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ST.    BASIL'S  SCMULASTiCATE 

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SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 
AND    HIS    LEGEND 


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SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 
AND  HIS  LEGEND. 


by 

NINO   TAMASSIA    "^C?  ' 

PROFESSOR   OF   THE   HISTORY   OF  LAW 

and   of 

ECCLESIASTICAL   LAW 

in  the 

UNIVERSITY  OF  PADUA. 


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TRANSLATED   IN    TO   ENGLISH 

With   a    short    Preface 

by 

LONSDALE  RAGG. 


«l 


LONDON 
T.   FISHER   UNWIN 
MCMX 


MAR  -  9  1553 


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AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

THE  disciples  of  Karl  Miiller,  and  those  also  who  have 
ever  in  mind  the  neatly  expressed  lines  of  Leon  Le  Mon- 
nier's  book,  will  doubtless  find  many  deficiencies  in  these 
researches  of  mine.  And  the  readers  of  the  Vie  de 
S.  Francois,  carried  away  by  Paul  Sabatier's  charm  of 
style  and  elegance  of  conception,  will  find  the  present 
work  over-weighted  with  notes  and  disfigured  with  excess 
of  raw  material.  But  I  may  be  permitted  to  observe,  on 
the  other  side,  that  the  very  special  character  of  the  study 
here  presented  to  the  reader  demanded  a  compromise — a 
compromise  between  erudition  and  criticism ;  between  the 
claims  of  the  expositor's  art,  and  the  necessity  pf  giving 
due  place  to  the  actual  proofs,  which  here  are  all-important. 
The  mere  citation  of  the  titles  of  works  written  on 
Franciscan  subjects  would  of  itself  have  offered  material  for 
a  book  ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  he  who  would  speak  of 
the  Saint  of  Assisi  must  patiently  question  history  in  her 
various  departments — civil,  religious,  dogmatico-theological, 
juridical  and  literary — and  still  more  patiently  listen  to  the 
answers  she  has  to  give.  But  the  difficulties  do  not  end 
there.  Generally  speaking  historians,  and  still  more  jurists, 
have  no  reputation  for  keeping  their  immediate  audience 
awake  when  they  proceed  to  hold  forth  ;  yet  suffer  from 
the  strange  illusion  that  their  wares  may  be  acceptable  to 
folk  outside  the  little  circle  to  which  they  themselves  be- 
long.  These  very  true  and  just  considerations  I  have  borne 


6         SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 

in  mind  all  along  ;  and  the  fact  of  my  constant  endeavour 
to  avoid  these  pitfalls  has  itself  been  the  reverse  of  help- 
ful, for  so  the  work,  in  addition  to  its  other  disadvantages 
may  have  suffered  also  from  the  hesitation  of  its  author. 
We  are  so  close  to  Saint  Francis  that  a  humble  confes- 
sion— even  of  scruples  of  conscience — is  an  honorable  and 
a  congenial  task. 

For  many  years  past,  in  connexion  w^ith  certain  investi- 
gations which  have  no  direct  relation  to  the  Franciscan 
movement,  I  had  been  collecting  and  putting  aside  a  series 
of  data  which  coordinated  themselves,  as  it  were,  sponta- 
neously,  and  mutually  illustrated  one  another. 

And  then,  lifting  my  gaze  higher,  I  seemed  to  discern, 
far  off  but  shining  clear,  the  gentle  figure  of  the  "  Poverello 
d'Assisi".  No  one  had  directed  me  to  him...  I  considered. 
To  make  sure  of  the  most  delicate  lines  of  the  apparition 
I  must  climb  higher  still,  not  leaving  my  old  track.  There 
intervened  the  mist  of  Thomas  of  Celano's  Legend,  insi- 
dious and  dense  :  but  I  had  already  possessed  myself  of 
one  secret.  That  which  drew  others  down  from  the  path 
served  me  as  guide. 

So  was  the  book  brought  to  birth  ;  and  it  makes  no 
claim  that  its  lowly  origin  should  be  forgotten.  Errors  and 
defects  it  doubtless  has  ;  long-winded  discussions,  un- 
necessarily tortuous,  were  not  always  avoidable  :  in  any 
case  I  know  they  are  to  be  found  in  it.  Such  misfortunes 
are  not  incurred  by  those  who  take  pains  to  note  them 
in  the  pages  of  others.  If  an  author  has  his  head,  so  to 
speak,  in  the  right  place,  he  is  himself  the  severest  judge 
of  his  own  work  ;  hence  I  do  not  claim  immunity  from 
any  form  of  criticism.      Indeed,  I  believe  I  shall  be  found 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE  7 

in  perfect  agreement  with  all  my  critics,  when  I  acknow- 
ledge that  I  may  be  wrong  in  many  points,  but  not  in  the 
idea  of  a  critical  study  of  the  Franciscan  Legend  free  from 
every  sort  of  preconception. 

Sacred  are  the  rights  of  Truth  :  we  cannot  deny  them 
to  him  who  incarnates  the  idea  of  evangelical  simplicity 
and  superhuman  candour. 

And  now  one  last  word  of  warning.  If  I  am  not 
mistaken,  these  researches  prove  that  the  Franciscan  Legend 
in  its  multiform  complexity  cannot  be  disjoined  from  the 
truly  great  work  of  Thomas  of  Celano.  The  Saint's  bio- 
grapher has  drawn,  from  certain  sources  which  we  shall 
learn  to  know,  both  inspiration  and  material  for  his  work. 
With  a  minimum  of  conscience  and  an  immense  degree 
of  talent  he  has  presented  to  the  Order  the  real  Specu- 
lum Perfectionis,  the  Book  par  excellence  of  the  Franci- 
scan Society.  Having  decomposed  this  legend  into  its 
constituent  elements  and  demonstrated  that  the  two  "  Lives  " 
betray  a  profound  acquaintance  with  the  dogmatic  litera- 
ture relating  to  monastic  institutions  and  with  the  most  dif- 
ficult religious  questions  of  the  times,  it  seemed  to  me 
unnecessary  to  confute  one  by  one  the  arguments  adduced 
by  Sabatier  to  defend  the  authenticity  of  that  "oldest 
Legend  "  by  him  attributed  to  Brother  Leo — a  Legend 
which  owes  its  originality  and  its  fame  to  Sabatier  him- 
self. The  entire  book,  directed  as  it  is  to  the  establishing 
of  Celano' s  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Legend  of  the 
Saint,  is  a  continuous  refutation  of  the  preconception  of 
which  the  distinguished  French  writer,  and  not  a  few 
others  with  him,  have  been  the  victims.  Moreover  the 
certainty  with  which  the  true  sources  of  Celano' s  narrative 
could   be    indicated,   rendered   practically   superfluous   any 


8        SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

preliminary  research  into  the  mutual  relations  between  the 
various  existing  forms  of  the  Legend  itself.  For  us  those 
critical  studies,  long  and  laborious,  on  the  origin  and  pa- 
rentage of  the  MSS.  and  their  different  dates,  have  lost 
their  historical  value.  When,  for  instance,  we  know  that 
a  fragment  of  Gregory  the  Great,  or  of  the  "Vitae  pa- 
trum "  passes  from  Celano  into  the  Actus,  the  Fioretti, 
the  so-called  Speculum  Perfectionis,  or  the  "  Lives  of  the 
Companions"  of  Saint  Francis,  and  so  on,  the  historical 
interest,  which  depended  on  the  supposed  originality  of 
the  narrative,  is  gone  for   ever. 

If  one  wished  to  write  the  history  of  certain  famous 
gems,  there  would  need  to  be  a  separate  chapter  devoted 
to  each  of  the  artistic  objects  in  which,  during  the  course 
of  centuries,  those  stones  have  shone.  But  such  labour 
becomes  useless  if  a  most  accurate  examination  permits  us 
to  assert  of  a  single  stone  that  it  passed  from  a  cross  to 
a  sceptre,  thence  to  a  reliquary,  and  from  the  reliquary  to 
a  ring.  Such  have  been  the  fortunes — if  I  may  so  put 
it — of  much  of  the  Franciscan  Legend.  It  shines,  indeed, 
down  the  ages  ;  and  if  its  brilliance  does  not  always  il- 
lumine the  dark  period  which  saw  the  rise  of  that  loveliest 
creation  of  art,  the  "Italian  Christ",  it  yet  holds  the 
secret  of  his  success. 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE 

THE  translator,  as  such,  may  be  accused  of  presump- 
tion if  he  pose  also  as  critic.  Yet  his  task  is  one 
which,  if  his  mind  be  awake,  stimulates  and  feeds  the 
critical  faculty  in  a  measure  greater  than  that  enjoyed  by 
the  mere  reader.  For  he  needs  must  linger  over  every 
page  and  ponder  on  each  phrase  unless  he  would  run 
the  risk  of  betraying  his  trust,  and  proving  traditore  instead 
of  traduttore.  In  one  sense,  indeed,  his  attitude  would 
seem  to  be  far  enough  removed  from  that  of  the  critic  ; 
for  if  there  be  a  "sincerer  flattery  "  than  that  which 
expresses  itself  in  "imitation",  it  is  surely  that  of  the 
translator,  for  whose  task  originality  itself  is  yoked  to  the 
plough  and  made  subservient  to  the  mind  of  another. 

Yet  it  is  impossible  (be  it  said  with  all  modesty)  that 
any  two  minds  should  think  exactly  alike  in  all  details, 
and  besides  the  loyalty  which  the  translator  owes  to  his 
original,  there  is  a  loyalty  also  due  to  himself ;  and  all 
the  more  if  he  have  given,  and  be  pledged  to  give  again, 
on  his  own  account,  literary  hostages  to  fortune.  For  this 
reason  the  present  writer  is  particularly  grateful  to  the 
Author  and  the  publisher  for  the  permission  to  prefix  a 
few  words  of  his  own  to  the  translation  of  a  work  of 
which  his  genuine  appreciation  makes  him  glad  to  be  the 
means  of  introducing  it  to  a  new  circle  of  readers. 

There  can  be  but  few,  even  among  experts  who  are 
qualified  to  criticise  from  an  equal  stand  point  a  work  so 


10       SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 

full  of  acumen  and  so  thoroughly  furnished  with  the 
sinews  of  a  wide  and  deep  erudition.  The  Author's  pro- 
fessional line  of  study  has  made  him  familiar — one  might 
almost  say  uniquely  familiar — with  a  vast  and  little-known 
literature  :  and  he  has  brought  the  artillery  of  his  lear- 
ning to  bear  on  the  subject  with  a  skill,  and  in  a  volume 
which,  if  it  do  not  win  him  victory  all  along  the  line, 
cannot,  at  any  rate,  fciil  to  capture  important  points  of 
vantage.  In  his  own  Preface  he  tells  us  the  story  of  the 
Book's  genesis.  Steeped  in  the  hagiographical  literature 
of  the  pre-Franciscan  Age,  he  found  himself  thinking,  as 
it  were,  unconsciously,  in  terms  of  Franciscan  legend :  and 
the  fact  itself  gave  food  for  thought,  and  became,  indeed, 
the  germ  of  the  present  study. 

In  the  same  Preface  the  Author  invites,  and  calls  for, 
candid  criticism,  as  indeed  does  every  page  of  his  work, 
with  its  formidable  array  of  authorities  referred  to,  and 
often  cited  verbally,  in  the  foot  notes.  If  the  Translator 
may  for  once  trespass  beyond  his  province,  and  accept 
the  Author's  genial  challenge,  he  would  fain  suggest  two 
points  from  which  might  well  start  such  candid  criticism 
as   the  Author  himself  invites. 

First,  as  to  the  fonti.  The  Book  displays,  from  first  to 
last,  a  sincere  and  zealous  effort  to  trace  back  this  and 
that  phrase  or  incident  to  its  original  source.  And  this  is 
one  of  its  most  important  and  valuable  features.  But  the 
Translator  cannot  wholly  free  himself  from  a  lurking  sus- 
picion that  in  this  matter  due  weight  may  not  always 
have  been  given  to  the  thirteenth-century  knowledge  of 
the  Bible  itself.  That  heretical  movement  which  figures 
so  largely  in  the  following  pages  was  admittedly  marked 
by  an  intense   devotion    to    the    Holy   Scriptures,    and    a 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE        11 

remarkable  familiarity  with  that  vernacular  Bible  which 
was  one  of  its  most  precious  fruits.  And  if,  as  we  know 
to  be  the  case,  the  orthodox  layman  Dante  Alighieri  pos- 
sessed a  knowledge  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  which 
might  put  to  shame  not  a  few  Protestants  of  today ;  why 
should  not  the  learned  cleric  Thomas  of  Celano  have 
enjoyed  a  like  familiarity  with  the  sacred  texts  ?  If  this 
be  so,  may  it  not  be  unnecessary,  where  the  "First"  or 
"Second  Life"  quotes  some  well  known  passage  from  the 
Gospels  or  Epistles,  to  adduce  a  previous  quotation  of  the 
same  source  from  St.  Gregory,  or  Cassian,  or  Caesarius 
of  Heisterbach  ?  '  It  is  however,  of  course  possible  that 
the  passage  in  question,  though  known  directly  to  Celano, 
was  in  the  particular  instance  called  to  mind  in  virtue  of 
its  secondary  association.  And  furthermore  this  criticism 
even  if  stringently  applied,  would  touch  but  a  few  details 
of  the  argument,  which  is  built  on  a  very  broad  basis. 

There  remains  another  suggestion  which  has  some  bear- 
ing on  the  central  argument  of  the  Book.  The  admitted 
plagiarisms  of  Celano — how  do  they  affect  one's  view  of 
the  supposed  facts  of  Saint  Francis'  life  ?  If  in  describing 
an  incident  assigned  to  that  life  the  biographer  can  be 
proved  to  be  employing  the  very  words  of  the  Gregorian 
Dialogues  or  of  Sulpicius  Severus,  does  that  necessarily 
prove  that  the  incident  itself  is  borrowed  ? . . .  that  it  has 
no  rightful  place  in  the  biography  of  the  Saint  of  As- 
sisi  ?  Is  there  not,  on  the  contrary,  an  irresistible  impulse 
even  for  the  modern  biographer  to  describe  the  most  solemn 
moments  of  his  hero's  life  in  terms  derived  from  the 
I    classic  he  loves  best,  and  most  of  all  from  Holy  Scripture, 

I   I  owe  sincere  thanks  to  Prof.  Tamassia  for  permission  to  add  a  Scripture 
reference  to  several  of  the  notes.  L.  R. 


12       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

that  unique  repository  of  thoughts  and  phrases  that  are  of 
age-long  and  world-wide  applicability  ?  The  Age  and 
School  for  which  Celano  wrote  had  a  larger  Bible  than 
ours,  for  it  included,  practically  the  whole  cycle  of  hagio- 
logical  tradition. 

But  we  may  go  one  step  further.  If  a  word  or  an 
incident  (miraculous  or  otherwise)  attributed  to  St.  Francis 
can  be  shewn  to  have  been  anticipated  exactly  in  the 
writings  of  earlier  biographers  all  down  the  series,  begin- 
ning, it  may  be  with  the  Gospels  themselves . . .  does  that 
prove  that  the  thing  happened  but  once  ?  Is  it  not  rather 
true  that  a  necessary  similarity,  both  in  word  and  in  act, 
in  to  be  expected  of  those  who  in  successive  centuries  set 
themselves  to  copy  a  single  model?  The  Saints  are  above 
all  imitatores  Christi,  alike  in  legend  and  in  the  aim  of 
their  own  actual  lives  :  and  in  proportion  as  their  imitation 
is  faithful  and  successful,  their  lineaments  will  become 
assimilated  to  one  another,  and  their  biographies  lend  them- 
selves to  reciprocal  plagiarism. 

Such  thoughts  as  these  are  almost  inevitably  suggested 
by  the  trend  of  the  argument.  With  such  reservations  as 
they  imply,  we  believe  that  the  Author  will  be  found  to 
have  proved  his  point.  His  main  point,  after  all,  is  the 
central  position  of  Celano' s  work  in  the  formation  of  the 
Franciscan  Legend,  and  the  very  large  dependence  of  that 
work  on  certain  definite  earlier  sources.  With  this  falls  to 
the  ground  the  originality  and  independent  historical  value 
of  Sabatier's  "Speculum";  the  inimitable  Fioretti  are 
shewn  to  be  exceedingly  composite  in  character,  and  the 
whose  perspective  of  Franciscan  study  is  materially  altered. 

Let  those  who  are  competent  criticise  at  their  leisure  the 
details  of  the  argument,  with  the  help  of  the  ample  material 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE         13 

which  the  Author  has  so  generously  provided  in  his  foot- 
notes. The  least  that  can  be  said  of  the  work  here  pre- 
sented in  an  English  dress  to  students  of  Franciscanism,  is 
that  it  marks  a  new  stage  in  the  progress  of  that  study, 
and  will  have  to  be  reckoned  with  by  all  who  write  thereon 
in  the  future. 

L.  R. 


CHAPTER   I 
SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI  AND  HIS  AGE 

Principal  sources  :  S.  Bernardi  abb.  Clarae  Vail.  Op.  Venetiis  1  726.  Ber- 
'  thold  von  Regensburg,  in  Sitzungsber.  der  k.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  phil.  hist.  Classe 
(Wien)  Bd.  84,  142,  147.  Caesarii  Heisterbacensis,  Dial,  miraculorum,  ed.  Strange 
1851  &  Colon.  1599.  Cowba,  Hist,  des  Vaudois  1  1901.  Denifle-Chatelain. 
Chart.  Univ.  Paris.  1 889.  CV.  Corpus  Script,  eccl.  lat.  ed.  Acad.  Caes.  Vindob. 
1866  secjq.  Dollinger,  Beitr.  zur  Sektengesch.  d.  Mittelalt.  1880  [Bd.  I  Gesch.  der 
gnost.  manich.  Sekt.].  Dresdner,  Kultur  u.  Siltengesch.  d.  ital.  Geistlichkeit  in  10 
und  11  Jahrh.  1890.  Friedberg-Ruffini,  Tratt.  del  diritto  eccl.  1893;  Hahn, 
Gesch.  der  Ketzer  im  Mittelalt.  1845-50.  Harnack,  Lehrb.  d.  Dogmengesch. 
1894-7.  Havet,  L'  Heresie  et  le  bras  seculier  au  m.  age  (Bibl.  de  1'  ecol.  des  Ch.) 
1880.  Hausralh,  Die  Arnoldisten  1895.  Hinschius,  das  Kirchenr.  d.  Kath.  und 
Protest.  1869  seqq.  Hurler,  Storia  d' Innocenzo  HI  (trad.  Rovida).  Inn.  Ill, 
Opera,  Venet.  1578.  Kurtz,  Lehrb.  der  Kirchengesch.  1889.  Lea,  Hist,  de 
r  Inquisition  (trad.  Reinach)  I  1 900.  Mariano,  S.  Francesco  d'  Assisi  e  alcuni 
dei  suoi  piii  recenti  biografi,  1896.  M.  G.  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica. 
Muller  (Karl)  die  Anfange  des  Minoritensord.  u.  d.  Brudersch.  1885.  Die  Wal- 
denser  und  ihre  einz.  Gruppen  1 880  ;  Preger,  in  Abh.  d.  bay.  Akad.  d.  Wiss. 
XIII  (1875).  Ueber  die  Verfass.  der  Franz.  Wald.  1890.  Reg.  Pont.  I  -  Regesta 
Pontificum  (/a#e  II  Aufl.)  Reg.  Pont.  II  Regesta  Pontificum  {Potthast).  Schmidt, 
Hist,  de  la  secte  des  Cathares  ou  Albigeois,  1849.  Schonbacb,  in  Sitzungsber. 
der  Wien,  Akad.  Bd.  142,  147  -  (1900,  1903),  Tocco,  L*  eresia  nel  medio 
evo    1 884. 

THE  mountain  peak  that  soars  majestically  above  lesser 
summits  seems  when  seen  from  a  distance  to  stand  alone, 
dominating  a  vast  plain ;  but  on  a  nearer  approach  it 
dwindles  gradually,  lost  among  the  surrounding  hills.  So 
is  it  with  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi,  in  whose  person  the 
religious  and  social  movements  of  the  thirteenth  century 
concentrate  themselves,  and,  in  a  sense,  triumph. 

As  we  draw  close  to  the  Umbrian  Saint,    descending 


16        SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

boldly  into  the  midst  of  the  living  memories  of  his  Age, 
the  visage  of  the  faithful  Spouse  of  Poverty  seems  to 
change  its  lineaments,  and  his  familiar  accents  so  sweet 
and  fervent,  lose  themselves  in  the  confused  clamour  of 
other  voices  no  less  powerful  or  pious. 

Francis  of  Assisi — it  is  a  practically  general  axiom 
among  all  the  historians  who  have  written  about  him — 
cannot  be  separated  from  his  Age.  And  that  Age  must 
be  studied  calmly  and  systematically  in  its  every  manife- 
station. Savants  and  poets,  fervid  mystics  and  cold  patho- 
logists contend  over  the  form  of  the  humble  follower  of 
Jesus  ;  yet  we  possess  in  point  of  fact,  only  such  tokens 
of  the  Saint  as  are  preserved  for  us  in  the  historical  records 
which  speak  of  him.  And  no  one  has  yet  given  a  satis- 
factory answer  to  the  very  simple  question  :  What  credit 
is  to  be  given  to  these  records  ?  What  are  their  real 
sources  ?  So  far,  all  the  efforts  of  criticism  have  been 
directed  towards  determining  the  value,  primary  or  secon- 
dary, of  this  or  that  historical  document.  Some  critics 
have  not  hesitated  to  reconstruct  the  sources  in  accordance 
with  certain  preconceptions  fatal  to  a  true  historical  me- 
thod ;  but  there  has  not  yet  appeared  a  critical  study 
entirely  devoted  to  the  origin  of  the  Franciscan  Legend 
as  it  is  fixed,  in  its  fundamental  lines,  in  the  two  "Lives" 
of  Thomas  of  Celano. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  investigation  is  to  shew 
that  in  order  to  study  aright  the  life  of  St.  Francis,  one 
needs  to  adopt  an  attitude  of  extreme  diffidence  not  only 
on  those  points  which  have  been  provisionally  admitted, 
faute  de  mieux ;  but  also  with  regard  to  all  that  has 
hitherto  been  accepted  without  question  as  true. 


CHAPTER    I 


17 


Before  entering  upon  a  detailed  comparison  of  the  an- 
cient sources  with  the  Franciscan  texts,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  say  a  few  prefatory  words  on  the  religious  and  social 
tendencies  of  the  age  of  St.  Francis.  Our  aim  in  so 
doing  is  not  to  focus  the  light  derived  therefrom  upon 
the  figure  of  the  Saint,  but  merely  to  elucidate  the  tech- 
nical signification  of  certain  narratives  :  narratives  from 
which,  in  turn,  we  may  gain  a  scientific  conception  of  the 
principal  criteria  by  which  the  entire  Legend  is  r*;gulated. 

The  miracle  of  the  Stigmata  ;  the  charming  ceremony 
of  the  "  Presepio  di  Greccio  ' ;  the  episode  of  the  impure 
priest  from  whom  the  Saint  does  not  withhold  the  respect 
due  to  his  order  ;  the  name  itself  of  the  "  Ordine  dei 
Minori " — these  are  not  the  conventional  themes  which 
recur  on  every  page  of  the  hagiological  writings  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

From  the  two  works  of  Celano  there  issues  a  Legend 
which  spreads  itself  through  many  other  collections  gather- 
ing riches  as  it  passes  from  place  to  place,  from  age  to 
age,  from  a  generation  of  more  or  less  trustworthy  eye- 
witnesses to  one  of  visionaries,  or  of  cold  and  unscrupulous 
compilers.  In  this  Legend  there  is  enshrined  a  well- 
determined  nucleus  of  facts  which  succeeds  in  impressing 
on  all  the  various  stories  the  appearance  of  a  frank,  inge- 
nuous originality.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  Legend  comes 
in  contact  with  old  motifs,  it  seems  as  though  the  nar- 
rative entirely  lost  sight  of  its  subject. 

This  wonderful  unity  of  conception,  which  the  internal 
tempests  of  the  Order  failed  to  dissolve,  might  produce 
the  illusion  of  truth  to  a  reader  incapable  of  penetrating 
into  the  secrets  of  very  clever  compilation.  Francis,  alike 
in  the  rhetorical  images  of  Thomas  of  Celano  as   in   the 

b 


18        SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

consummate  simplicity  of  the  Fioretti  seems  always  to  pre- 
serve his  physiognomy.  In  many  cases,  however,  under  a 
closer  and  more  careful  scrutiny  the  image  of  the  "  Poverello" 
of  Assisi  in  seen  to  decompose  itself,  so  to  speak,  into  a 
number  of  separate  traits  that  are  drawn  from  other  faces 
— faces  that  have  no  relation  whatever  to  our  Saint. 

Certainly  the  mosaic  is  all  but  perfect.  The  principal 
theme,  which  is  followed  by  the  artists  is  derived  from 
the  characteristic  note  that  vibrates  in  the  real  soul  of 
Francis  ;  but  the  inspiration  of  the  great  work  is  perhaps 
the  only  thing  about  it  that  corresponds  to  the  reality . . . 
and  this  quickly  fades  away  as  soon  as  the  Legend  is 
presented  in  the  Hashing  pomp  of  images  drawn  from  an- 
cient sources  such  as  the  famous  "Lives  of  the  Fathers". 
He  who  then  comes  upon  the  scene  is  not  Francis  of 
Assisi,  but  an  Oriental  hermit,  resuscitated  by  the  so-called 
ascetic  fervour  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Many  people, 
up  to  this  day  believe  that  from  the  mouth  of  St.  Francis 
issued  the  words:  " Nos  sumus  joculatores  Domini".^ 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  expression  originated  with  a 
German  Frate,  as  related — or  invented — by  Caesarius  of 
Heisterbach  !  ^ 

What  remains,  then,  it  will  be  asked,  of  the  real  Saint 
of  Assisi  ?  Much  more  than,  to  a  superficial  judgement, 
would  seem  likely.  The  literary  frauds — neither  strange 
nor  novel  in  character^ — with  which  we  are  confronted, 
are  not  inspired  simply  by  the  desire  to  increase  the  vene- 

1  Sabatier,   Speculum  perfectionis    1 898  ;    1 97. 

2  Caes.  VI,  8  :  Ita  est  de  simplicibus  (qui)  ut  sic  dicam,  iaculalores  Dei 
sunt  sanctorumque  angelorum   [ed.  Strange  I   359-60:  ed.   Colon.   418]. 

3  See,  e.  g.,  the  Life  of  S.  Remigius  written  by  Hincmar  in  MG.  SS. 
Mcrov.  III.  240. 


II 


CHAPTER   I  19 

ration  for  the  saint  and  add  to  his  fame.  The  Franciscan 
movement  cannot  be  disjoined  from  the  heretical  one  ar- 
rested in  its  victorious  political  career  by  Innocent  III. 
Triumphant  Orthodoxy  adds  to  its  trophies  the  meek  figure 
of  Francis  ;  the  Legend  must  bow  itself  to  the  exigencies 
of  altered  circumstances.  And  it  bows  itself  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  needs  but  an  extremely  slight  effort  of  cri- 
ticism to  bring  back — not  far  from  the  truth — the  official 
story. 

Once  again  criticism,  with  all  its  reputation  for  pedantry, 
transforms  itself  into  an  exquisitely  delicate  pyschological 
research. 

To  reach  Francis  of  Assisi  the  road  is  long  and  rough. 
We  prefer  to  follow  certain  field-paths  from  which  one 
may  enjoy  a  better  view  of  the  landscape  of  the  times ; 
and  the  short  cut  will  be  a  benefit  to  the  wayfarer  who 
cannot  transport  himself  into  the  days  of  the  Man  of  God 
without  the  annoyance  of  a  little  of  the  dust  of  erudition. 

After  the  independence  of  her  heroic  age,  the  Church 
made  her  peace  with  the  Roman  Empire ;  but  the  signing 

I  of  that  treaty  was  far  from  giving  her  internal  peace.  Her 
I  own  proper  adversaries  were  at  once  reinforced  by  those 
of  the  State  ;  while  her  close  adhesion  to  the  Civil  power 
had  the  effect  of   transforming    her    into    a    quasi-political 

r  organism  capable,  in  virtue  of  its  robust  constitution,  of 
taking  up,  at  the  opportune  moment,  the  heritage  of    the 

j|.  dying  world.  It  followed,  however,  from  this  that  her 
religious  idealism  found  itself  now  in  continual  conflict  with 
worldly  anxieties  and  preoccupations  :  and  the  internal 
uneasiness  soon  manifested  itself  in  schisms  and  heresies, 
in  the  contempt  of  monachism  for  the  very  institutions  of 


20       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

the  Church,  and  in  the  ill-omened  invocation  of  the  "se- 
cular arm".' 

Through  the  succeeding  centuries,  with  their  varied  and 
very  intricate  vicissitudes  ;  w^hilst  society  is  painfully  striving 
to  reconstruct  itself  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  civilisation 
and  amid  the  savagery  of  contemporary  barbarism  ;  the 
separation  between  the  two  functions  of  the  Church  be- 
comes still  more  pronounced.  Enormous  riches  stream  in 
upon  her,  and  equally  enormous  obligations.  With  the 
former  comes  in  the  germ  of  corruption  ;  with  the  latter, 
that  of  political  dominion.  For  the  defence  of  that  which 
has  become  necessary  to  her,  the  Church  makes  ready 
means  of  resistance  :  she  transmutes  her  spiritual  arms  in- 
to weapons  of  worldly  defence  ;  and  so  her  organism  be- 
comes assimilated  in  form  and  substance  to  the  institutions 
which  make  no  claim  to  divine  origin  or  mission.  To 
St.  Augustine  Catholicism  owes  its  dogmatic  unity ;  to  the 
Papacy,  in  which  lives  on  the  immortal  spirit  of  Rome 
the  Ruler,  that  cohesion  which  might  best  be  described  as 
political." 

Thus  the  increase  of  civil  power  obscured  the  religious 
character  of  the  institution,  till  at  length — in  a  stormy  age, 
be  it  admitted — Gregory  the  Great  could  doubt  whether 
he  were  Shepherd  of  Peoples,  or  an  earthly  Potentate. 

Permeating  the  inmost  structure  of  society ;  arbiter,  and 
at  the  same  time  slave  of  the  destinies  of  that  society,  the 
Church  shared  the  commotions  of  the  world's  life — because 
"nothing  was  foreign  to  her" — and  in  all,  consequently, 
she  either  suffered  or  prospered. 

1  Ruffini,   La  liberta  religiosa,    1901  ;  38  seqq. 

2  Respublica  Dei  (Op.  Vend.  1  744  ;  II,  1 40),  is  the  apt  phrase  of  S.  Peter 
Damian  reviving  the  idea  of  the  Augustinian   Civitas  Dei. 


CHAPTER   I  21 

To  the  upheavals  of  the  religious  conscience  she  paid  no 
attention  ;  and  these  became  more  frequent  and  more  spasmo- 
dic— and  more  dangerous  also — in  proportion  to  the  violence 
of  their  repercussion  and  the  magnitude  of  their  effects. 

During  the  barbaric  age,  German  victories  meant  im- 
munity for  heretical  doctrine  :  and  the  Orient,  sow^er  of 
schisms  and  heresies,  rent  meanwhile  in  another  direction 
that  ecclesiastical  unity  w^hich,  thanks  to  the  traditions  of 
Rome,  had  begun  definitely  to  be  associated  w^ith  the 
Papacy.  After  countless  perils  had  been  surmounted,  the 
Church  found  itself  even  more  strongly  secularised  than 
before.  And  the  worst  offender  was  the  Papacy  itself, 
which,  having  achieved  a  temporal  dominion,  proceeded 
to  reconstruct  the  Empire,  reserving  to  itself  the  right  to 
debase  the  same  at  will,  in  the  sight  of  Christian  Europe. 

These  conditions  prepared — not  of  course  for  the  rise, 
but — for  the  reflorescence  of  heresy,  which  is  the  most 
spontaneous  form  of  reaction  against  the  Church  and  against 
all  that  is  connected  with  it.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
character  and  dogmatic  force  of  heresy  are  not  generally 
understood,  because  the  religious  question  is  mixed  up  with 
problems  of  theology.  Still  heresy  receives  recognition  and 
attracts  a  following  for  the  sake  of  the  end  which  it  sets 
before  it,  and  of  the  fruits  which  are  hoped  for  from  its 
victory.  To  be  heretics,  it  is  sufficient  to  have  a  reason 
for  rebellion  against  an  orthodoxy  that  contradicts  the  reli- 
gious and  political  sentiment.  In  a  word,  heresy  ceases 
at  once  to  be  a  purely  doctrinal  matter,  as  soon  as  it 
begins  to  make  headway  among  the  nations  and  to  at- 
tract their  adherence. 

The  debris  of  old  heretical  sects  and  communities,  which 
Rome  had  vainly   endeavoured    to    stamp    out    by    harsh 


22       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

legislation,  exhibit  undoubted  signs  of  life,  and  of  a  more 
or  less  exuberant  life,  during  the  period  between  the  last 
Age  of  the  old  Empire  and  the  days  of  Francis  of  As- 
sisi.  If  we  would  understand  the  XII'^  and  XIII*^  cen- 
turies, we  must  work  our  way  back  through  the  ages, 
looking  out  for  causes — proximate  and  remote — of  a  prac- 
tically general  movement,  which,  when  it  has  reached  its 
climax  seems  to  be  the  immediate  outcome  of  the  con- 
ditions and  circumstances  of  the  Church  in  those  centuries. 

Gregory  the  Great,  who  died  in  604,  describes  with 
wonderful  precision  the  tendencies,  the  dogmas  and  the 
customs  of  the  small  heretical  nuclei  which  the  iron  legis- 
lation of  the  Roman  Emperors  had  not  succeeded  in 
destroying.  St.  Gregory's  narrative  brings  before  us  the 
two  great  branches  of  the  rebellious  plant  of  heresy :  the 
intolerant  Manichean  Catharism,  and  the  milder  heterodoxy 
which  reappears,  centuries  later  under  the  name  of  the 
doctrine  of  Valdo. 

Already  in  the  sixth  century,  be  it  remembered,  heretics 
are  to  be  found  in  the  humblest  classes  of  society.  And 
these  while  at  variance  with  one  another,  are  bound  to- 
gether by  their  common  hatred  of  the  Church,  in  an  ob- 
stinate and  perennial  struggle  against  orthodoxy.  They 
study  and  interpret  with  absolute  freedom  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures and  the  writings  of  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the  Church 
for  which  they  have  a  genuine  admiration  and  reverence. 
Their  activity  finds  self-expression  in  the  preaching  of  doc- 
trine :  hence  the  great  pains  they  take  to  become  eloquent, 
persuasive  and  learned  in  the  Scriptures,  in  face  of  catholic 
ignorance.  Modest  and  pious,  to  a  man,  in  their  demea- 
nour— erring,  indeed,  by  an  exaggerated  expression  of  self- 
humiliation — they  exhibit,  in  contrast  to  the    wealth    and 


CHAPTER   I  23 

worldly  prosperity  of  the  Church,  the  spectacle  of  a  life 
exemplarily  austere.  "In  us",  they  say,  "resides  the  truth: 
We  are  the  Church  of  God".  They  love  and  practise 
piety,  patience,  silence  ;  they  rejoice  in  shewing  themselves 
to  the  world  in  garb  and  demeanour  of  humility.  God 
is  in  them  :  and  God  speaks  familiarly  to  the  faithful. 
The  utterances  of  the  heretics  breathe  sweetness,  their 
actions  express  the  evident  desire  to  conform  themselves 
to  the  pattern  of  Jesus.  Every  one  of  them  gives  all  to 
the  poor.  Virginity  is  so  highly  esteemed  among  them 
that  many  of  them  absolutely  condemn  marriage.  So 
ardent  is  their  thirst  for  martyrdom  that  they  torment  the 
flesh  with  abstinence  and  fastings. 

The  heretics  live  apart  from  the  orthodox  and  assemble 
for  religious  practices  in  remote  spots  :  secrecy  lends  so- 
lemnity and  reverence  to  their  ceremonies.  In  their  doc- 
trine there  is  entire  disagreement.  Some  sects  dissent  in  no 
way  from  the  orthodox,  save  in  their  refusal  to  be  included 
within  the  unity  of  the  Church  ;  conforming  in  all  other 
I  matters  to  catholic  practice  and  worship.  Heretics  truly 
and  properly  so-called  are  those  who  profess  dogmatic  errors 
on  the  subject  of  the  Divinity  and  Incarnation  of  Christ ; 
who  hold  that  Hell  is  a  bug-bear,  invented  to  frighten  the 
wicked,  and  have  no  fear  of  the  devil. 

Such,  in  brief,  are  the  data  offered  us  by  Gregory  the 
Great  ;  and  if  we  make  these  our  starting-point  we  shall 
arrive  without  difficulty  at  the  true  and  proper  heretical 
movement  of  a  later  period.'      And  the  period  of  St.  Gre- 

1  S.  Greg.  M.  Opera  (ed.  Maur.)  In  prim.  Reg.  Ill,  5  n.  31  ;  Super  Cant. 
Cant.  Exp.  c.  Ill  n.  17;  Moral.  XVII  i  n.  c.  24  Job,  n.  65,  66;  III  inc.  2 
Job,  n.  46,  49  ;  XVI  in  c.  24  Job,  n.  62  ;  VII  in  c.  8  Job,  n.  62  ;  XII  in 
c.  15  Job.  n.  33  ;  III  in  c.  8  Job,  n.  68  ;  XVI  in  c.  22  Job,  n.  7  ;  XVII  in 
c.   28   Job,  n.   39  ;  XVIII  in  c.   27  Job,  n.   25  ;  XXXI  in  c.   39  Job.    n.    2  ; 


24       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

gory  can  supply  us  even  with  a  precursor  of  the  Saint  of 
Assisi/  At  Rieti  the  monk  Aequitius  abandons  the  life 
of  a  humble  field-labourer  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the 
study  of  the  sacred  books :  and  he  receives  from  an  Angel 
of  God  the  gift  of  eloquence  w^ith  an  injunction  to  preach 
the  word  of  God,  layman  though  he  be.  Aequitius  obeys ; 
and  over  the  mountains  and  valleys  of  the  Sabine  country, 
riding  the  most  miserable  ass  of  the  monastery,  clad  in 
hairy  skins  and  almost  concealed  by  two  bags  containing 
the  divine  Scriptures  which  hang  down  from  him  on  either 
side,  he  passes  from  village  to  village,  spreading  the  seed 
of  Gospel  preaching.^  The  Pope  sends  an  exsecutor 
to  summon  to  his  presence  the  suspected  proclaimer  of  the 
divine  word,  who  arrogates  to  himself  an  office  which  is 
not  his  ;  but  God,  in  a  vision,  warns  the  Pontiff  not  to 
molest  that  Brother. 

In  the  Liber  diurnus  Pontificum  Romanorum,  the  ordi- 
nation of  Africans  is  prohibited  on  the  ground  that  they 
are  frequently  tainted  with  Manichaeism.   This  proves  the 

XVI  in  c.   22  Job,  n.    7.  8  ;   III  in  c.   2  Job,  n.  45  ;  XX  in  c.  30  Job.  n.  18 
XXIII  in  c.   32  Job,  n.    15  ;   XX  in  c.  30  Job,  n.  24  ;  XII  in  c.  15  Job,  n.  33 
VIII  in  c.  8  Job,  n.  62  ;  XVI  in  c.  12  Job,  n.  20;  XXXI  in  c.  39  Job,  n.  10 
XXIII  in  c.   32  Job,  n.    15  ;  V  in  c.   5   Job,  n.  49  ;  XVI  in  c.  22  Job,  n.  20 
III  in  c.   8  Job,  n.  68  ;   XVI   in  c.   22   Job,  n.    10  ;  XIX  in  c.  29,  n.  27  (Ma- 
nicheism)  ;  XVIII  in  c.   28  Job,  n.   40  ;  XX  in  c.  30  Job,  n.  24  ;  XVI  in  c.  22 
Job,  n.    10  ;  XX  in  c.   30  Job,  n.   33  ;  XVIII  in  c.   28  Job,  n.  41  ;  III  in  c.  2 
Job,  n.   52.  Manicheans  in  Sicily  :    Ep.  V.    7. 

Solitary  tendency  of  Manicheans:  C.  Theod.  XVI,  5,  9  [582] ;  Their  expulsion 
from  Rome  and  from  Africa  ib.  c.  18,  35.  Even  in  the  sixth  century  some  light 
experiment  was  made  in  the  way  of  religious  toleration  for  heretics.  C.  I.  1,5, 
12  (a.   527).  Manicheans  ib.  §  2,  3,  Cfr.  c.    16. 

1  5.  Gregor.  M.  Dial.  I,  4;  cfr.  Cassiod.  Var.  IV,  23,  24,  a.  510-1, 
For  the  exsecutor,  Greg.  M.  Ep.  XI,  58  (MG.)  —  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Civilproz. 
Ill,   157. 

2  Aequitius  reminds  us  of  the  first  Minorites  almost  as  described  by  Math. 
Paris.  Hist.  Angl.  in  MG.  SS.  XXVIII,  397  :  Libros  continue  suos,  videlicet 
bibliothecas,  in  forulis,  a  coilo  dependentes,  baiulantes. 


CHAPTER   I  25 

persistence  of  that  heresy  beyond  the  VII'^  century : 
and  the  formula  in  which  the  said  prohibition  is  couched 
reappears  under  Nicholas  II  (1058-61)."  Moreover, 
even  if  the  Muratorian  fragment  be  earlier  in  date  than 
Lea  supposes,  ^  it  is  not  on  that  account  less  important ; 
offering  as  it  does  a  discursive  catalogue  of  the  principal 
sManichean  heresies/ 

The  famous  heresy  of  the  Adoptianists  who  believed 
that  Jesus  as  man  was  adoptive  son  of  God — the  heresy 
so  valiantly  combatted  by  Paulinus  of  Aquileja' — is 
perhaps  at  bottom  nothing  but  a  reflex  of  the  old  doctrine 
wherely  Jesus  only  symbolically  (not  to  say  juridically) 
becomes  man.  And  even  as  late  as  the  ninth  century  cer- 
tain errors  survived  concerning  the  Lord's  Passion,  suffered 
secundum  deitatem  :  ^  to  say  nothing  of  other  references 
which  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  books  in  which  our 
subject  is  treated. "  In  the  eleventh  century  Heresy 
pursues  its  true  and  proper  course  ;  but  that  course,  as 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  remark  later  on,  is  masked  (save 
to  the  historian's  eye)  under  the  vehement  popular  move- 
ment against  the  corrupt  clergy.  For  the  moment,  indeed, 
the  heretical  movement  coincides  in  its  line  of  action  with 
that  of  the  reforming  party  within   the   orthodox  Church. 

1  Lib.  diurnus  ponlif.  rom.  ed.  Sickel,  1899.  No.  6  (6-7).  The  Africans, 
driven  out  by  the  fury  of  the  Vandals,  took  refuge,  in  large  numbers,  in  Italy  : 
Corpus  inscr.  Lat.  V.  No.  818,  1703  ;  XI  N.o  2054  ;  Nov.  Valenl.  Ill  T.  12. 
33.   Cassiod.   Var.  XI.   9. 

2  Reg.   Pontif.   I.   No.  4442. 

1  Muratori  Anecd.  ex  Ambros.  Codd.    [  1 697]  ;    112. 

4  Cfr.  Cone.   Bracar.  II,  in  Mansi,  Cone.  Coll.  IX,  775  a.  563  ;  c.  4  seqq. 

5  Op.  ed.   Madrisius  ;  contra  Felicem,  99  seqq. 

(^  Cone.  Rom.  a.  862  :  Mansi  XV,  182,  61  1  &  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte 
(U  ed.)  IV,  260,272.  Reg.  Pont.  I  344-5. 

7  Lea,  I,  100;  Hamat^,  1,  785  seqq.  Dollinger,  I  passim;  Tocco,  73  seqq. 
Dresdner,    121    seqq.   Kurtz,   I,  §§   21,25,26. 


26       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISl 

So  then,  vital  germs  of  heresy  were  not  lacking  in  Italy 
and  beyond,  but  especially  in  France  and  Spain.  When 
the  storm  of  barbarism  had  been  overcome,  the  Church 
and  the  Church's  head,  intent  on  consolidating  the  temporal 
powder  with  its  centre  in  Rome,  made  unlimited  claims  over 
the  Romano-German  Empire.  She  frees  herself  from  the 
insidious  bonds  of  feudalism  ;  and  finally  proclaiming  by 
the  mouth  of  Gregory  VII  that  the  hour  has  come  for 
internal  reforms,  and  that  the  rule  of  kings  is  an  invention 
of  the  devil, '  she  carries  with  her  in  an  access  of  en- 
thusiasm the  very  asceticism  of  the  heretics,  and  gives  a 
vigorous  impulse  to  the  new-born  liberties  of  the  Com- 
munes ;  taking  care,  at  the  same  time,  to  divert  from  tur- 
bulent Europe,  by  means  of  the  Crusades,  the  great  masses 
of  restless  spirits,  and  to  curb  the  fell  prowess  of  over- 
bearing might  by  imposing  now  and  again  a  "  Truce  of 
God".^ 

Without,  magnificently  strong  and  majestic,  the  eccle- 
siastical organism  is  constantly  threatened  from  within  by 
the  malignant  cancer  of  corruption  and  simony  —  an 
evil  against  which  the  force  of  reforming  Popes  and  the 
assiduous  labours  of  certain  solitary  preachers'  are  alike 
unavailing.  And  now  all  those  who  had  themselves  con- 
ceded a  truce  to  the  Church,  begin  to  return  more  pas- 
sionately than  ever  to  their  old  ideals.  Heresy  assumes 
once  more  a  valiant  activity,  strong  in  the  alliances  which 


1  Greg.  VII,  Ep.  VIII,  2 1 .  Cfr.  Honorii  Augustod.  Summa  gloria,  in  MG. 
Lib.   de  lite  imp.   et  pontificum,  III,   75. 

2  Reg.  Pontif.  1,  No.  4521  (Alex.  II).  Huberli,  Gottesfrieden  und  Land- 
arieden    1892;    §    13. 

3  Even  in  1 294  an  ecclesiastic  was  compelled  on  pain  of  a  fine  of  4  ounces 
of  gold,  to  refrain  "  de  cetero  "  from  keeping  a  concubine  in  his  house.  Cod. 
Dipt.   Barese,    II,  No.  44. 


CHAPTER   I  27 

finds  along  its  path,  among  the  political  adversaries  of 
|Papal  Rome.  It  was  useless  for  the  Church,  with  con- 
summate courage  to  expose  her  own  wounds,  one  by  one, 
in  her  councils  and  in  papal  letters,  in  language  every 
whit  as  biting  as  that  of  the  bantering  songs  of  poets  and 
jesters.'  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  no  less  gentle  and  win- 
ning than  the  heretical  preachers,  ^  remained  unheeded ; 
the  very  utterance  of  Innocent  III  which  condemns  the 
unworthy  life  of  the  ecclesiastics,  attests  the  powerlessness 
of  the  labours  and  aspirations  of  the  reforming  party.  ^ 
The  papal  phrase  which  recurs  again  and  again  in  the 
Bulls — that  "the  Church  has  come  to  her  eleventh  hour" — 
is  more  than  a  mere  rhetorical  expression. 

The  Church  of  Jesus  had  all  but  disappeared.  That 
of  Rome  recalled,  to  the  instructed  mind,  in  its  constitu- 
tional outlines,  the  old  magistracies  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire ;  ^  to  the  less  learned  it  was  simply  a  gigantic  system 
of  oppression.  ^  To  the  corrupt  orthodox  clergy  even 
the  orthodox  laity  refused  homage  and  tithes.  This  refusal 
was  discussed  as  an  elegant  case  of  juridical  controversy 
in  the  greatest  university  of  Italy,  at  Bologna,  where  the 
wretched  morals  of  the  clergy  were  described  with  smart 

I  Concil.  Rem.  a.  2229  c.  1  seqq.  Tree.  a.  1127  c.  7;  Rolomag.  c.  2; 
Rem.  a.  1131,1148,  c.  4  e  2.  Turon.  a.  1143  c.  5  ;  Monspell,  a.  1214  c.  7 
seqq.  ;  Mansi,  XXI,  238.  356,375,459,714,  etc.;  XXII,  940  seqq.  Cone.  Later. 
a.  1123  e.  1  seqq.;  a.  1139  c.  16,21  ;  a.  1  1 79  e.  3  ;  10,11,  20;  a.  1215 
c.  19,  34,63,64  seqq.  Mansi.  XXI,  282  seqq.  :  531  seqq. :  XXII,  1007,  1022. 
1051,  seqq.   etc. 

-  Quando  oramus  ?  quando  doeemus  p>opulos  ?  Quando  aedificamus  Eccle- 
siam?  -  De  Consid.   I,   7  (Op.   II,   416). 

3  Sermo  in  conseer.  pontific.  184-5.  In  die  einer.  -  Sic  iam  ornati  prodimus, 
ut  magis  sponsi  quam  clerici  videamur. 

4  Odofred  C.  Haee  quae  nee.  Dig.  I.  13,  1,  Tamassia,  Odofredo  1894; 
144-6. 

.T  5.  Bern.  De  consid.  I,  7  (II  418):  Quid  falcem  vestram  in  messem  alie- 
nam  intenditis.  De  Convers.  ad  eler.  c.    19,22  (H,  498,  500). 


28       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF    ASSISI 

ingenuity  by  the  professors  before  an  audience  of  thousands 
of  scholars.' 

Inveterate  as  was  the  antipathy  for  frati  and  ecclesia- 
stics, ^  the  feeling  against  Roman  prelates  was  stronger 
still.  Contemporary  documents  dwell  on  the  obesity  of 
their  persons  and  the  hoarseness  of  their  voices  painfully 
unfitted  for  the  preacher's  task.  ^  What  respect  (it  was 
asked)  is  due  to  churchmen  shamelessly  living  a  life  of 
concubinage,  adultery,  buffoonery,  jesting :  forgers,  men  sur- 
rounded by  bravoes  and  immersed  in  ignorance  and  de- 
bauchery ?  ^ 

The  inferior  clergy,  abased  by  the  pride  of  ecclesia- 
stical patrons,  who  treated  them  like  so  many  agricultural 
labourers ;  '^  abandoned  by  the  bishops  who,  having  squan- 
dered their  diocesan  patrimony,  had  nothing  left  to  give  to 
others  :  strove  to  gain  a  miserable  pittance  by  the  sale 
of  masses  and    absolutions  ;  ^    profiting    by    the   vogue    of 

1  S.  P.  Damiani,  Op.  Ill,  292  ;  cfr.  Odofredo,  1 49  :  Only  rustics  seem 
to  have  been  still  ready  to  pay  tithes. 

2  Hon.  de  sacril.  ed.  Caspar!  (Christiania  1 886)  8  ;  Jacques  de  Vitry  Exem- 
pla  No.  268  [p.  112];  ed.  Crane  1890;  (p.  250  rtote).  Folgore,  Sonetti,  in 
Scelta  di  curiosity  lett.   No.    1  72   [65].  5.    P.   Dam.    Ill,   270  (opusc.  30  c.  3). 

3  Pasqui,  Doc.  per  la  storia  della  citta  di  Arezzo,  nel  medio  evo,  1899 
[No.  389;  a.  1  177-1  180].  (521,528-9,352).  One  might  adduce  also  the  sermon 
de  la  palharellei  (ib.  No.  389)  of  a  bishop  who  did  not  know  how  to  roll  his 
tongue  properly. 

4  Reg.  11  (Inn.  Ill):  clerical  murderers;  No.  380,  forgers  No.  532,  574, 
1184,  1276,  1283,  2055,  crudentes  buUas  novas;  luxurious,  debauched,  undi- 
sciplined, ignorant  ecclesiastics.  No.  519,  620,  835,  896,  382,  2933  etc.  Odofredo, 
149  :  Clerici  maioris  ecclesie,  qui  vadunt  ut  laici,  et  qui  tenent  palafredos  et 
accipitres  et  assecinos.  dr.  Jacques  de  Vitry,  Exempla  No.  2,  4,  5,  6,  17,  18, 
20,  22,  210,  Hist.  lerosol.  (in  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  Hanoviae  1611  ;  I,  1087) 
c.   70-71.   Dec.   Greg.   IX,  V,  26:  De  excess,   praei.  Cfr.   Ill,   2.   3. 

5  For  private  churches,  see :  Stutz,  Gesch.  der  kirch.  Benefizialwesens  1 895 ; 
Galante,  II  beneficio  eccl.  1895.  Decadence  of  the  canons:  Hinschius,  Kirchenr. 
11,  §  80.  AttempU  at  reform:  Ughelli-Coleii,  Italia  Sacra;  Firenze  a.  1231,  II,  I  10. 

^  Dresdner,   328  seqq. 

7  Caes.   Ill,  35.  40;  cfr.  Ill,  39  (ed.   1599);  IV,  41,  42,  44. 


^ome 


CHAPTER    I  29 


ome  more  or  less  authentic  saint  to  place  images  of  the 
same  in  their  churches,  with  a  view  to  attracting  men  and 
money.  Ignorance,  abject  degradation,  hatred  and  imperious 
necessity  drove  them  even  into  open  crime, '  Higher 
up  the  scale  things  proceeded  no  better.  The  episcopate, 
embroilled  in  politics,  had  no  longer  much  trace  of  the 
sacerdotal  character  about  it.  With  terrible  calm  a  monk 
of  Clairvaux  sums  up  in  few  words  the  condition  of  the 
Church  in  the  opening  years  of  the  XII I'^  century :  "  The 
Episcopate ",  he  says,  "  leads  straight  to  Hell — and  the 
Church  has  the  bishops  she  deserves*'.^  Still  higher, 
the  Pope  and  his  Curia  labour  to  destroy  by  their  deeds 
the  effect  of  the  good  proposals  formulated  in  their  utter- 
ances. ' 

An  iron  fiscal  system  exstinguishes  all  sense  of  pity  and 
of  evangelical  duty.  '^ 

There  is  no  human  activity  over  which  the  imperial 
sway  of  the  Papacy  does  not  extend.  The  pontifical  juris- 
diction, vexatious  and  tyrannical,  not  content  with  trench- 
ing upon  the  independence  of  Kingdoms,  interposes — 
sinister  ally  of  the  "Don  Rodrigo"  of  those  times — to 
prevent  the  nuptials  of  the  poor.  "^ 

I  Salimbene,  Chr.  (ed.  Parmae  1857)  274-5  ;  Luc.  Tudens.  Bibl.  max.  vet. 
patrum  XXV,    13.  5.    Bernard.   De  consid.   I,   7  (11,   418). 

^  Caes.  II  28.  St.  Peter  Damian  used  to  say  that  the  harhirasium  alone 
(Ep.  I,  15  Op.  1,  12)  distinguished  the  ecclesiastic  from  the  man  of  the  world; 
he  refers  to  the  clean-shaven  face  ;  but  some  historians  have  not  properly  under- 
stood  the  phrase. 

3  Some  one  says  to  Pope  Innocent  III  :  Os  tuum  os  Dei  est,  sed  opera  tua 
sunt  opera  diaboli :   Caes.    II,   30. 

4  5.  Bern.  De  consid.  Ill,  3  (II,  437) :  Quando  hactenus  aurum  Roma 
refugit  ?  Pastor,  Hist,  des  papes  depuis  la  fin  du  moyen-age  I  (trad,  franc.  1888) 
I,    10   seqq. 

5  S.  Bern.  De  consid.  Ill,  2  (11,435):  Parata  omnia,  invitati  multi  ;  et  ecce 
homo  concupiscens  uxorem  proximi  sui,  in  vocem  appellationis  inopinatae  pro- 
rumpit,  aflirmans  sibi  traditam  prius  . . .  sacerdos  non  audet  progredi ... 


30       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

Caesar  of  Heisterbach  has  a  charming  story  in  which  he 
recounts  how  a  husband,  unjustly  desirous  of  divorce,  ac- 
cepted the  offer  of  the  devil's  help.  The  fiend  carried 
him  to  the  papal  Curia,  where  he  made  an  effective  ora- 
tion and  gained  his  point,  obtaining  the  Bull  of  divorce- 
ment. But  the  good  devil,  more  righteous  than  the  Pope, 
made  his  client,  by  dint  of  a  fantastic  journey,  forget  Pope, 
Bull  and  divorce,  and  brought  him  back  to  his  spouse 
loving  and  loved  again.' 

A  plain  indication  of  the  popular  feelings  towards  the 
Ecclesiastics  is  afforded  by  that  particular  protection  of  the 
clergy  which  the  Councils  sanction  in  the  XI'^  and  XII'^ 
centuries,  under  the  name  of  "Privilege  of  the  Canon"." 
As  for  the  monastic  Orders,  they  had  increased  enormously, 
and  as  they  increased,  so  their  decadence  proceeded,  side 
by  side  with  that  of  the  secular  clergy.'  Finally  the 
constitution  of  new  Rules  was  rigorously  prohibited  ;  but 
neither  this  prohibition,  nor  the  energetic  measures  of  the 
Papacy  availed  to  heal  the  incurable  evils  of  the  time.  ^ 
For  some  time  past  Monachism — which,  in  order  to  keep 
itself  alive  assumed  even  the  knightly  habit  in  the  Military 
Orders — had  been  in  full  course    of    decadence.       It    no 

1  V,  37  A  splendid  story  well  worthy  of  the  author  of  the  Decameron.  A 
knight  (cfr.  V,  36)  enjoys  many  services  at  the  hands  of  a  good  devil,  who  accepts 
as  comjiensation  a  small  sum  of  money,  and  restores  even  that  at  once,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  knight  employs  it  to  buy  bells  for  a  poor,   abandoned  church. 

2  This  measure  protects,  under  pain  of  excommunicatio  lalae  sententiae,  every 
tonsured  person  from  unjust  acts  of  violence  :  it  originated  actually  in  connexion 
with  heretical  persecutions.  Deer.  Grat.  C.  XVII,  4,  29  -  Cone.  Lat.  II  a.  II  39. 
Cfr.  Cone.  Clerm.  1  1 30  and  Pisan.  11 35  :  Mansi,  XXI.  439.  490.  Hinschius 
Kirchenr.  1  §    16(1869):   Friedberg-Ruffini,   Trattato.  241. 

3  Reg.  Pontif.  11,  No.  2454  (Inn.  III).  Bull.  ed.  Taur.  Ill,  192.  Cone.  Lat. 
IV  c.    13:  Mansi.   XXII,    1120. 

4  Reg.  Pontif.  II.  No.  15  ;  57  ;  158;  166;  392;  578  (Montecassino),  888; 
1154;  1734;  1772;  1828;  1843;  2554;  3313;  3791  (Farfa) ;  3576,4680 
etc.  (Innoc.   III). 


CHAPTER   I  31 

longer  responded  to  the  needs  and  aspirations  of  the  age. 
Political  dominion,  and  the  riches  on  which  the  frati  set 
such  store,  gave  rise  to  intestine  discords ;  the  envious  eyes 
of  the  laity  were  cast  upon  the  wealth  of  the  Monasteries ; 
within  the  cloister,  discipline  was  relaxed  and  shameless 
luxury  reigned,  and,  as  a  result,  Monachism  became  the 
butt  of  general  and  open  derision/ 

Not  seldom  the  cloisters  were  turned  into  mere  "  houses 
of  correction",  arousing  a  sombre  horror  by  their  sinister 
ceremonies  of  Profession.  A  motley  company  assembles 
within  their  walls,  whither  drift  in  troops  the  disappointed, 
the  victims  of  parental  greed,  or  of  their  own  illusions  ; 
visionaries,  men  of  infamous  character,  and  simple  spirits 
diabolically  seduced  by  the  coaxing  promises  of  monasti- 
cism.'  And  from  these  elements — vitiated,  marred,  or 
diseased — are  distilled  influences  of  disquietude,  of  incre- 
dulity, of  material  and  moral  disorder,  of  jesting  scepticism. 

Relic  of  an  antique  asceticism,  running  its  degenerate 
course  amid  miserable  entanglements  and  fantastic  elabo- 
rations, oscillating  between  sceptical  irony  and  the  twilight 
of  a  dying  religious  sentiment,  Monachism  was  an  incubus 
upon  the  Church.  Its  intrusions  into  the  ecclesiastical  sphere 
caused  her  constant  annoyance,  as  did  also  its  evil  living, 
which  called  down  a  storm  of  reproach  and  contempt  that 
was  an  astonishment  to  the  Church  herself.^ 

1  Reg.  di  Farfa  ;  (Roma  1892)  V.  No.  1229  ;  a.  1119,  1  125  (318  seqq.)  : 
Nonnulli  edam  -  nos  deridebant  et  cibos  delicatos  ac  pigmentorum  potus,  in  prae- 
cipuis  sumptos  solemniis,  ad  memoriam  subsannando  nobis  deducebant. 

2  Places  of  punishment :  Imt.  Nov.  1 23, 1 34  ;  Greg.  I,  Ep.  I,  49  ;  V,  5  ; 
V.  1  7  ;  VIIl,  48  ;  of  refuge  for  delinquents :  Greg.  M.  Dial.  1,  4.  Mem.  e  doc. 
Lucchesi,  V,  2  No.  309  a.  803  etc.  Caes.  I.  29,  30,  31,  IV,  37;  cfr.,  IV,  1. 
-  Deer.  Greg.  IX.  V,  3,  25.  Moral  outrages  and  reasons  for  taking  the  veil:  Caes. 
I,  8,  18,  19,  24,  28  etc.  etc.  Horror  of  the  tonsure:  Caes.  IV,  51.  Fetters  for 
those  who  try  to  leave  the  cloister:   S.   P.   Dam.   Op.   II,   212. 

3  Corruption:  5.   Bern.   Apol.  ad  Guill.  ab.    c.    21    seqq.    (Op.    II    541); 


32       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

But  the  Church  is  staggering  under  other  and  fiercer 
blows.  She  feels  herself  losing  the  monopoly  of  knowledge. 
Culture  and  the  ecclesiastical  life  had  been  regarded  by 
the  early  Middle  Ages  as  one  and  indivisible ; '  but  now, 
in  the  Universities  where  knowledge  is  concentrated,  the 
desire  for  freedom  of  thought  is  not  be  curbed.  Paris 
refuses  to  obey  the  suspicious  admonitions  of  the  papal 
authority,  ^  and  from  the  Aristotelian  books,  in  vain  pro- 
scribed, flash  forth  the  first  gleams  of  modern  science.  ' 
The  divine  simplicity  of  the  school  of  Jesus  is  lost  in  the 
wearying  mazes  of  the  syllogism,'^  and  the  clever  logician 
who  reasons  and  disputes  subtilly  of  God  despises  the 
miserable  dialectic  of  the  "piccolo  Gesu"."^ 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  Church  in  the  age  of 
Francis  of  Assisi.      Sombre  though  they  be,  the  colours  of 

Joachim  abb.  In  Apocal.  (Venet.  1527)  189,  190.  Mittarelli,  Ann.  Camald. 
IV  app.   323  a.    1213.  Jacques  de    Vitry,   Exempla  No.  47,   59,  69  etc. 

In  ancient  times  the  monasteries  in  Italy,  were  genuine  hospices  which  catered 
by  contract :  R.  Arch.  Neapol.  Mon.  I,  n.  30  ;  Cod.  Cavensis  Dipiom.  I,  n.  108; 
Reg.  Neap.  n.  123,  129:  X  and  XI  centuries;  cfr.  Reg.  Pontif.  I  n.  4269 
(Leo  XI)  a.    1051. 

Ancient  -  and  less  ancient  -  scandals,  in  Mem.  Luce.  V,  2  n.  803  ;  R. 
Arch,  di  Stato  di  Lucca,  Reg.  Vol.  In.  1 86  sec.  X.  -  "  Certe  si  in  rebus  meis 
habuissem  prosperitatem,  numquam  venissem  ad  Ordinem  !  "  exclaims  a  sincere 
frale  :   Caes.   I,  28. 

Right  of  admission  into  monasteries  purchased  in  ringing  coin  paid  to  the 
convent :  Deer.   Greg.   IX,   V,   3,    1 9.   Cfr.  Jacques  de    Vitry,   Exempla  n.  221. 

Incredulity :  Words  of  a  nun  driven  to  desperation  by  her  vows.  ' '  Quis 
scit  si  Deus  sit,  si  sint  cum  illo  angeli,  animae  vel  regnum  coelorum  ?  Quis 
ista  vidit  ?  "  -   Caes.   IV,  39. 

Contract  for  a  farm-tenancy  .  .  .  and  for  the  tonsure  for  his  children  !  in  Fan- 
tuzzi,   Mon.   Ravenn.   II,  n.   48  a.    1108. 

1  «  Et  si  surrexerit  ex  nobis  doctos  aut  scientes  homines  Deum  timentes,  qui 
ipsa  ecclesia  ordinaverint  »  say  certain  founders  of  churches  in  the  tenth  century  : 
Cod.  Cavensis  Dipl.   II  n.  231. 

2  Chart.  Paris.  In.    12.  20  (a.    1210-1215). 

3  Caes.  V,  21.  Cfr.  Chart.  Paris.  I,  272-5. 

i  Read  the  lament  of  an  ascetic  in  Chart.   Paris.   In.    1 9.  a.    11 64. 

s  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  SS.  XXVIII.   116:  ex  Math.  Paris.   Cron.  maior. 


CHAPTER   I 


33 


^the  picture  are  not  exaggerated.  We  have  not  interrogated 
either  professional  satirists,  or  heretics,  or  schismatics :  the 
entire  account  is  derived  from  orthodox  sources — from  popes, 
bishops,  friars,  preachers,  who  have  said  nothing  but  what 
gave  them  grievous  pain,  forced  to  reveal  the  truth  because 
every  attempt  to  conceal  it  would  have  been  ridiculous 
and  useless.  And  if  the  Church  did  not  perish,  she  owed 
her  preservation — paradoxical  as  it  may  seem— to  the  same 
cause  from  which  her  trouble  sprang.  It  was  the  constant 
relations  of  her  religious  life  with  that  of  the  civil  power 
which  prevented  the  assaults  of  heresy  from  achieving  a 
victory.  The  rest  was  accomplished  by  the  daundess 
energy  of  Innocent  III.  The  Franciscan  episode  is  all  but 
lost  in  the  bloody  repression  of  the  great  heretical  movement ; 
but  not  even  the  days  of  the  great  German  Reformation 
were  so  big  with  threats  and  dangers  as  those  which  saw 
the  Saint  of  Assisi. 

Let  us  consider  that  movement  a  little  more  closely, 
alike  in  its  causes  and  in  its  immediate  effects.  Among 
the  graver  consequences  of  the  corruption  of  the  clergy,  we 
must  give  the  first  place  to  the  absolute  alienation  from  the 
Church  of  the  lowest  classes  in  the  social  scale.  The  utter 
impoverishment  of  the  ecclesiastical  treasury  rendered  increas- 
ingly difficult,  if  not  impossible,  the  continuance  of  that 
public  beneficence  for  which  the  Church's  treasures  were 
intended,  being,  in  TertuUian's  memorable  phrase,  deposita 
pietatis:  '  and  the  hardship  of  this  fell  especially  upon  the 
parochial  clergy  who  were  left  almost  entirely  to  their  own 
resources^ — -and  the  more  so  since  the  rapacity  of  the  bishops 
had  been  reinforced  by  that  of  the  laity  great  and  small.'' 

I  Apolog.  c.  39. 

^  Pasqui,   Op.  c.   No.    61,  sec.  X.  Quia  Tuscis    consueludo  est,   ut,  recepto 


34        SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Meanwhile  in  the  ecclesiastics  themselves  the  sense  of 
evangelical  piety  and  gentleness  grew  feebler  and  feebler. 
Saint  Bernard  saw  in  the  impudent  luxury  of  the  bishops 
a  deadly  insult  to  the  unspeakable  misery  of  the  humbler 
classes. 

Finally,  the  language  of  the  priest  loses  all  trace  of  a 
popular  tone,  and  stereotypes  itself  in  forms  suggested  by 
a  revived  scholastic  rhetoric.  Saint  Peter  Damian  destroys 
the  austere  poetry  of  the  Crucifixion  with  arid  juridical 
discussions  in  which  Christ  figures  as  advocate  and  judge 
on  the  wood  of  the  cross ;  while  Innocent  III  when  he 
would  expound  the  Law  of  God,  takes  as  his  starting  point 
the  definition  of  a  Roman  testamentum. ' 

In  general,  the  clergy — with  certain  notable  exceptions, 
many  of  whom  do  not  belong  to  Italy- — suffer  from  lack 
of  the  nourishment  of  a  deeply  Christian  culture  and  piety ; 
and  religions  instruction  and  the  practices  of  worship  are 
reduced  to  stupid  formalities.  ^  God  Himself  is  taken  away 
from  the  soul  of  the  faithful,  and  His  place  filled  by  whole 
armies  of  saints  with  their  miraculous  relics :  articles  of 
commerce — of  a  sceptically  calm  commerce — in  the  greatest 
of  the  maritime  cities  of  Italy !  '^     And  these  saints  reflect 

ab  Ecclesia  libello,  in  contumadam  convertantur  contra    Ecclesiam,   ita  ut  vix  aut 
numquam  reddant  censum,  Privilege  of  Ugo  and  Lotario  to  the  Church  of  Arezzo. 

1  De  moribus  episcoporum  c.  2  (II,  470):  Clamant  vero  nudi,  clamant  famelici, 
conqueruntur  et  dicunt :  numquid  aurum  a  freno  repellit  frigus,  sive  esuriem  ? 

2  5.  P.  Datn.  Op.  II  27  seqq.  Inn.  Ill,  Op.  171  (Sermo  in  Lccl.  45). 
It  was  the  "  Populares  Sermones  "  of  St.  Ambrose  that  were  responsible  for  the 
conversion  of  St.   Augustine  :  Confess.  VI,  4. 

3  Confessions  en  masse,  and  recitation  of  the  sins  by  the  Confessor  himself, 
who  gives  to  all  the  penitence  of  the  preceding  year  I  Caes.  Ill,  44,  45.  Before 
Gregory  IX,  the  canons  of  Mantua  spread  out  the  blood-stained  tunic  of  their 
murdered  bishop  demanding  vengeance  :  Salimhene,  4. 

4  Odofred  C.  I,  2,  3 :  Mercatores  veneti  et  Janue  -  vadunt  per  mare  et  in 
urbe  Costantinop.  emunt  reliquias  apostolorum  et  martyrum  et  aliorum  sanctorum, 
et  portant  et  vendunt...  (174).      Innocent  himself  forbids  the  sale  of  certain  conchae 


CHAPTER   I  35 

the  soul  of  their  devotees  and  of  the  age.  What  they 
desire  is  external  reverence,  the  formal  homage  of  believers ; 
and  they  are  ready  to  lend  themselves  to  pious  frauds,  and 
to  work  advertisement-miracles  in  order  to  save  the  life,  the 
honour  and  the  good  name  of  those  who  confide  themselves 
to  their  patronage. ' 

Within  the  cities,  within  the  very  circle  of  family  and 
clan,  strife  rages,  furious  and  incessant.  The  authority  of 
Church  and  State  imposes  truces  and  peaces  which  no  one 
observes.  The  weakest  are  at  the  mercy  of  any  one  who 
has  the  power  and  audacity  to  play  the  tyrant,  and  to  put 
himself  in  the  right  always  and  at  all  costs.  In  vain  the 
oppressed  look  for  comfort  and  aid  from  the  Church,  for 
the  Church  has  not  the  independence  of  that  which  tran- 
scends all  mundane  parties  and  interests.  Nay,  she  is  mixed 
up  herself  in  the  great  and  little  contests  ;  judge  and  interested 
party  at  the  same  time,  she  is  bound  by  common  material 
interests  to  the  oppressors,  from  whom,  therefore  she  can 
neither  demand  nor  request  pity  for  the  miserable. 

The  communal  movement  represents  political  heresy, 
that  is,  conscious  separation  from  the  general  constitution  of 
the  State  ;  the  religious  movement,  which  is  in  substance 
also  heretical,  developes  along  lines  parallel  to  the  political, 
and  the  two  tendencies  unite,  up  to  a  certain  point,  in 
their  quest  of  a  remedy,  material  or  moral,  for  the  intole- 
rable disorder  which  prevails.  This  is  the  reason  why 
heresy  has  so  much  vitality  from  the  XI'*"  century  onwards, 
and  a  character  so  special  in  Italy.      Where  the  murmur  of 


belonging  to  the  sanctuary  of  St.  James  of  Composteila :  Ep.  X,  78  (ed.  Balut.  II, 
44).  Salimbene,  39,  makes  fun  of  the  gross  vanity  of  self-named  Saints  who  gave 
their  own  clothes  away  as  relics. 

■    Caes.   VII,  44.  Cfr.  Jacques  Je    Vitry.    Exempla   No.   282. 


36       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

citizen  liberties  is  less  powerful  than  in  Italy,  heresy  finds 
its  support  in  other  political  and  social  circumstances,  as  is 
not  difficult  to  discern  in  the  most  conspicuous  events  of 
the  Xlir^  century. 

That  century  was  preparing  for  the  Church  a  state  of 
things  far  from  pleasant.  There  were  the  disasters  of  the 
crusades  and  of  the  contests  between  Church  and  Empire 
during  the  reigns  of  Philip  of  Swabia,  Otto  IV,  Frederic  II 
and  Louis  IX  of  France ;  there  was  the  embitterment  of 
civil  strife  due  to  the  astute  policy  of  the  Swabian  Emperors ; 
and  the  vigorous  resumption  of  temporal  policy  by  the 
Roman  See,  in  the  definite  constitution  of  the  States  of  the 
Church,  in  opposition  to  the  Empire,  the  free  cities  and  the 
Signorie  of  central  Italy.  And  as  though  all  this  were  not 
sufficient,  the  will  of  the  Empress  Constance  gave  over 
southern  Italy  into  the  hands  of  the  Pope  during  the  minority 
of  her  son.  Under  the  accumulated  burden  of  so  many 
grave  demands,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  the 
Church  for  a  moment,  feared  she  would  be  overwhelmed 
by  the  forces  of  victorious  heresy. 

Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  who,  behind  the  light  mystic 
veil  of  his  visions,  offers  to  view  also  the  things  of  this 
world  as  they  really  are,  is  right  in  putting  among  the 
principal  events  of  the  period  the  remarkable  success  of  the 
Albigensian  heresy.  This  movement,  according  to  him,  con- 
quered nearly  a  thousand  cities  and  would  have  subjugated 
the  whole  of  Europe,  but  for  the  tongue  of  Innocent  III 
and  the  sword  of  Simon  de  Montforte. ' 

The  slaughter  of  the  Albigenses  was,  then,  no  merely 
meaningless  atrocity.  The  "  Inquisitio  haereticae  pravitatis,  " 
with  the  aid  of  the  secular  arm  and  of  the  zealous  measures 

■  V,  21. 


CHAPTER   I  37 

of  the  Preaching  Friars  and  of  the  Inquisitorial  police  suc- 
ceeded, says  a  XVIP^  century  witer,  in  extinguishing  with 
fire  and  sword  the  most  dangerous  centres  of  infection. ' 

Later  on  there  came  a  breath  of  scepticism  which  cooled 
the  ardour  of  propaganda  and  of  faith,  and  the  political  activi- 
ties of  the  popes  assumed  a  correspondingly  milder  form.  In 
the  XIV"'  century  the  daily  and  hourly  crusades  against 
heresy  evoked  no  longer  the  solemn  and  dignified  response 
of  a  martyr's  heroism.  Scorn  and  satire  succeeded  to  tears 
and  blood ;  and  the  Italian  spirit  issued  from  those  trials 
endowed  with  new  gifts — the  serene  indifference  and  the 
gay  irony  that  sparkle  on  many  pages  of  Giovanni  Boccaccio 
and  Franco  Sacchetti. 

But  we  must  hark  back  a  little.  Heresy  was  not  only 
contested  in  the  open  field  as  the  perennial  foe  of  Chris- 
tianity :  attempts  were  also  made,  and  made  with  a  gen- 
tleness that  was  largely  sincere,  to  bring  back  into  the 
orthodox  fold  some  of  the  less  intramigeantes  of  the  sects. 
Memorable  instances  are  those  of  Valdo,  Durandus  of 
Huesca,  Bernardo  Primo  and  their  companions.  Among 
the  most  innocent,  but  but  by  no  means  the  least  efficacious, 
of  the  allies  of  orthodox  repression,  is  to  be  noticed  the 
delicate  cultivation  of  religous  art  and  sentiment  in  the 
atmosphere  of  a  kind  of  literary  Renaissance  which  was 
the  prelude  to  the  later  Humanism.  This  is  a  point  of 
some  obscurity  in  the  history  of  the  period  and  one  which, 
I  am  persuaded,  has  been  greatly  neglected.  ^ 

1  Deer.  Greg.  IX ;  V  5,  7,  \3  -  Cone.  Lat.  IV.  c.  3.  Himchius,  V  §  259. 
For  lay  legislation,  see  Ficker,  in    Mitth.  des  Inst,   fiir  oesterr.    Geschichtsforsch. 

I,  2.  (1880):  Die  gesetzliche  Einfiihrung  der  Todesstrafe  f.  Ketz.  I  79  seqq.  Kohler, 
Das  Strafr.  der  ital.  Statuten,   1897;  596  seqq.  Legislaz.  imperiale:  MG.  Leges 

II.  252.  282.  287.  326;  Const.  Regni  Sic.  I.   I. 

2  See  the  two  monographs   on  the   subject :    Haureau,   M6m.    sur  les    recits 


38       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

The  apocalyptic  inspiration  of  the  Abbot  Joachim  is  not 
the  only  fruit  of  the  sincere  commotion  of  so  many  souls 
sincerely  devoted  to  orthodoxy — a  commotion  free  from  the 
taint  of  shameful  impurities.  An  entire  literature  appears 
which  is  marked  by  a  return  the  old  popular  and  mystical 
sources  of  the  ancient  Church.  The  "  Vitae  Patrum, "  ' 
the  works  of  Sulpicius  Severus,  of  Gregory  the  Great  and 
of  Gregory  of  Tours,  the  dogmatic  encyclopaedia  furnished 
by  the  writings  of  Saint  Augustine,  the  moving  pages  of 
Saint  Ambrose,  the  monastic  conferences  of  Cassian : — all 
these  come  to  life  again  in  the  treatises,  the  fairy-tales,  the 
visions  of  a  later  Age,  clothed  in  a  garb  more  congenial, 
less  rigidly  ascetic. 

The  outcome  of  these  imitations  is  twofold.  On  the 
aesthetic  side  we  have  a  literary  product  endued  with  all 
the  beauty  and  charm  of  Art,  and  a  subtle  and  delicate 
humour  which  springs  from  the  serenity  of  the  Art  itself ; 
on  the  practical  side,  it  subserves  a  serious  purpose  and 
reveals  a  definite  aim.  These  miraculous  narratives,  these 
pious  stories  and  examples,  are  a  vehicle  for  the  diffusion 
of  sound  ideas,  to  counteract  the  wicked  sentiments  inspired 
by  heresy,  or  the  very  unfortunate  impression  produced  by 
all  that  was  known  of  Church  or  Cloister. 

To  this  class  of  literature  belong  the  sermons  of  Jacques 
de  Vitry,  the  stories  of  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach,  and 
also — let  us  say  it  at  once — no  small  part  of  the  Franciscan 
Legend. 

If  the  preacher's  desire  is  to  combat  heretical  doctrines 


d' apparition  dans  le  moven-age  ;   Mem.    de    1'  Inst.    nat.    de    France   XXVIII,  2 
(1876)  238  seqq.  &  Schdnbach  in  Situungsber.  der  k.  Ak.  Wien,  Bd.   139,  I  seqq. 
I   On  this  book,  see  Preuschen,  Palladius  und  Rufinus;  Beilr.  zur  Quellenkunde 
des  alt.  Monchtums,    1897;  205  seqq.  Kurtz.   I  §    102. 


CHAPTER   I  39 

hostile  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist,  a  learned  theolog- 
ical discussion  on  the  subject  of  transubstantiation  would 
provide  him  with  an  opportunity  merely  of  boring  his  audience 
to  no  purpose ;  but  a  miracle  of  the  type  of  the  famous 
miracle  of  Bolsena  immediately  arouses  wonder  and  attention 
whenever  it  is  related  with  unctuous  eloquence.  ^ 

The  heretics  held,  as  we  shall  see  shortly,  that  Jesus 
was  a  fantastic  apparition :  and  so  the  miraculous  vision  of 
the  Virgin  Birth,  or  the  image  of  the  Crucified  dripping 
with  blood  and  tears — such  narratives  offer  the  most  vivid 
and  realistic  confutation  of  the  heretical  error.  We  are 
now,  obviously,  very  near  to  the  ceremony  of  the  Presepio 
di  Greccio  and  the  miracle  of  the  Stigmata ;  ^  a  form  of 
literature  which,  with  its  light  and  almost  gay  tone,  varied 
with  a  charming  playfulness  so  unlike  grave  works  of  theology, 
is  adapted  to  every  end.  From  it  the  preacher  will  draw 
his  examples ;  from  it  the  man  of  the  cloister  will  select 
his  friar  types — simple  or  learned,  touchy  or  placid — for 
the  instruction  of  the  novices ;  the  popular  theologian  and 
the  moralist  will  find  here  their  best  stories,  stories  which 
illustrate  more  aptly  than  any  doctrinal  commentary  the 
virtue  of  the  Christian.  All,  in  fact,  have  in  their  hand 
the  secret  of  unfailing  success,  which  consists  in  making 
oneself  understood,  while  avoiding  tediousness.  It  was 
natural  that  the  legend  of  a  Saint  like  him  of  Assisi  should 
be  embroidered  with  popular  themes — themes  which,  though 
popular,  are  none  the  less  intimately  related  to  the  theolog- 
ical  and    dogmatic  discussions  of  the  period.     Round  the 

'  For  the  doctrinal  basis  of  the  question  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ,see  Ernst,  Die 
Lehre  d.  hi.  Paschasius  Radbertus  von  der  Euch.  1 896 :  Michaud,  Etud.  Eucharist. 
Rev.-Int.  de  theol.    1895. 

2  On  the  doctrine  of  Radbert  (expounded  in  his  book  De  partu  virginali)  and 
that  of  Ratramnus,  see,  for  the  literature,  Kurlz  1  §  92. 


40       SAINT    FRANCIS    OF    ASSISI 

central  figure  of  Saint  Francis  arise,  one  by  one,  the  second- 
ary forms  of  his  "  Companions ",  immortal  creations  of 
mediaeval  art,  like  Giovanni  and  Ginepro,  the  "simple" 
friars,  whom  we  shall  see  again  under  other  names  and 
in  other  places;  or  Egidio,  ("Bro.  Giles"),  who  repeats, 
as  enigmas,  the  Verba  Seniorum  from  the  "  Lives  of  the 
Fathers".  Every  friar  is  the  incarnation  or  personification 
of  some  one  virtue  of  the  Saint.  Around  the  meagre  histo- 
rical reality  of  the  "Companions"  of  Francis,  the  current 
of  legend  builds  up  a  picture,  with  forms  drawn  from  the 
old  and  inexhaustible  store  which  might  truly  be  designated 
"  The  Legend  of  the  Ages ".  By  the  appeal  of  his 
preaching  and  of  his  triumphs  Saint  Francis  has  attracted  to 
himself  the  wandering  story  in  search  of  a  concrete  home  in 
which  to  settle ;  the  special  circumstances  of  the  Age  have 
added,  besides  the  outer  shell  of  the  legend,  that  unity  and 
special  character  which  it  presents  to  him  who  studies  it. 

Meanwhile  we  must  not  forget  that  the  Age  of  Saint  Francis 
was  that  which  saw  the  fiercest  assault  of  heresy  in  Italy : 
a  subject  which  cannot  be  entirely  passed  over  without 
damage  to  the  whole  argument. 

During  the  W^  and  XIP''  centuries  the  heretics  increase 
in  boldness  and  in  energy.  The  "Vulpeculae"  labour  to 
destroy  the  Vineyard  of  the  Lord, '  against  which  they 
wage  a  truceless  war.  Active  in  their  preaching,  '^  in  their 
pursuit  of  knowledge  (especially  at  the  University  of  Paris),  ^ 

1  Already  by  Gregory  the  Great  the  heretics  are  called  oulpes — the  same  name 
that  was  given  them  in  the  later  age.  Super.  Cant.  Cant,  Expos,  c.  Ill  No.  1 7. 
Cfr.  Deer.  Greg.  IX  V.  7.10  — Reg.  II.  No.  643  (Inn.  Ill) ;  Jacques  de  Viliy 
No.  304. 

2  Hence  the  prohibition  of  lay  preaching.  Deer.  Greg.  IX  V.  7,  9  (Lucius  III 
a.  11 84):  V.  7,6  —  Cone.  Lat.  Ill  (a.  1  1  79)  c.  27;  Deer,  cit,  V,  7.  11  e  1  3  — 
Cone.   Lat.  IV,  etc.    Caes.   VI,  20.  21  ;  Tacco,    178. 

3  Math.    'Paris,  in  MG.  SS.  XXVIII,  231    a.    1242. 


CHAPTER    I  41 

in  political  intrigues, '  in  mutual  succour,  ^  in  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  ;  ^  they  present  an  united 
front  to  the  enemy,  while  yet  profoundly  divided  in  the 
matter  of  their  tenets.  They  change  their  names  and  their 
doctrines ;  the  latter  they  are  prepared  to  relax  or  even  to 
modifiy  entirely  if  circumstances  demand  it. 

A  complete  classification  of  the  heresies  is  still  to  be  made.'^ 
Those  which  present  themselves  under  the  name  of  Valdo 
have  tendencies  less  radical  than  the  rest.  These  latter,  which 
are  followed  by  the  Cathari,  recall  more  distinctly  the  ancient 
Manichaeism.  The  Cathari  predominate  over  all  the  others, 
and  are  themselves  subdivided  into  a  number  of  different  sects. 

After  the  middle  of  the  Xlir*"  century  we  have  a 
description  by  Berthold  of  Regensburg  of  the  heretical 
doctrines  as  generally  held  in  common  by  the  mass  of  the 
heterodox ;  and  it  is  observable  that  the  differences  which 
he  notes  between  sect  and  sect  are  by  no  means  grave.  ^ 
This  is  a  clear  indication  that,  if  repressive  measures  had  not 
supervened,  some  more  robust  group  would  have  imposed 
a  certain  unity  upon  the  beliefs,   the  variety  of  which  was 

1  They  beg  the  Saracens  to  aid  them  against  the  catholics :  Joach.  in  Apocal. 
(ed.  Ven.  1527)  134  ;  Or  is  it  a  calumny,  like  the  "  obscene  orgies  "  which  certain 
Italian  historians  have  adduced,  forgetful  of  the  accusations  brought  against  the  early 
Christians  {Justin.  Apol.  I,  27,  5)?  On  their  depraved  characteristics:  Moneta, 
advers.  Cath.  et  Vald.  (Romae  1  743)  545  seqq.  R.  Sacconi  in  Marline  et  Durand, 
Thes.   novs.  V,    1 767  ;  Schonbach,   in  Sitzungsber.  Wien  XLVII,  62. 

2  The  heretics  of  Milan  send  victuals  to  those  of  Brescia,   Caes.   X,   49. 

i  Inn.  in,  Ep.  II,  140-1  (ed.  Balutius  I,  432);  Hurler,  III,  45-6,  Metz. 
v^fho  does  not  accord  to  the  Pope  even  in  the  days  of  Gregory  VII  the  right  to 
excommunicate  the  Emperor.  (Reg.  II  N.  5000).  And  these  translations  prove  their 
study  of  the  texts.  Tract,  de  Haer.  Paup.  de  Lugd.  in  Thes.  cit.  V,  1777;  Jizonii, 
ad  sing.   Leges  Cod.  Comm.  (Lugd.    1596)  I,    1,    1    [7]. 

4  Schonbach  1.  c.  8,   32  :    Tocco,    1 86  seqq. 

5  Names:  Deer.  Greg.  IX.  V,  7.  9.  Reg.  II  No.  891  ;  Stat.  Syn.  Tull.  in 
Mansi  XXII,  650  (1192);  Sacconi  in  Bibl.  Max.  Vet.  Patrum,  XXV,  262,  e 
in  Thes.  cit.  V,  1  763  ;  Berthold  of  Regensburg  speaks  of  200  heresies  ;  Schonbach 
1.  c.   108. 


42       SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 

proportioned  to  the  greater  freedom  of  the  internal  consti- 
tution of  the  heretics. 

From  the  Alps  to  Sicily  the  serpent  of  infection  trails 
its  course  through  the  principal  cities.  The  leading  part 
among  all  is  taken  by  Milan,  which  seems  to  fill  the  place 
occupied  in  the  previous  century  by  Florence. '  Still,  even 
after  the  middle  of  the  XIP  century,  there  was  living  in 
the  Valley  of  Spoleto — in  touch,  therefore,  with  Assisi 
(which  in  the  first  years  of  the  XIIP^  century  welcomed 
as  its  ruler  a  heretical  podesta)  a  heterodox  community 
of  a  hundred  persons.  "^ 

The  principal  dogmatic  errors  can  be  deduced  from  the 
recantation  (cleverly  transmuted  into  a  profession  of  orthodox 
faith)  of  Bernardo  Primo,  ^  who  belong  to  the  group  of 
Lombard  Waldensians  ;  '^  and  for  commentary  on  these  tenets 
and  illustration  of  them  we  need  only  go  to  the  polemical 
writings  of  the  Inquisitors.'^ 

Bernardo  and  his  companions  now  (that  is,  after  their 
recantation),  acknowledge  the  Old  Testament  as  the  Law 
of  God ;  the  mission  of  the  prophets  and  of  the  Baptist ;  the 
divinity  and  the  humanity  of  Jesus ;  the  unity  of  the  Roman 
Church ;   the  validity  of  the  Sacraments  even  if  administered 

1  Hurler,     III,    13    seqq.    Schmidt    1,    69    seqq.     Tocco     III    seqq.    Reg.    II 

No.  268.643.684.891,2704.2709.2710,2932,3666,4944"  (Inn.  Ill)  Caes.  VII,  23. 
Math.  Paris.  1.  c.  231.  For  Sicily:  Inn.  Ill,  Ep.  1  509.  Inn,  III,  Ep.  XII.  17. 
Reg.  II  No.  3694.  Milan  had  granted  a  meadow  for  the  meeting  of  the  "  Pooeri 
Lombardi "  even  before  their  abjuration. 

