LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY
WORKS BY
PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S.
MEXICO OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and more than 100 Illustrations. 2 Vols.
Demy 8vo. 303. net.
"Will take its place as a standard work of reference on the country."
PERU OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and 43 Illustrations. I Vol. 155. net.
SALVADOR OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and 48 Illustrations, i Vol. 155. net.
LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD
"THE COLOURS."
THE SALVADOREAN FLAG, SUPPORTED BY CADETS OF THE SCHOOL FOR CORPORALS AND
SERGEANTS.
SALVADOR
OF THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY
BY
PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S.
AUTHOR OF
: THROUGH FIVE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA," "MEXICO OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY," "PBRU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY," ETC.
NEW YORK
LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.
LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD
1911
[All rights reserved]
PREFACE
" And so I penned
It down, until at last it came to be,
For length and breadth, the bigness which you see."
BuNYAtf : Apology for his Book.
WHILE it is quite reasonable to hope for a consistent
improvement among the Central American nations, and
as easy to discern the extent of amelioration which has
already occurred, it is necessary to bear in mind some
of the causes which have hitherto conduced to the
turbulence and the tragedies which have characterized
government by some of these smaller Latin Republics.
Many writers, who can know but little of the
Spanish race, have attributed the early failures of the
States which broke away from the Motherland, not
only to lack of stability, but to a radical psychological
defect in the national character. This is a decided
mistake, for the Spanish people, both in their indi-
vidual and in their collective character, are^ fully as
capable of exercising the rights, and of enjoying
rationally the benefits, of self-government as any
other nation of the world. The patriots and heroes
who distinguished themselves in the early days of
these young Republics, while themselves descendants
of the Spaniards, generally speaking, and having only
in a few cases Indian blood in their veins, had to com-
bat against all the ambition and avarice, all the pride
V
228538
vi PREFACE
and prejudices, of the Church-ridden land which had
set its grip upon New Spain, and meant, if possible, to
keep it there. But it was not possible, and in a few
decades was witnessed their complete expulsion as
rulers from the countries which had been won by the
flower of Spain's soldiery, and lost by the exercise of
Spain's oppression and greed.
While the early history of the Latin - American
Republics contains much to distress, and even to
depress, the reader, it is impossible to avoid paying
a tribute to the band of gallant men who fought so
desperately in the cause of freedom, and eventually
won it. It is not just to say, as so many historians
have said, that the highest incentives of these men to
action were the favours of artificial and hereditary
greatness, with the accumulation, by whatsoever means,
of that wealth by which such favours might be pur-
chased. Undoubtedly some mercenary motives were
at work, as they usually are in political upheavals of
this nature. Does anyone imagine, for instance, during
the disturbances which occurred in Mexico early in the
present year, and which were personally assisted by
United States citizens, that low mercenary motives
were lacking ? Does anyone imagine that the numerous
North American filibusters who took part in the
fighting, first on the Texas borders, and then in
Mexico itself, had any idea of assisting a persecuted
people to free themselves from the yoke of a tyrant ?
Or was it not the glamour of golden lucre to be paid
to them, and the promise of the much -coveted land
across the Rio Grande del Norte, that impelled these
young Yankees to throw in their lot with the rebels,
trusting to their own complacent Government at
Washington to see them through — as it actually did
PREFACE vii
— any trouble which might happen to them if they
proved to be upon the losing side ?
It would perhaps be equally correct to describe the
early Spanish conquerors as greedy adventurers, since
they never had any ideas of benefiting the countries
or the people whom they afflicted so sorely. It is
true that they encountered fearful dangers, displayed
unheard-of bravery, overturned empires, and traversed
with bloody steps an entire continent ; but it was to
aggrandize the Crown of Spain and to fill their own
empty pockets with golden spoil, which, once secured,
witnessed the fulfilment of their ambitions.
It was, moreover, from this veritable horde of greedy
tyrants that in later days the peoples of these nations
sought to obtain, and finally did obtain, their freedom ;
their experiences of the Spanish Viceroys, with their
courts more brilliant and more corrupt than that at
Madrid itself; the persecutions of the Church, which
has left a record in Latin- America more bloody and
more barbarous than even in Europe ; the deafness
shown by the Spanish Crown whenever an appeal for
consideration or clemency was addressed to it — all
these things conduced to that upheaval which has
taken over one hundred years to consummate and
fructify.
It was, then, against all this that the people of
Central America were called upon to fight. Can
anyone be surprised at the demoralization which
occurred in their own ranks when their efforts to
secure their freedom from Spain were once crowned
with success ? History shows many other such
instances ; indeed, bad as is the record of the earliest
days of Latin- American self-government, it by no
means stands without parallel. The objects — beyond
viii PREFACE
a desire to be free from the brutal tyranny of the
Spanish Viceroys — of the Latin - American revolu-
tionists were never very clearly defined or well under-
stood. Neither was any preconceived or organized
plan ever made or carried out in connection with the
French Revolution.
Some historians are of opinion that the revolutionists
of Central America originally contemplated the estab-
lishment of an independent Kingdom or Monarchy
which should comprise the ancient Vice- Royalty, or,
as it was called, the " Kingdom of Guatemala." But
there is little evidence that any such notion was
generally popular. Among the body of office-seekers
and hangers-on of royal Courts it may, of course, have
been regarded with favour. But the Provisional Junta,
which was convoked immediately after the separation
from Spain, showed a great majority of Liberals, who,
in spite of the pressure brought to bear upon them,
and the personal danger in which they stood, pro-
ceeded boldly to administer the oath of absolute
independence, and to convoke an assembly of patriots
which should organize the country on the basis of
Republican institutions. The effort which was made
later on through French machinations to establish a
monarchy in Mexico failed dismally, as had the previous
efforts put forward by the Mexicans themselves, when
Iturbide was made — or, to be more correct, made him-
self— Emperor for a very brief period.
The people of Central America were but few in
number, and were widely distributed over the face of
the country. It took several weeks to get into com-
munication with some of the outlying districts, and
the diffusion of the newly-created voters prevented
them from becoming in any way a united people, or
PREFACE
IX
even cognizant of what was being done in their name.
In fact, while anxiously awaiting the intelligence that
their Junta was about to issue the long-looked-for
Republican Charter, the people of Salvador received
the startling and disastrous news that their country
was to be incorporated into the Mexican Empire.
They had been basely betrayed, and it is small wonder
that they stood aghast at the colossal nature of that
betrayal.
Terrible indeed was the position for the newly-
arisen Republic of Salvador. The men whom they
had sent to attend the Junta at Guatemala City were
met and overawed by armed bands ; their deliberations
were forcibly interrupted and suspended ; some of them,
such as Bedoya, Maida, and others, were ruthlessly
assassinated, while their own leader and President of
the Provisional Junta, one Gainza, turned traitor and
went over to the enemy under promise of a high post
in the new royal Government.
Salvador was the nearest province to Guatemala,
and the centre of Liberalism. It was not long before
the patriots of this country took up arms in the defence
of their newly-acquired freedom, and when they did
theirs was practically the first battle which was fought
upon Central American territory by Central Americans
among themselves. Unfortunately, it was by no means
the last ; and history bristles with instances of terrible
internecine warfare — of father arrayed against son,
brother against brother, and of whole families, once
united in bonds of love, wrenched asunder, never again
to be reconciled this side of the grave. For years
following, the soil of this beautiful land was drenched
with human blood, its energies crippled, its resources
abandoned. Are we justified in supposing that the
x PREFACE
end has come ? I verily believe that, if it has not
actually arrived, it is at least in sight.
It must be remembered that the people of Central
America are no longer an uneducated and unduly
excitable race, except, perhaps, where their personal
honour and independence are concerned ; they possess
an exceedingly clear and precise knowledge of their
prospective or immediate requirements ; they have as
enlightened leaders among them as ever their powerful
Northern neighbour possessed or possesses : all that
they ask, and all that they should be granted, is the
freedom to manage their own affairs in their own way
and in their own time. A well-known writer upon
Central America, who visited these countries some
five-and-fifty years ago, declared : " Even as it was no
one, whatever his prejudices, could fail to perceive the
advance in the manners and customs, and the change
in the spirit, of the people of Central America during
the ten years of freedom which the Constitution
secured." If that was true then, it is doubly, trebly
true to-day, when education and foreign travel have
served to open the minds and broaden the tolerance of
these people, who may reasonably be permitted, and
even earnestly encouraged, to work out their own
salvation. By free and unrestricted intercourse with
the nations of the world this can best be effected, and
day by day is proving the truth of the saying of
Dr. Johnson : " The use of travelling is to regulate
imagination by reality, and, instead of thinking how
things may be, see them as they are"
October, 1911.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
" The Colours " - Frontispiece
Views on New National Koad, between San Vicente and Ilopango - 8
H. E. Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of the Eepublic of
Salvador 1911-1915 - 18
The 3rd Company, Sergeants' School, in Eeview Order - - 28
Company in Line, Sergeants' School - 28
Section of Eiflemen kneeling, Sergeants' School - - 28
General Fernando Figueroa, President of the Eepublic of Salva-
dor 1907-1911 - - 38
Dr. Artiiro Eamon Avila, Consul-General for the Eepublic of
Salvador to Great Britain, appointed May, 1911 - 46
Artillery on Parade- Ground, San Salvador Barracks - 60
Colonel's Quarters, School of Sergeants - - 70
Officers' Club-Eoom, School of Sergeants - - 70
Penitentiary at San Salvador - - 78
Officers' Club-Eoom, Military Polytechnic School - - 78
Colonel, Adjutant, and Captains of Company - 86
Cadet Corps, School of Sergeants - - 86
Mr. Lionel Edward Gresley Garden, C.M.G., H.B.M. Minister-
Eesident at Salvador (as well as at Guatemala, Nicaragua, and
Honduras) - - 98
Front of Sergeants' School, San Salvador - . 108
Typical Street in San Salvador, showing Style of One- Storey Houses 108
Mr. Mark Jamestown Kelly, F.E.G.S., for Fifteen Years Consul-
General in Great Britain for Salvador (retired June, 1911), and
Chairman of the Salvador Eailway Company, Limited - 114
Side-view of " El Eotulo " Bridge - - - - 118
The National Eoad leading to La Libertad, showing "El Eotulo"
Bridge - - - 118
Entrance to Avenida La Ceiba at San Salvador - - 130
The Famous Avenida under Construction - 130
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACIHQ PACK
View of the New Avenida leading to San Salvador, taken from the
North - - 140
View of the Picturesque Town of Marcala - - 150
El Parque Barrios, one of the most Beautiful Public Kesorts in
Central America - - 162
Government Building (" Casa Blanca "), San Salvador - - 178
Campo de Marte (Racecourse), San Salvador - - - 178
1. View of Butters' Divisadero Mines, Department of Morazan,
Salvador - - 188
2. Butters' Salvador Mines, Santa Rosa, Department of La Uni6n,
Salvador - - - 188
Map of the Salvador Railway - - 198
Deck Bridge on Salvador Railway - - 206
Station Building at Santa Ana on the Salvador Railway - - 206
Mr. Charles T. Spencer, General Manager of the Salvador Railway,
appointed May, 1911 - - 222
Don Juan Amaya, Governor of the Department of Cuscutlan - 222
Native Habitation in the Hot Country - 232
Native making Sugar from a Primitive Wooden Mill • - 232
A Street in Sonsonate (Calle de Mercado) - - 242
Type of " Quinta " or Country-House in Santa Tecla (New San
Salvador)- - - - 242
Public Park in San Salvador, where Throngs of Well-dressed People
assemble in the Evening to listen to an Excellent Military Band 258
New National Palace at San Salvador - 268
Theatre at Santa Ana, Department of Santa Ana • - 268
Cathedral of Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate - - 274
Public Park at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlan - 284
Barracks at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlan - - 284
Municipal Palace at Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate - - 294
Group of Salvadoreans of the Superior Working-Class - 314
The " Stately " Offices of His Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consul at La
Uni6n, one of the Principal Ports in Salvador - 306
Barracks at Santa Tecla (New San Salvador) - - 306
Map of the Republic of Salvador - - At end
SALVADOE OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY
CHAPTEE I
Discovery of Salvador — Scenery — Volcanoes — Topographical features —
Mountain ranges — Natural fertility — Lake Ilopango — Earthquake
results— Kemarkable phenomena — Disappearance of islands — Public
roads improvement and construction under Figueroa government.
IT was in the year 1502 that Christopher Columbus,
that remarkable and noble-minded Genoese, un-
deterred by the shameful treatment meted out to
him by his adopted countrymen in Spain, sailed
away to the East Indies in search of a new passage ;
and it was in consequence of the mutiny among his
ruffianly followers that, putting into Hispaniola, Sal-
vador was discovered. For something over 300 years
Spain ruled, and ruled brutally ; the history of her
government here — as elsewhere through Latin
America — being one long series of oppressions,
cruelties and injustices practised upon the unfortunate
natives and the Spanish residents alike. The ill-
treatment extended to Columbus is but a case in point.
Lying on the Pacific Ocean, between the parallels
of 13° and 14° 10' N. latitude, and the meridians of
87° and 90° W. longitude, Salvador has a coast-line of
about 160 miles, extending from the Bay of Fonseca to
the River Paz, which is one of the boundaries between
1
>R OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
this Republic and the neighbouring State of Guate-
mala. While Salvador is the smallest of the five
different countries forming the Central American
group, boasting of but 9,600 square miles, it not alone
possesses some of the richest and most beautiful
territory, but has the densest population as well as the
most considerable industry and the most important
commerce.
Very remarkable are the topographical features of
Salvador, and very profound is the impression created
upon the traveller's mind as he approaches it for the
first time through the beautiful Bay of Fonseca, with
its wealth of tropical scenery, the romantic islands and
the background of noble mountains, afforested to the
tops of their numerous peaks, and filling the mind with
awe at the memory of their numerous destructive
eruptions through the centuries.
The coast here presents, for the greater part, a belt
of low-lying, richly wooded alluvial land, varying in
width from ten to twenty miles. Behind this, and
displaying an abrupt face seawards, rises a noble
range of coast mountains — or rather a broad plateau
— having an average elevation of 2,000 feet, and
relieved by numerous volcanic peaks. It is not the
height of these mountains that lends so much dignity
and beauty, for, as mountains go, they would be con-
sidered as anything but remarkable. It is their
extraordinary formation, their almost terrible prox-
imity, and their long and terrifying history, which
challenge the attention of the individual who gazes
upon them for the first time.
Between the range and the great primitive chain of
the Cordilleras beyond, lies a broad valley varying in
width from twenty to thirty miles, and being over 100
PHYSICAL FEATURES 3
miles in length. Very gently the coastal plateau sub-
sides towards this magnificent valley, which is drained
and abundantly watered by the Eiver Lempa, and is
unsurpassed for natural beauty and fertility by any
equal extent of country in the tropics.
The northern border of this terrestrial paradise — so
far as the eye can judge it — rests upon the flank of
the mountains of Honduras, which tower skywards
about it to the height of 6,000 to 8,000 feet, broken
and rugged to the very summits. To the south of the
Lempa, however, the country rises from the immediate
and proper valley of the river, first in the form of a
terrace with a very abrupt face, and afterward by a
gradual slope to the summit of the plateau.
Then comes another curious physical feature — a
deep, green, and wooded basin of altogether unique
scenic beauty and fertility, formed by the system of
numerous small rivers which rise in the western part
of the country around the feet of the volcano Santa
Ana, falling finally into the sea near Sonsonate. This
formation is in the shape of a triangle, the base resting
on the sea, and the apex defined by the volcano. A
second and even a larger basin is that of the River
San Miguel, lying transversely to the valley of the
River Lempa, in the eastern division of the State, and
separated only by a number of smaller detached moun-
tains from the Bay of Fonseca.
Approaching the Salvadorean coast upon any of the
steamers which run there, one is confronted with no
fewer than eleven great volcanoes, which literally
bristle along the east of the plateau which has been
mentioned as intervening between the valley of the
Lempa and the sea. As a boy and a keen philatelist,
I always wondered why Salvador postage-stamps had
4 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
a group of three active and terrible-looking volcanoes
upon their faces. When I visited that country for the
first time I understood. The long row of sentinels,
grim, yet extraordinarily beautiful, form a right line
from north-west to south-east, accurately coinciding
with the great line of volcanic action which is clearly
defined from Mexico to Peru. Commencing on the
side of Guatemala their order is as follows : Apaneca,
Santa Ana, Izalco, San Salvador, San Vicente, Usulu-
tan, Tecapa, Zacatecoluca, Chinameca, San Miguel, and
Conchagua. There are others of lesser note, besides a
family of extinct volcanoes, whose craters are some-
times filled with water, as well as numerous volcanic
vents or " blow-holes," which the natives not inaptly
call infiernillos, i.e., " little hells!" Even the appar-
ently harmless and beautiful island of Tigre, which
occupies the centre of the Bay of Fonseca, and a
veritable picture of scenic grandeur, is a slumbering
volcano, and has a history at once interesting and
terrifying. The memorable Cosieguina, El Viejo,
Felica, and Momotombo, in Nicaragua, face El Tigre
on the other side.
The most beautiful of the Republic's many volcanic
lakes is that of Ilopango, on the borders of which is
situated the village of the same name, with a scattered
population of between 1,400 and 1,500 people. The lake
is some 6*85 miles long from west to east, about 5*11
miles wide, with an area of 25*1 square miles and a
developed shore-line of 28*8 miles. The late President
of the Republic, General Fernando Figueroa, was kind
enough to place a steam-launch at my disposal, which
enabled me to see the lake under the most favourable
auspices, and in company with his nephew, Senor
Angulo, I spent several interesting hours upon its
SEISMIC DISTURBANCES
1m, deep green surface. This lake has been the
scene of numerous remarkable volcanic phenomena,
the most recent of which took place a few weeks
after my visit, and resulted in the centre islands,
which were one of its most charming features, com-
pletely disappearing beneath the surface of its waters.
In January, 1880, the lake had also been the scene
of a severe earthquake, which shook the entire sur-
rounding country. Upon this occasion the waters
suddenly rose about 4 feet above their usual level,
and, flowing into the bed of the Jiboa — a stream which
forms the usual outlet from the lake — increased it to
the proportions of a broad and raging river, which
soon made for itself a channel from 30 to 35 feet
in depth. A rapid subsidence in the level of the
lake was thus produced, and by March 6 in the
same year the surface was 34 feet below its maxi-
mum. It was then that the rugged and stony
island, about 500 feet in diameter, and which I have
mentioned above, suddenly rose over the waters,
reaching to a height of 150 feet above the level of
the lake and being surrounded by several smaller
islands, the waters all around becoming intensely hot.
Previous to this extraordinary phenomenon, the bottom
of the lake, so I was informed, had been gradually
rising, and so violent was the flood when it occurred,
that the small village of Atuscatla, near the outlet, was
entirely destroyed.
Some years afterwards — namely, in February, 1892
— while some severe earthquakes were taking place
in Guatemala, their reflex was felt in the same spot —
Atuscatla, on Lake Ilopango — Lieutenant Hill, who
was then making investigations in Salvador on behalf
of the United States Government, declaring that a
6 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
shock was felt lasting fifteen seconds, and then con-
tinued with gradually decreasing force for a further
one minute and five seconds.
When I was a visitor to Ilopango, there were two
extremely comfortable hotels to be found on the banks,
both having some very convenient bathing facilities to
offer, and each having a beautiful garden attached.
During the hot season, and upon Sundays and all
holidays, these hotels are crowded with visitors from
San Salvador, who ride out in parties, there being no
other mode of reaching the lake. The road is a truly
beautiful one, travellers crossing numerous streams and
passing through shady, blossom-covered woods, con-
taining many magnificent trees. By moonlight this
route appears remarkably picturesque, and many people
prefer to make the journey thus. Ilopango is some
four hours' ride from the capital, and the journey
across the lake usually occupies another two or three
hours in an electric or naphtha launch. The hotels and
bathing establishments, however, are located upon the
side of the lake nearest to San Salvador.
The outline of the beautiful Ilopango Lake, when
last surveyed, was quite accurately determined by
means of intersections from the various topographical
stations. Its surface in January, 1893, was found
to be 1,370 feet (417*6 metres) above the sea. Its
actual depth the surveyors had no means of ascer-
taining ; its basin, however, is far below the general
level of the surrounding ridges, which are all volcanic.
Those to the north and east are formed of layers of
sand and ashes partially compacted, yellowish in colour,
and throwing out spurs towards the lake, terminating
in steep bluffs. West of the lake the ground rises to
the San Jacinto Hills ; but the soft material composing
LAKE ILOPANGO 7
it has been eroded into a maze of sharp ridges and
deep gulches. The eastern hills are also broken into
a succession of knife-like ridges.
Professor Goodyear, a famous American geologist,
has said that the southern hills consist entirely of
volcanic materials, but are of a much harder and
firmer structure than those of the north and east,
being composed largely of conglomerates containing
boulders well cemented together. The lake is situated
upon the volcanic axis of the country, and has long
been the seat of numerous earthquakes and active
volcanic phenomena, the most violent of recent times
being those of 1879 and 1880. According to the same
Professor Goodyear, there was a series of earthquake
shockSj some of great violence, extending from Decem-
ber 22 to January 12, 1880, followed by a period of
quiet until the night of January 20, when, after a
series of loud reports and explosions, followed by
violent hissings and dense clouds of steam, a mass of
volcanic rock rose from the centre of the lake to a
height of 58 feet (177 metres). Previous to this
the bottom of the lake had been gradually rising
until January 11, and the waters had been lifted to
maximum height of 5*2 feet above their usual level.
This sudden rise converted the outlet from a small
stream — not over 20 feet wide and a foot deep, and
with a current of two or three miles per hour —
into a raging torrent discharging as much water as
a great river. So violent was the flood that the small
village of Atuscatla, situated near the outlet, was
as stated, destroyed, and the channel was so widened
and deepened that the waters of the lake fell 38 '6 feet
(1175 metres) from the highest point reached, or
33*4 feet (10*17 metres) below their original level.
8 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
During the time of this flood the Eio Jiboa, which
carries off the waters of the lake, was enormously
swollen and became very muddy, and in the lower
portion overflowed its banks, flooding broad tracts of
the plain. By the middle of February, 1880, the lake
adjusted itself to the new conditions, and since that
time, until the visitation of last year (1910), there had
been no great change in its level ; the variations at
present going on are due to the excess of precipitation
during the rainy months over that which is prevalent
in the dry season.
Anyone who had seen Salvador, say, ten years ago,
and who revisited it to-day, would assuredly be
impressed by the great improvement which has taken
place in, and the extension of, both the main and sub-
roads of the Republic. Whereas in former times the
roads were only passable in the dry season, and were
even then very trying to travellers on account of the
dust encountered, while in the wet season they became
mere morasses, to-day they are in the majority of cases
so well built and so carefully maintained that even
in the wet season of the year it is quite possible to
use them.
This great improvement has been brought about
mainly by the enterprise of the late President,
General Fernando Figueroa, who evinced a keen and
consistent interest in opening up new means of com-
munication by making public roadways of enduring
worth, his excellent work being actively continued by
his present successor.
The main routes of communication in Salvador run
longitudinally through the country, from Rio Paz and
the city 'of Ahuachapdn on the west, to La Union and
the Rio Guascoran on the east. From this central
VIEWS ON NEW NATIONAL ROAD, BETWEEN SAN VICENTE AND ILOPANGO.
,*•*• I I* 2 .•'!*•••" "I 5 ..5 •"•*• •••
MAIN ROADS 9
line, which connects all the important cities and towns
of the interior, other roads run out like spurs to the
towns and the cities to the nothward, or to those of
the coast to the southward. Thus, from Santa Ana
there is a road north to Metapan, and one south to
Sonsonate and Acajutla. Ahuachapdn also has a road
to Sonsonate via Ataco and Apaneca, two towns which
are located high up in the mountains. At Sitio de
Nino, on the Salvador Eailway line, there is a road
northward to Opico. Here, also, the main road to the
city of San Salvador divides, one branch going north
to the volcano of that name, and the other to the
south of it via the famous Guarumal Ravine and Santa
Tecla. From the city of San Salvador there are roads
north to Chalatenango via Tonacatepeque, and south
to the port of La Libertad via Santa Tecla.
Cojutepeque is connected by road to the towns of
Ilobasco and Sensuntepeque to the north-east. San
Vicente has a road to the port of La Libertad, running
south-west via Zacatecoluca. At San Vicente the
main east and west road separates, one branch going
to the north of the Tecapa-San Miguel group of vol-
canoes, via the cities of Jucuapa and Chinameca to San
Miguel, and the other south via the city of Usulutan.
San Miguel has several roads leading in all directions.
There is one north to the town of Gotera, another
north-east to the Mining District via Jocoro and Santa
Rosa, which continues to the principal crossings of the
Rio Guascoran ; and there is yet another, running
nearly due east to La Union, on the Gulf of Fonseca.
I was in the country while construction was proceed-
ing in connection with the Ilopango-San Vicente road
improvements, and I was much impressed with the
thoroughness of the work being undertaken. The new
10 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
construction was some 40 kilometres long by 6j to 7
metres in width (say 20 to 25 feet). It was commenced
in 1906, and it will be finished by the end of next
year (1912). It is estimated to cost not less than
350,000 pesos. It is a purely Government undertak-
ing, and ranks as one of the most important highways
in the Republic. At first over 250 men were employed,
but as the work progressed this number was reduced
to 200. The highest part of the road is cut through
the side of the mountain at 210 metres (say 700
feet) above the shore of Lake Ilopango. The steepest
gradient is 7 per cent., and the minimum radius 20 feet.
The most expensive part was that between Kilometre 14
and Kilometre 13, where extremely hard rocks have
had to be cut through. At one point ten men were
engaged for a period of nine months upon the most
difficult part, and they were suspended from above by
ropes, in order to reach and to cut down the massive
timber trees obstructing progress.
The Chief Engineer engaged by the Government to
undertake this contract is Senor Don Juan Luis
Bueron, a German by birth, having seen the light at
Konigsberg; but he is a United States citizen by
adoption. Senor Bueron is now seventy-eight years of
age, and although he is getting rather beyond active
hard work, his valuable experience and shrewd judg-
ment are much appreciated by the Government in all
such matters as road construction. He has built many
public roads in North America, he told me, and was
also responsible for laying the track of the Havana
(Cuba) tramways. This interesting old engineer had
also gained some experience in Mexico before the days
of Maximilian (1857-1869). He now occupies a position
of comfort, and enjoys the deep respect of the hundreds
ROAD CONSTRUCTION 11
of peons who call him master. Senor Juan Bueron
junior, the son, is an equally capable road engineer,
and assists his father in his work for the Government
of Salvador.
Another road deserving of mention is that which
has been put under the charge of the official engineer,
Don Guillermo Quiros, and one which unites the town
of Santiago-de-Maria with the port of Linares, on the
River Lempa, passing through Alegria. The section
from Santiago-de-Maria to Alegria has been completed,
and it was officially inaugurated while I was in the
Republic ; the journey from Berlin to the River Lempa
can now be continued with much greater celerity.
Very considerable are the advantages that this high-
way has brought to that part of the country, in which
are situated the most valuable coffee plantations, whose
owners now find far greater conveniences for bringing
the berry to the port of El Triunfo, since the road
leading to this place has also been repaired and
widened to facilitate the transit by beasts of burden.
The official engineer, Don Manuel Aragon, has been
occupied with the planning and opening of a road from
Citala, in the department of Chalatenango, to Metapan,
in the department of Santa Ana. The road leading
from this capital to the port of La Libertad is likewise
the object of attention. The official engineer, Don
Andres Soriano, with a gang of foremen and labourers,
have been working for several months past repairing it.
This highroad continually needs very large sums of
money for maintenance. The repairs which in former
years have been carried out have proved anything but
lasting, owing to the serious mistakes in construction
of an engineer who put into practice certain untried
experiments, which completely failed.
12 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
It is necessary now to remedy this mistake, and
drains and aqueducts have had to be constructed on
the road where none previously existed, to avoid, in
the rainy season, destruction by the strong currents of
water rushing over it. The official engineer, Don
Alberto Pinto, was occupied during a good part of the
year 1908 upon road works, having made many altera-
tions, improvements and widenings in the roads of
the Departments of San Miguel, La Union, Usulutan,
Chalatenango, Santa Ana and Cabanas.
On the way from Mercedes to Jucuapa, and also
upon the road to San Miguel, it is proposed to construct
a bridge of stone and mortar, at the place called
Barrancas de Jucuapa ; the chief engineer, Senor Pinto,
has already made an estimate and sent in the corre-
sponding plans. The cost will amount to a little more
or a little less than $10,000.
CHAPTEK II
Early Days of independence — "Central American Federation" — Consti-
tutional Presidents — Executive power — Chamber of Congress — The
Cabinet — Justice — The courts — Prisons and prisoners — Employment
and treatment — Police force — How distributed — Education — Colleges
and schools — State-aided education — Teaching staffs — Primary
education — Posts and telegraphs — Improved interstate parcels post.
THE breaking away from Spanish dominion (although
the seeds of revolution were laid as far back as 1811)
did not take place until ten years later, and coincided
with the successful termination of the struggle for
liberty which occurred in Mexico under the patriot
priest Hidalgo. Salvador gained its freedom, com-
paratively speaking, without bloodshed ; and on
September 15, 1821, it was declared a free and inde-
pendent State. In the year following an attempt was
made to annex the country to the Mexican Empire,
under the rule of the ambitious and unscrupulous
Emperor Agustin Yturbide, during his very brief
reign, in 1822. As history relates, this presumptuous
Mexican was born in Valladolid (now known as More-
lia) on September 27, 1783, and he was sentenced to
death and shot on July 19, 1824.
It is to the credit of Salvador that it was the one
Central American State which firmly resisted the
invasion of the Mexican troops ; but in the end it had
to submit to a far superior force, commanded by
General Filisola, and was then formally incorporated
13
14 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
into the Mexican Empire. This humiliation endured,
however, for a very brief time, since in the following
year Yturbide met his violent death, after which a
Constitutional Convention was called, and in 1824 a
Federal Republic was declared bearing the name of the
" Central American Federation." This was composed
of the five States — Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua and Costa Rica — the first President being
General Manuel Jose Arce.
Party jealousies and personal ambitions, however,
soon brought about disintegration, and in spite of the
efforts of some far-seeing patriots, who considered that
in union alone lay the hope of peace, security and
prosperity for their country, the form of government
proved wholly impracticable. Nevertheless it con-
tinued for a few years to struggle along, General
Francisco Morazan, doing his best to maintain order
and to save the union from disruption. Notwith-
standing all his efforts, the Federation was dissolved in
1839, and the five States again became independent
Sovereign Republics. Three years later General
Morazan unwisely made another effort to reunite the
countries ; but his attempt was treacherously rewarded
by a conspiracy against his life, followed by his exe-
cution in San Jose", Costa Rica, in the month of
September, 1842.
Since his death various attempts have been made
from time to time, to reunite the several Republics,
the last effort of this kind having been prosecuted by
General Zelaya, perhaps one of the most unscrupulous
and dishonest, as well as one of the cruellest, Spanish-
Americans who has ever attained supreme power.
Whatever chances of success a United Central
America might have had, under the auspices of a
PRESIDENTS 15
Zelaya it could have never met with anything but
failure. General Zelaya, in spite of frantic efforts to
maintain his position, was himself chased from Nicar-
agua in 1909, and is now said to he living in Europe
upon the proceeds of the money which he is declared
to have filched from his country during his long and
oppressive reign.
In the year 1885, General Justo Rufino Barrios,
President of Guatemala, had sought to accomplish
what Morazan had failed to do ; but his efforts ended
equally in disaster. On August 13, 1886, the Con-
stitution which is at present in force was promul-
gated, and General Menendez was elected as first
President under that Constitution by popular vote in
1887, for the term ending in 1890. He was succeeded
by General Carlos Ezeta, who was inaugurated on
March 1, 1891. The third President was General
Rafael Gutierrez. Then followed General Tomas
Regalado ; Don Pedro Jose Escalon ; General Fern-
ando Figueroa ; and the ruling President, Doctor
Manuel Enrique Araujo.
The form of government in vogue is that of a
free, sovereign and independent Republic — that is to
say, democratic, elective, and representative. The
Constitution now in existence is contained in a
code of articles. The Government is divided into
Legislative, Executive, and Judicial sections. The
Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly,
which is composed of one Chamber, and having the
title of the National Chamber of Deputies. This con-
sists of 42 members, three Deputies being elected for
each Department by direct popular vote for a term of
one year, the right to vote being vested in every male
citizen who is over eighteen years of age. It is to be
16 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
observed that every Salvadorean is not only privileged,
but is compelled to vote, thus doing his duty to the
State.
The Executive consists of a President and a Vice-
President, who are elected by popular vote for a term
of four years. In addition to being Chief Magistrate,
the President is also Commander-in-Chief of the Army.
In the event of a failure to elect the Executive, a
President is chosen by a majority of votes in the
Congress from among the three candidates having
polled the largest number of votes in the popular
election. He is not eligible for re-election either as
President or as Vice-President until four years shall have
elapsed. The date of the Executive's inauguration is
on March 1 following the election, which is usually
held in the month of November.
The administration of each of the fourteen different
Departments is in the hands of a Governor, who is
selected by the President from personal knowledge of
both his capacity and temperament. Besides adminis-
tering the civil affairs of the territory under his juris-
diction, this official is usually either a military man or
one possessed of adequate military knowledge ; and he is
thus Commandant of the military of his Department.
It was my pleasure to meet, and spend some con-
siderable time in the company of, many of the
Governors of the different Departments, and I was
deeply impressed with their general thoroughness of
purpose, their keen desire in all cases to further the
interests of their Departments, and to apply to their
benefit any and every advantage which could be
adapted from the governments of other countries.
The municipalities, on the other hand, are managed
entirely by their own officials, all of whom are elected
MUNICIPALITIES 17
by the people themselves. The officials comprise an
Alcade, or Mayor, a Syndic and several Regidores, or
Aldermen, these being numbered according to the size
of the population. A good deal of competition exists
for office, and at the time of election much amusement
is derived from watching the canvassing in progress.
There is a decidedly healthy appearance of municipal
enterprise in most of the towns of Salvador, and, taking
these as a whole, they seem to be uncommonly well
administered. In the accepted sense of the word, there
is no real poverty, no slums, no crying " graft " scandal
demanding redress, as in our much-vaunted civilization,
and such charities as are rendered necessary in the
form of hospital relief and medical attention are
rendered cheerfully and as a matter of course, entail-
ing neither a favour nor a dependence upon either
party.
In Salvador, as in all the Latin-American Republics,
the President is a reality, and not a mere figure-head.
He makes his presence felt, and yet, in a perfectly
constitutional manner ; he associates the form of a
democracy with the reality of government. For many
years past the people have had, and have to-day, an
excellent example of a thoroughly sensible and dignified
Chief Executive, who has firmly upheld the good name
of the country and piloted it with a strong, and even
masterly, hand through a maze of difficulties. Of
General Fernando Figueroa as of Doctor don Manuel
Enrique Araujo, it may truthfully be said that they
have kept before them a lofty ideal of the honour of
their nation, and one which has been the one incentive
in guiding their policy. The whole demeanour of these
distinguished men has been productive of the country's
esteem, while their real Qualities for administration
18 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
have not been denied even by their most determined
political opponents.
The personnel of the present Ministry in Salvador
reflects the best intelligence and the greatest adminis-
trative ability of that country, the President having
selected from among the former members of the
Cabinet, and added to their number, such persons as
enjoy the confidence of the majority of the Congress ;
and he has retained them as his advisers and his
coadjutors so long as, and not longer than, that con-
fidence continues. The present Cabinet consist of the
following :
MINISTERS OR SECRETARIES OF STATE.
Foreign Affairs, Justice and Beneficence : Doctor don Francisco Dueiias.
Interior, Industry ("Fomento"), Public Instruction and Agriculture:
Doctor don Teodosio Corranza.
Finances and Public Credit : Don Eafael Guirola, D.
SUB-SECRETARIES OF STATE.
Foreign Affairs : Doctor don Manuel Castro, K.
Justice and Beneficence : Doctor don Jose Antonio Castro, V.
Interior : Doctor Cecilio Bustamente.
Industry (" Fomento") : Ingeniero Jose Maria Peralta Lagos.
Public Instruction : Doctor Gustavo Baron.
Agriculture : Don Miguel Dueiias.
Finance and Public Credit : Don Carlos G. Prieto.
War and Marine : Don Eusebio Bracaraonte.
Perhaps it is the Ministry of the Interior which is
charged with the most numerous and most important
sections. Upon this Department depend the General
Direction of the Post-Office ; the General Direction of
the Telegraph and Telephones ; the General Direction
of Police; the Direction of the National Printing
Establishment ; the Direction of the Superior Council
of Health ; the General Direction of Vaccination, as
well as of the Municipal Treasury and many other small
H. E. DR. MANUEL ENRIQUE ARAUJO ;
PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR 1911-1915.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 19
offices that complete the establishments included in
the public administration.
The number of measures carried out by this one
Ministry during the years 1907 and 1908 amounted,
more or less, to 3,600. The subjects that came under
the jurisdiction of the Secretaryship of State are also
many and complex ; and in order to attain results
they demand both constant attention and an intimate
knowledge of the administrative laws, the many
special regulations, the numerous statutes and disposi-
tions which exist, as well as any quantity of minor
laws.
The Judicial Power is vested in a Supreme Court,
which holds its sittings in the city of San Salvador ;
two District Courts, which are also held in the city ;
District Courts which are held in the cities of Santa
Ana, San Miguel, and Cojutepeque, as well as periodi-
cal Circuit Courts held in different districts ; and
there is a long list of Justices of the Peace.
The Justices of the Supreme Court are elected by
the National Assembly for a term of two years, while
the Judges of the First and Second Instance are
appointed by the Supreme Court for a term of two
years. The Justices of the Minor Courts are elected
by popular vote.
As in most Latin- American countries, the course of
justice is not always speedy, all depositions, no matter
how trivial the case under trial may be, nor whether
it be civil or criminal, having to be laboriously written
out, " examination-in-chief " and " cross-examination "
being practices little known. Naturally, an immense
amount of valuable time is thus consumed, and the
results are anything but conclusive.
To a considerable extent the administration of
20 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
justice in Central America is based upon the same
principles as those in force in the United States, and
it is generally admitted, especially by those who have
suffered from them, that these are far from perfect.
The theory of Latin-American justice is excellent, such
theory being that every man is entitled to justice
speedily and without delay, freely and without price.
We all know that this is not the experience of
litigants generally, and in no part of Latin America
can the administration of justice be considered entirely
perfect. Salvador is not worse off than any of its
neighbours in this respect, while, on the other hand,
there is a decided amount of respect entertained for
the judiciary, and few verdicts have been given which
have called forth any protest, nor many rulings handed
down which have excited conflict among the public.
Travellers in Latin-American countries, more often
than not such as pay but a very superficial visit to
those lands, are in the habit of drawing pitiful pictures
of the cruelty practised upon prisoners and injustice
shown towards litigants, and they indulge in harrowing
accounts of " nauseating filth," "poisonous stenches,"
" germs of disease/' "bad food," and numerous other,
blood-curdling horrors. However true such descrip-
tions of some countries are, and I rather imagine that
most of them are the outcome of vivid imagination on
the one hand and of blind prejudice upon the other, it
is certain that nothing of this kind can be truthfully
said about Salvador.
It would be ridiculous to suppose that this Republic
more than any other builds luxuriously-equipped and
comfortable prison-houses, to act as an encouragement
for the committing of crime. The object of punish-
ment, we are told, is prevention of evil, and we all
PRISONS 21
know that under no circumstances can it be made
incentive to good. The punishments inflicted upon
Salvadorean prisoners are based upon much about the
same scale as in other countries ; but the physical
condition of the prisoners as a whole is infinitely
better than that which is to be met with in any other
Latin- American country, with the two exceptions of
Peru and Mexico.* Of all three countries I may say
with every justice that the present prison system is of
a much more lenient and humane nature than that of
any other country in either the old or new world. I
state this deliberately and after having visited most of
the prisons in Latin- American Republics, as well as
many of those to be found in Europe and the United
States.
It is the object of the Government of Salvador to
make as much use of prisoners' services as is legitimate,
and at the same time to find for them intelligent and
useful occupations. While hard work is not always
compulsory, and is not always an accompaniment of a
sentence to imprisonment, every encouragement is
offered to prisoners to engage themselves in some kind
of work ; and in many instances substantial payments
are derived from some of the work thus undertaken,
all such payments being carefully preserved for the use
of the prisoners, and handed over to them at the time
of their release. Thus, for instance, in the Peniten-
ciaria Central, at San Salvador, which is the chief
penal establishment in the Republic, many of the
prisoners are engaged in making furniture for the
public offices, as well as military and police uniforms,
boots, etc., likewise for use in the army and the police
* See " Mexico of the XXth Century," vol. i., pp. 79, 83, 86, and vol. ii.,
pp. 101, 143, by the same Author.
22 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
force. I am not sure whether any payment is made
to prisoners for this kind of contribution ; but in other
penal establishments which I visited I observed that
the prisoners were making baskets, mats, toys, and
other small articles, which were offered to visitors for
a trifling sum, and in other cases were sent to the
public market for sale.
At the Penitenciaria at Santa Ana the same method
was in vogue with regard to employing prisoners, some
remarkably good furniture, police clothing, and military
boots and shoes, being turned out here also. In this
establishment, as well as in others, the utmost cleanli-
ness prevails. The long rows of airy and well-
ventilated cells are well lighted, the walls and ceilings
being whitewashed and the floors, built of red brick,
kept scrupulously clean. No furniture of any kind is
allowed to remain in the cells during the day, but at
night mattresses with clean blankets are thrown down
side by side, and the prisoners sleep with their day-
clothes folded up and placed under their heads or
deposited under the mattresses.
In other cells there are light canvas or wooden cots
of an easily detachable nature, which are folded up
and put away during the daytime, so that the cells
are always free from encumbrances of any kind.
Prisoners are allowed to move about freely (unless
under very severe punishment due to violence) from
the cells to the yard, and most of them are engaged
during the daytime in weaving baskets, sewing
materials, or doing some other kind of work which
may be congenial to them. They are not compelled
to wear any special form of clothing nor a degrading
uniform, while some are even permitted to smoke.
Although strictly guarded by armed soldiers, I did
POLICE 23
not, when I visited these establishments, witness a
single instance of brutality or overbearing demeanour
on the part of these guardians ; on the other hand,
there seemed to be a sort of fraternity between them
and their wards, chatting and laughter proceeding,
apparently, without objection upon the part of the
Governor or Superintendents.
The area of the prison cells was in no case less than
10 feet by 6 feet, and in some instances it was found
to be considerably larger. All ablutionary exercises
take place in the paved yard of the prison, and
prisoners are compelled to bathe at least once a week
in the open air ; those who are so inclined may take a
bath once every day. The food, which I had tho
opportunity of tasting, seemed thoroughly wholesome
and plentiful, meat being provided in quantities as
well as boiled maize, beans (frijoles\ and coffee of
excellent quality.
I can only repeat that, from close personal observa-
tion, I am unable to endorse any of the harrowing
descriptions of prison barbarities, which I have referred
to above, as applying in any way to Salvadorean
penitentiaries.
Considerable attention has been paid to the estab-
lishment and maintenance of a thoroughly efficient
Police Force, by the late Director-General, General
Enrique Bara, who has studied the question of Police
administration in Europe and the United States, and
has applied most of the good points which he found
existing there to the Police organization in the
Republic of Salvador.
All Police are under the control of the Minister of
the Interior — Ministerio de Gobernaci6n — although
the organization itself is a military one. The severest
24 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
discipline is maintained, and the men are moderately
well paid. They seem, moreover, to be drawn from
the better classes instead of from the worst, as is so
often, unfortunately, the case in some parts of Latin
America.
All the larger towns, such as Santa Ana, San Miguel,
Sonsonate, La Uni6n, etc., have their own well-
organized Police Force, each placed under a responsible
officer, but all of them directly dependent upon, and
subject to control from, the Capital. Especial care is
taken to organize both the day and night corps, and,
as a consequence of the strictness which is maintained,
very few robberies, and scarcely any murders, take
place nowadays in the Capital or chief towns.
The Superior Officers of the Police Force consist of
the following :
1 Director -General.
1 Sub-Director.
1 Secretario de la Direcci6n (Secretary to the Director-General).
1 Tesorero Especifico (Special Treasurer).
1 Instructor.
1 Ayudante de la Direccion (Adjutant to the Director).
1 Juez Especial de Policia (Special Police Magistrate).
1 Secretario del Juzgado de Policia (Secretary to the Police Magistrate).
1 Guarda-Almacen (Storekeeper).
1 Escribiente de la Direcci6n (Amanuensis to the Director).
1 Escribiente del Juzgado (Amanuensis to the Magistrate).
1 Escribiente de la Comandancia (Amanuensis to the Commandant).
1 Medico del Cuerpo (Doctor to the Corps),
1 Practicante (Assistant-Surgeon).
1 Telegrafista (Telegraphist).
3 Barberos (Barbers).
2 Asistentes (Assistants).
The present Director-General of the Police is General
Gregorio Hernandez A., who was appointed in the
month of May last (1911).
The Capital is divided up into seven different
districts or zones, each zone being policed as follows :
POLICE 25
Zone 1 : 1 Comandante (Chief Superintendent in Charge), 1 Sergeant,
4 Inspectors, and 60 Policemen.
Zone 2 : Same as Zone 1.
Zone 3 : 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 3 Inspectors, and 60 Policemen.
Zone 4 : 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 64 Policemen.
Zone 5 : 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 64 Policemen.
Zone 6 : 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 56 Policemen.
Zone 7 : 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 40 Policemen.
In this last zone the policemen are mounted.
The different Departments are also well policed, as
follows :
New San Salvador (Santa Tecla), having 1 Comandante (Superintendent
and Director), 2 Inspectors, and 40 Policemen.
Sonsonate : 1 Comandante (Superintendent and Director), 1 Sub-Director,
1 Secretario, 3 Inspectors, and 32 Policemen.
Cojutepeque : 1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 25 Policemen.
Atiquizaya : 1 Director, 1 Inspector Secretario, 1 Sub-Inspector (or
Second Inspector), and 15 Policemen.
San Vicente : 1 Comandante (Director), 3 Inspectors, and 21 Policemen.
Ahuachapan : 1 Director, 1 Secretario, 3 Inspectors, and 27 Policemen.
Chalchuapa has two Zones, which are policed as follows : First :
1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 27 Policemen. Second : 1 Director,
2 Inspectors, and 18 Policemen.
Santa Ana : 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 1 Secretario, 1 Guarda-Almacen,
2 Escribientes, 150 Policemen, 1 Comandante de Dragones, 1 Ser-
geant, and 40 Mounted Men.
San Miguel : 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 4 Inspectors, and 57 Policemen.
La Union : 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 3 Inspectors, and 40 Policemen.
Zacatecoluca : 1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 18 Policemen.
The total personnel of the Salvadorean Police Force
is as follows :
In the Capital (including the Superior Officers above
mentioned) ... ... ... ... 454 men.
New San Salvador (Santa Tecla) ... ... 43
Sonsonate ... ... ... ... ... 38
Cojutepeque ... ... ... ... ... 28
Atiquizaya ... ... ... ... ... 18
San Vicente ... ... ... ... ... 25
Ahuachapan ... ... ... ... ... 32
Chalchuapa ... ... ... ... ... 20
Usulutan ... ... ... ... ... 21
Santa Ana ... ... ... ... ... 174
San Miguel ... ... ... ... ... 63
La Union ... ... ... ... ... 51
Zacatecoluca ... ... ... ... ... 21
Total 988 men.
26 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The Government of Salvador are of opinion, and
very rightly so to my thinking, that inasmuch as
education is compulsory it ought to be free, since
the State, by depriving parents of the labour of their
children, entails some sacrifices on them. It has also
relieved them of the burden of paying any kind of
school fees ; and this in a country like Salvador, which
possesses naturally a great proportion of humble in-
habitants, to whom the payment of even the lightest
fees would appear an immense taxation, means a great
deal. To organize a system of collecting fees from
among the people living long distances from the
Capital would also have been onerous ; and the
Government saves all this, and many other outlays,
while procuring the best results from its educational
system. The benefits arising, moreover, will be reaped
by future generations, since a liberal education is a
matter in which all citizens are interested ; and there
is certainly no hardship in calling upon all to con-
tribute by means of a moderate tax towards that
end.
As I have said, the happiest results have been
achieved by the Government's broad and comprehen-
sive system of education in Salvador. The authorities
combine with the municipalities in carrying out their
arrangements, and the teachers of both sexes are
drawn from among the best and most cultured classes
of the community.
There has been established since July, 1907, a Board
of Education (Junta de Educaci6n), which is subject to
the directorship of a specially-appointed Minister and
Sub-Secretario of Public Instruction. In the month
of November, 1907, an important conference was
summoned, and held meetings at the Capital, at which
EDUCATION 27
the curriculum to be adopted was fully discussed, and
the plans for the carrying on of all places of private
and public education was entirely reorganized. The
whole system of conducting elementary, normal, and
advanced schools, holding day and night classes, grant-
ing scholarships and holding periodical examinations,
has now been placed upon a thoroughly sound and
comprehensive basis ; and it is only just to say that
in this respect the Republic of Salvador compares
most favourably with any country in Europe, or with
any educational system in the United States of
America.
The education of the sexes is conducted in the same
elementary schools, and not only is this found an
economy, but the feminine mind is found here (as in
Scotland and elsewhere) to become strengthened when
put through the curriculum given to boys and men.
Competition is greater between the sexes than between
rivals of the same sex, and a correspondingly higher
standard of achievement is obtained. It has been
found in Latin America, where until recent years
women were kept in ignorance and were denied the
attainment of any but social positions in the com-
munity, that constant intercourse between the sexes
had led to a more perfect development of character,
and had materially diminished shyness. Marriages
are now made of a safer kind, and a new and more
intelligent class of citizen is springing up, all of which
facts will tend in due course to bring about a more
complete political settlement and the introduction of
permanent order among the people. Although by no
means as yet extinct, the conventual existence for the
women of Salvador is fast diminishing, and they are
commencing to realize the advantages and pleasures
28 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of living under freer and less morbid conditions than
formerly.
Santa Ana seems to be essentially the educational
centre of the Republic ; for whereas schools, colleges,
and Universities are to be found in all of the Depart-
ments, in Santa Ana there are no fewer than thirty-
three such establishments, besides several private schools
and seminaries. San Salvador has between 6 and 7 im-
portant educational institutes, and many small private
schools ; Cuscutlan has 8 or 9 ; La Paz, 7 or 8 ; Son-
sonate, 5 or 6 ; while Ahuachapan, Chalatenango,
Cabanas, San Vicente, La Union, Morazan, and La
Libertad, are all similarly well provided.
The teaching staff at present employed under
Government control numbers something over 1,100,
and is divided up into Directors, Sub-Directors, Auxil-
iary Professors, these being composed of both the
male and the female sex. These latter are in a small
minority, but, still, there are over 278 Lady Directors,
over 120 Sub- Directors, and 100 Professors.
The proportion of pupils matriculating is extremely
high, and in this respect the girls come very close in
point of number, as also in the number of marks
obtained, to the boys. The Government provides all the
necessary books, stationery, models, apparatus, etc., for
the use of the pupils, and these latter are not put to one
penny expenditure for anything that they may require.
It is considered absolutely proper and consistent with
the dignity of the family for a Salvadorean child to
receive a Government free education ; and as this
is divorced from all compulsory religious instruction,
children of all denominations, or of none, can partici-
pate. As a matter of fact, practically all attending
are of the Roman Catholic faith, but no dogmatic
THE 3RD COMPANY, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL, IN REVIEW ORDER.
COMPANY IN LINE, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL.
SECTION OF RIFLEMEN KNEELING, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION 29
teaching is resorted to in any establishment under
Government control.
Mention should be made of the very useful and
successful educational establishments which the Govern-
ment has organized and supported since 1907, such as
the Medical and Surgical College, Chemistry and
Dental Schools, Commerce and Industry College, as
well as the National University, which has been
entirely remodelled and reorganized since December 15,
1907. "
Upon several occasions the Government has found
the necessary money to send a particularly promising
pupil to Europe or to the United States, for the
purposes of study and receiving the finest training
that the world of art and letters can offer. The last
pupil to be sent to study music at the expense of the
Government was Sefiorita Natalia Ramos, who left for
Italy in the month of May (1911), and is now making
good progress there. In every sense of the word the
Salvadorean Government has proved a " paternal
Government " in these respects ; and many a genius
has been rescued from probable obscurity, and much
dormant talent has been fostered and encouraged for
the benefit of the community at large as well as to the
lasting advantage of the individual.
Attention on the part of the Government is now
being given to a further modification in the system
of primary instruction ; and this is being effected
gradually, it being proposed as a preliminary to
establish several high schools throughout the country.
A School of Agriculture, with all necessary elements
and machinery, was inaugurated during the year 1908.
Mixed primary schools in the country now number 132,
with a total number of registered pupils amounting to
30 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
34,752. Expenditures for 1907 under this head were
nearly $400,000, and in addition there are many
private institutions where primary instruction only
is given. Academic teaching is in the charge of
the National University of San Salvador, embracing
schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, civil
engineering, etc.
In no other part of the Government service has
greater improvement been manifested than in the
Department of Posts. This Department is supported
out of its own revenues, and the service during the
past few years has been extended to a very consider-
able extent, while the credit of the Central Office has
been maintained by punctuality in the payments of
the foreign postal service. Among the more notable
Conventions celebrated have been those with the
Kepublic of Mexico for the exchange of parcels and
money orders, and a triweekly postal service intro-
duced to the neighbouring Republic of Guatemala via
Jerez ; a postal service has also been established with
the same country via Zacapa. It is satisfactory to be
able to state that since the inauguration of these
additional services, which took place early in 1907,
scarcely any interruptions have occurred, not even in
the rainiest weather, a fact which may be attributed
to the zeal and ability of the officials and employes of
the Postal Department.
The annual expenditure of this branch of the public
service has increased from $87,084 in 1902, $102,787
in 1903, $121,756 in 1904, $142,855 in 1905, $161,662
in 1906, to over $200,000 in 1910. The regularity
and rapidity with which the house-to-house postal
deliveries take place in the Capital and principal cities
of the Republic have frequently been noticed, and
TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES 21
favourably commented upon, by foreigners sojourning
in Salvador. Honesty among the employes is no less
a feature of the postal arrangements in this Republic,
where all public servants are reasonably paid and are as
diplomatically handled, so that general contentment
obtains among the large class of public servants
employed.
The Parcel Post Department is also exhibiting from
year to year notable increases, as the following figures
will show: $44,613.55 in 1901; $58,096.27 in 1902;
$68,467.30 in 1903; $88,557.60 in 1904; $90,662.72
in 1905; $93,295.80 in 1906; and for the first six
months in 1907 the figures given are $51,654.86, or at
the rate of $103,000 for the whole year.
A Postal Convention for the exchange of money
orders between Salvador and Great Britain was signed
in London on June 27, 1907, in San Salvador on the
following August 27, 1907, and, after being approved
by the President, General Figueroa, took effect on
September 5, 1907, the exchange offices being situated
at San Salvador and London respectively.
The telegraph and telephone service has also
increased consistently, especially since 1903, at which
time as an economic measure, and for the convenience
of the public, a considerable reduction took place in
the amounts of the charges. There has been a large
increase in telephonic connections, and several new
offices have been established, while the old ones have
been considerably improved, necessitating large out-
lays for this purpose, as well as for works and
materials. Many hundreds of miles of new telephone
and telegraph lines have been added to the system, of
late there has been a marked increase in the telephone
and telegraph apparatus, and the personnel of the system
32 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
has been porportionately augmented. There have been
two handsome towers constructed at San Salvador, and
another at Santa Ana, for the introduction of wires to
the Central Offices, and the system in vogue leaves
little to be desired either in regard to efficiency or com-
pleteness. The general budget for telegraphs and tele-
phones has risen steadily, from a little over $260,000,
in 1902, to over $500,000, in 1910.
During the year 1910 the number of cablegrams
received in the Republic were as follows : Cables sent
from Salvador, 7,877 ; received in the Republic, 8,723.
In those transmitted there were used 61,727 words,
and in those received 75,950. Total of cables sent
and received, 16,600 = 137,677 words. The amount
represented in cost was $96,450.47, and of this the
Government received $23,994.27.
Considerable progress has been made in Salvador in
connection with wireless telegraphy, this being one of
the first — if not the first — of the Central American
Republics to adopt the new system of communication.
By the time these pages are in the hands of the read-
ing public, the Government will have completed two
additional wireless stations, one at Planes de Renderos,
near the Capital (San Salvador), and the other at the
Port of La Libertad. With the completion of these
stations, wireless communication will have been estab-
lished between the Capital and all the ports of the
Republic.
The electric light service used and supported by the
Government has also increased. In 1902 the total
cost was barely $25,000, whereas to-day it amounts to
over $50,000, exclusive of the value of subventions by
which several of the electric light companies have been
aided by the Government.
THE POSTAL SERVICE 33
In connection with the recently - held Central
American Conference convened in Guatemala City, and
at which representatives of all five Central American
States were present, great improvements were resolved
upon in reference to the postal arrangements between
these States. It was determined, for instance, to
introduce a much more comprehensive parcels post ;
and although the dimensions of articles which may be
sent were not much extended, the character of the
commerce carried through the post was considerably
broadened, with beneficial results to all of the different
States. It was, among other things, decided to pre-
vent any libellous or indecent publications passing
through the Post- Office ; and here a distinct improve-
ment has been made upon British Post-Office methods,
which permit of the carrying of any sort of literature
so long as it is covered from inspection. The Central
American postal authorities reserve the right — and
exercise it — to open and retain anything which they
suspect to be of a dangerous or wrongful nature, and
thus they act with more intelligence than some of their
European brethren.
The Regulation for the Control of the Postal Service,
as passed by the Government on September 26,
1893, was found wholly unfit for this important
branch ; and from that date to the present, continual
reforms have been introduced into the postal service,
which now stands among the best regulated in Central
America. In the Fiscal Estimate of the year 1907,
passed by the National Congress, several notable
economies were introduced, such as the suppression of
some of the too numerous employes, and reduction of
the salaries of others ; while these measures seemed
opportune, they did not work well in practice, neither
3
34 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
did they give good results. The Ministry was obliged,
therefore, to again make alterations in order to insure
permanent order in the postal department.
By a resolution of September 28 and October 24
respectively, the Government arranged to suppress
the office of Administrator of the Post-Offices in the
different Capitals of the Departments, joining the
functions of that to those of the Administrator of
Revenues, but without augmenting the pay for this
additional service. From this arrangement, however,
the offices of Santa Ana, Sonsonate, and San Miguel,
were excepted, while some others were annexed to the
Department of the Fiscal Receiver and to the respec-
tive telegraph -offices.
At present the active staff of the Postal Service of
the Republic is composed of 327 individuals, organized
in the following departments : General Direction ;
Departmental Administrations ; Postal Contractors.
The General Direction is subdivided thus : Sub-Direc-
tion ; Secretary ; Bookkeeper and Cashier ; Office of
Postal Statistics ; Keeper of Stores ; Amanuensis ; and
Keeper of the Archives. The Chiefs are those of the
Foreign Department, of the Interior, of Registered
Letters, of Parcels Post, and of Poste Restante and
Unclaimed Letters Department. There are besides
five Assistants, two Transmitters of Postal Specie,
twenty - two letter - carriers, and forty - eight junior
postmen.
The Exchange Offices include three Administrators,
three Superintendents, and six letter-carriers. Those
of the first class are — six Administrators, six super-
intendents, sixteen letter-carriers, and twenty-five
postmen. Those of the second class are — six Admini-
strators and eight letter-carriers. Those of the third
EXCHANGE OFFICES
35
class are — nineteen Administrators and an equal
number of letter-carriers. Those of the fourth class
are — forty-three Administrators and forty-three letter-
carriers ; and these are again sub- administered by the
respective municipalities. There are seven Postal
Contractors, who have in their service some forty or
fifty subordinates. Three Postal Agencies complete
the service, namely — one in Panama (Central America),
one in the Sitio del Nino (a station on the Salvador
Railway), and the other in Parras Lempa.
