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I

SCHOOL AND HOME
GARDENING

(

By KART C. DAVIS, PhJ>. (Cornea)
PRODUCTIVE FARMING

2nd edition. 224 illustrations. 374 pages. ^.96 net.

PRODUCTIVE PLANT HUSBANDRY

312 illustrations. 462 pages. $1.75 net.

LIPPINCOTT'S FARM MANUALS

Edited by KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell)

PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY

By harry R. lewis ^2.00 net

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY

By carl W. gay ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING

By FRED C. SEARS ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY

By GEORGE E. DAY ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM

ANIMALS

By F. C. WOLL ^1.75 net

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM

ANIMALS

By R. a. CRAIG ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING

By JOHN W. LLOYD ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS

By E. G. MONTGOMERY ^1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE BEE-KEEPING

By frank C. PELLETT $1.75 net

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING

By R. M. WASHBURN ^1.75 net

LIPPINCOTT'S COLLEGE TEXTS

SOILS PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT

By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., and
A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S. ^2.00 net

WRITE FOR DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULARS

i

i

SCHOOL AND HOME
GARDENING

A TEXT BOOK FOB YOUNG PEOPLE, WITH
PLANS, SUGGESTIONS AND HELPS FOE
TEACHERS, CLUB LEADERS AND ORGANIZERS

KARY CADMUS DAVIS, Ph.D.

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

; 1918, BT J. B. uppiMCfyrr compaiit

•

Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. LippincoU Company
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, (7. 5. A.

\

PREFACE

The author has tried to make this little volume so full
of useful hints and practical instruction for young people,
teachers, and parents, that it will lead to the making of
many goodi home gardens in both city an(? country.

The school garden movement should have for its main
object the starting of home gardens by both young and old.
All other objects of school gardening, as herein enumerated,
should be given a trend towards this one great aim.

In this volume many simple home and school exercises
are briefly outlined, for the purpose of developing the under-
lying principles. It will be found that the trial of these
exercises will develop much thought in the young mind, and
a greater interest will be maintained.

Suggestions to teachers and club leaders are given in
Part III. The first two chapters of the book should also be
read by leaders in the garden work.

Beginners will find the garden calendars and planting
tables very helpful. The illustrations have been chosen
chiefly fox instruction and suggestion rather than for mere
interest.

K. C. Davis.

December, 1917.

Knapp School of Country lAfe,
George Peahody College for Teachers,
Nash/ville, Termeaaee,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is greatly indebted for help in making the
book more suited to school use, and in making its content-
reliable and accurate, to a number of experts engaged in the
special lines of work related to the subject matter of the
chapters they hare kindly examined and criticised.

V

38C626

vi PREFACE

Miss Caro Miller, Supervisor of School Gardens, Phila-
delphia Schools, has given numerous suggestions incorporated
throughout the book. Similar suggestions covering the entire
■book have been given by S. B. McCready, Director Elementary
Agricultural Education, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph,
Canada, and by E. E. Balcomb, Professor of Rural and Agri-
cultural Education, State Normal, Greensboro, N. C.

Helpful suggestions on their respective chapters were
given as follows :

T. C. Johnson, Director Virginia Truck Station, chapters
on Plant Growth, and those relating to Insects, Diseases and
Spraying.

W. S. Taylor, Professor of Rural Education, University
of Texas, chapters relating to Cuttage, Grafting, Budding,
Layering, and also the Soil and its Improvement.

E. H. Scott, Department of Agriculture, Georgia Normal
University, chapters dealing with Plants in Relation to Soil,
Light and Air, and the Southern Garden Calendar.

J. K Randall, Garden Specialist, U. S. Bureau of Edu-
cation, Southern Garden Calendar.

George I. Christie, Corn Specialist and Director, Indiana
Station, chapter on Corn.

R. L. Watts, Dean Pennsylvania State College, the Garden
Calendar for Northern States.

John W. Lloyd, Professor of Vegetable Gardening, Uni-
versity of Illinois, the matter relating to the growing of
vegetables.

Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture, Kansas Agri-
cultural College, the chapters on Irrigation and Drainage and
Experiments with Soils.

A number of the drawings are by Mrs. Kary C. Davis,
and she has aided in the gathering of materials, reading manu-
script and proof.

CONTENTS

PART I— OUTLOOK TO GARDENING

CHAPTER PAGB

I. Beginnings and Aims 1

Supervised Home Gardens — ^Historical— Character of
the Instruction — Objects of Young People's Gardens
—The School Center — ^Vacation Time— School
Teachers the Best Leaders — "The Garden" (Poem) —
Opinions of Teachers.

II. Vacant Lot Gardening for Villages and Cities 11

Historical — Plan of Work — ^Aid to Gardeners —
Instruction — ^The Superintendent — ^Funds for the
Work — Good and Bad Charity-MZJircular to Prospect-
ive Gardeners — ^A Form of Vacation Gardening —
Home Gardening Encouraged — Health of the City —
Criminality — ^A Permanent Occupation — Gardening
for all Classes — " The Ambulance Down in the VaJley
— (Poem).

PART II— GARDEN OPERATIONS AND EXERCISES

III. Planning the Garden 27

Shape of Garden — Location — ^Protecting the Garden
—Fence — ^Hedges and Screens — ^La3dng off the Garden
— Making a Chart — Location of Crops — ^Flowers —
Fruits — Nurseries — Experiments — The Completed
Chart — Measuring and Staking — Formal Gardens —
Window Gardens — ^Roof Gardens — Principles of
Planning.

IV. Garden Tools and Implements 41

Rake and Hoe — Other Useful Tools — ^A Spading
Fork — ^The Spade — Shovels — ^A Pick — Grubbing Mat-
tocks — Dibbers and Garden Trowels — Small Weeders
Hand Weeders — Marking Boards — Sieves — • A
Sprinkling Can — Sprayers — Blank Books and Pencils
. — Measures — Labels, Stakes and Twine — ^Hand
Carriers — Paint and Brushes — Pushcarts and Wheel-
barrows — Hand Biarrows — An Arbor — Hand Planters
• and Wheel Hoes — ^A One-horse Cultivator — The
Plow — ^The Harrow — ^Pruning Shears and Pruning
Saws — Grass Hooks and Lawn Mowers— Fencings
Hotbeds and Cold Frames— Tool House.

i

viii CONTENTS

V. HOTBBDS AND COLDFBAMBS 40

Uses — ^Plants for the Coldf rames — Plants for Hotbeds
— ^How to Make a Hotbed — ^Exercise — Making a
Hotbed — How Hotbeds are Warmed — Coldframes
and Hotbeds Compared — Operating a Hotbed — ^The
Temperature — ^The Ventilation — ^The Moisture.

VL Plants in Relation to Soil, Lioht and Aib 58

Absorbing; Moisture — ^Root Hairs on Young Plants —
Root Hairs Form Early — ^Leaves Expel Moisture —
Osmosis — Overfeeding of Plants — Simlieht Needed
for Growth — ^Leaves and Light — ^Plants Use Carbon
Dioxide — Balance Between Plants and Animals —
Types of Roots.

VIL HoiOB AND School Exercises 66

Studies of Seeds and Germination— Garden Seeds
Selected—How Plants Get Out of the Ground— Plant
Growth and Pollination — Experiments in Plant Growth
— Moisture and Germination — Packing and Germina-
tion — ^Air and Germination — Warmth and Germina-
tion — Depth and Germination — Carbon Dioxide from
Germinatmg Seed — Importance of Large Seed — Seed
Testing, Sou Method— Seed Testing, in Wet Cloth—
Lookins for Weed Seeds — Studying Weed Seeds —
Weed Distribution — Getting Pure Grass Seeds — Oil
in Seeds — Starch in Seeds — Gluten in Seeds — Better
Seed Potatoes — Studies of Flowers and Pollination —
The Parts of a Flower — Wind and Insect Pollinating —
Pollination of Com — Hand Pollination.

Vlll. Tbb Soil and Its Improvement 84

Preparing the Soil — ^Liming — Green Manure — Cover
Crops — Humus — Barnyard Manure — Compost — Care
of Manures — ^Exercise in Commercial FertiUzers —
Nitrogen — ^Effect of Nitrogen; — How much Nitro^n
to Appljr — Phosphoric Acid^— Phosphorus — Makmg
Phosphoric Acid — ^Testing for Phosphoric Acid —
Potash — ^Wood Ashes as Plant Food — How to Buv
Fertilizers — Home Mixing — Home Mixing of Fertil-
izers — ^Which Fertilizer to Use — Improvement by
TUlage — Depth of Plowing — Shallow Tillage — Bare
Fallow — ^Killing Weeds — Legume Nodules — Inocu-
lating Soil for ^gumes — Lime for Legumes — Amount
of Mineral Matter in Plants— Soils Retain Plant-
food — Rains Remedy Over-fertiUzing — Minerals in
Soil Water — Solubility of Lime — Fertilizer Samples.

IX. Irrigation and Drainage 106

Irrigation — Irrigation in Humid Re^ons — ^The Water
Supply— Water is Raised— Conveying the Water —
After Treatment — ^liquid Manure — Drainage — Kinds
of Drainage — Covered Drains — Installing Drains-
Cost of Drainage.

CONTENTS ix

X. Exercises with Soils 113

Soil Sampling — ^Testing for Moisture — -Testing for
Organic Matter — Humus Prevents Baking — ^Testins
for Sourness — ^Taking Soil Temperatures--Color and
Temperature of Sofls — Effect of a Dust Mulch —
Carpet or Hay Mulch — Dust Mulch on Sugar —
Balon^ of Sand and Clay — Packing of Sand and Clay
—Capillary Movement of Water — ^Packed and Loose
Soils--Absorf)ing Power — ^Water-holding Power — To
Analyze a Soil.

XI. Gabden Plot Expbrdcents 124

Spraying for Potato Beetles — ^Fightine Potato Blight
— ^Deep and Shallow Culture — ^Killing Weeds —
Variety Tests — ^Determine the Proper Depth — ^Level
or Hill Culture— Heavy Fertilising — ^Lime for Pota-
toes — Effect of Treatment for Potato Scab— Effects

oi Dust Mulch— Firming the Soil— Testing the

dling Mc "
Tomatoes — ^Thick or Thin Plantings — ^Watering vs.

^^ — -- - — — — — gj — — — — ^ ' ^ jy — — — — '

Treatment for Codling Moth — Oat Smut — Staking

Surface Mulch — Straw Mulch — ^Inoculation of
Legumes.

Xn. Bbatttifying Home and School Grounds 130

Planning the Grounds — ^What to Plant — ^Trees —
Shrubs — ^Vines — ^How Vines Climb— When to Plant —
Transplanting — Heeling In — Pruning Young Trees —
Care m Prunmg — ^Knowing the Trees — ^Lawns— Care
of Lawns — ^Flower Planting — ^Annual Flowers — ^Hardy
Annuals — ^Tender Annuals — Planting Annuals — ^Per-
ennial Flowers — ^Elarly Perennials— Summer Peren-
nials — ^Autumn Perennials — Bulbs and Tubers-
Autumn Flowering Bulbs — Cultime of Bulbs — Plants
for Shaded Places — ^Arbor Day — ^Planning for Arbor
Day — Suggestive Programs.

XIII. Lessons with Trees 153

Exercises — Sap Ducts in Plants — ^Effect of Girdling
Trees — Growing Oaks and Nut Trees — Tree Seedlines
in Tin Cans — ^Forests on Hillsides — ^Age of Wooay
Plants — ^Age Shown in Twigs.

XIV. CuTTAGE, Graptinq, Bttddino AND Latering 158

Starting Slips — Leaf Cuttings— Cuttings in Water —
Hardwood Cuttings — Root Cuttings — Grafting Wax
— ^Waxing Knitting Cotton and Cloth — ^Whip or
Tongue Grafting — ^Root Grafting — Practice in Bud-
ding — Budding Peaches, Plums or Cherries — Spring
Budding — ^Fruit Buds — ^Top Grafting Young Trees —
Top Working Old Trees — ^Tip Layering— Vine Layer-
ing — Mound Layering.

X CONTENTS

XV. Indoor Plants 170

Window Gardens — Flowering Plants — ^Flowering
Bulbs — ^Forcing Bulbs — Non-blooming Plants — ^Plant
Holders — ^The Self-supporting Aquarium — Window
Vegetable Grarden.

XVI. The Growing op Vegbtables 177

Fanners' Gardens — ^Artichoke — ^Artichoke, Jerusalem
— Asparagus — Beans — Beets — Broccoli — Brussels
Sprouts — Cabbage, Carrot — Cauliflower — Celery —
Com, Sweet — Cucxunbers — ^Egg Plant — ^Endive —
Garlic — Horseradish — f Kale and Collards — Kohl-
rabi — Leek — Lettuce— Mushrooms — Muslanelons —
Okra, or Gumbo— Onion — ^Parsley — Paraniiw — Peas —
Pepper-^Potato — Radish — ^Rhubarb— Salsify, or Veg-
etable Caster— Spinach — Squash — Sweet Potato-
Swiss Chard — ^Tomato — ^Tumip-^Watermelons — Uses
for the Garden Herbs — Companion Cropping — Succes-
sion Cropping — Soaking Garden Seed.

XVII. Corn Growing 208

In the Fall — During the Winter — Selection of Seed —
Score Card for Com Judging — ^Explanation of Points
— ^When to Select Seed — Storage of Seed Com —
• Testing Seed Com — Methods of Testing — Box
Meth(>d — Rag Doll Method — Com Improvement —
Detasseling jPoor Stalks — Detasseling of Alternate
Rows — How to De tassel Com — The Ear Row
Method — Danger of Mixing — Raising the Crop —
Preparation of Soil — Planting the Crop — ^Tillage —
Harvesting and Storing — Corn for Contests.

XVIII. Garden Calendar for Northern States 223

January to December — ^Vegetables — ^Trees and Fruits
— Flowers and Lawns — Garden Records for Latitudes
of New York and Kansas.

XIX. Garden Calendar for Southern States 250

January to December — ^Vegetables — ^Flowers — ^Trees
and Fruits and Lawns.

XX. Insects, Diseases and Their Control 276

How Insects Feed — Methods of Control — Inside
Feeders — Codling-moth — Plum Curculio — Peach
Borer — ^Apple Borers— San Jos6 Scale — Out-worms —
Cabbage Worm — Tomato Worm — ^Potato Beetles —
Flea Beetles — ^Plant Diseases — Remedies — Prevent-
ing Grain Smut — ^Preventing Potato Scab — Time to
Spray — Sprayers Calendar for Vegetables — Spray
Materials — Making Bordeaux Mixture — Making
Kerosene Emulsion — Making Concentrated Lime —
Sulfur — Self-boiled Lime-sulfur — Garden Friends —
Beneficial Insects — Toads and Other Friends — Birds.

CONTENTS xi

PART m— FOS CLUB LEADEBS AND TEACHEBS

XXI. Agbicultural Contests and Club Work 293

Influence of Club Work — ^Lines of Work — How Organ-
ized — ^Incentives — Com Growing Contests — Rules for
Com Growing Contests — School and Club Fairs-
Suitable Time and Place — Contest Lists — Com —
Potatoes — Sweet Potatoes — Sugar Beets — Tomatoes
—Onions — Cucxmibers — ^Lettuce — Garden Vegetables
— Collections of Vegetables — ^Farm Products — ^Al£alfa
— Cotton — Fruits — Annual Flowers — Perennial
Flowers — ^Window Flowers — Home Beautiihdng —
Swine — ^Eggs — ^live Poultry — Special Girls' Work —
Sewing — ^Bread Making—Other Baking— Special
Cooking — Canning — School Competitions — School
Collections — Commercial Packages — Decoration —
Labelling— Superintendents and Helpers — ^Premiiuns
and Awards — fcind of Premiums — Contests for Yields
—Score Cards for Contests — Score Cards for Sweet
Potatoes — ^Bread Score Card — ^Judging Tomatoes —
Tomato Score Card — Home Garden Records — ^Keep-
ing Accounts — Special Value of Records — ^Boys' Com
Club Record of Work — How to Use Records — Pupils'
Record for Lettuce — Remarks — Potato Score Cara —
Cooking Test for Potatoes — Flower Collections at
Exhibits — ^Apple Collections at Exhibits — Apples
Packed for Marketing — ^Fancv Baskets of Fruit —
Grape Eriiibits — Plums and Peaches — ^Vegetable
Display — Score Card for Vegetable Display.

XXII. Correlation with Other School Work 322

Effect of Interest — Getting Started — ^Arranging the
Program — ^Arithmetic a Great Difficulty — Suggestive
Problems — Language — Reading — Geography —
History — Drawing — ^New Classes not Necessary.

XXIII. Methods op TEAcmNO 335

Questions Asked by Children — Measuring — ^Planting
— Thinning — Using Both Hands — Raking.

APPENDIX

Literature for Gardeners 340

United States Farmers' BuUetins — List of Farmers'
BuUetins of Help to Gardeners — Farmers' Bulletins
on Home Canning — Special Circulars on Home Garden
Club Work — Helpful Books — ^Information on School
Gardens — State Station and Extension Bulletins.

Index 345

ILLUSTRATIONS

no. PAQIB

Portion of Home School Garden Club Market, Linooln,
Nebraska Frontispiece

1. Produce from One Child's Plot in One Season 6

2. Preparing a Waste Lot for Gardening, Cleveland 12

3. The Same Lot made into a Good Garden by Two Bojrs 12

4. Vacant Land Gardening in Portland, Oregon 18

5. Back Yard Gardening by a Poor Boy 19

6. His First Garden and One of the First in His Neighborhood . . 20

7. The Garden is all Her Own, But She is Glad to Furnish Produce

for the Family Table 20

8. An Unsightly Dumping Ground 22

9. The Same Ground Made into a Productive Garden 22

10. The Whole Neighborhood is Interested in the Improvement

and the Profits 22

11. Work of the Playground Association of Pittsburgh, Pa 24

12. Plan for a Home Garden 28

13. Plan for One-acre Rural School Grounds with Garden Plots

' at End Opposite Main Road 29

14. Large Plots may be Assigned to Older Pupils, Small Beds to

. Little People 30

15. Planting Plan for the Improvement of Rural School Grounds . 31

16. Plan for Rural School Grounds of Two Acres or More 31

17. Willard School Farm, Cleveland 32

18. One of the Philadelphia Garden Association's Garden Farms . . 33

19. Roof Utilized for Gardening 39

20. The Spading-fork, Rake and Hoe, the Simplest Garden Outfit 42

21. An Inexpensive Hand Cultivator < 42

22. Hand Weeder, Pruning Shears, Trowel and Two Forms of

Dibbers 42

23. A Simple Marker for Garden Rows 44

24. A Handy Winder for Garden lines. 45

25. Form of One-horse Cultivator 46

26. A Hotbed of Suitable Size for a Home Garden 49

27. A Coldframe with a Cloth Cover 50

28. Transplanting in a Coldframe 50

29. Head Lettuce Grown in Coldframe 51

• • •

zui

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

30. Sweet-potato Plants may be Grown from Potatoes in Hotbeds 52

31. Cross-section Showing Construction of Hotbed 53

32. First Two Steps in Making a Temporary Hotbed 54

33. Two More Steps in the Preparation of a Temporary Hotbed . . 54

34. Two Last Steps in Preparing a Temporary Hotbed 54

36. Two Pots of Soil, Com Growing in One, Immersed in Water

to Show Difference in Evaporation 58

36. Plants Grown in Glass Bottle Wrapped in Dark Paper 58

37. Germinating Oats and Barley 59

38. A Potted Plant with Glass Inverted Over it, Showing Moisture

Given Off by Leaves 60

39. Experiment with Egg to Show Osmosis. 61

40. Potato Tubers Sprouted in Light and in the Dark 63

41. A Sunlight Aquarium 64

42. Tests with Fertilizers made in Glasses, Tin Cans, and Flower

Pots 66

43. Melons Grown from Unselected Seed — Showing the Mixed

Product 67

44. Melons Grown from Selected Seed 67

45. Hubbard Squash Cut Open, Showing Seed Cavity 68

46. Tomatoes Cut Open, Showing Seed Cavity 68

47. An Exercise to Test the Depth for Planting 71

48. A Lens 74

49. A Reference Collection of .Seeds to Use in Detecting Impurities

in Seed Samples 75

50. A Collection of Garden Seeds 76

51. Selecting Seed Potatoes 79

52. Growth, Yield and Marketable Crop Produced by Well-selected

and by Poor Seed 80

53. The Poppy 81

54. Strawberry Blossoms 82

55. Equivalents in Different Forms of Lime 85

56. Crimson Clover 86

57. Manure for Garden Should Be Well Rotted 91

58. Squares Showing Proportion of Valuable Ingredients in Ton of

Fertilizer 97

59. Garden-pea Roots 100

60. Beautif jdng Vacant Lots, Los Angeles 108

61. Over-head Irrigation System for Children's Gardens, Dayton, 0. 109

62. Irrigation Water Conducted to Edge of Garden in Wooden

Trough or Flume 110

63. Underdrains Encourage Roots to Feed Deeper m

ILLUSTRATIONS XV

64. Garden SoiLs Should not be Allowed to Bake and Crack 115

53 65. A Footprint Packs the Soil but Destroys the Surface Mulch.. . 118

ci 66. Liquid Will Rise Rapidly in A Lump of Sugar, as It Does in .

Packed Soil 119

67. Liquid Does not Escape Through the Loose Mulch on Top. . 119

68. Soil Packer Leaving Surface Slightly Ridged but Loose 120

69. The Best Forms of Roller Should Leave the Surface Loose . . 120

70. Fine-grained Soil CJonducts Water Upward Faster than Sand 121

71. Soils of Different Types Tested 122

72. A Suggestive Plan for Plots in Testing Fertilizers 125

73. A Scheme for Experimental Plots 126

74. Tomato Plant Reduced to a Single Main Stem and Tied to a
Single Stake 127

75. Vetch Plots, with Inoculation on Right, no Inoculation on Left 128

76. A House Without Vines, Shrubs or Trees 131

77. A Place may be Transformed by Proper Use of Paint and
Planting 131

78. A Prize Back Yard and the Family Who Enjoyed It 132

79. A Lesson in School-room Transplanting 136

80. When a Peach, Apple or Other Fruit Tree is First Set Out It
Should be Pruned 137

'^ 81. A Two-year Old Peach Tree Will be Ready to Bear Fruit Next

1 , Year 138

4 82. Two-year-old Apple Tree '. 139

83. Samples of Good and Bad Pruning 140

^ 84. A Farm Home with a Beautiful Side Yard 141

85. First Prize Front Yard and the Girl Who Beautified it 143

86. Purple-leaved Caster Beans 145

87. Cannas 147

88. Trees Should be Pruned Before they are Reset 156

89. The Spreading Cherry Tree. 157

90. Starting Geraniums for Cuttings for Window Boxes 159

91. Four Types of Hardwood Cuttings 160

92. When Woody Cuttings are Set Out They Should be Planted
Deep 161

93. Root Grafting of the Apple 162

94. School Boys Budding Young Peach Trees 164

95. Budding Peach Seedling Trees with Buds from Good Varieties 165

96. Mahaleb Chwry Stocks Budded 166

97. Black Raspberry Tip-layering 168

98. Vine Layering 168

99. Chrysanthemums, Satisfactory Flowers to Grow Indoors 171

52

54

58
58
59

60
61
63
64

56

)7
)7

18

)

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

00. Carnations, Good House Plants 172

01. Tulips May be Forced into Bloom in Midwinter 173

02. Colossal Asparagus 179

03. Bush lima Beans 180

04. Early Stringless Wax Beans 181

05. Sugar Beet 182

06. A Good Cabbage, and One Not Fit for Market 183

07. Two Types of Carrots 184

08. A Small Head of Cauliflower of Fine Quality 185

09. Black Beauty Egg-plant 188

10. Horse-radish Roots 189

11. Cantaloupe for Market 193

12. Sweet Peppers 195

13. Sweet Potato Plants 199

14. Swiss Chard with Long White LeafHstems 200

15. Types of Tomatoes 202

16. Bloomsdale Rutabagas 203

17. Companion Cropping with Lettuce and Cauliflower 204

18. Preparing Com for an Exhibit 210

19. Com Board for Use When Judging Com 211

20. Result of a Germination Test of 72 Ears of Com 215

21. Com Snks Must Receive the Fine Pollen Dust from Tassels
of Other Stalks • 217

22. Country Grentleman, One of the Best Varieties of Sweet Com 219

23. An Arkansas Com-club Boy 222

24. Pansies May be Started into Bloom in the Hotbed 226

25. Boston Head Lettuce. Section Showing Solid Texture and
Light Color 229

26. Celery Banked with Dirt for Blanching 238

27. Preparing the Garden for a Second Crop, Normal School,
Providence, R. 1 239

28. Hedge-row System of Growing Strawberries 240

29. Winter Mulch of Straw Protects Strawberry Plants 245

30. The School Garden is to Train for Home Gardening 251

31. Pasteboard ** Pots " are Often Used in Transplanting Seedlings 253

32. The Early Scarlet Radish 254

33. The Hands Should Pack the Soil Firmly Around the Plant . . 257

34. White Niagara Grapes in a School Garden 265

35. Blackberries May be Cut to the Ground After Each Crop is

Picked 266

136. Asters are so Popular that Large Fields of Them are Grown

in California Just for the Seeds 270

ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

137. Strawberries Should be Grown in All Southern Gardens 274

138. Sound Fruit Produced by Systematic Spraying 277

139. Insect Breeding Cages 278

140. Peach Tree Borers May be Dug from Trunk After Soil is

Removed from Base 279

141. A Method of Protecting Peach Trees from the Attacks of

Borers 279

142. Brown Rot Disease 281

143. Rolls of Paper or Tin Cans Without Bottoms May be Left

Around Plantd When Transplanted 282

144. Potato with Rot Disease 283

145. A Type of Sprayer CaUed "Atomizer" 284

146. A Bucket Sprayer, Suited to Work in Home Gardens 285

147. Knapsack Sprayer 285

148. An Inexpensive Spray Pump with Two Leads of Spray Hose 287

149. Grain Smut Disease 288

160. Potato Scab Disease 289

151. Part of Her Crop Saved for Winter 294

152. The Rural School is a Good Place for the Garden Fair 295

153. This 91-pound Corn-club Boy Raised 91 Bushels of Com per

Acre in Tennessee 296

154. School Garden Exhibit, Eentville, Nova Scotia 299

155. A Mountaineer's Family Having a Home Canning Demon-

stration of their Own 304

156. The Canning Club Work Leads to Home Canning of Fruits

and Vegetables 308

157. A Nature Study Lesson in the Garden 323

158. This Rural Teacher Makes the School Garden the Basis for

Much of the Other School Work 330

159. Teachers in Summer School Practice Gardening so They May

Teach it Better 336

160. Primary Pupils Planting Radish Seeds 337

• • •• •

• • • » •

SCHOOL AND HOME
GARDENING

PART I
OUTLOOK TO GARDENING

CHAPTER I

BEGINNINGS AND AIMS

Historical. — It is difficult to discover the first effort to
introduce elementary school gardening into the United States,
but it probably was made by the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society. In 1890 Mr. H. L. Clapp, of Eoxbury, was sent by
this society to Europe to make a study of school gardens in
Germany, Belgium, England, France, and elsewhere. As a
result of his investigation, Mr. Clapp started a school garden
at his own school the next year.

From this small beginning has grown the strong belief
that children of all schools should, if possible, be given some
helpful instruction in the use of their natural surroundings,
which will give them both pleasure and profit. That thia can
be accomplished through school gardens has since been well
demonstrated in hundreds, even thousands, of schools in
America.

Boston and Detroit both made early use of school gardens
to train children. Cleveland and Philadelphia followed very
promptly. Minneapolis and New York City should both be
credited with the introduction of many new features.

The pioneer work along this line in Dayton, Ohio, was
started in the schools and among the boys of the city through
the efforts of the president of the National Cash Register
Company. This began in 1897.

1

« ; SCHpQV;^^ HOME GARDENING

-'. tJiide^ .a sdielne' wiicji" has taken the name of its first
supporters and become known as the Macdonald Movement^
the first systematic plan for the establishment of school gar-
dens in connection with rural schools in America was started
in Canada by the Macdonald funds. School gardens were
officially enfcouraged by the provincial Department of Educa-
tion and were made a part of the Provincial system of educa-
tion and in some provinces grew in favor.

Normal schools, and colleges in all sections are now train-
ing teachers to carry on this kind of work in connection with
other subjects of the school. School gardens, or home gardens
by school pupils, are now organized in every part of the land.
That school gardening is a suitable part of the well-planned
school training for young people is now universally recognized.
Much credit is due to those pioneers who have brought this
condition of affairs about in the American systems of
education.*

Character of the Instruction. — ^The instruction in the
earliest school gardens varied widely in its character, each
following one or more of the following lines:

1. In some there were penny packets of seeds distributed
to children of the schools in the spring. These were to be
planted at home and the products exhibited at the school in
the fall. Little or no supervision was given the gardens by
any instructor. Penny packets for school children are now
supplied by several dealers and associations of the country.

2. More or less permanent home gardens, under direction
of supervisors and employed gardeners to give personal in-
struction. These might be with or without hotbeds and
coldframes.

3. Vacant lot gardening, in 'congested sections of large
cities. See next chapter.

* For further mention of the early development of school garden-
ing, reference is made to Chapter I, " Among School Gardens," by
M. Louise Green.

BEGINNINGS AND AIMS 3

4. Roof gardening and window gardening, where larger
garden plots could not 'be obtained.

5. Large gardens, suitably located where pupils from dif-
ferent parts of the city were sent on certain days of the week.
Instruction was given by young people or gardeners trained
for the particular purpose.

6. One of the best plans was to establish a school garden
at or near each school building. Each pupil^ was then allowed
to have an individual row or plot in the garden. The instruc-
tion was given either by the regular school teacher or by
a special teacher.

Of all these plans worked out in different places by the
pioneers in this movement for better school training, the last
(6) is most ideal, but the various other plans suited the
varied conditions found about the schools which undertook
the work.

Supervised home gardens are now systematically con-
ducted in a number of places. The supervisor may be either
(1) a special instructor devoting his entire time to the work,
or (2) a market gardener giving some spare time to help the
home gardeners, or (3) a teacher giving part time to other
work in the schools.

OBJECTS OF YOUNG PEOPLE^S GARDENS

Those who began the work of organizing the early school
gardens had in view a number of purposes. All or nearly all
of these purposes should be kept in mind by teachers, parents,
and other leaders in the school garden movement.

The garden work trains the mind, the will, the affections,
the body ; yes, and the morals.

In Dayton, Ohio, the leader was impressed with the valu-
able training given to boys who had chores or regular duties
to perform. The garden furnishes the child such regular work
and develops the sense of responsibility. In some schools the
garden work is ^^required ^' just as other subjects are.

The effect of the school garden, when offered to children

4 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

of a city, is to take them off the streets, away from bad sur-
rouQdings, and give them a most wholesome environment.

The effect of the garden in the country is to fill the mind
of the child with thoughts which are elevating and not de-
grading. Idle hands and leisure hours are as bad for country
children as for others. The wholesome refinement of the
garden fills the place of vulgar twaddle. Country children
learn to love their future life occupation. They find it has a
scientific foundation.

The dullest or most backward pupils become aroused and
interested when given work in the garden, and other school
work basod on what has taken place in the garden is done
with renewed interest. They become more regular in attend-
ance. The discipline and moral tone of the school are improved.

Children become interested because they are to accomplish
something definite, and the training becomes concreta instead
of abstract.

Because of the aroused interest on the part of the pupils,
the gardening takes away much of the school drudgery even
from the teacher. Teacher and pupils alike feel the renewed
interest and inspiration from the new point of view of the
school and its work.

Schools giving a few hours a week to gardening find their
pupils excel in other studies when brought in competition with
schools without gardening. This is the best proof that gar-
dening aids the other work of the school.

The school garden gives a relaxation from the wearisome
duties of the classroom, and keeps up the child^s interest in
the whole school work. It furnishes a basis for the other lines
of work. It puts into concrete form many of fhe problems
in arithmetic, the lessons in reading, the language " stories '*
or essays (see Chapter XXII).

The nature study work of the city school is made most
practical when based upon the garden. The child is led
gradually from the known to the unknown.

BEGINNINGS AND AIMS 5

In the garden the powers of observation are developed
properly — " turned into orderly channels of cause and effect/^
The child's mind is freed " from the power of sensory illusions
and his moral nature from superstitions/'

The economic and useful side of the garden training comes
iotuitively. Many children and parents first think of the use
which the garden can be, in reducing the grocery bills. It
teaches how to live, not merely how to get ready to live.
Teachers need not stifle that thought, nor need not emphasize
it. The garden work may also develop the aesthetic and
sociological sides of the child's life. The seeing of things
beautiful and excellent in nature and art is itself a potent
ftfctor for goo(^.

School gardening often changes the attitude of children
toward the school building aiid its surroundings. Desolate
places are made beautiful. Defiled buildings are cleaned and
easily kept clean. Littered grounds are cleaned lip and kept
in order.

Work of this character arouses a community spirit. A
true feeling of public interest and care of public property is
engendered.

The improvement of the school surroundings through
gardening work soon reacts upon the homes of the pupils.
They are made more beautiful and attractive. In home yards
neatness often takes the place of squalor.

When associated with schools having man.ual training for
children, the garden work completes the field of industrial
training. It rapidly develops habits of accuracy and powers
of initiative. Where manual training is not possible the
garden will amply take its place, as it causes more and better
development than when manual training only is given.

Gardening is found to be one of the best lines of training
for young people in reform schools. But public school children
should be given the benefits of gardening and thus avoid the
possible need of pending the unruly ones to reform schools.

6 SCHOOL AND HOME GAIIDENING

The school garden system in - Canada " aims at belpiog
the rural population to understand better what education is
and what it aims at for them and their children." The gar-
den work is " designed to encourage the cultivation of the soil
as an ideal life work," but incidentally gives to the child a
" symmetrical education," as it gives suitable " scientific
information and ihe habit of careful observation."

In France the object is not to teach farming but to develop
in children the natural interest in flowers, birds and growing

. Furview jchool, Yonkera,
a of America.)

things, and inspire a love for the country. But the instructors
give a knowledge of the soil, means of improving it, methods of
cultivation, and the management of a garden.

" The main object of the study (in Switzerland) is to train
to better mental grasp by developing the power of obser-
vation, the skilful use of the finer muscles of the hands. The
useful information is incidental, though it appears otherwise
to the child and often to the parent." ^

In many schools in America the products of the garden
are of no insignificant consideration, particularly in the minds
of the children. The crops are often used for canning by

'M. Louise Greene, "Among School Gardens," page 13,

BEGINNINGS AND AIMS 7

members of canning clubs. One interest in the garden work
may, therefore, be the production of crops for some definite
purpose (Fig. 1).

Home gardening and vacant lot gardening are often con-
ducted with the products as the chief aim. But this does not
weaken nor destroy the many other objects of children's
gardens. A good example of the pursuit of gardening for the
money returns is found in Lincoln, Nebraska, where a chil-
dren's market was established in the summer of 1916. The
sales in this market on the Saturdays of June and July
totalled $338. Such returns greatly increased the interest in
the garden work (see frontispiece).

The School Center. — Children's garden work should cen-
ter about the school. Teachers should start it whether it be
school gardening or home gardening. If there is a suitable
place available for a school garden let that be started first.
Then let the pupils start gardens at home also.

The home gardens may be encouraged by starting compe-
titions in the growing of vegetables, flowers, corn, potatoes and
other crops. Exhibits to be held in the fall may be announced
and planned in early spring. Perhaps prizes may be offered.
Such contests will help to keep up the interest in both the
home garden and the school garden through the whole sum-
mer. Let the exhibits be held at the school. Perhaps a
program my be offered in connection with the exhibit. In
some cases it may be well to charge a small admission at the
time the program is given.

Garden exhibits may well be held in combination with
exhibits of manual training, sewing, cooking, drawing, pen-
manship, and, other lin^ of school work. The more corre-
lation at such a time the better (see Chapter XXI).

Garden clubs, including school children and others, may
be started by teachers. The school will become more and more
the community center for such interests (see Chapter XXI).

Vacation Time. — If the work is well started and the

8 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

interest thoroughly axoused before schools close for summer
vacation, the gardens will be much better taken care of. The
care of the school garden during summer vacation should he
assigned to some few students or to a janitor or to a committee
or to a neighbor appointed for the purpose. In some cases
each pupil will faithfully take care of his own portion of the
school garden during vacation; but too frequently this plan
fails.

The garden crops that mature during vacation will furnish
compensation to the persons who care for the whole garden.

Whether there be a good school garden or not, it is always
possible to plan some good vacation gardens for the pupils to
use. These should be planted either at home or, for city
children, vacant lots may be used. I^t the planting be done
at the proper times in the spring while school is in session and
have reports made from time to time.

School Teachers the Best Leaders. — Any teacher, with
a desire to help the school and the young people of the com-
munity, will succeed better in the garden work than a profes-
sional gardener. It is not at all necessary to hire a gardener
for the purpose. The suggestions and advice of such persons
are often helpful, but the teacher will have to adapt the
suggestions to the school conditions.

The trained teacher can work out the plans and carry on
the work better than any one else. The teacher is in sympathy
with the child's mind and understands his point of view.
Together they will overcome all difficulties and make the
garden a success (see Chapter XXIII).

THE GARDElSr
(Arthur Wallace Peach in Orange Judd Farmer)

Calm in the winter hush it lay asleep

Beneath a downy coverlet of snow;
I saw the twilight shadows o'er it creep,

And heard the storm winds shouting to and fro.

Ik
ttee
ises ,

ays

io

itv

BEGINNINGS AND AIMS 9

mer \ The moonlight touched it with a beauty white,

[iL I But still it jslept a long, sweet sleep of peace;

It gave no heed to voices of the night,

Nor asked from its deep slumber quick release.

Yet in my heart I wondered if it dreamed \

As I, of coming days when it should hear
the I The southwind call, and see as sunshine gleamed

Ian Across the hills, the wide earth wake with cheer.

Now dreams come true; it hears the south wind's voice;
jgh It wakes from sleep and dons its gown of green.

Birds down its paths with eaAy songs rejoice;

And sunbeams for their springtime dance convene.

Soon shall it rise in beauty crowned with flow'rs.

And to our hearts a joyous rapture bring;
It casts away the gloom of wintry hours,
)«c And wears the hues and splendors of the spring!

nd ;

I - Opinions of Teachers. — The following statements are
[th 1 chiefly from rural teachers whose initials are given:
[21- School gardening arouses interest, and may be made the

3S- means of keeping boys and girls in school. — C. 0. B.
er It helps in all other branches of the work. — B. W. H.

ns It helps the children in all branches of study. — M. E. W.

^e I The attendance is much better. — N. S.

! It teaches growth of plants, and farming or gardening can

}n be learned easily. Instead of being degrading, it is ele-
hy vating. — R. B. H.

w. Gives the child a means of understanding the life around

he him, so that life means more to him than to a child who never
I realizes his relation to nature and his dependence on plant and
animal life. — B. M. B.

School gardening may be correlated with all other subjects
I taught in the school. It is therefore a good study to introduce
early to enrich the other work. — A. M. L.

A school garden teaches the children to become interested
( in rural life, and gives them a practical interest in their other
studies. — A. M. T.

10 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

The school garden is something that the child can see and
enter into fully ; so it interests him and makes him love school
more. — I*. C.

School gardening is necessary in that it teaches a child to
know something of the economy of space and respect for
individual ownership. — M. G. T.

A school garden helps to quicken interest in most of the
other subjects, and gives the children practical information
on everyday things. — S. P. C.

School gardens are of real practical value in training for
life.— B. E. K.

It awakens the interest of the children, and thereby they
gain much useful knowledge, and in addition learn to observe
closely. — M. J. R.

School gardening should be so conducted that practical
knowledge and experience are gained, crops of real worth and
best quality raised, and each child stimulated to go out into
the world and do likewise.

School gardening should be so taught that each child feels
the wonder yet the perfect naturalness of life in all its phases ;
in plants and men alike.

In rural communities the garden work should teach best
methods and the underlying principles ; it should interest the
child to stay on the farm. In the cities children should be
taught the money possibilities of a small plot of ground, — the
practical side is to be developed as well as the ideal and the
spiritual. — C. M.

The home garden should be the result of every school
garden. — M.

GHAPTEE II

VACANT LOT GARDENING FOR VILLAGES

AND CITIES

S I

The use of vacant tracts, either large or small^..iii villages
and cities, for gardening purposes should be encouraged by
all. It is to the interest 6t the owners of such lois^ as well
as to the users, to have them cultivated for garden purposes.
Lots or tracts thus used are made more beautiful and more
salable. The gardens raised on them return a profit to the
persons doing the work. Much pleasure is gained and health-
ful employment is furnished to those who might otherwise
be out of employment a part or all of the time.

Historical. — In the early nineties Mayor Pingree of
Detroit found many of the Detroit workingmen out of em-
ployment. He noticed the numerous tracts of vacant land
which were " eyesores ^' to visitors and others. .Many of these
lots were dumping grounds where tin cans, garbage and other
wastes were scattered. Flies and mosquitoes found breeding
places, and the health of the city was greatly impaired.

The mayor started a movement which led to the use of
thousands of vacant lots for the growing of potatoes and other
garden crops. The suburbfe of the city were made beautiful.
The lots were cleaned up and plowed. Crops were planted.
Idle men, women and children found employment. ' Crops
were produced which aided materially in the maintenance of
many poor fami^' s. Hundreds, who had been dependent
upon the city for support, became independent. They were
able to look the world in the face, as they were no longer
beggars.

Other large cities have, from time to time, taken up this
movement and with slight changes have carried out the plan

11

12 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

slarted in Detroit (Kif;s. 'i niiil ;t). In Kome tilitss tlie plan
lias been to follow the vacant lot gardening only during

Fia. 3, — PrepaTJng m wmtta tot for iHrdeni

Fm, 3.— The ssme Lot made int "s^ood'gan
Garden Asaocia

VACANT LOT GARDENING 13

" hard tiines/^ when other forms of employment were difficult
to find. In still other cities the plan has been to supply the
tracts to those in most need of this form of help. Poor fami-
lies, or persons having poor health, or families where a num-
ber of children are most in need of employment, are furnished
with tracts to cultivate.

The Philadelphia Vacant Lots Cultivation Assqpiation in
1913 reported 544 families using gardens assigned to them,
averaging about one-sixth of an acre. This used practically
all of the idle land available for the purpose. In one year
the expense was $4000 and $25,000 worth of vegetables was
produced. In Baltimore the committee required gardeners
to pay a fee of one dollar a year each for their plots. There,
as elsewhere, ''a trained person is employed to oversee the
gardening operations.

A few of the things accomplished by the Minneapolis
Garden .Club in 1911 were: " Every vacant lot for two miles
along one of the principal arteries of the city was beautiful.
The first census of dirty vacant lots ever taken in the city was
made and with the cooperation of the Improvement Society
600 acres were cleaned of rubbish. Ash heaps and dump
piles disappeared; bill board lots were cleaned, levelled and
sown to rye. Former vacant lots become productive gardens.
As many as iSOO persons had home gardens, and it is estimated
that 1000 homes were improved through enthusiasm created
by gardening activities on school property and vacant lots.
The gardening fever spread like a contagion all over the city
— not only the gardeneng fever but the cleaning-up fever. In
fact, cleanliness was the keynote of the Garden Club scheme."

Plan of Work. — An association or club is first organized
for the purpose of starting the vacant lot gardening. Some
public interest must be aroused by articles in local papers
and by lectures given by persons from cities where the work
has been done.

The ownership of vacant tracts must be found and the

14 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING.

use of the land solicited. This is done with little cost, and
nothing is paid to the owner of the land for the use of it.
An agreement may be made with the owner that he may sell
the land or use it for building purposes at any time. This
seldom if ever results in the destruction of a growing crop.

In some cases a little measuring or surveying is necessary
to establisJi the lines, and to divide large tracts into individual
gardens. After sufficient land is thus made available, appli-
cation blanks should be published in the local press so that all
who are in any way interested in doing the garden work may
have an opportunity of applying for a garden tract. The
plans may be explained to all teachers in the public schools,
and they may tell the pupils about them.

The applications may be examined by a committee
appointed for the purpose. The assignments, if necessary,
may be made to those persons who seem most in earnest or
who would be most benefited by the use of such gardens. An-
other plan is to make assignments in the same order that
applications are received.

Aid to Gardeners. — In most instances the cleaning up
is done by the association, and a fence, if necessary, is placed
around each large tract. A fence is usually not necessary,
but may be needed where stock are allowed to roam or where
paths have been formed by neighbors in the vicinity. The
fence may be of a temporary character and inexpensive — ^per-
haps a single wire three feet from the ground fastened on
stakes about one rod apart.

Tracts which have not been in use for gardening pur-
poses should be plowed some weeks or months in advance,
and kept harrowed to prevent the growth of grass and weeds.
Just before planting time the ground may be cultivated or
disked to make it mellow for planting. This plan is not
always possible, as it is much more expensive where teams are
to be hired.

The association grows plants in its own greenhouse or hot-

VACANT LOT GARDENING 15

beds, or may purchase them at wholesale for the members.
Thus the gardeners are supplied with an assortment of such
plants as tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, pepper, egg-plant, and
others at nominal cost.

Seeds in any desired amount and of all kinds are supplied
from local distributing stations, at actual cost. Manures and
fertilizers are applied to the land in the spring by use of
teams and wagons employed by the Association.

Instruction. — Some person well informed as to practical
methods of gardening is employed to give instruction to the
gardeners. This is done both in the garden and by circular
letters sent by mail.

The Superintendent. — It is essential that a good super-
intendent have the entire work in charge. He should under-
. stand not only the best ways of securing land and preparing
it for use, but shculd have the knowledge and inst^cts of a
gardener and know how to impart this to others. He should
understand how to u^ake the best use of the public press, and
how to interest various local organizations and officials.

He should be a good lecturer and understand lecturing
with lantern slides. He will need to have occasional meetings
with the gardeners, and give them instruction along certain
lines by means of pictures, as well as orally. The use of lan-
tern slides in public lectures will aid much in arousing public
interest in the work.

Funds for the Work. — The gardens are supplied to mem-
bers free, and materials, such as seeds, plants, fencing and
manure, are not entirely paid for by the gardeners. A fund
must be raised to defray the numerous expenses of the asso-
ciation, such as salary of the superintendent and assistants,
labor in clearing lots, hire of teams and men in plowing, and
applying fertilizers, the purchase or hire of implements, rent
of oflSce or garden headquarters, typewriting, telephone, post-
age, printing and other incidentals.

It is often necessary and perhaps well to charge each gar-

16 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENmG

dener a small fee for plants, se^ds and fertilizers. This plan
helps to exclude applications from those having too much
ambition at first and too little persistence later on. The
payment of a small fee aids in maintaining the interest of
the younger gardeners, particularly at times of greatest dis-
couragement. The fee may be $1 the first year, $2 the second
year, $3 the third year, $4 the fourth year and $5 for each
succeeding year. Preference should always be given to for-
mer users of each garden plot when the assignments are made.
The prospect of being re-assigned the same garden the follow-
ing season induces the gardener to keep down weeds, put the
land in better condition, become familiar with its needs, and
use winter cover crops or grow winter products.

Contributions for prizes to be awarded to those most suc-
cessful in different lines of garden work are easily secured
from citizens interested in the work. An exhibition held at
the close of each season miay be the source of raising funds,
by the sale of admission tickets. Funds |ire often supplied by
park commissioners, boards of trade, city councils, factory com-
panies, improvement associations, and philanthropic citizens.

Good and Bad Charity. — It is usually considered bad
charity to give money to able-bodied people to aid in their sup-
port. A mucin better form of charity is to provide conditions
whereby such persons may aid themselves. The Vacant Lot
Gardening Association says to any such person : " Do for your-
self," " Be a man," " You have muscles, you have arms, use
them.'^ The Association provides the means whereby such
effort on the part of poor people may be applied by them to
their own support.

This form of charity gives better results than any other.
Instead of supporting the poor and down-trodden in a state
of idleness, which encourages pauperism, they are shown how
to support themselves, or to aid in their own support. They
are given employment in the free, open air, away from the
channels of vice and crime.

VACANT LOT GARDENING 17

Circular to Prospective Gardeners. — The following
wording was incorporated in a small leaflet sent to the pros-
pective workers in the Philadelphia vacant lot gardens :

Opportunity. — Are your wages large enough to enable you to
buy all the things you need for yourself and family ? Or do you find
that the cost of food, clothing, rent, etc., necessary to properly main-
tain yourself and family, is so high that you cannot make your
dollars go as far as they should? Hundreds of families in Philadel-
phia have found a big aid in meeting this difficulty by working.

Vacant Lot Oa/rdens. — Has your health been poor? Have you
therefore been prevented from working as you otherwise could and
would like to ? Many invalids, including those who have tuberculosis,
have found great improvement in health, while at the same time
producing needed supplies in the healthful open-air work on vacant
lot gardens.

Are you among those who have reached an age which prevents
you from competing with the younger ones in the rush of modern
working methods? Many old men and women, some over eighty
years of age, have kept in good health while producing a great deal
for their own support on va>ca(nt lot gardens.

If for any reason you need a vaca/nt lot garden write at once
to the Superintendent.

Our Method. — Our Association has made arrangements with
owners of various wasting tracts of idle land, which afford a splendid
opportunity for cultivating in different parts of the city, to use this
land for vacant lot gardens until the land is needed for building
or other purposes.

Our Association prepares the land, plows and harrows it (and
fertilizes it when necessary) and divides it into gardens, generally
about one-eighth of an acre in size. These gardens are then assigned
to various persons or families, who have made application, in the
order in which the applications have been received. Therefore, you
will see that if you want to be sure to get a garden, you should send
your application now.

With each garden pur Association distributes an assortment of
good seeds and plants, sufficient in quantity for a good start. This
assortment is generally about as follows: 1 basket seed potatoes,
1 quart lima beans, 1 quart string beans, 1 quart butter "beans, 1 pint
corn, 1 quart peas, 2 ounces beet seed, 2 ounces radish seed, several
dozen tomato and cabbage plants.

As the Association secures the land free of charge, it assigns

2

18 SCHOOL AND HOME GAKDENING

the gardens on similar terms without charge for tlieir uae but charges
$1 towards the expense of plowing, seeds, etc., which cost the Asso-
ciation about $5 a garden. If a person or family cultivates a garden
properly one season, the Association generally re-aasigns the garden
to them the following season if they desire it. Two dollars 1b charged
the second aeaaon for the plowing, seeds, etc., $3 the third season,
$4 the fourth season and $o the fifth year. However, those who
take a garden the third season may, if they desire, furnish their own
seed instead of taking any from the Association, in which case they
would he charged only 92.50 for the plowing and fertilizing.

A Fonn of Vacation Gardening. — When the city achooU
close, hundreds of children are turned out upon the streets.

Fia. 4.— Vacant land lardeniDi in Portland, Oregon, supsrviaed by public achool
tea^hen. (Photo from ChildrEa'B Flower MTaalon. CleveUnd.)

TlBually no provision is made for the employment of their time
in play or work. Idleness leads to mischief. Too frequently
the good iniluences of home, school and church are overcome
by bad associations. This is always worse during vacation

Vacant lot gardening offers one of the very best forms
of supplying vacation employment to both girls and boys of
school age.

They may work with their parents and friends under the
direction of the garden association. When the schools cloee

VACANT LOT GARDENING 18

for the long sumnier vacation, Uie school children can spend
much of their time in the gardens {Fig. 4).

The instruction given in the garden work by the Associa-
tion is of life-long value to such young people. They enjoy
the work and usually seek the opportunities offered by the
association.

Appreciation of the beautiful should be instilled in the
minds of young people. This takes the place of training of
the opposite kind, where vacant lots are unimproved, too often
given to young people. It is because of the improved appear-

Fio. S. — Back yard gardening by a poor boy.

ance given to tlie city that park commissioners find it advisable
to aid vacant lot gardening projects.

When young people supply a part of the vegetables for the
family table they early learn the value of honest effort and a
sense of responsibility. In poor families, the children leam
the possibility of aiding their parents in making a living for
the family, through work which they greatly enjoy.

Home Gardening Encouraged. — The spirit of gardening
rapidly spreads from the vacant lot tracts to the back yards
of the people living in the neighborhood (Figs. 5, fi, and 7).
The cleaning-up spirit pervades all. Many cottagers who have

20 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

never done any gardening before learn the methods by seeing
what others accomplish. They not only learn from observa-
tion, but realize tlie benefits, pleasures and profits to be gained

Fio, 7.

Fid. e.— His fint (arden and odb of tbe fiiM io bis Deiehborbood.

Fia. 7.— Ths cudenu >11 her own, but the ia glad to furnish jiroduce for tbe fuuily

table.

from gardening. The back yard garden is soon cstablishi^d,
and is maintained fcTcver. Hundreds of Kncb gardens are
found in neighborhoods whore the Association has established

VACANT LOT GARDENING 21

gardens. In 1912 there were six thousand home gardens super-
vised by those in charge of the school garden system in Phila-
delphia. This plan of supervising the vacation gardening of
the school children is found in a number of cities.

Speaking of the back yard gardens in Baltimore, The Sun,
of that city, says : " Some are veritable beauty spots created
in places that were once eyesores. In the weary stretch of
brick and stone, when you come upon such a bower of trees
and flowers and greenery it looks like an oasis — as refreshing
as a flowing well in a dry and thirsty land. And the move-
ment is only well begun. The yards that have been improved
are such a pleasure to their possessors that the wonder is all
the neighbors do not follow their example. There is nothing
that will give richer returns for such a small investment of
time and money.'^

Health of the City. — N^ot only is gardening a healthful
occupation . for the individual doing the work, but the effect
of vacant lot gardening is to make the whole city more health-
ful. Garbage heaps are breeding places for flies. Disease is
spread from places of accumulated filth by myriads of insects
which breed there.

Mosquitoes breed in tin cans and pools filled with rain-
water. Malaria and other diseases are spread by mosquitoes.

Cleaning up vacant lots by the burying of garbage, the
removal of tin cans and the filling of low places prevents dis-
eases common during the summer season (Figs. 8 and 9).

Vacant lot gardening has resulted in the reduction of
malaria, t3rphoid fever, and dysentery. If the facts could be
known, it has doubtless provided a check for tuberculosis and
other germ diseases.

Thus money and effort spent in the cleaning up of vacant
tracts and the establishment of gardens not only results in
benefit to those actually engaged in the work, but has advan-
tages of a more universal nature (Fig. 10). It is better to
spend money in the prevention of disease than in the cure of

ndnni

nape

ohtallh, (Cleveland Home

Garden Ab

prod

garden, (Cleveland Home

GHTdeD A

e neighborhood is int(«

milled

mprovement and tha profits

(CleveUnd Boine Ga

den Asi

«>d»t

on.)

VACANT LOT GARDENING 23

it. Many physicians liave testified to the good effects, both
upon the individual and the city, of such garden work.

Criminality. — Hundreds of those who are engaged in the
vacant lot gardening in various cities are people who would
otherwise spend much time in loafing on the streets, or fre-
quenting, bad resorts.. Their time is far better engaged in
the garden work. Persons who have spent many nights in the
city jails are lifted above such necessity or practice when
they undertake the garden work. Better ways of gaining a
livelihood are taught through gardening. Petty thieving is
reduced. Begging is less common. There is always mischief
for idle hands to do. A poor family when provided with a
good garden will always be employed in a form of labor which
is elevating and inspiring. This has not the pauperizing
effect of charity, but encourages self-respect, self-dependence,
better living, improved health, education and happiness.

The school garden is welcomed eagerly by the teachers of
" special '^ classes — especially for the mentally and morally
deficient. This work furnishes the finest kind of manual
training, and has the advantage of being out-of-doors. School
gardens have reformed many a chronic truant. When the call
of the fields came to the city urchin he formerly ran away.
Xow, if he lives near a school garden, he answers the call there.

A Permanent Occupation. — Superintendents and others
conducting the vacant lot garden work have observed many
instances where gardening has become a permanent occupation
as the result of a meager beginning. Many have moved to the
suburbs or country to obtain larger tracts or small farms on
which to follow gardening or other forms of agriculture (Fig.
11). They have become qualified to make a good living from
an occupation which was before strange to them.

Instances are shown of persons whose condition of health
was such as to make it impossible for them to continue with
factory or other in-door employment, who made a good liveli-
hood from gardening.

24 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Gardening for All Classes. — YacaDt lot gardening is not
primarily intended for any one class of people ; nor is it merely
a form of charity. All classes engage in it. Those dependent
upon charity may be benefited more than others, but the bene-
fits are of so many forms that all classes are interested in the
work. Children of self-supporting families; cripples needing
out-door exercise; those affected with constitutional disease,
and other invalids ; old men and women ; indeed whole families
of all classes find different reasons for engaging in vacant lot

gardening. It may add to their health, to their happiness, or
to their income.

The products may be used at home or sold to others in the
neighborhood. In some families organized plans for produc-
ing and selling are found ; the older members doing tiie work
and producing the most intensive and valuable forms of gar-
den products. The young members solicit orders and deliver
the products. Imagine the change in feeling experienced by
a widow with five children : she was formerly receiving money
from the city, when by gardening she was able to support her-
self and family with no outside aid.

VACANT LOT GARDENING 25

On one of the plots in the Baltimore alley tracts one gar-
dener produced 218 quarts of tomatoes (canned), 15 baskets
of tomatoes sold, 50 pints of chili sauce, 75 bottles of catsup,
90 quarts of corn, three pecks dried corn, four bushels dried
lima beans, 200 dozen ears corn, 15 bushels early potatoes,
with late ones to follow, 7 bushels beets, 1^/^ bushels onions,
two bushels string beans, and a quantity of radishes, lettuce
and early peas.

The importance of giving proper employment to those who
need it, instead of trying to remedy the evils of idleness
through other civic means, is illustrated by the following poem.
It is better to give healthful, remunerative employment, such
as gardening, to all, than to spend the money in supporting
reformatories and houses of correction, or in trying to cure
preventable diseases.

THE AMBULANCE DOWN IN THE VALLEY

Joseph Matins

'Twas a dangerous cliff, as they freely confessed,

Though to walk near its crest was so pleasant;
But over its terrible edge there had slipped

A duke and full many a peasant.
So the people said something would have to be done,

But their projects did not at all tally.
Some, " Put a fence around the edge of the cliff,'

Some, '* An ambulance down in the valley.'

But the cry for the ambulance carried the day,

And it spread through the neighboring city;
A fence may be useful or not, it is true,

But each heart became brimful of pity
For those who slipped over that dangerous cliff.

And the dwellers in highway and alley
Gave pounds or gave pence, not to put up a fence,

But an ambulance down in the valley.

26 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Then an old sage remarked : " It's a marvel to me

That people give far more attention
To repairing results than to stopping the cause.

When they'd better aim at prevention.
Let us stop at its source all this mischief," cried he,

" Come, neighbors and friends, let us rally ;
If the cliflf we will fence, we might almost dispense

With the ambulance down in the valley."

«
«

Oh, he's a fanatic," the other rejoined;

Dispense with the ambulance? Never!
He'd dispense with all charities, too, if he could.

No, no, we'll support them forever!
Aren't we picking up folks just as fast as they fall?

And shall this man dictate to us? Shall he?
Why should people of sense stop to put up a fence,

While the ambulance works in the valley ? "

PART n
GARDEN OPERATIONS AND EXERCISES

CHAPTER III

PLANNING THE GARDEN

Shape of Garden. — There are many ways of planning a
school garden or a home garden. When there is an oppor-
tunity for choice in the matter of shape, let the garden be a
rather long rectangle instead of square (Fig. 12). This gives
more chance to use a plow in preparing the ground. The im-
portance of this will be realized when the time arrives for spad-
ing up the soil for planting. Plowing is much easier than
spading. The laborious work of spading the whole garden
should be avoided if possible. In the larger gardens, plowing,
harrowing and also cultivating between the rows may be done
with horse power. Lay out the garden with such plans in
mind. ^

Location. — Let the school garden be so located as to be
as near the school building as possible, but do not let it inter-
fere with the playgrounds. It is best to have a place for
both garden and play.