2  Reg.   II   No.  2237  a.    1204;  Sacconi,   Thes.  cit.    1768. 

3  Inn.   III.  Ep.   XIII,  94  (ed.  Balut.   II.   458):   Reg.   II.   No.  4014  a.  1210. 

4  Haupt,   in  Sybel'i  Hist.   Zeitschr.   N.   F.   XXV.  49-55. 

5  We  must  not  stray  into  dogmatic  exposition,  a  subject  on  which  there  is  a  li- 
terature which  grows  year  by  year.  A  small  part  of  this  is  referred  to  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Chapter.  Nor  do  we  propose  to  return  entirely  under  the  escort 
o  f   Karl  Miiller,  to  the  subject  of  the  relations    between    the    heretical  movement 

and   the  Franciscan.     The  sole  purpose  of  our  researches  is  to  give  materials  for 
a  just  appreciation  of  the  tendency  of  the  Franciscan  Legend  :  no  more,  and  no  less. 


CHAPTER   I  43 

by  an  unworthy  priest  (so  be  he  orthodox) ;  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Eucharist  whereby,  after  the  consecration,  the 
bread  and  wine  are  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ ;  matri- 
mony after  the  teaching  of  Saint  Paul ;  all  the  ecclesiastical 
orders — to  whom  honour  is  to  be  paid, — and  the  efficacy 
of  intercessions  for  the  souls  of  the  departed.  The  converts, 
mindful  that  faith  is  dead  without  good  works,  have  given 
all  to  the  poor,  and  wish  to  be  poor  themselves :  quae 
habebamus,  velut  a  Domino  consultum  est,  pauperis  eroga- 
vimus;  et  pauperes  esse  decrevimus.  They  propose  to 
abjure  all  anxiety  for  the  morrow,  and  while  remaining  in 
the  world  to  follow  as  precepts  the  counsels  of  the  Gospel. 
If  we  add  that  the  recantation  touches  on  the  principle  of 
the  right  of  the  public  authority  to  shed  blood  in  virtue 
of  the  punitive  power  that  belongs  to  it,  we  shall  have 
gathered  from  the  famous  document  that  which  throws  most 
light  on  the  heretical  dogmas  and  principles. 

After  their  conversion  the  Lombard  Waldensians  renoun- 
ced the  absolute  liberty  of  preaching,  and  devoted  themselves 
to  it  only  when  the  permission  of  the  Church  had  been 
previousy  obtained.  In  a  word,  we  have  here  over  again 
the  lines  laid  down  for  the  group  of  Pauperes  Catholici 
under  the  leadership  of  Durandus  of  Huesca,  which  had  so 
meagre  a  success  in  the  world  of  orthodoxy. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Cathari,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more 
radical.  Throughout  their  diverse  gradations  there  can  be 
discernibly  traced  as  a  constant  factor  the  collection  of  pre- 
cepts known  as  the  "Three  Signs"  (whence  are  derived 
the  obligations  of  abstinence,  virginity  and  purity)  that  is 
characteristic  of  the  heresy — or,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  the 
religion — of  Manichaeism,  so  strangely  confounded  with 
Christianity. 


44       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

The  sects  are  distinguished  by  dogmatic  divergences  as 
regards  for  instance,  the  conditional  recognition  or  the  absolute 
condemnation  of  the  priesthood  and  the  sacraments.  But 
though  little  in  harmony  with  one  another  in  other  respects, 
they  are  all  characterised  by  a  profound  and  predominating 
aversion  to  the  Roman  Church.  The  Church  of  Rome 
is  Babylon ;  the  Pope  is  Antichrist^ — the  successor  not  of 
Christ  but  of  Constantine : ' — in  the  bosom  of  that  Church 
none  may  hope  for  salvation.  Fanatical,  indomitable  hatred 
reacts  on  their  very  beliefs.  These  beliefs  claim  to  start 
from  the  ancient  ideas  of  the  primitive  Church,  but  are 
marked  by  a  certain  embittered  violence  and  are  accom- 
panied by  a  rigorous  asceticism  intolerant  of  all  those  relics 
of  paganism  that  had  survived  in  Christian  dress. 

Places  of  worship  and  sacred  images  are  condemned ;  ^ 
the  Madonna  is  an  object  of  derision.  ^  Manichaean  dualism 
treats  the  impure  body  very  harshly,  while  pouring  itself 
out  in  a  kind  of  pathological  tenderness  for  the  things  created 
by  the  Good  God.  The  divine  creation  ought  not  to  be 
polluted  by  the  touch  of  a  sacrilegious  hand.  '^  That  which 
exists  has  a  right  to  live.      Love,  which,  in  the  austerity 

1  Muratori,  Antiq.  Ital.  M.  Aevi  V,  123.  Moneta,  409,431.  Schoenbac'i, 
1.  c.  4,19.  Thes.  cit.  V,  1779  etc.  etc.  Caes.  V,  22:  Dicebant  enim  quia  Papa 
esset  Antichristus,  et  Roma  Babylon.  Fumi.  Cod.  Dipl.  di  Orvieto  ( 1 884) ;  No.  439. 

2  Contempt  of  the  aedes  sacrae :  Arnob:  adv.  nat.  VI,  1  (CV.  214);  of 
images  ib.  &  Greg.  I,  Ep,  IX,  208  (Marsilia)  ;  Mansi  Xll,  1060,  a.  785.  Pro- 
bition  of  swearing  :  Hist.  Lausiac.  c.  49  ;  Vita  Posthumii  c.  6  {Migne,  Patrol, 
lal.  LXXIII,  Vitae  Patrum  [Rosrveyde]  1153,432.  Errors  as  regards  the  Real 
Presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist :  Migne,  1.  c.  978-9 ;  Rosweyde,  635.  Even 
the  form  of  cross  adored  by  the  heretics  (the  T-shaped)  is  not  a  fraud  but  a  return 
to  archaic  traditions  ;  Luc.    Tud.  in  Bibl.   max.  vet.  patr.  cit.  XXV,  224. 

3  Thes.  cit.  V,  1764;  Bonacorsi,  in  D'Acbeiy  Spicilegium  (17-23)  I,  208; 
so  loo  the  angels,  Scboenbacb,  1.  c.  3.  6.  Muratori,  Ant.  It.  m.  aevi  V,  250 
[Op.  Greg.]. 

4  On  the  bonus  el  malus  Deus :  S.  Greg.  M.  Moral.  IX  in  c.  10  Job ;  n.  74. 
Caes.  V,  21  ;  Hamack,   I.   735  seqq.  Schoenbach,   1.  c.   3,  6. 


CHAPTER    I  45 

of  the  heretical  system,  is  devoid  of  smiles,  expands  itself 
unchecked  in  adoration  and  in  the  contemplation  of  the 
beauties  of  the  Eternal.  The  gentle  error  of  Saint  Augus- 
tine's youthful  Manichaean  phase  is  revived — the  temper 
that  weeps  in  sympathy  with  the  fruit  plucked  from  its 
parent  stem. '  Satan  is  not  the  enemy  of  God  and  man,  ^ 
eternally  damned.  He  penetrates,  humble  and  sighing  for 
pardon,  even  into  the  cloisters  of  the  orthodox,  in  search 
of  a  confessor ;  ^  but  Saint  Michael,  to  whom  he  owes  his 
fall,  does  not  find  favour  with  the  heretics.''  Jesus  is  a 
shadow.  He  has  suffered  nothing  upon  earth.  His  birth 
took  place  in  an  entirely  special  way;  and  the  "fantastic" 
conception  of  the  Redeemer  figures  even  in  the  sermons 
of  Innocent  III  where  the  horrible  heresy  is  combated. 
Hence  arises  also  the  kindred  error  on  the  Body  of  Jesus 
in  the  Eucharist,  which  makes  it  a  mere  sign  and  figure 
of  the  "fantastic"   flesh  assumed  by  the  Saviour.' 

Throughout,  the  inquisitors  are  at  one  in  recognising  the 
gentleness  and  austerity  of  the  heretics'  lives,  the  persuasive 
sweetness  of  their  preaching,   and  their  intrepid  and  unflin- 

1  Condemnation  of  marriage:  Eckbert.  in  Max.  Bibl.  cit.  XXIII,  601  ;  Concil. 
Tolos.  (a.  1119)  c.  3;  Mansi,  VII  226.  Schoenbach,  1.  c.  9,  63.  Abstinence  from 
certain  kinds  of  food  Schoenhuch,  1.  c.  -  5.  August.  Confess.  Ill,  10;  VI,  7. 
CV.  59,  125-6. 

2  Schoenbach,  1.  c.  9,  21  :  Quod  iniuste  sit  ejectus  Lucifer  et  orant  et  jejunant 
et  se  cruciant  pro  illo.  Si  Lucifer  malus  fuit,  quid  ad  Michahelem  ? 

3  Caes.   Ill,  26. 

4  See  note  2. 

5  Mansi  I.  c.  Cone.  Tol.  c.  3.  Alanus,  Migne  Patrol,  lat  CCX,  321  ;  Pa- 
schasius,  Migne  CCXX,  1259  seqq.  Schoenbach,  1.  c.  16,25,63,67,76.  Inno- 
cenzo  III:  Reg.  II  No.  3684;  Op.  (Ven.  1578).  There  is  a  reference  not 
yet  observed  in  S.  Pier  Damiano,  II,  162  :  Theotocos  quia  Deum  veraciter  genuit. 
The  Eucharistic  heresy  s  clearly  expressed  in  the  "  Verba  seniorum " :  Migne 
LXXIII,  978-9  {Rossweyde  V.  P.  635) :  Dicebat  non  esse  naluraliter  corpus 
ChrisU  panem,  quern  sumimus,  sed  figuram  eius  esse.  The  miracle  supervenes  to 
convince  the  "  simple  "  heretic.  For  other  identical  miracles  see  5.  P.  Damiani, 
Op.   Ill,  294;   Caes  IX,   23;   IX.  41. 


46       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF    ASSISI 

ching  courage  in  the  face  of  death. '  The  continual  oscil- 
lation of  the  various  beliefs  makes  it  difficult  to  discern 
beneath  the  piety  of  an  heretic,  the  inner  poison  of  the 
doctrine  ^  that  has  made  headway  especially  among  the 
poor,  the  unfortunate  and  the  destitute.  ^ 

This  is  not  the  place  to  treat  of  the  "  Consolamentum  " 
which  is  the  most  important  of  heretical  ceremonies :  ^  but 
it  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  that  ceremony  the 
Gospel  of  Saint  John — always  a  favourite  in  heretical  cir- 
cles^ — plays  a  leading  part.  '^ 

Another  point  noted  by  Berthold  of  Regensburg  as 
a  peculiar  gift  of  the  heretics  is  the  knowledge  of  many 
languages.  This  may  probably  be  due  to  the  frequent  rela- 
tions between  groups  belonging  to  different  nationalities; 
Berthold  characteristically  atrributes  it  to  Satanic  agency.  ^ 

Of  the  modest  merchant  class — sure  channel  of  Albi- 
gensian  doctrine^ — in  a  city  far  from  friendly  to  that  sacer- 
dotal authority  which  steered  tenaciously  its  cold  pohtical 
course  regardless  of  Signorie  or  free  communes ;  *^  amid  a 
whirlwind  of  doctrines  and  of  conflicts ;  in  an  atmosphere 
where  the  ecstatic  tenderness  of  heresy  was  further  sweetened 

1  Muralori,  1.  c.  98;  Thes.  cit.  V,  1780;  Caes.  V.  18,  19,  20  etc.  "  ora- 
tiones  dulces  "  :  Schoenbach,  1.  c.  18.  For  the  prohibition  to  kill  animals  etc.  Thes. 
cit.  V,  1780. 

2  A  long  trial  was  necessary  to  discover  whether  Pongilupi  of  Ferrara  was 
a  heretic  or  not:  Muratori  1.  c.    191    seqq. 

3  Math.  Paris,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  XXVIII,  231  (mercatores)  ;  Schoenbach, 
1 20 :  workmen,  rustics,  slaves,  Luc.  Tud.  Bibl.  cit.  XXV,  242  :  nisi  ab  aliis 
accipiant  eleemosynam,  vel  nisi  propiis  manibus  operantur,  non  habent  unde  pas- 
cantur;  cfr.   Caes.  V,  21. 

4  Doellinger  11  39. 

5  Doellinger  I,    119;  Schoenbach,   1.  c.  93.94.^ 

6  Schoenbach,   1.   c.   20,23  ;  et  ille  diabolus  scit  quatuor  vel  decern  linguas. 

7  Math.   Paris,   in  MGH.  SS.  XXVlll.  331. 

8  Picker,  Forsch.  zur  Reichs-und  Rechtsgesch.  Italiens,  1869  II  §  281,364,370. 
Ancient  struggles  between  bishop  and  people  in  Assisi :  S.  P.   Dam.   II,   87. 


CHAPTER   I 


47 


by  the  mild  Italian  temper;  in  days  when  the  name  of 
Jesus,  symbol  of  peace  and  love,  was  invoked  alike  by 
him  who  was  condemned  and  succumbed,  and  by  him 
who  condemned  and  triumphed — arises  Saint  Francis  of 
Assisi. ' 


I   Born  between    1181    and    1 1 82 — died  in  1 226. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EARLIEST  BIOGRAPHER  OF  ST.  FRANCIS : 

THOMAS   OF   CELANO 

THE  FIRST  LIFE. 

BETWEEN  1 228  and  1 229  Thomas  of  Celano,  by 
express  command  of  pope  Gregory  IX,  wrote  the 
"First  Life"  of  Saint  Francis,  and  between  1246  and 
1247,  commissioned  by  the  General  Minister  of  the  Order, 
he  completed  the  other  work  commonly  known  as  the  **  Se- 
cond  Life.  "  ^ 

If  we  are  to  credit  a  note  attached  to  a  famous  manu- 
script, the  "First  Life"  will  have  had  the  solemn  appro- 
bation of  the  Pope.  ^  As  for  the  second,  the  importance 
of  which,  in  so  far  as  relates  to  the  development  of  the 
legendary  cycle,  has  been  pointed  out  quite  recendy  by  a 

1  Sabatier,  Vie  de  s.  Fransois  [1905]  XLV  seqq.  For  the  enormously  diffuse 
literature  on  the  fontes  franciscani  I  content  myself  with  a  single  reference  :  Goetz, 
Die  Quellen  zur  Geschichle  des  hi.  Franz  von  Assisi  [Gotha  1 904]  56  seqq.  The 
First  Life  is  quoted  from  the  text  of  the  Bollandists :  Acta  Sanctorum,  T.  II  Oct. 
683-723  ;  the  "  Second  ",  according  to  the  MS  of  the  Legenda  antiqua,  published 
by  Rosedale,  Legenda  s.  Francisci  auctore  Thoma  de  Celano  ;  [London,  Dent] 
1 904.  The  edition  of  Canon  Leopoldo  Amoni  (Roma  Tip.  della  Pace  1 880)  has 
been  followed  only  in  the  division  of  the  parts  and  chapters.     The  letter  R  followed 

f    by  a  number  refers  to  the  page  in  Rosedale's  text.      The  text  itself  has  now  been 
[j  corrected  according  to  the  edition  of  P.  Eduardus  Alenconensius,  S.  Francisci  As- 
sisiensis  Vita  et  miracula  auctore  Fr.    Thoma  de   Celano.  Romae,    1906. 

2  Rosedale  XXVI.  MS.  Paris,  lat.  381  7  :  But  the  remarks  of  Tilemann  Spec, 
perfectionis  und  Leggenda  trium  sociorum  (diss,  di  Laurea)  30-31  must  not  be 
neglected. 


50        SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

most  acute  writer  on  Franciscan  subjects,  ^  we  shall  see 
very  soon  what  place  it  takes  in  our  researches. 

Of  the  man  to  whom  the  papal  authority  entrusted  this 
very  important  task  we  do  not  know  very  much.  Until 
G.  Voigt  published  the  ^editio  princeps  of  the  chronicle  of 
Giordano  da  Giano,  ^  nothing  was  known  of  Thomas  except 
those  feeble  glimmerings  that  had  been  passed  on  to  us, 
directly,  from  his  own  works  and  those  of  the  writers  of 
the  XIIP''  and  XIV""  centuries.  ^  One  point  was  indisput- 
able, namely  that  the  First  and  second  Life  were  his; 
but  his  personality  remained  in  considerable  obscurity. 

Thomas  relates  how  the  Good  God,  who  was  pleased 
of  His  sole  bounty  to  be  mindful  of  him  and  of  "many 
others, "  prevented  the  Saint  from  reaching  Marocco,  and 
called  him  back  from  Spain  to  Assisi. '^  In  these  somewhat 
enigmatic  terms  the  biographer  alludes  to  his  own  conversion ; 
which  would  thus  have  occurred  between  1213  and  1 2 1 6 — 
at  the  period,  that  is,  of  the  projeced  mission  to  Marocco 
which  was  never  fulfilled.  ^  The  months  which  preceded 
and  those  which  immediately  followed  this  date  are  notable 
for  the  large  accessions  to  Saint  Francis'  band,  of  laymen 
and  ecclesiastics,  learned  and  ignorant,  noble  and  simple, 
all  ahke  fleeing  from  the  world  and  the  temptations  of  the 
devil.  "  But  the  most  noble  and  discreet  soul  of  Francis, " 
Thomas  adds,   "did  not    fail  to    distinguish    between    the 

1  Ortroy,  Analecta  Bolland.  XIX,  1 36  seqq.  A  more  radical  demolition  of 
the  Legend  of  the  Three  Companions  could  not  be  conceived. 

2  Die  Denkwiirdigkeiten  (1207-1238)  des  Minoriten  Jordanus  von  Giano  in 
Bd.  V  der  Abhandl.  der  phil,  Hist.  Classe  der  k.  Sachsischen-Gesellsch.  der  Wis- 
senschaften,  N.  VI,  (Leipzig    1870)  423  seqq. 

3  Salimbene,  Chr.  60;  Analecta  Franciscana  (1885  seqq).  HI,  666.  (Bernardus 
de  Bessa). 

4  I  Vita  56. 

5  Goetz,   60  note  5. 


CHAPTER   II  51 

antecedents  of  the  various  persons  who  joined  him ;  and 
to  each  he  accorded  the  respect  that  was  due  to  his  rank  ". ' 

Among  the  lettered  and  noble  men  who  attached  them- 
selves to  the  Saint  on  his  return  to  the  Portiuncula,  Thomas 
himself  must  be  placed ;  for  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  he  belonged  to  the  learned  and  aristocratic  class. 
Sabatier  infers  from  Thomas'  narrative  that  the  biographer 
of  Saint  Francis  was  probably  son  of  that  Thomas,  count 
of  Celano  who  is  so  often  mentioned  by  Richard  of 
St.  Germain  and  in  the  letters  of  Frederic  II  to  Honorius  III.^ 
He  observes,  however,  that  the  history  of  the  Celano  family 
is  somewhat  involved.  They  not  only  gave  Innocent  III 
and  his  successors  much  trouble  in  the  South,  '  but  also 
played   a  notable  part  in  the  events  of  central  Italy. 

When  Otho  IV  took  away  the  Marca  d'  Ancona  from 
the  rebellious  Azzo  VI  of  Este  he  bestowed  it  on  a  certain 
Pietro  da  Celano  who  died  in  1212.  The  descendants  of 
this  man  were  zealous  supporters  of  the  Imperial  cause,  and 
unsuccessfully  disputed  the  possession  of  the  Marca  with 
the  Pope,  who  had  restored  the  investiture  to  Aldobrandino, 
Azzo  s  son.  In  1214  Innocent  III  excommunicated  them, 
and  they  were  subsequently  defeated  by  the  Lord  of  Este.  ^ 
Perhaps  this  double  disaster  may  explain  Thomas'  resolution, 
for  certainly  the  date  of  the  disasters  of  the  House  of  Celano 
would  seem  to  correspond  with  that  of  the  entrance  into 
the  Order  of  the  future  biographer  of  Saint  Francis.  We 
are,   of  course,  in  the  region  of  hypotheses— not  improbable 

1  I  Vita  56.  57. 

2  Vie  de  s.  Franjois,  LlII  note   1. 

3  Reg.  II  N.  1537.  2926;  MG.  Ep.  Pontif.  Rom.  Saec.  XIII.  I.  N.  223. 
296,  370,  371,  399.  Cfr.  for  the  history  of  the  family.  Ughelli-Coleti,  Italia  Sacra. 
1.  904-7  (doc.  a.  1178-1179). 

4  Hurler.  Ill,  430-1,  Ficker,  Forsch.  cit.  II  §  371  :  Muratori,  Antiq.  Est.  I. 
417-19;  Ann.  Patav.  in   MG.   SS.  XIX,    151.   ' 


52       SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 

ones,  but  still  hypotheses.  Nor  would  the  name  itself  prove 
much.  We  know  that  the  Frati  Minori,  like  the  rest,  used 
to  change  their  name  at  their  profession. ' 

I  should  attach  more  importance,  however,  to  the  nar- 
rative which  appears  in  the  "Second  Life",  where  it  is 
recorded  that  apud  Celanum  the  Saint  made  a  present  of 
cloth  to  an  imprudent  old  woman.  ^  Did  not  Thomas  wish 
by  means  of  this  narrative,  to  link  the  name  of  his  own 
native  place  to  one  of  the  many  glories  of  Saint  Francis? 

But  the  two  Lives,  when  studied  as  fine  literary  and 
dogmatic  elaborations  of  a  single  principle  which  animates 
the  whole,  tell  us  something  more.  They  tell  us,  above 
all  that  when  Thomas  entered  the  Order  he  had  already 
attained  a  remarkable  degree  of  culture,  and  that  therefore 
he  was  no  longer  a  mere  boy.  Admission  into  the  Order 
was  possible  at  fifteen  years,  ere  the  famous  Pythagorean 
"parting  of  the  ways"-^  had  been  fully  attained;  but  at 
fifteen  one's  stock  of  knowledge  is  scanty.  And  after 
Thomas  had  donned  the  serge  of  the  Franciscan,  the  first 
fervour  of  the  monastic  life,  and  then  the  missionary  labours 
which  followed,  would  have  left  him  no  leisure  to  devote 
himself  assiduously  to  studies.  ^  Probably — it  is  a  word 
that  we  shall  necessarily  repeat  with  some  frequency — pro- 
bably when  Thomas  became  a  Minorite  he  was  already 


1  Salimbene,  1  1 .  St.  Francis  himself  gives  the  name  "  Pacific©  *'  to  the  famous 
Rex  Versuum  when  he  receives  him  in  the  Rule  :   II  Vita,  III,  49;  Rosedale,  58. 

2  II  Vita  III,  10  ;  R,  48,  49.  Cfr.  Sabatier,  Speculum  perfectionis  seu  Franc. 
Assis.  Legenda  antiquissima  (1898)  c.  29 ;  58  nota  1.  St.  Francis  is  also  made  to 
lay  at  Padua  the  first  stone  of  the  monastery  of  Cella  ;  Lib.  regim.  Padue  ed  Bo- 
nardi  ( 1 899)  79,  indeed  Ihe  chroniclers  cause  him  to  go  to  every  place  where  they 
desire  the  Saint's  presence  to  lend  solemnity  to  the  events  which  they  record. 

3  Salimbene,    10-1:  cfr.    1 20  :  The  phrase  is  typical  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

4  The  Studi  of  the  Order  flourish  at  a  much  later  period.  H.  Felder,  Ge- 
schichte  der  wiss.  Studien  im  Franziskanerord,    1904.  32  seqq. 


CHAPTER   II  53 

a  cleric.  At  any  rate  Giordano  does  not  put  him  among 
the  lay  brethren. '  If  he  did  belong  to  a  noble  family,  he 
would  have  found  time  to  attend  some  school  or  celebrated 
University  ^  while  his  people  were  immersed  in  political  life. 
His  deep  culture  is,  however,  in  itself  no  real  proof  of 
noble  birth.  The  aristocratic  classes  had,  in  general,  no 
consummate  familiarity  with  the  alphabet,  ^  though  frequent 
exceptions  are  not  lacking.  The  south  took  its  share  in 
the  scientific  and  literary  development  of  the  rest  of  Italy 
without  distinction  of  classes.  '^ 

An  attentive  observer  of  minutiae  might  find  faint  indi- 
cations of  noble  lineage  in  the  not  unfrequent  allusions  to 
the  nobility  and  it  various  grades,  so  inappropriate  in  the 
Life  of  such  a  Saint  as  Francis  of  Assisi. 

The  notices  of  our  biographer,  properly  so  called,  come, 
all  of  them,  from  Giordano  di  Giano.  As  has  already 
been  said,  when  the  second  mission  to  Germany  was  decided 
upon,  in  1221,  it  was  left  to  the  freewill  of  those  who 
should  volunteer  to  take  part  in  it,  seeing  that  grave  peril 
was  to  be  faced.  In  the  famous  chapter  of  1221,  in  which 
we  see  Saint  Francis  abandon  himself  amost  entirely  into 
the  hands  of  Bro.  Elias,  ^  the    most    vivid    picture  of  the 

1  Voigl,  526  c.  19. 

2  The  liberal  studies  were  followed  by  theology :  Chartul.  Univ.  I  N.  26 ; 
a.    1160  c. 

3  Odofred,    1  70 ;  C.   I   46  ;  de  off.  iudicum.  5.  Petri  Damiani,  Op.  II,  208. 

4  Ughelli-Coleti,  Italia  sacra,  VII,  209;  Salimbene,  64,  66,  141,  Mon.  Neapol. 
Reg.  Neap.  II,  I  ed.  Capasso  pag.  59;  a  1181  ;  Cod.  Dipl.  Barese  V,  N.  '44. 
158.  Cfr.  Huillard-Brebolles.  Hist.  dipl.  Frid.  II  ;  IV,  I,  383.  Siragusa,  II  regno 
di  Guglielmo  I;  I.    139. 

5  Voigt,  524,  c.  1 7  :  Et  beatus  Franciscus,  sedens  ad  pedes  Helye  fratris, 
iraxit  eum  per  tunicam  ;  and  this  because  b.  F.  tunc  debilis  erat,  et  quidquid, 
zx  parte  sui,  capitulo  dicendum  erat  frater  Helias  loquebatur.  On  Elias  there  is 
i  monograph  by  Lempp,  (T.  Ill  de  la  Coll.  d'  Etudes  etc.  sur  1'  hist,  religieuse  et 
ett.  du  m.  age)  ;  but  the  interpretation  there  given  of  the  character  of  the  famous 
O-a/e  is  open  to  doubt. 


54       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

primitive  Franciscan  Society  comes  before  us.  It  embraces 
already  representatives  of  the  various  regions  of  Italy  and 
of  Germany;  nay,  there  is  a  Hungarian  also,  and  there 
figures  here  that  Giovanni  da  Piano  dei  Carpini  about  whom 
there  has  been  so  much  discussion/  A  thrill  of  adventurous 
and  very  joyous  asceticism  animates  the  great  assembly,  '^ 
which  has  assumed  the  character  of  the  chapters  of  the 
Missionary  Orders.  ^ 

We  have  already  observed  that  our  biographer  gave  in 
his  name  to  the  head  of  the  German  expedition,  Caesarius 
of  Spires,  who  collected  a  hand,  of  twenty-five  Minorites, 
partly  laymen,  partly  ecclesiastics,  including  some  excellent 
preachers  and  men  of  noble  birth.  Giordano  does  not  record 
the  aristocratic  origin  of  Thomas  of  Celano,  as  he  actually 
does,  for  instance,  of  Simone  Tosco ;  but  to  Thomas'  name 
he  appends  that  Brother's  greatest  title  to  fame — -Tomaso 
de  Zelano,  il  quale  poi  scrisse  la  prima  e  la  seconda  leg- 
genda  di  S.   Francesco.  '^ 

At  the  moment  when  the  future  biographer  of  the  Saint 
set  foot  in  Germany,  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  was  publishing 
his  famous  "Oialogue  on  Miracles",  which  Thomas  was 
to  remember  later  on. 

In  1  223  Caesarius  of  Spires  as  provincial  minister  entrusted 
to  Thomas  the  custodia  of  Mayence,  Worms,  Cologne  and 
Spires,  and  the  government  also  of  the  whole  province  during 
his  absence.^  Thomas'  office  came  to  an  end  with  the  de- 
spatch from  Italy  of  the  new  provincial  minister  Albert  of 

1  Voigt,   465   seqq. 

2  Voigt,  524-5:  an  entire  chapter  (18)  is  devoted  to  the  cheering  little  story 
of  Bro.  Palmerio  of  Monte  Gargano  1 

3  See  the  episode  of  the  Life'  of  S.  Romuald  in  5.  P.  Damiani  Op.  II,  2 1 8. 

4  Voigt,   516;  c.   19. 

5  Voigt,  531-2;  c.  30,  31. 


CHAPTER   11  55 

Pisa. '  Giordano  did  not  see  him  again  till  1 230,  when 
he  received  from  him,  at  Assisi,  a  miraculous  relic  of  the 
Saint. ' 

We  know  nothing  more  of  the  biographer.  That  which 
he  narrates  in  the  First  and  the  Second  Life,  in  the  capacity 
of  an  eyewitness  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Saint  Francis, 
must  be  received,  as  we  shall  presently  demonstrate,  with 
considerable  diffidence.  ^  But  nevertheless  the  fact  of  his 
presence  at  Assisi  in  1 230  would  shew  that  during  the 
last  years  of  Francis'  life  Thomas  had  some  influence  among 
those  who  formed  the  Saint's  immediate  circle.  To  the 
learned  group  belonged  also  Caesarius  of  Spires,  who  adorned 
the  simple  Rule  with  flowers  culled  from  the  gospel ;  ^  and 
if  the  cautious  protector  of  the  Order  turned  for  the  com- 
pilation of  the  "  Legend  "  to  another  member  of  the  learned 
nucleus,  Thomas  of  Celano,  he  undoubtedly  had  his  reasons 
for  doing  so.  Such  a  task  could  not  be  imposed  upon 
the  latest  comer.  When  Nicholas  IV  wished  to  establish 
the  certainty  of  the  miracles  which  God  had  wrought  through 
the  merits  of  Louis  IX  of  France,  he  sent  thither  a  man 
of  great  renown.  Maestro  Rolando  da  Parma,  who  returned 
with  the  most  exsquisite  proofs  of  some  eighty  miracles, 
and  was  rewarded  by  the  Pope  with  a  bishopric.^  What 
reward  was  given  to  Thomas  of  Celano  I  do  not  know ; 
but  we  may  be  sure  that  the  service  rendered  to  Gregory 
was  quite  as  good  as  that  which  Nicholas  received.  The 
Pope    formally    canonized   the  Poor    Man  of  Assisi;    the 

1  Voigl,   I.  c. 

2  Voigt.  543  :  c.  59. 

3  Vita  11  Prol.  R.  8. 

4  Voigt,  522  c.  15.  The  final  Rule  was  edited  directly  by  Gregory  IX  in 
person. 

5  Salimbene,   351. 


56       SAINT    FRANCIS    OF    ASSISI 

rhetorician  of  Celano  canonized  him  in  literature.  The 
nimbus  of  the  Saint  intervenes  to  interrupt  our  view  of 
the  figure  of  the  man  who  approached  so  near,  in 
sweetness  of  character,  to  his  Master ;  and  the  luxuriant 
rhetorical  foliage  of  the  First  Life  scarcely  allows  any  outlet 
for  the  subtle  perfume  of  that  mystic  flower  which  opened 
on  the  serene  Umbrian  hill. 

There  is  a  complete  library,  for  those  who  care  to  consult 
it,  on  the  tendency  and  value  of  the  two  Lives  of  Thomas 
of  Celano.  The  First  Life  is  recognised  as  the  principal 
source  for  the  history  of  Saint  Francis.  Its  style  may  be 
at  times  tediously  rhetorical,  and  the  aims  of  the  writer 
obvious  and  by  no  means  above  suspicion ;  but  the  fact 
remains  that  without  Thomas  one  cannot  write  about  Francis. 
If  there  is  any  hope  of  obtaining  a  less  obstructed  view 
of  the  figure  of  St.  Francis,  the  slender  thread  by  which 
that  hope  is  suspended  leads  up  to  the  work  of  Thomas 
of  Celano,  the  influence  of  which  lies  heavy  upon  all  the 
subsequent  literature  on  the  subject  whether  historical  or 
legendary.  And  here  it  is  not  easy  to  reject  the  weighty 
arguments  adduced  by  Ortroy  for  the  demolition  of  the 
"  Legend  of  the  Three  Companions  ". '  The  majority  of 
the  early  Franciscan  documents  have  as  real  a  dependence 
on  Thomas'  work  as  a  full  flowing  river  has  upon  its  remote 
source ;  and  that  in  spite  of  the  various  storms  which  con- 
vulsed the  Order.  Hence  the  practical  uselessness  of  any 
laborious  and  intricate  study,  however  learned,  of  the  various 
modifications  of  the  narrative,  which  has  not  its  eye  always 
upon  the  original  sources.  From  the  two  "Lives"  issue 
the  subtle  threads  which  lead  to  the  tendencies  of  the  various 

I   Anal.  BoIIandiana  XIX  (1900)   119;   126,   140  »eqq. 


CHAPTER   II  57 

groups  and  individuals.  An  episode  that  has  become  stereo- 
typed in  monastic  and  dogmatic  traditions,  grows  living 
and  fresh  as  the  old  slumbering  ideas  awake  to  life,  and 
presents  itself  with  characteristics  that  suggest  the  most  con- 
summate originality. 

How  many  eulogies,  for  instances,  have  been  evoked  by 
the  "  ingenuous  charm  "of  the  Fioretti  ?  An  historian,  who 
is  endowed  also  with  some  of  the  finest  gifts  of  the  artist,  sees 
in  the  Fioretti  a  portrait  of  the  Italian  spirit,  and  does  not 
hesitate  to  affirm  that  "Without  the  Fioretti,  if  we  had 
only  Thomas  and  St.  Bonaventura  to  turn  to,  there  would 
have  been  one  name  the  more  to  add  to  the  "Common 
of  Confessors  not  Bishops"  with  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Anthony 
of  Padua,  but  we  should  have  lost  a  figure  unique  in  the 
annals  of  the  Christian  Church. "  ^ 

How  many  revelations,  again,  are  we  expected  to  draw 
from  the  Speculum  Perfectionis,  attributed  to  the  good 
Brother  Leo ! 

It  will  be  better  to  look  at  things  calmly.  Let  us  take  the 
sources  as  we  find  them,  not  suspecting  erasures,  suppressions, 
corrections  in  the  records  in  order  to  give  ourselves  the 
opportunity  of  reconstructing  them  in  what  may  seem  to  us 
to  have  been  their  original  state.  To  give  way  to  such 
ideas  is  to  fall  into  a  confused  muddle    from  which  it  is 

I  Sabalier,  Floretum  s-  Francis.  Assis.  (1903)  Vl-IX.  The  most  recent  edi- 
tors of  the  text  of  the  Fioretti  {Fornaciari,  Fir.,  Barbera  1902;  421,  and  'Pai- 
serini,  Fir.  1903;  247-8),  have  constantly  reproduced  Cesari's  readings,  not  ob- 
serving that  now  and  again  the  halting  sense  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  trans- 
lator had  before  him  a  corrupt  Latin  original,  i  cite  a  single  example.  In  the 
chapter  of  the  Doctrine  of  Bro.  Giles  "  della  oziositatt  "  {Cesari,  1 73),  non 
pone  mai  pentola  vuota  al  fuoco,  sotto  la  speranza  (!!)  del  tuo  vicino,  is  a 
phrase  which  makes  utter  nonsense.  In  the  true  Latin  text  (Acta  SS.  T.  Ill 
Apr.  229)  we  read  ad  sepem  vicini  tut  non  ponas  ollam  ad  ignem.  An  old 
translator  read  "  ad  spem  "  ;  and  after  him  every  one  has  reproduced  the  strange 
blunder. 


ii 


58       SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

difficult  to  extricate  oneself.  But  criticism  itself  has  surprises 
to  offer  which  are  not  invariably  of  the  unpleasant  kind. 
And  if  we  demonstrate  that  the  most  prolific  of  Franciscan 
sources  is  not  original,  and  cut  away  from  the  form  of  the 
Saint  the  literary  incrustations  that  have  gathered  round  it, 
we  may  perhaps  succeed,  by  dint  of  very  patient  labour 
in  reaching  the  truth.  If  we  do,  we  shall  find  something 
very  far  removed  from  the  fantastic  creation  with  which 
art  has  made  us  familiar — a  phantasm  that  cannot  bear  the 
weight  of  serious  scientific  investigation. 

Our  study  of  Thomas  of  Celano  will,  then,  subserve  the 
double  purpose  of  detecting  the  all  too  vivid  literary  remi- 
niscences with  which  his  biography  abounds,  and  revealing 
the  design  which  is  its  inspiration — two  matters  which  are 
intimately  and  psychologically  connected  with  one  another. 

Let  us  penetrate  into  the  biographer's  mind ;  and  when 
the  works  to  which  he  has  recourse  are  known  to  us  the 
truth  will  become  obvious.  If — to  give  one  or  two  exam- 
ples— Saint  Francis  had  not  spent  a  more  than  careless 
youth,  Thomas  would  not  have  been  reminded  of  the  conver- 
sion of  Saint  Augustine.  Again  when  he  describes  the  death 
and  apparition  of  the  Saint  almost  in  the  exact  words  of 
Sulpicius  Severus,  we  perceive  at  once  that  Thomas  has 
transformed  himself  into  a  biographer  of  that  Saint  Martin 
who  appears  to  Sulpicius  "borne  up  of  a  white  clond" 
simply  to  recompense  him  for  the  trouble  of  having  written 
his  Life :  so  much  so  that  Saint  Martin,  suspended  smiling 
between  heaven  and  earth,  displays  to  Sulpicius  the  book 
contciining  that  Life.  Further,  the  thorough  acquaintance 
which  Thomas  shews  With  the  works  of  Gregory  the 
Great  serves  to  explain  many  enigmas  of  the  Life,  and 
perhaps  also  of  the  Franciscan  Rule ;  since  the  environment 


CHAPTER   II  59 

saturated  with  dogmatic  and  theological  literature  of  which 
Thomas  is  the  principal  specimen,  is  precisely  that  in  which 
Saint  Francis'   activities  were  manifested. 

The  man  of  God,  great  in  his  simplicity,  was  surrounded 
by  those  who  set  themselves  to  conform  his  acts  and  words 
to  the  correct  type  of  the  normal  saint.  He  himself  was 
writing  his  own  life,  as  it  were,  day  by  day,  as  he  followed 
the  track  that  was  marked  out  for  him  to  attain  to  cano- 
nization ;  though  not  without  a  sigh  of  regret  for  the  ideal 
which  was  losing  itself  in  the  dark  mists  of  monasticism. 
The  group  that  was  guiding  the  Saint  up  to  that  Calvary — 
guiding  him  without  realising  his  greatness ' — included  in 
Thomas  of  Celano,  a  man  supremely  capable  of  delineating 
his  master's  likeness  as  those  in  high  places  wished  it  to 
appear.  The  companions  of  Francis,  witnesses  to  the  out-^ 
raged  truth,  even  when  unable  to  reconcile  themselves  to 
the  official  biography,  were  forced  to  make  it  their  starting- 
point.  Bro.  Leo  certainly  author  of  the  Life  of  Egidio^ 
(though  not  in  the  precise  form  in  which  it  has  come  down 
to  us),  was  perhaps  the  most  effectual  verbal  redactor  of 
the  pontifical  Legend :  and  what  was  gathered  from  his 
words  and  what  was  added  to  them,  was  attributed  to  him — 
with  a  certain  mystery  which,   on  a  close  scrutiny,   recalls 

1  I  Vita  54  :  Habentes  cognoscere  non  curavimus  .  . ,  (I). 

2  Salimbene,  322-3.  On  the  rotuli  and  the  cedulae  of  Bro.  Leo,  which 
remind  me,  as  I  have  remarked  above,  of  the  v^^ritings  concealed  in  Archbishop 
Riculfs  desk  (Hinschius.  Deer.  Pseudo-Isid.  (1863)  I,  CLXXXIV),  see  Sabatier, 
Spec.  perf.  LXXX  seqq.  and  the  just  scepticism  of  Delia  Giovanna,  who  applies 
quite  other  laws  than  those  of  the  life  to  the  history  of  the  sources :  Giornaie 
storico  della  Lett.  it.  XXV  (1895)  46  seqq. 

For  the  correction  of,  and  allusions  to  the  First  Life  of  Celano,  cfr.  Vita 
Aeg.  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  224  n.  1  1.  "  'Penetrans  Mima  cordis  "  is  however 
a  phrase  of  Thomas'  ;  on  the  episode  in  I  Vita  46,  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
dwell  later  on.  Cfr.  Lemmens,  Doc.  ant.  franc.  1901  I,  H  seqq.  (Scripla 
Fratris  Leonis). 


60       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

that  of  the  celebrated  ecclesiastical  forgeries  of  the  IX*^  cen- 
tury. At  all  events  it  is  evident  that  Thomas  of  Celano — 
alike  in  his  truths  and  in  his  falsehoods — is  part  and  parcel 
of  the  Franciscan  literary  movement  :  nay,  he  initiates  it 
and  sums  it  up,  he  dominates  it  alive  and  dead. 

So  too  the  Speculum  Perfectionis  draws  from  him  its 
original  matter,  even  if  it  deviates  purposely  from  the  precise 
signification  borne  by  the  words  and  deeds  in  the  Second 
Life.  But  instead  of  wasting  time  in  further  dogmatising, 
let  us  draw  closer,  and  study  the  First  Life,  intus  et  in 
cute  with  the  critical  methods  already  suggested. 

The  favourite  theme  of  mediaeval  literature  is  hagiography. 
In  the  Life  of  a  Saint  the  writer  seeks  and  finds  a  way 
to  exhibit  his  fine  qualities  of  artist  and  believer,  and  there 
is  nothing  to  prevent  him  from  putting  into  it  whatever  he 
likes— sacred  or  profane,  fanciful  or  real— provided  only  it 
be  not  uninteresting.  Frequently  the  real  hero  in  a  work 
of  hagiography  is  the  author  himself,  who  now  conceals 
and  now  displays  himself  according  to  circumstances,  con- 
verging on  his  own  person  a  little  of  that  light  which  he 
has  diffused  on  the  saint  whom  he  is  celebrating.  But 
this  is  not  all  :  his  own  hero  must  needs  be  superior  to 
the  rest ;  and  therefore  reality  is  helped  out  by  imagination 
to  the  limit  of  credibility  according  to  the  ideas  of  the 
time. ' 

Nothing  could  be  more  rigidly  stereotyped  than  this  kind 
of  literature.  Its  inspirations  come  straight  from  the  Go- 
spels, because  every  saint  is  a  pale  reflection  of  Christ, 
The  old  Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  the  epic  of  monachism  col- 
lected in  the  Book  of  the    Vitae  Patrum,   certain  typical 

1  But  even  then  not  everything  was  believed  :  Sulp.  Sev.  Dial.  1,  26  ;  (CV. 
178). 


CHAPTER   II  61 

pages  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  most  in  vogue — Sulpicius 
Severus,  Gregory  of  Tours,  Pope  Gregory  I — each  of 
these  in  turn  supplies  material,  ever  old  and  ever  new, 
for  the  entire  hagiography  of  the  Middle  Ages.  That 
hagiography  has  its  laws,  its  canons,  from  which  the  writer 
never  deviates.  This  is  the  best  explanation  of  the  fact 
that  saints  are  so  remarkably  like  one  another. 

Already  in  his  prologue,  by  the  customary  promise  to 
tell  the  truth,  and  the  conventional  excuses  for  his  own 
unworthiness,  Thomas  displays  his  knowledge  of  the  rules 
of  the  art. ' 

There  is  another  truth  which  it  was  incumbent  on  the 
biographer  of  Saint  Francis  to  disclose  ;  and  it  is  a  very 
simple  matter.  From  the  first  moments  of  the  Saint's  vo- 
cation to  the  time  of  his  submission  to  the  Holy  See  ^ ; 
from  the  day  which  was  marked  by  the  intervention  of 
large  numbers  of  the  learned  clergy,  and  the  diplomacy 
of  Cardinal  Ugolino  of  Ostia,  up  to  the  last  hours  of 
Francis'  life — the  entire  life  of  the  "poverello  d'Assisi" 
must  be  shewn  to  have  been  a  continuous  and  unmistake- 
able  application  in  practice  of  the  principles  of  the  Rule 
approved  by  Honorius    III.      Francis,    to    adopt    the    old 

J  Compare  the  following  passages  :  Vita  Pachomii  c.  54,  Migne  LXXIII, 
272:  Paulini,  Vita  s.  Ambros.  (Op.  s.  Ambros.  Venetiis  1781)  VII  p.  I.  Ea 
quae  a  probatissimis  viris .  . .  didici . .  .  ;  non  magis  phaleras  pompasque  verborum, 
quam  virtutem  .  .  .  spectare  conveniat ;  Rufini,  Hist,  mon.  Migne  XXI,  388 :  non 
lam  ex  stylo  laudem  requirens  ;  Widrici,  Vita  s.  Gerhardi  (c.  a.  974) :  rimari 
verborum  faleramenta.  S.  P.  Damiani,  Vita  Odilonis,  Op.  II,  193,  V,  s.  Ro- 
mualdi  11,  201  ;  cfr.  Ill,  433,  II,  52.  Fausti  R.  Op.  CV.  N.  S.  VI,  195  etc. 
etc.  Cfr.  Caesarii  Heist.  Praef.  Testis  est  mihi  Dominus  nee  unum  quidem  ca- 
pitulum,  in  hoc  dialogo,  me  finxisse  etc.  An  ancient  and  very  remarkable  type 
occurs  in  the  Life  of  Severinus  written  by  Eugippus  (II  Ed.  MG.  1898);  and 
in  that  of  Saint  Martin  {Sulp.   Sever.   CV.,    109  seqq.). 

2  Regula  antiqua  (The  epithet  is  convenient  for  the  avoiding  of  all  contro- 
versy) c.  1.  cfr.  Reg,  1223  c.  1 .  It  is  a  principle  very  religiously  observed  in 
the  Order.     Salimbene,    1  1 9. 


62       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

philosophic  phrase,  had  been  the  "living  Rule";  in  the 
Rule  there  was  nothing  that  had  not  been  found  first  in 
him.  All  the  characteristics  of  the  last  years  of  that  most 
pious  existence,  (when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  had  lost  its 
early  freedom)  ;  all  the  events  which  were  believed  to 
have  followed  on  his  death — all  must  be  expounded  as 
willed  and  thought  out  by  the  Saint  in  his  first  moments 
of  inspiration . . .  yes,  even  to  the  "  confutation  of  heretical 
depravity",  a  field  open  first  to  the  Dominicans  and  af- 
terwards to  the  Minorites. ' 

The  close  and  suffocating  atmosphere  which  the  monas- 
tic life  exhales,  miserably  ruined  as  monasticism  is  by  the 
rigour  of  traditional  formality,  penetrates  into  the  first,  and 
still  more  into  the  second  of  Thomas'   biographies. 

None  has  ever  set  himself  more  determinedly  than  Tho- 
mas o£  Celano  to  conceal  in  the  obscurity  of  the  cloister 
the  form  of  the  man  who  had  such  a  strong  feeling  for 
the  poetry  of  the  universe ;  of  the  man  who — rare  example 
indeed  in  the  annals  of  monasticism  ! — would  have  no 
houses  for  the  brethren;  whose  mission  was  to  renew  the 
world  by  poverty  and  love,  not  to  corrupt  it  by  the  example 
of  idleness  and  vice.  ^ 

All  this  we  shall  have  occasion   to    remark    as    we 
follow  the  biographer's  narrative. 

After  an  eulogy  of  Gregory  the  IX'^  and  the  cardinals 

1  Salimbene,  35  a.  1233.  The  Milanese  Bro.  Leo  is  described  as  "  magnus 
persecutor  haereticorum  et  confutator  el  superator ". 

2  Thorn,  de  Eccleston,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  XXVIII,  561.  In  capitulo 
generali .  .  .  praecepit  s.  Franciscus  destrui  domum,  que  fuerat  edificata  propter 
capitulum  ...  a.  1 22 1 .  The  Speculum,  which  partly  copies  the  Secunda  Vila, 
is  of  so  late  a  date  that  its  compiler  no  longer  understands  the  true  signification 
of  mililes  (i.  e.  the  noble  classes,  as  opposed  to  the  populus),  and  makes  them  gen- 
darmes or  town  guard,  called  in  to  maintain  order  during  General  Chapter.  Cfr. 
Cotz,    165. 


CHAPTER   II  63 

who  have  canonized  the  Saint,  Thomas  enters    upon    his 
theme. 

Obviously  the  wild  youth  of  Saint  Francis  was  still 
vividly  present  to  the  memory  of  those  who  subsequently 
venerated,  in  the  former  prodigal,  the  spouse  of  evangelical 
Poverty.  The  biographer  is  conscious  of  the  difficulty  of 
his  subject.  It  was  not  till  later  that  the  so-called  "  Le- 
gend of  Peace " '  (as  though  facts  had  the  ductility  of 
opinions  and  could  be  made  to  accommodate  themselves 
to  times  and  men  !)  should  dare  calmly  to  alter  the  truth. 
Thomas,  however,  does  not  lose  courage.  He  has  com- 
posed his  two  first  paragraphs  with  ideas,  phrases  and 
words  that  are  most  indubitably  taken  from  Saint  Gregory 
the  Great,  Juvenal,  and  Saint  Augustine.  His  first  inspi- 
ration comes  from  the  characteristic  opening  of  Gregory's 
Life  of  Saint  Benedict.  The  sad  end  of  the  child  accu- 
stomed to  blasphemy  recorded  in  the  same  writer's  Dia- 
logues, and  the  Conversion  of  Saint  Augustine,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  classical  reminiscences  from  the  Satiric  Poet — 
these  complete  the  picture.  ^  As  it  was  not  open  to  the 
biographer  to  be  silent  or  to  lie,  he  was  constrained  to 
explain  and  to  justify.      The  saint,  he  urges,  was  not  to 

1  So  says  Lemmens,  Doc.  ant.  franc.  Spec,  perfect.  (1901)  1 1,  a  propos  of 
the  official  Legend  of  St.  Bonaventure.     Cfr.  Sabatier,   Vie,   9. 

2  I  Vita  1  :  Vir  erat  etc.  Greg.  M.  Dial.  II,  1  Fuit  vir  etc.  I  Vita  1  : 
remisse  nimis  et  dissolute  filios  suos  studeant  educare.  Dial.  IV,  18:  nim/s  car- 
naliter  diiigens,  remisse  nutriebat.  The  ref.  in  the  Dialogues  is  found  also  in 
Jacques  de  Vitry,  Exempla  N.  294.  The  typical  '  rake '  is  also  described  in 
Boeth.  De  discipl.  schol.  (Basil.  1570)  1279;  c.  2:  Qui  discurrit  per  vicos  et 
tahernas  etc.  The  verses  of  Juvenal  to  which  Celano  alludes  are  to  be  found  in 
Sat.  XIV  3  seqq.  cfr.  v.  38  .  .  .  ne  crimina  nostra  sequantur  (Tom.  a  pueritia 
nos  omnia  mala  sequantur).  The  pjissage  of  S.  Augustine  (Confess.  II,  3  ;  CV. 
XXXIII,  34)  is  as  follows  ;  ego  ne  vituperarer,  vitiosor  fiebam,  et  ubi  nan  sub- 
erat,  quo  admisso  aequarer  perditis,  fingebam  me  fecisse  quod  non  feceram,  ne 
viderer  abiectior,  quo  eram  innocentior,  et  ne  vilior  haberer,  quo  eram  castior. 
Ecce  cum  quibus  comitibus  iter  agcbam  platearum  Bab^loniae  et    volutabar    in 


64       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

blame  for  his  own  unfortunate  bringing-up ;  it  was  the  Age 
that  was  responsible,  with  its  degenerate  traditions  of  child- 
nurture.  In  other  words,  Francis  was  the  offspring  of  the 
century  in  which  he  saw  the  light ;  though  no  small  pro- 
portion of  his  faults  are  to  be  laid  at  the  door  of  the 
father  who  was  utterly  careless  about  the  Christian  edu- 
cation of  his  son.  The  rest  of  the  narrative  represents  the 
logical  development  of  the  profound  antagonism  between 
father  and  son,  which  finds  its  climax  in  the  dramatic 
ceremony  before  the  bishop  of  Assisi. 

From  the  wordly  life  of  the  Italian  youth, '  gay  and 
reckless  as  that  of  the  hrigata  spendereccia  of  Siena,  Tho- 
mas leads  Francis  on  to  the  critical  moment  of  his  con- 
version, drawing  his  inspiration  once  more  from  Saint  Au- 
gustine. Augustine  is  converted  by  a  book,  Francis  by 
an  unnamed  friend ;  and  the  Augustinian  phraseology  again 
peeps  out  from  the  biographer's  mosaic  ^ ;  but  the  grotto 
and  the  friend  that  turn  the  Saint's  footsteps  to  the  path 
of  the  "vita  evangelica" — to  sell  all  he  has  and  give  all 
to  the  poor — these  savour  of  heresy. 

The  enthusiasm  that  burst  forth  in    the    description    of 


caeno.  Compare  with  this  I  Vita  1  :  Simulant  miseri  plerumque  se  nequiora 
fecisse  quam  fecerint,  ne  videantur  abiecliores,  quo  innocenliores  existunt .  .  .  Iter 
agens  per  medium  platearum  Babyloniae  etc. 

On  the  evil  of  youthful  corruption  Qreg.  M.  Moral.  XV  in  c.  20  Job. 
For  the  "  vitiata  radix",  see  5.   P.  Dam.  Op.  II,  21. 

1  Buoncompagni,  Cedrus,  in  Quellen  zur  bay.  und  deutsch.  Geschichte  IX, 
1 863  ;  1 22  :  Fiunt  etiam  in  multis  partibus  ytalie  quedam  iuvenum  societates  etc. 
Even  that  of  the  "  Round  Table  "  is  not  wanting. 

2  Vita  3  :  Sicque  diu  infirmatus  -  cum  -  paululum  respirasset  -  sed  pulchri- 
ludo  agrorum  vinearum  amoenitas,  et  quicquid  visu  pulchrum  est,  in  nuUo  enim 
potuit  delectare  -  coepit  se  ipsum  vilescere  sihi ;  Confess.  V,  9  ( 1 03)  :  et  ecce 
excipior  ibi  flagello  aegritudinis  -  Confess.  IV,  7  (73)  :  non  in  amoenis  nemo- 
ribus,  non  in  ludis  atque  cantibus  etc.  Horrebant  omnia  ;  III,  4  (48)  :  ille  vero 
liber  mutavit  affectum  meum  -   "Oiluit  mihi  repente  omnis  vana  spes  etc. 


CHAPTER   II  65 

that  most  beauteous  bride,  evangelical  Poverty '  seems  to 
me  to  have  some  relationship  with  the  splendid  dream  of 
Joannes  Eleemosinarius, '  whose  Life,  translated  into  Latin, 
was  considerably  diffused  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Strange  that  the  fervqur  of  Saint  Francis  should  have 
had,  according  to  Thomas,  so  peculiar  a  way  of  expressing 
itself !  The  Saint,  newly  recruited  into  Christ's  army,  enters 
into  the  ruined  church  of  Saint  Damian,  and  devoutly  kisses 
the  '  sacred '  hands  of  the  poor  priest,  offering  him  such 
money  as  he  has  with  him.  Already  we  begin  to  discern 
the  outlines  of  the  thesis  which  will  shortly  come  before 
us  in  more  clear  and  definite  form. 

Meanwhile  Thomas  does  not  forget  his  authorities  for 
a  moment  :  the  tumult  and  anxiety  of  mind  that  are  the 
normal  accompaniments  of  contrition,  are  described  in  a 
clever  paraphrase  of  a  passage  from  Saint  Gregory.  ' 

More  attention  is  due  to  that  culminating  point  in  Francis' 
life  where  he  breaks  off,  once  for  all  from  his  family  and 
from  the  world  :  I  mean  the  scene  that  is  enacted  in  the 
presence  of  Guido,  bishop  of  Assisi.  Here  Thomas'  nar- 
rative is  not  over-consistent,  with  regard  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishop  of  Assisi ;  for  that  prelate  had  not  the  double 

1  1  Vita  7.  -  Jordanus  {%)oigt,  516,  c.  I)  says  that  Francis  at  first  lived 
habitu  heremitico  (a.    1207  ?). 

2  Vita  Joannis  Eleem.  c.  7  ;  Migne  LXXIII,  345  :  Video  una  noctium,  in 
somnis,  puellam  quamdam,  cuius  species  supra  solem  splendebat  -  aestimavi  esse 
mulierem  .  .  .  Ego  sum  prima  filiarum  Regis  .  .  .    Compassio  ac  Eleemosyjna. 

3  Vita  6  :  —  corde  quiescere  non  valebat.  Cogilationes  variae  sibi  invicem 
succedebant,  et  ipsarum  importunitas  eum  duriter  perturbabat.  5.  Greg.  M.  Moral. 
IV  in  c.  3  Job.  n.  32  :  Cum  enim  ad  mentem  male  gesta  poenitendo  reducimus, 
gravi  moerore  confundimur,  perstrepit  in  animo  turba  cogitationum,  moeror  con- 
tent, anxietas  devastat,  in  aerumnas  mens  vertitur.  -  The  phrase  of  Celano  (16): 
ardebat  intus  igne  divino  ;  et  conceptum  ardorem  mentis  celare  de  forii  non  Va- 
lebat. recalls  the  identical  words  of  St.  Bernard,  Sermo  LXVII  (T.  11,  781): 
Sic  flagrans  ac  vehemens  amor,  praesertim  divinus,  cum  se  intra  cohibere  non 
valet,  non  attendit  quo  ordine,  qua  lege,  quave  serie,  seu  paucitate  verborum  ebulliat. 


66       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

power,  spiritual  and  temporal,  such  as  belonged,  for  in- 
stance, to  the  see  of  Fermo. '  And  Francis,  and  although 
he  proposed  to  take  up  the  life  of  a  hermit,  was  still  in 
lay  communion  :  and  not  only  so,  but  he  did  not  belong 
to  any  Rule.  In  a  case  that  is  in  some  ways  analogous, 
but  more  serious  than  this  inasmuch  as  the  Order  had 
already  been  constituted,  Salimbene's  father  applies  directly 
to  the  imperial  authority  for  a  rescript  when  he  desires 
to  recover  his  son  who  has  been  received  by  the  Mino- 
rites. ^  But  Bernardone  had  no  need  at  all  to  call  in  the 
bishop's  intervention  ;  so  much  so  that  the  so-called  "  Le- 
gend of  the  Three  Companions",  taking  up  the  argument 
much  later,  makes  the  father  bring  an  action  against  his 
son,  guilty  of  having  carried  off  the  money  from  his  house, 
before  the  consuls  ;  and  it  is  the  consuls  who  summon 
Francis.  And  only  when  the  son  pleads  that  he  is  al- 
ready a  Servant  of  God,  is  Bernardone  obliged  to  renew 
his  plaint  before  the  bishop.  ^  Since,  therefore,  the  said 
"Legend"  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  sources  more  re- 
cent even  than  that  of  Saint  Bonaventure, '^  one  is  tempted 
to  see  in  this  more  diffused  narrative  an  attempt  to  explain 
the  fact — in  itself  irregular  from  the  legal  point  of  view — 
of  the  action  before  the  bishop.  Even  those  who  have 
made  no  special  study  of  the  history  of  Law  are  aware 
that,  in  the  matter  of  jurisdiction,  the  Italian  Communes 
made  an  extraordinarily  vigorous  stand  against  ecclesiastical 
pretensions  ^ ;   and  the  relations  of  Assisi  with  the  Papacy 

1  II  Reg.   No.  2657.     Inn.  III. 

2  Salimbene,    10-12. 

3  Leg.  trium  sociorum  (ed.  Faloct-Pulignani  1898)   19  (39). 

4  Ortro\>.   1.  c.   Gotz   140  seqq.     Minocchi.  in  Arch.  Star.  It.  1899:281. 

5  Salvemini,  Studi  storici  (1901);  42  seqq.     Cfr.  PiVano,   Stato  e  Chiesa 
negli  Stat.   com.  italiani  (1904);    17-8. 


CHAPTER   II 


67 


make  it  far  from  improbable  that,  even  in  1 205 — but  a 
short  time  before  the  date  of  the  conversion — the  city  may 
have  been  devoted  to  the  cause  of  Philip  of  Sw^abia. ' 

It  is  possible  that  the  bishop  may  have  taken  some  part 
in  the  events  which  decided  the  Saint's  vocation ;  but  an 
intervention  of  the  kind  of  which  Thomas  speaks  raises 
more  than  one  doubtful  question.  The  biographer,  with 
his  intimate  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  institutions,  is  aware 
that  the  subject  of  the  first  chapter  is  'conversion'.  ^  And 
conversion  without  the  canonical  element  would  have  pre- 
sented a  strange  and  unusual  appearance,  and  one  out  of 
harmony  with  all  that  was  to  follow.  ^  In  the  church  of 
Saint  Damian,  Francis  takes  his  first  step,  towards  the  poor 
priest  whose  hands  he  kisses  ;  before  the  bishop  Guido, 
he  takes  the  second  and  more  decisive  step — towards  his 
new  life. 

One  is  almost  sorry  to  destroy  the  historical  reality  of 
a  scene  which  has  inspired  so  many  artistic  pages  ;  but 
truth,  also,  has  its  rights,  and  they  are  stronger  than  those 
of  beauty. 

Francis  flees  from  home  in  order  to  free  himself  from 
carnal  subjection  to  his  father  ;  he  takes  with  him  money, 
which  is  the  most  precious  symbol  of  wordly  things.  Father 
and  money  alike  he  renounces.  ^  All  this— what  is  it  but 
the  solemn  abrenuntiatio  of  the  novice  ? 

'   Bohmer.   Reg.  imp.    1892-4;  V,    1791. 

2  Caes.  I,  1  seqq.  Cfr.  loh.  Cassiani.  Conlationes  mon.  CV.  XIII,  73  ; 
III,   6  seqq. 

3  So  St.  Dominic  is  received  by  the  Bishop  of  Osma  with  hit  Canons : 
Que/r/et  Echatd,   SS.  Ord.  Praed.  Lut.   Paris.  (1719);  lordan.   c.   6 ;  I,  3. 

4  Cassian.  Op.  c.  Ill,  6  e  7  :  De  duobus  enim  patribus,  id  est  sive  de  illo 
qui  deserendus,  sive  de  eo  qui  expetendus  est .  .  .  de  domo  prioris  nostri  parentis 
egressi,  quern  ab  exordio  nativitatis  nostrae,  secundum  veterem  hominem,  quando 
eramus  filii  irae  {Paul.   Eph.  II,  3)  etc. 


i 


68       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

Francis  takes  off  his  garments,  casts  them  away,  restores 
tliem  to  his  father,  and  the  bishop  covers  him  with  his 
own  mantle  and  embraces  him. '  I  translate  from  the 
"Lives  of  the  Fathers"^  and  from  the  "Monastic  Insti- 
tutions" of  Cassian-^  the  two  passages  that  follow.  "A 
young  man  desired  to  renounce  the  world,  but  was  sur- 
rounded by  demons  ;  with  all  possible  speed  he  undresses 
himself,  casts  away  his  garments  and  runs  naked  to  the 
monastery,  God  commands  the  abbot  :  'Arise  and  receive 
my  champion  who  comes  to  thee'  ". 

"Whosoever  is  received  divests  himself  of  all  that  he 
heretofore  possessed,  and  he  is  not  permitted  to  retain 
even  the  garment  wherewith  he  is  clad.  The  novice 
advances  among  the  monks  who  gather  round  him  ;  he 
divests  himself  of  his  clothes  and  receives  in  turn  those  of 
the  monastery  by  the  hand  of  the  abbot". 

In  the  rest  of  the  passage  Cassian  is  careful  to  supply 
an  interpretation  of  the  symbolic  meaning  of  the  ceremony : 
noverit  etiam,  omni  fastu  deposito  mundiali,  ad  Christi 
paupertatem  descendisse,  which  the  rhetorician  of  Celano 
sums  up  in  the  phrase :  depositis  omnibus,  quae  sunt  mundi, 
solius  divinae  iustitiae  memoratur. 

In  place  of  the  abbot  we  have  the  bishop,  who  opens 
his  arms  to  receive  a  naked  Francis,  and  covers  him  with 
his  own  robe,  which  is  thus  the  first  Franciscan  habit. 
The  Order,  brought  into  being  by  the  inspiration  of  the 
Poor  Man  of  Assisi,  takes  refuge,  at  the  moment   of    its 

1  I  Vita    12-15. 

2  Migne.  LXXIII,  772. 

3  Inst,  coenob.  CV.  N.  S.  II;  IV,  5  (50-1).  St.  Guido  in  like  manner, 
distractis  vestibus  pretiosis,  quibus  indui  solebat,  pretioque  earum  pauperibus  dato, 
pannosus  ac  nudus,  clam  Ravenna  egressus,  Romam  rudis  peregrinus  tendit,  ibique 
clericatu  susceplo  etc.     Acta  SS.   Ill   Mart.    902. 


II 


CHAPTER   II 


69 


l)irth,  beneath  an  episcopal  mantle.  It  is  the  Church,  kind 
and  pious  Mother,  that  welcomes  the  future  father  of  the 
Minorites ;  it  is  the  Church  that  consecrates  and  gives 
lirst  aid  to  the  designs  of  Francis. 

That  bishop  of  Assisi  who  kept  so  sharp  an  eye  upon 
the  man  of  God, '  even  at  Rome,  was  verily  gifted  with 
i.  marvellous  power  o^  clairvoyance  !  Here  we  see  Tho- 
iias'  design  coming  out  clearly  in  all  its  delicate  lines. 
The  decisive  moment  for  Francis,  as  it  appeeurs  in  the 
(fficial  biography,  is  inspired  by  what  is  simply  the  signi- 
f  cant  introduction  of  a  monastic  ceremony  ;  and  has  no- 
liing  historical  about  it.  If  any  one  still  hesitates  to  give 
"homas  the  name  he  deserves,  he  will  shortly  see  that 
criticism  has  quite  other  points  to  note. 

No  sooner  is  Francis  loosed  from  the  bishop's  embrace 
tian  he  is  encircled  at  once  with  the  aureole  of  sainthood, 
2  radiance  which  shall  have  something  also  of  the  red 
glow  of  martyrdom.  His  first  encounter  with  robbers  in 
t  le  forest,  as  he  is  singing  the  praises  of  the  Lord  in  the 
I  rench  tongue,  ^  is  destined  to  play  a  remarkable  part  in 
legendary  lore,  and  to  become  an  essential  element  in  all 
t  le  stories  of  the  saints. 

1  I  Vita  32.  The  grudge  between  the  Regular  a  secular  clergy  is  one  of 
od  standing:  5.  P.  Dam.  Ill,  261  seqq.  and  the  conflict  is  renewed  in  later 
d  lys  ;  Salimbene,   2 1 0. 

2  On  the  familiarity  with  the  French  tongue  which  Francis  seems  to  have 
p  )ssessed,  see  the  full  and  excellent  passage  in  "Delia  Giooanna,  1.  c.  8-26.  The 
p  esent  writer  is  haunted  hy  a  lingering  doubt  that  the  French  language  was  spe- 
c  illy  known  to  Francis  not  only  on  account  of  his  father's  relations  with  France, 
b  it  also  because  of  those  which  subsisted  between  our  Italian  heretics  and  their 
F  ench  brethren,  as  is  suggested  by  the  fact  of  the  Congress  of  Bergamo  in  1218 
(;  ;e  Tocco,  1 83).  And  international  language,  (which  must  have  been  French), 
V  as  certainly  used  in  the  watch-words  that  served  for  mutual  recognition  among 
tl  e  heretics  of  the  north  and  those  of  the  south  of  the  Alps ;  Math.  Paris,  in 
^  on.  Germ.  Hist.  SS.  XXVHl,  231  e  Thes.  cit.  V,  1794;  Schonhach, 
Stzungsb.  CXLVII.    121. 


70       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

To  the  robbers  who  question  him  Francis  replies  : 
" Praeco  sum  magni  Regis;  quid  ad  vos  ?"  '  The  an- 
swer is  suggested  by  the  mission  which  the  biographer 
immediately  assigns  to  his  hero  ;  the  office  of  herald  be- 
longs, in  fact  to  those  "Shepherds  of  souls  who  go  before 
and  announce  the  advent  of  the  severe  Judge".  But 
the  robbers  make  sport  of  him,  and  following  up  mockery 
with  blows,  cast  him  into  a  ditch  full  of  snow.  Extricating 
himself  from  the  ditch  Francis  at  once  goes  on  serenely 
with  his  singing,  taking  up  the  hymn  to  God  at  the  point 
where  it  was  interrupted  by  the  encounter.  He  wanders 
about  for  days  clad  in  his  shirt  alone,  and  from  the  rather 
meagre  hospitality  of  certain  monks  obtains  shelter  for  a 
short  time,  and  a  scanty  diet  of  broth  as  a  servitor^  in 
the  monastery  kitchen.  In  the  little  picture  one  discerns 
suggested  in  foreshortening,  an  instance  of  the  avarice 
which  prevailed  in  the  cloisters  of  the  day  :  the  kitchen 
is  always  the  humblest  place,  even  in  a  monastery.'* 

But  there  is  far  more  than  that.  Francis  is  mocked 
by  the  robbers,  as  was  Jesus  by  the  two  that  were  cru- 
cified with  him,''  one  of  whom  however,  recognising  his 
Redeemer,  was  subsequently  converted  and  saved.  ^ 

Even  so  Saint  Martin  stands  up  undaunted  before  the 
robber  who  threatens  him  with  an  uplifted  axe,   troubled 

1  I  Vita    16. 

2  Greg.  M.  Moral.  XXII  in  c.  31  Job,  n.  53  :  Quid  ad  haec  nes  pastores 
dicimus,  qui  adventum  districti  judicis  praecurrentes,  officium  quidem  praeconis 
suscipimus  . . .  ? 

3  Qarcio,  in  the  sense  of  waiter  or  servitor  cfr.  the  '  ragazzo '  of  Dante,  Inf. 
XXIX.  77. 

4  Fior.  ed.  Cesari  Verona  (1822)  No.  12  ;  Actus  B.  Francisci  (ed.  Sabatier) 
No.  12  &  Vita  fr.  Mass.  in  Anadeta  franc.  Ill,  115-6;  cfr.  Migne.  XVIII, 
949,  951,  984.      For  the  avarice  of  the  Frati :   Caes.   IV,  68,   72. 

5  Math.  XXVII,  44;  Marc.  XV.  27. 

6  Luc.  XXIII,  32,  39-45. 


CHAPTER   II 


71 


only  by  the  thought  of  the  damnation  of  the  latro,  who 
is  very  speedily  converted. '  And  a  similar  incident  occurs 
in  the  Life  of  Saint  Hilarion,  written  by  Saint  Jerome, 
and  in  other  chapters  of  the  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers "/ 
Hermits  are  invariably  successful  in  evoking  remorse  from 
the  hearts  of  robbers,  who  then  become  (we  need  hardly 
say  it!)  perfect  "Frati".  Saint  Martin,  again,  is  beaten 
till  his  blood  flows  by  the  officials  of  the  treasury,  who 
may  well  be  compared  to  brigands  :  he  offers  his  back  to 
their  scourges,  and  finally  falls  to  the  ground  as  one  dead.  ^ 
The  idea  which  emerges  out  of  the  legend  is  that  meekness 
is  the  speediest  way  to  change  the  life  of  reprobates.  '^ 
In  the  narrative  of  Gregory  I  we  are  shewn  the  picture 
of  Isaac  the  servant  of  God  who  when  robbers  assail  his 
poor  little  garden,  offers  to  give  them  with  his  own  hands 
all  that  they  want,  thus  demonstrating  the  harm  and  use- 
lessness  of  evil-doing  ^ ;  while  the  monk  Libertinus  when 
his  ass  is  stolen  hands  over  the  whip  also  to  the  thieves, 
that  they  may  have  qualiter  hoc  iumentum  minare.^ 

From  the  mere  sketch  of  the  robber  incident  in  the 
First  Life  the  later  Franciscan  legend,  enriched  with  learned 
and  more  striking  reminiscences,  draws  out  finally  the  story 

1  Sulp.  Sev.  V.  Mart.  c.  5;  CV.    116. 

2  V.  S.  Hilar,  c.  12  (Op.  Ver.  1735  II,  17.  18).  Migne,  LXXIII.  934. 
?74.  Macarius  helps  the  robber  ad  carricandum  the  things  he  has  stolen  ;  another 
taint  runs  and  fetches  for  the  thief  a  sack  that  has  been  overlooked  ;  ib.  793. 
Cfr,   Venant.   Fortun.    in  MG.  SS.  antiquiss.   IV.  2;  59  (Vita  S.  Amant.). 

3  Sulp.   Sever.  Dial.   I  (II,   3);  CV.    183. 

4  Migne.  XXI,  415.  416.  421. 

5  Dial.  Ill,  1 4  :  Nolite  malum  facere,  sed  quoties  de  horto  aliquid  vultis,  ad 
borti  aditum  venite.  tranquille  petite,  cum  benedictione  percipite,  et  a  furti  pravi- 
Mte  cessate.  Quos  statim,  collectis  oleribus,  onustari  fecit.  -  No  one  can  deny 
to  the  story  that  "  Franciscan  savour "  which  has  so  often  led  astray  those  who 
io  not  look  beyond  the  Saint  of  Assisi — or  rather  beyond  those  who  have  been 
pleased  to  honour  him  with  these  miracles. 

6  Dial.  I.  2. 


11       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

which  we  read  in  the  Speculum  Perfectionis,  '  in  the 
Actus  ^.  Francisci  et  Sociorum  eius  ^  and  in  the  Fioretti.^ 
As  it  stands  (except  for  the  vision  of  the  converted  robber, 
which  comes  from  other  sources)'*  the  charming  page  which 
has  been  called  by  Sabatier  a  commentary  on  the  seventh 
chapter  of  the  Old  Rule,  repeated  in  poetical  language 
in  the  fascinating  story  of  the  Wolf  of  Gubbio,  ^  is  due 
not  to  the  pen  of  Bro.  Leo,  but  to  that  of  Jacques  de 
Vitry.  ^  Sabatier  is  mistaken  as  regards  the  moral  inter- 
pretation of  the  narrative.  It  is  not  a  question  merely  of 
giving  a  practical  example  of  the  Rule  :  **  Quicumque  ad 
eos  venerint,  amicus  Vel  adversarius,  FUR  vel  LATRO,  be- 
nigne  rtcipiatur" ,  but  rather  an  attempt  to  prove  that  the 
conversion  of  sinners  is  effected  more  easily  by  gentleness 
than  by  severity.  The  head-line  in  the  chapter  of  the 
Speculum  is  most  exact.  When  we  compare  the  words 
of  Jacques  de  Vitry  with  the  two  Franciscan  narratives, 
we  are  forced  to  admit  that  the  figure  of  the  abbot  who 
boldly  faces  the  wicked  robber  is  much  more  vivid  and 
striking  than  that  of  Francis  ;  while  the  variants  of  the 
Actus  and  the  Speculum  taken  together   demonstrate    in- 

1  Ed.  Sabatier,  (1898)  126  No.  66. 

2  Ed.  Sahalier.   (1902)  97  No.   29. 

3  Ed.   Cesari,   No.  26. 

4  The  bridge  under  which  flows  the  infernal  river  is  in  the  vision  of  the 
soldier  :  Greg.  M.  Dial.  IV,  36  ;  The  v«ngs  sprouting  on  the  Frate  's  shoulders 
are  recorded  in  the  vision  of  the  hermit  John  :  Migne,  LXXIII,  983  (V,  1 7)  : 
Et  facta  est  vox  ad  eos  ex  alia  parte  litoris,  dicens  :  accipite  alas  igneas  et  venite 
ad  me.  Et  duo  quidem  ex  eis  acceperunt  alas  et  volaverunt  ad  aliud  litus,  unde 
facta  est  vox.  Tertius  vero  remansit  et  flebat  et  clamabat  fortiter.  Postea  vero 
datae  sunt  sibi  alae  sad  non  igneae,  sed  infirmae,  et  debiles,  etc.  For  the  visio 
Pauli,   read  the  note  in  Novati,   Altraverso  il  medio  evo,    1 905  ;  98-99. 

5  This  story  as  we  shall  see  in  the  Appendix  No.  Ill  has  another— which 
is  the  primary — signification. 

<^  Exempl.  (ed.  Crane)  No.  68  (29-30)  ;  For  the  further  diffusion  of  the 
legend,  see  the  notes  of  Crane,    164-5,  which  are  not,  however,  always  complete. 


CHAPTER   II  73 

disputably  the  derivation  of  these  two  from  the  "Example" 
of  the  French  prelate. ' 

From  the  robbers  Thomas  passes  on  to  lepers.  The 
loving  Saint,  pattern  of  humility,  sets  himself  to  minister  to 
these  poor  sufferers  and  to  wash  their  sores  with  every 
token  of  pity.  And  he  makes  mention  of  them  also  in 
his  Testament.  ^ 

These  unfortunates  have  left  in  the  memorials  of  the 
time  more  than  one  trace  of  their  incomparable  wretched- 
ness. On  the  one  hand  there  is  the  pitiless  harshness  of 
the  human — or  rather  inhuman — laws  ^ ;  on  the  other,  a 
compassion  that  lifts  itself  up  to  sublime  heights  in  a  triumph 
of  sympathetic  service.  Jesus,  who  is  Sorrow  personified, 
transforms  himself  into  the  victim  of  this  horrible  malady ; 
whoso  ministers  to  the  leper,  ministers  to  Christ "" ;  and 
whosoever  would  walk  in  the  path  of  sainthood,  will  find 
in  the  leper's  company  his  safest  guide. 

Amid  the  general  shuddering.  Saint  Martin  kisses  and 
blesses  a  leper  whose  face  is  horribly  eaten  away.  ^  If 
the  vile  world  flies  from  infection,^  charity  defies  it. 

•  Exempl.  No.  68.  In  the  Appendix  are  reprinted  the  three  narratives  ac- 
cordings  to  the  text  of  Jacques  de  Vitry,  of  the  Actus  and  of  the  Speculum. 

2  1  Vita  17,  103. 

3  Lev.  XIII.  44  :  Edict,  regis  Roth.  c.  1  76  ;  Capitol,  a.  789  etc.  'Perlile, 
Storia  del  dir.  it.,  II  Ediz.  Ill,  259. 

For  the  period  of  the  Communes  two  representative  references  v^ill  suffice :  the 
ancient  statutes  of  Padua  (ed.  Gloria,  No.  479),  and  those  of  Pisa  (ed.  Bonaini, 
I  37).  Even  the  church  gives  lepers  a  wide  berth  :  Stat.  a.  1 204,  in  Martene 
et  Durand.   Nov.  Thes.   IV,    12.99.     Cone.  Lat.    Ill:  Mansi.   XXII,  330c.  23. 

4  Caes.  VIII,  29  seqq.  {Strange  II,  104  seqq.).  Jacques  de  "Oitr^,  Exem- 
pla   No.  94.  95.      Vita  S.   Bern.  Clar.   II,   5.   3. 

5  Sulp.   Set).   Vita  Mart.   c.    18;  CV.    127. 

6  They  themselves  constitute  the  persona  juridica  of  the  asylums  which  take 
them  in:  cfr..  e.  g.,  Mittarelli,  Ann.  Camald.  IV.  167  No.  98  a.  11 88 icon- 
cession  of  lands  vobis  -  vestrisque  successoribus  lepre  morbo  laborantibus.  This 
is  a  fact,  rather  than  a  juridical  conception.      Gierke,     Das    deutsche    Genossen- 

*  schaftsrecht.  111,    168  seqq. 


74       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

The  heroes  of  pity  bring  the  sole  ray  of  love  to  these 
poor  sufferers.  Saint  Francis  must  not  absent  himself  from 
that  banquet  of  grace.  Jesus  also  meets  and  heals  the 
leper,  and  the  water  of  Jordan  itself  washes  away  sin  and 
infirmity ' — that  sickness  of  the  soul  of  which  leprosy  is 
a  figure.  ^ 

In  the  Franciscan  Legend,  as  may  be  easily  imagined, 
the  figure  of  the  leper  is  drawn  with  powerful  touches  ^ ; 
but  in  other  narratives  the  spectacle  of  pity  for  those  suf- 
ferers had  already  been  painted  in  still  stronger  colours. 
A  French  bishop  is  pulled  up  on  a  journey  by  a  leper 
who  pleads  for  pity.  The  holy  prelate  leaps  from  his 
horse  and  gives  the  poor  creature  an  alms.  But  the  leper, 
whose  malady  had  deprived  him  of  even  the  appearance 
of  a  man,  refuses  the  alms,  as  too  common  a  gift,  and 
displaying  carunculam  de  narihus  pendentem,  magni  hor- 
roris  atque  foetoris,  requests  the  bishop^and  not  in  vain — 
nihil  aliud  praeter  linctionem  linguae  tuae.  The  leper 
was  Jesus.  '^  In  the  Actus  and  the  Fioretti  pity  has  already 
assumed  the  proportions  of  a  miracle.^     The  leper  desires 

1  Greg.  Tur.  In  gloria  martyrum  c.  18;  MG.  Hist.  SS.  merov.  1,  499. 
Vila  S.   Radeg.  ib.  Auct.  antiquiss.   IV,  2  ;    Venant.   Foriun.   43. 

2  Heresy  and  sin  :  Qreg.  M.  Moral.  Ill  in  c.  4  Job ;  No.  58  ;  Beda,  in 
Migne,  XClll,  390-1  (Spuria);  Jacq.  de  "Oitry,  No.  259  :  leprosis  id  est  demo- 
nibus.     S.  P.   Dam.  Op.   1,  32;  Sermo   14. 

3  I^  do  not  find  quite  clear  on  this  subject,  the  words  of  Boumel,  St.  Fran- 
cois. Etude  sociale  et  m^dicale  1893,  67  seqq.  Le  rencontre  d' un  lepreux, 
aux  environs  d' Assise,  fut  V  hegire  du  fils  de  Bernardone  et  de  Pica,  le  mo- 
ment oil  sa  destinee  se  noua. 

4  Caes.  Vlll,  29 :  Tanta  humilitas  est  in  Christo,  ut  aliquando  sub  figuris 
infirmorum,  aliquando  quod  amplius  est,  species  leprosorum  assumens,  nobis  appareat. 
The  story  of  the  bishop  is  in  Vlll,  33  (Strange,  11,  105).  In  the  Vitae  Patrum 
(Migne,  LXXUl,  978 :  V,  1  7)  A  Frate  sips  the  purulent  matter  that  flows  from 
the  flesh  of  a  wounded  man  ;  the  same  thing  is  repeated  by  Caesarius,  with  cer- 
tain modifications,  (IV,  6).     And  these  are  not  the  only  passages. 

5  Actus  No.  28  ;  Fioretti  No.  25.  The  humble  Frate  who  washes  the  poor 
is  of  frequent  occurrence :   Caes.  VI,  9.     There  may  be  in  the  narrative  of  the 


CHAPTER   11  75 

to  be  cured  by  the  Saint  alone,  and  from  the  Saint  he 
is  to  obtain  healing  both  of  body  and  of  soul.  But  the 
origin  of  Thomas'   narrative  is  both  plain  and  clear. 

Our  biographer,  apparently  forgetful  of  what  he  said 
before,  goes  on  to  relate  that  Francis,  as  soon  as  he  was 
freed  from  the  power  of  his  father,  gave  his  immediate 
attention  to  his  first  work,  viz  :  the  restoration  of  the  an- 
cient church  of  God.  He  was  not  called  to  dig  up  its 
foundations,  but  to  rebuild  the  fabric  upon  them.  '  Igno- 
rant though  he  was'  he  knew  well  that  it  was  the  pre- 
rogative of  Christ  himself  to  build  the  new  church.  In 
the  restoration  of  the  church  of  Saint  Damian  is  symbol- 
ised the  orthodox  spirit  of  the  Saint's  mission ' ;  but  the 
biographer's  continual  insistence  on  the  theme  demonstrates 
that  he  realised  the  possibility  of  another  interpretation^of 
Franciscan  thought  in  the  catholic  world.  In  this  same 
chapter  is  recorded  the  institution  of  the  Order  of  Clarisse, 
that  is  "Poor  Women"  :^  and  since  the  male  Rule  is 
the  type  on  which  the  female  is  modelled,  we  may  remark 
in  passing — without  repeating  the  studies  of  Karl  Miiller 
on  the  primitive  Rules  of  the  Order  ^ — ^that  the  name 
"  Poor  '   as  applied  to  these  women  presupposes  the  exis- 

Fioretti  a  reminiscence  of  Hist.  Lausiaca  c.  26  {Migne,  LXXIII,  1  123-5),  where 
Eulogius  carries  home  a  poor  mutilated  fellow  whom  no  one  is  willing  to  succour. 
By  way  of  shewing  his  thanks  the  victim  becomes  unbearable,  being  victim  of 
diabolical  possession.     Saint  Anthony  cures  him. 

Sabatier  would  bid  us  compare  in  the  Franciscan  Legend,  the  commentary 
on  chap.  X  of  the  Rule,  exhorting  the  sick  to  shew  patience. 

1  1  Vita  d8. 

2  I  regard  Celano's  authorship  of  the  Life  of  St.  Clare  as  doubtful.  (Acta 
SS.  Aug.  T.  II,  754  seqq).  Golz,  240  seqq.  ;  But  with  this  point  we  shall  deal 
later  on. 

3  Anfange,  14  seqq.  184  seqq.  Sabatier,  Vie,  114,  133;  Giitz,  41  and 
passim.  For  the  name  "  Clarissae  "  :  Regesti  dei  card.  Ugolino  d'  Ostia  e  Ot- 
taviano  d.  Ubald.  (1890)  153-4  No.  125  a.  12;  e  Lempp,  in  Zeitschr.  f.  Kir- 
chengesch.  Xlll    1902.   181   seqq. 


76       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

tence  of  an  Order  of  brethren  similarly  denominated. 
The  "  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  "  and  their  connexion  with  the 
heretical  movement  come  immediately  into  one's  mind. 

And  now  Francis  appears  in  his  true  light.  The  simple 
man  who,  according  to  his  biographer,  must  seek  an  expla- 
nation of  the  principles  of  the  evangelical  life  from  a  priest 
(who,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  probably  followed  the  comfortable 
precepts  of  the  class  to  which  he  belonged)  reveals  himself 
in  his  true  greatness.  It  is  his  word,  living,  hot,  persuasive, 
that  moves  hearts  and  shakes  the  corrupt  Church.  It  is  the 
eloquence  of  Christianity,  inspired  by  a  feeling  of  tenderness 
and  pity  that  comes  direct  from  Jesus. '  The  official  Church 
had  in  its  bosom  bishops  who,  in  life  and  death,  made  a 
mock  of  the  means  of  grace  granted  by  Christ  to  his  believ- 
ers. ^  The  poor  sinner  approached  the  confessional  armed 
with  a  knife,  intending  to  kill  herself  if  an  impure  confessor 
should  constrain  her  to  sin  as  was  the  custom  of  the  priests.^ 

What  had  such  priests  to   suggest  to  Francis  ? 

For  his  eulogy  of  the  Saint '^ — pure,  crystal  spring  that 
falls  swiftly  from  alpine  summit  to  flowery  meads— Thomas 
has  recourse  to  the  store-house  of  his  excellent  memory. 
True,  he  is  not  invariably  happy  in  the  choice  of  his 
phrases  ;  but  rhetoric  does  not  prevent  us  from  getting  at 
the  truth.  ^     The  eloquence  of  Francis,   irresistible    in    its 

1  I  Vita,  23,  36,  56,  62,  72,  73.  74,  75,  83,  97. 

2  Salimbene,  30,  289  ;  William,  bishop  of  Reggio :  Male  ordinavit  facta 
animae  suae  . .  .  pauperibus  clausit  viscera  pietatis. 

3  Salimbene,   212. 

4  Enthusiastic  testimony  to  Francis'  eloquence  is  to  be  found  in  the  following 
writers:  Thomae,  archidiac.  Spal.  MG.  SS.  XIX,  560:  Sigonii,  Op.  Ill  (Mediol. 
1  732)  432.  Jacques  de  Vitry,  in  Sabatier,  Spec.  Perfect.  30.  Tb.  a  Cel.  II 
Vila,  111,  50  R.  59.  Felder,  43  seqq.  The  Friars  used  to  hold  up  to  ridicule 
the  old-fashioned  type  of  preacher  :  Salimbene,    35 1 . 

5  G)mpare  the  following:  I  Vita  23  and  Greg.  M.  Moral.  XXX  in  c.  Job; 
n.   6  ;  in  Ezech.  Horn.    1.   3  No.   5  ;  5.   Bern.   Sermo  29  ;  Op.  11,  686  ;  5.  P. 


