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SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
FOR STUDENTS
A SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
FOE STUDENTS
BY ARTHUR A. MACDONELL
M.A., PH.D., LL.D.(Edin.), D.O.L. (Calcutta)
late Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University
of Oxford ; Hon. Fellow of Corpus Christ! College j
Fellow of the British Academy
THIRD EDITION
OXFOBD UNIVERSITY PRESS
5.V.O. Co
likranj
TIRUP1II.
Ace.
**
PKEFACE TO THIRD EDITION
IN preparing a new edition of this grammar I have found
misprints requiring correction to be few and insignificant.
The alterations that seemed necessary are nearly all concerned
with facilitating the use of the book for students. One of
these is the indication of the relevant number of chapter and
paragraph on the inside top corner of each page. Since the
grammar is intended to supply a complete account of Classical
Sanskrit, many paragraphs may be omitted till a later stage
of study. I therefore here append a list of those which are
essential for absolute beginners and thus constitute a virtual
primer of Classical Sanskrit.
I: 1-7, 8-12, 13. II: ]6-22, 27, 30-34, 36 A. B v 37, 38, 40,
42-44, 45, i. a, 52-55, 65, 67. Ill: 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 85,
87i9 } i, 97 i, IOT D(p. 63), 103, i, 2, 109-111, 120.
IV; 121-128, 131, 132 (only Pres. Par., pp. 92, 98), 135, 136,
138, i (only Jtud., Par.), 141 a (only Par.), 143, i (only Par.),
147 (only Par.), 148 (only a Dr. A. B. Keith
I am indebted for reading the proofs of this as well as of all the
other books I have published since 1900. I must take this
opportunity of thanking him not only for having read the proofs
of the whole of my Vedic Grammar, but also for having passed
several sheets of that work through the press for me during my
absence in India between September, 1907, and April, 1908.
A. A. MACDONBLL.
107 BANBUKT EOAD, OXFOBD.
July, 1911.
a 2
INTRODUCTION
BRIEF HISTORY OF SANSKRIT GBAMMAR
THE first impulse to the study of grammar in India was given
by the religious motive of preserving intact the sacred Vedic texts,
the efficacy of which was believed to require attention to every
letter. Thus, aided by the great transparency of the Sanskrit
language, the ancient Indian grammarians had by the fifth cen-
tury B.C. arrived at scientific results unequalled by any other
nation of antiquity. It is, for instance, their distinctive achieve-
ment to have recognized that words for the most part consist on
the one hand of roots, and on the other of affixes, which, when com-
pounded with the former, modify the radical sense in various ways.
The oldest grammar that has been preserved is Panini's. It
already represents a fully developed system, its author standing
at the end of a loiig line of predecessors, of whom no fewer than
sixty-four are mentioned, and the purely grammatical works of
all of whom, owing to the excellence and comprehensiveness of
his work, have entirely perished.
Panini is considerably later than Yaska (probably about
500 B,C.), whom he mentions, and between whom and himself
a good number of important grammarians intervene. On the
other hand, Paniiu is much older than his interpreter Patafijali,
who probably dates from the latter half of the second century B. c.,
the two being separated by another eminent grammarian, Katya-
yana. Pftnini himself uses the word yavanml, which Kiityayana
explains as ' writing of the Tavanas ' (i.e. laones or Greeks). Now
it ig not at all likely that the Indians should have become
acquainted with Greek writing before the invasion of Alexander
in 327 B.C. But the natives of the extreme north-west, of
whom Panini in all probability was one, would naturally have
become acquainted with it soon after that date. They must,
howeve^, have grown familiar with it before a grammarian
would make a rule as to how to form from Tavana, 'Greek/
INTRODUCTION xi
a derivative form meaning 'Greek writing \ It seems therefore
hardly possible to place Pan in i earlier than about 300 B.C.
Panini's grammar consists of nearly 4,000 rules divided into
eight chapters. Being composed with the utmost imaginable
brevity, each Sutra or aphorism usually consists of only two or
three words, and the whole work, if printed continuously iu
medium-sized Devanfigarl type, would not occupy more than
about thirty-five pages of the present volume. And yet this
grammar describes the entire Sanskrit language in all the details
of its structure, with a completeness which has never been equalled
elsewhere. It is at oiice the shortest and fullest grammar in the
world.
In his endeavour to give an exhaustive survey of the bhasa
or classical Sanskrit with a view to correct usage, Panini went
on to include within the scope of his grammar the language of
the sacred texts, which was no longer quite intelligible. He
accordingly gives hundreds of rules about the Veda, but without
completeness. His account of the Yedic language, taken as a
whole, thus shows many gap?, important matters being often
omitted, while trifles are noticed. In this part of his work Panini
shows a decided incapacity to master his subject-matter, atlri-
" bating to the Veda the most unbounded grammatical license,
especially iu interchanging or dropping inflections.
The grammar of Panini is a Sabdanuiasana, or ' Treatise on
Words ', the fundamental principle of which is, that all nouios are
derived from verbs. Starting with the simplest elements into
which words can be analysed, root, affix and termination, Panini
shows how nominal and verbal stems are formed from roots and
complete words from stems. He at the same time indicates the
functions which words acquire by the addition of formative
elements and by being compounded with other words. It is a
peculiarity of Paniui's word-formation, that he recognizes deri*
vation by suffixes only. Thus when a verbal root like bhid, i to
pierce/ is used in the nominal sense of 'piercer', he has recourse
to the highly artificial expedient of assuming an imaginary suffix,
for which a blank is substituted I
Yaska records that the universality of Sakal&yana's principle
of nouns being derived from verbs was contested by Gargy&,
who objected to the forced etymologies resulting from a general
xii INTBODTJCTION
application of this principle. Gargya maintained that if aiva,
1 horse/ for instance, were derived from ai, 'to travel/ not only
would everything that travels be called aiva, and everything
he named after all its activities, but states of being (Ihwva) would
he antecedent to things (which are presupposed by those states).
Panini makes a concession to Gargya's objection by excluding
all words the derivation of which is difficult owing to their form
or meaning, as aiva, l horse/ go,' cow/ andpun^a/man/ Primary
nouns of this kind had been collected before Panini's time in a
special list, in which they were often forcibly derived from verbal
roots by means of a number of special suffixes. The first of these
suffixes being u 9 technically called un, the whole list of these
formations received the name of un&di (' beginning with tin').
Panini refers to all such words as ready-made stems, the formation
of which does not concern him.
The Unadi list which Panini had before him survives, in a
somewhat modified form, as theTJnSdi Sutra with the commentary
(dating probably from the thirteenth century JLD.) of Ujjvala-
datta. In its extant shape this Sutra contains some late words,
such as dlndra (Lat, denarius), a noun which cannot have come
into use in India much before 100 A.D.
The proper object of Panini's grammar being derivation, he
does not deal with phonetics as such, hut only incidentally as
affecting word-formation, or the combination of words in a
sentence. He therefore does not give general rules of phonetic
change, but since his analyses, unlike those of the Un&di Sutra,
move within the bounds of probability and are generally correct,
being in many cases confirmed by comparative philology, he
actually did discover several phonetic laws. The most important
of these was the interchange of vowels with their strong grades
gwa and vrddhi (cp. iy), which Grimin called ablaut, and
which comparative grammar traces to the original Indo-European
language. The other great phonetic discoveries of the Indians
had already been made by Panini's predecessors, the authors of
the original Prfiti&khyas, the phonetic treatises of the Vedic
schools.
P&nini also treats of the accents of words in derivation and in
the sentence, but with syntax in our sense he does not deal,
perhaps owing to the simplicity of the sentence in Sanskrit.
INTEODUCTION xiii
The general plan of Panini's work is as follows : Book i, con-
tains the technical terms of the grammar and its rules of inter-
pretation; ii. deals with nouns in composition antf case relations;
iii. teaches how suffixes are to be attached to verbal roots ; iv. and
v. explain the same process with regard to nominal stems ; vi. and
vii. describe the accent and phonetic changes in the formation of
words, while viii. treats of words in a sentence. This general
plan is, however, constantly interrupted by single rules or by
a series of rules, which were added by the author as a result of
progressive grammatical studies, or transferred from their natural
context to their present position in order to economize words.
In formulating his rules, Panini makes it his aim to express
them in as abstract and general a way as possible. In this he
occasionally goes so far as to state a general rule for a single
case; while, on the other hand, he sometimes fails to collect
a number of related phenomena under a single head.
In carrying out the principle of extreme conciseness dominating
his grammar, Panini resorts to various devices, such as ellipse of
the verb, the use of the cases in a special technical sense, and the
employment of heading rules (adhikara) which must be supplied
with a number of subordinate rules that follow. By such means
a whole rule can often be expressed by a single word. Thus the
ablative dJtatoh, literally 'after a root ', not only means 'to a root
the following suffixes are attached', but is also an adhikara extend-
ing its influence (anuvrtti) over some 540 subsequent aphorisms.
The principle of brevity is, moreover, notably applied in the
invention of technical terms. Those of Panini's terms which are
real words, whether they describe the phenomenon, as sam-dsa,
'compound/ or express a category by an example, as dvi-gu ('two-
cow'), 'numeral compound/ are probably all borrowed from pre-
decessors. But most of his technical terms are arbitrary groups
of letters resembling algebraic symbols. Only a few of these are
abbreviations of actual words, as it, 'indicatory letter/ from iti,
'thus.' Most of them are the result of great deliberation, being
chiefly composed of letters rarely occurring in the language. Thus
the letter I was taken as a symbol of the personal endings of the
verb ; combined with a cerebral t it refers to a primary tense or
mood, but combined with a guttural n it denotes a secondary
tense or mood. Thus lat, Zi'f, lut y let, lot, mean present, perfect,
xiv INTRODUCTION
future, subjunctive, and imperative respectively ; Ian, lun, lin,
imperfect, aorist, and potential.
Panini's grammar begins with the alphabet arranged on scien-
tific principles. To several of its letters is attached an it or
amtbandha (indicatory letter), by means of which can be formed
convenient contractions (called gratyahara) designating different
groups of letters. The vowels are arranged thus : a i w-n, r !"\
e o-n, at au~e. By means of the indicatory letter at the end of
the group, all the simple vowels can be expressed by ok, the
simple vowels together with the diphthongs by ac. As the last
letter in Sanskrit is A, written ha-l, the entire alphabet is ex-
pressed by the symbol al (much as if we were to express it by
az\ Indicatory letters are also attached to suffixes, roots, and
words in order to point to certain rules as applicable to them,
thus aiding the memory as well as promoting brevity.
