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CHOOf 


n   TU 


G 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AMY 


IN 


GERMANY  AND  FRANCE, 


WITH  A  DIARY  OF 


SIEGE   LIFE   AT   VEESAILLES. 


BY 


B'V'T  MAJ.-GEFL  W.  B.  HAZEN,  U.S.  A., 


COLONEL  SIXTH  INFANTRY. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER   &    BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS, 

FUANKI,  IN     BQUAEE. 
1872. 


Entered  according  to 'Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 

H  4  £•  P  E  R     &     E  R  G,T  H  F  R  S, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  first  part  of  the  following  work  is  a  faithful  record 
of  my  personal  observation  of  German  military  life  and 
service  during  a  part  of  the  late  Franco -Prussian  war.  As 
I  believe  that  organization  stands  to  successful  action  in 
the  relation  of  cause  to  effect,  I  have  devoted  the  remain- 
ing pages  to*  an-  examination  and  comparison  of  the  mili- 
tary and  educational  systems  of  France  and  Germany.  It 
will  be  seen  that  in  each  of  these  countries  the  connection 
between  the  school  and  the  army  is  intimate,  and  that  the 
latter  rests  upon  and  corresponds  in  excellence  to  the  for- 
mer. I  have  preferred  an  exposition  and  discussion  of 
these  fundamental  subjects  to  detailed  descriptions  of  bat- 
tles that  I  did  not  see,  and  which  were  only  results. 

In  treating  of  the  schools,  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by 
the  reports  of  the  various  commissioners  sent  out  by  the 
British  Government.  It  may  be  said  that  I  am  partial/ to 
Germany.  I  answer  that  I  have  written  what  I  found  to 
be  true.  That  my  convictions  were  not  hastily  formed, 
will  appear  by  the  following  extract  from  a  private  letter: 

"  NUREMBERG,  November  9, 1STO. 

"*  *  *  I  can  not  close  this  letter  without  thanking  you  for  the  great  in- 
terest you  have  taken  in  our  German  question  since  I  had  the  pleasure  of 
meeting  you  first  three  years  ago.  Your  views  then  were  so  correct,  every 
thing  that  has  happened  since  you  foretold  with  such  accuracy,  that  I  look 
upon  our  first  meeting  with  the  deepest  interest,  while  my  political  views 
have  since  been  guided  by  your  kind  advice.  *  *  * 

"I  have  the  honor  to  be,  most  respectfully,  EUGENE  HURZ. 

"To  GENERAL  HAZEN." 

M61945 


1 V  INTR  OD  UCTION. 

The  first  meeting  spoken  of  in  this  letter  took  place  in 
1867,  just  after  I  had  spent  a  few  days  at  the  head-quarters 
of  General  L'Admirault,  commanding  the  camp  of  instruc- 
tion at  Chalons. 

What  I  then  saw  and  had  previously  observed  of  the 
tone  and  character,  of  the  French  army  and  people,  and 
their  attitude  toward  Germany,  made  the  result  of  the  re- 
cent war  a  foregone  event  to  me. 

If  this  book  shall  serve  to  turn  the  attention  of  a  single 
person  to  the  moral  and  intellectual  causes  of  German 
success  and  French  disaster,  it  will  not  entirely  fail  of 
its  purpose. 

W.  B.  HAZEN. 

FORT  HAYS,  KANSAS. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Credentials.  —Bismarck. — Ferrieres. — Sedan.— Versailles.  —  King  William. 
— Cost  and  Management  of  Versailles. — General  Burnside. — Peasants  eat- 
ing Royal  Game. — Relics  of  St.  Cloud. — Sortie  from  Mount  Valerien. — 
Chateau  Beauregard. — Chateau  Balzac. — Prussian  Military  Burial. — Ho- 
tel du  Reservoir. — German  Princes Page  9 

CHAPTER  II. 

Types  of  German  People. — Characteristics  of  Princes. — Prussian  Officers. — 
Posting  and  quartering  the  German  Army. — The  Old  Noblesse 55 

CHAPTER  III. 

Fall  of  Metz. — Fortifications  about  Paris. — Americans  from  Paris. — The 
Mitrailleuse. — Roads  in  Europe. — Food  about  Paris. — Contumacy  of  the 
French  People.  —  Alarm  and  Re-enforcements.  —  Promotion  of  Royal 
Princes. — Von  Moltke. — France  and  her  Situation.  —The  American  Press. 
— Conduct  of  the  Germans 65 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Guard-mounting. — Small-arms. — Prussian  Uniform. — The  Iron  Cross. — The 
Crown  Prince.— Army  Police.— Americans.— Thiers  in  Paris.— Church  at 
Versailles.— Revictualing  of  Paris.— Causes  of  the  Fall  of  Metz.— Prus- 
sian Soldiers. — Their  Equipment,  Rations,  Allowances,  and  Pay.— Retir- 
ing unworthy  Officers. — Billeting. — Regimental  Bands. — Brigade  Com- 
manders.— Chiefs  of  Regiments. — Ambulance. — Field  Telegraph.—  Trans- 
portation.— O'Sullivan 82 

CHAPTER  V. 

Von  Roon. — Blumenthal. — Prussian  Artillery. — Cavalry  Equipments. — No 
Stragglers. — Keratry. — Society  at  Versailles. — Paris  from  the  Lines. — 
Leaving  Versailles. — Railway  Terminus  Supplies. — A  Night  among  the 
Soldiers. — Soup  Sausage 117 


yi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   PRUSSIAN  ARMY. 

The  Great  Elector. — Frederick  the  Great. — Blucher. — Conquest  by  Napo- 
leon.— Short  Terms  of  Sendee.  — Local  Distribution  of  Array  Corps. — The 
Landwehr. — Officering  the  Army  and  Landwehr. — A  weak  Point. — Army 
Reform. — War  of  1866. — The  Breech-loader. — Operations  against  France. 
— Mobilization. — Depot  Troops. — Garrison  Troops.  —  Field  Administra- 
tion.— Observations Page  136 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   FRENCH   ARMY. 

Origin  of  its  Tactics. — The  early  Armies  of  the  Revolution. — The  Conscrip- 
tion.—Reorganization  of  the  Army. — Vital  Statistics. — Strength  in  1867. 
— Trochu.  — Administration.  — The  Intendant-general.  — Infantry.  — Caval- 
ry.— Want  of  Simplicity. — Popular  Enthusiasm. — Army  Organization. — 
Observations 186 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

COMPARATIVE    OBSERVATIONS    UPON   THE    UNITED   STATES   ARMY. 

Remedy  for  Desertion.  —  Undue  Size  of  the  Staff.  —  Want  of  Unity.  — 
Schenck's  Salary  Bill. — Sutler  System. — Soldiers'  Safe  Deposit. — Officer- 
ing of  Troops. — Brevet  Rank.— Extravagance 222 

CHAPTER  IX. 

PRUSSIAN  MILITARY   SCHOOLS. 

Plan  of  Officering  the  Prussian  Army. — Cadet  Schools. — Berlin  Cadet  School. 
— War  Schools. — Artillery  and  Engineering  School. — The  War  Academy. 
— Observations 247 

CHAPTER  X. 

FRENCH  MILITARY  SCHOOLS — PLAN   OF   OFFICERING  THE   FRENCH   ARMY. 

Imperial  Polytechnic  School. — School  of  Application  atMetz. — Saint-Cyr. — 
Staff  School  of  Application.— La  Fleche.— French  Military  Schools  com- 
pared with  West  Point 266 

CHAPTER  XI. 

GERMAN   CIVIL   SCHOOLS. 

Primary  Education. — Inspection  and  Support  of  Schools. — Berlin  Schools. — 
Method  of  Teaching. — Religious  Instruction 294 


CONTENTS.  Vli 

CHAPTER  XII. 

GERMAN  CIVIL  SCHOOLS — continued. 

Elementary  Teaching.— Teachers. — Higher  Education. — The  Real  School. — 
The  Gymnasium. — The  Universities Page  320 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

FRENCH  CIVIL   SCHOOLS — EARLY   HISTORY. 

The  University  of  Paris.  —  The  College  of  France.  —  The  Jesuits.  —  The 
Schools  during  the  Revolution. — Municipal  Divisions  of  France. — The 
Church  in  France. — Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools. — Louis  XIV. — 
Coercive  Catholic  Education. — Efforts  of  the  Convention. — Napoleon  and 
the  Schools. — The  University  of  France. — Schools  under  the  Restoration. 
— Guizot.— The  Monarchy  of  July.— Law  of  1833 340 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
FRENCH  CIVIL  SCHOOLS — continued. 

The  Coup  D'Etat  and  the  Schools. — Present  Condition  of  Schools. — School 
Buildings  and  Management. — Primary  Normal  Schools. — Secondary  In- 
struction.—  The  Lyceums  and  Communal  Colleges.  —  Superior  Normal 
School. — The  Seven  Great  Lyceums. — The  University. — Popular  Intelli- 
gence.— Conclusion 362 


APPENDIX. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GERMAN  ARMY 383 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY 

IN 

GERMANY  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  following  official  documents  will  exhibit  my  cre- 
dentials, and  show  what  facilities  I  had  for  gaining  access 
to  sources  of  original  information.  The  letter  from  Count 
Bismarck  is  my  authority  for  printing  his  interesting  state- 
ments as  to  the  origin  of  the  war,  made  in  the  conversation 
recorded  in  my  diary. 

"WAR  DEPARTMENT,  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  OFFICE, 
"WASHINGTON,  August  29, 1870. 

"  Special  Orders,  No.  224. 

[EXTRACT.] 

"  *  *  *  By  direction  of  the  President,  leave  of  absence  un- 
til further  orders,  with  permission  to  go  beyond  the  sea,  re- 
porting his  address  monthly  to  this  office,  is  hereby  granted 
Colonel  W.  B.  Hazen,  Sixth  Infantry. 

"  By  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 

"  (Signed)         E.  D.  TOWNSEXD,  Adjutant-general." 


"CONSULATE  OF  THE  NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION 

"IN  BELGIUM,  BRUSSELS,  September  22, 1870. 
"  The  American  Colonel  and  Brevet  Major-general  W.  B. 
Hazen  has  received  permission  from  his  Excellency,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  Count  Bismarck,  to  join  the  German  armies,  and 


10  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

will  therefore  be  permitted  to  proceed  unhindered  through 
Sedan  and  Rheims  to  the  royal  head-quarters.  So  far  as  cir- 
cumstances will  allow,  he  will  be  assisted  to  reach  his  desti- 
nation with  celerity. 

"  The  Royal  Prussian  Privy  Councilor 

"Of  the  North  German  Confederation, 

"  BALLOU." 


"  GRAND  HEAD-QUARTERS,  FERRIERES,  FRANCE, 
"  September  29, 1870. 

<•<"  Colonel;  Hjazfenj  Brevet  Major-general  of  the  Free  States 
of  Noi'th'  Arfreri&a;  is  hereby  authorized  to  follow  the  allied 
' armies  to  tfi<i  seat  of  war,  and  remain  with  them. 
'  I :  ..fTfte1  Minister  of  War  and  Marine, 

"Vox  Roox." 


"VERSAILLES,  November  11, 1870. 

"  SIE, — I  am  directed  by  Count  Bismarck  to  send  you  the 
inclosed  introduction  to  a  gentleman  attached  to  the  For- 
eign Office  in  Berlin,  who  will  give  you  all  the  information 
you  desire  there. 

"  I  am  your  obedient  servant, 

"L.  BUCHER. 
"To  GENERAL  HAZEN." 

"VERSAILLES,  March 4, 1871. 

"SiR, — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of 
your  letter  of  the  2d  of  February,  asking  my  consent  to  the 
publication  of  the  conversation  we  had  at  Ferrieres  toward 
the  end  of  September  last.  Owing  to  the  great  number  of 
interviews  I  have  had  during  the  war,  I  can  not  recall  to 
my  mind  all  particulars  of  that  conversation ;  but,  trusting 
to  your  discretion  that  with  respect  to  persons  you  will  ob- 
serve the  limits  between  confidential  talk  and  public  utter- 
ance, I  have  much  pleasure  in  acceding  to  your  request. 
"  I  am,  with  great  regard, 

"  V.  BISMARCK. 

"  To  COLONEL  W.  B.  HAZEN, 

"Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory,  U.  S." 


BISMARCK.  H 

BISMARCK. 

Sept.  27$,  1870.— I  have  just  visited  Count  Bismarck 
with  General  Burnside.  We  found  him  quartered  at  Fer- 
rieres,  the  country-seat  of  the  Paris  branch  of  the  Eoth- 
schilds,  where  the  king  at  present  has  his  head-quarters. 
On  our  arrival  Count  Bismarck  was  engaged  with  one  of 
the  French  legitimate  princes,  who  was  urging  upon  the 
Premier  the  claims  of  his  House.  On  being  shown  in,  we 
found  Count  Bismarck  busily  engaged  in  copying,  with  a 
lead-pencil  as  thick  as  one's  thumb,  some  very  rough  draft 
of  a  document.  He  came  forward  and  received  us  with 
warmth  and  a  smile  of  genuine  amiability  and  kindness, 
and,  after  a  few  remarks  upon  the  latest  war  news,  begged 
to  be  permitted  to  finish  his  copy,  which  would  take  but  a 
moment.  He  occupied  a  small  room,  in  which  were  a  few 
chairs  and  a  writing-desk.  He  is  something  over  six  feet 
in  height,  with  a  large  frame,  well  filled  out,  but  not  gross ; 
hair  quite  gray,  and  clear  blue  eyes.  In  conversation,  the 
usual  sternness  of  his  countenance  changes  to  kindness, 
with  a  manner  of  open  frankness  that  can  not  fail  to  win 
the  listener.  On  finishing  and  dispatching  his  copy,  he 
turned  to  us,  and,  scarcely  waiting  for  a  fresh  cigarette, 
began  a  very  interesting  talk  of  at  least  two  hours7  dura- 
tion, in  which  he  was  the  uninterrupted  speaker. 

He  said,  "The  German  people  were  astonished  to  find 
themselves  involved  in  a  general  war.  After  a  long  and 
laborious  season  of  duties  at  Berlin,  I  had  gone  down  to 
my  place  in  Pomerania,  and  was  engaged  in  laying  out 
my  grounds  and  planting  my  gardens,  with  my  wife  and 
all  my  children  about  me,  happy  in  the  belief  that  I 
should  have  an  uninterrupted  summer,  without  the  dis- 
traction of  official  work.  Some  time  in  May  dispatches 
began  to  reach  me,  sometimes  in  cipher,  indicating  that 


12  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

there  might  be  trouble  with  France ;  but  I  gave  little  heed 
to  them,  and  continued  the  rural  work  of  which  I  arn 
so  fond  and  which  my  health  seemed  to  require.  My 
place  is  not  directly  on  the  line  of  communication,  so  that 
my  letters  and  papers  did  not  reach  me  very  regularly,  and 
I  had  almost  forgotten  the  events  made  possible  by  previ- 
ous dispatches. 

"The  subject  of  the  young  Hohenzollern's  pretensions 
to  the  throne  of  Spain  had  already  been  brought  to  the  no- 
tice of  the  king,  who  had  opposed  them  on  the  ground  of 
the  unfitness  of  German  princes  to  rule  Latin  subjects,  as 
shown  by  the  experiment  in  Mexico.  I  had  not  been  offi- 
cially consulted  on  the  subject,  but  it  appeared  to  me  a  pity 
for  a  young  man  who  desired  a  kingly  career,  and  had 
the  position  at  his  disposal,  not  to  take  it;  and,  as  he  was 
married  to  an  exemplary,  good  woman,  and  was  himself  a 
man  of  uprightness  and  correct  life,  his  religion  also  being 
that  of  Spain,  I  thought  that  his  example,  with  that  of  his 
wife,  together  with  the  management  of  Spain  promised  by 
his  scholarly  habits,  might  be  advantageous  to  the  Spanish 
people,  and  his  reign  successful.  The  matter  had  the  year 
before  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  young  man,  who 
visited  Paris  soon  after,  and  acquainted  the  emperor  with 
the  scheme,  as  a  matter  which  his  sovereign  character  gave 
him  a  right  to  know.  The  prince's  acceptance,  if  the  mat- 
ter should  be  at  last  favorably  considered,  was  still  to  be 
subject  to  a  vote  of  .the  Spanish  people.  On  his  mention- 
ing to  me  casually  that  the  Spanish  throne  had  been  of- 
fered him,  I  remarked  that  a  crown  was  not  offered  a  lieu- 
tenant of  hussars  every  day,  and  urged  him  to  make  sure 
of  it,  promising  that  I  would  see  that  the  king  consented. 

"  The  king  at  last  reluctantly  gave  his  assent,  not  as  sov- 
ereign, for  the  matter  had  not  advanced  so  far  as  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  that  light,  but  as  the  head  of  the  army  of  Prussia, 


EISMARCK.  13 

in  which  the  young  man  .held  a  commission.  The  king 
had  grave  doubts  as 'to  the  propriety  of  Prussia's  favoring 
the  scheme,  for  the  political  reason  that  Prince  Leopold 
would  be  too  strongly  in  favor  of  the  French  idea  and 
against  Prussia.  He  was  a  blood  relative  of  the  emperor; 
his  father  had  projected  for  the  emperor  his  Strasbourg 
fiasco,  and  had  always  been  the  bosom  friend  of  Napoleon  ; 
and  it  was  he,  in  fact,  and  not  the  son,  who  was  arranging 
the  Spanish  throne  business.  The  thought  that  it  could  in 
any  way  be  distasteful  to  the  French  sovereign  never  oc- 
curred to  any  member  of  the  Prussian  Government. 

"It  was  at  this  juncture  that  the  note  came  from  the 
French  Government  requiring  the  renunciation  of  the 
young  man's  ambition.  Seeing  that  it  was  likely  to  .make 
serious  trouble  between  the  two  countries,  he  had,  by  the 
advice  of  his  father,  made  personal  renunciation  before  the 
matter  had  been  fairly  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Prus- 
sian Government ;  and  coming  himself  to  Berlin,  found,  as 
he  supposed,  every  thing  settled,  and  next  morning  went 
back  to  his  country  home,  and  the  king  went  to  his  sum- 
mer resort  at  Ems. 

,  "Imagine  the  surprise  of  all  Prussia,  on  learning  in  a 
few  days  that  France  was  not  satisfied,  but  required  that 
the  Prussian  Government  should  disclaim  all  future  in- 
tention of  placing  a  German  prince  upon  the  Spanish 
throne.  Instructions  were  at  once  given  the  Prussian  am- 
bassador at  Paris,  to  see  to  it  that  the  dignity  of  his  Gov- 
ernment was  fully  sustained,  but  he  did  not  quite  seem 
to  comprehend  the  character  of  the  business  he  was  deal- 
ing with.  The  Government  at  Berlin  now  wrote  me  that 
it  seemed. inexpedient  .for  the  king  to  remain  longer  at 
Ems,  unaccompanied  by  his  ministers.  The  king  abhors 
war,  and  our  military  system  is  such  as  to  bring  into  the 
ranks  the  very  best  of  our  men.  He  seemed  ready  to 


14  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

make  great  concessions  rather  than  bring  sacrifices  upon 
the  country,  and  wrote  a  dispatch  to  the  emperor  vir- 
tually making  the  disclaimer  asked.  This  dispatch  was 
sent  to  me,  his  minister,  for  revision,  and  its  tone  some- 
what altered  to  better  suit  the  emergency.  I  now  tele- 
graphed again  to  our  minister  to-  sustain  the  dignity  of 
Prussia.  The  king  was  not  offended  by  the  conduct  of 
Benedetti,  but  saw  fit  to  treat  him  with  consideration. 
The  ambassador  at  Paris  was  still  unequal  to  his  work, 
and  wrote  the  king  a  letter  urging  the  withdrawal  of  his 
dispatch  and  full  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  the  em- 
peror. The  king,  to  save  war,  was  inclined  to  do  so,  but 
the  sentiment  of  Germany,  and  the  advice  of  his  ministers, 
prevented  him ;  and,  upon  his  refusal  to  withdraw  his  dis- 
patch, set  out  for  Berlin,  where  the  ministry  were  sum- 
moned to  meet  him.  By  accident,  we  all  met  at  the  rail- 
way station  in  Berlin,  were  joined  by  the  crown  prince, 
and  had  set  out  for  the  Assembly  Chamber,  when  our  at- 
tention was  attracted  by  the  newsboys  crying  out  that 
war  had  been  declared  by  the  French.  We  sought  the 
papers,  and  the  king,  believing  that  war  had  been  de- 
clared, put  up  his  hands  to  his  head,  and  said,  { Must  I, 
in  my  old  age,  again  go  to  war!'  and  tears  ran  down  his 
cheeks.  Upon  examining  the  papers,  it  was  foujad  to  be 
quite  uncertain  whether  war  had  been  declared  or  not. 
There  was  no  actual  declaration,  but  a  telegram  saying 
that  a  declaration  had  been  made.  But  the  time  for  ac- 
tion had  arrived,  and  the  crown  prince,  just  behind  me, 
whispered  in  my  ear,  'Eadical  or  nothing.'  I  then  said  to 
the  king  that  there  was  no  impediment  to  mobilizing  the 
whole  army,  and  that  no  occasion  had  ever  been  so  fa- 
vorable. He  at  once  replied  that  he  would  mobilize  the 
whole  army.  Fearing  that  he  would  retract,  I  spoke  out 
quickly,  and  in  a  loud  voice,  so  that  forty  persons  could 


BISMARCK.  15 

hear  me,  'The  king  has  declared  that  he  will  mobilize 
the  whole  army,'  and  the  war  minister,  who  was  present, 
said,  '  I  have  heard  it,  and  will  at  once  give  the  necessary 
orders.'  The  work  was  now  beyond  recall,  and  what  fol- 
lowed you  all  know.  Germany  is  a  peaceful  nation.  We 
have  a  nearly  perfect  military  system,  but  it  is  for  defense 
and -not  for  aggression,  and  is  rendered  necessary  by  our 
geographical  position. 

"France  has  within  two  hundred  years  invaded  Ger- 
many twenty  times,  and  has  for  a  long  time  past  crowded 
us,  and  we  have  swallowed  the  insult  until  now,  when  we 
feel  like  a  man  in  his  strength  with  his  family  about  him, 
who  has  been  pushed  and  jostled  all  his  life  by  some  one 
wishing  to  quarrel  with  him,  until  at  last  he  has  turned 
and  said,  '  Now  let  us  have  it  out ;  let  us  have  it  out  for 
good,  and  make  that  the  end  of  it.'  Ever  since  the  war 
of  1866,  a  war  necessary  to  clear  the  political  skies  of  Ger- 
many, a  purely  family  affair,  having  nothing  to  do  with 
the  outside  world ;  and  ever  since  the  scheme  of  German 
unity  commended  itself  as  a  scheme  of  strength  and  good 
to  the  German  people,  France  has  been  jealous  of  our  pros- 
perity, and  has  wished  to  humble  us.  That  idea  could 
only  end  in  war;  the  sooner  over  the  better;  but  it  must 
end  with  substantial  guarantees  of  peace  in.  future,  and 
Germany  would  be  untrue  to  herself  and  civilization  if 
she  stopped  short  of  this. 

"  The  future  of  France  no  one  can  foresee.  There  is  no 
intention  upon  our  part  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  her 
internal  affairs.  The  great  trouble  is,  and  will  be,  to  find 
a  government  strong  enough,  or  representing  a  sufficient 
component  of  French  sentiment  to  deal  with. 

"Only  a  day  or  two  since,  a  delegate  visited  me  in  the 
interest  of  the  emperor's  government,  proposing  that  the 
French  fleet  gain  some  point  on  the  coast  of  France  under 


16  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

direction  of  the  empress,  and  that  we  recognize  the  re- 
gency. And  this  evening  a  gentleman  from  one  of  the 
Legitimist  families,  who  kept  you  waiting  so  long,  desired 
recognition,  with  large  representations  of  power  and  in- 
fluence. To  all  these  I  have  to  say .  that,  whenever  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  French  people  express  a  wish 
that  their  claims  be  represented  here,  or  whenever  evi- 
dence of  any  sort  is  brought  that  such  a,  wish  is  indulged 
by  any  considerable  number  of  Frenchmen,  the  subject 
will  be  given  attention  proportionate  to  the  extent  of  that 
sentiment.  The  same  trouble  is  experienced  with  the  Par- 
is Eepublic.  As  yet  it  represents  only  the  streets  of  that 
city,  while  many  portions  of  France  have  denounced  it, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  to  the  common  people  Repub- 
licanism is  distasteful.  I  have  wished,  and  so  expressed 
myself  to  Jules  Favre,  that  the  sentiment  of  the  people  of 
France  be  taken  as  soon  as  possible  upon  this  subject,  that 
we  may  know  with  whom  to  deal,  and  this  brings  me  to 
the  subject  of  the  Jules  Favre  interview  of  the  21st  inst. 

"  He  came  three  times  to  see  me.  The  first  visit  was 
little  else  than  a  declamation,  in  true  school-boy  style,  I 
being  the  listener ;  and  the  second  was  about  to  be  like  it, 
when  I  intimated  the  necessity  of  bringing  our  ideas  into 
working  order,  to  see  if  we  could  not  agree  on  something 
practical.  His  whole  topic  of  conversation  was  an  armis- 
tice, which  should  continue  not  .less  than  six  weeks,  to 
give  time  for  holding  elections  and  for  the  meeting  of  the 
delegates  in  Paris. 

"  The  conditions  of  a  peace  were  to  be  left  for  future 
consideration.  He  also  wished  the  military  status  to  re- 
main as  it  was  at  that  time,  except  that  all  the  roads  lead- 
ing to  Paris  should  be  opened,  giving  free  transit  with  the 
world;  and  proposed,  as  compensation,  that  the  garrisons 
of  Tours  and  Strasbourg  should  march  out  with  the  hon- 


BIS&ARCK.  17 

ors  of  war,  and  that  we  should  be  allowed  free  opportuni- 
ty to  bring  up  food  and  clothing  for  our  armies.  Metz,. 
not  being  on  the  line  of  communication,  was  not  consid- 
ered. I  replied  that  an  armistice  was  always  detrimental 
to  a  victorious  army,  and  that,  as  our  certain  victory  over 
Paris  depended  upon  our  shutting  off  the  food  supply,  he 
must,  in  return  for  our  granting  free  ingress,  give  us  some 
commanding  positions  about  Paris,  like  Mount  Yalerien ; 
and  added,  that  the  garrisons  of  Tours  and  Strasbourg 
should  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war,  as  they  would  be 
compelled  to  do  in  a  few  days,  from  advantages  already 
in  our  hands.  This,  he  replied,  could  never  be  done,  as  it 
would  humiliate  the  proud  people  of  France.  I  told  him 
that  I  was  not  the  advocate  of  the  dignity  of  France,  but 
of  the  interests  of  the  German  army  and  nation ;  and  the 
interviews  closed  without  seriously  touching  upon  the 
eventual  conditions  of  peace. 

"  The  French  people  are  anomalous — being  neither  like 
the  Spaniard  nor  the  Italian,  but  more  like  the  Chinese. 
A  Frenchman  is  content  to  be  a  servant,  provided  some 
one  is  servant  to  him,  and  never  aspires  to  advance  from 
his  position.  The  American  or  German  does  not  wish  to 
be  a  servant,  nor  does  he  wish  others  to  be  servants  to  him, 
if  there  are  ways  to  better  their  condition.  They  have 
within  themselves  elements  of  independent  character,  and 
always  seek  to  improve  their  fortunes,  and  see  their  own 
prosperity  in  the  prosperity  of  those  surrounding  them. 
They  both  possess  the  elements  of  manhood  which  consti^ 
tute  Eepublicanism.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  French  people 
do ;  but  this  is  not  our  business,  as  we  have  not  come  here 
to  meddle  with  such  things.  The  French  people  have 
been  taught  errors  about  their  country ,  and  themselves 
from  their  infancy,  until  they  are  quite  unable  to  compre- 
hend their  true  position  in  the  scale  of  humanity.  From 

2 


18  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

having  a  Bureau  of  the  Government,  I  have  often,  during 
the  campaign,  been  quartered  in  school-houses  to  give 
room  to  my  numerous  clerks,  and  have  thus  seen  much  of 
the  character  of  French  instruction  from  the  text-books  I 
have  found  in  them.  The  elementary  reading-books  for 
the  tenderest  children  are  made  up  of  the  glories  of  France, 
and  represent  her  as  the  birthplace  of  all  the  great  men, 
the  discoverer  of  all  countries,  the  victor  in  all  battles;  in 
fact,  the  invincible  centre  of  all  that  is  good  and  powerful, 
and  all  other  countries  as,  in  a  sense,  her  dependencies. 
This  self-laudation  extends  through  the  entire  life  of  a 
Frenchman ;  and,  in  believing  it  to  be  true,  the  nation 
have  neglected  the  means  of  making  it  so. 

"The  terms  of  peace  were  casually  mentioned  in  my 
conversation  witli  M.  Favre,  when  he  remarked  that  the 
fortresses  were  the  gates  of  the  frontier ;  to  which  I  re- 
plied, that  France  held  the  keys  of  these  gates,  and  the 
German  people  had  decided  that  for  the  security  of  Europe 
.it  was  necessary  .to  keep  them  on  our  side.  He  said  that 
France  might  agree  to  the  dismantling  of  the  border  for- 
tresses, and.  would  give  all  the  money  she  had,  but  never 
agree  to  the  cession  of  territory.  I  replied,  that  money 
was  no  compensation  for  the  loss  of  life ;  that  what  were 
needed  and  would  be  insisted  on,  were  material  guaran- 
tees of  a  nature  that  would  secure  Germany  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  sacrificing  life  in  the  future;  that  it  seemed  as 
if  France,  after  choosing  the  arbitrament  of  war,  was  now 
seeking  to  escape  the  natural  penalties  of  defeat ;  that  she 
now  had  our  terms,  which  might  not  be  our  terms  six 
months  hence,  and  that  if  she  compelled  us  to  protract  the 
war  ten  }^ears,  we  might  annex  France  and  crown  our 
kings  at  Eheims. 

"  We  are  glad  to  have  military  men  from  other  coun- 
tries see  our  operations,  although  our  generals  have  made 


BISMARCK.  19 

some  objections  on  the  ground  that  they  encumber  our 
army ;  but  we  have  told  them  to  come  among  us,  taking 
their  chances  for  comforts.  We  have  nothing,  and  do 
nothing,  but  what  we  are  willing  the  whole  world  should 
see  and  know ;  and  we  have  told  the  French  people  every- 
where, that  every  body  may  write  to  any  body  and  we 
will  forward  their  letters,  only  stipulating  that  letters  pass- 
ing through  our  lines  shall,  for  military  reasons,  be  left  un- 
sealed." 

As  we  took  our  leave,  Count  Bismarck  said  to  us  that 
during  our  sojourn  with  the  German  forces  we  might  call 
upon 'him  whenever  we  needed  any  thing.  The  whole 
manner  of  this  remarkable  man  impresses  one  with  his 
open,  frank  good-nature,  and  his  conversation  reveals  a 
mind  thoroughly  trained  in  the  highest  school  of  German 
philosophy  and  liberality.  He  speaks  English  perfectly, 
and  possesses  to  a  singular  degree  the  power  of  presenting 
subjects  clearly  and  forcibly.  "  The  idea  of  Bismarck's  per- 
sonal appearance  generally  accepted  in  the  United  States 
is  incorrect,  as  it  makes  him  ten  years  too  young,  and  too 
precise  in  dress.  His  brow  is  heavy,  and  his  mustache 
shaggy  at  the  ends,  like  his  hair.  There  is  a  remarkable 
fullness  under  the  eyes,  and  he  has  that  blonde  complexion 
peculiar  to  the  Germans.  His  military  rank  is  that  of  ma- 
jor-general, and  he  is  also  chef  of  a  cuirassier  regiment,  of 
which  he  wears  the  uniform.  .He  was  born  at  the  ances- 
tral residence  known  as  "  SchonTiausen"  on  the  first  day  of 
April,  1815,  and:  is  descended  from  an  old  family  of  the 
better  class,  who  took  their  name  from  the  little  town  of 
Bismark,  originally  "Bischofsmark"  His  father  was  a  re- 
tired officer  of  the  Prussian  horse  guards,  and  married  a 
daughter  of  one  of  the  king's  ministers.  Young  Bismarck 
passed  his  early  days  on  the  paternal  estate,  and  was  after- 
ward sent  to  one  of  the  private  schools  at  Berlin,  and,  later, 


20  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

continued  his  studies  at  the  "  Gris  Cloitre"  Even  at  this 
period  he  gave  proof  of  unusual  energy,  and  indicated  a 
preference  for  historical  investigations.  He  studied  both 
at  Berlin  and  Gottingen,  and  during  his  student  life  was 
wild  and  impetuous,  but  graduated  very  creditably  in 
1835.  In  the  following  year  he  went  into  the  practice  of 
law,  and  took  the  position  of  Government  referee,  or  com- 
missioner, at  Aachen  and  Potsdam.  He  then  joined  one 
of  the  battalions  of  riflemen  as  volunteer,  and  after  serv- 
ing his  year,  visited  the  Agricultural  School  at  Edua. 
The  paternal  estates,  now  very  much  reduced,  urgently 
demanded  the  attention  of  Bismarck,  and  were  by  'his  fa- 
ther turned ,  over  to  his  two  sons.  The  death  of  their 
mother  in  1839,  however,  somewhat  disarranged  their 
plans.  Their  father  lived  until  1845,  during  which  time 
the  management  of  the  estates  was  shared  by  the  two 
brothers,  by  whose  extraordinary  circumspection  and  care 
the  property  was  soon  brought  up  from  desolation  to  fruit- 
fulness.  Bismarck's  formerly  active  life  unfitted  him  for 
the  monotony  of  the  country,  and  his  thirst  for  greater  ac- 
tivity gave  him  no  rest  Whole  days  would  be  passed  in 
woodland;  rambles,  01*  in.  convivial  sports  with  the  young 
men  of  the  neighborhood,  among  whom  he  was  known  as 
the  "mad  Bismarck."  During  all  this  time,  however,  he 
never  neglected  study,  :but  devoted  himself  closely  to  his- 
tory, theology,  and  philosophy,  and  it  was  at  this  epoch  of 
his  life  that  he  amassed  that  fund  of  knowledge  which  dis- 
tinguishes the,  present  statesman.  He  also  at  this  time 
traveled  in  England  and  France.  Upon  the  decease  of  his 
father,  a  distribution  of  the  estate  took  place,  and  Schon- 
hausen  fell  to  Otto.  Here  he  afterward  made  his  home, 
and  thence  he  commenced  his  public  career.  He  was 
elected  deputy  to  several  of  the  minor  German  Diets  dur- 
ing the  following  years,  till  1851,  when  he  was  appointed 


BISMARCK.  21 

by  the  Prussian  Government  secretary  of  legation  at 
Frankfort,  with  the  title  of  Privy  Councilor.  He  made 
himself  well  known  in  Germany  in  these  six  years,  and 
the  experience  then  gained  was  a  valuable  preparation  for 
his  subsequent  diplomatic  duties. 

In  August,  1851,  he  was  nominated  as  representative  of 
Prussia  at  the  Federal  German  Diet,  which  position  he 
held  until  1859,  when  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
St.  Petersburg.  On  his  return  to  Berlin,  he  was  offered  a 
place  in  the  ministry,  but  preferred  the  embassy  at  Paris, 
which  was  also  at  his  disposal.  He  was  speedily  recalled, 
to  take  the  Presidency  of  the  Prussian  Ministry,  which  po- 
sition he  still  holds.  With  a  firm  hand,  unmoved  by  the 
machinations  of  those  around  him,  Otto  von  Bismarck 
worked  from  that  moment  to  make  Prussia  the  leading 
power  of  Germany,  politically,  as  it  was  already  in  liberal- 
ity, native  character,  and  learning.  The  conclusion  of  the 
Gastein  Convention,  in  the  fall  of  1865,  brought  him  the 
title  of  count,  as  well  as  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  set- 
tlement of  all  existing  conflicts  in  Germany.  Count  Bis- 
marck became,  at  once  the  most  popular  man  in  Prussia, 
and  after  the  establishment  of  the  North  German  Alliance 
in  1867,  was  elected  federal  chancellor.  His  management 
of  foreign  politics  has  in  recent  years  been  no  less  a  tri- 
umph to  the  man  than  to  his  country  and  to  civilization, 
while  his  disclosures  of  the  plans  of  Louis  Napoleon  have 
shown  how  far  superior  were  his  talents  to  those  of  the 
people  with  whom  he  dealt.  He  not  only  refused  all  of- 
fers made  him  by  the  French  Government,  but  turned 
them  to  account  in  terminating  the  protective  alliance  with 
the  South  German  States. 

Count  Bismarck  is  highly  favored  in  his  domestic  life. 
In  1847  he  married  a  woman  of  rare  excellence  and  puri- 
ty, and  of  a  high  order  of  intellectual  endowment.  His 


22  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

two  sons  have  already  borne  a  distinguished  part  in  the 
present  war.  At  the  successful  close  of  the  Austrian  war, 
the  Prussian  Government  voted  to  Count  Bismarck  a  suffi- 
cient sum  of  money  to  enable  him  to  purchase  in  Pome- 
ran  ia  an  estate  named  Yarzin,  more  in  keeping  with  his 
tastes  and  dignity  than  his  former  home.  It  is  here  that 
his  happy  family  reside,  and  here  that  the  count  himself 
takes  refuge  whenever  a  lull  in  his  laborious  life  permits: 
He  is  reputed  to  be  a  careful  and  judicious  manager  of  his 
financial  affairs.  He  is  unfortunately  afflicted  from  time 
to  time  with  a  nervous  malady  which  drives  him  from  his 
labors  and  greatly  alarms  his  friends.  Count  Bismarck  is 
one  of  the  few  men  who  in  their  own  lives  see  their  names 
celebrated  in  all  lands,  and  has  in  the  present  war  taken 
the  foremost  place  in  the  most  memorable  epoch  of  modern 
German  history.* 

FERRIERES. 

Sept.  28th. — Ferrieres,  where  the  king  and  his  ministers 
have  established  their  head-quarters,  is  the  country-seat  of 
the  Paris  representative  of  the  Eothschilds.  It  is  owned 
by  the  aged  widow  of  a  son  of  the  founder  of  the  family. 
The  building  is  square,  and  without  courts  or  turrets,  hav- 

*  At  the  close  of  the  war  of  1866,  Prussia  voted  each  of  her  most  conspic- 
uous generals  and  statesmen  a  donation  in  money  as  a  reward  for  extraordi- 
nary services  to  the  state.  This  is  done  in  England,  Prussia,  and  nearly  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  and  is  only  an  expression,  through  the  executive  or 
legislative  power,  of  the  generosity  of  the  nation.  We  see  the  same  thing  in 
our  own  country,  where,  since  it  is  not  compatible  with  our  republican  theo- 
ry to  make  it  a  legislative  act,  the  impulse  of  the  people  manifests  itself 
through  private  channels.  It  is,  however,  in  essence  the  same  thing,  and  in 
every  case  comes  from  a  natural  and  proper  desire  to  make  gratitude  for  great 
services  felt  in  a  substantial  manner.  In  Europe  no  one  thinks  of  refusing 
what  is  considered  a  proper  reward,  and  I  do  not  see  why  we  should  do  dif- 
ferently. In  refusing,  one  is  neither  just  to  himself,  nor  kind  to  those  who 
would  honor  him. 


SEDAN.  23 

ing  four  similar  and  highly  wrought  facades,  each  about 
two  hundred  feet  long,  is  built  of  a  drab-colored  stone,  and 
has  two  high  stories  and  a  basement.  The  grounds,  some 
three  hundred  acres  in  area,  are  laid  out  with  roads,  drives, 
and  walks,  and  contain  deer-parks,  and  lakes  alive  with 
fishes,  and  covered  with  hundreds  of  swans  and  other 
aquatic  birds.  There -are  aviaries  unequaled  by  any  state 
collection  I  have  ever  seen,  and  every  kind  of  rare  speci- 
men of  the  animal  world.  The  grounds  immediately  sur- 
rounding the  house  are  wrought  in  the  usual  English  style 
of  landscape  gardening,  and  the  whole  forms  the  most 
beautiful  work  of  the  kind  in  France,  none  of  the  royal 
residences  in  all  respects  comparing  with  it.  The  interior 
is  in  keeping,  and  rivals  royalty  itself.  The  entire  place 
cost  six  million  dollars.  Here  it  is  that  the  king,  who  com- 
mands this  great  German  army,  resides,  and  from  here  he 
will  go  to  Versailles. 

SEDAN. 

I  will  here  record  what  I  saw  at  Sedan,  and  on  the' 
neighboring  battle-fields,  six  days  ago,  and  the  impressions 
gained  there. 

Sept.  22d. — Twenty  days  have  made  great  changes  here. 
"We  see  the  farmers  at  their  ordinary  work.  The  plough 
is  doing  its  part  to  hide  the  scars  of  war,  and  already  near- 
ly all  the  hill-sides  where  the  great  battles  raged  are  ready 
for  the  seed,  and  show  only  occasional  fresh  graves  to  re- 
mind one  of  the  great  tragedy.  The  town  itself  seems  to 
the  ordinary  observer  unchanged,  and  one  would  be  com- 
pelled to  spend  some  time-  in  search  before  any  shot-marks 
could  be  found.  It  is  a  comfortably  built  town  of  some 
seventeen  thousand  inhabitants,  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
place of  Turenne.  There  is  a  German  garrison  here  of 
about  three  thousand  men,  and  near  the  fortifications  are 


2-i  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

two  or  three  acres  of  captured  artillery,  and  at  least  a  hun- 
dred cords  of  chassepot  muskets. 

In  going  over  the  field  of  battle,  one  is  not  greatly  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  the  engagement  was  sangui- 
nary, for  there  are  no  long  trenches  of  the  dead — only  an 
occasional  grave,  and  sometimes  two  or  three  together; 
while  in  our  war  on  every  battle-field  would  be  dug  long 
trenches,  sometimes  several  near  each  other,  in  which  the 
dead  were  buried.  We  were,  however,  in  the  habit  of 
moving  near  the  enemy,  and  then  halting  and  fighting  in 
fixed  positions,  so  that  heavy  losses  occurred  in  small 
spaces,  while  these  people  seem  to  move  forward  until  the 
enemy  runs  away  or  they  themselves  turn  back.  At  all 
events,  the  graves  are  not  numerous.  On  the  road  toward 
Bazeilles  there  are  indications  of  sharp  work.  The  numer- 
ous trees  and  farm  buildings  show  scars  everywhere,  while 
knapsacks,  canteens,  and  Bavarian  hats,  many  of  them  with 
shots  through  them,  cumber  the  ground  at  almost  every  step. 

On  approaching  the  village,  I  first  find  a  huddle  of  pau- 
pers receiving  rations  at  a  country  house.  I  learn  that 
they  are  the  very  poor  of  Bazeilles,  receiving  their  daily 
charity  from  the  German  authorities.  A  little  farther  on 
is  the  Franco  -  American  Ambulance,  or  more  properly, 
hospital.  Only  twenty  patients,  too  badly  wounded  for 
removal,  remain  here.  Nearly  every  house  in  Bazeilles 
was  burned,  arid  the  smoke  still  issues  from  the  ruins.  It 
was  a  compact  little  village  of  some  fifteen  hundred  inhab- 
itants. The  houses  were  all  of  stone,  and  stuccoed — the 
ordinary  method  here.  The  former  residents  are  a  low, 
ignorant  class  of  farming  peasants,  few  of  whom  can  read. 
In  the  narrow  streets,  in  front  of  each  door,  and  not  more 
than  a  yard  from  it,  was  the  compost  heap  for  each  farm. 
These  are  still  smoking,  and  the  stench  from  them  makes 
it  difficult  to  move  along  the  streets.  One  who  has  not 


SEDAN.  25 

been  in  France  can  not  realize  how  near  to  barbarism  this 
class  of  the  French  people  have  fallen. 

The  burning  of  this  place  has  been  severely  criticised. 
I  find  that  it  was  within  the  theatre  of  the  battle,  and,  af- 
ter it  was  carried,  was  made  a  place  for  the  wounded,  or 
rather  a  temporary  field  hospital,  such  as  always  affords 
the  first  relief  and  attention  to  the  wounded  in  all  engage- 
ments. The  surgeons  were  fired  upon  from  the  houses, 
and  some  killed  and  wounded.  This  being  reported  to 
the  nearest  commander,  a  force  was  sent  out  to  suppress  it 
and  arrest  the  guilty  parties,  but  the  perpetrators  could  not 
be  found.  The  patrol  was  recalled,  when  the  attack  upon 
the  surgeons  was  renewed,  and  orders  were  then  given  to 
burn  the  place.  I  doubt  whether  any  -commander  under 
like  provocation  would  have  acted  differently. 

I  hear  and  read  much  about  the  cruelty  shown  French 
prisoners,  and  the  barbarity  of  burning  this  place.  It  is 
well  to  remember  that  these  accounts  are  generally  written 
by  people  who  follow  the  war  in  the  interests  of  humanity, 
and  see  and  write  of  these  things  from  their  special  human- 
itarian point  of  view,  not  modified  by  a  true  sense  of  what 
war  means,  and  are  apt  to  take  individual  cases  as  exam- 
ples of  general  conduct.  That  among  all  the  acts  of  every 
individual  of  a  gigantic  army  some  will  be  harsh  and  un- 
just, is  as  true  as  that  human  nature  is  imperfect,  but  it  is 
unjust  to  hold  the  army  responsible. 

The  guarding,  care,  and  feeding  of  the  French  at  Sedan 
have  been  a  fruitful  theme  for  sensational  literature  of  this 
character.  The  condition  of  a  prisoner  is  never  accepta- 
ble to  him,  and  he  easily  conceives  it  to  be  much  worse 
than  it  is.  It  is  charged  that  the  French  army,  after  be- 
ing disarmed,  were  huddled  together  on  a  wet  island,  with- 
out shelter,  with  insufficient  food,  and  that  many  perished. 
I  find  this,  in  the  main,  true ;  but  the  period  of  that  battle 


26  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

was  one  of  continued  rains,  and  all  places  and  fields  were 
wet  and  muddy.  That  there  was  any  neglect  in  providing 
food  was  not  the  fact ;  but  as  the  French  had  not,  before 
the  surrender,  sufficient  supplies  in  Sedan  for  themselves, 
and  as  the  Prussian  army  were  compelled  to  live  upon  the 
country — a  difficult  task  at  best — and  as  organization  in 
the  French  army  was  broken  up,  the  supply  was,  of  neces- 
sity, scant  and  difficult  to  distribute. 

The  Prussian  army  did  not  carry  tents  for  themselves, 
and  of  course  had  none  for  the  prisoners.  A  hundred 
thousand  men  deprived  of  their  organization,  without  arms 
or  equipments,  but  forming  an  immense  herd,  and  covered 
with  mud  and  rain,  impressed  the  observer  very  much  as 
an  immense  herd  of  cattle  would,  and  naturally  suggested 
the  idea  of  cruelty  and  inhumanity. 

And  further,  among  so  large  a  number  of  men  there  are 
very  many  sown  full  of  the  seeds  of  disease,  only  waiting 
the  depression  of  such  a  humiliating  defeat,  with  its  attend- 
ant discomforts,  or  any  sufficient  cause,  to  bring  death  to 
them.  And  this  is  called  starvation.  I  can  learn  of  no 
well-grounded  reason  for  the  accusation  made  against  the 
Germans  here.  The  place  is  already  perfectly  clean,  and 
I  see  nothing  offensive  anywhere  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  battle-field  or  the  town. 

Sedan  has  many  points  of  interest,  and  to  me  none  more 
than  the  fact  that  it  is  a  specimen  fortification  upon  the 
Vauban  plan,  the  half  front  of  which  the. cadets  at  West 
Point  have  been  made  to  construct,  and  draw,  as  their 
model  in  military  engineering,  for  many  years.  We  are 
taught  that  it  will  take  forty  days  to  reduce  a  fort  built 
on  this  plan,  yet  Sedan,  with  all  its  surroundings,  has  just 
been  taken  in  three  days.  I  find  here  every  face,  ditch, 
salient,  covered  way,  traverse,  and  glacis  just  as  I  drew 
them  sixteen  years  ago. 


VERSAILLES.  27 

VERSAILLES. 

Oct.  4:th. — Versailles  is  a  city  of  sixty  thousand  inhab- 
itants, and  is  built  in  the  old  French  style  of  architecture. 
The  palace,  which  has  taken  its  name  from  the  city,  is 
situated  on  an  elevated  plateau  on  the  western  border  of 
the  municipality,  and  is  what  is  generally  understood  by 
the  term  Versailles. 

The  city  is  the  model  from  which  Washington  was 
planned.  The  palace,  like  our  Capitol,  stands  upon  an  ele- 
vated piece  of  ground,  and  faces  away  from  the  city.  At 
its  rear,  instead  of  trees,  is  a  large  court-yard  paved  with 
granite  blocks  eight  inches  square,  and  beyond  this  the  av- 
enues of  the  city  radiate,  as  at  Washington.  These  radia- 
ting streets  were  cut  through  the  old  city  by  Louis  XIV., 
and  on  each  side,  for  a  mile,  are  shaded  by  double  rows  of 
lindens,  or,  as  we  call  them,  bass-wood.  The  court-yard 
contains  many  colossal  marble  statues  of  the  marshals 
of  France  prior  to  the  present  century,  and  a  bronze 
equestrian  figure  of  the  great  Louis.  A  small  palace  was 
built  by  Louis  XIII.,  and  extensive  additions  were  made 
by  his  three  successors;  but  the  main  plan  was  due  to 
Louis  XIV.  Looking  up  the  paved  yard,  you  see  fourteen 
gables  of  various  heights,  and  two  deep  re-entering  courts, 
which  give  the  impression  of  a  richly-built,  compact  vil- 
lage, rather  than  a  grand  palace.  On  two  of  these  gables 
which  face  on  one  of  the  courts,  you  read,  "  To  all  the  glo- 
ries of  France." 

The  other  side  of  the  palace  presents  an  almost  un- 
broken front  of  five  hundred  paces,  three  stories  high,  and, 
excepting  that  it  has  no  cupola,  not  very  unlike  our  Capi- 
tol. The  material,  however,  is  a  dirty  brown  stone,  and 
owing  to  the  effect  of  florid  statuary  and  bas-reliefs,  the 
quiet  grandeur  of  our  Capitol  is  entirely  wanting.  The 


28  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

palace  was  at  first  the  principal  royal  residence ;  but  after 
the  Kevolution  the  people  required  the  sovereign  to  reside 
at  Paris.  Since  this  the  palace  has  been  devoted  to  other 
purposes.  From  the  Eevolution  to  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe  it  was  occupied  mostly  by  peasants,  who  in  some 
of  the  grand  halls  erected  as  many  as  three  flats  of  apart- 
ments, and  made  forty  comfortable  rooms  out  of  one.  It 
was  in  this  condition  when  Louis  Philippe  conceived  the 
idea  of  converting  it  into  a  grand  museum  of  civilization, 
commemorating  all  the  great  events  of  French  history 
from  the  earliest  period.  This  project  has  been  so  far 
carried  out  that  the  collection  now  numbers  a  thousand 
pieces  of  statuary,  and  no  less  than  four  thousand  paint- 
ings. Looking  inside,  we  see  a  phase  of  life  new  to  the 
place  —  the  long  rows  of  cots,  each  with  its  occupant, 
pale  from  exhaustion  or  flushed  with  fever,  and  white- 
hooded  sisters  flitting  noiselessly  about.  The  palace  is 
one  grand  hospital  for  the  wounded.  The  pictures  are 
never  wantonly  injured,  and  where  there  is  danger  of  de- 
facement are  carefully  .boarded  over. 

KING-  WILLIAM. 

Oct.  5lh. — To-day  the  king,  with  his  ministers,  came  over 
from  Ferrieres  and  established  the  royal  head-quarters 
here.  Some  time  before  the  hour  for  his  arrival,  fowr 
regiments  of  infantry  were  drawn  up  on  the  various 
streets  leading  from  the  City  Hall,  where  the  king  was  to 
take  up  his  residence.  In  front  of  it,  on  the  broad  Ave- 
nue de  Paris,  was  a  guarded  open  space,  within  which 
were  the  various  officers  of  rank  on  duty  in  the  city,  and 
some  fifty  or  sixty  princes,  dukes,  and  counts,  nearly  all 
members  of  the  crown  prince's  staff,  waiting  to  receive 
the  king.  I  join  the  part}7,  and  being  with  some  citizen 
friends  whom  the  guards  will  not  let  in,  remain  near  the 


KING   WILLIAM.  29 

line  of  sentinels  to  keep  my  companions  in  countenance. 
Soon  the  leading  carriages  begin  to  arrive,  and  most  of  the 
ministers  precede  the  king,  all  in  the  uniform  of  general 
officers.  Then  a  little  unusual  commotion,  but  no  shout- 
ing, announces  the  approach  of  the  king,  who  comes  ac- 
companied by  the  crown  prince.  The  royal  carriages,  or- 
dinary barouches,  are  each  drawn  by  four  black  horses. 
On  arriving  near  the  gate  of  the  court-yard,  they  quickly 
stop,  and  the  king,  covered  and  begrimed  with  dust,  jumps 
out  with  a  quick,  manly  effort,  and,  with  a  pleasant  word 
for  each,  takes  by  the  hand  those  waiting  to  meet  him. 
He  then  rapidly  proceeds  along  the  front  of  some  regi- 
ment drawn  up  before  the  building,  recognizing  and 
speaking  to  many  of  the  men.  The  whole  air  of  the  king 
is  that  of  paternal  kindness  and  good-nature,  sometimes 
amounting  almost  to  fondness.  He  speaks  in  a  quick, 
eager  style,  often  accompanying  his  words  with  rapid 
jerks  of  the  head  and  hand. 

The  reception  is  soon  over,  and  the  king  is  shown  his 
new  quarters  by  the  crown  prince,  who  has  just  vacated 
them  for  his  father.  Considering  his  age,  the  king  is  won- 
derfully vigorous.  It  is  evident  that  he  bestows  -great 
care  upon  his  bodily  health  and  dress.  He  is  about  six 
feet  in  height,  large  without  being  corpulent,  and  steps 
with  firmness  and  ease.  .He  often  rides  twenty  or  thirty 
miles  a  day  on  horseback  without  inconvenience.  Until 
his  ascent  to  the  throne  of  Prussia,  he  was. a  soldier  in  act- 
ive command,  distinguished  by  his  exact  and  punctilious 
performance  of  duty,  and  by  his  strictness  in  requiring  the 
same  of  others.  He  never  appears  with  a  button  out  of 
place,  or  a  single  decoration  appropriate  to  the  occasion 
neglected.  He  is. known  to  have  wisely  said  that  a  king- 
dom may  be  lost  by  one  neglected  button,  as  this  may  be 
the  beginning  of  negligence  which  will  end  in  disaster. 


30  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AR3IY. 

His  popularity  with  the  people  of  Germany  is  unparalleled. 
This  popularity  is,  of  course,  personal,  and  does  not  mili- 
tate against  the  republican  views  of  a  large  class  of  the  Ger- 
man people.  Were  they  to  institute  a  republic,  it  is  very 
probable  that  he  would  be  the  successful  candidate  for  the 
presidency. 

The  branch  of  the  Hohenzollern  family  now  reigning  in 
Prussia  bought  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  of  the  Ger-, 
man  Emperor  Sigismund  in  1415.  The  family  from  that 
moment  to  the  present  have  been  controlled  by  a  tradi- 
tional sentiment  looking  directly  to  the  aggrandizement 
of  their  house,  and  making  it  the  centre  toward  which  all 
Germany  must  finally  gravitate,  and  well  have  they  work- 
ed for  the  accomplishment  of  this  pufpose.  By  embra- 
cing a  liberal  religion  ;  by  compelling  universal  intellectual 
culture ;  by  promoting  popular  liberty,  and  increasing  the 
material  prosperity  of  their  subjects;  by  counseling  pru- 
dence and  economy,  and  practicing  those  virtues  them- 
selves; by  organizing  and  perfecting  the  best  military  es- 
tablishments; by  a  regimen,  both  moral  and  physical,  cal- 
culated to  develop  strength  and  form  character,  they  have 
postponed  the  degeneracy  that  naturally  follows  in  the 
train  of  riches  and  luxury. 

King  William  was  the  second  son  of  King  Frederick 
William  III.  and  of  Queen  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg  Strelitz,  and  was  born  on  the  23d  day 
of  March,  1797.  The  i  hard  fate  of  Prussia  during  his  ear- 
ly years  left  indestructible  impressions  upon  his  mind,  and 
the  depth  of  her  humiliation  fired  his  heart  to  a  life  effort  to 
elevate  his  country.  The  prince  took  an  active  part  in  the 
campaigns  of  1813  and  1814,  for  which  he  received  the  iron 
cross.  Following  the  tradition  of  his  family,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  military  science.  In  June,  1829,  he 
married  the  Princess  Augusta,  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke 


KING   WILLIAM.  31 

of  Saxe  Weimar.  Two  children  were  born  to  this  alli- 
ance— the  present  crown  prince  and  the  Princess  Louise, 
now  wife  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  Holding  mili- 
tary rank  of  various  grades,  and  performing  the  routine 
duties  of  his  position,  he  lived  an  easy,  uneventful  life 
till  1840,  when  his  brother,  King  Frederick  William,  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  title  of  Prince  of  Prussia,  and  ap- 
pointed him  governor  of  Pomerania  and  president  of  the 
state  ministry.  In  the  fall  of  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  of  infantry.  In  the  year  1848,  a  plan  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian  army  was  first  brought 
forward.  It  was  a  favorite  project  of  the  crown  prince, 
and  so  fervently  did  he  press  the  measure,  then  unpopular, 
that  public  indignation  compelled  him  to  flee  for  safety  to 
England,  where  he  remained  six  weeks.  .  In  the  following 
.year  we  again  find  him  in  command  of  the  army  corps  at 
first  assigned  him.  He  was  then  designated  to  suppress 
the  insurrection  in  the  Palatinate,  and  successfully  dis- 
charged the  duty.  In  1854  Prince  William  celebrated  his 
silver  wedding,  and  was  on  that  .occasion  gazetted  lieu- 
tenant-general of  the  infantry.  In  1857  he  celebrated  his 
fiftieth  year  of  military  service,  and  in  1867  his  sixtieth. 
During  the  dangerous  illness  of  King  Frederick  William 
in  1858,  Prince  William  undertook  the  regency,  and,  after 
the  death  of  the  king,  ascended  the  throne  of  Prussia. 
The  coronation  took  place,  at  Konigsberg  on  the  18th  of 
October,  1861.  It  is  related  that  the  king  himself  took  the 
crown  and  placed  it  upon  his  head  with  his  own  hands, 
exclaiming,  u  God  gives  it." 

The  character  of  King  William  has  been  much  discussed 
by  the  German  people,  public  sentiment  changing  consid- 
erably from  time,  to  time,  but  tending,  upon  the  whole,  in 
his  favor.  Upon  his  succession  to  the  regency,  he  became 
very  popular  by  reason  of  his  supposed  liberal  views,  but 


32  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

this  favorable  disposition  of  his  subjects  was  entirely 
changed  a  few  years  later,  when  he  carried  through  his  re- 
organization scheme  for  the  army  against  the  people's  rep- 
resentatives. But  the  unparalleled  successes  in  the  wars 
with  Austria  and  France,  which  were  made  possible  only 
by  this  reorganization,  have  justified  his  policy,  and  made 
him  a  popular  favorite. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  king's  belief  in  his  divine 
right  to  rule.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  reconciling  with 
common  sense  his  views  on  this  subject.  To  comprehend 
them  clearly,  it  is  better  to  call  the  right  of  kings  to  rule 
a  natural  right,  which  in  this  case  is  synonymous  with 
divine  right,  and  is  the  true  foundation  of  authority  as 
understood  by  all  liberally  educated  believers  in  heredi> 
tary  government.  The  right  of  the  parent  to  rule  his 
child  is  certainly  a  natural  one  up  to  a  certain  age,  when 
the  child  can  manage  better  for  itself  than  the  parent  can 
for  it.  When  this  time  arrives  is  entirely  a  matter  of  opin- 
ion, not  susceptible  of  exact  determination,  but  is  fixed 
arbitrarily  by  the  state.  With  us  it  is  at  maturity.  With 
many  people,  particularly  the  barbarous  ones,  this  arbitra- 
ry period  is  never  fixed  at  all,  and  the  right  of  the  parent 
never  ceases.  For  instance,  this  is  the  case  with  our  own 
Indians,  among  whom  the  parental  right  extends  over  all 
descendants.  Thus  the  patriarchal  system  springs  up;  and 
so  long  as  its  members  agree  to  it,  and  have  not  resolved 
to  terminate  parental,  rule,  the  right  to  govern  the  fourth 
generation  is  as  natural  as  the  right  to  exact  obedience 
from  the  infants  of  the  first.  To  prevent  confusion,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  fix  the  succession  of  patriarchal  rule, 
which,  as  the  community  grows,  runs  naturally  into  the 
monarchy;  and  so  long  as  this  remains  the  acknowledged 
system,  the  right  of  the  regular  succession  to  govern  is 
claimed  to  be  as  natural  and  clear  as  that  of  the  parent 


KING   WILLIAM.  S3 

to  rule  his  offspring.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  King 
of  Prussia  believes  his  right  to  rule  his  subjects  a  natural 
one,  and,  if  you  so  see  fit  to  call  it,  a  divine  one. 

As  a  community  becomes  enlightened,  and  the  individ- 
ual knows  more  of  what  is  necessary  for  his  best  develop- 
ment and  interests,  he  claims  to  be  master  of  his  own  acts 
after  arriving  at  maturity.  Just  so  a  people,  when  suffi- 
ciently enlightened  to  appreciate  clearly  their  best  inter- 
ests, and  know  the  value  of  individual  and  general  libertv, 
throw  off  or  terminate  this  right  of  kings  which  before 
was  natural  and  adequate. 

How  much  longer  the  ruling  classes  in  Germany  will 
be  able  to  hold  on  to  this  claim  of  right,  already  a  theory 
rather  than  an  actual  power,  no  one  can  foretell.  That  it 
will  ultimately  disappear,  and  without  bloodshed,  no  one 
who  knows  Germany  can  doubt.  It  is  but  sixty-two  years 
since  the  German  people  really  gained  their  personal  lib- 
erties, ami  their  sentiment  of  reverence  for  kings  and 
princes  is  still  strong.  That  King  William  believes  that 
he  holds  power  to  rule  the  people  of  Prussia  by  the  inter- 
position of  a  divine  miracle,  or  by  any  other  tenure  than 
that  by  which  Bismarck  manages  his  children,  except  by 
virtue  of  certain  conventions,  I  have  never  found  any  in- 
telligent man  in  Germany  bold  enough  to  maintain.  He 
is  a  sincere  believer  in  the  Christian  religion,  and  has  ab- 
solute faith  in  the  special  character  of  the  rulings  of  divine 
Providence.  I  can  in  no  way  better  give  a  correct  im- 
pression of  the  character  of  the  man  than  by  quoting  his 
address  to  the  German  Parliament  on  calling  it  together  at 
the  beginning  of  the  present  war. 

"HONORED  GENTLEMEN  OP  THE  NORTH  GERMAN  REICHSTAG, — When  I 
bade  you  welcome,  the  last  time  you  assembled  in  this  place,  in  the  name  of 
the  Federal  Government,  I  expressed  my  cheerful  thanks  that  my  sincere  ef- 
forts to  realize  the  wishes  of  the  nation,  and  satisfy  the  necessities  of  civiliza- 

3 


34  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

tion  by  preserving  unbroken  peace  in  Europe,  had,  under  God's  blessing,  been 
crowned  with  success.  If,  notwithstanding,  the  menace  of  war  and  impend- 
ing danger  have  imposed  the  duty  on  the  North  German  Governments  of 
summoning  you  in  an  extraordinary  session,  you  will  fully  share  our  convic- 
tion that  the  Confederation  has  not  sought  to  develop  the  power  of  the  Ger- 
man people  with  a  view  to  endanger,  but  to  powerfully  protect,  the  interests 
of  general  peace ;  and  if  we  are  now  obliged  to  invoke  the  national  strength 
to  shield  our  independence,  we  are  only  obeying  the  demands  of  honor  and 
the  requirements  of  duty.  The  consideration  of  the  question  of  the  Spanish 
succession  of  a  German  prince,  the  appearance  of  this  prince  on  the  scene, 
and  his  subsequent  withdrawal,  are  all  matters  with  which  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernments had  equally  little  to  do,  the  principal  interest  of  the  affair  for  the 
North  German  Confederation  being  limited  to  the  fact  that  a  friendly  but 
much  tried  country  saw  in  this  candidature  the  guaranty  of  a  peaceful  and 
orderly  government  in  Spain.  Notwithstanding,  the  Government  of  the  Em- 
peror of  the  French  has  made  the  circumstance  a  pretext,  in  manner  long  un- 
known to  diplomacy,  for  declaring  war  with  Germany ;  and  in  this  resolution 
the  emperor  persists,  even  after  the  original  pretense  has  been  removed,  with 
that  contempt  for  the  just  right  of  nations  to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  peace,  of 
which  we  may  find  analogous  examples  in  the  history  of  former  rulers  of 
France.  If  Germany  in  former  centuries  silently  bore  such  outrages  upon 
her  rights  and  honor,  she  only  did  so  because,  disunited  as  she  was,  she  did 
not  know  her  strength.  Now  when  the  ties  of  an  intellectual  and  judicial 
union,  which  were  first  knit  by  the  war  of  liberation,  are  drawing  the  races 
of  Germany  more  closely  together  the  longer  they  last — now  when  the  de- 
fenses of  our  country  leave  no  loop-hole  for  a  foreign  foe — Germany  has  both 
the  will  and  the  power  to  repel  the  renewed  insults  of  France.  It  is  no  vain- 
glorious feeling  which  induces  me  to  speak  thus.  The  Federal  Governments, 
and  I  myself,  act  in  the  full  conviction  that  victory  and  defeat  lie  in  the  hand 
of  the  God  of  battles.  We  have  carefully  weighed  the  responsibility  which, 
before  the  judgment-seat  of  God  and  man,  must  fall  upon  his  head  who  drives 
two  peaceable  nations  in  the  very  heart  of  Europe  into  a  destructive  war. 

"The  peoples  of  Germany  and  France,  who  both  equally  enjoy  and  desire 
the  blessings  of  Christian  civilization  and  an  increasing  prosperity,  are  called 
to  a  nobler  emulation  than  the  bloody  rivalry  of  arms.  Those  who  bear  rule 
in  France,  however,  by  carefully  misleading  the  great  nation  which  is  our 
neighbor,  have  found  out  a  way  to  use  the  justifiable  but  sensitive  patriotism 
of  the  country  for  their  own  personal  interests  and  passions.  The  more 
deeply  the  Federal  Governments  feel  that  they  have  done  every  thing  their 
honor  and  dignity  permitted  to  preserve  to  Europe  the  blessings  of  peace ;  the 
more  apparent  it  is  to  all  that  the  sword  has  been  forced  into  our  hands ;  the 
more  confidently  do  we,  supported  by  the  unanimous  approbation  of  all  the 


VERSAILLES.  35 

Governments  of  Germany,  of  the  South  as  well  as  the  North,  appeal  to  the 
patriotism  and  willing  self-sacrifice  of  the  people  of  Germany,  and  summon 
them  to  defend  her  honor  and  independence.  We  follow  the  example  of  our 
fathers  in  fighting  for  our  freedom  and  our  rights,  against  the  violence  of  for- 
eign invaders ;  and,  as  in  this  war  we  have  no  other  aim  than  to  secure  the 
lasting  peace  of  Europe,  God  will  be  with  us,  as  he  was  with  our  fathers." 

COST  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  VERSAILLES. 

The  whole  cost  of  Versailles  was  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  millions  of  dollars,  or  four  times  as  much  as  that 
of  all  our  public  buildings  at  Washington,  and  at  a  rate 
of  pay  for  labor  four  times  as  small ;  so  it  can  be  said  to 
have  cost  the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  French  people  sixteen 
times  as  much  as  our  boasted  Capitol. 

The  place  requires  the  constant  care  of  two  thousand 
men,  who  are  divided  into  three  departments — the  depart- 
ment of  the  palace,  of  the  grounds,  and  of  the  waters — all 
under  the  control  of  the  governor.  They  have  a  regular 
organization,  are  uniformed,  and  receive  as  compensation 
their  clothing,  quarters,  fuel,  medical  attendance,  schooling 
for  two  children,  food  for  their  families  to  the  extent  of 
wife  and  two  children,  ten  sous  a  day,  and  a  pension  in  old 
age.  This  is  one  of  the  many  forms  in  which  nearly  all 
the  French  people  seem  to  be  put ;  gliding  easily  through 
life  on  a  dead  level,  without  an  incentive,  entirely  content, 
and  only  hoping  to  be  let  alone. 

GENERAL   BURNSIDE'S   MISSION  IN  PARIS. 

Oct.  Wth. — General  Burnside  has  returned  from  his  sec- 
ond visit  to  Paris.  As  he  was  the  bearer  of  a  diplomatic 
mail-bag,  he  has  been  the  mail-carrier  for  all  nationalities-; 
and,  as  Versailles  has  no  banking  facilities  available  to 
foreigners,  has  acted  as  banking  agent  to  many  needy 
Americans  and  Englishmen,  and  in  it  all  has  done  a  kind, 
amiable  service  that  will  be  remembered  for  a  lifetime. 


36  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  true  history  of  his  going  into  Paris  is  that,  happening 
to  be  in  London  on  private  business,  he  became  desirous 
to  see  something  of  the  war.  Our  minister  accordingly 
got  for  him  authority  to  visit  the  German  armies,  and  then 
asked  him  to  become  a  bearer  of  dispatches  from  our 
Government  to  Mr.  Washburne,  the  American  minister  in 
Paris.  He  readily  assented,  and  upon  calling  on  Count 
Bismarck  to  make  known  his  wishes  and  ask  authority  to 
pass  the  German  lines  under  a  flag  of  truce,  a  long  conver- 
sation sprang  up  on  the  subject  of  the  war.  At  the  con- 
clusion, the  count  remarked  that  no  flags  had  been  granted 
to  any  one  for  a  long  time,  as  several  flag-bearers  had 
been  shot;  but  that  in  view  of  the  great  services  ren- 
dered the  German  residents  in  Paris  by  Mr.  Washburne, 
he  would  gladly  grant  the  flag,  and  all  possible  facilities 
for  making  it  available,  and  then  asked  General  Burnside 
to  convey  a  note  to  Jules  Favre.  General  Burnside  in- 
quired if  Count  Bismarck  would  authorize  him  to  repeat 
the  conversation  of  the  evening  to  Jules  Favre,  as  it 
seemed  perfectly  reasonable  that  peace  should  be  made 
upon  terms  which  had  been  spoken  of  with  approbation  by 
Count  Bismarck.  After  a  little  reflection,  Count  Bismarck 
remarked  that  General  Burnside,  being  a  man  of  high  char- 
acter and  distinction,  and  of  a  neutral  country  friendly  to 
both  belligerents,  was  a  person  eminently  suited  to  act  in 
the  manner  proposed ;  that  good  might  come  of  it,  and  that 
he  would  himself  write  out  a  brief  synopsis  of  what  had 
been  said,  which  General  Burnside  could  use  in  the  inter- 
ests of  peace  in  such  manner  as  he  should  find  expedient. 
I  accompanied  General  Burnside  on  the  thirtieth  day  of 
September  to  Creteil,  a  small  place  between  forts  Charen- 
ton  and  Yincennes,  thinking  we  could  pass  here;  but  a 
sortie  was  going  on;  and  as  there  was  no  chance  to  use 
the  flag,  we  went  on  to  Versailles,  some  eighteen  miles 


GENERAL  BURNSIDE.  37 

farther.  On  the  first  and  second  days  of  October  some 
unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  to  pass  the  lines,  but  on 
the  third  the  general  got  through  at  Sevres ;  and,  after  first 
reporting  to  General  Trochu,  proceeded  with  his  dispatches 
to  Mr.  Washburne's  residence,  where  General  Trochu  and 
Jules  Favre  soon  after  called  upon  him.  After  talking 
over  the  whole  matter  at  great  length  in  the  presence  of 
Mr.  Washburne,  Jules  Favre  said  that  Bismarck  and  him- 
self could  not  quite  agree,  but  that  he  desired  General 
Burnside  to  report  to  Bismarck,  on  his  return  to  Versailles, 
all  that  had  been  said.  Count  Bismarck  proposed  that 
there  should  be  a  partial  armistice  of  about  ten  days,  so  as 
to  give  free  ingress  and  egress  to  French  officials  for  the 
purpose  of  making  necessary  arrangements  for  holding 
elections,  then  an  actual  armistice  of  two  days  for  holding 
elections,  and  then  another  period  of  partial  armistice  for 
the  meeting  of  the  Assembly,  and  a  reasonable  time  for 
deliberations.  General  Burnside,  on  reporting  his  inter- 
view to  Count  Bismarck,  supposed  his  mission  ended,  and 
was  upon  the  point  of  taking  his  departure,  when  Count 
Bismarck  requested  him  to  wait  a  few  days  and  take  in 
further  propositions.  He  went  in  the  second  time,  and 
held  several  interviews  with  Trochu  and  Favre,  but  there 
was  not  the  remotest  chance  of  the  two  belligerents  agree- 
ing. The  French  claimed  from  the  first  the  revictualing 
of  Paris  as  a  condition  precedent  to  any  arrangement.  As 
the  consumption  of  food  in  Paris  would  lead  to  its  certain 
capitulation,  and  as  the  supply  was  already  controlled  by 
the  Germans,  and  as  an  armistice  might  result  in  nothing, 
the  proposition  was  inadmissible,  unless  the  Germans  were 
given,  as  an  equivalent,  one  of  the  commanding  forts,  and 
this  the  French  refused  to  do.  To  the  direct  question 
by  Burnside  whether,  if  he  were  on  the  German  side,  he 
would  permit  the  revictualing  of  Paris,  Trochu  replied 


38  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

that  lie  would  not.  Any  one  can  see  that  the  Germans 
were  asked  to  give  up  without  any  equivalent  a  great  ad- 
vantage already  gained.  The  fact  is,  that  the  government 
of  defense  dared  not  risk  the  result  of  an  election.  Gen- 
eral Burnside  has  now  ended  his  negotiations,  receiving 
the  gratitude  of  at  least  the  Prussian  Government,  and  de- 
serving that  of  the  French,  for  an  honest  and  zealous  ef- 
fort in  the  interests  of  peace.  He  has  also  gained  from 
Count  Bismarck  authority  for  Americans  and  others  to 
come  out  of  Paris,  in  cases  approved  by  Mr.  Washburne. 

PEASANTS  EATING  ROYAL   GAME. 

Oct.  16th. — In  driving  over  the  grounds  of  Versailles  to- 
day, the  freshness  of  the  lawns  and  neatness  of  the  walks 
are  very  noticeable.  The  Germans  require  the  servants 
of  the  establishment  to  keep  on  with  their  regular  duties, 
and  the  result  is  that  one  could  not  tell,  except  for  an  oc- 
casional foreign  uniform,  that  a  hostile  army  is  quartered 
here.  The  usual  care  is  taken  of  every  thing,  except  that 
the  Germans  will  ride  over  the  lawns;  but  not  a  tree  or 
shrub  is  marred,  and  not  a  statue  touched.  The  former  re- 
striction that  only  royal  carriages  can  drive  in  the  grounds 
is,  of  course,  removed,  and  the  German  officers,  and,  in  fact, 
any  one,  may  ride  and  hunt  in  the  royal  forests.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  one  always  sees  deer  and  pheasants  in 
the  market,  while  the  peasantry  have  lived  on  royal  game 
for  a  month  past.  They  have  also  driven  a  good  business 
by  fishing  in  the  lakes  and  ponds  of  the  grounds,  and 
gathering  fagots  from  the  public  woods.  The  Orangery, 
one  of  the  oldest  in  France,  was  removed  before  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Germans,  and  many  of  the  well-known  fishes 
of  the  lakes  carried  away  to  places  of  safety  in  the  south 
of  France.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  to  Americans,  there 
were  fishes  in  the  basins  of  the  fountains  that  date  back 


RELICS  OF  ST.  CLOUD.  39 

to  the  time  of  Charles  X.  Many  of  the  ladies  of  Paris 
had  their  pet  fishes,  and  would  bring  food  here  from  home 
for  their  favorites.  We  saw  a  solitary  swan  swimming 
sadly  about,  and  asked  our  coachman  if  it  was  still  cared 
for.  He  said  that  it  took  very  little  to  keep  it,  and  its 
supplies  were  still  furnished,  but  that  the  poor  fishes  had 
not  tasted  their  rations  since  the  Prussians  arrived.  One 
is  filled  with  conflicting  feelings  in  going  through  these 
grounds.  Their  beauty  interests,  but  the  evidences  of  al- 
most superhuman  toil  for  purposes  essentially  trivial  tinge 
every  thing  with  sadness.  There  were  at  one  time  thirty- 
six  thousand  soldiers  at  work  on  one  aqueduct,  which  was 
never  finished  nor  used.  The  outlay  upon  the  palace  and 
grounds  was  so  great  that  Louis  XIV.  burned  all  the  pa- 
pers, that  the  world  might  not  know  the  amount. 

Oct.  20th. — YILLE  D'AURAY  is  a  small  village  situated 
just  outside  the  Park  of  St.  Cloud,  and  in  it  are  quartered 
the  5th  battalion  of  Jagers,  or  riflemen,  which  garrison  the 
grounds  of  St.  Cloud.  At  the  burning  of  the  palace,  they 
rescued  many  beautiful  articles  from  the  flames.  Since  the 
fire  the  men  of  this  battalion  have  been  exceedingly  pop- 
ular, as  their  friends  hope  to  obtain  through  them  some 
small  relic  of  the  palace.  The  officers  are  all  agreeable 
gentlemen,  and  always  serve  you  a  cup  of  coffee  and  a 
glass  of  wine.  The  men,  seeing  foreign  guests  at  head- 
quarters, at  once  divine  their  wishes,  and  soon  one  will 
bring  in  a  goblet,  wine-glass,  plate,  or  creamer,  of  the  most 
beautiful  Sevres,  with  the  golden  crest  and  imperial  arms, 
and  "N"  in  old  English  text,  for  which  a  yellow  coin  is 
quietly  .exchanged,  and  two  people  are  made  happy.  Go- 
ing across  the  street,  by  invitation,  to  hear  some  music,  we 
find  five  private  soldiers  quartered  in  a  room  about  ten 
feet  square.  Much  of  the  furniture  of  the  house,  includ- 
ing the  piano,  remains  unmoved.  The  pictures  hang  un- 


40  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

touched;  the  bedstead,  with  its  mattress,  is  covered  with 
blankets  supplied  by  the  men ;  the  floor  is  scrupulously 
neat ;  and  these  five  men  in  their  shirt-sleeves  are  reading 
newspapers.  They  rise  as  we  enter,  and,  giving  us  seats, 
order  coffee,  which  comes  immediately,  and,  opening  a 
drawer  of  the  bureau,  set  wine  before  us.  One  of  the  men 
goes  to  the  piano,  a  miserable,  little,  upright  affair,  and 
plays  for  us  admirably,  and  from  the  best  masters.  When 
he  tires,  another  takes  his  place;  and  I  was  told  that  if  I 
would  stay  long  enough  they  would  all  play  for  me.  As 
we  were  preparing  to  return  to  Versailles,  they  inquired 
how  else  they  could  entertain  us,  making  a  special  request 
that  we  permit  ourselves  to  be  shaved,  as  one  of  their 
number  understood  it  thoroughly.  This  my  friend  Gen- 
eral Duff,  of  the  New  York  Herald,  gladly  assented  to,  and 
soon  appeared,  renewed.  We  went  into  many  houses,  and 
found  the  men  pleasantly  quartered,  clean  and  cheerful, 
and  seeming  as  little  concerned  about  the  enemy  as  if  they 
were  leagues  away.  Wherever  I  have  been,  the  men  are 
quartered  in  this  way.  While  at  the  front,  they  watch  as 
their  turn  may  come,  and  the  rest  are  unconcerned.  When 
they  are  in  the  rear,  they  have  no  care,  but  wait  to  be 
turned  out,  not  in  fear  of  a  surprise,  but  quietly  to  march 
somewhere  and  confront  the  enemy.  Much  is  gained  by 
thus  keeping  the  men  cool  and  at  rest.  As  we  started  to 
return,  we  were  saluted  by  a  shell  bursting  in  the  street 
next  us,  and  then  followed  some  sharp  firing,  both  of  ar- 
tillery and  musketry.  The  troops  were  rapidly  put  in 
line,  and  every  thing  about  the  village  was  hushed  in 
breathless  stillness.  The  effect  was  remarkable ;  and  as 
we  passed  along,  we  were  compelled  to  move  at  the  slow- 
est and  stillest  walk,  while  profound  attention  and  watch- 
fulness seemed  to  pervade  the  very  atmosphere.  The 
alarm  was  soon  over,  and  the  day  has  been  uneventful. 


A  SORTIE,  41 

I 

SORTIE   FROM   MOUNT  VALERIEN. 

Oct.  21s£. — In  driving  out  to-day  my  course  lay  through 
the  forest  of  Fausses  Repases,  a  long  stretch  of  imperial 
forest  between  Versailles  and  St.  Cloud,  with  drives  and 
roads  in  all  directions.  When  nearing  the  outskirts  of  St. 
Cloud,  a  cannonade  set  in,  about  three  miles  away,  in  the 
direction  of  Mount  Yalerien.  I  had  last  heard  that  sound 
at  Bentonville,  in  North  Carolina.  Feeling  certain  that  a 
sortie  was  being  made,  I  hurried  on,  and  soon  found  my- 
self at  a  country  place  occupied  by  a  divisional  train  hos- 
pital. The  horses  were  already  hitched  up,  and  the  men 
waiting  orders.  Soon  musketry  could  be  heard,  and  then 
mitrailleuses.  They  make  a  noise  prolonged  about  three 
seconds,  which,  when  heard  at  a  distance,  resembles  the 
sound  of  a  circular  saw  in  cutting  wood.  The  noise  is 
produced  by  the  successive  firing  through  that  period  of 
time  of  twenty-five  shots  from  a  -fVV  inch  bore;  and  al- 
though no  two  barrels  are  discharged  simultaneously,  the 
reports  almost  blend,  and  are  unlike  any  other  sound  in 
battle.  Moving  farther  to  the  front,  we  came  to  an  elab- 
orate place,  called  Chateau  Stein,  owned  by  a  Paris  mer- 
chant of  that  name.  We  went  into  the  house,  and  found 
it  occupied  by  servants,  who  readily  gave  us  permission  to 
go.±o  the  top,  and  from  the  observatory  we  got  a  fine  view 
of  Paris,  but  not  of  the  battle,  which  now  became  severe. 
We  soon  gained  a  position  from  which  we  could  distinctly 
see  the  bursting  of  the  French  shells,  but  the  fighting  on 
our  flank  was  covered  by  dense  woods,  and  little  could  be 
made  out. 

Moving  on  through  the  little  town  of  Marne,  and  near 
Gousche,  we  came  upon  the  line  in  reserve,  with  several 
battalions  in  mass  ready  to  re-enforce  any  portion  of  the 
line  in  front.  It  was  plain  enough,  however,  that  they 


42  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

would  not  be  needed.  The  troops  were  thoroughly  in 
hand,  and  manoeuvred  with  facility  and  precision.  Except 
the  occasional  chug  into  the  earth  of  a  heavy  shot,  fired 
at  high  elevation  from  some  battery  within  Paris,  and  the 
bursting  of  shells  far  in  the  air  from  the  field-guns  about 
Valerien,  we  even  here  could  see  nothing.  We  accord- 
ingly turned  back  toward  Versailles,  but  stopped  at  a  re- 
spectable house  by  the  way -side  for  something  to  eat.  A 
bottle  of  red  wine  and  a  loaf  of  brown  bread  were  soon 
set  before  us,  and  a  little  cheese,  of  which  we  gratefully 
partook.  The  price  was  not  greater  than  would  have 
been  charged  before  the  war.  This  house  may  be  taken 
as  a  fair  sample  of  the  houses  of  the  peasantry.  It  was 
a  story  and  a  half  rubble-stone  house,  plastered  or  stuc- 
coed, with  two  good-sized  rooms  below,  and  several  small 
ones  above.  The  floors  of  the  lower  rooms  seemed  nev- 
er to  have  been  scrubbed.  Each  room  had  one  table, 
covered  with  black  oil-cloth,  two  or  three  old  hide-bot- 
tomed chairs,  and  one  or  two  benches,  but  not  a  book  nor 
a  paper;  and  every  thing  had  an  old,  greasy,  worn-out 
look.  Neither  parents  nor  children  could  read.  They 
learned  that  we  were  Americans,  and  seemed  to  think  that 
we  had  come  to  bring  them  help  in  some  way. 

On  returning  to  Versailles,  the  peasantry  all  along  the 
route,  taking  us  for  Prussian  officers  of  rank,  rise,  as  we 
pass,  and  lift  their  caps.  This  I  have  noticed  everywhere. 
Servility  is  so  strong  a  feature  in  the  French  character  as 
to  show  itself  toward  their  enemies.  The  ambulances  in  a 
long  line  are  moving  out  slowly  to  bring  in  the  wounded, 
and  the  streets  are  filled  with  people  anxiously  looking  for 
the  approach  of  the  French  battalions,  which  they  confi- 
dently but  vainly  expect. 


CHA  TEA  U  BRA  UMEOARD.  43 

CHATEAU  BEAUREGARD. 

Oct.  22d. — I  rode  out  to-day  to  the  little  town  of  Eo- 
quencourt,  about  two  miles  to  the  north  of  Versailles, 
where  is  situated  the  villa  of  M.  Fould,  late  finance  minis- 
ter of  Napoleon  HI.  Like  most  French  villas,  it  is  desti- 
tute of  architectural  beauty — having  a  plain  fa9ade  about 
200  feet  long,  two  and  a  half  stories  high,  built  of  rough 
stone,  stuccoed  and  painted  glaringly  white,  and  surrounded 
with  groves  of  evergreens,  oak,  and  chestnut,  and  straight 
beds  of  brilliant  flowers.  Driving  a  quarter  of  a  mile  far- 
ther, we  reach  the  Chateau  Beauregard,  a  place  notorious 
as  having  been  given  by  Napoleon  III.  to  his  mistress,  Miss 
Iloward,  for  money  advanced  him  while  Prince  Napoleon. 

After  settling  with  the  emperor,  Miss  Howard,  or  the 
Countess  de  Beauregard,  married  a  Mr.  Trelawney,  and  a 
month  after  died,  when  the  chateau  was  sold  to  the  Duch- 
esse  de  Beaufremont,  who  now  owns,  and,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  war,  occupied  it.  This  woman  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  banker,  and  widow  of  a  wealthy  Parisian  mer- 
chant. Desiring  title,  she  married  the  Due  de  Beaufre- 
mont, a  man  very  much  her  senior,  wrecked  in  means  and 
character,  and  greatly  in  need  of  money.  She  at  once  set- 
tled 80,000  francs  a  year  upon  him,  and  their  entire  rela- 
tions end  when  she  signs  the  check  for  the  year,  and  he 
the  receipt,  while  she  lives  with  an  Englishman,  who  is  the 
father  of  her  children. 

After  passing  through  a  heavy  iron  gate-way  with  gild- 
ed points,  we  drove  several  hundred  yards  along  a  straight 
graveled  road  through  the  grounds,  which  comprise  sev- 
eral hundred  acres,  laid  out  in  gardens,  parks,  and  lawns, 
and  arrived  at  the  house,  which  has  a  front  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  is  three  stories  high,  with  two 
nearly  similar  fagades,  the  one  to  the  north  giving  a  beau- 


44  THE  SCHOOL  AXD  THE  ARMY. 

tiful  view  of  the  Seine  over  Beauguil,  Malmaison,  and  to- 
ward St.  Denis  and  Enghien.  A  great  number  of  neatly- 
cut  sandstone  steps,  curved  to  correspond  with  the  hand- 
somely swelling  fronts,  nearly  surround  the  house.  The 
place  is  the  work  of  the  late  emperor.  It  is  now  occupied 
by  a  Prussian  lieutenant-general,  who,  on  satisfying  him- 
self as  to  our  identity,  at  once  placed  himself  at  our  dis- 
posal, and,  with  the  geniality  and  kindness  which  we  meet 
everywhere,  proceeded  to  show  us  the  house.  We  passed 
through  a  circular  marble  hall  to  the  dining-room,  which 
was  filled  with  fruits  and  flowers,  and  then  entered  a  large 
parlor  eighty  feet  long,  with  mirrors  covering  half  the 
sides,  cabinets  inlaid  with  Sevres,  and  curtains  of  Gobelin. 
Here  were  collected  for  safe-keeping,  toilet  articles,  furni- 
ture, pictures,  books,  tapestries,  china,  music,  and  a  thou- 
sand odds  and  ends  of  home  life,  piled,  one  upon  the  other, 
without  order.  A  vast  wardrobe  was  filled  with  every 
imaginable  article  of  ladies'  dress,  of  the  richest  material. 
Gloves  of  every  color,  laces,  embroideries,  playing  -  cards, 
rosaries,  necklaces,  fans,  cosmetics,  whist-counters,  and  toi- 
let slippers,  were  heaped  together  without  order.  These 
articles,  although  shown  to  visitors,  were  not  allowed  to 
be  disturbed,  and  a  young  Englishman,  belonging  to  the 
household  of  the  duchess,  was  charged  with  their  custody. 
We  were  next  shown  the  second  story,  where  simple 
camp-beds  were  fitted  up  and  apartments  prepared  for  the 
general  and  his  staff.  We  also  visited  the  bed-chamber 
of  the  duchess,  a  large  room  on  the  ground-floor,  with  an 
immense  alcove  at  one  end,  and  in  it,  shut  off  by  a  massive 
balustrade  like  an  altar-rail,  the  largest  imaginable  bed, 
in  blue  and  white,  surmounted  by  a  ducal  coronet  and  os- 
trich feathers.  To  the  right,  and  within  reach  of  the  oc- 
cupant of  the  bed,  were  fourteen  white  and  blue  silk  bell- 
cords,  terminating  in  egg-shaped  ivory  balls,  on  each  of 


CHATEAU  BALZAC.  45 

which  was  engraved  the  name  of  a  department  of  the 
household.  The  furniture  of  this  apartment,  with  its  ad- 
joining dressing-room,  was  of  precious  woods,  inlaid  with 
gold,  silver,  and  mother-of-pearl.  Next  to  this  was  the 
nursery,  filled  with  toys  and  books  for  children,  nearly  all 
of  the  books  being  in  English,  such  as  "  Puss  in  Boots," 
"Mother  Goose,"  and  "Little  Jack  Homer."  Marbles 
and  dolls  without  number  went  to  make  up  the  collection. 
Just  as  we  were  leaving,  the  king,  with  a  portion  of  his 
suite,  came,  like  us,  to  see  the  chateau  of  the  emperor's 
mistress,  and  after  saying  pleasant  things  to  each  of  us, 
passed  on  to  inspect  the  premises. 

CHATEAU  BALZAC. 

On  the  29th  of  September,  at  Yilleneuve  St.  George,  a 
village  on  the  Seine  fifteen  miles  from  Paris,  we  stopped 
to  rest  and  feed  our  animals,  and,  while  waiting,  discov- 
ered the  country  home  of  Mme.  Balzac,  the  former  wife  of 
the  author  Honore  Balzac.  This  is  one  of  the  many  towns 
where  the  people  fired  from  their  houses  upon  the  Prus- 
sians at  their  approach.  When  the  town  was  occupied, 
the  inhabitants  fled,  leaving  every  thing  behind,  so  that 
we  found  it  a  barrack  for  soldiers. 

This  country  house,  known  as  Chateau  Balzac,  was 
bought  by  the  Countess  Balzac  several  years  ago  for  about 
a  hundred  thousand  francs.  The  grounds,  which  contain 
only  a  few  acres,  are  beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine.  The  house  is  of  rough  stone,  without  the 
usual  plastering,  and  of  ample  proportions.  We  found  a 
large  number  of  books  in  different  languages  scattered 
about  the  lawn,  and  in  the  chateau  an  indescribable  me- 
lange of  costly  laces,  handsome  dresses,  pictures,  statuan*, 
books,  and  china,  strewn  and  piled  upon  the  floors.  Many 
of  the  pictures,  and  some  of  the  frescoes  and  bas  -  reliefs, 


46  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

would  not  be  tolerated  in  America ;  but  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  works  of  art  indicated  high  culture. 

The  history  of  the  owner  of  this  property  is  not  less 
singular  than  that  of  the  Duchesse  de  Beaufremont.  A 
Polish  countess  of  rare  beauty,  she  married  a  man  of 
wealth,  who  was  greatly  her  senior,  and  had  a  daughter 
(now  Countess  Meneschak,  a  highly  respectable  woman, 
living  at  Yilleneuve  St.  George).  She  afterward  left  her 
husband  to  live  with  Balzac,  and,  on  becoming  a  widow, 
married  him.  Afterward  she  lived  with  another  man, 
whom,  on  the  death  of  Balzac,  she  also  married,  but  still 
bears  the  name  of  the  author,  and  resides  either  at  Chateau 
Balzac  or  in  Paris.  The  story  of  these  two  chateaux  is 
of  itself  a  commentary  on  French  civilization;  and  when  I 
was  told  that  nearly  every  one  of  the  many  thousand  vil- 
las in  the  environs  of  Paris  had  a  history  almost  equally 
notorious,  another  cause  of  the  hard  fate  and  degeneracy 
of  France  dawned  upon  me. 

PRUSSIAN  MILITARY  BURIAL. 

Oct.  23d — While  standing  in  the  court-yard  of  the  pal- 
ace this  evening,  waiting  to  hear  the  band  that  seemed 
ready  to  play,  it  put  itself  in  motion  to  a  dirge.  It  was 
followed  by  a  Lutheran  clergyman  ;  then  came  five  coffins, 
one  behind  the  other,  borne  by  soldiers.  The  leading  cof- 
fin was  draped  in  black,  and  the  others  in  white.  Upon 
the  black  drapery  was  the  iron  cross,  and  among  the 
mourners  were  many  distinguished  officers.  I  took  my 
place  in  the  procession,  and  moved  on  to  the  resting-place 
of  the  dead.  A  great  number  of  French  people  followed 
to  hear  the  music.  I  noticed  a  number  of  officers  of  rank 
occupying  retired  places  along  the  route  of  the  procession, 
and  watching  with  tearful  eyes  as  one  more  of  their  brave 
comrades  was  carried  to  the  grave.  They  lower  him  into 


HOTEL  DU  RESERVOIR.  47 

a  grave  made  broad  and  deep,  so  that  a  half-dozen  coffins 
can  be  placed  side  by  side.  The  clergyman  speaks  of  the 
young  man's  life  ;  a  dirge  is  played,  then  each  one  present 
drops  a  piece  of  earth  upon  the  coffin,  and  the  ceremony 
is  ended.  An  officer  seeing  that  I  am  a  stranger,  comes 
over  and  explains  that  the  youth  just  buried  was  a  brave 
and  much-respected  lieutenant,  and  was  detailed  for  duty 
in  one  of  the  divisional  ambulances,  but,  at  the  sortie  of 
the  21st,  asked  and  received  permission  to  go  with  his 
regiment,  and  received  his  death-wound.  The  iron  cross 
had  been  awarded  him  for  conspicuous  service  in  one  of 
the  early  battles.  The  lieutenant-general  in  the  proces- 
sion was  the  commander  of  the  Sixth  Army  Corps,  to 
which  the  deceased  belonged. 

HOTEL   DU   RESERVOIR. 

The  Hotel  du  Eeservoir  is  named  from  its  proximity  to 
a  reservoir  built  of  cut  stone  by  Louis  XIY.,  at  an  enor- 
mous expense,  as  a  provision  for  the  safety  of  the  adjacent 
buildings  in  case  of  fire.  The  hotel  is  a  three-story  stone 
building,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  with  a  car- 
riage-way through  the  centre,  and  a  court-yard  and  out- 
buildings in  the  rear.  It  was  built  by  Louis  XIY.  for 
Madame  Pompadour,  and  is  connected  with  the  palace, 
which  is  about  one  hundred  yards  away,  by  a  secret  pas- 
sage through  the  stone-work  of  the  reservoir.  This  build- 
ing she  occupied  until  her  death.  It  is  now  fitted  up  as  a 
hotel  of  some  fifty  rooms,  and  is  the  best  in  Versailles.  It 
shows  little  of  its  original  use  except  in  one  little  side  din- 
ing-room, where  I  sometimes  sit.  This  room  retains  its 
richly -frescoed  ceiling,  the  figures  of  which  reveal  plainly 
enough  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the  times  when  they  were 
painted.  This  was  the  breakfast-room  of  Madame  Pompa- 
dour and  her  royal  lover. 


48  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


GERMAN  'PRINCES. 

On  entering  the  main  salle  a  manger  at  the  ordinary  din- 
ing hour,  one  sees  an  array  of  hereditary  civic  rank  not 
often  met  with.  The  highest  nobility  of  Germany  here, 
representing  all  of  the  minor  German  States,  are  attached 
to  the  staff  of  the  crown  prince.  They  hold  military  rank 
from  captains  to  major-generals,  but  receive  no  pay  for 
military  service.  This  can  hardly  be  considered  a  hard- 
ship, as  they  in  most  cases  do  very  little  duty,  only  occa- 
sionally carrying  dispatches  home,  or  under  flags  of  truce, 
and  turning  out  in  full-dress  on  grand  occasions.  These 
gentlemen  are  entirely  ornamental,  the  crown  prince  hav- 
ing a  really  able  and  hard-working  staff  of  army  officers, 
who  live  with  him  at  his  own  quarters,  and  do  all  the 
work.  Among  the  officers  at  table  are  the  Prince  of  Ho- 
henzollern,  the  innocent  cause  of  the  war,  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Coburg,  brother  of  Prince  Albert,  the  Crown  Prince  of 
Saxony,  and  princes  and  grand  dukes  from  nearly  all  the 
German  States.  Of  these  we  will  notice  only  two. 

Prince  Leopold  Hohenzollern  holds  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel in  the  Prussian  army.  He  is  slightly  built,  has 
blue  eyes,  light  complexion,  is  about  five  feet  seven  inches 
in  height,  and  thirty -five  years  of  age.  He  speaks  good 
English,  has  a  bright,  winning,  intelligent  face,  and  capti- 
vating manners.  He  is  no  exception  to  the  other  princes 
in  the  non-performance  of  duty.  He  is  a  thorough  stu- 
dent, and  almost  any  morning  until  eleven  o'clock  may  be 
found  in  his  room,  in  a  common  flannel  blouse,  reading  or 
writing.  He  is  highly  respected  by  every  one,  is  thor- 
oughly moral  and  upright  in  his  life,  a  consistent  Cath- 
olic, highly  educated,  and  perfectly  amiable,  but  of  no 
great  force  of  character.  He  belongs  to  the  senior  line  of 
the  family  of  Hohenzollern,  who  reside  in  Sigmaringen, 


GERMAN  PRINCES.  49 

in  Southern  Germany,  on  the  borders  of  Baden  and  Wiir- 
temberg. 

As  a  kingdom,  Prussia  is  of  recent  origin,  and  composed 
of  several  ancient  states.  Without  mentioning  the  smaller 
provinces,  it  may  be  considered  as  comprehending  four 
large  divisions — viz.,  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg,  the 
Kingdom  of  Prussia  proper,  the  large  province  of  Silesia, 
acquired  by  Frederick  the  Great  from  Austria,  and  one- 
third  part  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Poland.  The  ruling 
family  was  originally  the  electoral  House  of  Brandenburg, 
an  elector  having  the  right  to  represent  his  electorate,  or 
province,  in  choosing  the  German  emperor.  This  family 
trace  their  origin  to  one  Count  Thassilo,  who  lived  in  the 
ninth  century,  and  derived  his  title  from  an  old  castle 
called  Hohen,  or  High  Zollern,  one  of  several  eminences 
near  Hechingen,  in  Suabia,  situated  on  the  beautiful 
heights  known  as  the  Zollern  Hills.  The  domain  con- 
tains a  territory  of  about  twenty  miles  square,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  sixty  thousand  inhabitants.  Here  is 
found  some  of  the  most  picturesque  scenery  in  all  Europe. 
The  estate  is  still  held  by  the  father  of  Leopold,  the  head 
of  the  senior  branch  of  the  family. 

Brandenburg,  which  was  originally  inhabited  by  a  Scla- 
vonic race,  was  first  raised  to  importance  by  Sigafred,  a 
Saxon  count,  appointed  margrave,  or  marquis,  in  927.  In 
1373  the  Emperor  Charles  IY.  assigned  Brandenburg  to 
his  second  son,  Sigismund,  who  in  1415,  being  then  him- 
self Emperor  of  Germany,  sold  this  Margraviate  of  Bran- 
denburg to  Frederick  of  Hohenzollern  (then  margrave,  or 
imperial  commissioner,  of  the  town  of  Nuremberg)  for  the 
sum  of  four  hundred  thousand  ducats.  This  first  Fred- 
erick separated  himself  from  his  family,  and,  taking  pos- 
session of  his  new  purchase,  showed  many  of  the  marked 
characteristics  of  the  great  men  of  his  line  who  have  suc- 

4 


50  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ceeded  him.  This  new  branch  of  the  Brandenburg  Ho- 
henzollerns,  in  1530,  embraced  the  Lutheran  religion, 
which  has  ever  since  been  the  prevailing  faith  of  Prus- 
sia, while  the  senior  Suabiaii,  or  main  family,  retained, 
and  still  hold,  their  original  Koman  Catholic  creed.  It  is 
this  senior  branch  that  the  father  of  Prince  Leopold  Ho- 
henzollern  now  represents.  They  have  no  resemblance, 
and  no  near  relationship  to  the  Brandenburg  family,  and, 
being  very  wealthy,  lead  a  life  of  ease  and  scholarship. 
Not  until  1851  did  they  surrender  their  rights  of  sover- 
eignty to  their  tenth  cousin,  the  King  of  Prussia. 

Leopold  is  the  eldest  son  of  Prince  Charles  Anton  and 
Princess  Josephine,  and  therefore  doubly  related  to  the 
dynasty  of  Bonaparte,  his  father  being  a  son  of  Princess 
Antoinette  Murat,  and  his  mother,  Princess  Josephine  of 
Baden,  a  daughter  of  Stephanie  de  Beauharnais,  who  was 
an  adopted  daughter  of  Napoleon  I.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  Government  of  Madrid  should  expect  these  ties 
of  relationship  to  recommend  their  candidate  at  the  Tuil- 
eries.  Prince  Charles  Anton  has  been  always  an  intimate 
friend  and  adviser,  as  well  as  relative,  of  Napoleon  III., 
and  was  the  manager  of  the  affair  of  his  son's  candidature. 

In  1861,  Prince  Leopold  was  married  to  the  sister  of  the 
King  of  Portugal,  which  also  gave  him  character  in  that 
portion  of  Europe.  The  father,  Prince  Charles  Anton, 
with  his  family,  generally  lives  at  his  chateau  in  Sigma- 
ringen,  built  by  the  present  King  of  Prussia  for  the  head 
of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern.  It  was  here  that  the  pre- 
liminary negotiations  with  the  Spanish  Government  were 
discussed. 

In  the  contracts  of  December,  1851,  between  Prussia  and 
the  Princes  of  Hohenzollern  (Anton's  line),  by  which  the 
latter  ceded  their  rights  of  sovereignty  to  the  crown  of 
Prussia,  it  is  expressly  stipulated  that,  in  case  of  extinction 


GERMAN  PRINCES.  51 

of  male  representatives,  the  crown  of  Prussia  shall  not 
claim  proprietary  rights  to  the  principalities  of  the  senior 
or  Anton  line,  and  that  the  princes  of  Hohenzollern  shall 
not  inherit  the  rights  of  the  Prussian  branch.  The  head 
of  the  family  is,  therefore,  not  the  King  of  Prussia,  but 
Prince  Charles  Anton,  who  by  royal  order  received  the 
title  of  "highness,"  and,  later,  "royal  highness,"  but  with 
the  distinct  specification  that  it  changed  in  no  manner  the 
relation  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern  to  the  throne  of 
Prussia.  It  will,  therefore,  be  clearly  seen  that  the  Prus- 
sian throne  was  in  no  manner  interested  in  or  profited  by 
the  possible  occupancy  of  the  Spanish  throne  by  a  rep- 
resentative of  that  House.  No  better  expression  of  the 
motives  of  the  Spanish  Government  in  choosing  Prince 
Leopold  for  their  regent  can  be  given  than  by  quoting  a 
paper  of  the  distinguished  Spanish  statesman,  Senor  Sala- 
zar.  He  says: 

"  In  the  first  place,  Prince  Leopold  belongs  to  that  branch  of  the  Hohen- 
zollern family  which  has  for  centuries  kept  aloof  from  Protestantism,  now 
predominant  at  Berlin.  He  would  be  the  present  heir  of  the  Prussian  crown, 
had  his  ancestors,  possessing  »the  right  of  primogeniture,  been  willing  to  for- 
swear the  Catholic  for  the  Protestant  religion." 

In  the  second  place,  Salazar  puts  the  question  r 

"  Can  a  parliamentary  king  involve  his  land  in  a  foreign  war  ?  Is  Portu- 
gal dependent  on  Spain  because  their  thrones  are  occupied  by  members  of  the 
same  family  ?  To  what  profit,  in  1866,  was  the  relationship  of  the  dethroned 
King  of  Hanover  to  Queen  Victoria  ?  Gratitude  is  an  empty  word  in  poli- 
tics, and,  aside  from  this,  upon  what  ground  of  interest  is  Prince  Leopold 
bound  to  Prussia?  His  attachments  would  all  be  to  the  Spanish  Cortes. 
The  Prussian  Government  had  no  part  in  this  transaction,  and  King  Wil- 
liam was  greatly  surprised  when  the  prince,  who  is  of  full  age,  came  to  Ems 
to  communicate  to  him,  as  a  matter  of  courtesy,  his  renunciation  of  the  can- 
didature. The  only  control  which  the  king  exercised  over  him  arose  from 
the  fact  that  Prince  Leopold  was  an  officer  of  the  Prussian  army.  The 
prince's  own  motives  for  this  action  were  entirely  personal.  One  reason, 
which  he  has  authorized  to  be  published  in  his  own  language,  is  that,  with- 


52  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AEMY. 

out  knowing  what  the  people  of  Spain  thought  about  it,  every  body  in  Ger- 
many versed  in  foreign  politics  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  Peninsula,  on  ac- 
count of  its  geographical  position  and  peculiar  constitution,  would  have  noth- 
ing to  gain  and  much  to  lose  by  entanglements  with  European  politics,  and 
that  therefore  their  sovereigns  should  be  strong  neutrals." 

THE  GKAND  DUKE  OF  COBUEG  is  a  large,  awkward- 
looking  man  of  about  fifty,  with  a  heavy,  sensuous  face. 
He  holds  the  military  rank  of  major-general,  is  the  nom- 
inal commander  of  the  little  force  from  his  duchy,  and  chef 
to  a  regiment  of  cuirassiers  belonging  to  his  contingent. 
Although  he  commanded  his  troops  in  the  field  in  1866, 
and  his  regiment  at  Sedan — the  papers  say,  at  a  safe  dis- 
tance—  he  is  not  looked  upon  as  a  soldier  of  any  merit, 
and  I  have  known  him  to  perform  only  the  duty  of  ap- 
pearing well  dressed  and  well  mounted  on  grand  days,  and 
even  in  this  he  is  untrustworthy,  as  he  rides  wretchedly. 
I  am  informed  that  he  is  anxious  for  a  command,  which 
he  is  not  in  the  least  likely  to  get.  He  speaks  English 
well,  and  is  especially  polite  to  Americans. 

The  duke  is  a  sovereign  member  of  the  North  German 
Confederation,  a  ruler  over  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
thousand  people — a  population  a  little  larger  than  one  of 
our  Congressional  districts  —  and  dispenses  a  budget  of 
about  one  thousand  dollars  annually.  His  career  has  been 
curious.  Setting  out  as  an  absolute  monarch,  he  is  now 
about  as  near  the  ranks  of  democracy  as  a  liberal  German 
can  be.  He  has  been  a  great  traveler,  and  has  strong  dra- 
matic and  musical  taste.  At  his  beautiful  country-seat 
may  almost  always  be  found  either  the  theatre  or  opera  in 
full  force,  largely  supported  by  his  private  means.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  him  to  act  as  manager  himself.  He,  of 
all  the  men  of  rank  about  Versailles,  bears  the  reputation 
of  bringing  a  mistress  from  Germany ;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  propriety  of  sending  him  home  for  it  has  been  seri- 


GERMAN  PRINCES.  53 

ously  discussed  by  the  Government.  He  has  a  very  social 
nature,  and  his  rooms  are  made  a  sort  of  club,  where  the 
members  of  his  mess  may  win  or  lose  spare  cash. 

Sitting  at  the  long  table  are  the  princes  of  Wurtemberg, 
Augustenburg,  and  many  generals  of  high  rank  from  mi- 
nor states.  These  gentlemen  are  show-soldiers,  and  have 
been  replaced  pretty  generally  by  Prussian  officers  of  ex- 
perience and  ability.  They  are  attached  to  the  staff  of 
the  crown  prince,  as  the  easiest  and  least  offensive  way  to 
dispose  of  them. 

These  noble  persons  rise  at  eight,  or  earlier  if  industri- 
ous, and  take  in  their  rooms  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  a  roll 
and  butter,  then  work  at  whatever  they  have  to  do  until 
eleven  or  twelve,  when  they  eat  a  hearty  meal  —  their 
breakfast  —  which  they  prolong  for  one  or  two  hours. 
They  then  ride,  or  read,  or  play  at  some  game,  but  seldom 
do  any  work  until  after  dinner.  At  eight  they  dine  heav- 
ily, prolonging  the  meal  until  ten  or  eleven  o'clock,  when 
they  are  ready  for  as  much  of  the  night  as  they  may  find 
means  of  occupying,  either  at  work  or  play.  They  afford 
a  fine  field  for  study  to  those  who  make  humanity  one  of 
their  subjects  of  investigation. 

Although  the  noble  class  in  Germany  is  very  large,  and 
titles  are  innumerable,  from  the  fact  that  all  the  sons  of  a 
family  take  the  title  of  their  father,  it  does  not  monopo- 
lize any  considerable  portion  of  the  soil.  In  Prussia  only 
one-thirtieth  of  the  land  is  held  by  the  nobility,  the  rest 
being  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  The  nobility  are,  there- 
fore, generally  poor  in  money,  although  usually  owning 
handsome  landed  estates.  Many  of  them,  however,  com- 
prehending the  drift  of  events,  have  taken  up  the  indus- 
tries, and  become  thereby  useful  members  of  society.  But 
the  forty  or  fifty  men  at  the  table  before  us  are  of  too 
high  rank,  and  trace  back  too  far  their  names  and  lineage, 


54  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY, 

to  stoop  to  labor.  In  viewing  them  critically,  one  is  im- 
pressed with  the  lack  of  force  and  intellectual  character 
expressed  in  their  faces.  They  are  less  in  stature  than  the 
common  people,  and,  except  that  they  are  unexceptionably 
well  bred,  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  active  officers 
of  the  army ;  nor  are  the  officers  of  the  regular  army,  al- 
though perfect  as  soldiers,  equal  to  those  I  have  seen  of 
the  landwehr  regiments,  which  are  officered  largely  from 
the  common  people.  This  class  is  gaining  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  influence,  and  must  before  long  be  recognized 
as  the  new,  progressive,  and  dominant  power  in  Germany. 
The  regular  army  clings  to  the  tradition  of  gentle  blood, 
and  the  officer  class  is  really  a  kind  of  nobility,  having 
equal  social  privileges  with  the  king  himself.  There  is 
hardly  a  thoroughly  good  face  at  the  table,  but,  with  two 
exceptions,  they  bear  no  marks  of  dissipation. 


TYPES  OF  GERMAN  PEOPLE.  55 


CHAPTER  II. 

TYPES  OF   GERMAN  PEOPLE. 

Oct.  23d. — The  Wiirtembergers  are  large,  have  short, 
straight  noses,  little  blue  eyes,  high  cheek-bones,  broad 
faces,  and  light  hair,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  ideal  "Dutch- 
men" of  America. 

The  Bavarians  -are  small,  have  dark  complexions,  and 
womanly  faces,  and  are  slight  in  stature. 

The  Hanoverians  and  Saxons  are  perhaps  the  handsom- 
est of  the  German  people.  They  have  good  faces,  well- 
developed  figures,  a  manly  bearing,  and  winning  manners. 

The  Poles  are  tall,  with  light  complexions,  and  have 
furnished  some  of  the  best  officers  for  this  war. 

The  Pomeranians  are  large,  tall  men,  and  make  good 
soldiers. 

Much  of  Prussians  peopled  by  a  race  akin  to  the  Eus- 
sians — a  dark-bearded,  black-eyed,  tall,  handsome  people, 
having  nothing  about  them  but  their  language  in  common 
with  the  other  races  of  Germany.  The  men  in  all  the  ex- 
treme North  German  states  find  their  counterparts  in  the 
Northern  United  States,  and,  meeting  them  in  a  strange 
land,  an  American  might  easily  mistake  them  for  his  own 
countrymen.  The  physical  types  in  many  of  the  German 
states  have  become  thoroughly,  and  in  many  instances 
viciously  fixed ;  and  if  the  Confederation  breaks  this  up, 
and  makes  the  people  more  homogeneous,  it  will  have 
done  a  great  work.  The  finest  body  of  men  I  have  seen 
in  this  army  is  the  second  division  of  the  landwehr  of  the 
Guard.  The  officers,  as  well  as  the  men,  in  every  thing 


56  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

that  addresses  itself  to  the  eye,  are  very  far  superior  to 
such  members  of  the  regular  army  as  I  have  seen. 

CHACTERISTICS  OF  PRINCES. 

In  view  of  the  aimless  lives  led  by  the  German  princes, 
their  inactivity  and  isolation  from  their  fellows,  all  of  which 
cuts  them  off  from  the  sympathy  of  mankind,  their  condi- 
tion seems  in  no  way  comparable  to  that  of  a  cultivated 
American  citizen  of  fortune  whose  home  is  the  world,  and 
before  whom  the  whole  field  of  industry,  art,  and  knowl- 
edge lies  open.  The  lives  of  princes  are  wrought  in 
forms,  and  no  matter  how  beautiful  those  forms  may  be, 
they  cramp  development,  check  many  of  the  best  im- 
pulses of  humanity,  and  come  far  short  of  furnishing  the 
best  examples  of  manhood.  The  entire  system  of  heredi- 
tary politics  may  be  classed  among  things  of  the  past,  in- 
compatible with  the  highest  conditions  of  civilization,  and 
destined  to  disappear  before  it. 

RUSSIAN  OFFICERS. 

The  few  Eussian  officers  attached  to  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Prussian  army  seem  to  be  on  terms  of  the  greatest 
intimacy  with  the  Prussian  Government;  and  whenever 
Eussian  generals  have  arrived  as  special  ambassadors  the 
utmost  warmth  has  always  been  manifested.  Two  of  the 
Eussian  officers  have  rooms  next  my  own,  and  although 
we  have  a  tough  time  at  conversation,  their  hearts  evi- 
dently warm  toward  Americans. 

POSTING  AND   QUARTERING  THE  GERMAN  ARMY  ABOUT 
PARIS. 

Oct.  24:th. — I  have  to-day  visited  the  line  south  of  Paris, 
passing  through  Chatillon  and  Sieux,  where  Vinoy  at- 
tacked the  crown  prince  on  the  19th  of  September,  when 


POSTING  AND   QUARTERING  THE  GERMAN  ARMY.       57 

the  latter  was  approaching  Versailles  to  close  the  invest- 
ment. Judging  from  the  marks  upon  the  buildings,  trees, 
and  fences,  the  fighting  must  have  been  scattering  and 
weak.  On  arriving  at  the  front  line,  or  rather  position, 
for  there  are  no  lines,  but  only  posts  of  observation,  we 
find  three  companies  holding  a  strong  point,  and  are  told 
by  the  commanding  officer  that  the  enemy,  thirty  thou- 
sand strong,  are  lying  just  below  him.  As  he  has  to  hold 
the  point  at  all  hazards,  he  prefers  that  we  should  not 
show  ourselves  to  the  enemy,  as  it  might  draw  their  fire. 
Nothing  has  struck  me  more  forcibly  than  the  perfect  suc- 
cess of  the  Germans  at  concealment.  It  is  a  strong  point 
in  their  tactics.  Their  sentinels  are  always  out  of  sight, 
their  bayonets  and  gun-barrels  dimmed  with  grease  and 
by  withholding  the  burnisher,  while  their  troops  are  al- 
ways marched  and  posted  behind  cover,  so  that  not  a  trace 
of  them  can  be  seen.  The  Parisians  are  greatly  disap- 
pointed because  they  are  never  able  to  see  a  German. 
They  have  telescopes,  mounted  for  hire  by  the  minute,  all 
about  the  city,  and  on  fine  days  the  ladies,  with  their  chil- 
dren, go  out  to  see  the  Prussians,  but  none  are  ever  seen. 
They  thought  it  due  to  the  leaves  on  the  trees,  but  these 
are  now  all  fallen,  and  still  their  efforts  meet  with  no  bet- 
ter success. 