CHAPTER   II  11 

sweetness,  innocent  of  scholastic  rules,  is  the  primary  cause 
of  his  success.  But  we  know  where  that  eloquence  came 
from.  The  Legend  magnifies  still  more  ardently  the  Saint's 
gift  of  speech.  What  we  read  in  the  Actus  and  the 
Fioretli  concerning  the  miracle  of  Rieti  is  a  graceful  ex- 
pansion of  two  older  stories.  At  Rieti  the  covetous  priest 
complains  that  his  vineyard  has  been  wasted  and  despoiled 
by  the  crowd  that  flocks  to  hear  Francis'  preaching ;  and 
by  a  miracle  he  makes  more  wine  than  ever  before  with 
the  few  grapes  that  are  left.  One  part  of  the  narrative 
is  taken  from  the  Dialogues  of  Gregory  the  Great ;  another 
was  perhaps  inspired  by  the  legend  of  the  "  Lives  of  the 
Fathers",  where  from  the  tongue  of  Ephrem  springs  a 
vine,  and  all  the  birds  of  the  air  eat  of  its  fruit. '  Tho- 
mas, however,  mindful  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  is 
very  cautious.  Most  prudent  of  biographers,  he  notes  that 
when  the  Saint  preached  he  was  duly  provided  with  the 
apostolic  permission  :  and  that,  not  content  with  proclaiming 
peace  among  angry  folk  who  knew  not  concord,  ^  he  took 
pains  also  to  confute  the  errors  of  "  heretical  depravity ".  "^ 

Damiani,  V.  Rom.  c.  23.  Op.  11,  221.  But  Thomas  is  not  to  be  forgiven 
for  having  repeated  as  an  eulogy  of  the  Saint  (1  Vita  97)  the  words  of  the  De 
Vitis  Patrum  (Migne,  LXXlll  995)  :  ut  putaretur  omne  corpus  ipsius  lingua  esse, 
which  refer  in  the  original  to  a  chatterbox  !  1  Vita  56  :  terram-verbi  vomere  scin- 
dens,  is  identical  with   Creg.   M.   XXll,  in  c.  3 1    Job  ;   n.   51. 

1  Actus  No.  21  ;  Fioretti  No.  19.  Dial.  I,  9:  there,  however,  the  vine- 
yard is  ruined  by  hail.  Here  is  an  example  :  E  il  prete  raccoglie  quelli  colali 
racimoli  e  melteli  nel  lino,  e  pigia.  Dial.  cit.  Tunc  oir  "Dei  vineam  ingressus, 
racemos  collegit  ad  calcatorium  detulit  -  et  calcare  ipsos  rarissimos  fecit.  Actus : 
ilia  pauca  grana  uoarum  recolligens  et  in  consueto  torculari  reponens  -  viginti 
salmas  vini  optimi  -  recollegit.  Vita  Ephr.  c.  1  ;  Migne,  LXXlll,  980  (V,  1 7 
No.  6).  Cfr.  Greg.  M.  in  Ezech.  Hom.  1,  6,  No.  4  :  Aliter  namque  olet  flos 
uvae,  quia  magna  est  virtus  et  opinio  praedicatorum,  quae  debriant  mentes  au- 
dientium. 

2  Sutter,  Johann,  v.  Vicenza,  und  die  ital.  Fridensbewegung,  im  Jahre  1 233 
(1891).    1    seqq. 

3  1  Vita  36,  72,  75. 


78       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

Did  he  7  It  is  true  that  the  confutation  and  persecution 
of  heretics  was  entrusted  to  the  Franciscans  when  the 
Order  had  attained  a  certain  degree  of  culture  ;  but  ori- 
ginally they  had  rather  shunned  and  avoided  learning. ' 
We  know  that  the  only  people  competent  to  enter  into 
discussion  with  the  heretics  were  the  "preachers"  or 
"lecturers"  as  we  should  call  them  today,  endowed  with 
wide  and  solid  theological  learning.  ^  The  Man  of  Assisi 
described  by  Thomas  again  and  again  as  "simple  and  ig- 
norant" would  have  found  a  serious  obstacle  to  his  natural 
eloquence  in  the  snares  of  theological  subtleties.  Francis, 
without  knowing  it,  was  in  agreement  with  Saint  Augustine 
in  the  belief  that  all  human  knowledge  is  summed  up  in 
the  single  precept  of  love.  ^  If,  as  the  facts  make  certain, 
the  Saint's  oratorical  fire  was  kindled  and  kept  burning  by 
more  than  one  breath  of  heretical  tendency  ;  surely  the 
man  who  had  thus  shorn  heterodox  zeal  of  its  combative 
asperity,  would  not  be  the  one  to  wrest  the  simple  Gospel 
word  to  polemical  purposes,  turning  it  against  the  humble 
on  behalf  of  orthodoxy  and  the  primacy  of  Rome  ? 

Thomas  proceeds  with  his  narrative ;  and  now  the  legend 
of  Francis  approximates  still  more  closely  to  that  of  Jesus. 
Simple  spirits  come  to  the  Saint,  and,  after  Bernard,  that 
candid  Giles  who  is  to  live  again  in  the  piquant  memories 
of  Bro.  Leo,  and  the  rest,  up  to  the  number  of  eight. 
Then  the  Socii  are  sent  forth  two  by  two,  after  the  Go- 
spel rule,  to  spread  the  divine  word  throughout  the  world.'* 
The  first  waves  of  the  great  tide  of  the   converted,    rich 

'  Vita  B.  Aegidii,  in  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  232  :  Cur  vis  ire  ad  scholas  ? 
Summa  totius  scientiae  est  timere  et  amare  Deum. 

2  Jacques  de   Vitry,   Exetnpla  No.   26;  Chartli.    Paris.  1  No.  25;  a.  1217. 

3  Ep.  CXXXVll.  5.  8  (Op.  ed.  Venet.  1 729  ;  11.  409). 

4  1  Vita  29-31. 


CHAPTER   II  79 

and  poor,  learned  and  ignorant,  have   reached    the    quiet 
refuge  of  Assisi. ' 

Like  those  who  preceded  him  in  the  preaching  of  peace 
and  love  and  in  his  popular  successes,  ^  Francis  had  no 
intention  of  tying  up  in  the  wretched  bonds  of  an  Order 
that  movement  which  was  designed  to  spread  over  the 
whole  world.  ^  His  "  plantatio"  grows  luxuriantly  in  the 
sunshine  ;  it  is  no  hot-house  plant.  The  Rules  which 
slightly  precede  his  or  are  contemporaneous  with  it — with 
the  exception  of  that  which  is  extracted  from  the  recan- 
tation of  Durand  and  Bernard — exhibit  the  persistence  of 
the  unenviable  characteristics  of  monasticism  :  moral  per- 
fection is  associated  with  fastings,  watchings  and  cruel 
scourgings  which  take  the  place  of  a  martyrdom  not  always 
accessible  to  the  devotee.  ^  But  this  Rule  is  written  by 
Jesus,  and  Jesus  imposes  it  on  all  nations.  ^  Now  and 
again,  in  passages  which  seem  like  flames  escaping  from 
beneath  a  heap  of  ashes,  the  poor  man  of  Assisi  appears 
in  his  true  light — as  he  really  is.  He  pulls  down  the 
great  house  erected  for  the  Brethren  who  assemble  for  the 


1  1  Vita  31,  37,  56.  57,  62. 

2  Math.  Paris,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  SS.  XXVIU,  115  a.  1197.  The 
tone  of  the  discourses,  in  no  way  different  from  that  of  modern  socialist  oratory, 
recurs  also  in  Jacques  dt  "Oilry  (No.  136-137)  Rog.  Bacon.  MG.  cit.  573: 
Math.  P.  ib.  431.  In  Italy  Omobono  of  Cremona,  who  was  canonised  in  1  199, 
had  preached  super  pace  reformanda .  Inn.  Ill  in  Bull.  Taur.  HI,  139  No.  18. 
ELarlier  examples  in  Germany :  Gerhard.  Vita  s.  Ouldarici :  Mon.  Germ.  Hist. 
SS.  IV,  396.  On  Tomaso  Cantiprantano  :  Frauenstddt,  Blutrache  und  Todsch- 
lagsuhne  im  Deutsch. ,  Mittelalt.    1 86 1 ,    11-21. 

3  Renan,  Nouv.  Etudes  d' hist,  relig.  1884;  334;  Reuter,  Gesch.  der  reli- 
giose Auferklarung  im  M.  A.  1877;  U,  185,  188.  Muller,  Anfange  33  seqq. 
Bonghi,   Franc,  d' Assisi   34  etc. 

4  Cfr.  S.  'P.  Dam.  Ep,  VI,  27.  1,  108;  Caes.  1,  22.  Types  of  reformed 
Rules;  Inn.   Ill,   in  Bull.  Taur.   Ill   No.    17,  41,  47,  etc.   a.    1198-1205. 

5  On  the  obligation  of  evangelic  poverty,  see  S  August.  Ep.  CLVll,  4,  24 ; 
Op.  11,  553  ;  But  we  shall  return  to  the  subject  by  another  route. 


80       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

general  chapter  at  Assisi  ; '  and  he  does  not  hide  his 
aversion  for  the  must  famous  of  the  existing  Rules.  ^ 

The  Order  of  the  Cistercians  regarded  the  practice  of 
mendicare  ostiatim  as  degrading  ;  ^  and  the  manual  labour 
imposed  by  the  old  Benedictine  Rule"*  had  given  place 
to  a  habit  of  idleness  rendered  possible  by  the  blessed 
possession  of  wealth.^  The  ideal  of  poverty,  without  which 
nothing  remained  of  Monachism  but  the  name,  lived  on 
exclusively  in  the  old  stories  as  a  vague  memory.  ^'  Strange 
indeed  was  the  contrast  between  the  origins  of  primitive 
monasticism  and  the  actual  conditions  of  the  monasteries 
of  that  age  !  Within  a  few  yards  of  Assisi  itself,  mona- 
sticism, though  already  in  decay,  was  yielding  up  very 
grudgingly  its  sovereign  rights  to  the  Communes. ' 

No  sooner  had  Francis  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
movement,  which  was  only  waiting  for  the  man,  to  shew 
itself  in  all  its  greatness,  than  the  old  ideals  that  had  been 
smothered  up  in  incredible  stories,  seemed  to  revive    and 

1  Tom.  de  Eccl.  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  XXVlll.  562.  Spec.  pert.  c.  6  (16-6); 
11  Vita.  Ill,  3  R.  37. 

2  Spec.  perf.  c.  68. 

3  Stat.  Ord.  Cisterc.  a.  1207,  in  Martene  et  Durand,  Novus  Thes.  IV. 
c.  7.  1732. 

4  Reg.  Benedict!  ed.  Wolfflm  (Teubner  1895):  48,  66.  Casiian.  Inst.  Coe- 
nob.  VI,  3  ;  CV.  49  e  X  ;  1 73  seqq.  De  vitis  Patr.,  Migne,  LXXlll.  924, 
942  cfr.   789  seqq. 

5  When  a  certain  man  craved  to  be  admitted  to  the  cloister,  "  Monachi  vero 
gavisi  sunt,  eo  quod  esset  dives  "(!)  :  Jacques  de  'Oitry,   ELxempla  No.   221. 

6  Migne,  LXXlll,  781  ;  cfr.  ib.  284  V.  Abrahae  c.  3.  Super  terram  nihil 
aliud  p)ossidebat,  excepto  uno  sago,  unaque...  tunica  cilicina.  V.  S.  Pachom.  ib. 
237  c.  II:  continuo  distribuebant  egentibus  atque  iuxta  praeceptum  Domini  -  de 
crastino  minime  cogitarent ;  ib.  890  :  Dixit  abbas  :  Thesaurus  monachi  et  volun- 
taria  paupertas.  -  Greg.  M.  Dial.  1,  9  ;  111,  1 4  :  Monachus  qui  in  terra  posses- 
sionem quaerit,  monachus  non  est.  Sic  quippe  metuebat  f>aup>ertatis  suae  securi- 
tatem  perdere,  sicut  avari  divites  solent  peritura  divitias  custodire.  -  Joannes  Elee- 
mosinarius  calls  the  poor  dominos  el  auxiliatores  :  Migne,  L,XX111,  342.  Cfr. 
1  Vita  39  {Paupertas).     We  shall  find  the  subject  treated  more  fully  in  Secunda  Vita. 

7  Sansi,   Doc.  stor.  inediti  Umbri  (1879):   209  No.   8  ;  a.    1190. 


CHAPTER  II  81 

find  new  life  in  him.  Thomas  of  Celano — and  those  who 
followed  in  his  footsteps — could  find  no  better  medium  for 
describing  the  epic  of  serene  poverty,  than  the  ancient 
legends.  These  legends,  naturally,  were  redolent  of  the 
cloister  ;  and  thus  a  movement  which  took  its  predisposi- 
tions from  heresy  was  cleverly  led  back  to  the  institutions 
of  monasticism,  while  these  latter  were,  by  the  garb  of 
poverty,  rendered  conformable  to  the  tendencies  of  the  age. 
And  even  in  those  days  the  world  was  content  with  ap- 
pearances. 

Meanwhile  the  multitude  of  those  converted  by  the 
word  of  Francis,  and  by  his  success,  increased ;  and  there- 
with increased  the  apprehensions  of  the  Saint.  After  the 
sweet  will  come  the  bitter,  as  he  rightly  divined.  ^  Like 
the  other  forms  of  association  of  the  period,  that  which 
took  shape  around  the  preacher  of  peace  and  of  evangelic 
life,  being  practically  a  little  Commune,  must  needs  have 
its  own  statute  ;  and  this  statute  must  reflect  not  only  the 
ideas  of  the  head,  but  those  of  the  entire  group.  ^  After 
the  same  model  as  the  brevi  and  statutes  of  the  XIIP*^  cen- 
tury, was  written  the  first  Franciscan  Rule. 

Scripsit,  says  Thomas,  sibi  et  fratribus  suis,  habitis  et 
futuris,  simpliciter  et  pauds  verbis  vitae  formam  et  Regu- 
lam,  s.  Evangelii  praecipue  sermonibm  utens,  ad  cuius 
perfectionis  solummodo  inhiabat.  Pauca  tamen  alia  inseruit, 
quae  omnino  ad  conversationis   sanctae    usum    necessario 

imminebant. 

> 

1  I  Vila  28. 

2  Boncompagni,  Rhet.  novissima :  in  Bibl.  iur.  m.  aevi  ed.  Qaudenzi,  T.  II, 
253.  Compare  the  statutes  in  umbra  lunatica ;  Cedrus,  1.  c.  122,  where  is 
mentioned  the  society  de  tabula  rotunda ;  the  name  suggests  the  words  attributed 
by  the  Speculum  c.  62  (143)  to  Saint  Francis:  fratres  met,  milites  tabulae 
rotundae,  a  truly  mock-heroic  phrase  1 

f 


82       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Certain  of  these  words,  and  the  form  of  the  sentence, 
make  it  quite  clear  that  Thomas  had  before  him  the  Dia- 
logues of  Gregory  the  Great,  where  is  narrated  the  origin 
of  the  Rule  of  saint  Benedict.  ^  In  Celano's  thought  the 
reformer  of  Assisi  was  successor  of  the  Patriarch  of  mo- 
nachism.  Here  again  the  preponderating  influence  of  the 
monastic  spirit  betrays  itself  unmistakeably. 

In  a  lay  society  the  statutes  are  written  and  revised  by 
special  lawyers  ;  and,  if  we  except  the  fundamental  idea, 
it  is  more  than  improbable  that  the  Saint  should  have 
written  with  his  own  hand  the  Rule  for  his  brotherhood. 
When  it  became  necessary  to  reform  the  society  and  its 
laws  after  the  grave  disorders  that  ensued  during  the  mis- 
sion of  Francis  to  the  East ;  the  Founder  entrusted  the 
task  of  correcting  the  Rule  to  Caesarius  of  Spires,  who 
embellished  it  with  certain  Gospel  phrases.  ^  We  may  be 
sure  that  the  same  thing  happened  on  the  former  occasion 
— in  order  that  the  Saint  might  follow  the  traditional 
course.  ^  The  continual  revisions,  so  minutely  studied  by  the 
talented  Miiller  are  so  many  certain  indications,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  of  the  profound  commotions  that  agitated 
the  brotherhood  of  Saint  Francis  just  as  the  sister  societies 
of  the  world  were  agitated. 

In  the  legend  of  a  considerably  later  date  one  can  al- 
ways hear  the  echo  of  those  fierce  tempests  that  were 
associated  with  the  change  of  the  Rule,  which,  after  the 

1  Dial.  II,  36 :  Scripsit  Monachorum  Regulam  discretione  praecipuam,  ser- 
mone  luculentam. 

2  Voigi,  I.  c.  522  ;  c.  1 5  (Cfr.  519c.  9).  Among  the  early  socii  there 
was  also  Pietro  Cattani  (Voigt,  520;  Sabatier,  Spec.  70-71  note  2)  iurisperitus. 
We  jurists  are  ubiquitous  I 

3  The  same  thing  happened  to  the  Rule  (Augustinian)  adopted  by  the  Do- 
minicans, which  was  approved  <<■  delibtrationt  communis,  Jord.  in  SS.  Ord. 
Braed.  I,  12-3;  c.  24. 


CHAPTER  II  83 

death  of  Francis,  fell  entirely  into  the  power  of  the  Holy 
See. 

The  Franciscan  Rule,  like  that  of  the  converted  Wal- 
densians  of  Lombardy  who  returned  into  the  bosom  of  the 
Church,  imposed  on  its  subjects  the  following  of  the  evan- 
gelic life  as  laid  down  in  the  four  precepts  of  Christ.  ^ 
Hence  it  was  possible  to  attribute  to  the  Rule  a  divine 
origin  such  as  the  Speculum  perfectionis  expounds  in  its 
first  chapter,  (according  to  Sabatier's  edition),  ^  with  par- 
ticulars drawn  from  the  monastic  legends.  Francis  ascends 
the  mountain  accompanied  by  his  faithful  socii,  and  there, 
Christo  docente  he  writes  down  his  Rule — the  second 
Rule.  Jesus  proclaims  that  there  is  nothing  human  to  be 
found  therein,  and  proscribes  glosses  of  any  kind.  ^  Ap- 
parently the  dislike  of  glossatores  has  ascended  from  earth 
to  heaven  !  "^  It  is  an  angel  who  brings  to  the  new  Moses, 
Pachomius,  the  Tables  of  the  monastic  institutions  ;  ^  but 
to  Francis  Christ  Himself  speaks  without  intermediaries. 
The  angels  have  more  modest  offices  assigned  to  them  in 
the  Franciscan  legend.  One  of  them  propounds  to  Bro. 
Elias  the  problem  of  the  exclusion  of  flesh-meat  from  per- 
mitted foods  ^ — a  point  on  which  Celano  touches  only  inci- 
dentally. "^     The  precept,  found  alike   in    the    earlier    and 

^  Reg.  antica  c.  1 .  On  the  meaning  given  to  these  precepts,  see  Rilter, 
in  Theol.  Litteraturbl.   1877;  21    seqq. 

2  Sabatier,   Spec.    1-5. 

3  This  is  repeated  in  the  so-called  Testament  of  St.  Francis.  Consult :  Hase, 
Franz  von  Assisi  1 36 ;  Renan,  op.  c.  247 ;  Ehrle,  in  Arch,  fiir  Litt.  und  Kir- 
chengesch.  Ill,    751  ;  Gotz.    11-16. 

4  Boncompagni,  Rhet.  noviss.  in  Bibl.  iur.  m.  aevi ;  ed.  Gaudenzi  II :  [Glos- 
satores] convertere  moliuntur  sanguinem  uve  veracissimum  in  amurcam,  et  amurcam 
pro  balsamo  intelligi  persuadent. 

5  Migne.  LXXIII,  236  c.  21,  22. 

6  Actus  No.  3;  Fior.  No,  4. 

7  I  Vita  51. 


84       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

later  forms  of  the  Rule'  is  perhaps  a  curious  indication 
of  a  survival :  suggesting  that  there  remained  a  residuum 
of  that  aversion  which  the  heretics  felt  for  a  kind  of  food 
which  conflicted  wath  their  supreme  principle  of  the  sacred 
inviolability  of  all  living  beings,  and  which  the  new  Fran- 
ciscan society  solemnly  repudiated/ 

But  whatever  may  have  been  the  tendency  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan brotherhood,  there  was  a  certain  irregularity  attaching 
to  its  actual  condition  ;  for  here  was  a  body  composed  by 
no  means  of  ecclesiastics  only,  which  gave  itself  to  prea- 
ching without  the  missio  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority.^ 
And  so  the  growth  of  popular  devotion  to  the  Saint  could 
not  be  a  matter  of  indifference  to  Innocent  III,  especially 
as  the  movement  had  its  centre  in  a  region  over  which 
the  Apostolic  See  claimed  also  a  temporal  dominion.  Such 
zeal  in  sowing  the  Gospel-seeds  was  not  to  be  looked  for 
from  the  orthodox,  still  less  from  ecclesiastics  :  hence  the 
agitation  was  suspected.  When  Thomas  reaches  the  historic 
moment  of  the  'mission'  of  Francis  he  is  obviously  in  a 
very  great  hurry.  He  carrie  sus  off  at  once  to  Rome,  where 
we  meet,  in  the  Curia,  the  bishop  of  Assisi  (who  is  an- 
xious lest  the  company  should  abandon  his  diocese)  and 
Cardinal  Colonna.  ^     In  the  Second    Life,  where    Celano 

1  R«^.  ant.  c.  3  Reg.  1123  c.  3,  9.  14.  (Luc.  X,  8). 

2  For  the  Manichean  Cathari  the  prohibition  is  derived  from  the  signaculum 
oris.  Cfr.  Muratori,  Anecd.  ambros.  112.  Sacconi,  in  Martene  et  Durand, 
Thes  Nov.  V,  1 764 ;  Schdnbach,  in  Sitzungsber.  cit.  CXLVII  9,  63.  The 
reformed  rules  of  the  Camaldolensians  maintain  (for  other  reasons,  as  wdll  be  un- 
derstood) the  prohibition  of  flesh-meat:  Ann.  Camald.  IV  app.  II  No.  14  a.  1207: 
Caro  vero  penitus  denegabitur,  nisi  iusta  causa  permittente. — Still  an  echo  of  the 
discussion  may  have  penetrated  also  into  the  monasteries :  S.  Bern.  Apol.  ad  G. 
Abb.  T.  II,  538  c.    7 :  -  Abraham  gralissime  camibus  angelos  paverit  .  . . 

3  Friedberg-Ruffini.  Tratt.  di  dir.  eccl.  §  50  ;  Hinschius,  IV,  450  seqq. 
Cfr.  Concil.  Lat.  IV.  c.  3 ;  Mami,  XXII,  990.     Muller.  Anfange,  30,  33,  39,  42. 

4  I  Vita  38;  Sabatier.  Vie   108. 


CHAPTER  II  85 

takes  up  again  and  developes  the  narrative  barely  sketched 
in  the  First,  Francis  recites  before  the  Pope  a  little  story 
which  Christ  has  suggested  to  him.  ^  That  woman,  fair 
but  poor,  forsaken  in  the  wilderness  by  the  king  to  whom 
she  sends  her  sons  that  he  may  acknowledge  and  nourish 
them — if  she  has  certain  lineaments  that  take  us  back  to 
the  Epic  of  chivalry,  ^  has  many  other  more  definite  ones 
which  reveal  to  us  who  she  is.  The  king  is  the  Pope; 
the  forsaken  woman  is  Religion ;  the  sons  are  the  followers 
of  Jesus.  Few  of  us  will  believe  that  the  parable  really 
came  from  the  lips  of  Francis,  who  had  no  love  for  eni- 
gmsis;^  but  its  signification  is  decidedly  important. 

Pope  Innocent  III  is  known  as  a  man  of  vigorous  pur- 
poses and  rough  words.  ^  He  does  not  appear  to  have 
received  very  kindly  the  band  conducted  to  his  presence 
by  the  poor  man  of  Assisi.  ^  According  to  Celano,  how- 
ever all  passed  off  in  the  best  possible  way.  At  the  out- 
set Cardinal  Colonna  wished  to  make  Francis  a  hermit, 
in  order  to  remove  him,  of  course,  from  the  atmosphere 
of  popular  triumphs ;  and  only  later  did  he  decide  to 
plead  his  cause  before  the  Pope  who,  praevia  discretione, 
accorded  his  verbal  approbation  to  the  Rule  of  the  "  Poor 
Men  of  Assisi ",  and  dismissed  Francis  in  peace. 


1  II  Vita  I,    11.  R.    17. 

2  Potvin,  Perceval  le  Gallois  (1866-7);  e  Raina,  I  Cantari  di  Carduino  ; 
in  Scelta  di  curiosita  lelterarie  ined.  o  rare.  No.  1 35  (Bol.  1 893)  p.  XVI ; 
XVII  seqq. 

3  I  Vita  prol. 

4  On  the  character  of  Innocent  III,  see  Hmter,  III,  48  ;  Caes.  VI,  29  ;  VII, 
6;  cfr.  the  singular  document  in  Ann.  Camald.  IV  app.  No.   218  (356). 

5  Math.  Paris.  Hist,  maior  ad  a.  1227.  London  1640;  340,  Words  re- 
ligiously transcribed  by  almost  all  Franciscan  historians ;  Thomas  of  course  could 
not  permit  it  to  be  thought  that  his  Order  had  had  a  less  cordial  welcome  from 
the  pope  than  the  Dominicans  received,  SS.  Ord.  Praed.   I.   1 3  ;  Jord.  c.  26. 


86       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Celano's  famous  narrative  concludes  with  the  vision  of 
the  great  tree, '  symbolising  the  majesty  of  Innocent,  which 
bows  itself  down  in  the  Saint's  presence.  But  the  biogra- 
pher's tales  leave  us  wdth  a  number  of  unanswered  questions. 
Was  Francis  summoned  to  Rome  by  demand  of  the  bishop 
of  Assisi  ?  Or  did  he  go  spontaneously,  of  his  own  free- 
will ?  Was  it  a  repetition,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries, 
of  the  case  of  Aequitius  ?  Or  did  bishop  Guido  succeed 
very  adroitly  in  bringing  Francis  over  to  orthodoxy  ?  ^  We 
will  not  attempt  to  answer  the  questions,  because  docu- 
mentary data  are  lacking.  But  there  can  be  no  question 
whatever  of  the  grave  anxiety  that  must  have  been  aroused 
in  the  Curia  by  a  movement  which  was  assuming  enormous 
proportions.  ^  The  effort  to  keep  the  tendencies  of  Fran- 
ciscanism  within  the  limits  marked  out  by  orthodox  tradi- 
tion may  have  manifested  itself  within  that  confused  mass 
of  elements,  good  and  otherwise,  that  grouped  themselves 
round  the  figure  of  Francis.  For  there  were  among  them 
ecclesiastics  who  sought  by  means  of  the  new  fratemitas 
and  by  the  help  of  the  name  of  Francis,  to  recover  in- 
directly that  authority  that  was  often  denied  to  the  clerical 
estate.  Many  of  these — who  would  probably  dislike  a 
fierce  conflict  with  neighbouring  Rome — may  have  pressed 
the  Saint  to  avoid  open  war  with  the  Church.  The  times 
moreover  were  not  so  favourable  to  unlicensed  preaching 

1  The  vision  of  the  tree  which  bows  down  before  St.  Francis  resembles  that 
which  is  recorded  in  the  Hfe  of  S.  Guido  Abbot  of  Pomposa :  Acta  SS.  Mart. 
Ill,  915:  arbor....  inclinavil  se  ad  Guidonis  manum,  for  the  abbot  to  gather 
its  dates. 

2  Dissolvere  colligationes  haereticorum,  per  fidelem  doctrinam,  are  words — and 
deeds — of  Pope  Innocent  Op.  32  ;  Sermo  II,  in  die  cin. 

3  Tocco  in  Arch.  Storico  Italiano,  1903,  331  seqq.  This  anxiety  is  attested 
by  the  last  persecutions  of  those  Minorites  who  refused  to  abjure  the  most  rigid 
Franciscan  ideal. 


CHAPTER   II  87 

as  to  make  a  papal  confirmation  of  the  Society's  statutes 
seem  superfluous. 

But  whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  course  which 
events  took,  Thomas'  narrative  is  marked  by  a  special 
freshness  and  spontaneity,  where  he  describes  the  journey 
from  Rome  towards  the  vale  of  Spoleto  of  a  band  now 
at  last  in  full  accord  with  canonical  regulations. 

Now  begins  a  continuous  succession  of  marvellous  oc- 
currences which,  little  by  little,  will  turn  into  real  miracles. 
The  pious  company  advances  into  desert  places,  but  lo ! . . . 
statim,  divina  gratia  procurante,  occurrit  eis  homo  af- 
ferens  in  manu  panem,  deditque  ipsis  et  abiit.  ^  The  same 
thing  happened  to  the  hermit  Anthony  and  his  companions 
who,  like  those  of  Francis,  saw  in  it  the  hand  of  God.^ 
Henceforth  the  pilgrims  of  Assisi  had  no  lack  of  abundant 
alms;  and  that  which  remained  over  of  what  they  had 
begged  for  the  love  of  God,  they  put  away  in  a  certain 
tomb  "that  had  once  contained  the  bodies  of  dead  men". 
A  sepulchre  had,  in  fact,  become  their  place  of  refuge, 
exactly  as  we  read  of  Macarius  and  other  hermits  who 
slept  "in  a  monument  where  in  ancient  times  had  been 
buried  the  bodies  of  pagans ".  ^  An  excellent  theme  for 
rhetoric,  and  one  which  Celano  was  not  the  man  to  pass 
over,  is  this  idyll  of  the  humble  life — the  joyous  poverty 
of  the  first  Franciscans,  for  whom  in  the  late  winter  days 
of  the  Xlir^  century  was  awaking  the  evangelic  spring- 
time under  the  skies  of  Umbria.  "^     The  brotherhood,  ap- 


1  I  Vita  34  seqq. 

2  Cassian.  Conl.   II,  6 ;  CV.  45.     Eisque  cum  panibus  occurrissent ...  re- 
putans  escam  sibi  divinitus  ministrari. 

3  I  Vita  34  ;  Migne,  LXXIII.  896. 

4  I  Vita  38.     The  phrases :  caili  amplexm,  suaves  affectus,  osculum  sanctum. 


88       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

proved  and  blessed  by  the  Pope  has  already  its  own  name: 
it  is  the  Ordo  Minorum. 

Apparently  even  the  latest  historian  of  Saint  Francis 
puts  a  little  faith  in  Thomas  of  Celano  ;  for  he  relates 
how  the  Saint  was  struck  with  the  passage  in  the  Old 
Rule  :  Omnes  Fratres  in  quibuscumque  locis  fuerint  apud 
aliquos  ad  serviendum,  vel  ad  laborandum,  non  sint  came- 
rarii,  vel  cellarii,  nee  praesint,  in  domibus  eorum,  quibus 
serviunt,  nee  accipiant  aliquod  officium...  SED  SINT  MI- 
NORES,  et  subditi  omnibus,  qui  in  eadem  domo  sunt :  ^  and 
had  said  :  "  Volo  Ordo  fratrum  minorum  fraiemitas  haec 
voeetur ".  ^  But  this  search  for  the  origin  of  the  name 
in  an  accidental  cause — like  the  similar  case  of  the  Do- 
minicans (JPraedieatores)  is  not  altogether  satisfactory. 

The  same  historian  would  also  find  in  the  peace  bet- 
ween the  maiores  and  the  minores  of  Assisi  a  "demo- 
cratic" signification  of  the  name  imposed  on  the  Order.  ^ 
But  if  the  fraternitas  originally  called  itself  "Poor  Men 
of  Assisi ",  and  not  (as  M.  Sabatier  thinks)  "  Viri  poeni- 
tentiales ",  '^  the  change  of  name  which  followed    on    the 

Juice  colloquium,  risus  modestus,  aspectus  iucundus,  oculus  simplex,  lingua  pla- 
cahilis . . .  idem  propositum,  reappear  undoubtedly  in  Dante's  lines  (Par.  XI  76-8)  : 

La  lor  Concordia  e  i  lor  lieti  sembianti 
Amore  e  meraviglia  e  dolce  sguardo 
Faceano  esser  cagion  de'  pensier  santi. 

1  Sabatier,  Vie,   132-4. 

2  I  Vita  38.     The  chapter  quoted  from  the  Old  Rule  is  the  seventh. 

3  Op.  e  I.  c. 

4  Leg.  trium  Sociorum  36 :  Quidam  libenter  eos  audiebant,  alii  e  contrario 
deridebant,  et  a  multis  interrogabantur  unde  erant,  et  de  quo  ordine.  Quibus, 
licet  laboriosum  esset  tot  quaestionibus  respondere,  simpliciter  tamen  confitebantur 
«  quod  erant  viri  poenitentiales  de  cioitate  Assisi  oriundi » ,  non  enim  ordo  eorum 
dicehatur  religio.  Sabatier  has  misunderstood  the  passage.  The  first  Franciscans 
were  not  uttering  the  name  of  their  brotherhood,  but  simply,  to  save  themselves 
from  embarrassment,  auswered  that  they  v»^ere  from  Assisi  and  that  they  v/ere 
living  as  penitents.     Penitents  in  the  Middle  Ages  are  most  common,  and  could 


CHAPTER  II  89 

papal  approbation  of  the  Rule  must  not  be  attributed  to 
an  imitation  of  lay  terminology. 

Francis  and  his  followers  were  now  in  the  bosom  of 
the  Church's  institutions.  Innocent  followed  in  the  steps 
of  his  predecessors  :  to  the  disease  he  applied  its  remedy. 
Were  heretics  preaching  ?  Then  all  the  more  need  that 
the  orthodox  should  preach  also.  The  enemy  must  be 
encountered  with  his  own  weapons.  Abbot  Joachim,  as 
we  all  know,  announces  in  his  prophecies  the  two  Orders 
of  preachers  to  whom  the  world  is  to  owe  its  salvation.  ^ 
But  what  the  celebrated  visionary  saw  with  the  eye  of 
prophecy  was  visible  to  the  ordinary  sight  of  his  contem- 
poraries !  In  the  century  of  heresy  the  Church's  ener- 
gies are  all  directed  against  that  foe,  whom  she  fights 
not  only  with  the  sword,  but  also  with  the  word  of  her 
preachers.  And  the  ignorance  of  the  ecclesiastics  and  their 
incapacity  for  such  a  task  constrained  the  hierarchy  to 
seek  defenders  of  orthodoxy  even  outside  the  ranks  of  the 
clergy  and  of  the  monastic  Orders.  ^ 

be  recognised  at  once  from  their  appearance :  the  socii  gave  themselves  there 
and  then  the  name  which  was  most  appropriate  to  their  condition  at  the  moment. 
I  do  not  insist  on  the  practical  worthlessness  of  the  "  Legend  of  the  Three  com- 
panians  "  as  an  historical  source.  Even  Tarducci  takes  the  same  line  as  Sabatier. 
Tarducci,   Vita  di  s.   Francesco  d'Assisi  (1904)    127-8. 

1  In  Jerem  c.  1 ,  19,  31.  Cfr.  c.  9  ( 1 3 1 )  :  Viatores  sunt  praedicatores  fu- 
turi,  ad  solitudinem  vitae  scil.  spiritualem  divertentes  ;  in  quibus  Spiritus  Domini, 
in  quo  est  libertas,  ac  si  super  aquis  ambulabit . . .  etc.  And  again  in  c.  1  :  Licet 
enim  novus  ordo  praedicatorum  ecclesiae  oriatur  etc.  Cfr.  Greg.  M.  In  prim. 
Reg.  VI,  3  n.  26.  Venit  in  Bethleem  ordo  praedicatorum,  ante  ludaeam  con- 
vertere  studuit ;  see  also  Joachim,  proem,  to  book  above  quoted.  For  the 
appearance  of  the  Minorites  in  the  world:  Ursperg.  Chr.  MG.  SS.  XXIII,  376; 
Math.   Paris.   MG.  SS.  379.     Rog.   de  Wertd.   ib.  42. 

2  The  fourth  Lateran  Council  definitely  regulates  preaching:  c.  10.  Mansi, 
XXII,  998.  Sui  praedicatores  quaestuarii :  Cone.  Paris,  a.  1212  ib.  819  c.  I. 
Cone.  Avenion.  ib.  781  c.  1  a.  1209.  Episcopus  -  cum  expedient  per  alias 
honestas  et  discretas  pjersona  facial  -  praedicari,  cfr.  Deer.  Grat.  C.  XVI,  9,  1 
=  Reg.   Pontif.  I  No.  495.     Hinschius,  1.  c. 


90       SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

These  provisions  were  dictated  by  necessity  ;  but  their 
justification  was  found  in  the  works  of  Gregory  the  Great. 
More  than  once  that  pontiff  makes  mention  of  those  who 
are  "  Ordine  minores ",  that  is,  discipuli,  who  cooperate 
with  the  maiores  (i.  e,  apostoli)  for  the  edification  of  the 
Church  of  God.  Of  these  humble  ones  the  rector  eccle- 
siae  must  not  be  jealous,  nor  must  he  arrogate  to  himself 
the  sole  right  of  preaching,  because  the  pious  priest  ab 
omnibus  vult  adjuvari  quod  agit.  ^  And  what  are  Gre- 
gory's views  as  to  the  preaching  of  the  laity,  the  case  of 
Aequitius  of  Rieti  tells  us  clearly.  It  is  not,  then  (to  say 
the  least),  improbable  that  the  teachings  of  Gregory — 
which  according  to  a  recent  biographer  of  Saint  Dominic 
suggested  also  the  name  of  the  Order  of  Preachers^ — 
laid  their  impress  on  the  institutions  which  were  being 
naturally  evolved  by  the  needs  of  the  age;  and  those 
who  are  familiar  with  the  extraordinary  authority  of  Gre- 


1  Qreg.  M.  In  primum  Reg.  IV,  5  n.  13.  Adiutores  quippe  suos  discipulos 
vocavit,  qui  ordine  minores  erant,  sed  laboris  participes,  obedientiae  humilitate 
Apostolo  subiecti  erant ;  sed  dum  cum  eo  aeterni  regni  gloriam  praedicarent  etc. 
quia  perfecti  discipuli  in  alta  dispositibne  s.  Eccl.  magistronim  suorum  coadiulores 
sunt,  auxilia  quae  possunt,  per  altitudinem  virtutis,  ferunt,  sed  eis,  quos  adiuvant, 
per  humilitatem  serviunt.  (Cfr.  I  Vita  38 :  Et  vere  Minores,  qui  omnibus  subditi 
existentes  etc.  St.  Paul's  words  in  II  Cor.  3,  9  suggested  to  the  Pope  the  phrase : 
Dei  adiutores). 

Moral.  XXII,  in  c.  31  Job,  n.  54:  Agricolae  quippe  huius  terrae  sunt  hi, 
qui  MiNORi  LOCO  positi,  quo  valent  zelo,  quanto  possunt  opere,  ad  eruditionem 
s.  Eccl.  cooperantur.  Quos  videlicet  terrae  huius  agricolas,  h.  e.  non  affligere, 
eorum  laboribus  non  invidere  ;  ne  rector  Ecclesiae,  dum  soli  sibi  ius  praedicationis 
oindicat,  etiam  alii  recte  praedicantibus,  invidia  se  mordente,  contradicat.  Pia 
enim  pastorum  mens,  quia  non  propriam  gloriam,  sed  Auctoris  quaerit,  ad  omnibus 
vult  adiuvari  quod  agit.  Cfr.  Cone.  Lat.  IV,  c.  1 0  cit.  Ut  episcopi  yiros  ido- 
neos  ad  sanctae  praedicationis  officium  salubriter  exequendum  assumant  -  verbo 
aedificent  et  exemplo  -  coadiutores  et  cooperatores  episcopi. 

2  SS.  Ord.  Praed.  Const.  Medic.  Prol.  (I,  25) :  Hunc  Ordinem  Praedica- 
torum  s.  interpretatur  Gregorius  novissimis  dirigendum  temporibus  etc.  Moral. 
XXII  in  c.  31   Job.  n.  53  (?). 


CHAPTER   II  91 

gory's  name  in  the  middle  ages  will  not  find  the  hypothesis 
out  of  place. 

There  was  no  lack  of  learned  ecclesiastics  in  the /ra- 
ternitas  of  Assisi.  After  the  Regula  and  missio  had  been 
approved,  some  Franciscan  theologian  of  the  type  of  Cae- 
sarius  of  Spires  may  have  seen  a  name  invented  on  pur- 
pose for  the  new  brethren  in  Gregory's  Ordo  minorum, 
which  has  no  reference  (be  it  observed)  to  the  well-known 
division  of  the  ecclesiastical  orders  into  maiores  and  minores.^ 

In  the  Second  Life  Thomas  developes  the  theme,  and 
returning  to  the  conceptions  of  Gregory  the  Great  makes 
Francis  say:  "In  adiutorium  clericorum  missi  sumus,  ad 
animarum  salutem,  ut  quod  in  illis  minus  invenitur,  sup- 
pleatur  a  nobis" — words  which  repeat  exactly  Gregory's 
idea.  ^  But  Celano's  imitation  does  not  stop  there :  "Re- 
vere super  constantiae  fundamenium  ",  (he  says  elswhere) 
*' charitatis  nohilis  structura  surrexit,  in  qua  vivi  lapides 
ex  omnibus  mundi  partibus  coacervati,  aedificati  sunt  in 
habitaculum  Spiritus  Sancii".  These  words  correspond 
almost  precisely  with  forms  of  speech  drawn  from  the  wri- 
tings of  Gregory,  and  in  part  inspired  by  the  "Lives  of 
the  Fathers".^ 

1  These  minores  are  not  ecclesiastics  but  laymen :  i.  e.  minores  are  not  the 
"minor  orders"  and  maiores  the  "Greater"  or  "Holy  orders".  In  that  case 
Gregory  uses  the  phrase:  minores  ordirxis  sacerdotes  :  Horn,  in  Ezech.  II,  10 
n.  1 3,  and  so  too  Innocent  III  himself  :  De  sacro  altaris  mysterio  I,  6  :  De  mi' 
noribus  et  maioribus  sacerdotibus. 

2  II  Vita,  III,  84  R.  75.  Cfr.  Speculum  c.  54,  derived,  as  always  from 
the  second  Life.  The  Speculum,  c.  26  sees  in  the  name  Minores  the  revelation 
of  the  Divine  will. 

3  I  Vita  38 ;  St.  'Paul.  Eph.  II,  20-2  :  Superaedificati  super  fundamentum 
Apostolorum  et  Prophetarum,  ipso  summo  angulari  lapide  Christo  Jesu,  in  quo 
omnis  aedificatio  constructa  crescit  in  templum  sanctum  etc.  Cfr.  Qreg.  M.  In 
Ezech.  Hom.  II,  I  :  n.  5,  10;  II,  6  n.  3.  Vita  Front.  Migne.  LXXIII,  438 
prol.  Decrevi  construere  templum  Dei,  ubi  et  nos,  tanquam  lapides  vivi,  aedifice- 
mur  in  domum  spiritualem. 


92       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

The  first  Minorites  afford  the  most  brilliant  example  of 
homage  to  the  Rule  which  imposes  obedience,  poverty, 
and  love  of  labour.  ^  Serene  constancy  in  adversities,  and 
pious  superiority  to  insults — these  form  the  favourite  theme 
of  the  ulterior  elaborations  which  find  their  climax  in  the 
Fioretti.  ^  Already  in  the  description  of  the  golden  age 
of  the  Franciscan  fraternitas  one  detects  a  strain  of  regret 
for  the  decadence  of  the  primitive  practice,  as  rapid  as 
had  been  the  unlooked  for  rise  of  that  burst  of  Christian 
fervour.  ^  The  lovers  of  joyous  Poverty — who  ought,  by 
rights,  to  have  nothing  of  the  old  monasticism  about  them — 
are  represented  as  so  many  hermits,  bent  on  torturing  body 
and  soul  for  the  love  of  God.  They  hang  themselves 
up  with  ropes,  to  escape  the  insidious  assaults  of  slumber 
during  prayer ;  gird  themselves  with  instruments  of  iron  that 
eat  into  the  flesh;  subdue  gluttony  with  severe  fasts,  and 
sensuality  by  means  of  icy  baths,  and  by  rolling  the  naked 
body  among  nettles  and  brambles.  '^  It  is  the  armoury  of 
the  old  asceticism  that  furnishes  the  Franciscans  with  their 
weapons  of  mortification  and  penitence. 

But  is  it  true,  this  narrative  of  Celano  ?  With  the  help 
of  our  sources  it  is  easy  to  demonstrate  that,  in  this  matter 
Thomas  is  copying  literally  from  Gregory  the  Great  and 
others.  ^     But  that  is  not   the    whole    of    the    indictment. 


1  Reg.  ant.  c.   1.  7,  9,   14. 

2  Fior.  N.  8;  Actus  N.  7.  Cfr.  Paul.  I  Cor.  13;  Math.  V,  10  seqq. 
Cfr.  Migne,  LXXIII,  781  :  qui  -  penitus  ab  hominibus  non  honoratur,  desuper 
gloriam  a  Deo  accipiet. 

3  Cfr.  the  same  complaint  in  Migne,  LXXIII,  931  :  Quando  Congregaba- 
mur  initio  ad  invicem,  et  loquebamur  aliquod  quod  utile  esset  animabus  nostris, 
efliciebamus  seorsum  -  et  ascendebamus  in  coelum.  Nunc  autem  -  unus  alterum 
trahimus  in  profundum. 

4  I  Vita  40,  41,  42. 

5  S.   'P.  Dam.   II,  231.     Vitas.  Rom.  Dum  -  pateretur  acediam ;  laqueari- 


CHAPTER  II  93 

In  the  Second  Life  Celano  himself  records  that  Francis 
had  to  impose  a  limit  on  the  extravagances  of  the  peni- 
tents. '  There  he  almost  describes  the  Saint  as  utterly 
unfavourable  to  this  fierce  ascetism  which  in  the  earlier 
biography  is  so  unreservedly  eulogised.  '^ 

Omitting  certain  other  observations  vs^hich  might  well  be 
suggested  by  Celano' s  plagiarisms,  let  us  pass  on,  finally, 
to  one  of  the  most  notable  chapters  in  the  First  Life. 

The  exceedingly  clever  rhetorician,  with  whom  we  are 
now  sufficiently  acquainted,  dissimulates  the  importance  of 
his  real  subject  under  the  modest  title  ''Sancta  simplicitas'\ 
We  shall  soon  see  wherein  this  "holy  simplicity"  consists. 

One  day,  so  runs  the  narrative,  it  so  happened  that  a 
priest  notorious  for  his  shameful  life,  who  (in  spite  of  his 
crimes)  acted  as  confessor  to  the  Brothers  Minor,  said  to 
one  of  them :  "  Take  care  that  you  are  not  a  hypocrite !  " 
The  brother,  struck  by  the  priest's  word,  which  filled  him 
with  distress,  sought  comfort  of  his  brethren,  who  advised 
him  not  to  take  the  judgement  seriously,  knowing  who  that 


bus  cellulae  (uniculos  innectebat,  sicque  ulnis  insertis  psalmodiae  studio  pendulus 
insistebat ;  ib.  239.  Vita  s.  Domin.  Loric.  Circulis  quoque  ferreis  quatuor  - 
quatuor  superaddidit.  Cfr.  Ven.  Fortun.  Vita  s.  Radeg.  MG.  SS.  antiquiss.  IV, 
2  ;  c.  24  (45).  Greg.  M.  Dial.  11,  2  (St.  Benedict) :  Urticarum  at  veprium 
iuxta  densa  succrescere  fruteta  conspiciens,  exutus  indumento,  nudum  se  in  illis 
spinarum  aculeis  et  urticarum  incendiis  proiecit,  ibique  diu  volutatus  toto,  ex  eis 
corpore  vulneratus  exiit.  The  words  in  italics  are  also  in  Celano.  In  like  manner 
Besarion  stands  among  nettles  for  40  nights :  Migne,  LXXIII,  894  ;  and  so  too 
St.  Romuald.  S.  *P.  Dam.  11,217.  Rimedio  dell' acqaa  </«acc/a  ;  Vita  S.  P. 
Dam.  in  Op.  I,  111  ;  Caes.  IV,  102.  Osservanza  del  silenzio  :  Greg.  M.  In 
Ev.  Hom.  I,  7  =  Moral.  VII,  in  c.  7  Job,  n.  58 ;  V,  in  c.  4.  Job,  n.  18  ecc. 
DiscipUna  degli  occhi :  ib.  Moral.  XVI,  in  c.  23  Job,  n.  29  ecc.  Cfr.  I  Vita 
43  pr.  =  Moral.  XXI  in  c.  31  Job,  n.  4  Mors . . .  habitaculum  intrat  mentis ; 
Cel.  mors  intrat  ad  animam.  Obhedienza  :  I  Vita  45.  Veram  obedientiam  etc. 
Greg.  M.   in  prim.  Reg.   II,  c.  4  n.    11.     Vera  namque  obedientia  etc. 

1  II  Vita  I,   15.  R.    19  Nam  cum  circulis,  ferreis  etc. 

2  Spec.  No    27  is  simply  an  amplification  of  the  second  Life. 


94       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

priest  was.  But  Francis  gave  an  entirely  different  answer. 
"  He  who  spake  ",  said  the  Saint,  "  is  a  priest.  Can  such 
an  one  lie?  If,  then,  a  lie  is  impossible,  it  is  necessary 
to  believe  that  what  the  priest  said  is  true ". '  Thus  one 
of  the  many  monastic  anecdotes,  on  conventional  lines,  di- 
rected against  the  shameless  hypocrisy  of  vainglorious  asce- 
tics, ^  is  employed  by  Celano  to  develope  the  point  of 
the  Old  Rule  which  deals  with  the  doctrine  of  the  vali- 
dity of  the  sacraments  when  administered  by  priest  living 
in  sin.  ^  During  the  struggle  of  the  reforms  the  popes 
themselves  had  forbidden  the  faithful  to  hear  the  masses 
of  priests  who  kept  concubines;  and  the  practice  of  the 
orthodox  had  gone  even  further,  thus  favouring  directly 
heretical  tendencies.'^  In  the  XIP^  century,  as  is  clear 
from  the  dialectical  efforts  of  Gratian,  the  grave  danger 
of  this  theory  was  recognised,  and  an  attempt  was  made 
to  shake  off  the  principle  that  the  validity  of  the  sacra- 
ments depended  on  the  merits  of  those  who  administered 


1  I  Vita  46. 

2  5.  P.  Dam.  II,  217.  Vita  S.  Romuald.  c.  27.  Cfr.  Reg.  ant.  c.  7;  Et 
caveant  sibi  quod  non  ostendant  se...  hypocritas,  Caes.  II,  23.  A  Friar  who 
weeps  for  compunction  and  thinks  :  Utinam  videret  aliquis  modo  gratiam  islam  I 
Greg.  M.  Moral.  XI,  in  c.  13  Job,  n.  49;  ib.  VIII,  in  c.  8  Job,  n.  72.  Hy- 
pocrisy, daughter  of  the  fiend  becomes  bride  of  the  Religious :  Jac.  de  Vitry, 
Elxempla  No.  243. 

3  Hinschius,  I,  117  seqq.  IV,  5 1  seqq.  Schonbach,  in  Sitzungsber.  cit. 
CXLVII,  111-5.  Lea  I,  70  seqq.  Cfr.  Deer.  Graf.  D.  XXXII,  5.  6  and  Dicta 
Grat.  ib.  Ill  e  IV  p.  §  5.  Cone.  Rom.  ann.  1059  and  1063.  Jaffe,  Mon. 
Greg.  523-5.  Mansi.  XIX,  897;  Hefele,  Conciliengesch.  IV,  792.  Reg.  Pontif. 
II,  No.  5109. 

4  MG.  Lib.  de  lite  imp.  et  pontif.  Ill,  12,  56.  Ep.  de  sacr  haeret.  e  Ho- 
norii  Aug.,  De  offendicuio.  The  doctrine  is  akin  to  the  theory  of  the  lapsi. 
Cfr.  Vita  Pach  in  Migne.  LXXIII,  245  ;  c.  24.  Qreg.  M.  In  Evang.  Hom. 
I,  7  n.  14:  Sacerdos  enim  non  distat  a  populo,  quando  nullo  merito  vitae  suae 
vulgi  trascendit  actionem.  Instead  of  shepherds,  they  become  wolves.  For  the 
heretical  doctrines,  see :  Lea,  1.  c.  Alan,   in  Migne,  CCX,  383  ecc. 


CHAPTER   II 


95 


them.  ^  Finally,  the  fourth  Lateran  Council  affirmed  as 
orthodox  the  contrary,  the  principle  which  finds  expression 
also  in  the  old  Franciscan  Rule.  ^  But  if  every  doubt 
was  thus  solved  in  the  sphere  of  dogma,  the  popular  con- 
science was  evidently  not  prepared  to  accord  a  welcome 
to  the  orthodox  principle.  It  was  repugnant  that  the  means 
of  grace,  divine  in  their  origin,  should  reach  the  faithful 
defiled,  as  it  were,  by  the  contact  of  impure  hands.  And 
the  moral  sense  refuses  to  be  gagged  even  by  order  of 
popes  and  councils. 

Thomas  of  Celano,  in  full  accord  with  the  Old  Rule,  puts 
the  orthodoxy  of  Francis  outside  the  region  of  discussion  : 
so  the  Saint  of  Assisi  is  made  to  subscribe  his  name  to  the 
sentence  which  condemns  the  contrary  principle,  and  the 
Franciscan  anecdote  takes  its  place  among  related  theologi- 
cal-literary manifestations,  both  contemporary  and  ancient.  ^ 

The  editors  of  Franciscan  matters  in  Quaracchi,  have 
republished  (in  the  third  volume  of  the  Analecta  Fran- 
ciscana)  the  jottings  of  the  so-called  "  Chronicle  of  the 
XXIV  Generals ".  When  they  reach  the  chapter  of  the 
Life  of  Bro.  Aegidius  where  he  is  taxed  with  hypocrisy 
by  a  priest,  they  refer  us  frankly  to  Celano's  little  story, 
as  if  it  dealt  with  the  same  thing.  "^ 


1  Grat.  1.  c.  Cfr.  Deer.  C.  I,  1,  75.  Dicta:  sed  hoc  de  peccalore  tantum 
catholico,  non  heretico,  intelligendum  ;  ib.  77.  Boni  et  mali  sacerdotes  eque  cor- 
pus Christi  conficiunt.  lb.  84  ;  (ed.  Lips.  II,  p.  387  :  These  are  imitations  and 
restatements  of  passages  in  Gregory. 

2  Harnack.  III.  879  seqq.     Cfr.  Deer.  Greg.  IX.  Ill,  2,  7  (Lucius  III). 

3  The  story  of  the  leper  (i.  e.  polluted  priest)  who  draws  pure  water  (sacra- 
mental grace)  in  a  golden  vessel,  passes  from  Vitae  Patrum,  {Migne,  LXXIII,  91  1), 
into  Jacques  de  Vitry's  Sermons,  (Ex.  No.  155),  and  into  Gesta  Romanorum  (ed 
Dick  1 890)  c.  1 2 ;  and  no  doubt  into  various  other  collections.  The  precept  had 
already  been  clearly  expressed  by  Greg.  M.  In  prim.  Reg.  11,  4  n.  12  :  Ut  sciamus, 
quia  maiorum  imperia,  tunc  etiam  veneranda  sunt,  cum  ipsi  laudabilem  non  habent  vitam. 

4  Anal,  franc.  Ill,  79.     Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  233. 


96       SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Aegidius,  then,  carrying  a  load  of  reeds  passes  near  a 
church.  A  priest  cannot  refrain  from  shouting  after  him : 
"Hypocrite"!  Great  is  the  grief  of  the  poor  brother, 
and  the  word  allows  him  no  peace,  until  unus  f rater  who 
finds  him  weeping  consoles  him  with  the  weighty  words : 
"  Frater,  ^  sententiae  hominum  qui  errare  possunt  frequenter 
Dei  sententiis  sunt  difformes".  Here  we  are  in  full-blown 
heresy  !  The  inconsistency  between  the  principle  expound- 
ed by  Thomas  and  attributed  by  him  to  Francis,  and 
that  of  the  frater  who  consoles  Aegidius  is  quite  hopeless. 
Who  was  this  "  unus  frater  "  ?  Francis  is  in  the  first  days 
of  the  Order,  called  "frater"  antonomastically. "  And 
without  assigning  too  great  a  value  to  the  Life  of  Aegi- 
dius in  the  form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us,  ^  one 


1  Reading  frater,  not  paler  with  the  printed  text. 

2  Voigl,  1.  c.  c.  524  c.  17.  Per  excellentiam,  a  fratribus  fn  frater »  dice- 
batur. 

3  The  Life  of  Bro.  Aegidius  itself  offers  a  magnificent  field  for  investigation. 
The  text  we  posses  has  been  profoundly  modified  by  the  '  spirituales ',  and  this 
is  the  reason — not  far  to  seek — of  its  points  of  contact  with  the  Speculum. 
Thomas  of  Celano  (I.  Vila  25)  speaks  of  Aegidius  as  though  he  were  already 
dead :  "  Sanctae  contemplationis  nobis  exempla  reliquit  ".  As  for  the  theory  of 
interpolations,  I  have  not  much  faith  in  it.  Would  Aegidius  then  be  dead  before 
1230  ?  The  generally  admitted  date  for  the  commencement  of  the  Fioretti  (1262), 
is  probably  that  of  the  MS  cited  by  Sabatier  (Spec.  p.  CLXXV) ;  a  MS  which 
in  its  final  phrases  coincides  remarkably  with  the  words  of  Salimbene  about  his 
burial  at  Perugia  and  —  "  qui  Perusii  in  archa  saxea  tumuiatus  est .... "  If  so 
Aegidius  could  have  known  nothing  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Order  and  the  fall 
of  Elias,  nor  could  he  have  been  embraced  by  Louis  IX  of  France.  In  the  re- 
daction that  has  come  down  to  us,  the  traces  of  editing  are  certainly  not  wanting  : 
Cfr.  e.  g.,  "  Vere  credendum  est,  inq'uj/ Z.eo,  animam  illam  sanctissimam  praesen- 
sisse  dilectum  etc."  (Acta  SS.  cit.  242  n.  100).  Hence,  as  a  historical  source 
our  text  of  the  'Life'  has  but  a  very  relative  value,  Sabatier  indeed  (Spec.  p. 
XCVI)  says  quite  the  contrary  ;  but  surely  the  first  thing  is  to  fix  the  date  of 
Aegidius'  death.  The  truth  (or  imposture)  hangs  on  a  group  of  four  figures. 
If  the  editors  of  the  'Life*  make  such  an  egregious  mess  in  a  point  of  chrono- 
logy, does  it  not  mean  that  their  own  date  was  for  removed  from  that  of  the 
first  Franciscan  Age :  possibly  in  the  times  of  Ubertino  da  Casale,  during  the  first 
years  of  the  XlV^h  century  ? 


CHAPTER  II  97 

may  be  allowed  to  suspect  that  the  words  are  really  those 
of  Francis;  and  the  tradition  preserved  and  followed  by 
the  zealots  of  the  Order  affords  a  glimpse  of  a  suggestion 
of  heresy  in  the  old  circle  of  Franciscan  ideas.  That  part 
of  the  Old  Rule  (the  successive  transformations  of  which 
I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  with  Miiller)  where  the  subject 
of  the  respect  due  to  priests  is  touched  upon,  is  substan- 
tially at  one  with  the  recantations  of  the  Catalan  and 
Lombard  Waldensians  who  Ccune  over  to  Catholicism. 
There  is  no  need  to  dwell  on  the  fact  that  the  Minorites 
in  their  first  steps  in  the  world  were  taken — in  France, 
for  instance — for  heretics.  ^  Whatever  be  the  origin  of 
the  Life  of  Aegidius,  it  acquires,  when  confronted  with 
the  narrative  of  Celano,  an  importance  that  cannot  be 
neglected. 

The  first  Legend  of  Saint  Francis  (albeit  its  author 
exhibits  now  and  then  a  sceptical  tendency)^  would  not 
have  made  its  own  fortune  nor  have  increased  the  Saint's, 
without  the  miraculous  element.      Miracle  is  essential. 

First  and  foremost  Francis  has  the  divine  gift  of  pro- 
phecy. When  the  Emperor  Otho  comes  to  Rome  to  be 
crowned,  Francis,  more  abstracted  than  Diogenes  himself 
in  the  presence  of  Alexander  of  Macedon,  vouchsafes  not 
a  single  glance  of  curiosity  ;  but  he  predicts  for  the  Em- 
peror a  short  reign,  as  Saint  Romuald  had  predicted  for 


1  Voigt,  1.  517.  Jord.  c.  4  :  Fratres  vero  qui  in  Franciam  venerunl,  inter- 
rogati  si  essent  Ambigenses,  responderunt  quod  (sic  ?),  non  intelligentes  quid  essent 
Ambigenses,  nescientes  tales  esse  hereticos,  et  sic  quia  (quasi  ?)  heredci  sunt  re- 
putati. 

2  I  Vita  70 :  Verum  quia  non  miracula,  quae  sanctitatem  non  faciunt,  sed 
ostendunt  etc,  Cfr.  Greg.  M.  In  Evang.  Horn.  II,  29  ;  No.  4 :  Nam  corporalia 
ilia  miracula  ostendunt  aliquando  sanctitatem,  non  autem  faciunt;  Dial.  I,  12. 
Caes.  VI,  5  ;  a  passage  cited  also  by  Bartolom.  da  S.  Cone.  Ammaestr.  IV,  4. 

g 


98       SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

another,  Otho  and  Saint  Benedict  for  Totila.  ^  His  spirit, 
which  miraculously  visits  those  of  the  Brethren,  ^  penetrates 
into  all  secrets.  ^  Here  Saint  Francis  is  transformed  by 
the  art  of  his  biographer  into  Saint  Benedict/  A  strong 
scent  of  monasticism  is  diffused  through  the  entire  narrative, 
which  collects  together  a  number  of  characteristic  passages 
drawn  from  sources  old  and  recent.  Bro.  Richieri  incar- 
nates the  typical  tempted  novice,  whose  secret  the  abbot 
or  senior  reads  deep  down  in  his  heart,  and  thereupon 
gives  him  sweet  comfort  in  his  chaste  resolves.^  This 
episode,  which  in  the  sequel  branches  out  into  luxuriant 
ramifications,  ^  has  its  roots  in  the  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers  ".  '^ 
Every  act  of  the  Saint  reproduces  a  classical  motif  of  the 
cloister.  Francis  sprinkles  with  ashes  the  poor  scraps  of 
food  which  barely  suffice  to  meet  the  needs  of  his  body; 
he  publicly  accuses  himself  of  having  eaten  fowl's  flesh  like 
a  vulgar  glutton  ;  he  laughs  or  rejoices  at  insult,  which  is 
for  him  the  teacher  of  humility. 


1  I  Vita  43  Cfr.  Greg.  M.   Dial.  II,   15.     5.  P.  Dam.   II,  219. 

2  I  Vita  47. 

3  I  Vita  48. 

4  I  Vila  cit.  O.  quotiens ....  absentium  fratrum  acta  cognovit.  Cfr.  Greg. 
M.   Dial.   II,    13:  Se  cognovit  etiam  absentem  in  B.  patris  oculis  deliquisse. 

In  this  paragraph  Celano  by  the  phrase  «  ad  audiendum  reddidit  (fratres)  be- 
nevolos  et  attentos  »  shews  himself  an  accomplished  rhetorician.  The  formula  is 
typical,  and  occurs  in  Boet.  Top.  Cic.  I  Migne,  LXIV,  1042;  hid.  Etym.  II, 
7.  2. 

5  I  Vita  49. 

6  Actus  No.  31.     Fior.  No.  29. 

7  Migne,  LXXIII,  742.  Disciplinus  cuiusdam  s.  senioris  etc.  Cassian.  Conl. 
II,  1 3  CV.  54 :  Cum  iam  ei  tali  moerore  depressus,  nee  iam  de  remedio  pas- 
sionis  etc.     We  shall  see  later  on  the  evolution  of  these  ideas  in  the  Second  Life. 

8  I  Vita  5 1  :  Admissa  (cibaria) ....  conficiebat  cinere.  Cfr.  S.  P.  Dam. 
V.  Odilonis  II,  1 94  :  Pugillum  cineris  latenter  implevit,  et  apposito  pane,  discubuit. 
Cumque  cinerum  tamquam  panem  manducaret  etc.  I  Vita  52  and  Caes.  X,  6: 
Adiuro  te,  immunde  spiritus,  in  hac  charitate,  qua  pridie,  propter  monachum 
meum,  cames  comedi ;  (An  Abbot  exorcising  in  church).     I  Vita  53:  Per  obe- 


CHAPTER   II  99 

And,  like  Saint  Martin,  he  is  fain  to  die  on  a  bed  of  ashes.  ^ 
To  those  who  take  the  very  simple  line  of  not  even 
discussing  miracles,  it  may  well  seem  strange  that  a  place 
should  be  found  for  them  even  in  a  book  of  historical 
criticism.  But  it  is  worth  which  to  reflect  that  in  the 
choice  of  his  miracles  Thomas  would  have  employed  some 
quite  practical  criteria.  In  miracle,  if  one  may  be  per- 
mitted to  say  so,  there  is  sometimes  more  truth  than  false- 
hood. Now  our  biographer  has  borrowed  the  prodigies 
of  the  most  celebrated  Saints  in  the  Kalendar.  I  say 
nothing  of  the  changing  of  water  into  wine — which  has 
been  in  vogue  ever  since  the  marriage-feast  of  Cana^ — 
and  pause  only  upon  the  typical  miracle  of  the  healing  of 
a  demoniac,  which  is  actually  copied  from  Sulpicius  Se- 
verus.  It  is  natural  that  the  patriarch  of  the  new  Order 
should  be  necessarily  likened  to  the  bishop  of  Tours,  that 
pitiful  Saint,  unrivalled  in  his  compassion  for  the  poor  and 
in  the  glory  of  his  miracles.  ^  Celano  could  not  pass  over 
in  silence  all  the  characteristic  Franciscan  meekness  towards 
God,  towards  men,  towards  all  creatures  animate  and  ina- 
nimate, which  is  the  most  delicate  note  of  the  legend, 
though  not  free  from  a  touch  of  heretical  tendency.  "^     In 


dientiam  tibi  dico  ut  mihi  duriter  iniurieris.  This  theme,  is  developed  in  Fioretii 
Nos.  3  and  9 :  cfr.  Actus  Nos.  2  and  8  and  the  sources  cited  there :  but  the 
true  sources  are :  Migne.  LXXIII,  774.  Verba  seniorum :  Quanto  plus  eum 
aliquis  iniuriabatur,  aut  deridebat  (Pelag.  lib.  16,  12)  tanto  plus  ille  gaudebat, 
dicens :  Isti  sunt  qui  nobis  occasionem  praebent  ad  profectum  nostrum.  Cfr.  ib. 
961  :  Bene  tibi  fecerunt,  cenerente  et  cabate  ;  and  again  ib.    1034. 

1  See  'The  Death  of  St.  Francis',  in  Appendix  I  to  this  Book. 

2  I  Vita  61.  [?  69  TV.]  This  miracle  is  twice  wrought  by  St.  Peter  Damian  : 
Vita  in  Op.  I  p.  VIII.  Cfr.  V.  Odil.  Op.  cit.  II,  195  etc.  The  contest  with  the 
fiend  occurs  in  I  Vita  72  =  Vila  s.  Rom.  Op.  c.  II  209-10. 

3  I  Vita  61  =  Vita  8.  Martino  CV.  125  ;  c.  16 ;  cfr.  1  Vita  68  =  Sulp. 
Sev.  Dial.  II  (III,  6)  204. 

4  I  Vita  58.  59,  76,  77,  78,  80,  81. 


100     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

this  part  of  the  story,  as  also  in  the  indisputable  predi- 
lection of  the  Sziint  for  Elias,  whom  he  designated  his 
successor,  vibrates  the  truth. 

There  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  gentle  pantheism 
of  Francis,  nor  as  to  his  domination  by  the  proud  spirit 
of  the  man  of  Cortona  :  the  biographer  is  forced  in  these 
matters  to  reveal  the  truth  in  spite  of  himself !  ^ 

It  is  indeed  a  strange  attitude  in  which  our  diffidence 
places  us  !  We  come  to  believe  as  true  only  that  which, 
in  our  judgement,  the  veracious  biographer  could  not  have 
omitted,  even  if  he  had  wished,  without  so  altering  the 
portrait  of  the  Saint  as  to  render  it  unrecognisable  ! 

In  his  description  of  the  universal  love  of  Francis,  Ce- 
lano  has  drawn  upon  his  artistic  powers.  If  he  had  not 
in  him  a  very  copious  vein  of  poetry,  he  still  had  the 
ability  to  embellish  very  cleverly  the  dull  outlines  of  fact. 
Francis  gives  the  name  of  "Brother"  to  every  created 
thing :  one  knows,  however,  of  a  poor  brother  of  the 
V"  century,  in  the  Dialogues  of  Saint  Gregory,  who  "of 
his  excessive  simplicity"  called  a  bear  ^'f rater".  "Brother 
Wolf"  of  Gubbio  has  here  a  distant  cousin.^  And  in 
Rufinus'  "Lives  of  the  Fathers"  one  reads  also  of  "Bro- 
ther Soul ".  ^  The  pity  of  the  Sciints  for  animals,  and  the 
obedience  of  animals  to  the  word  of  the  Saints  are  matters 
which  occur  very  frequently  in  Mediaeval  hagiography. 
And  Saint  Francis'  eulogy  of  the  birds  recalls  the  gentle 
saying  of  Jesus,  and  further,  the  truly  winged   words    of 


1  It  was  only  after  a  lapse  of  20  years  that  Thomas  could  dare,  in  the  5e- 
cunda  Vita,  to  erase  the  name  of  Bro.  Elias  once  for  all  from  the  officiaJ  re- 
cords of  Franciscanism. 

2  Dial.  Ill,  15.     See  Appendix  III. 

3  Migne,  XXI,  430 :  Ne  fratrem  meum,  i.  e.  animam  meam,  scandalizem. 


CHAPTER  11  101 

Saint  Ambrose  in  his  prose  hymn  to  creation,  and  certain 
lighter  stories  of  Caesarius.  ^ 

"Supra  hominum  intellectum  afficiebatur,  cum  nomen 
tuum,  sancte  Domine,  nominareV\  exclaims  Thomas  in 
Augustinian  tones,  to  magnify  the  fervour  which  Francis 
felt  for  the  holy  name  of  God.  "^  This  sentiment  must 
surpass  in  intensity  even  his  ardent  love  for  the  creatures ; 
and  for  its  sake  Francis  devoutly  collected  every  writing, 
even  if  the  name  of  God  did  not  occur  in  it.  When 
asked  why  etiam  paganorum  scripta,  et  ubi  non  erat  no- 
men  Domini,  sic  studiose  colligeret,  respondit  dicens : 
"  Fili,  quia  ibi  litterae  sunt  ex  quibus  componitur  Domini 
dei  nomen".  All  this  is  a  cold  imitation  of  the  usual 
"Lives  of  the  Fathers".  Pachomius  also  had  felt  the 
same  scruples  ;  and  on  one  occasion  he  declared  that  he 
would  have  burnt  a  certain  heretical  book  "nisi  scirem 
nomen  Dei  in  eo  esse  conscriptum"J 

How  shall  we  deliver  the  truth  from  the  rhetorical 
leprosy  that  devours  it ! 

1  Draconea  posted  as  guards  of  a  cell :  Migne,  XXI,  421  ;  a  crocodile  who 
carries  a  priest  on  his  back,  430.  Cfr.  1  Vita  61  ;  vere  sanctus  cui  sic  ohediunt 
creaturae  =  Sulp.  Sev.  Ep.  Ill ;  1478  :  qui  etiam  avibus  imperaret ;  ib.  Dial. 
11,  (III  9);  217:  Serpentes  me  audiunt.  A  leveret  and  other  animals  saved:  I 
Vila  60-61   =  Sulp.  Sev.  I  (II.  9);  191. 

Eulogy  of  the  birds  :  I  Vita  58  ;  cfr.  Math.  VI,  25  seqq.  5.  Ambros.  Exam. 
V,  1 1  CV.  1 69  seqq.  «  Aviculae  »  se  in  latibulis  suis  abdunt,  canoro  occaisum 
diei  carmine  prosequentes,  ne  immunis  abeat  gratiarum,  quibus  Creatorem  suum 
omnis  creatura  conlaudat.  -  Asses  that  bow  the  knee  before  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment (Caes.  IV,  98)  after  a  brief  exhortation  from  him  who  carries  it.  Crows 
that  "  grutillando "  ask  of  the  Abbot  liceniiam  recedendi  from  the  monastery, 
practically  belong  to  the  Order  :  Caes.  X,  58  ;  cfr.  I  Vita  58,  59.  Benedixit  ipsis, 
signo  crucis  facto,  licentiam  tribuit,  ut  ad  locum  alium  transvolarent ;  and  Caesarius  : 
Elevans  manum  benedixit  eis  etc. 

2  I  Vita  83. 

3  Migne.  LXXIII.  247  :  Vita  Pach.  c.  27. 


EX  L!BR:S 
ST.   BASIL'S  SCHOLASTICATE 

No. * 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  "PRESEPIO  DI  GRECCIO 
THE  EGYPHIAN  MISSION: 
THE  STIGMATA:  SAINT  CLARE. 


CERTAIN  episodes  in  the  "  First  Life  "  merit  by,  their 
importance,  a  brief  chapter  to  themselves.  If  we 
except  the  'Stigmata',  which  have  undoubtedly  a  pro- 
found dogmatic — but,  as  it  appears  to  me,  no  pathological 
— signification,  all  the  rest  have  an  indisputable  historical 
value.  The  "Presepio  di  Greccio"  left  a  vivid  impression 
on  contemporary  records, '  and  the  fact  of  the  Egyptian 
Mission  rests  on  certain  testimony  which  still  remains  to  us.  ^ 

The  ceremony  of  the  Presepio  and  the  journey  to  the 
East  should  be  studied  with  the  design  of  Celano  always 
in  mind. 

In  his  description  of  the  scene  at  Greccio  Thomas  does 
not  spare  the  splendours  of  his  magnificent  style.  Francis 
was  inspired  to  perform  the  rite  by  a  course  of  pious 
meditation  on  Jesus  incarnate  and  crucified.  From  this 
thought  he  did  not  suffer  his  mind  to  wander  for  a  mo- 

1  Salimbene,    137,  317.  Greccio  was  the  refuge  of  John  of  Parma. 

2  Jac.  de  "Uitriaco,  Ep.  de  captione  Dam.  in  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos ;  161 1  ; 
I,  1149;  Frater  Franciscus  -  cum  venisset  ad  exercitum  nostrum  zelo  fldei  accen- 
sus,  ad  exercitum  hostium  nostrorum  ire  non  timuit  et  cum  ....  parum  profecisset, 
tunc  Soldanus  ....  ab  eo  in  secreto  petit,  ut  pro  se  Domino  supplicasset,  quatenus 
religioni,  quae  magis  Deo  placerit,  divinitus  iitspiratus  adhaereret.  Jord.  c.    10. 


104     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

ment.  The  birth  and  death  of  the  Redeemer  were  im- 
printed on  his  heart.  Three  years  before  the  end  of  his 
life  Francis,  with  the  aid  of  a  faithful  friend,  set  himself 
to  reproduce  as  exactly  as  possible  the  scene  of  the  Na- 
tivity. This  he  did  in  Greccio,  on  the  Christmas  festival.  ^ 
Standing  before  the  Presepio  the  Saint,  clad  in  the 
ornaments  of  a  Levite — he  had  deacon's  Orders^ — chants 
the  Gospel  with  sonorous  voice,  and  preaches  it  with  that 
marvellous  tongue  that  must  really  have  wrought  miracles, 
to  the  assembled  crowds.  He  feels  and  tastes  an  infinite 
sweetness  as  he  pronounces  the  name  of  Jesus ;  and  God 
multiplies  his  gifts  to  the  Man  of  Assisi.  A  quodam  viro 
virtutis  mirahilis  visio  cemitur.  Videbat  enim  in  praesepio 
puerulum  unum,  iacentem  exanimem.  ad  quern  videbat 
accedere  Sanctum  Dei  et  eumdem  puerum  quasi  a  somni 
sopore  suscitare.  Nee  inconveniens  visio  ista,  cum  puer 
Jesus  in  multorum  cordibus  oblivioni  fuerit  datus  in  quibus, 
ipsius  gratia  faciente,  per  servum  suum  Franciscum,  re- 
suscitatus    est,  et  impressus    memoriae    diligentiJ     There 

1  I  Vila  84-7. 

2  I  Vita  8.  So  Durand  of  Huesca  became  an  acolyte.  The  functions  of 
the  diaconate  which  are  canonically  adapted  to  the  tendences  of  the  Franciscan 
order  are  enumerated  in  Deer.  Grat.  D.  XCIII,  23  (Spurio  ;  ed.  Friedberg  326 ; 
note  217).     Reg.  Pontif.   I  No.   636. 

3  I  Vita  86  :  Saepe  . . .  cum  vellet  Christum  Jesum  nominare,  amore  flagrans 
nimis  eum  puerum  de  Bethleem  nuncupabat,  et  more  balantis  ovis  bethleem  dicens 
(Rhetoric  again  !)  os  suum  voce,  sed  magis  dulci  affectione  totum  implebat.  Labra 
sua  etiam,  cum  puerum  de  Bethleem,  vel  Jesum  nominaret,  quasi  lambiebat  lingua^ 
felici  palato  degustans  et  deglutiens  dulcedinem  verbi  huius.  Cfr.  ib.  82  :  Nam 
supra  hominum  intellectum  afficiebatur.  cum  nomen  tuum,  sancte  Domine,  nomi- 
naret ;  et  totus  existens  in  iubilo  ac  incunditate  castissima  plenus . . .  Cfr.  S.  Aug. 
Confess.  Ill,  4.  CV.  49-50:  Quoniam  hoc  nomen...  Domine,  hoc  nomen  Sal- 
vatoris  mei  ...  in  ipso  adhuc  lacte  matris  tenerum  cor  meum  pie  biberat  et . . . 
quicquid  sine  hoc  nomine  fuisset  .  .  .  non  me  totum  rapiebat.  S.  P.  Dam.  V. 
Rom.  II,  219:  Frequenter  enim  tanta  ilium  divinitatis  contemplatio  rapiebat,  ut 
quasi  totus  in  lacrymas  resolutus,  aestuante  inenarrabili  divini  amoris  ardore,  cla- 
maret :  Chare  Jesu,  chare  mel  meum  dulce,  desiderium  ineffabile  etc.      Ille  sancto 


CHAPTER  III  105 

were  those,  then,  who  beheld  the  infant  Jesus,  awakened 
by  Francis  and  given  back  to  the  adoration  of  lukewarm 
Christians. 

Remarking,  in  passing  upon  the  rhetorical  origin  of  certain 
of  Celano's  phrases,  we  too  will  pause,  with  the  crowds, 
before  the  Presepio  that  has  been  so  fruitful  in  artistic 
inspirations. 

Perhaps  the  relations,  still  perceptible,  between  the 
doctrines  of  the  heretics  and  the  preaching  of  Francis  de- 
manded a  concrete  confutation  of  the  shadow  of  dogmatic 
errors.  It  is  not  enough  for  Francis  to  have  Sciid  that  the 
Church  of  Jesus  is  not  being  built  but  restored;  to  have 
kissed  the  'sacred'  hands  of  the  poor  priest;  to  have 
received  his  mantle  from  the  Bishop  of  Assisi.  An  inde- 
finable suspicion  of  heresy  still  clings  to  the  Franciscan 
fraternity.  ^  Hence  the  Saint,  obedient  to  the  current  of 
orthodoxy  that  dominates  his  community,  celebrates  in  the 
most  solemn  manner  the  Nativity  of  Jesus,  who  appears, 
in  the  form  of  a  lifeless  infant  to  a  certain  most  trustworthy 
witness !  It  is  the  answer  to  the  heretics'  blasphemons 
doctrine  which  held  (as  we  have  noticed  above)  that  the 
Redeemer  came  into  the  world  in  an  entirely  special  way ; 
that  the  Virgin  did  not  really  bring  him  forth,  nor  was 
his  body  ever  real  flesh.  This  point  of  dogma  (which 
was  noted  even  by  the  Bolognese  glossatores)  gave  occasion 

Spiritu  dictante  in  jubilum  proferebat :  nos  humano  sensu  exprimere  talia  non  va- 
lemus. 

I  Francis  makes  confession  in  public  (I  Vita  52)  ;  when  dying  has  read  to 
him  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (ib.  110)  which  is  the  favourite  of  the  heretics. 
When  he  sees  a  lamb  among  goats,  he  says  it  seems  like  "Jesus  meek  and 
humble  among  the  Pharisees  and  chief  priests  (ib.  77).  The  constitution  of  his 
Order  was  always  opposed  (ib.  73).  Even  in  the  days  of  Salimbene  the  Mino- 
rites were  shunned  by  the  other  Frati  as  though  they  were  under  the  ban  of  ex- 
comunication  (Chr.  374).     Cfr,  Sbaralea,  Bu|l.  Franc.  I  No.   56,  57;  a  1231. 


106     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

to  a  continuous  succession  of  miracles  identical  with  that 
of  Greccio,  which  have  been  collected  and  expanded  by 
the  genius  of  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach.  A  priest  through 
whose  mind  heretical  doubts  were  passing,  is,  by  the  grace 
of  God,  permitted  to  be  present  (in  vision)  at  the  Virgin's 
parturition,  and  the  Mother  holds  out  to  him  her  new-bom 
child,  quern  (lie,  inter  hrachia  sua  colligens  ac  deosculans 
mysterium  intellexit '  The  same  thing  happens  to  a  nun, 
who  is  allowed  to  contemplate  the  babe  Jesus  wrapped 
in  the  garments  of  her  Order,  in  praesepio  reclinatus.^ 

In  the  same  miraculous  manner  are  confuted  the  here- 
tical errors  about  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist ;  for  the 
heterodox  held,  quite  logically,  that  the  "  true  body  and 
blood  "   of  Jesus  could  not  be  in  the  sacrament. 

The  narratives  of  the  Fioretti  have  an  entirely  similar 
origin,  and  are  therefore  unintelligible  except  in  relation  to 
the  doctrines  of  those  times.  ^  Read  in  a  vaguely  mystical 
sense,  they  tell  us  nothing.  Even  miracle — indeed,  miracle 
more  than  anything  else — must  be  studied  scientifically. 
If  contemporary   history  be   not   taken    into    consideration. 


1  VIII.  2. 

2  VIII.  3  cfr.  ib.  c.  5.   7, 

3  Fior.  No.  53.  Act.  No.  51.  Cfr.  Caei.  IX,  2,  3.  12.  19.  23,  27.  41 
(De  sacr.  corp.  et  sang.)  Cfr.  [Fior  .  .  .  Chr.]  Cfr.  also  IX.  32.  Caesarius  is 
undoubtedly  the  source  of  this  narrative  and  of  others  afterwards  included  in  the 
Actus  and  the  Fioretti.  The  secondary  sources  are  most  diligently  adduced  by 
Sabatier  in  his  edition  of  the  Actus  S.  Francisci  et  sociorum  eius.  No.  53  of 
the  Fioretti  is  a  translation  of  a  fragment  of  the  life  of  S.  Joannes  Alvernicola  : 
Acta  SS.  T.  II  Aug.  466.  And  in  like  manner  Fior.  No.  52.  (Act.  No.  51). 
corresponds  to  Caes.  VIII,  38 ;  Fior.  No.  42  (Act.  No.  53)  come  from  Caes. 
IX,  30  (Where  is  given  the  miracle  of  the  lifting  up  into  the  air)  and  VIII,  2 
(the  vision  of  the  Virgin  birth  alluded  to  above).  A  summary  index  of  the  sources 
of  the  Fioretti  will  be  found  in  Appendix  IV.  Reference  to  all  the  passages 
was  impossible,  but  with  the  indications  given  a  comparison  will  be  quite  easy, 
and — what  is  more  important — convincing.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  book 
of  more  varied  composition  than  the  famous  Fioretti  I 


CHAPTER  III  107 

the  illusions  or  creations  of  the  imagination  which  mark 
certain  historic  periods — like  that  of  the  advance  of  heresy 
— become  quite  incomprehensible ;  or  run  the  risk  of  being 
reckoned  as  mere  fairy-tales  bursting  spontaneously  into 
flower  in  the  fertile  meadow  of  ascetic  fervour.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  fervour  often  reflects  vsdth  great  clearness 
the  actual  sentiments  of  the  period — even  to  the  less  popu- 
lar theological  doctrines  in  vogue. ' 

Before  turning  to  the  stigmata,  it  will  not  be  out  of 
place  to  say  a  word  or  two  about  the  Egyptian  Mission. 
The  two  facts  are  logically  connected  together  by  a  link 
that  is  very  discernible  in  Celano's  writings,  and  still  more 
so  in  the  workings  of  his  mind. 

We  do  not  know  much  about  the  Saint's  missionary^ 
attempts  in  Moslem  territory :  ^  the  one  thing  certain  is  their 
want  of  success.  And  the  biographer  himself,  as  he  hurries 
over  the  obscure  events  of  that  epoch  acknowledges  the 
failure  without  hesitation.  ^  On  his  return  from  Egypt 
where  men  would  not  listen  to  him,  Francis  preaches  to 
the  birds  to  whom  the  magic  of  his  voice  appeals.  Perhaps 
Celano,  with  his  knowledge  of  every  literary  artifice,  made 
a  point  of  narrating — for  love  of  contrast — the  miracle  of 
the  birds  immediately  after  the  return  from  the  fruitless 
mission.      It  is  the  constant  habit  of  the  Saints  to  complain 

1  I  take  as  an  instance  No.  53  of  the  Fioretti  (Act.  52).  Giovanni  d'  AI- 
vernia  in  celebrating  mass  pauses  at  the  words  :  Hoc  est  corpus  meum  ;  scarcely 
lad  he  pronounced  the  sacramental  formula  when  apparuit  Dominus  Jesus  Chr. 
ncamalus  et  glorificatus.  Caesarius  (IX,  27)  narrates  the  same  thing,  and  in  this 
:aise  the  transubstantiation  occurs  after  the  priest  has  said  the  words  without  adding 
'lie  est  sanguis  etc.  The  miracle  serves,  according  to  Caesarius,  to  prove  that 
he  doctrine  of  Peter  of  Beauvais  (1184)  who  favoured  the  pronouncing  of  the 
louble  formula  (for  '  Body '  and  '  Blood ')  was  not  to  be  received .  .  .  because 
he  miracle  ignored  it  I 

2  Sahatier,   Vie  247  seqq. 

3  I  Vita  55-7;  II  Vita.  2,   \.  R.  23.  Jord.  c.    10  {Voigt.  519). 


108     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

of  the  unwillingness  of  men  to  listen  to  them  while  even 
serpents,  dragons,  and  still  more  terrible  monsters  obey  their 
very  gestures  with  the  utmost  meekness.  ^ 

Did  Thomas  mean  that  the  Saracens  were  worse  than 
dragons  and  serpents  if  Francis  had  spoken  and  they  had 
listened  with  indifference  ? 

From  the  few  words  that  Jacques  de  Vitry  has  left 
us  on  the  subject  it  would  appear  that  Francis  joined  the 
Crusaders  perhaps  with  a  view  reawakening  the  flagging 
ardour  and  discipline  of  the  Christians ;  and  that  from  the 
camp  he  afterwards  passed  over  to  the  enemy  for  the 
purpose  of  evangelizing  the  infidels.  But  the  man  who 
comes  forth  from  the  ranks  of  an  army  to  transform  himself 
into  a  peaceful  missionary,  cannot  ever  expect  great  like- 
lihood of  success ;  for  the  simple  reasom  that  under  the 
preacher's  cowl  the  enemy  is  sure  to  be  suspected.  Did 
the  Saint  believe,  as  did  many  of  his  contemporaries,  that 
the  religion  of  Mohammed  was  but  a  kind  of  Christian 
heresy,  and  that  the  good  disposition  to  abandon  it  was 
but  waiting  for  an  impulse  from  without?  It  is  probable 
that  this  idea  also  was  among  the  motives  that  excited 
him  to  preach  to  them.  ^ 

Francis,  ignorant  of  the  language  of  the  country — though 
indeed  the  Frankish  speech  was  not  unknown  among  the 
Saracens — wathout  the  special    preparation    which  mission 

1  Mignt,  XXIII.  421.  Sxilp.  5ev.  Dial.  II  (III,  9)  CV.  207. 

2  Cfr.  Sbaralea,  Bull.  Franc.  I  N.  82,  106.  The  French  expedition  to 
Tunis  seems  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  idea  that  the  conversion  of  the  Infidels 
would  not  be  difficult!  Dante  (Inf.  XXVIII  35)  places  Mohammed  among  the 
schismatics,  "  seminator  di  scandalo  e  di  sisma  "  Peter  abbot  of  Cluny  wrote  a 
a  treatise  against  the  sect  of  the  Saracens  {Migne  CLXXXIX,  659  seqq.).  The 
Spanish  Adoptionism  of  the  IX'h  century  is  said  have  had  as  its  object  a  strange 
reconciliation  between  the  two  creeds.  MGH.  Leg.  Sect.  Ill  Cone.  p.  II :  Cone. 
Foroiul.  a.  796-7;   188. 


CHAPTER  III  109 

work  entails, '  would  very  soon  have  perceived  the  absolute 
uselessness  of  his  efforts  at  evangelizing.  Nevertheless  Tho- 
|mas,  who  takes  no  account  at  all  of  the  tendencies  of  the 
fage,  sees  in  the  attempt  of  Saint  Francis  nothing  but  the 
fdesire  to  attain  the  conventional  climax  of  sainthood — that 
martyrdom  which  is  the  summit  of  the  saint's  aspirations. 
In  this  way  he  assimilates  the  legend  of  his  hero  to  the 
no  less  celebrated  legend  of  Saint  Romuald  written  by 
Saint  Peter  Damian,  '^  and  models  the  figure  of  Francis  on 
the  quite  ordinary  type  of  saints  who  always  yearn  for 
martyrdom  without  ever  achieving  it.  The  man  of  Assisi 
was  to  be  denied  the  crimson  aureole  of  the  martyr :  and 
a  legend  of  a  saint  who  should  die  peacefully  in  his  bed, 
would  lose  all  fascination,  however  great  might  be  the 
virtue  of  the  hero  and  the  literary  capacity  of  his  biogra- 
pher. Celano  avails  himself  with  great  cleverness  of  the 
Egyptian  episode,  to  prove  that,  if  martyrdom  did  not 
smile  upon  Francis,  the  fault  was  not  his ;  that  he  had 
done  all  in  his  power  to  be  come  a  martyr — that,  in 
fact  there  was  no  real  difference  between  him  and  an 
actual  martyr.  The  reasonings  of  Sulpicius  Severus  and 
of  Peter  Damian,  each  of  whom,  like  Thomas,  had  written 
the  life  of  a  man  most  saintly — but  not  marfyr — served 
excellently  for  Celano  too.  ^ 


1  Caes.  IV,  1 5 :  Compare,  for  the  discipline  of  missionary  work,  the  Letter 
of  Pope  Alexander  III  in  Mansi,  XXI,  961. 

