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A SCHOOL DICTIONARY 

OP 

GREEK AID ROMAI ANTIQUITIES 

ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY. 



BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D., 

EDITOR OF THE DICTIONARIES OF "GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES," AND "BIOGRAPHY 
AND MYTHOLOGY." 



WITH CORRECTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS, 



BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW-YORK, AND 
RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 




NEW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 

1857. 



D E 
5" . 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 
In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 




79566? 



PREFACE. 



THE present work is designed to supply a want that has been long 
felt by most persons engaged in classical tuition. Hitherto we have 
had no work in the English language which exhibited, in a form 
adapted to the use of young pupils, the results of the labours of modern 
scholars in the various subjects included under the general term of 
Greek and Roman Antiquities. The " Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman Antiquities" is intended for the more advanced student, and 
contains, moreover, information on a vast variety of subjects, which is 
not required by those who are commencing their classical studies. It 
has therefore been supposed, that an Abridgment of that work 
illustrating the Greek and Roman writers usually read in the lower 
classes of our public schools, and omitting all such matters as are of 
no use to the young student, might prove an acceptable addition to our 
school-literature. In fact, the Abridgment was undertaken at the 
suggestion of the head-master of one of our great public schools, and 
no pains have been spared to adapt it to the class of persons for 
whom it is more especially intended. Conciseness and clearness have 
been chiefly studied ; all discussions on doubtful and controverted 
subjects have been omitted ; and such of the articles as are suscep- 
tible of it have been illustrated by woodcuts from ancient works 
of art. 

Though this work has been drawn up chiefly for the use of the 
lower forms in our public schools, the wants of another class of persons 
have also been consulted. It is believed that the work will be found 
to be of no small assistance to those who have not studied the Greek 
and Roman writers, but who frequently need information on many 
points connected with Greek and Roman Antiquities. Care has been 
taken not to presume too much on the knowledge of the reader ; and 
it is therefore hoped, that most of the articles may be read with 
advantage and profit by persons who are unacquainted with the classi- 
cal writers. 



IV PREFACE. 

It should be borne in mind, that this work does not profess to give 
an abridged account of all the subjects which are comprised in the 
larger work. On many matters, such as those relating to Jurispru- 
dence, and several departments of Art, the reader must refer for 
information to the other Dictionary. On many subjects likewise, which 
are contained in this Abridgment, only the most important facts are 
stated ; those who desire more detailed information, and an account 
of the conflicting views held by modern scholars on certain points, 
must consult the original work. In such cases the present work will 
serve as a convenient introduction to the other, and will enable the 
student to use the latter with more advantage and profit than he 
would otherwise have been able to do. It has been considered 
unnecessary to give in this Abridgment references to ancient and 
modern writers, as they are not required by the class of persons for 
whose use the book is designed, and they are to be found in the 
original work. 

WILLIAM SMITH. 

London, May 2Qth, 1845. 



PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 

THE Editor believes that he is rendering a very acceptable service 
to the young student, in presenting him with a corrected and im- 
proved edition of the present work, both on account of the aid which 
it will afford him in his classical reading, and because the information 
contained in it will be found to be far more accurate and worthy of 
reliance than that given in any similar work ever published in this 
country. In preparing this volume for the press, errors in the 
London edition have been corrected, many important articles have 
been added, and the amount of illustrations has been very materially 
enlarged. The Greek Index, also, which abounded in errors, has 
been carefully revised and augmented. 

C!ol. Cott. Feb. 9th, 1846. 



SCHOOL-DICTIONARY 

OF 

GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



A'BACUS (a/tof), denoted primarily a 
square tablet of any description, and was 
hence employed in the following significa- 
tions : 

1. A table, or side-board, chiefly used for 
the display of gold and silver cups, and other 
kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. 
The use of abaci was first introduced at 
Rome from Asia Minor after the victories of 
Cn Manlius Vulso, B. c. 187, and their intro- 
duction was regarded as one of the marks of 
the growing luxury of the age. 

2. A draught-board or chess-board. 

3. A board used by mathematicians for 
drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for 
the purposes of calculation. 

4. In architecture, the flat square stone 
which constituted the highest member of a 
column, being placed immediately under the 
architrave. 




ABLEG'MINA (cnrohey/u.oi) were the parts 
of the victi'n which were offered to the gods 



in sacrifice. The word is derived from able- 
gere, in imitation of the Greek d;ro/leyiv, 
which is used in a similar manner. These 
parts were also called Porricice, Prosegmina, 
Prosfcta. [SACRIFICIUM.] 

ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, 
and thus opposed to the toga, the garb of 
peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the 
lower classes at Rome, and consequently by 
the philosophers who affected severity of 
manners and life. 




Abolla, Military Cloak. 



ABROGA'TIO. [LEX.] 
ABSOLU'TIO. [JiiDEX.] 



ACCUBATIO. 

ACA'TJUM (UKUTIOV, a diminutive of u/cc- 
rof), a small vessel or boat used by the 
Greeks, which appears to have been the 
same as the Roman scapha. The Acatia were 
also sails adapted for fast sailing. 

ACCENSUS. 1. A public officer, who at- 
tended on several of the Roman magistrates. 
He anciently preceded the consul who had 
not the fasces, which custom, after being long 
disused, was restored by Julius Caesar in his 
first consulship. Accensi also attended on the 
governors of provinces. 2. The accensi were 
also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, 
who were enlisted after the full number of 
the legion had been completed, in order to 
supply any vacancies that might occur in the 
legion. They were taken, according to the 
census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class 
of citizens, and were placed in battle in the 
rear of the army, behind the triarii. 

ACCLAMA'TIO was the public expression 
of approbation or disapprobation, pleasure or 
displeasure, by loud acclamations. On many 
occasions, there appear to have been certain 
forms of acclamations always used by the 
Romans ; as, for instance, at marriages, lo 
Hymen, Hymenaee, or Talassio ; at triumphs, 
lo Triumphe ; at the conclusion of plays, the 
last actor called out Plaudite to the spectators ; 
orators were usually praised by such expres- 
sions as Bene et praeclare, Belle et festive, Non 
potest melius, &C. 

ACCU'BITA, the name of couches which 
were used in the time of the Roman emperors, 
instead of the triclinium, for reclining on at 
meals. The mattresses and feather-beds were 
softer and higher, and the supports (fulcra) of 
them lower in proportion than in the tricli- 
nium. The clothes and pillows spread over 
them were called accubitalia. 

ACCUBA'TIO, the act of reclining at meals. 
The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in 
later times, to recline at their meals ; but this 
practice could not have been of great antiquity 
in Greece, since Homer always describes per- 
sons as sitting at their meals ; and Isidore 
of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attri- 
butes the same custom to the ancient Ro- 
mans. Even in the time of the early Ro- 
man emperors, children in families of the 
highest rank used to sit together, while their 
fathers and elders reclined rm couches at the 
upper part of the room. Roman ladies con- 
tinued the practice of sitting at table, even 
after the recumbent position had become com- 
mon with the other sex. It appears to have 
been considered more decent, and more agree- 
able to the severity and purity of ancient 
manners for women to sit, more especially 
if many persons were present. But, on the 



ACINACES. 

other hand, we find cases of women reclining, 
where there was conceived to be nothing bold 
or indelicate in their posture. Such is the 
case in the following woodcut, which seems 




Accubatio, Act of Reclining. 

intended to represent a scene of matrimonial 
felicity. The husband and wife recline on a 
sofa; their two sons are in front of them; 
and several females and a boy are perform- 
ing a piece of music for the entertainment of 
the married pair. 