The  posting  of  the  investing  line  is  a  novelty  to  an 
American  officer,  and  yet  there  is  wisdom  displayed  every- 
where. There  is,  in  fact,  no  investing  line  at  all,  but  a 
zone  of  occupation  about  five  miles  in  depth.  When  the 
Germans  approached  Paris,  the  French  quickly  retired 
within  the  circle  of  investing  forts.  The  Prussians  have 
approached  this  circle  within  about  a  mile,  and  have  judi- 
ciously posted  a  picket-line  around  the  city.  These  pick- 
et-posts, secure  from  needless  exposure  to  the  fire  of  the 
forts,  are  called  advanced  posts,  and  are  so  situated  that 


58  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AEMT. 

from  them  can  be  seen  all  that  occurs  between  them  and 
the  enemy,  and  between  the  adjacent  posts.  We  find  a 
single  man  at  one  of  these  points  of  observation,  who 
watches  every  thing,  peeping  over  a  wall,  through  a  win- 
dow, or  out  from  the  bushes.  Not  far  away  from  him,  and 
also  out  of  sight,  are  two  or  three  comrades  and  a  mounted 
picket ;  one  or  two  hundred  yards  to  the  rear  is  a  platoon, 
generally  concealed  in  some  garden  or  walled  yard,  and  a 
half-mile  farther  back  is  the  regiment,  comfortably  quar- 
tered in  a  little  village.  If  we  go  on,  we  soon  find  larger 
bodies  of  troops,  but  the  main  force  is  stationed  well  to- 
ward the  outer  portion  of  the  zone  of  investment.  The 
regiments  in  the  front  are  replaced  by  others  from  the 
rear  every  three  days,  while  those  in  the  rear  are  so  dis- 
posed as  to  concentrate  on  any  threatened  point  in  their 
front  on  very  short  notice,  and  the  posting  is  such  that  two 
army  corps,  or  sixty  thousand  men,  can  be  massed  on  any 
position  before  the  French  can  reach  it.  The  regiments 
in  front  keep  their  belts  on,  while  those  in  the  rear  are 
comfortably  established  in  the  deserted  villages  and  towns. 
So  thorough  is  the  discipline  and  complete  the  subordina- 
tion, that  no  man  wanders  from  his  company  rendezvous 
beyond  the  sound  of  his  bugles.  The  regiments  in  front 
are  always  ready  to  move  at  a  moment's  notice,  while 
those  in  the  rear  are  easily  available,  and  there  seems  no 
tendency  to  straggle  away  as  with  us.  I  imagine  that  the 
secret  of  this  is  a  more  absolute  discipline,  and  a  more  qui- 
et disposition.  When  the  long  roll  is  sounded,  the  regi- 
ments move  out  with  full  ranks  in  a  very  few  minutes.  In 
case  of  an  advance  of  the  French,  the  single  advanced  man 
calls  the  mounted  trooper,  who  at  once  notifies  the  reserve 
platoon  and  the  regiment,  which  concentrate  at  a  prede- 
termined rendezvous,  to  check  the  advance.  Word  is  at 
once  dispatched  to  the  corps  in  the  rear,  which  gets  under 


POSTING  AND   QUARTERING   THE  GERMAN  ARMY.       59 

arms  and  takes  up  a  line  already  resolved  upon  and  pre- 
pared, perhaps  two  or  three  miles  in  rear  of  the  advanced 
regiment/  In  the  mean  time  the  regiment,  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  every  accident  of  ground,  or  fence,  or  wood, 
harasses  and  checks  the  attack  as  far  as  possible,  without 
risking  much,  and  falls  slowly  back  upon  the  line  already 
posted. 

The  investing  troops  are  not  evenly  disposed  all  around 
the  city,  but  there  are  several  main  points  of  concentration 
commanding  the  avenues  by  which,  from  the  nature  of  the 
country,  a  sallying  force  must  necessarily  advance.  The 
most  favorable  lines  across  these  debouches  have  been 
strengthened,  and  thoroughly  prepared  for  defense.  Some- 
times these  points  of  concentration  are  very  near  the  front, 
and  sometimes  far  to  the  rear;  but  never  has  any  sortie 
broken  or  passed  beyond  the  prepared  line,  and  the  attack 
of  some  twenty  battalions  from  Mount  Yalerien  on  the 
21st  instant  did  not  even  reach  the  advanced  posts  at  any 
point.  Two  mitrailleuses  which  were  run  down  a  little 
too  near  these  posts  were  swept  in  by  a  company  of  Ger- 
man troops  like  crumbs  from  the  table. 

The  French,  like  ourselves  in  the  late  war,  preface  and 
publish  such  a  movement  by  a  long  cannonade,  thereby 
greatly  aiding  their  adversary  to  make  ready  to  receive 
them.  This  use  of  artillery  is  one  of  the  absurdities  of 
modern  warfare.  It  seems  to  owe  its  existence  to  the 
old  custom  of  using  breaching  artillery  in  order  to  make 
a  practicable  opening  in  a  permanent  fort  before  send- 
ing forward  the  assaulting  party,  when  musketry  fire  was 
effective  only  at  short  range,  and  permanent  works  were 
reduced  by  regular  approaches.  Since  the  introduction  of 
long-range  small -arms,  with  thin  lines  of  troops  posted 
behind  slight  earth-works,  the  practice  has  become  vicious, 
for  it  hurts  no  one,  and  only  advertises  your  intentions. 


60  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  French,  in  order  to  do  this  effectually,  collected  a 
large  number  of  field-guns  near  the  assaulting  line  on  the 
21st  instant,  and  for  two  hours  fired  an  average  of  more 
than  a  hundred  guns  to  the  minute.  As  they  only  use 
time-fuses,  many  of  their  shells  burst  thousands  of  feet  in 
the  air. 

At  the  assault  on  Fort  McAllister  during  our  war  (the 
only  time  I  had  full  control  of  a  storming-party),  some 
artillery  officers  stood  aghast  when  told  that  I  had  no  use 
for  artillery.  By  quietly  pushing  up  sharp-shooters  and 
driving  every  body  into  the  bomb-proofs,  and  at  the  same 
time  deploying  an  assaulting  party  just  out  of  sight,  I  was 
able  to  send  it  quietly  forward,  so  that  it  nearly  reached 
the  enemy's  lines  before  they  were  aware  of  the  presence 
of  a  large  force.  Had  they  known  our  intention,  and  be- 
gun to  fire  upon  us  when  we  first  came  within  range,  our 
loss  would  have  been  doubled. 

Oct.  25th. — The  zone  of  German  investment  embraces 
hundreds,  and  perhaps  thousands,  of  villas,  chateaux,  farms, 
and  gardens.  In  France,  every  thing  of  this  kind,  of  how- 
ever little  pretense,  is  surrounded  by  a  rubble-stone  wall 
about  eight  feet  high  and  two  feet  thick.  This  has  simpli- 
fied the  military  problem  for  the  German,  as  a  starving 
siege  consists  mainly  in  the  defense  of  the  besiegers.  Dif- 
ferent lines  of  these  walls,  occupying  commanding  posi- 
tions, have  been  loop-holed  for  musketry,  embrasures  have 
been  cut  for  artillery,  banquettes  thrown  up,  and  sometimes 
staging  built  for  two  tiers  of  infantry.  These  strong  posi- 
tions naturally  deflect  an  assaulting  column  to  the  right 
and  left  into  the  more  open  ways,  where  it  is  soon  enfi- 
laded by  a  strong  fire  from  infantry,  and  often  taken  in 
reverse  by  a  force  securely  posted  in  loop-holed  houses 
or  garden  hedges.  The  Germans  at  once  saw  and  availed 
themselves  of  the  great  advantage  of  these  combinations 


POSTING  AND  QUARTERING  THE  GERMAN  ARMY.        61 

for  defensive  purposes,  and  prepared  covers  and  opened 
roads  through  farms  and  gardens  for  artillery  and  infantry, 
so  that,  with  their  reserves  comfortably  quartered  in  the 
rear,  they  could  at  any  alarm  speedily  man  these  success- 
ive positions  with  thin  lines  and  sweep  the  open  roads 
with  their  batteries.  A  combination  of  defenses  practica- 
bly impregnable  has  thus  been  formed.  The  advance  posi- 
tions are  given  up  at  the  right  moment,  and  the  various 
covers  prepared  for  retreat  make  it  easy  and  safe.  From 
this  statement,  it  will  be  seen  how  utterly  hopeless  and 
mad  a  night  sortie  would  be,  as  it  could  not  overcome  even 
the  physical  difficulties.  None  will  ever  be  tried. 

Oct.  2Qth. — The  star  that  guided  all  these  four  hundred 
thousand  French  troops,  including  a  numerous  cavalry,  into 
Paris,  within  this  net-work  of  infantry  defenses,  was  certain- 
ly an  evil  one ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how,  among 
so  many  able  men,  no  one  should  have  seen  the  suicidal 
policy  of  such  a  step.  The  thirty  thousand  cavalry  now 
there — where  under  no  circumstances  can  they  be  used, 
except  as  the  horses  may  serve  for  food — if  free  in  France 
under  a  Wilson  or  an  Upton,  and  divided  into  five  or  six 
detachments,  would  cut  the  German  line  of  communica- 
tion, check  and  harass  all  their  advancing  columns,  and  in 
many  ways  make  themselves  felt  and  dreaded.  This  must, 
in  the  future,  in  consequence  of  the  employment  of  long- 
range  and  close-shooting  small-arms,  be  the  main  use  of 
cavalry.  Two  hundred  thousand  men  are  quite  as  ef- 
fective to  defend  the  city  as  a  more  numerous  army. 
By  the  remarkable  policy  of  depopulating  the  environs  of 
Paris,  and  calling  the  people  within  the  lines,  the  French 
have  not  only  some  hundred  thousand  more  mouths  to 
feed,  but  have  left  excellent  quarters  for  their  enemy. 
While  engaging  in  impossible  attempts  to  burn  the  green 
forests,  the  French  have  left  thousands  of  cords  of  bundles 


62  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  fagots  for  fuel,  and  the  extensive  forests  of  St.  Cloud, 
Versailles,  and  St.  Germain  are  full  of  small  saplings  just 
to  the  hand  of  the  Germans  for  making  gabions  and  fas- 
cines. The  surrounding  country,  instead  of  being  deso- 
lated, is  left  covered  with  stacks  of  grain  and  barns  full  of 
hay;  the  gardens  are  full  of  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  and 
vegetables  of  all  kinds,  abundantly  raised  for  the  Paris 
market.  It  seems  that  every  thing  of  a  military  nature 
that  France  ought  to  have  done  she  has  neglected,  while 
she  has  done  all  manner  of  things  she  ought  not  to  have 
done. 

THE  OLD  NOBLESSE. 

The  incidents  which  occur  in  a  town  occupied  by  a 
hostile  army  are  sometimes  very  ludicrous.  Every  one 
knows  that  the  old  noblesse  of  France  have  always  main- 
tained their  exclusiveness,  not  extending  even  a  social 
recognition  to  the  Bonapartists  when  in  power.  Versailles 
is  the  home  of  many  of  these  families,  who,  shorn  of  their 
fortunes,  support,  by  means  of  their  pensions,  and  God 
knows  what  else,  a  solitary  and  threadbare  magnificence. 
They  usually  own  their  own  houses  and  grounds,  and 
keep  within  their  own  social  circle,  sometimes  admitting 
Americans,  rarely  Englishmen,  but  never  the  new  order  of 
Frenchmen.  In  the  morning  the  master  of  the  house  can 
be  found,  in  dressing-gown  and  slippers,  hovering  over  the 
least  possible  fire,  while. the  mistress  prepares  the  frugal 
breakfast.  From  two  to  six  in  the  evening  a  liveried 
servant  may  be  found  at  the  door,  and  occasionally  the 
whole  family  drive  out  in  a  carriage  of  a  style  decidedly 
antiquated,  attended  by  footmen  powdered  and  liveried, 
and  drawn  by  horses  whose  best  exertions  toward  speed 
never  take  them  beyond  a  funeral  pace. 

These  people  are  as  likely  as  any  one  to  have  German 
officers  billeted  upon  them,  and  their  extreme  poverty 


THE  OLD  NOBLESSE.  63 

makes  it  a  great  hardship.  The  Marquise  du  Grammont, 
one  of  my  neighbors,  had'  three  officers  assigned  to  her 
house.  Their  dinner  was  ready  at  the  usual  hour  of 
eight,  but  military  duties  at  the  front,  or  a  game  of  cards 
in  town,  kept  them  away  until  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. But  the  dinner  must  be  ready,  and  imagine  mon- 
sieur the  marquis  and  madame  shivering  over  the  coals 
of  a  scanty  fire,  for  they  are  too  poor  for  servants,  until 
three  o'clock  in  the  morning,  waiting  for  their  self-invited 
guests. 

Madame,  the  Marquise  of ,  has  no  servants,  and  en- 
tertains two  officers.  The  first  day  she  cooks  them  her 
best  dinner,  but  there  is  no  wine.  They  wish  Champagne, 
and  are  told  that  she  has  none,  when,  believing  her  the 
maid,  they  mildly  intimate  that  it  is  procurable  at  the 
moderate  rate  of  six  francs  a  bottle  at  the  restaurant  oppo- 
site. Not  having  that  amount  of  ready -money,  she  retires 
in  much  confusion.  Next  day,  seeing  no  other  woman 
about  the  house,  they  inquire,  and  learn,  to  their  utter 
dismay,  that  it  is  Madame  the  Marquise  upon  whom  they 
made  requisition  for  Champagne.  The  most  ample  apolo- 
gies, and  a  consideration  suited  to  her  rank,  follow. 

Madame comes  with  dreadful  complaints  this  morn* 

ing:  "These  horrid  Germans,  they  have  treated  me  so 
shamefully !"  As  she  stops  to  take  breath,  I  prepare  to 
hear  something  like  the  usual  and  true  tale  —  so  often 
told  us  in  Georgia.  "I  was  told,"  she  continued,  "they 
carried  the  Prayer-book,  the  Bible,  and  the  Command- 
ments, or  at  least  one  of  these,  in  each  knapsack.  Sure- 
ly their  Bible  does  not  contain  the  eighth  commandment. 

The  Duke  de ,  on  joining  the  French  army  in  Paris, 

left  with  me  his  harness,  his  whips,  and  his  carriages,  ex- 
cept the  wheels,  which  he  carried  to  some  stable  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  city,  that  the  Germans  might  not 


64  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

be  able  to  use  them.  When  these  officers  were  billeted 
upon  me,  they  had  horses,  but  furnished  their  own  for- 
age, only  asking  of  me  stabling-room,  and  I  of  course  had 
to  give  it.  On  going  to  the  stable  two  days  after,  what 
was  my  horror  on  finding  the  whips  gone;  and  when  I 
told  them  I  would  have  them  reported  to  the  king,  they 
told  me  if  I  did  not  keep  quiet  they  would  take  the  har- 
ness also  —  the  dreadful  thieving  Germans!"  This  is  the 
first  and  only  complaint  of  the  kind  that  I  have  heard  at 
Versailles,  where  the  head-quarters  of  the  largest  army  in 
the  world,  and  all  of  its  dependencies,  have  been  estab- 
lished for  more  than  a  month.  The  kindest  relations 
seem  to  exist  between  host  and  guest  all  over  the  city  as 
soon  as  they  understand  each  other.  The  soldiers  are 
everywhere  favorites  when  they  become  domesticated,  do- 
ing all  manner  of  little  offices  for  the  family,  and  going 
errands,  caring  for  the  children,  and  helping  about  the 
house. 


FALL  OF  METZ. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FALL  OF  METZ. — ITS  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WAR. 

Oct.  28th.  —  Metz  has  fallen,  and  M.  Thiers  is  here,  in- 
vested with  plenary  powers.  I  doubt  whether  he  is  differ- 
ent from  other  Frenchmen,  and  capable  of  looking  upon 
the  military  situation  with  cool  and  elevated  reason.  It 
has  been  astonishing  from  the  first  to  see  the  inability  of 
the  French  to  understand  their  condition.  The  cry  every- 
where is,  "  Not  a  fortress,  not  a  stone ;"  and  on  the  margin 
of  the  proclamations  of  Jules  Favre  to  this  effect  in  Paris, 
the  populace  add,  "And  not  one  cent  of  money."  There  is 
much  in  this  to  remind  one  of  the  "last  ditch ''  in  our  own 
war.  The  French  have,  in  common  with  our  former  ad- 
versaries of  the  South,  the  faculty  of  disbelieving  the  suc- 
cesses of  their  enemies.  They  say  that  the  Germans  dress- 
ed their  own  soldiers  in  French  uniforms  at  Sedan,  and 
marched  them  through  the  streets,  and  called  them  prison- 
ers. The  French  also  talk  of  battalions  of  Amazons,  to 
fight  when  the  men  are  all  killed,  and  I  find  a  vague  gen- 
eral belief  that  something  will  come  from  somewhere  to 
help  them  at  last.  This  condition  of  the  national  mind, 
this  disregard  of  reason,  is  not  encouraging.  Whether  the 
cowl  and  gown  have  caused  it,  or  are  only  concomitant 
with  it,  I  leave  to  others. 

With  the  Prussian  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men 
set  free  from  before  Metz  to  overrun  France,  her  chance 
of  military  success  is  reduced  to  nothing.  If  she  will  see 
this  and  act  upon  it,  she  will  save  millions  of  money, 
thousands  of  lives,  and  gain  better  terms  than  can  after- 

5 


66  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ward  be  secured.  Thiers  went  into  Paris  early  this 
morning  to  gain  authority  from  the  members  of  the  Gov- 
ernment there  such  as  he  already  has  from  Tours.  He 
went  too  early  to  carry  with  him  news  of  the  result  at 
Metz.  Count  Bismarck  can  not  be  seen.  "Fritz"  and  all 
the  ministers  have  been  called  in  council  with  the  king. 
The  little  German  kings  are  coming  in  a  day  or  two.  It 
all  looks  as  if  King  William  were  to  be  made  emperor. 

The  French  people  obstinately  refuse  to  credit  the  news 
that  Metz  has  surrendered.  They  even  believe  that  Ba- 
zaine  has  come  out  himself,  leaving  his  army  still  besieged, 
and  is  now  operating  on  the  German  lines  of  communica- 
tion, and  exacting  large  sums  of  money  from  King  Wil- 
liam for  the  permission  to  send  his  sick  and  wounded 
home  to  Germany.  They  even  say  and  believe  that  the 
Germans  are  beleaguered  at  Versailles,  and  must  soon 
surrender. 

The  Prussians,  I  am  told,  refuse  to  parole  any  of  the 
Metz  prisoners  on  account  of  the  conduct  of  many  of  the 
officers  paroled  at  Sedan,  who  afterward  exchanged  with 
officers  serving  in  Algiers,  and  thus  liberated  the  latter  for 
active  service  against  Germany.  The  Prussians  allege  also 
that  several  of  the  paroled  officers  have  themselves  again 
taken  the  field  at  home. 

There  has  been  no  firing  of  guns  nor  demonstration  of 
any  kind  over  the  wonderful  success  at  Metz,  except  a 
delicious  concert  with  stringed  instruments  at  the  king's 
head-quarters.  The  king  was  called  out  by  a  large  crowd 
of  soldiers  for  a  speech,  but  merely  acknowledged  his  own 
thankfulness  and  retired. 

FORTIFICATIONS  ABOUT  PARIS. 

Paris  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  work  of  earth,  faced 
with  cut  stone,  nearly  twenty  feet  high,  and  arranged  for 


FORTIFICATIONS  ABOUT  PARIS.  67 

flank  defense.  This  is  the  real  barrier  of  the  city,  and  is, 
for  the  length  of  some  fifteen  miles,  a  regularly  built  first- 
class  line  of  fortification,  with  a  deep  moat  on  the  outside. 
About  two  miles  distant  is  a  line  of  detached  fortress- 
es: Bellaire,  DTssy,  Bicetre,  Charenton,  and  a  few  others. 
They  are  independent  of  each  other,  and  each  is  capable 
of  giving  shelter  to  a  large  number  of  troops.  The  French 
hold  to  the  front  of  these  forts  about  one  mile,  and  then 
comes  a  space  of  about  a  mile  between  the  armies  before 
we  reach  the  German  advanced  posts.  This  gives  a  front 
for  the  German  army  of  about  forty  miles,  and  the  exterior 
circumference  of  their  zone  of  operations  is  of  course  much 
greater.  The  Germans  have  not  far  from  two  hundred 
thousand  men  here,  allowing  five  thousand  men  to  the 
mile,  which,  from  their  plan  of  posting  troops  in  reserve, 
and  prepared  positions,  is  abundantly  ample  for  their 
work.  They  have  no  lines  of  rifle-pits  such  as  we  made 
every  day  during  the  last  two  years  of  our  war,  though 
sometimes  lines  of  picket-pits  are  prepared ;  but  the  great 
number  of  stone  walls  gives  them  ready-made  defenses. 
Sometimes  these  are  crenelated ;  sometimes  the  top  is  ra- 
zeed ;  at  others,  a  temporary  banquette  is  used.  Stockades 
are  built,  so  as  to  give  a  fire  down  avenues  and  roads,  and 
all  commanding  points  are  made  ready  for  artillery.  This, 
with  the  pickets  of  observation  in  front,  and  their  supports, 
are  all  we  find  within  some  miles  of  the  French  lines. 

To  an  American  who  has  seen  our  war,  this  all  seems 
insecure,  and  not  the  best  disposition  of  the  German  forces. 
But  when  he  waits  and  sees  that  by  this  means  many  lives 
are  saved;  that  the  average  loss  by  French  shots  is  less 
than  one  man  a  day ;  that  -three-fourths  of  the  command 
are  kept  comfortably  housed,  with  minds  at  rest,  instead 
of  being  worn  out  with  anxiety ;  and  when  he  sees  the 
alacrity  with  which  full  brigades  and  divisions  of  cheerful 


68  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY, 

men  move  out  to  their  assigned  places  at  an  alarm,  with 
positive  certainty  of  being  in  the  right  place  when  wanted, 
he  is  likely  to  change  his  opinion.  The  plan  here  is  pure- 
ly defensive,  and  therefore  certain  ;  and,  in  my  opinion,  if 
the  number  of  good  troops  in  Paris  were  doubled,  it  would 
not  add  to  the  chances  of  the  French  breaking  the  invest- 
ing line.  Any  other  plan  upon  the  part  of  the  Germans 
would  be  uncertain  and  faulty ;  for  although  the  fortresses 
can  be  taken  by  regular  approaches,  or  the  enceinte  of  Paris 
itself  might  be  reached,  it  is  not  likely  that  it  could  be  car- 
ried without  immense  loss  of  life;  while  the  French  troops 
left  under  cover  of  the  fortresses  would  sally  out  upon  the 
rear  of  the  attacking  force  and  cut  them  off.  Neither  do  I 
see  why  Paris  should  be  bombarded.  Some  injury  could 
be  done,  but  the  city  would  surrender  no  sooner.  Cities 
surrender  only  when  carried  by  assault,  which  is  imprac- 
ticable here,  or  from  starvation.  The  latter  is  certain,  and 
a  bombardment  would  accomplish  nothing,  unless  to  show 
the  Parisians  that  the  city  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy, 
which  they  do  not  yet  comprehend. 

AMERICANS    FROM    PARIS. 

Oct.  2Sth. — A  large  number  of  Americans  came  out  of 
Paris  yesterday.  Those  within  do  not  yet  know  the  fate 
of  Metz,  nor  the  defeat  of  the  Army  of  the  Loire.  They 
are  rationed  by  the  Government  on  meat,  mostly  horse- 
flesh, but  have  their  own  bread,  without  butter  or  cheese. 
The  death-rate  among  infants  and  invalids  is  already 
doubled.  The  Parisians  are  blind  to  their  situation,  and 
persist  in  remaining  in  darkness.  These  Americans  are 
all  French  sympathizers,  and  remained  in  Paris,  believing 
in  French  prowess,  but  now  come  out  when  food  gets 
short.  Among  them  is  George  Sanders,  who,  with  Gen- 
eral Eipley,  of  Charleston  fame,  has  been  endeavoring  to 


AMERICANS  FROM  PARIS.  69 

impart  to  the  French  Government  useful  strategical  knowl- 
edge gained  by  experience  in  our  late  war.  I  have  not  yet 
learned  whether  he  has  again  suggested  small-pox. 

These  people  pass  current  over  here  as  genuine  Ameri- 
cans, while,  in  some  way  or  other,  they  continually  preju- 
dice us.  In  coming  through  the  lines,  they  were  compelled 
to  make  a  long  detour,  the  point  of  passing  having  been 
changed  from  Sevres  to  Creteil.  This  delayed  their  ar- 
rival at  Versailles  until  one  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Every 
place  was  closed,  and,  being  tired  and  dry,  a  party  of  half 
a  dozen  went  to  the  Hotel  du  France  and  rapped  loudly, 
but  gained  no  response.  They  then  kicked  vigorously 
against  the  shutters.  This  brought  to  the  door  an  image 
in  night-clothes,  who  asked  them,  in  no  tender  accents, 
what  they  wanted,  and  they  told  him,  "  Something  to 
drink."  They  were  informed  that  they  could  go  to  the 
river  for  it,  and,  after  taking  their  measure  by  moon- 
light, the  supposed  landlord  closed  the  door,  whereupon, 

in  true  rowdy  style,  they  told  him  he  could  go  to , 

and  went  away.  The  authority  to  pass  the  German  lines 
gives  no  permission  to  loiter  within  them.  Next  morn- 
ing the  same  party,  thinking  Versailles  a  pretty  good 
place  to  halt  for  a  time,  betook  themselves  to  the  office  of 
the  major-general  commanding  the  place,  to  apply  for  the 
much -coveted  authority.  They  were  somewhat  abashed 
when  informed  that  head-quarters  were  in  the  Hotel  du 
France,  and  entirely  nonplused  when  shown  the  com- 
mandant, for  they  then  discovered  that  they  were  face  to 
face  with  the  white-robed  image  of  their  last  night's  ad- 
venture, who,  without  waiting  to  receive  their  application, 
politely  informed  them  that  they  must  leave  the  town 
forthwith.  Still  clinging  to  the  idea  of  having  things  their 
own  way,  they  provokingly  asked  him  how  it  would  be  if 
they  gained  authority  to  stay  from  Count  Bismarck,  and 


70  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

were  informed  that  not  Count  Bismarck,  but  he,  command- 
ed the  post  of  Versailles.  The  party  will  leave  this  even- 
ing. 

Everywhere  in  Europe,  and  nowhere  more  than  in  Ger- 
many, Americans  are  received  and  treated  with  the  utmost 
courtesy,  their  nationality  being  a  passport  better  than  no- 
bility. Yet  scenes  like  this  are  not  of  uncommon  occur- 
rence. If  wars  continue — and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  they  will  cease — humane  people  can  employ  themselves 
in  no  better  way  than  by  convincing  non-combatants  to 
keep  away  from  the  vicinity  of  military  operations.  Paris 
is  filled  with  women  and  children  who  can  not  get  away. 
There  are  tens  of  thousands  of  people  who  fled  for  safety 
to  that  city — the  most  dangerous  place  in  France;  but 
they  were  so  advised,  and  no  Frenchman  seems  to  have  an 
opinion  of  his  own.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  American 
families  there  and  at  Versailles,  and  their  supposed  good 
sense  leaves  them  no  excuse  for  so  foolish  a  step.  In  war 
and  in  battle,  any  house  or  city  is  liable  to  be  burned,  and 
the  passions  of  men  at  such  times  know  no  limits.  These 
Americans  seem  not  to  understand  what  war  is. 

MITRAILLEUSE. 

Oct.  29th. — The  French  mitrailleuse  bears  no  resemblance 
whatever  to  the  Gfatling  gun,  except  that  it  is  mounted 
on  a  six-pounder  carriage,  and  may  be  fired  by  turning  a 
crank.  It  is  merely  a  twenty-five  barreled  rifle,  each  bar- 
rel being  loaded  separately,  and  all,  by  a  simple  arrange- 
ment, fired  almost  simultaneously.  To  construct  it,  they 
have  taken  an  ordinary  brass  field-piece,  say  a  six-pounder, 
and  enlarged  or  cut  out  the  bore  into  a  five-inch  square 
chamber  three  feet  long.  Into  this  chamber  is  fitted  and 
soldered  a  core,  made  of  solid  steel,  bored  quite  through 
from  end  to  end  into  twenty-five  rifled  barrels,  in  five  rows 


MITRAILLEUSE.  71 

each  way,  of  a  calibre  of  about  sixty-one  hundredths  of  an 
inch. 

Although  there  are  other  sizes  and  calibres,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  describe  but  one.  At  the  rear  of  this  core  the 
gun  is  cut  down  square  across  two-thirds  through  toward 
the  bottom,  and  there  is  a  similar  cut  one  foot  in  rear  of 
the  first.  The  intervening  metal  is  removed,  leaving  an 
open  space  of  one  feet  in  rear  of  the  core.  The  cascabel  of 
the  piece  is  cut  off,  and  through  the  breech  in  the  direction 
of  the  bore  is  fitted  a  two-inch  hand-screw.  To  the  front 
end  of  this  hand-screw  is  attached  a  heavy  steel  plate,  with 
a  smooth  face  on  the  side  toward  the  muzzle  of  the  piece. 
This  plate  can  be  strongly  brought  forward  to  the  rear  end 
of  the  rifled  barrels  by  means  of  the  hand-screw.  The  car- 
tridge is  composed  of  a  pointed  leaden  bolt,  two  inches 
long,  fitting  into  the  end  of  a  pasteboard  case,  in  which  is 
a  .three-inch  charge  of  rifle  powder,  and  is  closed  at  the 
rear  end  by  a  brass  cup,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  with 
a  central  fire  arrangement  of  fulminate. 

These  cartridges  are  put  up  in  cases  of  twenty-five  each, 
just  corresponding  in  arrangement  to  the  rifled  barrels,  so 
constructed  that  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cases  can  be 
removed.  To  load  the  piece,  the  case,  after  its  'two  lids 
have  been  taken  off,  is  put  in  juxtaposition  with  the  rear 
of  the  barrels,  and  an  arrangement  like  a  coarse  flax  hackle, 
with  twenty -five  fingers,  each  as  long  as  the  cartridge,  and 
arranged  in  rows  corresponding  to  the  cartridges  in  their 
cases,  is  so  placed  that  each  finger-tip  touches  a  cartridge. 
The  screw  is  then  run  up,  and  all  of  the  twenty-five  car- 
tridges are  shoved  home  at  once.  The  screw  is  then 
eased  just  enough  for  this  loading  apparatus  and  empty 
case  to  slip  out,  when  the  plate  is  run  down  closely  against 
the  rear  of  the  barrels,  and  the  piece  is  ready  for  firing. 

The  usual  way  of  firing  the  mitrailleuse  is  to  run  the 


72  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

plate  well  back,  and  introduce,  in  place  of  the  cartridge- 
case,  a  "  firing-block."  This  is  a  strong  frame,  having  with- 
in it  a  lock  and  pin  for  each  cartridge,  and  also  a  cylinder 
with  an  arrangement  of  pins  like  a  hand -organ,  which, 
when  the  cylinder  is  turned  by  a  crank,  strike  successive- 
ly the  triggers  of  the  locks  just  as  in  an  organ  they  strike 
the  keys.  As  the  barrels  are  all  parallel,  the  effect  must 
be  all  at  one  point,  giving  rise  to  the  expression  of  the 
sergeant,  that  he  "  would  as  soon  be  killed  by  twenty-five 
balls  as  by  one." 

As  the  fire  is  so  nearly  simultaneous,  the  recoil  accu- 
mulates ;  and  although  great  results  were  looked  for  from 
this  engine,  experience  has  not  shown  that  it  is  of  much 
use.  The  Germans  hold  it  in  great  contempt,  and  it  will 
hardly  become  a  permanent  military  arm.  The  Gatling 
gun,  which  may  be  aimed  between  each  separate  discharge, 
and  in  which  the  recoil  does  not  accumulate,  seems  to  pos- 
sess many  and  decided  advantages  over  the  mitrailleuse. 

ROADS  IN  EUROPE. 

Oct.  29$. — The  roads  in  Europe,  so  far  as  I  have  seen, 
are  all  paved  with  stone,  or  macadamized,  after  being  re- 
duced to  low  grades ;  so  that  transportation  is  hindered  by 
no  such  difficulties  as  we  had  to  contend  with  in  our  war. 
It  is  common,  after  slight  rains,  to  hear  the  most  decided 
condemnation  of  roads  which  to  us  would  have  been  mod- 
els of  excellence. 

FOOD  ABOUT  PARIS. 

The  earth  about  Paris  is  literally  filled  with  food;  A 
belt  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles  about  the  city  was  a  kitchen- 
garden  for  the  Paris  market,  and  under  the  highest  state 
of  cultivation.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  beets,  turnips,  carrots, 
and  cauliflowers  cumber  the  ground.  Mushrooms  are  as 


CONTUMACY  OF  THE  FRENCH  PEOPLE.       73 

common  as  apples,  and  nearly  as  cheap.  The  humane  ef- 
forts that  I  see  are  being  made  at  home  for  feeding  the 
destitute  in  France,  as  a  kind  of  safety-valve  for  the  hu- 
manity of  our  people,  are  unnecessary,  and  appear  here 
highly  absurd ;  for  I  can  learn  of  no  portion  of  France 
where  want  exists,  or  is  likely  to,  in  the  future.  There  are, 
of  course,  villas,  and  villages,  and  towns  bare  of  every 
thing,  but  they  are  all  near  neighborhoods  full  of  the  best 
food.  The  published  stories  of  want  are  made  up  from  the 
wails  of  the  indigent,  which  one  always  hears  in  every 
Catholic  country  of  Europe. 

Balloons  are  very  often  seen  moving  in  the  direction  of 
Tours.  They  have  proved  of  real  use  as  means  of  com- 
munication ;  but  for  reconnoitring  purposes  they  appear 
valueless,  being  so  unstable  as  to  admit  of  no  accurate  ob- 
servations, and  the  view  most  needed  being  usually  cut  off 
by  trees.  Neither  are  they  useful  for  communicating  in 
more  than  one  direction,  as  one  might  as  well  try  to  shoot 
a  bullet  back  into  a  rifle  as  send  a  balloon  back  into  Paris. 

CONTUMACY  OF  THE  FKENCH  PEOPLE. 

Oct.  BQi/i. — The  French  people  in  the  streets  look  sullen, 
and  ready  to  shoot  any  one  wearing  a  uniform.  That  they 
would  do  it  soon  enough,  I  can  easily  believe  from  the 
many  cases  in  which  soldiers  have  been  fired  upon  from 
windows.  At  Bauginal,  a  village  only  four  miles  away, 
on  the  21st,  at  the  sortie  from  Yalerien,  the  peasants,  when 
the  French  approached,  began  to  fire  upon  the  German 
soldiers.  The  penalty  was  a  fine  of  fifty  thousand  francs, 
and  ten  men  hung.  The  poor  creatures,  without  newspa- 
pers or  means  of  enlightenment,  are  ready  to  believe  ev- 
ery thing,  and  in  fact  do  believe  all  this  war  a  kind  of 
grand  mistake  which  the  people  in  Paris  will  soon  rectify. 
The  men  of  Versailles  upon  the  street,  on  the  21st,  would 


74  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

say  to  each  other,  with  the  greatest  French  enthusiasm,  that 
the  French  soldiers  were  just  outside  the  gates,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  would  appear -en  masse.  Had  there  been  the 
least  show  of  French  success,  they  also  would  have  fired 
upon  the  Germans  in  the  streets.  An  order  was  issued 
next  morning  that,  in  case  of  another  alarm,  all  citizens 
should  retire  to  their  houses,  and  keep  within-doors. 

Considerable  apprehension  of  a  sortie  in  this  direction 
has  been  felt  here  for  the  past  few  days.  The  information 
leading  to  this  was  gathered  from  a  captured  French  spy ; 
besides,  it  is  the  only  thing  to  be  reasonably  looked  for. 
If  there  are  a  hundred  thousand  men  in  Paris  that  can  be 
manoeuvred,  and  the  leaders  fail  to  use  them  in  a  deter- 
mined effort  before  surrender,  they  will  forfeit  the  sympa- 
thy of  the  world.. 

ALARM  AND  RE-ENFORCEMENTS. 

As  these  are  the  general  head-quarters  of  the  king  and 
his  ministry,  it  is  natural  to  expect  the  sortie  in  this  direc- 
tion ;  and  such  was  the  alarm  about  it  two  nights  ago,  that 
word  was  sent  round  to  all  the  ministry,  and  all  non-com- 
batants attached  to  head-quarters,  to  keep  their  retainers 
well  in  hand,  and  at  the  sound  of  the  bugle  to  hitch  up 
their  teams,  assemble  at  the  place  d'armes  of  the  chateau, 
and  place  themselves  under  the  direction  of  the  quarter- 
master-general. Word  was  telegraphed  to  a  column  of 
the  Strasbourg  troops  then  approaching  to  hasten  up ;  the 
artillery  horses  were  kept  harnessed,  and  many  a  poor  fel- 
low's sleep  was  broken.  The  French  did  not  come,  while 
the  Strasbourg  troops  did,  eight  thousand  strong,  with  three 
batteries  of  artillery.  "We  shall  all  sleep  easier  now,  for 
this  re-enforcement  sets  at  rest  all  apprehension  of  a  sortie 
ever  reaching  Versailles. 

This  is  the  second  detachment  of  the  landwehr  that  has 


PROMOTION  OF  ROYAL  PRINCES.  75 

reached  here.  These  are  the  men  who  the  French  said 
would  come  on  canes  and  crutches.  They  are  the  finest 
body  of  troops  I  ever  saw,  excepting  our  own  army  after 
the  Georgia  campaign.  They  are  all  mature  men,  aver- 
aging about  thirty-two  years,  and  are  stronger,  larger,  and 
wear  fuller  beards  than  the  soldiers  of  the  regular  army. 
They  march  with  a  firm,  military,  yet  easy,  swinging  step, 
and  all  have  intelligent,  pleasant  faces — just  like  our 
Northern  men  about  the  region  of  the  lakes.  The  king, 
and  most  of  the  princes  and  officers  of  rank,  were  out  in 
their  brightest  uniforms  to  receive  them. 

It  is  marvelous  how  troops  just  at  the  close  of  a  long 
march,  without  change  of  clothing,  can,  after  a  halt  for  the 
night,  make  themselves  so  trim  and  clean.  These  fellows 
are  all  ready  for  the  closest  inspection,  and  their  uniforms 
look  neat  and  fresh.  This  is  due  to  the  great  excellence 
of  the  material,  and  their  thorough  means  of  cleaning.  I 
notice  this  morning  that,  for  the  first  time,  the  princes  of 
the  confederated  German  states  wear  the  Prussian  helmet 
and  sash. 

PROMOTION  OF  KOYAL  PRINCES. 

Yesterday  was  a  notable  day  here,  and  its  doings  have 
raised  a  tumult  in  matters'  of  German  politics.  As  far 
back  as  the  reign  of  the  father  of  Frederick  the  Great,  it 
was  prescribed  that  no  prince  of  the  royal  house  should 
ever  be  created  field-marshal  —  probably  to  remove  from 
the  throne  the  risk  of  military  predominance.  But  yes- 
terday the  law  was  set  aside  by  the  king  himself,  and 
"Fritz"  and  the  "Bed  Prince"  were  made  field-marshals, 
and  Moltke  a  count.  The  king  made  an  appropriate 
speech,  upon  conferring  the  title  upon  the  crown  prince, 
saying  that  it  was  a  proper  occasion  to  bestow  the  highest 
military  honors  upon  those  most  conspicuous  in  the  late 


76  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

successes.  This  movement  will  in  a  measure  strengthen 
royalty,  and  the  fear  is  that  the  crown  prince  may  be 
moved  from  his  liberal  instincts.  His  face,  however,  ex- 
presses so  much  that  is  good,  as  to  preclude  the  fear  that  he 
will  ever  be  unjust.  I  can  not  help  believing  that  under 
his  reign  the  great  German  Confederation  will  achieve  all 
necessary  civil  liberty. 

M.  Thiers  did  not  go  into  Paris  until  this  morning.  He 
saw  the  arrival  of  the  landwehr,  and  will  have  mucli  to 
tell  his  friends  there :  the  fall  of  Metz,  the  tardiness  of 
French  army  organization  in  the  South,  the  loose  and  un- 
reliable character  of  the  Army  of  the  Loire,  the  attitude 
of  great  compassion  but  inaction  of  the  neutral  states  of 
Europe,  and  the  failure  of  the  French  loan  among  their 
own  people.  He  returns  to-morrow.  Any  sensible  peo- 
ple would  say,  "Get  for  us  cessation  of  hostilities,  and 
the  best  terms  you  can ;"  but  no  one  can  hope  for  this 
from  the  French.  One  hears  on  the  streets  everywhere 
from  the  French  that  the  landwehr  were  some  reserves 
posted  near  here,  and  brought  in  for  effect  on  M.  Thiers, 
to  give  him  the  impression  that  re-enforcements  were  ar- 
riving. Thiers  is  a  little,  short,  white-haired,  square-faced 
Frenchman  of  seventy-four,  who  scarcely  looks  his  age, 
and  not  at  all  his  character. 

MOLTKE. 

Oct.  30th. — This  is  Sunday ;  and,  while  going  to  church, 
I  noticed  near  me,  in  a  new  uniform  of  a  general  officer, 
some  one  who  at  first  impressed  me  as  the  youngest, 
blondest,  and  slenderest  general  officer  I  ever  saw,  and  I 
tried  to  divine  how  promotion  could  have  been  so  rapid 
in  an  army  where  every  thing  is  regular.  I  looked  again, 
and  the  quick,  elastic. step,  the  slender,  almost  womanly 
waist,  contrasted  strangely  with  his  rank,  which  I  now 


MOLTKE.  77 

noticed  to  be  that  of  full  general.  On  looking  into  his 
face,  I  was  still  more  surprised  to  recognize  General  Von 
Moltke.  We  continued  on  the  remaining  hundred  yards 
to  the  chapel-door  together. 

He  is  a  man  of  few  words,  of  a  singularly  youthful  ex- 
pression of  countenance  and  eye;  and  although  one  knows 
that  he  is  seventy  years  of  age,  and  heavy  time-lines  mark 
his  face,  it  is  hard  to  shake  off  the  idea  that  he  is  a  boy. 
He  has  a  light  and  nearly  transparent  complexion,  a  clear- 
blue  eye,  flaxen  hair,  white  eyebrows,  and  no  beard.  He 
speaks  good  English,  and,  on  calling  at  his  room,  I  found 
him  very  affable,  and  full  of  sagacity  and  accurate  knowl- 
edge. In  his  room  were  a  few  chairs,  a  desk,  on  which 
was  displayed  a  map  of  France,  and  not  another  scrap  of 
any  thing  to  be  seen. 

He  was  born  in  1800,  at  his  father's  noble  manor  of  Gna- 
witz,  in  Mecklenburg.  After  residing  here  a  few  years, 
his  parents  removed  to  Holstein,  and,  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
young  Moltke  was  sent  to  the  cadet  school  at  Copenhagen. 
In  1822  he  entered  the  Prussian  service  as  second  lieutenant 
of  the  8th  Regiment  of  Infantry.  The  parental  estates  had 
become  much  involved,  and  all  the  young  life  of  Moltke 
was  greatly  straitened.  This  roused  him,  however,  only  to 
greater  efforts  to  become  accomplished  in  his  profession,  and 
he  labored  with  indefatigable  diligence  to  carry  out  this 
purpose.  In  1823  he  was  sent  to  the  Military  Academy  at 
Berlin  for  three  years,  was  next  detailed  for  two  years  as 
professor  in  the  Fifth  Division  School  of  the  army,  then 
for  two  years  attached  to  the  Topographical  Bureau  of  the 
general  staff,  and  for  the  two  years  following  to  the  general 
staff  itself.  In  1833  he  was  promoted  to  a  first  lieuten- 
ancy, and  appointed  to  the  general  staff.  He  previously, 
like  all  who  eventually  enter  this  corps,  was  only  attached 
to  the  staff  on  a  sort  of  probation.  Two  years  later  he 


78  TEE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARtiY. 

was  promoted  to  a  captaincy,  and  in  1836  sent  to  Turkey 
to  organize  and  instruct  the  troops  of  the  sultan.  He  act- 
ed in  that  capacity  till  1839,  and  became  distinguished  for 
his  talents,  and  devotion  to  duty.  He  at  one  time  took 
part  in  a  campaign  made  by  the  sultan  against  the  Vice- 
roy of  Egypt,  and  was  decorated  for  distinguished  services 
at  the  battle  of  Hisili.  He  was  recalled  soon  after,  and  in 
1841  assigned  to  the  general  staff  of  the  Fourth  Army 
Corps,  and  in  1842  became  major.  He  continued  on  this 
duty  till  1845,  when  he  was  assigned  as  adjutant  to 
Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  who  died  during  the  next  year, 
when  Moltke  was  permanently  attached  to  the  staff  of 
the  Eighth  Army  Corps,  where  he  served  until  1848.  He 
was  then  made  chief  of  staff  of  a  division,  and  in  the 
same  year  chief  of  staff  of  the  Fourth  Corps.  In  1850  he 
became  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  1851  full  colonel.  He 
continued  on  staff  duty  with  troops  until  1855,  when  he 
was  appointed  major-general,  there  being  no  grade  of  brig- 
adier-general in  the  Prussian  army,  and  assigned  as  adju- 
tant to  Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  the  present 
king.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  chief  general  of  staff 
of  the  armies  of  Prussia,  which  position  he  still  holds.  In 
May,  1859,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general,  and  in  April 
of  the  same  year  ordered  to  the  general  command  of  the 
armies  in  Holstein,  the  operations  of  which  he  conducted 
in  the  most  satisfactory  manner.  In  1864  decorations  of 
three  of  the  most  honorable  orders  of  Germany  were  con- 
ferred upon  him.  Moltke  was  appointed  full  general  of 
infantry  in  1866,  and  then  proceeded  to  carry  out  that  ad- 
mirable plan  of  campaign  in  Austria,  familiar  to  all  as  the 
"  Seven  Weeks  War,"  which  he  had  elaborated  with  much 
thought  in  advance. 

The  brilliancy  of  the  campaign  was  unparalleled,  while 
the  sacrifice  of  life  was  rharvelously  small.     The  active 


FRANCE  AND  HER  SITUATION.  79 

fighting  campaign  embraced  but  seven  days,  with  an  effect- 
ive force  in  line  of  437,262  men  and  officers,  and  120,892 
horses.  There  were  killed  in  battle  and  died  from  wounds 
but  262  officers  and  4093  men,  and  died  from  other  causes 
53  officers  and  6734  men ;  while  the  whole  loss  in  horses 
from  all  causes  was  but  4750.  Whatever  credit  is  due  for 
the  wonderful  success  of  this  campaign  and  its  speedy  ter- 
mination, largely  belongs  to  General  Moltke.  The  pres- 
ent excellent  condition  of  the  German  armies,  their  rapid 
mobilization  and  transportation  to  the  field  of  operations, 
and  subsequent  grand  manoeuvres,  culminating  in  the  vic- 
tories at  Woerth,  Gravelotte,  and  Sedan,  have  resulted  from 
his  silent  thought.  There  is  still  work  for  him,  and  who 
can  doubt  its  final  perfect  accomplishment  ? 

FRANCE   UNABLE  TO  COMPREHEND  HER  REAL  SITUATION. 

Oct.  31s£.  —  Dispatches  from  Tours  indicate  that  the 
French  Government  still  hold  to  terms  of  "  No  cession  of 
territory,"  which  confirms  my  opinion  that  there  can  be 
no  peace  even  with  the  fall  of  Paris.  It  is  incomprehensi- 
ble to  any  one  but  a  Frenchman  how  two  and  two  give 
any  other  result  than  four,  but  these  people  are  certainly 
deluding  themselves  in  the  belief  that  they  arrive  at  other 
solutions.  The  quiet,  determined,  unboasting  ways  of  the 
Germans  inspire  perfect  confidence  in  their  complete  suc- 
cess, and  indications  are  not  wanting  that  all  their  de- 
mands will  finally  be  granted.  There  can  be  hardly  a 
doubt  that  they  look  upon  their  foe  contemptuously,  but 
there  is  no  braggadocio  in  it.  The  cry  of  France,  "  Dis- 
honor by  cession  of  territory,"  is  difficult  to  understand. 
There  is  no  dishonor  in  the  inevitable,  in  submission  to 
facts  and  force  greater  than  we  can  oppose.  The  loss  of 
honor  comes  with  the  loss  of  character,  which  has  led 
to  this  humiliation.  Nothing  is  gained  by  refusing  to 


80  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

acknowledge  an  accomplished  fact,  but  in  this  case  much 
is  lost  by  refusal,  and  the  penalty  grows  greater  daily. 
That  the  Latin  races  lose  by  it  is  not  true,  for  the  loss  to 
them  has  already  come  from  loss  of  manly  character  and 
failure  to  educate.  This  defeat  is  merely  declaratory  of 
existing  facts. 

No  one  of  discernment  can  travel  through  the  Latin 
countries,  even  the  Spanish  countries  in  America,  without 
being  deeply  and  sadly  impressed  with  unmistakable  evi- 
dences of  the  decline  that  cornes  to  all  nations  in  the  stage 
next  after  their  greatest  elevation.  It  is  plainly  traceable 
in  the  features  and  mental  attitude  of  the  people,  but  is 
still  more  manifest  in  their  moral  condition.  Their  relig- 
ion prevents  progress  and  checks  learning,  by  giving  sup- 
posed security  in  the  future,  and  requiring  no  effort  except 
to  sustain  existence.  This  war  will  serve  to  show  the 
world,  what  many  have  been  slow  to  learn  and  recognize, 
the  immense  preponderance  of  the  Northern  races,  where 
religion  calls  for  inquiry,  and  the  people  have  learned  the 
advantages  of  free  thought. 

THE  AMEEICAN   PRESS. 

Nov.  2d. — I  have  just  received  a  number  of  the  New 
York  Herald  of  October  16th,  the  first  I  have  seen  since 
leaving  America.  It  is  painful  to  one  who  loves  his  coun- 
try and  people  to  see  a  widely-circulated  and  influential 
American  paper  containing  whole  columns  of  French  dis- 
patches, without  one  grain  of  truth,  and  fraught  with  mis- 
chief— for  their  publication  can  but  assist  to  prolong  a 
hopeless  struggle,  and,  in  respect  to  this  war,  is  inexcusa- 
ble and  dishonest.  The  New  York  Tribune  is  a  happy  ex- 
ception. Its  dispatches  and  accounts  have  been  always  ac- 
curate, and  except  that  they  are  old,  would  be  valuable,  even 
in  the  theatre  of  operations,  as  a  reliable  record  of  events. 


CONDUCT  OF  THE  GERMANS,  31 

CONDUCT  OF  THE   GERMANS. 

The  humane  and  considerate  conduct  of  the  Germans 
toward  their  enemies,  particularly  to  the  non-combatants, 
seems  to  be  no  less  due  to  the  kind  and  generous  natures 
of  the  men  themselves  than  to  their  thorough  discipline. 
I  have  never  heard  of  unkindness  to  women,  and  during 
my  sojourn  at  these  head-quarters  have  never  seen  one 
drunken  soldier.  One  great  lesson  of  this  war  must  be  the 
power  of  popular  education  as  an  element  of  strength,  and 
virtue,  and  a  disproval  of  the  old  idea  that  the  greatest 
brute  makes  the  best  soldier. 

When  I  passed  over  the  line  from  Sedan  to  near  Paris, 
which  had  been  traversed  by  the  armies,  no  traces  of  the 
march  could  be  seen  excepting  an  occasional  lield  strewn 
with  straw,  where  a  division  had  bivouacked.  The  farm- 
ers were  pursuing  their  usual  avocations,  and  the  women 
and  children  were  at  their  homes,  leading  their  usual  quiet 
lives.  The  stacks  of  grain  and  barns  of  hay  were  undis- 
turbed, while  the  vineyards  of  ripened  fruit,  extending  to 
the  road,  hung  full  of  clusters  that  could  be  gathered  from 
the  carriage  windows.  Bazeilles  was  burned,  and  men 
have  been  shot,  and  towns  have  been  laid  under  contribu- 
tion, but  under  similar  circumstances  we  should  have  done 
the  same. 

To  make  war  controllable,  and  at  all  compatible  with 
civilization,  it  is  positively  necessary  to  confine  it  within 
rules,  and  to  regularly  organized  and  recognizable  forces. 
In  order  to  do  this,  and  prevent  what  is  known  as  bush- 
whacking and  free-shooting — nearly  akin  to  robbery  and 
pillage — the  Prussians  have  from  the  first  refused  to  recog- 
nize irregular  warfare,  and  have  been  compelled  to  resort 
to  harsh  means  to  carry  out  this  policy. 


82  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GUARD-MOUNTING. 

Nov.  2d. — Guard-mounting  takes  place  at  two  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  on  the  parade-ground  in  front  of  the  cha- 
teau. This  is  an  open  paved  space  of  six  or  eight  acres, 
corresponding  to  the  gardens  extending  from  our  Capitol 
toward  Pennsylvania  Avenue. 

The  whole  guard  of  Versailles,  made  up  of  a  dozen 
smaller  guards,  from  a  relief  of  three  men  to  one  of  twen- 
ty posts,  requiring,  in  all,  about  six  hundred  men,  with  a 
full  complement  of  officers,  is  mounted  at  this  hour.  The 
soldiers  are  not  inspected,  as  their  officers  are  responsible 
for  their  fitness  before  bringing  them  out;  but  the  line  is 
formed,  and  the  officers  and  sergeants  are  brought  to  the 
front  and  given  their  orders  by  the  adjutant  of  the  com- 
mandant, who  then  faces  them  about  and  orders  them  to 
their  posts.  So  accurate  has  been  their  drill,  that  although 
there  is  no  music  to  mark  the  cadence,  and  their  routes 
carry  them  several  hundred  yards  asunder,  not  one  loses 
the  step.  The  different  guards  seem  to  have  been  ar- 
ranged before  coming  to  the  parade-ground ;  for,  on  break- 
ing into  column  to  march  in  review,  each  one  wheels  by 
itself,  and  is  commanded  by  its  own  officers ;  and  on  pass- 
ing the  reviewing  officer,  who  is  the  commandant  of  Ver- 
sailles, each  breaks  into  its  own  direction,  and  takes  its 
proper  street.  The  field-officer  of  the  day  now  receives 
a  few  general  instructions  from  the  commandant,  and  the 
ceremony  is  finished. 

On  being  relieved,  the  old  guard  repairs  at  once  to  its 
quarters.  "While  passing  the  re  vie  wing-officer,  all  march 


SMALL-ARMS.  33 

with  a  ludicrous  degree  of  stiffness,  reminding  one  of  the 
stories  of  the  soldiers  of  old  Frederick.  The  small  of  the 
back  is  several  inches  in  advance  of  the  shoulders,  and  the 
head  is  held  with  an  erectness  which  puts  to  shame  our 
Plebes  at  West  Point,  while  the  foot  is  raised  nearly  as 
high  as  the  knee,  and  considerably  in  advance  of  where  it 
will  rest,  and  is  brought  down  with  a  spanking  ring  that 
makes  the  whole  body  shake.  This,  however,  is  kept  up 
only  a  short  time,  and  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  review-step. 
The  men  soon  settle  into  an  easy,  graceful,  swinging  stride, 
the  perfection  of  marching,  and  not  unlike  the  gait  of  our 
own  Army  of  the  West  at  the  close  of  the  war. 

Although  the  marching  turned  my  face  into  a  broad 
laugh,  which  I  was  not  able  to  check  for  some  time,  and 
the  same  effect  was  produced  upon  several  English  officers 
near  me,  yet  I  have  seen  nothing  which  has  .more  impress- 
ed me  with  the  perfection  of  Prussian  tactics  and  drill.  The 
ceremony  itself,  without  one  unnecessary  movement ;  the 
perfect  equipment  and  arrangement  of  the  men,  requiring 
no  inspection  ;  the  bright  and  intelligent  directions  of  the 
adjutant  to  the  commandants  of  the  posts;  the  review 
of  all  by  the  major-general  in  command  of  the  place ;  his 
own  personal  instructions  to  the  higher  officers;  and  the 
smart,  active  ways  of  the  young  ones,  all  showed  that  per- 
fection of  military  detail  so  essential,  and  so  rarely  found. 

SMALL-ARMS. 

Nov.  3d — The  appearance  of  the  needle-gun  is  not  much 
in  its  favor.  It  resembles  the  Belgian  musket  used  so 
freely  by  us  in  the  beginning  of  our  war,  and  for  which 
we  soon  learned  to  feel  great  contempt.  It  is  generally 
stocked  with  light-colored  wood,  with  brass  rings,  guards, 
and  butt-pieces.  The  main  features  which  give  it  value  are 
the  breech  -  loading  mechanism,  and  the  arrangement  for 


84  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

firing  the  front  end  of  the  cartridge,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
blowing  out  of  a  portion  of  the  powder  before  ignition. 

The  first  needle-gun  was  invented  by  an  Englishman,  in 
1831 ;  but  no  government  could  be  induced  to  use  it,  and 
the  principle  was  never  made  available  till  1849,-  when 
Prussia  adopted  the  present  weapon.  The  barrel  has 
four  rifling  grooves,  one  twist  to  a  length  and  a  quarter, 
a  calibre  of  fifty-eight  and  a  half  one  hundredth  inches, 
and  an  adjusting  breech-sight  for  200,  400,  600,  800,  and 
1000  yards.  The  metal  of  the  gun  seems  too  light  for  the 
bullet,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  calibre  will  be  re- 
duced, and  the  barrel  thickened.  The  breech-loading  ap- 
paratus consists  of  a  hollow  cylinder  or  shell,  working 
freely  in  another  outer  shell,  to  which  the  barrel  is  attach- 
ed. By  rotating  the  inner  one  out  of  a  notch  through 
about  sixty  degrees,  by  means  of  a  knob  two  and  a  half 
inches  long,  it  can  be  slid  back  like  a  door-bolt  to  admit 
the  cartridge,  and,  if  desired,  taken  out  altogether.  With- 
in this  inner  shell  is  a  solid  cylinder  of  iron  half  an  inch 
thick,  which  slides  easily  backward  and  forward.  Attach- 
ed to  its  front  end  is  a  needle,  the  size  and  half  the  length 
of  a  knitting-needle.  Coiled  about  this  cylinder  is  a  spiral 
spring,  which  is  brought  to  the  rear  by  a  small  knob.  The 
spring,  on  being  released  by  drawing  the  trigger,  carries 
the  bolt,  or  cylinder,  and  needle  forward  with  sufficient 
force  to  pierce  through  the  powder  of  the  cartridge,  strik- 
ing the  point  against  the  fulminate  situated  in  the  rear 
of  a  little  sabot  that  separates  the  bullet  from  the  charge, 
the  natural  tension  or  recoil  of  the  spring  at  once  with- 
drawing the  needle  from  the  chamber.  The  cartridge  has 
a  paper  case,  and  the  ball  is  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
length,  of  an  elongated  egg  shape,  the  butt  -  end  toward 
the  front.  It  is  separated  from  the  powder  by  a  papier- 
mache  sabot,  or  cup,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  in 


SMALL -ARMS.  85 

which  the  bullet  rests,  and  in  the  rear  end  of  which  is  the 
little  capsule,  or  hardened  drop  of  fulminate.  Against  this 
is  the  powder,  and  the  paper  case  at  the  rear  end  is  drawn, 
or  puckered,  together,  leaving  in  the  centre  a  small  open- 
ing not  large  enough  for  the  escape  of  the  powder,  but 
into  which  the  needle  plunges,  and  passes  through  the 
powder  against  the  sabot  in  front.  The  knob,  as  with  the 
chassepot,  is  used  at  a  corporal's  carry,  or  support,  to  sus- 
tain the  gun.  The  arm  is  capable  of  about  the  same  ra- 
pidity of  firing  as  our  own  breech-loader,  and  in  the  hands 
of  a  perfectly-trained  soldier  is  a  very  effective  weapon. 
As  the  needle  is  within  the  explosion,  it  soon  corrodes,  or 
burns  out,  and  must  be  frequently  replaced. 

The  close  working  upon  each  other  of  such  extended 
surfaces  of  bright  metal  as  we  find  in  the  rotating  shell 
and  sliding  cylinder,  makes  more  care  necessary  to  keep 
the  piece  in  order  than  volunteers  will  give.  In  fact,  out 
of  a  large  number  standing  idle  in  officers'  quarters  and 
adjutants'  offices  that  have  been  shown  to  me  to  explain 
their  action,  not  one  has  proved  serviceable,  and  only  those 
taken  direct  from  the  hand  of  the  soldier  have  I  ever  seen 
work  freely.  Such  an  arm  at  Shiloh  during  the  rainy, 
dirty  9th  and  10th  of  April,  1862,  would  have  proved  our 
ruin. 

The  chassepot  is  considered  a  very  much  superior  arm, 
and  resembles  both  the  new  altered  Springfield  and  Enfield 
rifle.  The  barrel  is  three  inches  shorter  than  that  of  the 
needle-gun,  which  is  three  feet  in  length,  and  the  breech- 
loading  apparatus  is  three  inches  shorter  also — making  a 
perceptible  difference  in  the  length  of  the  piece.  The 
chassepot  has  a  calibre  of  only  •££$  inches,  and  weighs  but 
eight  and  a  half  pounds,  while  the  needle-gun  weighs  ten 
pounds.  It  is  usually  stocked  in  walnut,  and  its  whole 
mechanical  make-up  is  superior  to  that  of  the  needle-gun. 


86  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  breecli- sight  can  be  adjusted  to  a  range  400  yards 
greater  than  that  of  the  needle-gun ;  and  as  the  calibre  is 
less,  with  a  proportionally  stronger  barrel,  a  larger  charge 
can  be  used,  and  greater  range  secured.  This  arm  is  in 
many  respects  similar  to  the  needle-gun.  It  is  fired  by  a 
needle-pin,  which  strikes  a  percussion-cap  situated  in  the 
rear  of  the  cartridge,  and  the  force  is  communicated  by  an 
ordinary  steel  spring. 

It  has  also  an  arrangement  of  hollow  cylinders  in  the 
loading  apparatus,  with  bright,  closely  -  fitting  surfaces, 
which  easily  become  unserviceable  from  rust.  The  car- 
tridge has  a  paper  case,  and  a  light  covering  of  linen  about 
the  bullet,  to  keep  it  firmly  in  place.  The  powder  comes 
against  the  bullet,  and  back  of  the  powder  is  a  common 
percussion-cap,  with  its  open  end  to  the  rear,  which  is  cov- 
ered by  a  gutta-percha  flap,  and  held  in  place  by  two  pa- 
pier-mache washers  fitting  over  it.  The  paper  case  is  gath- 
ered down  closely  on  the  cap.  When  fired,  the  pin  of  the 
lock  plunges  through  the  flap  of  gutta-percha  against  the 
fulminate  in  the  cap,  the  impact  of  the  blow  being  taken 
up  by  the  papier-mache  washers  resting  against  the  pow- 
der. The  bullet  is  a  leaden  bolt  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  plain  face  in  the  rear  and  a  blunt  point  in 
front.  The  chassepot  has  a  short  ring  of  gutta-percha  just 
in  rear  of  the  cylinder  to  which  the  needle  is  attached,  that 
expands  from  the  blast  when  the  piece  is  fired,  and  com- 
pletely shuts  off  the  escape  of  gas.  The  Prussians  were 
about  to  make  the  same  improvement  in  their  own  arms 
when  the  war  began. 

The  powder  used  by  the  French  is  of  a  dull  brown  color, 
very  dirty  to  the  touch,  and  without  glaze ;  while  the  Prus- 
sian is  jet-black,  with  glazed  grains,  and  admits  of  handling 
without  soiling  the  fingers. 

I  am  free  to  give  my  impression  of  these  weapons,  and 


PRUSSIAN  UNIFORM.  87 

I  do  not  consider  them  comparable  to  our  altered  Spring- 
field, Kemington,  Spencer,  or  a  half-dozen  other  arms  used 
in  our  country.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether,  in  the  hands 
of  troops  imperfectly  disciplined,  either  the  needle-gun  or 
the  chassepot  could  be  kept  in  a  serviceable  condition. 

PRUSSIAN   UNIFORM. 

Nov.  4th. — The  prevailing  color  of  the  Prussian  uniform 
is  blue,  and  the  coat  is  much  like  that  of  our  own  troops. 
For  infantry,  artillery,  the  staff,  and  administration,  the 
coat  is  a  dark-blue  frock,  with  a  single  row  of  eight  but- 
tons, with  facings  of  collar  and  cuffs  indicative  of  the  arm 
of  service,  and  dark  pantaloons.  The  facings  of  .the  in- 
fantry are  red,  and  for  artillery  black.  The  pantaloons 
are  of  very  dark  gray  —  almost  black  —  with  a  red  cord 
down  the  seam.  The  boot  has  tops  about  six  inches  high. 
The  cap  for  ordinary  undress  is  of  blue  cloth,  neat  and 
flat -topped,  with  patent-leather  visor,  and  red  band,  one 
inch  and  a  half  wide.  The  helmet  is  of  glazed  leather, 
with  a  front  and  rear  visor,  a  brass-scaled  chin  strap,  a 
brass  Prussian  eagle  displayed  in  front,  and  terminates  at 
the  top  in  a  brass  spike  about  two  inches  in  height.  For 
infantry,  this  spike  is  pointed;  for  artillery,  it  ends  in  a 
ball ;  and  for  cavalry,  it  is  fluted. 

All  arms  of  the  service  use  a  long  overcoat,  coming  near 
the  ground,  sometimes  with  a  short  cape,  but  usually  with- 
out it.  This  coat  is  made  full,  and  of  the  same  color  and 
material  as  the  pantaloons.  All  the  garments  are  of  ex- 
cellent, strong,  all-wool  cloth,  and  fit  neatly.  In  addition, 
the  men  have  for  drill  and  fatigue  common  cotton  panta- 
loons and  a  short  cloth  jacket,  and  sometimes  a  light  for- 
age-cap without  visor. 

The  uniform  of  the  mounted  troops  is  still  very  fanciful 
and  beautiful,  and  not  quite  out  of  the  old  order  of  chival- 


88  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ry  and  armor.  The  principal  colors  are  white,  light  blue, 
green,  scarlet,  and  brown.  The  pantaloons  are  re-enforced, 
and  the  coat  has  a  very  short  skirt,  and  is  elaborately  or- 
namented with  braid.  The  dress  of  these  troops  is  too  va- 
ried and  complicated  for  description  here.  The  Prussian 
button  is  a  plain  gilt  oval;  and  upon  the  shoulder-lap 
worn  by  the  men,  the  color  of  which  indicates  their  army 
corps,  is  a  single  button  bearing  the  letter  of  their  company. 

General  officers,  officers  of  the  general  staff,  officers  of 
the  king's  and  crown  prince's  staff,  and  of  the  king's  house- 
hold, wear  a  broad  scarlet  stripe  down  the  leg  of  the  pan- 
taloon ;  but  otherwise  the  uniform  of  all  grades  is  very 
similar,  and,  without  close  observation,  the  lieutenant-gen- 
eral can  not  be  distinguished  from  the  lieutenant.  A  neat 
sword,  like  the  cavalry  sabre  of  our  service,  is  worn,  and 
the  belt  fastens  underneath  the  coat,  the  scabbard  passing 
through  and  under  the  skirt  of  the  coat  by  a  slit  cut  for  it. 
The  sash  is  of  white  silver  braid,  with  tassels  of  the  same. 
To  mark  the  rank  of  officers,  there  is  a  system  of  braids 
and  shoulder-straps.  For  a  second  lieutenant,  a  plain  rec- 
tangular piece  of  thick  silver  braid,  about  four  inches  long 
and  one  and  a  half  wide,  is  worn  from  the  collar  of  the  coat 
to  the  shoulder ;  for  a  first  lieutenant,  the  same  as  for  a 
second  lieutenant,  with  the  addition  of  one  star ;  for  a 
captain,  the  same  strap,  with  two  stars ;  for  a  major,  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, and  colonel,  the  same  as  for  the  three  grades 
of  line  officers,  except  that  the  braid  is  gold  instead  of  sil- 
ver, the  stars  being  the  same.  There  is  no  grade  of  briga- 
dier, but  for  major-general,  lieutenant-general,  and  general, 
instead  of  the  braid,  is  a  plait  of  heavy  gold  and  silver  bull- 
ion of  the  same  dimensions  as  for  the  former  officers,  and 
the  same  arrangement  of  stars  as  for  the  lower  grades. 

The  care  taken  of  soldiers'  clothing  is  remarkable.  The 
suit  is  made  of  the  best  material,  and  is  not  owned  by  the 


PRUSSIAN  UNIFORM.  89 

soldier  as  with  us,  but  kept  in  stock  by  the  regiment. 
There  are  three  suits  for  each  soldier.  The  suit  for  every 
day  he  turns  in  when  he  has  permission  to  go  to  town,  and 
dresses  neatly  for  his  holiday.  He  turns  in  his  common 
suit  on  Saturday,  and  is  given  the  one  for  Sunday.  He 
has  still  another,  brought  out  only  on  great  occasions,  such 
as  reviews  before  the  king.  The  clothing  is  kept  by  the 
first  sergeant,  and  although,  on  the  average,  a  suit  lasts 
only  a  year,  each  of  the  old  suits  being  degraded  one  de- 
gree in  importance  when  a  new  one  is  issued,  it  is  not  un- 
common to  find  suits  in  stock  that  have  been  in  service 
twenty  years. 

The  foregoing  arrangement  applies,  of  course,  only  to 
garrison  life ;  and  when  the  army  takes  the  field  only  one 
suit  is  worn ;  but  a  marvelous  faculty  for  brushing  up  en- 
ables the  men  to  come  out  on  occasions  of  ceremony  as 
neat  and  glittering  as  though  just  from  the  wardrobe  of 
the  barrack. 

The  soldier  is  besides  allowed  annually  two  pairs  of  cot- 
ton drawers,  two  shirts  of  the  same,  and  two  pairs  of  boots. 
The  latter  must  be  topped  after  the  first  three  months'  use. 
He  also  has  each  year  one  cotton  suit  for  drilling,  and  two 
black-cloth  stocks.  The  stock  is  worn  by  all  grades,  no 
one  using  white  collars. 

The  officers  receive  a  tolerable  pay,  and  clothe  them- 
'selves,  and  the  most  scrupulous  care  of  their  personal  ap- 
pearance is  exacted.  Their  dress  is  so  like  that  of  the 
privates,  that  but  for  its  texture,  and  the  shoulder-straps 
and  swords,  one  can  scarcely  distinguish  them  from  the 
common  soldiers.  The  have  three  distinct  dresses.  Full 
dress  is  a  single-breasted  frock-coat  with  one  row  of  but- 
tons, sword,  sash,  and  helmet,  and  corded  black  pantaloons. 
Dress  nearly  full,  corresponding  to  the  dress-coat  and  black 
cravat  of  a  civilian,  is  a  coat  like  the  first,  except  that  it 


90  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

is  double-breasted,  and  has  two  rows  of  buttons,  with  the 
same  pantaloons,  sword,  sash,  and  helmet.  The  fatigue- 
dress  is  the  last  -  described  coat  and  pantaloons,  with  the 
forage-cap  in  place  of  the  helmet.  This  corresponds  to 
the  morning-dress  of  a  civilian.  There  is,  besides  this,  the 
working-suit,  answering  to  the  drill-jacket  and  pantaloons 
of  the  men.  The  most  scrupulous  deference  is  always  paid 
to  superiors  in  rank ;  and  many  regulations  seem,  to  un- 
military  people,  quite  absurd.  For  example,  officers  are 
not  allowed  to  carry  an  umbrella  or  bundles.  If  walking 
with  a  lady  while  shopping,  an  officer  could  not  carry  her 
parcel. 

Most  ample  provisions  are  made  for  officers'  servants. 
Soldiers  are  designated  by  law  for  this  purpose,  which  is  con- 
sidered a  part  of  their  duty,  and  not  menial  service.  The 
Prussians  recognize  the  fact  that  the  relations  between  an 
officer  and  his  men  is  of  such  a  nature  as  at  times  to  make 
this  service  indispensable.  It  is  natural,  and  inseparable 
from  despotic  life,  and  military  service  is  necessarily  des- 
potic. It  is  doubtful  if  prohibitory  legislation  has  any 
other  effect  than  to  compel  officers  to  commit  breaches  of 
the  law.  This  fact  becomes  most  clearly  apparent  with  de- 
tachments serving  in  distant  and  isolated  localities,  where 
servants  can  nowhere  else  be  obtained.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, no  officer  can  maintain  his  position  among  his 
men  without  having  certain  services  performed  for  him. 

THE   IRON  CROSS. 

For  several  days  the  officers  stationed  on  this  portion  of 
the  line  have  had  all  their  effects  packed,  ready  to  move 
out  at  the  shortest  notice,  and  rendezvous  have  been  ap- 
pointed for  the  Government  personages  and  all  attaches, 
in  case  of  alarm.  This  is  merely  a  precautionary  meas- 
ure; and  so  perfect  is  every  preparation  that  a  half-hour's 


THE  IRON  CROSS.  91 

notice  is  sufficient  to  make  ready  to  move  from  the  rendez- 
vous in  traveling  column. 

The  crown  prince  to-day  reviewed  the  three  regiments 
of  mounted  troops  stationed  here — one  of  Jancers  (Uhlans), 
one  of  dragoons,  and  one  of  cuirassiers  (the  Grand  Duke 
of  Coburg's) —  and  presented,  as  rewards  for  special  acts 
of  gallantry,  the  decoration  of  the  Iron  Cross.  This  order 
was  created  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  1813  for  conspicu- 
ous services  against  France ;  and  from  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon I.  until  now  has  been  discontinued.  It  has  been  late- 
ly revived,  and  is  given  exclusively  for  gallantry  in  battle. 
There  are  two  grades  of  the  order :  the  first  is  given  for 
the  greatest  services  to  the  state,  and  is  worn  on  the  left 
breast,  without  a  ribbon.  Only  about  twenty  of  these  have 
been  given.  The  second  is  more  common,  and  is  worn  on 
the  left  breast  with  a  ribbon.  It  is  a  Maltese  cross,  about 
two  inches  from  point  to  point,  of  black  iron,  with  a  bur- 
nished silver  border.  It  is  given  without  respect  to  rank 
— many  more  privates  than  officers  receiving  it. 

The  parade  and  presentation  took  place  on  the  lawn  just 
in  front  of  the  Petit  Trianon.  Those  on  whom  the  order 
was  to  be  conferred  moved  to  the  front,  and,  closing  to  the 
right,  formed  according  to  rank,  the  adjutants  calling  the 
roll.  The  crown  prince,  still  mounted,  took  his  place  in 
front  of  them,  with  a  staff  officer  on  foot  carrying  the  med- 
als. The  officer  or  man  on  the  right,  upon  an  intimation 
to  that  effect,  rode  near  the  prince,  who  shook  him  hearti- 
ly by  the  hand,  placing  in  it  by  the  same  motion  his  med- 
al, and,  while  holding  the  hand,  said  some  pleasant  words 
of  recognition  and  congratulation.  There  is  no  doubt  the 
system  gives  esprit,  and  strengthens  the  Government  by 
gaining  the  personal  devotion  of  the  bravest  and  best  men 
— a  result  especially  important,  since  promotion  is  not  at- 
tainable by  all  classes. 


92  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AMMT. 

THE  CROWN  PRINCE. 

Frederick  William,  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  was  born 
in  October,  1831.  His  youth  was  guided  by  a  watchful, 
careful  mother,  now  Queen  Augusta,  under  whose  eye  he 
received  an  excellent  education.  He  inherited  from  his  fa- 
ther strength  of  mind  and  will,  and  from  his  mother  bright- 
ness of  intellect,  and  a  high  regard  for,  and  interest  in,  the 
arts  and  sciences.  In  his  youth,  his  openness  of  charac- 
ter, unassuming  simplicity,  earnest  manner,  and  thirst  for 
knowledge,  gained  for  him,  while  a  school-boy  at  Bonn,  the 
love  and  esteem  of  his  professors  and  fellow-students.  He 
began  his  military  life  in  the  lower  grades,  serving  as  a 
captain  of  infantry  with  his  company.  Upon  his  marriage 
to  the  Princess  Koyal  of  England,  he  at  once  gathered 
about  him  the  most  eminent  savants  of  all  professions, 
and,  although  twenty -seven  years  of  age,  did  not  relax 
his  studies,  but  devoted  a  portion  of  each  day  to  books, 
and  free  social  intercourse  with  the  learned  men  who  com- 
posed his  household.  Science,  politics,  and  military  studies 
received  at  this  time  full  and  careful  attention,  Moltke  be- 
ing his  instructor  in  the  latter. 

His  life  remained  purely  domestic  and  scholarly  up  to 
the  war  with  Denmark,  when  he  applied  for  active  service, 
which  was  given  him  in  a  secondary  position,  as  no  one 
dreamed  that  he  was  suited  to  a  high  command.  In  fact, 
his  life  had  been  so  entirely  domestic,  as  to  give  him  no 
opportunity  to  display  military  aptitude. 

In  this  war  he  won  the  devotion  of  the  entire  army  by 
his  humane  character  and  fidelity  to  duty.  Still,  a  large 
military  command  was  never  thought  of  for  him ;  and  not 
until  Koniggratz,  in  1866,  did  he  attract  attention  as  a 
military  genius.  I  have  reason  to  know  that  the  move- 
ment which  at  that  battle  brought  his  troops  to  the  right 


ARMY -POLICE.  93 

spot  at  the  right  time  was  greatly  due  to  his  own  sugges- 
tions and  efforts.  From  that  time  his  reputation  has 
steadily  increased ;  and  though  entirely  subordinate  to  the 
orders  of  General  Moltke,  he  is  considered  a  general  of  the 
first  order  of  ability. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  war  he  was  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  Third  Army  Corps,  made  up  of  the 
contingents  of  the  South  German  States,  which  has  so  no- 
bly followed  him  in  nearly  all  the  great  engagements. 
His  expressions  of  sympathy  for  the  suffering,  and  regret 
at  the  stern  necessities  of  his  duty,  have  reached  the  hearts 
of  good  people,  while  his  simplicity  and  courtesy  gain  the 
esteem  and  confidence  of  all  who  meet  him.  His  face  is 
that  of  the  highest  type  of  the  cultivated  European,  and 
speaks  of  good-breeding,  physical  health,  happiness,  and 
honesty.  There  is  not  a  trace  of  the  generally  accepted 
German  face  in  it.  At  his  table,  the  excellent  custom  of 
never  repeating  the  wine  is  followed.  What  is  suitable 
and  ample  is  on  the  table  when  the  party  sits  down,  and 
none  is  added  afterward. 

ARMY-POLICE. 

Nov.  Mi. — To  each  corps  are  attached  forty  picked  men, 
who  serve  as  gens  d'armes,  or  army -police.  They  are 
mounted,  armed  with  sabres  and  revolvers,  and  uniformed 
much  like  cavalry,  only  that  the  color  of  the  coat  is  green. 
Each  man  wears  about  his  neck  a  metal  chain  with  a  plate 
in  front,  on  which  is  his  number.  They  are  a  very  supe- 
rior and  useful  body  of  men.  They  receive  orders  only 
from  general  officers,  and  in  their  own  proper  sphere  are 
obeyed  by  all  below  that  grade. 

Each  division  has  its  police  judge.  The  force  never 
meddles  with  military  matters,  but  has  charge  of  all  se- 
cret service,  and  exercises  surveillance  over  every  one. 


9-1  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

They  look  out  for  the  personal  safety  of  all  general  offi- 
cers and  personages  of  importance,  prevent  pillage  in  the 
army,  compel  payment  for  all  purchases  by  soldiers,  make 
the  way  clear  for  marching  columns  not  in  presence  of  the 
enemy,  attend  to  executing  all  sentences  of  courts-martial, 
and  are  expected  to  know  all  that  happens.  The  troops 
affect  a  great  contempt  for  them. 

AMERICANS. 

In  the  last  batch  of  Americans  who  came  from  Paris 
were  the  three  proprietors  of  the  Democratic  Review,  of 
New  York,  a  publication  which  ceased  to  exist  at  the  be- 
ginning of  our  war.  Its  founder  was  Chevalier  Wykoff, 
who  sold  it  to  Mr.  O'Sullivan,  who  parted  with  it  to  George 
Sanders.  The  Chevalier  is  in  the  interest  of  the  New  York 
Herald.  O'Sullivan  was  Mr.  Buchanan's  minister  to  Por- 
tugal, and,  during  Mr.  Lincoln's  administration,  became  a 
rebel  adviser  and  agent  in  Paris.  He  has  not  been  in 
America  since.  George  Sanders  is  perhaps  best  known 
as  the  advocate,  during  our  war,  of  introducing  small-pox 
into  our  armies  and  cities.  These  three  men  are  now  fig- 
uring in  Versailles  as  distinguished  American  citizens. 

The  Franco- American  Ambulance,  with  one  or  two  wor- 
thy exceptions,  I  find  made  up  of  Southern  sympathizers. 
It  was  formed  at  Paris  by  Dr.  Sims,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  emperor,  for  aiding  the  French,  but,  after  Sedan, 
found  itself  with  the  Germans,  and  has  come  here  and  al- 
most demanded  to  be  let  into  Paris  again.  This  request 
is  of  course  denied,  and  the  ambulance-men  are  in  turn 
told  that  they  can  go  anywhere  else  but  into  Paris,  and 
that  they  must  get  away  from  Versailles  without  delay. 
They  are  not  only  in  full  sympathy  with  the  French,  but 
by  their  loud-mouthed  denunciation  of  the  Germans,  who 
keep  themselves  thoroughly  informed  of  -the  sayings  and 


THIERS  IN  PARIS.- CHURCH  AT  VERSAILLES.  95 

doings  of  every  body,  have  become  thoroughly  obnoxious 
not  only  at  Sedan,  but  afterward  at  Metz,  and  now  here. 
It  is  this  class  of  impertinent  people  who,  everywhere  they 
go,  gain  interviews  with  high  officials  as  Americans,  while 
they  in  no  sense  represent  our  country. 

THIERS  IN  PARIS. 

Nov.  6th. — Within  the  past  forty-eight  hours  the  firing 
from  Paris  has  greatly  increased.  Nothing  whatever  is 
known  outside  of  the'king's  government  of  the  doings  and 
results  of  M.  Thiers's  visit  and  mission.  The  story  on  the 
street  is,  that  the  leaders  in  Paris  received  him  coolly,  al- 
most uncivilly,  regarding  his  statement  of  the  true  condi- 
tion of  affairs  in  France  as  colored  and  influenced  by  the 
people  he  has  for  the  past  six  weeks  been  thrown  with. 
He  has  now  been  here  four  days,  has  had  several  audi- 
ences with  Count  Bismarck,  dined  with  the  king,  and  been 
treated  with  many  marks  of  distinction. 

CHURCH  AT  VERSAILLES. 

Go  with  me  this  bright  Sabbath  morning  to  divine  ser- 
vice at  the  chapel  of  the  palace,  a  beautiful  piece  of  archi- 
tecture by  the  younger  Mansard.  Within  we  find  room 
for  five  hundred  people,  and  an  interior  of  great  richness 
and  beauty.  Upon  the  ceiling  are  two  excellent  frescoed 
groups,  copies  from  the  old  masters,  and  above  the  altar  a 
golden  effulgence.  The  marble  floor  is  richly  inlaid  with 
porphyry  of  various  colors,  in  devices  of  monograms,  harps, 
crowns,  and  other  insignia  of  royalty;  and  all  over  the 
beautiful  columns  are  blotches,  where  emblems  of  the  dif- 
ferent reigning  houses  of  France  have  been  effaced  as  those 
families  have  been  superseded.  There  are  two  rows  of 
narrow  benches,  covered  with  red  plush,  with  very  narrow 
ribbon-backs. 


96  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

As  these  seats  are  not  fastened  to  the  floor,  one  must  sit 
bolt  upright  for  fear  of  accident.  The  service  soon  com- 
mences with  the  music  of  a  military  band  of  a  hundred 
pieces.  A  Lutheran  chaplain  conducts  the  service,  which 
does  not  differ  materially  from  that  in  an  American  Con- 
gregational Church.  There  are,  however,'four  candles  burn- 
ing, and  the  minister  occasionally  turns  round  to  bow  to 
the  cross.  In  the  great  chair  in  front  is  King  William ; 
on  the  right,  the  crown  prince ;  not  far  away  is  Moltke ; 
then  the  Eussian  general,  Kutersoff,  and  scores  of  generals 
and  officers  of  the  staff  and  line  of  all  grades.  Every  nook 
and  corner  is  filled  with  private  soldiers,  in  their  trim,  clean 
uniforms.  The  king  is  in  the  full  dress  of  a  general ;  and 
among  the  whole  assembly  there  is  not  a  button  out  of 
place,  nor  an  evidence  of  carelessness  in  the  minutest  partic- 
ular. When  church  closes,  the  king  remains  for  some  time 
in  the  open  court  outside,  receiving  and  talking  with  a  crowd 
of  officers,  who  wait  for  his  departure  before  dispersing. 

FRANCE   CLAIMS  THE  REVICTUALING  OF  PARIS. 

Nov.  1th. — M.  Thiers  left  for  Tours  at  six  o'clock  this 
morning,  in  great  distress  at  his  failure  to  effect  any  thing 
for  France,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  "after  failing  to  gain 
for  my  unfortunate  country  an  armistice  acceptable  to  it, 
and  unable  to  stop  the  effusion  of  blood  that  every  honest 
and  generous  heart  must  deprecate." 

The  Germans  offered  an  armistice  of  twenty-eight  days 
for  holding  elections  and  calling  together  the  delegates,  but 
required  the  maintenance  of  the  military  status,  while  the 
French  required  the  revictualing  of  Paris. 

CAPTURE   OF   METZ. 

The  spectacle  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  well- 
armed  and  officered  troops,  held  captive  three  months  by 


CAPTURE  OF  METZ.  97 

a  force  only  one-fourth  greater,  and  then  surrendering,  is 
new  in  warfare.  The  books,  experience,  and  received 
opinions  upon  such  matters  make  it  necessary  for  the  sur- 
rounding force  to  be  three  to  one.  There  will  naturally 
be  many  theories  advanced  to  account  for  this  surrender, 
as  it  subverts  our  preconceived  ideas.  There  is  one  fun- 
damental reason  for  it;  the  greater  moral  power  arising 
from  the  superior  intelligence  of  the  German  people.  It 
is  the  compulsory  education  of  children  which  makes  the 
German  army  so  effective. 

The  world  has  been  led  astray  as  to  the  character  of  the 
common  people  of  France.  It  has  taken  the  academicians, 
the  statesmen,  and  the  generals  as  national  types,  than 
which  nothing  could  be  more  erroneous.  In  France  more 
than  in  any  civilized  country,  the  few  have  had  many 
privileges,  and  the  many  few.  The  result  is,  that  the  great 
peasant  class  is  little  removed  from  barbarism ;  and  hence 
her  weakness.  There  is  another  purely  military  reason — 
the  advantage  of  the  side  that  awaits  the  attack — provided 
it  is  prepared,  the  troops  are  thoroughly  in  hand,  and  the 
enemy  can  be  made  to  attack  in  front.  These  conditions 
were  all  fulfilled  at  Metz. 

This  situation  with  troops  armed  with  the  long-range 
and  accurate  rifle,  and  so  confident  of  their  power  as  to 
exercise  it  fully,  gives  an  advantage  not  realized  except  by 
those  who  have  observed  it.  Our  own  officers  who  served 
in  the  field  during  the  last  year  of  our  war  will  readily 
understand  it.  The  attacks  upon  our  forces  by  Hood  in 
front  of  Atlanta,  where  we  were  always  ready  and  confi- 
dent, are  cases  in  point.  The  most  conspicuous  is  that  of 
the  28th  of  July,  1864,  when  he  attacked  our  right  in  po- 
sition. A  single  brigade,  commanded  by  General  Charles 
R  Woods,  received  the  attack  coolly  and  confidently  in 
their  prepared  position,  losing  but  fifteen  men  ;  while  Hood 

7 


98  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

lost  in  killed,  buried  by  us,  long  trenches  of  men,  and  bis 
number  of  wounded  must  have  been  great  in  proportion. 

At  Jonesboro'  my  depleted  division  numbered  but 
twenty-two  hundred  muskets,  but  every  one  could  be 
counted  on.  We  took  up  our  position  just  at  evening  of 
the  29th  of  August,  1864,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  30th 
it  became  necessary,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground  on  my 
left,  to  occupy  a  line  half  a  mile  long.  This  made  a  single 
rank  the  whole  length,  and  not  one  man  in  reserve.  This 
was  positively  necessary,  on  account  of  commanding  heights 
which  could  in  no  other  way  be  controlled.  The  division 
of  General  Osterhaus  lay  on  my  right,  but  not  on  ground 
that  the  enemy  coveted.  After  feigning  a  movement 
against  him,  the  entire  corps  of  S.  D.  Lee  attacked  my  thin 
line,  and  received  so  severe  a  repulse  that  the  same  night, 
on  receipt  of  the  intelligence,  Atlanta  was  given  up. 

We  were  enabled  to  do  this  through  perfect  confidence, 
resulting  from  a  slight  work  we  had  thrown  up  under  fire, 
giving  each  man  six  or  eight  deliberate  shots  after  the  en- 
emy came  within  range,  while  his  own  person  was  compar- 
atively safe.  This  inspired  each  man  with  such  a  feeling 
of  security  as  to  afford  him  collected  use  of  all  his  facul- 
ties ;  and  the  result  was,  that  so  many  of  the  enemy  were 
struck  that  they  began  to  give  way  a  hundred  yards  from 
my  line,  and  the  few  —  about  one  hundred  —  who  came 
over  the  works  were  at  once  made  prisoners.  I  give  these 
two  illustrations,  in  which  the  attack  received  at  least  ten 
times  the  damage  it  inflicted,  to  show  how  a  very  small 
force  may  repulse,  and  even  defeat,  a  very  large  one.  If 
several  of  these  positions  are  prepared  one  behind  the  oth- 
er, I  can  scarcely  see  any  limit  to  the  power  of  the  defense, 
provided  the  morale  of  the  troops  be  perfect. 

This  new  strength  of  the  defense  is  mostly  due  to  the 
late  improvements  in  fire-arms,  by  which  their  range,  ra- 


PRUSSIAN  SOLDIERS.  99 

pidity,  and  accuracy  of  fire  are  greatly  augmented.  I  think 
it  may  be  safely  said  that  a  single  line  in  two  ranks,  com- 
posed of  thoroughly  good  troops,  with  the  new  style  of 
breech-loading  arms,  and  protected  by  some  slight  work, 
can  defy  any  sort  of  attack  that  can  be  devised,  provided 
it  be  made  in  front,  and  over  ground  affording  no  cover. 
This  comes  from  the  fact  that  there  is  a  moral  limit  to  the 
capacity  of  men  to  face  danger. 

This  limit  may  be  increased  by  discipline,  but  one  in 
three  put  Jiors  du  combat  is  about  the  highest  in  fair  fight. 
At  Shiloh  my  brigade  lost  thirty-six  per  centum ;  but  it 
may  be  safely  laid  down,  that  when  every  third  or  even 
fourth  man  is  struck,  the  body  of  troops  of  which  they  are 
components  is  neutralized,  until  it  is  reorganized  and  re- 
covers its  confidence,  impaired  by  the  presence  of  death. 

PRUSSIAN  SOLDIERS. 

'Nov.  8lh.  —  The  Prussian  soldier  ready  for  marching 
looks  very  much  like  our  own  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, the  uniform  being  similar,  and  the  equipments  not 
differing  materially.  His  overcoat  is  made  into  a  long 
slender  roll,  and  hung  on  the  left  shoulder,  the  two  ends 
coming  together,  and  being  fastened  on  the  right  hip. 
His  haversack  of  coarse  white  linen,  and  glass  canteen 
covered  with  leather,  are  'slung  from  the  right  shoulder. 
Around  the  flask  are  buckled  two  broad  straps,  used  in 
peace  to  cover  the  sights  of  the  gun.  He  wears  no  shoul- 
der-belts, but  a  pipe-clayed  waist-belt,  on  which  are  slipped 
two  cartridge-boxes  of  black  leather,  carried  on  either  side, 
each  box  holding  twenty  cartridges. 

The  knapsack  is  of  calf-skin,  tanned  with  the  hair  on, 
and  is  slung  by  two  pipe-clayed  leather  straps  hooked  to 
the  waist-belt  in  front,  and  then  passing  over  the  shoul- 
ders. Two  short  straps  attached  to  these  in  front  pass 


100  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

back  under  the  armpits,  and  are  fastened  to  the  knapsack. 
The  knapsack  is  made  to  keep  its  shape  by  a  light  wood- 
en frame,  and  the  leather  is  flint-tanned,  or  stretched  over 
this  frame  while  green.  On  each  end  outside  is  a  deep 
box,  in  which  is  carried  a  case  of  twenty  cartridges. 
Within  are  one  shirt  of  white  flannel,  one  pair  of  drawers, 
one  pair  of  drill  trowsers,  a  short  jacket,  one  pair  of 
boots,  and  the  cleaning  and  toilet  kit,  consisting  of  four 
or  five  brushes  for  the  clothes,  hair,  teeth,  gun,  blacking 
and  polishing;  then  a  box  of  pumice-stone,  a  bottle  of 
sweet-oil,  and  the  usual  quantity  of  old  greasy  rags  for 
cleaning. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  soldier  carries  writing  material 
and  a  roll  of  bandages.  On  top  of  his  knapsack  is 
strapped  a  galvanized  iron  pot,  holding  about  three  quarts, 
with  a  tight-fitting  cover,  which  is  used  separately  for 
cooking.  Within  the  knapsack,  slipped  into  little  loops, 
are  a  spoon,  knife,  fork,  comb,  and  small  mirror.  The 
latter  does  not  seem  to  be  required,  but  is  permitted. 
In  his  haversack  is  carried  whatever  may  be  the  food  for 
the  day.  He  wears  a  single-breasted  frock-coat  of  blue 
cloth  with  red  facings,  very  dark  gray  pantaloons,  short 
top-boots,  and  no  stockings.  He  wears  on  his  waist-belt  a 
strong  sword  fifteen  inches  long,  which  he  can  use  for  de- 
fense, and  for  cutting  wood,  or  material  for  fascines  or  ga- 
bions. His  gun  is  unburnished,  so  that  it  may  not  attract 
the  enemy  by  flashing  in  the  sun,  and  is  pretty  well  coat- 
ed with  grease.  He  carries  no  blanket,  but  hopes  at  night 
to  find  some  straw  for  his  bed.  He  wears  on  his  head  ei- 
ther a  flat  forage-cap  with  red  band,  or  the  peaked  helmet. 
Carrying  the  inspection  farther,  you  find  that  the  soldier 
answers  to  the  question  "When  did  you  bathe  last?" 
"When  at  home,  I  bathe  daily  from  May  till  September, 
but  I  have  not  bathed  at  all  since  leaving  Germany ;"  and 


PE  USSIAN  SOLDIERS,  . ;  '  1 0  ] 

his  under-clothing  is  saturated  with  the  exhalations  of  his 
body. 

His  equipments  have  much  to  recommend  them.  The 
knapsack  is  made  so  that  it  retains  its  shape,  and  never  be- 
comes baggy  like  our  own,  nor  is  it  filled  with  an  undue 
quantity  of  articles.  It  is  so  slung  as  to  fit  closely  to  the 
person,  and  is  not  a  burden  to  the  soldier.  In  fact,  the 
men  appear  greatly  attached  to  their  knapsacks,  and  are 
always  careful  of  them,  instead  of  throwing  them  away,  as 
is  invariably  done  by  our  troops  on  long  marches.  The 
flask  canteen,  in  which  is  usually  carried  a  little  brandy,  is 
liable  to  break,  holds  less  than  ours,  and,  I  should  think,  is 
not  so  desirable ;  while  their  haversack  is  like  ours,  except 
that  it  is  never  painted. 

The  use  of  the  waist-belt  for  supporting  the  cartridges  is 
without  doubt  correct,  as  our  troops  on  long  marches  throw 
away  the  shoulder-belts,  and  sling  the  cartridge-box  on  the 
waist-belt.  The  plan  of  placing  one-half  the  weight  of  the 
cartridges  on  either  side  is  too  great  an  advantage  over 
our  own  method  to  need  comment.  A  leather  pouch  for 
money  is  hung  about  the  neck,  and  also  a  zinc  plate  at- 
tached to  a  card,  on  which  are  engraved  the  soldier's  regi- 
ment, company,  and  number.  The  whole  weight  of  the 
soldier's  arms  and  equipments  is  fifty  pounds.  His  mess 
is  entirely  different  from  the  messes  of  our  troops,  and  the 
cost  of  it,  on  a  peace-footing,  comes  out  of  his  daily  pay, 
which  is  three  and  one-half  silver  groschen,  or  about  eight 
cents.  He  is  allowed,  besides,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  rye 
bread. 

Excepting  the  bread,  the  ration  is  not  fixed  in  kind,  but 
is  determined  by  a  board  of  officers,  and  varies  with  the 
products  and  prices  of  localities.  The  companies  are  di- 
vided into  messes  of  about  twenty  men,  each  of  which  is 
under  the  charge  of  a  non-commissioned  officer.  Each 


102 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


company  has  its  mess-board,  composed  of  the  captain,  a 
lieutenant,  a  non-commissioned  officer,  and  some  privates, 
who  decide  all  questions  pertaining  to  themselves,  regulate 
the  bills  of  fare,  and  determine  the  daily  cost  to  each  sol- 
dier, and  the  hours  of  meals.  The  bill  of  fare  varies  great- 
ly with  localities. 

Usually,  in  .Germany,  the  breakfast  consists  of  a  thin 
flour  soup,  with  some  slices  of  brea.d  ;  the  dinner,  of  meat, 
generally  mutton,  or  beef  and  vegetables;  the  supper,  of 
what  happens  to  remain  over.  Coffee  or  tea  is  usually 
had  once  a  day,  although  not.  considered  a  part  of  the  ra- 
tion. But  while  in  active  service,  each  man  receives  a 
good  ration  of  bread  and  meat,  with  coffee  and  wine,  or 
whatever  the  country  supplies.  The  daily  cost  rarely  ex- 
ceeds two  silver  groschen,  and  with  this  an  abundance  of 
vegetables  is  provided,  in  addition  to  meat  and  bread.  At 
stated  intervals,  say  once  in  two  or  three  days,  the  cost  of 
messes  -  is  collected,  and  the  little  leather  bag  suspended 
about  the  neck  is  inspected,  to  see  if  the  money  has  been 
foolishly  expended. 

The  soldiers  receive  their  pay  every  ten  days ;  and  those 
who  spend  it,  and  have  nothing  left  for  their  messing,  are 
paid  daily.  Then,  if  they  fail  to  save  for  their  mess,  the 
pay  is  given  to  a  non-commissioned  officer,  who  uses 
enough  for  this  purpose,  and  hands  the  remainder  to  the 
soldier.  Each  soldier  is  allowed  six  cigars  a  day,  which 
cost  him  but  one  silver  groschen.  He  is  responsible  for 
his  arms  and  equipments ;  and  if  any  are  lost  by  his  fault, 
the  loss  is  made  up  by  the  company,  if  he  has  previously 
borne  a  good  -character ;  otherwise  he  must  pay. 

A  broad  line  of  demarkation  exists  between  the  officer 
and  soldier — broader,  perhaps,  than  in  any  service  in  Chris- 
tendom, and  more  accurately  defined  by  law ;  but  I  have 
seen  only  kindness  at  all  times  in  the  relations  between 


HOW  THE  SOLDIER  IS  BROUGHT  INTO  SERVICE      103 

officers  and  soldiers.  The  men  expect,  and  receive,  justice, 
knowing  their  duties  and  the  laws  that  control  them,  and 
never  seem  for  a  moment  to  question  them.  On  examin- 
ing the  accoutrements  of  a  soldier  sent  to  me  for  that  pur- 
pose, I  desired  him  to  give  me  a  needle-gun  cartridge,  that 
I  might  examine  it  at  my  leisure.  He  at  once  handed  it 
to  me,  but  the  next  moment,  remembering  -the  orders 
against  parting  with  his  cartridges,  required  it  back  again ; 
and  I  do  not  believe  that  any  bribe  could  have  then  ob- 
tained it. 

HOW  THE  SOLDIER  IS  BROUGHT  INTO    SERVICE. 

The  soldier  is  easily  brought  into  service,  as  military 
duty  is  exacted  from  all,  and  no  one  thinks  of  evading  it. 
A  list  of  all  the  young  men  is  kept  by  the  parochial  mag- 
istrate ;  and  as  each  arrives  at  the  age  of  twenty,  he  is 
summoned  to  appear  for  medical  examination;  and  if  he 
passes,  which  he  always  desires  to  do,  is  sent  at  once  to  the 
head-quarters  of  the  landwehr  battalion  of  the  district,  and 
from  thence  to  his  regiment.  For  the  first  six  weeks  he  is 
taught  the  position  of  the  soldier,  honors  due  to  superiors, 
the  distinctions  and  insignia  of  rank,  and  generally  the 
first  principles  of  .military  duty.  He  is  then  given  his 
gun,  and,  while  the  former  instructions  continue,  is  trained 
for  six  months  in  the  manual  of  arms,  and  then  put  in  the 
ranks  of  his  company.  For  the  first  year,  his  drills  occu- 
py four  hours  each  morning  and  evening,  varying  some- 
what in  summer  with  the  weather,  but  being  pretty  close- 
ly kept  up.  During  the  second  year,  his  drills  are  lighter, 
but  their  range  is  extended  to  manoeuvring  in  the  battal- 
ion ;  and  some  instruction  is  given  in  riding,  the  drill  of 
the  piece  in  light  artillery,  and  in  making  siege  materials — 
such  as  gabions,  fascines,  sap-rollers,  mantlets,  etc.  Those 
who  show  special  aptitude  are  now  assigned  to  different 


104  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

branches  of  the  service.  During  the  third  year,  those  who 
go  to  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineers  have  special  in- 
structions in  their  particular  branch  ;  while  those  who  are 
permanently  assigned  to  the  infantry  have  little  to  do  but 
guard  duty  and  some  theoretical  exercises  in  the  schools. 
At  the  end  of  this  year,  all  receive  their  furlough  for  the 
next  four  years,  holding  themselves  always  in  readiness  to 
be  called  out  for  annual  exercise,  or  to  rejoin  their  com- 
mands in  time  of  war.  During  much  of  the  three  years, 
schools  are  held  for  swimming,  gymnastics,  duties  in  quar- 
ters, duties  as  sentinels,  in  garrison  and  on  outposts,  in  tar- 
get practice,  the  care  of  arms,  the  duties  of  soldiers  toward 
their  officers,  reading  and  writing  for  the  few  who  need  in- 
struction in  these  branches,  and  such  higher  studies  as  the 
commandant  may  direct.  Military  service  is  popular  in 
Germany;  and,  on  filling  up  the  army  for  the  present  war, 
many  of  those  who  assembled  at  the  depots  and  were  not 
required,  went  away  with  heavy  hearts. 
""^  When  on  campaigns,  the  men  are  forbidden  to  bathe, 
for  fear  of  taking  colds  from  immersion  when  the  body  is 
not  in  a  condition  to  bear  it.  The  Germans  all  seem  sin- 
gularly careful  about  changes  of  weather  and  exposures  to 
draughts,  and  especially  after  exercise.  I  have  seen  the 
king,  with  his  whole  suite,  change  position  to  get  away 
from  the  draught  through  a  sally-port ;  and  Bismarck  oft- 
en excuses  himself  for  keeping  on  his  hat  and  overcoat  in 
his  room  after  returning  from  his  daily  ride.  This  special 
care  is  required  of  the  men,  and  seems  to  us  Americans  ex- 
cessive. 

KATIONS  IN  KIND. 

There  are  two  clearly  defined  and  distinct  conditions  of 
the  Prussian  army,  known  as  the  peace  and  war  footing. 
"Whenever  the  latter  is  declared,  every  officer  and  soldier 


EXTRA  ALLOWANCES.  105 

is  entitled  to  receive  one  ration  in  kind,  and  no  more,  dai- 
ly. Under  certain  circumstances  this  may  be  commuted 
in  money.  Its  value  is  about  twenty-one  cents.  It  con- 
sists of  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  bread ;  twelve  ounces  of 
meat ;  four  ounces  of  rice,  or  barley,  or  beans ;  or  it  may  be 
eight  ounces  of  flour  and  three  pounds  of  potatoes.  Four 
ounces  of  salt  and  four  ounces  of  coffee  are  also  allowed. 
This  may  be  varied  by  the  commanding  general,  who  may 
add  whisky,  brandy,  wine,  or  beer,  with  dried  fruit,  sauer- 
kraut, butter,  and  tobacco.  Considerable  discretion  is  al- 
lowed commanding  officers  in  regulating  the  ration  in  kind, 
and  a  slight  additional  money  allowance  is  given  men 
when  traveling  on  railways  or  steamboats  for  extra  cost 
of  living. 

The  regular  forage  ration  is  eleven  and  a  quarter  pounds 
of  oats,  three  pounds  of  hay,  and  three  and  a  half  pounds 
of  straw.  This,  also,  may,  be  varied.  Any  portion  of  the 
fixed  ration  not  drawn  is  commuted. 

EXTRA  ALLOWANCES. 

There  are  also  many  changes  of  pay  and  allowances  un- 
der various  circumstances.  An  officer  promoted  from  ca- 
det or  sergeant  receives  an  equipment  fund  of  from  twenty 
to  forty  dollars  in  peace ;  and  in  war,  if  promoted  for  serv- 
ice, of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  When  a  man  is  cap- 
tured his  pay  ceases;  but  prisoners  of  war  of  the  enemy  re- 
ceive, if  officers,  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  dollars  month- 
ly ;  while  private  soldiers  receive  only  food  and  clothing. 
For  the  loss  of  clothing  and  equipment  in  war  an  officer  is 
allowed  seventy  dollars.  If  he  furnishes  his  own  horse,  he 
is  allowed  one  hundred  dollars  for  it ;  if  sick,  and  not  in  a 
public  hospital,  he  is  allowed  an  amount  daily,  not  exceed- 
ing in  the  aggregate  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  during 
any  one  term  of  absence.  A  premium  of  eighteen  dollars 


106  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

is  given  for  every  useful  animal  captured  from  tlie  enemy. 
Nurses  in  hospital  receive  nine  dollars  a  month.  All  civil- 
ians brought  into  service  as  military  officials  receive  three 
months'  advanced  pay.  A  soldier  in  the  field  may  assign 
one-half  his  pay  to  his  family.  The  reserves  and  garrison 
troops  are,  in  respect  to  pay,  on  a  peace  footing.  The  daily 
pay  of  non-combatant  officers  and  officials  ranges  from  one 
dollar  for  an  assistant  paymaster,  to  three  dollars  and  fifty 
cents  for  a  corps  surgeon.  A  chaplain  receives  two  dol- 
lars, a  staff  surgeon  the  same,  and  a  paymaster  one  dollar 
and  eighty  cents.  The  general  average  is  about  two  dol- 
lars per  day.  A  certain  allowance  is  given  for  horses  and 
equipments.  Combatant  officers  receive  a  monthly  rate  of 
pay,  from  thirty  dollars  for  a  second  lieutenant,  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars  for  a  colonel  ;  while  general  officers 
get  considerably  more.  The  equipment  fund  for  mounted 
officers  ranges  from  twenty  dollars  yearly  for  a  lieutenant, 
to  forty  dollars  for  a  colonel. 

ANNUAL   COST  OF   EACH  SOLDIER. 

The  pay  and  allowances  of  the  Prussian  army  would 
seem  to  us  paltry  and  absurd.  Two  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  thalers,  equal  to  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  dollars 
gold,  is  appropriated  for  the  annual  cost  of  each  soldier  ; 
and  this  must  pay  all  his  expenses,  and,  if  he  be  mounted, 
the  blanketing  and  trappings  of  his  horse.  This  money 
includes  the  pay  of  the  man,  amounting  to  forty  -three 
thalers  a  year,  out  of  which  must  come  his  messing,  his 
pocket-money,  and  his  necessary  personal  kit,  brushes,  etc. 
The  remainder  is  administered  by  a  regimental  board  of 
officers,  to  provide  arms,  clothing,  equipments,  and  repairs. 

The  Ordinary  Pn37  1>g  ^PP.  n-nfl  nnpi-bnlf  silypr  grn^Lfan  ppr 

dayjaut  the  regimental  board  of  control  may 


reducethis  by  an  amount  not  exceeding  one  and  one-half 


RETIRING  UNWORTHY  OFFICERS.  107 

silver  groschen,  according  to  the  cost  of  living.  The  arms, 
clothing,  and  equipments  are  the  property  of  the  regiment, 
and  are  administered  by  its  own  board  of  control,  accord- 
ing to  fixed  regulations.  Even  with  this  system,  large  sav- 
ings are  often  made  by  regiments,  by  which  the  men  are 
benefited  in  many  ways. 

During  war?  officers  receive  about  one-third  more,  than 
in  pence,  They  also  have  an  allowance  for  servants^but 
must  feed  and  clothe  them  from  their  pay.  Mounted  offi- 
cers receive  thirty  thalers  a  year  for  harness,  or  a  new 
horse  furnished  by  the  Government  every  five  years.  The 
higher  grades  receive  better  pay  than  mere  difference  of 
rank  would  indicate.  The  princes  serve  gratuitously.  Al- 
though army  pay  seems  ridiculously  small,,  the  cheapness 
of  living  renders  it  sufficient.  A  captain  told  me  that  at 
his  station  at  home  he  lived  comfortably,  supported  and 
clothed  his  family,  consisting  of  a  wife  and  two  children, 
educated  the  latter,  and  kept  his  carriage,  and  all  without 
difficulty,  on  his  army  pay.  There  are  many  allowances 
in  kind — such  as  fuel,  lights,  quarters,  medical  attendance, 
forage  and  stabling  for  horses,  or,  in  their  stead,  commuta- 
tion in  money. 

RETIRING    UNWORTHY  OFFICERS. 

.Whenever  a  Prussian  officer  is  deemed^frpm  his  immor- 
al life,  improvidence,  or_any  cause  not  military,  unworthy 
to  continue  longer  in  service,  he  is  permitted  tpremain  on 
the  rolls  until  he  arrives  at  promotion  by^enioritYjjiaLben 
his  junior  is  put  over  him,  lie  then  usually  seeks  a  board 
of  officers  to  recommend  him  for  retiring.  Failing  to  do 
this,  he  is  dropped  in  orders.  In  time  of  war,  liberal  au- 
thority to  remove  incompetent  officers  is  given  to  com- 
manders in  the  field. 


108  TEE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

BILLETING. 

When  on  campaigns,  the  army  is  billeted,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, in  the  houses  on  the  line  of  march.  When  any 
branch  of  the  army — as  the  king's  head-quarters,  for  in- 
stance— approaches  a  city  or  town,  an  officer  of  the  admin- 
istration is  sent  forward  carrying  an  abstract  of  the  wants 
he  is  to  supply,  and  at  once  calls  upon  the  mayor  and 
makes  requisition  for  the  various  quarters  required;  as,  for 
instance,  for  the  king  and  his  personal  household,  the  best 
establishment  in  the  town,  or  city,  entire ;  for  General  Yon 
Boon,  a  house,  with  capacity  for  himself,  his  various  adju- 
tants, clerks,  secretaries,  and  servants,  and  so  on  for  the.  en- 
tire command.  The  mayor  at  once  designates  houses  of 
the  various  capacities  required,  and  sends  an  official  with 
the  officer  to  point  them  out.  Upon  the  gates  or  doors  of 
each  house,  the  officer  writes  with  chalk  the  name  of  the 
official,  or  the  number  of  men  assigned  to  that  establish- 
ment, and  at  once  sends  an  orderly  back  to  meet  and  con- 
duct the  intended  occupants  to  their  designated  quarters. 
Every  corps,  division,  brigade,  or  regimental  commander, 
on  approaching  his  destination,  in  like  manner  sends  an  of- 
ficer of  his  personal  staff  forward,  provided  with  a  piece  of 
chalk  for  a  like  purpose.  The  arrangements  can  not,  of 
course,  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 

To  the  question,  "How  do  you  sleep  at  night  without 
tents  or  blankets?"  Adjutant  Tresscott  answered,  "We 
usually  sleep  in  the  mud,  without  straw  or  wood ;  and  for 
sixteen  hours  before  Woerth  we  had  not  tasted  food.  An 
officer  may  consider  himself  fortunate  to  get  a  little  straw 
for  a  pillow." 

When  men  or  officers  are  billeted,  the  family  is  required 
to  provide  soldiers  with  the  equivalent  of  the  ration,  for 
which  two  groschen  a  day  are  paid ;  and  for  officers  such  a 


REGIMENTAL  BANDS-CHIEFS  OF  REGIMENTS.         109 

prescribed  wholesome  meal,  including  wine,  as  is  usual  in 
their  own  messes,  for  which  payment  is  made,  regulated 
by  the  market  price. 

The  higher  officers  and  the  king  carry  their  own  house- 
hold establishments.  Each  minister  has  his  own  traveling 
outfit,  made  on  purpose  for  campaigning.  Billeting  is 
made  to  fall  as  lightly  as  possible  upon  the  inhabitants  of 
a  city,  and  the  mayor  is  directed  to  apportion  the  burdens 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  citizens.  The  mayors,  po- 
licemen, and  all  civil  functionaries  who  have  not  run  away, 
are  commanded  to  administer  their  trusts  as  if  there  were 
no  war;  and  great  advantages  have  been  gained  by  this 
course. 

REGIMENTAL  BANDS. 

Each  regiment  in  the  Prussian  army  has  a  band  of 
twenty  members ;  or,  if  the  officers  are  able  and  desire  it, 
there  may  be  more.  Most  of  the  expense  for  instruments, 
music,  extra  compensation  of  first-class  musicians,  and  in 
fact  almost  the  entire  cost  of  the  bands,  is  borne  by  the 
officers.  Each  company  has  two  fifers  and  two  drummers. 

BRIGADE    COMMANDERS. 

There  is  no  grade  of  brigadier-general.  Brigades  are 
usually  commanded  by  colonels,  sometimes  by  major-gen- 
erals and  lieutenant-generals. 

CHIEFS  OF  REGIMENTS. 

There  is  a  custom  here  of  naming  individuals  of  rank  as 
chiefs  of  regiments — probably  a  relic  of  feudal  times,  when 
regiments  of  serfs  were  commanded  by  their  own  lords, 
and  given  away  by  them.  Bismarck  is  chief  of  the  9th 
Cuirassiers.  Moltke  was  made  chief  of  a  regiment  for  dis- 
tinguished service  in  Denmark ;  and  nearly  all  the  higher 


110  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

princes  have  the  same  distinction.  It  is,  however,  only  a 
compliment,  as  it  confers  no  command.  It  is  usual,  as  a 
mark  of  courtesy,  to  gain  the  assent  of  the  chief,  which  he 
never  withholds,  to  the  appointment  of  new  officers.  On 
occasions  of  ceremony  the  chief  usually  rides  at  the  head 
of  his  regiment.  The  obligation  often  rests  on  the  other 
side ;  and  the  presents  of  plate,  fetes,  and  dinners  looked  for 
from  the  chief  are  onerous  unless  he  possesses  large  reve- 
nues, which  is  not  the  case  with  many  German  princes. 

AMBULANCE. 

Nov.  9th. — The  field-hospital  train  of  a  division  I  find, 
by  inspection  to-day,  to  be  a  complete  hospital  ready  for 
service  in  the  field,  and  easily  convertible  into  a  perma- 
nent hospital. 