CHAPTER III
Biographical — The President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo — The ex-President,
General Fernando Figueroa — The Cabinet — Dr. Francisco Duenas —
Don Eafael Guirola, D. — Dr. Teodosio Corranza — Dr. Manuel
Castro, E. — Dr. Cecilio Bustamente — Senor Jose Maria Peralta Lagos
— Dr. Jose" A. Castro, V. — Dr. E. Bracamonte — Dr. Miguel Duenas —
Senor Carlos G. Prieto — Dr. Artiiro Ramon Avila.
DR. MANUEL ENRIQUE ARAUJO, President of the
Republic of Salvador, although a comparatively young
man, has long been regarded as one of the most dis-
tinguished scholars and politicians of his time. Born
at Jucuapa, he came at a very early age to the Capital,
in order to study medicine and surgery, and very soon
he secured a wide reputation — extending, indeed,
beyond the confines of his own country — as a great
authority upon special medical and surgical cases.
While still quite young, Dr. Manuel Araujo was
married to Senorita Maria Peralta, the beautiful and
accomplished daughter of a former President of the
Republic, Don Jos£ Maria Peralta, a man who enjoyed
universal respect and affection.
The young politician was always a strong Liberal
in politics, but he never permitted party spirit
to prejudice him in respect to his public actions,
which have, both before and since his occupancy of
the Chief Magistracy, been characterized by complete
independence of judgment and commendable broad-
mindedness. Besides being the selected occupant of
36
PRESIDENT ARAUJO 37
the Presidential Chair by practically all political
parties alike, Dr. Araujo is regarded as the representa-
tive of both the culture and the scientific professionalism
of the country. As already mentioned, he is a very
distinguished surgeon ; he has also invented some
very delicate and useful surgical instruments, many of
which may be found in the Paris and Continental
hospitals. The Chief Executive occupies the position
of President of the Salvador Branch of the Spanish-
American University. In social as well as in educa-
tional circles, Dr. Araujo is highly respected, apart from
his exalted position ; and to foreigners he is especially
persona grata, on account of his broad sympathies and
general charm of manner. It will be entirely contrary
to general expectations and present appearances if,
during his tenancy of the Chief Magistracy, Salvador
fails to enjoy a great industrial peace and prosperity,
as well as a financial regeneration, such as has long
been devised to place this State in the fore-rank of
Latin-American countries.
While politics in Salvador, as in so many other'
countries north and south of the Equator, have come
to be regarded as a profession, Dr. Araujo has shown
that he has considered them as accessories rather than
expedients, and has carried out in principle the axiom
that " he serves his party best who serves his country
best." Inasmuch as Dr. Araujo occupied the position
of Vice-President of the Republic in the Government
of General Fernando Figueroa, it may be assumed that
he has been in thorough accord with his policy ; and
now that he himself occupies the same exalted office,
no great change in the Government's projects or
methods of carrying them into effect will result.
That some of the youngest men have proved the
38 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
greatest statesmen history clearly shows ; and the
nstance may be cited of our own brilliant countryman,
William Pitt, himself a son of the great Earl of
Chatham, who made his first speech in the House of
Commons when he was but twenty-two years of age,
and became Prime Minister at the age of twenty-three.
It is the young blood and youthful activity which are
helping to mould a successful future for the Salvador
of to-day.
By authority of Article 68 of the Constitution, the
National Legislative Assembly elected, last May,
Senor Carlos Melendez, Dr. Fernando Lopez, and
General Juan Amaya, First, Second and Third
Designates respectively, to succeed to the Presidency
of the Republic in case of a vacancy occurring during
the present term.
General Fernando Figueroa, President of the
Republic from 1907 to 1911, was born in San Vicente.
Even when a small boy his disposition led him to a
military career, and while still in his teens he enlisted
in the ranks of the Salvadorean Army, during the
memorable struggle with Guatemala of 1863. Under
the command of General Bracamonte, he became a
Lieutenant, and speedily distinguished himself in the
field. He was on this occasion very severely wounded,
and also was specially mentioned in despatches. After
the death of General Gerardo Barrios, and the election
of Dr. Duenas as President, young Fernando Figueroa
was given his captaincy. He was mainly instrumental
in organizing the militia, and in 1871 he put its
capabilities to the test when the war in Honduras
broke out. Upon the overthrow of the Government of
Dr. Duenas, and the selection of Marshal Santiago
Gonzalez as Provisional President, peace was proclaimed
GENERAL FERNANDO FIGUEROA, PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR
1907-1911.
EX-PRESIDENT FIGUEROA 39
with Honduras, General Medina being recognized as
legitimate President, and young Figueroa's services
were temporarily unneeded. In 1872, however, Captain
Figueroa was again fighting in territory belonging to
Honduras, namely at Sabana Grande and Santa
Barbara, his gallant services at the first-named place
gaining for him his lieutenant-colonelcy. In the
following year, 1873, Colonel Figueroa distinguished
himself in a third expedition against Honduras, at
which time the President of the Republic was Senor
Celio Arias, but who, by Salvador's aid, was dis-
possessed of the Chief Magistracy in favour of General
Ponciano Leiva. Colonel Figueroa's bravery at the
Battle of Amapala, and his gallant support of General
Juan Jose Samayoa, have become important facts in
Salvadorean history.
This same year he was appointed Governor of his
native Department, San Vicente. In 1876, after fresh
exploits in the field, the rising young soldier became a
General, and with this military advancement he assisted
the same year at the Battle of Pasaquina, in which he
was once again seriously wounded. The events of 1876
led to further civil war, which continued with but few
important intervals of peace until 1885, and during
which period Marshal Santiago Gonzalez fell from power,
and Dr. Rafael Zaldivar replaced him as President.
At this time, also, General J. Rufino Barrios died on
the battle-field of Chalchuapa, and General Figueroa
was given the supreme command of the Government
troops against the Revolutionists, who were headed by
General Francisco Menendez. The latter having suc-
ceeded in attaining position as head of the State,
General Figueroa retired temporarily ; but he returned
with the inauguration of the administration of General
40 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Carlos Ezeta, and was again appointed to his former
post of Governor of San Vicente. Later on he was
nominated Minister of War, which position he resigned
upon becoming candidate for the Presidency. He was
duly and constitutionally elected in November of 1906,
took office on March 1, 1907, and retired automatically
with the fresh elections of 1910, to give place to Dr.
Manuel Enrique Araujo, the present Chief Magistrate.
During his long and honourable career, General
Figueroa has been distinguished as much for his
brilliant soldier-like qualities as for his personal work
and high sense of probity. He has had — as have all
great men — his enemies and his detractors ; but none
among them can bring — nor ever have brought — any
charge against his personal honour or integrity.
It was his keen patriotism and shrewd diplomacy
which arrested the three-cornered armed conflict in
which Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, were con-
cerned in 1907, and but for General Figueroa's tact
and good sense, coupled with his masterly grasp of
the situation, these three sister States would have
exhausted themselves over a dispute which was prac-
cally worthless, and would have proved just as
fruitless.
The Minister for Foreign Affairs is Dr. don Francisco
Duenas, a barrister, and a very distinguished member
of the profession. Born in San Salvador, and forty-three
years of age, Dr. Duenas has occupied several important
positions in the legal profession, and he is looked upon
as one of the soundest authorities on commercial and
general law. The Minister is regarded as an extremely
able man, who is bound to rise to the highest position
which the State can confer upon him.
The Minister of Finance is Senor don Eafael
THE MINISTRY 41
Guirola, D., a thoroughly sound, practical business
man, with a wide knowledge of finance and commerce
in all its branches and a member of one of the leading
families. He may be depended upon to adopt a com-
prehensive and intelligent view of all subjects per-
taining to his Department, and it may be accepted as
certain that he will give wide encouragement to such
foreign enterprise as can be regarded as of benefit to
the State. Senor Eafael Guirola, D., is forty-five
years of age.
The Minister of the Interior, Industry ("Fomento"),
Public Instruction and Agriculture, Dr. don Teodosio
Corranza, is also one of the most prominent lawyers in
the Republic. He was born in San Salvador, and is
about fifty-two years of age. He has occupied some
of the most important and responsible posts in the
country, and is considered by all alike as lending both
distinction and prominence to his high office.
Dr. don Manuel Castro, R, Sub-Secretary of State
for Foreign Affairs, is a barrister by profession, and
a distinguished member of the Salvador Academy.
Although only twenty-seven years of age, Dr. Castro
has already filled with great distinction several
important positions in the legal profession, and
he is regarded as a rising " star " in the political
firmament.
The portfolio for Home Affairs has been entrusted
to the capable hands of Dr. Cecilio Bustamente, who
is also a distinguished lawyer, as well as the writer
of several books of more than ordinary merit. On
several occasions Dr. Bustamente has occupied a
position on the Bench, his judgments and rulings
always having commanded deep respect, and invari-
ably being the outcome of calm consideration and
42 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
much forensic learning. Dr. Bustamente is about
thirty-eight years of age.
Public Instruction is under the direction of Dr. Gus-
tavo Bardn, who is three years younger than Dr.
Bustamente. By profession he is a physician and
surgeon, having taken high degrees at the Paris
University. Before entering the present Cabinet,
Dr. Baron served as teacher of, and lecturer upon,
several subjects in the National University of Salvador;
and there is probably no man in the Republic who
enjoys a wider respect or a deeper regard, especially
among his colleagues, than the present Sub- Secretary
of Instruction and Promotion.
The important portfolio of Public Works has been
entrusted to the hands of Senor don Jose Maria
Peralta Lagos, a civil engineer of great reputation in
Central America, although only forty-two years of age.
For many years past Senor Peralta Lagos has been
interested in engineering undertakings, and there can
be no question that he is admirably fitted both by
experience and long study of current engineering
subjects for the high and responsible position which he
occupies.
The portfolio of Justice is in the hands of Dr. don
Josd Antonio Castro, V., a young but very brilliant
man, his age being only twenty-eight years, and who
is a barrister by profession.
War and Marine are represented by Don Eusebio
Bracamonte, a counsel of great reputation, and who
for a considerable time occupied the position of Chief
Justice of the High Court of Salvador. Dr. Braca-
monte is forty-three years of age.
The portfolio of Agriculture is in the hands of
Don Miguel Duenas, who has devoted many years to
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE 43
a careful study of agriculture in all its branches, and
has, from his experience and the careful observation of
the methods employed in foreign countries, intimately
acquainted himself with all modern methods, many of
which he has personally introduced upon his own
country estates. Senor Duenas, who is forty years of
age, has travelled very considerably in the United
States and in Europe, and he speaks both English
and French with considerable facility. For some
years past he has been a Member of Congress, while
he is also the Founder and the President of the
Salvadorean Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture,
an institution which has already conferred considerable
benefits upon the State.
Senor Carlos G. Prieto, Sub-Secretary of Finance
and Public Credit, is forty-five years of age, and a
sound authority upon finance and commerce generally.
It is worthy of mention that the Ministry of Agri-
culture in Salvador is an entirely new creation, and
owes its existence to the ruling President, Dr. Manuel
E. Araujo. Considering the immense interest which
Salvador has in agriculture, and bearing in mind the
fact that upon its intelligent pursuit depends, to a
very large extent, the prosperity of the country, it
is surprising that a Department for Agriculture should
not have been previously instituted. This is probably
due to the fact that the late Ministry was disinclined
to add further to the burden of expenditure in con-
nection with the government of the country ; but the
additional expenditure incurred in the establishment
of this Department has been abundantly justified by
results, and there is very little question that, if for
nothing else, the Presidency of Dr. Araujo will stand
out prominently in connection with a governmental
44 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
creation which has long been needed, and which is
already proving thoroughly useful.
A new branch of the Government service has been
established within the past few months in the form of
an Information Bureau, which should prove of great
utility to manufacturers and shippers, if they desire
to avail themselves of it. Already several North
American firms have done so, and, as I understand,
with some material advantage, the existence of the
department having been brought to the attention of
United States commercial men by the very up-to-date
and shrewd American Consul-General at San Salvador,
Mr. Harold D. Clum. I have not heard that any
attention has been directed to the institution by the
British Board of Trade.
The Salvador Congress authorized, and the Ministry
of Agriculture maintains, this Information Bureau, to
report upon the orders which the various departments
of the Government may consider it expedient to
place abroad or upon the home market. The law
provides that Government orders shall be placed only
after, and presumably upon the basis of, a report from
this Bureau ; so that it is a distinct advantage to
manufacturers and others, who desire to market goods
in which the Government might be interested, to send
their catalogues (but printed in Spanish, and not in
English) with price lists (but calculated in decimal
measurements and coinage, and not in " £ s. d."), as
well as their proposals, to the Bureau. All such com-
munications should be addressed : " Oficina de Infor-
maci6n, Ministerio de Agricultura, San Salvador." And
let it be remembered that the postage upon letters
is2id.!
The young and vigorous blood of which the Sal-
DR. AVILA 45
vadorean Cabinet is composed is perhaps one of its
strongest and most promising features, and the excel-
lent impression which its formation created last March
has been confirmed in every way since it got to work
and proved the quality of its members for governing
the country wisely and economically.
It would, under ordinary circumstances, perhaps be
difficult to replace the valuable services which, for
fifteen years past, have been rendered by Mr. Mark
Jamestown Kelly, F.R.G.S., as Consul- General for the
Republic of Salvador to the United Kingdom, with
residence in London, and to whom full reference has
been made in a preceding page; but it will be
generally admitted that the Government has made a
very wise and a very acceptable selection in Dr. Artiiro
Ramon Avila. The new Consul-General is a native of
San Miguel, and belongs to one of the leading families
of the country, and occupying a very high social
position in the Republic.
Although only twenty-seven years of age, Dr. Avila
has already attained some celebrity in his own country,
and has received the degree of Doctor of the Faculty
of Jurisprudence, a title which was conferred upon him
by the National University of Salvador. In 1907
one of Dr. Avila's most notable achievements was the
composition of a " paper " which he read before the
Tribunal of Examination, this being a learned thesis
upon the subject of " The Duel" ("El Duelo"), con-
sisting of 100 pages, and pronounced by literary
critics as about the most clever and most convincing
essay which had been written upon the subject.
Previous to entering upon his profession as an
advocate, Dr. Avila served as a Justice of the Peace
for one year in the Capital of Salvador, being later on
46 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTtJRY
appointed Judge of the First Instance. He occupied
a similar position in the Civil and Criminal Courts of
Santa Teda (New San Salvador), and hdd that post
for two years. Dr. AvOa had also for some time been
advocate -in -chief for the Banco Salvadoreno, of
Salvador, and he represented legally various other
reputable houses of commerce. Dr. Avfla holds the
position of Onsul-Geoml of the Republic of Salvador
for Great Britain and Ireland, and has taken con-
venient offices at 8, Union Court, Old Broad Street,
London, KG
Senor Santiago Perez Iriana* who has for some tin*
been a resident in London, entered the service of the
Salvadorean Government as Secretary of tike Legation
in 1900, under Dr. ZaHivar, and accompanied him to
December of that year. Senor Perez Triana's capacity
was that of second delegate of Salvador, Dr. Zaldrrar
being chief of the Mission, the third Attache, who
occupied a similar position to that of Senor Peres
Triana, bong Senor M. Rodriguez Subsequently
Senor Pert* Triana was appointed Secretary of the
Legation of Salvador in Spain. Since 1901, when he
wont to the last-named country to reside, he occupied
and in London; and he still occupies a
in the latter city, but not in Spain. In 1907 Senor
Perea Triana was appointed Delegate to the Hague
Conference for Salvador, jointly with Mr. P. J.
Matheu. He k a quite remarkable orator and a nan
of great culture, Rpnaking English with complete
accuracy and writing it with equal facility.
In connection witii the Gxunriion of Their MjgeatiaB
King George and Queen Mary, in the month of Ji
DR. ARTI'RO RAMON AVILA ;
CONSUL-GENERAL FOR THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR TO GREAT BRITAIN.
APPOINTED MAY, 191 1.
SENOR MIGUEL DUESAS 47
last, the Salvadorean Government sent to London
an Extraordinary Mission to represent the Republic,
selecting for the purpose Senor J. Miguel Duenas
who by birth and education was well fitted to fill so
important a position. Senor Duenas was born in the
city of San Salvador on August 28, 1871, and is a son
of an ex-President of Salvador, Dr. Francisco Duenas,
and Donna Teresa Dardano. After a brilliant college
career, pursued both in his own country, in the United
States, and in Europe, Senor Duenas returned in 1895
to Salvador, where he was soon afterwards elected by
popular vote as Deputy to the National Congress of
the Republic. He also became an active member of the
Municipal Council, and is the Founder and President
of the Salvador Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture
in Salvador. He retains his position as Secretary of
State for the Department of Agriculture, which, as
mentioned previously in this volume, was brought into
existence upon the initiative of the present President
of the Republic, Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, this
being one of his first official acts after assuming
the Presidential chair, in the month of March last.
Accompanying Senor Duenas was his wife, Seiiora
Donna Maria Eugenia Palomo.
The new Minister of Salvador in Spain and Italy,
with residence at Madrid, is Dr. don J. Gustavo
Guerrero, who was for many years Consul-General for
Salvador at Genoa, and acted as First Secretary of the
Special Diplomatic Mission of Salvador to the Court of
St. James in connection with the Coronation of King
George V. He is one of the several young men of
great promise in Salvador, and is destined to go far.
He is, moreover, a distinguished advocate, having
taken high degrees at the Universities of San Salvador
48 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
and Guatemala City. He has acted as Deputy
Governor at the first-named Capital, as well as Consul
at Burdeos, Consul at Genoa, Secretary of Legation
at Washington, and Charge d'Affaires at Borne and
Madrid.
In the month of May last (1911) Senor don Nicolas
Leiva was appointed Consul for Salvador at Liverpool,
which port carries on a fair amount of trade with the
Republic.
CHAPTER IV
Government finances — London Market appreciation of Salvador bonds
— History of foreign debt — Salvador Railway security — Central
American Public Works Company — Changing the guarantee — Finan-
cial conditions to-day — Public debt at end of 1909 — Budget for
1910-11 — Small deficit may be converted into a surplus — Summary.
THE high opinion which the London Market entertains
regarding Salvadorean Government securities is shown
by the price at which they are quoted ; and although
judged upon their merits, these same securities are
rather too cheaply priced, they form a marked contrast
to some of the neighbouring States' foreign loans, such,
for instance, as Costa Rica and Honduras. As a
matter of fact, the Salvadorean Governments of suc-
cessive years have strictly and faithfully performed
their foreign obligations ; and it has been the firm
policy of past Presidents, as it is of the present
Executive, to maintain their foreign credit upon an
unassailable basis. It is possible to speak very en-
couragingly of the Salvador 6 per cent. Sterling Bonds,
which were issued in March, 1908, at 86 per cent., and
which are at the present time of writing quoted at or a
little above par. Their desirability as an investment
depends upon the standard of security they afford — on
the probability, that is, that Salvador will faithfully
fulfil its obligations. The Salvador Government 6 per
cent. Sterling Bonds (1908), amounting to £1,000,000,
were issued to meet the cost of certain public works
and to repay certain local loans contracted at a higher
49
50 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
rate of interest. The loan is redeemable by an accumu-
lative sinking fund of 2J- per cent., by purchase or
drawing, and is secured by a first charge on — (a) the
special Customs duty of $3.60 (U.S. gold) per 100 kilo-
grammes of imported merchandise ; and (b) the duty
of 40 cents (U.S. gold) per quintal (up to 500,000
quintals) of the annual export of coifee, the proceeds
of which are remitted fortnightly to the London Bank
of Mexico and South America, whose Chairman stated
recently that "the rapid way in which the remittances
are coming forward is very satisfactory, and will, no
doubt, in time improve the credit of this small but
hard-working country." The bonds constitute the
whole External Debt of the country, previous loans
having been commuted in 1899 for debentures of the
Salvador Railway Company, to which the Government
pays an annual subsidy of £24,000. This subsidy has
now been punctually remitted for over nine years. It
is on such grounds as these that the friends of Salvador
maintain that the value of the bonds should not be
gauged by the financial reputation of some of the
other Central American Republics.
It may be interesting to trace the whole history of
Salvador's foreign indebtedness, which commenced as
far back as 1827. The record — by no means an
unworthy one — is as follows :
1827 : Of the debt of the Central American Federa-
tion— which was composed of Salvador, Guatemala,
Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and amounting
to £163,000 — the proportion which was assumed by
Salvador was one-sixth, £27,200.
1828-1859 : No interest was paid during this long
period of turbulence and strife.
1860 : Salvador compromised her share of the debt
for 90 per cent, paid in cash.
FINANCES 51
1889 : A loan for £300,000 was issued, bearing 6 per
cent, interest and 2 per cent, accumulative sinking
fund. It was offered by the London and South-
Western Bank at 95 J per cent., and was specially
secured on 10 per cent, of the Customs duties and
the rights of the Government on the railway from
Acajutla to Ateos (thirty-five miles), and in the pro-
posed extension to San Salvador. Out of the proceeds
of the loan a mortgage of the Government's interest in
the portion of the railroad already constructed (Aca-
jutla to Sonsonate), amounting to £183,000, was paid
off. The extension of the railway was only continued
for a distance of seven miles from Ateos to La Ceiba.
1892: Bonds for an amount of £500,000, bearing
6 per cent, interest and 1 per cent, accumulative sinking
fund, were created by the Government and issued by
Messrs. Brown, Janson and Co. to the contractor Mr.
A. J. Scherzer, in pursuance of a contract made by the
Government with Mr. Scherzer in 1891, for the purpose
of the extension of the railway. These bonds were
specially secured on 10 per cent, of the Customs duties,
and also by a first mortgage on the railway line from
Ateos to Santa Ana (thirty miles) when built. These
bonds were not issued to the public, but were delivered
from time to time to the contractor, against the
engineer's certificates, as the works proceeded.
1894 : A company called the Central American
Public Works Company was registered by Mr. Mark J.
Kelly in London, and Mr. Kelly was associated with
Mr. Scherzer in carrying out this contract, and in
the month of April a concession was obtained from
the Government under which the contract of 1891
was cancelled. The Central American Public Works
Company undertook to complete the line to Santa
Ana ; to build a branch from Sitio del Nino to
52 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
San Salvador (twenty-four miles), together with a
deviation of one and a half miles at the port of
Acajutla ; to give the Government £70,000 in fully-
paid ordinary shares of the company when issued ; and
to redeem the loans of 1889 and 1892. The Govern-
ment, on its part, agreed to hand over to the Company
the whole of the railways for a period of ninety-nine
years, and to guarantee the Company for fifty years
a net annual profit on working the railways of 6 per
cent, upon the sum of £800,000, secured by a charge
of 10 per cent, on the import duties.
A change of Government took place almost immedi-
ately afterwards, and, owing to the differences which
then arose between the Government and the Com-
pany, the concession was declared void.
But in December a supplementary contract was
entered into between the Company and the new
Government, by which it was agreed that — (1) The
£70,000 of shares of the Public Works Company were
to be delivered to the Government by May 31, 1895
(this was done, and the Company took possession of
the completed portion of the line and commenced the
construction of the remainder) ; (2) the duration of
the concession was shortened from ninety-nine to
eighty years ; (3) the guarantee was reduced from
£48,000 a year to £24,000 during the construction
of the line to Santa Ana, £36,000 during the con-
struction to San Salvador, and the full £48,000 was
not to be paid until the railway was entirely finished.
1898 : In this year a new company, called the Sal-
vador Railway Company, Limited, was formed to take
over the concession from the Central American Public
Works Company. Proposals were laid before the
holders of the 1889 and 1892 loans to convert their
bonds into mortgage debentures of the railway com-
RAILWAY FINANCE 53
pany. Some of the 1889 bondholders, however, declined
to signify their adherence to the scheme, and it
was thus found impossible to arrange for the release
of the mortgage on the first section of the railway.
The Central American Public Works Company had,
moreover, undertaken to deliver to the Government
all the bonds by December, 1898 ; they therefore
approached the Government with the object of securing
further legislation in order to get over the difficulty.
In this they were not at the time successful, and the
Government declined to remit to the company the
sum due under the guarantee for the half-year ending
December 31, 1898. The funds for the payment of
the February and August, 1898, coupons on the 1889
bonds were sent by the Government direct to the
London and South- Western Bank. The November
1897 drawing and May 1898 coupons on the 1892
bonds, and the July 1898 drawing and February 1899
coupons on the 1889 bonds, were not paid.
1899 : On February 8 of this year a further con-
tract was entered into between the Government and
Mr. Kelly, representing the Central American Public
Works Company, of which the following were the
principal provisions: (1) The company was to hand
over to the Government for cancellation the outstand-
ing 1889 and 1892 bonds (in round figures amounting
to £725,000) within six months from the date of
ratification of the contract by Congress. The company
might, however, leave outstanding £60,000 of the
bonds if they could not make delivery of the whole
of them, but on these they were to pay on their own
account the same interest (6 per cent.) and amortiza-
tion (2 per cent.), as the Government was under
obligation to do. (2) The Government was to pay
the company for eighteen years from January 1, 1899,
54, SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
a fixed annual subsidy of £24,000 in lieu of the
previous guarantee, and to hand over all the railways
free of charge. The subsidy was to be secured on
1 5 per cent, of the import duties, in respect of which
the Government was to issue special Customs notes.
These notes were to be handed to a bank named by
the company, who were to sell them and collect the
proceeds.
The railway company engaged themselves to com-
plete the line to the Capital by June 30, 1900. If
the bonds of the external debt were not handed over
within the period stipulated, the Government was
to have the right, subject to existing hypothecations,
to take possession of the railways.
In April, 1899, an agreement was entered into
between the Council of Foreign Bondholders, acting in
conjunction with the Committee of 1889 bondholders,
and the Central American Public Works Company, for
the transfer to the Salvador Eailway Company of the
railways and concessions held by the Works Company,
including the subsidy payable under the contract of
February 8, 1899, on such terms as might be agreed
between the Works Company and the railway company.
The railway company were to issue (l) Prior lien
debentures to the amount of £163,000, forming part
of a total authorized issue of £250,000, and bearing
5 per cent, interest and 1 per cent, accumulative
sinking fund, to be applied by purchase or drawings
at par. Such issue to be for the purpose of providing
the funds for the completion of railway, repairs, work-
ing capital, and expenses ; (2) 5 per cent, mortgage
debentures to the amount of £660,000, to provide for
the cancellation of the outstanding bonds of the 1889
and 1892 loans, the debentures of the Public Works
Company (£150,000), and other claims.
RAILWAY FINANCE
55
These debentures were to be redeemable by an
accumulative sinking fund of 1 per cent, per annum,
commencing from August 15, 1906, to be applied by
purchases or drawings, at the price, in the case of
drawings, of £103 for each £100 of debentures. The
holders of the 1889 bonds were to receive, in respect
of each £100 bond, £100 in mortgage debentures of
the railway company, bearing interest from August 15,
1899. The 1889 bonds were deposited with the
Council against the issue of negotiable receipts, with
two coupons of £2 10s. each attached, payable out of
the first two instalments of the subsidy in respect
of the coupons on each bond of £100, due February 15
and August 15, 1899.
This arrangement was accepted by the holders of
the bonds of the 1889 and 1892 loans, who by the
necessary majorities authorized the trustees of the
loans to release the respective mortgages. It was also
approved by the holders of the debentures of the
Public Works Company, and was duly carried into
effect.
STATEMENT OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE
LAST TEN YEARS.
Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Deficit.
$
I
9
1901
7,556,721.56
7,284,264.51
727,542.95
1902
6,702,021.70
8,459,460.84
1,757,439.14
1903
6,792,045.69
7,704,756.34
912,710.65
1904
8,060,689.05
8,759,404.63
698,715.58
1905
8,536,443.07
10,045,413.03
1,508,969.96
1906
8,484,419.78
12,246,825.76
3,762,405.98
1907
8,669,189.12
11,389,642.40
2,720,453.28
1908
10,676,338.92
12,656,656.61
1,980,317.69
1909
10,776,028.65
11,856,002.21
1,139,903.56
1910
10,620,865.57
13,027,546.96
2,406,681.39
185,814,833.11
1103,429,973.49
$17,615,140.28
56 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
It will be observed that, while the general revenue
of the Republic had expanded considerably during the
past decade, having, indeed, increased about 50 per
cent., the expenditure had, unfortunately, expanded
also, and to a greater degree, leaving an annually
increasing deficit to be met. The reason for this
during the latter few years is clear — the unfortunate
political troubles which were thrust upon the Republic
by the acts of certain revolutionists instigated by the
evil genius of Central America, ex-President J. Santos
Zelaya, and which turned what might have been a
fairly profitable period into a disastrous one, from a
financial aspect.
Nevertheless, there is no reason to adopt a despair-
ing view of the Salvadorean national finances, since
the resources of the country are very elastic, and their
development is but in its infancy.
It is much to the credit of the Government, both
the present and that which was lately in, office, that
the situation should have been so boldly and frankly
met, the whole position being explained and true
reasons given. Everyone must think the better of
the authorities for their honesty in dealing with the
nation, an honesty which is, unfortunately, rare, not
alone among Latin-American States, but also among
European Governments of much older growth and
wider experience. Don Manuel Lopez Mencia, the
ex-Minister of Finance, who is a thoroughly capable
and experienced financier, fully grasped the neces-
sities of the situation, and before retiring from office
freely criticized his own Department, offering many
valuable and timely suggestions for improving it and for
placing the finances of the country upon a more satis-
factory basis. I believe that the present year (1911)
PUBLIC DEBT
57
is destined to afford a much more encouraging con-
dition, and a continuation of the present economical
and severe retrenchment policy in force ; the deficit,
which has made an unwelcome appearance in each
year's accounts over a period of a whole decade, will
gradually give place to a surplus. Naturally, all
depends upon internal peace being preserved and
freedom from foreign political troubles ; both of which,
happily, at the time of writing seem to be well
assured.
In regard to the general financial conditions of
Salvador, which are at the present time in a much
more satisfactory state, the following particulars will
be of interest :
PUBLIC DEBT.
The composition of the Public Debt on December 31,
1909, stood as follows :
GOLD LIABILITIES.
Sundry cash creditors ...
Bills payable ...
National indemnity bonds
External loan principal ...
External loan interest and expenses
$ Gold.
4,744,000
3,657,694
9 Gold.
906,585
363,545
73,656
8,401,694
$9,745,480 Gold.
at 150 premium, 124,363,700 Silver.
SILVER LIABILITIES.
Sundry creditors
Salvador bonds (principal and
interest)
Administrative salaries, expenses,
etc.
Deposits
Funds to be applied to special pur-
poses
Various bonds ..
Total
$ Silver.
930,550
3,564,207
836,299
2,629
88,022
113,140
5,534,848
$29,898,548 Silver.
58 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The Public Debt of the Republic of Salvador on
December 31, 1901, amounted to $10,666,584 (gold)
= £2,133,517, and $6,207,059 (silver) = £517,256.
Reduced to the silver unit, the total Debt amounted
to $32,873,520.
The Customs Revenues for 1910 show a small
decline over those of 1909, the difference being
$3,784.00.
IMPORT DUTIES. EXPORT DUTIES.
Sonsonate $3,522,875.05 $430,359.84
La Union $1,086,766.03 $114,528.03
La Libertad $554,400.57 $125,926.49
Import Duties at the General Imports at El
Treasury (parcels post) ... $169,638.59 Triunfo ... $215,835.19
Totals* $5,333,680.24 $886,649.55
The Government's whole Revenue during the first
half of 1910 amounted to $2,972,501 (gold), and its
expenditure to $2,677,431 (gold).
The total import and export duties for the two years
1909 and 1910 are as follows :
1909. 1910.
Imports ... $4,176,931.56 1 Imports ... $3,745,249.19
Exports ... $8,481,787.65 | Exports ... $9,122,295.09
(These figures are in U.S. gold currency.)
BUDGET FOR 1910-11.
The estimates for the financial year 1910-11,
approved by the National Assembly, and published in
the Diario OJicial of June 6, 1910,| were practically
identical with those for the preceding year.
* These figures are in Salvadorean pesos =$0.403 U.S. gold.
t This volume having to go to press a few weeks before the Return of
1910 will have been issued, the figures for the preceding year only are
available.
ESTIMATES OF REVENUE, 1910-11
59
The details are shown below :
ESTIMATES OF EEVENUE, 1910-11.
CUSTOMS KEVENUE.
Imports : $ Silver-
Import duties ... ... ... ... 3,100,000
Fiscal tax of 30 per cent. ... ... ... 600,000
Taxes of $3.60, $2.40, and $0.50 gold per 100
kilos ... ... ... ... ... 1,952,500
Storage, etc. ... ... ... ... 285,000
Sundry receipts ... ... ... ... 148,500
Exports :
Coffee export duty of $0.40 gold per 46 kilos . . . 600,000
Coffee export duty of $0.12£ for internal de-
velopment in the Capital ... ... ... 75,000
Coffee transit permits ... ... ... 80,175
Tax of $1.50 per 100 kilos in favour of Central
Eailway ... ... ... ... 4,000
Sundry receipts ... ... .., ... 66,557
INTERNAL EEVENUE.
Liquor tax ... ... ;.. ... 2,500,000
Stamps and stamped paper ... ... ... 264,500
Internal Excise ... ... ... ... 126,500
Post-Offices, Telegraphs, and Telephones ... 270,250
National Printing- Office ,.. ... ... 25,000
Penitentiaries ... ... ... ... 30,000
Powder, saltpetre, and cartridges ... ... 65,000
Public Eegistry ... ... ... ... 38,000
Sundry receipts ... ... ... ... 88,800
Total
... $10,319,782
ESTIMATES OF EXPENDITUEE,
1910-11.
$ Silver.
National Assembly
40,980
Presidency of the Eepublic ...
41,340
Department of Finance
670,256
„ Internal Development
636,800
,, Government
... 1,250,463
„ Foreign Affairs
116,080
„ Justice
507,192
„ Public Instruction
714,652
„ Beneficence ...
529,336
„ War and Marine
... 2,573,510
„ Public Credit
... 3,291,260
Total
Ee venue ...
Expenditure
SUMMAEY.
Estimated deficit
... $10,371,869
$10,319,782
10,371,869
$52,087
60 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
In regard to this Estimated Deficit, which in any
case is very small, it is to be mentioned that in
November of this year (1911) an additional export tax
upon coffee, of 30 cents (gold) per 100 kilogrammes
comes into effect, although only for two years, and it is
expected to produce $180,000 (gold). This additional
revenue will wipe out the small anticipated deficit, and
leave a considerable surplus, for the present year.
CHAPTER V
Salvador versus Honduras and Nicaragua — Attitude of the President —
Proclamation to the people — Generals Eivas and Alfaro — Invasion
of Salvador — Ignominious retreat of enemy — Conciliatory conduct of
General Figueroa — Character of Salvadorean people — Treachery of
Zelaya.
THERE is no question that but for the prompt and
conciliatory action of General Figueroa the events
which took place in the last months of 1907 might well
have involved the whole of the States of Central
America in a long, serious, and sanguinary conflict.
As it was, sufficient provocation was given to Salvador,
whose territory was invaded, and many of whose
citizens were either injured or robbed. In this month,
the invaders who came from Honduras were largely
composed of Honduraneans, Nicaraguans, Salvadorean
revolutionists, and American filibusters, who actually
seized the port of Acajutla, and taking forcible posses-
sion of engines and cars belonging to the Salvador
Railway Company, reached as far as the city of
Sonsonate. The invading forces were led by Generals
Manuel Rivas and Prudencio Alfaro, the latter being
General Santos Zelaya's candidate for the Presidency
of Salvador.
It was at this time that General Figueroa issued
a fervent and eloquent appeal to the loyalty of his
troops and his countrymen. In exhorting them to
deeds of valour, he declared that he himself would
61
62 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
lead his army in defence of the national honour even
to death, and his previous military experience would
certainly have enabled him to have carried them to
success. General Figueroa's " Proclamation to the
Salvadorean People" is worth quotation in these pages,
and I therefore give it in full as follows :
" Compatriots : General J. Santos Zelaya, in violation of
the faith imposed in international agreements, has broken his
solemn obligations contracted through the intervention of
the Governments of the United States and Mexico. At day-
break this morning he surprised the small military force at
Acajutla, and has landed Nicaraguan forces with the object
of conquest. Before this brutal offence which the Mcaraguan
G-overnment has committed against us, we should all, as one
man, gather round the flag of our country and defend it,
letting our blood flow rather than allow it to be stained by
the adventurers who, in an evil hour, seek to defile it. The
national honour, the deeds of our forefathers, the future of
our children, and the lofty legends of our people, cry to us to
arise and punish the insolence of the Nicaraguan President,
and to preserve, not only our military glory and our interests,
which recent events in Honduras have shown to be in danger,
but the respect that our heroic army has inspired whenever it
has been called upon in defence of our country.
" Soldiers : Do not permit the consummation of this insolent
attempt in the annals of an enlightened people which would
fill us with shame and opprobrium, rendering us unworthy to
preserve intact the sacred treasure of our autonomy, the
honour of our victorious banner and our sovereignty. Before
permitting the arms of an audacious adventurer to violate the
soil of our beloved country, whose safeguard is entrusted to
the national army and to your undoubted patriotism, prefer
yes, a thousand times, death with honour on the battle-field,
where I will accompany you even to death.
" I have full confidence in your loyalty and in your military
honour, and I therefore place in your hands the sacred trust
of the national defence.
REVOLUTIONIST LEADERS 63
" Free and heroic peoples never retreat before the enemy,
for they carry in their hearts the conscience of doing their
duties and confidence in the right, which assist all worthy
and independent peoples to repel aggression against their
autonomy.
" Salvadoreans : In this movement be assured that I shall
save, untarnished, the honour of the country and the security
of your homes, which are now threatened by the mercenary
soldiery of the Nicaragua!! ruler.
" Your chief and friend,
"F. FlGUEROA,
" SAN SALVADOR,
"June 11, 1907."
It is satisfactory to know that the Presidential call
to arms, in addition to the strong personal influence
which General Figueroa wielded, shortly afterwards
put an end to the trouble that had threatened at one
time to assume the most serious aspects, and to have
involved the whole of the five States in a fierce
struggle. Now that the threatening cloud has been
dispersed — it may be hoped for all time — it is possible
to smile at some of the incidents which have been
related in connection with the embroilment. It is,
for instance, related that the invasion of Salvadorean
territory, the first step of which took place in the
month of June, 1907, failed of achievement princi-
pally on account of a personal dispute which broke
out between the two Revolutionary Generals, Bivas
and Alfaro.
It is alleged that the former, on reaching the town
of Sonsonate, after landing successfully at Acajutla,
proceeded to the National Bank in that town, where
he overawed the cashier (not a very brilliant achieve-
ment, since he was only a boy) and raised what is known
as " a forced loan/' departing heroically with the sum
64 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of $20,000 in silver, and nobly handing over to the
bewildered and trembling bank official a receipt for
that amount signed by himself as the " General of
the new Salvadorean Army." On learning what his
brother - commander had done, Alfaro, it is said,
strongly objected to raising — " stealing," he described
it — money in this manner ; and so emphatic was his
language, and so indomitable his decision to have
none of it, that General Rivas refused on his part
any longer to act with him, and the two leaders
parted there and then, Rivas proceeding on his way
to the Capital at the head of his following, and Alfaro
marching with his to Santa Ana.
Before leaving one another, it was arranged, however,
that the Republic of Salvador should be divided in
half, General Rivas to rule the Eastern zone, with
headquarters at San Salvador, and General Alfaro to
rule the Western zone, with headquarters at Sonsonate.
To this proposition General Alfaro also- strongly ob-
jected at first, but consented reluctantly later ; and
while the two future victors were quarrelling as to
what they would do with the territory which was not
yet theirs, a messenger arrived hot-haste from the
Capital with the unpleasant tidings that General
Figueroa was coming in person with a train-load of
troops to Sonsonate.
Thereupon followed a hasty and most undignified
retreat to Acajutla, and an eyewitness has left a
humorous description of how the brave invaders, in
their desire to get out as soon as possible, precipitated
themselves into small boats, barges, and lighters, or
any kind of thing that floated, making their way to
the gunboat Momotombo, up the sides of which they
scrambled helter-skelter, glad enough to be safely off
GOVERNMENT PREPAREDNESS 65
Salvadorean territory and once more on their way to
the refuge of the Nicaraguan port of Corinto.
The gunboat was obliged, as all vessels are, to
anchor a half-mile from the Acajutla pier, men, arms,
and ammunition having to be conveyed over that
distance in any kind of boat of which they could
command the use.
At an early period of the invasion it is certain that
General Figueroa had the situation well in hand. He
was always popular with the army, and he likewise
possessed the complete confidence of the Salvadorean
people, who felt that in his strong hands the safety
of the Republic lay. Moreover, by his excellent
system of organizing the Intelligence Department of
his army, and the care with which he had selected his
officers, General Figueroa was always in complete
possession of the plans and actions of the opposing
force ; and even when these latter fatuously supposed
that he knew nothing, and was doing nothing, to check
their advance, General Figueroa was laying his plans
with consummate ability, and, as we now know, he
ultimately executed them with complete success.
Dr. Alfaro, who for the nonce had become a
"General," was never an opponent worth much con-
sideration; while General Eivas only displayed any
marked ability when conspiring and organizing foreign
troops, destined to be led to battle, when led at all,
by others than himself. The only man who had any
chance of making serious difficulty, and who might have
fostered formidable trouble, was Barahona, of whose
actions and intentions the President was always fully
aware, and who at the psychological moment con-
signed him to the security of a prison. And there he
kept him until the worst trouble was over.
5
66 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The conciliatory measures which were adopted at
the beginning by General Figueroa and his Govern-
ment were adhered to throughout the upheaval, and
it is only right that impartial history should record
the dignified and sane proceedings which characterized
the attitude of the Eepublic of Salvador at this period.
The views which General Figueroa entertained and
acted upon throughout are clearly reflected in an
official communication addressed to a well-known
American, the then Consul- General for Salvador in the
United States. General Figueroa said :
" Untiring enemies of the peace and repose of our people
have once more endeavoured to create disturbances ; for some
time past my Government has received notices of what was
transpiring, and of the progress of the conspiracy, together
with considerable data. This Government did not, however,
act hastily, assuming, rather, an expectative attitude, but
nevertheless following closely the trend of affairs, until the
moment had arrived when active work was to be begun.
" This Government early received advices from various
parts of the country, notifying it of suspicious movements 011
the part of the enemies of the Republic. It was also noted
that many of these left the Capital two or three days before
for other towns, and all of them were closely followed. The
Government was prepared for all emergencies ; barracks were
ready, and the proper orders given to crush any movements
on their part. Consequently, when numbers of these con-
spirators formed in groups around such towns as Sonsonate
and Ahuachapan, many were captured. The Government is
now in possession of the persons of most of the authors of the
conspiracy, and the guilty ones are being proceeded against
legally. Fortunately, the trouble has not interfered with the
progress of the country, nor with the gathering of the coffee
crop which is now in progress; while the Government has
received assurances of sympathy and support from the great
majority of law-abiding citizens throughout the country."
ZELAYA THE DISTURBER 67
In this reference to the trifling effect occasioned to
the coffee crop by the political disturbances, the
President was a little premature. The subsequent
depression which was experienced in commercial circles
generally was undoubtedly occasioned by these dis-
turbances, although the consequence only proved
transient.
All travellers, foreigners and natives alike, who
happened to be in Central America at this time, were
well aware of the provocative part which President
Santos Zelaya of Nicaragua was playing ; for many
years he had been acting as the evil genius of this
Republic, and his misgovernrnent and brutalities to
his own people met with general condemnation.
There can be no question that the revolution which
was started in Salvador, but which was so promptly
and effectually suppressed, was promoted by Zelaya,
who, rightly or wrongly, imagined that at the psycho-
logical moment he would meet with support, not alone
from Honduras, but from the United States, either
directly or indirectly.
There is sufficient evidence on record to prove that
Dr. Prudencio Alfaro, who, since the death of General
Regalado during the war with Guatemala in 1906,
had attained some slight popularity in Salvador, was
the instrument through whom General Zelaya hoped,
and indeed endeavoured, to carry out his plans. The
conquest of Salvador was only one of them, since, as
I have mentioned in another part of this volume, it
was the ambition of Santos Zelaya to reconstitute
a Federation of the five Central American States, and
then to elect himself first President.
It was with the financial and physical assistance
of Zelaya that Dr. Alfaro engaged the Nicaraguan
68 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
gunboat to convey him and other conspirators from
Corinto to Acajutla in order to spy out the land, and
to industriously lay the seeds of revolution. It was
nothing to Zelaya that he should allow one of the
Government gunboats to be employed in making
warfare against a friendly power, with which he had
signed a treaty of peace only a very few weeks before,
or to supply from the national treasury the funds for
letting loose a horde of armed ruffians upon a neigh-
bour's territory.
I have been shown documentary proofs of the
arrangements upon which Zelaya had been employed
for many months previous, and which provided for the
invasion of Salvador at four different points. From
time to time changes were made in the personnel of
the Nicaraguan commanders, but the names upon the
lists which were shown to me were not in all cases the
same as those of the men who actually took part in
the abortive invasion.
I remember, for instance, observing the name of
General Salvador Toledo, who had previously been
deputed to command the invading army which was
to enter Salvador from Honduras, near the Guatemalan
frontier ; and also that of General Estrada, who had
been nominated to strike at the enemy with the
Northern forces at the proper time. This General
Estrada had been in command of the Honduranean
forces between Puerto Cortes and the Salvadorean line,
and he it was who numbered among his followers all
the scum of the population, mostly consisting of
ex-prisoners and exiles, who were willing enough
to fight against their own country's soldiers, side by
side with Honduraneans.
Another name which was on the officers' list was
STATE OF SIEGE DECLARED 69
that of General Cierra, who was to have entered the
Eepublic of Salvador from the south, with the inten-
tion of capturing the port of La Union, and of meeting
the forces of Generals Cristales and Presa. According
to the calculations which were then made, it was
believed that General Cierra had only 3,000 men with
him.
General Figueroa at this time wisely declared the
City of Salvador " in a state of siege," which is the
equivalent of suspension of political guarantees, to
enable summary action to be taken against political
offenders or even suspects ; a condition afterwards
extended to the whole country ; and his instruc-
tions to the Governors of the several Departments no
doubt saved the Central Government from consider-
able embarrassment as the result of the rising. Those
who led the insurrection had counted upon receiving
support from the public, which, however, they did
not realize, and the lack of this made the capture
of the leaders by the Government troops a matter of
comparative facility. Secondly, much of the incon-
venience which would have followed a general dis-
turbance of the affairs of the country at that time,
and which would have caused both the Government
and the people losses upon coffee shipments, was
spared them, but not altogether obviated.
As we have seen, it was altogether a clumsy attack
which had been planned, and had better local know-
ledge prevailed it would have been ascertained that
the prestige of the existing Government stood too
high, and the personal popularity of General Figueroa
was too great, to have ever endowed this rising with
any great chances of success.
In this connection I think I may well quote an
70 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
extract from an official statement which was made
in El Diario de Salvador, one of the most powerful
papers in the Republic, of which I attach the following
translation :
" In our edition of yesterday we published the decree of
the Supreme Executive power declaring the Republic to be in
a state of siege. According to the terms of this decree, the
Grovernment has been obliged to take extreme measures,
owing to the attempt of its enemies to create a revolutionary
movement calculated to cause a radical change in this Grovern-
ment.
"Fortunately for the Administration, the plot was dis-
covered in time, and repressive measures were at once adopted
which rendered the movement impossible of consummation.
But, if it is certain that the internal peace has not been dis-
turbed, such is not the case with the credit of the country.
Furthermore, the fact that the attempt was made at the time
for harvesting coffee aggravated the situation somewhat for
the moment, and threatened to interfere with the gathering
of this important crop on which much of the prosperity of the
country depends ; but the action of the Chief Executive in
issuing orders to the Governors of the several Departments
has reduced this evil to a minimum.
" In his instructions to the Governors, the Minister of the
Interior provided in part that, notwithstanding the state of
siege, the greatest latitude must be given persons and work-
men who were not actually under suspicion, but insisted on
the strict guarding of public order. Men in the discharge of
their duties, however, were allowed to pass toward the Capital
of the country without the necessity of presenting passports.
This referred particularly to merchants, managers of planta-
tions, and day labourers.
" As will be seen," continued the journal referred to, " the
circular does not mention the municipal elections which are
soon to take place throughout the interior, but the President
of the Republic has authorized us to make known his desires
that these elections be held with perfect freedom, and be
unhampered by the decree of the Executive."
COLONEL'S QUARTERS, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.
OFFICERS' CLUB ROOM, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.
CHARACTER OF SALVADOREAN PEOPLE 71
The extract which I am quoting continues as follows :
" Whatever reasons the enemies of the Government may
set forth in justification of their conduct, it cannot be doubted
that the country has resisted the movement grandly, and has
caused the failure of another attempt, which adds one more
to the number which have aided to discredit the country
abroad, and characterized our land as one of convulsive
nations, incapable of making reasonable use of their Govern-
ments, such as we now enjoy. We must not lose sight of the
fact that the eyes of Europe are upon us, thanks to the impor-
tant role which Salvador is destined to play in uniting the
civilizations of the East with the West."
It cannot be too emphatically pointed out that the
Salvadoreans are not naturally a rebellious or warlike
people, and, except when compelled to take up arms in
their own defence or in favour of a righteous cause,
they ask nothing better than to be permitted to devote
themselves to the congenial and profitable occupation
of cultivating the bounteous land which is theirs by
inheritance. In the troubles which afflicted the
country in the years 1907-08, the whole cause was the
incitement which was offered to them by their
turbulent and troublesome neighbours the Nicaraguans
and the Honduraneans. As I have shown very
conclusively, it was the long-established policy of
Santos Zelaya to foster an outbreak in Salvador which
should broaden into a revolution, in the course of
which Salvadorean troops would be compelled inno-
cently to commit some overt act which would give
Honduras or Nicaragua a cause for the initiation of
a movement against the Kepublic. This, it was hoped,
would ultimately result in the election to the
Presidency of Salvador of Dr. Prudencio Alfaro, who
was always a creature of Santos Zelaya, and who for
72 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
many months was his guest at Managua, where he
formed all his plans, for the execution of which Presi-
dent Zelaya was ready to pay. As we have seen, the
agitators did not wait for the casus belli on the part
of Salvador, but most unwarrantably invaded that
country and committed certain outrages, only, how-
ever, to have to execute a most humiliating retreat
before any beneficial results could possibly have accrued
to them. Had it come to an actual encounter or
series of encounters between the allied forces of
Honduras and Nicaragua on the one hand and the
Salvadoreans on the other, there can be no question
that the latter would in the long-run have emerged
victorious; out of a population of 1,100,000, the
Salvadoreans can claim a fighting force of at least
100,000. The Salvadoreans are the best and most
plucky fighters in South or Central America, as has
been proved upon several occasions, displaying great
intelligence on the battle-field and in the conduct of
their campaigns. At the memorable battle of Jutiapa,
fought between the Salvadorean troops and the Guate-
malans in the previous year (1906), and in spite of
the fact that the latter numbered over 40,000 as
against little more than half that force arrayed on
the side of Salvador, the former gave an extremely
good account of themselves, and showed that the
excellent military training which they had received
had not been thrown away.
The invasion of Salvadorean territory in the month
of June, 1907, by the Nicaraguans was a direct and
unprovoked violation of the Treaty of Peace and
Amity of Amapala, only signed on the previous
April 23, and ratified on May 8, by which the Govern-
ments of the two countries agreed to submit their
TREACHERY OF ZELAYA 73
grievances to the Presidents of the United States and
Mexico for arbitration. The news was first received
through the telegram sent by President Figueroa,
dated June 11, 1907, and addressed to Dr. Manuel
Delgado, the Salvadorean Minister at Washington.
In this despatch, General Figueroa says :
" This morning the revolutionists bombarded and captured
the port of Acajutla. The forces were commanded by G-eneral
Manuel Rivas, and came from Corinto in the warship Momo-
tombo, armed by the President of Nicaragua. It is in this
manner that President Zelaya complies with the terms of
the Treaty of Amapala, which was the result of the interven-
tion of the American Government."
The gunboat mentioned was one of six warships
which Nicaragua at that date possessed, and which
composed the whole of the Nicaraguan " Navy." The
vessel was capable of transporting 1,000 troops, and
the facility with which these landed and seized the
port of Acajutla is explained by the fact that the
Salvadoreans were entirely unsuspicious and unpre-
pared for such an outrageous act upon the part of
the treacherous Zelaya, with whom they had every
reason to consider themselves at peace. The civilized
world has denounced the Nicaraguans' act of aggres-
sion, and unhesitatingly expressed the opinion that
President Zelaya had committed a grave violation
of international ethics in opening hostilities against
Salvador without having made a preliminary declara-
tion of war or giving any reasons for such an action.
CHAPTER VI
Outbreak of hostilities between Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Guatemala — Discreditable conduct of Nicaragua proved — Failure of
United States and Mexican intervention — Dignified and loyal
attitude of General Figueroa — Warning to Honduras — President
Davila used as Zelaya's cat's-paw — The latter's subsequent regret —
Central American Court of Justice trial of claim for damages, and
result of judgment.
THE true friends of interstate peace, of whom there
are as many in Latin America as other parts of the
world — although, from the frequent turmoils which
occur in that part of the globe, one might be excused
for doubting it — were much distressed by the serious
quarrel which broke out between the neighbouring
Republics of Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and
Nicaragua, in the years 1907-08. This was not by any
means the first conflict which arose between Salvador
and Honduras, for the two States were at war in
1871, when General Miranda invaded Honduras with
the object of proclaiming General Xatruch as President
in place of General Medina; again in 1872, when
were fought the famous battles of Sabana Grande and
Santa Barbara; and in 1873, when Salvador sent
an armed expedition against President Celio Arias,
and in order to restore General Ponciano Leiva to the
Presidency of the neighbouring Republic. Although
the relations between Nicaragua and its adjoining
States had long been on a questionable basis owing
to the ambitious projects of General J. Santos Zelaya,
74
INTERSTATE TROUBLES 75
its President, there was no reason to anticipate any
disturbance, more especially as at the most critical
time, owing to the intervention of the United States
and Mexico, the cloud had blown over, and to all
appearances peace reigned.
The worthlessness of the intervention, and the
absolute ineptitude of the United States to effect
any permanent improvement in the prevailing con-
ditions, was, however, proved conclusively a few
months after the Treaty of Peace and Amity had
been signed, amid somewhat premature rejoicings at
Washington, on December 20, 1907. Almost before
the ink was dry upon the document, Honduranean
and Nicaraguan troops had violated the terms and
conditions, and continued, moreover, to do so in spite
of all diplomatic reminders and serious warnings from
the United States. In these "warnings," however,
Mexico took no part, merely using the good offices of
President Diaz to effect what the threat of the Big
Stick had failed to accomplish. Eventually peace
was proclaimed, and since then it has been strictly
maintained as between the different Republics,
although not by any means so within their own
borders, as witness what has recently occurred, and
is still occurring, in Honduras, and, alas ! within
Mexican territory, also. It seems a cruel irony that
Diaz the Dictator should so soon have become the
Deposed. The fact recalls forcibly the poet Burns's
well-known words :
" And may you better reck the rede,
Than ever did th' adviser 1"
The true history of these Republics' quarrels of
recent times would at this stage be somewhat difficult
to record, since an immense quantity of official docu-
76 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
ments would have to be translated and given in full.
To do this, however interesting, would prove impractic-
able within the limits of a single volume. The matter
has been sketched by me from personal knowledge,
and I trust that I shall escape the charge of prejudice
or unfairness to any of the parties involved.
For the facts set forth abundant evidence can be
procured, and possibly, if my account be compared with
the many versions which have been from time to time
adduced by others, who have spoken and written from
authoritative or personal information, it will not be
found to vary very much in the main particulars. I
have patiently listened to the accounts of all that took
place both on Salvadorean and on Nicaraguan territory,
and, furthermore, the incidents which both led up to
and followed the clash of arms were related to me by
the participants when all feeling of animosity and
bitterness had disappeared, and the usual friendliness
between the members of this strangely mercurial
people had been restored. Thus very little for spirit
of resentment — although perhaps something for the
vainglorious spirit of the individuals concerned — need
be allowed. 11 est difficile toujours destimer quelqu'un
comme il veut I'dtre.
Considerable as is the space which I have given up
in this volume to the relations of the Salvadorean,
Honduranean, and Nicaraguan troubles, I find it impos-
sible to publish in its entirety, as I should have liked
to have done, the text of the complaints presented by
the Governments of Honduras and Nicaragua against
that of Salvador, and which were heard before and
decided by the Central American Court of Justice,
as well as the final answer and arguments which were
later on issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
SALVADOR AND HONDURAS 77
Salvador. All these documents, which fill two
substantial and closely - printed pamphlets, the one
consisting of 84 pages and the other of 108 pages, are
extremely interesting and instructive, serving as they
do to throw a particularly clear light upon the methods
of some of the Central American States, which imagine
that they are acting in an " honourable " manner and
fulfilling a respectable destiny.
It is significant that these publications, which are
complete and official, were issued by the Government
of Salvador, from which it is clear at least that this
country had nothing to fear from the world at large
being made acquainted with the history of the troubles.
No less worthy of comment is it that neither Honduras
nor Nicaragua has ever made any rejoinder to the
arguments and conclusions of the Court of Justice
or of the Salvadorean Government, and in this action,
perhaps, they have for the first time shown some
intelligent discretion.
The impartial reader of these publications can only
arrive at one conclusion, nor, indeed, is it even neces-
sary that he should know anything of either the
countries or their inhabitants to be able to form some
sensible deduction from the actual position. The
correspondence, the genuineness of which is un-
challenged, speaks for itself. It seems clear that
the Government of Salvador, while subscribing in
Washington the Central American Treaty of Peace,
swore faithfully to fulfil the International Agreement
which bound it to its sister Republics, and at the
same time opened for itself and for them, as it had
every reason to hope and believe, a new era of
confraternity to be maintained in dignity and mutual
advantage. To the principles of that Treaty, Salvador
78 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
adhered with the utmost rigour ; and, in the face of the
most intense provocation, refused to depart one inch
from its solemn obligations. The attitude which this
small but high -principled State showed at this time
of trouble and trial has evoked the admiration and
commendation of all statesmen, independently of
country, or creed, or political belief.
To particularize more minutely from the abundant
evidence which exists to this effect, and which may
be gathered from every page of these two pamphlets,
is unnecessary in this volume ; but one fact at least
I may call attention to, as exemplifying the honesty
of purpose and the good faith of the Salvadorean
Government towards the Republic of Honduras, at a
time, moreover, when only armed retaliation could
reasonably have been looked for.
In all probability the friendliness of President
Figueroa for his neighbours would never have been
questioned, nor their relations have been in any way
embittered, but for the Machiavellian interference of
Santos Zelaya. It is an eloquent fact of the sympathy
felt for Honduras, that President Figueroa of Salvador
wrote personally, and almost affectionately, to President
Davila, on June 10, 1907, drawing his attention to the
revolutionary plans of certain Honduranean exiles who
were making Salvadorean territory their temporary
headquarters. Only feelings of friendship and good-
nature could have prompted a neighbourly action
of this kind, which, however, some few months after-
wards was rewarded by President Davila allowing
his troops to join forces with the Nicaraguans in their
invasion of Salvadorean territory.
This I may say in defence of ex-President Miguel E/.
Davila, whom I know quite well, and with whom I
PRESIDENT DA VILA USED AS CATS-PAW 79
have had many long and interesting conversations :
he is a man of great honesty of purpose, but of
singularly weak will ; in fact, he has neither initiative
nor power of moral resistance. Quiet and modest to
an extraordinary degree, speaking very little above
a whisper, and with the manners of a curate rather
than those of a soldier, one is inclined to rather
wonder que diable fait-il dans cette galere of President
of an unruly and half-savage Republic.