Panini's work has two appendixes, to which it refers. , One of
these "is the Dhaturpatha, or 'List of Verbal Roots', arranged
according to conjugational classes,. the mode of inflexion being
expressed by accents and indicatory letters. A striking fact about
this collection is that of its 2,000 roots (many of which are, how-
ever, merely variants of one form) only about 800 have yet been
found in Sanskrit literature, while it omits about fifty Vedic verbs.
The second appendix is the Qana-patha, or 'List of Word-
' ' groups '. Panini gives rules applicable to the whole of a group
by referring tq^ its first word. This collection, which contains
many words occurring in Vedic works only, has been less well
preserved than the Dhatit-patha. The Ganas were metrically
arranged in the G^na-rcUna^mahodcidhi, or 'Ocean of the Gems
of Word-groups J j a work composed by Vardbamana in 1140 A. D.
Ponini's work very early acquired a canonical value, and has
continued, for at least 2,000 years, to be the standard of usage
and the foundation of grammatical studies in Sanskrit. On
account of the frequent obscurity of a work which sacrifices
every consideration to brevity, attempts soon began to be made
to explain it, and, with the advance of grammatical knowledge,
to correct and supplement its roles. Among the earliest attempts
of tbifl kind was the formulation, by unknown authors, of. rules of
interpretation {jpar&kcbd), which. Panini was supposed to have
followed in his grammar, and which are mentioned by his sue*
INTRODUCTION
xv
cessor Katyayana. A collection of such rules was made in the
eighteenth century by Nagoji-bhatta in his Paribhdsendu-^ekhara,
or 'Moon-crest of Interpretative Rules'.
Next we have the Varttikas, or c notes' (from vrtti, ' explana-
tion'), of Katyayana, on 1,245, or nearly one-third, of Panini's
aphorisms. That grammarian belonged to the Deccan, and pro-
bably lived in the third century B. c, When Katyayana's criticism
shows him to differ from Panini, an oversight on the part of the
latter is usually to be assumed ; but in estimating the extent of
such oversights, one sbould not leave out of account the fact" ihat
Katyayana lived both later and in a part of India far removed
from that of Panini. Other grammarians made similar notes on
Panini both before and after Katyayana ; subsequent to the
latter's time are the numerous grammatical Karikas or comments
in metrical form.
All this critical work was collected by Patafijali in his extemivo
Mahabl&sya, or ' Great Commentary ', with many supplementary
notes of bis own. His discussions take the form of a kind of
dialogue, and deal with 1,713 rules of Panini. a PataRjali'H work
probably dates, as has been said, from the latter half of the
second century B.C. The MaJiabhdpya in its turn was com-
mented upon in the seventh century by Bhartrhari iu his V&k-
yapadlya, or ' Treatise on the Words in a Sentence ', which ia
concerned with the philosophy of grammar, and by Kaiy&ta
probably in the thirteenth century.
About 650 A.D. was composed another commentary on Pfmiux,
the Kd&ka Vrtti, or ' Benares Commentary', the first five bookfl
being the work of Jayuditya, the last three of V&matia. Baaed
on a deteriorated text of Panini, it contains some errors, but hits
the merit of conciseness and lucidity. Though much shorter
than the Mahabh&sya, it is particularly valuable as the oldest com-
mentary on Panini that explains every Sutra. The eacum^lvfl that
it gives in illustration are, as a rule, derived from older inter-
preters. Such borrowing was a usual practice; oven Pittnft-
jali speaks of stock examples as mfirdhdbhipikta, or c conHccnitetT
(lit. ' sprinkled on the head ').
In the fifteenth century Hamacandra endeavoured m his /V/*-
kriyarkaumudl, or ' Moonlight of Method ', to m*ko i'&nim'*
grammar more intelligible by rearranging its mutter iu a iuuro
xvi INTBODTJCTION
practical way. The SiM&nta~kaumucfc f or 'Moonlight oi
Settled Conclusions ', in which Bhattoji in tbe seventeenth centur?
disposed Panioi's Sutras in a more natural order, had a siimlai
aim. An abridgement of this work, entitled Laghu-fyiddhanla-}
kaumu&i or ' Short Moonlight (of Settled Conclusions)*, by Vara-
daraja, is commonly employed as a useful introduction to the
native system of grammar. A belief in the infallibility of Panini,
which still prevails among the Pandits, has often led the above-
named interpreters, from Pataftjali onwards, to give forced
explanations of PSnini's rules.
Other later grammarian?, not belonging to the school of Panintj
are on the whole of little importance. While adducing hardly
any new material, they are much less complete than Panini, since
they omit whole sections, such as rules about Vedic forms and
the accent, Introducing no new points of view, they aim solely
at inventing technical devices, or at presenting their subject in
a more lucid and popular form. Among these non-PSninian
grammarians may be mentioned the names of Candra 1 , who flour-
ished about,6go A, D *; the pseudo-S&katayana, who was posterior
to theoa Vrtti ; and the most important of them,Hemacandra
(twelfth century). The Katanira by J3krva-v&rman (of uncer-
tain date), whose terminology has striking affinities with older
works, especially the Prati&khyaa, seems to have been the most
influential of these later grammars. It served as a model for the
standard PfiK grammar of Kaccayana, and the native grammars
of the Dravidians and Tibetans. Vopadeva's Mugdha-bodha, or
'Enlightenment of the Ignorant ', a very technical work dating
from the thirteenth century, has beeo, down to the present day,
the Sanskrit grammar chiefly used in Bengal Lastly, we have
tlw Saraswrti Sutra^ or 'Aphorisms of the Sarasvati Grammar ',
by an unknown author, a work distinguished by lucidity as well
as conciseness.
9 *AFMU1CTJUOOB*
There are, besides, a few works dealing with special depart-
ments of the subject, which form contributions of some impoitance
to our knowledge of Sanskrit grammar. The PMp Sutra of
1 Hi* Grammar, tix> C&ndrfi-rydkarnna, has been edited by Prof. Bruno
&*&<& (Let&g, 1902).
> * See Vicww. Oriental JowitaJ, I& 308-15 ; Wvnternits, GescUicbte der
mc&atat Litteratttr, H, p, 959.
INTRODUCTION xvii
gfantanava, composed later than the Mahabhasya, but at a time
when there was still a living knowledge of the ancient accent,
gives rules for the accentuation of nouns, not according to the
analytical method of Pfinini, but with reference to the finished
word. As Panini does not determine the gender of individual
words, though he treats of feminine suffixes and does not ignore
differences of gender in general, some value attaches to works
dealing with the subject as a whole, especially tp Hemacandra's
LingQrvuiasana, or * Treatise on Gender '.
The first Sanskrit grammar ever written by a European was
composed by the German missionary Heinrich Roth, a native of
Augsburg, who died at Agra in 1668, as Superior of the Jesuit
College in that city. This work was never published, but the
manuscript is still preserved at Rome, There is, however, in
Kircher's China Illustrate*, (Amsterdam, 1667), pp. 16263, a
contribution by Both, which contains an account of the Sanskrit
alphabet with five tables in Devanfigari characters (undoubtedly
the earliest specimens of that script to be found in any book
printed in Europe) l .
The first printed European- 'Sanskrit grammar was that of
Paulinus a Saucto Bartholomaeo, written in Latin and published
at Borne in 1790. This work was based partly on the. MS.
material left by a German Jesuit missionary named Hanxleden,
who died in 1732. The first scientific grammar aiming at com-
pleteness was that of Colebrooke, published in 1805. It was
followed by that of Carey in 1806. The former work was based
on Panini, the latter on Vopadeva. The earliest Sanskrit
grammar written on Euiopean principles, and therefore of most
influence on the study of Sanskrit at the beginning of the last
century, was that of Wilkins (1808). The most notable among
his successors have been Bopp, Benfey, and Whitney. Bopp's
grammar was important owing no less to its lucidity than to its
philological method. Benfey was the first to combine with the
traditional material of Pfinini a treatment of the peculiarities of
the Vedic and the Epic d'ialects. He also largely used the aid
of comparative philology for the explanation of Sanskrit forms.
The American scholar Whitney was the first to attempt an
1 See Zachariae in the Vienna Oriental Journal, 15, 313-20.
xviii INTBODTTCnON
historical grammar of Sanskrit by treating the Vedic language
more folly, and explaining from it the development of classical
Sanskrit. The first grammar treating Sanskrit entirely from
tiie comparative point of view is the excellent work of Prof.
J. Wackernagel, of which,, however, only the first volume, dealing
with phonology (1896), and the first part of the second volume
(*95; treating of compounds, have yet appeared.
The best known of the Sanskrit grammars used in this country
during the latter half of tlxe nineteenth century are those of
Monier- Williams and Mas Mtiller. Both of these contain much
matter derived from the native system that is of no practical
utility, hut rather an impediment, to the student of literary
Sanskrit. All such matter has been eliminated in the present
work, not from any prejudice against the Indian grammarians,
hut solely with the intention of facilitating the study of the
subject by supplying only such grammatical data of the actual
language as have heen noted by scholars down to the present
time, Vedic forms have also been excluded, hut in order to
furnish English and Indian students with the minimum material
necessary for "beginning to read works written in the older
language, a brief outline of Vedic Grammar is given in
Appendix in. My recently published Vedic Grammar being too
elaborate for elementary students, I hope to briog out, as a
parallel to the present work, a simplified v edic Grammar, in-
cluding syntax, which will afford beginners the same help in
the stody of Vedic literature as this grammar does in that of
Sanskrit.
Though the accent is never marked in classical Sanskrit, I
have, owing to its philological importance, indicated it here in
tasmsHteraied words as far aa it can be ascertained from Vedic
texte. A sbort aceouat of the Vedio accent itself will be found
CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
INTRODUCTION: BRIEF HISTORY OF SANSKRIT GRAMMAE .