In figures 13, 14, 15 and 16 good locations are suggested
for small and for large grounds. In crowded cities, if the
school grounds are too small for gardens, a vacant lot or
several lots may be found near enough to be suitable for use
(Fig. 17). If the garden can be all in one place, so much
the better.' The work of preparation and care are easier.

Protecting the Garden. — It is usually necessary to pro-
tect the school garden as well as the home garden. In the
country a fence may be necessary to keep out chickens, cows
or other animals; while in the city a fence suitable to turn

27

ii::

PLANNING THE GARDEN

29.

away certain mischievous persons, as well as stray animals,
may be necessary under some circumstances.

Fence. — One of the best forms of fencing is woven wire.

10 Rods -

tm m t' Qc c ii^a >

^

Fia. 13. — Plan for one-acre rural school grounds with the garden plots at the end
opposite the main road. The grouping of shrubbery is suggestive. (U. S, D. A.)

Tt is easily put up and may be of any heiglit and of any size
of mesh desired. Tn the eitv a woven wire fence four or five

30

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

feet high is satisfactory. To prevent people from climbing
over it a line of barbed wire may be put along the top. Staple
the woven wire ta the outer side of the posts and staple
the barbed wire along the inside of the posts. This will pre-
vent unnecessary injury to any one.

FiQ. 14. — In planning the school garden large plots may be assigned to older pupils
and small beds may be used by little people. (U. S. D, A.)

The light-weight woven wire, commonly called " chicken
wire/' may be satisfactory for some places. It is cheap but
does not last so long as the heavier woven wire (see
Chapter IV).

Hedges and Screens. — A suitable screen for a garden is

PLANNING THE GARDEN

31

often desirable. A border of shrubs may be planted in natural
masses with good effect.

A well-kept garden is a pleasing sight, but a low hedge of
some kind may be used to mark the line. Privet hedge, a line
of roses, and Japanese barberry are all suitable marks for the
garden line ; these may be used either with or without a fence.
As beauty is public property, low hedges are often best. The

I

4

^ m"^ Jhti'm m m m m

MAtff OOAD

Fig. 15.

/V/l/W XOAD

Fig. 16.

Fig. 15. — Planting plan for the improvement gf rural school grounds. The
rardens are not too near the roads, and the playground is at the back. (Arkansas
Department Pub. Instruction.)

Fig. 16. — Plan for rural school grounds of two acres or more. The gardens
are at the back. The grounds are well planted and yet room is left for playgrounds.
(United States Bureau of Education.)

taller, dense, thorny hedges may be grown to take the place
of a fence. Favorite plants for this purpose are: Common
barberry, Osage orange, Japanese quince, Iboda privet, and
the taller roses. Effective screens grown in the form of hedges
may be formed of lilacs, althaeas, dogwoods, and many other
flowering shrubs.

Borders or hedges of densely planted evergreens, such as
cedars, arbor vitsB, or spruces, are very attractive in both win-

38 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

PLANNING THE GARDEN S3

and summer. \'ines may bi; grown ou (lie garden fence with
pleasing effect. Ou woven wire t'entes we maj use paaicled
clematis, Virginia clematis, grapu-viiits, hop'*, morning glories,
cypress vine, flowering beans and others

Laying off the Garden. — There are two common plana
of laying off the school garden. Eitlier plan is intended to
give a certain portion to each pupil for preparation, planting,
care, and harvest.

1. The older plan was to assign a small rectangular plot to

Fia. is— One of the Philndelphis Garden ABSocUtion's beautifully miUivsted
oardea farms, Bu<^h aa have proved of wonderful material benefit (o hundred! of the
poorer families. Note the rows are long,— few small beds. The toolhousea an
amall. (Children's Flower Miaaion.) -

each pupil. These were made of the following dimensions in
feet: 4 X 7, 4 X 10, 5 X 15, 6 X 8, 6 X 10, or other con-
venient sizes. There was a path left on the four sides to stand
on while doing the work. The soil of these beds was heaped
up much higher than the paths — an effect not pleasing to the'
eye because of the resemblance to a yard of graves. The
heaping up of the soil causes it to dry out and suffer much
from drouth. Another objection to this old plan is that it

34 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

requires all the heavy and laborious work to be done by hand
tools, instead of allowing the use of horse power, for the work
is too heavy for small children.

2. The newer plan, now adopted by many schools, is to
make the garden as long as possible and let the rows run the
longest way of the garden, preferably north and south ; then
let each pupil have a row or a half -row or a smaller fraction
as his own (Fig. 18). The distance between rows may be
from two and a half to three and a half feet. If desired, one
pupil may use the first few feet of several rows, the second
pupil uses the next few feet of the same rows, and so on,
until all the pupils are assigned a place (Fig. 17).

If the garden is long enough, this second plan allows the
use of a horse to plow and pulverize the soil, and perhaps do
the heaviest cultivation, particularly during the vacation
season. A wheel hand hoe can also be used to better
advantage.

In either of these plans of laying off the garden each pupil
of a certain age or grade may plant the same things, so there
will be a chance for comparison and competition. The second
plan is usually preferable, because it teaches the methods to
be used in the home garden.

Making a Chart. — After it has been determined which of
the two above plans to use, the next thing is to make a planting
chart. First let several pupils, working. in pairs, measure
off the grounds. If necessary, a tape line may be borrowed
for this purpose, or two light poles or reeds may be marked
off in feet and used for the measuring.

A map or chart may now be made on a large sheet of paper,
using a scale of about one-eighth inch to the foot. Draw a
straight line on the map for each line to be planted (Fig. 12) ;
or mark off each rectangle on the map, if the ^^ bed ^^ plan of
planting is to be followed.

Write on the lines the crops to be grown and how far each
is to run along the row. Some power of initiative may be exer-

PLANNING THE GARDEN • 35

cised by the older pupils in deciding what crops can be grown
together, how much of each kind to grow, what ones mature
quickly and what ones take a long time, the best season for
.planting and other important points.

A list of things to be grown may first be made on a black-
board and from this the pupils may each make a temporary
plan, independently. The good features of each of the plans
may be chosen to make up the permanent chart to be finally
followed by all.

Location of Crops. — All kinds of perennial plants,
whether shrubs or herbs, should be planted in those rows near
the back or distant side of the garden. This will allow the
remainder of the garden to be more thoroughly plowed or
spaded in preparation for the annual crops grown from seed.

Ehubarb and asparagus are very good plants to have in a
school garden, but they should be planted at the side of
the garden where they will be undisturbed from year to year.
• Place the long-season crops, as parsnips and salsify, near
together. In like manner the quick-growing crops, such as
lettuce and radishes, may be grown in their own section of
the garden. If each pupil has his own row, he can plant quick-
growing crops toward one end and the long-season crops toward
the other end of the row.

On the map, mark what crops will be planted in the same
part of the row together; for example, radishes with peas.
Such are called companion crops (see Chapter XVI).

Succession of crops may be shown on the map by writing
on the line plants which grow first, then those which will be
planted next, as ^^ radishes followed by beans,^^ or ^^ lettuce
followed by cabbage," or ^^ beets followed by turnips.^*

Flowers. — The teacher and pupils together should decide
how much space to allow for flowers. It may be best to
allow those- who wish flowers in their gardens to have them and
others may not be required to plant flowers.

A splendid growth of flowers along one or more borders

36 • SCHOOL AND HOME GAKDENING

of the garden will add much to the pleasure, interest, and
value of the whole garden. Annual flowers may be planted
in one part of the border and perennial flowers in another. It
is a good plan to h«ve a number of wild flowers from the
woods planted in the perennial flower garden. A wild-flower
garden is very inexpensive and a great source of benefit. From
this may come a very wide knowledge of the wild flowers,
and pujpils learn to appreciate the rare beauties of real nature.

Fruits. — Schools which do not close before the time for
strawberries to ripen will find this crop a good one to raise.
Plan to set them in a good, sunny place and where the annual
plowing of the garden will not disturb them. Other kinds
of fruit which will mature in school season may be grown
in the school garden.

The most serious objection to fruit growing in the school
garden is tlie extra temptation the fruit offers to persoiis of
a marauding disposition. Under circumstances where such
an objection would be serious, the methods of starting and car-
ing for a fruit garden may be considered in school, and the
actual planting may be done at home.

Nurseries. — Fruit nurseries, forest nurseries and nur-
series of shrubs will furnish a surprising amount of instruc-
tion and pleasure for the pupils. Plan to start such features
in the school garden, even if only on a very small scale. A
few grafted apple trees, or budded peaches, or shade trees
started from seed, or some well-known shrubs started from
cuttings will reveal a world of interest.

Room for Experiments. — Plan to leave a little room in
the garden for at least a few experiments such as those outlined
in Chapter X and others in this book.

The Completed Chart. — After the plans for the planting
have been determined upon, and the chart has been made, let
a permanent copy of it be tacked to the wall or to a board
to hang on the wall. Some schools frame the chart as a
permanent record.

PLANNING THE GARDEN 37

Copies of the chart may be used in the garden at planting

time.

Plan of Garden, 180 Feel Long and 100 to 125 Feet Wide

Fence lined all around with Blackberries, Raspberries, Currants and

Gooseberries.

1. Strawberries — early and late varieties.

2. Rhubarb or Asparagus.

3. Parsnips — Salsify — Carrots — Beets.

4. Onions for winter storage.

5. Early Potatoes — ^followed by Beans, Squash and Winter Squash,

and Okra.

6. Early Peas, two or three plantings — ^followed by late Potatoes.

7. Lettuce — ^Radish — ^Early Spinach — ^followed by Sweet Potatoes.

8. Early Cabbage — ^followed by Sweet Corn with Pole Beans.

9. Early Green Onions from sets-^followed by Bush Beans.

10. Early Sweet Com — ^followed by Turnip Greens and Rutabagas.

11. Tomatoes — ^followed by Fall Greens.

12. Peppers-7-Egg Plant — ^followed by Winter Onions.

13. Bush Limas — ^followed by Celery Plants or Late Cabbage.

Measuring and Staking. — When the chart is ready the
ground should be carefully measured off and staked before the
planting begins.

This is good practice for the pupils. If the arithmetic
period is used for this measuring and staking the time will
be well spent. Future arithmetic problems may be based upon
this exercise.

The garden will look better if the stakes used for marking
the rows or beds or varieties are of uniform size and color.
These should be made in advance by the pupils. For this
purpose, some of the materials used by different schools have
been each cut to sixteen inches or two feet in length, smoothed
if needed, sharpened at one end, and given one coat of white
paint. (1) Lattice strips, made for porch screens; (2) com-
mon plastering lath; (3) fence palings; (4) round tree
branches, one inch in diameter and flattened on one side near
the top; (5) special strips made for the purpose, about one
inch square at the top.

Special gardener's labels are sold by seed companies to use

38 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

for this purpose, and suitable sizes may be selected from
catalogues.

Avoid using labels that are very small, as they are too
easily covered up and lost.

As soon as the rows are staked, beds are assigned to indi-
vidual pupils; the name of the pupil should be plainly printed
on the side of the stake which faces away from the plants.
On the side toward the plants will, perhaps later, be placed
the kind of plants or seed, variety, date planted, and perhaps
number of feet or fraction of row occupied. In placing the
name and label on the stakes a very soft black lead pencil is
simplest and best^ th: black lead lasts well on painted wood.
Xever use ink nor so-called indelible pencil, as they become
washed off in the rain (see problems Chapter XXII).

Formal Gardens. — In private and public gardens of the
Old World are frequently found beds of plants in perfect geo-
metrical forms, instead of natural grouping. Such synmaetry
of outline and location of plants is less commonly found in
American gardens. However, it is sometimes desired for
flower beds in front lawns. In school garden work the so-
called natural method of planting is usually preferred. Too
much attention to fanciful forms such as stars, anchors,
crosses, crescents, bells or wheels is not profitable for the
pupils. The geometry or measurement of it is good practice ;
but pupils should not be trained to believe that such forms are
essential, or even very desirable, for garden beds of any kind.
To be sure, all flower beds surrounded by green grass must
have some form, but a simple circle, oval or rectangle causes
the obsen-er to give his attention to the flowers rather than
to the form of the bed. A good plan is to have the flowers in
long beds or borders.

Window Gardens. — Some good, substantial boxes may be
made by the pupils to hang under the windows or set on the
window sills. They should be painted both inside and outside
to preserve the wood and add to their appearance. These

PLANNING THE GAHDEN 89

same boxes may be kept ibeide the wiodows in cold weather and
outeide when danger of frost is over.

Flans should be made to have stiitable plants for the
several purposes desired at the different seasons of the school
year. These window boxes may furnish material to illustrate
many lessons in nature study, such as leaf study, and relation
of plants to light, seed germination, bulb growth, use of
tendrils and other climbing devices. Many experiments may
be carried on in the window boxes. The growth here will
furnish the best of material for drawing exercises. A good

field for observation is constantly before the eyes of the
children.

Roof Gardens. — Necessity sometimes demands the use of
roof gardens when other places are not available. Figure 19
shows children at garden work on a roof. Flat boxes or trays
are used to hold the soil. These may be taken to the school
room for the special lessons suggested in the preoeding
paragraph.

Principles of Planning, — 1. Plan early — any time during
the fall, winter or earlj spring.

2. Do not delay the planning until the date is too late to
show some results while school is still in session.

40 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

3. Start with a simi)le vegetable garden at first, and intro-
duce the other things into the garden later.

•4. Do not feel that all the conditions must be ideal at
first. Let the children help make them so.

5. Choose plants which will give quick returns, particu-
larly for small children — ^but remember other plants are also
instructive.

6. Plan to avoid as much of the irksome toil as possible.

7. Make the school garden as much like the home garden
should be as you can.

8. The space allowed lor each small child may be very
small, say only a few feet of a single row, if your space is
limited.

9. The space allowed for older pupils should be increased
considerably.

10. Plan for plant growth during the whole of the school
year — fall gardens, winter gardens, early spring and late
spring gardens. Window boxes and hotbeds will help much
in winter.

11. In working up the plans for the school garden, con-
stantly remember what will be wanted for use in the home
gardens to grow during vacation.

12. The general beautifying of the school grounds should
be part of the school garden plans.

13. Tjet the plans be simple, not fanciful.

14. Have the charts plain and the instructions explicit.

15. If the label stakes are all written and set before plant-
ing begins, it will simplify the work on planting days.

CHAPTER IV

GARDEN TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

The first equipment for a school garden should not be
too elaborate. As a general thing it should be very simple.
The individual hand tools may be of very few kinds indeed.
Many a teacher has successfully carried on school garden work
with no other hand tool for each pupil than a garden rake. A
few other tools used by pupils in common, from time to time,
are always to be desired.

Rake and Hoe. — The most common and really most essen-
tial hand tools ^re the rake and hoe (Fig. 20). A large
enough number of these should be supplied to assign one to
each pupil, or, if pupils work in divisions, then enough, to
supply the members of a division.

The rake is- very useful. It should be used even more
than it is. Nothing is better, as a hand tool, in breaking up
clods and in making a fine seed bed. After the soil is pressed
firmly on the newly planted seeds, a " dust mulch '' or loose
layer of fine soil is produced by using the rake lightly. At all
times between the rows of growing plants, a fine soil mulch
is maintained by using the rake frequently. This kills many
weeds that have germinated from their seed coats but have not
yet sprouted above ground. No simpler and handier culti-
vator has yet been devised. Another form of hand cultivator
is shown in figure 21.

The frequent use of the rake is better than hoeing. The
hoe has fewer uses. The hoe and rake may both be useful at
planting time. The hoe is also used to break up the soil and
make it mellow whenever it becomes baked or very hard —
particularly near the plants. It is useful in the thinning of
such crops as beets. If weeds get too well started, particu-

41

42

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

larly near the plants, the hoe is better than the rake in killing
them.

The quality of these hand tools should be very good.
Those made from good steel are always to be desired. The
handles should be rigid, not flimsy. The sizes of hoes and
rakes should be suited to the ages of the pupils. Pour-inch
hoes and ten-inch rakes are large enough for pupils ten years
old or younger. Six-Jnch hoes and twelve-inch rakes are

FiQ. 20. Fxo. 21. Fxa. 22.

Fio. 20. — The spading-fork, rake, and hf>e constitute the tdniplest garden outfit.

Fxo. 21. — An inexpensive hand cultivator.
Fig. 22. — Hand weeder, pruning snears, trowel, and two forms of dibbers.

suitable for pupils of ten to twelve years or older — but the
older pupils may also make use of tools, each two inches larger.

Other Useful Tools. — There are many other tools and
articles which may be found useful in the garden — at school
and at home. To mention some of them and their uses may be
suggestive, particularly to the beginner.

A spading fork (Fig. 20), sometimes known as a potato
fork, is useful in ^^ spading up ^' or turning over the top soil to
prepare it for planting. This is for small areas only, where
a horse and plow cannot well be used. It is used also in

GARDEN TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 48

digging the potato crop and in "lifting" other root crops,
such as beets, carrots, and parsnips.

The spade is used for the same purposes and also in
transplanting trees and shrubs.

Shovels are most useful where much dirt is to be handled,
as in digging drains, levelling and terrkcing yards, and making
irrigation ditches.

A pick may be needed to loosen hard or stony soil before
it can be shovelled. i

Grubbing mattocks are used in place of picks and also
in removing roots of trees and shrubs when " clearing " new
land. They are sometimes used to loosen up small plots in
lieu of plowing or spading up the soil.

Dibbers and garden trowels (Fig. 23) are almost neces-
sary in the transplanting of such vegetables as cabbages, toma-
toes, egg-plants and peppers.

Small weeders (Fig. 22) to be used in one hand are
helpful when the plants are very small or very close together.
The soil is readily loosened and made into a fine mulch in
small garden beds by use of hand weeders.

Hand weeders may be made by using old broom sticks.
The length should be about 8 or 10 inches. The upper end
should be rounded and made smooth for the hand. The
lower end may be chisel-shaped or pointed, as desired. For
planting purposes the chisel-shape may be useful, but for
loosening the soil, for thinning and for weeding the pointed
end may be preferred.

Marking boards are useful in planting seed boxes and
small beds. A marker for the open garden is shown in
figure 23.

Sieves are necessary in preparing soil for use in, boxes,
plant trays, and flower pots. If the manure used be trashy
or the soil lumpy, even a coarse sieve will help make the
mixture much better for these purposes.

A sprinkling can, or some other means of watering, is

46 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

nomic point of view they are not necessary in Bmall gardens;
but if the school can secure them, it is well to tea^^h their
uses to the pupils. They will be found very useful in the
larger home gardens and in market gardens.

A one-horse cultivator (Fig. 25) may also be owned by
the school if considerable cultivation is to be done by horse
power. Renting a cultivator for the purpose is usually pos-
sible, but often the shovels are too large and not suitable for
the beat garden work. Select a cultivator with many small
shovels or harrow teeth.

The plow to be used in preparing soil for school garden
work may be either borrowed, rented or purchased. It should '

Fis. 21!.— This form of one-hnne cultivmtor in well suited for KBnIsD vork. It cud
be sdjuBted in width to suit all rowe.

have a mould-board of medium length and curvature, neither
too long nor too short and steep.

The harrow should be chosen to suit the type of soil.
Light soils may be made fine with a common spike-tooth
harrow or " drag " ; but an Acme pulverizer is a good general '
purpose harrow and is one of the best for soils that are heavy
enough to form hard clods. Always use the harrow on the
garden the same day it is plowed.

Pruning shears and pruning saws are not expensive
and may be owned by such schools as have an opportunity to
teach their uses. Another plan is for each pupil who has home
uses for them to buy the shears (Pig. 22) and saws and let
them be used both at liome and at sehool.

GARDEN TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 47

Grass hooks and lawn mowers may be owned iu either
of these ways.

Fencing for the school garden is usually necessary, for
obvious reasons. Some good form of woven wire has been
found to be most popular. It is neat and pleasing and may be
selected of suitable height and mesh to l^eep out all farm
animals. It is much cheaper and more durable than fence
boards. Posts should be set about two feet into the ground
and high enough to extend about four inches above the woven
wire. A single line of barbed wire is then stapled at a uni-
form height above the top of the woven wire and on the
opposite side of the posts. This makes the fence harder to
climb over. The posts may be of cedar, chestnut, oak, or other
durable wood. These shotild be peeled or stripped of their
bark and then painted with coal (gas) tar all over before
being set in place. This makes them last fully twice as long.
The posts may be sawed to a uniform height after the wire
is on, and the top six inches painted with white, red or green
to help offset the black color of the tar paint.

Hotbeds and coldframes are described in Chapter V.

TOOL HOUSE

A place to keep the garden tools should be provided in
some way. In small schools this is usually a locker or cup-
board of suitable size ; in some cases, a tool box is made long
enough for rakes and hoes. The cover is slanting to shed off
rain, and a lock is provided.

In larger schools a small house is used for tools, seeds,
fertilizers and other supplies. • In such a house or room there
should be an assigned place for everything. A card is placed
to indicate the location of each kind of tool.

This room may have in it any or all of the tools and
articles of equipment already mentioned, and also some of the
following things, if the work of the school requires them :

48 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Bins of soils, sand, and fertilizers for potting of plants, seed
germination and experimental work.

Black-board to use in directing the daily operations of
the class.

Grindstone, whetstones and files for sharpening tools.

Seed jars or boxes, to be proof against mice. Also seed
bottles to be used in planting.

A bench or box of soil for the temporary storage of live
plants, cuttings, scions and grafts.

A clock.

A wall thermometer, and perhaps several soil ther-
mometers. ^

Pigeonholes for labels, twine and the smaller tools.

Box lumber and saws, hammer s-and nails for making plant
trays, window boxes and other articles.

In such a garden house are sometimes placed on the wall
a few cases containing the common forms of injurious garden
insects. Pressed specimens of some of the plant diseases may
be mounted under glass and hung on the wall. Here the
pupils can compare .specimens from the garden and quickly
identify them. Here may be kept insect nets, collecting
bottles and insecticides.

A small box of emergency supplies to use in cases of acci-
dent, bandage cloth, absorbent cotton, adhesive plaster, anti-
septics, soap, ammonia, and vaseline or ointment.

Buckets, basins, mirror, soap and towels for use after the
garden work.

Floor brooms, whisk brooms, and shoe brushes.

CHAPTER V
HOTBEDS AND COLDFRAMES
Hotbeds and coMframes are both very useful in school
gardenmg as well as iu home gardening (Fig. 36).

By the use of these some .gardening can be kept up all
the winter season. No one need then object to school garden
work on the plea, that many schools are not in session during
the hest garden season. When there are hotbeds and cold-
fr

Fis. 3S. — A hotbed of udUble idie for * home garden, e br 6 feet. These suhec

Uses. — ^With the opening of the fall term of school, pupils
start a number of suitable kinds of plants in the eoldframes.
Here they are protected from cold nights and from frosts dur-
ing the fall months and from the «ild days of early winter.

These coldframe crops, or nearly all of them, may be grown
and harvested by January (Fig. 27). A little later the cold-
frames may be transformed into hotheds, as described farther
on in this chapter.

In the middle of winter or very early spring the hotbeds
should he prepared, and seeds, cuttings, bulbs, and plants of
4 49

so SCHOOL AND HOME GAEDENING

many kinds started. These may be such things aa will mature
during the cold weather in the hotbeds, or they may bo
intended for transplanting to the open garden in spring.
Plants for the Coldframes. — Seeds of lettuce, radish, pars-

(Rittenhou^ School (

HOTBEDS AND COLDFBAMES 61

ley, spinach, turnips, early garden beets, kale, and carrots, and
sets of winter onions are all suitable vegetables to start in the
coldframes in the fall (Fig. 28). The glass over the frames
will protect from cold fall winds and will help gather the sun's
beat for the soil and plants.

There are many plants growing in the garden in summer
which would continue to thrive if taken into the coldframes in

Fio. 20.— Head lettu« on left. L
foe cuttiac St Thai

the fall (Fig. 29). Celery may be thus transplanted when
cold weather sets in. It s'hould be well covered or shaded and
the blanching process may be completed.

Numerous flowers may continue in their growing or flower-
ing condition by transplanting large clumps with plenty of
roots and soil into the coldframes. Pansies, sweet violets, ver-
benas, ageratum, everlastings of several kinds, geraniums, low
asters, chrysanthemums, nasturtiums, and many others, if

52 SCHOOL AND HOME GABDENING

moved carefully, will pay well for the trouble and will help
to form a winter flower garden. Potted plants and window
boxes may be protected several weeks in coldframes built at
the school,

A number of perennial flowers may be started from seeds
planted in coldframes in August, to flower out-of-doors the
next season. Try violete, pansies, larkspur, phlox, foxglove,
and mauy others.

Fin. 30. — Swest-poUto pli
spriiu. I'm plants

Bulbs of such flowers as hyacinth, daffodil, tulip, narcissus,
crocus, and others do well if started in coldframes and then
plac;ed in hotbeds or warm rooms later in the winter.

It is well to pot the bulbs either in earthen pots, tin cans,
or berry boxes, and keep them cool and well watered for a few
weeks before forcing them too much.

Plants for Hotbeds. — Reed.i of quickly growing vegetables
are very suitable for hotbeds in late winter and early spring.

HOTBEDS AND COLDFRAMES fiS

RadisheB, cari'ots, early table beets, lettuce, spinach, early peas,
and others may be matured in the hotbeds. These beds may
be used to start such plants as tomatoes, cabbages, cauliflower,
celery, head lettuce, peppers, egg-plants, sweet potatoes (Fig.
30 ) , parsley, cucumbers, muskmelone, and perhaps others which
are easily transplanted to the open garden later in the season.
The plants so started will gain enough growth in the hotbeds
to make them much earlier for use. In some cases it will
cause them to mature before vacation time. Others, as toma-
toes, celery, and melons, may thus be well established in the
school or home garden before the vacation.

Fto. 31.i — Croan^section showing constniotion of hotbed. The Elau sub on tm
elopes toward Ihe south to catch the rays of Eun.

There are many annual flowering and foliage plants that
ought to be planted first in the hotbeds to give them an earlier
start. When the weather is suitable they may be transplanted
to the school garden or to home gardens. A few of the favorite
annuals are : aster, ageratum, alyssura, castor bean, chrysan-
themum, cockscomb, eoleus, cosmos, mignonette, nasturtium,
petunia, primrose, scarlet sage, and zinia. There are also a
few perennials, as pansies, which will blossom much better the
first season if started early in hotbeds. Such bulbs as oala-
dium, canna, dahlia, and those hardier kinds, crocus, daffodil,
hyacinth, narcissus and tulip, may be started ahead of season
in hotbeds with much advantage. They would be ready for '
transplanting as the season advances.

54 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

How to Make a Hotbed. — Boys, or any others who have
ieamed to handle tools, can make a hotbed or a eoldframe.
Study figures 31, 32, 33, and 34. First make a tight frame of

Fia. 32. — Eint two ■tapa In nukinc a Mntponry hotbed. A, ihree-suli pit. one
foot deep. B, Maaurc leady lor tlie pit. {Keatucky Station.)

Fia. 33.— Two more ■lepi ia the preparstion of ■ temporary botbed. A. tbe
manure is spread in the pit and tramped firmly. B, three-sash frame ahDoltiK
deCailB of nonBtruclign. tKentucky Station.)

Flo. 31,— Tvo laat etepa in preparinK a temporary hotbed of three uah. A,
Irama in place over manure, which has been covered with aail, and side, of frame
banked to protect from cold. B. the tbiee-aaah bed eumpleled and covered. (Ken-
luck/ station.)

boards of a size to suit the glass sash, say 3X6 feet, three aash
may be used, making the frame 6X9 feet, as in figure 33B.
The frame should be about two feet deep on the north side
and eis inches less on the south side. This gives a little elope

HOTBEDS AND COLDFRAMES 55

to the window sash to catch the rays of the sun. Place the
frames in a location protected from north wind, clearly exposed
to the sun.

I. Making a Hotbed. — ^A hotbed can be made with little cost.
Let the students do all the work. They will be glad to. They work
with more earnestness and zest than they do at some dry inside
work. One or two discussions as to how to build a hotbed should be
taken up in the class room and some definite plan adopted. Hints
can be found in bulletins and farm journal^. (See Cornell. bulletin
on " Hotbed Construction and Management." ) Plants can be grown
at school and then taken home to be placed in the front yard or home
garden. Plants grown in a hotbed may be sold to defray the expense
of material for making the frames.

Seedsmen or students' parents will be glad to furnish seed with
the understanding that they may get a few dozen plants for use later.

Special hotbed sash are made with either single glass or
double glass. But sash made for ordinary windows may be
fastened together in pairs. Place the two parts end to end and
then nail a light strip of wood on each side to hold them firmly
together. These strips should be as thick as the sash and about
one inch wide. Such pairs of window sash may be placed
side by side in any numbers desired. Thus the beds will be
six feet from north to south side, if six feet is the length of the
pair of sash. The length of the bed from east to wesjt may
be made to suit any number of sash desired. The persons in
charge of the hotbed can work from both north and south sides.

About twelve inches of fresh horse manure is tramped into
a pit of that depth and then the frames are placed over it
(Fig. 33). Six inches of good garden soil is placed in the
bottom of the frames on top of the manure. The manure and
soil will be warmed by the sun when the glass is in place ; or
the manure may be started to heating by the addition of warm
water.

Dirt shoidd be banked up outside the frames to prevent
the escape of heat during cold weather (Fig. 34).

How Hotbeds are Warmed. — There are two sources of

56 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

heat for the hotbed: (1) The rotting manure in the bottom of
the bed causes a great deal of heat which warms the soil, plants,
and air of the bed. (2) The bright rays of the sunshine
through the clear glass without warming the glass ; but these
bright rays striking the soil and plants inside the bed are
changed to " dark ^' or obscure rays ; these dark rays will not
again go through glass readily. Thus the rays of the sun enter
the bed, are trapped by being changed in character, and do
not readily escape.

By these two methods of heating, a bed may become warmed
too much even on cool days. It is partly for this reason that
covers or shades are used and that ventilation is used.

Coldframes and Hotbeds Compared. — Coldframes may
be of the same construction as hotbeds, with the exception of
the fresh manure. No heat from the bottom is used in a cold-
frame. The glass of the coldframe is kept covered in cold
weather with matting, carpeting or other material to keep out
the wind. Of course, with hotbeds, such protection is also
used on cold nights and cold, cloudy days, but the glass is
uncovered on bright days to admit the rays of the sun through
the glass.

Operating a Hotbed. — There are a number of special
things to attend to while running a hotbed.

The temperature must not become too hot nor too cold
at any time. Some variation in temperature between night
and day must be expected. A thermometer should be kept
in the hotbed so that the operator will not need to guess as
to the temperature. Some plants, as radish, lettuce, beets and
carrots, are best suited by cool conditions and others need to
have the soil and air warmer, as tomatoes, egg-plants and
peppers. So no rule can be established as to an exact tempera-
ture for all plants. Those plants which are mentioned as
being hardy enough to endure late spring frosts are the plants
which thrive better when* the day heat in the bed does not
exceed 60° or 70° Fahr. The summer or " hot weather *' plants

HOTBEDS AND COLDFRAMES 57

may be forced early in a hotbed, but they prefer a day heat
ranging from 70° to 85° Fahr. The same differences are to
be observed for the lower temperatures, which usually come at
night. That is, the ^^cool weather ^^ plants endure a night
temperature of 40° or so; while the "hot weather" plants
should not be allowed to drop below 45° or 50° at night or on
cold days.

The ventilation of the hotbed must be watched closely.
It is by the raising of one end of the sash that a little air is
allowed to circulate in the bed. The ventilation is carried on
abundantly on warm days and is much less on cooler days.
Avoid cool winds on the plants just after they have been shut
up in a hot moist bed.

The moisture is not so difficult to regulate in a hotbed as
in the open garden; but during warm days when the glass is
raised for ventilation moisture will escape very rapidly. The
soil is easily kept in proper condition by applying water in
small quantities frequently, say early every sunny morning.

CHAPTER VI

PLANTS IN RELATION TO SOIL, LIGHT

AND AIR

The intimate relations existing between plants and their

surrounding elements may be clearly shown by means of such

simple exercises as those suggested in this chapter.

I. Absorbing Moisture. — Arrange two pots or cans inside two
small lard pails as shown in figure 35. The two flower pots are
filled alike with the same kind of good garden soil. A few kernels
of corn are planted in one of them. After the corn is a few inches

Fig. 36.

FiQ. 35.

Fio. 35. — Two pots of soil are immersed in the same amount of water in the
outer vessels. Corn is grown in one pot but none in the other to see the difference
in evaporation. (U. S. D. A.)

FiQ. 36. — Plants grown in glass bottles wrapped in dark paper to exclude the light.
When the wrapping is removed the root system is exposed to view.

high, have the water in the lard pails filled to the line shown in the
figure. Keep it filled daily up to the mark, and note the amount
required for each pail in a week. The one with the growing plants
will require the most, because of the water taken up by the growing
plants.

The growth of plants cannot take place without the use of

water taken up through their roots. This water comes from

58

PLANTS IN RELATION TO SOIL, LIGHT, AIR 5&

the soil. When the growth is rapid, much water is used.
The growth of any plant is governed hy the amount of water
which it can secure through its root system. Oats require
504 tons of water to produce one ton of dry matter when
harvested; com 271 tons; peas 477 tons; potatoes 385 tons.
These facts show the importance of having plenty of moisture
in the soil during the growth of the crops.-

3. Root Hairs on YounE Plants, — Plant a few Heeds of radish,
beaoB or kernels of corn in moist sand in a glass jar or bottle with

Fra. 37.— GerminatinE oals and baiiey showing the youni rootB with numerou.
rool-haire. (Productive FKroi Crops.)

wide mouth. Wrap some dark or black paper around the bottle to
keep out the light (Fig. 36). Place in a warm room and water a
little every day for a week or so. As the seeds start, the roots seek
darkness and the leaves seek Tight. Remove the paper and observe
the roots on the inside surface of the glass. By looking close, the
plush-like root hairs will be seen on the young roots.

Root hairs are formed on the fibrous roots of plants. They
are of a velvety nature. They are useful to the plants in
absorbing moisture from soils.

60 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

If the bottle is examiiieil several times during germination,
the roots will be found to grow much more rapidly than the
tops of the corn plants. This explains why corn is not so
easily destroyed as some weeds by a cultivator or other garden
implements.

3. Root Hairs Form Early. — Between the (olde of wet cloth or

blotting paper, germinate aeeda of pe&a, oats, beans, and squash.

They may be placed inside a. glass Jar to prevent evaporation. After

a tew days, examine them ami look for the abundant growth of root

Fia.3S. - FiG.M.

haira on the roots. Note that at the very tip of each root there are
no root hairs (Fig. 37),

The early formation of the velvety root hairs shows the
effort of the young plant to obtain moisture from soil as soon
nn germination takes place.

4. I-eaves Expel Moisture, — Invert a drinking glass or fruit
jar over a growing plant. A card should be placed over the aoil
under the glass, excluding the soil moisture from the glasa (Fig. 38).
If the plant is placed in the warm aunahine, only a few hours will
be required to show moisture collecting in the glass. This comes
from the leaves of the growing plant.

PLANTS IN RELATION TO SOIL, LIGHT, AIR 61

All plants give off moisture from their leaves. • The rate
of evaporation depends upon the temperature, amount of wind,
and the amount of moisture which the plant can secure through
its roots. Growth is measured by the amount of water used
or given off through the leaves. Plant-food comes along with
moisture taken up by the roots. If evaporation is checked
by cold weather there will be less plant-food used and the
growth is checked.

5. Osmosis. — ^Place a few slices of dried apples in water. In
an hour or so, they become more rigid because of the water taken
into the cells. At the same time, place a few slices in strong salt
water. Note the difference in time required to swell the slices in
brine. Perhaps they will not swell at all in the brine.

The process by which the moisture enters the cells of the
fruit or enters the roots of plants is called osmosis. Much
of the liquid outside the cells enters the roots, and a little of
the sap in the roots passes into the soil at the same time.
Osmosis is the trading of two liquids through the membrane
surface. The liquid of the plant is denser than water ; but the
sap may not be denser than strong brine. In the trade of the
two liquids in any case, a very little of the denser liquid is
exchanged for a large quantity of the thinner liquid.

The exercise may be varied by using a few slices of wilted
apple or wilted potato, if dried fruit is not readily available.
(See also the experiment shown in Fig. 39.)

When soil water is made too dense by strong applications
of fertilizer too near the plant, it will cause the wilting of the
plants. It defeats the purpose desired by the gardener. Fer-
tilizer should be mixed thoroughly with the soil a little ways
from the seeds and plants, not too near them.

6. Overfeeding of Plants. — ^Take two plants of the same kind
from the soil of a window box or garden. Two large lettuce plants
would do. Place one in a tumbler of water and the other in a strong
solution of sugar syrup. After a few hours, the first is observed
to remain fresh and the second has wilted.

62 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

The movement of liquid in one case is opposite in direction
from the other. In the first case, the water moves into the
plant and keeps it fresh because the cell sap is denser than
the water. In the second case the cell sap is weaker than the
sugar syrup and the movement of liquid is toward the syrup.
This causes the wilting of the cells of the plant.

When plants are in soil where the soil water is denser than
the cell sap, they will wilt instead of grow. This may be the
case when too much fertilizer is placed close to very young
plants.

7. Sunlight Needed for Growth. — In a window box of plants,
place a tin can over a few plants in such a way as to entirely exclude
the light from them. After a few days, notice that the green color
of the leaves is mostly gone. In time, the plants will be killed.

Gardeners place celery in trenches, dark cellars, or similar
places, to exclude the light. This causes the color to leave
the stems and makes the product much more salable.

Plants require light on their leaves for their best growth.
If a box is inverted over green grass on a lawn for some time
it will kill the grass. If weeds in the garden are thoroughly
covered with soil by the use of a cultivator, they will probably
be killed. Mulches of straw about strawberries or other garden
plants help to prevent the growth of weeds.

8. Leaves and Light. — In the window box of growing plants,
observe the leaves with their broad surfaces turned toward the light.
If possible, turn the box around and note the time required for the
leaves to change their position and turn again toward the light.

Leaves of plants growing in a crowded condition, as in a
closely planted garden or in a forest of trees, seek the light.
The lower branches of an elm tree, for example, bend down,
the middle branches are more nearly straight out, and the
upper branches extend upward. This arrangement of the
leaves and branches of the tree gives the tree the greatest
amount of light exposure. Note the effect of light on sprout-
ing tubers as shown in figure 40.

PLANl-S IN RELATION TO SOIL, LIGHT, AIR 63

Q. Plants Use Carbon Dioxide.— Light a short piece of candle
and fasten it with some of its own melted wax to a flat piece of cork
or light wood so it will float upright on water. Tie to tile candle a
string two feet long. Set it in a pan of water and invert an open
fruit jar just above it with the edges of the jar in the water. The
candle will burn only a short time, and the flame goes out for lack
of oxygen. The oxygen has been partly converted into carbon dioxide
by the burning of the carbon in the candle. Nov^ remove the candle
by pulling it through the water by means of the etring, allowing no

Fia. 40.— Potato tuben sprouled in tight (Left) and in the dark (rieht). The
to light for iDBny diiya juBl befure plmHing. (P^ductive Farm Crops.)
fresh air to enter the jar. Introduce a leaf or two of geranium or
other window plant. A cork float may be used in keeping the leaf
surface above water. The stems should remain in the water- to keep
them fresh. Now place the dish where the bright sun may strike
the leaves through the jar. After two days remove the leaf and test
the air by burning a candle in it. The burning, even for a short
time, will prove that the action of the leaf in the sunlight broke up
some carbon dioxide and left oxygen in its place.

When plants are growing in daylight they use up the
carbon dioxide of the air and leave the oxygen, Thig in

64 SCHOOL AND HOME GAHDENING

turn is used by animala in breathing; it also helps to produce
combustion wherever fires are started.

During darkiiesa plants do not break up carbon dioxide,
but actually produce it, using some oxygen ae animals do.

lo. Balance Between Plants and Animals. — In a large can or
glass jar, make an aquarium as shown in figure 41. Several kinds
of water plants aecured from ponds or lakes are planted in clear sand
in the bottom of the jar. PotlywogB, water snails, small fish, and
water insects, such as dragon-fl; larvte, ma; be placed in the jar.
When all is ready, allow the aquarium to stand for several days
in a very light place. As the plants begin to grow they will give

Bunuibl aqt;
rhe ■Dinuj*

off oxygen I'D the water. This in turn is breathed by the small ani-
mals present. If tlie aquarium is nicely balanced in the two main
forms of life, tlie supply of carbon dioxide given off by the animals
will cause the plants to thrive, and the oxygen supplied by the plants
to the animals will satisfy their breathing requirements. If any of
the fish come to the surface to breathe there are probably too many
animals present. The inside of the aquarium may he kept clean by
rubbing with a stick wrapped with cloth. Snails and poUywoga
are scavengers and will eat much of the waste matter inside the gla«a
and on the plants. Too much food should not he supplied the animala,
as this pollutes the water.

PLANTS IN RELATION TO SOIL, LIGHT, AIR 65

The exercise does uot prove conclusively that plants decom-
pose carbon dioxide. ' The preceding exercise shows that better,
but the fact is the only one which explains well the conditions
found in a well-balanced aquarium.

II. Tj^cs of Roots.— Study the roots of several different plants
from gardens, fields or waste places. The fleshy roots of beets or
parsnips may be compared with the long tap-root of clover or alfalfa.
Compare these with finely divided fibrous roots of such plants as
yarrow, timothy or raspberry. Compare the roots of annual weeds
with perennial weeds. Fleabane and ragweed are examples of annuals
which have a rather straight tap-root with a number of side roots.
The tap-root is hard but not fleshy. Toad flax, oxeye daisy, and
dandelion are examples of perennials. Roots of perennials are never
as simple as t^ose of annuals. Provision is made for the storage
of plant-food in fleshy roots or underground stems. Often buds are
formed underground for the growth of plants in following years.
See if these can be found.

If the -young gardener will learn by careful observation
to note the differences between roots of annuals and perennials,
it will aid him in combating weeds of various kinds and in
the care of perennial garden plants during the dormant season.
Perennial borders must be cared for in fall and early spring,
and the gardener should know the different forms of root
systems to avoid destroying the valuable plants.

CHAPTER Vll
HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES

A NUMBKR of kssous with soils and plants are beet taught
by means of exercises. Those eoncerniog plants most closely
related to garden work are outlined in this chapter (Fig. 42).

With many of the pupils, the experiments carried on in
school and in the garden will stimulate interest in the other
garden work. This ia true of those who might otherwise
think some of the garden work a little irksome.

The few experiments outlined here will suit schools that

Fia. 42.— Many (enu witb fertiUEerB
flower pots. Here the trial in with difTerent
with magnesia in 5. (Agriculture and Life.j

do not have special funds for expensive equipment. The
simple materials or apparatus used may be brought by pupils
from their homes and returned, if desired, afterward.

Some of the experiments may be tried at home when con-
ditions at the school seem less favorable. For those which
reffuire a rather uniform temperature, the homes of pupils
Kiay be somewhat hotter than the school room during oold
weather.

STURIUS OP SEEDS AND OETIMINATION
I. Garden Seed Selection. — In the fall of the year, atuilents
may sclpct garden seeds of many kinda. In doing so, attention should
he givc'il to several viaihie cliaraPtera, so that seeds may be choaen

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 67

from the best. If tliere \te no seeds in the aeliooi garden, tlie work
m&y be carried on by individual pupils at lionie, and the results
shown at school. The size and vigor of plants, the quantity of seeds

Fis. 43,— MelnUB riows from uoaeleoted leed— ohowini the miipd piodiirt. (North

CarolitiH DepartnitDt of AEriculIiiri'.)

Fio. *4,— When seed is selected from a garden where the product is uniform the

neit crop wiLI be uniform. (North Csrojina Dcpanmenl of Agriculture.)

tbey bear, the strength and lieight of stems, the branching or num-
ber of stems in a clump, are all feature!^ to he considered (Figs. 43,
44, and 45). Tomato seeds should lie taken from plants yielding
large crops of smooth marketable fruits.. The individual tomatot's

68 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

should have ematl seed cavitiea and abundant flesh (study figure 46).
Select seeds of asparagus, rhubarb, peppers, egg-plant, radish, lettuce,
and such two-year plants as beets, cabbage, cauliflower, salsify, and
parsnip.

Kiu. 45,— Hubbard nquash cut open, showina BtnaU seed cavity, and n Itiirk «ii-
ble parlion. (CorneLL Rcadiiui Cauree leaflet.)

iMaiiy gardeners do uot uhooso seeds from their own gar-
dens, but purchase them in packages from dealers. Young
gardeoere should learn the advantages gained by selecting

J would yi

home-grown seeds. Plants from sucii soedjt do hotter in soils
where they were grown. Individual attention given to tlio
important features necessary for improvement counts for much
in plant breeding.

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 69

2. How Plants Get Out of the Ground.— 8tart a number of
large seeds of different kinds, such as beans, peas, corn and, squash.
They may be planted very shallow in a box of wet sand. As they
start germination, remove the sand from a few of each kind and
study their plans of growth. Continue this study as the growth
continues. Which seeds are pushed entirely out of the ground before
the seed leaves burst from the coats? Which ones leave the main
part of the seed in the ground? What do these send up? Compare
carefully the difference between peas and beans; between corn and
squash.

Buring the exercise, much difference will be noticed in the
strength of sprouting shown by different kinds of seeds. Gar-
deners often plant strong sprouting seeds among weak ones
to aid in breaking the soil for them. This is one reason for
planting radish and lettuce seeds together. The roots of some
plants are forced downward into the soil by penetrating the
soil without pushing the seed leaves and seed coaits upward.
Such plants have less difficulty in sprouting from poorly
prepared seed beds.

PLANT GROWTH AND POLLINATION

3. Moisture and Germination. — In a can of moist garden soil,
plant fifteen kernels of corn or other large seed. In a second can,
with the same kind of soil which is air dry, plant the same number
of seeds in like manner. Keep both cans in a warm room and keep
the moist one well watered. After a few days, sprouting will be seen
from the moist soil, but probably none from the dry soil.

' There are three essential conditions ff)r germination : mois-
ture, warmth, and air. This exercise proves the need of
moisture.

4. Packing and Germination. — Fill two cans alike with the
same kind of moist garden soil. In each plant the same number of
kernels or seeds. Leave one soil very loose at the top and around
the sides. Pack the other with the fingers or bottom of a Iwttle
so the moist soil is pressed firmly against the seeds. Place both
cans in a warm room, and after a few days carefully watch and
note the difference in the time required for germination. Usually,
packing hastens germination.

70 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

^foist soil packed closely against seeds planted in the
garden causes them to sprout more rapidly. After planting
fine garden seeds, the row should be packed by tramping upon
it or in some other manner. Fine seed such as timothy or
other grass seed, when sown in the field, is often rolled so that
the moisture from below will rise and come in close contact
with the seeds and soften their coats.

5. Air and Germination. — In two cans of garden soil, plant
seeds alike. Have one moistened, favorable for the best germination,
and the other supplied with enough water to stand over the 'top of
the soil. Keep both cans in a warm room and observe the results.
The seeds in the first can should sprout in a few days. Those which
are over-watered will probably rot instead of sprouting.

This exercise may be varied by placing wet blotters or wet
cloths with a few seeds in the bottom of a bottle or glass jar. In a
similar vessel, put a like number of seeds and cover them with an
inch or two of water. Tliose in the moist condition will havte enough
air to germinate, while those in the water will not.

Air is very essential to the proper germination of seeds
and future growth of the plants. If too much water is present,
the air is driven out and the seeds or plants will not grow
well. The exercises demonstrate the importance of good
drainage of soils.

6. Warmth and Germination. — Plant seeds in two cans of soil,
similar in every way, but keep one of them in a warm room and the
other in a colder room or perhaps out-of-doors. Xote the difference
in time required for germination. The temperature of each may be
noted if a thermometer is available.

Certain kinds of seed require very warm soil before ger-
minating. Others will not need it so warm. Soils may be
warmed by suitable tillage for a few weeks before planting
time. This will let in the warm spring air and make the
soils warm enough for the germination of garden seeds.

7. Depth and Germination. — In a glass jar or in a box some-
what deeper, plant such seeds as corn, beans, and peas, at varying
depths of one, two, three, four, and five inches. Two of each kind

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 71

III Beed may be used at each depth. The soil should be packed
uniformly and the moisture conditions l<ept as nearly perfect as
possible. Place in a warm room and record the time required for tlie
eeeda at different depths to germinate. The location of those at each
depth may be marked on the side of the box with pencil or on tlie side
of the glass jar with papar labels. The exercise may be varied as
shown in figure 47.

If the soil used is a sample from the garden, the exercise

Fia. 47.— Aa BierciM to test the deptli lur pLantiiiit •^oni or garden aeecls of nay
Idnd. (AEnculture and l.ilc.)

may be valuable iu determining the best depth at wliidt to plant
seeds. If planted too deep, seeds may rot before reaching
the surface. If planted too shallow, they may suffer more
from drouth because their root systems are too near the dry
surface.

8. Carbon Dioxide from Germinating Seed — Put a half pint
of germinating beans in a glass jar. Place among these a wide-
mouthed bottle containing cloar lime water and cover the glnss jar.
After a few hours, the lime water will Khow a clowdy or milky

72 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

appearance and a scum or crust will form on top. This indicates the
presence of carbon dioxide, which is always given off by germinating
seeds.

This shows one need of a good supply of fresh air during
germination, as proved in another exercise in the early part
of the chapter.

The student may prove that carbon dioxide produces these
effects on lime water by bubbling from his mouth through a
straw or tube into a glass containing fresh lime water. It
is the same kind of gas given off by the germinating seeds as
by the lungs.

9. Imp*ortance .of Large Seed. — In two cans with perforated
bottoms, place moist garden soil and plant in them radish seeds of
the same kind. In one can, plant twenty of the largest seeds, and in
the other twenty of the smallest seeds. Keep them in the best
growing condition. Note any differences which may be seen. The
test should be made by more than one student and comparisons may
be made. Be careful to have the soil packed and watered alike, and
the depth of planting should be the same in all cases. The growth
may be continued for two or three weeks. At what stage of growth
does the size of seed seem to make the most difference?

In preparing seeds for planting, sieves are used to select
the large from the small. Fanning mills are used to separate
the -light seeds from the heavy. These methods help to im-
prove the growth of future vTop^ as well a.s to remove weed
seeds from the field seeds desired. In ancient times farmers
allowed the seeds to fall through the "air while the wind was
blowing. The winnowing of grain aided in the selection of
seeds for future crops. Careful selection of the heaviest and
largest seeds each year will greatly improve the vigor of the
plants and increase the yield. Farmers anci gardeners should
always select the best grain or best garden seed for their
own use.

10. Seed Testing, Soil Method. — Plant two lots of seed in a
shallow box of moist sand or light garden soil. The seeds should
be counted, each lot containing the same numl)er, say twenty-five

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 73

ate*: for large seeds, or one hundred for small seeds. Place the box in
jinati: a warm room and keep it well watered. Note the rate of germina-
tion, and after the strongest plants have been up several days, deter-
mine the per cent of germination.

The sprouting of seeds will help to detect impurities in the
sample. Differences between seeds may not be observed, but
the difference in their leaves or manner of growth is quickly
seen.

Testing proves the vitality or germinating power of the
1 „, seed sample. This should always be known before planting
seeds in the garden or field. It may save the many disadvan-
tages of buying and planting poor seeds. The vexation of
^^'. ♦ replanting is avoided.

j ic II. Seed Testing, in Wet Cloth. — In folds of wet cloth, place

j^,f counted seeds with a label made with pencil on a small paper. The

pijj cloth is placed between plates or pans to hold the moisture. The cloth

should be moistened frequently, and the samples kept in a warm room

hr.

i pa

rlir
' I:

^ij for a number of days. The per cent of germination should be deter

th

mined by careful counting of dead seeds.

For the testing exercises, have grains and garden seeds
brought to school by pupils. These may be such as are to
grow in the home or school garden the following season.
Pupils may do the counting, labelling and testing by each
method described. This is bcvst done before the early spring
work begins. A record should be kept on the packages or
bottles containing the seeds.

The samples may have been obtained from stores or seed
houses wishing to sell them. It seldom pays to buy cheap
seeds. A test will greatly aid in deciding what to buy. The
age, size, weight, purity, and vitality should always be deter-
mined before buying. Old seeds are sometimes given a fresh-
looking appearance by using fumes of sulfur. These are
sometimes used to adulterate good seeds.

12. Looking for Weed Seeds. — Samples of lettuce or other
small garden and field seeds should be examined for purity by each
pupil before garden planting time. Spread half a teaspoonful of one

74 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

kind on B, sheet of white paper. Weed seeds or any whicli are not
like the true garden variety you have should be placed at one corner
of the paper. Lift them with the wet point of a pencii. After
separating the seeds which are untrue, count them and determine
the percentage of purity (Fig. 48). Another way of looking at
seeds is to moisten the lirst joint of the thumb of the left hand and
dip it in the seed sample. The layer of seeds covering the moist
surface may be examined with the eyes with or without a lens or
reading glass.

Such practice by students calls attention not only to im-
purities, but also to shrivelled seeds, discolored or old BPeds,

partides ot dirt, njind or otlier t'oruij;ii iiiitttrr often fimnd in
samples (Fig. 49).

13. Studying Weed Seeds. — During tlie fall season, collections
of weed seeds of many kinds should be made at the school. Let
each pupil bring to school the heads of weeds containing seeds. These
may be placed- in folded papers or discarded envelopes, with the
name written outside. After the samples have become thoroughly
riry, place the seeds in small bottler, as shown in dgure 50, or in
little boxes. Any weeds which are not known by the pupils or teacher
may lie identified hy the use of United States Farmers' Bulletins
No. 2110 and No. 382. Samples may also be sent to the agricultural
experiment station in any state.

The exercise will call the attention of pupils for the first
time to many noxious weeds, and they may realine for the
first time the importance of the fanner's weed problem.

HOME AND SCHOOL EXEBCISES 76

f i

t i

e €

Fia. 40. — A Rterence collection o! BBeda to use in detccling impuriiiee id se
titiafilet. The seeds are placed in boles in Beaver board Fanes of risse are th
placed OQ both front and back and are bound with black paper (U 8 D j

76 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

While the colluttioii ,oJ! seeds is being made, studeiits may
estimate the number of seeds borne by a siugle plant amoug
the various kinds, Cwuiit the number uf i>mall seeds in a case,
then the number of cases in a head or clump, and the number
of heads or clusters on a plant. Large numbers of seeds are

kept in the schaal. (U. S. D. A.)

borne by many plants because many of the seeds will be
destroyed by the wasteful methods of distribution.

14. Weed Distribution. — Let the pupils each make a liat of
common weeda, aa those they have collected, and others. ClasaHy
the weeda by the muthods found tor aeed diatributjnn : (1) Ha.¥ing

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 77

burrs to cling to the coats of animals, as burdock and bidens. (2)
Having down or hair to catch in the wind, as dandelion and milk-
weed. (3) Having wings to float on the air or water, as true dock.
(4) Seeds which are edible and carried by birds, as plantain. Some
of the weeds may appear in two lists and other classifications may
also be made.

In connection with this exercise, the methods practiced
by gardeners and farmers may be discussed. Weed seeds car-
ried by animals find their way into their bedding and manure
about the barnyard. These are spread upon the fields. Weeds
growing abundantly in hay are likewise taken from the barn-
yard to other fields. ^

Gardeners often rot their barnyard manure for the purpose
of killing weed seeds in it. This helps to keep their gardens
free from weeds. Compost heaps are made by carefully alter-
nating layers of manure and sod to prevent loss of plant-food
during the rotting process.

15. Getting Pure Grass Seeds. — ^Add a few drops of mucilage
to a little water. Use this to wet a piece of clean window glass.
Sprinkle over it a thin layer of bluegrass seed such as you may wish
to use on the school or home lawn. Hold the glass up to a bright
light and examine the number of empty husks or glumes.

Several samples of grass seed from different dealers should
be examined, as bluegrass and other chaffy grass seeds vary
greatly in their value. Such seeds should always be examined
in this or some other suitable way before purchasing. The
weight per quart of seed gives a partial guide to its value.
The heavy seed should always be preferred.

16. Oil in Seeds. — Get seeds from castor-oil plant, cotton plant,
flax, buckwheat, soybeans, peanuts and other nuts. Examine these
for the oil which they contain. Mashing some against writing
paper will give it a greasy appearance. Tf convenient, get at a drug
store a little alcanin (henna root in alcohol). Out thin sections
of the seeds and lay them on a piece of glass. Then apply a drop of
the alcanin. It will stain the oil red and prove its presence. This
is the standard test for fats and oils. Many seeds have enough oil
so that it can be detected by rubbing between the fingers.

78 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING ^

Seeds eoiitaining much oil are very valuable in commerce.
The oils differ in character and are used for different purposes,
as castor oil for medicine, linseed oil for paint, peanut and
cottonseed oil for food.

The presence of oil in seeds protects them from the bad
effects of weather from one year to the next.

17. Starch in Seeds. — Remove some white starchy material from
different seeds, such aa corn, wheat, oats and buckwheart. Treat a
little of each with a solution of rather diluted iodine. The dark
purple color proves the presence of starch. Any other tissues may
be studied at the same time, as in potatoes and dry corn stalks.

Starch in seeds makes them nutritious as food for men and
livestock. It is supplied by the plant for the purpose of
nourishing the young seedling after germination. The starch
is changed into sugar during germination. In this form
it is dissolved and can circulate through the tissues of the
young plant.

Starch is in the form of grains, each form being char-
acteristic of the kind of seeds or plants in which they occur.
By the use of a high-power microscope, the presence of differ-
ent kinds of starch in human food, as flours and meals, can
be determined.

i8. Gluten in Seeds. — Chew a few kernels of wheat until a mass
of "gum " is formed. This part remaining is chiefly made up of
gluten or protein matter of the wheat. The starch and oil have been
removed by mastication. Flour is made from grinding wheat or other
grains. The exercise may be varied by taking a sample of wheat
flour and with water making it up into stiff dough. Wrap the dough
in a cloth, then hold it in a pail of water and knead it until the
white starchy matter is washed out of it. The remaining part is
composed chiefly of gluten.

Gluten is a valuable food content of grains and other seeds.
It is also used for food by the plant when germination takes
place.

HOME AND SCHOOL EXKRCISES 79

Flours of different kinds nia^' be tested as to the relative
amountfi of gluten by the plan used in this exercise. Wheat
flour containing much gluten holds together l)etter when made
into the form of dougli. Bread made from it will be "lighter "
than if made from flour containing more starch and less gluten.
Flour with little gluten is best for pies and other pastry, as
the dough will be tender when baked.

19, Better Seed Potatoes. — When potatoee are being dug, let
some student keep a record of the yields of good marketable pot«toea

re tbe best. lU. i:

arketabfc tuben

from each hilt. Potatoes from the largest yielding hilla aliould lie
kept separate from the rest to uae for seed. These may be put in
sacks and a record of yield placed upon Die xack or label. Tliey may
be stored in the usual way and used tor seed next season.

Some hills of potatoes yield several times as rnnch as otJiers
(Fig. 51), By selecting in this way, the future yields may
be greatly increased. If the seed potatoes from the best
hill are planted together in a row, or portion of a row, and
labelled with a stake, the best may again be seleeted the next
year. Thus, improvement may be kept up indefinitely. This

80 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

method is a practical oiie for any farmer or gardener to follow
(Fig. 53).