Each  division  has  a  light  hospital  train,  composed  of 
thirteen  surgeons,  seventy-four  men,  fifty-six  horses,  and 
ten  carriages,  and  accommodations  for  two  hundred  men, 
or  about  two  per  cent,  of  the  command.  The  ten  car- 
riages are  made  up  as  follows:  There  are  two  medicine- 
wagons  for  four  horses  each,  and  about  the  size  of  the 
telegraphic  operating- wagon.  These  are  fitted  up  with 
combination  cases,  in  which  seems  to  be  packed  every 
thing  in  the  way  of  medicines  and  surgical  instruments 
and  appliances  ever  required  in  a  field-hospital — bandages, 
splints,  surgical  cases  in  perfect  order,  and  all  kinds  of 
drugs,  with  large  quantities  of  narcotics  and  anaesthetics, 
each  in  its  place.  There  is  an  assortment  of  placards  or 
tags,  used  in  action  by  the  chief  surgeon,  who  writes  on 
them  what  is  to  be  done  with  the  patient,  whom  he  leaves 
for  others  to  attend,  while  he  passes  quickly  on.  There 
are  blankets,  a  few  simple  articles  of  hospital  dress,  a  large 
quantity  of  food  and  spirits ;  and  on  the  top,  folded  in  two 
parts,  amputating-tables.  The  economy  of  space,  by  which 


AMBULANCE. 

so  much  is  stored  in  so  small  a  carriage,  is  marvelous. 
There  are,  besides,  three  large  six-horse  wagons,  filled  with 
cooking  utensils,  tents,  cots,  bedding,  food,  and  in  fact  every 
thing  necessary  for  establishing  a  field-hospital. 

This  leaves  five  ambulances  proper  for  carrying  the 
wounded.  These  are  somewhat  lower  than  our  Rucker 
ambulances,  and  set  on  smaller  wheels,  but  are  much  bet- 
ter made,  being  all  of  seasoned  timber  and  smoother  work- 
manship, and  seem  perfectly  firm  and  strong.  They  are 
made  for  two  or  four  horses.  They  have  no  seats,  and  are 
intended  to  carry  two  men  at  a  time,  placed  on  stretchers 
side  by  side.  The  body  of  the  ambulance,  which  is  like 
our  own,  is  set  on  six  springs,  of  best  quality,  while  ours  is 
put  on  four,  of  inferior  quality.  Iron  axle-trees  are  used  ; 
the  body  of  the  carriage  is  covered  with  canvas,  and  a 
slight  railing  goes  round  the  top,  to  carry  the  knapsacks 
of  the  wounded.  Except  that  the  style  of  the  carriage  for 
carrying  the  wounded  is  antiquated,  the  ambulance-trains 
are  admirable. 

We  were  received  with  the  greatest  courtesy  by  the 
medical  officers ;  and  on  our  displaying  authority  for  in- 
specting their  train,  they  at  once  afforded  us  every  facili- 
ty, and  seemed  to  take  great  pleasure  in  serving  us. 

Although  the  medical  department  is  very  complete,  and 
the  surgeons  accomplished,  it  has,  in  a  measure,  failed  to 
meet  the  full  requirements  of  service.  Whenever  Ameri- 
can medical  men  have  assisted,  as  has  often  been  the  case, 
I  hear  the  highest  praises  of  their  facility  and  skill. 

There  is  a  prevailing  impression  that  the  Prussian  medi- 
cal service  was  considerably  behind  ours  in  the  late  war — 
a  fact  due  to  the  superior  enterprise  and  adaptability  of  the 
American  character.  In  Germany,  where  lives  are  regu- 
lar, and  follow  fixed  rules  and  theories,  and  where  there 
are  few  great  prizes  to  strive  for,  there  is  much  less  to  de- 


112  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

velop  the  faculties  than  with  us.  Moreover,  our  people 
were  unaccustomed  to  military  affairs,  and  so  the  war 
reached  deeper  into  the  sympathies  of  all  classes.  Besides, 
our  war,  by  its  duration  and  extent,  gave  great  impetus  to 
the  study  of  surgery. 

Every  thing  here  used  as  a  hospital  is  called  an  ambu- 
lance. The  Franco- American  ambulance,  of  which  we  oft- 
en hear,  means  an  immense  traveling  hospital,  or  train. 
The  Germans  have  fallen  into  the  same  error  that  we  com- 
mitted— that  of  using  buildings  for  hospitals  instead  of 
tents,  or  field  -  hospitals ;  and  there  is  scarcely  a  doubt 
that  the  French  will  do  likewise.  It  is  unaccountable  that 
scientific  and  practical  medical  men  do  not  appreciate  and 
advocate  the  advantages  of  outdoor  over  indoor  hospitals. 
It  is  a  matter  of  the  gravest  importance,  and  the  humane 
societies  of  Christendom  can,  in  no  way,  do  more  good 
than  by  thoroughly  investigating  and  making  generally 
known  the  facts  relating  to  permanent  hospitals  in  time  of 
war.  The  seeds  of  disease  seem  to  cling  to  the  walls,  ceil- 
ings, and  floors,  and  the  death-rate  of  the  wounded  is  oft- 
en greatly  increased  by  putting  them  in  these  places.  So 
strongly  was  I  impressed  with  this  in  our  war,  that,  as  far 
as  was  in  my  power,  I  kept  my  wounded  out  of  them. 

At  the  battle  of  Mission  Ridge,  the  colonel  of  the  41st 
Ohio  lost  his  leg  above  the  knee  by  a  musket-shot.  I  for- 
bade his  going  to  the  hospital,  and  caused  him  to  be  treat- 
ed in  his  rude  split-shingle  cabin,  and  his  recovery  was 
remarkably  rapid.  Officers  of  rny  command  who  were 
grazed  by  musket-shot  upon  the  arms  were  put  into  the 
hospital,  and  died  from  gangrene.  At  that  battle,  the 
wounded  of  General  Thomas's  army  were  treated  in  fixed 
hospitals,  or  buildings  fitted  up  beforehand,  at  Chattanoo- 
ga, with  many  comforts  and  great  care.  The  proportion 
of  deaths  among  the  wounded  was  frightful ;  and  we  were 


FIELD  TELEGRAPH. 

told  that  it  was  due  to  the  low  vital  condition  of  our  men, 
resulting  from  short  rations.  The  fact  was  that  they  died 
from  hospital  diseases.  General  Sherman's  army,  just 
arrived  from  Mississippi,  without  hospitals,  treated  their 
wounded  in  the  field,  and  the  proportion  of  recoveries  was 
astonishingly  great.  They  were  cured  by  fresh  air. 

At  the  battle  of  Peach-tree  Creek,  a  very  worthy  staff- 
officer  of  mine  was  seriously,  although  not  dangerously, 
wounded  in  the  abdomen.  The  medical  rules  were  very 
strict;  but  by  sending  messengers  all  night,  I  got  author- 
ity to  send  him  home  to  the  North  without  his  going  into 
the  hospital.  Arriving  at  Nashville,  and  being  unable  to 
proceed  without  further  medical  authority,  he  was  taken 
charge  of  and  put  into  one  of  their  comfortable  hospitals. 
In  a  few  days  he  became  terribly  afflicted  with  gangrene, 
and  only  escaped  with  his  life  after  a  perilous  and  racking 
illness. 

With  all  the  facts  before  them,  our  medical  officers  went 
on  building  and  furnishing  the  most  expensive  hospitals, 
on  the  most  approved  plans,  until  the  end  of  the  war. 

FIELD  TELEGRAPH. 

Nov.  9th. — The  progressive  character  of  the  Prussian 
army  is  shown  in  nothing  more  clearly  than  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  electric  telegraph  to  field  purposes.  Morse's 
system  is  used.  Each  head-quarters  of  an  army  and  each 
army  corps  has  a  telegraphic  division  of  three  officers,  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven  men,  seventy-three  horses,  and 
ten  wagons.  Two  of  the  latter  are  fitted  up  as  operating- 
rooms,  and  the  other  eight  are  used  for  carrying  poles  and 
other  material,  including  five  miles  of  wire  to  each  wagon, 
which  can  be  reeled  off  by  the  moving  of  the  vehicle.  Of 
the  whole  forty  miles,  five  are  insulated,  and  can  be  run 
along  the  ground.  . 


114          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  army  corps  can  put  out  forty 
miles  of  line  without  recourse  to  other  wires,  but  use  is  al- 
ways made  of  lines  found  in  the  country,  in  case  they  will 
answer.  Single  poles  of  light  material  are  used,  without 
joints,  and  about  ten  feet  long,  and  only  every  third  pole  is 
put  in  the  ground.  The  personnel  is  brought  into  the  army 
from  the  civil  telegraphic  service  at  home.  While  in  the 
field,  the  operators  assume  military  rank,  and,  like  agents 
of  the  Post-office  Department,  are  known  as  "  military  offi- 
cials," not  as  "  military  officers."  The  men  are  on  a  foot- 
ing with  train-soldiers,  and  all  wear  a  distinctive  uniform. 
The  carriages  are  painted  of  a  dark  olive-brown,  and  are 
each  drawn  by  four  horses.  The  operating-wagons  are  a 
little  larger  than  the  Eucker  ambulances  of  our  service,  but 
much  heavier.  They  are  considerably  better  made,  and  are 
closed  with  thin  matched  pine.  Just  in  rear  of  the  driver 
is  a  partition  shutting  off  the  rear  portion  of  the  carriage; 
At  his  back,  and  under  his  seat,  is  a  capacious  box,  in  which 
are  carried  tools,  and  the  material  necessary  in  telegraph- 
ing. On  one  side  of  the  rear  closed  portion  is  a  neat  table, 
with  a  compact  operating  instrument  on  it,  and  the  bat- 
tery under  it;  and  on  the  opposite  side  is  the  operator's 
bench,  the  space  underneath  it  being  also  economized.  On 
the  outside,  near  the  table,  are  sockets,  with  thumb-screws 
connected  with  the  battery,  to  receive  the  wires.  Besides 
keeping  the  king  in  telegraphic  communication  with  his 
ministers,  lines  are  run  from  General  Yon  Moltke's  head- 
quarters to  all  of  the  different  corps  in  the  field.  The  Ger- 
mans seem  to  have  but  the  simplest  and  most  limited  sys- 
tem of  signals,  not  approximating  to  the  dignity  of  an  or- 
ganized corps,  and  use,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  only  a  mast, 
with  flags  displayed  at  different  elevations.  The  telegraph 
corps  always  evinces  admirable  promptness  in  keeping  the 
lines  closely  up  as  the  army  moves  forward. 


TRANSPORTA  TION.  115 

THE  MAIL  SERVICE  is  very  complete.  The  personnel 
belonging  to  it  is  brought  from  the  civil  mail  service  at 
home,  and  is  upon  the  same  footing  with  the  telegraph 
corps.  Each  brigade,  division,  corps,  and  army,  as  well  as 
the  king  and  his  ministers,  has  its  own  special  service,  its 
own  officers,  and  the  principal  personages  have  their  own 
mail-sacks.  The  mails  received  daily  at  the  terminus  of 
the  railway  are  delivered  to  officers  of  the  postal  service 
for  the  various  parts  of  the  army,  and  the  greatest  celerity 
is  practiced  in  the  distribution.  Even  the  railway .  cars, 
constructed  at  home  for  this  service,  are  brought  directly 
through. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

The  transportation  of  the  army  is  excellent.  Horses 
only  are  used.  Two,  four,  and  six-horse  carriages  are  em- 
ployed according  to  the  needs  of  the  service.  The  car- 
riages are  all  well  made  of  seasoned  timber,  as  were  our 
own  before  the  war.  They  are  not  as  expensive  as  ours, 
have  fewer  parts,  and  are  more  simply  constructed.  The 
body  of  the  larger  sizes  is  V  shaped,  and  has  a  canvas  cov- 
er over  wooden  bows,  like  our  own.  The  lighter  vehicles 
for  the  medical,  telegraph,  and  postal  corps  are  all  of  ex- 
cellent make,  like  the  Elliott  work  of  Concord,  or  the 
Dougherty  of  St.  Louis ;  while  our  own  during  the  war 
became  mere  botches  of  green  timber,  with  insufficient  fast- 
enings, fourth-rate  springs,  cheap  machine-work,  and  rough 
finish. 

EX-UNITED  STATES  MINISTER  TO  PORTUGAL. 

Nov.lOth. — Mr.  O'Sullivan,  whose  card  reads,  "ex-Uni- 
ted States  Minister  to  Portugal,"  and  who,  on  its  strength, 
gains  interviews  with  Count  Bismarck  and  the  crown 
prince,  was  yesterday  escorted  out  of  Versailles  by  a  file 


116  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  men,  as  he  had  overstaid  his  permission.  On  meeting 
Count  Bismarck,  a  short  time  ago,  he  was  told  that  the 
balloon  from  Paris,  captured  the  day  before,  compromised 
certain  persons  who  little  expected  it.  This  is  the  last  of 
the  three  editors  of  the  Democratic  Review.  The  war  of  the 
rebellion  has  scattered  over  Europe  an  immense  amount  of 
drift-wood — spurious  Americans,  who  left  their  country  in 
disappointment  or  anger,  and  curse  it,  or  claim  its  protec- 
tion, according  to  their  needs  and  their  company,  while 
they  at  all  times  bring  discredit  upon  it  by  their  conduct 
and  conversation. 

The  truth  seems  to  be,  that  Mr.  O'Sullivan,  in  associating 
with  conspicuous  people,  sometimes  made  his  conversation 
unwelcome;  and  that  in  this  case  he  proposed  to  Count 
Bismarck  a  plan  of  settlement  with  the  French  people  by 
giving  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to  Belgium,  and  guaranteeing 
neutrality,  so  that  from  the  English  Channel  to  Italy  there 
would  be  neutral  territory  between  the  belligerents.  This 
advice  caused  the  "  ex-United  States  minister  "  to  be  look- 
ed upon  as  a  meddlesome  person,  whose  presence  was  not 
desirable. 

The  English  who  came  from  Paris  to-day  are  even  worse 
than  the  Americans  who  came  a  few  days  ago.  The  sink- 
ing ship  has  sent  flying  a  lot  of  rats,  American  and  En- 
glish, of  no  credit  to  any  country. 


VON  ROON. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

VON  BOON. 

Nov.  10th. — The  ministers  of  the  king  are  seldom  seen, 
with  the  exception  of  Bismarck,  who  nearly  every  day, 
from  three  to  five,  rides  in  the  park  or  toward  the  outposts. 

Von  Roon  drives  when  he  goes  out,  which  is  not  often. 
He  is  sixty-eight  years  old,  and,  though  younger  than  the 
king  or  Yon  Moltke,  shows  age  more  than  either.  He  has 
a  serious,  thoughtful  face,  and  wears  a  long,  drooping  mus- 
tache. He  was  born  in  Mecklenburg,  of  titled  parents,  and 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  entered  a  military  institution,  and, 
two  years  later,  was  transferred  to  the  Cadet  School  at 
Berlin.  In  the  year  1821  he  was  commissioned  as  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  army,  and  at  twenty-four  entered  the  war 
academy  at  Berlin,  taking  a  two  years'  course,  when  he 
joined  the  15th  Infantry  of  the  Line,  where  he  served  six 
years.  During  this  time  he  published  several  military  and 
scientific  works  of  value.  He  then  took  a  professorship  in 
the  Berlin  Cadet  School,  but  very  soon  after  joined  his 
regiment,  to  accompany  his  corps  in  its  operations  during 
the  confusion  then  reigning  in  Belgium.  There  he  first 
attracted  attention  to  his  brilliant  administrative  abilities, 
and,  on  returning  to  Prussia  in  1835,  was  transferred  to 
the  general  staff,  and  the  next  year  promoted  to  a  cap- 
taincy. He  served  in  this  capacity  several  years,  without 
any  fixed  station,  performing  such  useful  service  as  was 
assigned  him  from  time  to  time,  when  he  was  appointed 
major,  and  joined  for  a  short  time  the  staff  of  the  Seventh 
Army  Corps,  but  was  soon  retransferred  to  the  general 


118  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

staff  at  Berlin,  and  given  charge  of  the  education  of  Prince 
Frederick  Charles,  whom  he  accompanied,  in  1846,  to  the 
University  at  Bonn,  and  subsequently  in  his  European 
travels.  In  1848,  Yon  Eoon  received  the  appointment  of 
chief  of  staff  to  the  Eighth  Army  Corps,  and  controlled  its 
mobilization  and  subsequent  operations  in  Baden.  In  1850 
he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel;  in  1856,  colonel;  and  two 
years  later,  major-general,  and  assigned  to  the  command  of 
a  division. 

As  many  defects  in  the  Prussian  army  system  had  been 
brought  plainly  to  his  notice  during  his  thirty  years  of 
active  service,  he  drew  up  and  submitted  to  the  ministry  a 
plan  of  reform,  which  found  such  ready  consideration,  and 
was  so  heartily  approved  by  the  crown  prince,  now  King 
William,  that  Yon  Eoon  was  summoned  to  Berlin  to  assist 
in  perfecting  the  plan.  The  reorganization  proposed,  and 
which  failed  at  that  time,  contemplated  such  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  regular  army,  that,  although  a  large  portion  of 
the  years  of  service  would  be  spent  on  furlough,  still,  in 
case  of  mobilization  for  active  service,  all  the  battalions 
might  be  at  once  filled  without  calling  recruits,  sometimes 
imperfectly  instructed,  from  the  landwehr.  The  theory  of 
Prussian  service  is,  that  every  man,  on  arriving  at  maturi- 
ty, owes  certain  years  of  military  service  to  the  state;  and 
that  the  regular  army  shall  be  large  enough,  and  this  term 
of  service  short  enough,  to  oblige  every  able-bodied  citizen 
to  serve,  and  to  become  a  good  soldier.  But  as  the  popu- 
lation of  Prussia  had  nearly  doubled  since  the  size  of  the 
regular  army  was  fixed,  a  large  number  escaped  both  serv- 
ice and  instruction,  and,  when  called  on  to  expand  the 
ranks  of  the  battalions  in  war,  were  uninstructed,  and  oft- 
en proved  inefficient.  The  proposed  reorganization  was  de- 
signed so  to  re-adjust  the  size  of  the  army  and  the  term  of 
service,  that  all  men  should  be  disciplined,  and,  on  mobil- 


GENERAL  BLUMENTHAL.      :  U9 

ization,  the  regular  army  need  not  be  dependent  upon  the 
landwehr.  The  Prince  of  Prussia  espoused  this  plan  of  re* 
organization  so  zealously,  and  the  measure,  on  account  of 
increasing  the  military  establishment,  and  thus  adding  to 
the  burdens  of  the  people,  became  so  unpopular,  as  to  make 
it  necessary  for  him  to  flee  the  country. 

On  his  return,  he  became  regent,  and  soon  after  ascended 
the  throne.  Though  he  again  pressed  the  measure,  it  was 
not  until  ten  years  later  that  he  succeeded  in  carrying  it. 
These  circumstances  made  the  king  a  warm  friend  of  Yon 
Boon,  to  whom,  as  the  reward  of  his  services,  he  gave  the 
port- folio  of  war  minister.  Von  Roon  came  in  for  his  full 
share  of  public  dislike ;  but  the  magnificent  work  of  the 
army,  both  in  1866  and  in  the  present  war,  which  was 
made  possible  only  by  this  plan,  has  changed  entirely  the 
public  feeling  toward  him. 

GENERAL   BLUMENTHAL. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  king  at  Versailles,  the  crown  prince 
gave  up  to  him  his  splendid  head-quarters,  the  mairie,  or 
hotel  de  vitte,  or,  in  plain  English,  the  "  town  hall."  Each 
town  and  city  has  its  hotel  de  ville,  humble  or  pretentious,  in 
proportion  to  the  size  and  wealth  of  the  city.  It  not  only 
contains  all  the  offices  of  the  city  government,  but  is  the 
home  of  the  mayor ;  and,  in  a  place  as  large  as  Versailles, 
becomes  a  magnificent  public  establishment.  The  portions 
of  the  building  set  apart  for  the  mayor  are  fitted  up  in  a 
style  little  short  of  regal.  The  crown  prince  betook  him- 
self to  a  place  known  as  the  "Aubrages"  in  the  outskirts 
of  the  city — a  sort  of  villa  in  the  English  style,  like  many 
of  our  second-rate  places  upon  the  Hudson.  Here  one 
always  finds  one  of  the  most  meritorious  and  unostenta- 
tious officers  of  the  Prussian  army — Lieutenant-general 
Von  Blumenthal.  He  is  small,  of  unmistakable  German 


120  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

face,  and  so  full  of  open  kindness,  and  with  a  mind  so 
clear,  direct,  and  comprehensive,  that  no  one  can  know  him 
without  respecting  and  admiring  him. 

General  Yon  Blumenthal  is  the  chief  of  staff  to  the 
crown  prince,  and,  next  to  General  Yon  Moltke,  may  be 
looked  upon  as  the  leading  strategist  of  the  German  army. 
He  speaks  English  perfectly,  and  his  intercourse  with  oth- 
ers is  always  frank,  amiable,  and  unpretending.  He  is 
about  fifty-five  years  of  age,  and  is  a  Mecklenburger.  He 
has  spent  his  life  in  the  army,  was  chief  of  staff  to  the 
crown  prince  in  1866,  and  for  his  splendid  service  in  that 
campaign  was  made  lieutenant-general.  Just  before  the 
present  war  he  was  appointed  general,  and,  upon  the  out- 
break of  hostilities,  again  assigned  to  the  crown  prince. 
His  services  in  the  present  war  have  been  most  efficient, 
though  not  alwa}7s  conspicuous;  and  much  of  the  credit 
for  the  remarkable  victories  of  Weissenburg  and  Woerth, 
as  well  as  the  accurate  tactics  by  which  all  portions  of 
the  crown  prince's  army  came  on  the  field  at  Sedan  just 
where  and  when  needed,  is  due  to  General  Yon  Blumen- 
thal. I  thank  him  personally  for  many  kindnesses. 

PRUSSIAN  ARTILLERY. 

Nov.  \\th. — The  Prussian  field-artillery  now  in  use  is 
of  two  calibres — four-pounders,  adopted  in  1864,  and  six- 
pounders,  adopted  in  1869.  The  guns  are  steel  rifles,  of 
the  Krupp  manufacture,  and  are  long  and  slender,  not 
materially  differing  from  the  Parrott  gun,  the  breech-load- 
ing arrangement  causing  an  enlargement  not  unlike  that 
formed  by  the  re-enforce  band  of  the  Parrott.  On  close 
inspection,  they  are  found  a  much  better  finished  gun,  al- 
though I  doubt  whether,  aside  from  the  advantage  of 
breech-loading,  they  will  prove  more  serviceable.  In  ac- 
curacy, our  Parrotts  and  Rodmans  surpass  them.  They 


PR  USSIAN  ARTILLER  Y.  121 

carry  an  elongated  shell  like  the  Parrott,  except  that  it  is 
a  little  shorter,  and  has  a  leaden  jacket  to  take  the  grooves 
of  the  rifling.  The  breech -loading  arrangement  is  the 
principal  feature  of  these  guns ;  and  as  this  is  the  first  real- 
ly successful  use  in  the  field  of  this  mode  of  construction, 
the  subject  deserves  a  special  notice. 

The  four-pounder  is  five  feet  six  inches  long,  with  a  fif- 
teen-feet twist,  and  has  twelve  grooves.  It  is  sighted  like 
our  Parrott  guns,  but  arranged  to  work  also  horizontally 
by  a  thumb-screw,  to  correct  for  variation  of  the  shot  by 
wind,  and  from  the  veering  caused  by  the  twist.  The 
four-pounders  are  very  slender,  with  the  bore  of  the  piece 
passing  through  the  gun  from  end  to  end.  About  ten 
inches  of  the  breech  is  at  least  doubled  in  size,  and  made 
square  ;  and  horizontally,  quite  through  the  centre  of  this, 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  piece,  is  cut  a  square 
mortice,  somewhat  thicker  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  into 
which  passes  a  closely -fitting  key,  or  piece  of  steel.  This 
is  formed  of  two  acute  wedges,  with  faces  working  on  each 
other,  so  that  Toy  the  turn  of  a  small  hand-screw,  fastened 
to  the  end  of  one  and  working  against  the  other,  the 
whole  breech  is  made  close.  To  load  the  piece,  this  hand- 
screw  is  turned  loose,  and  the  tenant  drawn  out  so  far  as 
to  leave  the  bore  clear.  The  cartridge  is  then  shoved  in 
at  the  rear  of  the  piece,  past  the  key,  which  is  pushed  into 
place  by  a  turn  given  the  hand-screw,  and  the  cartridge  is 
pricked,  and  fired  by  a  lanyard  and  friction-primer.  Not- 
withstanding the  remarkably  close  fitting  of  this  mechan- 
ism, which  has  shown  no  apparent  wearing  or  loosening 
after  long  use,  there  is  a  little  escape  of  gas,  which  is  obvi- 
ated by  fitting  into  the  tenant,  where  the  rear  of  the  cart- 
ridge comes  against  it,  a  circular  copper  disk  having  a  di- 
ameter a  little  greater  than  the  bore  of  the  piece,  which  is 
rimmed  or  bored  out  to  the  depth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 


122  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

in  the  prolongation  of  the  Ifbre  of  the  gun.  Just  in  the 
rear  portion  of  the  circumference  of  this  rim  a  deep  groove 
is  cut  outward,  so  that  at  the  explosion,  the  gas,  acting  in 
this  groove,  presses  the  thin  rim  of  copper  metal  firmly 
against  the  piece,  and  effectually  closes  the  joint. 

The  six-pounders  differ  from  the  four-pounders,  in  being 
closed  at  the  rear  by  a  plug  fastened  in  place  by  a  pin. 
They  are  very  much  like  the  four-pounders,  the  bore  pass- 
ing entirely  through  the  piece.  A  close-fitting  steel  plug 
about  eight  inches  long  is  shoved  in,  and  closes  the  breech. 
This  is  attached  to  the  breech  of  the  piece  by  a  swinging 
hinge,  by  which  it  is  pushed  in  and  drawn  out,  and,  when 
in  place,  is  held  against  the  blast  by  a  round  steel  pin 
about  three  inches  in  thickness,  which  passes  horizontally 
quite  through  the  breech  of  the  piece  and  plug.  To  pre- 
vent any  escape  of  gas  around  the  point  of  the  plug,  a  pa- 
pier-mache cup  fits  on  the  rear  of  the  cartridge,  and,  at  the 
explosion,  effectually  closes  the  almost  inappreciable  space 
between  the  plug  and  the  bore  of  the  piece. 

These  guns  are  effectively  served  by  four  men :  a  gun- 
ner, who  aims  the  piece,  one  to  sponge  and  load,  one  to 
prick  the .  cartridge  and  fire  the  piece,  and  one  to  bring 
up  ammunition.  As  the  piece  is  sponged  and  served  at 
the  breech,  it  is  unattended  with  special  danger.  These 
arms,  on  account  of  the  strength  of  the  steel,  are  made 
-very  slender.  They  were  originally  more  so,  but  two 
burst  during  the  war  of  1866;  since  which  time  they  have 
been  made  stronger,  and  there  have  been  no  further  acci- 
dents. The  guns  have  neither  fillets  nor  rings,  but  are 
plain,  slightly  tapering,  hollow  pieces  of  steel.  The  effect- 
ive range  of  the  four-pounders  is  about  1300  yards,  and 
that  of  the  six-pounders  slightly  greater.  The  full  range, 
with  high  elevation,  is  of  course  more  but  the  Germans  do 
very  little  random  firing. 


PR  USSIAN  ARTILLER  Y.  123 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  effectiveness  of  these  guns, 
and  with  justice,  although,  as  is  always  the  case,  something 
is  ascribed  to  them  as  materially  valuable  which  is  merely 
so  morally.  The  Prussian  artillery  has  been  of  the  great- 
est use  in  this  war ;  and  I  am  free  to  say  that,  as  an  accu- 
rately constructed  rifled  arm,  admitting  of  light  and  easy 
manoeuvre,  and  safe  and  rapid  firing,  these  guns  are  far 
superior  to  any  thing  we  have.  The  officers  of  artillery 
are  greatly  pleased  with  them,  and  say  that  they  have 
nothing  more  to  wish  for;  and  each  captain  seems  certain 
that  his  battery  is  better  than  any  other. 

I  met  in  Versailles  the  commandant  of  the  reserve  ar- 
tillery. Lieutenant-colonel  Von  Bories,  an  old  comrade  of 
General  Willich,  of  our  army,  who  was  so  glad  to  hear  the 
good  account  I  gave  him  of  his  old  friend,  that  he  seemed 
to  redouble  his  attentions  in  showing  me  every  thing  con- 
nected with  his  arm  of  the  service.  He,  with  his  officers, 
were  quartered  in  the  Eoyal  Artillery  Barracks,  just  in 
front  of  the  Palais  formerly  built  by  Louis  XIV.  as  a 
school  for  the  boys  of  the  poor  noblesse,  but  converted  by 
Napoleon  I.  into  barracks.  Each  battery  has  six  guns, 
each  gun  its  caisson,  and  each  battery  two  carriages  for 
rations,  two  for  smithies,  carrying  six  extra  wheels,  and 
one  for  officers'  baggage.  The  guns  are  mounted  on  car- 
riages very  much  like  our  own,  painted  olive-brown  or 
blue,  but  they  have  iron  axle-trees,  and  some  of  the  hubs 
are  iron.  The  stock  is  in  two  pieces,  bolted  together,  and 
on  it  is  a  small  box  for  carrying  implements  or  cartridges. 
The  men  are  distributed  on  the  limbers  very  much  as  with 
us.  Two  ride  in  basket-seats  fitted  up  on  the  axle-tree  of 
the  gun-carriage.  The  knapsacks  are  generally  packed 
on  the  rear  box  of  the  caisson,  and  with  each  gun-squad  is 
carried,  on  the  rear  box  of  the  limber,  a  pick,  an  axe,  a 
spade,  and  a  cooking-kit.  Each  carriage  is  built  for  six 


124  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

horses,  but  often  only  four  are  used.  They  are  destitute 
of  unnecessary  flesh,  but  always  in  good  serviceable  con- 
dition, and  of  fair  medium  size.  The  harness  is  very  sim- 
ilar to  our  own,  except  that  flax  rope  is  employed  for 
traces,  as  is  usual  on  the  Continent  for  common  work. 
The  guns  are  well  browned,  and  the  batteries,  without 
showing  any  particular  care,  always  look  serviceable  and 
in  good  condition.  Only  percussion  shells  are  used,  not 
from  any  special  partiality  for  them,  but  because  the  Gov- 
ernment do  not  fully  approve  of  the  time-fuse,  and  are  ex- 
perimenting with  the  percussion  shell. 

The  gunners  carry  a  short  sword,  longer  than  that  of 
the  infantry,  but  no  gun.  The  horse  artillery  carry  pistols. 
The  drivers  and  horse  attendants  are  enlisted  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  service  of  the  guns. 
They  have  no  knapsacks,  but  their  kits  are  carried  on  the 
middle  horses  in  immense  holsters.  The  siege-guns,  to 
the  number  of  nearly  three  hundred,  I  saw  in  park.  They 
were  from  twelve  to  sixty  pounders,  mostly  old,  and  call 
for  no  special  remark. 

I  have  had  little  opportunity  of  examining  and  judging 
of  the  French  artillery,  except  the  captured  guns  at  Se- 
dan, which  covered  about  two  acres.  I  saw  nothing  about 
them  worthy  of  notice.  They  were  plain  four-pounder 
rifled  guns,  of  brass,  about  a  foot  shorter  than  our  field- 
guns,  and  were  muzzle-loaders.  We  have  much  to  learn 
about  artillery.  The  application  of  the  breech -loading 
mechanism  to  steel  guns  for  field  purposes,  and  rifling  for 
heavy  guns,  are  steps  plainly  necessary.  It  is  manifest 
that  the  same  desirable  results  which  have  been  secured 
by  rifling  small  guns  will  be  obtained  by  rifling  large  ones 
also. 


CAVALRY  EQUIPMENTS.  125 


CAVALRY  EQUIPMENTS. 

Nov.  12th. — The  general  appearance  of  the  German  cav- 
alry equipment  is  heavy.  The  horses  are  of  medium  size, 
never  fat,  like  those  in  our  service,  but  spare  in  flesh,  like 
animals  in  training.  They  seem  always  in  excellent  serv- 
ice condition,  and  in  perfect  health.  The  saddle  has  a 
tree  composed  of  two  side  pieces  of  wood  like  those  in  the 
M'Clellan  saddle,  attached  at  the  ends  by  cast-iron  forks 
made  to  form  a  decided  pommel  and  cantle,  the  latter 
being  very  high,  and  terminating  backward  in  a  handle 
by  which  the  saddle  is  seized ;  a  strip  of  leather,  drawn 
tightly,  connects  the  two  pieces  of  iron,  and  is  laced  across 
with  leather  thongs,  supporting  much  of  the  weight  of  the 
rider.  The  seat  is  covered  with  a  close-fitting,  padded 
leather  cushion.  Several  strong  cords  are  fastened  to  the 
under  portion  of  these  side  pieces,  by  which  is  firmly  at- 
tached to  the  tree  a  temporary  padding  of  straw,  laid 
straight,  and  made  to  fit  precisely  to  the  shape  of  the 
horse.  This  can  be  changed  in  a  few  minutes,  as  the  ani- 
mal may  alter  in  condition,  or  when  the  saddle  is  shifted 
to  another  horse. 

The  front  portion  of  the  padded  leather  cushion  termi- 
nates in  a  thin  bag,  in  which  the  trooper  carries  his  under- 
clothing. The  girth  ends  in  three  buckle-straps,  and  is 
made  of  some  twenty  or  thirty  small  cords.  A  breast-strap 
and  crupper,  and  a  plain  iron  stirrup  with  ordinary  straps, 
complete  the  saddle.  A  double  wool  blanket  is  carried 
underneath  the  saddle,  to  cover  the  horse  when  necessary. 
It  is  doubled  into  nine  folds,  and  is,  in  this  shape,  some- 
what larger  than  the  single  blanket  used  in  our  service, 
when  doubled  into  six  folds.  Over  the  whole  is  a  shab- 
rack of  green  cloth  lined  with  coarse  linen.  On  each  side 
of  the  cantle  are  iron  rings,  to  which  are  attached  spare 


126          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

shoes,  which  hang  under  the  shabrack.  The  mantle  of  the 
trooper  is  fastened  to  the  shabrack,  and  on  top  of  it  one 
ration  of  grain  is  carried  in  a  small  sack.  Both  mantle 
and  sack  are  so  elongated  as  to  lie  across  the  cantle  and 
hang  down  each  side  of  it. 

On  the  right  side  of  the  pommel  is  a  coiled  picket-rope, 
and  on  the  left  a  simple  cooking-kit.  A  surcingle  of  leath- 
er is  now  put  on,  and  a  narrow  leather  strap  is  fastened 
under  the  thighs  of  the  rider,  and  passes  around  the  pack 
in  rear  and  holster  in  front,  under  the  cantle  and  pommel, 
holding  every  thing  firmly  in  place.  In  the  left-hand  hol- 
ster are  carried  brushes  and  a  personal  kit,  while  in  the 
other  is  an  old  smooth-bore  horse-pistol  like  those  used  by 
our  dragoons  twenty  years  ago.  A  cotton  stable-frock  is 
thrown  over  the  front  of  the  saddle.  The  bridle  is  double, 
with  a  powerful  curb-bit  and  a  light  snaffle-rein  buckling 
on  to  the  bottoms  of  the  single  cheek-pieces.  The  weight 
of  this  rather  remarkable  equipment  is  from  seventy  to 
eighty  pounds.  All  mounted  troops  have  curved  sabres 
like  our  own,  while,  in  addition,  the  Uhlans  carry  pistols 
and  lances,  the  cuirassiers,  pistols,  and  the  dragoons  and 
heavy  cavalry,  carbines. 

Each  year  a  board  of  officers  condemns  such  horses  as 
are  unfit  for  service.  These  are  sold,  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  two-year  old  geldings  or  mare -colts  are  bought, 
and  reared  to  take  the  place  of  those  that  will  be  con- 
demned two  years  later.  They  are  put  in  service  when 
four  years  of  age. 

The  pack  seems  unnecessarily  heavy,  as  it  does  in  the 
infantry,  and,  to  keep  pace  with  every  thing  else,  must 
soon  be  greatly  lightened.  We  too  try  to  make  the  sol- 
dier pack  these  heavy  weights,  but,  following  his  natural 
instinct,  he  throws  them  away. 

For  more  than  a  hundred  years  great  attention  has  been 


NO  STRAGGLERS.  127 

paid  in  Germany  by  many  families,  in  different  provinces, 
to  the  rearing  of  a  stock  of  horses  especially  suited  to 
the  wants  of  cavalry,  and  the  result  has  produced  an 
abundance  of  horses  of  excellent  quality,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  cavalry  purposes. 

NO  STRAGGLERS. 

The  streets  are  free  from  stragglers,  and,  although  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  are  seen,  they  move  along  with  an  air  of 
business.  The  theatres  are  closed;  the  restaurants  are 
conducted  under  restrictions ;  and,  while  every  body  is 
cheerful,  there  is  no  trifling,  and  nobody  out  of  place. 
This  results  from  having  a  regular  organization  for  every 
thing,  previously  perfected,  where  every  man  fits  easily 
into  his  place  and  quietly  does  his  work.  How  different 
from  Nashville  during  our  war,  a  city  of  nearly  the  same 
number  of  inhabitants,  and  also  a  great  head -quarters ! 
There  we  had  special  details  for  every  thing — courts, 
boards,  staff  duty,  hospital  and  prison  service,  and  for  a 
thousand  other  quasi  civil  employments,  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  effective  fighting  strength,  and  of  good  discipline. 
This  rabble  of  military  out  of  place  supported  several  the- 
atres and  other  places  of  amusement,  while  the  streets  were 
filled  with  men  in  uniform,  not  always  orderly,  and  with 
the  air  of  people  without  much  to  do.  Here  every  body 
has  work.  A  minister  of  the  king,  or  the  general-in-chief, 
going  to  a  meeting  of  the  Government,  carries  his  port- 
folio under  his  arm,  and  is  attended  by  a  single  orderly. 
The  crown  prince  rides  to  the  front  accompanied  by  two 
aids  and  as  many  orderlies,  and  generals  of  divisions  and 
army  corps  are  usually  attended  by  one  staff  officer  and  an 
orderly ;  while  the  king  himself  drives  with  a  less  guard 
than  escorted  the  commanders  of  our  small  armies.  I 
never  see  here  the  spectacle,  so  common  in  the  first  two 


128  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

years  of  our  war,  of  a  general  thundering  along  the  street 
with  a  whole  cavalcade  at  his  heels,  making  the  dust  fly 
and  every  body  run  for  life. 

Nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  perfect  unanimity 
manifest  everywhere.  There  is  no  bickering  of  any  kind, 
or  questioning  of  orders,  and,  from  the  king  to  the  last  re- 
cruit, a  single  purpose  prevails — to  secure  the  success  of  the 
German  arms.  Some  questions  have  arisen  as  to  the  con- 
sideration due  the  minor  states,  especially  Baden,  for  their 
greater  hardships  and  losses  in  battle,  but  nothing  that  in 
any  way  impairs  friendly  feeling,  or  breaks  the  harmony 
of  military  operations. 

KERATRY'S  SUCCESS. 

Nov.  ISth. — The  partial  success  of  Keratry  toward  Or- 
leans has  closed  another  period  of  the  war,  and  what  re- 
mains is  scarcely  more  than  German  occupation,  inter- 
spersed with  considerable  sharp  fighting.  This  affair  has 
awakened  the  Germans  from  a  little  torpor  and  over-secu- 
rity, resulting  from  a  long  series  of  successes.  The  Metz 
army  is  already  disposed  so  as  greatly  to  strengthen  the 
besieging  force  about  Paris,  making  the  fall  of  that  city 
certain,  while  leaving  detachments,  under  Prince  Frederick 
Charles,  to  overcome  the  Army  of  the  Loire,  and  occupy,  if 
necessary,  other  portions  of  France. 

Having  seen  every  phase  of  this  army — its  organization, 
composition,  system  of  supply,  drill,  discipline,  conduct  in 
battle,  and  methods  of  living  on  the  march,  in  the  field,  and 
in  cantonment — I  will  proceed  to  Berlin,  carrying  ample 
authority  from  the  Prussian  Government  for  gaining  from 
the  bureaux  there  all  the  information  that  I  may  desire. 
The  siege  is  becoming  monotonous  beyond  expression. 
Even  I,  who  every  day  have  rny  appointed  work  with 
some  officer,  who  kindly  gives  me  his  attention,  find  the 


WHO  ARE  HERE.  129 

time  weighing  heavily.  The  newspaper  people,  who  are 
recognized  and  given  the  first  social  place  here,  and  are 
often  English  lords  or  generals  of  the  army,  find  it  a  diffi- 
cult task  to  spin  out  a  few  incidents  into  a  column  of 
matter  for  their  papers.  The  members  of  the  American 
ambulance,  so  fresh  and  manly,  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  young  Frenchmen  in  the  streets,  gather  in  knots  about 
the  hotel  door,  all  waiting,  like  Wilkins  Micawber,  for 
something  to  turn  up. 

THE  ENGLISH  PRESS  has  taken  a  much  higher  stand 
than  that  of  our  own  country.  It  lacks  our  enterprise, 
but  employs  better  talent ;  is  more  careful,  and  is  looked 
upon  much  more  as  a  guide  of  public  opinion.  It  is  not 
so  partisan,  and  gathers  about  it,  as  contributors,  the  bright- 
est men  of  the  land.  Several  of  the  leading  papers  have 
medical,  military,  and  political  representatives  here. 

WHO  ARE   HERE. 

At  evening,  some  one  of  the  foreigners  who  enjoys  the 
luxury  of  a  convenient  suite  of  rooms  invites  this  element 
of  the  society  of  Versailles  to  pass  the  evening  with  him. 
No  gatherings  could  be  more  agreeable.  Our  distinguished 
friend  W.  H.  Kussell,  known  as  "Bull  Eun"  Eussell,  whom 
we  could  not  permit  to  speak  the  truth  about  ourselves, 
perhaps  tells  more  and  better  stories  than  any  living  En- 
glishman. Captain  Kingston,  an  Englishman  also,  and  a 
Eugby  boy,  now  of  the  Austrian  army,  is  remarkable  in 
music.  D.  0.  Home,  the  spiritualist,  is  good  in  recitation  ; 
and  Sidney  Hall,  the  well-known  illustrator  of  the  Graphic, 
a  graduate  of  Oxford,  contributes  his  quota  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  party.  Coffee  and  cognac  fill  up  the  pauses 
of  conversation,  and  the  evening  hours  fly  swiftly.  These 
parties  usually  break  up  with  arrangements  for  the  next 
morning's  breakfast,  where  friends  arrange  further  pro- 


130  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

grammes.  Every  body  here  has  a  calling  which  occupies 
most  of  the  day.  It  was  my  good-fortune  to  meet  this 
morning  at  the  breakfast-table  Mr.  John  Skinner,  who  will 
be  remembered  by  many  as  of  the  'suite  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  when  in  America,  and  Mr.  J.  Scott  Kussell,  the 
builder  of  the  Great  Eastern,  whose  clear,  broad  views  and 
well-stored  mind  make  him  an  attractive  and  interesting 
companion.  He  has  the  high  forehead,  black  eyes,  and 
thin  English  face  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  and  is  one  of 
that  important  class  of  English  thinkers  who  seek  to  un- 
fold the  hidden  laws  of  nature,  and  apply  them  to  the 
practical  good  of  man.  He  expressed  the  opinion  that  in 
future  the  military  strength  of  nations  must  be  found,  not 
in  standing  armies,  but  in  the  ability  to  always  keep  pre- 
pared material  of  war,  ready  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of 
men  at  the  approach  of  hostilities.  I  replied  that  it  might 
be  found  rather  in  the  ability  to  produce  material  of  war 
at  the  approach  of  hostilities,  as  in  this  age  of  rapid  im- 
provement we  are  at  any  time  liable  to  find  our  work  of 
to-day  superseded  and  made  comparatively  valueless  by 
the  inventions  of  to-morrow. 

An  occasional  dull  boom  from  one  of  the  forts  about 
Paris  is  all  of  war  we  hear;  and  when  we  ride  to  the  front, 
the  same  monotonous,  quiet  watching,  and  the  same  spry 
work  at  gabions  and  fascines,  is  all  we  see.  The  short 
sword,  hung  at  the  waist,  is  all  that  is  used  for  this  work, 
even  to  the  cutting  down  of  trees  eight  inches  through. 

WHAT  THE  TROOPS  ARE  DOING. 

Nov.  I&h. — I  went  to-day,  by  invitation  of  the  chief  of 
artillery,  to  the  front,  near  Garches,  where  a  good  view  of 
the. city  of  Paris  is  had.  It  is  about  four  miles  from  Ver- 
sailles, and  the  first  three  are  through  the  public  forests  of 
St.  Cloud.  The  roads  have  been  carefully  made,  and  are 


PARIS  FROM  THE  LINES.  131 

well  drained  and  macadamized.  These  forests  are  pain- 
fully silent — not  a  living  thing  but  an  occasional  magpie 
breaking  the  death-like  stillness.  As  we  near  the  front, 
and  pass  the  little  village  of  Yauenessau,  two  light  bat- 
teries are  seen  encamped  in  a  neighboring  field.  It  has 
rained  considerably  during  the  past  three  days,  and  their 
camp  has  the  drowned  appearance,  with  dirt  bespattered 
on  every  thing,  so  easily  recognized  by  all  our  officers  of 
the  late  war.  Nowhere  have  I  seen  so  complete  a  du- 
plicate of  similar  experiences  in  the  South.  As  we  go 
on,  through  the  deserted  grounds  of  a  country-house,  we 
pass  a  party,  under  a  major,  felling  the  timber,  and  trim- 
ming it  into  impassable  abattis.  This  is  the  first  time  I 
have  seen  this  about  Paris,  and  it  is  only  recently  that  it 
has  been  begun.  But  it  is  out  of  the  question  for  these 
people  to  be  idle,  and  so  they  work  away,  each  day  mak- 
ing the  investment  closer.  I  have  seen  no  good  axemen 
in  Europe ;  and  here  they  cut  down  the  trees  with  cross- 
cut saws.  We  proceed,  and  pass  successively  the  battalion, 
the  platoon,  the  guard,  and  at  last  arrive  at  the  single  sen- 
tinel, carefully  concealed,  peeping  over  a  wall.  We  are 
cautioned  not  to  show  ourselves,  but  peep  over  also ;  and 
before  us  lies  Paris. 

PARIS  FROM  THE   LINES. 

The  new  opera-house,  from  its  great  height,  and  the  ab- 
rupt offset,  by  which  the  upper  story  is  made  to  seem  set 
upon  the  tops  of  the  other  buildings,  is  the  most  promi- 
nent object  in  that  portion  of  the  city  in  which  it  is  situ- 
ated, while  in  the  Latin  Quarter  the  Pantheon  overtops 
every  thing.  Between  these  comes  Notre-Dame,  with  its 
two  truncated  towers,  the  Invalides,  with  its  gilded  dome, 
the  Tuileries,  the  Palais  d'Industrie,  the  Madeleine,  besides 
many  other  well-known  landmarks,  and,  beyond  the  whole, 


132  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Montmartre  and  Pere  la  Chaise.  This  is  my  last  view  of 
Paris  for  many  years,  and  very  likely  some  of  these  grand 
and  beautiful  structures  will  crumble  into  dust  and  thin 
air  before  my  next  visit. 

NO   BATTERIES    IN   POSITION. 

As  I  look  about  me  all  along  this  front,  I  see  a  slight 
epaulement  thrown  up  in  many  places,  to  repel  sorties,  but 
I  notice  no  batteries  for  large  guns  anywhere.  I  do  not 
believe  that  there  is  a  single  gun  in  position  about  Paris, 
nor  that  any  good  could  come  from  their  use,  nor  that  it 
has  been  the  policy  at  any  time  to  open  a  general  bom- 
bardment. A  few  shots  will  probably  be  fired  into  the 
city,  to  let  the  citizens  know  how  completely  they  are  in 
the  power  of  their  adversaries,  but  nothing  more  will  be 
done.  In  returning  by  another  route,  we  found  the  entire 
woods  of  St.  Cloud  filled  with  stacks  of  gabions  and  fas- 
cines. Thousands  of  cords  of  them  cumber  the  ground  in 
every  direction.  It  seems  to  be  thought  best  to  have  an 
abundance  of  material  on  hand  ready  for  any  future  use. 

Nov.  Wth.— After  breakfasting  with  the  crown  prince,  I 
took  my  leave  of  him,  bearing  many  kind  messages  from 
him  to  Mr.  Bancroft  at  Berlin,  of  whom  he  spoke  in  the 
most  flattering  terms.  He  expressed  many  regrets  at  not 
being  able  to  visit  America,  which  he  said  he  ought  to  have 
done  in  earlier  life,  but  that  he  was  now  too  old  to  think 
of  it,  referring  of  course  to  his  increasing  political  respon- 
sibilities, due  to  the  age  of  his  father,  which  make  his  pres- 
ence near  the  seat  of  Government  at  all  times  imperative. 

LEAVING  VERSAILLES. 

\ 

Nov.  19$. — I  left  Versailles  on  the  17th,  in  company 
with  an  officer  of  the  East  India  service,  coming  to  Nau- 
tem,  the  terminus  of  the  Strasbourg  Railroad,  a  distance  of 


RAILWAY  TERMINUS  SUPPLIES.  133 

fifty  miles,  in  two  days.  The  route  is  desolate,  as  the  peo- 
ple have  left  the  neighborhood  of  the  line  of  coifcmunica- 
tions.  It  is  here  that  the  French  destroyed  a  tunnel  half 
a  mile  in  length.  The  Germans,  after  a  month  spent  in  re- 
pairing it,  abandoned  the  work,  and  are  now  laying  a  tem- 
porary track  around  the  hill.  In  improving  and  repairing 
railroads  and  bridges,  the  Germans  have  done  nothing 
worthy  to  be  compared  with  our  own  work  during  our 
war,  but  this  may  be  due  to  want  of  time  necessary  to  gain 
experience  in  such  matters.  I  do  not  remember  that  we 
performed  in  the  first  three  months  of  the  war  any  achieve- 
ment in  this  direction  equal  to  those  of  later  date. 

RAILWAY   TERMINUS  SUPPLIES. 

This  is  the  railway  terminus,  from  which  is  supplied  an 
army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men ;  and  what  do  the  sup- 
plies consist  of?  Acres  upon  acres  of  ammunition,  shot, 
shell,  and  cartridges,  and  such  articles  of  necessary  food  as 
the  country  does  not  afford,  the  newly  arriving  mail,  and 
nothing  else.  Whoever  has  seen  the  stores  for  our  armies 
during  our  war  can  not  have  forgotten  the  numberless 
kinds  of  merchandise,  of  all  possible  descriptions  and  uses, 
brought  together  and  known  by  the  general  term,  "  quar- 
termaster's property."  They  embraced  every  thing,  from 
a  cambric  needle  to  a  complete  set  of  quarters  ready  to  put 
up.  The  accumulation  at  Nashville  and  Chattanooga  in 
the  last  year  of  the  war,  when  the  advent  of  peace  was 
plain  to  every  one,  is  past  belief.  There  were  thousands 
of  tons  of  property,  having  but  the  remotest  relation  to 
military  matters.  It  is  true,  that  our  troops  required  to 
be  re-clad  in  the  field,  while  the  Germans  will  take  home 
most  of  the  clothing  they  wore  to  this  country;  but  this 
is  due  largely  to  the  superiority  of  their  all-wool,  well-made 
clothes  over  our  shoddy. 


134:  TEE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

;         A  NIGHT  AMONG-  THE   SOLDIERS. 

On  arriving  at  Kau.tem,  the  captain  in  charge  told  us 
that  the  train  would  leave  for  Strasbourg  in  half  an  hour. 
We  waited  vainly  until  after  dark,  when  the  rain  began  to 
fall.  "We  were  then  told  that  the  train  would  not  get  off 
until  next  morning.  The  quandary  about  the  night  would 
have  been  serious  enough,  as  there  was  not  a  public-house 
in  the  place,  had  not  a  soldier  standing  near  at  once  recog- 
nized our  dilemma  and  asked  us  to  accompany  him  into 
the  town,  where  he  would  provide  for  our  comfort  over- 
night. Calling  to  some  comrades  to  assist  with  the  bag- 
gage, he  led  the  way  in  the  pitch  darkness  along  the  paved 
street,  then  covered  with  an  inch  of  almost  fluid  mud,  to 
his  quarters  some  half  a  mile  away.  He  took  us  to  the 
second  story  of  a  house  of  very  respectable  appearance,  in 
the  two  front  rooms  of  which  were  quartered  himself  and 
five  comrades.  There  were  in  the  room  a  stove,  a  wash- 
stand,  and  upon  the  floor  beds  of  common  mattresses,  with 
blankets  for  six  men.  The  men  all  instantly  comprehend- 
ed the  situation,  and  in  the  shortest  possible  time  made  one 
of  the  rooms  unexceptionably  comfortable ;  while  one  be- 
gan to  prepare  our  supper,  and  another  went  out  to  bring 
us  some  bottles  of  wine. 

SOUP  SAUSAGE. 

In  a  few  minutes  a  pot  of  excellent  soup  was  made  from 
their  prepared  soup  sausage,  composed  of  ground  peas  and 
finely  chopped  ham,  flavored  with  garlic,  and  closely  press- 
ed and  dried.  With  the  soup  they  gave  us  bread  and  but- 
ter, and  thin  slices  of  fat  pork.  This  they  call  speck.  It 
is  very  excellently-cured  side-pork,  which,  instead  of  being 
fried  to  a  scrap,  and  three-fourths  of  it  thrown  away  as 
fat,  as  is  done  by  our  troops,  is  cut  in  thin  slices  and  eaten 


SOUP  SAUSAGE.  135 

cold  with  bread.  Their  bread,  which  I  have  often  tasted, 
is  not  light  and  sweet  like  ours,  but  is  always  clammy  and 
sour.  The  meal  was  soon  discussed,  and  a  more  satisfacto- 
ry one  I  never  partook  of.  We  slept  excellently,  and  in 
the  morning,  after  having  coffee  and  handsomely  remuner- 
ating our  hosts,  were  assisted  by  them  to  the  cars,  where 
they  took  leave  of  us,  with  many  hearty  good  wishes  for 
America. 


136  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  PRUSSIAN  ARMY. 

THE  origin  and  growth  of  Prussia  are  similar  in  many 
particulars,  to  those  of  the  United  States.  We  colonized, 
while  they  crystallized.  We  created  a  nation  by  the  vol- 
untary accretion  of  individuals ;  they,  by  attaching  whole 
communities,  with  their  lands  and  fortunes,  and  not  always 
with  their  consent.  The  work  was  done  in  each  case  with- 
in nearly  the  same  limits  of  time,  and  with  the  same  foster- 
ing care  of  the  moral  and  material  interests  of  the  people. 
While  both  nations  equally  promoted  general  education, 
the  United  States  neglected  the  science  of  arms,  and  Prus- 
sia made  of  it  a  leading  duty.  The  result  is  that,  as  their 
general  civilization  is  higher,  so  their  military  system  is 
more  efficient  -than  that  of  other  European  states.  How 
much  of  all  this  is  the  work  of  rulers,  and  how  much  is 
due  to  the  natural  evolution  of  human  character  and  senti- 
ment, it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss. 

THE  GREAT  ELECTOR. 

The  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick  William, 
was  the  real  founder  of  the  Prussian  nationality,  and  gave 
the  civilized  world  an  example  of  military  organization 
and  tactics  which,  until  within  a  few  years,  it  has  closely 
copied.  Under  the  able  but  despotic  rule  of  the  elector, 
from  1640  to  1688,  his  little  electorate  received  the  addi- 
tion of  the  Dukedom  of  Prussia.  The  aim  of  this  first 
great  Hohenzollern  was  to  advance  the  bounds  of  his  do- 
minion, and  to  elevate  the  condition  of  his  subjects!  Prus- 
sian policy  has  ever  since  been  directed  to  the  same  re- 


THE  GREAT  ELECTOR.  137 

suits.  Some  credit  is  due  a  family  of  almost  absolute  rul- 
ers, who  for  generations  have  labored  for  the  public  good, 
always  fostering  the  best  civilization,  and  winning  the  con- 
fidence of  neighboring  states,  till  all  of  North  Germany  has 
for  many  years  clung  to  Prussia  for  protection,  when  in- 
trigue threatened  within,  or  invasion  from  without.  The 
little  dominion  of  the  great  elector  soon  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  rallying-point  for  those  who  believed  in  the  com- 
ing unity  of  the  Fatherland ;  and  thus,  while  the  German 
Empire  was  dissolving,  Prussia  was  inaugurating  a  new 
life.  She  also  became,  like  our  own  beloved  land,  the 
home  of  the  oppressed;  and  no  less  than  two  hundred 
thousand  Protestant  Christians,  driven  from  their  homes 
by  the  Inquisition,  found  here  liberty  of  conscience,  and, 
from  their  skilled  knowledge,  became  the  teachers  of  the 
Prussian  people  in  the  arts  and  practical  conduct  of  life. 

The  successor  of  the  great  elector  devoted  his  reign  ex- 
clusively to  the  moral  and  material  elevation  of  his  people. 
He  was  followed  by  Frederick  Yfilliam,  first  King  of 
Prussia,  who  perfected  the  military  art-,  and,  although  at- 
taching an  absurd  importance  to  the  size  of  his  men,  nev- 
ertheless left  to  his  son  the  finest  army  in  the  world.  His 
method  of  instructing  recruits  one  at  a  time,  called  by  us 
"  setting  up,"  and  known  by  others  as  "  swallowing  the 
ramrod,"  is  to  this  day  the  system  employed  by  all  civil- 
ized nations.  He  also,  in  1733,  by  parceling  his  domin- 
ions into  cantons,  and  assigning  to  each  the  duty  of  keep- 
ing up  a  regiment  to  its  effective  strength  from  its  own 
limits,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  magnificent  Prussian 
military  system  of  to-day.  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate 
the  importance  of  this  geographical  distribution.  It  con- 
nects the  army  with  the  very  framework  of  society,  en- 
lists local  pride  in  its  support,  and,  by  diffusing  respon- 
sibility, simplifies  the  administration  of  affairs. 


138  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


FREDERICK  THE   GREAT. 

It  was  left  for  Frederick  the  Great  to  raise  Prussia  to  the 
rank  of  a  first-class  power.  The  times  favored  his  ambi- 
tion ;  for  the  year  of  his  accession  saw  the  decease  of  the 
last  direct  male,  descendant  of  the  line  of  Hapsburg,  and 
a  young  and  inexperienced  woman  had  just  ascended  the 
Austrian  throne.  The  ten  years  which  followed  the  seiz- 
ure of  Silesia  were  occupied  by  Frederick  in  consolida- 
ting his  scattered  realm,  and  making  all  his  resources  avail- 
able for  the  struggle  which  he  already  foresaw.  The  real 
cause  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  which  now  followed,  was 
the  resolve  of  Austria  to  check  the  further  growth  of 
the  power  of  its  new  rival,  Prussia.  Various  were  the 
changes  of  fortune  which  befell  Frederick  for  the  next  six 
years.  He  wrote,  in  1762,  "  Success  alternated  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  The  victories  of  Kossbach,  Prague,  and 
Leuthen  were  overshadowed  by  the  disasters  of  Kolin, 
Hochkirch,  and  Kunersdorf."  He  seemed  at  times  to  de- 
spair of  any  issue  but  death  for  himself  and  desolation  for 
his  realm.  Yet  his  boldness  as  a  general  and  readiness  as 
a  tactician  remained  unimpaired  by  defeat.  These  qual- 
ities, with  the  excellent  training  of  his  troops,  his  great 
good-fortune  in  possessing  two  of  the  best  cavalry  officers 
ever  known,  Ziethen  and  Seidlitz,  and  the  moral  support 
of  Great  Britain,  at  last  saved  the  struggling  kingdom  from 
the  ruin  that  at  times  seemed  inevitable. 

Nothing  can  better  illustrate  the  condition  of  Prussia  at 
this  period  than  the  words  of  Frederick  himself:  "  The 
peace  awakens  universal  joy.  For  my  own  part,  being 
but  a  poor  old  man,  I  return  to  a  city  where  I  know  noth- 
ing but  its  walls;  where  unmeasured  toil  awaits  me;  and 
where  I  must  soon  lay  me  down  to  rest  in  that  place  in 
which  there  is  no  more  unquiet,  nor  war,  nor  misery,  nor 


FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  139 

man's  deceit.  The  nobility  is  in  the  last  stage  of  exhaus- 
tion ;  the  poor  man  is  ruined ;  countless  villages  are  burn- 
ed, and  many  towns  destroyed.  Prussia  is  like  a  man 
covered  with  wounds,  who,  weakened  by  severe  loss  of 
blood,  is  on  the  point  of  succumbing  to  the  excess  of  his 
suffering." 

The  position  of  Prussia  was  now  assured,  and  the  policy, 
steadily  followed  for  three  generations,  had  attained  its  first 
great  result.  The  obscure  electorate  was  to  hold  a  solid 
place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  thenceforth  to 
contend  with  Austria  for  German  pre-eminence.  A  long 
season  of  peace,  which  now  followed,  gave  Frederick  the 
much-needed  opportunity  to  foster  the  internal  improve- 
ments of  his  kingdom ;  but  he  did  not  for  a  moment  neg- 
lect to  put  his  army  again  on  the  most  perfect  war-footing. 
The  standing  forces  which  he  maintained,  and  handed  over 
to  his  successor,  were  little  less  than  those  which  Prussia, 
with  resources  more  than  three  times  as  great,  kept  in 
pay  before  the  late  war  with  Austria.  The  standing  army 
numbered  then  three  per  centum  of  the  population  of  Prus- 
sia— a  proportion  large  enough  to  supply  now  the  whole 
of  her  peace  army,  the  additions  required  for  war-footing, 
all  of  the  first  call  of  the  landwehr,  and  most  of  the  second 
call.  Frederick  never  lost  sight  of  the  two  grand  princi- 
ples of  his  policy  —  to  extend  Prussian  influence  in  Ger- 
many, and  to  humble  the  pretensions  of  Austria. 

In  his  advanced  years,  the  opportunity  again  occurred  to 
take  up  arms  against  Austria,  as  the  apparent  protector  of 
the  lesser  German  states  against  her  encroachments.  In 
1777,  an  elector  of  one  of  the  small  principalities  died  with- 
out heirs,,  and  left  a  complication  as  to  the  succession. 
The  Emperor  of  Austria,  by  virtue  of  some  collateral  con- 
nection with  the  deceased  prince,  asserted  a  claim  to  it, 
and  prepared  to  defend  his  right  by  force  of  arms.  Fred- 


140  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AHMY. 

erick,  either  unwilling,  from  growing  infirmity,  to  enter 
into  a  new  war,  or  seeking  to  preserve  the  appearance  of 
moderation,  prolonged  negotiations,  but  not  the  less  dili- 
gently prepared  for  hostilities. 

In  July  of  that  year,  he  suddenly  took  the  field,  after 
it  became  apparent  that  Austria  would  yield  to  nothing 
else.  The  campaign  which  followed  is  remarkable  for  two 
things — his  moderation,  in  contrast  with  the  reckless  strat- 
egy for  which  he  was  so  justly  famed,  and  the  striking  par- 
allel which  its  opening  affords  to  the  tactics  of  1866.  Its 
scene  lay  on  the  very  ground  where  Benedek  was  called 
to  oppose  the  recent  invasion  of  Bohemia.  In  1778,  Fred- 
erick entered  that  country  suddenly,  as  his  descendants  did 
eighty-eight  years  later.  Like  them,  he  had  an  "army  too 
large  for  a  single  movement  over  difficult  mountain  roads. 
His  commissariat,  although  a  masterpiece  of  organization 
for  that  age,  could  not  safely  be  relied  on  for  so  large  a 
force,  and  consequently  one-half  of  his  army  was  distrib- 
uted on  the  frontier  before  the  movement  began.  Half  of 
his  force,  led  by  himself,  moved  into  Bohemia  from  Glatz, 
through  Nachod  and  Skalitz,  while  the  remainder  entered 
by  the  line  of  the  Elbe.  They  found  the  roads  open 
through  the  mountain  passes,  as  the  Prussian  army  did  in 
1866,  and  moved  to  within  one  day's  march  of  the  junc- 
tion near  Gitschin,  important  then,  as  now,  as  the  crossing 
of  the  two  roads.  That  last  day's  march,  however,  was 
destined  never  to  be  made.  Austria,  sufficiently  apprised 
of  the  movement,  had  cleverly  posted  an  army  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  men  in  a  strong  defensive  position, 
well  chosen  to  prevent  the  Prussian  concentration,  and 
had  already  prepared  a  rough  line  of  intrenchments  of 
such  strength  as  to  deter  attack.  The  forces  of  the  kaiser 
occupied  a  line  about  seventy  miles  in  length,  formed  in 
the  general  direction  of  a  semicircle,  using  as  their  front 


SLUCHEK 

the  Elbe,  the  Iser,  and  some  hills  which  were  strength- 
ened, wherever  necessary,  by  double  and  treble  lines  of 
palisades,  escarpments,  and  redoubts.  Frederick  thorough- 
ly reconnoitred  the  entire  length  of  this  line,  and  with- 
drew after  a  single  weak  attempt  upon  one  point.  There 
are  many  theories  to  account  for  this  failure,  but  no  view 
is  more  satisfactory  than  that  the  king  had  undertaken  a 
campaign  which  required  the  separation  of  his  forces,  with- 
out first  providing  adequately  for  their  junction.  The  ene- 
my took  advantage  of  this  fatal  weakness  in  his  plan  of 
campaign,  and  defeated  the  effort.  The  next  six  weeks 
were  spent  in  gathering  meagre  supplies,  which  consisted 
mostly  of  potatoes,  from  the  thin  belt  of  country  between 
the  enemy  and  the  mountains  in., the  Prussian  rear,  which 
gave  the  campaign  the  historic  name  of  the  "  Potato  War." 
Frederick  now  retreated,  finding  great  difficulty  in  carry- 
ing away  his  immense  trains,  which,  however,  Austria  did 
not  disturb,  fearing  to  push  any  success  which  might  be 
within  her  grasp,  for  the  reason  that  Prussia  appeared  now 
as  the  champion  of  the  smaller  German  states.  Negotia- 
tions for  peace  were  at  once  entered  into,  and  ended  in  the 
renunciation  by  Austria  of  claims  on  Bavaria,  and  a  money 
indemnity  to  the  minor  states,  while  Prussia  was  satisfied 
with  the  position  of  protector  of  the  lesser  German  states, 
and  the  practical  admission  by  Austria  that  her  political 
acts,  outside  of  her  own  limits,  must  in  future  depend 
upon  the  consent  of  Prussia. 

BLUCHER. 

The  successors  of  Frederick  used  the  magnificent  mili- 
tary force  bequeathed  to  them,  until  the  wars  with  the  first 
Napoleon,  to  strengthen  Prussia's  influence  with  the  neigh- 
boring states.  A  personage  destined  long  after  to  render 
to  his  country  valuable  service  now  begins  to  be  heard  of. 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Dismissed  from  the  army  fifteen  years  before  for  ques- 
tioning the  justice  of  a  promotion  over  him,  Blucher  had 
retired  to  his  home  in  Pomerania,  when  his  case  was 
brought  to  the  notice  of  King  Frederick  William  II.,  who 
restored  him  to  the  army  with  the  rank  of  major.  Per- 
haps a  better  cavalry  officer  never  held  a  rein. 

A  mighty  tempest  was  now  gathering  in  the  West. 
The  ancient  empire  of  the  kaiser  was  to  be  laid  prostrate 
by  French  republican  armies,  and  the  strong  Northern 
kingdom,  got  together  with  such  care  and  energy  by  Ho- 
henzollerns,  was  to  be  brought  lower  still,  and  for  years  to 
wear  the  chains  of  the  conqueror.  A  new  general,  with  a 
new  system  of  warfare,  was  to  eclipse  the  achievements  of 
Frederick,  and  confound  the  armies  he  had  trained.  A 
bolder  and  more  unscrupulous  diplomacy  than  the  great 
elector's  was  to  change  the  whole  map  of  Europe.  The 
revolution  and  Napoleon  came,  and  the  shadow  went  back 
on  the  dial  of  Prussian  progress.  Prussia,  with  scarcely 
eight  millions  of  people,  was  for  a  long  time  unwilling  to 
take  any  decided  step  against  the  new  order  of  things  in 
France.  Not  until  the  sacred  right  of  kings  was  attacked 
in  the  person  of  Louis  XVI.,  after  his  flight  to  Varenne, 
did  the  king  move  to  the  rescue.  He  then  roused  himself 
from  an  almost  indolent  life,  mingled  freely  in  diplomacy, 
and  proposed  to  join  the  Austrian  emperor  in  an  armed  in- 
tervention. 

The  influence  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  those  days  al- 
most surpasses  belief.  His  instructions  were  considered 
the  perfection  of  military  precepts ;  his  administration  was 
copied  in  its  minutest  details,  though  its  spirit  had  passed 
away  with  the  author;  and  his  generals,  however  old, 
were  deemed  necessarily  masters  of  their  art.  The  troops 
of  the  empire  for  the  first  time  moved  to  the  order  of 
Prussian  commanders ;  and  the  force  which  entered  Cham- 


BLUCHEK.  143 

pagne  in  1792,  was  thought  by  friend  and  foe  irresistible, 
because  made  up  largely  of  Prussian  battalions.  An  easy 
march  to  the  French  capital  was  considered  certain. 
Boastful  proclamations  were  issued ;  contempt  was  ex- 
pressed for  their  foe ;  and  a  careless,  ill-directed  advance 
soon  met  at  Yalmy  the  fate  so  often  dealt  out  to  overcon- 
fident, proclaiming  commanders. 

The  Prussian  staff,  relying  too  much  on  the  promised 
support  which  they  nowhere  met,  threw  aside  the  prudent 
but  cumbrous  arrangement  of  magazines,  by  which  Fred- 
erick had  always  prepared  for  his  offensive  movements, 
and  led  their  troops  into  an  inhospitable  country  in  bad 
weather,  where  they  perished  by  thousands  for  lack  of  sup- 
plies. On  meeting  the  enemy,  the  vacillation  of  the  com- 
manders proved  the  ruin  of  the  expedition  and  the  turn- 
ing-point of  the  revolution.  Henceforth  the  republican  ar- 
mies increased  rapidly  in  morale  and  numbers,  and  a  new 
system  of  tactics  was  formed,  destined,  under  Napoleon's 
master-hand,  to  replace  that  which  Frederick  had  be- 
queathed to  Europe,  and  to  overthrow  the  army  of  each 
great  power  in  turn.  The  failure  of  the  Prussian  troops 
was  as  great  a  surprise  to  Europe  as  was  the  collapse  of 
Austria  in  1866.  Goethe,  who  was  on  the  battle-field,  dis- 
cerned at  once,  with  his  keen,  intuitive  sagacity,  the  change 
which  had  occurred  in  the  forces  of  the  world. 

In  1794,  the  insurrection  of  the  Poles,  under  Kosciusko, 
gave  opportunity  for  withdrawing  from  an  alliance  in  which 
Prussia  had  no  heart,  and  she  gladly  seized  it.  The  treaty 
of  Basle  soon  followed,  and  the  great  German  powers  were 
compelled  to  admit  the  claim  of  the  republic  to  advance 
her  borders  to  the  Rhine.  Prussia,  still  mindful  of  her 
rivalry  with  Austria,  offered  the  guaranty  of  neutrality  to 
any  of  the  smaller  German  states  which  would  withdraw 
from  the  alliance,  and  many  of  them  were  thus  induced  to 


144  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

retire  from  the  contest.  During  this  war,  so  inglorious  to 
Prussia,  where,  excepting  the  part  taken  by  Colonel  Blu- 
cher,  disasters  befell  her  everywhere,  her  influence  and 
power  both  rapidly  sank.  With  the  exception  of  the  offi- 
cer just  named,  every  Prussian  commander  seemed  weak 
and  imbecile.  The  men  also  appeared  to  have  lost  all  the 
qualities  of  the  soldiers  of  Frederick  except  stiffness.  In 
spite  of  the  severe  system  of  conscription,  enforced  by 
heavy  penalties,  a  trade  in  permits  of  absence  had  long 
been  established  as  a  perquisite  of  captains.  Those  who 
would  pay  well  were  exempted  from  service,  the  bribes 
received  being  used  in  part  to  attract  an  inferior  class  of 
recruits  into  the  ranks  of  an  army  made  thoroughly  dis- 
tasteful in  time  of  peace  by  an  iron  discipline  maintained 
in  every  detail.  Inferior  troops,  thus  brought  together  by 
a  corrupt  system  of  exemption  substitutes,  were  command- 
ed by  officers  without  youth,  hope,  or  love  of  their  profes- 
sion— commonplace  veterans  who  had  served  with  Fred- 
erick, and  to  whom  war  was  a  mere  trade,  or  the  scions 
of  princely  houses  of  the  smaller  states  which  Prussia 
wished  to  propitiate.  So  enlisted,  trained,  and  command- 
ed, the  army,  once  acknowledged  the  best  in  Europe,  was 
now  the  least  fit  for  vigorous  war. 

The  growing  enthusiasm  in  republican  France,  spring- 
ing from  a  political  fanaticism,  and  sustained  through  the 
sternest  want  by  hope  of  promotion  and  riches,  was  fast 
preparing  her  army  to  sweep  away  the  proud  battalions  of 
Prussia.  Frederick  William  III.  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1797.  For  ten  years  he  continued  a  selfish  policy  of 
neutrality,  viewing  complacently  the  repeated  humiliations 
of  Austria  in  the  belief  that  he  saw  in  them  gain  for  Prus- 
sia, till  at  last  the  time  came  when  it  was  necessary  to  take 
sides.  Eussia  combined  with  Austria  to  check  the  grow- 
ing power  of  Napoleon,  and  each  party  sought  a  passage 


BLUCHER.  145 

through  Prussian  territory.  This  right  of  transit,  which 
was  refused  to  the  czar,  Napoleon  seized  without  asking. 
The  march  of  Bernadotte  through  Anspach,  on  his  way  to 
Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  produced  such  indignation  in  Prussia 
as  to  shake  the  royal  power,  and  showed  plainly  the  tend- 
encies of  popular  feeling. 

The  visit  of  the  czar  to  Berlin  was  at  once  followed  by 
the  withdrawal  of  the  French  minister,  Duroc.  Napoleon 
had  reason  to  expect  the  Prussians  on  his  line  of  commu- 
nications, but  the  sword  of  Brandenburg  proved  rusty  in 
its  scabbard,  and  the  maintenance  of  an  overgrown  stand- 
ing army  had  overtaxed  the  nation's  strength  without  fit- 
ting it  for  ready  defense.  Before  the  needful  preparations 
were  made  for  taking  the  field,  and  the  last  vestige  of  the 
king's  vacillation  removed,  the  great  venture  of  Auster- 
litz had  been  made  and  lost  by  those  who  could  wait  no 
longer  for  Prussia. 

On  the  15th  of  December,  the  day  Frederick  William 
had  fixed  for  declaring  war  against  Napoleon,  his  ambas- 
sador accepted  at  the  latter's  hand  the  much-coveted  prize 
of  Hanover.  The  offer  of  this  bribe  at  first  staggered  the 
conscience  of  the  king ;  but  he  soon  yielded  to  the  urgen- 
cy of  Napoleon,  and  decided  to  take  it.  This  degrading 
acquisition  soon  proved  to  be  no  free  gift.  Bavaria  was 
enlarged  at  the  expense  of  Prussia,  and  other  provinces 
were  seized  to  make  a  new  duchy  for  one  of  Napoleon's 
brothers-in-law.  Humiliations  were  heaped  upon  her,  and 
from  the  rank  of  a  great  power  she  suddenly  found  her- 
self fallen  to  the  condition  of  an  appanage,  and  her  mon- 
arch treated  as  a  vassal.  Yet  she  had  made  no  struggle 
and  suffered  no  defeat,  had  looked  on  unscathed  while  her 
neighbors  bled,  and,  without  one  honorable  wound,  now 
found  herself  isolated,  exposed,  humbled,  and  unpitied. 
The  people  would  endure  this  no  longer.  Noble,  burgher, 

10 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  peasant  alike  felt  the  thrill  of  patriotism,  and  a  tem- 
pest of  passion  swept  over  the  nation.  Without  counting 
the  cost  or  the  odds,  Frederick  William  was  forced  into  the 
struggle  he  dreaded ;  and  Prussia,  single-handed,  faced  Na- 
poleon with  his  devoted  and  well-tried  army.  Planted  al- 
ready, by  Bavarian  permission,  within  easy  distance  of  the 
decisive  points,  armed  with  superior  numbers,  and  flushed 
with  victory,  the  French  rushed  on  the  flank  exposed  by 
the  rash  advance  of  their  enemy ;  and  the  battle  of  Jena 
was  fought  and  won  almost  within  sight  of  the  little  hill 
of  Kossbach,  which  had  given  name  to  French  defeat 
half  a  century  before.  With  a  rapidity  almost  incredi- 
ble, the  kingdom  was  overrun,  the  remainder  of  its  army 
annihilated,  and  its  cities  occupied.  Blucher,  though  sur- 
rounded by  imbecility  and  cowardice,  fought  fiercely  to 
the  last. 

The  servile  worship  of  Prussian  models  was  changed  to 
an  unreasoning  contempt  for  them.  Keduced  as  Frederick 
was  to  a  single  city  and  a  few  square  miles  of  territory,  he 
refused,  while  a  gleam  of  hope  was  left,  to  submit  to  the 
harsh  terms  required  of  him.  His  troops  gave  valiant  and 
hearty  support  to  their  allies  on  the  bloody  field  of  Eylau, 
but  the  fearful  mistake  at  Friedland  sufficed  to  bring  about 
the  abandonment  of  the  unhappy  kingdom,  which  followed 
on  the  celebrated  armistice  of  Tilsit.  Stripped  of  half  her 
territory,  the  rest  a  field  for  French  tax-gatherers  and  pa- 
rade-ground for  French  troops,  the  history  of  Prussia  for 
the  next  six  years  was  a  record  of  submission  to  a  mas- 
ter whose  chains  she  had  no  power  to  shake  off.  Her 
revenues  were  swallowed  up  by  foreign  exactions;  her 
army  reduced  to  a  mere  corps  by  decree  of  Napoleon ;  her 
means  of  rising  against  the  oppressor  to  all  appearance 
hopelessly  gone. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  sketching  the  outline  of 


SHORT  TERMS  OF  SERVICE. 

Prussian  history  up  to  the  conquest  by  Napoleon,  in  or- 
der to  introduce  the  account  of  those  subsequent  measures 
which  laid  the  foundation  of  her  present  military  strength, 
and  to  show  the  folly  of  dependence  upon  any  system  of 
the  past,  however  effective  it  may  have  been  in  its  day. 
Our  own  army  at  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion,  and 
the  present  army  of  the  French,  content  as  it  has  been  for 
half  a  century  to  rest  upon  its  fame  with  the  first  Napo- 
leon, are  cases  in  point.  An  army,  to  be  of  value,  must 
possess  the  true  national  spirit  of  its  time,  and  be  allied 
in  sympathy  to  the  people;  otherwise  the  profession  of 
arms  is  reduced  to  a  mere  trade,  and  becomes  an  incubus 
and  a  danger,  because  it  induces  a  false  security. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  PRESENT  GREATNESS  OF  PRUSSIA. 

During  the  degradation  of  Prussia  there  were  those 
among  her  statesmen  who,  knowing  her  past  history  and 
inherent  qualities,  never  despaired  of  her  better  destiny, 
and  set  to  work  with  unremitting  toil  to  accomplish  it. 
Stein,  her  best  minister,  sought  to  elevate  the  peasantry, 
by  improving  their  legal  status,  fostering  a  higher  morality, 
and  effecting  domestic  reforms. 

SHORT  TERMS  OF   SERVICE. 

Schoenhurst,  the  war  minister,  did  a  no  less  effective 
work,  by  devising  a  system  of  short  terms  of  service  in 
the  regular  army,  with  a  constant  supply  and  discharge  of 
recruits,  on  which  the  present  organization  of  the  Prussian 
army  rests,  and  which  gave  such  splendid  results  in  1813, 
'14.  Patiently  these  great  men  bided  their  time,  unmoved 
by  the  presence  of  calamity  or  the  untimely  ardor  of  such 
men  as  Blucher,  who  fretted  himself  into  illness  at  his  en- 
forced inaction.  They  observed  grimly  the  exactions  of 
Duroc  and  the  brutal  violence  of  Davoust,  and  watched 


148  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AJRMY. 

among  their  countrymen  the  growth  of  that  heroic  type 
of  character  which  is  bred  in  the  school  of  adversity. 

The  hour  of  French  defeat  and  Prussia's  opportunity 
finally  came.  At  first  the  king  was  inclined  to  temporize, 
but  a  torrent  of  popular  feeling  swept  him  on.  He  then 
put  himself  boldly  at  the  head  of  the  movement,  and  di- 
rected it  with* wisdom.  Blucher  was  summoned  from  re- 
tirement, the  command  of  the  chief  army  committed  to  his 
hands,  and  a  staff  formed,  skillful  to  guide,  and  moderate 
to  control,  the  ardor  which  might  expose  his  force  to  too 
great  dangers.  Disaster  and  suffering  had  been  no  less 
useful  in  schooling  Prussia's  army  than  her  people,  and 
had  effaced  all  minor  differences.  Her  infantry  had  been 
trained  to  a  light  system  of  tactics,  their  weapons  modern- 
ized, her  staff  and  leading  officers  selected  solely  for  their 
efficiency,  while  England  engaged  to  supply  all  the  mate- 
rial needs  of  the  soldiery.  After  a  long  year  of  struggle 
and  victory,  the  Prussian  ensigns  were  carried  in  triumph 
into  Paris. 

Another  year  had  scarcely  passed  when  Prussia  was 
seen  in  the  van  of  Europe,  striking  a  second  time  at  the 
throne  of  the  common  enemy ;  and  history  will  always  re- 
cord as  one  of  the  most  timely  and  complete  of  military 
movements  the  work  of  Blucher  upon  the  flank  of  the 
French  at  Waterloo.  It  now  became  necessary  for  Prus- 
sia to  reform  her  military  establishment.  The  foundation 
of  the  system  had  been  laid  by  Schoenhurst  during  the 
years  of  Prussia's  subjugation.  Napoleon  had  decreed 
that  Prussia  should  have  an  army  of  but  forty  thousand 
men,  but  no-thing  was  said  as  to  length  of  service.  By 
limiting  the  term  of  enlistment  to  six  months,  Prussia 
was  enabled  during  each  year  to  return  to  their  homes 
eighty  thousand  well-disciplined  and  instructed  soldiers, 
which  in  the  final  struggle  gave  her  five  times  as  many 


LOCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARMY  CORPS.  149 

veterans  as  were  counted  on  by  the  allies,  and  enabled  her 
to  take  the  lead  in  their  operations.  This,  with  the  plan 
laid  down  by  the  father  of  the  great  Frederick,  by  which 
each  regiment  was  furnished  by  a  particular  district,  gave 
the  key  to  the  future  organization  of  her  army. 

LOCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARMY  CORPS. 

To  this,  on  which  the  landwehr  system  is  still  based, 
Frederick  now  added  many  improvements,  one  of  which 
was  to  distribute  the  various  branches  of  the  service  in  due 
proportion  over  the  respective  districts,  so  as  to  enable 
him  to  make  the  troops  of  each  province  an  independent 
army  corps  complete  within  itself,  and  to  prohibit  entirely 
the  procuring  of  recruits  from  abroad.  This  gave  the 
Prussian  army  a  distinctive  national  character,  which  has 
been  strictly  maintained  ever  since.  The  materials  which 
Stein  and  Schoenhurst  got  together  were  ready  to  the 
hands  of  the  Government,  and  patriotism  did  the  rest. 
The  bonds  of  paternal  government  had  been  greatly  loos- 
ened, and  confidence  much  impaired  by  the  presence  of 
foreign  armies  in  the  country,  holding  and  controlling  ev- 
ery thing;  and  the  great  minister  Stein  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  this  feeling  to  inculcate  a  spirit  of  national  and  in- 
dividual sacrifice.  Great  political  reforms  had  been  intro- 
duced, the  last  remains  of  serfdom  abolished,  the  peasant 
enabled  to  inherit  and  hold  land  in  his  own  right,  and  the 
towns  given  enlarged  municipal  privileges.  Taxation  was 
equalized,  civil  offices  were  thrown  open  to  free  competi- 
tion, and  privileges  of  the  nobility  abolished ;  so  that  dur- 
ing this  period  of  apparently  hopeless  prostration,  Prussia 
made  immense  advances  in  her  inner  political  life.  The 
immediate  effect  of  these  reforms  was  a  vast  increase  of  na- 
tional spirit,  strength,  and  prosperity.  The  burden  of  mil- 
itary service,  imposed  on  all  cksses  with  an  impartial  hand, 


150  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

was  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course ;  and,  at  the  close  of  the 
struggle  of  1814,  there  was  a  general  desire  to  perpetuate 
a  system  which  had  restored  glory  and  freedom  to  the 
country.  The  foundation  of  the  permanent  constitution 
of  the  national  army  was  laid  by  the  remarkable  law  of 
1814,  which  for  more  than  forty  years  continued  in  force, 
and  which  in  its  preamble  declares  the  public  sentiment  to 
be  that,  "  In  a  lawfully  administered  armament  of  the  na- 
tion lies  the  best  security  of  lasting  peace."  All  former 
exceptions  in  favor  of  the  noblesse  were  at  this  time  abol- 
ished, and  every  native  of  the  state,  on  completing  his 
twentieth  year,  was  held  bound  to  enroll  himself  in  her 
defensive  force.  With  a  view  to  avoid  inconvenient  press- 
ure upon  the  professional  and  industrial  classes,  the  arm- 
ed force  was  to  consist  of  sections,  whose  service  should 
lessen  in  severity  with. length  of  service.  The  whole  sys- 
tem comprised,  first,  a  standing  army ;  second,  a  landwehr 
of  the  first  call;  third,  a  landwehr  of  the  second  call;  fourth, 
a  landsturm.  Although  changed  in  some  minor  particu- 
lars, this  arrangement  of  forces  is  still  adhered  to.  The 
standing  army  was  composed  of  young  men  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  years  of  age.  Three  years  of  the  term  of 
service  was  spent  with  the  colors ;  then  two  years  at  home 
on  furlough,  the  men  pursuing  their  usual  avocations,  but 
ready  at  the  first  sound  of  war  to  join  their  standards.  A 
most  important  provision  was,  that  young  men  of  the  edu- 
cated classes,  who  could  clothe  and  arm  themselves  for  one 
year,  might  spend  that  period  in  the  rifle  corps  or  light-in- 
fantry, and  then  at  once  enter  the  landwehr.  This  clause 
was  introduced  to  save  the  wealthy  and  well-born  from  the 
degradation  which,  in  a  country  essentially  aristocratic,  the 
association  in  the  barrack-room  with  the  recruits  from  the 
lowest  classes  would  be  felt  to  occasion.  There  has  been 
built  upon  this  a  very  extensive  and  remarkable  feature 


THE  LANDWEHR.  151 

in  the  Prussian  service,  known  as  one-year  volunteerage, 
which  has  solved,  without  difficulty,  two  important  ques- 
tions. The  universality  of  the  conscription  law  has  been 
maintained,  without  opposition  from  the  better  middle  or- 
der, which  has  grown  rapidly  in  wealth  and  influence,  and, 
notwithstanding  its  strong  claims,  is  excluded  from  the 
higher  posts  of  the  army ;  and,  besides,  a  body  of  efficient 
officers,  trained  in  all  the  duties  of  the  line,  is  provided  for 
the  landwehr,  without  expense  to  the  state. 

The  landwehr  of  the  first  call  was  intended  as  a  reserve 
support  to  the  regular  army  in  case  of  war,  liable  to  serve 
at  home  or  abroad,  but  in  time  of  peace  only  to  be  called 
out,  like  militia,  for  instruction  and  drill.  It  was  formed 
of  all  the  young  men,  between  twenty-one  and  twenty-six 
years,  not  in  the  regular  army ;  all  the  one-year's  volun- 
teers after  their  year  of  service,  and  the  rest  of  the  male 
population  up  to  their  thirty-third  year,  excepting  only 
such  as  had  already  served  twelve  years  in  the  army. 

The  second  call  of  the  landwehr  was  intended  for  garri- 
son troops,  and,  in  case  the  first  two  classes  were  all  re- 
quired in  the  field,  might  be  summoned  to  re-enforce  the 
regular  army.  This  call  embraced  all  members  who  had 
passed  through  the  regular  army  and  first  call,  and  all  oth- 
er males  up  to  their  fortieth  year.  Their  drill  was  only 
by  company,  for  occasional  instruction  in  their  own  neigh- 
borhoods ;  and  provision  was  made,  in  case  of  a  change  of 
residence,  for  enrollment  in  the  regiment  nearest  to  the 
new  domicile. 

The  landsturm  was  composed  of  all  male  inhabitants, 
between  seventeen  and  fifty,  not  included  in  the  three  oth- 
er classes.  It  could  be  called  out  only  in  provinces  actu- 
ally invaded,  and  not  there  except  by  roj^al  decree.  It 
could,  however,  be  used  for  civil  purposes,  such  as  for 
posses  to  marshals ;  but  no  provisions  were  made  for  if 


152  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

drills,  and  it  existed  only  as  a  paper  organization.  The 
priesthood  only  were  exempt  from  service.  Even  the  sons 
of  the  king  served  as  one-year  volunteers.  These  volun- 
teers might  choose  their  arm  of  service,  were  encouraged 
to  live  in  respectability,  and  allowed  to  wear  plain  clothes 
when  not  on  duty,  and  employ  servants  to  clean  their 
equipments.  The  law  allowed  an  alteration  of  the  term 
of  service  in  the  various  classes  in  time  of  war,  if  desir- 
able. Soldiers  who  desired  to  re-enlist  for  a  second  term 
were  permitted  to  do  so  after  serving  three  years,  and  then 
wore  a  distinguishing  badge ;  and,  after  a  second  re-enlist- 
ment, received  a  higher  rate  of  pay,  and  the  right  of  pen- 
sion if  invalided.  The  same  rule  held  good  in  the  land- 
wehr,  continuance  in  service  entitling  the  soldier  to  pro- 
motion if  his  qualifications  justified  it.  A  special  commit- 
tee, composed  of  one  military  officer,  one  civil  magistrate, 
and  one  landed  proprietor,  was  created  for  each  regimental 
district,  to  administer  the  recruiting  law.  Such  were  the 
outlines  of  the  enactment  which  the  war  of  independence 
established.  For  more  than  forty  years  this  compact  be- 
tween government  and  people  was  fairly  maintained,  al- 
though the  other  portions  of  the  wise  legislation  of  the 
Stein  ministry  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  reactionary 
party,  which  rioted  in  all  the  courts  of  Europe  after  the 
final  overthrow  of  Napoleon.  The  people  were  contented 
with  a  military  administration  which  fell  evenly  upon  all, 
and  imposed  a  moderate  tax  on  their  resources.  One 
hundred  and  thirty  battalions  of  infantry,  one  hundred 
and  fifty-two  squadrons  of  cavalry,  one  hundred  and  two 
companies  of  artillery,  and  a  few  battalions  of  engineers, 
comprised  the  regular  army.  The  landwehr  of  the  first 
call  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  sixteen  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, having  each,  permanently,  a  commander  and  an 
adjutant,  the  one-year  volunteers  furnishing  the  remaining 


THE  LANDWEHR.  153 

officers.  They  were  superficially  drilled,  and  only  occa- 
sionally called  together.  The  one-year  volunteer  clause 
probably  saved  the  law  through  the  long  years  of  peace 
that  followed.  Without  this,  it  would  have  been  insuffer- 
able to  the  people,  after  the  miseries  of  their  subjugation 
had  been  forgotten  and  the  keen  sense  of  the  need  of  a 
good  army  blunted.  But  a  system  that  gives  service  and 
education  in  place  of  a  conscript's  fine  needs  no  defense. 

The  workings  of  a  law  so  radical  and  universal  devel- 
oped some  phenomena  worthy  of  notice.  The  law  made 
no  provision  for  officering  the  regular  army.  The  original 
exemption  of  the  nobility  from  conscription  by  Frederick 
almost  implied  that  they  would  enter  the  service  as  offi- 
cers. Practically,  until  the  war  of  independence,  no  one 
else  was  made  eligible  to  these  positions,  and,  although 
this  exclusive  privilege  was  then  abolished,  yet,  by  a  rule 
which  required  all  candidates  for  a  commission  to  be  ac- 
cepted or  rejected  by  the  votes  of  the  officers  of  the  regi- 
ment itself,  the  army  has  retained  to  the  present  day  this 
distinctive  characteristic.  The  officers,  although  general- 
ly poor,  do  not  thereby  lose  their  social  standing.  Any 
young  man  may  enter  as  a  one-year  volunteer,  before  the 
end  of  the  year  pass  all  the  necessary  examinations,  and, 
upon  exhibiting  university  degrees,  will  have  the  legal  right 
to  apply  for  an  ensign's  commission.  Here  his  prospects 
will  end,  unless  he  be  of  aristocratic  birth ;  for,  although 
the  commission  is  nominally  given  by  the  Government,  he 
must  appear  before  the  committee  of -his  regiment,  whom 
he  must  satisfy  not  only  as  to  his  professional  qualifica- 
tions, but  as  to  his  means,  his  freedom  from  debt,  and  his 
parentage  and  general  morality.  The  result  has  been  to 
make  of  the  Prussian  service  the  closest  corporation  ever 
known,  and  it  can  not  in  this  form  last  much  longer. 
After  the  war  of  1866,  a  few  promotions  were  made  from 


154:  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

the  ranks,  in  the  manner  practiced  by  us,  but  the  officers 
so  appointed  did  not  find  their  positions  endurable,  and 
have  since  all  been  transferred  to  various  branches  of  the 
civil  service.  Many  of  the  noble  families  are  almost  with- 
out means,  except  what  they  receive  from  the  Government ; 
and,  since  the  civil  service  has  been  thrown  open  to  all 
classes,  the  aristocracy  are  all  the  more  tenacious  of  their 
supposed  hereditary  right  to  officer  the  army.  There  is  a 
single  exception  to  this  plan  of  officering  the  regular 
forces.  The  graduates  of  the  royal  cadet  schools,  which 
furnish  about  one-twelfth  of  the  officers  required,  are  com- 
missioned by  the  king,  and  the  regiments  have  no  right 
to  reject  them ;  but  as  these  men  are  the  elite  of  the  mili- 
tary schools,  say  one  in  five,  and  enjoy  the  special  favor  of 
the  king,  they  are  as  far  separated  from  the  people  as  the 
hereditary  aristocracy,  with  whom  they  are  at  once  ad- 
mitted upon  a  social  equality.  The  present  king  and  his 
predecessor  have  leaned  upon  the  aristocracy  as  against 
the  trading  classes,  and  this  has  given  the  nobility  in- 
creased importance.  These  needy  people,  dependent  en- 
tirely upon  the  king  for  preferment,  with  no  income  but 
their  scanty  pay  for  military  service,  and  separated  from 
the  people  by  birth,  habits,  and  profession,  are  apt  to 
widen,  by  offensive  personal  bearing,  the  distance  which 
in  Prussia  more  than  in  any  other  country  separates  the 
soldier  from  the  civilian.  This  may  be  looked  upon  as 
the  most  dangerous  question  now  existing  in  German  pol- 
itics, and  one  which  must  soon  bring  about  strife,  as  the 
people  will  not  much  longer  consent  to  fill  a  secondary 
place.  Such  a  military  caste  can  be  endured  only  while 
external  strife  makes  readiness  for  service  the  paramount 
consideration  ;  but  in  the  long  and  prosperous  peace  which 
must  follow  the  unification  of  Germany,  this  question  will 
surely  be  reached,  and  the  claims  of  the  people  must  be 


OFFICERING  THE  ARMY.  155 

admitted.  The  common  assumption,  that  predominance  of 
monarchical  and  aristocratic  ideas  is  a  necessary  corollary 
of  the  present  war  is  founded  neither  on  fact  nor  reason. 

True  democracy  has  taken  such  root  in  Germany  as  to 
be  certain  of  final  success  and  vindication,  and  at  no  time 
has  the  sentiment  grown  more  rapidly  than  in  war.  Ob- 
servation of  other  countries,  unless  it  be  our  own  under 
like  circumstances,  affords  us  no  criterion,  for  never  before 
have  we  seen  a  nation  at  war  where  the  people  were  all 
enlightened,  and  indoctrinated  with  sentiments  of  liberty. 
Kepublican  Germans  have  often  told  me,  "The  war  of 
1866  and  the  present  one  are  doing  our  work  more  rap- 
idly than  we  could  do  it  ourselves.  When  unity  is  estab- 
lished the  shell  of  aristocracy  must  break  up."  The  three 
strong  points  of  the  Prussian  system  are  universal  service, 
suffrage,  and  education.  This  trio  is  carrying  the  nation 
on  with  a  momentum  that  an  effete  system  of  aristocracy 
can  no  longer  resist. 

OFFICERING  THE  ARMY. 

For  the  past  fifty  years,  there  has  been  no  opening  for 
a  military  career  to  the  people,  except  in  the  landwehr. 
Promotion  from  the  ranks,  as  understood  by  us,  is  un- 
known. Excepting  this  special  feature,  the  plan  of  officer- 
ing the  Prussian  army  is,  without  doubt,  the  best  yet  de- 
vised. By  far  the  greater  number  of  officers  enlist  and 
serve  six  months  in  the  ranks  of  a  regiment,  not  as  com- 
mon soldiers,  but  as  admitted  candidates  for  commissions, 
as  will  be  shown  in  the  discussion  of  military  schools.  A 
reformed  scamp,  by  entering  the  ranks,  as  in  the  English 
service,  or  a  decently  intelligent  conscript  who  shows  brute 
courage  in  battle,  as  in  the  French,  can  make  no  claim  for 
promotion  to  a  position  for  which  he  is  unfit.  Nor,  as  in 
the  American  service,  is  a  law  which  was  intended  to  en- 


156  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

courage  enlistment  and  elevate  the  service,  by  giving  a 
portion  of  the  commissions  as  second  lieutenants  to  men 
in  the  ranks,  defeated  by  enlisting  young  gentlemen,  not  to 
be  soldiers,  but  to  fulfill  the  letter  of  the  law  and  become 
officers. 

OFFICERING  THE  LANDWEHR  AND   ONE-YEAR  VOLUNTEER- 
AGE. 

In  the  landwehr  promotions  in  the  lower  grades  are 
freely  thrown  open  to  the  people,  but  in  time  of  war  the 
battalions  are  placed  under  command  of  regular  officers. 
The  Government  has  done  much  to  render  attractive  this 
one-year  system  of  volunteering,  by  which  the  landwehr 
is  officered,  and  is  thereby  enabled  without  expense  to 
train  up  a  large  body  of  well-instructed  and  available  men. 
For  a  long  time  the  one-year  volunteer  course  has  been 
considered  a  part  of  the  education  of  the  sons  of  every 
manufacturer,  proprietor,  professional  .man,  and  well-to-do 
shop-keeper.  Only  those,  however,  who  show  great  indus- 
try and  special  fitness  are  selected  and  prepared  for  com- 
missions. A  board  sits  twice  in  each  year  to  receive  the 
credentials  of  candidates,  and  issue  the  necessary  warrants. 
They  require  certificates  of  birth,  evidence  of  good  charac- 
ter, bond  of  parent  or  guardian  to  pay  the  necessary  costs, 
and  certificates  of  teachers  showing  the  behavior  of  the 
candidate  at  school.  Evidence  of  any  dishonorable  conduct 
is  fatal  to  the  application.  If  these  papers  are  satisfactory 
the  certificate  is  granted,  after  the  applicant  has  passed  a 
medical  examination.  In  the  case  of  candidates  from  the 
universities,  first-class  royal  schools,  and  some  other  schools 
specially  designated,  a  personal  appearance  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  but  with  respect  to  applicants  who  have  not 
enjoyed  such  advantages  an  actual  examination  is  required. 
A  knowledge  of  German,  French,  mathematics,  geography, 


LANDWEHR  OFFICERS  AND   ONE -TEAR  VOLUNTEERS.    157 

and  history,  and  the  elements  of  natural  history  and  phys- 
ics, is  necessary ;  but  the  commission  has  wide  discretion 
in  varying  these  requirements  according  .to  the  intended 
occupation  of  the  candidate.  Those  designed  for  trade  are 
excused  in  Latin,  while  young  men  who  elect  to  serve  in 
the  cavalry  and  are  good  horsemen,  are  passed  lightly  in 
scientific  subjects.  In  fact,  there  is  no  great  difficulty  in 
getting  permission  to  serve  the  state  at  one's  own  ex- 
pense. 

It  is  a  rule,  in  matters  both  civil  and  military,  to  take 
advantage  of  fitness  for  special  pursuits.  Young  men  in 
garrison  towns,  if  competent,  find  no  difficulty  in  gaining 
their  warrants,  and  commandants  are  directed  to  accept  all 
who  present  themselves  with  warrants;  but  at  all  other 
places  only  four  cadets  are  allowed  to  each  company.  The 
candidate  is  a  cadet  attached  to  a  company  for  instruc- 
tion. He  is  required  to  attend  all  parades  and  drills,  and 
study  such  lessons  as  may  be  assigned  him ;  but  otherwise 
his  life  is  easy  enough.  He  wears  a  simple  distinctive 
badge,  and  may  have  his  uniform  of  fine  fabric,  and  live 
according  to  his  circumstances.  His  military  duties  are 
generally  finished  by  twelve  o'clock,  and  he  can,  if  he  de- 
sires, devote 'the  remainder  of  the  day  to  his  civil  educa- 
tion, and  continue  his  university  course,  or  preparation  for 
a  profession,  just  as  if  he  were  not  in  the  service.  If  a 
young  man  of  birth  and  fashion,  he  gains  admittance  to  all 
the  .gayeties  of  the  place,  like  an  officer  or  citizen  of  his 
own  class.  There  are  a  few  who  desire  to  know  more  of 
the  profession  of  arms,  and  to  these  every  encouragement 
is  given  to  prepare  themselves  to  become  the  future  officers 
of  the  landwehr.  They  are  formed  into  classes  of  twenty, 
each  under  the  instruction  of  a  competent  officer.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  the  candidate  is  examined,  and,  if  he  passes 
satisfactorily,  becomes  a  corporal ;  and  the  higher  grades 


158  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

are  then  open  to  him,  under  regulations  governing  pro- 
motion in  the  landwehr,  provided  he  is  acceptable,  in  con- 
duct and  attainments,  to  the  officers  of  his  corps. 

A  WEAK  POINT  IN  THE  MILITARY  SYSTEM. 

Many  of  the  young  nobility,  who  do  not  wish  to  follow 
a  military  career  all  their  lives,  qualify  for  officers  of  the 
landwehr ;  but  most  of  these  commissions  go  to  the  sons 
of  manufacturers,  proprietors,  and  professional  men,  often 
citizens  of  large  means  and  local  influence,  but  outside  of 
the  "well-born"  class.  It  has  followed,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  that  the  growing  wealth  and  increased  influence  of 
the  middle  classes  have  given  a  political  character  to  the 
landwehr,  which  completely  divides  it  from  the  regular 
army,  and  at  times  makes  it  distasteful  to  the  crown. 

The  landwehr,  officered,  in  comparison  with  the  regular 
army,  by  men  of  more  substance  and  often  more  talent,  its 
ranks  filled  with  veteran  soldiers  of  equal  position,  riper 
age,  and  greater  influence,  becomes  naturally  the  more  pop- 
ular branch  of  the  service,  and  threatens  at  some  future 
day  to  become  a  power  in  the  state.  At  one  time  a  jeal- 
ousy sprang  up  on  either  side,  which,  although  of  little 
consequence  in  peace,  seemed  likely  to  paralyze  the  mili- 
tary power  in  the  emergencies  of  active  service.  The  tac- 
tical system  of  1814  contemplated  that  the  one  hundred  and 
sixteen  battalions  of  the  landwehr  of  the  first  call  should 
be  formed  into  brigades,  each  of  which  was  to  be  joined 
by  a  brigade  of  regulars,  and  thus  constitute  a  division. 
These  troops,  with  the  reserve  men  of  the  regular  battalions, 
gave  at  once  a  field  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  com- 
batants. The  ardent  spirit  of  patriotism,  caused  by  the 
rigor  of  French  exactions,  had  at  that  era  wiped  away  all 
class  differences,  and  rendered  the  system  in  the  highest 
degree  effective.  The  landwehr  regiments  long  after  en- 


A   WEAK  POINT  IN  THE  MILITARY  SYSTEM.  159 

joyed  a  proud  reputation,  gained  in  the  French  campaigns, 
which  made  commissions  in  them  objects  of  ambition  to 
the  large  and  highly  respectable  classes  from  which  the 
one-year  volunteers  were  supplied.  But  the  growing  po- 
litical differences  between  the  people  and  the  crown  caused 
the  king  to  distrust  the  landwehr,  which  was  in  consequence 
made  secondary  to  the  regular  army.  The  nation  had  again 
outgrown  its  military  system,  and  found  itself  carrying  an 
immense  military  mechanism,  no  longer  entirely  available 
for  purposes  of  defense  or  aggression.  The  patriotism 
which  made  the  system  adequate  in  1814  was  replaced  by 
forgetfulness  of  its  causes,  and  a  desire  for  domestic  ease  and 
industrial  pursuits.  Three  different  times  an  attempt  was 
made  to  use  the  old  system  —  once  to  anticipate  difficul- 
ties likely  to  arise  with  the  Elector  of  Hesse  Cassel ;  again, 
in  1854,  to  preserve  neutrality  with  the  Western  powers ; 
and  in  1859,  when  French  encroachments  seemed  to  make 
war  imminent.  Although  actual  hostilities  did  not  follow 
in  these  cases,  the  unsuitableness  of  the  old  system  became 
each  time  more  plainly  apparent.  The  landwehr  officers 
showed  jealousy,  both  of  the  regular  officers,  who  affected 
superiority,  and  of  the  staff  placed  over  them.  Thorough- 
ly educated  themselves  in  their  profession,  often  superior 
in  every  thing  except  the  accident  of  birth,  commanding 
veterans  and  endowed  by  the  laws  of  the  land  with  an  act- 
ual equality  with  the  regulars,  they  showed  dissatisfaction 
and  impatience  in  being  called  out,  and  particularly  in  cases 
where  the  object  was  not  thoroughly  supported  by  nation- 
al sentiment.  The  Government  saw  clearly  that  the  army 
could  not  be  relied  upon  to  win  the  prize  of  Prussian  su- 
premacy. Austria  must  be  dispossessed  of  her  influence 
in  the  German  Bund,  in  order  that  the  lesser  states  might 
gravitate  toward  strong  Prussia.  To  effect  this,  a  power- 
ful and  ready  force  was  indispensable. 


160  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


ARMY  REFORM. 

As  early  as  1848,  Major  Yon  Roon,  seeing  the  imper- 
fections of  the  existing  system,  laid  before  the  ministry  a 
plan,  since  adopted,  adapting  the  military  force  to  the  new 
condition  of  Prussian  politics.  During  the  next  ten  years 
the  question  of  army  reform  was  the  chief  subject  of  con- 
tention between  the  liberal  and  aristocratic  factions,  until, 
in  1859,  the  trouble  encountered  in  mobilizing  that  por- 
tion of  the  army  placed  upon  the  Rhine  as  a  menace  to 
France  gave  an  excuse  for  carrying  a  reform  measure 
through,  in  spite  of  the  constitutional  objections  made  in 
the  Lower  House.  This  movement  was  distasteful  to  the 
representatives  of  the  people,  because  it  was  carried  in 
open  disregard  of  their  right  of  granting  or  withholding 
supplies,  and  lowered  the  status  of  the  landwehr;  while  it 
gave  importance  to  the  regular  force  by  adding  to  their 
years  of  service,  and  enlarging  the  number  of  battalions. 
This  was,  of  course,  in  keeping  with  the  views  of  the  aris- 
tocracy, as  it  gave  them  promotion,  created  new  offices, 
and  greatly  increased  their  power  and  influence,  already 
on  the  wane.  During  the  next  year  the  national  force 
received,  by  the  will  of  the  executive,  the  long-wished-for 
changes;  and,  notwithstanding  the  next  six  years  of  re- 
monstrance from  the  House  of  Deputies,  the  new  system 
was  perfected,  and  maintained  in  every  particular. 

When  these  long  years  of  preparation  had  put  every 
man  in  his  place,  and  a  map  of  the  ground  to  be  passed 
over  into  the  pockets  of  every  staff  and  general  officer, 
and  when  every  bridge  along  the  line  of  operations  had  its 
exact  duplicate  on  the  frontier,  the  war  of  1866  came,  and 
in  seven  weeks  was  successfully  closed,  having  effectually 
broken  the  last  weak  tie  attaching  to  Austria  the  states  of 
Southern  Germany.  Not  until  now  were  the  king  and  his 


DETAILS  OF  THE  LAW.  161 

cabinet  justified  by  the  people  in  their  unconstitutional 
acts.  The  first  grand  scene  in  the  drama  of  German  unifi- 
cation was  successfully  closed,  and  Bismarck,  the  mouth- 
piece of  German  destiny,  became  the  virtual  ruler  of  his 
country. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  LAW. 

We  will  now  notice  how  this  important  change  of  or- 
ganization was  effected.  The  annual  supply  of  recruits 
drafted  into  the  line  of  the  army  was  changed  from  forty 
thousand  to  sixty  -three  thousand.  The  standing  army 
was  augmented  by  one  hundred  and  seventeen  battalions, 
seventy-  two  squadrons  of  cavalry,  thirty-one  batteries  of 
artillery,  eighteen  companies  of  engineers,  and  nine  battal- 
ions of  train  troops.  A  far  more  serious  innovation  was 
the  addition  of  two  years  to  the  soldier's  term  of  reserve 
service.  The  reserves  are  so  subject  to  calls  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, so  liable  to  drills  and  inspections,  that  they  are 
but  one  step  more  free  than  the  men  in  the  ranks.  The 
unpopularity  of  this  measure  was  complete  when  it  was 
learned  that  the  landwehr  were  in  future  to  form  no  part 
of  the  field  forces,  but  to  stay  at  home  as  garrison  troops. 
In  peace,  the  standing  army  was  now  as  large  as.  before  it 
would  have  been  with  the  whole  of  the  first  call.  In  war, 
the  new  plan  was  to  give  about  three  hundred  thousand 
infantry,  one  hundred  thousand  cavalry  and  artillery,  and 
the  first  call  one  hundred  thousand  more.  The  term  of 
service  in  the  first  call  was  shortened  three  years,  and  in 
the  second  call  two  years,  as  compensation  for  the  addi- 
tional years  in  the  reserves. 


OF  1866. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  narrate  the  constitutional  struggle 
which  followed  the  promulgation  of  these  orders.     The 

11 


162  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AHMY. 

popular  party  failed  to  shake  the  position  taken  by  the 
Cabinet ;  the  only  effect  of  their  efforts  was  to  precipitate 
a  foreign  policy  intended  to  bring  about  the  open  rupture 
with  Austria,  for  which  the  change  was  expressly  made. 
The  war  incident  to  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  al- 
though really  fought  for  the  same  general  purpose  of  con- 
federation under  Prussian  lead,  had  little  significance,  ex- 
cept as  a  training-school  for  the  coming  campaign  in  Aus- 
tria. The  army  was  now  officered  entirely  by  men  de- 
voted to  the  crown,  who  were  counted  upon  to  lead 
forward  the  admirably  disciplined  masses  of  the  regular 
army,  as  boldly  and  steadily  as  if  the  whole  nation  had 
urged  the  war;  while  the  landwehr  in  the  second  line 
could  effect  little  by  their  disapproval,  and,  in  case  the 
field  army  was  successful,  would  be  influenced  by  their 
natural  military  instinct  to  support  their  victorious  breth- 
ren. The  Austrian  infantry  was  conceded  to  be  better 
drilled,  but  their  personnel  and  arms  were  inferior.  It  was 
believed,  also,  that  her  generals  were  superior  in  experi- 
ence and  activity. 

Prussia's  system  of  promotion  by  seniority  had  placed 
in  her  highest  grades  men  past  the  age  when  a  general 
leads  his  troops  with  vigor;  and  many,  from  their  cam- 
paigns against  the  first  Napoleon,  enjoyed  chief  com- 
mands who  otherwise  would  have  been  long  before  re- 
tired. Among  these  were  Herworth,  Steinmetz,  and  Yo- 
gel.  On  the  contrary,  Austria's  wars  in  Italy  and  Hun- 
gary had  supplied  her  with  experienced  generals  in  the 
prime  of  life.  This  difficulty  Prussia  quickly  overcame. 
The  tradition  which  for  generations  had  made  soldiers  of 
her  princes,  was  now  of  great  service.  The  king  himself, 
an  active  soldier  all  his  life,  had  learned  to  recognize 
merit,  and  gathered  round  him  a  staff  of  the  highest  in- 
tellectual order;  while  the  crown  prince  and  Frederick 


THE  FIRST  TRIAL   OF  THE  BREECH-LOADER.          163 

Charles,  both  ill  vigorous  manhood,  had  already,  in  addi- 
tion to  careful  military  training,  shown  qualities  eminently 
fitting  them  for  high  command.  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
next  to  the  king  himself  and  Yon  Eoon,  who  formed  the 
plan,  had  been  the  most  earnest  advocate  of  the  army 
reorganization  and,  by  several  military  publications,  had 
evinced  such  devotion  to  his  profession,  and  such  insight 
into  military  affairs,  as  to  point  to  him  at  once  as  the  chief 
leader  in  the  field.  The  troops  in  the  front  line  were  di- 
vided into  two  grand  armies,  each  under  command  of  one 
of  the  royal  princes. 

The  intention  of  seizing  Saxony  made  it  necessary  to 
detach  a  sufficient  force  to  control  matters  in  that  direction, 
and  this  was  given  to  General  Herworth,  whose,  admirable 
management  kept  him  in  this  independent  command  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  This  triple  division  of  force  was  op- 
posed to  the  well-known  principles  of  war ;  but  the  use  of 
the  magnetic  telegraph  made  the  plan  safe,  and  the  whole 
was  given  in  charge  of  General  Yon  Moltke,  who  conduct- 
ed the  manoeuvres  of  this  army  with  a  regularity  and  cer- 
tainty which,  without  the  aid  of  electricity,  could  only 
have  been  secured  by  keeping  the  parts  together,  and  thus 
rendering  the  army  so  unwieldy  as  to  make  celerity  impos- 
sible. 

THE  FIRST  TRIAL   OF  THE  BREECH-LOADER. 

The  breech-loading  musket  was  now  to  have  its  decisive 
trial.  It  had  been  used  in  the  small  affairs  of  Baden  and 
Schleswig-Holstein,  but  there  were  many  who  decried  it, 
because  of  its  wastefulness  of  ammunition — the  precise  ar- 
gument so  often  used  in  our  country  by  incompetent  judges, 
who  fail  to  recognize  that  their  objection  relates  to  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  men,  and  not  at  all  to  the  qualities  of  the 
arm.  There  were  those,  however,  like  Prince  Frederick 


164  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Charles,  who  at  once  saw  its  decided  advantage,  and  by 
writing  and  practical  experiments  proved  clearly  its  won- 
derful superiority.  A  few  things  should  be  borne  in  mind 
in  the  use  of  these  arms.  The  rapidity  of  fire  is  so  great 
that,  in  receiving  an  enemy,  a  command  can  with  perfect 
safety  reserve  its  fire  until  they  are  within  five  hundred 
paces.  The  attacking  force  should  be  made  to  approach 
over  ground  where  they  can  not  take  advantage  of  cover. 
With  these  conditions,  well -trained  troops,  with  the  en- 
ergy and  tact  to  cover  their  front  with  a  slight  epaule- 
ment,  such  as  we  were  accustomed  to  make  during  the 
last  year  of  our  war  every  night  before  the  troops  rested, 
may  await  the  assault  of  an  adversary,  no  matter  in  what 
formation,  with  as  little  concern  as  the  approach  of  a 
picket-line.  It  is  safe  to  estimate  the  advantages  of  the 
breech  over  the  muzzle  loader  as  three  to  one.  In  its  use 
troops  must  be  well  controlled,  and  not  permitted  the 
same  liberty  of  firing  on  their  own  impulse  as  with  muz- 
zle-loaders. 