TABLE OF THE DEVANAGARl LETTERS **
CHAPTER I : THE ALPHABET
Relation of Sanskrit to Yedlo and to the Indian Vernaculars
Origin of Indian Writing Arrangement of the Letters The
Vowels The Consonants The Numerical Figures Pronunciation . 1"
CHAPTER II : EUPHONIC COMBINATION
External Sandhi: Combination of Vowels and of Consonants-
Internal Sandhl : Combination of Vowels and of Consonants . . 1Q" ^
CHAPTER III: DECLENSION
Nouns : Consonant stems unchangeable changeable : -with Two
items ; with Three Stems Vowel stems Degrees of Comparison-
Numerals: CardinalsOrdinals Numeral Adverbs Pronouns : Per-
>nal Demonstrative Interrogative Relative Reflexive Possea-
Ive Compound Quantitative Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives
CHAPTER IV: CONJUGATION
Introductory The Present System First Conjugation Second
Conjugation The Augment Reduplication Terminations Para-
igms Irregularities The Perfect The Aorlst : First Aorist
lecond Aorist Benedict! ve Future Conditional Passive Par-
loiples Gerund Liflnittve-Derlvative Verbs : Causative Desi-
.erative Intensive Denominative
CHAPTER V: INDECLINABLE WORDS
Prepositions prepositional Adverbs Prepositional Substan-
Ives Prepositional Gerunds Conjunctive and Adverbial Particles
Qterjections 144-159
CHAPTER VI: NOMINAL STEM FORMATION AND
COMPOUNDS
Primary Suffixes Secondary Suffixes Gender Verbal Com-
ounds Nominal Compounds : Co-ordinatlves Determinatives :
Dependent and Descriptive Pofisessives 159-178
CHAPTER VII: SYNTAX
Introductory Order of Words The Article Number Con-
3rd Pronouns Use of the Cases Locative and Genitive
.bsolute Participles Infinitive Use of the Tenses Use of the
[cods-Conditional 178^209
PPBNDIXI: LIST OF VERBS 210-281
PPENDEC H: METRE IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT . . . 232-235
PPENDEC HI : CHIEF PECULIARITIES OF VEDIC GRAMMAR 286-244
ANSKRTT INDEX 245-250
ENERAL INDEX
THE DEVANAGARI LETTERS
- -~
VOWELS.
CHAPTEE I
THE ALPHABET
L Sanskrit (from sa?n-sltrta t 'elaborated') is that later phase
of the literary language of ancient India which is described in the
grammar of PSnini. In phonology it is practically identical with
the earlier Vtdio language. In accidence it has become different
from the dialect of the Vedas by a process, not of growth, but of
decay ; a large number of older forms, including the whole sub-
junctive mood and all the many infinitives save one, having entirely
disappeared, The chief modifications are in the vocabulary, which,
while it has lost much of its old material, has been greatly extended
by the accession of new words and new meanings. The difference,
on the whole, between the Vedic and the Sanskrit language may
be taken to be much about the same as that between Homeric and
Attic Greek.
2. From the Vedic language are descended the popular dialects
called Prakrit (* derived from the fundament/ i. e. from Sanskrit,
thence ' vulgar'). The oldest extant forms of these are preserved
in King A^oka's rock inscriptions of the third century B, c., one
of them, under the name of Pali, becoming the sacred literary
language of the Southern Buddhists. From the ancient Prakrits,
preserved in inscriptions, in entire literary works, and in parts
of Sanskrit plays, are descended most of the dialects of modem
India, PanjSbl, SindhI, Gujarat!, MarSthl, Hindi (which, with an
2 THE ALPHABET I
idmixtnre of Arabic and Persian, is called Urdu or Hindustani
BifcSn, and Bengali. The Dravidian dialects of Southern Indii
Tdtegu, Tamil, Ganarese, Malayalam, though non- Aryan, are fu
U* f Sanskrit words, , and their literatures are dominated by Sanskri
3- A form of Semitic writing was introduced into the north
of India by way of Mesopotamia, probably about 700 B, c
etriwst Indian adaptation of this script, known from coini
d inscription* of the third century B.C., is called BrahmT 01
* writing of BrahmaV Though written from left to right it bears
Atr t!oas of having once been written from right to left. From
"* *** descended all the later Indian scripts. The most
^ clra, J( s^ra, *&( ntrj-a.
^ r preceding a consonant or the vowel ^J r is written
with * placed at the top of the letter before which it is to
be sounded; e.g.TF% arka, *n*1 varsma; Pl^ufn* niri-tilu
Thw sign for ^ is placed to the right of any other marks at
the top of the same letter; e.g. "^S?" arkendu.
Iiist of Compound Consonants*
13. ^ k-ka.^f k-kha, ^ k-ca, ^ff k-ija, W k-ta, ?J5f k-t-ya,
f k-t-ra, Iff k-t-z-ya, ?i k-t-va, WT k-na, |p k-n-ya, ^T k-ma,
I k-ya, W or ^B k-ra, ^ or ^ k-r-ya, 9T k-la, 8p k-va,
^ k-r-yaj ^f or ^f kngra, ^pf k--nw. ^R k-s-ya, ^T k-s-va.
3 THE ALPHABET 7
kb-ya, *| kb-ra. J*l g-ya, H g-ra, TZf g-r-ya. ^f gb-na,
gb-n-ya, HT gb-ma, ^? gb-ya, ^T gb-ra. ^ A-ka, ^ ft-k-ta,
ii-k-t-ya, ^JJ fr-k-ya, ^ ft-k-sa, 3p ft-k-s-va, ^p ft-kba,
fi-kb-ya.Nfffi-ga, ^ ft-g-ya, ^ fi-gba,^ fi-gb-ya, ^ fi-gh-ra,
fi-fta, V fi-na, ^f ft-ma, ^gj d-ya.
c-ca, ^ c-cba, ^f c-ch-ra, ^ c-fla, ^T c-tna, ^T c-ya,
ch-ya, ^ ch-ra.--^55f j-ja, 5?J j-jha, 9 or Tf j-fia, ^1 j-fi-ya,
-ma, Tj-ya,^f j-ra,^T j-va. ^ fl-ca,t8T fi-c-ma, W fl-c-ya,
fS-cha, S 1 fi-jfti ^*Q ii']-ya,
f t-ta, 31 t-ya. 3J th-ya, ? tfi-ra, f d-ga, ^J d-g-ya,
^-gha, ^j" d-gli-ra, ^J ift fee perfect participle passive
up.
^Ri; a
' (from ^ ud, Vet 9 ).
II 27 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 13
Absence of Vowel Sandhi.
24* Inteij ectional particles consisting of or ending in vowels,
such as ^IT 5, ^ i, ^ n, ^ he, ^T^ 1 aho, are not liable to Sandhi :
1[ JTJ i indra, ' Indra'; ^T "WC * e^arn, f is it so indeed?'
^^7 VM^ aho apehi, ' Oh, go away.'
25. The vowels f^i, ^l u, 1? e, when dual terminations, nominal
or verbal, remain unchanged "before vowels (^ a not being elided
after this dual If e) ; they are called Pragrhya ( c separate *) The
final of TRTT ami, a uom. plural (of the pronoun ^tn asau, 112),
is treated in the same way.
E. g. "BR^ 1 ^ift" kavl imau, c these two poets ' ; 'BT^T'ft sadhu
imau, 'these two merchants'; ft% 1^ vidye ime, 'these two
sciences ' ; ili^T^ ^|^*^yScete artham, 'they two ask for money' ;
^H*n il-yit ami aavab, * those horses.*
26. In the Epics, the law-books, and other works not strictly
conforming to the classical standard, vowel Sandhi is seldom
applied between the first and second line (Pada) of a hemistich.
Combination of Final and Initial Consonants.
27. The rules of Sandhi are only applicable after the final con-
sonant of a word has been reduced to one of the eight allowable
(actually occurring) consonants at the end of a word in pausa, viz. :
d
xf n, *^n, J^m J
The thirty-four consonants given in the table (6) are reduced
to these eight, as follows :
A final must be hard and unaspirated, the palatals (including
^ s) and ^ h are replaced by ^5 k or <[ t (1 fl ty ^ n )> ^?
by ^ t, ?E^ s and ^ r by Visarga, while Uln, ^7 ^ N l and ^v do
14 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI II 28
not occur* Thua the second, third, and fourth column*, as well as
the second line (the palatals), disappear entirely, leaving only
four tenues in the first, three nasals in the fifth, and Viearga
alone in the sixth and seventh.
28. No word may end in more than one consonant, except
when^r precedes a final fk, 3 t, c^t, ^p, which is radical (or
substituted for a radical) and not a suffix. In the case of 'all
other combinations the final letter or letters must be dropped till
only one, in the form allowable as a final, remains. Thus ^q*<*J^
bhavant-s becomes ITf^bhavan, 'being' ; ^iftH^ abibhar-t=
"Hf^W abibhalj, 'he carried' (<^t is a suffix; "^ r must become
Visarga); but ^F^urk, 'strength 1 (qg k substituted for radical
*U); ^WT^ amSrt, 'he wiped,' from *JW x mrj (^ t substituted
for radical
Classification of Consonants.
29. Place or organ of articulation.
i. The throat, the iwilate, the roof of the month, the teeth, the
lips, and the nose are called the places or organs of
articulation.
a. By contact between the tongue and the four places throat,
palate, roof, teeth the guttural, palatal, cerebral, and
dental consonants are formed.. Labial consonants are
formed by contact between the lips.
3* la forming the namls of the five classes, the breath partially
posses through the nose while the tongue or the lips are in
the position for articulating the corresponding tenuis. The
seal AatOT&ra is formed in the nose only, while the tongue
Is fa* lie position for forming the particular vowel which the
accompanies.
II 30 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 15
4- The semivowels ^ y, ^ r, ^ 1, f v are palatal, cerebral,
dental, and labial respectively. They are described by the
old Indian grammarians as produced by partial or imperfect
contact of the tongue with the organ of articulation, ^f 1
often interchanges with or is derived from ^ r.
5- The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by partial
contact of the tongue with the. palate, roof, and teeth
respectively. Sanskrit has not preserved any of the
corresponding soft sibilants (English z, French j).
6. ^ h and I h are respectively soft and hard spirants produced
without any contact, and articulated in the position of the
vowel which precedes or follows-. ^ h, corresponding to
the second half of the soft aspirates g-h, ]-h, d-h, b-h, from
which it is in fact derived, occurs only before soft letters.
