  autem  mens  in  eo  est,  ut  qui  ad  S.  Mensam  accedit 
non  usui,  aut  vanitati,  aut  humanis  rationibus  indulgeat,  sed 
Dei  placito  satisfacere  velit,  ei  arctius  charitate  coniungi,  ac 
divino  illo  pharmaco  suis  infirmitatibus  ac  defectibus  occurrere. 


DOCUMENTS  379 


3.  Etsi  quam  maxime  expediat  ut  frequent!  et  quotidiana 
Communione   utentes  venialibus   peccatis,   saltern  plene   deli- 
beratis,  eorumque  affectu  sint  expertes,  sufficit  nihilominus  ut 
culpis  mortalibus  vacent,  cum  proposito,  se  nunquam  in  posterum 
peccaturos ;  quo  sincere  animi  proposito,  fieri  non  potest  quin 
quotidie  communicantes  a  peccatis  etiam  venialibus,  ab  eorumque 
affectu  sensim  se  expediant. 

4.  Cum  vero  Sacramenta  Novae  Legis,  etsi  effectum  suum 
ex  opere  operate  sortiantur,  maiorem  tamen  producant  effectum 
quo  maiores  dispositiones  in  iis  suscipiendis  adhibeantur,  idcirco 
curandum  est  ut  sedula  ad  Sacram  Communionem  praeparatio 
antecedat,   et   congrua  gratiarum   actio  inde  sequatur,   iuxta 
uniuscuiusque  vires,  conditionem  ac  officia. 

5.  Ut  frequens  et  quotidiana  Communio  maiori  prudentia 
fiat  uberiorique  merito  augeatur,  oportet  ut  Confessarii  con- 
silium  intercedat.     Caveant  tamen  Confessarii  ne  a  frequent! 
seu  quotidiana  Communione  quemquam  avertant,  qui  in  statu 
gratiae  reperiatur  et  recta  mente  accedat. 

6.  Cum  autem  perspicuum  sit  ex  frequenti  seu  quotidiana 
S.  Eucharistiae  sumptione  unionem  cum  Christo  augeri,  spiri- 
tualem  vitam  uberius  ali,  animam  virtutibus  effusius  instrui,  et 
aeternae  felicitatis  pignus  vel  firmius  sumenti  donari,  idcirco 
Parochi,   Confessarii  et  concionatores,   iuxta  probatam  Cate- 
chismi  Romani  doctrinam  (Part.  II.,  n.  60),  christianum  populum 
ad  hunc  tarn  pium  ac  tarn  salutarem  usum  crebris  admonitioni- 
bus  multoque  studio  cohortentur. 

7.  Communio  frequens  et  quotidiana  praesertim  inreligiosis 
Institutis   cuiusvis   generis   promoveatur ;   pro    quibus   tamen 
firmum  sit  decretum  Quemadmodum  diei  17  mensis  Decembris 
1890  a  S.  Congr.  Episcoporum  et  Regularium  latum.     Quam 
maxime  quoque  promoveatur  in  clericorum  Seminariis,  quorum 
alumni  altaris  inhiant  servitio  ;  item  in  aliis  christianis  omne 
genus  ephebeis. 

8.  Si   quae   sint   Instituta,   sive  votorum  solemnium  sive 
simplic'um,  quorum  in  regulis  aut  constitutionibus,  vel  etiam 
calendariis,   Communiones   aliquibus   diebus   affixae   et  in   iis 
iussae  reperiantur,  hae  normae  tamquam  mere  directivae  non 
tanquam  praeceptivae  putandae  sunt.     Praescriptus  vero   Com- 
munionum  numerus  haberi  debet  ut  quid  minimum  pro  Reli- 
giosorum  pietate.     Idcirco  frequentior  vel  quotidianus  accessus 
ad  eucharisticam  mensam  libere  eisdem  patere  semper  debebit, 


380  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

iuxta  normas  superius  in  hoc  decreto  traditas.  Ut  autem 
omnes  utriusque  sexus  relig  osi  huius  decreti  dispositiones  rite 
cognoscere  queant,  singularum  domorum  moderatores  curabunt, 
ut  illud  quotannis  vernacula  lingua  in  communi  legatur  intra 
Octavam  festivitatis  Corporis  Christi. 

9.  Denique  post  promulgatum  hoc  Decretum  omnes  ecc'ie- 
siastici  scriptores  a  quavis  contentiosa  disputatione  circa  dis- 
positiones ad  frequentem  et  quotidianam  Communionem 
abstineant. 

Relatis  autem  his  omnibus  ad  SSmum.  D.  N.  Pium  PP.  X 
per  infrascriptum  S.  C.  Secretarium  audientia  diei  17  mens. 
Dec.  1905,  Sanctitas  Sua  hoc  Emorum.  Patrum  decretunTratum 
habuit,  confirmavit  atque  edi  iussit  contrariis  quibuscumque 
minime  obstantibus.  Mandavit  insuper  ut  mittantur  ad  omnes 
locorum  Ordinaries  et  Praelatos  Regulares,  ad  hoc  ut  illud 
cum  suis  Seminariis,  Parochis,  institutis  religiosis  et  sacerdotibus 
respective  communicent,  et  de  executione  eorum  quae  in  eo 
statuta  sunt  S.  Sedem  edoceant  in  suis  relationibus  de  dioecesis 
seu  instituti  statu. 

Datum  Romae,  die  20  Decembris  1905. 

3t  VINCENTIUS  Card.  Episc.  Praenest.,  Praef. 
C.  DE  LAI,  Secretarius. 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 

riA  bp'fieAti.  Dublin :  Browne  &  Nolan,  Ltd, 
Size,  3^  x  2.\  x  £  inches.  Prices,  bound  in  Leather, 
from  2S.  to  43.  6d. 

THIS  neat  little  book  contains  all  the  matter  found  in  ordi- 
nary prayer-books,  such  as  Morning  and  Evening  Devotions, 
Prayers  at  Mass,  Devotions  for  Confession  and  Communion, 
Rosary,  Stations,  and  Benediction  Service.  It  also  gives  an 
Irish  ^Litany  tojathe  Blessed  Virgin,  indulgenced  by  Pius  IX, 
some  prayer-poems,  and  an  Irish  version  of  the  Marriage  rite. 
The  compiler,  who  is  anonymous,  ought  to  have  made  use  of 
the  little  prayer-book  published  by  the  Catholic  Truth  Society. 
His  Act  of  Reparation  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  many  of  his 
prayers,  are  not  so  simple  nor  so  beautiful  as  those  in  the  book 
which  we  have  just  mentioned.  Of  the  prayers  in  metrical 
form,  one  was  sung  at  the  consecration  of  Armagh  Cathedral, 
the  other  does  not  appear  to  be  old,  at  all  events  it  has  not  the 
flavour  of  the  old  prayers.  The  successful  composition  of  a 
prayer^depends  on  a  very  rare  combination  of  gifts  natural  and 
divine.  Most  of  our  modern  prayers  are  straggling  or  spiritless. 

The  translation  of  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  (Latin  and 
Irish  juxtaposed)  is  faithful  and  simple.  In  fact,  if  the  com- 
piler will  pardon  me  for  saying  so,  the  former  of  these  epithets 
is  a  little  too  well  earned.  His  anxiety  to  give  an  accurate 
version  has  led  him  here  and  there  into  the  mistake  of  cleaving 
to  the  letter  of  the  original.  Irish,  like  French,  seems  to  me  to 
be  intolerant  of  foreign  idiom,  whilst  English,  on  the  other 
hand,  seems  to  permit  of  every  liberty  with  its  traditional 
forms,  the  result  being  that  translations  in  that  language  are  in 
great  part  unintelligible  to  the  people.  The  compiler  translates 
Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo  and  Hosanna  in  excelsis  by  5^61|te  t>o 
*6iA  ir»f  HA  hAjAT>Ai1:>  and  tlofAnnA  inf  riA  JiAfvoAib  where,  I 
think,  he  should  have  used  ptAiceAf  Aib  or  •plxMci-p  with  ACA 
50  V)AJVO  or  ip  A0ipx>e.  Compare  the  French  rendering 
which  I  have  before  me  :  Glorie  d  Dieu  dans  le  del,  and 
Hosanna  d  celui  qui  habite  au  plus  haul  des  Cieux.  I  think 
the  compiler,  if  he  studies  any  French  work,  such  as  the 


3^2  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

Office  Divin,  which  gives  the  translation  of  the  Ordinary 
of  the  Mass  and  a  translation  of  the  Psalms,  will  lose  a 
good  deal  of  his  timidity,  and  will  feel  himself  at  liberty 
to  make  free  use  of  the  scholarship  and  good  taste  which  he 
manifestly  possesses.  It  will  be  understood,  that  what  I  con- 
ceive to  be  blemishes  are  few  in  number,  and  do  not  detract 
seriously  from  the  value  of  the  book,  which,  from  its  neatness 
and  convenient  size,  will  be  welcomed  by  many. 

tn.  iu  s. 


ASPECTS  OF  ANGLICANISM  ;  OR,  SOME  COMMENTS  ON  CER- 
TAIN EVENTS  IN  THE  NINETIES.  By  Mgr.  Moyes,  Canon 
of  Westminster  Cathedral.  London  :  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.  1906.  Price  6s.  6d. 

THE  chapters  of  this  book,  as  Mgr.  Moyes  reminds  us  in  his 
preface,  appeared  substantially  in  the  Tablet  between  1890 
and  1899.  They  are  now  republished  in  book  form  in  the 
conviction  '  that  certain  principles  of  faith  are  more  easily 
set  forth  in  the  light  of  concrete  illustrations  than  by  abstract 
statements,  and  that  such  concrete  illustrations  are  most  con- 
veniently sought  in  the  facts  and  incidents  of  the  religious 
world  of  our  time.' 

The  work  is,  therefore,  a  sort  of  doctrinal  chronicle  with  a 
commentary  by  the  author.  It  is  a  real  mine  of  information, 
nothing  of  importance  having  escaped  the  intellectual  scrutiny 
of  Mgr.  Moyes  during  those  ten  years  in  all  the  inner  workings 
of  a  Church  which  is  out  of  joint  with  the  Bible,  the  world, 
and  itself.  The  Lambeth  Judgment ;  Double-dealing  in  Worship  ; 
the  Ancient  Church  of  England ;  Anglicanism  in  America ; 
Anglicanism  in  Ireland ;  Anglicanism  and  the  Erastian 
Principle  ;  Anglicanism  and  the  Easterns  ;  Relics  and  Relic 
Veneration  ;  Anglicanism  and  Purgatory  ;  Archbishop  Plunkett's 
Ordination  of  Cabrera ;  Anglican  Appeal  to  Scripture  ;  Angli- 
canism and  the  Nestorians  ;  principles  connected  with  all  these 
subjects  were  involved  in  disputes  or  controversies  that  took 
place  within  the  period  specified.  Mgr.  Moyes  picks  out  the 
essential  parts  from  newspapers,  and  reviews  and  has  some, 
thing  very  valuable  of  his  own  to  say  of  each.  We  are  very  glad 
the  papers  have  been  collected  ;  for  anyone  wishing  to  have 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 


383 


the  substance  of  all  the  doctrinal  controversies  of  a  decade 
will  find  them  here  in  a  very  convenient  form. 

J.  F.  H. 

LE  MAITRE  ET  L'ELfivE.  Fra  Angelico  et  Benozzo  Gozzoli, 
par  Gaston  Sortais.  Desclee,  de  Brower  et  Cie.  Lille, 
Paris,  Rome,  Bruxelles.  10  frs. 

THIS  is  one  of  those  beautiful  books  which  we  need  not 
expect  from  the  Catholic  press  of  these  countries  for  many  years 
to  come.  It  is  an  account  of  two  great  painters,  the  master 
and  the  pupil.  Fra  Angelico  and  Benozzo  Gozzoli — beautifully 
illustrated  with  engravings  and  chromo-lithographs  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  two  great  painters.  In  his  account  of  Fra 
Angelico  M.  Sortais  gives  a  very  brilliant  description  of  the 
struggle  between  the  idealist  and  the  naturalist  schools  in 
Italy,  between  the  painters  who  aimed  at  a  presentation  of  the 
beauties  of  the  soul,  and  those  who  preferred  to  study  and 
present  the  beauties  of  the  body.  The  part  taken  in  the  the 
movement  by  Fra  Angelico  and  his  pupil  is  clearly  shown.  The 
frescoes  of  Benozzo  at  Montefalco,  at  San  Gemignano,  at 
Florence  and  Pisa  are  described  with  great  skill,  and  some  of 
them  very  well  reproduced.  For  a  gift  book  costing  only 
10  francs  a  Catholic  could  not  get  a  handsomer  and  more 
artistic  book. 

J.  F.  H. 


384  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


BOOKS  RECEIVED 

The  Tradition  of  Scripture.  By  Rev.  William  Barry,  D.D.  London  : 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1906.  35.  6d. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Confessional.  By  Dr.  Caspar  E.  Scheiler, 
Mayence.  Edited  by  Rev.  H.  J.  Heuser,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology, 
Overbrook,  Pa.  New  York,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago  :  Benziger  Bros. 
1905. 

The  Priest  in  the  Pulpit.  By  Rev.  Ignaz  Schnech,  O.S.B.  Translated 
from  the  German  by  Rev.  Boniface  Luebbermann,  Cincinnati.  New 
York,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago  :  Benziger  Bros.  1905. 

Letters  from  the  Beloved  City.  By  Rev.  Kenelm  Digby  Best.  Re- 
issue. London  :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  1905.  is.  6d. 

L' Evangeliaire  des  Dimanches,  par  l'Abb6  C.  Broussolle.  Lycee 
Michelet,  Paris.  Paris  :  Lethielleux,  Rue  Cassette.  4  francs. 

CEuvres  Oratoires  du  Pere  Henri  Chambellan,  S.J.  Tome  premier. 
Paris  :  Gabriel  Beauchesne  et  Cie,  117  Rue  de  Rennes.  4  francs. 

L' Enseignment  de  Jesus,  par  Pierre  Battifol,  Recteur  de  1'Institut 
Catholique  de  Toulouse.  Paris  :  Blond  et  Cie,  4  Rue  Madonne.  3  frs.  50  c. 

The  Eternal  Sacrifice.  By  Charles  de  Condren.  Translated  from 
theJFrench  by  A.  J.  Monteith.  London  :  Thomas  Baker.  25.  6d.  net. 

In  the  Brave  Days  of  Old.  By  Dom  Bede  Camm,  O.S.B.  London  : 
Burns  &  Gates.  2$.  6d. 

Stories  of  Grace.  By  Rev.  Charles  Isaacson.  London  :  Elliot  & 
Stock. 

The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Bible  History.  By  Rev.  A.  Urban.  New 
York  :  Joseph  F.  Wagner.  $1.50. 

The  Ordinary  of  the  Mass.  By  the  Rev.  Arthur  Devine,  Passionist. 
London  :  R.  &  T.  Washbourne,  1-4  Paternoster-row.  1906. 

Short  Spiritual  Readings  for  Mary's  Children.  By  Madame  Cecilia. 
London  :  R.  &  T.  Washbourne,  1-4  Paternoster-row. 

The  Apocalypse,  the  Antichrist,  and  the  End.  ByJ.  J.  Elar.  London: 
Burns  &  Oates.  55. 

Demain  en  Algerie,  Par  M.  Ferreol,  ex  Captaine  aux  Zouaves. 
Paris  :  Lethielleux,  Rue  Cassette.  3  francs.  • 

La  Providence  et  Le  Miracle  devant  la  Science  Moderne.  Paris  : 
Beauchesne  et  Cie,  Editeurs,  117  Rue  de  Rennes.  2  frs.  50  c. 

St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  Social  Reformer.  By  Leo  L.  Dubois,  S.M. 
New  York  :  Benziger.  45.  net. 

Irish  Education  as  it  should  be.  By  Jacques.  Dublin  :  Gill  &  Son. 
15.  net. 

The  Stations  of  the  Cross.  An  Account  of  their  History  and  Devotional 
Purpose.  By  Herbert  Thurston.  London  :  Burns  &  Oates.  35.  6d. 


"  Ut  Chrisiieni  ti«  <t  Komani  sitis."      "  As  you  »r«  children  of  Christ.  «o  b«  you  children  of  Rome,'1 
Ex  Dtctts  S.  Patncii.  In  f.ibro  Armacano,  fol.  9, 

The  Irish 
Ecclesiastical    Record 

a  $lonthlt)  Journal,  un&rr  Episcopal  Sanction. 


i'Tttunintfj  I9cat  1  TV/T  A  v  A 

No.  461.'       J  MAY,    IQOO. 


^autt!i 
Vol    XIX 


Thoughts  on  Philosophy  and  Religion.  —  II. 

Rev.  P.  Coffey,  D.Ph.,  M  ay  nooth  College. 

Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine.—  II. 

Rw.  J.  O'Neill,  Ph.D.,  Carloiu  College 

The  Vatican  *  Kyriale  '  :  a  Rejoinder. 

Rev.  H.  Beivenmge,  Maynooth  College. 

Cardinal  Logue  at  Bobbio. 

The  Editor,    Maynooth  College. 

Notes  and  Queries. 

THEOLOGY.  Rev,  J.  M.  Harty>  D.D.,  Maynooth  College. 

Frequent  Communion.    Weekly  Confession  and  Indulgences.    Case  of  Restitution. 

LITURGY.  Rev.  Patrick  Mom'sroc,  Maynooth  College. 

The  Ceremonies  to  be  observed  _in  Preaching-.  The  proper  Oil  for  use  in  Sanctuary 
Lamps.  Whether  a  Painting:  of  the  Crucifixion  may  serve  n*  Altar  Cross. 
Prayers  in  Mass  'Sub  Unica  Conclusione.' 

Documents. 

Pius  X  and  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris.  The  Vicar  Capitular  and  the  Diocesan 
Throne  and  Crozier.  Translation  of  Requiem  Mass.  Sacred  Vestments  *nd 
Pall  of  Chalice  at  Requiem  Mass.  Solution  of  Liturgical  Questions.  Questions 

on  Indulgences.     Decree  granting  Indulgences  for  Daily  Communion  without  the 
onus  ot  Weekly  Confession. 

Notices  of  Books. 

Out  of  Due  Time.  Antipriscilliana.  My  Queen  and  My  Mother.  Sketches  in  History. 
Catholic  Ideals  in  Social  Life.  Enchiridion  Symbolorum  et  Definitionum. 
Last  Letters  of  Aubrey  Beardsley.  The  Suffering  Man-God. 

Editorial  Note. 


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THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION-II 

A. — SOME    CURRENT   CONTROVERSIES 

TOWARDS   the  end  of  a  previous  article1   I   had 
occasion  to  refer  to  Philosophy  in  its  relation  to 
the  Sciences,  thus  digressing  somewhat  from  the 
main  subject  with  which  I  was  dealing:  Philosophy 
in  its  relation  to  Religion,  as  an  Apology  for  our  Faith, 
and  as  forming  a  part  of  our  larger  '  Philosophy  of  Life.' 
Viewed  under  this  aspect  it  is  a  study  that  is  giving  rise 
to  controversies  and  discussions  of  very  living  interest. 

The  ordinary  method  of  Christian  Apologetics — what 
has  been  claimed  to  be  the  traditional  method2 — is  that 
which  first  establishes  on  grounds  of  historical  evidence 
the  Divinity  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  the  authority 
of  its  claims  to  be  accepted  as  such  by  all ;  and  then  takes 
up  and  examines  the  contents  of  the  Christian  Revelation, 
already  accepted  by  faith  on  Divine  Authority,  and  defends 
its  truths  and  mysteries  by  the  same  sort  of  rational  prin- 
ciples and  arguments  as  we  employ  in  Philosophy  and  in 
the  other  sciences. 

But  those  principles  differ,  at  least  in  their  applications, 
in  different  systems  of  Philosophy ;  and  it  is  a  simple  fact 

1  Cf.  I.  E.  RECORD,  March,  pp.  193  sqq. 

2  Whether  such  claim  is  justifiable  may  perhaps  be,  and  indeed  has 
been,  questioned  amongst  Catholics.    Cf.  Essais  de  philosophic  religieuse, 
par  le  Pere  Labert.honniere,  de  1'Oratoire  (Paris  :   Lethieleux,    2    edit., 
1903),  p.  197. 

FOURTH  SERIES,  VOL.  XIX. — MAY,  1906.  2  B 


386  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  the  philosophical  principles  which  have  been  actually 
applied  for  centuries  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Divine 
Deposit,  are  the  principles  of  Scholastic  Philosophy.  Scho- 
lastic Philosophy,  however,  was  not  always  fixed  and  finished; 
it  grew  and  developed  with  time.  St.  Augustine  was  rather 
a  Platonist,  the  medieval  scholastics  Aristotelians  ;  and 
generally  the  question  might  be  debated  whether  there 
could  not  be  many  distinct  (purely  rational)  philosophical 
systems  all  equally  in  harmony  with  Christian  revelation— 
or  at  least  all  orthodox,  that  is,  in  essential  agreement  with 
Revealed  Truth. 

In  attempting  an  answer  to  so  important  a  question 
we  must  try  to  avoid  excessive  narrow-mindedness  or 
attachment  to  system  on  the  one  hand,  and  excessive 
liberalism  that  would  misinterpret  Revelation  or  make 
Truth  relative,  on  the  other.  The  Truths  of  Revealed 
Religion  are  meant  to  be  interpreted  by  men  and  to  be 
applied  to  the  conduct  of  their  daily  lives.  God's  message 
must  be  assimilated  by  them — and  not  only  by  their  minds, 
but  by  their  hearts  and  wills — before  it  becomes  operative 
in  them,  or  finds  its  individual  expression  in  their  words 
and  works.1  That  being  so,  I  can  easily  understand  that 
the  way  in  which  the  contents  of  Scripture  and  Tradition 
are  accepted  and  interpreted  may  differ  somewhat  from 
one  individual  believer  to  another.  One  may  have  systema- 
tized the  natural  truths  of  Science  and  Philosophy  in  one 
way,  another  in  a  different  way.  And  the  mind  of  each 
will  have  its  own  corresponding  bent,  and  use  its  own 
method  of  assimilation,  and  its  own  terminology  in  expres- 
sion. The  Divine  Gift  will  be  received  by  each  ad  modum 
recipientis.  To  no  one  mode  of  conception,  and  to  no  one 
form  of  expression,  must  God's  saving  Truth  be  exclusively 
tied  down.  If  the  supernatural  perfects  the  natural,  as 
it  does,  it  must  respect  existing  natural  and  acquired  varia- 
tions in  mind  and  character,  from  one  individual  to  another. 

Nor  is  it  the  scope  of  Divine  Revelation  to  teach  men 
purely  natural  truths,  whether  in  Science  or  in  Philosophy. 

1  Cf.  op.  cit.,  p.  221  :  '  La  v^rite  revelee  .  .  .  nous  est  donn6e  non 
pour  6tre  subie,  mais  pour  fitre  vecue.' 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       387 

I  would  therefore  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  if  by  different 
philosophical  systems  are  meant  presentations  and  com- 
binations of  the  same  general  natural  truths,  looked  at  from 
different  points  of  view,  then  you  can  have  a  number  of 
such  systems  in  accord  with  Revelation  ;  and  its  contents 
will  harmonize,  though  differently,  with  each,  to  form  a 
larger  '  Philosophy  of  Life.' 1 

But  then,  on  the  other  hand,  the  contents  ot  Revela- 
tion must  find  admittance  in  all  their  fulness  into  every 
such  system.  For  if  men  differ  individually  their  nature 
is  one  and  the  same,  and  their  destiny  the  same  ;  and  the 
meaning  of  God's  message  must  be  the  same  in  substance 
to  all.  Not  only  so,  but  for  precisely  the  same  reason, 
Nature  itself,  the  World,  Reality,  if  rightly  interpreted, 
whether  in  Science  or  in  Philosophy,  must  be  the  same 
for  all  too. 

Hence  the  answer  to  the  interesting  question  how  far 
Catholics  may  adhere  to  different  schools  or  systems  of 
Philosophy  will  depend  very  largely  on  the  view  taken  as 
to  the  meaning  of  a  '  school '  or  '  system.'  In  so  far  as  these 
are  merely  different  expressions  or  presentations  of  the 
same  natural  truths  from  different  standpoints  they  are 
in  necessary  harmony  with  Revealed  Truth,  and  a  Catholic 
is  free  to  choose.  But  in  so  far  as  they  are  contradictory 

1  That  the  vast  majority  of  believers — not  being  philosophers — 
never  think  of  troubling  themselves  with  the  harmony  or  want  of  harmony 
between  Christianity  and  the  world's  varying  philosophies,  is  of  course 
very  obvious.  That  I  take  to  be  the  meaning  of  Pere  Labejthonniere 
when  he  writes  d  propos  of  Pascal's  Apologetics  (in  the  work  and  place 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  note)  :  '  Ce  qui  est  vrai  .  .  .  c'est  que,  tout  en 
cherchant  et  tout  en  trouvant  dans  le  Chnstianisme  la  verite  dont  on  avail 
besoin  pour  vivre  on  n'a  pas  en  1'idee  de  systematiser  methodiquement  la 
verit6  chretienne  en  se  plafant  deliberement  a  une  point  de  vue  plutfit 
qu'a  1'autre.'  But  the  author  in  question  would  have  even  those  who  under- 
take the  work  of  Christian  Apologetics, — who  try  to  give  themselves 
and  others  a  deep  and  abiding  conviction  that  Christianity  is  the  only 
real  Philosophy  of  Life, — he  would  have  those  also  regard  Christianity 
independently  of  any  special  point  of  view  peculiar  to  any  philosophical 
system, — though  it  may  be  doubted  if  this  be  at  all  psychologically 
possible.  Defending  M.  Blondel  from  the  charge  of  attempting  to  re- 
concile Kantian  subjectivism  with  Catholicism  (Op>,  cit.,  p.  322),  he 
reminds  his  opponents  very  explicitly  :  '  Qu'il  n'est  pas  de  maniere  d'apo- 
logetique  contre  laquelle  nous  nous  soyons  elev6  plus  energiquement  que 
celle  qui  consiste  a  conciiier  le  Catholicisme  avec  une  philosophic  donn6e 
et  accept6e  d'avance.  d'ou  qu'elle  vienne  et  queile  qu'elle  soit  '  (Cf.  also 
pp.  157,  201,  202,  210). 


388  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

of  each  other,  some  of  them  must  be  erroneous,  and  such 
error  may  be  in  logical  opposition — directly  or  indirectly — 
to  some  revealed  truth  ;  and  if  it  be,  just  as  no  philosopher 
should  adhere  to  it  if  he  saw  its  erroneous  character,  so  also 
no  Catholic  should  adhere  to  it  if  he  saw  its  opposition  to 
Revelation.     But  a  Catholic  may  see  neither  the  error  nor 
the  opposition  in  question  ;  and,  so  long  as  he  does  not, 
may  adhere  to  the  system  without  seeing  the  logical  incon- 
sistency of  his  position.     All  the  more  so  as  he  may  in  good 
faith  interpret  Revelation  in  a  sense  which  he  regards  as 
true,  and  which  is  de  facto  consistent  with  his  philosophical 
views.     But  all  that  will  not  make  these  latter  any  less 
erroneous  or  any  less  opposed  to  the  true  meaning  of  the 
revealed  truth  in  question.     St.  Augustine,  Scotus  Eriugena, 
Abelard,   St.   Thomas,   Duns  Scotus,   William  of  Ockam, 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  Descartes,  Gassendi,  Malebranche,  Pascal, 
Rosimini  were  all  alike  Catholics  ;  but  is  that  any  proof 
that  their  philosophical  systems,  which  differed  so  widely, 
were  all  substantially  true    or   substantially  orthodox,  or 
that^some  of  those  mentioned  did  not  remain  Catholics 
rather  in  spite  of  their  philosophy,  so  to  speak,  and  through 
bona  fide  ignorance  of  the  unsoundness  of  their  systems  ? l 
No ;  however  systems  may  differ  there  is  only  one  true 
Philosophy  of  Life,  varied  and  manifold  as  its  expressions 
may  be.     Life  has  its  departments  of  thought  and  of  action  ; 
but  these,  though  distinct,  are  related.     The  true  and  the 
good  are  standards  in  all,  in  Nature  as  well  as  in  Faith.     If 
man's  mind  and  heart  conform  to  them  fully,  he  is  a  philo- 
sopher and  a  Catholic.     In  so  far  as  he  deviates,  he  falls 
into  error  and  evil.     If  his  Philosophy  is   out  of  harmony 
with  Revealed  Truth,  it  stands  convicted  of  error.     The 
man  who  loves  the  Truth  and  seeks  it  will  embrace  a  Philo- 
sophy that  makes  room  for  Revelation  and  recognizes  on 
earth  an  Infallible  Exponent  of  that  Divine  message  to 
mankind.2 

1  Cf.  De  Wulf,  Introduction  d  la  Philosophie  Neo-Scolastique  (Louvain, 
1904),  pp.  100-105. 

2  I  have  already  emphasized  the  fact  that  no  philosophical  system 
arrived  at  by  the  mere  natural  light  of  reason,  can  offer  a  final  and  com- 
plete explanation  of  man's  nature  and  destiny.     To  do  so  it  must  be  sup- 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION      389 

We,  who  recognize  all  this,  must,  however,  remember 
that  the  Church  expects  us  to  use  our  own  reason  in  learning, 
teaching,  and  defending  all  truth.1  It  is  our  duty  as  well  as 
our  privilege  to  interpret  God's  word  for  ourselves  and  for 
others  ;  to  examine  the  thought-systems  of  our  day,  and 
discern  the  true  from  the  false  in  men's  ever-varying  specu- 
lations ;  to  seek  and  find  out  the  fittest  methods  for  putting 
the  Christian  Philosophy  of  Life  in  all  its  entirety,  before 
the  minds  of  unbelievers.  It  is  just  for  this  very  purpose 
of  gaining  souls  to  Christ  that  we  are  told  to  be  all  things 
to  all  men. 

If  we  see,  therefore,  that  a  certain  method  of  apologetics, 
hitherto  effectual,  is  now  no  longer  able  to  bring  men  to  the 
Faith  or  even  to  defend  it  from  their  attacks,  we  are  bound 
to  look  around  for  a  method  more  in  harmony  with  the 
tendencies  of  the  times.  If  we  feel,  for  example,  that  our 
traditional  Scholastic  Philosophy  has  its  own  intrinsic 
shortcomings,  or  that  it  is  more  an  obstacle  than  a  help  to 
us  in  presenting  Christianity  to  modern  minds,  just  because 
these  latter  are  so  unacquainted  with  Scholasticism,  if  for 
no  other  reason  ;  and  if  we  think,  moreover,  that  there  are 
modern  systems  of  Philosophy  with  which  numbers  are 
already  familiar,  and  which  meet  their  wants  and  their 
tastes,  and  have  not  the  defects  of  Scholasticism  ;  and  that 
the  Christian  religion,  interpreted  after  their  principles, 
will  have  as  full,  as  deep,  and  as  true  a  meaning  as  Scholas- 
ticism has  ever  given  it  :  then  we  should  think  seriously  of 
changing  both  our  Philosophy  and  our  Apologetics.2 


plemented  by  the  Christian  Revelation.  It  is  only  this  same  truth,  I 
think,  that  is  expressed  from  another  point  of  view  by  Pere  Laberthonniere, 
when  he  says  :  '  Le  cas  ne  se  presente  done  pas  d'une  philosophic,  c'est  a 
dire,  d'une  doctrine  de  la  vie,  que  vous  aurious  a  garder  dans  non  integra- 
lite  et  avec  laquelle  nous  serious  obliges  de  concilier  le  Christianisine.  Si 
le  Christianisme  contient  la  verite  sur  nous,  c'est  que  le  reste  ne  la  contient 
pas'  (Op.  cit.  p.  210).  Elsewhere,  explaining  and  defending  the  'imma- 
nent '  method  of  apologetics,  he  writes  :  '  De  cette  fa^on  on  conceit  qu'il 
puisse  y  avoir  une  philosophic  Chretienne,  ou  plutot  que  la  philosophic 
doive  eter  chretienne,  sans  cesser  d'etre  la  philsophie  et  sans  que  le  Chris- 
tianisme cesse  d'etre  surnaturel '  (p.  172  note). 

*  Cf.  Laberthonniere,  op.  cit.,  pp.  159,  219. 

2  Cf.  op.  cit.,  Tntrod.  p.  xxvii.,  also  however  pp.  188,  189. — New  York 
Review,  June- July,  1905.  (Vol.  i.,  No.  i),  pp.  36,  46,  '  Scotus  Redivivus,' 
by  James  J.  Fox,  D.D. 


39°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Now,  these  are  just  the  things  that  some  Catholics  in 
recent  years  have  been  both  thinking  and  doing.  They 
say  it  is  labour  in  vain  to  try  to  win  over  the  modern  mind 
to  the  Christian  Religion  by  endeavouring  first  to  establish 
its  Divinity  directly  on  strictly  historical  grounds,  and  to 
impose  it  by  way  of  authority  on  all  who  are  in  search  of 
it  ;  and  then  to  pass  on  to  examine  its  contents  for  them, 
after  they  have  first  believed  it.  Rather  these  apologists 
would  endeavour  to  put  its  contents  in  the  first  place,  before 
the  modern  world.  They  would  show  forth  its  beauty  and 
truth  and  grandeur,  and  its  perfect  accord  with  all  man's 
higher  and  nobler  instincts  :  they  would  vindicate  its  power 
over  man's  whole  nature,  his  emotions  and  affections  and 
will  and  heart  as  well  as  his  intelligence  :  they  would  present 
it  to  men  as  a  '  Philosophy  of  Life  and  Action,'  capable  of 
attracting  and  fascinating  and  satisfying  all  honest  and 
upright  seekers  after  a  meaning  to  attach  to  their  lives.1 
They  would  put  it  forward  as  the  only  means  on  earth  of 
1  filling  up  the  void  '  that  is  felt  in  human  nature,  as  the  one 
mysterious  something  of  which  human  nature  feels  the 
need.  In  the  restless  heart  of  man — the  inquietum  cor — there 
is  a  need  for  the  supernatural :  and  this  latter  must  be  appro- 
priated and  assimilated  into  the  very  life  and  activity  of 
the  hungering  soul  if  it  is  to  satisfy  its  craving.  The  super- 
natural is  not  something  heterogeneous  imposed  as  a  burden 
from  without  ;  were  it  so  it  would  have  no  meaning  and  no 
message  for  the  soul,  and  no  influence  upon  it :  it  is  contin- 
uous with  nature  and  perfects  it.  It  is  no  mere  collection 
of  speculative  truths  formulated  in  a  definite  manner  and 
imposed  on  the  intellect  by  mere  external  authority.  It 
is,  on  the  contrary,  pre-eminently  practical :  the  ethical 
aspect  of  its  dogmas  being  the  primary  and  all-important 
one.  It  is  a  living,  fructifying  principle  in  human  life. 
It  is,  before  all,  a  life  that  must  be  lived  and  acted  :  in  that 
it  finds  its  real  meaning.  The  extrinsic  element  in  it  is  in 
reality  not  extrinsic,  for  the  teaching  authority  of  the 
Church  preserves,  no  doubt,  and  proposes  the  revealed 

1  Cf.  op.  cit.,  pp.  205  sqq. 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       391 

deposit  to  the  individual's  conscience,  but  it  is  within  his 
own  soul  the  Divine  voice  speaks  ;  for  God  is  in  the  soul, 
and  has  given  Himself  to  the  soul,  and  so  the  soul  hearing 
His  voice  hears  its  own,  and  assenting  yields  itself  at  one 
and  the  same  time  to  its  own  natural  craving  after  the 
Divinity  and  to  the  Divinity  speaking  within  it. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  main  tendencies  of  this  new  school 
of  Apologetics  which  is  known  as  the  Method  of  Immanence — 
— La  M-ethode  de  V Immanence, — and  which  attaches  itself 
to  a  conception  of  Philosophy  outlined  not  many  years 
since  in  a  book  entitled  U  Action  by  a  French  writer,  M. 
Blondel.  As  a  method  of  Apologetics  it  has  not  been 
allowed  to  pass  unchallenged.  In  fact  it  has  been  severely 
attacked  by  Catholics  throughout  France  since  it  began  to 
attract  attention  and  to  win  over  adherents.  Pere  Laber- 
thonniere,  a  French  Oratorian,  and  editor  of  the  Annales 
de  la  Philosophic  Chretienne;  M.  Le  Roy,  in  his  now  famous 
article,  '  What  is  a  Dogma  ?  '  in  the  Quinzaine  of  April 
last  year,  and  in  other  articles  on  the  same  subject  in  more 
recent  numbers  of  the  Revue  Biblique,  of  the  Bulletin  de 
Litterature  Ecclesiastique  (Toulouse),  and  of  other  periodicals; 
M.  Blondel — developing  the  Philosophy  of  Action  in  the 
Revue  de  Deux  Mondes  and  elsewhere, — these  are  a  few  of 
the  leading  advocates  of  the  system.  Mgr.  Turinaz,  Bishop 
of  Nancy,  M.  Wehrle  in  the  Revue  Biblique,  and  a  whole  host 
of  Catholic  writers  criticise  the  system  and  condemn  its 
principles  and  tendencies  more  or  less  vehemently  ; — gene- 
rally more,  for  the  controversy  which  has  now  found  an 
echo  in  most  of  the  Catholic  reviews  of  Philosophy  and 
Theology  in  France,  and  in  many  outside  France  also,  has 
been  carried  on  rather  vigorously  on  both  sides,  and  some- 
times in  a  tone  and  manner  that  cannot  contribute  very 
much  to  the  advancement  either  of  truth  or  of  charity. 
But  such  feeling  is  not  altogether  inexcusable,  for  the 
issues  involved  are  of  the  most  far-reaching  importance, 
and  the  propagation  or  error  in  regard  to  them  would  do 
an  incalculable  amount  of  mischief.1 

1  Since  the  above  was  written  Pere  Laberthonniere's  book  has  been  placed 
upon  the  Index 


392  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  gravest  charges  against  their  doctrines  on  theolo- 
gical grounds,  are  that  they  destroy  the  distinction  between 
natural  and  supernatural,  between  Reason  and  Faith  ;  that 
they  pervert  the  true  teaching  of  the  Church  upon  Faith 
and  Dogma  ;  that  they  make  Religious  Truth  relative  and 
subjective,  and  ultimately  reduce  Religion  to  a  matter  of 
subjective  feeling.  These  are  charges  of  the  most  serious 
nature,  and  doubtless  there  are  serious  grounds  for  them  ; 
but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  bring  them  home  against  the  de- 
fenders of  the  Method  of  Immanence  and  the  Philosophy 
of  Action. 

The  fact  is  that  those  latter  descriptive  titles  cover  a 
wide  and  ill-defined  group  of  tendencies  rather  than  any 
definite  doctrinal  system.  And  those  tendencies  have 
partially  found  expression  not  in  France  only  but  also  in 
Italy,  as  in  the  writings  of  Semeria  and  Mum  in  the 
Cultura  Sociale  ;  in  England,  as  in  the  writings  of  Father 
Tyrrell ;  in  the  United  States,  as  in  the  pages  of  the  New 
York  Review. 

In  France,  where  those  views  have  been  most  freely 
ventilated,  their  advocates  disclaim  any  conscious  intention 
or  desire  of  forming  a  school  apart.  They  protest  that  they 
are  teaching  no  new  doctrines — and  that  is  most  probably 
the  fact — nor  anything  which  has  not  been  propounded  by 
Catholic  writers  already — and  that  too  is  most  probably 
the  case — nor  anything  incompatible  with  the  genuine 
Catholic  Tradition, — but  this  latter  is  at  least  open  to 
serious  doubt.  They  attach  great  importance  to  the  idea 
of  doctrinal  development  in  Christianity,  and  claim  to  be 
largely  inspired  by  the  views  of  Cardinal  Newman  on  the 
nature,  growth,  and  motives  of  Religious  Belief.  And 
indeed  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Newman  has  received 
quite  a  special  cult  amongst  French  Catholics  in  recent 
times.  His  Theory  of  Assent — which  has  been  the  object 
of  such  controversy  in  the  past,  and  bids  fair  to  provoke 
further  controversy  in  the  near  future,  if  we  can  judge  from 
the  Dublin  Review  and  the  Tablet — has  been  taken  up  and 
defended  by  the  advocates  of  the  New  Apologetic.  They 
insist  upon  the  importance  of  the  Will  as  a  factor  in  Religious 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       393 

Belief.  They  contend  that  the  traditional  Scholastic 
Philosophy  as  applied  to  Religion  by  modern  Catholic 
apologists  is  too  exclusively  intellectualist ;  that  it  exag- 
gerates the  influence  of  pure  reason  over  life,  and  neglects 
to  attach  sufficient  importance  to  the  appetitive  and  emo- 
tional side  of  man  ;  that  it  makes  him  as  it  were  a  mere 
thinking  machine,  and  sets  up  abstract  thought  alone  as  a 
standard  for  judging  those  concrete  moral  and  religious 
facts  which  are  meant  for  the  whole  man.1  They  insist 
that  in  the  domain  of  moral  and  religious  truths  conviction 
is  not  the  result  of  evidence  alone,  that  the  heart  and  the 
will  have  their  share,  and  that  it  is  the  whole  man  that 
believes.  Their  Philosophy  therefore  is  not  intellectualist 
but  voluntarist?  Hence  too,  they  call  it  a  Philosophy  of 
Action,  a  practical,  concrete  Philosophy  of  Life,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  supposed  speculative  and  abstract  character 
of  Scholasticism.3 

1  Cf.  op.  cit.,  pp.  163,  186,  227. 

2  '  On  dit  souvent :  la  verite  ne  peut  pas  changer.     Non  assurement 
elle  ne  peut  pas  changer.     Mais  ce  qui  peut  et  ce  qui  doit  changer,  c'est 
la  connaissance  que  nous  en  avons.     Vivre  c'est  se  mouvoir  .  .  .  ce  qui 
importe  c'est  de  ne  pas  aller  a  1'aventure.     La  verite  pour  nous  n'est  pas 
dans  le  repos,  elle  est  dans  la  fixite  de  1'orientation.     Et  la  fixite  de  1'orien- 
tation  c'est  la  bonne  volunte  qui  nous  la  donne.     On  peut  dire  vraiment 
que  c'est  pour  nous  le  criterium,  criterium  vivant  et  tpujours  libre,  mais 
toujours  aussi  a  notre  disposition.  .  .  .  C'etait  un  axiome  dans  1'Ecole 
que  le  bien  et  le  vrai  sont  une  mfime  chose.    Cet  axiome  nous  le  transposons 
de  1'objet  au  sujet  en  disant  que  c'est  aussi  la  m6me  chose  qu'   Stre  bon 
et  avoir  la  verite.     Mais  tandis  que  du  point  de  vue  intellectualiste  on 
devrait  dire  que  c'est  du  vrai  qu'on  va  au  bien,  et  que  c'est  par  la  con- 
naissance de  la  verite  qu'on  est  bon — ainsi  disait  Socrate — nous  disons 
que  c'est  par  la  bonte  qu'on  possede  la  verite  et  que  c'est  le  bien  qui  est 
vrai.   Dieu  est  verite,  mais  il  n'est  pas  verite  que  parce  qu'il  est  bonte  .  .  . 
Et  ce  n'est  point  en  tant  qu'il  est  vrai  que  nons  le  connaissons  d'abord, 
mais  en  tant  qu'il  est  bon  :   c'est    en  effet  en  tant  qu'il  est  bon  et  par 
bonte  qu'il  est  en  nous  ;  et  c'est  dans  la  bonne  volonte  et  par  elle  qu'il 
se  revele  a  nous. 

'  Mais  puisque  c'est  par  la  bonte  qu'on  possede  la  vdrite  et  puisque 
c'est  par  la  volonte  qu'on  est  bon,  c'est  done  du  point  de  vue  de  la  volonte 
qu'il  faut  envisager  la  verite,  c'est  a  dire  du  point  de  vue  subjectif  et 
immanent.' — (Op.  cit.,  pp.  185-6.  Cf.  pp.  179  sqq.) 

3  Father  Laberthonnidre  says  it  could  be  shown  that  one  cannot 
be  an  intellectualist  and  a  Christian,  except  by  the  extraordinary  com- 
promise of  admitting  contraries,  and  living  en  partie  double  with  theory 
divorced  from  practice.     The  contraries  referred  to  are  : — 

(1)  '  Le  surnaturel  et  le  naturel  sont  heterogfcnes. — Le  surnaturel  et 
le  naturel  doivent  former  un  systime  rationel  et  pouvoir  Stre  objet  de  la 
science  ; 

(2)  '  La  foi  est  libre  dans    non    principe  et    elle  est    toujours  uue 
solution  personelle  et  singuliere. — La  science  amene  a  des  conclusions  qui 


394  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

Now,  I  venture  to  think  that  those  indications  of  its 
general  attitude  and  tendencies, — brief  and  inadequate 
as  they  necessarily  are, — can  hardly  fail  to  suggest  the 
suspicion  of  a  more  or  less  close  connexion  between  this 
whole  movement  of  ideas  and  another  Philosophy, — a 
Philosophy  which  has  practically  reigned  supreme  all  over 
the  Continent  for  the  greater  part  of  the  last  century. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  avowed  aim  and  ambition  of  the 
New  Apologetic  to  put  forward  the  claims  of  Christianity 
in  such  a  form  as  to  be  both  intelligible  and  accept- 
able to  what  is  called  the  '  Modern  Mind.'  Now,  this 
*  Modern  Mind '  is  largely  the  outcome  of  Kantism,  and 
looks  at  everything  through  the  medium  of  Kantian  con- 
ceptions and  theories. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Philosopher  of  Koenigs- 
berg  denied  to  the  Pure  Reason — rightly  or  wrongly,  as  he 
understood  it,  we  will  not  here  enquire, — but  anyhow  he 
denied  to  the  Pure  Reason  the  power  of  attaining  to  cer- 
tainty about  the  fundamental  truths  of  natural  religion  : 
God,  and  Freedom,  and  Immortality  ;  and  that  he  then 
proceeded, — religious  and  upright  and  well-meaning  man 
as  he  certainly  was, — to  set  up  and  establish  on  a  new 

s'imposent  necessairement  selon  un  determinisme  logique  et  rigoureux, 
et  ses  conclusions  sont  impersonelles  et  universelles  '  (Op.  cit.,  p.  186,  note). 
He  then  goes  on  to  give  this  summary  of  his  method  :  'En  partant  du 
christianisme,  comme  nous  1'avons  fait,  en  nous  demandant  comment  nous 
croyons  et  comment  la  verite  surnaturelle  devient  notre  verite,  nous  avons 
du  reconnaltre  que,  bien  qu'en  un  sens  elle  s'impose  a  nous  du  dehors, 
elle  ne  devient  n6tre  cependant,  et  nous  ne  la  possedons,  et  nous  ne  la 
connaissons  que  parceque  du  dedans  nous  aliens  vers  elle.  En  conse- 
quence pour  nous  montrer  comment  la  verite  surnaturelle  devient  legi- 
timement  notre  verite — ce  qui  est  le  but  de  1'apologetique — c'est  done 
bien  la  methode  de  1'immanence  qu'il  faut  employer.  Cette  methode 
d'immanence  implique,  il  est  vrai,  une  philosophic  de  la  volont6,  une  philo- 
sophic de  la  vie  et  de  1'action,  mouvante  comme  la  vie  et  1'action  elles 
mimes.  Elle  se  trouve  ainsi  en  opposition  avec  1'intellectualisme  que  est 
une  philosophic  de  1'idee,  et  qui  aspire,  sans  pouvoir  aboutir  du  reste, 
4  la  fixit6  et  a  I'immobilite  qu'il  prete  artificiellement  a  "1'idee."  '  Such 
intellectualism  he  calls  an  idolatry  :  '  II  consiste  en  effet  en  ceci  que  1' esprit 
humain,  prenant  ses  conceptions  pour  la  verite  definitive  et  totale,  veut 
e'y  arreter  et  les  adorer,  sans  s'appercevoir  qu'elles  sont  un  produit  de 
son  activite  et  une  expression  de  sa  vie.  .  .  .'  (p.  187).  The  intellectualism 
of  which  those  things  are  true  is  not  that  of  Scholastic  Philosophy,  which 
on  the  one  hand  sees  in  the  object  of  the  abstract  idea  far  more  than 
a  product  of  mental  activity,  and  on  the  other  hand,  nevertheless,  recog- 
nizes fully  that  that  abstract  object  is  but  a  mere  aspect,  and  a  very 
inadequate  aspect,  of  concrete -reality. 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION      395 

basis,  that  of  Practical  Reason,  or  Will  or  Moral  Conscience, 
the  truths  he  had  just  pulled  down.  It  is  also  a  well- 
known  fact  that  amongst  Kant's  followers  themselves,  as 
well  as  amongst  his  critics,  there  soon  appeared  two  dif- 
ferent ways  of  interpreting  both  the  intentions  and  the 
achievements  of  the  master.  Some  held  what  we  may 
briefly  call  the  heterodox  view  of  Kantism  :  that  Kant's 
chief  work  is  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  and  that  it  was 
only  as  an  afterthought,  and  in  a  sort  of  desperation  at 
contemplating  the  ruin  he  had  wrought  in  it,  that  he  at- 
tempted to  mend  matters  in  the  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  : 
that  he  failed  to  accomplish  his  purpose,  and  has  left  to 
posterity  a  legacy  of  subjectivism  and  scepticism.  Others 
interpret  their  master's  teaching  in  a  more  orthodox  way. 
These  give  the  primacy  of  importance  to  his  second  Critique. 
They  maintain  that  he  knew  what  he  was  about  and  saw 
the  whole  way  before  him  from  the  beginning,  and  that 
in  the  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  he  has  placed  Religion 
and  Morality  on  their  proper  basis, — where  they  will  be  for 
ever  safe  from  the  corroding  influence  of  the  faculty  that 
merely  doubts  and  criticizes. 

Most  Catholics  hold  the  view  that  Kant's  first  Critique 
is  destructive  of  the  very  foundations  of  Faith  ;  and  that 
whatever  his  intentions  may  have  been,  his  subsequent 
efforts — in  the  second  Critique — have  utterly  and  hope- 
lessly failed  to  reconstruct  the  shattered  edifice.  There 
are  some  Catholics,  however,  especially  in  France,  who 
adopt  the  second  view,  and  who  are  prepared  to  hold  that 
in  that  interpretation  of  Kantism  there  is  nothing  whatever 
incompatible  with  the  Faith.  The  existence  of  this  view 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  French  Kantism,  or  rather 
Neo-Kantism,  as  it  is  called,  has  always  emphasized  the 
primacy  of  the  Practical  over  the  Speculative  Reason, 
thereby  spreading  the  notion  that  Kantism  is  by  no  means 
opposed  to  Theism  and  Religion.  But  on  the  other  side 
it  is  contended  that  the  religion  it  allows  is  necessarily  a 
subjective  belief,  not  based  upon  reason  but  rather  upon 
moral  and  religious  instincts  and  feelings  and  devoid  of 
any  real  or  objective  value. 


396  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

Those  alternative  tendencies  to  emphasize  now  the 
subjective  and  now  the  objective  elements  in  Religious 
Belief,  and  indeed  in  all  Truth,  have  not  been  born  of 
Kantism  or  of  any  modern  system  ;  they  are  of  the  same 
hoary  antiquity  as  the  earliest  human  speculations  on  the 
relation  between  Thought  and  Things.  To  emphasize 
unduly  either  aspect  of  Assent  is  to  give  a  one-sided  and 
erroneous  account  of  it.  The  advocates  of  the  Apologetic 
of  Immanence  blame  the  intellectualism  and  the  exag- 
gerated objectivity  of  traditional  Scholasticism  :  they  feel 
the  need  of  a  reaction  which  would  give  their  due  share  of 
importance  to  the  personal,  subjective  factors  in  our  Religious 
Belief.  In  dwelling  on  these  factors  they  are  looking  in 
the  same  direction  as  Kant.  But  to  Catholics  generally  the 
name  of  Kant  is  anathema — with  some,  even  to  look  in  his 
direction  is  not  quite  safe  !  Hence  the  new  apologists 
prefer  to  have  it  said  of  them  not  that  they  are  moving 
towards  Kant,  but  rather  that  they  are  at  one  with 
Newman  .  .  .  Query  :  is  it  so  very  easy  to  distinguish 
Newman's  doctrine  on  Notional  and  Real  Assent  from 
Kant's  teaching  on  Speculative  and  Practical  Certitude  ? 

The  new  apologists  complain  of  the  cold  and  arid  intel- 
lectualism of  the  traditional  Catholic  Philosophy.  As 
against  occasional  exponents  of  Scholasticism  the  com- 
plaint is  justifiable,  but  that  there  are  any  grounds  for  a 
general  accusation  I  should  be  very  slow  to  allow.1  It  is 
easy  to  set  up  a  one-sided  view  for  the  sake  of  showing  its 
shortcomings,  and  a  great  many  views  of  that  sort  are  set 
up  and  pulled  down  in  their  writings.  But  they  are  not 
the  views  of  the  great  scholastics.  Their  own  views  they 
do  not  claim  to  be  original :  indeed  what  is  best  in  them 
may  be  found  in  Scholasticism  some  place  or  other. 

That  Scholasticism  exaggerates  the  office  and  influence  of 
Reason,  those  people  would  never,  I  believe,  have  alleged, 
did  they  understand  the  recognition  it  gives  to  the  various 
kinds  of  evidence  requisite  for  certainty  in  the  various 
spheres  of  human  research  ;  and  did  they  but  remember 


1  Cf.  New  York  Review,  vol.  i.,  p.  38. 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION      397 

that  when  all  is  said  and  done  by  man's  other  faculties,  his 
reflecting  reason  alone  must  be  always  supreme  judge  and 
high  court  of  appeal  in  deciding  his  Philosophy  of  Life.  If 
the  worth  and  sincerity  of  thought  are  often  measured  by 
action,  it  is  no  less  true  that  the  value  of  conduct  itself 
must  be  finally  measured  by  thought. 

No,  I  fear  it  is  rather  those  philosophers  themselves 
who  commit  the  fatal  error  of  which  they  accuse  Scholas- 
ticism. It  is  they  who  really  undermine  the  influence  of 
the  appetitive  side  of  man's  nature  on  his  Philosophy  of 
Life  ;  it  is  they  who  render  useless  the  promptings  of  the 
moral  instincts,  and  reduce  the  voice  of  conscience  to  a 
hollow,  empty  sound.  All  this  they  do  by  separating  the 
pure  from  the  practical  reason,  and  by  allotting  to  each 
*  part '  a  separate  and  independent  domain.  They  allow 
the  pure  reason  to  run  riot  in  a  world  of  abstractions,  and 
then  proclaim  it  powerless  to  reach  the  world  of  the  real 
and  the  concrete.  Then  they  try  to  build  up  their  concrete 
beliefs  on  the  foundations  of  moral  feelings  and  instincts. 
But  those  latter,  being  already  divorced  from  reason  proper, 
can  never  yield  a  basis  for  a  reasonable  faith.  And 
reason  will  have  its  revenge,  by  pronouncing  the  last  word 
on  all  such  beliefs  :  that  they  are  subjective  and  worthless. 
It  is  the  new  apologists  and  not  the  scholastics  who  make 
the  mistake  of  forgetting  that  it  is  the  whole  man  and 
the  same  man  who  reasons  and  believes  ; — of  dividing  him 
up  into  fractions  and  speculating  on  each  apart. 

I  do  not  say  that  all  the  writers  who  advocate  the  Method 
of  Immanence  or  who  favour  the  Philosophy  of  Action 
go  to  such  extremes.  There  are  many  who  employ  the  New 
Apologetic  as  supplementing  and  completing  the  objective, 
historical  method  and  not  at  all  as  supplanting  the  latter. 
Such  an  attitude  has  everything  to  commend  it.  Likewise, 
there  are  many  who  insist  that  the  role  of  the  will  and  the 
feelings,  and  the  whole  personal  element  in  our  Religious 
Assents  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  any  system  of  Philosophy. 
This  too  is  just,  provided  the  objective  element  be  not 
sacrificed.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  at  least  some  of 
those  writers  expose  that  element  to  grave  danger.  And 


39**  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

if  they  err  in  that  respect  they  will  vitiate  their  whole 
system, — even  although  in  other  respects  it  may  contain 
much  that  is  good  and  true.  And  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
their  writings  contain  much  that  is  good  and  useful.  But 
so,  of  course,  does  Kantism  itself,  and  indeed  so  do  most 
systems  of  Philosophy.  And  this  is  just  the  danger.  If 
a  system  contained  nothing  true  or  good  it  would  never 
do  any  harm,  for  it  would  attract  nobody. 

Our  own  Scholastic  Philosophy  is  capable  of  assimilating 
whatever  of  goodness  and  truth  it  finds  in  other  systems  : 
and  our  obvious  aim  should  be  to  enrich  it,  to  improve 
it,  and  to  modernize  it  by  the  addition  of  everything  valu- 
able to  be  found  in  modern  systems.  Its  principles  are 
tried  and  true,  its  method  is  judicious  and  fruitful,  and  its 
gradual  assimilation  of  all  the  best  products  of  modern 
scientific  progress  can  have  only  the  one  desirable  effect 
of  infusing  into  its  system  an  ever-increasing  store  of 
vigour  and  vitality. 

B. — SOME    FINAL   REFLECTIONS 

All  those  questionings  and  discussions  which  are  stirring 
the  minds  of  educated  Catholics  abroad,  are  the  inevitable 
outcome  of  the  contact  of  Christianity  with  the  restless 
souls  of  men  ;  and  they  bear  eloquent  testimony  to  its 
living,  active  influence  on  the  modern  mind.  They  may 
from  time  to  time  be  troublesome  and  disquieting,  but 
only  cowards  will  fly  from  the  danger :  without  such 
conflicts  Christianity  will  make  few  conquests,  and  perhaps 
even  sometimes  will  not  hold  her  own.  For  those  to 
whom  the  guardianship  of  Ireland's  Faith  is  entrusted, 
those  modern  movements  and  tendencies  in  thought  should 
possess  far  more  than  a  mere  speculative  interest :  and 
this,  even  although  there  may  be  no  manifestations  amongst 
us  of  any  great  activity  or  interest  in  such  questions.  It 
would  not  be  at  all  reassuring  from  the  religious  point  of 
view  were  thought  to  revive  and  education  to  advance, 
and  enlightenment  to  spread  amongst  our  people,  and  all 
that  secular  progress  to  synchronize  with  intellectual 


THOUGHTS    ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       399 

indifference  about  religious  questions  of  the  weightiest 
moment.  We  should  be  at  least  as  much  afraid  of  stag- 
nation as  of  unrest.  There  is  danger  in  both,  but  neither 
is  an  unmixed  evil :  though  some  simple  Catholics  seem 
to  see  no  evil  at  all  in  the  former  and  nothing  but  evil  in 
the  latter.  The  latter  is  with  us  anyhow,  and  is  likely  to 
remain.  ^\nd  while  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  ex- 
aggerate its  dimensions,  or  to  be  alarmed  about  it,  neither 
would  it  be  the  wisest  policy  to  pretend  not  to  see  it  at  all. 

To  try  to  persuade  ourselves  that  there  is  no  Unbelief 
in  Ireland,  that  there  are  no  doubts  and  questionings,  that 
infidel  ideas  are  unknown,  that  there  are  no  pernicious 
social  and  ethical  theories  current,  and  no  '  nominal ' 
Catholics  amongst  us,  would  be  simply  to  close  our  eyes 
to  the  facts  and  live  in  a  fool's  paradise.  With  the  means 
of  communication  that  actually  exist  between  all  civilized 
countries  ;  with  thought  transmitted  from  end  to  end  of  the 
earth,  and  through  all  classes  of  society,  in  the  novel  and 
magazine  and  newspaper,  it  is  simply  childish  to  think  that 
our  Catholic  people  are  going  to  live  for  ever  in  the  immu- 
nity of  a  '  splendid  isolation.'  It  is  a  simple  fact  that  by 
means  of  imported  literature,  English  and  foreign  thought- 
good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  such  as  it  is — is  permeating  our 
people's  minds  and  hearts,  and  is  influencing  their  lives. 
Education  of  a  kind  is  increasing  and  will  continue  to  in- 
crease. Intellectual  activity  of  some  kind, — the  dissemi- 
nation of  some  sort  of  ideas — is  bound  to  grow  apace, 
quite  independently  of  any  University.  Economic  condi- 
tions will  surely  demand  that  Ireland  be  inhabited  and  its 
land  and  resources  worked  by  a  people  able  and  willing  to 
work  them,  and  prospering  by  their  industry.  Whether 
these  people  of  the  future  be  the  children  of  the  Planter  or 
of  the  native  Gael,  there  is  a  possibility  that  such  prosperity 
may  bring  in  its  train  materialism  and  indifference  to  the 
higher  things  of  life. 

It  is  beyond  all  question  that  Ireland  is  passing  through 
changing  conditions,  and  that  her  future  will  in  many 
things  differ  from  her  past.  The  early  Christian  Church 
was  attacked  by  false  philosophies,  when  the  weapons  of 


400  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

flesh  and  blood  had  failed.  The  Irish  Church  has  stood 
faithful  through  centuries  of  persecution ;  perhaps  the 
weapons  of  error  and  indifference  are  being  forged  in  those 
days  to  do  war  against  her.  If  that  be  so  it  behoves  us 
to  watch  the  enemies'  tactics,  and  to  attend  to  those  special 
departments  where  their  attacks  are  made.  The  Church 
in  all  countries  at  the  present  day  needs  three  classes  of 
scholars  in  particular  to  defend  and  propound  her  teaching : 
the  historian  to  establish  her  divine  institution  and  to 
interpret  her  tradition  ;  the  Scripture-scholar  to  defend  the 
Bible  and  interpret  its  contents  ;  and  the  Christian  philo- 
sopher and  apologist  to  show  that  faith  is  reasonable,  and 
to  hold  up  Christianity  as  the  only  true  and  satisfactory 
Philosophy  of  Life. 

Is  it  not  all-important  that  we  should  be  beforehand 
with  that  Christian  Philosophy,  that  we  should  settle  the 
doubts  of  enquiring  people,  and  save  the  reading  public 
from  the  poison  of  infidelity  and  error  ?  I  have  often 
thought  that  the  Irish  mind  has  a  leaning  towards  the 
spiritual,  a  bent  for  speculation  on  the  meaning  and  reasons 
of  things.  If  that  be  so,  it  is  doubly  necessary  to  feed  it 
with  sound  principles ;  for  the  Irish,  like  the  French,  are 
logical  and  push  things  to  extremes.  They  will  be  usually 
very  good  or  very  bad  ;  but  rarely  will  they  settle  down, 
as  people  of  neighbouring  races  can,  in  comfortable  incon- 
sistency. They  will,  therefore,  demand  from  us,  what  is 
already  the  great  need  of  the  day  at  home  as  well  as  abroad, 
a  defence  of  the  rational  foundations  of  the  Christian 
Faith  against  the  attacks  of  modern  Unbelief.  It  is  the 
study  of  Philosophy  in  its  widest  sense  that  will  prepare 
us  for  that  work,  and  equip  us  with  that  knowledge  which 
the  lips  of  the  priest  are  to  guard.  We  should  be  eager 
and  enthusiastic  in  garnering  that  knowledge  :  to  acquire 
it  should  be  the  passion  of  every  student's  life  ;  and  to 
possess  and  utilize  it  the  life  work  of  the  priest. 

I  will  go  even  farther  and  say,  that  every  educated 
Catholic,  layman  as  well  as  priest,  should  live  upon  this 
Philosophy  and  make  it  part  of  his  life.  The  uninstructed 
Catholic  will  rest  in  simple  faith.  But  the  educated  Catholic 


THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  RELIGION       401 

must  be  at  least  so  far  a  philosopher  as  to  be  able  to  answer 
the  questionings  of  his  own  reflecting  reason.  His  faith 
must  be  a  rationabile  obsequium, — a  reasonable  service, — 
and  that  it  will  not  be  unless  his  reasons  for  his  faith  are  in 
proportion  to  the  development  of  his  mind. 

And  if  this  be  true  of  the  layman  how  much  more  so 
for  the  priest  ?  The  priest's  daily  life  is  spent  in  constant 
contact  with  the  highest,  deepest,  most  sacred  truths  in 
the  Christian  Philosophy  of  Life.  He  must  needs  be  a 
philosopher,  if  he  realizes  those  truths  in  his  life  and  ministry. 
And  if  he  does  not  realize  them,  what  can  there  be  of  depth, 
or  reality,  or  power  in  his  preaching  or  priestly  work  ? 

That  is  the  highest  application  of  the  great  general 
truth,  that  Philosophy  in  its  fullest  sense  must  be  in  con- 
tinuity with  every  conceivable  department  of  human 
thought  and  activity.  No  matter  what  problem  we  may 
face  in  any  science  or  art  of  life,  we  have  only  to  push  the 
inquiry  far  enough  and  we  shall  soon  find  ourselves  raising 
some  one  or  other  of  those  eternal  questions  around  which 
all  Philosophy  centres.  We  may  take  up  social,  political, 
economic,  educational,  industrial  work  amongst  the  people  : 
in  no  one  department  may  we  dispense  with  the  sound 
rational  and  religious  principles  drawn  from  the  Christian 
Philosophy  of  Life.  That  we  may  have  occasion  to  ad- 
minister those  principles  as  an  antidote  against  the  poison 
of  passing  errors,  the  circumstances  which  recently  called 
forth  a  remarkable  publication  on  Catholicity  and  Progress 

Ireland1  will  furnish  us  with  ample  proof. 