STUDIKa OF FLOWERS AND POLt,INATIO>f
30. The Parts of a Flower. — Use 8ome simple flower from the
window box or garden. In the spring, cherry, peach, plum or apple
blusBoms may be used. Let each pupil examine carefully the stamens

FiQ. JS3. — The left shouts Rrowth, yield, and marlteUbla orop produced by weU-

and pistil and see their relative positions. Are the stamens taller
or shorter than the pistil ! Can the pollen from the stamens fall
directly npon the end (stiKma) of the pistil? (Fig. 53).

Some flowers are'of such form as to prevent much of the
self-poUinatinfj. 1'he pollen from the stamens cannot fall
directly upon the pistil, but must be carried by insects visiting

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 81

tlie (lowers for iicetar or uarriuil by wind. As insects visit
tlie flowers,' the hairs and coats of the body, legs, and wings
may be covered with pollen grains and thuB taken from flower

Fio. S3. — Lsriie flowers, aucli u the pappy, may be used in studying the parts.
(U. 8. D. A.)

to flower. Some of it will reach the pistils in other flowers.
Pollinating by this method or by the wind is called cross-
pollinating. Some varieties of strawberries and many other
flowers have no true stamens and the pollen must be carried
from other flowers (Fig. 54).

ai. Wind and Insect Pollinating. — Compare the blosBoma of a
showy Hower, as one of the fruit blossoms mentioned in the above
exercise, with the blossoms of grass or eom. Do any of them havie
fragrance! Do bees visit all kinds,! Which ate most attractive in
color! Compare the pollen of the two kindB.

Flowers pollinated by the wind are usually not showy in
color. They are usually green or yellowish green. The pollen
is light and dry. There is no nectar, and the flower has no
special odor.

82 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Flowers pollinated by insects liavo one or more of these
features: (1) The flowers are showy iu color. (2) Some nee-
tar is found in them. (3) They may have an attractive odor.
(4) The pollen is heavy and sticky until very old.

aa. Pollination of Com. — Study the taasets and young ears,
including the eitkg of corn. For this purpose some early aweet
corn, Huch eh Golden Bantam, may be grown in the window l>o:c during
the winter, in time for study while school ia in. aeaaioii. Large pic-

Fia. 84.— StrsT , _ .

* ■ ■ «..._. „^lj, i,^

1 so tbe p

tures may be used if necessary. Shake the taaael on dark cloth or
paper to find the grains of pollen. Trace the Bilks from tip to base
and Snd their attachment. Each runs to its own kernel.

Many plants have the same plan for pollinating as found
in the corn. Their polleu is in one part of the plant and the
pistil in another, 'lliis requires the transfer of pollen by wind
or insects. The corn plant is chiefly pollinated by wind.
When the corn is in tassel, wind carries the pollen to the silks
or pistils. A grain falls upon the sticky portion of a silk

HOME AND SCHOOL EXERCISES 83

and forms a growth or elongation which reaches through the
entire length of the silk. This is necessary in every case before
the kernels can be formed on the cob. Samples of ears show-
ing places where kernels were undeveloped should be brought
to school and examined .by pupils.

23. Hand Pollinating. — ^When plants are in blossom in the
window or garden, select some containing both stamens and pistils.
Just before they open, take a pair of scissors, or fine-pointed knife,
and remove the stamens from a number of flowers, being careful not
to injure the pistil or other parts. C!over these flowers with small
paper bags or folded papers tied with a string or fastened with a
rubber band about the stems. This is to prevent the air or insects
from carrying pollen to these flowers. After a few days, when the
pistils have developed, apply pollen from other flowers of the same
kind by hand. This may be done by using a small soft feather or
brush. Rub the feather on the stamens of flowers where you wish
to collect pollen, and then rub it on the pistil of the flowers from
which the stamens were removed. The bag is again placed over
these flowers until the fruit or seed begins to grow. Then the bags
may be removed. The time required will probably not be more than
two weeks.

The methods described here are similar to those used by
experimenters in plant breeding. The stamens of flowers are
removed to prevent self-pollinating, and the pollen of desired
kinds which they wish to cross upon those plants is brought
by the hand method and placed on the pistils. Seed from such
crosses may produce new and more valuable varieties. Among
hundreds or thousands of trials, possibly only one or two
improved varieties may be found.

CHAPTER VIII

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT

Soils used for gardens vary widely in their composition
and character. Those which are of a medium nature, called
medium loams, are best adapted to all kinds of garden crops.
The sandier soils are better than the very heavy clays, but
either of these extremes may be greatly improved by proper
methods.

Certain crops are better suited to the heavy soils, while
others prefer the light sandy soils.

Preparing the Soil. — In places where school or home gar-
dening is to be taken up for the first time, the soil to be used
should be prepared some months in advance, if possible. This
will conserve the moisture, make a better seed bed and destroy
many weeds and weed seeds. Teachers and committees in-
tending to have a school garden soon should break up the soil
either the fall before or the spring before. If the ground is
in grass, composed of tough sod, and the plowing be first
done in the fall, a cover crop may be sown. This may consist
of winter rye with either crimson clover or winter vetch mixed
with it. This may remain upon the ground all winter and
serve the purpose of a cover crop. In the spring the ground
should again be plowed and the growth turned under as green
manure. If this first plowing be done in the spring perhaps
a crop of corn or potatoes or other coarse growing plants may
be grown. Tomatoes are sometimes used on the whole area.
The cultivation of some such crop through one season will
help to mellow the soil and get it in better condition for fine
garden work to follow.

Liming. — Soil should be tested with litmus paper to see
if it is sour. (See Exercise 5, Chapter X.) Test a sample
of the soil with dilute hydrochloric acid to see if it foams. If
84

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPHOVEMENT 85

it does, there is plenty of lime preweut. Nearly all soils will
need liming. This may be done in the winter time or just
after the spring plowing. Lime is very beneficial to most
garden soils in a number of ways. (1) It aids in the decay
of vegetable matter which has been plowed in. (2) It helps
liberate plant-food in the soils, so that growing crops may use
it. (3) It hastens the growth of bacteria in the soil. (4)
Heavy clay soils are made more open and porous and are much
better suited to garden work. (5) Light sandy soils are made
more compact and hold moisture better. (6) The sourness

^jg^-g

Fia. 55.— Equivslents in dilTereiil forms of lime. When lime is used oo garden

■fterwurd because of flie danger of scab disease, "xfe danget'iB'leaH't^'hen the
carbons M is used.

of the soil is destroyed by the action of the lime upon the acids
present. (7) Lime is a direct plant-food for members of the
clover family, such ns alfalfa, true clovers, peas, beans and
others (Fig. 55).

There are a few garden crops on which the aetiOH of lime
is not lieneficial. Too much lime in the soil is founrf to injure
watermelons, potatoes, beet« and a few other root crops. This
gives one reason why the crops in tlie garden should be some-
what classified and placed in definite sections of the garden,
rather than having the several kinds of crops all found in all
parts of the garden.

86 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Green Manure. — Many soils, particularly in eastern and
southern states, do not have surtieieut organic matter. The
rotting matter in soils produces humus, which is of great
benefit to them. Green crops can he grown and plowed in
for the purpose of forming humus. The action of this organic
matter while rotting is to make" the soil slightly acid in its
reaction. The acid present sets up chemical action, which is

gardcDB in August or September to
med under in enring the soil will be

very beneficial to the soils. When the acid present is finally
neutralized by the use of lime, any bad effects of the acid are
overcome. By the combined use of the green manures and
lime a soil may be made an active, productive one instead of
an inert, non-productive one.

Green manures are frequently grown in the winter time,
the seed being sown in late summer or fall. The crop may

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 87

grow through tlie latter part of the season, on mild days dur-
ing winter and iu very early spring before the soil is in condi-
tion for tillage for garden crops. Thus time, which would
otherwise be of no use in the growth of most garden crops, is
used for the production of green manure to enrich the soil.

If the green manures are composed partly or wholly of
plants of the legume family, they will gather nitrogen from the
air and add it to the soil as they decay. Winter vetch and
crimson clover (Fig. 56) are suitable annual legumes for use
throughout the winter. Winter grains, such as rye and wheat,
are also used abundantly as green manures, but these do not
have the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. As green
manures decay they not only add humus, but they add con-
siderable plant-food which has been unlocked from the soil by
their own growth. The decay of green manures in soil is so
rapid in warm weather that the plant-food they contain is
liberated very soon. In the school garden work, after early
garden crops are grown, summer crops may be sown to be used
later as green manures. Suitable legumes for this purpose
are cowpeas and soybeans. If these are sown about the first
or middle of June, in the latitude of Xew York or Philadel-
phia, they will thrive and gather large quantities of nitrogen
with which to enrich the soil for future garden crops.

In localities where stable manure is difficult to obtain, green
manures should be grown regularly, either through the winter
season or during midsummer for tlie improvement of soils.

Cover crops, or green crops grown during the winter are
beneficial in a number of ways. (1) They serve the purposes
of green manures. (2) They prevent the leaching or waste
of plant-food during the winter season. (3) They retard the
washing away of surface particles of soils. (4) They help to
cause rainfall to enter the soil more readily. (5) Their roots
allow the entrance of air, thus causing soils to dry more
quickly for early spring gardening. (6) They prevent the
blowing of soils.

88 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

A good maxim among gardeners and farmers is " Xever
let the soil be bare." As soon as one crop is taken off another
must go on, even if that crop is not to return any money
directly. Cover crops are used in winter and catch crops in
summer.

Humus. — As green manures and other forms of organic
matter decay in soils they form a substance called humus.
It gives the soil a blackish color. Dark-colored soils in most
cases have humus in them. Newly cleared woodlands are
dark in color because ol the decay of leaves, roots and twigs
of the former forest. Leaf mould found in forests is largely
humus. The richness of such newly cleared lands is prover-
bial. But the farmer and gardener can plan a careful system
by which organic matter is constantly added in the rotation
of crops. Materials such as weeds, stubble, roots, vines, leaves
and special green manure crops shotild be plowed in and never
burned. Humus improves all soils and increases their produc-
tivity. It will absorb and retain more moisture than any
other part of the soil. This is a benefit of greatest value to
sandy soils. Clay soils are loosened by it, thus helping the
circulation of air and moisture. Clay with humus present
is less likely to clod and crust. The texture and structure of
the soil is much helped, drainage and ventilation are im-
proved and roots will feed to a greater depth. Humus is the
main immediate source of nitrogen, and when the humus is
being formed other plant-foods are liberated for the use of
crops.

Barnyard manure is used on nearly all farms and crops
as the chief means of improvement. In nearly all school gar-
dens well-rotted manure is preferable to coarse manure.

The benefits of manure are: (1) It adds the three main
fertilizing elements for plants, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash. (2) The vegetable matter contained in the manure
is a great source of humus. (3) The soil is given a better
physical condition. (4) It becomes a better home for soil

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 89

]>acteria. (5) Clieinical changes are set up which are of
benefit to the soils and gardens.

The value of stable manure depends largely upon the care
with which it has been handled. The liquid manure should
all be well absorbed by litter. Manure which is saved for
future use should not be placed in large heaps to heat. The
heating destroys much of its value. Neither should it be
placed where much water, as from the roof of a barn, may
wash out the plant-food ; the nitrogen, which is most expensive,
is lost quickly.

Compost. — Young gardeners should early learn to make
a good compost. By this means manure is allowed to rot
under very favorable conditions, and is in good condition for
use in gardens, flower beds, hotbeds and greenhouses. A com-
post heap is made by spreading a layer of barnyard manure,
then a layer of tough sods from a meadow, or a layer of leaves.
On each of these two layers is sprinkled some lime or wood
ashes. The layers are repeated until the manure is all in a
compost. Eainfall will usually be sufficient to prevent the
compost heap from heating, and will allow the rotting to
continue gradually. The layers of sod or other fibrous matter,
such as leaves or straw, alternating the layers of manure, save
much of the plant-food from leaching out.

Weed seeds, wliic4i are usually abundant in all stable
manures, are usually killed in a compost heap. ^ During the
process of rotting the bulk of the manure heap is greatly
reduced during rotting; the plant-food is unlocked; the injur-
ious effect which fresh manure has on such crops as potatoes
is much reduced. Good gardeners usually keep a compost
heap in a corner of the garden ready for use at all times.
Fresh, coarse manure is often placed in the bottom and the
rotted portions of an old compost heap are thrown on top.
The coarse portions become rotted before they are needed
for use in the garden.

90 SCHOOL AND HOME GAEDENING

I. Care of Manures. — Nearly fill a leaky pail with barnyard
manure. Pour over it enough water to fill the pail. Stir it a little,
if possible. Catch the drain water below. Use this in watering one
box of plants in the window or one plot in the garden. In eacli
case, leave a box or plot for comparison, which does not have tlie
manure water, but is kept well watered otherwise. After a fe^wr
weeks notice the difference ingrowth of the plants so treated. The
experiment may be varied by using a large tub or barrel which holds
water well. The manure and water may be stirred together, and as
*water is wanted for the garden the liquid is dipped off above the
manure.

Gardeners frequently keep a "manure barrel" for iise
in watering such plants as lettuce, cabbage, celiery and spinach,
when they wish to force the growth. The liquid takes plant-
food from the manure and stimulates the growth of the garden,
plants.

The fact that water will take plant-food out of manure
shows the need of keeping a shelter over manure piles when
stored in the barnyard. Lo^ of manure by the leaching of
rain-water through it is one of the greatest losses on farms
where stock is kept (Fig. 57).

Plant-food in barnyard manure, when compared with
market prices of commercial fertilizers, is valued by the U. S
Department of Agriculture (Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 192) a
follows : From the barn of a horse, in a year, average $27 ,
cattle, $19; hog, $12; sheep, $2.

Manure, as it is too frequently stored, loses from one-third
to one-half of its plant-food. This greatly reduces its value,

A ton of manure from each of the farm stock would be
valued in this order : Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows.

Commercial fertilizers are used as a direct means of feed-
ing plants with the plant-food which may be lacking in any
soil. The most precious food elements are nitrogen (N),
phosphoric acid (P) and potash (K). Soils are apt to be-
come weak in any one or all of these plant-foods. They are
washed out by rains and taken out by the growth of crops.

; THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 91

I tern. Very few otiier plaiit-fwds need give a gardener much eon-
it* it cern, as they are usually present in garden soils.

tfraif. Commercial fertilizers are purchased in great abundance

, in the eastern and southern states and for special crops in other

„ , t, sections. Millions of tons are purchased for use each year.

td Ti The application of commercial fertilizers as a rule is of no

waK ■
when ■

irnis ;

Fia. 57.— MsQure tar lanleM should be well rotted, salt will then njntain leu weed
Heda; but il ahould not be aUowed Id lench in tbe weather. (U. S. D. A.)

rd

permanent benefit to the soil itself. The more permanent

^ amendments for soils are barnyard manure and green manure.

Commercial fertilizers vary in their composition and are

J. valuable in proportion to the amount and kind of the tliree

jy main foods contained in them.

\^ Nitrogen is the most expensive fertilizer, and soils are

^ more commonly in need of it. Yet this element may be

^ obtained freely from the air by the continuous growth of

J l^umes. Ah fertilizers containing nitrogen become available

9« SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

is t(
for (

for plant growth, they are soluble in water and are easily

washed out by rains. For this reason the application of such ^^ ^^

fertilizers should be made while the plants are growing, or | watt

when the plants are ready to make immediate use of them. ' muc

Some fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of animal '• "^^^

fert'

and vegetable compounds. Such is the case with fertilizers

derived from meat scrap, dried blood, cottonseed meal, tankage

and others. In these the nitrogen may not be ready for plants

to make immediate use of it. The waste will be less, but

the growth will not be so quickly stimulated. If nitrate of

soda or sulfate of ammonia be applied, the nitrogen contained

in them will be more quickly available for the plants, and the ^^'^

growth will be more rapid from the start. If these latter

forms be used before the plants are started, some loss would

take place. ^^^*

bii

niti
the
thi

nvc

2. Effect of Nitrogen. — In two window boxes or cans containing
growing plants, study the value of nitrate fertilizer. Place one tea-
spoonful of nitrate of soda in a quart of water. Stir until dissolved. ' fo
Label bottle and use this to water one box or can of plants, the other , \{\
being supplied with pure water. After a few weeks of this treatment \ ^|?
some difference in their growth should be observed.

Nitrate fertilizer tends to increase leaf growth and retard j|^

the formation of blossoms and fruit. In the garden, such jj

plants as lettuce, celery, cabbage and spinach will be greatly
aided by the use of nitrate fertilizer, because the stem and ^

leaf growth is desired. Young fruit trees should be fed i

abundantly with fertilizers rich in nitrogen. When they reach
bearing age, less nitrate should be used. Then, potash and
phosphoric acid should be given in excess. Nitrogen pro-
duces dark green leaf growth ; phosphoric acid produces stem
and root growth and gives strength to the whole plant; pofash
checks leaf growth and causes the early formation of fruit.

3. How Much Nitrogen to Apply. — Select four cans with per-
forated bottoms. Nearly fill them with samples of garden soil which
you wish to test. Have growing in these, corn or any other garden
plants you wish to use where the samples were taken. Can No. 1

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 93

is to have no fertilizer and is called the " check " can, to be used
for comparison with the others. No. 2 is to be watered with nitrate
of soda solution made by dissolving one teaspoonful in a gallon of
water; No. 3 one-half as much as No. 2, and No. 4 one-fourth as
much as No. 2. After a few weeks' trial, determine which amounts of
nitrate suit this kind of soil best. In each case, when the amount of
fertilizer mentioned has been used, do not use any more, but continue
to use clear water.

Soils which have an abundance of organic matter or of other
nitrogenous material do not require as much nitrate to produce
the best plant growth. The rate of application mentioned in
this exercise for can No. 2 is approximately 500 pounds per
acre, or about six ounces for a ten-foot row of the garden.

This test and a number of other fertilizer tests should be
made with samples taken from gardens, so that the gardener
may know how strong, and what kind of fertilizer to apply.

Phosphoric acid is found abundantly in nature in com-
bination with lime and other materials. Phosphate rocks are
found in deposits in South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Utah,
Idaho and Wyoming. This rock is used as fertilizer because
of the phosphorus which it contains. The rock is sometimes
ground very fine and applied to soils directly. In this form
it is commercially known as ground rock phosphate or " floats.^'
It yields its phosphorus to plants very gradually and remains
in the soil for years. A second and perhaps more common
form of using the phosphate rock is to grind it very fine, and
then treat it with sulfuric acid, which is called " acid phos-
phate," or "superphosphate." It may contain as much as
twenty per cent of phosphoric acid, but more commonly
contains fourteen to sixteen per cent. About four to six
ounces of high-grade acid phosphate will be enough for a
single garden row ten feet long.

Bones contain phosphate. Fertilizers containing bone are
by-products from slaughter-houses. Bones and the various
other wastes are thrown into a tank and the grease extracted.
That winch remains is called bone tankage. It is usually

94 SCHOOL AND HOME GAKDENING

ground very fine, treated with sulfuric acid and dried. Some
nitrogen is usually found in bone tankage because of the waste
meat which it contains. Pure animal bone fertilizer con-
tains, on an average, four per cent of nitrogen and twenty
per cent of phosphoric acid. Fertilizers that derive their
phosphate from animal bone are usually more expensive than
those derived from phosphate rock, even when the composition
is taken into Account.

4. Phosphorus. — Cammon friction matches have phosphorus
mixed with sulfur and other materials. Moisten the head of a
match and rub it a little, being careful to not touch it with the
finger-nails. The white fumes which appear are caused by the phos-
phorus in the match uniting with the oxygen in the air. These
white fumes are phosphoric acid — exactly the same material found in
fertilizers (PjOb).

Phosphoric acid is one of the three or more main ingre-
dients which we apply to soils in commercial fertilizers.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash are always found in com-
plete fertilizers. Lime is sometimes present. Phosphoric
acid or mineral phosphate in feri;ilizers is obtained from
phosphate rock, ground bone, bone tankage, fish scraps, and
other sources.

5. Malting Phosphoric Acid. — ^Put a few teaspoonfuls of ground
phosphate rock in a drinking glass or large test-tube. Pour over it
about the same amount of strong sulfuric acid. Stir these together.
An important chemical action will take place. The lime present in
the rock is taken by the acid, and a mineral acid is left in the tube.
This is the phosphoric acid of commerce.

The method used in this exercise is exactly similar to that
used on a commercial scale in the manufacture of phosphoric
acid as a farm and garden fertilizer.

The phosphate rock for these exercises may be obtained by
asking for a sample from any fertilizer company or from local
dealers. The sulfuric* acid may be obtained from a drug
store or liiigh school laboratory. It is the same acid as that
used in testing milk samples.

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 95

6. Testing for Phosphoric Acid. — Put a little finely ground
phosphate rock in a glass of water to see if it will dissolve. In like
manner try a little ground bone in another glass. To see if any is
dissolved, pour in a little clear lime water. If any phosphate is
dissolved, the lime water will cause a white cloudy appearance.

The question naturally arises: "Will rain dissolve bone
and phosphate rock when they are in the soil ? ^' Plant-foods
which do not dissolve somewhat when treated with water or
very weak acid are considered insoluble and are not readily
available for use by plants. Common, phos-phate rock is
found upon the market at a price very much lower than acid
phosphate. It is used for field crops rather than for gardens,
as it has a less stimulating effect. It contains about twice
as much phosphorus per ton as acid phosphate. A common
name of phosphate rock is "floats.'^ It should be ground
very fine before applying to soils.

Potash is more commonly found in moist soils. Sandy soils
and those which have been farmed for a long time are most
deficient in it. Wood ashes contain much potash and are good
as fertilizer to use on gardens. The largest source of potash
is in the form of mineral salts, found in some parts of Ger-
many. These may be ground fine and placed directly on the
soil. More commonly perhaps they are refined or concen-
trated. The two main commercial forms of the rich potash
salts are muriate of potash, containing fifty per cent of potash,
and sulfate of potash, containing about forty-eight per cent
of potashw These forms are soluble in water and easily
absorbed by plants.

7. Wood Ashes as Plant-food, — Place a peck or more of wood
ashes in a vessel with a hole in the bottom. A leaky pail will serve
the purpose. Pour over the ashes enough water to show above the
top. Stir them a little with a stick, if possible. Catch the water
which runs through below, in a pan or other vessel. Examine this
water closely. Test it with the litmus paper mentioned in a pre-
ceding exercise. It turns litmus blue, and is alkali. Between the
fingers it feels soapy. It is really " lye water."

96 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

This exercise shows one important plaiit-f ood in the ashes —
potash. There are several different kinds of plant-food in
wood ashes. For this reason, ashes should be saved in a place
where the rain-water will not take away the food by leaching.
The forms of mineral matter which the trees take from the
soil while growing may be carefully saved and returned to the
soil in the form of aAhes.

The te&t with the litmus paper proves that the ashes will
correct the sour or acid condition of soils.

Schools or homes burning wood may spread the ashes
throughout the winter season on the land where the garden is
to grow. The leaching of all soluble plant-food will be directly
into the soil.

How to Buy Fertilizers. — The real value of any com-
mercial fertilizer is based not upon the brand, but upon the
kind and form and the amount of elements contained in the
mixture. Good gardeners sometimes buy fertilizers that have
a low price per ton. These are invariably more expensive
sources of plant-food than those more highly concentrated.
The low-grade fertilizers contain more make-weight or poorer
materials. A gardener prefers high-grade fertilizers contain-
ing good forms of plant-food. Such cannot be sold for a low
price. The price alone cannot be taken as a safe guide as to
the effect that a fertilizer may have upon the crop. This is
measured by the kind and form of materials in the mixture.

Home mixing of fertilizers has become a more common
practice among gardeners. The elementary forms of plant-
food are purchased separately and mixed as desired for the
special crops. The mixing is done on a smooth floor with a
shovel, just as concrete materials are sometimes mixed. For
a good medium loam early garden crops may be fed with com-
mercial fertilizer, as follows:

Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs.

Ground Bone 100 lbs.

Acid Phosphate 550 lbs.

Muriate of Potash 100 lbs.

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT

sr

After tliese iugreditiits have been mixed, about lUO pouiidM
per acre may be applied. For small gardens the quantity is
reduced in proportion to the area, of course. One ounce of
the above potash would be enough, for a single row of tiie
garden ten feet long.

8. Exercise in Home Mixing of Fertilizers, — Choose the fertil-
izer ingredients to be used in the garden. Separate ingredients
should be obtained and the. amounts are determined by the area
to "be fertiliaed. Make this a lesson in home mixing. Pour the con-
tents of each eepar^te sack of fertilizer on a smooth floor or mixing
board. With a sliovel crush the lumps, if any are found. Spread
the flrst kind out level and place each of the others in level layers on
top. The mixing is chiefly done with common shovels or hoes. By
cutting through the several layers the different ingredients become
mixed. A new pile is made by the side of the first, as the shovelling
or hoeing is done. One person may use a rake on top of the new
pile as it is being formed hy other persona. A second and third
shovelling over of the pile will make the mixture very perfect.

The practice of home mixing fertilizers is recommended by
experiment stations and many of the best gardeners and
farmers. High-grade materials can be purchased from the
leading fertilizer companies and often from their agents.
The prices of these materials are more stable than those of
ready-mised fertilizers with registered or "patent" names.
In buying special brands something is paid for the "brand."
Many of them contain much filler or "make-weight" mate-

98 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

rials. The addition of filler usually reduces the price a little,
but often the reduction is not in proportion to the amount of
filler used. It is not good practice to pay freight and cost of
hauling fertilizers containing filler. For these reasons low-
grade fertilizers should seldom be used (Fig. 58).

9. Which Fertilizer to Use. — Prepare five cans of growing
plants, as in the preceding exercise, and leave No. 1 as a check can.
No. 2 is to be fertilized with one teaspoonful of nitrate of soda;
No. 3 with acid phosphate solution made by mixing two teaspoonfuls
with one gallon of water. No. 4 is to receive muriate of potash made
by mixing one teaspoonful with one gallon of water. No. 5 is to
receive all three kinds of fertilizer made by mixing the three in a
gallon of water together. Note the comparative growth for several
weeks and determine which fertilizer is most needed by that kind of
soil for the plants grown.

The same trials may be made with all the kinds of garden
soil available. Each may be tried with a few different kinds
of garden plants. 1 1 the school garden, fertilizer trials of
a similar nature may be carried on. Small plots for each fertil-
izer may be staked off, five feet wide and twenty feet long, or
any other size'^desired. It is not difficult to determine suitable
amounts of the different fertilizers to use in the trial. If such
a plot (5 feet X 20 feet) were to receive one pound of any one
kind of fertilizer, it would be approximately at the rate of
four hundred pounds per acre.

Improvement by Tillage. — Implements have been so
much improved that tillage is one of the commonest ways to
put soil in proper physical condition to yield good crops.
Tillage is of two main types: (1) Shallow, as with harrows
and cultivators. (2) Deep tillage, as with a plow and disking
machines.

The main objects of plowing are : (1) To turn under green
manures and other vegetable matter, such as stubble, stalks,
vines and weeds, to get them out of the way and to place them
where they will rot to improve the soil. (2) To unlock plant-

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 99

food by exposing particles to new conditions of heat, light,
moisture and air. (3) To help prepare the soil as a seed bed.
(4) To deepen the water reservoir and make the moisture
conditions more perfect. (5) To loosen the soil and allow of
better shallow tillage.

Depth of Plowing. — ^If soils be rich and black to a great
depth, the plowing may be sua deep as desired. In shallow
soils, where the poor soil is close to the top, the depth of
plowing is limited. Very little, if any, poor soil should be
turned up at any one time of plowing. In such cases the depth
of the soil may be greatly increased by plowing deeper each
time. This increase should be very gradual — one-half inch
or so at a time. If green manures or other forms of organic
matter be plowed under each time the lower soil will be
improved more readily and the plowing should become deeper
and deeper. In soils which are very sandy with loose porous
subsoils, there is much danger of plowing too deep, unless well-
rotted manure or other similar material be added each time.

When the school garden is first being prepared the first
plowing should be shallow. If there be a sod to kill, the
second plowing, made perhaps a few months later, may be
crosswise of the first, and made much deeper.

Shallow Tillage. — -In preparing a garden, the common
spike-toothed harrow, with adjustable or slanting teeth, is
most commonly used. For heavy soils a disk harrow is very
helpful. The Acme harrow is a good instrument as a pul-
verizer for clods and sods.

For cultivation between rows a fine-toothed cultiv9,tor is
used. For most garden purposes, either at school or home,
young people will find a one-horse cultivator, which is adjust-
able in width, a very desirable form. Wheel hoes are very
useful when horse power is not to be used. Tillage between
rows does not need to be deep for most crops, if the soil has
been properly prepared in advance.

Bare Fallow. — In early spring, after the soil has been

100

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

plowed, it should be harrowed immediately. Plowing done
at a drying season of the year, either spring or summer, should
be harrowed promptly to prevent the formation of clods. This
plan will also preserve the moisture- necessary for the future
growth of plants. A period elapsing between the plowing of
the soil and the planting of the crop is often spoken of as
" bare fallow." During the bare fallow period the soil should
be kept well harrowed. If at any time the soil becomes beaten
together by heavy rains, it must be loosened up as soon as dry

enough by the use of a harrow
or cultivator. This is one of
the important secrets of any
gardening. Never allow the
soil to become hard and crustv,
and never allow it to pack for
lack of prompt surface tillage.

Killing Weeds. — The bare
fallow period is the best time
to kill weeds. Weed seeds ger-
minate from their coats at
varying conditions of moisture.
Fig. 59.-Garden-pea roots showing temperature, and depth below
Llth\?ra^re'?L*^^^^^^^^ surface. Many of them will

gen from air. germinate soon after plowing.

The first harrowing will kill these by breaking the sprouts, and
bring other seeds into suitable conditions for germination.
These sprouts are broken by the next harrowing and so on.
Each harrowing kills large numbers of weeds too small to be
seen above ground ; thus the weeds which would otherwise be
troublesome in midsummer are destroyed before the garden
is planted. The use of a harrow for this purpose before
planting time is a much better method than the use of a hoe
or other hand tools after the garden is growing.

Other benefits derived from the frequent early harrowing
of the garden before planting are found in the warming of the

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT -aQl

■* * _- ,» ' » - «. -

soil, the increase of bacteria, the unlocking of plant-food, the
pulverizing of clods and the formation of a better seed bed
for garden seeds.

10. Leg^ume Nodules. — After peas, beans, or other legumes have
grown to a height of five or six inches in window boxes, or the garden,
a few plants should be dug with care to not pull the roots from, th?
soil. Rinse the roots in water and examine for nodules ( Fig. 59 ) .

The nodules on legume roots of all kinds are the homes
of friendly bacteria. These bacteria enable the plants of this
family to secure nitrogen from the air in the soil about them.
When nitrogen is thus obtained it aids the growth of the crop
itself and also supplies nitrogen to other crops which follow
in the same soil.

Unless nodules are present, the plants are not obtaining
nitrogen from air. Many soils do not contain the bacteria
required by different legumes for this purpose. It is often
found necessary to supply the bacteria by some process called
inoculation.

•

11. Inoculating Soil for Legumes. — In two window boxes or
two perforated cans, or two similar plots in the garden, have the
soil and conditions alike with this exception: Let one be inoculated
with alfalfa bacteria. This is done by spreading on the surface of
the soil a little soil from a field or plot where alfalfa has grown
successfully, having nodules while growing. The inoculation soil is
to be raked into the surface immediately when applied, to avoid
exposure to bright sunshine. The sun would kill the bacteria. A
very small quantity of soil is enough. Inoculation may also be done
by using a culture obtained by writing to the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, Washington, D. C. The directions which come with it should
be carefully followed. After inoculating one plot or box, each of
the two should \w sown to alfalfa and allowed to grow until a few
inches high. Then a few plants may be dug and the roots washed
and examined for nodules. Tlie growth in tlie two plots should be
compared. Does this indicate that inoculation is helpful in the soil
you have?

Some soils need inoculation for certain legumes, while
other soils have the bacteria present in abundance. Nearly
all good garden soils have plenty of bacteria suitable for such

.10%. . SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

> • • •

legumes as peas, beans, cowpeas, and the common clovers.
Many soils require inoculation for alfalfa, soybeans, and some
few require it for red clover, some varieties of beans, and
others. In this experiment another legume may be used in-
stead of alfalfa. The principle may be brought out by heating
the soil in the cans or boxes by placing it in an oven hot enough
to kill all bacteria present. This will make the inoculated
plot show a marked difference in growth for any legume which
may be used. With peas, for example, the soil in one can may
b sterilized with heat and the other not sterilized. The
growth will then show the bacteria present in the latter but not
in the former.

, 12. Lime for Legumes. — Prepare two einiilar areas as in the
preceding exercise. The soil for this is better if it is a heavy clay
or very black soil. If, when tested with litmus paper it is sour,
so much the better (see exercise with litmus paper, Chapter X).
Apply a very light sprinkling of fine lime over the surface of one
plot and rake it in. Then grow some kind of legume such as clover
or alfalfa until it is a few inches high. Observe the difference in
growth on the two plots.

Does the growth show any marked difference? Is the
application of lime beneficial for the legume in this case ? The
exercise may be tried with several different legumes, as beans,
peas, soybeans, cowpeas, and others. It may also be repeated
with different types of soil to determine whether all kinds of
soils in the neighborhood are benefited by the use of lime.

13. Amount of Mineral Matter in Plants.— Carefully weigh a
few ounces of very dry wood. Then place it on a stove shovel in the
stove and burn it, being careful to save all the ashes on the shovel.
Weigh the ashes with the most delicate scales available. Nearly all
of the mineral matter of the wood is left in the ashes.

The mineral parts of the plant come from the soil. The
exercise shows how small a part of the plant^s food comes from
the soil. Nearly all of the remainder of the plant's food comes
from the air. It is usually considered that our farm crops
take 95 per cent of their gain in weight from the air. The

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 103

other 5 per cent is made up of the ash or mineral matter
which they get from the soil. This 5 per cent is absolutely
necessary. Indeed, as this amount increases, the increase is
multiplied many fold by the part taken from the air. We
consider the portion taken from the air inexhaustible. This
illustrates the need of increasing the mineral food of plants
up to the greatest amount which they can use.

14. Soils Retain Plant-food— Tie cloths to cover the large
ends of several lamp chimneys. Pack each chimney nearly full with
garden soU and stand each in a separate dish. Pour liquid manure
into one, ammonia water into a second, lime water into a third, and
water containing phosphoric acid into a fourth. After the water
passes through in each case, note such changes as can be observed.
The liquid manure will probably lose its characteristic color; the
ammonia water may lose its odor ; that which passes through should
be tested also with litmus paper. Test also the lime water with
litmus paper. Test the water from the fourth for phosphoric acid by
pouring lime water into it, as suggested in another exercise. If the
phosphoric acid passes through the soil of the chimney, it will cause
a white cloudy appearance when treated with lime water. The exer-
cise may be extended by the use of another chimney and a trial with
lye leached from wood ashes.

Some kinds of soil are more retentive of plant-food than
others. Light sandy soils do not hold plant-food as well as
the heavy clay loams. Plants are able to get the food from
sandy soils more readily than from clay. That is, sand yields

to the plant more nearly all it has.

•

15. Rains Remiedy Over-fertilizing. — In two cans of good
garden soil plant beans or corn. The cans should have good drainage
in the bottom. When the plants are up a few inches, water one of
them with an excess of nitrate of soda or some other fertilizer.
Common salt solution may be used instead. When the plants begin
to show signs of wilting, stop this treatment. After one day, note
the difference in appearance between the plants in the two cans. One
should be healthy and vigorous, while the other is drooping and dying
because of the over-feeding or the strong salt solution. Before the
plants arc dead, water this can abundantly with pure water, using
rain-water if available. T^t the surplus water drain through the
Iioles in the bottom of the can.

104 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

When too much fertilizer has been applied to crops in the
garden or field they are more apt to suffer because of this
extra fertilizer if the weather is dry. If heavy rains come,
the plant-food is diluted and its wilting effects are reversed.
When enough water is present the food may be taken readily
into the plants.

Care should be taken to never over-feed the plants unless
an abundance of rain or irrigation water is ready for use by
the crop. In dry climates, soils containing much salt near
the surface are found. These are called alkali soils. These
salts retard the growth of plants. They may be removed by
installing under-drainage.

Reclaimed salt marshes along sea-shores may have an
excess of common salt left from sea water. Many kinds of
plants cannot be grown there until the rains of several seasons
have washed out the surplus salts.

i6. Minerals in Soil Water, — Fill two clean quart cans with
water, one with clean fresh rain-water, the other with water from a
well or spring. Set them on a stove and boil until dry. Note any
difference in the remaining matter in the cans.

If the well-water is " hard," it will leave much white sedi-
ment on the sides and bottom of the can. This is observed
by all housekeepers in tea kettles. The other can will prob-
ably show no such sediment. If anything remains in the can,
it will probably be some dark material, as dust washed from the
air or roof by rain in falling.

All water from springs, streams or wells dissolves mineral
matter of several kinds from soils. Such water may contain
a large enough supply of minerals to materially aid the growth
of plants.

17. Solubility of Lime. — Slake a lump of lime by placing it in
an open vessel with water enough to one-fourth cover it. As it
begins to heat and crumble, stir it and keep the whole lump moist.
As the slaking continues, gradually add a little more water until
the heating ceases. Then add about twice the amount. Stir well

THE SOIL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT 105,

and put aside to settle. Carefully pour oflf the clear water into a
bottle having a good stopper. Test the water with litmus paper to
show it is *' alkali." Save a supply for use in other exercises.

When burned lime is slaked and spread upon soils, it is
readily dissolved by rain-water and carried down into the
lower soil. For this reason, lime should be placed on top of
the plowing and not plowed under. Its tendency is to move
downward with the soil water.

The alkali test shown with the litmus paper shows the
power of lime water to " sweeten '' sour soils.

1 8. Fertilizer Samples. — Let several students who have extra
time write to a number of fertilizer companies, asking for samples
of both raw materials and mixed fertilizers for use in the school.
Some of these will come in nicely labelled glass bottles, while others
may be sent in envelopes or small packages. These should be trans-
ferred into bottles as uniform as the students of the school can find
about their homes. Suitable things to ask for are: Nitrate of soda,
sulfate of ammonia, high-grade tankage, low-grade tankage, dried
blood, fish scraps, phosphate rock (called "floats*'), bone meal, acid
phosphate, steamed bone, basic slag, sulfate of potash, muriate of
potash, kainit, unleached ashes, hydra ted lime, ground limestone,
gypsum, ground oyster shells. These samples should be preserved
for use in a number of exercises and for illustrative material in the
study of fertilizer problems.

CHAPTER IX

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

It is necessary to have the right degree of moisture in soils
to secure the best growth of plants. If it be too wet at certain
seasons or too dry at other times the growth of crops is
retarded. Tillage will do much to control the amount of
moisture in garden soils.

It is desirable and profitable under certain conditions to
have some system of drainage or of irrigation, or both.

IRRIGATION

It is not necessary to give any reason or argument for
irrigation of crops in sections where the climate is very dry.
Much work along that line is being done by the Reclamation
Service of the United States and by large corporations encour-
aged by certain favorable laws.

Irrigation in Humid Regions. — Plant growth is de-
pendent upon the soil moisture being in just the right con-
dition throughout the growing season. Gardeners and farmers
are accustomed to depend upon rainfall to maintain the proper
soil moisture in humid climates. Every summer there are one
or more prolonged periods during which the rainfall is so slight
that crops of all kinds suffer greatly and plant growth is
checked. Indeed, plants are often killed by dry weather. It
is because of these drouthy periods in humid climates that
irrigation of some kind is necessary to maintain the best
growth of garden crops. When plants are compelled to suffer
from lack of moisture at any time, the loss is not merely during
the drouth, but the plants may never recuperate and regain
their full vigor or growth after the drouth is broken. To
avoid both of these losses irrigation is often found advisable
and profitable.
106

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IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE 107

Not all crops will pay for irrigation. Some crops are
much more profitable than others because of market conditions
and other influences. In regions where drouths are not too
severe, there are many crops which it will not pay to irrigate.
Any gardener raising a few special crops must determine for
himself whether these crops can be irrigated with profit.
For home and school gardens, the element of profit is usually
not one of vital consideration. If some plan of irrigation is
installed, all parts of the garden, whether at home or at school,
will be given the benefit of it.

The water supply is obtained from such sources as
dammed streams, wells, elevated spring, waste water from
dwellings and barnyards, rain-water basins or tanks. Very
small streams are sometimes . easily dammed in narrow cuts
so as to impound a sufficient supply of water to carry on
considerable irrigation. Wells that are not too deep often
supply plenty of water for irrigating gardens and large fields.
The overflow from troughs where stock are^ watered may be
used directly upon the garden.

Water is raised or forced to the point desired for irri-
gation purposes in a number of different ways. In some cases
gravity carries the water from elevated springs to the garden.
Such cases are rare. Windmills are perhaps more commonly
used than any other method. The water is pumped to an ele-
vated tank and from here it is conducted as desired. Water
pumps may be operated by water-wheels, gasoline engines,
steam engines, and even by hand or horse power. Hydraulic
rams are frequently used where a slight fall is found in a
stream, sufficient to operate the ram. A constant stream of
water is thus sent to a reservoir or tank higher than the garden
and from there it is used for irrigation. Of these difi^erent
methods the cheapest are perhaps the windmill and hydraulic
ram.

Conveying the Water. — The simplest method of conveys
ing the water from any supply provided is by hand. This is

108 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

HO Ittboriuus, huwuier, tliat tliu walcriiig or irriyatioti is usually
iieglecte<l. In m-liool gardens it is |ier!ia|is llio most practical
method, but whore possible some quicker and easier plan sliould
be used. A garden hose ( Fig. CO) is not too expensive for use
wliere a constant water supply is available. In cities or vil-
lages where the water system comes near the garden, a hose
is by far the simplest and most practical method of watering.
Special pipes are sometimes installed to conduct the water

Fia. 60.— Active in beoutifyiuE vacant lots. Iirimtion b here done by tbs
furrow methud and water hose. Lus Angeles. (School Garden AsBOeiKtian of

from the tank or directly from the pump. These pipes are
installed on one of three plana :

(1) The pipes may ho supported on posts high enough
to be out of the way for the plowing, cultivating and other
garden work. This is known as the overhead system (Fig. 61).

(2) Tlie pii>es are laid on the ground and are so arranged
as to be as little in the way as possible. The head pipe may
run across the end of the garden and lateral pipes follow the
rows.

(3) The water pipes arc placed under the ground low

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE 109

enough not to l>e in tlie way at plowing time. jVsc-ending pipes
come to the surface at intervals. In all three of these plans,
faucets may he placed where desired for the attachment of
garden hose. In the first two plana, the water may be thrown
by the use of special nozzles directly from the water pipes
without the use of hose.

Ditches or flumes are sometimes used to com^ey the water

F[G. 81,— Ovrrhead irrigslion BViiem for childtsn's nBrdene of ihe Nstional
Cash Hegislet Company, Daytnn, Ohio, The noiiles are three feet apart Hlong
each pipe, A emalC garden may have only one pipe through the tenter. (Pholo
from Children'a Flower Minion, Cleveland,! *■ -^ •■

to various points of the area to be irrigated. From there the
water may be distributed in smaller ditches or furrows or if the
area be flat a flooding method is sometimes followed (Fig,
63). The actual wateriiig about the plants is by one of three
ways: Flooding, seepage from furrows and small ditches, and
surface sprays. In |)rop«rti(ni to the amount of water used,
the spray methods arc most wasteful. This is because («»
much of the water is lost by evaporation, and the surface of

110 SCHOOL AND HOME GAEDENING

the ground is packed by the fall of water. Wlien plantB

are watered by hand it is better to pour the water on the soil
!u auch a way as to cause it to enter immediately, rather than
to sprinkle it over the surface and pack the particles together.
After-treatment. — In any system of irrigation it is ad-
visable to follow up the watering with the proper kind of
tillage. If this is not done much of the advantage gained
from irrigation is lost by the rapid evaporation following the
work. If a soil mulch is qnickly established by the use of
small-shovelled cultivators or similar implements, the evapora-

Fid. 62. — Here the irriEStian water is o(Huluc1«d u the edge of tbo cantea in
■ waodeii.trouiharflurae. It ii then conducted slang shallow furrows between the
rows at plants. (0. 8. D. A.)

tion of water is greatly checked. In a small garden a common
gardeu rake serves this purpose well.

Liquid Manure. — A favorite form of irrigation long prac-
ticed by gardeners is to apply liquid manure during dry
weather. Some gardeners provide a large tank in which a
load of stable manure is soaked in several barrels of water.
Any boy can install the same plan for his home or school
garden by the use of a tub or barrel of water with a few forks
of stable manure in it. This liquid manure is very stimulat-
ing in its effects upon plant growth. Tt is rich in nitrogen
and may be used when leaf growth of any form is most desired.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE HI

DKAINAQIi

Too much water in the soil at any time during the growing
season is as bad as, or worse than, too little water, but the
removal of surplus water is not the sole purpose of drainage.
If water stands too close to the surface during wet seasons,
drainage will help the soil in the following ways :

( 1 ) By removing surplus water at those times.

i_2) By deepening the feeding area for plant roots (Fig.
63).

(3) By admitting air and aiding the ventilation of the
soil and roots.

Fio. fl3. — Upderdrune eacoursEe roots to feed draper. A showe vstec Juet
drouth. C ihowa the coots uid the water as deep ss tbe tile drain.

(4) By allowing the roots to grow deeper and reduce the
suffering at time of drouth.

(5) By raising the temperature of the soil.

(6) By increasing the chemical action.

(7) By aiding tillage.

When water is carried to greater depths by drainage, air
and warmth follow. These are important factors in making
plant-food soluble and increasing the growth of plants. If
the school garden is not properly drained, a good lesson in soil
drainage should be taught. A practical demonstration can
be made by the installation of the drains, under the obser-
vation and perhaps by the aid of the pupils present.

Kinds of Drainage. — Most fields are fairly well drained

112 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

naturally, lu coutrast with these there are others which must
be drained artificially. This may be done by (1) open ditches;

(2) blind ditches, partially filled with stone, rails or other
material and then covered with soil; (3) tile drains, the tile
being properly laid in the bottom of the ditch and then covered
with soil.

Covered Drains. — There are a number of obvious reasons
for having drains covered instead of leaving the ditches open :
(1) There is no waste area occupied by the drain. (2) It is
much more convenient in crossing from one place to another.

(3) It drains the soil better. (4) It is more permanent, as
the sides of open ditches cave in and fill up. (5) Xo weed
strip is left on the place.

Installing Drains. — The value of underdrains depends
upon the free passage of water, and care must be taken to
install them so that no sediment will form in the pipes. A
good uniform fall is desired and the drains must not be placed
so deep as to not quickly receive the water after heavy rains.
F^or special instructions regarding the installation of drains
the student is referred to TT. S. Farmers' Bulletin 187,
" Drainage of Farm Ijands."

Cost of Drainage. — The actual cost in money and labor
for the installation of a system of drains is much less than
the beginner is apt to think. The benefits derived from the
place which needs draining are usually much greater than the
cost, and the increased returns in one or two seasons will
more than cover the cost. The questions for consideration
are : Does the place really need drainage ? Can it be drained ?
Will the crops be much increased, or can crops that are more
profitable be grown as a result of the drainage? What will
be the total cost? Any one carefully answering all these
questions about his place will need to give it enough considera-
tion to determine whether the drainage will pay or not.

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CHAPTER X

EXERCISES WITH SOILS

Any one desiring to really understand the principles of
soil management will find the task much easier if a few
experiments are tried. For this reason a series of simple exer-
/9) it cises are suggested in this chapter. The application of the
^j,()t)] lessons to the garden practice will not be difficult.

inent. i. Soil . Sampling. — A spade may be brought by one of the

r^ ^^ pupils. A sample from any field may be taken by digging a hole
to the depth desired. The sides of the hole should be as nearly ver-
tical as possible. Place a folded newspaper in the bottom of the hole
to catch the sample. With the spade, slice off a uniformly even
aken ' layer of soil from one side of the hole, remove this, crumble it nicely,
or, if convenient, sift it with a simple sieve. This may be made of
wire netting. The soil may be saved by placing it in a tin can, cigar
box, or wide-mouthed bottle. If the sample is to be tested later for
moisture, it should be placed in a tightly closexl vessel until tested.

Soil samples are frequently taken for the purpose of having

them tested by Agricultural College experts, or others, to

J li^i; indicate their suitability to certain special crops. The sample

should be taken to the depth of the good soil. If a study of

Aj the subsoil is to be made, a sample of that may be taken sepa-

Ijjj, rately, and in a similar way. Too much care cannot be

■jj exercised in taking a sample, as a fair sample is necessary.

If the sample had too much or too little of the very top it

would not be fair.

Samples may be taken of many parts of the same field and
•|] studied separately or made up into one composite sample.

}\e^^ 2. Testing for Moisture. — Simple spring scales or family scales

pj-g- may be loaned by one of the parents. Weigh one pound of soil from

a sample which has not been exposed to the air since it was taken

in the field. Spread the soil in a stove shovel or in a large wide-

8 113

114 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

mouthed can. Place it on a stove or heater where it will dry rapidly
but not burn. The soil may be turned over or stirred carefully in a
few hours. After a day or more it should be weighed a^ain after
cooling, and the loss in weight determined. This loss is due to
evaporation of the capillary water.

Some soils naturally hold much more water than others.
The character of the soil and its value for certain crops may
be partly determined by testing for moisture.

3. Testing for Organic Matter. — ^Weigh eight ounces of soil
which has been dried in an oven or otherwise. Put this on a stove
shovel and place it in a fire or on a good bed of coals. It will glow
and particles will be burned away. It may be carefully stirred several
times so that all parts will be exposed to the air over Ihe fire. If
tlie fire is liot the burning process is completed in a few minutes.
Then re-weigh the sample. The loss in weight is chiefly due to the
burning out of organic matter and humus.

The test for organic matter and humus is one of the most
valuable tests to ])e made of any soil. It tells the gardener or
farmer whether the soil is rich or poor ; whether it will retain
plant-food and moisture well. If several samples of different
kinds are tested in this way the importance of the exercise is
better understood. Soils from marshes are usually richer in
organic matter than upland soils.

4. Humus Prevents Baking. — Fill three cans nearly full of
soils differing as follows: (1) With heavy clay loam; (2) heavy
clay loam mixed with one-fourth as much black humus soil ; ( 3 ) heavy
clay loam mixed with one-half as much bladk humus soil. Wet these
all thoroughly and place them in a sunny window until dry. Then
note the difference in baking and cracking effects.

Organic matter plowed into the garden or field forms
humus and helps to prevent its baking and cracking (Fig. 64).
The samples in this case should be examined thoroughly with
the fingers to note the difference in pulverizing. The one
containing most humus should pulverize most readily. A gar-
den containing much humus is more readily kept in good tilth.

In garden practice it is found that soils containing well-
rotted manure or other organic matter are less subject to the

EXERCISES WITH SOILS 115

baking effects of hot winds and bud. Heavy rains do not
pack them together so badlyas heavy clay soils, fiardens are
much improved by plowing under green manure grown for this
purpose.

3. Testing for Sourness. — A few cento' worth of litmus paper
way be purchased at a, drug etore. It usually comea in two colors,
pink and blue. A eampte of soil freshly taken is tested by placing
a piece of the paper of each color in it. Cover the paper with some
aoij and press it until the moisture affects the paper. Be careful
to avoid touching the paper with the fingers except at one end. If
either of the slips clianges color, the character of the soil in deter-

mined. A change from blue to pink indicates sourness or the presence
of acid in the soil. A change from pink to blue indicates that the
soil has lime or other alkali present. If there he no change in color
of either piece, the soil is " neutral," or nearlv bo.

For most crops, soils should not be acid in their action
on litmus paper. If they he either neutral or show the pres-
ence of lime, they are suitable in this respect for most farm
crops. The a^dity of any soil may be corrected hy the addition
of lime.

6. Taking Soil Temperatures. — A twenty -flve-cent dairy ther-
mometer may be purt'lmsed at a drug store or from a dairy supply
house. It should l)e made of glass without a frame around it. This

116 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

may be used in taking the temperature of the soil out of doors. A
suitable use for this exercise would be in the early spring before
planting seeds. Dig a hole with a spade as in taking soil samples.
With a wooden peg or lead-pencil make a hole in one side of the
hole made with the spade. The peg. hole may be at any desired depth.
Insert the bulb of the thermometer in this peg hole and with the
fingers press the soil around the stem of the thermometer to exclude
air. After waiting one minute, read the temperature before removing
the thermometer from its position. It is well to take the temperature
at a depth of three inches, six inches, and nine inches. The tepi-
perature of the air should also be taken.

Soils are warmed by the admission of warm air to them
through the process of ventilation. In the springtime the air
is usually warmer than the soil, and the soil is then usually
colder at the greatest depth, because the warm air has not yet
reached it enough.

Such seeds as radish, lettuce, peas, and the small field

grains sprout readily in soil ranging in temperature from

50° to 70°. Corn, beans, cotton and beets sprout better

in soils at a temperature of 70° to 80°.

7. Color and Temperature of Soils. — Fill two cans or two
deep boxes with the same kind of soil, both moistened and packed
alike. Cover one with a layer of very black soil or with soot from
the stove. Cover the other with a layer of chalk dust or other
white powder. Place these in a sunny window so the sun will strike
them alike. After a few liours, insert the bulb of the thermometer
in a hole made a few inches deep, with a peg or pencil, and read
the temperature of each with the thermometer in place. If the experi-
ment has been successful, the light-colored soil will remain cooler than
the black one.

The experiment indicates that if color were the only
difference between soils, the light soils would be cooler. Light-
colored sand would be cooler than the heavy clay or black
loam or humus soils. Observatioh and temperature tests
prove the very reverse to be true. The effect of color is more
than overbalanced })y the porous character of the sandy soils
whicli admit air readily, and warm air warms soils more
readily than tlic hot rays of the sun.

EXERCISES WITH SOILS 117

The reason for the effect of color is explained by the fact
that black absorbs heat rays and white reflects them.

8. EflFcct of a Dust Mulch. — Nearly fill two cans with garden
soil of the same kind. Moisten them and pack them alike. This
packing should be done by striking the cans on a table or the floor
to draw the soil particles together. On the top of one spread a half-
inch layer of loose, dry soil to form a " dust mulch." The top of the
soil in the other can should be pressed with a smooth surface, as the
bottom of a bottle, giving the effect of a field roller on a field surface.
Now, with the scales used in a preceding exercise, weigh each of the
cans of soil and record their weights. Allow them to stand either
in the room or dry, open air for about two days. Weigh each again.
Which has lost more moisture? If the experiment lias been carefully
done, and the soil has not cracked or shrunken away from the sides
of the can, the loss will be greater from the " rolled " soil. The
dust mulch checks loss of moisture.

In garden work, a dust mulch may be maintained among
the plants between the rows by the use of a common garden
rake or with small shovel cultivators. Moisture which is
abundant in the soil in early spring will be held by the use of
a dust mulch until it is needed by the plants during the dry
weather of summer. The maintenance of a dust mulch
throughout the growing season is best for most garden crops
(Fig. 65).

g. Carpet or Hay Mulch. — In warm, dry weather, place a piece
of carpet or a layer of hay a few inches thick over about one square
yard of bare soil, leaving other bare soil near it for a comparison.
After a few days of dry weather remove the carpet or hay mulch
and notice the difference between the soil just uncovered and the rest.

A mulch of any kind on soil prevents much of the evapora-
tion of moisture from it. This is because there is no contin-
uous solid matter through which the moisture may climb by
capillary action. It is by capillary action that oil climbs in
the wick of a lamp, and it is by the same process that moisture
climbs in the soils of the field. A mulch on top of dust or
fine soil made with a harrow, or of other material, breaks the

118 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

capillary contact of the particles and thus checks upward

movement of moisture into the air.

lo. Dual Mulch on Sugar. — ^Try an experiment as illustrated

in ligurea US and U7. Tlie liquid may be water colored with ink.

Explain why tlie loaf sugar becomes wet so quickly and why the

powdered sugar is very slow in taking up the moisture.

Figures 68 and 69 show soil packed with roller packer
which leaves a loose mulch
on top. Moisture is thus
drawn up near the top, but
is not allowed to escape
into the air.

II, Baking of Sand and
Clay.— Nearly fill two cans,
one with a light sandy soil or
pure sand, the other with
heavy clay soil. Have Uiem
both as nearly the same in
moisture as possible. Place
them in a sunny window or
sheltered sunny spot out of
doors. After drying a few
days compare them as to
shrinkage from the sides of
Fiu efl —A footprint packe the eoil bit *''^ eans. Does either show
dsstroya the surface muliS. A cake will rt- signs of craekine? The same
BtorethemukhajwD, (DuDhBmCo.BereK.O.) * . , >, . ■ j u

experiment may be tried by

placing the two soils in cigar boxes.

Heavy clay soils are much more apt to bake or become
(■rusty and then form cracks or fissures (t'ig- fi4). Young
peoi>le ha\e noticed the largo cracks found in hard roads
during the dry summer weather. Such fissures allow soil to
dry out more rapidly.

Sandy soils seldom form fissures because the particles are
so loose they crumhle and fall together.

Tilling the B{)il soon enough after each heavy, beating rain
will prevent the formation of a crust and thus prevent crack-

EXERCISES WITH SOILS 119

ing. Garden soil should be cultivated or raked frequently
during dry weather to prevent the loss of moisture through
flsBures and crusty layers,

la. Packing of Sand and Clay. — Old newspapers may be used
on which to mold samples of several kinds of soil. Heavy clay loam
may be wet and molded into the form of large marbicB, about one
inch in diajneter. In tike manner, mold samplea of light nandy loam.
Place these in a eigar box and lay aside for several days to dry.
TheD compare them Id hardness and ease of breaking.

Sandy boIIb crumble readily after being plowed and dried
in the wind. . Clay soils are likely to become cloddy if the
lumps are not crumbled before they dry.

Fia. 66.— Liquid will lis

e rapidly in a lump of suaar, oa i
hin O... BSrea, Ohio.)

td™inp«k«i»i

Fio. 67.— Liquid does a

ol eicape Ihruugb Ihe loose mu

lohunlop. (Dunt

All soils should be harrowed immediately after plowing,
unless they are to remain exposed to the effects of freezing
weather through the winter. If ground is plowed in the fall,
it should be harrowed aa early in the spring as possible Soili
left to dry after plowing will lose moisture rapidH unless
harrowed promptly. If they be clay loams, the clod" formed
may remain unbroken for a number of years. This is vorv bad
for any garden or field.

120 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

13. Capillary Movement o£ Water. — Tie olotba over tlie large
ernlH of two lamp chimneyB, and fill one chimney with a sandy loam
and the other with a clay loam. The xoils eliould be sifted and
dried before uaing. After filling the chimneya. the soils should be
packed alike. Place both in a dish of water with a, ajilint, to allow
the free entrance of water (Fig. 70). For an hour or so, watch the
climb of the water by capillary movement in theae two kinds of soil.
Moisture rises quickly, but not so high, in coarse sandy soils. It will
rise much higher in the finer clay soils.

Fia. 6S.-~Tlie nil packer shown here leaves the surfsFe slightly ridoed but loose—
an ideal seed bed for the gardeD. (DuDham Co., Beies, Ohio.)

The experiment cxplainsi why sandy soils suffer from
drouth more than others. In dry weather, moisture may not
rise enough in the sandy soils to supply the needs of plants.

(Dunham Co., Bei^a, Ohio.)