For an account of the disposition of the 
couches, and of the place which each guest 
occupied in a Greek and Roman entertain- 
ment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM. 
ACCUSA'TOR, ACCUSA'TIO. [JuDEx.] 
ACERRA (dv/j-iarripiov, htftavuTpic), the 
incense-box or censer used in sacrifices. 




Acerra, Incense Box. 

The acerra was also a small moveable altar 
placed before the dead, on which perfumes 
were burnt. The use of the accerrae at fune- 
rals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve 
Tables as an unnecessary expense. 

A'CIES. [EXERCITU-S.] 

ACI'NACES (&KIVUKW), a Persian sword, 



ACROSTOLIUM. 

whence Horace speaks of the Medus acinaces. 
The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, 
and thus differed from the Roman sica, which 
was curved. It was worn on the right side of 
the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans 
usually had then swords suspended on the left 
side. The form of the acinaces,with the mode 
of wearing it, is illustrated by the following 
Persepolitan figures. 




Acinaces, Persian Sitord 

ACL1S, a kind of dart with a leathern thong 
attached to it. [AMENTUM.] 

ACROA'MA (aKpoafia), which properly 
means anything heard, was the name given 
to a concert of players on different musical in- 
struments, and also to an interlude performed 
during the exhibition of the public games. 
The word is also applied to the actors and 
musicians who were employed to amuse 
guests during an entertainment, and is some- 
times used to designate the anagnostae. 
[ANAGNOSTES.] 

ACROTOL1S (attpoTToTits). In almost all 
Greek cities, which were usually built upon 
a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there 
was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the 
highest part of the rock or hill, to which the 
name of Acropolis, higher or upper city, was 
given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, 
Corinth, Argos, Messene, and many other 
places. The Capitolium at Rome answered 
the same purpose as the acropolis in the 
Greek cities ; and of the same kind were the 
tower of Agathocles at TJtica, and that of An- 
tonia at Jerusalem. 

ACROSTOL'IUM (aKpocTohtov), the ex- 
tremity of the (jroAof. The crroAof projected 
from the head of the prow, and its extremity 



ACT10. 3 

(u/cpo<rro/lfov), which was frequently made in 
the shape of an animal or a helmet, &c., ap- 
pears to have been sometimes covered with 
brass, and to have served as a weapon cf 
offence against the enemy's vessels. 

ACROTE'RIUM (u/cpur^pjov), signifies 
the extremity of anything, and was applied by 
the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of 
a vessel (u/cpoord/Uov), which were usually 
taken from a conquered vessel as a mark of 
victory: the act of doing so was called 
aitpuTr/piu&iv. 

ACTA DIURNA (proceedings of the day), 
was a kind of gazette or newspaper publishec 
daily at Rome, under the authority of the 
government. It contained an account of the 
proceedings of the public assemblies, of the 
law courts, of the punishment of offenders, 
and a list of births, marriages, deaths, &c. 
The proceedings of the public assemblies and 
the law courts, were obtained by means of 
reporters (actuarii}. The proceedings of the 
senate (acta senatus) were not published till 
the time of Julius Caesar, but this custom was 
prohibited by Augustus. An account of the 
proceedings of the senate was still preserved, 
though not published, and some senator seems 
to have been chosen by the emperor to com- 
pile the account. The Acta Diurna, which 
were also called Acta populi, Acta publica, Acta 
urbana, and by the simple name of Acta, were 
frequently consulted and appealed to by later 
historians. 

ACTA SENATUS. [ACTA DIURNA.] 

A'CTIA (a/crm), a festival celebrated every 
three years at Actium in Epirus, with wrest- 
ling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of 
Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of 
Apollo at Actium. After the defeat of Antony 
oft Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, 
and instituted games to be celebrated every 
five years in commemoration of his victory. 

A'CTIO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be 
the right of pursuing by judicial means what 
is a man's due. 

The old actions of the Roman law were 
called legis actiones orlegitimae, either because 
they were expressly provided for by the laws 
of the Twelve Tables, or because they were 
strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and 
therefore could not be varied. But these forms 
of action gradually fell into disuse, in conse- 
quence of the excessive nicety required, and 
the failure consequent on the slightest erroi 
in the pleadings, and they were eventually 
abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges 
Juliae, except in a few cases. 

In the old Roman constitution, the knowl 
edge of the law was most closely connected 
with the institutes and ceremonial of religion 



4 ACTiO. 

and was accordingly in the hands of the pa- 
tricians alone, whose aid their clients were 

Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of the earliest 
writers on law, drew up the various forms of 
actions, probably for his own use and that of 
his friends : the manuscript was stolen or 
copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made 
it public ; and thus, according to the story, 
the plebians became acquainted with those 
legal forms which hitherto had been the ex- 
clusive property of the patricians. After the 
abolition of the old legal actions, a suit was 
prosecuted in the following manner : 

An action was commenced by the plaintiff 
summoning the defendant to appear before the 
praetor or other magistrate who had jurisdictio : 
this process was called in jus vocatio ; and, ac- 
cording to the laws of the Twelve Tables, was 
in effect a dragging of the defendant before the 
praetor, if he refused to go quietly ; and al- 
though this rude proceeding was somewhat 
modified in later times, we find in the time of 
Horace that if the defendant would not go 
quietly, the plaintiff called upon any bystander 
to witness, and dragged the defendant into 
court. The parties might settle their dispute 
on their way to the court, or the defendant 
might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex must 
not be confounded with the vades. This set- 
tlement of disputes on the way was called 
transact in via, and serves to explain a pas- 
sage in St. Matthew, v., 25. 

When before the praetor, the parties were 
said jure agere. The plaintiff then prayed for 
an action, and if the praetor allowed it (dabat 
actionem), he then declared what action he in- 
tended to bring against the defendant, which 
he called edere actionem. This might be done 
in writing, or orally, or by the plaintiff taking 
the defendant to the album [A LBUM], and show- 
ing him which action he intended to rely on. 
As the formulae on the album comprehended, 
or were supposed to comprehend, every pos- 
sible form of action that could be required by 
a plaintiff, it was presumed that he could find 
among all the formulae some one which was 
adapted to his case ; and he was, accordingly, 
supposed to be without excuse if he did not 
take pains to select the proper formulae. If 
he took the wrong one, or if he claimed more 
than his due, he lost his cause (causa cadebat) ; 
but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to 
amend his claim or intentio. It will be ob- 
served that as the formulae were so numerous 
and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to 
select the formulae which he supposed to be 
suitable to his case, and it would require no 
farther variation than the insertion of the 
names of the parties and of the thing claimed, 



ACTIO. 

or the subject-matter of the suit, with the 
amount of damages, &c., as the case might 
be. 