Nor,  finally,  must  it  be  imagined  that  the  study  of  this 
Philosophy  can  be  approached  only  in  the  one  way  with 
which  our  college  students  are  familiar.  It  can  be  cultivated 
everywhere  :  for  it  is  so  ubiquitous  that  it  cannot  well  be 
avoided.  In  the  wide  world  of  literature — where  the  Irish 
priest  should  make  his  influence  felt  far  more  than  he  does 
—the  need  of  a  pure  and  wholesome  and  elevating  Philo- 
sophy is  very  great  indeed.  If  the  genius  of  the  Irish  mind 
is  speculative,  it  is  also  highly  imaginative,  and  ought  to 

1  Catholicity  and  Progress  in  Ireland.      By  the  Rev.   M.  O'Riordan, 
D.Ph.,  D.D.,  D.C.L.    London  :  Kegan  Paul,  1905. 

VOL.  XIX.  2  C 


402  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

be  capable  of  fine  literary  work  both  in  prose  and  poetry. 
But  it  is  sometimes  thought  that  the  literary  and  philo- 
sophical casts  of  mind  are  somehow  incompatible,  and 
cannot  be  developed  together.  Nothing,  I  think,  could  be 
farther  from  the  truth.  I  do  not  believe,  for  example, 
there  was  ever  a  great  poet  who  was  not  a  great  philo- 
sopher as  well.  The  great  poets  have  held  a  place  in  pos- 
terity not  alone  or  chiefly  because  they  excelled  in  the  art 
of  elegant  expression  but  also,  and  no  less,  because  they 
had  great  thoughts,  noble  ideas,  and  inspiring  messages 
to  convey  to  their  fellow-men.  And  where  is  there  such  a 
message  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  Philosophy  of  the  Catholic 
Religion  ?  Then  look  at  modern  prose  literature.  See 
how  every  other  Philosophy  is  preached  and  popularized, 
and  put  into  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  millions  by  means 
of  the  modern  novel.  Is  there  any  reason  why  a  Catholic 
should  not  or  could  not  do  for  Catholicity  what  a  host  of 
non-Catholics  have  so  ably  done  for  their  chosen  beliefs  ? 
Is  there  any  reason  why  the  future  Irish  priest  with  a  liter- 
ary turn  should  not  emulate  the  example  of  some  few  we 
know,  to  the  best  of  his  ability  ?  There  is  an  urgent  and 
an  ever-growing  need  for  a  popular  Catholic  literature, 
both  in  Irish  and  in  English  :  and  who  is  to  meet  that  need 
if  the  Irish  priest  does  not  set  the  example  ? 

Let  us,  therefore,  cultivate  our  gifts,  literary  or  other- 
wise, with  the  greatest  zeal  and  care.  Be  they  as  five 
talents,  or  as  two,  or  only  as  one,  the  Irish  Church  has  need 
of  them,  and  the  Master  has  given  them  to  us  to  trade  with 
them  till  He  come.1  But  let  us  attend  to  Christian  Philo- 
sophy if  we  want  to  write  anything  enduring.  Else  we  are 
mere  dabblers  in  literary  conceits  and  empty  forms,  without 
a  soul  or  a  meaning. 

P.  COFFEY. 


1  Luke  xix.  13. 


[    403    ] 


RELIGION   AS   A   CREDIBLE   DOCTRINE1 

I. — FREE-WILL 

PASSING  over  Mr.  Mallock's  historical  sketch  of  the 
free-will  controversy,  which  contains  nothing  very 
interesting  beyond  the  exposition  of  the  conclusions 
he  hopes  to  reach,  let  us  consider  his  method  of  presenting 
the  '  fundamental  facts  '  of  the  problem. 

Everyone  admits  that  we  will  only  those  things  which 
we  think  for  some  reason  or  other  desirable.  But  does 
Mr.  Mallock's  illustration  (pages  97,  98)  prove — and  he  has 
attempted  no  other  proof — that  if  only  one  object  of  desire 
is  present,  only  one  act  of  will  is  possible  ;  and  that  if 
several  are  present  the  will  is  determined  by  the  most 
desirable.  Let  us  take  Mr.  Mallock's  example  of  the 
famished  man  in  a  boat,  too  weak,  for  want  of  food,  to 
row,  or  hoist  sail,  or  signal.  He  wishes  to  live,  but  can 
do  nothing  to  save  himself.  He  might  do  something  if  he 
could  eat  ;  without  food  he  is  helpless.  Suddenly  a  fairy 
or  an  angel  puts  down  before  him,  an  excellent  meal, 
consisting  of  roast  mutton  and  claret — and  the  starving 
one  devours  the  good  things  ! 

We  submit  the  only  conclusion  is — that  action,  following 
on  wish,  must  be  of  that  specific  kind  which,  in  the  circum- 
stances, is  the  only  possible  means  of  fulfilling  the  wish. 
But  the  Deus  ex  machina  is  prodigal.  Roast  mutton  and 
claret  on  the  one  hand,  rotten  blubber  and  bilge  water  on 
the  other,  and  between  them  our  solitary  starving  one, 
who,  be  it  remembered,  wishes  to  live,  and  cannot  live 
without  the  food.  Inevitably,  says  Mr.  Mallock,  the  choice 
falls  on  the  mutton,  and,  therefore,  the  theory  that  the 
will  is  determined  by  the  most  desirable  objects  present 
rests  on  facts.  We  are  not  so  sure  on  this  point  as 

1  Space  difficulties  have  led  to  a  change  in  the  original  plan.  We  have 
been  obliged  to  interweave  text  and  criticism  in  the  present  article.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  page  references  to  Mr.  Mallock's  work  will  be  an 
acceptable  substitute  for  an  independent  summary  of  his  views. 


404  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Mr.  Mallock,  because  we  do  not  know  the  precise  value  of 
blubber  in  a  struggle  for  existence  ;  and,  further,  because 
we  do  not  know  the  ascetic  capabilities  of  the  individual 
in  question.  If  rotten  blubber  and  bilge  water  have  no 
sustaining  power,  and  if  the  starving  one  knows  that,  we 
admit  the  inevitability  of  his  mutton  choice  for  the  precise 
reason  that  he  wishes  to  live.  In  such  a  hypothesis,  the 
only  conclusion  warranted  by  the  facts  is  that  already 
pointed  out,  for  the  second  illustration  adds  nothing  to  the 
first.  If,  however,  the  solitary  starving  one  is  gifted  with 
a  stomach  of  Laplandic  fibre,  and  if  he  believes  that  his 
wish  of  saving  his  life  can  be  fulfilled  by  stuffing  himself 
with  blubber,  we  deny  the  inevitability  of  the  mutton  choice. 
In  this  case,  we  hold  that  the  starving  one  may  deliberately 
reject  the  roast  mutton.  A  fool,  then, — rejoins  Mr.  Mallock. 
In  certain  circumstances — yes,  and  we  hold  that  men  are 
capable  of  foolish,  very  foolish  actions.  A  fool — if  his  only 
outlook  on  life  is  that  of  the  epicure,  or  if  his  only  reason 
for  choosing  blubber  be  mere  caprice.  Not  so  very  cer- 
tainly a  fool,  if  he  is  accustomed  to  think  of  mutton  and 
blubber  from  other  standpoints  than  that  of  their  epicurean 
desirability,  or  than  that  of  their  more  pleasurable  sensual 
sensations.  A  Benedict  Joseph  Labre,  in  such  circum- 
stances as  those  of  the  solitary,  starving  one,  might  wish 
to  live,  and  yet  most  rationally  choose  the  blubber  in  the 
hypothesis  that  blubber  would  give  him  strength  enough 
to  row  or  signal. 

We  have  studied  Mr.  Mallock's  illustration  thus  closely 
to  show  that  it  proves  nothing  in  favour  of  determinism, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  seems  to  conceal  a  petitio  principii. 
The  first  stage  of  the  illustration,  which  proves  that  a  man 
who  wishes  to  live,  and  who  has  only  one  means  of  doing 
so,  necessarily  accepts  that  means,  has  nothing  to  say — 
as  we  shall  see — to  the  free-will  problem.  As  for  the  second 
stage,  if  Mr.  Mallock  means  it  to  have  any  significance 
beyond  that  of  the  first,  he  must  needs  admit  the  staying 
power  of  blubber  as  well  as  abnormal  digestive  powers. 
If  admitting  these,  he  rejects  our  hypothesis  of  the  dif- 
ferent modes  of  action  which  saint  or  fool  might  possibly 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  4°5 

follow  in  such  circumstances,  he  slyly  assumes  without  a 
particle  of  proof  the  most  narrow-minded  form  of  deter- 
minism, namely,  that  the  will  is  necessarily  determined 
by  the  most  pleasurable  present  good.  Should  he  give  us 
more  rope,  and  admitting  the  possibility  of  the  different 
actions  of  fool  or  saint,  maintain  that  both  fool  and  saint, 
because  influenced  by  motives,  are  therefore  necessarily 
determined,  the  one  to  the  act  of  caprice,  the  other  to  the 
act  of  self-denial,  again  he  is  assuming  without  proof  the 
more  modern  form  of  determinism. 

Free-will — and  this  is  capital— does  not  imply  choice 
without  motive.  '  Nil  eligitur  nisi  sub  specie  boni,'  wrote 
St.  Thomas.  Free-will  implies  choice  of  motives,  but  of 
motives  that  are  not  determining.  The  point  at  issue  is  : 
'  Is  my  voluntary  act  at  every  moment  determined 
(i)  by  my  character  (a)  partly  inherited,  (6)  partly  formed 
by  past  actions  and  feelings  ;  and  (2)  by  my  circumstances 
or  the  external  influences  acting  on  me  at  the  moment  ? 
or  not  ?  '  Determinists  answer — Yes  ;  libertarians  answer 
— No.  Mr.  Mallock's  illustrations  certainly  furnish  no 
proof,  except  a  skilfully  cloaked  •petitio  principal,  and  his 
conclusion  from  these  illustrations  that  '  the  bondage  of 
our  wills  in  every  act  of  willing  to  the  sole  desire,  or  to  the 
strongest  desire  of  the  moment,  is  absolute,  necessary, 
invariable '  is  in  its  deterministic  interpretation — the  one 
clearly  meant  by  Mr.  Mallock — wholly  unproven.  We  are 
conscious  that  we  have  not  yet  furnished  any  proofs  of 
free-will,  and  we  merely  characterise  his  conclusions  as 
unproven. 

Let  us  see  if  he  advances  further  on  his  way  when  he 
asks  whether  men  can  determine  their  desires.  From 
Mr.  Mallock's  description  of  desire  (pages  101,102)  we  gather 
that  he  intends  by  desire  to  indicate  either  a  blind  organic 
craving  such  as  the  desire  for  food,  or  the  feeling  of  attrac- 
tion towards  an  agreeable  object.  And  Mr.  Mallock's 
language  implies  that  libertarians  must  uphold  that  man 
has  the  power  of  imposing  desires — in  the  sense  denned 
— on  himself.  Otherwise,  he  argues,  man  is  the  puppet 
of  his  desires,  not  the  master.  This  is  a  complete  mis- 


406  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

representation  of  the  libertarian  position.  The  doctrine 
of  free-will  does  not  need  to  suppose  man  the  creator  of 
such  desires,  it  does  suppose  that  man  can  resist  or  permit 
the  spontaneous  movement  of  the  appetite  towards  the 
desired  object.  That  is  to  say,  libertarians  admit  as  fully 
as  Mr.  Mallock,  that  certain  desires — for  instance,  the 
organic  craving  for  food,  the  animal  attractions  of  sensuality, 
the  higher  attraction  for  knowledge — are  imposed  on  man 
by  his  nature,  his  circumstances,  his  general  character, 
and  by  the  qualities  of  the  desired  objects.  They  main- 
tain, however,  that  man  can  control  this  attraction  in  the 
sense  that  he  can  reject  or  assent  to  the  spontaneous 
movement.  Mr.  Mallock,  therefore,  in  proving  that  desire 
depends  on  factors  over  which  we  have  no  control  proves 
nothing  to  his  purpose,  unless  once  more  he  assumes,  with- 
out furnishing  proof,  that  we  are  incapable  of  resisting 
these  desires.  If  we  are  capable  of  resisting  them,  we  are 
not  the  puppet  of  our  desires,  however  these  desires  ma}' 
have  been  created.  Whether  we  have  this  capacity  or 
not,  is  the  point  to  be  proved,  the  point  which  Mr.  Mallock 
has  not  even  touched.  Further,  no  apologist  maintains 
that  variety  of  desires  is  a  necessary  indication  of  freedom 
(page  103).  And  the  statement  that  most  apologists 
reduce  the  operation  of  free-will  to  those  peculiar  cases 
where  dutiful  desire  is  opposed  to  unlawful  desire  is  mis- 
leading. Apologists  hold  that  the  most  evident  proofs  of 
free-will  are  to  be  drawn  from  the  mental  phenomena 
observed  in  such  moral  crises,  and  hold,  too,  that  a  very 
large  part  of  man's  daily  action  is  indeliberate  ;  but  they 
hold  that  man  possesses  permanently  the  power  of  free 
choice,  and  may  exert  it  when  he  pleases. 

At  this  juncture,  Mr.  Mallock  really  begins  his  criticism 
of  the  libertarian  position,  by  singling  out  Dr.  Ward.  We 
shall  cite  the  particular  proof  to  which  Mr.  Mallock  draws 
attention,  and  then  review  his  criticism.  Dr.  Ward's 
proof  runs  thus  : — 

I  am  a  keen  sportsman,  and  one  cloudy  morning  am 
looking  forward  with  lively  hope  to  my  day's  hunting.  My 
post,  however,  comes  in  early  ;  and  I  receive  a  letter  just  as 


RELIGION   AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  4°7 

I  have  donned  my  red  coat  and  am  sitting  down  to  breakfast. 
This  letter  announces  that  I  must  set  off  that  very  morning 
to  London,  if  I  am  to  be  present  at  some  occasion  on  which 
my  presence  will  be  vitally  important.     [Now  continues  Mr. 
Ward]  there  is  one  course  of  action  which  the  determinist  does 
not — and  consistently  with  his  theory  cannot — admit  to  be  a 
possible  one  ;  but  in  regard  to  which  we  confidently  maintain  by 
appeal  to  experience,  that  it  is  abundantly  possible,  and  by  no 
means  infrequent.  It  is  most  possible,  we  say,  that  I  put  forth  on 
this  occasion  anti -impulsive  effort ;  that  I  act  resolutely  and 
consistently   in   opposition    to   my   spontaneous   impulse,    in 
opposition  to  that  which  at  the  moment  is  my  strongest  desire. 
Thus  on  his  side  the  spontaneous  impulse  of  my  will  is  quite 
decidedly  in  favour  of  staying  to  hunt ;  or  in  other  words,  the 
motive  which  prompts  me  to  stay  is  quite  decidedly  stronger 
at  the  moment  than  that  which  prompts  me  to  go.     On  the 
other  hand,  my  reason  recognizes  clearly  how  very  important 
is  the  public  interest  at  issue,  and  how  plainly  duty  calls  me 
in   the    direction   of   London.     I    resolutely,    therefore,  enter 
my  carriage,  and  order  it  to  the  station.     And  now  let  us  con- 
sider what  takes  place  while  I  am  on  my  four  miles'  transit. 
During  the  greater  part,  perhaps  during  the  whole  of  this  transit, 
there  proceeds  what  we  have  called  in  our  essays  '  a  compound 
phenomenon,'  or  in  other  words,  there  co-exist  in  my  mind 
two    naturally    distinct  phenomena.     First  phenomenon :    My 
spontaneous  impulse  is  strongly  in  the  opposite  direction.     I 
remember  that  even  now  it  is  by  no  means    too  late    to    be 
present  at  the  meet,  and  I  am  most  urgently  solicited  by  in- 
clination  to   order   my   coachman   home    again.     So   urgent, 
indeed,  is  this    solicitation,  so  much  stronger  is  the  motive 
which  prompts  me  to  return  than  that  which  prompts  me  to 
continue  my  course,  that  unless  I  put  forth  unintermitting 
and  energetic  resistance  to  that  motive,  I  should  quite  infallibly 
give  the  coachman  such  an  order.     Here  is  the  first  phenomenon 
to  which  we  call   attention — my  will's  spontaneous  impulse 
towards  returning.     A  second,  no  less  distinctly  pronounced 
and    strongly    marked    phenomenon    is    that    unintermitting 
energetic  resistance  to  the  former  motive  of    which  we  have 
been  speaking.     On  the  one  side  is  that    phenomenon,  which 
may  be  called  my  will's  spontaneous,  direct,  unforced  impulse 
and  preponderating  desire  ;  on  the  other  side   that  which  may 
be  called  my  firm,  sustained  active,  antagonistic  resolve.     We 
allege  as  a  fact  obvious  and  undeniable  on  the    very  surface, 
that   the   phenomenon   which   we   have  called     '  spontaneous 
impulse  '  is  as  different  in  kind  from  that  other  which  we  have 
called   '  anti -impulsive    resolve  '   as  the    desire  of  wealth  is 
different  in  kind  from  the  recognition  of  a  mathematical  axiom. 
On  the  one  side  is  that  impulse  which  results  according  to  the 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

laws  of  my  mental  condition,  from  my  nature  and  the  external 
circumstances  taken  in  mutual  connexion.  On  the  other  side 
is  the  resistance  to  such  impulse,  which  I  elicit  by  vigorous 
personal  action. 

This  statement  of  the  case,  declares  Mr.  Mallock  (page 
109),  comes  to  nothing.  If  our  power  of  resolve  is  free, 
that  means  that  we  can,  irrespective  of  circumstances, 
equally  exercise  it  or  leave  it  in  abeyance.  If  we  never 
exercised  it,  our  spontaneous  or  necessarily  determined 
impulses  would  direct  life's  conduct  in  ways  which  would 
be  perfectly  reasonable,  and  which  would  not  be  distinguish- 
able on  the  surface  from  what  they  would  be  if  resolve 
operated.  This,  says  Mr.  Mallock,  Dr.  Ward  grants,  and 
then  Mr.  Mallock  asks  :  Would  any  rational  being,  without 
any  determining  motive,  incur  the  pain  of  resolve  to  set 
aside  such  spontaneous  impulses  ? 

Evidently  Mr.  Mallock's  point  is — that  resolve  without 
determining  motive,  is  impossible.  Now,  Dr.  Ward  does 
not  admit  that  absolute  submission  to  our  spontaneous 
impulses  induces  as  rational,  as  noble,  a  life  as  earnest 
efforts  of  resolve.  On  the  contrary,  he  insists  that  devout 
theists — and  he  eulogizes  frequently  devout  theists  in  his 
articles  on  free-will — are  only  devout  theists  because  they 
unceasingly  elicit  acts  of  resolve.1  And,  again,  Dr.  Ward 
expressly  states  that  resolve — as  opposed  to  simultaneous 
impulse — may  have  one  of  two  motives  :  '  (i)  my  resolve 
of  doing  what  is  right ;  (2)  my  desire  of  promoting  my 
permanent  happiness  in  the  next  world,  or  even  in  this.' 
Dr.  Ward,  therefore,  postulates  motives  for  the  act  of  re- 
solve but  denies  that  they  are  determining.  Mr.  Mallock 
once  more  introduces  '  determining  motives,'  and  we  shall 
soon  see  why. 

I  am  aware,  replies  Mr.  Mallock,  that  you  pretend  you 
have  a  motive  for  resolve,  but  your  very  criticism  for  the 
existence  of  that  phenomenon  styled  '  resolve  '  proves  that 
it  is  the  same  phenomenon  as  that  desire  you  style  spon- 
taneous impulse.  The  sense  of  struggle  tells  you  of  the 
*  resolve,'  but  does  not  every  spontaneous  impulse  imply 

1  Vol.  i.,  pp.  252,  293  ;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  44,  323,  etc. 


RELIGION  AS  A    CREDIBLE   DOCTRINE 


409 


a  similar  sense  of  struggle  ?  '  Dr.  Ward  and  his  friends 
imagine  that  there  is  a  difference  between  them  (i.e.,  between 
spontaneous  desire  and  resolve)  only  because  whilst  they 
have  carefully  analysed  the  one,  they  have  instinctively 
refrained  from  any  similar  analysis  of  the  other  '  (page  in). 

Again,  admitting  that  resolve  implies  only  the  intensi- 
fication of  an  existing  desire,  whence  comes  the  desire  of 
intensifying  the  existing  desire  ?  With  no  circumstances 
to  produce  it,  how  can  it  possibly  be  produced  ?  For 
instance,  is  not  the  pretended  resolve  of  the  hunting-man 
as  dependent  on  his  circumstances  as  his  spontaneous 
resolve.  Dr.  Ward  tells  us  that  he  resists  his  desire  to 
hunt,  because  *  his  reason  recognizes  how  very  important 
is  the  public  issue  at  stake.'  But  is  not  this  act  of  reason 
part  of  the  circumstances  of  the  moment  ?  '  It  is  only 
because  Dr.  Ward  arbitrarily  neglects  this  fact  that  the 
opposition  between  the  impulse,  which  is  the  necessary 
resultant  of  circumstances,  and  resolve,  which  he  alleges 
to  be  independent  of  them,  is  invested  with  even  a  sem- 
blance of  reality  '  (page  115). 

To  put  this  truth  in  a  stronger  light,  Mr.  Mallock  con- 
siders the  struggles  of  St.  Antony  in  the  desert,  and  here, 
too,  there  must  come  a  moment  when  the  love  of  Christ 
carries  each  struggling  resolve  to  its  completion,  and 
therefore,  a  moment  when  St.  Antony  is  no  longer  free. 
'  Determinism  has  caught  us  up  once  more '  (page  118). 

What  is  to  be  thought  of  this  criticism  ?  Does  Mr. 
Mallock  prove  that  Dr.  Ward's  distinction  between  spon- 
taneous desire  and  resolve  is  a  fiction,  and  that  resolve 
implies  determining  motive  ?  We  think  not. 

Dr.  Ward  does  not  admit  that  the  sense  of  pain  is  the 
criterium  of  the  presence  of  '  resolve,'  and  he  would  cer- 
tainly admit  that,  if  I  '  resolve '  to  go  to  business  despite 
my  desire  to  hunt,  the  act  of  reason  on  which  my  resolve  is 
contingent  is  as  much  part  of  my  circumstances  at  the 
moment  as  the  desire  to  hunt.  Where,  then,  does 
Dr.  Ward  find  a  basis  for  his  distinction  ? 

We  found  [he  writes]  our  whole  argument  on  what  we  consider 
to  be  an  unmistakable  fact  of  immediate  experience.  That 


410  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

fact  is,  that  very  frequently  my  will's  spontaneous  impulse 
is  in  one  direction  at  the  very  moment  when  my  conduct  is  in  a 
different — often  the  very  contrary — direction. 

And,  again  : — 

We  allege  as  a  fact  obvious  and  undeniable  on  the  very 
surface,  that  the  phenomenon  which  we  have  called  '  spontaneous 
impulse'  is  as  different  in  kind  from  that  which  we  have  called 
'  anti-impulsive  resolve '  as  the  desire  of  wealth  is  different  in 
kind  from  that  of  the  recognition  of  a  mathematical  axiom. 
On  the  one  side  is  that  impulse  which  results  according  to  the 
laws  of  my  mental  constitution  from  my  nature,  and  the 
external  circumstances  taken  in  mutual  connexion.  On  the 
other  side,  is  the  resistance  to  such  impulse,  which  I  elicit  by 
vigorous  personal  action.1 

Stripped  of  technicalities,  this  means  that  during  acts 
of  choice  or  decision  or  deliberation,  every  man  is  con- 
scious, unmistakably  and  incontrovertibly  conscious,  that 
he  can  elicit  one  of  many  alternative  acts.  At  such  times, 
a  man  feels  that  he  can  resist  freely  all  that  his  former 
character  and  any  accumulating  present  motives  can 
achieve.  If  his  act  of  resistance  involves  energetic  effort 
as  that  of  the  politician  in  question,  the  fact  of  freedom 
is  all  the  more  evidenced.  During  that  drive  to  the  station, 
our  politician's  mind  was  busily  engaged  weighing  the 
pros  and  cons ;  at  any  moment  he  could  freely  have 
accepted  the  pro  or  the  con  ;  he  has  accepted  one  alter- 
native, but  he  is  overwhelmingly  convinced  that  he  can 
at  any  moment  just  as  freely  accept  the  other.  Motives 
attract  him  to  one  course  as  to  the  other,  but  the  assertion 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  importance  of  the  public  business 
makes  the  fact  of  leaving  the  hunting  field  the  pleasantest 
course,  or  necessarily  constitutes  a  motive  of  such  force 
as  to  draw  our  politician  inevitably  and  inexorably  to 
London  is  extravagantly  untrue  in  the  light  of  every  man's 
personal  experience.  No  amount  of  theorising  or  of  balanc- 
ing of  profit  and  loss  motives  can  touch  these,  the  funda- 
mental facts  of  consciousness.  The  great  question  is  : 
Does  introspection  tell  us  that  we  are  determined  or  neces- 
sitated by  motives  ?  The  libertarian  answers,  No.  He 

lPhilosophy  of  Theism,  vol.  ii.,  p.  52. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  41 1 

admits  that  consciousness  testifies  that  we  are  influenced 
by  motives,  but  he  denies  that  we  are  inexorably  deter- 
mined thereby.  That  is  his  reading  of  the  facts  of  his  own 
internal  life,  and,  therefore,  he  concludes  that  he  himself 
is  free.  Are  the  rest  of  men  free  ?  Yes,  if  their  conscious- 
ness reveals  the  fact.  Judging,  then,  from  the  facts  of 
his  own  mental  life,  Dr.  Ward  put  within  the  brain  of  the 
politician  that  '  compound  phenomenon '  which  he  himself 
personally  experienced  in  every  act  of  choice,  and  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  personal  experience  of  his  readers  as  to  the 
possibility  and  actuality  of  such  a  case.  Mr.  Mallock 
seemed  to  have  been  partisan  to  the  operation,  but  his 
subsequent  deductions  from  the  '  compound  phenomenon ' 
prove  his  partisanship  to  have  been  only  apparent. 

Mr.  Mallock's  identification  of  spontaneous  desire  and 
resolve  on  the  ground  that  both  imply  determining  motives 
demands  special  attention.  This  attempt  to  show  that 
Dr.  Ward  contradicts  himself  must  have  arisen  from  for- 
getfulness  of  Dr.  Ward's  definitions.  Dr.  Ward  distinctly 
describes  spontaneous  desire  as  the  outcome  of  determining 
motives,  and  as  distinctly  '  resolve '  as  the  outcome  of 
motives  that  are  not  determining.  In  spontaneous  desire, 
writes  Dr.  Ward,  the  will  is  entirely  passive,  in  resolve  it 
is  active.  Dr.  Ward's  employment  of  technical  terms  may 
possibly  lead  to  confusion  of  thought,  but  it  does  not  imply 
contradiction  in  doctrine  when  fairly  interpreted.  Spon- 
taneous desire  includes  all  the  circumstances  of  the  moment, 
and,  proceeds  Mr.  Mallock,  is  not  the  act  of  reason  on  which 
resolve  is  based  one  of  the  circumstances  of  the  moment  ? 
Yes,  but  from  every  page  of  Dr.  Ward's  Essays  it  is  lum- 
inously evident  that  this  act  of  reason  is  essentially  excluded 
from  those  '  circumstances  of  the  moment '  which  lead  up 
to  mere  spontaneous  desire,  for  these  latter  are  determining, 
and  it  is  writ  large  that  this  motive  act  of  reason,  basis  of 
resolve,  is  non-determining.  We  think  Dr.  Ward's  language 
unfortunate.  His  thought  is  clear,  and  Mr.  Mallock  has 
succeeded  in  making  it  seem  self-contradictory  only  by 
completely  changing  it. 

Again,  Mr.  Mallock  seeks  to  prove  that  spontaneous 


412  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

desire  and  resolve  are  really  one  and  the  same  phenomenon, 
on  the  grounds  of  Dr.  Ward's  statement  that  resolve  de- 
pends on  an  act  of  reason  suggesting  a  motive.  Evidently, 
there  is  no  proof  unless  Mr.  Mallock  assumes  that  every 
motive,  and  therefore  this  particular  motive,  must  be 
determining — which  is  the  whole  point  at  issue.  And, 
turning  to  that  illustration  which  Mr.  Mallock  introduced 
to  put  the  oneness  of  '  spontaneous  desire '  and  '  resolve  ' 
in  a  stronger  light,  we  find  that  St.  Antony's  *  resolve '  is 
determined  by  circumstances,  and  is  no  longer  free.  Mr. 
Mallock,  therefore,  offers  no  proof  of  this,  the  basis  of 
psychological  determinism,  beyond  his  own  analysis  of  the 
act  of  choice,  wherein  he  always  assumes  that  motive  is 
determining  and  irresistible.  If  this  assumption  implies 
that  the  motive  which  has  been  de  facto  accepted  by  the 
will  was  in  every  case  incapable  of  being  refused  by  the 
will,  we  reply  that  the  assumption  contradicts  the  ex- 
perience of  men  generally,  as  revealed  in  their  accounts 
of  their  act  of  choice,  and  contradicts  personal  experience. 
Dr.  Ward's  analysis  of  the  mentality  of  the  politician,  if 
true  to  life,  proves  determinism  to  be  false.  And  the  appeal 
as  to  the  truth  and  actuality  of  such  mental  phenomena 
must  ever  be  referred  to  each  one's  consciousness.  That 
is  the  supreme  tribunal. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  struggle  of  St.  Antony 
endorses  this  conclusion.  Men  are  continually  experiencing 
such  trials.  The  devil  does  not  always  come  in  visible  form, 
but  his  suggestions  are  ever  the  same,  ever  an  appeal  to 
the  lower  part  of  our  nature.  What  is  the  actual  mental 
condition  of  the  earnest  Christian  at  such  crises  ?  Is  it 
true  that  he  cannot  entertain  the  impure  thought  ?  No  ; 
at  every  moment  of  the  struggle  he  feels  that  he  can  only 
too  easily  yield  to  the  temptation.  A  moment's  pause,  a 
moment's  cessation  of  effort,  and  his  soul  is  black  as  hell  ? 
On  the  other  hand,  is  the  earnest  Christian  so  inevitably 
and  necessarily  drawn  to  the  side  of  virtue,  that  he  cannot 
accept  the  impure  thought,  that  he  must  needs  reject  it"? 
St.  Antony  loved  Christ  dearly,  but  if  his  nature  was  human 
nature,  the  assertion  that  during  those  painful  struggles 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  413 

with  violent  and  protracted  temptations,  his  love  for 
Christ  made  consent  even  to  the  foulest  of  impure  actions 
an  absolute  impossibility,  is  in  the  light  of  all  human  ex- 
perience utterly  false.  Search  out  that  soul  on  which  God 
has  poured  His  choicest  graces,  and  tell  it  that  its  love 
for  God  makes  sin  an  impossibility,  that  heaven  is  secure 
and  the  devil  powerless,  and  you  will  hear  the  old  answer 
with  a  new  meaning  —  Homo  sum  et  nil  humanum  alienunt 


The  same  fallacy  of  '  every  motive  a  determining 
motive  '  runs  through  Mr.  Mallock's  references  (page  119) 
to  Christ's  words,  to  the  conversion  of  Paul  and  Augustine, 
and  to  the  language  of  Christians  in  describing  their  own 
moral  crises.  Free-will  does  not  exclude  motives  :  it 
excludes  only  such  motives  as  are  determining,  and  its 
adherents  appeal  to  the  consciousness  of  each  one  in  proof 
of  their  doctrine.  That  circumstances  and  character  and 
motive  influence  our  will  is  admitted  on  all  hands  :  that 
they  do  not  inexorably  constrain  men's  wills  on  every 
occasion  is  the  libertarian  thesis.  That  men  generally  do 
not  believe  their  fellow-man's  deliberate  action  to  be  the 
inevitable  outcome  of  his  circumstances  is  proved  by  their 
allotment  of  praise  and  blame.  '  The  whole  feeling  of 
reality,  the  whole  sting  and  excitement  of  our  voluntary  life, 
depends  on  our  sense  that  in  it  things  are  really  being 
decided  from  one  moment  to  another,  and  that  it  is  not 
the  dull  rattling  of  a  chain  that  was  forged  innumerable 
years  ago.'  Yet  these  acts  are  never  described  as  inde- 
pendent of  circumstances  and  of  motive,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  not  thus  independent.  To  rush  off  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  are  in  all  cases  inevitably  determined 
by  circumstances,  or  by  motives,  is  to  make  an  inference 
not  warranted  by  the  data,  and  an  assumption  which 
contradicts  all  human  experience. 

Mr.  Mallock  next  seeks  to  explain  how  libertarians 
have  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  thesis  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  free-will  is  unthinkable  (page  122).  First  of  all, 
they  have  changed  the  proposition  into  its  half-brother  — 
a  truism,  namely,  '  That  when  not  physically  coerced  we 


414  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

are  free  to  act  as  we  will,  and  that,  at  any  given  moment, 
out  of  two  opposite  courses  we  are  free,  if  we  will,  to  take 
one  or  the  other.'  How  Mr.  Mallock  comes  to  regard  this 
proposition  as  a  truism,  is  made  abundantly  clear  thus  : 
'  This  simply  amounts  to  saying  that  if  I  am  thirsty  and 
will  to  drink  I  am  free  to  drink  ;  or,  if  I  am  hungry,  and  will 
to  eat,  I  am  equally  free  to  eat.'  But,  adds  Mr.  Mallock, 
the  real  proposition  to  be  defended  by  the  libertarian  is  : 
That  whether  I  am  hungry  or  thirsty  is  a  question  I 
decide  for  myself — that  if,  at  a  given  moment,  I  am  longing 
for  a  glass  of  water,  I  am  able  to  make  myself  long  for  a 
dry  biscuit  instead.'  This  is  simply  not  true.  No  liber- 
tarian supposes  that  such  desires,  as  Mr.  Mallock  mentions, 
are  free.  The  question  is,  can  we  reject  or  consent  to  those 
desires.  What  the  libertarian  denies  is,  that  our  acts  of 
will  are  on  every  occasion  necessitated  by  our  desires. 

No  libertarian  puts  forward  as  a  proof  of  free-will  the 
truism  that  the  will  is  the  cause  of  a  man's  doing  whatever 
he  ultimately  does  do.  And  no  libertarian  contests  Mr. 
Mallock's  sagacious  analyses  of  the  causes  that  give  rise 
to  the  organic  cravings  of  hunger  and  thirst.  All  that  is 
wholly  beside  the  point.  Free-will  has  its  basis  in  the  will, 
and  not  in  the  stomach.  Expressed  in  terms  of  stomach, 
the  free-will  thesis  runs  :  Given  the  keenest  of  keen 
appetities  in  the  healthiest  of  healthy  men,  and  given  the 
most  savoury  of  savoury  dishes,  and  all  the  other  re- 
quisites for  a  hearty  meal,  except  the  act  of  willing  to  eat, 
does  that  act  of  willing  to  eat  necessarily,  inevitably, 
inexorably  arise  ?  The  libertarian  boldly  says,  No  ;  and 
he  appeals  to  the  personal  experience  of  each  one  in  proof 
of  all  that  is  contained  in  that  '  No,'  namely,  that  in  cases 
of  deliberate  choice,  the  mind  is  not  wholly  determined  by 
phenomenal  antecedents  and  external  conditions,  but  that 
it  itself,  as  active  subject  of  these  objective  experiences, 
plays  the  part  of  determining  cause.  So  far  then  as 
psychology  carries  us,  the  last  word  is  not  determinism  ; 
and  now  we  pass  on  to  the  physical  sciences,  triumphantly 
styled  by  Mr.  Mallock  the  second  Sinai  of  determinism. 
Mr.  Mallock  begins  by  declaring  that  physical  science,  by 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  4*5 

a  wholly  different  route,  reaches  the  same  conclusion  that 
physiology  had  reached  before  it — the  absolute  necessity 
of  our  volitions. 

The  doctrine  of  free-will,  according  to  Mr.  Mallock  (page 
127),  is  a  doctrine  that  energy  can  be  annihilated  and  that 
new  energy  can  be  created,  and,  therefore,  is  in  absolute 
and  direct  contradiction  to  the  law  of  the  conservation  of 
energy.  That  we  may  grasp  the  utter  falsity  of  this  state- 
ment, it  will  be  useful,  first,  to  determine  exactly  what  the 
law  of  the  conservation  of  energy  means,  what  are  its 
claims  on  our  acceptance,  and  secondly,  how  the  doctrine 
of  free-will  fits  in  with  this  law. 

Here  is  the  scientific  expression  of  the  law  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  :  The  sum  of  the  kinetic  and  potential 
energies  of  any  isolated  system  of  bodies  remains  constant. 
Science   claims  no   revelation   for   this  law.     Since   1842, 
scientists  have  verified  it  by  accurate  and  painstaking  obser- 
vation of  innumerable  isolated  systems,  and  the  demonstra- 
tions   have    been   the    more    rigorous    according   as    the 
experiences  have  been  the  more  carefully  conducted.     Still, 
these  observations   have    not    proved  with    mathematical 
exactitude  the  law,  and  if  anyone  chooses  to   affirm  that 
slight  variations  are  possible,  he  cannot  be  refuted  in  the 
actual  conditions    of    scientific    research.     Further,  these 
experiments  have    all    been    conducted  on  the   principle 
that  every  form  of  energy,  whatever  be  its  specific  quality, 
possesses  a  determined  mechanical  equivalent.     The  law 
refers,   therefore,  to    the  Constance    of    the   quantity    of 
energy  :    it  leaves  untouched  the  question  of  qualitative 
variation.     But  scientists  have  enlarged  their  conclusions. 
Since,  they  argue,  in  all  the  cases  observed,  facts  tend  to 
confirm  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  we  may 
extend  this  principle  to  the  whole  cosmological  system  and 
declare  :  '  The  sum  total  of  energy  in  the  universe  always 
remains  the  same.'     We  do  not  contest  the  right  of  science 
to  this  generalization  ;   we  wish  to  insist,  however,  that 
while  facts  tend  to  justify  such  generalization,  no  demon- 
stration of  the  truth  of    the  principle  as    applied  to  the 
universe  has  been  furnished.     In    its   primary   form,   the 


416  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

principle  leans  on  authenticated  experiences,  more  or  less 
exact :  in  its  more  sweeping  form — and  only  in  this  form 
can  it  be  presented  as  a  difficulty  for  the  libertarian — it 
leans  on  the  probability  of  a  host  of  convincing  facts. 

What  attitude  shall  the  libertarian  take  up  in  face  of 
this  scientific  principle  ?  Suppose  that  he  found  himself 
constrained  to  admit  that  the  doctrine  of  free-will  abso- 
lutely contradicts  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  should  he  forthwith  capitulate  ?  Evidently  not, 
his  liberty  is  a  fact  of  direct  and  internal  observation,  and 
no  theory,  however  ingenious,  can  rob  him  of  the  certainty 
that  he  is  free.  De  facto,  the  principle  of  the  conservation 
of  energy,  taken  in  its  more  sweeping  form,  is  only  a  theory, 
though  a  very  probable  theory,  and  if  logic  commanded  a 
sacrifice,  this  theory  must  cede  to  the  certainty  and  the 
certitude  of  free-will.  However,  libertarians  deny  any 
such  contradiction  or  conflict,  and  Mr.  Mallock  has  cited  two 
of  many  replies.  We  think  that  other  solutions,  more  con- 
vincing, are  forthcoming,  but  as  our  concern  is  with  Mr. 
Mallock,  we  shall  content  ourselves  in  setting  forth  the  full 
value  of  these  two  replies.1 

Some  apologists  point  out  that  vital  phenomena  differ 
from  the  phenomena  of  inorganic  matter  merely  in  this, 
that  vital  phenomena  exhibit  energy  which,  drawn  from  the 
common  stock,  is  guided — not  increased  or  diminished— 
by  an  influence  absent  elsewhere.  Accordingly,  we  may 
conceive  of  free-will  as  a  force  which  acts  at  right  angles 
on  the  normally  moving  molecules  of  the  brain,  and  so 
deflects  them  into  non-natural  courses  without  any  viola- 
tion of  the  law  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  it  being  a 
principle  of  physical  science  that  a  force  acting  at  right 
angles  can  produce  deflection  without  expenditure  of  energy. 

Others  hold  that  the  operation  of  free-will,  inextricably 
connected  as  it  is  with  the  movements  of  matter,  cannot 
fail  to  involve  a  violation  both  of  the  laws  of  the  conser- 

1  Among  the  most  Remarkable  solutions  are  : — CouaUliac,  La  I.iberti 

;  Mercier 
IB,   1884 
'Energie. 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  417 

vation  of  energy  and  of  the  conservation  of  momentum. 
Science,  however,  can  do  nothing  to  exhibit  these  laws  as 
absolute  in  the  wider  sense  that  they  are  valid  in  respect 
of  the  universe  considered  in  its  incalculable  totality,  and 
it  is  clearly  scientifically  demonstrable  that  the  total 
energy  of  the  universe  might  suffer  minute  subtractions  or 
receive  minute  additions,  without  affecting  the  practical 
accuracy  of  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 

It  is  evident  from  what  we  have  said  that  even  the  risky 
solution  which  postulates  slight  variations  of  constancy  is 
in  our  present  state  of  scientific  knowledge  tenable.  The 
second  solution,  based  on  scientific  data,  proves  that  to 
reject  free-will  on  the  grounds  of  conflict  with  the  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  energy  is  wholly  arbitrary.  Since 
scientific  data  admit  the  possibility  of  reconciling  the  most 
rigorous  constancy  of  energy  with  the  most  absolute  liberty, 
what  right  has  any  scientist  to  maintain  that  the  doctrine  of 
free-will  is  inadmissible  for  him,  that  it  implies  creation  and 
annihilation  of  energy  ? 

Mr.  Mallock  next  proceeds  (page  132,  etc.)  to  furnish 
facts  which  prove,  in  his  opinion,  that  the  brain  dictates  to 
the  will,  besides  occasionally  refusing  to  serve  it,  from  which 
he  concludes  that  brain  and  will  are  all  one  mechanism.  We 
accept  these  facts  fearlessly,  we  reject  Mr.  Mallock's  con- 
clusion. Employing  the  illustration  of  Handel  at  the  organ, 
Mr.  Mallock  tells  us  facts  show  that  '  our  organ,  the  brain, 
is  not  only  capable  of  refusing  to  play  the  tunes  which  the 
will  or  mind  would  impose  on  it,  but  it  is  capable  also  in 
reference  to  purely  physical  stimuli  of  grinding  out  tunes, 
totally  different,  of  its  own.'  If  this  means  anything,  it 
means  that  the  material  organ,  the  brain,  is  capable  of 
'  thought,  emotion,  purpose,  will.'  Now,  the  brain  is  but 
a  mass  of  matter,  so  many  countless  atoms  of  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  etc.,  combined  in  certain  proportions,  and 
we  have  proved  at  an  early  stage  of  our  examination  of  Mrj 
Mallock's  views,  the  absurdity  of  assuming — for  proof  is 
never  given — that  matter  can  be  the  source  of  intellectual 
activity.  Yet  it  is  this  assumption  that  monists  make 
everywhere,  and  that  Mr.  Mallock  employs  here  to  give  a 

VOL.  XIX.  2D 


418  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

semblance  of  basis  to  his  discussion  of  the  determinism  of 
matter.  Reverting  to  Mr.  Mallock's  illustration,  wherever 
the  jigs  and  waltzes  come  from,  proved  they  are  jigs  and 
waltzes,  and  differ  only  in  degree  from  Handel's  '  Israel  in 
Egypt ' — differ  only  as  honest  thought  differs  from  dis- 
honest thought,  and  chaste  thought  from  unchaste  thought 
— they  cannot  come  from  a  mass  of  mere  matter.  The 
indubitable  facts  of  self-consciousness  and  free-will — as 
we  have  seen — postulate  a  spiritual  faculty,  a  spiritual 
principle. 

Mr.  Mallock's  facts  (pages  137-141)  prove  that  in  the 
cases  cited,  integrity  of  character,  strength  of  memory,  fear, 
courage,  the  sense  of  sin,  honesty,  chastity,  were  interfered 
with  by  certain  changes  in  the  brain-substance.  Such 
cases  prove  indisputably  the  close  union  of  soul  and  body. 
That,  however,  they  prove  that  each  modification  of  the 
mind  is  inexorably  conditioned  and  determined  by  certain 
molecular  changes  in  the  substance  of  the  organism  is  false. 
The  doctrine  that  intellectual  cognition  and  free  volition 
involves  self-action  on  the  part  of  the  mind,  but  that  such 
self-action  is  conditioned  by  the  impressions  in  the  inferior 
recipient  faculties,  explains  every  fact  that  can  be  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Mallock  or  anyone  else,  and  at  the  same  time 
agrees  with  the  unmistakable  testimony  of  each  man's  con- 
sciousness that  he  possesses  a  self-determining  faculty,  a 
will  that  is  free. 

Changes  of  conduct  owing  to  brain  accidents  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  removal  of,  or  the  tampering  with, 
cerebral  matter  influences  the  moral  life,  provided  that  the 
other  conditions  remained  the  same.  Mr.  Mallock  has  said 
nothing  on  this  latter  important  point,  but  we  may  concede 
it  and  pursue  our  argument.  Influence,  we  admit ;  such 
influence  as  Mr.  Mallock  postulates,  the  influence  of  inex- 
orable necessity,  excludirrgi^n  free-will,  we  refuse  to  admit 
without  proof.  And  where  is  the  proof  ?  Post  hoc,  propter 
hoc — a  fallacy.  Mark,  we  do  not  deny  the  possibility  of 
such  an  arrangement  of  cerebral  matter  and  of  the  other 
sensuous  faculties  as  can  destroy  responsibility.  The  in- 
sane, the  sleeping,  the  drunken,  are  evident  proofs  to  the 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  4*9 

contrary.  But  we  deny  Mr.  Mallock  the  right  to  conclude 
from  an  accident  plus  change  of  conduct  straight  off  to 
determinism.  Phineas  Gage  or  the  elderly  Roman  lady 
may  have  been  perfectly  free  post  factum  to  resist  such  in- 
fluences as  their  respective  fates  induced — that  is,  Mr.  Mal- 
lock has  given  no  proof  to  the  contrary.  Should,  however, 
the  accident  have  resulted  in  such  a  change  of  material 
organization  as  to  cause  loss  of  liberty,  this  fact  does  not  in 
the  least  invalidate  our  free-will  thesis,  no  more  than  the 
undoubted  existence  of  idiots  invalidates  the  thesis  of  the 
existence  of  many  people  who  are  not  idiots. 

To  speak  of  the  brain  as  investing  human  acts  with  a 
new  moral  quality  is  but  a  result  of  Mr.  Mallock's  previous 
confusion  of  thought.  If  the  new  influences  are  determin- 
ing, there  is  an  end  to  responsibility,  an  end  to  morality  of 
action.  If  the  new  influences  are  merely  influences, 
however  strong,  and  not  determinants,  the  acts  performed 
preserve  their  moral  quality,  because  they  originate 
in  a  will  that  is  free.  In  this  latter  hypothesis,  Handel 
has  given  us  jigs  and  waltzes,  when  the  audience, 
and  rightly,  asked  for  '  Israel  in  Egypt,'  and  Handel  is  to 
blame  for  the  consequences. 

Mr.  Mallock  passes  on  to  the  problem  of  heredity.  He 
ushers  it  in  by  some  rhetorical  periods  on  the  origin  of 
ideas,  which  do  not  concern  us,  for  they  contain  no  proof 
of  anything  (page  143). 

Idiosyncrasies  of  character  are  dependent  primarily  on 
heredity — this  is  Mr.  Mallock's  thesis,  and  his  proof  is  the 
recurrence  through  all  the  ages  of  the  vagaries  of  amative 
desire.  Numerous  well-strung  periods  are  subjoined.  Can 
the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  ?  Where  does  this  child  get 
his  taste  for  music  or  sport  ?  That  child  his  good  or  bad 
temper  ?  We  interject  the  further  question  :  Where  is  the 
proof  of  determinism  in  all  this  ?  That  generation  after  gene- 
ration experiences  the  vagaries  of  amative  desire,  that  Ethi- 
opians are  ever  born  black,  that  Patrick  has  inherited  traits 
different  from  those  of  Michael,  and  Bridget  tastes  different 
from  either — these  are  everyday  facts  of  experience,  which 
all  who  believe  in  free-will  accept.  It  is  a  far  cry  from  that 


420  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

to  determinism.  No  libertarian  maintains  that  one  man's 
free-will  encounters  the  very  same  obstacles  as  another's. 
If  I  have  inherited  a  bad  temper,  patience  is  therefore  more 
difficult  for  me.  But  that  such  inherited  dispositions  for 
good  or  evil  destroy  the  individual's  liberty  in  every  case- 
that  is  just  the  point  for  Mr.  Mallock  to  prove,  just  the  point 
he  conveniently  assumes,  and  just  the  point  which  men 
at  all  times  and  in  all  places  have  denied.  Mankind  has 
ever  asserted  its  possession  of  free-will,  has  ever  based  its 
assertion  on  the  unmistakable  affirmations  of  consciousness. 
Determinism  gathers  together  a  number  of  facts  which  mark 
the  influence  of  matter  over  mind,  and  then  quietly  assumes 
the  further  point,  namely,  that  this  influence  is  determining 
and  inevitable  in  every  case.  Mr.  Mallock  has  merely  re- 
produced in  eloquent  language  this  petitio  principii. 

He  has  consequently  failed  to  supply  the  links  of  that 
chain  by  which  determinism  would  bind  man  to  the 
mechanism  of  the  universe.  Man  is  not  a  mere  machine, 
his  soul  is  not  a  fleeting  phenomenon,  appearing  and 
disappearing  with  the  body,  and  leaving  nothing  behind. 
He  is  immortal,  he  is  free — a  being,  which,  if  there  be  a 
God,  has  everything  to  hope  from  His  love,  and  every- 
thing to^fear  from  His  displeasure.1 

JOHN  O'NEILL. 


1  While  we  hope  we  have  vindicated  against  Mr.  Mallock's  attack 
the  argument  from  consciousness,  we  would  remind  our  readers  that 
such  vindication  is  not  the  last  word  in  the  free-will  controversy.  The 
fundamental  point  remains  of  how  man,  in  accepting,  as  he  usually  does, 
the  greatest  motive — at  least  subjectively  considered — is  not  thereto 
determined.  Some  think  that  Mr.  Mallock  raises  the  point.  We  doubt 
it,  and  even  if  he  had  raised  the  issue,  we  should  have  hesitated  to  dis- 
cuss it.  It  is  a  vital  issue,  and  demands  more  fearless  and  more  capable 
handling  than  the  present  writer  could  give  it.  And  though  it  is  an 
issue  that  must  be  frankly  faced  in  view  of  the  attacks  of  modern  deter- 
minists,  it  is  rarely  treated  by  scholastic  writers.  This  '  missing  link  ' 
is  but  one  of  the  many  lacunae  in  scholastic  manuals  that  make  earnest 
students  of  modern  problems  impatient  with  those  who  think  that 
Aristotle  and  St.  Thomas  have  settled  centuries  ago  all  the  great  questions. 


[      421      ] 


THE    VATICAN    'KYRIALE' 

A  REJOINDER 

IN  the  January  number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  I  endeavoured 
to  show  that  while  Pope  Pius  X  had  ordered  the 
return  to  the  melodies  of  the  Church  in  their  original 
purity,  the  Vatican  Kyriale  had,  in  a  large  number  of  cases, 
departed  from  the  original  version  in  spite  of  perfectly  clear 
documentary  evidence.  Considering  the  haste  in  which  I 
had  to  prepare  this  article,  I  should  not  have  been  sur- 
prised if  it  had  been  proved  that  in  a  few  details  I  had 
made  mistakes.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  nobody 
yet  has  publicly  proved  any  error  in  the  many  statements 
I  made.  The  attempts  of  Father  Burge,  in  the  April 
number  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  to  prove  some  mistakes,  are 
quite  ineffective,  as  we  shall  see  later  on.  Privately  a 
friend  pointed  out  to  me  what  might  be  considered  as  two 
slight  inaccuracies.  On  page  50  of  my  article  (page  9  of 
the  reprint  in  pamphlet  form),  I  said  about  the  '  Paschal 
Kyrie '  :  *  All  the  MSS.,  except  the  German  ones,  have 


Kf-  ri-  e 

In  reality,  a  large  number  of  MSS.,  not  only  German,  have 
the  second  note  on  the  final  syllable  of  Kyrie  as  c,  not  as 
b.  I  did  not  mention  this,  because  I  was  primarily  con- 
cerned about  the  figure  on  the  first  syllable  of  Kyrie,  and 
about  the  Pressus  c  b  b  g  at  the  end  of  the  example,  and 
did  not  want  to  overburden  my  article. 

Page  55  (14),  I  said  :  *  The  Gloria  (of  Mass  VII.)  is  found 
only  in  some  English  MSS.  They  all  write  it  in  c,  and  have 
a  flat  at  the  cadence  of  Deus  Pater  omnipotens.'  One 
English  MS.,  however,  the  one  published  by  the  Plainsong 
and  Mediaeval  Music  Society  with  the  Sarum  Gradual 


422 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


(page  12*),  has  no  flat  at  this  cadence.  My  reply  is,  first, 
that  this  MS.  is  too  late  (fifteenth  century)  to  be  of  account, 
when  we  have  good  MSS.  of  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Secondly,  the  MS.  still  writes  the  melody  in  c, 
thus  leaving  it  possible  to  sing  b  b.  At  Spiritu  a  later  hand 
put  in  a  flat,  which  proves  that  the  flat  there  was  sung, 
even  after  the  date  of  the  MS.  If  this  later  hand  did 
not  put  in  the  flat  in  the  other  case,  the  reason  was 
possibly  that  it  was  not  thought  necessary,  the  full  tone 
at  the  cadence  being  generally  understood.  Still  I  admit 
that  my  statement  was  not  literally  correct. 

Incidentally  Father  Burge  calls  my  attention  to  another 
inaccuracy.  Page  52  (11)  I  quoted  the  *  Christe '  of  the 
Kyrie  Fons  bonitatis  from  the  Rassegna  Gregoriana  thus  : 


K^-ri-  e  Chri-ste  K^-  ri-  e 

In  doing  this  I  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  version  sup- 
plied for  the  Vatican  edition,  although  not  adopted  by  the 
editor,  differed  from  this  in  one  detail.  It  should  be  ob- 
served in  this  connexion  that  the  Solesmes  monks  turned 
their  special  attention  to  the  Kyriale  only  lately,  and  got 
a  large  number  of  MSS.  for  this  portion  of  the  Gradual 
only  within  the  last  year  or  so.  Some  very  old  MSS., 
then,  prove  that  the  original  version  of  the  Christe  was  thus 


(3) 


Chri-ste 

We  have,  therefore,  an  additional  case  in  which  the  Vatican 
edition  differs  from  the  original  version.  We  shall  see 
below  how  badly  Father  Burge  blunders  over  this  Christe. 
Before  entering  on  Father  Burge's  critical  remarks  (if 
they  deserve  that  name),  I  must  dispose  of  a  few  points 
he  mentions  by  way  of  introduction.  In  his  first  para- 
graph he  points  out,  with  an  object,  no  doubt,  that  the 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE' 


inspiration  of  my  article  was  sought  at  Appuldurcombe. 
I  should  like  to  know  where  else  I  might  have  sought  my 
information.  There  is  no  other  single  place  anyhow  in 
the  world  where  I  could  have  found  it.  I  dare  say  Dom 
Pothier  and  his  friends  would  have  preferred  if  I  had  stayed 
at  home,  and  left  my  article  unwritten.  But  if  Father 
Burge  means  to  insinuate  —  his  remarks,  page  333,  point 
that  way  —  that  a  suggestion  to  write  my  article  came  from 
Appuldurcombe,  I  must  protest.  I  claim  the  full  credit 
for  initiative  in  this  matter.  In  fact,  when  I  first  wrote 
to  Appuldurcombe  asking  for  some  information  on  the 
subject,  my  request  was  met  by  a  blank  refusal,  which, 
indeed,  was  coupled  with  a  polite  invitaticn  to  come  and 
study  the  matter  in  their  library  for  myself. 

In  his  second  paragraph  Father  Burge  scores  a  great 
victory  over  me.  He  points  out  that  Mr.  Bas  is  not  a 
consultor  of  the  Commission  !  Perhaps  he  is  not.  I  really 
do  not  know,  and  I  have  not  gone  to  the  trouble  of  finding 
it  out.  It  does  not  make  the  slightest  difference.  I 
happen  to  know  that  he  was  secretary  to  the  meeting  of 
the  Commission  held  at  Appuldurcombe,  in  August,  1904. 
As  to  a  violation  of  the  Pontifical  secret,  Father  Burge 
himself  shows  such  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
doings  of  the  Commission  that  one  might  think  he  was 
a  member  or  consultor  himself.  How  can  he  know,  for 
instance,  that  the  major  pars  in  many  cases,  and  the 
sanior  pars  in  every  case,  was  in  favour  of  Dom  Pothier's 
version  (page  325)  ?  Or  that  '  the  Commission  voted  the 
suppression  '  of  a  note  (page  338)  ?  Again  (page  340),  he 
quotes  certain  readings  as  proposed  by  the  '  archaeologists.* 
How  could  he  know  these,  or,  knowing  them,  publish 
them,  without  a  '  violation  of  the  Pontifical  secret  '  ?  Father 
Burge,  you  are  altogether  too  innocent  for  controversy  ! 

Next,  Father  Burge  finds  fault  with  my  statement  that 
Dom  Pothier  was  made  '  the  sole  judge  of  the  version  of 
the  new  edition.'  To  justify  myself  I  need  only  quote 
from  Father  Burge  himself.  He  says  (page  333)  :  '  Nothing 
then  remained  .  .  .  but  to  give  Dom  Pothier  .  .  .  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  work.' 


424  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

We  come  now  to  Father  Burge's  main  argument.  He 
holds  that  my  fundamental  position  is  wrong.  He  tries 
to  prove  that  the  principle  on  which  I  proceed  is  unscientific, 
inartistic,  and  at  variance  with  the  terms  of  reference  of 
the  Commission.  This  principle  of  mine,  according  to 
Father  Burge,  is  '  the  reading  of  the  majority  and  of  the 
oldest  MSS.'  He  says  :  '  I  need  not  cite  passages  from 
the  article,  for  I  fancy  the  author  will  not  object  to  this 
statement  of  his  position.'  The  author,  however,  objects 
very  much.  He  would  be  very  sorry,  if  he  had  laid  down 
such  a  foolish  principle.  Of  course,  when  a  certain  reading 
has  for  itself  all  the  oldest  MSS.  and,  in  addition,  the 
majority  of  all  the  MSS.,  there  can  be  little  doubt  about  it. 
But  it  is  just  the  cases  where  these  two  conditions  are  not 
realized  simultaneously,  that  cause  the  difficulty.  No  ;  if 
I  were  to  formulate  my  principle,  I  should  say,  '  The 
melodies  of  the  Church  in  their  original  purity.'  If  Father 
Burge  considers  this  principle  unscientific  and  inartistic, 
he  should  address  his  remarks  to  the  Pope.  For,  if  I  am 
not  mistaken,  it  was  Pius  X  who  originated  the  phrase. 

Father  Burge  next  defines  my  position  by  a  series  of 
questions  and  answers.  These  are  really  too  silly  to  call 
for  any  reply. 

Again,  he  describes  the  principle  by  quoting  from  an 
article  of  Dom  Mocquereau's  in  the  Rassegna  Gregoriana 
(April,  1904).  He  sums  up  Dom  Mocquereau's  plan  thus  : 
Count  the  number  of  the  oldest  MSS.  for  each  version, 
and  the  majority  carry  the  day.  But  if  the  votes  are 
equal,  you  may  toss  up  for  it.  This,  indeed,  does  not  sound 
very  scientific.  But  let  us  see  what  Dom  Mocquereau 
really  says.  He  distinguishes  three  classes  of  melodies. 
The  first  class  is  formed  by  those  for  which  the  MSS.  are 
practically  unanimous ;  the  stream  of  the  tradition  flows 
down  through  the  centuries  in  perfect  uniformity.  Here 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  fixing  the  proper  version  of  a 
melody.  In  a  second  class  we  are  at  first  confronted  by 
a  bewildering  number  of  variants.  But  if  we  examine 
more  closely  into  the  matter,  we  find  that  these  variants 
group  themselves  into  a  small  number  of  divisions,  cor- 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE1  425 

responding  to  a  similar  number  of  families  of  MSS.  By 
comparing  these  families,  one  with  the  other,  we  are  then 
enabled  to  see  which  was  the  original  version,  and  again 
we  can  fix  a  version  definitely.  But  there  is  a  third  class 
in  which  even  this  procedure  does  not  settle  the  question. 
The  first  thing  the  Solesmes  School  does  in  such  a  case 
is  to  try  to  get  more  MS.  material.  They  get  more  photo- 
graphs, and  write  round  to  their  friends  to  look  out  for 
additional  information.  If  even  this  does  not  bring  clear- 
ness, a  definite  decision  cannot  be  made  for  the  present, 
and  if  some  version  must  be  adopted  for  practical  pur- 
poses, a  provisional  selection  has  to  be  made.  For  this 
provisional  selection,  then,  they  follow  these  rules.  If 
there  is  among  the  various  versions  a  Roman  one,  they  take 
that  in  preference  to  the  others.  If  there  is  no  Roman 
one,  they  select  the  one  which  seems  the  more  beautiful. 
But  if,  even  on  the  ground  of  beauty,  there  is  nothing  to 
choose  between  various  versions,  they  '  toss  up.'  I  should 
like  to  know  what  other  procedure  Father  Burge  could 
suggest.  But  I  leave  it  to  the  reader  to  decide  whether  he 
quoted  Dom  Mocquereau  fairly. 

But  Father  Burge  has  greater  difficulties  against  the 
archaeological  principle.  He  doubts  whether  it  is  possible 
at  all  to  restore  the  original  version,  whether  our  codices 
really  contain  the  true  Gregorian  Chant.  How  foolish,  then, 
of  the  Pope  to  order  a  return  to  the  original  form  of  the 
melodies  !  Why  did  he  not  first  ask  Father  Burge  whether 
such  a  return  was  possible  ?  My  critic  points  out  (page 
327)  that  a  good  two  hundred  years  yawns  between  our 
oldest  codices  and  St.  Gregory.  '  Are  we  sure  that  our 
MSS.  faithfully  represent  the  reform  of  St.  Gregory  ?  *  In 
the  next  paragraph,  he  says  :  '  But  there  is  something  more. 
Is  it  quite  certain  that  the  tradition  of  the  Chant  flowed 
with  pure  and  undefiled  stream  from  the  days  of  St.  Gregory 
to  the  ninth  century  ? '  I  do  not  quite  see  what  is  the  differ- 
ence between  these  two  interrogations.  But  let  that  pass. 
I  must,  however,  before  I  take  up  the  argument,  dispose  of 
a  statement  made  on  page  328  about  Dr.  Wagner's  Neumen. 
kunde.  I  have  read  this  book  with  great  care,  but  found 


426  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

nothing  like  what  Father  Burge  makes  it  say.  Perhaps  he 
could  explain  away  the  '  bending  its  forms,'  but  about  the 
ornamental  neumes  (hook  neumes),  which,  according  to 
Wagner,  implied  quarter-tones,  the  latter  says  (page  59)  : 
*  At  all  events  the  hook  neumes  were  adopted  in  Rome, 
not  later  than  at  the  fixing  of  the  Roman  Chant  about 
600 '  ;  and  (page  60)  :  '  The  supposition  that  the  orna- 
mental neumes  were  added  to  the  accent  neumes  as  late  at 
the  eighth  or  ninth  century  is  an  impossibility  from  the 
point  of  view  of  historical  development.'  To  be  charitable 
to  Father  Burge  I  must  suppose  that  his  knowledge  of 
German  is  only  slight,  and  that  he  has  misread  Wagner. 

The  answer  to  Father  Burge's  difficulty,  then,  is  simply 
that  what  we  aim  at  restoring  is  the  chant  of  the  MSS. 
We  hold  that  there  is  one  definite  form  of  melody  under- 
lying all  the  readings  of  the  different  codices,  notwithstand- 
ing their  being  at  variance  in  certain  details.  This  under- 
lying melody,  then,  we  want  to  get  at.  Whether  this 
melody  is  the  melody  of  St.  Gregory,  is  another  question. 
The  weight  of  historical  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  assump- 
tion that  it  is.  At  present  Gevaert  is  the  only  man  of  note 
who  is  holding  out  against  this  conclusion.  But  if  the 
Chant  of  St.  Gregory  is  not  contained  in  our  MSS.,  then 
it  is  irreparably  lost,  and  it  would  be  Utopian  to  try  to 
restore  it.  What  we  concern  ourselves  with  directly,  there- 
fore, is  the  chant  of  the  MSS.  That  is  what  Pius  X  ordered. 
He  speaks  of  the  chant  '  which  the  Church  jealously  guarded 
in  her  liturgical  codices,'  and  he  is  careful  enough  to  desig- 
nate it  as  the  chant  '  which  is  called  the  Gregorian.' 