14. Packed and Loose Soils. — Use the same apparatus as in
the preceding exereiseB, but ftl) both chimneys with the same kind
of dry sifted soil. Pack one thoroughly, by shaking and jarring;
then refill. Leave tlie other as loose as possible. Place in water, as
shown. Note the rate of capillary rise of water. If the experiment
is carefully tried, the rise of water will be much taster in the packed

EXERCISES WITH SOILS 121

When gardeJi soils are rolled, the soil is packed and tli<!
moisture from below is brought toward the surface rapidly.
This is done when small seeds are planted, for the purpose of
bringing moisture to them to cause germination. Unless a
dust mulch is produced soon afterward, the water will escape
and be lost in the air. When soils are rolled, the roller should
be followed with a harrow or weeder to break up the very top
layer of soil. Rollers with a rough surface are used by some
farmers for the purpose of
bringing moisture close to the
top and then checking its
evaporation.

15. Absorbing Power. —
With several bottles and cups or
glasses, arrange an apparatus as
shown in fi^re 71. Use several
kinds of soil. Perhaps only two
or three different kinds will be
available. Four water over each
8oil, keeping it covered. Note
the time required in each case for

the water to begin dripping ^'"^ ^°Ui^Z'^^b^"tbtul^^'^'
through below.

This shows which kind of soil will take in rainfall most
rapidly. Those with close texture retard the flow of water,
and much of the rainfall on such compact soils will run away
during heavy rain.

16. Water-holding Power. — Arrange the apparatus as in the
preceding exercise (Fig. 71). After the different dry soils are placed
in the bottles, a definite amount of water is poured on each soil.
Care Is taken to carefully measure tiie water used on each soil. When
some runs through below, no more is poured on that soil. After each
is through draining, the water in the lower cups is poured back into
the measuring cup. The amount of water each soil keeps is easily
determined.

Some trials show that soils full of humus hold many
times the amount of water held by sane). One trial showed

122 SCHOOL AND HOME GABDENmC

that one pound of each soil, when saturated, held water as
follows: Sand, 4 ounces; heavy clay, 8 ounces; black garden
soil, 10 ounces ; humus or marshy soil, 3 pounds. These fig-
urea illustrate the water-holding power of aoila rich in humus.

17. To Analyze a Soil. — lu & wide-mouthed bottle or glass
jar place one inch of soil from the garden. Fill the vessel half full
of water. Place the hand over the bottle and shake the contents
vigorously for one minute. Then allow it to stand for an hour or
more. Examination will show the soil to be in several layere be-

Pia. 71. — Soili of different typ« msy be Msted Id their natei-boldiuE powen
with euch SD outfit, by filling each cUmney of soil with wat«r until utunted; Wben

neath the water. The heavy, coarse particles, as gravel and Hand,
are at the bottom. Those finer than sand are above, and are called
rilt. The finest are on top or are suspended in the water if it is yet
muddy.

From this trial the student may form some definite idea
as to the proportion of sand, silt and clay. If there is 30
per cent of the combined silt and clay, the soil ia considered
a very heavy one. If there is from 10 per cent to 30 per cent of
silt and clay, the soil will be called a sandy loam.

When soils are washed by falling water during heavy rains,
the sand is carried a less distance and is deposited first. Tlje

EXERCISES WITH SOILS 123

clay is carried much farther and gives the streams of water
a very muddy appearance. The presence of organic matter
in upland soils helps to prevent their washing.

A study of the streams of any section of the country will
indicate to the student the character of the soils of that
section. Muddy streams indicate clay soils with a poor supply
of organic matter. Clear streams indicate either a sandy
soil or a good supply of organic matter in the upland soil.
The difference in streams, however, may be partly due to the
amount of soil left loose by tillage.

CHAPTER XI

GARDEN PLOT EXPERIMENTS

Many lessons in the school garden are best taught by
means of experiments. Convincing results are shown when
plots are treated in different ways, showing a marked contrast
in results. Suggestions for a number of such experiments
are here given. In each of the trials care should be taken to
have the plots of the same size. The treated plot should be
like the untreated plot in every particular, except in the one
feature under trial.

1. Spraying for Potato Beetles. — Use a suitable mixture,
given in another exercise as three pounds arsenate of lead to
fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture, or fifty gallons of water.
The plots for this may be adjacent rows in the garden. Let
one row be sprayed in the best manner possible, and the other
left unsprayed. Note the effect on the crop and determine the
profit gained by a farmer in spraying an acre of potatoes.

2. Fighting Potato Blight. — If Bordeaux mixture is used
in the above trial, a comparison may be made in the matter
of blight. Another experiment may be carried on with the
poison omitted, or the poison may be applied on both rows
and the Bordeaux mixture on only one of them. This would
perhaps be the best trial. The yields should again be com-
pared and the profit from spraying calculated.

3. Deep and Shallow Culture. — In a corn field or sweet
corn garden make a comparison of deep and shallow tillage.
It is proved by gogd farmers that shallow tillage is better than
deep tillage in the cultivation of corn after the roots have
extended well out from the plants. Let three or four rows be
cultivated by very deep tillage throughout the season. A like
number of rows may be cultivated with the shovels, or teeth,
set very shallow. Carefully measure the yields from these

124

GARDEN PLOT EXPERIMENTS

U5

PLOT 1
NO TREATMENT

PLOT 2
NITRATE OF SODA

PLOT 3
ACID PHOSPHATE

PLOT 4

MURIATE OF POTASH

plots and report results. The difference in cost of work
should be considered.

4. Killing Weeds. — Compare the ^^ bare fallow '^ method
of killing weeds before they are
up with the method of plowing
ground for corn or potatoes just
before time to plant. In which
plots are the weeds worse during
the growing season?

5. Variety tests may be
made of any kind of crop. De-
tennine the difference in time re-
quired for growing crops of rad-
ishes of different varieties; or
compare the yields of two varie-
tties of potatoes grown in rows
side by side. . Variety tests of cer-
tain field crops may also be made
in the garden. Thus the garden
may be made a place for deter-
mining future field practices on
farms in the neighborhood.

6. Determine the proper
depth for planting beans, peas,
corn or other large seeds by
planting parts of a row at differ-
ent depths.

7. Level or Hill Culture. —
Try early potatoes by the level ^^^ J]- 72.-A Bw^^tj-^JsV^^
culture method and the hilling- crop desired.

up method. I^ate potatoes may be compared in like manner.
Some believe in hilling-up early potatoes, and use level culture
for late potatoes. These experiments will answer such dis-
puted questions.

PLOTS
LIME

PLOT 6
ALL FOUR

PLOT 7
NO TREATMENT

H6

SCHOOL AND HOME GABDENING

8. Heavy Fertilizing. — Try the effects of more fertilizer
than usual, keeping account of the added cost. Consider this
in connection with the yield and determine whether heavy
applications are profitable (Figs. 72 and 73).

9. Lime for Potatoes. — It is generally believed that lime

1 2 3

Fio. 73. — A scheme for experimental plots with trials of four east and west
and three north and south. Suppose the experiment is with alfalfa 1-1, red clover
2-2, and crimson clover 3-3, Across these plots let the cross strip A-A be both limed
and inoculated properly for each kind; let B-B have lime only; let C-C have inocu-
lation only; let D-D have neither lime nor inoculation. Otherwise the plots will be
treated alike.

is harmful to potatoes by making them more scabby if the
disease is present in the seed or the soil. Let one row be
limed and another not limed.

lo. Effect of Treatment for Potato Scab. — Tn connec-
tion with the preceding trial let another be made testing the
value of treating seed potatoes with formalin before planting

GARDEN PLOT EXPERIMENTS 127

(see directions in Chapter XX). Let two rows be treated
and two rows be untreated. The liming mentioned in number
nine may be the one row of each of these pairs.

II. Effects of Dust Mulch. — Compare two rows of corn
or potatoes witli and without the dust-mulch method of culture.

la. Firming the Soil. — At planting time let the seeds in
one row of the garden be
pressed firmly against the
soil by tramping on the
row after planting. Let
the adj acent row be
planted in loose soil with-
out firming.

13. Testing the Treat-
ment for Codling-MotU.
— Spray one apple tree of a
certain variety for codling-
moth and apple scab, using
Bordeaux mixture and
Paris green at the time the
petals fall. Let another
tree remain unsprayed and
compare the results by
counting or measuring the
number of sound or un-
sound apples on the trees

when ripe. Calculate the ducrf'?o"'^^'e'^m^T«™'^ndTI'd*to'^
cost of spraying and deter- -J*iL™'''t^d'Jde'b"ranch°»'^irin«^'tto
mine the relative value of "P'ditr "f ripening, (u. s. d. a.)
the crops. This trial may be made by one or more young
people in their home orchards.

14. Oat Smut. — Treat a pint of seed oats by soaking in
a solution of formalin, as described in another exercise. Plant
the treated oats in one row of the garden and a like quantity
of untreated seed in a parallel row. Compare the results

128 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

when the crop is mature, and determiuo wliL'tliiT tlic treatment
is prof] table.

15. Staking Tomatoes. — Stake one row of tomato plants
and tie tlie plants up well. Ijet the plants of the next row-
grow without staking. Determine which ripen firat, which
rot worse, and which are harder to pick. If possible, calculate
the cost of staking and tying. Compare the extra cost with
the increased returns from the crop (Fig. 7i).

Fio. 75.— Vetch plota, with inoculation on right, no iDocuUtioD on left. (Ficbts of
the Parmer.)

16. Thick or Thin Plantings. — Plant one section of a row
very thick, say with lettuce or beets, then another part may be
planted rather too thinly, and another part of medium thick-
ness. Study the effects of crowding in the first section; note
the extra growth of weeds where the plants are too thin.

The trial may he varied by planting all the row alike and
then thinning the plants after they are up, to study tlie
benefits of tliinning.

GARDEN PLOT EXPERIMENTS 129

17. Watering vs. Surface Mulch. — Two halves of a row
may be treated to show benefits of mulches. Water one half
often and the other half less frequently, but, with a rake,
keep a surface mulch of fine soil on the last half.

18. Straw Mulch. — Some crops, such as late potatoes, are
benefited by a mulch of straw, leaves, stalks, or other litter
between the plants. This may be tried in hot weather. Mulch
one plot and leave the other bare. Try the experiment with
tomatoes, beets, lettuce and other crops.

19. Inoculation of Legumes. — A good home project is
to grow vetch, alfalfa, soybeans, or other legumes with and
without inoculation, as suggested in figure 75.

9

CHAPTER XII

BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS

It is a well-known and frequently observed fact that rural
and village homes and rural and village schools are devoid of
exterior decoration. Liberal use of trees and shrubs and a
little attention to the lawns would make the present unsightly
places much more attractive. Farm homes sometimes depre-
ciate in value and are offered for sale below the value of the
buildings because of the unsightly premises. Houses, bams,
and other buildings have not been painted. Fences are in bad
condition.

A small investment in the form of money and labor in
trees and shrubs with which to plant the grounds will greatly
enhance the value of many a farm home. If the place is not
for sale, this is no reason for delaying such planting (compare
Figs. 76 and 77). No one ever knows how soon a place may
be thrown upon the market.

Aside from the question of market value of a place, all
homes and schools should be decorated for the training which
it will give to young people. A place of beauty is a joy
to the young folks during' the years which they spend at
school and home.

If the grounds about the school are kept neat and are
attractive to the eye there will be much less damage done to
the school property by persons of malicious disposition. The
moral training to be gained from the proper maintenance of
buildings and grounds is as important as the moral training
gained from the choice of a good teacher.

Where conditions are bad the influence of a good teacher

may be entirely overcome. Filthy out-buildings and obscene

caricatures and words are more than enough to overcome all

good influences. Young people constantly surrounded by such

130

BEATJTIFYING GROUNDS

bad enTironmeat have a hard struggle in later life to o

the early evil training. Many fail to oYercome this and it is

a lifelong handicap to them.

'e.: — A boiuB without vin«. ihmlw, or treei loolu blsali uid c

Fio. 77. — A plae« msy b« trvueformcd by proper uM oF paint and plantinB.
{U.S. D. A.)

Planning the Grounds. — Pamphlets on this subject are
issued by extension departmenta of agricultural colleges. All
experiment stations give suggestions for the planning and
planting of cohool and home grounds. TT. S. Farmers' Bulle-

ISi SCHOOL AND HOME GABDENING

tins 185 and H-lii will be very helpful. Students in geog-
raphy may be assigned the work of making a map of the
grounds as tliey now exist, showing the location of the lawns,
walks, buildings, permanent trees and any other permanent
marks. It is good practice to learn to draw to a definite
scale — say one quarter inch to the foot. Older persons may
give suggestions as to the future development and planting,
but the main suggestions may be secured from pamphlets on

Fio ' 7S —A CriK b«cfc vBtd »nd the fsniUy who enloyed it. (Photo Irom Chil-
dren's Flower Mission, Cleveland.)

ornamental gardening. The school grounds on any -plan
should allow for a school garden plot including vegetables,
flowers and fruits. The play-ground should be carefully
planned. The ornamental planting is to fit in with the other
plans and embellish them.

Out-buildings should be hidden by the use of vines and
tall shrubs (Fig. 78). The grounds of the main building
should be surrounded by clumps of shrubs. These may be

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS tSS

low enough to never reach the windows. Clumps may sur-
round the entrance on each side of the walk. Shrubs may be
massed in groups at the angles or curves of walks and drive-
ways. Borders somewhat irregular in width may be planted
along outside lines or between the play-grounds and the
garden. Shrubs should seldom, if ever, be planted in rows or
scattered at random over the lawn. Large trees may be
planted in rows along roads, fences or street lines.

Wide areas of lawn, free from trees or shrubs, form a
beautiful greensward. This should cover most of the area*
The well may be nearly surrounded with beautiful clumps at
a suitable distance from it.

Let all the planting assume grace and natural curvature
of outline. Formal gardening is not so desirable. Pruning
evergreens in grotesque and artificial forms is not natural
nor ornamental. Such was the fashion many years ago. The
branches of evergreens and shrubs should be left near the
ground to form a pleasing effect of blending the foliage with
the surrounding lawn. Vines may be used on trellises over
the porches and in the angles of buildings, thua giving a
softening beauty to rugged structures.

In the plans made by young people shrubs may be indicated
by curved lines or shading, vines by a different kind of lining,
and trees perhaps by the use of colored pencils. By the side
of the plans should be written the names of such trees, shrubs
and vines as are to be used in the plan. The exact location
for each may be indicated by the use of numbers on the map
and opposite each plant.

What to Plant. — Native trees, shrubs and vines should
be selected if possible. Do not plant untried varieties. If
native plants cannot be secured in suitable form for trans-
planting, material from nurseries may be chosen. In such
cases use plants which are well known and have succeeded
in similar soil in the vicinity.

Trees. — In selecting trees from the woods choose those

134 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

which are growing in open places and have bushy, well-
balanced tops. Those growing near together are slender and
will not look well when planted in the open. Plenty of room
for digging the roots must also be considered. It is usually
best not to transplant trees which have deep root systems with
central tap-roots. Such are the nut and tulip trees. Among
shallow-rooted trees may be mentioned most evergreens,
nuEiples, oaks, elms, basswood and ash. These will all be
suitable for planting if specimens are selected of suitable
form. A few mulberries, chokecherries and other native fruits
may be planted to attract song birds.

Shrubs may also be selected from the native woods in
many parts of the country, but there is more excuse for the
purchase of nursery shrubs for the reason that beautiful flower-
ing shrubs of the country have nearly all been propagated in
nurseries. However, if these same shrubs are found native
in the locality they should be used. The height to which
various shrubs grow will help to decide where to plant them.
Some are more graceful than others and are suited to more
open places, such as the front borders or curves in driveways.
Others are coarse, 'angular and rugged and may form the
background for smaller and more graceful ones in front. The
season of flowering for the different ones should not be over-
looked. ' The most popular shrubs are those which flower in
early spring. The planting of beautiful flowering roses is
sometimes avoided for the reason that much temptation is
offered to pick flowers and thus destroy the shrubs.

Shrubs which bear late fall or winter berries are attractive
to song birds. This feature is well worth consideration.

Vines are frequently found growing wild in the region.
• Virginia creeper, Virginia clematis and grapes are very com-
mon native vines. Boston ivy, English ivy, Japanese clematis
and other perennial vines are not expensive if purchased from
nurseries. Annual vines should also be abundantly used.
They give quick returns and lend encouragement to the work.

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 1S5

I. How Vines Climb.— In a window box or can, plant seeds of
such twining plants as hops, morning-glory, beans and peas. Hops,
may be started from cuttings. After the plants are large enough,
have some stakes ready for them to climb on. Note the method of
climbing. The tip of hops will go around the stake in a diiferent
direction from morning-glory. What special plan for climbing is
provided by pea vines?

The growing tip of hops goes around the pole or stake
in the same direction as the hands of a watch lying flat in your
hand. Other twining plants move in the opposite direction.
An experiment may be tried of wrapping the vine contrary
to its natural tendency and watching the results.;
, .The young gardener in twining plants around stakes set
for that purpose may make the mistake of starting them in the
wrong direction. 'They will naturally unwind and perhaps
fall to the ground. The work must then be done over again
until the lesson is learned. ""

When to Plant. — Do not wait for arbor day. There is
no objection of course to doinff much planting on arbor day,
. but the planting will take several days perhaps. It may be
done on any suitable days in early spring.

Transplanting.*^ — The roots of plants must not be allowed
to dry out. If trees and shrubs are transplanted from the
neighborhood, the roots should be protected by wrapping with
burlap, old carpets or other material. One good plan is to
make a puddle of thick mud and dip the roots in that when
first dug. Take them as promptly as possible to the grounds.
Make a trench about the roots of these and cover with dirf
until the permanent planting places are ready. Evergreens
need to be handled with the greatest care. The soil should
not be removed from the roots at all while being transplanted.
They may be set into small boxes while being carried or the
soil may b^ kept on the roots by wrapping well.

Trees received from a distance by hauling or shipping
must be placed in a trench, as mentioned. This is called
heeling in.^' Roots exposed for some time to the action of

a

186 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

air will suffer greatly aiid may never thrive. Large trees and
evergreens must he planted with great care. Holes should be
larger and deeper than the trees seem to require. Prune all
broken and bruised roots. Place loose rich soil in the bottom
to come in contact with the roots. The tree should be a little
deeper in the ground than It was before. Fill the hole with
the best soil and tramp it in well, but leave a little of the loose
soil on the very surface. AH trees and shrubs, except perhaps
evergreens, should he pruned somewhat on the top to balance

Fia. 76.— A leiaon in school-room transplBntinc may be the bariB for letaom in
laDgiiage, aiithamtic. speUing, drsHing and penmauahip.

the reduced root surface. If the weather be dry at the time
of planting, water should be used, but care should be taken
not to puddle the soil too much. A mulch should be left on top
by the use of a rake to prevent loss of water by evaporation.

a. Transplanting. — Students should practice transplanting of
many kinds of plants to obtain skill and avoid loss during the process.
Slips and cuttings should be transplanted into pots and cans in the
school room (Fig. 79).

During the transplanting process, roots should be protected
from the air and sun. Keep them moist. If soil can be left
attached to all roots so much the better. In the new location.

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS

137

the soil should be pressed firmly about the plant to cause a
supply of moisture to reach the roots. Watering at trans-
planting time is always advisable because it washes the soil
particles together and also supplies needed moisture. Re-
moval of a few leaves, if the plants be green ones, is sometimes
necessary. This is to prevent evaporation taking place more
rapidly than the roots can take up water.

3. Heeling-In. — Students should practice heeling-in shrubs or
young fruit trees to prevent injury

to them while waiting to be planted
in permanent locations. Dig a deep
trench with one side sloping, laying
the trees or shrubs down on the
sloping side of the trench and cov-
ering the roots with an abundance
of loose soil.

Heeling-in is a, rapid process
and may be practiced with plants
brought from a distance while
the planting process is going on,

or until it is done. Large num- Fio. so.— when a peach, apple or

1 j» 1 J. 1 Ti A other fruit tree is first set out it should

berS 01 plants or bundles of be pruned to three or four limbs which

1 , V 1 . .1 *re the future main branches. They

plants may be put in a trench must extend in different directions and

ill 1 -, . be located at different heights.

together and covered at once.

Nothing is better than soil to maintain the life of plants wait-
ing to be permanently planted.

4. Pruning Young Trees. — Bring to the school a number of
young trees or branches of trees from the woods, which may corre-
spond to young trees. Let students select the branches which they
think should be saved to form the future head of the young trees.
Study "a" and "b" (Fig. 80). Figures 81 and 82 represent trees
headed low at pruning time. If roots be on the trees you have,
suggest the pruning of the extra long roots or any broken or split
parts.

The low heading of trees (Figs. 81 and 82) makes the
future pruning, spraying, and picking all the more easily done
than if the heading is too high.

138 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Each year a part of the new growth is cut back to induce
the formation of fruit buds and fruit spurs lower down on
the branches. The strength of the crop is then also bett«r.

ght in the growth of trees they have planted.

Whenever branches become too thick or rub together, they
should be pruned. Thinning the branches makes the fruit
larger and lets in sunlight.

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 138

5. Care in Pruning. — ('ollect samples of good and bad pruning
which will illustrate the itnportaiK^e of care in pruning (Fig. 83).
Cut surfaces should be left as smooth as possible. If a saw is ever

140 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

used fur large brandies the wound sliould be smoothed with a
knife. Cut side limbs as close to the main sterna as possible. Never
leave stubs. Paint or grafting wax should be used over all large
cuts to prevent weathering. Avoid cutting a large branch if the
pruning of several small ones may be used to accomplish the same
purpose.

Young gardenerg feel much diffidence in the matter of

pruning. They may learn many of the principles by bringing

Bamplea to the school and discussing them. If possible, a

person with much experience in

pruning should illustrate to the

class the methods in vogue for

' different kinds of plants.

6. Knowing tlie Trees. — Before

time for planting trees and shrubs

in the home and school grounds added

interest in the trees may be gained

Fia S3 —A, pruned tlose so '■y making collections of twigs of all

thai ihfl ^rk tan ''"''I '''^ kinds found in the neighborhood.

enoueb: the ' wound na atvtt Compare the twigs of pines, spruces,

en , u Bcs} Bi cedars or other evergreens. Twigs of

det-iduous trees should also be included. Each of these may be

fastened by means of thread to large cards suitable for hanging on

the wall. The name of each is placed by it. If any are found which

cannot be named, send a sample to a state experiment station or to a

teacher of botany in the nearest high school.

LAWNB

Some care must be exercised in the choice of grasses for
the seeding of lawns. In the humid regions Kentucky blue
grass IB most succeswfui (Fig. 84). It may have mixed with
it some trailing white clover. In the extreme southern states
Bermuda grass is extensively used in place of Kentucky blue
grass. For dry regions smooth Bronie grass may be abund-
antly mixed with the others. This grass has a coarse leaf,
but is one of the best to withstand dry weather.

Suitable times for seeding are early fall and early spring.
CJrasseB thrive best in wet weather, and before the root systems

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 141

are well established they will suffer much from drought.
For this reason summer planting is usually not auceeasful.

Nurse crops are sometimes used in the starting of grass
on lawns. For this purpose annual grains, such as oats in the
spring or rye in the fall, may be used. The purpose of the
nurse crop is to shade and protect the young grasa plants while
starting. Only a little grain should be used and this should
be mjawed before becoming tall to prevent the stealing of

III Bid? yard nith gr

luoistura and nourishment from the grass, hi some e
several cuttings of the nurse crop will be necessary before it is
killed.

Care of Lawns. — A number of points must be carefully
attended to if lawns are to be kept in the best possible
condition.

1. The soil should be made in fine condition before seeding.
Plenty of fertilizer should be used at that time, imlesa the
ground is very rich. The addition of fertilizers from time to
time will help the lawn. Nitrogenous fertilizers, such as
nitrate of soda, will give best results.

142 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

2. When the lawn is first sown plenty of seed must be
used. A dense stand is always more beautiful. As the lawn
becomes older, any places where the grass is thin should be
re-seeded and the seed raked in or rich soil sprinkled over it.

3. Nearly all lawns require an application of lime every
few years. This is true whether the soil be heavy or light.
If plenty of lime was used at first, then two years later a
second liming should take place. This may be done at almost *
any time of the year, but wet weather is more favorable than
dry.

4. In early winter, when the ground begins to freeze, a
top dressing of rich but well-rotted stable manure, free from
weed seeds, should be spread on the lawn. The manure pro-
tects the crowns of grass from winter killing and the plant-
food from the manure is well washed into the soil during the
winter and early spring. As warm spring weather approaches,
the lawn may be raked and a vigorous dark green growth of
grass will follow.

5. All lawns should be cut a number of times each season.
It is very detrimental to grass for it to become tall and form
blossoms or seeds. Lawn grasses should spread by the growth
of underground stems or similar vegetable parts. Never
expect them to spread by the formation of seed. Frequent
cutting has another advantage in the killing of many kinds
of weeds. Frequent cutting is detrimental to weeds and
beneficial to grass.

6. In the early part of each season lawns should be rolled
to overcome the bad effects of any heaving by the action of
winter frost. If lawn-mowers with rollers are used this will
accomplish the purpose. Otherwise a special roller may be
used once or twice during the spring. Another purpose of
rolling is to cause .the root stalks or runners to become well
rooted, pressing them firmly against the soil, causing them
to take root and the sod is made much denser.

Flower Planting. — Tlie use of flowers in beautifying both

BEAUTIFYING GHOUNDS US

home and bcIiooI grounds is well understood by most persons.
Young people should early learn the cultural methods and
beat uses of flowers (Fig. 85). Those varieties should be
chosen for use which will produce a show of blossoms at seasons
when most desired. If the school grounds are cared for dur-
ing summer vacation, flowers may be kept growing throughout
tlie season and varieties for fall blossoming will be valuable.

Fia. as.— Rrst priM front jrsrd and the girl who beautified it. The men-
BwsTd is Left dean and the plantiD(<i are amsaed as borden. (Photfl (lom Children-a
Flower Miaaion, Cleveluid.)

Annual flowers are those which give their show of
blossoms the same year in which the seeds are sown, They
usually die after the blooming season is over. The seeds in
most cases are sown in the garden, but a few of them may
be planted in window boxes, and later transplanted to the
garden. This will make them blossom much earlier. A few
of the hardy animals may be sown in the autumn and trans-
planted to boxes and then stored in coldframes through the
winter. By this plan blossoms can be obtained next spring
perhaps before school is closed. In the warmer parts of the

144 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

country the hardy aiinualis, such as sweet peas, are planted in
the fall in the open ground and left there during winter. If
they sprout before freezing weather, a little protection may he
needed in the form of leaves or similar mulch.

The terms annual and perennial are rather indefinite, as the
climate changes the character of many plants. Plants which
are tender annuals in the north may be considered hardy or
live for several years in the extreme southern states.

Hardy Annuals. — In the middle states the following
plants are considered hardy annuals: Ageratum, aster, calen-
dula, calliopsis, California poppy, candytuft, larkspur, gilia,
morning-glory, marigold, mignonette, phlox, pinks, portulaca,
sweet alys^um, sweet pea, stocks and zinnia.

Tender Annuals. — Examples of annuals which are rather
tender in the middle states are balloon vine, balsam, cosmos,
cockscomb, cobea, caladium (bulb), castor beans, dahlia
gourds, martynia, nasturtium, petunia, sensitive-plant, and
verbena.

Planting Annuals. — Very few of the annuals thrive in
shady places. Most of them prefer sulmy exposures (Fig.
86). They prefer good garden soil and most of them will
be better when a liberal amount of well-rotted stable manure
is added. The soil should be prepared by deep spading or
plowing. It should be raked well and firmed down by tramp-
ing or by the use of a board on which the planter stands while
he is planting. Most annual flower seeds should be planted
shallow and pressed firmly to cause them to sprout promptly.
They may be planted along the borders of lawns (Fig. 86)
or any special beds where they will add to the beauty of the
general planting scheme. Care should be exercised to prevent
grass roots and tree roots from robbing the moisture and fer-
tility from flower beds. The use of a spade around the mar-
gins to cut off such roots is recommended. WTien flower beds
are planted tall varieties are planted near the center or distant
side, with lower varieties around or in front of them. Very

BEAUTIl-'YING GROUNDS 145

low ferns may servu as bordur plants. U. S. Fanners' Bulle-
tin 195 will help in the choice of annual flowers for special
places. Fall annuals niay be used as screens where quick
effects are desired (Fig. 8(i).

Perennial Flowers. — There are large numbers of peren-
nial herbs which die to the ground each year and come up
from the root again each spring, producing a show of flowers
or beautiful foliage each season. These are easily grown from

Fio. SB.— While wailing for permaDent ihruba and vitm lo grow, the void
may be filled by ariiiual pLanta. The purple-leaved caMcir beaiiB shown here irow

seed, and will usually produce flowers in a year or two. They
will give quicker results if started by roots. The seed is
usually sown in the open ground, but some varieties, such
afl pansies may be started in hotbeds or window boxes. The
soil should be mellow and fine and rich in organic matter..
When the seeds are planted the surface should l)e firmly packed
and perhaps additiofial water may be necessary. Partial
shade, as from boughs spread over the ground to protect
the young seedlings, is usually best. Most varieties may be
transplanted after the plants are a few inches high. Two

146 SCHOOL AND HOME GAKDENING

seasons are suitable for this work. Early spring is usually
preferable^ but late summer is also used.

Early Perennials. — ^Among the early flowering hardy
perennials are the following. These are arranged somewhat
in order of flowering season:

Wind-flower, bloodroot, rock-cress, spring beauty, hepatica
(liver-leaf), wake robins, blue-bells, shooting star, candytuft^
forget-me-not, peony, phlox, columbine lily-of-the-valley,
bleeding-hearts, iris.

Sununer Perennials.— Common summer flowering plants
of the perennial group are : Pennsylvania anemone, St. Bruno^s
lily, blue columbine, mallow, harebell, Canterbury bell, Scotch
pink (dianthus), Japan iris, blazing star, oriental poppy,
paniculata phlox, yucca, hollyhock, chamomile, delphinium,
funkia, helianthus, pentstemon, day lily, flame flower, cardinal
flower, chrysanthemum, golden glow, goldenrod.

Autumn Perennials. — A few of the preceding group
continue their flowering well into the autumn. Other late
flowering ones are Japanese wind-flower, hardy chrysanthe-
mums, Jerusalem artichoke.

Bulbs and Tubers. — The culture of bulbs and tubers is
not difficult. Many bulbs are planted in the fall and blossom
in the early spring. Common examples of these are crocus,
tulip, hyacinth, narcissus, squill and snowdrop. The plant-
ing is done late enough in the fall to avoid growth above
ground before winter. They keep well in the ground and are
ready to start in very early spring. The large store of nourish-
ment which they have forces the growth rapidly as the soil
becomes warm enough. The bed should be mulched for two
reasons, (a) to prevent them from starting in warm weather
in fall or mild winter days; (h) to protect the ground from
heaving during the coldest weather.

Autumn Flowering Bulbs. — Several species of crocus
bloom in the autunm. Japanese lilies and others begin blos-
soming in sunmier and may continue until autumn. Colchi-

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 147

cams are fall blooming bulbs, excellent for general planting.
Any bulbs of this group may be placed in the ground in either
early or late sununer.

Culture of Bulbs. — Soil for bulbs should be deep, rich

and well drained. When bulbs are placed in undrained soil
they are apt to rot instead of producing vigorous growth.
Any manure added should be well rotted to prevent heating.
A number of varieties of bulbs may be left in the ground
for several years and continue to bloom at tbeir natural
season each year. This is true of lilies, crocuses, colducume,

Fta S7. — Caaqu idsx ba nuiMed in brgs beds in ths aids jaid.

narcissus and others. Tulips and hyacinths should be taken
up each summer and re-planted in autumn. This is done
after the foliage dies down naturally. The bulbs are then dug
up and stored in a dry place until the next planting time.
(See forcing of bulbs. Chapter XV.)

Cannas {Fig. 87) and caladittms' are very showy bedding
plants, with tuberous roots. The roots may be dug before
the ground freezes and stored in the cellar. They are often
started in pots or boxes early in the spring. Transplanting
to the open is not done until all danger of frost ia over. In ■
the South the roots are sometimes left in the ground all
winter and protected with a mulch of leaves or other litter.

148 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Plants for Shaded Places. — ^There are few gardens and
grounds that do not have shaded positions, where it is difficult
to get plants to grow. Such spots often spoil the otherwise
fine appearance of the grounds. These are difficult of treat-
ment, and suitable plants must be selected for the places.
The trouble is often due to the lack of moisture or plant-food,
as well as lack of sufficient sunlight. This is shown by the
absence of vegetation found under trees in the dense woods.
Where moisture and plant-food are abundant, shade is not
such a great obstacle.

If the shade is caused by large trees, their roots dry out
and impoverish the soil and the branches keep off much of the
rainfall. If the ground becomes mossy it is a sign of sour-
ness, and lime or wood ashes is needed. The ground should
be spaded deep to cause the tree roots to grow deeper. Water
may be resorted to, but deep spading and thorough fertiliza-
tion are more important.

Plants well suited to shady spots are ferns, wood anemones,
rhododendron, mountain laurel and a host of flowers found in
woodlands. A liberal mulch of rotted stable manure is an
excellent thing in both winter and summer.

ARBOR DAY

As the spring season of planting approaches and all
Nature is preparing to show her most beautiful dress, students
should become interested in ways of beautifying the school.
There is not a school in the land that cannot be made more
beautiful, and many of them may be improved very much.
The pupils will take a great interest in the matter if they
receive a little encouragement and leadership on the part of
their teachers.

Beautify the school grounds. A woven wire trellis sup-
porting a thrifty vine would be a beautiful screen for those
unsightly outbuildings. Shrubs about the base of the school
building, in the angles of walks and growing in natural clumps

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 149

in the corners of the grounds -would add beauty and pleasure
to the school surroundings. A few plots not used for play
or for garden may be grassed. Never scatter the trees or
shrubs openly about the lawn area. Better mass the shrubs
in natural clumps in angles or along foundations, walks and
borders. Use the trees along boundary lines, and division
lines. Xative trees and shrubs are always preferable to the
imported or exotic kinds.

Planning for Arbor Day should begin early and should
include a number of lines of preparatory work.

Send for a number of farmers' bulletins, first.

Draw plans of the grounds, measuring the lines and dis-
tances to make it somewhat accurate. If a class is assigned
to this task the best map may be framed for the future use of
the school. A passe-partout binding, at least, may be used.
This map may show the plan of planting for several years, if
there is more to be planted than the school can do this year.
The walks, buildings, clumps of shrubs, trees, school garden,
and play grounds should all be shown. If there is time, send
a sketch of this to the Department of Education at the State
Capital or to the State Agricultural College for criticism or
approval.

This work may be done by an arithmetic class or a geog-
raphy class. The arithmetic class may also find suitable
dimensions of the corn contest plots.

Have the reading classes begin now to read about birds,
gardening, trees, lawns, and weeds. Use the newer words in
spelling exercises. Let boys and girls both make bird houses
at home. These may be ready to put up on Arbor Day.

The corn testing and seed study should begin right away.

Trees, shrubs and seeds that are to be planted on Arbor
Day or soon after should be ready in advance. The roots of
trees and shrubs must be covered with soil to prevent drying
out.

150 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Some exercises in root grafting of apples may be carried
out as described in two of the TJ. S. Farmers' Bulletins, 113
and 408.

Tools to be used in the planting of school grounds may be
brought by pupils from their homes ; the list available for the
purpose should be made in advance.

Divide the students into suitable groups for the work so
that each will know his part to carry out.

Invite parents and home folks to the work of Arbor Day,
and make it a community exercise. The men may come in
the morning to work and the women come with lunch baskets
at noon, and stay until the exercises of the afternoon are over.

Plan to have some one take some pictures of the children
and patrons that day while the improvement work is going on.

Do not forget to have some manure and good soil hauled, in
advance, for use in the planting.

8U00E8TIVE PROGRAMS

(To give at 3 o* clock , after the day^s work is done)

1. Kemarks by the teacher or a member of the school board on
the value of teaching the useful and beautiful as much as the classical
and historical.

2. Let five pupils stand together. The first pupil will read
from a bulletin or tell in his own words why we should all kno^w more
about trees; the second the same about insects; the third about
weeds ; the fourth about birds ; and the fifth about corn.

3. Let five girls stand and each tell a few things about some
useful bird mentioned in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 513.

4. Let a boy that has made a bird box tell how bird boxes are
a protection to young birds, and how he made that one.

5. Let a boy tell of some ways of destroying English sparrows
learned from U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 383.

6. Another boy should tell how to know English sparrows from
other sparrows anl common birds.

7. Let some of the best tree planters tell how to plant a tree —
preparation of soil, roots, pruning and actual planting.

Note. — In any or all of these exercises pupils may get the
subject-matter from this book and from bulletins referred to in

BEAUTIFYING GROUNDS 151

it. They may make note on paper of what they wish to say and
speak from these notes. If the time for preparation be very short,
the points may be copied and read directly. Let each exercise be
very short.

ANOTHER PROGRAM

{Suggested for the to** part of Arbor D(py, afternoon or evening)

1. Announcement of outlines of contests in school or home gar-
dening, corn growing, or other work the school may be planning to
take up, and the premiums offered or expected for the contests and
exhibits next fall.

2. Debate (two pupils on each side) : Are crows more harmful
than beneficial to man ? ( In place of crows may be substituted black-
birds, or hawks, or English sparrows.)

3. Some pupil may tell of several benefits of trees and forests,
or five pupils may stand together and each tell of one important
benefit.

4. Let a pupil describe how to test seed corn by the individual
ear method.

5. Have two pupils tell of the two types of insect mouths, each
telling how to control si^ch insects.

6. Let a boy tell of three or four things necessary to improve
the home lawn. (See U. S. Bulletin 248.)

7. Let three pupils stand and each take one part:

(a) Use of vines to beautify the grounds at school or home,
and name some vines to use in certain places.
(5) Use of trees in same way.
(c) Use of shrubs in same way.

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III

CHAPTER XIII

LESSONS WITH TREES

It is often a good plan to plant chiefly those trees and
shrubs that are indigenous to the climate and soil of the sec-
tion. Native trees and shrubs cannot always be obtained
from nurseries. It is therefore desirable to select good speci-
mens in the open places in native woods, along streams, and
elsewhere. The most serious objection to this method is the
difficulty in securing enough of the good fibrous roots. This
may be done by cutting the main roots of the tree at a suitable
distance from the trunk one year before the tree is to be
transplanted. During this interval there will be an abundant
growth of fine roots near the places where the main roots were
cut. Nurserymen use this method for their larger shade trees.

The tops of the trees may also be pruned the year before
we do the transplanting. This previous work will make many
of the trees much more shapely and more suitable for orna-
mental planting.

EXEKC18ES

The following lessons with trees are given in exercise form
for the purpose of making them more concrete. The full
discussions are for the benefit of any who are unable to perform
the exercises.

I. Sap Ducts in Plants. — Select some cuttings of leafy branches
of such trees as willow or poplar or green cuttings from any woody
plants. Place these in some water well colored with red ink. After
a day, cut across a few of the stems a few inches above the water.
Split other stems and examine each for the colored ducts which carry
the sap up the stem. In which part of the stem are these ducts
located? Has the sap traveled upward in the bark, sapwood or
heartwood ?

The purpose of coloring the liquid is to show plainly where
the ascending sap travels. The value of the exercise is better
understood in connection with the next exercise.

153

154 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

2. Effect of Girdling Trees. — Select a tree of any kind, which
is to be cut down. During spring growth, remove a strip of bark
two or three inches wide clear around the trunk or main stem of the
tree. Leave the wood, entirely exposed with no covering of bark.
After a few days or weeks, note the effect on the tree. When does
the death or injury first begin to show?

Mice and rabbits frequently injure the trunks of trees in
the orchard. They are very fond of gnawing the bark of apple
trees during winter. In connection with the exercise showing
the sap ducts, can you explain why cutting away the bark
affects the growth of the tree?

Mulches of straw or other litter placed about trees may
produce suitable winter quarters for field mice, and the injury
from gnawing trees may be very severe. Air-slaked lime
thrown in such litter close to the tree will help to reduce the
work of mice. Rabbits and mice are also kept out by wrapping
the trunks for a foot or two near the ground with tarred paper,
veneer wood, or other suitable material.

3. Growing Oaks and Nut Trees. — ^In the fall, gather a few
quarts of hickory nuts, acorns, peach pits, or other hard tree seeds.
Spread them in a dry place for a few weeks. In a box ten or twelve
inches deep, place a layer of sand or light soil, then a single layer
of the nuts, then two inches more of sand. Continue until the box
is filled, or until all the nuts are stored and well covered. Water
the box well and sink it in the open garden in a well drained spot.
If it is on the north side of an evergreen or other winter shade, it
will be less affected by the hot sun towards spring. The whole
box, may be a few inches below the surface when covered. The soil
should be heaped to drain off rain. In spring when the garden is
ready for planting, remove the seeds from the box and plant each
kind separately.

This method of starting acorns, nuts and peach pits is

called '^ stratifying ^^ them. The effect is to soften and crack

the hard coats so the young seedlings may germinate.

4. Tree Seedlings in Tin Cans. — In summer or very early fall,
transplant seedlings of several kinds of small trees started from seed
in the garden the preceding spring. Maples, ash, basswood, or oaks
may be used. The cans for this purpose should be well drained by
punching many holes in the bottom with a large nail. Take the

LESSONS WITH TREES 155

seedlings up carefully with plenty of dirt about the roots. Place
them in the cans and fill with rich soil and firmly press it about
the plants. Instead, tree seeds of several different kinds may be
planted several in each can, and later the best plant may be kept
and the others destroyed. These may be kept in the window of the
school room or the home through the winter season. If the leaves
should drop off from any, they may be plunged in the soil out of doors.
All of them may be placed in garden rows in the spring by setting
the cans a little below the ground and packing the soil well about
them. The roots will soon make tfieir way through the rusty cans
and the trees will continue their growth.

When seedling trees are transplanted in full leaf they are
apt to be killed or greatly checked by the process. If the tin
ean method above described is used the growth will pontihue
unchecked. The plan may be varied by melting the bottoms
and side seams of tomato cans, then tie a string around each
^^ can " to hold it in circular form. Place the cans in a flat
box to hold soil and do the planting as described. By this plan
the roots find their way through the bottom of the can more
readily, or the entire can may be removed by cutting the
string when planting in the garden next spring.

Young trees that are transplanted in the old way will need
pruning before they are reset (Fig. 88).

5. Forests on Hill Sides. — Select a sloping surface in -the
garden, either natural or prepared, by making a mound of earth a
foot or two high and several feet across. Get moss from the woods
and plant it on one side of this slope. Hold it in place by twigs
of trees. Leave a part of the slope, or the corresponding side, per-
fectly bare but well packed. Use a garden sprinkler, holding it a
few feet above the surface, and let water fall as rain upon the two
surfaces for several minutes. Which surface is eroded or washed
away more?

Hill sides on many farms are badly washed when not
covered with growing vegetation such as pastures, orchards or
forests. The washing may be checked by the use of the slope
for one of these purposes. Gardens should be provided each
year with a winter cover crop to avoid loss from washing,
leaching or other causes.

156 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

6, Age of Woody Plants. — The older pupils or oth«r persons
maj bring to Ecbool crose-sections of wood sawed from trees, posts
or logs. Studies may be made of theHe, counting the number of rings
of liard wood which alternate with rings of softer wood. Note the
lines running in the direction of the spokes of a. wheel. These
are rays of different tisiue runiling toward the bark.

In ordinary seasons of growth, a hard ring and a soft ring
of wood are added each year. The age of a tree may be
a p p r o 2 i mately determined by
counting the layers or rings of
hard wood between the center and
the bark. The new rings ,are
added each year outside the older
ones, and the bark is pushed out-
ward, year by year. This plan of
growth is found in all native trees
of the north and temperate zones.
" Quarter-sawed " lumber is
cut first through the center par-
allel to the " spokes " or rays run^
n™nfld''iwfo^thfl™rB!e»m" (New ning from the center. Thebeauti-
■rsey f n.j j^j quartcr-sawcd effect of lumber

is produced by the exposure of the ray tissue on the surface.

7. Age Shown in Twigs, — Let each pupil have a branch of
maple or other tree in winter condition. This should be examined
closely to see the location of the bude. Note that they are found on
the newest growth and seldom or never back of tliat. Each twig
has a terminal bud covered with bud scales. The bud is to form
the new shoot next season. As the shoot groHs from the bud, the
outside scales drop 0IT, leaving acars whicli remain for many years
at the base of each new shoot. Now, l)egin at the end of any twig
and look back along it until the first ring of bud scale scars is found.
Thii is where the growth began last year. Feel back again and find
the beginning of another year's growth. Thus trace the twig back
as far as you can and name the calendar year of each portion of
growth. Note how much more growth was made some years than
others. Can you aecount for tliia? Rome seasons there would be
a number of side branches formed from lateral buds. Perhaps other

LESSONS WITH TREES 157

jears there were none. The exposure to light often greatlj' affects
the formation of shoots. Many budi ma;' be broken off by storma,
by aleet, by birds, or other natural cauaea. Perhaps aome of the buda
formed bloaaoma instead of ahoota. The location of Ica^'es on the laat
year'a growth may be Been by the leaf aeara under each of the buda.
The new ahoota next year will be the only onea which bear leaves.
This causee the leaves of the tree to he near the outer aurface.

The exercise is of value in the future study of pruning.
Lessons of this kind may be studied 'neath the shade of a tree
while resting from garden work. (Fig. 89). Light has a

Fia. 89. — The Bpieuliiic cherry tree fumighes weloome Bbttde sfler the (uden

strong effect in controlling the growth of twigs and forming
the head of trees. Fruit trees often tend to grow too tall in
the struggle between branches to reach the most light.. Cut-
ting back is thus made necessary. Abundant branching often
causes the parts to rub, and wounds are formed. Thinning
a brushy head is good practice. Ahundant removal of twigs
frequently has the effect of forcing growth in other parts.
Thus the shape of orchard trees is readily within the control
of the prnner.

CHAPTER XIV

CUTTAGE, GRAFTING, BUDDING, AND

LAYERING

School garden work offers favorable opportunities for a
number of exercises in the propagation of plants by several
different methods. Many of these can^be carried on in the
school room during winter weather or on stormy days when
outside work is impossible. After the methods are learned
much of the practice work may be done at home by both young
and old. The products may be very useful.

1. Starting Slips. — In a shallow box of moist, clean sand, plant
a number of cuttings or slips of such house plants as are grown
in the window boxes and pots at school or at home. Try chrysan-
themum, geranium ( Fig. 90 ) , begonia, carnation, fuchsia, and coleus.
Keep the box in a moderately warm place and water the soil fre-
quently. If the sun is bright, the box may be shaded by covering
with a single layer of newspaper. The slips are made by cutting
a few inches of the healthy shoots, usually using the tip portion.
Remove much of the old leaf surface, even some of the newer leaves
may be removed or reduced with scissors. After a week or so, lift
out some of the slips by raising the sand about them. Bo not pull
them out. When the roots have become well formed, the slips may
be transplanted to pots or well-drained cans of garden soil, and cared
for in the usual way for house plants.

The student should understand that the leaf surface is
reduced to prevent much of the evaporation until the roots are
formed and able to take up moisture from the wet sand.
Clean sharp sand is used, as it will not cause the rotting of
the stems as garden loam would. Much interest will be
aroused by these exercises, as new plants may be formed of
so many different house plants.

2. Leaf Cuttings. — Make slips of leaves of such plants as
begonia, sansevieria, or other fleshy-leaved plants. Either the whole
or a portion of the leaf may be used, and the base of the blade
placed in sharp wet sand and cared for as with stem slips. As

158

CUTTAGE

rcHjts are fomed, new slioot« or leaves will be eent up. Tlie e
m&j be varied by fattening a leaf with tooth-picka firmly againat the
wet Band. Roots will probably form at eacli place where the leaf
is held down.

A storage of plant-food, such as starch, is present in fleshy-
lea vea. 'This supplies nourishment to the new growth.

3, Cuttings in Water. — A number of kinds of green wood cut-
tings may be started by placing slips in water, without the use of

Pio. 90.— Surtinc g«r*niunia for outtiogB for window boi». (RitMnhoiue Sohool
QBTdsni.)

sand or soil. Try tiiis with oleander, young willow shoots, "wan-
dering jew " ( tradeecantia ) . Umbrella plant may be started in water
by trimming half the leaf surfaee from one of the stems and inverting
it in a bottle of water-
In each case, the water should be changed to avoid any
rotting or fermentation which may tend to develop. After
roots are well estahlisbed by this method, they may be trans-
ferred to rich soil in well drained pots or boxes.

160 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

4. Hardwood Cuttings. — Cuttings of ripe wood six inches or
more in length should be taken in the fall after the leaves have
dropped. From some plants the cuttings may be made any time
during the winter or early spring. Cuttings should be made from
the newest growth and the strongest shoots are selected (Fig. 91).
The cuttings may be tied into bundles of twenty-five to one hundred
each, and a label placed with them. Store them in damp sawdust
in a cold cellar. In late spring set them in furrows in the garden,
with one or two buds showing above ground ( Fig. 92 ) . Press the

^^ soil firmly against them after

H setting. Simple hardwood cut-

H^ V tings should be made of grape-

^^B K vine, willow, spirea, dogwood,

^^r mm currant, go<>seberry, hardy Jap-
^H ^V anese rose, and others.

^m M All woody plants are not

^J M readily propagated by cut-
tings, but gardeners have
found that this method is
the best for a great many
kinds, in addition to thoiae
here nientioned.

5. Root Cuttings. — Dig up
roots of blackberryj quince,

Fio. 6l.-Four type, of hanlwood out- ho^eradish, or rhubarb. These
tings. Many shrubs are propagated by some may be stored in wet sand in a
one of these types. , ,, •• .1 •

cool cellar, if the season for

planting has not arrived. In the spring, plant them in shallow

furrows in garden -rows. These should be cut into pieces, not too

small, before planting.

With proper care, root cuttings seldom fail to grow.
There is a store of starch and other plant-food in the roots of
such plants as sprout from the roots. Adventitious buds on
sprouts are formed on the roots near the cut surfaces and
elsewhere. Shoots are sent up from these buds. The sweet
potato is a true root and its growth when planted is explained
in this way. Very many shoots are formed from a single
sweet potato.

GRAFTING 161

6. Grafting Wax. — Tlie materiale used are roHin, beeswax or
paraffin, and tallow or liniteed oil. Melt V, lb. of roain, % Ib.^of
wax, and 2 oz. uf tallow or linsred oil. These mtiy be lueited in any
, vessel suitable to staiiil tliu heat. 'Die roein should be melted first.
When all are melted and thoroughly stirred together, allow the mass
to cool a little and then pour it slowly into a pail of cold water-
Let one pupil rub tallow on his hands and work and pull the mass of
grafting wax as taffy candy is pulled, until it is of a light yellow
color. Make it into rolls and lay on heavy, greased paper to harden.

Grafting waxes vary in composition. A larger proportion
of rosin makes tliem harder. More tallow or oil makes them

Fia. 92. — When woody cuttiue* wc «t out thej^ should be planted deep and the

softer. If the wax is to be used in cool weather it may be
made softer. If for use in the hot eummer sun it may be
made much harder. Grafting wax is used in protecting
wounds after pruning, in covering grafted and budded sur-
faces, and in waxing cotton or cloth for similar purposes.

7. Waxing Knitting Cotton and Cloth.— In the preceding,
exercise, while the wax is melted, put into it a ball of No. IS knitting
cotton. PresH it with a stirring stick until the air is removed and
the wabc enters the ball of cotton. It may then be placed on a sheet
of heavy greased paper to cool. Strips of old cotton cloth which will
tear easily may be dipped in the melted wax and then removed to
cool, or wax may be poured on sheets of cloth and spread with the
stirring stick.
11

162 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Pieces of the waxed knitting
cotton, eight inches long, will be
used to wrap around root grafts
and budded shoots, to exclude the
air from the wounda. Strips of the
wazed cloth may be torn in any
width desired and used in the same
way. Weak cotton and cloth are
nised so they will not strangle the
growth which follows the grafting
and budding operations.

8. Whip or Tongue Crafting. —
Uae willow or other convenient Bwitches
to repreBent parts of the plant to be
grafted. These va&y be cut freeh from
trees in the garden or woods. With a
sharp blade, make cuta as shown in
figure 93. The two pieces should be
fitted together as closely as possible,
as shown in the picture. The long,
sloping cut on each piece should be an
inch or more in length. This gives long
surfaces on the two while growing
together. After piadng together, the
two parts should be snugly held by
wrapping well with waied knitting
cotton.

Between the bark and wood of
every woody plant is a layer of tis-
sue called cambium) or growing
tissue. If the cambium of the two
pieces is in perfect contact, growth
is likely to take place, otherwise
Fio. 93-— Root graiting o( ^hey Will probablv not live.

the apple. The eeeanaff root j r j

In "fim * cut""sB' Sholn^°«^™ '^^® ^'^'P *" 't^ng'i® grafting is
■ lipped toeether, and then thg method commonly used in

GRAFTING 168

making roof grafts of apples, pears, end some other
fruits. The top shoots from good varieties ar^ inserted upon
roots produced by growing young seedling trees, as of apple,
pear, and quince. The new tips are called scions.

9. Root Grafting. — ^Roots of apple seedlings may be obtained
from a good nurseryman, or they may be grown in the school and
home gardens by planting apple seeds from a cider press. Cut
scions in fall or early winter from* several good varieties of apple
trees, taking only the thrifty growth of the past season. Pack the
scions and roots in wet sawdust in a cold cellar until it is found
cohvenient to graft them together. Take care to destroy all the seed-
ling tip§, as they will not produce good fruit. The scions and roots
should be kept moist by the use of wet paper. The cut surfaces should
b^ placed together before drying out, and mvtSt be made to fit firmly.
As soon as the grafts are wrapped with waxed cotton or waxed cloth,
store them again in wet sawdust in a cold cellar until late planting
time. In late spring, plant the grafts in garden rows 4 feet apart,
and 1 foot apart in the rows. Each graft should be placed bepeath
the ground with only a bud or two of the scion projecting.

Nurserymen make much use of root grafting as a method
for propagating apples, pears, quinces, and some varieties of .
a few other fruits. The root grafting work is done during
the winter season when other work is not pressing. It is
considered a very satisfactory and sure method of propagation.
'If in any case the scion does not grov, the root i& apt to send
up shoQts of its own. These must be destroyed, as they are
hot true to variety.

ID, Practice in Budding. — Any time during winter or early
spring, dormant switches may be stood in a jar of water in a warm
room. This will tend to loosen the bark from the wood and make
them suitable for budding practice. With a sharp knife, make cuts
in the bark in the form of where the bud is to be inserted. Cut a
'* bud shield " bearing a single bud. Place the bud shield right side
up firmly against the wood under the bark and wrap it firmly, as
shown in U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 157.

Each student should make a number of buds in this way
until some skill is attained.

164 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

The buds for grafting in actual practice are taken from
budding stocks or seione from the hew growth of trees of the
desired varieties. The leaves are trimmed off, but stems
are left near each bud to aid in handling when the bud is
removed from the scion. The stems or plants where the buds
are to be inserted are called stocks. As the budding operation
is performed in the nursery or garden where the stocks are
growing, the operator must get down close to the ground to
do the work properly.

FiQ. 94.— School boya buddinK young peach trees, IRittentouBe Seh

II. Budding Peaches, Plums or Cherries, — I" late s
early full, before the leaves drop, cut soions from known
|Fig8. 04 and !tj). Use tlie buds from these in grafting seedling
plums or peaches of tlie current year's growth. Protect by wrapping
well, as described in anotlier e

Stocks for this purpose are usually started from native
seedling peaches, plums, or cherries. Special kinds of stock
are, however, desired for a few \'arieties of plums and cherries
(Fig. '3(i). Tlie pits of peaches and plums arc frozen over win-

GRAFTING 165

ter to crack them, or may be t-rackeJ by hand. layers of tlii:
pits are covered with a little sand in tbe fall and left exposed
to winter weather. In spring, they are planted in rows in
rich garden soil and given thorough tillage until August or
September, when they are to be budded.

, The pruning of a young budded tree consists in cutting
away the tip above the new bud the following spring before ■
the huds swell. This forces all the sap of the root system
'to the new bud, and the growth will be rapid. After one year's

166 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

growth from the budding time, the trees Bhould be trans-
plaDted to the orchard.

13. Spring Budding. — Select scIobb of budding stocks from
twigs in a donuant condition. These should be stored until the
stocks out-of-doors in the spring are in condition for inserting the
buds. When the sap begins to flow and buds on trees are opening,
the bark will loosen from the wood and budding can be done. The
budding method for spring work is the same as that already described-
The buds when inserted, should bo well protected from the weather
by use of wax and waxed cloth.

Flo. 96. — Mshsleb cherry stocki budded Juet above the ground in July and

[emain dornispt untij the neit Bpiing. After they slsrv into growth, the tope of
the (took will be cut oS just above the buds. (U. 8. D. A.)

The use of spring budding may be to propagate good
varieties on seedling stocks, or to change the variety on any
older tree. In the latter case, a number of buds must be
inserted at different places over the tree top, and pruning,
to allow the new twigs to gain supremacy over the old ones,
requires great attention.

13. Fruit Buds. — Bring t« the school branches of plum, peach,
pear and apple, ahowing both fruit buds and leaf buds. Compare
these and learn to recognize fruit buds on trees in winter.

GRAFTING 167

Where two or more buds are found together on the twigs
of peaches, plums and cherries, the probability is that the
larger buds in each cluster are fruit buds. These will form
blossoms and bear the fruit of the coming season. On apples
and pears the short spurs with strong buds at their tips are
the fruit buds for the next crop.

14. Top Grafting Young Trees. — In the spring time, select an
apple tree in the garden or at some home, which you wish to change
into a good variety. The tree should not be too large. By the
tongue graft method, insert a number of scions on twigs of the
tree top. These scions should be from those stored the preceding
fall or winter and held dormant in a cellar.

Older twigs near the grafts * are pruned away to allow
more sap to enter the newly grafted scions. This will force a
more rapid growth. Many trees in an orchard are found to
be undesirable because of mistakes in varieties, or other disap-
pointments. In such cases, the tops should be grafted by the
spring working method, as here described.

15, Top Working Old Trees. — Select a large, old apple tree
which you wish to change to another variety. Cut a number of
sound branches from different parts of the top. These should be
about one or one and a half inches in diameter. A sharp saw is best
for this, but care should be taken that the bark is not loosened from
any portion of the stub. 'The cut surface may be smoothed with a
sharp knife. Split the exposed end with- a broad, thin chisel or
grafting tool, and spread the opening so that a long tapering scion
may be inserted. Two scions should be placed in each cut. It is a
good plan to cut the scion so that the last bud will come just above
the top of the cleft, and the scion is tapered by a knife on two sides
to make it wedge shaped, but one edge of the wedge is thicker so the
pressure of the stock will be greatest near the cambium layer. Cover
all cut surfaces with a layer of hard grafting wax.

The scions for this purpose are selected and saved as in the
preceding exercise. Cleft grafting is adapted to top working
old trees and changing them to desirable varieties. Large
branches can be grafted by this method. The best time for
cleft grafting is in the spring just after growth has begun.

168

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

i6. Tip Layering. — Bend the tip portions of a black raspberry
bush to the ground and cover a few inches with a clod of soil. It
is best to leave the end buds in each case projecting. After a few
weeks these stems will take root and new shoots will start from
the covered portion, and form new plants ( Fig. 97 ) . Cut the parent
stems with shears or a knife. The young plants may remain where
they are until late fall or spring and then be transplanted to new
garden rows.

This method is called tip layering and is a common method
practiced for propagating black raspberries. It may be suc-
cessfully tried with a number of other plants. Climbing roses
are often propagated in this way.

Fig. 97. Fzo. 08.