I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  digressing  in  this  matter,  as 
there  are  still  officers  of  our  service  who  croak  about  the 
waste  of  ammunition  with  the  new  arm.  Its  use  secures 
such  decided  advantages  as  should  forever  close  the  mouths 
of  all  who  now  oppose  it.  There  are  two  requisites  to  its  em- 
ployment— that  the  officers  should  control  the  fire  of  their 
men,  and  themselves  have  the  intelligence  to  know  when 
to  order  it.  There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  however,  that 
more  ammunition  will  be  used  in  every  engagement  than 
we  have  been  accustomed  to  use  with  the  old  style  of  arms. 
This  makes  it  necessary  to  consider  carefully  the  subject 
of  supplying  the  line  with  cartridges  from  the  ammuni- 
tion-trains a  little  distance  in  the  rear  of  the  engagement. 
Our  previous  want  of  any  system  in  this  matter  might, 
unless  remedied,  result  in  disaster  with  the  new  arm. 


OPERATIONS  AGAINST  FRANCE.  165 

The  Prussians  scarcely  used  their  arm  for  skirmishing, 
or  random  shooting,  either  in  1866  or  in  the  present  war, 
but  reserved  their  fire  for  close  quarters ;  and  about  Paris 
there  was  no  exchanging  of  shots  on  the  picket-line ;  nor 
was  their  attack,  made  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  upon 
the  very  slightly  intrenched  position  of  the  Austrians  at 
Sadowa  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  crown  prince  upon 
the  enemy's  flank,  of  any  avail.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
hope  for  success  in  attacking  an  intrenched  position  in  fu- 
ture, defended  by  firm  men  armed  with  the  new  breech- 
loaders. 

THE    GERMAN   ARMY   ENGAGED    IN    OPERATIONS    AGAINST 

FRANCE. 

I  have  endeavored  to  trace  the  historical  growth  of  the 
military  power  of  Prussia,  and  will  now  give  a  succinct 
sketch  of  her  army  as  we  find  it  to-day.  We  have  seen 
how  the  father  of  the  great  Frederick  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  present  system  by  dividing  his  domain  into  regi- 
mental districts ;  how,  in  a  later  day,  the  different  arms  of 
the  service  were  so  apportioned  to  the  provinces  as  to  give 
each  its  distinct  and  complete  army  corps;  how  French 
domination  suggested  expedients;  and  how,  the  country 
having  outgrown  that  system,  the  reorganization  of  1859 
came  about,  and  introduced  many  changes  and  improve- 
ments.* 

As  the  entire  North  German  Confederation  is  engaged 
in  the  war  with  France,  the  Prussian  army  is  only  one 
element  of  the  force  under  arms.  Every  young  man  in 
North  Germany  who  is  twenty  years  of  age  and  physically 
qualified,  is  a  soldier,  without  distinction  of  rank  or  wealth, 

*  In  this  discussion  I  have  followed  Colonel  Chesney  somewhat  closely, 
and  have  also  referred  frequently  to  the  "Seven  Weeks'  War,"  by  Captain 
Hozier,  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards. 


166  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  without  reference  to  the  number  or  size  of  regiments 
in  service  or  rated  size  of  the  army.  He  serves  with  the 
colors  three  years,vand  is  then  furloughed  for  five  years, 
unless  needed  in  time  of  war.  These  furloughed  men  are 
the  reserves,  and  are  called  out  during  war  whenever  re- 
quired. They  serve  in  the  landwehr  for  eleven  years. 

On  a  peace-footing  the  army  numbers  three  hundred  and 
nineteen  thousand  three  hundred  and  fifty-eight  men,  and 
on  a  war-footing  nine  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand 
three  hundred  and  twelve.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  com- 
posed of  five  hundred  and  eleven  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  seventy-six  field  troops;  one  hundred  and  eighty -six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-two  depot  troops ;  two 
hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  and  eighty-two  garrison 
troops;  and  nineteen  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  men  upon  staff  duty  and  in  military  schools.  This 
force  is  augmented  by  the  armies  of  the  South  German 
states  not  yet  absorbed  in  the  confederation,  as  follows: 
Bavarian  army,  eighty  thousand ;  Wiirtemberg,  thirty -four 
thousand  four  hundred  and  five;  Baden  army,  twenty 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty -two.  This  is  the 
German  army  that  assailed  France;  making  a  grand  ag- 
gregate of  one  million  one  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand 
four  hundred  and  thirty-nine. 

The  field  army  is  composed  of  twelve  army  corps  of  the 
line,  numbered  from  one  to  twelve,  and  one  of  the  guard, 
the  twelfth  corps  being  the  Army  of  Saxony  entire.  Each 
corps,  with  slight  variations,  has  two  divisions  of  infantry, 
one  of  cavalry,  sixteen  batteries  of  artillery,  and  a  military 
train.  Each  division  has  two  brigades,  and  each  brigade 
two  regiments.  Each  regiment  has  a  colonel,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  adjutant,  and  is  composed  of  three  battalions, 
each  of  which  has  a  major,  an  adjutant,  a  surgeon,  an  as- 
sistant-surgeon, a  paymaster,  a  quarter-master,  two  non- 


OPERATIONS  AGAINST  FRANCE.  167 

commissioned  staff  officers,  and  four  companies.  Each 
company  is  composed  of  one  captain,  one  first  and  one 
second  lieutenant,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  enlisted  men. 
A  cavalry  regiment  is  composed  of  twenty-three  officers, 
six  hundred  and  fifty-nine  enlisted  men,  seven  hundred 
and  thirteen  horses,  and  seven  carriages,  and  is  divided 
into  four  squadrons.  Each  division  of  cavalry  has  two 
brigades,  of  two  regiments  respectively,  and  to  it  are  at- 
tached four  batteries  of  artillery.  It  is  usual,  also,  to  at- 
tach a  regiment  of  cavalry  to  each  infantry  division. 

The  artillery  of  each  corps  forms  a  regiment.  As  it  is 
the  duty  of  this  branch  of  service  to  provide  arms  and 
ammunition  for  the  army,  thus  taking  the  place  of  our 
Ordnance  Department,  it  has  at  home  its  artillery  depot 
for  this  purpose.  On  mobilization,  each  regiment  forms 
nine  ammunition  trains — each  train  being  complete,  and< 
composed  of  two  officers,  one  hundred  and  twenty  men, 
one  hundred  and  seventy  horses,  and  twenty-five  wagons. 
It  has  a  reserve  ammunition  park  of  two  divisions.  Each 
has  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  men,  and  two  hundred 
and  sixty-four  carriages.  These  divisions  are  again  di- 
vided into  eight  trains  of  thirty-three  carriages.  These 
are  brought  to  the  field  of  operations  by  water  or  railway 
transportation. 

In  the  field  the  ammunition  wagons  follow  directly  in 
rear  of  the  field  army,  but  are  kept  entirely  separate  from 
the  field  batteries.  The  duty  of  these  wagons  is  to  bring 
up.  ammunition  from  the  reserve  trains.  Siege  trains  are 
made  up  for  their  special  purpose,  and  brought  on  the 
field  in  the  same  manner  as  the  divisions  of  the  reserve 
ammunition  park,  and  both  rely  on  procuring  animals  in 
the  country  to  haul  them.  The  nine  light  ammunition 
trains  march  directly  in  rear  of  the  corps,  while  the  two 
reserve  trains  follow  two  days  later.  They  are  so  organ- 


168  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ized  as,  if  detached,  to  form  two  divisions,  composed  of  one 
heavy  and  four  light  trains,  leaving  one  light  train  for  the 
cavalry.  To  each  corps  is  attached  a  battalion  of  riflemen 
and  one  of  engineers,  which  takes  with  it  a  train  loaded 
with  intrenching  and  construction  tools,  a  heavy  pontoon 
train,  and  a  light  bridge  train. 

The  peace  establishment  consists  of  about  three  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  men,  one  hundred  and  six  thousand 
horses,  twenty  thousand  of  which  belong  to  the  cavalry 
and  artillery,  and  nine  thousand  carriages.  It  is  formed 
of  army  corps  assigned  to  provinces,  and  each  composed 
of  two  divisions  belonging  to  the  two  halves  of  a  province. 
The  divisions  are  divided  into  brigades,  and  these  again 
subdivided  into  regiments,  which  are  further  divided  into 
battalions  formed  each  of  four  companies,  as  already  ex- 
plained, each  drawn  from  its  own  locality.  We  see  how 
this  organization  rests  on  the  very  foundation  of  society. 
The  commissariat  of  this  vast  army  is  decentralized,  sub- 
sistence for  each  corps  being  drawn  from  its  own  province; 
and  thus,  with  ample  railroad  transportation,  it  becomes 
as  simple  a  problem  to  feed  a  million  men  as  a  thousand. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  capacity  of  railways 
for  carrying  freight  under  a  perfect  organization,  and  by 
running  trains  in  convoys,  is  almost  unlimited. 

MOBILIZATION   OF   THE  ARMY. 

With  these  facilities  in  peace,  every  thing  is  kept  ready 
for  the  mobilization  of  the  army  for  war.  Every  officer 
and  every  civil  official  knows  what  will  be  his  part  when 
mobilization  is  determined  upon ;  and  the  moment  this  in- 
formation is  flashed  over  the  wires,  each  springs  to  his 
work  without  further  orders  or  explanation,  but  in  so  quiet 
and  regular  a  way  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable.  The  Gov- 
ernment may  decree  either  that  the  whole  or  a  certain 


MOBILIZATION  OF  THE  ARMY.  169 

number  of  the  army  corps  shall  be  mobilized,  and  the  fact 
is  at  once  announced  in  the  provinces  or  province  where 
mobilization  is  to  take  place.  The  general  commanding 
each  corps  at  once  mobilizes  it.  The  commandants  of  the 
fortresses  take  immediately  proper  steps  to  complete  their 
armaments,  and  the  heads  of  administration  supply  their 
needs  for  a  war  footing.  The  necessary  steps  are  exactly 
defined  and  thoroughly  understood,  and  each  officer  is  held 
responsible  for  the  proper  performance  of  his  duty.  It  is 
essential  to  the  smooth  working  of  this  mechanism  that  all 
its  parts  be  perfect;  hence  great  pains  is  taken  in  the  se- 
lection of  officers,  no  one  ever  receiving  a  commission  until 
he  is  positively  known  to  be  fitted  for  his  work  and  ac- 
quainted with  its  details.  Then,  with  a  centralized  power 
and  a  decentralized  administration,  wonderful  results  are 
accomplished. 

In  1866,  the  whole  field  army,  the  first  call  of  the  land- 
wehr  and  a  portion  of  the  second  call,  were  mobilized,  and 
six  hundred  thousand  men  put  under  arms  in  about  two 
weeks,  and  this  in  a  cause  so  unpopular,  that,  outside  of 
the  field  army,  "The  One  Man's  War,"  as  it  was  called, 
was  the  theme  of  constant  criticism  and  denunciation; 
and,  had  the  expedition  failed,  the  crown  would  have  been 
in  great  jeopardy. 

In  the  present  war,  within  four  days  from  the  decree  of 
mobilization,  forty  trains  daily  began  running  toward  the 
Ehine  frontier ;  and  in  a  fortnight  every  part  of  the  army, 
even  to  the  grave-diggers,  was  in  its  place.  A  large  num- 
ber of  horses  are  required  on  mobilization.  Of  these  Ger- 
many has  no  lack.  The  Department  of  Supply  may  at 
first  buy  them  of  contractors ;  but  in  case  this  means  fails 
to  secure  the  proper  number,  mixed  boards,  composed 
of  officers  and  civilians,  are  empowered  to  take  them  at  a 
just  valuation. 


170  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  army  is  mobilized  in  the  following  manner:  All 
orders  are  sent  by  telegraph  to  the  main  stations,  and  the 
civil  magistrates  are  required  to  serve  notices  upon  the 
necessary  reserves  at  their  homes  in  the  respective  magis- 
tracies. The  reserves  at  once  assemble  at  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  landwehr  of  the  district,  where  they  undergo  a 
medical  examination,  and  are  then  forwarded  to  their  prop- 
er regiments.  The  process  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
1st.  The  filling  up  of  the  field  army  to  its  war  strength ; 
2d.  The  formation  of  depot  troops ;  3d.  The  formation  of 
garrison  troops,  and  arming  the  fortresses;  4th.  The  mo- 
bilization of  the  field  administration ;  5th.  The  formation 
of  an  extensive  staff,  which  performs  home  duties,  while 
the  regular  field  staff  goes  with  the  field  army. 

To  complete  the  field  army,  a  portion  of  the  reserve 
soldiers  is  called  in.  There  is  usually  an  abundance  of 
them,  and  the  battalions  and  squadrons  are  easily  filled 
up.  Each  regiment  of  artillery  forms  its  nine  ammunition 
columns,  and  two  heavy  reserve  trains,  as  before  explained. 
Each  regiment  of  engineers  forms  its  trains  of  pontoons, 
tools,  and  bridges.  Arms  and  ammunition  are  drawn 
from  the  artillery  depots;  and  every  captain  of  a  compa- 
ny secures  horses,  as  he  is  required  to  be  mounted  in  war. 
Eegimental  trains  are  also  made  up.  They  are,  more 
properly  speaking,  battalion  trains,  each  battalion  having 
one  of  its  own — consisting  of  officers'  servants,  the  drivers, 
one  six -horse  ammunition  wagon,  one  four- horse  wagon, 
carrying  the  money-chest,  paymasters'  books,  and  material 
for  repairing  arms  and  clothing,  a  hospital  cart,  drawn  by 
two  horses,  a  four-horse  officers'  baggage-wagon,  and  four 
led  horses,  packed  with  the  books  of  the  four  companies. 
The  men  of  these  trains  are  mustered  as  train  -  soldiers. 
The  train  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry  is  not  very  different 
from  that  of  a  battalion  of  infantry. 


DEPOT  TROOPS. 


DEPOT  TROOPS. 

In  this  way  the  army  is  made  ready  to  take  the  field, 
and  we  find  in  its  ranks  only  men  who  pull  a  trigger,  or 
lanyard,  or  draw  a  sabre.  These  amount  to  more  than 
one  -half  of  those  who  receive  pay  and  wear  uniform. 
The  other  half  do  a  different,  but  equally  necessary  duty. 
These  latter  work  for  the  one  purpose  of  keeping  the 
ranks  of  the  fighting-men  always  filled.  Not  a  day  passes, 
after  mobilization  is  complete,  that  men  do  not  drop  out 
of  those  ranks.  Fatigue,  illness,  exposure,  and  a  thousand 
causes  at  once  commence  the  work  of  depletion.  The  first 
skirmish  sends  many  men  to  the  hospital,  and  in  the  first 
battle  many  are  lost  forever,  and  many  more  so  badly  in- 
jured that  the  army  can  not  wait  for  their  recovery.  Ad- 
equate means  are  taken  to  fill  their  places  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, and  restore  the  force  expended  in  overcoming  the  first 
obstacles  in  the  campaign. 

Accurate  statistics  have  shown  that,  at  the  close  of  the 
first  year,  forty  per  cent,  of  the  infantry,  twenty  of  the 
cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineers,  and  twelve  of  the  train 
troops  will  have  been  lost.  To  provide  for  this  waste, 
depot  troops  are  collected  as  soon  as  it  is  determined  to 
mobilize  the  army.  Each  infantry  regiment  has  a  depot 
battalion,  each  rifle  battalion  a  depot  company,  each  regi- 
ment of  artillery  three  light  and  one  heavy  depot  bat- 
teries, every  cavalry  regiment  a  squadron,  every  engineer 
battalion  a  company,  and  every  train-battalion  two  com- 
panies, all  of  the  full  regulation  strength.  These  all  re- 
cruit at  home,  and  replace  those  who  fall  at  the  front. 
One-half  of  the  depot  men  must  be  old  soldiers  of  the  re- 
serves, the  other  half  recruits  just  coming  into  service,  or 
men  already  with  their  colors,  but  not  sufficiently  instruct- 
ed to  take  the  field.  The  depot  troops  are  usually  offi- 


172  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

cered  by  those  who,  from  wounds  or  other  causes,  are  not 
able  to  go  to  the  field.  Four  weeks  after  the  field  army 
has  marched,  one-eighth  of  the  calculated  yearly  loss  is 
forwarded ;  and  on  the  first  day  of  each  succeeding  month 
another  proportionate  installment  leaves  for  the  scene  of 
active  operations.  If  the  command  has  been  engaged  in 
a  sanguinary  battle,  a  supply  of  men  estimated  to  be  neces- 
sary to  fill  the  ranks  is  at  once  furnished.  These  men  all 
go  from  the  depot  completely  armed  and  equipped,  those 
'  for  the  cavalry  taking  their  horses,  and  their  places  are  at 
once  filled  by  calling  in  other  reserves  or  landwehr. 

GARRISON  TROOPS. 

We  have  seen  how  the  field  army  is  made  up,  and  how 
depots  are  employed  to  keep  it  filled;  but  there  are  still 
domestic  fortresses  to  be  manned,  long  lines  of  communi- 
cation to  be  kept  open  and  guarded,  convoys  to  be  pro- 
tected, depots  of  supplies  watched,  prisoners  held,  and  po- 
sitions in  the  enemy's  country  garrisoned  after  they  are 
captured  or  occupied.  To  make  detachments  for  these 
purposes  would  waste  much  of  the  effective  force  of  the 
army,  and  unfit  it  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  main  ob- 
ject. To  obviate  this  garrison  troops  are  organized  from 
the  landwehr,  to  whom  are  assigned  all  these  duties,  and 
who  may,  in  case  of  need,  be  brought  forward  to  support 
the  field  army.  They  are  all  veteran  soldiers,  thoroughly 
drilled,  and  in  the  prime  of  life.  They  represent  the  av- 
erage public  sentiment  of  the  country,  and,  if  the  cause  is 
popular,  or  the  front  line  flushed  with  victory,  are  a  for- 
midable organization. 

FIELD  ADMINISTRATION. 

We  have  now  seen  the  army  in  complete  readiness  to 
fight,  assured  that  its  ranks  will  be  kept  full,  and  its  rear 


FIELD  ADMINISTRATION.  173 

protected,  but  we  have  used  an  immense  number  of  men 
for  this,  and  they  must  be  fed  every  day,  or  they  are  at 
once  helpless ;  and,  more  than  this,  this  food  must  be 
furnished  them  as  they  move  forward.  Then  there  must 
be  provided  medicines,  and  attendance  for  the  sick,  ap- 
pliances for  the  wounded,  and  means  of  conveying  the  dis- 
abled from  the  places  where  they  fall,  to  some  safe  spot 
where  they  may  receive  care  and  be  healed.  The  feeding 
alone  is  a  work  of  almost  inconceivable  magnitude.  The 
field  army  that  entered  France  contained  more  than  half 
a  million  of  men — more  than  half  as  many  as  the  popula- 
tion of  New  York  City;  as  many  as  the  population  of 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  combined ;  as  many  as  the  entire 
population  of  Georgia  or  Maine.  This  community  moves 
twenty  miles  farther  away  each  day,  and  their  food  must 
follow  them,  and  be  ready  for  distribution  when  it  ar- 
rives. 

The  transportation  which  follows  a  German  army  in  the 
field,  exclusive  of  the  wagons  of  each  battalion,  and  the 
.artillery,  engineer,  and  field-telegraph  trains  heretofore  de- 
scribed, is  divided  under  two  heads.  The  first  and  princi- 
pal^portion  is  attached  to  the  commissariat,  and  is  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  supplying  food  to  men  and  horses. 
The  second  portion  belongs  to  the  Medical  Department, 
and  carries  medicines,  hospital  stores,  and  means  for  the 
transportation  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  The  first  portion 
consists,  in  time  of  peace,  of  a  certain  number  of  wagons, 
which,  on  the  mobilization  of  the  army,  are  provided  with 
men  and  horses  from  the  military  train,  each  corps  hav- 
ing a  battalion  of  train  troops,  who  are  not  combatants. 
These  are  under  the  entire  control  of  a  principal  commis- 
sariat officer,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  who  is  attached  to 
the  head-quarters  of  each  corps.  Each  army  has  a  prin- 
cipal commissariat  officer,  who  is  a  member  of  the  staff. 


174  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AKMT. 

The  commissariat  columns  of  each  army  corps  are  five 
in  number,  each  of  which  has  two  officers,  twenty-eight 
men,  one  hundred  and  sixty-one  horses,  and  thirty-two 
wagons.  These  one  hundred  and  sixty  wagons  carry 
three  days'  provisions  for  every  man  in  the  corps.  As 
soon  as  the  wagons  which  carry  the  first  day's  supply  are 
emptied  they  are  sent  to  the  magazines  in  the  rear,  and 
must  be  again  with  the  troops,  to  give  them  their  fourth 
day's  food.  By  this  arrangement  no  army  can  move  more 
than  one  and  a  half  day's  journey  from  its  depots.  Each 
army  corps  takes  with  it  a  field  bakery,  as  flour  can  be 
more  easily  carried  than  bread.  This  bakery  consists  of 
ten  officers,  one  hundred  and  eighteen  men,  twenty-seven 
horses,  and  five  wagons.  A  small  depot  of  men  and  horses 
accompany  it.  This  force  is  distributed  among  the  troops 
as  is  most  convenient.  These  provision  trains  do  nothing 
in  the  way  of  gathering  food,  but  merely  bring  it  from  the 
depots  to  the  troops.  These  magazines  must  move  as  the 
army  moves,  and  means  must  be  provided  for  gathering 
food  into  the  depots.  So  long  as  railways  are  unbroken, 
and  trains  follow  the  troops,  no  difficulty  is  experienced ; 
but  as  this  is  not  always  the  case,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
gather  supplies.  For  this,  as  well  as  to  carry  hay  and  corn 
from  the  depots  to  the  horses  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery 
at  the  front,  an  immense  number  of  carts  and  wagons  are 
hired  in  the  country.  The  people  are  compelled  to  do  this 
service,  but  a  fair  compensation  is  paid  them  in  cash. 
This,  as  well  as  service  on  the  roads,  was  first  paid  for  in 
scrip,  to  be  settled  at  the  close  of  the  war ;  but  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  crown  prince,  these  people,  who  are  mostly 
needy,  and  have  families  to  support,  are  now  regularly 
paid  in  money.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  difficulty 
in  procuring  an  unlimited  quantity  of  this  rough  but  effi- 
cient transportation. 


OBSERVATIONS.  175 

Although  the  requisition  system  has  proved  immensely 
useful,  especially  in  France,  where  the  army  sometimes 
moved  sixty  or  seventy  miles  from  its  communications,  it 
is  considered  only  an  auxiliary  means  of  supply.  Req- 
uisitions alone  could  not  long  subsist  an  army,  as  it  would 
soon  eat  up  every  thing  in  the  country,  leaving  among 
the  people  starvation  and  disease,  which  would  be  quickly 
communicated  to  the  troops.  The  medical  train  which  ac- 
companies an  army  corps  consists  of  three  heavy  hospital 
trains,  each  of  fourteen  wagons,  one  hundred  and  fourteen 
men,  sixty-nine  horses,  and  eleven  surgeons,  and  three  light 
divisional  trains  for  hospitals,  elsewhere  described.  Each 
train  carries  every  thing  necessary  for  treating  men  in  the 
field,  and  for  establishing  field  hospitals.  Every  corps  has 
also  a  company  of  sick-bearers,  who  on  the  day  of  battle 
are  divided  among  the  troops.  Each  battalion  has  also 
ten  sick-bearers,  and  no  men  are  allowed  to  leave  the 
ranks  under  fire.  The  sick-bearers  convey  the  wounded 
but  a  short  distance  to  the  rear,  under  some  cover  from 
shots,  where  they  are  received  by  the  hospital  men. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

The  foregoing  is  a  sketch  of  the  general  system  upon 
which  the  German  army  is  organized  for  war.  What 
such  an  army  will  accomplish  in  the  field  depends  very 
much  upon  the  general  who  commands  it.  What  it  can 
accomplish  when  guided  by  a  skillful  hand  was  seen  in 
1866,  and  in  the  recent  war  with  France.  Every  Euro- 
pean state  has  a  bureau  for  the  purpose  of  gathering,  dur- 
ing peace,  statistics  of  all  foreign  armies.  When  war  is 
declared,  information  as  to  the  movements  of  the  enemy  is 
obtained  by  means  of  spies.  Although  many  persons  un- 
dertook this  service  in  the  French  and  Austrian  wars,  this 
system  had  not  a  tenth  of  the  importance  ascribed  to  it  by 


176  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

those  who  saw  a  spy  in  every  stranger,  and  treachery  in 
every  officer  who  was  unsuccessful.  Considerable  infor- 
mation is  gathered  from  deserters,  but  the  great  reliance  is 
upon  scouts  and  reconnaissances  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy.  This  service  has  been  done  remarkably  well,  the 
Uhlans  often  reaching  a  point  fifty  or  sixty  miles  in  ad- 
vance of  the  column.  The  telegraph  has  been  of  wonder- 
ful aid  in  transmitting  intelligence.  This  was  partially 
employed  in  1866;  and -during  the  present  war  its  use  has 
been  systematized  and  extended. 

One  can  scarcely  comprehend  the  grandeur  and  com- 
pleteness of  the  German  army.  There  has  been  .no  par- 
allel to  it ;  and  no  nation,  unless  favored  by  distance,  can 
hope  to  cope  successfully  with  it  in  war.  On  the  fifteenth 
of  July  war  was  declared  by  France.  On  the  seventeenth 
of  the  same  month,  Moltke  said,  "  Give  me  until  the  third 
of  August,  and  we  are  safe."  Just  three  days  later,  on  the 
sixth  of  August,  the  French  army  was  driven  back,  and 
the  Germans  began  their  march  into  the  very  heart  of 
France.;  and  so  complete  was  the  mechanism  of  the  entire 
army,  that  during  this  period  of  preparation  Moltke  never 
missed  his  daily  drive  in  the  "  Thier  Garten ;"  and,  al- 
though every  body  was  active,  there  was  no  confusion. 
The  Prussians  have  taken  lessons  from  every  modern  war, 
and  have  constantly  sought  improvement,  never  foolishly 
thinking  that  they  had  nothing  more  to  learn.  Their  tac- 
tics have  changed  with  the  requirements  of  service,  until 
now  very  little  remains  of  the  system  employed  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  Attacks  are  made  by  skirmish  lines  sup- 
ported by  small  columns,  covered  as  much  as  possible  by 
accidents  of  the  ground.  These  thin,  long  lines  usually 
overlap  the  flanks  of  the  enemy,  and  make  those  flank  and 
rear  attacks  which  have  proved  so  effective  in  this  and 
the  Austrian  war.  The  columns  are  brought  forward  and 


OBSERVATIONS.  177 

deployed  whenever  the  skirmish  lines  need  re-enforce- 
ments, or  concentrate  to  resist  a  counter  attack.  This  is 
an  application  of  the  same  principle  upon  which  the  siege 
of  Paris  is  conducted.  In  this  organization  every  thing  is 
foreseen  and  provided  for.  We  see  an  army  formed  to 
fight,  and  adjuncts  adapted  to  keep  that  fighting  army  in 
full  strength.  No  details  are  ever  made  from  it  for  any 
purpose  whatever,  but  its  efficiency  is  wisely  considered 
the  first  and  paramount  object,  and  to  this  end  every  thing 
is  subordinated.  The  best  men  are  put  in  it,  not  taken 
away  from  it ;  all  of  its  wants  are  anticipated,  and  all  gaps 
in  its  ranks  are  filled  as  soon  as  they  occur. 

How  different  was  the  case  in  our  war,  where,  no  sooner 
was  a  regiment  formed,  than  it  began  to  waste  away  from 
every  imaginable  cause.  We  had  no  system  of  recruiting, 
but  preferred  to  have  new  regiments  formed,  in  hope  that 
the  desire  of  gaining  commissions  would  promote  volun- 
teering. As  soon  as  our  regiments  arrived  at  their  posts, 
details  began  to  be  made  for  all  the  uses  of  administration 
— details  in  the  trains,  in  the  hospitals,  at  head-quarters, 
for  engineers,  for  telegraph  corps,  for  the  post-office,  for 
ordnance  duty,  for  permanent  hospitals,  for  store-houses, 
for  bake-houses,  as  clerks,  as  mechanics,  as  sick-bearers. 
Then  came  that  greatest  of  all  enemies  of  "fighting- 
strength  reports,"  a  quarter-master's  department,  well  de- 
scribed as  intended  to  do  all  manner  of  things  not  pre- 
scribed for  the  other  branches  of  the  service.  It  perform- 
ed its  part  effectually.  Its  greed  for  men  knew  no  limits. 
We  even  detailed  men  from  the  infantry  regiments  to 
serve  with  batteries.  The  worst  of  all  this  was,  that  so- 
called  staff  officers,  at  the  head  of  these  departments,  would 
by  some  means  learn  the  names  of  the  best  men  in  the 
regiments,  who,  by  their  character,  gave  tone  to  all  about 
them,  and  these  men  would  be  detailed  by  name,  until  a 

12 


178  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

regiment  would  be  left  at  the  end  of  six  months  with  a 
full  complement  of  officers,  a  thousand  men  on  its  rolls, 
and  about  three  hundred  in  its  ranks,  and  these  the  mis- 
erable remainder  after  subtracting  its  best  components. 
This  result  was  sometimes  ingeniously  effected.  Just  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Stone  Kiver,  General  Kosecrans  issued 
an  order  for  each  regimental  commander  in  the  Army  of 
the  Cumberland  to  form  for  his  regiment  a  pioneer  corps 
of  twenty  men,  two  from  each  company,  of  the  best  me- 
chanics in  it,  to  be  put  under  the  command  of  a  civil  en- 
gineer, if  the  regiment  were  fortunate  enough  to  have  one 
among  its  officers.  Every  colonel  was  pleased  with  this, 
and  in  good  faith  detailed  twenty  of  the  very  best  men  in 
his  regiment — men  upon  whom  he  was  dependent,  as  ev- 
ery colonel  is,  for  a  thousand  good  services  in  crossing  his 
command  over  bad  roads  and  streams,  and  in  other  emer- 
gencies. This  being  done,  the  commanding  general  order- 
ed them  to  his  own  head-quarters,  formed  them  into  com- 
panies and  regiments,  and  finally  brigaded  them  under  a 
captain  of  engineers,  where  they  remained,  never  again  to 
see  their  regiments.  By  doing  this,  he  not  only  deprived 
every  regiment  in  his  command  of  a  great  part  of  its  leav- 
en, but  made  every  colonel  feel,  either  rightly  or  wrongly, 
that  a  trick  had  been  played  upon  him. 

When  these  endless  details  were  in  a  measure  filled,  and 
our  army  moved  forward,  every  town,  every  railway  sta- 
tion, every  train,  every  bridge,  must  have  its  guard,  and 
every  city  its  garrison,  and  all  were  subtracted  from  our 
fighting  force.  The  wonder  is,  how  we  ever  accomplished 
any  thing ;  and  it  can  only  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the  enemy  practiced  the  same  suicidal  policy.  How  long 
would  our  war  have  lasted  had  there  been  two  field  ar- 
mies, one  in  the  East,  and  another  in  the  West,  each  of  a 
hundred  thousand  men,  with  their  ranks  kept  full?  After 


OBSERVATIONS.  179 

every  battle,  we  were  six  months  in  gathering  up  our  shat- 
tered forces  to  advance  again.  At  Sedan,  the  Germans 
moved  out  of  camp  for  Paris  the  morning  after  the  sur- 
render. We  were  compelled  to  establish  and  sustain  by 
everlasting  details  all  the  various  departments  which  the 
Germans  maintain  in  regularly  organized  corps;  and  it 
took  nearly  twice  as  many  men  with  us,  because  we  had 
no  perfected  system.  The  Germans  manage  to  keep  at 
least  half  of  their  force  in  front,  with  muskets  in  their 
hands. 

At  the  close  of  our  war,  our  rolls  bore  a  million  names, 
while  the  combined  armies  of  Grant,  Sherman,  and  Thom- 
as, who  commanded  the  fighting-men,  amounted  to  less 
than  a  third,  and  not  much  more  than  a  quarter  of  that 
number.  In  the  ranks  the  Germans  have  many  more 
highly  educated  men  than  we,  while  our  ranks  contained 
men  of  more  self-reliance  and  versatility.  From  their  sys- 
tem of  universal  service,  their  troops  are  all  better  drilled 
and  instructed  than  our  best  regiments ;  while  their  land- 
wehr,  which  is  the  German  militia,  are  their  finest  troops. 
Their  officers  are  technically  vastly  superior  to  our  own, 
and  the  landwehr  officers  are  as  good  as  those  of  the  reg- 
ular army.  This  is  due  to  the  great  care  used  in  educa- 
ting and  selecting  them ;  while  we  commissioned  whoever 
could  control  a  certain  number  of  troops  without  imposing 
a  single  condition  as  to  fitness.  An  exception  should  be 
made  in  favor  of  the  officers  of  our  regular  army,  and  some 
volunteer  officers  whose  great  personal  character  made  up 
for  their  want  of  technical  knowledge.  But  I  have  com- 
manded regiments  of  volunteers  with  not  a  commissioned 
officer  in  them  equal  to  some  of  the  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers in  every  German  regiment;  while  I  have  seen  many 
sergeants  there  who  in  our  service  would  have  been  given 
colonels7  commissions.  Their  sj^stem  makes  every  man  a 


180  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

soldier,  while  our  officers  of  high  grades  were  often  third- 
rate  men  who  happened  to  have  smelled  powder  in  Mexi- 
co, had  been  in  some  plundering  expedition  on  the  Isth- 
mus, or  commanded  at  a  militia  muster.  Nothing  was 
more  common  than  to  give  commissions  as  majors,  lieuten- 
ant-colonels, and  even  colonels,  on  the  recommendation  of 
persons  who  would  not  have  trusted  the  appointees  with 
any  considerable  civil  responsibility,  but  acted  upon  an 
impression  that  a  man  would  make  a  good  soldier  who  was 
fit  for  nothing  else. 

The  patronage  of  royalty  and  the  nobility  has  made  war 
so  important  and  respectable  as  to  enlist  the  best  talent  of 
Germany ;  while  a  system  of  schools  and  practical  exer- 
cises, with  prizes  as  the  reward  of  conspicuous  merit,  keep 
officers  improving  during  their  whole  lives.  With  us, 
when  the.  officer  is  commissioned  he  drops  his  books,  if  he 
prefers  to,  and  often  retrogrades  from  that  moment ;  while 
there  are  few,  if  any,  tangible  advantages  held  out  in  our 
service  as  inducements  to  industry.  We  also  attach  a  false 
value  to  places  in  our  administrative  departments,  because 
they  offer  a  life  of  comparative  ease  and  luxury.  Our 
specially  promising  young  officers  are  rewarded  by  ap- 
pointments in  these  branches,  where  they  become  clerks 
or  civil  officials,  rather  than  soldiers.  Many  of  our  best 
soldiers  are  thus  unfitted  for  active  command.  These  po- 
sitions in  the  German  army  are  not  given  to,  nor  sought 
by,  active  officers;  but  enlisted  men,  who  show  excellent 
business  capacity,  are  trained  for  the  purpose,  passing 
many  examinations  in  various  grades,  and  finally  receiv- 
ing commissions  as  pay-masters,  commissariats,  and  quar- 
ter-masters. 

The  Germans  have  nothing  corresponding  to  our  Quar- 
ter-master's Department,  which  has  such  unlimited  liberty 
to  buy  and  issue  all  manner  of  merchandise,  and  do  all 


OBSER  VA  TIONS.  181 

manner  of  things.  Supplies  of  a  purely  military  kind  are 
specified  and  given  to  particular  departments,  and  there 
the  matter  stops.  They  have  a  quarter-master  general — 
Lieutenant-general  Padleidski — who  is  a  kind  of  vice-min- 
ister of  war,  whose  business  it  is  to  say  how  and  by  what 
routes  troops  shall  move,  but  who  has  nothing  to  do  with 
supplies. 

Subordinate  officers  of  a  like  character  are  attached  to 
all  the  lower  organizations.  Their  duties  are  military. 
The  engineers  of  the  army  are  also  a  purely  military  body 
of  men,  having  the  arms  and  organization  of  battalions  of 
infantry.  Their  duties  are  those  of  military  engineers,  and 
do  not  embrace  map-making  or  light-houses.  Their  sys- 
tem is  so  completely  decentralized,  and  every  officer  in  it 
is  held  to  such  strict  and  close  accountability,  and  duties 
are  made  so  clear  in  every  detail,  that  failure  is  never 
heard  of.  In  reply  to  my  inquiry  of  a  captain  and  com- 
missariat in  charge  of  the  supply  department  of  a  division, 
as  to  what  would  become  of  him  if  his  food  trains  should 
fail  to  reach  his  division,  he  looked  up  as  if  such  a  thing 
were  impossible,  and  coolly  replied  that  he  would  be  hung. 
This  system  worked  without  failure  in  France,  while  the 
French  centralized  intendance,  responsible  only  to  the  Min- 
ister of  War,  failed  continually.  The  Germans  have  no 
Ordnance  Department,  all  the  duties  relating  to  this  branch 
of  service  being  performed  by  the  artillery.  The  artillery 
and  engineers  bear  a  close  relation  to  each  other.  Their 
field  duties  run  together,  and  their  school  in  Berlin  is  one 
and  the  same. 

The  army  comprises  another  and  most  important  depart- 
ment—that of  the  staff  of  the  etat  major,  or  the  Grand 
Staff.  At  the  head  of  this  is  General  Von  Moltke ;  and 
here  is  gathered  the  intellect  of  the  army,  which  guides 
and  controls  it.  The  staff  officers  are  purely  soldiers. 


182  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Though  much  of  their  duty  is  done  in  an  office,  still  it  is 
all  of  a  military  character.  They  gather  military  informa- 
tion at  home  and  abroad,  make  military  maps,  have  charge 
of  military  archives,  become  chiefs  of  staff  to  the  divisions, 
corps,  and  armies,  and  are  generally  fitted  for  high  com- 
mands themselves.  The  adjutants  of  the  various  organi- 
zations are  little  more  than  clerks.  The  staff  is  managed 
with  economy,  and  in  that  particular  is  vastly  superior  to 
our  own. 

The  Prussian  army  has  a  minimum  of  high-pay  soldiers, 
while  ours  has  a  maximum.  Their  regiments  of  infantry, 
always  full,  have  three  thousand  men  in  the  ranks,  with 
four  field  officers,  twelve  captains,  twenty-five  lieutenants, 
and  three  administration  officers — in  all,  forty-four  com- 
missioned officers.  Their  companies  are  as  large  as  our 
regiments  after  a  year's  service  and  the  subtractions  al- 
ready described.  Their  battalions  are  as  large  as  our  bri- 
gades, and  their  regiments  as  large  as  our  divisions.  My 
division,  composed  of  three  brigades,  carried,  in  front  of 
Atlanta,  but  twenty-two  hundred  muskets,  and  after  that, 
until  the  close  of  the  war,  never  numbered  more  than  three 
thousand,  or  the  equivalent  of  a  German  regiment.  It 
contained  twelve  regiments.  Its  complement  of  officers 
-was,  one  major-general,  three  brigadier-generals,  thirty-six 
field  officers,  one  hundred  and  twenty  captains,  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-four  lieutenants,  and  fifty-six  administra- 
tive officers — in  all,  four  hundred  and  eighty.  The  regi- 
ments were  not  always  fully  officered,  and  the  command- 
ing officers  of  brigades  and  divisions  did  not  always  have 
the  fall  rank  of  their  commands ;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
two-thirds  of  this  organization  was  in  full  commission,  giv- 
ing us  three  hundred  and  twenty  officers  against  forty- 
three  for  the  same  number  of  muskets  in  the  German  serv- 
ice. This  state  of  things  was  generally  known  to  exist ; 


OBSERVATIONS.  183 

but  still  our  Government  saw  fit  to  organize  new  regi- 
ments, rather  than  to  avail  itself  of  the  services  and  ex- 
perience of  officers  already  in  commission  and  under  pay. 

The  German  department  of  justice  seems  to  be  very 
complete  and  convenient.  Every  commissioned  officer  may 
punish  to  an  extent  precisely  specified  by  law  and  gradu- 
ated by  the  officer's  rank.  Each  division  has  a  judge, 
whose  jurisdiction  extends  to  certain  classes  of  cases; 
while  others  come  before  a  court-martial,  where,  when  pri- 
vate soldiers  are  on  trial,  enlisted  men  form  a  portion  of 
the  court.  No  officer  can  be  dismissed  unless  by  sentence 
of  court-martial  and  the  approval  of  the  king.  Promo- 
tions and  appointments  are  all  regulated  by  law.  A  cer- 
tain number  of  appointments  from  the  cadet  schools  are 
made  arbitrarily  by  the  crown ;  but  in  every  other  case  the 
candidates  must  come  up  regularly  recommended  by  their 
commanders  through  a  great  number  of  checks  and  tests. 
Political  influence  is  unknown,  and  the  king  never  interferes. 

Except  in  the  cases  of  the  royal  princes,  it  may  be  said 
that  not  a  case  of  appointment  by  favor  exists  in  the  army. 
Absolute  discipline  prevails,  and  any  man  who  deserts  or 
quits  his  post  is  certain  of  death.  Any  young  officer  who, 
by  close  application  and  industry,  makes  himself  in  any 
degree  more  worthy  than  his  fellows,  is  sure  of  recognition, 
and  there  are  ways  left  open  for  his  advancement.  The 
administration  has  succeeded  in  a  remarkable  degree  in 
discovering  the  fitness  of  officers  for  special  services,  and 
seeks  always  to  employ  talent  in  its  peculiar  field. 

The  arms  are  not  remarkable,  except  the  field-pieces, 
which  I  believe  to  be  far  superior  to  our  own ;  but  the 
Germans,  like  ourselves,  attach  an  exaggerated  value  to 
this  arm.  Their  heavy  guns  about  Paris  were  mostly  old, 
and  common  enough.  Their  small-arms  are  inferior  to 
many  patterns  in  our  own  country.  Their  accoutrements 


184  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

are  no  better,  and  perhaps  not  so  good  as  our  own.  They 
have  discarded  the  shoulder-belt,  and  sling  two  small 
pouches  upon  the  waist-belt,  one  on  either  side,  for  car- 
tridges, which  is  a  great  relief  to  the  soldier.  Our  shoul- 
der-belt is  all  on  one  side,  and  suspended  from  a  point  two 
feet  above  the  centre  of  gravity.  Their  knapsack  is  bet- 
ter than  ours,  because  it  has  a  frame  that  keeps  its  form. 
Ours,  with  the  present  pack,  can  not  be  worn,  and  the  men 
invariably  throw  them  away.  The  belts  of  the  regular 
army  are  still  chalked,  but  the  landwehr  wear  black  belts 
like  our  own.  Much  of  the  arming  and  equipments  of  the 
cavalry  is  still  old-fashioned ;  such  as  the  old  horse-pistol, 
lance,  fancy  dress,  cuirass,  and  metal  helmet,  and  the  heavy 
packs.  These  will  probably  soon  give  place  to  a  plain, 
sensible  dress  for  the  men,  lighter  weights  for  the  horse,  and 
the  revolver  or  repeating  carbine  for  all  mounted  troops. 

Their  clothing  is  excellent,  and  vastly  superior  to  our 
own,  excepting  their  boots,  with  a  short  leg  and  small  heel, 
which  I  consider  greatly  inferior  to  our  shoes.  Their 
coats  and  trowsers  are  of  excellent  all-wool  stuff,  and  very 
durable,  saving  immense  cost  in  transportation. 

Their  wagons  are  much  less  expensive,  and  not  nearly 
as  good  as  our  own.  They  have  vehicles  of  different  ca- 
pacities, from  a  one-horse  cart  to  a  six-horse  wagon,  while 
we  have  only  the  heavy  wagon  for  six  animals;  but  in 
model  and  general  excellence,  I  doubt  if  any  army  wagon 
equals  our  own,  as  made  before  the  war,  of  seasoned  tim- 
ber ;  and  as  for  teams,  I  have  never  seen  any  comparable 
with  our  six-mule  teams  in  their  best  condition.  In  going 
to  war  without  tents  or  blankets,  they  show  a  military  in- 
stinct superior  to  our  own.  These  articles  are  comforts 
adding  indefinitely  to  the  labor  of  moving  an  army,  and 
nothing  whatever  to  its  health  and  efficiency,  notwith- 
standing the  popular  belief  to  the  contrary.  The  sanitary 


OBSERVATIONS.  185 

reports  of  their  armies  in  the  present  and  in  the  Danish 
war,  and  that  of  the  rebel  commands  in  our  own  war,  and 
my  own  experience,  prove  this. 

Their  bravery  and  endurance  under  fire  is  unquestioned, 
and  the  mortality  in  battle  has  been  very  great.  Captain 
Trescott,  the  adjutant  of  the  commandant  of  Versailles, 
told  me  that  at  Toul  his  regiment  buried  on  the  field 
twenty-two  officers,  and  his  orderly  showed  me  his  fifth 
gun  since  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  the  other  four 
having  been  disabled  by  shot.  The  soldiers  marching  in 
the  streets  showed  in  every  few  files  a  pierced  helmet. 
Of  the  nine  commandants  of  the  guards  regiments  who 
left  Berlin,  all  have  been  killed.  The  last,  Colonel  Van- 
valzah,  the  author  of  the  plan  adopted  for  this  campaign, 
fell  at  Les  Bourget  in  the  early  part  of  November. 

If  called  upon  to  give  a  summary  of  the  special  char- 
acteristics which  make  the  Prussian  army  pre-eminent,  I 
should  enumerate  the  absence  of  exemptions  and  substi- 
tutes, which  secures  for  the  army  the  best  men,  and  makes 
service  even  and  acceptable;  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
duty;  general  education  of  soldiers  and  officers;  high 
character  of  non-commissioned  officers ;  an  effective  sys- 
tem of  keeping  the  ranks  full ;  superior  training,  and  care- 
ful selection  for  merit  alone  of  the  higher  staff;  a  decen- 
tralized administration  ;  impartial  justice;  the  certainty  of 
recognition  and  reward  for  enterprise  and  industry,  and  in- 
tolerance of  sloth  and  indolence ;  a  strict  but  not  harsh 
discipline  throughout  all  grades,  and  a  rigid  economy  in 
all  things.  The  peculiar  character  of  the  French  mind, 
which  knows  no  settlement  of  a  dispute  but  victory,  or  re- 
venge for  defeat,  will  make  it  necessary  for  Germany  to 
maintain,  and  even  increase,  her  present  army  for  many 
years  to  come ;  and  this  need  not  be  taken  as  presaging 
aggression  upon  her  part. 


186  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   FKENCH   AEMY. 

SINCE  the  misfortunes  of  the  French  army  in  the  pres- 
ent war  with  Germany,  our  principal  interest  in  it  is  to 
discover  wherein  lay  its  defects,  and  how  it  was  that  we 
have  for  so  long  made  the  mistake  of  supposing  it  worthy 
to  serve  as  a  model  for  our  own.  With  this  in  view,  its 
details  will  be  noticed  only  far  enough  to  ascertain  its 
faults. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  foreign  officers,  by  imperial 
direction,  were  refused  authority  to  accompany  the  French 
army,  and  but  little  information  as  to  its  real  condition  is 
available  beyond  the  published  criticisms  of  its  own  offi- 
cers, made  after  Sadowa,  with  direct  reference  to  the  ina- 
bility of  France  to  cope  with  Prussia  in  a  war  then  plain- 
ly in  prospect.  The  astonishing  results  of  the  war  of 
1866  awakened  doubts  where  before  there  was  perfect 
confidence,  and  resulted  in  a  series  of  discussions  which 
engrossed  the  attention  of  all  the  best  officers  of  France. 
The  Prussian  system  was  regarded  by  officials  in  France 
as  a  school  of  militia,  imperfect  for  defense,  and  of  little 
value  for  offensive  warfare.  But  after  Sadowa  it  became 
at  once  evident  that  France  had  been  resting  upon  her 
past  glories,  while  Prussia  had  employed  the  intervening 
years  in  industrious  progressive  study  and  labor  upon 
every  thing  that  pertained  to  the  science  of  war,  and  had 
adjusted  her  military  burdens,  so  that,  while  availing  her- 
self of  the  full  military  power  of  the  nation,  she  did  not 
impose  depressing  exactions  upon  her  people.  Among 


EARL  Y  HIST  OR  T.  187 

the  essays  brought  out  by  this  startling  revelation  are 
those  by  the  Due  d'Aumale,  General  Trochu,  and  General 
Changarnier.  Whatever  appears  in  this  notice  of  the 
French  army,  beyond  a  mere  sketch  of  its  history  and  or- 
ganization (in  which  I  am  aided  by  the  writings  of  the  In- 
tendant-general  of  the  French  army,  and  of  Colonel  Ches- 
ney  of  the  Koyal  Engineers),  will  be  in  the  words  of  these 
essays,  not  mine — words  of  which  results  have  proved  the 
truth.  So  severe  were  their  criticisms,  as  to  bring  down 
upon  the  heads  of  the  writers  the  ill-concealed  displeasure 
of  the  Imperial  Government,  which  continued  until  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  and  had  much  to  do  with  raising  one  of  the 
number  to  the  supreme  control  of  the  succeeding  defense 
of  Paris. 

EARLY  HISTORY. 

The  history  of  the  organization  of  the  regular  armies 
of  all  civilized  countries,  including  that  of  France,  dates 
from  about  two  hundred  years  ago.  Prior  to  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  war  was  carried  on  by  loosely  organized 
bodies  of  men,  generally  independent  corps,  recruited,  com- 
manded and  almost  owned  by  noblemen  of  various  grades. 
The  soldiers  were  often  foreigners,  kidnapped  and  forcibly 
impressed,  or  induced  to  join  the  ranks  by  trickery  and 
false  representations.  Once  enlisted,  they  remained  sol* 
diers,  without  hope  of  again  seeing  their  homes,  until,  from 
wounds  or  old  age,  they  were  no  longer  useful,  when  they 
became  beggars  in  the  streets.  Notwithstanding  their 
many  celebrated  achievements,  these  unorganized  forces 
bore  little  resemblance  to  an  army  of  to-day,  could  not  be 
easily  controlled  by  their  sovereign,  and  were  actually  a 
menace  to  him. 

Louvais,  the  War  Minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  the  first 
great  master  of  military  organization  in  France,  and  con- 
tributed more  to  the  success  of  French  arms  than  Turenne 


188  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  Luxembourg,  who  led  the  troops  to  victory.  He 
instituted  uniformity  of  arms  and  dress,  regular  promo- 
tion, a  graduated  pay,  stricter  and  more  just  conditions  of 
service,  and  more  certain  methods  of  subsistence.  With 
his  world  -  renowned  inspector  -  general,  Colonel  Martinet, 
whose  name  still  survives  to  indicate  military  precision,  he 
wrought  out  of  the  discordant  military  elements  of  France 
her  first  modern  army,  which  gave  her  some  of  her  best 
successes,  and  which  survived  until  the  great  storm  of  the 
revolution  of  1789.  Many  of  the  fatal  defects  of  its  ingre- 
dients were  unavoidably  incorporated  into  this  force.  It 
was  a  royal  and  aristocratic  body,  officered  almost  entirely 
by  the  nobility.  It  was  never  an  institution  of  the  people, 
and  was  always  known  as  "the  King's  Army,"  a  sort  of 
chattel,  and  had  no  real  influence  upon,  or  sympathy  with, 
the  masses.  How  different  now,  when  every  family  has 
its  representative  in  the  ranks,  and  the  army  occupies  an 
equal  place  with  the  first  civil  institutions  of  France ! 

The  expatriation  of  the  nobility  at  the  revolution  de- 
stroyed that  old  army,  and  rightly,  for  its  loyalty  was  per- 
sonal, not  national.  Such  an  army  is  a  snare  and  a  delu- 
sion. To  be  efficient  and  trustworthy,  an  army  must  rep- 
resent the  popular  sentiment,  and  without  this  it  is  unsafe 
to  give  it  the  national  support. 

In  some  instances  in  our  own  war,  personal  devotion  as- 
sumed such  proportions  as  to  predominate  over  all  else, 
and  made  it  necessary  to  relieve  from  their  commands 
some  of  our  best  soldiers,  to  the  great  detriment  of  mili- 
tary operations.  In  other  cases  this  devotion  was  so  asso- 
ciated with  the  leading  political  sentiments  of  the  country 
as  to  make  it  necessary  to  deal  with  it  cautiously,  although 
it  neutralized  large  bodies  of  troops.  This  sentiment  of 
personal  fidelity,  while  it  may  serve  the  nation  in  battle, 
is  always  dangerous,  because  it  makes  an  end  of  a  means. 


ORIGIN  OF  ITS  TACTICS.  189 

ORIGIN  OF  ITS  TACTICS. 

In  1791  the  French  army  consisted  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty-six  regiments  of  foot  and  horse,  and  the  regulations 
promulgated  at  that  time  still  form  the  basis  of  the  drills 
and  manoeuvres  of  the  troops,  although  overlaid  with  an 
enormous  mass  of  subsequent  matter.  It  will  be  interest- 
ing to  trace  the  origin  of  these  manoeuvres,  as  they  have 
been  copied  in  extenso  by  ourselves,  and  form  the  basis  of 
all  our  subsequent  tactics.  They  were  adopted  throughout 
Europe  at  about  the  same  time,  and  are  the  work  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  and  his  father,  reduced  to  practice  at  Pots- 
dam by  Leopold  von  Dessau. 

The  French  at  Eossbach  were  greatly  impressed  by  the 
steady  and  rapid  manoeuvres  of  the  Prussian  troops,  and 
were  not  slow  to  adopt  the  new  tactics.  To  the  present 
day  we,  as  well  as  the  French,  employ  the  same  manoeu- 
vres, and  designate  them  by  the  same  phrases.  The  posi- 
tion, as  given  in  our  tactics,  of  the  soldier  without  arms ; 
the  movement  of  the  eyes  to  the  right  and  left ;  the  quick 
and  common  step;  and,  in  fact,  nearly  every  thing  known 
as  "  the  school  of  the  soldier,"  is  almost  directly  translated 
from  the  rules  of  Potsdam.  Eossbach  was  to  France  the 
beginning  of  military  greatness,  as  Jena  afterward  was  to 
Prussia — proving  the  old  maxim,  that  "the  teachings  of 
defeat,  -which  subvert  old  ideas  and  establish  facts,  better 
serve  the  military  institutions  of  the  future  than  victories." 
The  first  teach  modesty  and  self-reliance,  and  are  the  nurse 
of  progress.  The  second  create  pride  and  unlimited  self- 
confidence,  which  fail  in  the  crises  of  battle.  How  strik- 
ingly has  this  been  true  of  France,  which  has  rested  con- 
tent with  the  tactics  of  Frederick,  while  the  Prussians 
themselves  have  never  been  satisfied,  but,  since  Jena,  have 
steadily  advanced.  How  true  the  proverb,  that  "  Tradition 


190          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

serves  as  an  excuse  for  carelessness,  and  has  lost  more  bat- 
tles than  it  has  saved."  The  French  army  has  existed  for 
fifty  years  upon  the  traditions  of  the  first  empire. 

The  adoption  of  skirmishing  tactics,  which  have  come 
to  play  so  important  a  role  in  all  battles,  is  due  more  to 
General  Morand,  one  of  General  Bonaparte's  best  division 
commanders,  than  to  any  one  else.  This,  with  many  other 
modifications  and  some  new  principles  of  formation,  were 
introduced  early  in  this  century. 

THE  EAELY  ARMIES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION". 

The  French  army  of  1791,  although  well  trained,  was 
numerically  weak,  and  the  political  agitations  of  the  times 
had  shaken  its  unity  and  self-reliance.  Its  first  operations 
were  disastrous,  but  the  enthusiasm  of  the  great  volunteer 
movement  of  1792  and  1793  restored  France,  and  defeated 
Prussia  and  Austria.  A  year  later,  when  it  was  opposed 
to  regular  troops,  the  army  of  France  was  driven  back, 
and  it  became  difficult  for  her  to  raise  men  to  protect  her- 
self, the  eight  armies  of  France  not  numbering  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  Upon- this  subject 
the  Due  D'Aumale  wisely  says:  "It  is  of  the  essence  of 
special  volunteer  corps  not  to  renew  their  strength,  al- 
though the  very  existence  of  these  corps  seriously  inter- 
feres with  and  may  arrest  regular  enlistments." 

We  found  this  true  in  our  war,  when  regiments,  once 
formed,  scarcely  ever  received  any  renewal,  and  were  suf- 
fered to  die  out,  while  new  ones  were  constantly  raised. 
So  the  patriots  of  France  who  enlisted  for  one  year,  as  our 
own  did  for  ninety  days,  took  their  discharge  at  the  end 
of  their  engagement,  although  they  might  be  in  front  of 
the  enemy  and  on  the  eve  of  battle. 

The  Convention  called  out  three  hundred  thousand  Na- 
tional Guards,  but  the  measure  failed.  On  the  15th  of 


THE  EARLY  ARMIES  OF  THE  REVOLUTION.  191 

July,  1793,  the  statements  show  that  the  French  army  was 
composed  of  four  hundred  and  ninety -seven  thousand  men, 
but  it  is  generally  believed  that  it  did  not  amount  to  a 
third  of  that  number.  When  Carnot  joined  the  Commit- 
tee of  Public  Safety,  the  levee  en  masse  was  decreed  by  the 
Convention,  and  then  the  national  army  of  France  sprang 
to  life. 

"This  measure  differed  essentially  from  the  requisition  which  had  pre- 
ceded it.  More  harsh  in  appearance,  it  was  less  vexatious  and  oppressive  in 
reality.  It  confined  itself  to  men  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty-six,  but  within 
those  limits  it  took  all.  In  six  months  all  the  pressure  of  the  reign  of  terror 
had  failed  to  raise  three  hundred  thousand  men  under  the  former  law.  In 
three  months  the  general  levy  was  effected,  without  serious  opposition,  un- 
der the  latter  law.  Let  it  not  be  said  that  it  was  the  guillotine  that  saved 
France.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1794,  the  strength  of  the  army  had  risen  to 
seven  hundred  and  seventy-one  thousand  men." — Due  D'AroiALE. 

This  was  easy,  because  it  was  just.  There  was  no  dis- 
crimination, and  no  one  tried  to  escape  on  the  plea  that 
others  were  not  called.  This  vast  army  was  consolidated 
by  the  genius  of  Carnot  into  one  uniform  mass.  All  dis- 
tinctions of  corps,  and  even  grades  of  non-commissioned 
officers,  were  abolished.  All  provincial  designations  and 
appellations  were  obliterated,  and  the  regiments  numbered 
instead.  The  uniform  of  the  whole  army  was  made  alike, 
and  the  blue  tunic  'of  the  Eepublic  adopted.  From  this 
homogeneous  mass  the  wonderful  hand  of  Carnot  wrought 
the  great  and  immortal  armies  of  France,  that  won  twenty- 
seven  victories  in  one  year,  captured  three  thousand  eight 
hundred  guns,  and  dissolved  the  coalition.  The  derni-bri- 
gades,  or  regiments,  were  given  an  organization  of  three 
battalions  of  nine  companies  each,  which  has  never  been 
materially  changed. 

"But  what  was  beyond  all  praise  was  the  noble  and  manly  bearing  of  this 
victorious  army.  Carnot,  by  his  example,  and  by  the  spirit  which  dictated  his 
measures,  had  infused  civic  and  military  virtues  into  its  ranks.  To  borrow 


192  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

the  elevated  phraseology  of  the  time,  which  was  not  always  false,  *  he  had 
placed  courage,  self-sacrifice,  and  disinterestedness  on  the  order  of  the  day.' 
The  discipline  of  the  army  had  ceased  to  be  vexatious  and  galling,  but  was 
firm  and  even  severe  in  the  unfrequent  cases  in  which  repression  was  neces- 
sary. Even  the  German  inhabitants  were  struck  with  surprise  and  admira- 
tion at  the  demeanor  of  these  republicans.  They  saw  these  dreaded  soldiers 
enter  their  towns  in  ragged  clothes,  often  in  wooden  shoes,  but  with  a  martial 
air,  halt  in  the  market-place  amidst  a  terror-stricken  people,  eat  their  black 
bread  beside  their  stacked  arms,  and  await  in  the  ranks  the  orders  of  their 
officers. 

"Contributions  of  war  were  levied,  but  they  were  levied  by  the  commissa- 
riat, who  followed  the  army,  and  did  not  share  its  self-denial.  Sometimes  the 
neglect  of  the  commissariat  caused  the  men  to  maraud,  but  not  to  pillage. 
In  the  sharp  winter  of  1794-'5,  which  the  army  passed  before  Mayence,  the 
troops,  reduced  to  the  utmost  necessity,  stole  bread,  and  bread  alone.  At  the 
time  of  sowing  seed,  they  watched  the  peasants  by  day,  and  at  night  dug  up 
the  seed-corn  with  their  bayonets.  It  is  recorded  by  those  who  were  in  both 
campaigns,  that  the  hardships  endured  by  them  in  1812  were  not  more  se- 
vere. Many  died  of  cold  and  hunger,  but  those  who  survived  remained  faith- 
ful to  their  colors.  If  they  dispersed  in  search  of  food — and  what  food! — 
wild  fruits  and  poisonous  bulbs — they  were  in  the  ranks  again  at  the  first  can- 
non-shot. The  officers  shared  the  penury  and  destitution  of  the  men.  All 
led  the  same  frugal  life,  all  were  bound  by  the  same  lot." — Due  D'AUMALE. 

Such  were  the  early  troops  of  the  Republic;  but  the 
Army  of  Italy,  under  a  different  chief,  was  animated  by  a 
different  spirit.  Bonaparte  promised  his  soldiers  glory 
and  riches.  He  kept  his  word,  but  at  what  a  cost  to 
France !  The  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  Army  of  Italy 
was  but  the  instrument  of  the  future  master ;  and  Carnot, 
the  real  creator  of  the  armies  of  the  Republic,  was  himself 
proscribed.  It  is  remarkable  that  Napoleon,  the  greatest 
master  of  modern  warfare,  did  nothing  to  improve  the  or- 
ganic constitution  of  the  army.  He  employed  the  military 
resources  of  the  country  with  consummate  ability  and  with 
insatiable  rapacity,  but  consumed  every  thing  that  he  crea- 
ted. The  permanent  military  strength  of  France  could 
not  keep  pace  with  his  extravagant  demands  upon  it,  and 
the  termination  of  the  empire  was  the  annihilation  of  the 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CONSCRIPTION.  193 

force  by  which  it  had  been  raised  to  the  highest  pinnacle 
of  power  and  glory. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  CONSCRIPTION. 

The  law  of  conscription  was  first  established  in  France 
in  1798.  From  that  time  to  the  present,  the  youth  of 
France,  just  entering  manhood,  has  been  gathered  by  law, 
as  tracts  in  the  forest  are  set  apart  for  annual  felling.  The 
first  act  of  the  first  consul  was  to  demand,  not  an  install- 
ment, but  the  whole  class  of  the  year,  amounting  to  two 
hundred  thousand  men,  and  the  strictest  precautions  were 
taken  against  every  evasion  of  the  law.  These  demands  and 
the  measures  for  their  enforcement  increased  in  enormity 
and  intensity  during  his  entire  reign.  The  whole  strength 
of  the  forces  thus  brought  together  was  four  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  It  was  this  army  that  threatened  England, 
marched  to  Austerlitz,  and  perished  in  Spain.  These  old 
corps  wasted  away,  and  were  replaced  by  hastily  organized 
detachments,  who  were  formed  into  fourth  and  fifth  bat- 
talions, to  conceal  the  fact  that  the  other  three  had  per- 
ished. The  armies  of  the  later  empire  had,  by  these  ex- 
pedients, been  raised  to  enormous  numbers,  but  the  result 
was  that  described  by  Marshal  Macdonald:  "The  men 
are  as  brave  as  ever,  but  they  don't  hang  together." 

It  is  good  men  who  make  good  troops,  and  no  number 
of  bad  men  can  make  a  good  army.  "We  lost  sight  of 
this  in  our  own  war,  when  States  thought  only  of  filling 
their  quotas,  and  the  vicious  clause  allowing  exemptions 
and  substitutes  was  incorporated  into  the  law  of  conscrip- 
tion. This  impaired  the  value  of  an  otherwise  most  meri- 
torious step.  It  gave  us  a  great  crowd  of  worthless  men  to 
take  the  place  of  soldiers,  from  whom  we  were  expected  to 
exact  military  service.  To  do  this  was  an  impossibility,  for 
substitutes  and  bounty-bought  men  never  served  a  nation, 

13 


194  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

but  are  positively  in  the  way.  The  policy  of  bringing  the 
whole  virile  population  into  the  field  can  not  be  too  strong- 
ly condemned,  on  the  ground  of  its  weakening  the  vital 
powers  of  a  people. 

General  Changarnier  says,  in  his  pamphlet,  page  24 : 

"Let  us  not  attempt  to  raise  the  number  of  our  soldiers  to  that  of  our  pos- 
sible adversaries,  even  if  at  the  risk  of  exhaustion  we  should  be  able  to  accom- 
plish it.  If  it  is  very  difficult  for  three  thousand  men  to  oppose  successfully 
five  thousand,  it  is  much  less  difficult  for  sixty  thousand  to  beat  one  hundred 
thousand.  The  more  the  proportion  rises,  the  less  is  numerical  inferiority  to 
be  feared.  It  may  be  compensated  by  the  skill  of  the  general,  or  by  the  su- 
perior character  of  the  troops.  Beyond  a  certain  number,  there  is  no  good 
army,  and  no  army  whose  supplies  can  be  secured  and  whose  movements 
can  be  directed.  The  army  which  invaded  Kussia  in  1812  was  reduced  by 
one-half  before  it  reached  Moscow.  When  that  gigantic  and  lamentable  ex- 
pedition had  completed  the  ruin  of  our  veteran  legions,  already  exhausted  by 
incessant  wars,  Napoleon  succeeded  in  rallying  large  masses  of  recruits,  and 
led  them  now  and  then  to  victory.  Unhappily,  those  young  troops,  always 
gallant,  always  brave,  but  incapable  of  taking  care  of  themselves,  suffered 
more  from  the  bivouac,  from  long  marches,  and  from  sickness,  than  they 
had  done  on  the  fields  of  battle  which  bore  the  names  of  Lutzen,  Bautzen, 
Dresden,  Leipsic,  and  Hanau." 

How  these  words  recall  the  experience  of  our  own  war, 
where,  instead  of  encouraging  the  old  regiments  by  filling 
their  ranks,  young  and  tender  regiments  were  continually 
brought  out,  to  lose  half  their  numbers  in  learning  how  to 
take  care  of  themselves ! 

REORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ARMY  AT  THE  RESTORATION. 

For  three  years  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  France  had 
no  army;  and  the  Allied  forces  were  not  all  withdrawn 
from  her  territory  when  Marshal  Gouvion  Saint-Cyr,  Min- 
ister of  War,  undertook,  in  1818,  under  the  Eestoration, 
the  difficult  task  of  reorganizing  the  military  institutions 
of  .the  kingdom.  The  peace  establishment  was  fixed  at 
two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men,  to  be  raised  by  an 


THE  ARMY  AT  THE  RESTORATION.  195 

annual  conscription  of  forty  thousand.  It  does  not  seem 
essential  to  follow  all  of  the  modifications  of  the  army 
from  that  time  to  the  present,  but  the  subject  of  conscrip- 
tion may  well  claim  attention.  The  annual  call  was  in- 
creased successively  to  sixty  thousand  and  eighty  thou- 
sand men,  by  Louis  Philippe ;  and  during  the  Second  Em- 
pire it  has  never  been  less  than  one  hundred  thousand, 
rising  to  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  during  the 
Crimean  War. 

Notwithstanding  this  enormous  drain  upon  the  country, 
the  result  has  not  been  to  increase  the  army  as  much  as 
was  expected ;  and  at  the  first  surprise  and  alarm,  which 
succeeded,  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  the  French  nation  was 
startled  at  the  declaration  that  the  Government  must  have 
the  means  of  raising  the  army,  in  the  event  of  war,  to  eight 
hundred  thousand  men.  The  proposition  met  with  little 
favor  in  the  Legislature,  and  spread  dismay  among  the 
peasantry. 

It  may  be  well  to  examine  some  stubborn  facts  connect- 
ed with  this  matter,  and  which  have  vital  relations  to  na- 
tional prosperity.  The  measure  of  a  nation's  military 
strength  must  be  its  population.  No  more  men  of  a  given 
age  can  be  pressed  into  its  ranks  than  the  country  pro- 
duces in  a  given  time,  and  it  is  frightful  to  discover  how 
very  nearly  in  France  the  number  of  conscripts,  even  in 
peace,  reaches  this  limit.  The  population  in  France  in- 
creases more  slowly  than  in  any  other  country — indeed,  it 
hardly  increases  at  all ;  and  one  of  the  obvious  causes  of 
this  is,  that  one  hundred  thousand  stout  >and  able-bodied 
young  men  of  twenty  years  are  marched  off  every  year 
to  the  barrack,  or  the  camp,  that  for  six  or  seven  years  at 
least  they  are  unable  to  contract  marriage,  and  that  those 
who  stay  at  home,  cultivate  the  fields,  marry  and  rear  chil- 
dren, are  precisely  those  who  are  rejected  from  the  con- 


196  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ABMY. 

scription  by  reason  of  their  diminutive  size,  feeble  consti- 
tutions, or  other  physical  infirmities.  The  effect  of  this 
upon  a  nation  is  readily  appreciated.  The  normal  annual 
increase  in  France  has  been  accurately  determined  to  be 
but  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  or  about  2fV  per  cen- 
tum ;  and  it  has  also  not  only  been  incontestably  shown 
that  the  conscription  directly  affects  this  increase,  but  the 
extent  of  it  has  been  ascertained.  When  the  conscription 
was  forty  thousand,  the  increase  was  rapid;  when  it  was 
sixty  thousand,  it  was  slower;  when  eighty  thousand, 
slower  still ;  at  one  hundred  thousand,  it  was  arrested  al- 
together; and  with  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  War,  the  population  positively  decreased. 
Is  it  possible  to  demonstrate  more  clearly  the  fatal  effects 
of  vast  military  establishments  upon  the  vital  powers  of 
France,  or  that  the  conscription  is  a  depressing,  sadden- 
ing weight  upon  the  entire  industrial  population  of  the 
nation  ? 

The  loss  of  the  vigorous,  active  men  as  fathers  of  the 
succeeding  generations,  while  those  who  take  their  places 
are  feeble  and  those  least  adequate  to  perpetuate  a  strong 
people,  with  the  great  loss  in  money  from  the  neutraliza- 
tion of  their  industries — a  sum  not  less  than' fifty  millions 
of  dollars  annually — are  the  immediate  practical  results  of 
large  standing  armies  upon  wealth  and  population,  while 
their  indirect  consequences  are  incalculable.  It  is  a  sys- 
tem based  upon  fear,  and  allied  to  barbarism.  That  state 
is  not  the  strongest  which  keeps  in  time  of  peace  the  larg- 
est number  of  men  under  arms,  but  rather  that  which 
avails  itself  of  the  industry  of  the  greatest  number,  and  at 
the  approach  of  war  is  able  to  employ  most  of  its  active 
energies  for  military  purposes. 

France  is  weakened  by  the  immense  loss  of  the  indus- 
tries of  the  active  years  of  all  her  young  men,  and,  when 


FRENCH  ARMY  IN  1867.  197 

war  approaches,  is  not  then  prepared  to  meet  it,  but  must 
still  call  for  extraordinary  additions  to  her  army,  which 
she  can  little  afford. 

FRENCH  ARMY  IN  1867. 

The  efficient  strength  of  the  French  army  in  1867,  in- 
cluding the  staff,  gendarmerie,  and  military  train,  was  three 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  thousand  one  hundred  and  four 
men — of  whom  twenty-three  thousand  were  officers,  sev- 
enty-one thousand  non-commissioned  officers,  twenty-sis 
thousand  musicians  and  unclassed  troops,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-nine  thousand  private  soldiers.  Deducting 
eighty  thousand  as  the  least  possible  figure  for  home  garri- 
sons, depots,  and  troops  serving  in  Africa,  we  have  not  far 
from  one  hundred  and  eighty -nine  thousand  men  in  line. 
Another  considerable  deduction  should  be  made  for  new- 
ly-called conscripts,  and  men  entitled  to  their  discharge, 
and  we  have  left  a  very  small  army.  This,  in  theory, 
could  be  raised  to  about  six  hundred  thousand  men  by 
calling  in  all  of  the  reserves — that  is,  men  who  bad  served 
a  number  of  years  in  the  army,  but  were  still  liable  to  be 
called  out  for  war ;  but  as  these  men,  as  well  as  all  the 
conscripts,  were  allowed  to  commute,  or  buy  off  their  serv- 
ice by  paying  a  certain  amount  of  money,  a  large  allow- 
ance must  still  be  made. 

In  peace  times,  about  one-fifth  bought  themselves  free 
from  service  for  about  eleven  hundred  francs  each,  and  in 
time  of  war  about  one-third.  The  best  military  men  agree 
that  the  system  is  a  vicious  one.  When  a  nation's  vital 
want  is  men,  it  receives  a  bank-note  instead.  It  was,  how- 
ever, a  pet  scheme  of  the  French  emperor,  who  expected 
with  commutation  money  to  buy  the  re-enlistment  of  old 
soldiers ;  but  it  was  found  that  these  old  soldiers  were  apt 
to  be  dodgers,  and  often  drunkards,  and  the  system  was 


198  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

abandoned  in  1868.  The  provision  for  reserves  was  at 
that  time  practically  inoperative. 

General  Trochu  has  clearly  pointed  out  that,  with  all 
these  sources  of  subtraction,  in  the  Crimean  and  the  last 
Italian  war,  France  could  send  to  the  field,  and  maintain 
by  re-enforcements,  only  one  army,  not  much  exceeding 
one-fourth  of  her  nominal  effective  strength. 

This  corresponds  very  closely  with  our  own  experience 
in  our  war,  resulting  from  the  same  subtractions,  and  a 
loose  and  inefficient  way  of  bringing  men  into  the  field. 
Careful  examination  shows  the  fact  that,  at  the  close  of 
our  war,  we  had  at  the  front,  as  belligerents,  only  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  while  the  Secretary 
of  War's  Keport  shows  an  army  under  pay  of  a  million. 
How  different  all  this  from  the  army  of  Prussia,  where 
more  than  half  of  all  the  men  under  pay  fought  in  the 
front  line ! 

It  is  not  strange  that  the  emperor,  and  all  the  leading 
military  men  of  France,  should  have  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  her  military  establishment  was  not  adequate  to 
meet  on  an  equal  footing  the  armies  of  Prussia.  In  the 
absence  of  a  free  Parliament  and  an  independent  press,  it 
is  possible  only  by  the  publication  of  books  and  pamphlets 
to  reach  and  enlighten  public  sense  in  France. 

Among  the  multitude  of  pamphlets  which  appeared 
upon  this  subject  was  that  of  General  Trochu,  of  which 
Colonel  Chesney  says : 

"Among  all  these  publications  the  one  by  General  Trochu  is  the  most  re- 
markable. It  is  the  result  of  the  reflections  and  observations  of  a  life.  It 
embodies  a  good  deal  of  the  blunt  wisdom  and  keen  sense  of  Marshal  Bu- 
geaud,  on  whose  staff  General  Trochu  learned  the  art  of  war.  We  have  sel- 
dom read  a  book  so  succinct  and  so  wise.  There  is  not  a  page  in  it  which 
does  not  contain  some  principle  one  would  wish  to  fix  forever  in  his  memo- 
ry ;  and  we  do  not  remember  that  any  modem  writer  has  treated  the  art  of 
war,  as  it  now  is,  with  so  much  practical  sagacity  and  elevated  feeling.  In 


GENERAL  TROCHU.  199 

it  they  will  find  a  brave  and  unsparing  exposure  of  many  defects  in  the 
French  army,  but  which  are  certainly  not  peculiar  to  that  army  alone,  and 
they  may  learn  much  from  it  that  is  applicable  to  all  armies  in  all  coun- 
tries." 

GENERAL    TROCHU. 

General  Trochu  was  born  in  1815,  at  Palais,  in  one  of 
the  sea-coast  departments  of  France,  and  was  educated  at 
Saint  Cyr.  He  joined  the  infantry,  has  been  all  his  life  in 
active  service,  and  was  for  a  long  time  on  the  staff  in  Al- 
giers. He  was  on  the  staff  in  the  Crimea,  or  rather  was 
sent  there  by  the  emperor  as  his  confidential  observer  and 
informer,  until  St.  Arnaud's  death,  when  he  took  command 
of  a  brigade.  He  also  commanded  a  brigade,  and  after- 
ward a  division,  in  Italy,  and  was  subsequently  in  the  war- 
office  at  Paris.  His  career  has  been  singularly  faultless 
and  distinguished;  and  never,  except  after  his  failure  in 
the  defense  of  Paris,  and  in  his  speeches  before  the  Depu- 
ties in  which  he  endeavored  to  account  for  his  failure,  has 
he  ever  shown  lack  of  cool  wisdom  or  of  high  and  culti- 
vated reason.  In  his  pamphlet  he  says,  most  truly,  that 
there  is  no  remedy  but  publicity  for  imperfections  and 
abuses. 

The  confidential  appeals  previously  made  by  him  to  the 
War  Department  had  failed  to  produce  any  effect.  It  was 
in  view  of  the  transition-state  of  the  army  at  that  time  that 
he  pointed  out  the  weakness  and  infirmities  of  a  service  to 
which  he  was  greatly  attached,  sparing  no  one,  and  calling 
down  upon  himself  unpopularity  and  even  hostility,  as  all 
men  do  who  tell  unwelcome  truths.  He  says  that  the 
strength  of  all  armies  lies  in  their  motive  force  and  me- 
chanical power.  The  motive  force  is  a  moral  principle, 
and  is  formed  of  the  great  sentiments  of  national  pride, 
love  of  country,  and  the  spirit  of  self-sacrificing  devotion 
to  duty,  to  discipline,  and  to  good  order.  The  mechanic- 


200  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

al  power  is  entirely  material,  and  consists  of  the  different 
parts  of  an  army  and  its  organization,  by  which  parts  are 
so  related  as  to  work  easily  and  freely.  Some  armies  ex- 
cel in  one,  and  some  in  the  other ;  but  one  that  combines 
both  in  a  high  degree  would  be  almost  invincible  in  war. 
The  first  relates  to  the  people ;  and  when  the  relation  be- 
tween the  army  and  people  is  strongest,  this  moral  ele- 
ment will  be  most  powerful.  The  second  relates  to  the 
army  alone ;  but  whatever  tends  to  weaken  the  first,  weak- 
ens the  force  of  the  army  in  the  same  degree.  An  army 
must  be  strongly  in  sympathy  with  the  people,  and,  when 
severed  entirely  from  them,  is  useless,  and  even  dangerous. 
Every  army  and  every  people  have  their  own  peculiari- 
ties; and  each  army  must,  therefore,  be  organized  on  prin- 
ciples adapted  to  its  particular  case.  Yet  there  are  certain 
rules  applicable  to  all  armies,  under  all  conditions. 

General  Trochu  traces  with  a  masterly  hand  the  various 
characteristics  of  the  French  army,  in  details  too  extended 
for  notice  here.  He  urges  short  terms  of  service,  sending 
the  men  back  with  their  military  acquirements  to  the  peo- 
ple, before  they  become  fixed  in  military  habits  not  suited 
to  civil  life.  He  most  truly  says  that  the  best  soldiers  are 
young  men  who  know  their  business;  and  combats  the 
policy  of  the  emperor,  which  would  set  apart  an  army  of 
men  to  the  military  calling  for  their  whole  lives,  severing 
their  relations  with  the  people  and  their  homes.  He  says 
that  all  the  systems  adopted  in  France  for  the  past  fifty  years 
have  been  peace  systems,  influenced  by  political  motives, 
bearing  on  the  domestic  interests  of  the  country,  and  con- 
tain no  adequate  provision  for  a  competent  reserve  in  war. 

The  following  remarks  are  of  universal  application,  and 
are  well  worth  attention  : 

"  Discoveries  made  in  sciences  which  are  the  handmaids  of  industry  and 
the  arts  of  peace  have  always  been  used  with  advantage  by  armies.  One  of 


GENERAL  TROCHU.  201 

the  most  important  of  all,  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  determined  the  forms 
of  modern  warfare.  Formerly  these  inventions  appeared  from  time  to  time 
in  the  lapse  of  ages.  They  were  slowly  tried,  and  perfected  by  generations. 
In  our  time,  Science  is  no  longer  content  to  be  the  auxiliary  of  war,  she  as- 
pires to  be  its  principal  agent.  Discovery  succeeds  discovery  with  a  rapidity 
which  bewilders  the  mind,  throws  governments  into  perplexities,  and  their 
budgets  into  confusion,  and  which  will  throw  families  into  mourning ;  for  all 
these  inventions  have  invariably  the  same  object,  which  is,  to  kill  the  maxi- 
mum of  human  beings  in  a  minimum  of  time.  An  opinion  is  gaining  ground 
that  these  irresistible  mechanical  improvements  will  reduce  armies  in  the 
field  to  mere  masses,  employing  engines  of  destruction  which  are  to  slay  the 
enemy.  The  composure  which  permits  of  observation  and  reflection,  that 
glance  which  chooses  the  decisive  moment,  that  bravery  which  executes  a 
movement  and  overcomes  an  obstacle,  would  then  be  out  of  date.  Just  the 
reverse  is  true.  All  these  faculties  must  be  multiplied,  all  these  qualities  must 
be  augmented,  to  work  on  fields  of  battle  the  same  problems  as  of  old,  now 
rendered  more  difficult  and  more  perilous.  It  is  essential  to  purge  the  minds 
of  our  troops  of  these  notions  and  paradoxes,  which  lower  the  part  they  have 
to  play.  Do  not  allow  them  to  relax  in  the  exercise  of  those  virtues  which 
are  the  soul  of  great  efforts.  Let  them  be  persuaded  that  the  greater  and 
more  painful  are  the  sacrifices  required  of  them  by  this  improved  art  of 
slaughter — an  unexpected  result  of  superior  civilization — the  louder  must  be 
the  call  of  honor  and  patriotism  in  the  soldier's  ear." 

From  the  foregoing  passage  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
first  requisite  of  a  good  army,  in  the  opinion  of  General 
Trochu,  is  a  high  moral  and  intellectual  standard.  It  is 
idle  to  inflame  the  minds  of  troops  with  a  fanciful  conceit 
of  their  own  superiority,  which  delusion  may  be  rudely 
dispelled  by  the  resistance  of  a  superior  army ;  for  the 
qualities  on  which  an  army  has  to  rely  are  those  which 
can  be  found  in  its  own  ranks.  As  has  been  wisely  said : 

"  It  matters  little  to  find  the  enemy  weaker  than  was  expected,  but  it  be- 
comes a  very  dangerous  matter  to  find  him  stronger."  .  .  .  "France  is  full 
of  proud  military  traditions,  reaching  back  to  her  earliest  histoiy  ;  yet  she  has 
as  many  that  are  mournful  as  that  are  glorious.  But  we  have  a  wonderful 
way  of  excusing  and  justifying  our  reverses,  and  console  ourselves  through 
their  memories  from  age  to  age.  For  the  contemporary  French  mass,  the 
day  of  Waterloo  is  embodied  in  these  words  :  *  The  guard  dies,  but  does  not 
surrender,'  as  for  our  fathers  the  day  of  Fontenoy  was,  'You  first,  gentle- 


202  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

men  of  England;'  and  for  our  grandfathers,  all  the  disaster  of  Pavia  had  been 
in  the  beautiful  words  of  the  vanquished  king:  'All  is  lost  save  honor.'  It 
is  the  memory  of  French  victories  and  honor  which  live  in  our  thoughts,  and 
make  us  a  warlike  people.  We  are,  in  fact,  more  a  warlike  than  a  military 
people,  for  we  have  not  the  calm  temperament,  the  constant  preoccupation, 
the  exactitude  and  punctuality,  and  the  steadiness  of  habits,  which  forms  the 
people  of  the  North  into  obedience  to  law  and  discipline,  and  finally  makes 
them  accept  cheerfully  the  exigencies  of  arms. 

"In  Prussia  and  Russia  the  soldier  obeys  immediately  and  silently  ^  no 
matter  what  his  ideas  are  in  regard  to  the  order.  A  remark,  or  even  a  sti- 
fled murmur,  would  be  an  unheard-of  enormity,  and  result  in  punishment. 
The  French  soldier  will  also  execute  the  order,  but  the  question  of  its  pro- 
priety occupies  his  mind,  and  his  bad  humor  shows  itself  in  some  way,  and, 
when  executing  it,  if  a  word  escapes  him,  it  is  overlooked.  The  nature  of 
our  soldier  is  not  disciplinary,  and  he  must  at  all  times  be  kept  under  sur- 
veillance. A  military  obedience  is  not  one  of  his  traits,  but,  on  the  contra- 
ry, he  is  negligent  and  very  unmilitary,  requiring  constant  efforts  at  correc- 
tion." 

Still  General  Trochu  says  that  the  French  soldiers  read- 
ily submit  to  sacrifices  and  the  sufferings  of  the  camp ; 
that  they  have  strong  attachments,  which  give  them  great 
cohesion;  that  they. have  powerful  traditions,  and  their 
leaders  great  energy ;  and  that  the  greatest  military  force 
France  can  boast  of  lies  in  the  relation  of  its  army  with 
the  masses  of  the  people.  They  have  also  great  enthu- 
siasm, and  come  quickly  forward  for  hopeless  duty.  He 
gives  the  following  example,  which  is  the  relation  of  an 
actual  event  in  his  own  command  at  Sebastopol : 

"Desiring  to  make  an  attack,  he  assembles  his  command,  already  reduced 
one-half  in  eleven  months,  the  officers  and  colors  in  the  centre,  and  addresses 
them  as  follows :  *  I  have  something  of  interest  to  tell  you.  To-morrow  we 
make  the  attack.  The  head  of  the  column  will  be  destroyed,  but  I  have  a. 
firm  belief  that  the  rear  will  surmount  the  obstacle.  To  form  the  head  of 
the  column,  your  general  demands  two  hundred  men  of  superior  courage  and 
devotion.  I  have  never  deceived  you,  and  I  can  not  promise  those  brave 
men  who  survive  decorations  or  grades  of  promotion,  but  I  promise  you  they 
shall  receive  the  highest  recompense  that  can  be  given  to  such  soldiers.  The 
staff  will  to-day  receive  the  list,  and  inscribe  their  names  upon  the  rolls  as 
"Volunteers  in  the  attack  of  Sebastopol;"  and  when  these  heroes  return  to 


GENERAL  TROCHU.  203 

their  homes  bringing  with  them  this  title  of  honor,  I  rest  assured  that  they 
will  be  respected  by  their  friends  and  countrymen.'  At  the  end  of  this  ad- 
dress, the  troops  expressed  the  highest  enthusiasm ;  and  there  is  not  a  doubt 
that  every  man  would  have  willingly  sacrificed  himself  for  the  hope  of  such 
reward.  After  some  hours  of  reflection,  five  hundred  and  sixty  officers  and 
men  enrolled  themselves  for  this  deadly  service. 

"  It  is  by  such  scenes  impressed  upon  the  country  by  the  army,  which  re- 
ceives again  its  impetus  from  the  people,  that  French  military  character  is 
distinguished.  Yet  general  comparisons  made  with  other  European  armies 
are  seldom  satisfactory,  and  I  repeat  that  I  am  far  from  asserting  our  abso- 
lute superiority  in  arms,  although  I  have  had  the  most  exalted  ideas  in  this 
particular  during  all  my  life." 

In  respect  to  discipline,  General  Trochu  says : 

"The  great  dispersion  of  troops  over  the  entire  country,  by  which  colonels 
seldom  see  their  companies,  and  generals  never  know  their  officers  and  men, 
makes  the  situation  critical  in  actual  service.  Each  tries  to  excel  the  other, 
and  chance  does  the  rest.  As  soon  as  danger  commences,  the  military  hab- 
itude is  abandoned,  military  learning  is  forgotten,  and  the  ranks  become 
broken ;  officers,  and  often  generals,  are  seen  passing  in  the  midst  of  soldiers, 
even  of  their  own  commands,  without  receiving  the  customary  salute,  and 
often  without  being  noticed.  We  have  been  greatly  surprised,  in  our  late 
wars,  to  notice  the  contrast  between  our  own  and  the  foreign  troops  with 
whom  we  were  allied.  The  latter  were  generally  better  disciplined,  well  in- 
structed, silent,  and  calm,  and,  when  under  arms,  performed  their  duty  with 
promptness  and  exactitude.  They  showed  themselves  respectful  to  French 
officers,  and  in  a  way  altogether  in  accordance  with  military  forms.  How 
could  we  expect  those  tokens  of  respect  toward  strange  officers  from  our 
soldiers,  when  we  could  not  obtain  them  ourselves.  Generals  also  of  great 
experience  complain  of  the  peculiar  temperament  of  our  soldiers,  and  the  in- 
sufficiency of  their  military  instruction ;  and  to  that  cause  is  assigned  the  loss 
of  many  good  opportunities  and  positions  in  war." 

This  want  of  knowledge  of  each  other  necessarily  re- 
sults in  want  of  that  unity  of  action  so  essential  in  armies, 
as  well  as  in  all  the  other  affairs  of  life.  The  moral  tone 
of  the  army  has  been  greatly  impaired  by  the  temptation 
to  convert  it  into  a  political  instrument.  Many  a  worth- 
less officer  has  had  his  debts  paid  from  the  privy  purse, 
and  got  his*  promotion,  because,  whatever  his  vices  might 


201  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

be,  they  only  served  to  "make  him  a  more  devoted  and 
subservient  tool  to  the  Imperial  Government.  But  pro- 
motion gained  in  that  way  costs  a  man  the  respect  of  his 
comrades  and  the  confidence  of  his  men.  Those  who 
have  most  closely  studied  the  formation  of  the  Prussian 
armies  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  they  contain  all 
the  moral  qualities  to  a  much  higher  degree  than  other 
armies  of  Europe,  owing,  in  great  part,  to  their  general 
education,  peculiar  local  organization,  and  thorough  mili- 
tary training,  whereby  every  one  is  made  to  know  his  ex- 
act place  and  keep  it.  Although  the  Prussian  army  com- 
prises a  large  democratic  element,  it  is  commanded  and 
officered  on  aristocratic  principles,  and  has  none  of  that 
spirit  of  equality  which  in  France  has  so  largely  entered 
into  the  officering  of  the  army,  and  which  has,  without 
doubt,  greatly  weakened  authority. 

Every  good  officer  in  our  service  knows  the  immense 
harm  to  discipline  and  efficiency  arising  from  any  species 
of  familiarity  between  officers  and  men.  The  officer  gains 
no  respect  by  it,  but  contempt  is  always  engendered.  The 
low  moral  standard  which  France  has  applied  in  her  se- 
lection of  officers  has  had  its  effect  also.  Another  wonder- 
ful advantage  of  the  Prussian  system  is,  that  its  organiza- 
tion permits  mobilization  for  war  without  agitating  the 
people,  while  in  France  the  entire  nation  is  shaken.  This, 
in  Prussia,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  peace  whole  organi- 
zations remain  together,  each  and  every  part  knowing  its 
exact  place  in  war;  while  in  France  the  different  parts, 
being  widely  separated,  come  together  unknown  to  each 
other;  and  when  war  breaks  out,  the  concentration  and 
necessary  preparation  must  be  done  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy,  with  endless  perplexity  and  confusion,  which  are 
fatal  to  coolness  and  cohesion.  The  truth  of  this  is  made 
clear  by  the  following  letter  of  the  emperor : 


ADMINISTRATION.  205 


,  October  29,  1870. 

"My  DEAR  SIR  JOHN,  —  I  have  just  received  your  letter,  which  has  given 
me  very  great  pleasure,  especially  because  it  is  a  touching  proof  of  your  sym- 
pathy for  me,  and  also  because  your  name  reminds  me  of  the  happy  and  glo- 
rious time  when  our  two  armies  fought  together  for  the  same  cause.  You, 
who  are  the  English  Moltke,  have  understood  that  all  our  disasters  arose 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  Prussians  were  more  ready  than  we  were  — 
that  is  to  say,  they  surprised  us  in  the  very  act  of  formation. 

"The  offensive  having  become  an  impossibility  for  me,  I  resolved  on  the 
defensive  ;  but  hampered  by  political  considerations,  the  retreat  was  delayed 
till  it  became  impossible.  Saving  fallen  back  on  Chalons,  I  wished  to  march 
on  Paris  with  the  last  army  left  me,  but  at  that  juncture  also,  political  consid- 
erations forced  us  to  make  that  very  imprudent  and  unstrategic  march  which 
finished  with  the  disaster  of  Sedan.  There,  in  a  few  words,  is  the  unhappy 
campaign  of  1870.  I  rely  on  you  to  afford  this  explanation,  for  I  rely  on 
your  esteem. 

"In  thanking  you  for  your  kind  remembrance,  I  renew  the  assurance  of 
my  affectionate  regard.  NAPOLEON. 

"  SIR  JOHN  BUEGOYNB,  Field-marshal." 

'     ADMINISTRATION. 

We  now  come  to  the  administration,  which  means  the 
whole  subject  of  supply  and  hospitals;  and  were  there 
space,  the  whole  chapter  by  General  Trochu  could  be  ad- 
vantageously introduced  : 

"The  splendid  retreat  of  Moreau,  who,  righting  every  day,  and  sleeping 
every  night  on  the  battle-field,  supported  his  army  through  an  active  and  far- 
seeing  administration  ;  the  army  of  Suchet  in  Spain,  living  in  abundance,  and 
returning  to  France  with  treasures  ;  the  immortal  winter  campaign  of  Napo- 
leon at  Eylau  and  Friedland;  the  camp  at  Finkenstein,  in  the  midst  of  gla- 
ciers and  the  northern  solitudes  of  Europe  ;  and  the  re-organization  of  the 
army  in  1813  —  these  marches  and  battles  in  all  directions,  and  the  prodi- 
gious efforts  necessary  to  maintain  them,  all  had  their  lessons,  but  these  les- 
sons are  lost  to  us.  Yet  we  find  in  the  memoirs  of  Napoleon,  as  well  as  in 
those  of  Prince  Charles,  of  Jomini,  Suchet,  and  St.  Cyr,  documents  which 
may  serve  in  some  slight  way  to  elucidate  these  great  problems." 

THE   1NTENDANT-GENERAL   OF  FRANCE. 

Trochu  says  : 

"The  rules  and  arrangements  which  can  satisfactorily  supply  armies  in 
time  of  peace  are  not  difficult,  and  may  be  said  to  be  nearly  complete.  Here 


206  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

every  thing  is  regulated  and  foreseen,  and  delivery  is  perfectly  simple,  regu- 
lar, and  easy.  In  war,  every  thing  —  time,  place,  and  demand — is  urgent, 
difficult,  and  irregular.  We  are  compelled  to  trust  in  native  ideas,  common- 
sense,  activity,  and,  above  all,  great  experience.  In  fact,  the  only  way  to 
deal  with  so  many  unforeseen  contingencies  is  not  by  military  routine,  but  by 
a  ready  and  complete  knowledge  of  business.  At  present,  all  the  officers  of 
the  French  Intendance  are  officers  of  the  army,  most  of  whom  have  served 
many  years ;  who  know  nothing  of  the  laws  of  trade,  by  which  alone  supply 
can  adjust  itself  to  demand,  while  the  heads  of  departments  are  superannu- 
ated generals  of  the  line.  The  French  military  administration  is,  through- 
out, honorable,  and  we  owe  full  justice  to  their  zeal  and  effort,  but  it  has  not 
been  established  on  war  principles,  and  is  in  many  ways  contradictory.  In 
the  great  operations  of  the  First  Empire,  where  all  the  departments  worked 
without  interference  or  the  least  confusion,  the  directors,  controllers,  and  ex- 
ecutors were  business  men,  who  had  been  so  all  their  lives,  and  were  ready 
and  competent  to  do  their  duty  under  all  circumstances.  During  our  cam- 
paign in  Italy,  our  divisions  often  suffered  for  want  of  bread  in  a  country 
that  was  full  of  it.  From  this  lack,  our  men  were  given  corn-bread,  which 
they  would  not  eat,  and  sometimes,  being  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  we  were 
for  days  near  starvation.  We  have  lost  sight  of  the  great  principle  taught  us 
by  so  many  years  of  successful  warfare — that  the  division  is  the  great  admin- 
istrative unit,  as  well  as  the  great  unit  of  conflict.  The  army  should  supply 
itself  in  a  country  where  resources  are  ample  ;  and  it  is  a  lack  of  good  sense, 
and  against  all  rules  of  experience,  to  provision  an  army  through  its  adminis- 
tration in  a  country  full  of  rich  villages  and  teeming  with  products.  When 
the  responsible  officers  were  accustomed  to  control  these  transactions,  and 
where  they  were  in  intercourse  with  the  producers  and  holders,  the  divisions, 
which  now  sometimes  suffer  greatly,  were  able  to  live  economically  and  in 
plenty." 

There  is  a  lesson  in  all  this  for  ourselves,  and  nearly 
every  officer  of  rank  in  our  war  can  remember  some  in- 
stance when  his  command,  left  to  his  own  resources,  was 
better  and  more  cheaply  fed  than  at  any  other  time  during 
the  four  years.  In  East  Tennessee,  during  the  winter  of 
1863-' 64,  after  the  battle  of  Mission  Kidge,  when  we  were 
sent  to  the  relief  of  General  Burnside  at  Knoxville,  to  a 
country  where  supplies  were  supposed  to  be  exhausted,  we 
took,  on  leaving  Chattanooga,  seven  days'  rations  and  no 
tents,  and  those  rations  were  the  last  the  "  administration  " 


THE  INTEND  ANT- GENERAL  OF  FRANCE.       207 

issued  us  for  seven  weeks.  Each  division  and  brigade 
was  required  to  provide  for  itself.  Each  commander  de-. 
tailed  an  officer  and  a  few  men  to  gather  grain,  and  grind 
it  at  the  mills;  others  to  collect  forage,  cattle,  and  small 
rations.  The  men  built  little  houses  of  fence-rails  and 
straw,  and  the  officers  made  themselves  comfortable  in  the 
houses  and  barns  within  their  lines,  or  improvised  log 
huts.  During  the  entire  war  I  never  knew  men  better 
fed,  and  at  less  cost,  or  more  contented,  or  so  few  on  the 
sick  report,  and  this  in  the  middle  of  winter. 
General  Trochu,  says : 

"I  do  not  hesitate  to  think  that,  under  analogous  circumstances  and  dur- 
ing a  long  war,  the  same  administrative  errors  would  he  repeated,  and  it 
would  become  necessary  to  employ  commercial  agents  to  supply  by  contract 
the  various  wants  of  the  army.  This  was  the  case  in  the  Crimea,  where, 
when  the  administration  became  complicated,  and  the  problem  of  supply  dif- 
ficult, and  the  troops  were  famishing,  a  mercantile  house  in  Marseilles  came 
to  the  rescue  on  its  own  responsibility,  and  undertook  the  subsistence  of  the 
army,  and  actually  did  furnish  it  abundantly." 

"What  is  here  predicted  really  took  place  in  the  recent 
war.  The  French  administration  broke  down  completely 
and  everywhere.  It  was  one  of  the  causes  of  M'Mahon's 
tardy  movements  from  Chalons,  by  which  he  was  sand- 
wiched against  the  Belgian  frontier ;  and  when  finally  cap- 
tured at  Sedan,  his  troops  were  literally  destitute.  Trochu 
says: 

"All  the  military  functionaries  have  the  welfare  of  the  army  at  heart,  and 
watch  over  its  interests  with  great  devotion  and  professional  pride.  They 
have  numbers  of  troops  under  their  control,  and  with  these  they  should 
study,  in  times  of  peace,  those  principles  which  in  time  of  war  would  secure 
efficient  military  service." 

Nothing  is  more  characteristic  of  vulgar  ignorance  than 
prejudice  against  contractors,  who  are  said  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  the  cost  of  the  public.  No  doubt  they  enrich 
themselves,  and  they  ought,  if  they  succeed  in  a  critical 


208  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  complicated  service ;  for  riches  are  the  great  and  only 
incentives  in  commercial  life,  and,  unless  money  should  be 
made,  commerce  would  die.  While  making  money  for 
themselves,  they  save  the  army  and  state  from  far  great- 
er expense  and  imminent'  peril.  That  we  were  furnished 
with  shoddy  coats  and  trowsers,  stationery  that  was  a  sham, 
hats  that  sell  for  a  penny  apiece,  and  are  considered  dear 
at  that,  and  blankets  made  of  cows'  hair,  so  coarse  and 
heavy  that  they  conducted  away  all  the  "heat  of  the  body 
instead  of  retaining  it,  and  made  our  bones  ache  with  their 
weight,  was  due  to  a  controlling,  organization,  with  many 
of  the  defects  of  the  French  Intendance,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  keep  all  these  articles  up  to  the  standard,  but  who  nev- 
er performed  it.  If  a  second-rate  article  will  be  accepted 
as  first-rate,  no  contractor  will  be  so  absurd  as  to  furnish 
the  better  quality. 

General  Trochu  is  strongly  opposed  to  exclusive  milita- 
ry establishments,  and  in  that  evinces  remarkable  wisdom ; 
for  any  nation  that  shuts  out  from  the  really  commercial 
part  of  its  administration  the  active  life  and  widely-gained 
experience  of  its  progressive  people  hedges  itself  about 
with  forms  and  routine,  without  vitality,  and  soon  finds 
itself  behind  the  age,  and  unable  to  cope  with  the  new 
order  of  things.  He  says : 

"  The  Intendance  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  distinguished  persons, 
who  have  been  for  the  most  part  members  of  the  Polytechnic  and  military 
schools.  It  is  a  superior  corps,  and  holds  a  position  of  high  esteem  and  re- 
gard. I  think,  however,  that  I  have  shown  that  the  method  of  selection  of 
members  of  this  corps  has  not  all  the  strictness  desirable ;  and  as  concerns 
the  great  movements  in  time  of  war,  which  depend  upon  the  Intendance, 
there  is  much  to  wish  for.  To  fulfill  its  functions  usefully,  the  Intendance 
has  properly  claimed  that  its  position  in  the  army  should  be  one  of  extraor- 
dinary rank,  and  has  sought  to  gain  for  its  officers  grades  from  generals  of 
division  to  captains  of  companies,  with  the  honors  and  special  privileges  inci- 
dent to  those  grades,  but  by  this  arrangement  the  Intendance  has  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  deteriorated,  and  with  it  the  whole  military  administration,  direc- 


INFANTRY.  209 

tion,  execution,  and  control.  The  administrative  officers  charged  with  the 
execution  of  their  service  have  become  purely  unmilitary  agents — their  en- 
tire duty  being  that  of  store-keepers,  distributors,  and  accountants,  and  thus 
fail  of  proper  experience  in  military  affairs.  They  are  absorbed  in  their 
routine,  and,  when  their  duty  is  done,  their  whole  energies  are  concentrated 
in  gaining  distinction,  advancement,  promotion,  rank.  These  innovations, 
which  have  so  greatly  changed  the  administration,  date  back  to  a  period 
even  before  Louis  XIII. ;  and  the  few  well-informed  at  that  time  predicted 
accurately  the  damage  that  would  result  from  such  a  course,  particularly  in 
time  of  war.  The  direction  and  administration  of  armies  must  depend  upon 
commanders,  because  it  is  their  duty  to  conduct  the  war,  and  they  alone  are 
responsible  for  success  or  failure.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  and  it  is  greatly 
against  the  public  interests,  that  the  commander  of  the  army  has  allowed  it, 
step  by  step,  to  sink,  and  deviate  from  the  public  interest  in  the  matter  of  its 
administration.  These  transactions  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  civil 
agents  interested  in  their  execution,  who  will  furnish  guaranties  for  their 
ability  to  properly  perform  their  trusts.  These  agents  should  be  real  busi- 
ness men  of  true  commercial  experience,  and,  if  you  please,  under  the  sur- 
veillance of  the  Intendance.  Administrative  control  is  a  high  and  necessary 
mission,  which  the  Intendance  holds  directly  from  the  state,  and  which  it 
fulfills  with  an  absolute  independence.  It  is  in  the  efficient  discharge  of 
this  mission  that  they  should  have  sought  the  distinction  to  which  they  have 
a  right,  but  they  have  demanded  military  rank  and  prerogatives — preroga- 
tives to  which  the  law  has  contested  their  right,  and  which  experience  has 
proved  calamitous." 

INFANTEY. 

Of  the  infantry  he  says: 

"Infantry  is  the  principal  agent  in  battle,  as  well  as  the  principal  support 
to  all  other  corps.  When  it  advances,  forcing  back  the  opposing  lines,  and 
occupying  the  positions  so  obtained,  the  victory  is  gained.  When  it  holds 
its  own  ground,  standing  firm,  and  wrestling  with  the  enemy  without  looking 
back,  the  victory  is  perhaps  uncertain,  but  may  be  gained  by  fortunate  ma- 
noeuvres or  a  last  effort.  When,  governed  by  events,  it  retreats  farther  and 
farther,  without  being  able  to  obtain  strongholds  which  the  battle-field  of- 
fers, or  to  advance  and  take  the  offensive,  defeat  is  at  hand.  The  position 
of  infantiy  also  regulates  the  advancement,  and  controls  the  morale  and 
hopes  of  the  entire  mass,  and  when  its  mission  is  fulfilled,  it  resumes  its  per- 
manent  duty  of  marching  day  after  day  in  a  heavy  equipment.  It  executes 
all  great  works,  and  watches  night  and  day  over  the  safety  of  all.  It  is  the 
instrument  of  strength  and  endurance." 

14 


210  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

"We  will  now  see  how  the  infantry  is  made  up,  and  no- 
tice the  faults  common  to  the  French  and  our  own  army. 
The  conscription  is  first  made.  The  artillery  and  engi- 
neers have  the  first  choice,  as  they  require  men  of  phys- 
ical strength  and  superior  intelligence.  The  large  men 
are  then  taken  for  the  heavy  cavalry,  and  the  agile  and 
hardy,  for  the  select  light-infantry.  The  regiments  of  the 
line  now  receive  the  remainder,  when  the  Imperial  Guards 
are  selected,  and  two  companies  from  each  battalion  as  ri- 
flemen ;  and  as  these,  from  their  greater  exposure  as  skir- 
mishers, lose  men  rapidly,  they  are  kept  full  from  the  bat- 
talion. What  remains  is  the  mere  dregs  of  the  whole 
mass,  or,  as  has  been  pointedly  said,  "the  residuum  of  the 
conscription."  This  plan  of  fostering  picked  corps  has 
been  a  favorite  one  with  the  late  emperor,  and  in  this  he 
has  committed  the  most  fatal  of  errors.  It  is  continually 
weakening  the  body,  to  unduly  strengthen  the  members, 
until  the  body  is  so  enervated  as  to  be  no  longer  able  to 
support  the  members. 

The  infantry  is,  by  common  consent  the  world  over,  the 
most  essential  and  important  element  of  an  army ;  and  we, 
as  well  as  the  French,  have  lost  sight  of  this,  and  have 
weakened  this  branch  —  more  for  personal  convenience 
than  from  any  real  necessity  of  the  service.  General  Tro- 
chu  would  do  away  with  all  these  fancy  corps,  and  throw 
back  into  the  line  all  these  strong  and  effective  men,  more 
particularly  now,  since  the  introduction  of  the  rifle  has  ren- 
dered the  carbine  no  longer  useful  in  war.  He  would  se- 
lect two  platoons  of  picked  sharp-shooters  from  each  bat- 
talion, and  nothing  more.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
the  infantry — the  great  trunk  which  supports  all — should 
be  made  as  powerful  as  possible ;  and  this  fact  has  been 
recognized  by  Prussia,  while  forgotten  by  France  and  our- 
selves. French  service  in  Africa  has  had  the  effect  to 


INFANTRY.  211 

greatly  increase  individual  resource  and  self-reliance,  and 
taught  the  inestimable  advantage  in  war  of  the  light,  elas- 
tic movement  of  select  parties — skirmishers  and  sharp- 
shooters. This  has  been  secured,  however,  at  great  cost 
to  that  steady,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  deliberate  movement 
and  compact  order  which  is  indispensable  in  all  great  op- 
erations. The  latter  had  come  to  be  viewed  in  France,  as 
well  as  in  our  own  country,  as  a  sort  of  mistake,  and  quite 
unnecessary,  than  which  no  greater  error  is  possible.  In 
no  other  way  can  troops  be  brought  under  that  perfect 
control  necessary  to  make  them  available  under  all  con- 
ditions. 

General  Trochu  appreciates  the  immense  advantage  of 
cover  for  infantry.  He  says  that  in  no  other  way  can  we 
have  accurate  firing,  and  that  otherwise  the  men  fire  at 
random,  omitting  aim  entirely,  and  many  not  even  bring- 
ing the  gun  to  the  shoulder.  To  render  accuracy  possible, 
the  soldier  should  be  in  a  place  of  security,  behind  a  wall, 
a  tree,  or,  far  better,  in  hastily  -  made  rifle  -  pits,  such  as 
wqre  used  by  us  in  the  last  years  of  the  war.  The  soldier 
then  is  not  disturbed  by  a  sense  of  his  own  danger,  his 
mind  is  clear,  and  he  will  invariably  carefully  aim  his 
piece.  General  Trochu  also  recognizes  the  vital  impor- 
tance of  the  men  becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
their  arm,  and  advises  that  the  best  shots  of  the  regiment 
should  be  posted  under  charge  of  select  officers,  either  sin- 
gly or  in  small  groups,  so  that  they  may,  by  their  supe- 
rior skill,  accuracy,  and  persistency  of  fire,  pick  off  artil- 
lerymen, cause  troublesome  bodies  of  troops  to  withdraw, 
annoy  mounted  men  and  officers,  and  generally  harass  the 
enemy.  The  great  effectiveness  and  importance  of  sharp- 
shooting  we  never  fully  appreciated  or  availed  ourselves 
of,  while  systematic  target-practice  in  many  commands  was 
entirely  neglected. 


212  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

CAVALRY. 

General  Trochu  says  that  the  invention  of  the  new  and 
more  effective  small  arm  has  entirely  changed  the  part 
cavalry  must  play  in  war,  and  that  to  attack  infantry  in 
position  while  in  full  strength  and  courage  would  be  but 
destruction  to  the  cavalry,  and  that  cavalry  must  recognize 
the  altered  conditions  of  the  age  and  adapt  itself  to  them. 
Its  true  mission  in  war  is  that  of  swiftness,  and,  to  give  to 
it  its  full  usefulness,  we  must  make  it  as  light  and  active 
as  possible.  These  observations  apply  to  all  cavalry.  In 
France  the  horse  is  compelled  to  carry  from  two  hundred 
and  eighty  to  three  hundred  pounds,  while  the  regulation 
pack  of  a  mule  is  but  two  hundred  pounds.  General 
Trochu  recommends  the  entire  abolition  of  the  heavy  cav- 
alry ;  that  the  helmet,  cuirass,  and  shako  be  abolished ; 
that  light,  active  men  only  be  recruited  in  the  cavalry 
service;  that  there  be  but  one  kind  of  cavalry, 'and  one  of 
infantry ;  and  that  the  musketoon  be  abolished  altogether, 
and  the  revolver  substituted.  These  recommendations  are 
all  full  of  good  sense,  and  must  soon  be  adopted. 

Cavalry  does  not,  as  is  popularly  supposed,  actually 
perform  great  things;  but  it  can  produce  great  moral  re- 
sults in  proportion  as  it  moves  swiftly,  and  consequently 
is  found  unexpectedly  in  the  midst  of  a  retreating  and  dis- 
organized enemy,  confronting  his  carelessly-advancing  col- 
umns, breaking  up  his  trains,  interrupting  his  lines  of  com- 
munication, cutting  off  his  isolated  detachments,  dashing 
in  where  least  expected,  and  getting  out  of  harm's  way 
before  resistance  can  be  organized.  The  wonderful  moral 
force  over  and  above  the  merely  material  efficiency  of  this 
arm  of  the  service  did  not  seem  to  be  comprehended  by 
the  French  in  the  late  war.  They  permitted  their  cav- 
alry to  operate  compactly  with  their  infantry,  to  be  envel- 


WANT  OF  SIMPLICITY.  213 

oped  at  Sedan,  and  even  to  charge  lines  of  the  investing 
Prussian  infantry,  of  course  only  to  their  own  destruction. 
They  drew  their  cavalry  in  after  them  at  Metz  and  Paris, 
where  it  could  by  no  possibility  be  of  the  least  service. 
The  Prussians  are  not  much  better  off  than  the  French  in 
the  matter  of  the  heavy  packs  of  their  cavalry,  and  even 
we  are  not  quite  up  to  the  modern  requirements.  The  sa- 
bre as  well  as  the  lance  is  no  longer  useful,  and  is  always 
left  in  camp  when  our  troops  go  on  active  service.  How 
to  reduce  weights  so  as  to  give  to  cavalry  the  greatest  at- 
tainable speed,  must  in  future  be  the  problem  to  be  solved. 

WANT  OF  SIMPLICITY". 

General  Trochu  deplores  the  great  complexity  of  army 
regulations  and  manoeuvres,  that  the  army  is  no  longer 
governed  by  rules  which  are  easily  comprehended  and  ob- 
served by  all,  and  quotes  the  maxim  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  that  "  any  thing  not  simple  is  useless  in  war."  This 
is  so  true  that  every  soldier  would  do  well  to  remember  it. 
Armies  are  made  for  war,  and  the  great  law  of  simplici- 
ty must,  by  a  natural  necessity,  regulate  the  existence  and 
action  of  troops  in  the  field.  Here  all  that  is  not  simple 
is  impossible.  The  most  ingenious  and  brilliant  inventions 
adequate  to  all  requirements  of  peace  fail  miserably  in 
war.  The  exercises  in  peace  should  conform  to  the  inev- 
itable necessities  of  war.  Yet  who  in  front  of  the  enemy 
ever  had  occasion  for  a  tenth  part  of  the  complicated  tac- 
tics with  which  we  burden  the  mind  of  our  troops.  The 
present  manoeuvres  are  those  of  a  time  when  the  small 
range  of  fire-arms  permitted  battalions  to  be  brought  with 
deliberation  and  accuracy  into  the  near  presence  of  the 
enemy.  The  tactics  should  be  reduced  to  a  few  pages 
easily  comprehended,  and  so  simple  as  to  admit  of  rapid 
application  under  all  circumstances  and  conditions. 


214  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

General  Morand,  an  officer  of  the  First  Empire,  says . 

* '  Our  present  manoeuvres  can  not,  without  great  danger,  be  executed  in 
the  presence  of  the  enemy.  If  employed,  the  consequence  would  be,  as  the 
consequence  has  been,  the  massacre  of  whole  battalions.  These  manoeuvres 
are  also  injurious,  because  the  study  of  them  diverts  the  mind  of  an  officer 
from  the  true  object  of  war.  Generals  have  been  beaten  because  their  heads 
were  full  of  nothing  but  these  nonsensical  forms." 

In  the.  last  years  of  our  war  I  used  only  a  single  ma- 
noeuvre, and  that  not  mentioned  in  our  tactics  (yet  while 
in  camp  I  carefully  instructed  my  troops  in  the  whole 
three  books) — a  movement  by  wings  of  regiments,  a  sort 
of  folding  up  of  the  regiments  into  two  folds.  This  was 
so  simple  and  so  rapid,  susceptible  of  the  speediest  forma- 
tion, fronting  the  men  in  any  direction,  and  shortening 
the  column  one-half  while  marching  by  flank  in  narrow 
roads,  that  it  answered  for  all  purposes,  and  enabled  me  to 
put  my  command  on  any  portion  of  the  line  before  those 
about  me  comprehended  what  was  required  of  them. 

POPULAR  ENTHUSIASM  IN  WAE. 