Visarga, corresponding to the second half of the hard
aspirates (k-h, &c.), occurs only after vowels and before
certain hard consonants. In India Visarga is usually
articulated as a hard h, followed by a very short echo of the
preceding vowel; e.g. qi: kali=kah a ,^Sfir: kavit==kavih l ;
30. Quality of consonants*
Consonants are
i. either hard (surd, voiceless) : columns i, 2, 7 in the table,
p-4;
or soft (sonant, voiced) : all the rest (columns 3, 4, 5, 6) and
AnusvSra (besides all the vowels and diphthongs).
3. either aspirated : columns 2, 4, 7, besides ^ h (in 6) ;
or unaspirated : all the rest.
Hence the change of ^ c to ^ k is a change of place (palatal
to guttural), and that of ^ c to ^ j is a change of quality (hard
to soft) ; while the change of ^ c to *^g (hard palatal to soft
1 6 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANBHI II 3 1
guttural), or of ?^t to Sfj (hard dental to soft palatal) is one of
"both place and quality.
31. It is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi cannot
"be applied till finals have been reduced to one of the eight allow-
able letters (2*7). The latter are then modified without reference to
their etymological value (except partially in the case of Visarga).
Only six Of these finals occnr at all frequently, viz. ^|[ k, ?t, *^n,
^p, ^ m, and Yisarga. The changes which final consonants
undergo are most conveniently treated with reference to (I) their
quality, (II) their place or organ.
I. Change* of Quality.
32. Final consonants must be soft before soft initials, and hard
before hard initials.
a. This rule affecls only the five 'final hard consonants (^jk,
^ %, *^t, t^p j and ; b) t the nasals (6; 36) not being liable to
changes of quality (but two of them,^n,,^m, are liable to changes
of place, like the two hard sounds ?^t and Visarga : 37).
Hence final ^| k, ^ }, ^ t, ^ p before sonants become
d, ^ d, W^b respectively ; e.g.
samyag uktam, ' well said ' ; f^[ TO: = ft[T*W: dig-gajal?
* world-elephaiit/ 1|(\41^ ''^^F^ = Mf\fll^t*l*i parivr4
,'ne (is) a mendicant '; ^l\^^^^ l^Bgf?C = Mf\g| If ^Pl
pariTra^ gacchafci, ' the mendicant goes.' STf^t ^HT
aaiid afera, *tlu> river here '; ?Tf^\nj:=Tr^^j: mahad-dhanub,
*a lATge bow.* ^QR^^ni^^pni kakub atra, 'a region
****** J ^nt ^i;=' I ^H: ab-iafe, f born in water. 5
r ^i ^ t ^t l^p, isteB followed by initial ^n or *^m,
,aad i^ practice almost iavwiahly do, become the correspond-
II 36 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 17
dig-nagalji or din-uagali, ' world-elephant ' ;
WlS|T*4: or ^4|fUU|: jagad-nathat or jagan-nathab,
' lord of the world ' ; ^RE *u<4! = q<+V= TrtRKTI^t'al labdham, ' that is taken.*
35. Since the nasals have no corresponding hard letters, they
remain unchanged in quality before hard letters ; but in several
cases a sibilant (after H.n) or cognate hard letter (after *^n or
^ n) is inserted between the two. An original palatal 'J ft or
cerebral TI^ n never occurs as a final letter (27). The guttural
vjp n, which is rare as a final, remains unchanged in that position,
but ^ k may be inserted after it before the three sibilants ; e. g.
ITTV ?$l pr&n s'ete or J4I& ?fa prSnk sete, ' he lies eastward/
Final Hm is liable to change before all consonants (42). Final
dental *^n remains unchanged before most letters, but is modified
before all palatals and cerebrals (except ^s), before the bard
dentals c^t and ^th, aud before the semivowel ^IJL Its treat-
ment requires a somewhat detailed statement.
38. A. The dental nagal ^n remains unchanged
i. before vowels (op. 52); e.g. ^iH.^^V^I tan uvaca/he apoke
to them.'
3. before* all gutturals, ^ k, ^kh, ^g, ^gh, as well as ^ h ;
6-g. fjFll^ 1*1, ^jf^^t^T buddhiman ko *pi, 'a certain wise
mail ' ; TTTH ^TT tan hatva, * having slain them.'
3. before all the labials, ^ p, t ph, ^b, T^bh, *^m; e.g.
i^cil*^ m^HTI, etan pasan, * these bonds ' ;
bandhavan mama, * my relatives. 3
4. before the soft dentals alatal8 ^J, ^Jh, and the palatal sibilant
tk* a^l cerebrals d and tlh to the cerebral
1 to nasalized W 1 Tvritten with
of
Te plural (in -joa) and the nominative
f . - .- +++*,*.* appears
in Sanskrit its use has been
of &&*i ^ n before hard palatals,
II 40 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 19
II. Changes of Place.
37- The only four final consonants liable to change of place
are the dental ?^ t aud ^ n, the labial ^ m, and Visarga.
a. The dentals become palatal and cerebral before palatals and
cerebrals respectively.
b. Visarga and, to a less extent, *^m adapt themselves to the
organ of the following consonant.
1. Final c^t.
38. Final ?^t before palatals (^c, ^ ch, 3TJ, HJh, ^ s) is
changed to a palatal (^ c or ^J) ; e.g. TTc^ ^=*W tac ca,
'and that'; 7T?^fift*lf 13 H = dP*fe*lPH tac chinatti, 'he cuts that' ;
?rafl<<^ taj jiiyate, ' that is born ' ; Wc^ ^UlVf^ =
ffl *HU srnoti, but in practice) n^uHRf tac c-hvnoti 1 I
' he hears that.'
39. Final c^t liefore 3 ti ? &, ^ ^!R ^t = ^ ^Tft (or IT^Tff) s'atrum jahi (or
'kill tbe enemy '; ftj^ ^^^=^1 TRI^ (or
(or kim phalam), 'what (is) the use? '
(or
guruni namati (or gurnn
the teacher >;
aastram mimSipsate (or sSstram
book.'
t, 3 th, and
* ^ >
Sandhi of the Vedic lauguag-e.
II 44 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 21
of final ^ n before the soft palatals WJ, ?J jh (40), the soft
cerebrals ^ d and dh (41), and the dental *^n ; and with that
of final c^ t before ^ n (33) ; thus e. g. in qi|vni*t ^
kiintau na the first word may represent Hie ace* pi. masc. 3RT-
?fT*t.k&ntan (36 A 4), the abl. sing. masc. ^Br^l^ kantat (33),
or the ace. sing. fein. UT*nTl. kantam (42 B 2).
4. Final Visarga.
43- Visarga is the spirant to which the hard ^ s and the cor-
responding soft ^ r are reduced in paiisa. If followed by a
hard letter
1. a palatal, cerebral, or dental (^ c, ^ ch ; Z t, ^ th ; ?^ t,
^th), it is changed to the sibilant (^s, t^s, ^*) of the class to
which the following letter belongs ; e.g. "
purnas candi-al;, 'the full moon '; 'TOT:
nadyas tirani, ' the bank of the river.'
2. a guttural or labial (^ k, ^f kh, ^ p, Ifi ph), it remains
unchanged 1 ; e.g. TfTf* ; EfSTT! tatah kamal;, ' thence love '; 'TOT''
MT^*^ nad yak pajara, ' the opposite shore of the river.*
3. a sibilant, it remains unchanged or may be assimilated 2 ;
e -g- $H* fit^J* suptali sisuli or ^JHHW^J* * tho child is asleep * ;
IRW; 'GT'h prathamat sargah or w^^y<|: prathamas eargfi^i,
' the fii'st canto.'
44. Yisarga (except when preceded by ^ a or ^Jf S) if followed
by a soft letter (consonant or vowel) is changed to ^ r; e.g.
avir ayam, * this poet ' ;
gaur gacchati, 'the cow walks ';
va3 r ur vat i, ' the wind blows.'
1 Cp. the treatment of *^n before hardiautes, 36 A 2, 3; B i.
3 This assimilation was undoubtedly the original Sandhi, and is
required by some of the ancient Vedic phoneticians.
22 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI IT 45
45. i* Tlte fiwtl syllable W! fib drops its Visarga before vowels
tr uJt coaso&ants; e.g, icqi** ^Wpftrr^nn Vft asvil aim,
'thi potto htvearrnwr; f?TT; Wf.'- ?lefi ^r; aJ; and ^: a^i, in the fe* instances 1
Ti represents an etymological T r, are not
txrepiional rule stated in 43. In other word*
reVeHin ^ to ^ ai> ft ^ ^ Br, in this case
ap,
blufitar dehi, 'brother,
dv5r e?5j - thffi doof/
r b rfwa y d ^PPed, a preceding short
vidhu
K -tlSti^ "**' '^ IW^tar, 'within';
U 'mlT/^ '**' ^ dTSr> ' *"*' ^^ var '
^^JJ^JTL^Ll?^ pit " ** ?o.) i
. aing. imperf.
II gi EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 23
i-Etjate, 'the moon shines '; tptt ^jf^lpn 1 "^*ft puna rogi,
' ill agftin/
48. The two pronouns m sal?, ' that/ and TJ^: esah, ' this '
(no a), retain Yisarga at the end of a sentence only, but
become ?t so and T^ft eso before ^f a (45, 2 l>) ; e.g. ^ft
<^Tf?f=*r <^ *.*l* dll5:vafs
chalatt, "a running hare. 1
r Ibe same change is allowed after ^1 k, Z t, ^p, though not
nsuaily apj^ied ; ^l^rt^ vak-satam may become
*a hundred speeches.*
InJtiai ^ h, after softening a preceding 3
to iKa soft aspirate of the preceding letter; e.g.
ghi, ( for speech' ; 7R^ ff ^^T tad dhi,
55- If ^gfe, ^dfe t ^bh, or 1 h are at the end of a (radical)
begmaing i?iik ^g, ^ d| ^b, and lose their Aspiration
initb! consonants are aspirated by way
.
n\itt^ m . 3 i>t ^ fo ^riguua initial -aspiration of such
**$**, *4 Sawfctt) by the operation of
^wfc tiu feud w|mto ^si^jpeared the initial
^
II 59 INTERNAL SANDHI 25
B. Internal Sandhi.
56. The rules of internal Sandhi apply to the finals of nominal
and verbal stems before all terminations of declension (except
those beginning with consonants of the middle stem : 73 a) and
conjugation, "before primary suffixes (182, l),ancl before secondary
suffixes (182, 2) beginning with a vowel or ^y. They are best
acquired "by learning paradigms of nouns and verbs first. Many
of these rules agree with those of external Sandhi ; the most
important of those which differ from external Sandhi are here
added.