Fzo. 97. — Black Raspberry bushes may be propagated by tip-layering. This is

done soon after the crop is picked.

otner, vines may be propagated by lay

FiQ. 98. — Clematis, gra^e, ivy, and many

ing them during the growing season

er-

17. Vine Layering. — ^Make a shallow furrow with a hoe or spade
near a grape-vine. Lay in it one of the canes its full length. Cover
parts of it, leaving other parts exposed to the light. Shoots will start
up and roots will be formed in a few weeks ( Fig. 98 ) . The new
plants may be cut apart with a spade. They may be transplanted
to desired places as soon as the leaves disappear, or early the next
spring.

Several kinds of vines, including the Boston ivy, Virginia
creeper, and certain varieties of grapes are commonly propa-
gated by vine layering. It is an easy and sure process.

18. Mound Layering. — Mound up soil among the root stems
of a gooseberry bush. After a few weeks, new roots will be formed
on these branches in this mound of soil. The following fall or spring,
the plants may be dug. The branches with their new roots will
form new plants. These may l)e cut or pulled apart and set separ-
ately in a new place in the garden.

LAYERING

169

Gooseberries, quinces, and maiiy ornamental shrubs, such
as lilacs, may be propagated by mound layering. To some
extent, this process takes place accidentally when soil is thrown
up against plants during cultivation.

Number of Shrubs or Plants for an Acre

Distance

No. of

Distance

No. of

Distance

No. of

apart

Plants

apart

Plants

apart

Plants

3 x3 inches

696,960

4x4

feet

2,722

13

xl3 feet

257

4 x4

392,040

4J^4J^

it

2,151

14

xl4 "

222

6 x6

174,240

5x1

8,712

15

xl5 "

193

9 x9

77,440

5x2

4,356

16

xl6 "

170

1 xl foot

43,560

5x3

2,904

16>ixl6J^ "

160

liinliiieet

19,360

5x4

2,178

17

xl7 "

150

2 xl "

21,780

5x5

1,742

18

xl8 "

134

2 x2 "

10,890

5^5J^

1,417

19

xl9 "

120

2J^H "

6,960

6x6

1,210

20

x20 "

108

3 xl "

14,620

6^x6)^

1,031

25

x25 "

69

3 x2 "

7,260

7x7

881

30

x30 "

48

3 x3 "

4,840

8x8

680

33

x33 "

40

3}4x3Ji "

3,555

9x9

537

40

x40 "

27

4 xl "

10,890

10 xlO

435

50

x50 "

17

4 x2 "

5,445

11 xll

360

60

x60 "

12

4 x3 "

3,630

12 xl2

302

66

x66 "

10

Suitable Distances for Planting

Apples — Standard 25 to 40 feet apart each way

" . Dwarf [bushes] 10

Pears— Standard 16 to 20

Dwarf. 10

Cherries— Standard 18 to 20

" Dukes & Morrellos 16 to 18

Plums— Standard 16 to 20

Peaches 16 to 18

Apricots 16 to 18

Nectarines ' 16 to 18

Quinces 10 to 12

Currants 3to 4

Gooseberries 3to 4

Raspberries. 3 to 5

Blackberries 6to 7

Grapes 8 to 12

To estimate the number of plants required for an acre, at any
given distance, multiply the distance between the rows by the distance
between the plants, which will give the number of square feet allotted
to each plant, and divide the number of square feet in an acre [43,560]
by this number. The quotient will be the number of plants required.

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it

CHAPTER XV

INDOOR PLANTS

Window Gardens. — Any home or school-room may be
made more enjoyable by the use of plants grown in pots on
tables, shelves, window-sills, or in racks and baskets sus-
pended from above. Houses of rich and poor alike are hand-
somely adorned by well-grown window gardens. For people
without yards, and for all in the winter season, a window
garden is a great luxury. House plants, either in the home
or in the school-room, add much to the beauty, contentment,
cheeriness and interest. The time and attention required
to keep a choice collection of house plants in thrifty condition
is small compared with the pleasure gained. The choice
location is near the bright sunlight of a large south window
for geraniums, coleus, fuchsia and the heat-loving plants,
but there are a number of house plants such as ferns, pansieei,
English ivy, umbrella plant, oleander, and some of the bulbous
plants that do as well by the north window, and in the cooler
parts of rooms.

For the beginner, the best plan is to start with ,a very
few plants at most. Try a geranium or two, or an umbrella
plant, or a few bulbs, or an English ivy. After some experi-
ence and success have been attained, a larger collection may
be tried.

Flowering plants of many kinds may be kept in the win-
dows constantly or throughout the winter season. Tea roses
and their hybrids, geraniums, fuchsias, begonias, lantanas,
oxalis, amaryllis and sweet violets are among the perpetual
bloomers of the perennial type.

Annual-flowering plants commonly grown to blossom in-
doors are: Cyclamen, gloxinia, primula, cineraria, crysanthe-
mum (Fig. 99), carnation (Fig. 100), and others.
170

INDOOR PLANTS 171

Flowering bulbs are among the most attractive bouse
plants and the dry bulbs may be started into growth and
forced to bloflsom at any time desired. Among the common
bulbs are Dutch and Koman hyacinths, narcissus, jonquils,
tulips (Fig. 101), crocus, freezia, calla lily, Easter lily, and
others.' Amaryllis, hippeastrum, tuberose, and lily-of-the-
valley may be osed as indoor plants

Fio. 00. — Chryunthemunu ■» nmoiuc tbe most Mtisfactory Howvib to now
indoors. <U. 3. D. A.)

Forcing Bulbs.— A number of kinds of bulbs may be
made to bloom in window boxes, hotbeds, or living rooms in
winter. Hyacinths, some kinds of daffodils and Chinese
sacred-lilies are commonly used in window gardening in homes .
and schools.

The bulbs for winter forcing should be planted in moist.

INDOOR PLANTS 173

light soil in well-draineil pots, cans or boxes and kept in a
cold place, as a dark, cool cellar, until a few weeks before the
time the flowers are desired. They are then placed in a warm
room and the growth is forced. The forcing should not be too
rapid. During the period in which they are kept in a cold

place roots will have formed in the soil, anil strong .vigorous
shoots will perhaps show above the ground. If there be a
tendency for the bloom to form too close to the surfaw of the
soil, the stem mav bo cHUNcd to longtbeu a little liy piar'iiig a
pasteboard cylinder around it. The liglit is thus excluded
except at the top. A window box or number of pots for winter

174 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

flowering bulbs add much to the pleasure and value of school
work.

Non-blooming plants, or those grown for the beauty of
the foliage are: Coleus, asparagus ferns, true fern, cactus,
palm, auricaria, ice plant, spiderwort, Kennilworth ivy, Eng-
lish ivy, century plant and others.

Plant Holders. — House plants may be grown in window
boxes, earthen pots on shelves or window-sills, tin cans, wooden
or wire baskets suspended from brackets, glass bulb-dishes, and
many other styles of holders. Probably the most satisfactory
^form of window box is a shallow wooden box lined with light-
weight galvanized metal. The length should be such as to fit
the window or other location desired ; the width may be eight
to twelve inches inside; and the depth from four to eight
inches inside. The bottom should he provided with one or
more drain tubes from which the drainage water may be caught
when necessary to prevent the wetting of window sills, walls
and floors. ♦

It is a good plan to grow the plants in regular flower pots
or in tin cans with good drainage holes in the bottom. Then
place the pots in the window boxes instead of on the bare
window-sills.

The metal-lined boxes will catch the drainage and protect
the room from much litter. The plan of having the potted
plants in a window box is a decided improvement over the
older method of planting directly in the soil of the box.
If the pots are to be used the boxes may be very shallow and
may be as wide as can be readily supported on a pair of
brackets level with the window sill.

Sucl^ household articles as tin cans, small buckets, small
boxes, etc., give very satisfactory results. These may be
painted or stained a suitable color, as dark green, or they
may be covered with green crepe or other paper. When such
vessels are used for growing the plants, they should be pro-
vided with suitable drainage holes in the bottom, as nearly

INDOOR PLANTS 175

all house plants require well-drained soils. Watering can then
be more liberal and with less danger. Showering the plants
with a brush or whisk broom dipped in water, is very useful
in washing the surfaces of the leaves. It improves both the
health and the appearance of the plants. The showers are
easily given if the pots are kept in shadow window boxes.
The use of saucers under the flower pots is a great protection
to the window sills if the shallow boxes are not used. Tubs
are used for large ferns, palms, oleanders, India rubber plants,
century plants and others that are too heavy for earthen pots.
Such large plants are often kept on the floor. In such cases
the drainage holes should ba in the sides just above th^ bottom
instead of in the very bottom. Metal trays may serve as
saucers under the tubs.

Water-loving plants, such as the umbrella plant, wandering
Jew, narcissus-, jonquils, water hyacinth and others, may be
grown in pots 5f soil which are then set into jardinieres of
water in metal-lined boxes containing a few inches of water.
Glass dishes, for some of th^ water-grown bulbs, are often
provided with coarse sand and gravel immersed in the soil to
hold the bulbs and roots in place.

The Self-supporting Aquarium. — In schools and houses
where there are small children, an aquarium containing several
kinds of water plants and water insects and small fish may
well be a permanent part of the window garden. Such an
aquarium is shown in figure 41. The animals in it are pro-
vided with their necessary oxygen by the groWth of the water
plants in the presence of bright sunlight. The plants use up
the carbon-dioxide given off by the little animals and obtain
much of their food from this source.

Window Vegetable Garden. — In many homes and
schools the window spaces could be used much more than they
are for the growing of plants for the vegetable garden. Early
vegetables that can be transplanted may be started in shallow
boxes of soil. They will he ready to be transplanted to the

176 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

spring garden somewhat later. In this way the windows
may take the place of a hotbed in helping to start the spring
garden much earlier.

Among the earliest vegetables to start^ in the window
boxes would be cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce and spinach.
Later on we may start tomatoes, peppers, egg-plauts, celery,
sweet potatoes, cantaloupes, and later plantings of the early
group. Parsley may be planted in the fall and grown in a
window all winter. It will furnish garnish and flavor for
table use whenever desired.

There are some things, such as radishes, that may be
grown to edible size in the boxes. Goufds, cucumbers, and
sweet potatoes may be grown so large as to be very pretty in
the group of window plants. For this purpose they should
be transplanted into pots and well cared for as individual
specimens.

CHAPTER XVI

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES

Farmers' Gardens. — Home vegetable gardens on farms
are not given much attention. Usually a farmer thinks he
cannot spare the time to take care of the garden, so he plows
up a little " patch " near the house and lets the already over-
worked housewife care for it. The garden should be large
enough to provide an abundance of vegetables for the family.
If it is laid out with rows wide enough apart, most of the hard
work may be done with a horse. The planting and raking
are not so irksome. Young people are glad of an opportunity
to plan, plant and care for the home garden.

Have the garden near the house, so it will not be much
bother to get the products when needed. It may be best to
fence it with chicken netting that is tight enough to keep all
fowls out. Then, don't plan to do all the work after supper,
when already tired. Take some time from the regular field
work, and cultivate the garden as it should be cultivated.
It will pay, not only in satisfaction, but also financially.

The average of city gardens, grown on cramped plots,
would grade higher than those found on the average farm.
City men frequently have to do all the digging and cultivating
by hand, but at that they do a better job than the farmers.
The poorest gardens are often in the country, where one would
expect to find the best. Farmers have a right to the best
things of life, and fresh vegetables come under this
classification. .
,. The^ , suggestions and directions regarding culture and
management of the garden crops are arranged in alphabetic
order for convenience in reference. Probably the whole list
Vould not be grown in many of the gardens. Selections can
be made to suit conditions. For very small school plots the
list from which we should select would probably be limited to :
12 177

178 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Beans, beets, carrots, sweet corn, egg-plant, endive, kale> let-
tuce, onion, parsley, parsnips, peas, peppers, radish, Swiss
chard, spinach, tomato and turnip.

Artichoke. — The plant is perennial, but is grown from
seeds. Suckers from the best plants may be taken off and
set in garden rows about three feet apart each way.

The plant is said to be of French origin, and is sometimes
called French artichoke to distinguish from the Jerusalem
artichoke. The flower heads are edible. Fleshy scales from
the sides and lower part of the head are used for salad or
cooked like asparagus.

In the northern states, winter protection in the form of
leaves or other litter is required to prevent winter killing.
Edible heads may be obtained the second or third year from
seeding.

Artichoke, Jerusalem. — This plant belongs to the sun-
flower family and has potato-like tubers which may be used in
the propagation of the plants. They are hardy perennials.
Even the tubers will stand freezing in the ground. The tubers
are edible, being much relished by all who have learned to like
them. They are also frequently used as roots for hogs. For
the latter purpose they may be planted where hogs can pasture
in late fall.

Asparagus. — The crop is one of the earliest of spring
vegetables, and should be found in every school garden and
home garden. For school gardens, the best plan is to get
strong plants and set them in rows three or four feet apart,
with the plants eight to twelve inches apart in the rows.
Asparagus needs rich, well-drained soil, but the plant thrives
best with a large quantity of stable manure. This should be
placed on top after planting, and more added each fall for
the young shoots to come through in the spring. The planting
should be deep enough to leave the crowns four to six inches
below the surface. Each fall, before top dressing with manure,
the surface above the crowns may be plowed or spaded over.

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 179

Aeparagus may also be propagated by seeds, but this method
requires two to four years to make the first crop.

The most injurioua enemy of asparagus is the rust disease,
and no satisfactory remedy has yet been found. Two varieties
are popular, Palmetto and
Conover Colossal (Fig.
103) . The latter is perhaps
more resistant to rust.

Beans, — There are
many diflEerent kinds and
varieties of beans. They are
all annuals, and so tender
that they cannot withstand
fiost. Seeds should be
planted in the open garden
after all spring frosts are
over. Light, warm garden
soils are the best. All gar-
den sorts are grown in rows
Zy^ to 4 ft. apart, and in the
rows may he either in drills
or in hills. The seeds have
strong germinating power
and may be planted two to
three inches deep, with the
soil well firmed over the row

aftftr nlflntincr Tirana mnv Fio. 103. — CQloosal aBparacuiiiB* food

aiier pianiing. ceans may ^^^ ^ ^y jj^^ j^^ ^^^ ^„ j2 i^jhe.
be divided by the nature of •""*■

the plants into two groups : (1) Bush beans ; (3) pole or climb-
ing beans. As to use, they may be divided into: (1) Dried
beans used for cooking after they are ripe and cured; (2)
shelled beans, such as limas, the beans being ^helled from the
pods before coojiing ; {3) snap or string boaiis. the entire pod
and contents being cooked and eaten.

For school gardens, snap beans will prove most popular.

180 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

The crop conies quicker and is thus more satisfactory. For the
best use of tima-s and snap beans of different varieties, the
garden should be cared for during the summer. The crop
will pay for the trouble of summer care.

The culture is easy, and the growth will be thrifty in rich,
warm soil. A good dust niulch should be kept about the
plants with a garden rake or cultivator. The bush varieties
of limaa (Fig- 103), and the bush or low varieties of snap

Fio, 103.— Buah lima beans are BR:<\rt to niansEe ihsn the polo limaa, but the yield
i> l«Ba. (New Jenwy Hlution.)

beans (Fig, 104), suit the school garden he4, as the poles
for staking are not necessary. Any climbing varieties, as
Kentucky Wonder, may be planted in the rows of sweet com
after ,the corn is well started. The vines are allowed to climb
on the com.

Beets. — The beets are truly biennials, not bearing seed
until the second year; hut as the crop consists of the fleshy
roots it is a ipiek prtwlucer for the school garden. Seeds may
iic sown in rich garden soil in very early spring. It is well to
soak the seeds for a few hours in slightly warm water just be-
fore planting. This suftens the hard seed eases and hastens

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 181

germinatioii. Seeds should be covered about one inch or less.
A very early crop of gardeii beets may be produced by planting
the seeds in hotbeds in late winter or very early spring. If
the weather is warm enough when the plants are large enough
to be thinned, the thinnings may be transplanted t^i the open
garden. For early use, the best table beets are the flat or
turnip-shaped varieties. For a long season of late beets, long
red varietiee are best. They
suffer leas from dry summer
weather. The true sugar beet
is shown in f.gure lOS ; the
flesh is usually white.

Keep the soil well stirred
between the rows and do not
let the growth be checked by
drouth or other causes.

Beet tops are often used
to cook as greens, yielding a
crop for this purpose' very
quickly. This is another rea-
son for using beets in the
school garden.

Beets and other root crops
should not be grown in the

same part of the garden two years in succession, because of the
danger of scab disease.

Broccoli. — Broccoli is similar to cauliflower, and is not
much grown in American gardens. It is well suited to late
summer planting, and might hn used in the school garden
to produce a crop during the fall term. »lt should in this
case be started by setting the plants, like late cabbage or
cauliflower, in July or August. The soil and its care are the
same as for cabbage.

Brussels Sprouts. — This is also suited as a fall term crop
in the school garden. The plant is grown for the small

182 SCHOOL AND HOME GAHDENING

immature cabbage heads, called sprouts or buttons, formed on
the sides of the stems. These sprouts are very tender and
much relished when properly cooked.

I —. 1 Seeds may be planted

in hills in spring or mid-
I simuner, or the plants may

be started in beds and
transplanted to the garden
2>4 to 3 ft. apart each
way. Dwarf varieties may
be set much closer. The
more mature sprouts may
be used as soon as large
enough, and the remainder
left in the garden until
November or December.
They endure much frost.
Cabbage. — Cabbage
I seed for early varieties
I may be sown In window
I boxes or hotbeds a few
weeks before it is time to
transplant them to the
open garden. The trans-
planting should be done
early so that much of the
growth may be made be-
fore hot weather. Prop-
erly hardened cabbage
plants will stand some
frost. Early Jersey Wake-
field and Elarly Charles-
ton Wakefield are two of the most popular early varieties.
The plants may be set two feet apart in rows three feet apart
The culture should be clean and thorough. Considerable

in KBrdens lor uee oC pins, poultry
Block. (U. 8. D. AJ

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 183

manure and fertilizer ehould be worked into the soil before
or after planting. For use in the fall garden, late cabbage
should be started from seed, or transplanted plants set in the
garden in mid-summer. Several varieties are used for the late
crop, such as Late Flat Dutch and Late Drumhead.

Cabbages should be well watered, and the culture must
be thorough enough to prevent any check in the growth of the
plants. Compare the heads in figure 106,

- The late crop is very hardy and will stand severe frost.

The crop from the school garden may be disposed of when the
ground begins to freeze. For Jiome use, the crop may be
stored in cool moist cellars. Pulling the plants and setting
the roots in boxes or trenches of soil in a cool cellar has proved
to be a successful method of storage.

The worst enemy of the cabbage crop is a worm produced
from eggs laid by white cabbage butterflies. For treatment
see "Cauliflower."

Carrot, — Seeds of the extra early varieties may be planted
in shallow drills in the hotbed in late winter. The seed may
be sown in the open garden as early as the soil can he worked

184 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

in the spring. Half long varieties are the most desired in
the market (Fig. 107). The soil should be rith and mellow,
and the culture thorough and deep. For a school garden crop
in the fall, sjseds may be sown early in July. Uee the long
variety. These should be sowu thick and the plants thinned to
a distance of three or four inches in the row. The distance
between rows should be enough to allow proper cultivation.
Carrots are used to boil with other vegetables in a " boiled

Fio. 107. — Two typa of oanota, Improve

lone (riahl). ihowios bow Ihey an buochcd U
duolive FsediDK.)

dinner," or they may be cooked separately and served as a side
dish with cream aaute and 'reasoning.

Cauliflower — For an earl\ crop, raise plants by sowing
the seeds \er) shallow in a hotbed or window box. These
may be transplanted first to coldframes two inches apart each
way and set m the open garden as soon as the soil is fit to
work. The soil should be \ery rich and fibrous and well sup-
plied with humus and moisture Plenty of water should be
applied when the weather is dr\, particularly at heading time.
Light applications of such fertilizer as nitrate of soda and sul-

THE GROWING OF VEGETABUES 186

fate of potash are of much help. Avoid putting these too^
close to the plants. Two feet apart each way is a suitable'
distance for plants in school gardens. When headH have,
formed they require blanching. This is done by drawing
the.outer leaves together and tying with raftia or strips of soft
cloth. Early Snowball and Dwarf Erfurt {Fig. 108) are
popular varieties of early cauliflower.

For late cauliflower to mature during the fall term in
the school garden, the plants may be started in open ground

Fio. 108.— A anuU head o[ FsuLiflover of fine quality. (ConieU Raading Cinle

like late cabbage. The heads require blanching as for early
cauliflower. Autumn Grant is a good late variety.

Cauliflower is attacked by the cabbage worms, which may
be ('ombated iu several ways. Dusting the young plants with
such powders as wood ashes, fine road dust, air-slaked lime,
or any mixture of these with or witliout Paris green will aid
in keeping the adult white butterflies from laying their eggs
on the plants. The dusting is done in early morning while
the dew is upon the plants.

Celery, — The late crop of celery is best suited to the school
garden. Seeds may be started in window boxes or in the
open ground. The plants are later set 10 inches apart in rows

186 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

4 feet apart. The soil should be rich and black and in the
highest state of cultivation. Growth should be forced by
plenty of thorough cultivation and watering during dry
weather. Celery requires blanching after the growth is
nearly completed. This may be done in the open garden
by mounding up the soil to within a few inches of the tops
of the leaves. If the crop is to be stored the blanching may
take place during storage. The plants are lifted and reset in
deep boxes containing a little soil. These are set in a cold
place without light. The leaves are left exposed to the air
and the stems are so well shaded that they become well
blanched. A little watering may be necessary if stored by this
method. Giant Pascal, Golden Self Blanching and Evans
Triumph are popular 'varieties.

Celery blight is the worst enemy of this crop. It may
be controlled by spraying before the disease obtains a ** foot-
hold ^^ w^ith Bordeaux mixture. No poison is necessary in the
spray for blight.

Corti, Sweet. — Schools having no summer session do not
have the privilege of harvesting the early varieties of sweet
or sugar corn. Suah late varieties as StowelFs Evergreen,
Mammoth Late, may be harvested after the school reopens
in the fall.

Seed is planted in good garden soil in rows three to three
and a half feet apart. The plants may stand singly about one
foot apart or three together in hills three feet apart. The
soil should be well tilled and a fine dust mulch maintained
throughout the growing season. The worst enemy of sweet
corn is the ear worm. Methods of dusting the growing plants
with lime are being recommended. Dense clouds of lime dust
are produced about tne time the tassels and silks are formed.
This should be repeated for several weeks if washed off by
rains Pall plowing of the ground also helps to destroy the
winter stage of the ear worm. For the early spring garden,
sweet com may be planted as soon as danger of frost is over.

. THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 187

Country Gentleman is one of the best of medium season.
Very early varieties are Golden Bantam, Crosby's Early, and
Adams' Extra Early.

Cucumbers. — ^This crop is used both for early slicing and
for putting down as pickles. The late crop is perhaps best
suited to the school garden. The soil must be made as rich as
possible, and the ^- owing plants may be watered with liquid
manure, prepared by keeping a supply of stable manure in
a barrel of water.

The seeds are planted in June or early July in hills four
to six feet apart ea'^h way. They usually require some pro;
tection' from striped beetles and flea beetles. Bordeaux mix-
ture with poison added is sometimes successful. Dusting the
plants with material, as mentioned under " Cauliflower,'' is
helpful. Danger from these enemies may be largely overcome
by forcing growth with good tillage and plenty of liquid
manure. As the cucumbers become large enough for use,
they should be picked daily. Allowing them to ripen on the
vines prevents the formation of others. If the picking and
watering are done well, the crop may be kept until frost.

Cucumbers for winter use may be " salted down " for
future pickling by placing them in jars or other vessels with
alternate layers of salt for a day or two to extract the moisT
ture. They are then transferred to full strength salt brine
and kept as long as desired. The pickling may be done at any
time by placing them in vinegar. Before placing them in
vinegar the salt must be 'thoroughly soaked out by allowing
them to stand in fresh water for several twelve-hour periods,
using fresh water each time. For sweet pickles, the pickling
fluid is made by boiling a gallon of vinegar with two pounds
of brown sugar, and spices are added to suit.

Egg-plant. — The egg-plaAt (Fig. 109) is sometimeis called
'^guinea squash." It is becoming more popular in many
sections of the middle states and southward. The plants are
tender and must not be set in the open garden until warm

188 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

weather. Seeds may be started in the hotbed or window box
and transplanted once before setting in the garden. The
plants are set tliroe feet apart each way. Egg-plant seed
requires a higher temperature for germination than any other
vegetable, and much heat is required for continued growth.
The soil can hardly be made too rich. Clean culture is
desired, as the plants must be kept growing steadily. Water
them with liquid manure during dry weather. The leaves

FiQ. 109.— Black Beauty ogfplanla. Tho boy ii juitly proud of hi* crop. (New

are attacked by potato beetles and flea beetles. They should
be sprayed as for potatoes, and dusted as the cabbage, cauli-
flower and cucumbers.

A favorite way of preparing egg-plant for the tabie is to
soak the slices in weak salt solution for half an hour and
then roll in bread or cracker crumbs with egg, or dip in batter
and fry.

Endive is a late fall vegetable used for salad. It resem-
bles curly lettnee. The late crop may be started from seed

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 189

in June or early July. If the' seeds are started in boxes the. ,
plants may be set in the garden when two or three inches
high, Ijeave room between the plants for culture with hand
toola. When nearly full grown, they must be blanched before
they are fit for the table. To accomplish this, the outer leaves
are tied together with soft material to exclude the light from
the inner leaves. This must be done when the plants are per-.
fectly dry to avoid rotting. They may be blanched by other
methods used for celery. The
time required for blanching is '
three or four weeks.

For eaxly usa the seed may
be sown in spring as soon as
the ground is fit to work.

Garlic is similar to onion,
and the bulbs are used for
flavoring soups and similar
purposes. The plant is popu-
lar in localities settled by for-
eigners from southern Europe.
Garlic is multiplied by com-
bined or clustered bulbs which F,g no.— Honte-radiBh is BlarMd

may be taken apart and planted 8^o"n*'here'^orDei]**Reii^n"ai^
separately. Each part makes a i**^'**
new group in a few weeks. The plan is similar to that prac-
ticed with multiplier onions. Garlic is so hardy that plant-
ings are made out-of-doors in the fall throughout the southern
states. In the north, early spring is better. Leave the plants
two inches apart in the row and enough space between the
TOWS to allow for either hand or horse culture.

Horse-radish (Fig. 110) is well known as a condiment,
or appetizer. The roots are perennial, and when once estab-
lished in a garden will persist indefiiiitely. They may be
started by setting small fingerlirg roots or pieces of roots..
The upper ends of the roots when set should be three inches,

190 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

below the surface and covered with loose but rich soil. A
permanent horse-radish bed should be in some comer out of
the way. Boots may be dug late in the fall before the ground
freezes. If the whole crop is then taken up the smallest
pieces may be used next spring for replanting. The roots
are grated or ground and after treating with white vinegar,
are bottled for market or for future use. School boys may
easily make their first start in commercial gardening by the
use of this crop.

Kale and CoUards. — The kales are well adapted to use
in the school garden. They are so hardy that much use can
be made of them in late fall, winter and early spring. They
make excellent greens, and seem to be improved by frost.
For early spring use, sow the seed in September and protect
the plants during winter with clean litter of some kind.
In latitudes north of New York City, a better plan is to sow
the seed in early spring, or the plants may be started in hot-
beds and transplanted. During mild winters and in southern
states, kale may be used for greens throughout the entire
winter season. Culture and soil are the same as for cabbage.

Kohl-Rabi. — Drill seed in rows sixteen to eighteen inches
apart and thin to four inches between plants. The plants
develop quickly and are well suited to use in the school
garden. Successive plantings may be made until mid-summer.

The edible part is a swelled part of the stem a few inches
above ground, which is bulb-like in appearance. It is likened
in appearance to a leafy turnip. The preparation for the table
is similar to that for turnips.

Leek.— ^Sow in early spring as soon as the ground is fit
to work. The rows should be about one foot apart, and the
seed covered to a depth of one inch. The plants may be
moved when six to eight inches high and set in deep rich soil,
about six inches apart in the rows. When transplanting, set
the plants deep to blanch the necks, and ridge up the soil as
growth continues. Another plan suited to the school garden

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 191

is to start the seeds in early September, leaving the plants in
the drill rows until spring. Protect during winter- weather
with leaves or other litter. They may be thinned or trans-
planted as early in the spring as possible. Leek is used for
the same purposes as garlic, and by the same people.

Lettuce is well adapted to use in the school garden. It
is the most popular of all American salad plants. The crop
can be produced at any time of the year, and within a very few
weeks. Th^ following plans are suggested :

(1) In early fall, when school first opens, sow the seed in
open ground and mature the crop there.

(2) Later in the fall, sow the seed in a coldframe and
mature the crop in the coldframe before Christmas.

(3) In late fall, sow the seed in coldframes or window
boxes and transplant to a hotbed, maintaining a cool tempera-
ture until matured.

(4) Start seed in a hotbed in late winter or early spring,
transplant or thin the plants in the drill rows and mature
them in the hotbed.

(6) In early spring start the seeds in window boxes or a
hotbed and transplant to the open garden as soon as the
ground can be worked. For this purpose, the seedlings should
be kept in a very cool condition for a week or so before trans-
planting. This is called " hardening off."

(6) As soon as the ground can be worked in the spring,
start seeds in the open and either transplant the seedlings
or thin them in drill rows, leaving them there until mature.

There are three main types of lettuce, the^ loose-growing,
head lettuce, and Cos, or upright lettuce. Head lettuce is
most popular for salad purposes in America, and this type
should always* be thinned or transplanted to six or ten inches
so it will not crowd. Cos lettuce is probably the most popular
form in Europe. It requires blanching to be of best quality,
otherwise it is used merely for garnishing. It is better suited
to summer growth than the other forms.

1&2 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Mushrooms. — Schools or homes having cellars or dark
building's not in use may well try the growing of mushrooms.
They form a delicious esculent and are considered a luxury
by many. The crop is a very precarious one to grow.
" Spawn ^^ used for propagation may be obtained from seeds-
men and full cultural directions are usually furnished.

Muskmelons are not as well adapted to growth in the
school garden as more hardy plants. They thrive only in the
warmest summer months. They do best in lig^it, rich soil
and pay well for heavy applications of stable manure. Culture
and care are much the same as for cucumbers. The seeds
should not be planted in the open garden until the weather
is quite warm. Twelve to fifteen seeds are thinly planted
in a broad hill. This allows for the killing of some plants
by the flea beetles and striped beetles. After danger from
these enemies is past, the hills may be thinned to two or three
plants.

A few hills of muskmelons may be started by planting

in pieces of sod in hotbeds or window boxes. These are trans-

^'^pl'alited to the open garden when warm enough. Eepeated

sprayings with Bordeaux and arsenate of lead mixture is

aiivifeable for cucumber^, muskmelons and squashes.

Melons with green flesh, such as Netted Gem, are highly
flavored, but are not so attractive in appearance as Osage,
Emerald Gem, and others with salmon flesh. (Fig. 111.)

Okra, or Gumbo. — This hot-weather plant is extensively
grown in southern states for its green pods, which are used
in soups and stews, giving a rich flavor.

The seed is sown in rich garden soil in late spring afte.
danger of frost is over. Rows should be three feet apart and
the plants thinned to ten inches apart in the rows. Clean
culture should be practiced, as for corn.

Onion. — The school garden can grow early green or bunch-
ing onions. The plan would be to sow the seed of Silver Skin
or other hardy white varieties in early August in well-prepared

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 198

and well-drained rich Boil, leaving the rows one foot apart.
In latitudes southward from New York they winter well, at
least with slight mulching o£ clean litter. This crop is
ready for use or bunching for uiarket in early spring.

Plant some sets of Egyptian or perennial tree onion about
September let for hunch onions early the next spring.

For the fall crop of onions, sow seed in early spring in
very rich, clean, well-drained garden soil. The rows should
be fifteen inches or more apart to allow for cultivation. The
planta should be thinned
to at least two inches
apart in the rows. Clean
culture with wheel hoe
or garden rake should be
p r a e t iced throughout
the summer, or until the
bulbs are nearly mature.
When the tope begin to
die down, the onions
should be pulled and
well dried to cure them.
They may be sold imme-
diately or stored for

future use in a cool dry no. in.— CanUloupe* forthem»tket«hould
„ , . _ (Nortb OirDlina Department of Agriculture.)

for a crop of onion
sets, sow seed in drill rows in very early spring, in soil similar
to, or poorer than, that used for bulbs, and give less culture.
Gather the sets when ripe, cure, and store them in a dry, airy
place. If thoroughly dry, they will stand slight freezing
during the winter.

The next spring, these onion sets, or others purchased for
the purpose, may he planted a few inches apart in rows twelve
inches apart. The sets are covered with moist soil, well
packed. These will produce green onions for early use or

IM SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

for bunching to sell in a few weeks from the time of planting.

In a hotbed, onion sets may be forced at any time during
the winter ot early spring.

Onions are classified according to color as yellow, white,
and red. Sets and seeds of each of these colors may be selected
to suit the taste or market requirements.

Parsley is universally used as a garnish with meats or
other dishes. It is also used in seasoning soups. As a garden
plant, the seeds may be sown in rich mellow soil in very early
spring. Thin out the plants to stand six inches apart and
have the rows one foot or more apart. Before sowing, the
seed should be soaked a few hours in warm water. Leaves may
be taken from the growing plants at any time .when they
are large enough for use. A strong plant may be transplanted
from the garden to a pot or window box and kept growing
in the house for winter use. It should be well watered and
given a light exposure. Other plants may be transplanted
from the garden to a coldf rame and thus protected for use next
spring.

Parsnips are so hardy that they are well adapted to use
in school gardens. Drill the seed in the open garden as early
as the weather will permit. The rows may be eighteen inches
apart and the seed covered to a depth of one and a half inches.
The soil should be rich and well drained. When the plants
are up, thin them to a distance of three to six inches apart.
Clean culture should be given, and the growth well maintained
throughout the dry weather. The roots may be used in late
fall, but the quality is improved by leaving them in the
ground over winter for spring use. This makes them sweeter.
Enough of them may be taken up and buried in pits or cellars
in the fall for winter use.

Peas. — Early garden peas are never forgotten by the spring
gardener. Plant them as early as possible. The smooth
varieties, such as Alaska, New Claudit and Tom Thumb, may
be planted the earliest. The wrinkled varieties are later and

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES iw

not quite bo hardy. In the school garden it ie suggested
that varieties be grown which do not need brush or other sup-
port. By selecting different varieties and planting them at
different times succession, a supply of green peas may be
produced until late hot sununer. Peas do not thrive in hot
weather. To plant the se'Bd, furrows three or four inches deep
and three feet apart are made, and the seed is scattered in them

Tin. 113. — Sweet pepiien sis jmpitni for the Ubis id ■ iniinb*T of way* and ue
beuomiuc more popular every year. (Ne* Jeney Station.)

and covered with a hoe or plow. The culture is similar to that
given to com and beans. Varieties requiring stakes or brush
may be planted in double rows, one line of support serving for
both rows. The soil should be rich, as good yields cannot be
■ produced on poor soil.

Pepper. — Garden peppers (Fig. 112) are hot-weather
plants. The large fleshy varieties are known as sweet peppers
and are found in the summer market. The small hot
I are used iu soups and sauces for seasoning. The

196 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

plants may be started in hotbeds or protected places and trans-
planted when the weather is warm enough. The distance,
soils, and culture are similar to those mentioned for egg-plant.

Potato. — The common white or Irish potato is recom-
mended for use in school gardens because of the lessons to be
learned in growing it. Experiments showing the principles
of plant growth and plant breeding may be carried on best
with the potato. The soil for potatoes should be of a medium
or light loamy chara,cter. It should be well supplied with an
abundance of available plant-food, rich in nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash. The plo\Wng should be very deep to allow
the roots to penetrate the soil well. The pieces of seed potato^
may be dropped in drills and covered to a depth of three or
four inches below the level surface. The distance apart may
be from twelve to sixteen inches, according to the number of
eyes on the piece. The distance between rows should be
two and a half to three feet, to allow of easy horse cultivation.
Tillage should be fretjueiit and the surface kept level or nearly
so. A good plan is to cut the pieces to leave about three eyes
on each. The seed potatoes should be treated with a prepara-
tion of formalin before planting (see exercise explaining the
method). The best method of selecting seed potatoes is
described in another chapter. (See exercise under this title.)

For the school garden a very early variety may be started
as early as the ground can be worked. EaTly Rose, Early
Six Weeks, Early Triumph, Bovee, and Irish Cobbler are
among the earliest. After the pieces are cut they may be
sprouted in a light, warm room for a few days to hasten the
growth after planting.

Before the school closes in the spring, the main crop
potatoes may be planted, and if the garden is cared for by
some one during the summer, the late crop may be harvested
after school opens in the fall. This plan adds more interest
to the school garden work. Eural New Yorker No. 2, Sir

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 197

Walter Raleigh, and Carmen No. 3, are suitable late varieties
and good keepers.

Potato vines should ' e sprayed with 'Bordeaux-arsenate of
lead mixture as a protection from flea beetles, potato beetles,
and blight.

Radish. — ^This crop is hardy, and may be sown both early
and late. The turnip-shaped varieties are preferred to the
long forms for earliest spring planting. They will form a crop
in three to six weeks from sowing. The soil should be made
very fine and fertilizers may be used freely. Leave the rows
far enough apart to allow the use of hand tools. As some
of the roots become large enough for use, thinning should
begin. Any little spot in the garden that becomes available
after other crops, duriiig the season, may be used by planting
radishes, except when the season is too hot. The hotbed may
also be used in winter and early spring for this crop. A few
grown in a window box will add interest to the school work.
Radishes for late fall use may be sown in August or early
September. This will add interest to the fall term garden
work. They should be pulled before the ground freezes.
Better use special (winter) varieties for storing. Sow these
the same time as fall turnips. If stored in moist sand in a
cellar, they will keep tender and crisp all winter.

Rhubarb is a perennial plant and grows so early in the
spring that it is well suited to both the home and school gar-
den. New plants may be started by dividing large clumps of
roots. This is best done in the late fall, or may be done in
very early spring. Plants may also be started by seed sown
thinly in shallow drills a foot apart and thinned to a distance
of four or five inches. This is rather too slow a process for
school gardens. Rhubarb requires a very rich soil and will
endure large quantities of manure. Rhubarb and other peren-
nials should be placed at one side of the garden so they will
not be disturbed by every spring preparation for annuals.

For winter forcing of rhubarb, take up strong roots in

198 SCHOOL AND HOME <}ARDENING

the fall, leave out to freeze, then bed them closely together
on a cellar bottom. They should be kept in a rather dark
situation to produce the best winter growth. Eoots forced in
this way may be returned to the garden, but not cropped for
a year or two.

Salsify, or- Vegetable Oj^ter. — The culture for this crop
is similar to that given for parsnips, and the crop may be
treated in much the same way.

Salsify is used the same as carrots. It is also boiled and
then made into cakes and fried like oysters, because of the
resemblance in flavor.

Spinach. — ^This is the greatest ^^ greens ^^ crop of America.
The plant is hardy and may be started in earliest spring.
The seed is sown in drills one foot apart and one inch deep.
Successive sowings every two weeks may be made throughout
the season unless the weather becomes very hot. When the
school opens in September, spinach may be sown in rich
garden soil. These plants may be covered with straw on the
approach of severe cold weather. Some of this may even be
ready for use before the ground freezes. The crop may also
be forced by starting seeds in hotbeds during winter. Savoy
and Victoria are popular varieties. The New Zealand type is
larger and better suited to hot weather. This might be called
an " evergreen ^^ type as the plants persist and the branches
are broken off for use. ,

Squash. — This is a hot-weather crop. The seeds are
sown in the open field after the settled warm weather has
started. For this reason the crop is not well suited to school
garden work, but the harvesting will come in the fall after
school opens. With this in mind, it is best to use late varieties
such as Boston Marrow and Hubbard. Care must be taken
not to let the squash vines grow too near the cucumbers and
muskmelons because of the danger of the seeds becoming
mixed by the crossing of pollen. The hills may be started in
the same way as for those crops, but the distances n^iay be a

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 199

little greater. In locaJitiea where canning clubs are orgaa-
ized, the crop should be grown as it is well suited to canning.
Sweet potato ia a southern crop but is grown as far north
as the latitude of Philadelphia or New York. The soil sfibuld
be light and well drained, and an abundance of plant-food and
organic matter is desired.
The plants for setting in the
field are started from the
seed potatoes in special beds
in spring. Seed potatoes
may be started in hotbeds
(Fig. 113),s]ightheatbeing '
produced boih by the manure
and sun. Much care must
be exercised in the manage-
ment of the starting bed to
maintain proper ventilation
and proper temperature. As
the sprouts become of proper
size and the season is warm
enough, traneplanting be-
gins. The largest sprouts
are usually pulled first and
immediately set in rows
three to four feet apart, and* fiq, iia.— in kIshUdk avut pouto

, , , , , , , . , , pIadU for One gBrdon. uae Uio» whicb an

the plants twelve to eighteen stocky and veil rwted. (New JeiHy 8U-

inches apart in the rows. "'"'

It is usual to set the plants in ridges raised a few inches
above the general level of. the field. This makes the
soil warmer, stimulates the growth and insures good drainage.
The soil between the ridges is kept well stirred and the vines
are moved or lifted to keep them from rooting. The crop
requires the entire season for growth and is usually not har-
vested until the first light frost touches the vine tips. After
digging, the tubers are -left to dry a few hours and then stored

iMO SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

in a warm dry place. Care should be exercised in the hand-
ling so that no bruised potattres will be put in storage.

Swiss Chard is a form o£ beet, but the root is small and
the top is large and edible (Fig. 114). The little green
wrinkled leaves have given it the name " Silver Beet." They
are cooked as greens the same as spinach. The thickened mid-

Fio. 114. — 8wi»B chsrd wilh lodi while los(-it*m» lo be itewed and nerved wEth
cnsm. (CorneLL R«adiae Circle LesSct.)

ribs are sometimes served with cream, like asparagus. The
seed is drilled thinly in rows eighteen inches apart and the
largest plants are first harvested, leaving the crop with the
plants six or eight inches apart in the row. If the main crop
is cut or pulled without injuring the crowns of the plants
they will continue to produce new foliage for succession crop-
ping. Chard may be transplanted as in the case of spinach.
The crop is rather hardy and will stand some late spring frost.

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 201

This crop is becoming more popular and is usually relished
by those who have grown it.

Tomato. — In early spring, tomato seeds should be started
in window boxes or hotbeds and the seedlings are transplanted
to the garden after all danger of frost is over. For school
garden- work it is well to move the plants twice. First from
the seed bed they may be put in tin cans or pots and later trans-
planted from these to the open garden. . The soil should be
rich, and good drainage is preferred. The distance between
rows and plants varies with the different varieties and method
of training. When they are grown commercially in large
areas, staking is not practiced. The average distance in such
cases is three and a half feet between rows and three feet
between plants in the row. Late vai^ieties may remain for part
of the crop to be harvested after the fall term of school opens.
Good late varieties are Ponderosa, Livingston's Globe, and
Enormous. Good early varieties for home use are Spark's
Earliana 4ind Bonny Best. Fall canning clubs can make
good use of the tomato crop. Figure 115 shows the different
types of tomatoes.

Turnip. — The small round varieties may be sown in very
early spring in beds or drills and thinned as they become large
enough for use. In late summer and early fall, turnips of
any kind may be sown in beds or drilled in rows to be har-
vested just before the ground freezes. Turnips thrive in any
good garden soil. A good practice is to sow the seed among
the sweet corn at the Bme of its last cultivation. Such may
be harvested in late fall. Turnips may be stored in a cool
cellar. They may be prevented from drying too much by bury-
ing in boxes or beds of sand or soil. The best type for storing
is the rutabaga, shown in figure 116.

Watermelons. — This is a hot-weather crop, well suited to
the southern states and to the lighter warmer soils of the
north. The culture is similar to that given for muskmelons.

202

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

They are less subject to disease and attacks by insects. The
crop is not recommended -for the school garden.

Fio. 115. — Types of tomatoes. 1. Smooth globular, shallow cavity, a good
market type. 2. Ribbed, cavity deep, fruit rather flat. 3. Currant tomatoes,
seldom grown. 4. Cherry tomatoes. 5, 6 Fear and plum forms of yellow preserving
tomatoes.

Uses for the Garden Herbs. — Gardeners may have grow-
ing along one side of the garden a few plants of each of the

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 203

following " herbs." Their special uses, as here mentioned,
may be suggestive:

Mint, for meat sauces.

Angelica, for flavoring cakes.

Lavender, for oil and toilet v^ater.

Sage, for sausage and meat dressings.

Sweet fennel, leaves used in fish sauces.

Dill, the seeds are used to flavor pickles.

Caraway, aeeds used by bakers in cakes, cookies, bread,
apple pie, etc.

Fia. Ilfl, — BlooDudal* ratabsiu.
winUT UK. (ComcU

Thyme, in gravies and dressings for stuffed meats.

Chives, used for flavoring soups and salads.

Borage, balm and catnip are useful where one has bees.

Tarragon, leaves useful in giving a delicious flavor to vine-
gar and pickles.

Coriander, fennel and caraway seeds are used for flavoring
syrups and cakes.

Among the herbs having medicinal valne are arnica, hops,
catnip, bane, pennyroyal, belladonna, sage, rue, horehound,
marshmaltow, wormwood, hy^op and peppermint.

«M SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Companion Cropping. — When school or home gardens are
small, and indeed in many other cases, it is advisable to grow

crops of different kinds close together, or in the same row,
so as one crop is taken away in the early part of the season
the other kinds of crops will be already growing and will
occupy the grovmd. This plan of growing two or more crops

Fia. 117. — CompsDioD eropping will
iBivnCed before th« cauliflower bei
irnall Eaideps. (Cornell ReHdinE Circ

together, and tilling them together for the purpose of keeping
the ground well occupied, is called " Companion Cropping "
(Fig. 117). In some cases other advantages are attained.
When radishes are planted with lettuce, the strong radish seeds
break the crust and aid the weak lettuce seeds to sprout. The
radishes are harvested and out of the way before the lettuce is
large enough to need all the room. The radishes sprout so

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 205

quickly that they mark the row so that raking the garden will
not destroy the lettuce.

Salsify and parsnips are often grown in the same row, or
in rows very close .together for the special reason that they
require the same kind of tillage, and both may be left in the
ground over winter to be improved by freezing.

Examples of companion cropping are numerous. The
following may be suggested : Early onions and late beets ; early
peas and radishes ^ peas with late crop of salsify or parsnips ;
corn and peas; corn and beans; early cabbage and celery
plants; corn and pumpkins; corn and watermelons.

Succession Cropping. — The garden soil should be kept
well occupied throughout the growing season. As soon as one
crop is harvested, another should be planted. This plan of
having one crop follow another as promptly as possible is called
'^ Succession Cropping." The following are suggestive exam-
ples: (1) Early corn to follow early potatoes. (2) Cabbage
seed or plants to follow early potatoes. (3) Egg-plants to
follow early potatoes. (4)-0kra to follow early potatoes.
(5) Turnips to follow potatoes. (6) Turnips to follow peas.
(7) Early variety of potatoes planted late after early peas,
radishes or lettuce.

Soaking Garden Seed. — If the ground is ready and plaas
are carefully made so that the planting may be done very soon,
it is safe to soak many kinds of garden seeds in advance. The
benefits derived are due to the softening of seed coats and the
moistening of the storage matter in the seeds.

When seeds are to be soaked care should be taken to not
exclude the air from them. The dish in which the soaking is
done should be left open and the quantity of water should
be limited so as not to " drown " the seeds.

The water used may be luke warm and the time allowed
should be only a few hours. Over iiitjjht is not too long for
such* seeds as melons, corn, celery, parsley, tarrot, and any

206 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

seeds with a dry or chaffy coat. Contests have shown that
seeds most liable to danger from soaking are peas, beans and
sweet peas. It is safer to plant these without soaking.

•

Varieties of Vegetables for Garden Use

Asparagus Palmetto, Columbia White, Colossal.

Beans, Bush Bountiful (early), Valentine, Refugee (extra

early ) .

Beans, Lima Fordhook, Ford's Mammoth Podded.

Beans, Pole ....... Kentucky Wonder, Crease Back.

Beets Basano ( early ) , Crimson Globe.

Broccoli Early White Cape.

Brussels Sprouts. .Improved Half Dwarf.

Cabbage Charleston Wakefield ( early ) , Succession ( mid-
season). Late Flat Dutch.

Cauliflower Early Snowball, Vietch's Autumn Giant.

Carrots Half- Long Stump Rooted, Half-Long Danvers.

Celery Golden Self Blanching (early). Giant Pascal

( late ) .
Corn Adam's Early Dwarf, Stowell's Evergreen (sweet) ,

Country Gentleman ( sweet ) .

Collards Georgia.

Cress .Curled.

Cucumbers Improved White Spine, Emerald, Green Prolific

Pickling.
Egg-Plant New York Purple, Black Beauty, Florida High

Bush.

Endive Green Curled.

Kale Early Curled Siberian.

Lettuce Big Boston ( early ) , Improved Hanson, Wood's

Early Cabbage Giant Crystal Head (late).

Mustard Giant Southern Curled, Ostrich Plume.

Musk Melon Extra Early Hanover, Netted Gem, Rocky Ford,

Perfection Melon.

Okra Clemson, Long White Velvet.

Onion Yellow Globe Danvers, Prize Taker, Extra Early

White Pearl, Yellow Multiplier (fall).
Peas, Garden Philadelphia Extra Early, Horsford's Market

Garden (medium), Telephone (late). *

THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES 207

Pepper, Sweet Chinese Giant, Ruby King.

Pepper, Hot Long Red Cayenne.

Parsley Moss Curled.

Parsnip Hollow Crown.

Potatoes, Irish . . . Irish Cobbler, Carmen No. 3, Early Triumph.
Potatoes, Sweet . . . Nancy Hall, Nancymon.

Pumpkin Kershaw.

Radish Early White Tipped Scarlet, French Breakfast,

Mammoth, Extra Early Scarlet.

Salsify Mammoth Sandwich Island.

Spinach Long Standing.

Squash White Bush, Boston Marrow, Giant Summer

Crookneck, Winter Hubbard.

Tomato Earliana, Acme, Stone, Ponderosa.

Turnip Extra Early Purple Top, Improved Red Top Globe,

Seven Top (for fall greens), Yellow Aberdeen,

Rutabaga.

Water Melon Georgia Rattle Snake, Florida Favorite, Tom Wat-
son, Kolb Gem (good shipper).

CHAPTER XVII
CORN GROWING

In the boys^ club work corn has been grown more than any
other crop. Corn growing contests have been organized^ in
schools and out of them, throughout America. The crop is a
popular one in all sections, and is well suited to the work
of schools.

In the fall lessons are given on the selection of corn for
seed. This will require the learning of the points in a good
score card. Students will learn how to judge corn accurately
and rapidly. The technical matters regarding right propor-
tion of corn to ear, purity, shape of kernels and maturity must
be learned before com can be properly selected for seed. In
the fall, fairs and exhibits may be held. Methods of storing
the crop and seed may also be taken up at this time of year
or in early winter.

During the winter students may give considerable atten-
tion to the value of seed testing and learn different methods of
testing corn by the ear methods, and by the mixture method.
They can read many corn bulletins during the winter season
as reading lessons in school.

In early spring methods of preparation of soil, the value of
fertilizers, the importance of soil moisture and methods of
retaining it are all suitable topics for study. , The different
methods of planting for crop of ears or total crop of stalks and
ears should be taken up before planting time.

During vacation young people may produce the crop itself.
They will put into practice the things which they have been
studying about corn in school. The seed which was tested dur-
ing the winter may be actually used in the planting. Early
preparation of the soil, the use of bare fallow to kill weeds,
save moisture and warm the soil will become real by actual
practice.
208

CORN GROWING 209

Selection of Seed. — Skill should be attained by much
practice in seed selection (Fig. 118). Take about ten ears of
corn; place them side by side on a table, remove two kernels
from near the center of each ear and place them opposite
(Fig. 119). Use a good score card or bulletin which describes
the points to be considered in good seed com. These points
are briefly given in this chapter. Judge the com and test
each ear with the best in the lot. If each student in a class
has five or ten ears, let them be first judged and then exchanged
for the sake of comparison. After such work has been carried
on, students may be asked to bring corn from home, or select
it from a pile or crib of corn for the purpose of gaining speed
in selecting the best.

Score Card for Corm Judging

Perfect score

1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics 10

2. Shape of Ear 10

3. Purity of Ear. (a) Grain 5

(6) Cob 5

4. Vitality or Seed Condition 15

5. Tips 5

0. Butts 5

7. Kernels, (a) Uniformity 5

(6) Shape 10

8. Length of Ear 5

9. Circumference of Ear 6

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows 5

(6) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob : 5

1 1. Proportion of Corn to Cob 10

Total Points 100

Explanation of Points. — 1. The ears in a sample should
be alike, or nearly so. They should agree with the type of
corn which the lot represents. Type is somewhat determined
by the number of rows on the cob, width and shape of crowns
of kernels, shade or color and shape of kernels, as seen when
removed from the cob.

2. The ears should be nearly cylindrical in shape, tapering
14

210

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

only slightly towards the tip. If the tapered portiOD is too

long, there will be many small kernels at that end, the effect

being to reduce yield and form nubbins in the next generation.

3. (a) Purity of corn is indicated by uniformity in shape

and color. Variation in color indicates impurity, which may

mean wide variation in

other respects in the next

crop.

(6) Yellow corn
should have red cobs.
White corn should always
have white cobs, except in
a few varieties of so-called
white corn which may have
pink or red cobs. " White
Capped Yellow Dent," for
example, may be called
white com, and some
strains of it have pink
cobs.

4. Vitality is one of the
most important features

Fio. 118.— Inprepirin* ecwn foranei- j , - ■ ..

Mbit enrefui Miaction is importiint. (Agri- Considered in selectine all

culture flud Lile.) i m. . .

seed com. The kernels
should fit each other closely from all side*. Looseness indicates
lack of maturity. When kernels are shelled, the chaff should
remain on the cob and not cling to the kemele. The outer tip
coat should cling to the kernels and not remain on the cob.
When black tips are found on the kernels, low vitality is indi-
cated. Shrunken, blistered or starchy crowns are bad indica-
tions. The broad, wedge-shaped kernels give room for large
germs. The size of the germ may be determined by surface
view of the kernel, and by making sections lengthwise and
crosswise.

6, The tips of the ears should be well covered with com

CORN GBOWING 811

without protruding cob. The rows should nm over the tips
somewhat regularly and the kernels conform closely to those
in the main body of the ear.

6. The butts should be so well covered with com as to
leave a deep depression after the shank or stem is removed.
The stem itself should be very slender, which would allow the
ears to droop over as soon as they are nearly mature in the
field. This helps to prevent damage from rain.

7. (a) Uniformity of kernels is important when planting
time comes. It also increases the amount of corn on the cob.
Kernels of irregular size and shape are shown in the inter-
rupted rows. These do not

drop evenly in the planter
and may often cause more
open spaces on the cob,

(&) The shape of ker-
nels is quite variable but
they should be deep and
wedge-shaped with rather fio no.— stude
straight sides, allowing the Ten-*ar winipieB maj- 1
TOWS to fit each other closely,

filling all spaces on the cob. The type of the kernel should be
broad, as this is rich in protein and oil, and of high feeding
value,

8. The length of ear varies with varieties and sections of
the country. Ears with good tips, but short length, should
not be selected in preference to ears of good length having
less perfect tips. When ears are too short, future yields are
likely to be reduced. In any sample the length should be uni-
form. A good type of length should be fixed in mind when
selecting seed corn in the field, and ears of this length should
be constantly sought. The objection to very long ears is their
tendency to have poor butts and tips broad, shallow kcrnola
and a low percentage of corn to cob.

9. Well-shaped ears have a circumference about three-

212 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

quarters of the length. This proportion, however, varies with
varieties. Very large ears are usually slow in maturing, and
may produce soft com. In some ca«es large ears are the result
of very large cobs. This will diminish the yield of shelled
corn. The circumference of an ear is usually measured at one-
third the distance from the butt to the tip.

10. (a) Furrows between rows will be very slight if the
kernels are of proper shape. If these furrows be large, the
proportion of com to cob is much reduced. If the ears in a
sample of seed com vary greatly in this respect the type will
not be uniform.

(6) The spaces between tips of kernels at the cob will
tend to make the kernels loose so that they move when pressed
by the hand. This usually means poor seed corn and low
feeding value. If the tips are well filled, they will be tight
on the cob.

11. The proportion of corn to ear governs very largely the
yield of shelled corn per acre. Breaking several ears will show
wide variation in the size of cobs and the depth of kernels on
them. Deep kernels and small cobs indicate large proportion.
The shape of kernels and spaces between rows also affect the
proportion of shelled corn. In judging contests and exhibits
the proportion of corn to ear should be determined by weight.
Delicate spring scales may be used. Shell the corn from a
sample ear into a paper bag. Weigh the corn and cob together.
Then weigh the corn without the cob. Divide the weight of
the shelled com by the total weight of the ear. This will
give the per cent of corn. The per cent should be as high as
85, but frequently runs higher than this.

When to Select Seed. — Seed corn should be selected in
the fall before the crop is harvested. Then the most mature
ears may be easily found by the color of husks and drooping
of ears. A boy may hang a sack on his shoulder and go over
the field selecting such ears as may prove to be satisfactory on
closer examination. These should be carefully dried. Later

CORN GROWING 213

on they may be judged more carefully and stored for next
season^s planting.

Storage of Seed Com. — Corn intended for use as seed/
should be well dried before freezing weather. Freezing after
it is thoroughly dry is not detrimental. Storage should be
in a dry place, as moisture is very harmful and reduces the
germinating power. Attacks of mice, rats and sparrows must
be avoided. In southern climates grain moths may attack the
com and weevils may do much damage. Precautions must be
taken to keep these enemies away.

Seed corn racks are easily made, using wire or strips of
cloth on which to lay the corn so that air may circulate about
the ears.

A simple method of storing seed corn is to drive nails
in lines along the sides of a pole suspended from a roof
or ceiling. The butts of the ears are slipped over the headless
nails. Wire or wood lath may be nailed in the joists of the
floor in any dry building or shed. Corn is laid in single layers
on the wires. Ears of corn may be woven in double strands of
binders^ twine and suspended in long strings from hooks on
the ceiling.

Testing Seed Corn. — Benefits of testing seed of any kind
may be enumerated as follows: (1) Better stand in the field
is secured if the seed proves to be good. (2) Re-planting is
made unnecessary. (3) Time is not lost in watching for poor
seed to sprout. (4) Labor is saved by not handling and plant-
ing poor seed. (5) Seed is saved, as poor seed could be used
for feed and not lost in the planting. (6) The purchase of
poor seed may be avoided by testing samples before buying.
(7) More uniform yields are secured at harvest time.

Methods of Testing. — The best plan is to test each ear
separately instead of shelling all the seed corn together and
testing a sample of the lot. If each ear is tested, any which
show poor germination may be culled out and used for feed ;
thus several hundred kernels of low germination may be

214 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

removed at once. Several good plans are devised for using
individual ears of com. They are as simple and rapid as
the composite method of testing seed corn.

Box Method. — First wet the sawdust in a shallow box.
On this spread a white cloth which has been marked off into
squares about 2 in. X 2 in. The squares should be numbered
from left to right so as to read in order of lines on a printed
page. The ears of corn to be tested are numbered with small
squares of paper fastened to each ear by means of a slender
nail thrust through the paper into the butt of the cob. Five
or ten kernels are taken from different parts of the first
ear, avoiding the butts and tips. These kernels are placed
on square numbered one; and so for each of the other ears.
After the squares are all covered, place a cloth or wet paper
over them and cover this with an inch or more of wet sawdust.
Allow this to remain in a warm room for ten days or so. The
results may be seen by raising the top layer and comparing the
germination power of the different ears (Fig. 120). Any ears
which show low vitality by failure to germinate or weakness
of germs should be discarded and used for feed instead of
for seed.