When the praetor had granted an action, the 
plaintiff required the defendant to give secu- 
rity for his appearance before the praetor (in 
jure) on a day named, commonly the day but 
one after the in jus vocatio, unless the matter 
in dispute was settled at once. The defen- 
dant, on finding a surety, was said vades dare, 
vadimonium promittere, or facere ; the surety, 
vas, was said spondere ; the plaintiff, when 
satisfied with the surety,was said vadari reum, 
to let him go on his sureties, or to have sure- 
ties from him. When the defendant promised 
to appear in jure on the day named, without 
giving any surety, this was called vadimonium 
purum. In some cases, recuperafores [JuDEx] 
were named, who, in case of the defendant 
making default, condemned him in the sum of 
money named in the vadimonium. 

If the defendant appeared on the day ap- 
pointed, he was said vadimonium sistere ; if he 
did not appear, he was said vadimonium dese- 
ruisse ; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff 
the bonorum possessio. Both parties, on the 
day appointed, were summoned by a crier 
(prafco), when the plaintiff made his claim or 
demand, which was very briefly expressed, 
and may be considered as corresponding to 
our declaration at law. 

The defendant might either deny the plain- 
tiff's claim, or he might reply to it by a plea, 
exceptio. If he simply denied the plaintiff's 
claim, the cause was at issue, and a judex 
might be demanded. The forms of the excep 
tio, also, were contained in the praetor's edict, 
or, upon hearing the facts, the praetor adapt- 
ed the plea to the case. 

The plaintiff might reply to the defendant's 
exceptio. The plaintiff's answer was called 
replicatio. If the defendant answered the re- 
plicatio, his answer was called duplicatio ; and 
the parties might go on to the triplicatio and 
quadruplicate, and even further, if the matters 
in question were such that they could not 
otherwise be brought to an issue. 

A person might maintain or defend an ac- 
tion by his cognitor or procurator, or, as we 
should say, by his attorney. The plaintiff 
and defendant used a certain form of words 
in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear 
that the appointment was made in the pres- 
ence of both parties. The cognitor needed 
not to be present, and his appointment was 
complete when by his acts he had signified 
his assent. 

When the cause was brought to an issue, 
a judex or judices might be demanded of the 
praetor, who named or appointed a judrx, and 



ACUS. 

delivered to him the formula, which contained 
his instructions. The judices were said dari 
or addici. So far the proceedings were said to 
be in jure: the prosecution of the actio be- 
fore the judex requires a -separate discussion. 

[JUDEX.] 

ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In 
a civil or private action, the plaintiff'was often 
called petitor ; in a public action (causa pub- 
lica), he was called accusator. The defendant 
was called reus, both in private and public 
causes : this term, however, according to Cic- 
ero, might signify either party, as indeed we 
might conclude from the word itself. In a 
private action, the defendant was often called 
adversarius, but either party might be called 
adversarius with respect to the other. Wards 
brought their actions by their guardian or tu- 
tor. Peregrini, or aliens, originally brought 
their action through their patronus ; but af- 
terwards in their own name, by a fiction of 
law, that they were Roman citizens. A Ro- 
man citizen might also generally bring his 
action by means of a cognitor or procurator. 
[Acrio.] 

Actor has also the sense of an agent or man- 
ager of another's business generally. The ac- 
tor publicus was an officer who had the super- 
intendence or care of slaves and property be- 
longing to the state. 

ACTORS on the stage. [HisTRio.] 

ACTUA'RIAE NAVES,transport-vessels, 
seem to have been built in a lighter style than 
the ordinary ships of burden, from which they 
also differed in being always furnished with 
oars, whereas the others were chiefly pro- 
pelled by sails. 

ACTUA'RII, short-hand writers, who took 
down the speeches in the senate and the pub- 
lic assemblies. In the debate in the Roman 
senate upon the punishment of those who 
had been concerned in the conspiracy of Cat- 
iline, we find the first mention of short-hand 
writers, who were employed by Cicero to take 
down the speech of Cato. 

ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also 
called actus quadratun, was equal to half a 
jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The 
actus minimus, or simplex, was 120 feet long, 
and four broad, and therefore equal to 480 
square Roman feet. Actus was also used to 
signify a bridle way. 

ACUS 



, /JeAovfc, /5a0tc). a needle, 
a pin. 

Pins were made not only of metal, but also 
of wood, bone, and ivory. They were used 
for the same purposes as with us, and also in 
dressing the hair. The mode of platting the 
hair, and then fastening it with a pin or nee- 
dle, is shown in the annexed figure of a fe- 



ADONIA. 5 

male head. This fashion has been continued 
to our own times by the females of Italy, 




Acus, Pin used to fasten the Hair. 

ADDICTI. [NEXI] 

ADFINES. [AFFINES.] 

ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons 
under the empire who were admitted to the 
privileges and honours of the praetorship, 
quaestorship, aedileship, and other public of- 
fices, without having any duties to perform. 
The senators called adlecti, seem to have been 
the same as the conscripti. 

ADMISSIONA'LES, chamberlains at the 
imperial court, who introduced persons to the 
presence of the emperor. They were divided 
into four classes ; the chief officer of each 
class was called proximus admissionum ; and 
the proximi were under the magister admissio- 
num. Their duty was called officium admis- 
sionis. They were usually freedmen. 

ADOLESCENS, was applied in the Ro- 
man law to a person from the end of his 
twelfth or fourteenth to the end of his twen- 
ty-fifth year, during which period a person 
was also called adultus. The word adoles- 
cens, however, is frequently used in a less 
strict sense in the Latin writers in referring 
to a person much older than the above-men- 
tioned age. 

ADO'NIA ('A&jvm), a festival celebrated in 
honour of Aphrodite ( Venr.s) and Adonis in 
most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, 
and was celebrated by women exclusively. On 
the first day they brought into the streets 
statues of Adonis, which were laid out as 
corpses ; and they observed all the rites cus- 
tomary at funerals, beating themselves and 
uttering lamentations. The second day was 
spent in merriment and feasting; because 



6 ADOPTIO. 

Adonis was a lowed to return to life, and 
spend half the year with Aphrodite (Venus). 

ADO'PTIO, adoption. 1. GREEK. Adop- 
tion was called by the Athenians elfirolttff, 
or sometimes simply irpirjaic, or fleece 
adoptive father was said TroieiaOai, d 
a6ai, or sometimes -rroieiv : and the father or 
mother (for a mother after the death of her 
husband could consent to her son being adopt- 
ed) was said inTtoiclv: the son was said |/e- 
rroieiaOai with reference to the family which 
he left ; and iTroieta6ai with reference to 
the family into which he was received. The 
son, when adopted^ was called TroirjTOf, et- 
TroirjToc, or Oerog, in opposition to the legiti- 
mate son born of the body of the father, who 
was called -yvfjOLog. 

A man might adopt a son either in his life- 
time or by his testament, provided he had no 
male offspring, and was of sound mind. He 
might also, by testament, name a person to 
take his property, in case his son or sons 
should die under age. 

Only Athenian citizens could be adopted ; 
but females could be adopted (by testament 
at least) as well as males. 