But,  can  this  chant  be  restored  in  its  smallest  details  ? 
I  may  anticipate  here  another  difficulty  which  Father 
Burge  raises  later  on  (page  341).  He  says  that  '  for  a  long 
time  the  outlines  of  the  melody  were,  so  to  speak,  in  a 
nebulous  state,  and  it  was  impossible  that  under  these 
circumstances  errors  and  variations  in  small  matters  should 
not  creep  in.'  This  is  a  very  serious  point.  If  the  old 
scribes  were  so  deficient  musically  that  they  did  not  know 
whether  to  write  a  tone  or  a  semitone,  our  position  is  very 
precarious.  One  might  imagine,  therefore,  that  Father 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  427 

Burge  would  devote  some  space  towards  proving  his  asser- 
tion. But  no.  All  he  has  to  say  is  that  a  certain  melodic 
passage  '  gives  rise  to  a  well-founded  suspicion.'  I  might 
satisfy  myself  with  pointing  out  that  Father  Burge  has 
given  no  proof.  To  prove  positively  that  he  is  wrong,  is 
impossible  for  me  here.  It  would  require  a  critical  appa- 
ratus altogether  beyond  my  reach.  But  let  me  assure  the 
reader  that  there  is  no  foundation  whatsoever  for  the  sus- 
picion that  the  old  scribes  were  not  sufficiently  equipped 
for  their  task.  They  sometimes  had  difficulties,  no  doubt. 
But  these  difficulties  arose  not  from  their  incompetency, 
but  from  a  conflict  between  the  traditional  melodies  and 
the  prevailing  theories.  The  prevailing  theory  included 
two  things,  the  tone  system  and  the  mode  theory.  The 
tone  system  accepted  only  the  natural  scale  with  b'p  as  the 
only  chromatic  tone.  The  mode  theory  stated  four  modes, 
those  of  d,  e,  /,  and  g,  on  one  of  which  notes  any  melody 
should  end.  But  when  the  first  attempts  were  being  made 
to  write  down  the  traditional  melodies  in  diastematic  nota- 
tion— in  some  places  these  first  attempts  were  made  in  the 
tenth,  in  others  as  late  as  in  the  fourteenth  century — it 
was  found  that  they  showed  semitones  in  places  where 
they  could  not  be  expressed,  above  d  and  below  g. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  various  expedients  were 
adopted.  The  simplest  was  transposition.  By  transposing 
a  melody  a  fifth  up,  an  e\>  could  be  expressed  by  b\>  ;  by 
transposing  a  fourth  up,  an  /  $  could  be  expressed  by  b  ft. 
Thus  we  find  the  Introit,  Exaudi  Domine,  of  the  Sunday 
after  the  Ascension  transposed  from  d  to  a,  the  Communions, 
Surrexit  Dominus,  of  Easter  Monday,  and  De  fructu,  of  the 
Twelfth  Sunday  after  Pentecost  transposed  from  /  to  c 
to  express  the  eb  (Dom  Pothier's  Liber  Gradualis  has  all 
these  in  their  untransposed  form,  omitting  the  b).  Also 
the  Gloria  of  Mass  VII.,  as  I  mentioned  before,  was  written 
in  c  instead  of  /,  in  order  to  express  the  full  tone  under  the 
final  note.  Similarly,  the  Communion  Beatus  servus  of  a 
'Confessor  non  Pontiff'  was  transposed  from  e  to  a  to  express 
an  /$.  By  thus  setting  aside  to  a  certain  extent  the  mode 
theory,  things  were  adjusted  pretty  easily.  A  greater 


428  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

difficulty,  however,  would  arise,  if  a  melody  required 
both  an  e  \>  and  a  b  ft.  Here  a  transposition  a  fifth  up  would 
convert  the  b  $  into  an  /  $.  It  seems  that  such  cases  did 
confront  the  scribes,  though  it  is  only  by  indirect  means 
that  we  can  now  reconstruct  such  melodies.  An  inter- 
esting case  is  the  Alleluia  verse  of  the  fourth  Sunday  of 
Advent.  Here  the  Alleluia  is  in  e,  but  the  verse  is  trans- 
posed a  tone  lower,  to  d.  If  the  verse  were  written  in  e, 
it  would  require  /$  and  c$.  Some  MSS.  transpose  both 
Alleluia  and  verse  to  a.  The  /$  of  the  verse,  then,  is  ex- 
pressed by  bft,  but  the  c#  must  be  sacrificed.  As  here  the 
different  parts  of  a  composite  piece  are  altered  in  their 
relation  to  each  other,  so  also  sometimes  individual  phrases 
of  a  melody  are  transposed  a  tone  up  or  down  to  preserve 
a  characteristic  interval.  Thus  the  Sarum  Gradual  writes 
the  opening  of  the  Introit,  Exaudi  Domine,  mentioned 
above,  which,  in  the  normal  position  of  the  first  mode, 
would  read  d  e  b  c  /,  as  e  f  d  g,  giving  the  rest  of  the  melody 
in  its  proper  form.  An  instructive  example  is  the  Alleluia 
verse  of  the  Seventh  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  as  given  in 
the  Liber  Gradualis  and  the  Liber  Usualis.  The  latter 
writes  it  in  a,  thus  having  both  a  tone  and  a  semitone 
above  the  final.  Transposed  down  to  d,  the  melody  would 
have  e  in  the  Alleluia,  e\>  in  the  middle  of  the  verse,  and 
e  again  in  the  repetition  of  the  neuma  at  the  end  of  the 
verse.  The  Liber  Gradualis  has  it  in  d,  but  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  verse  transposes  the  melody  a  tone  up,  thus 
representing  the  scale 

d  e\>  f  g  a  b\>  cd 
by  efgabcde 

On  the  third  syllable  of  the  final  word,  exsultationis, 
however,  it  returns  to  the  normal  position.  But  here,  as 
in  the  Alleluia,  it  has  both  b  %  and  b  b.  In  the  transposition 
of  the  Liber  Usualis  this  b  %  would  require  an  /  $,  and  has, 
therefore,  to  be  sacrificed. 

Such  cases,  though  fairly  numerous,  form  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  whole  body  of  the  chant.  We  could  con- 


THE  VATICAN   'KYRIALE'  429 

dude,  a  priori,  that  if  the  large  majority  of  the  melodies 
had  not  been  in  accordance  with  the  theory,  the  theory 
could  not  have  stood.  Apart  from  these  special  cases, 
then,  there  is  not  the  slightest  indication  in  the  codices 
that  the  scribes  were  '  in  a  nebulous  state '  as  to  how  they 
should  represent  the  melodies  in  diastematic  notation. 
The  opposite  statement  is  a  mere  excuse  for  the  unwilling- 
ness to  accept  the  clear  testimony  of  the  documents. 

Another  source  of  discrepancies  in  the  MSS.  are  the 
changes  which  took  place  in  the  tradition  of  singing  during 
the  course  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Father  Burge  quotes  in 
this  connexion  a  remark  of  Gevaert,  who  holds  modern 
practice  should  show  respect  for  the  work  of  time.  Gevaert 
makes  this  observation  with  reference  to  the  Antiphon 
type  Benedicta,  which  he  holds  belonged  originally  to  the 
yth  tone  and,  after  various  vicissitudes,  became  a  4th  tone 
melody  with  a  chromatic  /$  expressed  by  transposition  a 
fourth  up,  as  I  explained  above.  In  a  foot-note  he  refers 
to  the  "change  of  the  dominant  of  the  3rd  tone.  In  a  more 
general  way  we  might  speak  of  the  tendency  to  substitute 
the  upper  note  of  a  semitone  interval  for  the  lower  one. 
I  mentioned  in  my  article,  page  51  (10),  that  I  can  under- 
stand the  position  of  those  who  claim  that  such  a  substitu- 
tion should  be  preserved  wherever  it  became  universal,  or 
almost  universal.  I  think  that  this  is  a  debatable  question. 
Personally,  I  advocate  in  all  cases  the  return  to  the  original 
version.  I  am  influenced,  in  the  first  instance,  by  the  fact 
that  in  a  great  many  cases  the  older  version  is  decidedly 
more  beautiful  than  the  later  one.  I  mentioned  the  case 
of  the  passage  et  omnes,  ad  quos  pervenit  in  the  Vidi  aquam. 
Similarly  the  Christe  of  the  Kyrie  Fons  bonitatis  given  above 
seems  to  me  much  finer  in  its  older  form  with  the  b.  As 
another  example  in  the  eighth  mode  I  mention  the  follow- 
ing from  the  Introit  of  the  First  Sunday  of  Lent : 


(40) 


et      e-     o    exau-  di-    am  e-        um 


430 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


Mark  how  emphatically  the  accented  syllable  of  cx- 
audiam  stands  out  after  the  short  recitation  on  b.  This 
effect  is  much  weakened  in  the  later  version  : 


(4*) 


et      e-  go    ex-au-  di-    am  e-       um 


Compare  under  the  same  aspect  the  following  examples 
of  the  3rd  tone,  taken  from  the  Introits  of  the  Tenth 
(5),  Twenty-second  (6),  and  Twentieth  (7)  Sundays  after 
Pentecost : 


•e 


Cum  cla-  ma-rem  ad  Do-  mi-num,  exaudi-    vit 


HI • 


(56) 


Do-  mi-num,  exaudi-    vit 


•    i    •      a 


-*•*- 


Si     in-  iqui-ta-tes  observa-     ve-  ris 


(6b) 


Si     in-  i-quita-tes  observa-   ve-  ris 


SB     • • • 
„     ,          _                                    ~ 


-C-B- 


Omni-  a  quae  fe-cisti   no-  bis 


THE    VATICAN  4KYRIALE' 


431 


4 


-•— «- 


-M- 


Omni-  a  quae  fe-cisti   no-  bis 

In  example  (6)  I  would  also  call  attention  to  the  figure 
on  the  third  syllable  of  iniquitates.  The  gradual  rise  of 
the  melody  to  c  on  the  accented  syllable  is  marred  in  (6b) 
by  the  anticipation  of  the  c  on  qui.  Corruptions  like  this 
are  frequent  in  the  later  versions. 

The  psalmody,  too,  of  the  3rd  tone  seems  to  me  much 
more  beautiful  with  b  as  reciting  note,  thus  : 

b....dcbc\\b....cacba 

than  what  we  have  at  present,  and  I  hope  sincerely  it  will 
be  reintroduced. 

As  in  the  8th  and  3rd  tones  c  was  substituted  for  6, 
so  we  find  in  the  4th  tone  /  often  substituted  for  e.  As 
an  example  of  the  bad  effect  of  this  I  quote  the  beginning 
of  the  f$  Ecce  quomodo  moritur  of  Holy  Saturday : 


(8a) 


(86) 


k.   • 

.s 

•    i 

EC-  ce  quomo-do  mo-ri-tur 


SB        •             •                fi-2 

•  

_. 

EC-  ce  quomo-do  mo-ri-tur 


Similarly  the  change  of  the  reciting  note  at  de  an- 
gustia  et  de  judicio  in  the  ~f  is  to  the  detriment  of  the 
melody.  Again,  in  the  Introit  of  Easter  Sunday 


tt 


-rt 

mi-ra-     bi-  lis  fa-  eta 


est 


432  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

is  decidedly  superior  to 

(96) 


• 

i 

k 

•  •  •     ••  • 

^ 

8             •••   . 

mi-ra- 

"%' 

bi-  lis  fa-  eta 

r« 

est 

But  even  if  the  superiority  of  the  older  version  were 
not  so  evident  at  the  first  glance,  I  should  advocate  the 
return  to  it.  It  is  always  a  precarious  thing  to  interfere 
with  a  work  of  art,  and  the  presumption  is  always  that  the 
best  form  of  it  is  that  in  which  it  left  the  hands  of  the 
composer.  Moreover,  I  hold  that  I  have  Papal  authority 
on  my  side.  For  I  cannot  see  why  Pius  X's  direction  about 
the  '  original  purity '  of  the  melodies  should  not  apply  in 
these  cases  also. 

I  need  scarcely  point  out  that  even  if  this  view  of  mine 
were  not  adopted,  it  would  not  weaken  the  case  I  made 
out  against  the  Kyriale  in  the  least.  For  the  instances 
which  I  singled  out  for  consideration  in  my  former  article 
were  such  as  Dom  Pothier  had  either  no  support  for  in 
the  MSS.  at  all,  or  only  the  support  of  a  few  that  have  no 
special  importance. 

In  his  next  paragraph  (page  329)  Father  Burge  charges 
the  '  archaeologists '  with  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  Church 
recognizes  as  Plain  Chant  also  compositions  of  a  later  date. 
Seeing  that  the  Solesmes  monks  supplied  the  reading  for  a 
large  number  of  melodies  of  comparatively  recent  origin  in 
the  Kyriale,  this  is  a  most  surprising  statement.  As  I  do 
not  want  to  charge  Father  Burge  with  wilful  misrepre- 
sentation, I  must  assume  that  his  mind  is  '  in  a  nebulous 
state.' 

Then  the  work  of  the  archaeologists  is  made  little  of, 
because  it  amounts  merely  to  one  note  in  three  hundred 
having  been  corrected.  Supposing  this  were  so,  why 
should  even  I  note  in  300  be  wrong  ?  And  is  I  in 
300  so  very  little  ?  There  are  about  1,800  letters  on  a 
page  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD.  If  there  were  six  printing 
mistakes  on  every  page,  would  it  not  be  said  that  the 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  433 

I.  E.  RECORD  was  very  badly  edited  ?  But  is  it  only  a 
case  of  i  in  300  ?  I  have  made  a  rough  calculation  of  the 
notes  in  the  Kyriale,  and  estimate  them  at  about  15,000. 
One  hundred  and  thirty  mistakes  in  these  would  be  at  the 
rate  of  i  in  116,  corresponding  to  about  fifteen  printing 
mistakes  on  a  page  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  !  So  much  for 
arithmetic. 

Having,  a  moment  before,  branded  the  archaeologists 
for  not  recognizing  compositions  of  later  origin,  Father 
Burge  next  blames  them  for  applying  the  same  method 
to  these  as  to  the  earlier  ones,  the  same  method  to  the 
corrupt  as  to  the  incorrupt !  I  have  only  one  remark  to 
make.  If  these  later  melodies  are  corrupt,  why  should 
they,  even  with  some  patching  up,  be  embodied  in  the 
Vatican  edition  ?  Would  it  not  be  better  to  consign  them 
to  the  dust-bin  ? 

There  is  just  one  other  objection  under  the  '  scientific ' 
aspect.  It  is  that  of  instability.  On  page  328  we  read  : 
*  It  is  still  possible  that  some  day  the  libraries  of  Europe 
may  disclose  a  MS.  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  centuries,  and 
then  what  would  happen  ?  .  .  .  And  must  the  music  of  the 
Church  be  dependent  upon  every  fresh  discovery  of  archae- 
ology ?  '  Why  should  the  music  of  the  Church  not  take 
advantage  of  the  discoveries  of  archaeology  ?  Pius  X  appa- 
rently sees  nothing  objectionable  in  that.  For  in  the  final 
paragraph  of  his  Motu  Proprio,  of  25th  April,  1904,  after 
expressing  the  hope  that  the  Vatican  edition  will  restore 
the  traditional  chant  as  far  as  the  state  of  modern  studies 
allows,  he  reserves  significantly  to  himself  and  his  suc- 
cessors the  right  of  making  changes.  There  is  no  danger 
of  changes  being  made  so  frequently  as  to  create  practical 
difficulties.  There  is  no  fear — or  perhaps  I  should  rather 
say,  no  hope — of  archaeology  making  startling  discoveries 
very  soon.  The  chances  of  a  MS.  of  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century  being  found  are  remote  in  the  extreme,  and  if  one 
were  found,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  it  would  be 
different  from  the  MSS.  of  the  ninth  century.  No,  if  the 
Vaticana  had  really  represented  the  results  of  modern 
studies,  it  might  perhaps  have  lasted  for  fifty  years.  As  it 

VOL.  XIX.  2B 


434  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

is,  it  will  not  outlive  Dom  Pothier's  personal  influence  in 
Rome. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  main  point,  the  artistic 
quality  of  the  archaeological  principle.  Father  Burge  has 
not  much  to  say  here.  He  complains  that  Dom  Mocquereau 
has  not  published  what  he  has  discovered  about  the  Art 
of  the  Gregorian  melodies.  I  suppose  Dom  Mocquereau 
knows  best  himself  how  to  employ  his  time  most  usefully, 
and  he  will  publish  more  about  these  matters  when  the 
proper  time  comes.  But  I  might  point  out  to  Father  Burge 
that  a  wealth  of  information  about  the  Gregorian  art  of 
composition  is  contained  in  the  third  and  fourth  volumes  of 
the  Paleogmphie  Musicale.  Again,  Father  Burge  com- 
plains that  Dom  Beyssac  and  myself  did  not  apply  any  of 
these  art  canons  in  our  criticisms  of  Gregorian  melodies. 
This  betrays  an  altogether  wrong  point  of  view.  If  there 
is  question  of  restoring  a  work  of  art,  that  method  is  the 
most  artistic  which  makes  us  re-constitute  the  work  of 
art  in  its  original  beauty  with  the  greatest  amount  of  cer- 
tainty. In  our  case  the  historical  documents  are  the  safest 
guides  for  this  purpose.  Then,  having  restored  the  work 
of  art,  we  can  derive  from  it  the  laws  of  its  beauty.  These 
laws,  therefore,  are  dependent  on  the  work  of  art,  not  the 
reverse.  Only  in  case  of  doubt,  when  the^documents  fail 
us  in  a  particular  instance,  we  might  apply  the  rules  that 
have  been  found  to  govern  similar  cases.  It  is  really  sur- 
prising that  anybody  should  advocate  an  aesthetic  prin- 
ciple as  the  main  guide  in  restoring  Plain  Chant,  seeing  the 
enormous  havoc  that  has  been  wrought  with  the  chant 
during  the  last  three  centuries  by  the  application  of  amateur 
aesthetics. 

The  third  point  Father  Burge  raises  is  that  the  method 
I  advocate  is  against  the  terms  of  reference  of  the  Com- 
mission. Considering  that  I  made  my  stand  on  the  Pope's 
Motu  Proprio  of  25th  April,  1904,  I  was  naturally  curious 
to  see  how  Father  Burge  would  prove  that  my  position 
was  opposed  to  the  terms  laid  down  in  that  same 
document.  I  was  disappointed,  however.  Father  Burge's 
trick  is  an  old  one,  and  shows  no  ingenuity.  It  is^the 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  435 

trick  of  fathering  upon  your  adversary  some  absurd  state- 
ment, which  makes  any  further  discussion  needless.  Father 
Burge  says  that  we  '  admit  no  "  legitimate  tradition " 
beyond  the  ninth  century.'  I  wonder  was  ever  a  man  so 
foolish  as  to  hold  such  an  opinion.  The  Solesmes  monks 
or  the  present  writer  certainly  never  did.  And  this  is  the 
only  thing  Father  Burge  has  to  advance  for  showing  that 
our  principle  is  at  variance  with  the  Pope's  terms  of 
reference. 

Father  Burge,  then,  gives  an  account  of  what  happened 
with  the  Commission,  which  I  cannot  let  pass  unchallenged. 
He  says  that  because  the  archaeologists  could  not  see  their 
way  to  accept  the  Papal  instructions,  it  was  necessary  to 
give  Dom  Pothier  the  supreme  direction  of  the  work.  Why, 
if  the  majority  of  the  Commission  were  on  Dom  Pothier's 
side,  as  Father  Burge  maintains,  should  it  have  been  neces- 
sary to  supersede  the  Commission  ?  Could  not  the  Com- 
mission by  majority  vote  have  decided  the  question  ? 

Before  finishing  the  first  part  of  his  reply,  Father  Burge 
puts  another  silly  question  :  Is  Plain  Chant  made  for  man 
or  man  made  for  the  Chant  ?  He  quotes  Dom  Mocquereau 
as  saying  that  the  Chant  must  be  taken  as  it  is,  with  its 
good  and  bad  points.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Dom  Moc- 
quereau does  not  say  that  at  all.  But  let  that  pass.  My 
article  is  growing  too  long  in  my  attempts  to  deal  with  all 
the  side-issues  my  opponent  raises.  But  a  word  about  the 
Pope's  desire  to  see  the  use  of  the  Chant  restored  to  the 
people.  Does  the  Pope  say  anywhere  that  the  Chant 
should  be  changed  so  as  to  make  it  easier  for  the  people  ? 
If  we  must  have  congregational  singing  at  any  cost,  why 
not  take  up  the  Salvation  Army  hymns  ? 

The  second  part  of  Father  Burge' s  article  is  occupied 
with  two  attempts.  First,  he  tries  to  show  some  reasons 
for  the  changes  made  in  the  Vatican  Kyriale  ;  secondly, 
he  tries  to  prove  that  some  of  my  statements  as  to  mistakes 
in  the  Kyriale  are  erroneous.  To  the  first  I  might  simply 
reply  that  I  never  doubted  that  Dom  Pothier  had  reasons 
for  his  changes.  All  the  reformers,  from  Guido  of  Cherlieu 
down  to  the  editors  of  the  Reims-Cambrai  and  Cologne 


436  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

editions,  had  reasons  for  their  changes.  But  it  will  be 
instructive  to  look  at  some  of  these  reasons.  First,  how- 
ever, I  have  to  point  out  a  very  grave  omission  Father 
Burge  makes  himself  guilty  of.  On  page  335,  referring  to 
my  statement  of  Dom  Pothier's  predilection  for  the  German 
tradition,  he  says  :  '  If  the  critic  had  been  better  informed, 
he  would  have  discovered,  with  some  surprise,  that  the  so- 
called  German  readings  of  the  Kyriale  are  met  with  in  MSS. 
of  very  different  origin.'  And,  again,  on  page  336  :  '  The 
critic  never  tires  of  repeating  that  the  different  corrections 
are  not  found  in  any  MSS.  To  this  I  can  only  reply  that 
in  not  any  single  case  has  any  correction  been  adopted 
which  is  not  justified  by  one  or  more  MSS.'  Why,  then, 
does  he  not  mention  these  MSS.  ?  When  I  challenged  him 
in  the  Catholic  Times  to  quote  those  MSS.,  he  got  out  of 
it  by  saying  :  '  Neither  the  Editor  nor  the  readers  .  .  .  have 
any  desire  to  see  these  notes  bristling  with  quotations  that 
can  be  of  interest  to  the  erudite  alone.'  Now  he  has  filled 
twenty-two  pages  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  and  still  there  is 
not  a  single  quotation  of  the  alleged  codices.  Hie  Rhodus, 
hie  salta.  You  must  quote  your  codices,  Father  Burge,  or 
stand  convicted. 

Of  course,  the  reason  why  he  does  not  quote  them  is 
plain  :  he  does  not  know  any.  Neither  does  the  member 
of  the  Commission,  who  prompted  him,  know  any.  This 
confident  assertion  that  they  exist,  is  a  mere  game  of 
bluff.  But  it  will  not  deceive  any  intelligent  person. 

We  read  on  page  336  :  '  We  can  hardly  expect  the 
archaeologists  to  enter  into  the  niceties  of  Gregorian  art 
that  are  displayed,'  etc.  Niceties  of  Gregorian  art,  indeed  ! 
And  it  took  exactly  thirteen  hundred  and  one  years  since 
the  death  of  St.  Gregory,  to  evolve  this  nicety  of  the  Gre- 
gorian art !  Imagine  a  literary  critic  finding  the  genius 
of  Shakespeare  in  some  change  a  twentieth- century  editor 
introduced  in  one  of  Shakespeare's  plays !  Why,  that 
literary  critic  would  be  laughed  out  of  existence. 

Referring  to  my  statement  that  Dom  Pothier's  version 
of  templo  is  not  found  in  a  single  MS.,  my  critic  remarks  : 
'  I  feel  sure  this  is  quite  an  oversight  on  the  part  of  the 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  437 

critic,  otherwise  such  an  accusation  might  give  rise  to  un- 
pleasant rejoinders.'  I  do  not  understand  the  second  part 
of  this  sentence,  but  I  can  assure  Father  Burge  that  there 
was  no  oversight  on  my  part.  His  quotation  from  Guido 
of  Arezzo  is  quite  irrelevant.  Applied  to  the  text  in 
question  Guide's  remark  means  that  the  a,  which  is  printed 
as  a  Liquescent,  might  be  sung  either  as  a  Liquescent  or 
with  fuller  production.  But  whichever  way  you  sing  it, 
it  remains  an  interpolated  note,  and  I  repeat,  therefore, 
Dom  Pothier's  version  is  not  found  in  any  single  MS. 

We  now  come  to  the  Kyrie  Fons  bonitatis  mentioned 
already.  Father  Burge  objects  to  my  calling  Dom  Beyssac's 
treatment  of  this  melody  '  masterly.'  How  masterly  it  is, 
becomes  strikingly  clear  when  we  compare  it  with  Father 
Burge's  treatment.  In  dealing  with  a  historical  question 
Dom  Beyssac  relies  on  historical  evidence.  Father  Burge 
relies  on  his  imagination.  He  tells  us  the  story  of  the 
development  of  the  melody,  as  if  he  had  been  looking  on 
through  all  the  centuries,  but  his  explanation  has  just  the 
value  of  an  idle  moment's  fancy.  If  we  consult  the  MSS., 
we  find  that  there  is  no  necessary  connexion  between  d 
and  b  on  the  one  hand,  and  between  e  and  c  on  the  other. 
The  German  MSS.,  which  have  invariably  c,  have  invari- 
ably d  also.  On  the  other  hand  the  Aquitanian  MSS. 
have  e,  even  when  they  have  b.  Only  very  few  MSS. 
(five  out  of  about  a  hundred)  have  e  d,  and  the  fact 
that  they  are  of  widely  different  origin,  proves  the  acci- 
dental character  of  the  change,  which,  as  Dom  Beyssac 
suggests,  is  probably  due  to  the  false  analogy  of  the  e  d 
on  the  first  syllable  of  Christe.  But  a  funny  mishap  befalls 
Father  Burge,  when  he  speaks  of  a  Tristropha  on  b.  Father 
Burge,  did  you  ever  see  a  Tristropha  on  b  ?  I  never  did, 
and  I  never  heard  of  anybody  else  who  did.  Of  course, 
there  may  be  such  a  thing  in  one  of  the  2,500  codices  that 
are  estimated  to  contain  Gregorian  notation.  But  why  do 
you  keep  away  from  the  world  the  secret  of  such  an  in- 
teresting occurrence  ?  But  anyhow,  there  is  no  Tristropha 
on  b  in  this  melody.  Where,  then,  did  Father  Burge  get 
this  interesting  idea  ?  Evidently  he  saw  three  c's  in  the 


438  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Vatican  version,  and  jumped  at  the  conclusion  that  this 
must  be  a  Tristropha.  Then,  having  learned  from  his 
Roman  correspondent  that  the  original  melody  had  b  at 
this  place,  he  transferred  his  Tristropha  to  b  !  There  is 
not  even  a  Tristropha  on  c,  however.  There  is  a  Pes 
stratus  ace  (replacing  the  original  abb)  followed  by  a 
Clivis  c  b,  a  slightly  different  thing.  Father  Burge's  mis- 
take, by  the  way,  shows  the  desirability  of  resuming  the 
old,  distinctive  form  of  the  Strophicus,  as  has  been  done 
in  the  Solesmes  rhythmical  editions  of  the  Vatican  Kyriale. 

Another  '  reason '  is  given  for  the  change  of  gloriam 
(Ex.  12  and  13).  Here,  according  to  Father  Burge  and 
Dom  Pothier,  '  the  variety  of  resources  at  the  command 
of  the  ancient  Gregorian  artists  were  exhausted.*  But  is 
not  the  repetition  of  a  melodic  figure  one  of  these  resources, 
and  have  not  all  the  greatest  composers  of  all  times  made 
free  use  of  this  resource  ? 

With  regard  to  my  example  (14)  Father  Burge  has  mis- 
understood my  remark.  The  original  version  had  g  a  b  a  g  f, 
thus  giving  a  tritone  with  all  its  horrors.  I  shall  presently 
say  a  little  more  about  the  tritone.  I  must  insert  a  couple 
of  other  remarks.  Father  Burge  says  that  b  was  changed 
into  c,  according  to  the  traditional  demand  for  a  more 
decided  note.  On  the  preceding  page  he  says  similarly 
that  b  was  changed  into  c  to  give  more  precision  and  vigour 
to  the  melody.  Was  this  really  the  reason  for  the  frequent 
changes  made  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  ?  Professor  Wagner 
has  a  very  different  interpretation.  He  says  :  *  It  was  the 
endeavour  to  remove  or  to  obviate  the  difficulties  that 
attach  to  the  interval  of  the  semitone.'  I  have  not  the 
slightest  doubt  that  Wagner  is  right.  Even  in  modern 
times  untrained  singers  sing  frequently  a  third  a  c  for 
a  b  or  a  bh..  Such  singers  represent  the  musical  develop- 
ment at  the  stage  of  the  pentatonic  scale,  which  has  no 
semitone  :  a  c  d  /  g  a. 

Again,  Father  Burge  thinks  it  strange  that  I  should 
speak  of  the  difficulty  presented  to  a  modern  musician 
by  the  full  tone  under  the  tonic,  considering  that  Irish 
peasant  singers  are  so  fond  of  the  '  flattened  seventh.'  I 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  439 

have  very  great  respect  for  the  Irish  singers,  but  I  did  not 
know  that  they  should  be  considered  modern  musicians. 
Moreover,  the  *  flattened  seventh  '  is  by  no  means  identical 
with  the  full  tone  under  the  tonic.  Practically  all  the 
melodies  that  have  the  'flattened  seventh'  either  avoid 
the  tone  under  the  tonic  or  sharpen  it.  If  I  were  to  chal- 
lenge Father  Burge  to  quote  a  few  Irish  melodies  of  the 
'  Soh '  mode,  showing  a  full  tone  under  the  tonic  at  a 
cadence,  he  would  have  plenty  of  difficulty  in  finding 
them. 

Now  to  the  tritone.  Father  Burge  says  :  '  This  [the 
objection  to  the  tritone]  is  one  of  the  cases  of  "  legitimate 
tradition." '  Is  it  really  ?  As  I  have  not  yet  stated 
directly  what  I  consider  as  the  meaning  of  '  legitimate 
tradition,'  I  will  do  it  here.  A  legitimate  tradition,  I  hold, 
is  that  tradition  which  preserves  the  original  intact.  Any 
tradition  which  changes  the  original  is  not  a  legitimate 
tradition,  but  a  corruption.  If  this  does  not  meet  Father 
Burge's  views,  let  him  give  a  definition  of  his  own.  Simply 
to  assert  that  a  certain  tradition  is  a  legitimate  tradition 
will  not  do. 

Father  Burge  suggests  that  it  was  *  prudence '  which 
prevented  me  from  calling  attention  to  certain  differences 
between  the  readings  of  the  MSS.  and  the  Vaticana.  I 
stated  distinctly,  page  48  (7),  of  my  former  article,  why 
I  left  aside  certain  cases.  Father  Burge  might  give  me 
credit  for  truthfulness,  anyhow.  I  shall  show  presently 
that  I  am  not  afraid  to  quote  a  few  examples  of  tritones. 
But  first  let  us  glance  at  Father  Burge's  examples.  He 
says  his  example  (15)  is  found  in  some  old  MSS.  I 
think  I  might  with  great  safety  deny  this  statement  4 
I  should  run  very  little  risk  of  being  refuted.  But 
perhaps  it  is  better  for  me  not  to  run  any  risks,  and 
so  I  will  confine  myself  to  challenging  Father  Burge  to 
produce  his  authority  for  his  example  (15). 

Another  mishap  befell  Father  Burge  in  his  example 
(18).  The  last  five  notes  have  dropped  down  one  degree. 
Who  is  guilty  of  this  gross  carelessness  in  copying — is 
it  the  member  of  the  Commission  who  '  violated  the 


440 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


Pontifical  secret '  by  communicating  this  reading  to 
Father  Burge,  or  is  it  Father  Burge  ?  I  leave  it  to 
him  to  explain. 

To  the  question  of  the  tritone  itself,  I  quote  a  few 
examples  from  books  edited  by  Dom  Pothier  : 


(10) 


*  A 

"  •      5 

,  •  r- 

Pa-  rem  pa-ternae  glo-ri-ae 
(Christmas  Hymn) 


(12) 


(13) 


s 


alle-lu-ia,  alle-lu-  ia 
(Magn.  Ant.  of  Low  Sunday) 


Quae  tu  ere-  asti     pecto-ra 
(Veni  Creator) 


m   • 


In  hymnis  et  canti-cis 
(Lauda  Sion) 


(14) 


=3v 


w 


Ver-bum    su-pernum  pro-di-  ens 


THE  VATICAN   'KYRIALE'  441 


gestaque  forti-a 
(Vesper  Hymn  of  Several  Martyrs) 


.     ! 

n.  3 

(16)  _ 

o-rantem  inve-nit 
(2nd  Vesper  Antiphon  of  St.  Cecilia). 

Would  Father  Burge  have  all  these  changed  ?  I  have 
confined  myself  to  simple  chants,  such  as  might  be  ex- 
pected to  be  sung  congregationally.  If  I  had  gone  to  the 
Schola  or  Solo  chants,  I  could  have  quoted  almost  without 
end.  But  I  have  one  more  example  : 

(17)  1s  •  ==*==  zE-*— ; 


Carnem  vi-   dens  nee  cavens   laque-  urn 

If  the  former  examples  were  *  horrors,'  what  will  Father 
Burge  call  this  ?  And  this  is  a  chant  published  by  Dom 
Pothier  without  any  necessity — it  is  not  in  our  present 
Liturgy — but  merely  as  a  specimen  of  fine  medieval  com- 
positions !  The  example  is  taken  from  the  Easter  Sequence, 
Salve  dies,  in  Dom  Pothier's  '  Variae  Preces.' 

So  far  Father  Burge  has  admitted  that  Dom  Pothier 
did  make  changes,  and  only  has  tried  to  find  some  justi- 
fication for  them.  He  now  proceeds  to  show  that  some  of 
my  statements  as  to  such  changes  are  erroneous.  He 
makes  out  eleven  mistakes  in  these  statements.  Suppose 
for  a  moment  he  was  right  in  this,  what  would  it  mean  ? 
It  would  be  pretty  bad  for  me,  but  how  would  the  Vatican 
Kyriale  stand  ?  There  would  still  be  about  seventy  arbi- 
trary and  evident  changes  in  it — bad  enough  for  a  little 
book  of  its  size.  But  let  us  examine  into  my  supposed 
errors. 


442  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

1st  Error.  *  The  critic  complains  that  in  the  Gloria 
of  Mass  VII.  the  editors  omit  the  ifc  and  sharpen  the  leading 
note.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  only  two  6's  in  the 
piece,  and  both  of  them  are  flattened?  Well  now,  really, 
Father  Burge,  I  have  a  grievance  against  you.  To  imagine 
that  I  could  be  guilty  of  such  a  transparent  blunder  ! 
Why,  any  school-boy  could  see  that  all  the  Vs  of  that  piece 
in  the  Vatican  edition  are  flattened,  and  you  think  it  pos- 
sible that  I  did  not  see  it !  Surely,  when  my  supposed 
mistake  was  so  terribly  gross,  you  might  have  stopped  for 
a  moment  to  see  whether  there  was  not  something  amiss. 
It  would  have  been  better  for  you,  too.  For  it  is  my 
painful  duty  to  point  out  to  you  that,  as  I  distinctly  stated, 
the  piece  is  written  in  c  in  the  MSS.  and  transposed  to  / 
by  Dom  Pothier.  The  b  of  the  original,  therefore,  has 
become  e,  and,  needless  to  say,  there  is  no  flat  before 
the*. 

2nd  Error.  *  In  the  Cantus  ad  libitum,  Kyrie  II.,  he 
says  there  are  only  two  Christe.  I  have  examined  three 
editions,  and  in  all  I  find  three  Christe.'  A  nice  piece  of 
logic :  Three  editions  have  three  Christe,  therefore  the 
Vatican  edition  has  three  Christe  !  I  think  I  must  recom- 
mend our  Professor  of  Logic  to  give  this  to  his  students 
as  a  typical  specimen  of  a  bad  inference.  If  Father  Burge 
does  not  mind  spending  a  few  shillings,  he  might  procure 
another  half  dozen,  or  even  dozen,  editions,  all  having 
three  Christe,  and  still  the  fact  remains  that  the  Vatican 
edition,  that  is,  the  edition  that  issued  from  the  Vatican 
printing  establishment,  has  only  two  Christe.  Or  does 
Father  Burge  really  believe  that  I  cannot  count  three  ? 
The  explanation  of  the  puzzle  is  so  simple  that  Father 
Burge  would  have  guessed  it  himself,  if  he  had  not  been 
bent  on  finding  fault  with  me  :  the  reprints  of  the  Vatican 
edition,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  early  ones,  corrected 
the  mistake. 

3rd  Error.  '  In  Gloria  III.,  the  MSS.  give  a  double  d 
at  Te  in  Laudamus  Te  ;  the  critic  declares  Dom  Pothier 
only  gives  one.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  editors  have  given 
the  double  d.'  Very  funny  again  !  There  is  a  long  neuma 


THE  VATICAN  'KYRIALE'  443 

on  this  Te,  and  in  the  course  of  it  two  d's  happen  to  come 
together.  But  what  I  wanted  to  convey,  and  what,  I 
think,  I  conveyed  with  sufficient  clearness  to  any  unbiassed 
mind,  was  that  the  MSS.  have  two  d's,  where  Dom  Pothier 
has  only  one,  that  is,  right  at  the  beginning  of  the  phrase. 

Next  we  get  seven  errors  in  a  bundle.  *  Seven  other 
statements  are  erroneous  in  their  assertion  that  "  Dom 
Pothier's"  version  is  unsupported  by  any  MSS.  This,  as 
I  have  shown  above,  is  altogether  inaccurate.'  I  beg  your 
pardon,  Father  Burge,  you  showed  nothing  of  the  kind. 
You  made  a  general  assertion,  but  the  proofs  for  your 
assertion  are  wanting  still. 

And  now  I  have  to  call  attention  to  a  nice  piece  of 
arithmetic.  We  had  three  '  errors  '  dealt  with  singly,  and 
then  seven  in  a  bundle,  and  these  together  make  the  eleven  ! 
Perhaps,  after  all,  I  took  Father  Burge  too  seriously  when 
I  protested  against  his  imputing  to  me  gross  carelessness. 
To  a  man  who  makes  3  +  7  =  n  it  might  appear  a  venial 
offence  to  say  that  there  is  no  flat  when  there  is  a  flat,  or  to 
say  that  there  are  only  two  Christe  when  there  are  three, 
or  to  say  that  there  is  only  one  d  when  there  are  two. 

We  are  nearing  the  end  now.  But  before  I  take  up 
Father  Burge's  final  thrust,  I  have  two  other  small  points 
to  deal  with.  My  opponent  holds  me  up  to  ridicule  for 
growing  indignant  over  a  version  of  the  Vaticana,  which 
he  quotes  under  No.  21.  With  his  usual  inaccuracy  he 
misquotes  the  version  of  the  MS.  I  stated  distinctly  that 
the  MS.  has  a  gag  where  Dom  Pothier  has  a  g  a.  Instead 
of  that  Father  Burge  changes  the  /  on  the  second  syllable 
of  tottis  into  g.  But  apart  from  that,  is  there  any  reason 
for  my  showing  special  indignation  at  this  example  ?  Not 
the  slightest.  It  would  be  perfectly  ridiculous  for  me  to 
grow  indignant  over  this  case  any  more  than  over  any  of 
the  other  eighty  or  so.  But  neither  did  I.  What  roused 
my  indignation  was  that  Dom  Pothier  made  five  changes 
in  a  short  little  melody  for  which  there  are  no  variants  in 
the  MSS.  at  all.  I  feel  sure  Father  Burge  himself  could 
have  seen  that,  if  he  had  wanted  to  do  so. 

Then  my  critic  complains  that  I  left  out  St.  Gregory 


444  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

in  my  list  of  reformers.  I  may  modestly  remark  that  I 
am  not  aware  of  any  historic  evidence  that  St.  Gregory 
was  a  reformer  in  Church  music.  That  he  did  several 
things  for  Church  music  is  beyond  reasonable  doubt.  But 
whether  his  work  had  in  any  way  the  character  of  reform 
is  not  proved  as  far  as  I  know. 

Having  failed  to  disprove  any  of  my  statements,  Father 
Burge  finally  accuses  me  of  disloyalty.  Loyalty  is  a 
peculiar  thing  in  these  matters.  I  wonder  was  Father 
Burge  loyal  during  the  thirty  years  that  the  Ratisbon 
Chant  was  authentic  ?  Did  he  preach  then  from  the  house 
tops  that  the  Ratisbon  books  ought  to  be  introduced 
everywhere  ?  Did  he  do  his  best  to  influence  his  brethren, 
the  English  Benedictines,  to  lay  aside  the  Mechlin  Chant, 
and  to  adopt  the  authentic  version  ?  Perhaps  he  did. 
I  do  not  know.  But  one  thing  I  know  :  Dom  Pothier  was 
not  *  loyal '  in  those  days.  In  spite  of  repeated  declarations 
of  the  Roman  authorities  that  the  Ratisbon  books  contained 
the  authentic  Gregorian  Chant,  he  published  his  Liber 
Gradualis,  and  did  his  best,  too,  to  have  it  sung  in  as  many 
places  as  possible.  With  these  things  fresh  in  our  memories, 
is  it  not  surprising  to  find  people  bragging  about  loyalty  ? 
Or  look  at  it  in  another  way.  Suppose  the  Pope  changed 
his  mind  over  night,  and  made  those  things  which  Father 
Burge  tastefully  likens  to  a  '  chamber  of  horrors  '  obligatory 
for  the  whole  Church,  what  would  Father  Burge  do  then  ? 
Would  he  become  disloyal,  or  would  he  suddenly  change 
his  aesthetic  convictions  ? 

He  grows  hot  over  my  statement  that  '  this  question 
cannot  be  settled  by  decrees.'  I  do  not  see  why  he  gets 
up  this  indignation,  unless  it  be  for  mere  histrionic  display. 
I  made  it  perfectly  clear  in  what  sense  I  understood  these 
words.  I  pointed  out  that  if  this  question  were  to  be 
settled  by  decrees,  it  would  have  been  settled  long  ago. 
Were  there  not  enough  decrees  in  favour  of  the  Ratisbon 
edition  ?  And  yet,  as  I  said,  with  one  stroke  of  the  pen 
a  Pope  cancelled  them  all.  And  so  it  will  be  with  the 
decrees  that  Dom  Pothier  got — or  obtained,  or  received, 
or  any  word  that  will  please  Father  Burge — for  his  edition. 


THE  VATICAN   'KYRIALE'  445 

I  am  not  disloyal.  I  have  no  fault  to  find  with  autho- 
rity. I  am  an  ardent  admirer  of  Pius  X.  I  hailed  with 
delight,  and  accept  without  reservation,  his  two  Motu 
Proprios  on  Church  Music.  And  as  to  the  Congregation 
of  Rites,  surely  we  cannot  expect  them  to  examine  the 
MSS.  to  see  whether  Dom  Pothier  carried  out  his  task 
faithfully.  My  quarrel  is  with  Dom  Pothier  alone,  and 
if  I  feel  rather  angry  with  him,  it  is  precisely  because  he 
has  frustrated  the  intention  of  the  Pope,  and  placed  the 
Holy  See  in  a  very  awkward  position. 

Father  Burge  concludes  his  article  with  a  quotation  from 
Pope.  So  I  may  appropriately  conclude  with  a  quotation 
from  Pius  X  : 

The  melodies  of  the  Church,  which  are  called  Gregorian, 
shall  be  restored  in  their  integrity  and  purity. 

H.  BEWERUNGE. 


[     446    ] 


CARDINAL    LOGUE   AT   BOBBIO 

ON  the  return  journey  from  his  recent  visit  to  Rome 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Logue  paid  a  visit  to  the 
far-famed  town  of  Bobbio,  the  last  home  and  resting 
place  of  St.  Columbanus,  and  of  many  other  Irish  saints  and 
scholars.  His  Eminence  was  received  by  the  Bishop, 
clergy  and  people  of  Bobbio  with  every  mark  of  reverence 
and  respect  not  only  as  a  Cardinal  and  Prince,  but  as  the 
most  illustrious  living  representative  of  the  Church  and 
country  of  St.  Columbanus.  On  the  25th  of  March,  a  great 
ceremony  was  held  in  his  honour,  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Bobbio,  where  the  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese,  Mgr.  Bobbi, 
delivered  an  oration  on  the  saint  and  on  Ireland,  which  we 
find  published  in  the  local  paper,  La  Trebbia,  of  the  6th 
of  April. 

The  occasion  was  so  interesting,  the  memories  recalled 
in  this  discourse  so  important,  and  the  sympathy  with 
Ireland  so  evident  and  so  sincere,  that  we  think  it  worth 
while  to  reproduce  the  principal  passages  in  the  oration. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  distinguished  orator  had  only 
a  few  hours'  notice  of  the  task  imposed  on  him  by  the 
Bishop  of  Bobbio. 

f*^  I  am  obliged,  in  the  circumstances  pie  said],  to  refer  you  to 
my  two  former  conferences  on  '  The  Footsteps  of  St.  Columbanus 
from  Leinster  to  Bobbio,'  and  '  The  Ideals  of  St.  Columbanus.' 
Here  and  now  I  need  only  recall  how  the  gifted  youth,  who  took 
refuge  in  the  desert  during  the  five  most  critical  years  of  his 
life,  and  the  student  who  burned  with  ardour  for  the  culti- 
vation of  science  and  letters  in  the  monastery  of  Bangor,  held 
hidden  beneath  the  veil  of  modesty  one  of  those  superior  minds 
which  take  in  almost  at  a  glance  all  the  evils  of  the  age  in  which 
they  live,  and  one  of  those  generous  hearts  that  are  moved  to 
spend  themselves  in  the  effort  to  overcome  them.  Does  it  not 
look  strange  to  us  in  these  days  that  he,  preceded  only  by  the 
Cross,  with  the  Gospel  hung  around  his  neck,  fearing  nothing 
and  hoping  nothing  from  men,  should  go  forth  to  proclaim  to 
rulers  and  subjects  that  if  there  is  any  code  of  reform  in  the 
world  it  is  the  Gospel,  and  that  if  there  is  any  banner  to  be 


CARDINAL  LOGUE  AT  BOBBIO  447 

held  aloft  in  the  supreme  moments  of  a  nation's  life  it  is  the 
banner  which  bears  inscribed  upon  it  the  holy  Cross.  Strange, 
too,  it  seems  to  us  that  in  his  journeys  between  the  sixth  and 
the  seventh  centuries  he  should  have  won  over  to  his  cause 
thousands  of  followers  to  send  forth  as  angels  of  the  Lord  for 
the  salvation  of  Europe.  More  strange  still  does  it  appear 
that  the  indomitable  conqueror,  as  he  has  been  called,  should 
have  raised  his  voice,  with  an  eloquence  worthy  of  St.  Paul, 
in  favour  of  the  downtrodden  and  oppressed,  and  fought  for  their 
interests  from  the  coasts  of  England  to  the  crests  of  the  Pyrenees, 
of  the  Vosges,  of  the  Jura,  of  the  Alps,  resting  only  when  he 
found  here  in  Bobbio  the  peace  of  the  grave.  Now  in  all  that, 
besides  the  divine  impulse  and  the  movement  of  grace,  there 
was — and  on  what  more  suitable  occasion  should  it  be  pro- 
claimed— the  disposition  and  character  of  the  nation  to  which 
he  belonged. 

A  simple  glance  at  history  is  sufficient  to  convince  us  that 
the  sympathetic  branch  of  the  Celtic  family  which  flourishes  in 
the  Virgin  Island  of  the  Atlantic  has  an  innate  tendency  to 
expand  ;  and  wherever  it  carries  its  language  and  customs  there 
also  it  brings  with  it  the  Cross  of  its  faith  and  the  evergreen 
trifolium  of  its  banner.  This  national  inclination  reveals  itself 
in  the  most  striking  fashion  in  our  Apostle.  Perhaps  no  man 
ever  crossed  through  Europe  with  a  more  ardent  desire  of 
planting  amongst  the  Prankish,  German,  and  Latin  races,  the 
graceful  forms  of  the  true  and  the  good,  which  in  an  epoch  of 
universal  desolation  and  decay  were  providentially  preserved  in 
Ireland. 

Banished  from  France  by  King  Theodoric  through  the  evil 
influence  of  Brunehilde,  after  more  than  twenty  years  of  aposto- 
late,  the  indomitable  missionary  wept  like  a  child  at  the  thought 
of  being  driven  back  by  force  to  his  native  land,  and  by  his 
prayers  obtained  from  Heaven  unfavourable  winds  that  sent 
back  to  the  coast  of  France  the  ship  that  bore  him  homewards. 
When  we  remember  the  bitter  struggles  he  went  through  and 
the  storms  that  broke  over  his  head,  owing  to  the  fierce  ardour 
with  which  he,  in  a  strange  land,  endeavoured  to  maintain 
intact  and  intangible  certain  customs  of  his  Irish  brethren  in 
the  faith,  we  should  also  bear  in  mind  the  tender  affection  that 
he  bore  to  the  land  of  his  youth  and  to  the  monasteries  in  which 
his  ardent  faith  was  nourished.  Over  that  land  the  Roman  eagle 
had  never  spread  his  wings,  and  yet  the  faith  was  planted  there 
without  martyrdom  and  without  blood.  Who  can  wonder  that 
that  far  off  land  should  be  to  him  the  centre  and  the  summit 
of  his  earthly  affections.  This  sacred  love  of  country  he  in- 
voked as  his  supreme  defence  when  writing  with  unwonted 
candour  and  frankness  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Synod  of  Macon, 
he  said,  '  Pardon  me,  O  most  holy  Fathers,  for  if  I  speak  it  is 
my  nation  that  speaks  in  me.' 


448  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

And  if,  as  formerly  at  Luxeuil,  at  Annegray  and  Fontaine, 
in  Gaul,  and  at  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  a  colony  of  Irish  monks 
was  established  by  the  glorious  Apostle,  here,  in  this  hidden  corner 
of  Italian  soil  it  was  planted  with  all  the  forms  and  graces  of  the 
far-famed  Bangor,  and  became  in  this  southern  peninsula  a  regular 
constellation  of  saints  and  the  greatest  university  of  its  age. 

How  pleasant  it  is  for  us  to  return  in  thought  to  the  day 
when  the  illustrious  Irish  exile  appeared  for  the  first  time  on 
the  banks  of  the  Trebbia,  and  became  enamoured  of  our  silent 
hills.  Tradition  tells  us  that  the  sun  shone  more  brightly  than 
usual  on  that  memorable  day,  as  the  saint  came  up,  up  through 
the  valley  from  Barberina,  and,  as  was  his  custom,  blessed  the 
earth  and  the  fields,  and  the  waters  of  the  river,  the  birds  of 
the  air,  and  the  trees  of  the  forest ;  and  having  arrived  at  the 
spot  where  this  beautiful  church  stands  to-day,  kissed  the  earth 
and  planted  the  Cross,  whilst  the  deep  silence  that  reigned 
all  round  was  broken  only  by  his  blessed  words,  Pax  Tibi, 
and  by  the  answer  of  his  companions,  In  nomine  Christi.  That, 
indeed,  O  people  of  Bobbio,  was  the  happiest  moment  of  our 
history.  Under  her  Irish  banner,  Bobbio  became  the  Bangor 
of  northern  Italy,  and  the  lighthouse  of  Christian  civilization 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  When  we  recall  the  names  of 
so  many  monks  of  Celtic  and  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  of  so  many 
saints  who  now  sleep  under  the  arches  of  the  Basilica  alongside 
their  first  Abbot,  we  are  compelled  to  recognize  that  for  many 
centuries  Bobbio  was  the  second  home  and  the  second  father- 
land of  many  of  Ireland's  most  honoured  and  glorious  sons. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  numerous  pilgrimages 
were  made  here,  not  only  from  Ireland,  but  from  France  and 
from  Germany,  to  pray  at  the  tombs  of  the  holy  Abbot  and  his 
companions.  Tradition  tells  us  that  amongst  these  pious  pil- 
grims one  of  the  most  illustrious  was  Francis  of  Assisi.  The 
humble  lover  of  poverty  came  to  kiss  the  earth  made  holy  by 
the  great  rival  of  St.  Benedict,  a  patriarch  like  him  of  the 
'  Monks  of  the  West.'  How  sweet  a  thought  for  us  that  the 
fioverello  of  Assisi  should  one  day  have  penetrated  unobserved 
to  the  crypt  of  the  Basilica,  and  there,  with  outstretched  arms, 
have  prostrated  himself  before  the  sepulchre  of  our  great  patron 
and  protector ! 

To  these  pilgrimages  was  due,  in  great  measure,  the  excep- 
tional richness  of  the  library  of  Bobbio.  Books,  paper,  parch- 
ment, were  often  the  most  worthy  gifts  presented  at  his  shrine. 
It  is  not  without  emotion  that  we  read  to-day  the  dedicatory 
lines  in  which  Dungal  of  Pavia  offered  a  present  to  his  illustrious 
countryman : — 

'  Sancte  Columba,  tibi  Scotto  tuus  incola  Dungal  , 

Tradidit  hunc  librum  quo  fratrum  corda  beentur. 
Qui  legis  ergo,  Deus  praetium  sit  muneris,  ora.' 


CARDINAL  LOGUE  AT  BOBBIO  449 

Well  may  we  lament  the  disappearance  of  that  library, 
Good  reason  we  have  to  curse  the  evil  genius  of  Napoleon  I 
who  dispersed  it.  But  on  what  better  occasion  than  this,  in 
the  presence  of  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Logue,  could  we  recall 
the  fact  that  these  parchments  and  books  still  survive  in  many 
of  the  libraries  of  Europe  to  the  glory  of  St.  Columbanus,  and 
of  his  learned  monks  ? 

Some  people,  indeed,  have  expressed  a  fear  lest  there  may 
have  lay  hidden  under  the  ardour  of  the  monk  an  ambition 
directed  to  political  ends,  and  to  the  destruction  of  thrones 
already  shaken.  Nothing  is  farther  from  the  truth.  If  in  the 
case  of  Brunehilde  he  uttered  fiery  words  of  censure  against 
the  unscrupulous  voluptuousness  of  power ;  if  in  the  case  of 
Theodoric  he  denounced  vice  under  the  shelter  of  a  crown,  he 
did  so  in  defence  of  the  sanctity  of  Christian  law  and  of  the  rights 
of  Christian  liberty.  As  for  himself  hundreds  of  times  he  found 
glory  at  his  feet  and  repelled  it ;  he  found  riches  thrust  upon  him 
but  treated  them  only  to  a  malediction.  Against  ambition  he 
inveighed  with  all  the  energy  of  his  soul,  keeping  to  the  code 
he  had  drawn  up  for  his  monks,  and  which  said,  Ne  exeat  verbum 
grande  de  ore  monachi. 

Others,  like  Alexander  St.  Priest  and  Michelet,  were  deluded 
by  his  frankness  and  independence  into  the  belief  that  his 
attitude  towards  the  Holy  See  was  a  distant  symptom  which 
heralded  the  Lutheran  revolt.  Again,  nothing  further  from 
the  truth.  In  his  works  and  in  his  aspirations  he  was  neither 
a  Fra  Martino  nor  a  Fra  Dolcino.  He  had,  if  you  will,  all  the 
energy  of  an  Arnold  of  Brescia,  but  all  the  ideals  and  manners 
of  a  St.  Bernard. 

In  his  various  contests  for  his  Irish  liturgy,  for  the  celebra- 
tions of  Easter  and  in  the  controversy  on  the  '  Three  Chapters,' 
he  looked  to  Rome  as  his  polar  star.  A  glance  at  his  letter  to 
Boniface  IV  is  enough  to  convince  us  that  the  Primacy  of 
St.  Peter  had  no  more  pronounced  and  devoted  witness.  In 
his  old  age  he  is  said  to  have  frequently  looked  out  over  the 
crests  of  the  Appenines  in  the  direction  of  Rome,  and  stretched 
out  his  hands  to  embrace  the  great  St.  Gregory.  That  judged 
by  rigid  criticism  there  may  be  in  his  works  a  few  exaggerated 
sentences,  I  am  not  prepared  to  deny ;  but  remembering  his 
enthusiastic  character  and  his  love  of  country  and  of  liberty, 
it  is  a  case,  if  ever,  in  which  we  may  say,  '  To  him  who  has 
loved  much,  much  shall  be^forgiven.'  ^  -,  J 

The  orator,  then,  goes  into  more  minute  details  about 
the  apostolic  labours  of  Columbanus  and  his  companions, 
and  into  the  general  spirit  of  his  apostleship  in  France, 
Austria,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  and  then  he  continues  : — 

And,  now,  with  all  these  memories  fresh  upon  us,  memories 

VOL.  XIX,  2F 


450  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

that  bind  us  in  Bobbio  to  the  Irish  nation  represented  here  by 
its  illustrious  Cardinal  Primate,  I  address  to  him  a  word  of 
reverent  salutation  which  will  be  at  the  same  time  a  prayer. 

Your  Eminence,  in  returning  to  your  Primatial  See  of  Armagh, 
will  touch  the  soil  of  France,  every  inch  of  which  has  memories 
of  him  and  of  your  countrymen.  But,  with  the  exception  of 
Luxeuil,  the  grass  grows  on  the  scenes  of  his  labours.  Silence 
and  gloom  dwell  around  the  walls  of  the  monasteries  that  he 
founded  there.  The  work  of  the  great  apostle  of  liberty  has 
few  to  appreciate  it  in  the  so-called  home  of  liberty  :  but  when 
you  tread  once  more  the  soil  of  your  native  land,  tell  your 
countrymen  that  in  the  distant  valley  of  Bobbio,  around  the 
sepulchre  of  your  saints,  there  is  no  desert,  no  silence,  no 
gloom.  Thirteen  centuries  have  passed  and  their  memory 
is  ever  fresh  and  young  in  the  midst  of  us.  You  may  say, 
indeed,  that  our  ancient  glory  has  passed  away,  that  it  is  all  over 
or  at  least  under  a  sad  eclipse,  but  that  we  still  hope  much 
from  the  relics  that  we  possess.  Our  hopes  are  green  as  the 
hills  of  your  native  Ireland,  as  the  banner  of  your  countrymen. 
Say  also  that  we  love  your  country,  the  sister  and  in  a  sense 
the  mother  of  our  own,  and  that  we  hold  in  our  hearts,  with 
that  of  our  great  protector,  the  names  of  the  O'Neills,  O'Connors, 
O'Briens,  and  O'Connells,  against  the  Cromwells  of  every  age 
and  clime,  and  that  we  wish  your  great  Catholic  island  with 
unanimous  voice,  happiness,  prosperity,  and  freedom. 

There  is,  we  understand,  a  new  Bishop  in  Bobbio,  who 
has  undertaken,  as  one  of  his  first  labours,  to  repair  and 
restore  the  Shrine  of  Columbanus,  much  worn  and 
damaged  by  the  lapse  of  years,  and  to  erect  some 
memorial  over  the  tombs  of  his  principal  companions. 
Upwards  of  twenty  Irish  Saints  are  buried  there  with 
little  or  nothing  to  mark  their  graves  beyond  the  register 
faithfully  kept  in  the  Diocesan  Archives. 

J.  F.  HOGAN,  D.D. 


C    45i    1 


Botee  anb  Queries 

THEOLOGY 

FREQUENT    COMMUNION 

THE  decree  Sacra  Tridentina  Synodus1  has  put  an  end  to 
controversies  about  the  requisite  dispositions  for  frequent  and 
daily  reception  of  Holy  Communion.  In  the  primitive  Church 
the  faithful,  generally  speaking,  received  Communion  at 
every  Mass  ;  but  when  the  days  of  early  fervour  ceased 
this  salutary  custom  was  not  followed,  though  at  all  times 
the  Church  showed  her  earnest  desire  that  her  children 
should  often  approach  the  Sacred  Table.  There  were 
decrees  of  General  Councils  and  Roman  Congregations 
recommending  frequent  Communion,  but  theologians,  to 
a  great  extent,  annulled  the  wishes  of  the  Church  by  de- 
manding, through  an  over-anxious  reverence  for  the  Real 
Presence,  very  exceptional  dispositions.  A  brief  state- 
ment of  the  provisions  of  the  recent  decree  will  show 
the  dispositions  which  the  Church  deems  necessary  in  those 
who  frequent  the  sacred  banquet  of  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  our  Lord. 

1.  Frequent,   even   daily,    Communion   is   open   to   all 
the  faithful  who  are  in  the  state  of  grace,  and  who  approach 
the  Sacred  Table  with  right  intentions. 

2.  This  condition  of  mind  implies  that    the    Blessed 
Sacrament  should  be  received  not  from  habit,  or  vanity, 
or  any  worldly  motives,  but  from  a  desire  to  please  God,  to 
be  united  to  Him  in  the  bonds  of  charity,  and  to  provide 
against  the  various  trials  and  tribulations  to  which  flesh 
is  heir. 

3.  Though  it   is  desirable  that   those  who  frequently 
receive  the  Blessed  Sacrament  should  be  free  from  deli- 
berate venial  sins,  still  the  absence  of  this  perfection  should 

i  I.  E.  RECORD,  April,  p.  376. 


452  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

not  prevent  anyone  from  receiving  Holy  Communion  daily, 
since  the  graces  of  the  Eucharist  supply  the  best  means  of 
acquiring  perfection. 

4.  Though   the   Sacrament   of   the   Altar   produces   its 
effects  ex  opere  operato,  better  dispositions  gain  more  abun- 
dant  fruit  ;   hence   previous   preparation   and   subsequent 
thanks  to  the  Almighty,  according  to  the  faculties,  con- 
dition, and  duties  of  each  one,  are  most  desirable. 

5.  That  more  abundant  graces  be  obtained,  the  advice 
of  a  prudent  confessor  ought  to  be  sought  and  followed  ; 
but  it  is  his  duty  to  refuse  Communion  only  to  those  who 
are  not  in  the  state  of  grace,  or  who  have  not  right  inten- 
tions in  approaching  the  Altar. 

6.  Parish   Priests,    Confessors,    and   Preachers   are   ex- 
pected  to  recommend   the   faithful  to   frequently   receive 
Holy  Communion  in  accordance  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catechism  which,  among  many  other  useful  things, 
says  : — 

It  will,  therefore,  be  the  part  of  the  pastor  frequently  to 
admonish  the  faithful,  that,  as  they  think  it  necessary  every 
day  to  nurture  the  body,  they  should  also  not  neglect  every 
day  to  feed  and  nourish  the  soul  with  this  sacrament  ;  for  the 
soul,  it  is  clear,  stands  not  less  in  need  of  spiritual,  than  the 
body,  of  corporal,  food.  And  here  it  will  be  most  useful  to 
recapitulate  the  inestimable  and  divine  advantages,  which,  as 
we  have  already  shown,  flow  from  sacramental  Communion. 
The  pastor  will  also  cite  the  figure  of  the  Manna,  which  it  was 
necessary  to  use  every  day,  in  order  to  repair  the  strength  of 
the  body ;  and  will  add  the  authorities  of  the  Fathers,  which 
earnestly  recommend  the  frequent  participation  of  this  sacra- 
ment ;  for  the  words,  '  Thou  sinnest  daily ;  receive  daily,'  are 
not  the  sentiment  of  St.  Augustine  alone,  but  also,  as  diligent 
enquiry  will  easily  discover,  the  sentiment  of  all  the  Fathers, 
who  wrote  on  the  subject.1 

7.  Frequent  Communion  ought  to  be  encouraged  especi- 
ally in  Religious  Institutions.     At  the  same  time  the  decree 
Quemadmodum,  iyth  December,  1890,  remains  in  full  force, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  repress  certain  abuses  in  regard 
to  manifestation  of  conscience,   and  to  reception   of  the 

i  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  Donovan,  p.  238, 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  453 

Blessed  Eucharist,  which  crept  into  certain  Communities 
of  nuns  having  simple  or  solemn  vows,  and  into  some  lay 
Communities  of  men.  The  decree  laid  down  that  per- 
missions and  prohibitions  in  regard  to  the  reception  of  Holy 
Communion  belong  alone  to  the  ordinary  or  extraordinary 
confessors  of  such  institutions,  no  power  remaining  in  the 
hands  of  Superiors,  except  in  the  case  of  subjects  who, 
since  their  last  confession,  have  given  serious  scandal  to 
the  community,  or  have  been  guilty  of  grave  external 
faults  ;  in  which  cases  the  Superior  may  forbid  Communion 
until  the  next  confession.  When  this  confession  is  made, 
the  right  of  the  Superior  lapses,  even  though  the  confessor, 
for  reasons  which  seem  good  to  him,  does  not  impose  any 
public  penance  on  the  delinquent. 

The  decree  Sacra  Tridentina  Synodus  also  encourages 
frequent  Communion  in  clerical  seminaries  and  in  Christian 
colleges  of  every  kind. 