Rag Doll Method. — ^This method of testing seed corn is
the simplest and easiest of all. It is used for testing a sample
of each ear of seed corn. Secure muslin or sheeting and tear
into strips ten inches wide and several feet long. Ravelings
on the edge may be carefully drawn away or the edges may be
hemmed. The cloth should be marked with a black pencil
lengthwise in the middle and then with cross marks about three
inches apart. Number all the squares, beginning at one end
of the cloth ; numbers one and two are side by side at one end.
The odd numbers will then be down the left column and the
even numbers down the right column. Wet the cloth, wring
it well, and spread it on a table or smooth board. Remove
either five or ten kernels from €ar number one and place them
on square number one. Take a like number from ear number

CORN GROWING 815

two and place upon square number two continuing until all
the squares are covered, and then use other cloths for the
remainder of the ears. The ears are numbered as described
by testing with the box method.

When each square of the cloth has been supplied with its
kernels. begin at upper end with numbers one and two and

Fin. 120. — Result of h lermiDstioD test of 73 aan of com itunring weak snd Btroiw
kernels (rom the different eHin.

roll, the cloth up. A common pencil or long piece of wood
may be placed in the center as a core. When the cloth is all
rolled! up tie it loosely witli string. Each roll should be
numbered or lettered and the date placed on a paper under the
string. These " rag dolls " may now be soaked in water for
a few hours, then remove them and place them on strips of
wood to drain, and cover with a box or vessel, which will pre-
vent the cloths from drying out A very few drops of formalin

816 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

in the water will prevent molding. These are kept in a warm
room for a week or two and may be examined when desired.
Squares which contain kernels with weak germs are the ones
to be discarded.

The Iowa station gives the following advantages of the
"Rag DolP' method:

1. The cheapest tester which can be made.

2. Anyone can make the tester in a few moments^ time.

3. The least trouble to prepare and fill of any tester made.

4. Corn may be placed in the tester and the test read
approximately as quickly as any other tester which can either
be made at home or purchased.

5. If saturated atmosphere with moist cloth contact is
desired, this may be secured by leaving the rolls in the water
only long enough to become thoroughly moistened.

6. Less mold develops in this tester than any other.

7. May be disinfected for mold most easily.

8. Very compact, and can be moved from one place to
another without difficulty.

9. All parts of kernel, roots, shoots, etc., can be readily seen.

10. Gives an accurate test as indicated by field results.
Corn Improvement. — Those who are giving attention to

the subject of corn breeding are accomplishing a great deal
in the improvement of this great standard crop of America.
The chief methods involved in the improvement of the corn
are : (1) Selection of good seed. (2) Detasseling of puny or
unpromising stalks. (3) Enforcing cross pollinating by de-
tasseling alternate rows. (4) The use of the ear-row method
of growing and testing production.

The points in selecting good ears have 'already, been
described in this chapter.

De-tasseling Poor Stalks. — Young people should under-
stand that the pollen of com comes from the tassels on the top
of the stalks (Fig. 121). When the pollen is scattered by
wind to the silk of the ears a growth follows which finally pro-

CORN GROWING

duces the kernels on the
cob. The spreading of
pollen to the eilke is called
pollinating. With plants,
i^o with animals, it is im-
portant that both parente
of the offspring should
be healthy, vigorous, and
possess the best points of
their kind. If weak
stalks, which do not bear
good ears, are used as one
of the parents of either
seed corn or market com,
the results will be less
satisfactory than if both
parents were strong in-
dividuals.

It is good practice to
go over the com-field,
where seed com is to be
produced and cui the
tassels from all stalks
which are not promising.
This should be done be-
fore the tassels are ma-
ture and before any pol-
len has scattered through
the field. Much differ-
ence between stalks can
be noticed at that time.
Some will be strong and
healthy in appearance poiien
and have the rudiments poiien

218 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

of good ear^ upon them. The tassels on such may be left.

The de-tasseling of puny stalks is done on the westerly
side or the windward side of large fields, and in that part
of the field the seed corn is selected the following fall.

De-tasseling of Alternate Rows. — ^When pollen scatters
from the tassels of corn it may fall either upon silks of the
same stalks or upon silks of other stalks. The latter is called
cross-pollinating. Experiments have shown that cross-pol-
linating produces better corn. To compel or enforce cross-
pollinating of seed corn, the usual plan is to de-tassel every
second row on the westerly side or windward side of the field,
or throughout the field. The seed corn is then selected only
from the rows having no tassels. Such rows will have received
their pollen from other stalks and are said to have been cross-
pollinated.

A combination of these two plans of corn improvement is
accomplished by de-tasseling alternate rows, and in addition
to this de-tasseling the stalks which are not promising in the
other rows.

How to De-tassel Corn. — As already stated, the removal
of tassels must take place before the pollen is scattered. The
field must be watched closely for a few days at the right time.
A large butcher knife or a light corn knife is used to cut the
tops. This may be done by a single quick stroke just below
the tassel portion. It is not necessary to save these immature
tassels. They will fall to the ground and the pollen will do
no harm. De-tasseling does not affect the value of the fodder
in the future crop.

The Ear-row Method. — One of the best ways of improv-
ing seed corn is to first select the best ears from good stalks
in the field. These ears are used the next season in separate
rows or portions of rows. For example, kernels of ear number
one are planted in row number one. Kernels of ear number
two are planted in row number two. This plan is continued
with as many rows as desired. The yield of each row is care-

CORN GROWING «19

fully measured or weighed the following fall. All future seed
corn is saved only from the heavy yielding rows. The best
ears are selected and planted again by this method.

Danger of Mixing. — Aa the pollen of corn is carried by
wind for some distance there is danger in planting two varie-
ties too near each other. Any pure, well-selected corn should
be grown separately to avoid crossing. When corn has once
become pure or well fixed in character by methods of selection
and good breeding, it is very bad policy to allow any crossing
of varieties of strains to take place. Such a practice imme-

iviJle, South CWTjliiiB.)

diately sets up variations in the product which make it impos-
sible for the corn breeder to know what to expect. Sweet corn
must not be grown near field corn, for the same reasons (Fig.
182).

RAISING THE CROP

In the com club work in most of the states the plots used
in the contests do not exceed one acre. As small a plot as
one-tenth acre has been specified in some contests. One-
quarter and one-half acre plots are frequently used. The
size of plot should be governed somewhat by the age of young
people admitted to the corn clubs. The first plowing of the
ground is usually done by some older person, but the harrow-

220 SCHCX)L AND HOME GARDENING

ing, planting, cultivation, choice and testing of seed must
all be done by the contestant.

Preparation of Soil. — If possible the ground for com
crops should be plowed very early. If plowing is done several
weeks before planting time, the soil may be worked as deep
as the good soil extends.

Harrowing should immediately follow the early spring
plowing. It should continue at intervals until planting time.
Never allow the ground to become hard or packed as the result
of heavy rains. Almost as soon as the free water is soaked
in, the next harrowing may take place. The effects of fre-
quent harrowing during the time between plowing and planting
are: (1) Sprouting and killing of numerous weed seeds and
the avoiding of a weedy field through the summer. (2) The
warming and airing of the soil so the seed corn will sprout
more promptly. (3) It prevents evaporation of water by the
formation of dust mulch. (4) It allows surplus water to
percolate or move downward in the soil for the future use of
the crop in dry weather. (5) It multiplies bacteria in the soil,
which, in turn, unlock plant-food for the growth of the corn
crop.

Planting the Crop. — The depth for planting corn varies
with the condition and character of the soil. In medium
soil, which is not too dry, about two or three inches is usual.
The kernels should not all be dropped in one place if the
hill method is practiced. The kernels should be an inch or
more apart in the hill.

Whether to use the hill method or the drill method will
depend upon the objects in view in the production of the crop.
If ears and not fodder are wanted, the hill method gives best
results. The corn is then planted in rows each way and culti-
vation may take place both lengthwise and crosswise of the
field. This plan is sometimes practiced to aid in the fighting
of weeds. By the drill method is meant the planting of corn
in rows so that a single stalk stands in a place; these may

CORN GROWING 221

be ten to twenty inches apart. By this planting the maximum
amount of feed may be raised on an acre if stalks and ears
are both to be used.

Tillage. — ^As soon as the corn is planted the field should
be harrowed. After the corn is up about two inches, harrow-
ing may again be done. For this purpose a common spike-
toothed harrow, with the teeth set sloping slightly backward,
may be used. A light weeder without wheels is very suitable.
Harrowing on a corn-field, after the plants are up, should be
done at a time of day when there is little moisture in the
plants. In very early morning many of the tender plants may
be snapped off by the harrow teeth. Afternoon is better. On
fields which have been harrowed well before planting there is
practically no danger from the harrowing after the plants are
up. If the field is covered with large stones, this form of culti-
vation may cover some of the corn. On smooth fields, young
people should never be afraid of doing any damage to the
growing corn by the use of a harrow for the first few weeks
of its growth. This method of tillage is more rapid than
with a common cultivator. It places moisture better. It tills
the soil closer to the plants and breaks the sprouts of many
more young weeds beneath the surface of the soil.

After corn is large enough to be broken down by the
cross-bars of the harrow or weeder, this method should be
stopped. The cultivator may be used the balance of the
season. Fine-toothed cultivators are best. Broad shovels are
not desirable. Level culture usually gives better results than
the ^^ hilling up " method. Corn roots are very shallow and
should not be disturbed by a deep cultivation. Thorough
preparation of the ground before the corn is planted will make
it unnecessary to cultivate the corn-field very deep while the
corn is growing. Frequent cultivation will largely take the
place of deep cultivation, as it prevents the formation of a
crust at the top of the soil.

Harvesting and Storing. — Suggestions have already been

222

SCHOOL AND HOME GABDENING

given regarding the time and method for selecting seed com
in the field. After the seed has been harvested the main crop
should be cared for and this should be done before anj severe
frost occurs. Corn is much injured by heavy frost. The
most economical method of harvesting corn is to cut the stalks
either by hand, knives or
machine and place them in
shocks of suitable size to
allow of proper curing. In
southern climates there
may be a large pupply of
moisture in the stalks at
harvest time and the shocks
should be small and open
to the air. This will aid
in the curing and help to
prevent molding. After
corn is cured in the shocks,
the ears are husked. These
are allowed t« dry for a few
Fio. 123.— An Ariuniu ™m-riub boy dajs in a Suitable place and
Hi«'>ie!l'd''w^M''bu«hei«''per"'re in°'*bMi then piaced in cribs. For
jew. (0, B. M.rtiD,) ^^jjgj. ^^^Yioda of harveet-

ing and methods of curing seed com, reference is here made
to U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 313 and to " Productive Farming."
Com for Contests. — When com is to be weighed or meas-
ured in contests where the yield is involved, a uniform plan in
a club should be adopted in advance. It is well to have
the weighing or measuring all done after the ears are dry
enough to be in crib without any danger of molding. The
rules of some clubs require that the yield shall be determined
several weeks after this time (Fig. 123).

CHAPTER XVIII

GARDEN CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES

Any person familiar with garden methods will know
about the right time to plant each of the garden crops. The
exact time for planting varies from year to year, and varies
greatly in different latitudes and climates. It is impossible,
therefore, to give any calendar for planting, or other garden
operations which can be followed absolutely. A calendar of
this kind should be merely suggestive to young people, teachers,
and others who have their attention much of the time on other
matters. Such a calendar may be referred to occasionally
and will be helpful in suggesting about the proper time for
different garden operations.

JANUARY

Vegetables. — ^Begin planning the garden by choosing
varieties, and ordering seed.

If plants of various kinds are in coldframes, they should
be cared for on warm sunny days; a little ventilation is then
necessary. Give the plants all the air and light possible with-
out allowing them to be chilled too badly. If water is stand-
ing in the frames, be sure that it is drained away. In coldest
weather the sashes should be well covered with straw mats,
or other material, and the frames well surrounded with a bank
of manure.

Preparations may be made for the starting of hotbeds.
Manure to be used in hotbeds in winter should be stored where
it will not freeze. A box stall, where a horse is kept, is a good
place to allow it to accumulate for this purpose. Hotbed sash
should be glazed and put in repair. If the frames for the beds
are not ready they should be made this month.

Wood ashes should be saved under shelter for use in the
garden next spring. Coal ashes may be used on heavy clay
soils just to lighten the texture.

223

224 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Examine the garden tools and implements to see that they
are not rusting. The metal parts should be covered with oil
or wagon grease to prevent rust.

Trees and Fruits. — ^Trees about the school and home
grounds should be pruned. Do this on days when the weather
is favorable. Grape vines, peach trees, gooseberries and cur-
rants are to be pruned early. If only a little pruning is to be
done, apple and perhaps other fruit trees may be left until
nearly spring.

Plans for spraying should be made soon. Never try to
spray during freezing weather. Warm days may be chosen,
either this month or soon after the pruning is done.

Make collections of winter shrubs and trees in winter con-
dition for the sake of knowing all the varieties. These are
also useful in school work.

Strawberry beds and other parts of the garden which were
mulched in the fall should be examined now, if there is no
snow. If the mulching materials have blown off replace them
and prevent further trouble by weighting with boards or brush.

Flowers. — Get collections of flower seeds. If there are
old ones, test them to be sure of their powers of germination.
Send for garden catalogues and decide on what annuals and
perennials you desire to plant.

Keep th^ window boxes well supplied with growing plants.
Leaf and green wood cuttings may be made of house plants.
If any bulbs are started in the cellar some of them may be
brought up at this time and placed in the windows.

FEBRUARY

Vegetables. — Spread manure in the garden when the
ground is free from snow. Test all old vegetable seeds on
hand. Make up your spring orders for the varieties which do
not germinate well, and for any others you do not have.

If coldframes or hotbeds are not finished, they should
be completed now. You will need them soon. The smaller
the garden, the more need there is for frames. Manure for

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 225

hotbeds should be fresh from a horse stable. Do not use
the drier parts of the litter. Use the lighter parts to bank
around the frames to keep out the cold. Use about one foot
of manure after it is well tramped down. Six inches of rich
soil on top is usually enough for most crops.

In the hotbed start seeds of cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce,
beets, carrots, parsley, onions, spinach and any others which
you will want early. Eadishes may be grown between the
rows or in the rows with others.

Young people living in homes where there are suitable
cellars may start mushroom beds in the early part of
February.

Ehubarb may be forced during the entire winter. If roots *
were dug for this purpose in the fall, place them in a warm
part of the cellar and water them well. Much light is not
wanted. Long heavy stems, with small leaves, are produced
in partial light. If the roots are planted in boxes of soil in
the cellar, the moisture is retained better.

Asparagus and rhubarb beds in the garden should be given
a heavy application of well-rotted manure. Ehubarb may be
forced in the garden by placing a box over a few plants and
covering the box entirely with a pile of heating horse mailure.

Trees and Fruits. — Finish any pruning which has not
already been completed. Young trees set the preceding fall
should be given special attention. Do not let the pruning
of grape vines and bush fruits be neglected too long. This
is probably the best month for the spraying of shrubs and trees
to combat the scale insects. If the ground becomes soft, exam-
ine the ground near the base of the trees, and see that no open-
ings near the trees have been made. Press the soil firmly
about the trunk of each tree. This will prevent drying out as
spring approaches.

Flowers. — ^Many hardy annual flowers may be started this
month by sowing seed in hotbeds and window boxes. Also
start some that are less hardy, such as castor bean, cobea, dahlia
15

SSe SCHOOL AND HOME GAHDENING

seeds, pansy (Fig. 134), gaiUardia, caima, and China aster.
A few kinds of flowers that have been stored in the cold-
frame through the cold weather may be lifted out on some
mild day and brought to a warm room or hotbed to encourage
growth and bloBSoms. Hardy pansy plants should be tried in
this way. These should not be made too warm, but give them
plenty of light.

in tbe open garden in early sprins. (U. S. D. A.)
MABCH

Vegetable3,^March is more influenced by the season than
almost any other month of the year. There may be a number
of warm days for garden work. On such days let the garden
be prepared as rapidly as possible. It pays to dig up the
ground or to plow early. All neglected work of January and
February must be rushed to completion.

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 227

After the ground is spaded or plowed, thoroughly rake or
liarrow it. Never allow lumps to show on top from now on.

Get the bed* or portion of the garden into the condition
which you want it. Add well-rotted manure in abundance
where needed, probably everywhere. Drain wet places, if
this was not done the preceding fall. Add lime and wood
ashes to any low, heavy soils. Sand may be brought in for
use in places where nursery seedlings are to be started. A
sandy bed is available for many special purposes.

Additional sowings of lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, radishes
and perhaps peppers, egg-plants and tomatoes may be made
in the hotbed.

The hotbeds need more attention this month because of the
variations in weather. Watch the ventilation more carefully.
Early plantings must be thinned and transplanted. Give them
plenty of room. Toward the end of the month some hardening
for a few kinds may be advisable.

Out-doors it is well to make an early start with early
potatoes, lettuce, radishes, peas, beets, onion sets, spinach and
others. These may be put in at a risk, but if they get through
the late cold snaps, you are that much ahead.

The windows should be full this month with the trans-
planted things. Use all available berry baskets, tin cans,
wooden boxes and pasteboard boxes from the grocery. A
little crowding of the space this month will be relieved later.

This is the best time to plant perennial vegetables. Be
sure to set out asparagus and rhubarb roots.

Trees, Fruits and Lawn. — Early this month is thf last
chance to prune dormant trees and shrubs. Have all planting
of new trees or shrubs completed in March, if possible. Do not
wait for Arbor Day, if it is set too late. At least have all
plans well laid and the things to be planted heeled-in where
they will take no harm.

The lawns should be put in good shape. Roll the sod to
press down the roots and crowns well.

228 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Clear off all pruningB and make the surface ready for mow-
ing later.

This is the best time to sow grass seed on the bare spots
of the lawn. Spade around the fruit trees and perhaps a small
circle around the shade trees bordering on street or road.

Look over the tops of plum and peach trees to see if there
are any " mummied '^ fruits. These should be' removed and
burned or buried. They carry spores which would infest the
next crop.

Flowers. — Transplant some ferns from the woods to the
north or east side of the house. Have the soil very rich by
adding well-rotted manure and leaf mold from the woods.
A cool place sheltered from the sun is necessary. Look for
roots and plants of wild perennial flowers. Transplant them
from the woods and fields to a place in the garden which
we will call the " wild border." Collect many anemones, dog-
tooth violet, wake robin, mandrake, blood root, and others you
can find.

Bulbs, such as tulips, narcissus, and others that have been
forced in the house or hotbed may now be put in the garden.
Some of them may bloom again later this season or early next
spring.

Early this month the bulbs set last fall should be coming
through. Look over the beds carefully and see that conditions
are favorable. The mulch may be partly removed, if it is
coarse or lumpy.

The hardiest annual flowers may be sown out of doors this
month.

APRIL

Vegetables. — ^Complete any plowing and other prelim-
iyiary work for the garden. Rake or harrow all the beds several
times until the plants are sprouted. It pays to keep the whole
garden in the form of a fine seed bed throughout the month to
save moisture, sprout weed seeds and warm the soil.

Make the largest plantings of peas, lettuce (Fig. 125)/

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 229

spinach, early cabbage, kale, cauliflower, radish, turnip, beete,
SBkifj, carrots, parsDips, onions and early potatoes. lAte
in the month try a few of the more tender vegetables such
88 lima beans, sn: p beans, okra and others.

Transplant to the garden a few of the strongest vegetable
plants from the window boxes or hotbeds. If the ground stops
freezing at night, well-hardened plants, such as cabbage, let-

lid teiture and lifht color irhiBh

tuce, cauliflower, kale, spinach, turnips and beets, may be
thus moved out-of-doors.

In the hotbed plant seeds of melons, cucumbers and squash
in berry boxes or pieces of sod, which will be later transplanted
with little disturbance of the roots to the open ground.

Trees, Fruits and Lawn. — Complete a!! planting of fruit
and shade trees early in the month. Take no risk after the

230 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

leaves have started. This is probably the best month for
transplanting evergreens. Be careful to not let the soil fall
from the roots. Move large balls of earth with each. A little
well-rotted manure should be placed around all shade and
fruit trees, and along the rows of currants and gooseberries
after digging up the soil. Do not forget the planting of
perennial vines and roses.

The lawn must be cared for well. Rake all bare spots and
scratch in fresh seed. A little well-rotted manure or black
soil on these spots will help.

Fertilize the whole lawn by spreading fine lime, phosphate
and perhaps some nitrate of soda.

Flowers. — A hardy flower border should be given much
attention now. Divide the large clumps of goldenglow, peren-
nial phlox, larkspur, monk's-hood, and others. Do not let
them become too crowded. Trim out dead tops of all peren-
nial herbs and give the place a general cleaning up. Spade
over the bare spots between clumps. Fresh black soil should
be added to the lowest places to give all a smooth even surface.

Begin the hardening of the potted house plants by placing
them outside on warm days of April, preparing them for
plunging in the garden later. More plantings of the hardy
flowers may be made out-of-doors. Plant pansies, sweet peas,
and gladiolus seed in the early part of April.

MAY V

Vegetables. — ^After all danger of frost is over the main
plantings of tender vegetables may be made out-of-doors —
beans, cucumbers, melons, squash, sweet potatoes, peppers
and egg-plant.

Second plantings may be made for the purpose of a suc-
cession of beets, peas, onions, lettuce and radish. Cabbage
and cauliflower started in the frames may be transplanted.
Late in the month tomatoes may also be transplanted to the
open garden.

Egg-plant, okra, peppers and tomatoes are the tenderest

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 231

of garden plants for the North, and should not be touched by
frost in the spring. Put them out about ten days later than
corn planting time.

Asparagus and rhubarb may be grown well during this
month. 'A little nitrate of soda early in the *month will
stimulate the growth. Liquid manure may also be used, par-
ticularly at dry times.

Sweet corn of one or two choice varieties should be
planted at several different times to give a succession of ears
throughout the season.

Sow late cabbage, kale, turnip, celery, parsnip, and plant
late potatoes during the latter part of the month.

Plan carefully on the succession of crops for each spot in
the garden. Have plants ready to set where early crops are
taken off. Never lea. e a bare place in the garden. The best
gardeners keep something growing in every spot all the time.
Even the hotbeds and coldframes can be made use of until
June in getting plants ready to transplant to the open garden.
Thus the J)are places can be filled easily. May is a month
when cut-worms are very bad. After weeds and other plants
are more common they do not hurt the vegetables so much.
Mix bran with Paris green — one quart to one teaspoonful.
After wetting to make it in paste form, spread it around the
newly set plants in the parts of the garden where the cut-
worms are bad. The worms should be destroyed with this.
Be careful to not poison poultry or birds. Cut-worms may be
dug out with the finger, or hand weeder, and then killed.
Kerosene emulsion should be used upon any plants where plant
lice are troublesome.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns.— ^Strawberry plants should
be set early this month, if not in April. Where spring plant-
ing is practiced, it should be done the very first day the
ground is dry enough to work. As the new plants begin to
grow, pick off all blossoms, as they take the strength from
the growing parts.

232 SCHCX)L AND HOME GARDENING

The old strawberry bed to bear berries this year should
be given close attention. . If no mulch was applied the pre-
ceding fall, cultivate the soil early this month and apply a good
mulch of marsh hay, clean straw or other fresh litter. Place
the mulch close around the plants and let it fill all the spaces
between. It will help to keep the berries clean, prevent the
loss of soil moisture, and keep down the weeds until after
the berry picking is over.

Watch for the falling of petals on any fruit trees. This
is the best time to spray for codling-moth and plum curculio
(see Chapter XX).

After leaves have formed on trees and bushes many dead
parts may be discovered. Trim these out so that all that
remains will have a live green appearance.

Spring flowering shrubs, such as forsythia, syringa, lilac
and others, should be pruned as soon as the blossoming season
is over. Cut back the twigs and also remove the oldest stems
entirely. This will make them better bloomers next year.

Do not neglect to mow the lawn early and often from now
on. Lawn-mowers should be used, if possible, as their rollers
help the sod.

Flowers. — Finish the transplanting of any perennial
lierbs this month. Do not move such plants after they have
made a vigorous growth of new roots. If the plants are trans-
planted to well-drained soil, water them freely to stimulate
the growth.

Bulbs that have bloomed in the early spring may be either
left in the grounud or dug up to make way for other plants.
If dug up, they should ripen or dry well, and then be stored
for next winter and spring.

Put the potted house plants out-doors late in tiie month,
or after danger of frost is over. If they have been hardened
off, as suggested last month, they are less likely to suffer on
cool May nights. The pots or cans in which they are grow-
ing may be plunged in the garden soil in an out-of-the-way

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 233

place for the summer. Thus they are ready to he taken up
and re-potted next fall.

The window boxes in the school-room and home may be
now supplied with new seedlings of both annuals and peren-
nials, and with root slips of geranium, chrysanthemum, car-
nation, coleus and others.

Carnation and rooted chrysanthemum may be moved to
the garden late in the month. Such tender plants as dolichos,
nasturtium, salvia, canna and calladium may be put out-of-
doors after all danger of frost is over, or if the weather is
warm. They may be protected if still, frosty nights occur.

JUNE

Vegetables. — Tender vegetables may now be put in the
open garden without danger of frost. Even the hot-weather
plants, such as cucumber, melons, pumpkins, and squashes,
should be started or transplanted from their places in the
hotbed.

The latest plan.'ngs of early garden vegetables may be
made in June for the sake of bringing late crops. This is
perhaps the best time for starting late cabbage or fall crop of
cauliflower except in the extreme northern sections where
the crop may be started in May or in April. Sow the seeds
in the open garden.

Have the field very clean of weeds, and if the seed is
planted in hills, throw a spoonful of lime near each hill.
This marks the hills and makes it easier to keep the rows
free from weeds. Transplant celery to the garden rows any
time this month.

The early tomato plants should be trained to stakes or
trellis. Bushy plants may have three stakes placed in a
triangle about them. Tie up the branches with soft cord
or raffia. Tying up the plants makes the fruits ripen earlier.

Prevent blight on tomatoes and potatoes by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture this month. Paris green mixed with Bor-
deaux will combat the potato beetles and the tomato worms.

234 SCHOOL AND ROMJE GARDENING

The vine plants are likely to be attacked by squash bugs
and striped beetles. Follow directions given elsewhere for
fighting beetles. Vine borers attack squash and pumpkin
vines. Cover the joints of the vines with fresh soil all around •
the main plants. The vines will take root and not suffer so
badly from the borers.

Early plantings of peas and beans, if of the climbing
sorts, should be kept up on their poles or other supports.
All late plantings of lettuce, radishes, peas, carrots and beets
should be made in the coolest soil, or coolest spots. These
are cool feather plants and may suffer from summer heat.

Keep the garden well cultivated. Use the rake or wheel
hoe frequently.

Rhubarb and asparagus should not be harvested after this
month. Give these plants a chance to gather strength for the
next year's crop. A heavy application of fresh manure about
the plants will pay well.

School gardens which are not to be cared for during the
summer vacation must be put in readiness before school closes.
A good plan is to sow cowpeas or soybeans among all the
vegetables and let them occupy the ground to keep down weeds.
These will gather nitrogen from the air and improve the soil.
Before this is done the whole garden may be harrowed over,
if most of the early crops are harvested. Portions of the
garden containing the fall crops may be put in condition
and left undisturbed until school opens in the fall. A little
cultivation and attention during the summer should be given.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Late this month plow up the
old bed of strawberries that has borne for two seasons. These
plants have passed their usefulness and the ground can be
used for late summer craps. A green manure crop may
be grown, if nothing else. It may be well to use some of the
strongest plants to set runners for August planting. This
may be done by placing three-inch pots or cans in the ground
near the plants and rooting the runners in the potted soil.

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 235

If the rooting of runners is started early in June the plants
may be ready for setting in a new bed in August or September.

If you are growing the young beds of strawberries by the
hedge-row system, be sure to keep the runners cut off. No
runners should be allowed to start outside of the rows. They
take away the strength of the main plants and reduce the
fruit crop. Larger berries and better yields are secured by
keeping the runners cut. Large heavy crowns, with* many
fruit stems and blossom clusters, will start up from the main
plants. Gardeners producing the best strawberries do not
let runners form a matted bed. After the bearing straw-
berries have yielded their crop, mow down the plants, rake
them off and remove them to the compost heap. This reduces
the danger from leaf spot, diseases and insect enemies. Then
cultivate the bed well.

Spray the currants with Paris green to keep off the worms
until the fruit sets.

Watch for any insect attacks on the ornamental shrijbs and
shade trees. If the enemy is eating the leaves, use Paris
green or arsenate of lead as a spray.

For combating lice on snowball, hydrangea, or other
shrubs, use kerosene emulsion.

Fruit trees should be given another spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture and Paris green two or three weeks after the
fruit has set. The summer strength of lime-sulfur may take
the place of Bordeaux on apples.

If the weather is not too dry the lawns should be mowed
frequently. Proper attention must be given to details for the
best appearing lawns. In poor spots a little extra dressing
of nitrate of soda, or sprinkling with liquid manure, will
stimulate the growth of grass.

Flowers. — Stake the tallest flowering plants. Do not let
them be broken by wind. Look out for larkspur, dahlia,
cosmos, lilies, gladiolus, monkVhood, tall aneinone and others.

Many kinds of perennial flowers may be planted from seed

236 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

this month. It is late, but many of them will be ready for
blossoming next season.

Transplant any annuals you have left in the frames or
windows. Fill in bare spots of the perennial border with
annuals, if you have no others.

Set fringing borders of coleus and other bedding plants.
If any strong flowering bulbs are still in the ground, dig them
up and let they dry well, and store in a dry place till fall.
Leave the summer bulbs, such as crocus, dewdrops and others,
in the soil to blossom year after year.

JULY

Vegetables. — Keep down weeds and conserve moisture by
frequent surface tillage.

Insect pests must be kept off, especially those affecting
melons and squashes. Among the vegetables that may be
planted profitably for succession in July are wax beans, sweet
corn and beets. Use early varieties for each of these. They
mature much quicker and will be through earlier. Com and
beans must mature their crops before frost.

If dry weather comes on, irrigate or water the plants
abundantly. If hand sprinkling is necessary, better take the
nozzle off. Pour the water on in floods rather than in fine
drops. It is the soil that should be wet and not the plants
themselves. When the ground is well soaked, the roots follow
the moisture into the ground. If only the top is moist the
roots are kept at the surface and will suffer worse from
drought. A thorough soaking once or twice a week is better
than a light sprinkling every day.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Prune back the heads of the
young blackberry canes. Three feet is high enough. Long
branching laterals are also objectionable. Make the plants
bushy and compact.

It is possible to delay the ripening of currants by shading
a few bushes with burlap before the fruits are full grown.
This gives a longer ripening period.

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 237

Prune back the canes of black cap raspberries to thirty
inches or less in height. This causes l)ranching and gives
more fruit next year.

Young fruit trees, such as peaches, plums, apples and
pears, should be examined this month for summer pruning.
Remove with the fingers the little shoots on the main branches
and base of the lower limbs. Where the growth is taking place
in undesired parts remove the shoots with the fingers. This
forces the growth the remainder of season where it is wanted.

Peaches, plums and pears which are bearing fruit should
be examined to see if the fruits are too close. Thinning fruits
in late June or early July increases the size of the remainder.
Xever allow the fruits to touch each other. With peaches and
plums the distance apart should be four to six inches.

Summer pruning of shade trees and shrubs is also a good
practice. Better results are thus secured with less effort.

Flood the lawn at night, if the weather is dry. Let the
water soak in deep.

Flowers. — The soil in all flower beds should be loosened
with a rake or hoe. Xever allow it to become hard and crusty.

Again look out for the tall flowers. Stake them up well.
' A high wind may otherwise do much damage.

Insect enemies must be watched and proper spraying done.

AUGUST

Vegetables. — Tie up the outer leaves of cauliflower to
blanch the heads.

The earliest crop of celery may need blanching this month
(Fig. 126). Others begin the blanching when the plants are
about half grown. Three methods are common: (1) A sec-
tion of common drain tile, three or four inches in diameter,
may be placed around each plant. (2) Soil may be mounded
up by the rows. (3) Twelve-inch boards may be placed close
to the plants on both sides of the row. These are held in

«38 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

place by stakes, and leaves or straw are placed between the
plants inside tbe boaiuls.

The onion harvest should begin when the bulbs are well
formed, and the tops have died. Let the onions lie on the dry
soil antil cured. Then carefully move them to a dry place
and spread in thin layers. The early crop should not be

Fio. 12e, — C^lEry banked with dirt ror blanchinc. A board blancher at left to sbno
the structun. (Cornell RssdWCircle LeaBet.)

stored for winter. Select good samples for the fall fairs
and exhibits.

Prune tbe tops of a portion of the tomato plants to pre-
vent further blossoming. This will force tbe fruits already
formed to ripen earlier. Pick the earliest before they ripen
and let them color off of the plants.

A second crop of the quick-growing vegetables may be
planted this month, if the soil is moist enough (Fig. 137).

CALENDAB FOB NORTHERN STATES 23fl

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Cut out the oldest canes of
blackberries and raspberries. Some gardeners even cut away
all the canes of blackberries after picking is over.

Cultivate the hush fruits now. This helps the next year's
crop.

Start a new stri wherry bed in August if the season is
moist (Fig. 128). Do not expect the old bed to last more
than two years. The young bed should be coming on as the
old bed goes. Set plants you have raised in the garden, or

Tin. 127.— PnpaHns the nidea foi a •eoond crop. Eaoh student bu a mo-
IJon of a long row. Normal Sojiool. Providence, R. I. (Photo from Children'a
Flower Mia^on, CleveUnd.)

buy them from seedsmen or florists. Early spring planting is
preferable, but, if the season is moist, August planting is
very successful.

Strawberries which are to be grown in-doors, or in hotbeds,
may be potted in August and later transplanted to five- or
six-inch pots. Keep them well watered with liquid manure.

If a privet hedge is growing about the grounds, August
is a good time to prune it. Other ornamental shrubs should
be kept in good form by heading back the long shoots and
brandies.

440 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

The orchard should be provided with a winter cover crop
sown in August. Eye, crimson clover and winter vetch may
be flown for thia puipoee.

Some nurserymeD recommend the transplantiiig of ever-
greens in August. It can be done now if a ball of earth is
kept about the root« and the trees are watered well after
planting.

Flowers,— Look over fall catalogues and make lists of
bulbs for autumn planting. They should be ordered this
month. Look over all flowering plants and prune away the
faded flowers and seed eases. Hips of roses and ripe seed
of many perennials may be saved. Place the kinds in separ-
ate envelopes properly marked. The ripening of seeds on
flowering plants takes much of their strength, and should
usually be avoided by pruning earlier. A few seeds of annual
flowers, suitable for use in windows next winter, should be
started in some secluded ground now.

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 241

SEPTEMBER

Vegetables. — Before fall frosts occur, complete the har-
vest of tender garden crops, such as beans, sweet corn, cucum-
bers, melons, tomatoes, egg-plant and peppers. Squashes and
pumpkins may be' left until after the first frosts have killed
the vines, but do not let the squashes be frozen.

Late tomatoes may be gathered while green and spread in
single layers on shelves. They will ripen in-doors. This may
extend the ripening period until October 15th, or later. Some
gardeners pull up tomato plants loaded with green fruits, and
hang them in protected places in the tool house or shed. The
fruits will continue ripening for several weeks.

Fall sowings of lettuce, radish, spinacji, kale, winter
onions, and others, may be made in September. This wilj
add much to the value of both the home and school garden.
Extra early peas may be planted the first week of the month.
If they mature this fall, so much is gained.

Hotbeds and coldframes should be made ready for fall
and winter use. Radish, lettuce and spinach started in cold-
frames may be protected when winter comes on and yet mature
their crops without extra heat.

Keep the celery weU hilled up and well watered. Growth
should continue rapidly after the blanching begins.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Fall rains are apt to stimu-
late the growth of woody trees, including the bushes and fruit
trees. All cultivation about these should stop. A cover
crop, such as rye or wheat, will help to prevent late growth.
The buds are likely to suffer during winter if growth continues
in September.

The thrifty growth of grass should be kept well trimmed.
Allowing extra growth to stand for winter protection is not a
good plan.

Grass seed is likely to succeed if started well in September.

Flowers. — Hunt through the woods for hardy wild
flowers. They can be better recognized now than in early
16

242 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

spring. They may be transplanted in September by cutting
off the tops of most of the leafy growth. Plant them in the
wild garden.

Divide clumps of perennials in the hardy perennial bor-
der. Many which have given poor results the past season
may be too crowded. Do not forget the clumps of dianthus,
hollyhock and perennial phlox. Sow seeds of hardy peren-
nials which are recommended by the catalogues for fall
planting.

OCTOBER

Vegetables.- -Watch for frosty nights and protect the
late tender crops, or harvest them before injury. Eead again
the cautions for September.

Go over the cabbage patch several times and bend over
those heads which re ripe or fully formed. This is to check
the growth and prevent many bursted heads. Late in the
month select the firmest heads for storage. They should be
stored in a cold, dry place, but where they will not freeze too
much. The temperature should be near the freeeing point
most of the time. A pile in a comer of the hay floor of a
barn, covered with hay or straw, will keep until after
Christmas.

Transplant the cabbages started from seed in September.
They may be kept in coldframes. A cold cellar is a good
storage place.

Mow and remove the tops from the old asparagus beds
and apply several inches of good manure. Young beds may
be started now. Plants started from seed in the spring may
be transplanted to the permanent rows five feet apart. Soils
should be light but should contain plenty of rotted humus and
rich manure.

Khubarb may be planted now. Onion seeds of hardy
varieties may be planted in the open garden. It may be well
to protect them later with a little mulch of leaves or light
straw. The onion beds started in September may also be
mulched as the ground begins to freeze.

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 243

Transplant parsley from the garden to the window boxes
or coldframes. These will supply green garnish throughout
the winter months. They do not require much light.

Dig the sweet potatoes when the vines have been touched by
frost. Handle them as carefully as eggs to prevent bruising.
They should be sorted and only the soundest kept for storage.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Many trees and shrubs may
be transplanted during the month. Fall planting is recom-
mended for nearly all woody plants. Much time will be saved
by doing the work now instead of in the spring. In most cases
let the leaves drop before the trees or shrubs are moved.
Broad-leaved evergreens, such as laurel and rhododendron, may
have the old leaves removed at the time of transplanting. The
young leaves should be kept.

All hardy roses, such as ramblers and bush roses, can be
planted in the fail as well as in the spring.

Early October in usually favorable for sowing grass seed
except in the extreme North. Fall rains aid the growth and
cool weather is also favorable.

Flowers. — If the weather is cold in October, the hardy
bulbs may be planted in the beds for spring flowering.

This is a good time to plant lilies, lily-of-the-valley, del-
phinium, hollyhock, achillea, iris and other hardy perennials.

Ferns from the woods may be transplanted just before the
ground freezes. The tops may be entirely cut off.

Remove the tops from any flowers that have been killed
by frost. The grounds will look much better.

Take up the house plants early before frost kills them.
Those that were ^^ plunged " last spring, and others you may
wish for the windows the coming winter, must be cared for
now. Be sure to have some chrysanthemums ready.

NOVEMBER

Vegetables. — Give the rhubarb and asparagus beds heavy
applications of manure before the virinter sets in.

244 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

This is the month for fall plowing of the garden. Heavy
clay soils should be plowed just before freezing. They may
be left unharrowed. The action of winter weather will
greatly improve their texture.

See that a good compost heap is started this month. Use
in this all the wastes from the garden, including vines and
stems of annuals of all kinds. Cow manure should be put
in layers a few inches thick, alternating with layers of
inverted sods.

Boot crops of several kinds may be buried for winter use.
Try beets, turnips, carrots and rutabagas. Parsnips and
salsif}' may be left in rows where they were growing. A little
mulch may be put over them. They will improve in flavor
by freezing.

When the ground begins to freeze remove celery from the
garden to a pit or cellar. The long plants may be trans-
planted and set close together in deep boxes, with only a little
soil about the roots to hold the moisture. If the boxes are
loose and crate-like on the sides, so much the better. The
stems are less likely to discolor. Water the roots carefully
without wetting the tops.

This is the best time of year for drainage work, particu-
larly if the season is not too wet. Install drains where they
are most needed. Land drains are of more value than many
would suspect.

All the extra garden tools should be gathered up and put
in winter storage. All unpainted parts should be given an
application of wagon grease rubbed on with a cloth. This
will prevent rust and insure their coming out in good con-
dition in the spring. Handles and other wooden parts may be
painted or given a coat of linseed oil.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Cover the strawberry beds
with coarse strawy manure or other mulch for the winter.
Clean straw, leaves, light pine boughs, and corn stalks are
sometimes used for this purpose (Fig. 129).

CALENDAR FOR NORTHERN STATES 245

Manure should be placed about tin; bush fruits, and per-
haps about the lawn shrubs. Bbododfndrons and laurels re-
quire some protection over the ground ; either a coarse mulch
or manure. In the coldest regions light straw is thrown
among these broad-teaved evergreens and left until spring.

Stratify peach and plum pits now. They will be suitable
for use in starting the seedlings for next year's budding.
Look carefully over the tops of all trees when the leaves

■tFAw prolcciA the strawberry pluita Jrom
(New Jersey Station.)

are off for bag worms, tent caterpillar nests, egg masses and
other signs of insect enemies. These may be pruned out or
picked off and destroyed.

Transplant some little evergreens, such as pines, spruces,
and cedars to pots, cans or window boxes. They will add
much cheerfulness to the winter collection of house plants.

Top dress all the grassy lawns with half-rotted manure to
make a complete cover. This is to remain until early spring.

246 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Flowers. — If the bulbs for spring flower beds have not
been set they should be attended to the first thing this month.
Later cover the beds with a mulch of straw or leaves.

Sweet peas may be planted in November. They will blos-
som much earlier in the spring. Fill the trench with very
rich compost and let the seeds be planted six inches deep.
They will not start until spring.

Cinerarias, dwarf French marigold and perhaps other
annual flowers planted in July or August may be protected till
November, and then transplanted into pots for the window
garden. They will give a fine show of blossoms through the
winter. Lilies-of-the-valley, Roman and Dutch hyacinths and
Chinese lilies should be placed in pots of soil in a cool cellar
..during this month. Let the growth be controlled by^ the
temperature so that they will be ready for blossoming about
Christmas time, or whenever desired. When the bulbs begin
to swell bring them out to the light.

This is the best month of the year for chrysanthemums.
Plants should be potted in time for use for a show in windows.

DECEMBER

Vegetables. — Mushrooms may be started in half-rotted
manure in a dark cellar or pit. Plenty of water and occasional
yentilation may be recommended. The heat required for the
growth comes from the rotting of manure.

Transplant some of the garden crops to boxes and keep
them fresh in the cellar. This is possible with such crops
as cabbage, carrots, kale, salsify, parsnips and green onions.
Keep the roots covered with sand, sod or soil to prevent wilt-
ing. This plan of storage is not permanent, but will keep a
few such vegetables fresh in the cellar for a month or two.

The out-door garden crops, which are to stand the winter,
should now be well protected with litter of some kind. The
amount of cover will depend somewhat on the location or lati-
tude, and the kind of crop. Kale, winter onions and spinach
may be kept in this way.

CALENDAB FOR NORTHERN STATES 247

Hotbeds may be kept going, or at least started for next
month's planting. Winter crops may be grown in them
continuously. The amount of growth will be governed by the
covering. If the beds are in a sunny exposure and protected
from north winds the plants will do much better. Potted
plants and boxes may be made ready here for moving to the
windows from time to time. Thus a fresh supply of all kinds
of growth are available throughout the winter.

. Trees and Fruits. — December is a very suitable time to
begin pruning. More pleasant weather for the work is found
now than in January.

Protect tender roses, such as the teas and their hybrids,
by tying about them bundles of stalks or straw to prevent
winter growing.

Flowers- — Make double boxes for use in the windows
to keep the soil from cooling too much in severe weather.
One box is set inside a larger one and packing is placed be-
tween the sides of the two boxes and underneath the inner box.
Suitable packing material is sawdust or tightly crumpled
newspapers. Schools using such double boxes will find it
much easier to protect the plants over Sunday when the
building becomes cold. The tops of the plants may be pro-
tected by wrapping with newspapers. During the coldest
weather these boxes should be set in the warmest part of the
building, or in the cellar over Simday.

The window boxes should be given utmost attention from
now on. Keep everything in a thrifty condition. Use liquid
manure or solutions of nitrate of soda for watering those where
growth is desired. A little potash and phosphate in the
water is better for the flowering ones. Study the light rela-
tion. Some plants can endure more shade than others. Such
is true of begonias, ferns, dracaenas, palms, vincas, fuchsia,
English ivy.

A good sunny exposure is required for such window plants as
abutilon, sweet alyssum, geranium, marguerites and petunias.

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CHAPTER XIX
GARDEN CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES

Theke is less need for making a gardeners' calendar for
the southern states than there is for the northern states. The
planting seasons in the South are always longer than in the
North, and there is much greater opportunity for choice in
the matter of dates for starting the various kinds of crops.

The calendar for southern states is given for those who are
not very familiar with the climate ; and for those who may
know the climate, but who are not so well informed about the
hardiness and adapta4;ion of different plants; and those who
do not know the best temperature or kind of weather in
which various garden crops thrive best. The calendar should
be considered as suggestive in its nature rather than as a set
of rules to be followed absolutely. The latitude to be kept
in mind in the reading of this chapter is about 33** or 34"*,
where the average date for the first killing frost of winter
is from the first to the middle of TTovember. For regions
farther south or north the dates may be varied somewhat.

For the parts of Florida south of the annual frost line,
the planting season really begins about the first of September
and extends through to the hot weather months when the
starting of most garden crops must cease because of the
burning sun.

Market demands for the various crops often govern the
times for planting in the southern states. In certain regions
of commercial gardening the market has more influence than
the season in this respect. For example, celery may be
planted to get the crop into market ahead of the northern
grown crop. Independent of season in Florida, celery is
planted in January, October and April.
250

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 251

JANUABY

Vegetables. — Plan the school garden early. Every home
garden should have more vegetables than before. There is
money in vegetable gardening. Let the size of the garden be
increased (Fig. 130).

Sweet potatoes may be atarted in a coldframe or hotbed to
produce plants for setting in the open about March or April.

Wait for the sunny days and give them plenty of air. They
must be hardened off before planting. Use hotbeds or window
boxes to start celery seed in January.

White or Irish potatoes may he planted before the month
is over, if the soil and weather are fit.

Asparagus may be started from seed sown thia month.
Seedling plants started last year may be transplanted to

252 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

rows. Set the plants six inches deep and twelve to eighteen
inches apart in the row. Commercial gardeners leave four
or five feet between rows. The soil must be madte as rich as
possible with compost or fresh manure. Old beds should be
liberally manured. The coming crop will be much better.

It is not too early to risk a few of the hardy vegetables
out-of-doors late in January. Make a trial of early cabbage
plants, English pea seeds, onion sets and seeds, carrots, pars-
nips, .beets, lettuce, radish, spinach, turnips, rutabagas and
kohlrabi. A hardy lettuce for such early planting is Hanson
or Wonderful, which is known also as the Shellem lettuce.

The winter garden should be carefully worked, and prepare
the soil for the spring garden to catch and hold moisture.

Flowers. — Plant sweet peas in deep trenches where they
will have plenty of sun in the early morning.

The house plants should be weir cared for. They consti-
tute the main flower garden at this season. See that all dead
parts are removed. Give them plenty of water. A little
liquid manure will stimulate any that are declining. Watch
for insect enemies and use the best remedies promptly.

Dahlias may be started from seed, as new colors are thus
found. Those from seed vary in color while those from roots
do not. Seed started this month may be expected to produce
flowering plants next fall.

The most hardy annual and perennial flowers may be
planted in the open garden late in January. Many of them
are not easily transplanted, and the seed may be sown where
the plants are to remain imtil flowering time.

The following are popular hardy flowers: Alyssum, snap-
dragon, fox glove, hollyhock, poppy, pansy, phlox, candytuft
and larkspur. The young seedlings may be protected by leaves
or other oovers during late cold snaps. Many of them
started in coldframes will bloom by May.

Trees and Fruits. — ^The last of January, if not too wet,
is a good time for transplanting all kinds of shade and fruit

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES «5S

trees, vines and shrubs. Have the ground well prepared and
the holes made a little in advance. Kever expose the root«
to the air long.

Priming sliould be completed if possible this month. Gnt
away the dead branches. Thin the heads of fruit trees.
Never allow limbs or twigs to rub.

Finish the winter spraying. Bead the directions for
uee of lime-aulfur and keep scale insects in control.

This is the last chance to take cuttings of any woody
plants which are to be grafted, budded or started on their
own roots later in the spring. Do not forget grape vines,

fia. 131.— Puteboard-'poU" are otteB used in traDiplBnUne seedliDH. Th»e

currants, gooseberries, Le Conte pears, Marianna plums and
the many ornamental shrubs.

All the in-door work, such as root grafting, ighould be

If the lawns were not dressed with stable manure last fall,
throw on a thin coating of fine compost. A little top dressing
of lime is also good at this time.

PEBEtlABT

Vegetables. — If you are to plant rhubarb this year, have
the work completed this month. Plant the roots in rich,
moist soil. They will stand much manure. Horse-radish
and asparagus roots may be planted now. The perennial
garden herbs, such as sage and thyme, may be started either
from roots or seeds.

254 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Use the hotbeds to start such tender vegetables as tomato,
egg-plant and pepper (Fig. 131). The seed may first be
sown in window boxes and as the secoDd pairs of leaves are
forming transplant them to the hotbed.

More sweet potatoes should he bedded this month, and
Irish potatoes may be planted for the purpose of succession
in cropping. Irish Cobblers are popular for planting now.
More of the early hardy vegetables may be started from
seed. Plant English peas, rad-
ish (Fig. 132), beelfi, carrots,
endive, kohlrabi, salsify, pars-
ley, parsnips and turnips in the
open garden. Celery may yet be
started in hotbeds or window
boxes for planting out in April.
If you have started early
cabbage in the hotbed or win-
dow bos, get it well hardened
and set part of the crop in the
garden. Early cabbage should
be kept going in a succession
of plantings. Sow extra early
EmproBS, early Jersey Wake-
i.ri%iri«TJ'^hiw«^n™«MJ^'« field, Charleston Wakefield, and
the crop matures very quickly. other favorites in coldframes

or protected beda for later transplanting. Cauliflower should
be started.

It is not too early to try a number of slightly tender

garden crops now, but do not expose the tender plants to frost.

Watermelon, muskmelon or cucumbers may be started now,

if the hills are protected on cold nights with boxes or other

covering, and if the soil aud location arc warm.

Other tender vegetables to be planted in smaller quantities
now are beans, okra and young plants of tomato, peppers and
egg-plants, in warm soil and protected plat-es.

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES ^5

The more tender vegetables should be planted late in the
month, and the hardy ones before the middle of the month.

Keep the garden soil well cultivated from now on. Never
allow the ground to become crusted or cracked. If it has a
cover crop do not destroy that yet, except for the place where
you want to start the garden now.

Flowers. — Begin the planting of gladiolus, cannas,
dahlias, and tuberoses, in coldframes or places where they may
be protected from frosts after they start growth.

Pansies that have been started in coldframes may be trans-
planted to the garden. If they have been in the garden all
winter under cover remove the litter and rake in eome well-
rotted compost.

In the coldframes, start seeds of asters, begonias, helio-
tropes, lobelias, petunias, pyrethrum, castor beans, cyclamens,
scarlet sage, Chinese primrose and verbenas. As they start
transplant enough to prevent crowding.

If chrysanthemum and carnation cuttings have not been
started they should be rooted early this month. If ready,
chrysanthemums may be transplanted to the open beds late
in February. Carnations are more tender. Cuttings of
coleus, in several colors, may be rooted in beds now.

It is not too late to plant some seeds of sweet peas and
perennial phlox.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Part the mulch over a few
of the rows of strawberries. Let the plants come through
early this month. If no mulching was done last fall give the
bed a thorough cultivation and put on the mulch to protect
the crop while forming.

Strawberry plants may be «et now. Use care in planting
to avoid exposure of roots while planting. Set them as deep
in the ground as possible without covering the crown bud
with soil.

Examine peach trees for borers. Remove the soil with a
hoe around each tree about two inches deep; Watch for the

256 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

borings and the formation of gum. Kill the worms with a
wire or sharp-pointed knife. After the trees are all gone
over in this way, mound the soil up above the level. This
process is to be repeated two or three times a year.

If the spring is late, and buds are not yet open, some prun-
ing and spraying may be done early in the month. If the
season is early and the blossoms are open, watch for the proper
time to spray for curculio and codling moth.

All planting of trees and shrubs should be pushed this
month. Tea roses and other hybrids may be safely handled
in the open.

Bake the lawns, remove the winter dressing and roll the
grass with a heavy roller. The first mowing may be necessary
before the month is over. Grass seed should be sown early in
the month where the sod is thin. Top dress with lime and
commercial fertilizer, chiefly phosphate. Nitrogen may be
applied later.

This is a good month for sodding banks and borders along
walks and driveways.

Hedges should be pruned and the litter raked from under
them. Give the grounds a cleaned-up appearance. Eake the
driveways, fill in the washed out places and go over with a log
drag or King road drag.

MARCH

Vegetables. — A few tender vegetables may now be put
out without much fear of frost. But make the main plantings
of bush beans, pole beans, sweet corn, okra, squashes, cucum-
bers and melons, the last of March or in April.

Transplant to the open garden cabbage, cauliflower and
some of the celery, tomatoes, egg-plants, peppers, sweet potatoes
(Fig. 133).

Early in the month plant Irish Cobbler potatoes for home
use and market.

Make more plantings of several of the early hardy vege-

CAI*ENDAB FOR SOUTHERN STATES 857

tables early in March. This will give crops lat«T than the
same kinds planted in January and February. You may
need more of beets, English peas, turnips, kale, mustard, let-
tuce, radishes, spinach, endive, carrots and parsnips.

If the cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts are not
all out, set them in the open garden now.

Flowers. — Sometime in the month you can probably put
out the tender bulbs. Set roots of gladiolus, dahlias, cannas
and caladiums in the garden where they are to grow all season.

ELeep pansies and sweet peas well watered. The show of

Pio. 133.— The haiicU should pack the «
mouture to tba root. A littlelooae mulch mi
Borea, Ohio.)

blossoms later will pay for the work. A little liquid manure
may be used.

If you believe in planting dahlia seeds, the earlier it is
done the better.

This is the beet time for planting seeds of the following
annual flowers: Aster, alyssum, balsam, coek's-eomb, cosmos,
candytuft, marigold, nasturtium, petunia, phlox, poppy, and
verbenas.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Look over the suggestions for
February and if the work mentioned was not all completed
some of that may be done now.

Keep the lawns well cut and the roads well dragged.

258 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Spraying for codling-moth, cankerworm, plum cnrculio
and other insects will probably need to be done this month, or
April. Watch when the petals fall.

Cultivate the soil about the bush fruits and apply well-
rotted manure. Some commercial fertilizer rich in potash,
or unleached wood ashes will increase the fruit crop this year.

APRIL

Vegetables. — 'If the weather remains cool, the latest
plantings of hardy vegetables may again be made. Probably
the weather is too warm for English peas. Try more beets,
spinach, radishes and lettuce.

All kinds of beans and the edible cowpeas may be risked
now. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumbers, summer squash,
and hubbard squash grow well in warm April days. They are
the natural hot-weather crops.

Plant Country Gentlemen sweet corn and other favorite
varieties.

4

If you have more plants continue to set out peppers, egg-
plants and tomatoes; also cabbage and cauliflower. Seeds of
late varieties of the last two may be planted in the open
garden.

School gardens intending to try experiments in cotton
growing should test the seed this month and plant in May.

Have the ground well prepared and very rich. Make the
conditions favorable for the experiments.

The sweet-potato ground should be made ready and the
main crop set this month and next. The ground should be
very moist at the time of planting. Use commercial fertilizer
rich in potash and apply well-rotted compost.

Peanuts should be planted now. Other plantings may be
made later.

Flowers. — Chrysanthemum and carnation plants may be
set in garden rows for cultivation through the summer. If
the roots of dahlias, caladiums and cannas are not out, set
them now.

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 259

This is a good time to put out the bedding plants. Castor
beans, coleus, flowering geraniums, and others, will probably
do best outside now. Continue to plant seeds of annual flower-
ing plants in the open garden where they are to blossom. See
the March list. Do not forget the annual vines, such as
gourds, "wild^^ columbine, cypress, morning glory, and
flowering beans, such as lablab.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — If you are to raise your own
strawberry plants, either for planting a new bed or for forcing,
select runners frcm the strongest plants of the preferred
variety. Plants for winter house use may be started in pots
plunged in the soil near the rows. Keep the new sets well
watered. They should grow vigorously until transplanting
time in September. Keep the blossoms all picked off this season.

Strawberry beds must be gone over frequently to prevent
runners from taking root, except where young plants are
desired. They take away the strength of the main plants and
reduce the fruit crop. The matted rows may produce more
berries, but they are small and less desirable.

Spray the currants with Paris green to keep off the worms
until the fruit sets.

Fruit trees shoull be given another spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture and Paris green a few weeks after the fruit
has set to combat scab and other fungous diseases, and late
attacks of insects.

Watch all ornamental shrubs and shade trees and see if
they are being attacked by leaf -eating insects or plant lice.

Plants cannot withstand insect attacks at this season so well
as in late summer.

If the weather is dry the lawns will need watering. Do
this at night by flooding the grass with water in large
amounts. Let it soak in well before the sun bakes the surface.
A thin dressing of rich black soil will help to keep the lawn
green through the summer. Nitrate of soda may be applied
now to stimulate growth in the poor spots.

260 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

MAY

Vegetables. — ^Late plantings of bush and pole beans
should be planted early this month.

A fall crop of celery may be started from seed in coldf rames
or well-watered beds. Shade the young plants from the hot
sun. Plants etarted earlier may be set out now for the early
celery crop.

Lettuce may be started in shady beds if kept well watered.

Hot-weather vegetables, such as melons, cucumbers and
squashes, may be planted. The hills should be six or eight feet
apart each way. Use plenty of seed in each hill to allow some
for the insects. Thinning may be done, if necessary, when
the plants are a few inches high. Very rich compost should
be placed in each liill.

Early hardy vegetables harvested this month will leave
vacant places. Fill these with corn, sweet potatoes and late
vine crops.

Late Italian cauliflower, late cabbage and coUards may be
planted in hills three and one-half feet apart each way. Put
several seeds in each hill and mark the place with a spoonful
of lime on top. The struggle with weeds is easier if you can
see the hills from the very first.

It is still not too late to set out egg-plants, peppers, toma-
toes and to plant some Irish potatoes.

Keep the cultivator going. A garden rake is a good mulch
former for summer gardens.

Schools, which have a long summer vacation, starting soon,
should make plans for this. The early crops may be har-
vested and the ground planted with crops to be harvested
in the fall after school is open. If no one is to care for the
school garden during the summer, sow a small crop of cowpeas
or soybeans.

Flowers. — The vines mentioned last month may be
planted this month. Sow the seed where the plants are to
remain. Use annual vines to hide unsightly parts of the

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 261

premises, or to climb on screens forming backgrounds for
flower gardens.

Many of the tender annual flowers may still be sown in the
open garden, but put them where they will not need trans-
planting. Hot weather is a bad time to transplant them.

Keep the flower beds well watered and the soil well
stirred. If the plants have a struggle at this season, the
summer and fall show of flowers will be much reduced.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — The cultivator should be used
about all trees and bush fruits. Growth should be stimulated
now.