The adopted child was transferred from his 
own family and demus into those of the adop- 
tive father ; he inherited his property, and 
maintained the sacra of his adoptive father. 
It was not necessary for him to take his new 
father's name, but he was registered as his 
son in the register of his phratria (typa-rpiKov 
ypafj.fj.aTEiov). Subsequently to this, it was 
necessary to enter him in the register of the 
adoptive father's demus (^^lapxiKov /pa//- 
fiarelov), without which registration it ap- 
pears that he did not possess the full rights 
of citizenship as a member of his new demus. 

2. ROMAN. The Roman relation of parent 
and child arose either from a lawful marriage 
or from adoption. Adoptio was the general 
name which comprehended the tw.o species, 
adoptio and adrogatio ; and as the adopted 
person passed from his own familia into that 
of the person adopting, adoptio caused a capi- 
tis diminutio, and the lowest of the three 
kinds. [CAPUT.] Adoption, in its specific 
sense, was the ceremony by which a person 
who was in the power of his parent (in potes- 
tate parentium), whether child or grandchild, 
male or female, was transferred to the power 
of the person adopting him. It was effected 
under the authority of a magistrate (magistra- 
lus), the praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a 
governor (praeses), in the provinces. The 
person to be adopted was emancipated [MAN- 
ciPATioJ by his natural father before the com- 
petent authority, and surrendered to the adop- 
tive fatherby the legal form called injure ctssio. 



ADULTERIUM. 

When a person was not in the power of his 

parent (sui juris), the ceremony of adoption 

was called adrogatio. Originally, it could 

only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote 

I of the populus (populi auctoritate) in the comi- 

I tia curiata (lege curiata) ; the reason of this 

i being that the caput or status of a Roman 

! citizen could not, according to the laws of the 

I Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote 

j of the populus in the comitia curiata. Clo- 

1 dius, the enemy of Cicero, was abrogated into 

i a plebian family, in order to qualify himself to 

i be elected a tribune of the plebs. Females 

could not be adopted by adrogatio. Under 

! the emperors it became the practice to effect 

i the adrogatio by an imperial rescript. 

The effect of adoption was to create the 
j legal relation of father and son, just as if the 
' adopted son were born of the blood of the 
i adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adop- 
ted child was entitled to the name and sacra 
j privata of the adopting parent. A person, on 
j passing from one gens into another, and taking 
i the name of his new familia, generally retained 
' the name of his old gens also, with the addi- 
tion to it of the termination anus. Thus 
; Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, 
! upon being adopted by P. Cornelius Scipip, 
I assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio 
| Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards the 
| emperor Augustus, upon being adopted by the 
; testament of his uncle the dictator, assumed 
I the name of C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. 

ADORA'TIO (7rpoc/cw??<7ic), adoration 
| was paid to the gods in the following man- 
I ner: The individual stretched out his right 
; hand to the statue of the god whom he wished 
to honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it 
to the statue. The adoratio differed from the 
oratio or prayers, supplications, which were 
offered with the hands folded together. The 
adoration paid to the Roman emperors was 
borrowed from the Eastern mode of adoration, 
and consisted in prostration on the ground, 
and kissing the feet and knees of the em- 
peror. 

ADROGA'TIO. [ADOPTION.] 
ADULTE'RIUM, adultery. 1. GREEK. 
Among the Athenians, if a man caught 
another man in the act of criminal intercourse 
(fioiXEia) with his wife, he might kill him with 
impunity ; and the law was also the same 
with respect to a concubine (Tra/Ua/c/;). He 
might also inflict other punishment on the 
offender, ft appears that there was no adultery, 
unless a married woman was concerned. The 
husband might, if he pleased, take a sum of 
money from the adulterer, by way of compen- 
sation, and detain him till he found sureties 
for the payment. The husband might also 



ADUNATI. 

prosecute the adulterer in the action called 
uoLxeiag ypapfj. If the act of adultery was 
proved, the husband could no longer cohabit 
with his wife, under pain of losing his privi- 
leges of a citizen (uTifjtia). The adulteress 
was excluded even from those temples which 
foreign women and slaves were allowed to 
enter ; and if she was seen there, any one 
might treat her as he pleased, provided he did 
not kill her or mutilate her. 

2. ROMAN. The word adulterium properly 
signifies, in the Roman law, the offence com- 
mitted by a man's having sexual intercourse 
with another man's wife. Stuprum (called by 
the Greeks pflopd) signifies the like offence 
with a widow or virgin. 

In the time of Augustus a law was enacted 
(probably about B. c. 17), entitled Lex Julia de 
adulteriis coercendis, which seems to have con- 
tained special penal provisions against adul- 
tery ; and it is also not improbable, that by the 
old law or custom, if the adulterer was caught 
in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured 
husband, and that the husband might punish 
with death his adulterous wife. 

By the Julian law, a woman convicted of 
adultery was mulcted in half of her dowry 
(dos) and the third part of her property (bona), 
and banished (relegata) to some miserable 
island, such as Seriphos, for instance. The 
adulterer was mulcted in half his property, 
and banished in like mariner. This law did 
not inflict the punishment of death on either 
party ; and in those instances under the em- 
perors in which death was inflicted, it must 
be considered as an extraordinary punishment, 
and beyond the provisions of the Julian law. 

The Julian law permitted the father (both 
adoptive and natural) to kill the adulterer and 
adulteress in certain cases, as to which there 
were several nice distinctions established by 
the law. If the wife was divorced for adul- 
tery, the husband was entitled to retain part 
of the dowry. 

By a constitution of the Emperor Constan- 
tine, the offence in the adulterer was made 
capital. 

ADVERSA'RIA, a note-book, memoran- 
lum-book, posting-book, in which the Romans 
entered memoranda of any importance, espe- 
cially of money received and expended,which 
were afterwards transcribed, usually every 
month, into a kind of ledger. ( Tabulae justae, 
codex accepti et expensi.) 

ADVERSA'RIUS. [ACTOR.] 

ADU'NATI ('Adwaroi), were persons sup 
ported by the Athenian state,who, on account 
of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to 
obtain a livelihood. The sum which they re- 
ceived from the state appears to have varied 



AED1LES. 7 

at different times. In the time of Lysias and 
Aristotle, one obolus a day was given ; but it 
appears to have been afterwards increased to 
two oboli. The bounty was restricted to per- 
sons whose property was under three minae ; 
and the examination of those who were en- 
titled to it belonged to the senate of the Five 
Hundred. Pisistratus is said to have been 
the first to introduce a law for the mainte- 
nance of those persons who had been muti- 
lated in war. 