Final Vowels.
.57. In many cases before a vowel (and even the same vowel)
^ i and %^ I are changed to ^^iy ; ^ u and ^T u to ^^ uv ; ^ T
to H^ ir (cp. 18 and 20) ; e.g. \ft dhi-f^i = f%rf^T dhiy-i, loc.
sing., ' in thought'; *^+^ i = gf3[ bhuv-i, 'on earth ';
yu-yu + u V = g^g * yu-yuv-ut, 'they have joined';
gf + ati=(it,rn gir-ati, ' he swallows.'
58. Final *{ f - before consonant tenninations is changed to
|j^ Ir, after labials to ^T^ ur ; while ^ r (after a single con-
sonant) before ^y becomes ft ri (154, 3); e.g. ^ gf, passive
pres. 3. sing. 'ft^Kl gfr-yate, ' is swallowed ' ; *ftlj: gTr-nai, past
pass, part., 'swallowed'; ^ PF P ass ' P res - %ffi pur-yate, 'is
fiUed'; past part., TJjtf: piir-nalj, 'filled'; QT kr, pass. pres.
f!|| ^i<\ kri-yate, ' is done.'
59- H e, ^ ai, ^t o, ^ au are changed before suffixes
beginning with vowels or ^ y to ^R^ay, 'JIT^Sy, ^l^av,
^ini^av respectively (21 ; 22); e.g. % + ^PT=*Iin nay-ana,
'eye'; J ^ + H=TT^' i^y-e, 'for wealth';
'faracow j j ift + ^Tt = TRt nav-afc, 'ships';
gav-yah, ' relating to cows.'
26 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI II 6-
Final Consonants.
60. The most notable divergence from external Sandhi is thi
unchangeableness of the final consonants (cp. 32) of verbal am
nominal stems before terminations beginning with vowels, semi-
vowels, and nasals 1 (while before other letters they usually follow
the tjiles of external Sandhi) ; e.g. TTTV pranc-ali, 'eastern';
vac-ani, ' let me speak,' flT*H vSc-ya, ' to be spoken,'
vac-mi, ' I speak * ; but ifW vak-ti, 'he speaks.'
61. Nominal or verbal stems ending in consonants, and followed
by terminations consisting of a single consonant, drop the ter-
mination altogether, two consonants not being tolerated at the
end of a word (28). The final consonant which remains is then
treated according to the rules of external Sandhi. Thus WT^-f
^prSfic+s, nom. sing., 'eastern/ becomes HT^ pr5h (the ^s
being first dropped, the palatals being changed to gutturals by
27, and the ^ k being then dropped by 28) ; similarly ^ ^.s) ;
e.g. ^Jff uk-ta, * spoken ' (from *P^ vac) ; ^W yuk-ta, 'joined '
(from ^ST^yuj); \^ rug-na, 'broken' (from ^^ruj ; cp. 65);
but XJ^ rat, om. sing, 'kiiig' (for TW v +^i'jH-s); ^^ mrd-
dhi,2.sing.imper.STipe J (from g^mrj): ^fras-tra, 'kingdom*
(from ^J^raj ; cp. 64).
b* *\i , before V dh, the middle terminations (73 a) and the nom.
^s, usually becomes ^ t * ^ ( J (sometimes { k or ^g); before
c^t, IT th, it always becomes TB^s (cp. 64), and before the ^s of
the future and of other conjugational forms, always ^ k; e.g.
from f%P^ vis we get fad^J vi^-su, 'in the settlers ' ; fTC vi^-t,
'entered'; ^^|fa vek-fyami (cp. 67), 'I shall enter.'
c. ^ c and ^j (not ^s) palatalize a following ^ n; e.g*
^TT^+TT yac+na=^rran ySc-fia, 1 request 1 ;
yaj-fla, ' sacrifice' ; but JHR pras'-na, 'question.'
1 Except in the case of the root VT dhn, 'place,' which has (according
to the analogy of a) \Wt dhat before ^ t and *T^th (eee below, J34i
third daw, i).
regularly becomes ^ k before a conjugational ^ a (cp. 144, 4)*
28 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI II 64
if. The ^ cb of the root Tf^ prach, 'ask,* is treated like *l>' :
Tre PTf-ta, * asked,' Uplift prak-syami, ' I shall ask, * TFR pras-
na, ' question.* (In external Sandhi, i.e. when final, and before
middle terminations, it becomes ^ t.)
64. Cerebrals change following dentals to cerebrals (cp. 39) ;
^+n is-hta=l^r ig.^ fished'; ftpG^+f%T dvis4-clhi=
dvid- and 67) j ^f%| dvek-fi, 'thou hatest,' from ft[^dvis.
65. Change of dental ^n to cerebral TS^n:
A preceding cerebral ^1 r, ^Jf, ^ r, ^s (even though a vowel,
agnttural,a labial, ^y, ^ v , ^ h, or AnusvSra intervene) changes
a dental *^n (followed by a vowel or *^n, ^m, ^y, t^v) to
cerebral ^t * * e. g- 3-f-TT^= 5WTR^ nr-nam, ' of men ' T ^ff J
kar-naV, ' ear * ; ^TOR^dus-anam, c abiifle ' (a vowel intervenes) ;
^^^n, bfiph-anani, ' nourishing ' (Anusvara, f h, vowel) ; ^HTT
arkena, 'by the snn' (guttural and vowel); fa<~Uj: ksip-nut,
' throwing J (rowel and lalnal); T J|i=mTpremnS, < by love' (diphthong
aad labial); Wf^i: brahman-ya^, 'kind to Brahmins ' (vowel, * h,
labial, Towel; ^n followed by l^y); fiR^: nisan-nab, 4 seated '
(*l H fo31o ^ed by ^n, vhich is itself assimilaied to T^n) ;
pa^na/|enany ' (vowel, ^y, vowel) .
Bt %4^*t ^ a or ^ a (even though Anusvara
or Yisarga intervene], aa weU aw ^ k and ^ r, change dental
^ (followed by a vowel, ^ t, fT^th, ^ n, ^ m, ^y, ^v) to
cerebral ^3 ; e. g, from ^rfXR^ eai-pis : 4]flfoT sarpis-a, ' with
^ianfied batter % ^pjfft aarpTmsi, nom. pL; *rf$:i| sarpUtsu,
be. pL (cp.43, 3); from ^TT^vac: ^TH| vak-su, loc. pi., *in
*; fromft^ gir : ^ gftr-sa (82), loc. pL, 'in
d, 'gtands/ from ^JT stha; 'stand';
w3l be/ from ^bhs, 'be'; ^tq susvapa, ' he
>* fne& ^^svap, 'sleep' ; from ^pp^ caksus :
eeaifigejres^ but ^: sarpit^ (final) ;-
*^ mind ' (a pawedea} j flfaM*i tamis-ram, ' dark-
II 69 INTEENAL CONSONANT SANDHI
Table showing when ^s changes to ^s
31
Vowels except ^f a, ^5fT S
(in spite of intervening
Antisvara or Visarga),
also k, T r,
change
to
if followed by
vowels,
Note. The rules about tbe changes of the dental ^n and ^s
to the corresponding cerebrals, should be thoroughly acquired,
since these changes must constantly be made in declension and
conjugation.
68. The labial ^ m remains unchanged before ^y, ^ r,
W^l (cp. 60 and 42 B i) ; but before suffixes beginning with "^v
it becomes *^n ; e.g. 3TPRT! kam-yak 'desirable/ TH5f t5m-ra,
' copper-coloured/ ^P5f am-la, ' sour'; but *i iq I *t ja-gan-van,
'Jiaving gone ' (from ^FJ^gam, 'go } ).
69. a. The (soft) breathing ^ h before ^ s and, in roots
beginning with ^ d, before c^t, ^T x th, ^dh also, is treated like
e.g.%|+ft[ leh+si=%f^r lek-iii, 'thou lickest* (67);
dhak-syati, c he wiU burn'
dha, 1 b l u-nt' (62 1); ^1 + ^
dhag-dhve, 'ye anoint* (620). Similarly
treated are the perf. pass, participles of the roots fti^ anih and,
in one sense, *fl| muh : ftnV snig-dha, ' smooth/ and JJIV
mug-dha, ' foolish.*
b. ^ h, in all other roots, is treated like an aspirate cerebral,
which, after changing a following ^t, ^th, ^dh to h, and
lengthening a preceding short vowel, is dropped ; e. g.
lidha, ' licked f i fl
32 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI III 7
mu4ha, ' infatuated.' Similarly treated are the roots ^f vah and
*R|sah, but with an apparent irregularity in the vowel : ^F*
u^ha 1 , * carried ' (for ^ + 7! vah + ta) ; *tj^ vodhum 2 , ' to
cany * (for ^ + g^ vah + turn) ; Vt^, sodhum V to hear '
(for ^n|+^sah+tum).
An exception to b is the root *T| nah, in which T[ h is treated
as V dh : W nad-dka, ' bound. 9 An exception to both a and
b is the root TR drh : ^f dydha, 'firm ' (begins with ^ d and
has a short rowel).
CHAPTEE HI
DECLENSION
TO* Declension, or the inflexion of nominal stems by means
of eadisge, is most conveniently treated under the three heads of
i* BOOHS (including adjectives) ; 2. numerals; 3. pronouns.
la Samfcrii there are
* three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter;
A. *ltt*e number*: singular, dual, and plural;
A eight oa***: nominative, vocative, accusative, inatru-
aumial, datiye, ablative, genitive, locative 3 .
k yflaifc ^ T, whxA is liable to Sampraaara^ia (p. u, note i),
"" i aad k then langthanecL
J o reprwoita th Indo-Irajiian a?h, which after cere-
^IM^g awi M|nizBg the foHowing doital becomes o, just aa original
m m ueovou trfthe Hrrktu grammariani, excepting the vocative,
^^y??^ 1 ^ tfaeaaa M a caie - zt * convenient as the only
^^.SLj 1 *** **** W * re identicaj in form ei *her in the
t, I*B teal, r tfee plural, nmy be grouped together.