8.  The  rules,   constitutions,   or  calendars  of  Religious 
Institutions,    fixing    certain    days   for    Holy    Communion, 
are  directive  and  not  preceptive.     The  prescribed  number 
of    Communions   must    be    considered    the    minimum    for 
religious  life,   more   frequent   Communion    being     recom- 
mended in  accordance  with  the  instructions  of  the  present 
decree.     The  decree  Quemadmodum,  however,  states  that 
if  subjects  obtain  permission  from  their  confessor  to  receive 
Communion  more  frequently  than  is  indicated  in  the  rules, 
constitutions,  or  calendars  of  the  Community,  they  shall 
tell  their  Superiors  who,  if  they  think  that  there  are  grave 
reasons  to  the  contrary,  shall  explain  these  to  the  confessor 
whose  judgment  is  final. 

Superiors  are  to  see  that  this  decree  is  read  for  their 
subjects  each  year,  during  the  octave  of  the  Feast  of  Corpus 
Christi. 

9.  Finally,   ecclesiastical   writers   are   to   cease   in   the 
future   from   all   controversy   concerning   the   dispositions 
which  are  necessary    for  frequent    and  daily  reception  of 
Holy  Communion. 


454  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


WEEKLY    CONFESSION    AND    INDULGENCES 

An  important  decree  appears  in  the  present  number  of 
the  I.  E.  RECORDI  concerning  the  necessity  of  weekly  con- 
fession for  gaining  Indulgences.  Daily  Communion — even 
though  one  or  two  days  of  the  week  be  omitted — is  declared 
sufficient,  without  weekly  confession,  for  gaining  indul- 
gences for  which  such  confession  was  formerly  necessary. 
Certain  indulgences,  such  as  those  of  Jubilees,  will,  as  in 
the  past,  require  special  confession,  notwithstanding  this 
modification  of  previous  legislation. 


CASE    OF    RESTITUTION 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — A  penitent,  who  was  bound  to  make  res- 
titution, gave  his  confessor  the  money  to  be  sent  to  the  person 
to  whom  it  was  owed.  The  confessor  lost  the  money.  Was 
the  penitent  bound  to  make  restitution  again  ?  Some  young 
theologians  have  been  discussing  this  question.  An  answer 
will  oblige  them. 

P.  D. 

The  solution  of  this  case  depends  on  the  position 
which  the  confessor  holds.  Is  he  agent  of  the  penitent,  or 
of  the  creditor  to  whom  restitution  must  be  made  ? 
If  of  the  penitent,  then  the  creditor  has  not  received  his 
money  either  personally  or  by  his  representative,  if  it  has 
been  lost  while  in  the  hands  of  the  confessor.  If  he  is 
agent  of  the  creditor,  then  the  latter  has  been  paid  the 
debt  and  no  further  claim  rests  against  the  debtor. 

For  our  part,  we  believe  that  the  confessor  is  agent, 
not  of  the  creditor,  but  of  the  penitent,  because  the 
creditor  has  given  no  commission  to  the  confessor  to  act  in 
his  name.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  common  opinion  of 
theologians.  It  is  said  on  the  other  side  that  confessors 
have  received  the  necessary  commission,  because  creditors,  if 
consulted,  would  say  that  they  prefer  restitution  to  be  made 
through  a  confessor  than  through  other  and  less  safe  means. 
The  evident  reply  to  this  argument  is  that  an  interpretative 

1  See  page  469. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  455 

agency  is  no  agency.  The  question  is  not  what  would 
creditors  do  in  certain  circumstances,  but  what  have  they 
done  ?  Besides,  how  does  it  appear  that  creditors  would 
select  the  confessor  as  their  agent  ?  Why  should  creditors 
be  interpretatively  compelled  to  select,  at  their  own  risk, 
one  way  of  having  restitution  made  to  them,  while  there 
are  many  safe  means  of  making  restitution  at  the  risk  of  the 
debtor  ? 

At  the  same  time,  seeing  that  some  theologians  of  great 
authority,  Lehmkuhl,1  for  instance,  hold  the  view  which  is 
favourable  to  the  penitent,  he  is  not  to  be  obliged  to  pay 
again  if,  without  any  fault  on  his  part,  the  money  has 
not  passed  from  the  confessor  to  the  creditor. 

J.  M.  HARTY. 


LITURGY 

THE    CEREMONIES    TO    BH    OBSERVED    IN    PREACHING 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — In  my  part  of  the  country  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  and  a  want  of  uniformity  in  practice  among 
priests  about  the  following  points,  (i)  On  which  side  of  the 
altar  the  notices  are  to  be  published.  (2)  On  which  side  the 
sermon  or  instruction  is  to  be  delivered.  I  refer  to  occasions 
when  the  priest  does  not  go  into  the  pulpit,  and  to  places  where 
they  have  no  pulpit.  If  there  is  any  rule  on  the  above  matters> 
myself  and  others  here  would  be  very  glad  to  know. — Yours 
faithfully, 

SACERDOS. 

We  have  not  seen  it  stated  anywhere  that  .the  distinction 
implied  in  our  correspondent's  queries  really  exists,  and  we 
do  not  think  there  are  any  grounds  for  it.  The  notices 
may  be  published — unless  there  is  some  reason  to  the  con- 
trary— immediately  before  the  sermon,  and,  therefore,  the 
same  place  will  serve  for  both.  At  any  rate,  what  applies 
to  the  delivery  of  the  sermon  will  equally  apply  to  the  publi- 
cation of  the  notices.  We  shall  then,  going  somewhat 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  proposed  questions,  try  to  answer 

1  Theelogia  Moralis,  i.,  n,  1030,  R.  3, 


456  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

the  following  : — (i)  What  is  the  proper  time  for  delivering 
the  sermon  in  connexion  with  a  Low  Mass  ?  (2)  Where 
should  it  be  delivered  ?  and  (3)  What  are  the  proper  vest- 
ments to  be  worn  on  the  occasion  ? 

1.  The  most  approved  time  for  having  the  sermon  at 
Mass  is  immediately  after  the  reading  of  the  first  Gospel. 
'  Concio,'  says  Wapelhorst,1    'infra  Missam  habetur    post 
Evangelium.    Ita  ab  Apostolorum  temporibus.   At  de  con- 
sensu  Ordinarii  Sacerdos  in  Missa  postquam  se  communicavit 
et  priusquam  Communionem  distribuit  adstantibus  ad  altari 
sermonem  ad  populum  habere  potest.'2    While  then  it  best 
accords  with  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  Ceremonial  to  have 
the  sermon  immediately  after  the  Gospel  it  may,  with  the 
Bishop's  consent,  be  deferred  until  the  Celebrant  has  com- 
municated himself,  or  until  he  has  distributed  Communion 
to  those  present.     It  is  rare,  we  think,  to  have  the  sermon 
intervene  between  the  Priest's  Communion  and  that  of  the 
faithful,  and  the  evident  inconvenience  attaching  to  this 
practice  would  make   it  most  undesirable    unless  in  very 
exceptional  cases.     One  such  case  would  be  where  the  Priest 
wished  to  deliver  a  very  short  address,  or  ferverino,  to  those 
about  to  receive  their  First   Communion.     Priests  gener- 
ally find  it  most  convenient  to  preach  after  they  have  taken 
the  Ablutions.     Where  the  custom  exists  of  preaching  after 
the  last  Gospel,  and  has  the  tacit  approval  of  the  Ordinary, 
it  may  be  continued,  provided  that  the  abuse  of  persons 
going  away  without  waiting  for  the  Instruction  is  effec- 
tively guarded  against. 

2.  The  proper  place  for  the  delivery  of  the  Sermon  is 
the  Pulpit,   or  Ambo.3    Any  reasonable  cause,  however, 
will  justify  the  use  of  the  Altar  for  the  purpose,  especially 
if  the  preacher  be  the  Celebrant  of  the  Mass.    If  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  not  reserved  in  the  Tabernacle  we  think  the 
preacher  may  stand  in  the  centre  of  the  Altar.     Reverence 
for  the  Real  Presence   would  recommend  the  propriety  of 
not  turning  the  back  directly  on  the  Tabernacle.     In  this 

1  Cotnp.  Sac.  Lit.,  p.  491. 

2  S.R.C.  Deer.  3059,  n.  10. 

3  Ceremonialc   Episcoporum,  1.  i.,  c.  xxii.,  and  authors  generally. 


NOTES  AND    QUERIES  457 

case  the  preacher  should  stand  a  little  to  one  side,  and  the 
Gospel  angle  should  be  selected  in  preference  to  the  Epistle. 
'  Quod  si  concio  fit  ad  ipso  Celebrante,  ipse  sedebit  in  cornu 
Evangelii .  .  .n  It  seems  congruous  that  the  side  prescribed 
for  the  singing  and  reading  of  the  Gospel,  should  also  be 
selected  for  the  delivery  of  a  sermon,  the  theme  of  which, 
generally  speaking,  is  supposed  to  be  founded  on  the  lessons 
conveyed  in  the  Gospel  read  in  the  Mass  of  the  day.2  The 
quotation  just  given  has  reference  to  a  solemn  Mass — this 
is  the  reason  why  the  officiant  is  directed  to  sit — but  analogy 
would  suggest  the  selection  of  the  same  side  in  a  Low  Mass. 

3.  With  regard  to  the  dress  proper  to  the  preacher,  various 
distinctions  must  be  made.'  When  the  Celebrant  himself 
preaches,  and  does  so  from  the  Altar,  he  may  retain  all  the 
sacred  vestments  he  wore  during  Mass.  If  he  goes  to  the 
pulpit  then  he  puts  aside  the  chasuble  and  maniple  on  the 
bench  or  Altar  at  the  Epistle  side.  Should  a  Priest  other  than 
the  Celebrant  of  the  Mass  be  the  preacher,  then  Seculars 
must  wear  at  least  the  soutane,  surplice,  and  biretta,  while 
Religious  use  the  habit  of  their  Order  only.  The  wearing 
of  the  stole  on  these  occasions  is  regulated  outside  Rome  by 
immemorial  custom.  If  used  it  should  be  of  the  colour  of 
the  Office  of  the  day.  In  Rome  no  preacher  uses  the  stole 
out  of  reverence  for  the  Holy  Father.3  Neither  is  it 
worn  by  the  preacher  of  a  funeral  oration.  The  rochet 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  surplice  by  inferior  Prelates — 
who  are  privileged  to  wear  it — when  they  preach  in 
their  own  church.  When  the  sermon  is  preached  before 
a  Bishop  in  his  own  church,  his  blessing  should  be  requested 
with  the  usual  formula,  except  on  the  occasion  of  a  funeral 
oration.  The  preacher,  in  going  from  the  sanctuary  to  the 
pulpit,  should  not  fail  to  make  all  the  necessary  salutations 
to  the  Dignitaries  that  may  be  present.  When  he  reaches 
the  ambo  he  may  recite  on  bended  knees  a  short  prayer 
such  as  the  A  ve  Maria  or  Veni  Sancte,  then  standing  with 
his  head  uncovered,  he  reads  the  Gospel  or  announces  his 

1  Meratus  apud  Appeltern,  Manuale  Liturgicum,  v.  i.,  p.  319. 

2  De  Herdt,  Prax.  Lit.,  v.  i.,  p.  424  ;  Cerem.  Epis.,  1.  i.,  c.  xxii. 

3  Gardellini,  Inst.  Clem,  xxxii.,  5  and  6 ;  item  S.R.C.  Deer. 


45  8  THE    IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

text,  after  which  he  signs  himself  with  the  sign  of  the 
Cross,  assumes  his  biretta,  and  wears  it  throughout  the 
discourse,  except  when  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  reverence 
at  the  mention  of  the  Sacred  Name  or  that  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  In  making  reference  to  any  Dignitaries  present, 
he  is  exhorted  to  give  them  their  proper  titles. 


THE    PROPER    OIL    FOR    USE    IN    SANCTUART    LAMPS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Am  I  correct  in  saying  that,  where  pure 
olive  oil  cannot  be  procured  owing  to  reasons  of  expense,  the 
sanctuary  lamp  must  be  fed  with  at  least  some  other  purely 
vegetable  oil  ?  It  has  recently  come  under  my  observation 
that  what  is  sold  as  vegetable  oil  is  not  the  pure  product  of 
vegetables,  but  very  often  a  substance  manufactured,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  from  minerals.  The  latter  oil,  I  believe, 
can  be  had  much  cheaper  than  the  former,  and  hence  traders, 
I  fear,  are  tempted  to  sell  it  in  preference  to  the  genuine  article, 
In  my  opinion  the  practice  is  at  variance  with  Church  legislation, 
and  I  would  wish  to  have  your  view  also  on  the  matter  in  order 
to  call  the  attention  of  readers  to  its  unlawfulness. — Yours,  etc. 

INQUIRER. 

The  proper  oil  for  the  Sanctuary  Lamp  is  pure  olive  oil, 
Its  adoption  for  this  purpose  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
earliest  days  of  the  Christian  era,  and  was  recommended, 
doubtless,  from  motives  of  economy  and  popularity — for 
it  was  a  common  and  cheap  luminant  in  countries  where 
the  tree  is  cultivated — and  also  for  symbolical  reasons. 
The  olive  branch  is  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  peace  since 
the  days  of  Noah,  and  the  oil  obtained  from  it  may  appro- 
priately be  chosen  to  represent  Christ,  Who  is  the  King  of 
Peace.  Outside  those  countries  where  the  olive-tree  flour- 
ishes olive  oil  is  very  expensive,  and  the  cost  of  procuring 
it  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  Altar  Lamp  would  press 
rather  heavily  on  the  slender  resources  of  poor  churches. 
This  consideration  led  some  French  Bishops  to  address  a 
request  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites  in  the  year  1864  to  be 
permitted  to  substitute  for  pure  olive  oil  some  other  vege- 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  459 

table  oil,  not  excluding  even  petroleum.     The  answer    to 
this  petition  was  as  follows  : — 

Sacra  porro  Rituum  Congregatio,  etsi  semper  sollicita  ut 
etiam  in  hac  parte,  quod  usque  ab  Ecclesiae  primordiis  circa 
oleum  ex  olivis  inductum  est  ob  mysticas  significationes  re- 
tineatur  ;  attamen  silentio  praeterire  minime  censuit  rationes 
ab  iisdem  Episcopis  prolatas  :  ac  proinde  exquisite  prius  voto 
alterius  ex  Apostolicarum  Caerimoniarum  Magistris  .  .  . 
rescribendum  censuit  :  Generatim  utendum  esse  oleo  olivarum  ; 
ubi  vero  haberi  nequit  retnittendum  prudentiae  Episcoporum 
*t  lampades  nutriantur  ex  aliis  oleis,  quantum  fieri  potest 
vegetabilibus. 

The  present  regulations,  then,  on  this  matter  are  that 
where  olive  oil  cannot  be  conveniently  procured,  the  Bishops 
may  authorize  the  employment  of 'some  other  vegetable  oil, 
or  even  of  petroleum  should  necessity  require  it.  Each 
Priest,  therefore,  must  be  guided  by  Diocesan  usage  as 
sanctioned  by  the  Ordinary.  It  would  seem  to  be  the  de- 
sire of  the  Bishops  generally  that  when  they  permit  a  sub- 
stitute for  olive  oil  this  should  be  some  other  purely  vegetable 
oil.  Owing  to  its  cheapness  colza  is  commonly  employed 
in  these  countries,  but  other  vegetables,  such  as  the  poppy 
and  flax  plant,  also  yield  a  suitable  oil. 

We  are  informed  that  mineral  oils  are  often  palmed  off 
as  though  they  were  the  pure  extract  of  vegetables,  and 
that  it  is  not  at  all  easy  to  detect  the  fraud,  especially 
where  they  are  blended  with  a  little  of  the  pure  vegetable 
oil.  If  it  is  found  that  a  lamp  gives  off  smoke,  or  discolours 
the  statue  before  which  it  burns,  this  is  an  indication  that 
the  oil  is  of  mineral  origin.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
difference  in  price,  mineral  oil  of  equal  grade  being  from 
6d.  to  is.  cheaper  than  vegetable.  Unless,  then,  there  is 
express  Episcopal  sanction  for  the  use  of  mineral  oil,  or  for 
a  blend  of  mineral  and  vegetable,  the  Sanctuary  Lamp  must 
be  fed  with  some  purely  vegetable  oil,  and  those  upon  whom 
rests  the  duty  of  procuring  it,  should  see  that  they  are  not 
imposed  upon  by  getting  a  spurious,  instead  of  a  genuine, 
article.^!  If  there  is  no  opportunity  of  a  chemical  analysis 
or  any  other  efficient  test  of  purity,  care  should  be  taken 
to  obtain  the  oil  from  reliable  and  conscientious  traders. 


46°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

With  regard  to  petroleum,  although  it  may  be  permitted  in 
exceptional  cases,  we  think  its  use  should  be  restricted  as 
much  as  possible,  owing  to  the  dangers  connected  with  its 
highly  volatile  and  inflammable  character. 


WHETHER  A  PAINTINO  OF  THE  CRUCIFIXION  MAY  SERVE 
AS  ALTAR  CROSS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Would  you  kindly  let  me  know,  in  the 
May  number  of  the  esteemed  I.  E.  RECORD  if  possible,  whether 
a  painting  or  picture  of  the  Crucifixion  is  sufficient  (over  the 
tabernacle  during  Holy  Mass),  or  if  a  crucifix  is  of  strict 
necessity. 

2.  Might  I  ask  you  to  mention,  in  a  few  words,  the  con- 
clusion to  which  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  has  come  to 
re  the  age  of  Altar  Breads,  and  of  same  for  consecrated  hosts, 
and  the  general  opinion  concerning  same. 

Thanking  you  in  anticipation,  I  remain,  yours  sincerely, 

ENQUIRER. 

With  regard  to  the  first  question  it  has  been  decided 
by  the  Congregation  of  Rites,1  that  a  statue,  or  painting 
representing  the  Crucifixion  and  suspended  immediately 
over  the  Altar,  dispenses  with  the  obligation  of  having  the 
usual  crucifix.  In  order  that  all  doubt  as  to  the  suffi- 
ciency of  such  an  arrangement  may  be  eliminated,  the 
following  conditions  must  be  fulfilled. 

(a)  The  Saviour  crucified  must  be  the  principal  object 
represented  in  such  a  statue  or  picture.     It  will  not  be 
enough  if  the  Crucifixion  is  introduced  as  a  merely  inci- 
dental or  subsidiary  feature  in  the  representation.    Neither 
will   it   be   sufficient   if   the   Redeemer  is  exhibited  under 
any  other  form  than  that  traditional   delineation  that  is 
so    apt  to  recall  to  the  mind  the  dread  mystery  of  the 
Cross. 

(b)  The  picture  must  hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  con- 
nexion with    the  Altar,  and,  therefore,  be  so   prominent 
as  easily  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  Celebrant. 

1  Deer.,  n.  1270. 


NOTES  AND    QUERIES  461 

For  an  answer  to  the  second  question,  we  would  refer 
our  correspondent  to  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  March,  1905,  where 
the  matter  is  discussed  at  some  length. 


PRATERS  IN  MASS  'SUB  tTNICA  CONCLUSIONE' 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Would  you  kindly  clear  up  this  doubt  ? 
When,  as  has  happened  here  to-day  (25th  March),  the 
'  Fourth  Sunday  of  Lent '  has  been  superseded  by  the  '  Feast 
of  the  Annunciation,' — first  class  with  a  commemoration  of  the 
Sunday, — should  the  two  prayers  have  been  said  sub  unica 
conclusione?  Relying,  as  I  thought,  on  what  I  was  told  to  do 
on  an  Ember  Day  (roth  June),  some  thirty-three  years  ago, 
in  Rome,  I  said  them  thus.  But,  a  friend  of  mine,  who  sang 
Mass  after  me,  made  use  of  the  two  conclusions.  There  may 
be  room  for  another  question  in  the  case ;  but  for  the  present 
I  shall  thank  you  in  my  own  name,  and  in  that  of  some  other 
priests,  if  you  will  kindly  answer  that  which  I  have  placed 
before  you. — Yours  very  truly, 

SCOTO-GALLUS. 

P.S. — loth  June  being  the  Feast  of  St.  Margaret,  Queen  of 
Scotland,  we  in  the  Collegio  Scozzese  said  her  Mass  by  special 
privilege  on  an  Ember  Day. — S.  G. 

The  two  prayers  in  the  instance  stated  should  be  said 
under  different  conclusions.  Therefore,  we  fear  our  cor- 
respondent must  have  either  received  a  wrong  direction, 
or  misinterpreted  the  correct  one.  It  is  a  general  principle 
of  the  Rubrics  that  the  first  or  principal  prayer  of  the 
Mass  is  always  said  under  its  own  conclusion.  There  are 
only  a  few  cases,  specially  provided  for,  where  a  second 
oratio  is  added  to  the  substantial  prayer  of  the  Mass  and 
both  said  sub  unica  conclusione.  These  cases  are  : — 

1.  Where  the  Mass  of  the  day  is  substituted,  for  rubrical 
reasons,  for  a  Solemn  Votive  Mass  pro  re  gravi,  the  prayer 
of  the  impeded  Votive  Mass  is  said  per  modum  unius  with 
the  prayer  of  the  Mass. 

2.  On  the  occasion  of  perpetual  Adoration  or  Solemn 
Exposition   of  the   Blessed  Sacrament,   when  the  Votive 
Mass,  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  cannot  be  said,  its  prayer 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


is  added,  under  same  conclusion,  to  the  prayer  of  the 
Mass  sung  at  the  Altar  of  Exposition  if  there  isj  no 
Commemoration  . 

3.  Outside  these  cases  some  isolated  instances  may 
occur,  which  are  due  either  to  a  special  disposition  7of 
the  Rubric,  or  to  a  Papal  Indult.  An  example  would.be 
in  the  conferring  of  Holy  Orders  where  the  Oratio  pro 
ordinandis  is  said  under  one  conclusion  with  the  prayer 
of  the  Mass. 

P.  MORRISROE. 


[     463     1 


DOCUMENTS 

PIT7S    X    AND    THE    CATHOLIC    INSTITUTE    OP    PARIS 

PIUS  X  INSTITUTUM  CATHOLICUM  PARISIENSE  HORTATUR  AI> 
DISCIPLINAS  TAM  SACRAS  QUAM  PROFANAS  DILI  CENTER 
ORDINATEQUE  EXCOLENDAS 

DILECTO     FILIO     LUDOVICO     PECHENARD,     PROTON.     APOSTOLICO, 
CATHOLICI    INSTITUTI    PARISIENSIS    RECTORI 

PIUS   PP.    X. 

Dilecte  Fili,  salutem  et  Apostolicam  benedictionem. 

Solemne  illud  semper  Ecclesiae  fuit,  doctrinae  studia  colere 
tuerique  diligenter,  idque  non  modo  in  sacris  disciplinis,  quam- 
quam  in  his,  uti  par  est,  maxime  ;  verum  etiam  in  caeteris  : 
propterea  quod  istae  quidem  non  parum  ad  illas  afferunt  adiu- 
menti.  Intimo  enim  quodam  vinculo  aptae  inter  se  et  con- 
nexae  utraeque  sunt  :  utpote  a  Deo,  scientiarum  Domino,  pro- 
fectae,  a  quo  tamquam  ab  unico  fonte,  quaecumque  vera  sunt, 
necessitate  manant.  Profecto  Decessores  Nostri  omni  tempore 
ad  Apostolici  muneris  partes  arbitrarti  sunt  pertinere,  erudi- 
tionem  omne  genus  fovere  pro  viribus  :  nee  ultima  laus  est 
Pontificum  Romanorum,  nobiles  illas  aevo  medio  condidisse 
opibusque  et  maximis  beneficiis  ornasse  studiorum  Universi- 
tates  quas,  quae  nunc  florent,  suas  quasi  quasdam  parentes 
agnoscunt.  lamvero  similem  Nos  curam  de  bonarum  artium 
studiis  cum  geramus,  equidem  grata  habuimus,  quae  de  isto, 
cui  praesides,  Institute  haud  ita  pridem  significasti  coram. 
Sed  tamen  ut  melius  pateat  quemadmodum  Nos  erga  illud 
affecti  simus,  has  ad  te  visum  est  litteras  mittere.  Ac  primum 
egregia  danda  laus  est  Venerabilibus  Fratribus  e  Gallia  Epis- 
copis,  quorum  et  auctoritate  praecipue  Institutum  regitur,  et 
providentia  tuitioni  ipsius  studiose  consulitur.  Turn  non 
mediocriter  ii  laudandi  catholici  homines,  quotquot  id  ipsum 
existimant  dignum,  cui  prolixe  de  facultatibus  suis  opitulentur. 
Hi  nimirum  persuasum  habent,  id  quod  res  est,  plurimum 
interesse  civitatis  aeque  ac  religionis,  sic,  in  magnis  •  potis- 
simum  lyceis,  institui  adolescentes,  ut  cum  solidae  doctrinae 
praeceptis  simul  christianos  hauriant  spiritus  ;  hodie  autem  ut 
eum  maxime,  oportere  vulgo  sacerdotes  esse  non  solum  a  theo- 


464  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

logia  bene  instructos,  sed  etiam  a  philosophia,  a  iure,  a  cognitione 
naturae,  a  litteris.  Usitatum  quippe  est  ac  prope  quotidianum 
apud  homines,  opinione  potius  quam  re  doctos,  tela  adversus 
fidem  undique  in  officina  scientiae  conquirere.  Novimus  autem, 
quam  libenter  vix  attinet  dicere,  Institute  Parisiensi,  uti  nun- 
quam  defuerint,  ita  minime  in  praesens  desiderari  decuriales 
doctores  eiusmodi,  qui  et  scientiae  et  religioni  ornamento  sint. 
Atque  hi,  suum  exequendo  munus,  nostris  temporibus,  si  unquam 
alias,  difficile  et  arduum,  probe  meminisse  videntur,  quid  a  se 
officium  postulet ;  id  est,  ut  sanctissima  sapientiae  veteris 
principia  in  tuto  collocent ;  hoc  primum  :  deinde  ut,  progre- 
dientis  eruditionis  ratione  habita,  quidquid  veri  est  recentiorum 
sollertia  repertum,  minime  negligant.  Enimvero  has  migrare 
et  non  servare  leges  multi  consueverunt,  neque  ex  eis  tantum- 
modo  qui  catholicae  professioni  adversantur,  sed  quicumque 
•praeterea  traditionem  magisteriumque  Ecclesiae  non  tanti  a 
se  fieri  ostendunt,  quanti  debent ;  quique  illud  videntur  sine 
ulla  exceptione  probare  velle,  quod  dici  solet  :  eras,  quod  hodie 
falsum,  habebitur  verum.  Hinc  ilia  pervulgata  ratio  submo- 
vendi  vetera,  obtrudendi  nova,  nullam  fere  ob  aliam  causam, 
nisi  novitatis  ;  tamquam  doctrinae  summa  in  fastidio  quodam 
vetustatis  ponenda  sit.  Verum  ab  ista  vos  ratione  dehortari 
supervacaneum  est  :  novimus  vestri  in  Apostolicam  Sedem 
obsequii  diligentiam  ;  nee  vero  dubitari  licet,  quin  velitis  etiam 
in  hoc  genere  Romano  Pontifici  semper  probari.  Quare  Insti- 
tutum  vestrum  quod  laetos  ad  hoc  tempus  fructus  apud  vestrates 
pepererit,  gratulamur ;  idem  ut  bona  utilitatum  ac  nominis 
incrementa  capiat,  valde  cupimus  :  in  earn  rem  omnes,  qui 
quoquo  modo  ipsum  participant  aut  iuvant,  ut,  quantum  quisque 
possit,  nitantur,  etiam  atque  etiam  hortamur.  Auspex  interea 
divinae  opis  tibi,  dilecte  fili,  eiusque  sit  Apostolica  benedictio, 
quam  peculiaris  quoque  benevolentiae  Nostrae  testem  pera- 
manter  vobis  in  Domino  impertimus. 

Datum  Romae  apud  S.  Petrum,  die  XXII  Februarii  anno 
MDCCCCV,  Pontificatus  Nostri  secundo. 

PIUS  PP.  X. 


DOCUMENTS  465 


THE  VICAR    CAPITULAR   AND  THE    DIOCESAN  THBONE 
AND    CROZIER 

E   SACRA   CONGREGATIONE    RITUUM 

VICARIUS  CAPITULARIS,  QUANDO  EPUM.  ALIENUM  INVITAT  AD 
MISSAM  ET  VESPERAS  PONTIFICALI  RITU  CONCELEBRANDAS, 
NEQUIT  ILLI  CONCEDERE  USUM  THRONI  AUT  BACULI  PASTORALIS 

A  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatione  sequentis  dubii  resolutio 
expetita  fuit,  nimirum  : 

Utrum  Vicarius  Capitularis,  quando  aliquem  Episcopum 
viciniorem  invitat  ad  Missam  et  Vesperas  ut  pontifical!  ritu 
concelebret,  possit  illi  concedere  thronum  aut  saltern  baculum 
pastoralem  ? 

Et  Sacra  eadem  Congregatio,  ad  relationem  subscript! 
Secretarii,  auditio  etiam  suffragio  Commissionis  Liturgicae, 
propositae  quaestioni  respondendum  censuit  : 

Negative  ad  primam  partem,  prouti  eruitur  ex  decreto  general! 
n.  4023  d.  d.  12  lulii  1897  :  Super  iure  Episcoporum  dioecesano- 
rum  cedendi  thronum  alteri  Episcopo.  Item  negative  ad  secun- 
dam  ;  nisi  usus  baculi  requiratur  ex  Rubrica,  ut  in  consecratione 
ecclesiarum. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.     Die  4  Novembris  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.  *  S. 

»J<  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 


TRANSLATION    OF    REQUIEM     MASS 

E  SACRA  CONGREGATIONE  RITUUM 
BUSCODUCEN 

CIRCA  CELEBRATIONEM  MISSAE    EXEQUIALIS  TRANSLATAE   IN   DIE 
NON   IMPEDITA 

Quum  quaedam  difformitas  reperiatur  in  interpretandis 
Decretis  S.  R.  C.,  nempe  n.  3755,  Missae  exequialis  pro  die 
obitus  2  Decembris  1891  ad  III,  et  Labacen.  28  Aprilis  (1902) 
ad  X,  hodiernus  Kalendarista  dioecesis  Buscoducensis  in  Hol- 
landia,  professor  in  Institute  surdo-mutorum  parochiae  Gestel 
S.  Michaelis,  de  conseusu  Rmi  sui  Episcopi  a  Sacrorum  Rituum 
Congregatione  insequentium  dubiorum  solutionem  humillime 
expostulavit  : 

I.  Caius  mortuus  feria  IV  in  Maiori  Hebdomada  sepalitur 

TOL.  XIX.  2G 


466  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

feria  VI  in  Parasceve  Domini.  Quaenam  est  prima  dies  liturgice 
non  impedita,  qua  eius  Missa  exequialis  solemniter  peragi  potest : 
utrum  feria  IV  Hebdomadae  Paschalis,  an  vero  feria  II  post 
Dominicam  in  Albis,  in  qua  non  occurrit  duplex  I  vel  II  classis 
aut  festum  de  pracepto  ? 

II.  An  Missa  exequialis  solemnis  vel  cum  cantu,  ob  impedi- 
mentum,  liturgicum  ultra  biduum  a  sepultura  translata,  celebrari 
possit  in  diebus  duplicia  II  classis  excludentibus  ? 

III.  An  Missa  de  Requie  pro  prima  vice  post  obitum  vel  eius 
acceptum  a  locis  dissitis  nuntium,  de  qua  in  Decreto  n.  3755 
ad  III,  celebrari  possit  :  i,  infra  Octavam  Epiphaniae  ;  2,  infra 
Octavas  Nativitatis  Domini  et  SSmi  Corporis  Chris ti  in  locis, 
ubi  haec  non  est  privilegiata  ad  instar  Octavae  Epiphaniae  ? 

Et  Sacra  eadem  Congregatio,  ad  relationem  subscript! 
Secretarii,  exquisita  etiam  sententia  Commissionis  Liturgicae 
rescribendum  censuit  : 

Ad  I.  Prima  dies  libera  est  in  casu  feria  II  post  Dominicam 
in  Albis,  iuxta  Decretum  Labacen.,  28  Aprilis  1902  ad  X. 

Ad  II.  Negative. 

Ad  III.  Negative  ad  primam  partem,  Affirmative  ad  secun- 
dam,  excepta  tamen  die  Octava  Corporis  Christi  uti  ex  Decreto 
supra  citato. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.     Die  24  Novembris  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.  *  S. 

(Ji  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

SACRED    VESTMENTS    AND    PALL    OF    CHALICE    AT 
REQUIEM    MASS 

E    SACRA   CONGREGATIONE    RITUUM 

DUBIUM 

CIRCA   SACRA   PARAMENTA   ET   PALLAM   CALICIS   IN   MISSIS 
DEFUNCTORUM 

I.  Quum  in  Caeremoniali  Episcoporum  lib.  II,  cap.  XI  n. 
I  legatur  t  '  Omnia  paramenta,  tarn  altaris,  quam  celebrantis, 
et  ministrorum,  librorum,   et  faldistorii  sint  nigra,   et  in  his 
nullae  imagines  mortuorum,  vel  cruces  albae  ponantur,'  quae- 
ritur  :  An  in  dictis  paramentis  repraesentari  possint  calvaria 
cum  ossibus  decussatis  defunctorum  ? 

II.  Ex  decreto  S.  R.  C.,  n.  3832  Dubiorum  resolutio  17  lulii 
1894,  ad  IV  permittitur  ut  palla  calicis  injpatre  superior!  sit 


DOCUMENTS  467 


cooperta  panno  serico,  aut  ex  auro  vel  argento,  et  acu  depicto, 
dummodo  palla  linea  subnexa  calicem  cooperiat  ac  pars  superior 
non  sit  nigri  colons,  nee  cum  aliquo  mortis  signo.  Quaeritur  : 
An  huiusmodi  palla  subnexa  possit  esse  linum  cruce  munitum 
et  subsutum,  ad  modum  pallae,  nee  amovibile  ? 

Et  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio  pro  solutione  horum  dubio- 
rum  rogata,  ad  relationem  subscript!  Secretarii,  audito  Com- 
missionis  Liturgicae  suffragio,  rescribendum  censuit  : 

Ad  I.  Negative  et  servetur  Caeremoniale  Episcoporum  loc. 
cit. 

Ad  II.  Negative,  et  palla  subnexa,  pro  priedicta,  sit  linea,. 
munda  et  facile  amovibilis. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.     Die  24  Novembris  1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.  *S. 

ifc  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

SOLUTION    OF   LITURGICAL    QUESTIONS 

E   SACRA  CONGREGATIONE   RITUUM 

TERGESTINA    ET  TUSTINOPOLITANA 

TRIA   SOLVUNTUR   DUBIA 

Rmus.  Dnus.  Franciscus  Nagl,  Episcopus  Tergestinus  et 
lustinopolitanus,  Sacrorum  Rituum  Congregation!  sequentes 
quaestiones  solvendas  humillime  proposuit,  nimirum  : 

I.  An  fideles  absolutione  in  articulo  mortis  in  lingua  verna- 
cula  peracta,  sicuti  modo  pluries  fit,  indulgentias  lucrari  queant  ? 

II.  In  Missis  de  Requie  post  elevationem  loco  Benedictus, 
Litaniae  uti  ex  Rituali  Romano  in  ordine  commendationis  ani- 
mae,  vel  Lauretanae,  canuntur,  et  huiusmodi  Missae  fiunt  lectae. 
Insuper  in  Missis  cantatis  de  die,  intonate  Credo  sacerdos  pro- 
sequitur  Missam  ut  lectam  usque  ad  Praefationem.     Quaeritur  an 
haec  tolerari  possint  ? 

III.  An    sacerdos    in    lingua    vernacula    Ofncium    divinum 
Breviarii  Romani  ex.  gr.  Nativitatis  Domini,  defunctorum,  etc., 
cum  populo  peragens,  vel  Litanias  Sanctorum  in  Processionibus 
Rogationum    eadem    lingua    persolvens,    teneatur    has    partes 
Breviarii  Romani  in  lingua  latina  iterum  recitare  ? 

Et  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio,  ad  relationem  subscript! 
Secretarii,  exquisite  voto  Commissionis  Liturgicae,  reque  mature 
perpensa,  respondendum  censuit  : 


468  THE    IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

Ad.  I.  Negative,  quia  haec  benedictio  in  articulo  mortis  est 
precatio  stricto  sensu  liturgica. 

Ad  II.  Negative,  et  hos  abusus  omnino  esse  eliminandos. 

Ad  III.  Affirmative  ;  nam  qui  ad  recitationem  divini  Officii 
et  cuiusque  partis  Breviarii  Romani  sunt  obligati,  tantum 
in  lingua  latina  haec  recitare  debent,  alias  non  satisfaciunt 
obligation!. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.     Die  3  lulii  1904. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praef. 
L.ifcS. 

iji  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

QUESTIONS    ON   INDULGENCES 

E    SACRA     CONGREGATIONE   INDULGENTIARUM 

P  AT  AVI  N  A 
PLURA  SOLVUNTUR  DUBIA  QUOAD  INDULGENTIAS  LUCRANDAS 

Ad  S.  Congregationem  Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis  prae- 
positam  a  Moderatore  Archisodalitatis  a  S.  Antonio,  erectae  in 
Ecclesia  Eidem  dicata  in  civitate  Patavina,  sequentia  dubia 
dirimenda  sunt  delata  : 

I.  An  qui  nomen  dedit  pluribus  Confraternitatibus,   quae 
gaudent  indulto  lucrandi  indulgentias,  quas  Stationales  appel- 
lant, eas  lucrari  valeat  tot  vicibus,  quot  sunt  sodalitates,  quibus 
est  adscriptus  ? 

II.  Quando  conceditur  plenaria  indulgentia  pro  festo  alicuius 
Sancti,  lucranda  a  christifidelibus  in  omnibus  Ecclesiis  alicuius 
Ordinis  vel  dioeceseos,  haec   indulgentia   acquirine   potest   tot 
vicibus,  quot  visitentur  Ecclesiae  eiusdem  Ordinis  vel  Dioeceseos  ? 

III.  Cum  diversi  Ordines,  ex  gr.,  Benedictini,  Franciscales, 
etc.,  pro  uno  vel  altero  festo  gaudeant  plenaria  indulgentia, 
tributa  christifidelibus   visitantibus   proprias   Ecclesias,   huius- 
modi  indulgentia  potestne  pluries   acquiri,   visitando  singulas 
Ecclesias  eorumdem  Ordinum,  praesertim  si  haec  indulgentia 
dietis  Ordinibus  fuerit  concessa  a  distinctis  Pontificibus  ? 

IV.  Quando   ad   indulgentias   lucrandas   praescribitur   visi- 
tatio  Ecclesiae  parochialis,   haec  debetne  esse  Ecclesia  paro- 
chialis   propria    illius   qui   vult    indulgentias   lucrari,    an   alia 
quaecumque  ? 

V.  An  sub  nomine  Ecclesiae  parochialis  propriae  veniat  tan 
tummodo   ilia   domicilii   vel   etiam   quasi- domicilii   aut   morae 
transitoriae,  uti  contingit  tempore  itineris  ? 


DOCUMENTS  469 


Et  Emi.  Patres  in  general!  Congregatione  ad  Vaticanum 
habita,  die  31  Augusti  1905,  respondendum  mandarunt : 

Ad  7""1  Negative,  iuxta  Decretum  '  Delatae  saepius,'  diei 
7  Martii  1678. 

Ad  7/"1"  Affirmative,  id  est  acquiri  potest  indulgentia  una 
vice  tantum  sed  in  singulis  Ecclesiis  eiusdem  Ordinis  seu 
Dioeceseos. 

Ad  /I/""1  Provisum  in  praecedenti. 

Ad  IVum  Affirmative  quoad  iaw  partem  ;  Negative  quoad  2*1". 

Ad  F1""  Negative  quoad  iam  partem  ;  Affirmative  quoad  2*"* 
et  3-. 

De  quibus  facta  relatione  SSmo.  Dno.  Nro.  Pio  PP.  X,  in 
audientia  habita  die  13  Septembris  1905,  ab  infrascripto  Card. 
Praefecto  S.  Congnis.  Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis  prae- 
positae,  SSmus.  Emorum  Patrum  resolutiones  ratas  habuit  et 
confirmavit. 

Datum  Romae,  ex  Secretaria  eiusdem  S.  C.,  die  13  Septembris 
1905. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Praefectus. 
L.  *S. 

fff  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secret. 

DECREE  GRANTING  INDULGENCES  FOR  DAILY   COMMUNION 
WITHOUT  THE  ONUS  OF  WEEKLY  CONFESSION 

DECRETUM  QUO  LARGITUR  UT  PER  QUOTIDIANAM  VEL  FREQUENTEM 
COMMUNIONEM  OMNES  LUCRARI  POSSINT  INDULGENTIAE, 
ABSQUE  ONERE  HEBDOMADARIAE  CONFESSIONIS. 

Sanctissimo  Domino  Nostro  Pio  PP.  X  vel  maxime  cordi 
est  ut  efficacius  in  dies  propagetur,  uberioresque  edat  vertutum 
omnium  fructus  laudabilis  ilia  ac  Deo  valde  accepta  consuetude, 
qua  fideles,  in  statu  gratiae,  rectaque  cum  mente,  ad  Sacram 
Communionem  quotidie  sumendum  accedant.  Quamobrem 
supplicia  plurimorum  vota  ab  Eminentissimo  viro  Cardinal! 
Casimiro  Gennari  delata  benigne  libenterque  excipiens  iis  plane 
cunctis  qui  memoratam  consuetudinem  habent,  aut  inire 
exoptant,  specialem  merto  gratiam  elargire  statuit.  Clemens 
porro  P.P.  XIII,  f.r.  per  decretum  hujus  Sacri  Ordinis  sub 
die  9  Decembris  1763  omnibus  Christifidelibus  '  qui  frequent! 
peccatorum  Confessione  animum  studentes  expiare,  semel 
saltern  in  hebdomada  ad  Sacramentum  Poenitentiae  accedere, 
nisi  legitime  impediantur,  consueverunt,  et  nullius  lethalis 


47°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

culpae  a  se,  post  praedictam  ultimam  Confessionem,  commissae 
sibi  conscii  sunt,  indulsit  ut  omnes  et  quascumque  Indulgentias 
consequi  possint,  etiam  sine  actual!  Confessione  quae  caeteroquin 
ad  eas  lucrandas  necessaria  esset.  Nihil  tamen  innovando  circa 
Indulgentias  Jubilaei,  tarn  Ordinarii  quam  extraordinarii, 
aliasque  ad  instar  Jubilaei  concessas,  pro  quibus  assequendis, 
sicut  et  alia  opera  injuncta,  ita  et  Sacramentalis  Confessio, 
tern  pore  in  earum  concessione  praescripto,  peragatur.' 

Nunc  vero  Beatissimus  Pater  Pius  X  omnibus  Christifidelibus 
qui  in  statu  gratiae  et  cum  recta  piaque  mente  quotidie  Sancta 
de  Altari  libare  consuescunt,  quamvis  semel  aut  iterum  per 
hebdomadem  a  communione  abstineant,  praefato  tamen  f.r. 
dementis  PP.  XIII.  Indulto  frui  posse  concedit,  absque 
hebdomedariae  illius  Confessionis  obligatione,  quae  ceteroquin, 
ad  Indulgentias  eo  temporis  intervallo  decurrentes  rite  lucrandas 
necessaria  extaret.  Hanc  insuper  gratiam  eodem  Sanctitas 
Sua  futuris  quoque  temporibus  fore  valituram  clementer 
declaravit. 

Contrariis  quibuscumque  non  obstantibus.  Datum  Romae, 
e  Secretaria  S.  Congregationis  Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Reliquiis 
praepositae,  die  14  Februarii  1906. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Praefectus. 
L.  »fr  S. 

iff  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secretariat. 

Praesens  rescriptum  exhibitum  fuit  Secretariae  S.  C.  In- 
dulgentiis Sacrisque  Reliquiis  praepositae.  In  quorum  fidem, 
etc. 

Datum  Romae,  ex  eadem  Secretaria  die  16  Feb.  1906. 

JOSEPHUS  M.  Can.  COSELLI,  Substitutes. 
L.      S. 


C     47i 


NOTICES   OF  BOOKS 

OUT  OF  DUE  TIME.      By  Mrs.  Wilfrid    Ward.      London  : 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     6s. 

MRS.  WILFRID  WARD  has  succeeded  in  writing  a  very  attractive 
novel  on  a  subject  that  would  scarcely  seem  to  promise  very 
favourable  materials.  Her  characters  move  all  through  in  an 
ecclesiastical  orbit,  and  typify  the  representatives  of  various 
schools  of  thought  in  the  recent  life  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Theologians,  publicists,  Scripture  scholars,  bishops,  vicars- 
general  and  theological  censors,  Catholic  priests,  editors  of 
Catholic  reviews,  the  Roman  Congregations,  the  Holy  See,  the 
Pope,  all  pass  before  us  in  the  scenes  of  a  romantic  love-story. 
It  is  a  reflection  of  the  whole  progressive  movement  of  recent 
times. 

The  work  is  done  with  exquisite  taste,  with  skill,  refinement 
and  cleverness.  It  is,  in  our  opinion,  one  of  the  best  books 
of  its  kind  that  has  ever  been  written. 

We  are  at  a  loss  which  most  to  admire,  the  delicacy  of  the 
sentiment,  the  elevation  of  thought,  the  reality  of  the  pictures 
or  the  delineation  of  character  of  some  of  the  principal  per- 
sonages. The  Bishop,  the  Vicar-General,  the  priest  (Father 
Duly),  the  little  old  consultor  of  the  Holy  Office,  and  Cardinal 
Maffei  are  all  admirably  drawn.  George.  Sutcliffe  is  drawn  to  the 
life.  To  anybody  acquainted  with  France  and  French  ways  the 
Comte  d'Etranges  and:  Marcelle  will  recall  prototypes  from 
which  one  or  other  of  their  characteristics  might  be  very  easily 
borrowed. 

Such  a  book  as  this  does  honour,  not  only  to  Mrs.  Wilfrid 
Ward  but  to  the  Church.  Lady  Georgiana  Fullerton  has 
found  a  worthy  successor.  Catholics  will  read  her  book  with 
pleasure  everywhere,  and  to  Protestants  it  will  be  a  revelation 
in  more  senses  than  one.  Our  best  wishes  to  the  book  and  our 
best  congratulations  to  Mrs.  Wilfrid  Ward. 

J.  F.  H. 

ANTIPRISCILLIANA.     Von  Dr.  Karl  Kiinstle.  Herder.     1905. 

OF  late  years  Priscillian,  together  with  his  heresy,  has  been 

the  object  of  special  studies.  This  is  due  partly  to  investigations 

into  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  Comma  Joanneum,  the  oldest 


47*  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

reference  to  which  is  found  in  a  Tractate  of  Priscillian's  that 
Schepps  discovered  about  twenty  years  ago  in  the  library  of 
Wurzburg  University.  Since  then  a  great  deal  has  been  pub- 
lished on  the  subject.  At  one  time  the  Comma  Joanneum  was 
considered  to  be  of  African,  now,  according  to  Kiinstle's  opinion, 
it  is  of  Spanish  provenance.  For  he  says  that  all  the  early 
writers  that  quote  it,  and  all  the  MSS.  (seventh  to  ninth  centuries) 
that  contain  it,  are  Spanish.  Kiinstle  states  also  in  his  inter- 
esting brochure  (Das  Comma  Joanneum  auf  seine  unterkunft 
untersucht)  that  in  its  primary  form  the  Comma  was  composed 
by  Priscillian,  and  expressed  his  antitrinitarian  notions,  and 
that  only  when  purged  of  heresy  it  passed  into  Catholic  Bibles. 
The  brochure  just  mentioned  was,  however,  nothing  more  than 
an  introduction  to  the  present  one,  in  which  the  many  orthodox 
formularies  employed  against  the  Priscillianists  are  submitted 
to  a  most  searching  examination.  As  a  work  of  erudition  and 
critical  acumen  it  would  be  difficult  to  surpass  Antipriscilliana. 
It  will  certainly  become  famous  in  learned  circles.  For  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  great  interest  felt  at  present 
in  Priscillian  is  partly  due  to  the  widespread  study  of  the  early 
forms  of  the  Creed.  Several  scholars,  including  Swainson, 
Harnack,  Ommaney,  and  Burn,  have  written  on  the  origin  and 
purpose  of  the  Athanasian  Creed.  Burn's  monograph  (Texts 
and  Studies,  Cambridge,  1896)  was  the  best  of  all.  In  one 
place  (page  75),  he  said  : — 

'  A  further  suggestion  may  be  made,  that  in  this  rule  of  faith 
special  care  was  taken  to  guard  against  the  heresy  of  Priscil- 
lianism.  Priscillianism  was  a  sort  of  hazy  Sabellianism,  with 
a  mixture  of  Manichean  elements,  and  a  tendency  to  an  Apol- 
linarian  denial  of  the  Lord's  human  soul.' 

Kiinstle  has  now  carried  the  inquiry  into  the  heresy  and 
the  symbol  opposed  to  it  even  further.  He  has  shown  the 
close  connexion  that  exists  between  the  Fides  Damasi,  the 
Exfiositio  fidei  Catholicae,  etc.,  and  the  so-called  Athanasian 
Creed,  which  he  proves  conclusively  to  have  been  composed  in 
opposition  to  Priscillian's  three  heretical  tenets. 

R.W. 

MY  QUEEN  AND  MY   MOTHER.     By  R.   G.   S.     London  : 

Art  and  Book  Company.     45.  6d.  net. 
THIS  new  book  of  devotion  to  our  Blessed  Lady  will  be  found 
a  great  help,  or  profitable  substitute,  by  those  who  find  a  diffi- 


NOTICES  OF   BOOKS  473 


culty  in  the  practice  of  formal  meditation.  It  is  a  series  of 
meditations  on  the  invocations  of  the  Litany  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  One  excellent  feature  of  the  work  is  the  constant  use 
of  the  words  of  Holy  Scripture  in  elucidating  and  expanding 
each  one  of  the  petitions  of  the  Litany.  The  work  is  beautifully 
illustrated  :  a  photographic  reproduction  of  some  famous  picture 
precedes  each  meditation. 

SKETCHES    IN    HISTORY,    CHIEFLY    ECCLESIASTICAL.    By 
the  Most  Rev.  L.  C.  Casertelli,  Bishop  of  Salford. 

ONE  of  the  paradoxes  of  the  moral  world  is  that  while  men 
with  abundant  leisure  and  plenty  of  talent  do  nothing,  men, 
on  the  other  hand,  whose  official  duties  are  continuous  and 
exacting,  find  time  for  numerous  works  of  supererogation. 
Whose  time  can  be  so  little  his  own  as  that  of  the  chief  pastor 
of  a  diocese,  and  yet,  how  many  there  have  been  of  our  bishops, 
whose  claims  to  remembrance  and  distinction  are  due  as  much 
to  their  literary  work  as  to  their  purely  professional  labours, 
Were  I  to  mention  one,  I  should  mention  a  dozen  such  names. 
I  suppose  it  is  that  work  begets  a  capacity  for  greater  work, 
and  that  appetite  is  increased  by  what  it  feeds  upon,  while 
do-nothingism  begets  a  capacity  for  doing  nothing. 

Those  sketches  appeared  as  articles,  mostly  all  in  the 
Dublin  Review,  and  one  of  the  Right  Rev.  author's  objects 
in  thus  making  them  more  accessible,  has  been,  he  tells  us, 
'  that  they  may  stimulate  in  some  of  our  ecclesiastical  students 
a  taste  for  historical  reading  and  study — so  urgent  a  need  at 
the  present  day.'  He  evidently  felt  that  there  fare  many 
ecclesiastics  of  undoubted  talent  who,  were  they  to  take  to 
historical  studies,  or  theological  studies,  or  to  literary  studies, 
could,  without  any  deteriment  ^to  [the  daily  discharge  of 
routine  duty,  contribute ^by  their  writings  and  lectures  and 
conversations  to  increase  the  esteem  and  reverence  .which  the 
Catholic  priesthood  has  always  been  able  to  win  from  the  world. 
The  reader  of  these  sketches  will  find  in  them  a  sample  of  this 
kind  of  work.  It  is  not  what  is  called^original  work.  The 
Bishop  is  a  reviewer.  He  studies  the  best  books  on  a  subject, 
including,  of  course,  the  latest  books  ;  receives  in  the  lense  of  his 
well-trained  mind  their  light  and  then  projects  on  a  compara- 
tively small  screen  an  instructive  picture.  This  secondary 
work,  the  work  of  analysis  and  exposition,  is  a  most  necessary 


474  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL     RECORD 

and  useful  department  of  letters,  and  a  worker  of  this  rank 
who  has  discretion,  sympathy,  and  the  power  of  lucid  expression, 
may  become  a  great  benefactor. 

The  first  of  these  sketches  is  a  review  of  a  Flemish  work 
entitled  A  History  and  Description  of  Funeral  and  Mourning 
Customs  among  the  Principal  Nations,  by  Dr.  Isidore  Bauwens, 
which  was  published  in  Brussels  in  1888.  It  contains  a  great 
deal  of  curious  information  on  the  '  Art  of  Burial,'  including 
earth-burial,  water-burial,  tree-burial,  cremation  and  embalm- 
ing. The  next  paper  is  on  an  old  subject :  viz.,  '  The  Lombards, 
with  Hodgkins,'  Italy  and  her  Invaders,  vols.  v.  and  vi.,  for  a 
text.  Here  we  find  that  the  author  is  '  proud  to  think  '  that 
Lombard  blood  flows  in  his  veins,*and  no  wonder,  since  this  fact 
establishes  for  him  a  kinship  with  Lanfranc,  Anselm,  Peter  the 
Lombard  and  Dante  Aleghieri.  '  The  English  Pope  '  is  the  head- 
ing of  the  next  sketch  :  — 

'  It  is  at  least  curious,'  writes  the  Bishop,  '  that  what  interest 
has  been  taken  in  Pope  Adrian  IV  by  Englishmen  has  been 
chiefly  on  the  part  of  non-Catholics.  The  largest  and  most 
elaborate  biography  of  him  is  the  sumptuous  volume  published 
within  the  last  ten  years  by  a  High  Church  layman  (Alfred 
H.  Tarleton)  ;  the  article  "  Adrian  IV  "  in  The  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  was  from  the  pen  of  the  late  Bishop  of 
London,  Dr.  Mandell  Creighton.  On  our  side  we  have  nothing 
to  show  but  a  small  popular  historical  sketch  of  little  over  a 
hundred  pages  by  Richard  Raby,  published  as  far  back  as  1849.' 

Dr.  Casertelli  has  done  as  much  as  it  was  possible  to  do 
within  the  limits  of  a  review  to  present  the  Catholic  view  of 
Adrian's  dramatic  career.  How  the  rejected  postulant  of  St. 
Alban's  in  Herefordshire  became  Abbot  of  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Rufus  in  Avignon,  how  the  rejected  Abbot  became  cardinal, 
what  the  Cardinal  did  in  Scandinavia,  how  he  became  Pope, 
and  how  well  he  defended  the  privileges  of  his  position  against 
the  '  mightiest  monarch  of  Western  Europe  since  Charles  the 
Great,'  are  all  told  in  a  style  that  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired. 
The  state  of  the  controversy  about  the  famous  '  so-called  Bull 
Laudabiliter  '  is  stated  with  great  clearness,  the  Bishop's  own 
view  being  that  of  the  minority,  that  at  the  request  of  John 
of  Salisbury  Adrian  sent  the  letter  Laudabiliter  to  the  English 
king. 

In  Adrian  VI,  the  subject  of  another  of  these  articles,  the 
writer  had  a  still  more  congenial  theme.  The  '  Dutch  Pope  ' 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  475 

had  been  a  student  and  professor  at  Louvain,  the  author's  own 
Alma  Mater,  and  the  incidents  of  his  career  are  not  less 
picturesque  than  are  the  vicissitudes  in  the  life  of  the  English 
Pope.  The  titles  of  other  sketches  include  '  The  Church  and 
the  Printing  Press,'  '  The  English  Universities  and  the  Refor- 
mation,' '  Oxford  and  Louvain,'  '  A  Forgotten  Chapter  of  the 
Second  Spring,'  '  The  Makers  of  the  Dublin,'  and  '  The  Catholic 
Church  in  Japan.'  '  The  Forgotten  Chapter  '  is  a  sympathetic 
account  of  the  share  of  the  Institute  of  Charity  in  the  English 
Catholic  Revival  known  as  the  '  Second  Spring.'  In  the 
'  Makers  of  the  Dublin  '  the  author  traces  the  career  of  the 
Dublin  Review  from  its  birth  in  1836  to  its  latest  good  fortune, 
namely,  its  coming  under  the  direction  of  the  Younger  Ward. 
There  is  no  want  of  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  author 
of  the  services  which  Irish  talent  and  scholarship  have  rendered 
to  the  Dublin: — 

'  Vast,'  he  writes  at  page  285,  '  as  was  the  share  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman  in  the  life  and  success  of  the  Review,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  periodical  would  ever  have  survived  its  early  trials, 
but  for  the  co-operation  of  that  other  eminent  and  brilliant 
scholar,  who  all  through  those  long  years  was  Wiseman's  chief 
lieutenant  and  commander  in  arms,  Dr.  Charles  Russell  of  May- 
nooth.  From  the  literary  point  of  view,  Dr.  Russell  had  certainly 
the  lion's  share  of  the  actual  work.  His  first  article  ("  Versions 
of  the  Scriptures  ")  contributed  when  he  was  a  young  professor 
of  twenty-four,  appeared  in  the  second  quarterly  issue  of  the 
old  series  (July,  1836)  ;  his  last,  "  The  Critical  History  of  the 
Sonnet,"  is  to  be  found  in  the  fifty-fourth  and  fifth-fifth  numbers 
of  the  second  series  (October,  1876,  and  January,  1877).  During 
the  space  of  forty  years,  Dr.  Russell  was  the  most  constant 
and  most  indefatigable  of  contributors,  and  the  wide  range 
of  the  subjects  treated  .  .  .  rivalled  that  of  Wiseman's, 
and  gave  evidence  of  vast  erudition — the  high  literary  skill 
and  the  versatile  culture  of  one  who  may  perhaps  claim  to  have 
been  the  most  gifted  Catholic  scholar  of  our  times.  For  twenty 
years  he  contributed  absolutely  to  every  number  of  the  Review, 
and  before  1860,  a  very  large  number  of  issues  contain  not  one, 
but  several,  papers  from  his  prolific  and  graceful  pen  ;  in  at 
least  one  instance  he  is  credited  with  no  less  than  five  articles.' 

O'Connell  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Review,  and  the 
author  states  (page  275)  that  '  at  least  one-half,  often  times 
much  more  of  the  literary  matter  of  the  original  series  was 
produced  in  Ireland.'  An  article  contributed  to  its  pages  in 


476  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

January,  1873,  by  Dr.  P.  Murray,  on  '  The  Vatican  Council  : 
its  Authority  and  Work,'  was  considered  by  Dr.  Ward  the  best 
paper  he  had  ever  sent  to  him  during  the  same  series  (page  293). 
Space  does  not  permit  me  to  make  any  more  detailed 
reference  to  these  sketches.  I  must  now  conclude  with  bearing 
my  humble  testimony  to  the  excellence  of  the  entire  work. 
Dr.  Casertelli  is,  to  quote  one  of  his  own  phrases,  a  '  picturesque 
historian.'  His  matter  is  always  interesting,  his  style  pleasing 
and  personal,  and  his  sense  of  proportion  just.  These  sketches 
are,  in  my  opinion,  eminently  calculated  to  inspire  in  the  youth- 
ful reader  a  taste  for  historical  reading,  and  are  at  the  same 
time  a  model  of  the  best  kind  of  popular  historical  exposition- 

T.  P.  G. 

CATHOLIC  IDEALS  IN  SOCIAL  LIFE.  By  Father  Cuthbert, 
O.S.F.C.  Second  Edition.  London :  Art  and  Book 
Company,  1905. 

THIS  is  an  eminently  readable  and  instructive  volume  of 
papers  on  social  questions.  Some  of  them  had  already  appeared 
in  English  Catholic  periodicals,  but  their  gifted  author  was 
certainly  well  advised  in  collecting  them  into  one  volume, 
and  we  are  not  surprised  that  a  second  edition  was  called  for 
so  soon  after  the  appearance  of  the  first.  Their  object  is  '  to 
give  expression  to  the  Catholic  mind,  touching  some  of  the  most 
urgent  questions  of  the  hour  in  regard  to  social  life  and  conduct.' 
The  need  for  such  an  expression  of  Catholic  ideals  is  a  growing, 
or  even  an  urgent  one  at  the  present  day  :  material  interests 
are  absorbing  or  monopolizing  the  attention  of  the  modern 
world,  and  making  it  impatient  of  spiritual  restraints.  Here, 
in  this  little  book,  we  have  great,  fruitful  truths  told  in  such  a 
simple,  winning  way  that  they  go  straight  to  the  heart.  And 
they  are  truths  that  deserve  to  be  considered  by  great  men 
and  by  statesmen  as  well  as  by  the  common,  unremarkable 
folk, — wholesome  and  telling  truths  that  would  cure  and  cut 
out  not  a  few  of  the  evils  that  modern  society  is  sick  from. 

There  is  a  unity  of  thought  and  purpose  running  through 
these  dozen  papers,  which  cover  250  octavo  pages,  though 
there  is  a  sufficient  diversity  in  the  titles,  e.g.,  '  The  Christian 
State,'  '  Marriage,'  '  The  Priest  and  Social  Reform,'  '  The 
Responsibility  of  Wealth,'  '  The  Working-man's  Apostolate,' 


NOTICES  OF   BOOKS  477 

'  The  Three  Radical  Evils  in  Society  at  the  Present  Day  ' 
(Commercial  Selfishness,  Intemperance,  Disregard  for  the 
Sanctity  of  Domestic  Life),  etc.  Everywhere  we  find  the  echo 
of  the  teachings  of  Leo  XIII,  the  ring  of  a  true  democratic 
note,  and  the  sympathetic  love  for  the  poor  so  characteristic 
of  the  Order  to  which  the  author  belongs.  His  writing  is 
fearless  and  forcible  when  he  lays  bare  the  wrongs  and  crimes 
that  are  the  scourge  of  modern  society.  His  thought  is  charac- 
terized throughout  by  an  uncommon  freshness,  directness, 
and  vigour  of  expression.  The  reader  is  carried  along  by  a 
style  that  is  elegant,  pure  and  pleasing.  The  book  is  full  of 
striking  passages  : — 

'  The  present  age,  we  are  reminded,  is  a  transitional 
stage  of  existence.  New  modes  of  thought,  new  claims  of 
rights,  the  shifting  of  political  powers,  the  increased  com- 
petition in  trade,  and  the  organization  of  the  workers, 
have  all  brought  about  a  social  revolution  the  end  of  which 
is  not  yet.  We  are  moving  forward  we  hardly  know  whither  : 
it  is  pre-eminently  the  day  for  the  political  theorist.  One 
thing  is  certain  :  the  ultra-individualism  of  the  past  is  doomed. 
Whatever  the  future  brings  forth,  the  voices  of  the  social 
prophets  and  economists  will  not  have  been  heard  in  vain. 
There  is  some  truth  in  the  phrase  :  *'  We  are  all  socialists  now."  ' 

And  again: — 

'  In  a  truthful  state  of  society  the  social  entity  reflects 
the  individual  entity  ;  if  the  individuals  are  Christians  in  spirit 
as  in  name,  then  society  will  be  Christian  ;  if  the  individuals 
are  pagans  in  their  own  hearts,  they  may  submit  to  act  on 
Christian  principles  collectively,  but  their  collective  action 
is  a  vast  hypocrisy.  And  this  is  where  so  many  attempted 
moral  reformations  fail.  They  begin  with  the  external  life 
rather  than  with  the  inner  life  ;  they  rush  to  create  social  reforms 
when  they  had  more  properly  begun  with  the  individual.  They 
think  to  reform  the  moral  life  of  the  nation  by  acts  of  parlia- 
ment or  to  take  away  vice  by  international  agreement ;  they 
would  do  away  with  wars  before  they  have  established  justice 
in  the  hearts  of  men.  .  .  .' 

We  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  this  little  book 
to  all  classes.  In  our  public  libraries,  for  educated  people, 
for  people  who  take  an  interest  in  social  questions — as  most 
people  do  nowadays — agreeable  and  instructive  books  of  this 
kind  are  badly  wanted. 

P.  C. 


478  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

ENCHIRIDION    SYMBOLORUM    ET    DEFINITIONUM.       Fr. 
Denzinger.     Ed.  IX.     Herder. 

THE  new  issue  of  this  invaluable  repertory  calls  for  a  word 
of  notice.  It  is  free  from  a  few  typographical  errors  which  were 
to  be  found,  even  in  the  eighth  edition,  of  which  some  altered 
the  sense  of  documents.  Generations  of  students  have  learned 
by  experience  the  utility  of  Denzinger's  book  so  well,  that  to 
speak  in  its  praise  would  be  superfluous.  For  a  theologian  it 
is  an  indispensable  work  of  reference. 