ADVOCA'TUS, seems originally to have 
signified any person, who gave another his aid 
in any affair or business, as a witness for in- 
stance ; or for the purpose of aiding and pro- 
tecting him in taking possession of a piece of 
property. It was also used to express a person 
who in any way gave his advice and aid to 
another in the management of a cause ; but 
the word did not signify the orator or patronus 
who made the speech in the time of Cicero 
Under the emperors it signified a person who 
in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause, 
and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The 
advocate's fee was then called Honorarium. 
A'DYTUM. [TEMPLUM.] 
AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.] 
AEDI'LES CAyopavo/uoi). The name of 
these functionaries is said to be derived from 
their having the care of the temple (aedes) of 
Ceres. The aediles were originally two in 
number ; they were elected from the plebs, 
and the institution of the office dates from 
the same time as that of the tribunes of the 
plebs, B. c. 494. Their duties at first seem 
to have been merely ministerial ; they were 
the assistants of the tribunes in such matters 
as the tribunes entrusted to them, among 
which are enumerated the hearing of causes 
of smaller importance. At an early period 
after their institution (B. c. 446), we find them 
appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, 
which the consuls had hitherto arbitrarily 
suppressed or altered. They were also the 
keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions 
were gradually entrusted to them, and it is 
not always easy to distinguish their duties 
from some of those which belong to the cen- 
sors. They had the general superintendence 
of buildings, both sacred and private ; under 
this power they provided for the support and 
repair of temples, curiae, &c., and took care 
that private buildings,which were in a ruinous 
state were repaired by the owners or pulled 
down. The care of the streets and pave- 
ments, with the cleansing and draining of the 
city, belonged to the aediles , and, of course, 
the care of the cloacae. They had the office 
of distributing corn among the plebs, but this 
distribution of corn at Rome must not be con- 



AEDILES. 

founded with the duty of purchasing or pro- 
curing it from foreign parts, which was per- 
formed b> the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, 
and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, 
as the praefectus annonae. 

The aediles had to see that the public lands 
were not improperly used, and that the pas- 
ture grounds of the state were not trespassed 
on ; and they had power to punish by fine any 
unlawful act in this respect. They had a 
general superintendence over buying and sel- 
ling, and, as a consequence, the supervision 
of the markets, of things exposed to sale, 
such as slaves, and of weights and measures ; 
from this part of their duty is derived the 
name under which the aediles are mentioned 
by the Greek writers (ayopavo/Aoi). It was 
their business to see that no new deities or 
religious rites were introduced into the city, 
to look after the observance of religious cere- 
monies, and the celebration of the ancient 
feasts and festivals. The general superinten- 
dence of police comprehended the duty of 
preserving order, regard to decency, and the 
inspection of the baths and houses of enter- 
tainment. The aediles had various officers 
under them, as praecones, scribae, and via- 
tores. 

The AEDILES CURULES, who were also 
two in number, were originally chosen only 
from the patricians, afterwards alternately 
from the patricians and the plebs, and at last 
indifferently from both. The office of curule 
aediles was instituted B. c. 365, and, accord- 
ing to Livy, on the occasion of the plebeian 
aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the 
Ludi Maximi for the space of four days in- 
stead of three ; upon which a senatus-con- 
sultum was passed, by which two aediles 
were to be chosen from the patricians. From 
this time four aediles, two plebeian and two 
curule, were annually elected. The distinc- 
tive honours of the curule aediles were, the 
sella curulis, from whence their title is de- 
rived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speak- 
ing in the senate, and the jus imaginis. The 
curule aediles only had the jus edicendi. or 
the right of promulgating edicta but the 
rules comprised in their edicta sened for the 
guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of 
the curule aediles were founded on their au- 
thority as superintendents of the markets, 
and of buying and selling in general. Ac- 
cordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps 
solely, reference to the rules as to buying and 
selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. 
The persons both of the plebeian and curule 
aediles were sacrosancti. 

It seems that after the appointment of the 
curule aediles, the functions formerly exer- 



AEDILES. 

cised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, 
with some few exceptions, by all the aediles 
indifferently. Within rive days after being 
elected, or entering on office, they were re- 
quired to determine by lot, or by agreement 
among themselves, what parts of the city 
each should take under his superintendence ; 
and each aedile alone had the care of looking 
alter the paving and cleansing of the streets, 
and other matters, it may be presumed, of the 
same local character within his district. The 
other duties of the office seem to have been 
exercised by them jointly. 

In the superintendence of the public festi 
vals or solemnities, there was a further dis 
tinction between the two sets of aediles 
Many of these festivals, such as those pj 
Flora and Ceres, were superintended b- 
either set of aediles indifferently ; but th( 
plebeian games were under the superinten 
dence of the plebeian aediles, who had a: 
allowance of money for that purpose; ant 
the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others 
seem to have been appropriated to these 
among other public purposes. The celebra- 
tion of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the 
Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, 
and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially 
to the curule aediles, and it was on such oc- 
casions that they often incurred a prodigious 
expense, with a view of pleasing the people, 
and securing their votes in future elections. 
This extravagant expenditure of the aediles 
arose after the close of the second Punic war, 
and increased with the opportunities which 
individuals had of enriching themselves after 
the Roman arms were carried into Greece, 
Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of 
the emperors hardly surpassed that of indi- 
vidual curule aediles under the republic; 
such as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cor- 
nelius Lentulus Spinther, and, above all, M. 
Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was 
not limited to bare show, but comprehended 
objects of public utility, as the reparation of 
walls, dock-yards, port's, and aqueducts. 

In B. c. 45, Julius Caasar caused two curule 
aediles and four plebeian aediles to be elect 
ed ; and thenceforward, at least so long as the 
office of aedile was of any importance, six 
aediles were annually elected. The two new 
plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and 
their duty was to look after a supply of corn. 
Though their office may not have been of any 
great importance after the institution of a 
praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no 
doubt that it existed for several centuries, and 
at least as late as the time of the emperoi 
Gordian. 

The aediles belonged to the class of th? 



AEDILES. 

minores magistratus. The plebeian aediles 
were originally chosen at the cornitia centu- 
riata, but afterwards at the comitia tributa, 
in which cornitia the curule aediles also 
were chosen. It appears that until the lex 
annalis was passed (B. c. 180) a Roman citi- 
zen might be a candidate for any office after 
completing his twenty-seventh year. This 
law fixed the age at which each office might 
be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed 
for the aedileship was thirty-seven. 

The aediles existed under the emperors ; 
but their powers were gradually diminished, 
and their functions exercised by new officers 
created by the emperors. After the battle of 
Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus 
urbi, who exercised the general police, which 
had formerly been one of the duties of the 
aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, 
or exercised himself, the office of superin- 
tending the religious rites, and the banishing 
from the city of all foreign ceremonials ; he 
also assumed the superintendence of the tem- 
ples, and thus may be said to have destroyed 
the aedileship by depriving it of its old and 
original function. The last recorded instance 
of the splendours of the aedileship is the ad- 
ministration of Agrippa, who volunteered to 
take the office, and repaired all the public 
buildings and all the roads at his own ex- 
pense, without drawing anything from the 
treasury. The aedileship had, however, lost 
its true character before this time. Agrippa 




AEGIS. & 

had already been consul before be accepted 
the office of aedile, and his munificent expen- 
diture in this nominal office was the close of 
the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus 
appointed the curule aediles specially to the 
office of putting out fires, and placed a body 
of 600 slaves at their command ; but the prae 
fecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty 
They retained, under the early emperors, a 
kind of police, for the purpose of repressing 
open licentiousness and disorder. The colo- 
niae, and the municipia of the later period, 
had also their aediles, whose numbers and 
functions varied in different places. They 
seem, however, as to their powers and duties, 
to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They 
were chosen annually. 