General  Trochu  has  a  low  opinion  of  popular  enthusi- 
asm as  an  element  of  military  success.  The  eagerness  of 
the  start  counts  but  little  during  the  heat  and  burden  of  the 
day,  and  far  less  when  Fortune  ceases  to  smile  and  reverses 
have  to  be  borne.  In  support  of  this  opinion,  he  quotes  the 
following  graphic  passage  from  "Marshal  Bugeaud's  Remi- 
niscences," which  is  worthy  of  introduction  here: 

"I  served  in  the  Peninsula,"  says  the  marshal,  "for  seven  years.  I 
sometimes  beat  the  English  in  isolated  movements  and  in  detached  opera- 
tions, which,  with  the  rank  I  then  held,  I  was  able  to  prepare  and  direct ; 
but  during  this  long  warfare,  I  am  sorry  to  say  there  were  but  few  general 
operations  in  which  the  British  army  had  not  the  best  of  it.  The  reason 
was  obvious.  We  almost  invariably  attacked  our  adversaries,  without  the 
slightest  reference  to  past  experience,  in  a  manner  which  generally  succeeded 
against  the  Spanish,  and  which  generally  failed  against  the  English.  They 


POPULAR  ENTHUSIASM  IN  WAS.  215 

habitually  occupied  a  well-chosen,  defensive  position,  with  a  certain  elevation 
of  ground,  showing  only  a  portion  of  their  strength.  The  cannonade  began. 
Then,  in  hot  haste,  without  waiting  to  study  the  position,  or  see  how  it  could 
be  turned,  on  we  rushed  to  'take  the  bull  by  the  horns.'  At  about  a  thou- 
sand yards  from  the  British  lines  our  soldiers  began  to  talk,  and  hurried  for- 
ward with  a  slight  degree  of  confusion.  The  English,  silent,  arms  grounded, 
looked  like  a  long  red  wall,  which  had  a  good  deal  of  effect  on  our  young- 
sters. The  distance  became  less.  The  troops  began  to  cry,  *  Vive  VEm- 
pereur,  l  En  avant  a  la  baionnette,'  and  to  wave  their  caps  on  their  mus- 
kets. The  march  became  a  run,  the  ranks  were  somewhat  broken,  the  agita- 
tion swelled  to  a  tumult,  and  a  good  many  shots  were  fired.  The  British  line, 
still  silent,  still  immovable,  though  we  were  but  three  hundred  yards  away, 
seemed  not  to  perceive  the  storm  about  to  reach  it.  The  contrast  was  strik- 
ing. More  than  one  of  our  fellows  began  to  think  that  the  enemy  was  very 
slow  in  firing,  and  that  his  firing,  when  it  came,  would  shortly  be  very  un- 
pleasant. We  felt  less  ardent.  The  moral  influence,  irresistible  in  war,  of 
the  composure  which  seems  to  be  undisturbed,  even  when  it  is  not  so,  over 
disorder  intoxicated  with  noise,  weighed  upon  us.  At  a  moment  of  painful 
suspense  the  English  '  wall '  presented  arms.  An  impression  they  could  not 
define  riveted  to  the  spot  many  of  our  men,  who  were  beginning  to  open  a 
dropping  fire.  The  fire  of  the  enemy,  in  perfect  unity  and  precision,  mowed 
us  down.  Struck  back,  we  receded  to  recover  our  balance.  Then  three 
formidable  hurrahs  broke  the  silence  of  our  adversaries.  At  the  third  cheer 
they  were  upon  us,  driving  in  our  disorderly  retreat,  but,  to  our  great  sur- 
prise, they  did  not  urge  their  advantage  beyond  a  hundred  yards,  but  fell 
back  upon  their  line  to  await  a  second  attack.  The  second  attack,  with  re- 
enforcements,  was  generally  made,  but  with  similar  results  and  fresh  losses." 

The  marshal  has  given  us  here  a  very  fair  idea  of  the 
French  soldier  of  to-day,  the  wars  in  Africa  having  had  a 
tendency  to  increase  rather  than  to  diminish  this  style  of 
behavior  in  presence  of  the  enemy.  I  have  a  clear  recol- 
lection of  a  few  occasions  in  our  war  where  our  own  troops 
attacked  under  like  circumstances,  and  with  precisely  sim- 
.ilar  results.  These  impetuous  movements  are  ill-timed, 
and  very  inconvenient.  They  anticipate  and  embarrass 
the  operations  of  war,  and,  in  the  event  of  a  check  inflict- 
.ed  by  an  enemy  under  better  discipline  and  control,  the 
men,  if  broken,  can  be  no  longer  readily  manoeuvred,  and 
the  most  disastrous  results  may  follow. 


216  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FRENCH  ARMY  AT  THE  COMMENCE- 
MENT OF  HOSTILITIES. 

The  agitation  in  France  caused  by  the  Prussian  success 
at  Sadowa  resulted  in  a  law,  passed  February,  1868,  which 
extended  the  period  of  the  conscript's  service  from  six  to 
nine  years — five  in  the  ranks  with  the  colors,  and  four  at 
home,  as  a  member  of  the  reserves— creating  the  "  Grande 
Rationale  Mobile"  which  is  a  sort  of  militia,  or  landwehr, 
available  for  the  defense  of  France.  This  law,  in  fact, 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  state  all  of  the  available  male 
population  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  of  age;  but 
very  little  progress  has  been  made  under  it  in  organiza- 
tion or  instruction,  and  only  companies  here  and  there 
were  armed  and  uniformed. 

The  infantry  of  the  regular  army  of  France  embraces 
one  hundred  regiments,  of  three  battalions  each,  all  of  pre- 
cisely similar  organization.  Each  battalion  has  eight  com- 
panies, but  in  time  of  war  two  companies  of  each  battalion 
are  taken  out,  after  transferring  their  trained  men  to  other 
companies,  and  form  a  depot  battalion,  for  recruiting,  un- 
der command  of  the  lieutenant-colonel.  These  three  bat- 
talions are  commanded  by  "  chiefs  of  battalion,"  corre- 
sponding to  majors.  A  company  consists  of  one  captain, 
two  lieutenants,  four  sergeants,  eight  corporals,  and  one 
hundred  and  eight  privates,  or  an  aggregate  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five.  The  battalion  has  then  six  com- 
panies, one  chief,  one  adjutant,  one  under -adjutant  (a 
non-commissioned  officer),  and  twenty-five  field  musicians. 
The  aggregate  is  seven  hundred  and  seventy-eight  for  a 
battalion ;  and  three  of  these,  with  a  colonel  and  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, form  a  regiment,  amounting,  in  the  aggregate, 
to  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty-six.  To  the 
regiment  is  attached,  of  non-combatants — medical  officers, 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FRENCH  ARMY.  217 

six ;  medical  non-commissioned  officers,  fourteen ;  musi- 
cians, thirty-eight ;  and  sick-bearers,  seventy -five ;  or,  in 
all,  one  hundred  and  thirty-three.  Add  to  this  the  home 
battalion  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  and  we  have 
a  complete  regimental  organization  of  three  thousand  two 
hundred  and  forty-seven.  In  order  to  get  the  sum  total 
of  infantry  of  the  army,  or  any  of  the  above  parts,  we 
have  only  to  add  two  ciphers  to  any  of  the  foregoing 
numbers.  This  is  the  organization  for  war.  In  time  of 
peace  the  companies  are  greatly  reduced ;  and  official  pa- 
pers say  it  is  then  one  hundred  and  ninety  thousand  men, 
being  fifty-six  thousand  less  than  the  combatants  of  the 
war  establishment,  or  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  thou- 
sand less  than  the  complete  war  establishment.  It  is  a 
pertinent  question,  "Where  did  France  get  this  vast  num- 
ber of  men  at  the  beginning  of  hostilities  ? 

The  law  of  1868,  before  referred  to,  provided  for  a  re- 
serve of  about  four  hundred  thousand  men ;  but  as  they 
only  become  reserves  successively  after  their  five  years' 
service  with  the  colors,  it  would  take  until  1876  before 
France  could  have  a  full  reserve  ,•  and  she  could  not  have 
had  in  July,  1870,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  re- 
serve men  available.  It  is  very  certain,  then,  that  no  bat- 
talion of  the  army  went  out  with  seven  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-eight combatants;  and  if  we  deduct  the  sick  and 
others  out  of  place,  which  can  not  be  less  than  ten  per 
cent.,  we  have  battalions  of  not  more  than  six  hundred 
and  fifty,  or,  at  the  utmost,  regiments  of  not  more  than 
two  thousand  men.  In  fact,  several  battalions  at  Stras- 
bourg on  the  20th  of  July  had  only  five  hundred  men 
each. 

The  brigade  has  two  regiments,  and  a  division  two  bri- 
gades. To  one  of  the  brigades  is  usually  attached  one  bat- 
talion of  chasseurs,  and  to  the  division  two  light  batteries 


218 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


ahd  a  company  of  engineers.     This  gives  about  nine  thou- 
sand men  to  the  division. 

All  the  cavalry  regiments  have  six  squadrons,  of  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  horses  each,  giving  a  regi- 
ment seven  hundred  and  fifty  horses;  but  as  two  squad- 
rons have  to  be  left  at  home  for  depot  purposes,  a  regi- 
ment goes  into  the  field  with  five  hundred  and  twenty-five 
horses.  Two  of  these  regiments  form  a  brigade,  and  two 
brigades  a  division,  which  is  attached  to  every  army  corps. 
The  army  corps  has  also  a  reserve  of  artillery,  of  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty  guns,  and  an  engineer  train.  It  is 
easy  to  construct  the  entire  army  as  it  existed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war,  from  the  following  data,  which  are 
accurate : 


Guns. 

Cavalry. 

Infantry. 

Total. 

M'Mahon's  1st  Corps 

40 

72 
90 
72 
72 
60 
78 

3,640 

2,080 
3,640 
2,080 
2,080 
3,600 
10,800 

36,500 
26,250 
35,000 
26,250 
26,250 
16,450 
8,750 

40,140 
28,330 
38,640 
28,330 
28,330 
20,050 
19,550 

Froissard's  2d  Corps  

Bazaine's  3d  Corps  . 

I/Admirault's  4th  Corps  

De  Failley's  5th  Corps 

Bourbaki's  Imperial  Guard  Corps.... 

Total  

27,920 

175,450 

203,370 
17,000 
4,000 
5,000 
4,000 

.Add  to  this  for  Artillerymen 

"          "   Engineers  

"          "   Train.. 

"          "  Non-combatants. 
Total   :  

233,370 

Or  an  entire  field  army  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-three 
thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy,  which  was  the  ex- 
tent of  the  emperor's  forces  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
and  will  be  found  to  correspond  very  closely  with  the  cap- 
tures by  the  Prussians  at  the  first  battles,  at  Sedan  and 
at  Metz.  M'Mahon  got  in  many  of  the  reserve  battal- 
ions and  some  raw  conscripts  at  Chalons,  but  the  num- 
ber of  these  did  not  vary  much  from  the  current  losses 


OBSER  VA  TIONS.  219 

from  sources  other  than  capture  during  these  operations. 
This  was  substantially  the  Army  of  the  Khine,  that  march- 
ed early  in  July  to  the  invasion  of  Prussia,  the  last  of 
whom  were  captured  at  Metz.  France  had  also  then  in 
formation  the  Seventh  Army  Corps,  under  Douay,  from 
the  troops  in  Africa  and  the  division  in  Home.  There 
were  also  a  few  regiments  in  fortresses,  and  some  ten  thou- 
sand marine  troops.  The  four  battalions  of  the  march- 
ing regiments  were  ordered  to  be  filled  up  and  employed 
as  separate  regiments.  Some  of  these  were  collected  by 
M'Mahon  at  Chalons,  and  others,  with  a  portion  of  the 
marines,  withdrew  into  Paris.  Then  comes  the  Garde  Na- 
tionale  Mobile.  These  were,  theoretically,  five  hundred 
thousand  strong,  but  had  never  been  embodied.  Some  of 
these,  as  every  one  knows,  came  out  in  time  to  assist  in 
the  defense  of  Paris,  and  others  formed  provisional  armies 
outside,  and  did  some  service. 

The  arms  of  these  troops  I  have  already  described. 
The  French  were  superior  in  small  weapons,  but  greatly 
surpassed  by  the  Prussians  in  light  artillery.  The  mi- 
trailleuse can  hardly  be  said  to  have  accomplished  any 
thing. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

I  have  now  traversed  imperfectly  the  subject  of  the 
French  army,  giving  a  slight  sketch  of  its  history,  as  well 
as  of  its  organization  at  the  commencement  of  the  war.  I 
have  endeavored  further  to  give,  from  the  mouths  of  its 
most  able  officers,  such  views  of  its  different  parts  and 
general  character,  as  to  permit  others  to  form  their  own 
estimate  of  its  value.  I  think  it  will  be  readily  seen  by  all 
fair  military  observers  that  it  has  fallen  into  many  time- 
serving and  vicious  errors,  resulting  largely  from  political 
and  personal  causes,  and  somewhat  from  a  kind  of  egotist- 
ical over-confidence  in  traditional  systems.  "We  have  in 


220  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

many  ways,  and  from  our  very  existence  as  a  nation,  close- 
ly copied  much  that  was  found  in  the  French  army,  the 
fact  that  we  found  it  there  being  taken  as  a  satisfactory 
guaranty  that  it  was  worthy  of  imitation.  It  may  be  well 
to  ask  if  this  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  warrant  a  continu- 
ance in  this  course,  and  if  it  is  not  possible  that  we  are  per- 
petuating errors  copied  from  this  model.  Nearly  all  our 
tactics  and  military  system  we  have  received  from  France, 
second-hand  from  Germany.  Will  it  not  be  as  well  in  fu- 
ture, if  we  are  still  to  borrow,  to  resort  to  original  sources, 
and  of  the  latest,  most  highly  approved,  and  effective  pat- 
tern ?  We  have  much  yet  to  learn,  particularly  in  admin- 
istration and  accounts.  I  have  never  failed  to  say,  when 
there  was  occasion,  that  I  believed  our  system  in  these 
particulars  faulty  in  its  very  essence,  and  that  there  is 
but  one  remedy — to  remove  entirely,  and  rebuild  from  the 
foundation. 

We  have  seen  that  the  emperor  thought  it  well  to  go 
to  war  with  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  men;  that 
with  this  force  he  undertook  the  invasion  of  a  country 
whose  Government  could  oppose  him  on  his  own  frontier, 
as  soon  as  he  could  reach  it,  with  nearly  six  hundred  thou- 
sand men  in  the  front  line.  This  he  knew,  as  did  every 
military  scholar  in  Europe.  He  was  not  deceived  about 
the  strength  of  his  own  army,  as  many  have  supposed; 
for  the  figures  I  have  given  were  national  property,  and 
known  to  every  officer  in  France  —  the  same  situation 
existing  at  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War  in  1855,  and 
again  with  Italy  in  1859.  It  is  true,  that  a  law  creating 
the  reserve  and  the  Garde  Mobile  was  passed  in  1868,  but 
sufficient  time  had  elapsed  for  the  creation  of  only  about 
one  hundred  thousand  of  the  former,  and  the  latter  had 
not  been  embodied  at  all.  The  fact  that  such  an  enter- 
prise was  undertaken  can  only  be  .accounted  for  on  the 


OBSERVATIONS.  221 

ground  of  inordinate  French  egotism,  or  as  the  desperate 
resort  of  a  political  gambler. 

The  German  soldier  is  about  one-fifth  larger  than  the 
French,  vastly  superior  in  education,  and  better  instructed 
in  his  duties.  He  is  plodding  and  steady  in  every  thing 
he  does,  thoroughly  subordinate,  has  a  tenacity  of  purpose 
that  never  flags,  and  a  constitution  that  rises  superior  to 
all  vicissitudes.  He  is  as  brave  as  the  Frenchman,  has 
less  enthusiasm  that  wears  out  the  will,  marches  lighter, 
has  a  more  rigorous  regimen,  is  more  sturdy  of  purpose, 
and  has  a  deeper  respect  for  authority,  and  a  more  intense 
love  of  country.  Had  France  been  the  equal  of  Germany 
in  all  these  respects,  twenty  years  of  industrious  prepara- 
tion would  have  still  been  necessary  to  place  her  in  a  con- 
dition to  challenge  Prussia  with  an  equal  chance  of  success. 


222  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

COMPAKATIVE  OBSERVATIONS  UPON  THE  UNITED  STATES 

AEMY. 

IN  comparing  our  own  with  foreign  armies,  it  is  easy  to 
be  misunderstood;  and  I  will  here  say  that  I  believe  no 
men  are  braver,  more  patriotic,  self-sacrificing,  and  endur- 
ing of  hardships  and  privations  of  all  kinds  than  Ameri- 
can soldiers.  There  are  none  susceptible  of  better  disci- 
pline than  they;  although,  from  having  led  more  inde- 
pendent lives  than  foreign  troops,  they  do  not  so  readily 
yield  to  it,  and  none  can  stand  up  more  squarely  and  hon- 
estly in  hard  battle.  No  one  should  more  readily,  or  can 
more  heartily,  say  this  than  myself,  for  I  served  through 
our  entire  war  in  command  of  a  body  of  troops  which 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  nearly  all  the  great  battles  of 
the  West,  and  I  never  had  occasion  to  complain  of  the 
conduct  in  battle  of  any  regiment  or  company.  But, 
while  all  were  praiseworthy,  some  regiments  were  worth 
twice  as  much  as  others;  and  when  I  compare  the  41st 
Ohio  Volunteers,  a  regiment  raised  and  instructed  by  my- 
self, which  was  in  my  command  nearly  all  the  war,  and 
never  hesitated  or  failed  in  any  duty,  with  other  regiments 
which  worried  the  patience  by  their  snail-like  and  uncer- 
tain movements — when  I  remember  that  I  served  twelve 
months  under  a  corps  commander,  and  eighteen  months 
under  a  division  commander,  neither  of  whom  during  that 
time  ever  gave  me  a  single  direction  respecting  the  in- 
struction of  my  command — I  am  strongly  impressed  with 
the  immense  loss  which  our  country  sustained  in  conse- 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  223 

quence  of  the  indolence,  ignorance,  and  shiftlessness  of  its 
officers ;  and  finding  in  the  German  army  all  this  thorough- 
ly corrected,  I  am  the  more  inclined  to  make  it  known. 
I  say  not  a  word  in  disparagement  of  our  men,  but  I  do 
most  fervently  maintain  that  we  lost  incalculably  by  not 
employing  the  means  in  our  hands  for  bringing  our  com- 
mands to  their  highest  efficiency.  This  resulted  principal- 
ly from  having  men  at  the  head  of  military  affairs  who,  not 
being  soldiers  themselves,  did  not  appreciate  the  necessity 
of  discipline  and  instruction,  nor  understand  the  steps  nec- 
essary to  secure  them.  This  was,  in  the  main,  true  of  our 
leading  staff  officers,  who  had  much  to  do  in  regulating 
affairs,  and  on  whose  advice  the  civilians  mainly  rested. 
They  had  been  office  men  so  long,  entirely  separated  from 
troops,  that  they  had  lost  the  spirit  and  character  of  sol- 
diers. There  were  regiments  in  one  of  the  divisions  of 
the  army  corps  which  I  commanded  at  the  close  of  the 
war — veterans  of  '61,  bearing  a  fair  fighting  record — in 
which  the  enlisted  men  felt  but  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  the 
spirit  of  subordination,  and  manifested  few  soldierly  quali- 
ties except  courage.  They  were  on  the  most  intimate  so- 
cial terms  with  their  officers,  did  not  rise  in  the  presence 
of  officials,  no  matter  what  their  rank,  nor  remove  their 
hats  on  entering  officers'  tents,  and  scarcely  knew  how 
and  when  to  salute.  These  may  appear  little  things,  but 
it  is  by  them  that  all  soldiers  are  known.  The  good  these 
troops  did  us,  which  I  have  no  doubt  was  great,  was  gra- 
tuitous, and  not  because  their  officers  had  the  power,  as 
they  ought  to  have  had,  to  compel  it.  They  were  ear- 
nest, patriotic  men,  but  not  soldiers. 

The  morale  of  the  rank  and  file  of  our  regular  army  is 
exceedingly  unsatisfactory ;  and  to  no  one  is  this  discour- 
aging condition  so  apparent  as  to  officers  serving  with 
troops.  There  is  no  remedy  for  desertion,  and  one  sees  his 


224          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

authority  quietly  set  aside,  and  a  third  of  his  force  aban- 
don the  colors  every  year,  without  the  power  to  prevent 
it,  and  without  any  apparent  notice  being  taken  of  it,  or 
any  adequate  remedy  provided  for  it  by  those  in  authority. 
If  we  stop  desertion,  other  matters  will  soon  correct  them- 
selves. But  there  can  be  no  military  excellence  where 
the  worst  military  offense  can  be  committed  with  impuni- 
ty, and  without  remedy.  To  stop  it,  we  must  simply  enlist 
good  men.  To  do  this,  we  do  not  need  bounties,  classifica- 
tions, increased  pay,  or  legislation  of  any  sort,  but  merely 
the  application  of  some  simple  common-sense  rules  which 
every  good  business  man  applies  when  he  employs  a  serv- 
ant. We  must  require  proof  of  identity  and  character. 
There  will  be  no  trouble  in  obtaining  this,  as  any  men 
worthy  to  be  enlisted  can  easily  furnish  such  proof.  I 
have  applied  this  rule  for  the  past  year  to  my  own  regi- 
ment with  perfect  success.  There  have  been  scores  of  ap- 
plicants who  would  fill  all  the  requirements  of  our  recruit- 
ing service,  who,  upon  being  asked  as  to  their  identity  and 
character,  have  slunk  away  never  to  come  back,  and,  upon 
inquiry,  I  have  found  them  desperadoes,  thieves,  and  de- 
serters. 

Our  present  system  requires  only  physical  qualifications 
for  enlistment,  and  ignores  moral  character.  The  result 
is,  that  common  thieves,  discharged  convicts,  deserters,  and 
vagabonds  find  an  easy  entrance  in  our  army.  No  squad 
of  recruits  enlisted  in  New  York  leaves  that  city  without 
containing  many  faces  familiar  to  the  old  city  detectives, 
while  all  the  worthless  men  who  were  discharged  at  the 
reorganization  and  reduction  of  the  army  in  July  last  are 
getting  back  into  the  service  again  ;  and  no  two  regiments 
approach  each  other  without  there  being  many  desertions 
from  each  by  men  who  have  previously  deserted  from 
the  other,  and  fear  detection.  A  party  of  five  New  York 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  225 

thieves  within  the  past  year  enlisted,  and  were  assigned  to 
one  of  the  companies  now  forming  my  garrison.  They 
have  all,  at  different  times  since,  "made  their  raise  "and 
deserted ;  the  last  one  but  a  few  days  since  garroted  a  dis- 
charged soldier,  and  robbed  him  of  some  three  hundred 
dollars. 

We  enlist  men,  and  make  them  our  debtors  to  the 
amount  of  about  two  hundred  dollars  before  we  receive 
any  recompense,  without  knowing  their  names,  residences, 
or  any  thing  whatever  about  them.  Is  it  strange  that  a 
third  of  our  army  desert  every  year  ? 

The  plan  here  proposed  is  perfectly  feasible;  for  as 
about  one-third  of  our  men  would  re-enlist  at  the  end  of 
their  term,  we  should  need  but  about  four  thousand  re- 
cruits a  year,  or  three  hundred  and  fifty  a  month,  and  it  is 
absurd  to  say  that  a  nation  of  forty  million  people  will  not 
yield  this  number  of  good  men  for  its  army.  But  our 
system  has  never  sought  them.  This  change  may  require 
more  than  the  ten  minutes'  daily  time  usually  devoted  to 
his  duties  by  an  officer  on  recruiting  service,  and  a  few 
more  branch  rendezvous ;  but  there  will  be  no  difficulty  if 
it  is  intelligently  made.  The  prevention  of  desertion  will 
then  be  the  fear  of  disgrace,  and  almost  certain  detection 
and  rendition  ;  the  present  trouble  being  that,  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten,  when  a  man  deserts,  his  name  on  the  rolls  is  an 
alias,  and  his  residence  fictitious. 

A  thorough  application  of  this  plan  would  save  the  Gov- 
ernment a  million  dollars  annually  now  lost  by  desertion, 
and  besides  secure  an  incalculable  advantage,  in  the  moral 
character,  respectability,  and  efficiency  of  our  army.  It  is 
absurd  to  reject  a  thoroughly  well-tried,  good  man  because 
he  has  lost  an  eye,  a  tooth,  or  an  ear,  perhaps  in  battle,  and 
to  receive  a  recruit  who,  for  all  that  is  known  of  him,  may 
not  possess  one  attribute  that  makes  him  better  than  a  beast, 

15 


226  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

A  peculiarity  of  German  military  organization  is  the 
plan  by  which  the  fighting  army  is  made  paramount,  and 
every  thing  else  required  to  minister  to  it,  so  that  a  gen- 
eral always  knows  his  exact  force;  while  with  us  every 
thing  necessary  for  the  administration  of  the  army  is  drawn 
back  out  of  the  fighting  material  in  the  most  objectionable 
way,  by  selecting  its  best  officers  and  men,  thereby  doubly 
weakening  it,  instead  of  constantly  drawing  up  to  it  ele- 
ments of  strength.  In  our  war  the  administrative  and  the 
fighting  organizations  were  blended,  so  as  to  continually 
deceive  the  commander  and  the  Government  as  to  the  force 
available  for  active  operations,  while  victories  were  expect- 
ed corresponding  to  the  strength  of  both. 

The  German  staff  and  administration  are  models  of  effi- 
ciency and  economy.  The  former  contains  one  hundred 
and  fifteen  officers,  headed  by  General  Yon  Moltke,  and  is 
composed  of  the  very  best  men  of  the  army,  selected  with 
the  utmost  care,  after  every  possible  trial  by  service  with 
troops,  and  courses  of  training  at  the  best  schools.  The  of- 
ficers are  purely  soldiers,  and  have  nothing  to  do  with  ad- 
ministration, except  in  the  highest  military  sense  as  chiefs 
of  staff.  The  administration  which  pays,  feeds,  clothes,  and 
supplies  the  army,  is  made  up  of  men  who  have  risen  from 
the  ranks,  and  shown  special  fitness  for  that  mercantile 
style  of  work. 

Our  army  is  30,000  strong,  being  one  or  two  thousand 
under  the  strength  of  a  Prussian  army  corps  in  time  of 
war.  We  find  the  troops  of  one  of  their  army  corps  com- 
manded by  seven  general  officers :  one  for  the  corps,  two 
for  the  divisions,  and  four  for  the  brigades.  This  does 
not  materially  differ  from  the-  number  of  general  officers 
allowed  for  the  line  of  our  army,  when  the  present  in- 
cumbents have  passed  out  of  the  positions  that  expire 
with  their  retiracy. 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  227 

The  Prussians  have  fourteen  staff  officers  in  all  at  the 
seven  head-quarters,  from  a  second  lieutenant,  who  is  ad- 
jutant of  a  brigade,  to  a  colonel,  who  is  chief  of  staff  of 
the  corps;  six  field  officers,  who  are  quarter-masters  and 
commissariats,  at  corps  and  divisional  head-quarters ;  ten 
commissariats,  who  are  captains  and  lieutenants  with  the 
train ;  twenty-four  pay-masters,  who  are  second  lieutenants 
with  battalions  ;  three  officers  with  the  telegraph  division  ; 
one  with  the  bakery ;  eighteen  with  the  battalion  of  engi- 
neers, which  is  armed  and  drilled  like  infantry ;  and  eighty- 
one  medical  officers,  none  above  the  rank  of  captain ;  in 
all,  one  hundred  and  forty-three. 

Our  army  register  shows  of  the  officers  we  vaguely 
term  "  staff"  five  hundred  and  forty-two.  Of  these,  two 
hundred  and  ninety -four  are  captains  and  lieutenants; 
one  hundred  and  eighty-five,  majors;  thirty -six,  lieuten- 
ant-colonels; twenty-three,  colonels;  and  eight,  brigadier- 
generals  ;  while  our  entire  line  will  have  but  nine  general 
officers,  and  has  but  forty  colonels,  forty  lieutenant-col- 
onels, and  seventy  majors.  It  is  true  .that  our  engineer 
corps  performs  many  duties  done  in  the  Prussian  service 
by  civilians,  and  that  our  extended  domain  and  great 
number  of  separate  posts  require  a  larger  force  of  medi- 
cal officers,  and  add  also  to  the  labor  arid  difficulty  of  ad- 
ministration, while  our  ordnance  corps  performs  excel- 
lently a  work  which  the  Prussian  artillery  regiments  do 
equally  well  in  addition  to  their  other  duties.  But  a 
glance  shows  that  we  have  an  immense  preponderance  of 
"staff"  both  in  numbers,  and,  more  especially,  in  rank. 

We  have  in  the  line  of  our  army  sixteen  hundred  offi- 
cers; and  in  the  staff,  including  acting  assistant  surgeons, 
six  hundred.  If  to  these  we  add  the  persons  who,  num- 
bering about  six  hundred,  are  employed  by  the  staff  as 
their  assistants  and  receive  about  as  much  pay  as  officers — 


228  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AEMY. 

say  one  hundred  dollars  monthly — we  have  twelve  hun- 
dred, without  including  the  officers  of  the  line  detailed  as 
quarter-masters  and  commissaries.  If  these  are  added,  it 
will  be  found  that  we  employ  with  our  present  system 
as  many  officers,  or  their  equivalents,  to  administer  the 
army  as  we  have  fighting  officers  in  it.  This  fact  is  its 
own  commentary,  and  shows  how  much  is  required  to  ad- 
minister the  administration.  This. works  injuriously  to 
the  public  service  in  many  ways.  The  high  rank  of  the 
staff  gives  them  extravagant  pay,  with  which  their  service 
is  not  commensurate,  and  unfits  them  for  the  petty  duties 
incident  to  a  small  establishment.  They,  for  a  like  reason, 
habitually  seek  to  exalt  their  duties  and  stations,  and  call 
for  increased  establishments  of  officers,  clerks,  superintend- 
ents, masters,  store-keepers,  and  chief  men,  who  do  no  la- 
bor, but  rate  on  the  pay-roll  with  lieutenants. 

By  their  numbers  and  rank,  and  the  fact  that  the  chief 
of  each  branch,  with  several  of  his  higher  officers,  is  al- 
ways stationed  in  Washington,  they  become  a  strong  so- 
cial power,  and  are  enabled  largely  to  influence  legislation 
and  executive  action  in  their  own  favor  and  against  the 
line.  For  example,  in  our  late  war  nearly  all  the  high  of- 
ficers of  the  staff  department  gained  brevets  for  office  duty 
ante-dating  brevets  of  a  like  grade  given  to  officers  who 
commanded  armies  in  the  field.  They  also,  in  nearly  all 
cases,  received  brevets  one,  two,  or  three  grades  above  any 
real  rank  they  ever  held,  while  a  rule  was  made  to  brevet 
officers  of  the  line  up  to  within  one  grade  of  that  they 
fought  with.  The  staff  managed  to  hold,  after  the  war 
closed,  nearly  all  the  rank  they  had  gained  in  the  war, 
and  to  secure  the  enlargement  of  their  departments  dis- 
proportionately to  the  enlargement  of  the  army.  One  de- 
partment succeeded  by  a  special  act  in  gaining  one  grade 
for  all  ranks.  In  another,  the  officers  became  captains  in 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  229 

three  years  after  their  first  entry  into  service,  thus  getting 
an  advantage  over  the  lieutenants  of  the  line,  who  might 
have  seen  four  or  five  times  as  much  service.  As  the 
staff  have  charge  of  the  army  archives  and  records,  Con- 
gress is  largely  dependent  upon  them  for  information, 
while  their  social  relations  and  settled  lives  in  "Washing- 
ton add  to  their  influence.  Their  duties  group  them 
about  the.  general  officers  of  the  army,  with  whom  close 
relations  of  friendship  spring  up,  gaining  them  the  favor 
and  influence  of  these  high  officers  in  all  questions  affect- 
ing their  status.  So  strong  a  power  is  this,  that  we  see 
its. influence  in  nearly  every  appointment  to  the  staff,  or 
advantageous  transfer,  in  which  the  law.  leaves  discretion 
to  the  President.  By  their  superior  rank,  when  on  duty 
with  officers  of  the  line,  they  take  precedence  in  choice 
of  quarters  and  in  other  ways.  It  can  be  readily  seen 
how  the  tendency  of  things  is  to  elevate  the  administra- 
tion— a  mere  adjunct  of  the  army — over  the  army  itself, 
which  thus  becomes  subordinate  to  its  own  servants. 

The  staff  officers  also,  from  their .  rank,  numbers,  and 
nearness  to  the  executive,  habitually,  and  by  almost  insen- 
sible degrees,  arrogate  to  themselves  powers  and  privileges 
which  belong  only  to  the  commander-in-chief,  until  the 
heads  of  staff  departments  have  nearly  all  gained  inde- 
pendence of  army  control,  and  bear  the  same  relation  to 
the  Secretary  of  War  as  the  commander-in-chief  himself — 
becoming,  in  fact,  independent  commanders  of  their  own 
branches.  This  is  destructive  of  military  organization,  and 
fatal  to  the  harmonious  and  economical  administration  of 
military  affairs.  The  staff  departments  are  now  substan- 
tially independent  bodies,  instead  of  connected  links  of  a 
great  chain  of  military  administration. 

With  so  many  sources  of  power,  there  can  be  no  unity 
of  action,  and  this  leads  to  waste  and  extravagance.  As 


230  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

one  of  many  examples  of  this,  I  will  mention  that  at  Fort 
Gibson,  which  had  been  without  a  suitable  hospital  since 
the  war,  one  was  constructed  in  the  spring  of  1871,  by 
order  of  the  surgeon-general  of  the  army,  at  an  expense 
of  about  twelve  thousand  dollars,  when  the  commander 
knew  that  the  post  would  be  broken  up,  as  it  was,  a  few 
months  later. 

A  major-general  commanding  a  department  may  at  any 
time  find  a  second  lieutenant  of  ordnance  or  engineers  at 
his  own  post  holding  correlative  power  with  himself,  fly- 
ing his  own  flag,  and  controlling  his  own  resources.  The 
commander  of  the  department  in  which  New  York  is  sit- 
uated finds  within  his  command  no  less  than  a  dozen  mili- 
tary establishments,  controlling  perhaps  all  the  sinews  and 
appliances  of  war,  over  which  he  has  no  authority.  Such 
a  system  fosters  insubordination,  and  is  rapidly  destroying 
that  kindness,  respect,  and  fraternity  so  essential  to  an 
army,  and  for  which  ours  has  been  distinguished. 

I  have  heard  a  captain  of  one  of  these  departments  make 
his  boast  publicly  that  he  waited  in  Washington  two  days 
for  the  return  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  as  he  was  not  un- 
der the  control  of  the  commander-in-chief ;  and  that  al- 
though the  latter  was  in  town,  and  could  have  given  him 
his  orders,  he  would  not  report  to  him.  I  heard  another 
staff  officer  express  his  indignation  that  he  had  been  placed 
upon  the  staff  rolls  of  his  department,  whereas  he  claimed 
that  he  should  be  mustered  with  the  military  division  staff. 

The  members  of  the  engineer  corps  of  our  army  are 
in  no  sense  soldiers,  being  separated  entirely  from  troops, 
performing  no  military  duties,  but  holding  military  rank, 
and  wearing  the  uniform  of  the  army ;  and  the  same  can 
be  said  of  the  ordnance,  whose  sympathy  with  the  army 
springs  mainly  from  the  associations  of  a  common  Alma 
Mater.  Our  system  virtually  deprives  the  army  of  our 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  231 

most  talented  men,  by  placing  them  in  these  branches  of 
the  service  which  are  not  in  the  least  military.  This  sepa- 
rate administration  of  each  branch  tends  to  magnify  its  im- 
portance in  the  eyes  of  its  own  officers,  who  expand  and 
amplify  their  methods  and  systems,  without  commensurate 
good  to  the  service,  and  sometimes  to  its  positive  detri- 
ment. Since  the  war  the  United  States  have  been  divided, 
for  purposes  of  military  administration,  into  military  di- 
visions, departments,  districts,  and  posts.  The  posts  each 
have  a  quarter-master — generally  an  officer  of  the  regi- 
ment stationed  there — who  does  the  actual  work  of  the 
department,  and  usually  with  enlisted  men.  Then  at  each 
separate  district,  department,  and  military  division  head- 
quarters is  a  quarter-master  of  the  regular  establishment, 
almost  always  of  high  rank,  with  a  small  army  of  clerks 
and  other  civilian  employes  about  him  at  high  pay,  who 
do  an  amount  of  compiling  reports  and  writing  letters  be- 
yond all  calculation.  These  officers  require  from  the  post 
quarter-masters  a  great  number  of  reports  upon  all  possi- 
ble subjects;  and  as  the  post  quarter-masters  are  usually 
allowed  only  one,  and  often  no  clerk,  most  of  their  time  is 
occupied  in  this  kind  of  work,  greatly  to  the  detriment  of 
their  proper  duties.  These  officers  at  higher  head-quarters 
always  surround  themselves  with  a  large  administrative 
establishment,  and  a  great  part  of  the  funds  appropriated 
for  the  department  is  thus  consumed  in  keeping  up  its 
own  cumbrous  machinery. 

The  advantage  of  all  this  is  not  obvious,  #s  these  inter- 
mediate officers  have  no  power  whatever  to  do  any  final 
act.  The  only  purpose  of  all  this  machinery  seems  to  be 
to  make  places  for  a  superabundance  of  officers,  with  so 
much  rank  as  to  unfit  them  for  their  legitimate  duties.  It 
can  not  be  said  that  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  this  organi- 
zation for  use  in  war,  for  it  then  at  once  fails,  and  each 


232  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

army  and  corps  commander  is  compelled  to  organize  his 
own  departments,  as  these  officers  have  been  found  to  be 
unfitted  by  their  routine  lives  for  service  in  the  field.  Any 
one  who  knew  the  working  staff  of  Grant,  Sherman,  and 
Sheridan,  remembers  that  they  were  made  up  of  young,  act- 
ive civilians.  The  busy  commercial  life  and  experience 
of  the  nation  is  its  strongest  arm,  and  is  what  it  must  inev- 
itably depend  upon  in  time  of  war  to  supply  the  wants  of 
its  armies.  In  peace,  while  the  line  of  the  army  is  rusting 
out  for  want  of  occupation,  it  is  an  open  question  whether 
the  regimental  organization,  with  well-chosen  depots  in  the 
hands  of  business  men,  and  an  able  corps  of  inspectors,  is 
not  ample  for  all  purposes.  Indolence,  the  bane  of  our 
army,  is  due  mainly  to  the  want  of  defined  duty. 

The  general  efficiency  of  the  system  itself  is  open  to 
grave  question,  and  the  experience  of  the  world  has  been 
that  these  centralized  organizations  have  failed  in  great 
emergencies.  Ours  may  be  said  to  have  done  so  in  our 
late  war,  as  such  success  as  we  had  in  this  direction  was 
won  only  by  lavish  expenditure. 

The  quality  of  nearly  every  thing  which  the  centralized 
departments  pretended  to  furnish,  excepting  food,  arms, 
and  ammunition,  was  several  grades  below  the  standard, 
and  lower  than  was  paid  for,  the  blankets  and  stationery 
being  detestable  cheats,  and  the  clothing  the  vilest  quality 
of  swindling  "shoddy."  Only  a  few  months  since  sev- 
eral hundred  uninjured  hats  were  sold  at  Fort  Smith  for 
five  cents  apiece,  and  it  was  considered  a  high  rate.  The 
Prussian  Government  has  open  accounts  only  with  the 
colonel  of  a  regiment,  who  is  made  responsible  for  the 
funds  by  which  it  is  maintained,  and  supplied  with  food, 
clothing,  arms,  and  all  other  requisite  articles;  while  we 
open  in  Washington  a  book  account  with  every  man,  from 
the  colonel  to  the  last  recruit.  The  Germans  have  also 


COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONS.  233 

with  the  army  a  corps  of  auditors,  officers  of  the  treasury, 
who  close  these  accounts  on  the  spot. 

What  has  been  said  of  our  Quarter-master's  Department 
is  in  a  measure  true  of  all  the  rest,  and  in  nothing  more 
than  in  the  bepapering  they  all  treat  us  to.  By  a  little 
calculation  it  can  be  proven  that,  unless  this  system  is  cor- 
rected, there  will,  in  a  short  time,  be  too  few  public  build- 
ings in  Washington  to  contain  the  army  archives.  For 
instance :  every  colonel  is  made  superintendent  of  the  re- 
cruiting service  for  his  regiment.  To  report  at  the  end  of 
a  month  that  he  has  recruited  one  man  requires  five  square 
feet  of  the  best  folio-post  paper,  and  the  same  if  he  has  re- 
cruited no  one.  At  the  end  of  each  quarter,  for  a  post- 
commander  to  satisfy  the  Ordnance  Department  as  to  the 
disposition  of  a  few  cartridges,  requires  three  duodecimo 
books  of  thirty-six  pages  each.  These  absurdities  are  all 
avoided  in  the  German  system. 

The  officers  of  our  administrative  departments,  from 
complete  official  separation  from  the  line,  become  also  en- 
tirely divided  from  it  in  heart  and  sympathy,  and  their  pe- 
culiar relations  to  the  Government  and  civil  life  always  en- 
able them  to  succeed  whenever  their  interests  run  counter 
to  those  of  the  army  itself.  This  is  sometimes  made  still 
easier  by  the  influence  of  the  higher  officers  of  the  army, 
with  whom,  from  the  nature  of  their  duties,  staff  officers  are 
always  associated.  For  example:  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
the  line-officers  found  that  their  pay  amounted  to  even 
less  than  it  was  before  the  war,  as,  though  nominally  the 
same,  it  was  lessened  by  the  income  tax  and  the  discount 
on  paper  money,  while  the  cost  of  living  had  increased 
about  thirty-three  per  cent.  The  staff,  in  consequence  of 
receiving  a  large  amount  of  additional  money-pay  as  com- 
mutation of  fuel  and  quarters,  which  had  advanced  largely 
during  the  war,  did  not  feel  this  reduction ;  while  all  the 


234  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

other  branches  of  the  Government,  except  the  Supreme 
Court,  had  been  additionally  paid  to  correspond  with  the 
increased  cost  of  living.  Many  of  us  who  had  command- 
ed divisions,  army  corps,  and  armies  in  the  field,  with  the 
rank  of  major-generals,  found  ourselves,  as  field  officers  in 
the  line  of  the  army,  with  a  less  pay  than  field  officers  re- 
ceived before  the  war;  while  a  few  of  the  highest  officers 
had  their  pay  greatly  increased,  from  additional  rank  given 
them,  with  new  rates  of  pay,  after  the  war  closed.  It  was 
natural  that  we  should  be  neither  satisfied  nor  silent  un- 
der such  a  state  of  things.  As  early  as  1866,  efforts  were 
made  to  bring  the  matter  before  Congress,  with  a  general 
petition  for  relief,  and  "Schenck's  Salary  Bill"  was  the 
result.  This  bill  was  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  line, 
as  it  gave  a  uniform  and  increased  rate  of  monthly  pay. 
This  failed  to  become  a  law,  but  was  each  year  brought 
forward,  passing  sometimes  one  branch,  with  certain  de- 
feat in  the  other,  owing  to  the  opposition  it  received  from 
members  of  the  staff  residing  in  Washington,  and  from  the 
higher  officers  whose  pay  had  been  already  raised.  In 
July,  1870,  all  field  officers  of  the  army  felt  that  they  could 
not  much  longer  keep  out  of  the  poor-house,  and  the  bill 
was  again  brought  before  Congress.  When  it  had  passed 
the  House  and  gone  to  the  Senate,  I  wrote  to  every  senator 
whom  I  knew,  stating  what  I  have  said  here,  and  urging 
the  positive  necessity  of  the  passage  of  the  bill.  The  fol- 
lowing is  one  of  six  replies  which  I  received,  and  is  a  sam- 
ple of  them  all : 

"U.  S.  SENATE  CHAMBER, 
"WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  July  — ,  1870. 

"Gen.  W.  B.  HAZEN,  etc.,  etc.,— Your  letter  from  Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  is 
just  received,  and  I  regret  it  did  not  come  yesterday.  The  '  Army  Pay  Bill ' 
came  up  last  night,  and  was  lost  by  three  votes.  Legislation  upon  the  army 
is  all  under  the  whip  and  spur  of  the  people  here,  and  your  letter  is  the  first 
word  we  have  had  from  the  line  of  the  army. 

' '  Yours,  very  truly,  ,  U.  S.  S. " 


THE  SUTLER  SYSTEM.  235 

A  few  days  later  this  bill  was  attached  to  the  "Army 
Eeorganization  Bill,"  and  passed  both  Houses,  but  not 
until  a  clause  had  been  added  by  which  the  staff  gets  it 
commutation  as  before,  in  addition  to  the  increase  given 
the  line. 

At  the  close  of  our  war,  an  effort  was  made  by  officers 
of  the  line,  who  realized  the  evils  of  the  system  of  exclu- 
sive sutlers,  to  have  it  abolished  altogether.  The  practice 
of  the  sutlers  had  been  to  bribe  the  officer  and  rob  the 
soldier,  by  selling  at  cost  to  the  former,  and  making  it  up 
by  overcharging  the  latter.  This  system  was  finally  abol- 
ished, and  a  law  passed  making  it  the  duty  of  the  Subsist- 
ence Department  to  furnish  the  articles  formerly  sold  by 
the  sutler,  to  both  officers  and  men,  at  cost.  This  was 
very  advantageous  to  the  line,  but  the  law  was  disliked 
by  the  Subsistence  Department,  because  it  added  to  their 
duties,  and  was  considered  by  many  degrading.  A  delib- 
erate intention  not  to  execute  the  law  was  soon  mani- 
fested. The  first  excuse  for  not  carrying  it  out  was  that 
Congress  had  made  no  special  appropriation,  and  the  ad- 
jutant-general published  an  order  excusing  the  Subsist- 
ence Department  from  compliance  with  the  law,  although 
the  general  appropriation  for  that  department  was  so  large 
that  none  was  asked  for  during  the  following  year.  This 
was  the  entering  wedge  to  kill  the  law.  Then  the  adju- 
tant-general authorized  department  commanders  to  ap- 
point as  many  traders  at  posts  as  should  desire  to  trade, 
only  requiring  evidence  of  fitness.  This  was  an  admi- 
rable arrangement,  as  it  gave  troops  the  advantage  of 
competition;  but  the  law  was  still  evaded  by  the  Sub- 
sistence Department,  as  these  traders  kept  all  articles  that 
the  troops  wanted.  Not  content  to  let  matters  rest  here, 
a  clause  was  incorporated  in  the  new  law  of  1870,  at  the 
instance  of  some  special  interest,  providing  that  the  Sec- 


236          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

retary  of  War  might  appoint  one  trader  at  each  post  for 
the  benefit  of  the  traveling  public.  This  was  ingeniously 
worded,  but  the  practical  result  is  to  provide  one  sutler, 
whose  schedule  of  prices  is  not  supervised  as  before,  but 
who  is  free  to  make  his  own  terms,  while  the  command- 
ing officer  must  protect  him  in  his  exclusive  trade-rights, 
and  the  post  council  has  no  voice  in  his  nomination,  or 
right  to  assess  him  for  the  benefit  of  the  post.  Besides, 
the  sutlers  could  not  formerly  farm  out  their  privileges 
as  they  now  do.  I  have  reliable  information  of  one  trader 
who  pays  twelve  thousand  dollars,  and  of  another  who 
pays  five  thousand  dollars  per  annum  for  his  monopoly. 
These  sums  must  of  course  be  made  up  from  extra  charges 
to  troops.  These  are  some  of  the  evils  which  result  to  the 
line  of  the  army,  from  the  failure  of  the  Subsistence  De- 
partment to  perform  its  legal  duty. 

It  has  been  a  custom,  since  our  service  began,  for  some 
of  the  more  careful  men  of  each  company  to  deposit  their 
savings  with  their  captains,  often  greatly  to  his  annoyance, 
as  he  has  nothing  but  his  trunk  in  which  to  keep  money. 
Sometimes  these  savings  accumulate  through  twenty  years 
of  service,  and  during  all  this  time  the  soldier's  bag  of 
money  lies  in  the  captain's  trunk,  or  in  the  bureau  of  the 
captain's  wife,  receiving  its  little  accretions  each  pay-day, 
but  earning  nothing.  Some  two  years  ago  I  prepared  the 
draft  of  a  law,  enacting  that  a  soldier  might  leave  undrawn 
with  the  pay-master  such  sums  as  he  saw  fit,  and  that  at 
each  monthly  statement  the  pay-master  should  forward  to 
the  pay-master-general  an  abstract  of  these  sums,  and  the 
latter  invest  the  amount  in  United  States  securities,  and 
deposit  them  in  a  safe,  to  be  known  as  the  "  Soldier's  Safe 
Deposit,"  so  that  at  the  end  of  his  term  of  service  the  en- 
listed man,  instead  of  his  little  bag  of  twenty  years'  idle 
money,  might  have  a  large  capital  that  had  been  com- 


SOLDIERS'  SAFE  DEPOSIT.  237 

pounding  for  twenty  years.  I  submitted  this  to  the  Chair- 
man of  the  House  Military  Committee,  who  heartily  ap- 
proved it.  I  then  presented  it  to  the  pay-master-general 
of  the  army.  He  wrote  me  a  short  note,  in  which  he  ex- 
pressed his  heartiest  disapproval,  as  it  would  "add  to  his 
duties,"  and  closed  by  saying  that,  if  presented  to  Con- 
gress, he  should  consider  it  his  duty  to  appear  before  that 
body  and  exercise  the  weight  of  his  influence  to  defeat 
it.  As  he  had  previously  carried  all  his  points  before 
Congress,  I  did  not  think  it  worth  while  to  urge  the 
project. 

I  cite  these  examples,  that  it  may  be  seen  how  our  sys- 
tem fosters  special  interests.  Whenever  questions  arise 
between  line  and  staff,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  they  are 
referred  to  the  chief  of  that  branch  of  the  staff  which  they 
affect,  and  his  decision  is  usually  final.  In  other  words,  a 
party  to  the  question  is  made  the  final  umpire,  and  he  is 
invariably  of  the  staff. 

The  funds  appropriated  for  the  general  benefit  of  the 
army  are  not  so  expended  as  to  be  equally  beneficial  to 
staff  and  line.  At  a  department  head-quarters,  as  far  from 
Washington  as  staff  officers  ever  get,  is  found  eyery  lux- 
ury in  quarters,  grounds,  and  appliances  of  living,  while 
distant  posts  go  year  after  year  without  even  comforts. 
Fort  Leavenworth  and  the  posts  of  the  same  department 
are  examples  of  this.  I  have  known  distant  posts  denied 
the  authority  to  employ  a  blacksmith  or  carpenter,  who 
was  almost  indispensably  necessary,  "as  the  number  of 
civilian  employes  authorized  would  not  allow  it,"  while 
the  chief  of  the  department,  who  made  this  decision, 
was  then  employing  half  a  dozen  civilians  to  sod  his 
grounds.  This  is  but  one  instance  of  what  takes  place 
con  stan  tlv. 


238  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


UPON  THE   OFFICERING  OF  TROOPS. 

Our  plan  of  officering  from  a  military  school  is  excel- 
lent, as  far  as  it  goes.  The  additional  officers  who  are  re- 
quired should  be  selected  from  the  whole  body  of  educa- 
ted young  men,  with  reference  to  a  fixed  standard  of  ex- 
cellence. At  West  Point  there  is  very  little  or  no  selec- 
tion at  first,  as  cadets  are  usually  appointed  by  the  caprice 
of  individuals,  and  the  subsequent  winnowing  is  made  by 
applying  the  single  test  of  plodding  labor. 

Our  present  plan  for  supplying  the  remainder  is  perhaps 
even  worse  than  the  French — none  could  be  worse  than 
ours.  We  actually  appoint  men  at  the  mere  wish  of  influ- 
ential persons,  without  any  evidence  of  a  single  qualifica- 
tion; and  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  sometimes  possess 
none.  There  seems  to  be  a  prevalent  idea  that  to  be  a 
good  soldier  requires  some  miraculous  gift,  differing  from 
what  ordinary  men  possess,  and  not  susceptible  of  the 
same  tests.  My  observation  has  been,  that  a  man  in  the 
military  profession,  as  in  every  other,  is  worthy  in  propor- 
tion as  he  is  sensible,  cultivated,  industrious,  and  moral. 
The  French  promote  men  for  bravery,  although  they  may 
possess  no  other  qualification.  To  be  brave  is  essential, 
but  not  sufficient  tp  make  an  officer.  We  did  the  same ; 
and  during  the  last  years  of  the  war,  when  men  had  been 
tried  and  estimated,  one  could  look  down  a  whole  column 
of  the  names  of  brigadier-generals  in  the  register  without 
finding  many  holding  commands  in  the  front.  It  was 
most  unfortunate  that  the  General  Government  gave  to 
governors  of  the  respective  states  unrestricted  authority  to 
officer  regiments.  The  opportunity  of  forming  a  well-of- 
ficered volunteer  army  was  thus  thrown  away.  Many  of 
the  governors  made  a  sort  of  barter  of  commissions  by  giv- 
ing them  as  a  reward  for  recruiting  services,  the  rank  con- 


THE  OFFICERING   OF  TROOPS.  239 

ferred  being  graduated  according  to  the  number  of  men 
enlisted.  This  might  do  were  it  at  the  end,  instead  of  the 
beginning,  of  a  costly  service.  The  Governor  of  Ohio  made 
an  arbitrary  rule  from  which  nothing  could  move  him — 
namely,  to  promote  by  seniority,  no  matter  what  were  the 
claims  against  it,  and  would  even  give  lieutenants'  com- 
missions to  sergeants  who  had  been  reduced  for  worthless- 
ness.  This  in  time  of  war  is  the  most  vicious  system  pos- 
sible. None  is  so  cruelly  unjust  and  discouraging  to 
brave,  good  officers,  who  are  always  in  battle,  and  none  so 
favorable  to  the  cowardly  shirks  who  are  never  there,  but 
swarm  around  the  executive.  Such  a  policy  discriminates 
against  the  most  valuable  military  qualities.  The  gov- 
ernor also  favored  the  plan  of  forming  new  regiments,  in- 
stead of  filling  the  ranks  of  the  old  ones.  This  course 
gave  Ohio  weak  regiments  of  veterans,  and  inexperienced 
ones  of  recruits,  while  it  drew  away  from  the  old  organi- 
zations their  best  men,  moved  by  the  hope  of  higher  rank 
in  new  regiments.  The  result  was  that  Ohio,  toward  the 
close  of  the  war,  occupied  a  secondary  place. 

These  are  examples  of  executive  acts,  exceedingly  det- 
rimental to  the  service,  which  could  have  been  arrested, 
and  were  not.  The  result  was,  that  we  had  colonels  who 
were  not  fit  for  captains,  and  it  was  often  necessary  to  look 
through  the  list  of  subalterns  of  more  than  one  regiment 
to  find  an  officer  competent  to  record  the  proceedings  of  a 
board  of  survey.  Governors  of  states,  always  well-mean- 
ing, were  often  without  experience  with  men,  and  seemed 
to  view  them  like  marbles — all  of  a  size,  all  of  the  same 
material,  all  of  equal  soundness,  weight,  and  value.  Per- 
haps no  place  so  clearly  disproves  this  notion  as  an  active 
army.  Men  are  found  there  of  silver,  gold,  and  sometimes 
of  pure  diamond,  and  also  many  of  brass  and  lead  and 
some  of  unmixed  dross. 


240  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Our  selections  of  men  were  made  by  neglecting  all  the 
usual  tests  and  checks  which  are  usually  resorted  to  by 
other  armies  and  by  civil  corporations  to  secure  efficiencj^. 
Governors  of  states  had  not  the  facilities  for  applying  these 
tests,  and  some  of  our  commanders  were  destitute  of  the 
capacity  to  appreciate  their  value.  This  was,  happily,  not 
the  case  with  those  generals  who  led  our  armies  through 
to  the  final  glorious  close.  Upon  the  intelligent  exercise 
of  this  discriminating  faculty,  and  upon  the  resolute  deter- 
mination that  promotion  be  given  to  those  who  earned  it, 
greatly  depended  their  success.  We  lost  immeasurably  by 
making  no  appeal  to  noble  minds.  Our  country  was  full 
of  young  men  of  culture — like  Shaw,  Bartlett,  R  W.  Ean- 
som,  Terry,  Garfield,  and  Cox — who  could  have  been  had 
for  the  asking;  but  they  were  not  sought,  and  their  places 
were  often  filled  by  barbers,  billiard-saloon  keepers,  and  in 
a  few  cases  by  professional  gamblers;  while  it  was  notori- 
ously a  matter  of  frequent  occurrence  to  commission  men 
of  dissipated  habits,  who  had  failed  all  their  lives,  and 
would  not  be  trusted  with  any  civil  responsibility.  After 
costing  us  years  of  war,  hundreds  of  millions  of  money,  and 
thousands  of  precious  lives,  this  plan  had  to  be  abandoned; 
and  when  we  did  adopt  a  compulsory  system,  we  well-nigh 
made  it  nugatory  by  incorporating  in  it  the  vicious  provis- 
ion for  hired  substitutes. 

In  the  German  army  it  is  made  nearly  impossible  for  an 
unworthy  and  inefficient  man  to  become  an  officer.  Brav- 
ery and  patriotism  are  esteemed  at  their  true  worth,  but 
they  alone  are  thought  to  constitute  no  valid  claim  to  a 
commission.  Duties  and  responsibilities  of  such  a  charac- 
ter are  imposed  upon  all  officers,  that  no  incompetent  man 
can  remain  in  service,  while  the  poorest  shirk  with  us  may 
hold  his  commission  all  his  life  if  he  does  no  flagrant  act 
and  signs  his  pay  accounts  regularly.  Justice  as  impartial 


UNFAIR  LEGISLATION.  2-il 

as  human  fallibility  can  administer,  regulates  the  appoint- 
ment and  defines  the  duties  of  Prussian  officers,  and  nei- 
ther woman,  statesman,  nor  king  ever  interferes  with  the 
exact  operations  of  the  law. 

The  Prussians  have  also  a  just  system  of  rewards  for 
service.  "With  us  duty  goes  for  little,  compared  with  per- 
sonal favor.  An  officer  may  shirk  for  years,  and  then 
claim,  by  virtue  of  his  rank,  and  gain  the  best  post  of  his 
grade  in  the  service,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  who  have 
all  the  while  labored  faithfully.  The  effect  of  any  system 
that  rewards  alike  those  servants  who  do  their  duty  and 
those  who  do  not,  can  be  readily  imagined,  and  in  the 
end  will,  as  it  should,  destroy  itself.  In  the  Prussian  army 
service  is  certain  of  due  recognition  and  reward,  and  this 
is  the  strongest  stimulus  to  its  proper  performance.  "With 
us,  those  who  do  honest,  rough  duty  uncomplainingly  are 
very  likely  to  do  it  all  their  lives. 

Our  legislation  discriminates  against  the  regular  army. 
At  the  close  of  our  late  war  a  law  was  passed  reorganiz- 
ing the  army,  and  providing  that  half  the  field  officers 
should  be  volunteers.  There  were  twenty-seven  officers 
of  the  regular  army  commanding  military  divisions,  de- 
partments, armies  in  the  field,  and  army  corps,  while  there 
were  but  three  others  who  held  commands  of  like  grade. 
The  result  of  the  law  is,  that  some  colonels  of  volunteer 
regiments  in  the  war  are  now  colonels  of  regular  regi- 
ments, while  their  former  army  corps  commanders  are 
their  lieutenant-colonels. 

In  1870,  a  statute  was  passed  requiring  that  all  officers 
of  the  regular  army  should  be  officially  addressed  by  their 
full  rank,  leaving  in  force  the  law  requiring  volunteer  of- 
ficers who  are  not  in  the  regular  army  to  be  addressed  by 
their  highest  brevet  rank.  Some  volunteer  officers  are 
accordingly  addressed  as  generals,  while  we  of  like  brevet 

16 


242  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

rank  who  are  attached  to  the  service,  and  have  elected  to 
give  our  lives  to  it,  are  known  officially  as  colonels,  lieu- 
tenant-colonels, and  majors. 

These  evils  will  in  time  correct  themselves  by  the  in- 
evitable working  of  the  spirit  of  reform  and  progress. 
When  this  rectification  begins,  public  opinion  will  be  sat- 
isfied with  nothing  short  of  rigid  and  strict  economy  in  all 
branches  of  the  public  service.  But  nowhere  will  this  be 
so  difficult  to  secure  as  in  the  administration  of  the  army, 
for  the  evil  to  be  dealt  with  is  not  "corruption,"  but  want 
of  business  capacity.  Numbers  of  our  staff  possess  a  high 
order  of  talent,  for  they  are  among  the  best  graduates  of 
the  Military  Academy.  They  are  rigidly  upright,  have 
superior  social  qualities,  and  are  in  every  way  personally 
most  worthy.  It  is  the  system,  and  its  effects  upon  them 
and  upon  the  army,  of  which  I  speak.  The  greatest  fault 
in  the  system  is,  that  these  men,  by  being  so  widely  sepa- 
rated from  the  army,  lose  the  true  character  and  spirit 
of  soldiers,  and  gain  no  experience  in  business.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  war,  the  nation  finds  that  these  depart- 
ments, instead  of  being  vigorous  auxiliaries,  are  legal  im- 
pediments to  the  administration  of  affairs.  Before  the  evil 
can  be  removed,  much  time  is  lost,  and  vicious  systems  are 
inaugurated  which  are  corrected  afterward  with  difficulty. 

This  want  of  business  experience  leads  to  great  extrava- 
gance. The  waste,  from  want  of  care  of  property,  needless 
transportation  of  troops  on  public  conveyances,  the  un- 
limited purchase  and  use  of  stores  not  strictly  necessary, 
and  the  entire  failure  to  hold  officers  to  a  cash  responsi- 
bility for  their  carelessness  or  stupidity,  are  some  of  the 
evils  that  will  at  last  certainly  work  their  own  cure.  If 
these  matters  are  reported,  as  they  sometimes  are,  no  es- 
pecial notice  is  taken  of  them,  and  no  one  is  held  responsi- 
ble. A  board  of  officers  is  called  to  investigate  and  re- 


THE  STAFF.  243 

port,  and  if  its  action  is  not  satisfactory  to  the  party 
charged,  he  calls  for  another  board,  and  so  on,  till  at  last 
a  report  is  obtained  in  which  the  board  relieves  him  by  its 
recommendations.  There  is  a  disposition  among  staff  offi- 
cers to  stand  by  each  other,  which  is  apt  to  be  stronger 
than  the  wish  to  serve  the  Government. 

The  cost  of  the  army  may  be  divided  into  two  parts: 
the  specific,  such  as  pay  and  allowances,  fixed  in  amount 
by  law,  and  the  general  costs,  such  as  arms,  equipments, 
quarters,  transports,  and  general  incidental  wants  not  spec- 
ified by  law,  but  left  to  discretion.  It  is  in  the  latter  di- 
vision that  restriction  is  necessary.  At  present  the  store- 
house of  an  army  quarter-master  will  be  found  to  contain 
almost  every  known  article  of  merchandise,  the  connection 
of  much  of  which  with  an  army  would  puzzle  the  best  sol- 
dier living  to  find  out.  These  general  supplies  are  issued 
on  a  requisition  which  requires  only  the  approval  of  the 
commanding  officer.  There  is  no  definite  check  or  limit 
to  the  purchasing  power,  and  no  necessity  for  care,  as  new 
articles  are  readily  procured  to  replace  the  old.  Thus  it 
is  common  to  see  an  officer  living  under  five  times  his  al- 
lowance of  tents,  or  going  on  a  scout  with  many  times  his 
allowance  of  wagons. 

In  the  spring  of  1871,  the  quarter-master-general  called 
upon  the  general  of  the  army,  who  was  about  to  inspect 
the  posts  in  the  Department  of  Texas,  to  say  there  were  no 
carriages  there  suitable  for  him  to  travel  in,  and  offered  to 
send  one  there  expressly  for  him.  On  his  arrival  at  Indi- 
anola,  he  found  there  awaiting  him  an  immense  traveling 
carriage  that  took  six  mules  to  haul  when  empty,  and  so 
large  as  to  be  of  no  use  whatever  to  the  general.  I  am  in- 
formed that  it  was  ordered  to  be  sold,  and  brought  about 
one-fourth  of  its  cost.  In  the  first  place,  if  we  are  to  have 
an  efficient  and  economical  administration,  the  law  should 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

not  allow  such  latitude;  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  should 
hold  an  officer  accountable  for  such  a  misapplication  of 
money.  If  the  head  of  a  bureau  can,  at  his  own  discre- 
tion, do  this,  he  can  buy  a  thousand  worthless  carts  or 
Concord  coaches. 

It  is  a  popular  thing  to  advocate  retrenchment  in  the 
army,  and,  to  effect  this,  the  army  register  is  scanned,  and 
the  line  of  the  army  plucked  here  of  a  regiment,  and  there 
of  a  major,  or  adjutant,  or  quarter-master,  or  the  pay  of  the 
soldier  is  reduced.  The  administration,  which  is  the  real 
source  of  expense,  is  never  touched.  The  present  Secre- 
tary of  War  ruled  that  but  five  thousand  civil  employes 
be  kept  in  service,  but  nothing  was  said  as  to  grade  or 
amount  of  pay.  The  poorly-paid  day -laborers  were  dis- 
charged, but  the  clerks,  agents,  store-keepers,  and  masters 
of  all  kinds  who  rank  in  pay  with  lieutenants  of  the  army, 
were  scarcely  disturbed.  There  are  of  these,  in  the  quar- 
ter-masters', commissaries',  and  pay  departments,  some  sev- 
en or  eight  hundred — nearly  as  many  as  there  are  lieuten- 
ants in  the  army.  These  men  form  a  sort  of  staff  for  these 
officers,  often  remaining  with  them  for  years,  and  finally 
carry  on  nearly  all  the  business  of  their  chiefs. 

There  are  also  a  large  number  of  forage-masters  and 
warrant-officers  appointed  by  the  quarter-master-general, 
at  nearly  the  same  pay — a  relic  of  the  war — who  seem  to 
have  been  overlooked.  Some  of  these  men  are  necessary, 
but  they  should  be  enlisted  as  sergeants,  at  about  one- 
fourth  the  pay  now  given,  and  rated  as  accountants,  calcu- 
lators, and  store-keepers.  These  places  should  not  be  giv- 
en to  old  soldiers  as  rewards,  but,  like  the  position  of  ser- 
geants in  the  signal  service,  to  the  bright,  educated  young 
men  of  the  country. 

The  grand  fault  of  our  army  administration  is,  that  it  is 
too  much  centralized,  every  thing  being  directed  from  our 


RED  TAPE.  245 

central  office  in  Washington.  Such,  a  plan  can  not  be 
practically  efficient,  where  the  work  is  so  far  from  the  au- 
thority directing  it.  We  saw  this  in  the  Indian  Bureau, 
where  the  commissioner,  no  matter  how  pure,  was  never 
free  from  the  influences  of  contractors,  who  always  tried  to 
use  him  for  their  own  purposes.  It  was  impossible  for 
this  to  last  after  the  authorized  commission  had  visited  the 
Indians,  and  studied  their  affairs  on  the  spot.  So  appar- 
ent were  the  errors  of  the  commissioner's  administration 
from  his  Washington  office,  that  their  repeated  reports  ap- 
peared to  him  like  persecution,  and  his  resignation  fol- 
lowed. Equally  apparent  are  the  errors  of  the  centralized 
Washington  administration  to  an  observing  officer  upon 
the  frontier.  Effort  is  not  exerted., with  sufficient  direct- 
ness, but  loses  its  force  in  its  passage  through  the  tortuous 
channels  of  administration.  I  feel  certain  that  all  this  will 
be  corrected.  The  country  will  not  remain  content  with 
any  thing  short  of  the  best  systems,  even  for  our  little 
army.  Unless  these  reforms  can  be  brought  about,  and 
the  country  satisfied  that  our  army  is  earnest,  capable,  and, 
above  all,  economical,  it  will  turn  out  that  the  staff  has 
been  and  now  is  digging  a  grave  in  which  the  whole 
service  must  soon  be  buried. 

Every  nation  that  gives  protection  to  its  people  has  a 
right  to  call  on  its  citizens  to  maintain  it.  It  also  has  the 
right  to  prescribe  its  own  systems,  and  it  is  its  imperative 
duty  to  employ  those  methods  that  will  be  least  burden- 
some to  the  people.  It  is  common  to  hear  that  ours  are 
good  enough,  and  there  is  no  need  of  their  being  better — 
that  they  carried  us  through  the  war — and  many  like  say- 
ings. This  position  is  not  tenable  so  long  as  our  system  is 
not  the  best.  The  waste  of  treasure  and  life  in  our  war,  as 
well  as  the  noble  sacrifices  then  made  by  a  willing  people, 
without  respect  to  party,  wealth,  or  station,  are  without  a 


246  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

parallel.  There  never  was  a  more  sacred  trust  than  rest- 
ed with  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  apply  the  resources  of 
life  and  treasure  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government. 
It  is  natural  to  ask,  Were  they  well  applied  ?  So  far  as 
the  integrity  of  the  heads  of  Government  is  concerned,  they 
were;  but  in  methods  of  administration  they  were  not, 
unless  it  can  be  shown  that  we  employed  the  best  known 
methods.  One  of  the  purposes  of  this  work  is  to  ask, 
"Were  they  the  best?" 

It  was  common  to  hear  that  the  state  received  no  more 
than  half  the  service  it  paid  for,  and  it  appears  to  be  a  set- 
tled sentiment  that  the  state  can  not  be  served  with  the 
economy  one  finds  in  private  affairs.  This  is  an  unfortu- 
nate misapprehension,  but  one  that  can  not  be  corrected 
till  we  employ  systems  in  which  educated  reason,  and 
not  political  expediency  and  personal  favor,  shall  govern. 
If  our  system  required  a  million  men  on  the  rolls  of  the 
army,  under  the  pay  of  the  nation,  which  was  losing  their 
industries,  to  get  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  in 
the  front  line  with  muskets  in  their  hands,  when  we  might 
have  had  the  same  number  of  muskets  there  with  but  half 
a  million  on  its  rolls,  then  our  system  was  not  the  best. 
If  we  had  seventy -five  thousand  officers  under  commission 
and  pay,  when  we  only  required  fifteen  thousand,  then  our 
system  was  not  the  best.  If  we  paid  for  the  best  quality 
of  clothing,  blankets,  hats,  stationery,  and  a  long  list  of  nec- 
essary articles,  and  received  only  shoddy  and  shams,  then 
our  system  was  not  the  best.  If  we  lost  half  a  million  of 
lives,  when  by  some  other  course  we  could  have  conducted 
the  war  as  effectively,  and  lost  but  a  hundred  thousand, 
then  our  system  was  not  the  best.  If  our  war  cost  six 
hundred  millions  of  dollars,  when  it  need  not  have  cost 
more  than  two  hundred  millions,  then  our  system  was  not 
the  best. 


OFFICERING  THE  PRUSSIAN  ARMY.  247 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PRUSSIAN  MILITARY  SCHOOLS.— PLAN  OF  OFFICERING  THE 
PRUSSIAN  ARMY. 

THE  plan  of  officering  the  German  army  is  nearly  the 
same  in  all  the  states,  and  is  founded  upon  the  Prussian 
system,  the  superiority  of  which  has  been  proved.  Some 
trifling  exceptions  are  made  in  deference  to  the  wishes  of 
the  petty  sovereigns,  but  the  tendency  is  toward  the  Prus- 
sian plan,  and  soon  the  entire  German  military  system  will 
be  uniform.  The  change  has  somewhat  lowered  the  Prus- 
sian standard,  but  it  is  thought  that  more  is  gained  than 
lost  by  uniformity,  and,  after  peace,  the  standard  of  the 
whole  will  soon  reach  the  Prussian  mark. 

In  Prussia,  military  is  based  upon  civil  education,  and 
these  two  systems  are  carefully  made  to  act  upon  each 
other.  A  superior  civil  education  makes  military  serv- 
ice easy,  by  affording  facilities  for  gaining  commissions, 
and  by  shortening  the  service  in  the  ranks.  Every  man 
in  Prussia,  without  regard  to  position,  owes  seven  years' 
service  to  the  state — three  years  in  the  active  army,  and 
four  in  the  reserves.  In  time  of  peace,  the  reserves  are 
called  out  only  for  occasional  exercises,  but  are  at  all  times 
prepared  to  march  at  once  to  the  field,  the  men  being  at 
home  engaged  in  their  ordinary  business,  while  their  arms 
and  equipments  are  kept  at  the  depot. 

A  young  man  who  can  show  a  certificate  of  having  pass- 
ed some  time  in  the  higher  public  schools  is  permitted  to 
join  the  army  as  a  one-year  volunteer,  and  serves  wholly 
at  his  own  expense,  and  is  then  transferred  to  the  reserves 


248  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

for  the  other  six  years.  The  army  requires  about  eight 
hundred  officers  each  year,  of  whom  about  one-third  are. 
furnished  by  the  military  schools,  and  the  remainder  come 
from  civil  life,  but  not,  as  with  us,  without  any  preparation. 
A  young  man  who  wishes  to  enter  the  army  as  an  officer 
must  first  be  nominated  by  a  colonel  of  a  regiment.  He 
then  serves  as  a  private  soldier  with  that  regiment  for  six 
months,  with  the  recognition  that  he  is  a  candidate  for  com- 
mission, and  is  called  an  "advantageur."  His  treatment 
during  this  time  depends  upon  the  colonel,  and  differs  in 
different  regiments ;  but  the  rigor  of  discipline  is  generally 
moderated  by  the  fact  of  his  position.  At  the  end  of.this 
time  he  must  pass  an  examination  on  the  subjects  aover- 
ed  by  a  liberal  civil  education,  and,  if  successful,  becomes 
a  "sword-knot  ensign" — a  rank  between  a  sergeant  and 
sergeant-major.  If  he  can  show  a  certificate  from  one  of 
the  recognized  public  schools  that  he  has  passed  the  re- 
quired grade,  this  examination  is  dispensed  with.  He  now 
goes  to  a  war  school,  which  will  be  described  farther  on, 
where  he  receives  ten  months'  purely  military  instruction, 
and  must  pass  a  severe  examination.  He  then  returns  to 
his  regiment,  and  it  is  submitted  to  the  officers  whether, 
in  view  of  his  capacity  and  personal  qualities,  they  will 
admit  him  among  their  number.  If  successful  in  this,  his 
case  goes  up  to  the  king  for  appointment  as  second  lieu- 
tenant whenever  there  may  be  a  vacancy -for  him.  This 
method  furnishes  two-thirds  of  the  Prussian  officers.  The 
other  third  corne  from  the  Cadet  Schools.  There  are  eight 
of  these,  situated  in  different  parts  of  Prussia.  They  are 
intended  for  the  education  of  the  sons  of  officers  of  the 
army,  and  such  civilians  as  have  rendered  signal  service  to 
the  state,  but  are -really  open  to  all.  Those  who  have  no 
claim  upon  the  Government  pay  their  own  expenses,  and 
the  others  are  assisted  upon  a  scale  graduated  according  to 


OFFICERING  THE  PRUSSIAN  ARMY.  249 

their  means.  These  are  schools  for  boys,  the  pupils  being 
admitted  at  the  age  of  ten  years.  The  course  usually  cov- 
ers six  years. 

A  student  is  not  obliged,  on  leaving  the  Cadet  School,  to 
enter  the  service,  but  the  course  generally  leads  to  a  milita- 
ry life,  and  does  not  excuse  the  pupil  from  the  seven  years' 
service  due  the  state.  Although  these  military  schools 
serve  a  purpose,  their  course  of  education  is  purely  civil, 
except  in  the  two  higher  classes  of  the  Berlin  school. 
This  is  a  high  school,  to  which  the  best  scholars  from  the 
other  six  are  sent. 

Fifty  pupils  each  year,  known  as  the  select,  form  an  ad- 
vanced class,  remain  two  additional  years,  pass  their  aca- 
demic and  military  examinations,  and  at  the  end  of  that 
time  receive  full  commissions  from  the  king  as  second 
lieutenants,  as  our  cadets  are  appointed  directly  by  the 
President.  These  fifty  do  not  come  before  the  officers  of 
the  regiment  for  acceptance.  All  other  cadets,  on  leaving 
the  academy,  must,  like  civilians,  pass  the  academic  exam- 
ination, then  join  a  regiment  as  advantageurs,  serve  six 
months  as  private  soldiers,  become  sword-knot  ensigns,  go 
to  a  war  school  for  ten  months,  be  accepted  by  the  officers 
of  their  regiment,  and  appointed  by  the  king,  subject  to 
a  vacancy.  It  thus  appears  that  to  become  an  officer  re- 
quires, first,  a  good  academic  education,  some  military 
service,  ten  months'  technical  instruction,  and,  except  in 
the  cases  of  the  fifty  select,  the  nomination  of  a  colonel, 
the  acceptance  by  the  officers  of  the  regiment,  and  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  king.  The  fifty  select  are  upon  about 
the  same  footing  as  our  cadets,  and  receive  about  the  same 
style  and  amount  of  education.  Officers  of  engineers  and 
artillery  come  in  under  very  similar  conditions.  The  en- 
gineers are  formed  into  battalions,  and  artillery  into  regi- 
mental organizations.  The  applicant  comes  in  as  an  ad- 


250          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

vantageur,  or  cadet,  has  the  same  service  and  examina- 
tions, and  becomes  a  second  lieutenant.  He  then  attends 
the  School  for  Engineers  and  Artillery  at  Berlin  for  two 
years.  The  landwehr  are  officered  in  two  ways :  first,  by 
officers  of  the  regular  army,  who  leave  it  before  comple- 
ting their  seven  years'  service ;  and  secondly,  from  the  one- 
year  volunteers,  who  have  served  at  their  own  expense. 

"We  now  come  to  the  schools.  They  are  of  five  classes ; 
but,  for  want  of  space,  only  the  first,  which  relates  to  the 
preparatory  education,  and  later  professional  instruction 
of  combatant  officers,  will  be  considered,  the  others  being 
special,  or  for  enlisted  men.  There  are  four  schools,  or 
kinds  of  schools,  of  this  class:  the  Cadet  Schools,  which 
we  have  noticed,  for  boys ;  the  War  Schools,  for  advanta- 
geurs ;  the  Engineer  and  Artillery  School  at  Berlin,  and 
the  higher  Academy,  for  officers  of  all  arms,  after  they 
have  seen  several  years'  service  with  their  regiments,  and 
developed  some  special  aptitude.  This  school  has  a  gen- 
eral bearing  on  advanced  instruction,  professional  and  civil. 

There  are,  besides  these,  a  great  number  of  schools  for 
the  general  training  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  of- 
ficers already  in  service,  two  medical  schools  for  the  edu- 
cation of  surgeons,  one  veterinary  school,  three  schools  for 
the  preparation  of  young  civilians  for  the  grade  of  non- 
commissioned officers,  regimental  schools  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  enlisted  men,  regimental  music  and  swimming 
schools,  and  schools  for  the  gratuitous  education  of  the 
children  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers.  Only 
the  first  four  named  will  be  considered,  beginning  with 
the  Cadet  Schools. 

CADET  SCHOOLS. 

These  are  divided  in.  two  classes  —  lower  and  upper. 
Each  school  forms  a  battalion,  composed  of  companies,  and 


CADET  SCHOOLS.  251 

all  the  battalions  form  the  Koyal  Cadet  Corps  of  Prussia, 
founded  in  1717,  and  subsequently  reorganized  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  who  was  a  member  of  it  himself.  It  has 
always  been  an  object  of  special  interest  to  the  sovereigns 
of  Prussia.  It  is  composed  of  about  fifteen  hundred  ca- 
dets, a  hundred  officers,  a  large  number  of  civilian  profess- 
ors, and  commanded  by  a  major-general.  The  corps  has 
a  distinctive  uniform,  insignia,  and  standards,  adopted  by 
Frederick.  The  officers  are  detached  from  regiments  for 
this  duty,  and  changed  every  four  or  five  years,  but  the 
civilian  professors  hold  their  positions  during  good  be- 
havior. The  control  of  all  military  schools  is  vested  in 
their  immediate  commandants,  subject  to  a  mixed  board 
of  military  officers  and  civilians,  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  an  inspector  of  military  schools,  who  visits  each 
institution  every  year. 

At  the  six  lower  schools  cadets  enter  from  the  age  of 
ten  until  sixteen ;  and  at  the  Berlin,  or  upper  school,  from 
fifteen  to  nineteen ;  and  at  the  latter,  either  direct  from 
civil  life  or  from  the  lower  schools. 

The  sons  of  non-commissioned  officers  who  have  served 
twenty-five  years  are  eligible  to  these  schools  as  free  ca- 
dets. The  sons  of  officers  are  partially  free,  according  to 
the  condition  and  pay  of  their  fathers.  The  annual  cost 
of  the  cadets,  who  all  enter  on  the  first  of  May,  is  from 
two  hundred  to  three  hundred  thalers  each.  For  pur- 
poses of  instruction,  the  schools  are  divided  into  four 
classes,  and  each  class  into  sections  of  from  twenty -five  to 
thirty  cadets.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the  six  lower 
schools  is  the  same,  omitting  Greek,  as  followed  by  the 
civil  schools  of  like  grade.  Promotion  to  the  next  high- 
er class  usually  takes  place  at  the  end  of  each  year.  The 
cadet,  if  not  prepared  to  go  on,  is  generally  dismissed, 
and  obliged  to  serve  seven  years  as  a  private  soldier, 


252  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

but  sometimes  special  exceptions  are  made.  "All  the  jun- 
ior schools  have  a  similar  organization,  each  being  com- 
manded by  a  field  officer,  assisted  by  ten  or  twelve  cap- 
tains and  lieutenants,  and  a  suitable  staff  of  civil  profess- 
ors. Each  school  or  battalion  is  composed  of  about  two 
hundred  cadets,  and  is  divided  into  two  companies.  The 
subjects  of  instruction  are  Bible  history,  Latin,  German, 
grammar,  composition,  French,  arithmetic,  elementary  al- 
gebra, geometry,  natural  philosophy,  drawing,  and  writing; 
also,  during  the  whole  four  years,  gj^mnastics,  swimming, 
and  dancing. 

There  are  no  examinations  at  the  end  of  the  course,  but 
cadets  who  have  been  a  year  in  the  higher  classes  are 
transferred  to  the  senior  school  at  Berlin.  The  system  of 
discipline,  which  is  uniform  throughout,  will  be  spoken  of 
in  describing  the  Berlin  school.  In  the  junior  schools,  of- 
ficers are  required  to  exercise  a  moral  influence,  and  trust 
more  to  admonition  and  reproof  than  to  punishment.  The 
power  of  inflicting  punishment,  however,  rests  with  the 
commandant  and  captains  of  companies,  and,  as  in  every 
other  case  in  the  Prussian  service,  the  extent  and  charac- 
ter of  such  authority  are  exactly  defined  by  law.  The  most 
careful  attention  is  paid  to  religious  instruction.  The  offi- 
cers seem  devoted. to  their  duties,  and  are  always  with 
the  cadets,  even  sleeping  in  the  same  dormitory,  separated 
from  them  only  by  a  curtain. 

BERLIN  CADET  SCHOOL. 

The  Senior,  or  Berlin  Cadet  School,  was  the  only  one  I 
personally  visited.  Cadets  enter  here  from  fifteen  to  nine- 
teen years  of  age.  The  course  occupies  two  years,  al- 
though the  select,  about  fifty  of  each  class,  remain  another 
year  for  higher  instruction. 

The  staff,  civil  and  military,  is  similar  to,  but  larger 


BERLIN  CADET  SCHOOL.  253 

than  for  the  other  schools  already  described.  It  consists 
of  thirty  officers  and  twenty-eight  civilians.  There  are,  in 
addition,  two  chaplains,  Protestant  and  Eoman  Catholic, 
three  surgeons,  and  a  'staff  of  sixty-three  subordinate  em- 
ployes and  servants  of  all  grades.  , 

All  officers  and  instructors  are  appointed  by  the  king, 
upon  the  application  of  the  commander  of  the  cadet  corps, 
after  approval  by  the  inspector  of  military  education,  and 
must  be  men  of  high  attainments.  The  officers  are  usually 
sent  to  their  regiments  after  a  few  years,  but  are  brought 
back  after  short  service,  as  their  experience  is  considered 
valuable. 

The  civilians  are  first  appointed  on  probation,  and,  if 
competent,  are  confirmed  in  their  places.  The  officers  re- 
ceive a  small  addition  to  their  regimental  pay,  and  the  ci- 
vilians have  salaries'ranging  from  six  hundred  to  fifteen 
hundred  thalers  a  year.  The  building  is  situated  on  one 
of  the  principal  streets  in  Berlin,  and  was  originally  built 
by  Frederick  the  Great.  Many  additions  have  since  been 
made,  but  the  accommodations  are  still  insufficient.  A 
new  edifice  will  soon  be  built,  in  keeping  with  the  new  po- 
sition in  which  the  country  finds  itself.  The  main  build- 
ing is  a  large  quadrangle,  in  which  are  the  quarters  of  ca- 
dets, officers,  dining-hall,  library,  and  large  hall  for  exam- 
inations. 

In  another  building  are  the  class-rooms,  and  quarters  of 
the  commandant  and  professors.  The  cadet  quarters  con- 
sist of  sets  of  large  rooms  and  bedrooms,  each  suite  ac- 
commodating about  fifteen  cadets.  Each  bedroom  con- 
tains two  iron  bedsteads,  and  a  narrow  table  running  down 
the  centre  of  the  room,  holding  a  wash-basin  for  each  oc- 
cupant. In  the  sitting-rooms  each  cadet  has  a  cupboard, 
a  table,  a  chair,  and  small  desk,  which  complete  the  furni- 
ture. The  dining-room  is  capable  of  seating  five  hundred 


264:  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

cadets,  and  is  a  handsome  apartment.  They  take  three 
regular  meals  a  day  in  common — breakfast,  like  the  sol- 
diers', merely  of  soup  and  bread ;  dinner  at  midday,  of 
soup,  a  small  quantity  of  meat,  and  an  abundance  of  veg- 
etables ;  and  a  light  supper  j  ust  before  bed-time.  In  ad- 
dition, bread  and  butter  are  sometimes  served  out  to  each 
cadet  for  lunch.  The  pupils  are  seated  at  small  tables, 
each  accommodating  about  twelve.  No  beer  nor  wine  is 
permitted  within  the  school  building,  but  coffee  and  fruit 
can  be  bought  at  a  specified  place. 

The  cadets  of  each  suite  of  rooms  usually  have  a  piano 
and  music.  Reading  and  gymnastics  are  the  usual  amuse- 
ments. The  daily  routine  is  as  follows :  the  cadets  rise 
at  five  in  summer  and  six  in  winter,  and,  twenty  minutes 
after,  turn  out  for  parade  and  breakfast ;  then  follows  half 
an  hour  of  private  study  in  rooms ;  then  a  short  time  of 
cleaning  arms,  dress,  and  accoutrements ;  after  this,  a  pa- 
rade and  minute  inspection,  and  then  prayers,  which  all  at- 
tend. From  eight  o'clock  till  one,  except  twenty  minutes 
for  lunch,  all  cadets  are  in  the  lecture  -  rooms.  At  one 
o'clock  companies  are  formed,  daily  orders  read,  and  they 
are  then  marched  off  to  dinner.  From  this  time  until  five 
o'clock,  the  more  general  duties  of  fencing,  gymnastics, 
singing,  and  dancing  are  attended  to,  and  from  five  until 
eight  o'clock,  strict  attention  is  given  to  studies  in  rooms ; 
then  supper  and  recreation  until  nine  o'clock,  and  taps 
at  ten.  ^ 

There  are  four  short  vacations  in  each  year — in  all,  about 
two  months.  The  distinguishing  feature  with  regard  to 
discipline  is  a  system  of  conduct-classes.  These  are  four 
in  number,  and  are  entirely  independent  of  the  classes  for 
instruction.  They  seem  to  carry  out  the  principle  of  de- 
merit-marks as  at  West  Point,  but  much  more  completely. 
On  entering,  a  cadet  is  assigned  to  the  third  or  censor  class, 


BERLIN  CADET  SCHOOL.  255 

and  some  limited  indulgences  are  granted  him.  For  good 
conduct  he  is  promoted  to  the  second  class,  with  addition- 
al privileges,  and,  if  exemplary,  goes  to  the  first,  in  which 
he  enjoys  indulgences  of  a  very  ample  kind,  and,  in  fact, 
nearly  every  thing  a  careful  student  could  wish.  The 
fourth  class  is  reserved  for  those  guilty  of  serious  miscon- 
duct and  immoral  offenses,  and  is  considered  degrading. 
Any  cadet  found  in  it  at  the  end  of  his  course  would  be 
promoted  to  the  ranks  as  a  private  soldier.  It  is  not  usual 
for  more  than  three  or  four  from  each  class  to  get  in  it. 
At  the  end  of  each  quarter,  the  professors  and  captains  of 
companies  make  reports,  under  the  three  heads  of  behav- 
ior, diligence,  and  progress,  which  are  sent  to  the  parents, 
and  upon  which  are  founded  the  arrangement  of  conduct- 
classes.  The  results  of  this  system,  tempered  with  the 
kindness  and  sympathy  always  exercised  in  these  schools, 
have  been  found  to  be  extremely  satisfactory. 

The  course  of  study  for  all  below  the  "  selects  "  is  the 
same  as  in  the  civil  public  schools,  and  in  the  higher  class 
the  same  as  at  the  war  schools  of  ensigns.  Dancing  is  re- 
quired of  all  military  scholars,  not  only  as  an  accomplish- 
ment, but  as  a  suitable  gymnastic  exercise.  The  class- 
rooms accommodate  about  thirty,  which  is  as  large  a  num- 
ber as  one  instructor  is  supposed  capable  of  serving.  The 
cadets  are  arranged  on  parallel  benches,  with  desks,  and  the 
lessons  are  heard  both  viva  voce  and  from  the  blackboard. 
Punishments  are  inflicted  strictly  in  accordance  with  pre- 
scribed law,  and  range  from  forfeiture  of  holiday  to  dis- 
missal. Smoking  is  strictly  prohibited,  both  within  and 
without  school ;  and  any  immorality  or  association  with  im- 
proper characters  when  on  leave  results  in  dismissal  if  dis- 
covered. No  watches,  rings,  nor  other  jewelry  are  permit- 
ted to  be  worn,  and  the  amount  of  pocket-money  allow- 
ed never  exceeds  about  two  and  a  half  thalers  per  month. 


256  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  most  scrupulous  neatness  is  required,  and,  when  on 
leave,  cadets  must  at  all  times  appear  with  belts  and  gloves. 

Discipline,  though  severe,  is  not  harsh.  The  officers  mix 
freely  with  the  cadets,  and  take  great  interest  in  their  wel- 
fare. Insubordination  is  hardly  ever  known,  and  would 
result  in  dismissal.  This  is  due  partially  to  the  national 
trait  of  tractability,  partly  to  the  system  of  censor  classes, 
and  greatly  to  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  question  whether 
the  cadet  shall  enter  the  army  as  an  officer  or  as  a  private 
soldier.  When  he  leaves  the  school,  a  full  report  is  made 
upon  the  conduct  of  each  cadet  during  his  course,  and  for- 
warded, to  be  filed  with  his  regiment,  as  a  sort  of  chart  in- 
dicating his  future.  The  cadet  is  not  examined,  on  passing 
from  the  second  to  the  first  class.  This  promotion  is  de- 
termined by  the  reports  on  each  cadet's  diligence,  abilities, 
and  progress,  and  on  a  general  estimate  of  the  character  of 
the  men,  rather  than  by  any  fixed  value  given  the  exer- 
cises. The  rules  for  arriving  at  a  conclusion  upon  this 
question  are  remarkably  full  and  exact.  At  the  end  of 
one  year,  after  being  examined  by  the  school  board,  the 
pupils,  if  found  competent,  are  handed  over  to  the  military 
examining  commission,  who  are  in  no  way  connected  with 
the  school,  and  are  subjected  to  an  examination  precisely 
like  that  of  an  advantageur.  Those  who  pass,  except  the 
fifty  who  go  to  the  "select"  class  for  two  years  more,  are 
transferred  at  once  to  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  ensign, 
admitted  on  the  nomination  of  a  colonel,  serve  six  months, 
and  then  go  to  the  War  School,  as  before  described,  as  ad- 
vantageurs.  We  are  now  done  with  the  Cadet  Schools,  ex- 
cept for  the  "  fifty,"  who,  after  two  years,  get  their  commis- 
sions from  the  king  direct. 

The  principle  of  competition  is  very  little  employed  in 
Prussian  schools,  though,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  best  pu- 
pils are  known  as  the  heads  of  the  classes  to  which  they 


BERLIN  CADET  SCHOOL.  257 

belong,  and  have  some  additional  privileges  and  authority. 
Also  in  the  select,  a  few  of  the  superior  pupils  are  men- 
tioned in  a  general  report  to  the  king,  and  are  usually  ap- 
pointed in  the  Guards.  There  seems  to  be  little  lost,  how- 
ever, as  other  means  are  employed  to  stimulate  industry, 
and  no  amount  of  "  cramming  "  at  the  end  of  the  year  avails 
a  cadet ;  for  if  he  has  been  idle  during  the  term,  he  is  not 
allowed  to  present  himself  for  examination,  which  is  equiv- 
alent to  failure.  Although  no  system  of  marks  is  employ- 
ed, there  is  a  very  correct  plan  of  estimating  the  work 
done,  and  the  system  of  universal  service  is  a  powerful  in- 
centive to  good  conduct  and  industry,  for  failure  invaria- 
bly sends  one  to  the  ranks  to  serve  out  his  term. 

It  can  not  have  escaped  attention  that  the  plan,  of  keep- 
ing the  candidates  for  the  army  as  long  a  time  as  possible 
at  purely  civil  studies  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  Prus- 
sian military  education.  There  is  a  strong  feeling  of  an- 
tagonism to  these  schools,  from  their  alleged  tendency  to 
confine  the  mind  to  narrow  grooves ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  purely  non-professional  character  of  instruction  in  them, 
it  is  claimed  that  deleterious  effects  arise  from  keeping 
boys  from  a  tender  age  to  manhood  in  a  military  atmos- 
phere. Another  objection  raised  to  them  is,  that  they  as- 
sist to  keep  up  the  peculiar  class  feeling,  so  manifest  in  the 
Prussian  army.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  take  all  the 
officers  from  the  well-educated  and  higher  classes,  which  is 
beginning  to  be  felt  by  the  people. 

The  education  given  at  these  schools  is  said  to  be  infe- 
rior to  that  of  the  civil  schools,  but  the  advantage  claimed 
is,  that  it  maintains  military  esprit  du  corps.  Good  soldiers 
are  not  confined  to  the  schools,  but  seem  quite  as  apt  to 
come  up  through  the  other  system,  Moltke  being  an  ex- 
ample of  the  latter  course.  Commandants  of  regiments 
are  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  advantageur  system,  and  say 

17 


258  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

that  so  long  a  course  of  training  exclusively  in  a  military 
atmosphere  hampers  free  development  of  character.  No 
one  recommends  that  all  officers  should  be  educated  at  the 
Cadet  Schools. 

The  Prussian  cadets  wear  nearly  the  same  uniform  as 
the  soldiers,  and  are  remarkably  smart  and  neat  in  their 
ways.  Their  hair  is  kept  short,  but  not  cropped.  They 
always  wear  short  swords,  and  can  be  at  once  recognized 
by  their  trim  appearance.  They  are  generally  younger 
than  our  cadets,  and  at  the  preparatory  schools  have  many 
more  privileges.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  two  or  three 
rows  of  seats  across  the  parquet  of  the  opera-house  filled 
with  them.  They  are  a  grave  set  of  boys,  but  unusually 
courteous.  From  the  more  lenient  system,  less  mature 
age  of  the  pupils,  and  many  other  causes,  the  proficiency 
of  cadets,  except  "  the  select,"  is  much  less  than  at  West 
Point. 

WAR  SCHOOLS. 

The  War  Schools,  where  the  advantageurs  and  cadets 
not  of  the  select  gain  their  military  instruction,  were  for- 
merly attached  to  army  corps  in  the  different  territorial 
districts,  but  have  recently  been  detached  from  them. 
There  are  at  present  seven  schools,  with  about  one  hun- 
dred pupils  each,  and  the  eighth  will  soon  be  established. 
These  may  be  considered  the  great  military  academies  of 
Prussia.  Before  entering,  a  young  man  must  have  ac- 
quired a  good  civil  education,  and  had  some  six  months' 
military  service  in  the  ranks.  They  are  generally  con- 
sidered ensign  schools,  though  privates,  corporals,  and  ser- 
geants may  attend.  The  military  aspirant,  on  entering,  is 
usually  nineteen  or  twenty  years  of  age.  He  must  receive 
ten  months'  instruction,  then  pass  the  "  Eoyal  Officers' 
Board  of  Examiners,"  and  be  accepted  by  the  officers  of 
his  regiment.  He  usually  knows,  before  coming  to  this  or- 


WAR  SCHOOLS.  259 

deal,  whether  he  will  be  accepted,  for  should  he  fail  in  this, 
he  would  pass  through  life  a  marked  man.  There  is  a 
general  Board,  which  prescribes  the  studies,  and  the  course 
is  uniform  for  all  the  schools.  Each  is  directed  by  a  field 
officer,  assisted  by  an  adjutant,  who  is  also  librarian,  two 
instructors  for  tactics  and  administration,  two  for  the  sci- 
ence of  arms,  two  for  fortifications,  two  for  surveying  and 
drawing,  six  inspectors,  who  act  like  commandants  of  ca- 
det companies  with  us,  and  six  officers  for  instruction  in 
riding,  gymnastics,  drill,  and  musketry. 

No  civilians  are  employed  in  connection  with  these 
schools.  Officers  appointed  to  these  duties  have  not  the 
privilege  of  declining,  and  receive  about  one-fifth  addition 
to  their  regular  pay.  They  are  changed  every  five  years. 
The  yearly  expense  of  each  student,  besides  the  regular 
army  pay,  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thalers,  and  is 
borne  by  the  Government.  The  buildings  differ  in  their 
arrangements  in  all  the  schools,  but  their  general  adminis- 
tration is  similar.  The  officers  have  a  mess  like  that  of  a 
regiment,  and  the  pupils  a  separate  one,  where  breakfast 
and  supper  are  taken  at  pleasure,  but  their  presence  is  re- 
quired at  dinner.  This  mess  is  under  the  management  of 
two  officers  and  six  of  the  senior  pupils,  and,  like  all  sol- 
diers' messes  in  Prussia,  is  supported  from  the  daily  pay. 
There  is  a  reading-room,  a  library,  and  lecture-room,  where 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  receive  instruction  at  a  time; 
model-rooms,  and  quarters  very  plainly  furnished,  where 
from  two  to  six  students  live  together;  a  gymnasium-,  rid- 
ing-school, and  drill-ground. 

The  course  of  instruction  usually  commences  in  Octo- 
ber, "and  comprises  a  very  large  number  of  subjects,  com- 
mencing with  tactics  of  all  the  arms,  and  is  carried  through 
the  highest-grade  of  manoeuvres  for  battle,  the  history,  of 
tactics,  the  defense  of  places,  the  transport  of  troops  and 


260  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

post  duty — in  fact,  every  thing  that  comes  under  the  head 
of  tactics.  The  course  embraces  the  science  of  arms,  their 
history  and  uses,  every  thing  about  the  history,  manufac- 
ture, and  care  of  gunpowder,  manufacture  of  artillery  and 
small-arms,  gun-carriages,  artillery  ammunition,  the  theo- 
ry of  projectiles,  effects  of  rifling,  sieges  and  siege-guns, 
breech-loading  arms  of  all  kinds,  fortifications,  topography, 
military  drawing  and  surveying,  construction  of  places, 
perspective  projections,  bird's-eye  views,  horizontal  and 
vertical  projections  and  profiles,  military  surveying,  milita- 
ry regulations  and  duties  of  service,  army  organization, 
how  to  mobilize  it,  the  administration  of  the  army,  com- 
prising its  staff,  medical  department,  intendance  and  manu- 
facturing departments ;  military  law,  courts-martial,  gener- 
al regulations,  duties  connected  with  the  interior  of  a  com- 
pany, squadron,  and  regiment,  and  the  whole  subject  of 
military  correspondence  and  accountability.  This  gives 
but  a  partial  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  course. 

For  instruction,  each  school  is  divided  into  four  sections, 
and,  on  entering,  each  pupil  is  examined  as  to  his  general 
abilities,  which  is  usually  done  by  requiring  essays  on  giv- 
en subjects,  and  the  sections  are  arranged  from  this  test. 
The  course  is  precisely  alike  for  all  the  sections. 

No  books  are  used  at  lectures,  and  the  professor  is  not 
allowed  to  read  his  lecture.  The  pupils  are  forbidden  to 
use  in  their  notes  the  phrases  of  the  teacher,  but  are  re- 
quired to  submit  briefs  in  their  own  language.  The  sys- 
tem aims  not  to  task  the  mind  with  the  details  of  knowl- 
edge, but  to  cultivate  a  habit  of  native  reflection.  As  a 
check,  the  quarterly  examinations  are  held  by  other  in- 
structors than  those  who  serve  at  the  lectures.  Great  im- 
portance is  attached  to  viva  voce  examinations,  for  culti- 
vating readiness  of  resource  and  rapidity  of  judgment. 
As  in  all  German  educational  institutions,  but  little  atten- 


WAR  SCHOOLS.  261 

tion  is  paid  to  the  private  application  of  students,  so  long 
as  they  are  prepared  at  the  lectures.  Special  instruction 
in  tactics  is  given  to  the  ensigns  of  the  different  arms  of 
service  in  their  respective  arms,  and  swimming  is  taught 
to  all. 

The  daily  routine  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  the  Cadet  Schools— lectures  leaving  about  three  hours' 
free  time  each  day.  About  ten  days  are  spent  in  recon- 
noitring on  horseback  and  making  sketches,  without  in- 
struments, of  the  country  passed  over.  Great  importance 
is  attached  to  these  sketches,  which  are  not  required  to  be 
highly  finished. 

Discipline  is  secured  principally  through  the  inspectors, 
who  live  in  the  buildings,  and  have  their  quarters  among 
the  pupils.  One  of  these  is  on  duty  each  week,  and  is  al- 
ways with  the  pupils,  even  taking  his  meals  with  them; 
visits  their  quarters  during  study  hours,  and  observes  their 
attendance  at  all  duty.  The  best  pupils  are  given  certain 
authority  for  purposes  of  discipline,  and  are  also  reported 
to  their  regiments,  and  entitled  to  be  commissioned  to  fill 
the  first  vacancies. 

Games  of  hazard  are  strictly  forbidden,  and  outside  of 
the  school  pupils  are  required  to  conduct  themselves  in 
every  way  like  officers,  and  would  be  punished  for  unoffi- 
cer-like  conduct.  Plain  clothes  are  never  allowed.  The 
greatest  neatness  of  dress  and  person  is  required,  and  get- 
ting in  debt  or  getting  drunk  entails  dismissal  from  the 
school.  At  the  end  of  each  quarter,  the  professors,  after 
examining  the  marks,  give  each  pupil  his  proper  credit  for 
progress. 

The  strange  custom  of  dueling  with  swords,  common  in 
all  Germany,  is  sanctioned  in  the  schools,  but  serious  re- 
sults seldom  follow.  A  board  of  honor,  as  it  is  called,  is 
formed  to  investigate  all  quarrels,  and  decide  which  party 


262  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

is  wrong,  and  whether  a  duel  shall  be  fought ;  after  which 
the  original  aggressor  is  punished.  The  classes  of  punish- 
ment are  parole  punishments,  deprivation  of  leaves  of  ab- 
sence, open  arrest  in  quarters,  close  arrest  in  quarters,  con- 
finement in  the  guard-house,  and  dismissal;  but  dismissal 
of  an  ensign  from  the  school  only  carries  him  back  to  his 
regiment,  with  a  warrant  to  begin  over  again  at  the  War 
School  the  next  year.  While  the  ensigns  are,  like  our 
West  Point  cadets,  treated  very  much  as  common  soldiers, 
they  are  at  the  same  time  carefully  made  to  feel  the  high 
character  they  are  preparing  to  assume.  Their  esprit  du 
corps,  which  is  strong,  is  in  every  way  fostered  and  en- 
couraged by  the  Government. 

The  examinations  are  carried  on  by  the  uEoyal  Officers' 
Examining  Board,"  which  is  entirely  disconnected  with 
the  schools.  The  officers  of  the  academies  determine  from 
the  quarterly  reports  whether  the  pupil  shall  be  allowed 
to  appear  at  all  for  examination ;  if  not,  he  goes  back  to 
his  regiment ;  but  if  permitted  to  appear,  he  is  turned  over 
to  the  Officers'  Board,  whose  examination  continues  some 
four  days,  and  who  look  mainly  to  positive  knowledge  of 
subjects,  and  general  capacity.  Each  ensign  then  returns 
to  his  regiment,  and  the  report  is  soon  forwarded,  announ- 
cing to  his  colonel  the  result.  The  steps  by  which  his  com- 
mission is  afterward  gained  have  already  been  explained. 
An  ensign  who  fails  is  not  again  admitted  to  a  war  school, 
but,  if  he  sees  fit  to  qualify  himself  while  serving  with  his 
regiment,  may  again  appear  for  examination.  If  he  again 
fails,  a  third  trial  is  given  only  by  the  express  authority 
of  the  king. 

The  special  feature  of  entire  lack  of  competition  charac- 
terizes all  the  military  schools  of  Prussia.  It  is  even  dis- 
couraged, as  apt  to  prevent  application  to  those  branches 
for  which  there  is  special  aptness ;  and  the  aggregate  of 


THE  WAR  ACADEMY.  263 

study  is  believed  to  be  greater  without  than  with  it.  But 
the  great  objection  is,  that  no  competitive  examination  can 
be  made  a  practical  test  for  all  qualities,  personal,  practical, 
and  intellectual,  which  go  to  form  military  capacity.  A 
stimulant  to  industry  seems  to  exist  in  the  fact  that  failure 
would  retard  entry  into  the  army  with  an  officer's  commis- 
sion, and  might  finally  lead  to  service  in  the  ranks. 

The  greatest  satisfaction  is  felt  in  Prussia  with  the  re- 
sults of  these  schools,  which  have  been  greatly  improved 
within  the  past  few  years. 

ARTILLERY  AND  ENGINEERING  SCHOOL. 

The  Artillery  and  Engineering  School,  situated  in  Ber- 
lin, is  a  technical  school  for  young  men  who  have  gained 
their  commission  in  the  usual  way,  and  has  a  course,  of  two 
years.  Its  management  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  war 
schools,  as  to  require  no  detailed  notice.  The  officers  are 
permitted  to  quarter  themselves  wherever  they  please. 

THE  WAR  ACADEMY. 

The  highest  military  school  is  the  War  Academy,  for 
officers,  situated  at  Berlin,  and  intended  for  one  hundred 
pupils — officers  who  have  served  three  years  or  more,  and 
is  open  to  candidates  of  requisite  service  who  are  success- 
fur  at  a  competitive  examination,  and  who  bring  from 
their  respective  colonels  a  certificate  that  they  are  perfect- 
ly acquainted  with  regimental  duty2  and  have  at  all  times 
shown  themselves  thoroughly  practical  officers,  that  they 
have  a  disposition  for,  and  ability  to  profit  by,  a  high  scien- 
tific education,  that  their  health  promises  long  service,  and 
that  they  possess  strength  of  character  and  firmness,  and 
are  not  in  pecuniary  difficulties. 

At  the  examinations  it  is  not  sufficient  that  the  officer 
shall  show  learning,  but  it  must  also  appear  that  he  has 


264  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

kept  up  his  professional  knowledge,  and  that  he  has  gen- 
eral ability  and  intelligence  enough  to  profit  by  the  course 
at  the  academy.  Preference  is  given  to  those  who  have 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  field,  or  who,  from  special 
qualifications,  give  greatest  promise  of  usefulness,  or  whose 
more  advanced  age  makes  it  undesirable  that  they  should 
wait  to  a  later  day  for  admission.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
officers  who  enter  here  are  from  the  advantageur  class,  and 
an  intellectual  superiority  is  said  to  exist  in  their  case  over 
those  who  come  from  the  Cadet  Schools.  This  is  easy  to 
account  for,  on  the  theory  that  brains  are  born  with  men, 
and  not  given  to  them  afterward.  The  cadets  are  taken 
in  childhood,  without  competition,  and  shoved  through  the 
schools,  where  the  standard  is  not  high  enough  to  sift  them, 
while  the  advantageurs  are  taken  from  the  whole  class  of 
cultivated  people,  and  are  such  boys  as  have  shown  capaci- 
ty at  the  civil  schools. 

Our  own  military  academy  would  gain  in  a  similar  way 
by  leaving  the  places  to  competition  among  the  youth  of 
the  districts,  instead  of  subjecting  them  to  Congressional 
patronage.  The  same  very  marked  result  was  seen  near 
the  close  of  our  war,  when  military  commanders  of  dis- 
cernment were  untrammeled  in  selecting  for  promotion  the 
bright  men  trained  by  the  war  itself,  who  had  come  up 
through  all  the  grades. 

The  course  is  of  three  years,  takes  a  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects, and  is  intended  to  give  to  a  few  of  the  finest  intel- 
lects the  best  possible  general  education,  both  liberal  and 
technical.  It  carries  with  it  no  promise  of  promotion; 
but  an  officer  has  of  course  the  advantage  of  the  positive 
knowledge  gained,  which  will  always  be  in  his  favor,  and 
will  always  make  itself  felt.  Eegimental  commanders  ob- 
ject to  the  school,  as  it  takes  officers  from  their  regiments, 
but  its  general  usefulness  is  highly  commended. 


OBSKK  VA  TIONS.  265 

OBSERVATIONS. 

I  have  now  gone  hastily  through  the  subject  of  military 
education  in  Prussia,  and  nothing  is  more  striking  than  the 
connection  between  the  military  and  civil  education  of  the 
country.  The  competitive  system  in  the  schools  is  almost 
universally  objected  to,  and  mathematics  are  thought  to  be 
worthy  of  attention  tip  to  the  highest  grades  only  by  those 
of  peculiar  aptness,  on  account  of  time  lost  by  the  others 
in  this  pursuit.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  great  merit 
and  usefulness  of  the  Academy,  which  gives  a  superior 
education  to  the  first  men  of  the  army,  who  will  afterward 
become  generals  and  staff  officers,  while  it  is  a  suitable  and 
most  encouraging  reward  to  those  who  show  industry  and 
ability.  The  greatest  possible  care  is  bestowed  upon  meth- 
ods of  study  and  instruction,  and  every  thing  is  distinctly 
defined. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  system  is  the  atten- 
tion paid  to  forming  and  disciplining  the  mind,  and  en- 
couraging habits  of  reflection.  The  regulations  repeatedly 
assert  that  the  object  of  education  is  not  acquisition  of  pos- 
itive knowledge,  but  to  develop  the  intellectual  faculties, 
and  cultivate  powers  of  thought  and  reasoning.  The  edu- 
cation is  eminently  practical,  and  frequent  visits  are  made 
to  manufactories  and  other  places  where  actual  work  is 
carried  on.  At  least  one  foreign  language  must  be  spoken 
by  a  Prussian  officer,  although  some  latitude  is  allowed  as 
to  which  one  he  will  learn. 


266          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TRENCH  MILITARY  SCHOOLS.— PLAN  OF  OFFICERING  THE 
FRENCH  ARMY. 

THE  theory  of  officering  the  French  army  is,  that  one- 
third  shall  be  furnished  from  the  ranks,  one-third  by  im- 
perial dictation,  and  the  remaining  third  from  military 
schools.  There  are  required  annually  in  the  line  about  six 
hundred  new  commissions,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
in  the  artillery  and  engineers,  and  twenty-five  in  the  staff. 
In  practice,  nearly  or  quite  two-thirds  come  from  the 
ranks — the  largest  proportion  going  to  the  line;  while  less 
than  one-third  of  this  class  are  found  in  the  artillery  and 
engineers,  and  every  officer  in  the  Staff  Corps  is  carefully 
educated.  Six  months'  service  is  required  of  a  private 
before  he  may  be  a.  corporal ;  after  six  months  more  he 
may  be  a  sergeant,  and  at  least  two  years  must  elapse  be- 
fore he  may  be  a  sub-lieutenant.  In  the  military  schools 
one  may  arrive  at  the  last-mentioned  grade  in  two  years. 
Promotion  afterward  is,  in  times  of  peace,  made  partial- 
ly by  seniority,  and  partially  by  choice ;  but,  in  time  of 
war,  entirely  by  choice.  Unless  in  war,  however,  one 
must  serve  in  each  of  the  grades  as  follows : ,  as  sub-lieu- 
tenant, two  years ;  as  lieutenant,  two  years ;  as  captain, 
four  years;  as  major,  three  years;  as  lieutenant-colonel, 
two  years.  Very  few,  however,  coming  from  the  ranks 
ever  get  above  the  grade  of  captain,  as  all  promotion 
above  that  grade  is  made  by  choice.  A  careful  system 
of  confidential  reports  is  carried  on  in  the  French  service, 
by  which  the  character  and  capacity  of  officers  are  judged, 


IMPERIAL  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  267 

and  upon  which,  it  is  supposed,  promotion  is  largely  based. 
The  principal  military  schools  in  France  are — 

First.  The  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris,  where  a  thor- 
ough civil  education,  largely  mathematical,  is  given.  All 
who  enter  the  artillery  and  engineers  from  the  schools 
take  their  degree  here  before  entering  the  military  school 
at  Metz,  and  most  of  the  young  men  who  enter  the  civil 
service  are  educated  here. 

Second.  The  School  of  Application  at  Metz,  for  Artillery 
and  Engineers. 

Third.  The  Military  School  of  Saint-Cyr,  for  infantry 
and  cavalry. 

Fourth.  The  Staff  School  at  Paris,  where  a  number  of 
the  graduates  of  Saint-Cyr  are  educated  for  staff  duty. 

Fifth.  The  Military  School  at  La  Fleche,  for  the  civil 
education  of  the  children  of  indigent  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers. 

Besides  these,  there  are  two  schools  for  military,  surgic- 
al, and  medical  education,  riding-schools,  schools  of  mus- 
ketry, of  gymnastics,  and  regimental  schools — all  at  a  cost 
to  the  empire  of  about  5,000,000  francs  annually.  Al- 
though the  state  requires  that  educational  expenses  be  de- 
frayed by  scholars  who  are  pecuniarily  able  to  do  so,  yet 
it  liberally  assists  all  others. 

IMPERIAL  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL. 

The  Imperial  Polytechnic  School,  situated  in  Paris,  has 
always  played  an  important  part  in  the  educational  system 
of  France.  It  is  a  purely  preparatory  school,  nearly  civil 
in  its  character  •  (the  students  wearing  a  plain  uniform), 
and  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  of  War.  Ad- 
mission to  the  school  is  determined  by  competitive  exami- 
nations, held  by  a  board  which  first  sits  in  Paris,  and  then 
travels  through  France  for  this  purpose. 


268  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Youths  are  admitted  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
twenty,  and  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  of  the 
army  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-five.  About 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  all  are  admitted  each  year,  and 
two  years  completes  the  course.  About  one-third  of  the 
students  are  in  receipt  of  Government  aid ;  but  excepting 
the  enlisted  men  (soldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers), 
who  receive  their  regular  army-pay,  the  students  are  not 
under  pay  from  the  state,  and  the  annual  expense  of  each 
is  about  1000  francs. 

On  graduating,  those  already  in  the  service  as  soldiers 
go  into  the  army  as  officers.  Of  the  remainder,  about 
three-fifths  enter  the  army  through  the  Staff  and  Metz 
Schools.  Those  graduates  who  prefer  to  do  so  may  de- 
cline service  altogether,  or  enter  it  in  a  civil  capacity. 
The  school  is  organized  into  a  battalion  of  four  compa- 
nies ;  and  although  it  is  not  under  the  penal  code  of  the 
army,  the  discipline  and  punishments  have  a  military  char- 
acter. 

Besides  its  military  staff,  the  school  has  thirty-nine  pro- 
fessors and  teachers;  its  examinations  are  conducted  by 
ten  eminent  scientific  men  not  connected  with  the  institu- 
tion, and  it  is  controlled  by  four  separate  Boards  of  Man- 
agement— viz. :  Board  of  Administration,  Board  of  Dis- 
cipline, Board  of  Instruction,  and  Board  of  Improvement. 
Its  military  staff  consists  of  a  commandant,  who  is  a  general 
officer ;  an  assistant,  who  is  a  colonel  or  lieutenant-colonel ; 
six  captains  and  six  adjutants,  who  are  non-commissioned 
officers  of  the  army.  At  the  entrance  examination,  which 
is  conducted  by  a  board  of  five,  appointed' by  the  Minister 
of  War,  two  members  of  the  board  precede  the  other  three, 
and  partially  examine  all  candidates,  rejecting  those  who  are 
clearly  incompetent,  and  giving  to  the  others  certificates  en- 
titling them  to  appear  for  a  final  examination  a  few  days  later. 


IMPERIAL  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  269 

The  subjects  for  examination  are  chosen  with  reference 
to  the  civil  instruction  at  the  lyceums,  or  ordinary  civil 
high  schools  of  France,  and  comprise  arithmetic,  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  algebra,  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry, 
analytical  and  descriptive  geometry,  mechanics,  hydrostat- 
ics, electricity,  magnetism  and  chemistry,  and  German  and 
French  composition. 