Ill 7 2 DECLENSION 33
71. The normal case-endings added to the stem are the
following :
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.
M. F. N. J. F. N. 1C. F. IT.
V.' - ^ J *U
I.
D.
Ah.)
a. J
L. ^i
a. The vocative is the same (apart from the accent) afl the
nominative in all numbers except the mosc. and fern. sing, of vowel
stems generally and the masc. sing, of consonant stems in -at, -an,
-in, -as (cp. 7605), -yas, -vas.
6. The nom, ace. sing. neut. has the bare stem excepting the
words in -a, which add J^m.
c. The iiom.voc. acc.plur. neut. before the ^ i insert *^n after
a vowel stem and before a single final mute or sibilant of a consonant
stem (modifying the *^n according to the class of the consonant).
73. An important distinction in declension (in stems ending in
^c, ?^t, *^n, ^s, and ^ r) is that between the strong and
the weak stem. If the stem has two forms, the strong and the
weak stem are distinguished ; if it has three forms, strong,
middle, and weakest are distinguished.
a. Shifting of accent was the cauae of the distinction. The
stein, having been accented in the strong cases, here naturally
preserved its full form ; but it was shortened in the weak cases
by the accent falling on the endings, For a similar reason the
last vowel of the strong stem, if long, is regularly shortened in
D
34 DECLENSION I 73
the vocative, because the accent always shifted to the first syllable
in that case.
73. The strong stem appears in the following cases :
. voc. ace. sng.
Norn. voc. ace. dual [of masculine nouns .
Nom, voc. (not aco.) plarJ
Nom. voc. ace. plural only of neuters.
a. When foe stem has three forms, the middle stem appears
before terminations beginning with a consonant 2 (^R -bbySm,
l^-bbifl,**^-^^,^^); the weake8t,beforeteTOinatioBs
beginning with a vowel in the remaining weak cases , e g- ^ -li^-su
f - * nS-nat -nak-h -nad-bhilj -n&t-su
Ill 83 UNCHANGEABLE STEMS 39
Sterna in ^r 1 .
82. The "^ r becomes Visarga only when final, that is, in the
nom. sing, only, remaining before the J| su of the loc. plnr. (go).
A preceding ^ i or ^ u is lengthened when the ^ r is final or
followed by a consonant.
STEM. KOK. SO. NOK. PL. IHST. PL. LOO. PL.
f. 'door' dvSfc dvar-afc dvar-bhifc dvSr-f u (67)
f*r^ gfr, *ft: fine:
f. voice * gh
5^ pur, Iff*
f. town * puTj pur-afc pur-bhih pur-f u
Stem* in
83. These stems consist almost entirely of words formed with
the derivative suffixes ^R as, f^ is, ^R us, chiefly neuters.
They lengthen their final vowel (before the inserted nasal) in the
nom. voc. ace. ^plur. neut. The masculines and feminines are
nearly all adjective compounds with these stems as their final
member; those in "^T^ae lengthen the ^f a in the nom. sing.
Paradigms: ^n^yas-as, n. 'fame'; ffRhav-is, n. 'obla-
tion a ; ^igt^ ay-us, n. *life.'
SINGULAR.
N.Y.A. ^TJj:
yasat
i. ^npnr
yasas-5 havif ^ (67) Syuf-5 (67)
1 There are no steins in other semivowels*
CONSONANT DECLENSION I IT 83
ffift ^1^
yasas-e ha vis -e Syus-e
Ab.G. ^npEn ^f*ro
havis-ab
yasas-i havis-i Syns-i
DUAL.
N,V*A. ^iittTl ff*ret ^ur^ 1 ^
yasas-i havis-I fiyus-I
i.D.Ab.^rotrra
yaso-bhySm (45, 2) havir-bbyam (44) Syur-bhySm
G.L.
havis-ob ayns-oh
PlUBAL.
N.V.A. ^4^i(ti "fPfft
yasfii|i-i (66, 2) havini-i
G.
Syur-bhi^
"W^St
yaso-bbya^ bavir-bhyab Syur-bhyah
yasas-Sm havis-3m Synfl-5m
ywafc-su havi^-su (67) 'ayub-su (67)
su-manas, as an adjective, 'cheerful/ has in the
nom. sing. masc. ^iii; simian&lji (voc. ^Hf: stimanafc), but
neuter ^fi; sumaiiat (bat ^1$|fyo-bhit(45, 2)
NEUTER,
N.A.
rtem ,ee 95.
1TI
CHANGEABLE STEMS
45
Vonn8 with Three Stems.
89. i. Participles of the reduplicated perfect in
^T^vas (masc. and neut.) 1 form their strong stem with ^1^
Yams, the middle with ^vat 2 , the weakest with ^us (67;
C P- J S7) ; e. g. T|a|^ cakr-vas 3 f ' having done,* from W kr,
' to do '
MASCULINE.
cakr-van N. V.
r-variis-am
van
cakr-tis-a
cakr-tis-i
-vdd-hhySm
: cakr-iis-ob
-vatau
NEUTER.
1 On the formation of the feminine stem see 95.
3 The change of ^ a to ?^t here began in the early Vedk period
before ^ bh, extending thence to the loo. plur. and the nom. ace. sing,
neut. ^^us is the unaccented fonn of f^vaa (cp. 137, a c).
8 Beginners sometimes confiue this reduplicated perf. part active
with the active participle formed by adding the suffix tR^vat to the
perfect passive part.; e.g. nom. masc. QCHII krta-van, 'having
done,' ace. &flq*Ul krta-vantam (cp. 161). The confnrion is caused
by both ending in (l1 s -van in the nom. sing.
46 CONSONANT DECLENSION HI 90
a. The ^ i which is inserted before the ^v in some of these
participles is dropped before ^us: thus HftrfT^taath-i-vin,
but TT^^T tasth-tis-a.
b. The following examples of these stems' may be useful (cp.
MOM. SGt. KOM.PL. AOO. PL.
From ^JT stha, flf^PTPl, flftTOTO ^^ :
'stand' tasth-i-van tasth-i-vains-ab tastiwfe-afc tasth-i-d-bhi
'*
'lead* nin!-?an ninl-vaips-afr niny-UJ-a^
*bhu, vywt ^ptw ^f5^:
be* babhfi-van babhu-vams-alj babhu-v-Hs-alj babhu-vW-hhih
iRT'c. ?rf*prref: ?^: clPHWJ
-i-^ji ten-i-vaips-at ten-iis-ati ten-i-vd-bliiV
RT^ fW 1JV ^Wft :
'kill' jaghn-i-van jaghn^-Tanifl-^-jaghn-tis-ab jaghn-i-v^d-bbi
^RPTPt VRWt *RflV ^
jagan-^n 1 jagan-vams^ jagm-us-afc ja
jagm-i-vaa jagm-i.vaip8-alijagm-tis.ab jagrai-v
via, ftfljrV ft^wt:
4 know* Tid-Tan Yid-^aipa-a^ vid-tis-at
90* a, Notias in ^ an (also W( man, ^ van), masc.
asi seat, 3 , form the strong stem in ^f^an, the weakest in ^n,
the Boiddle in ^J a. In the nom, sing. masc. the final ^ n is
topped. la &e loc. wag. and the nom. voc. ace. dual the
1 Wi^oot redttplkarfswi, q>. Gk.
Ill 90
CHANGEABLE STEMS
47
syncopation of the ^f a of the suffix is optional. In the weakest
cases syncope does not take place when *P^ man and ^P^ van
are immediately preceded by a consonant.
The concurrence of three consonants is here avoided, though
not in stems in simple V^an. Hence ^iwii St-man-a, hut
7TOFT taks-n-5, Jpfr murdh-n-S, Examples of the inflexion of
these stems are :
, m. 'king'
SIffG. PLUB.
L
L.
j-fi-i or v^lfa raj-an-i-
* raj-a-bhili
a. TW^na-man, n. 'name* (Lat. no-men)
V
SDfG. DUAL. PLTJB.
na-mn-I or
na-ma
TWnama or
na-mn-5
na-mn-i or
na-man-i
-man-I
: na-mn-ot
': na-ma-bhil?
ma-su I
na-mau-i
3. VfP^brah-mtfn, m. 'creator'
after consonant)
CONSONANT DECLENSION
III 91
SIKG.
PLUK.
A-
brah-ma
brah-ma^-am (65)
? brah-man-ab
brah-mdn-ah
brah-man-a
4. <4i^n, &ia-van, m. * stone '
snro.
PLTTB-
gia-va
: giav-n-afe
2a. Irregular Stem* in
I. tp^t^p&ith-aii, m. 'path,' has Ip^p^ pnth-an for its
stem, ITftf path-f for its middle, and ^path for its
weakest stem ; the nom. irregularly adds ^s 1
PLT7B.
g i, due to the feet that in the earlier language this word
1 " P^tha-h,
fomijlg N<
; the other,
in 91
2.
CHANGEABLE STEMS
49
i-an, n. ' day/ takes H^ a*h-as as its middle fltem
DUAL. FLUB.
TJJjT dhn-I or l|f[4f| alian-I
iihn-a
^C^^IH, ilio-bhyam
dhn-o^i
3- ^a'v-4n, m. ' dog,' forms its weakest stem,
SamprasSrana. Otherwise it is declined
sun 2 , with
N.
A.
V.
sva
N.V. ^fT^: svan-at
t s'tin-afc (*cu
I. Vftl svi-bhih
- 4- ^n.yti-van, m. 'youth' (Lai juven-is), forms its weakest
stem, ^^ yu n| t, y gamprasSrana (yu-nn) and contraction (cf.
Lttt. jun-ior)
SING. FLUB.
yii-v5
N.V.
J yti-van*at
ti- van-am
f: yun-afc
I.
1 The Yisarga in the N,V. A. eing., and when tbe word it the prior
member of a compound (except in ^CKH aho-rettt, m. n. *6*j tad.
night '), ia treated like an original ^ r (46) :
1 day by day ' ; ^If^; ahar^janah, 'eeriea of days.'