But  as  in  the  future  new  editions  will  assuredly  be  called 
for,  it  may  be  of  use  to  suggest  some  improvements.  They 
are,  first,  the  addition  of  the  Ex  quo  singulari  and  the  Omnium 
Solicitudinum  of  Benedict  XIV,  regarding  Chinese  and  Malabar 
rites,  respectively  ;  and  also  of  the  decree  regarding  Anglican 
Orders,  issued  by  Leo  XIII.  Secondly,  an  addition  to  the  in- 
troductory note  on  n.  Ixxxix,  Deer  eta  Pontificia  in  materia  de 
auxiliis.  Here  an  omission  occurs  which  might  easily  mislead 
beginners.  The  sentence  in  the  Enchiridion  runs,  '  Innocentius 
enim  X.  decreto  d.  23  Apr.,  1654,  declaravit,  Actis  Francisci 
Pegna  et  Thomae  de  Lemos  et  autographo  seu  exemplari  assertae 
constitutionis  Pauli  V,  super  definitione  quaestionis  de  auxiliis 
ac  damnationis  sententiae  seu  sententiarum  Ludovici  Molinae, 
S.J.,  nullam  omnino  fidem  esse  adhibendam.'  But  there  is  a 
suppressio  veri  here,  and  the  part  left  out  is  a  very  important 
part  of  the  decree.  It  is  here  enclosed  in  brackets.  '  Actis 
Francisci  Begnae  et  Thomae  de  Lemos  (tarn  pro  sententia  FF. 
Ordinis  S.  Dominici,  quam  Ludovici  Molinae,  aliorumque 
Societatis  Jesu  Religiosorum)  ;'  and  then,  '  nullam  omnino 
esse  fidem  adhibendam  ;  (neque  ab  alterutra  parte,  seu  a  quo- 
cumque  alio  allegari  posse,  vel  debere).'  See  Regnon's  Bannez 
et  Molina  (my  authority  for  the  statement).  The  learned  writer, 
who  is  an  honest  man,  gives  the  passage  without  omissions. 
If  a  reader  who  depended  on  Denzinger,  who  had  never  seen 
the  decree  of  Innocent  X,  supposed,  as  he  might  very  naturally 
do,  that  this  portion  was  given  in  its  entirety,  he  would  be  very 
much  mistaken.  He  would  believe  that  the  Pope  spoke  only 
of  Pegna  and  Lemos,  and  might  imagine  that  he  had  cause  for 
discrediting  their  respective  accounts.  Nothing  could  be 
farther  from  the  truth  ;  indeed  it  would  be  unpardonable  to 
suspect  two  such  ecclesiastics  as  the  famous  Auditor  of  the 
Rota  and  the  great  Thomist  theologian  of  unfair  or  fraudulent 


NOTICES   OF   BOOKS  479 

reporting.  The  disputants  on  the  one  side  were  Lemos  (from 
beginning  to  end)  and  Alvarez  ;  on  the  other  were  Gregory  of 
Valentia,  Arrabul,  De  Salas,  and  Bastida.  All  were  men  of 
the  highest  reputation.  The  official  records  of  the  proceedings 
are  said  to  be  in  the  Vatican  Archives  ;  they  have  never  been 
published.  It  is  obivous  that  only  these  documents  of  the 
court  or  the  Congregatio  de  Auxiliis  possess  authority. 

(N.B. — Many  years  ago — in  1879  anc*  again  in  1881 — 
Fr.  Schneemann,  S.J.,  gave  to  the  world  an  autograph  note  of 
Paul  V ;  whether  the  original  was  preserved  in  the  Vatican  or 
in  the  Borghese  Archives,  if  memory  speaks  truly,  he  did  not 
state.) 

But  to  return  to  Innocent  X  ;  what  he  means  is,  that  the 
accounts  given  by  those  on  either  side  are  but  private  memo- 
randa, and  consequently  do  not  possess  any  official  character. 
He  does  not  say  that  one  of  them  is  untrue.  Nothing  but 
nescience  of  the  nature  of,  or  of  the  full  text  of,  the  Papal  utter- 
ance, or  want  of  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  the  Congregatio 
in  question,  could  make  a  person  in  bona  fide  think  that  the  Pope 
had  done  so.  The  omission  of  the  clause  in  Denzinger's  En- 
chiridion might  have  this  effect.  It  seems  to  have  actually 
produced  it  in  one  instance,  and  the  consequences  were  some- 
what ludicrous.  Some  years  ago  the  author  of  a  certain  treatise 
(a  man  who  ought  to  have  known  better),  who  apparently  had 
read  the  Enchiridion,  but  never  had  seen  the  relevant  words 
of  Innocent  X's  decree,  propounded  this  argument  with  perfect 
seriousness  : — 

'  It  is  certain  that  before  the  decree  was  issued,|the  accounts 
written  by  Pegna  and  by  Lemos  possessed  no  official  value : 
everybody,  even  the  merest  tyro,  knew  that  Innocent  X  would 
not  take  pains  to  declare  what  people  were  aware  of  already  ; 
he  did,  however,  publish  a  decree  ;  there  must  therefore  have 
been  a  reason  for  his  solemn  protest  against  these  two  narratives  : 
the  only  reason  there  can  possibly  have  been  is  this — they  were 
untrue  ;  ergo,  since  the  decree  they  are  known  to  have  no  value 
whatever  '  (!) 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  omission  which  appears  to  have 
given  occasion  to  this  train  of  thought  will  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  future  editions  of  an  otherwise  invaluable  work. 

R.  W. 


480  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

LAST  LETTERS  OF  AUBREY  BEARDSLEY.  Edited,  with  an 
Introductory  Note,  by  the  Rev.  John  Gray.  London  : 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

THESE  letters  tell  the  story  of  the  last  three  years  of  the 
life  of  the  brilliant  young  artist,  who  was  cut  down  by  phthisis 
in  1898.  The  letters  were  obviously  written  without  any  idea 
of  publication  ;  many  are  brief  and  commonplace,  many  are 
interesting.  The  condition  of  the  writer's  health,  the  works 
he  reads,  and  his  artistic  employments,  his  gradual  approach  to 
the  Catholic  Church,  his  reception  within  the  fold,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  great  change  on  his  spiritual  outlook  are  the 
themes  of  the  various  letters. 

THE  SUFFERING  MAN-GOD  (L'HoMME-DiEU  SOUFFRANT). 
By  P6re  Seraphim,  Passionist.  Translated  by  Lilian 
M.  Ward.  Washbourne,  and  Benziger  Brothers. 

THIS  is  a  free  translation  of  the  French  original.  The  work 
of  Pere  Seraphim  is  the  result  of  fervent  and  mature  meditation 
on  all  the  phases  of  the  Passion  of  our  Saviour.  The  sixteen 
meditations  demonstrate  that  the  various  sufferings  of  the 
Man-God  reveal  to  the  thoughtful  mind  a  series  of  miracles  as 
great  and  striking  as  those  which  marked  His  public  life.  Each 
meditation  is  followed  by  a  fervent  Act  of  Reparation. 


EDITORIAL  NOTE 

A  FRIEND  who  wishes  to  complete  a  set  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD 
is  in  search  of  the  following  missing  numbers  : — 

1864.  November. 

1865.  March. 
1872.  December. 

1874.  January,     February,     August. 
1876.  January,     February,     March,     June,     July,     and 
September. 

If  any  reader  who  may  have  these  numbers,  or  any  one  of 
them,  to  dispose  of,  will  kindly  communicate  with  me,  I  shall 
be  glad  to  forward  the  information  to  the  person  interested. 

J.  F.  HOGAN,  D.D. 


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Evolution  :  Darwin  and  the  Abbe  Loisy — I. 

Rev.  Daniel  Coghlan,  D.D.}  Maynooth  College. 

A  Study  in  Thought-Transference. 

Rev»  Patrick  Sheridan,  Glasgow. 
Catechism  in  Higher  Schools, 

Very  Rev.  Patrick  Boyle>  C.M.,  President,  Irish  College,  Paris, 
Religion  as  a  Credible  Doctrine. — IV. 

Rev.  J.  O'Neill,  Ph.D.,  Carlow  College. 
The  Trial  and  Execution  of  Father  Quigley. 

R.  J.  Kdly,  B.L.,  Dublin, 
Notes  and  Queries. 

LITURGY.  Rev.  Patrick  Morrisroe,  Maynooth  College* 

Privileges  of  Midnight  JIa>a.      De  Missa  in  Aliena  Ecclesia, 

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Sacred  Congregation  ot  the  Conncil  on  Students  in  Seminaries,  Absolution  '  is 
articulo  mortis.'  Encyclical  of  His  Holiness  Pop*  Pius  X  to  the  French  Bishop*, 
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Irish  Catholics  and  Trinity  College.  Illustrated  Story  of  Five  Years'  Tour'in  America. 
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O'Friels.  Meditations  on  Christian  Dogma.  Irish  Education  :  As  it  is  and  as  it 
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3lij 


EVOLUTION :  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY-I 

IT  will  perhaps  appear,  at  first  sight,  an  unreal  and  merely 
» r  fanciful  groupment,  this  association  of  the  names  of 
frMr.  Darwin  the  eminent  naturalist  and  author  at 
$  least  in  modern  times  of  the  theory  of  *  natural 
selection '  and  of  the  learned  biblical  scholar  and  critic 
the  Abbe"  Loisy.  But  the  theory  of  evolution  by 
natural  selection  is  now  applied  to  explain  not  merely 
the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  various  species  of 
plants  and  animals  and  the  successive  formations  that 
have  appeared  in  the  orderly  development  of  the  cosmos, 
but  also  the  genesis  of  what  I  may  call  the  different  his- 
torical species  or  types  of  natural  religion  and  the  origin 
and  growth  of  supernatural  religion  and  o?  Catholic  Chris- 
tianity itself.  The  Abbe  Loisy  has  led  the  way  in  applying 
the  Darwinian  hypothesis  to  explain  the  origin  and  evolution 
of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  hence  I  associate  his  name  with 
that  of  Mr.  Darwin.  I  do  not  however  purpose,  in  the 
present  paper,  to  offer  any  criticism  of  the  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, whether  applied  to  explain  the  origin  of  species  among 
plants  and  animals  or  the  origin  and  development  of  Catholic 
Christianity,  but  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  brief  com- 
parative exposition  of  the  theories  of  Darwin  and  the  Abbe 
Loisy. 

I 

There^were  not  wanting  before  Darwin  naturalists  who, 
observing  the  variability  of  individuals  of  the  same  species 

FOURTH  SERIES,  VOL.  XIX. — JUNE,  1906.  *  H 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

in  form,  colour,  habits,  etc.,  the  many  likenesses  which 
exist  between  individuals  of  nearly  allied  species,  and  the 
many  links  that  bind  the  species  themselves  together,  were 
led  to  believe  that  all  the  species  of  the  same  genus  have 
had  a  common  origin.  Some  ascribed  the  transformation  of 
species  to  unknown  laws  :  Lamark  ascribed  it  to  the  desire 
and  effort  to  satisfy  some  new  want,  to  acquire  some  new 
perfection,  aided  by  favourable  circumstances ;  but  it  was 
reserved  for  Mr.  Darwin  to  propound  the  theory  of  '  natural 
selection '  as  the  law  or  method  by  whose  slow  but  pro- 
gressive action  all  past  and  existing  species  have  descended 
from  the  few  primitive  original  forms  into  which  the 
Creator  is  said  to  have  breathed  life  at  the  beginning  of 
organic  existence  in  the  world. 

Darwin  speaks  of  the  Creator  originally  breathing  life 
into  a  few  primitive  forms  or  into  one. 

There  is  grandeur  [he  writes]1  in  this  view  of  life  with  its 
several  powers  having  been  originally  breathed  by  the  Creator 
into  a  few  forms  or  into  one ;  and  that,  whilst  this  planet  has 
gone  cycling  on  according  to  the  fixed  law  of  gravity  from  so 
simple  a  beginning,  endless  forms,  most  beautiful  and  most 
wonderful,  have  been  and  are  being  evolved. 

Mr.  Tyndall  insinuates  that  this  is  merely  a  quotation 
from  a  celebrated  divine  and  says  he  does  not  know 
what  Mr.  Darwin  himself  thought  of  this  view  of  the  intro- 
duction of  life.  *  What  Mr.  Darwin  thinks  of  this  view  of 
the  introduction  of  life,'  he  writes,2  '  I  do  not  know.  But 
the  anthropomorphism,  which  it  seemed  his  object  to  set 
aside,  is  as  firmly  associated  with  the  creation  of  a  few 
forms  as  with  the  creation  of  a  multitude.'  And  from 
Mr.  Darwin's  letters  we  learn  that  he  used  the  term 
*  creation  '  merely  to  signify  that  the  origin  of  life  is  wholly 
unknown  to  us  and  does  not  come  within  the  proper  pro- 
vince of  science.  Writing  to  Mr.  F.  D.  Hooker  he  says  : — 3 

But  I  have  long  regretted  that  I  truckled  to  public  opinion 

1  Origin  of  Species  (6th  edit.),  p.  429. 

2  Fragments  of  Science,  vol.  ii.,  p.  189. 

'  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin.  Edited  by  his  son  Francis 
Darwin,  vol.  ill,  p.  18. 


EVOLUTION:  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY       483 

and  used  the  Pentateuchal  term  of  creation,  by  which  I  really 
meant  '  appeared '  by  some  wholly  unknown  process.  It  is 
mere  rubbish  thinking  at  present  of  the  origin  of  life  ;  one  might 
as  well  think  of  the  origin  of  matter. 

Assuming  therefore  life  to  have  *  appeared  '  at  its  origin 
by  some  wholly  unknown  process,  Mr.  Darwin  teaches 
that  different  species  have  not  been  separately  created, 
as  had  been  believed,  but  have  had  a  common  origin,  and 
that  the  law  or  principle  of  the  origin  and  permanence  of 
new  species  is  *  natural  selection.'  What  then  is  '  natural 
selection '  ?  It  supposes  four  elements  :  that  organisms 
tend  to  increase  by  propagation  in  geometrical  ratio — an 
innate  tendency  among  the  descendants  of  any  species  to 
vary  in  relation  to  the  parents  and  to  one  another — a 
struggle  for  existence — and  the  survival  of  the  fittest ; 
or  it  may  be  said  that  natural  selection  presupposes 
the  first  three  conditions  and  consists  formally  in  the 
action  of  nature  preserving  those  varieties  that  are 
best  adapted  to  all  the  conditions  of  their  environ- 
ment and  destroying  those  which  are  imperfectly 
equipped  for  fighting  with  success  in  the  struggle  for 
existence. 

Our  familiarity  with  the  larger  domestic  animals  tends 
to  mislead  us  and  to  impel  us  to  deny  the  reality  of  th« 
rapid  multiplication  of  organisms  and  of  the  struggle  for 
existence.  We  see  that  the  number  of  these  animals 
round  about  us  undergoes  no  great  change,  and'  their  destruc- 
tion because  it  is  continuous  and  regular  and  uniform  we 
sacrcely  notice.  But  organisms  which  annually  produce 
eggs  or  seeds  by  the  thousand  would  require  only  a  very 
short  time  to  populate  a  whole  region  if  there  were  no  de- 
struction. Mr.  Wallace  tells  us1  that  if  we  start  with  a 
single  pair  of  birds  of  one  of  the  familiar  varieties,  such  as 
the  redbreast  or  the  sparrow,  and  these  and  their  descend- 
ants are  allowed  to  live  and  breed  unmolested  by  living 
enemies,  or  by  hunger,  or  by  excessive  heat  or  cold,  or  by 
disease,  their  numbers  will  amount  to  more  than  twenty 

1  Darwinism,  pp.  2|,  a6. 


484  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

millions  in  ten  years.    And  of  the  elephant  Mr.  Darwin 
writes  : — 1 

The  elephant  is  reckoned  the  slowest  breeder  of  all  known 
animals  ...  it  will  be  safest  to  assume  that  it  begins  breeding 
when  thirty  years  old,  and  goes  on  breeding  till  ninety  years  old, 
bringing  forth  six  young  in  the  interval,  and  surviving  till  one 
hundred  years  old ;  if  this  be  so,  after  a  period  of  from  740  to 
750  years  there  would  be  nearly  nineteen  million  elephants  alive, 
descended  from  the  first  pair. 

Of  '  innate  variability  *  we  have  the  most  obvious 
evidence.  In  the  human  family  itself  as  well  as  among 
plants  and  animals  we  can  observe  in  the  young  some 
variation  from  the  parental  type,  in  form,  or  color,  or  dis- 
position, or  other  characteristic,  and  some  differences 
between  the  individual  members  of  the  young  family  itself. 
And  as  to  the  '  struggle  for  existence,'  there  is  a  struggle 
with  heat  and  cold,  with  rain  and  drought,  with  famine 
and  pestilence,  with  the  various  forms  of  disease,  the 
struggle  between  rival  claimants  for  food  in  times  of  want, 
the  struggle  between  carnivorous  animals  and  their  victims, 
the  struggle  between  weeds  and  the  farmer's  crops  for  a 
habitation  on  the  soil,  the  struggle  of  seeds  and  eggs  to 
propagate  their  species  in  spite  of  the  efforts  to  destroy 
them  or  use  them  as  food,  the  universal  struggle  of  organ- 
isms to  escape  total  extinction  in  death  and  by  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  species  to  survive  and  continue  their 
existence  in  their  offspring. 

Nature,  according  to  the  Darwinian  theory,  would  have 
selected  for  survival  at  the  very  first  struggle  those  indi- 
viduals that  had  varied  however  slightly  but  advan- 
tageously from  the  original  stock.  Then  rapid  propagation 
began  again,  new  incipient  varieties  appeared  among  the 
children  of  the  second  generation,  the  struggle  for  existence 
commenced  among  the  new  varieties,  and  nature  again 
selected  the  fittest  to  survive.  And  so  on  and  on  these 
mysterious  processes  of  nature  were  repeated  until  all  the 
generations  down  to  man  included  have  appeared,  new 
species  sometimes  appearing  suddenly,  but  more  generally 

1  Ibid,  p.  51. 


EVOLUTION:  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY 

by  slight  and  repeated  innate  variations  that  ultimately 
formed  groups  of  organisms  so  far  removed  from  all  pre- 
ceding species  as  to  be  definable  from  them  by  certain 
constant  peculiarities  in  form  or  structure  or  function  and 
to  require  to  be  classed  as  new  species. 

The  evolution  of  the  '  moral  sense '  was  effected  by 
the  ordinary  processes  of  natural  selection,  controlled  how- 
ever by  something  akin  to  the  restrictions  put  upon  nature 
by  domestic  selection.  In  natural  selection  the  conditions 
of  the  environment  and  the  agents  that  threaten  destruc- 
tion in  the  struggle  for  existence  work  absolutely  uncon- 
trolled and  the  individual  survives  that  is  best  adapted 
to  hold  its  ground,  aggressive  enough  to  seize  a  new  advan- 
tageous position  by  killing  off  a  neighbour,  tenacious  to 
maintain  its  advantage  and  continue  its  conquests,  and 
successful  in  transmitting  and  perpetuating  by  offspring 
its  inherited  and  acquired  characteristics  ;  but  in  domestic 
selection  the  conditions  of  the  environment  are  put 
under  restraint,  the  selector  is  anxious  to  raise  a  par- 
ticular variety  of  plant,  or  bird,  or  sheep,  or  cattle,  or 
horse,  etc.,  and  to  secure  this  end  he  prevents  a  struggle 
for  existence  by  controlling  the  conditions  of  the  environ- 
ment and  forbidding  the  concurrence  of  opposing  varieties. 
So  primitive  man  or  his  lineal  antecedents  when  climbing 
upwards  in  the  scale  of  being  fought  his  way  in  the  struggle 
for  existence  under  the  rules  of  natural  selection.  The 
conditions  of  life  fought  uncontrolled,  and  those  individuals 
survived  in  the  struggle  who  were  endowed  with  an  aggres- 
sive and  tenacious  and  prolific  egotism  that  enabled  its 
possessors  to  maintain  their  positions,  to  seize  new  oppor- 
tunities by  killing  off  opponents  and  to  transmit  their 
superior  qualities  and  characteristics  to  their  descendants. 
This  was  the  non-moral  period  of  existence,  and  these  acts  of 
aggression  were  neither  moral  nor  immoral,  but  non-moral. 
But  in  the  course  of  evolution  a  variety  appeared 
endowed  with  an  initial  rudimental  tendency  towards 
a  gregarious  or  social  existence  and,  as  an  indispensable 
accompaniment,  with  a  tendency  to  control  anti-social 
aggressive  egotism  and  to  cultivate  altruism  and  the 


486  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

social  virtues.  This  innate  tendency  was  found  useful 
in  the  struggle  for  existence  against  individuals,  and 
survived  and  increased.  And  so  human  society  was 
developed  by  evolution,  and  the  *  moral  sense '  and  the 
social  commandments,  '  Honor  thy  father  and  thy 
mother,'  '  Thou  shalt  not  kill,'  *  Thou  shalt  not  commit 
adultery,'  '  Thou  shalt  not  steal,'  etc.,  have  had  their 
origin  in  evolution  and  have  survived  and  have  been 
transmitted  to  us  because  they  are  good,  because  they 
are  useful  and  conducive  to  the  permanent  survival  of 
society  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

But  evolutionists  must  take  cognisance  of  the  pheno- 
menon that  individuals  and  nations  have  professed  and 
continue  to  profess  belief  in  a  personal  supreme  Being  distinct 
from  the  world,  in  a  Creator  and  in  the  creation  of  the 
world,  in  an  essential  relation  of  the  moral  sense 
and  morality  to  a  supreme  Legislator,  in  a  future  judgment 
and  in  future  rewards  and  punishments.  How  do  these 
beliefs  harmonize  with  evolution  ?  Are  they  true  ?  Are 
they  good  for  human  society  ? 

Evolutionists  would  answer  that  these  beliefs  can  be 
considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  science  or  from  the 
point  of  view  of  human  faith  and  idealization.  The  exist- 
ence of  a  Supreme  Being  and  supreme  Legislator  and 
Creator,  they  would  say,  can  neither  be  affirmed  nor 
denied  by  the  scientist,  because  they  are  outside  the 
sphere  of  human  knowledge ;  the  dependence  of  morality 
from  a  supreme  Legistator  can  be  denied,  because  it 
is  sufficiently  explained  by  natural  selection ;  future 
judgment  and  future  rewards  and  punishment  are 
completely  outside  the  pale  of  absolute  objective  know- 
ledge. But  the  unscientific  man,  they  would  say,  the 
man  of  human  faith  and  anthropomorphic  ideals  can 
imagine  for  himself  a  '  supreme  Being,'  a  '  Creator,' 
and  future  *  rewards '  and  '  punishments,'  and  though  these 
beliefs  have  no  absolute  or  objective  truth  or  good- 
ness, but  are  absolutely  bad,  yet  are  they  relatively 
true  and  good  and  contribute  to  the  realization  of 
the  ends  of  natural  selection  by  inducing  believers  to 


EVOLUTION :  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY 

respect  and  obey  the  moral  sense,  to  observe  the  social 
virtues,  and  thus  contribute  to  the  survival  of  mankind 
and  human  society  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  Writing 
on  the  use  of  Anthropomorphism,  Mr.  Spencer  says  : — 

The  question  to  be  answered  is  whether  these  beliefs  were 
beneficent  in  their  effects  on  those  who  held  them ;  not  whether 
they  would  be  beneficent  for  us,  or  for  perfect  men  ;  and  to  this 
question  the  answer  must  be  that,  while  absolutely  bad,  they 
were  relatively  good.  For  is  it  not  obvious  that  the  savage  man 
will  be  most  effectually  controlled  by  his  fears  of  a  savage  deity  ? 
Must  it  not  happen  that  if  his  nature  requires  great  constraint, 
the  supposed  consequences  of  his  transgression,  to  be  a  check 
upon  him,  must  be  proportionately  terrible  ;  and  for  these  to  be 
proportionately  terrible  must  not  his  god  be  conceived  as  pro- 
portionately cruel  and  revengeful  ? 

II 

In  the  Darwinian  theory  therefore  morality  is  primarily 
a  relation  to  society,  and  personal  utility  and  pleasure  are 
only  secondary  and  sub-ordinate  considerations ;  an  act  is 
morally  good  or  morally  bad  according  as  it  is  beneficial 
or  injurious  to  society,  that  is,  according  as  it  assists 
or  impedes  society  in  its  efforts  to  survive  in  the 
struggle  for  existence ;  and  the  '  moral  sense '  is  the 
faculty  by  which  we  perceive  or  the  perception  itself  and 
consciousness  of  the  relations  of  our  actions  to  the  welfare 
of  society.  The  '  moral  sense '  plays  an  important  part 
also  in  the  theological  system  of  the  Abbe  Loisy  as  pro- 
pounded in  his  recent  books.1  I  now  proceed  to  describe 
the  principal  features  of  this  system,  as  it  deals  with 
revelation,  with  Christology,  with  the  Trinity,  with  the 
Church,  with  the  Sacraments,  with  the  mutual  relations 
of  faith  and  history,  and  with  the  immutability  of  faith. 

REVELATION  2 

Revelation  according  to  the  Abbe  Loisy  is  the  '  con- 
sciousness   acquired   by   man   of   his    relation    to    God.' 

1  L'Evangile  et  L'Eglise  and  Autour  D'un  Petit  Livre. 
a  To  keep  my  article  within  reasonable  limits  I  have  refrained  from  giving 
quotations  from  the  Abb£  Loisy.      To  readers  who  may  not  have  his  books 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Mr.  Mivart  taught  that  Catholics  are  free  to  hold  that  when 
at  last,  in  the  progress  of  evolution,  '  the  time  came  for  the 
advent  of  the  human  animal,  that  animal,  possessing  an 
essentially  rational  nature,  might  nevertheless  have  long 
existed  before  the  circumstances  of  his  environment  ren- 
dered it  possible  for  him  to  display  in  act  his  potential 
rationality  as  set  before  us  in  Adam.'1  And  according  to 
the  Abbe  Loisy  the  beginning  of  divine  revelation  was  the 
perception  however  rudimentary  of  the  relation  which 
should  exist  between  self-conscious  man  and  God  present 
behind  the  world  of  phenomena.  Revelation,  unlike  the 
natural  sciences,  is  developed  and  evolved  not  by  intel- 
lectual reasoning  alone,  but  by  reason  moved  by  the  heart 
and  guided  by  the  direction  of  the  moral  sense,  the  con- 
ditions of  the  environment  and  the  parties  in  the  struggle 
for  existence  contributing  also  to  the  development  of  the 
revelation.  When  therefore  primitive  man  under  pressure 
of  the  motions  of  his  heart  and  of  the  perceptions  of  his 
moral  sense  and  of  his  desire  for  good  became  conscious  of 
the  existence  of  God  revelation  began  in  the  world.  It  has 
passed  through  many  phases.  For  revelation,  being  en- 
dowed with  vitality,  is  subject  to  the  general  laws  of  organic 
life,  to  occasional  innate  variations,  to  the  struggle  for 
existence,  to  the  destruction  of  the  weak  and  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  varieties  or  phases  of  revelation.  Nevertheless 
revelation  is  supernatural ;  for  it  is  first  and  principally 
the  work  of  God  in  man,  or  of  man  with  God. 

Similarly  Christian  revelation  at  its  origin  was  the 
perception  in  the  mind  of  Christ  of  the  peculiar  relation 
which  united  himself  to  God,  and  which  binds  all  men 
to  their  heavenly  Father.  It  fought  its  way  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  was  accepted  by  the  disciples,  and 
with  endless  variations  and  quasi-transformations  has 
become  the  faith  of  the  Christian  world. 

and  who  may  wish  to  see  the  passages  dealing  with  the  subjects  treated 
of  in  this  article,  I  can  recommend  the  important  brochure  of  Father 
Billot,  S.J. :  Dt  Sacra  Traditione  cotitra  novam  haeresim  Evolutionismi. 
Auctore  Ludovico  Billot,  S.J.  (Romae.  ex  typographia  juvenum  opificum 
A.  S.  Josepho). 

1  The  Origin  of  Human  Reason,  p.  33. 


CHRISTOLOGY 

Was  Christ  God  ?  Did  the  divine  Word  become  man 
to  redeem  and  save  us  ?  Did  Christ  rise  from  the  dead  ? 
These  are  questions  which  touch  the  very  foundations  of 
the  Christian  religion.  The  Abbe"  Loisy  sees  in  the  words 
of  St.  Paul,1  '  who  being  in  the  form  of  God  thought  it  not 
robbery  to  be  equal  to  God,  but  emptied  himself  taking 
the  form  of  a  servant,  being  made  in  the  likeness  of  men 
and  in  habit  found  as  a  man,'  a  distinction  between  two 
Christs,  the  Christ  of  history  and  the  Christ  of  faith.  The 
Christ  of  history  is  Christ  considered  according  to  the 
actual  real  facts  of  his  person  and  life,  and  the  Christ  of 
faith  is  the  unreal  purely  subjective  conception  of  Christ 
which  is  presented  to  us  in  Christian  idealization  and 
symbolism. 

In  the  order  of  history  or  in  the  order  of  objective  reality 
Christ  was  not  God,  the  divine  Word  did  not  become  man 
to  redeem  and  save  us,  Christ  did  not  rise  from  the  dead. 
It  is  not  explicitly  denied  that  Christ  was  God,  or  that  he 
arose  from  the  dead.  As  the  agnostic  neither  affirms  nor 
denies  the  existence  of  God  but  maintains  that  it  is  un- 
demonstrable  and  unknowable,  so  the  Abbe  Loisy  main- 
tains that  there  is  no  proof  to  establish  the  divinity  or 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  as  a  fact.  These  doctrines 
cannot  be  proved  philosophically.  They  would  belong  to 
the  object  of  real  history  if  duly  authenticated  by  divine 
revelation,  if  they  were  really  revealed  by  God.  But  the 
fact  of  divine  revelation  is  not  established.  For  St.  John's 
gospel  is  not  historical ;  the  passages  in  the  Synoptics 
that  suppose  the  divinity  and  the  resurrection  belong  to 
the  period  of  a  later  tradition  ;  there  is  no  divine  tradition, 
or  tradition  of  a  divine  revelation  of  these  truths,  and  the 
theological  argument  from  tradition  is  founded  not  on 
divine  tradition,  but  on  the  tradition  of  the  apostolic 
idealization  of  Christ  as  *  God,'  as  '  arisen  from  the  dead,'  as 
'Redeemer;'  and  moreover  the  resurrection  in  particular  and 
the  discourses  and  acts  of  the  risen  Christ  are  incapable  of 

i  Philippians,  ii.,  6.  7. 


49°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

verification,  as  a  glorified  body  and  the  words  and  acts 
of  a  risen  person  are  beyond  the  sphere  of  human 
experimental  knowledge. 

But  the  Christ  of  faith  ?  The  aspirations  of  the  religious 
and  moral  sense  to  a  higher  good  which  is  never  fully 
realised  had  determined  the  intellectual  acceptance,  by 
the  Apostles  and  disciples,  of  the  messianic  claims  of  Christ, 
of  his  religion  and  exhortation  to  penance  and  moral  virtue 
as  the  kingdom  of  God  was  at  hand.  This  religion  however 
received  a  rude  shock  in  the  struggle  for  existence  from 
Christ's  ignominious  death  on  the  cross.  How  was  the 
religion  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  of  penance  and  moral 
virtue  to  survive  ?  From  this  period  the  natural  survival 
and  evolution  of  Christianity  and  ideal  symbolic  and 
spiritual  theories  about  Christ  and  about  Christianity  are 
inseparably  associated.  Though  Christ  was  dead  and 
mouldering  in  the  tomb  the  religion  of  the  Kingdom  did 
survive,  and  being  a  living  religion  began  to  develop  ac- 
cording to  the  natural  laws  of  evolution  in  the  organic 
world.  Simultaneously  the  disciples  began  to  idealize 
and  to  represent  Christ  first  as  « immortal '  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Father,  then,  and  the  transition  was  easy,  as  '  risen 
from  the  dead ; '  and  at  this  stage  of  the  evolution  of 
Christology  Christ  became  to  the  eye  of  faith  the  <  risen 
Christ.'  The  next  real  and  objective  development  of 
Christianity  arose  from  the  impulse  of  St.  Paul  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  ;  and  at  this  stage  Christ  was 
further  idealized  and  became  to  the  eyes  of  faith  « the 
divinely  sent  Redeemer  of  the  world.'  Then  followed 
successively  the  idealization  of  Christ  as  the  '  demiurge  * 
and  as  *  God  ; '  and  as  in  the  organic  world  a  limit  is  put 
to  evolution  by  the  law  of  permanence,  so  the  dogmatic 
conception  of  the  Christ  of  faith  reached  its  final  develop- 
ment and  attained  permanence  after  the  controversies 
with  Arius,  Nestorius,  Eutyches  and  the  Monothelites. 

THE   TRINITY 

Like  the  Incarnation,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  can 
be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  history  and  from 


EVOLUTION i  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY        491 

the  point  of  view  of  faith.  There  is  no  real  or  historical 
evidence  for  the  Trinity  according  to  the  Abbe  Loisy  ; 
as  the  gospel  of  St.  John  is  not  historical  and  the  text  of 
St.  Matthew,  '  Go  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them  in 
the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,'  belongs  to  a  later  tradition.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  not  therefore  contained  in  divine  revelation. 
But  Christianity  borrowed  from  Greek  philosophy  and 
idealized  God  as  three  in  person  ;  and  thus  the  Trinity 
became  an  object  of  faith  and  survived,  though  it  involves 
a  philosophical  contradiction,  because  it  satisfies  the 
religious  sense  that  demands  and  finds  restxin  the  con- 
templation of  mysteries. 

THE  CHURCH 

Christ,  according  to  the  Abbe  Loisy,  believed  that  the 
end  of  the  world  was  imminent  and  died  in  that  belief, 
and  consequently  he  could  not  have  thought  of  establishing 
a  Church  on  earth  or  defining  its  constitution.  The  organi- 
sation of  the  Church  sprang  naturally  from  the  necessity 
of  social  order  among  the  primitive  Christians.  The  one 
thought  bequeathed  by  Christ  to  his  disciples  was  the 
thought  of  longing  for,  of  preparing,  of  expecting,  of  realis- 
ing the  kingdom.  This  thought  remained  the  supreme  end 
and  purpose  of  the  Church  ;  but  the  Church  itself  was  a 
human  institution,  its  constitution  and  government  were 
subject  to  the  law  of,  all  living  organisms,  and  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  with  the  changeable  and  conflicting 
conditions  of  the  world  it  varied  and  transformed  itself 
naturally  by  its  own  internal  force  until  it  reached  its 
final  determination,  so  far,  in  the  Council  of  the  Vatican. 

We  must  distinguish  then  in  the  development  of  the 
Church  the  proper  object  of  history  and  the  object  of  faith* 
The  institution  of  a  society  by  the  early  Christians  them- 
selves and  its  growth  and  transformations  by  the  forces 
of  natural  law  are  real  objective  facts,  and  consequently 
the  proper  objects  of  history.  Within  the  Christian 
community,  as  in  the  civil  state,  various  offices  were 
established  in  the  course  of  the  evolution  of  the  society  ; 


492  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

elders  (presbyter! ),  overseers  (episcopi),  pontiffs  were 
successively  instituted ;  congregational  government  was 
succeeded  by  national  government,  and  national  govern- 
ment in  turn  gave  way,  by  force  of  evolution,  to  the  existing 
system  of  imperialism  and  absolutism.  These  are  facts 
of  natural  evolution.  But  the  idealizations  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical and  theological  mind,  '  that  Christ  is  the  founder 
of  the  Church,'  '  that  there  is  a  divinely  ordained  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity,'  '  that  the  Pope  is  the  vice- 
gerent of  Christ  on  earth,'  *  that  Christ  the  Spirit  abides 
in  the  Church,  preserving  her  from  error  and  protecting 
her  against  the  powers  of  darkness,'  '  that  in  obeying  the 
rules  of  the  Church  we  are  obeying  Christ,'  these  ideali- 
zations alone  which  have  no  objective  truth  or  reality  are 
the  objects  of  faith. 

THE     SACRAMENTS 

As  Christ  at  the  time  of  His  death  believed  that  the 
consummation  was  at  hand,  He  surely  instituted  no  sacra- 
ments as  he  established  no  Church.  Historically  con- 
sidered, baptism  (which  included  confirmation)  was  a  rite 
of  initiation  borrowed  from  Jewish  ceremonies,  and  it  was 
instituted  and  made  obligatory  by  the  Christian  community, 
which  also  prescribed  the  baptismal  vows  and  obligations 
of  the  newly  initiated.  In  this  sense  the  institution  of 
baptism  was  an  objective  fact,  a  natural  step  in  the  evo- 
lution of  the  living  society,  and  corresponds  to  the 
institution  of  rites  of  initiation  to  civil  and  social  societies. 
Similarly  the  Eucharist  was  a  social  supper  instituted  by 
the  community  to  commemorate  the  last  supper  of  Christ 
with  his  disciples.  And  in  like  manner  penance,  the 
anointing  of  the  sick,  the  institution  of  ministers  and  the 
.solemnization  of  marriage,  represent  actual  ceremonies 
introduced  and  developed  in  the  natural  evolution  of  the 
Christian  society. 

Then  with  the  idealization  of  the  risen  Christ,  of  Christ 
the  Spirit  dwelling  in  the  Church  and  vivifying  it,  began  the 
idealization  in  reference  to  the  sacraments,  <  that  they 
were  instituted  by  Christ,  *  that  they  confer  grace,'  '  that 


EVOLUTION:  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY       493 

Christ  is  really  present  in  the  Blessed  Eucharist,'  etc.  These 
propositions  have  no  real  or  objective  truth,  they  are  the 
object  of  faith,  but  they  are  outside  the  pale  of  history. 

FAITH  AND   HISTORY 

Faith,  according  to  the  Abbe"  Loisy,  does  not  concern 
itself  with  the  real  or  objective  order  of  facts,  but  with 
the  ideal,  the  symbolic,  the  mystic  order,  and  that  too  in 
reference  to  the  present  time.  Neither  the  Trinity,  he 
says,  nor  the  divinity  of  Christ,  nor  his  resurrection,  nor 
our  redemption,  nor  the  divine  origin  of  the  Church  and 
of  the  sacraments  can  be  proved  to  be  a  fact,  but  the 
Christian  community  at  successive  periods  set  up  the 
ideal  of  the  Trinity,  of  Christ  risen  from  the  dead,  of  Christ 
the  redeemer,  of  Christ  the  demiurge,  of  Christ  as  God, 
of  a  divinely  instituted  Church  and  sacraments.  These 
ideals  alone  are  the  objects  of  faith,  each  while  it  lasts, 
while  it  actually  remains  an  ideal  or  a  symbol  of  some 
spiritual  truth.  But  history  regards  the  real  and  objective 
order  of  facts  and  the  ideals  of  the  past  that  have  been  unable 
to  maintain  their  position  in  the  struggle  for  existence  and 
have  disappeared.  Hence  there  never  can  be  a  conflict 
between  faith  and  scientific  history,  as  they  have  different 
objects.  The  same  person  can  believe  and  disbelieve  the 
Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  Church,  the  Sacraments. 
He  can  accept  them  by  faith  as  ideals,  and  refuse  as  a 
historian  to  recognise  in  them  any  objective  truth  or 
reality. 

THE   IMMUTABILITY  OF  FAITH 

Finally,  the  Abbe"  Loisy  pleads  for  a  change  in  the  terms 
and  sense  of  the  formulae  of  faith  to  harmonize  them  with 
the  conditions  of  modern  thought.  But  has  not  the  Church, 
he  asks,  denned  the  immutability  of  the  sense  of  dogmatic 
definitions  ?  Perhaps  so,  he  says ;  but  if  so,  the  Church 
has  not  yet  become  conscious  of  her  own  evolution,  nor 
has  she  a  fixed  theory  about  the  philosophy  of  her  origin, 
and  the  Church  will  secure  peace  with  science  only  when 
she  realizes  her  origin  by  evolution,  when  the  idea  of 
evolution  is  received  officially  in  the  Church. 


494  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

It  would  appear  to  be  unnecessary  to  agitate  for  a 
change  in  ecclesiastical  definitions  if  they  were  understood 
to  be  mere  idealist  or  symbolical  formularies.  If  they 
need  not  be  believed  in  themselves,  if  they  are  believed 
only  as  they  represent  some  known  or  unknown  truth 
concealed  beneath  their  surface  ;  if  for  example  we  believe 
in  the  resurrection  of  Christ  only  as  it  symbolises,  as  it 
were,  the  survival  of  the  Christian  religion  and  Christian 
society  after  the  Master's  ignominious  death  on  the  cross,  is 
it  not  immaterial  whether  we  retain  the  existing  formularies 
or  adopt  others  ?  The  complaint  however  is  not  exactly 
with  the  formularies  themselves,  but  because  they  are 
taken  to  represent  absolute  unchangeable  objective  truths. 
The  complaint  is  that  whereas,  for  example,  episcopal 
jurisdiction  and  the  primacy  of  the  Pope  and  the  sacra- 
ments are  believed  by  the  Abbe  Loisy  to  have  originated 
by  evolution  and  to  be  subject  to  the  chance  of  future 
transformations  by  evolution,  they  are  taught  by  theologians 
to  be  absolute  unchangeable  divine  truths. 

in 

We  can  now  briefly  recapitulate  the  broad  general 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  Darwinian  theory  and 
the  system  of  Abbe  Loisy.  In  the  Darwinian  theory, 
assuming  the  origin  of  life,  all  past  and  existing  species, 
with  all  their  characteristics,  have  descended  from  a  common 
stock  by  natural  selection.  Nevertheless,  individuals  and 
nations,  civilized  and  uncivilized,  set  up  ideals  of  '  God,' 
«  creation,'  '  design,'  '  providence,'  '  future  life,'  '  rewards  ' 
and  '  punishments.'  These  have  neither  reality  nor  objective 
truth.  And  it  is  hoped  by  evolutionists  that  with  the 
advance  of  science  the  language  of  anthropomorphic 
idealization  will  give  place  to  language  in  harmony  with 
objective  and  scientific  truth  ;  that  not  merely  plants  and 
animals,  but  man  himself  and  his  moral  and  religious  sense 
will  be  referred  to  the  mysterious  agency  of  the  great  law 
of  natural  selection. 

In  the  system  of  the  Abbe"  Loisy,  assuming  in  man  the 


EVOLUTION:  DARWIN  AND  THE  ABBE  LOISY       495 

moral  and  religious  sense  and  the  desire  of  good,  the  intellect 
becomes  conscious  of  a  relation  to  God  present  behind  the 
world  of  phenomena ;  and  the  existence  of  a  personal 
supreme  Being  distinct  from  the  world  is  explicitly  recog- 
nised. Then  with  the  preaching  of  moral  virtue  and 
penance  by  Christ  as  a  preparation  for  the  kingdom  of  the 
Father,  the  great  work  of  Christian  and  Catholic  evolution 
commenced.  Everything  that  has  had  or  has  real  and 
objective  existence  in  the  Church  has  originated  by 
evolution.  The  Church  has  arisen  by  evolution :  the 
distinction  of  clergy  and  laity  is  the  natural  work  of  the 
Christian  society :  papal  and  episcopal  authority  have 
been  evolved  within  the  society,  and  might  be  again  altered 
or  tempered  by  evolution  :  the  sacraments,  as  real  and 
objective  sacred  rites,  were  instituted  by  the  society,  and 
their  number  might  be  still  further  increased  in  the  future 
by  evolution  :  self-denial  and  mortification  and  trust  in 
God  have  found  their  place  within  the  objective  sphere 
of  evolution  ;  but  the  prayer,  *  Give  us  this  day  our  daily 
bread,'  understood  in  the  rigour  of  its  historical  signifi- 
cation, appears  subversive  of  social  economy  and  as  un- 
acceptable to  the  critic  as  a  prayer  to  St.  Anthony  to 
recover  a  lost  purse.  But  simultaneously  with  the  real 
objective  natural  evolution  of  Christianity  the  Church  has 
been  idealizing  from  the  beginning.  The  *  Trinity,'  the 
*  divinity/  «  resurrection '  and  '  redemptive '  office  of 
Christ  are  mere  ideals,  having  no  objective  reality.  Mere 
ideas  or  symbols  also  are  the  '  institution  by  Christ  of  the 
sacraments '  and  their  '  efficacy  to  sanctify  the  recipient.'  A 
mere  idea  or  symbol  is  it  to  regard  Christ  as  '  the  author 
of  the  Church,'  of  '  the  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,'  of  '  the  institution  of  the  hierarchy,'  of  '  episcopal 
jurisdiction,'  of  'the  primacy  and  infallibility  of  the 
Pope.' 

This  incursion  of  the  learned  biblical  critic  into  the 
domain  of  theology  has  created  a  prejudice  against  the 
advanced  scholars  of  the  biblical  movement  who  have 
very  important  problems  yet  to  resolve,  but  it  raises  no 
new  problems  in  theology  and  no  new  difficulties  to  the 


496  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

old  problems.  The  necessity  and  existence  of  divine  super, 
natural  revelation  remain  to  be  proved  as  before,  assuming 
divine  revelation  the  demonstrations  of  the  different  dogmas 
of  the  Church  remain  unaffected  by  this  theory,  and  the 
evolution  of  the  hidden  truths  of  revelation  will  continue 
its  normal  course  in  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  Church 
under  the  guidance  and  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

DANIEL    COGHLAN. 


[    497    1 


IN  THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE 

generally  be  admitted,  I  think,  that  one  of  the 
greatest  triumphs  of  modern  scientific  research  is  that 
of  Wireless  Telegraphy.  That  a  message  can  be 
transmitted  through  thousands  of  miles  of  space 
without  the  assistance  of  any  visible  intervening  medium, 
is  a  discovery  which  has  transcended  the  wildest  dreams 
of  even  the  most  extravagant  theorists. 

The  fundamental  principle  underlying  it — as  everybody 
now  knows — is  wave  motion.  In  this  manner  also  are 
transmitted  sound,  light,  and  heat,  the  only  difference 
between  heat  and  light  waves  being  in  the  intensity  of 
the  vibration. 

The  most  elementary  notions  of  wave  motion  are  had 
from  dropping  a  pebble  in  water.  The  action  causes 
vibration  of  water  from  the  centre  till  the  motion  reaches 
the  bank.  If  many  pebbles  are  dropped  in  succession, 
many  waves  are  had.  The  same  is  true  of  sound,  and 
may  be  illustrated  by  a  very  simple  experiment.  Take 
two  tuning  forks  fixed  on  sounding  boards,  the  two  being 
exactly  at  the  same  pitch,  in  other  words  in  perfect  tune  : 
if  a  bow  is  drawn  across  one,  a  wave  of  sound  goes  out, 
and  when  the  motion  reaches  the  other  fork  through  the 
intervening  medium  of  the  air  alone,  it  causes  it  to  sound 
also.  The  same  is  true  of  heat  radiation. 

Electric  rays  have  exactly  similar  properties.  A  spark 
discharge  will  cause  a  beU  to  ring  at  a  great  distance 
without  any  connection  whatever,  provided,  of  course, 
that  the  transmitter  and  receiver  have  the  same  relative 
electric  tension,  or  to  apply  the  simile  of  the  tuning  forks, 
are  in  perfect  tune  with  one  another.  Such  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  modern  wireless  telegraphy,  as  explained  by 
scientists. 

That  there  exists  too  a  telegraphy  between  living  mind 
which*  is\  generally  known  as  telepathic  communication  or 

VOL.  MX.  2  I 


498  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

thought  transference,  is  a  fact  to  which  many  eminent 
scientists  and  physiologists  have  long  since  borne  testimony. 
That  thought  can  be  and  is  transmitted  from  one  individual 
mind  to  another  independently  altogether  of  the  will  of 
the  individuals  concerned,  and  without  any  visible  ex- 
pression or  apparent  means  of  communication,  is  a 
phenomenon  which  comes  within  the  every  day  experience 
of  us  all.  You  may  term  it  personal  magnetism,  odic 
forces  (d  la  Baron  Reichenbach),  hypnotism,  electric  wave 
motion,  or  any  other  name  you  please,  but  it  seems  to  be 
an  indisputable  fact,  that  between  temperaments  which 
have  the  requisite  difference  of  potential,  which  are,  so 
to  speak,  in  perfect  tune  with  one  another,  there  will 
frequently  exist  a  conduction  or  radiation  of  impressions 
through  the  nerve  centres  by  which  thought  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  to  another. 

The  belief  in  this  extraordinary  mode  of  reciprocal 
communication  dates  from  the  very  earliest  records  which 
we  have  of  human  history,  many  being  of  opinion 
that  it  is  but  the  vestige  of  a  lost  sense,  which  is  now  no 
longer  necessary,  its  functions  they  say  being  usurped  by 
the  many  artificial  aids  to  communication  which  modern 
science  has  disclosed  to  us.  It  will  generally  happen 
in  intercommunication  of  this  kind  that  the  mind  has 
no  cognizance  of  the  process  by  which  the  impression 
is  conducted  to  the  brain,  there  would  seem  to  be 
a  kind  of  subconscious  faculty  in  operation  whose 
functions  are  quite  independent  of  the  ordinary  senses, 
and  which  is  susceptible  only  to  an  external  influence 
of  this  kind.  We  have  a  familiar  example  in  the 
suggestions  received  by  a  subject  in  a  hypnotic  trance. 
It  is  true,  the  senses  as  we  know  them,  whereby 
human  beings  are  made  cognizant  of  external  impressions, 
are  five,  but  it  is  up  to  this  undemonstrated  and  unde- 
monstrable  that  man  is  not  gifted  with  an  additional 
sense.  In  fact  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research  has 
within  recent  years  accumulated  a  mass  of  evidence  which 
goes  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  hitherto  unsuspected 
faculty,  and  because  it  cannot  be  demonstrated  with 


A  STUDY  IN  THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE          499 

scientific  accuracy,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  same 
Being  that  gave  us  five  may  not  have  given  us  more. 

When  Baron  Reichenbach,  over  half  a  century  ago, 
startled  the  world  by  his  novel  theory  of  odic  forces,  he 
and  his  theory  were  severely  handled  by  many  obstinate 
adherents  of  the  materialistic  school,  amongst  others  by 
Liebig,  Vogt,  and  Schleiden.  The  scientific  world  has 
since  come  to  regard  the  Baron  as  a  philosopher  very 
wise  indeed  in  his  generation.  As  the  result  of  experiments 
performed  on  eight  different  individuals,  he  discovered 
that  these  persons  were  affected  in  a  most  remarkable 
manner  when  brought  within  the  magnetic  field  of  an 
ordinary  horseshoe  magnet.  These  eight  individuals  bore 
unanimous  testimony  to  the  appearance  of  a  luminous 
flame  emanating  from  the  poles  of  the  magnets,  and  when 
brought  in  contact  with  the  poles  they  experienced  a 
disagreeable  sensation  which  in  some  cases  amounted  to 
positive  horror,  and  in  more  than  one  instance  the  in- 
fluence was  such  as  to  attract  the  subject  from  a  reclining 
to  an  upright  position.  Let  it  be  remarked,  however, 
that  Reichenbach's  experiments  were  successful  only  on 
subjects  gifted  with  a  highly  sensitive  nature,  as  many 
subjects  were  found  who  were  in  no  wise  affected  by  the 
magnet.  The  Baron's  investigations,  however,  were  suffi- 
ciently conclusive  and  satisfactory  to  warrant  him  in 
proclaiming  the  discovery  of  a  new  physical  force,  and  he 
was  soon  led  to  infer  the  presence  of  this  wonderful  agency 
in  other  things  than  magnets,  and  as  the  result  of  further 
experiments  he  found  that  the  human  body  was  itself  a 
source  of  this  newly-discovered  faculty. 

Our  ordinary  senses,  although  altogether  independent 
of  one  another  in  their  actions,  are  yet  allied  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  aid  and  assist  one  another,  and  when  one  or 
more  are  lost,  common  experience  teaches  us  that  the  loss 
is  compensated  for  by  more  than  ordinary  acuteness  of 
perception  in  the  other  faculties,  but  that  the  faculty 
of  which  we  speak  is  independent  in  its  actions  of  the 
ordinary  senses  is  clearly  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  its 
work  is  frequently  carried  on  when  the  operation  of 


500  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

our  other  faculties  is  entirely  suspended.  I  have  read 
recently  in  an  article  '  Work  done  in  Sleep,'  some  extra- 
ordinary manifestations  of  this  power,  and  amongst  many 
marvellous  instances  recorded  there,  it  is  stated  that 
Voltaire  composed  the  first  Canto  of  the  Henriade  while 
he  was  asleep.  '  Ideas  occurred  to  me,'  he  says,  *  in  spite 
of  myself,  and  by  a  process  in  which  I  had  no  part 
whatever.' 

The  more  remarkable  indications  however  of  the  existence 
of  some  such  faculty  are  evidenced  in  those  coincident 
dreams,  warnings,  and  apparitions  which  coincide  with 
an  accident  or  the  death  of  some  distant  relative  or  friend. 
We  read  of  some  extraordinary  instances  of  this  kind  in 
the  lives  of  some  of  the  Saints.  With  phenomena  of  this 
kind,  however,  this  article  does  not  purpose  to  deal. 

A  very  strange  and  remarkable  fact  in  connection  with 
phenomena  of  this  kind  is  that  the  operations  of  this  hidden 
faculty  (whatever  it  may  be)  become  more  marked  when 
the  body  is  not  in  its  normal  condition  of  health,  par- 
ticularly in  certain  extreme  cases  of  nervous  debility,  a 
fact  which  tends  to  show  more  conclusively  that  this 
faculty  is  not  only  independent  of  our  ordinary  senses, 
but  requires  for  a  perfect  discharge  of  its  functions  that 
the  operation  of  our  other  faculties  should  be  entirely 
suspended.  It  would  seem  that  in  time  of  illness  our 
ordinary  mental  faculties  become  relaxed,  depending 
largely  as  they  do  on  a  healthy  condition  of  body  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  their  various  functions,  while  at  the 
same  time  other  faculties  of  whose  existence  we  had  no 
knowledge  seem  to  acquire  undue  prominenee.  An  American 
writer,  Mr.  Butterworth,  whom  Proctor  quotes  in  his 
book,  Rough  Ways  made  Smooth,  gives  a  description  of  a 
near  relative  of  his  who  was  suffering  from  extreme  nervous 
debility.  '  She  could,'  he  says,  *  think  of  two  things  at 
the  same  time,  and  seemed  to  have  very  vivid  impressions 
of  what  happened  to  her  children  who  were  away  from 
home,  and  was  often  startled  to  hear  that  these  impressions 
were  correct,  she  had  also  a  wonderful  power  of  antici- 
pating what  one  was  about  to  say,  and  to  read  the  motives 


A  STUDY  IN  THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE  501 

of  others.'  To  have  two  trains  of  thought  running  in  the 
mind  simultaneously  is  as  far  as  we  can  judge  beyond 
the  scope  of  our  ordinary  mental  powers,  and  affords 
evidence  at  least  of  abnormal  powers  of  mind  which  are 
not  common  to  all.  Frequently,  too,  we  hear  and  read 
of  persons  who  were  gifted  with  a  double  consciousness, 
a  normal  and  abnormal  condition  of  mind  which  I  should 
say  was  consequent  on  the  alternate  operations  of  the 
ordinary  faculties  and  the  extraordinary  faculty.  In  the 
normal  state  no  recollection  whatever  was  preserved  of 
what  took  place  in  the  abnormal  state,  and  vice  versa, 
although  the  previous  train  of  thought  in  either  condition 
was  immediately  taken  up  and  continued  uninterruptedly 
when  the  person  again  lapsed  into  that  condition. 

The  possibility  of  man  being  endowed  with  such  a 
faculty  has  frequently  been  discussed  by  metaphysicians. 

The  essential  attribute  of  a  new  sense  [remarks  Muller],  is 
not  the  perception  of  internal  objects,  or  influences  which  ordi- 
narily do  not  act  upon  the  senses,  but  that  external  causes 
should  excite  in  it  a  new  and  peculiar  sensation,  different  from 
all  the  sensations  of  our  five  senses.  Such  peculiar  sensation  will 
depend  on  the  powers  of  the  nervous  system,  and  the  possibility 
of  the  existence  of  such  a  faculty  cannot  a  priori  be  denied. 

And  not  only  in  the  case  of  man,  but  also  in  the  lower 
animals  some  such  sense  would  seem  to  exist  as  has  been 
frequently  evidenced  by  the  unerring  instinct  by  which 
they  would  seem  to  be  warned  of  threatening  danger  or 
disaster  from  an  invisible  enemy.  The  actions  of  this 
faculty  then  are  in  most  cases  purely  reflex  actions, 
essentially  involuntary  and  altogether  independent  of  the 
will,  though  generally  they  admit  of  being  modified,  con- 
trolled or  prevented  by  a  voluntary  effort.  We  often 
wonder  for  example  by  what  a  singular  coincidence 
somebody  of  whom  we  have  been  thinking  or  speaking 
suddenly  presents  himself  to  our  view.  The  coincidence 
has  found  expression  in  a  very  familiar  proverb.  But  is 
it  not  more  than  a  coincidence  ?  Is  it  not  something 
more  than  mere  accident  or  chance  that  conveys  the 
impression  of  this  particular  individual  figure  to  the  brain  ? 


502  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

From  philosophy  we  learn  that  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  chance.  We  are  accustomed  to  designate  as  '  chance ' 
everything  the  cause  of  which  is  unsuspected  or  unforeseen ; 
philosophically  it  has  no  existence.  In  the  universe  all 
is  system  and  gradation,  because  for  every  effect  we  must 
postulate  a  cause,  and  in  the  case  of  communication  existing 
between  living  minds  in  the  absence  of  any  apparent 
mediumistic  intervention  the  expressions  recorded  are 
sufficiently  numerous  and  definite  to  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  mere  coincidence. 

In  such  cases,  therefore,  as  that  of  which  we  speak, 
the  cause  would  seem  to  be  nothing  more  or  less  than  the 
immediate  though  invisible,  presence  of  this  particular 
individual  within  the  magnetic  field  of  thought  radiation. 
It  is,  so  to  speak,  a  sort  of  Siamese  twin  arrangement 
between  living  minds.  His  presence  near  us  causes  a 
transmission  of  the  wave  motion  of  thought,  which  sets 
in  operation  this  subconscious  faculty  of  ours,  and  induces, 
so  to  speak,  a  magnetic  current  which  is  conducted  to  the 
brain,  but  which  is  received  only  by  a  temperament  of 
suitable  reciprocal  polarity.  Again,  many  of  us  will  have 
been  surprised  occasionally  to  hear  a  friend  express  an 
idea,  which  at  that  particular  moment  had  occurred  to 
our  mind,  and  in  the  very  exact  terms  in  which  we  ourselves 
intended  to  give  it  expression  ;  or  it  may  be  the  fragment 
of  a  song  or  the  snatch  of  a  musical  air  which  has  been 
running  in  our  minds  to  which  we  give  no  conscious  ex- 
pression, but  which  is  instantly  taken  up  by  someone 
who  doubtless  has  come  within  the  radiating  field  of  our 
magnetic  influence. 

Instances  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely  showing  in 
what  a  variety  of  forms  and  degrees  sensibility  of  this  kind 
may  exhibit  itself.  It  may  exist  in  different  forms,  in 
different  individuals,  and  it  would  seem  may  vary  in 
intensity  and  degree  according  to  the  circumstances  in 
which  one  may  find  himself,  e.g.,  the  conductivity  of  the 
existing  atmospheric  conditions.  I  once  saw  a  gentleman 
whose  electrical  capacity  was  such  as  to  make  itself  felt 
by  nearly  everyone  who  came  within  a  certain  radius. 


A  STUDY  IN  THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE  3°3 

By  a  mere  act  of  his  will  he  could  so  influence  them  as  to 
cause  them  to  turn  in  the  direction  in  which  he  happened 
to  be,  even  supposing  them  to  be  quite  unconscious  of  his 
presence.  At  any  one  particular  instant,  however,  he 
could  only  so  control  the  actions  of  one  person — a  distinct 
voluntary  effort  being  required  in  each  particular  case. 
It  was  noticeable,  however,  that  his  influence  made  itself 
more  felt  when  the  weather  was  mild  and  dry,  than  when 
it  was  wet  and  foggy.  Under  the  latter  condition  it  was 
practically  nil. 

With  purely  spiritualistic  phenomena,  such  as  table 
turning,  spirit  rapping,  automatic  writing,  apparitions, 
etc.,  etc.,  this  article  does  not  propose  to  deal.  If  they 
exist  at  all  it  is  very  difficult  to  determine  how  far  they 
may  be  due  to  natural  causes,  and  how  far  the  preter- 
natural element  prevails.  That  many  of  these  alleged 
phenomena  are  quite  natural  I  do  not  for  a  moment  doubt, 
and  if  we  took  the  trouble  to  investigate  the  truth  and  to 
satisfy  ourselves  as  to  the  conditions  and  limitations  under 
which  phenomena  of  this  kind  are  manifested,  very  often 
we  should  discover  them  to  be  fraudulent  deceptions  and 
illusions  practised  on  a  too  credulous  public. 


LTRICK  SHERIDAN. 


[     504     j 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

THE  legislation  of  the  Church  on  the  subject  of  cate- 
chetical instruction,  and  the  history  of  her  efforts 
to  provide  suitable  text-books  for  that  purpose, 
have  been  dealt  with  in  a  former  Paper  (I.  E.  RECORD, 
March,  1906),  and  they  furnish  the  best  proof  of  her  zeal  to 
promote  the  spread  of  religious  knowledge.  In  that  sacred 
cause  she  can  never  relax  ;  for,  on  religious  instruction 
depends  the  preservation  of  the  faith  and  its  transmission 
to  future  ages.  Hence  Pius  X  in  his  Encyclical, 
I5th  April,  1905,  urges  pastors  to  instruct  the  young, 
and  to  form  Confraternities  of  Christian  Doctrine  to 
aid  in  that  work.  He  has  ordered,  moreover,  that  schools 
of  religious  knowledge  be  established  in  cities  especially 
where  universities  exist.  Where  higher  secular  instruction 
is  provided,  it  is  meet  that  there  also  higher  education  in 
religious  knowledge  should  not  be  wanting.  Those  who 
receive  higher  secular  education  in  course  of  time  become 
the  influential  and  governing  classes.  For  them  elementary 
religious  instruction  is  not  sufficient.  They  have  often  to 
deal  with  questions  of  legislation,  and  of  administration, 
where  the  principles  and  the  interests  of  religion  are  at 
stake,  and  unless  they  possess  a  full  knowledge  of 
those  principles,  in  spite  of  the  most  upright  intentions, 
and  the  most  docile  spirit,  they  are  liable  to  make  grave 
mistakes. 

The  question,  then,  of  higher  religious  instruction  for 
those  who  are  receiving  higher  secular  instruction,  is  one 
of  more  than  ordinary  interest.  It  is  a  question  which  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  many  minds  and  in  many  countries. 
It  is  a  question,  too,  in  which  there  is  much  to  be  learned 
from  the  views  and  the  experience  of  others.  Two  French 
Catholic  writers  have  treated  the  subject  of  religious  in- 
struction in  higher  schools.  One  of  them,  an  ecclesiastic, 
Abbe  Dementhon,  in  a  work  entitled,  Directoire  de  Fen- 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  505 

seignment  religieux  dans  les  maisons  coeducation*-  treats  of 
the  organisation  and  method  of  instruction,  and  of  the 
qualifications  of  the  professor.  The  other,  a  layman,  and  a 
university  professor,  M.  Jean  Guiraud,  in  an  article  in  Le 
Correspondant,  loth  June,  1897,  under  the  title,  U  Instruction 
religieuse  dans  V enseignment  secondaire,  deals  with  the  apti- 
tude of  the  professor,  with  the  rank  assigned  to  religious 
knowledge  in  the  general  plan  of  studies,  and  with  the  pro- 
gramme of  religious  instruction  in  secondary  schools. 

The  testimony  of  these  two  writers  regarding  the  schools 
of  their  own  country  may  be  accepted  as  reliable,  and  much 
may  be  learned  from  it.  Both  examine  the  question  from 
substantially  the  same  points  of  view,  viz.,  the  aptitude  of 
the  teacher,  the  rank  assigned  to  religious  knowledge  in  the 
general  plan  of  studies,  and  the  programme  of  religious 
instruction  itself.  Let  us  follow  them  in  the  study  of  this 
question,  and  see,  first,  what  they  say  of  religious  instruc- 
tion in  higher  schools  in  France  ;  and  second,  what  are  the 
lessons  of  general  application  which  their  statements 
suggest. 

I. 

Secondary  schools  in  France  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
viz.,  the  State  establishments,  called  lycees  and  colleges, 
and  the  ecoles  libres,  or  the  colleges  and  seminaries  man- 
aged by  the  clergy.  The  number  of  the  latter  is  somewhat 
diminished  in  consequence  of  the  suppression  of  the  religious 
orders  ;  but  many  such  establishments  still  exist  under  the 
direction  of  the  secular  clergy.  In  the  State  schools,  though 
the  Church  has  been  disestablished,  chaplains  are  still  main- 
tained for  the  purpose  of  imparting  religious  instruction. 
What,  then,  are  the  qualifications  of  the  teachers  of  religious 
knowledge  in  those  establishments  ?  In  the  lycees,  secular 
instruction  is  given  by  lay  professors.  Religious  instruction 


1  Directoire  de  I' Enseignment  religieux  dans  les  Maisons  d' education, 
par  1'abbe  Ch.  Dementhon.  Third  edition.  Paris,  1898. 