AEDI'TUI, AEDI'TUMI, -AEDITIMI 
(called by the Greeks veuitopoi, t^dicopot, and 
vTro&Kopoi), were persons who took care of 
the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, 
&c. They appear to have lived in the tem- 
ples, or near them, and to have acted as cice- 
roni to those persons who wished to see 
them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the 
menial services connected with this office 
were left to slaves, and the persons called 
neocori became priestly officers of high rank, 
who had the chief superintendence of tem- 
ples, their treasures, and the sacred rites ob 
served in them. 

AEGIS (A/yt'f) signifies, literally, a goat- 
skin. 




Tbe Aegia u worn by Athena (Minerva). 



JO 



AERA. 



According to ancient mythology, the aegis 
worn by Jupiter was the hide of the goat Amal- 
theia, which had suckled him in his infancy. 
Homer always represents it as part of the 
armour of Jupiter, whom on this account he 
distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing 
(aiyioxos). He, however, asserts, that it was 
borrowed on different occasions, both by 
Apollo and Minerva. 

The aegis was connected with the shield 
of Jupiter, either serving as a covering over it, 
or as a belt by which it was suspended from 
the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses 
the word to denote not only the goat-skin, 
which it properly signified, but also the 
shield to which it belonged. 

The aegis was adorned in a style corre- 
sponding to the might and majesty of the 
father of the gods. In the middle of it was 
fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its 
border was surrounded with golden tassels 
(Ovaavoi), each of which was worth a heca- 
tomb. 

The aegis is usually seen on the statues of 
Minerva, in which it is a sort of scarf falling 
jbliquely over the right shoulder, so as to 
pass round the body under the left arm. The 
serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred 
,o the border of the skin. (See the left-hand 
figure in the cut.) The later poets and ar- 
tists represent the aegis as a breastplate cov- 
ered with metal in the form of scales. (See 
the right-hand figure.) 

AENEATO'RES, were those who blew 
upon wind instruments in the Roman arrny ; 
namely, the buccinatores, comtctnev, and tubi- 
cines. They were also employed in the pub- 
lic games. 

AEOLIP'YL^E (uio'Aov irvTiac) were, ac- 
cording to the description of Vitruvius, hol- 
low vessels made of brass, which were used 
in explaining the origin. &c. of the winds. 
These vessels, which had a very small orifice, 
were filled with water and placed on the fire, 
by which, of course, steam was created. 

AERA, a point of time from which subse- 
quent or preceding years may be counted. 
The Greeks had no common aera till a com- 
paratively late period. 

The Athenians reckoned their years by the 
name of the chief archon of each year, whence 
he was called archon eponymus (up^uv eTru- 
vvnog) ; the Lacedaemonians by one of the 
ephors, and the Argives by the chief priestess 
of Juno, who held her office for life. 

The following aeras were adopted in later 
times: 1. the aera of the Trojan war (B.C. 
1184), which was first made use of by Eratos- 
ihenes. 2. the Olympic aera, which began 
B. c. 776, 3. the Philippic or Alexandrian 



AERARIUM. 

aera, which began B. c. 323. 4. the aera of 
the Seleucidae, which began in the autumn 
of B. c. 312. 5. the aeras of Antioch, of which 
there were three, but the one in most com 
mon use began in November, B. c. 49. 

The Romans reckoned their years from the 
foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), in the 
time of Augustus and subsequently ; but in 
earlier times the years were reckoned by the 
names of the consuls. We also find traces of 
an aera from the banishment of the kings ; 
and of another from the taking of the city by 
the Gauls. The date of the foundation of 
Rome is given differently by different authors. 
That which is most commonly followed is 
the one given by Varro, which corresponds to 
B. c. 753. It must be observed, that 753 A. u. c. 
is the first year before, and 754 A. u. c. the 
first year after the Christian aera. To find 
out the year B. c. corresponding to the year 
A. u. c., subtract the year A. u. c. from 754 ; 
thus, 605 A. u. c.=:149 B. o. To find out the 
year A. D., corresponding to the year A. u. c., 
subtract 753 from the year A. u. c. ; thus, 767 

A. U. C.= 14 A. D. 

- AERA'RII, those citizens of Rome who 
did not enjoy the perfect franchise, i. e. those 
who corresponded to the isoteles and atimi at 
Athens. The name is a regular adjective 
formed from aes (bronze), and its application 
to this particular class is due to the circum- 
stance that, as the aerarii were protected by 
the state without being bound to military ser- 
vice, they naturally had to pay the aes militare, 
which was thus originally a charge on them. 
The persons who constituted this class were 
either the inhabitants of other towns which 
had a relation of isopolity with Rome (the in- 
quilini), or clients and the descendants of 
freedmen. The decemvirs enrolled in the 
tribes all who were aerarians at that time: 
and when the tribes comprised the whole na- 
tion, the degradation of a citizen to the rank 
of an aeranan (which was called atrarium fa- 
cere ', referre aliquem in aerarios ; 01 in tabulas 
Caeritum referri jubere), might be practised in 
the case of a patrician as well as of a plebeian. 
Hence, .aerarians came to be used as a term 
of reproach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii, 
see TRIBUNUS. 

AERA'RlUM,the public treasury at Rome. 
After the banishment of the kings, the temple 
of Saturn was used as the place for keeping 
the public treasure, and it continued to be so 
till the later times of the empire. Besides 
the public money, the standards of the le- 
gions were deposited in the aerarium, and 
also all decrees of the senate were entered 
there in books kept for the purpose. 

The aerarium was divided into two parts ! 



AES. 

the common treasury, in which were deposited 
the regular taxes, and which was made use 
of to meet the ordinary expenditure of the 
8tate ; and the sacred treasury (aerarium sanc- 
tum, sanctius), which was never touched ex 
cept in cases of extreme peril. The twen- 
tieth part of the value of every slave who was 
enfranchised, and some part of the plunder of 
conquered nations, were deposited in the sa- 
cred treasury. Augustus established a sep- 
arate treasury under the name of aerarium 
militare, to provide for the pay and support of 
the army ; and he imposed several new taxes 
for that purpose. 

The aerarium, the public treasury, must be 
distinguished from thefiscus, the treasury of 
the emperors. [Fiscus.] 

The charge of the treasury was originally 
entrusted to the quaestors and their assistants, 
the tribuni aerarii ; but in B. c. 49, when no 
quaestors were elected, it was transferred to 
the aediles, in whose care it appears to have 
been till B. c. 28, when Augustus gave it to 
the praetors, or those who had been praetors. 
Various changes were made by the early em- 
perors, as to the charge of the aerarium, but 
it was eventually entrusted to officers, called 
praefects, who appear to have held their office 
lor two years. 

AERUSCATO'RES, were vagrants who 
obtained their living by fortune-telling and 
begging. They were called by the Greeks 
ayvprat. 

AES (j^aA/coc), properly signifies a com- 
pound ot copper and tin, corresponding to 
what we call bronze. It is incorrect to trans- 
late it brass, which is a combination of cop- 
per and zinc, since all the specimens, of an- 
cient objects, formed of the material called 
aes, are found upon analysis to contain no 
zinc. 