2  Op.  II,  223  c.  39 :  Audiens  quia  b.  vir  Bonifacius  martyrium  suscepisset, 
nimio  desiderii  igne  succensus,  ut  pro  Christo  sanguinem  funderet,  Ungariam  mox 
ire  disposuit.  Cfr.  I  Vita  55 :  Amore  divino  fervens  -  perfectionis  summam  at- 
tingere  cupiebat  -  sacri  martyrii  desiderio  maxime  flagrans,  ad  praedicandam  fidem 
Christianam  et  poenitentiain  Saracenis  -  voluit  transfretare. 

3  Sulp.  Sev.  Ep.  II,  CV.  143:  Nam  licet  ei  ratio  temporis  non  p>otuerit 
praestare  (I)  martyrium,  gloriam  tamen  martyris  non  carebit,  quia  voto  atque  virtute 
et  potuit  esse  martyr  et  voluit.     Cfr.  5.   P.  Dam.  1.  c.  B.  secundum  intentionem 


no     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

The  supreme  austerity  of  his  life,  faithful  to  the  precepts 
of  Christ,  the  hand-to-hand  conflicts  with  the  devil ;  ^ 
the  continual  mortifications  of  the  flesh,  and,  finally,  the 
horrible  pains  of  his  maladies  and  of  the  attempted  reme- 
dies, serenely  borne — all  these  represented  a  veritable  mar- 
tyrdom . . .  ^  up  to  a  certain  point.  But  blood  is  blood ; 
and  Heaven  did  not  vouchsafe  to  Francis  the  longed-for 
perfection. 

The  extremely  dry  narrative  of  Celano  w^as  supplement- 
ed by  later  legend.  It  was  impossible  that  a  man  like 
Francis,  who  had  shaken  the  world  and  bidden  it  follow 
him,  ^  should  not  have  accomplished  great  achievements, 
and  reaped  a  harvest  even  where  his  word  had  fallen  upon 
soil  so  sterile  as  that  of  Islam,  Hence  we  find  in  the 
Actus  and  in  the  Fioretti  an  amplified  version  of  the 
episode.  And  here  also  the  compilers  have  shewn  no  ori- 
ginality but  made  use  of  the  best-known  stories  and 
legends  in  fabricating  the  narrative  that  has  come  down 
to  us.'^ 

quidem  suam  martyrium  subit.     I  Vila  92  :  Paratusque  erat  homo  etc.     Cfr.    Greg. 
M.  Horn,  in  Ev.  II ;   36,  n.   7.     ("  Martyrdom  of  desire "). 

1  I  Vita  72.  Manu  ad  manum  cum  diabolo  confligebat ;  Thomea  is  here, 
apparently,  paraphrasing  the  7'^  chapter  of  the  Life  of  S.  Romuald  (5.  P.  Dam. 
II,  209-210).  Impugnahat  tamen  diabolus  etc.  Fights  with  the  devil  are,  however, 
too  common  to  allow  us  to  see  anything  peculiar  in  those  of  Saint  Francis. 

2  I  Vita  1 07  :  O  martyr,  qui  ridens  et  gaudens  libentissime  tolerabat ;  and 
Sulp.  Set).  Ep.  II,  144:  Ut  laetus  ulceribus,  congaudensque  cruciatibus  quaelibet 
inter  tormenta  risisset.  Ep.  Ill,  149:  O  virum  ineffabilem  etc.;  and  I  Vita  81. 
Saunt  Francis  sees  in  the  paunful  character  of  his  diseetse  (I  Vita  1 07  a  *  compen- 
satio'  for  the  martyrdom  he  had  failed  to  win. 

3  Vita  Aegidii.     Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  236.     Fior.  No.  49 ;  Act.  No.  8. 

4  Fior.  No.  24  ;  Act.  No.  27.  The  episode  of  the  harlot,  which  has  af- 
finities with  the  '  Vita  S.  Thaisis :  (Rossweyde  374)  is  taken  from  Caesarius 
(X,  24  ;  Strange,  II  24 1  -2 :  Gerungus  Scholasticus  Bonnensis).  The  rest  of  the 
legend  reminds  one  of  that  of  the  conversion  of  the  Persian  king  as  given  in  FrC' 
degar.  Chron.  IV,  9  (MG.  SS.  Merov.  II  125-6  and  note  13)  cfr.  P.  Diac. 
Hist.  Lang.  IV,  50  (MG.  SS.  rer.  lang.  et  italicarum  1 37  note  2).     In  point  of 


CHAPTER   III  111 

Celano  was  not  content,  however  with  the  new  species 
of  martyrdom  for  Francis :  and  so  he  prepares  us  very 
frankly  for  the  miracle  of  the  stigmata,  in  the  following 
words :  in  omnibus  his  Dominus  ipsius  desiderium  non  im- 
plevit,  praerogativam  illi  reservans  gratiae  singularis.  ^  The 
"singular  prerogative" — need  one  say  it? — is  the  renewal 
in  the  Saint  of  the  martyrdom  of  Golgotha. 

I  am  not  unacquainted  with  the  medical  literature  on 
the  subject  of  the  stigmata ;  and  I  can  believe  also  that 
the  pathological  phenomena  in  the  Saint's  person  may  have 
given  the  first  impulse  to  the  creation  of  the  miracle — or 
rather,  to  express  myself  more  exactly,  may  have  furnished 
the  incidental  elements.  But,  since  we  ought  by  this  time 
to  know  who  Thomas  of  Celano  was,  and  after  what  fashion 
he  wrote,  (and  it  is  to  him  that  we  owe  the  first  narra- 
tive of  the  fact,  that  became  the  official  text)  ^ — we  shall 
realise  that  the  literaiy  genesis  of  the  miracle  is  likely  to 
bring  us  closer  to  the  truth  than  the  pathological.  At  the 
same  time  we  must  be  on  our  guard  against  a  pedantic 
exaggeration  of  historical  criticism. 

The  conception  of  the  miracle  itself,  most  easy  of  in- 
terpretation, tells  us  much.  That  such  a  thing  should  be 
attributed  to  the  Saint,  presupposes  in  him  something 
extraordinary — something,  one  might  venture  to  say,  super- 


facth  le  Armenian  bishop  Domitian  did  not  succeed  in  converting  the  king  (Greg. 
I  Ep.  Ill,  42),  but  pious  tradition  took  hold  of  the  fruitless  attempt,  and  developed 
the  legend  after  its  own  taste.  The  incomhustihilily  of  the  cheiste  is  simply  the 
'  judgement  of  God '  miraculously  shewn.  Cfr.  Vita  S.  Joan.  Eleem.  c.  46 :  Migne, 
LXXIII,  46  :  Sicut  nee  tunicam  hanc  meam  incenderunt  prunae  istae,  ita  nee  ego 
agnovi  peccatum   mulieris.     Jacques  de  Vitry,   Exempla  No.  212,  245,  246,  247. 

1  1  Vita  57. 

2  Luc.  Tudens.  in  Bibl.  Max.  Patrum  XXV,  224.  In  manibus  et  pedibus 
b.  F.  quatuor  apparuerunt  signa  clavorum  etc.  Scriptum  quippe  reperitur  in  ejus 
legenda  etc.     This  is  the  Legend  before  Thomas  touched  it. 


^K^\^'^ 


112     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

human.  Francis  is,  in  truth,  the  Christ  of  Italy. '  The 
ruthless  efforts  made  by  his  biographers  to  reduce  his  fi- 
gure to  the  modest  dimensions  of  a  conventional  saint 
were  not  entirely  successful.  Not  even  Thomas  could 
remain  untouched  by  the  universal  feeling.  He  who  had 
been  a  perfect  imitator  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  had  Christ's 
own  soul,  wdde  open  to  the  infinite  love — he  must  needs 
be  presented  to  the  pious  devotion  of  all  with  the  torn 
and  bleeding  flesh  of  the  Crucified.  And  a  variety  of 
particular  circumstances  combined  to  make  Thomas  (or 
those  whose  ideas  he  was  pledged  to  interpret)  see  in  the 
broken  body  of  Francis  a  supreme  resemblance  to  the 
God-Man.  If  deception  there  was,  it  must  not  be  im- 
puted to  the  cold  astuteness  of  Bro.  Elias,  nor  entirely 
to  the  fervid  imagination  of  Thomas ;  still  less  to  the  Saint, 
who  most  probably  repudiated  (if  there  was  need  to  do 
so)  so  divine  an  interpretation  of  the  pathological  stigmata 
wherewith  he  was  afflicted.  ^  The  most  ingenious  narra- 
tive is  that  which  issued  from  the  mouth  (not  from  the  pen) 
of  Bro.  Leo,  and  is  related  with  equal  candour  by  Sa- 
limbene. 

Bro.  Leo  told  Salimbene  that  when  the  body  of  Francis 
was  washed  for  burying  "  videbatur  rectus  sicut  unus  cru- 
cifixus*\^  And  the  expression,  called  forth  by  the  pitiable 
spectacle  of  a  body  which  bears,  over  and  above  the  work 
of  death,  traces  of  the  martyrdom  of  a  long  illness,  is  still 


1  I  Vita  89.  Missus  est  hie  a  Deo,  ut  universaliter  per  totum  mundum  apo- 
stolorum  exemplo  testimonium  perhiberet  veritati. 

2  Certainly  we  are  not  to  think  of  a  vulgar  trattooing  such  as  was  not  infre- 
quent among  the  Manicheans  {Vict.  Vit.  Hist,  persec.  Vand.  MG.  13)  other 
sacred  tattooings  are  mentioned  in  Cedren,  Hist,  in  Corp.  SS.  Hist.  Byz,  Bonn. 
II,   149.     Few  saw  the  stigmata  while  the  Saint  was  alive:  I  Vita  96. 

3  Chr.  75. 


CHAPTER  III  113 

in  popular  use  in  Italy  today.  May  not  this  have  been 
the  nucleus  out  of  which,  little  by  little,  the  new  miracle 
was  evolved  ?  The  final  touch,  which  gave  the  episode 
its  classical  form,  is  doubtless  that  of  Celano  whose  business 
it  was  to  coordinate  it  with  the  entire  scheme  of  his  la- 
boured narrative.  Celano  found  the  road  made  smooth 
before  him  to  reach,  so  to  speak,  dogmatically,  the  expla- 
nation of  this  greatest  of  the  Saint's  miracles. 

It  had  been  already  remarked  that  heretics  could  look 
upon  the  Crucifix  without  much  emotion.  The  pains  of 
the  man,  they  held,  could  not  affect  the  Divine  Nature 
which  had  not,  even  upon  the  wood  of  the  cross,  partici- 
pated in  the  frailty  of  the  flesh.  In  the  orthodox,  vene- 
ration for  the  God-Man  was  intensified  by  this  heretical 
disparagement  of  the  sorrowful  majesty  of  Calvary.  ^  To 
weep  with  floods  of  hot  tears  for  the  Passion  of  the  Re- 
deemer became  the  sign  of  the  greatest  grace,  even  as,  to 
the  gay  scepticism  of  the  succeeding  age,  it  earned  con- 
tempt as  a  mark  of  hypocrisy.  "^  Francis,  according  to  the 
narrative  of  Thomas  a  second  Augustine,  to  whom  God 
disclosed  His  will  by  the  opening  of  the  sacred  books,  ^ 
is  meditating  upon  the  Passion  of  Jesus.  And  he  sees 
De/  nirum  unum  quasi  Seraphim  sex  alas  habentem, 
stantem  super  se,  manihus  extensis  ac  pedibus  coniunctis 


1  Greg.  M.  XII,  in  c.  15  Job ;  n.  30  :  Sunt....  qui  Deo  se  iniuriam  irrogare 
existimant. . . .   si  unch  veraciter,  pro  nobis,  came  mori  potuisse  crediderint. 

2  Caes.  II,  23  ;  cfr.  I,  35.  The  ecstasy  of  the  Brethren  in  saying  Mass, 
clumsily  described  in  Fioretti  No.  53  (cfr.  Actus  No.  51),  is  an  emotion  of  no 
different  kind.  These  narratives  also  are  derived  from  Caesarius,  IX,  27,  32. 
Thorn.  II  Vita  I,  6  :  Spec.  c.  92.  Decamerone,  Giorn.  IV  Nov.  2 :  Sempre 
all' altare,  quando  celebrava.  se  da  molti  era  vedulo,  piangeva  la  passione  del 
Salvatore,   si  come  colui  al  quale  poco  costavano  le  lagrime,   quando  le  voleva. 

3  I  Vita  92,  93.  Cfr.  5.  Aug.  Confess.  VII,  12.  Vita  Ant.  Migne.  LXXIII, 
127.  Fior.  No.  2;  Act.   1   §   10  seqq. 


114     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

crucis  affixum.  After  the  vision  he  finds  himself  with 
"  the  round  marks  in  his  hands  standing  out  externally  after 
the  fashion  of  bent  nails,  and  with  the  wound  in  his  side  ". ' 
Francis  was  crucified  like  his  Master. 

In  the  Seraphin  Francis  saw  himself,  not  the  God-Man. 
The  interpretation  comes  to  us  from  Gregory  the  Great : 
Et  sunt  nonnulli  qui  supemae  contemplationis  facihus  ac- 
censi,  in  solo  conditoris  sui  desiderio  anhelant,  amant  et 
ardent,  atque  in  ipso  suo  ardore  requiescunt,  amando 
ardent,  loquendo  et  alios  accendunt,  et  quos  verbo  tangunt, 
ardere  protinus  in  Dei  amore  faciunt.  Quid  ergo  istos 
nisi  Seraphim  dixerim  ?  ^  Have  we  not  in  these  words 
a  portrait  of  Saint  Francis  ?  Celano,  who  was  so  familiar 
vsdth  the  writings  of  Saint  Gregory,  read  the  passage  to 
some  purpose,  and  remembered  it  as  he  was  describing 
the  vision,  which  is  certainly  all  his  own  ! 

It  was  not  only  the  revived  devotion  to  our  Lord's 
Passion — there  were  other  elements  also  that  combined  to 
bring  into  being  the  legend  of  the  stigmata.  Saint  Paul 
had  said  :  Ego  enim  stigmata  Domini  in  corpore  meo  porto.  ^ 
And  monastic  literature,  in  its  exhortations  to  the  ascetic 
life,  lays  down  that  the  monk  must  be  crucified  with  Christ, 
repeating  Saint  Paul's  words.  Upon  the  trophy  of  the 
cross,  symbol  at  once  of  victory  and  of  mortification,  whoso 
renounces  the  world  must  hang,  as  the  Saviour  hung.  ^ 

1  I  Vita  93.  94,  95. 

2  Horn,  in  Evang.  II,  34  No.   1 1 . 

3  Gal.  VI.    17. 

4  Migne.  LXXIII.  891  -  Cassian.  Insf.  VI.  64.  CV.  72  :  Quemadmodum. 
vivens.  quis  possit  esse  crucifixus  ?....  S.  Greg.  M.  In  prim.  Reg.  VI,  3.  n.  25: 
Qui  Jesum  vult  praedicando  ostendere,  per  mortificationem  carnis  debet  eius,  quern 
praedicat,  passiones  imitari  S.  P.  Dam.  Ep.  VI,  22.  Op.  I  103.  Cruce  omnis 
religio  Christianorum  depingitur.  Illic  te  simul  cum  Christo  suspende  ;  cfr.  II,  119 
seqq.  Sermo  47,  48.  —  Praeferimus  igitur  Crucem  in  fronte.     Crux  est,  quam  mo- 


CHAPTER  III  115 

Insensibly  we  pass  from  the  symbolic  to  the  actual.  S. 
Domenico  called  "il  Loricato"  not  only  bore  on  his  body 
the  stigmata  of  Jesus,  but  actually  painted  on  his  brow 
and  imprinted  on  every  part  of  his  body  the  ensign  of  the 
cross. '  Art  was  come  to  the  aid  of  faith.  Caesarius,  for 
whom  a  very  thin  line  separates  the  real  from  the  sym- 
bolical, writes  that  a  monk's  right  hand  ought  to  be  pierced 
with  the  nail  of  obedience,  his  left  with  that  of  patience, 
his  feet  with  that  of  humility.  ^  A  little  step  further  and 
we  reach  the  real  stigmata.  Meditating  in  the  choir  on 
the  Blessed  Trinity,  a  novice  crucem  fronti  suae  imprimi 
sensit,  et  puto  (suggests  the  writer)  quod  eadem  hora 
cogitaret  de  passione.  ^  The  novice  of  Hemmerode  is  thus 
Saint  Francis'  predecessor  in  the  prodigy.  Another — a  lay 
brother — sees  Jesus  crucified  in  company  with  fifteen 
Brethren  of  most  perfect  life.  The  Lord  speaks  to  him  from 
the  cross:  "These  only,  crucified  with  me,  have  conformed 
their  life  to  my  Passion".'^  Material  signs  of  Divine  grace 
are  craved  and  obtained.  A  poor  rustic  had  his  foot  cut 
off  by  a  tyrannical  nobleman :  the  victim  could  not  resign 
himself  either  to  the  monastic  life  or  to  his  misfortune,  until 
God  made  of  him  a  veritable  Job.  But  the  miracle  does 
not  keep  him  waiting  long;  gangrene  developes — the  signum 
J  oh  in  corpora — and  the  new  Job  dies  contented.  ^ 


ribus  et  actibus  nostris  debemus  imprimere.    Qui  banc  portat,  passionem  Redemptoris 
sui  vere  communicat. 

1  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  II  240.  And  doubtless  Domenico  himself  inflicted  the 
wounds  after  the  form  of  a  cross,  in  order  that  the  raised  cicatrice  might  indicate 
the  symbol.  He  was  a  poor  maniac  who  in  our  days  would  have  been  put  into 
an  asylum. 

2  VIII,   19  (De  cruciiixione  religiosorum). 

3  VIII,  23. 

4  VIII,  18. 

5  XI,  18. 


116     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Thomas  knew  where  to  look  for  his  inspirations.  The 
legend  of  the  stigmata  was  already  quite  formed ;  it  only 
remained  for  him  to  adapt  it  to  Francis,  interpreting  the 
signification  of  the  words  with  devotion  and  learning.  God 
had  but  denied  to  the  Saint  the  prize  of  martyrdom  in 
order  to  make  him  worthy  to  suffer,  unique  among  men, 
the  torture  of  the  cross. 

After  the  Divine  marks,  and  the  other  martyrdom  of  the 
disease  and  the  cruel  cure  by  fire,  death  brought  him  his 
final  repose.  The  "Poor  Women",  followers  of  Francis' 
evangelical  life,  weep  over  the  body  of  the  Saint.  Rome 
herself  is  stirred  with  emotion.  Assisi  becomes  the  centre 
of  Christendom,  when  Gregory  IX,  with  the  splendid  court 
of  the  Church's  princes  announces  there  the  new  glory  of 
the  Faith,  and  visits  the  abject  and  humble  Carcerate, 
faithful  to  the  word  and  the  example  of  their  lost  Brother.  ^ 

In  Franciscan  history  and  legend  Saint  Clare  and  her 
sisters  could  not  be  forgotten.  If  the  movement  of  Assisi 
had  some  sort  of  connexion  with  an  impulse  not  entirely 
orthodox,  that  would  explain  perfectly  how  it  is  that  woman 
has  left  so  vivid  an  impress  on  the  records  of  the  original 
and  independent  Franciscan  fraternity.  As  late  as  1216 
Jacques  de  Vitry  when  describing  the  beginnings  of  the 
Ordo  Minorum,  adds  at  once  certain  remarks  about  the 
manner  of  life  of  the  "  Poor  Women ",  who  live  together, 
collected  in  various  hospitia.  They  receive  nothing,  he 
says,  but  live  by  the  work  of  their  own  hands,  only  annoyed 
by  the  extreme  honour  accorded  to  them  alike  by  eccle- 
siastics and  by  the  laity.  "^ 

1  I  Vita  117  sq.  122. 

2  Sahatier,  Speculum  300.  Not  being  completely  at  home  in  mediaeval 
diction,  this  writer  takes  hospitium  to  mean   "hospital",  and  so  makes  the  Cla- 


CHAPTER  III  117 

Karl  Muller  remarked  some  time  ago  that  the  XIP^ 
chapter  of  the  Old  Rule,  by  which  women  are  excluded, 
must  imply  a  contrary  practice  in  the  period  anterior  to 
the  Rule  :  nor  does  Sabatier  disagree  with  him. '  We 
may  conclude,  then,  that  the  entire  hraternity,  in  its  older 
form,  was  simply  a  group  of  '' evangelici*'  of  both  sexes; 
with  no  idea  of  constituting  two  distinct  Orders,  as  was 
afterwards  done  when  Francis  had  been  induced  to  attach 
himself  to  the  Church  and  the  Church's  head.  Parallel 
to  the  Minorites  was  constituted  the  Rule  of  the  "  Povere 
Donne  "  ;  a  circumstance  which  necessarily  implies  that  the 
other,  male  nucleus,  was  originally  formed  of  **  Poor  Men 
of  Assisi ".     The  name  tells  us  all ! 

Notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  rules  dictated  by 
the  monastic  spirit,  there  persists  in  the  Legend  a  sug- 
gestion of  sweet  and  confidential  relations  between  the 
'' Povere*'  and  the  ''^overi".  We  need  not  imagine 
a  romance  of  love  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word :  but 
it  is  none  the  less  true  that  the  mystic  smile  of  a  woman 
brightens  the  austere  life  of  the  Saint.  Clare,  like  Francis, 
is  a  "precious  stone",  and  on  her  as  foundation  rises  the 
new  Religio  of  the  "Poor  Women".''  She  follows  her 
spiritual  brother  in  every  act  and  thought — in  humility,  in 
poverty,  in  the  most  fervent  eucharistic  devotion.  The  Life 
of  Saint  Clare  was  written,  not  later  than  1261,  by  in- 
vitation of  Pope  Alexander  IV ;  ^  but  if  I  am  not  mistaken, 


rissae  "  des  soeurs  hospitali^res  "  (296).  Hospitium  means  simply  "  place  of  habi- 
tation ".  On  the  origin  of  the  Clarissae  see  the  writings  of  Lempp,  in  Brieger's 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Kirchengeschichte  XIII,  181  seqq.  and  in  XIV,  97  seqq.,  an  histo- 
rical commentary  by  Rohricht  on  the  letter  quoted  from  Jacques  de  Vitry. 

1  Vie  de  s.    Frangois,    181. 

2  Thorn.  I  Vita   18. 

3  Acta  SS.  T.  II  Aug.  754  seqq. 


118     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

our  Thomas  of  Celano,  cannot  be  even  suspected  of  its 
authorship;  so  many  and  so  serious  are  the  divergences 
betvy^een  it  and  the  first  biography  of  Saint  Francis.  The 
frequent  imitations  of  Celano' s  style — which  are  observable 
also  in  the  Legend  of  Saint  Bonaventure  and  the  Life  of 
Aegidius — are  to  be  attributed  solely  to  the  celebrity  of 
Thomas'  work, '  which  greatly  influenced  the  hagiographers  of 
the  period,  who  were  only  too  glad  to  select  from  his  rheto- 
rical treasury  the  most  beauteous  gems  they  could  find.  ^ 
Whatever  may  be  the  history  of  the  MSS  which  give 
us  the  biography  of  the  socia  of  Francis,  if  one  takes  up 
and  studies,  as  it  stands,  the  text  of  the  Bollandists,  some 
important  conclusions  are  reached.  In  it,  as  we  have  said, 
remain,  vivid  and  fresh,  indications  of  the  original  familia- 
rity between  ^overi  and  ^overe,  in  striking  contrast  wdth 
the  traditional  rules  of  the  cloister,  that  were  inspired  if 
not  by  hatred  of  woman,  at  any  rate  by  fear  of  one  who 
was  looked  upon  as  sure  ally  of  the  devil.  The  biogra- 
pher, however,  prudently  takes  pains  to  reduce  to  moderate 
limits  the  reciprocal  visits  of  the  two  Saints,  in  order  to 
avoid  unkind  public  gossip.^  Yet  the  influence  exercized 
by  Francis  on  ihe  career  of  the  noble  maiden,  was  too 
great  to  permit  that  little  or  nothing  should  be  said.  Coura- 
geous and  sure  of  her  faith,  the  virgin  friend  of  Poverty 
ran  to  the  Porziuncula,  and  subsequently  made  her  home 
in  that  church  of  Saint  Damian  which  was  associated  with 
the  conversion  of  Saint  Francis.'^ 


1  Sabatier,  Speculum  LXXV ;   Gotz,   240   seqq. 

2  Acta  cit.  n.   10  (756).     A  passage  of  the  Second  Life  of  Celano  is  refer- 
red to.   I,  6  ;  Rosedale,    1 3. 

3  No.  5,  6.  7 ;  (755-6). 

4  No.  8-10  (755-6). 


CHAPTER   III  119 

Strangely  enough,  Innocent  III  who  had  dealt  in  such 
surly  fashion  with  the  company  of  the  "Poor  Men",  signs 
with  a  cheerful  smile  the  Brief  of  the  privilege  of  the  fe- 
male Order. ' 

In  the  biography  of  the  Mother  of  the  Poor  Clares, 
and  also  in  the  Actus  and  the  Fioretti  many  marvellous 
events  are,  naturally,  related.  If  we  work  back  to  the 
sources  which  directly  inspired  them — since  the  legend  of 
Saint  Clare  forms  part  of  the  larger  cycle  of  the  legend  of 
Saint  Francis — we  shall  succeed  not  only  in  understanding 
the  motive  of  the  man  who  repeated  those  miracles  in 
connexion  with  his  heroine,  but  in  adding  also  a  fresh  element 
of  criticism  to  those  which  we  have  collected  so  far. 

The  Legend  of  Saint  Clare  preserves  vivid  reminiscen- 
ces of  the  Dialogues  of  Saint  Gregory  and  of  the  Life  of 
Saint  Radegunda.  The  two  themes  which  principally  fi- 
gure in  it  are  the  exaltation  of  the  virtues  of  Saint  Clare, 
which  correspond  to  those  of  Saint  Francis,  and  the  more 
delicate  subject  of  their  familiar  intercourse  with  one  another. 

Poverty,  humility,  and  the  most  fervent  devotion  to  the 
holy  Eucharist:  these  are  the  notes  on  which  the  biographer 
specially  dwells.  Saint  Radegunda  sweeps  the  monastery, 
not  disdaining  the  most  servile  offices  within  the  cloister, 
she  washes  and  kisses  the  feet  of  the  poor,  and  cleanses 
the  sores  of  the  diseased:  so  too  does  the  Virgin  Saint  of 
Assisi ;  ^  and  in  order  that   Francis    may    not    be   inferior 

1  No.  14  (755-6). 

2  MG.  SS.   antiquiss.  IV,  2.   Ven.  Fortun.  Vita  s.  Radeg.  c.  23,  24  (44-5) 

e  MG.  SS.  merov.  11,  372  ;   I,  c.  23,  24.     Ergo....  scopans  monasterii  plateas 

quidquid    erat    foedum    purgans,  et  ante    sarcinans    quod   aliis   horret    videre,   non 

abhorrebat  evehere....   ferens  foetores credebat  se  minorem  sibi,  si  se  non  no- 

bilitaret  vilitate  servitii Humilitate    sanctissima  pedes  iavans  et  osculans.     Cfr. 

V.  8.  Clarae  No.  12  (752)  :  sue  illo  nobili  spiritu,  nee  sordida  fugiens,  nee  (oetida 
perhorrescens. 


120     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

in  humility  to  his  spiritual  sister,  the  Speculum  is  careful 
to  represent  him  in  the  act  of  sweeping  out  churches.  ^ 

The  story  of  the  intercourse  between  the  two  saints 
offered  more  serious  difficulties.  Salimbene  heard  it  Sciid 
often  that  the  Minorites  were  fond  of  seeing  ladies ; '  and 
certainly  the  saying  was  a  natural  consequence  of  the  old 
state  of  things.  In  the  heretical  world,  or  at  any  rate 
within  the  sphere  of  its  influence,  the  old  ascetic  ideal  and 
the  cult  of  virginity  removed,  as  in  the  primitive  Christian 
communities,  every  motive  of  impurity  from  the  relations 
between  "Brethren"  and  "Sisters".  Only  the  unkind 
imagination  of  the  orthodox  was  apt  to  revive  against  the 
heretics  those  old  charges  brought  by  the  pagans  against 
the  first  followers  of  Jesus.  With  the  approval  of  the  two 
Rules  the  rigid  claims  of  the  monastic  spirit  made  them- 
selves felt,  and  certain  familiarities  were  no  longer  allowed. 
Traces  of  such  a  change  are  to  be  noted  in  the  Legend 
of  Saint  Clare.  When  the  papal  injunction  aimed  at 
prohibiting  the  customary  visits  of  the  frati  to  the  suore, 
this  meekest  of  Saints  all  but  rebelled  against  the  Pontiff, 
as  though  she  felt  that  the  sweet  fraternity  of  life  and 
thought  had  been  outraged  by  the  intrusion  of  an  unworthy 
suspicion.  ^ 

The  biographer  (or  possibly,  some  later  editor  of  the 
Life  of  Saint  Clare),  describes  the  banquet  of  SS.  Francis 
and  Clare  at  Saint  Mary  of  the  Angels,  with  many   re- 


1  Spec,  c.  56,  57  :  Coepit  (ecclesiam)  scopare  humiliter  et  mundare. 
Sabatier  (op.  cit.    105  n.  I)  says  that  from  the  story  of  the  conversion  of  John 

(of  which  we  shall  speak  further  on  ;  cfr.  II  Vita  III,  1 20)  Celano,  embarrase 
pour  montrer  s.  Francois  bala^ant  les  eglises,  has  suppressed  this  particular,  con- 
sidering it  lacking  in  dignity. 

2  Chr.  214. 

3  Vita  s.  Clarae,  No.  37  (762). 


CHAPTER  III  121 

miniscences  of  the  Gregorian  Dicdogues.  In  those  Dialo- 
gues one  reads  that  Saint  Benedict  went  to  visit  his  sister, 
who  had  been  dedicated  to  God  from  her  earliest  infancy. 
Short  is  the  day  to  those  devoted  souls ;  nightfall  surprises 
Benedict  and  Scholastica  still  at  table  and  ever  in  ecstasy. 
But  the  Saint  may  not  pass  the  night  outside  his  cloister, 
and  his  sister  tries  in  vain  to  keep  him  with  her.  Op- 
portunely a  sudden  storm  prevents  Benedict's  return  to  the 
monastery ;  Scholastica  is  contented — and  the  Rule  is  saved. 
Hence  the  patriarch  of  the  Minorites  may  sup  with  his 
"  spiritual  sister". ' 

Again,  in  the  Speculum  there  is  a  vivid  reflexion  of 
the  old  Franciscan  spirit,  impatient  of  monkish  propriety 
and  circumspection.  Francis  desires,  before  his  death,  to 
see  Madonna  Jacopa  dei  Settesogli  once  more ;  and  he 
writes  to  her.  The  Brethren  hesitate  to  let  a  lady  in,  but 
the  Saint  cuts  short  all  doubts  with  the  words  :  "  The 
Rule  which  excludes  women  must  not  be  observed  in  the 
case  of  one  whom  so  great  faith  and  devotion  have  caused 
to  come  to  me  from  such  distant  parts''.^  Satan  is  no 
longer  to  be  dreaded  in  woman's  piety.  The  light  of  the 
sun,  the  beauty  of  flowers,  the  consolation  of  a  woman's 
smile — none  of  these  are  banished  from  the  religion  of 
Francis.  ^ 

Saint  Clare — at  any  rate  in  her  Legend — preserves  the 
saintly  dignity  of  the  "Poor  Sister"  of  ancient  days.     To 


1  Vita  cit.  No.  43-45  (762-3);  Fior.  No.  15;  Actus,  No,  15.  Cfr.  Dial. 
II,  33.  Not  even  Gregory  is  original.  The  great  saints  often  have  a  sister  a  nun. : 
Migne,  LXXIII,  759,  760-1  ;  cfr.  248. 

2  Spec.  c.  112.  Cfr.  Actus,  No.  18,  ed.  Sabatier  62  n.  2.  Miracula,  ed. 
Rosedaie,    124-6. 

3  Saint  Dominic,  on  the  contrary,  exhorts  the  Brethren  to  be  on  their  guard 
against  the  perils  of  the  ju\>enculae  foeminae :  SS.  Ord.  Praed.  ford.  c.  40 ;  I,  40. 


122     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF  ASSISI 

the  Pope's  entreaty  that  she  will  accept  some  earthly  pos- 
sessions she  replies  by  proudly  clinging  to  her  evangelic 
faith.'  A  fugitive  suggestion  of  heretical  "Communion" 
flashes  out  in  one  episode  of  her  life.  The  Pope  enjoins 
her  to  bless  the  bread  on  the  table :  it  is  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  Church,  which  all  but  yields  the  poor  virgin 
the  august  privilege  of  consecrating  the  Eucharist.  That 
sign  of  the  Cross  which,  by  the  virtue  of  Saint  Clare,  works 
so  many  miracles,  is  a  repetition  of  that  used  by  the  monk 
Martirius  of  the  Valerian  province.  Clare  makes  the  sign 
at  a  distance,  and  the  cross  impresses  itself  on  the  bread.  ^ 
Another  miracle — that  of  the  oil  that  refills  the  vessel,  is 
copied  from  the  Dialogues  of  Gregory  I.  ^  The  clever 
selection  of  the  miracles,  and  their  signification,  illuminate 
for  us  many  another  narrative  that  would  otherwise  be 
drily  historical. 

1  Vita  8.  Clarae,  No.  14,  (756).  The  Pope  goes  so  far  as  to  offer  to  relejise 
her  from  the  vow  of  poverty,  and  speaks  to  her  of  the  necessities  of  life,  in  op- 
position to  the  ideal.  Here  one  is  reminded  of  rhe  Bull  Quo  elongati,  which 
bends  the  Rule  of  the  Minorites  to  meet  the  stem  exigencies  of  deiily  life. 

2  Vita  cit.  No.  43-5  (763).  Cfr.  Greg.  M.  Dial.  I,  11.  The  miracle  is 
repeated  (with  other  circumstances)  in  the  Vita  S.  Sym.  Sali,  Acta  SS.  II  lul.  164. 

3  Dial.  II,  29. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SECOND  LIFE  OF  THOMAS  OF  CELANO : 
THE  REAL  'SPECULUM  PERFECTIONIS '. 

IT  will  not  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  history  of  the 
'  Second  Life '  of  Saint  Francis,  the  child  of  the  bio- 
grapher's old  age.  What  has  been  done  already  is  suf- 
ficient for  our  purpose,  and  further  researches  will  remove 
the  obscurity  which  still  lingers  over  certain  points  connected 
with  it.  ^  Meanwhile,  however,  we  may  at  once  observe 
that  to  call  the  work  in  question  "Second  Life"  is  a  mode 
of  expression  that  may  lead  to  misunderstanding.  The 
writer  entitled  his  book :  **  Memoriale  in  desiderio  animae 
de  gestis  et  verbis  sanctissimi  patris  nostri  Francisci " ;  ^ 
and  Memoriale  has  a  signification  quite  precise,  which  di- 
ligent study  will  determine  with  certainty.  In  the  prologue 
is  recorded  the  decision  of  the  General  Chapter  of  1  244 
which  entrusted  the  task  of  writing  the  deeds  and  words 
of  the  Saint  "  to  him  who,  more  than  any  other  had  op- 
portunities of  knowing  Francis,  in  virtue  of  constant  inter- 
course and  mutual  familiarity".  And  the  vote  of  the 
Chapter  had  its  fulfilment  about  the  year    1  247  with  the 


1  Ehrle,  n  Zeitschr.  fiir  kath.  Theol.  VII,  393  seqq.  Gotz.  88  seqq.  Miiller, 
Anfange  175  seqq.  Sabalier,  Vie  LXXIII  seqq.  Speculum  CXVI  seqq.  Voigt, 
1.   c.  455   seqq.      For  the  MSS.,  Roiedale,   XXVI  seqq. 

2  Pro!.   R.  8. 


124     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

appearance  of  the  work  which  we  are  now  to  study.  The 
Order,  after  the  serious  vicissitudes  which  agitated  the 
Franciscan  brotherhood,  culminating  in  the  fall  of  Bro.  Elias, 
(which  left  the  field  open  for  a  more  decisive  action  on  the 
part  of  the  Church)  has  recourse  once  more  to  the  official 
biographer.  And  he  points  out  the  reason  of  this  new 
task — the  intimacy  with  which  he  had  been  honoured  by 
the  Saint.  The  Lives  of  the  Saints,  as  we  know,  were 
in  each  case  invariably  written  by  the  favourite  of  the  hero ; 
and  so,  true  or  untrue,  this  declaration  of  Celano  was  in- 
dispensable, to  give  greater  value  to  the  narrative.  ^  To  do 
him  justice,  however,  we  must  remember  that  in  all  pro- 
bability he  lived  for  no  short  time  in  close  intercourse 
with  Francis,  after  his  return  from  Germany. 

He  had  already  been  honoured  by  a  papal  command 
to  compose  the  first  biography  of  the  Saint ;  he  was  a  man 
endowed  with  gifts  of  mental  ability,  culture  and  imagi- 
nation ;  he  had  shewn  himself  obedient  to  Bro.  Elias,  to 
Gregory  IX,  to  whoever  was,  for  the  time  being.  Minister 
of  the  Order.  Such  a  man  was  not  likely  to  be  touchy 
or  indignant  at  this  new  proposal.  Rhetorician,  sceptic, 
serene  plagiarist,  full  of  enthusiasm  for  his  subject,  he  was 
one  who  know  his  business  and  performed  it  with  complete 
tranquility  and  self-possession.  Would  he  have  thought 
that  even  the  dead  ashes  of  his  cold  composition  would 
be  fanned  into  flame  by  the  hot  blast  of  zealous  partizan- 
ship  ?  It  is  not  indignation  only  that  produces  verses ; 
sometimes  she  finds  them  already  made  and  presses  them 
into  her  service ! 

I  Sulp.  Set).  Ep.  II,  CV.  144-5.  Cum  me  indignum  et  non  merentem  unice 
(Marlinus)  diligebat.  S.  Bern.  Vita  a.  Malachiae  (Op.  II,  664)  :  Me  inter  spe- 
ciales  amicos  Sanctus  ille  habebat  etc. 


i-M 


CHAPTER   IV  125 

The  gentle  figure  of  the  "Poverello"  had  already  dis- 
appeared twenty  years  back ;  and  with  it  had  gone  the 
ideals  rediscovered  in  the  Gospel  and  in  the  heart  of 
Francis.  The  great  fire  had  burned  down,  and  left  little 
trace  behind.  A  "  monastic  Order  ",  tamed  by  the  Church 
and  loyal  to  her,  but  penetrating  into  her  very  fibres,  the 
"Poveri  d'Assisi"  had  effected  a  reunion  between  the 
imposing  institution  of  monasticism  and  the  humble  ones 
of  the  earth ;  but  they  had  sacrificed  themselves  to  do  so. 
The  mystic  marriage  between  Francis  and  the  Lady  Po- 
verty had  been  followed  by  the  nuptials  of  the  new  religio 
with  the  Papacy.  Preachers  and  Minorites  had  henceforth 
an  official  mission.     All  was  over. 

A  learned  Capuchin  has  a  quarrel  with  Miiller,  and 
with  all  those  who  (according  to  his  opinion),  have  misin- 
terpreted the  real  significance  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 
And  formally  he  is  right.  The  Franciscans  do  not  constitute 
either  an  Ordo  monasticus  or  an  Ordo  heremiticus,  but 
simply  an  Order  approved  by  the  Church. '  All  this  was 
known  also  to  our  Celano ;  ^  but  it  does  not  affect  the  fact 
that  the  Order,  sui  generis  though  it  be,  belongs  to  the 
category  of  institutions  that  must  be  called  monastic.  I  say 
nothing  of  the  prohibition  of  new  Rules  in  the  Fourth  La- 
teran  Council,  because  the  Franciscan  Order  had  already 
been  approved  before  that.  And  as  a  matter  of  fact  our 
Order  possesses,  essentially,  the  monastic  spirit.     Further, 


1  Felder,  Op.  c.  5  note. 

2  R.  90.  De  charitate.  (To  avoid  tedious  repetitions,  it  will  be  better  to 
announce  once  for  all  that  the  letter  R.  followed  by  a  page-number  refers  to 
the  'Second  Life'  according  to  the  text  of  Rosedale.  As  for  St.  Gregory's 
distinction  (Ep.  Ill,  61)  it  is  perfectly  admissible:  he  who  enters  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy  would  mutare,  non  relinquere  saeculum  ;  he  who  be  comes  a  monk 
omnia  relinquit. 


126      SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

the  decadence  of  the  old  Rules  is  explained  by  the  impetus 
of  the  new  Franciscan  Society  which  in  its  near  approach 
to  them  appropriates  all  that  they  still  retain  of  vitality. 

The  monastic  and  clerical  world  sees  new  and  formidable 
rivals  in  the  Franciscans.  As  in  the  days  of  St.  Peter 
Damian,  so  also  in  those  of  Salimbene,  the  secular  priests 
complain  that  the  monks  and  friars  are  usurping  the 
spiritual  ministry  which  belongs  of  right  to  the  parochial 
clergy. '  Even  canonistic  terminology  must  yield  to  hard 
facts.  Rules  for  the  admission  of  novices,  provincial  and 
general  ministers  and  chapters  corresponding — these  are  so 
many  items  of  a  monastic  constitution  which,  like  a  fine 
net,  wrapped  around,  disciplined  and  corrected  the  once 
free  society  of  Assisi.  And  that  society  was  constrained  to 
turn  a  more  sympathetic  face  upon  the  smiles  of  science, 
in  order  to  escape  the  imputation  of  a  "blessed  ignorance" 
such  as  would  disqualify  it  for  the  functions  which  were 
imposed  on  it.  ^  Neither  the  last  Rule,  nor  the  Patriarch's 
"  Testament",  nor  even  Celano's  First  Life  sufficed  to  create 
and  maintain  the  spirit  of  the  Order  which  had  become 
a  world-wide  institution.  The  Life  of  their  founder, 
written  by  Gregory  the  Great,  was  recognised  by  the  Be- 
nedictines as  being,  after  the  Rule  itself,  the  Book  of  the 
Order,  par  excellence.  ^  The  didactic  and  moral  treatises 
after  the  model  of  Cassian's  works ;  and  that  more  unsys- 
tematic and  confused  group  put  together — not  without  risk 
of  dogmatic    errors — with   the   aid  of  the  Liher  de    Vitis 


I   Salimbene,   Chr.   210;  S.   Pier  Dam.   Op.   Ill,  261    seqq. 
^  Salimbene,  1 08  :  Dicunt  etiam  quod  transierunt  per  homines  ydiotas,  quando 
transeunt  per  loca  fratrum  tninorum. 

3  5.  P.  Dam.  Op.  II,  20  :  (Horn.  IX  ad  hon.   S.   Bened.). 


CHAPTER   IV  127 

Patrum  failed  to  correspond  to  the  new  needs.  ^  Already 
in  his  first  biography  Thomas  had  written  of  Francis  with 
his  eye  ever  upon  the  ancient  records  of  monasticism ;  and 
now,  carrying  on  his  former  work  with  the  fresh  inspiration 
offered  by  the  Chapter  of  1 244,  with  its  expression  of  a 
true  idea,  it  was  not  difficult  to  create  what  was  required, 
vi : — a  manual  of  monastic  perfection,  a  Speculum  Per- 
fectionis  after  the  ideals  of  Franciscanism. 

Well,  the  Second  Life  of  Celano  is  a  true  and  proper 
Speculum  Perfectionis.  And  so  Thomas  must  needs  draw 
more  than  ever  upon  Gregory  the  Great.  ^  On  this  point 
we  could  not  wish  for  words  more  explicit  than  those  of 
the  Prologue:  Extimo  autem  beatum  Franciscum  SPECU- 
LUM   QUODDAM     SANCTISSIMUM     DOMINICAE    SANCTITATIS 

ET  IMAGINEM  PERFECTIONIS  ILLIUS :  eius,  inquam  omnia 
tarn  verba,  quam  facta  divinum  quoddam  divinitus  redolent, 
quae  si  diligentem  habeant  inspectorem,  humilemque  disci- 
pulum,  cito  salutaribus  disciplinis  imbutum  summae  illi 
philosophiae  reddunt  acceptum. 

The  monk  should  be  a  "Mirror  of  Perfection";^  and 
perfection  is  attcuned  by  studying  the  books  that  teach  it;"* 


1  On  the  liber  Visionum,  a  source  of  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  :  Schombach, 
in  Sitzungsber,  cit.  Bd.  CXXXIX,  1 1 9-20.  A  book  called  Consuetudo  hererni 
is  mentioned  in  a  document  in  Ann.  Camald.  IV  app.  No.   218  (359);  an.  218. 

2  In  despatching  his  Regula  Pastoralis  to  the  bishop  of  Ravenna,  Gregory  I 
(Ep.  I,  24  a)  writes :  Pulchrum  depinsi  hominem,  pictor  foedus. 

3  Migne,  LXXIII,  927 :  Peregrinus  monachus  speculum  debet  esse  localibus 
monachis.  Cfr.  Ann.  Camald.  IV  app.  No.  218  an.  1216:  Vos  speculum  totius 
Tuscie....  Ch.  hid.  Eiym.  XIX,  31,  18  (ed.  Lindemann  612):  Dictum  autem 
speculum....  quod  ibi  contuentes  (feminae)  considerent  speciem  sui  vultus,  et 
quicquid  ornamenti  desse  viderint  adiiciant,  Greg.  M.  Moral.  II,  1. :  Scriptura 
sacra  mentis  oculis,  queisi  quoddam  speculum  opponitur  etc. 

4  Cassian,  Inst.  Mon.  CV.  6.  Prol.  The  writer  proposes  to  discourse  «  non  de 
mirabilibus  Dei,  sed  de  correctione  morum  nostrum  et  consummatione  vitae  per- 

FECTAE    etc.  ». 


128     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

even  the  Minorite,  therefore,  has  need  of  a  book;  and 
Thomas  provides  him  w^ith  one  calculated  to  meet  all  exi- 
gencies, a  book  that  has  had  a  most  remarkable  success. 
A  little  groping  in  the  manual,  and  the  origin  of  his  matter 
is  quickly  found.  I  venture  to  say  that  you  must  close 
your  eyes  in  order  not  to  see  it — a  method  appropriate, 
perhaps  to  ecstatic  contemplators,  but  very  odd  in  those  who 
are  historians  by  profession.  With  closed  eyes  we  may 
have  an  excellent  view  of  the  things  inside  us,  but  not  of 
those  without! 

The  three  parts  of  the  book,  harmonious  in  its  subdi- 
visions, are  inspired  by  well-known  themes.  It  begins 
with  the  "example**  of  the  Saint's  conversion  and  the 
history  of  the  Order;  next  follow  further  "examples"  of 
the  gifts  and  graces  of  the  Patriarch,  on  which  all — from 
the  novice  to  the  General  Minister — should  model  their 
own  conduct.  The  Saint*s  death  itself  is  an  "example" 
of  a  good  end ;  and  that  solemn  moment  is  coldly  exploited 
by  didactic  rhetoric,  on  the  principle  that  the  word  of  the 
d5ang  man  is  specially  weighty  and  memorable,  as  gathering 
up  in  a  single  phrase  the  secret  of  a  pious  existence.  This 
is  why  Celano  repeats,  with  variations,  the  scene  of  the 
death  of  Francis.  ^ 

If  only  the  book  were  as  faithful  to  fact  as  it  is  loyal 
to  the  idea  which  animates  it  throughout!  Often,  if  not 
always,  the  very  style  pulls  itself  together,  as  it  were,  and 
the  pompous  solemnity  of  the  First  Life  gives  place  to  a 
simplicity  less  involved  alike  in  diction  and  in  thought.  But 
as  soon  as  the  writer  has  made  himself  master  of  the  reader*s 


I  Compare  the  lengthy  sermon  uttered  by  the  dying  S.  Severinus,  ed.  cit.  c. 
43  (49-50)  and  R.  104. 


CHAPTER  IV  129 

mind  and  has  allured  him,  so  to  speak,  with  the  bait  of 
a  narrative  of  things  true  or  plausible,  by  a  clever  sleight-of- 
hand  he  substitutes  for  Francis  a  puppet  from  the  familiar 
oriental  repertoire.  We  are  in  the  Chapter  of  Temptations 
and  I  w^ill  not  attempt  to  resist  them ! 

Naked  amid  the  snow  the  Saint  quenches  the  flames 
of  impure  desire :  then  he  forms  of  the  white  material  seven 
figures  that  represent  wife,  children  and  servants.  It  is  the 
family  that  he  has  granted  to  his  disconsolate  solitude.  He 
says  to  himself :  "  Hasten  to  clothe  them,  for,  as  thou  seest 
they  are  dying  of  cold !  If  the  cares  of  a  family  prove 
so  heavy  for  thee,  serve  God  alone,  and  thon  shalt  have 
neither  care  nor  anxiety".  Celano  is  a  man  of  honour. 
He  adds  that  one  of  the  **  spiritual "  brethren,  intent  on 
prayer  saw  all,  by  the  bright  light  of  the  moon  that  flooded 
the  garden,  but  refrained  from  revealing  it  to  any  one  during 
Francis'  life-time.  He  had  promised  the  Saint  to  be 
silent,  and  kept  his  word.  Alas!  the  poor  "spiritual 
brother"  was  the  victim  of  a  strange  illusion.  He  read 
a  book — and  thought  he  saw  Saint  Francis  in  a  garden ! 
It  was  the  moon,  no  doubt  that  deceived  him.  It  was 
clay  not  snow  in  which  the  "potter"  wrought  to  reduce 
the  rebellious  flesh  by  his  artistic  exertions. ' 

The  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  manual  of  perfection 
preserve,  up  to  a  certain  point,  the  narrative  form ;  but  in 
the  body  of  the  book  the  life  of  Francis  is  decomposed 
into  a  series  of  pictures  corresponding  to  the  various  virtues 
presented  for  imitation.  True  even  when  cut  up  into 
fragments  the  figure   does  not  cease  to  coruscate ;   but  its 


R.  64  and  Migne,  LXXIII.  747. 


130      SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

lightnings,   which    might  else  be  dangerous,  are  tempered 
by  monastic  prudence. ' 

Thomas  describes  the  immense  activity  of  his  hero. 
Every  word  the  Saint  utters  is  a  wise  admonition,  every 
act  is  a  gem  of  teaching.  From  Bari  to  Alessandria, 
from  the  noblest  cities  of  Italy  to  its  obscurest  villages  he 
passes,  preaching  and  blessing.  He  composes  discord,  he 
corrects  and  sanctifies,  he  sings  praises  to  God  continually, 
without  ceasing.  Diseases  rack  his  frame ;  he  subdues  them 
by  the  serenity  of  his  spirit.  On  his  death-bed  he  reserves 
his  last  smile  of  satisfaction  for  the  "loan"  of  a  wretched 
garment  which  enables  him  to  escape  from  the  odious  con- 
ception of  "property":  and  so  the  dream  of  heaven  brought 
down  to  earth,  which  had  flashed  across  his  mind  as  across 
the  ardent  fancy  of  Chrysostom,  finds  its  climax ...  in 
the  terms  of  a  contract !  ^  As  one  reads  and  reads  over 
again  the  Memoriale  of  Celano  a  new  impression  forces 
itself  upon  one.  No !  it  is  not  always  Francis  who  stands 
before  us.  He  who  peers  craftily  into  the  poor  heart  of 
the  novice  to  discern  the  templations  of  youth  not  yet  re- 
signed to  the  denial  of  love ;  he  who,  like  an  old  anchorite 
curbs  rigidly  the  impulses  of  human  passion  and  stands 
immoveable  during  the  recitation  of  the  psalter^  this  is  not 
the  friend  of  the  flowers  and  of  the  sun ;  it  is  a  crabbed 
abbot,  escaped  from    his    own    ruined    cloister    and    sum- 


1  Cfr.  R.  31;  II,  14:  The  Saint  is  described  almost  as  a  recluse  who  hates 
the  light  and  the  world. 

2  R.  107  III,  139.  Cfr.  Pohlmann,  Gesch.  des  antiken  Kommunismus  und 
Sozialismus   1901  :  II,  617. 

3  R.  Ill,  39.  Spec.  perf.  c.  94  (186)  :  nolebat  muro,  vel  parieti,  dum  psalleret, 
adhaerere....  sed  semper  erectus.  Migne,  LXXIII,  258.  V.  Pach.  c.  14:Non 
iacens  somnum  capiebat  noctibus,  sed  in  medio  cellulae  suae  residens,  adeo  ut  nee 
dorsum  saltem  parieti,  pro  substentatione  reclinaret. 


CHAPTER   IV  131 

moned  to  teach,  in  the  blessed  Porziuncula  the  difficult  art 
of  ruling  soul  and  body. 

What  a  wealth  of  cleverness  and  of  scepticism  are  to 
be  found  in  this  book,  which  is  a  chef  d'  oeuvre — possibly 
the  chef  d' oeuvre  of  monastic  imposture  in  the  thirteenth 
century — entwined  like  clinging  ivy  round  the  little  plant 
of  Assisi!  What  are  the  innocent  literary  frauds  of  the 
learned  Hincmar  in  comparison  with  these  of  Celano  ?  ^ 

The  manual  must  needs  correspond  to  its  lofty  purpose, 
certain  images  out  of  the  First  Life  must  disappear — they 
were  obsolete  survivals.  The  memories  of  the  Saint's  gay 
youth,  those  of  Bro.  Elias ;  the  fresh  idyll  of  the  joyous 
band  on  its  way  back  from  Rome;  the  sharp  vivacity  of 
certain  expressions,  and  the  calm  indifference  to  the  flatteries 
of  vain  erudition. 

In  the  presence  of  the  Povere  Donne  d' Assisi  it  was 
prudent  that  the  Saint  should  now  droop  his  eyes,  in  order 
that  novices  should  not  get  into  the  habit  of  lifting  theirs 
too  high,  but  should  cultivate  a  certain  self-restaint.  In 
the  first  Legend  there  stood  out  the  figure  of  a  beauteous 
virgin,  sketched  with  masterly  swiftness,  free  from  all  rhe- 
torical rubbish  with  which  Celano's  clever  art  might  have 
overlaid  it.  It  is  the  figure  of  "  Evangelic  Poverty ". 
Chastely  secure  in  her  absolute  nakedness,  she  flashed  with 
sparkling  light.  In  1 230  a  mantle  was  thrown  over  her 
naked  limbs — the  mantle  of  the  Bull  "Quo  elongati"  :'' 
and  this  vesture  cried  out  to  be  embroidered  with  subtle 
juridical  and  canonical  conceptions. 

Men  and  things  were  changing ;  but  there  remained  the 


1  Vita  S.  Remigii,  in  MG.   SS.  merov.   Ill,   261    seqq. 

2  Sbaralea.  Bull,  franc.  I  68.  No.  56. 


132     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF    ASSISI 

fundamental  compact  of  the  Order  with  Rome,  dominating 
and  dominated  by  the  mighty  family.  Upon  the  rough 
and  ingenuous  group  of  the  Socii  of  Assisi  had  arisen  an 
imposing  organisation  that  knew  no  bounds  either  of  political 
dominions  or  of  ecclesiastical  jealousies.  It  was  necessary 
to  point  out  with  the  utmost  clearness  to  this  world  the 
virtue  of  obedience  to  the  Church,  the  charity  of  its  go- 
verment,  and  the  rules  of  the  modus  Vivendi  with  it.  Broad 
as  Franciscan  thought,  which  is  derived  from  the  Gospel ; 
lively  and  various  as  the  new  conditions ;  proud,  yet  loyal 
to  Rome,  as  the  Saint's  own  compact : — such  must  be  the 
great  commentary  on  the  Rule  which  the  Pope,  with  the 
interpretative  skill  of  a  glossator,  was  to  reconcile  with  the 
practice  of  the  Franciscan's  life.  This  commentary,  which  is 
identical  with  the  "Mirror  of  Perfection"  of  the  institution 
and  of  the  individual,  was  asked  and  was  obtained  from 
Thomas  of  Celano.      He  was  in  a  position  to  write  it. 

In  the  First  Life,  Celano  gave  to  the  Saint  the  physi- 
ognomy he  was  enjoined  to  give ;  in  the  second  he  describ- 
ed the  life  of  the  Order  and  of  the  individual  Friar  ac- 
cording to  rules  still  more  rigid. 

Such  is  the  character  of  the  book :  Francis  is  no  longer 
its  only  hero.  The  brilliant  figure  depicted  is  that  of  the 
perfection  of  the  Order. '  If  the  desired  perfection  is  to 
be  found  actually  in  the  Saint,  we  can  believe  that  Thomas 
takes  it  from  the  life ;  if  it  is  not  there,  he  takes  it  from 
elsewhere,  and  from  a  source — we  may  suggest — that  is 


I  Prol.  Dehinc  vero  exprimere  intendimus  et  vigilanti  studio  declarare,  quae 
s.  Patris  tam  in  se,  quara  in  suis,  fuerit  voluntas  bona,  beneplacens  el  perfecta 
in  omni  exercitio  disciplinae  coelestis  et  summae  perfectionis  studio,  quod  semper 
habuit  apud  Deum....  et  apud  homines  in  exemplis.  —  Greg.  M.  In  Job  prae- 
fatio  I,    I  ;  n.   4,  c.  2.:  Adhibita  sunt  praecepta....  adiunguntur  exempla. 


1 


CHAPTER  IV  133 

not  necessarily  historical.  If  it  is  but  too  true  that  "  reason- 
ing makes  no  wrinkles",  it  is  true  also  of  the  proofs  which 
we  mean  presently  to  adduce. 

We  said  above  that  the  first  chapter  of  the  Speculum 
had  to  be  that  on  conversion;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
conversion  is  the  subject  that  the  professional  writers  of 
treatises  on  monasticism  make  it  a  rule  to  develope  first. ' 
The  conversion  is  prepared  for,  or  shadowed  forth,  in  the 
very  opening  words :  Franciscus ....  cui  divina  providentia 
hoc  vocaholum  indidit,  ut  et  singulari  et  insueto  nomine 
opinio  ministerii  eius,  ioti  innotesceret  orbi,  a  matre  propria 
Johannes  vocatus  fuit,  cum  de  filio  irae,  ex  aqua  et  Spiritu 
sancio  renascens,  gratiae  filius  est  effectus.  ^  It  is  his 
mother,  a  new  Elisabeth,  who  foresees  the  sanctity  of 
her  son,  on  whom  presently  smiles  the  certitude  of  being 
worshipped  upon  the  altars.  ^  The  Saint's  name  is  changed. 
Called  by  his  mother  at  the  font  Giovanni,  i.  e.,  servant 
and  "friend"  of  the  Most  High,  he  received  from  Divine 
Providence  the  other  "  strange  and  unusual "  name  of 
Francesco.  "  When  God  gives  or  changes  a  man's  name, 
it  is  an  indication  of  saintly  life  " — such  is  the  teaching 
which  the  good  disciple  Thomas  of  Celano  draws  from 
his  master  Hincmar  !  '^ 

Probably,  according  to  a  custom  of  which  there  are  very 
numerous  examples  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  name  Fran- 


1  Heisterbach,   I,    I    De  convers.      {Strange  1,   3  seqq.)  ;  Cassian. 

2  The  biblical  phrase  reappears  in   Cassian.     Conl.  Mon.   Ill,   7  ;  CV.    78. 

3  /?.  I  (I,  I):  Adhuc  sanctus  adorabor  per  seculum  totum,  i.  e.  for  ever. 
How  is  such  a  thought  to  be  reconciled  with  Franciscan  humility  ?  Celano  is  the 
victim  of  his  own  excellent  memory  ;  St.  Ambrose  also  as  a  child  makes  them 
kiss  his  hand  in  anticipation  of  the  episcopal  dignity.  Paulini,  Vita  s.  Ambrosii 
c.  4  :  Dicens  et  sibi  id....  fieri  oportere,   si  quidem  episcopum  se  futurum. 

4  Vita  Rem,  1.  c.  261,     Cfr.  Jerem.   I,  5. 


134    SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

ciscus  was  added  afterwards  to  the  baptismal  name.  This 
would  explain  the  "  work  of  Providence".  But  we  must 
not  neglect  to  point  out  that  Celano  was  inaccurate  in  af- 
firming that  the  name  Francesco  was  "stange  and  unusual". 
In  Tuscan  documents  of  the  twelfth  century  we  find  Fran- 
cischo  and  Franzus'/  that  proves  the  relative  frequency 
of  the  nsune. 

These  many  presages  of  future  spiritual  greatness  no 
longer  harmonised  w^th  the  storms  of  his  early  youtL 
His  mother,  indeed,  like  Monica,  asks,  quasi  divino  instructa 
oraculo:  "What  shall  my  son  be?"  But  it  is  not  because 
she  is  anxious  about  him ;  only  to  console  herself  with  her 
own  reply :  "  Meritorum  gratia,  Dei  filium  ipsum  noveritis 
affuturum".  Freuicis  grew  up  courteous  and  well-bred; 
"he  had  not  the  appearance  of  having  sprung  from  the 
family  which  claimed  him".  So  says  Celano,  meaning  no 
insult,  of  course,  to  the  ineproachable  mother,  but  to  Ber- 
nardone.  Had  the  biographer  still  in  mind  the  portrait 
which  Saint  Gregory  paints  in  his  Dialogues? — The  father 
who  accustoms  his  son  to  blasphemy  opens  the  gates  of 
Hell  to  his  offspring.  The  responsibility  of  the  slight  moral 
deviations — if  such  there  were — of  the  Sciint's  youth,  lies 
always  at  the  door  of  his  father,  who  imports,  perchance 
with  French  merchandise,  heretical  blasphemies  also.  The 
pious  compassion  of  Francis  flows  forth  unhindered  as  soon 
as  he  has  shaken  off  the  paternal  shackles  ;  in  his  first 
moments  of  emancipation  he  bestows,  not  merely  half  a 
cloeik  but  an  entire  vesture,  and  a  very  rich  one,  upon  a 
poor  mcui.     Saint  Martin  himself  has  been  surpassed !     By 

I  DaviJsohn,  Forschungen  zur  Geschichle  von  Florenz  1 900 ;  II,  1 60.  See 
also  Tarducci,  Vita  di  s.  Francesco,  (1904);  6  (note  12),  who  collects  other 
iiutances. 


CHAPTER  IV  135 

a  wonderful  vision  God  transforms  the  murky  smoke  of 
military  glory  that  for  a  short  time  darkened  the  hero's 
mind.  The  conversion  of  the  soldier  of  fortune  is  more 
rapid  than  that  of  the  Roman  Legionary  had  been.  "  Re- 
turn to  thy  country",  is  the  Lord's  injunction:  and  Francis 
returns,  an  obedient  child  of  God. 

In  his  own  city,  his  former  companions,  "  children  of 
Babylon",  attempt  to  seduce  him  back  to  perdition;  but 
in  vain.  All  they  can  win  from  him  is  a  farewell  banquet. 
He  is  changed.  He  proceeds  to  climb  the  steep  mountain 
of  the  new  life. " 

Who  can  trace  out  seriously  and  historically,  in  the 
brilliant  artistic  design  of  the  First  and  the  Second  Life, 
that  foundation  of  truth  which  seems  to  stand  out  so  clearly 
to  the  modern  biographers  of  the  Saint  ? 

Assisi  and  Guido's  episcopal  palace  had  been,  according 
to  the  former  narrative,  the  witnesses  of  the  great  act  of 
Francis'  conversion;  but  evidently  that  scene  was  now  consi- 
dered too  humble  for  so  great  a  Saint  as  the  Patriarch 
of  the  Franciscans.  The  Second  Life  transfers  the  scene 
to  Rome,  where  it  is  enacted  in  front  of  the  Apostle's 
tomb  and  in  the  sight  of  all  Christendom.  For  love  of 
God  the  pilgrim  of  Assisi  lays  aside  his  own  elegant  vesture, 
and  donning  the  garb  of  a  beggar  outside  the  Church  of 
Saint  Peter,  sits  down  and  eats  ravenously,  confused  among 
the  crowd  of  mendicants. ""  Great  is  the  solemnity  of  the 
episode,  which  has  found  a  warm  welcome  in  the  later 
legend  and  in  the  artistic  pages  of  Sabatier.  ^  This  is  the 
psychological  moment  of  the  conversion.     All  that  is  lacking 


I  R  12.  13  (I.  3). 

a  R  12:  (I.  4). 

3  Vie  de  s.  Francois,  28. 


136     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

is  an  identification  of  the  Saint's  impetuous  zeal  with  a 
profound  obsequiousness  to  the  majesty  of  the  Roman 
Church.  And  for  this  very  reason  Francis  is  made  to 
enter  the  Church  and  approach  the  altar  of  the  Apostle. 
The  piety  of  the  faithful  is  meagre;  the  scanty  oblations 
rarely  give  a  ring  of  metal  upon  the  plate  which  at  once 
collects  and  denounces  them.  Then  the  pilgrim  casts  in 
money  by  handfuls,  and  remembers  even  the  humblest  ec- 
clesiastical officials.  ^ 

The  man  who  was  to  assume  an  apostolic  mission,  from 
the  very  beginning  was  filled  with  the  catholic  faith  in  all 
its  integrity  and  with  reverence  for  the  ministers  and  the 
things  of  God.  Saint  Francis  reconciles  Poverty  with  the 
Church.  The  outlines  of  the  poor  priest  of  Saint  Damian's 
and  of  the  Bishop  of  Assisi  himself  ^  now  grow  pale  and 

3  I  observe  that  Celano,  like  our  friend  Homer,  is  subject  to  occasional  fits 
of  abstraction.  Francis  changes  his  rich  robes  for  the  beggar's  rags ;  it  seems,  however 
that  he  did  not  forget  to  remove  his  purse,  but  put  it  into  the  pocket  (if  there 
was  one)  of  the  tattered  vesture  he  had  donned  !  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Saint 
is  represented  as  entering  the  church  after  his  change  of  clothes,  and,  when  there, 
could  not  have  thrown  all  that  money  down  before  the  altar  of  St.  Peter,  if  he 
had  not  been  careful  to  keep  hold  of  it  at  the  moment  of  his  heroic  act.  It 
were  more  dramatic  and  more  logical  to  invert  the  order  of  the  two  incidents. 

I  In  the  second  narrative  there  comes  out  more  clearly  the  part  played  by 
the  bishop  of  Assisi  in  the  conflict  between  father  and  son.  Francis,  cursed  by 
his  father  (Salimbene  relates  in  very  similar  language  the  story  of  his  own  con- 
version and  his  father's  wrath  :  Chr.  1 3)  gets  himself  blessed  by  a  simple  and 
holy  man  of  the  people,  and  restores  to  his  father  the  money  which  he  had  in- 
tended to  spend  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Church,  and  that  by  the  advice  of 
the  bishop  of  his  city,  a  man  of  deep  piety,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  not 
be  lawful  to  devote  to  sacred  uses  wealth  that  had  been  ill-gotten.  Thereupon 
the  Saint,  reciting  the  Pater  noster,  and  declaring  himself  son  of  God  and  not 
of  Bernardone,  restores  to  the  latter  not  only  the  money  in  question  but  also  the 
clothes  he  has  on  ;  and  concludes  :  "  nudus  igitur  ad  Dominum  pergam "  {R. 
14-15;  I,  7).  An  historian  would  say  that  with  this  rite  of  stripping  himself 
Francis  performed  his  part  of  the  forisfamiliatio ;  that  is  to  say,  detaching  himself 
from  his  family,  he  restores  to  the  parental  authority  that  which  he  (having  become 
extraneous  to  it)  could  no  longer  keep  back.  It  is  probable  that  the  touches  by 
which  the  old  nanative  is  modified  were  suggested  to  Celano  by  the  necessity — or 


CHAPTER  IV  137 

dim.  Woe  to  this  last  if  he  approach  without  due  caution 
the  One  whom  he  gathered  naked  into  his  arms!  His 
indiscretion  shall  cost  him  his  voice ! ' 

Thomas  gives  proofs  of  a  most  excellent  memory.  After 
so  many  years  he  recalls  a  page  of  the  namesake  of  his 
provincial  minister  Caesarius.  In  Germany,  as  elsewhere, 
the  canons  of  good  family  went  about  in  magnificent  clo- 
thing, and  were  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  friars 
whenever  they  knocked  for  admission  to  the  convents.  The 
noble  canon  Philip  recognised  the  danger  and  took  measures 
to  avoid  it.  '*  Scholas  deseruit,  et  cum  esset  adolescens 
delicatus,  bonisque  vestibus  indutus,  pauperi  scholari  sibi 
occurrenti  illas  dedit,  vilia  illius  vestimenta  reinduens".'' 
So  writes  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach :  Celano  copies  him 
with  alterations,  leaving  however  the  two  words  vestimenta 
and  delicata  as  indications  of  his  plagiarism.  And  when 
once  these  German  records  came  crowding  into  the  rhetori- 
cian's mind,  how  could  he  pass  over  the  ever-memorable 
figure  of  the  canon  Ensfrid,  ^  who  invited  to  his  table  poor 
men  with  ulcerous  hands,  holding  out  his  own  bowl  to 
them  that  they  might  eat  with  him?"^  There  was  no  ne- 
cessity to  go  as  far  as  Rome  to  see  the  beggars  at  the 
church  doors ;  Thomas  had  read  over  and  over  again  in 


the  opportunity — of  a  nearer  approach  to  the  truth  which  had  been  rudely  vio- 
lated by  the  scene  as  described  in  the  First  Life  in  terms  of  a  monastic  Abre- 
nuntiatio. 

1  R  55  ;  (III.  43). 

2  I,  38  ;  Strange  I,  467. 

3  Kaufmann,  Caesarius  v.  Heisterbach,  1850;  22-23;  But  neither  is  Caesarius 
original.  Ensfrid  liberates  children  from  a  master  who  did  more  teaching  with 
his  fist  than  with  his  tongue  (VI,  5),  so  does  S.  Simeon  Stultus  :  Acta  SS.  T. 
Jul.  156.  Perhaps  there  was  a  Latin  version  of  the  Life  of  S.  Simeon  unknown 
to  the  Bollandist. 

4  VI,  5.  (I,  350).     Cfr.  Greg.  M.  Dial.  I,  9. 


138     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

the  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers "  :  "  In  porticu ....  ecclesiae 
iacet  multitudo  mancorum  ". '  That  was  the  fertile  sowing- 
plot  for  good  works.  No  one  will  doubt  that  Francis 
did  really  give  loving  consolation  to  the  miserable  and 
leprous ;  indeed  it  is  his  infinite  pity  that  excites  the  artist 
of  Celano  to  give  his  hero  the  classical  attitudes  of  the 
conventional  friend  of  the  poor.  Francis  could  not  have 
shewn  himself  inferior  to  an  aristocratic  German  canon! 

We  may  believe  in  the  virtues  of  the  Saint:  but  the 
words  of  an  incorrigible  plagiarist  fail  to  move  us.  A  short 
and  unimportant  chapter  brings  back  summarily  to  mind 
the  episodes  of  the  temptation  of  Saint  Francis  and  his 
tenderness  towards  lepers ;  ^  but  Thomas  is  in  a  great  hurry 
to  describe  the  miracle  "unheard  of  for  centuries  past". 
In  the  ruined  and  deserted  church  of  Sciint  Damian,  a 
painted  Crucifix  speaks  to  the  Saint:  "Francis,  go  and 
repair  My  house,  which,  as  thou  seest,  is  all  in  ruins". 
"Was  a  greater  portent  ever  heard  of?"  exclaims  Celano 
triumphantly — just  as  Sulpicius  Severus  exclaims  when  he 
proves  that  for  miraculous  virtues,  Saint  Martin  surpasses 
all  the  anchorites  of  the  Thebaid.  ^  At  the  foot  of  the 
Crucified  the  Saint  weeps  over  the  Passion  of  the  true  God 
and  true  Man,  who  shall  make  him  worthy  to  bear  His 
wounds.  This  theme  is  already  familiar  to  us,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  subjoin  one  or  two  examples,  to  shew  that 
the  miracle  is  very  far  from  being  "unheard  of". 


1  Cfr.  S.  John.  V.  3.  Migm,  LXXIII,  1197.  (Hist.  Laus.)  These  clients 
of  the  Saints  are  called  matricularii ;  as  being  inscribed  in  the  registers  of  the 
Church  and  supported  by  the  offerings  of  the  faithful ;  cfr.  Greg.  Tur.  De  virt. 
S.  luliani,  c.  38;  De  virt.  S.  Martini,  I,  31  ;  II,  22;  Hist.  Franc.  Vll,  29. 
Greg.  M.  Ep.  Ill,  41,  42  (MG.  200-1  note  1). 

2  R.    12,   13;  (I,  5).     Cfr.  Greg.   M.  Horn,  in  Evang.  II,  39;  n.   10. 

3  Dial.  II.  5;  CV.    186. 


CHAPTER  IV  139 

In  the  silence  and  mystic  twilight  of  the  cloister  the 
pain-racked  image  of  Jesus  upon  the  cross  loses  the  ri- 
gidity of  dead  matter  and  quivers  like  a  living  thing.  The 
convulsed  lips  tremble,  and  speak  to  Bro.  Corrado  as  he 
contemplates  the  eternal  spectacle  of  the  great  Martyrdom : 
"See,  Corrado,  how  much  I  have  suffered  for  thee ! "  ^ 
Bro.  Daniel,  again,  fixes  an  undiverted  gaze  upon  the 
Crucifix,  and  the  Crucifix,  moved  by  such  devotion,  ad- 
dresses to  him  a  divine  word  of  kindness :  "  Ask  all  that 
thou  wilt!"  The  grace  requested  and  obtained  is  that  of 
never  thinking  on  the  Passion  with  dry  eyes.  ^  If  a  monk 
is  consumed  with  the  feverish  desire  for  martyrdom,  the 
hands  of  Christ  free  themselves  from  the  bloodstained  nails 
and  embrace  the  candidate  for  that  glorious  death ;  ^  if  a 
nun  is  tormented  by  Satan,  Jesus  clasps  the  poor  victim 
of  temptation  to  His  heart,  and  heals  her  once  for  all.  "^ 

He  who  is  disposed  to  believe  Thomas  of  Celano, 
cannot  deny  credence  to  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach.  Strange 
are  thfe  vicissitudes  of  the  legend  of  Saint  Francis! 

It  has  come  down  to  us  in  its  actual  form  partly  because 
Thomas  sojourned  in  Germany  long  enough  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  works  of  that  narrator  of  miracles,  the 
delight  of  all  the  German  monasteries,  the  incomparable 
artist  who  is  not  known  or  studied  to  day  as  he  merits. 
But  for  the  German  mission  of  I  22 1 ,  it  is  probable  that 
the  Franciscan  Legend  would  have  assumed  a  very  diffe- 
rent shape.  As  a  result  of  the  diffusion  of  the  Minorites 
throughout  the  world,  the  form  of  the  Patriarch  came  to 


1  Caes.  VIll,  20  (Strange  II,  98). 

2  Caes.  VIlI.  11   (II.  90);  cfr.  VIII.   10  (II,  89). 

3  Caes.  VIII.  16  (II.  94). 

4  Caes.  VIII,  20  (II.  98). 


140     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

be  enriched  with  traits  drawn  from  the  most  celebrated 
stories  in  vogue  in  each  different  country :  and  thus  the 
physiognomy  of  the  seraphic  man  became  familiar  to  the 
whole  world. 

The  words  of  the  Crucifix  of  Saint  Damian's  have  the 
other  miracle  of  the  Stigmata  as  their  logical  consequence. 
There  was  therefore  no  necessity  to  repeat  the  narrative 
of  visions.  The  Stigmata,  and  the  pains  taken  by  the 
Saint  to  conceal  those  marks  of  Divine  favour  now  come 
to  be  simply  an  example  of  his  humilify,  and  afford  a 
convenient  occasion  for  taking  away  from  certain  of  the 
"Companions"  the  wish  to  boast  of  having  seen  the  mystic 
wounds.  ^ 

In  the  Preface  to  the  "  Manual "  there  was  only  room 
for  certain  subjects  exquisitely  selected  and  developed :  Saint 
Francis  intent  on  the  restoration  of  Saint  Damian's  the 
conversion  of  Saint  Bernard,  the  conversation  with  Inno- 
cent III,  the  establishment  of  the  religious  capital  of  the 
Order  at  the  Porziuncula — "  caput  omnium  Sanctorum  " 
and  "speculum  religionis" — and,  finally,  the  first  acts  of 
the  pious  government  of  the  great  family  and  the  solemn 
approbation  of  the  Rule  in  the  days  of  Honorius.  Among 
the  companions  who  attach  themselves  to  the  Saint  as  soon 
as  he  has  escaped  from  the  persecutions  of  his  father  and 
brother  after  the  Hesh,  the  most  prominent  place  is  given 
to  the  figure  of  Bernard,  follower,  according  to  Divine 
prophecy,  of  Francis  and  Poverty.  ^ 

The  episode  (among  those  collected  later  in  the  Actus),  ^ 


1  /?.  71-3  De  occultatione  stigmatum  ;  the  chapter  precedes  that  de  humilitate. 

2  R.  16  (I,  10).     R.  33  (II.  17). 

3  Actus  No.    1    §    10  seqq.  Fior.  No.  2.     Cfr.  S.  Aug.   Confess.  VIII,    12: 
Migne.   LXXIII,    127. 


CHAPTER  IV  141 

IS  repeated  by  Celano  in  the  place  where  he  records  the 
conversion  of  the  priest  Silvestro,  the  miserly  vendor  of  stones 
that  are  to  become  the  House  of  God. ' 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  symbolism  (which  is  the  cha- 
racteristic disease  of  those  days)  in  this  place  at  least  lends 
transparency  to  the  fact.  Avarice  and  simony,  like  a  ma- 
lignant cancer,  are  ruining  the  Church;  but  Francis  does 
not  wash  only  the  poor  lepers,  he  cleanses  also  impure 
priests.  The  priest  Silvestro  sells  to  the  Saint  the  stones 
with  which  he  is  to  restore  the  building  which  Innocent 
sees  crumbling  down  and  supported  only  by  the  simple 
and  despised  man  of  Assisi.  ^  We  see  nothing  of  the 
proud  plant  that  scarcely  deigns  to  bend  down  its  branches 
before  the  Poverello,  as  it  is  described  in  the  first,  timid 
Legend.  The  haughty  tree  has  become  a  trembling  reed. 
In  1 229  Celano  shews  us  Francis  almost  terrified  by  the 
majesty  of  the  Pope ;  here  on  the  other  hand,  God  an- 
nounces to  the  Pope  the  mission  of  His  servant,  as  the 
mission  of  the  humble  Aequitius  had  been  announced  to 
Symmachus. 

Not  many  years  have  gone  by  since  the  meeting  of  the 
learned  Lotario  with  the  simple  Saint  of  Umbria :  yet  the 
"Memoriale" — allowing  for  Celano's  exaggeration — indi- 
cates most  surprisingly,  in  its  changed  language,  the  serious 
humiliations  inflicted  by  the  Franciscan  Society  upon  the 
Papacy  and  the  secular  clergy.  On  his  entrance  into  the 
Order,  the  novice  learnt  from  Thomas'  book  that  one  must 
shew  obedience  to  the  Church  and  the  Pope ;  ^  but  at  the 


1  R.  60  (II,  54). 

2  R.    16-18  (I,   II).     It  seems  as  though  Innocent  were  disturbed  by  other 
people's  visions  :  Reg.  II  No.  405. 

3  R.  20-1   (I,   16,   17).     Spec.  c.  78:  Quod  voluil  religionem  semper  esse 


142     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

same  time  he  was  made  aware  that  without  Saint  Francis 
— and,  still  more,  without  the  Franciscans — the  Church 
would  not  have  had  left  to  her  one  stone  upon  another. 
The  sins  of  the  unworthy  ministers  had  justly  cancelled 
the  promises  of  God.  So  there  remains  still  in  a  rheto- 
rician who  is  the  Popes'  whole-hearted  and  devoted  ser- 
vant,  the  Franciscan  germ  of  heresy. 

The  work  of  Celano  gives  us  a  repetition  of  the  clas- 
sical type  of  monastic  institutions,  and  never  diverges  from 
the  spirit  of  conventional  monasticism.  ^  And  hence  it  is 
that  the  whole  body  of  the  work  is  distributed  under  a 
number  of  "Examples"  corresponding  in  number  to  the 
number  of  the  virtues  proper  to  the  perfect  life  of  the  Re- 
ligious. The  dogmatic  definition  of  each  virtue  is  followed 
by  the  narrative  of  those  acts  or  occurrences  that  are  cal- 
culated to  illustrate  best,  and  impress  most  strongly  on  the 
mind,  the  intimate  nature  of  the  moral  endowment  which 
the  monk  needs  if  he  is  to  approach  the  great  Model. 
We  may  take,  for  our  own  example,  the  chapter  on  Hu- 
milify.  The  heading  says  :  Sub  hoc  titulo  continetur 
humilitas  sancti  in  habitu,  sensu  et  moribm,  et  contra 
proprium  sensum.  ^  First  of  all  humility,  which  is  omnium 
virtutum  custos  et  decor,  is  defined  as  being  the  foundation 


sub  proiectione  et  correctione  ecclesiae  romanae.  Cfr.  Salimbene,  119:  Nam 
summis  Pontificihus  obediendum  est.  Vita  b.  Aegid.  in  Acta  SS.  Apr.  T.  Ill, 
225  :  O  Sancta  mater  Ecclesia  Romana,  nos  insipientes  et  miseri  non  cognosci- 
tnus  te,  neque  bonitatem  tuam.  Tu  doces  viam  salutis,  paras  et  ostendis  nobis 
viam,  per  quam  si  quis  pergit  -  ascendit  ad  caelestem  gloriam.  There  was  no 
rebellion  in  them  ! 

1  St.  Dominic  might  have  studied  the  Collationes  patrum  (SS.  Ord.  Praed. 
Jord.  c.  7.  1.  4) ;  but  St.  Francis  even  if  he  had  been  to  school  with  the  priests 
of  S.  Giorgio  (I  Vita  23  ;  Bonav.  219)  would  not  have  understood  such  a  book. 
Celano  no  doubt  undertook  this  work  on  his  behalf  I 

2  R.   5,  73  seqq. 


CHAPTER   IV  143 

of  the  monastic  life. '  This  definition — we  may  remark 
at  once,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  care  to  know — is 
drawn  in  substance  from  Gregory  the  Great.  ^  If  the  Pa- 
triarch is  humility  itself  in  all  his  actions,  it  is  clear  that 
after  dealing  lightly  with  characteristic  aspects  of  that  supreme 
virtue  as  they  appeared  in  the  Saint,  Thomas  should 
demonstrate  in  what  manner  and  degree  he  was,  felt  himself 
to  be,  and  wished  to  be  and  to  appear  humble :  how  he  drew 
salutary  lessons  from  the  very  people  who  humiliated  him 
and,  in  so  doing,  involuntarily  lifted  him  higher  than  ever. 
So  anecdote  alternates  with  teaching,  and  the  lesson  becomes 
less  trying.  One  among  many  of  such  little  stories  a  propos 
of  humility  is  related  by  Celano  as  follows.  "  Once  upon 
a  time  the  Saint  had  to  preach  at  Terni.  The  bishop 
presented  him  to  the  congregation  with  fair  words,  and 
when  the  sermon  was  ended  he  said :  *  At  the  last  hour 
God  hath  willed  to  enlighten  his  Church,  sending  this 
beggarly  fellow,  ill-conditioned,  simple  and  ignorant  {pau- 
perculus,  despedus,  simplex  et  illicteratus).  And  therefore 
we  give  thanks  to  the  Lord  who  granteth  not  such  boons 
to  all  the  nations'.^  There  is  no  need  to  record  the  answer 
of  the  great  preacher  to  the  discourteous  bishop.  The 
subject  of  the  simplicity  of  Franciscan  speech  fitted  in  very 


1  Non  discemebatur  Dei  princeps  (I)  quod  praelatus  esset,  nisi  hac  clarissima 
gemma,  quia,  inter  minores,  minimus  aderat.  Haec  virtus,  hie  titulus,  hoc  insigne 
generalem  indicabat  esse  ministrum.  In  the  so-called  Speculum  (c.  78)  there  is 
but  a  miserable  paraphrase  of  these  conceits,  mixed  up  with  reminiscences  of  other 
passages  of  Celano. 

2  Moral.  XVIII,  in  c.  33  Job ;  n.  24 :  Humilitatem,  quae  magistra  est  omnium 
materque  virtutis.  In  Evang.  I,  7  n.  4  :  Scientia  -  virtus  est,  humilitas  etiam  custos 
virtutis.  Cfr.  Cassian.  Inst.  IV,  29  ;  CV.  68  Christi  humilitas  quae  est  vera 
nobiliteis.  Migne,  LXXIII,  785  ;  Omnis  labor  monachi,  sine  humilitate,  vanus  est. 
Humilitas  enim  praecursor  (sic)  est  charitatis  etc. 

3  K.    74  ;  (III,  73). 


144     SAINT    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI 

well  with  that  of  humility ;  and  Celano,  who  lacks  neither 
spirit  nor  clever  art,  makes  this  his  opportunity  of  celebra- 
ting those  triumphs  of  the  Saint  that  gave  so  much  an- 
noyance to  the  clergy.  The  clergy  might  indeed  be, 
technically,  learned ;  but  they  had  forgotten  the  reason  why 
the  populates  sermones  of  Saint  Ambrose  had  been  so 
successful. '  In  the  Bull  of  Canonization  of  the  Saint — 
that  unfortunate  piece  of  official  rhetoric — there  is  mention 
of  the  "simple"  words  of  the  new  Samson  who,  armed 
with  the  famous  "  jaw-bone  of  an  ass  "  triumphed  over 
the  enemy  like  the  Israelite  hero.  From  the  jaw-bone  there 
issued  afterwards  a  copious  stream  of  water  which  washed 
many  a  stain  and  refreshed  the  parched  and  exhausted 
meadows  of  the  Faith.  If  we  were  not  dealing  with  a 
simitude  of  Saint  Gregory's  derived  allegorically  from  the 
story  in  the  Bible,  one  might  have  suspected  that  the  rhe- 
torician of  the  Curia  really  desired,  with  scanty  reverence 
for  the  new  Saint,  to  hint  at  the  ignorance  of  the  man 
who  had  no  need  of  schooling  in  order  to  thrill  the  crowds 
with  his  burning  phrases.  ^ 

Within  the  restricted  circle  of  such  facts  as,  in  all  pro- 
bability, are  but  little  removed  from  the  truth,  Thomas  of 
Celano  deserves  credence,  and  his  work,  in  certain  points 
(of  course  with  the  greatest  caution)  acquires  also  a  little 
of  the  dignity  of  history.    Yet  the  temptation  to  add  example 


1  S.   August.  Confess.  VI,  4;  CV.   119. 

2  Sbaralea,  Bull.  Franc.  I  No.  25  a.  1 228  :  Praedicatione  siquidem  simplici, 
nullis  verborum  persuasibilium  humanae  sapientiae  coloribus  adornata.  Here  is  the 
Gregorian  allegory :  (Moral.  XIII ;  in  c.  16  Job ;  n.  15):  Maxilla  quippe  Ec- 
clesiae,  sancti  praedicatores  sunt...,  Hinc  est  etiam  quod  Samson  maxillam  asini 
tenuit  et  hostes  peremit....  Et  maxilla  in  terram  proiecta,  postmodum  aquas  fudit. 
Cfr.  lud.  XV,  16-19.  It  is  true  also  that  God  "aperuit  os  asinae  et  locuta  est": 
Num.  XXII,  28;  see  further  Greg.  M.  Ep.  V,  53  a;  MG.  355. 


CHAPTER  IV  145 

to  example  makes  him  trip  up  occasionally  in  his  l)dng.  ^ 
Then,  when  he  has  exhausted  the  series  of  true  anec- 
dotes he  gracehiUy  adapts  to  his  purpose  whatsoever  his 
memory  suggests.  And  so  he  teaches  also  to  those  who 
shall  come  after  him  the  secret  of  sunplification  and  of 
plagiarism. 