In agreeing to join Zelaya upon his mad and
mendacious enterprise, President Miguel Davila, who
had only assumed the Presidency in the month of
April of that year (1907), undoubtedly allowed his
better judgment and sense of decency to be overruled.
This do I know, also : he has deeply and sincerely
repented of his action, not because it failed and he
lost the game at which he had consented to try his
hand, but because, being a man, as I have said, of
innate honesty of purpose, he perceived when too late
that he had committed what is a worse offence than a
mistake — a crime against personal honour.
General Fernando Figueroa, however, did something
more than merely warn President Davila of the plot-
ting going on against his government and his life, and
which was proceeding beyond his own jurisdiction.
He actually prevented the leader of the Honduranean
revolutionists, General Teofilo Carcamo, from leaving
Salvadorean territory, keeping him, with many other
conspirators, in prison, and thus helping to quell an
uprising against President Davila's government.
The magnanimity of the Salvadorean Government
continued to the end. Notwithstanding the finding
of the Central American Court of Justice, (delivered
on December 19, 1908), and which, being in favour of
80 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Salvador upon all points raised, should sequentia have
carried costs, the Government forewent any such
claims, which by the terms usually prevailing under
International Law could have been insisted upon, and
found its share of the expenses incurred by the inquiry.
Subsequent to the troubles related in the fore-
going pages, the Honduranean Government stupidly
courted fresh disasters by prosecuting a claim for
damages against the two Republics of Salvador and
Guatemala for injuries which it declared it had
sustained as a result of those two sister-States having
harboured Honduranean agitators and conspirators
within their borders. The exact value of this claim
can best be judged by perusing the following questions
that were considered and determined by the Special
Court of Justice which was formed in Costa Rica (the
only State which stood aside and refused to be
concerned in this Central American squabble), and
the members of which were made up of five different
nationalities. Attached is a faithful translation of
what transpired on this occasion :
IN THB CENTRAL AMERICAN COURT OF JUSTICE AT CARTAGO, COSTA EICA.
THE GOVEENMENT OF THE KEPUBLIC OF HONDUEAS
VERSUS THE GOVEENMENTS OF THE EEPUBLICS OF EL
SALVADOE AND GUATEMALA.
DECISION : IN THE CITY OF CARTAGO, COSTA EICA, AT MIDNIGHT OF
THE 19TH OF DECEMBER, 1908.
Upon the closing of the deliberations of the Court for pronouncing
judgment in the complaint filed by the Government of the Eepublic of
Honduras against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and
Guatemala, charging responsibility that took place in the first-mentioned
Eepublic in the month of June last, the Chief Justice submitted the
following queries to be voted upon in rendering the decision that is to
settle the controversy :
CENTRAL AMERICAN COURT OF JUSTICE 81
First Question. — Should the Court sus-
tain the exception taken by the repre-
sentative of the Government of Guatemala
as to the inadmissibility of the complaint,
on grounds that it was filed before all
negotiations for settlement, between the
two respective Departments of Foreign
Affairs, had been resorted to without
success ?
Second Question. — Should the Court
sustain the exception taken by the same
party, as to the insufficiency of basis of
action, considering that no evidence was
filed together with the complaint ?
Third Question. — Is it proven, and
should it thus be held, that the Govern-
ment of the Kepublic of El Salvador has
violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace
and Amity, signed at Washington on
December 20, 1907, by failing to bring
to the Capital and to submit to trial Hon-
duranean exiles who endangered the peace
of their country ?
Fourth Question. — Is it proven, and
should it thus be held, that the Govern-
ment of the Eepublic of El Salvador has
violated Article 2 of the additional con-
vention to said treaty by fostering and
promoting the revolutionary movement
referred to ?
The result of the vote cast
was as follows :
First Question. — The five
justices answered in the nega-
tive.
Second I Question. — The
five justices answered in the
negative.
Third Question. — Justices
Gallegos, Bocanegra, and
Astua answered in the nega-
tive, and Justices Tide's and
Madriz in the affirmative.
Fourth Question. — Jus-
tices Gallegos, Bocanegra,
Astua, and Madriz answered
in the negative, and Justice
Ucles in the affirmative.
Fifth Question. — Is it proven, and
should it be held, that the Government
of the Eepublic of El Salvador has con-
tributed to the realization of the said
political disturbance, through culpable
negligence ?
Sixth Question. — In consequence,
should the Court hold that the action
instituted against the Government of the
Republic of El Salvador is according to
law, and, if so, should that Government
be sentenced to pay the indemnity for
damages that the complainant prays for ?
Fifth Question. — Justices
Gallegos, Bocanegra, and
Astua answered in the nega-
tive, and Justices Tide's and
Madriz in the affirmative.
Sixth Question.— Justices
Gallegos, Bocanegra, and
Astua answered in the nega-
tive, and Justices Ucles and
Madriz in the affirmative.
6
82 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Seventh Question. — Is it proven, and
should it be held, that the Government
of the Kepublic of Guatemala has violated
Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and
Amity, signed at Washington on Decem-
ber 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the
Capital and submit to trial Honduranean
exiles who endangered the peace of their
country ?
Eighth Question. — Is it proven, and
should it be held, that the Government of
the Eepublic of Guatemala has violated
Article 2 of the additional convention to
the said treaty by fostering and promoting
the revolutionary movement referred to ?
Ninth Question. — Is it proven, and
should it be held, that the Government of
the Bepublic of Guatemala has con-
tributed to the realization of the said
political disturbance, through culpable
negligence ?
Tenth Question. — In consequence,
should the Court hold that the action
instituted against the Government of the
Kepublic of Guatemala is according to
law, and, if so, should the Government
be sentenced to pay the indemnity for
damages the complainant prays for ?
Seventh Question. — Jus-
tices Gallegos, Bocanegra,
Madriz, and Astua answered
in the negative, and Justice
Tide's in the affirmative.
Eighth Question. — Jus-
tices Gallegos, Bocanegra,
Madriz, and Astua answered
in the negative, and Justice
Ucles in the affirmative.
Ninth Question. — Justices
Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz,
and Astua answered in the
negative, and Justice Ucles
in the affirmative.
Tenth Question. — Justices
Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz,
and Astua answered in the
negative, and Justice Ucle's
in the affirmative.
Eleventh Question. — Should costs be
awarded against the losing parties ?
Eleventh Question. — Jus-
tices Gallegos, Bocanegra,
Madriz, and Astua answered
in the negative, and Justice
"dele's in the sense that costs
be awarded against the
Governments of the Bepub-
lics of El Salvador and
Guatemala.
From the above-stated result, judgment is rendered dismissing the
action instituted against the Governments of the Bepublics of El Salvador
and Guatemala without costs.
JOSE ASTUA AGUILAE.
SALVADOR GALLEGOS.
ANGEL M. BOCANEGRA.
ALBERTO UCLES.
JOSE MADRIZ.
Witness : ERNESTO MARTIN, Secretary.
FINDINGS OF THE COURT 83
A more impudent or baseless claim than that put
forward by Honduras, and decided by the Central
American Court of Justice, can hardly be imagined.
That the Honduranean Government would ever have
thought of prosecuting it at all but for the instigation
from its immediate neighbour seems hardly probable.
That the Court should have found a decision over-
whelmingly in favour of Salvador and Guatemala was
only natural, but it seems unfair that, having come
to that inevitable conclusion, costs should not have
followed the event, and that Honduras should not
have been condemned to pay them.
There is but one consolation (a poor one, I am
afraid) open to the Republics of Guatemala and
Salvador in this connection — namely, that had the
Court ordered Honduras to pay the costs of the
inquiry, it would never have done so, any more than
it has paid back to its foreign creditors either the
principal of, or, even the interest upon, the money
which it borrowed.
Were the creditors American instead of British,
some satisfactory settlement would have been arrived
at long ago. Even as it is, the British bondholders
will be unable to obtain a settlement of any kind
without recourse to American interference, and, as may
be well believed, it will be upon such terms as the
Americans choose to approve of, and subject to such
profits out of the transactions as the Americans choose
to demand.
It is satisfactory at least to observe that Hon-
duraneau impudence did not succeed in the above
instance in getting "any rise" out of either Salvador
or Guatemala.
That the relations existing to-day between the
84 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
two Republics of Salvador and Honduras are upon
a more friendly basis, and that they are destined
to so remain as long as the present Governments of
the two countries remain in power, is proved from the
interchange of congratulatory despatches made by
Dr. Bertrand, President of Honduras, and Dr, Manuel
Enrique Araujo, President of Salvador, in the month
of March last, and copies of which I am enabled to
give in this volume. The correspondence, conducted
by telegraph, was as follows :
" TEGUCIGALPA,
"March 28, 1911.
" To H.E. the President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo,
San Salvador.
"I have the honour to bring to the knowledge of Your
Excellency that I have to-day taken possession of the Presi-
dency of the Republic before the National Congress. In
communicating this to you, I take pleasure in anticipating
the good sentiments that animate me for the cultivation of
better relations with the Government over which Your
Excellency so worthily presides, presenting to you at the
same time my good wishes for the well-being of the Republic
and for Your Excellency's personal happiness.
"I am, Your Excellency's sincere
and devoted servant,
" F. BERTRAND."
REPLY FROM THE PRESIDENT OF SALVADOR.
" SAN SALVADOR,
"March 28, 1911.
" To H.E. President Dr. Bertrand, Tegucigalpa.
" I am delighted to receive Your Excellency's important
message, which conveys to me the flattering news that such
a distinguished citizen, to whom I am bound by chains of
fraternal sympathy, has to-day taken possession of the
HONDURAS AND SALVADOR
85
elevated office of President of that Republic. Such a happy
event is received with immense rejoicing by my Government
and the general 'public, because it implies for the sister-
Republic of Honduras peace and progress. I send good
wishes for the well-being of Your Excellency, to whom I am
pleased to offer the testimony of my perfect friendship and
sympathy.
"MANUEL E. ARAUJO."
CHAPTER VII
The army — Division of 'forces — Active reserve — Auxiliary — Republic's
fighting strength — Military education — Strict training — Excellent
discipline— Schools and polytechnics — Manual training — Workshops
and output — Economies in equipments — Garrison services — Barracks
— Destruction of Zapote Barracks — New constructions at Capital,
Santa Ana, Santa Tecla, Sitio del Nino, Ahuachapan, Cojutepeque,
San Miguel — Annual expenditure.
THE National Army of the Republic of Salvador is
divided into three main sections, each of which is
under the orders of a Departmental Commander, the
only superior to whom is the Minister of War. In
the Department of San Salvador, which comprises the
Capital, the command of the troops is vested in the
hands of the Minister, and special commissions are
held in connection with this command. The first of
these commissions covers the Attached and Reserve
Forces of the whole Department ; the second relates
to the Active Forces of the Department quartered
outside the Capital ; and the third deals with the
two military zones into which the Military District
of San Salvador is divided.
The entire strength of the Salvadorean Army is,
approximately, as follows :
Active Force consists of 78 Staff Officers, 512 Officers, 15,554 Troops,
or, approximately, 26 Battalions.
Auxiliary.Force consists of 49 Staff Officers, 356 Officers, 11,176 Troops,
or 18£ Battalions.
Reserve Force amounts to 251 Senior Officers, 1,743 Officers, 56,151
Troops, or 93£ Battalions.
86
COLONEL, ADJUTANT, AND CAPTAINS OF COMPANY
CADET CORPS, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.
THE ARMY 87
This gives the total strength of the Effective Army
as— 378 Senior Officers, 2,611 Officers, and 82,881
Troops, or 138 Battalions, more or less.
The Government, on the advice of the late President,
General Figueroa, have devoted the closest care and
attention to the question of military instruction, and
the system at present in force is the outcome of the
intelligent study of similar systems in force in other
countries, and the adaptation of the best features exist-
ing in each. A very high esprit de corps exists among
the Salvadorean troops, and, for the most part, they
enter upon their schooling and training with both
zeal and interest. It must be remembered that a
great proportion of the troops are merely Indians ;
and it speaks well for them that they should take
so kindly to a course of what really amounts to mental
and physical restriction, which, after all, is an experi-
ence somewhat different to what they and their
ancestors have been accustomed, except when serving
as serfs under a brutal Spanish dominion.
Conspicuous success has attended these courses
of military instruction, especially in regard to the
1st Infantry Regiment, which is quartered at San
Salvador, and to the 1st Artillery, which is quartered
at Santa Ana, Here the men punctiliously attend
the lectures upon military subjects which are delivered
by the regular officers, as well as by means of ordinary
instruction classes. In other garrison towns night
classes are held regularly each evening of the week,
the instructors in these cases being the officers
quartered with the garrison, as well as an eminent
German Professor (Herr Alfred Yischer) who was
engaged from Germany especially to impart military
education to the Salvadorean troops.
88 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
A School for Sergeants and Corporals has also been
established, with the idea of training these non-com-
missioned officers for appointments to higher rank in
the army. This school was some time ago joined to
the Polytechnic Institute, and placed under the com-
mand of the Director and Sub-Director of the latter
institution ; but subsequently, owing to a disastrous
fire which broke out and destroyed a portion of the
Zapote Barracks, in which the classes were custom-
arily held, the two schools had to be separated and
conducted in separate establishments.
It is characteristic of the broad-mindedness of the
Salvadorean Government that among the instructors
engaged was Colonel Armando Llanos, of the Chilian
Mission, who for a considerable time had been
Instructor of the Polytechnic, and later was ap-
pointed Director and Commandant of that school. In
addition to the Director and Sub-Director, the School
for Sergeants and Corporals has a Doctor, a Pay-
master, two Captain Instructors, eight official Company
Ensigns, and two Civilian Professors. All of the
officers who serve in this corps have to enter through
the Polytechnic School, and among them have been
many distinguished cadets.
For the use of the officers there exists a very agree-
able Club, at which they can procure their full meals
and all kinds of light refreshments at moderate prices ;
while the usual amusements, such as drafts, cards,
billiards, etc., are provided for them. So comfortable
is this Club made that the officers, as a rule, find very
little inducement to visit the larger towns in search
of their amusements ; a matter of great importance is
this to them, in view of the fact that the barracks are,
as a rule, situated at some distance from the City, and
MILITARY EDUCATION 89
railway travelling is, under any circumstances, rather
expensive.
In addition, this school has a number of workshops
attached, where shoemaking, blacksmi thing, tailoring,
beltmaking, etc., are carried on, the output providing
the principal requirements of the garrison, including
the supply of uniforms for the officers.
The staff of officers and cadets of this school,
together with the troops who occupy the annex, take
part in periodical reviews and manoeuvres ; and even
severe military critics have been obliged to admit that
the smartness and orderliness of the troops are in the
highest sense of the word praiseworthy.
The course of instruction which is followed appears,
indeed, to be very thorough, while the examinations
through which officers have to pass are in every way
drastic and thoroughly "stiff." The Polytechnic has
turned out some very smart officers, the supply being
fully equal to the demand.
Of late the Polytechnic School has been provided
with a first-class physical and chemical laboratory,
equipped with most modern apparatus. The annual
expenditure upon this establishment may be put at
between $65,000 and $70,000, which includes all the
salaries paid to the Professors and the fees to the
officers who deliver lectures, the maintenance of the
cadets and troops, forage for their horses, and all
general expenses.
It is the practice at these schools to have field-days,
when the troops, as well as the cadets undergoing
instruction, take part. Upon these occasions they go
through most of the features of an ordinary campaign,
including embarking and disembarking upon the various
lakes and inland watercourses, shooting and camp-
90 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
pitching, bridge-building, and a thorough training in
the evolutions of field artillery. The various cadets
who are attached to the Engineers Corps, Telephone
and Telegraph Sections, and Medical Staff, have to
go through courses in the duties of these particular
branches of the army ; and it is, therefore, quite easy
to understand — when one considers the thoroughness
of the training in all branches of its service — why the
Salvadorean Army should stand first among the five
Central American Republics for military efficiency.
That such training is thoroughly effective and con-
ducted with the best morale results was proved in
connection with the earlier unfortunate trouble, when
many of the officers from the Polytechnic Schools dis-
tinguished themselves not only by fighting gallantly,
and in some cases meeting their death with bravery,
on the field of battle, but also in regard to the skill
and ability with which they handled their troops,
both in defence and in attack.
In regard to the garrison services, the infantry and
cavalry are almost exclusively employed, the artillery
being quartered both in the Capital and the City of
Santa Ana. The officers serve for one year certain,
and they are thus afforded every opportunity of
acquiring a sound and finished instruction, and of
becoming thoroughly disciplined. The 1st Infantry
Regiment occupy commodious and suitable quarters,
and they are generally noticeable for their smartness
and soldierly appearance, when both on and off duty.
Santa Ana is garrisoned by the 1st Artillery Regiment ;
and here, again, the troops are comfortably quartered,
and the strictest discipline is maintained. The barracks
are located at the Casa Mata, an old but commodious
building, which has been remodelled and adapted to
ECONOMIES IN EQUIPMENTS 91
present - day requirements. A new story has been
added, and this is used as offices for the Commanders
and Majors of the corps, while one side of the building
has been converted into extensive stabling for twice
the number of animals that are actually needed.
In point of cleanliness and comfort the Casa Mata
Barracks, as well as those at the Capital, which I was
invited to inspect, leave little room for improvement ;
and it is worthy of remark that no epidemic of any
kind has broken out in these barracks for many years
past, these having remained perfectly free from con-
tagion even when smallpox was raging in some other
parts of the Eepublic. The Military Authorities are
commendably particular in regard to vaccination and
re-vaccination, not only when the troops go on active
service, but at all times. There is a well-maintained
army dispensary attached to all the barracks, and
every regiment in the Republic is entitled to free
supplies of medicine, drugs, and attendance.
While duly economical in regard to its expenditure,
and zealous in seeing that nothing is wasted, the
Government has done everything that is necessary
to keep the troops adequately equipped both in arms
and ammunition, uniforms and supplies. The exten-
sive and efficiently-equipped Government workshops
are in the charge of a German mechanic, and here
many of the military criminals, who are confined in
the Central Prison, are taught useful trades, and their
services as masons, tailors, and mechanics, are employed
to good purpose. Some capital work is turned out in
these workshops, such, for instance, as military equip-
ments, uniforms, etc. I was informed that during
the year there had been made there 2,710 complete
uniforms for the infantry and artillery, 890 for the
92 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
cavalry, 545 for colour sergeants, 200 for the port
police, 258 for marines ; 931 soldiers' caps, 537
cartridge-holders, 2,023 putties, and 2,378 rifle-slings.
Special orders had been executed in regard to 22,914
uniforms and 11,311 caps, giving the considerable
total of 27,447 uniforms of all kinds, besides a large
number of heterogeneous military uniform fittings.
During this period there had been delivered to the
different garrisons of the Eepublic 27,223 uniforms of
various kinds; 14,299 caps; 5,840 scabbards with
their ferrules; 2,550 kitbags; 1,200 blankets; 1,550
pairs of cotton gloves; 562 cartridge-belts; 1,790
pairs of canvas putties ; 200 pairs of leather spats ;
2,040 rifle-slings ; 271 pallets for soldiers ; 354 cloaks;
600 pairs of gaiters ; 1,350 water-coolers; 450 canvas
nosebags, etc. Although the not inconsiderable sum
of $151,723 was expended upon these and other
equipments, it will be readily recognized that the
Government must have saved enormously in its ex-
penditure by employing the services of its own
workshops.
It is desirable to say something in regard to the
character of the buildings which the Government uses
for military purposes. Eeferences have already been
made to the serious conflagration which destroyed the
handsomest and most generally used barracks in the
Republic — viz., the Zapote building. The fire broke
out on March 27, 1908, the actual cause being a
mystery, although it was supposed that the disaster
had its origin in the defective installation of the
electric light, a badly insulated wire having been
allowed to get into contact with one of the wooden
turrets. The building had been almost completed
when this accident took place ; but fortunately, owing
MILITARY BARRACKS 93
to the quick services which were rendered by the
garrison staff, the police, and some volunteer helpers,
the total destruction of the barracks was prevented,
and the greater part of the war material stored therein
for use was saved. The barracks have now been com-
pleted, and form one of the handsomest blocks of
Government buildings in the Capital.
In Santa Tecla, which is situated but ten miles
distant from the Capital, a large and handsome block
of barracks has been constructed, and is also practically
complete, the work having been in hand since the
year 1905, but progress being considerably impeded
from time to time through various causes. It seemed,
indeed, that these barracks would prove something
like Cologne Cathedral, and never see completion ; for
as soon as one part was finished the work was arrested,
and before any new addition had been made the old
part had fallen into decay. Neighbouring wars, earth-
quake shocks, and lack of necessary funds, all played
their part in occasioning these delays ; but at length
the building may be pronounced complete. The front
is constructed in two stories, the three other sides
being in one story only ; and, while the exterior of
the building is constituted of handsome cut stone, the
interior is of a lighter material suitable for tropical
residence. There have been over 50,000 blocks of
stone cut and laid for the frontage ; the total cost will
doubtless prove to be heavy, but the result achieved
will have been worth it.
In the town of Sitio del Nino new barracks have
been built for the garrison, an expenditure which has
been rendered necessary in view of the advent of the
railway between Acajutla and Santa Ana, which crosses
here, and forms an important junction and stopping-
94 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
place for travellers. The barracks took several months
to complete, and they now form a very substantial
addition to the town's notable structures. The prin-
cipal block of buildings has 27 yards of frontage by
15 yards of width, including the corridors and other
buildings. The extent of frontage, which faces the
railway-station, has a notable elevation, and rests on
2 metres of stone foundation, one course below the
ground, and the other above the ground level, which
is considered to have been the most healthful style
to have adopted, the residential part of the building
thus being elevated appreciably above its foundation.
In Ahuachapan a substantial and handsome building
for barracks is also being erected, the chief material
employed being masonry, while the whole structure
has been planned with a view to defence in case of
necessity. The building has four turrets, one situated
at each corner, in addition to two smaller turrets which
are placed on either side of the principal gateway.
The thickness of the walls has been decided upon with
the idea of resisting the attack of artillery of the kind
usually employed in these countries. The interior of
the building is constructed of unburnt bricks, the
arrangement being of the utmost simplicity, the archi-
tect bearing in mind that the building is destined to
be used entirely for troops, workmen, etc.
In Cojutepeque a block of barracks is about to be
erected, but active construction will be postponed until
the water-pipes, which are now being laid to convey
water to the city, have been completed. In San
Miguel various additional defence works have been
executed at the existing barracks, while others have
been commenced, the Government having resolved to
make San Miguel a strongly fortified town. New
ANNUAL EXPENDITURE
95
military stables have been added to the cavalry
barracks at Santa Ana ; while in other Departments
of the Republic a considerable number of important
repairs and additions to military buildings have been
completed.
From first to last the annual upkeep of the
Salvadorean Army, including both equipment and
maintenance, as well as the expenditure upon all
the military educational establishments, payments for
the services of the national steamer, contributions to
volunteer regiments, reserve squadrons, etc., amounts
to nearly $1,220,000 ; and taking the whole of this
expenditure for both War and Marine, the total dis-
bursement for the year 1908-09 stood as follows :
Private staff of the President .. 73,113.73
1st Artillery Regiment ... .. 155,155.69
1st Infantry Regiment ... .. 461,596.39
Cavalry Regiment ... .. 125,670.58
Polytechnic School (including subs. 106,554.71
School of Corporals and Sergeants .. 100,887.38
Volunteers of the Capital ... .. 90,602.04
Reserve Squadron ... .. 52,393.87
Band of Supreme Power ... .. 45,741.59
National steamer President (from January to
March 3,943.84
$1,215,659.92
CHAPTER VIII
British Minister to Salvador — Lionel Edward Gresley Garden — British
Legation hospitality — Mrs. Garden — Government indifference to
valuable services — British Consul — No report for twenty years —
Foreign Office neglect — Salvadorean Consuls and their duties denned
— Correspondence with the Foreign Office — Imports and Exports —
British Supremacy in 1904— Germany's position.
FOE some reason known to the Foreign Office, but
understood and appreciated by no one else, Salvador is
incorporated with Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras
in its representation by a Minister-Resident and Consul -
General combined. Other nations in Europe of less
importance, and the United States of America, are
represented by separate Ministers and Consuls- General,
and in some instances by both. The niggardly Foreign
Office, however, when it has contributed the munificent
sum of .£2,000 for the Minister- Resident's salary, and
a further £300 as office allowance as well as £200
for the Consul's office expenses, has done all that it
thinks necessary to sustain the dignity of Great
Britain in a foreign country whose people are pecu-
liarly susceptible to compliments of this kind, and
leaves Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Honduras
— separated from one another not alone by hundreds
of miles in actual distance, but by many days' travel on
horseback or by steamship — to make the best they can
of the arrangement. The inconvenience alike to the
particular Minister, to the British subjects living in
96
PENITENTIARY AT SAN SALVADOR.
OFFICERS' CLUB ROOM, MILITARY POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL
THE BRITISH MINISTER 97
these Republics, and to the Governments concerned,
is considerable, and at times becomes of very serious
import.
The British Minister to Salvador is Mr. Lionel
Edward Gresley Garden, a man of altogether excep-
tional ability and culture, a born diplomat, and one
of the most attractive personalities that one could
meet with. He was born in 1851, and is a son of the
Rev. Lionel Garden, of Barnane, Co. Tipperary, his
mother being the beautiful Miss Lucy Lawrence
Ottley ; and from her Mr. Garden has doubtless
inherited much of his physical attractiveness. Edu-
cated at Eton, he was at the age of twenty-six given
his first Government appointment, namely, that of
Vice-Consul at Havana, Cuba, in 1877. A few years
afterwards — namely, in 1883 — Mr. Garden was attached
to Sir S. St. John's Special Mission to Mexico, and two
years later he was appointed H.B.M.'s Consul at
Mexico City. It was then that his valuable services
as the British Commissioner at the Mexican Mixed
Claims Court were rendered, the Commission sitting
on and off between 1885 and 1889. While in Mexico
Mr. Garden upon two occasions took entire charge of
the Legation, and in 1898 he went back to Cuba, this
time as Consul-General, remaining there until 1902.
Mr. Garden created a profoundly friendly feeling for
the British during these four years, and he is still
spoken of with the greatest esteem, not only by
members of the British community, but by the Cubans
themselves, with whom he was always persona grata.
In 1902 he was created Minister at Havana, and he
remained there until 1905, when he took up his present
post as H.B.M. Minister-Resident and Consul-General
to Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.
7
98 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Mr. Garden married Miss Anne Eliza Lefferts, a
daughter of Mr. John Lefferts, of "Flatbush," New
York, U.S.A., a gracious and talented lady who, by
her kindness of heart and refined hospitality, has
endeared herself to all foreigners resident or travelling
in Guatemala. The British Legation, one of the
handsomest residences in Guatemala City, is the
centre of much friendly and cultured intercourse, not
only among the British and American colonies, but
with many of the Guatemalan notabilities and families.
The only recognition that has been paid by the
British Government to Mr. Garden so far, in connection
with his long and valuable services in Latin America,
has been the bestowal of the Coronation Medal in 1902.
Beyond relieving him in 1908 of the burden of repre-
senting the Government in Costa Rica in addition
to Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, the King's
advisers have done nothing to show that they ap-
preciate Mr. Garden or recognize the onerous and
responsible mission which he has had to fulfil. And
yet he is both by education and temperament essen-
tially one of the most useful and reliable diplomats
that the Government can call upon. His proper
sphere would be at one of the European Courts, or,
better still, at Washington, where his valuable and
unique knowledge of Latin-American countries and
Governments would enable him to more adequately
and advantageously represent and protect British
commercial interests than does the present complacent
Minister, who suggests the idea of being more of an
American in his sympathies than a Britisher.
It will be scarcely credible, but it is none the less
a fact, that the British Government has issued no
Consular Trade Report upon the Republic of Salvador
MR. LIONEL EDWARD GRESLEY GARDEN, C.M.G.
H.B.M. MINISTER-RESIDENT AT SALVADOR (AS WELL AS AT GUATEMALA, NICARAGUA
AND HONDURAS.)
BRITISH CONSULAR REPORT 99
for nearly twenty years ! This fact is set forth in the
following correspondence which I attach :
" PONDTAIL LODGE,
"FLEET, NORTH HANTS,
" April 23, 1911.
" To the Right Hon. Sir Edward Grey, Bart., Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Office, Downing Street,
London, W.
" SIR, — I should esteem it a great courtesy if you would let
me know whether any Consular Report has heen published
hy the Foreign Office in connection with the Republic of
Salvador; what was the date of such report; and whether any
other report of a later period is likely to be published — and if
so, when ? I have been making diligent inquiries with
regard to this matter, but can obtain absolutely no informa-
tion, a fact which seems more remarkable in view of the
trade relations which prevail, and have for so many years
prevailed, between Great Britain and the Republic of
Salvador.
" My interest in the matter must plead my excuses for
troubling you, and awaiting your courteous reply,
" I remain, sir,
" Yours obediently,
"PERCY F. MARTIN/'
"FOREIGN OFFICE,
"April 25, 1911.
" The Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs presents
his compliments to Mr. P. F. Martin, and, by direction of the
Secretary of State, acknowledges the receipt of his letter of
the 23rd inst., which is receiving attention."
"FOREIGN OFFICE,
"May 8, 1911.
" SIR, — With reference to your letter of the 23rd ultimo, I
am directed by Secretary Sir E. Grey to transmit to you
100 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
herewith, a copy of the Consular Trade Report for Salvador
for the year 1892, which is the last received.
" I am, sir,
" Your most obedient humble servant,
" (Signed) W. LANGLEY."
"PONDTAIL LODGE,
"FLEET, NORTH HANTS,
"May 9, 1911.
" To the Under- Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign
Office, London, W.
"Mr. Percy F. Martin presents his compliments to the
Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and begs to
acknowledge the receipt of a copy of the Consular Report
concerning trade in Salvador for the year 1892, which he
notes is the last which has been issued."
It may be asked why the Foreign Office grants an
office allowance of £200 to the Consul at San Sal-
vador if the services of that gentleman do not include
the supply of at least an occasional report upon the
trade conditions of that important country ? In view
of the fact that the share of the Republic's trade with
Great Britain is still of some moment, even if it has
shrunk considerably in magnitude from what it formerly
was, it seems astonishing that not a word concerning
the conditions prevailing, nor of the opportunities which
exist for promoting trade in that country, should have
emanated from a Department of State which presum-
ably exists to protect the interests of the nation's
trade and commerce abroad.
Assuredly, never at any time were the stinging
sarcasms uttered by Burke, concerning Government
services of this kind, in 1780, more deserved than
to-day. In his memorable speech on " Economical
U.S. AND BRITISH CONSULAR SERVICE 101
Beform," Burke observed that the Board of Trade was
" a sort of gently ripening hothouse where members
received salaries of £1,000 a year in order to mature
at a proper season a claim for £2,000." If our Consuls
are expected to do nothing more than sit in their
offices in order to qualify eventually for a pension,
the sooner they are abolished altogether the better
for the country's pocket.
It is to be observed that certain among the Latin-
American States have a much clearer idea of the
proper qualifications for, and the functions of, a Consul
and a Vice- Consul than our own Foreign Office, which
has challenged criticism and earned condemnation on
account of the ridiculous appointments which it has
made, and continues to make, to such offices. Quite
recently the Government of Salvador published a very
important Begulation relative to Consular appoint-
ments, and this contains so much good sense, and
offers so many points which might be adopted with
advantage by our own " Circumlocution Office," that
I make no apology for reproducing the gist of it here.
According to Article L, Clause (6), of this Begulation,
the Consular career " has for its aim above all to
promote and increase the commerce of the country,
and also to insure for it social and political represent-
ation." Then this official Begulation gives a general
review of the obligations imposed upon members of the
Diplomatic and Consular Corps, and adds : " Certainly,
in order to fulfil these, special knowledge is needed,
which can only be acquired by patient and careful
study. Diplomats and Consuls, who go to represent
Salvador in foreign lands, must especially be present-
able and must possess individuality. If any unfor-
tunate circumstance makes them appear ridiculous,
102 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY j
discredit will fall, not only on themselves, but on their
fellow-countrymen." The Regulation continues :
" Travellers have been heard to say that they have
sometimes found the Salvador coat of arms lying in
a dark, dirty hovel, or in close proximity to a pawn- .
shop ; whilst some diplomatists have been rendered
conspicuous by their ignorance of the language and
customs of the country to which they have been sent,
and, above all, by their absolute lack of patriotism.
A Professor of International Law has related of an
Envoy Extraordinary of the Republic of Salvador,
that he once had to be arrested by the police in the
centre of the City of Mexico for drunkenness."
I have heard of at least one British diplomatic
representative in South America who ought to have
been arrested for a similar offence, but who escaped
the indignity by reason of the wholesome respect
which the Government had for the country which he
represented, even if it had none for the representative.
" Consuls and diplomatists," goes on this document,
" must not only possess special knowledge, but must
be cultured persons, honourable, tactful, and sym-
pathetic." In a word, they must possess the difficult
gift of knowing " how to please."
The Regulation does not actually detail these latter
qualities, but gives it to be understood that they are
indispensable. It, however, emphasizes the necessity
of " facility of expression " as an attribute of the
aspirant to the Consular and Diplomatic Service, at
the same time, without requiring him to be an orator.
He must be capable of " getting out of a difficulty
decently, without making himself ridiculous."
It would be advisable, the Regulation points out,
that youths who possess the desired qualifications
SALVADOREAN CONSULS 103
should be employed by the Government in subordinate
positions connected with the Consulates and Legations,
before they receive higher appointments or become
Heads. As Secretaries or supernumeraries, they would
have an opportunity of becoming familiar with the
language and customs of the people among whom
they were placed. All the necessary expenses for
this arrangement should naturally be borne by the
State.
" It must also be remembered," this practical Regu-
lation continues, " that those who fulfil the required
conditions are losers from the point of view of any
financial advantages, since for some time their remuner-
ation will not equal that which might have been
gained by entering commerce or professional work.
At the same time, youths who dedicate themselves
to this career must have sufficient patriotism and
ambition to figure in the posts of honour. No time
must be lost in the task of training up Consuls, and
as the perfection of human work has resulted in the
evolution of specialists, so the Government must not
too seriously consider the question of economy, but
must allow these young men to be sent to other
countries, and to remain in the same post long enough
to specialize in their profession."
According to the new laws affecting the appoint-
ment of Consuls, the regulations call for a division into
two distinct ranks — consuls-general and consuls de
carriere (irregular) ; and consuls adhonorem (honorary).
The first-named are appointed to : Hamburg (Ger-
many), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), San
Francisco (U.S.A.), Mexico City (Mexico), Paris
(France), London (Great Britain), Genoa (Italy),
Guatemala City (Guatemala), Tegucigalpa (Honduras),
106 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
geographical advantage which the latter country
possessed — and still, of course, possesses — over Great
Britain or s>uy other European country. Let us now
glance at the position of affairs a few years later :
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BY COUNTRIES, IN GOLD DOLLARS
($4.85 = £1).
IMPORTS.
Year.
Country.
Amount.
Percentage.
1904
England
Germany
United States
Other countries
$
1,304,576
404,422
1,002,437
898,642
36-1
11-2
27-8
24-9
EXPORTS.
Year.
Country.
Amount.
Percentage.
1904
England
Germany
United States
Other countries
1,482,319
958,533
1,103,030
3,091,563
22-4
14-4
16-6
46-6
It will be observed that Great Britain in 1904 actually
led in the Republic's trade with foreign countries ; but
nevertheless the Foreign Office deems this fact so
unimportant that it will not trouble to publish a
syllable concerning the commerce of that Republic, for
the information of the industrial and trading world.
The average total of the foreign trade of the
Republic of Salvador may be taken as $10,600,000
(gold), or, say, £2,120,000, with a balance of $2,250,000
(gold), or, say, £450,000, in favour of the Republic.
And it is when we come to analyze the imports from
foreign countries that we recognize how closely Great
Britain and the United States run together, and how
TRADE STATISTICS
107
greatly we have to fear our keen American rivals as
competitors. For the year 1909 we see that —
Great Britain sold to Salvador goods worth ... $1,438,613.90
United States „ „ „ ... 1,344,315.79
A trifling balance in favour of Great Britain of $94,298.11
— or, say, £18,859. Our principal trade was in cotton,
both manufactured and yarn ; while the United States
took premier place in flour, hardware, drugs and
medicines, boots, shoes, machinery, and agricultural
implements. In these latter goods no country can
touch the United States for cheapness and general
novelty ; but it is only fair to add that the goods are
"made to sell," or, in other words, they are "cheap
and nasty " — a fact which the purchasers are finding
out for themselves. Until British manufacturers ex-
port something considerably cheaper than the imple-
ments and farm machinery that they supply at present,
the Americans will continue to hold this market. The
Germans barely as yet have made much impression
with their agricultural implements. Although upon
some of the fincas which I visited — mostly owned or
managed by Germans — I came across some ploughs
and reaping machines from the Fatherland, I was
frankly informed that they were entirely unsatisfactory,
and were about to be discarded in favour of some
United States machines which had been offered " at
one-half the price paid for the German inventions."
STATEMENT OF EXPORT TRADE TO JUNE 30, 1910.
Country.
Value of Exports.
Country.
Value of Exports.
Germany
United States
France
Italy
$
1,410,693.10
1,358,868.85
1,043,402.71
584,312.60
Austria-Hungary
Great Britain ...
Spain
1
388,035.33
352,843.73
164,907.21
108 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
These figures are remarkable for the fact that they
show inter alia that Germany had in the course of
twelve months ousted France from first place on the
export list, and had supplanted her by an extra-
ordinary amount of advance. To prove this I give
the official figures for the first half of 1909, and which
are as follows :
France took goods value
Germany
United States
Italy
Spain
Great Britain
1,062,674
837,040
636,721
352,122
281,961
111,312
It would therefore appear that, while Germany
increased her trade with Salvador from $837,040 in 1909
(six months) to $1,410,693 in 1909-10 (twelve months),
France showed a decrease over the same period of from
$1,062,674 to $1,043,402. Great Britain's position is
so inferior as to need no comment whatever.
It will be noticeable that Germany was in 1910 the
best customer to the Republic, and took fully four
times as much of her produce as Great Britain. The
greatest amount was represented by coffee, as will be
seen from the subjoined particulars of the class of
articles which were exported, as well as from the
values which I add :
Article.
Value.
Article.
Value.
Coffee
Gold, silver, lead ..
Sugar (brown)
Indigo
Balsam and balsam-
seed
Cattle and hides ..
$
4,661,440.98
560,569.64
222,379.47
107,936.72
39,187.97
36,167.46
QQ AQ~l KQ
Tobacco (manufac
tured and leaf) .
Lumber
Eice
Deerskins ...
Hat palms ...
Miscellaneous
$
9,638.67
3,773.07
3,312.23
2,837.63
2,723.21
23,247.92
Total
5,696,706.85
TRADE STATISTICS 109
That the Germans mean to thoroughly exploit the
Eepublic of Salvador, moreover, and if they cannot
secure a holding in one branch of trade they intend
to try in another, or in a dozen others, is abundantly
clear. In the month of September, 1909, a Treaty of
Commerce between the Republic and Germany was
celebrated, and so far the results have been very
encouraging. Out of 463 steamers and 89 sailing
vessels which visited the different Salvadorean ports
last year (1909-10), during the first nine months there
were 153 German, as against 245 United States, 79
Salvadorean, 74 Honduranean, and not one British
bottom.
CHAPTER IX
United States information for traders — Improved Consular services —
Mr. W. E. Coldwell— United States and Salvador Government —
Bureau of Pan-American Republics — Mr. Mark J. Kelly — Exceptional
services — The American Minister, Major W. Heimke — Salvadorean
Minister to U.S.A., Senor Federico Mejia — Central American Peace
Conference and the United States.
How beneficial is the attitude of the United States
of America in collecting and disseminating every
particle of information which can prove of the slightest
service to American traders ! Month by month, through
the medium of the Pan-American Bureau Bulletin, a
Government-endowed institution journal of the utmost
utility, not only to American traders, but to those
of every country of the world, every item of com-
mercial, industrial, and financial information culled
from Latin- American countries is published in tabular
form, and supplied at a merely nominal figure to all
who care to avail themselves of it. Such information
is primarily the result of the researches and the reports
made by United States Consuls in the countries men-
tioned, and it is perfectly certain that none are per-
mitted to enjoy " allowances " of £200 a year, as is our
Consul at San Salvador, without showing something
in return for such payment in the shape of a report
of some kind or other.
Here I may record that of Mr. Walter Edmund
Coldwell, our unsalaried Consul at San Salvador, I have
no
IGNORING CONSULAR SERVICES 111
nothing whatever to say but what is complimentary,
since he is personally a very amiable and courteous
gentleman, ready and willing at any time to aid any
Britisher seeking his advice, and which, in view of
his experience and complete knowledge of Spanish, is
certainly of great value. I feel certain that, had any
request come from the Foreign Office addressed to
Mr. Coldwell for a report upon trade conditions and
prospects in Salvador, he would have been perfectly
prepared to supply, as he is undoubtedly capable of
supplying, it in view of his long residence, extending
over twelve years. I go further, and suggest that had
Mr. Coldwell not waited for any such request, but
had acted upon his own initiative and sent in a report
to the Foreign Office, such would either have been
pigeonholed or the Consul have been snubbed for his
pains. It cannot be too often observed, nor too
emphatically pointed out, that it is not the officials
of our Consular Service who are wholly to blame ; it
is the " System " perpetuated by successive Govern-
ments— it matters not one pin's head whether they be
Liberals or Conservatives or a hybrid mixture of many
political parties — which is all wrong, and the ignorant
and indifferent Permanent Officials at Downing Street
who are responsible for the appalling condition of
incompetency which our Consular Service to-day
displays.
The following incident will show with what care
and attention the Government of the United States
follow every little incident and occurrence that can in
any way affect trade relations between themselves and
the smaller Latin- American States. In the month of
February, 1909, the United States Minister sent to
his Government a complaint to the effect that the
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Salvadorean Government allowed favoured - nation
treatment to certain articles of French origin im-
ported into the Republic, which treatment was not
accorded to similar articles from the United States.
The United States Government at once instructed the
Minister at San Salvador to ask for an explanation,
and he as promptly got it ; not, perhaps, in the precise
terms which he could have wished, but — he got it !
The answer came from the Minister for Foreign Affairs
in the following terms :
' The Treaty of Peace and Amity, Commerce and Consular
Rights celebrated between Salvador and the United States
on December 6, 1870, having become inoperative by reason of
the denunciation of the same on the part of the Government
of Salvador, in accordance with the prearranged conditions
from May 30, 1893, merchandise proceeding from the United
States can only be accorded such treatment in the Customs
Houses of Salvador as is provided for in the general tariff law
of the Republic, without special concessions or privileges."
The answer was so convincing and so conclusive
that the United States Government forthwith pro-
ceeded to celebrate a fresh Treaty with the Republic,
and has since then enjoyed all the privileges which
such can procure.
Upon a previous occasion — namely, in 1907 — the
United States Vice-Consul in San Salvador having re-
quested from the Government of the Republic a general
statement of economic conditions prevailing throughout
the country, the reply was published very soon after-
wards in the form of an elaborate and complete account
of the commercial, industrial, and financial conditions of
the Republic, the whole taking up the greater portion
of a special number of the Diario Oficial. One cannot
imagine a British Consul having the enterprise to make
SALVADOR AND THE UNITED STATES 113
any such request from a foreign Government to which
he is accredited, although the information, if sought,
would be as readily forthcoming as it was for an
American Vice-Consul. But when we witness the
sorry spectacle of British officials allowing — or being
allowed — twenty years to pass by without having
issued any kind of report for the information of his
countrymen, what can be expected ?
The United States Secretary of State officials, who
are so ably assisted by the co-operation of the Pan-
American Bureau and its admirable monthly publi-
cation, The Bulletin, deserve every credit for the
unflagging interest which they manifest in promoting
and assisting their country's trade abroad. In this
matter, at least, we might advantageously follow the
example of our Transatlantic competitors. As it is,
we should feel deeply grateful to the American Govern-
ment for periodically issuing information which is as
accessible to Britishers, or to any other nationalities,
as to the Americans themselves. And it costs us
nothing ; which should be gratifying to that large class
of individuals who enjoy getting something without
putting their hands into their own pockets.
It seems a very remarkable fact that Salvador, like
a great number of other Latin- American States, has
been enabled to find in Great Britain a thoroughly
capable and influential Consular representative, while
Great Britain has so signally failed, except in some
few instances, in securing similar representatives
abroad. Nor is this circumstance the less noteworthy
when it is observed that the Salvadorean Consul-
General in London is not a native of that Republic,
but an Irishman, and is probably one of the first —
if not the only — Irishman who has filled a similar
114 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
position. Mr. Mark Jamestown Kelly, F.R.G.S.,
F.S.A., etc., has been the Consular representative of
both the Republics of Salvador and Honduras for over
fifteen years, and it is only within the past few months
that he has been compelled, owing to continued
pressure of work in connection with the chairmanship
of the Salvador Railway Company, to abandon his
consular position in regard to Salvador. How greatly
the Government of that State regretted Mr. Kelly's
retirement, and how strong was the pressure brought
to bear to induce him to withdraw his resignation,
was fully evidenced in a remarkable letter of thanks
which the Government addressed to Mr. Kelly lately,
and from which the following is a brief extract. After
referring in eloquent terms to the deep disappointment
which the Government felt at Mr. Kelly's inability to
reconsider the question of resignation, and having
announced that the Executive had therefore most
reluctantly accepted the inevitable, and had arranged
to send over at an early date a representative to
relieve Mr. Kelly of his official duties. Dr. Manuel E.
Araujo, the President of the Republic (who has long
been personally acquainted with Mr. Kelly), addressed
him as follows :
"I deplore profoundly your resignation of the business of
the Consulate-General, which with so much tact and industry
you have been discharging during so long a lapse of time;
and your resignation of your post, being based upon reasons
which I cannot set aside, has this day at last been accepted by
niy Government, but with the hope that you will always con-
tribute in one way or another with the very valuable contingent
of your wisdom and experience in all matters relating to the
good name and honour of Salvador. I tender to you in
consequence, in my own name and in that of my country, the
most whole-souled thanks for the very important services
MR. MARK JAMESTOWN KELLY, F.R.G.S.
FOR 15 YEARS CONSUL-GENERAL IN GREAT BRITAIN FOR SALVADOR (RETIRED JUNE, 191 1),
AND CHAIRMAN OF THE SALVADOR RAILWAY COMPANY, LD.
MR. M. J. KELLY 115
which you have afforded to us in the past, and which we do
not doubt we shall continue to receive from your well-known
magnanimity."
Mr. Kelly has undoubtedly rendered lasting and
exceptional services to the State of Salvador during
the long period over which he has represented its
commercial and financial interests in this country.
As its Financial Agent in Europe, he carried out the
long and difficult negotiations which ended in success-
fully settling and discharging the foreign debt of the
Republic, and permitted of that great undertaking,
the construction of a through line of railway from the
port of Acajutla to the Capital of San Salvador, being
financed and completed. Last year Mr. Kelly also
negotiated, with much tact and conspicuous ability,
a new Salvador Foreign Loan, which to-day ranks
as a gilt-edge security on the London Stock Exchange,
and stands at a substantial premium.
Besides his Consular appointments, Mr. Mark J.
Kelly holds the positions of Chairman of the Salvador
Railway Company, Limited, and President of the
Salvador Chamber of Commerce in London ; while he
is generally regarded as one of the greatest living
authorities upon the questions of foreign exchange and
Latin- American commerce.
For many years Mr. Kelly was identified with railway
construction in Ecuador and later on with Salvador, and
his great charm of manner, coupled with his extraordi-
nary grasp of detail and intimate knowledge of finance
in all its aspects, have combined to make his co-opera-
tion in financial and commercial matters a question of
the greatest value to the latter country mentioned, as
well as to all who have invested money therein.
Mr. Kelly is a perfect Spanish scholar ; and when I was
116 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
travelling with him in Salvador, many of the natives
•with whom we conversed frankly informed me that,
but for his distinctive European name, Mr. Kelly
might very well pass for a pure-bred Spaniard or
Spanish-American, so admirably did he converse in
and write their language. Of the newly appointed
Salvadorean Consul-General, Senor Don Artiiro Ramon
Avila, I have spoken in Chapter III.
Major the Hon. William Heimke, who was appointed
the Minister of the United States of America to Sal-
vador in 1909, is a native of France, having been born
in that country in 1847 and naturalized in the United
States. He went to America at a very early age, and
entered the regular army when he was but fifteen.
He served with distinction during the Civil War, being
engaged in several important battles. After the war
he served as headquarters clerk under Generals Sher-
man, Pope, Hancock, and Sheridan, and he was also
in the Quartermaster's and Commissary Departments.
In 1881 he became purchasing agent for the Mexican
Central Railroad, and in 1883 was appointed general
manager of the Chihuahua and Durango Telephone
Company in Mexico. In 1887 he again entered the
service of the United States as Vice -Consul at
Chihuahua. He was advanced to Consul in 1892,
and retired in 1893. In 1897 he became Second
Secretary of the United States Legation in Mexico,
and was promoted First Secretary of their Legation
in Bogota, Colombia, in 1906. He was appointed
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to
Guatemala on March 10, 1908. Major Heimke is a
member of the American Academy of Economic, Social,
and Political Science of Philadelphia, and of the Inter-
national Folk Lore Society of Chicago.
MAJOR w. HEIMK£ 117
One of the kindest and most hospitable of men,
Major Heimke, in conjunction with his charming wife,
a lady of the greatest culture and artistic tastes, makes
his home one of the most pleasant places for Americans
and foreigners alike sojourning in San Salvador. Major
and Mrs. Heimkd have firmly established themselves
in the regard and the esteem of the Salvadoreans ;
and they are undoubtedly the most popular diplomatic
representatives of the United States of America who
have occupied the Legation.
The Salvadorean Minister to the United States of
America is Sefior Federico Mejia, who is one of the
most prominent men in his country, having for some
time been Minister of Finance and Public Credit.
Upon his introduction to his present office on April 6,
1907, he was officially received by President Roosevelt,
and upon this occasion Senor Mejia said :
" Mr. President : I have the honour to place in your hands
the autograph letter by which I am accredited as Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the Govern-
ment of Salvador, near the Government of Your Excellency.
I present to you at the same time the letters of recall of my
distinguished predecessor, Dr. Don Jose Eosa Pacas.
"Nothing could be more pleasing to me than the honour
of conveying to Your Excellency the expression of my
Government's wish to maintain and draw closer, if that were
possible, the friendly relations which happily exist between
our two countries ; and in the discharge of the duties of the
mission which is entrusted to me, I shall spare no effort to
voice faithfully the sentiments of the Salvadorean people,
trusting that I shall meet, in so doing, the same cordiality and
interest you have manifested in the cause of the welfare of my
country, and that of the other States of Central America.
"Accept, Sir, the wishes that I make in the name of the
President of Salvador, and in my own, for the prosperity and
118 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
further aggrandizement of the great American nation, and for
the health and personal welfare of Your Excellency "
To this friendly and well-expressed address Presi-
dent Roosevelt replied in equally felicitous terms as
follows :
" Mr. Minister : I receive with great pleasure the cordial
sentiments of friendship to which you give expression, both
for your Government and for the Salvadorean people. Enter-
taining the most sincere wishes for the prosperity and happi-
ness of your countrymen, and having at heart the continuation
and strengthening of the good relations which have already
subsisted between our two countries, I assure you of my
co-operation in your aim to that end. I have no doubt that,
while worthily representing the Government by which you are
accredited, you will so conduct your mission as to merit and
receive the sincere friendship and high regard of that of the
United States. I am glad, therefore, to greet you as Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Salvador to
the United States. I beg that you will convey to the
President of Salvador my cordial appreciation of his message
of goodwill to me personally, and for the prosperity of the
United States, and assure him of my earnest reciprocation of
his wishes. For your own good wishes I thank you ; and 1
trust you will find your residence with us to be most agreeable."
On December 20, 1907, the Central American Peace
Conference, held in Washington, concluded a Con-
vention providing for meetings of Central American
Conferences to be convened on January 1 of each year
for a period of five years, with the object of agreeing
upon the most efficient and proper means of bringing
uniformity into the economical and fiscal interests of
the Central American States. The Peace Conference
designated Tegucigalpa, Honduras, as the place of the
first meeting of the Central American Conference, and
prescribed that the Conference should choose the place
SIDE VIEW OF "EL ROTULO" BRIDGE
THE NATIONAL ROAD LEADING TO LA LIBERTAD, SHOWING "EL ROTULO"
BRIDGE.
PEACE CONFERENCE 119
for holding the next Conference, and so on successively
until the expiration of the Convention concerning future
Central American Conferences.
The first Central American Conference, which met in
Honduras on January 1, 1909, selected San Salvador
as the place for holding the second Central American
Conference, which was underlined for January 1,1910.
For unavoidable reasons the members of the Conference
could not meet in San Salvador on the date prescribed,
and the President of the Republic, acting in conformity
with Article II. of the aforesaid Convention of the
Peace Conference, postponed the meeting of the second
Central American Conference until February 1 of the
same year, which met on that date and concluded its
work on the fifth day of the same month.
The results obtained by the Conference were the
celebration of six Conventions, all of which were signed
on February 5 of last year. The first of these Con-
ventions provides for the establishment in Costa Rica
of a pedagogic institute for Central America ; the
second, for the unification of the Consular service abroad
of the five Republics ; the third provides for monetary
uniformity on a gold basis ; the fourth, for Central
American commercial reciprocity ; the fifth, for the
adoption of the metric system of weights and measures ;
and the sixth defines the functions of each Government
toward the Central American bureau in Guatemala.
CHAPTER X
Latin-American trade and British diplomacy— Serious handicap inflicted
by the Government — Sacrificing British interests to American sus-
ceptibilities— The British Foreign Office's attitude towards its diplo-
matic representatives — Why British trade has been lost to Salvador
— Free Trade and its advocates — The Salvadorean view— German
competition — Methods of bribery in vogue — The Teutonic code of
trade honour.
IF ever the secret veil which shrouds diplomacy in all
countries from betrayal could be drawn aside, and some
wholesome sidelights could now and again be thrown
upon the proceedings of our responsible Ministers, a
great many disquieting, and even alarming, things
would come to light. These would show, for example,
that the great declension in British trade during the
past few years has been in a very considerable measure
due to the astounding character of the British Govern-
ment's instructions to representatives abroad in regard
to the attitude of the United States of America. It
will be news — and very disquieting news — to the
general public to know that every effort has been
made by our Government to consult the wishes and
the feelings of the United States in reference to almost
every trade treaty which has been either suggested or
entered into. The failure of our diplomats abroad to
carry to a successful issue a commercial treaty proposed
or desired has not infrequently been attributed to the
neglect, or perhaps to the inability, of the particular
120
THE AMERICAN BUGBEAR
Minister employed. In practically every case, how-
ever, it would be fairer to place the blame for the
failure upon the shoulders of the Foreign Office.
I know of several cases in which this is the
undoubted and undeniable cause of the breakdown of
our negotiations in the very moment of their imminent
success. A craven and absurd desire not to " hurt
the feelings" of our greatest rivals and our most
clever competitors — the Americans — has dictated a
policy which has resulted in the earnest efforts of our
skilled and able diplomatic representatives abroad
being absolutely wasted, and they themselves being
placed in a deeply humiliating position, which I need
not say has been as keenly resented.
This was the case with a highly important treaty
which we were upon the point of completing with
Cuba ; it has been the case with a similar agreement
entered into tentatively with the Republic of Honduras,
and it has been so likewise with the Republics of
Guatemala and Salvador. With how many other
possible excellent trade markets it has also had effect
I do not know ; but it is not very difficult to imagine.
So pronounced has this policy become of late, that
it is now having a decidedly bad effect upon our com-
mercial and financial relations generally with the
Latin - American Republics. Formerly these small
independent States looked upon Great Britain as the
one Power to whom appeals could be made in all
matters of dispute, no matter about what or between
whom, with a moral certainty of a just and impartial
decision being given. This was in the days when
Great Britain still preserved her dignity and inde-
pendence of thought, and before her Government had
learned to truckle to the bluff of the Roosevelt-
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Philander Knox diplomacy. To-day, although there
is more reason than ever to ask for the calm and
disinterested advice of Great Britain in the numerous,
and even dangerous, questions which are continually
arising between the Latin- American Republics and
the United States of America, it is recognized by the
former that it is entirely useless to appeal to Caesar
any longer, since Caesar has become an advocate for,
or a creature of, the United States, and, so far from
acting as judge, merely now pleads as an amateur
attorney.
It is necessary to travel in these Latin- American
countries to thoroughly comprehend the full effect of
this mistaken and — I do not hesitate to apply the
term — degrading British policy. The result is that
the Republics themselves deride us, the United States
laugh at us, and our trade is meantime leaving us.
The small Republics are frightened to enter into any
private negotiations with our diplomatic representa-
tives, since they are fearful, in the light of previous
unfortunate experiences, that their secrets may in due
course be revealed to Washington as a sop to the
United States, and that their efforts to strengthen
their commercial bonds with us will merely serve
to embitter their own relations with the powerful
Americans, and without in the least improving their
position with Great Britain.
It is almost inconceivable that our Foreign Office
should ask the opinion, and to all intents and purposes
solicit the approval, of the United States before com-
pleting any trade compact with the Latin- American
Republics. What our Government has to fear or to
hope for from the United States, Heaven only knows ;
nevertheless it is the sanction of Washington which
BRITISH DIPLOMACY
is sought for before any treaty can be now concluded
with any of the Latin- American States ; and, what is
much more sad to have to add, without such sanction
no treaty seems possible. That the United States of
America is, or ever has been, foolish enough to consult
our Government under similar circumstances is not
upon record.
Our Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary
to the United States of America, the Right Hon.
James Bryce, is credited, by those who are privileged
to know him, with the decidedly Utopian idea of asso-
ciating the trade aspirations of both America and
England in Latin-America. It is doubtful if there
exists another equally eminent individual in the
world who entertains any such wild and impossible
notion. It would be as easy to associate fire and
water as to form a bond, or even an understanding,
between the traders of America and England, since
they are, and always must be, keen rivals in the
markets of the world. Mr. Bryce thinks, perhaps,
that it is feasible to divide up the universe into com-
mercial and financial zones, which shall be, thereafter,
apportioned among the United States and Great
Britain for their lasting benefit ? He must be a very
innocent and a very unimaginative individual if this
be his conception of the methods of latter-day trade
competition. Mr. Bryce has perhaps cherished the idea
that our common language should form a bond of
union, and that this should become the central pivot
upon which our relations with the United States
should revolve ? He is even credited with the aspira-
tion that a Customs Union might be formed on the
basis of reciprocal Free Trade, with mutual advantage
to all. The commercial jealousy between the two
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
nations has upon more than one occasion been demon-
strated, as witness the disputes some years ago, and
the Venezuelan boundary embroglio, which nearly
precipitated a conflict between the two countries.
But whatever be Mr. Bryce's precise ideas, the fact
remains that he has viewed with but little favour any
treaty of trade and commerce which our diplomatic
representatives abroad may have suggested where the
interests of the United States of America were likely
to suffer. The Foreign Office, holding this distin-
guished diplomat — as indeed they may justly do — in
high esteem, have consulted him upon most matters
of trade, commerce, and finance affecting the smaller
Latin-American Republics. The Foreign Office, on
the other hand, have deemed it expedient to refer
matters to Washington, with the result that not only
have our private negotiations with these small inde-
pendent States become the common knowledge of our
American trade rivals, but those representatives who
negotiated the treaties have been rendered ridiculous
and contemptible, while our manufacturers at home
have been deprived of the benefits attaching to the
most favoured nation's agreements, such as the United
States has itself acquired in other directions, without
having previously consulted Downing Street or, indeed,
caring one rap whether it was agreeable or not. To
the Foreign Office, therefore, the commercial and
trading communities of Great Britain owe a deep
debt of gratitude !