A  system  of  marking  is  adopted  for  estimating  the  com- 
parative merits  of  the  candidates,  and,  in  fact,  is  used  in  all 
the  French  military  schools,  and  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  the  plan  employed  at  "West  Point.  The  relative  im- 
portance of  each  subject  is  expressed  by  a  number  called 
the  coefficient  of  importance.  A  few  foreigners  are  admit- 
ted to  the  school,  but  not  as  boarders  in  the  institution. 

.1  visited  this  school  in  1867.  It  stands  near  the  Pan- 
theon, and  consists  of  two  main  buildings  for  students  and 
professors,  and  smaller  detached  ones^for  chemical  and  me- 
chanical laboratories,  library,  fencing  and  billiard  rooms. 
The  basements  of  the  main  building  are  used  as  kitchens 
and  dining-rooms,  and  the  first  floor  for  two  great  lecture- 
rooms  for  the  students  of  the  separate  years.  The  lecture- 
rooms  are  amphitheatres.  A  student's  name  is  attached 
to  each  seat,  and  at  the  foot  is  the  platform,  with  the  lec- 
turer's desk,  a  blackboard,  and  a  chair  for  one  of  the  cap- 
tains, who  is  always  present  at  lecture  to  maintain  order. 
On  the  first  floor  are  also  models,  machines,  and  instru- 
ments required  in  the  lectures. 

The  whole  of  the  second  floor  is  occupied  by  a  series  of 
smaller  lecture  -  rooms,  called  halls  of  interrogation,  to  be 
described  hereafter.  The  third  floor  is  occupied  by  study- 
rooms — perhaps  more  properly  living-rooms — where  most 
of  the  studying  and  drawing  is  done,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  students'  time  is  passed.  Some  seven  or  eight  occu- 
py one  of  these  rooms.  A  long  corridor,  in  which  there  is 


270  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

always  an  officer  on  duty,  separates  the  rooms  into  two 
rows.  The  fourth  floor  is  used  entirely  for  dormitories, 
and  the  arrangement  of  rooms  is  much  like  that  of  the 
third  floor.  Non-commissioned  officers  lodge  at  each  end 
of  the  corridor,  and  in  the  middle  also,  to  keep  order. 

The  hours  for  daily  labor  are  from  six  A.M.  until  two 
P.M.,  with  half  an  hour  for  breakfast,  and  from  five  P.M.  to 
nine  P.M.  ;  but  much  of  the  spare  time  from  two  till  five  is 
occupied  by  drill.  Students  rise  at  six  o'clock;  at  half- 
past  six  attend  roll-call,  and  then  for  two  hours  are  occu- 
pied, under  charge  of  officers,  in  preparing  for  the  mathe- 
matical lecture  of  the  day.  They  breakfast  at  half-past 
eight  o'clock,  and  from  nine  to  ten  there  is  for  each  class 
a  lecture  given  in  one  of  the  great  halls,  when  every  stu- 
dent must  take  notes.  From  ten  to  eleven  each  student  is 
occupied  in  the  study-halls  in  completing  his  notes,  and  is 
aided  in  comprehending  the  subject  of  the  lecture  by  a 
number  of  assistant  professors,  who  go  about  through  the 
rooms  for  that  purpose.  The  remaining  time,  from  eleven 
till  two  P.M.,  is  given  to  light  subjects.  A  lithographed 
summary  of  the  subject  of  the  lecture  is  always  furnished 
the  students.  At  two  o'clock  they  dine ;  and,  unless  there 
is  drill,  they  are  then  free  until  five  o'clock,  when  the 
evening  work  commences.  Until  nine  o'clock  the  time  is 
spent  in  the  study-halls,  under  the  eye  of  assistant  profess- 
ors, upon  German,  history,  drawing,  composition,  and  gen- 
eral study,  with  frequent  examinations  and  help  on  the 
morning's  lecture.  At  nine  o'clock  there  is  supper,  at 
half-past  nine  roll-call,  and  at  ten  lights  are  out. 

The  method  of  instruction  is  peculiar.  One  principal 
professor  of  high  ability  and  character  is  secured  for  each 
subject.  He  gives  the  principal  lecture  in  a  free,  unbur- 
dened way  to  the  entire  class,  and  is  assisted  by  a  large 
corps  of  teachers,  who  go  over  his  work  afresh,  explain 


IMPERIAL  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  271 

and  elucidate  it  in  every  way — "  whip  in,"  so  to  speak,  the 
stragglers,  and  hurry  up  the  loiterers.  By  repeated  inter- 
rogations in  the  halls  for  this  purpose,  each  student  be- 
ing taken  separately  almost  daily,  and  constant  hammering 
and  spurring  by  this  numerous  corps  of  assistant  teachers, 
who  thus  fulfill  the  duty  of  private  tutors,  nearly  all  are 
brought  up  to  the  standard  of  proficiency. 

The  whole  system  is  one  of  enforced  labor,  and  such  a 
thing  as  private  study  is  unknown,  no  provision  being 
made  for  it.  Every  thing  is  done  under  the  eye  of  an  in- 
structor, and  of  an  officer  who  enforces  obedience.  A 
powerful  aid  is  recognized  in  the  stimulus  of  sharp  rival- 
ry. The  performance  of  each  day  is  marked,  and  this  de- 
termines the  final  class-standing  of  pupils  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  do  the  examinations.  The  spirit  of  camaraderie 
is  exceedingly  strong  at  this  school,  and  has  much  to  do  in 
giving  it  character. 

The  course  of  instruction  extends  over  a  period  of  nine 
months  in  each  year,  and  is  solely  scientific — the  only 
military  element  of  the  course  being  a  short  series  of  lec- 
tures, which  have  no  influence  in  making  up  the  yearly 
standing  of  the  classes.  Indeed,  although  a  degree  of  the 
Polytechnic  is  necessary  for  entering  certain  branches  of 
the  army,  and  the  institution  itself  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  Minister  of  War,  it  might,  with  equal  propriety,  be  un- 
der the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

The  course  for  the  two  years  is  fixed.  That  of  the  first 
embraces  differential  and  integral  calculus,  descriptive  ge- 
ometry, geometrical  drawing,  mechanics,  physics- — includ- 
ing heat  and  electricity — chemistry,  astronomy,  and  geod- 
esy, French  composition  and  literature,  history,  German, 
and  figure  and  landscape  drawing.  The  second  year's 
course  of  study  includes  integral  calculus,  stereotomy,  me- 
chanics (extended  from  the  first  year),  physics  (extended 


272  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

from  the  first  year),  chemistry  (continued),  architecture,  and 
building  roads,  canals,  and  railways,  French  composition 
and  literature,  history,  German,  military  art,  topography, 
and  drawing.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  mechanical  draw- 
ing, and,  in  fact,  to  practical  instruction  of  all  kinds — such 
as  exercises  in  topography,  sketching,  and  visits  to  machin- 
ery and  manufacturing  establishments,  where  much  of  the 
course  can  be  practically  illustrated.  The  students  are 
drilled  in  company  and  battalion,  but  riding  and  swim- 
ming are  not  taught.  The  term  begins  in  November,  and 
ends  in  August  About  three  months  are  occupied  in  ex- 
aminations, and  in  special  preparations  for  them. 

The  educational  and  disciplinary  departments  of  the 
school  are  entirely  separated,  professors  having  only  the 
power  to  report  to  the  military  staff  for  dereliction  of  duty. 
Instead  of  any  want  of  respect  being  shown  the  civil  branch 
of  the  school  on  this  account,  its  importance  is  rather  in- 
creased. The  adjutants,  who  are  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers of  the  army  detailed  for  duty  here,  have  much  to  do 
with  the  discipline,  and  can  administer  punishment. 

A  few  of  the  best  scholars  are  made  non-commissioned 
officers  in  their  companies,  but  attend  only  to  the  routine 
of  duty,  and  have  no  control  over  their  comrades.  Liquors 
are  prohibited,  and  smoking  is  permitted  only  at  special 
times  and  places.  Billiards  are  allowed,  but  not  dice  or 
cards.  The  strictest  surveillance  is  exercised  over  the  pu- 
pils while  in  school,  and  exemplary  conduct  required  when 
out  of  it.  It  has,  however,  been  found  impracticable  to  have 
much  control  over  students  out  of  school,  although  they  are 
directed  to  wear  their  uniforms,  and  it  is  made  the  duty  of 
all  officers  to  arrest  them  for  cause.  Two  officers  are  sent 
into  the  city  as  monitors  whenever  the  pupils  have  leave  to 
visit  it.  No  books,  magazines,  or  newspapers  are  allowed, 
not  even  such  as  bear  upon  the  subjects  of  study. 


IMPERIAL  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  273 

Marks  are  given  for  good  conduct,  but  they  have  no 
bearing  upon  final  standing.  Examinations  are  carried  on 
by  a  board  having  no  connection  with  the  school,  and  who 
are  not  permitted  to  know  any  thing  of  the  marks  which 
the  pupils  have  received.  Not  more  than  two  per  cent, 
fail  to  pass  the  examinations.  On  taking  their  degrees, 
the  cadets  have  choice  of  service  according  to  their  place 
on  the  merit-roll,  and  those  entitled  to  priority  always  se- 
lect civil  service,  except  in  time  of  war.  Here  seems  to  be 
one  of  the  great  causes  of  the  marked  success  of  this  school, 
as  the  large  choice  of  honorable  careers  excites  the  keenest 
competition  for  the  first  places.  The  Director  of  Studies 
wisely  says,  that  no  institution,  although  it  may  imitate  the 
details  of  the  Polytechnic  ever  so  closely,  can  secure  simi- 
lar results,  unless  it  holds  out  similar  inducements  to  its 
pupils.  The  remarkable  success  of  our  own  military  acad- 
emy as  an  institution  of  learning  is  due  very  largely  to 
the  same  cause.  On  leaving,  those  students  who  choose  the 
military  service  receive  the  commission  of  sub-lieutenants, 
and  enter  the  schools  of  special  application.  There  seems 
to  be  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  among  the  best  men  of 
France  regarding  the  course  of  education  at  the  Polytech- 
nic, many  urging  that  so  exclusive  a  mathematical  course 
makes  men  unpractical.  The  larger  number,  however, 
seem  to  think  it  the  best  possible  foundation  for  the  sub- 
sequent course  at  Metz  and  the  Staff  School,  as  it  draws 
a  higher  order  of  talent  than  a  more  military  course 
would  do,  is  more  liberalizing  than  a  special  training, 
and  creates  an  intimacy  between  the  civil  and  military 
branches  of  Government  which  is  afterward  exceedingly 
desirable. 

It  may  not  be  unworthy  of  notice,  that  in  France,  which 
is  believed  to  be  the  first  military  nation  of  the  world,  the 
best  talent  seeks  civil  pursuits,  "showing,"  in  the  words 

18 


274          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  a  Frenchman  of  ability,  "that  the  military  profession  is 
not  their  natural  vocation." 

SCHOOL   OF  APPLICATION"  FOR  ARTILLERY  AND  ENGINEER- 
ING AT  METZ. 

The  School  of  Application  for  the  Artillery  and  Engi- 
neers at  Metz  claims  attention,  as  perhaps  next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  Polytechnic.  The  school  was  founded  at 
Douay,  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1679,  for  the  artillery  alone, 
while  the  engineers  had  their  own  school  at  Mezieres,  a 
town  of  some  importance,  six  miles  from  Sedan.  Both 
schools  passed  through  many  vicissitudes  and  removals 
until  1802,  when  the  two  were  combined  at  Metz,  and 
have  there  been  united  ever  since.  Students  destined  for 
the  army,  on  leaving  the  Polytechnic,  after  taking  three 
months'  leave  from  August  to  November,  join  the  school 
at  Metz  as  sub-lieutenants  of  artillery  or  engineers,  and, 
having  so  chosen  their  arm  of  service,  do  not  change  it, 
although  they  go  on  in  the  same  classes,  and  follow  nearly 
the  same  course  of  study.  Most  of  the  students  come  from 
the  Polytechnic,  and  are  not  examined  for  admission.  A 
few  officers  of  artillery  and  engineers,  who  have  been  pro- 
moted from  the  ranks,  also  enter  the  school.  The  course 
is  two  years  in  length,  and  is  very  full.  On  graduating, 
the  students  are  commissioned  as  second  lieutenants  in 
their  regiments,  and  for  the  purpose  of  decorations,  retire- 
ment, and  so  forth,  the  two  years  at  Metz  count  for  four  of 
ordinary  service.  The  number  of  admissions  each  year  is 
regulated  by  the  wants  of  the  service,  but  the  average  is 
about  eighty. 

The  school  occupies  buildings  erected  on  the  site  of  a 
suppressed  Benedictine  monastery,  and  formed,  in  part,  of 
the  old  ecclesiastical  structure.  Three  sides  of  the  clois- 
tered monastic  quadrangle  are  devoted  to  lecture-rooms, 


SCHOOL  FOR  ARTILLERY  AND  ENGINEERING.         275 

galleries,  and  halls  of  study.  The  fourth,  formerly  a 
church,  is  converted  into  the  hall  for  manoeuvres.  De- 
tached buildings  form  quarters  for  the  students  and  offi- 
cers of  the  school.  The  museums,  laboratories,  and  instru- 
ment-room are  very  full  and  valuable.  There  is  quite  an 
'extensive  library  to  which  students  are  admitted  at  certain 
hours  of  the  day.  The  rooms  in  the  barracks  are  grouped 
so  that  twenty  are  entered  by  a  single  stair-way,  and  one 
servant  provides  attendance  for  all  who  live  on  his  stair- 
way. There  are  usually  two  students  in  each  room.  They 
mess  in  the  town  at  the  various  restaurants,  where  their 
food  is  regularly  contracted  for  by  the  authorities  of  the 
school.  There  are  no  amusements  furnished  by  the  school, 
but  students  have  considerable  liberty  in  town. 

The  school  is  presided  over  by  a  commandant,  who  is  a 
brigadier-general.  He  is  assisted  by  one  colonel,  two  ma- 
jors, eight  captains  as  military  staff,  eighteen  officers  of  the 
army,  and  two  civilians  as  instructors.  The  general  con- 
trol is  under  the  management  of  several  boards  and  coun- 
cils. The  whole  annual  cost  is  about  500,000  francs — 
more  than  half  being  for  pay  of  students,  who  are  all  offi- 
cers of  the  army.  The  course  of  study  embraces  artillery, 
fortification,  military  art,  military  legislation  and  adminis- 
tration, military  topography  and  field-sketching,  geodesy 
and  trigonometrical  surveying,  physical  science,  applied 
mechanics  and  machinery,  architectural  construction,  Ger- 
man, veterinary  science,  riding,  drill,  swimming,  dancing, 
and  photography.  About  two -thirds  of  the  course  is 
common  to  both  arms  of  the  service. 

Considerable  time  is  devoted  to  practical  surveying  and 
field  -  sketching,  and  many  establishments  of  a  military 
character  are  visited;  but  the  construction  of  batteries 
and  fortifications,  except  the  tracing  and  profiling,  is  en- 
tirely theoretical,  and  the  application  of  electricity  to  tel- 


276  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

egraphy  is  imperfectly  taught.  The  subject  of  military 
bridges  of  all  kinds  is  thoroughly  studied.  Careful  in- 
struction is  given  the  students  of  both  arms  in  drill,  rid- 
ing, and  fencing.  The  officer  acquires  much  of  the  prac- 
tical part  of  his  profession  after  he  joins  his  regiment,  but 
such  exercises  as  may  be  sanitary  in  their  character  are 
regularly  taught  in  the  school. 

The  plan  of  delivering  lectures  to  the  entire  class,  who 
then  go  over  and  finish  the  subject  in  study-rooms,  is  fol- 
lowed here,  as  at  all  French  schools.  No  text-books  are 
used,  but  the  school  library  is  much  frequented.  Fre- 
quent examinations  are  held  by  the  instructors,  but  the 
pupils  are  always  notified  when  to  expect  them.  In 
the  daily  routine,  eight  hours  of  study  and  attendance  at 
the  lecture-room  are  required,  besides  drill,  riding,  and 
fencing;  but  as  these  do  not  come  every  day,  there  is 
considerable  free  time.  There  is  one  vacation  of  three 
weeks  during  the  three  years.  More  freedom  is  allowed 
here  than  in  any  of  the  public  schools  of  France.  Ex- 
cepting the  manual  exercises,  the  daily  duties  end  at  three 
P.M.,  when  the  students  are  permitted  to  go  in  town,  and 
are  generally  treated  as  officers.  Private  study  is  expect- 
ed, and  provision  to  a  small  extent  is  made  for  it.  Not 
much  more  is  done,  however,  than  the  accomplishing  of 
allotted  tasks.  The  students'  evenings  are  usually  spent 
in  the  cafes  and  theatres.,  of  the  town.  As  officers  of  the 
army,  they  are  subject  to  military  law,  and  it  is  not  only 
the  right,  but  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  enforce  military 
authority  in  cases  of  irregular  conduct. 

At  all  lectures  an  officer  is  present  to  require  order,  and 
the  field  officers  on  duty  take  weekly  details  as  officers  in 
charge,  and,  for  the  time  being,  severally  become  responsi- 
ble for  discipline.  An  officer  is  always  on  duty  at  the 
theatres,  and  considerable  surveillance  is  exercised  over 


SCHOOL  OF  ARTILLERY  AND  ENGINEERING.  277 

the  students  when  in  town.  Formerly  the  limits  extend- 
ed only  two  miles  each  way  from  the  town ;  but  the  com- 
pletion of  railroads  has  given  great  facilities  for  going 
long  distances,  and  provided  a  student  is  not  absent  from 
duty,  no  notice  is  taken  of  the  extent  of  his  excursions. 
There  seems  to  be  little  or  no  moral  control  over  the  stu- 
dents. There  is  no  chaplain,  and  it  is  not  obligatory  to 
attend  religious  service  on  Sunday.  Marks  are  given  to 
represent  progress  in  all  the  studies.  Conduct-marks  are 
an  important  feature,  and  have  a  value  of  about  one-sixth 
of  all  the  marks  given.  They  are  awarded  for  general 
behavior,  gentleman-like  conduct,  smartness,  and  military 
aptitude.  Idleness,  or  neglect  of  any  of  the  subjects  of 
study,  is  followed  by  arrest ;  but  no  one  is  ever  dismissed 
for  it,  or  fails  in,  his  examination  if  he  comes  up  to  the 
low  minimum  jof  marks  required  during  the  course,  or  if 
he  by  his  general  proficiency  impresses  the  Examining 
Board  favorably.  More  weight  is  given  to  this  general 
test  than  to  the  answering  of  special  questions. 

Examinations  take  place  at  the  end  of  each  year,  and 
are  thorough,  yet  few  students  are  ever  dismissed  for  in- 
efficiency. They  are  either  permitted  to  pass,  or  are  re- 
ported to  the  Minister  of  War,  with  the  recommendation 
that  they  be  allowed  to  remain  another  year.  If  they 
then  fail,  they  are  dismissed ;  but  this  number  never  ex- 
ceeds two  per  cent.  The  dismissal,  however,  seems  to  ex- 
clude them  only  from  their  chosen  arm  of  the  service,  as 
they  eventually  get  commissions  in  the  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. This,  as  might  be  expected,  prevents  actual  com- 
petition, as  the  only  incentive  to  stand  well  is  the  choice 
of  regiments,  and  the  seniority  of  rank  that  it  gives.  The 
class-list  is  very  much  changed,  on  leaving  Metz,  from 
what  it  was  in  coming  from  the  Polytechnic,  as  practical 
sense  is  preferred  to  mere  acquisitiveness. 


278  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Each  of  the  regiments  of  artillery  and  engineers  has  a 
school  where  army  officers,  after  joining,  continue  for  one 
or  two  years  the  more  practical  parts  of  their  professional 
studies,  the  real  purpose  being  to  instruct  non-commission- 
ed officers  in  actual  construction.  But  in  both  arms  sev- 
eral years  of  service  with  the  regiment  are  required  before 
any  officer  can  be  detached. 

MILITARY  SCHOOL   OF   SAINT-CYK,  FOR   CAVALRY  AND  IN- 
FANTRY. 

The  special  Military  School  of  Saint-Cyr,  for  the  educa- 
tion of  young  men  for  the  cavalry,  infantry,  and  marines, 
is  situated  three  miles  west  of  Versailles.  The  first  school 
of  this  nature  in  France  was  founded  in  1759,  and  after 
being  twice  suppressed,  frequently  moved,  and  at  times  re- 
duced to  a  camp  of  instruction,  was  in  1808  transferred  to 
Saint-Cyr,  where  it  has  been  successfully  maintained  ever 
since.  The  course  of  study  occupies  two  years,  and  three 
hundred  students  enter  each  year.  The  institution  is  open 
to  all,  and  is  reached  through  competitive  examinations, 
held  throughout  the  country,  upon  the  subjects  taught  in 
the  schools  of  France.  Although  the  payment  of  tuition 
is  generally  required,  it  is  wholly  or  in  part  dispensed 
with  in  the  case  of  pupils  of  insufficient  means. 

Saint-Cyr  was  originally  founded  for  the  sons  of  the  no- 
blesse,  but  gradually  lost  that  character,  until  for  many 
years  the  nobility  would  not  send  their  sons  there;  but 
of  late  this  feeling  has  died  out,  and  now  a  socially  high- 
er class  of  young  men  are  found  at  Saint-Cyr  than  at  the 
Polytechnic.  An  effort  was  made  at  one  time  to  make 
this  exclusively  a  school  for  young  officers  promoted  from 
the  ranks,  but  it  was  believed  impracticable,  as  such  a  plan 
would  reduce  the  social  character  of  the  army  by  keeping 
out  the  well-born.  There  has  been  a  tendency  of  late  to 


CA  VALE  Y  AND  INFANTR  Y  SCHO  OL  OF  SAINT-  CYR.     279 

give  the  course  of  instruction  a  more  literary  character,  by 
endeavoring  to  elevate  the  taste,  and  cultivate  polite  ac- 
complishments, such  as  music,  singing,  dancing,  and  mod- 
ern languages. 

Pupils  appearing  for  examination  must  be  between  sev- 
enteen and  twenty  years  of  age,  and  must  be  graduates  of 
some  one  of  the  French  lycees.  These  examinations  are 
conducted  very  much  as  they  are  at  the  Polytechnic.  The 
subjects  are  —  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry  (plane,  solid, 
and  descriptive),  trigonometry,  mechanics,  physical  science, 
physical  and  political  geography,  history,  Latin,  French 
composition,  drawing,  and  modern  languages — the  students 
having  the  choice  -of  nearly  all  the  principal  languages. 
The  marks  given,  and  co-efficients  of  importance  for  each 
subject,  ai;e  about  the  same  as  at  the  Polytechnic.  Non- 
commissioned officers  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  twen- 
ty-five years  may  enter,  and  a  few  foreigners  are  nearly 
always  in  attendance.  Several  of  our  own  countrymen, 
officers  of  the  army,  after  graduating  at  West  Point,  have 
gone  to  Saint-Cyr;  but  this  was  many  years  ago,  before 
our  academy  had  been  brought  up  to  its  present  state  of 
thoroughness.  It  is  doubtful  if  graduates  from  either  of 
our  national  schools  would  now  care  to  spend  time  at  any 
of  the  preparatory  schools  abroad.  The  practical  course 
might  be  found  advantageous.  The  number  who  gain  ad- 
mission each  year  from  the  army  is  about  twenty-five,  but 
they  are  for  the  most  part  young  men  who  have  failed  at 
an  earlier  age  to  enter  direct,  so  that  the  real  intention  of 
the  privilege  is  defeated.  The  same  is  true  in  our  own 
service.  Many  who  desired  to  join  the  army  as  officers,  or 
who  have  failed  to  enter  it  from  West  Point,  have  enlisted, 
to  gain  commission  through  the  channel  for  the  promotion 
of  non-commissioned  officers.  In  fact,  the  entire  system  of 
officering  an  army  from  the  ranks  can  be  easily  shown  to 


280  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AHMY. 

be  vicious,  as  it  either  becomes  perverted  to  the  advantage 
of  those  who  wish  to  become  officers,  or  debases  the  army 
itself.  So  well  is  this  understood  in  Prussia,  that  the  evil 
of  the  system  is  admitted,  and  the  few  officers  promoted 
for  gallantry  in  the  war  of '66  have  been  transferred  to  the 
civil  service,  in  deference  to  the  sentiment  of  the  army. 

The  school  is  organized  into  a  battalion  of  eight  compa- 
nies, each  commanded  by  a  lieutenant,  and  each  two  com- 
panies by  a  captain.  To  each  company  is  attached  an  ad- 
jutant, who  is  a  non-commissioned  officer  of  the  army,  and 
has  authority  in  matters  of  discipline. 

The  cadets,  for  that  is  their  rank  at  this  school,  are  divi- 
ded between  the  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  are  separated  en- 
tirely for  matters  of  drill.  In  every  thing  else,  their  course 
is  the  same.  The  school  is  under  the  charge  of  a  briga- 
dier-general, who  is  assisted  by  a  lieutenant-colonel,  two 
majors,  six  captains,  seventeen  lieutenants,  three  directors 
of  studies,  and  seventeen  professors  and  assistants.  There 
are  also  seventy  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers, 
and  one  hundred  and  forty  civil,  employes,  as  servants,  in- 
structors in  fencing,  gymnastics,  artillery  practice,  and  for 
taking  care  of  the  horses  of  the  establishment  used  for  in- 
struction of  cadets  in  riding  and  cavalry  drill.  The  whole 
annual  expense  of  the  school  is  1,300,000  francs,  of  which 
about  one-half  is  paid  by  the  cadets. 

When  I  visited  the  school  in  October,  the  cadets  had  all 
been  commissioned  in  the  French  army,  and  the  buildings 
were  used  for  a  German  hospital.  I  found,  however,  Ma- 
jor Duparq,  the  director  of  studies,  who  showed  and  ex- 
plained the  entire  school  to  me  with  the  utmost  courtesy. 
The  main  building,  which  is  three  stories  high,  is  a  long 
parallelogram,  divided  into  four  courts,  each  about  one 
hundred  feet  square,  named  Kivoli,  Austerlitz,  Marengo, 
and  Wagram.  It  was  originally  built  by  Madame  de  Main- 


CA  VALR  Y  AND  INFANTE  Y  SCHO  OL  OF  SAINT-  CYR.     281 

tenon,  for  educating  the  daughters  of  the  poor  noblesse. 
It  is  of  rough  stone,  stuccoed,  and,  although  in  good  repair, 
looks  rusty,  and  has  not  a  trace  of  architectural  beauty. 
On  the  north  of  it  are  a  riding-school,  gymnasium,  parade- 
ground,  stabling  and  yards  for  about  four  hundred  horses, 
barracks  for  the  men  who  attend  them,  artillery  practice- 
grounds,  and,  as  everywhere  in  France,  extensive  flower- 
gardens  of  great  beauty.  Beyond  is  seen  the  picturesque 
forest  of  Versailles. 

In  entering  the  building,  you  find  on  the  first  floor  din- 
ing-rooms, kitchen,  museums,  model -rooms,  and  wash- 
rooms. The  kitchens  are  very  complete,  with  immense 
copper  kettles  for  coffee,  and  soup,  and  vegetables.  The 
bill  of  fare,  as  stated  to  me,  was  simple  enough — meat, 
soup  thickened  with  vegetables,  coffee,  bread  and  butter. 
At  dinner,  at  twelve  M.,  a  bottle  of  wine  is  allowed  among 
five  cadets.  The  dining-rooms  are  neat,  with  short  marble- 
topped  tables  on  either  side.  In  the  museum  and  model- 
rooms,  which  are  not  extensive,  but  choice,  I  found  many 
of  the  models,  charts,  and  cuts,  the  copies  of  which  I  had 
studied  so  hard  at  West  Point  eighteen  years  before,  and 
I  could  hardly  take  a  step  without  seeing  some  plan, 
sketch,  or  method  that  carried  me  back  to  my  own  cadet 
life.  The  wash-room  was  certainly  unique.  It  was  noth- 
ing but  a  long  stone  trough,  waist  high.  Above  it,  and 
about  eighteen  inches  apart,  were  zinc  faucets  to  let  on  the 
water.  To  this  the  young  men  are  marched,  or  go  them- 
selves, and  all  wash  in  a  common  trough.  There  seemed 
to  be  no  provision  for  bathing. 

On  the  second  floor  are  found  the  large  lecture-rooms, 
one  for  each  class  —  furnished  with  seats  without  backs, 
and  no  desks.  No  officer  is  necessary  here  to  preserve  or- 
der, for  cadet  officers,  as  at  West  Point,  are  given  authori- 
ty in  matters  of  discipline,  and  held  responsible  for  its 


282  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

maintenance.  The  system  of  lectures  to  large  classes  is 
employed.  There  are  no  facilities  for  private  study,  and 
none  is  expected.  No  text-books  are  used,  and  the  libra- 
ry, which  contains  24,0.00  volumes,  many  of  which  are 
rare  and  valuable,  is  allowed  to  be  visited  by  only  thirty 
cadets  a  day. 

In  the  third  story  are  the  dormitories,  which  are  nothing 
more  than  ordinary  barrack-rooms.  The  entire  furniture 
of  these  rooms  consists  of  two  long  lines  of  iron  bedsteads, 
thirty  in  each  row,  head  to  head,  and  with  a  gun-rack  at 
the  foot  of  each ;  over  the  head  a  deep  shelf,  and  near  the 
bed  a  small  box  or  locker.  Above  the  barrack-rooms  are 
store-rooms,  and  a  great  number  of  prison-rooms,  which 
seem  to  have  been  well  used.  Besides  the  two  large  lec- 
ture-rooms, there  are  four  study-rooms,  where  the  students 
are  marched  after  the  lecture.  Here,  under  the  direction 
of  assistant  professors,  they  complete  their  notes,  and  in 
these  rooms  all  their  work  is  done.  Adjoining  the  study- 
rooms  are  small  libraries  of  works  bearing  upon  the  sub- 
jects studied,  but  they  appear  to  be  mainly  for  the  use  of 
the  professors.  Great  importance  seems  to  be  attached  to 
cavalry,  and  there  are  four  hundred  horses  kept  for  pur- 
poses of  cadet  instruction.  A  vacation  and  furlough  of 
two  months  is  given  in  summer,  besides  a  few  days  at 
Christmas  and  Easter. 

The  daily  routine  begins  at  five  A.M.,  and  the  entire  day 
till  nearly  nine  P.M.,  with  proper  hours  for  meals,  and 
short  intervals  of  free  time,  is  devoted  to  work.  There  is 
a  lecture  in  the  morning,  and  the  afternoon  is  usually 
spent  in  the  lighter  duties — one  hour  and  a  half  in  draw- 
ing, and  the  remainder  out-of-doors. 

The  cadets  are  required,  on  Sundays,  to  attend  religious 
service,  which  is  provided  both  for  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants. In  discipline,  the  battalion  is  managed  in  every 


CA  VALE  T  AND  INFANTR  T  SCHO OL  OF  SAINT '-  C YR.     283 

way  like  a  regiment,  the  non-commissioned  officers  being 
taken  from  the  cadets  themselves.  The  exact  extent  of 
authority  and  limit  of  punishment  which  every  officer, 
professor,  and  non-commissioned  officer  can  exercise  and 
inflict  is  specified  by  law,  the  punishment  ranging  from 
two  days'  drill — the  limit  of  a  corporal's  power — to  thirty 
days'  close  arrest  by  the  commandant.  The  fear  of  dis- 
missal is,  however,  a  wholesome  check,  as  in  that  event  the 
cadet,  who  has  agreed  to  serve  the  state  for  seven  years, 
must  spend  the  remainder  of  his  term  in  the  ranks. 

The  closest  surveillance  is  at  all  times  exercised  over 
the  pupils.  They  are  not  permitted  to  converse  aloud  in 
the  school -building,  even  out  of  study -hours.  All  the 
doors  have  glass  windows  from  the  hall,  where  an  officer, 
always  on^duty,  can  see  all  within.  Where  the  halls,  fol- 
lowing the  form  of  the  rectangular  courts,  cross  each  oth- 
er, there  are  stations,  with  seats  and  tables,  for  the  officer 
or  non-commissioned  officer  on  duty.  Frequent  night  in- 
spections are  made  in  the  dormitories,  where  the  utmost 
quiet  is  maintained.  Foreigners  attending  the  school  en- 
ter into  no  contract  to  serve  the  state,  and,  on  the  first  in- 
fraction of  the  rules,  are  quietly  dismissed.  The  treat- 
ment of  cadets  differs  very  little  from  that  of  private  sol- 
diers, and  their  uniform  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
French  infantry.  They  are  allowed  very  little  liberty; 
their  food  is  of  the  plainest  kind ;  they  are  forbidden  to 
read  newspapers,  and  have  scarcely  any  thing  in  the  way 
of  recreation;  nor  would  there  be  time,  were  there  the 
opportunity.  There  is  no  privacy  in  domestic  arrange- 
ments, a  complete  absence  of  luxury,  and  the  life  is  not  at 
all  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary  barrack. 

The  course  of  study  'is  designed  to  apply  in  the  second 
year  what  has  been  studied  in  the  first  year,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, the  first  year  is  devoted  to  completing  a  good  educa- 


284          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

tion,  and  the  second  to  making  the  officers.  It  is  regret- 
ted by  the  authorities  that  both  years  can  not  be  devoted 
to  military  subjects,  but  the  very  imperfect  condition  of 
French  education  makes  the  present  arrangement  impera- 
tive. The  course  is  largely  literary,  and  but  little  mathe- 
matical, differing  radically,  in  this  respect,  from  the  Poly- 
technic. A  knowledge  of  mathematics  is  taken  for  grant- 
ed, and  only  a  short  review  of  the  practical  portions,  such 
as  logarithms,  mensuration,  etc.,  is  now  required.  There 
is  a  strong  inclination  to  abandon  even  this.  The  pupils 
have  the  choice  of  studying  either  English  or  German,  but 
must  take  one  of  the  two.  The  first  year's  course  com- 
prises descriptive  geometry,  physics,  geography  and  statis- 
tics, general  literature,  modern  history,  German  or  English, 
the  theory  of  drill,  and  drawing.  That  of  the  second  year 
includes  topography,  fortification,  artillery,  military  art, 
^military  legislation  and  administration,  military  hygiene, 
German  and  English,  theory  of  drill,  and  drawing.  The 
cadets  of  each  arm  are  instructed  only  in  the  drill  and  the- 
ory of  their  own  arm,  but  the  infantry  cadets  are  taught 
riding.  Artillery  students  are  taught  only  the  service  of 
the  piece,  and  learn  nothing  of  manoeuvre.  Fencing  and 
gymnastics  are  taught,  but  not  swimming.  A  good  deal  of 
attention  is  given  to  practical  field-work,  and  all  the  caval- 
ry cadets,  and  those  of  the  infantry  who  can  ride  well  are 
required,  while  mounted,  to  make  sketches  and  reconnais- 
sances of  roads  and  surrounding  country. 

About  five-sixths  of  the  students  choose  the  study  of 
German  instead  of  English,  but  many  more  speak  English 
than  German.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  better  por- 
tion of  the  French  people  cause  English  to  be  taught  their 
children  in  infancy. 

The  examinations  are  held  by  an  examining  jury,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Minister  of  War,  who  are  entirely  discon- 


CA  VALE  T  AND  INFANTS  F  S CHO  OL  OF  SAINT-  C  YR.     2  85 

nected  with  the  school.  In  the  first  year's  examination, 
and  in  that  alone,  they  are  assisted  by  the  professors.  The 
first  twenty -five  or  thirty  of  the  class  are  said  to  evince 
ability,  and  pass  good  examinations;  then  come  a  hundred 
who  pass  fairly,  after  which  there  is  a  remarkable  falling 
off.  All  but  eight  or  ten  in  each  class  usually  pass,  and 
such  of  these  as  maintain  a  good  moral  character  are  per- 
mitted to  go  on  in  the  school  for  another  year.  About 
forty  of  those  who  graduate  highest  are  permitted  to  com- 
pete each  year  for  half  the  number  of  places  in  the  Staff 
School,  and  this  is  about  the  only  source  of  competition. 
The  industry  of  the  pupils  is  indifferent — the  thirty  or  for- 
ty who  graduate  well  being  men  who,  from  natural  charac- 
ter, would  stand  high  in  any  school. 

Saint-Cyr  furnishes  the  great  majority  of  the  officers  of 
the  staff  of  the. army,  and  about  one-third  of  the  officers 
of  the  line,  the  other  two-thirds  coming  from  the  ranks. 
There  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  in  France  as  to  the 
usefulness  of  officers  who  are  educated  here,  as  they  are  apt 
to  resign.  Those  who  remain  in  the  service  get  rapid  pro- 
motion. While  in  the  lower  grades  two-thirds  have  risen 
from  the  ranks,  it  will  be  found  that  among  the  field  offi- 
cers about  the  same  proportion  are  graduates  of  Saint-Cyr. 

The  old  French  idea  of  promotion  from  the  ranks,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  great  success  of  the  first  Napoleon,  who 
adopted  it,  seems  to  be  prevalent  throughout  their  whole 
military  system.  A  sufficient  number  of  officers  are  edu- 
cated to  keep  up  the  scientific  element  of  the  profession, 
while  the  bait  of  promotion  is  held  out  to  those  in  the 
ranks.  Any  one  who  carefully  watches  the  workings  of 
this  plan  can  not  fail  to  observe  its  debasing  effect  upon 
the  army.  It  is  an  attempt  to  make  a  quart  out  of  a  pint 
— something  out  of  nothing.  Before  such  a  system  can  be 
successful,  the  people  must  be  elevated,  or  there  must  be 


286  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

universal  service,  which  necessarily  brings  ability  into  the 
army.  The  Prussians,  who  have  done  both,  and  who  suc- 
cessfully base  their  system  of  officering  their  army  upon 
the  best  education  of  the  nation,  have  given  the  most  ex- 
alted character  to  their  army,  and  at  the  same  time  encour- 
aged civil  education. 

STAFF  SCHOOL  OF  APPLICATION. 

The  Staff  School  of  Application,  which  is  situated  in 
Paris,  and  is  intended  for  the  training  of  young  officers  es- 
pecially for  staff  duty,  next  claims  attention.  The  Staff 
Corps  in  time  of  peace  contains  thirty-five  colonels,  thirty- 
five  lieutenant-colonels,  one  hundred  and  ten  majors,  three 
hundred  captains,  and  one  hundred  lieutenants.  Practical- 
ly, all  are  educated  here.  Occasionally  officers  from  the 
line  may  exchange  into  the  staff  by  passing  the  final  ex- 
amination at  the  Staff  School,  and  considerable  advantage 
is  gained  in  the  way  of  promotion  by  those  who,  upon  at- 
taining the  rank  of  captain  in  the  staff,  which  usually  re- 
quires about  three  years  to  accomplish,  then  exchange  into 
the  line.  Examples  of  this  class  include  generals  Trochu 
and  M'Mahon.  The  Staff  Corps  is  the  most  aristocratic  in 
the  army,  and  considerable  feeling  exists  against  it.  The 
career  is  chosen  early  in  life,  and  by  many  who,  however 
talented,  fail  entirely  to  develop  practical  aptitude,  so  that 
inefficient  officers  are  always  found  in  the  corps;  and  it 
is  thought  by  the  best  men  in  the  army  that  these  duties 
could  be  better  performed  by  officers  chosen  for  proved 
ability  after  a  few  years'  service  with  their  regiments.  The 
superiority  of  the  Prussian  system,  which  embodies  the  lat- 
ter principle,  can  not  be  questioned. 

The  Staff  School,  established  in  1818,  has  a  two  years' 
course,  and  about  twenty-five  enter  each  year.  The  num- 
ber of  vacancies  varies  somewhat  from  year  to  year,  with 


STAFF  SCHOOL   OF  APPLICATION.  287 

the  casualties  in  the  Staff  Corps.  The  number  is  made  up 
by  giving  places  to  two  or  three  students  of  the  Polytech- 
nic, who  are  put,  without  examination,  at  the  head  of  the 
list.  Of  the  remainder,  double  the  number  required  are 
taken  from  the  graduates  at  Saint-Cyr,  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  young  lieutenants  promoted  from  the  ranks,  if  they 
will  present  themselves,  all  of  whom  are  examined  com- 
petitively. It  is  not  unusual,  however,  for  not  more  than 
eight  or  ten  officers  from  the  ranks  to  present  themselves 
at  the  examination,  and  then  not  more  than  two  are  gen- 
erally successful. 

Many  important  modifications  are  being  made  in  this 
school.  In  addition  to  a  fixed  number  who  graduate  at 
once  into  the  Staff  Corps,  an  equal  number  of  the  highest 
upon  the  class -lists  at  Saint-Cyr  will  be  educated  here, 
and  attached  for  two  years  to  a  regiment,  in  an  arm  of  the 
service  different  from  that  to  which  they  belong.  Then 
they  will  join  their  proper  arm  and  regiment,  and  be  lia- 
ble to  detail  for  staff  duty  at  all  times,  while  they  add  to 
the  professional  knowledge  of  their  regiment,  and  in  time 
of  war  will  be  available  to  expand  the  regular  staff  estab- 
lishment. 

The  programme  of  studies  is  wide,  and  is  principally 
military,  and  of  a  practical  character.  A  great  deal  of  la- 
bor is  done  out-of-doors  in  sketching  and  drawing.  Great 
attention  is  given  to  riding,  and  the  German  language  is 
thoroughly  taught.  The  use  of  instruments  is  also  ac- 
quired, and  practical  exercises  of  all  kinds  are  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  course.  Mathematics  are  not  studied.  The 
system  of  lectures  to  the  entire  class  is  employed  with 
scarcely  any  text-books,  excepting  a  hand-book  of  staff 
duty — a  kind  of  guide  to  staff  officers.  The  students  are 
all  commissioned  as  officers  on  joining  the  school,  which 
is  presided  over  by  a  brigadier-general,  assisted  by  a  corps 


288  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  twenty-one  professors.  On  graduating,  which  few  fail 
to  do,  the  pupils  are  at  once  given  the  rank  of  first  lieuten- 
ant. Here,  as  at  Metz,  many  who  graduate  high  at  the 
Polytechnic  and  Saint-Cyr,  find  themselves  near  the  foot 
at  the  close  of  the  course. 

As  positions  are  already  secured,  there  is  very  little 
competition,  and  only  enough  application  to  pass  the  ex- 
aminations. The  graduates,  although  officers  of  the  staff, 
are  required  to  serve  two  years  each  with  the  cavalry  and 
infantry,  and  one  year  with  the  artillery.  They  are  then 
given  the  rank  of  captain,  and  duty  in  their  own  corps, 
and,  while  captains,  are  required  each  year  to  furnish  a 
certain  number  of  topographical  drawings  and  military 
reports  of  surveyed  country,  which  are  submitted  to  the 
War  Office. 

LA   FLECHE. 

The  only  remaining  military  school  of  much  importance 
in  France  is  La  Fleche,  which  is  the  last  of  a  large  num- 
ber formerly  established  for  the  diffusion  of  military  edu- 
cation among  the  youth  of  France.  The  others  were  sup- 
pressed, on  the  just  ground  that  a  purely  technical  educa- 
tion was  not,  upon  the  whole,  advantageous  to  youth  ;  and 
this  one  is  retained,  to  give  a  purely  civil  education  to  the 
orphan  sons  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
to  those  disabled  in  service  who  are  unable  to  educate 
themselves.  Four  hundred  pupils  are  educated  here  an- 
nually, and  are  admitted  from  the  age  of  ten  until  nineteen. 
No  examinations  are  held,  save  to  determine  what  class 
the  candidates  for  admission  shall  enter,  and  no  student 
can  remain  after  he  is  nineteen  years  old.  Three  hundred 
are  gratuitous  pupils,  and  the  remainder  pay  one  hundred 
and  twenty  dollars  a  year,  admittance  in  each  case  being 
based  entirely  upon  service-claims.  The  school  has  a  mil- 
itary organization  and  discipline,  is  under  a  brigadier-gen- 


OBSERVATIONS.  289 

eral,  and  has  a  full  corps  of  professors,  who  are  mostly  ci- 
vilians. On  graduating,  the  pupils  may  enter  the  military 
service  through  the  regular  school  at  Saint-Cyr,  or  remain 
in  civil  life,  as  they  elect. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

It  will  be  seen  tliat  in  France  the  military  schools  do 
not,  as  in  Prussia,  form  a  distinct  department,  but  are  un- 
der the  Minister  of  War,  and  also  that  only  about  one- 
third  of  the  officers  of  the  army  are,  of  necessity,  educated 
men,  while  in  Prussia  all  must  be  so.  It  will  be  also  no- 
ticed, that  at  the  French  schools  there  is  almost  a  total  ab- 
sence of  moral  control,  while  in  Prussia  the  opposite  is 
true. 

The  great  lack  of  a  good  preparatory  education  is  loudly 
complained  of  in  France,  and  most  of  the  first  year  in  all 
the  military  scKools  is  required  to  make  up  for  this  defi- 
ciency. The  almost  total  neglect  of  mathematical  subjects 
at  all  the  special  schools  is  very  noticeable.  The  course 
at  the  Polytechnic  is  general,  and  the  exact  sciences  enter 
into  it  largely.  The  great  attention  given  everywhere  to 
drawing,  and  all  practical  subjects  of  a  military  character, 
is  very  striking.  The  idea  seems  to  be  to  take  the  French 
mind  as  it  is,  and  adorn  it,  rather  than,  by  a  careful  course 
of  exact  study,  to  improve  it.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  disposi- 
tion to  diminish  the  already  moderate  mathematical  ele- 
ment in  the  military  education,  and  to  increase  the  literary 
studies.  In  the  French  system,  the  entire  scnool  course 
is  given  before  service  is  seen,  while  in  Prussia  a  certain 
amount  of  actual  service  must  precede  any  theoretical 
course  at  the  schools;  nor  is  there  in  France, -as  in  Prus- 
sia, any  provision  for  recognizing,  utilizing,  and  educating 
the  talent  of  young  men  who  have,  by  a  few  years'  service, 
developed  mental  superiority. 

19 


290          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  compare  these  schools,  in  a  few 
particulars,  with  our  own  at  West  Point.  The  Prussian 
system,  which  makes  service  universal,  and  in  the  highest 
degree  respectable — even  aristocratic — is  enabled  to  secure 
the  best  possible  officers  without  entire  dependence  upon 
exact  school  instruction ;  but  in  France  we  find,  as  with 
us,  a  partially  voluntary  military  system,  an  attempt  to 
make  officers  without  previous  training,  and  schools  where 
the  state  endeavors  to  keep  up  the  science  of  the  profes- 
sion by  educating  a  portion  of  its  officers. 

The  distinctive  differences  between  the  French  and 
American  systems  are,  that  in  France  study  and  instruc- 
tion are  forced,  under  constant  surveillance,  and  carried 
on  in  the  lecture-room  with  very  little  use  of  text-books, 
while  ours  is  almost  entirely  a  course  of  voluntary  pri- 
vate study  of  text-books,  the  recitation  and  blackboard 
being  merely  to  test  the  students'  actual  progress  in 
knowledge.  Theirs  is  largely  a  practical  course,  inclu- 
ding some  literature,  and  very  little  mathematics ;  ours  is 
largely  mathematical,  with  about  the  same  amount  of  lit- 
erary study,  and  much  less  attention  to  drawing,  with  a 
practical  course  less  extended  in  some  respects,  but  vastly 
more  general  and  thorough  in  others.  "While  French  stu- 
dents are  but  slightly  educated  in  tactics  and  drill,  except 
in  their  own  arm,  and  the  infantry  and  cavalry  receive  but 
a  two  years'  course,  and  the  standard  of  proficiency  is  so 
low  that  ninety  -  five  per  cent,  graduate,  our  own  school 
gives  a  thorough  four  years'  course  of  civil  education,  em- 
bracing the  whole  range  of  exact  sciences,  makes  each  ca- 
det proficient  in  every  branch  of  service,  and  sets  the 
standard  of  study  so  high  that  but  thirty -three  per  cent,  of 
the  cadets  can  reach  it.  Theirs  is  little  else  than  barrack 
life,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  this  system  can  develop  personal 
character  of  that  high  order  sought  at  West  Point,  where 


OBSERVATIONS.  291 

each  cadet  is  made  to  work  out  by  himself,  in  his  own 
way,  his  various  tasks,  while  living  like  a  gentleman  in  his 
separate  room,  paying  great  attention  to  neatness,  the  toi- 
let, and  the  bath,  and  controlled  through  his  own  sense  of 
uprightness  and  integrity,  rather  than  by  surveillance. 

The  school  buildings  nowhere  approach  the  excellence, 
neatness,  and  appropriateness  of  our  own,  nor  did  the  ca- 
dets, wherever  I  met  them,  show  the  trimness  and  manli- 
ness of  those  at  West  Point.  These  comparisons  will  ap- 
ply pretty  generally  to  the  English  military  schools,  so  far 
as  I  have  been  able  to  understand  them.  They  are  all  in- 
stitutions of  special  courses,  and  do  not  undertake  to  give 
a  complete  military  education  in  all  the  arms. 

After  seeing  much  of  the  best  of  the  European  armies,  I 
believe  that  at  the  breaking  out  of  our  war, our  little  regu- 
lar army  was  officered  by  better  technical  soldiers  than  any 
army  in  the  world,  and  this  I  believe  to  be  due  to  West 
Point.  There  was  much,  however,  in  the  academy  that 
greatly  impaired  its  usefulness.  Although  many  gradu- 
ates went  with  the  South — the  number  is  much  less  than 
is  popularly  supposed,  only  amounting  to  one-half  of  those 
from  the  South,  and  one-fifth  of  the  whole  number  then  in 
the  army,  while  senators,  members  of  the  House  of  ^Repre- 
sentatives, judges  of  the  Supreme  Bench,  and  bureau  offi- 
cers went  with  their  states  en  masse—I,  can  see  in  this  no 
argument  against  this  school.  Those  who  rebelled  went 
with  their  section,  in  obedience  to  a  general  sentiment  ex- 
isting in  the  South,  and  not  as  a  consequence  of  their  West 
Point  education.  The  reason  why  so  large  a  proportion  of 
our  army  officers  seemed  to  espouse  the  Southern  cause,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  War  Department  had  for  a  long 
time  been  under  exclusively  Southern  influences,  and  the 
prominent,  desirable  places  were  held  by  Southern  men. 
The  great  trouble  was,  that  the  army  had  become  exclusive, 


292  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  separated  from  the  sympathies  of  the  people.  General 
Scott  himself  had  forgotten  that  the  true  purpose  of  West 
Point  education  was  to  leaven  our  volunteer  forces,  and  was 
often  heard  to  utter  the  absurdity,  that  the  regular  army, 
then  ten  thousand  strong,  must  be  kept  intact,  to  fall  back 
upon  in  case  the  volunteers  failed.  The  adjutant-general 
of  the  army  interposed  all  possible  obstacles  to  the  regu- 
lar officers  serving  with  volunteer  troops,  while  the  officers 
themselves  were  often  open  in  their  denunciation  of  volun- 
teers, and  did  not  see  that,  good  or  bad,  the  volunteers 
were  all  that  we  had ;  and  that  if  not  good,  it  was  our  duty 
to  make  them  so.  Many  captains  preferred  to  remain  with 
their  companies  rather  than  take  a  volunteer  regiment. 
Such  a  spirit  is  fatal  to  military  enterprise.  The  volun- 
teers were  of  ourselves — no  better,  and  no  worse ;  and  if 
we  excelled  them  in  any  particulars,  it  was  only  by  reason 
of  the  superior  advantages  of  a  West  Point  education,  gra- 
ciously given  us  by  the  country.  The  faith  in  West  Point 
officers  was  greatly  shaken  by  these  causes,  and  those  of 
us  who  took  volunteer  commands  had  much  to  contend 
against ;  were  looked  upon  with  distrust  by  many,  and  faint- 
ly supported  by  our  friends,  while  our  honest  efforts  to  se- 
cure discipline  were  viewed  as  absurd  martinetisms.  Be- 
fore opportunity  occurred  to  prove  capability  and  good  in- 
tention in  the  actual  business  of  war,  many  were  displeased 
by  this  feeling,  and  returned  to  their  companies.  Could 
our  army  be  brought  so  nearly  in  accord  with  the  people 
as  to  dissipate  any  apparent  social  antagonism,  I  believe 
that  our  officers  would  hold  the  same  elevated  place  they 
have  done  heretofore  among  the  military  establishments 
of  the  world,  and  be  loved  and  respected  at  home.  Cadets, 
while  clinging  firmly  to  the  high  esprit  which  has  always 
distinguished  them,  should  endeavor  to  appreciate  more 
truly  their  relations  to  and  dependence  upon  civil  society, 


OBSERVATIONS.  293 

and  cease  to  look  upon  civilians  with  contempt.  The  ex- 
pression "d — d  cit"  was  an  academical  household  phrase 
during  my  time  at  West  Point.  A  large  class  of  our  offi- 
cefs,  made  up  from  the  staff  corps  of  the  regular  army, 
from  which  the  higher  general  officers  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  were  principally  drawn,  forgot  also  that  they 
were  the  servants  of  the  people,  and  acted  upon  the  theory 
that  in  their  high  places  they  were  the  masters — a  legiti- 
mate conclusion  from  the  foregoing  sentiment.  Those  offi- 
cers were,  scientifically,  the  best  men  we  had,  and  ought  to 
have  given  us  the  best  service ;  but  they  were  unavailable, 
and  the  country  found  it  necessary  to  relieve  them  of  their 
commands.  What  I  have  described  has  always  been,  and 
still  is,  a  strong  argument  against  West  Point,  not  as  a 
technical  training-school  for  officers,  but  on  account  of  its 
effect  upon  them  as  citizens;  and  unless  the  cadets  them- 
selves will  see  and  avert  this  danger,  ft  may  sooner  or  later 
destroy  our  military  academy. 


294  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  XL 

GERMAN  CIVIL  SCHOOLS. 

I  APPROACH  this  subject  with  diffidence,  as  mj  limited 
time  in  Germany  deprived  me  of  the  opportunity  of  per- 
sonal observation,  and  obliged  me  to  gather  much  infor- 
mation at  second-hand.  The  British  Government  Com- 
missioners' reports  are  the  latest  and  best  authority.  The 
Eev.  Mark  Pattison,  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  who  was 
sent  out  as  commissioner  in  1861,  has  written  an  able  and 
instructive  pamphlet  upon  elementary  education  in  Ger- 
many ;  but  the  fact  that  he  has  viewed  the  whole  subject 
from  the  high  Anglican  point  of  view,  has  somewhat  biased 
his  report.  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold,  also,  in  1868,  published 
a  brochure,  called  "  The  Schools  and  Universities  of  the 
Continent,"  of  great  value  from  its  research,  and  liberal 
and  comprehensive  views.  Mr.  J.  Kay,  M.A.,  an  English 
philanthropist,  in  1850,  published,  in  two  volumes,  a  work 
entitled  "  The  Social  Condition  and  Education  of  the  Peo- 
ple," which  goes  deeply  into  German  social  and  school 
life.  In  the  summer  of  1831,  M.  Victor  Cousin  was  sent 
by  the  Ministry  of  Education  of  France  on  a  tour  of  in- 
spection in  Germany.  Nearly  one-half  of  M.  Cousin's  re- 
port is  occupied  with  Prussia,  and  he  is  to-day  considered 
the  best  authority  upon  German  primary  education  ;  but 
his  account  was  mostly  taken  from  a  scheme  of  Von  Al- 
tenstein,  the  educational  minister  of  that  time,  which  never 
became  a  law,  and  remains  to  this  day  in  the  archives  of 
the  Minister  of  Education  in  Berlin.  In  fact,  Prussia  has 
no  written  general  law  upon  education,  and  never  has  had. 


GERMAN  CIVIL  SCHOOLS.  295 

Our  own  country  has  furnished  the  best  accounts  of 
German  education.  In  1837,  Dr.  Alexander  Dallas  Bache, 
LL.D.,  then  director  of  Girard  College,  was  commissioned 
by  that  institution  to  make  an  educational  tour  in  Europe, 
which  occupied  two  years.  His  report  was  published  in 
1839,  and  covered  six  hundred  pages.  It  treated  the 
whole  subject  of  education,  including  even  reformatory, 
industrial,  and  hospital  instruction,  and  is  careful  and  cor- 
rect. In  1843,  Mr.  Horace  Mann,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts,  made  a  school  tour 
in  Europe  at  his  own  expense,  and  published  a  short  ac- 
count of  the  same  in  his  next  annual  report.  His  report, 
although  general,  was  just  and  accurate,  and  was  repub- 
lished  in  Europe,  where  it  was  considered  the  best  author- 
ity upon  the  subject.  "With  the  exception  of  the  report 
of  a  French  commissioner  sent  out  by  his  Government  in 
1854,  these  are  about  all  the  valuable  publications  upon 
educational  matters,  and  some  of  them  are  too  special,  and 
others  too  general,  to  be  of  much  service. 

It  is  the  general  impression  in  our  country  that  the 
schools  of  the  several  states  of  Germany  originated  in, 
and  are  maintained  by,  the  arbitrary 'will  of  their  Govern- 
ments, without  regard  to  the  wishes  of  the  people.  Noth- 
ing could  be  more  erroneous  than  this  impression.  The 
history  of  education  in  Germany  is  a  part  of  the  national 
history,  and  the  schools  are  a  genuine  offshoot  and  part 
of  national  life,  strongly  rooted  in  the  soil,  and  maintain 
a  wonderful  uniformity  throughout  all  German  Europe, 
with  perhaps  the  best  development  in  German  Switzer- 
land and  Holland.  Various  antagonistic  influences  oper- 
ate upon  the  schools — the  ecclesiastical  against  the  secu- 
lar, and  the  central  against  local  authority ;  but  all  unite 
in  a  common  purpose  for  the  improvement  and  perpetua- 
tion of  education ;  and  while  each  has  in  turn  held  supe- 


296  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

rior  control,  and  introduced  new  theories  and  methods, 
they  have  all  left  behind  a  portion  of  good. 

NORTH  GERMAN  EDUCATION  GROUNDED  IN  THE  REFORMA- 
TION. 

The  present  educational  sentiment  in  Germany  dates 
from  the  Reformation.  With  the  exception  of  Luther, 
the  great  reformers  of  Germany  were  distinguished  friends 
of  classical  learning,  while  the  Romish  party  was  hostile 
to  culture.  The  leading  intellect  of  the  nation  began  to 
work  eagerly  together  through  the  schools,  to  elevate  and 
enlighten  the  masses.  From  that  to  the  present  day  the 
first  and  highest  purpose  of  German  statesmanship  has 
been  to  educate  the  people.  About  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  the  schools  flagged,  and  seemed  fast  becoming 
mere  torpid  Church  appendages.  The  school  -  masters 
were  theological  students,  who  made  a  trade  of  teaching 
until  they  could  get  a  parish.  At  this  epoch,  Frederick 
the  Great,  whose  civil  projects  and  labors  were  not  less  re- 
markable than  his  military  exploits,  called  to  his  service, 
in  1773,  the  renowned  Frederick  Augustus  Wolf,  and  in- 
stalled him  in  the  University  of  Halle.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  era,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  clas- 
sical scholarship  of  Germany. 

PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 

The  German  schools  are  better  in  the  Northern  than  the 
Southern  States,  in  Protestant  than  in  Catholic  communi- 
ties. In  Austria,  although  the  system  is  not  wanting,  edu- 
cation 'lacks  the  power  and  influence  which  characterizes 
it  in  Prussia.  The  following  remarks  relate  to  the  Prus- 
sian system.  In  the  absence  of  any  organic  school  law 
like  that  of  France,  the  public  control  of  schools  is  exer- 
cised through  administrative  orders  and  instructions.  It 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  297 

has  for  its  basis  the  following  articles,  promulgated  in 
1794: 

"  Schools  and  universities  are  state  institutions,  having  for  their  object  the 
instruction  of  youth  in  useful  information  and  scientific  knowledge. 

"  Such  establishments  are  to  be  instituted  only  with  the  previous  knowl- 
edge and  consent  of  the  state. 

"All  public  schools  and  public  establishments  of  education  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  state,  and  must  at  all  times  submit  themselves  to  its  exam- 
inations and  inspections. 

"Whenever  the  appointment  is  not,  by  virtue  of  the  foundation  or  by 
special  privilege,  vested  in  certain  persons  or  corporations,  it  belongs  to  the 
state. 

"Even  when  the  immediate  supervision  of  such  schools  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  teachers  is  committed  to  certain  private  persons  or  corporations,  new 
teachers  can  not  be  appointed,  and  important  changes  in  the  constitution  and 
teaching  of  the  school  can  not  be  adopted,  without  the  previous  knowledge 
and  consent  of  the  provincial  school  authorities. 

"The  teachers  in  the  Gymnasia  and  other  higher  schools  have  the  charac- 
ter of  state  functionaries." 

In  the  Prussian  Constitution  of  1850  is  the  following 
provision : 

"  Every  one  is  free  to  impart  knowledge,  and  to  found  and  conduct  estab- 
lishments for  instruction,  when  he  has  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  proper 
state  authorities  that  he  has  the  moral,  scientific,  and  technical  qualifications 
which  are  requisite.  All  public  and  private  establishments  are  under  the  su- 
pervision of  authorities  named  by  the  state." 

With  these  principles  as  a  basis,  administrative  control 
can  be  exercised  without  much  difficulty.  The  foregoing 
regulations  may  be  said  to  form  part  of  the  common  law 
of  Prussia,  for  they  belong  to  every  citizen's  notion  of 
what  is  right  and  fitting  in  school  concerns.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  the  Prussian  Government  exercises  a 
grasping  and  centralizing  spirit  in  dealing  with  education. 
On  the  contrary,  it  makes  the  local  administration  as  com- 
plete as  possible,  while  taking  care  that  education  shall  not 
be  left  to  accident  and  caprice. . 


298  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  state  has  always  been  an  important  school  patron, 
and  has  always  exercised  its  rights  of  patronage.  Koyal 
foundations  are  very  numerous  in  Prussia,  and  in  all  Prus- 
sian schools  of  royal  foundation  the  patronage  remains 
vested  in  the  crown  to  this  day.  This  gives  security  to  a 
large  number  of  excellent  schools.  The  control  of  schools 
for  a  long  time  resided  in  a  ministerial  body,  to  whom 
the  affairs  of  both  school  and  Church  were  intrusted ;  but 
in  the  great  movement  of  civil  and  military  reconstruction 
in  Prussia  under  the  Stein  ministry,  after  her  humiliation 
by  Napoleon,  the  School  Board  was  abolished,  and  an  edu- 
cational department  created,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Wil- 
helm  von  Humboldt.  He  held  this  position  but  two  years, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Yon  Altenstein.  Humboldt,  how- 
ever, may  be  considered  as  the  inaugurator  of  the  modern 
order  of  schools  in  Germany.  His  first  recorded  words 
upon  the  subject  are :  "  The  thing  is,  not  to  let  the  schools 
and  universities  go  on  in  a  drowsy  and  impotent  way  of 
routine,  but  to  raise  the  culture  of  the  nation  ever  higher 
and  higher  by  their  means."  And  this  may  be  taken  as 
the  motto  of  his  administration  of  public  instruction. 

Humboldt  had  associated  with  him  two  technical  coun- 
selors. This  number  has  since  been  increased  to  eight. 
The  Minister  of  Education  and  the  Under-Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Educational  Department  exercise  the  entire 
central  authority  over  school  affairs.  In  Prussia  it  is  not 
the  central  minister  who  takes  the  most  direct  and  impor- 
tant action,  but  rather  the  local  authorities  representing 
the  crown. 

By  a  principle  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  the  crown  was 
its  supreme  head;  and  as  the  sovereign  nominated  the 
consistories,  who  acted  in  matters  pertaining  to  schools  as 
well  as  church,  he  was  actually  at  the  head  of  school  mat- 
ters. This,  however,  was  not  true  of  Catholic  schools,  as 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  299 

his  authority  extended  only  over  the  Protestant  Church. 
To  remedy  this,  at  the  period  of  reorganization  already  re- 
ferred to,  a  board  of  directors  of  public  instruction  was 
appointed  in  each  government  district.  These  boards  act 
for  the  crown,  are  in  immediate  relation  with  the  central 
ministry,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  local  school  authorities.  The 
lists  of  the  men  who  have  composed  these  provincial 
boards  embrace  the  names  of  the  most  distinguished  schol- 
ars of  Germany.  Some  change  has  taken  place  in  the  or- 
ganization of  tke  local  boards,  but  their  general  character 
has  remained  the  same  to  this  day. 

The  state  of  Prussia  proper  is  divided  into  nine  prov- 
inces, and  these  again  into  twenty-six  governmental  dis- 
tricts or  departments,  and  each  one  of  these  subdivisions 
has  its  provincial  or  district  school  board. 

In  all  of  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany,  both  Church 
and  State  acknowledge  obligations  in  respect  to  education, 
but  in  no  two  states  is  authority  exercised  alike.  In  Prus- 
sia, the  higher  schools  are  nearly  exempt  from  Church  in- 
fluences, while  in  other  states  we  find  them  almost  entire- 
ly controlled  by  the  Church.  Everywhere  a  certain  num- 
ber of  each  school  board  must  be  clergymen. 

For  convenience,  the  organization  of  Prussian  education 
will  be  considered  as  it  existed  before  the  war.  The  cen- 
tre of  home  administration  in  Prussia  is  the  Ministry  of 
the  Interior.  Immediately  under  this  minister  are  the 
presidents  of  the  nine  provinces — Prussia,  Posen,  Silesia, 
Pomerania,  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  Westphalia,  Hohenzol- 
lern,  and  the  Ehine.  These  are  divided  into  departments, 
presided  over  by  prefects.  All  these  officers  are  appoint- 
ed and  removable  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  each 
is  assisted  by  a  council  composed  of  two  sections,  one  of 
which  is  called  the  Consistory  for  Church  Affairs,  and  the 
other  the  Board  for  School  Affairs.  Although  these  offi- 


300  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

cers  are  dependent  upon  and  report  to  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  yet  in,  all  matters  concerning  the  schools  and  the 
Church  they  report  to  the  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
minister. 

The  departments  are  divided  into  circles,  administered 
by  an  officer  called  a  "  landrath,"  who  reports  to  the  pre- 
fect of  his  department,  and  has  associated  with  him  a 
school  superintendent,  whose  superintendency  is  usually 
co-extensive  with  the  circle. 

We  see  here  a  parallel  line  of  duties  passing  through 
the  same  general  heads  of  authority,  and  then  dividing  at 
the  central  power.  There  is  practically  a  division  of  re- 
sponsibility, so  that  primary  education  is  controlled  by 
departmental  authority,  while  the  provincial  government 
regulates  higher  or  secondary  education.  A  portion  of 
the  council  of  the  departments  must  belong  to  each  of  the 
forms  of  religion  recognized  by  the  state,  Protestant  and 
Catholic ;  but  the  minister  of  the  parish  is  everywhere  the 
local  manager  of  the  elementary  school,  and  has  a  multi- 
tude of  books  and  registers  to  keep,  which  are  subject  to 
the  inspection  of  the  superintendent. 

Many  of  the  smaller  states  had,  before  their  absorption 
by  Prussia,  general  laws  minutely  regulating  school  mat- 
ters. Prussia  has  assumed  jurisdiction  over  this  subject, 
doubtful  points  being  ruled  as  they  arise  by  ordinances  or 
circular  letters,  which  serve  as  precedents  for  the  future. 
Each  administrative  department  may  issue  such  ordi- 
nances, which,  when  they  have  received  the  approval  of 
the  Central  Government,  are  authoritative  in  all  the  other 
departments;  but  great  care  is  exercised  in  drawing  up 
such  rescripts.  The  minister  first  sends  copies  to  all  of  the 
departmental  governments,  directing  reports  upon  them, 
and  not  until  all  of  these  reports  are  received  and  care- 
fully discussed  by  the  Educational  Bureau  is  final  action 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  301 

taken  upon  the  rescript.  This  scrupulous  procedure  oc- 
casions delay,  but  insures  precision  and  consistency.  The 
schools  of  Prussia  may  be  classed  as  follows : 

First.  The  Primary  or  Common  Schools,  which  are  ac- 
cessible to  all. 

Second.  The  Higher  or  Secondary  Schools,  comprising 
the  upper  Burgher  Schools,  Real  Schools,  Progymnasia, 
and  Gymnasia. 

Third.  The  tTniversities. 

The  circle  or  diocese,  the  smallest  state  division,  con- 
trolled by  a  civil  officer,  called  a  landrath,  is  of  variable 
size  and  population,  and  may  contain  six  or  eight,  or  as 
many  as  forty  parishes.  Associated  with  the  landrath  is 
the  superintendent,  who  is  an  ecclesiastical  officer,  and  the 
departmental  agent  for  the  control  of  the  schools  of  his  cir- 
cle or  district.  Each  parish  has  one  elementary  school  or 
more,  according  to  the  requirements  and  ability  of  its  in- 
habitants. Each  school  has  one  building  for  school  pur- 
poses, containing  one  or  more  rooms,  according  as  the 
means  and  need  of  the  school  require  one  teacher  or  more. 
The  limit  of  each  of  these  schools  has  been  fixed  at  eighty 
scholars,  but  it  is  common  for  a  hundred  to  attend.  This 
regulates  the  size  of  the  building,  which  is  usually  of 
brick,  with  a  tiled  or  shingled,  and  sometimes  a  thatched 
roof,  and  ordinarily  contains  the  quarters  of  the  teacher. 

It  is  usual  to  place  these  buildings  in  the  centre  of  the 
villages  and  towns,  upon  public  grounds,  and  to  separate 
them  from  other  buildings  by  areas  and  fences,  and  the 
parish  church  is  commonly  embraced  in  the  same  inclos- 
ure.  "Within,  the  seats,  with  desks  attached,  and  shelves 
beneath  for  books,  are  usually  ranged  in  two  rows,  with 
an  aisle  between,  the  teacher's  desk  at  the  end  opposite  the 
door,  and  blackboards  and  maps  on  the  walls.  Here  are 
taught  the  elementary  branches,  including  reading,  writing, 


302  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

the  ground  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  the  history  and  geog- 
raphy of  Germany.  Eeligious  instruction  is  also  given. 

In  order  to  bring  the  youth  to  these  schools,  Germany 
has  adopted  a  compulsory  system.  In  every  state,  except 
Hamburg  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  all  of  the  children 
of  both  sexes  between  prescribed  ages,  ordinarily  from  six 
to  fourteen,  are  compelled  to  attend  school.  Some  states 
merely  require  a  certain  number  of  years  of  schooling,  and 
leave  the  parent  to  choose  whether  it  shall  be  at  home  or 
in  school,  and  if  the  latter,  at  what  school.  This  was  the 
Prussian  law  until  1851,  when  it  was  changed  so  as  to  pre- 
scribe what  school  the  child  should  attend. 

Eegular  attendance  at  the  school  is  required,  and,  to  ef- 
fect this,  it  is  made  the  duty  of  the  pastor  and  school-mas- 
ter to  use  all  their  moral  influence  to  cause  parents  to  send 
their  children  punctually  and  regularly.  This  failing,  the 
police  force  is  used.  The  police-office  of  the  place  makes 
out  a  list  of  all  children  of  school  age,  and  hands  it  to  the 
local  School  Board  connected  with  each  school,  which  is 
then  responsible  for  the  children's  attendance.  The  teach- 
er keeps  a  list  of  absentees,  marking  those  as  inexcused 
who  are  absent  without  cause.  The  Board  admonishes  the 
parent,  and  if  absence  is  repeated,  the  parent  is  fined,  and, 
in  default  of  payment,  sent  to  jail.  Sometimes  the  master, 
after  a  sufficient  time,  sends  a  messenger  around  each  morn- 
ing to  their  homes  and  gathers  up  the  absentees.  The 
usual  hours  of  school  are  from  eight  o'clock  till  noon,  and 
from  two  o'clock  till  four  in  the  afternoon ;  but  in  many 
farming  communities,  in  the  summer,  the  children  attend 
from  four  o'clock  until  eight  in  the  morning,  in  order  to 
assist  in  the  farm  labor  afterward. 

In  Saxony  the  number  of  years  of  compulsory  instruc- 
tion is  eight,  and  for  each  day  missed  a  day  is  added,  which 
must  be  made  up  before  the  parent  can  have  control  of  his 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  303 

child's  time.  This  seems  to  have  worked  better  than  any 
system  of  fines.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  police  to  in- 
form the  School  Board  of  all  new  families  that  come  into 
the  parish,  and  the  entire  system  is  found  to  work  easily 
and  certainly.  In  many  cases  where  the  interests  of  labor 
and  school  conflict,  half-day  schools  are  established ;  and  in 
some  places  there  are  two  classes  of  schools,  one  for  the 
children  of  parents  who  do  not  require  the  labor  of  their 
children,  and  one  for  those  who  can  spare  them  but  a  part 
of  the  day. 

Within  the  past  ten  years,  the  cotton  manufacture  has 
been  largely  developed  in  Saxony,  and  the  children  em- 
ployed in  this  branch  of  industry  have  a  fixed  number  of 
hours  for  school — some  in  the  morning,  others  at  evening, 
and  others  during  the  day.  In  nearly  all  of  the  states  the 
minimum  limit  of  age  at  which  children  can  be  employed 
in  factories  is  fixed  by  law.  The  mill-owners  are  allowed 
to  have  their  own  schools  if  they  desire,  upon  becoming 
responsible  that  the  children  shall  receive  a  certain  amount 
of  instruction.  The  law  is  very  strict  with  these  capital- 
ists, and  should  they  deprive  the  children  of  the  prescribed 
education,  they  would  forfeit  their  right  to  employ  infant 
labor.  These  examples  show  that  the  universal  law  of 
compulsory  education  accommodates  itself  easily  and  sat- 
isfactorily to  the  demands  of  industry. 

The  law  is  everywhere  enforced,  though  with  different 
degrees  of  rigor,  but  is  most  uniformly  carried  out  in  Prus- 
sia. In  1856,  there  were  in  that  state  twenty-four  thousand 
two  hundred  and  ninety-four  public  elementary  schools, 
attended  by  two  million  seven  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-two  children.  Seven- 
ty thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty  pupils  attended  pri- 
vate schools.  There  were  two  million  nine  hundred  and 
forty-three  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty-one  children  of 


304:  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

school  age,  leaving  only  one  hundred  and  forty-four  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  fifty-nine  who  were  not  in  school. 
Of  those  not  in  school,  a  large  number  were  receiving  pri- 
vate education  at  home.  Some  were  boys  in  the  lower 
classes  of  the  higher  institutions,  and  the  remainder  were 
sickly,  or  mentally  deficient.  Occasionally  a  migratory 
family  escapes  altogether.  The  gypsies,  of  whom  there 
are  many  in  Germany,  are  often  regular  attendants,  and 
show  industry,  quickness,  and  good  behavior.  These  fig- 
ures do  not  indicate  the  degree  of  regularity  of  attendance, 
nor  is  it  easily  determined,  but  it  is  known  to  be  good. 
Even  the  people  of  Germany  criticise  the  compulsory  sys- 
tem ;  but  it  all  amounts  to  little,  compared  with  the  great 
fact  that  the  class  whose  children  attend  these  schools  is 
well  satisfied.  The  schooling  is  compulsory  only  in  name, 
and  the  school  has  taken  so  deep  root  in  the  social  habits 
of  the  German  people,  that,  were  the  law  repealed,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  schools  would  continue  as  full  as  they 
are  now. 

In  Frankfort,  where  there  is  no  compulsory  law,  and 
where  many  families  have  immigrated  to  escape  the  more 
rigorous  law  of  the  other  German  states,  the  children  of 
school  years  are  as  regularly  sent  to  school  as  in  any  other 
German  city.  It  is  often  said  that  this  submission  to  the 
school  law  is  due  to  the  docility  of  the  German  character; 
but  it  is  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  had  the  best  op- 
portunities to  know,  that  the  general  attendance  is  not  so 
much  in  obedience  to  law  as  to  the  deliberate  approving 
judgment  of  the  people. 

Mr.  Kay  says : 

"  There  is  nothing  more  untrue  than  that  the  central  authority  has  all  to 
do  with  the  schools,  that  there  is  no  local  liberty  of  action,  and  that  there  is 
no  union  between  Church  and  school. 

"The  generally  supposed  oppression  of  the  Government  in  school  matters 
has  not  the  slightest  foundation  in  fact.  It  is  this  simple  religious  parochial 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  305 

system,  which  has  been  abused  and  vilified  in  every  possible  way.  It  has 
been  called  tyrannical,  illiberal,  irreligious,  and  has  been  stigmatized  by  ev- 
ery opprobious  epithet  that  ignorance  and  bigotry  could  invent.  But  the 
truth  in  the  end  will  conquer,  and  Germany  will  one  day  be  lauded  by  all 
Europe  as  the  inventor  of  the  system  securing,  in  the  best  possible  manner, 
her  education,  guided  by  the  best  intelligence,  fostered  by  local  activity,  lo- 
cal sympathy,  and  the  cordial  sympathy  of  the  Christian  religion." 

Mr.  Pattison  says : 

"There  is  difference  in  populations  in  respect  of  capacity  of  education, 
differences,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly  referred  to  race,  that  are  certainly 
real.  Even  an  elementary  school  is  still  an  exotic  among  a  population  like 
that  of  the  Mark,  whose  intractable  speech-organ  opposes  an  obstacle  to  it 
upon  the  threshold.  Their  next  neighbor,  on  the  contrary,  the  Missnian 
Saxon,  whose  dialect  has  become  the  standard  speech  of  Germany,  has  ap- 
propriated more  language  before  he  goes  to  school  than  the  other  has  learned 
after  he  has  been  several  years.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  more  apt  subject  of 
culture  among  the  German  people  than  the  Saxon.  His  speech-organs  are 
flexible,  his  tones  varied,  and  his  ear  delicate,  and  he  learns  with  rapidity 
and  pleasure.  He  takes  readily  that  education  which  develops  the  faculties, 
but  his  pliability  renders  him  less  fit  for  that  which  consists  in  the  inculca- 
tion of  a  fixed  system  of  ideas.  In  a  Saxon  school  far  more  is  learned,  and 
the  taste  much  more  cultivated,  than  in  a  Prussian  school,  but  certainly  a  fee- 
bler moral  training  is  given.  The  gentler  nature  and  more  lively  fancy  of 
the  Saxon  could  not  bear  the  more  severe  discipline  under  which  the  Prus- 
sian thrives." 

In  Germany  one  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  little  in- 
terest is  felt  in  school  matters,  and  how  little  will  be 
known  of  their  system  by  people  whose  children  may  be 
at  the  time  in  the  school,  where  they  glide  along  unno- 
ticed. This  may  be  ascribed  to  a  peculiar  trait  of  nearly 
all  people  on  the  Continent,  who  seem  to  think  it  equally 
reprehensible  not  to  thoroughly  know  their  own  business, 
and  to  know  any  thing  else.  This  to  Americans,  who 
make  it  a  part  of  their  duty  to  know  every  thing,  is  oft- 
en very  vexatious.  The  German  school-masters  complain 
bitterly  that  this  lack  of  interest  weakens  the  schools,  and 
renders  them  less  efficient.  Many  charge  this  defect  to 

20 


306  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

the  fact  that  school  affairs  are  so  completely  locked  up  in 
the  custody  of  Government  officials,  and  argue  that  an  in- 
crease of  local  authority  would  correct  the  evil.  This 
opinion  is  fast  gaining  ground  in  many  of  the  German 
states ;  and  if  we  find  no  trace  of  it  in  Prussia,  it  is  be- 
cause the  school  system  of  that  country  is  but  just  reach- 
ing the  stage  through  which  it  has  already  passed  else- 
where. There  are,  however,  many  things  which  the  state 
can  do  better  than  local  authority,  such  as  the  furnishing 
of  competent  teachers,  and  keeping  the  wants  of  growing 
communities  supplied  with  school-houses  and  appliances. 
There  is  a  disposition,  however,  in  the  more  intelligent 
portions  of  Germany  to  take  hold  of  school  matters,  and 
make  considerable  sacrifices  in  behalf  of  this  interest. 
Communities  often  punish,  by  parish  labor,  failure  to 
send  children  to  school,  and  with  a  result  greatly  superior 
to  that  obtained  by  fines  and  imprisonment.  A  report 
upon  this  subject  says,  very  wisely : 

"The  most  effectual  means  of  making  children  attend  regularly  is  the 
way  in  which  the  master  treats  them.  If  he  understands  the  art  of  making 
the  children  feel  it  pleasant  to  be  at  school,  the  desire  to  come  there  be- 
comes a  motive  too  powerful  for  the  parents  to  be  able  to  resist." 

Already  bodies  of  school  delegates  have  been  organized 
in  nearly  all  of  the  large  towns  and  cities  of  Prussia,  and 
in  Berlin  in  particular,  and  have  had,  so  far,  a  most  benefi- 
cial effect  in  bringing  the  scholars  and  people  more  closely 
in  sympathy.  The  departmental  governments  look  upon 
them  with  jealousy,  but  they  are  steadily  gaining  ground. 

Private  schools  have  heretofore  been  little  known  in 
Germany,  but  are  now  on  the  increase,  as  is  private  teach- 
ing by  tutors  in  families.  This  will  have  a  tendency  to 
weaken  the  present  centralized  system,  as  well  as  to  build 
up  a  class  spirit  of  exclusiveness,  and  will  endanger  the 
preservation  of  that  air  of  courtesy  and  good -breeding 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  307 

now  so  generally  diffused  throughout  the  lower  classes. 
The  habit  of  universal  attendance  at  the  day-school  is 
one  of  the  most  precious  traditions  of  German  family  life. 
The  children  of  the  humblest  artisan,  the  shop-keeper,  and 
the  peasant,  may  be  seen  pursuing  their  studies  together 
on  the  same  bench  with  the  children  of  the  rich  and  the 
noble.  The  schools  are  very  attractive.  Each  must  have 
an  open  spacQ  about  it,  usually  handsomely  arranged.  A 
play-ground  is  always  provided.  The  whole  area  is  care- 
fully drained  and  made  wholesome,  and  the  children  are 
never  kept  in  more  than  an  hour  and  a  half  at  a  time, 
when  they  go  out,  and  all  play  together  on  a  perfect 
equality.  This  feeling  must  last  through  life,  for  in  the 
army  I  saw  only  the  same  courtesy  from  officer  to  soldier 
that  was  natural  to  expect  from  soldier  to  officer. 

The  prevailing  opinion  that  compulsory  attendance  is  a 
modern  despotic  system,  founded  on  some  theory  of  the 
right  of  the  sovereign  over  the  child,  is  incorrect.  The 
system  dates  from  the  earliest  period  of  the  Reformation, 
and  attendance  at  school  was  recognized  as  a  religious 
duty  long  before  it  was  made  obligatory  by  a  law  of  the 
state.  From  the  time  of  Luther's  address  to  the  munici- 
pal corporations  of  Germany  in  1524,  this  duty  has  been 
recognized,  whether  enforced  by  legislation  or  not.  It 
was  the  .distinction  of  the  Protestant  child  that  it  should 
be  taught  to  understand  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  its 
religion,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Church  to  see  that 
all  of  its  children  were  instructed.  In  Brandenburg  the 
royal  edict  dates  from  1573 ;  but  this,  and  all  other  laws 
upon  the  subject  which  have  been  respected  by  all  the 
German  states  during  these  hundreds  of  years,  only  de- 
fined an  obligation  universally  admitted  as  one  of  the  first 
duties  of  the  citizen  and  member  of  the  Church.  Com- 
pulsory education  in  Germany  never  had  to  contend  with 


308          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

an  adverse  public  sentiment — not  because  the  spirit  of  per- 
sonal liberty  was  wanting,  but  because,  since  the  Keforma- 
tion,  there  has, never  been  a  time  when  it  was  not  thought 
part  of  parental  duty  to  have  children  properly  taught. 

Any  one  may  establish  a  private  school,  but  he  must 
first  obtain  a  license  from  the  Government,  and  must  also 
show  that  the  public  schools  in  his  neighborhood  do  not 
afford  sufficient  school  accommodations.  Even  after  this 
his  school  is  subject  to  all  the  inspections,  and  his  teach- 
ers to  all  the  examinations,  provided  in  the  case  of  public 
schools.  He  can  fix  his  own  rates  of  charges,  but  his  pro- 
gramme of  instruction  must  be  ample ;  and  although  he 
can  make  private  arrangements  to  accept  scholars  at  a 
lower  rate,  he  can  not,  as  a  consequence,  abate  the  amount 
of  instruction.  There  are  in  Prussia  thirty-six  hundred 
private  teachers,  against  thirty-three  thousand  who  teach 
in  public  schools. 

In  all  large  places  there  are  also  "  schools  for  further 
improvement."  These  are  mostly  secondary  and  evening 
schools,  and  use  the  same  rooms  as  the  other  schools. 
They  are  attended  principally  by  apprentices  at  trades, 
who  have  learned  imperfectly  what  should  have  been 
learned  before  confirmation,  and  by  those  who  desire  to 
carry  their  education  farther  still,  pursuing  their  trades  at 
the  same  time.  All  young  men,  on  being  apprenticed,  are 
examined,  and  unless  they  can  read,  write,  and  cipher  with 
facility,  are  sent  to  these  schools.  Young  men  can  not 
enter  them  until  after  confirmation,  but  there  is  no  limit 
of  age  afterward,  and  among  the  pupils  are  found  jour- 
neymen, apprentices,  mechanics,  merchants,  school-masters, 
and  government  clerks.  There  are  also  infant-schools,  or, 
more  properly,  infant  homes,  supported  entirely  by  chari- 
ty, where  poor  laboring  people  can  leave  their  children  for 
care  during  the  day-time. 


INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS.  309 

INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

We  will  now  notice  how  the  system  of  inspection  is  car- 
ried on  to  insure  the  efficiency  of  these  schools.  Each  cir- 
cle, as  we  have  seen,  has  its  superintendent,  who  controls 
church  and  school  matters,  and  who  must  be  a  clergyman. 
He  is  the  school  inspector  for  his  district,  and  his  duties 
are  extensive  and  various.  He  must  visit,  direct,  control, 
and  take  general  charge  of  all  school  matters,  form  the 
classes,  adjust  the  order  of  studies,  settle  points  in  dispute, 
encourage  or  direct  the  masters,  and  influence  parents  to 
send  their  children.  He,  in  connection  with  the  landrath, 
audits  all  school  accounts,  attends  to  the  erection  and  re- 
pair of  suitable  buildings,  and  once  in  three  years  must 
send  to  the  provincial  governments  estimates  for  these  pur- 
poses. He  receives  no  extra  pay  for  these  services,  which 
are  considered  part  of  his  ministerial  duty,  but  his  actual 
expenses,  when  traveling,  are  paid.  He  must  make  an  an- 
nual report  to  the  department  conformable  to  the  follow- 
ing rules.  The  report  must  be  modeled  on  the  plan  of 
well-arranged  oral  statement ;  it  must  comprise  a  plain  un- 
colored  statement  of  facts,  keeping  each  topic  separate ; 
when  a  professional  opinion  is  required,  it  must  be  sup- 
ported by  grounds,  the  law,  and  the  facts;  each  definite 
suggestion  must  be  in  the  form  of  a  separate  report;  the 
report  must  be  written  in  a  clear,  legible  hand,  on  the 
right-hand  page  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  date,  place,  and 
title  on  the  opposite  page. 

The  duty  of  these  superintendents  originally  related  es- 
pecially to  religious  teaching,  but  has  for  a  long  time  been 
general.  There  is  also  the  local  inspector,  who  is  the  pas- 
tor of  the  parish,  and  who  exercises  the  same  power  over 
the  school  of  his  parish  as  the  superintendent  does  over  the 
district.  Every  school  has  its  local  board  of  managers,  of 


310  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

which  the  pastor  is  a  member,  and  usually  chairman.  He 
is  compelled  to  visit  his  school  at  least  once  in  a  week, 
where  a  book  is  kept  in  which  he  must  record,  in  his  own 
hand,  his  visit,  what  the  classes  were  doing,  how  they  ac- 
quit themselves,  the  number  present,  and  any  event  or  in- 
formation that  may  seem  noteworthy.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  this  book  must  be  sent  to  the  departmental  govern- 
ment, where  it  undergoes  scrutiny.  His  duties  are  by  no 
means  easy  or  few.  He  must  acquaint  himself  with  the 
children,  and  with  all  the  internal  affairs  of  the  school,  at- 
tend all  meetings  of  the  School  Board,  assist  and  support 
the  teacher,  and  act  as  a  medium  between  the  teacher  and 
the  parents.  He  must  see  that  the  list  of  absentees  is  cor- 
rectly kept,  grant  exemptions  to  children  when  necessary, 
allow  leaves  of  absence  of  two  or  three  days  to  the  teacher, 
see  that  religious  instruction  differing  from  the  faith  of  par- 
ents is  not  imparted  to  the  children,  and,  when  Protestants 
and  Catholics  attend  the  same  school,  appoint  fixed  hours 
of  religious  instruction  in  each  week,  and  attend  closely 
to  the  preparation  of  children  for  confirmation^  He  also 
keeps  the  school  and  church  records. 

As  the  local  inspector  is  a  crown  officer,  he  is  not  always 
in  hearty  sympathy  with 'the  people.  Experience  proves 
that  his  religious  influence  in  bringing  children  into  the 
schools  is  more  potent  than  law  or  punishment.  This  pas- 
toral supervision  over  the  schools  was  not  created  by  royal 
edict,  but  grew  out  of  duty  in  connection  with  religious 
and  afterward  secular  instruction. 

SUPPORT  OF  SCHOOLS. 

Only  a  passing  notice  can  be  given  to  the  subject  of  the 
support  of  these  schools.  As  many  of  the  people  are  very 
poor,  the  rate  in  the  elementary  schools  is  almost  nominal ; 
but  a  nominal  rate  is  fixed  for  all  scholars,  rich  and  poor. 


SUPPORT  OF  SCHOOLS.  311 

Nearly  every  country  has  endowment  funds  applicable  to 
school  purposes.  These  funds  have  arisen,  to  some  extent, 
from  bequests  of  charitable  people,  but  mainly  from  secu- 
larized Church  property.  The  money  has  nearly  all  pass- 
ed into  the  hands  of  the  Government  as  trustee,  which 
manages  it  with  great  circumspection.  The  whole  amount 
of  annual  revenue  in  Prussia  from  this  source  is  about  four 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  thalers,  a  small  portion  of 
which  is  applicable  to  Church  purposes.  The  great  bur- 
den of  school  expense  is  borne  by  local  taxation.  This 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  first,  the  school  fees 
paid  by  the  children,  which  are  so  low  as  to  be  within  the 
means  of  all ;  second,  the  local  rate ;  and,  third,  general 
taxation.  Of  these  three  sources  of  revenue,  the. second 
bears  the  principal  burden ;  for  the  rule  is,  that  the  chil- 
dren shall  pay  only  a  sum  within  the  means  of  all,  and 
that  the  general  Government  shall  not  be  called  upon  until 
the  locality  has  done  its  utmost.  It  is  not  left  to  the  op- 
tion of  the  district  to  say  what  schools  it  will  have,  but  it 
must  have  schools  and  teachers  enough  for  the  require- 
ments of  all  its  children. 

These  are  rules  that  hold  good  in  all  parts  of  Germany, 
but  the  mode  of  enforcing  them  differs.  In  Saxony,  for 
instance,  each  department  is  permitted  to  fix  its  own  rat- 
ing-book, in  which  every  family  is  taxed  a  sum  propor- 
tioned to  the  ability  of  the  family  to  pay,  the  law,  fixing 
the  limit  at  fifty  groschen  as  the  minimum,  and  fifteen 
thalers  as  the  maximum  yearly  payment.  .  If  this  fails  to 
cover  costs,  application  is  made  to  the  department.  The 
treasury  of  the  department  is  divided  into  four  funds— the 
Church  Fund,  the  School  Fund,  the  Poor  Fund,  and  the 
Town  Fund.  The  School  Fund  is  made  up  of  various 
small  perquisites,  and  by  direct  taxation — first  by  a  regu- 
lar poll-tax,  and  then  by  a  rated  property -tax.  This  is 


312  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

but  one  of  many  methods  of  imposing  school  taxes.  In 
Prussia  taxation  varies  in  every  department  and  district ; 
but,  as  a  general  rule,  each  family  is  taxed  according  to  its 
pecuniary  ability,  and  may  pay  in  money  or  kind.  The  whole 
cost  of  schools  seems  to  an  American  remarkably  small. 

The  pay  of  teachers  had  always  been  loudly  complained 
of  as  pitiably  small,  until  1852,  when,  in  Prussia,  the  gen- 
eral Government,  without  fixing  any  sum,  directed  the  de- 
partments to  investigate  the  subject,  and  to  permanently 
raise  the  salaries  of  teachers  to  such  a  sum  as  they  should 
deem  sufficient,  having  due  regard  to  the  usages  of  the  lo- 
cality and  costs  of  living. 

The  local  boards  are  variously  made  up  in  different 
states,  but  each  school  or  union  of  schools  has  one.  They 
correspond  to  our  trustees,  but  are  more  active,  and  give 
the  subject  of  education  greater  attention.  In  Wiirtem- 
berg,  the '  Church  Board  is  also  the  School  Board.  In 
Saxony,  the  "  Board  of  the  Commune,"  corresponding  to 
the  "Circle"  in  Prussia,  undertakes  this  duty;  and  when 
the  commune  is  too  large  for  this,  special  boards  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  main  board.  In  Prussia,  and  in  several 
other  states  that  have  copied  from  her,  each  school  has 
its  own  board,  the  rule  generally  observed  in  their  forma- 
tion being,  that  first,  the  patron,  if  there  is  one;  second, 
the  clergyman ;  third,  the  municipal  authorities ;  fourth, 
the  householders,  shall  be  represented.  The  household- 
ers usually  choose  their  own  representative.  The  land- 
rath,  however,  is  given  great  power  in  rejecting,  and,  un- 
der certain  circumstances,  may  himself  appoint  the  house- 
holder delegate.  The  Board  are  the  trustees  of  all  school 
revenues,  properties,  lands,  and  houses  ;  regulate  taxation, 
grant  exemption  to  scholars  who  desire  it  for  longer  peri- 
ods than  one  week,  and  are  responsible  for  the  proper  re- 
pairs of  school  buildings. 


BERLIN  SCHOOLS.  313 

The  school  delegates,  of  which  mention  has  been  already 
made,  usually  exist  in  large  towns,  for  the  administration 
of  city  schools.  They  are  democratic  in  spirit,  and  are 
looked  upon  with  considerable  jealousy.  Their  success, 
however,  is  steadily  increasing,  and  they  are  everywhere 
infusing  new  life  into  school  matters,  by  interesting  a 
higher  order  of  men  in  the  work  of  teaching.  They  have 
almost  entire  control  of  the  schools  of  Berlin,  and  these  in- 
stitutions deserve  a  special  notice. 

j  BERLIN  SCHOOLS. 

Berlin  is  rich  in  schools  of  almost  every  grade,  but  is 
not,  like  many  capitals,  a  great  centre  of  education,  as  it 
is  of  politics  and  trade.  These  institutions  are  constituted 
with  a  view  to  the  education  of  the  children  of  Berlin,  and 
are  all  day-schools — boarding-schools  not  being,  known 
there  until  very  recently.  Children  from  abroad  often  go 
there  to  be  educated,  but  usually  live  with  friends,  or  in' 
families,  and  attend  as  day -scholars.  The  schools  are 
evenly  scattered  over  the  city,  so  that  for  the  whole  cir- 
cuit of  twenty  miles  there  is  no  child  of  six  years  who 
can  not  easily  walk  four  times  a  day  to  and  from  an  ele- 
mentary school.  Older  children,  who  require  the  advan- 
tages of  the  higher  schools,  find  them  equally  accessible. 
There  are,  in  all,  about  three  hundred  schools,  of  which 
one-half  are  elementary.  They  are  of  all  denominations, 
to  suit  all  religions,  and  are  nearly  all  under  control  of 
the  city  authorities. 

The  administration  of  all  city  affairs  is  lodged  with  a 
body  of  thirty-four  members,  called  the  City  Magistracy, 
appointed  by  the  Provincial  Council ;  but  school  matters 
are  kept  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  delegates,  formed  of 
two  paid  delegates,  six  members  of  the  Magistracy,  twelve 
members  of  the  Municipal  Council,  three  members  chosen 


314          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

by  the  people,  three  school  superintendents,  and  a  Jewish 
rabbi.  These  members  of  the  delegation  are  formed  into 
committees,  to  each  of  which  appropriate  duties  are  as- 
signed. 

Each  school  has  its  Board,  constituted  as  before  de- 
scribed, with  the  clergyman  of  the  parish  as  chairman. 
Below  the  Board  are  the  head  teachers,  with  whom  they 
transact  the  business  of  the  school,  and  above  are  the 
Board  of  Delegates,  to  whom  they  are  directly  responsible, 
and  who  in  turn  must  report  to  the  Provincial  Council 
of  Brandenburg,  and  they  to  the  educational  minister. 
These  are  the  links  which  connect  the  individual  school 
with  the  central  authority.  About  one  in  eight  of  the  en- 
tire population  of  Berlin  are  in  school,  at  a  cost  to  the  city, 
over  and  above  school  fees,  of  about  three  hundred  thou- 
sand thalers  annually,  or  five  dollars  to  each  child — a  sum 
equivalent  to  about  twelve  per  cent,  of  the  entire  city  ex- 
penditure. The  excellence  and  cheapness  of  education  in 
Berlin  is  attracting  large  numbers  of  foreign  young  men, 
and  even  women,  especially  Americans.  The  steps  by 
which  the  schools  have  arrived  at  their  present  degree  of 
excellence,  through  this  system  of  compulsory  attendance 
and  religious  training,  are  exceedingly  interesting  and  in- 
structive, but  can  only  be  glanced  at  here. 

METHODS  OF    TEACHING. 

The  Primary  School  was  originally  but  a  catechismal 
school,  conducted  by  theological  students  under  the  offi- 
cers of  the  church,  or  by  the  pastor  himself.  It  was  an 
exclusively  Protestant  institution,  born  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  grounded  in  its  principles— first,  that  "  not  incor- 
poration with  the  visible  Church,  but  individual  faith,  is 
the  means  of  salvation ;".  and,  secondly,  that  "  true  public 
worship  is  not  a  transaction  of  the  priest,  but  the  joint  act 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  315 

of  the  congregation."  Out  of  these  two  ideas  grew  the 
policy  of  general  Christian  instruction,  and  by  degrees  the 
secular  education  now  provided  in  the  elementary  schools. 
Luther  knew  only  the  Latin  schools,  for  in  his  day  there 
were  no  others  designed  for  the  higher  classes  and  candi- 
dates for  the  Church.  Education  had  at  first  but  one  pur- 
pose— to  teach  religion ;  and  when  children  learned  to 
read,  it  was  that  they  might  read  the  Bible.  From  this 
aim,  Protestant  Germany  has  never  swerved  nor  changed. 
Even  during  the  philosophical  reaction  against  religion,  in 
1763,  we  find  royal  authority  directing  the  enforcement  of 
the  regulation  that  "  The  people's  schools  shall  avoid  all 
abstractions,  but  be  Christianly  taught  in  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  catechism  and  Bible  history."  Stein,  who 
found  Germany  at  the  feet  of  France,  saw  that  she  could 
be  saved  only  by  fostering  a  more  vigorous  national  life, 
and  sought  successfully  to  secure  this  end  through  her 
common  schools.  This  was  the  first  innovation  upon  their 
ecclesiastical  character,  and  they  were  made  largely  a  po- 
litical instrument,  not  to  advance  personal  ambition,  but 
for  a  great  national  purpose.  The  higher  institutions  have 
mostly  shaken  off  ecclesiastical  authority ;  and,  though  re- 
ligion still  retains  its  original  place  in  the  people's  school, 
it  stands  merely  upon  a  footing  of  equality  with  other  de- 
partments of  knowledge.  Formerly  each  denomination 
had  its  separate  school,  unless  one  sect  largely  predomi- 
nated, in  which  case  children  of  different  creeds  attended 
the  same  school,  and  were  instructed  at  stated  times  by 
their  respective  pastors. 

The  Catholics  at  first  objected  to  these  provisions,  but 
soon  acquiesced.  Frequent  attempts  at  proselyting  were, 
however,  discovered,  and  resulted  always  in  the  removal 
of  the  teacher.  But  a  more  potent  agency  which  law  can 
not  reach,  and  whi6h  is  everywhere  observable,  even  in 


316  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

our  own  country,  was  the  silent  influence  of  the  belief  and 
practices  of  the  majority.  This  has  a  power  over  children 
that  nothing  can  resist.  It  was  accordingly  announced,  in 
1822,  that  mixed  schools  had  practically  failed;  and  the 
minister,  Altenstein,  gave  notice  that  "  such  establishments 
will  be  no  longer  the  rule,  and  will  exceptionally  be  al- 
lowed only  when  obviously  necessary,  and  when  such  co- 
alition is  the  free  choice  of  the  two  congregations  acting 
under  the  advice  of  their  respective  clergy,  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  authority." 

Matters  remained  pretty  nearly  upon  this  footing  until 
1848,  when  a  strong  effort  was  made  by  the  higher  classes 
to  sever  secular  and  religious  instruction.  This  project 
found  almost  universal  favor  in  the  National  Assembly, 
but  gained  no  footing  with  the  people;  and  school  prop- 
erty was  so  largely  owned  by  the  Church,  and  the  pay  of 
teachers  in  many  quarters  so  dependent  upon  the  Church, 
as  to  make  the  change  practically  out  of  the  question. 
The  matter  ended  at  that  time  by  incorporating  in  the 
new  constitution  the  following  article,  which  is  still  in 
force,  viz. : 

"ART.  24.  In  the  ordering  of  the  public  schools,  regard  shall  be  had,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  denominational  relations.  The  religious  instruction  in  the 
people's  school  is  under  the  conduct  of  the  respective  bodies." 

This  leaves  it  very  much  with  the  people  themselves, 
and  the  general  tendency  is  toward  a  separation  of  schools 
by  the  lines  of  the  different  denominations.  Of  the  four 
million  Prussian  school  children,  about  two-thirds  are  Prot- 
estant, and  the  remainder  Catholic,  except  a  small  Jew- 
ish element  of  about  forty  thousand.  The  latter  give  no 
trouble  in  school  matters.  They  do  not  fear  proselyting, 
and  are  always  ready  and  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
schools  of  either  sect,  and  often  have  their  own. 

Considerable  difficulties  have  sprung  up  from  time  to 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  317 

time  in  different  parts  of  Germany  between  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Calvinists,  who  often  claim,  and  have,  separate 
schools.  There  are  also  Baptists  and  other  dissenting  de- 
nominations, which  have  occasioned  some  trouble  by  de- 
manding distinct  privileges  under  the  law.  The  recog- 
nized churches  ask  for  protection  against  the  dissenting 
churches,  but  the  reply  is  made  that  to  accede  to  this 
claim,  would  be  contrary  to  Prussian  constitutional  law. 
Upon  this  point  the  ecclesiastical  minister  says  to  the 
Prussian  Chamber  of  Deputies : 

"The  danger  to  the  state  would  be  much  more  alarming,  did  we  antici- 
pate that,  owing  to  defective  religious  instruction  of  the  dissenting  preachers, 
a  generation  would  grow  up  without  the  fear  of  God,  the  foundation  of  all  so-.- 
cial  order.  Serious  as  the  consideration  is,  it  can  not  justify  a  deviation  from 
right  and  justice,  nor  would  it  be  reason  enough  for  further  legislative  re- 
straint upon  liberty,  since  experience  teaches  that  political  repression  is  itself 
a  cause  of  these  aberrations  of  the  instinct  of  freedom  in  the  domain  of  relig- 
ion, while  a  healthy  and  vigorous  religious  life  readily  absorbs  them.  From 
the  ground  I  occupy  as  ecclesiastical  minister,  I  most  heartily  welcome  the 
abandonment  of  all  further  attempts  at  police  coercion  of  innocent  religious 
meetings,  whatever  be  the  religious  tenets  of  the  parties.  Such  attempts  have 
more  or  less  the  character  of  religious  persecutions,  and  are  in  harmony  nei- 
ther with  the  traditions  of  the  monarchy  nor  its  present  constitution.  Still 
less  do  they  serve  the  interests  of  the  two  great  religious  communities  between 
which  the  nation  is  divided.  The  two  churches  would  be  subscribing  a  tes- 
timonial to  their  own  spiritual  poverty,  if  they  relied  on  such  means  for  sus- 
taining themselves.  Christianity  overcame  the  world  by  free  convictions,  and 
will  continue  to  maintain  and  extend  itself  by  this  force  alone.  In  forming 
its  decision,  the  Government  has  not  overlooked  the  political  inconvenience 
which  may  arise  from  the  view  we  have  adopted.  It  may  happen  that  the 
children  may  never  have  been  taught  the  commandments — those  first  axioms 
of  every  civil  society — 'Thou  shalt  not  steal,'  'Thou  shalt  do  no  murder,' 
'  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain.'  All  this  rests, 
not  on  our  heads,  but  on  the  heads  of  those  who  are  charged  by  God  and  the 
laAV  with  the  bringing  up  of  these  children.  The  result  at  which  we  have  ar- 
rived is  not  only  the  only  legal,  but  the  only  practical  cause  ;  for  what  influ- 
ence can  the  school  have  when  it  is  at  war  with  the  family — when  the  chil- 
dren hear  at  home  that  what  they  have  learned  at  school  is  idle  and  super- 
stitious nonsense?  On  the  two  Christian  churches  rests  the  duty  of  seeking 


318  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

that  which  was  lost,  not  by  violence  and  repressive  measures,  but  in  the  way 
of  love — endeavoring,  by  precept  and  example,  to  recover  that  which  has  gone 
astray." 

All  the  children  of  dissenting  families  are  required  to 
attend  school,  but  there  is  no  enforcement  of  religious 
teaching  different  from  that  of  their  parents.  At  fourteen 
every  child  is  allowed  to  choose  its  own  religion  ;  nor  can 
the  parent  who  leaves  his  Church  take  with  him  his  young 
children,  but  at  the  proper  age  the  child  chooses  what  re- 
ligious body  it  will  join. 

Much  discussion  has  taken  place  in  Prussia  as  to  whether 
early  education  should  be  based  upon  the  child's  reason  or 
memory,  and  whether  its  religious  training  should  begin 
with  its  tenderest  years,  or  be  left  until  confirmation,  to 
become  the  labor  of  the  pastor.  The  present  inclination 
seems  to  be  toward  the  strict  Lutheran  practice  of  early 
religious  teachings. 

School  is  opened  and  closed  with  prayer,  in  which  the 
children  join.  This  service  consists  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
morning  and  evening  benediction,  to  which  are  added  other 
prayers  in  common  use  in  the  churches.  The  Creed  and 
Ten  Commandments  are  sometimes  added,  and  the  prayers 
and  collects  appropriate  to  church  days.  At  church  fes- 
tivals the  school-rooms  are  decorated  with  flowers,  ever- 
greens, or  immortelles,  and  appropriate  hymns  are  sung. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  inculcate  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbath,  and  the  obligation  of  attendance  at  church 
on  all  holy  days,  and  himself  to  set  the  example.  Ser- 
mons and  lectures,  suited  to  the  comprehension  of  young 
children,  are  frequently  delivered  in  the  school-room,  either 
by  the  teacher  or  pastor.  The  regulations  repeat  that  "  the 
Bible  is  the  field  in  which  the  Christian  elementary  school 
has  to  solve  the  problem  of  how  to  ground  and  build  up 
the  Christian  life  intrusted  to  it."  The  Bible  is  never  used 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  319 

as  a  reading-book,  but  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  are  taught  through  the  whole  course,  and 
select  portions  of  the  psalms,  epistles,  and  prophets  are 
read  by  the  higher  classes  as  a  religious  exercise. 

The  catechism  of  Luther  is  mechanically  taught  in  the 
schools,  in  order  that  the  pastor  may  initiate  the  child  into 
the  sense  of  Church  doctrine.  The  learning  of  hymns 
holds  an  important  place  in  elementary  instruction,  and 
about  fifty  are  committed  to  memory  during  the  course. 
This  closes  the  subject  of  the  religious  portion  of  element- 
ary instruction.  The  rules  regulating  it  are  very  full,  and 
beautifully  and  tersely  expressed. 


320  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GERMAN  CIVIL  SCHOOLS—  Continued. 

THE  great  aim  in  German  schools  is  practical  usefulness. 
The  time  was  when  a  school  was  judged  by  the  extent  of 
its  teaching,  but  now  the  quality  of  instruction  has  become 
the  criterion  of  excellence,  and  the  tendency  is  to  select 
subjects  which  bear  on  practical  life,  and  to  teach  them  in 
a  simple,  elementary,  but  thorough  way. 

Mr.  Pattison  says  of  the  Prussian  schools  :  "  They  may 
aim  at  little,  but  the  principle  is  to  achieve  it.  It  may 
look  too  little  to  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination,  but  it 
is  possessed  of  a  practical  spirit  which  permits  of  no  show- 
ing off.  A  Prussian  schulraih,  in  visiting  a  school,  may 
be  blind  to  many  faults,  but  his  eye  is  quick  as  light- 
ning to  detect  the  least  pretentiousness  or  hollowness  in 
teaching." 

It  is  one  great  advantage  of  a  centralized  school  govern- 
ment, that  all  incentive  to  the  exhibition  of  superficial  ac- 
complishments is  taken  away.  There  are  public  examina- 
tions, but  they  are  never  converted  into  exhibitions.  The 
elementary  school  is  not  to  communicate  knowledge,  but 
to  qualify  the  child  for  certain  simple  operations.  The  in- 
struction must  be  thorough,  but  it  must  be  elementary. 
The  master's  business  is  not  to  talk,  or  even  question,  but 
to  make  the  scholars  practice.  It  is  not  enough  that  the 
child  knows  how,  it  must  show  that  it  knows  how  by  fa- 
cility of  performance ;  and  a  pupil  is  treated  like  an  ap- 
prentice, who  learns  his  trade  by  merely  being  set  to  work 
at  it.  The  elementary  school  must  confine  itself  to  that 


WHAT  IS  TAUGHT.  321 

elementary  skill  which  every  citizen  needs,  whatever  his 
calling  may  be.  What  the  child  has  to  learn  is  not  so 
many  distinct  subjects,  but  the  connected  use  of  his  sight, 
hand,  and  voice. 

The  subjects  taught  in  a  one-class  village  school,  teach- 
ing twenty-six  hours  per  week,  are  as  follows :  religion, 
six  hours ;  reading  and  writing,  twelve  hours ;  ciphering, 
five  hours ;  and  singing,  three  hours.  This  plan  may  be 
varied  so  as  to  add  an  hour  for  drawing ;  and  in  larger 
towns,  where  there  are  more  classes,  natural  phenomena 
may  be  studied,  and  sometimes  natural  history  and  the 
geography  of  Germany  and  Europe. 

In  the  summer  season  many  village  schools  become 
half-day  schools  for  such  children  as  are  needed  on  the 
farms,-  and  the  remainder  have  more  time  devoted  to 
them,  and  can  thus  get  over  more  subjects.  These  half- 
day  schools  are  shown  by  experience  to  be  equal  to  the 
full-day  schools  in  bringing  forward  the  children  in  their 
studies,  as  those  who  are  present  receive  more  attention, 
and  the  children  are  not  fatigued  by  being  carried  through 
all -day  exercises.  Reading  and  writing  are  taught  si- 
multaneously. There  is  no  part  of  elementary  teaching 
to  which  the  scientific  mind  of  the  Germans  has  been 
more  successfully  applied  than  this.  Long  experience  has 
brought  the  method  to  wonderful  perfection. 

From  the  deaf  and  dumb  institution,  through  all  the 
grades  of  infant-schools  and  reading-classes,  the  cultivation 
of  the  speech-organ  is  an  object  of  assiduous  attention. 
Many  seminaries  have  deaf  and  dumb  institutes  attached 
to  them,  not  merely  that  the  students  may  learn  the  art 
of  teaching  such  pupils,  but  because  it  has  been  found  that 
the  principles  of  language  instruction  can  be  best  studied 
in  this  its  most  difficult  form.  The  great  number  of  prov- 
inces and  district  dialects  present  rare  difficulties  in  teach- 

21 


322  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ing,  "high"  German  being  a  new  and  foreign  .tongue  to 
some,  but  it  is  strictly  maintained  as  the  school  language. 

The  analytical  mode  of  learning  language  is  banished 
from  the  elementary  schools.  In  the  higher  institutions 
this  is,  of  course,  not  the  case;  but  the  development  of 
the  thinking  powers  is  now  recognized  as  no  part  of  the 
work  of  the  elementary  schools,  and  the  mother-tongue 
must  be  learned  by  use.  The  language  instinct  which 
every  child  possesses  must  be  cultivated  by  assiduous  ex- 
ercise, of  which  reading,  spelling,  and  writing  are  only  so 
many  different  forms.  Various  methods  of  learning  to 
read  are  used,  none  being  prescribed ;  but  nowhere,  for  the 
last  thirty  years,  except  in  the  more  backward  parts  of 
North  Germany,  has  the  one  so  common  with  us  been 
employed — beginning  with  the  names  of  letters,  and  the 
spelling  of  words  with  these  names.  There  is  no  standard 
reading-book,  and  it  is  found  very  difficult  to  produce  one 
that  shall  meet  all  requirements.  It  must  be  the  guide  in 
literary  style,  and  a  book  of  practical  grammar,  natural 
history,  and  useful  knowledge,  in  concise  and  entertaining 
form.  It  must  also  be  free  from  moral  teaching,  which  is 
left  to  its  proper  place.  It  must,  in  fact,  be  a  portable  en- 
cyclopedia of  useful  knowledge,  suited  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  children. 

In  the  great  majority  of  the  common  schools  and  all  of 
the  higher  ones,  a  delicacy  and  beauty  of  handwriting  is 
acquired  which  is  unrivaled  by  any  other  people.  Writ- 
ing is  taught  either  from  lithographic  copies,  graded  as 
the  child  advances,  or,  when  there  is  time,  by  the  teacher 
direct  from  the  blackboard,  explaining  and  writing  every 
curve,  line,  and  motion,  and  followed  by  the  children  in 
the  copy.  There  is  much  said  of  an  American  system 
which  is  gaining  ground  at  the  schools.  Arithmetic  is 
taught  in  a  purely  practical  way,  and  fatiguing  mental 


WHAT  IS  TAUGHT.  323 

exercises  are  prohibited.  The  pupils  are  made  perfectly 
familiar  with  units  before  going  on  with  tens,  and  know 
these  well  before  proceeding  to  hundreds. 

When  geography,  history,  and  the  natural  studies  are 
taught,  they  come  either  directly  or  suggestively  from,  the 
reading-book.  In  geography  the  child  must  first  know 
the  spot  where  it  then  is,  and  then  extend  its  knowledge 
to  contiguous  regions — all  being  co-ordinated  from  the 
place  which  the  scholar  actually  sees  and  knows. 