Let  us  pause  for  a  moment  longer  in  the  congenial 
realm  of  Humility  which  borders  on  that  of  Prophecy,  and 
let  Celano  speak.  ^  He  relates,  then,  how  Saint  Francis, 
when  he  returned  from  his  mission  bryond  the  sea,  had 
with  him  Bro.  Leonard  of  Assisi.  They  were  both  tired 
to  death.  The  Saint,  to  rest  himself  a  little,  rode  upon 
a  donkey  and  Leonard  followed  on  foot.  Even  ssiints 
are  human,  and  Bro.  Leonard  could  not  help  thinking  : 
**  My  ancestors  would  not  have  deigned  to  associate  with 
his  ^ . . .  yet  look  at  him !  He  on  the  donkey,  and  I,  as 
driver,  on  foot!"  Then  Francis  dismounts  and  says:  "Nay, 
brother ;  it  is  not  seemly  that  I  should  be  riding  upon  the 
ass,  and  thou  who  in  the  world  wast  nobler  and  more 
powerful  than  I  shouldst  follow  me  on  foot".      Astounded 


1  The  same  ill  -  fortune  attaches  also  to  the  Dominican  writers.  A  little  of 
Caesarius  and  a  great  deal  of  Gregory  the  great  give  life  to  the  little  story  that 
we  read  in  the  legend  of  the  bishop  of  Orvieto  (SS.  Ord.  Praed.  I,  33  ;  cfr. 
Greg.  M.  Dial.  II,  27  and  Caes.  XI,  35 ;  Strange,  II,  297) ;  and  the  customary 
dracones  that  pursue  such  of  the  Preaching  Friars  as  are  not  quite  sure  of  themselves, 
are  undoubtedly  Gregorian  (SS.  cit.  1.  c.  7  and  Dial.  II,  25).  The  good  Pas- 
sattanti,  who  had  not  the  task  of  composing  a  saint's  Life,  in  his  Specchio  della 
oera  penitenza,  honestly  quotes  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Gregory  the  Great,  Bede, 
Jacques  di  Vitry,  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  etc.,  whence  he  draws  the  material 
for  his  work.  Ed.  Classici  Ital.  1808,  Cesario  31,  105,  138,  18!  etc.  Maestro 
Jacopo  de  Vettriaco,  1 33  etc.).  A  professional  man  of  letters  might  well  make 
a  study  of  the  fortunes  of  Caesarius  in  Italy. 

2  R.  24  (II.   1). 

3  I  render  into  the  vernacular  Celano's  phrase  :  non  ludebanl  de  pari  parentes 
huius  et  miei. 

1 


146     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

at  the  unexpected  answer  to  his  thought,  Leonard  perceived 
that  nothing  could  be  concealed  from  the  Saint,  and 
humbly  begged  pardon  of  him.  How  lively  is  that  spectre 
of  "nobility"  that  crouches  beneath  the  serge  which  clothes 
the  magnificent  Thomas  of  Celano! 

Now  we  will  pay  a  visit  to  Saint  Benedict. '  The 
Saint  is  calmly  seated  at  table,  and  the  lamp  that  illumines 
his  cell  is  held  by  a  Brother  of  noble  family — his  father 
was  nothing  less  than  defensor,  and  therefore  a  person  of 
consideration.  ^  A  diabolical  thought  passes  through  the 
mind  of  this  Brother.  "  Who  is  this  whom  I  serve  while 
he  eats?  And  who  am  I  that  I  should  have  to  wait  upon 
him?"  Saint  Benedict  was  as  successful  in  reading  hearts 
as  was  Saint  Francis  in  a  later  age ;  but  the  man  of  As- 
sisi  shewed  himself  more  gentle  than  he  of  Nurscia.  The 
sweet  temper  of  Francis  is  attested  by  the  falsehood  of  his 
biographer  better  than  by  a  hundred  true  anecdotes.  Ce- 
lano has  copied  from  Gregory  with  short  and  insignificant 
alterations : — everything  except  the  end  of  the  tale.  The 
harsh  words  which  Saint  Benedict  uttered  in  a  like  case, 
saint  Francis  would  never  have  pronounced.  Celano,  who 
knew  the  Saint,  when  he  imagined  him  in  the  same  cir- 
cumstances as  Benedict,  attributed  to  him  this  placid  and 
gentle  answer,  which  is  like  a  clear  ray  from  a  light  very 
for  away  and  studiously  hidden  from  our  view.  As  with 
honest  intent  we  retrace  the  tortuous  path  of  the  biographer 
of  Saint  Francis,  criticism  has  these  pleasant  surprises  in 
store  for  us. 

In  the  "Memoriale"    the    concatenation    of   themes   is 

1  Dial.  II.  20. 

2  The  defensor  civilatis  has  a  right  to  the  title  vir  clarisaimus  or  vir  lauda- 
bilia  {Marini,  Papiri  Dipl.   113;  MG.  Leg.  Sect  V,   1    Form.  4. 


CHAPTER    IV  147 

thought  out  and  developed  with  consummate  wisdom.  This 
is  how  it  presents  itself,  in  a  few  broad  lines : — God 
grants  to  the  Saint  the  gift  of  prophecy ;  he  reads  in  the 
souls  their  temptations,  aids  those  tormented  by  the  tempter 
to  overcome,  and  unmasks  hypocrites.  The  cult  of  poverty 
and  the  serene  courage  of  the  outstretched  hand  bring  him 
near,  in  utmost  tenderness,  to  the  abandoned.  From  the 
ardour  of  his  soul  his  words  burst  forth  like  flames.  Satan, 
in  the  form  of  accidie,  is  conquered  by  holy  industry.  A 
serene  spiritual  gladness  flashes  in  the  dark  eyes  of  Francis, 
humble  in  his  glory,  obedient  as  the  least  of  the  Mino- 
rites, sworn  foe  of  idleness  and  of  darkness,  whose  soul 
lies  wide  open  to  the  ecstatic  contemplation  of  the  beauti- 
ful things  created  by  God. 

If  some  historians  have  failed  to  see  their  way  clearly 
through  this  dry  catalogue  of  themes  and  of  facts,  the 
fault  is  certainly  not  Celano's.  But  I  cannot  help  bringing 
forward  one  other  consideration  which  has  again  and  again 
presented  itself  to  my  mind.  In  the  First  Legend — a 
phrase  which  may  be  taken  to  include  collectively  the  two 
works  of  Celano,  for  we  cannot  take  account  of  any  other — 
it  is  strange  that  the  sinister  preoccupations  of  the  other 
life,  with  the  customary  tenors  of  hell  and  cruel  uncer- 
tainties that  tormented  so  many  believers,  have  not  in  any 
way  found  that  place  so  generously  conceded  to  them  in 
the  other  writings  of  the  period.  There  is  no  word  of 
the  other  world,  of  the  pains  of  hell  or  of  the  joys  of 
paradise  till  we  come  to  the  stories  of  the  Fioretti  that  are 
to  follow.  Francis  says  nought  of  them ;  the  terrors  of  his 
time  are  unknown  to  him.  Everything  is  alive  about  him. 
Even  the  stone  is  no  inanimate  thing,  for  his  unutterable 
tenderness  penetrates  it  and  transforms  it  into  a  being  that 


148     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

can  feel  and  suffer/  God  is  everywhere:  to  behold 
Him  it  is  not  necessary  to  close  one's  eyes  to  the  light  of 
the  sun  and  of  the  universe,  so  beautiful,  so  full  of  His 
glory. ' 

^  R.  84  :  Super  petras  ambulat  reverenter. . . 

2  R.  S3  :  Muodum  quasi  peregrinationis  exilium  exire  festinans,  iuvabatur  felix 
iste  viator  iis,  quae  in  mundo  sunt,  non  modicum  quiden.  The  desire  "dissolvi 
et  esse  cum  Christo"  (cfr.  5.  Aug.  Ep,  (LVIII,  c.  2  Op.  II,  560)  is  obligatory 
for  all  who  aspire  ad  atria  Dei. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CONTENT  OF  THE  TRUE  SPECULUM 
PERFECTIONIS 

AT  the  risk — or  rather  with  the  certainty — of  being 
tedious,  we  must  repeat  that  the  "Second  Life"  is 
a  Speculum  Perfectionis.  In  it  the  sayings  and  doings 
of  the  Saint  are  not  set  forth  in  accordance  with  the 
technical  rules  of  historical  nanative;  the  link  of  chrono- 
logical sequence,  which  should  group  together  and  distri- 
bute the  principal  events,  is  broken.  The  treatment  derives 
its  unity  from  the  design  which  the  author  has  in  mind — a 
design  which,  according  to  his  opinion,  corresponds  to  the 
precise  aims  of  the  book.  If  we  remove  the  single  "  exam- 
ples" from  the  place  which  they  occupy  and  try  to  put 
them  together,  all  the  matter  becomes  intricate  and  confu- 
sed in  appearance.  It  is  almost  as  if  one  should  take  the 
books  of  a  library  from  the  shelves  where  they  were  ar- 
ranged on  definite  principles  of  classification,  and  pile  them 
up  in  a  great  heap. 

Since,  however,  the  order  given  by  Celano  to  the  ma- 
terial of  his  book  need  not  prejudice  that  to  be  followed 
by  us,  there  will  be  no  harm  in  pausing  in  front  of  the 
most  notable  pictures,  without  removing  them  from  the  place 
in  which  they  are  found  by  the  will  of  the  artist. 

Francis  has  from  God  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  which 
manifests    itself    not  only  in  the  announcement  of  the  ap- 


150     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

preaching  defeat  of  the  crusaders,  of  the  civil  war  in  Pe- 
rugia, and  of  other  events  of  minor  importance ; '  but  also, 
in  a  special  way,  in  the  power  of  discerning  the  pious  or 
wicked  resolutions  within  the  soul  of  young  novices.  Thomas 
is  not  willing  that  the  customary  shrewdness  of  celebrated 
abbots  should  be  lacking,  in  so  essential  a  matter,  to  his 
Patriarch — or  to  that  Patriarch's  successors.  There  is 
nothing  of  greater  importance  to  the  Order  than  this.  On 
the  wise  choice  of  these  tender  plants  depends  the  glorious 
future  of  the  great  family.  The  half-falsehood  of  attribu- 
ting to  Francis  the  sureness  of  vision  of  certain  famous 
abbots  in  the  preliminary  examination  of  novices,  is  more 
than  venial  1 

That  young  nobleman  of  Lucca  who  with  joined  hands, 
on  bended  knee,  and  bathed  in  tears,  begs  in  vain  from 
the  Saint  the  boon  of  reception  into  his  Order,  has  tried 
already  at  other  convent-gates  without  success.  He  has 
always  received  the  same  answer — a  refusal.  This  can- 
didate for  perfection  has  not  the  necessary  spirituality; 
only  capricious  impulses,  which  evaporate  as  quickly  as 
they  form.  ^  Another  enthusiast  for  evangelic  poverty,  be- 
fore he  dons  the  habit,  remembers  that  he  has  relatives 
in  the  world,  and  distributes  to  them,  instead  of  to  the 
poor,  the  riches  which  have  now  become  useless  to  him.  ^ 

1  R.  23-4  (II.  2):  R.  27  (II.  6);  R.  27-8  (II.  7)  etc.  R.  22  (II,  1). 
Praedicebat  multa  spiritu  propheliae,  occulta  cordium  rimabatur,  noscebat  absen- 
tia, pxaevidehat  et  enarrabat  futura.  Greg.  M.  II,  12:  Coepit — vir  Dei  pro- 
phetiae  etiam  spiritu  pollere,  Ventura  praedicere,  praesentibus  etiam  absentia  nun- 
tiare. 

2  R.  29  (II,  9);  Spec.  103.  Cfr.  Caes.  I,  1 1  :  Venit  ad  nos  adolescens 
quiJam  canonicus  -  magis.  ut  postea  rei  exitus  probavit,  ex  quadam  levitate  mentis, 
quam  devotione  conversionis...  Dominus  G.  abbas  noster  intelligens  solam  in  causa 
esse  ievitatem  -  cum  satis  tamen  rogaretur  suscipere  iuvenem,  non  consensit.  Qui 
mox  eadem  via,  qua  venit,  rediit.     Cfr.  ib.  I,  9  »=  Vita  S.  Bern.  I,   13  etc. 

3  R.  47  (III,  25).     De  renuntiantibus  seculo. 


CHAPTER  V  151 

Bd-ore  formulating  the  judgement  of  Francis  on  this  point 
Thomas  glances  at  the  pages  of  some  of  his  old  books.  ^ 
Again,  a  novice  displays  qualities  the  reverse  of  good :  he 
eats,  and  does  no  work.  ^  Here  are  two  Brethren  called 
"flies'*  because  good  for  nothing.  "Flies"  and  "devils" 
(according  to  an  old  phrase)  come  and  go  in  the  same  way : 
and  it  is  best  to  keep  them  at  a  distance.  ^ 

Certain  wandering  spirits  there  are,  never  satiated  with 
sanctity:  these  are  more  than  suspected.  For  them  the 
Order  has  not  perfection  enough.  If  we  keep  our  eyes — 
and  the  Dialogues  of  Gregory  the  Great — well  open,  we 
shall  see  that  they  have  upon  their  back  a  clinging  devil, 
in  flesh  and  bones.  "^  Another  bad  sign  is  the  neglect  of 
confession.  ^  Woe  to  the  novice  and  to  the  professed  friar 
who  do  not  immediately  seek  shelter  from  their  temptations 
by  confessing  them  fully  to  one  single  confessor.  ^  Without 
such  aid  the  evil  becomes  incurable.  There  is  not  always 
a  dragon  ready  to  keep  the  monk  from  apostasy.  ^  The 
abbot  must  keep  watch  over  each  and  all.     A  word  from 

1  Mtgne,  LXXIII,  931  :  Soror  mea  pauper  est,  si  do  ei  eleemosynam,  non 
«st  sicut  unus  de  pauperibus  >...  Dixit  senex  :  Non...  quia  sanguis  trahit  te  mo- 
<licum.  Cfr.  Greg.  M.  In  Evang.  Horn.  11,  27  n.  1.  The  words  of  Francis 
"  Rondum  existi  de  domo  et  cognalione  tua  "  are  taken  from  Cassian.  Conl. 
111.  6,   7.   CV.    73   seqq. 

2  R.  45  (III.  21);  Spec.   c.  24, 

3  Migne,  1.  c.  803  :  Muscas  tamquam  daemones  oenientes.  And  Celano 
makes  Francis  give  this  name  to  money  also :  muscas  nempe  denarios  oocaoit. 
R.  45,  46  (111.  23)  Spec.  c.  22. 

4  R.  11  seqq.  (II.  1,  3,  4).     Cfr.  Greg.  M.     Dial.  II,  4.  16.  30. 

5  R.  23  (II,  1):  confesaionem  iniungit.  Respuit  die.  Cfr.  R.  16  (II,  5) 
Cassian.  Inst.  Coen.  IV,  37.  CV.  74.  Cfr.  Fior.  No.  41,  43.  The  invitation 
to  confession  (II,  I)  is  perhaps  to  be  connected  with  the  story  given  by  Caesa- 
rius.  III.  24  ;  which,  in  its  turn,  is  a  repetition  of  a  passage  of  the  Life  of  S. 
Jo.  Elemos.     Migne.   LXXIII.  354-5. 

6  R.  67  (III.  64)  Spec.  c.  106.  Diversas  diversis  particulas  confitebatur. 
Cfr.   Caes.   III.  22. 

7  Greg.  M.   II.  25. 


152     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

him  shall  comfort  the  poor  victims  of  temptation:  "The 
crown  is  only  for  them  that  strive"/  Are  words  insuf- 
ficient P  A  writing,  the  **  Eulogia**  of  the  Fathers — even 
a  modest  relic  of  some  Saint — say  a  finger-nail — work 
miracles !  ^ 

We  have  removed  from  Celano's  pages  the  names  of 
persons  and  places  and  all  that  remainds  us  that  the  writing 
before  us  is  the  Legend  of  Smnt  Francis :  and  lo !  as  by 
enchantment,  the  literary  work  is  transformed  into  a  series 
of  tags  from  well-known  authors,  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers, 
Gregory  the  Great,  Cassian,  Caesarius,  and  so  forth.  These 
fragments,  adapted  to  the  subject,  are  held  together  by 
Celano's  considerations,  very  much  as  the  the  sources  of 
the  Decretum  are  welded  by  the  sayings  of  Gratian ;  and 
they  form  a  sort  of  dogmatic  and  ethical  commentetfy  on 
the  regulations  which  the  papal  authority  had  already  im- 
posed for  the  reception  of  novices.^ 

From  the  Second  Life  there  pass  down  to  the  Actus, 
and  so  to  the  naive  Fioretti,  to  those  little  figures,  sketched 
wdth  so  much  grace,  of  novices,  victims  of  temptation, 
preserved  by  timely  aid  in  the  sanctity  of  the  Order.  A 
prudent  reverence  to  an  altar,  the  example  and  advice  of 


1  JR.  67  :  Ad  coronam  tibi  perveniet  non  ad  culpam.  Cfr.  2  Tim.  II,  5  ; 
Migne,  LXXIII,  903  :  Erat  enim  ibi  quidam  qui  sustinebat  tribulationes,  et  non 
habens  fiduciam  in  aliquo  cui  confiteretur,  parabat  a  sero  melotem  suam,  ut  di- 
scederet.  Cfr.  ib.  743-5.  Ecce,  fili,  fideliter  intelligis  quod  hoc  spiritale  certa- 
men  per  patientiam  ad  salutem  aeternam  animae  tuae  proficiet...  Ubi  durior  est 
pugna,  ibi  gloriosior  erit  corona  etc.  Cassian.  Conl.  II,  13  ;  cfr.  Migne,  1.  c. 
876,  878,  881,  884.  The  same  sources  are  cited  by  PassaOanti,  Specchio 
della  vera  penitenza  ;   Dist.    Ill,  4. 

2  II.  II  ;  III,  19  {R.  30,  33).  For  the  eulogia:  Migne,  I.  c.  1169:  Ac- 
cipe  eulogiam  patrum.  R.  33  :  Accip>e  tibi  catftulam.  Hence  the  famous  letter 
of  the  Saint  to  Bro.   Leo  :  Sabaiier,   Speculum,  LXXIII-IV. 

3  Sbaralea.  Bull.  Franc.  I  No.  5  ann.  1220  (Hon.  Ill);  cfr.  No.  2  (Greg. 
IX)  ann.   122" 


J  CHAPTER  V  153 

a  venerable  ''senior",  save  those  souls  from  apostatizing. 
The  tempted  ones  live  and  die  serenely  faithful  to  Saint 
Francis,  and  the  Madonna  comforts  them  at  their  depar- 
tare  with  the  heavenly  electuary  of  her  grace.  //  Maestro 
ia  Celano  has  founded  a  flourishing  school;  his  scholars 
paint  magnificently !  If  the  pallet  of  the  ancients  is  lacking, 
a  little,  in  colour,  it  is  ever  charged  with  varied  and  fresh 
inspirations  of  a  most  charming  kind.  ^ 

A  precious  gem  in  the  crown  of  monasticism  is  chastity, 
divine  conqueror  of  the  senses.  The  teaching  with  a  view 
to  the  achievement  and  preservation  of  this  grace  is  an 
extremely  important  part  of  Celano's  treatise.  Franciscus, 
ut  autem  loqueretur  manu,  se  ipsum  exemplar  omni  prae- 
hehat  virtutis.  ^  There  were  only  two  women  in  the  world 
that  he  would  have  recognised  by  face.  Like  the  ascetic 
who  fled  from  them  as  though  they  had  been  lions,  the 
Saint  felt  not  fear,  but  terror  for  women  :^  and  he  used 

1  Act.  No.  2 1  ;  Fior.  No.  20  :  The  novice  is  saved  by  a  reverence  made 
to  the  altar  where  the  Blessed  sacrament  is  reserved.  Cfr.  Caea.  IX,  4  (I,  175): 
Coram  altari  sancti  J.  Bapt.  transiens.  profunde  inclinavit ;  see  also  Migne,  LXXllI, 
905  -  Fior.  No.  41.  The  secular  garments  were  kept  by  the  steward  during  the 
novitiate,  in  case  of  necessity:  Cassian.  Inst.  Coen.  IV,  6,  37  ;  CV.  51,  73. 
The  discourse  of  Bro.  Simon  is  called  lighted  coal  that  kindles,  because  prea- 
chers "  carbones  ignis  vocati  sunt,  quia...  per  flammam  caritatis  accendunt  ",  Greg, 
M.  Moral.  XXIX  in  c.  38  Job  ;  No.  38.  The  passages  in  II  Vita  I.  1 7  {R. 
33)  and  III,  64  {R.  7)  occur  in  Spec.  c.  106;  Act.  No.  35;  Fior.  No.  31 
(Anal.  Franc.  Ill,  46)  and  are  akin  also  to  Act.  No.  50  and  Fior.  N.  43  (Anal. 
Franc.  Ill,  423)  :  But  the  original  source  of  all  the  narratives  is  the  episode  of 
Silvanus  exquisitely  described  in  the  Life  of  Pachomius  c.  38  {Migne,  LXXIII, 
255),  which  begins :  "  Quidam  denique  iuvenis,  Silvanus  nomine,  de  scena  con- 
versus  ". 

The  Brother  consoled  with  the  "  most  sweet  electuary  of  Mary "  (Actus 
No.  68 ;  Fior.  No.  47)  is  a  surgeon-Brother  of  vagabond  inclinations  who  by 
means  of  this  heavenly  food  is  retained  within  the  cloister.      Caes.  VII,  47  (II,  67). 

2  R.  61    seqq.   Ill,   55   seqq. 

3  Cassian.  Conl.  Mon.  VII,  26.  CV.  205  ;  But  more  knowing  is  the  ab- 
bess who  says  to  a  fraie  half  dead  in  an  encounter  with  the  Enemy :  "  An  thou 
wert  a  perfect  monk,  thou  wouldest  not  regard  us    with    eyes    that    shew    thou 


154     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

to  teach  the  enigma  of  the  queen  who  was  gazed  upon 
with  complete  satisfaction  by  the  king's  servant  in  a  form 
which,  as  it  happens,  bears  a  remarkably  close  resemblance 
to  the  story  which  runs  through  the  ascetic  literature  of  t!ie 
Middle  Ages.  ^  Even  Francis,  however,  was  tempted  ly 
the  "  minions  (gastaldt)  of  the  Lord  '* — that  is  by  demons" 
— but  not  all  could  vaunt  themselves  of  his  signal  victories. 
If  any  should  suffer  from  the  assaults  of  the  fiend,  he  had 
but  to  turn  to  Saint  Francis,  imploring  the  aid  of  his  prayers 
and  of  his  word  of  consolation,  and  the  enemy  would 
straightway  raise  the  siege  of  his  beleaguered  heart.  ^  But 
woe  to  the  prelate  whose  wary  vigilance  and  just  severity 
is  not  matched  by  the  moderating  virtues  of  compassion 
and  gentleness.  In  a  book  which  contains  the  models  of 
the  monastic  ideal,  the  strongest  light  will  be  focussed  on 
the  type  of  General  minister.  Thomas,  aware  that  the 
Saint  had  not  been  much  of  a  student,  sets  him  first  to 
read  certeiin  phrases  of  Saint  Gregory  the  Great,  and  then 
puts  him  in  front  of  the  canvas  on  which  is  to  be  sketched 
the  figure  of  the  greatest  prelate  of  the  Order.  "* 

knowest  us  full  well  to  be  women ".  Migne,  LXXIII,  872.  It  is  always  a 
prize  for  the  devil  if  he  conquers  a  friar:  ib.   885. 

1  5.  "P.  Dam.  Op.  Ill,  381.  (Story  of  Sibilla's  eyes).  Caes.  IV,  62  (I, 
231).  Cfr.  R.  62;  III,  56.  Spec.  c.  86.  Later  on  the  Minorites  used  to 
take  a  good  look  at  the  ladies  because,  for  the  glory  of  their  Order  they  used 
to  arrange  marriages.     Salimhene,  217. 

2  7^.  63,  III,  58-61  ;  Spec,  c  67.  Sabatier  maintains  the  erroneous  reading 
castalli,  which  means  nothing :  castaldi  and  castaldiones  are  the  ministers  or 
officers  of  the  Commune,  or  of  private  persona...  or  of  the  Lord.  As  is  well 
known  the  word  is  an  old  Lombard  one  :  Bruckner,  Spr.  d.   Langob.  205. 

3  R.  64,  III,  60  :  Migne.  LXXIII.  742  No.  8  :  "  Discipulus  cuiusdam  etc." 
The  doctrina  of  "  fleeing  from  Woman  "  may  be  reconstructed  from  the  foUoving 
materials :  Qreg.  M.  Dial.  IV,  11;  Ep.  I,  48  ;  Moral.  XVI,  in  c.  23  Job, 
No.  29  "  Oculos  ergo  inclinare  etc.  "  Jacques  de  Vitry,  Elxempl.  No.  2 1 2 
p.  220  (Ufe  of  S.  Bernard)  etc.  Cfr.  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  237-8  No.  76-7. 
(Sayings  of  S.  Aegidius). 

4  R.  92-3  (III,  96) ;  Spec.  c.  80 :  Officium    plus    sibi    fore    sentiat    oneri. 


CHAPTER  V  155 

Cel£uio  encountered  serious  difficulties  at  certain  points 
of  his  work.  The  life  of  the  man  of  Assisi,  good  and 
simple  like  all  really  great  things,  failed  to  offer  him  ap- 
posite examples  for  the  illustration  of  certain  doctrines. 
Fortunately  erudition  came  providentially  to  his  rescue.  A 
novice  is  terribly  tempted  with  longing  for  a  little  supper, 
or  possibly,  for  something  much  less — a  bunch  of  grapes, 
for  instance. '  The  temptation  is,  at  bottom,  a  disease, 
and  sick  folk,  as  the  vernacular  proverb  says  "  are  not 
moved  with  a  pitchfork,  but  with  a  sheet".  So  the 
abbot  himself  may  eat  flesh-meat  with  his  poor  tempted 
brother,   and  pass  a  tranquil  hour  at  table  with  him.  '^ 

Such  a  pious  concession  to  human  frailty  involves  no 
relaxation  of  rigour ;  discipline   stands    on    an    adamantine 

quam  konori ;  Greg.  M.  Moral.  XXIV,  in  c.  34  Job,  No.  55  ;  Potestas...  non 
honor  sed  onus  aestimatur ;  R.  92  :  Homo  vitae  gravissimae  ;  Greg.  M.  Reg. 
Past.  II,  2  :  ex  gravitate  vitae.  R.  93.  Non  tamen  e  sup>erflua  mansuetudine 
torpor  nascatur  nee  ex  laxa  indulgentia  dissolutio  disciplinae  ;  Greg.  M.  Moral. 
XIX  in  c.  29  Job,  No.  30  :  Nee  in  disciplinae  vigore  benignitatem  mansuetu- 
dinii,   nee  rursum  in  mansuetudine  districtionem  deserant  disciplinae  ;    Reg.  Past. 

II,  6 :  Miscenda  ergo  est  lenitas  eum  severitate  ele.  Moral.  XXIV  in  c.  34 
Job,  No.  54  :  Nee  tamen  disciplinae  vincula  eadem  lenitate  dissolvant  ete-  Cfr. 
Greg.  M.  Ep.  I.  24  ;  MG.  35. 

R.  93  :  Volebat  eos  afiabiles...  ut  eorum  affeetui  non  se  vererentur  eommit- 
tere  delinquentes ;  volebat...  tales  ete.  Desperationis  morbus  praevaleat  infirmos. 
Reg.  Piist.  II,  5  :  Tales  autem  sese  qui  p.aesunt  exhibeant,  quibus  subiecti  oc- 
culta quoque  sua  prodere  non  erubescant ;  II,  10:  Cumque  increpatio  immode- 
rate accenditur,  eorda  deliquentium  in  desperatione  deprimuntur.  Cfr.  Moral.  XX 
in  c.  29  Job;  No.  14.  Miscenda  est  ergo  lenitas  cum  severitate,  (aciendumque 
quoddam  ex  utraque  temperamentum  :  ut  neque  multa  asperitate  exuleentur  subditi. 
Deque  nimia  ben  gnitate  solvantur.  The  passages  in  Gregory  which  Celano  para- 
phrases are  same  which  are  cited  by  Gratian,  Deer.  D.  XLIV,  9,  10,  14, 
16,  Certain  rules  proposed  for  observance  by  the  prelate  occur  also  in  S.  P. 
Dam.  Op.  Ill,  opusc.  No.  51  ;  151  seqq. ;  cfr.  Inn.  Ill,  Ep.  I,  311.  {Balut. 
I,    168). 

1  /?.   19  (I,  15,   16).     Spec.  27;  R.  88  (III,   160).     Spec.  c.  42. 

2  Jacques  de  "Vitryf,  ELxempl.  No.  1 4 :  Ducens  eum  ad  cellarium  cum  eo 
manducavit.     Cfr.  R.  68  :  In  vine2un  duxit  et  sedens  cum  eo  etc.      Cfr.    Caes. 

III,  49  (I,  167).  But  after  a  gay  banquet  with  the  abbot  the  frati  expiate  the 
moment  of  forgetfulness  of  the  Rule.     See  also  X,  8. 


156     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

foundation — obedience.  *  If  the  novice  be  ignorant  of  the 
meaning  of  this  supreme  duty  of  the  monk,  let  the  abbot 
send  him  to  bless  first  and  then  to  curse  bones  of  the 
dead,  and  then  ask  him: 

"What  did  those  bones  say  to  thee?" 

"Nothing:  they  uttered  no  sound". 

"Well,  if  thou  wouldst  abide  in  the  monastery,  bear 
this  mind  that  thou  also  must  be  dead,  insensible  alike  to 
curses  and  to  blessings".^ 

The  dialogue  above  has  something  tragically  sombre  about  it 
Celano's  copy  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  superior  to  the  original. 

*  Said  his  companions :  "  Father,  what  is  supreme  and 
perfect  obedience?"  And  he,  describing  the  obedient  man 
by  the  likeness  of  a  dead  body,  replied:  "Take  a  corpse, 
and  place  it  where  thou  wilt.  It  doth  not  complain  of  the 
spot  chosen,  nor  giveth  any  sign  of  the  wish  to  leave  it. 
Assay  to  set  it  in  a  chair ;  it  droopeth  its  eyes.  Clothe 
it  with  purple ;  the  pallor  of  death  standeth  out  twice  as 
intensely"'.^  The  monk  is  a  dead  man:  here  is  the 
germ  of  the  similitude"^  which  Thomas  expresses  with  a 
couple  of  masterly  sweeps  of  the  brush.  That  body  dan- 
gling down  by  sheer  wright  of  inanimate  matter  from  the 
chair,  which  is  a  symbol  of  human  power,  towards  the 
earth,  common  sepulchre  of  proud  and  humble ;  that  bold 
yet  ineffectual  sheen  of  purple  that  is  extinguished  by  the 
juxtaposition  of    the    waxen    pallor   of   death  : — these   are 

1  R.  78  seqq.  (III.  88  seqq.).  On  obedience:  Migne.  LXXIII,  232,  248. 
246,  266,  792,  948  ecc  Greg.  M.  Moral.  XXXV,  in  c.  42  Job,  No.  28: 
Sola...   virtus  est  obedientia,  quae  virtutes  ceteras  menti  inserit,  insertasque  custodit. 

2  Jacques  de   "Ditiy,  Exempl.  No.    1 1 8. 

3  li.  78  (III,  88).     Spec.  c.  46. 

4  Jacques  de  Vilry,  Exempl.  No.  117:  Monachus  ail :  Et  ego  sum  mortuus 
Cfr.  Greg.  M.  Moral.  XVlll  in  c.  37  Job,  No.  89.  Praedicator  ipse  mundi 
gloriam  quam  appeteret,  tamquam  mortuus  non  videret. 


CHAPTER  V  157 

extremely  effective  touches.  Whence  has  Celano  borrowed 
them?  From  Frate  Pecorella,  says  Sabatier;  for,  accor- 
<iing  to  him,  the  whole  ponderous  woven  work  of  Thomas' 
book,  is  nothing  but  the  Legenda  Antiquissima  of  Bro. 
Leo  repaired  by  the  rhetorician's  art.  It  is  really  mar- 
vellous how  some  ideas  have  been  seriously  maintained, 
and,  because  seriously  maintained,  discussed  with  an  ardent 
desire  to  find  them  true !  ^ 

A  certain  thought  has  come  to  me . . .  and  if  to  me, 
then  doubdess  to  many  others.  It  is  this.  As  long  as 
we  are  dealing  with  common  endowments  that  all  frati 
possess,  or  ought  to  possess,  such  as  Obedience,  Chastity, 
respect  for  the  Rule,  clearly  the  line  taken  by  Celano  in 
his  work  is  explicable  if  not  justifiable.  But  Francis  had 
a  sanctity  so  original,  so  much  his  own,  that  when  the 
discourse  comes  at  length  to  treat  the  subject  of  these  very 
special  virtues,  one  might  suppose  that  truth  would  suffice, 
and  Thomas  be  spared  the  unnecessary  trouble  of  inven- 
tion :  especially  as  falsehood  would,  in  any  case  have  defea- 
ted the  purpose  of  the  writer.  We  may  hope,  then,  that 
in  the  Chapters  on  Poverty,  Gladness  and  Simplicity  Celano 
will  stand  aside,  and  leave  us  to  contemplate  the  beauteous 
figure  of  the  Saint  without  his  own  artistic  retouchings. 

Who  could  be  more  poor  or  more  simple  than  the  Man 
of  Assisi  ? 

It  might  be  replied  that  the  argument  is  ruined  by  a 
charming  petitio  principii.  We  cannot  think  anything  at 
all  about  the  Saunt  apart  from  Celano's  suggestions.  The 
so-called  Speculum  Perfedionis,  which  should  be  a  work 
of  "those  who  were  with  him",  that  is,  of  the  "  Com- 

^  Even  Gotz  is  very  lax  in  his  criticism. 


158     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

panions "  of  Francis,  is  an  evident  elaboration  of  the  Se- 
cond Life.  For  us,  therefore,  it  is  as  though  it  did  not 
exist :  and  so  we  fall  back  again  into  the  clutches  of  the 
man  of  Celano. '  Yet  the  extraordinary  care  that  he  has 
devoted  to  the  description  of  the  love  of  poverty,  spiritual 
gladness,  and  frank  simplicity,  is  of  itself  a  proof  that  these 
were  the  most  resplendent  gifts — the  very  soul — of  the 
Poverello.  If  the  Saint  of  Umbria  had  elected  to  emu- 
late some  fanatic  for  chastity  and  for  a  repulsive  asceticism, 
such  as  San  Domenico  Loricato  is  recorded  to  have  been ; 
or  if  he  had  simply  desired  to  repeat  the  exploits  of  the 
old  monachism  of  the  Middle  Ages,  we  can  see  that  to 
present  Francis  to  us  in  the  act  of  pla)ang  the  violin,  or 
in  ecstasy  before  the  flowers  and  the  sunshine,  would  have 
been  a  form  of  poetic  licence  fatal  to  the  biographer  and 
to  his  legend.  No  skill  of  the  artist  could  avciil  to  trans- 
form the  type  of  saint  that  lived  in  the  popular  imagination, 
prostrate  in  his  lurid  cell,  absorbed  to  dizziness  in  assiduous 
prayer  interrupted  only  by  bloody  scourgings  of  the  poor 
emaciated  and  ulcerous  body,  ^ — to  transform  such  an  one 
into  a  man  like  other  men,  serene,  joyous,  free  from  morbid 
terrors,  sweet  as  a  young  girl,  with  a  voice  clear  and 
ringing  that  conquers  and  inebriates  whose  hears  it.  Nay, 
Celano' s  efforts  are  obviously  directed  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection.    In  the  Second  Life  he  sets  himself  to  give  to  the 

1  Sahatier,  Spec.  p.  XLIX.  Gotz,  151.  The  last-named  writer  doubts 
whether  the  phrase  "  Nos  qui  cum  b.  F.  fuimus  "  is  an  imitation  of  St.  John 
XIX,  35  and  XXI,  24.  The  source  is  less  ancient.  Cfr.  Hist.  Laus.  in  Mi- 
gne,  LXXIII,  1 160,  1 156  :  Narrarunt  nobis  qui  cum  ipso  erant...  Qui  cum  eo 
coNVERSABANTUR.  MigTic,  XXI,  38:...  Ut  viderem  eos  et  intereasem  conver- 
sationi  eorum. — As  for  the  "  Legend  of  the  Three  Companious  ",  no  account 
need  be  taken  of  it ;  and  its  close  kinship  with  the  "  Anonimo  Perugino  "  puts 
the  latter  also  out  of  court.      Gbtz,    140,  seqq. 

2  S.  'P.  Dam.  Op.  II,  235  seqq. 


CHAPTER  V  159 

very  singular  virtues  of  Francis  a  distinctively  monastic 
character,  and  to  this  end  he  searches  and  searches  again 
up  and  down  his  library  and  accumulates  the  examples 
appropriate  to  a  saint  like  his  hero  and  to  a  perfect  monk 
also. 

In  certain  doctrinal  points  the  difficulties  confronting  our 
writer  were  enormous.  Francis  had  celebrated  his  mystic 
marriage  with  domina  Paupertas,  and  had  remained  ever 
faithful  to  her. '  The  figure  is  Celano*s  own.  After  her 
chaste  husband's  death,  the  austere  widow  did  not,  ap- 
parently, find  herself  confortable  in  the  Franciscan  Family. 
The  family,  however,  were  perfectly  aware  of  their  obli- 
gations to  the  poor  desolate  one.  As  though  the  Rule 
itself  were  not  enough,  the  so-called  "Testament  of 
Francis  provided  for  all  contingencies  :  and  the  Lady  Po- 
verty was  secured  from  any  tampering  with  the  provisions 
of  the  Rule  by  the  insidious  hand  of  the  glossator. ' 
"  Fratres  nihil  sibi  APPROPRIENT ",  said  the  Rule  in  its 
latest  form,  "nee  domum  nee  loeum,  nee  aliquam  rem. 
Sed,  tamquam  peregrini  et  humiliiate  Domino  famulantes, 
Vadant  pro  eleemosyna  confidentur.  Nee  oportet  eos  vere- 
cundari,  quia  Dominus  pro  nobis  se  feeit  pauperem  in  hoc 
mundo*\^  More  concise  but  essentially  identical  was  the 
old  Statute :  "  Vivere  in  obedientia  et  in  castitate  et  SINE 
PROPRIO  ".  It  is  proprium,  proprieias,  that  is  forbidden  to 
the  fratres.     The  last  Rule,  repeating  the  terms  of  the  old 


I  R.  43  (III,  16,  18):  Dominam  meam  Paupertatem...  Sanctam...  sponsam. 
Cfr.  I  Vita  31  :  Dominam  Paupertatem. 

*  The  Testament  of  Francis  is  mentioned  by  Thomas,  (I  Vita,  7)  and  by 
the  Bull  Qfio  elongati ;  but  that  does  not  prove  that  it  is  identical  with  that 
which  has  come  down  to  us:  {Gotz,  If,  12).  And  the  prohilMtion  of  glosses 
betrays  its  scholastic  origin. 

3  c.  6. 


160     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

one  (or,  to  speak  more  correctly  of  the  previous  ones) 
developed  writh  greater  fulness  the  obligation  of  poverty, 
but  it  left  unsolved  a  question  of  the  gravest  importance. 

Then  follovv^ed  the  "declaratory"  Bull  of  Gregory  IX, 
Quo  Elongati,  which,  far  from  removing  all  controversy, 
only  inflamed  it  to  a  further  pitch  of  violence. ' 

In  1 230  that  Pope,  y/ho  was  preparing  to  follow  the 
example  of  the  great  Justinian  in  his  collection  of  the  De- 
cretals, imposed  on  the  Order  the  solution  of  doubts,  in 
the  following  manner.  In  his  "Testament"  Francis  had 
forbidden  two  things : — first,  that  there  should  be  any  gloss 
upon  the  Rule,  secondly  that  any  request  for  special  pri- 
vileges should  be  addressed  to  the  Apostolic  See.  The 
point  that  required  a  papal  gloss  was  that  of  the  obli- 
gation of  absolute  poverty.  Referring  to  the  clause  of 
the  last  Rule:  " Fratres  nihil  sihi  approprienf\  Gregory  IX 
observes  that  the  plenary  observance  of  the  precept  was 
thought  to  be  in  danger  because  certain  persons  asserted 
that  the  Order — in  communi — had  proprietas  in  real  estates. 
It  rested  with  the  Pope  to  provide  so  as  to  save  the  purity 
of  souls  and  of  the  Order. 

The  papal  interpretation  is  preceded  by  a  Whereas, 
clause,  which  calls  for  quotation  here. 

"  Whereas  in  virtue  of  the  long-continued  intimacy  \yhich 
the  aforesaid  Confessor  had  with  Us,  We  have  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  his  intention ;  and  whereas  in  the  formulation 
of  the  aforesaid  Rule  {in  condendo),  and  in  the  following 
Acts,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  Apostolic  confirmation 
thereof.  We  rendered  him  assistance,  being  at  the  time  in 
a  position  inferior  to  Our  present  Dognity;  Ye  {Fratres) 

I  Cfr.  the  Bull  of  Nicholas  111  in  Bull.  Franc.  III.  404,  Liber  Sextus.  V. 
12,  3. 


CHAPTER  V  161 

request  of  Us  a  declaration  on  the  points  of  the  said  Rule 
which  remain  obscure . . .". 

The  witness  of  the  Bull  is  twofold.  The  Minorites 
affirm  that  the  Pope  took  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Rule,  and  the  Pope  admits  it.  The  request  for  a  "de- 
claratory response  *'  is  not  addressed  merely  to  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  Papacy,  but  further  to  the  man  who  was, 
as  it  were,  depositary  of  the  Saint's  intimate  thoughts. 
Let  no  one  doubt  what  Gregory  IX  categorically  affirms. 
We  have  had  occasion  to  remind  ourselves  before,  that  the 
practically  illiterate  Francis  is  not  the  author  of  the  Rules : 
he  will  have  furnished  the  design  and  the  principal  outlines 
of  them  :  but  the  final  redaction  is,  throughout,  the  work 
of  learned  men. 

Certainly  it  is  not  the  Saint  who  when  defining  the 
duties  of  poverty,  strangely  repeats  Cassian's  words  about 
monastic  institutions  :  Tanquam  peregrinum  se  gerat  et  in- 
colam  istius  mundi.  ^  Cardinal  Ugolino,  who  had  devoted 
such  a  deal  of  watchful  care  to  the  plantatio  of  Francis,^ 
did  not  fail,  we  may  be  sure,  to  set  his  hand  also  to  the 
reconstruction  of  the  Rule ;  and  sought  inspiration  for  this 
work  in  the  locus  classicus  for  ancient  ascetic  ideals.  This 
is  a  most  valuable  indication,  as  demonstrating  indubitably 
that  the  future  Pope  saw  in  the  Minorites  a  wise  return 
to  the  most  ancient  traditions  of  the  cloister.  Such  a  de- 
cisive impulse  given  to  the  Order  in  the  direction  of  the 
forms,  the  spirit,  and  even  the  necessities  of  monachism, 
could  not  escape  the  unlearned    but    lively    and    vigorous 


1  IV,  14;  CV.  Cfr.  Test.  b.  Franc.  Sicut  adoenae  el  peregrini.  So  the 
Testament,  like  the  Rule,  repeats  the  expression  o(  Cassian,  [derived  ultimately, 
BO  doubt  from  such  passages  as  Heb.  XI,    13;  2  Pet.   II,    II    L.  R.l. 

2  I  Vita,  74;  II  Vita  R.  21. 


162     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

mind  of  Francis.  The  principles  laid  down  by  Jesus  Christ 
for  all  nations  were,  in  any  case,  miserably  abridged  and 
compressed  in  the  narrow  terms  of  a  Rule.  And  it  is 
only  probable  that  a  regretful  resignation  to  inevitable 
destiny  was  the  attitude  of  the  "  Poverello's "  mind  when 
he  set  his  hand  to  the  last  Statute  of  his  family,  which 
had  by  that  time  become  too  numerous  to  consist  entirely 
of  worthy  members. 

The  Rule  forbids  the/ra/res  to  have  property :  they  are  sub- 
ject to  what  we  should  call  a  "radical  incapacity"  for  the 
acquisition  or  possession  of  any  kind  of  goods.  So  far  we 
have  nothing  new.  The  greatest  difficulty  arose  about  the 
extension  of  the  same  incapacity  to  the  Order  itself.  In 
mentioning  the  '  fratres ',  the  Rule  made  reference  to  the 
individuals,  and  to  the  ens  constituted  by  them :  and  even 
without  this  dry  admonition,  the  Saint's  acts  and  words 
left  no  room  for  uncertainty  as  to  the  extension  of  the 
precept  which  a  very  few  years  of  the  Order's  existence 
had  already  shewn  to  be  incompatible  with  even  the  humb- 
lest necessities  of  the  Franciscan  family.  Either  way  the 
existence  of  the  Order  was  threatened  ;  for  absolute  po- 
verty meant  the  end  of  the  institution  as  an  organism,  in 
the  form  in  which  it  had  become  familiar  to  the  world ; 
while  relative  poverty  was  equivalent  to  disobedience  to 
the  Founder.  Thus,  in  either  case,  either  the  Order  died 
out,  or  the  Franciscans  were  no  more ! 

The  Dominicans  also,  before  arriving  at  their  final  Rule,^ 
instituerunt  possessiones  nee  habere,  ne  praedicationis  impe- 
diretur  officium,  sollicitudine  terrenorum,  sed  tantum  reditus 
eis  adhuc  habere  complacuit.  ^     The  reditus  is,  so  to  speak, 

1  Item  possessiones  seu   reditus  nulla  mode  recipiantur. 

2  SS.   Ord.  Praed.   I,  33.     Jord.  c.  23 :  cfr.  ib.  c,  38. 


CHAPTER  V  163 

the  economic  result  of  a  right  over  that  which  belongs  to 
some  one  else  ;  refusing  this  also,  the  Dominicans  had  to 
be  content  in  the  end  with  another  expedient  of  a  formal 
nature. 

Before  we  study  the  answer  of  Gregory  IX,  which  is 
dictated  by  some  jurist  who  has  a  thorough  grasp  of  things, 
let  us  cast  a  glance  backwards  at  the  Franciscan  band 
as  it  returns  from  the  first  interview  with  Innocent  III. 
The  socii  and  the  Saint,  as  they  move  towards  Assisi,  are 
no  longer  the  same  who  had  set  forth  from  the  little 
Umbrian  city.  Or  perhaps  we  had  better  say  they  were 
followed  by  an  invisible,  impalpable  figure — a  "fictitious" 
figure,  to  use  the  old  legal  language — stronger  than  they, 
and  mistress  of  their  individual  wills.  This  mysterious 
figure  is  that  of  the  *' persona  jmidica'\ 

The  Franciscan  Order  had  come  into  being.  A  single 
word  from  the  Pope  had  created  the  spectre,  tyrannical, 
immortal.  The  ecstatic  companions  of  Francis  might  pass 
away,  one  and  all,  but  this  figure  remained  in  the  reno- 
vated family.  By  the  irony  of  fate  an  academic  conception 
ruins  the  Saint's  ideal :  yet  the  juridical  idea  is  but  the 
outward  aspect  given  to  one  of  the  greatest  manifestations 
of  social  life  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  As  long  as 
the  Companions  of  Assisi  constituted  a  free  Brotherhood, 
whose  ends  coincided  with  those  of  the  individual's  per- 
fection, no  external  power  could  have  imposed  on  them 
rules  by  which  to  reach  the  predetermined  goal. 

The  Society  itself  demanded  no  more  than  a  partial 
sacrifice  of  the  individual's  activity ;  and  the  individual  was 
not  entirely  torn  away  from  other  social  bonds.  No  com- 
mon life,  no  exterior  forms  were  necessitated  by  the  linking 
together  of  the  members,  united    solely    by    the    common 


164     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

religious  ideal.  But  afterwards  things  changed.  Of  the 
free  society  whose  aim  was  to  interpenetrate  the  whole 
of  the  great  society  of  mankind,  was  bom  a  new  being 
which  had  no  relation  with  her  mother,  who  died  in  bring- 
ing her  into  the  world. 

There  was  one  Order  the  more — nothing  else.  Its  vi- 
gorous life  is  revealed  in  the  robust  frame,  in  the  functions 
and  in  the  needs  of  the  organism.  The  story  of  primitive 
monasticism  repeats  itself  in  the  twelfth  century.  Fleeing 
from  Christicui  society,  since  they  were  not  satisfied  with 
such  perfection  as  that  society  could  offer,  the  ascetics  had 
asked  of  the  deserts  and  of  their  own  souls  the  way  to 
attain  sanctity.  The  abbot  or  head  of  a  monastery  col- 
lecting those  anti-social  elements  within  the  cloister,  on  the 
model  of  non-Christian  institutions,  created  a  special  type 
of  corporation,  viz,  the  coenobitic  life.  ^  The  ideal  of 
perfection  which  this  enshrines  is  no  longer  that  of  the 
hermits  who  dwelt  in  caverns  ;  nay,  the  benefit  of  asso- 
ciation makes  itself  felt  even  in  the  pursuit  of  the  supreme 
evangelical  ideals.  Woe  to  the  solitary  !  The  individual, 
if  he  attempt  to  govern  himself,  is  lost.  ^  Individuals  live 
in  the  cloister  ;  the  cloister  itself  has  a  life  entirely  its  own. 
The  monks  can  remain,  as  before,  entirely  faithful  to  evan- 
gelical poverty ;  ^  but  the  monastery,  by  the  mere  fact  of 
its  existence,  is  the  necessary  negation  of  poverty.  Hence 
it  is  only  the  individual  that  is  to  be  poor :  the  institution 
may,  for  the  greater  glory  of  God,  become  proprietor  of 
boundless  wealth. 

I  E.  Lotting,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenrechts,  I,  332.  Harnadi, 
Das  Monchtum,  seine  Ideale  und  seine  Geschichte. 

'  Plerique  sunt  qui,  nisi  omnia  reliquerint,  salvari  nequeunt :  Greg.  M.  Ep. 
Ill,  31.     Hence  the  necessity  of  Monasteries. 

3  Mignc.  LXXIII.  89.  284,  904  etc. 


CHAPTER  V  165 

Scarcely  has  the  Brotherhood  of  Assisi  reached  the 
threshold  of  monastic  institutions  when  doubts  begin  to  arise. 
A  single  man  may  calmly  fly  in  the  face  of  every  eco- 
nomic principle,  and  embrace  absolute  poverty,  if  he  be 
so  disposed  :  nay,  he  may  even  die  of  abstinence.  ^  But 
for  an  institution  this  is  not  possible.  To  maintain  its  exi- 
stence it  must  possess  a  minimum  of  goods,  be  it  but  the 
merest  scrap  of  that  hated  "  property  '*.  Legally  the  actual 
word  may  be  avoided:  one  may  say  "use",  "usufruct" 
" precario" .  But  these  distinctions  count  for  less  than 
nothing  in  the  language  of  economics,  and  do  not  alter 
the  nature  of  the  facts.  In  strict  logic  the  "proprietor", 
if  he  would  live,  must  needs  beg  alms  of  the  '*  usufruc- 
tuary"; the  latter,  who  has  no  proprietary  rights,  is  much 
better  off  than  the  former,  who  is  the  real  owner  of  all. 
Such  are  the  subtleties  which  were  employed  in  the  attempt 
to  reconcile  poverty  with  riches  ! 

And  did  Francis  understand  that  Poverty  would  not  be 
welcomed  in  the  Order  as  she  had  been  received  in  his 
own  heart  ?  It  would  appear  from  the  words  of  Gre- 
gory IX  that  the  saint  had  felt  some  doubt.  Assuredly 
if  the  evangelical  precept  were  to  be  observed  without  a 
gloss  of  any  kind,  there  was  only  one  remedy,  and  that 
a  somewhat  radical  one  : — the  dissolution  of  the  Order ! 
But  the  strange  solution  of  the  problem  does  but  serve  to 
shew  that  Francis  in  spreading  abroad  with  Nazarene  gen- 
tleness this  love  of  poverty,  had  no  thought  of  founding 
an  Order.     Neither  he  nor  his  first  companions  were  fitted 


I  Reuter.  Gesch.  der  religiose  Aufklarung  im  Mittelalter,  1875-7.  II,  183 
seqq.  But  the  obligation  to  labour  must  not  be  forgotten.  R.  81-2.  Contra 
otiam;  cfr.  Caaaian,   Inst.  Coenob.  II,  2;  CV.  19. 


166     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

to  lay  its  foundations.  ^  All  the  great  founders  of  Rules, 
as  we  shall  shortly  see,  desired  to  have  the  monk  poor 
and  indeed  incapable  of  rights,  in  order  to  remove  from 
him  the  inconvenience  of  temptation.  Yet  none  the  less 
did  the  brethren  surmount  the  passes  of  the  Alps  in  order 
to  obtain  from  the  Emperor  the  confirmation  of  those  pri- 
vileges thanks  to  which  their  monasteries  acquired  and  kept 
dominions  of  monstrous  extent :  and  not  a  few  of  them 
busied  themselves  in  making  money.  '^  In  the  final  resort, 
the  true  "proprietor"  was  always  God,  or  the  patron 
Saint.  3 

Now  for  Pope  Gregory's  interpretation  of  the  Rule. 
"Neither  the  individual  Brethren",  he  says  "nor  the  Order 
{nzc  in  communi,  nee  in  speciali)  may  have  property,  but 


1  Venerius  when  asked  by  St.  Romuald  to  what  Order  he  belonged,  replied 
that  being  free  from  every  subjection,  he  wished  to  follow  "  quod  sibi  utilius  vi- 
deretur":  S.  P.  Dam.  II,  215  (c.  24  Vit.  Rom.).  Just  also  is  the  judgement 
of  a  certain  cardinal  on  the  Minorites :  autonomi :  Isti  sunt  sicut  aces,  non 
hahentes  nidos  :  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  222.  On  vagabond  monks  {gyrovagt) : 
Deer.  Grat.  C.  XVI,  I,  1 7  and  Rufini,  Summa  (ed.  Scbulle)  3 1 3-4  :  Sara- 
bastae  id  est  azephali  et  gyrovagi...  apud  Deum  et  ecclesiam  abominabiles  sunt. 
This  is  the  danger  of  "  free  "  monks. 

2  S.  P.  Dam.  Ep.  VI,  32  (Op.  I,  115):  Non  parvis  ad  Teutonum  partes 
Imperator  expetitur ;  pragmaticae  sanctiones  cum  singulis  (signis  ?)  imperialibus 
advehuntur.     (The  reading  "  singulis  "  gives  no  sense). 

3  For  the  juridical  condition  of  the  monasteries  in  the  Roman  period  and 
those  that  followed,  the  reader  should  consult  Gierke,  Deutsche  Genossenschafts- 
recht.  III,  1 1 9  seqq.  and  the  abundant  literature  cited  there ;  the  following  works 
may  also  be  added :  Ruffini,  (in  the  "  Studi  offerti  a  F.  Schupfer  ")  Storia  del 
diritto  italiano,  326  ;  Bmgi,  Istituzioni  di  diritto  privato  giustinianeo  I,  112;  and 
the  recent  work  of  Knecbt,  System  des  Justinianischen  Kirchenvermogensrechts, 
56  seqq,  (in  the  "  Kirchenrechtliche  Abhandlungen "  edited  by  Siutz,  XXII 
Heft,  Stuttgart  1905).  The  Cod.  Theod.  (V,  3,  unica)  assures  to  the  mona 
stery  the  right  of  succession  to  the  property  of  the  religiosus  who  dies  without 
heirs  and  intestate,  after  the  model  of  other  corporate  institutions  (Elcclesia,  vexil- 
latio,  etc.) ;  a  fact  which  would  seem  to  exclude  Knecht's  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  monastery  can,  in  ancient  times,  have  been  assimilated  to  the  pia  c&usa. 
The  monastery,  as  a  juridical  person,  is  responsible  for  the  obligations  of  the  in- 
dividual monk:  cfr.  Greg.  M.  Ep.  III.  61  ;  MG.  Reg.  220  ;  Justin.  Nov.  V.  4. 


CHAPTER  V  167 

they  may  have  the  use  of  the  utensils  and  of  those  articles 
of  furniture  which  it  is  lawful  for  them  to  have,  and  may 
use  them  according  to  the  regulations  that  shall  be  laid 
down  by  the  Minister  general  and  the  Ministers  provincial, 
salvo  locorum  et  domorum  dominio  illis  ad  quos  noscitur 
pertinere ".  The  last  touch,  which  is  the  most  importamt, 
has  need  of  a  little  gloss  itself.  And  it  is  curious  to  note 
that  the  jurist  who  edited  the  Bull  apparently  meant  in 
this  cdry  formula  to  skip  lightly  over  the  question  of  real 
property.  The  Bull  expladns  that  any  relation  subsisting 
between  real  property  and  the  Minorites  (whether  the 
entire  Order,  or  single  members)  cannot  have  juridical 
effects  of  a  kind  to  modify  the  legal  relation  which  exists 
between  a  thing  and  its  legitimate  proprietor.  Since  the 
Minorites  are  forbidden  to  have  property,  not  even  a 
century  of  possession  would  give  them  the  ownership  of 
a  house  ;  any  donation  of  realty  to  them  would  be  null 
and  void,  and  so  on.  They  can  have  everything  except 
proprietorship-^use,  usufruct,  tenancy.  The  Bull  treats  the 
Minorites  in  a  way  almost  exactly  parelleled  by  our  mo- 
dern laws  for  the  suppression  of  religious  corporations ; 
when  we  have  an  excellent  legitimate  proprietor  who  will 
content  himself  with  his  high-sounding  title  and  leave  the 
humble  enjoyment  of  the  actuality  to  a  monastery  that  is 
incapable  of  possessing — then  Poverty  under  an  alien  roof 
finds  not  the  least  token  of  proprietas.  Juridical  science, 
starting  from  the  idea  of  proprium  banned  by  the  Rule,  had 
solved  the  controversy.  The  faithful  laity,  or  the  Church, 
could  be  proprietors,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  not  depriving 
the  Franciscans  of  the  use  of  realty  and  personalty  of  which 
the  Order  had  need. 

Celano  in  his  treatise  De  Paupertate  shewed  a  perfect 


168     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

understanding  of  the  Bull ;  but  the  later  compilers  of  the 
so-called  Speculum  Perfectionis  when  they  cite  examples 
from  it,  or  comment  upon  it,  obviously  either  fail  to  un- 
derstand, or  are  unwilling  to  take  in  the  spirit  of  it. ' 

In  such  difficulties  Celano  lays  aside  the  rhetorician's 
art  to  take  up  that  of  the  glossator.  Nolebat  {Frandscus)^ 
he  writes,  paraphrasing  the  words  of  the  Bull,  locellum 
aliquam  fratres  inhabitare,  nisi  certus  ad  quern  proprietas 
pertineret  constaret  patronus  :  he  was  unwilling  that  the 
Brethren  should  inhabit  any  place,  however  modest,  without 
the  certainty  that  the  property  in  question  had  an  owner. 
So  (we  must  suppose)  the  Saint  read  in  the  Bull...  that 
was  written  four  years,  all  but  six  days,  after  his  death! 
Even  on  his  death-bed  he  would  accept  only  the  *'com- 
modato "  of  a  pair  of  breeches,  lest  he  should  be  conta- 
minated by  ownership.  ^ 

To  hear  a  thing  spoken  of  as  "his",  pained  him  ex- 
cessively. One  day,  says  Celano,  a  Brother  "  in  heremo 
Sartiani "  when  asked  whence  he  came  answered :  **  I 
come  from  the  cell  of  Bro.  Francis. "  Francis  overheard 
it,  and  brusquely  exclaimed  :  "  Because  thou  hast  given 
my  name  to  the  cell,  making  me  the  proprietor  of  it  (ap- 
proprians  earn  mihi),  I  will  never  set  foot  in  it  again. 
Let  him  dwell  in  it  who  will,  not  I. "  ^  Grave  was  the 
fault  of  that  Brother.  Cassian  teaches:  " Ne  verbo  qui- 
dem  audeat  quis  dicere  aliquid  SUUM ;  magnum  sit  crimen 


»   R.   II,  2  seqq.     Spec.  c.  5  seqq. 

2  R.  117  ;  III,  139.  But  Celano  has  failed  to  observe  that  the  proprietas 
of  the  breeches  is  but  passed  on  to  the  man  who  lent  them — himself  also  a  Mi' 
Dorite.  Here  we  observe  the  inconvenience  of  too  much  zeal  I  Cfr.  It-  51. 
Ill,  36.  Spec.  c.  35.  Where  the  'loan*  (mutuo)  of  a  mantle  is  spoken  of: 
a  word  that  shews  how  shaky  Celano  is  in  his  Law. 

3  R  37  II.  5  ;  Spec.  c.  9. 


CHAPTER  V  169 

ex  ore  monachi  procedisse  :  CODICEM  MEUM,  TABULAS 
MEAS . . ."  '  We  must  not,  however,  fail  to  observe  that 
what  is  condemned  is  not  common  ownership,  but  personal 
proprietorship  by  the  individual  monk.  Malediction  on  him 
who  when  entering  the  monastery  reserved  for  himself  even 
the  least  trifle  ad  proprium !  ^  Terrible  is  the  rite  where- 
with is  pursued  even  the  dead  corpse  of  the  Brother  who 
lived  guarding  a  little  hoard  from  which  death  alone  could 
part  him  ! ^  All  must  be  "in  common ".  Whoso  filches 
the  things  that  belong  to  all,  shall  be  cast  in  sterquilinio, 
and  the  imprecations  of  his  Brethren  shall  be  his  well-earned 
obsequies.  The  writer  who  adduces  the  cruel  ceremony 
as  an  "example",  is  the  same  who  gave  liberally  to  mo- 
nasteries and,  when  Pope,  defended  their  property  most 
energetically.  It  is  not  possible,  them,  that  a  clever  man 
like  Thomas  of  Celano  should  have  fmled  to  distinguish 
between  common  and  personal  ownership  :  if  he  deftly 
confounded  the  two,  he  had  his  reasons  for  doing  so.  An 
indication  on  this  matter  may  be  found  in  his  narrative. 
"God",  he  makes  Saint  Francis  say,  "lived  for  forty 
days  in  a  cave ;  sequi  eum  possumus  in  forma  praescripta 
nihil  proprietatis  habendo,   licet   praeter   mum    domorum 


1  Caisian.  Inst,  coenob.  IV,  13;  CV.  55.  Reg.  Basil,  c.  4.  5.  29.  in 
Holstenius.  Codex  Reg.  mon.  1759,  I,  67  seqq.  Cfr.  Vetus  Disciplina  mona- 
stica  ed.  Parisii  1726,  177;  Bern.  Ord.  Clun.  c.  1 9 :  Nihil  appellat  singulariter 
3uum,  sed  ad  omnia  dicit  nostrum,   nisi  de  patre  et  matre  et  de  peccato. 

2  Cassian.  Inst.  Coenob.  VII,  7  and  9 ;  CV.  133  and  143;  cfr.  Migne. 
LXXIII,  899 :  De  eo  quod  monachus  nihil  debet  possidere.  Cassian.  CoiJ. 
Mon.  V,  8;  cfr.   IV,  20;  CV.    128-9;   117;  cfr.  Knecbt.  Op.  c.  60. 

3  Greg.  M.  Dial.  IV,  55.  Inn.  III.  Ep.  V.  82  ;  Hareau,  Op.  c.  253, 
cites  the  same  fact  from  an  instance  given  by  Jacques  de  'Oitry  (Bibl.  nat.  Piur. 
Mas.  lat.  No.  1 7509  f .  43  v.),  which  I  have  not  found  in  the  collection  of 
Crane ;  No.  1 77  (p.  75)  refers  to  the  burial  of  an  usurer,  not  of  a  frate 
"  proprietario  ". 


170     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

vivere  non  possimus".^  It  would  seem  that  usus  here 
takes  the  place  of  proprietas  to  demonstrate  the  poverty 
of  the  Order  :  and  that  in  deference  to  the  Bull. 

That  which  follows  in  the  Treatise,  where  the  much- 
celebrated  poverty  of  the  wooden  booths  is  treated  of, 
and  the  scientific  and  domestic  furniture,  makes  quite  clear 
the  embarrassment  of  the  biographer/  Who  was  the  ovmer 
of  those  things  of  which  the  use  was  permitted  to  the 
Minorites  ?  And  did  not  the  stem  monastic  fortress  which 
rose  in  Assisi  at  the  foot  of  the  olives,  where  the  Saint 
had  laid  his  frsdl  body,  supply  an  impressive  confutation 
of  all  the  empty  formulas  ?  ^  Celano,  following  in  the  steps 
of  the  Bull,  attempted,  though  without  success,  to  allay 
discords  and  tempests  ;  but  none  knew  better  than  he  the 
uselessness  of  such  an  effort.  He  himself,  in  common  with 
the  entire  Order,  was  struggling  with  the  extraordinary 
difficulties  of  the  problem  which  confronted  those  who 
would  fain  be  with  the  Rule  and  with  the  Pope,  with 
the  ideal  and  the  actual  at  the  sjime  time.  And  perhaps 
he  scarcely  hoped  that  juridical  distinctions  could  have 
saved  the  whiteness  of  the  most  pure  spouse  of  Francis. 
As  a  melancholy  synthesis  of  his  thought  Celano  finally 
calls  up  again  the  vision  of  the  famous  statue  of  Daniel :  * 


I  R.  37.  Ill,  5.  (The  text,  corrupt  in  Rosedale's  edition  is  corrected  in  that 
of  P.  Alenfon  p.  216). 

*  R.  36  seqq.  Ill,  I  seqq.  Spec.  c.  5  seqq.  Wooden  huts  were  even 
better  than  the  arundineae  ruslicorum  tegetes  (S.  P.  Dam.  Ep.  I,   15  ;  Op.   I, 

3  V.  Aegidii,  Acta  SS.  Ill  Apr.  237.  Gazing  at  the  sumptuous  buildings 
of  Assisi  Aegidius  (or  whoever  speaks  in  his  name)  exclaims :  "  Now  all  that 
is  wanting  is...  wives  for  the  frati  I "  The  vow  of  Poverty  had  been  dispensed ; 
that  of  chastity  would  doubtless  come  next. 

4  R.  47.   III.  26.     Daniel.  II,  31   seqq.     Cfr.  Joacb.  in  Jerem.  314. 


CHAPTER  V  171 

material  ancient  enough  in  all  conscience,  but  adapted  to 
the  critical  occasion. ' 

Thus  we  can  see  how  the  **  Second  Life "  if  it  did 
nothing  else,  prepared  the  most  inflammable  material  for 
the  blaze  of  the  *' Speculum^'. 

A  multitude  of  sayings  and  narratives,  always  on  the 
subject  of  poverty,  of  love  of  the  poor,  and  of  exsecration 
of  money — such  is  the  average  compendium  of  Celano's 
literary  thefts.  For  him  certainly,  property  did,  and  did 
not  exist.  Let  us  give  an  example  or  two.  The  wish 
for  wooden  cells,  lightly  constructed  after  the  fashion  of 
booths  is  an  inspiration  drawn  by  Celano  from  the  ancient 
monastic  precept :  neque  mittas  fundamentum,  ut  aedifices 
tibi  cellam  aliquando.^  Agathon  abandoned  his  cell  as 
soon  as  he  had  the  unpleasant  surprise  of  seeing  in  it 
quaedam  non  utilia  ;  and  Saint  Francis  hates  to  have  in 
the  cells  utensils  multa  et  exquisita.^  If  a  Brother  gives 
himself  the  luxury  of  a  pillow,  he  is  placing  under  his 
head  a  nest  of  diabolical  spirits.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
Minorites  were  not  like  the  rest  who,  in  a  house  that  was 
their  own,  possessed  no  such  things  as  pillows ;  on  the 
contrary,  when  they  had  entered  the  cloister   they    could 


1  Spec.  c.  2  cfr.  p.  11.  The  unica  tunica  (R.  42,  III,  1 5)  (if  I  may  so 
say)  the  new  symbol  of  the  sect  of  the  "  Apostoli ",  who  however  are  obliged 
occasionally  to  stay  in  bed  while  the  one  garment  is  being  dried  after  the  wash  I 
Salimbene,  121  ;  EbrU,  in  Arch,  fur  Litt.  und  Kirchengesdi.  des  Mittelalt.  1886; 
II,  131.  On  the  sumptuous  buildings  see  Vita  Aegidii,  in  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill 
Apr.  237  :  on  Poverty  :  Ubertini  de  Casali,  Arbor  vitae  crucifixae  ;  ed.  Venetiis 
1485.  Lib.  V,  1.  (no  page-numeration).  Compare  for  the  clothes  and  hoaen 
of  monks,   Cassian.   Inst.  Coenob.  I,  2,   7,  9 ;  CV.   6-14. 

2  Migne.  LXXIII,  906. 

3  Migne.  LXXIII,  888-9.  R.  38;  HI,  6.  I  Vita  51  :  Nee  vasculum  in 
domo  aliquod  residere. 


172     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

not  close  their  eyes  if  the  accustomed  soft  support  for  the 
night  were  lacking.  ^ 

Meagre  was  the  fare  of  Francis,  affording  an  example 
of  abstinence.  ^  If  in  his  very  observance  of  the  Gospel 
he  was  induced  occasionally  to  eat  fowls'  flesh,  his  fol- 
lowers were  not  to  imitate  him  with  too  great  assurance. 
In  Alessandria  a  certain  knave  found  Francis  with  that 
luxurious  dish  in  front  of  him,  and  played  him  a  scurvy 
trick  with  regard  to  it.  He  waited  till  the  following  day 
when  Francis  was  preaching,  and  while  the  people  were 
hanging  upon  his  lips  he  proceeded  to  brandish  a  large 
piece  of  capon,  crying  out :  "  Behold  the  preacher  of  non- 
sense !  A  fine  Saint  in  sooth  !  Yesterday  he  ate  of 
this!"  And  he  displayed  his  capon...  Capon?  But 
every  one  beheld — a  fish  !  The  pious  fraud  of  a  miracle 
had  saved  the  reputation  of  the  man  of  Assisi.  ^  These 
are  Bro.   Galdino's  wares. 

But  we  can  guess  whence  Thomas  drew  his  unfortunate 
inspiration.  Fish  did  not  always  take  the  place  of  flesh 
on  the  saints'  tables  in  a  miraculous  way.  Hence  Cae- 
sarius  of  Heisterbach  records  how  certain  abbots  kept 
their  faith  to  the  Rule  that  forbade  the  eating  of  flesh. 
If  fish  was  not  forth  coning  they  were  fain  to  put  flesh 
on  the  table  artistically  served  up  in  the  form  of  fish.* 
Friars  have  never  been  wanting  in  cleverness;  and  Celano 
drew  from  the  example  of  those  abbots  his  picture  of  the 
unsavoury  hypocrite  of  the  miracle  of  Alessandria. 

1  R.  39.  Ill,  10.  Spec.  c.  98.  Cfr.  Bull.  ed.  Taur.  III.  No.  17.  a». 
1198;  134-5  Jacques  de  Vitr\).  Exempla  No.  84.  Cfr.  1  Vita  52:  Sedens, 
nee  eJiter  se  dep>onens  donnitabat,  pro  cervicali,  ligno  vel  lapide  uten*. 

2  R   38;  III,  7.      Spec.  c.   20. 

3  R  46;  III.  24. 

4  Greg.   M.   Dial.   I.    1.      Cats.   V.    3  (I,  343). 


CHAPTER  V  173 

The  Rule  of  the  Minorites  forbade  the  handling  of 
money.  A  hesitating  Brother  was  tempted  by  a  purse 
which  lay  by  the  road  side,  swollen  with  coins  ;  but  a 
horrible  serpent  issuing  from  the  purse  saved  the  soul  of 
the  monk  and  the  observance  of  the  precept. '  It  must 
be  left  to  the  savant  to  consider  how  Thomas  came  to 
be  familiar  with  an  Indian  story  which,  according  to  the 
learned  researches  of  Alessandro  d'Ancona,  is  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Novellino.  ^ 

Further  parallels  might  be  adduced  ad  nauseam  ;  but 
we  would  not  abuse  the  patience  of  any  who  may  chance 
to  read  these  pages.  We  will  only  add  that  Saint  Fran- 
cis— and  an  Egyptian  monk  a  little  before  him — sell  the 
New  Testament  and  give  the  price  to  the  poor  :  obedient 
to  the  precept  which  the  Book  contains ;  ^  the  Saint  of 
Assisi — and  a  canon  of  Cologne — draw  off  their  breeches 
as  soon  as  a  poor  wretch  asks  for  them.  "*     All  will  re- 

1  R.  41-2;  III,  14. 

2  A.  D'Ancona,  Studi  di  cridca  e  storia  letteraria,  !880;  337.  Novellino 
No.  83.  Budda,  travelling  with  a  companion  discovered  a  heap  of  gold  and 
precious  stones.  "  Behold  '*,  he  cried,  a  venomous  serpent  I  "  [Avadanas  trad. 
Julien  I,  60].  The  hesitation  of  a  frate  confronted  by  a  half  penny — should  he, 
or  should  he  not  pick  it  up  ? — is  described  in  Migne,   LXXllI,   790. 

3  R.  51  ;  111,  35.  Spec.  c.  38.  Da  matri  nostrae  novum  testamenlum. 
ut  vendat  illud  pro  sua  necessitate,  quia  per  ipsum  monemur  subvenire  paupe- 
ribus.  Cfr.  Migne,  1.  c.  772-3.  The  story  passes  into  the  Life  of  Joannes 
EJeemosinarius,  ib.  359 ;  then  into  Jacques  de  Vilry,  No.  98.  Crane  (1 76), 
incorrectly  cites  this  Life  as  primary  source  of  the  Exemplum  of  de  Vitry.  The 
original  (?)  attribution  of  the  deed  is  to  Serapion  and  shews  whither  absolute  doc- 
trines logically  lead.  The  Gospel  destroys  the  Gospel.  The  old  story  smacks 
of  the  subtle  Hellenic  genius. 

4  /^.  51  ;  111,  34.  Nonnumquam  etiam  ob  simile  opus  femoralia  traxit. 
Spec.  c.  34.  The  narrative  of  Thomas  of  Eccleston,  MG.  SS.  XXVllI,  561, 
records  only  the  gift  of  a  tunic  belonging  to  the  Saint  (i.  e,  as  a  relic) :  he  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  Seiint's  charity ;  {Sabatier  ib.  65).  Caes.  VI,  5  {Strange 
I.  346-7) :  Quidam  dixerunt  nunquam  se  legisse  de  aliquo  homine,  quae  tantae 
fuerit  circa  pauperes  compassionis  (R.  48  De  compassione  s.  F.  ad  pauperes)... 
Juxta  ecclesiam  B.  M. — quia  vestem  aliam  exuere  non  potuit,  aspiciente  paupere. 


174     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

member  a  charming  scene  described  by  our  biographer 
who,  when  he  likes,  is  a  perfect  master  of  his  art.  Hard 
by  the  dear  Porziuncola  "  a  Brother "  returning  from  his 
round  of  collecting  alms,  raises  his  voice  in  resounding 
praises  to  the  Lord.  "  Blessed  be  thou,  my  brother  ! " 
exclaims  Saint  Francis.  The  Lives  of  the  Fathers  trans- 
port us  to  Oxyrrhyncus,  the  city  of  the  papyri  and  of 
the  poor.  A  beggar  who  is  waiting  for  alms,  half  naked, 
his  teeth  chattering  in  the  cold  night  air, — he  too  gives 
thanks  so  the  merciful  God  :  "  Thanks  to  Thee,  Lord  ! 
1  am  free,  while  so  many  rich  folk  pine  in  fetters  ;  I  am 
like  an  emperor,  1  go  where  I  list !  '*  ^  He  is  the  type 
of  the  happy  poor,  as  was  Francis  himself,  and  as  the 
Saint  wished  all  his  spiritual  sons  to  be.  Inexhaustible  is 
the  Franciscan  piety  !  Francis  even  imitates  Moses,  making 
a  spring  of  water  burst  from  the  rock  to  refresh  the  thirst- 
ing poor ;  and  the  narrative  itself,  to  tell  the  truth,  flows 
in  most  limpid  stream  from  the  Gregorian  Dialogues ;  while 
Saint  Bonaventure  opens  the  magic  book  once  more  to 
complete  a  phrase  which  his  predecessor  in  the  plagiarist's 
work  had  left  half  finished  !  ^ 

femoralia  sua  solvit,  et  cadere  dimisit. — When  he  returned  home  the  good  Ens- 
frid  kept  hold  on  his  mantle  to  conceal  the  lack  of  breeches,  and  one  of  his 
relatives  remarked  :  "  Satis  puto  quod  non  habeatis  braccas  ".  Tale  aliquid  non 
legitur  in  actis  s.  Martini,  plus  fail  braccas  dare,  quam  pallium  dividere.  This 
is  the  reeison  why  the  legendary  "  socii  "  go  about  in  public  with  so  little  on. 
The  comment  of  Caesarius  (plus  fuit  etc.)  was  repeated  by  Celano.  Another 
example  of  giving  away  one's  own  clothes  is  given  in  Greg.  M.  Dial.  1,  9. 

1  /?.  45  :  111,  22.  Migne,  LXXIII,  904 :  datia  tibi,  Domine ;  quanti  sunt 
modo  divites  in  custodia,  qui  etiam  in  ferro  sedent,  aut  pedes  habent  in  ligno 
constrictos  I...  Ego  autem,  velut  imperator  sum,  extendens  pedes  meos,  et  ubi  volo 
ambulo ! — The  compilers  of  the  "  Speculum  "  say  pauper  spiritualis  ;  and  accor- 
ding to  Sabatier,  Thomas,  copying  from  Bro.  Leo,  would  have  feuled  to  realise 
that  it  was  not  a  question  of  a  frate  but  of  a  poor  man  :  forgetting  that  the 
instance  comes  under  the  heading  De  petenda  beleemosyna. 

2  R,  30-1  (II,  15):  Stupenda  Dei  dignatio;  e  Greg.  Dial.  II,  8:    Mira.., 


CHAPTER  V  175 

Poverty  and  knowledge  : — how  were  they  reconcilable 
in  days  where  it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  student 
to  possess  his  little  hoard  of  books  ?  Certainly  if  there 
had  been  public  libraries  they  would  have  relieved  the 
Minorites  of  one  cause  of  disquietude  !  Saint  Francis,  who 
is  consistently  described  by  his  biographer  as  perfectly  il- 
literate, '  would  only  tolerate  a  few  books : ""  those,  we 
must  understand,  which  were  absolutely  necessary,  to  the 
exclusion  of  such  luxuries  as  those  beautifully  written  and 
illuminated  manuscripts  which  were  the  traditional  delight 
of  the  learned  monk.  ^  What  is  it,  after  all,  that  books 
teach  ?  and  what  is  wishom  ?  It  is  the  eye  of  love  that 
penetrates  and  illumines  the  darkness  of  ignorance,  writes 
Gregory  the  Great.  Love  soars  up  beyond  where  intel- 
lect can  pass.  Beautiful  words,  which  Celano  places  side 
by  side  with  kindred  conceits   found    elsewhere ;  '^    which 


et  stupenda.  5.  Bonav.  Acta  SS.  T.  II  Oct.  647;  n.  101 -I  and  Dial,  cit 
II,  8.  Nam  in  aqua  ex  petra  producta  Moysen,  in  ferro...  Elisaeum  ;  and  S.  Bo- 
naventura :  In  eductione  aquae  de  petra  conformis  extitit  Moysi,  sic  in  multipli- 
catione  victualium  Elisaeo.  The  miracle  is  old  and  frequent :  Migne,  LXXIII, 
941. 

1  This  does  not  however  hinder  the  Saint  from  repeating  what  Gregory  (Mo- 
ral. VIII,  in  c.  8  Job,  No.  72)  gives  to  orators  on  sacred  subjects  (III,  99-100) 
Spec.  c.  73.  It  is  the  old  Horatian  precept.  Mens  igne  divini  amoris  non  calei... 
Inflammare  auditores  nequeunt  verba  quae  frigida  corde  proferuniur  (Greg.). 
And  Celano:  Debet...  priur  intus  calescere,  quam  iom  frigida  verba  proferre. 
Cfr.  Inn.  Ill,  Op.  61  :  Ardeat  igitur  ignis  in  corde,  ut  lingua  congrue  sonet  in 
corde. 

2  R.  38  (III  8). 

3  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  Ill,  392.  Cfr.  Uus  Gembl.  aeccl.  in  Abbandl.  der 
k.  Akad.   d.  Wiss.   Berlin   1893;    123-4.     Salimhene.  Chr.   186. 

4  R.  56  (III,  45)  ;  Ubi  magistralis  scientia  foris  est,  affectus  introibat  amantia. 
E  prima:  penetrabat...  mysteriorum  abscondita.  Gieg.  M.  Moral.  IV  in  c.  3 
Job :  quae...  veritatis  intelligentia  cum  per  cordis  humilitatem  quaeritur,  legendi 
assiduitate  penetratur  ;  ib.  in  c.  5  Job;  No.  12:  Amor  ad  meditandum  pertrahit, 
tensus  hebetudo  contradicit.  Migne,  LXXIII,  908 :  Magis  de  puritate  mentis 
orovide  securitatem  edicendi  sermonem.  Cfr.  R.  97-8  :  Praeodorabat  etiam  tem- 
?ora...  in  quibus  occasionem  ruinae  fore  scientiam.     Spec.  c.  68.     On  the  other 


176     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

the  amplifiers  of  Sabatier's  "  Speculum  **,  more  angry  still 
at  the  invasion  of  knowledge,  reinforce  with  original  rea- 
ding fron  the  "Lives  of  the  Fathers"/ 

The  Lord  is  so  lavish  of  his  gifts  to  the  Saint  that 
Francis  explains  the  difficult  passages  of  Scripture  as  well 
as — or  even  better  than — a  professional  theologian.  Any 
one  who  had  questioned  him  as  to  the  hidden  meaning 
of  an  obscure  passage,  would  doubtless  have  repeated  the 
words  of  Sulpicius  Severus  ^  in  praise  of  the  natural  wisdom 
of  that  Martin  who  had  certainly  been  more  conversant 
with  battle-fields  than  with  books  :  "  Never  have  I  heard 
issue  from  the  mouth  of  man  so  much  knowledge  and  so 
much  eloquence  ! "  Perhaps  this  was  the  reason  why  the 
humble  ignoramus  could  stand  fearless  before  the  "holy 
athlete"  of  the  Christian  faith.  Saint  Dominic,  who  had 
devoted  so  many  years  of  his  youth  to  his  first  love,  the 
study  of  theology.  Cardinal  Ugolino,  wishing  to  put  new 
life  into  the  Holy  Orders  and  purify  them  by  the  intro- 

hand  sapientia  nutritur  studio  litterarum :  Bull,  Franc.  I,  No.  42  (Greg.  IX 
an.   1229). 

A  sulky  attitude  towards  science  and  literature  is  characteristic  of  the  old 
monasticism  from  St.  Jerome  onwards.  Cfr.  Vita  S.  Rom.  MG.  SS.  Merov. 
Ill,  138. 

1  Spec.  c.  8  corresponds  to  R.  38  (III,  8).  The  compilers  of  the  pseudo- 
Speculum  repeat  the  answer  of  Macarius  to  Theodore ;  Habeo  tres  codices  et 
proficio  ex  lectione  eonim.  Sed  et  fratres  petunt  eos  ad  legendum,  et  ipsi  pro- 
ficiunt.  Die...  mihi :  Quid  debeo  facere  ?  Answer :  Boni  sunt  quidam  actus, 
sed  melius  omnibus  est  nihil  possidere  :  Migne,  1.  c.  889  ;  890.  Observing 
the  books  of  a  monk  Serapion  says  :  Tulisti  ea  quae  erant  viduarum  et  orpha- 
norum  et  posuisti  in  fenatra.  Viderat  enim  earn  codicibus  plena ;  cfr.  929 : 
replesti  fenestras  de  chartis.  R.  98  :  libri  ad  nihilum  utiles  in  fenestris  proician- 
tur,  says  Celano ;  but  then,  by  adding  in  latebris,  he  seems  to  shew  that  he  has 
not  rightly  understood  his  authority. 

2  Vita  S.  Martini  c.  75.  CV.  135.  Cfr.  Migne.  LXXIII,  915:  Crede 
mihi  multos  codices  legi  et  talem  eruditionem  numquam  inveni ;  answer  of  a  novice 
to  the  sentence  of  Evagrius  which  may  be  compared  with  the  words :  Theologia  viri 
huius...  est  aquila  volans  {R.  57.  Ill,  47).  Cassian,  also  (Inst.  Coenob.  V. 
23.   [V.    106-7]),  says  that  profound  knowledge  comes  irom  sola  puritas  cordis. 


CHAPTER  V  177 

duction  of  the  monastic  element,  asks  of  the  two  Saints : 
"  Why  may  we  not  make  your  frati  bishop  and  priests  ? 
Was  it  not  so  in  the  primitive  Church,  when  the  pastors 
were  poor  men,  free  from  avarice  and  full  of  charity? 
Francis'  reply  did  not  hinder  the  other  Saint  from  saying 
to  him  :  "I  would  that  thy  Religion  and  mine  formed  a 
single  institution  and  our  manner  of  life  in  the  Church  were 
the  same".  Are  we  to  reject  as  mere  legend  the  meeting 
of  the  two  Patriarchs,  ^  or  to  accept  as  true  Celano's  nar- 
rative, granting  to  the  fact  that  Saint  Dominic  was  in 
Rome  in  1218  the  dignity  of  an  historical  proof  ?  ^  Sa- 
batier,  not  content  v^th  the  conversation  between  the  heads 
of  the  two  Orders  in  Rome,  prolongs  the  interview  to 
the  y^  of  June,  1218,  in  the  general  chapter  of  the  Por- 
ziuncola ;  regardless  of  the  fact  that  our  information  is 
derived  from  Bartolomeo  da  Pisa.  Bartolomeo  in  his  Con- 
formitates  has  naturally  selected  the  "  capitolo  delle  stuoie  ",'^ 
with  its  five  thonseind  Brethren,  the  most  miraculous  scene 
of  all,^  the  most  solemn  parliament  of  the  Franciscan  world, 
to  form  a  frame  for  the  grandest  figures  of  his  picture. 
But  there  is  one  unfortunate  circumstance.  The  chapter 
in  question  met,  says  Jordanus  with  great  exactness  a.  d. 
122  J   decimo  Kal.  Junii,  indictione  14'^,  sancto  die  pen- 

1  R.  76  (III,  86,87).     Spec.  c.  43. 

2  Hase,  Op.  c.   71-2. 

3  Sabatier,  Vie  244  ;  247  seqq. 

4  Voigt,  1.  c.  490  seqq.  Bart.  Liber.  G)nfonn.  I  fructus  10;  cfr.  11  fruc- 
tu»   12  (ed.   Bononiae   1590;   139,  V.   269). 

5  S.  Sonavenlura  (Acta  SS.  Oct.  II,  639  No.  52)  i«  perhaps  the  first  to 
relate  that  the  Dioine  clemency;  catered  for  the  vast  assembly.  How  this  was 
done  Bartolomeo  o(  Pisa  tells  us,  repeating  the  miracle  of  S.  Fronto  {Migne, 
LXXIU,  438)  ;  cfr.  Actus  No.  20  ;  Fior.  No.  18.  The  camels  of  the  Orient  are 
transformed  into  the  horses  and  mules  of  the  gentry  of  Assisi  and  Perugia ;  and 
Francis*  sermon  is  not  very  different  from  the  oration  of  the  old  hermit  who  exhorts 
the  Brethren  to  trust  in  Providence  that  never  abandous  those  who  seek  Him. 


178     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

thecostes,  and  the  same  writer  leaves  no  room  for  doubt 
as  to  the  identity  of  this  chapter,  by  his  mention  of  the 
great  fratrum  multitudo. '  Another  sure  countersign  is 
furnished  by  the  record  of  the  theme  of  Saint  Francis' 
sermon  on  that  occasion,  though  the  sermon  itself  would 
seem,  according  to  Jordanus'  version,  to  have  been  some 
what  less  elevated  than  Celano  would  make  out. "" 

Turning  now  to  the  "Second  life"  we  find  that  the 
narrative  of  the  charming  scene  between  the  two  Saints^ 
is  given  under  the  heading  de  Humilitate.  ^  Humility — 
Gregory  the  Great  and  Thomas  are  agreed — is  the  guardian 
and  the  glory  of  all  virtues.  There  cannot  be  too  many 
exsunples  of  it.  Thomas  advances  deliberately,  step  by 
step,  and  groups  together  designs  and  ideas.  When  the 
Franciscan  family  has  increased,  Francis  3delds  the  govern- 
ment of  it  to  the  jurist  Pietro  Cattani,  ^  amid  the  sighs  of 
the  Brethren  ;  he  gives  them  the  example  of  humility  in 
submitting  himself  devoutly  to  the  vicar  whom  he  himself 
has  chosen.  A  little  discourse  was  obviously  in  point 
here.  Saint  Francis  commends  to  the  Lord  his  beloved 
family,  as  Pachomius  had  commended  his,  ^  and  gives  se- 

1  c.  16;  'Ooigt,  1.  c.  523:  The  Speculum,  c.  68  makes  no  mention  of 
St.   Dominic  in  its  description  of  the  chapter  "  </e  storeis". 

2  Jord.  1.  c.  Benedictus  Dominus  meus  qui...  And  Celano,  R.  96:  Vo- 
luptas  brevis,  poena  perpetua  etc.  But  probably  the  sermon  does  not  really 
belong  to  the  "  capitolo  dalle  stuoie  "  ;  Bartolomeo  adopted  it  because  it  fitted 
in  nicely,  and  because  of  its  solemn  tone,  suited  to  a  vast  reunion  of  frali.  For 
a  comparison  of  the  preaching  of  Christ  with  that  of  Francis,  see  Conform,  cit. 
II,  12  [264]. 

3  R.  77.  Discedentibus  autem  inde,  rogavit  b.  Dominicus  s.  Franciscum  ut 
sibi  cordam,  qua  cingebetur,  dignaretur  concedere.  Lentus  ad  hoc  s.  Franciscus 
laudem  humilitate  renuens  etc.     Learning  bows  dovn  before  simplicity. 