For Mr. James Bryce as an individual it is impossible
to feel anything but esteem and regard, since he ranks
as one of the most distinguished and illustrious scholars
of the day. The author of such monumental works as
" The Holy Roman Empire," " The American Common-
MR. BRYCE
wealth," "Studies in History and Jurisprudence," and
" Studies in Contemporary Biography," must always
rank as a man of great ability and intellect. But,
unfortunately, Mr. Bryce has graduated in a school
of diplomacy which has clouded his horizon and
diminished his chances of attaining any independent
and untrammelled view of Britain's commercial needs
and the Empire's industrial obstructions abroad. As
Under- Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1886, and as
President of the Board of Trade in 1894, Mr. Bryce
was encumbered with all the machinery of permanent
officialdom, and was unable to see anything of this
country's foreign trade matters except through the
narrow and often perverted views of his subordinates.
I am very much afraid that this has interfered with
some of his subsequent policy ; but of later years he
has put himself to the trouble — let us hope that it
was also a pleasure — of seeing something of Latin-
America, and how British trade has to fight its way
there, an experience which might have been of great
benefit to Mr. Bryce, and of incalculable advantage
to British trade in Latin- America, if it had taken
place, say, some five or six years previously.
As a writer upon academical and historical subjects
probably Mr. Bryce has few equals, and still fewer
superiors ; but when discussing British interests and
making treaties for promoting British trade in com-
petition with American manufacturers, a child might
do better for our side than Mr. Bryce could have,
or at least has, done. It is easy to understand why
he should be so extremely popular with our friends
the North Americans, and why his presence as our
Ambassador should prove so welcome and so gratifying
to the acute authorities at Washington. A malleable
126 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
diplomat who sees so closely eye to eye with them in
arranging or defeating commercial treaties which could
in any way be regarded as likely to injure or to delay
United States interests, is naturally a most desirable
acquisition ; Mr. Bryce has satisfactorily answered to
these requirements, and, indeed, must have frequently
astounded his American friends by his complacency
and conciliatory attitude when discussing British
interests.
In Mr. Philander Knox, Mr. James Bryce has had
one of the very cleverest, and I may add, least
impressible, of American statesmen to deal with, and
it will remain to be seen in the future how much
Mr. Knox got out of Mr. Bryce, and how much or how
little Mr. Bryce squeezed out of Mr. Knox. " He who
sups with the devil needs a long spoon," and it will be
interesting to learn, as we shall do no doubt ere long
in connection with the Anglo-American Arbitration
Treaty, the exact length of Mr. Bryce's " little concave
vessel," as the Dictionary describes it.
Mr. Bryce, who is a profound Latin scholar, will
not have failed to have noted Cicero's observations in
his "De Officiis": " Sed tamen difficile dictu est,
quantopere conciliat animos hominum comitas affabili-
tasque sermonis "; or, let us put it : " It is difficult to
tell how much men's minds are conciliated by a kind
manner and a gentle speech," and in both such
attributes the courteous and amiable Secretary of
State at Washington excels.
In March of 1908 the representatives of the Govern-
ments of Salvador and the United States signed, at
the capital of the first-named Eepublic, a convention
determining the status of the citizens of either country
who renew their residence in the country of their
MR. E. G. SQUIER 127
origin. This convention is found of great utility to
the United States citizens, more so even than to those
of Salvador. There is no such convention in force
between this Republic and Great Britain.
In the previous year (1907) the Government of
Salvador determined to establish a permanent Lega-
tion at Washington, " so that the friendly relations
now existing between the two Governments may be
continued on a more intimate basis, and in order that
the good counsel of the United States may be more
readily sought and obtained."
As far back as 1850 the American Minister of the
day, Mr. E. G. Squier — who, by-the-by, was a former
husband of the well - known American newspaper-
owner, Mrs. Frank Leslie — negotiated a treaty with
Don Agustin Morales, Plenipotentiary of Salvador,
which subsequently received the requisite ratification
on both sides, has since been renewed, and is in full
force and effect. It secured to the citizens of the
United States all the rights, privileges, and immu-
nities of the citizens of Salvador in commerce, naviga-
tion, mining, and in respect of holding and transferring
property in that State. It guaranteed to the American
citizens resident in the country full protection 'and
enjoyment of religious freedom, and, in short, every
other right and privilege which has been conceded in
any treaty negotiated between the United States and
any other nation in the world.
Owing to the extraordinary energy and unmistak-
able ability displayed by Mr. Charles H. Sherrill, the
late popular and able United States Minister at Buenos
Aires, contract after contract which should — or at
least might — have gone to British manufacturers, have
been secured for America. I need only mention two
128 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
instances : one for the building of the three Dread-
noughts which are now being constructed in United
States yards ; and the other an order for fifty locomo-
tives for the Government railways, which might — and,
again, probably would — have gone to British shops.
While the United States Minister did his level best
for his countrymen, and for which he deserves every
credit and congratulation, and while his efforts on their
behalf were smiled upon with approval by the American
Secretary of State, the British Minister, locked up
behind his customary reserve and official dignity,
neither could nor would move a finger to help British
manufacturers in their struggle against this serious
competition.
It seems, indeed, strange that where American,
German, French, Italian, and Belgian diplomats con-
sider it by no means beneath their dignity, or as at
all outside their sphere, to personally influence trade
orders for their countrymen, the usual type of British
diplomat raises his hands in horror at the mere sug-
gestion of a Legation condescending to recognize the
existence of trade, repelling with frigid dignity any
suggestion that the representative of the British
Government should concern himself with anything of
a purely commercial or industrial nature.
That the United States diplomats do not stand
alone in their gallant efforts to support American trade
and commerce, and that they are not singular in the
supposition that the whole duties of an Ambassador
or Minister are confined to Government functions and
meaningless ceremonies, is proved by the energy which
is displayed by some German diplomats, who are very
often instrumental in checking the energy and frustrat-
ing the success of their American competitors. It
DIPLOMACY AND TRADE 129
was only in the month of March last that Mr.
H. T. Schwerin, of the Pacific Mail Steamship Com-
pany, in testifying before the Senate Committee on
Interoceanic Canals, then sitting at Washington,
declared that his own company had lost 60 per cent, of
its carrying business to German lines largely through
the activity of the German Minister to Mexico, who
had successfully exercised his diplomatic influence in
extending German commerce in Central America.
Distressing as this must have been to our good
American friends, I do not think that the information
will be received with feelings of much regret by
British readers, especially as it will appear to them in
the light of " poetic justice," since British commercial
and industrial circles in the Argentine Republic, as
elsewhere, have suffered in exactly the same manner
at the hands of the Americans.
The trade of Central America, as has been shown,
is very largely in the hands of the Germans, for, not
content with the representation of their own industries
and manufactures, a great proportion of our own
" British " Vice-Consuls are Germans by birth, if not
by choice. Thus, in both Guatemala and Honduras
our trade interests are to-day partially represented
by Teutons. It can scarcely be on account of there
being no genuine Britishers available, since I have
encountered several Englishmen who could, and doubt-
less would, act as Vice- Consuls, or merely as Consular
Agents, if necessary.
Undoubtedly the Germans rank among the most
capable of the foreign traders doing business in these
countries, as they put themselves to the greatest
amount of trouble to study the people and the local
9
130 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
conditions — much more so than either the British or
the Americans.
The German is not only among the earliest of risers
in the morning and the latest to seek his rest at night,
his store being always the first to open and the last to
close, but he avoids politics, and discreetly retires into
obscurity at the first intimation of internal trouble.
He studiously, if not willingly, falls into the ideas
and complies readily with the wishes of the country,
no matter what forms they may assume ; and he is
hardly ever known to complain to or about anyone.
He knows full well that it would be useless to do so to
his home Government, which, like our own, seldom
concerns itself with the personal affairs of its subjects
abroad, this being one of the reasons why the Germans
so cordially hate their own people, and especially the
official classes. With them it is indeed an absorbing
hatred, and they do not hesitate to confess to it.
No other foreigner earning his living abroad seems
to possess the same gift for small economies as the
German, nor his ability for steering a clear path among
the numerous spies and agents who abound in some of
the politically-ridden countries. The Germans, both
in their trade and their social relations with the natives,
are "all things to all men." They are apparently
thoroughly at home among them. One hardly ever
hears of a German becoming involved in political trouble
or failing in his business. He thrives as no other
foreigner in these lands of difficulties and intrigues.
It is clear, however, why and how he manages to do
so. And for him there is no such thing as a Monroe
Doctrine, which was once denounced by Bismarck as a
"piece of international impertinence." As often as
not he marries a native, and loses his identity.
KNTRANCE TO AVENIDA LA CEIBA AT SAN SALVADOR.
THE FAMOUS AVENIDA UNDER CONSTRUCTION.
THE UBIQUITOUS GERMAN 131
As an instance of the German's enterprise may be
cited the supply of cloths and hats for the natives
which are found exclusively in Bolivia, the same
individual trading in Peru, however, bringing out quite
a different class of stuffs and styles for that country.
The ordinary British or American manufacturer would
probably contend that it would be useless or unprofit-
able to make special materials or designs of this kind
so entirely unlike anything before attempted, and he
would leave the matter just there. Not so with the
observant travelling German. He first studies the
question of demand, then he sends a complete range
of patterns and samples from the looms of the native
manufacturers to his house in Germany. In a few
months' time there arrive in the country the German
imitation, and, first in small, then in ever-increasing
quantities, is built up a connection ; and where the
Salvadorean, Guatemalan, Bolivian, or Peruvian im-
porter finds his materials and his hats, he buys most
of his other miscellaneous European goods, so as to
have but one account and one customer.
Then, in regard to credits, the German is most
accommodating, granting payments over twelve,
eighteen, and even twenty- four months, and never
asking any interest upon his outstanding accounts.
How he does it is a mystery, more especially as his
prices in no way exceed, and in the majority of
instances are below, the prices of other European and
American houses, while the number of his bad debts
is considerable. Probably there is a seamy side to all
this promiscuous trading by the German houses ; but
if there is, there must likewise be some decided
advantages accruing, since no one would credit
Teutonic manufacturers and dealers with motives of
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
philanthropy. But whether their commercial dealings
with the Latin-American races be profitable or profit-
less, it is beyond question that they are extending,
and extending rapidly — all of which means that there
is so much smaller a field for other countries. These
specimens of Bolivian hats, Peruvian dress-cloths,
Mexican rebosos, and Guatemalan mantillas, made in
Germany, resemble in every way the native manu-
factures— so closely, indeed, that they cannot be told
from the original except by an expert. The Germans
are actually making all these articles, exporting them
to these countries, and selling them there more cheaply
than the native article. The question is, " How can
they do it ?"
It is decidedly useful to come abroad to such
countries as the Latin-American States, if only to
glean a few opinions as to the position which Great
Britain occupies in the minds of the people of these
regions. There are many individuals whose judg-
ments are well worth recording, since while they may
have gathered their ideas from trading only — and,
indeed, few of them have been outside the borders of
their own State — are sufficiently shrewd in their
criticisms to make these latter worth observing.
The good people of Salvador, like a great many
other experienced individuals, both in Latin- America
and elsewhere, know the advantages to be derived
from a system of Protection, and they are at a com-
plete loss to understand how it is that Great Britain
alone among the trading nations of the world can
" afford " — that is the expression used — to admit a
policy of Free Trade, and especially in view of the
Empire's Colonies' well-known feelings on the subject.
Here, as elsewhere, the advantages of Free Trade are
FREE TRADE AND RECIPROCITY 133
admitted ; but without some form of retaliation it is
absurd to suppose that any other nations will ever
accept it. The opinion in general in these countries,
where local manufactures are gradually commencing
to make themselves a potent object of attention, is that
Free Trade is desirable for all raw materials, but that
a duty should be imposed upon all manufactured
articles, whether they compete with local productions
or no.
These Latin- American critics can but observe how
the export trade of other foreign countries, such as
Germany, the United States, and France, is con-
tinually increasing, while that of Great Britain, where
it does not exhibit positive signs of decay, remains in
a stagnant condition. This state of things is attri-
buted to Great Britain's adherence to Free Trade, and
the system of Protection adopted by its competitors.
I have not encountered a single individual with whom
I have discussed such matters as these who does not
hold the opinion that, without reciprocity, real Free
Trade is an impossibility. These intelligent people
are just as convinced that, were Great Britain to tax
those countries which protect their industries against
it, they could before long be forced to adopt Free
Trade also ; and if they did not do so, Great Britain
could and should continue to tax them until they did.
They can see quite clearly that the interests of the
producer and consumer are so closely interwoven and
connected that any injury to the trade of the former
at once reacts on to the latter ; in slack times, as
these Latin- American races have good reason to know,
it is really the consumer who is most seriously affected,
since his very existence depends upon the producer
a.nd manufacturer* Thus any action, they very sen-
134 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
sibly argue, which serves to revive or to promote
trade must, of a necessity, increase the prosperity of
all. It is strange, indeed, that such a view should be
so clear to individuals living out here, and remain
absolutely obscure to those thousands of individuals
at home.
Our great strength in these Latin- American countries
has always been our textile manufactures, and it is
here that we are being attacked by both the United
States and Germany. The former have successfully
imitated most of the English designs, and these, com-
bined with the better class of printing, the larger
proportion of cotton, and the superior quality of the
water employed in the dyeing of the material, have
combined to make the American textiles more to the
liking of the native buyers. So much is this the case,
that the importers who formerly took British goods
almost exclusively now send home American patterns
and designs to be produced in England, even the United
States trade-marks and lettering upon the piece-goods
being followed as closely as it is possible to do without
risking an action for infringement. The labels, instead
of being printed, as heretofore, are now lithographed,
and are likewise colourable imitations of the American
ones ; and it is sad to have to relate that, in order to
keep together some semblance of British trade, it is
apparently necessary to pass off the products of our
looms as " American."
So far there has been but little attack made upon
British bleached cotton goods, the proportion of which
is 80 per cent, in favour of our country ; but German
importers, of whom there are an ever-increasing number
in Salvador, are now seeking to increase the supply of
these goods from the Fatherland. The United States,
TEXTILE MANUFACTURES 135
as yet, have done little in this direction. In yarns we
seem steadily to be losing ground, mainly, as I under-
stand, on account of our poor colouring. The people
of these sunny lands insist upon the brightest of bright
hues — the most vivid scarlet or vermilion for Turkey-
red yarns ; the deepest of blues ; the prettiest of
greens. The British products are lacking in these, so
much so that many of the Turkey-reds spun in Scot-
land are sent to Germany to be dyed before they are
exported to these countries as " British " yarns. Our
next great competitor in regard to textiles is France.
British trade has been no more fortunate in regard
to its machinery, hardware, or iron and steel trade
connections with Salvador, and here it is the United
States that is met with as a powerful and resourceful
rival at all times. The great combine which was
formed in the United States in 1909 to supply the
wants of Latin- America with all iron and steel produc-
tions, has met with an immense success, so much so
that even its organizers have expressed astonishment.
The geographical advantages possessed are not the
only ones. The United States Steel Produce Export
Company is enabled to handle orders more promptly
and much more cheaply than any European factory
could do, but with these commanding points in its favour
the Company is not satisfied. It has organized a
system of canvassing either directly by personal appli-
cation or by mail, which is both timely and effective.
Immediately it is known, or even suspected, that any
new railway or other construction is about to be
entered upon, the Company despatches an agent to
see the promoters, or, in the absence of this, forwards
by mail a complete library of handbooks, cost esti-
mates, attractive illustrations, drawings and code-lists,
136 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
even prepaying a cable message when business is likely
to result. The terms offered are often such as no
European could or would tender, and, even if it were a
question of direct competition, the Steel Company
would probably win-out ; but the prices which it
quotes and the conditions which it imposes are of so
tempting a nature that they stand alone.
It is to be remembered that practically the whole of
the transportation arrangements in Central America,
Salvador excepted, are in the hands of Americans,
whose carefully arranged Pan-American Railway
System is now fast approaching practical realization.
When completed, it will be possible to journey from
New York to Panama without change of car, and what
this means for quick and cheap freights can be realized.
In all probability there will be severe shipping com-
petition to meet with, however, more especially on the
part of the Tehuantepec Railroad, which is already
carrying an enormous traffic, and is regarded with
envious eyes by the Panama Railroad Company. With
the exception of the Tehuantepec route and the
Salvador Railway, the Americans now control the
transportation arrangements of Central America, being
thus enabled to regulate the freight charges upon all
merchandise entering these countries. Already several
cases of unfair discrimination have been recorded, such,
for instance, as charging a British commercial traveller
in Costa Rica a sum of $75 (£15) for the conveyance
of his samples between the Port of Limdn and the
capital of San Jose, while an American drummer was
actually granted a rebate of 50 per cent, off the ordinary
rates, his expenses amounting to little more than $20
(£4) all told. In both cases the weight of the samples
was the same,
CHAPTER XI
British trade declines — Suggested remedy — Distributing centres — Trading
companies and branches — Unattractive cheap goods — Former hold
upon Salvadorean markets — Comparative statistics between Great
Britain, Germany, and the United States — Woollen and cotton goods
— Absence of British bottoms from Salvadorean ports — Markets open
to British manufacturers — Agricultural implements.
WHILE everyone who has studied the question of
British trade abroad is practically agreed that it is at
present suffering from more than the average number
of disadvantages, few have any real remedy to suggest
that might possibly put a different face upon matters.
One idea which has been suggested to me, however,
is worthy of careful attention. This is to establish
throughout the Central and South American States
a number of retail British houses which shall act as
agents and distributing centres for our home-made
goods. I acknowledge that the notion is not a new
one, since the enterprising Germans, who are, as I
have shown, our keenest competitors in this part of
the world, have long conducted such retail establish-
ments, and have found them most beneficial in the
extension of their business with the Latin- American
countries. To open up new branches without the aid
of some such method, it may be said at once, is almost,
if not wholly, impossible. I admit that there are diffi-
culties which will have to be encountered, as there are
in all enterprises of this nature ; but that these are not
137
138 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
insuperable the Germans have themselves very clearly
demonstrated.
In the first place, the establishment of these retail
establishments, if undertaken at all, would have to be
upon a large and a very comprehensive scale. For
this reason it is possible that few British manufac-
turers would have the pluck to enter upon the project.
The result of such timidity is that, in the minor
branches of trade in the Latin -American Republics,
the volume of which is continually increasing in im-
portance side by side with the increase in the demand
for the small luxuries and the conveniences of life, the
representation of British manufactures is becoming an
insignificant factor.
The remedy — or at least a partial one — for this, as
already indicated, lies in the formation of large trading
companies, which would combine a retail and whole-
sale business in all branches of imported goods, with
the purchase of local produce for export. Apart from
the advantages which such a company would enjoy,
due to the magnitude of its operations over ordinary
importers, its retail department would afford a prac-
tical means of advertising and placing upon sale all
kinds of novelties, which naturally would serve to
continually widen the scope of its operations. It
would likewise be in a position, better than that of
any private firm, to receive goods for sale upon com-
mission ; and by exporting produce it would be able
to effect considerable economies in its remittances
(especially in such countries as Salvador and Guate-
mala, where the exchange is often altering), while at
the same time it could afford to pay better prices
than its competitors. The question is already really
answered by the success of the co-operative stores
RETAIL STORES 139
established in England, and it is upon some such
basis as this that the scheme for the Latin- American
Republics is laid. It must be remembered that in all
of these countries the difference between the whole-
sale and the retail prices is enormous, and that the
dealers' profits are exceedingly high. It is an idea
which Mr. Lionel Garden, who is, perhaps, one of our
greatest Pro -Consuls, and particularly gifted with
common sense, has frequently urged in his reports to
the Home Government, and perhaps for this very
reason it has never been adopted. It is one which I
cordially commend to the careful consideration of my
readers.
Yet another point to which the attention of British
manufacturers may be drawn is the unattractive
manner in which the cheaper classes of goods are
turned out. I have in previous publications shown
how trade with the Latin- American countries is injured
by the extremely commonplace and often ugly cover-
ings and wrappings used upon boxes or bindings.
The question is, " Why should an article, because it is
perhaps cheap, be made particularly ugly ?" The long-
established custom among our manufacturers of using
the commonest and crudest of coverings is matched
by their fondness for finishing off their cheaper articles
in the dullest and least attractive of colours or casings.
This is in striking contrast to both American and
German manufacturers, whose artistic taste is shown
in the manner in which their goods — often mere
rubbish though they be — are packed, and with very
excellent results, so far as the export trade is con-
cerned. In an age like ours, when lithography of
every description is so cheap and taste in design so
improved, it seems wholly absurd that good orders
140 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
should be continually lost on account of their non-
adoption.
I have heard of another idea which I may pass on to
manufacturers of small articles enjoying a large sale in
these countries, and this is to procure, through any-
one living in the country, photographs of the rulers
— the Presidents and Vice-Presidents — and use them
lavishly upon their labels and box-covers whenever
possible. The people are extremely fond of collecting
these cheap oleographs and pasting them upon their
walls and windows ; and in all parts of South and
Central America may be seen thousands of the pictures
of King Edward and Queen Alexandra, of the Kaiser,
and even of famous actresses. How much more readily
would the features of a familiar ruler or a popular
Minister help the sale of a cheap material or a low-
priced article of any kind ? The desire to secure
something for nothing — or as an extra " thrown in "-
is as predominant in Latin-America as elsewhere in
the world, and must be pandered to.
Salvador is one of the many Latin- American States
whose great richness and prosperity repose in their
immediate future. In area it is one of the smallest of
the Central American Republics, but it is in no whit
less important from a prospective development point
of view. Its superficial area is but 7,225 miles, but
its population is considerably over 1,000,000, which
gives it an average to the square mile much in excess
of either Guatemala, Costa Rica, or Nicaragua. It is,
moreover, an easier country to deal with, physically
considered, since it is in fully three parts of its area
quite amenable to cultivation. It is remarkably well-
watered, it is richly endowed writh mineral deposits,
and its people are a quiet, peaceful, and industrious
THE VANISHING BRITON HI
race, well-disposed towards foreigners, and with as
much distaste nowadays for revolutions and inter-
necine disturbances as their immediate neighbours
would appear to display for similar diversions.
In a word, Salvador seems to offer at the present
time an excellent field for the investment of both
capital and enterprise. It is quite clear that the
favourable position existing is also appreciated, since
the country is, and has for some time past been, full
of the " commercial ambassadors " — in other words, of
commercial travellers — representing the manufacturing
trade of the United States and of many European
houses, mainly German.
While several British firms still maintain their con-
nection with the Republic, there are to be found barely
half a dozen British houses throughout the length and
breadth of the country. This is all the more sur-
prising since the names — and nothing but the names —
of many one-time influential British firms are to be
seen on the door-posts and signs of the shops. The
old-established emporiums in San Salvador, in Son-
sonate — the next most important trading centre — in
Ahuachapan, in Santa Ana, in Chalatenango, and in
Sensuntepeque, all tell that formerly they imported
their goods through English establishments almost
exclusively, and that British travellers called upon
them at regular intervals for their orders. To-day,
the greater part of the orders, with some notable
exceptions, are taken by German and American
travellers, and a British " drummer" is about as rare
an object as the fabulous Dodo. " We should be glad
enough to see them," added one of my informants ;
" but they seem to have forgotten that such a place
as Salvador exists,"
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The President of the Republic, General Fernando
Figueroa, who retired last November from office, a
very intelligent and charming man, in conversation
with me, dwelt in the same strain concerning the
disappearance of the Britisher as a trading factor from
the Republic of Salvador. He frankly expressed both
his regret and his surprise that the desirable com-
merce of this wealthy and promising Central American
State should have been practically abandoned by the
shrewd and enterprising Northerners, when they had at
one time so firm a hold upon its commercial relations.
The Germans, who have to all intents and purposes
taken possession of the connections, but not of the
affections, of the Salvadoreans, which formerly were
the almost exclusive holdings of the British, are now
to be found everywhere. They not alone year by year
further extend the tentacles of their trade by all
usual means and methods, but they make a point of
coming out to reside for a number of years ; and this
is one of their strongest holds upon the country. The
Germans are prepared to endure any personal sacrifice
in the way of comforts or conveniences to make and
maintain profitable commercial relations with the
people of the countries among which they elect to
trade. In the majority of cases they open branch-
houses in the chief cities of these countries, sending
either one of their partners, or, failing him, one of his
junior relations, to live in the State and personally
conduct the business of the house and closely study
the conditions of the country. Dozens of bright, in-
telligent, and enthusiastic young Germans are met
with, who have been, perhaps, but a few years away
from school or college, serving in their shirt-sleeves,
THE INVADING GERMAN 143
without a blush or sense of humiliation, behind the
counters at the small country stores, opening their
establishments at 6 a.m., and closing them at 8 or
9 p.m., Sundays and weekdays alike.
T have asked many of these young fellows how
many years they have been in the country, and how
many more they mean to remain. Some have been
quite new arrivals ; others have been, perhaps, serving
in Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and other of the
Latin-American States ; but none of them, apparently,
think of going home, even upon a temporary visit, in
less than ten years, and to all appearances they are
perfectly happy to be where they are, not even saving
money, but building up a trade connection for them-
selves or for their employers, as already indicated —
in most cases their relations — which may one day
prove valuable.
I may say that, although these same young Germans
live quite like the people of the country, eating the
same food, occupying the same kind of houses, rising
and retiring at the same primitive hours, and not
infrequently even marrying into their families, they
maintain all the cleanliness of their own lives and
habits, and are always as orderly and as well-conducted
in all relations of life as any self-respecting young
man need be.
While it is true that the Germans do not succeed,
any more than North Americans, in ever endearing
themselves to the inhabitants of these countries of the
South, they do most assuredly earn the respect and
the esteem of their neighbours, and succeed in living
for many years in their countries, surrounded, as is
found the case, by occasional revolution and internecine
144 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
troubles, without in any way becoming involved in the
vortex.
This cannot be truthfully said of the average
American, who comes down either upon a business or
a pleasure trip ; the political affairs and the border
complications seem to have a peculiar and dangerous
fascination for him, and, as in the case of the cele-
brated " Little Jack Horner " of nursery memories,
he must have a finger in the pie. As often as not, the
"plum" which he at length succeeds in pulling out
proves to be a fairly indigestible one, and he is com-
pelled to drop it and make a bolt from the kitchen
rather precipitately, too.
It would appear, from the statistics which are given
in a previous chapter (see p. 106), that Great Britain
in 1909 led in the net value of the country's foreign
imports. The figures, however, must not be read in
the light of competition only, but in the much more
disturbing aspect of the closeness of their totals to
the completion attained by the most serious rivals to
the United Kingdom — namely, the United States and
Germany. The returns for 1910 prove this.
Comparison has been made with the figures of 1904
(which were selected for the special purpose referred
to), and I now desire my readers to glance at some of
more recent date.
For the whole of the Republic the foreign importa-
tion of merchandise for 1908 was as follows :
Packages = 267,791 ; kilogrammes = 18,830,121.
Value : $4,240,561.21. Out of all the different
countries concerned, we are interested for the moment
in three only — namely, Great Britain, Germany, and
the United States of America, and these returns stand
as follows :
FOREIGN IMPORTATION OF MERCHANDISE 145
Packages.
Kilos Weight.
Value.
Great Britain
Germany
United States
42,613
29,605
146,857
3,740,138
2,542,732
9,765,056
$
1,539,046
442,860
1,287,452
Looking into the details of the returns, it seems
that British textile and cotton manufactures have
been the most vigorously attacked by both the
German and the American competing houses. The
shares respectively for 1909 were as follow :
Great Britain
United States
Germany
Total Value.
$957,172.07
451,692.72
57,376.64
In woollen and cotton textile goods there is not
any further improvement in the trade of the United
States, the 1910 figures being $300,075 ; but those
of Germany stand at $71,080, as against $763,171
for Great Britain. From this it will be observed
that in this respect they "who were last may yet
become first," a very significant fulfilment of the
Biblical prognostication so far as Great Britain is
concerned. The chief articles of export of "other
countries" to Salvador are iron and hardware,
$73,447.96 ; sacks for coffee, $92,937.38 ; and various
articles, $132,660.04. Germany is represented by an
immense number of different articles, but none of
them in net value touch very high figures. The most
important is hardware, which is represented by a
value of $69,092.25, while linen goods stand at
$57,376.64, as against the British total of $957,172.07.
A somewhat different kind of trade is done in this
class of goods to that most general, for instance, in
Guatemala. There the natives demand a cheaper
10
146 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
and more flimsy kind of material. In Salvador they
would appear to prefer a somewhat higher class of goods
and of a rather more sober pattern. The Germans are
catering actively for this market, and although, as
will be observed, they have a very long headway
to make up before they approach to within the region
attained by either the British or the American figures,
the persistency with which the Teutons are pursuing
these Latin- American markets makes their competition
a serious factor for the future (see p. 149).
In regard to exports from the port of Acajutla, a
few words will suffice to explain the situation. France
stands first as the recipient of the Republic's products
from this particular port. The figures for the first
half of the year (1909) show that France took coffee
to the value of $749,946, Germany came next with
$667,304, while the United States stood third with
$506,064. Great Britain did not figure at all in the
trade of Acajutla ; but from the port of La Libertad
the United Kingdom took goods to the value of
$106,043 in coffee, against $127,740 by Germany,
$311,093 by France, and $124,700 by the United
States.
$874,958.32 represents the total value of the coffee
shipped from the port of La Libertad for the six
months of that year. This business with England
must have been carried on in foreign bottoms, for, as
mentioned elsewhere, a British vessel had not been
seen in the port of La Libertad for some years, a
fact vouched for by the Comandante of the Port,
who keeps the records of all ships arriving and
departing. The values, it is as well to mention, are
given in gold dollars, the equivalent in Salvadorean
dollars being $2,186,495.80. In regard to the
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS 147
Republic's trade generally, the countries with which
it does its export business stand in the following
order of importance : France, Germany, United States,
Italy, Austria, Great Britain, Spain, and "other
countries."
Reference may be made to the trade done in the
article known as balsam, which is a product peculiar
to Salvador. Hamburg is the principal market for the
article, and its quotations fix the price for the world.
Within the last two years the price has fluctuated
from 12 to 22 marks per kilogramme — say $2.86 to
$5.24 per 2.2 pounds. The price at the beginning of
1909 was 14 marks — say, $3.33 per kilogramme. The
method of obtaining the balsam is very curious,
and is described at some length in Chapter VII.
Manufacturers of agricultural implements and
machinery for the Latin-American markets should
remember that it is unnecessary and undesirable to
make the articles in such a manner as to last for ever.
While durability and substantiality are no doubt
excellent features of machinery of all kinds, and in
connection with British-made goods have always been
much depended upon, it is quite possible to carry the
virtue too far. It must be borne in mind that out
"in the West" the same ideas do not prevail as at
home, and in any case these countries are still in the
experimental stage, when new industries are continu-
ally superseding the old. The Americans and the
Germans both understand this, and consequently they
are ousting the British-made heavier goods from the
market.
What are required are light ploughs, watering-carts,
hay-rakes, seed-sowers, and similar machines, but of
a light yet strong character. The question of freight
148 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
comes in very seriously, since not only is the steam-
ship charge to be considered, but the frequently long
overland journey upon mule-back. By the time that
the implement or machine has reached its destination,
it frequently costs double the invoice price. All easily
detachable and duplicated-part machines are very
much more in demand than other kinds, and they are
but seldom found in Central America of British manu-
facture. But there is absolutely no reason why they
should not be made, and as freely sold, as the American
classes, which are to be seen displayed — painted in all
the gaudy colours of the rainbow — in practically every
hardware store in La tin- America. No small part of
the dealers' profits, either, is derived from supplying
duplicate parts, due to losses and breakages. The
purchasers seldom, if ever, complain of breakdowns,
and they prefer discarding their latest purchase for a
new, and maybe an untried, invention, which is
advertised to do all the wonderful things which the
late implement did, in addition to numerous others
which it could not do.
Small pamphlets, printed in Spanish, showing, with
the aid of drawings, how the machine or implement may
be detached, cleaned, repaired, and again put together,
are also to be recommended. I would even suggest
sending out with each article a brightly - coloured
illustration of the machine in operation, since pur-
chasers are very fond of hanging such upon their walls ;
and in the absence of any other picture I have often
seen the flaring advertisement of some totally different
machine, such as a plough or a reaper, occupying a
conspicuous position upon the house-walls of a farmer's
establishment. If he were sufficiently fortunate to
possess an actual illustration of his own particular
machine, I think that he would gladly endow it with a
STATISTICS FOR 1910
149
special frame, and thus advertise it freely for the
benefit of the manufacturer. It is, therefore, well
worth while for dealers to give such matters their
attention. The initial cost is very small, while the
corresponding advantages are undoubtedly great. At
least our American and German competitors think so,
and have the courage of their opinions.
The present chapter could hardly be more usefully
completed than by adding the latest trading returns
to hand from the Republic — up to July, 1911 — which
provide the figures for the whole of the year 1910.
These show that what has been so long threatened has
actually occurred — Great Britain has lost to the
United States its first place upon the Imports List ;
while upon the Exports List, it stands fifth. Here let
the statistics speak for themselves :
1908.
1909.
1910.
Imports :
$
$
•
United States ...
1,287,452
1,344,316
1,346,598
Great Britain
1,539,047
1,438,614
1,165,993
Great Britain...
+ 251,595
+ 74,298
-180,605 j
Exports :
United States
$
2,046,398
I
1,838,302
2,280,156
+ 441,854
Germany ...
1,038,305
955,888
1,584,627
+ 428,739
France
1,417,428
1,146,316
1,097,118
- 49,198
Italy
374,434
400,163
609,674
+ 209,511
Great Britain
449,167
440,359
480,737
+ 40,278
Thus, from having a surplus of trade in Salvador
over all other countries in 1909 to the value of $74,298
(as against $251,595 in 1908), we show a loss of
$180,605 in 1910. While the United States, Ger-
many, and Italy all showed an increase in their
purchases from Salvador of considerable amounts,
Great Britain records the contemptible advance of
$40,278 ! We may well echo Syrus's maxim : " Heu,
quam difficilis glorice custodia est /"
CHAPTER XII
British fire apparatus — Story of a British installation — Coffee and sugar
machinery — Cane-mills — Fawcett, Preston and Co.'s installations —
High reputation enjoyed by British firms — United States coffee
equipment— German competition — Methods of German commercial
travellers — Openings for British trade — Effect of Panama Canal — A
libel upon Salvador manufacturers— Salvador Chamber of Commerce.
THERE are, on the other hand, certain classes of
machinery and appliances of British manufacture
which can be met with not only in practically every
part of the world, but which no amount of foreign
competition would seem to seriously affect. Among
these specialized manufactures may be included, coffee
and sugar machinery and fire-engines. The latter
stand, indeed, quite alone as effective and universally
known features of British construction, and I do not in
any way exaggerate when I state that in no part of
the world to which I have been — and that is equiva-
lent to saying " everywhere upon the face of the
habitable globe "- —have I failed to see some kind of
fire-extinguishing apparatus, old or new, of British
manufacture. In the Central American States the
reputation of such appliances stands very high, as was
exemplified at the time of one of the several serious
conflagrations which have afflicted San Salvador, and
which occurred some four years ago, when a great
portion of the capital city was for a time in jeopardy
of destruction. One of the principal churches was
150
BRITISH FIRE-ENGINES 151
actually destroyed, and this so affected the people
that the Government determined to invest in fire-
engines and necessary appliances.
As soon as this determination became known, the
officials were inundated with the catalogues of manu-
facturers from Germany, France, the United States,
and other countries. An emissary from America even
came down personally from the States to canvass for
the order ; but the reputation of the British fire-
apparatus was strong and its general effectiveness was
generally recognized, so that the Government did not
hesitate in its decision to follow Mr. Mark J. Kelly's
advice to award the order to a Greenwich firm. A
larger type of the Merry weather steam-engine, with a
very complete outfit for the firemen, has since been
added, through the instrumentality of the same
gentleman.
Further proof of the utility of the English engines
was afforded later on, when yet another serious and
disastrous fire occurred in San Salvador, the work,
it is believed, of an incendiary, with the result that
an entire block of fine buildings, including the National
Theatre, was burned to the ground. It is admitted
by everyone that but for the services rendered by the
fire-engines, and not a little also by the heroic work
of the local brigade, the greater portion of the city, in
all probability, would have been destroyed. It is the
intention of the authorities, I understand, to further
increase the effectiveness of the service by ordering
more hose and additional salvage appliances.
In conversation with the former President of the
Eepublic, General Fernando Figueroa, upon one
occasion, he paid an eloquent tribute to the excellence
of British machinery of all kinds. He has had, it
152 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
may be mentioned, some experience of the manufac-
tures of other countries as well as of our own. He
mentioned to me the fact that he recollected at one
time that many British manufactures, not only of
machinery, were to be met with largely in Salvador,
and that the names of several of the large importing
firms and store-keepers in many of the other cities of
the State were British. To-day there are but five or
six English houses to be found in Salvador. On the
other hand, as previously pointed out, one meets with
many German names, these ubiquitous and enterprising
trade rivals having firmly established themselves in
the Kepublic, as they have also succeeded in doing
in Guatemala and Costa Rica.
In regard to coffee and sugar machinery, of which
mention has already been made, this trade is split up
between the two houses of John Gordon and Co., of
London, and Marcus Mason and Co., of New York.
Both make excellent apparatus for the purpose of
treating the berry and cane, the Germans in this
particular direction finding but very little favour even
among their own people. I visited several of the
large fincas or estates, where both coffee and sugar
are treated, and in all such instances the properties
were either owned or being managed by Germans.
In all cases the machinery was either British or
American, and in a number of instances both were
freely employed.
Upon inquiry, I was informed that the sugar
machinery turned out by German manufacturers in
the majority of cases is too complicated and delicate
for practical purposes, and that it needs an expert
mechanician — a decidedly rara avis in this part of
the world — to understand the apparatus or to carry
BRITISH SUGAR MACHINERY 153
out the necessary repairs when things go wrong. In
all of the factories visited by me the equipment, with
the exception of the boilers and some of the vertical
donkey-engines for feeding them, came either from
Great Britain or the United States of America.
One excellent testimonial to the superiority of
British machinery was afforded at the Laguna Finca,
belonging to Herr FeMor Deininger, who, as may be
assumed from his name, is a German proprietor. Here
I found a complete sugar- manufacturing plant, con
sisting of cane-mill, liquor pumps and tanks, defecators,
juice-heaters, clarifiers and evaporators, steam elimin-
ators, filters, and, indeed, everything but the centri-
fugals, which alone were of German construction, had
been provided by the Liverpool firm of Messrs. Fawcett,
Preston and Co., Limited, of the Phoenix Foundry.
The date upon this installation is " 1867 "; and Herr
Deininger, the present owner of the factory, who
acquired it from his uncle, Herr Bogen, some twenty
years ago, declares that it is quite unnecessary to
replace the installation, "as it is still working most
satisfactorily." Of this I, indeed, assured myself by
personal observation. I venture to believe that this
is an altogether unique instance of a sugar- machinery
installation, erected over forty-three years ago, and
which has been in constant operation during that
time, day by day, Sundays included, being found in a
sufficiently sound and workable condition as to need
nothing more serious than an occasional replacement
of a small part or a temporary stoppage for over-
hauling.
In Salvador there are several cane-mills of quite
recent construction throughout, and in most instances
these are the manufactures of Messrs. Fawcett,
154 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Preston and Co., Limited, who, it would appear, have
erected similar installations in many other parts of
the world, since I have come across them in Southern
Brazil, Cuba, India, and the Argentine. The cattle-
mills, which are peculiarly adapted for this country,
where oxen are used everywhere and for all purposes
of road-hauling, are made with three horizontal rolls,
secured upon strong gudgeons, running in adjustable
gun-metal bearings, supported and held in place by
two massive head-stocks bolted to a strong bedplate.
This latter extends under the rolls from one side of
the mill to the other, serving as a juice-pan attached
to it. There is also fitted an upright shaft, turning
in a footstep secured to the mill bedplate, and in a
pedestal bolted to an entablature, supported by four
pillars, which form part of the head- stocks. To this
upright shaft is keyed a bevel- wheel, which gears into
another keyed upon the toproll gudgeon. In addition
to the bevel-wheel, the shaft is provided with iron-
work for carrying wooden steps for the hitching of
oxen, horses, or mules.
Of recent years Messrs. Fawcett, Preston and Co.,
Limited, have introduced an improved type of Rousse-
lot cane-mill, by which the returner-bar and knife
are reduced to the smallest dimensions by a special
patented arrangement of bringing the side-rolls as
close together as the top cap-bolts will admit. These
latter are inclined vertically to one another, and the
effect of this arrangement is to reduce the width of
the knife, and consequently the friction of the cane
passing over it, and also economizing the power and
consumption of fuel necessary to drive the mill. The
special feature of the Rousselot patent is to be found
in this improvement— that is to say, that the strain is
SUGAR MACHINERY IMPROVEMENTS 155
taken off the cast-iron head-stock by through bolts,
which secure against the breakage of the head-stocks.
Greater ease is also found both in the erection and
the taking down of the mill. These rolls are made of
a special mixture of cast-iron, selected as the best to
withstand the wear and tear to which they are neces-
sarily subjected. The gudgeons are of the best
hammered scrap-iron, and are forced into the rolls by
means of hydraulic pressure, while, in addition, the
rolls are keyed on to the gudgeons. All the head-
stocks, mill-bottom, and crown, are of cast-iron.
Yet another improvement which this firm have
introduced into their sugar machinery is in connection
with the juice-heaters. These now consist of three
cylindrical heaters of a compound type, with Chapman's
patent steam separator, and which are fixed horizontally
side by side, being so connected that while any one of
the three is out of use for cleaning or repair, either of
the other two can be worked as a high-pressure or
finishing heater, and the other as a low-pressure
heater, thus economizing considerable fuel. The steam
separator worked in connection with these heaters
economizes about 8 per cent, of the steam required in
the multiple effect apparatus for evaporating the cane
juice, since by this arrangement the steam that would
otherwise flash off from the superheated juice into the
atmosphere and be lost is collected and conveyed to
the heating drums of the multiple effect, and so
utilized for the evaporation of a corresponding amount
of water from the juice. Improvements are also to be
observed in connection with the subsiding defecators,
the steam eliminators, bag-filters, the apparatus known
as the "Coffey" still.
Reference has been made above to the vogue which
156 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
British-made coffee machinery, and especially that of
Messrs. John Gordon and Co., of London, has had in
the Latin- American States. So far as Salvador is con-
cerned, I understand that this class of product stands
in serious danger of being ousted from the market by
American competition. While it is generally admitted
that none better than British machinery for coffee,
rice and cocoa can be obtained, the very success of
these manufactures seems to an extent to have resulted
in a slackness to obtain further orders, and the field,
thus neglected, and always most carefully watched, is
being occupied by the Americans. I am informed, for
instance, that to-day fully 65 per cent, of the coffee
machinery to be found in Salvador is of American
make, and that fresh orders are being despatched
frequently for further supplies. I also learn that no
British traveller in this class of machinery has been
seen in Salvador for fully five or six years, while, on
the other hand, the largest of the United States manu-
facturers has an agent, in this case a young German
speaking Spanish fluently and possessing a very
pleasant manner, who is continually travelling up and
down the country, visiting the different fincas at
which, apparently, he is always welcome, submitting
drawings, plans, and estimates for improvements and
new installations.
Moreover, this young man is an expert mechanic, and
most skilful in effecting repairs and alterations to
machinery and plant installations. It is not at all
difficult to understand how such an individual makes
headway with the kind-hearted and hospitable Salva-
dorean estate owners, and how he succeeds, not alone
in obtaining orders from them for their coffee and other
machinery, but in introducing German manufactures of
DRUGS AND MEDICINES 157
other kinds ; for your German traveller is always open
for business, and, indeed, appears to live for very little
else. Thus, it would seem, unless some " move " is
made by British manufacturers of coffee and rice
machinery in this part of the world, at no distant date
the trade will be snatched from them ; and that once
done, nothing will probably Succeed in bringing it
back again. Lost ground of this character is seldom
recovered, and it may be hoped that those manufac-
turers who are mostly concerned will take the hint
here conveyed, and set out to put their neglected
houses in order. The coffee industry of Salvador is
the most important of all its exports, and its pursuit
is the mainstay of the country. In 1910 the value was
$5,130,404, out of a total export trade of $7,294,602.
Among the British goods which I have more particu-
larly noticed to be well displayed in the retail stores
are chemical preparations and drugs. The Salvadoreans,
like most Latin- Americans, are large users of all kinds
of patent medicines ; and although a great many of
these come from the United States, those of British
manufacture are not at all poorly represented. Such
articles as Eno's Fruit Salt, Apollinaris and Apenta
Water, Pears' Soap, Odol, and many of the better-
known vegetable pills, are to be found here — except
Cockle's, which are a very difficult drug to obtain,
although in my opinion one of the most efficacious.
The chemists' shops are full of all kinds of other drugs
and patent medicines, and apparently the proprietors
conduct a remarkably good trade.
Relative to the trade of pharmacy, a new law is
proposed which will regulate the practice of this trade,
and which will create a Faculty of Pharmacy and
Natural Sciences, to which all chemists and druggists,
158 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
whether native or foreign, operating in the country,
must belong. In default of membership in this faculty,
a special licence will have to be taken out for pharma-
ceutical practice.
Drugs, medicines, and perfumery to the value of
$82,676 were imported in 1910.
In regard to British wines and spirits, these are
hardly ever seen except in the houses of the few
British residents who may have imported a small
supply for their own use. The total value of victuals,
wines and spirits, however, is not inconsiderable,
amounting in 1909 to about 12,748,249 kilos, repre-
senting a value of £179,431, which, however, contrasts
with 15,689,307 kilos, or a value of £211,819, for the
previous year. The wheat, rice, cereals and breakfast
foods, which are not as well known here as in other
parts of Latin- America, come from the United States,
which also send here by far the greater part of the
lard, tallow, dairy produce, sweetmeats, and dried and
smoked meat and fish. The United Kingdom shares
in the salt trade, but this is only small.
I am of opinion that a better trade could be done by
exporters of British beers and liquors, which would be
purchased here to a more considerable extent. The
number of cafe's and restaurants is increasing, and the
tendency of the inhabitants, especially in good times, is
to dine from home. Although beer is brewed, it is more
the beverage of the workers than of the well-to-do.
In regard to the tobacco and liquor trades carried on
in Salvador, a record of the progress and management
is maintained by means of the regulations which have
been introduced covering the operation of cigar and
cigarette factories and of breweries and bottling
establishments in the Republic. This control has been
PANAMA CANAL AND TRADE 159
in vogue since June of 1909. Proprietors of these
establishments are required to furnish to the proper
authorities a sworn statement as to the capacities of
their plants, the number of the operatives employed,
etc. The analyses previously ordered for wines and
liquors is also extended to beers, both manufactured
and imported.
In regard to the duties on wines and canned goods,
imported liquors pay a duty of 50 cents ; heavy and
white wines, 25 cents ; and old table wines, 5 cents — per.
quart bottle. Canned goods pay 10 cents per kilo
( = 2*204,622 pounds). These duties are in addition
to Customs charges.
What effect will the completion and opening of the
Panama Canal have upon Salvador and other Central
American countries ? I have often been asked this
question, and perhaps this is as good a place as any in
which to answer it. That capital from North America
will flow more abundantly into Central America after
the completion of the great waterway is a practical
certainty ; but I do not consider that there will be any
such considerable augmentation, nor that the difference
will be so prodigious, in regard to results, as some
critics imagine. For many years to come the United
States, with its great area and its many undeveloped
resources, will need more capital — much more, indeed,
than it can conveniently find among its own people ;
that is to say, it will have to borrow from Europe in
addition to saving all that it can on its own account.
The old world has nowadays fewer opportunities for
industrial and commercial expansion ; money is com-
paratively cheap, and all new countries on the other
side of the Atlantic offer the inducement of higher
interest.
160 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
How much of this investment will be made with
purely American money ? The Yankees are certainly
becoming more and more enthusiastic, and at the same
time more and more reckless, in their foreign invest-
ments, and especially in regard to Latin-American
countries. Nevertheless they have a long way to go
before, in actual figures, they can in any way approach
the value and extent of British foreign investments.
In regard to the return which their investments bring
them also, they have, on the whole, proved far less
fortunate. In all probability, British foreign holdings
in South and Central America to-day approach the sum
of £500,000,000 ( = $2,500,000,000), and upon this
gigantic amount of capital they earn a fair average of
5 J per cent, per annum, allowing for the higher and
the lower rates of interest paid, and which amounts to
anything between 25 per cent, and 35 per cent, on
some land shares, and the modest 4j per cent, and
4f per cent, earned upon railway debentures. I also
include in this return some " bad eggs " among a very
diversified list of investments.
I should say, on the other hand, that American
foreign investments would not amount in the aggre-
gate to more than £200,000,000 ($1,000,000,000), and
of this at least seven- tenths are invested in the
Republic of Mexico, and probably two-tenths in enter-
prises in Canada. American foreign investments are,
in a large measure, tributary to great concerns located
in the United States, which have their agents in
foreign countries looking after their local interests.
From this considerable invested amount it would be
impossible to estimate a higher return than 2| or 3 per
cent. ; for while many of the investments — such as the
Standard Oil interests in Mexico and the many bank-
PANAMA CANAL EFFECT 161
ing interests in Cuba, Panama and other countries —
yield often a sensational amount of profit, so much
capital has been lost through rank speculation and dis-
honest management, and so little sound judgment has
been displayed in the matter of sound original selection,
that a considerable portion has been irretrievably lost.
This has been the case in the Sonora district of Mexico
(especially in the Cananea Copper-Mines) ; in the gold
and silver mines of Guanajuato ; and in connection
with some of the railways of Costa Rica, Guatemala
and Ecuador, so that what has been made on the
one hand has, to an appreciable extent, been lost on
the other.
Thus I do not anticipate any very pronounced rush
of American capital into Central America merely
because the Canal will have become un fait accompli.
On the other hand, the United States trade and
commerce must feel benefit from the speedier means of
transport. Already the United States control 60*8 per
cent, of the importations into Mexico, and 89 per cent.
into Panama ; something over 70 per cent, into Costa
Rica, and about 60 per cent, (increasing year by year)
into Guatemala. With the active assistance of the
Washington Government, in conjunction with the com-
pulsory financial " assistance " forced upon them by the
J. Pierpont Morgan Syndicate, Honduras will also
shortly be taking about 80 per cent, of the United
States goods as well as accepting nolens volens the loan
of United States capital.
It is, however, the Republics of Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia and Chile which will become better markets
for the United States through the medium of the
Panama Canal ; and while I was travelling recently
upon the west coast, I particularly remarked the
162 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
arrangements which were being organized to handle
this anticipated additional trade with all efficiency and
despatch. American agents were busy opening-up new
branches or appointing local representatives to handle
the goods destined to be consigned in increased quanti-
ties ; German houses, already established, were also
arranging their houses and remodelling their order-
books to deal with the expected reorganization of
North American trade, all of which proves that a very
substantial belief exists in the approaching trade
" boom " consequent upon the opening, in 1915, of the
Panama Canal.
What attention are British manufacturers and British
agents paying to this all- important question ? This is
very easily answered — NONE !
The first place in the Imports from European
countries into Salvador is given to cotton-manu-
factured goods, nearly the whole of which, I may
again point out, come from Great Britain. In 1906,
out of a total of $4,000,000, which represented the
value of the imports, cotton goods figured for
$1,500,000, or 30 per cent, of the total. Of this
$1,500,000, Great Britain was responsible for $974,964,
which represented woven goods, in addition to $141, 328
representing the value of thread. The United States
came second on the list, with textiles valued at
$409,072, and thread $2,885, although in the list of
this classification America was outranked by both
Germany and France, which sold thread to Salvador to
the value of $8,349 and $4,160 respectively. These
two countries exported textiles to Salvador to the
amount of $32,199 and $71,890 respectively, while
Italy figured for $54,952.
In this class of goods, practically the same relative
«
D »
1 1
H S
WOOLLEN GOODS 163
status of countries has been maintained on the Import
list of the Eepublic since the year 1876 ; but it is note-
worthy that the position of cotton imports has, in the
intervening period, declined no less than 50 per cent,
of the total ; on the other hand, the value of cotton
thread destined for use in the mills of the country
has increased fivefold since 1901, while mixtures of
woollens, linens and silks have also advanced in value.
This is to be explained by the fact that more woollen
and cotton mills are gradually being erected in the
Republic, and that a great amount of encouraging
success is attending their operations. The skill of the
native weavers, the improvement of the quality of the
cottons, and the industrious lives of the inhabitants,
are all factors which have led the Government to con-
sider the advisability of encouraging the growth of the
required supply upon a more comprehensive scale.
Already, indeed, the Government have commenced,
offering export bounties for the surplus stock, with a
view to stimulating the culture.
In this connection it is difficult to understand how
any intelligent writer, who claims to have visited
Salvador with his eyes open, could have published
such an utterly misleading and untruthful statement
of fact as that which appears in a book entitled
" Central America," from the pen of Mr. Frederick
Palmer, F.R.G.S., who upon p. 112 of that volume
declares that " the only manufactures are from an
occasional hand-loom." Mr. Palmer does not inform
his readers how many days or hours he remained
in Salvador, but apparently they were insufficient
to enable him to make himself even superficially
acquainted with the industrial conditions of the
Republics. He devotes exactly eleven and a half
164 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
pages out of a total of 340 to this country, and upon
nearly each one of these pages he indulges in either
an exaggeration or in a misstatement, sometimes in
both.
An important factor in the trade relations existing
between Great Britain and the Republic of Salvador
is found in the Salvador Chamber of Commerce in
London (Incorporated), which was established upon
the initiative of Mr. Mark J. Kelly, F.R.G.S., in
February, 1903, and duly incorporated under licence
of the Board of Trade. It will be remembered that
the President of the Salvadorean Chamber of Com-
merce in San Salvador, as well as being its Founder,
is Senor Don Miguel Duefias, Sub- Secretary of State
for Agriculture. The first President of the Chamber
was Mr. C. S. S. Guthrie, of 9, Idol Lane, London, E.G.,
with Mr. C. Hozenraad, President of the Federation
of Foreign Chambers of Commerce in the United
Kingdom, as Vice - President. The objects of the
Association are to promote the trade, agriculture and
industry of Salvador with the British Empire ; to keep
members informed and acquainted with all matters in
connection with the trade of Salvador ; and to promote
study upon all questions relating to the various inter-
national Conventions which concern the trade between
Salvador and Great Britain, as well as to act as
commercial arbitrators at the request of interested
parties, and exclusively in commercial disputes, where
the interests of Salvador trade are at stake. The
Chamber numbers some forty members, composed of
merchants of London and other parts of the United
Kingdom doing business with Salvador. Upon his
resignation of the chairmanship of the Salvador Rail-
way, Mr. Guthrie also resigned from the Chamber of
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 165
Commerce, and, at the urgent request of the Council
of the Chamber, Mr. Kelly, who with characteristic
modesty had refrained from allowing himself to be
elected as the first President, accepted the post (which
is a purely honorary one), and is now the President of
the Chamber.
CHAPTER XIII
Systems of business — Long credits — British and United States methods
versus German — Making " good " stock losses — Question of exchange
— Effect upon business — Drafts and speculators — Customary terms
of payment — Central American banks as agents — Prominent Salva-
dorean Banks — The Press of the Republic — Prominent newspapers —
Some of their contributors — Central American Press Conference.
THE general idea prevails among both British and
North American manufacturers, who have had little
personal experience of the Latin - Americans, that
extreme difficulties must inevitably be connected with
all — or, at least, with most — transactions conducted
in these countries, as far as payment for goods is con-
cerned. I can but observe that the Latin- Americans
as a race, if not more honest than Europeans or North
Americans, are by no means any less so ; and probably,
if sufficiently reliable information were obtainable, it
would be found that these former are, as a whole,
quite as ready and able to meet their foreign obliga-
tions as any class of traders in either hemisphere.
As I have, however, pointed out in another chapter
of this volume, it would be extremely unwise upon the
part of any firm in Great Britain or in the United
States to attempt to conduct their transactions by
correspondence ; an Agent is indispensable if difficulties
in transportation and delivery through the Customs,
as well as the collection of the account when due, are
to be avoided.
166
BANK PROCEDURE 167
In most of the Central American ports and cities,
especially (in Salvador) at La Libertad, La Union,
El Triunfo, and Acajutla, the services of such Agents
are obtainable. Moreover, some of the banks under-
take to look after the interests of their correspondents
who are recommended to them, and who are prepared
to pay a fair price for the services rendered.
The usual method of conducting transactions of this
kind is to draw upon the purchaser of goods for the
amount of the invoice, and to negotiate the draft
through some local bank, which will in the majority
of cases collect the amount, provided the shipping
documents be delivered in good order and are found
to be free from consular or Customs -house objections.
The banks, naturally, take no responsibility in the
matter ; and in any case the shipper should know
something reliable about the firm and their financial
status before entrusting them with the goods. Another
mode is for the purchaser of the goods to arrange with
his own bankers to open a credit with the shipping
firm to be operated upon, against delivery of the
documents to the . bank indicated, or in such other
form as may be agreed upon ; while a third expedient
— an unusual one, however, and not to be recom-
mended— is to make a remittance to the buyer before-
hand, either by means of a bank draft or cable transfer.
The safest method to adopt is to draw bills on the
importing firm at a usance,^ agreed upon at the time
that the order is taken, generally from 90 to 120
days' sight, and to pass the bill and documents
through the bank for collection or sale. The draft is
* Usance = the time which in certain countries is allowed by custom or
usage for the payment of bills of exchange drawn on those countries. —
AUTHOR.
168 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
usually made payable in return remittance at 90 days'
sight on London, Hamburg, or New York, but this is
quite a matter of mutual arrangement between buyer
and seller.
American as well as British export firms are, as a
rule, disinclined to give credit, while the German, on
the other hand, offers as much as his customer
demands. Undoubtedly the latter loses a larger pro-
portion of his book-debts by pursuing so generous a
policy ; but at the same time he multiplies the orders
upon his books, and he has a clever and somewhat un-
scrupulous way of so manipulating the accounts of his
honest customers as to make them directly or in-
directly liquidate the debts of the dishonest ones.
How this is done I do not know, but I know that it is
done, for I have the assurance to that effect from more
than one German trader who has thus balanced his
ledger for several years, and always without suffering
any bad consequences.
That the sanctimonious and strictly conscientious
British tradesman is not altogether averse, upon occa-
sions, to pursue similar methods was shown some few
years ago, when a prominent West End saddler con-
fessed to the fact that when he took stock and found a
gentleman's £5 saddle was missing, and that he was
unable to remember to whom it had been sold, he
instructed his bookkeeper to charge up this item
to each one of the firm's customers. " Some," he
unctuously observed, " will, of course, deny that they
have had such a saddle ; to these you can write and
express our profound apologies for the unintentional
error, etc. Those who don't complain will probably be
unable to remember what they had and what they did
not have. Let them pay. Thus we shall get square."
CLEARING GOODS 169
And it is to be added that so careless or forgetful
are the majority of the customers of a " high-class "
firm in London, that 70 per cent, of those who were
wrongly charged with the missing saddle paid the
unjust bill without questioning it.
Adverting to the subject of granting long credit to
Central American importers of foreign goods, it must
be remembered that the majority of these latter are
obliged to ask for this indulgence on account of the
excessively large amounts which they are called upon
to find in order to clear their consignments from the
Customs ; and also because the retail business which
is carried on in these, as in practically all agricultural
countries, is a long- credit one. Only the most liberal
concessions of credit can secure any decisive advantage
for any one of the numerous competitors in business.
Additionally, it is not always possible for the importer
to secure good drafts at low rates in the market. In
some of the countries — and Salvador is not any excep-
tion— the market for drafts is completely dominated by
speculators, evidence of which is to be found in the
fact that heavy and unaccountable fluctuations pre-
sent themselves at short intervals. The possibility of
speculators thus controlling the market is increased by
their finding in the banks — no matter how highly these
may be ranked as honourably-conducted institutions —
ready allies.