The employment of aes was very general 
among the ancients ; money, vases, and uten- 
sils of all sorts, being made of it. All the 
most ancient coins in Rome and the old Ital- 
ian states were made of aes, and hence mo- 
ney in general was called by this name. For 
the same reason we have aes alienum, mean- 
ing debt, and aera in the plural, pay to the 
soldiers. The Romans had no other coinage 
except bronze or copper (aes), till B. c. 269, 
five years before the first Punic war, when 
silver was first coined ; gold was not coined 
till sixty-two years after silver. 

The first coinage of aes is usually attributed 
to Servius Tullius, who is said to have stamp- 
ed the money with the image of cattle (pecus), 
whence it is called pecunia. According to 
some accounts, it was coined from the com- 
nencement of the city, and we know that the 



AES UXOR1UM. U 

old Italian states possessed a bronze or cop- 
per coinage from the earliest times. 

The first coinage was the as [As], which 
originally was a pound weight ; but as in 
course of time the weight of the as was re- 
duced not only in Rome, but in the other Ital- 
ian states, and this reduction of weight was 
not uniform in the different states, it became 
usual in all bargains to pay the asses accord- 
ing to their weight, and not according to their 
nominal value. The aes grave was not the old 
heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter 
modern ; but it signified any number of copper 
coins reckoned according to the old style, by 
weight. There was, therefore, no occasion 
for the state to suppress the circulation of 
the old copper coins, since in all bargains 
the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by 
weight. 

Bronze or copper (^;aA/c6c) was very little 
used by the Greeks for money in early times. 
Silver was originally the universal currency, 
and copper appears to have been seldom coin- 
ed till after the time of Alexander the Great. 
The copper coin was called Chalcous (%a^- 
/covf). The smallest silver coin at Athens 
was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous was 
the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In 
later times, the obol was coined of copperas 
well as silver. 

AES CIRCUMFORA'NEUM, money 
borrowed from the Roman bankers (argenta- 
rii), who had shops in porticoes round the 
forum. 

AES EQTTESTRE, the sum of money 
given by the Roman state for the purchase of 
the knight's horse. This sum amounted to 
10,000 asses. 

AES HORDEA'RIUM, or HORDIA'- 
RIUM, the sum of money paid yearly for 
the keep of a knight's horse ; in other words, 
a knight's pay. This suui, which amounted to 
2000 asses for each horse, was charged upon 
the rich widows and orphans, on the princi- 
ple that, in a military state, the women and 
children ought to contribute largely for those 
who fought in behalf of them and the com- 
monwealth. 

AES MILITA'RE. [AERARII.] 

AES MANUA'RIUMwas the money won 
in playing with dice, manibus collectum. Ma- 
nus was the throw in the game. All who 
threw certain numbers were obliged to put 
down a piece of money ; and whoever threw 
the Venus (the highest throw) won the whole 
sum, which was called the aes manuarium. 

AES UXO'RIUM, was a tax paid by per 
sons who lived as bachelors. It was first 
imposed by the censors in B. c. 403. Various 
penalties were imposed by Augustus 



i AGASO. 

nose who lived in a state of celibacy, and 
.avantages granted to those who were mar- 
ried and had children. [Lex JULIA ET PAPIA 
POPPAEA.] 

AESYMNE'TES (Aftnyn^Tft), a person 
who was sometimes invested with unlimited 
power in the Greek states. His power par- 
took in some degree of the nature both of 
kingly and tyrannical authority ; since he was 
appointed legally, and did not usurp the gov- 
ernment, but at the same time was not bound 
by any laws in his public administration. 
The office was not hereditary, nor was it held 
for life ; but it only continued for a limited 
time, or till some object was accomplished. 
Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene 
appointed Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to 
prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other 
exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dic- 
tatorship of Rome. In some states, such as 
Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne 
by the regular magistrates. 

AFFI'NES, AFFI'NITAS, or ADFI'NES, 
ADFI'NITAS. Affines are the cognati [Coo- 
NATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the 
husband becoming the affines of the wife, and 
the cognati of the wife the affines of the hus- 
band. The father of a husband is the socer of 
the husband's wife, and the father of a wife 
is the socer of the wife's husband. The term 
socrus expresses the same affinity with respect 
to the husband's and wife's mothers. A son's 
wife is nurus, or daughter-in-law to the son's 
parents ; a wife's husband is gener, or son-in- 
law to the wife's parents. 

Thus the avus, avia pater, mater of the 
wife became by the marriage respectively the 
socer magnus, prosocrus, or socrus magna socer, 
socrus of the husband, who becomes with 
respect to them severally progener and gener. 
In like manner the corresponding ancestors 
of the husband respectively assume the same 
names with respect to the son's wife, who 
becomes with respect to them pronurus and 
nurus. The son and daughter of a husband 
or wife born of a prior marriage are called 
privignus and privigna, with respect to their 
step-father or step-mother ; and with respect 
to such children the step-father and step-mo- 
ther are severally called vitricus and noverca. 
The husband's brother becomes levir with re- 
spect to the wife, and his sister becomes glos 
(the Greek ya/U>f). Marriage was unlawful 
among persons who had become such affines 
as above mentioned. 

AGALMA (dyaA/za), is a general name for 
a statue or image to represent a god. 

AGA'SO, a groom, whose business it was 
to take care of the horses. The word is also 
used for a driver of beasts of burdei and is 



AGER PUBLICTJS. 

sometimes applied to a slave who had to per* 
form the lowest mental duties. 

AGATHOERGI (' AyafloepyoO- In time 
of war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard 
of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan 
youths (/TTTretf), of whom the five eldest re- 
tired every year, and were employed for one 
year under the name of Agathoergi, in missions 
to foreign states. 

AGE'MA (ayr)(j.a fromdyw), the name of a 
chosen body of troops in the Macedonian 
army, usually consisting of horsemen. 

AGER PU'BLICUS, the public land, was 
the land belonging to the Roman state. It 
was a recognised principle among the Italian 
nations that the territory of a conquered peo- 
ple belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly, 
the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh 
territory by the conquest of the surrounding 
people. The land thus acquired was usually 
disposed of in the following way. 1. The land 
which was under cultivation was either dis- 
tributed among colonists, who were sent to 
occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to 
farm. 2. The land which was then out of 
cultivation, and which, owing to war, was by 
far the greater part, might be occupied by 
any of the Roman citizens on the payment of 
a portion of the yearly produce ; a tenth of 
the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the 
produce of the land planted with the vine, the 
olive, and other valuable trees. 3. The land 
which had previously served as the common 
pasture land of the conquered state, or was 
suitable for the purpose, continued to be used 
as pasture land for the use of the Roman cit- 
izens, who had, however, to pay a certain 
sum of money for the cattle which they turn- 
ed upon the land. 