4  R.  73. 

5  Sabatier.  Spec.  70-1  note  2.  Jord.  c.  1  ;  "Ooigt,  1.  c.  520.  R.  74; 
(111,  81):  Spec.  c.  39. 

^  R.  74  cit.     Domine,  tibi  recommendo  familiam,  quam  mihi  hactenus  com- 


CHAPTER  V  179 

vere  admonitions  also  to  the  Ministers.  Such  counsels  were 
called  for  because  the  Minorites,  while  issuing  victorious 
out  of  many  trials  did  not  always  resist  the  tempting  offer 
of  prelacies  within  the  Order,  or  of  ecclesiastical  dignities. 
In  vain  the  Saint  cried,  and  cried  again:  "We  are  de- 
signed to  help  the  ecclesiastics,  for  the  saving  of  souls :  let 
us  work  in  harmony  with  them  ! "  '  Whatever  Domini- 
cans may  have  thought,  Francis'  spirit  did  not  welcome 
even  the  suggestion  of  Cardinal  Ugolino  to  imitate  the 
**  primitive  custom  " — and,  we  may  add  the  oriental  tra- 
dition— of  drawing  ecclesiastical  prelates  from  the  Religious 
Orders.  Thomas  of  Celano  represents  and  defends  these 
ideas  of  the  Founder  :  ideas  which,  in  the  inevitable  reac- 
tion that  so  constantly  recurs  in  the  history  of  monasticism, 
were  vigorously  contested  by  the  tendencies  of  the  Order 
after  the  Patriarch's  death. ""     The  Minorites  should  remain 


misisti ;  cfr.  Migne,  LXXIII,  263 :  Memento,  Domine,  studiorum  meorum... 
memento  famulonim  tuorum,  qui  tibi  tota  mente  deserviunt.  See  also  Fior.  No. 
13  and  Actus  No.  13  §  27,  where  is  announced  the  promise  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  substantially  identical  with  that  wherewith  Jesus  comforts  Pachomius. 
Animaequior  esto,  et  confortetur  cor  tuum,  quia  posteritas  tua  manebit  in  saecu- 
lum,  nee  usque  in  fine  mundi  deficiet  etc. 

^  R.  75  ;  III,  84.  Subjection  to  prelates  is  forcibly  expressed  by  Greg.  M. 
In  primum  Regum  V,  3  No.  42.  Magna  enim  munera  etc.  and  Thomas : 
Elstote  subiecti  praelatis,  etc. 

^  S.  Bern.  Op.  II,  384  :  Haec  dicta  sunt  contra...  tentationem,  quae  saef>e 
viri  reli^osi  episcoporum...  ambire  gloriam...  diabolicis  instigationibus  incitantur. 
An  old  story  1  Martene  et  Durand,  V,  1 626 :  In  Vila  patrurn,  inveniuntur 
capitula  de  fugiendo  clericatu,  nullum  invenitur  de  appetendo  clericatu.  Cfr.  Vita 
S.  Rom.  in  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Febr.  742  :  Cum  ad  ofiicium  clericatus  rabida  am- 
bitione  pervenerint,  confestim  cothumo  elationis  inflati,  non  solum  contra  coaevos 
digniores,  verum  etiam  supra  vetulos  ac  seniores...  juvenculi  efferuntur,  et  nee 
primis  saltem  simplicibus  elementis  imbuti,  nituntur  cathedris,  vel  sacerdotio  prae- 
sidere,  qui  adhuc  pro  elatione  ac  levitate  iuvenili,  virgis  indigent  coerceri.  The 
Middle  Ages  had  sought  a  middle  course  between  secular  priesthood  and  mo- 
nasticism, imposing  a  community- life  upon  the  clergy  in  cities.  The  canons  were 
to  be  fnfer  duas  conversaiionis  species,  media  via  :  Fantuzzi,  Mon.  Rav.  VI, 
No.    15;  an.   1042. 


180     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Minorites  and  nothing  more.  And  if  the  Dominicans  were 
less  rigid,  this  was  no  good  reason  why  the  Franciscans 
should  nourish,  towards  the  spiritual  sons  of  Saint  Dominic, 
feelings  of  rancour  and  hatred  unworthy  of  the  two  Pa- 
triarchs. Hence  arose  the  need  of  a  vigorous  appeal  to 
the  sentiments  of  concord  and  humility  expressed  in  and 
wonderfully  suggestive  scene.  For  this  reason  I  have  strong 
suspicions  that  the  conversation  between  the  two  Saints  is 
purely  imaginary.  And  my  fears  are  enhanced  by  the 
form  of  Saint  Dominic's  aspiration:  "  Vellem,  f rater  Fran- 
cisce,  unam  fieri  religionem  tuam  et  meam,  et  in  Ecclesia 
pari  forma  nos  vivere".  It  resembles  too  closely  that  of 
Saint  Bernard :  **  Omnes  ergo  concurramus  pariter  in  unam 
tunicam,  et  ex  omnibus  constet  una*\^  for  us  to  believe 
that  it  really  issued  from  the  lips  of  that  great  theologian. 
It  is  probable  that  Dominic  really  judged  Francis  and  the 
Franciscans,  much  as  did  that  other  learned  man  Innocent  III, 
though  he  may  not  have  expressed  his  judgement  quite  so 
harshly.  Students,  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages,  lived 
in  a  world  where  the  impression  produced  by  spontaneous 
popular  movements  reached  them  in  a  diminished  and  at- 
tenuated form,  by  reason  of  the  great  altitude  from  which 
they  observed — or  thought  they  observed — such  phenomena. 
The  religious  sentiment  free  from  the  tentacles  of  the  theo- 
logical syllogism,  in  the  hands  of  a  poor  Umbrian  preacher, 
was  either  a  flame  of  heresy,  or  a  simple,  ingenuous  hymn 
inspired  by  the  eternal  poetry  of  the  people. 

As  for  the  example  of  humility  given  by  the  Saint,  it  will  suffice  to  adduce 
Sampson,  who  renounces  the  prelacy  of  the  Abbey  because  he  desires  aedere  ad 
pedes  Domini  cum  Maria,  and  vacate  contemplationi :  Ann.  Camald.  IV,  375; 
No.  223,  an.  121 7.  There  is  no  need  to  mention  the  other  example  of  Ce- 
lestine  V. 

1  Op.   II,  546 :  Apol.  ad  G.  abb.  c.  4. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SAINT  FRANCIS  AND  THE  "SPECULUM" 
OF  THOMAS 

ILDEBRANDO  Delia  Giovanna,  in  one  of  the  very  few 
really  scientific  monographs  on  Franciscan  subjects  that 
have  appeared  so  far,  gives  us  a  study  of  Saint  Francis 
as  *' giullare  di  Dio"  marked  at  once  by  graceful  erudi- 
tion and  by  penetration  of  thought.  And  the  figure  that 
he  calls  up,  is  one  resembling  that  bizarre  chanter  of  po- 
pular praises  Benedetto  da  Corneto,  as  described  by  another 
bizarre  but  congenial  friar,  Salimbene  of  Parma.  ^  And 
even  if  the  examination  of  the  Second  Life,  and  of  that 
*  Speculum '  which  we  will  continue  to  call  *  Sabatier's ' 
— in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  true  Speculum  of  the 
Second  Life — leads  us  necessarily  to  reduce  to  more  modest 
proportions  Celano's  eulogistic  picture  of  the  Saint's  sim- 
plicity and  spiritual  gladness,  I  have  no  doubt  that  Delia 
Giovanna' s  sketch  is  true  to  the  life. 

As  we  have  already  repeated  too  often,  everything  has 
its  limits — even  the  fury  of  plagiarism,  the  love  of  Art 
and  of  the  Order  !  The  apparition  of  the  Poverello  had 
shaken  great  and  small  alike  ;  in  him  were  gathered  up, 
in  a  sense  both  the  living  sparks  of  heretical  rebellion,  and 
the  vague  aspirations  of  a  faith  incapable  of  resigning  itself 


I   Giornale  star,  della  Lett,   italiana,    XXV,     1     seqq.    14-15.      Salimbene, 
Chr.  32-4. 


182     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

to  languish  in  the  cold  atmosphere  of  catholic  dogmatism: 
all  the  supreme  ideals,  in  fact,  of  a  people  that  was  qui- 
vering with  youth  and  passion. 

The  chair — that  is,  aristocratic  thought — creates  the  theo- 
logian :  creates  one  who  will  end  by  deriding  evangelic 
simplicity,  the  humble  consciousness  of  an  Aequitius  and 
a  Francis.  When  our  Saint,  abandoning  the  ways  of  ordi- 
nary life  to  lift  himself  to  a  loftier  plane,  and  giving  utter- 
ance to  sentiments  universally  felt,  in  the  magnificent 
simplicity  of  his  plebeian  tongue,  succeeds — to  use  Celano's 
phrase — in  "  transforming  thousands  and  thousands  of  liste- 
ners into  one  single  person " ; '  he  attains  to  a  genuine 
greatness  and  a  most  conspicuous  originality  which  political 
and  rhetorical  fictions  only  serve  to  veil. 

The  populace  delights  always  in  that  which  is  intimate- 
ly its  own.  The  vague,  indefinite  fancies  which  rove 
through  its  imagination  need  but  the  vivifying  and  defining 
touch  of  Art,  with  its  intuitive  grasp  of  common  ideals, 
to  give  them  a  new  and  victorious  entrance  into  the  spirit 
of  the  people,  over  which  they  exercise  a  powerful  do- 
mination. And  the  form  into  which  these  popular  thoughts 
and  sentiments  are  so  translated,  must  itself  be  akin  to  the 
matter.  A  theologian  from  the  University  of  Paris  lec- 
turing in  Umbria,  or  in  any  other  part  of  the  world, 
would  have  missed  the  applause  of  a  crowd  of  learned 
students  assembled  in  the  halls  of  science.  What  a  poor 
figure  would  a  professor  have  cut,  with  his  monotonous 
dialectical  distinctions,  in  face  of  the  people,  assembled  in 
the  open  air  in  sight  of  mountains  and  plains ! — yes  even 
though  those  subtleties  had  been  expounded  in  the  idiom 

I  I  Vita  72  :  Populorum  maximam  muldtudinem,  quasi  vinim  unum  ceraebat 
et  uni  praedicabat. 


CHAPTER  VI  183 

of  Italy !  It  was  not  thus  that  the  people  was  used  to 
be  addressed.  Vernacular  eloquence  had  its  own  proper 
demands,  and  the  first  of  all  was  the  absence  of  all  pre- 
tence to  be  eloquent.  ^ 

And  the  external  inspiration  of  the  environment  must 
needs  be  no  less  forcible  than  the  internal.  From  the 
soft  motifs  of  a  song,  or  of  the  lays  of  chivalry  (which 
have  an  epic  piety  of  their  own),  there  was  often  flung 
off  a  fervid  prayer  to  the  Lord ;  like  a  solemn  chorus 
uniting  voices  that  had  been  festive  and  tumultuous  a  mo- 
ment before.  Who  could  distinguish  the  opening  of  a 
spontaneous  call  to  religious  meditation  from  the  finish  of 
a  jester's  reckless  ditty  ?  The  Domini  joculatores  who 
modulated  the  cantilene  imported  from  rebellious  Provence,^ 
had  frequently  the  cleric's  tonsure  and  the  intonation  of 
the  ecclesiastical  chant,  which  was  studied  in  the  most 
famous  monasteries.^  Religion  and  Poetry,  song  and  prayer, 
can  never  really  be  separated  :  they  are  one  thing.  The 
example  had  been  set  by  the  Church  herself,  when  she 
borrowed  from  pagan  liturgy  those  sweetest  psalmodies 
which  conquered  alike  the  austere  spirit  of  Saint  Augustine 
and  the  impressionable  heart  of  the   populace.  "^      Proper 


^  How  can  one  fail  to  recall  the  words  of  Peter  Chrysologiu  bishop  of  Ra- 
venna ?  He  says :  Populis  populariter  est  loquendum,  communio  compellanda 
est  sermone  communi,  omnibus  necessaria  dicenda  sunt  more  omnium  ;  naturalis 
lingua,  chara  simplicibus,  doctis  dulcis :  docens  loquatur  omnibus  profutura ;  ergo 
hodie  imperito  verbo  veniam  dent  periti :  S,  Petri  Chn/sologi,  Op.  (ed.  Venetiis 
1742)  Sermo  XLIII,  69. 

2  Odofredo,  176-7.  Memorie  carolingie  in  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  Ill,  104. 
Rolandus  Cantapoco  is  a  Tuscan  name  of  the  year  1141;  'Dattidsobn,  Forsch. 
cit.  I,  162.  On  French  works  in  Italy  in  the  Xlllth  century,  see  Dunlop- 
Wilson,  Hist,  of  Prose  Fiction,  1896;  II,  43.  D'Ancona  in  Rend.  Ace.  Lin- 
cei   1 889  ;  420  seqq.     Delia  GioVanna,  1.  c.  22. 

3  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  I.  103;  (Ep.  VI,  22). 

4  Confess.  X,  6,  33  ;  CV.  231.  262-4.     Cfr.  5.  Paul.  Eph.  V.  19.     Can- 


184     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

to  the  liturgical  chanting  is  that  free  rhythm  which  one 
might  almost  call  '  oratorical ',  since  that  which  we  employ 
in  a  normal  recitation  is,  at  bottom,  the  same  thing. ' 

As  the  cantus  adapted  itself  to  the  moveable  parts  of 
the  Mass,  the  original  participation  of  the  faithful  in  the 
solemn  sacrifice  becsune  reduced  to  a  musical  dialogue 
between  the  celebrant  and  those  who  were  assisting  at  the 
ceremony.  And  then  both  chant  and  words  came  out 
again  from  the  Church  to  return  again  amongst  the  people, 
whence  they  originally  sprang.  The  invasion  of  profane 
singing  was  felt  as  an  annoyance  by  the  ecclesiastics. 

Timid  penitents  would  ask  their  confessor :  "  Oportet 
nos,  pro  recreatione  et  propter  intolleranciam  laborum, 
quandoque  aliquando  iocunda  cantare  ?'* 

And  the  reply  was  given:  "Songs  of  the  world,  no; 
but . . .  hoc  ipsum  placet  si  de  Deo  et  de  S.  Maria  et 
buiusmodi.  "  "^ 

Tardy  counsel  and  vain  I  The  Jesters  themselves,  who 
even  in  Salimbene*s  day  ^  had  become  great  rivals  of  the 
Friars  Minor,  and  frequented  the  society  of  priests  and 
bishops'^  in  the  houses  of  great  Churchmen  with  a  view 
to  win  pardon  for  their  profanity,  mixed  sacred  and  secu- 
lar freely  together,   and  combined  the  strains  of  gaiety  and 


tilenae  of  the  Church,  see  S.  Petri  Cbrisologi  Sermo    CXVI,   116:    Resurrec- 
bonem...  canttt...  Christianus. 

1  F.  Flamini,  Studi  di  storia  letteraria,    1 13    seqq.     129    seqq.    142    seqq. 
Cfr.  La'voix,   Hist,   de  la  Musique,   7. 

2  Scbonbacb,  in  Sitzungsber.  cit.  CXLVII,  90  (From  the  sennons  of  Berthold 
of  Regensburg).     Delia  Giovanna,  1.  c.   19  No.  2. 

Cfr.  5.  Petri  Cbry/s.     Serm.  X,   17;  XCV,    171  ;    CXV.    175:    cantilena 
<  data  nobis  naturaliter  »   ad  solatium  laboris. 

3  Chr,  353. 

4  Deer.  Greg.  IX ;  V,  3,   1 6 ;  an.    1 1 66  ?     A  horse  seems  to  be  die  cus- 
tomary gift  of  a  bishop  to  a  jester. 


CHAPTER  VI  185 

mysticism.  ^  It  is  certain  also  that  the  heretics  began  with 
singing,  those  meetings  which  the  simple  found  so  alluring ;  ^ 
and  perhaps  they  used  to  develope  the  argument  of  their 
discourses  on  the  basis  of  a  popular  motif.  The  prophetic 
words  of  Saint  Augustine  were  verifying  themselves :  "  Sur- 
gunt  indocti  et  ccelum  rapiunt,  et  nos  cum  doctrinis,  sine 
corde,  ecce  uhi  volutamur  in  came  et  sanguine. "  ^  The 
sermons  and  popular  discourses  which  had  touched  the 
heart  of  the  infidels  in  the  first  age  of  the  Church,  were 
now  alternated  with  hymns  in  which  rhythms  of  the  lays 
of  chivalry  gave  their  soft  tone  to  the  afflictions  of  the 
heroines  of  romance — or  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  These  form- 
ed a  fashionable  type  of  dramatic  and  religious  ceremony 
during  the  twefth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  ^ 

I  would  not  suggest,  as  does  Delia  Giovanna,  that  the 
French  speech  into  which  Saint  Francis  often  lapsed  in 
his  moments  of  greatest  religious  enthusiasm,  was  a  common 
way  of  drawing  attention  to  himself.^  It  is  evidently  a 
question  of  relapses  into  rhythm  which  betray  their  poetic 

1  On  Jacopone  da  Todi  see  :  D'Ancona,  Studi  sulla  lett.  ital.  de'  primi 
secoli,   1884;  4  seqq. 

S.  Simeon  Stultus  in  a  tavern  fJpgaTO  auXstv,  i.  e.  he  accompanied  himself  oh 
the  pandura,  singing  the  hymn  of  the  great  Nicon,  which  drove  away  the  de- 
vils: Acta  SS.  T.  I  Jul.    157. 

2  Deer.  Greg.  IX,  V,  7,  8.  (Cone.  Lai.  Ill  c.  27).  On  erotic  rhythtM 
see  Scbonbach,  in  Sitzungsber.  cit.   CXLVIl,   119. 

3  Confess.  VIII,  8.  CV.    186. 

4  This  also  is  old  material.  We  read  in  the  Life  of  S.  Radegonda  (MG. 
merov.  II,  373-6)  that  the  Saint  when  certain  secular  songs  were  echoing  all 
round  the  monastery,  nihil  audiise  modo  saeculare  de  cantico.  Radegonda,  in 
ecstatic  mood,  heard  only  a  religious  hymn  modulated  over  popular  melodies, 
which  were  carried  over  to  sacred  uses. 

For  the  comic-religious  "  Mysteries  "  of  the  XIII^^  century,  consult  Lavoix, 
Hist,  de  la  Musique,    110-2. 

5  R.  13  ;  II  Vita;  I,  8:  Quasi  spiritu  ebrius,  lingua  gallica  petit  oleum-*- 
semper  enim  verba  foris  eructans  gallice  ioquebatur  se  apud  illam  gentem  praecipue 
honorandum  praenoscens,  et  reverentia  speciali  colendum.     An  excellent  reasoa  I 


186     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

origin.  They  are  fragments  of  songs  that  have  remained 
alive  in  his  memory,  and  by  association  of  ideas,  and  by 
a  psychic  process  far  from  mysterious,  slip  into  his  discourse 
v/henever  a  strong  excitement,  similar  to  that  which  the  epic 
narrative  arouses,  reproduces  the  same  nervous  commotion. 
Saint  Francis,  born  into  a  wealthly  family,  brought  up 
in  a  refinement  enhanced  further  by  his  embracing  the 
noble  profession  of  arms,  was  doubtless  familiar  with  the 
literature  of  chivalry  in  its  original  tongue,  which  was  also 
the  language  of  aristocratic  society. '  The  prowess  of  the 
heroes  of  the  noble  land  of  France,  which  remained  dear 
to  him  even  after  his  change  of  life,  incited  him  no  longer 
to  seek  glory  in  bloodstained  battle-fields,  but  rather  to 
win  souls  to  that  serenity  and  peace  which  the  Gospels 
promise.  This  may  be  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  "  chi- 
valrous "  character  of  the  Order — meaning  by  that  word 
that  the  saint  drew  the  inspiration  of  his  eloquence  from 
the  very  special  conditions  of  religious  and  artistic  feeling 
by  which  he  was  environed.  And  the  singing  of  Saint 
Francis,  to  whom  pious  posterity  attributes  the  authorship 
of  certain  hymns,  ^  is  followed  by  his  companions,  down 
to  the  very  metre  used  by  the  Master.^ 


1  Benv.  de  Ramh.  de  Imola,  Com.  super  Dantis  Aid.  Com.  (Flor.  1887); 
II,  409:  Indignor  animo,  quando  video  Italicos,  et  praecipue  nobiles,  qui  conan- 
tur  imitari  vestigia  eorum  el  discunt  linguam  gallicam,  asserentes  quod  nulla  est 
pulchrior  lingua  gallica. — Our  old  writers  justly  attributed  to  the  French  language 
the  power  to  render  ideas  more  vivid  :  gallicae  animositatis  genium  servans,  et  ex 
more  patriae  verba  violenter  infringens,  says  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  II,  204,  of  a 
lady  who  made  a  disturbance  because  she  was  not  reconciled  to  having  her  bus- 
ing band  enter  the  cloister. 

2  Delia  QioManna,  1.  c.  27,  with  whom  I  gladly  leave  the  matter,  so  as 
not  to  trespass  on  others'  preserves.  Cfr.  Spec.  ed.  Sabatier,  234  and  app.  ; 
242,  Gotz,  50  seqq.  The  laudes  de  crealurii  are  always  associated  with  his 
sermons.      Tbode,   Franz  v.  Assisi,  68. 

3  See,  e.  g..  Vita  Aegidii ;  Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  239  :  Mystico    et    spiri- 


CHAPTER  VI  187 

Absolutely  nothing  is  left  to  us  of  those  sermons  which 
moved  the  world.  Jordanus  preserved  only  the  first  words 
of  the  sermon  preached  at  the  Chapter  of  1221  :  "  Bene- 
dictus  Dominus  meus  qui..."^  This  resembles  the  be- 
ginning of  the  laudi  of  Benedetto  da  Corneto:  "Laudato 
et  benedetto  et  glorificato  sia  lo  patre . . . "  ^  Celano  ap- 
parently did  not  like  simplicity  ;  at  any  rate  it  is  absent 
from  the  following  theme —  Voluptas  brevis,  poena  perpetua, 
modica  passio,  gloria  infinita,  multorum  vocatio,  paucorum 
electio,  omnium  retributio.^  But  it  comes  back  in  the 
exordium  of  the  sermon  at  Bologna :  Angeli,  homines, 
daemones.  ^  To  folk  frenzied  with  wrath  and  blood  the 
Saint  (blessed  be  his  memory  and  his  words!)  preached 
not  the  sweets  of  Roman  orthodoxy  and  the  horrors  of 
heresy ;  but  just  "Peace — peace — peace  !"  The  very  men 
who  were  on  the  point  of  cutting  each  other's  throats 
remembered  at  last  that  they  were  brethren.  ^      If  we  had 

tuali  cantu  voluit...  monere.     And  so  they  become,  ignorant  as    they    are,    most 
acute  interpreters  of  Scripture :  ib.  240. 

1  c.    16;   Voigt,  I.  c.  523.      (Ps.  CXLIII,  init.). 

2  Salimbene,  Chr.  32-3.  Alleluja,  Alleluja !  was  the  response  which 
followed  his  sermon. 

3  R.  96 ;  It  is  modified  by  Barth.  da  Pisa,  because  the  good  friar  begins 
with  the  prefatory  words  :  "  Magna  promisimus,  majora  promissa  sunt  nobis.  Ob- 
servemus  hec,  aspiremus  ad  ilia  ".  Brevis  voluptas  etc.  "Ooigt  is  right  (1.  c.  491 
No.  45) ;  the  passage  must  be  taken  from  some  homily  or  other  ;  but  so  far  1, 
like  Voigt,  have  not  been  successful  in  detecting  the  source. 

4  Sigonii,  Op.  Ill,  432  ;  MG.  SS.  XIX,  580.  De  his  autem  (writes  To- 
maso  da  Spalato)  spiritibus  rationabiliter  ita  bene  et  districte  proposuit,  ut  multis 
literatis,  qui  aderant,  fieret  admirationi  non  modicae  sermo  bominis  idiotae.  By 
idiotae  are  meant,  in  scholastic  language,  those  not  '  esinaniti '  (according  to  the 
technical  phrase)  in  the  studies  and  the  books  of  learning.  At  Bologna,  in  the 
greatest  centre  of  Italian  culture,  on  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption,  1220,  the 
Saint  had  elevated  somewhat  his  style  of  speaking ;  and  the  vigorous  oratory 
was  enforced  by  long  practice.  The  success  of  that  sermon  is  recorded  in  Fio- 
retti  No.  27  ;   Actus  No.   36. 

5  L.  c.  Tota  verborum  eius  materia  discurrebat  ad  extinguendsis  inimicitias, 
ad  pads  foedera  reformanda...     Tantam  Deus  verbis  illis    contulit    efficaciam,    ut 


188      SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

no  other  testimony  to  the  life  of  the  Man  of  God,  this 
would  be  sufficient  to  glorify  him  for  ever  ;  much  more 
so  than  that  kind  of  neurasthenic  apotheosis  which  is  ac- 
corded to  him  in  our  days. 

In  the  '*  Prima  considerazione  delle  sacre  sante  stim 
mate "  ^  the  popular  theme  is  repeated  :  "  Sancto  Fran- 
cesco . . .  vassene  in  su  la  piazza,  dove  era  ragunata  iutta 
la  moltitudine  di  iutti  questi  gentili  uomini,  et  in  fervore 
di  spirito  monta  in  su  uno  muricciolo  et  comincio  a  pre- 
dicare,  proponendo  per  thema  delta  sua  predica  questa 
parola  in  volgare: 

Tanto  e  quel  bene  che  io  aspetto 
Che  ogni  pena  m'e  dilecto'\ 

Thomas  of  Celano  had  seen  and  heard  the  great  prea- 
cher, and  had  admired  him,  perhaps,  in  his  own  way, 
with  the  reserve  of  a  man  of  culture  suspicious  of  anything 
like  enthusiasm.  He  had  further  taught  his  Master  Gre- 
gory's precepts  on  sacred  oratory  ;  and  had  succeeded  in 
making  of  him  a  Sciint  conformable  to  the  canons  of  the 
hagiographer's  art.  More  could  not  be  expected  of  him! 
The  essentially  original  figure  declined  to  accomodate  itself 
to  the  conventional  garb  of  monasticism  :  Francis  was  still 
too  vivid  a  memory  in  every  heart  for  his  place  to  be 
entirely  taken  by  a  whitewashed  symbol  of  the  man.  And, 
further,  not  even  Celano  would  have  wished  to  put  his 
hand  to  a  work  which  would  have  robbed  the  Order  of 
its  glory  and  of  the  plaudits  of  the  populace.  Simplicity, 
serene  spiritual  gladness,  spontaneous  delicacy  of  act   and 

multos  nobilium,  quorum  furor  immanis  multa   sanguinis   effusione    fuerat    debac- 
chatus,  ad  pacis  concordiam  simul  deduceret. 
'   Fioretti,  ed.  Passerini,    145. 


CHAPTER  VI  189 

word  had  conquered  the  world.  Who  would  have  de- 
nied the  lofty  endowments  of  Saint  Francis  because,  (as 
we  have  seen),  he  avoided  the  harsh  austerity  of  Saint 
Benedict,  and,  smiling  and  singing,  drew  folk  after  him  ? 
Art  should  not  trespass  beyond  certain  limits.  Celano  did 
not  lack  inspiration,  either.  The  very  practice  of  begging 
from  door  to  door — a  hard  necessity  where  work  does 
not  provide  for  the  day's  needs — acquires  a  sort  of  charm, 
a  sweet  poetic  confidence  in  the  love  of  all  men. '  Where 
the  devil  is,  gladness  is  not — and  the  devil  is  idleness.  ^ 
An  old  monastic  duty,  neglected  now  by  the  lazy  deni- 
zens of  cloisters  that  are  little  capitals  of  litde  kingdoms, 
helps  to  preserve  that  gladness  of  heart  which  Saint  Francis 
imposes  upon  all  his  followers  on  the  ground  that  Christ's 
servant  is  immune  from  the  assaults  of  demons  when  they 
see  him  full  of  holy  joy.  ^  And  there  was  no  harm  what- 
ever in  making  the  Saint — ever  hilarious  like  the  hermit 
Anthony,  '* — repeat,  with  the  famous  text-book  of  monasti- 
cism  :  "  Qui  querulosus  est,  monachus  non  est. " ' 

Not  content  with  pouring  out  his  soul  in  praises  of  the 


1  Reg.  c.  5,  6.  De  modo  laborandi  -  De  petenda  eleemosyna.  R.  43  seqq. 
II,  17  ;  Spec.  c.  26.  R.  81.2  III,  seqq.  Celano  with  the  words:  Liceal,  san- 
ctus  pater,  etc.  begins  the  lamentations  for  the  extremely  rapid  decadence  of  the 
Order. 

2  Migne.  LXXIII,  934.  789.  923,  934.  942 ;  Cassian.  Inst.  Coenob.  X. 
173  seqq.  This  is  why  the  hermit  Aegidius  lives  by  selling  "  sportellae  "  that 
he  makes  ;  Migne,  886  :  Sportas  -  distrahendas  per  plateas  circumferret ;  Casaian. 
Inst.  Coenob.  IV.  39 ;  CV.  67.  Acta  SS.  Ill  Apr.  223  ;  faciebat  etiam  quae- 
<iam  laboricia  de  juncis. 

3  R.  66;  III.  65.     Spec.  c.  95. 

4  Migne,  LXXIII.  156;  V.  Ant.  c.  40 :  Semper  hilarem  faciem  gerens ; 
cfr.  ib.  p.  965  :  Misericordem  in  bilaritate ;  ib.  1161  (Hist.  Laus.  Vita  abb. 
Apoll.).  Licebat  autem  eos  videre  exultantes  in  solitudine,  adeo  ut  nuUam  eius- 
modi  aliam  exultationem  in  terra  videre  liceat,  nee  laetitiam  corporalem.  Neque 
enim  erat  inter  eos  aliquis  moestus.  aut  tristis,  etc. 

5  Migne,  UCXIII.  922  (V.  9  No.  54) ;  cfr.  924. 


190     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Lord  and  of  His  creatures,  Francis  longs  also  for  the  har- 
mony of  a  cithern,  to  make  him  forget  for  a  moment  the 
cruel  pain  of  his  eyes.  In  the  cells  of  the  brethren  no 
such  instrument  is  to  be  found ;  and  the  Saint's  companion 
who  in  the  world  had  been  a  harp-player  humbly  refuses 
to  beg  the  loan  of  one.  "Father",  he  says,  "I  am  grie- 
vously ashamed  :  if  they  hear  me  play  as  I  used  to  do 
once,  they  will  say  that  I  have  fallen  into  temptation . . . 
One  must  respect  appearances"  (or  opinions,  which  are 
always,  of  course,  the  same  thing).  The  Saint  surrenders 
to  the  bashful  timidity  of  his  fellow  ;  but  God  consoles 
him  with  the  celestial  music  of  an  invisible  cithern. '  Even 
so  the  sweet  melody  that  vibrated  within  his  spirit,  and 
gurgled  forth  in  the  rhythm  of  Gallic  speech,  gave  him 
no  peace  until . . .  lignum  quandoque,  UT  OCULIS  VIDIMUS, 
colligebat  e  terra,  ipsumque  sinistro  hrachio  superponens 
anulum  filoflexum  tenebat  in  dextera,  quern  supra  viellam 
trahens  per  lignum  et  ad  hoc  gestus  repraesentans,  ^donea 
gallice  cantahat  de  Domino.  Terminahantur  tola  haec 
tripudia  frequenter  in  lacrymas,  et  in  passionis  Cbristi 
compassionem  hie  jubilus  solvebatur.^ 

"  Oculis  vidimus "  ?  Yes,  undoubtedly ;  but  what  the 
eyes  of  Thomas  actually  did  was  to  peruse  a  charming 
page  of  Caesarius,  where  he  speaks  of  a  cleric  archipoeta 
who  makes  a  pair  with  Frate  Pacifico  converted  when 
already  king  of  versification,  like  other  joyous  souls,  by 
Sant  Francis.  ^ 

1  R  68;  III.  66. 

2  /?.  69  ;  (III,  67).  The  jester  has  always  his  viol  with  him  :  Salimbene, 
153. 

3  R.  58  (III,  49:  cfr.  III.  27  e  76).  Caes.  II,  16.  Cfr.  Boncompagni. 
Cednis  I.  c.  163,  which  recalls  the  great  renown  of  Bernard,  the  inventor  of 
glorioaae  cancionea  et  dulcisonae  melodiat.      The   "  Re    dci    Versi "    saw    two 


CHAPTER  VI  191 

With  a  view  to  demonstrating  the  elegant  plagiarising 
of  Celano,  we  must  bring  together  in  close  association 
"spiritual  gladness"  and  her  amiable  sister  "simplicity". 
The  Sancta  simplicitas  is  no  longer  that  which  shuts  one's 
eyes  to  the  unworthy  life  of  the  priests ;  it  is  the  monk's 
most  splendid  gift,  which  renders  him  worthy  to  obtain 
the  most  singular  graces  and  favours  from  God.  "  Nemo 
se  seducat/'  says  the  Apostle,  "si  quis  videtur  inter  vos 
sapiens  esse  in  hoc  saeculo,  stultus  fiat  ut  sit  sapiens'*.^ 
These  words  have  created  the  type  of  "  Brother  Simple " 
— a  type  that  deserves  a  study  to  itself — the  type  that 
takes  pains  to  appear  half  idiotic,  even  when  possessed  of 
a  learning  and  a  sanctity  surpassing  those  of  God's  most 
famous  champions. 

In  the  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers "  we  have  already  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Paul  "the  Simple",  who  yields  to 
non  in  the  art  of  putting  devils  to  flight,  ignorant  though 
he  be  of  the  most  elementary  points  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion— e.  g.,  whether  God  be  in  heaven,  or  whether 
Jesus  came  into  the  world  before  the  prophets.  God  de- 
nies him  nothing,  and  when  He  hesitates  a  little  to  work 
a  miracle  for  him.  Brother  Simple  is  quite  capable  of 
threatening  him  with  a  fast,  like  a  Brahman,  and  gains 
his  point.  ^     Gregory  the  Great  sketches    charmingly    the 


swords  of  iire  issue  from  the  saint's  body  ;  just  as  the  dumb  porter  saw  flames 
issuing  from  the  month  of  Peter  Telonarius  the  hero  of  charity  :  Vita  S.  Joan. 
Eleem.  c.  21  ;  Migne,  LXXIIl,  359.  On  Frate  Pacifico  there  is  a  carefully 
written  article  by  Cosmo,  in  Giom.  Stor.  della  Lett.  Ital.  XXXVIII,  2  seqq. 
Cfr.  Sabatier,   Spec.    108  note  2. 

1  1  QoT.  Ill,  18.  Cfr.  ib.  1,  22:  Placuit  Deo  per  stullili&m  praeJicalionis 
salvos  facere  credentes  ;  and   Greg.  M.  Moral.  XIV,  in  c.    19  Job;  No.  54. 

2  Migne,  XXI.  458:  De  Paulo  simplice :  Migne,  LXXIIl,  1129  (Hist. 
Laus.  c.  28) ;  ib.  1 1 40  :  A  nun  who  propter  Christum  simulabat  stultitiam  ; 
ib.  429  :  tNiescio  si  sit  IDeus  in  coelo,  sum  enim  rusticus. 


192     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

figure '  which  Leontius — author  of  the  Life  of  S.  Joannes 
Eleemosinarius  ^ — completes  in  that  of  S.  Simeon  Stultus, 
adding  certciin  classical  traits  suggested  by  reminiscences 
of  the  tradition  of  the  Cynic  philosophy. 

Saint  Simeon  exhausts  all  his  resources  in  the  effort  to 
be  humiliated,  derided  and  despised.  He  eats  lupins  in 
the  piazza,  like  Diogenes  ;  he  trails  behind  him  a  dead 
dog  and  the  children  bay  him  ;  he  goes  about  with  his 
clothes  over  his  dead,  leaving  the  rest  of  his  person  un- 
covered ;  and  finally,  mindful  of  the  other  virtues  of  an 
ancient  hermit,  he  calmly  submits  to  be  accused  of  a  pa- 
ternity of  which  he  is  innocent.  Charming  and  pious 
legend,  which  demonstrates  that  supreme,  absolute  goodness 
always  triumphs  over  the  wiles  of  the  wicked.  When 
Saint  Simeon  sings  the  hymn  of  the  great  Nicon  in  a 
hostelry,   the  devils  immediately  take  flight.^ 

Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  has  dedicated  to  Brother  Sim- 
ple an  entire  book — the  sixth — wherein  he  treats  of  the 
virtues  of  simplicity. ''  We  find  our  Brother  Simple  pour- 
trayed  in  many  attitudes,  and  nearly  all  of  them  pleasing. 
It  is  true,  however  that  the  delineator's  art — like  the  fair 
Hildegund^ — frequently  forgets  that  its  home  is  the  cloister, 


1  Dial.  III.  33,  37.  Moral.  I.  in  c.  2  Job.  No.  49  ;  ib.  VIII.  in  c.  8  Job. 
No.  85.  Cfr.  S.  "P.  'Dam.  Opusc.  45.  Op.  III.  364  :  De  sancta  simplicitate. 
The  ignorant  console  themselves  with  the  familiar  argument :  Deus  per  viros  idiotas 
ac  simplices  mundum  instituit. 

2  Cfr.  Gc/zer,  in  Syhel's  Zeitschr.  N.  F.  LXI  (1899);  1-38.  Leontius 
wrote  between  642  and  668  A.  D.  Simeon,  of  Edessa,  is  of  the  Justinian 
period. 

3  Acta  SS.  T.  I  Jul.  136  seqq.  Cfr.  especially  No.  31  (152);  No.  34 
(153-4);  No.  39  (146-7)  e  Migne.  LXXIII,  779,  958.  'Diog.  Laeri.  VI. 
2  (48)  Monasticism  is  united  to  the  ancient  schools  of  philosophly  by  a  close 
bond  of  kinship. 

4  Strange,   I.  441    seqq. 

5  Caes.   I,  40  (Strange,   I,  47  seqq.). 


CHAPTER  VI  193 

and  relapses  into  sheer  gaiety,  like  a  young  girl  among 
the  crowd  at  a  festa. 

Brother  Simple  is  the  hero  of  charity.  Ensfrid  gives 
all  to  the  poor  -  -  even  that  which  is  not  his  !  In  the 
canons*  kitchen  hang  magnificent  hams;  he  cuts  them  in 
half,  and  the  part  which  touches  the  wall  he  leaves  han- 
ging, that  none  may  observe  the  absence  of  that  which 
he  has  cut  off  given  to  the  poor.  ^  Another  Brother,  a 
little  daft,  but  good  all  the  same,  goes  out  by  the  window 
instead  of  the  door,  and  then  wends  his  way  on,  quite 
unconscious.  Ever)rthing,  or  almost  everything,  is  permitted 
to  the  simple  and  the  humble.  God  protects  them.""  The 
Apostle  who  counselled  holy  foolishness  is  the  same  who 
saud  "  Dei  sumus  adiutores  " ;  ^  and  Caesarius,  mindful  that 
Jesus  conquered  the  world  by  the  virtue  of  poor  ignorauit 
folk,  and  that  He  needs  must  be  pleased  with  those  who 
follow  His  example,  repeats  that  all  simple  brethren  are 
"the  jesters  of  the  Lord,  of  the  Saints  and  the  angels". 

"  Simplex  quandoque  mimo  vel  ioculatori  comparatur  : 
sicut  illius  verba  vel  opera  in  eorum  ore  vel  manibus,  qui 
ioculator  non  est,  saepe  displicent,  et  poena  digni  sunt, 
apud  homines,  quae  tamen  ab  his  dicta  vel  facta  placent: 
ita  est  de  simplicibus.  Ut  sic  dicam,  lOCULATORES  DEI  SUNT 
sanctorumque  angelorum,  quorum  opera,  si  hi  qui  simplices 
non  sunt,  quandoque  facerent,  baud  dubium  quin  Deum  of- 
fenderent,  qui  in  eis,  dum  per  simplices  fiunt,  delectatur''  '^ 

Arnold  was  both  simple  and  pious,  but  the  poetry  of 
devotion  was  not  as  spontaneous  in  him  as  he  would  have 

1  VI,  5  (I,  347).  He  also  cuts  up  and  gives  to  the  poor  the  geese  which 
he  finds  strung  on  the  spit  for  roasting  in  the  kitchen  of  Godofred  the  Notary. 

2  VI.  9  (II.  41).     Cfr.  the  delightful  stories  VI,  2,  7.     (I,  357  seqq.). 

3  I  Cor.  Ill,  9. 

4  VI.  8  (I,  359-60). 


194     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

desired.  "When  I  wish  to  excite  myself  to  prayer",  he 
says  "sub  cuculla  digitos  ad  similitudinem  citharizantis 
moveo,  et  corda  cordis  tango,  sicque  mentis  torporem  ad 
devotionem  excito**.  Such,  at  least,  was  his  belief:  but, 
as  a  matter  of  fact  the  fingers  that  touched  the  chords  of 
an  imaginary  lyre  drew  therefrom  in  reality  a  wave  of 
harmonies  that  was  heard  afar  off. ' 

The  difference  between  Caesarius*  story  and  that  of 
Celano  is  practically  nothing  :  for  the  extremely  slight  va- 
riants only  serve  the  better  to  prove  the  methods  by  which 
Thomas  worked  up  German  fancies  for  his  own  purposes. 

Sabatier's  Speculum  is  more  malicious  than  usual  on 
this  point.  The  pure  legend  which  was  hidden  in  Brother 
Leo's "^  mysterious  "notes",  has  a  better  knowledge  than 
have  modem  critics  of  Brother  Thomas*  marauding  expe- 
ditions. According  to  the  Speculum  of  1318,^  Francis 
had  the  idea  of  putting  Bro.  Pacifico  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  holy  buffoons — Frati-giullari.  Pacifico  would 
have  preached  first  to  the  congregation,  and  his  companions, 
in  chorus  would  have  sung  the  praises  of  the  Lord,  tan- 
quam  joculatores  Domini. 

When  the  singing  was  ended  the  preacher  would  have 
brought  the  ceremony  to  a  close,  with  the  customary  jester's 
plea  :  "  Nos  sumus  joculatores  Domini,  et  pro  his  volu- 
mus  remunerari  a  vobis,  videlicet  ut  stetis  in  vera  poeni- 
tentia. — Quid  enim  [ait]  sunt  servi  Dei,  nisi  quidam  jocu- 
latores Ejus,  qui  corda  hominum  erigere  debent  et  movere 
ad  laetitiam    spiritualem  ? "  *      So   the    compilers    of   the 

1  VII.  39  (II,  54). 

2  TiUman,   83  seqq. 

3  Op.  c.  1 49.  It  will  be  understood  that  we  have  little  interest  in  the  fixing 
of  the  exact  date  within  a  year  or  two. 

4  Spec.  c.   100  (196-7). 


CHAPTER  VI  195 

fourteenth-century  Speculum,  while  repeating  Caesarius* 
charming  phrase,  reproduced  with  great  exactness  the  true 
form  of  the  primitive  Franciscan  preaching.  Brother  Pa- 
cifico  takes  the  place  of  Francis,  the  chorus  of  Brethren, 
that  of  the  people  who  respond  to  the  Saint*s  words  with 
hymns  of  devotion.  Like  Thomas,  the  compilers  wished 
to  give  a  literary  and  at  the  same  time  a  monastic  colour- 
ing to  their  description  of  that  reality  that  was  still  vivid 
and  alive  in  pious  Franciscan  traditions ;  and  so  they  had 
recourse  to  Caesarius.  Aegidius,  too,  has  up  his  sleeve 
a  lyre,  qualem  solent  pueri  effingere  ;  and  takes  it  up  to 
play  an  accompaniment  to  his  dialectical  arguments  in  the 
"  contest "  with  Guardo.  ^ 

Paul  the  Simple,  Saint  Simeon  Stultus,  Ensfrid,  Arnold, 
Christian,  reappear  in  Franciscan  garb,  with  the  exagge- 
ration characteristic  of  imitators,  in  the  figures  of  Giovanni, 
Ginepro,  Egidio,  and  even  find  their  way  into  the  verses 
of  Italy's  greatest  satirist.  Carlo  Porta. ""  Ginepro — "  Bro- 
ther Juniper" — instead  of  cutting  hams  in  half,  cuts  off 
the  feet  of  live  swine  to  give  pleasure  to  a  poor  sick 
friend.  He  plays  at  see-saw,  lets  himself  be  all  but  hang- 
ed for  a  crime  he  has  not  committed,  and  casts  away 
his  clothes  after  the  fashion  of  his  ancient  colleague.  He 
is  also  an  expert  in  cookery — after  a  fashion  entirely  his 
own.  He  cooks  together  in  one  huge  pot  fowls,  fish,  ve- 
getables and  eggs  :  but,  observe,  that  dish  so  refreshing  to 
the  minds  of  the  brethren,  is  really  drawn  from  an  old 
monastic  recipe  of  Gregory  of  Tours.  ^ 

1  Acta  SS.  Apr.  Ill,  241  ;  No.  99. 

2  Pocsie  ed.  Firenze,   1884;  115. 

3  Anal.  Franc.  Ill,  62.  Passerini,  Fioretti  215-6.  This  story  should  be 
compared  with  that  of  Gregonj  of  Tours,  Lib.  vitae  patrum  c.  3  (MG.  SS. 
merov.  I,  665-6).      Non  est  dignum  ut  monachi,  quorum  vita  solitaria   est,    tarn 


196     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

Now  Brother  Simple  has  become  a  little  slovenly.  It 
is  difficult  to  say  whether  he  is  trifling  or  acting  and  speak- 
ing seriously.  Art  has  its  rights  amongst  us.  From  san- 
eta  simplicitas  Franciscan  ardour  has  drawn  these  charm- 
ing figures  which  come  again  and  again  before  us,  and 
carry  us  off  in  their  company  into  the  world  where  to 
think  is  to  dream. 

The  foresight  of  Celano  had  provided  even  against  exag- 
gerations !  Francis  was  simple,  but  not  too  simple.  A 
pleasant  litde  scene  suffices  him  to  demonstrate  the  absur- 
dity of  certain  unfortunate  imitators  of  the  inimitable  Saint 

Giovanni  is  an  all  too  simple  peasant  who  resolves  to 
become  a  friar.  No  sooner  said  than  done.  He  unyokes 
one  of  his  oxen  and  offers  it  to  Saint  Francis.  The  poor 
country  fcunily,  alarmed  at  this  costly  outburst  of  charity, 
rush  up  in  tears  to  the  Saint.  He  reads  in  their  stunted 
souls  the  anguish  they  feel  at  the  thought  of  losing  the 
beast,  and  so — "  Don't  be  disturbed  *',  he  says,  "  I  give 
you  back  the  ox,  and  take  the  man  ! "  The  Master  finds 
in  his  new  disciple  an  all  too  conscientious  imitator.  If 
Francis  coughs,  Giovaimi  coughs  ;  if  he  expectorates,  so 
does  his  follower . . . ' 

This  delightful  satire  on  the  clumsy  followers  of  the 
Patriarch  may  perhaps  itself  be  drawn  from  one  of  Cae- 
sarius*  narratives,  in  which  the  devil  desiring  to  triumph 
over  a  Brother  who  has  fallen   into   the    sin    of    gluttony 


ineptis  utantur  sumptibus.  Et  statim  iussit  praeparari  aeneum  magnum.  Cumque 
locatus  super  ignem  fervere  coepisset,  posuit  in  eo  cunctos  simul,  quos  paraverant 
cibos,  tam  pisces,  quam  holera  sive  legumina,  vel  quicquid  ad  comedendum  mo- 
nachis  distinatum  (sic)  fuerat  dixitque :  De  his  puldbus  nunc  reiiciantur  fratres, 
nam  non  deliciis  vacent.  Cfr.  Acta  SS.  Ill  Feb.  741  ;  and  Vita  loh.  Gotz  in 
MG.  SS.  IV.  343. 

I  R.  95  (III,  110);  Spec,  c  57. 


CHAPTER  VI  197 

imitates,  gesture  for  gesture  the  sham  invalid,  who  has  got 
himself  into  the  infirmary  with  the  sole  purpose  of  eating 
flesh  meat,  which  is  forbidden  to  those  in  health. ' 

Gathering  up  into  itself  every  perfection,  simplicity  pre- 
pares for  Francis  glories  both  in  heaven  and  in  earth.  Up 
above  in  the  empyrean  there  stands  already  prepared  for 
him  the  splendid  seat  lost  by  a  rebellious  angel  who  was 
cast  down  with  Pride  and  with  Satan  into  Hell.''  On 
earth  every  creature  approaches  the  Saint  with  entire  con- 
fidence. Birds  find  in  his  hands  the  protecting  warmth 
of  a  nest ;  bees  spread  their  honey  over  the  bowl  that 
has  felt  the  sweet  touch  of  his  lip.  ^  In  Francis  all  is 
simple,  even  religion  itself.  Like  Augustine  he  adores  in 
the  beautiful  the  supreme  beauty  of  God : ''  but  the  devotee 

1  Caes.  V,  6  {Strange^  I,  286) :  Eo  modo  quo  ille  claudicaverat  et  ipse 
claudicavit,  et  sicut  introspexerat,  introspexit,  in  nullo  ab  illius  gesdbus  discrepans. 

Thomas  writes  :  Animaequiores  estate  ;  the  phrase  occurs  in  Vita  Pach.  c.  43 ; 
Migne,  LXXIII,  103;  881  :  animaequior  esto.  In  the  Scripture  I  have  not 
found  it. 

2  R.  66-7  (III,  63).  Spec.  c.  60.  Here  it  is  Frate  Pacifico  who  has  the 
vision.  Identical  visions  will  be  found  in  Migne,  LXXIII,  905  ;  Caes.  VII,  10. 
A  sedes  vacua  mirae  pulcbritudinis  was  reserved  for  a  blind  German :  cfr.  VII, 
56  ;  XI,  12.  Dante  reserves  a  seat  in  Paradise  for  Henry  VII :  Paradiso,  XXX 
V.    133  seqq. 

3  R.  83  seqq.  (Ill,  101  seqq.).  If  S.  Francis  had  a  falcon  to  wake  him, 
and  EUjah  (I  Kings  XVII  6)  a  raven  to  bring  him  bread  ;  S.  Benedict  also  was 
visited  by  a  diabolical  black  bird  and  a  good  raven.  Greg.  M.  Dial.  II,  2,  8. 
The  sparrows  came  down  fearlessly  into  the  hands  of  S.  Remedius :  V.  S. 
Rem.  c.   7.     MG.  SS.  antiquis.  IV,  2  ;  ("Oen.  Fortun.  op.  ped.  65). 

On  the  love  of  birds  :  Hincm.  V.  S.  Remigi.  MG.  SS.  Merov.  Ill,  267 : 
Aves  tarn  saepe  in  Scripturis  commendantur,  sicut  passer,  columba  et  turtur ; 
Cassian.  Conl.  mon.  XYIV,  21.  CV.  267.  Cfr.  Spec.  c.  113.  The  bees 
{R.  86),  mirahili  arte  favorum,  built  their  comb  in  the  vessel  from  which  the 
Saint  used  to  drink ;  and  constructed  a  most  beautiful  capellula  mirae  structurae 
over  a  consecrated  Host :  Caes.  IX,  8.  Celano  has  also  in  mind  the  Legend  of 
St.  Ambrose,  which  makes  the  bees  alight  on  the  Saint's  face  while  he  lay,  as 
an  infant,  sleeping  in  his  cradle.     Paulinus,  Vita  S.  Ambros.  c.  3. 

4  R.  83  seqq.  (Ill,  101).  De  contemplatione  Creatoris.  Cfr.  5.  Aug. 
Confess.  XIII,  32  e  IV,  6,  12  CV.  353,  51,  78.  Celano  writes  :  cognoscrt  in 
pulcbris  pulcberrimum,  and  Augustine :  Pulcbriludo  pulchrorum    omnium  ;    XII, 


198     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

of  Saint  Michael,  of  Mary  the  advocate  of  the  Order,  of 
the  Lord's  Body,  and  of  the  relics  of  the  Saints, '  is  no 
heretic. 

This  is  what  the  Father  of  the  Minorites  bad  to  be 
like.  And,  let  us  repeat  it,  through  the  tissue  of  false- 
hoods the  truth  is  visible.  But  without  the  patient  and 
austere  guidance  of  criticism,  we  should  have  lacked  the 
infallible  mark  by  which  the  true  is  distinguished  from  the 
false. 

We  have  followed  Thomas  of  Celano  in  his  arduous 
task  of  composition ;  we  have  seen  him  place  his  hand  by 
preference  on  certain  books — and  in  so  doing  it  has  re- 
vealed to  us  the  secret  of  its  guiding  thought. 

Among  the  monastic  types  one  alone  laid  its  claim  upon 
the  artist  of  the  Speculum.  It  was  the  most  singular  tyjje 
of  all,  and  the  one  least  at  home  in  the  severe  discipline 
of  the  cloister  :  the  unlearned  man,  miracle  of  goodness, 
of  happy  sweetness,  of  charity,  which  his  word  imparts  to 
others  with  the  violence  of  fire  and  the  force  of  love. 

Criticism  has  scattered  the  nebulous  images  of  Celano, 
and  robbed  them  of  their  power  to  keep  from  us  the  con- 
templation of  the  truth. 

20 :  El  pulchra  sunt  omnia,  faciente  7c,  el  ecce  Tu  inenarrabiliter  pulcbrior, 
qui  fecisli  omnia. 

I  R.  98  seqq.  De  deoolionihus  specialibus  Sancli.  Mary  is  the  maler  pads, 
the  patroness  of  monasteries.  S.  P.  Dam.  Ep.  VI,  32 ;  Op.  I,  115.  Cfr.  Caes. 
VII,  6  :  Ordinem  Cisterciensem,  cuius  advocala  sura,  etc.  ib.  Xil,  58.  Cfr.  for 
the  Dominican  Legend :  Passavanli,  Specchio  della  vera  penitenza,  Dist.  Ill,  4 
(ed.  Classici  Italiani,  Milano,  1 808 ;  I,  110:  Leggesi  nella  leggenda  del  Padre 
noslro  ecc).  On  St.  Michael  whom  the  heretics  could  not  forgive  for  his  vic- 
tories over  Satan,  see:  S.  P.  'Dam.  Op.  II,  133;  Greg.  M.  Horn,  in  Evang. 
II,  34  :  No.  8.  Caes.  XIII.  45  ;  XI.  3.  St.  Michael,  as  both  Celano  and 
Caesarius  note,  is  the  angelus  praesenlalor  animarum.  In  Italy  the  sanctuary  of 
Gargano  both  is  and  was  very  famous.  S.  P.  Dam.  Op.  I,  291  ;  Ep.  VII, 
17.  MG.  SS.  rerum  langob.  et  ital.  541  seqq.  For  apparitions  of  St.  Michael, 
see  also  Vita  S.  Guidonis ;  Acta  SS.  Ill,  Mart.  913. 


CHAPTER  VI  199 

From  a  flowery  hill  bathed  in  mystic  light,  the  Saint's 
dark  eyes  look  forth  upon  the  multitude  that  surrounds 
him.  He  speaks,  and  the  gentle  voice  is  a  fervid  hymn 
to  the  God  of  peace  and  love.  The  rhythm  of  the  lays 
heard  in  his  gay  youth  accompanies  the  harmonious  flow 
of  words  that  melt  the  coldest  hearts.  And  when  Francis 
ceases,  a  feeling  of  infinite  devotion  that  is  awakened  in 
the  ecstatic  heart  of  the  people  bursts  forth  in  a  chorus 
that  rises  solemn  as  a  prayer. 

Was  it  the  Nazarene  repeating,  in  the  century  of  heresy, 
His  Sermon  on  the  Mount? 

From  these  hills  enveloped  in  sunshine  and  in  divine 
hopes,  Thomas  of  Celano  cautiously  leads  away  the  pious 
figure  to  the  shade  of  the  cloister,  and  places  him  side 
by  side  with  Saint  Benedict. 


APPENDIX  I 
THE  DEATH  OF  SAINT  FRANCIS 

WE  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark  that  Tho- 
mas of  Celano  when  nanating  the  story  of  Saint 
Francis'  death  and  burial,  did  not  allow  himself  to  be 
carried  away  even  by  such  supremely  solemn  events,  but 
associated  with  the  pale  form  of  the  man  of  Assisi  other 
figures  suggested  by  his  classical  studies.  Probably,  as 
we  shall  shortly  see,  Celano  himself  was  not  among  those 
who  were  present  at  the  long  agony  and  death  of  the 
Saint.  He  reached  the  Porziuncola,  however,  no  long  time 
after  :  and  the  nature  of  his  conmiission  from  the  Pope, 
rightly  conceived,  must  have  guided  Thomas  in  his  search 
for  and  selection  of  the  facts  from  which,  with  the  help 
of  his  own  art  and  memory,  he  drew  the  material  for 
the  last  chapter,  among  the  rest,  of  his  biography.  "All 
men  are  born  and  die  in  the  same  manner  '*,  some  sceptic 
may  observe :  yet  it  is  worth  while  to  reflect  that  the 
founder  of  an  Order  destined  to  play  so  large  a  part  in 
the  Church  and  in  Christendom,  could  not  close  his  lips 
before  his  eyes  !  Generally  speaking — and  here  Thomas 
stands  among  a  very  numerous  company — hagiographers 
demand  that  the  last  end  of  their  heroes  shall  be  as  so- 
lemn as  their  life.  Further  the  Patriarch's  farewell  to  his 
brethren — like  that  of  Christ  to  His  Apostles — involves 
the  designation  of  his  successor  in  the  government  of  the 


202     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

orphaned  family.  The  last  words  of  the  Saints  are  their 
"will  and  testsunent".  One  can  well  understand  the  im- 
portance of  the  page  on  which  they  are  inscribed. 

Our  task  is  not  a  heavy  one.  We  begin  with  the  First 
Life, '  and  give  a  somewhat  abbreviated  translation  of 
Celano's  narrative,  with  a  minimum  of  explanatory  notes. 

While  Sciint  Francis  was  in  Siena  for  the  cure  of  his 
eyes  which  had  caused  him  so  much  suffering,  he  felt 
himself  worse.  The  diseases  of  stomach  and  liver  were 
aggravated  by  vomitings  of  blood,  sure  sign  (so  my  kind 
medical  friends  assure  me)  that  the  cancer  on  the  liver 
had  spread  to  the  stomach.  Soon  serious  cardiac  compli- 
cations shewed  themselves. 

Elias  who  was  afar  off  sped  to  his  master's  side.  The 
sight  of  his  trusted  friend  was  of  itself  a  tonic,  so  that 
the  invalid  found  himself  able,  without  extreme  distress,  to 
follow  Elias  into  his  cell  at  Cortona.  After  a  short  sojourn 
there,  the  disease  resumed  its  original  violence.  The  belly 
and  all  the  limbs  swelled  up ;  the  stomach  refused  to  take 
food.  Francis,  utterly  broken  down,  prayed  Elias  to  have 
him  removed  to  Assisi :  and  the  good  son  did  that  which 
his  kind  father  had  commanded. 

The  whole  city  rejoiced  at  the  Saint's  arrival :  why, 
Celano  tells  us,  somewhat  crudely.  The  multitude  hoped 
that  Francis  would  die  speedily ;  for  thus  Assisi  would 
have  acquired  a  most  precious  relic  in  the  corpse  of  the 
Saint ! 

The  compilers  of  the  Speculum,  who  have  amplified 
at  once  bombastically  and  awkwardly  the  narratives  of  the 
First  Life  emd  the  Second,  spare  the  city  Celano's  taunt. ' 

J    I  Vita.    105  seqq.     R.  83  »eqq. 

2  c.    121.     Says  Bro.  Oas  to  the  Saint:  Licet  homines    bujus    civitalis    te 


APPENDIX  I  203 

The  few  words  with  which,  in  all  probability,  the  Saint 
commended  his  beloved  Porziuncola  to  the  brethren  are 
transformed  in  the  Speculum — perhaps  with  a  view  to 
obliterating  Celano's  harsh  phrase — into  an  affectionate 
greeting  to  the  city  of  Assisi.  '^ 

Meanwhile,  as  the  malady  advances,  Francis  loses 
strength.  When  asked  M;  a  certain  Brother  if  he  would 
have  preferred  some  sharper  martyrdom,  even  by  the  exe- 
cutioner's hand,  to  the  long  agony  of  his  illness,  he  replied 
that  he  was  resigned  to  the  will  of  God.  Yet  he  did 
not  deny  that  even  a  few  days  of  the  pain  that  was  then 
tormenting  him  would  be  quite  unbearable.  It  seems  as  though 
question  and  answer  alike  find  place  in  the  narrative  in 
order  that  Thomas  may  have  full  justification  for  his  pom- 
pous apostrophe :  O  martyr,  o  martyr,  qui  RIDENS  et 
GAUDENS  lihentissime  tolerahat,  quod  erat  omnibus  acer- 
bissimum  et  graoissimum  intueri :  '^  thus  shamelessly  pilfering 
from  Sulpicius  Severus,  who  exclzums  :  O  mum  ineffabi- 
lem,  nee  labore  victum,  nee  morte  vincendum...  nee  mori 
timueriU  nee  vivere  recusaverit..J  Laetus  ulceribus  con- 
GAUDENS-qrue  cruciatibus,  qualibet  inter  tormenta  RISISSET.'^ 

iKnerenltir  pro  sancto,  tamen  quia  credunt  firmiter,  propter  banc  infirmitatem 
luam  incurabilem,  te  in  proximo  moriturum. . .  The  odious  character  which  is 
intended  to  be  attributed  to  Bro.  Elias  emerges  here  and  elsewhere.  Beneath  is 
discernible  the  purpose  of  the  Speculum  to  represent  the  man  of  Cortona  as  glad 
at  the  approaching  death  of  the  Saint,  to  whom  he  blurts  out  the  news  that  his 
end  is  near.     The  words  of  Elias  are  the  same  that  Thomas  employs. 

1  c.  1 24.  Fior.  Quarta  consid.  ed.  Cesari  1 28.  The  words  are  common : 
Tom.  Dignum  habete  locum  habitaculum  Dei.  Spec.  Locus  et  habitatio  illorum 
qui  Te  agnoscunt  vere  etc. 

2  I  Vita,  107.  R.  S5.  In  the  later  legends  exaggerations  accumulate  with- 
out limit.  Bartolomeo  da  Pisa  makes  the  Saint  say :  Domine,  Te  rogo,  ut  [de 
omnibus  doloribus]  cenluplum,  si  Tibi  placuerit,  addas ;  Conform,  (ed.  Bononiae 
1590:  315)  III,  fr.  4. 

3  Ep.  Ill :  CV.  148. 

4  Ep.  II :  CV.  144. 


204     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISl 

Resignation  of  the  will  to  the  Lord  on  one's  deathbed  is 
one  of  the  natural  notes  of  sanctity. ' 

The  physicians  marvelled  that  the  patient — now  but 
skin  and  bone — still  held  out.  Death  came  not  to  set 
him  free,  because  his  hour  was  not  yet  come.  In  com- 
mon with  not  a  few  of  the  Sciints,  Francis  knew  by  Di- 
vine revelation  when  his  end  was  to  be.  ^  Elias,  while 
he  was  with  him  at  Foligno,  had  a  vision.  There  ap- 
peared to  him  an  old  and  venerable  priest  clad  entirely 
in  white,  who  said  to  him:  "Arise  and  announce  to  Fran- 
cis that  eighteen  years  are  past  since  his  conversion  :  he 
shall  have  but  two  more  years  of  life".^  The  vision,  as 
it  happened,  was  vouchsafed  to  the  man  who  would  be 
most  interested  to  know  this  date  !  "^ 

When  the  Saint  perceived  that  his  last  day  was  at 
hand,  vocatis  ad  se  fratrihus  quos  volebat . . .  velut  olim 
patriarcha  Jacob  suis  filiis  henedixit,  immo  Velut  alter 
Mouses  ascensurus  in  montem,  quern  constituit  ei  Deus, 
filios  Israelis  henedictionihus  ampliavit.  Cumque  a  sinistra 
ipsius  resideret  f rater  Hellas,  circumsedentibus  reliquis  fi- 
liis, cancellatis  manibus,  dexteram  posuit  super  caput  ejus, 
et  exteriorum  oculorum  lumine  privatus    et   usu,    "super 


1  Non  ita  inter  vos  vixi,  ut  pudeat  me  vivere ;  nee  timeo  mori,  quia  Domi- 
num  bonum  habemus  :  Paulinus,  Vita  S.  Ambr.  c.  45.  And  St.  Martin :  Do- 
mine,  si  adhuc  populo  tuo  sum  necessarius,  non  recuso  iaborem ;  fiat  voluntas 
tua  I    Ep.  Ill,  CV.    148. 

2  Vita  S.  Ambr.  cit.  41  :  Ipse  autem  de  sua  morte  ante  praedixit.  Sulp. 
Sev.  Ep.  Ill,  147:  Martinus  -  obitum  suum  longe  ante  praesciit,  dixitque  fratribus 
dissolutionem  sui  corporis  inminere.  Eugippii,  Vita  S.  Sev.  c.  41  :  Diem  etiam, 
quo  transiturus  esset  idem  S.  Severinus  e  corpore,  ante  duos  seu  amplius  annos, 
hac  significatione  monstravit. 

3  I  Vita  108.  109:  li.  85-6. 

4  Spec.  c.  121  (237).  Sabatier,  unaware  that  the  Speculum  is  simply  re- 
peating Celano's  words,  sets  himself  to  study,  the  interrelation  of  ideas  and  facts 
which...  come  from  the  same  narrative. 


APPENDIX  I  205 

quern,  inquit,  teneo  dexteram  meam  ?  "  "Super  fratrem 
Hel^am  "  inquiunt.  "  Et  sic  ego  volo  "  ait.  Te,  inquit, 
fili,  in  omnibus  et  super  omnia  henedico ;  et  sicut  in  ma- 
nihus  tuis  fratres  meos  et  filios  augmentavit  Altissimus, 
ita  super  te  et  in  te  omnibus  henedico.  In  coelo  et  in 
terra  henedicat  te  Rex  omnium  Deus.  Benedico  te  sicut 
possum  et  plusquam  possum ;  et  quod  non  possum  ego, 
possit  in  te  Qui  omnia  potest ". 

*'  Valete,  filii  omnes,  in  timore  Dei;  et  permanete  in 
ipso  semper,  quoniam  futura  est  super  vos  temptatio  maxi- 
ma et  trihulatio  appropinquat.  Felices  qui  in  his,  quae 
coeperunt,  perseverabunt,  a  quibus  nonnullos  futura  scan- 
dala  separabunt.  Ego  enim  ad  Dominum  propero,  et  ad 
Deum  meum,  cui  devote  in  spiritu  meo  servivi,  iam  ire 
confido  ".' 

All  this  took  place  in  the  Bishop's  palace  at  Assisi ; 
whence  the  Saint,  at  his  own  request,  was  soon  removed 
to  the  Porziuncola. 

And  this  is,  as  we  said  a  little  earlier,  the  Testament 
of  Francis. 

He  asks  where  his  hand  is  Icdd,  and  as  if  that  were 
not  enough,  most  vehemently  confirming  his  wish  {ego  sic 
volo),  like  Jacob,  he  designates  Elias  for  the  governing  of 
his  family  with  a  blessing.  Here  we  begin  to  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  Celano's  useful  reading  and  of  the  instructions 
given  him  from  above.  Saint  Ambrose  had  written :  Be- 
nedictio  cuiusque  morituri,  tantum  virtutis  habet,  ut  eam 
sibi  sanctus  propheta  optaverit  (Job.  29,  13)...  Hie 
versiculus  quantos  benedici  fecit !  ^      But  the  dying    man 

1  I  Vita  105.     R.  85-6. 

=>  De  bono  mortis.  VIII.  36 ;  CV.  XXII,  734-5. 


S^- 


^o 


206     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

was  Francis  of  Assisi ;  what  a  virtue  would  his  words 
of  benediction  possess !  Thomas  remembered  also  the 
long  discourse  of  Severinus  to  his  brethren,  which  begins: 
**  Scitis  quod  beatus  Jacob  de  saeculo  recessurus,  condi- 
cione  mortis  instante,  filios  suos  adesse  praecipiens,  et  pro- 
pheticae  benedictionis  affatibus  singulos  quosque  remunerans, 
mysteriorum  arcana  prodidit  futurorum  " : '  and  he  knew 
by  heart,  the  story  of  the  death  of  Pachomius,  another 
celebrated  Founder  of  an  Order  :  Ante  duos  dies  sanctae 
dormitionis  suae,  convocans  universos  fratres,  ait  ad  eos : 
Ego  quidem,  charissimi,  viam  patrum  securus  ingredior; 
nam  video  me  a  Domino  protinus  evocari...  Eligite,  igitur, 
ex  vobis  fratrem,  me  praesente,  qui  post  Deum,  vobis 
praesit...  quantum  vero  mea  discretio  perpendo,  Petronium 
ego  ad  hoc  opus  idoneum  iudico.  ^ 

The  right  of  electing  the  abbot  was  anciently  recognised 
as  belonging  to  the  monks.  In  that  return  to  cenobitic 
ideas  of  a  more  remote  antiquity  favoured  by  Gregory  IX, 
it  was  judged  opportune  that  this  right  should  be  temper- 
ed by  the  presence  and  the  advice  of  the  d)dng  Patriarch.^ 

1  Eugippi,  Vita  Severini,  c.  43  (50). 

2  Migne,  L4XXIII,  271  ;  Rosne^de,  137.  For  other  instances  of  designa- 
tions of  his  successor  by  the  abbot,  see  Vita  Posthumii  c.  6;  ib.  233-6;  etc. 

3  This  designation  by  the  abbot  with  the  consent  of  the  monks  was  evident- 
ly aimed  at  the  bishops — to  wrest  from  them  the  right  of  nominating  the  abbots. 
Roman  legislation  was  indecisive.  A  novella  of  Justinian  (V,  9)  first  recognised 
the  rights  of  the  bishops,  then  (CXXIIl,  34)  admitted  the  free  election  of  the 
abbot.  Cfr.  Knecbt,  Op.  cit.  58,  59.  In  Italy  at  any  rate,  the  founders  of  the 
monasteries  obtained  for  their  convents  by  the  so  called  charters  liberlationis  (of 
which  a  vast  number  are  extant),  the  renunciation  of  all  eventual  rights  of  the 
bishop.  We  cite  only  the  most  ancient  of  such  documents :  TVojja,  Cod.  Dipt. 
Long.  II,  No.  349 ;  anno  685  (?),  in  which  the  Bishop  of  Lucca  promised  to 
Barbino,  abbot  of  S.  Frediano,  not  to  touch  the  property  bestowed  on  the  mo- 
nastery by  Faulone,  and  adds  :  Et  si  abbas  de  banc  luce  migratus  et  dormierU 
cum  patribus  suis  et  si  (?)  [Monad]  ipsi  eligerent  sibi  Abbatem  ordinandum, 
ipsum  sibi  abbatem  debeant  ordinare.  The  bishop  only  retained  the  prerogative 
of  giving  his  benediction  to  the  abbot-elect. 


APPENDIX  I  207 

The  Order  was  a  new  one,  and  it  was  essential  that  Francis 
should  be  succeeded  by  a  man  of  firm  and  resolute  cha- 
racter, who  should  give  security  for  the  continued  govern- 
ment of  the  Minorites  on  those  lines  which  Elias  had  been 
known  to  follow  when  taking  the  place  of  the  Saint.  And 
for  this  reason,  too,  Celano  had  not  stinted  his  eulogies  of 
the  man  of  Cortona  !      Every  one  is  liable  to  mistakes  I 

Thomas  heaps  benediction  on  benediction  upon  the  head 
of  Elias  and  lavishes  expressive  phrases  to  shew  what  was 
the  desire  of  Francis,  who,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  subject 
as  he  was  to  the  overbearing  spirit  of  Elias,  most  probably 
differed  very  little  from  the  views  of  his  biographer  in  the 
matter. 

The  overt  designation  of  Elias  to  be  governor  of  the 
Order  takes  place,  be  it  observed,  in  the  Palace  of  the 
Bishop  of  Assisi. 

We  are  dealing  with  a  period  which  was  marked  by 
an  energetic  reaction  of  a  still  more  ancient  law  against 
the  old  juridical  and  canonical  institutions.'  Both  the  Pope 
and  those  of  the  Brethren  who  might  have  been  called 
politicians,  had  already  fixed  their  eyes  on  the  man  who 
even  in  the  Saint's  life-time  had  known  how  to  rule  the 
family  with  a  resolute  and  rigid  hand.  For  that  family, 
composed  as  it  was  of  somewhat  doubtful  elements  ga- 
thered at  random,  needed,  after  the  disappearance  of  Fran- 
cis,  an  iron  hand  to  keep  it  in  the  line  of  duty. 

We  who,  at  a  distance  of  so  many  centuries  are  on 
the  look  out  for  the  benign  diffusion  of  Franciscan  ideals 
in  the  conscience  of  the  epoch,  cannot  bring  ourselves  to 
conceive  of  the  great  movement  of  Assisi  as  a  phenome- 

I  For  the  intervention  of  the  episcopal  and  f>apal  authority  in  the  election 
of  abbots,  see  Deer.   Greg.  IX,   1,  6,  c.   14,   16,  37  etc. 


208     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

non  ruled  by  certain  cold  considerations  far  removed  from 
the  high  dreams  of  the  "Poverello".  But  when  it  was 
a  question  of  the  security  of  the  institution,  the  monks 
would  lay  aside  all  scruples,  and  put  at  the  head  of  a 
convent,  if  necessary,  the  son  of  some  powerful  person 
who  had  entered  the  cloister  simply  and  solely  with  a 
view  to  being  made  abbot.  ^ 

I  do  not  wish  to  discuss  Lempp's  book  on  Brother 
Elias,  so  I  return  to  Saint  Francis. 

The  political  aims  of  Gregory  IX  made  capital  out  of 
the  Saint's  affection  for  the  man  of  Cortona.  The  Pope 
was  acquainted  with  the  strong  and  fearless  nature  of 
Elias,  and  therefore  had  no  objection  to  his  figuring,  side 
by  side  with  the  great  abbot  of  the  De  Vitis  Patrum, 
as  the  favourite  monk,  receiving,  in  classical  pose,  the  suc- 
cession from  the  lips  of  the  Saint  so  soon  to  be  silent  in 
death. 

In  S.  Maria  della  Porziuncola,  after  several  days  of 
quiet,  Francis  feels  that  the  Lord  is  drawing  nigh.  We 
have  quitted  the  pomp  of  the  episcopal  Palace;  and  find 
ourselves  in  the  tender  intimacy  of  the  home.  It  is  not 
the  Founder  of  the  Order,  but  the  Father  who  calls  to 
his  side  suos  fratres  et  suos  filios  spirituales,  praecipiens 
eis  de  mode  propinqua,  immo  de  vita  proximo,  in  exul- 
tatione  spiritus,  alta  voce  laudes  Domino  decaniare.  Ipse 
vero,  prout  potuit,  in  ilium  davidicum  psalmum  erupit : 
Voce  mea  ad  Dominum  clamavi.  ^  In  the  same  way  (it 
may  be  mentioned  incidentally)  had  another  prepared  him- 


1  Deer.  Qreg.  IX.   1.  6,  38  (Inn.  Ill ;  Balul.  XI,  262). 

2  I  Vita.  109  {R.  87).  Cfr.  Vita  S.  Benedicti  Abb.  Clui.  MG.  SS.  Xli. 
207  :  Ter  illam  b.  Andreae  antiphonam  largo  fletu  ore  rigatus,  prout  potuit 
cantavit :  Domine  Jesu  Christe,  Magister  bone,  etc. 


APPENDIX  I  209 

self  for  the  last  great  journey  : — Severinus,  who  to  his 
weeping  brethren  maeroris  suffusione  cundantibus,  ipse 
psalmum  protulit  ad  canendum :  Laudate  Dominum  in 
Sanctis  ejus.^ 

In  the  Second  Life  and  the  Speculum  these  chantings 
become  hymns  {laudes)  of  Francis'   own  composition.  ^ 

Celano  continues  :  Frater  autem  quidem  de  assisientihus 
quern  Sanctus  satis  magno  diligebat  amore,  pro  fratribus 
omnibus  plurimum  existens  soUicitus,  cum  haec  intueretur, 
et  Sancti  cognosceret  exitum  appropinquate,  dixit  ad  eum : 
"  Benigne  PATER  heu  I  absque  PATRE  iam  remanent  filii, 
et  oculorum  privantur  lumine  vero.  Recordare  igitur 
ORPHANORUM,  ^  QUOS  DESERIS,  ^  et  omnibus  culpis  remis- 
sis,  tam  praesentes  quam  absentes,  omnes  tua  sancta  be- 
nedictione  laetifica  " .  Ad  quem  Sanctus :  *'  Ecce  {inquit) 
EGO  VOCOR  A  DEO,^  fili ;  fratribus  meis,  tam  absentibus 
quam  praesentibus  offensas  omnes  et  culpas  remitto ;  et 
eos,  sicul  possum,  absolvo,  quibus  TU  HOC  DENUNTIANS, 

EX   PARTE   MEA,    OMNIBUS   BENEDICES ". 

Let  the  reader  (if  such  there  be)  kindly  glance  at  the 
notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  and  he  will  at  once  be  in 
possession  of  some  excellent  examples  of  Celano's  literary 
larcenies. 

It  is  useless  to  ask  who  was  that  well-beloved  disciple 
on  whom  Francis  laid  the  pious  task  of  blessing  all  in  his 
name.     So  many  things  might  be  thought  and   said    and 


1  Vita  S.  Severini.  c.  43  (51   lin.  23-5). 

2  II  Vita  III.    139  {R.    108);  Spec.  c.    122,   123.     The  extreme  weakness 
of  the  Saint's  condition  at  the  time  has  obviously  been  forgotten  ! 

3  loa.  XIV,  20  :  (^on  relinquam  vos  orphanos. 

4  Sulp.  Sev.  Ep.  Ill;  CV.   148:  Cur  nos  pater  deseris  P...     Noslri...  mi- 
serere   QUOS  DESERIS. 

5  Vita  Pach.  I.  c.  video  me  a  domino  evocari. 


210     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

even  put  foward  as  extremely  probable  conjectures.  It  is 
better,  surely,  to  leave  to  others  the  task  of  building  up 
legends  in  detail.  Only  this  we  may  be  allowed  to  add, 
that  the  Brother  in  question  might  be  one  of  the  first 
"companions",  who  in  the  intimacy  of  the  Forziuncola 
had  been  bold  enough  to  address  the  Father.  In  the 
Second  Life  Thomas  administers  a  sharp  rebuke  to  those 
who  usurped  to  themselves  that  special  benediction :  Nul- 
lus  sibi  banc  henedictionem  usurpet,  quam  pro  absentibus 
in  praesentibus  promulgavit : '  and  the  reason  of  the  re- 
proof needs  no  further  explanation. 

If  the  Second  Life  had  not  escaped  the  general  de- 
struction of  the  legends  that  was  instituted  to  make  way 
for  that  of  Saint  Bonaventure,  our  knowledge  of  Celano's 
mania  for  putting  himself  to  the  fore  might  have  led  us 
to  suspect  an  identity  between  the  "well-beloved  disciple" 
and  our  biographer,  who,  as  a  matter  of  fact  had  a  ma- 
terial pledge  of  benediction  in  the  shape  of  a  relic  of  the 
Saint  to  give  to  Brother  Jordanus,  his  old  companion  in 
the  German  mission,  when  that  Brother  reached  Assisi.  ^ 
But  logic,  which  is  valid  in  many  regions  of  thought,  fre- 
quently falls  to  pieces  in  the  historical  sphere  over  some 
trivial  fact.  If  the  doctrine  of  interpolations  were  to  be 
extended  to  Franciscan  studies,  there  would  be  room  for 
the  hypothesis  that  those  words  in  the  Second  Life  were 
a  very  late  addition.  For  my  part,  however,  I  prefer  to 
leave  the  texts  as  they  have  come  down  to  us.  More- 
over Thomas  was  constreiined  by  circumstances — the  con- 
trolling influence  of  the  multitude    of    witnesses,    and    the 

1  III,  139  {R.  108). 

2  Jord.  c.  59 ;  Voigl,  1.  c,  543.  Jordanus  takes  the  relic  and — forgets  that 
he  has  it  with  him.     A  miracle  was  required  to  jog  his  memory  I 


APPENDIX  I  211 

recent  date  of  the  events  referred  to — not  to  presume  too 
much  upon  his  own  erudition  or  his  mandate  from  Pope 
Gregory.  Even  for  a  rhetorician,  est  modus  in  rebus  : 
and  some  scraps  of  truth  seem  to  emerge,  in  fact,  from 
the  artistic  labour  of  Celano. 

Now  let  us  return  to  the  Saint's  bedside.  He  iussit 
denique  codicem  Evangeliorum  portari,  ET  EVANGELIUM 
SECUNDUM  lOANNEM  SIBI  LEGI  POPOSCIT,  ab  eo  loco  ubi 
incipit :  Ante  sex  dies  Paschae,  sciens  Jesus  etc. ' 

In  the  Second  Life  Brother  Elias  and  the  disciples 
disappear,  and — more  significant  still — so  does  the  reading 
from  the  Gospel  according  to  Saint  John.  What  brightens 
the  Saint's  last  hour  in  this  narrative,  is  the  knowledge  that 
he  has  the  temporary  use  and  not  the  proprietorship  of 
the  modest  attire  that  has  been  lent  him  !  Francis  who 
towers  up  in  the  memory  of  his  times,  like  Jesus  himself, 
breaks  bread  and  hands  it  to  the  brethren,  whom  he 
blesses.  The  strains  that  in  the  recesses  of  the  humble 
Porziuncola  resound  around  the  Patriarch's  death-bed  are 
his  own  '  lodi '   (verba  quaedam  quae  olim  composuerat).  ^ 

In  that  shipwreck  of  sensations  and  ideas  which  shortly 
precedes  death,  the  most  vivid  recollections  of  youth  are 
apt  to  float  to  the  surface  :  it  is  these  that  have  left  the 
profoundest  impression  on  the  consciousness,  and  oppose 
the  onrush  of  its  dissolution.  Francis  asks  and  desires  to 
have  read  to  him  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John,  the  favourite 
scripture  of  heretics.  Was  this  a  fugitive  return  of  the 
dying  man  to  the  ceremony  of  the  consolamentum  ? 

A  Saint,  who  was  to  be  shortly  canonized  by  the  Pope, 
(and  let  us  remember,  we  are  in  the  century  of   hetero- 

1  loa.  XIII.   1. 

2  II  Vita  III,   139  (R.    108). 


212      SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

doxy  par  excellence)  died  so — like  a  thorough  heretic  I 
To  minimise  the  impression  produced  by  the  fact,  Celano 
borrows  a  description  from  Sulpicius  Severus,  and  shews 
us  the  Saint  breathing  his  last,  like  Saint  Martin  and  many 
another  champion  of  Christ,  on  hair-cloth  and  ashes.  ^ 

And  now  that  the  Saint  is  dead  our  unctuous  author 
may  at  last  put  into  the  narrative  something  entirely  his 
own.  It  is,  as  it  were,  the  reward  that  he  allows  him- 
self for  the  laborious  c«id  detailed  use  of  his  learning. 
Listen  to  it.  Unus,  autem,  ex  fratrihus  et  discipulis  eius, 
fama  non  modicum  Celebris,  cuius  nomen  nunc  existimo 
reticendum,  quoniam  dum  vivit,  non  vult  tanto  praeconio 
gloriari,  VIDIT  animam  sanctissimi  Patris,  RECTO  TRAMITE, 
IN  COELUM  conscendere  super  aquas  mulias.  Erat  enim 
QUASI    STELLA  .  .  .    CANDIDA   SUBVECTA   NUBEcu/a.  ^ 

We  are  already  aware  who  was  that  Brother  "no 
little  famous "  ;  we  know  him  by  his  erudition.  Thomas 
employs  in  his  description  of  the  vision  a  passage  of  the 
Dialogues  of  Saint  Gregory,  the  Second  Letter  of  Sulpi- 
cius Severus,  and  reminiscences  of  the  book  of  that  monk 


1  I  Vita  52 :  Nullis  sinehat  stramentis  seu  vestibus  operiri,  sed  nuda  humus, 
tunicula  interposita,  nuda  suscipiebat  membra.  lb.  110:  lussit  proinde  se  super' 
poni  cilicio  et  conspergi  cinere,  quia  terra  et  cinis  mox  erat  futurus. 

Sulp.  Sev.  Ill,  CV.  149:  Nobili  illo  strato  suo  in  cinere  et  cilicio  recubans. 
Et  cum  a  discipulis  rogaretur,  ut  saltim  vilia  sibi  sineret  slramenta  subponi,  non 
decet,  inquit,  Christianum  nisi  in  cinere  mori.  Read  the  hyperbolical  narratives 
of  Bartolomeo  da  Pisa:  Lib.   Conform.  Ill,  fr.   4  ;  ed.  cit.  319  f. 

2  I  Vita  110;  {R.  87-8).  The  Saint's  soul,  in  the  form  of  a  star  rises 
up  to  heaven  per  multas  aquas.  According  to  the  mystical  interpretation  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  water  «  pluralitatis  appellatione  »  indicates  the  septiformis  do- 
noTUtn  spiritualium  gratia:  Moral.  XI,  in  c.  12  Job;  No.  14,  or  in  the  sin- 
gular ;  aqua  scientia  praedicatiojyis  accipitur.  Cfr.  also  Moral.  XIX,  in  c.  28 
Job ;  No.  9 :  Per  aquam  -  bonorum  mentes,  fidei  praedicamenta  sequentium, 
designantur...  Per  Psalmistam  dicitur :  Vox  Domini  super  aquas  [Psalm.  28,  3]. 
Thomas,  in  his  description  of  the  apparition,  certainly  kept  close  to  the  best  mo- 
dels of  classical  symbolism. 


APPENDIX  I  213 

who  had  enlivened  the  long  evenings  of  his  sojourn  in 
Germany. 

Gregory  the  Great  describes  in  the  following  words  what 
was  seen  by  two  disciples  of  Saint  Benedict  immediately 
after  that  Saint's  death:  VIDERUNT...  quia  strata  palliis 
atque  innumeris  corusca  lampadibus  via,  RECTO  Orientis 
TRAMITE,   ab  eius  cella  IN  COELUM  usque  tendebatur.^ 

The  vain  Sulpicius  Severus  is  visited  by  the  vision  of  Szunt 
Martin  who  is  on  his  way  to  Paradise.  Even  in  the  midst 
of  his  heavenward  journey  the  Saint  deigns  to  remember  his 
biographer:  Repente  S.  Martinum  episcopum  videre  mihi 
videor,  praetextum  toga  CANDIDA  vultu  igneo,  stellantibus 
oculis...  adridensque  mihi  paululum  libellum,  quern  de  vita 
illius  scripseram,  dextera  praeferebat...  Mox...  subito  mihi  in 
sublime  sublatus  eripitur ;  donee  emensa  aeris  istius  vastitate, 
cum  tamen  rapida  NUBE  SUBVECTUM  acie  sequeremur  ocu- 
lorum,  patenti  coelo  receptus,   videri  ultra  non  potuit  ^ 

As  if  the  foregoing  sources  of  inspiration  were  not  enough, 
Paulinus  reminded  Thomas  how,  above  the  body  of  Saint 
Ambrose,  plurimi...  STELLAM...  se  vidisse  narrabant.^ 

A  true  theory  on  the  significance  of  the  appearance  of 
stars  is  expounded  by  Caesarius.  Quod  vero,  he  writes, 
super  morientem,  STELLA  visa  est,  signum  fuit  quod  san- 
cta...  anima,  in  magna  virtutum  celeritate,  Christo  soli 
iustitiae  coniuncta  est.  ^ 

Celano  had  described  the  star  as  being  bright  as  the 
sun  and  large  as  the  moon,  in  order  that  there  might  be 
no  mistake  whatever  about  the  sign. 


1  Dial.  II.  37. 

2  CV.  142-3. 

3  Vita  cit.  c.  48. 

4  Caes.   I,  6;  (Strange,   I,   15). 


214     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

The  soul  had  winged  its  flight  into  heaven ;  the  body, 
object  of  the  unanimous  veneration  of  an  entire  people, 
attested,  by  the  Divine  stigmata,  the  other  and  more  so- 
lemn miracle  w^rought  in  the  person  of  the  man  of  Assisi. 

After  the  mournings  and  rejoicings  of  the  Minors  and 
of  the  Povere  Donne,  ^  Celano  proceeds  with  a  paraphrase 
of  Sulpicius  Severus,  recording  the  miraculous  beauty  of 
those  poor  members :  Intuebantur...  carnem  illius,  quae 
nigra  fuerat  prius,  candore  nimio  renitentem,  et  ex  sui 
pulchritudine  beatae  resurrectionis  praemia  pollicentem.  Cer- 
nebant  denique  vultum  eius,  quasi  vultum  angeli,  quasi 
viveret,  non  sicut  mortuus  esset.  ^ 

Saint  Bonaventure  recounts  in  his  Legend  that  the  larks, 
wheeling  round  with  unaccustomed  gladness,  assembled 
towards  evening  upon  the  roof  of  the  cell  where  the  Saint 
had  breathed  his  last.  ^  Those  creatures  dear  to  the  heart 
of  Francis,  and  haters  of  darkness,  were  attracted,  mista- 
kenly, by  the  light  which  streamed  out  from  the  glorious 
pallet  where  he  lay.  Perchance  they  believed  that  a  new 
sun  was  rising  there,  heralded  by  the  red  flames  of  dawn. 
On  the  contrary,  it  was  a  gloomy  sunset.  The  "Pove- 
rello"  had  accomplished  his  most  pure  mission:  and  now 
the  mission  of  the  Order  was  free  to  begin. 


1  I  Vita  112  {R.  88-9).  Calervabm  iota  civilas  mil.  Sulp.  Seo.  Ep,  III; 
CV.  1 50  :  Tota  obviam  corpori  civilas  ruii.  I  Vita  1.  c.  Unusquisque  autem 
cantabat  canticutn  laetitiae...  ib.  117:  Sed  Mirgineus  pudor  multo  fletui  imperabat. 
Ep.  cit.  Turn  virginum  chorus  fletu  abstines,  prae  pudore...  Dum  unusquisque 
et  sibi  praestat  ut  doleat,  etc. 

2  Ep.  cit.  149-150:  Testatique  nobis  sunt,  qui  ibidem  fuerunt,  vidisse  se 
vultum  eius  tamquam  vultum  angeli  :  membra  autem  eius  Candida,  tamquam  nix, 
videbantur...  iam  enim  sic  videbatur,  quasi  in  futurae  resurrectionis  gloria  et  natura 
demutatae  carnis  ostensus  esset.  Cfr.  Paulinus,  Vita  S.  Ambr.  c.  42  :  Post  quod, 
facta  est  fades  eius  velut  nix. 