This is perhaps the best time to thin peaches, apples, pears
and plums on the trees. Do it early. Never allow the fruits
to touch each other after reaching full growth. The result
of thinning is larger and better fruit (Fig. 138).

Small pruning with the fingers may begin late this month.
Remove all unnecessary growth from fruit trees as soon as
foimd.

Apple trees must be watched closely for borers.

Keep the strawberry beds free from weeds and grass.
When the harvest is over in the bearing beds, remove the mulch,
mow the vines, rake all the litter off and put it in the compost
heap. Stimulate a new growth by cultivation. Water the bed
if the weather is dry. Cultivation should follow the watering
and continue throughout the summer.

JUNE

Vegetables. — ^A number of crops for fall harvesting may
be started now. Make plantings of coUards, rutabagas, and
plant sweet corn early and late in the month.

Plant a few more hills of squashes, pumpkins, cucumbers,
watermelons and muskmelons. At this season give them
plenty of water to germinate the seed and keep the plants
growing.

Sweet-potato vines may be set when the soil is moist

262 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

enough. If irrigation is possible a larger crop may be grown.

The tomatoes already planted will probably continue to
yield until fall frosts kill them. It is a little better, however,
to start young plants this month, as the fruit from these will be
better for late picking and canning.

Flowers. — Pansy seed may be started this month to grow
plants for use in the window boxes next winter.

In the flower garden sow seeds of aster, marigold, nastur-
tium and other quick-growing annuals. These will bring
forth a good show of fall flowers, if they are well watered
through the dry season.

If you have been holding on to some of the house plants
till now, better plunge the pots in a garden spot protected
from the wind. Keep flowers well cut off and let the plants
make a good growth of vegetation through the summer. A
little liquid manure will stimulate this kind of growth.

Go over all of the flower beds and cut out the stems that
are through blossoming. The ripening of seed is a severe
strain on the plants and will reduce their show of blossoms.
If seeds are wanted, select a few of the best plants and save
them for that purpose. Collect seeds of sweet pea, poppy and
others that you have admired.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — ^As soon as the blackberries
and raspberries are through bearing, prune out the oldest
canes. From now on cut back the young canes at a height
of about three feet, and reduce the long branches by summer
pruning. Keep the plants bushy, and thus increase the fruit
next year.

Continue to- summer prune both the young and the old
fruit trees. This is done by removing the young shoots on the
trunks, main branches and other places where they are not
wanted. No tools are necessary if the work is done when
the young growth starts. Such summer pruning forces the
growth into other parts for the remainder of the season.

The lawns can hardly be kept too wet at this season.

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 263

In the absence of rain, flood the grass with water at night once
a week. Let it soak in deep so the roots will penetrate the
soil and not suffer so much from drought. Light sprinklings
are apt to cause the roots to grow toward the top and suffer
more from drought.

JULY

Vegetables. — This is probably the last month for the
planting of Irish potatoes. Use the Green Mountain variety
early in the month, and Lookout Mountain later on. In
very warm soils a good plan is to mulch the summer planting
with litter free from weed seeds, such as straw, marsh hay,
leaves or pine needles. This will help to keep the soil cool,
prevent the growth of weeds and hold the moisture. These
plantings should produce the late crop for winter use. The
seed for summer planting is obtained through dealers, from
cold storage.

About the last of the month a little spinach may be sown
for fall use.

Curled Scotch kale sown this month in open garden or
transplanted will make large harvests and be fine for greens
after frost. Norfolk kale is more hardy and will stand cutting
until winter or in open weather all winter.

Boston head lettuce, or other good varieties, may be sown
late in July or in August in partial shade to be transplanted
later as a fall crop.

Chinese and Japanese winter radishes, if sown this month,
will make immense roots for late fall and early winter harvest.
They will live over winter if well mulched with manure or
straw.

Cucumbers and cantaloupes started early this month, and
well watered, will still make crops before frost.

Early varieties of snap beans can be planted both the first
and last of the month. In warm weather each planting yields
its crop for only a short time and a succession of plantings
is necessary.

£64 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Early Adams sweet com and other early varieties may be
put in before the middle of July.

Irish Cobbler potatoes may still be planted. The level
culture method is best for hot weather, and a heavy mulch,
as suggested last month, should be used.

Late cabbage and cauliflower may be started as described
before.

This is one of the best months in which to plant parsnips,
salsify and half-long carrots. They will all grow until the
ground freezes and the parsnips and salsify are improved in
flavor by freezing.

Cuttings from tomato plants and sweet potatoes may be
taken from the old vines and started in the open ground.
Water them well at first.

Plant a few garden peas, early beets, and turnips.

Vigilance must be exercised in fighting cabbage worms on
cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts; potato beetles on
potato vines and egg-plants; striped beetles on all the vine
crops ; and flea beetles on Irish potatoes, egg-plants and many
other crops. Use the remedies given in Chapter XX.

Plant more bush beans of quick-maturing varieties.

This is a good month to transplant the late celery crop,
or part of it. The early planting of celery must be sprayed
with Bordeaux mixture to prevent blight.

Canning clubs should be organized. Whether this is done
or not, get a small canning outfit and thus save the vegetables
and fruits from going to waste. •Much money can be made
in the home canning of vegetables and fruits. An outfit of
suitable size is inexpensive. This will give a market for
products when there is no canning factory nearby.

Flowers. — Make a collection of flower seeds from both
the annual and perennial plants. Place each kind in a sepa-
rate envelope, and mark both the name and the color. Pos-
sibly the color will not come true in all cases, and this will
be an interesting observation. '

CALENDAK FOR SOUTHERN STATES 265

This is a good month to start seeds of cineraria, cyclamen,
primrose, and other annoal flowers, to produce plants for use
in the windows next winter.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Cultivate the bosh fruits now
to aid next year's crop.

If you have grapes bearing now, protect them from poultry.

Fia. 134.-~Wliit« Nugan grapea in a achoaJ garden. (ItiUcnhDuee SrhoolGardeiu.)

Be sure they are not hanging too low with the load of fruit
(Fig. 134).

Keep the hedges well pruned about the grounds, and the
lawn well mowed. This is a good time to use liquid manure
on the thin spots in the lawn.

266 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

After the blackberry crop is. all picked, prune out the old
eaiies and make room for young growth (Fig, 135). Prune
raspberries less severely by cutting out two-year-old canes
and trimming others that are too high.

Prune out the dead rose heads and keep the bushes grow-
ing for the sake of a good show next year.

The orchard should be provided with a winter cover crop.

Fia, liia. — BUckbeRiessrown In sihbU nrdeni mar be cut to the Krqund
after wioh Grup is picked. I^e buahea may tseo be kept low ^nd leee BAnaduja.
(New Joney ^lion.) "^ _, "^y^

sown late this month or early next month. Crimson clover
is one of the best crops for this purpose. It is not too late
to sow eowpcas and soybeans as green manure in the orchard
to be disked or harrowed in about the first of October. A
winter cover of vetch and rye may then be used.

AUGUST

Vegetables. — Persons in charge of school gardens should
make such plantings now as will give results during the fall

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 267

term of school. For this purpose sow bush beaus, Chinese
radish beds, endive, kohlrabi, lettuce, mustard, spinach, pars-
ley, turnips, and rutabagas. Also set out plants of celery,
late cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts. Tomato and
sweet-potato cuttings may be made early this month, and
produce crops before frost.

Keep the gardens well watered, remembering that many
plants you are trying to grow prefer cool conditions, and more
water is needed for this reason.

The cultivator should be kept going in hot weather. Ke-
member the dust mulch principles, and apply them now.

Young pods of okra may be gathered and dried for winter
use. Sweet corn may be boiled, cut from the cob, and dried
in the oven, or hot sun, away from the flies. Such dried corn
is sometimes preferred to that saved in cans.

This is a good time to save seeds of watermelon, musk-*
melon, tomato, early peppers and egg-plants. Always select
the very best fruits for this purpose. •

Flowers. — Perennial carnations may be started from
seed in the open garden now. These will produce a good crop
of flowers next year. Geranium cuttings rooted early this
month will be good window plants during the winter.

Give special attention to the fall flowering plants, such as
chrysanthemums, cannas and scarlet sage. Keep them well
watered and occasionally apply some liquid manure.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Each year, late in this month,
start a new strawberry bed. Do not expect the old bed to
bear more than two years. When the ground is moist trans-
plant those plants 3^ou started from runners early in the
season. If care is exercised they may be moved without
serious check, and the new bed will bear next year.

If there are no potted strawberry plants to be grown
in-doors next winter, prepare some for that purpose now.
Select the largest plants of this yearns runners, and put them
in rich black soil. These may be plunged in the garden and

268 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

kept well watered. They will be transplanted later to larger
pots.

Do not forget the winter cover crop for the orchard. See
the suggestion of last month. It is not a good plan to stimu-
late the growth of young wood on fruit trees late in the fall.
A cover crop, as oats, will help to check the growth and cause
the wood to ripen better. It is necessary that buds should
mature well if they are to produce a good crop next year.

SEPTEMBER

Vegetables. — ^Large plants of cabbage, cauliflower, col-
lards and celery may be set in the garden early this month for
the production of winter crops. Onion seeds and sets may also
be put in now and later. Plant more lettuce and radish
seeds this month. Sow turnips for greens and for roots.
' Early beets may be planted. Carrots sown early may succeed
this fall.

Select corn and cotton seed from the healthiest and most
prolific plants. Follow the rules for selection given in
Chapter XVII.

Crimson clover should be sown everywhere as a winter
cover crop — in the tomato patch, cotton-field, corn-field, and
all bare parts of garden. Thorough cultivation should be
given the entire garden just before sowing the winter cover
crop. This is a good time to apply stable manure to the
soil, to rot for next year.

Flowers. — Make up lists of bulbs for fall planting from
the garden catalogues.

Hardy annual flowers may be sown this month for use in
winter windows. See August suggestions.

Perennial flowers of a number of kinds may be sown this
month, and thus gain nearly a year over those sown next
spring. If the weather is hot after the young plants are up,
partial shade may be beneficial. Thorough watering in hot
weather will also help.

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 269

Madonna lily bulbs are best planted early this month.
Alfio roots of peonies and iris.

It is not too early to start such bulbs as hyacinths, Chinese
lilies and narcissus for use in the windows later. These may
be brought into bloom about Christmastime.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Sow rye, wheat or fall oats,
mixed with crimson clover in the orchard to check the late
growth of trees. This may also be done in October.

The thrifty growth of lawn grass should be kept well
trimmed. As fall rains begin the most beautiful lawn of
the year may be maintained, if properly trimmed.

All flowering shrubs should be looked over to see that
there are no dead stems, seed cases and other bad looking
parts. Trim these out and let the lawns and grounds have a
beautiful appearance through the entire fall.

OCTOBER

Vegetables. — ^In both school and home gardens make
October plantings of early curly lettuce, early radishes, onion
sets, shallots, spinach, and kale. If the fall remains warm,
lettuce, radishes and onions from sets may be harvested.
These will add much to the late fall and early winter vegetable
harvest.

Toward the last of the month make other plantings in the
coldframes of lettuce, radishes, spinach and onion sets.

Get the hotbeds ready for use a little later. See that the
sash are all properly glazed and the frames are in repair,
Have rich soil ready for use and the manure should be
ordered or ready to haul.

Flowers. — Bulbs of narcissus, hyacinths, iris and tulip
should be planted by the last of September. Other plantings
may be made until the ground freezes, or until Christmastime.
This plan will give a sueoossion of blossoms next spring.

Gather seeds of the late summer flowers if you have choice
kinds to perpetuate (Fig. 136).

272 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Spinach and kale plianted early this month may make a
good start and live through the winter. In the coldest regions
a little protection in the form of clean litter may be given.
Dig the sweet-potato crop as soon as the vines have been
touched by frost. Take care not to bruise the roots. This
would damage their keeping qualities. Save the future seed
potatoes from the hills yielding the most good roots. Sort
the main crop and save only the soundest for storage.

Bake up all vines and waste litter in the garden after
frost. Put this material in the compost heap to rot. This
will kill most of the disease germs and insects.

If you have not sown a winter cover crop have the garden
plowed or spaded now and sow some rye or oats and winter
vetch for winter protection.

Flowers.— 7Take plants in the house soon. They should
be trimmed, re-potted and given the best conditions possible
to produce a winter show of flowers.

Sow seed of sweet peas during the month. Plant eight
inches deep in rich black soil. The seed will not sprout until
early spring, but fall planting will make the crop that much
earlier.

Early spring flowering bulbs, mentioned last month, may
still be put in the ground until it freezes.

On frosty nights protect the fall flowers and let them
continue their beautiful show a few weeks longer.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — This is a good month in
which to move any trees or shrubs. After the leaves are off,
before the ground freezes, most of the yearns planting should
be done. Set out fruit trees, bush fruits, ornamental vines,
shrubs and shade trees. Prune the roots a little at the time
of planting, cutting off all broken or injured parts. The tops
should be pruned to somewhat balance the pruning done on

the roots.

Spread strawy manure a})out the hedges, rows of bush

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES 273

fruits, and around all trees. Do not use so much as to cause
field mice to nest there.

It is not too late to set out strawberry beds. Blackberries
do best if planted at this season.

Rambler roses and hardy bush roses can be planted this fall
as well as in the spring. Early in November is one of the best
times of the year to sod lawns. If sod is to be moved, do it
now.

DECEMBER

Vegetables. — Except where the ground freezes too much,
perennial garden crops may be planted. Set out asparagus,
horse-radish, sage and other herbs. Start cabbage seed in
frames for January and February setting. Onion sets may be
started now.

Late in the month roots of asparagus may be dug and
allowed to freeze for use in winter forcing. After freezing
a few days or weeks plant them in boxes of soil in a warm
cellar and water them well to bring on the new crop. The
forcing may also be done by setting frames covered with
glass over the plants right in the garden, in January.

Fill several coldframes with hardy vegetables, such as
cabbage, cauliflower, celery, onion sets, spinach and kale.
These will add much interest to the winter gardening.

Start the hotbeds now. Fill them one foot deep with fresh
horse manure, well tamped. Over this fill in six or eight
inches of rich garden soil. Bank the beds outside with manure
and see that the sashes fit closely. As the manure begins
to heat planting may begin. Throughout the winter keep
succession crops of lettuce, early radish, spinach, onions,
English peas and other choice vegetables.

Transplant some parsley from the garden to a pot or
window box for the purpose of supplying green garnish for the
table in the winter.

Flowers. — Attend to the planting of bulbs for the spring
18

274 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

flower beds early this month. Later cover the beds with
a mulch of straw or leaves.

Until the ground freezes sweet pea seed may be planted.
Make the trench six or eight inches deep and fill over the seeds
with well-rotted compost.

Cyclamen, cinerarias and dwarf French marigold planted

Pio. 137, — StrBwberriBB should bo arown in «11 Boutharn (Btdenn. A luce
yiold may be Hound by oulUvfttins ttw patoh wall and umns m mulch of stalks or
■Imw durioK the wintar and sprins until the irop ia plcic*d. (New Jeraey Station.)

last August or September may now be potted for the window
garden.

Lily-of-the-valley, ChineBe lilies, calla lilies and Dutch
and Roman hyacinths should be placed in pots of light poil
and well watered. Keep them in a cool pit or coldframe a
short time and then force them for late winter flowering.

The chrysanthemums should make a good showing of
flowers this month. Give them the best of care.

Trees, Fruits and Lawns. — Strawberries may be forced
in the hotbeds. Select strong plants which were potted last

CALENDAR FOR SOUTHERN STATES £75

spring or summer. Transplant them to five-inch pots and
keep them watered with liquid manure. Wood ashes may be
used to supply potash and increase the fruit crop. Pine
needles on top of the soil will help to retain the moisture and
keep the fruits clean.

This is the best time also to mulch the out-door strawberry
beds (Fig. 137). Let the litter remain between the rows next
spring until after picking time. Clean straw, marsh hay,
leaves or com stalks may be spread over the vines several
inchesdeep.

Eemember to spread manure about the trees, bush fruits,
hedges and shade trees.

When the ground freezes, give the lawn grass a heavy
dressing of half rotted barnyard manure.

Late in the month prune all fruit and shade trees, hedges,
vines and shrubs.

^-\

CHAPTER XX
INSECTS, DISEASES, AND THEIR CONTROL

Much valuable training may be gained from the study of
insects injurious to crops in the home and school garden.
For detailed discussions regarding the many insects, their life
histories and methods of combating them, reference is here
made to special books and bulletins on these subjects (see
Appendix)

Live insects may be studied and their developments traced
by placing them in a cage shown in figure 139.

How Insects Feed. — There are two main types of insects
based on their methods of obtaining nourishment : ( 1 ) Those
with sucking mouth parts, such as squash bugs and scale
insects. (2) Those with biting mouth parts, such as potato
beetles and all true beetles, larvae of moths and butterflies,
including the cabbage " worm."

Methods of Control. — -Substances used in the control of
insects are divided into two groups : ( 1 ) Contact insecticides,
which kill by smothering or closing the breathing pores on the
bodies of the insects. These include dust materials and oils.
(2) Poisons, which kill by entering the stomachs of the insects
when they eat.

Insects with biting mouth parts are chiefly destroyed by
poisonous sprays or powders on the plants which they eat.
Suitable poisons for this purpose are Paris green and arsenate
of lead.

Insects with sucking mouth parts are usually killed by
kerosene emulsion, lime dust or other fine powders, which enter
the breathing pores along the sides of the body.

Inside Feeders. — A few insects, such as tree borers (Figs.
140 and 141), codling-moth and plum curculio, are difficult
to kill because of feeding inside the tissue of the plant.

276

INSECTS. DISEASES. AND CONTBOL «77

They are protected by the plants which they arc injuring.

Codling-moth is controlled by the application of poiaon
just before the young larva enters the apple or other fruit.
The worm-like larva eats its way into the fruit. If poison is
present at that time, the insect will be destroyed.

Plum Curculio attacks plums, peaches, cherries and occa-
sionally other fruits. The egg is laid in a small cut in the
akin of the fruit when very small. When the larva hatches it

Fio, 13S,— SouDd Fndt prodaced by ■7>t«m«^ gprtjiot. (New Jatey Stttiaa.)

eats its way toward the center.' Poison applied just before the
eg^R arc hatched will kill large number.'! of larvte, but this is
not a perfect remedy. The adult insects before laying their
eggs are often shaken to the ground and caught on sheets
under the trees. This is best done in the very early morning.
If this process is repeated for several mornings, just before or
about the time the petals fall, numerous adult insects can be

«78 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENmC

Peach Borer. — (Figs. 140 and 141.) This insect is the
larva of a Bmall moth with transparent wings. The eggs are
laid on the rough bark near the surface of the ground, and
the young, when hatched, eat their way under the hark and
into the wood. The trees of cherry, plum, peach and others
are affected by this insect. A gummy formation indicates
the presence of t'le borer. Some sawdust borings may be
noticed on the surface of the ground. Washing the tninks
of the trees with some ob-
jectionable material, such
a s lime-su)fur wash,
will repel the adnlts and
prevent the laying of eggs
tliere. This will probably
' protect the orchard from a

large per cent of the
borers. It is a common
practice to dig into the
trees for borers with wire
or a. sharp-poinl«d knife.
This may be done twice a
Fia. i3a.-~iiisect bnedinf caces Bdd year in fall and spring.

piUan and ather larva may be" kept on The dirt iS FCmOVed from
-n ti„ eaget or kept fresh in , , ,, , , ,

- ly b« about the trunk a few

inches below the ground
level. A few days later digging for the " worms " should take
place, wherever the gum or borings' may be seen. All wounds
made in this work should be covered with grafting wax rubbed
in well. The dirt should again be slightly heaped up around
the trunk. Protection against borers in the trunks of trees
may be made by wrapping and tying well from soil to tlie lower
branches.

Apple Borers. — There are two kinds of beetles that attack
the trunks of apple and pear trees. The beetles and grubs
are quite different, but their work is similar. They are known
as the flat-headed and the round-headed borers. The former

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTROL 279

attacks many other kinds of treea. The round-headed borer
is the more serious enemy of apple trees. They live in the
trunk about three years and then change through the pupa
stage to the adult beetle.

The best remedy is to keep the adults from laying their eggs
<Hi ihe trunks by tying heavy paper or wire gauze about the

1 Fia, 141.— AmBthcxiofpro^Mt-
. — ^ ^~^-,^~~ — ^ ^^^ — .~» ^ ,w' Idc peach trees from the Attacluof

moved Irom the base. Nolethetwo boren boren. The paper keeps the adult
]uM removed. (Nev Jeney Station.) moth from layiiw ber eua OD tba

truDlc. (New Jereey StslioD.)

trees. The bottom of this protection should be slightly covered
by soil and the top securely tied to prevent the beetles from
crawling in. These protectors shoold-be renewed before the
egg-laying season of early summer. Lime-sulfur wash is a'
good protection against these beetles and this should be
applied at least above these bands.

280 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

San Jose Scale. — This is one of the worst enemies of
many kinds of fruit trees and ornamental plants. Large
orchards were formerly destroyed by this enemy. The insects
multiply very readily throughout the warm summer months
and are checked only by cold weather. A very few in a garden
or orchard in early spring may increase in such numbers as
to destroy or seriously injure the growth of the trees before
fall.

Remedies of several kinds are now known. If properly
applied they will keep the scale in check and no serious
damage will be done.

Soluble oil is on the market under different trade names.
These are preparations in which the water and oil are caused
to mix with each other readily by the use of certain chemicals.
When these are used as sprays for San Jose scale they are ap-
plied in winter or very early spring before the leaves appear.
Directions accompanying them should be followed carefully
to avoid possible injury, as they vary in strength.

Lime-sulfur sprays are very successful in combating this
insect. One application should be made in winter or early
spring before the buds of the trees begin to swell and another
in June or July before the young, tender insects cover them-
selves with the hard scale. The summer spray is made very
weak to avoid injury to the leaves. Special directions should
be carefully followed, as the strengths for winter and summer
use are widely different.

Diseases, such as apple scab, peach scab, brown rot of
peaches (Fig. 142) and others, are kept in control by the use
of lime-sulfur when fighting the scale insect (Fig. 138).

Cut-worms. — Early spring gardens are often badly
attacked by cut-worms. These larvae work at night and eat
the young plants off near the surface of the ground. They
may be poisoned by sprinkling a bait around the plants. This
is made of one teaspoonful of Paris green mixed with one
quart of bran moistened with sweetened water. The worms

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTEIOL 881

may be found in early morning near the plants, just under the
soil surface. Two other methods of control are suggested in
figure 143.

Cabbage Worm. — This is the larva of the white cabbage
butterfly. The eggs are laid on the leaves of cabbage at all
stages of growth. The larvae eat their way into the leaves and
will ruin large numbers. Several common remedies are used.
(See notes under cauliflower. Chapter XVI,)

Tomato Worm. — The large green tomato worm is the

Fro. 142.— Bntwn rot diseue of pfsches, plums and tbeniea often luveg dried-
up mummieB on the treei until next year. These are full of uKircs sod will infeet
tfie nut ciop untsH thay an picked o9 in autumn or •riuter. <NeK Jeisey Station.)

larva of the large sphiux moth. It attacks tobacco, tomato,
egg-plant and a few other garden plants.

The best remedy is to spray plants when the insects begin
their eating. Either Paris green or arsenate of lead may be
used in about the same strength as for potato beetles. It is
well to mix the poison with Bordeaux mixture as in spraying
potatoes.

Potato Beetle. — This is not a "bug" but a true beetle.
The larvffi do the most damage, but the adults also eat the
leaves. One or two ounces of Paris green or one-half pound

28« SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

of arsenate of lead to teu gallons of water should be applied
as early as the itiseuts begin their work ou the plants. The
spray should be repeated every ten days or two weeks until
the plants have nearly completed their growth.

If Bordeaux mixture is used in this spray instead of water,
two objects are gained. The insects are kept in control better
and the potato blight diseases are largely prevented.

Flea beetles are destructive on a number of garden plants.
They are sometimeB worse on potatoes than the potato beetles
themselves. They also badly affect cucumbers and other vine

plants, and frequently do great damage to e^-plants and
others. Dusting with various materials, such as road dust,
wood ashes, air slacked lime, or a mixture of these, will
usually drive them away temporarily.

PLANT DISEASES. — In the notes regarding insects
several plant diseases have been mentioned. Potato blight
■{Fig. 144) is a very serious disease ■which should be prevented.
Toniato blight is sometimes quite serious in middle and south-
em states. Celery blight is very commonly so bad as to pre-
vent the successful growth of the crop. Potato scab is prob-

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTROL 283

ably the must BeriouH dii^ease of tills ^roup. Grain smut is
a serious enemy of all small grains, particularly oats and wheat.
Remedies.— In Chapter XI suggestons are given for pre-
venting potato scab and grain smut. In the preceding notes
regarding insects directions have been given for the prevention
of potato blight and tomato blight. Celery blight is prevented
by the diligent use of Bordeaux mixture as a spray before the
disease appears, or before It becomes generally spread through
the garden. In combating any disease it is necessary to use

Fm. 114.— Potato with rot diaeue caused by late blight. (Productive Finn Crop*.)

materials as prevention rather than cure. Bordeaux mixture
is the standard preventive spray for nearly all fungous dis-
eases of plants. Directions for preparing Bordeaux mixture
are given in an exercise in this chapter. The strength for
summer spray on tender plants is three pounds of copper
sulfate {blue stone), four pounds of fresh lime to forty gallons
of water. This strength is known as 3- -1 - 1 0.

Sprayers. — The type of sprayer to use will depend largely
upon the size of garden, the kind of crops, and whether there
are fruit trees to bo treated or not. The figures here shown

284

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

{145, 146, 147, and 148) should l>e studied before deciding
what type or size to procure.

1. Preventing Grain Smut. — Soak a can full of oats for ten
minutes in a solution made of one ounce of formalin ( forma Idehjde )
in three gallons of water. Then pour off ttie liquid and dry the
grain on a Bmooth floor. Seed which is thus treated should be
planted in a row or small plot in the garden beside a aimilar area
planted with seed of the
same kind but not treated.
As the crops come ta head,
any differences as to the
amount of smut disease
should be noticed and the
proportion of smut, if any, in
eaeh caae should be . deter-
mined. This may be done by
placing a ring of wire about
a number of the plants and
counting withini the wire how
many plants are diseased and
how many are not. Figure
the percentage in each case.

Grain sunt is of several

kinds. The commonest
form in oats appears in col-
lections of black masses of
spores on the heads before
■■atfliDiBCT." suitable ^*bMh y?^"a[!ii old the grain is ripe (Fig.

ifthe».rd.ni,cotl«B„. J43j_ rpjijg ^^^^^ ^

duces the yield of grain and affects the value of the grain
produced. The treatment given in this exercise is simple and
inexpensive. It usually prevents nearly all of the disease in
the following crop. Stinking smut of* wheat is a serious dis-
ease. Smut disease of any kind in the small grains may be
prevented by the treatment of seed as given in this exercise.
This method does not prevent the smut in com.

2. Preventing Potato Scab.— Make a solution of formalin by
placing one ounce of formalin (formaldehyde) in two gallons of

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTROL S85

water. In this, place putatues which are to be used as seed in the
garden. For larger aMounts of seed potatoes use the solution of
the same strength. The liquid may be used over and over for a day
or BO until it loses strength by evaporation.

Potato scab is a serious disease in all potato growing sec-
tions (Fig. 150), Many seed potatoes which show none of the
disease may have the spores upon them, by having been kept

Fm. ue.—A bucket iprsTer, Fio. 147.— Knapsstlt sprayer, Builable

well euited to wotk In home for uee in fighting gwden paita. {Fights ot
gaideia. (Fights of tbe Fanner.) the Farmer.)

with scabby potatoes. All seed potatoes before planting should
be treated to avoid getting the disease into the field or garden.
Time to Spray. — Students should take apple and pear
blossoms in different stages of development. Some may be
in full blossom, others with the petals just fallen, and others
with the green calyx leaves closing. These should ba com-
pared to see which are in right condition for spraying to fight
eodling-moth. After the petals close no spray can reach the
nest where the little insect begins eating to enter the apple.
If spraying is done before the petals fall many bees at work
in poUinizing the blossoms for the future crop will be poisoned
and killed.

ll

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III,

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if

if

J s s' 1

iff lll,l 1

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lill

1 1 ^s■

mil! ill
1 III '.i i "i

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1 1% »»U! 1| ^1 III

mm lyi ih«

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8
1

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTROL 887

3. Spfay Materials. — Make a collection of materials to be used
in spraying. Samples of these will perhaps be available at nearby
drug stores, or may be purchased from chemical companies which sell
separate ingredients and mixtures. Clare should be taken to label
all very carefully and those which are poison should be sealed with
wax or parafline to make them more dilficult to open. Certain mix-
tures, as kerosene emulsion, commercial lime-sulfur and others, should

'ewJ?S

hOM. MoKUHful

also be shown in the collection. Other materials for the collection
are arsenate of lead. Paris green, bisulfide of carbon, lime, flowers of
sulfur and others.

Arsenate of lead may be dissolved for use at the rate of two
or three pounds to fifty gallons of water. Bordeaux mixture
or lime-sulfur mixture may take the place of the water as a
combined insecticide and fungiciile.

Paxis green, used by the spray method, may be mixed at
the rate of 8 to Ifi ounces, and one pound of lime to fifty

288 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

gallons of water. Tlie extra lime is omitted if Bordeaux
is used in plare of water. When Paris green is used dry, one
pound of it may be mixed with twenty pounds of powdered
lime. This is used on plants when the leaves are moist with
dew.

4. Making Bordeaux Mixture.— Slake a pound of lump lime,
as described in another exprciae. Add enougli water to make five
gallons. DisBolve a pound
of c o p p er sulfate (blue
stone), alhis can be done by
pouring hot water over it
and Stirling continuoualj for
a few minutes. When hot
water is not available the
sulfate may be suspended iu
water \)y means of a cloth.
Tiiia should be done the day
before, as several hours are
required. Add water to this
solution to make up five gal-
lons. When the Bordeaux
mixture is wanted these two
solutions should be poured
together into a third vessel.
The two should be poured at
the same time; letting the
stream of one meet the
stream of the other in the air
they descend into the

Fis. I4S. — The cnin smn
duvEs the yield bb ebonii DD 01
(Agriculture and Life.)

third vessel. Two persons
resulting mixture is of a
than the sulfate crystals.

Bordeaux mixture ii
the first experiments v

^an do this mixing better than
intense blue color, but lighter i

The

s named from a town in Prance where
i tried with it. It should never be
mixed until required for spraying, as it will not keep. The
lime and sulfate may he dissolved separately and kept in stock
solutions. It is a fungicide and not an insecticide when used
alone. As a fungicide it should be applied as a spray before
the disease starts on the plants. The above mixture would

INSECTS DISEASES, AND CONTROL 289

be called 1-1-10, which is equivalent to 4-4-40. This is
strong enough for use on tirees in their dormant condition.
Weaker mixtures are used on garden plants and trees bearing
leaves, Bordeaux mixture is verj successful in the prevention
of such diseases as apple scab, peach scab, potato blight, celery
blight, tomato blight, cucumber and melon wilt and many
others. In combining insect poisons with this mixture the
poisons are used in the same quantities as when niixipg them

ooLy Auch leed polatoH aa have been treated with formalia aM described. (U. 8.

with water. Such combinations are most economical as they
are combined at the same time, and reduce, the amount of
labor. Two objects are accomplished in one operation.

5, Making Kerosene Emulsion. — Take one-halt pound of hard
soap, Bhave it very fine and dissolve in one gallon of boiling wat«r.
Add it, boiling hot, to two gallons of kerosene or crude petroleum
away from the fire. The whole mixture is then stirred or pumped
back into itself rapidly. After Ave minutes of rapid agitation the
19

290 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

emulsion should be perfect and will . have the consi^stency of cream.
This is ready to be diluted as wanted for use.

Kerosene emulsion can be used successfully during the
summer growing period for combating plant lice and other
soft-bodied insects. Dilute the above emulsion with fifteen
parts of water. This may be used either in the garden or on
plants in hotbeds or windows. For the red spider and other
plant mites r which frequently affect house plants, add about
one ounce of flowers of sulfur to one gallon of the diluted
emulsion. , It is used much stronger on scale insects and soft-
bodied eating larvae and larger plant bugs. About seven to
ten parts of water will be ;weak enough. Emulsion is applied
with a spray pump, using a very fine nozzle.

6. Making Concentrated Lime-Sulfur. — ^Use thirty pounds of
powdered flowers of sulfur, fifteen pounds burned lime and fifteen
gallons of w,ater. Wet the sulfur and slake the lime. Add both of
these to fifteen gallons of boiling water. Boil the mixture for forty
to sixty minutes, or until well dissolved. This may be kept in a
closed vessel uatibwanted. A layer of oil on top will keep out the air.

This la called home-made concentrated lim6-^ulfur. Its
chief purpose is the fighting of San Jose scale and other scale
insects. Be sure it is diluted with about nine times its volume
of water for winter use on apple trees. The rule for dilution
requires that the specific gravity of a liquid be found. Divide
the decimal part of this number by three hundredths (.03)
and the quotient will tell the number of times to dilute the
liquid. For example, if this specific gravity equals 1.27,
divide .27 by .03, giving 9. Then dilute the liquid with nine
times its volume of water for winter use. As a summer spray
on apples and potato vines it should be diluted with three
times as much water as for winter use.

Instead of boiling lime-sulfur in an open kettle, as is done
in the above plan, fruit growers and gardeners buy the lime-
sulfur ready made. A number of commercial preparations
of lime-sulfur are now sold. Each is supposed to be of about

INSECTS, DISEASES, AND CONTROL 291

the strength given in this exercise. Directions for diluting
the mixture are usually given with it.

7. Self -Boiled Lime-Sulfur. — ^Use eight pounds powdered sulfur
and eight pounds of fresh burned lime with fifty gallons of water.
The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water poured on
to almost cover it. As soon as the lime begins to slake the sulfur
is added, after running it through a sieve to break up the lumps.
Stir the mixture constantly and add more water to form at first a
thick paste and then gradually a thin paste. This may require three
or four gallons.

In the preparation of this mixture the heat from the
slaking of the lime is enough to boil the mixture several min-
utes. More water may be added to cool the mixture and
prevent further cooking. It is then ready to be strained into
a spray barrel, diluted and used. The above mixture is called
8-8-50, and is used as a summer spray on peaches, plums and
cherries. Trials of this mixture on potato vines have proved
successful in, the prevention of blight and the fighting of flea
beetles.

Garden Friends. — ^When fighting the insects, we should
feel some satisfaction in the fact that the garden has a number
of friends in nature. Chief among these should be mentioned :
(1) Such helpful insects as tiger beetles, ground beetles, some
lady-bird beetles, insects that are parasitic upon others, such
as Ichneumon fly, chalcis-fly, and others; (2) toads; (3) non-
venomous snakes; (4) moles; (5) birds; (6) sometimes
poultry; (7) lizards.

Beneficial Insects. — Young gardeners should learn to dis-
tinguish between the beneficial and the injurious insects.
Some of the bulletins and books mentioned in Chapter XXIV
will aid greatly in doing this.

Toads and Other Friends. — Insect-eating animals should
be protected. Someone has said that a toad in a garden is
worth twenty dollars to the gardener because of the many
insects it will destroy. The toad begins feeding some time
after sundown, searching for insects along roadsides, gardens,

292 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

cultivated fields or other places where it may travel easily.
They will destroy numerous cut-worms, army worms, cater-
pillars, moths, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles and other insects.
Estimates have been made that in thirty days a single. toad
may destroy 720 cut-worms, 600 myriapods, 720 sow bugs,
1080 ants, 120 weevils, 120 beetles. (See Farmers^ Bulletin
196.) Gardeners sometimes buy toads from collectors and
colonize them in their gardens. A shallow pool of stagnant
water is necessary during the spring breeding season if the
toads are to be allowed to multiply. The tadpoles live in the
water, and then develop into adults. Toads like to hide under
stones, and old boards which may be left to form mulches
around evergreens or other trees.

Birds. — 'Some birds are far more beneficial than others.
We consider the insect eaters as the most helpful because they
destroy such great numbers of insects either in the larva stage
or in other stages. The seed-eating birds, however, are also
beneficial because they destroy great numbers of weed seeds,
and they often feed their young upon insects during the nesting
season. Gardeners and others should protect the birds and
encourage them to build their nests near the garden. Groups
of shrubbery will attract some of them. Others will use
boxes and bird houses put up for them. Attractive fruits,
such as a Eussian mulberry, a spice bush, wolfberry, barberry,
hawthorne, wild cherry and others may be planted to help
retain the birds more months in the year. By all means we
should not allow hunters and marauders to kill or to frighten
the birds away.

\. I

PART m— FOR CLXJB LEADERS AND TEACHERS

CHAPTER XXI
AGRICULTURAL CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK

Much has been done in recent years in the organization
of boys^ and girls^ clubs. Most of these clubs have been very
successful in the work which they have undertaken. Local
clubs are first formed. In hundreds of cases these have been
organized into county clubs and a number of states have
state-wide organizations.

Influence of Club Work. — Through their club work
young people have been affected in many ways. They observe
more closely and recognize good and bad qualities in crops they
raise. Insects and plant diseases are studied more closely.
The influence of soils, the effects of certain fertilizers and
special methods of tillage are studied more carefully. Their
views have been broadened by the reading of agricultural
bulletins, and visiting the work of special schools, highly
developed farms, and by visiting the work of their own com-
petitors. Practically they have in many cases been able to
decide which of the several lines they have undertaken will
be most profitable commercially, and some have undertaken
these commercial lines for themselves. Power of initiative has
thus been developed (Fig. 151).

The value of organization and cooperation is brought out
by the club work — the value of working together to a com-
mon end, as the development of a good strain of seed corn or
poultry, or the cooperation in producing a uniform product for
a special market demand. All these points and many others
have been discovered in club work.

A secondary influence, and yet a vital one, is the effect
upon the parents and other people of the community, where

293

894 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

a club exists. This influence is always highly beueficial.
Contests in growing corn and potatoes, or in baking, fruit can-
ning and sewing have aroused interest on the part of the whole

Fia. 151.— Part of her crap «iv«] lor winUr. Thesr producM were sold and tha
money usedfor cdupation. iV. S. D, A.)

community in the work of young people (Fig. 152). The
special lessons teaching improved methods, taken up by the
young people, have been extended by them to others in the

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 295

coimnunity. The child often leads the parent to follow
better methods of production.

Lines of Work. — There is little uuiformity in tlie lines
of work followed by clubs in different localities. Maiiy have
carried on contests in corn growing (Fig. 153). A few have
teken up tomato growing. Lettuce clubs, onion clubs, sugar
beet clubs, potato cliibe, sweet-potato clubs, alfalfa clubs, cot-

Fio. 1S2.-— The niral school i«K good pU™ lot the BBiden fair. The whole

hood itiay become iaCereeled. (Cbtldrea's Flower MieaioD, Clevelsnu.,

ton clubs, pickle clubs, geueral vegetable gardeu clubs, home
beautifying clubs, poultry and swine clubs— all these, and
doubtless many others, are found in different localities, for
both boys and girls. (See the contest list in thds chapter.)

Special lines of work have been taken up by girls' clubs,
such as cooking, bread making, canning, sewing and poultry
raising.

Kducational leaders and ciub workers continually emphn-

«&6 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

size the inipurtauce of having only one idea at a time in all
work of this kind. They would say : " Stick to oue thing,
whether pigs or preserves, until an impresBion is made and
real knowledge of the subject is gained."

How Organized.— -The organization of boys' and girls'
clubs depends upon the active interest of some teacher, prin-
cipal or superintendent. When proper instruction has been
given as to the purposes of the clubs, little effort is required
to maintain the inter^t on the part of the members. Teachers
who meet their pupils
dai ly dur ing the
school year usually find
that club work adds in-
terest to the school
work, and the net
result is to make the
instruction easier for
the teacher. If the
work ia started by
supervising principals
or county superin-
tendents, they must
firet gain the cooper-

Fio. 153— This »l.pound corn-club boy nUBcd ,■ j ■ . .

91 buibelH of corn prr acre ia Tennessee. (E. atlOn and interest On

"'""■ the part of t«achere.

A considerable amount of club work has been started
by other organizations in no way connected with schools.
Women's clubs, Y. M. C. A. Secretaries, rural churches,
bankers' associations, commercial clubs, and other philan-
thropic organizations have all been influential in the starting
of boys' and girls' clubs. Thousands of persons, in no way
connected mth such organizations, have aided the work by
subscriptions, premiums, attendance and interest taken in
meetings, home encouragement, and in other ways not always
known to the public.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 297

Incentives. — A number of methods of maintaining the
interest of the members are found in use among the many
clubs. Prizes are frequently offered. Photographs of work
are taken, which are shown at school and public meetings.
Lantern slides are sometimes made and shown at public lec-
tures ; club meetings are held, at which the work of members
is discussed ; essays read and reports of work are given ; fairs
are held showing products.* These are often accompanied
by lists of premiums awarded for superior work in each line.

Corn-growing Contests. — In different sections the rules
for these contests vary according to local conditions. The
following sets of rules may be adopted, or varied as desired :

Rules for Corn Growing Contests. — 1. The contest is open to
any boy in the county under twenty years of age on June 1st of this
year. ,

2. Class No. 1 shall consist of boys (or girls) riot over sixteen
years of age. In this class the boys shall do all the work, except
plowing and marking the ground.

3. Class No. 2 shall consist of those between sixteen and twenty
years of age. This class shall do all the work themselves.

4. Applications are to be sent to the Secretary of the Committee
(insert name and address), by April 15th. No applications will be
received later than May 31st.

5. Contestants are to use seed supplied by the Committee (or
are to secure their own seed). Each contestant will be provided
with bulletins on corn growing from the county officfe. He is to keep
a careful record of all details in the preparation of soil, application of
fertilizer, cultivation, harvest, yield, arid show the actual cost of
producing the crop. A blank for this purpose is furnished. This
report is to be sent with the exhibit in copipeting for prizes.

6. Contestants are to exhibit ten selected ears at the annual
corn show which will be held. (Insert place and date.)

7. Certificates of merit will be awarded every contestant who
exhibits corn which reaches a high standard to be determined by the
judges.

8. The Committee reserves the right to make any changes in
the list of prizes which may be advisable.

9. Corn winning the first and second prizes may become the
property of the Committee.

298 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Application Blank for Boys. — I desire to enter the Com Growing
Contest to be conducted by the Committee, and agree to be governed
by the rules of same.

Name Age

Father's Name

Address

Name of School

Teacher's Name . . . .'

Direction from nearest railroad station or trolley line

School and Club Fairs. — Work is done along all the lines
suggested above, or in lines in which the club is interested.
iFor the sake of uniformity of exhibits, or so that the products
may be grouped well for comparison with each other, it is best
to issue lists for the members to follow in selecting their
material for tiie fair. These lists are not necessarily accom-
panied by prizes, but some competition may be aroused by the
oifer of certificates, ribbons or cards of honorable mention to
those excelling in each competition.

Suitable Time and Place. — Schools may hold these fairs
any time during the fall. If the exhibit is to be held at the
church, it may come in connection with some church festival,
such as anniversaries. The Thanksgiving season is a very
profitable time for either schools or country churches to have
exhibits of products of club work. If farmers' exhibits are
held during the fall or winter, the products may be shown
then. If the club fairs are made a special feature of an annual
farmers' exhibit, they will add much interest to the meetings.

The country fair often occurs too early for some of the
products, such as corn, but garden products, flowers and the
household work of girls should be shown at the county fairs,
district fairs and state fairs (Fig. 154). It is never difficult
to find suitable places for holding the exhibits. Granges are
willing to have open sessions for this purpose, or to supply
their halls for the display of products.

Clubs have found it possible, in some cases, to charge

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK «9»

admission to the fairs, thus obtaining funds to defray expenses.
Materials used for local fairs may be saved by exhibit commit-
tees, or by the individual exhibitors for use at district fairs,
county fairs or state fairs. Suitable programs are often
given in connection with school or club fairs. Such a pro-
gram may be made up of essays written in competition, telling
the best methods of growing crops, or making certain articles
for the fair. Reports are given of the methods used by the

different members. Suitaljle lantern slides of school and home
garden work, or club work in other places, may be obtained
from the United States Department of Agriculture, state agri-
cultural colleges, local schools, or from other more local sources.
Music may be provided. The judging and awarding of prizes
or certificates of merit may be announced p-iblicly. Plans
for future work may be outlined.

300 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Contest Lists. — For the purpose of making the fair ex-
hibits along definite lines, the field to be covered should be
studied by the fair committees and suitable lists published,
or announced in advance. A few suggestions along these lines
are gathered here from contests held in different localities.

A prize may be offered for the largest yield from 300
kernels of corn furnished to each child. In garden contests
latitude should be allowed; for example, one dollar may be
offered for the best sample of any vegetable or any field crop.
Best collections should also be included. Children under ten
years of age may be rewarded separately from girls over ten
or from boys over ten.

In the Boys' and Girls' Clubs in Kansas the following
lines of competition were open :

Corn. — (1) Best ten ears from corn grown on an acre.
(2) Highest yield from a single acre.

Kafir or MUo. — (1) Best ten heads from single acre. (2)
Highest yield from single acre.

Broom Corn, — Best ten heads from single acre.

Potatoes, — (1) Best peck from plot 50 X 50 feet. (2)
Highest yield from one-half acre.

Tomatoes. — (1) Best three cans from plot of one square
rod. (2) Most pounds of all ripe and green tomatoes gathered
up to time of first killing frost.

Family Garden. — Best display of vegetables from plot
24 X 24 square feet.

Poultry. — Best trio of birds.

Pig. — Best fat pig in the six-months' dass.

Bread Making. — Best loaf in regulation pan.

Butter Making. — Best pound of home-made butter.

Jelly Making. — Best exhibit of five different varieties in
glasses.

Canned Fruit. — Best three different varieties in glass cans.

Semng. — (1) Aprons entirely hand made. (2) Work
apron, hand and machine made. (3) Mending, darning.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 301

patching, and piecing. (4) Sample of table linen making and
mending (hand work). (5) Shirt waist, hand or machine
made.

Corn. — Premium lists for corn are given in a special chap-
ter on corn. Ten ears are usually required for an exhibit.
These are in white varieties, yellow varieties and in both dent
type and flint type.

Potatoes. — The lists for potato exhibits should include
the leading varieties grown in the neighborhood, letting each
variety be kept separate. These may be exhibited on plates,
as apples are shown, or the list may require the showing of a
basket of each, the baskets being of the standard commercial
size for that region, say half bushel. The points of excellence
for potatoes are uniformity, size, smoothness, texture, freedom
from blemish and disease. The value for each of these points
is shown in the score card given in this chapter.

S-weet Potatoes are usually shown in commercial baskets.
These may be half bushel baskets, half bushel crates, or any
special form of package used in the locality. White or green
crepe paper may be used in dressing the edges and outside sur-
face of the packages uniformly throughout the exhibit. The
type or variety of sweet potatoes should be kept distinct, and
may be listed separately with premiums or awards for each
type or variety. The white, red and yellow crops should not
compete with each other.

Sugar beets may be exhibited by varieties and types com-
monly grown. Five beets of a kind may constitute an exhibit.
In some cases 100 pounds is required to make up the exhibit.
The tops are usually removed and the roots washed.

Tomatoes are of many varieties and each variety should
stand on its own merits at the fair. Some are better suited
for market purposes because of firmness, while others are of
high quality, and better for home use, being too tender for
shipment. The list may include from five to ten varieties
most grown in the vicinity. Tomatoes are exhibited both on

302 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

plates and in baskets or other commercial packages, but the
list should stipulate the style to be followed at the fair.

Onions. — ^The season of the year for holding the fair
may help to govern the list of onions. Green onions should
not be included if they are not in season. The leading varie-
ties and types of ripe onions should be kept distinct; the yel-
low, red and white are different types and should not compete
for the same awards. Let them all be shown separately.
Small pickling onions, onion sets and multiplier onions may
be included after the list of standard varieties. Onions may
be shown in small baskets holding about one peck, if such pack-
ages are standard in local markets.

Cucumbers may be exhibited in the different sizes required
for various kinds of pickles. They may also be shown in pre-
served condition as sweet, sour and brine pickles. Those of
different varieties may also bel listed separately. Piokles
should be shown in quart glass jars and the fresh cucumbers
in baskets, holding one peck or less.

Lettuce may be grouped into three main types:' (1) head
lettuce, (2) loose, or curly lettuce, and (3) cos, or Romaine
lettuce. Flat trays or flat baskets are best suited for the
exhibition of lettuce. To keep it fresh during the exhibit it
is sometimes placed in flat boxes in the bottom of which
are placed pans of water.

Garden vegetables of all kinds may be classified on the
essential manner of growth or purpose for which they are
grown. Prizes may be offered for the best collection of each
of the following : ( 1 ) Eoot crops, including beets, carrots, pars-
nips, radishes, salsify, turnips, rutabaga; (2) cole crops, in-
cluding cabbage, cauliflower, and kohl-rabi; (3) pot-herbs for
greens, including spinach, beet and dandelion; (4) salad
plants, including celery, parsley, endive and lettuce; (5)
legume or pulse, including peas and the different types of
beans; (6) plants of the potato family, including tomato,
egg-plant and pepper; (7) vine groups, including muskmelon.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 303

watermelon, squash, pumpkin, cucumber and gourd; (8) sweet
corn; (9) perennial vegetables — ^asparagus and rhubarb; (10)
sweet herbs, including sage, thyme. and others.

In any list these groups may be greatly subdivided, and
special awards made for each kind in any group.

Collections of vegetables, including all grown in any
school or home garden, may be given a place in the list, but
such collections do not alone make up a good exhibit at a fair.
Giving them a special place in the list will lend encouragement
to the small children in the school and home garden work;
Very large numbers of kinds of varieties are sometimes
gathered together, because of special premiums given for large
collections. These may be divided into two groups, annual
vegetables and perennial vegetables, the latter including rhu-
barb, asparagus, sweet herbs and others.

Farm Products. — In the lists for some local fairs pre-
miums have been offered for the. largest collection of farm
products of all kinds, including those from the garden, field,
piggery, poultry yard and others. At one fair a single exhibi-
tor showed 167 varieties of farm products. These included
many things prepared in different ways for table use (Fig.
155). _ . ^

Alfalfa and other legumes, such as clovers, may be listed
and prizes offered for the tallest bundles of each kind, each
bunch to be six inches through at the band. The best individ-
ual plants showing large roots and many stems are sometimes
listed. Offers may be made for the best collections of legume
roots with nodules. This latter adds much interest to the
exhibit.

Cotton is a plant which is subject to great improvement,
and should never be omitted from fairs* in sections where it is
grown. In the fall, single plants may be shown to teach the
best forms of plants. Those with great numbers of bolls on
thrifty plants on nodes or joints should be shown. The cotton
yields of individual plants may be a feature. The proportion

S04 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

of seed found in a pound of unginned cotton and the length
of staple must not he forgotten. If several types of cotton
are grown in any locality, these should be listed separately.
The best collection of cotton diseases and insects, showing the
work of each, is sometimes included.

Fruits are among the most beautiful products for use at
fairs. Apples may be shown in the form of bushel bozea, so

Fio. 166— A mou __ _

their ova. They have leArned hair to Bave BUmnQeTB piautj wt wiu«vi d u«h
(U. 8. D. A.)

popular in the West and city markets. They may also be
shown in peck baskets or on plates. They also make a fine
showing in the small cartons, or "gift boxes," which have be-
come very popular in city markets.

Grapes are usually shown in collection's on plates. Peaches,
plums, berries and other fruits should be included in the list,
if the season is favorable for them.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 305

Annual flowers add much interest to both the garden
work and to exhibits. Offers may be made for the best bouquet
of each of five different popular flowers. Mixed bouquets
should not be encouraged. Collections of bouquets of not less
than one dozen flowers each are far better. Plants in blossom
may be transplanted and shown, and the list should encourage
such exhibits.

Perennial flowers, including roses and any others which
may be found suitable to the season when the fair is held,
should be exhibited. Young people take great delight in flower
gardening, and many homes are greatly beautified by the plant-
ing of hardy perennial plants which blossom throughout the
season. Fair lists may include each of the kinds separately,
and where certain varieties are popular special offers may be
made for those.

Window Flowers. — Offers for the best collection of foliage
plants, such as ferns in wooden boxes or pots, should be in-
cluded in the list ; also plants in blossom ; bedding out plants
in pots or boxes, such as coleus, vinca and others. Plants in
this group need not be potted uniformly, but may be in any
form of cans, boxes or pots used in homes or school windows.
They may be given a better appearance by having them
wrapped with a uniform color of crepe paper or other material.

Home Beautifying. — A fair committee should offer to
take photographs freely for all who enter either at the begin-
ning of the season or in late summer, for competition in the
improvement of the home or school grounds. Photographs
can then be shown at the fair accompanied by the name of the
competitor in each case. When entries are made early in the
season, ^^ before and after ^^ effects should be shown in the
pictures. A few of the points to be considered in the compe-
tition are: (1) The greatest improvement in a home back
yard; (2) the same for a front yard; (3) the same for any
rural school grounds ; (4) best display of annual vines in the
20

. ..'\

308 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

interest to the fair. Canning devices may be entered with
much profit to the visitors. Many home devices and plans may
be shown directly or by pictures. Fruits or vegetables kept
by means of luiwholesome preservatives should not be con-
sidered. Entries should be judged on the. basis of clearness,
natural color, natural form and freedom from mold or other
signs of deterioration. Uniformity of exhibit, labelling and
size of package may be considered.

School Competitions. — County and district fairs fre-

quently offer prizes to arouse competition between diflferent
schools. Village or graded schools are allowed to compete
with each other, and district schools form a different group.
Lines in which schools compete are: (1) The beat school gar-
den. (9) The beat average yields of various products. (3)
Collection of vegetables shown. (4) Collection of flowers
shown. (5) Greatest number of prizes won by members in
the individual contests. (6) Best collections of various

CONTESTS AND CLUB WQRK 309

articles used for school work mentioned in the following
paragraph.

Prizes won by schools may be owned by the school as a
whole or by the grade or department deserving the credit.
If the prize be cash, it may be used to promote the garden
work.

School Collections. — Individual prizes are sometimes
offered for special collections suitable for use in school, such
as, (1) collections of grains and seeds in uniform bottles, (2)
weed seeds in bottles properly labelled, (3) roots of legumes
showing nodules, (4) garden insects, (5) samples of plant
diseases mounted on cards and labelled, (6) collection of
woods showing grain on end and side, (7) mounted specimens
of wild flowers properly named, (8) garden and field weeds
mounted and labelled, (9) bottles and materials showing the
composition of various human foods and animal feeds, such as
corn, eggs and potatoes.

Such collections in the fair will arouse much interest.

Commercial Packages. — In the school and club fair work
it is best to have as many of the products as possible shown in
packages of coriimercial size, and the best forms of packages
for each line of product should be chosen. Uniformity of
package in each line is very desirable and will make the ex-
hibits much more attractive. Articles shown without carrieis
or containers should be tied with ribbons or colored tape into
bundles or groups. Ten ears of corn tied with colored tape
will show much better in a large collection than if laid flat.
Figure 154 shows how some articles have been displayed.

Decoration. — Exhibit committees and superintendents of
exhibits should have supplies of colored paper or cheap cloth
for considerable decoration of all packages as they are brought
to the fair. Tables should be covered with plain wrapping
paper or other cheap material, and the sides of the tables
draped with colored goods. Walls and tables may all be

312 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

and indeed almost any product of field or garden. These
crops may be grown by young people at their homes in con-
nection with school work, club work, or in the "part time
method" of agricultural education, in which credit is given
at school for work done out of school.

Yield contests require attention on the part of some one
in charge to ascertain carefully the areas and yields. Mere
statements on the part of the contestants should be verified by
a special committee without prejudice. The actual width and
length of areas planted must be known. From this the area
in square rods or fraction of an acre must be determined.
Yields may be expressed in either weight or measure, but in
every case the method of determining yield should be the same.
With corn yields the product may be measured after husking,
but in other cases the com is allowed to become dry enough
to keep in a crib before it is weighed or measured. Measuring
the yield of corn, for example, is more practical than weigh-
ing it, as many farms do not have proper scales. In measuring
corn a bushel basket, shaken down and very slightly heaped,
is used as a unit of measurement. For each crop the method
to be followed in determining the yield must be stated in ad-
vance; condition of crop, time, manner, size of yield and all
other details must be included. The same committee that is to
determine the yield should also determine the area. This
means considerable work on the part of a few unbiased persons.
The work may be lightened by dividing it up among the mem-
bers of a large committee.

Score Cards for Contests. — So far as possible the form
to be used in the judging of products should be published
with the premium lists. This is possible in cases of such
products as com, potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples, bread, toma-
toes, sugar beets, cotton and others. A few gcore cards with
brief explanations are given here. A suitable score card for
corn will be found in the special chapter on corn.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK SIS

Score Card for Sweet Potatoes

Counts
Size— 2" to 3%'' diameter. Too large, cut 2; too small, cut 12. . 20

Sample not uniform, cut 6.

Shape — ^Diameter half the length, or to suit variety 20

Color—^Tlear, uniform, to suit variety, internal and external 20

Texture of Skin — Clean, smooth with no cloudy appearance 10

Texture of Flesh — Firm and even, not fibrous nor watery 10

Freedom from Disease — No indication of black-, stem-, or ground-
rot 20

Total 100

Bread Score Card

Counts

Flavor 35

Lightness 15

Grain and Texture 20

Crust 10

Crumb 10

Shape and Size 10

Total 100

Size of pan recommended, 7^ X ^H ^ ^H inches.

The flavor should be sweet and nutty, with no trace of sourness.

The loaf should be light, showing it has raised properly — ^with
fine, even grain and tender yet elastic to the touch.

The crust should be a rich, even brown, fine and tender and not
too deep.

The crumb should be creamy in color — not grayish — and moist
without being heavy or underdone.

The loaf should be even in shape and not too large to insure
thorough baking.

Judging Tomatoes. — ^Tomatoes exhibited at fairs should
be entered under one of three heads : for trucking, for home
use, or for canning. The purpose for which each is intended
may be indicated on a card placed with the exhibit.

The following score card indicates in the three diflferent
columns the credits to be given for each of the purposes named.

. I :

'V

316

SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

production of the crop, the hours and value of hand and horse
labor on each, date, valu6 of fertilizer, rent of land, effects of
insect enemies and diseases, cost of spraying and all other
elements involved in the cost of production.

The best time to make the records is from day to day as
the operations are performed. Do not* leave the blanks un-
filled until the end of the season and then try to fill them from
memory. The accompanying form for use in boys^ corn club
work is adapted from that used in the state of Iowa.

How to Use Records. — ^After young people have kept
records on some form provided for the purpose it is not enough
to merely have them filed in the teacher^s desk or the superin-

School.

PupiTa Record for LeUtux
Pupil....

Teacher.

Date of Sowing

1st Sowing

2nd Sowing

Dates of Cultivating

and

Weeding

^

Dates of Thinning

and
Transplanting

'

Date of Applying
Nitrate of Soda

First Date of Using
Heads or Bunches

Time Required to
Grow Tiarge Heads

Remarks.— k)n weather conditions, difficulties, the effects of
fertilizing, effects of. thinning and of transplanting. Write on the
other side.

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 817

tendent^s oflBce. More use should be made of them. Let
some committee go over the records for any single crop and
collect suitable data and record cost. Notable points on indi-
vidual records should be read at a club meeting or the fair.
Several of the most complete reports should be read by the
members themselves. In many cases essays or written reports
are gleaned from these tabular forms. Exercise in expression
is thus gained.

Data gleaned from the reports showing cost of production
may form the basis for arithmetic work in schools.

The records showing greatest economy in cost of production
should be discuo.ied by some older person and much value may
be gained not only fcr the members themselves, but for older
people attending the meeting. The discussion of these reports
in a public meeting, a' school or the fair will lead parents and
others to see the value of keeping records. A form used in
the club work in Ontario and ekewhere is here shown.