The question of exchange in Salvador, and the bane-
ful effect which it has, and for some years has had,
upon commerce and trade, especially upon the profit-
able conduct of the Salvador Eailway, is more
fully dealt with in another part of this volume (see
Chapter XV.). But a few observations concerning
the character of the exchange business in Central
170 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
American countries generally may not be out of place
here.
In Honduras, exchange rates are often only nominal,
because no regular commercial paper is to be found in
the market. The large exports of minerals, bananas,
and other produce, are covered, since the proprietors,
who are mostly foreigners, need only the necessary
amount for the wages of their labourers, and this is
remitted to the country by means of drafts. The
exporters, moreover, consider the premium on gold not
only as profit earned upon their sales, but as represent-
ing an economy in their working expenses, since the
export product and the wages for labour are paid for
in silver, which naturally makes the first cost of the
product much less. Drafts are in this way arbitrarily
held back and kept out of the market, or prices are
asked for them which are out of all proportion to the
silver quotations of London and New York. So the
importer in these silver standard countries, in some of
which the exportation of the white metal is prohibited,
finds himself compelled to wait for a favourable oppor-
tunity to buy drafts at a low rate in order to pay for
his purchases in foreign countries.
The customary terms of payment for European
houses are four to six months from the date of the
invoice ; in many cases shipments are made " to
order," and the bill of lading is delivered to the
purchaser when he accepts the seller's draft at his
local bank, and in this way the customer is held to
strict observance of the time when the bill falls due.
In case of failure of the customer to meet his drafts
when they mature, the matter is generally arranged
by issuing drafts payable at sight after ninety days
on London or Hamburg, with payment of interest
CREDIT ACCOMMODATION 171
for the time they are out. The operations of having
drafts accepted and remitting the funds collected
through them are carried out by the large banks or
private banking firms located in these countries in
consideration of a commission varying between J and
2 per cent.
Open credits (that is to say, running accounts which
the customer can vary in amount to suit his needs,
with payment of interest, of course) are no longer
granted, except by a few firms to some of their oldest
and best customers.
The intelligent and not over-cautious European
exporter accepts without hesitation the usual six-
months terms, because he has some knowledge of
these countries and their people ; and he often prefers
such a settlement to cash in advance, since he likewise
recognizes that he is binding the customer to do more
business with his firm. On the other hand, one often
hears commercial houses complain that when they
decide to place a trial order with North American firms
which are desirous of doing business with them, and
have repeatedly and insistently solicited such orders,
they are required to pay cash with the order. That
nobody in Central America would accept such terms,
or at least very seldom, the clever Yankee business
man ought to be able to see, especially as the most
notable traits of the Spanish -American character are
extreme sensitiveness and the need of courteous
treatment.
A cash discount of 3 to 4 per cent, is not much
of an inducement in a country where the usual rates
of interest are 18 to 40 per cent. Some of the banks
of Central America, which secure but a small and
unimportant share of the business going, and which
172 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
pay less attention to the development of the country
than to the needs of their own treasuries, often demand
1 to 1^ per cent, monthly, with security worth two or
three times the sum loaned.
There are no established commercial agencies in
Central America which furnish information, but reliable
information uninfluenced by personal interests can
sometimes be obtained from the principal banking
firms — such, for instance, in Guatemala, as the Inter-
national Bank, American Bank or Guatemala Bank,
Clermont and Co., Schlubach, Dauch and Co. ; in
Salvador, from the Banco Agricola, Occidental or
National Bank, and Messrs. David Bloom and Co. ;
in Panama, Messrs. Ehrmann Brothers ; in Honduras,
from J. Rossner and Co., P. Maier and Co., Francisco
Siercke, and Juan Stradtmann ; in Nicaragua, from
the young and well-respected British Consul, Mr.
Albert J. Martin ; and in Costa Rica from the follow-
ing banks : Anglo-Costa Rica, Commercial and Sasso
and Pirie. These houses are better informed than
anyone else about the amount of credit customers may
deserve, because, knowing the promptness with which
the various firms meet their outstanding drafts, they
are in a position to form a reliable opinion of the
solvency of prospective or actual customers.
The Banco Agricola Comercial has a subscribed
capital of $5,000,000, of which $1,000,000 is paid up.
The Reserve Fund amounts to $100,000, and Even-
tualities Fund to $115,180. The Permanent Director
is Seftor Mauricio Duke, and the Consulting Directors
Senores J. Mauricio Duke and Eugenio Aguila. There
are two other Sub-Directors, Senores Rafael Guirola
and Miguel Judice. Sefior F. Drews is the General
Manager.
BANCO AGRICOLA
173
The Banco Agricola Comercial, which was established
in 1895, has gone through more than one critical
financial and commercial period, but it has come out
of the ordeal with considerable credit to itself. There
can be no doubt that the bank has been a great
assistance to agriculture and trade generally in the
Republic, nor that it has not done at all badly for itself,
which fact is seen from the last balance-sheets issued.
In 1908, upon a total turnover of $14,500,000, the
bank's profits were $145,634 (silver p&sos). There
was a dividend of 8 per cent, paid to the shareholders
upon the paid-up capital of $1,000,000 (pesos) after
all charges for administration had been met, and a
substantial addition made to the Emergency Fund.
In 1909 the total amount of business transacted figured
at $16,200,000 (silver pesos).
The following summary of the bank's financial
transactions and position over a period of three years
will be of interest :
"ri-d OB
a
.
'g g 8b
-§ 42
"§ !?ig
J
1
§ » I?
o'fl o
g'g §3
o
J£|
% Q
"^
1
First half of 1907
717
588
906
780
816
Second „ „
565
758
828
931
741
First half of 1908
935
779
1,175
991
816
Second „ „
1,441
1,013
1,485
1,186
984
First half of 1909
1,424
1,213
1,954
1,142
921
Second „ „
946
1,181
1,603
1,453
969
It will be observed that the last year's showing is
less favourable to the bank, but this may be attributed
to the heavy demands made upon its resources in
financing the movement of the coffee crop. The
metallic reserve for meeting outstanding obligations
174 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
over the same period had been considerably weakened in
consequence, as the subjoined table will prove :
METALLIC RESERVE.
(A denotes notes alone ; B denotes notes, deposits and current accounts.)
At the End of the Month,
in per Cent.
June.
December.
A.
B.
A.
B.
1907
1908
1909
87-89
114-39
154-60
44-63
46-90
49-54
76-27
146-35
97-62
37-82
58-33
34-86
This bank, like others in Salvador, does not disclose
the character of its investments, and it is therefore
impossible to pronounce any opinion of its actual
financial status. It is always desirable to know some-
thing regarding the character of the paper which a
bank has in hand, and it is precisely this knowledge
which is withheld, and by many British companies also.
The omission to provide it is in no way the fault of the
bank, be it observed, but of the custom which controls
its actions. In Costa Rica alone, among the Central
American States, is the practice general among the
banks to publish in the balance-sheets some particulars
of the commercial paper carried, and this is taken into
account like every other asset and inventoried. In
Costa Rica, also, all the issuing banks have their books
inspected once a month by Government officials, and a
certificate of solvency is presented to and published by
them.
The National Bank of Salvador (Banco Nacional)
was founded in 1907 with a capital of $1,0 00,0 00 (silver
pesos). Of this amount one-half has been paid up.
NATIONAL BANK
175
The following statement of account for the first three
years of its existence will be useful :
1907.
1908.
First Half
of 1909.
Total earnings
Deductions...
Net profits
Increase in
18,173.74
3,000.00
38,786.85
8,138.35
26,175.36
6,175.36
16,173.74
1908, 15,442
30,648.50
26.
20,000.00
The balance-sheet shows the following accounts :
1907.
1908.
First Half
of 1909.
Negotiable paper
568,727
675,176
427,751
Loans on current accounts
546,331
777,847
724,734
Cash
264,374
634,803
449,207
Notes in circulation ...
90,908
517,153
426,732
Credit and deposits at sight
211,361
365,333
302,870
Time obligations
223,905
502,174
436,682
The metallic reserve account stood as follows :
June.
December.
At the End of the Month,
in per Cent.
A.
B.
A.
B.
1907
354-32
39-36
262-90
60-05
1908
115-93
60-10
126-47
42-70
1909
105-26
38-50
The steady increase shown is somewhat remarkable,
and the distribution of profits, considering the com-
paratively recent establishment of this bank, hardly
less so. This distribution, after making all the neces-
sary provisions, stood as follows :
176 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
1907.
1908.
First Half
of 1909.
Keserve fund
3,000
7,000
10,000
Emergency fund
—
2,000
2,000
Dividends ...
—
30,618
21,503
Undivided surplus ...
15,173
2,980
1,675
For the first six months of 1909, the dividend
declared and paid was 4 per cent, upon the amount of
capital paid up= $500,000 (silver pesos). For the
remaining half-year and for 1910, and the first half of
1911, increased distributions have been made, and the
financial condition and prospects of the Banco
Nacional are considered to be in a satisfactory state.
Sefior Guillermo Hemmeler is the Manager, and he
has bought up the connection of the bank's customers
consistently from the time that he first assumed con-
trol. The bank allows 3 per cent, interest upon
current accounts, and it has the privilege of issuing its
own notes.
El Banco Salvadoreno was established in 1885, and
has a subscribed and paid-up capital of $3,000,000.
The Reserve Fund amounts to $231,985.80 and the
Dividend Equalization Fund to $20,000 ; the Eventu-
alities Fund at present stands at $50,000. There are
branches established at Santa Ana (the Manager being
Senor Cuno G. Mathies) and at San Miguel (the
Manager being Senor R. Schlensz). The General
Manager in San Salvador is Senor Alberto W. Augspurg ,
who speaks English very well, and is invariably courte-
ous and obliging to foreigners who seek his assistance
or advice.
Banking business in Salvador always has been, and
still is, carried on by a few private firms. The estab-
lishment conducted by Messrs. Blanco and Trigueros was
MESSRS. DAVID BLOOM AND CO. 177
founded as far back as 1835, with a capital estimated
at $1,500,000. In 1893 the Bank of Nicaragua opened
a branch office in the city of San Salvador, and for
long did a good and steady business. Certain con-
cessions and privileges were also granted to Messrs.
Linares and Co., of Barcelona, Spain, enabling them to
establish a national bank in San Salvador, with a capital
of £1,000,000 sterling. A concession was also granted
for the establishment of a purely Mortgage Bank, but
up till now such an establishment has not been
started.
The House of David Bloom and Co., with branches
at New York and San Francisco, is composed of
Messrs. David and Benjamim Bloom, and who are the
principal private bankers of the Government. Subject
to the criticism which this position involves, mainly
upon the part of those, perhaps, who are not as well
endowed as are Messrs. Bloom and Co. with moral
courage and confidence in the peaceful continuity of
government in Salvador, this firm enjoys an excellent
reputation for fair dealing, and is well regarded
throughout the country.
The Press of the Republic is well represented by
some five or six daily newspapers, several weekly
publications, and a number of monthly reviews. There
are entirely free press laws existing, and on the whole
there is no abuse of the privileges accorded for ex-
pressing public opinion. El Diario del Salvador was
founded in July of 1894 by Senor R Mayorga Rivas,
and is to-day conducted by the same talented journal-
ist and cultured writer. The General Manager is
Senor J. M. Lacayo T&llez. Among its regular con-
tributors are Senores J. Dols Corpeno, a young but
vigorous writer ; Armando Rodriguez Portillo, who
178 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
is but thirty years of age ; and other distinguished
litterateurs of Salvador. El Diario Latino, of which
Sefior Miguel Pinto is the Director and Proprietor, and
Senor Juan Ram6n Uriarte is the Editor, has a large
and influential circulation, which is by no means con-
fined to the Republic itself. El Heraldo del Salvador,
which is the recognized organ of the Church, is edited
by the Rev. Dr. Eduardo Martinez Balsalobre. It is,
as may be assumed, a high-class publication, and pub-
lishes occasionally some powerful literary contributions
from the pens of some of the most talented writers.
El Diario Oficial is the property and exponent of the
Government, but scarcely takes rank as a newspaper,
being in all respects similar to our London Gazette,
with the exception that it prints daily a good service
of cables.
Among the many weekly publications of note may
be cited La Riqueza and La Vida y Verdad; La
Semana Mercantil, which is the organ of the Society
known as " Orden y Prosperidad " ; El Franciscano, a
Catholic paper conducted by a Franciscan Brother ;
Repertorio del Diario del Salvador, a well-illustrated
review of literary, commercial, and social matters, and
edited by a gentleman bearing the very English name
of Samuel C. Dawson. This publication is, as its title
may suggest, closely allied with the great daily paper
El Diario del Salvador. Other publications are — La
Razon Catdlica, a monthly Church organ ; El Comer-
do del Salvador, also a monthly illustrated dealing
with politics, sociology, and a variety of other subjects ;
En Serio y en Broma, a humorous monthly review ;
as well as a large number of technical prints, weekly
and monthly, such as — Anales del Museo National,
Archivos del Hospital Rosates, Vida Intelectual, Revista
J * J J J J
GOVERNMENT BUILDING ("CASA BLANCA"), SAN SALVADOR.
CAMPO DE MARTE (RACE COURSE), SAN SALVADOR.
THE PRESS 179
Judicial, Boletin de Agricultura, Revista Cientifico-
Militar, Libro Rosado de El Salvador, Boletin Munici-
pal, Boletin del Consejo Superior de Salubridad, La
Voz del Obrero, Boletin Masonico, La Buena Prensa,
La Luciernaga, and Juan de Arco.
Each of the Departments has likewise one or more
daily or weekly papers, many carrying great influence
among the better-class Salvadoreans, who are both
diligent readers and intelligent critics. In Santa Ana
there are El Democrata, which was founded in 1900,
and a weekly known as El Santaneco. In Chalchuapa
there are two weeklies, La Vanguardia and El Patriota;
in Achuachapan there is one weekly, La Nueva Era ;
in Sonsonate, La Prensa, also a weekly ; in Santa
Tecla, Don Bosco, a weekly which is the organ of the
Institute Salesiano ; in Cojutepeque there are two
periodicals, one weekly and one monthly, respectively
known as El Impartial and El Cuscatleco ; in Suchitoto,
a monthly review, La Mujer (The Woman), holds the
field ; in Santiago de Maria, El Anunciador ; and in
San Miguel, El Eco de Oriente. A fair share of local
advertising is accorded to all of these publications, but,
of a necessity, in the majority of cases the circulation
is small.
There was recently formed a Central American
Press Association, composed of the representatives of
the principal newspapers published in the five Re-
publics of Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Eica, Nicaragua,
and Honduras. Already the news published in each
State concerning the sister-Republics is full ; but the
new association, working by means of a mutual ex-
change of information fit for publication, will result
in a considerably improved service being maintained.
The papers which have taken the initiative in this
180 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
important Association are — Diario del Salvador (El
Salvador), Diario de Centro America (Guatemala),
Diario de Nicaragua (Nicaragua), and La Republica
(Costa Rica). Towards the end of this year (1911) a
Conference of Press Representatives is to be held in
San Salvador, which is expected to be attended with
considerable success, and even far-reaching conse-
quences.
CHAPTER XIV
Mining — Ancient workings— Precious metals found — Copper deposits —
Iron ores — Treatment of ores in England — Difficulties of transport —
Some deceased authorities — Mines in operation — Butters' Salvador
mines — History of undertaking — Large profits earned — Directorial
policy — Machinery and equipment — Butters' Divisadero Mines —
Butters' cyaniding plant.
TRADITION points to the fact that the whole of the
Central American States were more or less mineralized,
while some of them, such as Honduras and Salvador,
have long been known to contain great mineral wealth.
The geological conditions of Salvador, as may be
inferred from the physical facts which have already
been set forth in these pages, show that precious
metals have been found in some of the Departments.
There are on record considerable operations in connec-
tion with the different Salvador mines of Tabanco,
Sociedad, and others in their immediate vicinity and
lying in the north-eastern part of the Department of
San Miguel, on the confines of Honduras.
These mines have been extensively worked, and
have in their time yielded very profitable results.
About six miles distant from Tabanco are the gold-
mines of Capitalis, once believed to be of great rich-
ness, and the group of silver-mines known under the
name of Minas de Tabanco, and where is found silver
in common with galena and sulphurate of zinc. In
times past these mines have been worked with very
181
182 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
little difficulty, and they have yielded from as little as
47 to as much as 2,537 ounces to the ton. The most
famous producer among these was the Santa Rosalia,
and a great part of these ores were formerly shipped
direct to England. Old archives of this concern show
that in the year 1830 an attempt was made to work
the mines on a large scale by an English company,
which sent out a whole corps of Cornish miners for the
purpose. The machinery which was despatched at the
same time was so heavy, however, that it was found
impossible to transport it from the coast, which diffi-
culty, combined with others, entirely broke up the
enterprise. Had the organizers of the company, as a
preliminary, constructed a good cart-road, which was
quite possible, and had then sent out the machinery in
parts, which could have been packed separately on
mule-back, as is done in Colombia and other mountain-
ous countries, the undertaking might never have been
a failure.
That mining paid, and paid well, in Salvador in
olden days is proved by the record which has been left
by Mr. R. C. Dunlop, in his " Travels in Central
America." This writer tells us that "five leagues
north of San Miguel are a number of mines of silver ;
among them is one called La Carolina, which was
worked by a Spanish empresario about thirty years ago
[Dunlop's book was published in 1847]. He invested
his own property, borrowed $100,000 and, after getting
his mine into order in less than six months, was able to
pay his obligations ; and although he died before the
end of the year, he left $70,000 in gold and silver, the
produce of the mine. After his death the ownership
was disputed, the works fell into ruins, and the mine
became filled with water. The mines of Tabanco
MINING 183
yield more silver than those in its vicinity, and when
worked yielded upwards of $1,000,000 annually,
although operated in a rude manner without machinery.
The principal one yielded $200,000 annually to the
proprietors."
I fear that the late Mr. Dunlop somewhat exag-
gerated the value of these mines ; for while I was in
the country, and in the particular district referred to
by the author, no one seemed to have any recollection
of any such values having ever been obtained.
The same doubtful authority is responsible for the
statement that "nine leagues from Santa Ana are some
rich mines of iron which produce a purer and more
malleable metal than any imported from Europe. The
ore is found near the surface, and is very abundant,
while there are extensive forests in the immediate
vicinity which serve for making charcoal." Another
authority on Salvador, long since gathered to his
fathers — viz,, John Baily, KM. — who published a book
upon Central America in 1850, assures us that some of
this iron which was sent to England for the purpose of
examination proved to be "a very valuable variety
suitable for the manufacture of fine steel, approaching
very nearly in this respect to the celebrated Wootz of
India."
The mineral veins of Salvador present themselves
principally in the rocks of the mountain chain, or
Cordillera, which extends into Honduras and Nicar-
agua, and forms the richest mining districts of those
countries. Generally speaking, the veins run parallel
with the direction of the ranges — that is, from east to
west — but they are often found to be very much broken
and interrupted by the action of upheaval. In the
eastern parts of the Republic, deposits of gold, silver,
184 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
copper, and lead are found, while in the western are
the rich iron-ore deposits. Coal is found in the valley
of the River Lempa. Although it is rather difficult to
obtain full and accurate returns of all the mines in
operation in Salvador to-day, roughly speaking they
may be put at between 180 and 200. The table on
p. 185, which has been compiled by the head of the
Salvadorean Bureau of Statistics, and which shows the
number of mines of each Department and the minerals
which they possess, will be of some interest.
The labour question is, however, one which must be
carefully gone into ; but here again the local (State)
Government could, and no doubt would, help the
enterprise considerably, for so closely are the author-
ities in touch with the people that they can at most
times influence a good and continuous flow of peon
labour when their assistance is invoked. General
shortage of labour has been responsible for a great
number of the mining returns not being satisfactory
of late, especially in connection with the Butters' Sal-
vador Mines, of which fuller details are given.
The Salvadorean peon, like his Peruvian brother, is a
very tractable kind of labourer, and can be success-
fully handled by kind treatment. He is, moreover,
naturally free from that taint of dishonesty which so
strongly distinguishes the Mexican and the Colombian
peon} and which renders it impossible to leave anything
of a portable nature in their way. The native labourer
of Salvador is usually able to earn an easy livelihood
by means of husbandry, and he takes to mining from
choice rather than from necessity. This fact renders
it all the more important that fair treatment should
be extended to him, and upon most of the foreign-
owned mines this is certainly the case. The late
MINING
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186 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
manager of the Butters' Salvador Mines, Mr. Garth-
waite, whose death occurred last year, was entirely
sympatico to the men employed upon the mines, and
his kindness to them and to their families was gener-
ally acknowledged and deeply appreciated.
That the industry of mining has considerably im-
proved in Salvador during the past decade is sufficiently
evidenced by the subjoined figures, which trace the
industry in its progress from January, 1901, to the
first half of the year 1910 :
Total Amount of Trade
(U.S. Gold $).
Period covered.
Year 1901
„ 1902
„ 1903
„ 1904
„ 1905
„ 1906
„ 1907
„ 1908
1909
1910 (half
year)
$183,760.00.
114,585.20.
814,733.88.
652,854.33.
768,677.60.
1,296,666.00.
1,223,565.00.
1,318,224.00.
1,116,717.00.
560,570.00.
These figures refer to all the auriferous silver, copper
ore, gold bars, gold and silver ore, lead ore, gold slimes,
gold and copper slimes, gold and silver slimes, and lead,
which had been mined in the country during the
period mentioned.
I should say that modest fortunes await the enter-
prising capitalist — foreign for choice, since as a rule
he is less easily discouraged by a run of temporary
ill-luck — who exploits some of the antiguas — i.e., the
ancient copper workings of the Salvadoreans which
have been abandoned owing to lack of capital or
labour. I know of many such opportunities which
exist in the Department of Morazan, where already
a considerable group of foreign companies and private
individuals are working with occasionally remarkable
success. With the modern machinery and reduction
BUTTERS1 SALVADOR MINES 187
plant now available, certainly the greater part of these
ancient workings might be made to pay something as
a return upon the amount of capital expended upon
them. To-day, also, there exists a first-class cart-
road leading from these mines to the principal town,
and thus transportation, which was formerly both
costly and difficult, is now a matter of comparative
facility.
In some of the iron ore mines one can find the old
and wasteful Catalan system of reduction still in use,
and yet with proper treatment, as was sufficiently
proved when a trial shipment of ores was sent to
England some years ago, as much as 87 per cent, of
magnetic iron can be obtained from these ores. And
the quantity of ore which they contain is apparently
inexhaustible. I know of but two or three small
smelters at present existing in Salvador, and, natur-
ally, the industry of copper-smelting carried on in this
primitive and limited manner proves anything but
profitable. I am of opinion that the Government
would encourage any serious attempt upon the part
of foreign capitalists to exploit the unquestionably
rich copper deposits of the Departments of Chalate-
nango and Cabanas, and such an enterprise might
well be worth the attention of some British or United
States mining capitalists. The latter are usually the
more enterprising and plucky.
About twelve years ago there was registered in
London a mining property covering 546 acres in
Salvador, comprising a number of gold-bearing proper-
ties, with the title of Butters' Salvador Mines, Ltd.,
the principal owner being Mr. Charles Butters, a well-
known American engineer, and who is the chairman of
the company. From the very commencement of its
188 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
operations, the company seems to have been eminently
successful, and was able to distribute its first dividend
in 1903, when 5 per cent, was paid. Since that
date the dividends have varied from 40 to 80 per
cent., that for 1910 being at the rate of 45 per cent.,
which compared with a similar rate for the previous
year, but with an additional bonus of 23f per cent. On
account of the present year, 15 per cent, has already
been paid as an interim dividend, and, according to the
recently-issued report, the ore reserves are now
estimated to amount to 108,000 tons, and to carry a
profit value of £400,000, or more than twice the value
of the entire share capital.
At the end of last May, dividend " No. 87 " of 3| per
cent. (= 9d. per share) was declared by the Board of
Directors, who at the same time informed the share-
holders that dividends will in the future be distributed
quarterly instead of monthly, as has been customary in
the past.
The inherent wealth of these mines is clearly demon-
strated when one recollects that, in spite of the able
and experienced management that has been the rule,
many difficulties have had to be encountered and over-
come, not the least of which has been the lack of
labour, and, during the early part of last year, some
serious trouble with the boilers at the mines. The
consistently cautious policy which the directorate have
adopted, notwithstanding the large dividends which
they have been able to recommend, has resulted in
their establishing the mines upon a thoroughly solid
and business-like basis. It is worth remarking here
that the whole of the existing plant and equipment,
which are as complete and efficient as any to be found
upon the American Continent, have been paid for out
VIEW OF BUTTERS' DIVISADERO MINES, DEPARTMENT OF MORAZAN,
SALVADOR.
2. BUTTERS' SALVADOR MINES, SANTA ROSA, DEPARTMENT OF I A UNION,
SALVADOR.
BUTTERS1 SALVADOR MINES 189
of revenue, and they stand in the books of the company
at the present time at the ridiculously low price of
£2,000.
The principal work which the management has in
hand at the present time is cross-cutting the formation,
with the object of finding split or parallel veins, and
the discovery of such split veins has naturally much
improved the position of the company. The whole
policy of the management will now be devoted, for
some years to come, to proving the mines in depth, and
such, indeed, would have been undertaken before now
but for the troubles to which I have above referred in
regard to labour. The ore indications, which have so
far been met with, are of a distinctly favourable nature,
the most encouraging, perhaps, being the cutting of the
famous Miguel ore-shoot at the 700 feet level. The
width of this vein exceeds 3 feet, and it assays over
6 ounces. The Miguel shaft is now down nearly
800 feet, but the deepest working from which the ore
has been stoped is the 600 feet level ; the shaft will
therefore give 200 feet of backs below the present
workings.
At present between 25,000 and 30,000 tons of ore
are being crushed annually, which yield on the average
a value of 1 ounce 7 pennyweights. The working
expenses have never been particularly high, owing
greatly to the excellence of management and the
economy of the reduction plant, which bears the name
of the chairman of the company — viz., the Butters'
Cyanide Process — but there are nevertheless hopes
that these costs will be still further reduced in the
near future. There is no question that the Butters'
Salvador Mines rank among the most valuable ore
deposits to be found in Central America, and it is no
190 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
less sure that they are being managed in the most
expert and most economical manner.
As to the financial situation of the company, the
balance-sheet proves that the cash in hand on June 30,
1910, in Salvador, London, and San Francisco, amounted
to £5,001, and that on the same date the stores in
hand and in transit were valued at £32,228 ; sundry
debtors in Salvador and London amounted to £812,
and per contra the amount owing to sundry creditors
was £3,642. The profit and loss account showed a
net profit for the period of £62,645 ; while the amount
brought forward from the previous account, and which
amounted to £19,042, being added to the net profit,
showed a total available distributable balance of
£81,677. The dividends which have been paid for
the twelve months aggregated, as already mentioned,
45 per cent, upon the capital of the company, and
which absorbed £67,500, thus leaving a carry-forward
of £14,177.
It is worthy of mention that in the directors' report
for the period ending June 30, 1910, a graceful tribute
is paid to "the continued consideration which the
Government of Salvador has extended to the com-
pany," and which testimony goes to prove what I
have already indicated — viz., that the Government is
anxious and willing to encourage in every legitimate
manner sound foreign enterprise ; but I go further, and
say that I know of no other Latin- American Republic
which has shown greater good-will to all foreign enter-
prise in all its phases than that of Salvador.
It is over seven years since the Butters' filter was
introduced in connection with mining, and the process
may now be met with in all parts of the world, and
especially in Mexico, where I have seen it working
BUTTERS1 FILTER 191
with excellent advantage upon the famous Dos Estrellas
gold-mine at El Oro, as well as in Brazil and in other
South American countries.
The need of a filter of some sort was first forcibly
presented to the mind of Mr. Charles Butters and his
associates at their works in Virginia City, Nevada,
U.S.A. The tailing being cyanided there was origin-
ally derived from the Comstock Mills, but it had been
treated and retreated several times by the Pan- Amal-
gamation process ; as it stands to-day in the dams, it
contains about 75 per cent, of material that is leachable,
and which may be designated as " slime." The slime
is of an exceptional character. In addition to the diffi-
culties connected with the solution of gold and silver
contents, the mechanical condition was such that it
gave trouble in settlement for decantation. The clari-
fication produced by a coagulant such as lime was
perfect, but the subsidence was so slow that the
amount of solution recoverable in this way was not
sufficient to make the decantation process a practical
success. It was proved, in fact, that coagulation was
not necessarily accompanied by good settlement.
After experimenting with several forms of vacuum
filter units, both cylindrical and rectangular, there was
evolved a form of filter which is the recognized present
standard, and the preliminary plant of 336 leaves,
which was erected at Goldfield seven years ago, is
still in full operation to-day. As the filtration process
is found working at the Salvador mines and in other
parts of the world, the filter-leaf is made on a frame,
the upper side of which is formed on wood, and acts
as a suspending bar when the leaf is in position in
the filter-box. The remaining three sides are made
of 13 -inch pipe, perforated with holes and connecting
192 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
to the vacuum pump. The filtering medium consists
firstly of a porous mat of such size as to exactly fill
the space formed by the pipe frame, and upon either
side of this is placed a sheet of canvas, large enough
to overlap the frame, around which it is securely sewn.
The first containing-box which was used at Virginia
City was an electrolytic precipitation-box, which was
not needed for its special purpose, and was adopted
for the use of the new filter. An air-compressor was
converted into a vacuum pump, and with this equip-
ment the vacuum filter of to-day came into existence.
From the beginning it proved a marked success, and
the next step in its perfection was the designing of the
large Goldfield plant to handle 800 tons of dry slime
per diem. When designing the containing-box for the
special purpose of the filter, the lines of the original box
were slightly departed from as regards the shape of the
hoppers, these being given sixty sides to facilitate the
better discharge of the cake, and a quick opening valve
of large area was placed at the apex of each hopper.
Instead of a dry vacuum pump and gravity drainage, a
wet vacuum pump was used, permitting the solution
pump to be placed above the filter.
The cycle of operation is as follows : (1) Filling the
box with pulp ; (2) the formation of a cake on each
side of the vacuum leaves by suction ; (3) emptying
the box of pulp and filling with weak solution ;
(4) drawing through the cake sufficient solution to
displace all soluble values; (5) emptying the box of
solution and filling with water ; (6) drawing through
the cake a small quantity of clean water to displace
any solution held in the cake ; (7) shutting off the
vacuum and admitting water through the leaf connec-
tion, thereby throwing off the cake, which falls to the
BUTTERS1 FILTER 193
bottom of the box, and cleansing the canvas in pre-
paration for the next charge ; (8) opening the valve in
hopper bottom of box, and allowing the residues to
escape to the waste dam ; (9) closing the valve, thus
rendering the filter ready for the next charge of pulp.
It is a very unusual thing to find in the newer
mining companies of Central America such up-to-date
machinery and mining processes as are in use in the
Republic of Salvador at the Butters' Salvador and the
Divisadero Mines. The Government of Salvador has
to be congratulated upon the wisdom it has shown in
extending consideration to companies engaged in the
development of its mines, and to practical men of the
type of Mr. Charles Butters and his associates, to
induce them to devote their money and their brains to
the development of Salvador. The most modern pro-
cesses and the most up-to-date machinery can be here
found at work, and the Government is permitted, by the
terms of the franchise which they have granted to the
companies, to send Government students to attend at
these works to complete their studies in mining and
metallurgy. Among the processes at Butters' Salvador
Mines are dry-crushing and roasting, electrolytic pre-
cipitation as well as electrolytic refining. The cyanide
process with the Butters' Patent Vacuum Filter is found
here treating gold ore without amalgamation, and
making extraction of from 95 to 96 per cent. The
mining at this property has been by adits princi-
pally. Electrical winding plants and electrical pump-
ing plants are now installed at this property. Both at
the mine and at the mill a high efficiency of working
has been attained for many years.
At the Butters' Divisadero Mines, located twelve
miles distant from the Butters' Salvador Mines, a
13
194 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
much larger quantity of ore, but of a lower grade
than at the Salvador Mine, is treated, about 10,000
tons a month being handled on this property. The
Government student has here the privilege of seeing
ore, of about $5 a ton, mined and milled. A large
electric plant is established, by means of which all the
hoisting and pumping are carried on. A large quantity
of water is encountered at this mine, and where
formerly it was found impossible to handle the water
by the use of Cornish pumps, it is now kept under
control by means of the Sulzer electrically-driven
centrifugal pump. Two sinking pumps, of a capacity
of 600 gallons per minute each, have been installed,
which are suspended from the surface, and are calcu-
lated to operate down to 600 feet in depth. These
pumps lift 300 feet to the 300 feet level, and deliver
to horizontal station-pumps erected at this level. The
most modern electric-generating plant, hoisting, pump-
ing, and ore-compressing plants, are at work upon this
property. The mill is of the best-class construction,
with a capacity of crushing between 8 and 9 tons
per stamp, with tube-mills, Butters' Patent Vacuum
Filter, and special methods of precipitation.
At both of these mines complete shops are estab-
lished, including iron-foundry and wood -working
machinery. The shops are competent to deal with
the heaviest repair jobs on the machinery in use, and
as many spares as are found economical to manufac-
ture, so that a large staff of mechanics are kept busy
in the shops.
In a new country like Salvador, it is absolutely
essential, for the establishing of the mining industry
upon a firm footing, that a large force of natives
should be educated in the repair and manufacture of
SALVADOREAN MECHANICS 195
the machinery and extra parts in use at the mines.
There are native Salvadoreans who have been educated
in these shops, and they have become highly competent
mechanics, able to cope with almost any difficulty
occurring at the mines. The result of this education
will be that less and less foreign help will be required
to carry on the business in Salvador.
Anyone living in Salvador who desires to know of the
1 'latest thing " in mining and metallurgy is permitted,
through the arrangements which the Salvadorean
Government has made with Mr. Charles Butters, to
take up any course of study he may desire.
CHAPTER XV
Transportation — Salvador Kailway Company — Early construction —
Gauge — Bridges — Locomotives — Rolling-stock — Personnel of railway
— Steamship service — Extensions — Increasing popularity — Exchange,
and influence on railway success — Importers versus planters —
Financial conditions — Projected extensions — Geological survey —
Mr. Minor C. Keith's Salvador concession.
THE means of internal communication are perhaps
more apparent and more systematically undertaken
than in any of the smaller States, Salvador possessing
at present over 100 miles of railway track and a
number of excellent roads and bridges, which are
being added to and improved continually. The only
organized railway system at present is in the hands
of a British company, the Salvador Railway Company,
Ltd, and its relations with both the Government and
the public are of the best.
The concession granted to the company was dated
1885, but it was four years later when a public issue
was made — namely, in October, 1889. The conces-
sion is for a period of eighty years, dating from April,
1894 ; at the expiration of the period the railway and
all its accessories become the property of the Salva-
dorean Government. In the meantime, however, it is
open to the Government to buy up the existing railway
in 1940 if it so desires, at a price to be agreed upon or
fixed by valuation. The railway company enjoys
protection from competition, and has also preferential
196
SALVADOR RAILWAY COMPANY 197
privileges (except as against the State) for constructing
future extensions.
The road actually dates from the year 1882, when
the first section, from the port of Acajutla to the town
of Sonsonate, one of the most important in the Republic,
and situated at about fifty miles' distance from the
capital, was opened for traffic. The distance was
20 kilometres, or, say, 12^- miles, the next section to*
be finished being that from Sonsonate to Armenia,
a further distance of 26^ kilometres, or 16^ miles,
thus bringing up the constructed line to 46^ kilo-
metres by the end of September, 1884.
From then onwards the rate of construction was as
follows : From Armenia to Amate Marin, 6j kilo-
metres, or 4 miles, opened for traffic September,
1886; from Amate Marin to Ateos, 3j kilometres, or
2 miles, January, 1887 ; from Ateos to La Ceiba, and
which forms a branch ending at this town, a distance
of 10 kilometres, or 6J miles, March, 1890 ; from
Ateos to La Joya, a distance of 22 kilometres, or
13^ miles, opened to traffic on September 15, 1895 ;
and from La Joya to Santa Ana — a very important
town of some 33,000 inhabitants — a distance of 29
kilometres, or 18 miles, opened in November, 1896.
From Santa Ana, which is another terminal point,
the railway receives a valuable freight in the form of
agricultural produce, such as coffee, sugar, tobacco,
and various kinds of grain.
A continuation of the line was then made to the
capital, San Salvador, the extension from Sitio-del-
Nino to Nejapa, one of 18 kilometres, or, say, 11 miles,
being opened for traffic in February, 1898 ; while the
last section, between Nejapa and San Salvador, a
distance of 20 kilometres, or 12i miles, was completed
198 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
by the month of March, 1900. The total distance of
the track is, therefore, 155 kilometres, or 96 J miles,
exclusive of sidings. There are some eighteen stations,
including the terminals at Acajutla, Santa Ana, and
San Salvador ; while the buildings, both here and at
Sonsonate, Sitio-del-Nino, and Quezaltepeque, are well
built and efficient structures in every way.
The gauge of the track is 3 feet, and the maximum
gradient one of 3*75 per cent. The minimum curve
radius is 359 feet 3 inches. The interesting engineer-
ing features of the line are many, and these are found
for the most part upon the Santa Ana section, between
that town and Sitio-del-Nino. There are forty-one
bridges, consisting of through-truss, plate-girder, and
rolled "I" beams. These run from 20 to 14 feet
span, the makers who have supplied them including
German, Belgian, British, and American contractors.
The principal bridges are as follows :
Span.
Made by—
At Kilometre 78'700
Deck-plate gir-
56ft.
Aug. Lecoq, Hal, Bel-
der bridge
gium.
82-600
Through - span
78ft.
Harkort, Duisberg, Ger-
girder bridge
many.
98-500
j) »>
70ft.
San Francisco Bridge
Company.
188-700
Through - deck
140 ft.
Atliers de Construction,
girder bridge
A. Lecoq, Hal, Bel-
gium.
191-700
» »
140 ft.
»» »J
There are a number of culverts, over sixty -six being
of some importance, besides several of minor interest,
of 3 feet and under. The road is exceedingly well
ballasted from beginning to end, and is maintained
in an altogether efficient manner of repair and
orderliness.
rf
c
Q
1
u
B S
ti
ROLLING-STOCK
199
In regard to the rolling-stock, this is equally well
equipped and maintained, the greatest care being
taken by the management to see that every car that
is sent out is in a thoroughly sound state of repair and
cleanliness. There are in all eleven locomotives, of
which the following details will be of interest :
Cylinder.
Driving
Wheels.
Weight.
Diameter.
Stroke.
Pairs.
Inches.
Tons.
1
Prescott, Scott and Co.,
12 in.
16 in.
2
38
17-50
San Francisco
2
Baldwin Locomotive
15 in.
20 in.
4
38
25-00
Works, Philadelphia
3
»j "
15 in.
20 in.
4
38
25-00
4
15 in.
20 in.
4
38
25-00
5
Cooke, Patterson and
16 in.
20 in.
4
38
30-35
Co., New Jersey
6
Baldwin Locomotive
17 in.
20 in.
3
42
36-74
Works, Philadelphia
7
»> »
17 in.
20 in.
3
42
36-74
8
>> »
17 in.
20 in.
3
42
36-74 '
9
» »>
16 in.
20 in.
3
42
32-40
10
» ,,
16 in.
20 in.
3
42
32-40
11
JJ J»
16 in.
20 in.
3
42
32-40
In addition to the above, two other engines of
precisely similar make have lately been delivered to
the Company by the Baldwin Locomotive Works,
Philadelphia, U.S.A. It is explained that the native
engine-drivers are now accustomed to these engines,
which are to be found in use upon almost the whole of
the South and Central American railways.
The rolling-stock on the Salvador Railway is main-
tained in the same efficient order as are the stations
and permanent way. It consists of some twenty-three
passenger coaches as follows : Eight of first class, light
but strong carriages, suitable for a tropical country
and fitted with wide seats upholstered in rattan ; one
200 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
second class, only a trifle less expensively upholstered,
but in no wise less airy or comfortable ; and four brake
and luggage vans. Of goods- waggons there are 161 —
namely, 1 workmen's car, 5 cattle cars, 95 covered-
goods and 60 platform cars. These cars are mostly
the manufacture of the Lancaster Carriage and Waggon
Company, Ltd., of Lancaster, and the Allison Manufac-
turing Company, of Philadelphia, U.S.A. The company
have recently erected some ten box waggons at the well-
fitted railway shops at Sonsonate, where every appliance
and the newest equipment of machinery are to be found.
The passenger coaches are also partly of British and
partly of American construction, the Lancaster Carriage
and Waggon Company, Ltd., and the Harlan, Hollings-
worth Company, of Philadelphia, being responsible for
this part of the equipment.
In the month of April last a change took place in
the general management of the Salvador Railway,
when Mr. C. T. S. Spencer, the newly-appointed chief,
proceeding to his post via Mexico City and Salina Cruz.
Mr. Spencer served his pupilage with the London and
South-Western Railway, mainly on the North Devon
and Cornish branches. When out of his articles, he
accepted an appointment as District Engineer on the
Abbotsbury Railway, near Dorset, which line is now a
part of the Great Western Railway system. In 1886
Mr. Spencer went out to Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil), as
District Engineer on the Brazil Great Southern Rail-
way, and subsequently rose to the position of Chief
Constructing Engineer. On this line he built the
Ibicuy Bridge, which still ranks as the largest bridge
in Brazil, being over a mile long, with some 70-metre
spans resting on cylinders sunk by the pneumatic
process, which at that time was in its infancy.
PERSONNEL OF RAILWAY 201
When the line was completed, Mr. Spencer surveyed
an extension running into some hundreds of kilo-
metres, and passing through the beautiful district of
Missiones.
Mr. Spencer, still a young man, then went to
Salvador, and in 1889 he surveyed the La Union-San
Miguel line. This railway was partly constructed by
the Government, and its completion to San Miguel is
now being pushed forward. In 1892 Mr. Spencer
went to Colombia as General Manager of the Antioquia
Railway, which commission he held until the Govern-
ment attempted to cancel the concession without pay-
ing any idemnity to the company. He afterwards
went to Angola, and drew up the plans for a large rail-
way scheme from the coast inwards ; a part of this line
has since been built.
Upon returning to London, Mr. Spencer accepted the
post of Consulting Engineer to a railway-constructing
syndicate in the City, and a few years ago he was
elected to a seat on the Board of the Salvador Railway.
Mr. Spencer visited the Republic in 1908, and on his
return pointed out to the Chairman that, owing to the
opening of the Tehuantepec Railway, a special steamer
service connecting up Acajutla with Salina Cruz would
probably prove a paying concern. Mr. Mark J. Kelly,
the able and experienced Chairman of this railway, with
his customary quickness of perception, combined with
his own not inconsiderable experience of the Republic
of Salvador, of which for fifteen years he had acted as
Consul-General in England, at once fell in with the
idea, and the steamship Salvador was the result.
Mr. Spencer is an Associate Member of the Institute
of Civil Engineers, and a Fellow of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. While it is a subject of regret that
202 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Mr. Charles Stewart, late Manager of the Salvador
Railway, was compelled to abandon his post owing to
ill-health, the shareholders of the railway may be un-
reservedly congratulated upon obtaining the services of
so able and experienced an engineer as Mr. Spencer.
Mr. John White Hinds, Chief Engineer of the
Salvador Railway Company, started in his profession at
the age of fifteen, and was for over a year in the shops
of the Great Western Railway at Swindon. He then
remained for four years as a pupil with Mr. W. H.
Lancashire, C.E., of Sheffield. Three years were
passed in London studying, when Mr. Hinds went to
America, and entered the shops of the Chicago and
North-Western Railroad. He has also seen service in
Chile, Peru, Guatemala and Salvador. In this latter
Republic, Mr. Hinds has acted as chief of the party of
engineers on final surveys of the Santa Ana branch of
the Salvador Railway, while he also went to La Union,
the largest of the Salvadorean ports, to construct the
railway from La Union to San Miguel for the Salvador
Government. The line was only constructed to the
extent of ten miles or so, when a revolution broke out
and the work was abandoned. Since then — namely, in
1894 — Mr. Hinds has been engaged upon the Guate-
mala Northern Railway as Surveyor, and helped in the
construction of that portion of the line to the City.
Mr. Hinds likewise completed surveys to the town of
Zacapa, on the same railway, and assisted in the con-
struction work between Puerto Barrios and Zacapa.
Latterly Mr. Hinds has been exclusively engaged upon
the Salvador Railway, of which he has been the
Resident Engineer since 1903, and Permanent Way
Engineer since 1906.
One of the contractors who were connected with the
PERSONNEL OF RAILWAY 203
railway in the early days was Mr. Albert J. Scherzer,
and it is interesting to note that his nephew, Mr. George
Scherzer Walsh, a young and clever railway engineer,
was also connected with the company. Mr. Walsh
accompanied Mr. M. J. Kelly and Mr. George Todd
Symons (the senior partner of G. T. Symons and Co.,
of 4, Lloyd's Avenue, E.G.) to Salvador in the spring
of 1910, upon matters relating to the extension of the
company's track and the appointment of agents for the
steamship service. Mr. Walsh did some good and use-
ful work as technical adviser on the ground, but, unfor-
tunately, in the end his services proved unfruitful,
owing to the selfish and senseless opposition offered to
the company's contemplated extensions upon the part
of the American Syndicate, who hold a railway con-
cession from the Salvadorean Government to build new
lines within this zone. At the time that the American
group protested — and protested, as it seems, success-
fully— against any further construction work being
undertaken by the Salvador Railway Company, they
had done absolutely nothing themselves, and had
not even presented the preliminary plans to the
Government. As will be seen, however, they have
at last made an attempt to commence work of some
kind ; but my latest advices point to the fact that suc-
cessful completion is still far from being even within
sight.
The property owned by the Salvador Railway Com-
pany, as has been shown above, is an extensive and
increasingly valuable one. It embraces something like
100 miles of track, with its own telegraph and
telephone services ; a long and well-built iron pier,
located at the Port of Acajutla, and which cost no less
than $1,000,000 to erect ; as well as warehouses and
204 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
a fleet of tugs and barges for the prompt and efficient
handling of the cargo.
Upon all sides one hears the services rendered by
this company spoken of in a manner altogether flatter-
ing to the management ; and it may be said in truth
that in no other Republic of South or Central America
can one come across a wider consensus of opinion
favourable to a foreign- managed railway undertaking
than in the case of the Salvador Railway.
To the not inconsiderable assets above mentioned,
the railway has added a fleet of steamships to carry
cargo between Acajutla, its own port terminal, and
Salina Cruz (Mexico), the Pacific terminus of the
Tehuantepec Interoceanic Railway. It is worthy
of note that both of these railways are managed by
British corporations, a matter of no small importance
in view of the strenuous efforts of North American
interests to secure complete control over the transport
arrangements in this part of the world.
The Salvador Railway's first steamer, the Salvador,
is a neat, trim, and well-built vessel of some 1,200
tons, out of the yards of Messrs. Swan and Hunter, of
Newcastle-on-Tyne. It is fully equipped with all the
latest appliances for the quick and efficient handling
of cargo, while its passenger accommodation is of a
commodious and comfortable character. This hand-
some vessel has for some time been firmly established
as a favourite with the importers and exporters of the
Republic of Salvador, who now, for the first time in
their experience, are enjoying the advantages of rapid
and reliable communication with Europe and the
United States of America, with punctuality in regard
to dates of arrival and departure each week. As a
matter of fact, this service now effects in about two
STEAMSHIP SERVICE 205
weeks^what could not be previously done in less than
one month. The appreciation by the public of these
advantages is sufficiently displayed in the circumstance
that the s.s. Salvador carries something like three-
fourths of the imports and exports of the country, to
the great disappointment, and even dismay, of the older
lines. Other similar vessels are being built for the
Company by Messrs. Swan and Hunter.
The company has in view the rendering the same
services to the other Salvadorean ports as that now
offered to Acajutla and the Mexican port of Salina
Cruz. An important local trade between Mexico and
Salvador, to the mutual advantages of both, is now
being built up, thanks to the initiative of the Salvador
Railway Company in establishing this steamship
service.
How successful the company's fleet has proved is
best seen from some observations which were made by
the Chairman at the last annual meeting of the pro-
prietors, December 13, 1910, and in which he stated,
inter alia :
" It is a matter of great satisfaction to me and to my co-
directors to be able to assure you that we have not only
emerged, in respect to this service, out of the experimental
stage, but we have actually become a fairly settled institution
as a steamship line on that coast. Instead of one boat, with
which last year we gave such a service to Salvador by the
port of Acajutla as they had never had before, carried out
with a regularity and strict adherence to schedule to which
they were utterly unaccustomed, your company is represented
to-day by three steamers, and is making the service from
Salina Cruz clear down to Nicaragua, embracing all the ports
of Guatemala, Salvador, Amapala, the only Honduranean port
on the Pacific, and Corinto. In barely a year we have found
ample reason for increasing our service to three vessels, two
206 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of which are chartered boats, while we may be able to put in
hand the building of a second boat of the same type as our
first. This satisfactory result has only been attained by
untiring effort; but we have reason to believe that your
steamship service has arrived to stay, and that it will be
represented by a substantial figure in the earnings in the
future. The service has won deserved popularity by reason
of its being carried out, as I have told you, with adherence to
a schedule, and we now frequently receive in London applica-
tions from Central Americans travelling about Europe with
their families to reserve cabins for them on our steamer
Salvador. Mails are now sent by this service of ours in con-
nection with the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and reach Europe
in about sixteen days instead of a month ; while the planters
get their produce to European markets in little over thirty
days, against forty to fifty by way of Panama, and over one
hundred by way of the Straits of Magellan. The passenger
traffic on the Salvador, which we were all disposed to regard
as something that might take a considerable time to develop,
has already given results which you will understand better
when I tell you that generally the accommodation provided
for passengers on the Salvador is fully taken up. During my
stay in Salvador I took advantage of the appreciation thus
shown by the public of our steamship venture to arrange with
the Government a contract for a subsidy, and we are now
receiving £100 per month in gold on this head. I had the
honour of being received by His Excellency President Diaz on
several occasions during my stay in Mexico, both going out
and returning home, and he promised favourable consideration
by his Government of an application, which we have since
formally put in, for a subsidy from that Republic, which is
benefiting as much as Salvador from the development of your
steamship service."
With such prospects the Salvador Railway seems
destined to enjoy a time of great prosperity ; and,
indeed, the outlook would be practically undimmed
but for the ever- threatening question of the exchange.
DECK BRIDGE ON SALVADOR RAILWAY.
STATION BUILDING AT SANTA ANA ON THE SALVADOR RAILWAY
EXCHANGE 207
The high rate of sterling exchange constitutes a
very real and visible " fly in the ointment." Salvador,
it may be pointed out, has the advantages of a metallic
currency, with no fiscal paper money of any sort ; but,
unfortunately, it is a silver currency, which is aggra-
vated by the circumstance that the export of silver, if
not actually prohibited by legislation, is at all events
very difficult to bring about, inasmuch as official per-
mission is required, and is as often refused.
On the other hand, the banks are overstocked with
silver, and are willing to lend sums at what may, for
these parts of the world, be considered very low rates
of interest — namely, 5 per cent, per annum — which
enables people, who would otherwise be compelled to
sell drafts against their exported produce, to hold
them back, and, by a simple understanding among
themselves, keep the rates as near to 200 per cent,
premium as may suit their own interests.
The Salvador Railway Company, which has a silver
tariff pure and simple, has to buy sterling drafts,
whatever the rate may be, in order to meet debenture
interest payments, the cost and freight upon all im-
ported materials for its various services, insurance upon
its properties, its London expenses — including directors'
remuneration — and towards this large expenditure the
only sterling contribution of the country is the Govern-
mental subsidy of £24,000 per annum, which payment
will terminate automatically in 1916.
In sending out their Chairman, Mr. Mark J. Kelly,
therefore, in 1910, to endeavour to reduce the com-
pany's burden in this respect, the Board of Directors
undoubtedly made a wise move, inasmuch as no one
could possibly be better placed, by reason of his great
popularity and exceptional experience, than Mr. Kelly
208 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
to conduct such delicate and intricate negotiations.
In spite of such influence and personal weight, however,
I am much afraid that the time is hardly yet when
any serious modification of the terms of the company's
concession — such as the granting of a tariff payable in
gold — may be looked for.
At a time when gold is in the neighbourhood of
200 per cent, premium (i.e., 1 silver dollar equals
33 cents gold) this would mean an increase in the
tariff rates, and the Government can hardly be ex-
pected to authorize that increase in the present cir-
cumstances. As a matter of fact, the company's tariff
is much below that of any railway undertaking in the
whole of Latin- America, of which I, at least, have any
cognizance. But the public are hardly likely on that
account to be any more disposed to fall in with an
increase in the railway's rates.
The outlook for the Salvador Railway generally is,
as observed, a hopeful one. It is admitted by all who
are acquainted with its operations that its advent and
completion have materially aided the development of
the Republic's resources, and day by day the expansion
of its industries is becoming more apparent. The local
traffics, showing as they do gradual but consistent
development, are the outcome of the safe but conser-
vative policy of the management, whose relations, as
I have already observed, with the railway's clientele
are of the most friendly character. If the agricultural
development of the portions of the country served by
the railway have been somewhat slow, the movements
have, at least, been consistent ; and there can be little
doubt that an intelligent expansion of the Republic's
magnificent possibilities is merely a question of time.
No permanent improvement must be expected, how-
EXCHANGE AND TRADE 209
ever, to assert itself until the difficulties of exchange
have been overcome. While poor trade may have
somewhat affected the returns of the last two years,
the rate of exchange has been responsible for the
greater part of the financial disappointment. Possibly
the poor trade is the cause of the exchange being so
high, as much as the exchange being the cause of the
poverty of trade. So far as the railway is concerned,
the effect is certainly twofold — directly, by reason of
the loss upon remittances to the head -office in London ;
and indirectly, on account of the prejudicial influence
upon trade.
There is a very general and perfectly comprehensible
complaint that, in spite of the better crops which have
been garnered this and last year, and the abundance
of silver currency, actual sales of merchantable goods
have been less, on account of the high rate of exchange
compelling the sellers to continually mark-up their
wares. One result of this is that the merchants have
ordered fewer goods, and the railway has carried less
freight.
Unfortunately, in Salvador — as in other parts of
the world, our own not excepted — there are several
divergent opinions upon this question of economics,
and here one comes across as many individuals who
are in favour of a high exchange as those who decry
it. The planters, for instance, hold that the high ex-
changes constitute a clear and legitimate bonus upon
the value of the coffee, the indigo, the balsam, and the
other articles of export ; while the importers clamour
loudly, and perhaps with some more reason on their
side, that the high exchanges, if, indeed, they are really
of any benefit at all to the planters, form no less a tax,
and a very heavy one at that, upon the goods con-
14
210 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
sumed by the general public. Still worse, however,
they act as a deterrent to active trade and commerce,
since all goods sold must be marked-up at higher prices
than are customary, with the very natural result of a
smaller consumption. Thus, the public are disap-
pointed, the merchants are grumbling, the revenue of
the country in its Customs -houses suffers, and the
railway and its shareholders are left lamenting — all
because the planters must be humoured.
This contention might also contain a little more force
were wages to advance in the same ratio as the rate of
exchange. But this is far from being the case, for no
advance in wages has followed upon the increased
premium upon drafts on London ; while bankers of
Salvador, on the other hand, declare that they derive
no profits on balance from their exchange account.
More often than not, so they say, they suffer a loss,
since the fluctuations in the rates are so eccentric and
so difficult to control that they are particularly favoured
when they succeed in covering the cheques or short-
dated drafts, which they issue on Europe by purchases
of ninety days' drafts from the planters, without
actually incurring a loss.
The rate of exchange in Salvador to-day is a very
high one — nothing like that of Colombia, it is true,
but at time of writing gold is at 160 per cent, premium.
Here, however, it must be remembered there is no
official currency of paper whatever, the banks which
issue notes being subject to rigorous inspection and
compelled to maintain silver coin to an extent which
reduces their issues of notes to a mere matter of public
convenience, rather than a source of profit to the banks
themselves. All this is of great moment to the wel-
fare and the future of the Salvador Railway, and has
more than once been explained at length by the capable
SALVADOR RAILWAY
and experienced Chairman, Mr. Mark J. Kelly, at the
meetings of the shareholders held in London.
The financial condition of the Salvador Railway is
to-day a steadily improving one. We see that for the
last year (1909-10) the gross receipts were better by
£6,921 ; while the ratio of expenses was also satisfactory,
namely, 51*81 as against 5 4 "6 8, a decrease of 2*87 per
cent. Improved good- traffics were also met with, and
worked out at Is. Id. a ton in excess of previous
figures. After providing interest and redemption
upon both classes of Debentures, and interest at 5 per
cent, per annum upon the Terminable Notes, the
amount available for distribution amounted to
£8,565 13s. 9d., out of which was made a payment
of 3 per cent, upon the Preference shares for the
year, leaving a balance of £1,065 13s. 9d., carried
forward to the credit of Net Revenue Account. Prior
Lien Debentures amounting to £3,600, and Mortgage
Debentures to another £9,000, have also been redeemed
this year, making the total redemption £62,200 to date
of the accounts.
In June of next year (1912) the Terminable Notes,
amounting to £45,000, will be either paid off or con-
verted into Debentures probably bearing 5 per cent,
interest. The exact financial position of the company
stands as follows :
Authorized Share Capital :
Preference shares, .£250,000 (in £W shares).
Ordinary shares, £250,000 (in £10 shares).
Of these, the whole amount has been issued, viz. £500,000
Debentures :
Authorized (5 per cent. Prior Lien) ... ... £250,000
(5 per cent. Mortgage) ... ... 660,000
£910,000
Out of which a balance still remained unpaid off ... 847,800
Five per Cent. Terminable Notes Authorized and
including cost of issue ... ... ... 45,000
Thus the company has a total liability outstanding of £1,392,800
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Few of the States in Central America offer greater
opportunities or inducements for railway extensions
than Salvador, and this in spite of the fact that the
country is generally mountainous, and is more than
well supplied with rivers, most of which for railway
purposes have to be bridged. It must be remembered,
however, that Salvador is the most densely populated
of all the Central American Republics ; the country
has therefore been very carefully surveyed, with the
idea of railway extension upon a considerable scale.
In the year 1891 the United States Government
despatched an Intercontinental Railway Commission
to make surveys and explorations, not only in Salvador,
but in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa
Rica. The result of such enterprise has been the
publication of a voluminous Report, which was issued
in 1898, five years after the Commission's return to
the United States. The Report is altogether favour-
able for railway extension in Salvador, and it speaks
very highly of the enterprise of the Salvador Railway
Company, of which a description will be found in the
preceding pages. Previous to the despatch of the
American Commission, the Salvador Government had
had a survey of the eastern portion of the country
made by Mr. Charles T. Spencer, an English en-
gineer of great experience, and who is now General
Manager of the Salvador Railway. There can be
very little question that at some time in the near
future further railway construction will be pro-
ceeded with, since the country is so rich in agricul-
tural produce that a means of transportation in
addition to and other than that in vogue must be
introduced. In many parts of the country the ground
is quite favourable to railroad work, the soil being
NEW RAILWAY LINES 213
largely decomposed volcanic ash, which stands well in
cuttings, although there are numerous spurs to be cut
through in many of the districts surveyed ; these are
in general all lava rock or conglomerate, offering good
material for ballast. In but few localities are any
grades found steeper than 2 or 3 per cent., or any
curves sharper than 12°.
A Government concession for the construction of a
railway from La Union to the Guatemalan frontier was
granted on June 15, 1908, to Mr. Rene Keilhauer, who
was authorized to construct a line to extend from the
port of La Union, on the Gulf of Fonseca, to a point
on the Guatemalan frontier. The line as projected
leaves the port of La Union, and passes or connects
with the cities of Usulutan, San Vicente and Coju-
tepeque, unites with the line already built between
the capital and Santa Ana, and proceeds to the
Guatemalan frontier to make connection with the
Atlantic Railway of that country, and which was
inaugurated towards the middle of 1908. A branch line
will eventually, it is supposed, also run from La Union
to San Miguel, the most important town of the eastern
section of the Republic of Salvador, and connection will
be made with Ahuachapan to the west, thus furnishing
railroad links with all the principal Departments.