L'instruction  religieuse  dans  I' Enseignment  secondaire,  par  Jeaa  Guiraud 
(Le  Correspondant,  10  Juin,  1897). 

La  Suppression  des  Pensionnats  Chretiens,  et  I' Enseignment  libre  des 
Jeunes  Filles,  par  Fenelon  Gibon.  (Reprinted  from  Le  Correspondant), 
Paris,  1906. 


506  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

is  left  exclusively  to  the  chaplain.  The  chaplain  is  ap- 
pointed with  the  concurrence  of  the  diocesan  authorities. 
As  he  is  necessarily  brought  into  relation  with  lay  profes- 
sors, who  have  received  a  university  training,  the  person 
selected  for  that  office  is  usually  an  ecclesiastic  of  more 
than  average  culture  and  attainments.  From  the  ranks  of 
chaplains  to  lycees,  not  a  few  have  been  promoted  to  the 
episcopal  bench.  As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  the  teacher 
of  religious  knowledge  in  the  lycees  is  a  man  of  scholarly 
attainments,  who  has  obtained  a  degree  in  Arts,  or  Theology, 
and  to  him  is  confided  the  entire  religious  instruction  in  the 
establishment. 

What  is  the  position  of  the  ecoles  libres  in  this  respect  ? 
Here  all  the  professors  are  usually  priests.  They  have  re- 
ceived the  professional  training  which  the  diocesan  semi- 
naries or  the  Catholic  Institutes  afford.  In  some  respects 
they  are  less  favourably  circumstanced  as  teachers  of 
religious  knowledge  than  the  chaplains  of  lycees  In  the 
lycees  the  religious  instruction  is  confined  to  one  ;  in  the 
free  colleges  it  is  usually  divided  amongst  several.  In  1896 
an  inquiry  was  made  on  this  point,  and  replies  were  received 
from  89  Catholic  colleges.  In  74  of  these  the  religious 
instruction  was  apportioned  amongst  the  professors  of 
various  classes.  Fifteen  establishments  had  a  professor 
whose  exclusive  function  it  was  to  take  charge  of  the  reli- 
gious instruction.  In  one  establishment  the  staff  shared 
the  labour  of  the  classes  of  religious  knowledge  amongst 
them,  relieving  each  other  by  turns  every  quarter.  No 
doubt  a  good  professor  of  classics,  or  of  mathematics,  or 
of  history,  may  make  an  excellent  professor  of  Christian 
doctrine  ;  but  it  is  hardly  rash  to  affirm  that  other  things 
being  equal,  the  man  who  has  only  one  work  to  engage  his 
attention,  is  likely  to  do  it  with  greatest  efficiency. 

In  what  concerns  the  choice  and  aptitude  of  the  professor 
of  religious  knowledge,  the  balance  seems  to  incline  in 
favour  of  the  public  schools.  But  it  is  far  otherwise  in 
what  concerns  the  place  of  religious  knowledge  in  the 
general  plan  of  studies.  The  lycees  admit  students  of  all 
creeds,  or  of  none  ;  Catholics,  Protestants,  Jews,  Atheists. 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  307 

In  them  religious  instruction  is  indeed  provided  for.  But 
there  exists  a  conscience  clause  of  the  widest  kind.  In 
virtue  of  a  law  of  1881,  non-Catholic  students  are  exempted 
altogether  from  attendance  at  religious  instruction.  Even 
Catholic  students  are  exempted,  if  their  parents  request  it. 
Hence  attendance  at  the  classes  of  religious  instruction  is, 
to  a  large  extent,  voluntary.  In  one  lycee,  writes  M. 
Guiraud,  out  of  four  hundred  pupils,  one  hunderd  did  not 
attend  the  classes  of  Christian  Doctrine.  In  another, 
where  the  number  of  pupils  was  also  about  four  hundred 
only  twenty  were  exempted  from  religious  instruction. 
The  voluntary  character  of  the  attendance  of  the  pupils 
naturally  tends  to  lessen  the  authority  of  the  professor. 
Severity  on  his  part  would  only  serve  to  increase  the 
number  of  absentees. 

So  much  for  the  attendance.  What  is  the  amount  of 
time  set  apart  for  Christian  doctrine  in  the  state  establish- 
ment ?  As  a  general  rule  in  each  division,  religious  instruc- 
tion is  given  for  one  hour  per  week  ;  a  half  hour  is  altogether 
exceptional.  But  while  the  time  allowed  is  on  the  whole 
sufficient,  the  rank  assigned  to  religious  instruction  in  the 
general  plan  of  studies  is  far  from  satisfactory.  It  is  true, 
premiums  are  awarded  for  excellence  in  that  subject.  But 
on  the  day  of  the  solemn  public  distribution  of  prizes,  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  honours  attained  in  religious  know- 
ledge. It  ranks  on  the  list  of  school  subjects  with  drawing, 
gymnastics,  or  music.  In  a  word,  while  religious  instruction 
is  retained  in  order  to  satisfy  parents,  in  practice  it  is  rele- 
gated to  a  position  of  inferiority,  and  its  success  or  failure 
depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  personal  qualities  of  the 
professor.  Nor  is  the  liberty  of  the  chaplain  complete.  On 
i6th  April,  1903,  a  ministerial  circular  forbade  the  chap- 
lains to  read  or  comment  on  the  Pastorals  of  bishops  in  the 
chapels  of  lycecs  and  colleges.  In  1906,  the  present  Min- 
ister of  Instruction  has  slightly  relaxed  the  prohibition  and 
permits  the  reading  of  pastorals  which  treat  of  dogma  or 
morals,  but  rigorously  prohibits  the  reading  of  such  as 
contain  political  allusions,  '  Qui  ont  un  caracicrt  nettement 
politique? 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

In  the  free  colleges  religious  instruction  holds  a  more 
favourable  place.  Yet  Abbe  Dementhon  does  not  hesitate 
to  say,  that,  in  general,  religious  instruction  does  not  occupy 
in  French  Catholic  establishments  its  due  place,  nor  pro- 
duce the  results  which  might  justly  be  expected.  '  Even 
in  ecclesiastical  establishments,'  he  writes,  '  not  excepting 
the  petits  seminaires,  religious  instruction  properly  so- 
called,  occupies  too  small  a  place.  Barely  one  hour  a  week 
is  devoted  to  it,  and  the  students  are  disposed  to  look  upon 
it  as  a  free  class  (une  classe  de  repos).  Nor  does  this  appre- 
ciation seem  too  severe.  M.  Guiraud,  after  an  inquiry  made 
in  82  free  colleges,  states  that,  in  34  establishments  the  time 
devoted  to  religious  instruction  was  one  hour  per  week  ;  in 
II  it  was  one  hour  and  a  half  ;  in  21  two  hours  ;  in  two 
establishments  three  hours  ;  in  four  three  hours  and  a  half  ; 
and  four  others  three  hours.  But  in  these  latter  instances 
the  time  of  preparation  was  reckoned  as  well  as  that  of  class. 
All  establishments  of  secondary  education  in  France  ambi- 
tion the  honour  of  the  Baccalaureate  for  their  students' at 
the  end  of  their  course.  This  ambition,  however  laudable, 
is  not  without  its  influence  on  religious  instruction.  In 
some  Catholic  colleges,  writes  M.  Guiraud,  the  class  of 
religious  instruction  was  discontinued  after  Easter ;  in 
others  it  was  dispensed  with  during  the  whole  of  the  second 
half  year.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Alliance  des  Maisons  Chre- 
tiennes,  held  in  1896,  and  representing  one  hundred  and 
twenty  establishments,  it  was  stated  that  the  time  set  apart 
for  religious  instruction  in  those  colleges  was  in  general 
one  hour  a  week  ;  and  in  a  few  instances  one  hour  and  a 
half.  '  More,  it  was  remarked,  cannot  be  expected  from 
students  preparing  for  the  Baccalaureate.'  In  Catholic 
establishments  religious  instruction  receives  due  recogni- 
tion, and  prizes  for  excellence  in  that  subject  are  proclaimed 
along  with  those  for  excellence  in  secular  subjects.  Yet, 
even  in  Catholic  schools,  it  is  liable  in  practice  to  be  reduced 
to  a  rank  of  inferiority,  and  to  be  regarded  as  an  accessory 
to  secular  studies.  Hence,  Abbe  Dementhon  does  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  while  France  holds  the  first  rank  amongst 
Christian  nations  for  excellence  in  elementary  religious 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  5<>9 

instruction,  its  position  with  reference  to  secondary  religious 
education,  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  Religious  instruction 
in  convent  schools,  he  considers  superior  to  that  imparted 
in  colleges  for  boys.  The  nuns  devoted  greater  attention 
to  that  subject,  and  in  the  larger  convents  an  advanced 
course  of  catechism  was  taught  by  the  chaplain.  But  if 
in  the  past  there  was  room  for  criticism,  the  future  gives 
reason  for  serious  alarm.  The  existence  of  Catholic  secondary 
schools  for  boys  is  seriously  menaced  :  and  their  pupils  may 
eventually  be  driven  into  the  public  schools.  One  half  the 
convents  of  France  have  been  closed.1  Of  the  80,000  girls 
who  were  receiving  education  in  convent  schools,  40,000 
must  seek  it  elsewhere.  Many  of  them  will  drift  into  the 
lycees  and  colleges  for  girls.  In  1906,  41  lycees  and  40 
colleges  for  girls  are  in  full  exercise  ;  and  the  number  of 
their  pupils  has  increased  since  last  year  by  3,629  students. 
To  some  of  those  establishments  the  Bishops  have  declined 
to  appoint  Chaplains,  and,  consequently,  in  them  there  is  no 
provision  for  higher  religious  instruction.  What  will  be  the 
practical  fruit  of  the  education  received  in  them  ?  One  who 
knows  their  working  and  their  spirit,  Mile.  Reval,  writes, 
"  Admit  it  or  not,  as  you  please,  lycees  for  girls  lead  up  to 
the  socialistic  idea,  by  emancipating  the  intellect  of  women." 
Such,  then,  is  the  rank  assigned  to  Christian  Doctrine 
in  the  public  and  in  the  free  schools  in  France.  In  the 
lycees  the  organisation  of  religious  instruction  rests  with 
the  chaplain.  It  belongs  to  him  to  select  the  text-book 
and  to  draft  the  programme.  The  Statutes  of  the  diocese 
of  Paris  on  this  point  may  be  taken  as  an  index  of  the  pre- 
vailing usage.  They  are  to  the  following  effect  : — 

Religious  instruction  shall  be  given  in  each  lyce'e  or  college 
according  to  the  order  adopted  in  concert  with  the  Provisor  or 
Superior  of  the  establishment  and  approved  by  our  Vicar- General, 
charged  with  that  portion  of  administration. 

It  shall  comprise  three  divisions  :  instruction  in  preparation 
for  first  Communion,  instruction  which  may  be  called  of  perse- 
verance for  the  grammar  classes,  and  higher  instruction  for  the 

i  L*  Suppression  des  Pensionnats  chr&tiens  et  I' Enseignnunt  lib  re. 
dts  JeuHts  Fillts,  par  F6nelon  Gibon,  1906  ;  pp.  8,  23. 


510  THE  IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

classes  of  Humanity,  Rhetoric,  and  Philosophy.  This  higher 
instruction  shall  likewise  be  given  to  the  pupils  of  the  classes 
preparing  for  entrance  to  the  great  Government  schools. 

It  is  very  important  that  by  means  of  these  three  divisions 
religious  instruction  be  always  proportioned  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  students,  and  correspond  with  the  development  of  their 
literary  and  scientific  studies.  Chaplains  shall  devote  the  greatest 
attention  to  each  of  these  stages  of  religious  instruction.1 

We  may  take  it  as  certain  that  in  general  a  full  and 
methodical  course  of  religious  instruction  is  imparted  in 
the  lycees.  But  the  old  maxim  of  Horace,  '  Naturam 
expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurrit,'  is  true  of  professors 
as  of  other  men.  Originality,  like  genius,  is  irrepressible. 
And  M.  Guiraud,  from  his  own  experience,  mentions  in- 
stances, no  doubt  exceptional,  where  the  class  of  religious 
instruction  was  devoted  to  a  learned  and  interesting 
exposition  of  questions  such  as  the  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
the  height  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  or  the  astronomical  science 
of  the  Chaldeans,  or  the  history  of  the  great  men  in  various 
walks  of  life,  whom  the  Church  throughout  ages  has 
produced.  All  this  is  very  interesting,  but  a  lecture  on 
such  subjects,  however  erudite,  does  not  supply  the  place 
of  a  systematic  course  of  higher  religious  instruction. 

In  the  free  colleges  the  programme  of  religious  instruct- 
tion  is  similar  to  that  prescribed  in  the  Statutes  of  Paris. 
But  as  the  classes  are  divided  amongst  several  professors 
it  is  difficult  to  attain  unity  of  method  to  the  same  extent 
as  in  the  lycees.  However,  substantial  unity  is  practically 
attained  by  the  adoption  of  a  text  book.  In  forty-five 
establishments,  writes  M.  Guiraud,  the  Cour  d' instruction 
religieuse,  by  Mgr.  Cauly,  Vicar-General  of  Rheims,  is 
adopted.  Ten  use  the  Commentaire  du  Catechisme  by  Abb6 
Poey ;  ten  make  use  of  Schouppe's  Dogmatic  Catechism ;  a 
few  have  adopted  the  catechism  by  Gaume,or  that  of  Guillois: 
while  some  follow  the  Cours  d'Apologetique  by  M.  Gourand. 
In  the  lycees  and  in  the  free  schools  lessons  in  apologetics 
are  given  to  the  advanced  students,  while  the  less  advanced, 

1  Statuts  synodaux  chi  Diocese  du  Paris,  promulg&s  dans  le  synods 
de  1902  ;  p.  54. 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  511 

in  addition  to  the  text  of  the  catechism,  are  taught  to 
understand  the  liturgy  of  the  Church,  and  made  acquainted 
with  the  salient  facts  in  sacred  and  in  ecclesiastical  history. 
All  this  instruction  belongs  to  the  department  of  class 
work.  But  religious  formation  is  not  the  work  of  the 
class-room  alone.  In  both  classes  of  schools  there  are 
also  religious  and  devotional  exercises  in  the  Church.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  establishments  the  pupils  are  trained  to 
daily  practices  of  piety  by  morning  prayer  and  a  short 
meditation,  and  by  spiritual  reading  at  night  prayer. 

Thus  the  formation  of  heart  and  head  go  on  simul- 
taneously. But  all  things  human  are  liable  to  imperfection, 
and  exposed  to  censure,  and  there  are  not  wanting  persons 
inclined  to  believe  that  in  the  free  schools  the  outcome 
of  religious  instruction  has  been  rather  to  form  men  of 
pious  habits  than  of  strong  convictions.  Yet  it  is  men 
of  deep  and  well  grounded  convictions  that  are  best  fitted 
for  the  battle  of  life,  and  best  able  when  placed  in  positions 
of  influence  to  defend  the  interests  of  religion. 

n. 

The  question  of  higher  religious  instruction  interests 
Catholics  in  all  countries,  and  the  foregoing  outline  of  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  conducted  in  France,  cannot  fail 
to  be  suggestive.  Every  man  may  judge  of  the  efficiency 
of  religious  instruction,  if  he  takes  into  account  the 
aptitude  of  the  teacher,  the  rank  assigned  to  religious 
knowledge,  and  the  programme  of  instruction. 

All  priests  are  by  vocation  teachers  of  religion,  but 
their  efficiency  in  that  task  depends  to  a  large  extent  on 
the  preparation  they  have  received  to  fit  them  for  it. 
This  is  true  in  the  case  of  elementary  religious  instruction, 
much  more,  in  the  case  of  that  which  is  higher.  The 
preparation  of  young  priests  for  the  work  of  instruction 
has  engaged  the  attention  of  many  minds,  and  has  led 
to  many  schemes  being  formulated.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  seminary  students,  towards  the  end  of  their  course 
should  be  made  to  take  part  in  Church  work  ;  or  that 
young  priests  should  be  retained  at  the  diocesan  cathedral 


512  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

for  some  time  to  learn  by  experience  the  method  of 
pastoral  work.  But  when  it  comes  to  practice,  these 
schemes  are  difficult  or  impossible  to  carry  out,  and  there 
remains  hardly  anything  practically  possible,  except  that 
those  destined  for  the  office  of  imparting  higher  religious 
instruction  should  themselves  have  received  higher  forma- 
tion ;  and  that  where  possible  the  whole  of  the  religious 
instruction  should  be  in  the  hands  or  at  least  under  the 
direction  of  one  person. 

The  time  set  apart  for  religious  instruction,  and  its 
rank  amongst  educational  subjects,  has  received  attention 
elsewhere  than  in  France.  In  the  Report  of  the  Meeting 
of  the  Catholic  Educational  Association,  held  at  St.  Louis 
in  July,  1904,  the  following  account  is  given  of  the  rank 
assigned  to  religious  instruction  in  the  high  school  at 
Philadelphia  : — 

Every  pupil  has  two  hours  a  week  for  four  years,  in  classes 
of  formal  religious  instruction.  Bible  History  is  taught  to  the 
freshman  class,  and  Church  history  to  the  three  higher  years, 
one  hour  a  week.  Christian  doctrine,  and  Church  ceremonial 
are  taught  for  one  hour  a  week  through  the  first  three  years, 
while  lectures  are  delivered  weekly  to  the  students  in  the  fourth 
year,  on  Ethics  and  Christian  apologetics.  The  class  periods  are 
opened  and  closed  with  prayer,  the  Angelus  is  said  at  mid-day, 
Mass  is  said  once  a  week,  and  the  Way  of  the  Cross  is  a  weekly 
devotion  during  Lent.1 

In  the  German  public  schools  religious  knowledge  ranks 
with  the  other  educational  subjects.  The  professor  of 
religion  is  on  a  level  with  the  professors  of  other  branches, 
and  not  in  a  position  of  inferiority.  A  French  writer, 
M.  Goyau,  in  an  essay  entitled  Formation  religieuse  de 
Vetudiant  attemand  (Lille,  1898)  attributes  the  hold 
which  religion  exercises  over  German  students  at  the 
universities  to  the  solidity  of  the  religious  instruction 
they  receive  in  the  gymasia,  and  to  the  importance 
attached  to  religious  knowledge  at  the  official  examinations. 
Wherever  due  time  is  not  set  apart  for  religious  instruction, 

i  Catholic  Educational  Association.  Report  of  the  first  Annual  Meeting 
held  at  St.  Louis,  July,  1904,  p.  62. 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  5*3 

where  the  pupils  come  to  regard  it  as  a  classe  de  repos  or 
where  the  competition  for  honours  in  secular  subjects 
leads  to  its  omission,  it  can  never  be  efficient. 

The  programme,  too,  of  religious  instruction  deserves 
attention  in  all  countries.  Many  works  have  been  written 
to  aid  teachers  in  drafting  a  programme  of  instruction, 
for  first  communicants,  and  for  such  as  frequent  the 
catechism  of  perseverance.  Amongst  these,  Spirago's 
method  of  Christian  Doctrine,  by  Bishop  Mesmer,  deserves 
special  mention.  Such  a  programme  should  comprise  the 
text  of  the  large  catechism,  the  outlines  of  the  history  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  the  elements  of  Church 
history. 

But  works  indicating  a  programme  of  religious  in- 
struction for  students  attending  the  upper  classes  in  higher 
schools  are  difficult  to  find.  The  Directoire  de  FEnseignment 
religieux  dans  les  maisons  d 'education  by  the  Abbe  Dementhon 
will  be  found  useful.  Students  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  require  something  more  than  the  elements  of 
religious  knowledge.  They  ought  to  know,  not  only  what 
the  Church  teaches,  but  they  ought  to  be  able  to  give  an 
account  of  the  faith  which  is  in  them.  Hence,  for  them 
a  fuller  course  of  Christian  Doctrine  such  as  that  contained 
in  Schouppe's  Dogmatic  Catechism,  or  in  Father  Gerard's 
Course  of  Religious  Instruction  for  Catholic  Youth,  together 
with  a  fuller  history  of  religion,  is  requisite. 

But  it  may  be  asked  what  place  should  be  assigned 
to  apologetics  in  a  course  of  higher  religious  instruction  ? 
If  by  apologetics  we  mean  a  clear  exposition  of  doctrine, 
combined  with  solid  proofs  of  the  dogmas  of  religion, 
nothing  is  more  necessary;  But  apologetics  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term,  that  is  a  statement  of 
the  objections  of  non-believers,  and  a  refutation  of  them, 
is  a  method  of  instruction  not  suited  to  all.  For  two 
classes  of  persons  apologetics  is  necessary,  for  those  who 
are  struggling  towards  the  truth,  and  are  held  back  by 
plausible  objections,  and  for  those  whose  faith  is  wavering 
by  reason  of  the  attacks  to  which  it  is  exposed.  .t 

To  the  former   apologetics  proves  that   faith   is  not 

VOL.  XIX.  2K 


514         THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

opposed  to  the  requirements  of  human  reason  ;  to  the 
latter  it  demonstrates  that  divine  truth  has  nothing  to  fear 
from  the  progress  of  science.  But  for  those  whose  edu- 
cation is  still  incomplete,  the  method  of  exposition  and 
dogmatic  proof  of  the  truths  of  religion  is  most  appropriate. 
Some  there  may  be  who  in  their  enthusiasm  claim  that 
young  men  should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  objections 
of  Rationalists,  with  the  method  of  apologetics,  styled  that 
of  immanence  ;  and  that  even  social  questions,  such  as 
the  relations  of  Capital  and  Labour,  Church  and  State,  and 
the  like  should  find  a  place  in  the  programme  of  religious 
instruction.  For  young  men  who  have  passed  on  to 
universities,  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of  such  a 
programme.  But  it  is  hardly  appropriate  to  students  in 
the  'higher  classes  of  secondary  schools.  Speaking  of 
Church  students,  the  learned  Bishop  of  Newport  writes  :l — 

I  am  distinctly  of  opinion  that  even  in  classes  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  scripture,  the  placing  of  objections  before  the  im- 
aginations of  the  students  should  be  most  carefully  restrained. 
I  have  said  '  the  imagination,'  although  we  are  here  speaking  of 
the  intelligence — and  for  this  reason  :  The  mind  of  the  ordinary 
student  sustains  little  damage  from  the  contemplation  of  difficult 
objections,  so  long  as  the  imagination  is  not  seized  by  them.  For 
example,  the  refutation  of  the  Pantheism  of  David  de  Dinando, 
or  even  of  Spinoza  may  be  attempted  without  much  mental 
disturbance.  But  this  is  not  so  with  the  agnosticism  of  Huxley, 
or  the  rationalism  of  Martineau,  or  the  destructive  criticism  of 
Driver,  because  these  men  are  alive  and  can  write,  and  can  set 
a  hundred  strings  vibrating,  some  of  which  are  sure  to  pass 
through  our  own  nervous  system.  The  true  method,  as  it  seems 
to  me,  is  to  state  objections  in  the  terms  of  pure  reason.  This 
is  quite  sufficient  for  science,  and  will  furnish  the  student  with 
all  that  he  requires.  In  the  answers  supplied  the  professor  need 
by  no  means  confine  himself  to  pure  reason  .  .  .  for  we  know 
that  we  have  the  truth,  and  no  lawful  means  of  securing  and 
justifying  the  truth  can  be  objected  to. 

For  similar  reasons  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  give  students 
access  to  modern  books  against  religion  or  the  faith,  of  the  kind 
here  referred  to,  or  to  allow  them  to  disturb  and  defile  their 
minds  with  the  free  speculations  and  hostile  criticism  which  are 
met  with  everywhere  in  the  countless  periodicals  of  the  day.  It 

1  Lex  Levitarum.     By  Most  Rev.  Dr.  Headley,  pp.  36,  37. 


CATECHISM  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  5*5 

is  not  that,  in  itself  truth  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  win  the  battle 
against  error.  But  per  accidens  truth  is  often  in  a  position  to 
get  the  worst  of  it,  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be,  under  given  circum- 
stances, impossible  to  present  truth  completely  or  adequately 
or  convincingly.  And  unless  an  objection  can  be  not  only 
answered,  but  destroyed — as  far  as  the  nature  of  the  case  admits 
— there  is  always  a  danger  to  immature  minds. 

If  this  is  true  of  Church  students,  much  more  in 
the  case  of  those  whose  education  is  less  advanced. 
Young  men  require  to  be  well  grounded  in  the  teaching  of 
the  Church,  and  taught  where  to  seek  further  information. 
If  this  is  done  the  objections  of  unbelievers  will  make 
but  little  impression  on  them.  But  if  their  religious  for- 
mation is  largely  emotional,  their  faith  may  be  rudely 
shaken  by  the  dangers  to  which  they  may  be  exposed 
while  prosecuting  their  higher  professional  studies. 

The  place  given  to  Christian  Doctrine  in  higher  schools 
is  therefore  a  question  which  merits  the  attention  of  all 
interested  in  the  welfare  of  youth.  Earnest  men  in  France 
have  not  shrunk  from  the  study  of  it.  In  1895,  Cardinal 
Lecot,  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  addressing  the  Congress  of 
the  Oeuvres  de  la  Jeunesse,  used  the  following  words  : — 

In  ecclesiastical  colleges  the  teaching  of  religion  is  almost 
always  backward,  old-fashioned,  and  given  with  indifference  .  .  . 
Generally  they  aim  first  of  all  at  competing  for  success  with 
other  establishments  ;  they  seek  to  be  able  to  inscribe  on  their 
roll  of  honour  the  largest  possible  number  of  candidates  ad- 
mitted to  the  Baccalaureate.  Hence  they  content  themselves 
with  teaching  the  catechism  of  perseverance  in  a  hasty  and 
superficial  manner.'1 

These  are  not  the  words  of  one  who  looks  upon  the 
French  clergy  as  sinners,  in  this  respect,  beyond  all  men 
upon  the  earth.  They  are  not  a  reproach  but  a  call  to 
duty.  The  injunction  of  Pius  X  on  the  subject  of 
catechism  and  on  the  establishment  of  schools  of  Christian 
Doctrine  in  university  cities,  brings  the  question  of 
religious  instruction  home  to  all. 

PATRICK  BOYLE,  C.M. 

1  Apud  Dementhon.  Directoire  de  I' Enseignment  religium,  vol.  i, 
p.  29  ;  3rd  edition. 


RELIGION   AS   A   CREDIBLE   DOCTRINE 

i. 

RELIGION   AND  THE  GOD    OF   PHILOSOPHY 

MR.  MALLOCK  opens  this  part  of  his  enquiry  by 
insisting  that  an  argument  which  proves  the 
existence  of  conscious,  purposive  Mind  is  wholly 
useless  for  the  theist.  This  is  evidently  untrue.  The 
existence  of  such  a  conscious,  purposive  Mind  as  the 
theist  demonstrates  disproves  Monism,  and  is  a  precious 
link  in  that  chain  of  reasoning  which  leads  up  to  the  existence 
of  the  God  of  ethical  theism. 

This  point  apart,  Mr.  Mallock's  first  chapter  on  God  is 
an  effort  to  prove  that  the  argument  from  design  in  the 
inorganic  world  to  the  existence  of  a  conscious,  purposive 
Mind  is  rendered  wholly  invalid  by  the  discoveries  of 
modern  science.  That  the  argument  proves  the  existence 
of  Mind,  Mr.  Mallock  concedes  ;  that  this  mind  is  conscious 
and  purposive  outside  a  number  of  local  and  temporary 
centres,  namely,  individual  lives,  is  according  to  him 
unproved  and  unprovable. 

Mr.  Mallock  explains  the  order  and  harmony  of  the 
inorganic  world  by  the  action  of  a  self-energising  some- 
thing devoid  alike  of  consciousness  and  of  purpose.  The 
only  clue  he  gives  as  to  the  nature  of  this  self-energising 
something — it  is  called  Mind — is  the  statement  that  the 
order  of  the  universe  is  a  physical  platitude,  and  that 
stars  are  bodies,  which  unless  they  moved  uniformly, 
would  not  exist  at  all.  Inorganic  nature,  therefore, 
explains  itself  by  the  forces  of  nature.  Matter  cannot 
exist  without  movement,  and  movement  explains  every- 
thing. Waiving  the  questions  of  the  origin,  both  of  the 
matter  and  of  the  movement,  the  theist  maintains  that 
matter  plus  movement  does  not  account  for  the  inorganic 
universe.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  a  canvas  with  paints 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  517 

of  various  tints  to  produce  the  Transfiguration.  Only  one 
handling  of  the  brush,  and  only  one  guiding  ideal  can 
create  a  masterpiece.  And  so  with  regard  to  the  move- 
ments and  forces  of  the  inorganic  world.  That  world 
displays  a  wondrous  order,  an  order  capable  of  being  pro- 
duced only  by  very  specific  movement.  The  processes 
leading  thereto  are  in  their  details  inconceivably  more 
intricate  than  any  processes  invented  by  man.  A  thousand 
millions  of  paths  lay  open  to  confusion  and  disorder ! 
Why  ever  the  one  safe  road  ?  If  no  guiding  principle 
dominates  the  atoms  and  the  molecules,  why  do  these 
atoms  and  molecules,  each  independent  of  the  other,  each 
capable  of  an  infinity  of  different  directions,  ever  follow 
precisely  that  direction  which  the  existence  of  order  demands. 
There  must  be  some  reason  for  that.  Science  tells  us  that 
matter  is  inert,  and  that  in  motion  it  is  indifferent  as  to  the 
precise  direction  of  the  motion.  Yet  science  tells  us  that 
each  atom,  each  molecule  has  its  own  peculiar  r61e  to 
play  in  the  cosmos,  and  must  be  possessed  of  very  definite 
properties  to  play  that  rdle ;  and  that  through  myriad 
changes  of  time  and  place  and  circumstance,  each  atom 
does  persistently  play  the  one  role  necessary  for  the  main- 
tenance of  universal  order.  Such  facts  demand  explanation. 
To  call  these  atoms,  these  molecules,  unknown  somethings, 
and  to  suppose  them  self-energising  and  self-directing 
without  any  interplay  of  consciousness  and  of  purpose,  is 
to  hide  facts  under  other  names  without  explaining  them. 
Man  knows  of  but  one  power  that  can  produce  order  amidst 
variety,  of  but  one  means  capable  of  directing  the  operation 
of  a  multitude  of  forces  to  harmonised  results — namely, 
the  purposive  action  of  intelligent  Mind.  To  intelligence 
and  to  mind  must  be  ascribed  the  order  and  the  harmony 
of  the  inorganic  world.  Without  mind,  without  purpose, 
without  consciousness,  man  has  never  seen^  the  like  ac- 
complished ;  therefore  he  must  conclude  to  mind,  to  purpose, 
to  consciousness.  And  mind  of  what  calibre  ?  Superior 
to  man's  ?  Certainly,  for  the  order  realised  is  so  stu- 
pendously superior  in  extent  and  in  detail  to  his  own  work 
that  the  greatest  intellects  can  but  dimly  and  partially 


5*8  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

apprehend  it.  '  We  live,'  says  Professor  Huxley,  *  in  a 
small  bright  oasis  of  knowledge,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
a  vast  unexplored  region  of  impenetrable  mystery.  From 
age  to  age,  the  strenuous  labour  of  successive  generations 
wins  a  small  strip  from  the  desert,  and  pushes  forward  the 
boundary  of  knowledge,'  but  the  known  remains  always 
finite,  the  unknown  always  infinite. 

And  why  does  Mr.  Mallock  reject  our  conclusion  ? 
Because  the  theistic  argument  derives  its  whole  force 
from  the  assumption  that  mind  and  consciousness  are 
coextensive,  and  because  modern  science  has  shown  up  the 
fallacy  of  this  assumption.  In  proof  of  which,  Mr.  Mallock 
cites  the  development  of  the  baby  from  unconsciousness 
to  consciousness,  the  surprising  facts  of  heredity  which 
prove  transmission  of  thought  through  long  periods  of  un- 
consciousness, and  an  apologist's  admission  of  the  reality 
of  the  unconscious  activities  of  the  human  mind.  These 
proofs  are  worthless. 

If  Mr.  Mallock  would  dare  to  maintain  that  the  baby's 
early  stages  of  consciousness — which  he  describes  as  un- 
consciousness— is  capable  of  producing  such  order  and 
such  harmony  as  the  scientific  analysis  of  the  inorganic 
world  reveals,  he  has  indeed  formulated  an  objection  to 
the  argument.  But  his  plea  would  be  on  the  face  of  it 
senseless  and  absurd.  Moreover,  the  supposition  that  the 
baby  is  at  first  unconscious  is  opposed  to  the  best  scientific 
evidence.  Psychologists  admit  that  the  infant  displays 
growth  of  consciousness  consequent  on  the  development 
of  the  sensory  faculties,  but  they  maintain  that  even  during 
the  first  weeks  of  its  life  baby  possesses  a  vague,  indefinite, 
drowsy  consciousness.  As  for  the  surprising  facts  of 
heredity,  we  have  seen  that  Mr.  Mallock's  reading  of  these 
facts  is  false.  Even  were  his  reading  of  these  facts  true, 
the  transmission  of  thought  through  long  periods  of  un- 
consciousness has  nothing  to  say  to  an  argument  that  is 
based  on  the  principle — order,  uniform,  constant  and 
universal,  amid  unceasing  change,  postulates  purposive 
Intelligence.  And  precisely,  the  same  criticism  disposes 
of  his  citation  about  the  unconscious  activities  of  the 


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RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  5T9 

mind.  Has  Mr.  Mallock  missed  his  way,  then  ?  No, 
he  is  evidently  trying  to  prove  that  '  unconscious 
mind '  is  as  capable  of  executing  the  wonderful  order  of 
the  world  as  conscious  mind.  What  Mr.  Mallock  means 
by  '  unconscious  mind '  is  writ  large  on  every  page 
of  his  book  :  for  him  the  *  unconscious  mind  '  is  the  '  self- 
energising  unknown  something,'  '  the  self-energising  matter.' 
In  defence  of  such  a  view,  the  reality  of  the  unconscious 
activities  of  the  human  mind,  and  the  growth  of  baby 
consciousness  prove  nothing.  Thought  may  work  un- 
consciously, but  it  must  exist  in  that  spiritual  thing  called 
mind.  Baby,  too,  may  have  intervals  of  unconsciousness, 
but  it  has  ever  within  it  a  mind,  the  principle  of  consciousness 
Consciousness  is  not  necessarily  continuous,  but  there  is 
a  real,  indivisible  unity  binding  the  series  of  conscious 
processes  into  an  individual  self.  Consciousness  on  the 
admission  of  all  scientists  can  never  spring  from  such 
unconscious  mind  as  Mr.  Mallock  describes.  The  chasm, 
wrote  Tyndall,  between  material  and  mental  phenomena 
is  intellectually  impassible.  Mr.  Mallock's  contention 
amounts  to  this,  that  every  chemical  atom  and  molecule 
in  the  universe,  every  grain  of  sand  on  the  seashore,  and 
every  drop  of  water  in  the  ocean  is  possessed  of  that  power 
of  mind  which  can  evolve  order  out  of  chaos !  If  he 
repudiates  such  teaching,  he  must  accept  the  ignominy  of 
having  failed  completely  to  account  for  what  we  see  about 
us. 

What  of  his  effort  to  exclude  purpose  from  that  mind 
which  accounts  for  the  order  of  the  universe  ?  To  our 
proof  of  purpose,  Mr.  Mallock  objects  that  during  the 
period  of  gestation  the  most  intricate  functions  of  maternity 
are  being  performed  without  any  purposive  intention  on 
the  part  either  of  mother  or  of  foetus  !  One  feels  certain 
that  it  was  a  mere  oversight  on  Mr.  Mallock's  part  not  to 
have  added — and  of  the  father !  True  these  functions 
are  performed  without  the  conscious  direction  of  the  human 
mind.  But  what  right  has  Mr.  Mallock  to  conclude  that 
they  are  therefore  performed  without  the  conscious  direction 
of  any  mind  ?  To  conclude  so,  is  it  not  to  contradict 


520  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

human  experience  of  all  this  ?  God,  the  author  of  all 
things  is  behind  His  work,  and  every  movement  of  creation 
betrays  His  presence. 

Mr.  Mallock  admitting  causa  argumenti  the  existence  of 
a  conscious  and  purposive  Mind  proceeds  to  lay  down  that 
the  facts  of  the  universe  do  not  prove  the  wisdom  of  such 
a  mind.  Kant  was  awed  by  the  sight  of  the  starry  heavens, 
but  continues  Mr.  Mallock  Kant's  emotion  belonged  to  a 
pre-scientific  age.  This  is  interesting  reading  in  view  of  the 
historical  fact  that  Kant  when  only  thirty  years  of  age 
anticipated  in  his  Theory  of  the  Heavens  the  Nebular 
Hypothesis  which  was  afterwards  to  be  the  glory  of  La 
Place  and  Herschel.  Thirty  years  later,  Kant  the  philoso- 
pher of  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  denied  the  scientific 
value  of  the  argument  from  design.  His  admiration  of 
the  starry  heavens  was  part  of  his  thought  in  the  later 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason.  Kant  knew  as  well  as  Mr. 
Mallock  that  the  stars  are  '  bodies  which  unless  they  moved 
uniformly,  would  not  be  bodies  at  all,  and  would  exist 
neither  in  movement  nor  in  rest.'  But  the  author  of 
the  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  regarded  that  uniform 
movement  as  the  result  of  a  divine  law  attached  to  matter 
at  the  creation.  Matter  attracts  matter  in  virtue  of  divine 
laws.  When  Kant  looked  at  the  movements  of  the  heaven 
from  that  point  of  view,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  their 
immensity  and  their  order  aroused  awe.  That  awe,  how- 
ever, never  entered  into  the  Konigsberg  philosopher's 
proofs  of  God's  existence. 

Mr.  Mallock  has  not  brought  to  light  any  fact  that 
weakens  the  force  of  the  argument  from  the  order  of  the 
inorganic  world.  Science  can  discover  nothing  in  nature 
itself  capable  of  effecting  that  order,  and  we  are  but 
applying  the  methods  of  science  in  inferring  the  wisdom 
and  purpose  of  the  Designer  from  the  complex  purposes 
and  adaptations  revealed  in  the  organic  universe.  '  Quoi ! 
le  monde  forme"  prouverait  moins  une  intelligence  que  le 
monde  expliqu6 ! ' 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  521 

II. 

SENTIENT  LIFE   AND   ETHICAL   THEISM. 

Throughout  this  part  of  his  work,  Mr.  Mallock  does  not 
contest  the  existence  of  God.  He  admits  the  existence  of 
a  personal  God,  he  assumes  that  theists  generally  admit 
evolution  as  the  process  by  which  sentient  beings  came 
into  existence,  and  then  surveying  the  facts  of  the  universe, 
he  asserts  that  sentient  existence  and  its  accompanying 
circumstances  deny  any  theist  the  right  of  claiming  infinite 
wisdom,  and  perferential  love  for  man  for  this  personal 
God.  Mr.  Mallock  is  arguing  ad  hominem  throughout  this 
chapter,  and  therefore  to  judge  of  the  strength  of  his  attack, 
we  must  define  precisely  the  theistic  position.  Stripped 
of  theological  technicalities  and  confined  to  the  precise 
point  at  issue,  the  theistic  doctrine  is  that  God  does  not 
intend  the  final  well-being  of  any  living  creature  save  man  ; 
that  man  is  to  be  perfectly  happy,  not  here,  but  hereafter ; 
that  for  man's  utility  God  has  created  the  rest  of  the  visible 
universe.  The  value  of  the  theory  of  evolution  need  not 
detain  us,  for  its  acceptance  or  rejection  throws  but  little 
light  on  the  solution  of  the  difficulties  which  Mr.  Mallock 
raises. 

His  first  objection  is  that  of  frustrated  purpose  takingly 
put  in  a  comparison  between  God  and  a  marksman.  The 
seeming  force  of  this  objection  arises  from  the  fact  that 
Mr.  Mallock  has  unintentionally  falsfied  the  theistic  position. 
No  theist  holds  that  God  intended  the  perfect  production 
and  the  perfect  adaptation  of  all  living  things  to  their 
material  surroundings. 

The  theistic  thesis  is — the  order  of  the  inorganic  world, 
the  origin  of  organic  life,  the  evolution  and  permanence  of 
countless  living  organisms,  the  existence  of  skilfully  con- 
trived organs,  the  adaptation  of  brute  matter,  and  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  to  man's  need,  the  ex- 
istence of  the  innumerable,  ever-recurring  laws  of  the 
organic  world, — these  and  a  host  of  other  facts  prove 
indubitably  the  existence  of  a  designer  of  superhuman 
intelligence.  By  the  application  of  the  principle  of  causality, 


532  THE   IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  theist  reaches  the  further  conclusion  of  a  self-existent 
Intelligence,  and  then  reasoning  on  the  perfections  which 
such  a  Being  must  possess,  the  theist  finds  amongst  others 
those  of  infinite  wisdom  and  infinite  goodness.  Main- 
taining then  stoutly  that  arguments  from  frustrated  purpose 
do  not  weaken  the  conclusion  drawn  from  so  many  other 
stupendous  revelations  of  law  and  order  in  the  universe, 
we  admit  frankly  that  we  cannot  in  all  cases  explain  this 
seeming  waste  and  frustration.  My  mind  is  finite,  and  the 
mind  about  whose  operations  I  am  judging  is  confessedly 
infinite.  Because  I  do  not  see  the  why,  am  I  to  conclude 
that  there  is  no  why  ?  But  rejoins  Mr.  Mallock,  your 
thesis  is  to  infer  God's  wisdom  from  the  observable  facts  of 
nature  !  Yes,  and  I  concluded  from  these  to  the  existence 
of  a  designer  of  superhuman  wisdom.  The  infinite  wisdom 
of  that  Designer  is  not  directly  provable  from  the  facts  of 
nature.  By  the  light  of  unaided  reason,  I  can  prove  the 
superhuman  designer  self-existent,  and  from  that  attribute 
of  self-existence,  I  deduce  the  infinity  of  His  wisdom. 

Further,  all  living  germs  that  do  not  develope  into  full- 
grown  beings  are  not  therefore  wasted.  On  theistic 
principles,  the  intentional  sacrifice  of  millions  of  irrational 
creatures  for  man's  sake  is  wholly  reasonable. 

And  indeed  everywhere  we  find  irrational  creatures  supplying 
the  wants  of  human  nature.  They  serve  mankind  partly  by 
providing  nourishment,  clothing,  shelter  and  other  bodily  con- 
veniences ;  partly  by  stirring  up  their  intellects  and  wills  to  the 
pursuits  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  by  leading  them  through  the 
knowledge  of  creatures  to  that  of  the  Creator ;  and  last  but  not 
least,  by  affording  opportunities  for  the  practice  of  moral  virtues, 
patience  especially,  and  resignation  to  the  inscrutable  ways  of 
the  Creator. 

Illustration  of  what  our  defence  amounts  to  is  afforded 
by  a  minute  examination  of  that  on  which  Mr.  Mallock 
bases  his  whole  case — the  seemingly  wasteful  process  of 
human  conception.  That  God  should  have  created  or 
should  have  caused  to  evolve  two  human  organisms,  that 
He  should  have  differentiated  these  organisms  into  sexes, 
that  He  should  ordain  things  in  such  a  way  that  spermatazoa 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE 

cells  should  be  built  up  within  our  body,  and  ova  cells 
within  the  other,  that  He  should  have  implanted  certain 
instincts  hi  virtue  of  which  despite  the  suggestions  of 
egoism,  the  power  of  free-will  and  the  onerous  obligations 
of  parentage,  the  propagation  of  the  human  species  should 
be  assured,  that  from  the  coalescence  of  human  sperma- 
tozoon with  the  human  ovum,  human  beings  and  no  others 
should  result — these  and  the  myriad  other  accompanying 
details  regarding  tha  organisms  of  these  spermatozoa 
which  scientists  are  daily  learning  to  be  more  und  more 
intricate,  and  which  nevertheless  God  ever  attains  with 
unerring  accuracy,  points  to  the  existence  and  continual 
guidance  of  an  intelligence  incomparably  superior  to  that 
of  man's.  But  to  produce  one  man,  spermatozoa  without 
number,  innumerable  potential  souls,  are  wasted  !  Wasted  ? 
Yes,  for  they  find  no  ovum.  But  was  that  certainly  their 
purpose  ?  Who  can  tell  us  so  ?  What  can  a  finite 
creature  know  of  the  purposes  of  the  Infinite  ?  We  see 
evident  signs  of  superhuman  intelligence  and  guidance  at 
innumerable  stages  of  the  drama  of  human  conception, 
and  more  especially  in  the  internal  structure  of  Bach  of  these 
apparently  useless  spermatozoa.  Reason  proves  to  us  that 
this  superhuman  intelligence  is  self-existent,  is  infinite. 
A  moment  comes  and  the  light  fails  us — is  it  rational  to 
measure  our  intellects  with  the  divine  and  to  cry  out 
*  failure  ? '  'I  feel,'  wrote  Darwin,  speaking  of  the 
existence  of  evil,  '  I  feel  most  deeply  that  the  whole  subject 
is  too  profound  for  the  human  intellect.  A  dog  might  as 
well  speculate  on  the  mind  of  Newton.' 

How  much  [continues  Father  Gerard]  is  there  in  the  actions 
of  persons  much  lowlier  than  Newton  which  to  the  most  intel- 
ligent of  animals,  dogs,  elephants,  or  monkeys,  could  they 
speculate  at  ail,  must  seem  wholly  devoid  of  sense ;  as  for  in- 
stance that  men  should  spend  such  continual  labour  in  digging 
and  ploughing.  So  again,  in  his  famous  lecture  on  Coal,  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  depicts  what  might  have  been  the  reflections  of 
a  great  reptile  of  the  Carboniferous  Epoch,  suggested  by  the 
seemingly  senseless  waste  of  nature's  powers  in  the  production 
of  the  primeval  forests,  that  have  furnished  the  coal  measures, 
to  which  so  much  of  our  progress  and  civilization  is  directly  due. 


524  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Mr.  Mallock's  transference  of  his  case  from  the  wasted 
turnip  seeds  to  the  wasted  spermatozoa  calls  for  remark. 
Is  his  objection  therefore  stronger  ?  In  his  eyes,  evidently 
so,  for  he  speaks  of  potential  souls.  This  is  mere  rhetoric. 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  potential  human  soul ;  the  human 
soul  is  created  by  God  and  is,  or  is  not.  Before  its  union 
with  the  ovum,  the  human  spermatozoon  is  just  a  living 
cell  as  any  other  cell,  and  the  loss  of  millions  of  human 
spermatozoa  at  that  stage  of  their  existence  has  as  little 
and  as  much  to  do  with  the  very  sacrament  of  creation, 
*  the  being  for  which  God  died,'  '  the  seed  whose  growth 
will  be  like  the  kingdom  of  heaven,'  as  has  the  loss  of  the 
innumerable  cells  that  results  every  time  a  child  burns 
its  finger.  From  all  which  is  evident  that  the  process  of 
human  conception  raises  a  point  to  which  we  have  no 
reply.  At  the  same  time,  what  we  do  see  justifies  us  in 
upholding  wise  designs,  even  in  those  particulars  in  which 
we  can  not  discern  them. 

Mr.  Mallock  next  raises  the  question  of  the  birth  and 
sacrifice  of  the  unfit.  Here  a  sharp  distinction  must  be 
drawn  between  men  and  animals,  and  between  moral  and 
physical  evils.  In  such  an  imperfect  world  as  ours,  the 
furtherance  of  man's  ends  demands  the  sacrifice  and  the 
sufferings  of  irrational  creatures,  and  from  this  point  of 
view — we  shall  discuss  the  reason  of  this  imperfection  in 
the  world  later  on — there  is  no  necessity  of  justifying 
animal  suffering.  Moreover,  scientists  who  have  given 
their  lives  to  the  study  of  animal  life  tell  us  that  this  out- 
cry on  animal  suffering  is  in  great  part  mere  exaggerated 
sentimentality.  A.  R.  Wallace  writes  in  his  Darwinism, 
PP-  37-4°  :— 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  all  this  is  greatly  ex- 
aggerated, that  the  supposed  torments  and  miseries  of  animals 
have  little  real  existence,  but  are  the  reflexion  of  the  imagined 
sensations  of  cultivated  men  and  women  in  similar  circumstances, 
and  that  the  amount  of  actual  suffering  caused  by  the  struggle 
for  existence  is  altogether  insignificant.  On  the  whole,  we 
conclude  that  the  popular  idea  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  en- 
tailing misery  and  pain  on  the  animal  world,  is  the  very  reverse 
of  the  truth.  What  it  really  brings  about  is  the  maximum  of 


RELIGION    AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE  525 

life  and  the  enjoyment  of  life,  with  the  minimum  of  suffering 
and  pain.  Given  the  necessity  of  death  and  reproduction — and 
without  these  there  could  have  been  no  progressive  development 
of  the  organic  world — and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  system  by 
which  a  greater  balance  of  happiness  could  have  been  secured. 
And  this  view  was  evidently  that  of  Darwin  himself,  who  thus 
concludes  his  chapter  on  the  struggle  for  existence :  '  When  we 
reflect  upon  this  struggle,  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the 
full  belief  that  the  war  of  nature  is  not  incessant,  that  no  fear 
is  felt,  that  death  is  generally  prompt,  and  that  the  vigorous, 
the  healthy,  and  the  happy  survive  and  multiply.' 

And  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  November,  1890,  Prince 
Kropotkin  wrote  : — 

How  false,  therefore,  is  the  view  of  those  who  speak  of  the 
animal  world  as  if  nothing  were  to  be  seen  in  it  but  lions  and 
hyenas,  plunging  their  bleeding  teeth  into  the  flesh  of  their 
victims.  One  might  as  well  imagine  that  the  whole  of  human 
life  is  nothing  but  a  succession  of  Tel-el-Kebir  and  Geok-tepe 
massacres. 

Coming  to  the  sufferings  of  men,  the  distinction  between 
moral  and  physical  evil  robs  the  objection  of  more  than 
half  its  force.  '  Man's  inhumanity  to  man  makes  countless 
thousands  mourn.'  Many  physical  evils  remain.  But  in 
looking  on  the  mystery  of  pain  we  must  not  forget  the 
mystery  of  painlessness,  and  that  these  physical  sufferings 
have  cropped  up  in  lives  that  have  been  long  happy. 
Huxley  speaks  somewhere  of  the  happiness  of  men,  and 
rightly  ridicules  him  who  grumbles  disconsolately  because 
of  a  toothache  which  lasts  one  out  of  the  twenty-four 
hours  ;  and  the  dying  Gladstone  said  to  a  sympathizing 
friend  :  *  True,  I  have  had  much  pain  during  the  last  six 
months,  but  you  must  remember  that  I  have  been  twice 
eighty-six  times  six  months  free  from  pain.'  And  Sir  Henry 
Thompson  after  a  life-time  spent  in  contact  with  pain, 
wrote  in  The  Unknown  God,  p.  85  : — 

I  am  now  assured,  by  evidence  which  I  could  not  resist,  that 
all  which  man  with  his  limited  knowledge  and  experience  has 
learned  to  regard  as  due  to  supreme  power  and  wisdom,  is  also 
associated  with  the  exercise  of  an  absolutely  beneficent  influence 
over  all  living  things,  of  every  grade,  which  exist  within  its 
range.  And  the  result  of  my  labour  has  brought  me  its  own 


526  THE    IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

reward,  by  conferring  emancipation  from  the  fetters  of  all  the 
creeds,  and  unshakable  confidence  in  the  power,  the  wisdom, 
and  the  beneficence  which  pervade  and  rule  the  universe. 

There  is  another  side  to  the  problem  of  pain.  *  Pain 
is  but  the  prayer  of  a  nerve  for  healthy  blood.'  Besides, 
physical  pain  is  one  of  the  strongest  instruments  of  moral 
education  and  refinement.  '  Poverty  and  sickness  teach 
man  most  forcibly  his  own  nothingness.  .  .  .  The 
blood  of  martyrs  became  the  fertile  seed  of  Christianity.' 
For  man,  '  there  can  be  no  nobility  without  conflict,  no 
real  happiness  without  sorrow  as  a  counterpart,  no 
sympathy  without  pain.' 

We  submit,  then,  that  the  birth  and  sacrifice  of  unfit 
animals  is  not  the  whole  story,  that  so  far  as  it  is  true 
it  emphasises  merely  physical  evils,  that  these  evils  seem 
necessary  to  prevent  surplus  population  and  to  make  the 
world  habitable  for  man,  that  therefore  it  implies  no  wanton 
cruelty  on  the  Creator's  part. 

>  The  suffering  implied  in  the  birth  and  sacrifice  of  unfit 
human  beings  is  traceable  either  to  the  abuse  of  free-will 
or  to  physical  laws.  Such  suffering  as  follows  from  abuse 
of  the  gift  of  liberty  is  not  to  be  laid  to  God's  account. 
Yet,  God  may  employ  this  suffering  as  well  as  that  arising 
from  purely  physical  causes  for  the  higher  and  nobler 
development  of  man's  nature  here  and  hereafter.  But, 
rejoins  Mr.  Mallock,  the  assumption  of  a  hereafter  is  not 
a  conclusion  drawn  from  the  observable  facts  of  nature. 
We  deny  that,  for  we  think  Mr.  Mallock's  attempt  to 
disprove  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  not  convincing. 

The  world  is  not  built,  then,  on  cruel  lines ;  and  feeble 
though  our  intellects  be,  they  are  able  to  grasp  the  blessed- 
ness of  pain.  But  Mr.  Mallock  would  probably  insist- 
why  such  suffering  as  does  actually  exist,  why  not  a  world 
of  happy,  ever-smiling  angels  ?  We  know  not.  That  is 
a  Divine  secret.  We  only  know  that  God  must  have  had 
sufficient  reason  for  His  creation  of  this  imperfect  world. 
To  conclude  that  there  can  be  no  sufficient  reason  in  God's 
handiwork,  because  we  can  see  none,  is  simply  the  delirium 
of  intellectual  conceit.  However  weak,  or  unfit  or  criminal, 


RELIGION  AS  A  CREDIBLE  DOCTRINE 

certain  human  beings  have  come  into  existence,  they 
will  on  their  exit  be  judged  only  for  that  for  which  they 
are  responsible — their  good  or  bad  use  of  their  opportunities 
and  of  that  with  which  they  started  life.  God  in  creating 
them  has  done  them  no  injustice,  for  their  sufferings  are 
but  preparations  for  higher  things.  Even  on  earth,  there 
are  better  things  than  health  and  wealth  and  happiness — 
character  and  goodness ;  and  these  are  within  the  reach 
of  all  suffering  humanity.  No  need,  then,  that  God's 
future  be  an  apology  for  His  past.  In  His  relations  with 
His  creatures,  He  has  ever  been  the  God  of  Goodness  and 
of  Love. 

Science  is  inexorable,  then, — yes,  but  religion  has 
nothing  to  fear.  Rightly  interpreted,  science  is  the  strongest 
proof  of  these  three  central  doctrines  of  religion.  God, 
loving  and  good,  and  the  soul  free  and  immortal  are  the 
apex  of  the  universe  of  law  and  reason,  precisely  because 
that  universe  was  fashioned  by  His  hand  to  house  the  soul 
during  the  days  of  trial. 

J.   O'NEILL. 


[     528    ] 


THE  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  FATHER 
QUIGLEY 

AMONG  the  records  of  so-called  judicial  proceedings 
which  disgraced  the  period  of  British  Government 
and  its  administration  of  the  law  at  the  period 
of  the  Rebellion,  there  are  few  to  compare  with  the  trial 
and  execution  of  Father  James  Quigley.  History,  as 
written  for  us  by  Froude  and  others,  represents  this  un- 
fortunate priest  as  '  a  rabid  rebel,'  a  man  caught  red-handed 
in  the  act  of  carrying  treasonable  documents  from  the 
Directory  of  the  United  Irishmen  in  this  country  to  the 
French  Directory.  One  has,  however,  only  to  read  the 
bare,  bald  narrative  of  the  proceedings  of  his  unjust  trial 
at  Maidstone,  even  as  found  in  HowelPs  State  Trials — one 
has  only  to  read,  even  as  given  there,  the  report  of  the 
trial  to  see  clearly  demonstrated  the  innocence  of  the 
unhappy  man,  and  the  failure  of  the  prosecution  to  prove 
by  legal  evidence  any  of  the  charges  alleged  against  him. 
It  is  now  clear  that  Father  Quigley  had  no  connection 
with  the  United  Irishmen,  and  that  he  carried  no  docu- 
ment from  them,  and  that  he  was  not  their  emissary.  No 
evidence  of  his  complicity  in  any  Association  was  given, 
and  the  judge  in  his  charge  omitted  to  point  out  that  fatal 
blot  in  the  proofs.  The  circumstances  attending  the 
alleged  discovery  on  his  person  of  the  incriminating  paper 
indisputably  show  that  no  sane  man  would  consciously 
carry  about  him  so  dangerous  a  document  in  so  absolutely 
and  palpably  reckless  a  manner,  as  if  courting  discovery. 
The  Attorney-General  laid  down  the  principle  of  law  un- 
challenged, that  the  possession  of  a  treasonable  document 
was  evidence  of  guilt  if  the  person  knew  its  contents  ;  but 
he  assumed  possession  to  imply  that  knowledge  and  ap- 
proval— a  most  dangerous  and  unfounded  extension  of  the 
law. 

The  document  purported  to  be  from  the  Secret  Com- 


THE  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  FATHER  QUIGLEY  52$ 

mittee  in  England  to  the  Executive  Directory  of  France, 
and  it  had  no  connection  with  the  Irish  organization,  yet 
in  every  account  of  the  trial  Father  Quigley  is  represented 
as  if  he  were  an  agent  of  the  Irish  body.  No  proof  was 
given  at  the  trial  of  his  connection  with  any  organization, 
English  or  Irish,  and  the  attempt  was  made  to  discredit 
the  Reform  movement  in  England  by  associating  it  with 
the  excesses  of  the  Revolutionists  in  France,  but  it  was 
unsuccessful.  He  steadily  and  strenuously  denied  know- 
ledge of  the  incriminating  document  all  through  and  with 
his  last  breath.  To  prove  his  privity  with  the  French 
Government  a  passport  was  produced,  not  found  on  his 
person,  but  in  a  fellow-prisoner  Binns'  trunk,  and  no  proof 
of  its  being  his  was  given.  One  of  the  Crown  witnesses 
was  so  notorious  a  character  that  a  record  of  his  achieve- 
ments is  interesting.  He  was  dismissed  by  one  master  for 
theft,  had  lodged  a  criminal  charge  against  another,  had 
given  evidence  at  Downpatrick  Assizes  against  a  man  who 
was  hanged,  and  he  had  written  to  the  Secretary  of  State 
offering  to  give  evidence.  It  is  clear  he  was  a  perjured 
ruffian,  and  that  he  was  employed  to  do  the  job  he  volun- 
teered for  and  did  in  the  Quigley  trial.  He  is  the  type  of 
the  Crown  witness,  and  it  was  on  the  tainted  testimony 
of  such  a  man  Father  Quigley  lost  his  life.  This  infamous 
character  admitted  that  he  laid  informations  against  twenty 
unfortunate  men  in  Ireland.  The  Crown  lawyers  expressed 
astonishment  and  indignation  when  it  was  stated  in  court 
by  the  counsel  for  the  prisoner,  that  the  witnesses  for  the 
prosecution  were  ignominiously  called  spies,  hirelings  en- 
gaged to  swear  away  life  and  liberty.  The  Crown  lawyers 
preferred  to  call  those  infamous  instruments  '  Gentlemen 
who  have  been  instrumental  in  advancing  the  public  justice 
of  the  country.1  Dutton,  one  of  the  spies  used  in  the  Quigley 
case,  rose  through  his  services  in  court  from  the  position 
of  a  footman  to  that  of  quarter-master,  and  such  tempting 
rewards  produced  their  plentiful  crop  of  witnesses  to  prove 
anything.  Not  a  single  witness  at  the  trial  was  a  man  of 
reliability,  or  one  upon  whose  testimony  the  proverbial 
cat  would  be  hanged,  yet  through  such  Father  Quigley 

VOL.  XIX.  2  L 


53°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

lost  his  life — was  judicially  murdered.  Father  Quigley 
did  not  know,  and  had  never  seen  previously,  several  of 
the  witnesses  brought  against  him,  and  yet  they  swore 
to  facts  of  common  knowledge. 

At  Maidstone,  in  Kent,  on  the  2ist  of  May,  1798,  the 
trial  of  James  O'Coigley  (alias  James  Quigley,  alias  James 
John  Fioey)  opened.  With  him  were  Arthur  O'Connor 
and  others.  O'Connor  was  a  man  of  high  social  position, 
and  an  array  of  witnesses  testified  to  his  character  such 
as  were  never  seen  in  a  court  of  justice.  We  find  Charles 
James  Fox,  Henry  Grattan,  Thomas  Erskine,  Richard 
Brinsley  Sheridan,  the  Earl  of  Sheffield,  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk  all  bearing  testimony  for  him.  The  prisoners  were 
tried  for  high  treason,  and  the  chief  proof  was  the  docu- 
ment said  to  have  been  found  on  the  person  of  the  priest 
The  others  were  one  John  Binns,  one  John  Allen,  and  one 
Jeremiah  Leary.  Practically  the  two  principals  were 
Father  Quigley  and  Arthur  O'Connor.  Now,  this  priest 
was  a  remarkable  man,  and  was  actually  noted  in  his  own 
country  and  county  for  his  efforts  to  uphold  the  law  and 
to  bring  offenders  to  justice.  But,  unfortunately  for  him 
his  zeal  was  necessarily  directed  against  the  lewd  and  law- 
less excesses  of  the  Orangemen  who  were  then,  and  often 
since,  allowed  by  the  Executive  to  wreck  the  houses,  ravish 
the  persons,  and  murder  Catholics.  Not  a  single  one  of 
these  miscreants,  for  these  well  known  crimes,  was  brought 
to  justice  and  punished  although  Father  Quigley  actually 
himself  prosecuted  some  notorious  offenders,  and  did  so 
at  Armagh  through  Bernard  MacNally,  whom  he  retained 
special,  and  took  from  off  another  circuit  to  go  to 
Armagh.  Father  Quigley  actually  incurred,  out  of  his  own 
slender  means,  the  expenses  of  the  prosecution.  He  did  this 
in  view  of  the  failure  and  disinclination  of  the  Castle  to  do 
its  duty.  Father  Quigley  did  such  remarkable  service  in 
the  cause  of  law  and  order,  that  Mr.  Alexander  Stewart, 
the  High  Sheriff  of  Armagh,  and  a  respectable  Protestant, 
to  his  credit,  went  to  Maidstone  to  bear  testimony  to 
the  priest's  character  as  a  law-abiding  and  law-loving 
citizen. 


THE  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  FATHER  QUIGLEY  531 

Father  Quigley  was  born  at  Kilmore  in  1767,  and 
was  at  the  time  of  his  untimely  death  only  thirty-six 
years  of  age.  He  came  from  a  respectable  Northern  farmer 
class.  He  was  educated  at  Dundalk  and  subsequently 
on  the  Continent.  He  was  as  clearly  and  as  evidently  the 
victim  of  the  rampant  revengeful  Orangeism,  that  with 
absolute  impunity  was  making  the  life  of  a  Catholic,  in 
those  days,  a  hell  upon  earth.  The  evidence  upon  which 
the  priest  was  convicted,  and  the  others  strangely  ac- 
quitted, was  in  all  its  main  points  the  same — with  the  one 
exception  that  it  was  said,  but  not  at  all  satisfactorily 
proved,  that  an  incriminating  document  was  found  with 
Father  Quigley  of  a  treasonable  character.  But  its  finding 
and  the  circumstances  attending  it,  invest  the  whole  affair 
with  grave  suspicion.  It  was  proved  to  be  found  by  a 
*  Bow  Street  Runner,'  admittedly  a  most  unreliable  class 
of  fellow — a  creature  who  was  a  cross  between  a  low 
bailiff  and  a  lower  process  server.  He  said  that  this 
treasonable  document  was  taken  by  him,  when  no  one 
was  looking  on,  from  out  of  the  pocket  of  a  top-coat 
which  was  thrown  carelessly  about  in  the  tap-room  of 
the  hotel  at  Maidstone.  It  was  admitted  that  there  were 
numerous  strangers  going  in  and  out  of  the  particular 
room,  and  that  the  prisoners  were  not  in  it  at  the  time 
it  was  found,  nor  indeed  were  proved  to  have  been  in  it  at  all 
at  any  time.  The  finding  of  the  coat  was  long  subsequent 
to  the  arrest,  and  no  steps  were  taken  to  prove  the  coat 
was  the  prisoner's,  or  to  mark  the  paper  for  the  purpose 
of  identification,  and  it  went  through  several  persons' 
hands  before  it  ultimately  was  impounded.  It  was  ad- 
mitted on  cross-examination  by  the  same  witness  that 
he  (the  witness)  actually  had  warned  the  priest  in  London 
that  he  would  be  arrested  at  Gravesend,  and  we  are  asked 
to  believe,  that  in  face  of  that  warning,  and  of  the  peril 
the  priest  consequently  was  undoubtedly  in,  that  this 
intelligent  man,  holding  such  a  fateful  and  important  com- 
mission from  a  secret  society  to  a  foreign  government,  still 
carelessly  kept  the  document  in  the  pocket  of  a  top-coat 
(never  proved  to  be  his),  and  threw  that  coat  into  a  public 


532  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

tap-room    where    any   man  might   have  searched   for   or 
stolen  it. 