Mr.  Mann  gives  so  graphic  an  account  of  a  geography 
lesson,  as  to  tempt  me  to  repeat  it  in  full  : 

"The  teacher  stood  by  the  blackboard,  with  the  chalk  in  his  hand.  After 
casting  his  eye  over  the  class  to  see  that  all  were  ready,  he  struck  at  the  mid- 
dle of  the  board  $  with  a  rapidity  of  hand  which  my  eye  could  hardly  follow, 
he  made  a  series  of  those  short  diverging  lines,  or  shadings,  employed  by  map 
engravers  to  represent  a  chain  of  mountains.  He  had  scarcely  turned  an 
angle  or  shot  off  a  spur,  when  the  scholars  began  to  cry  out :  '  Carpathian 
Mountains,'  'Hungary,'  ' Black  Forest  Mountains, '  '  Wurtemberg, '  'Giant's 
Mountains,'  'Riesen  Gebirge,'  'Silesia,'  'Metallic  Mountains,'  'Erz  Ge» 
birge,'  'Pine  Mountains,'  Tichtel  Gebirge,'  'Central  Mountains,'  'Mittel 
Gebirge,'  'Bohemia,'  etc.,  etc.  In  less  than  half  a  minute  the  ridge  of  that 
grand  central  elevation  which  separates  the  waters  that  flow  north-west  into 
the  German  Ocean  from  those  that  flow  north  into  the  Baltic,  and  south-east 
into  the  Black  Sea,  was  presented  to  view,  executed  almost  as  beautifully  as 
an  engraving.  A  dozen  crinkling  strokes,  made  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye, 
represented  the  head -waters  of  the  great  rivers  which  flow  in  different  direc- 
tions from  that  mountainous  range;  while  the  children,  almost  as  eager  and 
excited  as  though  they  had  actually  seen  the  torrents  dashing  down  the 
mountain  sides,  cried  out:  *  Danube,'  'Elbe,'  'Vistula,'  'Oder, 'etc.  The 
next  moment  I  heard  a  succession  of  small  strokes  or  taps,  so  rapid  as  to  be 
almost  indistinguishable;  and  hardly  had  my  eye  time  to  discern  a  large 
number  of  dots  made  along  the  margins  of  the.  rivers,  when  the  shouts  of 
'Lintz,'  'Vienna,'  'Prague,'  'Dresden,'  'Berlin,'  etc.,  struck  my  ear.  At 
this  point  in  the  exercise  the  spot  which  had  been  occupied  on  the  blackboard 
was  nearly  a  circle,  of  which  the  starting-point,  or  place  where  the  teacher 
first  began,  was  the  centre ;  but  now  a  few  additional  strokes  round  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  incipient  continent  extended  the  mountain  ranges  outward 
toward  the  plains,  the  children  calling  out  the  names  of  the  countries  in 
which  they  respectively  lay.  "With  a  few  more  flourishes,  the  rivers  flowed 


324:  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

onward  toward  their  several  terminations,  and,  by  another  succession  of 
dots,  new  cities  sprang  up  along  their  banks.  By  this  time  the  children  had 
become  as  much  excited  as  though  they  had  been  present  at  a  world-making. 
They  rose  in  their  seats,  they  flung  out  both  hands,  their  eyes  kindled,  and 
their  voices  became  almost  vociferous,  as  they  cried  out  the  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent places  which,  under  the  magic  of  the  teacher's  crayon,  rose  into  view. 
Within  ten  minutes  from  the  commencement  of  the  lesson,  there  stood  upon 
the  blackboard  a  beautiful  map  of  Germany,  with  its  mountains,  principal 
rivers  and  cities,  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean,  of  the  Baltic  and  Black 
Seas,  and  all  so  accurately  proportioned,  that  I  think  only  slight  errors  would 
have  been  found  had  it  been  subjected  to  the  test  of  a  scale  of  miles." 


Drawing  is  carried  no  farther  in  the  common  schools 
of  North  Germany  than  simple  free-hand  drawing •  but  in 
South  Germany  the  study  is  made  more  of. 

Singing  is  taught  by  ear  and  by  note.  It  is  not  carried 
beyond  church  music  and  the  national  airs,  and  the  chil- 
dren must  sing  in  church  the  next  Sunday  the  pieces  they 
have  learned  during  the  week.  Mr.  Mann  says : 

"The  Prussian  teacher  has  no  book.  He  needs  none.  He  teaches  from 
a  full  mind.  He  does  not  cumber  or  darken  the  subject  with  any  technical 
phraseology.  He  observes  what  proficiency  the  child  has  made,  and  then 
adapts  his  instructions,  both  in  quality  and  amount,  to  the  necessity  of  the 
case.  He  answers  all  questions,  and  solves  all  doubts.  It  is  one  of  his  ob- 
jects, at  every  recitation,  so  to  present  ideas,  that  they  shall  start  doubts  and 
provoke  questions.  He  connects  each  lesson  with  all  kindred  and  collateral 
ones,  and  shows  its  relation  to  the  every-day  duties  and  business  of  life ;  and 
should  the  most  ignorant  man,  or  the  most  destitute  vagrant  in  society,  ask 
him  'of  what  use  can  such  knowledge  be?'  he  will  prove  to  him  in  a  word 
that  some  of  his  own  pleasures  or  means  of  subsistence  are  dependent  upon 
it,  or  have  been  created  or  improved  by  it." 

These  are  the  routine  matters  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  scope  of  the  system  may  seem  narrow,  but 
is  not  so  in  reality.  The  experience  of  years  of  deliberate 
trial  is  that,  from  seven  to  fourteen,  children  can  not  learn 
more  than  the  mastery  over  the  rudiments  and  means  of 
future  cultivation — the  organs  of  speech  and  song,  the  ma- 


WHAT  IS  TAUGHT.  325 

terial  of  language,  the  relations  of  numbers,  the  pen  and 
the  pencil.  The  child  is  not  to  be  taught  to  know,  but  to 
do ;  not  to  acquire  knowledge,  but  to  develop  capacity. 

It  may  be  desirable  that  children  should  have  industrial 
training  or  artistic  culture,  or  learn  instrumental  music  or 
physical  science ;  but  average  boys  and  girls  can  not  do 
these  things  without  sacrificing  the  elementary  skill  which 
can  best  be  acquired  in  childhood.  The  efforts  to  restrict 
the  elementary  school  to  acquisition  of  this  skill  have  not 
been  efforts  to  keep  down  the  education  of  the  masses,  but 
to  place  it  on  the  only  solid  foundation.  The  duties  of  the 
elementary  school  are  not  arbitrarily  denned,  but  define 
themselves  as  soon  as  it  is  understood  that  they  end  at 
fourteen. 

Prussia  must  provide  a  general  system  of  higher  schools, 
to  take  up  education  where  the  common  schools  leave  it, 
before  she  can  fully  merit  all  the  praises  usually  given 
her;  but  how  many  there  are  of  our  own  States  that  fall 
far  below  what  she  now  accomplishes ! 

In  thickly  populated  communities  and  large  cities,  vari- 
ous grades  of  higher  schools  already  exist,  introductory 
to  secondary  education ;  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  Gov- 
ernment prohibition  regarding  them,  and  the  children  who 
may  attend  them.  Under  more  liberal  treatment,  these 
would  go  far  toward  supplying  the  higher  education  which 
is  necessary.  It  is  sometimes  said,  in  criticism  of  the  Ger- 
man system,  that  the  individual  scholar  is  lost  in  the  class, 
like  a  soldier  in  a  company ;  that  the  programme  of  stud- 
ies is  too  inflexible,  and  the  supervision  too  minute. 

An  observer  and  traveler  in  1842  pronounced  the  Prus- 
sian educational  system  "  a  deception  practiced  for  the  pal- 
try political  end  of  rearing  the  individual  to  be  part  and 
parcel  of  a  despotic  system  of  government;  of  training 
him  to  be  either  its  instrument  or  its  slave,  according  to 


326  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

his  social  station ;"  while  one  hears  in  all  parts  of  Germa- 
ny that  the  national  school-masters  at  that  very  time  were 
sowing  the  seeds  of  democracy,  which  burst  forth  six  years 
later. 

One  notices  in  Germany  a  want  of  individual  energy  of 
character.     Mr.  Horace  Mann  says  upon  this  subject : 

"When  the  children  come  out  of  the  school-room,  they  have  little  use  for 
the  knowledge  acquired  there,  or  their  faculties  that  have  been  developed ; 
their  resources  are  not  brought  into  demand ;  their  powers  are  not  roused  nor 
exercised.  Our  common  phrases — 'The  activities  of  life,'  'The  responsibili- 
ties of  citizenship,'  '  The  career  of  action,'  '  The  obligation  to  posterity,'  would 
be  strange-sounding  words  in  a  Prussian's  ear.  The  Government  steps  in  to 
take  care  of  the  subject  almost  as  much  as  the  subject  takes  care  of  his  cattle. 
The  subject  has  no  officers  to  choose,  no  inquiries  into  the  character  of  his 
candidate  to  make,  no  vote  to  give.  He  has  no  laws  to  enact  or  abolish. 
He  has  no  questions  about  peace  or  war,  finance,  taxes,  tariffs,  post-offices, 
nor  internal  improvements  to  decide  or  discuss.  He  is  not  asked  where  a 
road  shall  be  laid  or  a  bridge  shall  be  built — although  in  one  case  he  per- 
forms the  labor,  and  in  the  other  supplies  the  materials.  His  sovereign  is 
born  to  him,  the  laws  are  made  for  him.  In  war,  his  part  is  not  to  declare 
it,  or  end  it,  but  to  fight  it,  and  pay  for  it.  The  tax-gatherer  tells  him  how 
much  he  has  to  pay ;  the  ecclesiastical  authority  plans  a  church  he  has  to 
build ;  his  spiritual  guide  prepares  a  confession  of  faith  all  ready  for  his  sig- 
nature. He  is  dictated  alike  how  he  must  obey  his  king,  and  worship  his  God. 
Now,  although  there  is  a  sleeping  ocean  in  the  bosom  of  every  child  that  is 
born  into  the  world,  yet  if  no  freshening,  life-giving  breeze  ever  sweeps  across 
its  surface,  why  should  it  not  sleep  in  dark  stagnation  forever  ?" 

OF  THE   ELEMENTAKY  SCHOOL-TEACHEKS. 

In  nearly  all  German  states  the  administration  under- 
takes to  test  the  fitness  of  the  teacher  for  his  office,  and  to 
educate  him  for  it ;  and  in  no  state  can  any  person  with- 
out a  certificate  of  fitness  teach  either  in  a  public  or  pri- 
vate school.  Until  1810,  no  certificate  was  required,  but 
private  patronage  of  schools  often  abused  its  trust,  and 
"William  von  Humboldt,  while  at  the  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  instituted  the  test  of  trial.  Afterward 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL-TEACHERS.  327 

a  year's  preparation  was  required ;  but  at  present  a  three 
years'  course  is  prescribed  at  schools  specially  provided 
for  the  purpose.  There  are  not  less  than  sixty  of  these 
schools,  called  seminaries,  in  Prussia  for  the  education  of 
elementary  school-teachers.  A  few  of  these  are  private 
schools,  but  in  system  and  course  do  not  differ  from  the 
Government  establishments.  A  young  man  must  have  re- 
ceived the  elementary  schooling  of  the  country,  and  been 
confirmed  ;  and,  as  he  can  not  enter  until  the  age  of  eight- 
een, the  four  years  after  his  confirmation  are  usually  pass- 
ed in  preparation  for  the  seminary.  The  seminary  build- 
ings are  not  usually  imposing,  but  suffer  from  the  parsi- 
mony with  which  the  school  in  Prussia  is  always  treated. 
They  are  scrupulously  clean,  well  ventilated,  have  large 
and  abundant  maps,  large  engravings,  and  blackboards. 

The  cost  of  board  is  usually  about  forty  thalers  a  year; 
and  as  the  students  do  all  their  own  serving  except  cook- 
ing, the  whole  expense  is  but  little  more  than  that  of 
board.  The  entrance  examination  is  easy,  little  being  re- 
quired beyond  the  elementary  course.  Great  caution  is 
exercised,  however,  as  to  the  moral  qualifications,  and  pri- 
vate life  and  character  of  the  candidate,  who  must  know 
Luther's  catechism  by  heart,  and  the  principal  doctrinal 
texts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  instruc- 
tion is  distributed  over  three  years,  as  follows.  The  first 
year  is  occupied  with  bringing  the  pupil  within  the  influ- 
ences of  the  place,  and  making  him  feel  what  it  is  that  he 
should  become.  In  the  second  year  he  goes  over  more 
thoroughly  the  ground  he  has  already  traversed  at  school, 
and  during  the  third  is  drilled  in  model  schools,  and  has 
lessons  in  school  management.  The  religious  instruction 
runs  on  through  the  whole  of  this  time,  but  is  not  so  much 
a  branch  of  teaching  as  a  paramount  influence. 

The  school,  subjects  are  classified  as  follows :  Keligion, 


328  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

language,  history,  geography,  natural  history,  arithmetic, 
writing,  drawing,  singing,  theory  of  music,  use  of  violin, 
piano,  and  organ.  The  subjects  are  divided  among  four 
teachers,  known  as  a  director,  head  teacher,  music-teacher, 
and  fourth  teacher.  There  is  something  approaching  bar- 
rack life  in  these  schools,  and  military  exactitude  in  the 
studies — the  hours  of  labor  and  recreation  being  distributed 
as  in  the  Prussian  military  schools.  Nothing  like  famil- 
iarity is  permitted  between  the  teachers  and  pupils,  and  the 
closest  watch  is  kept  over  the  lives  and  conduct  of  the  lat- 
ter. To  enter  a  beer  saloon  is  forbidden,  and  to  be  seen 
smoking  is  certain  dismissal.  There  is  no  idle  time  either 
for  teacher  or  scholar.  The  first  examination  takes  place 
at  the  end  of  the  three  years'  seminary  course,  when  others 
may  be  examined  for  the  office  of  school-master.  They 
are  called  "  wild  men,"  to  distinguish  them  from  trained 
men,  and,  in  addition  to  the  usual  examination,  are  re- 
quired to  present  a  host  of  testimonials  upon  a  multitude 
of  points.  This  examination  for  all  is  very  severe,  and 
those  accepted  are  rated  as  "very  good,"  "good,"  and 
"sufficient."  The  graduates  are  at  once  assigned  to  some 
province  as  provisional  or  assistant  teachers,  and  attache^ 
to  schools.  After  three  years'  duty,  they  are  again  exam- 
ined, mainly  on  their  performance  as  teachers  during  those 
years,  and,  if  found  worthy,  become  full  teachers. 

In  Prussia,  the  teacher,  on  receiving  his  definite  appoint- 
ment, must  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and,  since  1850,  the 
oath  of  the  constitution.  In  Saxony,  the  teacher  is  sworn 
"to  remain  faithful  to  the  pure  evangelical  doctrine  as  the 
same  is  contained  in  Holy  Scripture,  and  expounded  and  set 
forth  in  the  first  unaltered  Augsburg  Confession  and  in  Lu- 
ther's Catechism,  and  diligently  and  purely  teach  the  same." 

The  following  are  from  the  "  Official  Seminary  Kegula- 
tions  of  Prussia :" 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL-TEACHERS.  329 

"SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

"There  shall  be  taught  school  management  for  not  more  than  two  hours 
in  the  week.  This  may  continue  for  the  first  year — a  simple  picture  of  the 
Christian  school  in  its  first  origin,  and  its  relation  to  family,  Church,  and 
State. 

"In  the  second  year  the  object  and  the  arrangement  of  the  elementary 
school  may  be  explained,  and  the  proper  principles  of  elementary  Christian 
instruction  expounded. 

"  In  the  third  year  the  pupils  may  be  taught  their  future  duties  as  sen-ants 
of  the  Church  and  State,  and  the  means  of  improvement  after  they  leave  the 
seminary ;  but  the  greater  portion  of  this  time  will  be  with  the  lessons  of  the 
practicing  school." 

The  regulations  upon  the  religious  portion  of  the  semi- 
nary course  are  exceedingly  full  and  explicit,  covering 
many  pages,  and  conclude  as  follows : 

"Religious  instructions  conducted  according  to  these  principles  will  form 
teachers  clearly  aware  of  what  they  have  to  do,  possessing  within  themselves 
a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  word,  doctrine,  and  life  of  the  Evangelical 
Church.  It  will  open  to  them  the  entrance  upon  a  God-fearing  life,  in. 
which  they  may  find  practical  experience  of  the  course  by  which  God  leads 
us  from  sin  to  justification  by  faith,  which  worketh  by  love.  To  this  end  the 
whole  life  in  the  seminary  must  be  brought  under  the  discipline  of  the  Word 
and  the  Spirit.  Pupils  and  teachers  alike  must  draw  from  the  fountain  of 
grace,  and  the  community  must  exhibit  a  pattern  of  common  Christian  life." 

These  regulations  take  up  in  succession  each  subject  of 
study,  and  describe  its  use  and  the  method  of  teaching  in 
full  and  perspicuous  terms.  Of  knowledge  of  nature,  they 

say : 

"Natural  history  shall  be  taught  in  the  first  and  second  year  classes  two 
hours  a  week — not  in  a  strictly  scientific  way,  nor  adopting  any  classifica- 
tion. The  principal  indigenous  plants  and  animals  shall  be  brought  before 
the  pupils,  and  described  to  them.  In  botany  a  foundation  for  future  study 
shall  be  laid.  They  shall  be  taught  to  distinguish  the  principal  native  min- 
erals and  rocks.  A  popular  description  of  the  human  body  shall  be  given. 
The  pupil  should  acquire  a  love  for  nature  and  natural  occupations,  and  a 
practical  direction  should  be  given  to  this  branch  of  instruction  by  constant 


330  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

reference  to  gardening,  agriculture,  industry,  and  trades.  In  the  third  year 
the  student  may  advance  into  natural  philosophy,  which  shall  always  be 
treated  in  an  experimental  way,  without  mathematical  formulae.  The  com- 
mon instruments,  machines,  and  mechanical  powers  may  be  explained  to 
them,  with  the  phenomena  of  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism." 

Of  writing,  the  regulations  say  that  it 

"  Shall  be  taught  with  a  special  view  to  obtaining  a  plain  and  flowing 
hand,  and,  secondly,  to  learning  how  to  set  clear  copies  of  single  letters  and 
strokes  in  proper  succession  for  the  school.  The  copies  executed  by  the 
pupils  are  to  be  at  once  exercises  in  caligraphy  and  an  intellectual  discipline. 
The  method  of  teaching  to  write  is  to  be  learned  along  with  the  practice  in 
writing. " 

Special  instructions  are  given  for  teaching  the  violin, 
organ,  piano,  and  in  vocal  music ;  also  in  gymnastics  and 
gardening. 

The  position  of  teacher  in  Germany  is  one  of  the  high- 
est respectability,  as  well  it  should  be.  They  are  a  body 
of  educated,  courteous,  refined,  moral,  and  learned  men, 
laboring  with  earnest  enthusiasm  among  the  poorest  class 
of  their  countrymen.  They  are  devoted  to  their  duties, 
have  strong  fraternal  feelings,  and  often  hold  conferences 
among  themselves  to  discuss  matters  of  general  profession- 
al interest.  The  Government  has  recognized  the  value  of 
their  influence  and  their  power  for  good,  and  has  done  its 
part  in  making  the  position  of  the  teacher  enviable. 

The  effect  of  the  labors  of  the  teachers  upon  the  people 
of  Germany  is  beyond  belief.  The  curse  of  poverty  has 
been  almost  removed.  One  sees,  apparently,  no  poor  chil- 
dren ;  all  are  well  and  cleanly  clad  ;  all  are  courteous ;  all 
have  bright,  intelligent  faces ;  and  one  is  incredulous  when 
told  that  some  of  them  are  peasants'  children. 

On  my  way  from  Frankfort  to  Berlin,  at  nearly  all  the 
stations,  when  for  a  moment  I  could  get  off  the  train,  I  al- 
ways saw  young  ladies,  neatly  and  prettily  dressed,  serv- 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL-TEACHERS.  331 

ing  soup,  bread,  and  meat  to  the  sick  and  wounded  sol- 
diers returning  from  France,  and,  on  recognizing  my  uni- 
form, as  they  always  did,  they  would  address  me  in  good 
English,  asking  many  questions  of  our  country,  and  of  our 
views  of  the  war.  We  have  many  lessons  yet  to  learn 
from  these  same  much-ridiculed  German  people,  and  per- 
haps in  nothing  can  they  teach  us  more  than  in  this  mak- 
ing of  thoroughly  good  school-teachers. 

Every  town  has  its  newspapers,  and  the  poor  all  read 
them,  several  often  clubbing  together  for  that  purpose. 
Their  houses  are  scrupulously  clean  and  constantly  white- 
washed, the  villages  neat  and  orderly,  and  the  lands  beau- 
tifully cultivated.  If  any  are  unable  to  pay  the  school 
rate,  or  to  clothe  their  children  well  enough  to  go  to 
school,  the  neighborhood  at  once  provides  what  is  neces- 
sary. They  have  no  poor-schools.  Mr.  Kay  says  : 

"On  arriving  at  one  of  the  towns,  I  engaged  a  poor  man  as  guide.  I 
asked  him  to  take  me  to  see  some  of  the  schools  where  some  of  the  poor 
were  educated,  and  told^him  I  wished  to  visit  the  worst  schools.  He  an- 
swered me,  'Sir,  we  have  no  bad  schools  here,  our  schools  are  all  good.'  I 
said,  'Well,  take  me  to  the  worst  you  know.'  He  answered  again,  'I  don't 
know  any  poor  ones,  but  will  take  you  to  where  my  children  go.'  It  was  a 
lofty  and  handsome  building,  five  stories  high  and  sixty  feet  broad.  In  the 
two  upper  stories,  all  the  teachers,  ten  in  number,  resided ;  on  the  lower  floor 
there  were  ten  class-rooms,  twenty  feet  long,  fifteen  feet  broad,  and  fourteen 
feet  high,  fitted  up  with  parallel  rows  of  desks,  maps,  drawing-boards,  and 
school-books.  Five  of  these  rooms  were  for  boys,  and  five  for  girls.  The 
desk  stood  in  front  of  all,  and  the  walls  were  covered  with  maps,  pictures, 
and  blackboards.  All  of  these  were  suited  to  the  age  and  attainments  of  the 
children  for  whom  the  rooms  were  destined,  and  the  children,  after  remain- 
ing a  year  and  a  half  in  one,  were  passed  to  the  next.  The  children  were  so 
clean  and  respectably  dressed  that  I  could  not  believe  they  were  the  children 
of  poor  persons.  I  expressed  my  doubt  to  my  guide.  His  answer  was,  'My 
children  are  here,  sir;'  and  then,  turning  to  the  teacher,  he  requested  him  to 
tell  me  who  were  the  parents  of  the  children  present ;  the  teacher  made  the 
children  stand  up  one  after  another,  and  tell  me  who  their  parents  were. 
From  them  I  learned  that  two  were  the  sons  of  counts,  one  the  son  of  a 
physician,  one  of  an  officer  of  the  royal  household,  one  of  a  porter,  and  oth- 


332  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ers  of  mechanics,  artisans,  and  of  laborers  who  were  too  poor  to  pay  for  their 
children's  education,  and  whose  children  were  clothed  and  educated  at  the 
expense  of  the  town.  They  all  sat  at  the  same  desks  together ;  they  were 
all  clothed  with  equal  respectability.  In  their  manners,  dress,  cleanliness, 
and  appearance  I  could  discern  no  striking  difference. 

"After  spending  some  time  in  the  different  class-rooms,  the  quiet  and  or- 
der of  which  were  admirable,  I  went  to  the  town-hall  to  see  the  chief  educa- 
tional authority  for  the  city  itself.  Outside  his  door  I  found  a  poor  woman 
waiting  to  see  him.  I  asked  her  what  she  wanted.  She  said  she  had  a  little 
girl  of  five  years  of  age,  and  that  she  wanted  to  persuade  the  minister  to  al- 
low her  to  send  her  little  daughter  to  school  a  year  before  the  legal  age  for 
admission.  I  said  to  her,  '  Why  are  you  so  anxious  to  send  your  child  to 
school  so  early  ?'  She  answered,  smiling  at  my  question,  '  The  children  learn 
at  school  so  much  which  is  useful  to  them  in  after  life,  that  I  want  her  to  be- 
gin as  soon  as  possible.'  I  thought  to  myself,  this  does  not  look  as  if  the 
people  dislike  being  obliged  to  educate  their  children." 

THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  GERMANY. 

If  I  have  devoted  a  large  portion  of  my  space  to  ele- 
mentary education,  it  is  because  in  it  we  find  Germany's 
vital  power  and  pure  religion.  Above  this  we  find  the 
higher  schools,  where  is  about  one  scholar  to  every  four  or 
five  hundred  inhabitants,  while  in  the  elementary  schools 
the  proportion  is  one  to  eight 

In  all  large  cities  and  rich  populous  communities  are 
also  found  the  "Middle  Schools,"  which  are  just  what  the 
name  implies — their  purpose  being  to  give  such  children 
as  require  it  a  middle  grade  of  education,  between  the  fixed 
elementary  course  and  the  scientific  or  classical  course. 
These  schools  are  attainable  as  yet  only  by  the  more  fa- 
vored classes,  who  live  in  large  communities ;  but  in  the 
city  of  Berlin  there  are  not  less  than  twenty  or  thirty 
thousand  pupils  in  them,  and  it  is  now  the  great  want 
of  German  education  that  they  be  increased  and  made 
general. 

The  first  grade  of  secondary  school  is  the  "Burgher 
School,"  the  character  of  which  is  indicated  by  its  name. 


THE  REAL  SCHOOL— THE  GYMNASIUM.  333 

It  differs  little  from  the  Middle  School,  and  in  many  cases 
is  identical  with  it,  but  generally  provides  a  more  advanced 
course,  and  leads  directly  to  the  next  higher  order — the 
"  Eeal  School."  The  actual  difference  between  the  Burgh- 
er School  and  the  Middle  School  is,  that  while  the  latter 
is  intended  to  finish  the  education  of  boys  who  can  not 
go  to  the  higher  schools,  the  former  is  preparatory  to  a 
further  course  of  study.  It  has  a  municipal  character, 
and  is  intended  to  supply  only  the  wants  of  the  locality. 

THE  EEAL   SCHOOL. 

The  "  Eeal  School "  forms  a  higher  and  distinct  order, 
and  is  largely  scientific,  and  intended  to  complete  the  edu- 
cation of  young  men  destined  for  callings  which  do  not  re- 
quire a  university  education.  They  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  and  Latin  is  required  in  the  highest.  As  educa- 
tion here  leads  to  a>business  career,  English  and  French 
are  both  taught.  The  Eeal  School  has  a  full  course  of 
nine  years,  which  is  so  arranged  that  pupils  can  leave  at 
intermediate  stages.  This  excellent  order  of  schools  was 
introduced  as  early  as  1738,  but  struggled  against  great 
discouragement,  and  did  not  gain  firm  footing  until  1832. 
Prussia  has  now  not  far  from  a  hundred  of  these  schools, 
and  they  form  one  of  her  best  educational  features. 

THE   GYMNASIUM. 

The  " Progymnasium "  and  "Gymnasium"  are  classical 
schools  which  lead  directly  to  the  university.  A  general 
plan  for  all  is  fixed  by  the  state,  but  great  latitude  of  de- 
tail is  left  to  the  schools  themselves  in  filling  in  their  pro- 
grammes. Prussia  proper  has  about  two  hundred  of  these 
schools.  They  all  have  a  state  character,  and  are  subject 
to  state  inspection,  must  bring  their  accounts  to  be  audited 
by  a  public  functionary,  and  can  have  no  masters  whose 


334  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

qualifications  have  not  been  strictly  and  publicly  tested. 
We  find  in  these  higher  secondary  schools  of  Prussia,  be- 
fore her  new  acquisitions,  with  a  population  of  eighteen 
millions,  seventy  four  thousand  pupils ;  while  France,  with 
thirty-six  millions,  has  but  sixty-six  thousand  of  such 
scholars  ;  and  England  and  '  Wales,  with  twenty  -  three 
millions,  but  sixteen  thousand.*  The  total  expense  of 
these  schools  in  Prussia,  in  1864,  was  two  million  five  hun- 
dred and  eighty  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty-four 
dollars;  of  which  the  fees  made  up  about  one-half,  one- 
fourth  was  borne  by  municipalities,  and  five  hundred  and 
twenty-six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two  dol- 
lars by  the  state. 

The  public  schools  are  all  very  popular,  and  are  greatly 
preferred  to  private  schools,  of  which  there  are  ten  large 
ones  in  Berlin,  and  a  few  in  other  large  cities.  They  have 
also  a  great  advantage  over  private  schools,  as  all  profes- 
sional men  in  Germany  must  pass  through  the  universities, 
the  examination  for  entrance  to  which  is  founded  on  the 
public  school  course,  and  is  conducted  by  a  commission 
composed  largely  of  the  faculties  of  the  Gymnasia.  In 
fact,  the  examination-test  in  Prussia  does  not  amount  to 
much.  What  is  sought  is  that  the  student  shall  pass  a 
certain  .number  of  years  under  instruction.  This  really 
trains  him,  while  the  examination  -  test  does  not.  The 
thoroughness  of  Prussian  education  can  be  illustrated  in 
no  better  way  than  by  describing  here  the  preparation  nec- 
essary to  matriculate  in  one  of  her  universities. 

Before  1788,  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  enter  one  of  these 
institutions.  One  only  had  to  bring  a  letter  of  recommen- 
dation from  the  school  he  left,  and  show  some  knowledge 
of  Latin.  In  that  year  a  royal  edict  was  promulgated  re- 

*  There  were  also  in  the  private  higher  schools  of  France  some  forty  thou- 
sand or  fifty  thousand  scholars,  and  a  larger  number  in  Prussia. 


THE  GYMNASIUM.  335 

quiring  that  the  pupil  be  examined  both  at  the  lower 
school  on  leaving,  and  also  on  presenting  himself  at  the 
university.  The  examination  embraced  science  and  lan- 
guage. In  1794,  after  complaints  that  the  universities  had 
many  unprofitable  students,  who  merely  came  to  escape 
military  duty,  strict  rules  were  made ;  but  there  was  no 
uniform  plan  of  examination,  and  the  regulations  were 
still  insufficient.  Humboldt  next  inaugurated  a  uniform 
plan  for  the  examination  of  candidates  for  the  university, 
and  the  result  was  recorded  in  each  case  under  the  heads 
"qualified,"  "partially  qualified,"  and  "not  qualified." 
The  universities,  however,  from  a  desire  to  fill  their  cata- 
logues, soon  admitted  all  three  grades  of  candidates.  This 
evil  is  now  corrected. 

All  candidates  are  examined  at  the  Gymnasia,  and  but 
two  grades  of  certificates  given  —  "qualified"  and  "un- 
qualified"— and  no  one  without  a  certificate  of  "qualified" 
can  matriculate ;  but  those  not  qualified  may  be  present  at 
the  lectures,  and  are  known  as  "extenue"  although  their 
parents  are  advised  to  continue  their  preparation.  The  ex- 
amining commission  is  very  carefully  constituted.  The  ex- 
amination covers  the  mother-tongue,  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
mathematics,  physics,  geography,  history,  and  divinity,  and, 
if  the  candidate  is  intended  for  the  Church,  Hebrew.  The 
paper  work  lasts  a  week,  and  if  the  candidates  fail  in  this, 
the  viva  voce  examination  is  not  tried.  Many  subjects  are 
prepared  by  the  school  authorities,  and  the  examiners  se- 
lect any  they  may  see  fit  for  the  candidate.  They  report 
on  each  performance,  "insufficient,"  "sufficient,"  "good," 
or  "excellent,"  and  no  other  terms  are  admitted.  Each 
member  of  the  commission  must  sign  the  certificate,  to 
which  the  school  authorities  add  a  report  as  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  candidate  for  conduct,  diligence,  and  attainments. 
If,  after  being  found  "  unqualified,"  he  still  insists  upon  go- 


336  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

ing  to  the  university,  his  position  is  exceptional;  he  can 
attend  lectures,  and  is  registered  in  a  book  specially  kept 
for  that  class  of  students,  but  his  time  at  the  university 
does  not  count  for  a  degree.  He  may  return  to  a  gym- 
nasium and  be  examined  once,  and  only  once  more,  but 
his  time  at  the  university  does  not  count  to  his  advantage 
until  after  he  has  passed  this  examination. 

All  who  enter  for  the  three  learned  professions,  and  for 
teachers  in  the  high  schools  and  universities,  must  pass 
through  the  regular  university  course  and  graduate. 
Those,  other  than  gymnasium  students,  who  present  them- 
selves to  the  Certifying  Board,  although  required  to  pro- 
duce testimonials,  are  more  gently  dealt  with  by  the  Board, 
and  those  who  fail  to  gain  their  certificates  may  still  at- 
tend lectures  with  the  same  class  from  the  Gymnasia. 

The  Prussian  authorities  understand  how  unreliable  a 
test  of  scholarship  and  capacity  an  examination  is,  and  airn 
to  make  it  only  such  as  a  fair  scholar  of  average  ability 
and  diligence  may  at  the  end  of  his  school  course  come 
to  with  a  quiet  mind,  and  without  a  painful  preparatory 
effort. 

Great  security  and  dignity  is  given  to  all  school  officials 
in  Prussia,  and  the  law  protects  them  from  all  harsh  treat- 
ment by  the  central  authority.  The  minister  may  suspend 
for  a  short  period,  but  can  not  dismiss.  Every  one  in 
Prussia,  of  all  politics  and  creeds,  joins  in  bearing  testi- 
mony that  public  instruction  is  in  no  way  made  a  political 
instrument,  and  that  it  could  not  be  ;  that  the  state  admin- 
istration of  the  schools  and  universities  is  fair  and  right, 
and  that  public  opinion  would  not  permit  them  to  be  gov- 
erned by  political  interests.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  that 
the  state  has  such  faith  in  culture  and  in  its  schools  that  it 
will  not  permit  them  to  be  sacrificed  to  any  other  interest. 

The  scale  of  salary  for  all  these  high-school  officials 


THE  UNIVERSITIES.  337 

ranges  from  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  dollars  for  a 
master  of  the  lowest  grade,  to  one  thousand  five  hundred 
dollars  a  year  for  a  director  of  the  highest.  This  is  in  full 
for  every  thing ;  and  when  house-room  and  other  allow- 
ances are  furnished,  a  per  centum  is  deducted.  Some  of 
the  higher  functionaries  in  some  of  the  universities  receive 
as  much  as  three  or  four  thousand  dollars  a  year. 

THE   UNIVERSITIES. 

I  will  only  glance  at  the  universities,  and  close  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  the  function  of  the  university  to  develop  into 
science  the  knowledge  a  student  may  bring  with  him  from 
the  secondary  school,  while  it  directs  him  toward  his  chosen 
profession.  Prussia  has  seven  universities — at  Berlin,  Bonn, 
Breslau,  Greifwalde,  Konigsberg,  Minister,  and  Brauns- 
berg.  They  have  two  hundred  professors,  and  about  seven 
thousand  students,  although  many  Prussian  scholars  go  to 
Heidelberg,  Leipsic,  Gottingen,  and  Jena.  They  all  differ 
in  many  points  of  detail,  but  their  general  management  is 
alike.  None  of  theft  can  boast  of  antiquity  like  those  of 
France  or  England.  They  all  have  some  property  and 
some  funds,  but  are  mostly  supported  by  their  scholars, 
and  the  state  steps  in  to  pay  the  rest.  The  professors  are 
appointed  by  the  minister,  but  they  act  very  independently 
of  him  in  the  management  of  their  universities.  The  uni- 
versity authorities  are  as  follows :  first,  a  rector,  who  is 
chosen  by  the  professors  from  among  themselves,  and  is 
responsible  for  its  discipline ;  then  the  university  senate, 
elected  in  the  same  way,  who,  with  the  rector  as  chairman, 
administer  internal  affairs ;  then  the  faculties — of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  and  philosophy— who  are  required  to  ad- 
minister their  own  departments,  and  are  responsible  for 
the  attendance  of  their  scholars.  All  the  full  professors 
and  assistants  are  a  teaching  body,  and,  in  connection,  so 

22 


338  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

arrange  the  course  of  lectures  that  all  the  ground  to  be 
gone  over  shall  be  covered,  free  liberty  of  choice  of  sub- 
jects being  given  as  far  as  possible.  Besides  the  regular 
professors,  there  are  private  professors.  If  a  young  man 
of  learning  wishes  to  become  a  private  professor,  he  makes 
application,  and  is  permitted  to  lecture  before  a  committee 
of  the  faculty,  who  examine  him,  and,  if  he  passes,  author- 
ize him  to  use  the  lecture-rooms  when  not  required  by  the 
regular  professors,  and  to  lecture  upon  any  of  the  subjects 
covered  by  the  university  course.  He  gets  no  regular  pay 
— only  fees — and  attendance  upon  his  lectures  counts  in 
the  student's  favor.  As  the  private  professor  has  a  repu- 
tation to  make,  and  the  example  of  distinguished  men  be- 
fore him,  he  works  hard,  while  the  regular  professors,  not 
to  be  outdone,  are  also  driven  to  their  best  performance. 
The  plan  is  ingenious,  and  makes  it  impossible  for  profess- 
ors to  lapse  into  routine,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  our  own 
institutions.  The  number  of  private  and  full  professors  in 
a  university  is  generally  about  equal.  The  course  is  three 
years  in  theology,  law,  and  philosophy,  and  four  in  medi- 
cine. The  fees  in  each  course  of  lectures  range  from  four 
to  ten  dollars ;  but  there  are  a  few  free  scholarships,  and 
an  arrangement  exists  by  which  poor  students  can  pay  for 
their  lectures  by  their  services  after  graduating.  Profess- 
ors are  also  authorized  to  admit  without  charge  many  who 
are  not  able  to  pay.  About  every  third  scholar  works 
hard — the  others  indifferently.  Students  are  marked  only 
for  the  lectures  they  attend,  and  the  examination-test  can 
not  compensate  for  absence.  In  fact,  without  a  satisfac- 
tory attendance,  the  student  can  not  get  his  certificate  of 
authority  to  appear  for  examination  at  all.  This  examina- 
tion consists  of  three  or  four  days  of  paper-work,  and  six 
or  eight  hours  of  viva  voce.  For  lawyers  and  clergymen 
there  is  a  second  examination  three  years  afterward. 


THE  UNIVERSITIES.  339 

In  conclusion,  what  is  perhaps  most  admirable  in  Ger- 
many is,  that  while  material  progress  is  rapid,  culture  is 
also  a  living  power.  Petty  towns  have  their  universities 
that  are  celebrated  throughout  the  world,  and  the  King  of 
Prussia  and  Prince  Bismarck  oppose  the  departure  of  a 
great  savant  from  Prussia  as  they  would  the  loss  of  na- 
tional power.  Were  you  to  ask  a  Prussian  the  tangible 
advantage  of  this  system  of  education,  he  would  reply  that 
it  had  enabled  their  trained  business  men  in  every  part  of 
the  world  to  beat  all  other  people,  with  equal  terms  as  to 
capital ;  and  M.  Durey,  the  late  educational  minister  of 
France,  says,  "  The  young  men  of  North  Germany,  all  over 
the  Continent,  are  securing,  by  reason  of  their  better  in- 
struction, a  confidence  and  command  in  business  which 
the  young  men  of  no  other  nation  can  dispute  with  them." 
Who  of  us  has  failed  to  see  something  of  this  in  America? 
And  if  you  ask  them  how  they  effected  their  astonishing 
successes  in  Austria  and  France,  they  will  reply,  by  thor- 
oughly learning  their  business  on  the  best  plan  by  which 
it  was  possible  to  teach  it  to  them.  This  is  the  merest 
sketch  of  what  might,  with  interest  and  advantage,  be  ex- 
panded into  volumes. 

The  influence  of  the  German  people  is  destined  to  be 
great,  and  will  be  exercised  for  good  and  peaceful  ends. 
They  may  go  to  war,  for  war  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
secure  peace.  We  felt  this  German  power  in  our  war,  and 
know  for  what  it  was  applied.  No  European  nation  can 
again  attack  them,  except  their  near  neighbor  Eussia,  with 
whom  there  is  the  warmest  relation  of  friendship  and  fra- 
ternity. And  the  other  great  nation  of  the  future — our- 
selves— can  have  no  other  wish  or  interest  than  to  join  this 
moral  alliance,  and  secure  those  ends  which  will  best  pro- 
mote the  good  of  mankind. 


34:0  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FRENCH  CIVIL  SCHOOLS— EARLY  HISTORY.* 

POPULAR  education  has  sprung  out  of  the  ideas  and 
necessities  of  modern  times,  and  elementary  schools  for 
the  poor  are  institutions  of  recent  history.  With  second- 
ary schools  it  is  different.  They  have  a  long  history,  go- 
ing back,  through  a  series  of  changes  in  every  European 
country,  to  the  very  beginning  of  its  civilization.  The 
rich  and  noble  houses  always  had  their  schools,  although 
not  all  of  their  class  were  educated.  All  the  countries  of 
Western  Europe  had,  in  the  feudal  and  Catholic  Middle 
Ages,  their  monasteries  and  universities,  which  furnished 
teachers  and  controlled  education,  and  the  great  centre 
and  head  of  all  was  the  University  of  Paris.  Here  came 
Roger  Bacon,  Dante,  and  Charles  IV.,  the  founder  of  the 
first  university  of  the  German  Empire,  It  was  to  Paris 
that  the  rival  popes  referred  their  disputes  for  final  decis- 
ion ;  and  in  Asia,  in  foreign  cities,  on  battle-fields,  among 
statesmen,  princes,  priests,  and  scholars  passed  this  word  of 
recognition,  "  Nos  fuimus  simul  in  Qalaudia"  the  Rue  de 
Galaude  being  an  old  street  in  the  Latin  quarter. 

Roman  civilization  had  established  a  system  of  schools 
in  Gaul  before  her  overthrow  by  the  barbarians  in  the 
fourth  century;  but  during  the  confusion  that  followed 
from  the  fourth  to  the  twelfth  centuries,  the  schools  of 
France  were  confined  to  the  monasteries.  During  the 

*  I  am  indebted  for  much  that  is  in  this  chapter  to  the  Reports  of  Pro- 
fessor Arnold,  commissioner  for  the  British  Government  to  investigate  and 
report  upon  the  education  of  the  Continent. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS. 

ninth  century  some  provisions  were  made  by  the  pope  for 
the  instruction  of  children  outside  the  Church,  and  Char- 
lemagne caused  a  school  to  be  opened  on  a  scale  of  great 
magnificence  for  the  education  of  the  young  nobility, 
which,  however,  fell  into  disuse  at  his  death. 

THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  great 
school  of  Paris  received  its  charter  and  the  name  "  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,"  and,  forty-nine  years  later,  the  first  col- 
lege of  the  University  of  Oxford  was  founded.  Four  na- 
tions composed  the  University  of  Paris — France,  Picardy, 
Normandy,  and  England.  It  embraced  a  faculty  of  arts, 
which  was  pre-eminent,  and  of  theology,  law,  and  medi- 
cine. For  a  long  time  the  chancellor  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Notre-Dame  was  academical  chief  of  the  university,  both 
having  a  common  seal.  At  last  the  university  struck  a 
seal  of  its  own,  which  the  pope  ordered  broken.  The 
scholars  rose  in  insurrection,  and  drove  the  chancellor  out 
of  the  city.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  pope,  who, 
after  several  years,  yielded  to  the  wishes  of  the  university. 
The  license  to  teach,  the  great  goal  of  the  university  course, 
was  still  held  by  the  ecclesiastical  power  (the  chancellor  of 
the  Cathedral),  and  not  until  this  was  granted  could  the 
academic  degree  be  awarded.  Not  only  was  the  univer- 
sity thus  hampered  and  circumvented  by  the  great  Metro- 
politan Church,  but  the  mendicant  orders  intruded  them- 
selves upon  it  in  every  way,  claiming  the  privileges  of  uni- 
versity students,  to  which  they  were  at  last  admitted  by 
the  pope. 

The  university  at  one  time,  with  its  dependencies,  com- 
prised a  third  of  the  population  of  the  city.  It  was  ex- 
empt from  taxation,  its  own  courts  administered  justice, 
and  it  exercised  complete  power  over  Paris  by  threatening 


342  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

to  close  its  lectures  unless  permitted  to  carry  its  meas- 
ures. It  adopted  the  plan  of  instruction  by  means  of  lec- 
tures, and  seems,  in  this  respect,  to  have  left  an  impress 
upon  schools  in  France  which  they  still  retain.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  colleges  sprang  up  rapidly  over  France ; 
and  branch  universities  were  established  at  Orleans,  An- 
gers, Toulouse,  and  Moritpellier,  among  whose  students  we 
find  the  names  of  Erasmus,  Kabelais,  and  Loyola. 

The  glory  of  the  University  of  Paris  was  in  its  faculty 
of  arts.  Its  course  embraced  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dia- 
lectic, besides  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music. 
This  was  the  liberal  course  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  came 
direct  from  the  schools  of  ancient  Eome.  Ehetoric  em- 
braced poetry,  history,  and  composition,  and  dialectic  took 
in  the  whole  scope  of  philosophy.  Unhappily  the  univer- 
sity did  not  follow  the  growth  of  the  times,  nor  teach  the 
new  studies  of  the  Renaissance,  and  animate  by  them  the 
French  schools,  of  which  it  was  the  head.  Eamus,  the 
representative  in  the.  university  of  the  new  order  of  things, 
who  was  attached  to  the  College  of  Navarre,  passed  his 
life  in  bitter  conflict  with  the  university,  and  was  twice 
condemned— once  for  his  an ti- Aristotelian  heresies,  and 
once  for  Calvinism.  A  retrograde  spirit  infected  the  uni- 
versity, and  the  colleges  and  schools  of  France,  which  ev- 
erywhere depended  upon  it. 

THE   COLLEGE  OF  FRANCE. 

The  College  of  France,  an  institution  founded  by  Francis 
I.,  and  disconnected  from  the  university,  for  the  first  time 
in  France  made  Greek  and  Hebrew  a  part  of  the  course, 
and  established  chairs  for  mathematics,  philosophy,  medi- 
cine, surgery,,  anatomy,  and  botany.  This  institution  was 
spared  by  the  Eevolution,  while  all  others  perished. 


THE  JESUITS.  343 

THE  JESUITS. 

The  Jesuits  now  came  to  successfully  dispute  the  prov- 
ince, so  long  held  unchallenged  by  the  university.  Dur- 
ing their  hundred  years  of  unfettered  teachings,  ending 
with  their  dissolution  in  1762,  they  established  eighty -six 
colleges  in  France.  This  example  was  followed  by  the 
various  monastic  orders.  The  resources  of  the  university 
were  still  intact,  but  the  administration  was  no  better  than 
the  instruction.  Among  the  resources  of  the  university 
were  the  post-office  and  the  office  of  public  conveyances, 
but  it  was  compelled  to  render  these  up  to  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  livres 
annually.  The  university  undertook  also,  as  part  of  the 
transaction,  to  make  its  instruction  gratuitous.  In  1764, 
the  Jesuit  schools  wefe  closed,  and  the  members  of  the  or- 
der expelled  from  France.  The  loss  of  their  services  as 
teachers  was  soon  most  seriously  felt.  Eousseau,  among 
writers,  and  Turgot,  among  statesmen,  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  schemes  of  education,  and,  by  1789,  the  public  was 
roused  to  the  great  want  of  a  new  and  better  system. 

THE  SCHOOLS  DURING  THE  REVOLUTION. 

For  twenty  years  after  the  Kevolution,  France  did  lit- 
tle for  education  except  to  build  up  and  tear  down.  In 
1791,  the  colleges  were  all  placed  under  control  of  the 
state.  In  1792,  the  university  was  abolished.  In  1793, 
the  property  of  the  colleges  was  confiscated  to  the  state, 
and  later  in  the  same  year  all  the  great  public  schools  and 
the  university  faculties  were  suppressed.  In  1792,  Con- 
dorcet  brought  before  the  Committee  of  Public  Instruction 
his  memorable  educational  plan.  He  proposed  a  second- 
ary school  for  every  four  thousand  inhabitants,  a  college 
for  each  department,  nine  lycees  for  the  whole  of  France, 


3M  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

find  crowned  all  by  a  National  Society  of  Sciences  and 
Arts,  like  the  present  Institute  of  France.  The  expense 
was  to  be  borne  by  the  state.  Condorcet  perished  with 
the  Girondists,  and  the  reconstruction  of  public  education 
did  not  begin  until  after  the  fall  of  Eobespierre.  Daunau's 
law  of  1795  bore  many  traces  of  Condorcet's  plan,  and  es- 
tablished primary  schools,  central  schools,  special  schools, 
and,  at  the  head  of  all,  the  Institute  of  France — the  last  a 
memorable  and  enduring  creation.  Normal  schools,  the 
Polytechnic,  and  the  School  of  Mines,  were  also  founded. 
But  the  country  was  too  unsettled  to  carry  on  so  consid- 
erable a  work,  and  the  scheme  finally  proved  a  failure. 
Private  schools  did  better,  but  it  was  left  for  Napoleon, 
when  he  became  first  consul,  to  organize  public  instruction. 
Fourcroy's  law  of  1802  took  for  its  basis  the  secondary 
schools,  both  private  and  public.  The  Government  aided 
them  by  providing  houses,  scholarships,  and  the  pay  of 
teachers.  The  course  of  studies  was  greatly  enlarged,  and 
a  competent  corps  of  inspectors  furnished  by  the  state. 
The  work  was  now  begun  in  earnest,  and  by  1810  was 
fully  organized.  In  order  to  make  the  matter  clear,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  enumerate  the  civil  divisions  of  France, 
and  also  to  ask  what  had  been  done,  if  any  thing,  for  the 
education  of  the  poor. 

MUNICIPAL  DIVISIONS  OF  FRANCE. 

France  contains  a  population  of  about  thirty-six  mill- 
ions, and  is  divided  into  eighty-six  departments,  corre- 
sponding in  a  measure  to  our  States,  and  again  into  three 
hundred  and  sixty-three  arrondissements,  to  which  we  have 
nothing  nearer  than  our  Congressional  districts.  There 
are,  also,  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty  cantons, 
like  our  counties,  and  thirtj'-six  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-six  communes,  like  our  townships.  The  de- 


THE  CHURCH  IN  FRANCE.  345 

partments,  arrondissements,  and  communes,  each  have  a 
separate  civil  administration,  and  are  respectively  presided 
over  by  a  prefect,  a  sub-prefect,  and  a  mayor,  each  assist- 
ed by  a  municipal  council  and  a  deliberative  body.  The 
three  classes  of  functionaries,  prefects,  sub-prefects,  and 
mayors  are  appointed  by  the  central  Government,  and  the 
deliberative  bodies  are  elected  by  the  people.  The  munic- 
ipal councils  are  nominally  elected  by  the  people,  but  the 
law  provides  that  the  prefect  of  a  department  has  the 
power  to  dissolve  any  municipal  council  and  replace  it 
by  one  of  his  own  naming,  and  he  usually  exercises  this 
power.  This  very  complete  organization  was  established 
by  the  First  Consul  in  1800. 

THE  ^CHURCH  IN   FRANCE. 

Three  forms  of  religious  worship  are  recognized  in 
France  —  viz.,  Eoman  Catholic,  Protestant,  and  Jewish, 
and  the  ministers  of  all  three  are  salaried  alike  by  the 
state.  The  Eoman  Catholic  is  the  religion  of  about  thir- 
teen-fifteenths  of  the  people  of  France.  There  are  about 
five  million  Protestants  and  seventy  thousand  Jews. 

The  Christian  Church  has,  from  the  earliest  ages,  in 
France,  recognized  the  duty,  and  claimed  the  right,  of 
controlling  public  education,  and  an  examination  of  the 
archives  shows  no  lack  of  edicts  and  instructions  from 
bishops  to  clergy  to  open  free  schools  for  the  poor,  where 
the  children  of  the  faithful  might  receive  the  elements  of 
instruction.  From  the  fourth  century  to  the  sixteenth, 
the  village  priests  were  enjoined  to  collect  at  their  dwell- 
ings a  certain  number  of  readers  and  train  them  in  the 
study  of  letters,  as  well  as  in  the  ministry  of  the  altar. 
The  extent  of  instruction  thus  given  by  the  clergy,  or  the 
number  receiving  it,  is  nowhere  stated,  but  their  own  pub- 
lished lamentations  at  their  failure  to  carry  out  their  duty 


346  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

induces  the  belief  that  it  amounted  to  very  little.  The 
state  in  France  has  maintained,  against  the  pope  and 
its  own  subjects,  the  right  to  govern  public  instruction. 
Charlemagne  even  assumed  and  exercised  the  right  to 
personally  examine  his  bishops,  to  assure  himself  that 
they  had  not  neglected  their  learning.  Only  once,  for  a 
short  time  during  the  Keign  of  Terror,  has  instruction 
ever  been  free  in  France. 

Until  the  fifteenth  century  popular  education  in  France 
bore  little  fruit,  being  controlled  almost  entirely  by  one 
class  of  society — the  clergy.  During  all  this  early  peri- 
od, any  poor  peasant -boy  might  enter  a  monastery,  join 
some  order,  and  rise  to  learning  and  fame ;  but  this,  prac- 
tically, opened  the  way  to  but  very  few.  The  collections 
of  autographs  run  back  only  to  the  fifteenth  century,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  but  few,  even  of  the  great,  could 
before  that  time  write  their  names.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
what  was  the  education  of  the  poor  and  lowly. 

The  unparalleled  impulse  given  by  the  Eeformation  to 
popular  education  in  Protestant  countries  can  scarcely  be 
estimated,  or  its  advantages  realized.  Primary  instruction 
in  Scotland,  Holland,  and  Protestant  Germany  dates  from 
this  epoch,  and  our  own  comes  directly  from  it.  France 
could  not  escape  the  great  agitation  of  the  time,  but  failed 
to  found  any  lasting  system.  The  Church  interposed  and 
the  king  yielded  whenever  any  measure  was  urged  look- 
ing to  the  education  of  the  poor,  and  not  strictly  subject  to 
ecclesiastical  authority.  The  clergy  endeavored  to  retain 
their  influence  by  means  of  their  own  religious  orders,  and 
in  1789  there  were  twenty  religious  societies  engaged  in 
giving  instruction  to  the  poor  of  France.  Their  efforts 
had,  however,  for  a  long  time  been  devoted  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  rich,  and  it  is  not  clear  to  what  extent  they 
benefited  society. 


BRETHREN  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS.  347 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS. 

The  order  most  worthy  of  special  notice,  and  which  still 
exists,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the  education  of  the 
poor  of  France,  is  the  "Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools." 
It  dates  from  1679,  and  was  founded  by  Jean  Baptiste  de 
La  Salle,  who  was  connected  with  the  cathedral  at  Eheims, 
and  resigned  his  position  to  execute  his  plan.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  zeal  and  piety — one  of  the  very  few  who  un- 
derstood the  deplorable  state  of  ignorance  of  the  poor  of 
his  country.  He  drew  up,  for  the  guidance  of  his  order, 
a  set  of  statutes,  which,  unchanged,  still  control  it.  He 
also  composed  a  hand-book  of  method,  which  has  scarcely 
been  surpassed.  H!  died  in  1719,  after  having  conse- 
crated a  life  of  singular  devotion  to  the  one  idea  of  in- 
struction for  the  poor.  His  work  was  destined  to  do  more 
in  the  way  intended  than  that  of  any  other  Frenchman  of 
modern  times. 

Dispersed  by  the  Eevolution,  the  Brethren  were  restored 
by  Napoleon,  and  at  the  Eesto ration  owned,  and  taught  in 
two  hundred  and  ten  houses.  In  1848  they  had  in  France 
nineteen  thousand  four  hundred  and  fourteen  schools,  and 
taught  one  million  three  hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand 
and  fifty -six  children.  The  Brethren  devote  themselves 
to  the  teaching  of  boys  in  all  things  that  pertain  to  an 
honest  and  Christian  life.  They  are  not  forbidden  to  re- 
ceive the  rich  into  their  schools,  but  their  business  is  with 
the  poor,  and  toward  them  they  are  directed  to  manifest 
special  affection.  JSTo  brother  is  allowed  to  take  orders. 
Their  vows  are  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  and  to 
teach,  without  fee  or  reward ;  and  these  vows  are  only 
taken  for  three  years  at  a  time.  They  are  always  to  go  in 
companies  of  threes,  and  to  keep  at  their  houses  a  store 
of  school-books  and  materials  for  sale  to  their  scholars  at 


348          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

cost  price.  They  are  not  permitted  to  talk  gossip  with 
their  pupils,  and  are  required  to  be  sparing  of  punish- 
ments. Such  are  the  rules  to  which  this  remarkable  as- 
sociation owes  its  vitality.  The  pious  founder,  to  whose 
thoughts  the  misery  flowing  from  the  debasement  and  ig- 
norance of  the  poor  was  always  present,  and  with  whom 
its  relief  was  a  passion,  took  every  precaution  not  to  found 
an  order  of  monks  instead  of  an  order  of  school-teachers. 
He  prohibited  bodily  mortification,- strictly  limited  the 
number  of  fasts,  and  dissuaded  the  brothers  from  taking 
perpetual  vows.  Other  societies  endeavored  to  imitate 
this,  but  none  with  much  success.  The  order  can  not 
make  itself  felt  in  the  poorest  and  most  needy  parts  of  the 
state ;  for,  as  the  brothers  always  live  by  threes,  the  poor 
villages  can  not  support  them,  when  they  might  support  a 
single  teacher.  The  state  still  sees  its  lowest  orders  sunk 
in  the  deepest  ignorance. 

LOUIS  XIV. — COERCIVE   CATHOLIC  EDUCATION. 

Louis  XIV.  endeavored  to  reach  all  classes,  but  was  act- 
uated by  motives  so  base,  so  unlike  those  which  inspired 
M.  de  La  Salle,  as  to  defeat  his  own  efforts.  He  bethought 
himself  of  the  village  school-master  as  a  powerful  and  use- 
ful instrument  in  his  work  of  forcible  conversions,  and,  in 
a  royal  edict  of  1698,  ordered  that  the  children  of  heretics 
be  taken  from  their  families  at  five  years  of  age,  to  be 
brought  up  in  Catholic  schools.  As  these  schools  did  not 
exist,  they  were  ordered ;  and  in  them  were  to  be  taught 
to  both  sexes  "  the  mysteries  of  the  Catholic,  apostolic,  and 
Roman  religion."  Beading,  and  even  writing,  might  also 
be  taught.  The  edict  went  on  to  prescribe  that  the  vil- 
lages should  be  taxed  for  the  support  of  their  respective 
schools.  Nothing  came  of  this  scheme.  The  era  of  the 
Eevolution  was  approaching,  when  an  impetus  was  to  be 


EFFORTS  OF  THE  CONVENTION.    .  349 

given  to  the  instruction  of  the  poor  such  as  was  never  felt 
before.  Little  is  known  of  the  real  condition  of  primary 
instruction  at  this  time,  except  the  work  of  the  various 
mendicant  orders,  which  was  meagre  enough.  The  French 
poor  were  without  instruction,  except  the  Bible  lessons  by 
the  village  priest. 

In  the  report  of  establishments  of  public  instruction  re- 
quired by  the  revolutionary  government,  the  columns  for 
primary  instruction  are  blank,  and  there  are  no  data  from 
which  to  estimate  its  condition.  It  is  known  that  village 
schools  occasionally  existed,  and  that  in  1789  one  boy  in 
thirty-one  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  eighteen  years 
was  receiving  secondary  instruction  of  some  kind,  while  in 
New  England  nearly  every  family  sent  one  son  to  college. 

No  one  could  teach  unless  approved  by  ecclesiastical 
authority,  and  the  cure  usually  appointed  the  teacher,  often 
one  of  his  own  creatures.  Mr.  Arnold  says:  "At  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  the  instruction  of  the  most  of  the 
French  people  remained  very  little  changed  from  what  it 
was  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  conversing  with  working- 
men,  I  found  that  most  had  been  to  school  at  some  time, 
their  fathers  more  rarely,  and  their  grandfathers  never." 

EFFORTS  OF  THE   CONVENTION. 

The  Revolution  busied  itself  with  schemes  for  universal 
education,  which  all  classes  called  for.  The  clergy  claimed 
still  more  strongly  their  right  to  control  it.  It  was  agreed 
that  "public  education  should  be  so  modified  as  to  be 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  all  orders  in  the  state,  that  it  might 
form  good  and  useful  men  in  all  classes  of  society."  Turgot 
had  already  drawn  up  a  plan  of  a  uniform  national  system, 
but,  not  satisfied  with  it,  the  Assembly  appointed  a  com- 
mission, with  M.  de  Talleyrand  as  its  secretary,  which,  after 
two  years  of  faithful,  laborious  inquiry,  presented  the  draft 


350  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  Condorcet's  law  just  upon  the  eve  of  the  adjournment 
of  the  Assembly.  It  only  had  time  to  resolve,  "that  there 
shall  be  created  and  organized  a  public  instruction,  gratui- 
tous in  respect  to  those  branches  of  tuition  which  are  in- 
dispensable for  all  men."  At  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Assembly,  Condorcet  presented  an  amended  law,  but  the 
Convention  now  replaced  the  Assembly,  and  little  was 
done  except  to  extirpate  such  imperfect  instruction  as  had 
already  managed  to  maintain  life  in  France.  Much  was 
destroyed  when  there  was  nothing  to  replace  it,  and  the 
University  of  Paris  fell  in  the  common  ruin.  So  com- 
plete was  this  destruction  that  Fourcroy,  the  chief  agent 
of  Napoleon  in  restoring  the  schools,  declared  to  the  Con- 
vention that  France  was  fast  relapsing  into  barbarism. 

The  Convention  had  a  sincere  desire  to  re-establish  pub- 
lic instruction  on  a  firm  and  just  basis,  but  the  times  were 
not  propitious.  It  has  given  France,  however,  two  admi- 
rable institutions  of  learning,  the  usefulness  of  which  she 
can  never  cease  to  appreciate — the  superior  Normal  School 
and  the  Polytechnic.  It  discussed  and  passed  laws  es- 
tablishing a  general  system,  and  adopted  a  programme  em- 
bracing the  subjects  estimated  by  the  Assembly  as  "  indis- 
pensable for  all  men."  "  The  children  of  all  classes,"  so 
reads  the  law,  "are  to  receive  that  primary  education, 
physical,  moral,  and  intellectual,  best  adapted  to  develop 
in  them  republican  manners,  patriotism,  and  love  of  la- 
bor." They  were  to  learn  "  those  traits  of  virtue  which 
most  honor  freemen,  and  particularly  those  features  of  the 
French  Eevolution  best  adapted  to  elevate  the  soul,  and 
render  men  worthy  of  liberty  and  equality."  The  law 
made  women  eligible  as  teachers,  but  disqualified  women 
of  noble  family,  or  who  belonged  to  any  religious  order, 
or  who  had  been  named  for  the  post  of  teacher  by  a  noble 
•or  ecclesiastic.  Such  was  the  popular  feeling  in  France 


EFFORTS  OF  THE  CONVENTION.         351 

against  the  Church  and  nobility,  that  it  was  not  deemed 
necessary  to  make  any  such  restrictions  with  regard  to  men. 
The  Convention  could  do  all  this,  but  could  not  furnish 
common  schools,  and  in  despair,  in  December,  1793,  aban- 
doned the  attempt,  and  declared  that  teaching, was  free — 
requiring  only  certificates  of  citizenship  and  morality. 
The  state  undertook  to  pay  the  teachers,  and  to  compel 
parents  to  send  their  children.  The  next  year  another 
decree  increased  the  conditions  of  the  teacher's  eligibility, 
and  made  the  whole  neighborhood  of  his  school  a  censor 
over  his  acts.  The  system  was  patched  each  year,  with 
partial  results,  and  swimming,  gymnastics,  and  military  ex- 
ercises were  finally  added,  as  "  acquirements  indispensable 
for  all  men."  This  seemed  to  be  its  culmination,  for,  in 
the  next  year,  1795,  Daunau's  remarkable  law  readjusted 
the  whole  scheme  of  public  education,  beginning  with  the 
primary  schools,  and  ending  with  the  institute.  This  law 
did  more  for  primary  education  than  any  thing  that  had 
gone  before,  and  endured  until  1833.  By  this  law  the 
elementary  programme  was  reduced  to  reading,  writing, 
and  ciphering.  It  abolished  the  fixed  salaries  of  teachers, 
and  left  them  to  be  paid  by  three-fourths  of  the  pupils, 
provided  indigent  scholarships  for  the  other  fourth,  and 
removed  the  obligation  of  parents  to  send  their  children. 
We  see  how  the  promise  of  the  early  Assembly  to  give 
free  schooling  to  all  was  carried  out.  M.  Guizot,  in  re- 
ply to  the  question,  "What  did  the  French  Eevolution 
do  for  popular  education?"  answers,  "Un  deluge  de  mots, 
rien  de  plus"  In  respect  to  the  actual  establishment  of 
popular  instruction,  this  is  undoubtedly  true,  yet  it  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  the  Revolution  made  it  impossible  for 
France  subsequently  to  found  a  system  which  was  not  both 
secular  and  national.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this  much  was 
gained.  The  four  or  five  years  preceding  1799  saw  France 


352  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

greatly  reduced  by  her  extravagant  wars,  and  her  gener- 
al administration  in  neglect  and  confusion.  Her  schools 
formed  no  exception  to  this,  and  Napoleon  set  to  work  in 
earnest  at  the  task — which  has  shed  such  imperishable 
glory  on  the  consulate — to  use  his  own  words— of  "  found- 
ing a  new  society,  free  alike  from  the  injustice  of  feudal- 
ism and  from  the  confusion  of  anarchy."  Of  his  peace- 
ful labors,  modern  French  administration,  the  Condorcet 
schools  for  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  the  Code,  the  University,  are  living  monuments. 
Primary  schools  received  attention  also,  but  the  first  great 
need  was  to  rescue  those  on  whom  France  rested,  and  who 
saved  her  society  from  the  ruin  in  which  it  had  fallen. 

NAPOLEON  AND  THE   SCHOOLS. 

On  the  1st  of  May,  1802,  the  law  was  made  which  regu- 
lated secondary  instruction,  and  gave  it,  in  the  main,  the 
form  which  it  wears  to-day.  For  the  feeble,  decaying  cen- 
tral schools  of  the  Convention — mere  courses  of  lectures, 
without  study  and  without  discipline — the  law  substituted 
the  communal  colleges  and  lyceums,  with  a  rigid  course 
of  sustained  study  and  an  iron  discipline,  and  enlarged  the 
exclusively  mathematical  and  scientific  course  so  as  to  in- 
clude the  classics. 

Only  a  single  article  in  the  new  law  referred  to  schools 
for  the  poor.  They  were  continued,  and  put  under  the 
supervision  of  prefects  and  sub-prefects.  ,  A  house  was 
provided  for  the  teacher,  and  he  was  authorized  to  collect 
his  pay  from  his  pupils.  Thorough  investigations  were 
made  through  all  the  departments  to  learn  their  needs. 
Nearly  all  complained  bitterly  of  the  almost  total  dearth 
of  primary  instruction,  and  many  prayed  for  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  religious  orders  which  had  formerly  taught 
the  poor. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  FRANCE.  353 

THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   FRANCE. 

By  the  law  of  May,  1806,  the  University  of  France  was 
called  into  existence.  The  law  reads :  "  There  shall  be 
formed,  under  the  name  of  Imperial  University,  a  body 
with  the  exclusive  charge  of  tuition  and  of  public  educa- 
tion throughout  the  empire."  The  whole  instruction  of 
France  was  thus  placed  under  a  government  of  grand  mas- 
ters, councilors,  and  rectors.  "No  school,  no  establish- 
ment of  learning  whatever,  can  be  formed  outside  the  pale 
of  the  university,  and  without  the  authorization  of  its 
chief."  It  was  well  endowed  by  the  state,  and  became  a 
great  civil  corporation  with  vast  vested  rights. 

Created  an  endowed  corporation,  not  a  mere  department 
of  the  state,  the  university  bore  a  character  of  independ- 
ence which  all  modern  governments  in  France  are  apt  to 
regard  with  suspicion.  Napoleon  did  not  create  it  hastily, 
but  assigned  his  reasons  as  follows  : 

"His  majesty  has  organized  the  university  as  a  corporate  body,  because  a 
corporate  body  never  dies,  and  because  in  such  a  body  there  is  a  perpetual 
transmission  of  organization  and  spirit.  It  has  been  his  majesty's  desire  to 
realize,  in  a  state  of  forty  millions  of  people,  what  Sparta  and  Athens  accom- 
plished—what the  religious  orders  attempted  in  our  own  day,  but  failed  for 
want  of  unity.  His  majesty  wants  a  body  whose  teaching  shall  be  free  from 
the  influences  of  the  passing  gusts  of  fashion — a  body  that  may  keep  moving, 
even  though  Government  is  lethargic — whose  administration  and  statutes 
may  be  so  thoroughly  national  that  no  one  shall  lightly  lay  his  hands  upon 
them." 

These  designs  have  not  wholly  failed.  But  disliked  by 
the  Bourbons,  hated  by  the  clergy,  decried  by  the  friends 
of  unrestricted  instruction,  ill-supported  by  successive  min- 
isters incapable  of  Napoleon's  elevated  views,  the  univer- 
sity has  been  unable  to  maintain  its  exclusive  privileges 
and  its  corporate  character. 

In  1824,  it  was  made  a  ministerial  department ;  in  1833, 

23 


354  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

its  special  appropriation  was  suppressed  ;  and  in  1851,  its 
property  was  passed  over  to  the  state.  But  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  is  still  the  head  of  the  university,  and 
his  chief  assistants  are  its  functionaries,  graduated  in  its 
faculties  and  inspired  by  its  traditions.  That  transmission 
of  a  corporate  spirit  wished  for  by  Napoleon  has  been  ac- 
complished, while  the  exclusive  privileges  which  the  grow- 
ing tendencies  of  the  age  would  not  tolerate  have  been 
withdrawn,  and  from  the  corporate  spirit  the  members  of 
the  university  derive  an  independence,  a  self-respect,  and 
a  disinterestedness  which  distinguish  them  from  the  whole 
body  of  French  officials. 

The  University  of  France  has  not  the  traditions  of  an- 
cient universities,  nor  great  estates,  but  it  has  features 
which  compensate  for  the  absence  of  all  it  does  not  possess 
— intelligence  and  equity. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  trace  the  attempts  to  establish 
primary  instruction  during  the  First  Empire.  They  were 
little  else  than  a  repetition  of  previous  efforts,  and  met 
with  like  failures.  In  1808  inquiries  were  again  instituted 
into  the  condition  of  primary  education.  About  one-half 
of  the  communes  were  found  to  be  without  instruction, 
and,  where  the  schools  still  existed,  teachers  were  found 
old,  infirm,  and  unsuited  to  their  duties.  Napoleon  sin- 
cerely -wished  to  secure  the  instruction  of  the  poor  under 
proper  restrictions,  but  was  compelled,  like  the  clergy  be- 
fore him,  to  acknowledge  his  failure.  As  the  investigation 
progressed  further,  the  deplorable  state  of  national  igno- 
rance became  more  and  more  apparent.  There  was  one 
happy  exception.  The  Congregation  of  Christian  Schools 
was  beginning  to  re-appear,  and  was  everywhere  highly 
useful.  Every  possible  help  was  given  it  by  the  state, 
and  the  result  leaves  nothing  to  regret  except  that  it  was 
not  sooner  restored. 


SCHOOLS  UNDER  THE  RESTORATION.       355 

11  Perhaps  no  better  criticism  can  be  produced  by  the 
performance  of  the  university  upon  primary  schools,"  says 
Mr.  Arnold,  "than  its  table  of  expenditures— the  entire 
sum,  from  first  to  last,  being  eight  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars, and  even  this  was  paid  by  the  minister  of  education 
from  a  contingent  fund,  and  not  from  the  funds  of  the  uni- 
versity." The  university  was,  in  truth,  never  provided 
with  funds  for  so  great  an  undertaking,  nor  with  a  work- 
ing stafi0  suitable  for  such  a  purpose.  Primary  instruction 
was  really  in  a  state  of  torpor,  and  required  a  treatment 
more  radical  and  extended  than  any  one,  if  we  except  M. 
de  La  Salle,  had  as  yet  comprehended.  The  conscription, 
also,  had  the  effect  to  harass  and  exhaust  the  lower  people, 
until  they  cared  very  little  for  instruction  or  any  kindred 
thing.  Napoleon,  aware  of  his  error,  took  a  really  admi- 
rable step  to  rectify  it,  by  establishing  the  first  normal 
school  at  Strasbourg  in  1810,  and  continued,  up  to  the  bat- 
tle of  Waterloo,  abortive  efforts  to  elevate  by  culture  the 
poor  of  the  empire.  To  the  Kestoration  is  due  the  credit 
of  having  for  the  first  time  perceived  the  necessity  of  aid- 
ing popular  education  by  national  funds. 

SCHOOLS   UNDER  THE  RESTORATION. 

The  primary  schools  up  to  this  time  had  died  for  want 
of  sustenance.  That  they  would  have  lived  long  had  they 
received  aliment,  is  doubtful.  Other  Governments  decreed 
programmes  and  systems;  this  one  decreed  money.  In 
1816,  it  gave  ten  thousand  dollars  to  buy  books  and  mod- 
els for  the  schools  of  the  poor.  It  reorganized  schools, 
transferred  the  authority  over  them  to  a  new  set  of  offi- 
cials, raised  the  standard  of  teachers,  and  provided  for  in- 
dependent Protestant  schools  in  Protestant  neighborhoods. 
But  the  instruments  left  by  the  Revolution  were  not  suita- 
ble for  the  easy  working  of  a  monarchy.  In  public  in- 


356  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

stmction,  like  every  thing  else,  the  monarchy  was  constant- 
ly striving  to  assert  its  old  traditions  in  the  face  of  a  legal 
situation  of  which  it  was  not  master,  and  it  perpetually 
failed. 

One  of  its  first  acts  was  to  strike  at  the  university  and 
deprive  it  of  its  control  of  education,  upon  the  ground  that 
its  power  was  too  absolute,  and  incompatible  with  the  pa- 
ternal intentions  and  liberal  spirit  of  the  new  Govern- 
ment. The  re-appearance  of  Napoleon  gave  respite  to  the 
university ;  but  the  empire,  more  timid  and  moderate  than 
before,  did  nothing  to  improve  the  schools. 

The  moment  the  order  of  the  Christian  Schools  found  it- 
self relieved  from  the  empire,  it  endeavored  to  shake  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Imperial  Institute.  It  directed  its  brethren 
not  to  appear  for  examination,  and  maintained  that,  since 
the  order  had  never  ceased  to  have  a  legal  existence,  all 
its  ancient  rights  should  revert  to  it,  and  in  1818  it  was 
decided  that  exemption  from  examination  be  given  the 
brethren.  In  1824,  primary  instruction  was  surrendered 
entirely  to  the  clergy.  The  law  reimposed  Latin  as  the 
language  of  the  college  lectures,  and  still  continued  the 
clergy  as  salaried  servants  of  the  state,  and  refused  to 
heads  of  families  the  privilege  of  disposing  of  their  own 
property. 

In  many  such  ways  the  Government  alienated  its  friends 
and  raised  up  powerful  enemies,  yet  it  always  evinced 
warm  solicitude,  and  sometimes  liberality,  toward  educa- 
tion. In  1828,  it  restored  to  local  school  committees  their 
lay  element,  taken  away  four  years  before,  and  in  the  same 
year  gave  back  to  the  university  the  primary  schools. 

The  little  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars,  appropriated  by 
the  state  for  primary  education,  had  been  steadily  enlarged, 
until,  in  1830,  it  was  sixty  thousand  dollars,  and  the  one 
primary  normal  school  at  Strasbourg,  bequeathed  by  the 


GUIZOT'S  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SCHOOLS.  357 

empire,  had  the  same  year  increased  to  thirteen.  Consid- 
erable progress  seems  to  have  been  made ;  yet,  say  the 
committee  of  investigation :  "  It  was  externally  more  spe- 
cious than  internally  sound."  The  ordinance  of  1816  re- 
quired all  teachers  to  have  certificates  of  examination,  but 
the  religious  orders  were  allowed  to  evade  it  by  presenting 
their  letters  of  obedience  in  place  of  certificates.  Others 
usually  avoided  their  examinations,  and  often  enough  a 
communal  school  was  represented  solely  by  the  school- 
master's certificate.  Of  the  twenty  thousand  communes 
with  schools  of  some  sort  in  1834,  hardly  half  owned  their 
own  school-houses.  The  remainder  held  their  sessions  in 
barns,  cellars,  stables,  in  the  open  porch  of  the  church,  and 
often  in  the  one  poor  room  of  the  teacher,  in  which  he 
cooked,  ate,  slept,  and  reared  his  family.  When  school 
premises  existed,  they  were  often  dilapidated  hovels,  win- 
dowless,  fireless,  without  ventilation,  reeking  with  moisture 
and  fruitful  of  epidemics. 

GUIZOT'S  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

M.  Guizot  assumed  control  of  the  Educational  Depart- 
ment of  France  in  1833,  and  sent  no  less  than  five  hun- 
dred inspectors  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
country  to  determine  accurately  the  condition  of  elementa- 
ry schools.  This  is  the  first  thoroughly  effective  step,  com- 
mensurate with  the  work  in  hand,  ever  taken  in  France  in 
the  interest  of  primary  education.  On  their  report  was 
based  the  law  of  1833,  which  still,  little  altered,  regulates 
the  education  of  that  country.  This  commission  has  left 
a  most  deplorable  record.  The  teacher  was  often  a  petty 
tradesman,  leaving  his  classes  every  moment  to  attend  to 
a  customer;  many  were  drunkards,  many  were  cripples. 
The  list  of  vocations  in  which  teachers  were  engaged  out- 
side of  their  schools  is  laughable,  and  the  experiences  en- 


358  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

countered  in  making  this  sort  of  inquisitorial  investigation 
would  fill  many  volumes,  which,  would  read  like  fiction. 
The  apathy  everywhere  found  was  very  disheartening,  and 
instead  of  the  gratitude  they  reasonably  looked  for,  the 
inspectors  everywhere  met  resistance  in  some  form,  and 
were  often  not  permitted  to  lodge  in  the  village  where 
they  had  prosecuted  their  inquiries. 

THE  MONARCHY  OF  JULY  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

We  have  seen  how  almost  every  Government  that  has 
ruled  France  since  the  Reformation  has  made  popular  ed- 
ucation a  necessity,  has  endeavored  to  establish  it,  and  how 
miserably  they  have  failed.  We  will  now  see  how  the 
monarchy  of  July,  composed  as  it  was  of  men  who  had 
long  revolved  the  problem  of  popular  education,  performed 
its  part  in  this  great  act. 

The  members  of  the  Government  were  mostly  eleves 
of  the  university,  thoroughly  imbued  with  its  spirit,  and 
soon  showed  that  they  intended  schools  to  be  controlled 
by  an  educated  body.  In  the  year  1831  teachers  were 
required  to  be  thoroughly  examined  and  certified.  In  the 
next  two  years  thirty  new  primary  normal  schools  were  cre- 
ated, and  the  budget  for  primary  education  was  increased 
to  two  hundred  thousand  dollars ;  and  in  June,  1833,  the 
new  law,  carefully  drawn  by  a  commission,  of  which  M. 
Cousin  was  reporter,  and  M.  Guizot  chairman,  was  passed. 

The  law  of  1833  is  so  truly  the  root  of  the  present 
system  of  schools  in  France  as  to  deserve  especial  notice. 
It  was  full  of  good  sense,  fruitful  ideas,  toleration,  and 
equity,  and  had  the  great  merit  of  attaining  more  nearly 
than  any  other  enactment  the  object  which  it  had  in  view. 
It  founded  for  the  first  time  in  France  a  national  element- 
ary education.  Succeeding  legislation  has  subverted  many 
of  its  important  provisions,  but  the  essential  ones  remain 


THE  MONARCHY  OF  JULY.  359 

intact.  "What  was  before  merely  recommended  was  now 
made  obligatory,  and  ways  provided  for  its  fulfillment. 
At  first  the  law  contemplated  a  provision  for  girls'  schools, 
but  this  was  deferred  until  1836 — the  date  of  the  first  impor- 
tant legislation  upon  female  popular  education  in  France. 

The  Convention  had  at  first  exaggerated  what  was  in- 
dispensable in  primary  education,  and  had  afterward  too 
much  reduced  it,  which  error  was  copied  by  Napoleon. 
This  left  a  large  class  requiring  more  than  the  limited 
schedule  of  the  primary  schools,  yet  not  requiring  the 
course  at  the  communal  colleges.  To  supply  this  want, 
the  law  created  a  secondary  primary  instruction,  embra- 
cing what  may  be  called  a  good  French  education.  For 
the  great  lower  class,  for  the  masses  of  France,  an  element- 
ary primary  instruction  was  instituted.  To  the  Conven- 
tion's list  of  subjects  were  added  the  elements  x>f  grammar, 
religious  teaching,  and  instruction  in  weights  and  measures. 
This  would  have  been  a  great  step  in  advance,  if  the  intent 
of  the  law  had  been  carried  out. 

The  law  also  made  teaching  free,  requiring  only  that  the 
teachers  should  furnish  satisfactory  testimonials  of  capacity 
and  morality.  It  was  necessary  to  found  public  schools 
almost  everywhere,  as  the  places  where  primary  instruc- 
tion was  most  needed  were  those  where  private  enterprise 
was  least  active.  Each  commune  was,  therefore,  required 
to  re-establish,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  adjacent 
communes,  at  least  one  elementary  school,  to  which  were 
to  be  admitted  no  longer  only  a  fourth  or  fifth  part,  but 
all  of  the  indigent  children  of  the  locality,  without  fee. 
Parents  were  to  be  at  all  times  consulted,  and  their  wishes 
observed  as  to  the  denominational  instruction  of  their  chil- 
dren. The  commune,  the  department,  and  the  state  were 
to  jointly  control  these  schools,  and  bear  the  expense  of 
their  support — the  primary  obligation  resting  on  the  com- 


360  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

mune,  and  the  department,  with  the  help  of  the  state,  mak- 
ing up  any  deficit.  Many  communes  owned  large  school 
properties,  while  many  were  indigent.  This  was,  in  short, 
the  machinery  for  the  first  efficient  system  of  primary 
schools  in  France.  Even  this  provision  was  meagre,  be- 
ing equivalent  to  about  one  school  to  a  township  in  our 
Northern  States. 

For  teachers,  a  house  and  forty  dollars  yearly  salary 
were  provided,  with  an  additional  amount  to  accrue  from 
fees,  fixed  by  the  Municipal  Council,  and  collected  by  the 
tax-gatherer.  A  fund,  from  which  to  pension  retired 
teachers,  was  also  provided  for  by  a  "  drawback "  from 
teachers'  pay.  Each  department  was  required  to  establish 
a  normal  school.  Local  authority  over  schools  and  teach- 
ers was  wisely  guarded,  and  an  appeal  given  in  proper 
cases. 

Such  are  the  main  features  of  the  law  of  1833,  remark- 
able for  the  wisdom  of  its  provisions,  and  the  energy  with 
which  it  was  executed.  M.  Guizot  realized  that  the  weak 
point  of  his  law  was  the  incapacity  of  local  authorities  to 
carry  out  the  part  intrusted  to  them,  and  endeavored,  by 
a  series  of  letters  and  pamphlets,  to  communicate  his  own 
zeal  to  others,  and  to  awaken  that  local  interest  and  inde- 
pendent activity  the  lack  of  which  is  the  defect  of  French 
civilization.  He  succeeded  imperfectly  in  this,  but  he  did 
establish  the  schools  on  a  firm  foundation,  and  won  confi- 
dence in  his  own  zeal  and  capacity. 

The  results  of  the  law  of  1833  were  remarkable.  In 
five  years  the  number  of  normal  schools  increased  to  sev- 
enty-six, and  furnished  instruction  to  more  than  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred  teachers.  The  elementary  schools  ac- 
commodated three  million  five  hundred  and  thirty  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  thirty-five  children  of  both  sexes — 
a  proportion  to  the  population  almost  as  great  as  is  found 


THE  MONARCHY  OF  JULY.  361 

in  Switzerland  or  Holland.  The  state  also,  in  1836,  estab- 
lished girls'  schools,  nearly  on  the  same  footing  as  boys', 
and  normal  schools  for  preparing  their  teachers ;  also  in- 
fant-schools and  working-men's  schools.  These  were  all 
successful  and  popular,  and,  until  the  coup  d'etat,  all  work- 
ed with  some  measure  of  success. 

Two  defects  ultimately  became  apparent  in  the  system. 
In  the  first  place,  the  local  school  authorities  were  ineffi- 
cient. The  fact  was,  and  is  now,  that  the  country  districts 
of  France  lacked  men  who  were  both  able  and  willing  to 
superintend  primary  education.  It  was  to  create  such  a 
class  that  Guizot  labored  so  zealously,  and  here  he  failed. 
Public  opinion  can  be  guided,  but  men  can  not  be  impro- 
vised for  such  an  emergency.  In  the  second  place,  the 
pay  of  the  teachers  was  insufficient.  The  law  had  made 
them  influential  and  respectable,  but  left  them  poor.  Gov- 
ernment was  devising  means  to  correct  this  evil,  when  the 
republican  government  fell.  A  circular  sent  to  the  teach- 
ers on  the  eve  of  the  elections  exhorted  them  to  use  their 
influence  for  the  return  of  sincere  Kepublicans,  and  to 
"combat  the  popular  prejudice  that  prefers  a  rich  and  let- 
tered citizen,  stranger  to  the  peasant's  life,  and  guided  by 
interests  at  variance  with  peasants'  interests,"  to  the  "  hon- 
est peasant  endowed  with  natural  good  sense,  and  whose 
practical  experience  is  better  than  all  the  book-learning 
in  the  world." 


362  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  AKMY. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

FRENCH  CIVIL  SCHOOLS—  Continued. 

THE  "COUP  D'ETAT"  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

AFTER  the  coup  d'etat,  a  commission  was  ordered  to  in- 
vestigate and  report  upon  the  primary  schools,  and  the 
workings  of  the  law  of  1833.  The  report  of  this  commis- 
sion condemned  the  teachers  as  overambitious,  their  train- 
ing as  injudicious,  and  their  conduct  toward  spiritual  and 
temporal  authorities  as  disrespectful.  Some  discreditable 
occurrences  in  one  of  the  most  secluded  departments  of 
France  were  used  as  swift  witnesses  against  the  entire  sys- 
tem. It  was  claimed  that  the  statistics  of  crime  showed  an 
increase  ;  public  prejudice  was  aroused  ;  and  the  religious 
orders  were  again  brought  forward  to  take  a  leading  part 
in  education.  Sentences  of  dismissal  and  suspension  were 
pronounced  against  lay-teachers,  often  for  no  other  reason 
than  the  utterance  of  strong  republican  sentiments.  On 
the  dispassionate  inquiry  made  at  the  instance  of  the  uni- 
versity most  of  these  teachers  were  finally  reinstated  ;  the 
complaints  against  overtraining  and  the  normal  schools 
gradually  died  away,  and  a  few  years  later  the  Govern- 
ment freely  acknowledged  itself  in  the  wrong. 

In  the  years  1850,  '52,  and  '54  the  law  of  1833  was 
amended,  and  made  more  efficient.  M.  Guizot's  plan  for 
the  payment  of  teachers  was  improved  by  commuting  the 
fees  for  an  equivalent  in  salary.  As  an  offset  to  this,  a 
class  of  probationary  teachers  was  organized  upon  less 
pay  until  after  three  years'  service  in  the  lower  grade, 
when  they  were  made  full  teachers.  The  salary  of  these 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION.  363 

teachers  was  now  fixed  at  one  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
and  that  of  the  full  teachers  of  primary  schools  was  only 
twenty  dollars  more.  Communes  were  authorized  to  in- 
crease this  sum,  which  was  often  done,  but  at  no  extra  cost 
to  the  state. 

The  supervision  and  moral  direction  of  the  primary 
schools  were  given  to  the  mayors  and  cures.  The  prefects 
were  armed  with  extraordinary  powers,  but  acted  mainly 
upon  the  recommendations  of  academy  inspectors.  There 
were  sixteen  Academies  of  France,  all  branches  of  the  uni- 
versity. Each  had  assigned  to  it  a  number  of  departments 
over  which  it  had  educational  supervision.  A  functionary 
known  as  an  academy  inspector  had  the  chief  control  of 
primary  instruction,  and  acted  in  such  matters  conjointly 
with  the  prefects.  The  central  authority  was  vested  in 
"  The  Imperial  Council  of  Public  Instruction."  The  min- 
ister always  presided  at  its  meetings,  and  the  members 
were  appointed  by  the  imperial  power.  To  this  body 
were  referred  all  laws  and  decrees  on  education,  the  course 
of  study  at  the  schools,  and  all  matters  of  this  nature. 
The  new  law,  like  the  old,  guarantied  and  secured  relig- 
ious liberty.  Eectors  were  charged  by  M.  Guizot  that  in 
public  schools  no  child  of  a  different  denomination  from 
that  of  the  majority  should  be  constrained  to  take  part  in 
the  religious  instruction  and  observances  of  his  fellow- 
scholars.  Parents  were  to  be  invited  and  requested  to 
cause  such  children  to  be  taken  at  suitable  times  to  join  in 
the  services  of  their  own  church,  and  clergymen  were  in- 
vited to  visit  the  house  during  the  week  to  give  them  suit- 
able religious  instruction  in  their  own  faith.  Similar  pro- 
visions were  made  for  the  higher  schools.  The  new  law 
has  improved  somewhat  upon  this.  Whenever  a  com- 
mune contains  sufficient  numbers  of  each  sect,  different 
denominational  schools  are  at  once  established  ;  when  not, 


364  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

the  council  decides  that  children  of  different  denominations 
shall  attend  the  same  institution,  under  regulations  which 
secure  freedom  of  worship.  Clergymen  of  different  de- 
nominations have  equal  access  to  such  schools,  in  order  to 
watch  over  the  instruction  of  their  own  flocks;  and,  not- 
withstanding much  ignorant  assertion  to  the  contrary, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  liberty  proclaimed  by  law  is 
maintained  in  practice.  To  this  the  chiefs  of  the  prin- 
cipal Protestant  communities  in  France  bear  ample  and 
positive  testimony. 

That  provision  of  the  law  of  1833,  which  proclaimed  the 
right  of  all  indigent  children  to  free  instruction,  had  been 
taken  advantage  of  by  those  not  entitled  to  the  privilege. 
To  prevent  this  abuse,  the  new  law  compelled  the  mayors 
to  make  out  an  annual  list  of  indigent  pupils.  This  did 
not  work  well,  and  now  the  whole  matter  of  indigent  schol- 
arships is  in  the  hands  of  the  prefects. 

M.  Guizot's  scheme  for  intermediate  instruction  nev- 
er succeeded,  the  poor  being  satisfied  with  the  primary 
schools,  and  those  able  to  do  better  aiming  for  the  com- 
munal colleges.  This  feature  was  supplanted  in  the  new 
law  by  a  provision  establishing  a  second  grade  of  primary 
schools.  Any  communal  authority  may  ask,  and  gain, 
from  the  departmental  council  the  higher  course  for  its 
school.  Girls'  schools  were  left  about  as  they  were  found. 
They  were  all  under  public  supervision  and  inspection. 
Lay  boarding-schools  are  inspected  by  a  committee  of  la- 
dies appointed  by  the  prefect,  and  certificates  of  capacity 
must  be  obtained  by  their  teachers  ;  but  for  the  Sisters  let- 
ters of  obedience  are  sufficient. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

This  is  the  legal  condition  of  primary  education  in 
France.  It  is  not  easy  to  get  at  the  real  state  of  educa- 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

tion  there  at  this  moment,  or  rather  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war.  For  the  past  year  few  or  no  statistics  upon  edu- 
cational subjects  have  been  published,  or,  in  fact,  collect- 
ed. In  1857,  there  were  in  France  sixty-five  thousand  one 
hundred  primary  schools.  Of  these,  thirty-nine  thousand 
six  hundred  were  attended  by  boys,  seventeen  thousand 
were  attended  by  both  sexes,  and  twenty-five  thousand 
five  hundred  were  exclusively  girls'  schools.  The  tenden- 
cy in  France  is  more  and  more  to.  separate  the  sexes  in  ed- 
ucation. The  number  of  children  who  received  instruc- 
tion was  three  millions  eight  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 
Of  these,  two  millions  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  were 
boys,  and  one  million  seven  hundred  thousand  were  girls. 
Of  the  whole  number,  two  millions  six  hundred  thousand 
paid  for  their  scholarships,  and  the  remainder,  one  mill- 
ion two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  were  free  or  indigent 
scholars. 

The  amount  of  instruction  received  by  each  pupil  may 
be  estimated  by  the  whole  cost,  which  was  but  forty-two 
million  five  hundred  thousand  and  twelve  francs,  or  about 
two  dollars  each.  These  calculations  do  not  include  the 
infant  schools,  numbering  two  thousand  six  hundred  and 
eighty-four,  under  the  direction  of  the  empress,  nor  the 
practical  and  working-men's  schools,  which  were  supported 
by  the  empire.  It  is  difficult  to  learn  much  about  these 
schools,  the  Government  reports  showing  little  upon  the 
subject 

French  officials  in  the  lower  grades  are  very  poorly  paid, 
and  those  connected  with  the  schools  form  no  exception  to 
the  rule.  The  school  inspectors,  who  come  next  after  the 
teachers,  are  functionaries  of  the  greatest  importance,  yet 
they  receive  only  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  dol- 
lars a  year,  and  a  little  more  than  a  dollar  a  day  for  ex- 
penses. The  minister  of  public  instruction  gets  twenty 


366          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

thousand  dollars  a  year,  besides  a  house  and  many  per- 
quisites connected  with  his  office. 

SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  buildings  used  for  school  purposes  are  usually 
adapted,  not  built,  for  the  purpose.  In  Paris  the  school 
buildings  are  very  handsome,  and  elaborately  fitted  up, 
but  in  the  country  districts  they  will  not  bear  comparison 
with  our  own.  It  is  not -uncommon,  in  country  villages,  to 
see  "Ecole  Publique  "  over  the  door  of  a  miserable-looking 
building  whose  doors  lead  directly  into  the  filthy  street, 
and  flanked  by  a  green-grocer's  store  and  a  beer-shop. 

One  of  the  public  primary  schools  of  Paris  is  in  the  Rue 
du  Faubourg  Montmartre,  and  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  spec- 
imen of  its  class.  It  is  held  in  a  large  and  imposing  build- 
ing, and  accommodates  four  hundred  pupils,  equally  di- 
vided between  the  sexes,  which  are  separated.  The  rooms 
are  all  high  and  well-ventilated,  the  walls  made  non-con- 
ductive of  sound,  and  each  school  has  an  open  and  a  cov- 
ered play-ground.  The  covered  play-ground  is  a  general 
feature  of  large,  well-conducted  schools  throughout  France. 
It  is  a  large  room,  on  the  same  level  as  the  first  floor,  and 
often  open  at  one  side,  as  at  Saint-Cyr.  Here,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  the  children  take  their  meal,  which  they 
bring  in  their  little  baskets.  The  rooms  are  fitted  up  with 
short  desks  and  seats,  the  walls  generally  bare  of  maps, 
but  covered  with  blackboards.  A  map  of  France,  one  of 
Europe,  a  crucifix,  and  a  bust  of  the  reigning  sovereign, 
are  the  invariable  ornaments  of  every  public  school.  The 
boys  have  two  large  rooms,  in  which  they  are* taught  read- 
ing, writing,  grammar,  arithmetic,  history,  and  geography. 
The  instruction  is  generally  given  to  the  whole  class  at 
once.  The  girls  are  all  gathered  in  one  large  room,  and 
there  is  one  school-mistress  for  them  all,  assisted  by  four- 


SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  AND  MANAGEMENT.  367 

teen  monitresses,  who  receive  about  eight  francs  a  month. 
The  order  in  both  schools  is  excellent. 

Instruction  and  books  in  the  communal  schools  of  Paris, 
and  most  of  the  large  cities,  are  entirely  gratuitous.  Al- 
though this  is  done  to  place  the  schools  within  the  reach 
of  the  very  poor,  the  well-to-do,  except  the  born  aristocrats, 
attend,  often  to  the  detriment  of  the  poorer  classes.  The 
law,  although  strict  enough  on  this  point,  is  usually  evaded 
by  the  mayors,  whose  business  it  is  to  administer  it,  by 
permitting  the  teachers  to  submit  for  approval  their  own 
lists,  which  are  accepted  without  inquiry.  The  teachers, 
except  some  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  prefer  in  their 
schools  the  better  clad,  better  trained,  and  more  creditable 
child  of  well-to-do  parents,  to  the  often  ragged  and  unclean 
offspring  of  the  poor.  A  teacher's  pardonable  pride  in 
having  his  pupils  respectable,  and  in  winning,  through  his 
scholars,  the  favor  of  their  parents,  readily  accounts  for 
this.  This  is  more  noticeable  in  the  girls'  schools;  and 
there  are  communes  where,  of  five  Sisters  engaged  for  the 
purpose  of  public  instruction,  one  alone  attends  to  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  in  one  great  class ;  the  other  four  to  the 
smaller  number  of  the  well-born.  The  education  which 
the  nation  provides  for  the  poor  is  thus  subordinated  to 
the  interests  of  others,  sometimes  to  the  exclusion  of  its 
lawful  recipients.  Mr.  Arnold,  however,  thinks  there  are 
comparatively  small  numbers  of  children  anywhere  in 
France  who  do  not  at  some  time  receive  some  instruction 
in  the  schools. 

In  the  Kue  de  la  Gaurdier  there  is  a  girls'  school,  with 
two  hundred  scholars,  held  by  the  Sisters,  and,  attached  to 
it,  an  infant-school  of  one  hundred.  There  is  a  community 
of  sixteen  Sisters  here,  of  whom  five  have  charge  of  the 
schools,  and  the  remainder  perform  daily  acts  of  charity  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  city  of  Paris  has  recently  bought 


368          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

and  presented  to  the  Sisters  their  modern  school  premises. 
The  order  and  neatness  in  this  school  are  unsurpassed,  but 
the  instruction  is  ordinary.  The  Sisters  teach  the  ele- 
mentary branches  very  well,  but,  for  scholarship,  the  lay 
schools  for  girls  in  Paris  are  said  to  surpass  those  of  the 
religious  orders,  while  -in  the  remainder  of  France  the  op- 
posite is  the  case.  There  is,  nevertheless,  something  sin- 
gularly pleasing  and  attractive  in  these  Sisters'  schools. 
There  is  the  fresh,  neat  school-room,  always  cheerful,  clean, 
and  tastefully  decorated,  and  a  prevailing  spirit  of  order 
and  affection.  The  refinement  and  gentleness  of  the  Sis- 
ters themselves  speaks  of  tranquillity,  innocence,  and  hap- 
piness. The  law  of  France  does  not  recognize  perpetual 
vows,  but  it  is  very  unusual  for  a  Sister  to  quit  a  religious 
life  after  she  once  embraces  it.  Fatigue  and  ill  health  may 
xcompel  her  to  give  up  teaching,  but  she  becomes  a  visit- 
ress,  or  nurse,  or  labors  in  the  dispensary,  and  devotes  her 
life  to  the  afflicted  and  necessitous.  I  found  them  every- 
where among  the  wounded  and  the  sick.  Wherever  mis- 
ery came,  there  came  also  a  Sister  to  relieve  it. 

One  of  the  schools  of  the  Christian  Brothers  stands  in 
the  Rue  du  Roche.  It  is  kept  by  four  members  of  the 
brotherhood,  and  is  divided  into  four  classes  of  one  hun- 
dred each.  The  instruction  of  such  immense  classes  is 
necessarily  somewhat  superficial.  It  is  doubtful  if  any 
teacher  of  children  can  do  justice  to  more  than  twenty-five 
or  thirty  in  a  class.  The  children  are  kept  perpetually 
writing,  and  but  little  oral  questioning  is  resorted  to. 

The  Brothers  often  quit  their  order  after  their  three  or 
six  years,  and  return  to  civil  life,  their  purpose  in  joining 
the  order  being  rather  educational  than  religious.  They 
are  qualified  to  act  as  teachers  two  years  earlier  than  the 
lay  teachers,  and  thus  are  enabled  to  leave  home  much 
sooner.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  great  good  performed 


SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  AND  MANAGEMENT.  369 

by  this  brotherhood,  and  it  has  always  retained  the  favor 
of  Government.  The  French  people  outside  of  Normandy, 
Alsace,  and  Lorraine,  prefer  the  religious  to  the  secular 
schools.  "With  regard  to  the  Sisters'  schools,  Mr.  Arnold 
says:  "There  can  not  be  a  moment's  doubt  but  their 
schools  are  beyond  the  reach  of  competition."  In  Paris  it 
is  a  bad  sign  of  the  respectability  of  a  family  to  prefer  a 
lay  to  a  religious  school  for  its  boys,  and  the  same  is  true 
in  the  country  where  religious  schools  are  accessible. 

At  Blanquefort,  a  well-built  village  of  two  thousand  in- 
habitants, near  Bordeaux,  Mr.  Arnold  visited  a  school,  of 
which  he  says : 

"I  found  at  the  public  school  sixty  boys  on  the  books,  and  forty-three  in 
attendance.  The  room  was  large,  aiiy,  well  lighted,  fitted  up  with  desks, 
and  the  children  at  work  under  monitors.  There  was  a  map  of  France,  and 
several  small  ones  on  the  wall.  Their  reading  was  good,  grammar  good  also ; 
their  geography  good  only  in  Europe  ;  of  histoiy  they  knew  nothing  ;  their 
writing  was  fair,  and  arithmetic  excellent.  Their  school-books  were  gener- 
ally positively  bad,  and,  as  everywhere  else  in  France,  their  reading-books 
embraced  a  series  of  moral  lessons  without  substance,  without  style,  and  re- 
pulsive by  their  monotony.  There  is  no  really  good  series  of  school-books 
in  France. 

"  The  boys  were  cheerful,  and  under  good  discipline ;  some  six  were  with- 
out shoes  and  stockings,  but  they  were  generally  children  of  parents  in  com- 
fortable circumstances.  One  in  six  were  free  scholars  ;  the  remainder  pay 
two  francs  a  month. 

"The  master's  house  is  attached,  and  the  law  prescribes  three  rooms  as 
his  allowance.  His  pay  was  twelve  hundred  francs  a  year. 

"The  girls'  school  is  but  a  few  yards  distant.'  The  law  does  not  provide 
this,  but  villages  near  large  cities  are  usually  provided  for  by  the  city,  or  at 
least  assisted  by  it.  This  one  was  held  in  a  bad,  ill-ventilated  building, 
without  play-ground,  and  kept  by  the  school-master's  wife.  Forty-eight  girls 
had  their  names  on  the  books,  and  twenty-eight  were  present.  They  were 
the  children  of  families  who  did  not  live  as  servants.  Their  stock  of  infor- 
mation was  very  limited,  but  their  reading,  arithmetic,  and  needle-work  were 
good.  Fifteen  were  free  scholars. 

"  "We  now  visited  a  school  kept  by  the  Sisters.  Six  of  them  work  here  to- 
gether, renting  their  school-building,  and  receiving  only  twenty  dollars  yearly 

24 


370  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

from  the  department.  Two  Sisters  have  charge  of  the  infant  school,  the  re- 
mainder the  girls'  school.  The  propriety,  neatness,  and  order  which  reigned 
here  was  most  striking,  and  most  favorably  in  contrast  with  the  school  just 
left.  The  cleanliness  and  order  were  beautiful.  Flowers  were  arranged 
everywhere,  and  the  furniture  and  fittings  were  a  marvel  of  freshness.  Fif- 
teen were  admitted  as  indigents ;  the  remainder  pay  two  francs  a  month. 
Fwty-three  girls  and  forty-eight  infants  were  present.  Boards  and  Bible 
pictures  covered  the  walls.  Instruction  did  not  go  far  in  the  infant-schools . 
— affection  seeming  to  control  in  their  treatment ;  yet  they  knew  their  letters, 
and  looked  clean  and  happy,  and  went  through  their  simple  exercises  pretti- 
ly, and  in  excellent  training.  In  the  girls'  school  instruction  was  good."' 

The  foregoing  are  specimens  of  the  schools  in  the  flour- 
ishing portions  of  France.  The  following  is  an  example 
of  another  kind : 

"At  St.  Martin  de  Touche,  a  village  of  eight  hundred  souls,  a  few  miles 
from  Toulouse,  the  school  was  in  a  poor  building,  ill-ventilated,  with  an  un- 
even brick  floor,  and  no  play- grounds.  This  school  is  entirely  free,  being  sup- 
ported by  the  city  of  Toulouse.  There  were  twenty-eight  boys  present. 
They  all  wore  wooden  shoes.  The  boys  read  pretty  well,  knew  a  little  of 
geography,  less  of  history,  but  their  writing,  grammar,  and  arithmetic  were 
good.  The  master's  wife  had  a  class  of  six  little  boys  in  an  adjoining  room. 
She  had  formerly  taught  the  girls  of  the  village,  but  the  Sisters  had  just 
opened  a  school,  and  all  the  girls  had  gone  there.  There  were  forty  present 
at  this  school." 

There  are  other  schools,  mostly  private,  both  Protestant 
and  Catholic,  throughout  France ;  but  they  are  all  under 
the  law,  and  so  nearly  like  those  already  described,  that 
these  may  be  taken  as  examples  of  the  elementary  schools 
of  the  country. 

PRIMARY  NORMAL   SCHOOLS. 

The  normal  schools,  one  to  each  department,  are  also 
included  in  primary  instruction.  The  course  is  alike  in 
all,  and  corresponds  with  that  in  the  elementary  schools ; 
but  many  students  pass  beyond  this  meagre  programme. 
The  course  occupies  three  years,  and  there  are  about  fifty 


SECOND AR  Y  IXSTR  UCTIOK  371 

scholars  in  attendance  at  a  time  in  each  school.  Paris  has 
no  normal  school  for  primary,  instruction,  but  depends 
upon  her  attractions  to  draw  the  best  teachers  from  the 
provinces. 

Examinations  are  held  each  year,  and  those  who  fail  are 
not  permitted  to  go  on.  Great  stress  is  laid  upon  methods 
of  teaching,  but  the  course  of  studies  is  exceedingly  limit- 
ed. A  student  who  has  passed  the  teachers'  course  may 
continue  his  studies  considerably  beyond  this.  There 
seems  to  be  a  constant  fear  of  making  students  rather  than 
school-masters,  and  the  course  would  seem  to  us  far  too 
meagre..  Students  agree,  on  entering,  to  serve  as  teachers 
for  ten  years,  and  the  best  scholars  receive  some  aid  from 
the  state.  Agriculture  and  horticulture  form  a  part  of  the 
course,  and,  besides  being  a  profitable  kind  of  instruction, 
are  very  popular. 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

France  has  sixty-three  lyceums  and  two  hundred  and 
forty-four  communal  colleges.  These  are  connected  with 
the  state,  receiving  assistance  and  gaining  .dignity  and  effi- 
ciency from  the  relationship.  They  all,  in  fact,  receive  aid 
from  the  state,  the  departments,  the  communes,  and  private 
benevolence,  and  in  them  all  scholarships  are  provided  for 
poor  and  deserving  scholars.  These  schools  are  for  the 
higher  and  middle  classes. of  society,  and  serve  excellently 
to  blend  the  two.  There  is  no  law  nor  influence  exclud- 
ing from  them  the  great  under-class  of  France,  yet  it  is 
very  rare  to  find  the  sons  of  peasants  here.  In  all  these 
schools  arrangements  for  boarding,  discipline,  hours  of 
work  and  recreation,  are  regulated  by  Government,  and 
are  uniform. 

The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  is  at  the  head  of  this 
vast  organization,  and  is  assisted  by  the  Imperial  Council 


372  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

of  Public  Instruction — a  specially  organized  body  for  the 
direction  and  control  of  schools.  Each  religious  denomi- 
nation, Catholic,  Protestant,  and  Jewish,  as  well  as  all  the 
learned  professions  and  great  interests  of  France,  are  rep- 
resented in  it.  Among  the  names  of  the  councilors  we 
find  M.  Milne  Edwards,  M.  Michael  Chevalier,  M.  Dumas, 
M.  Ravoisson,  M.  Le  Verrier,  and  M.  Nisard.  This  council 
is  consulted  on  all  important  matters  pertaining  to  schools. 
Next  after  this  council  come  the  eighteen  branches  of  the 
great  University  of  Paris,  or  Institute  of  France.  This  in- 
stitution is  composed  of  parts  or  branches,  each  located  at 
the  leading  city  of  the  province  to  which  it  is  assigned. 
It  uses  the  lecture-rooms  of  the  schools  established  there, 
and  has  supervision  of  the  schools  of  that  portion  of  the 
territory  of  France  which,  is  allotted  to  it. 

The  lyceums  and  communal  colleges  have  each  their 
council  of  administration  also. 

THE  LYCEUMS  AND   COMMUNAL  COLLEGES. 

The  administration  of  the  lycees  is  in  the  hands  of  a  pro- 
visor,  a  censor,  and  steward,  who  take  no  part  in  teaching, 
but  admit  the  scholars,  correspond  with  parents,  keep  the 
accounts,  and  regulate  discipline.  Each  lycte  has  two  chap- 
lains, and  is  supervised  by  its  own  council  of  administra- 
tion. The  professors  give  their  lectures,  and  then  have 
nothing  further  to  do  with  the  school  until  the  next  day. 
Then  the  masters  take  control,  and  are  at  all  times  with 
the  boys,  in  school  and  out,  and  supervise  their  conduct. 
They  direct  them  in  preparing  their  lessons,  attend  them 
at  their  meals  and  at  exercise,  and  sleep  in  their  dormito- 
ries. The  professors,  and  in  fact  the  masters,  must  have 
passed  the  various  examinations  and  taken  the  degrees, 
and  are  not  allowed  to  be  ignorant  of  the  subjects  which 
they  teacli; 


SUPERIOR  NORMAL  SCHOOL.  373 

The  same  general  plan  of  instruction  seems  to  be  fol- 
lowed everywhere  in  the  higher  schools  of  France.  A 
chief  professor  of  the  highest  order  of  attainments  in  his 
subject  gives  a  general  lecture  to  a  whole  class,  who  take 
notes.  They  then  retire  to  rooms  of  study,  and  there,  un- 
der the  direction  of  masters,  go  over  repeatedly  the  topics 
of  the  professor's  lecture  until  they  are  familiar  with  them. 
They  all  sleep  in  large  dormitories  like  barracks,  still  un- 
der direction  of  masters,  and  their  whole  course  is  one  of 
suppression  and  restraint,  very  different  from  our  system, 
which  requires  lessons  to  be  worked  out  by  independent, 
almost  free  study. 

The  communal  colleges  are  provincial,  and  their  course 
of  study  and  general  character  vary  with  the  wants  and 
condition  of  the  people  of  the  different  communes. 

SUPERIOR  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

The  Superior  Normal  School  for  preparing  professors 
for  the  higher  public  schools  of  France  is  situated  in  the 
Latin  quarter,  not  far  from  the  Polytechnic.  It  is  a  beau- 
tiful building,  and  here,  after  a  three  years'  course,  the 
higher  professors  are  graduated.  The  select  from  all  the 
academies  of  France  present  themselves  here,  and  undergo 
a  competitive  examination  for  the  scholarships.  Three 
hundred  and  forty -four  were  examined  at  one  time  for 
thirty-five  vacancies.  There  are  usually  about  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  scholars,  and  their  intellectual  character  is 
extremely  high.  The  school  has  twenty-three  professors, 
and  its  course  is  about  equally  scientific  and  classic.  It 
is  not  probable  that  another  so  complete  and  select  a 
school  exists  in  Christendom.  M.  Nisard  is  at  its  head ; 
and  among  its  graduates  are  such  men  as  M.  Benard,  Jules 
Grirard,  M.  Cousin^  M.  Villemain,  M.  Taine,  and  M.  Prevost 
Paradol. 


374:  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

The  pay  of  a  superior  French  professor  is  from  three 
hundred  to  two  thousand  dollars  a  year,  according  to 
grade.  He  has  three  or  four  hours  of  duty  a  day,  and 
afterward  is  entirely  free.  Around  every  great  school  a 
number  of  small  ones  always  spring  up,  sometimes  rival- 
ing the  parent  institution,  and  employ  the  same  professors 
at  different  hours — thus  adding  considerably  to  their  in- 
comes. There  is  a  regular  system  of  promotion,  according 
to  length  of  service  and  merit,  and  the  younger  members 
carry  on  their  studies  for  the  higher  grades  while  attend- 
ing their  classes. 

In  the  lycees  boys  are  admitted  at  eight  years  of  age, 
and  have  an  eight  years'  course.  Their  first  examination 
amounts  to  but  little,  but  each  year  afterward  the  course 
must  be  well  learned.  The  studies  are  not  very  different 
from  those  of  our  own  good  academies ;  but  gymnastics, 
music,  and  drawing  are  made  a  part  of  the  course.  The 
schools  are  divided  into  eight  forms,  each  occupying  a 
year.  A  large  number  of  the  boys  prepare  here  for  the 
Polytechnic,  Saint-Cyr,  and  other  special  schools,  many  of 
the  best  preferring  the  superior  normal  school. 

THE   SEVEN  GREAT  LYCEUMS   OF  FRANCE  AND  THEIR 
DEPENDENCIES. 

Paris  has,  besides  her  other  great  schools,  seven  immense 
lycees,  where  the  full  course  is  given.  In  these,  six  thou- 
sand boys  are  educated,  and  around  each  of  the  schools  is 
a  small  colony  of  private  schools,  pursuing  the  same  course 
and  employing  the  same  professors.  They  are  all  under 
Government  inspection.  The  arrangement  of  study  in  all 
is  similar,  although  the  buildings  themselves  are  very  un- 
like,' They  all  have  immense  dormitories,  clean  refecto- 
ries, dispensaries,  and  infirmaries,  with  their  attendant  Sis- 
ters of  Charity ;  bath-rooms  and  kitchens,  with  stores  of 


THE  SEVEN  GREAT  LYCEUMS.  375 

bread,  wine,  soup,  meat,  vegetables,  and  pastry,  with  all  the 
appliances  for  preparing  food.  A  boy  has  in  them  his 
board  and  lodging,  instruction,  books,  writing  material, 
clothes,  washing,  medical  attendance,  medicines,  and  warm- 
ing and  lighting, for  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  year; 
and  it  is  all  excellent,  and  the  sick -rate  remarkably  low. 
The  food  is  limited,  but  sufficient.  The  pupils'  day  is 
long,  and  somewhat  exhausting.  They  rise  between  five 
and  six,  and  spend  ten  hours  with  their  lessons,  and  about 
two  at  meals  and  recreations.  Nearly  all  the  schools  have 
attached  to  them  beautiful  gardens,  rendered  attractive  no 
less  by  their  real  beauty  than  the  interest  which  the  stu- 
dents take  in  their  cultivation. 

It  would  be  a  most  interesting  theme,  if  space  permitted, 
to  go  through  this  vast  machinery  of  French  secondary 
instruction.  The  public  schools  of  France  afford  to  the 
higher  and  middle  classes  secondary,  or  high  instruction 
for  sixty -six  thousand  boys,  while  private  schools,  of  a  like 
good  character,  giving  the  same  course,  and  under  the 
same  Government  inspection,  educate  fifty-two  thousand. 
Thus  one  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand  of  the  upper 
classes  receive  every  eight  years  this  instruction,  or  about 
fifteen  thousand  graduate  each  year.  This  gives  roughly 
an  idea  of  the  extent  of  this  education  in  France.  It  all 
has  a  religious  character,  but  great  pains  are  taken,  not 
to  impede  the  freest  action  and  development  of  religious 
thought.  Nearly  all  of  this  vast  number  of  schools,  have 
their  characteristic  excellence ;  as,  for  example,  in  mathe- 
matics, physics,  or  letters,  law,  medicine,  or  one  of  the  va- 
rious state  services. 

Such  a  thing  as  fagging  or  Jia^ing  is  not  known  in 
France.  The  constant  supervision  by  masters  would  pre- 
vent it,  and  it  would  be  repugnant  to  the  natural  tastes 
of  French  people.  The  same  of  flogging ;  and  the  good 


376          THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

sense  of  mankind  everywhere  seems  to  have  set  in  de- 
cidedly against  both  these  barbarisms.  At  the  end  of  each 
quarter  a  written  report  of  progress  and  conduct  is  sent  to 
parents. 

The  attention  formerly  given  to  Latin  and  Greek  is  be- 
ing gradually  transferred  to  the  modern  languages.  There 
has  been  recently  a  movement  to  condense  the  course,  and 
make  it  more  practical,  by  taking  a  boy  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  years  of  age  through  four  years  of  practical  study, 
tending  more  directly  toward  the  calling  he  intends  to 
follow,  and  also  by  making  each  year  complete  within  it- 
self, so  that  the  boy,  if  called  at  any  time  to  quit  the 
schools,  will  have  completed  a  course,  though  perhaps  a 
short  one.  This  change  has  been  loudly  called  for  by  the 
active,  enterprising  middle  classes,  and  has  been,  to  some 
extent,  successfully  made.  The  great  difficulty  seems  to  be 
to  find  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  this  class  at  any  one 
point  to  give  such  schools  support. 

The  French  mathematical  course  is  very  full,  and  excel- 
lently taught,  but  is  more  confined  to  special  schools  than 
is  generally  supposed.  Favor  toward  it  and  the  natural 
sciences  seems  on  the  increase.  While  the  old  notion  that 
a  superior  social  stamp  is  given  by  a  classical  education  is 
prevalent,  the  tendency  of  modern  thought  in  France,  as 
well  as  elsewhere,  is  against  it,  and  the  craving  for  an  edu- 
cation that  deals  with  accurate  facts  is  clearly  growing. 

THE   UNIVERSITY. 