Potato Score Card

{Agronomy Department , University of Maine)

Variety Date Name

Counts

1. General Appearance. — In general appearance the potato should

show a brightness and freshness. It should be of desirable
size to meet the requirements of the market. In shape the

fiat, oval type is mos( in favor on the market 20

Size, 5. Uniformity in size, 5. Freshness, 5. Shape, 5.

2. Trueness to Type, — ^Different varieties of potatoes, like the dif-

ferent breeds of cattle, have their own distinctive types.
The size, shape, color, and skin-texture of the sample will
be determined by the variety. The most popular color on
the market, at present, is white. For economy of sub-
stance the potato eyes should not be deep , , , , , 25

Size, 5. Shape, 6. Color, 5. Skin Texture, 4.
Depth of Eyes, 6.

320 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Packing: Bulge or swells, 5 ; alignment, 4; height at ends,
5 ; compactness, 8 ; attractiveness and style of pack, 8 ; total,
30 ; grand total, 100.

Fancy Baskets of Fruit. — Prizes are sometimes offered
for mixed fruits arranged in fancy baskets, such as are sold in
the markets for gifts or lunches. In judging such collections
consider the following points: Arrangement, 30; quality of
varieties, 20; number of kinds, 20; attractiveness of basket
and contents, 30; total, 100.

Grape Exhibits. — Grapes are often displayed on plates,
not less than three bunches to the plate, except when the
clusters are very large. The following points should be con-
sidered in judging: Flavor, 15; form of bunch, 20; size of
bunch, 15; size of berry, 10; color, 10; firmness, 5; bloom, 5;
freedom from blemishes, 20 ; total, 100.

Plums and Peaches. — These fruits may be displayed on
plates, not less than five specimens to the plate. They are
also displayed in quart fruit boxes and in small baskets. The
points to be considered are, for plums: Form, 10; size, 15;
color, 15; uniformity, 20; quality, 20; freedom from blem-
ishes, 20 ; total, 100.

For peaches: Form, 15; size, 10; color, 15; uniformity,
20 ; quality^ 20 ; freedom from blemishes, 20 ; total, 100.

Vegetable Displays. — ^When offers are made for the
largest collection of vegetables from a school or home garden,
the following points should be considered: Size of collection
(kinds), 25; number and value of varieties, 15; educational
value and attractiveness of arrangement, 30; quality of vege-
tables, 30 ; total, 100.

Some standard may be set as to the number of specimens
and the counts which may be given to each kind of vegetable in
the collection. The following is suggested by Prof. M. A.
Blake of the New Jersey Station:

CONTESTS AND CLUB WORK 321

Score Card for Vegetable Displays Counts

Beans, Green or Wax. ...... 20 pods 5

Beans, Lima 20 pods 6

Beets 6 specimens 6

Brussels Sprouts 20 heads 8

Cabbage . / 2 heads 7

Cauliflower 2 heads 10

Carrots 10 specimens 6

Celery 3 stalks 10

Cucumbers 6 specimens 7

Com, Sweet (marketable) ... 6 ears 10

Egg Plant 3 specimens 8

Endive (bleached) 4 heads 8

Horseradish 2 bunches 5

Kale 3 plants 5

Kohl-rabi 6 specimens 6

J^eeks 3 specimens 8

Lettuce 4 heads 9

Muskmelon 3 specimens 10

Okra 12 specimens 6

Onion 12 specimens 9

Onion Seta 2 quarts 7

Parsley 1 bunch, 6" in diameter at top. 6

Parsnips 6 specimens 7

Peas 20 pods 8

Peppers, Standard 6 specimens 6

Peppers, Small Types 10 specimens 5

Potatoes, Irish 10 specimens 6

Potatoes, Sweet 10 specimens 7

Pumpkins 2 specimens 7

Radishes 18 specimens 4

Rutabagas 6 specimens 5

Salsify 12 specimens 6

Squash, Large 2 specimens 8

Squash, Small, Bush, Cocoanut 4 specimens 5

Tomatoes, Standard 5 specimens 7

Tomatoes, Plum and Cherry

Type 15 specimens 6

Tomatoes Currant Type ... 30 specimens 4

Turnips 6 specimens 5

Watermelon 2 specimens 8

21

CHAPTER XXII j

CORRELATION WITH OTHER SCHOOL W0R:|

I

An objection to school and home gardening by younj
people is made on the ground that other lines of school wori
occupy the whole time. Teachers and parents too frequentli
decide that older lines of school work must be maintaind
and that gardening can have no place in the school progranjj
and the time of young people cannot be devoted to such worf
when there are other "lessons" to learn. Teachers, school
boards and committees that have successfully carried on gar-
dening in connection with other lines of school work are ready
to answer these objections by describing how well the garden-
ing helps the other lines of work. Numerous examples of this
are found wherever trials have been made.

Effect of Interest. — Any teacher who has planned the
gardening well and put the pupils to work will testify to the
interest taken by a large majority of the members of the school
(Fig. 157) . The interest aroused is enough to make the other
lines of school work much easier than before. The value of
any school work depends not so much upon the subject taught
as upon the interest taken in the subject. Teachers are
familiar with the loss of time and energy in trying to train
pupils who seem dull in certain subjects. The subjects dis-
liked by such pupils should be correlated with the garden
work. The interest in gardening will lead to better work
in the subjects formerly disliked. The use of interesting sub-
jects will strengthen the weaker parts of the daily program
through correlation.

Getting Started. — (1) Window gardening offers one of
the best means of beginning this new work. (2) Pupils who
show the greatest advance in other lines of school work and
are ^' ahead of the class " may be allowed to start experiments
outlined in this book and in farmers^ bulletins. (3) Out-door

322

CORRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK 323

gardening may be used as an incentive to classes for the com-
pletion of the other work. Teachers may plan with the pupils
how much of a subject is to be learned in a certain week. If
this work is well done in four days, the lesson time on the
fifth day may be used in the garden. (4) Some teachers use
a " credit mark " system and allow pupils a certain length of

Fia. 1S7. — A nature sludy Ishhu in the oardeD, InsBCte Hcid plant diwaseg may belt
be studied io gardens. (IlUnoii Normal Univeruty. NoTmal. Illinoli.)

time in the garden for a given number of credit marks earned
'(itthe other school work. (5) Instead of having special liter-
ary programs Friday afteniooiis throughout tlie year, as prac-
ticed in some schools, the time is used in the garden during
the spring and fall scpsons. (6) Some teachers have found
the interest in the beautifying of the school grounds great
enough to cause the pupils to use much of their recreation
time in the planting work. This may be objectionable in the
minds of some, but the real difference between work and play
is' in the interest taken. The " game " of cleaning up the

S24 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

grounds may be enjoyed by all, also the games of planning,
planting, cultivation, trimming, spraying and others.

Arranging the Program. — Teachers, principals and
superintendents who are willing to place school gardening on
the daily program will have no trouble in finding room for it.
The most serious difficulty in placing gardening on the daily
program is found by teachers who do not have an interest in
such work. As the interest grows, more room for the subject
will be easily found.

A very satisfactory plan is to give the subject a place on the
program only during the fall and spring terms, or perhaps
only during the spring term. A very good plan adopted in
some schools is to let the subject alternate with other regular
school subjects ; for example, gardening will pccupy the place
of arithmetic on Monday, the place of language on Tuesday,
the place of reading on Wednesday, the place .of geography on
Thursday and the place of history on Friday. By this arrange-
ment the work of ny one subject of the program is not
seriously reduced, rnd yet the gardening is given a place daily
throughout any term in which such a plan is followed. If
objection to this is made, it is answered on the ground of
correlation — ^that is, the garden work is so related to each of
the other subjects as to be fully equal to it, not only in practi-
cal training but in actual training along the same line. The
gardening work will actually give training in arithmetic, in
language, in reading, in geography and in history. In all the
correlation work the subject must be changed often enough
to avoid any loss of interest, which might come from constant
repeating.

Arithmetic. — ^Training in arithmetic depends very largely
upon the right conception of the problems involved. Abstract
reasoning, beyond mere number conception, is not a part of
true arithmetic. It belongs to higher mathematics. The
child must first understand the meaning of a problem before
he can solve it. The manipulation of numbers in an arith-

CORRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK SU

metical problem does not train powers of reason and under-
standing. Problems in arithmetics are too frequently con-
cerned with matters beyond the child^s experience and knowl-
edge. It is far better to have the problems of a practical
nature regarding the things at hand. They should deal with
the experiences of the child. Gardening opens wide the door
for the introduction of such problems. Students working
with statements, the meaning of which they can understand,
will learn operations and arithmetical principles much more
rapidly than when they are puzzling over problems which are
beyond their conception. Experiments, such as seed testing,
form a better basis for practice in percentage than do the
imaginary stocks and bonds of older people.

A great difficulty in the use of practical garden problems
is that many of the text books on arithmetic cannot be so
closely followed. If such texts are used to teach methods of
proportion, miscellaneous problems to illustrate it may be
devised by both teacher and pupils. When a few sets of such
practical problems have been formulated, they may be used
to much better advantage, and the principles of arithmetic
will be learned in less than half the time formerly required.
Thus the teacher of the school finds the pupils learn more in
arithmetic through the school garden plan in shorter time
than by the old plan. The teacher of arithmetic who has ex-
perienced such results will not say that there is not room for
school gardening.

Suggestive Problems. — ^The following are a few arithmetic
problems, based on the school garden work. Many others may be
made up by teachers, and even by students themselves.

1. Bordeaux mixture may be made up of 4 pounds of copper
sulfate, 4 pounds of lime and 40 gallons of water. The lime may be
valued at one cent a pound and the sulfate at 4 cents a pound. If
20 gallons of the mixture are required for spraying one-eighth of an
acre of potatoes, what is the cost of the material for this purpose?

2. Suppose two applications of this spray material are required
to prevent potato blight, and each application costs 60 cents for
labor. What is the total cost in fighting the blight?

826 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

3. How many bushels of potatoes, valued at 60 cents per bushel,
will it take to pay for the cost of fighting the blight 7

4. One gardener prevents blight by spraying, and his yield is
25 bushels on one-eighth acre; another gardener neglects his crop
and gets but 12 bushels from the same area. What is the profit due
to spraying, when potatoes sell at 8i5 cents per bushel ?

6. If a field kept clear of weeds produce 75 bushels of com per
acre, and a weedy one only 45 bushels per acre, what is the money
loss caused by weeds, when com sells at 55 cents per bushel? What
would be the loss on a ten-acre field at the same rate?

6. If tomato plants are set three feet apart in the rows, and the
rows are three feet supArt, how many plants will be required to set
one acre? (An acre equals 43,560 square feet.)

7 If one man can set three plants in one minute, how long
will it take two men to plant one acre?

8. If the plants cosit 25 cents per hundred, and the men are each
paid 20 cents per hour, what will be the cost of planting one acre
of tomatoes?

9. If 20 per cent of the plants die, how many will remain in the
field? How many will be required to replant in the vacant places?

10. If the plants each yield one- fourth of a bushel of tomatoes,
what will be the total crop in bushels? In pounds? In tons? (Con-
sider 60 poimds to the bushel.)

11. If these bring 40 cents per bushel in the market, what will
be the value of the crop?

12. If it costs $2 for plowing, $2 for harrowing and cultivating,
$12 for fertilizing, and $4 for spraying the acre of tomatoes ; five cents
per bushel to harvest, and five cents per bushel to market the crop,
what will be the cost per bushel in raising tomatoes?

13. What will be the profit per bushel ? Profit per acre ?

14. If the value of garden vegetables raised on one "vacant"
tract, 60 X 150 feet, amounts to $42, what will be the total value of
vegetables raised on 250 such lots?

15. WTiat will be the total area in acres of this number of lots?

16. If sweet corn is planted in rows 3% feet apart, and the stalks
18 inches apart in the rows, and each stalk yields two marketable
ears, how many ears can be raised on one vacant lot, 50 X 150 feet?

17. At 15 cents per dozen, what will the crop be worth?

18. If one boy can care for three such vacant lots, and works
an average of twelve days on each lot, how much will he earn during
the summer? How much for each day he worked?

19. A large back yard worked by two brothers yielded how much
cash when the sales were made up of the following? Beets, $13.75;

COKRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK 327

tomatoes, $6.82*; lettuce, $11.75; tomato plants, $2.70; corn, 72 cents;
carrots, 30 cents; radishes, $16.80; onions, $2.23; peppers,' $1.35;
spinach, $1.3?; green beans, $1.34; wax beans, $1.11; celery, $35.30;
strawberries, $1.65; peas, 95 cents; cabbage, 55 cents; lima beans,
$1.30; stalks, 25 cents.

20. The family used vegetables of the following values: Lettuce,
$4.95; radishes, 49 cents; spinach, 38 cents; corn, $6.40; rhubarb,
35 cents; tomatoes, $14.89; peas, $2.04; strawberries, $5.93; beets,
90 cents; green beans, 38 cents; celery, $1.17; peppers, 25 cents; pota-
toes, $1.50; onions, 25 cents; Lima beans, 93 cents; squashes, 37
cents; carrots, 3 cents; cucumbers, 15 cents; cabbage^ 10 cents;
egg-plants, 34 cents; parsnips, 60 cents. What was the total used?
What was the total sold and used?

21. If 2*5 per cent was spent for fertilizer, seed and plants, what
was the net income from the garden ?

22. If the income for sweet corn from three city lots, each
50 X 100 feet, is $90, what would be the income per acre ?

23. If 10 per cent is spent for seed and fertilizer and 25 per
cent for labor, what is the net profit per acre ?

24. A crop of lettuce on a lot 50 X 100 feet contains 2500 plants
which sell at an average of 4 cents each, what is the value of the total
crop? What is the net profit if the cash outlay for fertilizer and
seed is $8?

25. The yield is increased by irrigation so that the heads sell
for 7 cents each. What is the profit due to irrigation, if the cost
of irrigation is $10?

26. What fraction of an acre is in a garden which measures 60
by 42 yards? 210 by 105 feet?

27. Give suitable dimensions for a garden which is to contain
one-eighth acre. (43,560 sq. ft. per acre.)

28. How many stalks of sweet corn on one-tenth acre if its rows
are three feet apart and the stalks average one foot apart in the
rows?

29. If each stalk yields one good roasting ear, and ears sell
at 10 cents per dozen, what would be the income from one acre ?

30. If potatoes are planted these same distances, how many
bushels will be produced per acre if thirty-five plants yield one
bushel?

31. With potatoes selling at 40 cents per bushel, what would
be the income from one-tenth acre?

32. What is the income from one-twentieth of an acre of head
lettuee, plants growing at distances 1 by 2^/^ feet, and selling at 3
cents a head?

828 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

33. At Winthrop CJollege there were 150 school gard^is, each
9 by 24r feet. What was the acreage in all?

34. Between these rows of gardens are paths three feet wide
(running the long way). The cross paths are two feet wide. What
is the total amount of land required for the 150 gardens?

35. What is the area of all the paths in the above tract?

36. Get prices of seeds and calculate the total cost of seeds for
a half -acre garden with such crops as indicated in the garden plan,
not including the bush fruits and perennial plants.

37. Calculate the income for each crop as indicated in problems
3, 4, 5, and 6.

38. Calculate the cost of production, allowing $4 per acre for
manure or other fertilizer, $3 for plowing and harrowing one acre,
$3 for horse cultivation for the season on the half-acre, $10 for
planting and hoeing, and $25 for harvesting and marketing. (Change
these estimates, if possible, to suit your locality and season.)

39. If the crop of potatoes mentioned in problems 5 and 6 is
half lost by attacks of potato beetles, because of not spraying, what
would have been the profit from spraying to kill the beetles, at a
cost of $1.50 each for three applications?

40. Tomato plants can be staked and tied up for about 2 cents
each. What would have to be the increased returns on one-tenth
acre to double this cost, if the plants are at distances 3 by 3 feet?

41. Water pipes with nozzles SVj feet apart, mounted on posts
7 feet above the ground, may be made to irrigate a plot 25 feet on
each side, or 50 feet wide. If two such pipes are used how long
should they be to irrigate one-half acre? What would they cost at
5 cents per foot?

42. How many nozzles would be required? What would they
cost at 5 cents each?

43. If the posts are placed one rod apart in each line, how many
would be required in the two lines? What would they cost at 25
cents each?

44. What will it cost to dig the holes and set the posts, if a
laborer can do 25 in one day and he gets $1.25 per day?

45. What will it cost to drill the holes in the pipe and screw
in the nozzles, if a laborer can do one every six minutes, and works
ten hours for $1.25?

46. Allowing $1.25 for valves, $3.50 for strainer unions, $2 for
labor not included in the five preceding problems, and $75 for pump
and gasoline engine, what is the total cost of the equipment for
irrigating one-half acre?

COKRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK 329

Language.^ — Too frequently in some schools the language
work consists in the learning of rules of proper speech and
proper writing. How to talk and how to write are both better
learned by good practice. The rules, of course, are also im-
portant. It is very necessary when young people are receiving
their training in language work for them to have something
suitable about which to talk and write. Every-day things
form the best subjects for such practice. Many of the every-
day things soon become old to the child and newer things
must be taken up. Eight here the garden work fills the need.
With new things to tell and new lessons to consider, young
people will never lack for interesting subjects in language
work. Let the children tell of their experiences in testing
corn. Let them tell of the reasons for certain samples being
better than others, the advantages of certain methods, reasons
for their choice of certain vegetables to plant, methods which
they have followed during the garden season, enemies which
they found and how they combated them, and a hundred
other subjects.

Language based on garden work may be both oral and
written. When pupils are asked to write essays they will
prefer subjects about which they have been working. They
will write much better than if their subjects related to foreign
lands and vague things. Essays or descriptions based on
garden work will come spontaneously; the language will be
their own and not that of some author.

Incidental knowledge is gained when language work is
based on practical things. The child is not only taught to
speak and write, but to learn something else at the same time.
Thus language is not in itself an abstract thing. It is closely
linked with the doings of the child and with his environment
(Fig. 158). Correct speech and correct writing expressions
are gained more readily when based upon real rather than
visionary things.

Reading. — Courses of reading, as laid down in text books,

S30 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

are graded for the purpose of meeting the needs of the child ;
and for supplying reading matter which will be difficult enough
to call forth the beat thought of the child. In many schools
enough reeding matter is not furnished to accomplish this
purpose. Supplementary reading material is greatly needed,
both in city schools and rural schools. A great failing on the
part of some reading books is their failure to use the language
of every-day things. The child uses words in his speech which
he has never seen in books. The reading lesson should not
only teach the child new words, but should show him the proper
uses of words of every-day life.

Suitable reading lessons may be made by using bulletins
and books about the garden work. It is as important that the
child learn from such sources the right use of the words which
are to form a part of his daily vocabulary, as it is that he
should extend his vocabulary in learning new words which will
seldom be used.

If school gardening is given a place on the program, which
to some extent uses the period for reading, that time is more
than made up by having the garden class read about the work
frora any printed matter which is available. The lessons se-
lected from time to time should relate to the work being done
in the garden. Soils may be the subject when gardens are

CORRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK 331

first being thought of in early spring. Later on lessons may
concern: different kinds of garden plants; planning the gar-
den ; implements and garden tools ; growth of plants ; spraying,
and otherwise combating garden enemies; weed problems;
methods of harvesting; and preparation for market.

As new words are learned, a little drill shoidd be given
from time to time in proper spelling and in their varied uses.
Any teacher of reading will readily understand how to make
use of the words in the body of a program, as well as those
which are placed by the authors of text books at the top of the
page. It is more essential that the child know how to prop-
erly spell the words which he is to meet in his daily life than
that he learn how to spell those words which are seldom found
in print.

Geography. — It is now a well-accepted principle that
geography should begin at home. Lessons in the new geogra-
phy are lessons about the products and how people of the
world live. Should not the child learn about the things
of his own land first ? Which is better, for the child to learn
how and where bananas are grown, or to learn of the dis-
tribution and growth of the American corn crop ? There are
many valuable garden crops which are used more or less com-
monly in America, about which many young people know noth-
ing. The study of our own food products is good geography
work. No teacher can truthfully say that time spent in the
study of garden plants and garden products should better have
been spent in the old lines of geography work. We all believe
in the newer methods of geography teaching. Nothing is lost
by giving a part of the time to the study of gardening, thus
reducing the time formerly allowed to the older methods in
geography.

The mapping of the school grounds, the drawing of the
plans of school gardens and the planning of paths and roads
can properly be done during the geography period.

History is too much concerned with) rulers, religious

332 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

strifes and wars between countries^ The subject should mean
more than that to young people of modem times. Schools
prefer to use histories which deal with industries, occupations,
inventions, discoveries and the development of things which
have had lasting influences upon the advancement of people.
It is as important that a child of this century should know
of the history of the com and its development as an American
crop and its influence, as to be able to name the battles of the
Eevolution in the order of their occurrence. It is good his-
tory to study the crops which America has added to the staples
of the world. Interesting stories regarding the development
of several of these crops are found in bulletins, which schools
may have for the mere asking. Children in our schools will
make better men and women if they learn more about the
things which are to be closely associated with their lives.
Much of what was formerly found in histories is now being
omitted as less vital.

Drawing. — In the best schools much attention is given
to expression by means of drawing. This is in perfect accord
with modern methods of expression exemplified in books and
periodicals. No more satisfactory material can be found for
practice in drawing than plants growing in window boxes
or in the garden. It is doubtless better to let the child draw
from nature than to copy from the work of others. This
teaches the proper interpretation of pictures. Appreciation
of great works of art comes naturally instead of artificially.
Rules of drawing are never so valuable to the child as the
drawing itself from natural objects. Teachers in many schools
have made the school garden "work the basis of the drawing
work. Indeed the lovers of drawing have often become the
greatest lovers of plants.

New Classes Not Necessary. — Prof. M. A. Leiper, of
the Western Kentucky State Normal School, in a paper pub-
lished by the United States Bureau of Education, says : ^^ The
new instruction does not demand new classes; it is to be given,

CORRELATION WITH SCHOOL WORK 338

for the most part, in the classes already provided in the present
curriculum. . . . The work of adjusting or readjusting
the instruction in schools to the needs of children will have
to be largely through a reorganization of the subject matter
in the old subjects, through a correlation of necessary instruc-
tion in nature study, agriculture, and domestic science with
that in all the old subjects, and in approaching all subjects
from a new and different viewpoint.

^^ Many of the principles found in the ordinary text books
in arithmetic should be omitted and practically all of the prob-
lems should be restated. The ideal text for the rural school
should emphasize such principles as are needed from time to
time in the daily life on the farm and in the farmer's business
affairs with the outside world; the problems set for solution
should be very practical in nature.

" In physiology and hygiene the rural-school teacher should
teach, among other things, the sanitation of the home in regard
to pure water supply, cleanliness in dairy, outhouses, back
yards, the protection of food from flies, fumigation and disin-
fection in case of contagious diseases. Instruction should also
be given in the causes and method of prevention of tubercu-
losis, typhoid fever, and other preventable diseases.

'' No subject in the public-school curriculum lends itself
so easily and effectively to the scheme of correlating with the
regular work these practical nature and farm-life subjects as
does language work Every child has his language lesson
every day throughout the eight years of his public-school life.
Subjects for these language lessons must be chosen by the
teacher, and they must be closely related to the child's life and
interests if the work is to be interesting and effective.

" No better or more attractive source from which these sub-
jects may be chosen can be found than the realms of nature
study, agriculture, and domestic science. From these sources
most of the subjects for both oral and written language, or
composition work, should be drawn. Subjects chosen from
these fields are interesting because they are real and vital

S34 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

in the child's life. In talking and writing about the attrib-
utes, relations, and activities of objects in the world about
him, such as birds, insects, and plants, the child, in addition
to gaining valuable information, is adding to his language
equipment words tha^ are not meaningless, but words that are
really ^ signs of ideas/ This can not be the case when
subjects foreign to the life and interests of the child are used
in language work. Subjects like ^ Virtue has its rewards ' and
' Honesty is the best policy ' are likely to be fatal to interest in
composition work.

" Many of the new activities introduced into rural life in
connection with agricultural and domestic science offer a
great abundance of material for correlation work. Boys'
corn clubs and girls' canning clubs afford many desirable sub-
jects, as will be shown later, for narration, description, and ex-
position. School gardens and experimental plots, as well as ex-
periments in baking bread, or cooking meat, also furnish valu-
able material for language lessons. The choice of poems to be
memorized should be largely those touching nature, while sub-
jects for argument in the language recitation and for debate in
the literary society should be taken from nature and rural life."
Prof. Leiper gives some practical suggestions as to the
choice of subject matter " )r oral and written composition under
several heads: (1) Conversation exercises; (2) observation
reports; (3) narratio ; (4) essay; (5) description; (6) ex-
position; (7) memorizing poems and gems of nature; (8)'
letter writing; (9) argument or debate; (10) verse writing
for upper grades ; (11) talks from outlines ; (13) diary.
For debate the following subjects are suggested:
^^ life in country is to be preferred to that of the city."
^^ Corn is a more profitable crop than cotton (or wheat) ."
^^ Birds are more injurious to farm crops than insects."
^^ The house fly is more injurious to the human race than
smallpox."

^^ Strawberries are more profitable than the orchard."

CHAPTER XXIII
METHODS OF TEACHING

As many teachers who have not had extended training in
garden methods are expected to teach school gardening, or find
an opportunity to make use of the garden work in connection
with their other school work, a few definite suggestions may be
helpful (Fig. 159).

Questions Asked by Children. — Pupils of all ages ask
many strange questions. Some of these are easy to answer,
while others are very perplexing. Those pupils who have
never done any gardening, or whose parents have no home
gardens, need the most careful guidance. They will have
more puzzling questions to ask, such as " What does th^t seed
look like ? " " Do seeds sprout ? " " Where do they get the
sprout?" ^^How do plants grow?" ^^Why do you plant
them just so deep ? " ^^ Why do you step on the ground over
the seeds after planting? " '^ Why do we scatter the seeds? "
" Why do we test the seeds ? "

It is not necessary that teachers make scientific answers to
all questions asked by children. They should be taught to
observe and learn from nature the answers to their own ques-
tions. Asking them other questions which will lead them to
thinking is better than giving direct answers. Judgment must
be used to not stifle thought along lines in which the pupil
has become interested. For example, when the question of
depth of planting is in the child^s mind let an experiment in
depth of planting be started, or if it has already been started
let him know that the results will be shown a little later. It
is well to call his attention to the fact that large seeds are
planted deeper than small ones.

Teachers should not fear that questions will be asked which
they cannot answer. Such a condition is frequently found in

335

336 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

the teaching of any snbj'ect, particularly those founded upon
nature.

Measuring. — Teach children to be exact. If rows are
to be thirty inches apart do not let them add the width of the
stake each time. Let the measurement be from, say, the
east side of one stake to the east side of the next.

Much benefit may arise in teaching small children to judge
with the eye just what is meant by four inches, or any other

Fill. IGS. — Teachers in aummec school pisotice isrdeuiDi bo they may tesch it

definite distance. Measuring sticks should be used for a time.
These are made by marking the distances required on laths
or other straight pieces of wood. After a little practice with
these the child should be taught to judge distance without
them while doing the planting of seeds or plants.

Planting. — When it is possible the rows in the garden
should run north and south to allow a more even distribution
of sunlight about the plants.

The depth in planting seeds depends upon the kind of

METHODS OF TEACHING 337

seed, the Bize and the condition and character of boU. Small
seeds are planted very shallow and large seeds much deeper.
Greater depth of planting is practised in eandy soil than in day
soil. When soil is dry the seed must he planted deeper than
when it is wet. Such instruction is hest given to the children
at planting time {Fig. 160) .

The term "drill," with reference to method of planting
seeds, means the distributing of the seeds in a small mark or
furrow. This method may be applied as thin drills and thick

Fid. 180. — Primary pupila plantinc radish seedB. (RitUnhouM School Oudsna-'

or close drills. Peas are usually planted in thin drills and
lettuce in thick drills.

The term " hills " refers to the planting of seeds in clusters
or groups at regular intervals in the garden. Com is fre-
quently planted in "hills." (See table, Chapter XVIII.)

In the garden work it is better with small children to use
vegetables that mature in one season or even in a few weeks.
Later on perennials may he used. Quick results are most in-
teresting to small children. Try auch crops as lettuce, radish,
peas, turnips, onions, beans, early com, summer squash, toma-
toes, and cabbage. It is nsnally best to omit field crops at

338 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

first, unless some pedigreed seed is to be tested or some
variety new to the region is to be tried.

Thinning.— Children should be shown how to thin plants
carefully without disturbing the ones which are to be left in
the row. Thinning is frequently necessary, particularly with
such plants as beets, because the seeds are in clusters, or many
germs are in one seed-case, and several plants sprout eo close
together that they cannot thrive. Thinning is also necessary
when too much seed has been used. Lettuce and radish seeds
are planted too thick, with the intention of taking out the
largest plants for use and leaving the others thin enough to
grow well.

The teacher should show the child which plants are the best
to leave, and how to remove other plants. with a side motion
of the hand. Eeplacing dirt about the plants to be left is
often advisable. If a large area is involved, much of the
thinning may be done by the use of a hoe or hand weeder.
Plants are left. at a given distance apart in bunches, and the
fingers may afterward be used in thinning these bunches.

With very small children it is necessary to show which are
the good plants and which are the weeds. • Close observation
may be necessary to discriminate when the plants are small.
Badish plants may resemble weeds of the same family.

The position of the child while weeding, or in doing similar
work in the garden, is important. If the child supports his
weight upon his toes and rests the body upon his heels the
position of his back is much better than if he keeps his legs
straight and leans over to reach the ground. A very good
method is to put one knee on the ground and bend the other leg
as just described. The position of the back is then vertical
instead of horizontal. (Figs. 159 and 160.)

Using Both Hands. — Children should be taught to use
both hands in all garden operations. They may rest the
muscles of the hands and arms much better if properly trained
in this matter. Weeding and thinning can be done with the

METHODS OF TEACHING 339

left hand as well a« with the right. The hand and leg should
be used both ways. If the right hand is nearer the tool end
they are working right-handed. If the left hand is nearer the
tool end they may work left-handed.

Raking. — ^When raking over the area between two garden
rows much soil and other material may accumulate in front of
the rake. Instead of this being taken along continuously, it
should be pushed back and spread between the rows. If the
raking is done well before the garden is planted no material
needs to be rakeS away afterward. The soil should be loos-
ened with the rake and left where it is or nearly so. Teachers
need to carefully supervise the raking, as many pupils will
rake too lightly and others press too heavily. If clods have
formed which accumulate in front of the rake, the motion of
the rake may be toward the center of the aisle and then the
clods may be crushed there with an upward stroke of the
rake, the handle being vertical.

APPENDIX

LITERATURE FOR GARDENERS

United States Farmers' Bulletins.— The list of bulletins
of this title includes many subjects of value to gardeners.
They will help teachers, and many will be useful in the schools
as supplementary readers. Each teacher should write to her
congressman at Washington, asking for the number of copies
of each bulletin which she is likely to need in the exercises
and contests suggested in this circular. Find your congress-
man's name, and in writing refer to the Farmers' Bulletins
by number.

List of Farmera* Bulletins of Help to Ga/rdeners

44 — Commercial Fertilizers. 282 — Celery.

^ 61 — ^A&paragus Culture. 289 — Beans.

77 — Liming of Soils. 324 — Sweet Potatoes.

121 — Beans, Peas, etc., as Food: 354 — Onion Culture.

154 — The Home Fruit Garden. 406 — Soil Conservation.

157 — The Propagation of Plants. 407— The Potato as a Truck Crop.

181 — Pruning. 428 — Testing Seeds.

185— Beautifying the Home 433 — Cabbage.

Grounds. 488 — Diseases of Cabbage and
188 — Weeds in Medicine. Related Crops.

192^Barnyard Manure. 494 — Lawns and Lawn Soils.

195 — ^Annual Flowering Plants. 633 — Good Seed Potatoes and How
196 — Usefulness of the American to Produce Them.

Toad. 637 — How to Grow an Acre of
198 — Strawberries. Corn.

204— The Cultivation of Mush- 543 — Common White Grubs.

rooms. ' 544 — Potato-tuber Diseases.

213 — Raspberries. 548 — S t o r i n g and Marketing
218 — The School Garden. Sweet Potatoes.

220 — Tomatoes. 553 — Pop Corn.

232 — Okra — Its Culture and Uses. 561 — Bean Growing.

254 — Cucumbers. 583^-Common Mole.

255 — The Home Vegetable Garden. 586 — Preservation of Plant Ma-
257— Soil Fertility. terial for Agriculture.

340

LITERATURE FOR GARDENERS

341

609 — ^Bird Houses. 707 — Grading, Packing, Shipping

617 — School Lessons on Corn. of Canteloupes.

630 — Common Useful Birds. 714 — Sweet-potato Disease.

642 — ^Tomato Growing. 750 — Roses for the Home.

643 — Blackberry Culture. 753 — ^Handling, Grading, and

647 — Home Garden in the South. Marketing Potatoes.

648 — Control of Root-knot 766 — Common Cabbage Worm.

660 — Weeds. 789 — ^Mushroom Pests.

664 — Strjiwberry Growing. 796 — Edible and Poisonous Mush-

668 — Squavs Vine-borer. rooms.

703— Parcel Post Marketing. 818--The Small Home Garden.

Farmers* Bulletins on Home Canning
203 — Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies.
256 — ^The Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.
359 — Canning Vegetables in the Home.
426 — ^Canning Peaches on the Farm.
521 — Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work.

Special Circulars on Home Garden Club Work Issued hy the Bureau

of Plant Industry
104 — Special Contests in Corn Club Work.
803 — Organization and Instruction in Club Work.
883 — Tomato Growing as Club Work.
884 — Potato Growing as Club Work.

Helpful Books

Title Author Publisher

Manual of Weeds Georgia The Macmillan Co.

The New Standard Cyclopedia of

Horticulture Bailey (Ed. ) The Macmillan Co.

Manual of Gardening Bailey (Ed.) The Macmillan Co.

Garden Making Bailey (Ed.) The Macmillan Co.

The Forcing Book Bailey (Ed.) The Macmillan Co.

Principles of Plant Culture Goff The Macmillan Co.

.Gardening for Pleasure Henderson Orange Judd Co.

The Principles of Fruit Growing. . Bailey The Macmillan Co.

The' Pruning Book Bailey The Macmillan Co.

The Nursery Book Bailey The Macmillan Co.

Bush Fruits Card The Macmillan Co.

Popular Fruit Growing Green Webb. Pub. Co. ( St.

Paul )

Citrus Fruits and Their Culture . . Hume Orange Judd Co.

The Orchard and Fruit Garden. . .Powell Doubleday Page Co.

S42 SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING

Title Author Publisher

Productive Orcharding Sears J. B. Lippincott Co.

The American Apple Orchard Waugh Orange Judd Co.

The American Peach Orchard Waugh Orange Judd Co.

The Beginners' Guide to Fruit

Growing Waugh Orange Judd Co.

Fruit Harvesting, Marketing and

Storing Waugh Orange Judd Co.

Modem Strawberry Growing Wilkinson Doubleday Page Co.

Cabbage, Cauliflower and Allied *

Vegetables Allen Orange Judd Co.

The Principles of Vegetable Gar-
dening Bailey The Macmillan Co.

The Practical Garden Book Bailey The Macmillan Co.

Celery Culture Beattie Orange Judd Co.

The Vegetable Gkirden Bennett Doubleday Page Co.

Garden Farming Corbett Ginn k Co.

Sweet Potato Culture Fitz Orange Judd Co.

How to Grow Vegetables French The Macmillan Co.

Beginners' Garden Book French The Macmillan Co.

How to Make a Vegetable Garden . Fullerton Doubleday Page Co.

The New Onion Culture Greiner Orange Judd Co.

Vegetable Gardening ... Green Webb Pub. Co. ( St.

Paul)

The Home Vegetable Garden Kruhm Orange Judd Co.

Productive Vegetable Gardening. . Lloyd J. B. Lippincott Co.

The Home Garden Rexford J. B. Lippincott Co.

Peas and Pea Culture Sevey Orange Judd Co.

Tomato Culture Troop Orange Judd Co.

Vegetable Gardening Watts Orange Judd Co.

House Plants and How to Grow

Them ; Barnes Doubleday Page Co.

Home Floriculture Rexford Orange Judd Co.

Landscape Gardening Waugh Orange Judd Co.

Studies of Trees Levison Jno. Wiley & Sons

School and Home Gardens Meier Ginn & Co.

Rural Improvement Waugh Orange Judd Co.

Agriculture Through the Labora- Jackson &

tory and School Garden Daugherty Orange Judd Co.

Among School Gardens Green School Garden As.

of Am.

Principles of Floriculture White The Macmillan Co.

Children's Gardens Parsons Sturgis & Walton Co.

LITERATURE FOR GARDENERS

343

State Station and Extension BuUeti/ns

Write to your State Agricultural Experiment Station.
The addresses of the Stations in different states are as follows :

Alabama, Auburn, Uniontown and Missouri, Columbia, and Moun-

Tuskegee Institute.

Ahiska, Sitka.

Arizon<i, Tucson.

Arkansas, FayetteviUe.

CaUfomia, Berkeley.

Colorado, Fort Collins.

Connecticut, New Haven and
Storrs.

Delaware, Newark.

Florida, Gainesville.

Georgia, Experiment.

Guam, Island of Guam.

Hawaii, Honolulu.

Idaho, Moscow.

Illinois, Urbana.

Indiana, La Fayette.

Iowa, Ames.

Kwnsas, Manhattan.

Kentucky, Lexington.

Louisiana, Baton Kogu'e, Audu-
bon Park, New Orleans and Cal-
houn.

Maine, Orono.

Maryhmd, College Park.

Massachusetts, Amherst.

Michigan, East Lansing.

Minnesota, University Farm, St.
Paul.

Mississippi, Agricultural College.

tain Grove.

Montana, Bozeman.

Nebraska, Lincoln.

Nevada, Keno.

New Hampshire, Durham.

New Jersey, New Brunswick.

New Mexico, State College.

New York, Geneva., and Ithaca.

North Carolina, West Raleigh.

North Dakota, Agricultural Col-
lege.

Ohio, Wooster.

Oklahoma, Stillwater.

Oregon, Corvallis.

Pennsylvania, State College.

Porto Rico, Mayguez.

Rhode Island, Kingston.

South Carolina, Clemson College.

South Dakota, Brookings.

Tennessee, Knoxville.

Texas, College Station.

Utah, Logan.

Vermont, Burlington.

Virginia, Blacksburg, and Nor-
folk.

Washington, Pullman.

West Virginia, Morgantown.

Wisconsin, Madison.

Wyoming, Laramie.

Information on School Gardens. — The School Garden
Association of America, with its headquarters at 124 West 30th
St., New York, gathers information, and collects illustrations
for use in making lantern slides. It issues an Annual Report
helpful to teachers and Club workers. This Association is glad
to receive from you pictures, suggestions, courses of study, and
other matter relating to school garden work.

INDEX

Acid phosphate, 125
Ageratum, 144, 152
Aids to gardeners, 14
Air and germination, 70
Age of woody plants, 156

shown in twigs, 156
Agricultural Contests and Club

Work, chapter on, 293
Alfalfa, 303
Alyssum, 152
Amaryllis, 170, 171
Ambulance Down in the Valley

(poem), 25
Angelica, 203
Anemone, 146, 148
Annual flowers, 262
Annuals, 257

hardy, 268, 246, 144

planting, 144

tender, 144
Antirrhinum, 152
Apple, borer, 278

collections at exhibits, 319

packed, 319

tree, 139
Aquarium, 64, 175
Arbor, 45
Arbor day, 148

planning for, 149, 150
suggestive programs,
150, 151
Arithmetic, and gardening, 324

suggestive problems, 325, 326,
327, 328
Arnica, 203

Arsenate of lead, 124, 286, 287
Arsenicals in Bordeaux, 286
Artichoke, 178

Jerusalem, 146, 178
Ashes, wood, 223
Asparagus, 178, 179, 225, 231
242, 243, 251, 253, 271, 273
Asparagus fern, 174
Aster, 144, 152, 270
Auricaria, 174

Back-yard garden, 19, 20, 132
Balloon vine, 144
Balm, 203
Balsam, 144, 152
Bane, 203

Barnyard manure, 88
Beans, 179, 181, 258, 263
Beautifying Home and School
Groimds, chapter on, 130
home, 131, 141, 143,
145
Bedding plants, 236, 259
Beets, 180
Begonia, 170
Belladonna, 203
Bibliography, 341, 342
Birds, 292
Blackberries, 236
Blackberry, 266
Blazing star, 146
Bleeding hearts, 146
Bloodroot, 146
Blue-bell, 146
Borage, 203

Bordeaux mixture, 233, 286, 288
Borers, apple, 261, 278

peach, 255, 278
Brown rot disease, 281
Box seed tester, 214
Budding, 163

fruit trees, 164, 165
spring, 166
Buds, fruit, 166
Bugs, squash, 234
Bulbs, 146, 147, 171, 224, 232, 240,

243, 246, 257, 268, 269, 272,

273, 274
Bush fruits, 245, 265
Bread score card, 313
Broccoli, 181
Brussels sprouts, 181

Cabbage, 182, 183, 242, 254
late, 231, 264
winter, 273
worms, 264, 291

345

346

INDEX

Cactus, 174

Caladium, 144, 147

Calendula, 144, 152

Calla lily, 171

Calliopsis, 144

Cambium, 162

Campanula, 152

Candytuft, 144, 146, 152

Cannas, 147, 258

Canning vegetables, 294, 304, 308

Cantaloupes, 193

Canterbury bell, 146

Capillary movement of water, 120

Caraway, 203

Carbon dioxide, 63

from germinating seed,
71
Cardinal flower, 146
Carnations, 170, 172, 233, 258, 267
Catnip, 203
Century plant, 174
Centaurea, 152
Cherries, 45
Clematis, 134
Carrots, 183, 184, 268
Castor bean, 144, 145
Cauliflower, 184, 175, 204, 233,

237, 260
Celery, 186, 233, 237, 238, 241,

244, 250, 260, 264
Chamomile, 146
Charity of gardening, 16
Chart for garden, 36, 37

making, 34
Cherry trees, 157, 166
Chives, 203
Chrysanthemums, 146, 152, 170,

171, 233, 246, 258, 274
Cinerarias, 170, 274
Clay, baking of, 118
packing of, 119
Clubs, canning, 264
Club work, influence of, 293

lines of, 295

how organized, 296

incentives, 297
Cobsea, 144
Cockscomb, 144, 152
Codling moth, 127

treatment for, 277
Colchicums, 146, 147

Coldframes, 49

plants for, 50, 51, 52, 224,
241, 255, 269

uses of, 49
Coleus, 170, 174
CoUards, 190

Collections of vegetables for ex-
hibit, 303
Color of soils, 116
Columbine, 146
Commercial fertilizer, 90
Companion cropping, 204
Compost, 89, 244
Contest lists, 300
Contests for yields, 311
Convolvulus, 152
Coreopsis, 152
Coriander, 203
Corn, com boards, 211

detasseling, 216

fall lessons with, 208

for contests, 222

Growing chapter on, 208

harvesting, 221

improvement, 216

planting, 220

premium lists for, 301

preparing soil, 220

raising crop, 219

score card, 209

seed, 268

selecting seed, 209

storing, 221

storing seed, 213

sweet, 186

testing seed, 213

tillage, 221

winter work, 208
Corn-club hay, 210, 296
Corn-growing contests, 297

application blank for,

298
rules for, 297
Correlation with Other Work,

chapter on, 322
Cosmos, 144, 152
Cotton, for fairs, 303

seed, 268
Cover crops, 87, 241, 266, 268, 269
Cowpeas, 234, 260
Crimson clover, 86, 268

INDEX

347

Crocus, 146, 147, 171
Cucumbers, 176, 187, 302
Cultivator, 46
Culture, deep, 124

level, 125

shallow, 124
Curculio, 277
Currants, 236, 259
Cuttings, 161, 255, 264

hardwood, 160

in water, 159

leaf, 158

root, 160

woody, 253
Cut- worms, 231, 280
Cyclamen, 170, 274

Daffodils, 171
Dahlias, 144, 152, 252
Daily program, 324
Decoration at fairs, 309
Delphinium, 146 (see Larkspur)
Depth and germination, 70

proper, 125
Detasseling com, 216

alternate rows, 218

method of, 218
Dianthus, 152
Dibbers, 43
Dill, 203

Diseases of Vegetables, 286
Drainage, 111, 112
Drains, 112, 244
Drawing and gardening, 332
Drills, 337
Dust mulch, 117, 228

Early vegetables, 229

Effects of garden work, 45

Egg-plant^ 187, 188, 260

Eggs for exhibit, 306

Endive, 188

Evergreens, transplanting, 240

Exercises with Soils, chapter on,

113
Experiments, 36

Fairs, school and club, 295, 298^
299
place for, 295, 298
time for, 298

Fall planting, 243
plowing, 244
Fallow, bare, 99
Farm products, for exhibit, 303
Farmers' bulletins, 340, 341
Fencing, 47
Fennel, 203
Ferns, 174, 243
Fertilizer, 258

commercial, 90
how to buy, 96
home mixing, 96, 97
lawn, 230
samples, 105
too much, 104
tests with, 66
which to use, 98
Fertilizing, heavy, 126
Flame flower, 146
Flea beetle, 282

Flower collections, at fairs, 319
seeds, 264, 269
seed testing, 224
Flowering plants, 170

bulbs, 171
Flowers, 35

and pollination, 80
annual, 143, 305
for exhibit, 305
perennial, 145, 305
planting, 142
planting table, 152
staking, 235
window, 305
Forests, hillside, 155
Forget-me-not, 146
Formal Gardens, 38
Freesia, 171
Fruit, buds, 166

fancy basket, 320
thinning, 237
Fruit trees, fall planting, 271
pruning, 253
transplanting, 253
Fruits, 36

for exhibit, 304
Fuchsia, 170
Funkia, 146

348

INDEX

Garden Calendar for Northern
States,
chapter on, 223
Garden Calendar for Southern
States,
chapter on, 250
Garden, crops, exhibit, 302

friends, 291

plan, 28

storage, 246

tools, care of, 244

vegetables for, 302

winter, 246
Garden Plot Experiments, chap-
ter on, 124
Garden Tools and Equipment,

chapter on, 41
Gardeners, aids to, 14

fees for, 15
Gardening, for all classes, 24

funds for, 15

history of, 1

places for, 332, 333, 334

superintendent for, 15
Gardens, farmers', 177

formal, 38

home, 2

roof, 39

window, 38, 170

young people's, 2
Garlic, 180

Geography and gardening, 331
Geranium cuttings, 159, 267
Geraniums, 170
Germination and air, 70
depth, 70
moisture, 69
packing, 69
warmth, 70
Gilia, 144
Girdling trees, 154
Girls' work at fairs, 307
Gloxinia, 170
Gluten in seed, 78
Goldenglow, 146
Goldenrod, 146
Gourds, 144, .176
Grafting wax, 161

whip or tongue, 162

root, 163

top, 167

Grain smut, prevention, 284, 288
Grape exhibit, 320
Grapes, 265
Grass seed, pure, 77
Green manure, 86
Grounds, condition of, 130
planning, 131, 132, 133
Growing plants, 14, 15
Growing of Vegetables, chapter
on, 177

Hand barrows, 45

Hardy annuals, started, 225

border, 230

flowers, 252
Harebell, 146
Harrow, 46
Harrowing, 100, 119
Harvesting corn, 221
Health affected by gardening, 21
Hedges, 256, 265
Heeling in, 137
Helianthus, 146
Helpers at fairs, 310
Hepatica, 146
Herbs, 202, 232, 253
Hills, 337
Hippeastrum, 171
History of gardening, 331
Hoe, 41

Hollyhock, 146, 152
Home beautifying, contest, 305
Home gardening, 19, 20, 21, 251
Home garden records, 314
Home gardens, supervised, 3
Home and School Exercises, chap-
ter on, 66
Hops, 203
Horehound, 203
Horseradish, 189, 253
Hotbeds, 223, 224, 225, 241, 247,

269, 273
Hotbeds and coldframes, chapter
on, 49

how to make, 54, 55

how warmed, 55

operating, 56

plants for, 52, 53

temperature, 56

uses of, 49

ventilation, 57

INDEX

349

Houseplants, 243, 252, 270, 272
Humus, 88, 114
Hyacinth, 146, 147, 171
Hyssop, 203

Ice plant, 174

Indoor plants, 170

Inoculating soil for legumes, 101

Inoculation, effects of, 128

Insect breeding cages, 278

Insects, beneficial, 291
how they feed, 276
methods of control, 276, 286

Insects, Diseases, and their Con-
trol, chapter on, 276

Instruction, character of, 2
in gardening, 15

Interest in gardening, 322

Iris, 146, 170, 174

Irrigation, 236

conveying water, 107
ditches, 109, 110
in humid regions, 106
overhead, 108, 109
raising water for, 107
water supply for, 107

Irrigation and Drainage, chapter
on, 106

Ivy, 134, 170

Jonquils, 171, 175

Kale, 190, 263

Keeping accounts, 314

Kerosene emulsion, 286, 289

Kohl-rabi, 190

Labelling at fairs, 310

Labels, 44

Language and gardening, 329

Lantana, 170

Lantern slides, 299

Large seeds, 72

Larkspur, 144, 152

Laurel, 148

Lavender, 203

Lawn, care of, 230

Lawn mowers, 47

Lawns, 140, 141, 142, 227, 232,

234, 241, 245, 253, 256, 257,

259, 262, 269

Layering, mound, 168

tip, 168

vine, 168
Laying off garden, 33
Leaders, 8
Leaves and light, 62
Leek, 190

Legume nodules, 100, 101
L^umes, lime for, 102
Lens, 74
Lessons with Trees, chapter on,

153
Lettuce, 51, 191, 204, 229, 260,
263

for exhibit, 302
Lily, 146, 147, 171
Lily-of-the-Valley, 146, 171
Lima beans, 180
Lime, 85, 125
Lime, air-slaked, 286
Lime for legumes, 102

for potatoes, 126

solubili4gr-ofr 104
Lime-sulfur, 290

self-boiled, 291
Liquid manure, 110
Literature for gardeners, 340
Live poultry at fairs, 306
Location of garden, 27
Locating crops, 35

Mallow, 146
Manure, 86

barnyard, 88

care of, 90, 91

green, 86

liquid, 110
Marigold, 144, 152
Marker, 44

Market (see Frontispiece)
Marking board, 43
Marshmallow, 203
Martynia, 144
Mattock, 43
McDonald movement, 2
Measures, 44
Measuring, 37, 336
Methods of Teaching, chapter on,

335
Mignonette, 144, 152
Mineral matter in plants, 102

S50

INDEX

Minerals in soil-water, 104

Mint, 203

Moisture absorbed by plants, 58

and germination, 69

expelled by leaves, 60
Morning-glory, 144, 152
Mulch, 272

carpet or hay, 117

dust, 117

for trees, 154

straw, 129

sugar experiment, 118
"Mummied" fruits, 228, 281
Muriate of Potash, 125
Mushrooms, 192, 246
Muskmelons, 43, 192

Narcissus, 146, 147, 171, 175
Nasturtium, 144, 152
Nature-study in garden, 323
Nitrate of soda, 125, 231, 259
Nitrogen, 91, 92
Nodules on pea roots, 100

on legumes, 101
Number plants per acre, table,

169
Nurseries, 36
Nut trees, 154

Oaks, 154

Oat smut, 127

Objects of school gardens, 6

Oil in seeds, 77

Okra, 192

Onions, 192, 268

for fairs, 302 *

harvest, 238

sets, 271
Opinions of teachers, 9, 10
Osmosis, 61
Oxalis, 170

Packing and germination, 69
Palm, 174

Pansies, 152, 226, 262
Paris green, 233, 259, 287
Parsley, 194, 243, 273
Parsnips, 194
Peach borer, 278, 279
Peaches, tree, 138, 277, 320

Peanuts, 258
Peas, 100, 194, 228
Pennyroyal, 203
Pensteman, 146
Peony, 146
Peppermint, 203
Peppers, 196
Perennials, 146, 242, 268
Permanent occupation, 23
Petunia, 144, 152
Philadelphia circular, 17
Phlox, 144, 146, 152
Phosphoric acid, 93, 125
making, 94
testing for, 95
Phosphorus, 94
Pick, 43
Pink, 144, 146
Pits, stratifying, 245
Planning the garden, 27
Plans of school grounds, 28, 29,

30, 31, 32, 33, 37
Plant, diseases, 282, 283

food retained in soils, 103

holders, 174

lice, 259
Planting, 336

depth, 71

distances (table), 169

of flowers (table), 152

thick or thin, 128
Plants, absorbing moisture, 58

for hotbeds, 52, 53

for shade, 148

how get out of ground, 69

overfeeding, 61
Plants in Relation to Soil, Light

and Air, chapter on, 58
Plot Experiments, chapter on, 124
Plow, 46
Plowing, depth of, 99

early, 226

tracts, 14
Plums, 320
Pollination, 80

by hand, 83

by insects, 81

by wind, 81

of corn, 82
Poppy, 81, 144, 146, 152
Portulaca, 144

INDEX

851

Potash, 95

Muriate of, 125
Potato, 63, 196

beetles, 124, 281

blight, 124, 283

cooking test, 318

rot, 283

scab, 126, 285, 289

score card, 317
Potatoes, 256, 260, 263, 264

lime for, 126

premiums for, 301

seed, 79, 80
Pots, 253, 282
Potted plants, 230, 232
Premiums, at fairs, 310

kinds of, 311
Preparing garden, 227
Primula, 170

Principles of planning, 39, 40
Privet, 239

Programs for arbor day, 150, 151
Protecting gardens, 27
Pruning, 256, 261

berry bushes, 262

blackberries, 266

care in, 139

completed, 225

currants, 224

grapes, 224

implementsj 46

peaches, 224

summer, 237

trees, 137, 140, 156, 224, 247

young trees, 137
Pyrethrum, 286

Radish, 197, 254

early, 254

planting, 337

winter, 263
" Rag doll '* tester, 214
Rains for over-fertilization, 103
Rake, 41
Raking, 339

Reading and gardening, 329
Record, pupils, for lettuce, 316

value of, 314
Rhododendron, 148
Rhubarb, 107, 225, 231, 242, 243,
253, 271

Road drag, 256
Rock-cress, 146
Roof gardens, 39
Root crops buried, 244
Root hairs, 59

formation of, 60
Roots, types of, 65
Roses, 170, 243, 273
Rue, 203
Rutabaga, 203

Tarragon, 203
Teachers as leaders, 8
Teachers practicing gardening,

336
Temperatures of soils,
Tester, rag-doll, 214
Testing seed corn, 213
Tests, variety, 125
The Garden (poem), 8
Thinning, 338

fruit, 261
Thyme, 203
Tillage, for corn, 221

objects of, 98

types of, 98

shallow, 99
Toads, 291
Tomato, blight, 233

judging, 313

pruning, 238

score card, 314

worms, 281
Tomatoes, 68, 201, 202, 262, 271

early, 233

staking, 127, 128
Tool house, 47, 48
Tools, 42
Top working, 167
Transplanting, 135, 136, 227, 257

evergreens, 245
Trees, 133

knowing, 140

lessons with, chapter on, 153

planting, 229

transplanting, 272

seedlings, 154
Trowels, 43
Tuberose, 171
Tubers, 146

Tulip, 146, 147, 171, 173
Turnips, 201

S5S

INDEX

Sage, 208

Salsify, 198

Salvia, 152

Sand, baking of, 118

packing of, 119
San Jos^ scale, 280
Sap ducts, 153
School, centre, 7

competitions, 308

collections, 309
School-garden, lesson in, 330
School Garden, Association of

America, 343
School-room lessons, 136
Score card for contests, 312

for vegetable display, 321
Seed, collection, 75, 76

collecting, 262

large, 72

potatoes, 79

selection, 66

testing, 72, 73

weed, 72
Seedling trees, 164

transplanting, 155
Seeds, in hotbeds, 229

oil in, 77

gluten in, 78

starch in, 78
Sensitive-plant, 144
Shooting star, 146
Shovels, 43
Shrubs, 134, 232, 269
Sieves, 43

Slips, starting, 158
Smut on grain, 288
Soaking seeds, 205
Soap, whale-oil, 286
Sodding, 256

Soil and its Improvement, chap-
ter on, 84
Soil, firming, 127

liming, 84, 85

preparing, 84

water in, 104
Soils, baking, 115

absorbing power of, 121

analysis, 122

exercises with, chapter on,
113

loose, 120

Soils, packed, mulching, 118, 119,
120

retain plant food, 103

sampling, 113

taking temperatures, 115

testing for moisture, 113

for organic matter, 114
for sourness, 115

water-holding power, 121, 122
Snowdrop, 146
Soybeans, 234
Spade, 43
Spading fork, 42
Spiderwort, 174, 175
Spinach, 198, 263, 272
Spray calendar, table, 286

materials, 233, 287, 288
Spraying, 253, 256, 258, 269

for codling moth, 232

for potato beetle, 124

for scale, 225

time for, 285
Sprayers, 283, 284, 285, 287

and materials, 44
Spring beauty, 146
Spring seed orders, 224
Sprinkling can, 43
Squash, 68, 198, 261
Squill, 146
Staking, 37
Stakes, 44

State Station addresses, 343
Starch in seeds, 78
Starting garden work, 322

seeds, 225
Stock, 144, 162
Storing corn, 221
Strawberries, 82, 224, 231, 234,
239, 240, 244, 245, 255, 259,
267, 274
Streams, 123
Succession cropping, 205

planting, 231, 239
Sugar beet, 182
Sugar beet exhibited, 301
Summer pruning, 262
Sunflower, 152
Sunlight, aquarium, 64

need for growth, 62
Superintendents at fairs, 310
Sweet alyssum, 144

INDEX

358

Sweet corn, 231, 258

Sweet potatoes, 52, 176, 199, 243,

251, 258, 261, 272, 301, 313
Sweet peas, 144, 152, 246, 252,

272 274
Sweet William, 152
Swine for fairs, 306
Swiss chard, 200

Umbrella plant, 170, 175

Vacant lot gardening, chapter
on, 11

gardens, 18, 22, 24, 108
historical, 11
plan of work, 13

Vacation gardening, 18, 19

work, 7
Variety names of vegetables, 206
Variety tests, 125
Verbena, 144
Vetch, 128
Vine borers, 234

vegetables, 258
Vines, 131, 134, 260

annual, 259

how they climb, 135
Violets, 170, 270
Vegetables, display, 320

drying, 267

diseases, 286

early, 254, 260

early planting, 227

fall, 267

fall planting, 241, 269

garden record (table), 248,
249

hardy, 252, 258, 273

harvest, 241

Vegetables, insects, 286
last planting, 233
main planting, 230
perennial, 227
table, 206
tall, 231
tender, 233, 256
transplanting, 256, 258
varieties, 206
window garden, 175
winter, 268
score card, 321
second crop, 238
second planting, 230

Wake robin, 146

Water, capillary movement of,

120
Water hyacinth, 175
Warmth and germination, 70
Watermelon, 201
Weeders, 43
Weeds, distribution, 76

killing, 100, 125

seeds, 73

studying, 74
Whale-oil soap, 286
Wheelbarrow, 45
Wheel hoes, 45
Winder, 45

Wild lowers, 146, 228, 241
Window boxes, 224, 232, 247
Window gardens, 38, 170
Winter cover crops, 272
Wood ashes, 95
Wormwood, 203

Yucca, 146

Zinnia, 144

X^'^

< ^•'

'>itOf^,-'p*'^

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Tbis book is DUE on tbe last date stamped below.

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NOV 8
68«p*60MMy

JUL i 1997

1947

LD 21-100m-12,'46(A20128l6)4120

YB 5b42^