The total length of this line will be 360 kilometres,
and the contract carries with it the construction of a
wharf at La Union of steel and iron, to be erected in
connection with the railroad, and capable of accommo-
dating the freight handling of steamers. The stipula-
tion is made that the survey of the line shall begin
" within sixty days of the signing of the contract," and
that the La Union-San Miguel section be completed
" within eighteen months " — that is to say, by the end
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of 1910 ; but this stipulation obviously has not been
carried out. Of the remaining sections of the railroad,
20 kilometres annually are to be put into commis-
sion. Government assistance is guaranteed, and free
entry for all material at the Customs-house is assured.
Previously Mr. Keilhauer had been granted a conces-
sion for the construction of a line of railroad from Santa
Ana to the Guatemalan frontier, the duration of such
concession being ninety-nine years, and carrying with
it a Government subsidy of 3 per cent, per annum
of the cost of each kilometre, which was fixed at
$20,000 ( = £4,000).
The most important feature in this contract lies in
the circumstance that it covers the section of the
Pan-American line belonging to Salvador, as defined
in the Convention which was signed in Washington
on December 20, 1907, on the occasion of the Central
American Peace Conference. As a matter of fact,
work upon this construction was only commenced on
April 15, 1910, on the Eastern Division of the Pan-
American Railroad, and the occasion was celebrated
by official banquets, as is the hospitable custom in
Latin- America. It is significant that at the time that
the concession was obtained, and before any actual
work commenced, the name of Mr. Rene' Keilhauer
was used ; but from then onwards it disappears, and
those of Mr. Minor C. Keith and Mr. Bradley M.
Palmer, both of the United Fruit Company, the former
being the President, are substituted. Mr. Keith has
a firm grip upon several of the Central American
Republics, particularly Costa Rica, Honduras, and
Guatemala ; while he has also extended his tentacles
to Nicaragua, with somewhat doubtful beneficial effects
to that Republic. Mr. Minor C. Keith is likewise the
NEW RAILWAY LINES 215
moving spirit in the railroad from Santa Ana (in
Salvador) to Zacapa (in Guatemala). This line has
a length of seventy-nine miles, and is of a standard
gauge. Although surveys had been undertaken and
materials had been ordered at the time of my visit last
year to the Republic, nothing whatever had been done
towards active construction.
There are some critics of this contemplated line of
railway who consider it not alone one extremely costly
to construct, but as likely to prove a financial loss to
the proprietors when finished and open to traffic. It
may be, of course, that this view is unnecessarily pessi-
mistic, but, inasmuch as hereafter the investing public
may be invited to take a hand in the enterprise, it is
desirable to present the other view for their careful
consideration.
CHAPTER XVI
Ports and harbours — La Union — Population — Bail way extensions— Lack
of British bottoms— Carrying trade— H.B.M.'s Vice- Consul— Port of
Triunfo— Bad entrance— Proposed railway — Acajutla— Loading and
unloading facilities — Proposed improvements — Salvador Eailway
connections — La Libertad — Comandante and garrison — Loading
and unloading facilities — Cable station and the service provided by
Government — The staff of operators.
THE western arm of the Gulf of Fonseca forms the
capacious and land-locked harbour of La Union, which
is situated on the south-western shore, four and three-
quarter miles above the entrance. On the north side
of the bay are extensive mud-flats that contract the
channel in places to less than a mile in width, while
another in front of the town uncovers at half-tide,
virtually cutting off all communication with the shore.
This flat has encroached upon the anchorage since Sir
Edward Belcher's survey was made, diminishing the
depth slightly, and shifting the channel a little to the
northward. A small pier facilitates landing at high-
water, and on the outer end of it a light is sometimes
shown ; but it is of minor value, being dimmed by the
lights in the town behind it. Coffee, cotton, hides,
and balsam of Peru (so called, although it comes from
Salvador), are exported. Beef, poultry, and oysters,
can be obtained at reasonable rates. As ships find
great difficulty in watering here, it is recommended
to anchor and fill up at the spring, one mile below
Chicarene Point.
216
PORTS AND HARBOURS 217
Steamers coming to La Union are given the follow-
ing directions :
" If bound for La Union, keep to port of all the islands, and
steer to come between Conchaguita and the western shore
under the volcano of Conchagua. When fairly in mid-
channel, the entrance to the harbour will be seen ahead
between Punta Sacate Island on the right and Chicarene
Point, which terminates the eastern slope of the volcano on
the left. Steer nearly for the Point, and even bring it a little
on the starboard bow if the flood-tide is running, as it sets
across the shoal north of Conchaguita. As the point is
approached, open it a little from the north end of Punta
Sacate and run past, giving the island the widest berth, as
there is a rocky patch making out from the south-west point.
It has been recommended to keep Chicarene Point close
aboard, but a steamer drawing 15 feet touched a rock in
doing so ; therefore a safe rule would be to keep a little to
the westward of mid-channel. During the springs the tide
runs through the pass at the rate of three knots an hour."
The port of La Union is the largest in the Republic,
but, in spite of this fact, landing is sometimes difficult,
and until some constructional improvements are made
it will continue to be so. At present it is necessary
to disembark from the steamer on to a launch ; from
the launch descend into a small row-boat, and from
the small row-boat transfer to a " dugout." Even
then the traveller is not at the end of his trials, since
he has to leave the dugout for a ride on a man's
back through several yards of surf before he can reach
terra firm a.
La Uni6n has a population of 8,000 people, in-
cluding a garrison of 1,000 troops. It carries on a
considerable amount of trade, chiefly in coffee exporta-
tion and foreign goods importation, in spite of the
difficulties of approach by sea. The advent of the
218 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
railway is likely to add to this volume of traffic, if
only to a limited extent. It is noteworthy, however,
that the people of La Uni6n are by no means enthusi-
astic regarding the approach of this railway, and they
speak very pessimistically as to its prospects. In
conversation with one of the leading citizens, I was
informed that the railway "is hardly likely to prove
profitable, since it is in the hands of the wrong
people " (namely, an American group) ; and the case
of the railway at Puerto Barrios, in Guatemala, which
is controlled by some of the same entrepreneurs, is
quoted as an example of what may be expected. So
indifferently are passengers treated in connection with
the Guatemala Railway, which is under the jurisdiction
of the United Fruit Company of Boston, U.S.A., that
no one now will travel upon it if he can possibly
avoid it. It is quite probable, in view of the much-
improved steamship service offered by the Salvador
Railway (from Acajutla to Salina Cruz, Mexico), that
this will continue to be the principal means of reaching
the United States and Europe and for transmitting
cargoes.
La Union was at one time a port of call for the
Pacific Steam Navigation Company of Liverpool, which,
however, withdrew their service in 1898, apparently
finding the competition with the Pacific Mail Steam-
ship Company of San Francisco too keen, and the
carrying business insufficient. The Pacific Steam
Navigation Company sold out their interest to the
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and since then-
much to the regret of all shippers and passengers alike
in the Central American ports — its boats have not
been seen at La Uni6n.
In fact, no British steamers have called there except
LA UNION 219
an occasional Leyland or a Lamport and Holt steamer
sent to load coffee, and the reappearance of the British
flag has been entirely due to the efforts of the Salvador
Railway Company.
The Pacific Mail Steamship's Company's freight
charges are now $3 gold (12s. 6d.) per ton for
carrying coffee from La Union and other Central
American ports to San Francisco, U.S.A., but they
formerly charged $8 (33s. 4d.) per ton. The con-
siderable reduction is due to the severe competi-
tion which this octopus-like company has had to
meet with from both the Kosmos Company and the
Salvador Railway.
The annual export of coffee from La Union amounts
to 150,000 sacks, all of which are carried to Europe
(Hamburg, Havre, etc.), the Kosmos Company taking
by far the greater part. Day by day the Pacific
Mail Steamship Company loses ground and popularity
throughout Central American ports owing to its ex-
tortionate charges (where there is no competition), to
its indifferent management, and, above all, by reason
of the gross discourtesy with which its clients are
sometimes treated by the uncouth and half -savage
officials whom it employs.
British interests at La Union, such as they are, are
represented by Mr. John B. Courtade, His Britannic
Majesty's Vice-Consul ; and this gentleman also acts
as French, Chilian, and Norwegian Consul. Mr.
Courtade, who is a Frenchman by birth, has been a
resident of La Union for thirty-three years, and he is
one of the best-known and most-respected inhabitants
of the place. The " palatial" offices which enshrine
H.B.M.'s Vice-Consulate will be noted with satisfac-
tion by the patriotic.
220 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Between La Union and La Libertad is situated the
port of Triunfo, which is 60 miles from the latter,
and 156 miles from the former. Triunfo, however,
has a very poor natural entrance, owing to the heavy
surf which is continually breaking on the shore.
It is to this port, nevertheless, that an American
syndicate are about to construct a railway, with the
idea of handling the large quantity of coffee which is
grown in the neighbourhood, and consigned to this
port for shipment abroad. So dangerous was Triunfo
formerly considered as a landing-place, that Lloyd's
had been advised by their agents not to issue in-
surances, but to allow shippers to take the risk. With
the contemplated improvements at the port, however,
in conjunction with the railway, Triunfo will probably
be ranked with La Uni6n as a safe and convenient
port. At present the steamers of the Salvador Rail-
way Company call there on their way to and from
Corinto to Salina Cruz.
During last year the Government encouraged
measures to maintain a first-class service of loading
and unloading cargo at the various ports, while
attending also to the embarking and disembarking of
passengers, recognizing the necessity of putting both
these branches of service upon a more satisfactory
footing. Serviceable and commodious port-boats have
been provided for each of the Comandantes at La
Union, La Libertad, and Triunfo. The latter port
is now used, as mentioned above, for the shipping of
coffee almost exclusively ; and it is through El Triunfo
that is exported the produce of the bountiful coffee
harvest yielded by the Department of Usulutan, which
represents more than a third part of the whole of the
Republic's coffee produce.
ACAJUTLA
Acajutla, the port of Sonsonate, is an open bay
about sixty-two miles to the east of San Jose ; it is
sheltered from the south-east by the Remedios reef, a
dangerous and extensive shoal, extending from a point
of the same name. The salt water here is considered
injurious to cables and copper. Ships anchor in 9 to
1 1 fathoms. Landing is occasionally difficult, and ought
to be effected in a good boat. Merchant vessels load
and discharge their cargoes by means of bongos, or
large craft in the shape of whale-boats. A substan-
tially-built pier, fitted with cranes, facilitates the
landing, although at times the surf renders it
hazardous. By giving short notice, fresh provisions
may be obtained in large quantities from Sonsonate.
The active volcano of Izalco, on a north-east by north
bearing, forms a good leading mark for this part, and
Point Remedios, long, low, and thickly wooded, may
easily be recognized.
The sea-bathing at Acajutla contributes to the
attraction of the place. Nowhere upon the coast of
these Central American countries will a smoother or
wider sand-beach be found ; and at all times of the
year, while at most hours of the day, women and
children are found disporting themselves in the
swelling and sometimes boisterous surf. The com-
parative freedom from the attacks of sharks and other
predatory fish is also a great benefit, although there
are stories current of men and women having been
seized and carried away by these prowling tigers of
the sea. An " old inhabitant " of some twenty-five
years' residence, however, informed me that he had
never known of a case where death had ensued, and,
while he himself had heard of the shark stories referred
to, he had no personal knowledge of their accuracy.
222 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The sanitary conditions of Acajutla are at present
poor, and it is scarcely surprising to hear that cases
of fever and other maladies exist in certain seasons.
All this could easily be changed by a more strict
municipal supervision, and an ordinance which ren-
dered penal the perpetration of the prevailing habits
of the people. Such deadly fever-dens as the local
" hotel," for instance, should be swept away without
remorse or hesitation, and a system of house-to-house
inspection introduced. In view of the fact that many
foreigners as well as natives have, of a necessity, to
spend a certain amount of time in the port, awaiting
their steamers proceeding north or south, it is the
bounden duty of the local authorities to see that their
lives are not endangered by pestilential conditions
existing in the town. The small but important
colony of hard-working port and railway officials
should also be considered, and especially as among
them are some few Europeans who are not accus-
tomed to the unsanitary system in vogue. I have
little doubt that, once the attention of the Salvador
Government is directed to this matter, some improve-
ment will be introduced, and, once introduced, will be
carefully maintained.
Whatever prospect is in store for the port of Acajutla
depends to a great extent upon the success of the new
shipping arrangements in connection with the Salvador
Railway, and these, as I have already pointed out
elsewhere, are making consistent and steady progress.
It is but a small place, and, although very picturesquely
situated upon a typically tropical coast, it is at some
seasons found rather trying, especially to Europeans.
The surrounding scenery, like all the country in
Salvador, is attractive to the eye, the long line of blue
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LA LIBERTAD
ocean, fringed with its lacelike foam, for ever gathering
and breaking in dazzling green and white waves upon
the smooth and sandy beach ; the brilliant green of
the mangrove, the cocoamit palms, and the banana
patches lend vividness of colour, while the distant
mountain-peaks, innumerable and fantastic of shape,
give the port of Acajutla a decidedly romantic aspect.
Although during the dry season a strong and cool
wind blows for several hours of the day, and at sunset
changes to a pleasant land-breeze, blowing sometimes
steadily, and at others decidedly gustily, during the
night, the hours of darkness never seem so long nor
so trying, on account of the heat, the dryness, and the
mosquitoes, as is the case in so many parts of South
and Central America. Some day, maybe, this place
will be taken in hand by the speculative builder, and
as great improvements effected as have been introduced
at Panamd, at Puerto Limon (Costa Rica), and at San
Jose, in the same Republic, but on the Pacific side of
that Republic. Acajutla is just as open to, and capable
of, improvement and reformation ; between the enter-
prise of the Salvador Government and the Salvador
Railway Company there is no reason why this port
should not eventually become one of the most im-
portant in Central America.
La Libertad is the second of the three Salvadorean
ports, as already mentioned, Acajutla and La Uni6n
being the other two. It is a small but well-formed
roadstead, but does not invariably offer good shelter to
the largest vessels, since sudden rollers come in which
are apt to snap ship's cables unless with a long range.
The foreshore is narrow, and is backed up by some
lofty hills — scarcely high enough to be called moun-
tains, however — which are partially cultivated, and
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
form a pleasing setting to the Port itself. The build-
ings are few as yet, but such as there are they seem to
be well constructed and of superior character both
outwardly and inwardly ; the usual style of Latin -
American architecture is followed in regard to the one-
story edifice, except in the case of the Comandancia —
official residence and office of the chief authority—
which is a large wooden edifice of two stories, the
]ower portion forming the quarters of the garrison, and
the upper part the residence of the Comandante.
About 100 men form the garrison, the regi-
ment quartered there being the 5th Artillery. They
possess several pieces of modern ordnance, which they
know how to handle with great expedition and effici-
ency. The guns are kept exceedingly clean, and
frequent drills serve to keep the artillerymen both
smart and interested. The Comandante of the Port,
Captain Angel Esteves, is quite a young man, possessed
of a very pleasing face and figure, as well as of charm-
ing manners. He has travelled in the United States,
and speaks English fairly well. He expressed to me
his intention of shortly visiting England in order to
study military matters, and " to see a country of which
he had always heard great accounts, and for which he
entertained a profound admiration."
The streets of La Libertad are mostly paved with
hewn stones, and the whole place, consisting of but
700 or 800 inhabitants, is kept in excellent sanitary
order. A market is held here every week, and a con-
siderable amount of local trade is carried on from day
to day. The extensive warehouses and Customs sheds
are also well filled with foreign goods received from
different ports of Europe and the United States ; but
while as many as three or four ships call there every
LA LIBERTAD
week, I understand that these do not include any
British bottoms other than the steamer Salvador,
belonging to the Salvador Railway Company. The
Comandante informed me that during the two years
that he had been in La Libertad he had not seen
another British vessel at the Port, the vessels calling
there being either American, German or French.
A large amount of coffee is exported from La Libertad,
the bags arriving out-bound from San Salvador, the
capital, which is only eight leagues (about twenty-four
miles) distant, and the journey usually being per-
formed in a day and a half by ox-waggon, or in three
or four hours on mule-back.
Between the Capital and the Port are situated two
towns — Zaragosa and Santa Tecla — both of some im-
portance. Around both also are located many coffee
and sugar fincas, such as that of La Laguna, near San
Salvador, the property of Herr Fe'dor Deininger, of
whom I have made mention elsewhere in this volume,
and who is one of the wealthiest, as well as one of the
most enterprising, coffee-planters and sugar-manufac-
turers living in Salvador.
La Libertad possesses a strong and well-designed
iron pier, some 450 feet in length, with two large
covered warehouses, steam-cranes, and all the neces-
sary apparatus for loading and unloading lighters.
There is a double set of rails running from the pit-head
to the Customs-house, and a fair equipment of flat-
cars and platforms- cars. The warehouses are kept
scrupulously clean and airy, everything being main-
tained in admirable working condition.
The pier and the wharf were constructed by a local
company some forty years ago, and the concession
which covered that period having only expired last
15
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
year (1910), the pier and everything connected with
it have now become the property of the Salvadorean
Government. It is not intended, however, to make
any additions or alterations to the structure, which is
in all respects equal to the port's requirements at the
present time. In all probability La Libertad will not
much increase in importance as a port, in view of the
extensions at Triunfo and at Acajutla, which already
possesses a railway to the Capital, and of La Uni6n,
which ere long will also have one to the interior of
the Republic.
La Libertad must nevertheless always count as of
some consequence, if only on account of its being the
one cable-station in the Republic of Salvador, and
which serves at the same time as a receiving-station
for Costa Rica, the one Central American Republic
which has no cable-station of its own. La Libertad
shares with Col6n the monopoly of despatching and
receiving all the cable-messages from Central America
and the United States. Its cable extends to Salina
Cruz, in Mexico, messages being thence transmitted
to Galveston, U.S.A. La Libertad's cable, although
in constant use, is regarded more as a " stand-by " in
the event of a breakdown on the Panama line, an
eventuality of by no means infrequent occurrence,
especially in time of political trouble and when the
fierce Atlantic storms prevail. A full equipment is
therefore always maintained, although the active staff
employed consists of but two individuals — Mr. A. H.
Hooper, an American of great linguistic ability and
remarkable literary judgment, and a young Danish
telegraphist, Fe*dor Michaelson. Both officials are ex-
pert instrument-operators, and in depending upon the
La Libertad station as a substitute or a " stand-by,"
CABLE STATION 227
the Cable Company are leaning upon no hollow reed.
Messrs. Hooper and Michaelson are highly competent
officers, the latter, indeed, being one of the quickest
and most accurate operators that I have met with in
any part of the world.
In La Libertad a number of press and Government
messages from all parts of the world are received
every day, and sometimes almost all day. The instru-
ments used include Muirhead's automatic transmitter,
which will send 200 letters per minute, and Sir
William Thompson's patent recorder, as well as a
complete fault-finding apparatus, which enables the
officials to at once trace the seat of any breakdown
which may occur to the cable, and thus despatch the
repair-ship to the necessary spot. While visiting the
La Libertad cable-station, I witnessed several messages
being despatched and received (and actually corre-
sponded with Salina Cruz, Mexico), the average speed
being a little over fifty words in three minutes, or, say,
seventeen words a minute received and recorded.
At this cable-station above mentioned, a service of
cablegrams received for the Salvadorean Government
averages 2,000 words a day. The service is supplied
free of all charge by the Government to the Salvador
newspapers, and is greatly appreciated by the reading
public. The source of supply is New York, and the
Correspondent responsible is the New York Corre-
spondent of La Prensa, the great Argentine daily
newspaper, which enjoys the proud position of possess-
ing the most palatial offices of any newspaper in the
world. The news-cables are very informative, and
are at the same time commendably free from political
bias or personal opinions — a rare recommendation
indeed, considering the land of their origin.
CHAPTER XVII
Agriculture — Government support and supervision — Annual productions
— Agricultural schools — Cattle-breeding — Coffee — Sugar — Tobacco —
Forestry — Bice — Beans — Cacao — Balsam — Treatment by natives.
IT is only natural, in a country where agriculture
forms one of the most important sources of revenue,
that the Government should have directed its par-
ticular attention to the supervision and control of the
industry. The Land Law of Salvador consists of no
fewer than 245 separate articles, which are contained
under eight different " titles," as follows : Title I. :
Concerning the government and control of the industry,
and which contains six chapters ; Title II. : Con-
cerning persons who devote themselves to agricultural
industry, containing five chapters ; Title III. : Con-
cerning rural property, which contains four chapters ;
Title IV. : Concerning live-stock and game, consisting
of four chapters ; Title V. : Concerning public roads,
containing but one chapter ; Title VI. : Forest culture,
containing three chapters : Title VII. : Water for
public use, containing two chapters ; Title VIII. :
Concerning administrative justice and guarantees
afforded to rural property, consisting of two chapters.
This Land Law is a model of common sense, and
shows evidence of much ability in construction ; it
might well serve as a model for similar executive
ordinances in other countries, not excepting that of
228
AGRICULTURAL MATTERS
Great Britain, where agricultural legislation and
Governmental assistance are sorely needed.
The Government of Salvador exercises its control
over all agricultural matters, firstly by the Executive,
through the medium of the Department of the In-
terior ; secondly, through an Agricultural Board ;
thirdly, through Departmental Governors, who are
assisted by Local Boards ; fourthly, through munici-
palities, with their Mayors and Agricultural Com-
mittees ; and, fifthly, through the services of Rural
Inspectors, Special Assistants, and Commissioners.
It is to be observed that the Land Law of Salvador,
while of an administrative character, leaves in force
the Civil Code of Civil Procedure, even in those
questions especially relating to rural property, without
prejudice to the few provisions relating to these codes,
and which can be regarded as additional or modifyiisjg
provisions.
The annual amount of agricultural produce exported
from the Republic of Salvador may be put as follows :
Coffee, 30,000 tons ; Sugar, 70,000 cwt. ; Rubber,
500 cwt. ; Balsam, 1,300 cwt. These figures, however,
are exclusive of the considerable amounts of each com-
modity consumed in the country, and which likewise
comprise large quantities of cereals, such as corn,
beans, rice, wheat, etc. The Government is encouraging
the cultivation of henequen, or Sisal agave, as well as
cotton, maize, and other useful plants, which will
figure to some degree in future returns from the
Department of Agriculture.
The Ministry of Agriculture and the Councils and
Committees of the Department, besides contributing
to the development and increase of agriculture, also
assist the scientific improvement of the crops, cir-
230 SALVADOR OP THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
culating among cultivators all those provisions which
they judge to be opportune, and as likely to conduce
to the prosperity of the industry. A step in the path
of agricultural progress is the creation and mainte-
nance of the School of Agronomy, which is carried on
upon a plantation of some 200 manzanas in extent,
where there is water in abundance. The farm is
located between the cities of Sonsonate and Izalco, and
lies at 450 metres elevation above the level of the sea.
The school building is constructed on a tableland,
which occupies the most elevated part of the planta-
tion, and consists of all the usual departments con-
sidered to be indispensable for an establishment of its
kind. It possesses laboratories for the study of, and ex-
periments in, chemistry and botany, and a small model
dairy, provided with all the necessary apparatus,
instruments, and tools. The total cost of the institu-
tion and its equipment amounted to $64,498.19. It
was inaugurated on June 4, 1907, and in the month
of September of the same year student classes were
opened, and they have since been maintained, under the
direction of the Agronomical Engineer, Don Felix
Choussy, without interruption. This school ranks as
one of the most pronounced successes which the
Government of the Republic has achieved.
It would be difficult to find any locality in South
America, not excepting the Argentine Republic or
Uruguay, where the breeding of cattle could be engaged
in, nor where finer butcher's meat can be grown more
successfully, than upon the magnificent pastoral ranges
of Salvador. Cattle are not only abundant, but they
seem to thrive with practically little or no attention.
The meat secured is of a delicious and firm nature,
but, unfortunately, as in all tropical countries, it must
A SCARCITY OF SHEEP
be cooked and eaten the same day that the animal is
killed. The natives do not deem this any objection ;
but Europeans, who are accustomed to the taste of
tender and juicy meats, do not so generally approve.
The price of beef is moderate in extreme, and it can
be found on sale in the markets all the year round.
Sheep are somewhat scarce, and they do not appear
to thrive here as they do in some parts of Mexico or in
Argentina. I should not consider Salvador a good
sheep-country, and the breed is not in any way
encouraged. Possibly the heat of the plains is a bar
to any great success attending the raising of these
animals, while, on the other hand, mutton is not a
popular diet with the people, who are not in any case
very heavy meat-consumers. On the great majority
of small estates, and even among the poorest of the
people, hogs are very largely bred, and some fine
specimens are to be met with. Among poultry, fowls
and turkeys, again, are numerous, and generally of
excellent quality, large and plump birds being obtain-
able for very moderate prices at all times. In this
case also it is customary to cook and consume the
birds a few hours after they have been killed, so that
a tender fowl is not often met with. I noticed but few
ducks or geese, and the latter birds may be regarded
as somewhat of a rarity. Quantities of wild-fowl,
however, find their way to the market, and there they
fetch moderately good prices. Immense flocks of
duck are found at certain seasons of the year feeding
and breeding upon the many inland lakes, and they
afford excellent sport to the few guns which break in
upon their almost undisturbed repose. These quiet
and peaceful lagoons, in their entrancing scenic sur-
roundings, form an ideal spot for the sportsman, since
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
they would be found an almost untouched field for his
amusement.
Salvador, from the conformation of its surface and
the nature of its soil, is essentially an agricultural
State. The basin of the River San Miguel, that of
Sonsonate, and the valley proper of the Lempa, no less
than the alluvians bordering on the Pacific, are of an
extraordinarily fertile character and especially adap-
table for the production of tropical staples. Around the
Bay of Jiquilisco and the port of La Libertad, cotton
has been cultivated with success for the last sixty years,
but it is only up to within comparatively recent years
that the principal products of the State have included
indigo, sugar and maize. In many respects the State
of Salvador differs agriculturally from the South and
other Central American Republics. In the first place,
there is but little unappropriated land to be found in
it, nearly the whole being the property of private
individuals ; secondly, the people are active and intelli-
gent— naturally so, and not merely by education ; they
are unquestionably industrious. Certainly they are
the best cultivators in Central America ; and under
favourable circumstances — that is to say, during periods
of political tranquillity — they can find abundant em-
ployment for their labour.
Indigo, or, to give it its native name, " jiquilite," for
long constituted the chief article in the exports of the
country, but in point of importance it has had to give
place to coffee. Indigo is found in practically all parts
of Salvador, but especially in the districts of Zacate-
coluca and San Miguel, and some idea may be obtained
of the great space of ground which is, or rather which
used to be, appropriated to indigo, when it is stated
that it takes about 2 cwt. of the green plant to yield
NATIVE HABITATION IN THE HOT COUNTRY.
NATIVE MAKING SUGAR FROM A PRIMITIVE WOODEN MILL.
INDIGO 233
8, 10 or 12 ounces of indigo ; on the land which is
found most suitable to it, 12 ounces are seldom ex-
ceeded, but there are records which show that in
favourable seasons, upon taking an average of five
years, upwards of 12,000 serrones (1 serron=150
pounds) have been produced in the entire Republic.
A quantity such as this, in former times, would be
valued at $3,000,000 in the European markets ; but as
long ago as the year 1850 the value of the product had
become greatly reduced, and it would not even then
have realized one -half that sum. To-day, when
aniline dyes take the place of indigo, it would be
difficult to place anything like an accurate price upon
such an amount of produce, nor to suppose that it
would be marketable at all. How much the production
has fallen off in later years can be seen when it is said
that the total amount produced in 1891 was only
7,889 serrones, and in the year following, 9,587
serrones.
Indigo is produced from an indigenous triennial
plant, Indigofera Anil, which is its botanical name, and
the plant flourishes luxuriously upon nearly all kinds
of soil. The land requires comparatively little prep-
aration, being merely burnt and slightly ploughed.
The seed, which is scattered broadcast, is sown in the
months of February and April, and the growth of the
plant is so rapid that by the end of August it has
attained a height of from 5 to 6 feet, and is then fit for
cutting. The product of the first year is but moderate,
and it is at this stage called " tinta nueva," the strength
being reserved for the second and third years, when
the prodiict is known as " tinta retofio." When the
crop is ripe, the process of manufacture is carried on
daily without interruption until the whole of the crop
234 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
is garnered. Just as the plant requires little attention
and no skill, so the manufacture of the indigo calls for
neither a very difficult nor any expensive process ; all
that it needs is that it be cut promptly and at the
proper period, otherwise it becomes worthless. This
means that the proprietors of the larger estates must
have an ample and a reliable supply of labour at hand,
which desideratum cannot be implicitly relied upon in
the present condition of the market.
Next to indigo, coffee ranks second in importance in
the country's agricultural products ; the very finest
berry is grown in the Republic. It may be found in
practically all parts, wherever the land rises between
1,500 and 4,000 feet above sea-level. The choicest
and most productive plantations are located in
the Departments of Ahuachapan, La Libertad, San
Salvador, San Vicente, Santa Ana and Sonsonate. The
berry is also grown in Usulutan, La Paz and Cuscatlan,
many hundreds of thousands of additional trees
having been planted throughout this part of the
country during the past two or three years.
The coffee-tree is a tender shrub, and needs careful
attending and protection from the sun from the time
of planting, and even for a lengthy period after it has
begun to produce crops. It required a great many
years to convince the cautious inhabitants of Salvador
that there was money to be made in growing coffee,
and up till some fifty years ago little attention was paid
to the industry, since few opportunities existed for dis-
posing promptly of a whole crop. The stimulus which
latter-day transportation offers was wanting, as was the
world-wide demand for the coffee-berry which has since
been met with. Since the industry was first seriously
entered upon, the resources of the State have been
SUGAR-CANE 235
greatly augmented, and the welfare of a large labour-
ing class has correspondingly increased.
I was informed upon one estate, or finca, that the
trees in Salvador were sufficiently matured when three
years old to produce a fair crop, and that this yield
continued to increase until the seventh year, when it
reached its maximum. It is calculated that the outlay
for labour and expenses in producing coffee amounts
to between 2^d. to 3d. per pound, while the retail
price varies from 5d. to Is. It may be taken, on an
average, that one-half of the annual crop is consumed
in the country, and that the remainder is exported.
There is a general opinion prevalent among experts
that Salvadorean coffee is superior in quality to that
of Brazil, or even to the Blue Mountain (Jamaica)
berry ; while as to the pre-eminence of the aroma over
both of these rivals there can be no question whatever.
Sugar-cane growing is an industry for which the
genial climate and the bounteous soil of Salvador are
admirably adapted, and the cane is cultivated to a
greater or less extent in all of the fourteen different
Departments. As I have pointed out in another part
of this volume, when describing sugar machinery (see
Chapter XII.), there is a great need of improved equip-
ment, which, were it provided, would probably serve
to double, and even in some cases to treble, the amount
of this particular product. But even with the imper-
fect reduction work which is carried out upon nine-
tenths of the fincas, sugar is produced to such an
extent as not only to abundantly supply the home
requirements, but to provide a considerable share of
the country's exports. The greater part of the sugar
used in the country is turned out in the shape of small
blocks or cakes, weighing about 2 pounds each, and
236 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
bearing the name of panda, similar to that produced
in Brazil and Mexico. A large quantity of this stuff,
which looks and tastes very much like toffee, while it
also resembles the maple sugar of North America,
is used in the manufacture of native rum. Conical-
shaped loaves of compact white sugar, weighing from
25 to 40 pounds each, are also manufactured, but are
mostly made for export.
In the " golden days " of California, the greater
part of the rum which was consumed upon the gold-
fields came from Sonsonate in Salvador, being packed
in 14 and 15 gallon casks and greybeards of from
3 to 6 gallons, suitable for easy transport to the
Californian diggings.
For some years past Salvador has been gaining a
reputation for the excellent quality of its tobacco, and
there are several manufactories established in the
Republic, which are doing remarkably well. One of
the best known for cigars is that of Senora Josefa
B. de Diaz, the amiable proprietress of the Hotel
America, at Cojutepeque.
Half a century ago Salvador was exporting tobacco
to Mexico, and had been doing a fair amount of trade
with that country even in the time of the Spanish
dominion. The tobacco production collectively in all
the provinces of the Republic yield a net revenue to
the Government of more than £500,000 annually ; but
the method of administering and collecting the taxes
in former times helped as much as anything else to
retard the industry. For instance, under the old
regime a general system was subscribed, and scrupu-
lously adhered to, which precluded people from raising
tobacco, except when they should obtain a licence to
do so from the authorities ; and the growers, under
TOBACCO 237
one of the many irritating conditions attached to the
official permission, were bound to deliver the entire
crop, after it had been dried and prepared, into the
Government factories at a stipulated rate per pound ;
it was then retailed to the community at a fixed price,
and yielded the substantial revenue referred to. Later
on each province passed its own laws for regulating this
branch of the public income, and, inasmuch as these
laws were neither uniform nor permanent, great con-
fusion prevailed and much loss was incurred, while
an immense amount of smuggling went on, as may
well be believed.
The Government of Salvador of recent years has
adopted quite different methods, and has done much
to encourage the industry, such, for instance, as im-
porting tobacco-seed and distributing it gratis among
cultivators, with the idea of promoting the culture of
the plant ; while at the same time it has imported
native cultivators from Cuba for the purpose of teach-
ing the method of growing and working the tobacco
as practised on that island. In spite of this free and
valuable instruction, I am afraid that the methods of
handling the tobacco in Salvador are often found to
be decidedly primitive, the growers allowing the leaves
to dry in the sun without detaching them from the
stalks, the latter being cut a few inches above the
ground. They are then piled in stacks from 6 to
9 feet in diameter and from 3 to 4 feet in height,
heavy weights being placed on the top, and the whole
covered over with a thick layer of banana leaves.
Fermentation then ensues, and by this action the
colour and aroma of the leaves are brought out.
Only by guesswork is it decided when the process is
complete, and the tobacco is then taken from the
238 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
stack, exposed for a short time to the air, whereafter
the leaves are detached from the stalks, sorted, and
tied into bundles, and then sent to market. It will be
recognized that the choiceness of the tobacco and its
excellent quality must be very high when theyFcan
withstand successfully such a crude treatment as this.
How much more valuable might the plant's product
become as a commodity, and how much higher would
be the revenue yielded, were modern methods of treat-
ing the leaf to be introduced !
In some sections of Salvador tobacco-growers have
resorted to an ingenious method of ridding the tobacco-
leaves of destructive insects and worms that feed upon
the tender young plants at certain periods of their
development. A kind of turkey, known locally under
the name of " chompipe," a bird which was brought
originally from the West Indies, and is capable of being
easily domesticated, is kept in flocks of considerable
size in the vicinity of the tobacco-fields, and at certain
hours of the day these are driven through the fields in
order to rid the tobacco-plants of worms and insects.
These turkeys do their work so well that the smallest
insect fails to escape them, and yet they pick them off
with such care that the tender leaves remain free from
injury. Without the use of these fowls, labourers
must be employed to go through the fields at stated
intervals to pick off the insects and worms from the
leaves ; and this method, aside from being tedious and
unsatisfactory, often damages the leaves through rough
handling, causing defective development and a reduc-
tion of their value as a marketable product.
I found, in my travels through the country, other
classes of agriculture being pursued besides those
which have been mentioned. For instance, india-
RUBBER-GROWING 239
rubber is a distinctly profitable branch, in spite of
the primitive methods pursued in collecting it, and
which are still, for the most part, in vogue. The
Government has made many earnest efforts to im-
prove conditions and to teach the people how to both
cultivate and to collect the precious material, but it
is not possible to congratulate those who pursue the
industry upon the amount of success attained. I have
been shown the extensive forests of promising-looking
rubber-trees growing in the provinces of La Paz,
La Uni6n, San Miguel, and Usulutdn ; but when I
inquired into the methods followed by those who are
employed in collecting the gum, I found the most
wasteful system in force, and the work generally con-
ducted in a desultory, indifferent manner, with the
result that it hardly paid to follow the occupation at
all. Under properly organized labour and systemat-
ically managed, rubber-growing ought to, and no doubt
one day will, become a valuable feature of the country's
industries.
Then, again, rice is cultivated, but not at all scien-
tifically. Nevertheless some fairly good crops are
annually gathered in, mostly of the upland variety,
and grown upon the tablelands and hillsides. Very
little rice, comparatively speaking, is exported, the
greater part of that produced being consumed locally.
Some of the neighbouring Republics take a small
quantity of the grain from Salvador, but as a rule
these States grow their own supplies, and need but
little importation. It seems a great pity that, with
land so eminently suitable for rice cultivation, so little
— and that little of such poor quality — should be
annually produced in Salvador.
Cacao is one of the leading products of this much-
240 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
favoured country, and it can be found growing more
luxuriantly in Salvador than in any of the Central
American States. Very little attention is given, how-
ever, to the method of cultivation, in spite of the fact
that cacao is one of the oldest agricultural specialities
of this country. History shows that at one time
Sonsonate and San Vicente were famous alike for
the quantity and the excellence of the cacao grown
there. Such plants as are cultivated now are utilized
almost entirely in the country in the manufacture of
chocolate, etc., and this product figures but insignifi-
cantly among the country's exports.
Beans — known here, as in all Latin - American
countries, as frijoles — form a large proportion of the
humbler people's daily diet. They are large, brown,
and flat in appearance, very nourishing, and very
palatable when properly cooked. They are grown all
over the Republic, and seem to flourish even in poor-
quality soil. Indian corn, or maize, wheat, potatoes,
sweet-potatoes, yams, and other vegetables in great
variety, flourish here, and one is reminded of a famous
cultivator's exordium upon the merits of Jamaica :
^g" You have," said he, " but to tickle the ground with
V a hoe, and it at once smiles a yam."
Except in Brazil, which probably stands unrivalled
among the South American States as a precious-wood-
yielding country, I know of no State possessing finer
timber forests than Salvador. I have ridden mile
upon mile through magnificent timber-tree lands—
the cedar, the mahogany, the ebony, the granadilla,
and many other valuable cabinet woods ; but upon
inquiry as to what is being done with all this precious
material provided by a bountiful Nature, I was in-
formed that it is rarely marketed, although it is cut
NATIVE WOODS
occasionally for local building purposes. Many of
the larger private houses and public buildings in San
Salvador are constructed of native woods, and one
is struck with the beauty of their grain and their
extreme hardness, while they will mostly take on a
high polish. In the lowlands there is an extremely
large variety of dye woods to be met with ; but here,
again, the great forests are left almost untouched,
many of them being as trackless as the day that they
came into being. The only tree among these latter of
which use is made is the mora, or fustic of commerce.
The pine-forests are also just beginning to be ex-
ploited, and one or two successful lumber enterprises
have been started. The Salvadorean forest pine is
fully equal in durability, in quality, and in appearance,
to the Southern States ceiba and other pine-woods.
The pride of place in the forestry of the Republic
belongs to the beautiful and valuable balsam-tree —
the Myrospermum Salvatoriensis — yielding what is
known to the Materia Medica as " balsam of Peru."
The Indian appellation for it is hoitzilixitl. Why is
it called "balsam of Peru" if it is the "balsam of
Salvador "? I am told, because the precious gum was
exported as an article of commerce to Peru from Sal-
vador in the early days of the Spanish Dominion, and
thence found its way to Europe. As a matter of fact,
it is to be found growing in no country of the world
but Salvador, and there in only a few parts of it. " La
Costa del Balsamo " is to be seen marked upon any
map of Central America, lying to the seaward of the
great volcanic range of mountains ; and here it is that
the trees are met with, standing together in so close a
mass that the daylight seldom enters, and sunlight
never. The whole district is inhabited by Indians,
id
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
who have come to regard the place as their own
undisputed territory. They live entirely upon the
product of the balsam-tree, hewing down huge planks
of this and other woods, which they market to great
advantage. The balsam is their main source of
wealth, however ; and although to-day the annual
product falls short of what was realized, say, half a
century ago, it still figures very largely in the annual
exports of the country. Strangely enough, the tree
cannot be cultivated in any other part of Salvador,
although the climatic conditions, the soil, and the
physical characteristics, may be found suitable. Similar
experiences are found in Jamaica, where the pimento-
tree is to be met with in one particular locality only,
and nowhere else, even careful planting proving quite
useless to alter or improve upon the conditions which
have been dictated by Nature.
The Indian gatherers obtain the balsam from the
tree by scraping the skin of the bark to the depth of
one-tenth part of an inch, using for the purpose a
sharp native knife, or machete. This scraping is done
in small patches, extending to 12 or 15 inches square,
the incisions being made both across and along the
trunk and the largest branches of the tree. Immedi-
ately after the operation of scratching is completed,
the portions scraped are heated with burning torches,
which are made out of the dried branches of a tree
known locally as chimaliote ; and after burning the
surfaces are covered over with pieces of old cotton
cloth, under which they are left for a time. By
punching the edges of the cloths pressed against
the tree with the point of the machete, they are made
to adhere. In this condition they are again left for
a space of twenty-four hours, and even as long as
A STREET IN SONSONATE (CALLE DE MERCADO).
TYPE OF "QlTINTA"OR COUNTRY HOUSE IN SANTA TECLA (NEW SAN SALVADOR.)
BALSAM
forty-eight hours (especially in the month of January),
when the rags are gathered and submitted to a strong
and hot decoction in big iron pots. While still hot
the rags are put under a great pressure in a primitive
kind of machine, which is made by the Indians them-
selves, and composed of a combination of wooden
levers and strong ropes, worked entirely by hand.
The balsam juice then oozes out, and drips slowly
into a receptacle, where it is allowed to cool. It is
then in the stage known as " raw balsam." After-
wards it has to be refined, which means boiling it
again and draining off all impurities, when it is packed
in iron cans and sent away to market.
There is another method, which was explained to
me, for extracting the balsam — namely, by entirely
barking the trees and heavy branches, a process which,
of course, kills the tree outright, or at least renders
it valueless for a good many years. The bark is
ground down to a coarse kind of powder ; it is then
boiled, the juice or guin floating to the top, and is
thus collected. But this process, although speedy,
really destroys the full value of the gum, which
only realizes a low price when treated in this manner.
The Government forbids this method to be adopted,
as a matter of fact ; but the Indians, on the " get rich
quick " principle, practise it all the same. The balsam,
as seen in the market, looks like a thick, fatty, viscid
resin, of a deep brown or black colour, and emitting
a delicious odour.
The analysis is — Cynamic acid, 46 ; resin, 32 ; ben-
zylic alcohol, 20, per cent. Balsam is used in making
perfumery and soaps, and as an unguent ; while for
asthma and other pectoral complaints its odour is
considered very beneficial.
244 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The personal appearance of the Salvadorean peasant,
as will be seen from the group shown in the photo-
graph given, is unquestionably an agreeable one. The
men are short in stature as a rule, but they possess
regular and amiable features — those who are not of
the pronounced negro type ; while the women are also
usually physically attractive, especially when young.
In regard to native costume, in the villages and
smaller towns the men still wear the same attire as
they have adopted for some hundred years past—
namely, loose and baggy trousers of cotton spun and
woven locally, mostly on the native hand-looms ; a
shapeless coat or loose jacket of the same material ;
and a large palm-leaf hat without any ribbon, binding,
or other ornamentation. The women's ordinary attire
consists of a dark blue cotton or cloth woven skirt,
a loose cotton blouse with very short sleeves, and the
native shawl worn gracefully over the head. To-day
many affect the European style of costume, and almost
generally they do so in the Capital and the larger
towns.
The Indians are very domesticated, and are naturally
of an affectionate and amiable disposition. It is quite
a common occurrence to find several generations living
together in one small but cleanly-kept hut, married
and single members of the family occupying the same
room, the oldest member — grandfather or great-grand-
father— being much deferred to, and, as a rule, govern-
ing his extensive family with a firm but gentle hand.
Parental authority is greatly respected in this country
among the natives, and family life is often found very
beautiful in some respects, offering, indeed, a marked
contrast to what one finds existing in European
countries, especially in England, among the working
classes of the population.
DOMESTIC LIFE 245
The Indian inhabitants of Salvador are supposed to
be lineal descendants of the Nahwals, whose other
branch are found in Mexico and Guatemala. Certainly
there is a strong connection both in their physical
attributes and their ancient dialects. Naturally, the
aboriginal population has been much modified by
nearly four centuries of contact with the whites, and
an almost equally long subjugation to the Spanish
rule. Nevertheless there are some towns in the
Republic which to-day retain their primitive customs,
and in such, to all appearances, the aboriginal blood
has undergone scarcely any, if indeed the slightest,
intermixture. In most places, however, the original
language has fallen into disuse, or merely a few
words, which have also been partially adopted by the
whites, are retained. The original names of places
have in some localities been preserved with the
greatest tenacity, and afford a sure guide in defining
the extent of territory over which the various aboriginal
nations have been spread.
I have visited several of the towns situated in the
neighbourhood of Sonsonate, where the inhabitants are
almost exclusively Indians, and I was then told that the
language which they habitually speak to one another
is also aboriginal. So curiously attached are some of
these people to their ancient speech and government
that in the year of 1832 a number of the inhabitants
of San Vicente arose in revolt against the new
government which was then imposed, and attempted
to restore their ancient dominion, at the same time
threatening to kill all the whites as well as everyone
showing a trace of European blood in their veins.
The new census of the country will have been taken
on July 1, 1911 (too late for inclusion in this volume,
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
which will have gone to press), in accordance with
instructions of the President, the officers engaged
being attached to the General Bureau of Statistics.
Every effort has been made to render the returns in
as accurate a form and as complete as possible. The
present population, according to the statistics of 1910,
showed that the number of inhabitants stood at
1,084,850, of whom some 200,000 were foreigners.
CHAPTER XVIII
Departments — Capital cities — Population — Districts — Salvador Depart-
ment— City of San Salvador — Situation — Surroundings — Destruction
in 1854 by earthquake — Description of catastrophe — Loss of life
actually small— Evacuation of city — Kecuperative faculty of the
people.
THE Republic of Salvador is divided into 14 Depart-
ments, which are again subdivided into 31 districts,
27 cities, 51 towns, 164 villages, and 215 hamlets.
The following table shows the names of such Depart-
ments, with their respective capital cities, their
population, exclusive of foreigners, and the number of
districts which they contain :
Departments.
Capital Cities.
Population.
Number of
Districts.
Capitals.
Depart-
ments.
San Salvador
San Salvador
32,000
65,000
3
La Libertad
New San Salvador
11,000
49,000
2
Sonsonate
Sonsonate
11,500
41,500
2
Ahuachapan
Ahuachapan
12,000
37,000
2
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
33,750
80,500
3
Chalatenango
Chalatenango
6,000
54,000
2
Cuscatlan
Cojutepeque
8,000
62,000
2
Cabanas
Sensuntepeque
10,000
35,000
2
San Vicente
San Vicente
11,000
40,500
2
LaPaz
Zacatecoluca
6,500
70,000
2
Usulutan
Usulutan
6,000
42,000
2
San Miguel
San Miguel
23,000
60,000
2
Morozan
Gotera
3,100
35,100
3
La Union
La Union
3,700
35,700
2
* Total ...
177,550
707,300
—
* The above statistics are out of date ; the present population of the
Republic of Salvador is estimated at 1,200,000.
247
248 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
DEPARTMENT OF SAN SALVADOR.
Cities. — San Salvador, Tonacatepeque (2).
Towns. — Mejicanos, Apopa, Nejapa, Santo Tomas,
Panchimalco (5).
This was one of the first of the original divisions
into which the Republic was divided in the year 1821,
at which period the separation from the neighbouring
kingdom of Guatemala took place. San Salvador is
bounded on the north by the Departments of Chala-
tenango and Cuscatlan, on the east by Cuscatlan and
La Paz, on the south by La Libertad and La Paz, and
on the west by La Libertad. A great variety of
scenery is met with, and no portion of the country can
be described as anything but beautiful and romantic.
In the southern part is encountered the rugged and
picturesque coastal range of mountains ; the central
portion is broken up into a number of small, fertile
valleys of surprising scenic beauty and fertility ; while
the northern section is covered with hills, which,
although always green, are destitute of large trees,
The Department contains two volcanoes — San Salvador,
or Quezaltepeque, as the Indians name it, and Hopango,
which is situated upon a lake bearing the same name.
Surrounding the capital are an immense number of
prosperous fincas, or agricultural estates, market-
gardens, and great stretches of tobacco, coffee, sugar,
rice, corn and bean plantations. The whole popula-
tion are engaged in these industries, the amount of
labour necessary being abundantly supplied, and to
all appearances the people seem extremely prosperous
and contented. I failed, indeed, to observe any signs
of either poverty or disorderliness, while, on the
contrary, nearly everyone encountered appeared
SAN SALVADOR 249
merry, well fed, and decently dressed. There is little
reason to suppose that these evidences were deceptive.
In spite of the fact that San Salvador has been
visited by so many different volcanic eruptions, it has
really suffered less from earthquakes or their effects
than either Costa Rica or Guatemala, its immediate
neighbours. There are still living in Salvador those
who remember and speak of the great seismic catas-
trophe which befell the Capital City in the month of
April, 1854, by which that place was almost com-
pletely ruined. Previous to this catastrophe, the city,
in point of size and importance, had ranked third in
Central America, Guatemala City, in the State of the
same name, being first, and Leon, in Nicaragua,
second. In regard to the first named, Guatemala
City still remains the capital of its State ; but Leon,
although ranking as the largest city in the Republic
of Nicaragua, has had to yield to Managua the pride
of place as capital and seat of Government.
The name of " San Salvador " was chosen by its
pious but pitiless founder, Don Jorge de Alvarado,
who conquered the territory for the Spanish Govern-
ment after Columbus had located it, in commemoration
of his final decisive victory over the Indians of Cus-
catMn, which battle was gained on the eve of the
festival of San Salvador. During the long dominion
of Spain in South and Central America, the city was
the seat of the Governor, or Intendente, of the province
of San Salvador, who, again, was subservient to the
Captain-General of Guatemala. After its independence
San Salvador became the capital of the new State, and
it was early distinguished for its thorough devotion
to the principles of the Liberal party in Central
America.
250 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Even as far back as 1853, a notable writer of the
day who was travelling in Salvador described the city
as " a very beautiful town/' and also spoke of the
general intelligence, the industry, and the enterprise
of its inhabitants, who, in his opinion, " surpassed in
these respects the people of any of the other large
towns in Central America. " This visitor, as are all
who sojourn for any length of time in San Salvador,
became much impressed by the picturesque position
of the city, which, as already indicated, lies in the
midst of a broad but elevated plain, situated on the
summit of a high tableland or coast range of moun-
tains, which intervene between the valley of the River
Lempa and the Pacific.
By barometrical admeasurement, San Salvador lies
2,115 feet above the sea. As a consequence, its climate
is found pleasantly cool as compared with that of coast
alluvians, although unfavourably modified in this
respect by a low range of hills on the southern border
of the plain, which shuts off the full benefit of the
sea-breeze. Were it not for this obstacle, the winds
blowing from the ocean, which is only twenty miles
distant, would reach the city. As an indication of the
kind of temperature one meets with, it may be said
that in August the maximum of temperature rarely
exceeds 80° Fahrenheit, the minimum 70°, and the
mean average 76' 3°, which, as will be generally recog-
nized, constitutes a delightful climate.
The hills which surround the plain of San Salvador
are covered with verdure, which keeps its colour and
freshness owing to the heavy dews which fall and the
absence of dust, while a fair amount of rain can always
be depended upon.
Not more than three miles to the westward of the
EARTHQUAKE OF 1854 251
Capital City, and watching over it like a gigantic
sentinel, stands the magnificent volcano of San Salva-
dor. In this respect one is reminded of some other
Spanish-American cities, such as La Paz in Bolivia,
with the superb Misti ; and, again, of Mexico City,
with its two ever-watchful volcanic guardians — Ixtac-
cihuatl, which stands 16,060 feet in height, and
Popocatepetl, which towers to 17,782 feet in the air.
The cone of San Salvador volcano, which rises on the
northern border or edge of the crater, is, however,
approximately but 8,000 feet in height.
Some fifty or sixty years ago San Salvador, judging
from contemporary pictures, must have been even
more charming in appearance than it is to-day ; then
its population, however, scarcely exceeded 25,000.
With the exception of the central and paved part of
the city, it was eminently sylvan, being literally
embowered in masses of tropical fruit-trees. The
red-roofed dwellings, closely shut in with evergreen
hedges of cactus, shadowed over by palm and orange
trees, with a dense background of broad-leaved plan-
tains, almost sinking beneath their heavy clusters of
rich golden fruit, must have presented a delightful
scenic picture, at once romantic and peaceful.
From contemporary reports, it is pitiful to read that
this exquisite scene was subsequently completely
devastated in the brief space of ten seconds, for pre-
cisely that period elapsed between the beginning and
the end of the awful earthquake of April 16, 1854. I
have been shown pictures of the ill-fated city which
were painted a year or two before the disaster, as well
as one which showed San Salvador as it stood in 1839,
the date of a previous similar disaster. The appear-
ance in both cases was singularly attractive in regard
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
to the character of the buildings and their scenic
surroundings. In the freshness of their affliction
the inhabitants determined never again to return to
the city, but, as history has proved, they did so in
exactly the same manner as the ever - faithful in-
habitants of Mount Vesuvius have returned again and
again to the scene of their numerous previous mis-
fortunes. The people of Guatemala were somewhat
wiser. Soon after 1773 they deserted their capital,
which stood at the foot of the volcanoes Agua and
Fuego (Water and Fire), and which was overwhelmed
by a volcanic eruption, for they then built themselves
a new place of abode, which is the present handsome
city and Capital of the Republic.
I have been afforded the following interesting
account of the destruction of San Salvador, a descrip-
tion which was published in a small Government
organ dated May 2, 1854, and which provides so
graphic a description of what occurred that I make no
apology for reproducing it in these pages.
The chronicler of that day says :
"The night of April 16, 1854, will ever be one of sad and
bitter memory to the people of Salvador. On that unfortunate
night our happy and beautiful capital was made a heap of
ruins. Movements of the earth were felt on the morning of
Holy Thursday, preceded by sounds like the rolling of heavy
artillery over pavements, and like distant thunder. The
people were a little alarmed in consequence of this phe-
nomenon, but it did not prevent them from meeting in the
churches to celebrate the solemnities of the day. On Saturday
all was quiet, and confidence was restored. The people of
the neighbourhood assembled as usual to celebrate the Pass-
over. The night of Saturday was quiet, so also was the whole
of Sunday. The heat, it is true, was considerable, but the
atmosphere was calm and serene. For the first three hours
EARTHQUAKE OF 1854 253
of the evening there was nothing of unusual occurrence, but
at half-past nine a severe shock of an earthquake, occurring
without the usual preliminary noises, alarmed the whole city.
Many families left their houses and made encampments in the
public squares, while others prepared to pass the night in
their respective courtyards.
" Finally, at ten minutes to eleven, without further pre-
monition of any kind, the earth began to heave and tremble
with such fearful force that in ten seconds the entire city was
prostrated. The crashing of houses and churches stunned
the ears of the terrified inhabitants, while a cloud of dust from
the falling ruins enveloped them in a pall of impenetrable
darkness. Not a drop of water could be got to relieve the
half -choked and the suffocating, for the wells and fountains
were filled up or made dry. The clock-tower of the cathedral
carried a great part of that edifice with it in its fall. The
towers of the church of San Francisco crashed down upon the
episcopal oratory and part of the palace. The Church of Santo
Domingo was buried beneath its towers, and the College of
the Assumption was entirely ruined. The new and beautiful
edifice of the University was demolished. The Church of the
Merced separated in the centre, and its walls fell outward to
the ground. Of the private houses, a few were left standing1,
but all were rendered uninhabitable. It is worthy of remark
that the walls left standing are old ones ; all those of modern
construction have fallen. The public edifices of the Govern-
ment and the city shared in the common destruction.
" The devastation was effected, as we have said, in the first
ten seconds ; for although the succeeding shocks were tre-
mendous, and accompanied by fearful rumblings beneath our
feet, they had comparatively trifling results, for the reason
that the first jar left but little for their ravages.
" Solemn and terrible was the picture presented, on the
dark, funereal night, of a whole people clustering in the plazas,
and, on their knees, crying with loud voices to Heaven for
mercy, or in agonizing accents calling for their children and
their friends, whom they believed to be buried beneath the
ruins. A heaven opaque and ominous; a movement of the
254 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
earth rapid and unequal, causing a terror indescribable ; an
intense sulphurous odour filling the atmosphere, and indicating
an approaching eruption of the volcano ; streets filled with
ruins or overhung by threatening walls ; a suffocating cloud
of dust, almost rendering respiration impossible — such was
the spectacle presented by the unhappy city on that memorable
and awful night.
"A hundred boys were shut up in the college, many
invalids crowded the hospitals, and the barracks were full
of soldiers. The sense of the catastrophe which must have
befallen them gave poignancy to the first moments of reflection
after the earthquake was over. It was believed that at least
a fourth part of the inhabitants had been buried beneath the
ruins. The members of the Government hastened to ascertain
as far as practicable the extent of the catastrophe, and to
quiet the public mind. It was found that the loss of life had
been much less than was supposed, and it now appears that
the number of the killed will not exceed one hundred, and of
wounded fifty. Among the latter is the Bishop, who received
a severe blow on the head, the late President, Senor Duenas,
a daughter of the President, and the wife of the Secretary of
the Legislative Chambers, the latter severely.
"Fortunately, the earthquake has not been followed by
rains, which gives an opportunity to disinter the public
archives, as also many of the valuables contained in the
dwellings of the citizens.
" The movements of the earth still continue with strong
shocks, and the people, fearing a general swallowing up of the
site of the city, or that it may be buried under some sudden
eruption of the volcano, are hastening away, taking with them
their household gods, the sweet memories of their infancy,
and their domestic animals — perhaps the only property left
for the support of their families — exclaiming with Virgil :
' Nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva/ "
I have witnessed scenes in Valparaiso, in San
Francisco, and in Kingston, Jamaica, almost precisely
similar to these so graphically portrayed ; but in all
EARTHQUAKE OF 1854
255
these cases the loss of life was considerably greater
than occurred in San Salvador. To-day the capital of
the Republic bears not a single trace of the disaster,
nor yet of some subsequent visitations ; for the recu-
perative faculties of these optimistic peoples are as
astonishing as they are thorough and instantaneous in
the manner in which they assert themselves.
CHAPTER XIX
City of San Salvador — San Salvador as place of residence — Theatres —
Parks — Streets — Hotels — Domestic servants — Hospitality of residents
— Societies and associations— Educational establishments— Govern-
ment buildings — Keligion and churches — Casino — Hospitals and
institutions — Disastrous conflagrations — Public monuments.
THERE are few more pleasant cities as a place of
residence for all the year round than San Salvador.
The climate is very agreeable, while the situation of the
city, scenically speaking, is exceptionally beautiful,
being located as it is 2,115 feet above the level of the
sea in the valley of Cuscatlan, or, as it is called in
the vernacular, " Valle de las Hamacas " (the Vale of
the Hammocks). This district has been so named, I
understand, because it lies directly in the line of the
severest earthquake action, and has many times in
the past been " rocked and swung " by the waves of
movement, and which have been rendered unusually
destructive by the reflex action of the high hills which
half encircle the place.
San Salvador was founded, as already observed, by
Don Jorge de Alvarado, brother of the famous Spanish
conqueror, Don Pedro de Alvarado, on April 4, 1543,
and from 1834 to 1839 it was the capital of the new
Republic, a dignity which was in later years trans-
ferred to the city of San Vicente ; while Cojutepeque
upon three separate occasions, as pointed out more
fully elsewhere, was also used as the Federal Capital.