On  its  face  the  document  itself  did  not  refer  to  Father 
Quigley  as  its  bearer,  for  it  was  intended  to  be  taken  to 
France  from  England  by  the  person  who  had  been  the 
bearer  of  a  former  address  from  the  Secret  Committee 
of  England.  The  only  evidence  in  the  case  of  Father 
Quigley 's  being  previously  in  France  was  a  passport  with 
his  name  said  to  have  been  found  in  a  trunk  alleged  to  be 
but  never  proved  to  belong  to  his  fellow-prisoner  Binns. 
But  the  letters  were  proved  only  by  the  infamous  Dutton 
to  be  in  Quigley's  handwriting.  And  the  document,  which 
was  in  French,  and  which  was  not  properly  translated, 
stated  also  that  the  bearer  was  disguised  as  an  American 
traveller,  which  the  priest  never  was.  The  judge  (Buller) 
in  his  charge  omitted  to  state  in  Quigley's  case,  what  he 
did  state  in  O'Connor's — that  it  was  not  proved  that  Father 
Quigley  was  a  member  of  any  political  society  in  any 
country.  It  was  sworn  that  one  Perkins,  a  witness  who 
had  warned  Quigley  that  they  would  be  searched  again 
when  they  went  to  Margate,  had,  before  they  left  London, 
searched  him  and  found  nothing.  This  fact  was  not  com- 
mented upon  by  the  judge,  nor  was  any  reference  made  to 
the  dubious  finding  of  such  a  traitorous  paper  and  the 
suspicious  circumstances  thereof. 

It  is  now  clear  that  the  paper  was  planted  on  the 
unfortunate  priest.  The  judge  also  refrained  from  stating 
that  it  was  the  Orange  excesses  towards  the  priest  and  his 
family  ;  '  their  persecution  and  atrocities '  that,  as  deposed 
to  by  Mr.  Stewart  at  his  trial,  were  his  real  motives  for 
leaving  his  own  country  where  justice  denied  him  her 
protection,  and  the  law  showed  itself  absolutely  power- 
less to  protect  him  and  his  co-religionists.  A  young  woman 
was  called  to  give  evidence  as  to  what  the  prisoners  said 
in  the  room  of  the  Maidstoiie  hotel,  yet  although  she  was 
so  well  tutored  that  she  glibly  knew  all  their  names,  she 
could  not  identify  a  single  one  of  the  prisoners,  and  yet  no 
reflection  from  the  Bench  was  passed  upon  her  worthless  and 
perjured  testimony.  The  same  partial  judicial  functionary 


THE  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  FATHER  QUIGLEY  533 

cruelly  referred  to  the  fact  that  so  many  witnesses  to 
character  came  to  testify  for  O'Connor  and  only  one  for 
the  priest,  never  adverting  to  the  fact  that  one  was  a  poor 
man  and  the  other  a  rich  man,  and  that  it  was  by  a  mere 
accident  Mr.  Stewart  came,  for  he  happened  to  be  on  his 
own  private  business  in  London,  and  like  a  man  of  honour, 
hastened  of  his  own  accord  to  testify  to  the  high  character 
and  law-abiding  disposition  of  the  priest  whom  he  so  well 
knew  in  Ireland.  There  was  actually  prepared  and  in 
the  hands  of  an  officer  of  the  court  another  warrant  to 
arrest  Father  Quigley  on  another  charge  had  he  been 
acquitted  of  this  charge — so  doubtful  was  the  Crown 
before  an  English  jury  of  his  real  guilt. 

While  in  Maidstone  gaol  awaiting  his  execution — which 
was  deliberately  protracted — Father  Quigley  was  scandal- 
ously worried  and  harassed  by  emissaries  of  the  English 
Government  inducing  him  to  make  a  confession  to  cover  the 
illegality  of  the  proceedings  and  promising  him  a  reprieve. 
He  was  asked  if  he  could  or  would  swear  against  O'Connor's 
guilt,  and  he  was  denied  the  ministrations  of  a  priest  at 
first.  He  was  promised  his  liberty,  and  tempting  rewards 
proffered,  and  he  was  told  even  that  his  aged  parents 
would  be  equally  handsomely  treated  and  compensated, 
and  that  his  brother — an  officer  in  the  British  army — would 
be  promoted,  if  he  would  say  what  he  knew,  or  thought 
he  knew,  about  the  United  Irishmen  conspiracy.  If  not, 
he  was  told  that  he  would  suffer  the  extreme  penalty  of 
the  law,  that  his  family  would  be  persecuted,  and  that 
indelible  disgrace  would  come  to  his  religion  which  he 
was  appealed  to  save  from  the  disgrace  of  having  one  of 
its  priests  hanged.  All  this  torture  and  all  this  persecution 
of  the  poor  innocent  man  occurred  on  the  eve  of  his  execu- 
tion, and  all  this  was  resorted  to  to  worry  out  of  him  any- 
thing that  would  justify  their  proceedings.  The  conduct 
of  Father  Quigley  at  the  time  of  his  execution  is  thus 
described  by  an  eye-witness  : — 

About  half -past  eleven  o'clock  he  arrived  at  that  place  in 
a  hurdle  ;  he  had  no  hat  on  ;  he  was  without  a  neck  cloth  and 
his  shirt  collar  was  open.  The  day  was  extremely  sultry ;  he 


534  THE  IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

had  been  half  an  hour  in  coming  from  the  prison,  and  the 
trampling  of  the  horses  that  drew  the  hurdle,  and  of  the  soldiers 
and  multitude  that  surrounded  it  had  left  him  covered  with 
clouds  of  dust,  and  he  appeared  faint  from  these  causes.  .  .  . 
He  held  a  prayer  book  in  his  hand,  and  he  rose  and  prepared 
to  read  part  of  the  Roman  service,  but  the  clergyman  who 
attended  him  stood  at  his  side,  speaking  earnestly  to  him  in 
a  low  voice,  and  for  some  minutes  interfered  with  his  devotions. 
He  listened  with  patience,  but  with  evident  disapprobation  of 
the  subject  of  the  discourse.  When  he  began  his  devotions 
he  read  aloud  several  prayers  in  the  Latin  tongue.  In  a  few 
minutes  he  took  an  orange  from  his  pocket  and  afterwards  a 
knife,  but  his  arms  being  bound  could  not  cut  the  orange,  and 
beckoning  to  his  friends  he  said,  '  open  this  orange  with  my 
penknife  ;  it  has  been  said  they  would  not  trust  me  with  a 
penknife  lest  I  should  cut  my  throat,  but  they  little  knew  that 
I  would  not  deprive  myself  of  the  glory  of  dying  in  this  way.' 

Even  on  the  scaffold  the  clergyman  who  was  in  the  prison 
trying  to  get  a  confession  persisted  in  his  persecution 
of  the  unhappy  victim,  so  that  he  was  heard  to  say  to  him 
several  times,  *  No  no.'  Finally  he  shook  hands  with 
the  clergyman,  and  stepped  out  of  the  hurdle  and  spoke 
words  of  thanks  to  the  governor,  saying  to  him  twice, 
*  God  bless  you.'  We  return  to  the  report  of  his  execution 
for  an  account  of  his  last  moments: — 

He  shook  hands  with  Mr.  Watson  (governor),  and  then 
ascended  the  ladder  with  unshaken  courage.  As  the  execu- 
tioner prepared  the  rope  the  man  said  something  that  was 
probably  an  apology,  for  Mr.  Coigley  answered,  '  Say  nothing, 
you  know  you  must  do  your  duty.'  When  the  rope  was  round 
his  neck  and  fastened  to  the  tree  and  his  arms  bound  behind 
he  spoke  in  the  following  manner  : — 

'  Mr.  Sheriff  '  (the  sheriff  approached  with  his  hat  off).  '  Put 
on  your  hat,  sir  '  (Mr.  Coigley  said),  *  put  on  on  your  hat.'  The 
sheriff  stood  with  his  hat  off  till  Mr.  Coigley  concluded  his 
address).  '  It  is  customary  you  know,  sir,  in  cases  of  this 
sort,  for  a  person  standing  in  my  unfortunate  situation,  always 
to  say  something  more  or  less,  but  I  do  not  think  it  requisite  to 
say  so  much  as  I  otherwise  should  upon  the  present  occasion, 
because  I  have  taken  all  pains  already  under  my  own  hand  to 
draw  a  regular  declaration — a  convincing  thing  it  will  be  to 
the  world  at  large — and  a  sketch  also  of  my  unfortunate  and 
afflicted  life.  ...  I  never  was  the  bearer  of  any  letter,  paper, 
writing,  or  address,  or  message,  either  written,  printed,  or 
verbal,  to  the  Directory  of  France,  or  to  any  person  on  their 
behalf,  of  which  I  am  accused,  nor  has  any  person  for  me  been 
such  bearer.  I  further  declare  that  I  never  was  a  member  of 


THE  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  FATHER  QUIGLEY  535 

the  Corresponding  Society,  nor  of  any  other  political  society, 
in  Great  Britain,  nor  did  I  ever  attend  any  of  their  meetings, 
public  or  private,  so  help  me  God.  Surely  if  a  man  is  to  be 
believed  at  any  time  it  is  when  he  is  going  into  eternity  before 
the  bar  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  Almighty  God.  Before 
Him  I  now  solemnly  declare  the  truth  of  what  I  am  now  saying. 
I  declare  it  under  this  impression ;  I  hope  history  and  posterity 
will  do  me  justice,  but  if  not  I  go  instantly  before  a  tribunal 
where  it  is  known  that  I  speak  the  truth.  My  life  is  falsely 
and  maliciously  taken  away  by  corrupt  and  base  perjury  and 
subornation  i  of  perjury.  I  have  long  been  persecuted  by  the 
government  of  Ireland.  The  first  cause  was  my  having  en- 
deavoured to  teach  the  people  this  lesson,  that  no  man  could 
serve  his  God  bylpersectding  his  neighbour  for  any  opinion,  and 
particularly  for  any  religious  opinion.  I  have  always  said  if 
men  wish  to  serve  God  on  earth  they  should  give  up  their  per- 
secuting spirit.  This  was  the  first  cause  of  my  persecution. 
The  second  cause  of  my  persecution  was  a  contested  election  in 
Ireland  in  which  I  used  my  endeavours  to  prevail  on  my  father 
and  brother,  who  were  freeholders,  to  poll  for  the  opposition 
candidates.  The  third  and  final  cause  of  my  persecution  was 
(and  it  is  supported  by  charges  which  have  been  since  retracted) 
because  I  was  active  in  procuring  a  long  and  spirited  address 
to  his  Majesty  to  put  an  end  to  this  most  calamitous  war,  and 
to  dismiss  those  who  were  falsely  called  his  servants.  I  forgive 
them  from  my  heart  with  pure  Christian  charity,  every  man 
who  had  a  hand  in  my  murder,  for  I  declare  it  a  most  wicked 
murder.  .  .  .  God  forgive  those  who  perjured  themselves.  I 
forgive  them  from  my  heart.  I  have  no  doubt  that  when  the 
clouds  of  prejudice  and  alarm  shall  pass  away,  justice  will  be 
done  me,  and  I  hope  my  sufferings  will  be  a  warning  to  jurors 
to  be  cautious  how  they  embrue  their  hands  in  innocent  blood. 
...  I  do  recommend  to  you,  men  of  Kent,  in  time  to  come,  to 
beware  how  you  permit  any  person  to  take  advantage  of  you, 
and  to  guard  against  the  snares  of  crown  lawyers.  It  has  been 
the  fate  of  your  county  to  shed  the  blood  of  a  poor  helpless 
innocent  stranger.  May  God  Almighty  forgive  all  mine  enemies, 
and  I  desire  of  you  all  to  pray  to  God  to  grant  me  grace  to 
support  me  in  this  moment,  and  to  enable  me  to  die  in  a  manner 
worthy  of  my  integrity.  I  have  many  sins  to  answer  for,  but 
they  are  the  sins  of  my  private  life,  and  I  am  innocent  of  the 
charge  for  which  I  die.  O  Lord,  have  mercy  on  me,  and  receive 
my  soul." 

The  crowd  were  greatly  affected.  'When  he  declared 
his  innocence  a  buzz  of  applause  ran  through  the  multitude, 
and  there  was  even  clapping  of  hands  towards  the  close 


536  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

of  his  address,  many  of  the  spectators  wept,  and  some  of 
the  soldiers  were  unable  to  repress  their  tears.' 

So  died  as  clearly  innocent  a  victim  of  misrule  and 
illegality  as  even  Irish  history  can  furnish  a  parallel  for. 
He  was  not  fairly  tried,  and  even  on  the  evidence  before 
the  court,  perjured  and  prepared  as  it  was,  there  was  not 
enough  to  convict  him  of  the  offence,  for,  as  shown,  it  failed 
to  substantiate  clearly  his  complicity  in  the  acts  charged. 
Prejudice  against  his  religion  brought  him  to  the  dock  and 
ultimately  to  the  scaffold.  If  Father  Quigley  was  guilty 
so  were  his  companions.  If  he  were  clearly  guilty,  why  was 
he  worried  in  prison  to  make  any  sort  of  confession  and 
promised  his  liberty  if  he  did  so  ?  Why  was  his  execution 
delayed  for  days  when  the  custom  then  was  to  carry  it 
out  the  next  morning  of  the  day  on  which  the  sentence  was 
pronounced.  One  can  find  no  other  explanation  than  that 
the  delay  was  intended  to  be  used  as  an  opportunity  to 
force  the  unhappy  man  into  a  confession ;  to  free  himself 
by  implicating  others,  which  he  nobly  refused  to  be  a  party 
to.  His  death  and  the  circumstances  of  his  trial  show 
conclusively  that  justice  was  not  shown  him,  and  that  he 
was  the  victim  of  a  vile  conspiracy  to  punish  men  supposed 
to  be  engaged  in  treasonable  conspiracies  in  Ireland,  and 
by  any  means  secure  their  conviction.  Father  Quigley 's 
trial  (as  told  in  HowelVs  State  Trials,  vol.  xxvii.)  was  a 
veritable  travesty  of  justice.  His  guilt  was  assumed, 
but  never  legally  proved,  and  an  innocent  man  suffered  on 
the  occasion. 

RICHARD  J.  KELLY. 


[    537    1 


Botes  anb  (Slueriee 

LITURGY 

PRIVILEGES   OF   MIDNIGHT    MASS 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — A  reply  to  the  following  questions  re  the 
celebration  of  Mass  by  a  secular  priest  in  a  convent  chapel 
belonging  to  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  situated  in  his  own 
parish,  will  greatly  oblige  : 

I.  Midnight  Mass  at  Christmas  : — According  to  the  ordinary 
law  of  the  Church  only  one  Mass,  and  that  a  Solemn  or  Missa 
Cantata  is  allowed,  on  the  feast  of  the  Nativity,  before  the 
Aurora.     By  virtue  of  special  faculties  granted  to   the  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  priest  who  celebrates  the  Midnight 
Mass  in  one  of  their  chapels  has  the  privilege  of  celebrating  his 
three  Masses  right  off.     But  can  he  by  virtue  of  the  same  facul- 
ties celebrate  his  first  Mass  as  an  "  Ordinary  Low  Mass  "  ? 

Does  the  singing  of  hymns  on  such  an  occasion  during  Mass 
lend  solemnity  enough,  so  that  the  Mass  can  be  looked  upon  in 
any  sense  according  to  the  Church's  idea  of  solemnity  as  a  Solemn 
Mass  ?  Must  there  be  on  such  occasions  at  least  a  Missa  Cantata 
or  no  Mass  at  all,  before  the  usual  hour  for  celebrating  ? 

II.  The  Sisters  of  Charity,  according  to  their  Institution,  are 
parochial,  and  hence  are  to  be  considered  as  ordinary  parishioners 
of  the  parish  in  which  they  reside.     During  the  course  of  the 
year  festivals  proper  to  their  Order  occur.     Is  the  priest  of  the 
parish,  when  he  celebrates  Mass  in  their  chapel,  bound  to  celebrate 
the  Mass  of  their  feast,  although  his  office  (the  ordinary  one  of  the 
day)  is  different  ? 

Is  he  free  to  celebrate  the  Mass  in  keeping  with  his  office  ? 

Is  he  bound  to  celebrate  the  Mass  in  keeping  with  his  office, 
if  that  Office  is  of  a  festival  of  an  equal  or  higher  right  to  the 
festival  of  the  Order  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  seeing  that  he  is  in 
his  own  parish. 

III.  How  many  lights  is  a  priest  allowed  at  Mass  in  cele- 
brating such  festivals  in  a  convent  chapel  ? 

SACERDOS. 

I.  The   general   Rubrics   of   the   Missal1   assume   that 

1  Rub.  Gen,  Miss.,  tit.  xv.,  n.  4. 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

the  Mass  which  is  privileged  to  be  celebrated  immediately 
after  midnight  on  Christmas  Eve,  should  be  a  solemn 
Mass,  or  at  least,  a  Missa  Cantata.  But  an  Apostolic 
Indult  may  be  obtained  for  saying  even  a  Private  Mass  on 
the  occasion.  We  have  seen  the  concession  granted  in  favour 
of  the  Sisterhood  mentioned  by  our  correspondent,  and 
having  read  it  over  we  think  there  is  nothing  in  it  that 
suggests  that  any  one  of  the  three  Masses  permitted  to  be 
celebrated  on  the  night  preceding  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity 
should  be  either  Solemn  or  even  Cantata.  The  Document 
makes  no  distinction  whatever  between  the  first  Mass  and 
the  other  two.  Moreover,  it  conveys  privileges,  such  as 
the  faculty  of  saying  the  three  Masses  consecutively  and 
distributing  Communion  at  each,  which  are  far  greater 
than  the  permission  to  substitute  a  Low  for  a  High 
Mass.  .( 

If  a  High  Mass  indeed  were  required  in  the  first  instance 
the  mere  singing  of  hymns  would  not  impart  to  a  Low 
Mass  the  solemnity  contemplated  by  the  Rubrics  when 
they  speak  of  a  Missa  Solemnis.  This  comes  from  the 
presence  of  a  Deacon  and  Subdeacon,  and  other  ceremonial 
accessories.  The  Cantata,  if  necessary,  could  easily  be 
managed  by  a  Priest,  who  was  competent  to  sing  the  re- 
quisite parts,  with  the  assistance  of  a  few  altar  boys,  and 
a  choir  trained  to  give  the  Responses. 

II.  The  Community,  not  being  bound  to  the  choral 
recitation  of  the  Divine  Office,  does  not  enjoy  the  privilege 
of  a  special  Kalendar  of  its  own.  The  Kalendar,  therefore, 
of  the  institution  will  be  the  Local  or  Diocesan  one,  and 
in  accordance  with  this  all  Masses  said  in  the  principal 
chapel,  whether  by  Seculars  or  Regulars,  must  be  regu- 
lated, it  being  understood  that  where  the  local  Office  is 
of  semidouble  or  lower  rite  greater  freedom  is  enjoyed  in 
the  selection  of  the  Mass.  Communities,  however,  while 
not  having  a  proper  Kalendar  sometimes  have  the  privilege 
obtained  by  Indult  from  the  Holy  See  of  substituting  for 
the  Mass  prescribed  by  the  Local  Ordo  a  Mass  in  honour 
of  some  saint  closely  associated  with  the  Order,  and  it  is 
in  regard  to  Feasts  such  as  these  that  the  second  part  of 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  539 

our  correspondent's  question  applies.  He  asks  if  the 
chaplain  is  bound  to  say  these  Masses  ?  We  think  he  is, 
not  by  any  obligation  that  arises  from  the  Rubrics,  but  in 
virtue  of  the  obligation  which  he  owes  to  the  Community 
to  which  his  services  as  Chaplain  are  due.  The  '  rationabile 
obsequium  '  which  he  undertook  to  discharge  on  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  Chaplaincy  embraces  the  saying  of  these 
Masses  which  the  Community  are  privileged  to  have  said, 
and  which  they  are  quite  within  their  right  in  demanding. 
The  Chaplain,  then,  is  free  to  say  these  Masses  or  not  as 
far  as  the  Rubrics  are  concerned,  but  in  duty  to  those  whom 
he  has  to  serve  we  believe  he  ought  to  say  them. 

III.  We  have  gone  into  this  point  in  cxtcnso  in  a  previous 
issue  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD.1  There  is  really  no  hard  and 
fast  regulation  about  the  maximum  number  of  lights  that 
may  be  used  on  occasions  like  those  referred  to,  and  a  good 
deal  of  latitude  is  allowed  to  custom.1  Until  some  authori- 
tative decision  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  definitively 
settles  the  matter,  perhaps  the  most  prudent  thing  to  do 
in  circumstances  like  these  is  to  possess  one's  soul  in  patience 
as  long,  at  any  rate,  as  there  is  no  open  violation  of  any 
direct  prescription  of  the  Rubrics. 


"DE    MISS  A    IN   ALIBNA    ECCLESIA.1' 

REV.  DEAR  SIR, — Will  you  kindly  furnish  me,  through  the 
I.  E.  RECORD,  with  the  text  of  the  latest  Decree  concerning  the 
quality  of  the  Mass  to  be  said  in  a  private  chapel  of  Religieuses 
who  have  no  Ordo  proper  to  their  Institute  ?  In  other  words, 
ought  the  Chaplain  to  follow  the  Ordo  of  the  diocese  or  his  own 
Ordo,  as  in  the  case  of  Regulars  ? 

SACERDOS. 

Quite  recently  several  questions  have  been  asked 
us  about  matters  kindred  to  the  subject  of  the  present 
query,  which  lead  us  to  infer  that  very  hazy  notions  still 
prevail  about  the  precise  nature  of  the  new  regulations, 

1  Cf.  I.  E.  RECORD,  December,  1905,  pp.  550-1. 
a  Deer.  S.C.R.,  nn.  3058,  3065. 


54°  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

De  Missa  in  Aliena  Ecclesia.  As  our  correspondent  may 
not  have  at  hand  the  back  issues  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD,  in 
which  the  text  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites1 
is  given  and  their  purport  explained,  we  believe  it  will  be 
more  convenient  if  we  indicate  briefly  the  drift  of  the 
recent  legislation,  and  emphasize  the  chief  points  of  prac- 
tical importance.  Up  to  July,  1895,  when  a  Priest  said 
Mass  in  a  place  where  any  Ordo  different  to  his  was 
in  use,  he  was  bound  to  conform  the  Mass  in  some  cases 
to  the  local,  and  in  others  to  his  own  Kalendar.  The 
selection,  which  depended  a  good  deal  on  the  colour  of  the 
vestments  prescribed  by  the  local  Directory  and  on  other 
circumstances,  was  often  rather  perplexing.  All  this  has 
now  been  changed,  and  a  greater  degree  of  simplicity 
secured.  The  main  difference  between  the  new  and  the 
old  discipline  may  be  said  to  be  that,  while  the  old  respected 
more  the  person  of  the  celebrant,  the  new  takes  into  account 
principally  the  place  where  the  Holy  Sacrifice  is  celebrated. 
Its  chief  provisions  may  be  thus  summed  up  : — 

All  Priests,  whether  Secular  or  Regular,  must  for  the 
future  conform  their  Masses  to  the  Ordo  of  the  Church  or 
Oratory — if  public  or  semipublic — in  which  they  celebrate, 
whenever  the  local  Office  is  of  a  rite  higher  than  a  semi- 
double. 

The  conformity,  therefore,  between  the  Mass  and  the 
local  Kalendar  is  to  be  observed  : — (a)  by  all  Priests, 
Secular  and  Regular  alike,  with  this  provision,  that  it  does 
not  extend  to  the  rites  peculiar  to  certain  Religious  Orders ; 
(b)  in  all  churches,  public  and  semi-public  oratories,  but  not 
in  private,  or  domestic  oratories  ;  (c)  as  long  as  the  local 
rite  is  double,  or  higher. 

To  make  the  Decree  clear,  and  its  scope  intelligible, 
various  points  regarding  it  have  been  explained  by  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  in  answer  to  questions.  Let  us  try, 
similarly,  to  ascertain  its  exact  meaning. 

I.  What  is  meant  by  the  local   Kalendar,   or  Ordo  ? 

1  C/.  Deer.  S.C.R.,  nn.  3862  (pth  July,  1895),  3883  (8th  February,  1896), 
3919  (a/th  June,  1896),  3910  (22nd  May,  1896). 
*  Deer.  S.C.R.,  9th  July,  1895. 


NOTES  AND  QUERIES  541 

For  Parochial  Churches,  and  for  all  Chapels  and  Oratories 
of  religious  that  have  no  proper  Kalendar,  the  local  Ordo 
will  be  that  of  the  Diocese.  Most  religious  Orders  and 
Congregations  of  Men,  and  those  Communities  of  Nuns 
that  are  obliged  to  the  choral  recitation  of  the  Divine 
Office,  have  a  special  Ordo  of  their  own.  Then,  too,  the 
Diocesan  Ordo  will  be  modified  slightly  for  Feasts  inci- 
dental to  individual  churches,  such  as  those  of  the  Dedi- 
cation, Titular,  Patronus  loci,  and  also  for  the  Feasts  which 
may  be  granted  by  the  Holy  See  to  Communities  not  having 
a  proprium  Kalendar. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  public,  semi-public,  and  private 
Oratories,  and  how  far  does  the  obligation  of  conformity 
extend  with  regard  to  them  ? 

Public  Oratories  are  those  which  by  a  solemn  blessing 
or  consecration,  have  been  dedicated  to  Divine  service, 
and  afford  free  and  unrestricted  ingress  to  the  faithful 
generally.  Semi-public  are  those  which  have  been  erected 
by  the  authority  of  the  Ordinary  and  are  intended  to  serve 
the  wants  of  a  small  section  or  body  of  the  faithful.  Of 
such  a  kind  are  the  Oratories  in  religious  communities, 
institutions,  orphanages,  seminaries,  colleges,  hospitals, 
etc.  Private  or  domestic  are  those  which  by  an  Indult  of 
the  Holy  See  have  been  erected  in  private  houses,  for  the 
convenience  of  an  individual  and  his  family.  In  these 
latter,  which  have  not  been  touched  by  the  recent  Decrees, 
the  celebrant  must  follow  his  own  Directory. 

3.  It  often  happens  in  a  religious  community  that  there 
may  be  two  or  more  Altars  erected  in  different  parts  of  the 
house.     Does  the  Decree  of  conformity  apply  to  all  ?     The 
Congregation  of  Rites1  has  decided  in  the  negative,  and 
stated  that  it  is  only  the  capella  principalis  that  is  com- 
prehended in  the  Decree.     We  think,  however,  all  the  altars 
in  this  chapel  are  included. 

4.  What  if  the  rite  of  the  local  Office  is  semi-double  or 
lower  ?     In  this  case  the  celebrant  is  free  to  say  either  the 
Mass  of  his  own  Ordo,  or  any  other  allowed  by  the  general 

I  26th  May,  1896. 


542  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Rubrics  of  the  Missal,  or  the  Decrees  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites. 

5.  The  chaplain  to  a  convent,  whether  a  Secular  or 
Regular,  is  bound  to  the  local  Ordo.  What  if  the  chap- 
laincy is  entrusted  not  to  an  individual  religious  but  to  the 
familia  to  which  he  belongs  ?  The  Congregation  of  Rites  l 
decided  that  where  a  religious  house  is  entrusted  not  alone 
with  the  chaplaincy  but  with  the  control  of  a  church  or 
institution,  its  Kalendar  —  if  it  has  a  proper  one  —  becomes 
the  local  Ordo.  That  this  may  obtain  it  is  necessary  that 
the  house  in  question  should  have  charge  of  the  institution 
in  some  permanent  sort  of  way  and  have  the  power  to 
exercise  a  certain  jurisdiction  over  it.  The  case  is  really 
no  exception,  because  when  those  conditions  are  fulfilled, 
the  institution  passes  over  to  the  dominion,  either  de  jure 
or  de  facto,  of  its  immediate  spiritual  ruler. 

We  have  now  reached  the  stage  at  which  we  can  give 
a  direct  answer  to  the  question  of  our  correspondent,  which 
has  occasioned  all  these  observations.  In  the  first  place, 
we  cannot  understand  how  the  chaplain,  not  being  a  Regular, 
has  an  Ordo  of  his  own  (as  implied)  which  is  different  from 
the  Diocesan.  In  the  next,  our  correspondent  seems  to 
think  that  a  Regular,  if  chaplain  to  a  community  of  nuns 
having  no  proper  Ordo,  should  follow  his  own  Kalendar.  This 
is  not  true.  The  Regular  must  follow  the  local  Ordo  just  as 
the  Secular,  subject  to  the  limitations  set  out  in  preceding 
paragraph.  Again,  our  correspondent  speaks  of  the  chapel 
of  the  community  as  private.  If  he  refers  to  the  capella 
principalis  of  the  Sisters,  it  is  not  private  hi  the  sense  of 
the  Decrees  of  the  Congregation  we  are  considering.  The 
local  Ordo  in  the  case  is  that  of  the  Diocese,  and  this  every 
Priest  celebrating  in  the  principal  chapel,  whether  he  be 
Secular  or  Regular,  is  obliged  to  follow  within  the  limits 
stated. 

6.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  obligation  of  conformity  ? 

It  extends  to  all  Masses,  whether  de  sanctis  or   de  beatis, 
which  are  prescribed  by  the  local  Ordo,  and  to  all  the  parts 


i  Deer.  S.C.R.,  isth  December,  1899  ;  cf.  I.  E.  RECORD,  1904,  p.  553. 


NOTES  AND   QUERIES  543 

of  these  Masses  which  are  proper  for  this  place.  They  must, 
in  other  words,  be  said  in  the  same  way  by  extern  Priests 
as  by  those  attached  to  the  Church  or  Oratory.  This  does 
not  mean  that  the  rites  peculiar  to  certain  religious  Orders 
should  be  observed  by  Secular  Priests.  Thus,  a  Secular 
saying  Mass  in  a  Dominican  church  should  use  the  Roman 
Missal.  If  an  oratio  imperata  is  ordered  in  a  certain  diocese 
or  church,  this  must  be  said  by  the  Priest  celebrating 
here. 

P.  MORRISROE. 


[    544 


DOCUMENTS 

LETTER  OF   HIS  HOLINESS  POPE    PIUS  X  TO  THE  BISHOP 
OF  LA  BOCHELLE  ON    BIBLICAL    CRITICISM 

EPISTOLA. 

QUA  SUMMUS  PONTIFEX  ILLMUM  AC  RMUM  D.  AEMILIUM  P.  LE 
CAMUS,  EPISCOPUM  RUPELLEN.,  LAUDAT,  OB  OPUS  BIBLICUM 
NUPER  AB  IPSO  EDITUM. 

PIO  PAPA  X. 

Venerabile  Fratello,  salute  ed  Apostolica  Benedizione. 

Giudichiamo  che  la  recente  pubblicazione  del  vostro  lavoro 
sull,  Opera  degli  Apostoli,  in  tre  volumi,  non  potrebbe  giungere 
meglio  a  proposito,  e  vi  siamo  riconoscenti  di  avercene  fatto 
omaggio. 

Giacche"  non  e  piti  permesso  di  conservare  la  minima  illusione 
su  un  fatto  ormai  evidentissimo,  che  cio£  il  disprezzo,  anzi  1'odio 
contro  la  fede  ed  i  costumi  dei  veri  cristiani  si  accentuano  si 
tristemente  ai  giorni  nostri,  che  in  grandissimo  numero  pur- 
troppo,  Noi  vediamo  uomini  sforzarsi  di  mettere  in  onore  nella 
vita  privata  o  pubblica,  quanto  fu  1'onta  dell'antichita  pagana. 
Che  si  poteva  immaginare  di  piu  emcace  per  reprimere  un  si 
gran  male  che  presentare  ad  un  mondo  che  invecchia  e  va  in 
decadenza,  la  descrizione  della  Chiesa  nascente  e  risvegliare 
cosl  nelle  anime,  mostrando  ci6  che  i  nostri  padri  hanno  fatto  e 
detto,  il  santo  ardore  che  e  necessario  spiegare  per  rispondere 
agli  attacchi  diretti  contro  i  saggi  insegnamenti  e  le  virtfi  della 
religione  cristiana  ? 

Questo  e  incontestabilmente  lo  scopo  del  vostro  lavoro,  nel 
quale  voi  studiate  le  origini  cristiane  per  modo  che  vi  dimostrate 
non  solo  uomo  pieno  di  dottrina  e  di  competenza  chiaroveggente, 
ma  anche  completamente  compenetrato  di  quella  pieta  che 
caratterizza  i  tempi  antichi. 

Go  poi  che  nel  vostro  lavoro  e  specialmente  degno  di  elogio, 
e,  che  nella  vostra  maniera  di  esporre  i  testi  sacri,  avete  cercato 
di  seguire,  per  rispetto  della  verita  e  per  1'onore  della  dottrina 
cattolica,  la  via,  dalla  quale,  sotto  la  direzione  della  Chiesa,  non 
bisogna  mai  deviare.  In  quella  guisa,  infatti  che  si  deve  con- 
dannare  la  temerita  di  coloro,  che,  preoccupandosi  molto  piu  di 


DOCUMENTS  545 


seguire  il  gusto  della  novita  che  1'insegnamento  della  Chiesa, 
non  esitano  a  ricorrere  a  del  process!  critici  di  una  eccessiva 
liberta,  conviene  pariraenti  disapprovare  1'attitudine  di  coloro 
che  non  osano,  in  alcun  modo,  romperla  coll'esegesi  scritturale 
vigente  fino  a  ieri,  anche  quando,  salva  1'integrita  della  fede,  il 
saggio  progresso  degli  studi  li  invita  coraggiosamente  a  farlo. 

Voi  camminate  felicemente  fra  questi  due  estremi.  ColTesem- 
pio  che  voi  date,  provate  che  non  v'ha  nulla  a  temere,  per  i  nostri 
Libri  Santi  dalla  vera  marcia  in  avanti  realizzata  dalla  scienza 
critica  e  che  anzi  si  puo  aver  gran  vantaggio  per  essi  Libri,  ri- 
correndo  ai  lumi  apportati  da  quella  scienza.  E,  difatti,  cio 
accade  tutte  le  volte  che  si  sa  utilizzarlo  con  prudenza  e  saggio 
discernimento,  come  Noi  constatiamo  che  avete  fatto  voi  stesso. 
Non  v'ha  dunque  nulla  di  sorprendente  nel  grande  successo  che 
ottenne  fine  dalla  sua  apparizione  nel  mondo  dei  sapienti,  il 
primo  volume  del  vostro  elaborate  studio,  e  non  v'ha  dubbio  che 
gli  stessi  giudici  competenti  renderanno  giustizia  alia  vostra 
opera  completa. 

Quanto  a  Noi,  venerabile  Fratello,  vi  felicitiamo  di  tutto 
cuore  e  facciamo  i  voti  piii  ardenti  che  molti  lettori  ritraggano 
dal  vostro  tanto  importante  lavoro  tutti  quei  frutti  che  si  ha 
diritto  di  attenderne.  Come  pegno  dei  favori  divini  e  testi- 
monianza  del  Nostro  affetto,  impartiamo,  tenerissimamente  nel 
Signore,  a  voi,  al  vostro  clero  e  al  vostro  popolo,  la  Nostra 
Apostolica  Benedizione. 

Dato  a  Roma,  in  San  Pietro,  1'n  gennaio  1906,  terzo  anno 
del  Nostro  Pontificate. 

PIO  PP.  X. 


DAYS    ON    WHICH    EXEQUIAL    OFFICES    ARE 
PROHIBITED 

RHEMEN. 
QUIBUS   IN   FESTIS   PROHIBEANTUR  EXSEQUIAE   DEFUNCTORUM. 

Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio  per  decretum  Parentin.  et  Polen* 
die  8  lanuarii  1904,  rescripsit  dies  quibus  prohibentur  exsequiae 
pro  defuncto,  cum  effertur  corpus,  esse  '  omnia  festa  quae  uti 
primaria  sub  ritu  duplici  I  classis  et  quidem  de  praecepto  cele- 
brantur ;  et  si  non  sint  de  praecepto,  illae  Dominicae  ad  quas 
praefatorum  festorum  solemnitas  transfertur.'  Exorta  autem 
VOL.  xix.  2  M 


THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 


controversia  de  sensu  quo  intelligenda  et  dicenda  sint  festa  de 
praecepto,  Rmus  Canonicus  Calendarii  Rhemensis  ordinator, 
de  consensu  Rmi  Dni  Vicarii  Capitularis,  Sede  vacante,  a  Sacra 
Rituum  Congregatione  sequentis  dubii  resolutionem  humillime 
flagitavit  ;  nimirum  : 

i  I.  An  festa  de  praecepto  ilia  sint  in  quibus,  praeter  obliga- 
tionem  a  parocho  adimplendam,  adest  quoque  altera  et  quidem 
duplex  obligatio  parochianis  imposita,  nempe  turn  Missam 
audiendi,  turn  ab  operibus  servilibus  cessandi  ? 

II.  An  exsequiae  cum  Missa,  praesente  corpore,  fieri  possint 
in  festis  suppressis,  quorum  solemnitas  in  Dominicam  sequentem 
non  transfertur  ? 

Et  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio,  ad  relationem  subscripti 
Secretarii,  exquisite  voto  Commissionis  Liturgicae  omnibusque 
sedulo  perpensis,  rescribendum  censuit  ? 

Ad  I.  Affirmative. 

Ad  II.  Negative  iuxta  decretum  n.  4003  Carcassonen.,  quaest.  I 
ad  II  et  III. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.    Die  I  Decembris  1905. 

A  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praefectus. 
L.  *S. 

»i«  D.    PANICI,   Archiep.   Laodicen.,   Secretarius. 

APPROVED    EDITION    OP    THE    GBEaORIAN    CHANT 

DECRETUM  SEU  DECLARATIO   SACRORUM   RITUUM  CONGREGATIONS. 

A  nonnullis  Editoribus  proponitur  subinde  quaestio  de  modo 
interpretandi  Dispositiones  Art.  II  et  IV  Decreti  seu  Instructio- 
num  Sacrae  Rituum  Congregationis,  diei  n  Augusti  MCMV, 
circa  editionem  et  approbationem  librorum  cantum  liturgicum 
Gregorianum  continentium.  Ad  hanc  autem  quaestionem  sol- 
vendam  eadeam  Sacra  Congregatio,  de  mandato  Santissimi 
Domini  Nostri  Pii  Papae  X,  quae  sequuntur  declarat  : 

i.  Forma  notularum  cantus  sic  debet  integra  servari,  ut 
omnes  ex  eis  quae  eandem  habent  rationem  vel  significationem, 
ac  proinde  in  editione  typica  Vaticana  unam  enadenque  figuram 
referunt,  pariter  in  alia  editione,  quae  ab  Ordinario  possit  appro- 
bari,  necessario  quoad  formam  omnino  inter  se  similes  extent 
et  coaequales.  Ideoque  signa  quae  forte  fuerint,  permittente 
Ordinario,  superinducta,  nullatenus  notularum  formam,  vel 
modum  quo  ipsae  coniunguntur,  afficere  debent. 


DOCUMENTS  547 


2.  Quamvis  editio  aliqua  fuerit  recognita,  ab  Ordinario  vel 
ab  ipsa  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatione,  tanquam  de  cetero,  vide- 
licet exceptis  signis,  cum  typica  conformis,  oportet  tamen  ut 
deinceps  normas  supra  statutas  exacte  servet ;  quatenus,  inter 
notulas  typicas  et  signa  quae  superveniunt,  iam  amplius  confusio 
oriri  nequeat.  Contrariis  non  obstantibus  quibuscumque.  Die 
14  Februarii  1906. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  S.  R.  C.  Pro-Praefectus. 
L.  *  S. 

i£  DIOMEDES  PANICI,  Arckiep.  Laodicen.,  S.  R.  C.  Secret. 


BISHOPS'    CONTBOL    OVER   THE    HINGING    OP    BELLS 

DECRETA  SS.  RR.  CONGREGATIONUM. 
S.     C.     EPISCOPORUM     ET     REGULARIUM. 

ORDINIS  FRATRUM  PRAEDICATORUM. 

EPISCOPI    FACULTATE   GAUDENT   LIMITANDI,    ETIAM   QUOAD   REGU- 
LARES,  DURATIONEM  PULSATIONUM  IN  SONITU  CAMPANARUM. 

Beatissime  Pater 

Episcopus  Sanctae  Fidei  in  Republica  Argentina  humiliter  ac 
reverenter  exponit  quod,  attentis  querelis  sive  privatim  sive 
publice  sive  etiam  per  ephemerides  excitatis  ex  abusu  circa 
campanarum  sonitum,  necnon  iure  meritoque  metuens  auctori- 
tatis  civilis  aut  municipals  interventum,  quern  opera  sui  Vicarii 
Generalis  semel  vitare  potuit,  decretum  edere  statuit,  vi  cuius, 
campanarum  sono  diebus  Dominicis,  festivis  aliisque  anni  tem- 
poribus  baud  prohibito,  earumdem  campanarum  usus  tantum- 
modo  moderatur  et  limitatur.  Quum  vero  Fratres  Praedicatores, 
qui  in  hac  Sanctae  Fidei  civitate  Conventum  habent,  contra 
praefatum  episcopale  decretum  opponant  privilegium  ipsis  a 
S.  Pio  V  Constitutione  Etsi  Mendicantium  diei  16  Maii  1567  con- 
cessum,  atque  a  resolutione  S.  Congr.  Episcoporum  et  Regu- 
larium  diei  11  Martii  1892  confirmatum  duo  sequentia  dubia 
resolvenda  proponit : 

i.  Utrum  attentis  gravibus  adiunctis  supra  relatis,  dicti 
Fratres  Praedicatores  obtemperare  teneantur  dispositionibus  in 
citato  episcopali  decreto  contentis  ?  Et  quatenus  negative  : 

II.  Quomodo  se  gerere  debeat  Ordinarius  ad  interventum 
civilis  vel  municipals  auctoritatis  vitandum  ? 

Sacra  Congregatio  Emorum.  ac  Rmomm.  S.  R.  E.  Cardina- 


548  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

lium  negotiis  et  consultationibus  Episcoporum  et  Regularium 
praeposita,  re  sedulo  perpensa,  praefatis  dubiis  respondendura 
censuit,  prout  respondet : 

Firmo  remanente  Fratrum  Praedicatorum  privilegio  pulsandi 
campanus  quando  eis  placuerit,  ad  tramitem  Constitutions  S,  Pit 
V  Etis  Mendicantium,  Episcopus  potest,  propter  specialis  loci  et 
temporwm  adiuncta,  pulsationum  durationem  ad  cerium  tempus 
Kmitare. 

Romae,  15  Novembris  1905. 

D.  Card.  FERRATA,  Praefectus. 
L.  *S. 

PHILIPPUS  GIUSTINI,  Secretaries. 


DECREE    OP    THE    SACRED     CONG-REQATION    OF    THE 
COUNCIL    ON    STUDENTS    IN    SEMINARIES 

DE  SEMINARIORUM  ALUMNIS  DECRETUM 

Vetvit  S.  Tridentina  Synodus  ad  sacros  ordines  ascendere, 
vel  ordines  iam  susceptos  exercere  eos  omnes  qui  a  suo  Episcopo 
fuerint  etiam  extraiudicialiter  prohibit!.  Ita  namque  in  cap.  I, 
Sess.  24,  de  reform,  statuitur  : 

'  Cum  honestius  ac  tutius  sit  subiecto  debitam  Praepositis 
obedientiam  impendendo  in  inferior!  ministerio  deservire,  quam 
cum  Praepositorum  scandalo  graduum  altiorum  appetere  digni- 
tatem ;  ei  qui  ascensus  ad  sacros  ordines  a  suo  Prelate  ex  qua 
cumque  causa  etiam  ob  occultum  crimen  quomodolibet,  etiam 
extraiudicialiter  fuerit  interdictus,  aut  qui  a  suis  ordinibus  seu 
gradibus  vel  dignitatibus  ecclesiasticis  fuerit  suspensus,  nulla 
contra  ipsius  Praelati  voluntatem  concessa  licentia  de  se  pro- 
moveri  faciendo,  aut  ad  priores  ordines,  gradus  et  dignitates 
sive  honores,  restitutio  suffragetur.' 

Cum  vero  generalis  haec  lex  Seminariorum  quoque  alumnos 
comprehendat,  si  quis  eorum,  sive  clericus  sive  clericatui  adhuc 
non  initiatus,  e  pio  loco  dimittatur  eo  quod  certa  vocationis  signa 
non  praebeat,  aut  qualitatibus  ad  ecclesiasticum  statum  requi- 
sitis  non  videatur  instructus,  hie  certe  deberet,  iuxta  grave  S. 
Concilii  monitum,  sui  Pastoris  iudicio  subesse  et  acquiescere. 

At  contra  saepe  contingit  ut  e  Seminario  dimissi,  eorum  qui 
praesunt  iudicium  parvipendentes  et  in  sua  potius  opinione  con- 
fisi,  ad  sacerdotium  nihilominus  ascendere  studeant.  Quaeritant 
itaque  aliud  Seminarium,  in  quod  recipiantur,  ubi  studiorum 


DOCUMENTS  549 


cursum  expleant,  ac  denique  aliquo  exhibito  plus  minusve  sin- 
cere ac  legitimo  domicilii  aut  incardinationis  titulo,  ordina- 
tionem  assequuntur.  Sanctuarium  autem  ingressi  haud  recta 
via,  quam  saepissime  fit  ut  Ecclesiae  utilitati  minime  sint. 
Passim  vero  utrumque  Ordinarium,  et  originis  et  ordinationis, 
diu  fastidioseque  vexant  ut  sibi  liceat  ad  natale  solum  regredi, 
ibique  consistere,  dioecesi  in  qua  et  pro  qua  ordinati  sunt  dere- 
licta,  et  alia  optata,  pro  cuius  necessitate  aut  utilitate  minime 
assumpti  sunt,  ubi  imo  eorum  praesentia  otiosa  est  et  quandoque 
etiam  damnosa  :  unde  Episcopi  in  graves  angustias  coniiciuntur. 

His  itaque  de  causis  nonnullarum  provinciarum  Episcopi 
inter  se  convenerunt  statuentes  in  sua  seminaria  neminem 
admittere  qui  ante  fuerit  a  proprio  dimissus. 

Sed  cum  particularis  haec  conventio  non  plene  neque  undique 
sumceret,  complures  Ordinarii  S.  Sedem  rogaverunt  ut  genera- 
lem  legem  terret,  qua  malum  radicitus  tolleretur. 

His  itaque  attends,  et  omnibus  ad  rem  mature  perpensis, 
SSmus.  D.  N.  Pius  PP.  X,  cui  cordi  quam  maxime  est  eccle- 
siasticam  disciplinam  integram  conservare,  et  a  sacris  avertere 
quemlibet  qui  probatissimus  non  sit,  accedente  etiam  voto  Em. 
S.  C.  Concilii  Patrum  in  Congregatione  diei  XVI  mens.  Decembris 
1905  emisso,  praesentibus  litteris  statuit  atque  decernit  : 

I.  Ut  in  posterum  nullus  loci  Ordinarius  alterius  dioecesis 
subditum  sive  clericum  sive  laicum  in  suum  Seminarium  admittat, 
nisi  prius  secretis  litteris  ab  Episcopo  Oratoris  proprio  expe- 
tierit  et  cognoverit,  utrum  hie  fuerit  olim  e  suo  Seminario 
dimissus.  Quod  si  constiterit,  omittens  iudicare  de  causis,  aut 
determinare  utrum  iuste  an  iniuste  alius  Episcopus  egerit,  aditum 
in  suum  Seminarium  postulanti  praecludat. 

2.  Qui  vero  bona  fide  admissi  sunt,  eo  quod  reticuerint  se 
antea  in  alio  seminario  versatos  esse  et  ab  eo  deinde  dimissos. 
statim  ut  haec  eorum  conditio  cognoscatur,  admonendi  sunt  ut 
discendant.     Quodsi  permanere  velint,  et  ab  Ordinario  id  eis 
permittatur,  eo  ipsi  huic  dioecesi  adscripti  maneant,  servatis 
tamen  canonicis  regulis  pro  eorum  incardinatione  et  ordinatione  ; 
sed  aucti  sacerdotio  in  dioecesim,   e  cuius  Seminario  dimissi 
fuerint,  regredi  ibique  stabile  domicilium  habere  prohibentur. 

3.  Pariter  cum  similis  ferme  ratio  vigeat,   qui  dimissi  ex 
Seminariis  aliquod  religiosum  institutum  ingrediuntur,  si  inde 
exeant  postquam   sacris  initiati   sunt,  vetantur  in   dioecesim 
redire  e  cuius  Seminario  dimissi  fuerint. 


550  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

4.  Dimissi  vero  ex  aliquo  religioso  Institute  in  Seminarium 
ne  admittantur,  nisi  prius  Episcopus  secretis  litteris  a  modera- 
toribus  eiusdem  Instituti  notitias  requisierit  de  moribus,  indole 
et  ingenio  dimissomm,  et  constiterit  nil  in  eis  esse  quod  sacer- 
dotali  statui  minus  conveniat. 

Denique  meminerint  Episcopi  fas  sibi  non  esse,  nomine 
proprio  manus  cuiquam  imponere  qui  subditus  sibi  non  sit  eo 
modo  et  uno  ex  iis  titulis,  qui  in  Constitutione  Speculators 
Innocentii  XII  et  in  decreto  S.  C.  Concilii  quod  quod  incipit 
'  A  primis '  die  XX  m.  lulii  1898  statuuntur.  Ac  pariter 
neminem  ordinari  posse  qui  non  sit  utilis  aut  necessarius  pro 
ecclesia  aut  pio  loco  pro  quo  assumitur,  iuxta  praescripta  a 
S.  Tridentino  Concilio  in  cap.  16,  Sess.  23,  de  reform. 

Vult  autem  Sanctitas  Sua  et  statuta  haec  et  cautelae  omnes 
a  sacris  canonibus  in  re  tarn  gravi  adiectae,  ab  omnibus  Ordi- 
nariis  ad  unguem  serventur ;  idque  ipsorum  conscientiae  et 
sollicitudini  quam  maxime  commendat. 

Praesentibus  valituris  contrariis  quibuslibet  minime  obstan- 
tibus. 

Datum  Romae,  die  22  m.  Decembris  1905. 

^  VINCENTIUS  Card.  Episc.  Praenestinus,  Praef. 
C.  DE  LAI,  Secretarius. 


ABSOLUTION    'IN    ARTIOULO    MORTIS' 

SS.   RITUUM  CONGREGATIO 
TERGESTINA   ET   IUSTINOPOLITANA. 

ABSOLUTIO    IN    ARTICULO    MORTIS    ET    OFFICIUM    DIVINUM    LATINE 
RECITARI   DEBENT.      QUIDAM    ABUSUS    PROHIBENTUR. 

Rmus.  Dnus.  Franciscus  Nagl,  Episcopus  Tergestinus  et 
lustinopolitanus,  Sacrorum  Rituum  Congregationi  sequentes 
quaestiones  solvendas  humillime  proposuit,  nimirum  : 

I.  An  fideles,  absolutione  in  articulo  mortis  in  lingua  ver- 
nacula   peracta,   sicuti   modo   pluries   fit,    indulgentias   lucrari 
queant  ? 

II.  In  Missis  de  Requie  post  elevationem  loco  Benedictus, 
Litaniae   uti   ex    Rituali    Romano   in   ordine   commendationis 
animae,  vel  Laurentanae,  canuntur,  et  huiusmodi  Missae  fiunt 
lectae.     Insuper  in  Missis  cantatis  de  die,  intonato  Credo  sacerdos 
prosequitur  Missam  uti  lectam  usque  ad  Praefationem.     Quae- 
ritur  an  haec  tolerari  possint  ? 


DOCUMENTS  55  * 


III.  An  sacerdos  lingua  vernacula  Officium  divinum  Bre- 
viarii Roman!  ex.  gr.  Nativitatis  Domini,  defunctorum,  etc., 
cum  populo  peragens,  vel  Litanias  Sanctorum  in  Processionibus 
Rogationum  eadem  lingua  persolvens,  teneatur  has  partes 
Breviarii  Romani  in  lingua  latina  iterum  recitare  ? 

Et  Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio,  ad  relationem  subscript! 
Secretarii,  exquisite  voto  Commissionis  Liturgicae,  reque  mature 
perpensa,  respondendum  censuit : 

Ad  I.  Negative,  quia  haec  benedictio  in  articulo  mortis  est 
precatio  stricto  sensu  liturgica. 

Ad  II.  Negative,  et  hos  abusus  omnino  esse  eliminandos. 

Ad  III.  Affirmative ;  nam  qui  ad  recitationem  divini  Officii 
et  cuiusque  partis  Breviarii  Romani  sunt  obligati,  tantum  in 
lingua  latina  haec  recitare  debent,  alias  non  satisfaciunt, 
obligationi. 

Atque  ita  rescripsit.     Die  3  lunii  1904. 

A.  Card.  TRIPEPI,  Pro-Praefectus. 
L.  ffrS 

ifc  D.  PANICI,  Archiep.  Laodicen.,  Secretariat. 


ENCYCLICAL    OP    HIS    HOLINESS    POPE     PIUS    X    TO    THE 
FBENCH   BISHOPS,  CLERGY,    AND    PEOPLE 

SANCTISSIMI  DOMINI  NOSTRI  PII  DIVINA  PROVIDENTIAE  PAPAE  X 
AD  ARCIHEPISCOPOS  ET  EPISCOPOS  UNIVERSUMQUE  CLERUM 
ET  POPULUM  GALLIAE 

DILECTIS  FILIIS  NOSTRIS  FRANCISCO  MARIAE  S.  R.  E.  PRESB. 
CARD.  RICHARD  ARCHIEPISCOPO  PARISIENSI,  VICTORI  LVCIANO 
S.  R.  E.  PRESB.  CARD.  LECOT  ARCHIEPISCOPO  BVRDIGALENSI, 
PETRO  HECTORI  S.  R.  E.  PRESB.  CARDIN.  COVLLIE  ARCHIEPIS- 
COPO LVGDVNENSI,  IOSEPHO  GVILELMO  S.  R.  E.  PRESB.  CARD. 
LABOVRE  ARCHIEPISCOPO  RHEDONENSI,  CETERISQVE  VENERA- 
BILIBVS  FRATRIBVS  ARCHIEPISCOPIS  ET  EPISCOPIS  ATQVE 
VNIVERSO  CLERO  ET  POPVLO  GALLIAE 

PIVS  PAPA  X. 

Yenerabiles    Fratres    et    Dilecti    Filii,    Salvtem    et    Apostolicam 

Benedictionem  : 

Vehementer  Nos  esse  sollicitos  et  praecipuo  quodam  dolore 
angi,  rerum  vestrarum  causa,  vix  attinet  dicere ;  quando  ea 
perlata  lex  est,  quae  quum  pervetustam  civitatis  vestrae  cum 


552  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

Apostolica  Sede  necessitudinem  violenter  dirimit,  turn  vero 
indignam  miserrimamque  Ecclesiae  in  Gallia  conditionem  im- 
portat.  Gravissimum  sane  facinus,  idemque,  ob  ea  quae  civili 
societati  allaturum  est  aeque  ac  religion!  detrimenta,  omnibus 
bonis  deplorandum.  Quod  tamen  nemini  arbitramur  inopinatum 
accidisse,  qui  quidem  postremis  temporibus,  quemadmodum 
sese  adversus  Ecclesiam  rei  publicae  moderatores  gererent, 
attenderit.  Vobis  certe  nee  subitum  accidit  nee  novum,  Venera- 
biles  Fratres,  quibus  ipsis  testibus,  Christiana  instituta  plagas 
tarn  multas  tamque  magnas,  alias  ex  aliis,  accipere,  publice. 
Vidistis  violatam  legibus  christiani  sanctitudinem  ac  stabili- 
tatem  coniugii ;  dimotam  de  scholis  de  valetudinariis  publicis 
religionem  ;  abstractos  a  sacra  studiorum  et  virtutum  disciplina 
clericos  et  sub  arma  compulsos  ;  disiectas  spoliatasque  bonis  re- 
ligiosas  Familias,  earumque  sodales  ad  inopiam  plerumque 
redactos  rerum  omnium.  Ilia  etiam  decreta  nostis  :  ut  abole- 
retur  consuetude  vetus  vel  auspicandi,  propritiato  Deo  legum- 
latorum  ac  iudicum  coetus,  vel  ob  memoriam  mortis  Christ! 
lugubria  induendi  navibus ;  ut  sacramentis  in  iure  dicendis 
forma  speciesque  abrogaretur  religiosae  rei ;  ut  in  iudiciis,  in 
gymnasiis,  in  terrestribus  maritimisque  copiis,  in  rebus  denique 
omnibus  ditionis  publicae,  ne  quid  esset  aut  fieret,  quod  signi- 
ficationem  aliquam  christianae  professionis  daret.  lam  vero  ista 
quidem  et  id  genus  cetera,  quum  ab  Ecclesia  sensim  rem  pub- 
licam  seiungerent,  nihil  fuisse  aliud  apparet,  nisi  gradus  quosdam 
consulto  iactos  ad  plenum  discidium  lege  propria  inducendum : 
id  quod  ipsi  harum  rerum  auctores  profited  plus  semel  et  prae 
se  ferre  non  dubitarunt.  Huic  tanto  malo  ut  occurreret  Apos- 
tolica Sedes,  quanto  in  se  habuit  facultatis,  totum  eo  contulit. 
Nam  ex  una  parte  admonere  atque  hortari  gubernatores  Galliae 
non  destitit,  etiam  atque  etiam  considerarent,  hunc  quem 
instituissent  discessionis  cursum,  quanta  esset  incommodorum 
consecutura  moles  ;  ex  altera  autem  suae  in  Galliam  indulgentiam 
benevolentiaeque  singularis  illustria  duplicavit  documenta  ;  non 
absurde  confisa,  se  ita  posse,  qui  praeerant,  tamquam  iniecto 
omcii  gratiaeque  vinculo,  retinere  in  declivi,  atque  ab  incoeptis 
demum  abducere.  At  huiusmodi  studia,  ofncia,  conata  et 
Decessoris  et  Nostra  recidisse  ad  nihilum  omnia  cernimus ; 
siquidem  inimica  religion!  vis,  quod  contra  iura  catholicae  gentis 
vestrae  ac  vota  recte  sentientium  diu  contenderat  expugnavii. 
Hoc  igitur  tarn  gravi  Ecclesiae  tempore,  ut  conscientia  Nos 


DOCUMENTS  553 


officit  sanctissimi  iubet,  Apostolicam  vocem  tollimus,  et  rnentem 
animumque  Nostrum  vobis,  Venerabiles  Fratres  et  dilecti  Filii, 
patefacimus  :  quos  quidem  universes  omnes  semper  consuevimus 
peculiar!  quadam  caritate  prosequi,  nunc  vero,  uti  par  est,  eo 
vel  amantius  complectimur. 

Civitatis  rationes  a  rationibus  Ecclesiae  segregari  oportere, 
profecto  falsissima,  maximeque  perniciosa  sententia  est.  Pri- 
mum  enim,  quum  hoc  nitatur  fundamento,  religionem  nullo 
pacto  debere  civitati  esse  curae,  magnam  infert  iuiuriam  Deo  : 
qui  ipse  humanae  societatis  non  minus  quam  hominum  singulo- 
rum  conditor  et  conservator  est ;  proptereaque  non  privatim 
tantummodo  colatur  necesse  est,  sed  etiam  publice.  Deinde, 
quidquam  esse  supra  naturam,  non  obscure  negat.  Etenim 
actionem  civitatis  sola  vitae  mortalis  prosperitate  metitur,  in 
qua  consistit  causa  proxima  civilis  societatis  ;  causam  ultimam 
civium,  quae  est  sempiterna  beatitude  extra  hanc  brevitatem 
vitae  hominibus  proposita,  tamquam  alienam  reipublicae,  plane 
negligit.  Quod  contra,  ad  adeptionem  summi  illius  absolutique 
boni,  ut  hie  totus  est  fluxarum  rerum  ordo  dispositus,  ita  verum 
est  rempublicam  non  modo  non  obesse,  sed  prodesse  oportere. 
Praeterea  descriptionem  pervertit  rerum  humanarum  a  Deo 
sapientissime  constitutam,  quae  profecto  utriusque  societatis, 
religiosae  et  civilis,  concordiam  requirit.  Nam,  quoniam  ambae, 
tametsi  in  suo  quaeque  genere,  in  eosdem  tamen  imperium 
exercent,  necessitate  fit,  ut  causae  inter  eas  saepe  existant 
eiusmodi,  quarum  cognitio  et  diiudicatio  utriusque  sit.  lamvero, 
nisi  civitas  cum  Ecclesia  cohaereat,  facile  ex  illis  ispis  causis 
concertationum  oritura  sunt  semina-utrinque  acerbissimarum  ; 
quae  iudicium  veri  magna  cum  animorum  anxietate,  perturbent. 
Postremo  maximum  importat  ipsi  societati  civili  detrimentum ; 
haec  enim  florere  aut  stare  diu,  posthabita  religione,  quae  summa 
dux  ac  magistra  adest  homini  ad  iura  et  omcia  sancte  custod- 
dienda,  non  potest. 

Itaque  Romani  Pontifices  huiusmodi  refellere  atque  im- 
probare  opiniones,  quae  ad  dissociandam  ab  Ecclesia  rem 
publicam  pertinerent,  quoties  res  tempusque  tulit,  non  desti- 
terunt.  Nominatim  Decessor  illustris,  Leo  XIII,  pluries  mag- 
nificeque  exposuit,  quanta  deberet  esse,  secundum  christianae 
principia  sapientiae,  alterius  societatis  convenientia  cum  altera  : 
inter  quas  :  '  quaedam,  ait,  intercedat  necesse  est  ordinata  col- 
ligatio,  quae  quidem  coniunctioni  non  immerito  comparatur, 
per  quam  anima  et  corpus  in  homine  copulantur.'  Addit  autem  : 


554  THE    IRISH   ECCLESIASTICAL    RECORD 

'  Civitates  non  possunt,  citra  scelus,  gerere  se  tamquam  si  Deus 
omnino  non  esset,  aut  curam  religionis  velut  alienam  nihilque 
profuturam  abiicere.  .  .  .  Ecclesiam  vero,  quam  Deus  ipse  con- 
stituit,  ab  actione  vitae  excludere,  a  legibus,  ab  institutione 
adolescentium,  a  societate  domestica,  magnus  et  perniciosus  est 
error.' 1 

lamvero  si  contra  omne  ius  fasque  agat  quaevis  Christiana 
civitas,  quae  Ecclesiam  ab  se  segreget  ac  removeat,  quam  non 
est  probandum,  egisse  hoc  ipsum  Galliam,  quod  sibi  minime 
omnium  licuit !  Galliam  dicimus,  quam  longo  saeculorum 
spatio  haec  Apostolica  Sedes  praecipuo  quodam  ac  singular! 
semper  amore  dilexerit ;  Galliam,  cuius  fortuna  omnis  et  am- 
plitude nominis  et  gloriae  religioni  humanitatique  christianae 
cognata  semper  fuerit !  Apte  idem  Pontifex :  '  Illud  Gallia 
meminerit,  quae  sibi  cum  Apostolica  Sede  sit,  Dei  providentis 
numine,  coniunctio,  actiorem  esse  vetustioremque,  quam  ut 
unquam  audeat  dissolvere.  Inde  enim  verissimae  quaeque 
laudes,  atque  honestissima  decora  profecta.  .  .  .  Hanc  velle 
turbari  necessitudinem  idem  foret  sane,  ac  velle  de  auctoritate 
gratiaque  nationis  Gallicae  in  populis  non  parum  detrahi.'2 

Accedit  autem  quod  haec  ipsa  summae  necessitudinis  vincula 
eo  sanctiora  iubebat  esse  sollemnis  pactorum  fides.  Nempe 
Apostolicam  Sedem  inter  et  Rempublicam  Gallicam  conventio 
eiusmodi  intercesserat,  cuius  ultro  et  citro  constaret  obligatio  ; 
cuiusmodi  eae  plane  sunt,  quae  inter  civitates  legitime  contrahi 
consueverunt.  Quare  et  Romanus  Pontifex  et  rei  Gallicae 
moderator  se  et  suos  quisque  successores  sponsione  obstrinxere, 
in  iis  quae  pacta  essent,  constanter  permansuros.  Conseque- 
batur  igitur,  tu  ista  pactio  eodem  iure,  ac  ceterae  quae  inter 
civitates  fiunt,  regeretur,  hoc  est,  iure  gentium  ;  ideoque  dissolvi 
ab  alterutro  dumtaxat  eorum  qui  pepigerant,  nequequam  posset. 
Apostolicam  autem  Sedem  summa  semper  fide  conditionibus 
stetisse,  omnique  tempore  postulasse,  ut  fide  pari  staret  eisdem 
civitas,  nemo  prudens  suique  iudicii  homo  negaverit.  Ecce 
autem  Respublica  pactionem  adeo  sollemnem  et  legitimam  suo 
tantum  aribitrio  rescindit ;  violandaque  religione  pactorum, 
nihil  quidquam  pensi  habet,  dum  sese  ab  Ecclesiae  complexu 
amicitiaque  expediat,  et  insignem  Apostolicae  Sedi  iniuriam 
imponere,  et  ius  gentium  frangere,  et  ipsam  commovere  graviter 
disciplinam  socialem  et  politicam  ;  siquidem  nihil  tarn  interest 

1  Epist.  Enc.  Immonale  Dei,  date  de  t  Nov.,  au.  MBCCCLXXXV. 

2  In  alloc.  ad  peregr.  Gallos,  hab.  die  xia.  apr.,  an.  MDCCCLXXXVIH. 


DOCUMENTS  555 


humani  convictus  et  societatis  ad  secure  explicandas  rationes 
popolorum  mutuas,  quam  ut  pacta  publica  sanctae  inviolateque 
serventur. 