3 So also in Greek:
CONSONANT DECLENSION
IIT 92
5* T^WJ. xnagha"-van (lit. ' bountiful '), m. a name of Indra,
also forms its weakest stem, fl*i1^magh6n 1 , by Samprasarana
and contraction :
8150.
PLTTE.
magha'-va N.V.
magha- van-am
N.
A.
V. and shortened by SamprasSrana in the
weakest, ^PHPf ana^-uh, and in the middle ^PTi^ anad-ut
(olwimilated* fw ^Pl^| anad-u^ : cp. 27). The nom. and voc.
are irregularly formed, as if from a stem in
ff.V.
A. 'VWf- anadtih-ab
i
X. ^ ^Wftl ana4ih-S
L. 1 VTfiT anafldd-bhifc
L. ^il^ffU anaddt-su
1 , m- ' man,' has three forms, being lengthened
& *e sfcrcjflg stem to ^i^ptimftms, shortened by syncope in
Ibe ^eafcet t& ^pwpg, and in the middle to ij^pum (with
: cp. 28 and 16 a) :
sHooaposiBd, whh the ieoond part of which the Lat,
Ill 97 IRREGULAB CHANGEABLE STEMS 55
N. sg. (J4H*lptSman (cp. 89, i) N,V. pi. y*iiW ptimSms-at
V.
A.
I* *jfar punis-a
L. ljf% pnms-i
I. jflH* pum-bbifr
L. ^[ pam-sti
II. Stems ending in Vowels.
97. A. Stem* in V a (masc. neut.) and ^SJ a 1 (fern.);
e.g. ITfT k5n-ta 2 , 'beloved* (past participle of W^ kam,
'love')
SINGULAR.
XA80. 1TEUT.
A. qn^i*^ kSnta-m
I. VRtf kantena 8 ^TRRTT kanta-y-5 8
D. 41^11^ kantaya m^VllQ kanta-yai 5
A.b. ^rffnT^kantat 4 cn^il^l* kSntfi-yalj.
3. VPn^T kSnta-sya 3 ^nTT^T: kSntS-yih
L. *ll^ kante qn^iitii^kSnta-yam
^T*T kante 6
1 ^1 a Gk. -os, -OK; Lat. -ui, -um. ^(T S-Gk, -o, -17; Lat. -a,
3 Certain adjectives in ^fj ah, ^Tf 5 V^am follow the pronominal
eclenflion (no).
3 Theae terminationi originally came from tiie pronominal declension
no). . *
* This termination if preserved in the Lat 5 for 5d (e. g'. GnalvoVi in
iscriptiona), and in the Greek (Cretio) adv. rw-fc, 'hence/ *
* The terminations -yai ( -yft-e), -yah ( yfi-ai), -yamaredue to the
ifluence of the feminines in -I (originaUy -ya); e.g. nadyai, nadjih,
ady&m (cp, 100).
* The voc. of VJT nba, ' mother,' i
56
VOWEL DECLENSION
N.A.Y.
I. D. Ab.
G.L.
DUAL.
kantau ^pit kante
kSnte
N.V.
A.
L
ltflWIHt kSnta-bhyam
kanta-y-ofe
PLUHAL.
KET7T.
kant2t ^TRTrfSf kSnta-n-i 2
kantan-i
XA8C.
: kSntah
kSnte-bhyat
kanta-bhilji
: kSnta-bbvalj
kanta-su
Stenu in ^ i and ^ u (masc. fern, nent); a
^J myd^ ' 8oft t_
SINGULAR.
MASC.
NEUT.
mrdU
36 B, foot-note i), Gfoth. -ana,
<* tie tern,, in ^ n:
t^wwd in MS* Gk. dative* u rr,o< r .
m 98 STEMS IN A, A, I, V 57
FIK. HEUT. MASC. FSK.
stic-ay-e s'ucy-ai 1 siici-n-e uirdiv-e mrdv-&i l rnrdti-n-e
^rrr: gf^r: g^t: l?ET: ?f^:
sticy-ah sdci-n-alj mvd-6b mrdv-4li mrdii-n-ah
^TT^ ^Rf*l ?^ ??T^ ?ff^
stic-au 2 sdcy-im siici-n-i mrd-au Hirdv-aan rnrdii-ix-i
sitce stice sdci nifdo mfdo mfdu
DUAL.
stSci Btici stici-n-I mrdu mrdd nardti-n-i
I. D. Ab. ^fi|^|f^ siici-bhyam 4j^lH, midti-bhyain
sdcy-oi s'licy-ofc sdci-n-oti mrdv-6t mrdv-dfe
PLURAL.
b'ticay-afr sdcT-n-i mrdav-afc mrdAv-a^ mrdu-n-i
A. ^K Tfr ^w* ?i^ ?TI
atidn sticlh stici>n-i_ mrdnn mrdnh
I. ^f^r: siici-bhit
D.Ab. ^jftW: stici-bbyat f|W mrdti-bhyab
1 Op. 97, foot-note 5.
3 Thin very anomalon* ending, being tbe Vrddbi wwel
^i, seema to be due to the influence of the eteias in ^ a,
of which is entirely analogous.
58 VOWEL DECLENSION IH 99
m. Neuter adjectives (not substantives) maybe declined through-
out (except N.Y.A. of all numbers), and fern, adjectives and
substantives in the D. Ab.G. L, sing., like masculines. Thus the
L. sing, of *Tfif mati, f. 'thought/ is *ircn*< maty&m or ft dhi, 3^ bhu, f^[ nad-i 1^ vadh-ii,
'thought' 'earth' 'river' 'woman 3
N. ^ I^J
nadi vadhu-b
A. f%ra^ ^ji*^ i^i*t, ^^H,
dMy-am bhtiv-am nadi-m vadhu-m
dhiy-a bhuv-a nady-a vadhv-a
dhiy-^ bhuv-^ nady-&i vadhv-4i l
Ab.G. tw: w: irar:
dhiy-dt bhuv-a^ nady-h vadhv-ah
dhiy-i bhnv-1 nady-im vadhv-am 1
V- 'rf^ T^[
nacU vidhu
1 Tb ipecxai feTninme teanninations in *ai, -as, -Sm are here, as in the
i dedensian (97), due to the influence of the polysyllabic I declension.
IJI TOO STEMS IN I AND U 6l
DUAL.
N.V.A.
dhfy-au blitiv-au nady-au vadhv-au
dhl-bhyam bhu-bhyam nadi-bhyojn vadhu-bhyam
fv^ffc vprt: wt: wt*
dhiy-6b bhuv-o'lj. nady-6Jt vadh.v-6fr
PLUBAL.
N.V.A. f%ra: g^: tf.v.
dlify-al^ bhiiv-a|ji nady-aji vadhv-ah
nadi\i vadhub
bhu-bhib nadf-bhib vadhu-bhih
dhl-bhyalj bhu-bhy^h nadi-bhyat vadhu-bhya^
G.
dhiy-am bhuv-am nadi-n-am vadhu-n-5m
^3 $5 ^4^3 ^3
dhl-sH bhu-stL nadi-su vadhu-sn
stn, f. ( woman,' though monosyllabic, has most of the
characteristics of polysyllabic stems in t^i (roo, 2-5): it must
take the special fern, terminations, it shortens its i^ I in the voc.
it has no ^ s in the nom., and has ail optional ace. sing, in vt,ini
and ace. plur. in tftis. This is doubtless due to its originally
having been a dissyllable.
62 VOWEL DECLENSION III 101
N. *ft BiA N.V.
A jf^RR, strfy-am Jf^RIJ striy-aft
l^j^ta; Btii-iii (^ft: strt-h,
I. fifltij striy-a I. 4^1 fit: stri-bhfk
D. f^ft striy-fri D.Ab. ^fo*: strl-bhyAt
Ab.6. Rqqi; fftriy-ah G. vO^(^ strT-n-am
L- Rfl^I*^ striy-am L. ^ftj stn-sd
Y. ffcstrf
Dual. N.V.A. f^nft striy-au, I.D. Ab.
G.L. foql, 8triy-6^.
IOL D. Sterna in V r (auuio. and fern,), -which in origin
are conaonant stems in ^-ar, are closely analogous in their
declension to stems in V^-an (90). These nouns mostly end
in the snffii J -tj- (i. 6 . -tar, Gk. -n;p, -rp, Lat. -tor). They dis-
tiagmA a gtrong stem ^ -tar or TTT^ -tar, a middle 7J tr,
and a weakest ^tr. The inflexion of masc. and fern, differs in
*be we, pjnr. only.
In the strong stem the names of relations take the Guna form
(w), the &ames of agents take the Vrddhi form (Sr).
5^e ting. gen. is formed in *^ iu-, the loc. in *fft ari, the voc.
aoc, masc. in ^p^rn, fern, in ^ra, the
f,/.' mother 1
HI ioi CHANGEABLE STEMS IN R
SlKGULAB.
?[TTrdatr-a
D.
>
U. G. ^1$^ dat-iir (H<^ pit-tbf
L. THlft dat 6ri
finnj pitar (Ju-piter)
DUAL,
I ^N.A. ^1^(0 datar-au
G.L.
PLTTBAL.
64 VOWEL DECLENSION III 102
*. *nj niptr and ^ bhartf, though names of relations, fol-
low ^TTf datf, taking the Vrddhi form in the strong stem : ace.
sing. IJTH^nrfptar-am, *rfn?lbhartar-am ; also ^TO svdsr,
f. 'sister': ace. sing. ^1*1 K*t, 8V&ar-am, but ace. pi.
b. 5 nr, m. 'man* (Gk. a-v^p), takes the Guna form in the
strong stem; the gen. pi. is JUTFC. nrijam as well as *pHT*l
nrnam; the I.D.Ab.G. sing, are not found in classical Sanskrit
(but the D. tmd G. hi the Rig-veda are *f^ n&r-e,^: nir-aT?) ;
K. TT n, A. HT^nar-am, L. ^ n4r-i (Ep. Gk. l-vtp-i). N-
pi. TT: ndr-a^ (Ep, Gk. Mpcs), A. ^nfn, I. ^fHt nf-bhib,
c. ^tf kroB>tfi in. 'jackal' (lit. ' yeller ), substitutes
krostu in the middle coses : N. pi. *j!WlV* krostar-at, I. pi
d. Stems in ?J tr, if declined in the neuter, would be inflected
like the neut. of gf*T a'uci : N. A. sing. VT^ dhffitf , du. VT^uFt
dhatf-n-I, pi. ^H?ff^ dhatr-n-i; I. sing. W^^T dh&tf-n-S, pi.