256
SANTA TECLA 257
In the year 1840, however, San Salvador became the
designated metropolis, and has since remained so.
Here are located all the Government Departments, as
well as the Supreme Civil and Military Courts, in
addition to the headquarters of the Ecclesiastical
Government.
In the year 1854, the city having been ruined,
as we have seen, the Government as a consequence
ordered the founding of Nueva San Salvador, or Santa
Tecla, which lies some eight miles to the south-west,
and about 800 feet higher, as a city of refuge. To
this place many families transferred their homes, and
it is now a very prosperous place, with a population
exceeding 11,000 inhabitants. Many good people of
San Salvador, however, were not so much discouraged
by their misfortune after all, and they very pluckily
rebuilt the city, only, however, to again see it laid low
by the even greater catastrophe of March 19, 1873.
Gradually, and for the third time, this city rose from
its ruins, and there are to-day no traces in its streets
of any of the various disasters which have visited it.
San Salvador is altogether a well-constructed and
even a handsome city, with several notable public
buildings which would grace any European capital.
Among these are the Casa Blanca, the Artillery
Barracks, the National Institute, the University, the
Theatre, the Market, the Orphans' Home, the Poly-
technic School, the Normal School, the new Cathedral,
and a large number of other handsome churches.
The Government have constructed a handsome
official building in the city of San Salvador, to provide
thoroughly up-to-date and modern quarters for the
various Government Departments, in addition to which
it adds considerable beauty to the Capital City. This
17
258 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
edifice is built in the Continental style of architecture,
and has been occupied for some two years past.
There are also many attractive private residences, con-
sisting of one or two stories, with handsome interiors and
beautiful gardens. The usual style of building adopted
is the adobe house, with tiled roof ; and what lends
particular attraction to the appearance of the city is the
variety of the architecture adopted for both private
and public buildings ; additionally, a large number
of plazas, parks, and open spaces, prevent anything
approaching an appearance of monotony. The whole
city is extremely well lighted by electricity, the roads
are well paved and as well maintained, while the
drainage is excellent. The material of which the
sidewalks are built consists mostly of large slabs of
the basaltic rock, which is freely and cheaply quarried
from the famous Guarumal Canon.
This elegance and good taste are displayed almost
generally in the city of Salvador regarding the arrange-
ment of the public parks and gardens, as well as in
connection with the private residences of the well-to-
do inhabitants. The beautiful Parque Bolivar, which
was completed and opened to the public in January,
1881, and the no less attractive Parque Barrios, which
was inaugurated in the same month of 1901, and for
a second time in 1909, are cases in point.
The Parque Duefias is centrally situated, and is a
favourite rendezvous with all classes. In the Parque
Moraza" n is to be seen the handsome monument erected
in 1882 to the hero of the same name. The attractive
thoroughfare known as Avenida de la Independencia
was inaugurated in December, 1901, and the Central
Markets in October, 1887. The new Cathedral, com-
menced in June, 1881, was completed and solemnly
THE CHURCH 259
consecrated seven years later — namely, in June of
1888. It is a fine edifice, and contains some handsome
ecclesiastical plate and beautiful mural decorations.
The Cathedral is altogether a fine specimen of Latin-
American ecclesiastical architecture, but is distin-
guished from many others of the same period by the
feature of pointed arches, instead of the usual square
or rounded arches usually prevailing in this class of
buildings. It is dedicated to the patron saint of
Salvador.
The prevailing religion in the Republic, as a natural
consequence of the long ascendancy of the Spanish
domination, is Roman Catholic. Previous to the
Liberal revolution of 1871 no other kind of religion
was tolerated. Since then, and to-day, the greatest
freedom and toleration prevail in all religious matters ;
while so far has the hand of reform stretched that the
cemeteries are freed from the control of the clergy ;
civil marriages are legalized without the addition of
any religious ceremony ; education is non-clerical,
and all monastic institutions have been abolished.
All these changes are embodied in the Constitution
promulgated on August 13, 1886, and under which
the country is governed to-day. Nevertheless, the
Church is greatly respected by the people, and the
attendances at Mass are invariably large and repre-
sentative. The bishopric of San Salvador was created
in 1842.
A very handsome thoroughfare is Santa Tecla Avenue,
a broad and beautifully laid-out thoroughfare, linking
up this favourite residential place with the City of
Santa Tecla, locally known as the " City of Flowers."
Already one of the most favourite suburbs, it is
growing rapidly in favour as a residential quarter
260 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
with the people of San Salvador, being situated from
it only a few miles distant.
The tramway system is as yet only at the com-
mencement of its development, and electricity has yet
to play an important part in its equipment. There
are two companies running regular services of cars,
one being the Concepcion and Western Tramway
Company, which sends out its cars at intervals of
ten minutes during the busiest parts of the day, and
conducts a service till fairly late at night. Usually,
however, the last cars have gone back to the garage
before theatre-goers have left their places of enter-
tainment. Fortunately, the fares demanded by the
local Jehus are reasonable, and it is therefore an easy
matter for belated passengers to reach home.
The new theatre, which will soon adorn the city in
place of that which was burned down last year, should
form a handsome addition to the architecture of San
Salvador. The Municipality very wisely invited com-
petition for erecting and designing the building, which
is to have a seating capacity of some 1,200. The
structure is to be equipped with the latest improve-
ments and appliances, and will be made as fireproof
and as earthquake-proof as modern science can effect.
The cost will be between 800,000 and 1,200,000
francs, or, say, £32,000 and £48,000. All construc-
tion materials are to be imported free of duty, which
should lessen the cost immensely. Two prizes were
offered, of 800 francs (£32) and 400 francs (£16)
respectively, for the best plans, and when the last day
for sending these in — namely, March 15, 1911 — had
passed, the judges had several handsome designs to
choose from.
In the month of March last the number of com-
HOTELS 261
petitive plans which were sent in to the Department
of Fomento for the new National Theatre in the
capital amounted to thirteen, of which three came
from Paris, one from New Orleans, one from Canada,
four from San Salvador, one from Monaco, one from
Italy, and others from New York. The whole of the
designs were exhibited in a public gallery.
While one may admit freely that the hotels in
Salvador are conducted for the most part upon in-
finitely better lines than are those in the neighbouring
Republic of Guatemala — which, indeed, may be pro-
nounced, without undue harshness, as possessing about
the worst in Central America — the Salvadorean hos-
telries are not as yet absolutely perfect. In this
regard, however, it is only fair to remember the
extreme difficulties which the proprietors are called
upon to face. The servant problem is, perhaps, the
hardest of all, and there is hardly one, among the
many hotel managers of various nationalities with
whom I discussed matters, but who confessed to me
that he was weary to death of his efforts to conduct
his business with the aid of native domestics. I have
myself upon different occasions been witness to the
curiously perverse nature of some of these servants ;
when, like others, I have been travelling through or
resident in the interior of the country, I have likewise
observed their spirit of robust independence.
Where the cost of living is so low, and the question
of supply and demand in regard to domestic service
is so overwhelmingly in favour of the latter, anything
like efficient service is practically impossible to find.
The domestic servants in Salvador are recruited almost
entirely from among the Indians ; and while these
latter are by no means lacking in intelligence, and
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
can by kind treatment be won to some degree of
fidelity, they are naturally slow, and even indolent,
while an extreme sensitiveness and spirit of resent-
ment at once asserts itself should blame or abuse be
offered by the employer. Under such circumstances,
or even for less provocation, the domestic will forth-
with take leave, and even forfeit the few shillings
in wages that may be due. Usually, however, the
wages question is in favour of the servant, since
payment has probably been anticipated, and the
domestic is the debtor, and not the creditor, of the
master. This hold, therefore, is a somewhat feeble
one to depend upon, and in nine cases out of ten fails
to apply.
There are a number of European and native families
who possess the traditional " treasure " in the person
of an old and faithful retainer ; but not infrequently
the history of such " treasure," when probed, shows
that the employer is over-indulgent, being fearful of
losing the much-prized services of the domestic in
question, permits all kinds of privileges, and submits
to all sorts of exactions, in order to preserve peace in
the household. Perhaps it may be good policy to do
so ; but I have witnessed instances of downright
tryanny upon the part of some native servants — not
by any means confined to Salvador — which, in my
opinion at least, could never have been warranted,
and never should have been condoned, no matter how
valuable the services rendered may have been. The
absolute helplessness of the lady of the house may be
accepted as some excuse, but peace may be purchased
at too high a price, and in the instances which I have
in mind I fancy such was the case. Bat, then, I was
not personally concerned in the results, and therefore
THEATRES 263
my judgment may be at fault, and even regarded as
valueless.
Salvador seems to be a particularly favourite
visiting-place with itinerant theatrical companies. All
the year round, practically, a theatrical troupe of some
kind may be found touring the country, which is
usually included, with Guatemala, Panama, and Costa
Rica, in the " Central American " road programme.
As a general rule, however, the companies are of a
somewhat indifferent quality — poor Italians and
Spaniards, whose precarious existence often excites
commiseration from even the hard-hearted. It is
pitiable to see them upon occasions moving from
State to State and from town to town — lean, hungry,
dirty, and depressed in spirits, as they well may be ;
women and children, many of the latter being born on
the road, having to undergo very great physical priva-
tions and serious personal inconveniences. The men,
probably more habituated to the roughness of life,
mostly accept their hard lot with philosophy and
resignation ; but it is cruelly severe upon the women
and little children. The public of Salvador are some-
what capricious in their support of the different
theatrical companies, and at times the playhouses are
practically empty, and even the cheaper portions
deserted.
It was in the month of January, 1910, that the City
of San Salvador lost its handsome Teatro Nacional
through fire — a disaster which was caused, it being
charged, by incendiarism, although this has never been
proved. There is at present but one other place of
entertainment — El Teatro Moderno, belonging to the
same proprietary, and which is but a large-sized barn,
capable of accommodating at the most some 200 people.
264 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
It was used originally for cinematograph exhibitions,
which, by-the-by, with all Latin-Americans would
seem to be a very popular and profitable form of
entertainment. The place is structurally fit for no
other sort of performance, but is now perforce being
utilized for dramatic and musical representations.
In few cities of its size will be found a larger number
of Societies than San Salvador possesses, these associa-
tions being representative not only of various classes
of organized labour, but of literature, music, art,
religion, science, and even insurance. Among those
which have their headquarters in the Capital are—
" Sociedad Union Nacional de Amigos," " Sociedad
Estudiantil Minerva," " Sociedad Carlos F. Dardano,"
" Sociedad de Medicina Emilio Alvarez," " Academia de
Ciencias, Letras y Artes de El Salvador," " Sociedad
Pedagogica Francisco Mene*ndez," " Sociedad de
Artesanos La Concordia," " Sociedad de Obreros Ge-
rado Barrios," " Sociedad La Buena Prensa," " Sociedad
de Artesanos del Salvador," "Sociedad Co-operativa El
Ahorro," " Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura," " Logia
Masonica."
The Provinces have also their respective associa-
tions, many possessing a long and influential subscrip-
tion list ; among the most prominent may be mentioned :
" Sociedad de Obreros " and " Sociedad literaria Jose*
Cecilio del Valle," both having their headquarters in
Santa Ana ; " Sociedad de Obreros El Porvenir," in
Santa Tecla ; " Sociedad de Obreros Rafael Campo,"
at Sonsonate ; " Club Unionista," at Ahuachapan ;
" Sociedad de Obreros " and " Logia Masonica," at
Cojutepeque ; " Sociedad de Obreros," at Sensunta-
peque ; and "Sociedad LaProtecci6n," at Zacatecoluca.
The principal educational establishments of the
CHARITIES 265
Republic are located in the Capital, and comprise the
National University, of which Dr. Herni6genes Alvarado
is the Deacon and Dr. Adrian Garcia is the Secretary ;
the National Institute, of which Dr. Dario Gonzalez is
the Director ; the National Library, of which Don
Francisco Gavidia is the Director ; and the Municipal
Library, of which Dr. Don Jose Dols Corpefto is the
Director. There are in addition the Astronomical and
Meteorological Observatory, directed by Dr. Santiago
I. Barberena, and the Museum and Botanical Gardens,
both under the direction of Dr. David J. Guzman.
Among the many excellent charitable institutions of
which the Capital is possessed are the Orphans'
Asylum, directed by Don Francisco Escobar ; the Sara
Asylum, directed by Dr. Alfonso Quiftonez ; the
Orphans' Hospital, which is under the same control as
the Asylum of that name ; and the well-known Hospital
Resales, which is controlled by a number of the most
eminent medical men in the Republic. It is an
admirably-managed institution, and has effected a
great deal of sound charity since its inauguration some
years ago.
A great amount of unobtrusive but sound charity
and benevolence are practised in Salvador. The
people as a whole are, perhaps, not very wealthy in the
accepted sense of the word, and there are probably few
great family fortunes to be found there ; while I was
never fortunate enough to come across a full-blown
millionaire — at all events, considered in sterling money.
On the other hand, there are many very well-to-do
families, many handsome privately-owned properties,
and several highly-prosperous businesses, especially
among the coffee and sugar planters. No doubt in
the halcyon days of the indigo industry Salvador
266 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
could boast of many very opulent residents ; but
with the invention of the aniline dyes much of this
indigo wealth passed away. The wide diffusion of
charity and benevolence is, therefore, all the more
noteworthy and all the more commendable.
Most of the charitable institutions are not alone the
creation, but remain the special care, of the Govern-
ment, and successive Presidents have very properly
devoted both their personal attention and the country's
funds to the maintenance of these institutions. The
charge of these charities is in the hands of the
Minister of Education, Public Works and Benevolence.
I visited several of the hospitals during my stay in the
country, and I was pleasurably impressed with their
generally cheerful and always cleanly appearance.
The foremost institution of this kind is the magnifi-
cent building presented, with its entire equipment,
to the nation by the late Don Jos£ Resales, a distin-
guished and very wealthy Salvadorean, who not only
sustained the hospital during his lifetime, but be-
queathed to its funds no less than $4,000,000. The
institution bears the name of its generous founder, and
it is admirably conducted in every way. A large staff
of competent physicians and a full body of male and
female nurses are always maintained, and as a rule the
hospital is very well patronized, the kindness and the
skill of the authorities having obtained a wide
notoriety. The Rosdles is, however, but one of several
similar institutions, the Government having of late
years added similar necessary buildings to the towns
of Santa Ana, Sonsonate, Ahuachapdn, Santa Tecla,
Zacatecoluca, San Vicente, San Miguel, Alegria,
Chalatenango and La Uni6n. It is difficult to speak
too highly of the thoroughly efficient manner in which
HOSPITALS 267
most of these establishments are maintained ; and
among the many patients whom I saw, and with whom
I conversed, I met with not one who had anything but
praise and gratitude to express for the benefits which
had been received.
As an evidence of the use to which these institu-
tions are put, I am able to say that during the year
of 1892 some 3,198 patients were treated, of whom
2,798 were discharged completely cured, 203 died,
and the rest remained under treatment. The total
amount expended in this year was a little over
$81,000. Including all of the hospitals established
throughout the country, there are annually admitted
and treated about 8,000 patients, of whom an average
of 8 per cent. die. This cannot be considered a high
rate of mortality, considering the climate and the
many tropical diseases which have to be treated.
In the vicinity of San Salvador, upon a beautifully-
situated and very healthful spot, has been established
a tuberculosis Sanatorium. Here the open-air treat-
ment is employed in conformity with the latest
recognized therapeutic and hygienic methods for the
alleviation and cure of consumption, which, as in
Mexico, is unfortunately a common complaint. The
expenses of this Sanatorium are met by appropriations
by the Federal and Municipal authorities ; by contri-
butions from industrial companies, which are usually
very open-handed in such matters ; and by voluntary
donations from benevolent people and institutions. A
library is maintained for the use of the patients, and
all possible measures are employed to mitigate the
sad condition of resident invalids. So far, I under-
stand, the Sanatorium is free from debt, and it is so
excellently managed an institution, and is productive
268 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of so much real good, that it is sincerely to be hoped
that it may remain so.
How admirable have been the attempts made, and
how successful the results achieved, to overcome the
ravages of tuberculosis, are best shown by the follow-
ing comparative statistics, which give the figures for
Spanish-American towns :
Mortality per
10,000 Inhabitants.
621
American Towns.
Lima (Peru) ...
Caracas (Venezuela) ...
Kio de Janeiro (Brazil)
Santiago (Chile)
Havana (Cuba)
Montevideo (Uruguay)
Buenos Aires (Argentina)
Mexico City (Mexico) ...
San Salvador (Salvador)
60-0
38-0
38-0
32-7
16-0
14-2
14-0
13-7
That Salvador should have the smallest number of
deaths among all these Republics is a triumph for the
medical faculty and for the Government, which have
conjointly done so much towards the improvement of
conditions.
Many of the sanitary and clinical institutions in the
Republic have medical schools or classes attached, and
such are naturally much better equipped with special
departments for the eye, ear, nose, throat and skin
diseases. Fever hospitals are carefully segregated,
and are most carefully controlled, with the idea of
avoiding any epidemic breaking out. Many of the
attendant physicians have studied in Europe and the
United States.
The Superior Council of Health, of which Don
Tomds G. Palomo is President, has rendered im-
portant services during the last two years. The
Government is continually encouraging authorities to
NEW NATIONAL PALACE AT SAN SALVADOR.
[THEATRE AT SANTA ANA, DEPARTMENT OF SANTA ANA.
HEALTH PROVISIONS 269
persevere with their sanitary measures and to compel
the public to follow the instructions periodically issued
by the Superior Council, and to fulfil the rules laid
down by the Code of Laws relating to health. In his
report for the year 1907, the President of the Council
has said : " In proportion as the sphere of action of
the Council widens, so has its beneficial influence been
remarked, especially in some places of the Republic,
where formerly only the most rudimentary laws of
hygiene were known. Already a large majority of
the municipal authorities are showing some aptitude
in ameliorating the sanitary conditions of their respec-
tive localities, and if things continue thus we shall
soon arrive at the complete banishment of endemic
maladies from certain districts of the Republic."
In Salvador a pernicious kind of malaria is the
predominating disease, and shows itself in different
phases and manifestations. The Council has recom-
mended several measures to minimize its effects ; but
the result achieved does not altogether correspond to
the efforts of the authorities, because, besides the
heavy expenses of the sanitation works in many parts
of the country, the majority of the people are opposed
to all hygienic measures, and through poverty are
condemned to live in small dwellings, which are badly
ventilated and damp, and consequently unhealthy.
In the Capital, at the beginning of the year 1907,
and at the time of the mobilization of the Army,
several cases of cerebro-spinal meningitis presented
themse]ves. Those soldiers who were afflicted were
isolated during the march, first in a ward of the
Rosales Hospital, and afterwards in the Military
Sanatorium. This measure and others that the
Council promptly ordered prevented any development
270 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of the epidemic. In the same manner four cases of
diphtheria presented themselves, and altogether,
through different diseases, 1,598 deaths took place
in San Salvador in that year. In the same period it
recorded 2,147 births, giving as a net result an
increase in population of 549 inhabitants.
Cerebro-spinal meningitis also showed itself in
Santa Ana and at San Pedro Nonualco, but the malady
did not assume the character of a real epidemic.
During the year 1908 a few cases of meningitis of a
marked epidemic character were observed, but the
efforts of the Council secured the mastery over the
disease. Unfortunately, at the end of the year 1909
smallpox broke out in the west of the Republic,
principally in the Department of Santa Ana.
The Council of Health immediately sent out the
Director-General of Vaccination to the above-named
Department with the necessary means to combat the
smallpox. The disease spread, however, and con-
tinued to show itself in different parts of the country,
so that the Council was obliged to arrange for the
establishment of lazarettos in Santa Ana, Candelaria,
and Santiago de la Frontera, and also to nominate
various travelling vaccinators for each of the Depart-
ments, at the same time insisting upon sanitary cordons,
and, in fact, taking all the measures that the imminent
peril demanded. There have been places quite
immune, and in the Capital not more than five cases
appeared, all of which were immediately isolated.
The Supreme Council of the Red Cross has
upon all occasions collaborated in this campaign
against disease, effective measures being undertaken by
the authorities against the terrible malady, and greatly
facilitating the furnishing of the necessary funds.
VACCINATION 271
The General Direction of Vaccination has its seat
in the Capital, and is directed by Dr. Rodolfo B.
Gonzalez. In connection with the Resales Hospital
an Institution of Vaccination has been established,
which is under the direction of Dr. Gustavo Baron.
In normal times as many as a thousand tubes of
vaccine are prepared monthly. The Institute of
Vaccination in San Salvador, I may mention, is the
first that has been established in Central America.
The Council, notwithstanding the fact that it
receives a large quantity of calf lymph, imports every
fortnight further supplies of lymph from France and
Switzerland, as a provision against the home supply
becoming exhausted through any unforeseen circum-
stance. In the year 1907 there were vaccinated in the
Capital alone 1,597 men and 973 women, while in the
Departments there were 4,667 men and 4,295 women,
or a total of 11,532 vaccinated in this one year.
If to these numbers are added 1,000 vaccinated by
the Travelling Vaccinator of the Department of La
Libertad, a total of 12,532 was reached — a figure
which will be increased to at least 18,000 if is taken
into account the fact that in many of the outlying
districts the number of inoculations which were made
by special vaccinators have not been accounted for.
In the year 1908 the number of cases was doubled,
so it appears that in all the Republic more than
40,000 persons were vaccinated in one year. In the
first months of 1910, in which vaccination was en-
forced with some severity, even in the most remote
hamlets, the majority of the inhabitants were vaccinated
and revaccinated. In the ports, into which epidemic
diseases are more easily introduced by foreign vessels
arriving from different infected ports, the Council has
272 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
under its control several competent medical officers,
who examine with the most scrupulous exactness all
the steamers, and even the small boats, which arrive.
By this means, up till now the much-dreaded yellow
fever and bubonic plague, which have attacked
many ports of South America, have not reached
Salvador.
Apart from the Hospitals, there are several Asylums
for the Insane, the Blind and Orphans of both sexes.
The inmates receive a thoroughly sound normal or
primary education, being taught also carpentry, shoe-
making, needlework, and many other useful occupa-
tions and trades. Those who desire to study music
or electric telegraphy as a profession are permitted,
and even encouraged, to do so. These institutions in
some cases are under the management of Sisters of
Charity, and very well they seem to carry out their
merciful duties. The Government supports also an
Asylum for the Aged Poor, and a similar institution
for orphans, in addition to those which already exist.
One of the most prominent members of the Sal-
vadorean medical profession is Dr. Federico Yiidice,
who enjoys an unusually large surgical practice.
Dr. Yridice has studied in Germany, and holds the
highest diplomas of the German Faculty of Medicine,
as well as in the United States, from which country
he also received the most coveted diplomas in the
profession. His consulting-rooms are frequently well
filled, and his surgery and operating-room are replete
with the latest improved surgical apparatus and
equipment — in some cases more replete in the posses-
sion of such scientific inventions than some of the
hospitals of Europe. Although quite a young man,
Dr. Yiidice is considered one of the leading physicians
HOSPITALITY OF THE SALVADOREANS 273
of San Salvador, and undoubtedly lie has an excep-
tionally brilliant career before him.
Due to the initiative of Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo,
the President, an important and representative Con-
gress of Medical Scientists will assemble in San
Salvador in November of this year. Dr. Tomas G.
Palomo will be the President of the Congress, Dr.
Benjamin Orozco the Vice-President. Among others
who will take part in the deliberations are — Dr. Jose
Llerena, Jeronimo Puente, J. Max Olano, Estanislao
Van Severen, Enrique Gonzalez S., an eminent surgeon-
dentist, and Gustavo S. Baron, who will act as
treasurer. Dr. Pedro A. Villacorta, Dr. Miguel
Peralta L., and Dr. Rafael V. Castro, will act as joint
secretaries.
The ready hospitality which is extended to the
stranger sojourning for no matter how short a while
in Salvador renders existence there exceptionally
agreeable. While, like most Latin- Americans, far
from being effusive or indiscriminate in either their
friendship or their offers of social entertainment, the
Salvadoreans are always pleased to show courtesy and
hospitality to those who are recommended or pre-
sented to them, and to these fortunate individuals
nothing is denied in the way of attention and con-
sideration. San Salvador is especially kind to its
foreign visitors, and to all who bear introductions, or
who make friends upon their own account, the doors
of the Casino Salvadorefio are readily open, this being
a club which is well provided with most of the current
literature, some of which is in English, and possesses
many pleasant reading and writing rooms, as well as
the usual complement of French billiard-tables. It is
an orderly and well-managed establishment, and most
18
274 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
of the better-class Salvadoreans belong to it. A good,
although small, library is attached, and this contains
some valuable collections of statistical volumes and
several works of reference.
San Salvador has been peculiarly unfortunate in
regard to the number of serious conflagrations which
have at various times afflicted that city, and within
the last ten or eleven years no fewer than five such
disasters have overtaken it. In the month of November,
1889, the Palacio Nacional was completely destroyed
by fire, and, unfortunately, many valuable archives,
dating back into the early times of the Spaniards,
when Salvador was still a colony, as well as a large
number of documents relating to the Federation, were
lost. In 1900 a second fire destroyed a large area in
the city, wherein were situated many of the principal
mercantile houses. In September, 1901, a third
visitation of this kind destroyed the handsome build-
ing of La Mansi6n de la Presidencia, as well as the
barracks of La Guardia de Honor. In 1903 fire
destroyed the entire building of the Casino Salva-
dorefio ; and in March, 1908, the handsome Zapote
Barracks were seriously burned ; while, as recorded
elsewhere, in 1910 the Teatro Nacional, and nearly the
whole block of buildings of which it formed part, was
entirely gutted.
Like most of the Latin-American cities, San Salvador
contains many very handsome and appropriate monu-
ments erected to the memory of its brave sons and
distinguished citizens. Among these are the tasteful
statues dedicated to the memory of Dr. Emilio Alvarez,
a Colombian physician who rendered eminent services
to his adopted country; another forms a tribute to
General Gerardo Barrios, one of Salvador's greatest
PUBLIC MONUMENTS 275
soldiers and patriots, and a third, a very fine work, is
an equestrian statue of General Morazan, in the park
which bears his name. The monument of General
Barrios is also an equestrian statue, the General being
shown seated upon a magnificent granite column of
heroic proportions.
CHAPTER XX
Department of Chalatenango — Eich agricultural territories — Annual
fair — Generally prosperous conditions — Department of Cuscatlan —
City of Cojutepeque — Industries— Cigar factories — Volcanoes — Lake
of Cojutepeque — Department of Cabanas — Scenic features — Feast of
Santa Barbara — Department of San Vicente — Public buildings and
roads.
DEPARTMENT OF CHALATENANGO.
City. — Chalatenango (1).
Towns. — Tejutla, San Ignacio, San Francisco,
Morazan, San Rafael, and Citala" (6).
Fully two-thirds of this portion of the country
consist of mountain ranges, with long timber-covered
spurs, very beautiful to the eye, running from their
bases in every direction. The Department is bounded
on the north by the Republic of Honduras ; on the
east by the same Republic and the Department of
Cabanas ; on the south by the Departments of
Cabanas, CuscatMn, San Salvador, and La Libertad ;
and on the west by Santa Ana. The rich agricultural
valley of the Lempa runs partly through this section,
and many of the tributaries of that river water its
ground. Immense tracts of agricultural territory are
seen, upon which are grown successive crops of indigo,
corn, rice, wheat, and beans. The several lofty chim-
neys which are observed to be dotting the country for
miles around point to the active manufacturing that
goes on. These establishments comprise distilleries,
276
CHALATENANGO 277
potteries, candle, cheese, and turpentine factories ;
while a large commerce is also done by treating a
kind of wax obtained from boiling the fruit of a
certain shrub which grows wild in this country and
in great abundance. Here, as in most of the parts of
Salvador, general prosperity prevails ; one encounters
hardly any very poor persons, either in the streets or
begging upon the roadsides.
The chief city of this Department bears the same
name, and it lies to the south-east of the lofty moun-
tains of La Pefta and on the rivers Tamulasca and
Colco. The elevation above sea-level is about 1 ,660 feet,
while the distance from the Capital is a little over
forty-five miles north-east. I should say that Chala-
tenango is about the oldest native town in Salvador,
and only in 1791 did foreigners and white natives com-
mence to frequent it to any extent — these, it would
seem, being sent there by the then Spanish Governor
as a sort of punishment or exile. It would certainly
be no punishment to abide there nowadays for a short
while, since the surrounding country is remarkably
beautiful, the people are very friendly and hospitable,
and living there is absurdly cheap, judged from
European standards. The population scarcely exceeds
6,000, and the whole of the Department probably boasts
of no more than 54,000 or 55,000 inhabitants.
It is at Chalatenango that is held annually on
June 24, St. John the Baptist's Day, the most impor-
tant and most popular Fair of the year. Upon this
occasion the true native life of Salvadoreans, the
quaint and picturesque costumes, and many articles
of barter which never see the light at any other time,
may be met with. Anyone travelling in Salvador at
this period may be recommended to visit Chalatenango,
278 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
if only to witness this annual gathering, which is
attended by people of every class from all parts of the
Republic. A more orderly or a happier crowd it would
be difficult to meet with, and, what is more to the point,
they form a particularly clean-looking crowd. The
fact is that St. John the Baptist's Day is the one day
upon which every devout Catholic makes a point of
having a bath — if at no other period of the year — and
this may possibly have something to do with it. If it
were of Mexico that I was writing instead of Salvador,
I should say that this circumstance might possibly
have everything to do with it.
DEPARTMENT OF CUSCATLIN.
Cities. — Cojutepeque, Suchitoto (2).
Towns. — San Pedro Perulapan, Tenancingo, San
Rafael, and Guyabal (4).
At one time this Department was the largest, or one
of the largest, in Salvador ; but successive rearrange-
ments of the area of the Department for political
purposes have robbed it of much of its original
territory. It was established as a separate entity in
May, 1855, before which it was made up of a great
deal of land which now belongs to Chalatenango.
Again, in 1875 it was forced to contribute a portion of
its diminished possessions in order to form the new
Department of Cabanas. However, Cuscatlan did not
part with either of its two pet volcanoes — Cojutepeque
and Guazapa — nor was it ever asked to do so.
Bordering this section are the Departments of
Cabanas and Chalatenango on the north, Cabanas and
San Vicente on the east, San Vicente and La Paz on
the south, and San Salvador on the west. Most of its
COJUTEPEQUE 279
territory is richly productive, agriculture being carried
on by practically the whole population in some form or
other, and fine crops of coffee, sugar, indigo, rice,
tobacco, cereals, and such products as starch and
cheese, come out of Cuscatlan, and find their diverse
ways about the country. A great gathering is held
annually in the chief city, Cojutepeque, on St. John's
Day (not the Baptist), August 29, while the other
city, Suchitoto, has its own particular gala- day on
the Feast of the Conception, December 8, a good deal
of friendly rivalry existing between the merchants and
traders of each town. Buyers and manufacturers
come to these meetings from all over the Republic, and
very extensive are the transactions carried out in
cattle, cheese, indigo, native products, and many kinds
of foreign merchandise.
Cojutepeque, which is connected by road to Ilobasco
and Sensuntepeque, is an extremely romantic-looking,
and as picturesquely-situated, city, with a population
of between 8,000 and 9,000 inhabitants. It lies upon
the northern slope of the volcano of the same name,
not very far from the summit. Although the situation
is from a climatic point of view very agreeable, it
somewhat interferes with the success of the water-
supply to the town. The surrounding country is
agricultural, and the markets bear sufficient testimony
to the great variety and high-class character of the
produce which is raised. Cigar-making is one of the
most important trades carried on in the town, and the
excellent quality and the delightful aroma of Cojute-
peque cigars are known and appreciated all through
Central America. One of the factories which I visited
was managed and owned entirely by a lady and her
family, all of good birth and sound education. Their
280 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
factory was a model of cleanliness and orderliness, and
many of the employe's had been with the proprietors
for a great number of years.
An exceedingly comfortable and well-maintained
hotel at Cojutepeque is that known as La America,
kept by Senor Diaz, and whereat the guests are made
to feel completely " at home." Senor Diaz is one of
the good old-fashioned " Boniface " type of landlord,
for, in conjunction with his charming wife and
daughter and his young son, Cayetano, he personally
looks after each individual who patronizes his estab-
lishment, consulting each taste and idiosyncrasy, and
carefully pandering thereto. The rooms in the Hotel
America are exceptionally large and airy, while all
meals are served to the guests in a delightful open
patio, completely surrounded by masses of tropical
bloom — great clustering rose-bushes, clematis, and
honeysuckle, towering palms and sweet - scented
orange-blossom — a veritable fairyland of colour and
perfume.
The town is not only well built, but is conveniently
arranged in spite of the decided irregularity of the
streets, caused by the slope of the volcano upon which
they are built. On three different occasions Cojute-
peque has been made the Capital of the Republic, and
upon one occasion — viz., November 6, 1857 — it was
very seriously damaged by earthquake. The three
active volcanoes of San Salvador, San Jacinto,* and
Cojutepeque, have all contributed in their time to
alarming and damaging the city. The last-named
volcano is 3,351 feet in height, and is located in
latitude 13° 42' 22" N, and longitude 88° 56' 26" W.
Lake Cojutepeque ranks second in importance as to
size and scenic beauty to Lake Ilopango ; it lies north-
GENERAL JUAN AMAYA 281
east of the volcano of Santa Ana, and is of a roughly
elliptical shape, about four miles long and three miles
wide, the major axis having a direction about north-
east and south-west. This lake has no visible outlet,
and its waters, although somewhat impregnated with
salts, can be used for drinking without any danger.
To every outward appearance the lake gives the im-
pression that it had once been the crater of the
attendant volcano, lying as it does upon its northern
slope. This is more apparent from a distant view
of the entire mass of the Santa Ana volcano, such
as can be obtained from the summit of the neigh-
bouring volcano, San Salvador. The present peak of
Santa Ana from this position seems to have been built
up from the rim of the ancient crater, which is now
occupied by the lake.
General Juan Amaya, Governor of the State of
Cuscatlan, has worked very zealously, and with
conspicuous success, to make it one of the most
progressive of the various political Departments of
the Republic. Under his direction, and with the
active support of General Figueroa while President,
new and handsome roadways have been made, pure
water and free public baths have been introduced ;
the whole Department now presents the appearance
of being under a highly intelligent and enterprising
Government. General Juan Amaya was elected last
May (1911), under the authority of Article 68 of the
Constitution, Third Designate to succeed to the
Presidency in case of a vacancy occurring during
the present term (see p. 38).
282 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
DEPARTMENT OF CABALAS.
Cities. — Sensuntepeque, Ilobasco (2).
Towns. — Victoria, Dolores, San Isidro, Jutiapa,
Tejutepeque (5).
This Department is principally of interest on ac-
count of the gold (see Chapter on Mining) which has
been found, as well as the prosperous industry in
indigo which is carried on there. It is bounded on
the north and north-east by the Republic of Honduras,
on the east by the Department of San Miguel, on the
south by the Departments of San Vicente and Cus-
catlan, and on the west by the last named only. The
greater portion of the territory consists of mountains,
which take the form of lofty ranges and chains, giving
a wild and picturesque character to the country, and
in parts even a somewhat forlorn appearance. Par-
ticularly desolate are the eastern and northern parts
of the Department, which, however, can boast in other
directions of many beautiful and fertile valleys, which
produce in abundance such crops as indigo, rice, corn,
and several other kinds of grain. In regard to manu-
factures, there are earthenware, lime, cheese, and other
factories, as well as one or two distilleries. A very
active commerce is carried on ; and here, as elsewhere
in the Republic, the greatest day out of the twelve
months is the one kept for the annual Fair, whereat
one meets a veritable " gathering of the clans," the
number of Indians who attend, for instance, lending
great interest to the meeting. The rendezvous is at
Sensuntepeque, and the date selected is the day
devoted to Santa Barbara — namely, December 4.
The Saint, as may be remembered, was a Christian
Martyr of the third century, and the patron of artillery.
SENSUNTEPEQUE 283
She was beheaded by her father, who is said to have
been struck dead by lightning immediately after the
act, which was but poetic justice. Why the mis-
fortunes of this young lady, however, should particu-
larly appeal to the good people of Sensuntepeque I
could not find out. But she always has been and
remains their patron Saint.
Sensuntepeque is joined up with Cojutepeque by
a well-constructed cart-road, which likewise serves
Ilobasco. Another equally good road runs from
Sensuntepeque to Apastepeque, in the Department
of San Vicente ; and these thoroughfares are kept in
a good state of maintenance, especially in preparation
for the heavy rainy season, when otherwise they would
become impassable, and internal communication would
be practically at a standstill.
The city of Sensuntepeque is situated, as are so
many other Salvadorean towns, on a mountain slope,
in this case the location being on the southern de-
clivity of the mountain Pelon, and at an elevation
of some 2,310 feet above the level of the sea. It
is located about fifty-seven miles distant north-east
from the Capital. A decidedly picturesque little place
it is, but one which contains, all the same, over
10,000 inhabitants, the majority of whom are con-
cerned in the cultivation or treatment of indigo. The
city has many handsome edifices — such, for instance, as
the fine Town Hall, several Government school build-
ings, a prison (which is a model institution of its kind),
and several handsome churches. Additionally there
are a very attractive parque, beautifully laid out with
plants and green grass-plots ; a capital public bathing-
place ; and a number of attractive private residences,
solidly built, and faced with either stucco or tiles.
284 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Very few foreigners seem to find their way to this
place, which is to be regretted ; for not alone would
they be made to feel very welcome, the people being
particularly friendly and hospitably inclined, but the
climate has a most exhilarating effect, and for the
greater portion of the year it is nothing less than
delightful. Very little poverty seems to exist here,
and, from what I heard and saw, it seems that prac-
tically every member of a family in Sensuntepeque is
employed regularly and remuneratively in some kind
of manner.
DEPARTMENT OF SAN VICENTE.
It would be no exaggeration to describe this Depart-
ment as scenically the most beautiful in the Republic
of Salvador. It affords almost every style of scenery
— high mountains, towering volcanoes, delightful
valleys, and a perfectly astounding collection of hot
springs, or infiewillos. The Department is bounded
on the north by the Department of Cabanas, on the
east by the Departments of San Miguel and Usulutaii,
on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by
the Departments of La Paz and CuscatUn. One of
the highest mountains — needless to say it is a volcano
—is situated here, and bears the name of the Saint
who founded the Society of the Lazarists and the
Sisterhood of Charity. This most imposing mountain
has a double cone, which towers very gracefully above
the numerous attendant hills. It was last known to
erupt in 1643, but it looks capable of a repetition of
the performance in all its grandeur at any time. In
height it stands 7,131 feet, and its approximate posi-
tion is given at 13° 35' 24" N. latitude, and 88 3 1
W. longitude.
PUBLIC PARK AT COICTEPEQUE, DEPARTMENT OF CVSCATLAX,
BARRACKS AT COJCTEPEQUE, DEPARTMENT OF CCSCATLAX.
SAN VICENTE 285
I first caught a glimpse of the majestic mountain
while staying at Cojutepeque, but it was then a long
way distant. There are two other volcanoes, Chichon-
tepec and Siguatepeque — the former the highest moun-
tain in the Republic — but they are pronounced to
be extinct. The summit of this monster is 8,661 feet
above the level of the sea, and it is notable for the
number of active geysers which exist on the northern
slope, and which continually send out volumes of
steam accompanied by terrifying but apparently harm-
less terrestrial rumblings, which can be distinctly
heard as far away as three or four miles. But the
mountain is quite unoffending, I understand, the said
geysers proving the safety-valves for its occasional
internal disturbances.
San Vicente was created a Department in 1836, and
its territory embraces a portion of what formerly
formed one of the " territorial divisions " of the
country existing under Spanish rule, while the
eastern portion was originally part of Cabanas. The
amount of commerce which is carried on is consider-
able, and during the past few years has made decided
strides in actual volume. Besides supplying a large
amount of agricultural produce, such as indigo, coffee,
sugar, tobacco, timber, cereals, and all kinds of fruits,
there are several manufactories which turn out silk
shawls, shoes, hats, starch, salt, and cigars, as well as
sundry distilleries.
The annual Fair is held here on All Saints' Day—
namely, November 1 — and the city is then very gay
from morning to night. Upon this occasion the trans-
actions carried out between the permanent residents
and the visitors run into high figures, quantities of
local produce and merchandise being bought and sold,
286 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
the articles of trade consisting mainly of indigo, cheese,
cattle, grain, and the retailing of certain foreign goods.
The principal city, San Vicente, is a very picturesque
and romantic-looking town, one of the oldest, if not
quite the most ancient, in this part of the country,
dating as a city as far back as 1658, while it was
founded as a town in 1634. To-day, however, the
streets have been straightened -out and well paved,
while a number of very pleasant suburbs, each with
its gardens and avenues of trees, lend additional
attractiveness as one approaches the place from the
main-road. There are a number of excellent buildings
already erected, and several others of altogether im-
posing dimensions and structural pretensions were
going up when I visited the town.
It has long been the desire of the Government to
unite San Vicente with San Salvador by railroad, and
the line would run via San Miguel, the second city in
the Republic, and La Uni6n, its finest seaport, thus
securing also an all-rail route between Acajutla, the
most important western port, and La Union, on the
extreme east of the Gulf of Fonseca. The survey was
made many years ago, and the line has been proved
to be a practicable one, although the work would no
doubt be heavy and costly, since much grading, heavy
protective masonry, and many bridges, would have
to be undertaken. The distance would be about
67*9 kilometres (42*2 miles) between San Salvador
and San Vicente by this line of railway, and the
cost of the line has been estimated at not less than
$2,157,433 (say £431,486), or an average of $51,124
( = £10,225) per mile. The maximum grade in this loca-
tion would be 2*8 per cent., and the sharpest curves
41 degrees (radius 410*3 feet or 125' 1 millimetres).
CHAPTER XXI
Department of La Libertad — Physical characteristics — Balsam Coast —
Santa Tecla — Department ot Sonsonate — Life and hotels — Depart-
ment of Ahuachapan — City of Ahuachapan — Public buildings and
baths — Projected railway extension — Department of Santa Ana-
Chief city — Generally prosperous conditions.
DEPARTMENT OF LA LIBERTAD.
Cities. — Santa Tecla, Opico (2).
Towns. — La Libertad, Teotepeque, Quezaltepeque (3).
This Department, ranks second in importance to San
Salvador, although its population is less than that of
either the Departments, of Santa Ana, of CuscatMn,
or of San Miguel. It is joined by excellently-made
cart-roads to both the Capital and to San Vicente. As
far back as 1896, Mr. J. Imbrie Miller, an American
engineer, formerly a member of the Intercontinental
Railway Commission, was engaged in surveying a light
line of railway from La Libertad to Santa Tecla. Some
years later another American, Lieutenant Kennon,
proceeded there to take observations for connecting
the triangulation with the astronomical monument
established there by the United States Hydrographic
Office.
The boundaries of this Department are as follows :
On the north, the Department of Chalatenango ; on
the east, San Salvador and La Paz ; on the south, the
Pacific Ocean; on the west, the Departments of
287
288 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Sonsonate and Santa Ana. The physical features of
this part of the Republic are remarkable. The central
portion of the Department is very mountainous, being
crossed from east to west by the coastal range of
mountains and the system of the volcano of Quezalte-
peque. The surface of the ground is considerably
broken up by a great number of well-defined spurs,
which extend from the mountain range to the very
borders of the ocean itself. To the west of the
volcano is situated an immense basin known as
Sapotitau. The northern portion is traversed by lofty
ridges between which are found a number of beauti-
fully fertile plains.
Fortunately for the good people of La Libertad, the
giant volcano Quezaltepeque has long ceased to
trouble them, and, indeed, it is said to be extinct ; it
is, however, never safe to speak too confidently upon
this matter, since Nature has a rude manner of dis-
illusioning us at times. This particular volcano, it
may be said, has been quiescent so long that for many
years it has been regarded as quite harmless. It
stands nearly 7,400 feet high above sea-level, the
upper part forming a cone occupied by a crater which
is between seven and eight miles in circumference, and
1,100 feet deep ; at the bottom lies a small lake.
It is in this Department that is located the famous
Balsam Coast, and as I speak very fully elsewhere (see
Chapter XVII.) of the valuable tree which grows there,
with its usefulness to the country as a means of sub-
stantial revenue, it is unnecessary to do more than
mention that the valleys where the trees are found are
extremely fertile ; and besides yielding the particular
spice in question, they produce rich harvests of coffee,
sugar, indigo, corn, rice, and timber. Here are to be
SANTA TECLA 289
found additionally several successful sugar refineries
and distilleries, as well as some sawmills and many
prosperous coffee estates with their rather antiquated
machinery installations. In fact, the commerce of La
Libertad is of prime importance, and is increasing in
volume and value year by year.
The capital of the Department is Santa Tecla (New
San Salvador), a town which is most agreeably situated
at the foot of the volcano of San Salvador, where it
nestles snugly, absolutely indifferent to the violent
reputation of its gigantic guardian. The height above
sea-level of this charming little place is 2,643 feet, and
it is only ten miles distant from the Capital City. It
really owes its existence to the misfortunes which over-
took the former some half a century ago, and to-day it
is one of the most favourite places of residence in the
Republic. Wide and handsome streets and many fine
residences are the principal features of Santa Tecla,
which likewise boasts of a large and well-laid-out
parque, several handsome drives, and its own pleasant
little suburbs. Notable among its buildings are the
Hospital, the Town Hall, the Government Offices, the
Hospicio Guirola, built at his own expense by the late
Don Angel Guirola, one of Salvador's most esteemed
and wealthiest citizens, and two fine churches. The
population amounts to between 11,000 and 11,500,
and easy connection is made with San Salvador by
regular trains, which have now taken the place of
an old horse -railroad. The street lighting in the
town of Santa Tecla is carried out by private enter-
prise, and it is very well done. In the month of
March, 1907, an agreement was entered into between
the Government and La Compania de Alumbrado
El^ctrico, of San Salvador, for the installation in the
19
290 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
city of Nueva San Salvador for the street lighting by
thirty-seven arc lamps of 1,200 candle-power and
ninety-three incandescent lamps of 16 candle-power.
This agreement is for ten years, and so far it has
afforded general satisfaction.
THE DEPARTMENT OF SONSONATE.
Cities. — Sonsonate, Izalco (2).
Towns. — Nahuizalco, El Progreso, Armenia (3).
This Department gains importance from two circum-
stances : Firstly, it contains the principal port of the
Republic — Acajutla — of which a full description will
be found under Chapter XVI., " Ports and Harbours " ;
and, secondly, because its main city, bearing the same
name, has already attained great commercial signifi-
cance, and is rapidly rivalling the Capital itself in the
volume of its trade. The boundaries of the Depart-
ment are as follows : On the north, by the Department
of Santa Ana ; on the east, by La Libertad ; on the
south, by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the west, by the
Department of Ahuachapan. The northern portion of
the ground surface is a mass of mountains, of many
varied heights and shapes ; on the coast, however, it is
very level for a certain distance, from which point it
rises gradually in a series of gentle slopes and rolling
hills, until these lose themselves in the spurs of the
surrounding mountain ranges. It is a truly enchanting
country, as fair and as fertile as the eye could wish to
dwell upon ; and away from the seacoast, where
it is marshy and damp, the climate is found to be
delightful for the greater part of the year.
Here also some stretches of the famous Balsam
Coast are to be met with, the trees being more numer-
SONSONATE 291
cms and even higher, than those in the La Libertad
Department.
Acajutla must always serve to bring prosperity to
Sonsonate, which, as a department, was created in 1855.
Its principal agricultural productions comprise coffee,
cocoannts, sugar, cacao, balsam, tobacco, cereals of
almost all kinds, fruits of endless variety, and an
immense number of different cabinet woods and fibres.
There are a considerable number of factories erected
in this same Department, employing many hundreds
of hands, and turning out refined sugar, cigars, cotton,
cloth, pottery, mats, baskets, distilled liqueurs, and
salt. The principal city, Sonsonate, is situated some
fifty miles from San Salvador, and stands picturesquely
upon the banks of the River Sensunapan. Compara-
tively speaking, this is but a small stream ; neverthe-
less, from a scenic point of view, it is decidedly worthy
of mention. It is crossed by a handsome bridge, and
its banks are often used as a pleasant promenade and
bathing-place by the inhabitants of this agreeable
town.
At Sonsonate, which, with Santa Ana, is one of the
several towns in Salvador on the route of the itinerant
theatrical companies, there is a small wooden-built
room, which forms part of the Hotel Blanco y Xegro,
kept by a very courteous and obliging Spaniard, one
Senor Arturo de Soto, who, with the profits derived
from the cantina adjoining, finds in this undertaking
the investment of his capital to be fairly profitable.
The stage of the unambitious little playhouse is exactly
18 feet wide by 9 feet deep, so that the precise limit
of the mounting of dramatic representations presented
thereon may be fairly accurately gauged.
The climate of Sonsonate is decidedly warm for the
29* SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
greater part of the year, and not at all unpleasant in
the dry season, except for the fearful wind-storms to
which it is at times subjected. Upon these occasions
the whole town is temporarily hidden in clouds of
gritty dust, which, moreover, penetrate every crack
and crevice of the tightly-closed house shutters, cover
the merchants' goods exposed for sale in the shops
with a thick layer of dirt, and render life generally,
for the time being, something of a burden. So strong
is the wind that it whirls around in a sort of wild
maelstrom every stray piece of paper, stick, or any
loose rubbish which it can gather, and then deposits
them impartially in the patios and upon the roofs of
the houses, at the same time mAVing complete havoc
of gardens and parks.
The market at Sonsonate, an important weekly
function, is held on Sundays. The building, com-
pletely roofed over, as are all similar constructions in
Latin-America, is crowded to excess with sellers, the
number of buyers, however, being considerably fewer.
Every kind of article is exposed for sale, from stuffed
and roasted monkeys to the cheapest kind of Man-
chester cotton goods and cheaper German imitations.
The stalls are separated into sections, and practically
all of them are presided over by women. It cannot
be said that the majority of the edibles look very
tempting from a European point of view, being for
the most part covered with grease or floating in a thick
and sticky compound of fat of a bilious-yellow colour.
To the local taste these articles of diet no doubt
appeal strongly, since a brisk trade is carried on in
them. Cheap and tawdry fancy goods, highly-coloured
and cheaply-framed religious pictures, toys, flimsy
dress material, tinselly embroideries, parrots, pencils,
SONSONATE 293
pastry, and other curiously diverse articles, are to be
found displayed in immediate proximity to dried fish
— emitting a powerful and pungent odour — lire
iguanas (a large species of edible lizard), squawking
fowls, and repulsive-looking chunks of bleeding,
freshly-killed beef. Altogether an active, if not
exactly an attractive, market-place, and one which
offers a continually shifting scene of life and colour,
t"HQumi^ imn s'-inrisc ir simsci.
In regard to hotel accommodation, Sonsonate is
decidedly better off than many towns outside the
Capital There are at least three booses from among
which the traveller may make his choice.
The Grand Hotel is situated immediately facing the
railway-station, and, although far from attractive ex-
ternally, it is quite comfortable and clean within.
The rooms, if small, are fairly well-furnished ; the
dining-room is kept scrupulously clean, and the
domestic service generally is prompt and willing.
Hie baths which are found here are not at all bad,
and are likewise kept very dean. A good business is
carried on, apparently, by the proprietors, Messrs.
Brando y Emddi, since every train on the Salvador
Railway steps at Sonsonate, whether proceeding north
or sooth, or, more strictly speaking, east or west.
Before its journey iron die port of Acajutla to the
capital of Sam Salvador, the train remains for one
hour, and the down-train remains for two hours.
Inasmuch as the hotel maintains quite a respectable
ceDar, and there is plenty of time for the passengers
to test its contents, the proprietors find this part of the
hotel business a remarkably profitable one.
The hotel in this town of tr&***H importance is
£1 Blanco j Xegro (Hack and White). The situation
294 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
is decidedly preferable to that of the Grand, being in
a side but wide street, out of hearing range of the
inevitable noise proceeding at the railway-station, but
in other respects it is less attractive to the many.
DEPARTMENT OF AHTJACHAPAN.
Cities. — Ahuachapan, Atiqnizaya (2).
Being the immediate neighbour of the sister Republic
of Guatemala, this Department was once destined to
become the route for the railway which was to — and
may yet — connect up the two States by an iron link.
It is bounded on the north and the west by this
Republic, and on the east by the Departments of
Sonsonate and Santa Ana. Very rugged and very wild
is the northern part of the country, but there are
several level plains north of the coastal range of
mountains which crosses the country from east to
west. Here are also several active volcanoes; the
number of hot springs and sulphur baths should one
day draw considerable visitors, more especially since
the waters, medicinally speaking, are said to rank
among the most wonderfully curative in the world.
If these springs and baths were located anywhere but
in little-known Salvador, they would probably be
thronged with patients from all over the globe,
seeking their beneficent and speedy aid against the
ravages of blood complaints, rheumatism, and skin
As a Department, Ahuachapan was "created" in
1869, having formerly been considered as parts of the
Departments of Santa Ana and Sonsonate. It pos-
sesses the unmatched Valley of Chalchuapa, which for
extreme fertility and magnificent climate will compare
AHUACHAPAN 295
with any similar country in Latin-America. Agricul-
ture in all of its different aspects is carried on, and
prosperity uninterrupted dwells in this small earthly
paradise. Coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, cereals, fine
fruits and vegetables, grow here practically without
any attention ; while an active commerce is carried on,
through the port of Acajutla, with other ports of the
Republic, to which it sends large consignments of
cereals and sugar. It likewise imports woollen goods
and mercury from Guatemala, and cattle and mules
from Honduras. Altogether, a thriving trade and a
valuable natural production are carried on during all
the year in this prosperous Department.
Ahuachapan Town has always possessed, and must
always retain, some value as a commercial centre,
since it is the starting-place for the export of coffee to
the coast, the route having formerly been over very
precipitous and wretched trails, which, however, have
latterly been much improved. One of the fords over
the Rio Paz, known as Los Organos, on the trail from
the aldea of Cofradias, in Guatemala, leads by a
very beautiful route to the town of Ahuachapan. It
has a population of between 11,000 and 12,000 in-
habitants, the Department which bears the same name
having a complement of some 37,000 people. There
is a good cart-road leading to Sonsonate via Otaco
and Apaneca, which are two mountain towns.
Being situated at an agreeable altitude above sea-
level — 2,620 feet, which is some 500 feet higher than
Santa Ana — the town is more open to the winds, so
that the air is generally fresh and cool, especially at
nights. Ahuachapan overlooks the valleys of the
Rivers Paz and Chalchuapa, while beyond them are
seen the many peaks of the Guatemalan mountains,
296 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
as well as the outstanding volcano of San Salvador.
There are but few foreigners in this town, but the
courtesy and friendliness of the people render a stay
there more than usually pleasant. The people as a
whole seemed to me to be very well-to-do, and
evidences of refinement and solid comfort were to be
met with upon all sides. This prosperity emanated,
I was informed, from the many rich and productive
fincas in the neighbourhood, which are engaged in
growing coffee. The majority of these fincas seem to
belong to quite small and humble proprietors. I was
also impressed with the absence of the usual number
of estancos, or public drinking shops, of which I
counted scarcely more than six in the whole town.
There is a good social club here, which is " teetotal,"
and there are the usual number of churches, one of
them being an extremely handsome edifice. The
Government buildings and the residence of the
Governor are sufficiently imposing ; the streets are
both well paved and well drained. The majority of
the houses are built of adobe, but some are of brick,
and one or two are of stone, or at least they are stone-
faced. Most of the better-class residences, however,
are stuccoed with either brown, white, or coloured
plaster on the side which faces the street. There
seemed to be an abundant supply of good water
available, free baths being provided and also appar-
ently well patronized. I had noticed the same thing
in Cojutepeque and other Salvadorean towns, proving
that the inhabitants pay strict regard to cleanli-
ness. The Ahuachapdn public baths have a continuous
supply of warm water, which is received from the
neighbouring hot springs.
An efficient police force keeps the town in perfect
SANTA ANA 297
order ; but there are still lacking a good hotel, a livery
stable, and a theatre. The latter is not essential, but
it is a luxury which is usually found in Central and
South American towns which cannot even boast of a
single drainpipe. The same thing was noticeable in
Johannesburg, South Africa, some twenty years after
the town had the electric light and the telephone. The
town of Ahuachapdn is a quiet, sleepy, and eminently
peaceful place of residence, where one might dream
away one's life contentedly enough if one were pre-
pared to do without driving, without amusements,
and without either dentists, doctors, or daily papers.
There was once some talk of bringing the railway
line through Ahuachapdn from Montufar (Guatemala)
to Sonsonate ; but the construction, although perfectly
practicable, would be so heavy and so costly that I
am doubtful whether the peaceful solitude of this
district — for some time at least — will be broken by
the shrill scream of the locomotive whistle.
DEPARTMENT OF SANTA ANA.
Cities. — Santa Ana, Chalchuapa, Metapan (3).
Towns. — Texistepeque, Coatepeque (2).
The boundaries of this Department bring it into
immediate contact with Honduras and Guatemala on
the north, while on the east are the Departments of
La Libertad and Chalatenango. Sonsonate is on the
south, and Guatemala and the Department of Ahua-
chapdn are on the west.
Two extensive ranges of mountains cover this terri-
tory, one on the north, and the other from east to
west, two imposing mountains, Santa Ana and Mala
Cara, both of which are active, rearing their shapely
298 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
heads in this Department. In addition there are
three extinct volcanoes — Masatepeque, San Diego, and
La Isla. Where there are no mountains, magnificent
valleys — fertile from end to end — stretch away for
many leagues, watered by two rivers, one of which is
the Malino, and the other the Lempa, which latter,
with its many affluents, curves through this favoured
country. As a Department, Santa Ana came into
existence in February, 1855, having previously formed
first a part of the ancient province of Sonsonate, and
after that comprising the two districts of Ahuachapan
and Atiquizaya.
The chief city, which bears the same name, is the
largest — outside San Salvador — in the Republic, and,
indeed, is ranked as one of the most important in
Central America. The location is a pleasant one,
being on the west side of the valley of the Malino.
The elevation is about 2,100 feet above sea-level, and
softly undulating green hills almost entirely surround
it. The city is well laid out and solidly built, with
many notable structures, while the streets are lighted
by electricity and are well paved. Owing, however,
to the steepness of some of the thoroughfares, this
city being also constructed upon the sloping side of
the valley, torrents of water come tumbling down in
rainy weather, converting the crossings for the time
being into miniature cataracts. On the other hand,
the natural drainage is excellent, and as a conse-
quence Santa Ana ranks as one of the cleanest and
most healthful towns in the country. This is all the
more notable because the Municipality at the time
that I visited the place had not completed the drainage
system, which I understood was then about to be
introduced, while the public water-supply was not yet
SANTA ANA 299
perfect. I noticed several public bathing-places which
were completely open to the air ; these were not, how-
ever, provided with hot water.
The number of prosperous-looking business houses
and handsome private residences in Santa Ana at once
arrest the attention of a visitor, as does the general
air of prosperity which reigns throughout the place.
The commercial and financial houses do about as
much business in this town in a day as they carry
through in all the other parts of the Republic — the
capital excepted — in a week. The market-house, a
building of considerable magnitude, is usually very
well attended, and almost any kind of fruit and vege-
table can be purchased there.
Santa Ana contains, perhaps, a greater proportion of
resident foreigners than any other town or city in
Salvador. It is partly due to this that so much com-
merce is carried on. The town is but fifty miles
distant from the Capital, and it is easily reached by
the Salvador Railway, which naturally carries con-
siderable traffic both to and from the town. From Santa
Ana there is a first-rate cart-road conducting north to
Metapan, and another leading south to Sonsonate and
to the port of Acajutla.
The temperature, as a rule, in this city renders life
very pleasant. During the rainy months of August,
September, and October it varies between 67° and
69° F., the maximum being between 72° and 78° F.