The  superior  or  university  instruction  in  France  is  in 
the  hands  of  several  great  faculties  of  professors  establish- 
ed at  various  points,  who  teach  those  only  who  wish  to 
pass  beyond  the  bachelor's  degree.  There  are  five  facul- 
ties of  superior  instruction — one  each  of  theology,  law,  med- 
icine, science,  and  letters.  They  form  the  eighteen  branch- 


THE  UNIVERSITY.  377 

es  of  the  great  University  of  Paris.  Sciences  have  ninety- 
eight  chairs,  letters  eighty-six,  theology  forty-two,  and  law 
ninety-eight.  No  barrister  can  practice  until  he  has  at- 
tended lectures  at  a  faculty  of  law  for  three  years.  Medi- 
cine has  sixty-one  chairs,  and  before  one  can  practice,  a 
four  years'  course  at  lectures  is  necessary. 

Outside  of  these  faculties  and  schools,  there  are  a  great 
many  very  important  institutions  of  learning  of  almost  ev- 
ery possible  special  character.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  is  the  College  of  France,  before  referred  to,  founded, 
with  many  others,  at  the  Reformation,  and  now  the  sole 
survivor.  It  has  thirty-one  professors,  among  whom  we 
find  the  names  of  Flourens,  Coste,  Franck,  Laboulaye,  Mi- 
chel Chevalier,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Paulin  Paris,  and  covers 
with  its  instruction  all  the  most  important  provinces  of 
human  culture. 

If  we  should  undertake  to  criticise  so  grand  and  Com- 
plete a  system  of  higher  education,  it  might  be  said  that 
there  is  too  much  control  by  the  central  Government,  too 
much  prescribing  to  teachers  the  precise  course  they  shall 
follow,  and  too  much  authorization  required  everywhere, 
and  that  education  is  too  much  limited  and  shackled. 
This  is  of  course  due  to.  the  character  of  the  people,  who 
must  be  controlled  in  every  thing.  The  system  is  relig- 
ious and  dogmatical,  but  recognizes  the  rights  of  con- 
science. The  state  has  steadily  refused  to  make  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  the  religion  of  France,  although  it  is  the  re- 
ligion of  four-fifths  of  its  people.  The  state  has  under- 
taken to  put  education  within  reach  of  all  her  people,  and 
to  provide  teachers  for  them.  The  teachers  have,  howev- 
er, never  been  properly  paid,  and,  but  for  the  fact  that  they 
are  exempt  from  the  conscription,  could  not  be  kept  up  as 
a  distinct  profession.  Education  is  not  compulsory,  nor  is 
there  any  sentiment  in  France  that  favors  such  a  course. 


378  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

Of  the  condition  of  the  mass  of  the  French  people  I  have 
hardly  spoken.  Tourists,  writers,  and  humorists  are  silent 
upon  the  subject.  Mr.  Kay,  who  has  written  so  much  and 
so  well  upon  elementary  schools  in  Germany,  and  small 
proprietorships  in  France,  says  nothing  upon  the  former 
subject.  Mr.  Arnold  reached  them  once  at  Toulouse. 
Mrs.  Blunt  has  given  us  light  in  her  magazine  articles,  but 
the  actual  condition  of  the  great  mass  of  French  peasantry 
is  to  the  world  a  sealed  book.  We  have  seen  that  the 
state  has  provided  a  primary  school  for  about  every  six 
hundred  of  her  people,  corresponding  to  about  one  to  each 
of  our  townships.  At  some  time,  about  two-thirds  of  the 
children  of  France  attend  these  schools,  and  a  portion,  per- 
haps half  of  them,  perhaps  more,  pass  through  the  primary 
course.  The  rolls  of  the  army  and  other  statistics .  and 
sources  of  information,  show  that  somewhere  between  twen- 
ty-five and  thirty-five  per  centum  of  the  population  can 
not  read  or  write.  Of  the  half  who  attend  the  primary 
schools  irregularly,  the  amount  of  instruction  is  exceeding- 
ly limited,  and  the  primary  course  itself  is  very  elementa- 
ry. Mr.  Arnold  says  that  the  people  of  France  are  "  not 
in  the  least  bookish,"  and  are  "  almost  incredibly  ignorant ;" 
and,  as  regards  the  peasantry :  ."  The  merits  of  the  French 
school  system  are  undoubtedly  more  in  the  probable  future 
than  in  the  present  or  past,  but  the  schools  are  there.;  and 
in  the  rise  of  the  people  in  wealth  and  comfort  is  probably 
the  only  obligation  that  can  draw  these  people  to  them." 

THE  COMMON  PEOPLE  OF  FRANCE. 

After  the  third  of  the  nation  who  can  not  read  or  write, 
there  comes  another  third  whose  acquirements  scarcely 
amount  to  any  thing.  One  boy  in  about  three  hundred 
of  the  inhabitants  passes  through  the.  higher  institutions, 
corresponding  to  our  high  schools  and  colleges,  and  one. 


THE  COMMON  PEOPLE  OF  FRANCE.  379 

in  about  fifteen  hundred  receives  an  education  of  the  first 
order. 

This  ought  to  give  some  notion  of  the  condition  of  the 
French  people  in  respect  to  education.  In  viewing  the 
great  struggle '  with  Prussia,  this  subject,  I  fear,  has  not 
received  due  weight.  The  common  people  of  France  sel- 
dom read  books.  They  have  no  magazines,  and  newspa- 
pers are  scarcely  known  among  them.  A  city  like  Kheims, 
Kouen,  or  Asnieres,  of  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  inhabitants, 
usually  publishes  two  or  three  little  sheets,  about  such  as 
we  always  find  in  every  village  of  four  or  five  hundred  in- 
habitants in  Kansas  or  Nebraska,  and  not  more  than  a  hun- 
dredth part  of  the  population  read  them.  The  peasantry 
of  France  comprise  upward  of  twenty-five  million  of  the 
population,  and,  in  villages  of  four  or  five  hundred  up  to 
two  or  three  thousand,  one  would  look  in  vain  for  that 
leaven  of  respectable  society  which  we  find  everywhere  in 
our  own  country.  The  exceeding  ignorance  of  these  peo- 
ple is,  of  course,  accompanied  by  superstitious  and  ground- 
less suspicion.  They  are  little  controlled  by  reason,  but 
seem,  like  the  people  of  the  South  in  our  war,  to  possess 
the  faculty  of  believing  whatever  is  favorable  to  them- 
selves. This  peculiarity  M.  Gambetta  availed  himself  of 
in  forcing  public  feeling  in  France  by  the  grandest  series 
of  falsehoods  ever  told  from  a  chair  of  state.  It  was  this 
that  led  them  to  condemn  and  execute  as  a  spy  every 
man  who  could  not  account  for  himself  to  their  liking,  and 
that  caused  their  non-combatants  to  fall  upon  the  wounded 
and  isolated  German  soldiers  and  slay  them,  always  be- 
lieving that  their  own  people  would  at  once  recover  the 
ground. 

"We  have  no  population  that  at  all  corresponds  to  the 
poorer  peasantry  of  France.  Even  the  mountain  inhabit- 
ants of  East  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  are  vastly  superior 


380  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

in  intelligence  and  character,  though  not  in  morality,  to 
the  French  peasantry.  The  old  men  are  vicious,  and  wear 
a  fierce  and  dismal  expression  of  countenance ;  while  the 
old  women,  usually  with  a  white  cloth  about  their  heads, 
have  faces  as  totally  blank  and  destitute  of  any  human  ex- 
pression as  many  of  the  lower  animals.  The  children  usu- 
ally have  round,  fat,  unintelligent  faces.  The  young  men, 
during  my  stay  in  France,  were  mostly  with  the  army, 
and  the  young  women  were  attractive  only  from  the  uni- 
versal charm  of  youthful  maidenhood. 

These  people  live  by  agriculture  and  the  common 
trades,  in  villages  of  a  few  hundred  inhabitants.  Their 
houses  are  usually  of  stone,  one  and  a  half  stories  high. 
Near  the  front  door,  which  always  opens  directly  on  the 
street,  is  kept  the  compost  heap  for  enriching  the  little 
farm.  In  Paris  I  have  seen  thousands  of  men,  who  labor- 
ed upon  the  roads  with  a  horse  and  cart,  living  in  the 
streets,  and  sleeping  under  their  carts  upon  an  old  sheep- 
skin, from  one  year's  end  to  the  other — their  poor  old  faces 
showing  no  more  animation,  hope,  or  happiness,  than  the 
horse  which  was  their  only  companion.  I  fear  that  our 
people  who  visit  France  keep  their  eyes  generally  toward 
Paris,  the  Tuileries,  the  Bois  du  Boulogne,  and  the  Grand 
Opera,  and  see  little  of  real  French  life. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  an  article  by  a  mem- 
ber of  a  French  and  English  ambulance,  published  in 
"  Macmillan's  Magazine,"  and  gives  an  average  view  of  the 
peasantry : 

"  If  I  am  asked  what  was  the  attitude  of  the  peasants  during  the  war  and 
between  the-  two  armies,  I  reply  that  their  behavior  was  the  most  lamentable 
of  all  the  lamentable  spectacles  in  this  unhappy  struggle.  It  is  among  the 
peasants  that  the  results  of  ignorance  and  selfishness  have  exhibited  them- 
selves in  the  most  striking  manner.  In  the  Ardennes  the  people  were  not 
heroic ;  but  at  any  rate  they  assisted  the  French  army,  helped  the  wound- 
ed, and  were  not  utterly  vile  before  the  enemy;  but  in  Normandy  and  the 


CONCLUSION.  381 

Beauce,  where  I  was  afterward  stationed,  the  state  of  demoralization  was 
frightful.  The  peasants  were  too  selfish  to  make  the  least  sacrifice  for  their 
own  soldiers,  and  thus,  both  from  fear  and  from  interest,  became  subservient 
to  the  Germans,  furnishing  them  with  subsistence  and  other  assistance. 
With  rare  exceptions,  they  did  nothing  for  the  wounded ;  but  if  we  happened 
to  be  successful  in  an  action,  I  can  not  describe  the  low  ferocity  with  which 
they  turned  upon  the  Germans,  before  whom  they  had  recently  been  cring- 
ing. At  Oucques  the  ambulance  had  some  difficulty  in  preventing  two 
wounded  Bavarians  from  being  massacred  by  the  people.  At  St.  Leonard, 
a  peasant  actually  amused  himself  with  pulling  the  broken  leg  of  a  German, 
for  the  mere  sake  of  causing  him  torture.  At  Ouzoner,  the  people  thronged 
round  a  solitary  wounded  officer,  and  assailed  him  with  threats  and  insults 
of  all  kinds  ;  and  their  stupidity  was  equal  to  their  wickedness.  They  were 
constantly  mistaking  us  for  Germans,  on  account  of  our  flag  and  the  ambu- 
lance cross  on  our  sleeves.  They  were  certain  that  we  were  in  communica- 
tion with  the  Prussians,  because  we  were  not  afraid  of  them,  and  accused  us 
of  firing  rockets  to  point  out  the  position  of  the  army  to  the  enemy.  At 
Sammanthe,  they  were  convinced  that  the  Prussians  had  come,  because  our 
ambulance  was  established  there ;  and  at  Ouzoner,  it  was  believed  that  we 
had  plundered  the  wounded,  and  that  our  only  object  in  nursing  the  patients 
was  to  make  money.  I  do  not  deny  that  devoted  hearts  and  souls  above  the 
common  were  to  be  met  with.  I  have  heard  from  peasants,  of  both  sexes, 
golden  words,  which  will  remain  in  my  recollection  as  long  as  I  live ;  but  the 
great,  majority,  even  when  intelligent,  are  shamefully,  demoralized  and  scan- 
dalously profligate,  selfish,  and  wicked.  Quarrels  and  scandals  rage  with 
fury  in  the  villages,  and  even  in  the  families  themselves  things  occur  which 
are  too  bad  to  be  mentioned." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  shall  no  longer  look  on  France 
as  an  example  of  civilization  worthy  of  admiration  and 
imitation. 

CONCLUSION. 

I  claim  little  originality  for  the  foregoing  pages.  I  was 
compelled,  by  my  limited  time  in  Europe,  to  avail  myself 
largely  of  the  labor  of  others,  and  have  written  the  book 
at  a  remote  frontier  post,  without  libraries,  and  compelled 
to  rely  upon  the  courtesy  of  our  ministers  at  Berlin,  Paris, 
and  London  for  the  necessary  volumes  of  reference.  I 
thank  these  gentlemen  for  their  kind  assistance. 


382  THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  ARMY. 

I  found  much,  to  admire  in  the  simple,  earnest  life  of 
the  German  people,  who  have  accomplished  so  much  by 
rational  and  persistent  labor,  and  I  have  tried  to  be  just 
in  my  criticisms  upon  French  character  and  methods. 

Our  own  service  should  derive  important  lessons  from 
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  I  submit  this  work  to  the 
public,  and  especially  to  my  brother  officers,  as  my  contri- 
bution toward  that  result. 


APPENDIX. 


ADMINISTRATION  OP  THE  PRUSSIAN  ARMY. 

Subsistence  Department. 

IN  time  of  peace,  when  there  is  no  commissary  officer  on  duty  with  troops 
of  the  standing  army,  or  the  subsistence  of  troops  by  the  proper  department 
is  attended  with  unusual  difficulty,  supplies  may  be  furnished  by  the  com- 
mune in  which  the  troops  are  quartered.  While  on  a  peace  footing,  officers 
may,  and  usually  do,  draw  money  commutation  for  their  rations ;  but  when 
the  army  is  mobilized,  every  person  in  it,  without  regard  to  rank  or  grade,  is 
entitled  to  one  ration  in  kind  daily,  and  no  more,  and  commutations  are  not 
then  allowed. 

The  ration  consists  of  twelve  ounces  of  fresh  or  salt  beef,  or  smoked  beef, 
or  mutton,  or  two-thirds  of  a  pound  of  salt  pork ;  one  pound  and  a  half  of 
bread,  which  may  be  increased  to  two  pounds,  without  meat ;  four  ounces  of 
rice,  and  four  ounces  of  barley  or  grits,  or  eight  ounces  of  peas  or  beans  ;  one 
half-pound  of  flour,  or  three  pounds  of  potatoes ;  four  ounces  of  salt,  and  four 
ounces  of  green,  or  three  ounces  of  roasted,  coffee. 

The  commanding  general  directs  which  of  the  component  parts  of  the  ra- 
tion shall  be  issued. 

The  cost  of  the  ration  is  about  twenty-one  cents. 

In  an  enemy's  country,  supplies  are  obtained,  as  far  as  practicable,  by 
requisitions  upon  the  inhabitants  through  their  own  civil  officers,  if  possible ; 
but  no  more  than  the  home  price  for  the  articles  so  obtained  is  paid  under 
any  circumstances.  Requisitions,  when  made  by  the  order  of  the  command- 
ing general,  must  be  facilitated  by  all  commanding  officers. 

In  addition  to  the  ration,  the  Subsistence  Department  furnishes  dried  fruit, 
sauerkraut,  and  such  vegetables  as  can  be  obtained  or  transported. 

Extra  issues  of  whisky  or  brandy  may  be  made  in  the  field,  on  the  order 
of  the  commanding  officer,  in  cases  of  unusual  fatigue  or  exposure.  The  ra- 
tion is  one  gallon  to  forty-eight  men. 

Under  similar  circumstances  the  ration  may  be  increased  to  one  pound  of 
beef,  one  third  of  a  pound  of  rice  or  barley  and  grits,  or  two-thirds  of  a 
pound  of  peas  or  beans,  and  four  pounds  of  potatoes. 

In  cases  of  lack  of  sufficient  transportation,  the  commanding  general  may 
reduce  the  ration,  specifying  what  parts  and  quantities  thereof  shall  be  issued. 

Beer,  wine,  tobacco,  and  butter  are  not  usually  kept  by  the  Subsistence 
Department,  but  the  commanding  general  may  authorize  the  issue  of  these 


384  APPENDIX. 

articles,  when  they  can  be  obtained.  A  ration  will  then  consist  of  one  quart 
of  beer,  one  pint  of  wine,  and  three  ounces  each  of  butter  and  tobacco. 

When  troops  are  transported  by  railway  or  steamboat,  an  extra  allowance 
in  money  is  paid  to  the  commanding  officers  of  regiments  or  detachments  for 
procuring  refreshments  for  the  troops  on  the  line  of  travel.  This  allowance 
is  as  follows  per  man  :  For  a  trip  of  from  8  to  15  hours,  8  cents ;  from  15  to 
31  hours,  15  cents ;  from  31  to  39  hours,  23  cents ;  from  39  to  47  hours,  30 
cents  j  for  every  eight  hours'  travel  beyond  forty-seven,  eight  cents  is  paid. 

Commanding  officers  are  required  to  see  that  each  man  carries  with  him, 
when  traveling  by  rail  or  boat,  at  least  one  pound  of  bread,  and  a  suitable 
quantity  of  salt  pork  and  whisky,  as  a  reserve  ration. 

In  case  there  should  be  no  proper  accommodations  for  men  on  the  line  of 
travel,  subsistence  stores,  with  butchers  and  bakers,  are  sent  forward,  under 
charge  of  a  commissioned  officer,  and  warm  meals  are  prepared  in  advance 
of  the  arrival  of  the  troops. 

The  issues  of  subsistence  stores  must  in  every  case  be  witnessed  by  a  com- 
pany officer  or  a  pay-master,  and  commanding  officers  of  posts  or  pay-masters 
are  required  to  thoroughly  inspect  all  articles  received. 

The  hides  of  beeves  slaughtered  for  the  use  of  troops  are  returned  to  the 
Subsistence  Department,  and,  when  sold,  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  are  turned 
over  to  the  troops  to  whom  the  beef  is  issued. 

When  issues  of  salt  meats  are  made,  there  is  a  suitable  deduction  for  salt 
and  brine. 

Commutation  is  allowed  for  the  bread  ration  when  it  is  not  drawn  in  kind. 

The  refreshment  addition  for  troops  while  traveling  is  always  paid  in  ad- 
vance— sometimes  daily,  and  sometimes  for  the  whole  tour. 

An  increase  of  the  ration  is  usually  authorized  by  the  War  Department 
upon  the  issuing  of  the  order  placing  the  army  upon  a  war  footing. 

Pay  Department. 

There  is  no  Pay  Department  proper  in  the  Prussian  Army.  The  troops 
are  paid  tri-monthly  by  a  pay-master,  who  is  a  regimental  officer,  and  belongs 
to  the  battalion  staff,  and  who,  besides  paying  the  troops,  disburses  and  keeps 
the  accounts  of  all  the  other  funds  of  the  regiment,  under  the  direction  and 
supervision  of  the  Regimental  Board,  as  is  explained  under  "Internal  Econo- 
my of  Regiments."  The  money  for  the  payment  of  troops  is  received  by  the 
regimental  commander,  together  with  allowances  for  the  other  funds,  from  the 
War  Department,  and  the  pay-master's  duties  are  those  of  a  treasurer  and 
cashier,  under  the  direction  of  the  commanding  officer  and  Regimental  Board. 

Internal  Economy  of  Regiments. — Administration  of  Funds  and  Duties  of 
Regimental  Boards. 

The  commanding  officer  is  president  of  the  Regimental  Board,  and  super- 
intends the  whole  cash  business ;  and  should  the  funds  of  the  regiment  be- 
come exhausted,  is  authorized  to  draw  within  certain  limits  upon  the  general 
War  Fund. 

The  second  member,  the  lieutenant-colonel,  superintends  the  business  of 


APPENDIX.  385 

the  pay-master,  and  is  required  to  know  that  the  books  and  accounts  are 
properly  kept  and  balanced.  The  lieutenant-colonel  has  special  functions 
relating  to  all  accounts  of  his  regiment,  is  responsible  for  their  accuracy,  and 
excused  from  all  field  exercises.  All  organizations  manage  their  own  funds, 
supplies  of  clothing,  and  entire  equipment. 

The  pay-master,  who  is  an  officer  of  the  regiment,  receives  and  cqunts  the 
different  regimental  funds,  keeps  each  in  its  proper  safe,  and  disburses  them. 
He  directs  the  correspondence,  calculations,  and  book-keeping,  and  makes  all 
payments.  He  does  not  attend  drills  or  field  manoeuvres. 

The  troops  are  paid  by  the  pay-master  on  the  1st,  llth,  and  21st  of  each 
month. 

Private  deposits  are  not  allowed  to  be  made  in  the  regimental  safes,  but 
officers  are  allowed  to  receive  the  savings  of  their  men  until  the  amount 
reaches  $10,  when  it  must  be  deposited  to  draw  interest. 

The  Regimental  Board  has  charge  also  of  the  funds  for  keeping  in  order 
clothing  and  equipments,  including  signal  equipments  and  arms,  and  for  the 
messing  arrangements. 

Contributions  are  made  monthly  to  the  fund  for  officers'  widows,  and  to 
the  officers'  clothing  fund. 

The  fund  for  the  assistance  of  officers  actually  in  want  was  instituted  by 
the  War  Department  in  18G9,  and  is  for  the  benefit  of  officers  below  the 
grade  of  captain. 

At  the  mobilization  the  garrison  troops  receive  stated  amounts  for  this  last 
fund,  and  for  the  other  funds  mentioned. 

The  board  of  officers  for  the  management  of  funds  in  different  organiza- 
tions is  made  up  as  follows :  in  an  infantry  or  artillery  regiment,  the  regi- 
mental commander,  one  staff  officer,  one  captain,  two  first  and  two  second 
lieutenants ;  in  a  chasseur  or  rifle  battalion,  the  commander,  one  chief  of 
squadron,  one  first  and  two  second  lieutenants ;  in  an  engineer  subdivision, 
one  staff  officer,  or  captain,  and  one  first  lieutenant ;  and  in  a  subdivision  of 
train  troops,  one  staff  officer  and  one  captain.  At  the  Military  Academy 
the  management  of  the  funds  rests  with  the  Directory. 

The  Additional  Pension  Fund  for  artillery  officers  is  kept  up  by  donations 
from  officers  of  artillery,  pay-masters,  and  administration  officers.  It  is  man- 
aged by  a  board  of  officers  selected  from  the  Artillery  Brigade  of  the  Guards 
at  Berlin.  Disbursements  are  made  quarterly  from  this  fund  to  invalided  offi- 
cers. This  board  manages  also  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  widows  of  artillery 
officers. 

The  Review  Fund  accrues  from  sales  of  worn-out  tools  and  unserviceable 
ordnance  and  building  material,  and  from  rent  of  refreshment  booths  on  the 
review  ground.  It  is  applied  to  payments  for  damages  done  to  fields  and 
crops  during  manoeuvres,  and  for  miscellaneous  purposes. 

Each  battery  and  company  of  artillery  receives  a  fund  ranging  from  $7=^% 
to  $8^°o  monthly  for  repairs  of  harness,  gun-carriages,  and  for  making  tar- 
gets, etc. 

Savings  of  any  of  these  funds  may  accumulate  to  $100 ;  but  when  that 
amount  is  reached,  one-half  goes  to  the  General  "War  Fund. 

25 


386  APPENDIX. 

•  Besides  the  funds  named,  there  are  others  of  minor  importance.  Among 
them  are  those  for  education  of  soldiers,  for  medical  attendance  and  medicines 
for  wives  and  children  of  soldiers,  for  horse  medicines,  for  regimental  bands, 
for  libraries  and  military  charities,  for  swimming  schools,  and  for  the  decora- 
tion of  cemeteries. 

Clothing. 

The  commanding  officer  of  a  regiment,  or  other  distinct  organization,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  clothing  and  entire  equipment  of  his  command,  and  general 
officers  are  held  to  a  like  responsibility  in  respect  to  their  commands. 

There  is  for  every  department  of  troops  a  clothing  board,  or  commission, 
composed  of  the  prefect,  a  pay-master,  and  one  or  more  officers.  In  artillery 
regiments  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  tailor-shop  is  always  a  member  of  this 
commission. 

No  arrangement  exists  for  furnishing  troops  in  the  field  with  clothing,  as 
it  is  assumed  that  the  supply  furnished  each  soldier  on  taking  the  field  will 
last  until  his  return. 

All  material  for  the  manufacture  of  clothing  is  furnished  to  the  tailors, 
who  are  enlisted  men,  and  is  by  them  made  up  for  the  different  regiments. 

The  refuse  material  is  sold,  and  the  proceeds  transferred  to  the  fund  for 
equipment. 

All  articles  of  clothing,  except  gloves  and  ear-coverings,  are  twice  in- 
spected before  issue. 

Non-commissioned  officers  and  privates,  except  one-year  volunteers,  are 
furnished  with  all  articles  of  clothing  and  equipment  required  during  their 
term  of  service. 

Only  invalided  soldiers  are  allowed  to  retain  their  worn-out  clothing ;  all 
others  turn  it  in,  and  it  is  replaced  by  new  articles. 

Soldiers  going  to  hospital  turn  in  their  clothing,  except  shirts,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  suitable  clothing  by  the  Hospital  Department. 

Troops  changing  station  receive  extra  under-clothing  in  order  to  keep 
themselves  clean  en  route,  but  must  turn  it  in  upon  arrival  at  their  destination. 

Soldiers  discharged  for  disability  during  the  winter  months,  if  of  feeble 
constitution,  are  furnished  an  overcoat,  which  must,  however,  be  turned  in  to 
the  proper,  authority  upon  their  arrival  at  home.. 

The  expenses  for  altering  clothing  and  repairing  boots  are  paid  from  the 
General  Contingent  Fund. . 

The  expenses  of  washing  and  cleaning  the  linen  suits  are  borne  by  the 
Public  Fund,  managed  by  the  board,  as  before  explained. 

All  enlisted  men  are  entitled  to  an  outfit  of  clothing  gratis.  This  for  each 
man  in  the  infantry :  One  cap  with  cockade,  one  dress-coat,  one  linen  jacket, 
one  pair  cloth  trowsers,  one  pair  linen  trowsers,  one  pair  drawers,  one  pair 
stockings,  one  stock,  one  great-coat,  one  pair  mittens  (leather  for  non-com- 
missioned officers,. cloth  for  privates),  one  pair  ear-coverings,  one  shirt,  one 
pair  boots,  one  pair  shoes,  and  two  pairs  half-soles. 

In  the  mounted  service  each  man  receives;  One  cap  with  cockade,  one 
linen  jacket,  one  stock,  one  pair  kersey  trowsers,  one  pair  cloth  trowsers  re-en- 


APPENDIX.  387 

forced  with  leather,  one  pair  stable  trowsers,  one  pair  drawers,  one  shirt,  one 
pair  stockings,  one  great-coat,  one  pair  long  boots,  one  pair  shoes,  one  pair 
gloves,  and  one  pair  ear-coverings. 

For  school  and  acrobatic  exercises,  there  are  furnished  each  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  in  addition  to  the  above,  one  linen  jacket  and  pair  trowsers, 
and  one  pair  light  shoes. 

In  garrison,  each  soldier  receives  :  Two  double  blankets  in  winter  and  one 
in  summer,  one  coverlet,  one  mattress,  one  pillow,  and  two  sheets.  The  gar- 
rison administration  pays  for  the  washing  of  the  bed  furniture,  but  each  man 
pays  for  the  washing  of  his  own  clothes. 

Other  Provisions  of  the  Prussian  Army. 

Persons  on  furlough  do  not  receive  commutation  of  their  allowances,  but 
officers  and  officials  on  court-inartial  service,  or  like  duty,  interfering  with 
the  discharge  of  their  customary  functions,  receive  all  of  their  allowances 
in  full. 

The  forage  ration  is  of  two  kinds— light  and  heavy.  The  heavy  ration 
consists  of  eleven  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  oats,  three  pounds  of  hay,  and 
three  and  a  half  pounds  of  straw.  The  light  ration  is  the  same,  except  that 
the  amount  of  grain  is  ten  pounds.  Heavy  rations  are  issued  to  horses  of 
the  cavalry  and  artillery,  and  to  horses  belonging  to  general  officers  and  of- 
ficers of  their  staffs,  officers"  of  the  war  ministry,  of  the  engineers,  intend- 
ance,  administration  high  officials  (civil  officers  transferred  for  special  mili- 
tary service  in  war),  officers  in  charge  of  transportation  and  pack-trains,  pos- 
tilions, and  sutlers.  All  horses  not  belonging  to  any  of  the  above  branches 
draw  light  rations  of  forage. 

When  oats  can  not  be  obtained,  the  equivalent  per  pound  is  :  Of  barley,  one 
pound;  of  rye,  one  pound;  of  middlings,  one  and  one-fifth  pounds;  of  hay, 
two  and  one-eighth  pounds,  and  of  straw,  five  pounds. 

When  forage  is  issued  by  measure  instead  of  weight,  a  heavy  ration  is  one 
and  one-half  pecks  of  oats,  and  a  light  one,  one  and  one-fourth  pecks. 

Forage  for  officers'  horses  is  drawn  as  usual  while  the  officers  are  on  fur- 
lough for  six  months ;  but  after  that  time  the  issue  ceases. 

Receipts  are  given  the  contractors  or  other  parties  furnishing  forage,  on 
which  payments  are  made  by  the  officers  receiving  it ;  but  no  officer  having  a 
command  less  in  numbers  than  a  company  is  authorized  to  give  such  receipts. 

In  the  receipts,  the  different  arms  or  branches  of  the  service  for  which  for- 
age was  drawn  must  be  mentioned. 

The  actual  delivery  of  forage  supplies  to  troops  must  be  witnessed,  and 
such  supplies  thoroughly  inspected  at  the  time  by  a  company  officer  or  pay- 
master. 

Expenditures  for  writing  material,  printing,  office-furniture,  stamps,  seals, 
etc.,  are  made  from  the  proper  fund,  as  explained  under  the  head  of  funds. 

Commanding  generals  of  armies  and  army-corps  furnish  their  own  office- 
furniture. 

Expenses  for  apprehension,  subsistence,  and  delivery  of  deserters  are  paid 
from  the  recruiting  fund. 


388  APPENDIX, 

i 

All  expenses  attending  the  sales  of  condemned  horses  are  paid  from  the 
proceeds  of  such  sales. 

Every  distinct  organization  of  troops  at  the  mobilization  carries  with  it  a 
certain  amount  of  ready-money  proportioned  to  its  size,  as  a  reserve  fund,  suf- 
ficient to  cover  all  its  expenses  for  fifty  days. 

The  administration  is,  in  like  manner,  furnished  with  a  reserve  fund  for  six- 
ty days. 

\    These  reserve  funds  are  .to  meet  unexpected  contingencies  and  emergen- 
cies, and  are  in  addition  to  funds  for  the  regular  supplies  and  equipment. 

Horses  are  furnished  in  part  by  purchase  by  the  state,  and  partly  in  kind 
by  the  civil  commune. 

All  horses  for  military  purposes  must  conform  to  a  fixed  standard  as  re- 
gards height,  age,  condition,  etc.,  and  must  pass  a  board  of  inspectors,  con- 
sisting of  two  commissioned  officers  and  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Horses  captured  from  the  enemy  must  be  turned  over  at  once  to  the  offi- 
cers in  charge  of  the  horse  depot. 

Every  civil  official  called  into  service  at  the  mobilization  receives  two  or 
three  months'  salary  in  advance. 

Should  his  salary  as  a  military  be  higher  than  a  civil  official,  he  receives 
only  the  pay  of  the  civil  position. 

Civil  officials  on  the  retired  or  pensioned  lists,  called  upon  for  military  duty 
as  officers  or  officials  of  the  administration,  receive  the  pay  of  the  positions  to 
which  they  are  assigned. 

Officials  of  the  commune  are  looked  upon  as  state  servants. 

All  civil  officials  are  examined  before  assignment  to  military  duty. 

Officials,  during  temporary  suspension  of  their  duties,  receive  half-pay. 

What  is  known  as  the  immobile  part  of  the  army  consists  of  such  levies  as 
are  called  in,  and  form  a  part  of  neither  the  mobilized  standing  army,  nor  the 
reserves,  nor  garrison  troops. 

The  regulations  for  payment  of  these  troops  are  the  same  as  for  the  army 
on  peace-footing. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  war  and  the  disbandment  of  the  extraordinary  forces 
called  in,  the  troops  of  the  line,  or  standing  army,  return  to  the  condition  of 
peace-footing ;  the  reserves  and  landwehr  are  put  upon  the  furlough  condition. 
Officers  called  into  service  from  the  pension  list,  and  civil  officials  taken  from 
their  ordinary  positions,  return  to  the  places  occupied  by  them  before  mobili- 
zation. Pay-masters,  however,  are  retained  on  the  war-footing  for  a  time  suf- 
ficient for  the  settlement  of  their  accounts. 

The  allowance  of  transportation  for  officers' baggage  depends  upon  the  size 
and  nature  of  the  command  with  which  the  officer  travels. 

An  officer  commanding  a  column  of  not  more  than  three  hundred  men  is 
allowed  one  saddle-horse  and  one  two-horse  wagon. 

In  a  command  of  two  companies  exceeding  four  hundred  men  there  is  al- 
lowed to  each  officer  one  saddle-horse,  but  only  one  two-horse  wagon  for 
officers'  baggage. 

Three  companies  are  allowed  three  saddle-horses  and  a  four-horse  wagon  ; 
and  in  all  cases  where  surgeons  accompany  commands,  each  is  allowed  a 
saddle-horse. 


APPENDIX,  339 

Loads  for  wagons  are  as  follows :  For  a  two-horse  wagon,  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds ;  for  a  four-horse  wagon,  one  thousand  pounds ;  and  for  a 
six-horse  wagon,  two  thousand  pounds. 

If  horses  can  not  be  obtained,  oxen  are  used,  based  on  the  estimate  of 
draught  power  of  three  oxen  being  equal  to  that  of  two  horses. 

Expenses  incurred  on  a  march,  for  equipments  and  keeping  in  order  of 
clothing,  for  horse  -  shoeing,  horse  medicines,  and  for  repairs  of  means  of 
transportation,  are  paid  by  the  officer  in  command,  who  takes  receipts  for  all 
amounts  so  disbursed. 

When  soldiers  are  taken  sick  on  the  march,  and  there  is  no  surgeon  on  duty 
with  the  command,  they  are  taken  to  the  nearest  suitable  house,  and  a  civil 
physician  summoned  to  attend  them.  A  physician  so  called  in  is  entitled  to 
collect  for  each  man  thirty  cents  for  each  visit. 

Soldiers  sent  to  hospital  receive  an  addition  to  their  pay  ranging  from  six- 
teen cents  daily  for  the  highest  grade  of  non-commissioned  officer  to  a  per 
diem  of  three  cents  for  a  private. 

Pay  of  the  Prussian  Army. 

The  following  table  shows  the  yearly  pay  of  officers  of  the  Prussian  Army 
on  a  peace  footing.  On  a  war  footing  the  actual  amount  is  largely  increased 
by  certain  allowances  paid  them,  and  at  all  times  the  actual  amount  received 
varies  with  the  kind  of  duty  performed. 


Designation. 


Thai.* 


General  of  Infantry 

Lieutenant-general 

Major-general 

Cavalry  staff-officer  —  Colonel 

Infantry        "  "      ...........  . 

Lieutenant-colonels  of  Cavalry 
Infantry 

Majors  of  Cavalry 

Infantry 

Captain  of  Cavalry,  Artillery,  or  Engineers—  1st  Class 


Infantry—  1st  Class 
"      —  2dClass 
Guards  Regiments—  1st  Class 
—  2d  Class 


—  2dClass 


First  Lieutenant  of  Guards,  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Train,  and  Pioneers 

Infantry 
Second  Guards 


Mounted  Artillery 
Foot  Artillery 
Cavalry  and  Train 
Infantry 


4000 
4000 
3000 
2600 
2000 
1800 
1GOO 
1300 
930 
1300 
720 
1200 
600 
1408 
720 
420 
360 
388 
372 
360 
336 
300 


Monthly  Pay  of  Enlisted  Men. 


Designation. 


Thai.  G 


Sergeants  of  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Pioneers,  and  Train—  1st  Class 

"     —  2d  Class 
"    -3d  Class 


Infantry—  1st  Class 
"       —  2d  Class 


*  The  thaler  is  composed  of  30  groschen,  valued  in  American  money  at  72  cents. 


390 


APPENDIX. 


Monthly  Pay  of  Enlisted  Men. 


Designation. 


Corporals  of  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Pioneers,  and  Train— 1st  Class. 
"  "  "  "    — 2d  Class . 

"  "  "  "    —3d  Class. 

Infantry— 1st  Class 

"       — 2d.  Class 

"       -3d  Class 

Privates  of  Artillery 

Cavalry  arid  Trains 

Infantry 


The  following  table  shows  the  daily  pay  of  what  are  known  as  high  officials, 
who  are  civilians  called  into  service  for  the  performance  of  their  usual  voca- 
tions with  the  army : 


Designation. 


Thai.  Gros. 


Chief  Surgeon  at  Army  Head-quarters 3  15 

Assist.      "                "                 "             3  00 

Corps  Auditor 2  15 

Division  Auditor 2  00 

"        Chaplain 2  00 

Secretary '. 1  24 

1st  Staff  Surgeon  at  Head-quarters  of  a  Department 2  15 

2d          "                               "                              "           2  00 

3d          "                                                              " 1  24 

Pay-master                                                        "          1  24 

OFFICIALS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Field  Intendant 3  00 

"     Intendance  Counsel 2  15 

Intendauce  Assessor 2  15 

Secretary 1  24 

Calculator  at  Field  Intendance 1  24 

Assistant  Calculator  at  Field  Intendance 1  12 

Pay-master 2  00 

"         Accountants 1  12 

Assistant  Pay-master 1  00 

Field-supply  Master 2  00 

"    -magazine  Controller. 2  00 

"         Assistant 1  00 

at  Horse  D(*6t 1  «* 

AT  FIELD   HOSPITALS. 

Chief  Staff  Surgeon 2  15 

Assist.       "    2  00 

"      Surgeon...., 1  24 

Staff  Apothecary 1  24 

Field         " 1  24 

Chief  Hospital  Inspector 2  00 

Assist.      "               "        1  12 

Hospital  Secretary 1  12 

POST-OFFICE. 

Field  Postmaster 2  00 

Chief  Post-office  Secretary 1  24 

Assist.       "                  "        1  12 

Inspector  of  Field  Telegraph 2  OU 

LOW   OFFICIALS. 

Baker 1  00 

Surgical  Instrument-maker 24 

Laborer  in  Field  Apothecary  Department 12 

"     Post-office 24 

Gunsmith  and  Saddler 24 

Postilions  and  Drivers 12 


APPENDIX.  391 

Officers  and  soldiers  on  sick  leave  receive  full  pay,  but  on  ordinary  fur- 
lough pay  stops  after  six  months. 

Officers  in  confinement,  or  suspended  by  sentence  of  court-martial,  receive 
no  pay  after  the  forty-sixth  day  of  such  confinement  or  suspension, 

Prisoners  of  war  receive  no  pay  during  absence  from  their  commands. 

Officers  and  officials  in  hospitals  receive  full  pay.  .  - 

In  case  of  death,  the  family  of  the  deceased  receives  one  month's  pay, 
called  a  grace-salary,  and  on  this  creditors  of  the  deceased  have  no  claim. 

Pay-masters  and  officials  of  administrations  receive,  to  enable  them  to  set- 
tle their  accounts,  pay  for  four  months  after  the  disbandment  of  troops  with 
which  they  have  served. 

Hospital  nurses  and  assistants  are  paid  per  month  as  follows  : 

Thai.     Gros. 

Hospital  Assistant  in  charge  before  nine  years' service 9       15 

"    .  after       "        "          "      11       15 

"         in  general  service. 7       15 

Soldiers  who  have  occupied  civil  positions  under  the  state  or  commune, 
when  called  into  service,  receive  their  pay  as  before. 

Extra  pay,  according  to  length  of  service,  is  given  to  drummers,  buglers, 
and  band  musicians. 

Soldiers  on  duty  as  clerks  at  head-quarters  of  general  officers  may  receive 
pay  not  to  exceed  that  of  a  first-class  sergeant  of  infantry. 

Veterinary  surgeons  receive  six  thalers  additional  monthly  pay  when  at- 
tending the  horses  of  more  than  one  squadron,  battery,  or  ammunition,  pro- 
vision, or  pontoon  train  ;  and  a  further  addition  of  four  thalers  per  month  is 
paid  them  for  attending  the  horses  at  the  head-quarters  of  a  general,  or  of 
a  chasseur  or  pioneer  battalion. 

Soldiers  tinder  ordinary  arrest  or  confinement  receive  full  pay.  When  un- 
der close  arrest  or  confinement,  they  forfeit  four  cents  daily ;  and  this  deduc- 
tion must  pay  for  their  washing. 

Non-commissioned  officers,  as  color-bearers,  when  under  arrest,  forfeit  all 
pay  except  sixteen  cents  daily. 

Sick  men  in  the  reserve  hospitals  receive  pay  as  if  on  peace  footing. 

Soldiers  when  sick  and  cared  for  by  private  persons  receive  the  pay  of  the 
hospital  on  the  rolls  of  which  they  are  borne. 

Holders  of  the  military  Merit  Cross  receive  three  thalers  per  month  addi- 
tional pay ;  and  those  holding  the  military  Honor  Token  of  the  first-class, 
one  thaler  monthly. 

The  best  marksman  of  a  regiment  receives  also  additional  pay,  but  for  one 
year  only.  . 

Officers  employed  on  the  construction  of  fortresses  receive  additional  daily 
pay  as  follows :  Staff  officer,  75  cts. ;  captain,  60  cts. ;  lieutenant,  as  fortifica- 
tion secretary  or  bureau  assistant,  30  cts. 

A  sergeant  on  duty  in  construction  of  fortress  as  wall-master  receives  25  cts. 
additional  pay  daily. 

Chaplains  are  paid  by  the  Field  Intendance  and  from  a  special  fund. 

Officers  and  soldiers  upon  taking  the  field  may  arrange  to  have  one  half  of 


392  APPENDIX. 

their  pay  paid  to  their  families,  and  these  payments  are  made  by  the  Field 
Intendance. 

Officers  on  duty  at  the  different  head-quarters  may  have  one  half  of  their 
pay  turned  over  to  their  families  by  the  War  Department  at  home. 

All  such  payments  to  families  are  made  monthly  in  advance,  and  continue 
whether  the  officer  be  in  arrest,  or  sick,  or  on  duty,  and,  in  case  of  death,  do 
not  cease  until  the  end  ot  the  current  month. 

Veterinary  surgeons  of  the  staff  receive  twenty-five  thalers  per  month  ; 
veterinary  surgeons,  eighteen  thalers ;  and  assistant  veterinary  surgeons,  fif- 
teen thalers ;  and  all  receive  daily  six  cents  as  extra  subsistence  money. 

A  battalion  commander  receives  thirty  thalers  per  month,  and  a  battalion 
adjutant  ten  thalers  per  month  extra  pay- 

Officers  of  the  Intendance  of  Divisions  and  of  the  General  Field  Intendance 
are  paid  1500  thalers  annually. 

The  pay  of  the  Field  Railway  Department  is  as  follows : 

Thalers.  Groschen. 

Chief  of  a  division,  daily 3  15 

"         construction  "   2  15 

Road-master "   1  15 

Accountants,  watchmen,  and  telegraph  guards,  daily 2  00 

While  in  the  enemy's  country,  the  chief  of  a  division  receives  five  thalers 
daily. 

When  on  duty  in  the  Railway  Department,  soldiers  receive  pay  as  follows ; 

Thalers.  Gro&chen. 

Sergeant  (as  accountant),  monthly 8  00 

Clerks,  monthly 3  00 

A  gens  d'arme,  monthly 1  15 

Carpenters  and  privates,  daily 0  8 

The  annual  salaries  of  the  telegraph  inspector  and  telegraph  secretary  of 
the  Railway  Department  are  respectively  1700  thalers. 

Pay  of  the  Landwehr. 

During  the  annual  drills  a  captain  of  Landwehr  receives  daily  two  thalers 
fifteen  groschen ;  a  first  lieutenant,  one  thaler  •  and  a  second  lieutenant,  fif- 
teen groschen.  Travel  pay  is  received  in  addition. 

Should  drills  be  continued  over  the  time  ordered,  pay  is  received  for  the 
actual  number  of  extra  drill  days. 

Landwehr  officers  promoted  during  drill  receive  increased  pay  from  date 
of  promotion. 

At  the  discretion  of  the  brigade  commander,  officers  of  the  Landwehr  ab- 
sent from  drill  by  reason  of  sickness  may  receive  full  pay. 

Landwehr  officers  who  belong  also  to  the  line,  ordered  on  semi-weekly 
drills  with  the  Landwehr,  draw  half-pay  in  the  line  and  full  pay  as  officers  of 
Landwehr. 

Extra  Money  Allowances  in  the  Prussian  Army. 

Upon  the  mobilization  of  the  army,  an  extra  allowance  is  made  by  the 
Government  for  the  purpose  of  providing  an  outfit  for  field  service.  It  is  as 
shown  in  the  following  table  ; 


APPENDIX.  393 

Thalers. 

Colonel  commanding  regiment 150 

Regimental  adjutant— Second  lieutenant 35 

"          surgeon— Captain 90 

Staff                   "                *'      90 

Assistant           "                " 45 

Battalion  commander 90 

Company           "          — Captain 70 

First  lieutenant 35 

Second       "        30 

Battalion  adjutant— Second  lieutenant. . , 35 

Pay-master                      "               " 35 

Gunsmith 52 

Mounted  officers  receive,  as  Horse  Equipment  Fund,  the  following  : 

Thalera. 

Regimental  commander 40 

"  surgeon 40 

Assistant  "        20 

Battalion  commander 20 

Company  "          20 

Regimental  and  battalion  adjutants  and  pay-masters,  each 20 

Horses,  saddles,  and  bridles  for  officers  and  officials  are  furnished  in  kind, 
for  equipment  of  officers  taking  the  field. 

Persons  who  provide  their  own  horses  are  allowed  one  hundred  thalers 
each  for  them,  if  they  are  found  serviceable  by  the  Board  of  Inspectors. 

For  wagons  furnished  the  army,  and  lost  or  destroyed  in  service,  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  are  paid : 

Thalers. 

For  a  two-horse  wagon 1 50 

"       four-    "          "     ..300 

11       six-      "          "     350 

Members  of  the  Cadet  Corps  promoted  to  lieutenants,  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  promoted  to  commissions  in  the  infantry  or  administration, 
receive  twenty  thalers  in  the  infantry,  and  forty  thalers  in  the  cavalry  and 
artillery. 

The  War  Department  also  allow  to  sergeants  promoted  while  on  active 
service  an  equipment  fund  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thalers. 

Loss  of  uniforms  and  equipments  in  line  of  duty  incidental  to  active  service 
validates  a  claim  for  seventy  thalers. 

Officers  or  officials  who,  from  nature  of  disease  or  injury,  are  obliged  to 
undergo  treatment  at  medical  institutions  other  than  military  hospitals,  are 
allowed  one  hundred  and  fifty  thalers  as  assistance-money  by  reason  of  in- 
creased expense. 

Officers  and  officials  of  the  enemy  held  as  prisoners  of  war  receive  a  month- 
ly allowance,  in  advance,  of  twenty-five  thalers. 

When  such  prisoners  are  in  hospital  undergoing  treatment,  one  third  of 
their  allowance  is  deducted. 

Eighteen  thalers  is  paid  as  a  premium  for  each  serviceable  horse  captured 
from  the  enemy. 

A  pay-master  on  duty  at  a  military  prison,  charged  with  the  disbursements 
thereof,  receives  a  monthly  addition  of  two  thalers  for  every  fifty  men ;  four 


394  APPENDIX. 

thalers  for  over  fifty  and  less  than  one  hundred,  and  five  thalers  for  more 
than  one  hundred  and  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

An  addition  of  forty  cents  monthly  is  made  to  the  pay  of  military  prisoners 
for  activity  and  general  good  conduct. 

The  leisure  hours  of  prisoners  are  employed  in  work  for  themselves  and  at 
school,  and  a  prisoner  acting  as  instructor  receives  weekly  forty  groschen.  One 
half  of  this  amount  is  deducted  for  his  tobacco  and  whisky,  and  the  remain- 
der is  saved  and  paid  him  at  the  expiration  of  his  sentence. 

Soldiers  in  charge  of  prisoners  always  receive  an  addition  to  their  month- 
ly pay.  This  addition  is,  for  a  sergeant,  eight  thalers ;  for  a  corporal,  four 
thalers  ;  and  for  a  private,  two  thalers. 

Travel  pay  to  enlisted  men  is  as  follows  :  First-class  sergeatits,  color- 
bearers,  and  veterinary  surgeons,  daily,  forty-five  groschen ;  second-class  ser- 
geants, corporals,  buglers,  musicians,  and  assistant  veterinary  surgeons,  daily, 
thirty-seven  groschen. 

Lieutenants  detailed  as  instructors  in  technical  schools  receive  nine  thalers 
per  month  additional  pay. 

Officers  on  duty  at  the  artillery  school  receive  fifty  thalers  per  year  addi- 
tional pay. 

An  officer  detailed  for  topographical  duty  has  an  addition  to  his  pay  of 
twenty  thalers  monthly.  To  officers  on  duty  connected  with  trigonometrical 
surveys  forty  groschen  per  diem  is  allowed  for  traveling  expenses. 

Engineer  officers  on  special  duty  connected  with  their  department  receive  : 
staff-officers,  one  thaler  and  twenty-four  groschen ;  captains,  twenty-seven 
groschen ;  and  lieutenants,  fifteen  groschen,  daily. 

Officers  of  the  Military  Academy  attending  the  spring  and  fall  manosuvres 
receive  eight  thalers  per  month  during  absence  from  the  Academy  on  such 
duty. 

Eight  thalers  per  month  is  given  to  officers  who  hold  medals  for  bravery  in 
action  during  the  years  1813, 1814,  and  1815. 

Premiums  are  paid  to  soldiers  of  Polish  extraction  for  proficiency  in  learn- 
ing the  German  language.  In  a  company  the  best  scholar  receives  five 
thalers,  and  the  second  best  three  thalers  per  annum. 

Organization  of  the  Army  of  the  North  German  Confederation.* 
The  army  of  the  North  German  Confederation  comprises  the  contingents 
of  twenty-two  different  States,  of  a  total  area  of  154, 898 '95  English  square 
miles,  and  a  total  population  of  29,906,217.     These  twenty-two  States  are  : 

Area  in  sq.  m.  Population. 

1.  Kingdom  of  Prussia 131,442-22  24,039,668 

2.  Kiugdom  of  Saxony 5,586'!  2,423,401 

3.  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg  Schwerin 5,016-7  560,618 

4.  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe  Weimar 1,356-9  282,928 

5.  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg  Strelitz 1,017'0  98,770 

6.  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg 2,388-3  315,622 

*  In  addition  to  the  Army  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  there  were  opera- 
ting against  France  the  armies  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Badeu,  since  absorbed 
into  the  North  German  Army. 


APPENDIX.  395 

Area  in  sq.  m.         Population. 

7.  Duchy  of  Brunswick 1,377-30  302,792 

8.  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen 924-1  180,335 

9.  Duchy  of  Saxe-Alteuburg 493-2  141,426 

10.  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 735-12  168,851 

11.  Duchyof  Anhalt 865-4  197,041 

12.  Principality  of  Schwarzbnrg  Rudolfstadt 361-3  75,116 

13.  Principality  of  Schwarzburg  Sondershausen.. ..  321-2  67,533 

14.  Principality  of  Waldeck 418*4  56,807 

15.  Principality  of  Reuss  (elder  line) 102-5  43,889 

16.  Principality  of  Reuss  (younger  line) 309-4  88,097 

17.  Principality  of  Schaumburg  Lippe 165-4  31,186 

IS.  Principality  of  Lippe  Detmold 423-3  111,352 

19.  Free  town  of  Lubeck 107'1  48,538 

20.  Free  town  of  Bremen 95-80  109,572 

21.  Free  town  of  Hamburg 152*93  305,196 

22.  Province  of  Upper  Hessia 1,236-8  257,499 

These  numbers  refer  to  the  population  of  the  States  in  1867,  when  the  last 
census  was  taken. 

The  military  forces  of  these  twenty-two  States,  forming  the  North  German 
Confederation,  are  recruited,  according  to  Clause  57  of  the  Constitution,  from 
all  ranks  and  classes  of  society,  substitution  not  being  permitted.  The  King 
of  Prussia  is,  by  the  provisions  of  Clause  63  of  the  Constitution,  commander- 
in-chief.  The  military  forces  of  the  North  German  Confederation  consist  of 
the  army,  the  navy,  and  the  landsturm.  The  army  is  divided  into  the  stand- 
ing army  and  the  landwehr. 

THE  STANDING  ARMY. 

The  standing  army  is  the  army  always  available  for  immediate  warlike 
operations.  It  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  military  forces  of  the  Confederation, 
and  consists  of  the  Corps  of  the  Guards,  the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth, 
Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh,  Eighth,  Ninth,  Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Army 
Corps,  and  the  Hessian  Division.  Eveiy  army  corps  consists  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  artillery,  jagers  or  sharp- shooters,  engineers,  and  the  military  train. 
The  different  army  corps  of  the  North  German  Confederation  on  a  peace 
footing  are  subdivided  as  follows  ; 

THE  CORPS  OF  THE  GUARDS. 

The  Corps  of  the  Guards  consists  of  two  divisions  of  infantry,  one  division 
of  horse,  one  brigade  of  artillery,  one  battalion  of  engineers,  one  battalion  of 
military  train,  one  company  of  castle  guards,  the  institution  for  invalids  at 
Berlin,  and  the  Leib  Gendarmerie. 

FIRST  DIVISION  OF  INFANTRY  OF  THE  GUARDS. 

1st  Brigade  of  Infantry  of  the  Guards. — 1st  Regiment  of  the  Guards;  3d 
Regiment  of  the  Guards;  1st  Regiment  of  Landwehr  of  the  Guards;  one 
battalion  of  Jagers  of  the  Guard ;  one  Lehr  infantry  battalion ;  the  schools 
for  non-commissioned  officers  at  Potsdam,  Juelich,  and  Bieberich. 

2d  Brigade  of  Infantry  of  the  Guards. — 2d  Regiment  of  the  Guards ;  4th 
Regiment  of  the  Guards ;  Regiment  of  Fusileers  of  the  Guards ;  2d  Regiment 
of  Landwehr  of  the  Guards ;  one  company  of  Invalids  of  the  Guards. 


396  APPENDIX. 


SECOND  DIVISION  OP  INFANTRY  OF  THE  GUARDS. 

3d  Brigade  of  Infantry  of  the  Guards. — 1st  Regiment  of  Grenadiers  of 
the  Guards  (Emperor  Alexander) ;  3d  Regiment  of  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards 
(Queen  Elizabeth)  ;  one  battalion  of  Sharpshooters  of  the  Guards;  1st  Regi- 
ment of  Landwehr  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards. 

4th  Brigade  of  Infantry  of  the  Guards. — 2d  Regiment  of  Grenadiers  of 
the  Guards  (Emperor  Francis) ;  4th  Regiment  of  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards 
(Queen) ;  2d  Regiment  of  Landwehr  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards. 

DIVISION  OF  CAVALRY  OF  THE  GUARDS. 

1st  Brigade  of  Cavalry  of  the  Guards. — Regiment  of  Gardes  du  Corps; 
Regiment  of  Cuirassier  of  the  Guards. 

2d  Brigade  of  Cavalry  of  the  Guards.— Regiment  of  Hussars  of  the 
Guards ;  1st  Regiment  of  Lancers  of  the  Guards ;  3d  Regiment  of  Lancers 
of  the  Guards. 

3d  Brigade  of  Cavalry  of  the  Guards. — 1st  Regiment  of  Dragoons  of  the 
Guards ;  2d  Regiment  of  Lancers  of  the  Guards ;  2d  Regiment  of  Dragoons  of 
the  Guards. 

ARTILLERY  BRIGADE  OF  THE  GUARDS. 

Field  Artillery  Regiment  of  the  Guards ;  Siege  Artillery  Regiment  of  the 
Guards. 

FIRST  ARMY  CORPS. 

FIRST  DIVISION. 

1st  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  1 
(Crown  Prince) ;  5th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  41 ;  1st  East 
Prussian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  1 ;  5th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  41 ;  Reserve  Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  33. 

2d  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  3; 
Cth  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  43 ;  2d  East  Prussian  Regiment 
of  Landwehr,  No.  3 ;  6th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  43. 

1st  Brigade  of  Horse. — East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  3 
(Count  Wrangel) ;  Litthau  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  1  (Prince  Albrecht 
of  Prussia) ;  Litthau  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  12. 

SECOND  DIVISION. 

3d  Brigade  of  Foot. — 3d  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  4; 
7th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  44;  3d  East  Prussian  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  4 ,  7th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  44. 

4th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 4th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  5; 
8th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  45  ;  4th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  5  ;  8th  East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  45. 

2d  Brigade  of  Horse. — 1st  Regiment  of  Leib  Hussars,  No.  1 ;  East  Prus- 
sian Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  8. 

To  the  First  Army  Corps  further  belong  the  1st  Brigade  of  Artillery,  con- 
sisting of  the  East  Prussian  Field  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  1,  and  the  East 
Prussian  Siege  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  1 ;  further,  the  East  Prussian  Bat- 


APPENDIX.  397 

talion  of  Jagers,  No.  1 ;  the  East  Prussian  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  1 ; 
and  the  East  Prussian  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  1. 

Attached  to  the  1st  Division  is  also  the  company  of  invalids  for  East  and 
West  Prussia. 

SECOND  AEMY  CORPS. 
THIRD  DIVISION. 

5th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Pomeranian  Kegiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  2 
(King  Frederick  William1  IV.) ;  5th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  42; 
1st  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  2 ;  5th  Pomeranian  Regiment 
of  Landwehr,  No.  42. 

6th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 3d  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  14;  7th 
Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  54 ;  3d  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  14 ;  7th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  54 ;  Reserve 
Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  34. 

3d  Brigade  of  Horse. — Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  9  (Queen) ; 
Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  3 ;  2d  Regiment  of  Pomeranian  Lancers,  No.  9. 

FOURTH  DIVISION. 

7th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Pomeranian  (Colberg)  Regiment  of  Grenadiers, 
No.  9 ;  6th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  49 ;  2d  Pomeranian  Regiment 
of  Landwehr,  No.  9 ;  6th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  49. 

8th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 4th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  21;  8th 
Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  61 ;  4th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  21 ;  8th  Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  61. 

4th  Brigade  of  Horse.  — Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  11  ; 
Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  5  (Blucher) ;  1st  Pomeranian  Regi- 
ment of  Lancers,  No.  4. 

The  artillery  of  the  2d  Army  Corps  is  the  2d  Brigade  of  Artillery,  consist- 
ing of  the  Pomeranian  Field  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  2,  and  the  Pomera- 
nian Siege  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  2.  The  Jagers  of  the  2d  Army  Corps 
are  the  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  2.  The  engineers  of  the  corps,  the  Bat- 
talion of  Engineers,  No.  2  ;  and  the  military  train  of  the  corps  consists  of  the 
2d  Battalion  of  Military  Train. 

Attached  to  the  2d  Army  Corps  is  also  the  institution  for  invalids  at  Stolp. 

Attached  to  the  4th  Division  is  also  the  company  of  invalids  for  Pomera- 
nia  and  Posen. 

THIRD  ARMY  CORPS. 

FIFTH  DIVISION. 

9th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Leib  Grenadiers,  No. 
8 ;  5th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  48  ;  1st  Brandenburg  Regiment 
of  Landwehr,  No.  8 ;  5th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  48. 

Wth  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  12 
(Prince  Charles  of  Prussia) ;  6th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  52 ;  2d 
Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  12  ;  6th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  52. 


398  APPENDIX. 

5th  Brigade  of  Horse. — 1st  Regiment  of  Brandenburg  Dragoons,  No.  2; 
East  Prussian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  10  .*  2d  Regiment  of  Brandenburg 
Lancers,  No.  12;  1st  Regiment  of  Brandenburg  Lancers,  No.  3  (Emperor  of 
Russia). 

SIXTH  DIVISION. 

llth  Brigade  of  Foot. — 3d  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  20;  7th 
Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  60 ;  3d  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Land- 
webr,  No.  20 ;  Reserve  Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  35 ,  7th  Brandenburg 
Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  60. 

12^  Brigade  of  Foot.—  4th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No-  24; 
Regiment  of  Brandenburg  Fusileers,  No.  35 ,  8th  Brandenburg  Regiment 
of  Foot,  No.  64  (Prjnce  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia)  •  4th  Brandenburg 
Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  24  ;  8th  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Landwehr, 
No.  64. 

6th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  6 ; 
Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  3  (Ziethen) ;  Schleswig-Holstein 
Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  15. 

The  artillery  of  the  3d  Army  Corps  is  the  3d  Brigade  of  Artillery,  consist- 
ing of  the  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No.  3,  and  the  Hessian 
detachment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  11.  The  Jagers  of  the  3d  Army  Corps 
are  the  Brandenburg  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  3.  The  engineers  of  the 
Corps  are  the  Brandenburg  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  3 ;  and  the  military 
train  is  the  Brandenburg  Battalion  of  Train,  No.  3. 

Attached  to  the  6th  Division  is  the  company  of  invalids  for  the  province 
of  Brandenburg. 

FOURTH  ARMY  CORPS. 

SEVENTH  DIVISION. 

13th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  26;  3d 
Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  66 ;  1st  Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  26 ;  Reserve  Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  36 ,  3d  Magdeburg  Reg- 
iment of  Landwehr,  No.  66. 

14*A  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  27;  4th 
Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  67 ;  Anhalt  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  93  ; 
2d  Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  27;  4th  Magdeburg  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  67 ;  Anhalt  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  93. 

7th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  7;  West- 
phalian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  7;t  Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Hussars, 
No.  10 ,  Altmark  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  16. 

EIGHTH  DIVISION. 

15*A  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  31 ;  3d 
Thuringian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  71 ;  1st  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  31 ;  3d  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  71. 


*  From  the  2d  Brigade  of  Horse,  attached  to  the  5th. 

t  Attached  to  the  7th  Brigade  of  Horse  from  the  14th  Brigade  of  Horse. 


APPENDIX.  399 

IGth  Brigade  of  Foot. — 4th  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  72 ;  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  86;*  7th  Thuringian  Regiment  of 
Foot,  No.  96 ;  4th  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  72 ;  7th  Thu- 
ringian Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  96. 

8th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Schleswig-Holstein  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  13; 
Thuringian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  12. 

The  artillery  of  the  4th  Army  Corps  is  the  4th  Brigade  of  Artillery,  con- 
sisting of  the  4th  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery  and  the  Magdeburg  Regiment 
of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  4.  To  the  4th  Army  Corps  further  belong  the  Magde- 
burg Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  4 ;  the  Magdeburg  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No. 
4 ;  and  the  Magdeburg  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  4. 

Attached  to  the  7th  Division  is  also  the  company  of  invalids  for  Saxony. 

FIFTH  AEMY  CORPS. 

NINTH  DIVISION. 

17th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 3d  Posen  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  58;  4th  Posen 
Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  59 ;  1st  West  Prussian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  6 , 
1st  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  46 ;  Reserve  Battalion  of 
Landwehr,  No.  37. 

18th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  West  Prussian  Regiment  of  King's  Grenadiers, 
No.  7;  2d  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  47;  2d  West  Prussian  Regi- 
ment of  Landwehr,  No.  7 ;  2d  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  47. 
•  9th  Brigade  of  Horse. — West  Prussian  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  5; 
1st  Silesian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  4;  Posen  Regiment  of  Lancers, 
No..  10. 

Attached  to  this  Division  is  the  company  of  invalids  for  the  province  of 
Silesia. 

TENTH  DIVISION. 

19th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  West  Prussian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  6; 
1st  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  46 ;  1st  Posen  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  18  ;  3d  Posen  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  58. 

20th  Brigade  of  Foo£.— Westphalian  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  37;  3d 
Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  50 ;  2d  Posen  Regiment  of  Landwehr, 
No.  19  ;  4th  Posen  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  59. 

IQth  Brigade  of  Horse. — Kurmark  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  14 ;  2d 
Regiment  of  Leib  Hussars,  No.  2 ;  West  Prussian  Regiment  of  Lancers, 
No.  1. 

The  artillery  of  the  Fifth  Corps  is  formed  by  the  5th  Brigade  of  Artillery, 
consisting  of  the  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No.  5,  and  the 
Lower  Silesian  Siege  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  5.  To  this  Corps  further  be- 
long the  Silesian  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  5 ;  the  Lower  Silesian  Battalion  of 
Engineers,  No.  5  ;  and  the  Lower  Silesian  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  5. 

•  Attached  to  the  8th  Division  from  the  9th  Army  Corps.          I 


400  APPENDIX. 


SIXTH  ARMY  CORPS. 
ELEVENTH  DIVISION. 

2lst  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Silesian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  10;  1st 
Posen  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  18  ;  1st  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No. 
10 ;  3d  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  50 ;  Reserve  Battalion 
of  Landwehr,  No.  38. 

22d  Brigade  of  Foot. — Silesian  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  38 ;  4th  Lower 
Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  51 ;  2d  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No. 
1 1 ;  4th  Lower  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  51. 

Ilth  Brigade  of  Horse. — Silesian  Regiment  of  Leib  Cuirassiers,  No.  1 ;  2d 
Silesian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  8 ;  1st  Silesian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  4. 

TWELFTH  DIVISION. 

23d  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  22 ;  3d 
Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  62 ;  1st  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  22 ;  3d  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  62. 

24*A  Brigade  of  Foot.— 2d  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  23;  4th 
Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  63 ;  2d  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of 
Landwehr,  No.  23 ;  4th  Upper  Silesian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  63. 

12^A  Brigade  of  Horse. — 3d  Silesian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  15;  2d 
Silesian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  6  ;  Silesian  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  2. 

The  6th  Brigade  of  Artillery,  consisting  of  the  Silesian  Regiment  of  Field 
Artillery,  No.  6,  and  the  Silesian  Regiment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  6,  forms 
the  artillery  of  the  Corps.  To  the  Corps  belong  also  the  2d  Silesian  Battalion 
of  Jagers,  No.  6  ;  the  Silesian  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  6 ;  and  the  Sile- 
sian Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  6. 

SEVENTH  ARMY  CORPS. 
THIRTEENTH  DIVISION. 

25^  Brigade  of  Foot.— 1st  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  73;  Han- 
overian Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  13  ;  1st  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  13 ;  5th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  53. 

26th  Brigade  of  Foot.— 2d  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  15;  6th 
Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  55  ;  2d  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  15  ;  6th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  55. 

1.3th  Brigade  of  Horse. — 1st  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  8  ; 
2d  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  14. 

FOURTEENTH  DIVISION. 

27th  Brigade  ofFoot.—LQVf&r  Rhine  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  39  ;  1st 
Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  74 ;  3d  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  16 ;  7th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  56. 

28*A  Brigade  of  Foot.—  5th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  53;  2d 
Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  77 ;  4th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  17;  8th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  57;  Reserve 
Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  39. 


APPENDIX.  401 

llth  Brigade  of  Horse. — Hanoverian  Eegiment  of  Hussars,  No.  15;  West- 
phalian  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  5. 

The  complement  of  artillery  for  the  Corps  is  formed  by  the  7th  Brigade 
of  Artillery,  consisting  of  the  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No.  7, 
and  the  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  7.  To  the  Corps  belong 
also  the  Westphalian  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  7 ;  the  Westphalian  Battalion  of 
Engineers,  No.  7 ;  and  the  Westphalian  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  7. 

EIGHTH  AEMY  CORPS. 

FIFTEENTH  DIVISION. 

29M  Brigade  ofFoot.—'Esist  Prussian  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  33  ;*  5th 
Rhenish  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  65 ;  1st  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No. 
25  ;  5th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  65. 

30th  Brigade  of  Foot.— 2d  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  28;  6th  Rhen- 
ish Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  68  ;  2d  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  28 ; 
6th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  68 ;  Reserve  Battalion  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  40. 

15th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Rhenish  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  8;  1st 
Rhenish  Regiment  of  King's  Hussars,  No.  7. 

SIXTEENTH  DIVISION. 

31st  Brigade  of  Foot.— 3d  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Toot,  No.  29;  7th  Rhen- 
ish Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  69  ;  3d  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  29 ; 
7th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  69. 

32d  Brigade  of  Foot. — Hohenzollern  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  40 ;  8th 
Rhenish  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  70 ;  4th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr, 
No.  30 ;  8th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  70. 

16th  Brigade  of  Horse. — 2d  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  9  ;  Rhen- 
ish Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  7. 

The  complement  of  artillery  of  the  Corps  is  furnished  by  the  8th  Brigade 
of  Artillery,  consisting  of  the  Rhenish  Field  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  8,  and 
the  Rhenish  Siege  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  8.  The  Jagers  of  the  Corps  are 
the  Rhenish  Battalion,  No.  8 :  the  engineers,  the  Rhenish  Battalion,  No.  8 ; 
and  the  train,  the  Rhenish  Battalion,  No.  8.  To  the  8th  Army  Corps  belongs 
also  the  so-called  Inspection  of  the  garrison  of  Mayence,  consisting  of  the  2d 
Posen  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  19 ;  the  4th  Rhenish  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  30 ; 
the  1st  Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  81 ;  and  the  1st  Nassau  Regiment  of 
Foot,  No.  87. 

NINTH  ARMY  CORPS. 

SEVENTEENTH  DIVISION. 

33d  Brigade  of  Foot. — Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  36  ;t  1st 
Hansetown  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  75 ;  2d  Hansetown  Regiment  of  Foot,  No. 
76  ;  1st  Hansetown  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  75 ;  2d  Hansetown  Regiment 
of  Landwehr,  No.  76. 

*  Attached  to  the  29th  Brigade  of  Foot  from  the  1st  Army  Corps, 
t  Attached  to  the  33d  Brigade  from  the  4th  Army  Corps. 

26 


402  APPENDIX. 

34rth  Brigade  of  Foot. — Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg  Regiment  of  Grena- 
diers, No.  89  ;  Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  90 ; 
Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  14 ;  1st  Grand  Ducal 
Mecklenburg  Regiment  of  Landwebr,  No.  89  ;  2d  Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg 
Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  90. 

17th  Brigade  of  Horse. — 1st  Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg  Regiment  of  Dra- 
goons, No.  17;  2d  Grand  Ducal  Mecklenburg  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  18 ; 
2d  Brandenburg  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  11. 

EIGHTEENTH  DIVISION. 

3oth  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Rhenisb  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  25  ;  Schleswig 
Regiment  of  Foot ;  Schleswig  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  82. 

36th  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Silesian  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  11 ;  Hoi- 
stein  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  85 ;  Holstein  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  85 ; 
Reserve  Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  86. 

18th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Magdeburg  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  6 ;  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  16. 

The  complement  of  artillery  of  the  Corps  consists  of  the  9th  Brigade  of 
Artillery,  formed  by  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No. 
9,  and  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Detachment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  9.  The 
Jagers  of  the  Corps  are  the  Lauenburg  Jagers,  No.  9  ;  the  engineers  number 
one  battalion,  viz. :  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  9;  and 
the  military  train  consists  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Battalion,  No.  9. 

TENTH  ARMY  CORPS. 

NINETEENTH  DIVISION. 

37th  Brigade  of  Foot. — East  Friesland  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  78  ;  Olden- 
burg Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  91;  East  Friesland  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No. 
78 ;  Oldenburg  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  91. 

38th  Brigade  of  Foot.—  2d  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  16;  8th 
Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  57 ;  1st  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  74  ;  Reserve  Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  73. 

19th  Brigade  of  Horse. — Westphalian  Regiment  of  Cuirassiers,  No.  4  ;  1st 
Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  9 ;  Oldenburg  Regiment  of  Dra- 
goons, No.  19. 

TWENTIETH  DIVISION. 

39?A  Brigade  of  Foot. — 7th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  56;  3d 
Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  79 ;  3d  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  79. 

40M  Brigade  of  Foot.  —  4th  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  17 ;  Bruns- 
wick Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  92 ;  2d  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No. 
77;  Brunswick  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  92. 

20th  Brigade  of  Horse. — 2d  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  16 ; 
2d  Westphalian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  11 ;  Brunswick  Regiment  of  Hus- 
sars, No.  17 ;  1st  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  13. 

The  complement  of  artillery  of  the  Corps  consists  of  the  10th  Brigade  of 
Artillery,  formed  by  the  Hanoverian  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No.  10,  and 


APPENDIX.  403 

the  Hanoverian  Kegiment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  10.  The  Jagers  of  the 
Corps  are  the  Hanoverian  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  10 ,  the  engineers  are  the 
Hanoverian  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  10 ;  and  the  train  consists  of  the 
Hanoverian  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  10. 

ELEVENTH  AKMY  CORPS. 
TWENTY-FIRST  DIVISION. 

4Ist  Brigade  of  Foot. — Pomeranian  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  34;* 
Hessian  Regiment  of  Fusileers,  No.  80 ;  1st  Nassau  Regiment  of  Lanchvehr, 
No.  87 ;  2d  Nassau  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  88. 

42d  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  82 ;  2d  Nassau 
Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  88 ;  2d  Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  82 ;  3d 
Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  83;  Frankfort-on-the-Main  Reserve 
Battalion  of  Landwehr,  No.  80. 

2lst  Brigade  of  Horse.— Rhenish  Regiment  of  Dragoons,  No.  5;  2d  Hes- 
sian Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  14. 

TWENTY-SECOND  DIVISION. 

43d  Brigade  of  Foot. — 2d  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  32 ;  6th 
Thuringian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  95 ;  1st  Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr, 
No.  81 ;  6th  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  95. 

44M  Brigade  of  Foot.— 3d  Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  83  ;  5th  Thu- 
ringiari  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  94 ;  2d  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Landwehr, 
No.  32  ;  5th  Thuringian  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  94. 

22d  Brigade  of  Horse.— 1st  Hessian  Regiment  of  Hussars,  No.  13 ;  Thu- 
ringian Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  6. 

TWENTY-FIFTH   (GRAND   DUCAL   HESSIAN)   DIVISION. 

4-9fA  Brigade  of  Foot. — 1st  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  — ;  2d  Grand  Ducal 
Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot ;  1st  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Battalion  of  Jagers ; 
1st  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr ;  2d  Grand  Ducal  Hessian 
Regiment  of  Landwehr. 

50^  Brigade  of  Foot. — 3d  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot;  4th 
Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Foot ;  2d  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Battalion 
of  Jagers ;  3d  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr ;  4th  Grand 
Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Landwehr. 

25*A  Brigade  of  Horse. — 1st  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Chevaux- 
legers ;  2d  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  Regiment  of  Chevaux-legers. 

To  the  Hessian  Division  belong  also  a  detachment  of  field  artillery,  a  com- 
pany of  engineers,  and  a  detachment  of  military  train. 

To  the  llth  Army  Corps  further  belong  the  llth  Brigade  of  Artillery,  con- 
sisting of  the  Hessian  Regiment  of  Field  Artillery,  No.  11,  and  the  Branden- 
burg Regiment  of  Siege  Artillery,  No.  3 ;  the  Hessian  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No. 
11 ;  the  Hessian  Battalion  of  Engineers,  No.  11 ;  and  the  Hessian  Battalion 
of  Military  Train,  No.  11. 

*  Detached  from  the  2d  Army  Corps. 


404  APPENDIX. 

TWELFTH  (ROYAL  SAXON)  ARMY  CORPS. 

TWENTY-THIRD   DIVISION. 

45tk  Brigade  of  Foot  (1st  Saxon). — 1st  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  100 ; 
2d  Regiment  of  Grenadiers,  No.  101  (King  William  of  Prussia) ;  1st  Regi- 
ment of  Landwehr,  No.  100 ;  2d  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  101.  - 

46th  Brigade  of  Foot  (2d  Saxon).  — 3d.  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  102 
(Crown  Prince) ;  4th  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  103 ;  3d  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  102  ;  4th  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  103. 

To  this  1st  Saxon  Division  of  Foot,  No.  23,  belongs  also  the  Regiment  of 
Royal  Saxon  Sharp-shooters,  No.  108 — unlike  the  arrangement  in  Prussia, 
where  the  sharp-shooters  are  not  part  of  a  division. 

TWENTY-FOURTH   DIVISION. 

47th  Brigade  of  Foot  (3d  Saxon). — 5th  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  104  (Prince 
Frederick  August)  ;  6th  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  105 ;  5th  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  104 ;  6th  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  105. 

48th  Brigade  of  Foot  (4th  Saxon).  —  7th  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  106 
(Prince  George) ;  8th  Regiment  of  Foot,  No.  107 ;  7th  Regiment  of  Land- 
wehr, No.  106 ;  8th  Regiment  of  Landwehr,  No.  107. 

To  this  2d  Royal  Saxon  Division  of  Foot,  No.  24,  also  belong  the  1st  Royal 
Saxon  Battalion  of  Jagers,  No.  12,  and  the  2d  Royal  Saxon  Battalion  of 
Jagers,  No.  13 ;  whereas  the  Prussian  jagers  do  not  form  part  of  a  division. 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  1st  and  2d  Royal  Saxon  Divisions,  Nos.23  and 
24,  do  not  each  include  a  brigade  of  horse,  like  the  Prussian  divisions.  The 
cavalry  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  forms  a  division  by  itself,  consisting  of  two 
brigades.  The  1st  Royal  Saxon  Brigade,  No.  23,  is  formed  by  the  Regiment 
of  Horse  Guards,  the  1st  Regiment  of  Horse  (Crown  Prince),  and  the  1st 
Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  17 ;  while  the  2d  Royal  Saxon  Brigade  of  Horse, 
No.  24,  consists  of  the  2d  Regiment  of  Horse,  the  3d  Regiment  of  Horse,  and 
the  2d  Regiment  of  Lancers,  No.  18.  Besides  these,  the  12th  (Royal  Saxon) 
Army  Corps  has,  as  its  complement  of  artillery,  the  12th  Brigade  of  Artillery, 
consisting  of  the  Field  Artillery  Regiment,  No.  12,  and  the  Detachment  of 
Siege  Artillery,  No.  12  ;  the  Chief  Arsenal  (Haupt  Zeughaus) ;  the  Battalion 
of  Engineers,  No.  12  ;  and  the  Battalion  of  Military  Train,  No.  12. 

Infantry  of  the  Standing  Army. 

The  whole  infantry  force  of  the  standing  army  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federation consists  consequently  of  9  regiments  of  Guards,  109  regiments  of 
the  line,  of  three  battalions  each,  and  1  battalion  of  sharp-shooters  of  the 
Guards,  1  battalion  of  jagers  of  the  Guards,  and  16  battalions  of  jagers  or 
sharp-shooters — making  a  total  of  118  regiments  of  foot  and  18  battalions  of 
jagers,  or  372  battalions. 

The  staff  of  each  of  the  118  regiments  of  infantry  consists  of  1  officer  of 
the  staff,  as  commander ;  1  major,  as  fifth  officer  of  the  staff  (that  is  to  say, 
besides  the  commander  of  the  regiment  and  the  commanders  of  each  of  the 
three  battalions) ;  1  lieutenant,  as  adjutant ;  1  non-commissioned  officer,  as 


APPENDIX.  405 

clerk ;  and  the  regimental  band,  numbering  48  men  in  the  five  old  regiments 
of  the  Guards  and  the  4th  of  the  Guards  (Queen),  and  10  men  (32  others  are 
taken  from  the  etat  of  the  companies,  as  assistants)  in  the  old  Prussian  regi- 
ments of  the  line,  Nos.  1-40.  In  the  four  new  regiments  of  the  Guards,  ex- 
cept the  Queen  Regiment,  mentioned  before,  and  the  new  regiments  of  the 
line,  the  band  is  formed  by  10  men  (and  12  from  the  etat  of  the  companies). 
To  the  staff  of  each  regiment  belong  also  one  chief  physician  of  the  staff,  two 
physicians  of  the  staff,  and  three  assistant  physicians ;  the  chief  physician  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  special  physician  of  the  1st  battalion  of  the  regiment, 
the  other  two  staff  physicians  the  special  physicians  of  the  other  two  battal- 
ions, with  1  assistant  physician  for  each  battalion.  Each  battalion  of  all  reg- 
iments of  the  line,  on  a  peace  footing,  has  a  strength  of  18  officers  and  532 
men.  The  battalions  of  the  five  old  regiments  of  the  Guards  number  22  of- 
ficers and  684  men.  The  five  old  regiments  of  the  Guards  referred  to  are  the 
1st  Regiment  of  Foot  Guards ;  the  2d  Regiment  of  Foot  Guards ;  the  Regi- 
ment of  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards,  No.  1  (Emperor  Alexander)  ;  the  Regi- 
ment of  Grenadiers  of  the  Guards,  No.  2  (Emperor  Francis)  ;  and  the  Reg- 
iment of  Fusileers  of  the  Guards.  Each  battalion  of  jagers  consists  of  22 
officers  and  532  men,  in  peace. 

The  whole  force  of  the  infantry  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  ex- 
clusive of  the  staffs  of  divisions,  army  corps,  and  higher  commands,  or,  in 
other  words,  of  the  118  regiments  of  foot  (6714  officers  and  190,668  men) 
and  the  18  battalions  of  jagers  (396  officers  and  9612  men),  on  a  peace  foot- 
ing, amounts  to  7110  officers  and  200,280  men.  The  118  regiments  of  foot 
and  the  18  battalions  of  jagers,  on  a  war  footing,  number  8450  officers, 
380,596  men,  14,854  horses,  2124  wagons  of  baggage,  etc. 

Each  battalion,  in  war,  has  1  wagon  with  munition,  containing  from  16,710 
to  16,940  cartridges,  and  1290  explosive  cartridges,  12  axes,  10  spades,  etc.; 
1  wagon  containing  the  cash-box  of  the  battalion  and  accounts,  articles  of 
uniform  in  reserve,  and  the  tools  and  requisites  for  the  shoe-makers  and  tailors 
of  the  battalion ;  1  cart  containing  drugs  and  medicines ;  1  wagon  for  the 
officers'  equipage ;  and  4  horses  with  pack-saddles. 

There  are  some  slight  changes  in  the  arrangement  for  the  fusileer  battalions 
and  the  jager  battalions.  Each  battalion  consists  of  4  companies ;  each  com- 
pany is  subdivided  into  smaller  commands  of  about  20  men  each,  commanded 
by  a  non-commissioned  officer.  v  On  a  peace  footing  there  are  from  6  to  8 
such  commands,  in  war  generally  12;  two  or  three  of  them  together  are  com- 
manded by  an  officer.  Such  a  body  is  called  an  inspection,  but  does  not  rank 
as  an  intermediate  command  between  the  captain  of  the  company  and  the 
commands  of  the  non-commissioned  officers. 

There  is  hardly  more  than  a  nominal  distinction  between  the  different  reg- 
iments of  foot,  those  regiments  called  the  regiments  of  fusileers  and  the  bat- 
talions of  jagers  forming  the  light  infantry.  The  fusileers  have  no  bayonets 
on  their  guns,  but  use  their  short  swords  instead.  The  jagers  are  armed  with 
rifles  admitting  of  greater  precision  in  taking  aim.  The  jagers,  as  well  as 
the  fusileers,  are  used  in  the  offense  as  well  as  the  defense.  The  jagers  are, 
as  far  as  possible,  recruited  from  those  persons  who  wish  to  become  game- 


406  APPENDIX. 

keepers  and  foresters,  and  have  been  assistants  to  such  before  entering  the 
army.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  these  troops  are  therefore  specially 
adapted  to  act  in  mountainous  and  wooded  districts  with  advantage. 

The  gun  of  the  North  German  infantry  is  the  needle-gun  of  Dreyse ;  admits 
of  firing  five  times  in  a  minute,  and  carries  well  to  a  distance  of  800  yards. 
Some  alterations  which  are  to  be  made  will  no  doubt  improve  the  needle-gun. 
At  present  it  is  heavier,  and  certainly  not  as  good  as  the  French  Chassepot. 

Cavalry  of  the  Standing  Army. 

The  cavalry  of  the  standing  army  of  North  Germany  consists  of  10  regi- 
ments of  the  Guards— viz. :  2  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  2  regiments  of  dra- 
goons, 3  regiments  of  lancers  (Uhlans),  1  regiment  of  hussars,  1  regiment  of 
Saxon,  and  1  regiment  of  Grand  Ducal  Hessian  chevaux-legers ;  and  of  66 
regiments  of  the  line — viz. :  8  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  19  regiments  of  dra- 
goons, 17  regiments  of  hussars,  18  regiments  of  lancers,  and  4  regiments  of 
horse.  The  sum  total  of  the  cavalry  is,  consequently,  76  regiments,  of  5 
squadrons  each.  In  case  of  mobilization,  one  squadron  remains  in  the  garrison, 
forming  the  nucleus  of  supplements  to  be  sent  to  the  field  as  re-enforcements. 
A  regiment  of  horse  on  a  peace-footing  numbers  25  officers,  from  713  to  716 
men,  and  672  horses ;  in  war,  23  officers,  653  men,  705  horses,  and  7  wagons. 
The  76  regiments  of  horse  represent  a  force  of  1896  officers,  54,122  men,  and 
50,938  horses,  in  peace;  and  1748  officers,  49,428  men,  53,380  horses,  and 
532  vehicles,  in  war. 

The  cavalry  is  divided  into  heavy  and  light  cavalry,  and  men  and  horses 
are  selected  with  regard  to  this.  The  heavy  cavalry  serves  for  a  regular  fight 
against  opposing  cavalry  in  masses.  The  light  cavalry  serves  more  as  eclai- 
reurs.  They  are  armed  with  rifled  breech-loading  carbines,  and,  in  case  of 
necessity,  dismount  and  fight  as  infantry  against  infantry,  an  instance  of 
which  occurred  during  the  last  war,  where  a  village  occupied  by  a  superior 
force  of  French  infantry  was  stormed  by  a  squadron  of  hussars  who  had  dis- 
mounted and  fought  as  infantry.  The  cuirassiers  are  heavy  cavalry,  armed 
with  sword  and  pistol. 

The  Uhlans,  or  lancers,  are  also  counted  heavy  cavalry,  but  in  reality  oc- 
cupy an  intermediate  position  between  light  and  heavy  cavalry ;  their  arms 
are  sword,  pistol,  and  lance.  The  dragoons,  hussars,  and  the  Saxon  and 
Hessian  regiment  of  horse  form  the  light  cavalry. 

The  influence  of  the  numerous  public  and  private  studs  which  have  existed 
for  centuries  in  Germany,  especially  in  East  Prussia,  Mecklenburg,  and  Han- 
over, has  been  very  beneficially  exercised,  and  the  breed  of  horses  in  the  army 
is  very  enduring  and  strong. 

The  Artillery  of  the  North  German  Army. 

The  artillery  of  the  North  German  Confederation  consists  of  1  regiment  of 
field  artillery  of  the  Guards,  12  regiments  of  field  artillery  and  1  Hessian 
detachment  of  field  artillery,  1  regiment  of  siege  artillery  of  the  Guards,  8 
regiments  of  siege  artillery,  4  detachments  of  siege  artillery,  and  1  detachment 
of  artificers. 


APPENDIX.  407 

The  field  artillery  is  especially  used  for  attacking  in  the  open  field  the  ad- 
vancing lines  of  the  enemy,  while  the  siege  artillery  is  designed  for  siege  op- 
erations, and  in  the  field  to  attack  the  fortifications  of  the  enemv.  Every 
field  artillery  regiment  consists  of  3  detachments  of  foot,  of  2  batteries  of  six- 
pounders  and  2  batteries  of  four-pounders  each,  and  1  detachment  of  horse, 
Of  3  batteries  of  four-pounders. 

On  a  peace  footing  each  battery  numbers  4  guns ;  in  war,  6.  The  whole 
force  of  the  field  artillery  in  war  is,  consequently — taking  into  consideration 
that  the  12th  Regiment  (Royal  Saxon  Corps)  numbers  1  battery  more  than 
the  Prussian  regiments,  164  batteries  of  foot  and  39  batteries  of  horse,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  203  batteries,  and  1218  guns — 482  six-pounders  and  736  four- 
pounders.  Every  siege  artillery  regiment  consists  of  2  detachments,  of  4 
companies  each,  making  a  total  of  88  companies. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  while  the  privates  in  the  different  services  of  the  ar- 
tillery are  trained  only  for  their  special  service,  every  artillery  officer  receives 
an  instruction  which  makes  him  completely  conversant  with  all  the  different 
branches  of  the  artillery,  and  enables  him  to  take  a  command  in  any  of  them. 
The  field  artillery  of  North  Germany  is  armed  with  rifled  four  and  six- 
pounders  of  cast-steel.  They  fire  grenades,  grape-shot,  and  shrapnel  shells. 
Grape-shot  is  only  used  at  a  distance  of  600  yards  and  less,  especially  when 
the  guns  are  in  danger  of  being  taken,  and  in  fortresses  when  a  breach  in 
the  wall  has  been  effected  by  the  enemy.  They  are  fired  from  guns  which 
are  not  rifled. 

The  foot  batteries,  so  called  because  the  men  serving  the  guns  are  not  on 
horseback,  as  those  of  the  batteries  of  horse  are,  are  principally  employed  in 
assisting  the  infantry,  and  the  batteries  of  horse  in  supporting  the  attacks  of 
the  cavalry.  Of  course,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  exceptions 
to  this  general  rule  frequently  occur. 

The  siege  artillery  is  armed  with  rifled  6,  12,  and  24  pounders,  smooth- 
bore 6  and  12  pounders,  and  smooth-bore  7  to  50  pound  mortars.  The  siege 
artillery  is  also  armed  with  rifled  mortars,  which  throw  bombs  of  the  heavier 
kind  to  a  height  of  3000  feet.  The  detachment  of  artificers  is  commissioned 
with  the  preparation  of  fire-works,  rockets,  fuses,  etc.,  which  require  particular 
attention  and  skill.  The  German  guns  are  all  breech-loaders. 

A  detachment  of  field  artillery  of  foot  consists  of  1  officer  of  the  staff,  6 
captains,  13  lieutenants,  73  non-commissioned  officers,  368  men,  160  horses, 
and  16  guns,  in  peace.  A  detachment  of  field  artillery  of  horse,  in  peace, 
consists  of  one  staff  officer,  3  captains,  10  other  officers,  43  non-commissioned 
officers,  231  men,  216  horses,  and  12  guns.  A  detachment  of  siege  artillery, 
in  peace,  consists  of  1  staff  officer,  5  captains,  13  other  officers,-  61  non-com- 
missioned officers,  and  340  men.  The  whole  force  of  the  field  artillery,  in 
peace,  is  1137  officers,  22,391  men,  9328  horses,  and  808  guns ;  that  of  the 
siege  artillery,  501  officers  and  9798  men.  A  detachment  of  field  artillery,  in 
war,  numbers  18  officers,  610  men,  516  horses,  24  guns,  and  41  vehicles.  The 
whole  force  of  the  field  artillery,  on  a  war  footing,  consists  of  1262  officers, 
54, 177  men,  53,195  horses,  1284  guns,  and  5288  vehicles.  The  strength  of  the 
siege  artillery  in  war  is  variable,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  campaign. 


408  APPENDIX. 


The  Engineers. 

There  are  13  battalions  of  engineers,  and  1  company  of  Hessian  engineers. 
Every  battalion — except  the  12th  (Saxon)  battalion,  which  consists  of  but  3 
companies — consists  of  the  1st  company,  who  are  pontonniers ;  the  2d  and  3d 
companies,  who  are  sappers ;  and  the  4th  company,  who  are  miners.  There 
are  in  all  52  companies  of  engineers.  Every  battalion  of  engineers,  excepting 
the  Saxon  battalion,  numbers  18  officers,  495  men,  and  6  other  persons. 

The  whole  force  of  the  engineers,  in  peace,  is  162  officers,  3078  men,  1633 
horses,  and  324  vehicles.  In  war  they  number  228  officers,  9378  men,  2288 
horses,  and  380  vehicles,  besides  13  pontoon  trains  (which  are,  however, 
hardly  ever  all  mobilized),  of  65  officers,  2899  men,  3601  horses,  and  533 
vehicles. 

The  engineers  are  more  of  a  technical  than  a  tactical  body,  but  are  as  reg- 
ularly drilled  in  military  matters  as  any  other  troops,  and  carry,  along  with 
their  special  tools,  guns  of  the  same  description  as  the  infantry.  The  ponton- 
niers are  charged  with  the  building  of  bridges  in  war,  the  sappers  with  the 
attack  of  fortresses  and  fortifications  from  above  ground,  the  miners  with  at- 
tacks of  the  same  description  under  ground. 

The  Train. 

The  train  consists  of  the  military  organized  troops  for  the  transport  of  mu- 
nitions, provisions,  pontoons,  field  telegraph  utensils,  and  the  appliances  for 
field  railways,  field  hospitals,  etc.,  and  furnishes  drivers  for  the  baggage  and 
munition  carts  of  the  mobilized  troops.  There  are  13  battalions  of  train,  and 
a  Hessian  detachment.  Every  battalion  consists  of  two  companies  and  1 
depot,  and  numbers  12  officers,  225  men,  4  other  persons,  121  horses,  and  24 
vehicles.  In  peace  the  train  numbers  162  officers,  3078  men,  1633  horses, 
and  324  vehicles;  in  war,  404  officers,  19,465  men,  16,841  horses,  and  2615 
vehicles. 

The  sum  total  of  the  forces  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  in  peace, 
including  staffs,  non-attached  officers,  and  administrations,  is  12,976  officers, 
306,194  men,  63,718  horses,  810  guns,  and  324  vehicles.  The  sum  total  of 
the  troops  available  for  the  field,  in  war,  including  the  higher  staffs,  com- 
mands, administrations,  head-quarters,  4  field  railway  detachments,  4  field 
telegraph  detachments,  munition  depots,  etc.,  is  13,037  officers,  537,990 
men,  158,007  horses,  1284-  guns,  and  13,180  vehicles.  There  are,  besides, 
the  supplements,  numbering  3295  officers,  184,647  men,  22,724  horses,  and 
252  guns ;  also  troops  which  remain  at  home  as  occupation  forces,  numbering 
7100  officers,  214,124  men,  23,323  horses,  234  guns,  and  390  vehicles;  so 
that  the  sum  total  of  the  military  forces  of  North  Germany,  in  war,  amounts 
to  23,432  officers,  936,761  men,  204,054  horses,  1770  guns,  and  13,570  ve- 
hicles. 


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ALFORD'S  GREEK  TESTAMENT.  The  Greek  Testament :  with  a  critically  revised 
Text ;  a  Digest  of  Various  Readings ;  Marginal  References  to  Verbal  and  Idio- 
matic Usage  ;  Prolegomena ;  and  a  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary.  For 
the  Use  ofTheological  Students  and  Ministers.  By  HENRY  ALFORD,  D.D.,  Dean 
of  Canterbury,  vol.  I.,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.  944  pages,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$6  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  50. 

ABBOTT'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  The  History  of  Frederick  the  Second, 
called  Frederick  the  Great.  By  JOJJN  S.  C.  ABBOTT.  Elegantly  Illustrated.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion of  1T89,  as  viewed  in  the  Light  of  Republican  Institutions.  By  JOHN  S.  C.  AB- 
BOTT. With  100  Engravings.  Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By 
JOHN  S.  C.  ABBOTT.  With  Maps,  Woodcuts,  and  Portraits  on  Steel.  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA ;  or,  Interesting  Anecdotes  and  Remark- 
able Conversations  of  the  Emperor  during  the  Five  and  a  Half  Years  of  his 
Captivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las  Casas,  O'Meara,  Montholon, 
Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  JOHN  S.  C.  ABBOTT.  With  Illustrations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addison,  embracing  the 
whole  of  the  "  Spectator."  Complete  hi  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

ALCOCK'S  JAPAN.  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon :  a  Narrative  of  a  Three  Years' 
Residence  in  Japan.  By  Sir  RUTHERFORD  ALCOCK,  K.C.B.,  Her  Majesty's  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  in  Japan.  With  Maps  and  Engravings. 
2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  FIRST  SERIES  :  From  the  Commencement  of 
the  French  Revolution,  in  1789,  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1815.  [  In 
addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVL,  which  correct  the  errors  of  the 
original  work  concerning  the  United  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  been 
appended  to  this  American  edition.]  SECOND  SERIES  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napoleon, 
in  1815,  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,  in  1852.  8  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $16  00. 

BALDWIN'S  PRE-HISTORIC  NATIONS.  Pre-Historic  Nations ;  or,  Inquiries  con- 
cerning some  of  the  Great  Peoples  and  Civilizations  of  Antiquity,  and  their 
Probable  Relation  to  a  still  Older  Civilization  of  the  Ethiopians  or  Cushites  of 
Arabia.  By  JOHN  D.  BALDWIN,  Member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society, 
12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

BARTH'S  NORTH  AND  CENTRAL  AFRICA.  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North 
and  Central  Africa:  being  a  Journal  of  an  Expedition  undertaken  under  the 
Auspices  of  H.  B.  M.'s  Government,  in  the  Years  1849-1855.  By  HENRY  EARTH. 
Ph.D.,  D.C.L.  Illustrated.  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER'S  SERMONS.  Sermons  by  HENRY  WARD  BEEOHER, 
Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn.  Selected  from  Published  and  Unpublished  Dis- 
courses, and  Revised  by  their  Author.  With  Steel  Portrait.  Complete  in  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

LYMAN  BEECHER'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY,  &c.  Autobiography,  Correspondence, 
&c.,  of  Lyman  Beecher,  D.D.  Edited  by  his  Son,  CHARLES  BEECHER.  With  Three 
Steel  Portraits,  and  Engravings  on  Wood.  In  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BOSWELL'S  JOHNSON.  The  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  Including  a  Journey 
to  the  Hebrides.  By  JAMES  BOSWELL,  Esq.  A  New  Edition,  with  numerous 
Additions  and  Notes.  By  JOHN  WILSON  CROKER,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  Portrait  of 
Boswell.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 


Harper  6°  Brothers'  Valuable  Standard  Works.  3 

DRAPER'S  CIVIL  WAR.  History  of  the  American  Civil  War.  By  JOHN  W.  DHA- 
PER,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physiology  in  the  University  of 
New  York.  In  Three  Vols.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  50  per  vol. 

DRAPER'S  INTELLECTUAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  EUROPE.  A  History  of  the 
Intellectual  Development  of  Europe.  By  JOHN  W.  DRAPER,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Profess- 
or of  Chemistry  and  Physiology  in  the  University  of  New  York.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

DRAPER'S  AMERICAN  CIVIL  POLICY.  Thoughts  on  the  Future  Civil  Policy  of 
America.  By  JOHN  W.  DRAPER,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physiol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  New  York.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

DU  CH AILLU'S  AFRICA.  Explorations  and  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa  r  wi  th 
Accounts  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  People,  and  of  the  Chase  of  the  Go- 
rilla, the  Crocodile,  Leopard,  Elephant,  Hippopotamus,  and  other  Animals.  By 
PAUL  B.  Du  CHAILLU.  Numerous  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BELLOWS'S  OLD  WORLD.  The  Old  World  in  its  New  Face :  Impressions  of  Eu- 
rope in  1S67-1S68.  By  HENRY  W.  BELLOWS.  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

BRODHEAD'S  HISTORY  OF  NEW  YORK.  History  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
By  JOHN  ROMEYN  BRODHEAD.  1609-1691.  2  vols.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00  per  vol. 

BROUGHAM'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  Life  and  Times  of  HENRY,  LORD  BROUGHAM. 
Written  by  Himself.  In  Three  Volumes.  12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  vol. 

BULWER'S  PROSE  WORKS.  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  of  Edward  Bulwer. 
Lord  Lytton.  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

BULWER'S  HORACE.  The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.  A  Metrical  Translation 
into  English.  With  Introduction  and  Commentaries.  By  LORD  LYTTON.  With 
Latin  Text  from  the  Editions  of  Orelli,  Macleane,  and  Yonge.  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

BULWER'S  KING  ARTHUR.  A  Poem.  By  EAEL  LYTTON.  New  Edition.  12mo, 
Cloth,  $1  75. 

BURNS'S  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  The  Life  and  Works  of  Robert  Burns.  Edited 
by  ROBERT  CHAMBERS.  4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

REINDEER,  DOGS,  AND  SNOW-SHOES.  A  Journal  of  Siberian  Travel  and  Ex- 
plorations made  in  the  Years  1865-'67.  By  RICHARD  J.  BUSH,  late  of  the  Russo- 
American  Telegraph  Expedition.  Illustrated.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  History  of  Friedrich  II.,  called  Frederick 
the  Great.  By  THOMAS  CABLYLE.  Portraits,  Maps,  Plans,  &c.  6  vols.,  12mo, 
Cloth,  $12  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  History  of  the  French  Revolution.  Newly 
Revised  by  the  Author,  with  Index,  &c.  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CARLYLE'S  OLIVER  CROMWELL.  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
With  Elucidations  and  Connecting  Narrative.  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CHALMERS'S  POSTHUMOUS  WORKS.  The  Posthumous  Works  of  Dr.  Chalmers. 
Edited  by  his  Sou-in-Law,  Rev.  WILLIAM  HANNA,  LL.D.  Complete  in  9  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $13  50. 

COLERIDGE'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Complete  Works  of  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge.  With  an  Introductory  Essay  upon  his  Philosophical  and  Theological 
Opinions.  Edited  by  Professor  SUEDD.  Complete  in  Seven  Vols.  With  a  fine 
Portrait.  Small  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  50. 

CURTIS'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION.  History  of  the  Origin,  Formation, 
and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  By  GEORGE  TICKNOK 
CURTIS.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

DOOLITTLE'S  CHINA.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese :  with  some  Account  of  their  Re- 
ligious, Governmental,  Educational,  and  Business  Customs  and  Opinions.  With 
special  but  not  exclusive  Reference  to  Fuhchau.  By  Rev.  JUSTUS  DOOLITTLE, 
Fourteen  Years  Member  of  the  Fuhchau  Mission  of  the  American  Board.  Illus- 
trated with  more  than  150  characteristic  Engravings  on  Wood.  2  vols.,  12mo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

GIBBON'S  ROME.  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By  ED- 
WARD GIBBON.  With  Notes  by  Rev.  H.H.  MILMAN  and  M.  GUIZOT.  A  new  cheap 
Edition.  To  which  is  added  a  complete  Index  of  the  whole  Work,  and  a  Portrait 
of  the  Author.  6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 


4  Harper  6°  Brothers'  Valuable  Standard  Works. 

HARPER'S  NEW  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY.    Literal  Translations. 

The  following  Volumes  are  now  ready.    Portraits.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  50  each. 

C.ESAR.  — VIRGIL.  —  S ALL UST.  —  HORACE.—  CICERO'S  ORATIONS.— CICERO'S  OFFICES* 
&c. — CICERO  ON  ORATORY  AND  ORATORS. — TAOWUS  (2  vols.).  —  TERENCE. — 
SOPHOCLES. — JUVENAL. — XENOPHON. —  HOMER'S  ILIAD. — HOMER'S  ODYSSEY. — 
HERODOTUS. — DEMOSTHENES. — TUUCYDIDES. — ^ESCHYLUS. — EURIPIDES  (2  vols.). 
• — LIVY  (2  vols.). 

DA  VIS'S  CARTHAGE.  Carthage  and  her  Remains  :  being  an  Account  of  the  Exca- 
vations and  Researches  on  the  Site  of  the  Phoenician  Metropolis  in  Africa  and  other 
adjacent  Places.  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  Her  Majesty's  Government. 
By  Dr.  DAVIS,  F.R.G.S.  Profusely  Illustrated  with  Maps,  Woodcuts,  Chromo- 
Lithographs,  &c.  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

EDQEWORTH'S  (Miss)  NOVELS.   With  Engravings.    10  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $15  00. 
GROTE'S  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.    12  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $18  00. 

HELPS'S  SPANISH  CONQUEST.  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  and  its  Rela- 
tion to  the  History  of  Slavery  and  to  the  Government  of  Colonies.  By  ARTHUR 
HELPS.  4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

HALE'S  (MRS.)  WOMAN'S  RECORD.  Woman's  Record ;  or,  Biographical  Sketches 
of  all  Distinguished  Women,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Present  Time.  Arranged 
in  Four  Eras,  with  Selections  from  Female  Writers  of  each  Era.  By  Mrs.  SARAU 
JOSEPHA  HALE.  Illustrated  with  more  than  200  Portraits.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALL'S  ARCTIC  RESEARCHES.  Arctic  Researches  and  Life  among  the  Esqui- 
maux :  being  the  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  in 
the  Years  1SGO,  1861,  and  1862.  By  CHARLES  FRANCIS  HALL.  With  Maps  and  100 
Illustrations:  The  Illustrations  are  from  Original  Drawings  by  Charles  Parsons, 
Henry  L.  Stephens,  Solomon  Eytinge,  W.  S.  L.  Jewett,  alid  Granville  Perkins, 
after  Sketches  by  Captain  Hall.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

HALLAM'S  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND,  from  the  Accession  of 
Henry  VII.  to  the  Death  of  George  II.  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

HALLAM'S  LITERATURE.  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  during  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  By  HENRY  HALLAM.  2  vols., 
8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

HALLAM'S  MIDDLE  AGES.  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  By  HENRY 
HALLAM.  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

HILDRETH'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  FIRST  SERIES  :  From  the 
,  First  Settlement  of  the  Country  to  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
SECOND  SERIES  :  From  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  to  the  End  of 
the  Sixteenth  Congress.  6  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $18  00. 

HUME'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  History  of  England,  from  the  Invasion  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar  to  the  Abdication  of  James  II.,  16SS.  By  DAVID  HUME.  A  new  Edi- 
tion, with  the  Author's  last  Corrections  and  Improvements.  To  which  is  Prefix- 
ed a  short  Account  of  his  Life,  written  by  Himself.  With  a  Portrait  of  the  Au- 
thor. 6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 

JAY'S  WORKS.  Complete  Works  of  Rev.  William  Jay :  comprising  his  Sermons, 
Family  Discourses,  Morning  and  Evening  Exercises"  for  every  Day  in  the  Year, 
Family  Prayers,  &c.  Author's  enlarged  Edition,  revised.  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth. 
$600. 

JEFFERSON'S  DOMESTIC  LIFE.  The  Domestic  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson :  com- 
piled from  Family  Letters  and  Reminiscences  by  his  Great-Grauddaughter, 
SARAH  N.  RANDOLPH.  With  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo,  Illuminated  Clothi,  Bev- 
eled Edges,  $2  50. 

JOHNSON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  With 
an  Essay  on  his  Life  and  Genius,  by  ARTHUR  MURPHY,  Esq.  Portrait  of  Johnson. 
2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

KINGLAKE'S  CRIMEAN  WAR.  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  and  an  Account  of 
its  Progress  down  to  the  Death  of  Lord  Raglan.  By  ALEXANDER  WILLIAM  KING- 
LAKE.  With  Maps  and  Plans.  Two  Vols.  ready.  12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  vol. 

KINGSLEY'S  WEST  INDIES.  At  Last:  A  Christmas  in  the  West  Indies.  By 
CHARLES  KINGSLEY.  Illustrated.  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  50. 


Harper  6*  Brothers'  Valuable  Standard  Works.  5 

KRUMMACHER'S  DAVID,  KING  OF  ISRAEL.  David,  the  King  of  Israel :  a  Por- 
trait drawn  from  Bible  History  and  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  FREDERICK  WILLIAM 
KRUMMAOUER,  D.D.,  Author  of  "Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  &c.  Translated  under  the 
express  Sanction  of  the  Author  by  the  Rev.  M.  G.  EASTON,  M.A.  With  a  Letter 
from  Dr.  Krummacher  to  his  American  Readers,  and  a  Portrait.  12mo,  Cloth, 
$1  75. 

LAMB'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Charles  Lamb.  Comprising  his  Let- 
ters, Poems,  Essays  of  Elia,  Essays  upon  Shakspeare,  Hogarth,  &c.,  and  a  Sketch 
of  his  Life,  with  the  Final  Memorials,  by  T.  NOON  TALFOCRD.  Portrait.  2  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

LIVINGSTONE'S  SOUTH  AFRICA.  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa ;  including  a  Sketch  of  Sixteen  Years'  Residence  in  the  Interior  of  Africa, 
and  a  Journey  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Loando  on  the  West  Coast ;  thence 
across  the  Continent,  down  the  River  Zambesi,  to  the  Eastern  Ocean.  By  DAVID 
LIVINGSTONE,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  With  Portrait,  Maps  by  Arrowsmith,  and  numerous 
Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  50. 

LIVINGSTONES'  ZAMBESI.  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi  and  its 
Tributaries,  and  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa.  1858-1864. 
By  DAVID  and  CHARLES  LIVINGSTONE.  With  Map  and  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth, 

M'CLINTOCK  &  STRONG'S  CYCLOPAEDIA.  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theological, 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literature.  Prepared  by  the  Rev.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 
and  JAMES  STRONG,  S.T.D.  3  vols.  now  ready.  Royal  Svo.  Price  per  vol.,  Cloth, 
$5  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  00 ;  Half  Morocco,  $8  00. 

MARCY'S  ARMY  LIFE  ON  THE  BORDER.  Thirty  Years  of  Army  Life  on  the 
Border.  Comprising  Descriptions  of  the  Indian  Nomads  of  the  Plains ;  Explo- 
rations of  New  Territory;  a  Trip  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  Winter; 
Descriptions  of  the  Habits  of  Different  Animals  found  in  the  West,  and  the  Meth- 
ods of  Hunting  them;  with  Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Different  Frontier  Men,  &c., 
&c.  By  Brevet  Brigadier-General  R.  B.  MARCY,  U.S.A.,  Author  of  "  The  Prairie 
Traveller."  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Svo,  Cloth,  Beveled  Edges,  $3  00. 

MACAULAY'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND.  The  History  of  England  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  James  II.  By  THOMAS  BAIUNGTON  MAOAULAY.  With  an  Original  Por- 
trait of  the  Author.  5  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00 ;  12mo,  Cloth,  $T  50. 

MOSHEIM'S  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  Ancient  and  Modern ;  in  which  the 
Rise,  Progress,  and  Variation  of  Church  Power  are  considered  in  their  Connec- 
tion with  the  State  of  Learning  and  Philosophy,  and  the  Political  History  of  Eu- 
rope during  that  Period.  Translated,  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  A.  MACLAINE,  D.D. 
A  new  Edition,  continued  to  1826,  by  C.  COOTE,  LL.D.  2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

NEVIUS'S  CHINA.  China  and  the  Chinese :  a  General  Description  of  the  Country 
and  its  Inhabitants ;  its  Civilization  and  Form  of  Government ;  its  Religious  and 
Social  Institutions ;  its  Intercourse  with  other  Nations ;  and  its  Present  Condition 
and  Prospects.  By  the  Rev.  JOHN  L.  NEVIUS,  Ten  Years  a  Missionary  in  China. 
With  a  Map  and  Illustrations.  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

OLIN'S  (DR.)  LIFE  AND  LETTERS.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

OLIN'S  (DR.)  TRAVELS.  Travels  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petraa,  and  the  Holy  Land.  En- 
gravings. 2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00.' 

OLIN'S  (DR.)  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Stephen  Olin,  D.D.,  late  President  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  University.  2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  i  " 


OLIPHANT'S  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.  Narrative  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to 
China  and  Japan,  in  the  Years  1857,  '58,  '59.  By  LAURENCE  OLIPHANT,  Private 
Secretary  to  Lord  Elgin.  Illustrations.  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

OLIPHANT'S  (MRS.)  LIFE  OF  EDWARD  IRVING.  The  Life  of  Edward  Irving, 
Minister  of  the  National  Scotch  Church,  London.  Illustrated  by  his  Journals  and 
Correspondence.  By  Mrs.  OLIPHANT.  Portrait.  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

RAWLINSON'S  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  A  Manual  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire.  Comprising 
the  History  of  Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Media,  Babylonia,  Lydia,  Phoenicia,  Syria,  Ju- 
daea, Egypt,  Carthage,  Persia,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Parthia,  and  Rome.  By 
GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A.,  Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  12mo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 


6  Harper  6°  Brothers'  Valuable  Standard  Works. 

KECLUS'S  THE  EARTH.  The  Earth :  a  Descriptive  History  of  the  Phenomena  and 
Life  of  the  Globe.  By  ELISEE  RECLUS.  Translated  by  the  late  B.  B.  Woodward, 
and  Edited  by  Henry  Woodward.  With  234  Maps  an/1  Illustrations,  and  23  Page 
Maps  printed  in  Colors.  Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

POETS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
Selected  and  Edited  by  the  Rev.  ROBERT  ABIS  WILLMOTT.  With  English  and 
American  Additions,  arranged  by  EVEKT  A.  DUYCKINCK,  Editor  of  "  Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Literature."  Comprising  Selections  from  the  Greatest  Authors  of 
the  Age.  Superbly  Illustrated  with  132  Engravings  from  Designs  by  the  most 
Eminent  Artists.  In  elegant  small  4to  form,  printed  on  Superfine  Tinted  Paper, 
richly  bound  in  extra  Cloth,  Beveled,  Gilt  Edges,  $6  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $6  00 ;  Full 
Turkey  Morocco,  $10  00. 

SHAKSPEARE.  The  Dramatic  Works  of  William  Shakspeare,  with  the  Corrections 
and  Illustrations  of  Dr.  JOHNSON,  G.  STEEVENS,  and  others.  Revised  by  ISAAC 
REED.  Engravings.  6  vols.,  Royal  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 

SMILES'S  LIFE  OF  THE  STEPHENSONS.  The  Life  of  George  Stephenson,  and 
of  his  Son,  Robert  Stepheuson ;  comprising,  also,  a  History  of  the  Invention  and 
Introduction  of  the  Railway  Locomotive.  By  SAMUEL  SMILES,  Author  of  "Self- 
Help,"  &c.  With  Steel  Portraits  and  numerous  Illustrations.  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

SMILES'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  HUGUENOTS.  The  Huguenots :  their  Settlements, 
Churches,  and  Industries  in  England  and  Ireland.  By  SAMUEL  SMILES.  With  an 
Appendix  relating  to  the  Huguenots  in  America.  Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

SPEKE'S  AFRICA.  Journal  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile.  By  Cap- 
tain JOHN  HANNING  SPEKE,  Captain  H.  M.  Indian  Army,  Fellow  and  Gold  Med- 
alist of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Hon.  Corresponding  Member  and  Gold 
Medalist  of  the  French  Geographical  Society,  &c.  With  Maps  and  Portraits  and 
numerous  Illustrations,  chiefly  from  Drawings  by  Captain  GRANT.  Svo,  Cloth, 
uniform  with  Livingstone,  Barth,  Burton,  &c.,  $4  00. 

STRICKLAND'S  (Miss)  QUEENS  OF  SCOTLAND.  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scot- 
land and  English  Princesses  connected  with  the  Regal  Succession  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. By  AGNES  STRICKLAND.  8  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

THE  STUDENT'S  SERIES. 

France.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Gibbon.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Greece.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Hume.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Rome.  ByLiddell.  Engravings.   12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Old  Testament  History.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

New  Testament  History.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Strickland's  Queens  of  England.    Abridged.    Engravings.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Ancient  History  of  the  East.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

Lyell's  Elements  of  Geology.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

TENNYSON'S  COMPLETE  POEMS.  The  Complete  Poems  of  Alfred  Tennyson, 
Poet  Laureate.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Eminent  Artists,  and  Three 
Characteristic  Portraits.  Svo,  Paper,  75  cents ;  Cloth,  $1  25. 

THOMSON'S  LAND  AND  THE  BOOK.  The  Land  and  the  Book ;  or,  Biblical  Illus- 
trations drawn  from  the  Manners  and  Customs,  the  Scenes  and  the  Scenery  of 
the  Holy  Land.  By  W.  M.  THOMSON,  D.D.,  Twenty-five  Years  a  Missionary  of  the 
A.B.C.F.M.  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  With  two  elaborate  Maps  of  Palestine,  an  ac- 
curate Plan  of  Jerusalem,  and  several  hundred  Engravings,  representing  the  Scen- 
ery, Topography,  and  Productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  Costumes,  Manners, 
and  Habits  of  the  People.  2  large  12mo  vols.,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

TYERMAN'S  WESLEY.  The  Life  and  Time?  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  M.  A.,  Found- 
er of  the  Methodists.  By  the  Rev.  LUKE  TYERMAN,  Author  of  "  The  Life  of  Rev. 
Samuel  Wesley."  Portraits.  3  vols.,  Crown  Svo. 

VAMBERY'S  CENTRAL  ASIA.  Travels  in  Central  Asia.  Being  the  Account  of  a 
Journey  from  Teheran  across  the  Turkoman  Desert,  on  the  Eastern  Shore  of  the 
Caspian,  to  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Samarcand,  performed  in  the  Year  1863.  By 
ARMINIUS  VAMISERY,  Member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Pesth,  by  whom  he 
was  sent  on  this  Scientific  Mission.  With  Map  and  Woodcuts.  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  5(k 

WOOD'S  HOMES  WITHOUT  HANDS.  Homes  Without  Hands :  being  a  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Habitations  of  Animals,  classed  according  to  their  Principle  of  Con- 
struction. By  J.  G.  WOOD,  M.A.,  F.L.S.  With  about  140  Illustrations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  Beveled  Edges,  $4  50. 


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