3  Acta  SS.  II  Oct.  662;  No.  213. 


APPENDIX  11 
THE  LEGEND  OF  THE  ROBBERS 

speculum  perfectionis  IV,  66;  ed.  Sabatier ;  123  seqq. 

Qualiter  docuit  quosdam  fratres  lucrari  animas  quorumdam 
latronum  per  humditatem  et  caritatem. 

IN  quodam  eremitorio  fratrum  super  Burgum  Sancti  Se- 
pulcri  veniebant  latrones  aliquando  pro  pane,  qui  latita- 
bant  in  sylvis  et  expoliabant  homines  transeuntes :  quidam 
fratres  dicebant  quod  non  erat  bonum  illis  dare  eleemosy- 
nam,  alii  vero  ex  compassione  dabant  ad  movendum  eos 
ad  paenitentiam. 

Iterim  beatus  Franciscus  venit  ad  locum  ilium,  quem 
fratres  interrogaverunt,  utrum  esset  bonum  eis  dare  eleemo- 
synam,  et  ait  illis  beatus  Franciscus :  "  Si  feceritis  sicut  di- 
xero  vobis,  confido  in  Domino  quod  lucrabimini  animas 
eorum.  Ite  ergo  et  acquirite  de  bono  pane  et  de  bono 
vino  et  deferte  illis  in  sylva  ubi  morantur  et  clamate  di- 
centes :  *  Fratres  latrones,  venite  ad  nos  quia  fratres  sumus 
et  portamus  vobis  bonum  panem  et  bonum  vinum  ! ' 

lUi  statim  venient.  Vos  autem  extendite  toaleam  in  terra 
et  desuper  ponite  panem  et  vinum  et  servite  humiliter  et  laetanter 
donee  manducaverint.  Post  comestionem  vero  dicetis  eis 
de  verbo  Domini,  et  finaliter  petatis  ob  amorem  Dei  banc 
primam  petitionem,  ut  scilicet  promittant  vobis    quod    non 


216     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

percutient  nee  alicui  malum  facient  in  persona.  Si  enim 
omnia  simul  peteritis  non  vos  exaudirent,  ipsi  autem  propter 
humilitatem  et  caritatem  vestram  statim  promittent  vobis. 

Altera  vero  die  propter  bonam  promissionem  apportate 
eis  cum  pane  et  vino  ova  et  caseum,  et  servite  donee  co- 
mederint.  Et  post  comestionem  dicetis  eis :  '  Quid  hie 
statis  tota  die  ad  moriendum  fame  et  tolerandum  tot  ad- 
versa,  et  eum  hoe  faeitis  tot  mala  voluntate  et  operatione, 
pro  quibus  perditis  animas  vestras,  nisi  ad  Dominum  eon- 
vertamini  ?  Melius  est  ut  Domino  serviatis,  et  ipse  in  hoe 
saeeulo  tribuet  vobis  neeessaria  eorporum  et  finaliter  salvabit 
animas  vestras.  Tunc  eis  Dominus  inspirabit  ut,  propter 
humilitatem  et  patientiam  vestram  quam  illis  ostenderitis, 
eonvertantur '  ". 

Fecerunt  itaque  fratres  omnia  sicut  eis  dixit  beatus  Fran- 
eiseus,  et  ipsi  latrones  per  gratiam  et  misericordiam  Dei 
exaudiverunt  et  servaverunt  de  littera  ad  litteram,  de  puneto 
ad  punctum,  omnia  quaeeumque  fratres  ab  eis  humiliter 
petierunt.  Imo,  propter  humilitatem  et  familiaritatem  fratrum 
circa  illos,  coeperunt  et  ipsi  fratribus  humiliter  servire  por- 
tantes  in  humeris  suis  ligna  usque  ad  eremitorium  et  tandem 
aliqui  ex  ipsis  intraverunt  religionem.  Alii  vero  eonfitentes 
peccata  sua  egerunt  paenitentiam  de  commissis,  promittentes 
in  manibus  fratrum  de  cetero  se  velle  vivere  de  labore 
manuum  suarum  et  nunqucim  similia  perpetrare. 


APPENDIX  II  217 


Actus  B.  Francisci  et  sociorum  ejus,  c.  29 ;  ed.  Sabatier  97  seqq. ' 

De  tribus  latronibus  conversis  per  sanctum  Franciscum  quo- 
rum uni  revelata  fuit  poena  infemi  et  gloria  paradisi. 

Beatissimus  pater  Franciscus,  cupiens  omnes  homines  per- 
ducere  ad  salutem,  mundum  per  diversas  provincias  cir- 
cuibat :  et  quocumque  ibat,  quia  divino  Spiritu  ducebatur, 
novam  familiam  Domino  acquirebat.  Unde  sicut  vas  electum 
a  Domino  erat  balsamum  gratiae  infundendo,  propter  quod 
perrexit  in  Sclavoniam,  in  Marchiam  Triviginam,  in  Mar- 
chiam  Anconitanam,  in  Apuliam,  in  Sarraciniam  et  in  multas 
alias  provincias,  ubique  multiplicando  servos  Domini  nostri 
Jesu  Christi. 

Unde  quum  semel  transiret  per  Montem  Casalem,  ca- 
strum  quod  est  in  districtu  Burgi  Sancti  Sepulcri,  recepit 
ibi  unum  juvenem  nobilem  de  Burgo  praedicto.  Qui  quum 
venisset  ad  beatum  Franciscum,  dixit  ei:  "  Pater,  ego  vellem 
libentissime  effici  frater  vester".  Sanctus  vero  Franciscus 
respondit  ei :  **  Fili,  tu  es  unus  juvenis  delicatus  et  nobilis : 
forte  paupertatem  nostram  et  asperitatem  non  poteris  susti- 
nere".^  lUe  vero  ait:  "Pater,  nonne -vos  estis  homines 
sicut  ego  ?  Sicut  ergo  vos  qui  estis  mei  similes  sustinetis, 
sic  et  ego,  cum  adjutorio  Dei,  potero  sustinere  !  "  Quae 
responsio  multum  placuit  sancto  Francisco  et  statim  recepit 
eum  et  benedixit,  et  fratrem  Angelum  appellavit.  Qui  ita 
gratiose  se  habuit  quod  pauIo  post  ipsum  in  praedicto 
Monte  Casali  guardianum  instituit. 

1  Fioretti,  No.  26. 

2  An  old  monastic  refrain  I  Paasavantl,  Specchio  della  vera  penitenza,  ed. 
Milano.   1808;  I.  26. 


218     SAINT   FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

In  illis  autem  diebus  erant  tres  famosi  latrones  in  par- 
tibus  illis,  qui  undique  multa  maleficia  perpetrabant.  Isti 
latrones  quadam  die  ad  praedictum  locum  venerunt,  rogan- 
tes  fratrem  Angelum  guardianum  ut  eis  de  comestibilibus 
provideret.  Ipse  guardianus,  rigida  reprehensione  eos  re- 
darguens,  dixit  eis  :  "  Vos,  fures  et  saevissimi  homicidae, 
non  solum  non  erubescitis  labores  aliorum  praedari,  sed 
insuper  praesumitis,  ut  effrontes,  eleemosynas,  servis  Dei 
exhibitas  devorare  !  Quum  non  sitis  digni  quod  vos  terra 
sustineat !  Quia  et  nullum  hominem  reveremini,  et  Deum 
qui  vos  creavit  contemnitis.  Ite  ergo  pro  factis  vestris  et 
hue  amplius  nunquam  accedatis  ! "  Illi  vero  turbati  valde 
cum  indignatione  maxima  recesserunt.  Et  ecce  eodem  die 
sanctus  Franciscus  ad  locum  rediit,  portans  de  quaesta 
quam  cum  socio  fecerat  unam  tascam  panis  et  unum  bu- 
tigulum  vini. 

Quum  autem  guardianus  qualiter  illos  latrones  repulerat 
retulisset,  sanctus  Franciscus  dure  redarguit  ipsum,  dicenis 
quod  impie  gessit,  quia  peccatores  melius  reducuntur  cum 
dulcedine  pietatis  quam  increpatione  crudeli. '  "  Nam  et 
Christus,  magister  noster  cujus  Evangelium  servare  promi- 
simus  :  Non,  inquit,  opus  est  valentihus  medicus,  sed  male 
hahentihus  et  non  veni  vocare  justos  sed  peccatores,  et  ideo 
frequenter  cum  peccatoribus  manducabat.  Quia  ergo  con- 
tra caritatem  et  contra  exemplum  Jesu  Christi  fecisti,  per 
sanctam  obedientiam  praecipio  tibi  quod  statim  accipias 
tascam  istam  panum  et  vasculum  vini  quod  acquisieram. 
Et  sollicite  per  montes  et  valles  dictos  latrones  quaeras, 
donee  invenias.  Et  panes  istos  omnes  et  vinum  praesen- 
tabis  eis  ex  parte  mea,  et  postea  coram  illis  genuflectens, 

I  Cfr.  5.   Greg.  M.  Reg.  Pastor.  II,   10. 


APPENDIX  II  219 

de  incurialitate  et  crudelitate  tua  dicas  humiliter  culpam 
tuam.  Et  roga  illos  ex  parte  mea  quod  amplius  mala  ista 
non  faciant,  sed  Deum  timeant  et  proximos  non  ofFendant. 
Et  si  haec  fecerint,  ego  promitto  eis  de  necessariis  pro 
eorum  corporibus  continue  providere.  Et  quum  illis  haec 
humiliter  dixeris,  revertaris". 

Interim  tunc  sanctus  Franciscus  pro  illis  rogabat  Domi- 
num,  ut  illorum  corda  ad  paenitentiam  emoUiret. 

Unde  factum  est  quod,  quum  eleemosynas  illas  a  sancto 
Francisco  transmissas  latrones  illi  comederent,  ad  invicem 
conferre  coeperunt  et  dicere  :  "  Heu  !  nos  miseros  et  infe- 
lices,  quos  durus  et  infernalis  cruciatus  exspectat!  qui  per- 
gimus  non  solum  praedando  homines  et  vulnerando  sed 
etiam  occidendo  :  et  tamen  de  tam  horrendis  sceleribus  et 
homicidiis  nullo  Dei  timore  et  compunctione  conscientiae 
stimulamur.  Et  ecce  iste  sanctus  frater,  qui  venit  modo 
ad  nos,  propter  aliqua  verba  valde  justa  propter  nostram 
malitiam  in  nos  irrogata,  se  coram  nobis  tam  humiliter 
accusavit.  Et  insuper  sancti  patris  tam  liberale  promissum 
retulit,  et  panis  et  vini  beneficium  attulit  caritatis.  Vere 
isti  sunt  sancti  Dei,  qui  caelestem  patriam  promerentur. 
Nos,  filii  perditionis  aeternae,  per  flammas  ultrices  quotidie 
nobis  nostri  nefandis  sceleribus  cumulamus!  Nescio  utrum 
de  patratis  facinoribus  et  commissis  flagitiis  possimus  a  Deo 
misericordiam  invenire  ".  Uno  vero  illorum  praedicta  verba 
dicente,  reliqui  duo  dixerunt :  "  Quid  ergo  faciendum  est 
nobis?"  Et  ille :  "  Eamus,  inquit,  ad  sanctum  Franci- 
scum,  et  si  ipse  nobis  confidentiam  tribuat  quod  possimus 
de  magnis  peccatis  nostris  misericordiam  invenire  a  Deo, 
quidquid  ipse  mandaverit  faciamus,  ut  possimus  animas 
nostras  de  infemi  barathro  liberare  *'. 

In  quo  consilio  omnes  tres  concorditer  consenserunt.     Et 


220     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

venerunt  festinanter  ad  sanctum  Franciscum,  dicentes :  "  Pa- 
ter, nos  propter  multa  et  pessima  peccata  nostra  non  con- 
fidimus  posse  misericordiam  Dei  in  venire ;  sed  tu,  si  confidis 
quod  Deus  ad  suam  misericordiam  non  recipiat,  ecce  parati 
sumus  tecum  paenitentiam  facere  et  in  omnibus  quae  nobis 
praeceperis  obedire  ".  Quos  sanctus  Franciscus  benigne 
et  caritative  recipiens,  exemplis  eos  multiplicibus  exhortando, 
certos  eos  de  invenienda  Dei  misericordia  reddidit.  Et  in- 
super  se  illis  acquisiturum  a  Domino  ipsam  misericordiam 
et  gratiam  repromisit.  Instruens  illos  etiam  quomodo  divinae 
misericordiae  immensurabilis  magnitudo  cuncta  peccata  no- 
stra, etiam  si  infinita  essent,  praecellit ;  et  quomodo,  testante 
Evangelio  et  apostolo  Paulo,  Christus  in  hunc  mundum 
pro  peccatoribus  venit  redimendis. 

Propter  quae  salubria  hortamenta  tres  dicti  latrones  abre- 
nuntiaverunt  mundo,  et  recepti  a  sancto  patre,  sibi  tam 
habitu  quam  animo  adhaeserunt... 


Exempla  of  Jacques  de  Vitry  ;  ed.  Crane,  No.  68 ;  29  seqq. 

. . .  De  quodam  abbate  valde  religioso  audivi  quod,  cum 
quidam  latro  pessimus,  quasi  homo  desperatus  et  princeps 
latronum,  regionem  in  quam  habitabat  predaretur,  multos 
spolians  et  jugulans,  abbas  ille  equum  ascendens  ivit  ad 
locum,  ubi  latro  cum  sociis  suis  morabatur.  Videntes  au- 
tem  ilium  a  longe  concurrerunt  ut  equum  illi  aufenent  et 
vestibus  spoliarent.  Cumque  abbas  quereret  a  principe 
latronum  quid  vellet ;  "  Volo,  inquit,  equum  ilium  et  omnia 
vestimenta  tua  ".  Cui  abbas :  "  Aliquanto  tempore  equum 
istum  equitavi  et  vestibus  istis  usus  sum,    non    est    justum 


APPENDIX  II  221 

ut  bona  Dei  solus  habeam,  sed  tibi  et  sociis  tuis,  si  indi- 
getis,   volo  communicare ". 

Ait  latro  :  "  Hodie  equum  et  vestes  vendemus,  ut  pa- 
nem  et  vinum  et  carnes  emamus ".  Cui  abbas :  "  Fili, 
quare  tamen  laboras  pro  victu  tuo  et  exponis  te  periculo? 
Veni  mecum  ad  monasterium  et  ego  quamdiu  volueris,  melius 
procurabo  te  et  omnia  necessaria  tibi  dabo  ".  Cui  latro : 
"  Non  possem  manducare  fabas  vestras  et  olera,  nee  bibere 
vinum  corruptum  aut  cervisiam  vestram ".  Cui  abbas : 
**  Dabo  tibi  panem  album  et  vinum  optimum  et  tot  fercula 
carnium  et  piscium  quot  desiderat  anima  tua'\ 

Cumque  vix  ille  acquiesceret  ut  aliquanto  tempore  pro- 
baret  quid  ei  facere  vellet  abbas,  postquam  veniret  ad 
monasterium,  duxit  eum  abbas  in  cameram  valde  pulchram 
et  fecit  fieri  magnum  ignem  et  Jectum  pulchrum  et  suavem 
coopertoriis  preciosis,  assignans  ei  monachum,  qui  omnia 
quecumque  desideraret  sibi  prepararet,  precepitque  abbas 
monacho  ut  omni  die,  postquam  latro  splendide  comedisset, 
ipse  coram  eo  non  nisi  panem  et  aquam  comederet. 

Cumque  latro  pluribus  diebus  monachus  ille  artam  dietam 
observantem  vidisset,  cepit  cogitare  quod  monachus  ille 
multa  mala  fecisset,  qui  tarn  duram  faciebat  penitenciam, 
et  quadam  die  quesivit  ab  eo  :  "  Frater,  quid  fecisti  qui 
te  omni  die  ita  affligis,  si  homines  interfecisti  ? "  Cui  mo- 
nachus :  "  Absit,  domine,  quod  unquam  hominem  contri- 
staverim,  nedum  occiderim  ;  ego  enim  a  puericia  mea  hoc 
monasterium  intravi".  Cui  latro:  "Si  fornicationem  vel 
adulterium  vel  sacrilegium  fecisti?"  Cui  ille,  pre  ammi- 
ratione  se  signando,  ait :  "Domine,  quid  est  quod  dixistis? 
Deus  tantam  iniquitatem  avertat  a  me!  Ego  nee  unquam 
feminam  tetigi".  "Quid  igitur  fecisti  quod  ita  corpus  tuum 
affligis?"     Ait  monachus:    "Domine,    propter    Dominum 


222     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

hec  facio  ut  jejunando,  orando,  alia  opera  penitencie  fa- 
ciendo,   Dominum  mihi  propitium  reddam". 

Audiens  latro  valde  compunctus  est,  et  cepit  intra  se 
cogitare  :  Quam  miser  sum  et  infelix,  qui  tot  mala,  tot 
furta,  tot  homicidia,  tot  adulteria  et  sacrilegia  semper  feci 
et  nunquam  vel  una  die  jejunavi  !  Et  iste  monachus  in- 
nocens  tantam  penitenciam  omni  die  facit ;  et,  vocato  ab- 
bate,  cecidit  ad  pedes  ejus,  rogans  eum  ut  in  coUegio 
fratrum  reciperet  ipsum.  Qui  postea  diu  in  monasterio 
adeo  se  afflixit,  quod  omnes  alios  abstinentia  et  religione 
superavit,  et  ita  abbas  exemplo  monachi,  qui  ministrabat 
latroni,  non  solum  animam  ejus  lucratus  est  Deo,  sed  multos 
a  morte  liberavit,  quos  latro  ille  spoliasset  et  jugulasset. 

Ecce  quantum  prodest  EXEMPLUM  BONUM,  e  contrario 
valde  nocet  EXEMPLUM  MALUM. 

We  have  already  observed  that  Sabatier  makes  two 
contentions  ;  ( I )  that  the  Speculum  is  original,  and  (2) 
that  the  narrative  is  a  commentary  on  C.  VII  of  the  Old 
Rule.  The  truth  is  that  both  the  Speculum  and  the 
Actus  borrow^  directly,  but  independently,  from  the  charming 
Legend  of  Jacques  de  Vitry,  w^ho,  in  his  turn,  is  not  ori- 
ginal either.  We  recall  the  earliest  exempla  of  the  "Lives 
of  the  Fathers"  and  of  Saint  Gregory  the  Great.  If  the 
Ancient  Rule  adopted  the  principle  of  welcoming  even 
latrones  with  open  arms,  this  is  due  indeed  to  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Brotherhood  ;  but  the  latter  is,  in  its  turn, 
a  reproduction  of  old  monastic  norms. 

Abbots  frequently  succeeded  in  introducing  such  criminals 
into  the  cloister,  so  that  homines  flagitios  pro  suis  criminihus, 
variis  suppliciis  deputati,   beneficio  Ordinis  sint  liherati. ' 

I   Cacs.  I,  31  ;  {Strange,  I,  36). 


,.p> 


APPENDIX  II  223 

With  the  narratives  of  the  two  Franciscan  texts  before 
us  we  can  almost  reconstruct  the  exemplum  of  Jacques 
de  Vitry  in  its  original  form  ;  what  is  lacking  in  the  one 
is  found  in  the  other.  The  Speculum  is,  on  the  whole, 
more  faithful  to  the  French  narrative,  of  which  it  preserves 
the  original  lines.  Saint  Francis  is  pictured  as  shewing 
how  to  convert  offenders  by  gentleness  ;  and  if  he  does 
not  actually  prepare  for  them  a  rich  feast  and  magnificent 
chamber,  at  any  rate  he  has  spread  for  them  some  kind 
of  a  table-cloth. 

The  Actus  begin  the  narrative  differently,  but  retain  the 
bandits'  reflexions  on  their  own  desperate  life,  comparing 
it  with  that  of  the  Brethren,  at  once  innocent  and  austere. 


APPENDIX  III 
THE  WOLF  OF  GUBBIO 

Apropos  of  this  subject  one  is  fain  to  repeat  the  pro- 
verb (without  the  corrections  of  "  Conte  zio"  of  the 
Promessi  Sposi),  "  The  wolf  may  lose  his  hide,  but  not 
his  vices".  For  wolf  and  vices  here  have  reference  not 
to  the  Friars,  but  to  the  present  writer  :  who,  in  virtue  of 
his  profession,  which  stands  as  it  were  midway  between 
Law  and  History,  is  apt  to  delude  himself  with  the  idea 
that  he  can  give  a  clear  and  persuasive  explanation  of  the 
famous  miracle  of  Gubbio  as  it  appears  in  the  Actus  and, 
later,  in  the  Fioretti.  ^ 

Sabatier  observes  that  in  Celano's  Second  Life  ^  "  il  y 
a  quelques  mots  sur  des  loups  de  Greccio ",  and  that  in 
the  MS  of  Assisi  No.  651  [Fioretti]  f.  37  there  is  a 
marginal  note  in  Papini's  handwriting :  "  Who  says  it  first?" 
(C^r  lo  dice  il  primo  ?)  To  this  acute  question  I  do  not 
feel  competent  to  give  a  completely  satisfactory  answer  ; 
but  perhaps  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  me  to  shew  how 
that  "  primo  scrittore  *'  has  ingeniously  put  together  his 
charming  little  story,   starting  from  Thomas  of  Celano. 

It  may  be  remarked  at  once  that  Sabatier  is  altogether 
right  in  sending  us  back  to  the   Second    Life,    in    which 

1  Actus  No.  23.  Fior.  21.  Cfr.  Liber,  conform,  ed.  Bononiae  1590;  I, 
fructus  10  (140). 

2  Op.  c.  77  nota  1.     II  Vita  II.  5  R.  26. 


226     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

occur  the  following  words,  spoken  by  the  Saint  to  the 
men  of  Greccio  :  "  Si  quisque  oestrum  confiteatur  peccata, 
[et]  dignos  facial  poenitentiae  fructus,  fideiuheo  vobis,  quo- 
niam  pestilentia  haec  omnis  abscedet ".  It  is  in  conside- 
ration of  the  Saint's  fideiussio — his  "going  bail" — that 
peace  was  made  between  the  wolf  and  the  people  of 
Gubbio  :  the  whole  ceremony  is,  therefore,  based  on  the 
"word"  of  Francis.  From  the  prose  of  Thomas  of  Ce- 
lano  the  germ-thought  passed  into  the  brain  of  the  romancer, 
who  subsequently  worked  it  up  in  his  own  way  but  with 
real  juridical  knowledge  and  remarkally  fine  artistic  taste. 
In  his  charming  preface  to  the  Actus  ^  Sabatier  brings 
before  us  again  the  opinion  of  certain  critics  who  are  in- 
clined to  see  in  the  narrative  a  terrible  baron,  described 
in  semblance  of  a  wolf,  tamed  by  the  Seraphic  Man  of 
Assisi,  as  Ezzelino  by  Saint  Anthony  of  Padua.  Yet  the 
writer  to  whom  we  owe  so  much,  though  he  regards  the 
idea  itself  as  a  good  one,  adds  that  the  conversion  of 
animals  figures  too  frequently  in  hagiology  to  make  it  of 
any  account.  The  true  cause  of  the  fcime  of  this  nar- 
rative is  to  be  sought  not  in  its  simple  and  limpid  literary 
clothing,  but  in  the  Franciscan  spirit  by  which  it  is  en- 
tirely animated.  According  to  mediaeval  ideas  wolves,  bri- 
gands and  heretics  are  alike  outside  the  pale  of  the  law. 
This  is  not,  however,  the  mind  of  Saint  Francis.  For 
him,  the  world  wants  not  only  justice  :  the  severe  goddess 
as  preceded  by  "cortesia".  At  the  Saint's  bidding  bro- 
ther Wolf  begs  pardon  of  the  citizens  of  Gubbio,  de  in- 
curialitate  et  crudelitate  sua,  for  that  he  also  has  trans- 
gressed the  rules  of  curialitas,  a  quality  that  is  dear  to  God.* 

1  Op.  c.  XII. 

2  Fior.  No.  26;  Actus  No.  19. 


APPENDIX   III  227 

It  will  be  well,  however,  to  to  obtain  a  really  clear  idea 
of  the  meaning  of  this  word.  Curialitas  comes  from  curia, 
as  cortesia  from  code.  The  old  engine  of  Roman  finance 
lost  its  classical  signification  in  the  language  of  the  Middle 
Ages/  At  Naples  the  curia  means  the  college  of  Notaries; 
but  ordinarily  the  name  is  applied  to  any  assembly  of 
public  or  private  character  :  and  curialitas  is  the  complex 
of  rules  that  renders  possible  and,  in  certain  cases  happy 
and  pleasant,  the  reunion  of  many  people  in  the  same 
place  for  a  definite  purpose.  Gentilezza,  in  the  modem 
sense,  is  the  consequence  of  such  a  discipline,  necessarily 
imposed  on  those  who  meet  together.^  And  this  too  may 
be  numbered  «imong  the  various  senses  of  the  word ;  but 
the  principal  signification  seems  to  be  the  aptitude  to  live 
together  with  others,  observing  the  rules  and  social  usages 
which  must  be  respected  in  the  interests  of  all  if  there  is 
to  be  such  a  thing  as  social  life  at  all.  I  remember  that 
Odofred  relates  how  the  students  in  the  first  months  of 
their  happy  common  life  are  very  curiales  towards  one 
another :  afterwards  this  curialitas  vanishes,  and  they  come 
to  blows.  It  is  but  one  step  from  curialitas  to  iniuria. 
A  man  who  is  curialis  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
is  constantly  used  by  Salimbene,^  is  a  person  of  a  sociable 
and  happy  disposition,  who  feels  at  home  in  company  and 
puts  others  at  their  ease  ;  who  far  from  vexing  or  annoy- 
ing his  neighbour,  keeps  his  fellows  in  good  spirits  by 
his  own  amiability.  Our  Statutes  called  those  citizens 
selvatici  who  lived  an  isolated  life  in  the  country  and  had 

1  Maassen,  in  Sitzungsber,  der  phil.   hist.       Classe  der    k.    Akal.    d.  Wiss. 
Wien,  1876;  LXXXIX.  251-2. 

2  Boncompagni,  Cedrus,  I.e.  164.     loculatorem  P.  -  qui  vestre  cun'e...  voluit 
interesse,  curialitati  vestre  attencius  commendamus. 

3  Chr.    1 0  :  Valens  homo,  curialis  et  liberalis  etc. 


228     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

no  taste  for  a  peaceful  existence  within  city  walls,  in  the 
levelling  atmosphere  of  democracy.  And  those  folk,  when 
forcibly  transported  into  the  city,  were  themselves  uncom- 
fortable in  their  new  environment,  and  a  disturbance  to 
those  who  were  obliged,  to  their  own  damage,  to  enter 
into  relations  with  a  class  of  people  that  was  haughty  and 
not  in  the  least  curiale. 

Saint  Francis,  when  he  made  the  wolf  confess  to  having 
been  incurialis  and  cmdelis,  certainly  did  not  claim  that 
the  beast  had  been,  or  became,  gentile  after  his  confes- 
sion. And  still  less  is  there  in  the  narrative  what  Sabatier 
imagines  to  be  there.  Brother  wolf,  even  for  a  wolf,  had 
behaved  so  atrociously  that  his  chances  were  poor  indeed 
had  not  the  Saint  ananged  matters  for  him  ! 

The  incurialitas  of  which  the  beast  accuses  himself 
provides  us  by  anticipation  with  a  suggestion  as  to  what 
the  wolf  really  is  : — a  poor  outlaw,  (as  we  shall  shortly 
see)  constrained  to  kill  and  rob  for  his  own  living.  And 
now  we  understand  how  his  ill  deeds  are  due  to  a  life 
savage  and  incurialis.  Brother  Wolf,  in  a  phrase  we  still 
use,  s'era  dato  alia  macchia — he  had  "taken  to  the 
woods " — :  and  had  made  himself  an  enemy  of  society 
instead  of  imploring  its  pardon  and  pity.  Curialitas  pre- 
supposes an  honest  life  ;  for  he  mingles  gladly  in  the  so- 
ciety of  others  who  meditates  no  assaults  upon  his  neigh- 
bours and  fears  none  at  their  hands.  In  other  words 
Brother  Wolf  confesses  to  having  led  the  life  of  a — wolf; 
and  to  have  committed  cruel  acts. 

Now  that  the  beast  is  a  little  quiet  let  us  approach 
him  and  see  what  sort  of  an  animal  he  is.  The  wolf  of 
Gubbio  is  not  different  from  his  fellows.  I  remark  only 
one  difference,  and  that  a  slight  one.     Once  upon  a  time 


APPENDIX    III  229 

wolves  were  much  more  numerous  and  formidable  in  Italy 
than  they  are  now.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  lands 
abandoned  by  agriculture  were  invaded  by  forests  and 
thickets,  the  congenial  home  of  the  lupine  family.  Many 
names  of  places  in  Italy,  such  as  Montelupo,  Montelupone, 
Lupara,  Lupaiolo  still  remain  to  witness  the  haunts  of  wol- 
ves, who  were  driven  by  hunger  to  extraordinary  boldness. 

Our  friend  Salimbene  (who,  at  any  rate,  is  not  grudging 
of  his  information)  records  how  the  bitter  cold  and  the 
pangs  of  starvation  drove  the  wolves  to  enter  wittim  the 
bounds  of  cities,  where  many  were  hanged  and  strung  up 
in  the  piazza  like  true  and  proper  criminals. '  I  will  not 
pause  to  make  a  fresh  disquisition  here  on  the  mediaeval 
juridical  ideas  as  to  the  penal  responsibility  of  the  lower 
animals.  The  subject  is  an  old  one,  and  a  mere  reference 
to  it  will  suffice.^ 

One  remark  I  will  make  :  that  a  wild  beast  in  the 
literal  sense  of  the  word  might  easily  be  interchanged  with 
the  so-called  "rational"  species;  by  virtue  of  the  legal 
parallel.  Gibbet  and  ruthless  chase  aimed  at  keeping  off 
the  wolves :  even  ecclesiastics  were  exhorted  to  join  in  the 
pursuit ;  ^  and  the  Statutes  of  the  Communes  promised  a 
good  handful  of  money  to  him  who  should  have  presented 
to  the  city  steward  a  sample  of  the  hated  tribe.  ^ 

And  now  to  draw  our  conclusion :  the  wolf  who  plays 

1  Chr.  43.  Cfr.  77,  141.  The  starved  wolf  will  even  eat  soil  I  Vincent. 
Bel.     Spec.  hist.  XIX,  85. 

2  /.  Grimm,  in  Zeilschr.  fiir  gesch.  Rechtswiss.  II,  343  and  Deutsche  Recht- 
salterth.  iV  ed.  II,  343;  Michelet,  Origines  du  droit  franjais  {kd.  1890); 
278  seqq.  Pertile,  in  Atti  del  R.  Istituto  Veneto  T.  IV.  Serie  VI,  an.  1886 
etc.     Cfr.  D'Ancona,   Studj  di  critica  lett.  [1880];  338;  (Novellino,  No.  90). 

3  Mami.   XXI,    121  :  Concil.    Campost.   an.    1014  c.    15. 

4  E.  g.  Zdekauer,  Const,  del  Comune  di  Siena  for  the  year  1262;  80; 
Bonaini,   Stat,  di  Piia,   I,    147   etc. 


230     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

his  part  in  so  many  Italian  fairy  tales,  might  just  as  well 
figure  also  in  the  stories  of  the  Fioretti.  But  the  cities 
were  not  troubled  by  wolves  alone ;  they  were  exposed 
to  dangers  of  a  far  more  serious  kind.  The  continual 
struggles  between  city  and  city  and  between  factions  and 
parties  within  the  city's  bosom ;  the  principle  of  private 
vendetta — delightful  legacy  left  by  Germany  ! — the  syste- 
matic disorder  (a  contradiction  in  terms  justified  by  the 
facts) ;  created  a  special  class  of  men — the  banditi  or 
outlaws.  And  these,  in  turn,  strove  with  all  their  might 
to  drive  forth  from  the  nest  those  who  had  cast  them  out, 
and  the  grim  game  shewed  never  a  sign  of  cessation. ' 

Now  let  us  see  how  it  is  that  Brother  Wolf  belongs 
not  only  to  the  Franciscans  but  also  to  those  who  write 
the  history  of  Law.  According  to  ancient  German  law 
the  latro,  and  hence  the  man  to  whom  is  refused  that 
which  he  himself  has  violated  in  others,  viz  :  peace,  is 
called  "Wolf*  {uuargus).  When  the  German  has  com- 
mitted a  crime  of  such  a  kind  that,  essentially,  or  by  the 
will  of  society,  cannot  be  expiated  by  a  legal  penalty, 
the  community  solemnly  deprives  him  of  Peace.  Such  a 
criminal  is  considered  as  a  being  who  has  lost  even  the 
outward  form  of  humanity — he  is  a  wolf,  a  capo  lupino. 
Any  one  may  slay  him  with  impunity,  and  no  one  ought 
to  give  him  shelter  or  victual.  The  king's  "ban"  puts 
him  outside  the  royal  protection  :  he  is  no  longer  a  man."^ 


1  Salimbene,  Chr.  395-6.  In  the  Life  of  Aegidius  the  Minorites  are  com- 
pared to  wolves,  who  never  come  out  of  their  den,  nisi  pro  magna  necessitate : 
Acta  SS.  T.  Ill  Apr.  231. 

2  Wilda,  Das  Strafrecht  der  Germ.,  1842;  278  seqq.  Brunner,  Deutsche 
Rechtsgeschichle,  1879  I,  67  seqq.  Kohler,  Das  Strafrecht  der  ild.  Statuten 
1898;  56  seqq.  For  the  word,  warg,  ware,  see  Schade,  Altdeutsches  Wbrter- 
buch;    1097-8. 


APPENDIX    III  231 

And  he  never  can  become  a  man  again  unless  and  until 
he  wins  "peace"   again. 

Over  the  outlaw  of  the  Middle  Ages  looms  this  Ger- 
man conception,  albeit  in  an  attenuated  form.  In  French 
he  is  said  to  be  excommunie  comme  un  loup-garou;  at 
Bergamo  the  magistrate  to  whom  falls  the  function  of  out- 
lawing has  for  his  device  a  wolf's  head. '  (In  the  Fioretti 
I  find  traces  of  German  thought.  Brother  Juniper  has 
Alboino  in  mind  :  he  is  fain  to  make  out  of  his  departed 
friend's  skull  two  bowls,  one  to  eat  out  of,  and  one  to 
drink).  ^  To  resume  :  Brother  Wolf  is  a  personage  quite 
easy  to  recognise  even  under  a  wolf's  guise.  He  is,  in 
fact,  an  outlaw  reconciled  to  his  city  by  the  Saint  roith 
the  exact  forms  and  ceremonies  prescribed  b})  law  and 
practically  observed  at  that  epoch. 

The  old  penalists  write  that  it  was  customary  for  an 
ecclesiastic  to  give  to  the  outlaw,  and  receive  from  him, 
the  word  of  peace,  in  the  name  of  those  whom  he  had 
offended.  ^      In  the  Italian  Communes  there  was  a  special 

1  Grimm,  Deutsche  Rechtsalterthumer,  II,  334.      Stat.  Berg.  ed.  1749;  474-5. 

2  Grimm,   Geschichte  der  deufschen  Sprache,    1848;   I,    142  seqq. 

3  A  propos  of  this  subject  there  iis  a  letter,  which  comes  to  mind,  of  Pope 
Gregory  1  to  Dono  bishop  of  Messina  (Ep.  VI,  37  ;  MG.  I,  414).  A  certain 
Giorgio — who  from  the  tenor  of  the  letter  would  have  been  a  criminal  desirous 
to  change  his  life^wished  to  fix  his  home  in  Messina,  and  with  that  in  view 
obtained  from  the  Pope  a  commendatory  letter  to  the  bishop  of  that  city  :  who 
would  thus  acquire  not  a  new  Iamb  but  a  somewhat  formidable  wolf,  to  judge  by 
the  man's  past.  Gregory  writes  to  Dono  that  he  was  induced  to  grant  Giorgio's 
request  because  the  man  a  prava  se  promisit  actione  compkscere.  It  seems  as 
though  the  Pope  himself  did  not  place  too  much  faith  in  Giorgio's  good  inten- 
tions, for  he  urges  the  bishop  of  Messina  revocare  adhortationihus  suis  ad  viam 
Deo  placiiam  the  erring  brother,  and  adds  :  el  si  adiuvante  Domino,  ut  pro- 
misit,  AB  OMNI  SE  PRAVITATE  SUSPENDENS,  VIVERE  HONESTE  VOLUERIT,  FRATERNITAS 

VESTRA  (that  is,  the  bishop  of  Messina)   pro  mercede  sua...  eius  sustentationi 

SUBVENIAT,  NK  FORSITAN  AD  MALE  AGENDUM  EXCUSATIONEM  SIBI  EX  NECESSITATE 
VIDEATUR   ADSUMERE. 

Giorgio  of  Messina  and  Brother  Wolf  have  a    strange    resemblance    to     one 


232     SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

magistracy  appointed  to  provide  for  the  reconciliation  of 
outlaws  when  such  function  was  not  reserved  for  the  Po- 
desta.  In  order  to  be  readmitted  into  the  city,  the  con- 
demned man  from  whom  the  ban  was  removed  had  to 
obtain  peace  from  the  offended  citizens,  or  if  the  latter 
had  delegated  the  granting  of  peace  to  another,  their  own 
ratification  must  be  subsequently  given.  But  that  was  not 
enough.  The  outlaw  was  further  obliged  to  offer,  by  the 
most  binding  solemn  assurances,  security  that  in  his  new 
life  he  would  abstain  from  every  form  of  violence. ' 

But  I  am  sure  that  the  reader  must  be  tired  of  my 
prose :  I  pass  him  on  therefore  to  the  pleasant  reading  of 
the  Fioretti.  There  he  shall  read  a  page  of  the  penal 
and  civil  procedure  of  the  thirteenth  century,  with  an 
exquisite  commentary  thereupon.  Saint  Francis  having 
quieted  the  beast,  addressed  him  thus:  " I  desire  to  make 
peace  between  thee  and  them  in  such  wise  that  thou  shalt 
not  offend  them  an^  more,  and  that  the"^  shall  pardon 
thee  for  all  past  offences  and  neither  men  nor  dogs  shall 
any  more  pursue  thee". 

The  Saint,  then,  as  intermediary,  promises  peace  to  the 
beast,  and  receives  the  like  assurance  from  him  by  a  shake 
of  the  paw,  a  most  classical  mode  of  contracting  an  obli- 
gation to  live  without  giving  offence  to  one's  fellow-citizens. 
Finally  Francis  displays  Brother  Wolf  humbled  and  peni- 

another.  In  each  case  it  is  the  ecclesiastical  authority  that  receives  the  promise 
of  amendment  and  gives  the  word  of  peace  to  the  penitent ;  in  each  case  also 
it  is  suggested  most  opportunely  that  succour  be  given  to  the  newly- tamed  rebel, 
who,  if  he  be  well  fed,  becomes  at  once  quiet  and  harmless.  So  the  most 
powerful  incentive  to  a  return  to  the  wicked  life  is  removed.  How  old — yet 
ever  new — is  the  figure  of  Frate  Lupo  I 

''■  Nelli  de  S.  Gem.,  De  Bannitis ;  in  Tract,  tract,  crim.  Venet.  1556; 
184  seqq.  Pertile,  Storia  del  diritto  italiano  II  ed.  V,  337  seqq,  Cfr.  Stat,  di 
Ravenna  del  sec.  XIII  (Rav.    1904).      R.    186. 


APPENDIX   HI  233 

tent,  to  the  assembled  people,  i.  e.,  the  company  of  the 
offended  persons.  It  only  remains  to  expound  the  compact, 
and  obtain  its  formal  approbation ;  and  so  we  read ; 
**  then  all  the  people  with  one  voice  promised  to  give  him 
nourishment  continually^^'.  The  wolf  has  become  a  harm- 
less lamb. ' 

Now  let  us  examine  the  fringe  of  the  narrative.  The 
words  of  Sabatier  at  once  suggest  themselves  :  the  power 
of  the  saints  even  over  animals  is  most  mighty ;  and  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  collect  examples  of  it.  But  here  we 
no  longer  agree  with  Sabatier.  I  choose  from  the  nar- 
ratives those  that  most  closely  resemble  the  miracle  of  Gubbio. 

To  begin  with,  in  a  redaction  of  the  famous  work 
known  as  Gesta  Romanorum  we  read  how  a  city  was 
beleagered  by  venomous  beasts,  among  which  the  worst  of 
all  was  a  dragon,  who  demanded  of  the  citizens  nothing 
less  than  an  animal  every  day,  ou  pain  of  devouring  men : 
unum  animal,  aliter  homines  devorasset.'  More  wonderful 
still  are  the  old  miracles  of  the  De  Vitis  Patrum.  A 
hyena  knocks  with  its  head  at  the  cell  of  Macarius  :  it 
wishes  the  hermit  to  restore  the  sight  to  its  little  blind  cub, 
and  it  obtains  this  boon.  There  is  gratitude  even  among 
hyenas :  the  savage  beast  comes  back  to  the  wonder-worker 
bearing  the  gift  of  a  sheep's  hide.  The  Saint  reflected 
that  the  hide  was  indication  of  a  crime  committed  through 
gratitude  by  the  beast,  to  whom  he  trenchantly  declares: 
"I  do  not  accept  criminal  gifts".  Hyaena  autem  humi 
inclinato  capite,  genu  flectehat  ad  pedes  sancti,  et  ponebat 
pellem.      Ipse  autem  ei  dicebat:  Dixi  me  non  accepturum, 

1  Hist.  Laus.  c.  52;  in  Migne,  LXXIII,  1159:  ex  lupo  in  simplicem  el 
innocentem  agnum  mutatum  ;  cfr.   Actus  79 :  iam  factua  quasi  agnus  ex   lupo. 

2  Ed.  Dick,  c.  217  [230]. 


234     SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

nisi  iuraveris  te  non  amplius  offensuram  pauperes,  come- 
dendo  eorum  oves.  Ilia  vero  ad  hoc  quoque  capite  suo 
annuit  ^  Brother  Wolf  also  does  the  same,  se  ingenicu- 
lans  cum  inclinatione  capitis,  but  being  more  au  fait  with 
polite  customs,  he  does  not  forget  to  hold  out  his  paw  in 
token  of  good  faith.  ^  Still,  the  attitude  of  the  two  beasts 
is  identical.  ^ 

The  compiler  of  the  Legend  of  Gubbio  had  in  mind 
also  other  beasts  who  had  shewn  themselves  amenable  to 
the  commands  of  friars  or  respectful  to  saints.  For  instance 
Florentius,  who  had  need  of  a  guardian  for  his  flocks, 
invoked  the  aid  of  God.  And  lo!  up  comes  a  bear, 
qui  dutn  ad  terram  caput  deprimeret,  nihilque  feritatis  in 
suis  motihus  demonstraret,  aperte  dabat  intelligi,  quod  ad 
viri  Dei  ohsequium  venisset.  But  alas !  monkish  spitefulness 
knows  no  bounds !  Florentius  became  extremely  fond  of 
his  bear,  honest  guardian  of  his  flocks,  quern  ex  simplicitate 
multa  FRATREM  vocare  consueverat.  But  his  fellow-monks 
of  another  convent,  jealous  of  the  miracle  killed  his  be- 
loved beast !  "^  Brother  Bear  was  in  truth  more  of  a  gen- 
tleman than  Brother  Wolf,  yet  his  end  was  less  happy; 
for  Frate  Lupo  passed  peacefully  away  as  a  retired  pen- 
sioner among  the  people  of  Gubbio. 

The  same  book  that  has  given  us  Frate  Orso,  viz  : 
the  Dialogues  of  Gregory  the  Great,  speaks  also  of  another 
formidable  bear. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  Gothic  period  the  orthodox 
clergy  took  sides  with  the  Greeks.     Cerbonius,  bishop  of 


1  Hist.  Uus.  c.   19,  20  1.  c.   1118. 

2  Actus,  81. 

3  Arch.  Giur.   LXX,  ( 1 903) ;   Tamaasia,   Fidem  facere. 

4  Dial.  Ill,   15. 


APPENDIX   III  235 

Populonia  dared  to  give  shelter  to  certain  imperial  soldiers, 
to  protect  them  from  the  persecution  of  king  Totila.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  bishop,  the  king  himself  came  up,  caught 
Cerbonius  red-handed,  and  condemned  him  to  a  most  cruel 
death.  A  monstrous  bear  was  told  off  to  devour  the 
poor  prelate.  Preparations  are  made  for  the  bloody  spec- 
tacle ;  great  crow^ds  assemble,  excited  by  the  morbid  tra- 
ditions of  the  Circus.  Episcopus  deductus  in  medium  est... 
Dimissus...  ursus  ex  cavea  est,  qui  accensus  et  concitus 
Episcopum  petiit,  sed  subito  suae  feritatis  ohlitus,  deflexa 
cervtce,  suhmissoque  humiliter  capite,  lambere  Episcopi 
pedes  coepit...  Tunc  populus,  qui  ad  spectaculum  venerat 
mortis,  magno  clamore,  versus  est  in  admirationem  vene- 
rationis. " 

Brother  Wolf  did  just  the  same  as  soon  as  he  saw 
Saint  Francis.  Multis  cementibus  de  locis  in  quibus  ad 
spectandum  ascenderant,  lupus  ille  terribilis  contra  S.  Fran- 
ciscum  et  socium  aperto  ore  cucurrit...  Statim  se  ad  pedes 
sancti,  iam  factus  quasi  agnus  ex  lupo,  capite,  inclinato, 
prostravit...  Omnes  ad  plateam  simul  convenerunt...  tunc 
omnes  ibi  congregati  cum  clamore  valido  promiserunt... 
Et  facta  est  tanta  admiratio...  ut  omnes  clamarent  ad 
sidera. 

Here  we  have  the  missing  stones  of  our  broken  mosaic. 
The  Franciscan  has  worked  in  Gregorian  and  pre-Gregorian 
fragments  into  its  representation  of  the  wolf-outlaw  and  the 
figure  of  the  Saint  of  Assisi. 

A  little  learned  pedantry  reveals  the  old  work  that  lies 
underneath  the  surface.  What  then  ?  Art  is  justified, 
and  the  Fioretti,  be  they  Franciscan  or  not,  will  always 

I  Dial.  III.  11. 


236     SAINT   FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

be  read.  Before  it  becomes  a  statue,  that  on  which  art 
works  is — raw  material  and  thought.  Neither  of  these  is 
created  by  the  artist,  who  yet  well  deserves  his  name 
when  he  works  with  such  grace  as  is  shewn  by  the  friar, 
or  friars,   responsible  for  the  authorship  of  the  Fioretti. 

And  what  about  the  answer  to  Papini's  question?  It 
is  easy  and  certain.  We  may  say  that  the  miracle  of 
Gubbio  began  to  be  written  when  the  Historia  Lausiaca 
was  put  together.  It  was  continued  by  Gregory  the  Great, 
and  finished  by  the  authors  of  the  Actus.  It  seems  as 
though  the  Saint  of  Assisi  were  like  the  sun.  The  buds 
that  sleep  within  their  winter  covering,  warmed  by  his 
beams,  awake...  and  burst  into  flower. 


APPENDIX  IV 

INDEX   OF   THE   SOURCES   OF   THE 
"FIORETTI" 

Flor.  No.  1.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  1. 

Fior.  No.  2.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  H  10  seqq.  -  5.  August.  Confess. 
Vm,   12.  Vita  Ant.  c.  2.  Migne,  Patr.  Lat.  LXXUI,  127. 

Fior.  No.  3.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  2  -  Thorn.  Vita  I,  53 ;  Rosedale,  45. 

Fior.  No.  4.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  3  -  "Regula  a.  1221  c.  3,  9,  14; 
a.   1223.  c.  3. 

Fior.  No.  5.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  4. 

Fior.  No.  6.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  5  -  Qen.  XXVII. 

Fior.  No.  7.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  6  -  Qreg.  M.  Dial.  II,   1. 

Fior.  No.  8.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  7  -  Thorn.  Vita  II.  ^Rosedale,  75. 
Cfr.  Math.  V.  10  seqq.  Paul.  I  Cor.  XIII. 

Fior.  No.  9.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  8  -  Thorn.  Vita  I.  20;  ^Rosedale, 
43.  Migne,  Op.  c.  744,  751.  Cfr.  Dial.  cit.  I,  5.  Cfr.  Prima  con- 
siderazione  delle  stimmate. 

Fior.  No.  10.  Actus  B.  Fr.  No.  10  -  Dial.  cit.  II.  20;  Migne, 
Op.  cit.  %1.  1034. 

Fior.  No.  11.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  1 1   -  Cfr.  10  and  12. 

Fior.  No.  12.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  12  -  Migne,  Op.  cit.  949-50; 
984. 

Fior.  No.  13.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  13  -  Migne,  Op.  cit.  263  ;  Vita 
Pack.  c.  45. 

Fior.  No.  14.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  14  -  Migne,  Op.  cit.  263. 

Fior.  No.  15.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  15  -  Dial.  cit.  II,  33  ;  cfr.  Migne, 
Op.  c.  759-61. 

Fior.  No.  16.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  16  -  Thorn.  Vita  I ;  58;  'T^ose- 
dale,  48. 

Fior.  No.  17.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  19  -  Greg.  M.  Horn,  in  Evang. 
II,  34;  N.  18. 

Fior.  No.  18.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  20  -  Migne,  Op.  cit.  438  seqq. 

Fior.  No.  19.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  21  -  Dial.  cit.  I.  9. 


238    SAINT    FRANCIS   OF   ASSISI 

Fior.  No.  20.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  22  -  Caes.  Dial.  mir.  IV,  4;  ed. 
Strange  I,  175, 

Fior.  No.  21.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  23  -  See  Appendix  III. 

Fior.  No.  22.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  24. 

Fior.  No.  23.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  26  -  Vita  S.  loan.  Eleem.  c.  16; 
Migne,  Op.  cit.  354-5  ;  cfr.  Caes.  Ill,  24. 

Fior.  No.  24.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  27  -  Thorn.  Vita  I,  57.  "Rosedale, 
47.  Cfr.  Caes.  X,  24. 

Fior.  No.  25.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  28  -  (Lepers). 

Fior.  No.  26.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  29  -  See  Appendix  II. 

Fior.  No.  27.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  36-37. 

Fior.  No.  28.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  30  -  Cfr.  Tiegula  c.  3. 

Fior.  No.  29.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  31  -  Migne,  Op.  cit.  266,  290. 
(Vita  Pach.  c.  48  and  Vita  Abrahae  c.   15). 

Fior.  No.  30.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  32. 

Fior.  No.  31.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  35  -  Migne,  op.  cit.  256-7;  Vita 
Pach.  c.  38. 

Fior.  No.  32. 

Fior.  No.  33,  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  43  -  Dial.  cit.  I,  1 1  ;  cfr.  II,  3 
e  Acta  SS.  T.  I  Jul.   164. 

Fior.  No.  34.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  46. 

Fior.  No.  35.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  45  -  Cfr.  Fior.  N.  15. 

Fior.  No.  36.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  59  -  Migne,  op.  cit.  262 ;  cfr. 
Haureau,  Mem.  de  1'  Inst,  national  de  France,  XXVIII,  2  ;  248 
note  2.  Cfr.  Jacques  de   Vitry,  Exempla  ed.  Crane;  N.   19. 

Fior.  No.  41.  Cfr.  Fior.  N.  43.  Episode  of  Silvanus ;  M/gne,  op. 
cit.  255.  Novellino,  15;  cfr.  D'Ancona,  Studj  di  critica  e  storia  let- 
teraria,  Bol.   1880;  308-9.  Cfr.  also  Dial.  cit.  11,  4. 

Fior.  No.  42.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  53  -  Caes.  IX,  50 ;  VIII,  2. 

Fior.  No.  43.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  50  -  Episode  of  Silvanus;  Migne, 
op,  cit.  252.  Legend  of  the  Two  Companions  :  S.  P.  'Dam.  op,  I, 
102  (Ep.  VI,  20),  Greg.  M.  Dial.  cit.  IV,  55.  Jacques  de  Vitry, 
Ex.  N,  31  ;  Migne,  LXXII,  167-8,  Cfr,  Passavanti,  Specchio  della 
vera  penitenza,  Dist.  IV,  1-2,  Haureau,  1.  c,  238,  Schonhacb,  in 
SB,  Ak.  Wiss,  Wien  CXXXIX.   1    seqq. 

Fior.  No.  44.  V,  Patr.  Tioswe^de,  875,  Caes.  VII,  9,  16,  17, 
19.  20,  21,  22,  23;  III,  21  ecc, 

Fior.  No,  45.  Actus  B,  Fr,  N.  69  -  Cfr.  Fior.  N.  41,  43. 

Fior.  No.  46. 

Fior.  No.  47.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  68  -  Caes.  VII,  47;  XI,  4;  cfr. 
Dial.  cit.  IV,  47, 

Fior.  No.  47,  Hist,  tribul.  Ord.  Min.  ed.  Ehrle,   in   Arch,    fiir 


APPENDIX  IV  239 

Litteratur-und  Kirchengesch.  des  Mitelalt.,  II,  279-81 .  Migne,  LXXIII, 
962.  Arhor  vitae  etc.  ib.  262  ;  V.  Pach.  c.  45.  Cfr.  Fior.  N.    36. 

Fior.  No.  49.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  54  -  Caes.  VIII,   13. 

Fior.  No.  50.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  56  -  Greg.  M,  Dial.  IV,  55  ; 
Caes.  XII,  33. 

Fior.  No.  51.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  57  -  Cfr.  Fior.  N.  43. 

Fior.  No.  52.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  51   -  Caes.  VIII,  39. 

Fior.  No.  5i.  Actus  B.  Fr.  N.  52  -  Caes.  IX,  27,  32. 


CLASSIFIED  CATALOGUE 


OF 


T.    FISHER    UNWIN'S 

PUBLICATIONS. 


CONTENTS. 


I. — INDEX  of  Authors,  some  Illustrators  and  Editors 


PAGES 

iii — vii 


II. — INDEX  in  order  of  Titles,  including  a  list  of  Mr,  Unwin's  various  series 

of  books  ...         ...         ...         viii — xv 


III. — CATALOGUE,  classified  under  the  following  subject-headings  : — 

1.  Literary  History            i — 2 

2.  Poetry  and  the  Drama 3 — 7 

3.  Novels,  Humorous  Works,  Short  Stories,  &c 8—32 

4.  Essays,  Criticisms,  Philosophy,  &c 33 — 34 

5.  Art  and  Music 35 — 37 

6.  Biography,  Memoirs,  Correspondence,  &c 38—46 

7.  History  and  Historical  Literature      47 — 59 

8.  Politics,  Economics,  Free  Trade,  &c.           59—66 

9.  Geography,  Travel,  Mountaineering,  &c 66 — 74 

10.  Natural  History,  &c 74 — ■j'j 

11.  Religion  and  Education           77 — 80 

12.  Domestic  Literature      81 — 82 

13.  Books  for  Children       82 — 85 

14.  V^aria       85—87 

15.  "  The  New  Irish  Library  ■'  "The  Welsh   Library"   and    "The 

International  Review" ...  87 


HUDOAfJ\i 


^   T 


^e 


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card, Mr.  Fisher  Unwin  will  be  pleased  to  furnish  the 
address  of  the  nearest  local  bookseller  where  the  works 
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Should  any  difficulty  arise,  the  Publisher  ivill  be  happy 
to  forward  any  book  in  the  list  to  any  country  in  the  Pbstal 
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1909. 


INDEX  ot  AUTHORS,  some  ILLUSTRATORS,  and  EDITORS.       iii 


n 


INDEX  of  AUTHORS,  some 
ILLUSTRATORS,  and   EDITORS. 


PAGE  PAGE 

Abrahams,  Israel i,  79   de  Benyowsky,  Count 46 

Adam.Mme.  Edmond    38    Bernhard,  Oscar 85 

Adams,  Arthur  H.- 8  j  Berry,  T.  W 77,8,5 

Adams,  Francis 66  !  Besant,  Annie    38 

Adams,  W.  Auguste 3  |  Bigelow,  John  33 

Aesop    83  i  Bindloss,  Harold 66 

Aho,  Juhani 8  {  Birch,  Walter  de  Gray 47 

Albright,  Mrs.  W.  .A 59   Blacker,  J .  F 35 

Alexander,  Mrs 8,  85  !  Blake,  Bass 11 

Alien   8  1  Blake,  B.  C 11 

Allardyce,  Paul 77  }  Blind,  Mathilde 3,  74 

Amber,  Miles 8  |  Bliss,  Rev.  Edwin  M 47 

Andreief,  Leonidas 8   Blond  (Set  Le  Blond). 

Andrews,  Katharine 8    Bloom,  J .  Harvey 35 

Arbuthnot,  Sir  A.  J 39    Blount,  Mrs.  George 11 


Archer,  Laura  M.  Palmer 

Archer,  T.  A 47 

Archer,  William    S 

Armstrong,  I.  J 
Arnold,  A.  S.  . 
Aronson,  V.  R. 


Blunt,  Wilfrid  Scawen    ....48,  59 

Blytb,  Edmond  Kell 77 

Bodkin,  M.  McDonnell 11 

Boissier,  Gaston 66 

39  '  Boland,  Mary  A 81 

59  i  Bolsche,  Wilhelm    41 


Askew,  Alice  and  Claude   . .  8,  87  i  Bolt,  Ben    11 

Austin,  Mrs.  Sarah 43  I  Bon  (See  Le  Bon); 

Axon,  William  E.  A 60  !  Bond,  J.  A.  Walpole- 77 

j  Bonner,  Hypathia  Bradlaugh  38 

Bacheller,  Irving 9  I  Booth,  Eva  Gore 65 

Badham,  F.  P 77  j  Boulger,  Demetrius  C 40 

Bailey,  E.  E.  J 1  :  Bourget,  Paul 11 

Baillie-Saunders,  Margaret. . .     9  :  Bourinot,  Sir  John  G 48 

Baker,  Ernest,  A 66  ■  Bousset,  W 77 

Baker,  H.  Barton  , 91  Boutray,  Emile 33 

Baker,  James g  \  BowacK,  William  Mitchell  ...  59 

Bamford  59  :  Bowen,  Ivor    59 

Banfield,  E.  J 66  ;  Boweii-Rowlands,  Lilian  ....  11 

Baring-Gould,  S 47  i  Bowles,  Thomas  Gibson 59 

Barlow,  Jane 9  Boxall.  G.  E 74,  48,  59 

Barnett,  Canon   59  |  Boyesen,  Prof.  Hjalmar  H.  . . .  48 

Barr,  AmeHa  E 9,  85    Bradley,  Henry 48 

Barr,  Walter    10  j  Brainerd,  E.  H 11 

Barry,  William 10,  47  j  Bray,  Reginald  A 60,  77 

Barth,  Dr.  Theodor 60  '  Breda,  G.  H ii. 

Bartram,  George 10  I  Brentano 82 

Basile,  Giambattista 82    Brereton,  Austin    48 

Bastian,  H.  Charlton 74  i  Bridgett,  T.  E 77 

Bateson,  Mary 47  j  Bright,  Allan  H 60 

Batey,  John 85  ]  Brightwen,  Mrs 38,  74 

Bealby,  J.  T 10  j  Broda,  Rodolphe    87 

Bearne,  Catherine  A 47  |  Bromley,  A.  W 85 

Beauclerk,  Lady  Diana 35  j  Brooke,  Magdalene 11 

Beaumont,  Francis 5  '  Brooke.  Rev.  Stopford  A 33 

Beavan,  Arthur  Hr 74 !  Brookes,  L.  Elliott 85 

Beazley,  C.  Raymond 39  '  Brookfield,  Arthur 83 

Becke,  Louis 10,  43  j  Brooks,  Geraldine 48 

Beckman,  Ernest 82,  83  :  Brown,  Charles  Reynolds  60,  77 

Beckworth,  James  P      461  Brown,  Francis    60 

Beers,  Henry  A i  i  Brown,  Madox     83 

Bell,  Robert 74  !  Browne,  Prof.  Edw.  G 1 

Bellermann,  Ludwig    7  .  Browne,  Gordon 84 

Benjamin,  S.  G.  W 47   Browne,  Haji  A 48 

Benson,  Robert  Hugh    77  :  Browne,  H.  .Moigan    60 

Bentley,  Arthur  F 59  j  Bruce,  Mary  L 44 


PAGE 

Briickner,  A i 

Brunetiere,  Ferdinand i 

Buchanan,  A.J 67 

Buchanan,  Alfred    11 

Buchanan,  Robert 11 

Buckmaster,  J .  C 60 

Buel,  Clarence  C 48 

Bulfin,  W 67 

BuUen,  Frank  T ir 

Burne-Jones,  Edward 5 

Bums,  John 63 

Burns,  Robert 5 

Burrard,  W.  Dutton 11 

Burton,  E.  de  Witt 77 

Butler,  Lewis 48 

Butler,  W.  F 48 

Byles,  Rev.  John 82 

Byrde,  Margaretta 11 

Byron,  Lord    70 


Cable,  G.  W 

Cadbury,  Edward 

Caddick,  Helen 

Caird,  Lindsay  H 

Caird,  Mona 

Callahan,  Tames  Horton 

Cameron,  V.  Lovett 

Campbell,  R.  J 

Campbell,  Mrs.  Vers 

Canning,  Albert  S.  G 

Capes,  Bernard    

Capuana,  Luigi    

Carey,  Charles 

Carducci,  Giosue 

Carlile,  W.  and  Victor  W 

Carroll,  Lewis    

Carse,  Roland 48, 

Cartwright,  Mrs.  Edward  .... 

Caryl,  Valentine 

Cayley,  George  John 

Cayley-Webster,  H 

de  Cervantes,  Miguel 

Cesaresco,   Countess    Martin- 

engo 34,  39,   49,   67, 

Chamberlain,  Charles  J 

Chambers,  R.  W 

Chapman,  George  

Chesson,  Nora     

Chevalier,  Albert 

Chomley.C.  H 

Choyce,  James 

Chrichfield,  George  VV 

Christy,  Robert 

Church,  Prof.  Alfred  J 

Clare,  Austin    

Clark.,  H.  A 

Clayden,P.'W 

Cleeve,  Lucas 

Clcrigb,  Arthur   

Clifford,  Hugh  

Clifford,  Mrs.  W.  K 


49  ! 
67  I 
13 


T.  FISHER  UNWIN'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


INDEX  of  AUTHORS,  some  ILLUSTRATORS,  and  EDITORS.— co«W. 


PAGE 

Clyde,  Constance    i3 

Cobbleigh,  Tom 13 

Cobden,  Richard 39.  60 

Cole,  Timothy     35 

Coleridge,  Lord 39,  49 

Collet, Collet Dobson 60 

Collingw'ood,  S.  D 35,  39 

CoUodi,  C 82,  83 

Compton,  Henry   46 

Congdon,  Charles  T 4° 

Congreve,  William 5 

Conrad,  Joseph   13 

Conway,  Sir  William  Martin  . .  67 

Cooke,  Frances  E 83 

Coolidge,  W.  A.  B 67 

Copinger,  W.  A 49 

Corkran,  Henriette 13 

Cornaby,  W.  A 67 

Cornish,  Vaughan 67 

Costelloe,  Ray 13 

Cotterell,  Constance 13 

Courlander,  Alphonse    13 

Courtney,  Leonard 60 

Cowper,' William 4 

Cox,  Harold 60,  61 

Cox,  Palmer 83 

Cox,  Rev.  Samuel 77 

Crampton ,  George 13 

Crawford,  F.  Marion 13 

de    Crespigny,    Mrs.    Philip 

Champion 13 

Crockett,  S.  R 13 

Crompton,  Henry 61 

Crottie,  JuJiaM 14 

Cruiksbank,  George 82 

Cruso,  H.  A.  A 4 

Dale.T.F 86 

Dalin,  Talmage 14 

Dalton,    Moray 14 

Dalziel,  James 14 

Dana,  Chas.  A 85 

Danson,  John  Towne 61 

Daudet,  .\lphonse 82,  83 

Davenport,  Arthur 67 

Davenport,  Herbert  Joseph..  61 

Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys  49 

Davidson,  Augusta  M.  Camp- 
bell   68 

Davidson,  Lillias  Campbell. . .   14 

Davies,  Mary 81 

Davis,  Richard  Harding    68 

Davis,  Thomas 49,  87 

Dawson,  W.  Harbutt 

Dean,  Mrs.  Andrew 14 

Deasy,  H.  H.  P 68 

Defoe,  Daniel 82,  83 

von  Degen  14 

Degeuer,  Herman  A.  L 86 

Dekker,  Thomas 5 

De  la.Rey,  Mrs.  General 40 

Dethridge,  G.  Olivia 33 

Dew-Smith,  Mrs 14 

Dewsnup,  Ernest  R 61 

Dickeson,  Alfred 14 

Dietrich,  Max 85 

Dietzel,  H 6 

Dieulafoy,  Marcel  Auguste  ...  49 

Digby,  William 68 

Dillon,  B.  J 78 

Dittrich,  Hermann    35,  75 

Dodge,  Walter  Phelps  39,  49,  83 

Douglas,  Sir  George 3 

Douglas,  Prof.  R.  K 49 

Dowie,  Menie  Muriel 46 

Drachman,  Holger 14 

Drosines,  Georgios. . .  .14,  82,  83 
Drury,  Robert 46 


PAGE 

Dryden,  John 5 

DiJbi,  H 67 

Duff,  J.Wight I 

Duffy,  Bella 49 

Duffy,  Sir  Chas.  Gavan 

33.  39.  40,  49.   87 

Duhamel,  H 67 

Du  Maurier 36 

Dumillo,  Alice 14 

Dunckley,  Henry 60 

Dundas,  Christian 14 

Diintzer,  Heinrich 40 

Dutt.  Romesh   14 

Dutt,  W.  A 68 

Dyer,  John 4 

van  Dyke,  John  C 35 

Dyke,  Watson 14 

Eastwick,  Robert  W 46 

von  Ebner-Eschenbach,  Marie  14 

Echegaray,  Don  Jos6 4 

Eckenstein,  Oscar 68 

Edwards,  Owen  M 49,  87 

van  Eeden,  F 14 

Egerton,  Hugh  B 43 

Eivind,  R 83 

Elias,  Frank 61 

tliot,  George 68 
lizabeth  of    England,  Prin- 
cess       40 

Ellenberger,  Professor    35 

Elliott,  Ebenezer 61 

Ellis,  Havelock   56 

Blphinstone,  Lady 78 

Elster,  Ernst    4 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo 40 

Enock,  C.  Reginald    68 

Erskine,  Mrs.  Steuart 35 

Escott.  T.  H.S 49,  61 

Evans,  Howard 42 

Evans,  S.  Hope 83 

Evans,  Thomas  W 40 

Evans,  W.  Sandford 85 

Bwald,  Alex.C 5 

Eyre-Todd,  George 44 

Faguet,  Emile i 

Falconer,  Lanoe 14 

Farge  iSee  La  Farge). 

Farquhar,  George 5 

Farrer,  J.  A 14 

Farrow,  G.  E 84 

Fawcett,  Mrs.  Henry 65 

Fegan,  Bertie 86 

Ferguson,  Sir  Samuel 14,  87 

Ferri,  Prof.  Enrico 33 

Field,  Michael 4 

Findlay,  Frederick  R.  N 68 

Fisher,  Harrison 35 

Fisher,  Lala 11 

Fitz-Gerald.B.A 68 

Fitzgerald,  Percy.  .15,  35,41,  50 

Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  J 40 

Flammarion,  Camille    75 

Fletcher,  J.  S 15 

Fletcher,  John 5 

Flowerdew,  Herbert 15 

Fogazzaro,  Antonio    15 

Ford,  Douglas 44 

Ford,  John 5 

Ford,  Mary 83 

Foreman,  John   68 

Forrest,  J .  Dorsey 50 

Forrest,  R.  E 15 

Forster,  L.  M 81 

Foster,  George  Burman 78 

Foster,  J.  J 35,  50 

Foster,  Sir  Michael 38 


PAGE 

Frapan,  lUe 15 

Eraser,  Join.       15 

Frazer,  K.  W i,  50 

Frederic,  Harold 15 

Freeman,  Prof.  E.  A 50 

French,  Henry  Willard 15 

Fuller,  Margaret  40 

Furness,  Annette 15 

Furniss,  Harry 36 

Gaggin,  John 68 

Gambler,  J .  W 40 

Ganconagh  (W.  B.  Yeats)  ....  24 

Gannon,  John  P 50 

Gardiner,  A.  G 62 

Gardiner,  J.  H 78 

Gardner,  W.  J 50 

Gamett,  Richard 4,  45 

Gebuza   6x 

Geen,  Philip 85 

George,  E.  A 78 

Gertrude,  Aunt 82 

Gibb,  B.  J.  W. 52 

"  Gil"     13 

Gilman,  Arthur  50,  5a 

Gilman,  Daniel  Coit 78 

Gissing,  George 13 

Glover,  John  R 42 

Goethe,  W 4 

Gomme,  G.  Lawrence  ....  50,  61 

Goodenough,  Rev.  G 86 

Gordon,  Charles 30 

Gordon,  H.  Laing 44 

Gordon,  Lady  Duff 43 

Gordon,  William  Clark 33 

Gorky,  Maxim 15 

Gosse,  Edmund 6 

Gould,  F.  Carruthers 61,84 

Gould,  G.  M 40 

Grace,  R.  W 84 

Graham,  R.  B.  Cunninghame  .   68 

Grant,  Daniel 62 

Graves,  Alfred  Perceval. .  .43,  87 

Gray,  E.  Conder 40 

Gray,  Thomas 50,  73 

Greeley,  Horace 40 

Green,  Anna  Katherine 16 

Greene,  Robert    5 

Gregory,  Lady 34 

Gribble,  Francis 68 

Grieve,  Ed.  B 86 

Griffiths,  D.R 16 

Griffiths,  Arthur   16,  50 

Guarracino,  Beatrice 81 

Guest,  Lady  Charlotte 16,  87 

Guyer,  Michael  F 75 

Gwynn,  Stephen  36 

Gyp 16 

Hackwood,  F.  W 86 

Haldane,  Richrad  Burton 62 

Hale,  Susan   50 

Hales,  A.  G 16 

Hall,  Charles  Cuthbert 78 

Hall,  Moreton 4 

Hall,  R.  N 68 

Halp^rine-Kaminski,  H 46 

Hamilton,  Cosmo 15 

Hamilton,  Lord  Ernest 14 

Hannah,  J.  E 50 

Hardie,  J.  Keir    65 

Harding,  Ellison 15 

Hardy,  Rev.  E.  J. 

16,  41,  68,  78,  81,  87 

Harland,  Marian 81 

Harper,  S.  Ecclcston 32 

Harper,  William  Rainy 78 

Harrison,  Mrs.  Burton 16 


T.  FISHER  UNWIN'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


INDSX  of  AUTHORS,  some  ILLUSTRATORS,  and  EDITORS. -co»W. 


PAGE 

Harrison,  Mrs.  Darent i6 

Harrison,  Jane  E 36 

Harting,  J.  E 75 

Harvie-Brown,  J .  A 75 

Hasen,  Ch.  Downer 50 

Hasler,  G 67 

Hatfield,  Henry  Rand    86 

Hauff,  Wilhelm 83 

Hawkesworth,  Alfred 69 

Hay,  John    42 

Hay,  William 16 

Hayden,  Arthur 36 

Heine,  Heinrich 4 

Heinemann,  Karl    4 

Hemaiis,  Mrs 87 

Hennessey,  J .  W 83 

Henshaw,  Julia  W 16 

Henson,  H.  He&sley 78 

Henty,  G.  A 16,  85 

Herbert,  George......  4,   7S,  87 

Herford,  C.  H 5 

Herrick,  Christine  Terhune  ...  81 

Herring,  Frances  E 69 

Hertz,  Gerald  Berkeley 50 

Hertz-Garten.  Theodor 16 

Heywood,  Thomas 5 

Heywood,  William 69 

Hicks,  John  W 86 

Hill,  Edmund  L 4 

Hill,  Geoffry 78 

Hill,  George  Birkbeck    43 

Hill,  Robert  T.  '. 69 

Hindlip,  Lord    69 

Hinkson,  H.  A 17 

Hirst,  Francis  W 62 

Hobbes,  John  Oliver  ..4,,  17,  69 

Hobhouse,  L.  T 62 

Hobson,  J.  A 63,  69 

Hocking,  Silas  K 17 

Hodgson,  W.  B 62 

Hoffmann,  E.  T.  A 83 

Hogan,  James  Francis 62 

Holdsworth,  Annie  E 17 

Holmes,  Timothy 38 

Holyoake,  George  Jacob  41 ,  62 ,  86 

Honeyman,  C.'van  Doren  ....  69 

Hornbv,  F.  M 33 

Horne,H.  P 6 

Homiman,  Roy 18 

Horridge,  Frank 41 

Horrwitz,  Ernest    i 

Horton,  R.F 78 

Hosmer,  Prof.  James  K 50 

Houghton,  Louis  Seymore. .. .  50 

Howard,  George  Elliott.  .51,  78 

Howe,  Frederic  C. 62 

Howell,  George 62 

Hueffer,  Ford  H 62,83 

Hudson,  W.  H £3 

Hug,  Lina Si 

Hugessen,  Knatchbull  83 

Hulbert,  H.  B 73 

Hulme,  F.  E 75 

Hume,  Martin  A.  S.    ..43,  5i,  72 

Humphrey,  Fraok  Pope i8 

gumphrey,  Mrs.. 18,  81 

ungerford,  Mrs 18 

Hyde,  Douglas 2,  5,  78,  87 

Ibsen,  Henrik 5 

Indicus 69 

Ingersoll,  Ernest 75 

Iron,  Ralph  (Olive  Schreiner) .  26 

Irving,  Edward 75 

Irving,  Fanny  Belle 18,  85 

Irwin,  H.  C 18 

James,  David  H 51 


PACK 

Jane,  L.  Cecil 51 

Japp,  Alex.  H 41 

Javelle,  Emile 69 

Jay,  Harriett 38 

Jcbb,  Louisa   69 

Jeffery,  Walter 11,   18,  43 

Jenkins,  Rhys  86 

Jenks,  Edward    51 

Jennings,  Edward  W 18 

Jephson,  Henry 62 

Jephson,  Julie 38 

Jepson,  Edgar 18,  84,  87 

Jernigan,T.  R 62 

Jerningham,  Sir  Hubert 18 

Jessopp,  Augustus  ...  .18,  33,  51 

Jewett,  Sarah  Orne 51 

Johnson,  Robert  U 51 

Johnson,  T.  Broad  wood 69 

Jones,  David  Brynmor 51 

Jones,  H.  Stuart 51 

J  ones,  W.  Lewis 2 

Jonson ,  Ben 5 
usserand.J.J 2,  33,  52 

de  Kantzow,  Alfred 3 

Keary,  C.  F 18 

Keene,  Charles 37 

Keller,  Gottfried   18 

Kelly,  J.P.J 52 

Kenjpster,  Aquila 18 

Kerr,  S.  Parnell 69 

Kettle,  Rose  Mackenzie    ..19,  85 

Kiesow,  E.  L 85 

Kildare,  Owen   19 

King,  Clarence 69 

king,  Irving    78 

King,  Joseph 62 

King,  Richard  Ashe   ....44,  87 

Kingsford ,  C.  L 47 

Kinross,  Albert   19 

Kitson,  Arthur    63 

Knight,  William 39 

Ko,  Ta  Sein 78 

Kolokorones,  Theodore 46 

Korolenko,  V 19 

Kroeker,  Kate  Freiligrath    ..83 

Kruger,  Paul  41 

Kruger,  Gustav 78 

Kurz,  Louis 67 

La  Farge 69 

Lambe,  J .  Lawrence 19 

Landon,  Mary 19 

Lane,  Ralph 63 

Lane-Poole,  Stanley 5a 

Langbridge,  Rosamond 19 

Langland,  WiUiam 2 

Latane,  John  H 52,  63 

Lanyon,  H.  St.  Martin 19 

Laurenson,  Arthur 41 

Laverton,  Mrs.  H.  S 19 

Law,  Alice  3 

Lawless,  Emily 53 

Lawson,  Sir  Wilfrid 61 

Lawton,  Frederick    36    42 

Lear.  Edward 45 

Le  Blond,  Mrs.  Aubrey. . .  .69,  70 

Lebon,  Andr6 52 

Le  Bon,  Gustave 33 

Lee,  Vernon 19,  33,  52 

Lee-Hamilton,  Eugene 19 

Legge,  Helen  Edith 36 

Leigh,  M.  Cordelia 79 

LelandCh.  G.  ("  Breitmann  ")  19 

Lentheric,  Charles 70 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  P 60 

Levasseur,  R 63 

Levy,  Amy 5 

Lewis,  Frank  C: 20 


PAGE. 

Leyds,  W.  J 52 

Liddcll,  Arthur  R 85 

Lilly,  W.  S 52 

Litta,  Duke 20 

Little,  A.  G 52 

Little,  Mrs.  Archibald  ....2C,  70 

Lloyd,  Albert  B 70 

Lloyd,  H.  D 63 

Lloyd,  Wallace 20 

Locke,  James 20 

Loeb,  Jacques    75 

Lombroso,  Prof.  C 34 

Lonergan,  W.  F 52 

Lord,  Walter Frewen 42 

Lorraine,  Rupert    20 

Low,  Sidney 63 

Lowes,  Mrs -^t 

Lucas,  Alice 79 

Lumsden,  James 70 

Lunn,  Henry  S 63 

Lynch,  E.  M .20,  87 

Lyons,  A.  Neil    20 

Lyons,  Albert  E in 

Lyttelton,  Edith 5 

Mac,  J 70 

McAulay,  Allan  20 

MacBride,  MacKenzie 20 

McCarthy,  Justin    42,52 

McClelland,  J 63 

McCormick,  A.  D 67 

MacDerraott,  Martin 34,  87 

MacDonagh,  Michael  .  .39,  40,  87 

Macdonald,  Alexander 70 

Macdonaid,  George 20 

Macdonald,  Leila 5 

Macdonald,    Robejrt 84 

von  Mach,  Richard 63 

Mcllraith,  J.R .58 

Mcllwraith,  J.  N ;83 

McKendrick,  John  G 41 

Mackintosh,  C.  W 39 

Mackintosh,  John 53 

McMahan,  A.  Benneson 7° 

McManus,  Blanche 84 

MacManus,  James 20 

McManus,  L 20 

MacphaJl,  Andrew 79 

Macy,  J  esse    63 

Maddison,  F 42 

Magnay,  Sir  William so 

Mahaffy,  Prof.  J.  P 53 

Malet,  Lucas 34 

Mallet,  Sir  Louis 60,  63  66 

Mallik,  Manmath  C 34,  70 

Mann,  Mary  E 21,  87 

Marble,  Annie  Russell    2 

Mario,  Jessie  White 44,   53 

Mark,  H.  Thiselton 79 

Marlowe,  Christopher 6 

Marquis,  T.  G 21 

Marsh,  R'chard 21 

Marshall,  Thomas 34 

Martin,  Alfred  Jf 79 

Martyn,  Edward 21 

Martyn,  Ethel  K 33 

Mason,  Eugen  5 

Maspero,  G 53 

Massey,  Gerald    53 

Massinger,  Philip 6 

Massingham,  H.  W 63 

Masson,  Gustave 53 

Masterman,  C.  F.  G 34 >  62 

Mathews,  Shailer 77,  79 

I  Maude,  Edwin 42 

Maugham,  W.  Somerset 21 

Maurice,  C.  Edmund 53 

du  Maurier,  G 36 


T.  FISHER  UNWIN'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


PAGE 

Mayne,  Ethel  Colbuni 2 1  j 

Mazzanti,  C. 83 

Mazzini,  Joseph 79 

Meade,  Mrs.  L.  T 3i,  85 

Meakin,  Budgett 63 

Meirion,  Ellinor 21 

Mencken,  Henry  L 34 

Middleton,  Thomas 6 

MikouUtch,  V 2t 

Milford,  L.  S 53 

Millar,  J.  H a 

Miller,  Frank  Justus 6 

Miller,  William 53.  7° 

Mills,  B.  J 2 

Mills,  Wesley 75 

Milne,  James 21 

Milyoukov,  Paul   63 

Minns,  BUis  H i 

Mistral,  Fr6d6ric 6 

Mitchell,  S.  Weir 2i,  45 

Moffat,  John  Smith 42 

Molesworth,  Mrs 83 

de  Molinari,  G 63 

de  Montagnac,  Noel 7i 

Montagu,  Lily  H 21 

de  Montalban,  D.  J.  P 40 

Montgomery,  K.  L 2 1 

Moore,  A.  W 53 

Moore,  George 6,  21,  34 

Morel,  B.  D 63 

Morfill,  W.  R 3  4 

Morley,  John 39 

Morris,  Mrs.  Frank 83 

Morris,  Lydia  J 42 

Morrison,  W.  Douglas. ...  34,  54 

Moscheles,  Felix 36 

Mosso,  Angelo  36,  71 

Mottram,  William 2 

Miigge,  M.  A 34 

Muir,  Robert  James 22,  34 

Mummery,  A.  F 71 

Murray,  David 54 

Murray,  J.  Clark 22 

Myron,  A.  Kiel 6 

Needham,  Raymond 54 

Negri,  Gaetano 79.  4I1  54 

Nelson,  Jane 22 

Nesbit,  B 22,  84 

Newman,  Edward 75 

Newton,  John 38 

Nicholson,  Brinsley 6 

Nicholson,  F.  C 5 

Nicholson,  L 6 

Nicholson,  R.  A 2 

Nicolay,  John  G 42 

Nicolson,  Arch.  K. 83 

Nietzsche,  Friedrich 34 

Nieuwenkamp,  VV.  O.  J; 3' 

Noble,  M.  A; 86 

Noel,  Roden     6,  64 

Nordau,  Max 36 

Norman,  Henry 71 

Norman-Neruda 71 

Normyx 22 

Norris,  W.  B: 22 

Northcote,  James 36 

Ober,  F.  A 71 

O'Brien,  R:  Barry 54,  64,  83 

O'Clerigh,  Arthur 49 

O'Connor,  T.P 38,54 

O'Donnell,  C.  J 64 

Ogilvie,  Will  H 71 

O'Grady,  Standish. .  .22,  83,  87 

Olcott,  Lucy 69 

Oliphant,  Mrs 22,  83 

Oliver,  S:  P 46 

Oman,  C.  W;  C 54 


PAGK 

Oman,  John  Campbell 79 

Omond,'  G.  W.  T 22 

Oppenheim,  A.  1 75 

Orczy,  Baroness 22 

Orsi,  Prof  Pietro 54 

Otway,  Thomas 5 

Ouida 22 

Onthwaite,  R.  M 12 

Owen,  Charles 22 

Page,  H.  A 43 

Paget,  Stephen 41 

Pain,  Barry 22,  87 

Pais,  Ettore 54 

Pankhurst,  Mrs 65 

Parke,  A.  J 37 

Parker,  Theodore   79 

Parsons,  John  Denham 76 

Paulsen,  Friedrich 79 

Payne,  J .  F 44 

Pennell,  Charles 37 

Pennell,  Elizabeth  Robins ....  36 

Pennell,  Joseph 36 

de  Pentheny,  S: 22 

Perrin,  F 67 

Pfleidcrer,  Otto 79 

Phelps,  William  Lyon 5 

Philpott,  Hugh  B 80 

Pidgin,  Charles  F 22 

Pike,  G.  Holden 39,  43,  45 

Pike,  OUver  G 76 

Pink,  Alfred    82 

Pinnock,  James 7r 

Pinsent,  Ellen  F 22 

Pinto,  Ferd.  Mendez 46 

Pitt-Lewis,  G 41 

Playne,  C.  B 22 

Plowden,  A.  C 43 

de  Polen,  Narcisse 23 

Porter,  C 7 

Potapenko,  J 23 

Pott,  F.  L.  Hawks 54 

Power,  D'Arcy 41 

Praed,  Mrs.  Campbell  ....23,  43 

Presland,  John    6 

Prichard,  K.  and  Hesketh 23 

Proal,  Louis 34 

Pryce,  G 23 

PuUen-Burry,  B 71 

Pusey,  S.  E.  Bouverie 54 

Pyle,  Howard 46 

de  Quevedo,  Francisco 37 

Quin,  Ethel Ji 

Ragozin,  Z&iaide  A 54 

Ravenshear,  A.  F 64 

Ravenste'n,  G.  B 80 

Rawlinson,  Professor  Geonjo  .  55 

Rea,  Thomas 3 

Read,  C.  Stanford 82 

Reeth,  Allan    25 

Reid,  Forrest 25 

van  Rensselaer,  Mrs 37 

Roy,  Guido 71 

Rhead,  G.  WooUiscroft 37 

Rhys,  Ernest 5 

Rhys,  John   55 

Richardson,  Mrs.  Aubrey  ....  25 

Richardson,  E 6 

Richings,  Emily 25 

Richmond,  Mrs 76 

Riley,  Thomas 83 

Rita 25 

Robinson,  A.  Mary  F 6 

Robinson,   Paschal 80 

Roche,  James  Jeffrey 46 

Rodgers,  Joseph 7i 

Rodway,  James 55,  72 


PAGE 

Rogers,   Thorold 55,  64 

Ronald,  M'ary  82 

Roosevelt,  Florence 25 

Roosevelt,  Theodore 72 

Rosegarth,   Brian 25 

Rosegger,  Peter 25 

Ross,  J  anet 34 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel 34 

Rowbotham,  F.  Jameson  25,55,84 

Rowlands,  Lilian  Bowen  ....  25 

Rowsell,  Mary 83 

Roxby,  Percy  M 40 

Rudaux,  L 76 

Russell,  Charles  E 64 

Russell,  Sir  Edward 34 

Russell,  George  W.  B 34 

Russell,  T.  Baron 34 

Russell,  W.  Clark 25 

Rutherford,  Mark 25 

I^yley,  J.  Horton 40 

Ryves,  K.  C 26 

Sabatier,  Paul 64,  80 

St.  Hilaire,  Philippe 26 

St.  John,  Sir  Spencer 38 

Saintsbury ,  George 65 

Sala,  George  Augustus 26 

Sanders,  Newton 26 

Santayana,  George 7 

Sarnia 26 

Scaife,  A.  H 55 

Schallenberger,  V 26 

Schiller,  Friedrich 7 

von  Schlicht,  Baron 26 

Schmidt,  Max 34 

Schmidt,  Rudolph 76 

Schreiner,  C.  S.  Cronwright  . .  65 

Schreiner,  Olive 26,  65 

SchuUer,  Leo  Sarkadi 7 

Scidmore,  Eliza  Ruhamah...  72 

Scotson-Clark 37 

Scott,  Sir  Walter 26 

Scott-Blliott,  G.  F 72 

Scully,  W.C 26 

Searelle,  Luscombe 72 

Seccombe,  Thomas 43 

Segantini,  Giovanni 37 

de  Segovia,  Pablo 37 

Seignobos,  Charles 35 

Selleck,  W.  C 80 

SeUon,  B.  Mildred 84 

Sergeant,  Lewis 55 

Service,  Robert  W 7 

Seymour,  Frederick  H.  A 37 

Seym ">ur,  Major-General   ....  72 

Seymc  t.  Lady 43 

Shadweil,  Thomas 6 

Shakespeare,  William 7 

Shaw,  Albert 65 

Sheehan.  Rev.  P.  A 26 

Sheehy-Skeffington,  F 43 

Shelley,  Percy 7° 

Shenstone,  Mildred 26 

Sheppard,  Arthur 86 

Shervinton,  Kathleen 44 

Sherwood,  A.  Curtis  a6 

Shipp,  John 46 

Shirley,  James 6 

ShoU,  Anna  Maclure 26 

Shuckburgh,  B.  S 55 

Shuddick,  R 86 

Sibley,  N.  W 65 

Sibree,  James 73 

Sidney,  Margaret    84 

Sigerson,  George 7 

Sillard,  Robert  M 44 

Simpson,  Wm.  (Crimean  S.)  . .  84 

Small,  Albion  W. 65 

Smith,  F.  Clifford 26 


T.  FISHER  UNWIN'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


INDEX  of  AUTHORS,  some  ILLUSTRATORS  and  EDITORS.— cowirf.  vii 


PACK 

Smith,  F.  E 65 

Smith,  Goldwin   3,  40 

Smith,  Isabella 26 

Smith,    John 27 

Smith,  Mrs.  S.  H 44 

Smith,  T.  Berkeley 72 

Smyth,  Eleanor  C 41 

Snell,  F.  C 76 

Snow,  Isabel 27 

Sollas,  W.J 76 

Somerset,  Lady  Henry 86 

Spelling,  T.  C 65 

Spence,  Catherine 21 

Spicer,  Howard 86 

Spinner,  Alice 27 

Stacpoole.  H.deVere    27,87 

Stanley,  Edward 55 

Stead,  Alfred  72 

Stead,  Richard 51 

Stead,  W.  T 65 

Steele,  Richard 6 

Stein,  M.  Aurel 72 

Stephens,  H.  Morse 55 

Stevens.  Nina 27 

Stevenj,  William  Barnes 65 

Stilhnan,  W.J 37 

Stokes  Sir  William 44 

Slopes,  Mrs.  C.  C 65 

Stott,  Beatrice 27 

Strachey,  John  St.  Loe....5,  76 

Strain,  B.  H 27 

Strasburger,  Eduard 72 

Stratilesco,  Tereza 72 

Street,  Eugene  E 72 

Stuart,  C.  Douglas 37 

Stubbs,  Chas.  William 80 

Sturgis,  Russell 37 

Stuttard,  John 76 

Summers,  Dorothy 27 

Sutclifie,  Halliwell 27,  72 

Svenske,  Anders 65 

Swain,  A.  E.  H 6 

Swift,  Dean 44 

Swift,  Benjamin 27 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles.     6 
Symonds,  John  Addington  . .     6 

Symonds,  Margaret    72 

Symons,  Arthur     6 

Synge,  Mrs.  Hamilton 27 

Tadema,  L.  Alma 59 

Taine,  Adolphe  Hippolyte 72 

Tayler,  F.  Jenner 28 

Taylor,  Austin     65 

Taylor,  Charles  M 72 

Taylor,  Ellen '28 

Taylor,  J.  F 43,  87 

Taylor,  Mrs.  John 43 

Tetley ,  J .  George 44 

Theal.  Dr.  G.  McCall 57 

Thomas,  Edward 87 

Thomas,  Emile 58 

Thomas,  W.  Jenkyn 


P.^OE 

Thomas,  William  J 34 

Thompson,  Helen  Bradford  . .   76 

Thompson,  H.  Gordon 86 

Thring,  Rev.  Edward 34 

Thynne,  R 28 

Tirebuck,  William 44 

Todhunter,  Dr.  John 43,  87 

Tomson,  Graham  R 4 

Tourneur,  Cvril 6 

Townsend,  C.  W 72 

Townshend,  Dorothea 43 

Tregarthen,  Greville 58 

Treherne,  Philip 28,  44 

Trelawny,  Edward  J 46 

Troubridge,  Lady 28 

Trowbridge,  W.  R.  H.. 28,  49,  58 

Truscott,  L.  Parry 28 

Tucker,  Genevieve 82 

Tuin,  W.  J 37 

Tunison,  Joseph  S 7 

Tumbull,  A.  R.  R 73 

Turner,  Ethel 28,  84 

Turner,  Samuel 73 

Turguan,  Joseph 58 

Twain,  Mark    65 

Tweeddale,  John 28 

Tynan,  Katherine 7 

Tyrrell,  George    80 

Unwin,  A.  Harold 76 

Uuwin,  Mrs.  Cobden 62 

Usher,  Sir  Thomas 42 

Valentine,  E.  U 32 

Vamb6ry,  Arminius      44,  46,  58 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John 6 

Vanderlip,  Washington  B 73 

Vaughan,  Henry 87 

Veldheer,  J .  G 37 

Verga,  Giovanni 32 

Verity,  A.  W 5 

Viele,  Herman  K 32 

Vierge,  Daniel 37 

Villari,  Luigi   37,  65,  73 

Villari,  Pasquale     . . .  .42,  43,  58 

Villars,P 46 

Villiers,  Brougham 65 

ViUiers,  Chas.  Pelham  ....60,66 

Vincent,  Arthur 45 

Voigt,  J.C 58 

Volkhovsky,  Felix 83 

Wagner,  Charles    80 

Wallis,  Braithwaite 73 

Walpole,  Sir  Spencer 45 

Walpole-Bond,  J.  A 77 

Walsh,  CM 7 

Ward,  Mrs.  Humphry    85 

Ward,  W.  C 6 

Warden,  Florence 32 

Waring,  Henry  F 80 

Warren,  Algernon 86 


PAGF. 