>frfPr: dhatr-bhft.
e. Feminine agent nouns are formed from masculines in
^ tr by the suffix |^i : masc. "^TTJ datf, fern, ^nft datr-I, ' giver '
(declined like l^t nadi).
E. Stem* in ^ ai, ^t o f ^ au.
IO2* The only stems in diphthongs are ^ rai, m. 'wealth,*
^rt go, m. L ' bull, cov,* ^ dyo, f. ' sky,' and *ft nau, f. ' ship,'
^ rai thangee the ^ i of the diphthong to ^y before vowels,
Trot drops h "before consonants. *ft go, in the strong cases, takes
YytJdhi and becomes 'jfV gau r which is shortened to TT ga in the
.MMl pL The ab.gen.has a contracted form (os for av-as).
Ill 102 STEMS IN DIPHTHONGS &5
These steins form a transition between the consonant And vowel
declension: they agree with the former in taking the normal
endings ; with the latter in adding ^s in the nom. sing, and
in showing a vowel before endings with initial consonant :
SlNQTJIAB.
Y-6 (re-i) gav-e
Ab.G-
rSy-1 gv-i
DUAL.
ray-au av<
-au
LD.Ab.
rar-bhyam g6-bhj5m
PLUBAL.
H.V.
A..
ra-li (Lat. re-s)
A. q^ daViyas ;
T^ var-a, 'choice': *fO^H. va*r-Iyas, ' "better*; ^^ ksud-ra,
'mean*: ^ ^l ^t^ ks6d-Tyas ; ^p^ yu-van, 'young': ^q^l^tl,
yaViyas; ir^ 111 ^ 8 - 1 ^ 81 ! 'short' : Jpft^R^hrds-iyas ; with irregular
radical syllable: ^E& dlrgh-a, 'long': s^l^H^^ dragh-Tyas ;
%V*?I bah-u-W, ' abundant * : '4(^414^ b^iph-Iyas.
*. In some cases ^f^yas is attached (instead of i^^RSC tyas) j
a* g- ^i^^l, jya-yas, ' superior, 9 W^ j'y^ha (root WTT j
^1^ bhu-yas, 'more/ gf%W bhu-y-istha (root ^bhu) ;
pre'-yas, ' dearer,' ift? pre^stha (root jf\ pri) ; SfaRJ. ar^-yas,
'better' (Gk. icpW), $& er^stha; t%T sthi-r^, 'firm' : ^ERC
sthe^yas.
A. Some comparatives and superlatives belong only in sense to
their positives ; e. g.^fc^ftR^ne'd-iyas, ?rt|[tf ne'd-istha/ nearest,'
to ^facvt antikd, 'near' ; ^pffa^ kEn-Tyas, 'lesser/ ^rfTO
kan-istha, ' least/ to ^^T alpa, ' small ' ; flMT^^ va*rs-Tyas,
'older/ ^f^r v^rs-istha, 'oldest/ to ff vrddha, 'old.'
pafica
JrUMEBALS.
104. Cardinal*.
4
3 $ f^ trl (Gk. rpt-, Lat.
tri-).
1 By assimilation for original 1|^[ g^-^j C P- Grk. /5op-iJ-r, Lat. gritv-i-f.
a As first member of a compound ft[ dvi.
sapt^l (orra).
68
NUMERALS
III 104
9 Q, TO nava
catvSrizp&at.
40 80 ^Vfl catva-
casat.
So MO
60
70 )0 9TT sapta-if.
80 ^0 H(^f|fn asltf.
dvy-aslti.
90 0.0 ^*lRf nava-tf.
mgqffl ^n-navatf.
100 ^00
101 ^ka-satam
^TET^V asta-dasa.
dhikam satam.
dvf-satam.
adhikam satam.
in -104
NUMERALS
f^TCRI^trf-satam.
try-
adhikani aatam.
da&Ja-sa-
tam.
sadhikain satam.
200^00
300 $00
1000 ^000
69
' trini
s'atSoi.
dasa
satani.
laksil (lakh).
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000 qflfZ k6ti (crore).
a. In order to form the ntunbers from 20 to too not enumerated
above, it ia only necessary to remember that 2, 3, and 8 are fl[T
dva (M), ^r; trayat (rpcif), and TOT asta (3rrA) before 20
^ d 3 (?Trf^nT^ dva-trimaat, ^*jfWH^tr6ya8-trimfiat, ^WT-
f^hl^ asta-trima'at), and ftf dvi, f^T tri, WS afja before 80;
both forme may be used witn 40, 50, 60, 70, and 90,
b. The alternative designations of 19, 29, &c, are formed mth
the old past participle ^R u-na, ' diminished ' ; e. g. N*lfqajfH
una-vimaati, 'twenty diminished (by one).* By prefiadng the
necessary cardinal to this participle, other alternatives may be
formed ; e. g. B^ff^p^try-una-trimaat^ ' thirty diminished by
three,' i.e. 27.
c. Similarly alternatives to xoi, 102, &c. are formed by means
of the adjective J|f%M adhi-ka, ' exceediBg,' 'plus*; e,g.
uln*^ dvy-adhikam s'atam, 'a hundred exceeded by two.*
d. The difference of sense in fg^4*l dvi-iatam,
tri-s'atam, &c. is only to be distinguished by the accent, these
compounds meaning K, 103, &c., when accented OB &e first
member, but 200, 300, &c., when accented on the last.
adhikain aatam.
III 104
103
no
da-
sadhikani eatam.
200 ^00 ^f ^ dve sate.
dvi-satam.
NUMERALS
300 ?00
d&sa-sa-
tam.
6g
trini
satSul.
1000 ^000
sataal.
dasa
ram.
100,000 TO laks^ (lakh).
1,000,000
10,000,000
i (crore).
a. In order to form the numbers from 20 to 100 not enumerated
above, it is only necessary to remember that 2, 3, and 8 are fl[T
dva (dw), ^Ri: trayab (rpck), and ^BT as^L (ojcr<6) before 20
and 30 (flll R^ dva-triipsat, ^rf^ni^^yas-trinisat, W&1~
t^hXfC. asta-triips'at), and fif dvi, f^f tri, ^ni asja before So ;
both forms may be used with 40, 50, 60, 70, and 90.
A. The alternative designations of 19, 29, &c. are formed with
the old past participle ^HT u-na, ' diminished ' ; e. g. ^Ji^Rnfa
una-vimsati, 'twenty diminished (by one).' By prefixing the
necessary cardinal to this participle, other alternatives may be
formed ; e. g. ^ifMll^try-iiiia-triipaat, ' thirty diminished by
three/ i.e. 27.
c. Similarly alternatives to 101, 102, &c, are formed by means
of the adjective Vftm adhi-ka ? 'exceeding, 9 'plus'; e.g.|f%|4
Ujllf^ dvy-adbikaip. satam, 'a hundred exceeded by two/
d. The difference of sense in fVlfl*i dvi-satam > f^lllflH.
tri-s'atam, &c. is only to be distinguished by the accent, these
compounds meaning 102, 103, &c., when accented OB the first
member, but 200, 300, &c., when accented on the last.
DECLENSION OF CARDINALS
in iog
Daclemrion of Cardinals.
IO5- Only the first four cardinals distinguish the genders.
i TJ( kalj, TpIT ka, V.qit^^kam, following the declension of
the pronominal adjectives, is inflected like nfi sarva (120 b).
2, ^ dva", * two/ is declined like the dual of JFPff kanta :
N.A, m. ^ dvau, f.fl( dv, n.^( dv ; I.D.Ab. flfWT'^dva-
bhyam, G.L. ^{\l dvtf-y-ofr.
3. PI trl, in the masc. and neut., is declined like the plural
of ^|f*f Buc-i, except in the gen., which is formed as if from Vf
traya (the regular form ^ftH7^tri-n4m is found in the Eig-veda).
Ita fern, stem is f?|1f tisf , the inflexion of which differs in the
N.A.G. from that of the regular stems in ^J r.
4* ^5^ catiir, ' four/ in the masc. and neut., has the strong
stem ^tui^ catvar (cp. quatuor). The G.pl., though the stem
ends in a consonant, inserts *^n before the ending (like ^ sat),
The feminine stem is ^?W catasr, which is inflected exactly
like f?ni tiflf.
JUSO. HEIJT. FIX. KASO. OTtUT. VVX.
N.V.
tray-afr tripi
catvir-at catvir-i c^taar-ah
trm trmi tir-4h cattlr-at catvir-i caiaer-oh
RliiRit
tisf-bhib
i. Win
D.Ab.
tri-bhyat tisf^hyati
catur-bhih catasr-bhit
catiir-bhyat catasf-bhya\i
[ b) caturaam cataey-nam
catdr-flu
catasf-sii
IH 107 DECLENSION OF CABDINALS
106. m. V^Ris, 'eix*; N.A. ^ & (27), I.
D.Ab. ^f**: sa4-bhyafc, G. WT^?an-*a (6
A. IHff p&Lca, 'five,' is declined like a neuter in ^SF^an (90, 2)
except in the gen., where it follows ^TPff kSnta: -N.A. Vft
P^lca, I. 1p(fiT: pancaVbhik D.Ab. XRP*: panctf-bhyak G.
M ^ 1 1 in, paficfVn-am, L. "q^ paftca-su.
The numerals for 7 to ro are declined in exactly the same way.
"*re asffc, however, has also the following alternative (older)
forma : N. A. -^ atf&u, I. TOTfr: astft-bhlb, D.Ab. ^rBTP^:
as^-bhya^ L. TOr^: astft-sti 1 .
c. The cardinals 3 to 19 are nsed as ploral adjectives, agreeing
with their substantives in number and case (3 and 4 in gender
also). The cardinals from 20 to 99 (which are feminine), as well
** *in*t,satani a^ ^^^sab&ram, are used as singular sub-
stantives, the accompanying substantive being either in the same
case or in the genitive; e.g. H?rt ^nftf*K or
Catena daalbhi^ or daeinam, '