CHAPTER XXII
Department of La Paz — Characteristics — Zacatecoluca — Population —
Former proportions — Districts — Towns — Principal estates — Santiago
Nomialco — San Juan Nonualco — Climate — Water-supply — Santa
Maria Astuma — Mercedes la Ceiba — San Pedro Mazahuat — Some
minor estates — Small property holdings.
DEPARTMENT OF LA PAZ.
City. — Zacatecoluca.
Towns. — Santiago Nonualco, San Pedro Mazahuat,
San Pedro Nonualco, Olocuilta (4).
The Department of La Paz belongs to the group of
central and coast (or maritime) Departments. It has
a decidedly quadrangular form, and is bounded on
the east by the Department of San Vicente ; on the
north by the same with that of CuscatMn and of San
Salvador ; on the west by the Department of San
Salvador and by that of La Libertad ; and on the
south by the Pacific.
It lies between the parallels 13° 40" and 13° IS"
N. latitude, and between the meridians 91° 4" and
91° 31" W. longitude, relatively to the meridian
of Paris. The most northerly point is a small
peninsula of the Lake of Ilopango, on the coast
of the Tepezontes, and the most southerly is on the
Pacific coast, at the watering-place called Los Blancos
y los Negros. The most easterly point is at the
River of San Jer6nimo, to the north of the highroad
300
LA PAZ SOI
which runs from Zacatecoluca to Usulutan, and the
most westerly is at the mouth of the River Lindero.
The area of this Department is 2,354 square kilo-
metres, or, say, about Tf^ of the area of Salvador.
The surface is fairly level towards the coast, and
hilly towards the interior, but it is always accessible
for transit. The low-lying land is found to be excel-
lent for the cultivation of the sugar-cane, tobacco,
cotton, indigo, and forage ; while the high land is
eminently suited for the cultivation of coffee, wheat,
rice, etc. The forests of the Department enjoy a high
reputation for the excellence of the timber which they
produce.
The population of the Department of La Paz has
increased with astonishing rapidity. In 1858 it
possessed scarcely 24,000 inhabitants, while to-day
it is almost three times as large, which is equal to
an increase of 3 per cent, annually. The density of
the population is thirty-one inhabitants per square
kilometre, and the number of individuals of native
race is nearly equal to that of the Spanish-speaking
inhabitants.
Previous to the Independence, the greater part of
the present Department of La Paz belonged to the
Department of San Vicente. Towards 1835 the
Governor of this State ceded the district of Zacate-
coluca to the Central Government, so that it might
form part of the special territory of that authority, a
cession which not unnaturally displeased the inhabi-
tants of the district. On the disunion, the Federation
was established, and joined-up with that of Olocuilta
the new Department of La Paz. In the year 1843, in
direct consequence of the revolt of the Indians of
Santiago Nonualco, and under pretext of a defect in
302 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
the government, the new Department was suppressed
and reincorporated in that of San Vicente. In 1845
it again separated ; but in the following year, 1846,
it was joined once more to that of San Vicente,
remaining thus until, by the Legislative Decree of
February 21, 1852, it was definitely separated.
At present the Department of La Paz is divided
into three districts, which comprehend one city, four
large towns, and about fifteen smaller ones, as shown
by the following table :
District of Zacatecoluca : Santiago Nonualco, San Pedro Nonualco,
San Juan Nonualco, Santa Maria Ostuma, San Eafael, La Ceiba,
Jerusalen.
District of San Pedro Mazahuat : San Pedro Mazahuat, El Rosario,
San Miguel Tepezontes, San Juan Tepezontes, Paraiso de Osorio, San
Emigdio.
District of Olocuilta : Talpa, Cuyultitan, San Luis, Tapalhuaca, San
Francisco Chinameca.
In the lowlands or near the coast there are a number
of old estates of unquestionable merit, and which in
former times were famous for the indigo which they
produced. To-day the principal agricultural industry
of Zacatecoluca is coffee-growing, and the inhabitants
possess upon the Volcan some magnificent plantations,
the principal being the following, with the number of
hundredweights of produce that they yield annually :
Those of Senor J. Eengifo Nunez, 3,500 cwts. ; Senor Jose Molina,
2,000; Senora Dona Amalia Molina, 2,000; Senora Dona Teresa O. de
Alfaro, 1,000; Dr. Don Fernando G6mez, 1,500 ; Don Mariano A. Molina,
1,000; Don Fernando Gomez, 1,500; Dr. Pena Fernandez, 1,500; Don
Pedro Rodriguez, 800 ; Dona Josefa Buiza, 800 ; Don Atanasio Pineda,
500; the Senorita Dolores Rodriguez, 500; Dona Teresa de Rodriguez,
500; Don Atanasio Pineda, 500; Don Atanasio Pineda (ft), 500; the
Lopez family, 500 ; Dr. Don Pio Romero Bosque, 500 ; Dona Josefa
Molina, 600 ; Dona Mercedes Rubio, 400 ; Don Francisco Orantes, 300 ;
Don Lisandro Torres, 300 ; the issue of Don Samuel Jimenez, 300 ; Dona
Mercedes Rodriguez, 300; Don Octavio Miranda, 200; Don Catarino
Ortiz, 200 ; Dona Elodia Jandres, 200 ; Don Justo Quintanilla, 200 ;
General Don Jose Maria Estupinian, 300.
LA PAZ 803
The town of Santiago Nonualco, which has the title
of " Villa," a name usually given to a large and im-
portant town, is also an ancient one. It is situated
on high land, on the brow of a hill, 10 kilometres to
the west of Zacatecoluca — the said highland measuring
from north to south some 36 kilometres, and from
east to west about 7. It is situated on a large tract
of level ground, upon which, towards the north, are
two hills — La Chorrera and El Tacuazin ; in the
former is situated the cave in which the celebrated
Indian, Aquino, took refuge.
Numbers of excellent stock and grain farms exist
here, upon which are cultivated large quantities of
cereals, and which formerly produced a remarkable
quantity of very good indigo. Such are El Pedregal,
La Vanderia, Teguistocoyo, Novillos, Ojo, Troncones,
and Santa Teresa. A very ancient town also is San
Juan Nonualco, situated to the west, 4 kilometres
from Zacatecoluca, and about 100 metres above the
level of the sea. The highroad leading from Zacate-
coluca to the Capital of the Republic passes by here,
and at San Juan it throws off a branch which runs
directly to the port of La Libertad.
Among its best-known coffee plantations are — Las
Nubes, San Pedro, El Consuelo, and Las Granadillas.
There is also carried on a great deal of timber-felling,
and there are some sawmills erected among the hills
of Pilon and Caballito. In this district there are no
natural springs of water, which element has been
supplied by sinking wells near the pool of La
Laguneta, formed at the time of the rains.
San Rafael is a town which was founded in the year
1882 on lands which were the property of the Obra-
juelos, the portion belonging to the town being
304 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
marked off by boundaries and landmarks. The only
hill worthy of mention in the district of San Rafael
is that of the Carao.
The little town of San Pedro Nonualco is situated
in the hollow of a hill and upon the slopes of a small
volcano, 20 kilometres to the north of Zacatecoluca.
It enjoys a mild and salubrious climate, especially in
the dry season ; whilst during the rainy season there
is sufficient humidity for agricultural purposes. The
principal sources are — El Pringadero, El Pataiste,
El Hiscanal, El Chinte, La Gotera (which last is that
from which is drawn the water used by the town), La
Montafiita, Los Naranjos, and a number of other small
streams which supply the country with an abundance
of water.
Santa Maria Ostuma is a town situated on the slope
of a hill which springs from the loins of the volcano
of San Vicente on the north-west, and is 24 kilo-
metres from Zacatecoluca. Its situation is very
picturesque, the town being surrounded by beautiful
perspectives, while its climate is fresh and healthy. It
is divided into four districts — Delicias, Candelaria,
Mercedes and Calvario. The principal annual festival
is that of the patron saint, on February 2, the day of
the Presentation, or Candlemas. The place has to-day
about 3,400 inhabitants, and its prominent source of
revenue is derived from agriculture, principally coffee
and the pineapple, the pineapples produced in Ostuma
being considered the best in the Republic. These are
of the most choice types — the Castilian, water and
sugar pineapples.
The town, or rather village, of Mercedes La Ceiba is
bounded on the west by that of Jerusal^n, the middle
course of the River Chilate, and on the remaining
LA PAZ 305
sides by the district of Santa Maria Ostuma. It has
not more than 650 inhabitants.
Jerusalen is another small place of recent founda-
tion, situated about 25 kilometres from the chief
town. Its lands are fertile, and largely intersected by
streams of some importance. San Pedro Mazahuat is
one of the large towns of the Department, and is the
capital of the district. In the course of a few years it
has attained a state of progress quite remarkable, due
alike to the industrious character of its inhabitants and
the fertility of its lands. It is situated upon rather
broken ground, having on the east the River Tilapa,
on the west the Sepaquiapa, and on the south the
Jiboa, all of which contribute an abundant supply of
fish. There are also several springs of fresh water,
such as Apacinto, La Pina, and Amatitan. Two kilo-
metres to the north of the town is the spring of Plata,
where a dam has been constructed and whence water
is conveyed to the town.
There are several notable estates, such as those of
San Antonio, El Pimental, San Jose and Mira-Flores,
upon which are cultivated various cereals, and a serious
attempt at cattle-breeding is carried on. This last-
named estate, which was widely known under the
name of Rancho de Teja, was formerly, with that of
Chanrayo, one of the most flourishing, and engaged
largely in the cultivation of indigo. It is the place
which was at one time known as Hacienda Nueva (the
New Estate), and for the last fifty years it has been in
the possession of the family of Aycinena, of Guatemala,
as is also that of San Josecito. The lands of both
these properties have to-day been converted into a
number of small plantations.
CHAPTER
Department of San Miguel — Portless coast — Indigo plantations — City of
San Miguel — Cathedral — Water-supply — Archaeological interests —
Projected railway connections. Department of Morazan — City of
Gotera — Mountains and fertile plains — Agricultural produce. Depart-
ment of Usulutan — Physical characteristics — Volcanic curiosities —
Surrounding villages — Populations — El Triunfo — Santiago de Maria.
Department of La Uni6n — Boundaries — Scenery — Guascoran Eiver
— Industries — Commerce.
DEPARTMENT OF SAN MIGUEL.
Cities. — San Miguel and Chinameca (2).
Towns. — Uluazapa, Moncagua, Chapeltique, Cac-
aguatique, Sesori (5).
One of the most diversified of the Departments of
the Republic is San Miguel, since it offers almost every
kind of scenery to be found in Central America : wild
and rugged coastline, steep and craggy mountains,
beautiful verdant valleys and at least one active
volcano — -active, that is to say, in emitting much
smoke and more noise, but otherwise, for the time
being, unobjectionable. The Department is bounded
on the north by the Republic of Honduras and the
Department of Morazdn, on the east by the latter and
the Department of La Uni6n, on the south by the
Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Departments of
Usulutdn and Cabanas.
There is no port in this section of the Republic, and
the whole coastline is considered dangerous, and cer-
306
THE "STATELY" OFFICES OF His BRITANNIC MAJESTY'S VICE-CONSUL AT
LA UNION, ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL PORTS IN SALVADOR.
BARRACKS AT SANTA TECI.A (NEW SAN SALVADOR)
SAN MIGUEL 307
tainly looks inhospitable, being formed of numerous
spurs running down into the sea from the mountains
which guard it for practically all of its length. There
are two volcanoes located here, one of which, China-
meca, is, and for years past has been, quiescent ; the
other is the ever-grumbling San Miguel.
In the peaceful valleys below are grown indigo,
coffee, and sugar ; timber is cut for building purposes ;
grains and any amount of fruits and vegetables are
cultivated. There are likewise several important
manufactures, such as saddlery and harness, boots and
shoes, articles of tortoiseshells, pickles, lime-juice,
cheese, and rum. The annual fair is held on
November 21, in the city of San Miguel, and on this
occasion the amount of business transacted runs into
many thousands of dollars. The visitors include those
from some of the neighbouring Republics, besides the
people from all parts of Salvador.
An old and a remarkably interesting city is that of
San Miguel, which was founded in 1530. Perhaps its
early days were more prosperous than those which are
at present enjoyed ; for history shows that here, in
times long passed away, great trade and industry
were caried on, and much activity of commercial life
prevailed. To-day a kind of peaceful stagnation
would appear to reign for the greater part of the year,
but still the people seem to be quite contented and
fairly well-to-do.
The great wealth of the place formerly reposed in
the indigo trade which was carried on, and which the
invention of aniline dyes greatly helped to kill. One
can easily trace where and how the superabundant
wealth of the community was spent. It is to be seen
in the magnificently wide thoroughfares, the well-
308 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
paved streets, and the many yet handsome plazas and
public buildings. It is possible still to pause and
admire the proportions and the decorations of the
Municipal Palace, of the Court House, the Hospital
and the Market ; while many are the imposing churches
to be seen, those of San Francisco, Calvario and Santo
Domingo among them.
For some years a massive brick-built Cathedral has
been in course of erection ; but it is still incomplete.
The water-supply, which is abundant, is taken from
the San Miguel River. I have been told that this
water was not safe to drink ; but I venture to assert
that the statement is incorrect, provided the liquid be
taken from that portion of the river which is not
immediately ad joining the town and certain residences.
That the town otherwise is up-to-date may be gauged
from the fact that it possesses both an ice-plant and an
electric light installation. I am afraid, however, that
neither are particularly well patronized by the
majority of the people, who are very simple and un-
pretentious in their method of living, as in their dress.
Around the city of San Miguel are located well-
maintained fincas, nearly all of which belong to native
proprietors. Indigo and cacao are the most common
products raised, and both thrive here amazingly well.
Antiquaries and archaeologists will find an extremely
interesting field for their investigations around San
Miguel, where exist numerous remains of a primitive
and an industrious people. Already many examples of
their domestic utensils have been found and methods
of living have been traced ; and at a private house
belonging to an enthusiastic but discriminating
collector of such articles may be seen flint knives,
grinding-mills of hard stone more durable even than
SAN MIGUEL 309
granite, and alias of clay, presenting many interesting
features of workmanship, far superior, indeed, to any-
thing of the kind which is met with to-day. It is
supposed that the ancient city of Chaparrastique was
located in this neighbourhood, not more than a mile or
so from the present site of San Miguel.
The city of San Miguel lies some three-quarters of
a mile from the volcano and the river of the same
name, the latter also being called sometimes the Rio
Grande. It stands but some 360 feet above the level
of the sea, and the climate is undoubtedly hot —
sometimes unpleasantly so. San Miguel is about 107
miles east of the Capital, and is approached by a
good cart-road. It claims some 23,000 inhabitants,
most of whom are engaged in agriculture of some kind,
while they form an orderly community very little given
to troubling the authorities, yet somewhat opposed to
innovations or reforms of any kind. The native
women of San Miguel are considered to be about the
best-looking in the Republic.
The Government have, as related elsewhere, long
had the desire to unite San Miguel, which claims with
Santa Ana to be the " second " most important city in
the Republic (it certainly is justified from a population
point of view) with La Union, its finest seaport, and to
extend the line to the cities of San Vicente and San
Salvador, thus securing an all-rail route from Acajutla,
the most important western port, to La Union in the
extreme east, on the Gulf of Fonseca.*
* These figures will, no doubt, be recognized by some of my more
critical readers as a " repetition," having already been presented by me
in previous chapters. But since I have, for the purpose of more ready
reference, divided this volume into Departments, it has been deemed
desirable to repeat the statistics of railway construction and road-building
under each separate Department to which the figures bear any relation. —
AUTHOR.
S10 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
It was sufficiently proved by Mr. Charles T. Spencer
(now the Manager of the Salvador Railway Company)
that such a line of railway was quite feasible from an
engineering point of view, and that it could be con-
structed at a reasonable outlay. The kilometric
distance from San Miguel to San Vicente would be
(main-line) 102'2 (=63*5 miles).
DEPARTMENT OF MORAZAN.
City. — Gotera.
Towns. — Sociedad, San -Carlos, Jocoro, Osicala, El
Rosario (5).
This is one of the most recently created of the
various Departments, having come into official exist-
ence in 1875. Formerly much of its territory was
comprised in San Miguel. Even its name has been
altered, since until 1887 it was known as " Gotera,'*
which is now the title of its one city. In this year
the name was altered to Morazan by decree of Con-
gress, in memory of the last President of the Central
American Federation, and who lost his life in his
well-meant but fruitless efforts to bring about its
resuscitation.
The Department is bounded on the north by the
Republic of Honduras, on the east by the Department
of La Union, on the south by La Union and San
Miguel, and on the west by the latter also. Lofty
mountains cover a great deal of the surface, more
especially towards the north, the various chains cross-
ing the Department from east to west. Towards the
Honduranean border — that is to say, in the direction
of the south — a number of fertile plains are to be met
with, and these are mostly well watered by the Rivers
Tocola and Rio Grande. All kinds of agricultural
MORAZAN 311
products are cultivated here, such as indigo, rice,
coffee, sugar, corn, and a variety of fruits. It is also
an industrial centre, there being established cordage,
mat, hat, lime, and earthenware factories, the greater
part of which, at least, seem to carry on a thriving
trade. Labour is abundant, if not particularly well
skilled ; and the greater portion of the inhabitants are
industriously occupied all the year round in following
either agriculture or some kind of manufacturing.
Although a decidedly small place, containing some-
thing less than 2,000 people, Gotera is picturesque,
and as clean as it is romantic in appearance. It is
connected by a good cart-road with the city of San
Miguel. There is likewise a volcano of moderate
proportions, raising its crest 3,089 feet in height, and
being located 13° 42' 54" latitude, and 88° 0' SOT
longitude. Its history is not especially remarkable.
DEPARTMENT OF LA UNi6N.
Cities. — La Union, San Alejo, Santa Rosa (3).
It was to form this Department that San Miguel
had once again to give up a goodly portion of its
original territory. It is now one of the most im-
portant of the Republic's various political Divisions,
by reason of containing the port of La Uni6n, of
which I give a fuller description elsewhere under the
title of "Ports and Harbours" (see Chapter XIV.).
Its boundaries are as follows : North, by the Republic
of Honduras ; east, by that Republic also and the Bay
of Fonseca ; south, by the Pacific Ocean ; and west,
by the Departments of San Miguel and Morazdn. A
great diversity of scenery may be met with, the
mountains alternating with valleys, volcanoes with
large open plains, and the ocean lending a blue
312 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
setting to the whole picture. For true tropical
scenery the Bay of Fonseca would be hard to beat,
and its most beautiful portion skirts the shore of this
Department. Unfortunately, however, there is usually
a great deal of unhealthy miasma arising from the low,
marshy shore, and from the mouth of the Guascoran
River to the Honduranean boundary the whole district
may be said to be unhealthy. Here and again one
comes across dry and rugged spots, but for the most
part the country lies very low, and it is extremely hot
at almost all times of the year.
Located upon the picturesque peninsula which
separates the Bay of Fonseca from the Pacific Ocean
is the enormous volcano of Conchagua, towering up
to a height of over 4,000 feet above sea-level, and
measuring some twenty miles in circumference around
its base. There are two magnificent peaks, one
measuring 3,800 feet, and the other 4,101 feet. The
situation is 13° 16' 28" latitude, and 87° 51' 46" longi-
tude. This mountain was last in eruption in the
year 1868, but to all appearances it is now perfectly
quiescent.
Both industrially and commercially La Union is
of importance, much of the fine timber employed in
various parts of the Republic for both building opera-
tions and cabinet-making coming from its forests,
which nevertheless as yet have hardly been touched.
Great potential wealth is contained here, and, in view
of the proximity of the port, its forests should one day
be intelligently and profitably exploited.
As to manufactures, the Department possesses lime,
hat (palm-leaf variety), mat, soap, candle, steel, and
other establishments ; while considerable trade goes
on in fish, and especially in oyster-curing. La Uni6n
USULUTAN 313
oysters are very delicious, and are rrmcli relished as
a rule by foreigners, who declare them to be equal
to the best Whitstable in flavour. The variety of fish
caught off these coasts is not particularly large, but
the quality is very fine. The cost of living in this
Department, even at the port of La Union, is cheap,
and on the whole one may dwell there very comfort-
ably, if climatic conditions be accepted philosophically.
DEPARTMENT OF USULUTAN.
Cities. — Usulutan, Jucuapa, Alegria (3).
Towns. — Santa Elena, Jiquilisco (2).
This Department belongs to the eastern section of
the Republic, and formerly its territory was embraced
in the Department — or, as it was then called, the
Province — of San Miguel (6 Provincia) de Chaparras-
tique, now known simply as " San Miguel." It became
a separate Department in 1865. It is bounded on the
north and east by the Department of San Miguel, on
the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the
Department of San Vicente. Its area is 3,344 square
kilometres which represents a y^f ^ part of the super-
ficial area of the Republic.
The central portion of the Department is very
mountainous, the country here being crossed by a lofty
range, north of which it is relatively level, but decidedly
broken-up. In the south are found lowlands and a
swampy coast, which during the rainy season becomes
somewhat unhealthy. Within the borders of this
Department are found three separate volcanoes —
Usulutan, Jucuapa and Taburete. From a geological
point of view the two last named are the most interest-
ing, having small lakes of sulphurous water in their
ancient craters. Roundabout, and especially in a deep
314 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
and dry ravine which extends from the south-east of
the village of Tecapa towards the River Lempa, are a
number of active geysers which emit dense volumes of
sulphurous vapours and columns of smoke, reminding
one forcibly of some of the beautiful geysers in New
Zealand, in the Roturua district.
The largest of the geysers at Tecapa is called " El
Tronador " (The Thunderer), and this has formed a
small crater of its own, from out of which is thrown a
high and thick column of steam saturated with sul-
phuretted hydrogen and other gases, while the noise
which accompanies the emission of this steam is
deafening, and can be heard for many miles away.
The Department is divided up into three districts —
namely, Usulutan, which contains seven villages or
small towns ; Jucuapa, containing four ; and Santiago
de Maria, containing seven. The first-named district
has a population of some 12,000 inhabitants, more than
half of whom reside in the city of Usulutdn, a pleasant
place enough, situated upon the right bank of a stream
called Juano, but only at the moderate elevation of
420 feet above sea-level. It is also some ninety-five
miles distant from the Capital. The number of build-
ings of an ornate character is considerable, for
Usulutan was formerly a place of some pretensions,
being the residential quarters of the authorities of the
ancient Division of San Miguel 6 Provincia de Chapar-
rastique. It was classed as a " town " in 1827, and
was given the rank of a " city " in 1860. Among the
more notable buildings are a handsome town-hall, a
school-house, and a minor University, where the higher
education is imparted to a large number of pupils and
students. A prison of some dimensions, and a hand-
some but small church, should also be mentioned.
USULUTAN 315
According to some old Spanish MSS., which I was
shown, this town was known to the Indians of 1574 as
" Uceluclan," and a large number of people at one
time apparently resided there. Another very old
place is Santa Elena, which dates from 1661 ; to-day
it has about 3,275 inhabitants, the surrounding dis-
trict and many smaller villages bringing up the total
of inhabitants for the district to nearly 6,000.
There are over a dozen notable fincas round about,
where maize, tobacco, rice and black beans are
cultivated. Jiquilisco boasts of between 4,500 and
4,600 inhabitants, and even more important fincas, so
far as size and amount of produce are concerned.
Santa Maria de Los Remedies is also an old town,
possessing some 1,750 inhabitants. Two important
fincas are located in the neighbourhood, and engage
the services of many of the labourers available.
Ereguaiquin, which is some 7 kilometres distant,
has 2,100 inhabitants ; Ozatlan, another small town of
very recent origin, being founded as late as 1890,
having 2,000 inhabitants.
The district of Jucuapa, with its four towns and
villages, is somewhat deficient in water, having only
the San Francisco River to depend upon. Nevertheless
the country is very fertile, especially in the immediate
district around the volcano of Jucuapa, which towers
up into the air some 5,000 feet above the level of the
sea. The chief town has two schools of importance, a
private college for the children of wealthier parents, a
casino, a club, and a well-maintained hospital.
Estanzuelas, which was established as a village in
1815, has over 10,000 inhabitants, most of whom are
engaged in the pursuit of agriculture. San Buena-
ventura, another village, stands much higher, and is
316 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
possessed of a more pleasant climate and outlook over
mountains and valleys. It has but 1,600 inhabitants,
and among several distinguished Salvadoreans who
have been born in this district is Dr. Maximo Araujo,
who has rendered great political services to his
country.
The small town known as El Triunfo (also described
as " San Juan del Triunfo ") is an old-established place,
and was formerly known as "La Labor." This is in
a well-watered district, and many prosperous fincas are
to be found scattered around. A fuller account of the
port will be found under Chapter XVI., " Ports and
Harbours."
The Santiago de Maria district is moderately well
inhabited, but the town of the same name is small, and
is little over forty years old. The neighbourhood,
which has always been known as fertile, and which is
abundantly watered by several rivers and streams,
produces large quantities of maize, beans, sugar,
tobacco and vegetables.
Other small towns in this Department are San
Agustin, Tecapan, Alegria, Berlin and California. The
total population of the Department was put in 1909 at
89,175, the district of Usulutan having the largest
number, estimated at 32,275 ; Jucuapa came next, with
25,700 ; and Santiago de Maria third, with 24,600. The
remaining 8 per cent, of the population were dispersed
throughout the Department.
CONCLUSION
" In every work regard the writer's End,
Since none can compass more than they intend;
And if the means be just, the conduct true,
Applause, in spite of trivial faults, is due.1'
I MAKE no claim in this volume to having written
anything startlingly new, nor yet to have made any
particularly valuable contribution to the history of
the world; but what I have endeavoured to effect,
and what I trust I have accomplished at least in part,
is to put before my readers what I know to be facts
concerning a very interesting country which has
hitherto received but scant attention at the hands
of financial writers. Bulwer Lytton has said that no
author ever drew a character, consistent to human
nature, but what he was forced to ascribe to it many
inconsistencies. So it is with a book which purports
to be a true description of a country ; for in portraying
its attractions one must of a necessity expose its draw-
backs and deficiencies.
It must be remembered that the Republic of Sal-
vador has yet to celebrate its centenary, being one
of the youngest of the Latin- American States ; but
considering the different troubles and tribulations
which this country — in common with all of the Latin-
American Republics without exception — has gone
through, the present condition of her civilization,
of her arts and her commerce, is eminently encoura-
317
S18 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
ging. The great advance made by this State has been
achieved in spite of the many obstacles which it has
encountered. If the permanency of a Republic mainly
depends upon the general intelligence and morality of
the people constituting it, I look for a continued and
even an increased prosperity for the Salvadoreans, since
they are indubitably among the Central American
nations the most developed and the most intellectual.
No longer subject to and borne down by an immoral
and corrupt Government, and freed from the exactions
of hungry office-seekers, this naturally richly-endowed
little State should pursue an even and enviable road to
prosperity, upon which foreigners will be heartily wel-
come to journey.
In 1895, when Mr. Joseph Chamberlain was Colonial
Secretary, a circular letter was addressed to all British
Consuls of the British Empire, asking for information
regarding the effect of foreign competition upon
British trade abroad. In the answers received, and
subsequently published in the form of a bulky Blue
Book, some critics professed to see much comfort ;
but to the minds of others, who looked more deeply
into matters and judged more from what was likely
to occur than what had actually happened, the future
appeared gloomy in the extreme. To enact the r61e
of Cassandra is never an agreeable nor a profitable
occupation ; but upon occasions it becomes necessary
to sound the alarum, if only to awaken the slumberer
from his too-long repose, and remind him that the
world is marching onwards and ever onwards. At no
time has this been more imperative than the present,
when British trade and commerce, British influence
and British prestige, in Central America, at one time
CONCLUSION 319
predominant, are threatened, not alone with super-
session, but with practical extinction. This is no
phantom of the imagination, nor yet any unfair ex-
aggeration of existing conditions. It is a plain and
incontrovertible fact, which anyone travelling through
the smaller Latin-American Republics may ascertain
for himself.
The decline of British trade in these countries was
clearly foreshadowed in the Blue Book above referred
to ; but the public, with some few exceptions, com-
placently closed their eyes, the Government as usual
did nothing to avert the threatened evil, and the
results are such as were inevitable under the circum-
stances. The Consular reports upon these States as.
they are issued (when they are issued at all) tell the
tale of our diminishing trade, and of the slow but sure
rise of our competitors to the position of dominance
which once was ours. There is little occasion to
criticize the figures or to call them into question ;
it may, perhaps, have served some useful purpose to
have examined, as I have done in these pages, into
the principal causes which have helped to bring
about a condition of things which is gradually going
from bad to worse.
I shall be abundantly satisfied, and consider myself
sufficiently recompensed for the trouble to which I
have put myself and the not inconsiderable expenses
which I have incurred in preparing this volume, if I
can awaken some interest among my countrymen —
upon the British Government I do not for an instant
expect to make any impression whatever — to the
critical position in which our national trade stands
to-day in Latin- America generally, but in the Republic
of Salvador in particular. The time has apparently
320 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
gone by when British trade abroad could depend at
least upon the countenance, if not always the active
support, of the Ministry of the day.
In the days of William Pitt the Elder it was the
proud boast of our rulers that " not a gun should be
fired throughout the world without Britain knowing
why " ; but to-day commercial treaties of the utmost
import to British merchants are entered into, new
imposts which seriously threaten their existing trade
are levied, and favoured-nation terms to their most
dangerous commercial rivals are granted, without the
Home Government knowing or caring one pin's head
about it. Where are " the eyes and the ears " of the
State that such things can occur, and where is the
patriotism which permits of them occurring ? No
British Government within the past half-century has
as much as inquired about the status of British trade
in La tin- America, nor has it troubled its head to find
out whether it flourished or failed. For the despicable
purpose of currying favour with our keenest rivals in
that great field — the United States — such position as
we still occupy in that portion of the world is being
recklessly and ignorantly sacrificed. How this crime
— for crime it assuredly is — is likely to be perpetrated
I have shown conclusively in the preceding pages.
Let those who are accused answer to the charges — if
they can or if they dare !
July 31, 1911.
INDEX
ACADEMY, Salvador, 41
Acajutla, 9, 51, 52, 61, 62, 64, 65, 68,
73, 93, 115, 146, 167, 197, 198, 204,
222, 223, 226, 290, 291, 293, 295,
299, 309
Administration of Justice, 18
Administrator, Post-Office, 34
Agricultural Bank, 172
machinery and implements, 107,
147, 148
Agriculture, 164, 228-243, 276, 285,
288, 291, 303
Minister of, 18, 41, 229
School of, 29
Sub-Secretary of, 18, 42, 43, 44,
47, 164
Agronomy, 230
Aguila, Eugenio. 172
Aguila, Jose Astua, 81, 82
Agustin, 316
Ahuachapan, 8, 9, 25, 66, 94, 141,
179, 213, 234, 247, 266, 294-296
Department of, 28, 234, 290, 294-
297
Alegria, 11, 266, 313, 316
Alfaro Prudencio, 61, 65, 67, 71
Allison Manufacturing Company, 200
Alvarado, Dr. H., 265
Alvarado, Jorge de, 249, 256
Alvarado, Pedro de, 256
Alvarez, Dr. E., 274
Amapala, Battle of, 39
Treaty of, 72, 73, 75, 77, 81, 82
Amaya, General Juan, 38, 281
Angulo, 4
Apaneca, 9, 295
volcano, 4
Aragon Manuel, 11
Araujo, President Manuel Enrique, 15,
17, 36, 40, 43, 47, 84, 85, 114, 246,
273
Araujo, Dr. Maximo, 316
Area, 2
Arce, General Manuel Josi, 14
Argentina, 129, 154, 230
Arias Celio, 39, 74
Armenia, 290
Army, 38, 64, 86-95, 224, 269
strength of, 87
Assembly, National, 15, 19, 38
Ataco, 9
Ateos, 51
Atiquizaya, 25, 294
Atuscatla, 5
Austria, 147
Avila, Dr. Arturo Ramon, 36, 45, 46,
116
Baldwin Locomotive Works, 199
Balsalobre, Rev. Dr. E. M., 178
Balsam, 108, 147, 216, 229, 241-243,
288, 290
Banco Agricola, 172-174
Occidental, 172
Salvadoreno, 46, 176
Bank, London, of Mexico, 50
London and South-Western 51, 53
Mortgage, 177
Nicaragua, 177
Banks, 46, 50, 51, 53, 167, 170-177
Bara, General Enrique, 23
Barahona, 65
Barberena, Dr. S. L, 265
Baron, Dr. Gustavo, 18, 42, 271
Barracks, 87, 88, 92-95, 257, 274
Barrancas de Jucuapa, 12
Barrios, General Gerardo, 38, 274, 275
Barrios, General Justo Rufino, 15, 39
Beans, 229, 240, 248, 276, 316
Bedoya, ix
Beers and liquors, 158
Berlin, 11, 316
Bertrand, President Dr., 84
Bills of exchange, 167, 168, 170, 171
Bloom, David, and Co., 172, 177
Board of Trade, British, 44, 125, 164
Bocanegra, Angel M., 81, 82
Bogen, Herr, 153
Bolivia, 131, 132, 161
Boots and shoes, 107
Bracamonte, Don Eusebio, 18, 36, 42
Bracamonte, General, 38
Brazil, 154, 235, 236, 240
Breweries, 158
Bridges, 12, 198
British Consul, 99-101, 105, 110-112,
129, 319
diplomacy, 120-126, 128, 129
Foreign Office, 96, 100, 101, 105,
122-124
Government, 98
investments, 160
Legation, 128
manufacturers, 138, 139, 141
Minister, 98, 139
retail houses, 137
trade, 98, 99, 105, 123, 125, 127,
129, 162, 164, 318, 319
tradesmen, 168, 169
Brown, Jansen, and Co. , 51
321
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Bryce, Right Hon. James, 123-126
Bueron, J. L., 10
Bueron, Juan, 11
Bureau, Information, 44
Bustamente, Dr. Cecilio, 18, 36, 41
Butters Mines, 187-195
Cabanas, Department of, 12, 28, 247,
276, 278, 282-284, 306
Cabinet, 18, 36, 42, 45
Cables, 82, 226, 227
Cacaguatique, 306
Cacao, 239, 240, 291, 308
Cafes, 158
California, 316
Campbell, 0. S., 105
Canned goods, 150
Carcamo, General Teofilo, 79
Garden, Lionel E. G., 97, 139
Garden, Mrs., 98
Carden, Rev. Lionel, 97
Casino Salvadoreno, 273, 274
Castro, R., Dr. Don Manuel, 18, 36,
41
Castro, V., Dr. Don Jose Antonio, 18,
36, 42
Cathedral, 257, 259
Cattle and hides, 108, 230, 231, 286,
295, 303
Central America, 13, 14, 32
United, 14
American Federation, 14, 50, 67
Peace Conference, 33
Penitenciaria, 21
Cereals, 229, 285, 291, 295
Chalatenango, 9, 11, 28, 266, 277, 278
Department of, 12, 28, 247, 248,
276-278, 287, 297
Chalchuapa, 25, 39, 179, 294, 295, 297
Chamber of Commerce (Salvador), 43,
47, 164
Chapeltique, 306
Charities, 17, 265-267, 284
Chatham, Earl of, 38
Cheese, 277, 286
Chemists, 157
Chief Magistrates, 16
Chile, 161, 202
Chilian Mission, 88
Chinameca, 9, 306, 307
volcano, 4
Choussy, Felix, 230
Churches, vii, viii, 150, 283, 308
Cierra, General, 69
Cigars and cigarettes, 158, 236, 279,
291
Citala, 11, 276
Civil Code, 229
Clubs, 88
Glum, Harold D., 44
Coatepeque, 297
Cocoa machinery, 156
Cocoanuts, 291
Coffee, 108, 152, 216, 217, 219, 225,
229, 234, 235, 248, 285, 288,
290, 295, 302, 307, 311, 315
estates, 302-304, 308, 316
machinery, 150, 156
Cojutepeque, 9, 19, 25, 94, 179, 213,
236, 278
Lake, 280
Colleges, 28, 29
Colon, 226
Colombia, 210
Columbus, Christopher, 1
Commander-in-Chief, 16
Commerce, Chamber of (Salvador), 43,
47
Commercial travellers, 136, 141, 156,
157
treaties, 109, 112, 124, 126, 127,
320
Commission, Mexican, 97
Commissioners, rural, 229
Commons, House of, 38
Conchagua volcano, 4
Conference, Central American Peace,
33, 118, 119
Hague, 46
Conflagrations, 150, 151
Congress, National, 16, 18, 33, 34, 47,
53
Spanish -American, 46
Constitution, 15, 38, 259, 281
Constitutional Convention, 14
Consular invoices, 167
regulations, 101-105
reports, 98-100
Consul, British, 99-101, 105, 110-112,
129, 319
-General, Salvador, 45
United States, 44
Liverpool, 48
Consuls, Salvadorean, 102-105
United States, 112
Conventions, 14, 30
Cordilleras, 2
Corinto, 65, 68, 73
Corn, 240, 248, 276, 282, 288, 311
Coronation of H.M. George V., mission
to, 46, 47
Corpeno, J. Dolo, 177
Corranza, Dr. don Teodosio, 18, 36, 41
Cosieguina volcano, 4
Costa Rica, 14, 49, 50, 80, 98, 136,
140, 143, 152, 161, 179, 189, 212,
214, 223, 226, 249
Cost of living, 261, 262, 313
Costume, native, 244
Cotton, 107, 146, 216, 229, 232, 244,
291, 295
goods, 134
manufactures, 162
mills, 163
INDEX
323
Council of Foreign Bondholders, 54, 55
of Health, 18, 270
Courtade, John B., 219
Court of Justice, Central America, 74,
76, 79-83
Courts, Circuit, 19
District, 19
Minor, 19
Supreme, 19, 257
Credit system, 166, 169-171
Criminal Law, 19
Cristales, General, 69
Cuba, 97, 121, 154, 237
Cuscatlan, Department of, 28, 234,
247, 248, 256, 276, 278, 279, 281,
282, 287, 300
Customs, 50, 51, 54, 58, 59, 166-169,
210, 224
duties, 159
Union, 123
Cyanide process, 187-195
Dardano, Donna Teresa, 47
Da vila, President, 74, 78, 79
Dawson, Samuel C., 178
Debt, Foreign, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
Public, 57
Decree, Government, 70
Deficit, 59, 60
Deininger, Fedor, 153, 225
Delgado, Dr. Manuel, 73
Departments, 15, 16, 28, 235, 247, 271
Police, 25
Deputies, 15
National Chamber of, 15
Designates, Presidential, 38
Diaz, Porfirio, 75
Diaz, Senora J. B. de, 236, 280
Diplomacy, British, 120, 121, 122, 123,
124, 125, 126, 128, 129
Director- General of Police, 23
Discovery of Salvador, 1
Diseases, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272
Distilleries, 276, 289
District Courts, 19
Divisadero Mines, 193
Dolores, 282
Domestic life, 244, 245
servants, 261, 262, 263
Dreadnoughts, 128
Drews, F., 172
Drugs and medicines, 107, 157
Duenas, Dr. Don Francisco, 18, 36,
40, 47
Duenas, Don Miguel, 18, 36, 42, 47, 164
Duenas, President Dr., 38
Duke, Mauricio, 172
Duke, J. Mauricio, 172
Dunlop, R. C., 182, 183
Earthquakes, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255
Ecuador, 115, 161
Education, 27, 28, 29, 30, 230, 272,
314, 315
Board of, 26
Free, 26
Minister of, 26, 42, 266
Educational establishments, 264, 265
Elections, 17
Electric light, 32
El Diario de Salvador, 70
El Tigre, 4
El Triunfo, 11, 167, 226, 316
El Viego volcano, 4
Ereguaiqum, 315
Eruptions, 5, 7
Escalon, Pedro Jose, 15
Escobar, Francisco, 265
Estanzuelas, 315
Esteves, Captain A., 224
Estrada, General, 68
Europe, 21, 29
Exchange, 169, 170, 172, 209, 210
Executive, 15, 16
Expenditures, 30, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60
War and Marine, 95
Export trade, 133
Exports and imports, 58, 59, 105, 106,
107, 108, 144, 162
Ezeta, General Carlos, 15, 40
Fairs, 278, 279, 282, 307
Fawcett, Preston and Co., Ltd., 153,
155
Federal Republic, 14
Federation, Central American, 14, 67,
301, 310
Felica volcano, 4
Figueroa, General Fernando, 4, 8, 15,
17, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 61, 62, 63,
64, 65, 66, 69, 73, 78, 79, 87, 142,
151, 281
Filibusters, North American, vi, 61
Filisola, General, 13
Filter Butters, 190-194
Finance, Minister of, 18, 117
Sub- Secretary of, 18, 43
Finances, 49
railway, 55
Fire apparatus, 150, 151
brigade, 151
Fish, 312, 313
Flour, 107
Fonseca, Bay of, 1, 2, 3, 9, 286, 309,
311, 312
Forces, 16
Foreign Affairs, Minister of, 18, 76, 112
Sub- Secretary of, 18, 41
Foreigners, 284, 313
Foreign loans, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 57, 115
Foreign Office, British, 96, 100, 101,
105, 122, 123, 124
Foreign trade, 106
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
France, 104, 105, 107, 108, 135, 146,
147, 151
Free Trade, 123, 132, 133
French trade, 146
Fruits, 285, 291, 295, 299, 307, 311
Gainza, ix
Gallegos, Salvador, 81, 82
Garcia, Dr. A., 265
Gavidia, Francisco, 265
Geology, 181, 183
German trade, 108, 109, 128, 129, 130,
131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137-139,
141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
152, 153, 162, 168
Germany, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109,
144, 147
Gonzalez, Dr. D., 265
Gonzalez, Dr. Rodolfo B., 271
Gonzalez, Marshal Santiago, 38, 39
Goods, British, 133, 134, 135, 137, 139
Goodyear, Professor, 7
Gordon, John, and Co., 152, 156
Gotera, 310, 311
Government, 14, 15, 17, 21, 23, 26, 32
British, 98
Governors, 16
Great Britain, 31
Grey, Sir Edward, Bart., 100, 105
Guarumal, 9
Guascoran River, 8
Guatemala, viii, 4, 5, 14, 15, 30, 38,
48, 50, 67, 74, 80, 81, 82, 83, 96,
97, 98, 119, 121, 129, 131, 138, 140,
143, 145, 152, 161, 172, 179, 180,
202, 212, 214, 218, 245, 248, 249,
295, 297
Guatemala, kingdom of, viii
Guerrero, Dr. G. G., 47
Guirola, Don Angel, 289
Guirola D., Don Rafael, 18, 36, 40,
41, 172
Guthrie, 0. S. S., 164
Gutierrez, General Rafael, 15
Guzman, Dr. D. J. , 265
Hague Conference, 46
Hamburg, 147, 168, 170, 219
Hardware, 135, 145
Harlan, Hollingsworth Company, 200
Havana, 10, 97
Havre, 219
Health, Council of, 18, 270
Heimke, Major W., 116, 117
Heimke, Mrs., 117
Hemmeler Guillermo, 176
Henequen, 229
Hernandes, General Gregorio, 24
Hidalgo, 13
High Court of Justice, 42
Hill, Lieutenant, 5
Hinds, John W., 203
Hispaniola, 1
Hogs, 231
Honduras, 3, 14, 38, 49, 50, 61, 62, 67,
68, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82,
83, 84, 85, 96, 97, 98. 118, 119, 121,
129, 161, 170, 172, 179, 181, 212,
214, 276, 282, 295, 297, 306, 310,
311
Honduras, war with, 38, 39, 40, 74
Hooper, A. H., 226, 227
Hospicio Guirola, 289
Hospitality, native, 273, 284
Hospitals, 17, 265 268, 269, 271, 272,
289
Hotels, 6, 236, 261, 280, 291, 293
House of Commons, 38
Hydrographic Office, U.S.A., 287
Ilobasco city, 282
volcano, 279
Ilopango, Lake, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 280,
300
Implements, Agricultural, 107, 147,
148
Imports and Exports, 58, 59, 105, 106,
107, 108, 144, 162, 163
Independence, 13, 249
India, 154
Industry (Fomento), Minister of, 18
Sub-Secretary, 18
Information Bureau, 44
Instruction, Military, 87, 88, 89
Minister of, 18, 26
Public, 18, 26
Sub-Secretary, 18, 26, 42
Intercontinental Railway Commission,
212
Interior, Minister of, 18, 23
Interior, Sub- Secretary, 18
Investments, United States, 159, 160,
161
British, 160
Indigo, 108, 232, 233, 237, 282, 283,
285, 288, 302, 307
Iron and Steel Trades, 135
Italy, 147
Iturbide, Agustin VIII., 13, 14
Izalco City, 290
District, 230
volcano, 4, 248
Jamaica, 235, 240, 242
Jerez, 30
Jerusalen, 305
Jiboa, River, 6, 8
Jiquilisco, Bay of, 232, 313, 315
Jocoro, 9
Jucuapa, 9, 12, 36, 313, 315
volcano, 315
Judice, Miguel, 172
Judicial, 15
Justice, Administration of, 18
INDEX
325
Justice and Beneficence, Minister of, 18
Sub-Secretary of, 18, 42
Justices, 19
Junta, Provisional, viii, ix
Jutiapa, 282
Keilhauer, Rene, 213, 214
Keith, Minor C., 214, 215
Kelly, Mark Jamestown, 45, 51, 53,
114, 115, 116, 151, 164, 201, 203,
207, 211
Kinnon, Lieutenant, 287
Kuox, Philander, 122, 126
Kosmos Company, 219
Labour, 311
La Ceiba, 51, 304
Lagos, Ingeniero Jose Maria Peralta,
18, 36, 42
Laguna Finca, 153
La Libertad, 1, 9, 11, 28, 32, 58, 146,
167, 220, 223-227, 232, 234, 248,
271, 276, 287-290, 297, 300
Lamport and Holt, 219
Lancaster C. and W. Co., 200
Land Law, 228, 229
La Paz, Department of, 28, 234, 247,
248, 278, 284, 287, 300, 301, 305
Latin- American trade, 120
Latin Republics, v, vii, viii, x
La Union, 8, 9, 24, 25, 28, 58, 69, 167,
202, 213, 216-220, 226, 266, 286,
309, 311
La Union Department, 12, 28, 306,
311-313
Law, Criminal, 19
Lazarettos, 270
Lefferts, Miss Anne E., 98
Lefferts, John, 98
Legal procedure, 19
Legation, British, 97, 128
United States, 16, 117, 127
Legislative, 15
Leiva, Nicolas, 48
Leiva, General Pcnciano, 39, 74
Lempa River, 3, 11, 232, 276, 314
Ley land Line, 219
Liberals, viii, ix
Limon, Port of, 136
Linares, 11
Liquors and beers, 158, 159
Liverpool Consul for Salvador, 48
Llanos. Colonel Armando, 88
Loans, 'foreign, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 57, 115
London, 168, 170
Lopez, Dr. Fernando, 38
Lumber, 108
Machinery, 135, 151
agricultural, 107, 147, 148
mining, 182, 189, 190
Madriz, Jose, 81, 82
Maida, ix
Maize, 229, 232, 240, 316
Manufacturers, British, 138, 139, 141
native, 163, 276, 277, 285, 291,
307, 311, 312
Marine, War and, 18
Markets, 292, 299
Marriages, 27
Martin, Ernesto, 81, 82
Mason, Marcus, and Co., 152
Mathies, C. G., 176
Maximilian, 10
Medical College, 28
Medicines and drugs, 107, 157
Medina, General, 39, 74
Mejia, Federico, 117
Melendez, Carlos, 38
Mencia, Manuel Lopez, 56
Menendez, General F., 15, 39
Mercedes, 12
Mercenaries, United States, vi
Mercury, 295
Metapan, 9, 11, 297, 299
Mexican Commission, 97
Mexico, vi, viii, ix, 4, 10, 13, 21, 30,
50, 62, 75, 97, 116, 132, 143, 160,
161, 231, 236, 245, 278
Michaelson, Fedor, 226, 227
Militia, 38
Miller, J. Imbrie, 287
Mine production, 186
Miners, native, 184, 195
Mines in operation, 185
Mining, 9, 181-195
Minister of Education, 26, 42, 266
of Finance, 18, 117
of War, 86
Ministry, 18
Minor courts, 19
Miranda, General, 74
Mission to Coronation, H.M. George V.,
46, 47
Momotombo volcano, 4
Monarchy, Spanish, vii, viii
Moncagua, 306
Monroe Doctrine, 130
Monuments, public, 274, 275
Morales, Don Agustin, 127
Morazan Department, 28, 247, 306,
310, 311
Morazan, General Francisco, 14, 15,
275, 310
Morelia, 13
Morgan, J. Pierpont, 161
Mortality, 268
Mortgage Bank, 177
Municipalities, 16, 17
Municipal Treasury, 18
Nahuizalco, 290
National Assembly, 15, 19, 38
326 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
National Bank, 172, 174, 175, 176
National Chamber of Deputies, 15
Congress, 33, 44, 47, 53
National Institute, 265
Library, 265
Palace, 274
Theatre, 151, 257, 260, 261, 263,
264, 274
National University, 22, 30, 42, 45,
265
Native manufacturers, 163, 276, 277
types, 244
New San Salvador (Santa Tecla), 9, 25,
46, 93
New York, 168, 170
Nicaragua, 4, 14, 15, 50, 61, 67, 68,
71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 96, 140,
172, 179, 180, 212, 214, 249
war with, 40
Nicaraguan Navy, 73
North American Filibusters, vi, 61
Occidental Bank, 172
Olocuilta, 300
Opico, 9, 287
Opposition, Spanish, vi
Otaco, 295
Ottley, Miss Lucy, 97
Ozatlan, 315
Pacas, Dr. Jose Rosa, 117
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 129
Steamship Navigation Company,
218, 219
Palacio Nacional, 277
Palmer, Frederick, 163
Palomo, Tomas, G., 268
Pamphlets in Spanish, 147
Panama, 136, 172, 223, 226
Canal, 159
Railroad, 136
Pan-American Bureau, 113
Railway, 136, 214
Parcels Post, 31
Parks, public, 258, 259, 283, 289
Parras Lempa, 35
Pasaquina, Battle of, 39
Paz, River, 1, 8
Peace Conference, Central American,
33, 118, 119, 214
Peasants, 243-246
Penitenciaria, Central, 21
Santa Ana, 22
Peralta, Don Jose Maria, 36
Peralta, Senorita Maria, 36
Peru, 4, 21, 131, 132, 202
Pharmacy Law, 157
Pinto, Alberto, 12
Pinto, Miguel, 178
Pitt, William, 38
Planters and trade, 209, 210
Police, 18, 23-25
Police, Director-General of, 23
superior officers, 23
Polytechnic, 88-90
Population, 2, 4, 217, 224, 244, 246,
257, 277, 279, 283, 289, 295, 301,
309, 311, 314, 315, 316
Portillo, A. R., 177
Port Limon, 136
Ports, 11, 32, 216, 226, 271
Postal Administrator, 35
agencies, 35
Convention, 31
service, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35
Poste Restante, 34
Post Office, 18, 30, 33-35
British, 33
Posts, Department of, 30
Potatoes, 240
Potteries, 277
Poultry, 231
Poverty, absence of, 277
Presa General, 69
Presidential Designate, 38
President M. E. Araujo, 15, 17, 36,
40, 43, 47, 84, 85, 114, 246, 273
Presidents, 14-17
Press, 177-180, 227
Association, Central American, 179
Prieto, Don Carlos G., 18, 36, 43
Printing establishment, 18
Prisons, 20
Procedure, legal, 19
Proclamation to people, 62 "63
Progreso, El, 290
Prosperity, general, 277, 295, 296, 299
Protection, 132
Provisional Junta, viii, ix
Public Credit, Minister of, 18
Sub-Secretary, 18
Public Debt, 57
Public Instruction, Minister of, 18, 26
Sub-Secretary of, 18, 26, 42
parks, 258, 259, 283, 289
Works, Sub-Secretary of, 42
Puerto Cortes, 68
Quezaltepeque, 287
volcano, 288
Quinonez, Dr. A., 265
Quiros, Guillermo, 11
Race, Spanish, v
Railways, new, 212-215, 286, 287, 309
Railway subsidy, 52, 54
finance, 55
Regol^do, General Tomas, 15, 67
Religion, 28, 259
Religious instruction, 28
Republic, Federal, 14
Republics, Latin, v, vii, viii, x
Restaurants, 158
Revenue and expenditure, 55, 56, 57,
58, 59. 69, 236, 237
INDEX
327
Revolution, 63
French, viii
Rice, 108, 229, 248, 276, 282, 288
Rice machinery, 156
Rivas, Manuel, 61, 63, 64
Rivas, R. Mayorga, 177
Roads, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 299, 303, 304
Roman Catholics, 259
Roosevelt, President, 117, 118, 121
Rosales, Don Jose, 266
Rozeuraad, C., 164
Rubber, 108, 229, 238, 239
Rum, 236
Sabana Grande, 39
Sailing vessels, 109
Saliua Cruz, 204, 205, 226, 227
Salvador Chamber of Commerce (Lon-
don), 115
invasion of, 61-64
Railway, 9, 35, 50, 52, 54, 61,
114, 115, 136, 164, 196-215,
223, 225, 299, 310
Salvador, ss., 201, 204-206, 225
Sanatoriums, 267, 268
San Alejo, 311
San Buena Ventura, 315
San Carlos, 310
San Francisco, 276
San Ignacio, 276
San Isidro, 282
San Jacinto, 6
San Jose, 136
San Miguel, 9, 19, 24, 25, 34, 45, 94,
176, 179, 202, 213, 232,
266, 286, 306, 309, 310
Department of, 12, 247, 282,
284, 287, 306-310, 311, 313
River, 3, 232
volcano, 4
San Pedro, 378
Mazahuat, 300, 305
Nonualco, 270, 300, 304
San Rafael, 276, 278, 301
San Salvador (capital), 9, 21, 24, 26,
28, 32, 51, 52, 141, 150-152,
176, 197, 198,225,249-270,
273, 274, 286, 309
Department of, 28, 234, 247,
248, 276, 278, 287, 300
volcano, 4, 248, 281
San Vicente volcano, 4
Santa Ana, 9, 11, 19, 24, 25, 28, 32,
34, 51, 52, 64, 90, 93, 95, 141,
176, 179, 197, 198, 202, 213
215, 266, 297-299
Barbara, 3'9
Department of, 12, 28, 234, 247,
270, 276, 287-290, 294, 297-299
Penitenciaria, 22
volcano, 3, 4, 281
Santa Elena, 313, 315
Santa Maria Ostuma, 304
Santa Rosa, 9, 311
Santa Tecla (Nueva San Salvador), 9,
25, 46, 93, 179, 225, 257, 266, 237,
289, 289, 290
Santiago de Maria, 11
Nonualco, 300
San Vicente, 9, 25, 28, 38, 213, 256,
266, 286, 309
Department, 29, 39, 40, 234, 240,
245, 247, 278, 300, 301, 313
Sapotitan, 288
Scenery, 1
Scherzer, A. Z., 51
Schlensz, R., 176
School for Sergeants and Corporals,
88
School of Agriculture, 29
Schools, 27, 28, 29, 283, 314
Schwerin, H. T., 129
Secretaries of State, 18
Secretary of State (British), 99, 100,
105 '
Sensunapan River, 291
Sensuntepeque, 9, 141, 279, 292, 283
Service, Postal, 30, 31
Sesori, 306
Sheep, 230, 231
Sherrill, Charles H., 127
Shippers, advice to, 44
Shipping, 109, 129, 146, 187, 216, 218,
219, 220
Siege, state of, 69
Sitio del Nino, 9, 35, 51, 93, 197, 198
Smallpox, 270
Smoked meat, 158
fish, 158
Social customs, 158
Sociedad, 310
Societies, 264
Sonsonate, 3, 9, 24, 25, 28, 34, 51, 58,
61, 66, 141, 179, 197, 198, 230,
266, 290-294, 295, 297
Department of, 28, 234, 240, 245,
247, 288, 290, 294, 297
Soriano, Andres, 11
Spain, v, vi, vii, viii, 1, 13, 147
war with, v, vii
Spanish- American University, 37
Congress, 46
ion, vn
race, v
Spencer, C. T. S., 200, 201, 212, 310
Sport, 231
Squier, E. G., 127
State, Ministers of, 18
of siege, 69
Sub-Secretaries of, 18
Statistics, Trade, 105, 106, 107, 108
Steamships, 109, 129, 216, 218, 219,
220
Stewart, Charles, 202
328 SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Sub-Secretaries of State, 18
Subsidy, railway, 52, 54
Suchitote, 279
Sugar, 108, 225, 229, 232, 235, 236,
248, 285,288, 295, 307, 311, 316
machinery, 150, 152-155, 235
Superior officers of police, 23
Supreme Court, 18
Surgical College, 29
Swan, Hunter, and Co., 204, 205
Symons, G. T., 203
Tabanco, 181
Taxation, 236
Teaching staff, 28
Tecapa, 9
volcano, 4
Tecapan, 316
Tehuantepec Railway, 136, 204, 205,
206
Tejutepeque, 282
Tejutla, 276
Telegraph and telephones, 18, 31 , 297
Telegraphy, wireless, 32
Tellez, J. M. L., 177
Temperatures, 250, 256
Teotepeque, 287
Texistepeque, 297
Textiles, 134, 145, 162
Theatre, National, 151, 257, 260, 261,
263, 264
Theatres, 291
Timber, 240, 241, 285, 288, 291, 307,
312
Tobacco, 108, 158, 236, 237, 238, 248,
279, 280, 285, 295, 316
Toledo, General Salvador, 68
Tonacatepeque, 9
Trade, British, 98, 99, 105, 128, 125,
127, 129
foreign, 106 •
German, 108, 109
Latin-American, 120
statistics, 105, 106, 107, 108
Trading companies, 137, 138
Tramways, 160
Transportation, 196-215
Treasury, Municipal, 18
Treaties of commerce, 109, 112, 124,
126, 127, 320
Triana, S. Perez, 46
Triunfo, 11, 167, 226, 316
Troops, 86, 87, 88
Tuberculosis, 267, 268
Types, native, 244, 245
Ucleo, Alberto, 81, 82
Uluazapa, 306
United Fruit Company, 214, 218
Central America, 14
United States vi, 5, 10, 20, 21, 23, 27,
29,44, 62, 75, 96, 103, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109,
110, 111, 112, 117, 122,
123, 124, 126, 127, 128
144, 145, 151, 158, 159
capital, 159, 160, 161
Consul-General, 44, 116
Consuls, 112
Legation, 116, 117, 127
mercenaries., vi
steel, 135, 136
trade, 145, 146, 147
Universities, 28, 29, 314
University, National, 29, 30, 42, 45
Spanish -American, 37
Uriate, Juan R., 178
Uruguay, 230
Usulutan City, 213, 301, 314, 315
Department of, 12, 25, 247, 284,
306, 313-316
volcano, 4
Vaccination, direction of, 18, 270, 271
Valladolid, 13
Vice-Presidents, 16
Viceroys, Spanish, vii, viii
Victoria, 282
Vischer, Alfred, 87
Volcanoes, 1, 2, 4, 248, 251, 252, 256,
279, 280, 281, 284, 285, 288, 294,
297, 298, 304, 307, 311, 313
Walsh, George S., 203
War and Marine Sub-Secretary, 18
with Spain, v, vii
Weavers, native, 163
Wheat, 229, 240, 276
Wines and spirits, 158, 159
Wireless telegraphy, 32
Woods, precious, 240, 241
Woollens, 145, 163, 295
Xatruch, General, 74
Yams, 240
Yarns, 135
Yellow Fever, 272
Yudice, Dr. Federico, 272
Zacapa, 30, 215
Zacatecoluca, 9, 25, 223, 266, 300, 301,
303, 304
volcano, 4
Zaldivar, Dr. Rafael, 39, 46
Zapote Barracks, 88, 92, 274
Zaragosa, 225
Zclaya, General Jose" Santos, 14, 15,
56,61,62, 67, 68,71, 72,73,74,78,
79
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