Warry,  C.  King   32 

Watson,  Aaron   45 

Watson,  J  ohn 77 

Watson,  John  Reay 32 

Watson,  Margaret 3* 

Watson,  R.  Spence    45  66 

Watson,  William 7,  46 

Watts,  Henry  Edw 58 

Webster,  Alexander 58 

Webster,  H.Cayley 73 

Webster,  John 6 

Welby,  Lord     60,  66 

WeUby,M.S 73 

Wells,  H.G 32,  34 

Wendell,  Barrett 3 

Werner,  A 73 

Westell,  W.  Percival 77 

Whadcoat,  Gordon  Cuming  . .  82 

Whistler,  J .  McNeill 35 

Whitaker,  Samuel  F.  G 7 

White,  Hester 32 

White,  William 66 

Whitechurch,  Victor  L 32,  87 

Whitehouse,  H.  Remsen    38 

Whitman,  Sidney ;  58 

Whitty,  E.  M 59 

Wiel,  Alathea 59 

Wilberforce,  William 45 

Wilkens,  Mary  E 32 

Wilkinson,  Kosmo 45 

Williams,  Leonard 83 

Williams,  Meta 83 

Williams,  Rowland £0 

Willamson,  C.  N 32,  87 

Williamson,  W.  H 32 

Willmore,  Edward 7 

Wilson,  Claude    73 

Wilton,  Jos 32 

de  Windt,  Harry 73 

Witchell,  Charles  A 77 

Witt,  Paul 32 

Wood,  Katharine  B 82 

Woods,  H.  C 73 

Worsley,  A. 80 

Workman,  Fanny  Bullock ....  73 

Workman,  William  Hunter. . .  73 

Wright,  Arnold 86 

Wright,  H.  K 35 

Wright,  H.  M 73 

Wycherley,  William 6 

Wylwynne,  Kythe 32 

Yeats,  Jack  B 83 

Yeats,  W.B 7,32,34 

Yeigh,  Kate  Westlake    32 

Yeld,  George 67,  73 

Ystridde,  G 33 

Zimmermann,  Jeremiah    73 

Zimmern,  Alice 59,  83,  85 

Zimmem,  Helen 59,  85 

Zurbriggen,  Mattias 73 


INDEX  in  order  of  Titles 


PAGE 

Abbot  (The)    26 

Abyssinia  (Sport  and  Travel).   69 

Adam  (Robert)  Artist 35 

Addresses     34 

Adelphi  Library  (The) « 

Admiral  Phillip 43 

AdmiralVernon  and  the  Navy  44 
Adula  Alps  of  the  Leopo'itine 

Range  (The)    67 

Adventure  Series  (The)  ....  46 
Adventures    of    a     Bloc  kade 

Runner 46 

Adventures  of  a  Supercargo. .  10 
Adventures  of  a  Younger  Son  46 

Adventures  of  a  Dodo 84 

Adventures    of    James    Sher- 

vington     lo 

Adventures  on  the  Roof  of  the 

World   69 

iEsop's  Fables    83 

Aga  Mirza  (The  Adventures  of)  18 

Age  of  the  Earth  (The) 76 

.Alexander's  Empire 53 

Alfred  the  Great 4 

Almayer's  Folly   13 

Along  the  Labrador  Coast  . .   72 

Alpine  Memories    69 

Alps  (My  Climbs  in  the)  ....  71 
Alps  to  the  Andes  (From  the)  73 

Amazing  Duke  (The) 20 

Amaranthus    4 

Amarj'Uis   14 

Ambassador  (The) 4 

America  (Literary  History  of)  3 
American  Civil  War  (Battles 

and  Leaders  of  the) 51 

American  Commerce 86 

American  Literature  (Heralds 

of)     2 

American    Literature   (Short 

History  of) i 

American     Opinion     of     the 

French  Revolution 50 

American  Railway  Organiza- 
tion    61 

American  Scholar  (The)  ....  79 
American  Workman  (The)  ...   63 

Among  the  Man-Eaters 68 

Among  the  People  of  British 

Columbia    69 

Among  the  Syringas 21 

Andes  and  the  Amazon  (The)   68 

Anglo-Americans 12 

Anglo-Italian  Library  (The)  .    66 

Anglo-Saxon  (The)    48 

Animal  Micrology 75 

Animals  I  Have  Known 74 

Anne  of  Geierstein 26 

Another  Englishwoman's  Love 

Letters    22 

Another  View  of  Industrialism  59 
Another  Wicked  Woman  ....   22 

Anthony  Jasper 11 

Antiquary  (The) 26 

Appreciation     of     the    Bible 

(The  New)  bo 

Arabs  (LiteraryHistory  of  the)  3 
Arcady  :   for  Better  for  Worse  51 

Arden  Massiter 10 

Aristotle's  Theory  of  Conduct  34 
Armaments  (The  Burden  of).  60 

Army  Refonn 62 

Art  and  Artists  (On) 36 

Artist's   Letters   from   Japan  69 


PAGE 

Artist  Songs    6 

Arts  of  Design  (The) 37 

As  a  Tree  Falls 28 

Ascent  of  Man  (The)    74 

As  Others  See  Us 14 

Aspirate  (Tlie)    78 

Assisi     (Golden     Sayings    of 

Giles  of) 80 

Assyria   54 

Astronomy  for  Amateurs  ....  75 
Atrocities    of    Justice   under 

British  Rule    59 

Augustus  (Life  and  Times  of).  55 

Australia  (The  Real)     67 

Australian  Bushrangers  (His- 
tory of)    48 

Australian     Commonwealth 

(The) 58 

Australian  Girlhood  (My)....  43 

Australian  Sheep  and  Wool. .  69 

Austria   58 

Autumn  Leaves 19 

Avocat  Patelin  (L*) 7 

Awakening  of  a  Race  (The)  .  59 

Baboo  English 86 

Bachelor  in  Aicady  (A) 27 

Bachelor  Maid  (A) t6 

Baile's  Strand  (On)    7 

Baldwin    33 

Balfour's  Pamphlet  (A  Reply)  61 

Balfourism 60 

Balkans  (The) 53 

Bamford's  Passages 59 

Barbara  Cunlifle 27 

Barbarian  Invasions  in  Italy. .  58 

Barbary  Corsairs  (The; 52 

Bards  of  Gael  and  Gall 3 

Battles   and    Leaders   of    the 

American  Civil  War 51 

Beach  and  Bogland  (By)....  9 

Beaconsfield  (Lord) 38 

Beauclerk  (Lady  Diana) 35 

Beauty  Adorned 18 

Beckwourth  (James  P.,  Life 

and  Adventures  of)   46 

Beetle  (The)    21 

Before  I  Forget   39 

Begliojoso  :    A  Revolutionary 

Princess 38 

Behind  the  Arras  (From) 13 

Belcaro  33 

Belle  Marie  (La) 19 

Belle  Nivernaise  (La) 83 

Bending  of  the  Bough  (The) . .  6 
Benyowsky     (Memoirs     and 

Travels  of) 46 

Bergen  Worth 20 

Bernard  (Claude)    38 

Bernese  Oberland  (The) 67 

Besant  (Anne) 38 

Betrothed  (The)   26 

Bible    as  English   Literature 

(The)     78 

Big  Game  Shooting  in  South 

Africa    68 

Birdland  (In) 76 

Bird  Life  (British) 77 

Bird  Life  in  Wild  Wales 77 

Birds  I  Have  Known 74 

Bird     Skinning     and      Bird 

Stuffing 75 

Bird's  Nest  (The) 77 

bishop  Doyle     40,  87 

Black  Dwarf 26 


PAGE 

Black  Mary  20 

Black  Shilling  (The) 9 

Blue  Gown  (In   the   Land  of 

the)    70 

Blue  Lagoon  (The)    27,  87 

BlueLilies    12 

Bog  of  Stars  (The) 22,  87 

Bohemia 53 

Bohemia  with  DuMjurier  (In)  36 

Bonaparte  in  Egypt 48 

Bond  of  Blood  (The) 15 

Bossism  and  Monopoly    ....   65 

Bourgeois  (The)    27 

Boy  and  the  Angel  (The). ...   82 

Bradlaugh  (Charles) 38 

Brahmans  (The) 79 

Brand   5 

Breachly  (Black  Sheep) 10 

Breakfast,  Dinner,  and  Supper 

(Quickest  Guide  to) 82 

Breitmann  in  Germany-Tyrol  iq 
Bride  of  Lammermoot  (The) . .  26 
Bright  Days  in   Wterrie  Eng- 
land     69 

Brightwen,     Mrs.    (Life   and 

Thoughts) 38 

Brightwen  Series  (The) 76 


Britain  (Early)   49 

British  Bird  Life    77 

British  City  (The) 62 

British  Columbia  (,'\mong  the 

People  of)    09 

British  Diplomacy  (The  Story 

of)     61 

British  East  Africa 69 

British  History  (Literary  In- 
fluence in)   I 

British  India 50 

British  Industries  under  Free 

Trade    60 

British  Political  Leaders  ....  42 
British  Regiments  (Famous) . .  50 
British     Writers   on    Classic 

Lands i 

Brodie  (Sir  Benjamin) 38 

Brooke  (Rajah) 38 

Brown  (Captain  John) 38 

Brown  Owl  (The) 83 

Brown,  V.C 8,  85 

Brownies  in  the  Philippines  . .  83 
Buccaneers  and  Marooners  of 

America  (The) 46 

Buchanan  (Robert)    38 

Budapest    72 

Buddhist  India 49 

Builders  of  Greater  Britain..  38 
Bulgarian  Exarcha^v.  (Ync). .   63 

Bundle  of  Life  (A) 17 

Burden  of  Armaments  (The).   6o 

Buried  City  of  Kenfig 50 

Burmese     Language    (Hand- 
book of  the) 78 

Burton(The  Real  Sir  Richard)  39 

Bush  Honeymoon  (A) 8 

Business  of  Life  (The) 81 

Butterfly  (The) 76 

Bygones  Worth  Remembering  41 

Byron  in  Italy    yo 

Byzantine  Empire  (The) 54 

Cabot  (John  and  Sebastian)..   39 

Cameo  Series  (The) 3 

Camera  in  the  Fields  (The) . .  76 
Canada  (Children's  Study)  , .  83 
Canada  (Story  of  the  Nitions)  48 


INDEX  IN  ORDER  OF  TITLES.-^»ft««crf. 


Time 


Climbing  in   the   Knrakoram- 

!      Himjlavas    67 

Canada  To-day 69  ,  Climbs  in  the  Alps  (My) 71 


Canada     in     Harvest 

(Tlirough) 


85  I  Climbs  in  New  Zealand  Alps. 

86!  Climbs    of     Norman-Neruda  71 

,      ,    ,  87'Clive  (Lord) 39 

Cape  Colony  (Everyday  Life).'  68}Cobden   and   Jubilee  of  Free 

Captain  of  the  Locusts  (The)..    73  I      Trade    60 

Captain  Sheen 22   Cobden  aj  a  Citizen 39 


Canadian  Contingent  (The). 
Canal  System  of  England. .  . 
Canon  in  Residence(rhe) .  .32 


Cobden,  Richard  (Life  of)  .  . . 

Cobden  (The  Political  Writings 

of) 


Capture  of  Paul  Beck  (The). .    11 

Cardinal's  Pawn  (The) 21 

Carding  Mill  Valley 19 

Carl  vie  (Thomas) 39  j  Cobden 's  Work  and  Opinions 

Carp'athian  to  Pindus  (From)  72  jCogne  (The  Mountains  of). 

Carroll,  Lewis  (Life  of) 39   Coillard  of  the  Zambesi 

Carroll     Picture    Book     (The 

Lewis) 35 

Carthage • 49 

Cartoons  in  Rhyme  and  Line. .  63 
Case  of  Miss  Elliott  (The). ...   22 

Case  of  Wagner  (The) 34 

Castle  Dangerous 26 

Cat  and  Bird  Stories 76 

Catharine  Furze 25 

Caucasus  (Fire  and  Sword  in 

the) 73 

Cause  and  Effect 21 

Cause  of  Discontents  in  India  64 
Cause  of  IndustrialDepression  63 

Cavalleria  R\isticana 32 

Cecilia's  Lover 9 

Celtic  Twilight  (The) 7 

Century  Cook- Book  (The) 82 

Century  Invalid  Cookery  Book  81 

Century  Library  (The) 12 

Century  Scott  (The) 26 

Certain  Personal  Matters 32 

Chaldea 54 

Charing  Cross  to  Delhi(From)  69 

Chats  on  Book-Plates    35 

Chats  on  Costume 37 

Chats  on  Earthenware 36 

Chats  on  English  China 36 

Chats  on  Old  Furniture 36 

Chats  on  Old  Lace 36 

Chats  on  Old  Miniatures  ....    35 

Chats  on  Old  Prints 36 

Chats  on  Oriental  China    ....   35 

Chats  Series  (The) 35 

Chaucer's  Maytime  (In) 25 

Chelsea  Window  Gardening. .  81 
Children  of  Endurance  (The). .  12 
Children^s^Ljbr^ry  (The)  82.  83 

Children's  Study  (The). 83 

Chile    72 

Chillagoe  Charlie 84 

China  (Story  of  the  Nations)..  4  9 

China  Cup  (The) 83 

China  from  Within 67 

Chinaman  (John)  at  Home  . .  68 
China  under  the  Searchlight. .   6 


60 
39 

60 
66 
67 
39 

Colette 26 

Colonise  England  (To) 62 

Comedy  of  Three  (A) 26 

Comingof  Friars  (The) 51 

Coming  of  Parliament  (The). .   51 

Coming  of  Sonia  (The) 27 

Command  of  the  Prince  (By).    19 

Commerce  (American) 86 

Commercial  Travelling 86 

Commissioner  Kerr 41 

Concerning  Cats     4 

Concerning  Himself   32 

Confessions  of  a  Beachcomber  ,66 
Confessions  of  a  Caricaturist  36 
Confessions  of  a  Match-Making 

Mother 14 

Congo  (The)     68 

Continental  Outcast  (The)  . .   60 

Convict  Days  (Old) 10 

Co-operation  (The  History  of)  62 

Corner  of  Asia  (A  * 23 

Cornish  Whiddles 83 

Corn  Law  Rhvmes 61 

Counsels  of  the  Night  (The)  . .    12 

Count  Robert  of  Paris 26 

Countess  Kathleen  (The) 7 

Country  of  Horace  and  Virgil  66 
Country  Parson  (Trials  of  a)  51 

Courage <io 

Court  Beauties  of  (Did  White- 
hall  58 

Court  Cards 12 

Creek  and  Gully  (By) 11 

Cremer     (The     Life     of     W. 

Randall)   42 

Crete  (The  Palaces  of) 36 

Cricket    86 

Cricket  on  the  Brain 13 

Crimean    Simpson's    Autobio- 
graphy       44 

Criminal  Appeal     65 

Criminal  Justice  (Our) 61 

Criminal  Sociology 33 

Criminology  Series  (The) 33 

Crimson  Azaleas  (The) 27 

Cromwell  and  His  Times 39 

Crowd  (The)    33 


China's  Business  Methods 62  I  Cruise  of  the  Wild  Duck  (The)  14 

Chinese  History  (A  Sketch  of)  54  1  Crusades  (The)    47 


Chinkie's  Flat ; 10 

Christ  and  the  Nation    78 

Christian  Belief 78 

Christian  Democracy 78 

Christian  Origins    79 

Christianity  and  the  Bible    . .   80 

Christmas  Berries 19 

Churches     and     the    Liquor 

Traffic  (The) 59 

Cinderella 13 

City  (The) fi2 

Civilisation  (The  History  of) .    55 

Clara  Hopgood 25 

Clearer  Vision  (The) 21 

Clifi  Days 25 

Climbers'  Guides 67 

Climber's  Note  Book  (The)..  73 


Crystal  Age  (A) i 

Cuba   and   International   Re- 
lations    60 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rica 69 

Cults  of  India 79 

Curiosities 22 

Curzon  (Lord).  The  Failure  of.  61 

Cut  off  from  the  World 11 

Diugnter  ot  Patricians  (A) . . .  26 

Daughter  of  the  Fen  (A) 10 

Dauphin  V  (The  Central  Alps  of 

the)   .: 67 

Dauphiny  (Maps  of  the) 67 

David  the  King 49 

Davidson    (Memorials    of 

Thomas) 39 


PAGE 

Davis  (Thomas)  A  Short  Life 

of    39.  87 

Davitt  (Michael)    40 

Dawn  of  Day  (The) 34 

Dawn  of  the  19th  Century  in 

England  (The) 47 

Days  Spent  on  a  Doge'sFarm  72 
Dazzling  Miss  Davison  (The) .    32 

Dazzling  Reprobate  (A) 28 

Death,  The  Showman 15 

Deeps  of  Deliverance  (The)..   14 

Deidre 7 

Democracv  and  Reaction. ...  62 
Derwent  (Sir  Frederick)  ....  19 
Desert  Ways  to  Baghdad(By)  69 

Desmonde,  M.D 15 

Destroyer  (The) 27 

Development  of  Christianity.  79 
Development     of      Western 

Civilization 50 

Devil's  Half  Acre  (The) 8 

Devonshire  House  (The  Story 

of  a) .39,  49 

Diana's  Hunting II 

Diarvof  a  Dreamer 14 

Diplomatic    Relations   of   the 

D  S.A.  and  Spanish  America  52 

Disciple  (The)   11 

Discourse  of  Matters  (A)  ....  79 
Discovery  of  the  Future  (The)  34 

Disdainful  Maiden  (The) 83 

Disestablishfnent  in  Frgince. .   64 

Divine  Presence  (The) ; 79 

Divorce ii 

Doctor  (The) 27 

Doctor  Gordon 32 

Dog  Book  (The) 75 

Dog  Stories   76 

Don  Quichote 12,  37 

Double  Choice  (A) 9 

Double  Marriage  (A) 12 

Doubt  and  Faith 78 

Drama  Of  Sunshine  (A) 25 

Dramatic    Traditions   of    the 

Dark  Ages    7 

Dream  and, the  Business  (The)  17 
Dream  Life  and  Real  Life. ...   26 

Dream  Woman 32 

Dreams 26 

Driven 32 

Dutch    and    Fleipjsh    M.isters 

(Old)    35 

Dutch  Towns  (Old) 37 

Dwarf-land      and      Cfipnibal 

Country  (In)   70 

Dyer,  John  (Works  of)   87 

Earl's  Cedars 19 

Early  Mountaineers  (The). .. .   68 

East  Africa  (British) 69 

East  Africa  (Sport  and  Travel)  69 
Eastern  Asia  (A  Brief  History 

of)   50 

Ebbing  of  the  Tide  (The) 10 

Ebep  Hojdien 9 

Economic      and     Statistical 

Studies 61 

Economic    Interpretation    of 

History 64 

Editor's  Sermons  (An) 34 

Education  (Trend  id  Higher) .  78 

Edward  Barry 10 

Effie  Hetherington 1 1 

Egypt  (Ancient) ,53,  55 

Egypt  (Bonaparte  in)    48 

Egypt  (The  New) 66 

Egypt  (New  Light  on  Ancient)  53 
Egypt  (Secret  History  of  the 

English  Occupation  of) ... .  48 
Eighteenth    Century    Painter 

(Memorials  of  an) 36 


PAGE 

El  Dorado  (In  Search  of) ... .  70 
Eleanor  Lambert  (The  Storv 

of)    '.    II 

Electoral  Refonn    62 

Elgivla,  Daughter  of  the  Thegn  16 
Eliot,  George  (True  Story  of)     2 
Elizabeth  (Grandmother's  ad- 
vice to) i6 

Elizabeth  (Letters  of  her  Mother 

to)   16 

Elizabeth   of  England   (Prin- 
cess) Correspondence  of.. . .  40 

Enchanted  Castle  (The)     84 

Enchanted  Garden  (An) 83 

Ending  of  My  Day  (The) 23 

England  (Children's  Study)..  83 
England     (Bright     Days     in 

Merrie)    69 

England   (Dawn  of  the   iqth 

Century  inl    47 

England  (The  Governance  of)  63 
England  (The  Industrial  His- 
tory of)  55 

England's  Title  in  Ireland  . .   64 

England  (Mediaeval) 47 

England  (Modem)    52 

England    (The    Monarchs   of 

Merry) 48 

England  (Parliamentary) 

(1660-1832) 51 

England  (Socialist  Movement 

in)  65 

England  under  the  Coalition . .  48 

English  Cathedrals 37 

English     Cathedrals    (Hand- 
book of) 37 

English  China  (Chats  on)  ...  35 
English  Essays  from  a  French 

Pen   33 

English  Novel  in  the  Time  of 

Shakespeare  (The) a 

English  People  (The)    33 

English  People  (Literary  His- 
tory of  the) 2 

English  Public  Opinion 50 

English  Sports  (Old) 86 

English  Wayfaring  Life 52 

Epistles  of  Atkins  (The) 21 

Epoch  in  Irish  History  (An). .  53 
Escalades  dans  les  Alps  (Mes)  71 
Escapes      of      Latude      and 

Casanova  (The) 46 

Essays  in  Puritanism 79 

Essays     Political     and    Bio- 
graphical     45 

Ethiopia  in  Exile 71 

Euphorion    33 

European  Military  Adventures 

of  Hindustan 46 

European  Relations 14 

Evans      (Memoirs      of      Dr. 

Thomas)  40 

Evelyn  Innes 21 

Every  Day  Life  in  Cape  Colony  68 

Bve's  Apple 13 

Evolutions  of  World  and  Man  74 
Expositions    77 

Fabian's  Tower 19 

Face  and  How  to  Read  it  (The)  75 

Facing  the  Future 28 

Failure  of  Lord  Curzon  (The).   61 

Fair  Maid  of  Perth  (The) 26 

Fairy  Tales  (Irish) 83 

Fairy   Tales    from    Brentano 

(New)    82 

Faith  of  a  Modem  Protestant 

(The)    77 

Falls  of  the  Loder  (The) 19 

Fanny  Lambert 27 

Far  East  (Peoples  and  Politics 

in  the) 71 


PAGK 

Far  in  the  Forest 21 

Fast  Miss  Blount  (That) 18 

Father  Alphonsus 17 

Father  Felix's  Chronicles   ..    12 

Father  of  Six  (A) 23 

Feather  (The)    83 

Female  Ofifender  (The) 34 

Fihbusters  (The  Story  of  the)  46 

Filigree  BaU  (The) 16 

Finality  of  Christian  Religion  78 
Finn  and  His  Companions ....   83 

Finnish  Legends 83 

Fire  to  Fortune  (Through) 8 

First  Aid  to  the  Injured 85 

First  Fleet  Family 11 

First  Folio  Shakespeare(The)  7 
First  Novel  Library  (The) ....   15 

First  Watch  (In  the)    . . 14 

Fiscal  Problem  (The) 63 

Fiscal    Reform    Sixty    Years 

Ago   66 

Fisher  Book  (The  Harrison) .   35 

Fishes  I  Have  Known 74 

Fishing  in  Ireland 85 

Fishing  in  Scotland 85 

Fishing   (What  I   have    Seen 

While) 75,  85 

Fitch  (Ralph) 40 

Five  Children  and  It 84 

Five  Little',Peppers 84 

Five  Talents  of  Women  (The)  81 
Flame  and  the  Flood  (The) . .   19 

Flamma  Vestalis 5 

Florence  (The  History  of)  . . .  58 

Flute  oflPan  (The) 17 

Foma  Gordveeff    15 

Fool- KiUer   (The)   12 

Fool's  Tax  (The)   12 

Football,  Hockey,  and  Lacrosse  86 
For  Better  ?     For  Worse  ? . .   34 

Forest  Trees  (Future) 76 

Fortunes  of  Nigel  (The) 26 

Four  Philanthropists  (The)  . .  18 
France  (Children's  Study). ...  83 
Franre  (Journeys  Through) . .  72 
France  (Literary  History  of),     i 

France  (Mediaeval)   53 

France  (Modem) 52 

Franks  (The) 55 

Free  Food  and  Free  Trade ....   62 

French  Ambassador  (A) 52 

French    Court    (Dames    and 

Daughters  of  the) 48 

French  Court  (Pictures  of  the 

Old) 47 

French  Literature  (Essays  in)  i 
French  Literature  (Manual  of)  i 
French  Masters  (Modem)....  35 
French  Society  (Heroines  of)  47 

Frivola    18,  33 

Froissart  (The  Modem  Chroni- 
cles of)   61 

Froissart  in  1002-03-06 61 

From    One    Man's    Hand  to 

Another   11 

Fuller    (Margaret)    Love  Let- 
ters of)  40 

Fumiss  (Harry)  at  Home....  36 
Furze  Blossoms 19 

Gael  and  Gall  (Bards  of  the) . .  3 
Gaelic    Literature    (Story    of 

Early) 2,  87 

Game  of  Consequences  (A)  ...  19 
Gardening  for  the  Million  ....  82 

Genealogy  of  Morals  (A) 34 

General's  Daughter  (The) ....  23 
Generation  of  a  Norfolk  House 

(One) 51 

Gentleman  Upcott's  Daughter  13 
German  Education    76 


PAGE 

German-English  Conversation 

Book  80 

German  Love  Soiigs  (Old)  . .  6 
Germany  (Children's  StuJy). .  83 
Germany  (Story  of  the  Na- 
tions)    47 

Germany    (The  Evolution  of 

Modem)'' 68 

Ginette's  Happiness 16 

Girlof  the  Multitude  (A) 28 

Gladstone  Colony  (The) 62 

Gladstone  (My  Memory  of). . .   40 

Glimpses  into  Plant  Life 74 

God  and  the  People 80 

God's  Scourge 4 

Gods,     Some     Mortals,     and 

Lord  Wickenham 17 

God's  Will  15 

Goethe's  Werke 4 

Goethe  (Life  of)    40 

Gogmagogs  (On  the) 14 

Golden  Sayings  (The) 80 

Good  Men  and  True 41 

Good    Reading    about    Many 

Books   33 

Gordon  (General)  The  Life  of.  40 

Gospels  of  Anarchy 33 

Goths  (The) 48 

Gould-en  Treasury  (The)  . .  62 
Govemance  of  England  (The)  63 
Governace  of  London  (The) .   50 

Grain  or  Chaff 43 

Grand      Old      Hills     (Under 

the) 19,  85 

Grand  Relations 15 

Grandmother's     Advice     to 

Elizabeth   16 

Grattan  (Henry) 49 

Great  Minds  at  One 33 

Great  Minds  in  Art 44 

Great  Noodleshire  Election  . .  14 
Great  Pillage  (Before  the) ....  51 

Greater  Love  (The)   26 

Greece  (Story  of  the  Nations)  55 

Greece  (Old  Tales  from) 83 

Greek  Anthology   (A  Chaplet 

from  the)  . . .' 4 

Greek      Art       (Introductory 

Studies  in)   36 

Greek  Sculptors  (Ancient) ....  36 

Green  Cloth  Library 28 

Green  Tea    26 

Grey  Man  (The) 13 

Guiana  Wilds  (In) 72 

Guy  Mannering 26 

Gwilym  (Dafydd  ap)    2 

Haeckel,  Ernst  (Life  of) 41 

Haileybury  College    53 

Halls  (The)    37 

Handbook  of  the  Philippines.  73 
Handy-Man  Afloat  and  Ashore  86 

Hansa  Towns  (The) 59 

Happy-go-Lucky  Land 34 

Harvey  (William) 41 

Haunts  of  Men  (The) Z2 

Hawaii  and  Japan  (Vacation 

Days  in) 72 

Health  at  its  Best  v.  Cancer  74 
Heara  (Cencerning  Lafcadio)  40 
Heart  of  the  Empire  (The) . .   62 

Heart  of  Midlothian  (The) 26 

Heavy  Laden 15 

Hebrew  Lesson  Book  (A) 79 

Hebrew  Life  and  Thought..   50 

Heine's  Werke 4 

Helen  Adair 10 

Hellenism  (The  Progress  of) . .  53 
von  HelmhoUz  (Hermann)  . .  41 
Heraans'      Welsh      Melodies 

(Mrs.) 87 

Herb  Moon  (The) 17 


INDEX  IN  ORDER  OF  TlThHS.— continued. 


Herb  of  Love  (The) 14 

Herbert  (TheWorks  of  George)  87 

Hermit  of  Cannel  (A) 7 

Heroic  Adventure   42 

Heroic  Tales 59,  85 

Herridge  of  Reality  Swamp.  16 
He    that   had    received     the 

Five  Talents    22 

High  Life  in  the  Far  East  . .    14 

High  Tolicy 18 

Highland  Sister's  Promise. .. .    19 

Highland  Widow 26 

Hill  (Sir  Rowland)   41 

Hillesden  on  the  Moor 10 

Himalaya  (In  the  IceWorld  of)  73 

Historic  Americans    79 

History  in  Scott's  Novels  ..  i 
History       of       Co-operation 

(The)    62 

History  of  Jamaica 50 

History  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  77 

Holland S5 

Holland  House  (The  Pope  of)  43 
Home  of  the  Dragon  (The)  ...   24 

Hon.  Stanbury  (The) 24 

Honour  of  the  Flag  (The) 251 

Hookey 20 

Horse  (The) 33,  75 

Horse  (Psychology  and  Train- 
ing of  the) 75 

Hotel  d'Angleterre  (The) 14 

Hour  Glass  (The) 7 

House  by  the  River  (The) 28 

House  of  Arden  (The) 84 

House   of   Commons    (Inner 

Life  of  the) 66 

Housewife's  What's  What  . . .  8i 
How   to  Arrange  with   your 

Creditors 86 

How  to  become  a  Commercial 

Traveller 86 

How  to  become  a  Private  Secre- 
tary     86 

How  to  become  a  Teacher 77 

How   to   be   Happy   Though 

Married 81 

How  to  Buy  a  Business    ....   85 

How  to  get  Married 81 

How    to    Know    the    Starry 

Heavens  75 

How  to  Punctuate  (Stops) ....   77 

How  to  Study  the  Stars 76 

Hugh  Wynne 21 

Humours  of  Donegal  (The) ...   20 
Humorous  Rhymes  of  Histori- 
cal Times 53 

Hundred  Riddles  of  the  Fairy 

Bellaria     19 

Hundred  Years  Hence  (A) . . .  34 
Hungary(Storyof  theNations)  58 

Hungary:    Its  People 51 

Hungry  Forties  (The) 62 

Hunter  (John) 41 

Husband  of  no  Importance  . .   25 

Ideas  of  Good  and  Evil    7 

Idle  Hour  Series  (The) i8 

Illustration  of  Books  (The). . .   36 

Impossible  Person  (An) 13 

Impressions  of  a  Wanderer. .  70 
Increase  of  the  Suburbs  (The)  63 
India  (The  Brahmans  of)    . .   79 

India  (British) 50 

India  (Buddhist) 49 

India  (Cults  of ) 79 

India  (Imperial) 69 

India  (Literary  History  of). ..      i 

India,     Mediaeval 52 

India   (The  Mystics,  Ascetics, 

and  Saints  of 79 

India    ("  Prosperous  "    Brit- 
ish)       68 


PACK 

India  (Vedic) 55 

India  (Winter) 72 

Indian  Literature  (Short  His- 
tory of)   I 

Industrial  Influence  of  English 

Patftit  System   64 

Industrial  Depression   (Cause 

of)    63 

Industrial  History  of  England  64 
Industrial  Rivers  of  the  U.K.  S6 
Inmates    of    my    House    and 

Garden    74 

Inner  Life  of    the   House  of 

Commons   66 

Innocent  of  a  Crime 32 

Insane  Root  (The)     23 

Inspiration  and  the  Bible....   78 

International  {The)    87 

International  Law 65 

Interpreters  (The)   11 

Ipane  (The)  68 

Iphigenia  in  Delphi 4 

Ireland  (Children's  Study)  ..  83 
Ireland  (England's  Title  in) . .  64 
Ireland  (Story  of  the  Nations)  52 

Ireland  (History  of) 49 

Ireland  (Literary  History  of).     2 

Ireland  (Love  Songs  of) 7 

Ireland  (the  Past  History  of).   54 
Ireland  :   The   Patriotic  Par- 
liament       49 

Ireland  (Young)    49 

Irish  Fairy  Tales 83 

Irish  History  (A  Review  of) . .  50 
Irish  Library  (The  New) 87 


Irish  Literature  into  the  Eng- 

Hsh  Tongue   33 

Irish  Literature  (The  Revival 

of) 33 

Irish  Memories 54 

Irish  Poems  of  Perceval  Graves    4 
Irish  Song  Book  (The)    . .  36,  87 

Iron  Gates  (The) 17 

Irving  (Sir  Henrv)    41 

Isle  of  Man  (The  Story  of  the) .  53 

Is  Liberty  Asleep  ? 60 

Italian  Characters 39 

Italian  Masters  (Old) 37 

Italians  (Lives  of  Great) 41 

Italv  (Ancient) 54 

Italy  (The  Birth  of  Modern)  .    53 

Italv  (Modem) 54 

Italy  (Studies  in  the  i8th  Cen- 
tury in) 52 

Italy    (The    Barbarian    Inva- 
sions of ) 58 

I,  Thou,  and  the  Other  One  . .     9 
Ivanhoe    26 

Jamaica  as  It  Is 71 

Jamaica  (A  History  of)   ....   50 

James  Shervington 10 

Japan  (Stcry  of  the  Nations)  .   54 
Japan    (An    Artist's    Letters 

from) 69 

Japan,  Our  New  Ally 72 

iapan  (Present-Day) 68 
apan  (The  Real) 71 

Java,  the  Garden  of  the  East  .  72 
Jews  (The) 50 

Jews  under  Roman  Rule  (The)  54 
ewish  Literature  (Short  His- 
tory of)    X 

Jilt's  Journal  (A) 25 

Job  (The  Original  Poem  of)  . .  78 

John  Jones,  Curate 23 

John  Sherman 32 

Johnson  Club  Papers 86 

Josephine's  Troubles    15 

Journeys  of  Antonia  (The)  ...    14 

Julian  the  Apostate 41,  54 

J  uvenile  Offenders 34 


PAGE 

Juvenilia    33 

Kafir  Stories 26 

Karakoram-Himalayas(Climb- 

ing,  &c.,  in  the) 67 

Karakorams  and  Kashmir  ...  68 
Keene  (Charles),  The  Work  of  37 

Keith's  Crime  (Mrs.) 13 

Kenfig  (Buried  City  of)   50 

Kenilworth 26 

Khotan(Sand-Buried  Ruins  of)  72 
King  Leopold's  Soliloquy. .      65 

King's  Threshold  (The) 7 

Kingdom  of  Twilight 25 

Kit  Kennedy 13 

Kitty  CosteUo 8    85 

Kolokotrones :    Klepht     and 

Warrior    46 

Kruger  (Paul),  The  Memoirs  of  41 
Labour  and  Other  Questions 

in  South  Africa 69 

Labour  ai  d  Protection 63 

Labour  and  Victory 41 

Labour  Legislation 62 

Labour  Movement  (The) 62 

Labour  Party  (The) 64 

Lady  from  the  Sea  (The) .....     5 

Lady  Jean 50 

Lady  Killer  (The) 27 

Lady     Mary    of     the     Dark 

House 32,  87 

Lady  Noggs,  Peeress  (The) 

18,  84,  87 

Lady's  Honour  (A) 11 

Lake  of  Palms  (The) 14 

Lally  of  the  Brigade 20 

Land  of  the  Blue  Gown  (la 

the)   70 

Langland's  Vision  of  Plowman  2 
Last  Hours  with  Nature....  75 
Last  Mackenzie  of  Redcastle  19 
Last  Step  to  Religious  Equality 

(The)    77 

Latter-day  Sweethearts    ....   16 

Laura's  Legacy 27 

Laurenson  (Arthur)  The  Me- 
moirs of    41 

Law  of  God  (The) 79 

Lays  of  the  Red  Branch  ..14,  87 

Leader  of  Society  (A) 47 

Leaders  of  Men 43 

Lear  (Letters  of  Edward)  ...  41 
Leaves  from   the  Life  of  an 

Eminent  Fossil 11 

Legend  of  Montrose  (The). .. .  26 

Legend  of  St.  Mark  (The) 82 

Legions  of  the  Dawn  (The).   25 

Leithay's  Banks  (On) 19 

Leopontine  Alps  (The) 67 

Leaser's  Daughter 14 

Lessons  from  the  World  ....  79 
Letters  of  Her  Mother  to  Eliza- 
beth    28 

Lewell  Pastures rg 

Library  of   Literary   History    2 


Life  and  To-morrow 17 

Life  in  a  Crack  Regiment 26 

Life  in  the  Open     71 

Life  in  Two  Hemispheres  (My)    \ 

(Duffy)   40 

Life  of  an  Empire  (  The) 63 

Life  of  Man  on  the  High  Alps . .  70 

Life  of  Christ  (The) 77 

Light  Eternal  (The) 25 

Lilac  Sunbonnet  (The) 13 

Lincoln  (Abraham)  42 

Lindsay  o'  the  Dale  (A) ....  16 
Links  in  My  Life  (Gambler) .   40 

Lion's  Whelp  (The) 9 

Literary  History  of  America  3 
Literary  History  of  France. . .  x 
Literary  History  of  India  (A),     i 


PAGE 

Literary  History  of  Ireland  (A)  2 
Literary  History  of  Persia  (A).  I 
Literature  History  of  Rome,  i 
Literary  History  of  Russia.,  i 
Literary  History  of  Scotland  2 
Literary      History      of      the 

Adelphi(The) 48 

Literary  History  of  the  Arabs     3 
Literary  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish People  (A) 2 

Literary   Influence  in   British 

History i 

Literary     Life     (My)     (Mme. 

Adam) 38 

Literary  "  U  "  Pen  (The) 87 

Lithography  and  Lithograph- 
ers      36 

Little  Entertainments 22 

Little  Glass  Man  (The) 83 

Little  Indabas 7° 

Little  Novels 20 

Lives  Worth  LivingSeries(The)  42 


Living  Buddha  (The) 18 

Living    Matter    (Nature    and 

Origin  of) 74 

Liza  of  Lambeth 2 1 

Locum  Tenens  (The)    32 

^°r^I.^«^h^v^^^   ^"    ^'^''^'  .fijMemoirsofCharles  Boner  (The)  19 

Liard^CoTm'un;s-(TheV-  1^  !  ^'emoirs   of  ConstanUne    Dix  .1 


PAGE 

Manors  of  Suffolk  (The) 49 

Maps  of  the  Alps  of  the  Dau- 

phiny 67 

Margaret  Foster 26 

Margaret  Grey 9 

Margaret  Hetherton 85 

Marguerite  de  Roberval 21 

Mariana    4 

Marionettes  (The) 6 

Marozia    16 

Marriage  by  Capture  (A) 11 

Marriage  deConvenance  (A). .  18 

Marsena    15 

Master  Mariner,  A  :   Eastwick  46 

Master  Missionaries 41 

Master  Passions 16 

Masters  of  Medicine 42 

Match-Making     Mother   (The 

Confessions  of) 14 

Mating  of  a  Dove  (The) 20 

Matrimonial    Institutions    (A 

Historv  of) 51 

Matterhom  (The) 71 

Mawkin  of  the  Flow  (The) 16 

Meadowsweet  and  Rue 17 

Mf  and  Myn 13 

Media,  Babylon,  and  Persia  . .  55 

Melpomene  Papers  (The)  ....  15 


Lombard  Studies 


Memoirs  of  Dr.  Thomas  Evans  40 


r^T^n  .f  i.^^ni   So  I  Mental  Traits  of  Sex  (The)    . .   76 

London  at  School 80    h,,„,.„^;,k  (xr^„„ic  ^t  rio„™>      ' 


London  (The  Governance  of)  50 

London  Lovers 9 

London  Plane  Tree  (A) 5 

Lonely  Way  (The) 3 

Long  Vigil  (The) 27 

Lord  Maskelvne's  Daughter     19 

Lost  Heir  (The) 16,  85 

Lost  Land  (The) 14 

Love  Affairs  of  Some  Famous 

Men 41 

Love  and  the  Soul  Hunters. . .    17 

Love  Cure  (A)    28 

Love  is  not  so  Light 13 

Love  in  the  Lists 21 

Love  Letters  of  Margaret  Ful- 
ler     40 

Love  Songs  of  Ireland 7 

Love  Songs  of  Robert  Burns . .     3 


Meredith  (Novels  of  George) 

Mermaid  Sieries  (The) 5 

Messianic  Hope  (The) 79 

Mexico 50 

Mexico  (S.  A.  Series) 68 

Mid  Pleasures  and  Palaces..    19 

Mimi's  Marriage 21 

Millionaire  (The)    28 

Millionaire's  Courtship  (A). .   20 

Milly  and  Oily 85 

Minister's  Experience  (A)  . .   79 

Minister's  Guest  (The) 26 

Minor  Poet  (A) 5 

Mirabeau  the  Demi-God.  .44,  58 

Miri^io   6 

Miriam's  Schooling 25 

Mischief  of  a  Glove  (The)  ....    13 
Miserrima 22 


Love  Triumphant 21,  85  !  Mis-rule  of  .Three  (The) 2S 

Lucas  Malet  Birthday  Book. .  32  |  Missing  Friends 46 

Lucie  and  1 13  [  Mister  Bill  :    A  Man 20 

Luncheons    82    Mistress  of  Langdale  Hall.  19,  85 


Lyrics  (M.  F.  Robinson) 6 

M.A.B 87 

Mabinogion  (The) 20,  87 

Mabinogion  (Tales  from  the) . .  83 
Machiavelli,      Niccolo      (Life 

of)     42 

Madagascar  (Robert  Drury)..  46 
Madagascar  before   the  Con- 
quest    72 

Mademoiselle  Ixe 3:4 

Mad  Sir  Uchtred 13 

Magic  Oak  Tree  (The) 83 

Magic  of  the  Pine  Woods 19 

Maid  of  Maiden-lane  (The). .. .  9 

Mai tland  (Sir  Thomas) 42 

Major  Weir 21 

Makar's  Dream 19 

Making  of  a  Saint  (The) 21 

Man  and  Maid 22 

Man-Eaters  (Among  the) 68 

Man  in  the  Street  (The) 12 

Man's  Love  (A)    27 

Man's  Mind  (In  a) 32 

Man  who  was  Afraid  (The) ...  15 

Manners  for  Girls 81 

Manners  makyth  Men 81 


Model. Factories 63 

Modernism 


Modern  Monarch  (A) 20 

Modern  Travel  Series  (The) .    70 

Moff 28 

Moffat,     Robert     and     Mary 

(Lives  of)    42 

Molly  Darling i8 

Monarch  Series  (The)   53 


Monarchs   of   Merry  England 

(The)    48 

Monastery  (The)  26 

Monism  (Concepts  of) 80 

Monsieur  Paulot 18 

Mont  Blanc  (The  Chain  of )  . . .   67 

Moonlight ao 

MocrandFell(By)    27,72 

Moors,  Crags  of  the  High  Peak  66 

Moors  in  Spain  (Thej 52 

More  about  Wild  Nature 74 

Mother,  Baby,  and  Nursery..   82 

Mother  Goose  (The  True) 84 

Motherhood    28 

Mother  of  Pauline  (The) 28 

Motor  Car  (The)    85 

Motor  Cars 86 


PAGB 

Motor  Cracksman  (The) is 

Motorists'  ABC    85 

Mountain    Adventure     (True 

Tales  of)   69 

Mountaineers  (Early) 68 

Mountaineering   in  the  Land 

of  the  Midnight  Sun    ....   70 
Mountaineering  in   the  Sierra 

Nevada 69 

Municipal  Government  in  Con- 
tinental Europe 65 

Municipal     Government       in 

Great  Britain 65 

Municipal    Lessons    from    S. 

Germany 63 

Musical  Composers  (Famous).  42 

Mutineer  (The) 11 

My  Home  in  the  Shires  ....  19 
My  Lady's  Garden  (In)  ....   76 

Myra  of  the  Pines 32 

Mysterious  Psychic  Forces  . .  75 
Mystery  of  Laughlin  Islands  ii 
Mystery  of  Muncraig  (The). . .   22 

Mystery  of  Sleep  (The) 33 

Mystery  of  theCampagna  (A).    14 
Mvstics,  Ascetics  and  Saints  of 
India  (The) 79 

Nancy  Noon _  .  27 

Naomi's  Exodus 21 

Napoleon's  Court  (A  Queen  of)  47 
Napoleon's  Last  Voyages    . .   42 

Natal  (Tales  from) 73 

National  Cook  Book 81 

National  Credit 62 

National  Finance 59 

National  Finance,  1908 50 

National  Liberal    Federation 

(The)    66 

Native  Wife  (His) 10 

Naturalist  (Life  and  Thoughts 

of   a)    38 

Naturalist  (Recreations  of  a)  75 

Naturalist  (Travels  of  a) 75 

Nature  and  Origin  of  Living 

Matter 74 

Nature  and   Purpose   in    the 

Universe 76 

Nature  Studies 76 

Nature's  Story  of  the  Year  ...  77 
Near  East  (Trave.s  and  Politics 

in  the) 70 

Need  and  Use  of  Irish  Litera- 
ture   33 

Ne'er-do-Weel  (A) 12 

Negro-Nobodies 70 

Neighbours 14 

Nero,  and  other  Plays 6 

New  Arcadia  (The)  6 

New  Chronicles  of  Don  Q. ..    23 

New  Egypt  (The) 66 

New  England  Cactus  (A) 18 

New  Guinea  (Through) 73 

Newspaper  Making  (The  Art 

of)   85 

New    Spirit    of   the    Nation 

(The) 34,  87 

New  Zealand  Alps  (Climbs  in 

the)   68 

Nietzsche :       His     Life     and 

Work 34 

Nietzsche  (The  Philosophy  of 

Friedrich)    34 

Nine  UnUkely  Tales 84 

Noble  Haul  (A) 25 

No  Place  for  Repentance  ....  22 
Norfolk    and    Suffolk    Coast 

(The)     68 

Norman-Neruda  (The  Climbs 

of)   71 

Normans  (The) 51 


INDEX  IN  ORDER  OF  TmLBS.—conlmucd. 


Norway 48  Personal  Matters  (Certain) 

Nun-Ensign  (The) 37  ~  '  '  -    -      -- 

Nutcracker  and  Mouse   King  83 
Nyria 23 


Of  Una 6 

Old  Bailey 50 

Old  Brown's  Cottages 27 

Old  Hall  (The) 19 

Old  Man's  Darling  (An) 12 

Old  Mortality 26 

Old  Tales  from  Greece    83 

Old  Tales  from  Rome 85 

Old  Time  Aldwych 50 

Old  Time  and  New 44 

Olive  in  Italy 14 

Omnibus,  De 22,  87 

Once  Upon  a  Time 83 

O'Neill,  Owen  Roe   43,  87 

Only  a  Kitten 84 

Opportunity  of  Liberalism  . .  65 
Oriental  Campaigns  and  Euro- 
pean Furloughs 42 

Orientations 21 

Original  Poem  of  Job  (The) . .  78 

Ottilie 19 

Outcast  of  the  Islands  (An) ...  13 

Outcasts  (The) 15 

Outlaws  of  the  Marches 16 

Overseas  Library  (The) 74 


Pacific  Tales 10 


PACK 
..    32 

Personal  Story  of  the  Upper 

House. (The) 45 

Peru 68 

Peter  Halket  (Trooper) 26 

Peveril  of  the  Peak   26 

Philippine  Islands  (The)....   68 
Phoenix  and  the  Carpet  (The)  84 

Philosopher  in  Portugal 72 

Phoenicia 55 

Physiology(Studies  in  General)  75 

Pillage  (Before  the  Great) 51 

Pinto,  Ferd.  Mendez,  the  Portu- 
guese Adventurer 46 

Pirate  (The) z6 

Place  of  Animals  in   Human 

Thought   34 

Plant  Histology  (Methods  in)  75 

Plato's  Dream  of  Wheels 34 

Play-Actress  (The) 13 

Plays  of  Beaumont,  &c.,  see 
Index  of  Authors 

Please  M'm,  the  Butcher  ! 81 

Poems  of  Mathilde  BUnd   (A 

Selection  from) 3 

Poems  of  Mathilde  Bhnd'(The 

complete)   3 

Poems  of  Giosn6  Carducci..     4! 
Poems    of     William    Cowper 

(The    Unpublished)    4 

Poems  of  John  Dyer  (The)  ...  4 
Poems  of  M.  F.  Robinson  (The  i 
Collected)   6 


PAGE 

Queen  of  a  Day  (The)    ....  15 

Queen  of  Napoleon's  Court  (A)  47 

Quentin  Durward   26 

Quests  of  Paul  Beck  (The).,  xi 

Quiet  Hours  with  Nature  ....  74 

Quincy  Adams  Sawyer 22 

Quotations  for  Occasions 82 

Raffles  (Sir  Stamford) 43 

Raiders  (The) 13 

Rainy  June  (A) 22 

Raleigh  (Sir  Walter) 4,  43 

Ranch  Life  and  the  Hunting 

Trail    72 

Random  Roaming 51 

Ranger's  Lodge  (The) ......    19 

Recipes  for  the  MilUon 82 

Recreations  of  a  Naturalist  . .  75 
Red  Cloth  Library  (The) 30 


Pagan's  Love  (A) r,  ^"^"^^  (W.  B.  Yeats) 7 

i-agan  S  LOve  (A)    .    13    p      .        ,  pengione  fThel ,S 


Pages  from  a  Journal 25 

Pain  :    Its  Causation    76 

Painter's  Honeymoon  (A) 26 

Palaces  of  Crete  (The) 36 

Panama  Canal  To-day  (The).  67 

Papacy  (The) 78 

Papal  Monarchy  (The) 47 

Paradise   Court 15 

Paris  (Forty  Years  of) 52 

Parish  Providence  (A) 20,  87 

Paris-Parisien 7 

Parker,  Dr.,  and  his  Friends..  43 

Parnell  Movement  (The) 54 


Parthia 


Particular    Book    of    Trinity 

College  (The) 53 

Party  Organisation  63 

Passion  of  Mahael  (The) 11 

Passports    8 

Pathless  West  (In  the) 69 

Patriot    Parliament    of    1689 

(The)    49,  87 

Patriotism  under  three  Flags.  63 

Patsy 27 

Patten  Experiment  (The)  ...     20 

Pax  and  Carolina   82,  83 

PecuUar  History  of  Mary  Ann 

Susan  (The) n 

Peers  or  People    65 

Peking  Garden  (Round  About 

My)    70 

Penelope  Brandling 19 

Pennine  Alps  (Central) 67 

Pennine  Alps  (Eastern) 67 

Pen   Portraits  of   the   British 

Soldier 16 

Pentamerone  (The) 82 

People  of  Clopton 10 

Peoples   and    Politics    in    the 

Far  East 71 

Perceval  (Spencer) 00 

Peril  of  Change  (In) -7,1 

Peril  in  Natal  (The) 61 

Perils  of  Josephine  (The)  ....    i6 

Perils  of  Sympathy  (The) 27 

Persia    47 

Persia  (Literary  History  of )  . .     i 


!  Poet  and  Penelope  (The) 28 

j  Poland 54 

;  Policy  of  Free  Imports  (The)  .  61 

Political  Advertiser  (The) 61 

Political  Crime 34 

Political  Parables 60 

Pohtical  Situation  (The) 65 

Pope  of  Holland  House  (The)  43 

Pope's  Mule  (The) 82 

Popular  Copyright  Novels    . .   23 


Port  Arthur  (Siege  of) 51 

Portent   (The)    '20 

Porter,   Endymion   (Life  and 

Letters  of) 43 

Portraits  of  the  Sixties 42 

Portugal  55 

Portugal  (A  Philosopher  in)  . .  72 
Power  of  Charactor  (The)  . .  78 
Prayers,  Poems  and  Parables  79 
Prince's  Marriage  (The)....  32 
Prisoners  of  Conscience  ....  9,  85 
Prison   Escapes   of    the  Civil 

War 46 

Problem  of  Existence  (The)  . .  34 
Problem  of  Prejudice  (The)  . .  12 
Process  of  Government  (The)  59 

Professions  for  Girls 85 

Programme      of     Modernism 

(The)    

Progress  of  Hellenism  (The) . 
Progress  of  PriscilJa  (The) .... 
"  Prosperous  "  British  India. 
Protection  and  Employment . 
Protection  (Side-Lights  on)  . . 
Provence(  Roman  tic  Cities  of)  67 
Proverbs,  Maxims,  &c.,  of  all 

Ages 33 

Psalms  and  Litanies 80 

Pseudonym  Library  (The)  23,  24 


Psychology  and  Training  of 
the  Horse    75 

Psychology  of  Child  Develop- 
ment (The) 78 

Public  Purse  and  the  War 
Office    59 

Public  Speaking  and  De- 
bate    62,  86 


Redgaun  tlet 26 

Red  Laugh 8 

Red-litten  Windows  (Through 

the)   16 

Red  Rubber  63 

Red  Sphinx  (The)    32 

Red  Star  (The) 20 

Reef  and  Palm  (By) 10 

Reformer's  Bookshelf  (The)  . .  64 
ReHgion  and  the  Higher  Life  78 
Religion  and  Historic  Faiths  79 
Religion  of  the  Plain  Man..  77 
Religious  Songs  of  Connachtj,  78 
Religious  Equality  (The  Last 

Step  to)    77 

Renaissance  Types 52 

Renunciation 27 

Retaliatory  Duties    61 

Retrospect   6 

Revelation  and  the  Bible 78 

Revolution  in  Tanner's  Lane  25 

Rhodesia  (Pre-Historic) 68 

Rhymer  (The) 20 

Ricrof  t  of  Withens 27 

Ridan  the  Devil 10 

Riding,  Driving,  and  kindred 

Sports  86 

Rights  of  Man  in  America  . .  79 
Riviera  (Rambles  on  the) ....   72 

Riviera  (The) 70 

Robert  Orange 17 

Robinson  Crusoe 82,  83 

Rob  Roy 26 

Rock  and  Pool  (By) 10 

Rock  Garden  of  Ours  (That)  75 
Rodin     (Life   and    Work    of 

Auguste) 36 

Rodman  the  Boatsteerer  ....  10 
Romance  of  theFountain(Thc)  19 
Romance  of  a  Hill  Station ...  19 
Romance  of  a  King's  Life.  . .  52 
Romance  of  a  Lonely  Woman  22 
Romance  of  a  Midshipman  . .   25 

Roman  Empire  (The) 51 

Roman  Life  under  the  Caesars.   58 

Rome  (Children's  Study) 83 

Rome  (Story  of  theNations)  .   50 

Rome  and  Pompeii    66 

Rome  (Literary  History  of)        i 

Rome  (Mediaeval)    53 

Rome  (Old  Tales  from). ..  .59,  85 

Romola    68 

Rose  Geranium  (The) 12 

Rose,   Shamrock  and  Thistle  19 

Rosemonde 27 

Rossetti     (Dante     Gabriel) 

(Letters  of) 43 

Rousing  of  Mrs.  Potter  (The).   22 

Royal  Quartette  (A)    47 

Royal  Rascal  (A)  16 

Rus  Divinum 3 

Russia 54 


INDEX  IN   ORDER  OF  TITLES.— con//»tterf. 


PAGE  P  AGR 

Russia  and  its  Crisis 63  I  Shervintons  (The) 44 

Russia  (Literary  History  of) . .      i  ;  Sherwood  Forest  (The  Scenery 
Russia     Under      the      Great  of)    71 


Shadow    05,  73 

Russian  Priest  (A) 23 

Rutherford,  Mark  (The  Auto- 
biography of) 25 

Rutherford's  Deliverance 25 


Sacrifice  (The)   13 

SaghaUen  Convict  (The) 19 

Saints  in  Society Q 

St.  Mark  (The  Legend  of)   82 

St.  Mark's  Indebtedness  to  St. 

Matthew   77 

St.  Ronan's  Well 26 

St.  Stephen  in  the  Fifties  . .   59 

Samhain  34 

Sand-Buried  Ruins  of  Khotan  72 
Sanitary  Evolution  of  London 

(The)    62 


Shilling  Reprints  of  Standard 


Novels 31,  87 

Shipp  (Memoirs  of  the  Mili- 
tary Career  of  John) 46 

Shorter  Plays 7 

Shulamite  (The) 8,  87 

Siberia , 73 

Siberian  Klondyke  (In  Search 

of  a) 73 

Sicily 50 

Side-Lights  on  Protection    . .  65 


PACK 

South    American     Republics 

(Rise  of  the) 49 

South  American  Series  (The)  .  72 

Spain  (Children's  Study) 83 

Spain  (Story  of  the  Nations).  58 

Spain  and  her  People 73 

Spain  (The  Bridle  Roads  of)  67 

Spain  (Modem)  51 

Spain  (The  Moors  in) 52 

Spain  (Saunterings  in) 72 

Specimen  Spinster  (A)   32 

Spectre  of  Strathannan  (The)  22 
Speeches  on  Questions  of  Pub- 
lic Policy    60 


Siege  of  Port  Arthur  (The) . . '.  51   iPl^^f-SV  ^^°,[\  ^'^^®'    ' '   ^^ 


Splendid  Cousin  (A)    14 

Spoiled  Priest  (A) 26 

Sport  and  Travel :   Abyssinia 

and  British  East  Africa 69 

Sports  Library  (The) 86 

Squire  Hellman 


Siena  (Guide  to)    69 

Siena  and  her  Artists 37 

Sierra  Nevada  (Mountaineer- 
ing in  the) 69 

Sign  of  the  Peacock  (At  the)  261 

Silas  Strong    9  I 

c,i.i"^'    i'tiIIC en  i  Silk  of  the  Kine 20  Squire  to  Prince  (From) 49 

Saracens  u nej o  ,  g.^^^^ ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^1^  ^^   Stansfeld  (James)   44 

Sir^field  rPatrickWLife  of)  4V   87   Silver  Christ  (The) 22   Starry     Heavens     (How      to 

Savaef  Club  (T^^^^^  45    Simon  Ryan  the  Peterite 18       Know  the) 75 

SavaleEurooe  (Through)  ■■   73   Simpson  (Sir  James  Y.) 44  Stars  of  Destiny. 28 

savage  turope  u nrougnj  ._.   73    Sinner's-Comedy  (The) 17 1  Stem  of  the  Crimson  Dahlia 

Sins  and  Safeguards  (The) . .  79        (The) 


Girolamo    (Life 


43 


Savonarola, 

c„oIli;r,V,r;^n'  nM«'tiAn "  'iTh,^\  fie    Siren's  Net  (The) .......  25  •  Stephen  Kyrle 

l^?^^?s^,fr.S»f  rEn<.?an'd  'l   Sister  of  M^rie  Antoinette(A)  47  I  Stic'kit  Minister  (The) 


Schiller's  Dramas  in  England  3 

Schiller's  Werke 7 

School  for  Saints  (The) 17 

School  of  Art  (The) 27 

School  Out-of-Doors  (Our) ...  79 
Schulz  Steam  Turbine  (The)  85 
Scott's  Novels  (History  in) . .  i 
Scotland  (Children's  Study)  . .  83 
Scotland  (Story  of  the  Na- 
tions)    S3 

Scotland  (Literary  History  of)    2 
Scottish  Literature  (Short  His- 
tory of)    2 

Scottish  Seals  (History  of) 47 

Scrambles    in     the    Eastern 

Graians 73 

Sea  and  the  Moor  (The) 19 


Sister  Teresa 22 

Sisters  of  Napoleon  (The)    . .  58 

Sisters  of  Omberslcigh 19 

Situations  of  Lady  Patricia..  28 

Six  Girls 18,  85 

Sixpenny  Editions. 31 


Sixty  Years  of  an  Agitator's 

Life 41,  62 

Skipsey  (Joseph) 45 

Slave  Power  (The)     79 

Slave    to    College    President 

(From)    45 

Sleeping  Fires 15 

Slight  Indiscretion  (A) 12 

Smith  and  Modern  Sociology 

(Adam)    6s 

Sea  Children 83  |  Smugglers  and  Foresters      . .    ig 

Search  of  El  Dorado  (In)    . .   70  |  Social  Classes  in  a  Republic.    79 

Searchers  (The) n  j  Social  Ideas  of  Alfred  Tenny- 

Secret  History  ofthe  English      ]     son  33 


Occupation  of  Egypt    48 

Secret  of  Petrarch  (The) 2 

Secret  Rose  (The) 7 

Secret  of  the  Sargasso  (The) .  84 

Segantini  (Giovanni) 37 

Segovia  (Pablo  de) 37 

Seneca  (Tragedies  of) 6 

Sentinel  of  Wessex  (The) 32 

Seven  Nights  in  a  Gondola  .  12 
Seven  Splendid  Sinners  ....  58 
Seventeenth  Century  Men  of 

Latitude  78 

Sex  and  Society    34 

Shacklett  10 

Shadowy  Waters  (The)    7 

Shakespeare  in  France 2 

Shakespeare  the  Man    3 

Shakespeare's  Church 35 

Shakespeare's  Complete  Son- 
nets        7 

Shakespeare  Studied  in  Eight 

Pla)^ I 

Shakespeare    Studied  in    Six 

Plays    I 

Shakespeare  Studied  in  Three 

Plays    I 

Shartieless  Wayne 27 

She  Loved  Much ir 

Shelley  in  Italy  (With)    70 

Shen's  Pigtail  (The) 24 


Social  Message  of  the  Modern 

Pulpit 60 

Social  Reform  (Towards) 59 

Socialist Movement.inEngland  65 
Society  in  a  Country  House  . .  49 

Society  in  the  New  Reign 34 

Society  of  To-morrow  (The) . .  63 

Sociology  (General) 65 

Some  Emotions  and  a  Moral. .   17 

Somerset  House 54 

Son  of  Arvon  (A) 23 

Sonof  Don  Juan  (The)   4 

Song  of  a  Single  Note  (A)  ...     9 

Songs  of  a  Sourdough 7 

Songs  of  the  Uplands 5 

Sorrow's  Gates  (Through) . ...  27 

Soul  of  a  Priest  (The) 20 

Soul's  Departure  (The) 7 

Souls  of  Passage 9 

South    Africa    (Story    of    the 

Nations)   57 

South  Africa  (Big  Game  Shoot- 
ing)      6S 

South  Africa  (Fifty  Years  of 


13 

Stokes  (WiUiam) 44 

Stolen  Waters 12 

Stops,  or,  How  to  Punctuate. .  77 
Stories  from  Fairyland ....  82,  83 
Story  of  the  Amulet  (The) . .  84 
Story  of  a  Crystal  Heart(The)  23 
Story  of  a  Devonshire  House  39, 49 
Story  of  an  Estancia  (The)  . .  13 
Story  of  a  Puppet  (The)  ...82,  83 
Story  of  My  Struggles  (Vam- 

bery) 44 

Story  of  the  Nations  (The)  56,  57 
Stray   Thoughts   of    R.    Wil- 
liams     80 

Stronger  than  Love 8 

Stuarts  (The) 50 

Studies  by  a  Recluse 51 

Studies  Historical  and  Critical  58 

Studies  in  Biography    45 

Studies  in  Black  and  White. .  86 
Studies  in  Genera!  Physiology  75 

Study  in  Colour  (A) 27 

Study  of  Temptations  (A) 17 

Suburbs  (The  Increase  of  the)  63 

Suffolk  (The  Manors  of) 49 

Sullivan  (Barry) 44 

Summer  Shade  (In)     21,  87 

Sunny  Days  of  Youth  (The)..  81 

Supreme  Moment  (A) 27 

Surgeon's  Daughter  (The) 26 

Susannah   20 

Swanwick  (Anna) 44 

Sweden's  Rights    65 

Swift,     Dean      (Unpublished 

Letters  of) 44 

Swift  in.  Ireland 44.   87 

Swiss  Democracy  (The)   63 

Switzerland 51 

Sword  and  Pen  (With) 18 

Sydenham  (Thomas) 44 

Sylvia  in  Society 11 

Tale  of  a  Town  (The) 21 

Tales  about  Temperaments  . .   17 


the  History  of) 58  i  Tales  from  Natal 72 


South     Africa,     Labour    and 

Other  Questions 69 

South  Africa  (Little  History  of)  57 
South   African   History   (The 


Tales  from  Plutarch 2^,  84 

Tales  from  Spenser   84 

Tales  of  John  Oliver  Hobbes  17 
Tales  of  the  Pampas 67 


Beginning  of) 57  j  Tales  of  tiie- Transvaal   72 


INDEX  IN  ORDER  OF  TlTli^S.— continued. 


PACK 

T:)1p«  o{  Unrest 13 

Ta'cs  told  in  the  Zoo 84 

Talisman  (The)   26 

Talks  about  the  Border  Regi- 
ment      85 

Taxes  on  Knowledge 60 

Teacher  and  the  Child  (The)  . .  79 

Temple  (The) 4,  78 

Tempting    of    Paul  Chester 

(The)     8 

Ten  Sermons 79 

Tenants  of  Beldomie  (The)  . .   19 
Terror   of  the  Macdurghotts 

(The)    22 

Tessa    ti 

That  Girl 28,84 

Theism  and  Atheism 79 

They  Twain 25 

Third  Experiment  (The) 19 

Thomas  Atkins  (Mr.)     16,87 

Thousand  Pities  (A) 28 

Three  Dukes   32 

Three  Generations  of  English- 
women       43 

Three  of  Them 15 

Threshing  Floor  (The) 13 

Thursday    Mornings  at    the 

City  Temple  77 

Thus  Spake  Zarathustra 34 

Thyra  Varrick 10 

Tibet  and  Chinese  Turkestan  68 
Tibet  (Through  Unknown)...   73 

Todi  (The  Range  of  the) 67 

Tom  Gerrard 11 

Tongues  of  Gossip   26 

Tormentor  (The) 27 

Tourgueneff   and    his   French 

Circle 44 

Towards  the  Heights 80 

Towards  Social   Reform    59 

Town  and  Jungle  (Through). .   73 

Town  Child  (The) 60 

Toxin 22 

Traitor's  Wife  (The) 32 

Tramps  Round  the  Mountains 

of  the  Moon 69 

Transient  andPermanent(The)  79 

Transplanted  Daughters 16 

Transvaal  (First  Annexation 

of  the) 52 

Transvaal  (Tales  of  the) 72 

Travels  of  a  Naturalist 75 

Treasure  Seekers  (The) 84 

Treasure  Seekers  (New) 84 

Trend  in  Higher  Education  . .   78 

Trinity  Bells 10 

Trinity     College     (Particular 

Book  of) 53 

Triple  Entanglement  (A)  ....   16 

Trooper  Peter  Halket 26 

Tropic  Skies  (Under) 11 

True  Tales  of  Mountain  Ad- 
venture     69 

Turbines  (Steam)    85 

Turf  Smoke  (Through  the)  ...  20 

Turkey   52 

Turkey    and     the    Armenian 

Atrocities  47 

Tuscan  Republics,  with  Genoa  49 

Tussock  Land 8 

Twelve  Bad  Men  (Lives  of )  . . .   43 

Twelve  Bad  Women 45 

Two  Countesses  (The) 14 

Two  Standards  (The) 10 

Two  Strangers  (The) 


PAO  K 

Tychiades 14 

Uganda  to  Khartoum    70 

Ultima  Verba 3 

Uncle  Jem 32 

Under  the  Chilterns 24 

Under  the  Pompadour 18 

U.S.A.  and  Spanish  America 

(Diplomatic  Relations  of)  . .  52 
University    Problems    in    the 

U.S.A 78 

Unprofessional  Tales   22 

Unfilled  Field  (The) 22 

Unwin's  Green  Cloth  Library  28 


PAGE 

Well-Sinkers  (The) 71 

Welsh  Fairy  Book  (The) 84 

Welsh  Library  (The) 87 


Unwin's  Red  Cloth  Library  . .  30 
Unwin's  Sixpenny  Editions . .  31 
Unwin's  Half-Crown  Standard 


Library    of     History    and 

Biography    45 

Unwin's  Nature  Books     ....   76 


Unwin's  Popular  Series  for 
Boys  and  Girls 85 

Unwins  Shilling  Reprints  of 
Standard  Novels 31,  87 

Unwins  Theological    Library  80 


Up  from  the  Slums 19 

Upper  Berth  (The)    13 

Uprising  of  the  Many  (The)..  64 
Up-to-Date  Beginner's  Table 

Book     79 

Up-to-date-Tables     (Weights, 

&c.) 79 

Vagrant  Songs    6 

Valois  Queens  (Lives  and  Times 

of  the  Early) 47 

Value  and  Distribution 61 

Vamb6ry  (Arminius)  His  Life  44 

Vani  ty 25 

Vanity  Fair  (In) 11 

Variety  Stage 37 

Vaughan  (Henry) 87 

Vedic  India 55 

Veldt  and  Kopje  (By)  26 

Venice 59 

Village  Politician  (A) 60 

Vineyard  (The)   17 

Vocations  for  Our  Sons 86 

Vulture's  Prey  (The)    27 

Wagner  (The  Case  of) 34 

Wakefield  (Edward  Gibbon). .  45 

Wales  (Story  of  the  Nations) . .  49 

Wales  (A  Short  Story  of) 49 

Wales  (Mediaeval) 52 

Wales  (The  Statutes  of)    59 

Wanderer    (A),    and      Other 

Poems 5 

Wander     Years     Round    the 

World   71 

Warp  and  Woof 5 

War  to  Date  (The) 55 

Washed  by  Four  Seas 73 

Washington     Society   (Forty 

Years  of) 44 

Washington  (The  Youth  of) . .  45 

Was  it  Right  to  Forgive  ?  . . . .  10 

Watcher  on  the  Tower 16 

Waterloo  (Before  and  After)  .  55 

Waverley   26 

Way  to  Keep  Well  (The)   82 

Ways  of  Men  (The) 15 

Wellington's  Operations  1808- 

1814 48 


Welsh  Literature  (Short  His- 
tory of) 87 

Welsh  People  (Tlie)    ........   58 

Wer  Ist's 86 

Wesley  and  his  Preachers  ....  45 
West    African    Empire    (The 

Advance  of  Our) 73 

West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 

Main   55 

West  Indies  (A  Guide  to). .. .  71 
Westminster  Cathedral  (The)  37 
What    I    Have    Seen     While 

Fishing     75.  85 

What  is  Religion  ? 77 

When  Wheat  is  Green 32 

Where  There  is  Nothing 7 

Which  is  Absurd ; .  16 

White-Headed  Boy  (The) 10 

White  Umbrella  (A) 26 

White  Woman  in  Central  Africa  67 
Who's  Who  in  Germany....  86 

Why  not,  Sweetheart  ? i6 

Wide  Dominion  (A) 66 

Wilberforce    (W^m.)    (Private 

Papers  of) 45 

Wild    Honey    from   Various 

Thyme i 

Wild  Life  in  Southern  Seas  ...  14 
Wild  Nature  Won  by  Kindness  75 

Willowdene  Will 27 

Winning  Hazard  (A) 8 

Winter  India 72 

Wisdom  of  Esau  (The) 12 

Wisdom  of  the  Wise  (The) ....  4 
Wise     Words     and     Loving 

Deeds    40 

Wistons    8 

Wit  of  the  Wild  (The)    75 

Within  Four  Walls    7 

Wizard's  Knot  (The) 10 

Woman  (The) 15 

Woman  and  the  Sword  (The)  20 
Woman's  Own  Lawyer(Every)  82 
Woman's  Suffrage  (The  Case 

for)    65 

Woman's  Wanderings  (A) ....  40 
Woman's  Work  and  Wages  . .  60 
Woman  Thou  Gavest  (The)  . .  28 
Woman  Who  Vowed  (The)  . .  16 
Women  Adventurers  (The)  . .  46 

Wonderful  Weans 20 

Woodlanders  and  Field  Folk  .    77 

Woodstock 26 

Wordsworth's  Grave 7 

Working  of    the  Workman's 

Compensation  Act 59 

World  at  Eighteen  (The)    ...    13 

World  is  Round  (The) 20 

Worid  of  Matter  (The) 79 

Would-be-goods  (The) 84 

Wreckers  (The) 19 


Yam  of  Old  Harbour  Town . .  25 

Yellow  Fiend  (The) 8 

Yellow  Librap.'  (The) 32 


Yorke  the  .'\dventurer 11 

Yorkshire     Ramblers'      Club 

Journal 73 

j  Young  Ireland 49 

!  Young  Sam  and  Sabina 13 


LITERARY    HISTORY. 


LITERARY  HISTORY. 


ABRAHAMS.  A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Literature,  from  the 
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Works     of     A.     Mary     F. 
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Levy. 

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(9)  European  Relations,  A 
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mage  Dalin. 


T,    FISHER    UNWIN'S    PUBLICATIONS. 


NOVELS,  SHORT  STORIES,  ScG.— continued. 


24 


PSEUDONYM   LIBRARY,  THE.— continued. 


10)  John  Sherman,  &  Dhoya. 
By  Ganconagh  (W.B.Yeats). 

11)  Through  the  Red-Litten 
Windows.  By  Theodor 
Hertz-Garten. 

12)  Green  Tea.  A  Love  Story. 
By   V.   Schallenberger. 

13)  Heavy  Laden,  and  Old 
Fashioned  Folk.  By  Use 
Frapan.  Translated  by  Helen 
A.  Macdonell. 

14)  Makar's  Dream,  and  Other 
Russian  Stories.  By  V. 
Korolenko,  and  Others. 

15)  A  New  England  Cactus. 
By   Frank   Pope   Humphrey. 

16)  The  Herb  of  Love.  By 
Georgios  Drosines.  Trans- 
lated by  Eliz.  M.  Edmonds. 

17)  The  General's  Daughter. 
By  J.  Potapenko.  Translated 
by  W.  Gaussen. 

18)  The  Saghalien  Convict, 
and  Other  Russian  Stor- 
ies. By  V.  Korolenko,  and 
Others. 

19)  Gentleman  Upcott's  Daugh- 
ter.    By  Tom  Cobbleigh. 

20)  A  Splendid  Cousin.  By 
Mrs.  Andrew  Dean. 

21)  Colette.  By  Philippe  St. 
Hilaire. 

22)  Ottilie.     By  Vernon  Lee. 

23)  A  Study  in  Temptations. 
By  John  Oliver  Hobbes. 

24)  The  Cruise  of  the  "Wild 
Duck."  By  Holger  Drach- 
mann. 

25)  Squire  Hellman,  and 
Other  Finnish  Stories. 
By  Juhani  Aho.  Translated 
by  R.  Nisbert  Bain. 

26)  A  Father  of  Six,  and  An 
Occasional  Holiday.  By 
J.  Potapenko.  Translated 
by  W.  Gaussen. 

27)  The  Two  Countesses. 
By  Marie  von  Ebner- 
Eschenbach.  Translated  by 
Mrs.  Waugh. 

28)  The  Sinner's  Comedy.  By 
John  Oliver  Hobbes. 

29)  Cavalleria  Rusticana,  and 
Other  Tales  of  Sicilian 
Peasant  Life.  By  Gio- 
vanni Verga.  Translated 
by  Alma  Strettell. 


(30)  The  Passing  of  a  Mood, 
and  Other  Stories.  By 
V.  O.  C.  S. 

(31)  God's  Will,  and  Other 
Stories.  By  Use  Frapan. 
Translated  by  Helen  A. 
Macdonell. 

(32)  Dream  Life  and  Real  Life. 
By  Ralph  Iron  (Olive 
Schreiner). 

(33)  The  Home  of  the 
Dragon.  A  Tonquinese 
Idyll.     By  Anna  Catharina. 

(34)  A  Bundle  of  Life.  By  John 
Oliver  Hobbes. 

(35)  Mimi's  Marriage.  By 
V.  Mikoulitch. 

(36)  The  Rousing  of  Mrs. 
Potter,  and  Other  Stories. 
By  fane  Nelson. 

(37)  A  Study  in  Colour.  By 
Alice  Spinner. 

(38)  The  Hon.  Stanbury.  By 
Two. 

(39)  The  Shen's  Pigtail,  and 
Other  Stories  of  Anglo- 
China  Life.     By  Mr.  M— . 

(40)  Young  Sam  and  Sabina. 
By  Tom  Cobbleigh. 

(41)  The  Silver  Christ,  and  a 
Lemon  Tree.     By  Ouida. 

(42)  A  Husband  of  No  Import- 
ance.    By  Rita. 

(43)  Lesser's  Daughter.  By 
Mrs.  Andrew  Dean. 

(44)  Helen.  By  Oswald  Valen- 
tine. 

(45)  Cliff  Days.  By  Brian 
Rosegarth. 

(46)  Old  Brown's  Cottages.  By 
John  Smith. 

(47)  Under  the  Chilterns.  By 
Rosemary. 

(48)  Every  Day's  News.  By 
R.  E.  Francis. 

(49)  Cause  and  Effect.  By 
Ellinor  Meirion. 

(50)  A  White  Umbrella,  and 
Other  Stories.    By  Sarnia. 

(51)  When  Wheat  is  Green. 
By  Jos.  Wilton. 

(52)  Anthony  Jasper.  By  Ben 
Bolt. 

(53)  As  a  Tree  Falls.  By  L. 
Parry  Truscott. 

(54)  A  Ne'er-Do-Weel.  By 
Valentine  Caryl. 

(55)  Penelope  Brandling.  By 
Vernon  Lee. 


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23  NOVELS,  SHORT  STORIES,  Sec— continued. 

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29 


NOVELS,  SHORT  STORIES,  &c.—conUiwed. 


UNWIN'S  GREEN   CLOTH    UBRARY— continued. 


BEALBY  (J.  T.). 

A  Daughter  of  the  Fen. 
BECKE  (LOUIS). 

By  Rock  and  Pool. 

Edward  Barry. 

Rodman,  the  Boat- 
steerer. 

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Ridan  the  Devil. 

The  Ebbing  of  the  Tide. 

Pacific  Tales. 

BECKE    (L.)     and     WALTER 
JEFFREY. 

A  First  Fleet  Family. 

The  Mutineer. 
CHOMLEY  (C.  H.). 

The  Wisdom  of  Esau. 
CLEEVE  (LUCAS). 

Blue  Lilies. 
CLIFFORD  (Mrs.W.  K.). 

Mrs.  Keith's  Crime. 
CONRAD  (JOSEPH). 

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Alrnayer's  Folly. 

Tales  of  Unrest. 
COTTER  ELL  (CONSTAXCE). 

Love  is  not  so  Light. 
COURLANDER  (ALPHONSE). 

The  Sacrifice. 
CROCKETT  (S.  R.). 

Kit  Kennedy. 

The  Stickit  Minister. 

The  Lilac  Sunbonnet. 

Cinderella. 

The  Raiders. 

The  Grey  Man. 

Me  and  Myn. 
CROTTIE  (JULIA  M.). 

The  Lost  Land. 
DYKE  (WATSOM). 

As  Others  See  Us. 
ERASER  (JOHN). 

Death  the  Showman. 
GORKY  (MAXIM). 

Foma  GordyeefF. 
HAMILTON  (ERNEST). 

Outlaws  of  the  Marches. 

The  Perils  of  Josephine. 

The  Mawkin  of  the  Flow. 
HOBBES  (JOHN  OLIVER). 

The  Herb-Moon. 

The  Gods.Some  Mortals, 
and  Lord  Wickenham. 

The   School  for  Saints. 

Robert  Orange. 

The  Tales  of  John 
Oliver  Hobbes. 


HOLDSWORTH  (ANNIE  E.) 
The  Iron  Gates. 

KEARY  (C.  F.). 

Marriage  de  Convenance 
McAULAY  (ALLAN). 

Black  Mary. 

The  Rhymer. 

MANN  (MARY  E.). 
Moonlight. 
Susannah. 

The  Patten  Experiment. 
Among  the  Syringas. 
The  Mating  of  a  Dove. 

MAUGHAM  (W,  SOMERSET). 
The  Making  of  a  Saint. 
Orientations. 

MITCHELL  (S.  WEIR). 
Hugh  Wynne. 

MOORE  (GEORGE). 
Evelyn  Innes. 
Sister  Teresa. 

NESBIT  (E.) 

The  Treasure  Seekers. 
OUIDA. 

The  Silver  Christ. 

PRAED  (Mrs.  CAMPBELL). 
The  Insane  Root. 

PRYCE  (GWENDOLEN). 
A  Son  of  Arvon. 
John  Jones,  Curate. 

RITA. 

A  Jilt's  Journal. 

SMITH  (ISABELLA). 

The  Minister's  Guest. 
STACPOOLE  (H.  DE  VERE). 

The  Doctor. 

The  Bourgeois. 
SUTCLIFFE  (HALLIWELL). 

Ricroft  of  Withens. 

Shameless  Wayne. 

Mistress    Barbara    Cun- 
liffe. 

Through  Sorrow's  Gates 

A  Bachelor  in   Arcady. 
SWIFT  (BENJAMIN). 

Nancy  Noon. 

The  Tormentor. 

The  Destroyer. 
SYNGE  (Mrs.  HAMILTON). 

A  Supreme  Moment. 
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ART  AND  MJJSIC— continued.  36 

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37  ART  AND  MUSIO-coulhmcd. 


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BIOGRAPHY,  MEMOIRS,  CORRESPONDENCE,  &c.  38 


BIOGRAPHY,    MEMOIRS, 
CORRESPONDENCE,   &c. 


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AUSTIN  (Mrs.  Sarah).     See  Ross,  "Three  Generations." 

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39   BIOGRAPHY,  MEMOIRS,  CORRESPONDENCE,  &.Q.— continued. 

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DAVITT.  Michael  Davitt:  Revolutionary,  Agitator,  and  Labour 
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HAECKEL.  Haeckel :  His  Life  and  Worlc.  By  Wilhdm  Bolsche. 
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HISTORY  AND  HISTORICAL  LITERATURE— cowftnwed.       56 


STORY  OF  THE  NATIONS,  THE.  The  volumes  occupy  about 
400  pages  each,  and  contain  respectively,  besides  an  Index 
and  Coloured  Map,  a  great  many  Illustrations.  The  size  is  large  cr. 
8vo.  There  are  published  now  (Autumn,  1908)  65  volumes,  which 
are  to  be  had  in  the  following  bindings  : — 

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List  of  Volumes, 


[For  full  Titles  see  under  Authors'  names.'] 


(I 


Rome:  From  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  End  of  the 
Republic.  By  Arthur  Gil- 
man,  M.A. 

(2)  The  Jews.  By  Prof.  James 
K.  Hosmer, 

(3)  Germany.  By  S.  Baring- 
Gould,  M.A, 

(4)  Carthage.  By  Professor 
Alfred  J,  Church,  M.A. 

(5)  Alexander's  Empire.  By 
John  Pentland  Mahaffy, 
D,D. 

(6)  The  Moors  in  Spain.  By 
Stanley  Lane-Poole. 

(7)  Ancient  Egypt.  By  Prof. 
George  Rawlinson,  M.A. 

(8)  Hungary,  By  Professor 
Armmius  Vambery. 

(9)  The  Saracens :  From  the 
Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall 
of  Bagdad.  By  Arthur 
Oilman,  M.A, 

(10)  Ireland.  By  the  Hon. 
Emily  Lawless. 

(11)  Chaldea:  From  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  Rise  of  Assyria. 
By  Zenaide  A.  Ragozin. 

{12)  The  Goths.  By  Henry 
Bradley. 

(13)  Assyria :  From  the  Rise  of 
the  Empire  to  the  Fall  of 
Nineveh.  (Continued  from 
"  Chaldea.")  By  Zenaide 
A.  Ragozin. 

(14)  Turkey.  By  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole. 


(15)  Holland.  By  Prof.  J.  E. 
Thorold  Rogers. 

(16)  Mediaeval  France.  By 
Gustave  Masson,  B.A. 

(17)  Persia.  By  S,  G,  W.  Ben- 
jamin. 

(18)  Phoenicia.  By  Prof .  George 
Rawlinson,  M.A. 

(19)  Media,  Babylon  and 
Persia :  From  the  Fall  of 
Nineveh  to  the  Persian 
War,  By  Zenaide  A. 
Ragozin. 

(20)  The  Hansa  Towns.  By 
Helen  Zimmern. 

(21)  Early  Britain.  By  Prof. 
Alfred  J.  Church,  M.A, 

(22)  The  Barbary  Corsairs. 
By  Stanley  Lane-Poole. 

(23)  Russia.  By  W,  R.  Morfill, 
M.A. 

(24)  The  Jews  under  Roman 
Rule.     By  W.  D,  Morrison. 

(25)  Scotland.  By  John  Mack- 
intosh, LL.D. 

(26)  Switzerland.  By  Lina 
Hug  and  R.  Stead. 

(27)  Mexico.     By  Susan  Hale. 

(28)  Portugal.  By  H,  Morse 
Stephens,  M.A. 

(29)  The  Normans,  By  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett. 

(30)  The  Byzantine  Empire, 
By  C.  W.  C.  Oman,  M.A. 

(31)  Sicily:  Phcenician,  Greek, 
and  Roman.  By  Prof.  E. 
A.  Freeman. 


T,    FISHER    UNWIN'S    PUBLICATIONS. 


57       HISTORY  AND  HISTORICAL  LlTERATTJIi^- continued. 


STORY  OF  THE  NATIONS,  THE.— continued. 


(32)  The  Tuscan  Republics, 
with  Genoa.  By  Bella 
Duffy. 

(33)  Poland.    By  W.  R.  Morfill. 

(34)  Parthia.  By  Piof.  Geo. 
Rawlinson. 

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wealth. (New  South  Wales, 
Tasmania,  Western  Austra- 
lia, South  Australia,  Vic- 
toria, Queensland,  New 
Zealand.)  By  Greville  Tre- 
garthen. 

(36)  Spain  :  Being  a  Summary 
of  Spanish  History  from  the 
Moorish  Conquest  to  the 
Fall  of  Granada  (711-T492 
A.D.).  By  Henry  Edward 
Watts. 

(37)  Japan.  By  David  Murray, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

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McCall  Theal. 

(39)  Venice.     By  Alethea  Wiel. 

(40)  The  Crusades :  The  Story 
of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  By  T.  A.  Archer 
and  C.  L.  Kingsford, 

(41)  Vedic  India.  By  Zenaide 
A.  Ragozin. 

(42)  The  West  Indies  and  the 
Spanish  Main,  By  James 
Rodway,  F.L.S. 

(43)  Bohemia:  From  the 
Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall 
of  National  Independence 
in  1620  ;  with  a  Short  Sum- 
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C.  Edmund  Maurice. 

(44)  The  Balkans.  By  W. 
Miller,  M.A. 

(45)  Canada.  By  Sir  John 
Bourinot,  C.M.G. 

(46)  British  India.  By  R.  W. 
Frazer,  LL.D. 

(47)  Modern  France.  By  Andre 


(48)  The    Franks.     By    Lewis 

Sergeant. 

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man. 

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Justin  McCarthy. 

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Douglas. 

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McCarthy. 

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1898.  By  Martin  A.  S. 
Hume. 

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1535.     By  William  Miller. 

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From  Gregory  the  Great 
to  Boniface  VHL  By 
William  Barry,  D.D. 

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Mohammedan  Rule.  By 
Stanley  Lane-Poole, 

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Rhy  Davids. 

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burgh. 

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Empire  (b.c.  29  to  a.d.  476). 
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MORRIS.  Cornish  Whiddles 
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A^ 


TAWASSIA,  Giovanni. 

Saint  Francis   of  Assisi, 


BQX 
7380, 
.T3