Ad  magnitudinem  autem  iniuriae,  quam  Apostolica  Sedes 
accepit,  accessionem  non  mediocrem  factam  esse  liquet,  si 
modus  inspiciatur,  quo  modo  Respublica  pactum  resolvit.  Est 
hoc  ratum  similiter  iure  gentium  atque  in  moribus  positum  in- 
stitutisque  civilibus,  ut  non  ante  liceat  conventa  inter  civitates 
solvi,  quam  pars  altera,  quae  hoc  velit,  alteri  se  id  velle  clare 
aperteque  ipsi  legitime  denuntiarit.  lamvero  hie  voluntatis 
huiusmodi  apud  Apostolicam  ipsam  Sedem  legitima,  non  modo 
denuntiatio,  sed  ne  ulla  quidem  significatio  intercessit.  Ita  non 
dubitarunt  gubernatores  Galliae  adversus  Apostolicam  Sedem 
communia  urbanitatis  officia  deserere,  quae  vel  minimae  cuique 
minimique  momenti  civitati  praestari  solent ;  neque  iidem  veriti 
sunt,  quum  nationis  catholicae  personam  gererent,  Pontificis, 
summi  Ecclesiae  catholicae  Capitis,  dignitatem  potestatemque 
contemnere ;  quae  quidem  potestas  eo  maiorem  ab  iis  vere- 
cundiam,  quam  civilis  ulla  potestas  postulabat,  quod  aeterna 
animarum  bona  spectat,  neque  ullis  locorum  fmibus  circum- 
scribitur. 

Sed  iam  ipsam  in  se  legem  considerantibus,  quae  modo  pro- 
mulgata  est,  novae  Nobis  multoque  gravioris  querelae  nascitur 
causa.  Principio  Respublica  quum  revulsis  pactionis  vinculis  ab 
Ecclesia  discederet,  consequens  omnino  erat,  ut  earn  quoque 
missam  faceret  et  concessa  iure  communi  frui  libertate  sineret. 
At  nihil  minus  factum  est :  nam  plura  hie  videmus  esse  con- 
stituta,  quae,  odiosum  privilegium  Ecclesiae  irrogando,  earn  civili 
imperio  subesse  cogant.  Nos  vero  cum  graviter  molesteque 
ferimus,  quod  hisce  sanctionibus  civilis  potestas  in  eas  res 
invasit,  quarum  iudicium  et  aribtrium  unius  est  sacrae  potes- 
tatis  ;  turn  etiam  eoque  magis  dolemus,  quod  eadem,  aequitatis 
iustitiaeque  oblita,  Ecclesiam  Gallicam  in  conditionem  ac  for- 
tunam  coniecit  duram  incommodamque  maxime,  atque  earn 
sacrosanctis  ipsius  iuribus  adversissimam. 

Nam  primum  huius  decreta  legis  constitutionem  ipsam  offen- 
dunt,  qua  Christus  Ecclesiasm  conformavit.  Scriptura  enim 
eloquitur  et  tradita  a  Patribus  doctrina  confirmat,  Ecclesiam 
mysticum  esse  Christi  corpus  pastorum  et  doctorum  auctoritate 
administratum  ;x  id  est  societatem  hominum  in  qua  aliqui 

1  Ephes.  iv.,  II.  seqq. 


556  THE    IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

praesunt  ceteris  cum  plena  perfectaque  regendi,  docendi,  iudi- 
eandi  potestate.1  Est  igitur  haec  societas,  vi  et  natura  sua, 
inaequalis  ;  duplicem  scilicet  complectitur  personarum  ordinem, 
pastores  et  gregem,  id  est  eos,  qui  in  variis  hierarchiae 
gradibus  collocati  sunt  et  multitudinem  fidelium :  atque  hi 
ordines  ita  sunt  inter  se  distincti,  ut  in  sola  hierarchia  ius  atque 
auctoritas  resideat  movendi  ac  dirigendi  consociatos  ad  pro- 
positum  socieatti  finem  ;  multitudinis  autem  officium  sit,  guber- 
nari  se  pati,  et  rectorum  sequi  ductum  obedienter.  Praeclare 
Cyprianus  Martyr  :  '  Dominus  noster  cuius  praecepta  metuere 
et  servare  debemus,  Episcopi  honorem  et  Ecclesiae  suae  ratio- 
nem  disponens,  in  Evangelic  loquitur,  et  dicit  Petro  :  Ego  dico 
tibi,  quia  tu  es  Petrus,  etc.  Inde  per  temporum  et  successioneum 
vices  episcoporum  ordinatio  et  Ecclesiae  ratio  decurrit,  ut  Ec- 
clesia  super  Episcopos  constituatur,  et  omnis  actus  Ecclesiae 
per  eosdem  praepositos  gubernetur  ; '  idque  ait  :  '  divina  lege 
fundatum.'2  Contra  ea,  legis  huius  praescripto,  administratio 
tuitioque  cultus  publici  non  hierarchiae  divinitus  constitutae 
relinquitur,  sed  certae  cuidam  defertur  consociationi  civium: 
cui  quidem  forma  ratioque  imponitur  personae  legitimae,  quae- 
que  in  universo  religiois  cultus  genere  sola  habetur  civilibus  uti 
instructa  iuribus,  ita  obligationibus  obstricta.  Igitur  ad  con- 
sociationem  huiusmodi  templorum  aedificiorumque  sacrorum 
usus,  rerum  ecclesiasticarum  turn  moventium  turn  solidarum 
possessio  respiciet ;  ipsi  de  Episcoporum,  de  Curionum,  de  Se- 
minariorum  aedibus  liberum,  licet  ad  tempus  permittetur 
arbitrium  ;  ipsius  erit  administrare  bona,  corrogare  stipes,  pecu- 
niam  et  legata  percipere,  sacrorum  causa.  De  hierarichia  vero 
silentium  est.  Statuitur  quidem,  istas  consociationes  ita  con- 
flandas  esse,  quemadmodum  cultus  religiosi,  cuius  exercendi 
gratia  instituuntur,  propria  disciplina  ratioque  vult ;  verum- 
tamen  cavetur,  ut  si  qua  forte  de  ipsarum  rebus  controversia 
incident,  earn  dumtaxat  apud  Consilium  Status  diiudicari 
oporteat.  Perspicuum  est  igitur  ipsas  consociationes  adeo  civili 
potestati  obnoxias  esse,  nihil  ut  in  eis  ecclesiasticae  auctoritati 
loci  relinquatur.  Quantopere  haec  omnia  sint  Ecclesiae  aliena 
dignitati,  contraria  iuribus  et  constitutioni  divinae,  nemo  non 
videt :  eo  magis,  quod  non  certis  definitisque  formulis,  verum 

1  Matth  xviii.,  18,  20;  xvi.,  18,  19;  xviii.,  17 ;  Tit.  ii.,  15  ;  II.  Cor.  x.  6; 
xii.  loet  alibi. 

2  St.  Cypr.  Epist.  xxxiii.  (ad  xxvii.  ad  lapses),  n.  i. 


DOCUMENTS  557 


tarn  vagis  tamque  late  patentibus  perscripta  lex  est  in  hoc 
capite,  ut  iure  sint  ex  eius  interpretatione  peiora  metuenda. 

Praeterea  nihil  hac  ipsa  lege  inimicius  libertati  Ecclesiae. 
Etenim,  si  prohibentur  sacri  magistratus,  ob  interiectas  conso- 
ciationes  quas  diximus,  plenam  muneris  sui  exercere  potes- 
tatem  ;  is  in  easdem  consociationes  summa  vindicatur  Consilio 
Status  auctoritas,  eaeque  parere  alienissimis  a  iure  communi 
statutis  iubentui,  ita  ut  difficile  coalescere,  difficilius  queant 
consistere ;  si  data  divini  cultus  exercendi  copia,  multiplied 
exceptione  minuitur ;  erepta  Ecclesiae  studio  vigilantiaeque, 
custodia  templorum  Reipublicae  attribuitur  ;  ipsum  coercetur 
Ecclesiae  munus  de  fide  ac  morum  sanctitate  concionandi,  et 
severiores  irrogantur  clericis  poenae  ;  si  haec  et  talia  sanciuntur, 
in  quibus  multum  etiam  libido  interpretandi  possit,  quid  hie 
aliud  agitur,  quam  ut  Ecclesia  in  humili  abiectaque  conditione 
locetur,  et  pacificorum  civium,  quae  quidem  est  pars  Galliae 
multo  maxima,  per  speciem  conservandi  publici  ordinis,  sanc- 
tissimum  ius  violetur  profitendae,  uti  velint,  religionis  suae  ? 
Quamquam  Civitas  non  comprimenda  solum  divini  cultus  pro- 
fessione,  qua  totam  vim  rationemque  definit  religionis,  Eccle- 
siam  vulnerat ;  sed  eius  etiam  vel  virtuti  beneficae  intercludendo 
aditus  ad  populum,  vel  actionem  multipliciter  debilitando. 
Igitur  satis  non  habuit,  praeter  cetera,  Ordines  submovisse 
religiosorum,  unde  in  sacri  ministerii  perfunctione,  in  institu- 
tione  atque  eruditione  adolescentis  aetatis,  in  christianae  pro- 
curatione  beneficentiae  praeclara  adiumenta  suppetebant  Ec- 
clesiae :  nam  humanis  earn  opibus,  id  est  necessario  quodam  ad 
vitam  et  ad  munus  subsidio,  intervertit. 

Sane,  ad  ea  quae  conquesti  sumus  damna  et  iniurias,  hoc 
accedit,  ut  ista  de  discidio  lex  ius  Ecclesiae  sua  sibi  habendi  bona 
violet  atque  imminuat.  Etenim  de  patrimonii,  magnam  par  tern, 
possessione,  probatissimis  quibusque  titulis  quaesiti,  Ecclesiam, 
alte  iustitia  reclamante,  deturbat ;  quidquid  rite  constitutum 
sit  addicta  pecunia  in  divinum  cultum  aut  in  stata  defunctorum 
solatia,  tollit  atque  irritum  iubet  esse ;  quas  facultates  catholi- 
corum  liberalitas  christianis  utique  scholis  aut  variis  christianae 
beneficentiae  institutis  sustinendis  destinarat,  eas  ad  instituta 
laicorum  transfert,  ubi  plerumque  aliquod  catholicae  religionis 
vestigium  frustra  quaeras :  in  quo  quidem  patet,  una  cum 
Ecclesiae  iuribus,  testamenta  voluntatesque  apertas  auctorum 
avertit.  Quod  vero  per  summam  iniuriam  edicit,  quibus  aedi- 


THE    IRISH    ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

ficiis  Ecclesia  ante  pactum  conventum  utebatur,  ea  posthac 
civitatis  ut  provinciarum  aut  municipiorum  fore,  singular! 
Nobis  est  sollicitudini.  Nam  si  consociationibus  divino  cultui 
exercendo  usus  templorum,  ut  videmus  gratuitus  nee  definitus 
conceditur,  concessum  tamen  huiusmodi  tot  tantisque  excep- 
tionibus  extenuatur,  ut  reapse  templorum  arbitrium  omne 
civiles  magistratus  obtineant.  Vehementer  praeterea  timemus 
sanctitati  templorum  :  neque  enim  cernimus  abesse  periculum, 
ne  augusta  divinae  maiestatis  domicilia,  eademque  carissima 
memoriae  religionique  Gallorum  loca,  profanas  in  manus  quum 
deciderint,  profanis  ritibus  polluantur.  In  eo  autem,  quod 
Rempublicam  lex  officio  solvit  suppeditandi  annuos  sacrorum 
sumptus,  simul  fidem  sollemni  pacto  obligatam,  simul  iustitiam 
laedit  gravissime.  Etenim  nullam  dubitationem  hoc  habet, 
quod  ipsa  rei  gestae  testantur  monumenta,  Rempublicam  Gal- 
licam  quum  pacto  convento  sibi  suscepit  onus  praebendi  Clero 
unde  vitam  decenter  ipse  agere,  ac  publicam  religionis  digni- 
tatem curare  posset,  non  id  fecisse  comitatis  benignitatisque 
gratia ;  verum  ut  earn,  quam  proximo  tempore  Ecclesiae  passa 
esset  publice  direptionem  bonorum,  saltern  ex  parte  aliqua 
sarciret.  Similiter  eodem  convento,  quum  Pontifex,  concordiae 
studens,  recepit,  se  successoresque  suos  nullam  molestiam  ex- 
hibituros  iis,  ad  quos  direpta  Ecclesiae  bona  pervenissent,  sub 
ea  conditione  constat  recepisse,  ut  per  ipsam  Rempublicam 
perpetuo  esset  honestae  et  Cleri  et  divini  cultus  tuitioni 
consultum. 

Postremo,  ne  illud  quidem  silebimus,  hanc  legem  praeter- 
quam  Ecclesiae  rebus  vestrae,  etiam  civitati  non  exiguo  futurunt 
damno.  Neque  enim  potest  esse  dubium  quin  multum  habitura 
sit  facultatis  ad  earn  labefactandam  coniunctionem  et  conspira- 
tionem  animorum,  quae  si  desit,  nulla  stare  aut  vigere  queat 
civitas ;  et  quam,  his  maxime  Europae  temporibus,  quisquis  est 
in  Gallia  vir  bonus  vereque  amans  patriae,  salvam  et  incolumen 
velle  debet.  Nos  quidem,  exemplo  Decessoris,  a  quo  explora- 
tissimae  erga  nationem  vestram  caritatis  eximiae  cepimas  here- 
ditatem,  quum  avitae  religionis  tueri  apud  vos  integritatem 
iurium  niteremur,  hoc  simul  spectavimus  semper  et  contendimus, 
communem  omnium  vestrum  pacem  concordiamque  cuius, 
nullum  vinculum  arctius  quam  religio,  confirmare.  Quapropter 
intelligere  sine  magno  angore  non  possumus,  earn  auctoritate 
publica  patratam  esse  rem,  quae,  concitatis  iam  populi  studiis 


DOCUMENTS  559 


funestarum  de  rebus  religiosis  contentionum  faces  adiiciendo, 
perturbare  funditus  civitatem  posse  videatur. 

Itaque,  Apostolici  Nostri  officii  memores,  quo  sacrosancta 
Ecclesiae  iura  a  quavis  impugnatione  defendere  ac  servare  In- 
tegra debemus.  Nos  pro  suprema,  quam  obtinemus  divinitus, 
auctoritate,  sancitam  legem,  quae  Rempublicam  Gallicanam 
seorsum  ab  Ecclesia  separat,  reprobamus  ac  damnamus  ;  idque 
ob  eas  quas  exposuimus  causas  :  quod  maxima  amcit  iniuri 
Deum,  quem  sollemniter  eiurat,  principio  declarans  Rempublicam 
cuiusvis  religiosi  cultus  expertem  ;  quod  naturae  ius  gentiumque 
violat  et  publicam  pactorum  fidem ;  quod  constitutioni  divinae 
et  rationibus  intimis  et  libertati  adversatur  Ecclesiae  ;  quod 
iustitiam  ever  tit,  ius  opprimendo  dominii,  multiplici  titulo 
ipsaque  conventione  legitime  quaesitum ;  quod  graviter  Apos- 
tolicae  Sedis  dignitatem  ac  personam  Nostram,  Episcoporum 
Ordinem,  Clerum  et  Catholicos  Gallos  offendit.  Propterea  de 
rogatione,  latione,  promulgatione  eiusdem  legis  vehementissime 
expostulamus  ;  in  eaque  testamur  nihil  quidquam  inesse  momenti 
ad  infirmanda  Ecclesiae  iura,  nulla  hominum  vi  ausuque  mutabili. 

Haec  ad  istius  detestationem  facti  vobis,  Venerabiles  Fratres, 
Gallicano  populo,  atque  adeo  christiani  nominis  universitati 
edicere  habuimus.  Equidem  molestissime,  ut  diximus,  affi- 
cimur,  mala  prospicientes  quae  ab  hac  lege  dilectae  nation! 
impendent,  maximeque  commovemur  miseriis,  aerumnis,  labo- 
ribus  omne  genus,  in  quibus  fore  vos,  Venerabiles  Fratres, 
Clerumque  vestrum  cernimus.  Attamen,  ne  his  tantis  curis 
affligi  Nos  frangique  patiamur  prohibet  divinae  benignitatis 
providentiaeque  cogitatio,  atque  exploratissima  spes,  nunquam 
fore  ut  Ecclesiam  lesu  Christus  ope  praesentiaque  sua  destituat. 
Itaque  longe  id  abest  a  Nobis,  ut  quidquam  formidemus,  Ec- 
clesiae causa.  Divina  est  virtutis  eius  stabilitas  atque  con- 
stantia,  eaque  satis,  opinamur,  tot  saeculorum  experimento 
cognita.  Nemo  enim  unus  ignorat,  asperitates  rerum  hac 
temporis  diuturnitate  in  earn  incubiusse  et  plurimas  et  maximas  ; 
atque,  ubi  virtutem  non  humana  maiorem  deficere  necesse 
fuisset,  Ecclesiam  inde  validorem  semper  auctioremque  emer- 
sisse.  Ac  de  legibus  in  perniciem  Ecclesiae  conditis,  hoc  ferme 
usuvenire,  historia  teste,  scimus,  ut  quas  invidia  conflaverit,  eas 
postea,  utpote  noxias  in  primis  civitati,  prudentia  resolvat : 
idque  ipsum  in  Gallia  haud  ita  veteri  memoria  constat  contigisse. 
Quod  insigne  maiorum  exemplum  utinam  sequi  inducant  animum, 


560  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

qui  rerum  potiuntur  :  matereque  religionem,  effectricem  humani- 
tatis,  fautricem  pro.speritatis  pubblicae,  in  possessionem  digni- 
tatis  libertatisque  suae,  omnibus  plaudentibus  bonis,  restituant. 

Interea  tamen,  dum  opprimendi  exagitandi  libido  domina- 
bitur,  filii  Ecclesiae,  si  unquam  alias  oportet,  induti  arma  lucis,1 
pro  veritate  ac  iustitia,  omni  qua  possunt  ope  nitantur.  In  quo 
vos,  magistri  auctoresque  ceterorum,  profecto,  VenerabUes 
Fratres,  omnem  earn  studii  alacritatem,  vigilantiam,  constan- 
tiamque  praestabitis,  quae  Galliae  Episcoporum  vetus  ac 
spectatissima  laus  est.  Sed  hoc  potissime  studere  vos  volumus, 
quod  maxime  rem  continet,  ut  omnium  vestrum  in  tutandis 
Ecclesiae  rationibus  summa  sit  sententiarum  consiliorumque 
consensio.  Nobis  quidem  certum  deliberatumque  est,  qua 
norma  dirigendam  esse  in  his  rerum  difficultatibus  operam  ves- 
tram  arbitremur,  opportune  vobis  praescribere  ;  nee  dubitan- 
dum  quin  praescripta  vos  Nostra  diligentissime  executuri  sitis. 
Pergite  porro,  ut  instituistis,  atque  eo  etiam  impensius,  roborare 
pietatem  communem ;  praeceptionem  doctrinae  christianae 
promovere  vulgatioremque  facere ;  errorum  fallacias,  corrup- 
telarum  illecebras,  tarn  late  hodie  fusas,  a  vestro  cuiusque  grege 
defendere ;  eidem  ad  docendum,  monendum,  hortandum,  so- 
landum  adesse,  omina  denique  pastoralis  caritatis  ofncia  con- 
ferre.  Nee  vero  elaborantibus  vobis  non  se  adiutorem  strenuis- 
simum  praebebit  Clerus  vester  ;  quern  quidem,  viris  affluentem 
pietate,  eruditione,  obsequio  in  Apostolicam  Sedem  eximiis, 
promptum  paratumque  esse  novimus,  se  totum  vobis  pro  Ec- 
clesia  sempiternaque  animarum  salute  dedere.  Certe  autem 
qui  sunt  huius  Ordinis,  in  hac  tempestate  sentient  sic  se  ani- 
mates esse  oportere,  quemadmodum  fuisse  Apostolos  accepimus, 
gaudentes  .  .  .  quoniam  digni  habiti  sunt  pro  nomine  lesu 
contumeliam  pati.' 2  Itaque  iura  libertatemque  Ecclesiae 
fortiter  vindicabunt,  omni  tamen  adversus  quempiam  asperitate 
remota  :  quin  imo,  caritatis  memores,  ut  Christi  ministros  in 
primis  addecet,  aequitate  iniuriam,  lenitate  contumaciam, 
beneficiis  maleficia  pensabunt. 

lam  vos  compellamus,  catholici  quotquot  estis  in  Gallia ; 
vobisque  vox  Nostra  turn  testimonio  effusissimae  benevolentiae, 
qua  gentem  vestram  dirigere  non  desinimus,  turn  in  calamitosis- 
simis  rebus  quae  imminent,  solatio  sit.  Hoc  sibi  destinasse 
pravas  hominum  sectas,  cervicibus  vestris  impositas,  imo  hoc 
denuntiasse  insigni  audacia  se  velle,  nostris  :  delere  catholicum 

1  Rom.  xiii.,  12.  2  Act.  v.,  41. 


DOCUMENTS  561 


in  Gallia  nomen.  Earn  nempe  contendunt  extrahere  radicitus 
ex  animis  vestris  fidem,  quae  avis  et  maioribus  gloriam,  patriae 
prosperitatem  verendamque  amplitudinem  peperit,  vobis  leva- 
menta  acrumnarum  ministrat,  pacem  tuetur  traquillitatemque 
domesticam,  viam  munit  ad  beatitatem  adipiscendam  sine  fine 
mansuram.  In  hums  defensionem  fidei  summa  vi  incumbendum 
vobis  putatis  esse  scilicet :  sed  hoc  habete,  ianai  vos  nisu  labora- 
turos,  si  dissociatis  viribus  propulsare  hostiles  impetus  nitemini. 
Abiicite  igitur,  si  quae  insident  inter  pos,  discordiarum  semina : 
ac  date  operam,  ut  tanta  omnes  conspiratione  voluntatum  et 
agendi  similitudine  coniuncti  sitis,  quanta  esse  decet  homines, 
quibus  una  eademque  est  causa  propugnanda,  atque  ea  causa, 
pro  qua  quisque  non  invite  debeat,  si  opus  fuerit,  aliquam 
privati  iudicii  iacturam  facere.  Omnino  magna  generosae  vir- 
tutis  exempla  detis  oportet,  si,  quantum  est  in  vobis,  vultis, 
ut  ofncium  est,  avitam  religionem  a  praesenti  discrimine  eripere  : 
in  quo  benigne  facientes  ministris  Dei,  divinam  peculiari  modo 
benignitatem  vobis  conciliabitis. 

At  vobis  ad  patrocinium  religionis  digne  suscipiendum,  recte 
utiliterque  sustinendum,  ilia  esse  maxima  arbitremini :  chris- 
tianae  sapientiae  praeceptis  vosmetipsos  conformari  adeo,  ut 
ex  moribus  atque  omni  vita  professio  catholica  eluceat ;  et 
arctissime  cum  iis  cohaerere,  quorum  propria  est  religiosae 
rei  procuratio,  cum  sacerdotibus  nimirum  et  Episcopis  vestris 
et,  quod  caput  est,  cum  hac  Apostolica  Sede,  in  qua,  tamquam 
centre,  catholicorum  fides  et  conveniens  fidei  actio  nititur.  Sic 
ergo  parati  atque  instructi,  ad  hanc  pro  Ecclesia  propugnationem 
fidenter  accedite ;  sed  videte,  ut  fiduciae  vestrae  tota  ratio  in 
Deo  consistat,  cuius  agitis  causam :  eius  idcirco  opportunitatem 
auxilii  implorare  ne  cessetis.  Nos  vero,  quamdiu  ita  vobis  erit 
periclitandum,  vobiscum  praesentes  cogitatione  animoque  ver- 
sabimur ;  laborum,  curarum,  dolorum  participes :  simulque 
prece  atque  obsecratione  humili  ac  supplici  apud  Auctorem 
Statoremque  Ecclesiae  instabimus,  ut  respiciat  Galliam  mise- 
ricors,  eamque  tantis  iactatam  fluctibus  celeritur,  deprecante 
Maria  Immaculata,  in  tranquillum  redigat. 

Auspicem  divinorum  munerum,  ac  testem  praecipuae,  bene- 

volentiae  Nostrae,   vobis,  Venerabiles  Fratres  ac    dilecti    Fih'i, 

Apostolicam  Benedictionem  amantissime  in  Domino  impertimus. 

Datum  Romae  apud  Sanctum  Petrum,  die  XI  Februarii 

anno  MDCCCCVI,  Pontificatus  Nostri  tertio. 

PIVS  PP.  X. 

VOL.  XIX.  2  N 


562 


NOTICES   OF  BOOKS 

IRISH  CATHOLICS  AND  TRINITY  COLLEGE.  With  Appendices. 
By  the  Rev.  J.  F.  Hogan,  D.D.,  Canon  -of  Killaloe, 
Professor,  St.  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth.  Dublin  : 
Browne  &  Nolan.  2s.  net. 

DR.  HOGAN'S  pamphlet  comes  most  opportunely.  There 
have  been  of  late  among  certain  Catholics,  signs  of  relaxing 
energy,  indications  of  a  reaction  from  the  strenuous  opposition 
to  the  injustice  of  Irish  University  Education.  The  specious 
suggestion  so  often  iterated,  that  Catholics  have  all  that  they 
look  for,  or  can  in  reason  ask  for,  in  Trinity  College,  if  they  will 
only  forget  their  prejudices,  has  begun  to  be  accepted  and  be 
believed,  and  with  many  Catholics  the  suggestion  passes  current. 
Dr.  Hogan's  pamphlet  clears  the  air,  and  removes  all  obscurity 
from  the  issues  that  lie  between  Irish  Catholics  and  Trinity 
College,  and  justifies,  if  reason,  based  on  the  logic  of  facts  can 
justify  anything,  the  traditional  attitude  of  Catholics  in  refusing 
to  accept  the  education  offered  in  that  institution. 

Dr.  Hogan  has  no  sympathy  with  the  advice — let  the  Catholic 
students  flock  into  Trinity  College,  storm  it  by  numbers,  and 
in  a  short  tune  they  will  make  it  their  own.  He  sets  the  scheme 
aside  as  impracticable,  because  '  the  struggle  would  be  so  pro- 
tracted, the  attack  so  bitterly  contested,  the  odds  against  us  so 
overwhelming  that  even  were  a  lodgment  of  some  kind  ultimately 
effected  in  the  fortress,  our  soldiers  would  come  out  of  the 
engagement  so  demoralised  that  victory  would  scarcely  be  less 
fatal  than  defeat.  Thirty  or  forty  years  of  instruction  by 
Protestant  teachers,  slowly,  imperceptibly,  patiently,  perhaps, 
in  many  cases  unconsciously,  infusing  into  their  young  disciples 
an  anti-Catholic,  or  even  an  un-Catholic  spirit  would  do  more 
harm  to  the  Catholic  faith  in  Ireland,  than  three  hundred  years 
of  the  Penal  Code.' 

5Nor  does  he  hope  that  such  a  radical  change  might  be 
effected  in  the  governing  powers,  constitution,  personnel  of 
Trinity  College  as  would  brine:  it  into  harmony  with  national 
requirements. 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  563 

The  chief  object  of  the  pamphlet  is  to  bring  before  the  minds 
•of  the  Catholic  public,  the  full  force  of  the  Protestant  influences 
that  are  at  work  in  Trinity  College,  to  show  how  deceptive  is 
the  hope  that  Catholics  might,  if  they  only  went  there  in  suffi- 
cient numbers,  one  day  get  a  position  in  the  establishment 
Commensurate  with  their  numbers  and  their  ability,  and  how 
completely  they  would  be  in  the  meantime  at  the  mercy  of  the 
full  tide  of  Protestantism  that  flows  around  its  walls. 

Dr.  Hogan  shows  conclusively  that  these  Protestant  in- 
fluences envelope  the  whole  establishment,  and  permeate  every 
part  of  it.  Having  dealt  with  the  Divinity  school  and  its  in- 
fluence on  the  University  life,  he  shows  in  successive  chapters 
the  Protestantism,  aggressive  and  rampant,  in  the  Provost, 
Vice- Provost,  Senior  Fellows,  in  the  Senate,  Council,  Junior 
Fellows,  in  the  five  Erasmus  Smith  Professorships,  in  the  Pro- 
fessors of  Ancient  and  Modern  History,  of  English,  of  Irish,  of 
German  ;  in  the  Medical  School,  the  School  of  Law,  and  the 
School  of  Philosophy. 

From  their  own  lips  and  pens  Dr.  Hogan  demonstrates  the 
anti-Catholicism  of  the  governors  and  professors  of  Trinity 
College,  and  refutes  the  sophism  so  assiduously  propagated, 
that  the  teaching  of  Trinity  College  is  neutral  and  harmless  to 
the  religious  susceptibilities  of  Catholic  youth.  '  Men  do  not 
speak  with  a  double  voice ;  and  if  teachers  must  refrain  from 
touching  questions  that  have  divided  and  disturbed  mankind 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  why  call  their  school  a  Uni- 
versity, and  what  is  their  claim  to  the  title  of  Master  and  Doctor?' 

In  this  singularly  able  pamphlet  Dr.  Hogan  has  collected  a 
mass  of  evidence,  such  as  will  be  found  in  no  other  volume. 
It  is  the  result  of  much  labour  and  research,  undertaken  wil- 
lingly in  the  interests  of  faith  and  of  our  Catholic  people.  The 
Irish  Church  will  acknowledge  gratefully  her  new  obligation  to 
Dr.  Hogan.  The  clear  and  graceful  style,  the  wide  reading  and 
comprehensive  scholarship  of  the  author  make  the  pamphlet 
most  the  readable  and  interesting  of  books. 

C.  M. 


564  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

ILLUSTRATED  STORY  OF  FIVE  YEARS'  TOUR  IN  AMERICA. 
By  the  Rev.  J.  J.  McGlade,  P.P.     Dublin  :  Gill  &  Son. 

THIS  work  is  the  story  of  a  journey  of  thirty  thousand  miles 
in  quest,  not  directly  of  the  Holy  Grail,  but  of  thirty  thousand 
dollars  to  supply  a  suitable  temple  for  the  Holy  Grail  in  the 
town  of  Omagh  in  Tyrone.  It  was  suggested  to  the  writer  by 
some  of  his  fellow-travellers,  and  the  suggestion  was  a  happy 
one.  The  result  is  excellent,  as  was,  I  believe,  the  result  of  the 
expedition  with  which  it  is  associated. 

Collecting  money  in  the  best  of  circumstances  is  not  the 
pleasantest  of  occupations  ;  but  if  anything  besides  the  high  and 
holy  motive  that  sent  Father  M'Glade  abroad,  could  tend  to 
make  it  at  least  tolerable,  it  would  be,  I  imagine,  the  interest 
awakened  by  so  many  new  scenes,  and  the  literary  project  of 
recording  one's  impressions  of  them.  Father  M'Glade's  impres- 
sions are  most  vivid,  most  picturesque,  and  are  presented  in  a 
very  attractive  narrative.  The  story  is  lighted  up  by  many 
flashes  of  verse  and  of  humour,  and  by  excellent  illustrations  of 
the  principal  buildings  from  Mexico  to  Canada,  from  ill-fated 
San  Francisco  to  New  York.  Anyone,  priest  or  layman,  going  to 
travel  in  America  could  not  procure  a  more  useful  book  ;  an  d 
anybody  not  going  who  wishes  to  know  how  things  look  and 
how  things  are  done  out  there  could  not  do  better  than  read 
Father  M'Glade  J.  F.  H. 


1mle&t>Afi  A  li-Aon. 
HuAlt&in.  2/6  nett. 
IN  a  paper  which  he  read  before  the  members  of  the  May- 
nooth  Union  last  June,  Dr.  M.  Sheehan  contended  that  as  yet 
we  have  not  a  living  literature  in  the  language  of  the  Gaedhil. 
'  The  literature  of  a  nation,'  he  wrote,  '  is  the  written  record 
of  the  nation's  thought.  It  is  said  to  be  a  living  literature  if  it 
form  the  food  on  which  the  mind  of  the  nation  feeds,  if  it  serves 
as  a  stimulus  and  an  inspiration  to  writers,  and  if  it  be  enriched 
from  year  to  year  by  notable  accretions.  A  National  literature 
is  in  a  sense  an  organism,  and,  as  in  other  organisms,  growth  and 
reproduction  are  the  only  evidences  of  life.  That  we  possess  a 
literature,  and,  in  its  early  periods,  a  great  literature,  is  beyond 
question  ;  but  that  we  possess  a  living  literature  cannot,  I  am 
afraid,  be  established.' 


NOTICES   OF   BOOKS  565 

It  is  because  the  League  of  St.  Columba  recognised  the  justice 
of  Dr.  Sheehan's  contention  that  we  are  now  enabled  to  see 
what  a  living  Irish  literature  is  like.  The  present  volume  of 
Sermons  is  not  made  up  of  discourses  delivered  to  present-day 
audiences  by  priests  who  are  actively  engaged  on  the  mission. 
Every  sermon  in  the  book  was  spoken  by  priests  who  were  under 
the  ban  of  a  tyrant,  and  heard  by  an  audience  under  circum- 
stances unparalleled  in  the  history  of  civilized  nations.  Every 
sermon  was  preached  in  the  mountain  fastnesses,  sometimes, 
perhaps,  in  the  face  of  a  biting  cold  and  a  piercing  wind,  while 
scouts,  posted  all  around,  kept  up  an  incessant  watch  for 
priest-hunters  and  their  inseparable  companions — blood-thirsty 
British  soldiers.  As  a  sacred  relic  of  the  past  each  sermon  will 
be  treasured  by  priests  and  people.  Their  value  does  not  cease 
here.  They  were  spoken  by  Irish-speaking  priests  to  Irish- 
speaking  congregations ;  and  hence  they  are  a  part  of  a  living 
native  literature,  through  whose  veins  courses  the  blood  of  pure 
Irish  idiom.  The  language  with  which  the  holy  thoughts  are 
dressed  has  not  come  via  English,  nor  via.  French,  but  along  a 
way,  which  it  has  carved  for  itself.  It  is  Irish,  and  therefore 
natural,  and  therefore  appeals  to  the  native  speaker.  When 
the  sermons  were  read  to  some  fishermen  on  the  western  sea- 
board, a  smile  of  recognition  was  seen  to  brighten  their  weather- 
beaten  countenances,  and  one  of  them  declared  with  enthusiasm 
*  That's  the  right  sort — that  is  ours.' 

The  Columban  League  is  right.  We  have  had  to  get  a  living 
Irish  literature  somehow.  It  is,  no  doubt,  strange,  and  it  may 
be  unnatural,  to  put  the  breath  of  life  again  into  a  thing  buried 
for  a  century  ;  but  it  must  be  done.  Our  present-day  writers  of 
Irish  are,  almost  all,  men  whose  minds  have  been  developed 
through  a  foreign  idiom.  They  shall  never  individualize  our 
literature.  We  must  call  back  the  dead  to  assist  us  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  native  mind. 

With  the  editing  of  the  work  little  fault  can  be  found.  The 
whole  thing  shows  not  only  care  but  scholarship.  It  is  a  credit 
to  Maynooth  to  have  within  its  walls  young  students  who  are 
able  to  turn  out  such  a  learned  work.  There  is  noticeable, 
however,  here  and  there,  a  slight  want  of  uniformity  in  spelling, 
as  also  a  certain  tendency  to  retain  forms  long  since  discarded. 
For  instance  fg  and  f c — an  old  bone  of  contention — appear,  to 


566  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

a  certain  extent,  indiscriminately.     They  appear  so  even  in  the 
same  word.      On  page  81  we  find  '  •oeir'giobAt,'  on  page  202 


It  is  high  time  to  settle  these  discrepancies  in  orthography. 
Few  will  see  the  utility  of  again  bringing  to  light  freaks  of  nature 
long  since  stowed  away,  like  :  '  fA^bAil,'  '  jrAjbA 
•lomftAti,'  'An  cfA05Ait.'  The  usual  forms  —  ' 
Ait,'  'ATI  cf  AO  5  A!,,'  etc.,  are  more  in  conformity  with  modern  taste. 
The  word  iot>bAiju:  is  accented  throughout  iot)bAipc.  Dinneen 
does  not  accent.  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  a  single  instance  to 
back  up  the  Maynooth  usage.  It  is  a  pity  that  words  coined  from 
the  English  should  be  employed,  when  real  Irish  synonyms 
which  occur  elsewhere  in  the  work,  could  be  substituted.  I 
refer  to  such  importations  as  —  «  Sepcembeji.'  *  cempcAiptm" 
'  peibeilliuncAcc,"  'bpomfcoin,'  '^eineA^AtcA. 

Again,  would  not  it  be  well  to  stick  to  Dinneen,  and 
use  nit)  ?  TH  may  be  quite  correct  ;  but  then  there  is  a  danger 
of  confusion  in  the  mind  of  a  beginner  between  itself  and  the 
negative  particle. 

All  these  are,  of  course,  only  very  small  points  ;  yet  inasmuch 
as  they  slightly  disfigure  a  very  artistic  page,  it  is  well  to  single 
them  out  for  correction  in  a  future  edition. 

The  printer  deserves  his  own  meed  of  praise.  The  type 
will  attract  any  reader,  as  the  binding  will  the  eye.  The  price 
makes  it  the  cheapest  book  of  its  kind  in  the  market.  Every 
true  Gaedhil  will  extend  to  the  editors  his  heartiest  congratu- 
lations ;  and  the  hard-working  priest,  who  has  to  preach  in  Irish, 
will  send  his  benediction  to  the  noble  young  levites,  who  have 
done  so  much  for  God  and  their  country. 

C.  O.  W. 

Is  IRELAND  A  DYING  NATION  ?     By  T.  O.  Russell.   Dublin  r 
M.  H.  Gill  &  Son,  Ltd.,  1906.     Price  2s. 

THIS  is  the  work  of  a  man  who  seems  to  us  to  be  honest 
and  sincere.  As  a  review  of  the  present  condition  of  Ireland, 
its  hopes  and  prospects,  and  the  various  forces  that  are  at 
work  within  its  bosom,  it  is  most  interesting  and  illuminating. 
It  is  written  in  a  thoughtful,  moderate  style,  and  at  every  page 
gives  one  the  impression  that  its  author  is  sincerely  anxious  to 
serve  his  country.  Most  of  the  subjects  dealt  with  are  of  every- 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS 


day  interest;  but  the  treatment  of  them  is  neither  commonplace 
nor  superficial.  The  author  has  read  a  great  deal,  and  is  a  man 
of  vast  experience.  He  has  still  hope  for  his  country  ;  but  he 
is  not  blind  to  the  causes  of  its  present  decay.  He  appeals  to 
his  Protestant  countrymen  to  come  to  the  rescue  and  to  join 
hands  with  the  majority  in  the  common  effort  of  patriotism 
He  touches  the  vital  point  when  he  says  that  it  is  the  interest 
of  outsiders  to  keep  us  in  strife  in  order  that  they  may  profit 
by  our  divisions.  With  his  chapter  on  sectarian  quarrels,  we 
are  well  satisfied.  Coming  from  a  Protestant  writer  it  is  fair, 
and  even  generous.  If  the  same  spirit  were  to  prevail  with  his 
Co-religionists  generally  Ireland  would  be  a  different  country, 
and  assuredly  Protestants  would  not  be  the  worse  for  it,  either 
materially  or  otherwise.  We  are  amongst  those  who  hold  that 
Catholicism  in  Ireland  would  not  have  much  to  gain  by  Home 
Rule,  except  in  so  far  as  it  would  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
country  generally,  but  we  think  that  if  Catholicism  would  not 
suffer  and  the  country  at  large  would  be  greatly  benefitted  by 
it,  patriotic  duty  should  compel  us  to  help  in  securing  it.  Mr. 
O'Neill  Russell's  book  ought  to  have  weight  with  his  Protestant 
countrymen,  but  it  can  be  read  with  benefit  and  pleasure  by 
all. 

J.  F.  H. 

A  LAD  OF  THE  O'FRIELS.  By  Seumas  MacManus.  Dublin  : 
M.  H.  Gill  &  Son,  Ltd.,  and  James  Duffy  &  Co.  1906. 
Price  2s.  6d. 

THIS  work  of  Mr.  MacManus  has  acquired  well-deserved 
popularity  ;  but  as  the  first  edition  cost  six  shillings  it  is  now 
brought  withir.  reach  of  a  much  greater  number  at  the  price  o 
half-a-crown.  We  notice  many  of  the  characteristics  of  Charles 
Kickham  in  tie  northern  writer,  the  same  quaint  humour  and 
homely  wit,  the  same  love  of  his  neighbours,  and  delight  in 
catching  up  tieir  sprightly  sayings  and  doings,  and  presenting 
them  in  a  viv:d  picture.  It  is  only  a  man  who  loves  the  people 
who  would  devote  himself  to  the  idealisation  of  their  humble 
joys  and  sorrows,  as  Mr.  MacManus  does.  The  work  is  healthy 
and  pure,  and  is  instinct  with  a  Catholic  spirit.  His  description 
of  the  pilgrinage  to  Lough  Derg,  and  the  equalising  influence 
it  exercises  on  the  pilgrims  is  admirably  done.  When  we  are 


568  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

complaining  so  much  of  the  literature  that  comes  to  us  from 
other  countries,  we  ought  to  rejoice  that  something  good  and 
sound  is  done  at  home  and  give  it  the  encouragement  it  deserves- 

J.  F.  H. 

MEDITATIONS  ON  CHRISTIAN  DOGMA.    By  the  Right  Rev. 

James     Bellord,    D.D.      With     an     Introduction     by 

Cardinal   Vaughan.     2    vols.    4to.     London :    Catholic 

Truth  Society,  68,  Southwark  Bridge  Road. 

WE  have  been  favoured  with  the  second  edition  of   this 

pious  work,  and  we  are  happy  to  commend  it  to  our  readers 

as  one  of  the  most  valuable  meditation  books  that  has  ever 

been  written.     It  is  practically  a  presentation  in  English  of 

La  Theologie  Affective  of  Louis  Bail,   of  Abbeville.     Cardinal 

Vaughan,  who  was  a  very  pious  and  holy  man,  has  briefly  but 

aptly  described  its  merits  : — 

'  St.  Thomas  and  the  Schoolmen  [he  writes]  gave  us  theology 
as  a  pure  dry  light ;  they  addressed  the  intellect,  not  the  affec- 
tions. This  was  wise  and  necessary.  Their  object  was  not 
directly  ascetical  or  devotional,  but  doctrinal.  They  sup- 
posed that  when  they  had  illumined  a  man's  mind  and  put  his 
reason  and  memory  into  possession  of  the  truths  of  theology, 
he  would  then  himself  meditate  on  them,  and  feed  his  will  and 
his  affections  on  the  solid  food  of  truth.' 

This  is  what  the  Meditations  admirably  help  us  to  do.  There 
are,  no  doubt,  some  minds  which  prefer  a  less  doctrinal  framework 
for  their  meditations  than  that  which  was  adopted  by  Louis 
Bail ;  but  anyone  who  wishes  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  God  such  as 
He  has  been  pleased  to  reveal  Himself  to  us,  to  admire  His  won- 
derful perfections,  and  the  whole  economy  of  His  goodness  and 
mercy,  and  to  be  drawn  towards  Him  by  countless  attractions, 
so  as  to  become  attached  and  united  to  Him,  could  not  do  better 
than  procure  this  book  and  study  it.  It  is  an  adm:rable  medita- 
i  ion  book,  equally  well  suited  for  the  religious  life,  the  secular 
clergy,  and  the  laity. 

J.  F.  H  . 

IRISH  EDUCATION  :  As  IT  Is  AND  As  IT  SHOULD  BE.     By 

"  Jacques."     M.  H.  Gill  &  Son,  Ltd.    is. 
THOUGH  the  school  question  is,  in  a  manner,  alvays  with  us 
the  special  attention  it  has  attracted  for  some  tine  past  will 
render  this  little  volume  on  the  subject  particularly  interesting 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  5^9 

just  now.  The  new  Bill,  it  is  true,  does  not  directly  affect 
Irish  Education,  but  it  involves  principles  with  which  Irishmen 
in  this  country  are  specially  concerned.  The  controversies  it 
has  given  rise  to  are  the  best  index  of  the  fact. 

In  view  of  the  radical  policies  sometimes  advocated  by  way 
of  improving  Irish  Education,  it  is  refreshing  to  meet  a  man 
who  finds  some  good  points  in  the  present  system,  and  aims  at 
improving  what  we  have  got  rather  than  at  demanding  what  the 
principles  of  Irish  Catholics  never  will  allow.  The  author  of 
the  volume  before  us  maintains  that  denominational  education 
is  the  only  kind  suitable  to  the  Irish  nation,  that  the  existing 
managerial  system  should  be  continued,  and  that  the  present 
system  generally  should  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  the  improve- 
ments he  advocates. 

But  his  criticisms  of  the  existing  order  of  things  is  as  severe 
as  every  sane  man's  must  be.  The  multiplicity  of  educational 
boards,  the  swarm  of  officials  that  flourish  under  the  name  of 
educational  authorities,  the  immense  expense  and  meagre  re- 
sults, the  want  of  connexion  between  the  various  grades — 
Primary,  Secondary,  Intermediate,  and  University — all  come 
in  for  strong  denunciation.  The  Queen's  Colleges  are  called  to 
account  severely,  and  the  training  colleges  for  teachers  are  treated 
to  a  few  uncomplimentary  remarks.  The  main  aim  of  the  book 
is,  however,  constructive  :  it  indicates  a  scheme — only  one  of 
the  many  possible,  the  author  acknowledges — by  which  the 
various  educational  branches  would  be  unified  into  a  coherent 
system  over  which  those  best  acquainted  with  the  needs  of  the 
country  would  have  control,  and  by  means  of  which  the  youth 
of  the  country  could  pass  from  the  National  School  to  the  Uni- 
versity without  such  perceptible  gaps  in  the  progress  as  the 
present  system  necessitates.  Some  such  scheme  is  imperative 
in  Ireland,  if  the  system  is  ever  to  satisfy  public  needs. 

The  author  is  optimistic  regarding  the  settlement  of  the 
University  Question  on  the  basis  of  conference  and  compromise. 
The  Government,  he  hints,  is  only  waiting  for  a  reasonable 
scheme  to  give  it  approval.  Whether  such  be  the  case  may 
fairly  be  questioned.  The  Goverment,  doubtless,  has  discovered 
the  pretty  obvious  principle  that  Ireland  should  be  governed  by 
Irish  ideas,  but  it  seems  still  unaware  of  the  fact  that  Irishmen 
themselves  are  best  able  to  explain  what  these  ideas  are. 


570  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL   RECORD 

We  are  sorry  that  our  author  has  expressed  no  clear  opinion 
on  the  recent  vagaries  of  the  National  Board,  and  especially 
on  the  change  of  programme  introduced  some  years  ago  into 
the  National  Schools.  That  paper-folding,  etc.,  is  a  suitable 
substitute  for  the  sound  course  of  grammar,  geography,  arith- 
metic, etc.,  that  used  to  be  imparted  has  never  appealed  to  us 
as  an  obvious  fact ;  nor  do  we  think  that  the  conductors  of  the 
Intermediate  Schools,  who  have  to  devote  years  to  imparting 
elementary  instruction  generally  associated  with  primary  edu- 
cation, will  be  inclined  to  quarrel  with  the  statement. 

The  book  is  full  of  information  and  practical  suggestion, 
and  should  be  carefully  studied  by  everyone  who  wishes  to  under- 
stand the  strength  and  weakness  of  the  present  stysem,  or  to 
cooperate  in  its  improvement. 

M.  J.  O'D. 

THE  YOKE  OF  CHRIST.  Readings  intended  chiefly  for  the 
Sick.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Eaton,  Priest  of  the 
Birmingham  Oratory. 

THE  '  Hundred  Readings/  which  make  up  this  volume,  are 
intended  for  those  who  hunger  for  spiritual  food,  and  are  bodily 
too  weak  for  deep  meditation.  '  Such  persons,'  says  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Westminster,  in  the  Preface,  '  will  find  in  these  read- 
ings just  what  they  require,  and  the  teaching  of  our  Divine 
Master  will  come  home  to  them  with  new  force  to  brace  their 
failing  strength  and  inspire  fresh  courage  to  bear  their  burden. 

THE  CONSECRATION  OF  A  BISHOP.     By  the  Rev.  Myles  V. 

Ronan.     Dublin,    1906.     Catholic    Truth    Society    of 

Ireland,  27,  Lower  Abbey  Street.     Price  One  Penny. 

With  the  approbation  of  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  of 

Dublin. 

THIS  is  an  exceedingly  useful  and  practical  publication. 
Hitherto  at  the  consecration  of  bishops  where  any  attempt  was 
made  to  give  the  laity  an  intelligent  interest  in  one  of  the  most 
solemn  ceremonies  of  the  Church,  the  pamphlets  produced 
were  meagre  and  unsatisfying,  having  been  for  the  most  part 
got  up  in  a  hurry.  Father  Ronan  has  done  his  work  carefully, 
and  has  admirably  explained  not  only  the  ceremonies  of  the 
function  but  the  symbolic  and  mystic  signification  of  each  one 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  57* 

of  them.  We  hope  that  the  litte  book  will  be  fully  availed  of 
whenever  the  occasion  offers,  and  that  the  priests  in  the  locality 
in  which  a  consecration  is  held,  and  in  its  neighbourhood,  and 
indeed  in  all  the  parishes  of  the  diocese,  will  see  that  the 
pamphlet  is  put  in  the  boxes  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  for 
sale  in  time  to  enable  the  people  to  read  it  carefully  before- 
hand, and  that  they  will  be  so  good  as  to  draw  the  attention  of 
their  people  to  its  existence  and  to  its  presence  in  the  box. 
Father  Ronan  has  done  them  a  great  service,  and  we  hope 
it  will  be  duly  appreciated. 

J.  F.  H. 

CLERICAL  MANAGERS  AND  THE  BOARD  OF  NATIONAL 
EDUCATION.  The  Dungiven  School  Controversy.  By 
Rev.  Edward  Loughrey,  P.P.  Dublin  :  James  Duffy 
and  Co.,  Ltd.  Price  is. 

THE  controversy  between  Father  Loughrey  and  the  Board 
of  National  Education  has  at  least  this  one  great  result,  that  it 
has  given  birth  to  one  of  the  most  eloquent  pamphlets  it  has  ever 
been  our  good  fortune  to  peruse.  The  case  between  Father 
Loughrey  and  the  Board  is  clearly  stated  in  the  correspondence 
that  passed  between  them  ;  but  both  in  the  introduction  to  this 
correspondence,  and  in  the  general  views  on  education  which 
follow,  Father  Loughrey  has  reached  a  height  of  eloquence 
given  to  very  few,  and  in  argument  and  dialectics  has  literally 
pulverised  the  Board. 

The  case  in  dispute  can  be  put  in  a  nutshell.  Miss  Mary 
Jane  Kilmartin,  teacher  of  the  girls'  school  at  Dungiven,  is  said 
to  have  slapped  a  refractory,  stubborn,  and  idle  child,  on  the 
cheek  with  her  open  hand.  The  parents  withdrew  the  child 
from  the  school  and  instituted  law  proceedings  against  the 
mistress.  The  manager,  who  was  not  consulted  on  these  pro- 
ceedings, refused  to  allow  the  child  back  to  the  school  without 
an  apology,  and  promise  of  future  good  conduct.  The  Com- 
missioners directed  Father  Loughrey  to  allow  the  child  back- 
He  held  firm,  and  was  dismissed  from  his  position  as  manager. 
Father  Loughrey  claims  that  the  Commissioners  outstepped 
their  rights,  and  acted  in  violation  of  the  rule  that  had  hitherto 
been  followed  in  such  matters.  They,  however,  were  masters 
of  the  situation  and  clung  to  their  decision. 


572  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

The  Commissioners,  however,  little  knew  the  resources  at 
the  command  of  Father  Loughrey.  In  this  book  he  has  let  them 
have  it  for  many  misdeeds  besides  that  of  which  he  himself  is 
the  victim.  He  shows  how  '  the  Board  has  been,  after  an 
existence  of  nearly  one  hundred  years,  an  unmixed  failure, 
its  malicious  purpose  alone  adhering  to  the  skeleton.' 

The  so-called  '  New  Programme '  of  a  few  years  ago  he 
examines  from  an  educational  standpoint — '  Sticklaying,  tent- 
pegging,  paper  folding,  baby  technics,  military  marching  of 
children  of  tender  years,  whose  usual  walking  distance  was  four 
or  five  miles  met  with  one  howl  of  indignation  from  managers 
and  parents.' 

Father  Loughrey  prophecied  that  the  programme  would  not 
stand,  and  suggested  numerous  modifications.  The  Commis- 
sioners stole  his  ideas,  and  adopted  even  his  wording  without 
acknowledgment.  It  is  all  very  well,  he  says,  for  the  Bishop 
of  Kildare  to  be  talking  of  moderation  ;  but  how  is  a  man  to 
relieve  his  outraged  feelings  ? 

'  When  Commissioner  Dr.  Foley  [he  writes]  relieves  himself 
gracefully  of  much  wisdom  and  foresight  to  an  audience  charmed 
into  observant  silence,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  admiration  for  his 
modesty  and  moderation,  it  is  pleasant  to  feel  the  fresh  air  blow 
from  a  burst  of  honest  indignation  from  the  ruined  battlements 
of  the  City  of  the  Broken  Treaty.' 

We  can  only  assure  our  readers  that  this  pamphlet  well 
repays  perusal. 

J.  F.  H. 

ST.  COLUMBA'S.  Issued  by  the  League  of  St.  Columba, 
Maynooth.  Dublin  :  M.  H.  Gill  &  Son,  Ltd.  is.  net. 
THE  League  of  St.  Columba  continues  its  good  work.  The 
number  of  Irish  papers  in  its  annual  Record  is  increasing  from 
year  to  year.  The  history  and  archaeology  of  the  country 
come  next  in  importance.  Poems,  stories,  descriptive  essays 
in  English  and  Irish  light  up  its  pages,  and  give  a  glimpse  at 
the  youthful  enthusiasm  that  is  concentrated  within  the  hallowed 
old  walls.  A  sketch  giving  promise  of  great  things  is  that 
entitled,  '  Maynooth  Revisited,'  by  Parochus.  The  author  of  this 
sketch,  J.  M.  G.,  will  be  heard  of  again.  As  Father  O'Growney 
used  to  say,  '  That  man  has  something  in  him.'  Mr.  Morris's 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  573 

paper  on  '  Assemblies,  Sports,  and  Pastimes  in  Ancient  Ireland,' 
is  admirably  done ;  and  the  papers  on  the  '  Early  Irish  Church  ' 
are  learned  enough  for  any  magazine.  The  Irish  papers  are 
descriptive,  sacred,  historical,  and  poetic.  Father  Yorke  makes 
an  admirable  frontispiece  to  the  whole  collection,  and  we  are 
sure  he  never  felt  more  at  home  anywhere. 

A.  B. 

LA  CIT£  DE  LA  PAIX.    D'apres  le  temoignage  de  ceux  qui  y 

sont  Re  verms.    (A  French  version  of  the  'City  of  Peace'). 

Avignon  :  Aubanel  Freres.     2/.  25c. 

WE  are  greatly  pleased  to  find  that  one  of  the  most  notable 
publications  of  our  Irish  Catholic  Truth  Society  has  extended 
its  range  of  success  to  the  Continent.  The  various  biographical 
sketches  which  make  up  '  The  City  of  Peace,'  and  the  glimpses 
they  afford  of  the  inner  workings  of  souls  led  back  by  grace  from 
Protestantism  to  the  Church,  will  doubtless  have  a  peculiar 
interest  and  value  for  Catholics  and  non-Catholics  abroad — 
differing  in  kind,  but  hardly  in  degree,  from  the  importance  of 
their  message  to  those  who  live  in  contact  with  the  Protestantism 
of  the  English  world. 

The  translation  might,  perhaps,  have  been  executed  in  more 
interesting  and  idiomatic  style.  The  proofs  have  been  badly 
revised.  A  mis-spelling  and  a  misprint  occur  on  the  Nihil 
Obstat  page ;  and  this  ominous  opening  is  too  well  responded  to 
by  succeeding  blunders.  We  trust  that  a  second  edition,  de- 
served as  it  is  by  the  real  merit  of  the  book,  will  soon  afford  an 
opportunity  of  setting  these  details  right. 

THE   TRADITION   OF   SCRIPTURE.    By    the   Rev.    William 

Barry,  D.D.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  35.  6d.  net. 
THE  Scriptural  problems  raised  by  the  modern  critics  have 
for  years  been  attracting  an  amount  of  attention  in  Catholic 
circles.  The  subject  is,  however,  so  extensive,  and  the  number 
of  English  Catholic  works  treating  of  it  so  few,  that  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  for  our  Scriptural  students  in  these  countries  to  come 
to  any  definite  conclusion  regarding  the  points  at  issue.  Some 
of  them  have  not  the  time,  others  not  the  required  energy ;  a 


574  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

respectable  minority  have  neither.  What  they  require  is  a 
manual  giving  in  a  brief,  concise  form  the  main  conclusions 
arrived  at,  and  indicating  to  what  extent  the  more  conservative 
authorities  are  disposed  to  come  to  terms  with  their  critical 
opponents.  The  long-looked  for  volume  has  come  at  last.  Dr. 
Barry's  little  book  of  266  pages  has  all  the  required  qualifica- 
tions, and  will  be  eagerly  welcomed  by  everyone  who  takes  an 
interest  in  the  Biblical  question. 

When  it  is  stated  that,  within  the  narrow  compass  indicated, 
Dr.  Barry  has  discussed  the  history  of  the  Canon,  the  opinions 
of  the  leading  Fathers,  the  question  of  inspiration  in  all  its  as- 
pects, the  place  of  Christ  in  the  Bible,  etc.,  and  has  given  a 
synopsis  of  the  more  important  literature  on  every  single  book 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  energy,  ability,  and  skill  with  which  he  has  done  his  work. 

His  guiding  principle  seems  to  be  the  maxim  of  the  golden 
mean.  In  regard  to  the  Pentateuch,  for  instance,  he  adopts 
neither  the  old  tradition  nor  the  extreme  hypothesis  of  Well- 
hausen  and  his  friends,  but  maintains  that  the  nucleus  of  the 
work  is  due  to  Moses  himself,  that  his  speeches  were  preserved 
in  oral  tradition,  and  embodied  in  the  volume  later  on,  that 
other  additions  came,  after  all,  from  men  imbued  with  his 
spirit,  and  are  attributable,  therefore,  in  a  sense  to  the  Founder 
of  the  Law  himself.  On  the  question  of  inspiration  he  parts 
company  with  those  who  emphasize  the  human  element  but 
shows  no  disposition  to  applaud  those  who  are,  perhaps,  some- 
times inclined  to  over-estimate  the  divine.  And,  in  regard  to 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  his  views,  though  in  the  main  differing 
little  from  the  traditional,  are  somewhat  coloured  by  the  recent 
speculations  of  the  Abbe*  Loisy  and  his  German  predecessors. 
The  principle  is,  we  believe,  the  correct  one  to  employ.  A 
system  of  interpretation  which  persistently  ignores  the  literary 
work  of  the  last  century  and  a  half  is  as  far  from  the  truth  as 
the  so-called  critical  method  which  undertakes  to  settle  every- 
thing on  internal  evidence  alone.  Each  system  is  extreme  and 
merely  signs  its  own  death  warrant. 

So  far,  in  theory,  many  will  agree.  But  when  it  comes  to 
practice,  the  unanimity  ceases.  If  a  via  media  is  to  be  sought, 
which  extreme  is  to  be  most  clearly  kept  in  view  when  deter- 
mining the  course  ?  The  sail  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis  is 
far  from  being  a  holiday  excursion.  Though  we  admire  the 


NOTICES  OF  BOOKS  575 

skill  with  which  Dr.  Barry  strives  to  do  justice  to  every  honest 
opinion,  we  shall  not  be  surprised  if  many  are  shocked  at  his 
free  treatment  of  Judges  and  Chronicles,  for  instance,  or  at  his 
partition  of  Isaias  or  location  of  Daniel  in  the  second  century  B.C. 

He  is  careful  to  observe  that  no  dogmatic  issue  is  affected 
by  the  concessions  he  makes  to  modern  critical  research. 
Catholics,  we  know,  will  not  allow  the  statement  to  pass 
unquestioned.  But  the  amount  of  truth  which  all  must  admit 
it  contains,  suggests  the  thought  that,  whatever  mental  un- 
easiness Higher  Criticism — especially  of  the  New  Testament — 
may  occasion  Protestants  who  make  the  Bible  their  sole  rule 
of  faith,  its  effects  are  much  more  easily  borne  by  Catholics  who 
take  their  faith  from  the  living  Church,  and  who  have  always 
drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Church  was  in  existence^ 
as  a  Divinely-constituted  teaching  authority  before  a  single 
word  of  the  New  Testament  was  penned.  When  anti-Catholics 
are  scandalised  by  her  comparative  apathy  towards  the  newer 
learning  they  should  bear  in  mind  this  important,  but  oft- 
forgotten  fact. 

Stress  is  laid — and  rightly — on  the  principle  of  evolution 
in  revelation.  It  solves  many  an  enigma  which  drove  men  like 
Origen  into  explanations  admirable  as  examples  of  mental 
gymnastics,  but  hardly  safe  precedents  in  sacred  exegesis. 

The  evidence  of  extensive  reading  afforded  by  the  volume 
•excites  our  admiration.  Catholic  writers  are,  of  course,  awarded 
the  greatest  amount  of  consideration,  but  Protestants — like 
Dr.  Driver — who,  in  addition  to  their  critical  acumen,  manifest 
a  reverence  for  the  supernatural,  are  quoted  with  all  due  defer- 
ence and  respect.  We  are  not  sorry  to  see  that  Cheyne's  some- 
what erratic  conclusions  only  provoke  the  Dantean  phrase, 
'  Look  and  pass  on.'  The  same  phrase  might  be  used  of  others 
to  whom  Dr.  Barry  has  exhibited  more  courtesy. 

Apart  from  purely  critical  questions,  there  are  some  state- 
ments in  the  work  that  may,  perhaps,  be  taken  exception  to. 
Admirers  of  Lessius,  for  example,  will  hardly  grant  that  the 
Vatican  Council  condemned  his  teaching,  though  it  did  reject, 
as  sufficent  for  inspiration,  subsequent  approbation  by  the 
Church  (page  223).  No  recognised  school  of  theologians,  we 
think,  maintain  that  Divine  knowledge,  any  more  than  any  other 
Divine  attributes,  can  be  predicated  of  the  humanity  of  Christ. 
The  author's  approval  of  the  school  which  teaches  that  the 


576  THE  IRISH  ECCLESIASTICAL  RECORD 

writers  of  the  historical  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  did  not 
intend  to  give  us  strict  history,  does  not  command  our  sympathy. 
But  matters  like  these  are  of  minor  importance  :  the  book  will 
stand  or  fall  on  altogether  different  grounds. 

The  aim  of  the  author  excluded  original  research,  his  only 
claim,  indeed,  to  originality  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  is  the  first 
in  these  countries  who  has,  under  the  influence  of  Catholic 
principles,  and  with  a  view  to  Catholic  readers,  entered  on  an 
undertaking  of  the  kind.  His  book  is  one  for  which  Catholics 
will  be  sincerely  grateful :  one,  too,  that  will  add  no  small  amount 
to  the  reputation  he  has  already  gained  in  other  departments  of 
literary  work. 

M.  J.  O'D. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  THE  SPIRITUAL  LIFE.  By  Father  Clare, 
S.J.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  London  :  Art  and 
Book  Company.  75.  6d.  net. 

WE  noticed  some  years  ago  an  earlier  edition  of  Father 
Clare's  book  in  this  Review.  The  present  edition  is  much  en- 
larged ;  the  Spiritual  Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  are  amplified  to 
some  650  pages.  The  work  will  be  found  most  valuable  by  those 
who  have  to  make  retreats  without  the  assistance  of  a  director. 


NOTE  ON  DR.  COFFEY'S  «  THOUGHTS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND 
RELIGION'  :  A  CORRECTION 

ON  page  392  of  the  I.  E.  RECORD  a  well-known  Italian  priest 
and  writer,  R»  Murri,  was  represented  as  partially  at  least, 
defending  the  Philosophic  de  V Action  and  the  Methode  .de 
V Immanence.  Judging  from  his  contributions  to  the  Cultura 
Sociale  I  find  that  he  has  been  a  consistent  opponent  of  the 
philosophical  and  apologetical  views  in  question. 

P.  C. 


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