The occupation of the public land spoken 
of above under the second head was always 
expressed by the words possessio and possidere, 
and the occupier of the land was called the 
possessor. The land continued to be the pro- 
perty of the state ; and accordingly we must 
distinguish between the terms possessio, 
which merely indicated the use or enjoyment 
of the land, and dominium, which expressed 
ownership, and was applied to private land, 
of which a man had the absolute ownership. 
The right of occupying the public land be- 
longed only to citizens, and consequently only 
to the patricians originally, as they were the 
state. The plebeians were only subjects, 
and consequently had no right to the property 
of the state ; but it is probable that they were 
permitted to feed their cattle on the public 
pasture lands. Even when the plebeians be- 
came a separate estate by the constitution of 
Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right 



AGER PUBLICUS. 

to share in the possession of the public land, 
which continued to be the exclusive privilege 
of the patricians ; but as a compensation, each 
individual plebeian received an assignment of 
a certain quantity of the public land as his own 
property. Henceforth the possession of the 
public land was the privilege of the patricians, 
and an assignment of a portion of it the priv- 
ilege of the plebeians. As the state acquired 
new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought 
to have received assignments of part of them ; 
but since the patricians were the governing 
body, they generally refused to make any such 
assignment, and continued to keep the whole 
as part of the ager publicus, whereby the en- 
joyment of it belonged to them alone. -Hence, 
we constantly read of the plebeians claiming, 
and sometimes enforcing, a division of such 
.and. 

With the extension of the conquests of 
Rome, the ager publicus constantly increased, 
and thus a large portion of Italy fell into the 
hands of the patricians ; who frequently with- 
held from the state the annual payments of a 
tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to 
pay for the possession of the land, and thus 
deprived the state of a fund for the expenses 
of the war. In addition to which they used 
slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since 
freemen were liable to be drawn off from field- 
labour to military service, arid slave-labour 
was consequently far cheaper. In this way 
the number of free labourers diminished, and 
that of slaves was augmented. 

To remedy this state of things several laws 
were from time to time proposed and carried, 
which were most violently opposed by the 
patricians. All laws which related to the 
public land, are called by the general title of 
Leges Agrariae, and accordingly all the early 
laws relating to the possession of the public 
land by the patricians, and to the assignment 
of portions of it to the plebeians, were strictly 
agrarian laws ; but the first law to which this 
name is usually applied, was proposed soon 
after the establishment of the republic by the 
consul Sp. Cassius in B. c. 486. Its object 
was to set apart the portion of the public land 
which the patricians were to possess, to di- 
vide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the 
payment due for the possession, and to apply 
it to paying the army. The first law, how- 
ever, which really deprived the patricians of 
the advantages they had previously enjoyed 
in the occupation of the public land was the 
agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B. c. 366), 
which limited each individual's possession of 
public land to 500 jugera, and declared that 
no individual should have above 100 large and 
500 smaller cattle on the public pastures : it 
B 



AGONOTHETAtf. i< 

farther enacted that the surplus land was to 
be dividea among the plebeians. As this law, 
however,was soon disregarded, it was revived 
again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B. c. 133), 
with some alterations and additions. The de- 
tails of the other agrarian laws, mentioned in 
Roman history, are given under the name of 
the lex by which they are called. [LEX.] 

AGGER (^(j//a), from ad and gero, was 
used in general for a heap or mound of any 
kind. It was more particularly applied : 

1. To a mound, usually composed of earth, 
which was raised round a besieged town, and 
which was gradually increased in breadth 
and height, till it equalled or overtopped the 
walls. The agger was sometimes made not 
only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c. ; 
whence we read of the agger being set on fire. 

2. To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman 
encampment, composed of the earth dug from 
the ditch (fossa), which was usually 9 feet 
broad and 7 feet deep ; but if any attack was 
apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 
feet and the breadth to 13 feet. Sharp stakes, 
&c. were usually fixed upon the agger,which 
was then called vallum. When both words are 
used, the agger means the mound of earth, 
and the vallum the stakes, &c. which were 
fixed upon the agger. 

AGITATO'RES. [CIRCUS.] 

AGMEN, the marching order of the Roman 
army. The form of the army on march dif- 
fered according to circumstances and the na- 
ture of the ground. An agmen pilalum was an 
army in close array ; an agmen quadratum was 
an army arranged in the form of a square, with 
the baggage in the middle. 

AGNA'TI. [COGNATI.] 

AGNO'MEN! [NoMEN.] 

AGONA'LIA or AGO'NIA, a Roman festi- 
val instituted by Numa Pompilius, in honour 
of Janus, and celebrated on the 9th of Janu- 
ary, the 20th of May, and the 10th of Decem- 
ber. The morning of these festivals, or, at 
least, the morning of the 10th of December, 
was considered a dies nefastus. The etymo- 
logy of this name was differently explained by 
the ancients ; some derived it from Agonius, 
a surname of Janus ; some from the word 
agone, because the attendant, whose duty it 
wars to sacrifice the victim, could not do so till 
he had asked the rex sacrificulus, Agone ? and 
others from agonia, because the victims were 
formerly called by that name. 

AGONO'THETAE (fauvodtrai), persons 
in the Grecian games, who decided disputes, 
and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Origi- 
nally, the person who instituted the contest, 
and offered the prize, was the Agonothetes, and 
this continued to be the practic* \n thos* 



14 



AGORANOMI. 



games which were instituted by kings or pri- 
vate persons. But in the great public games, 
such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the Agono- 
thetae were either the representatives of dif- 
ferent states, as the Amphictyons at the 
Pythian games, or were chosen from the 
people in whose country the games were 
celebrated. During the flourishing times of 
fhe Grecian republics, the Eleans were the 
Agonothetae in the Olympic games, the Corin- 
thians in the Isthmian games, the Amphic- 
tyons in the Pythian games, and the Corin- 
thians, Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae in 
the Nernean games. The Agonothetae were 
also called Aesymnetae (alav/LtviJTai), Agonar- 
chae (ay&waprai), Agonodicae (ayuvodtKai), 
Athlothetae (uOXodsTat), Rhabduchi (pa/3dov- 
%oi), or Rhabdonomi (pa[3dov6/J.oi, from the 
staff' they carried as an emblem of authority), 
Brabeis (Spafletg), Brabeutae (dpaflevrai). 

A'GORA (dvopd) properly means an assem- 
bly of any kind, and is usually employed by 
Homer to designate the general assembly of 
the people. The Agora seems to have been 
considered an essential part of the constitution 
of the early Grecian states. It was usually 
convoked by the king, but occasionally by 
some distinguished chieftain, as, for example, 
by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied 
the most important seat in these assemblies, 
and near him sat the nobles, while the people 
stood or sat in a circle around them. The 
people appear to have had no right of speak- 
ing or voting in these assemblies, but merely 
to have been called together to hear what had 
been already agreed upon in the council of 
the nobles, and to express their feelings as a 
oody. The council of the nobles is called 
Boule((3ov2,ij) zndThodcus (0dw/coc), and some- 
times even Agora. 

Among the Athenians, the proper name 
for the assembly of the people was Ecdesia 
(iKKhrjaia), and among the Dorians Halia 
(d/Ua). The term Agora was confined at 
Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and 
demi. 

The name Agora was early transferred from 
the assembly itself to the place in which the 
assembly was held ; and thus it came to be 
used fof the market-place, where goods of all 
descriptions were bought and sold. The ex- 
pression agora plethousa (dyopd Trhijdovaa), 
" full market," was used to signify the time 
from morning to noon, that is, from about 
nine to twelve o'clock. 

AGORA'NOMI (a-yopavofioi), public func- 
tionaries in most 01 the Grecian states,whose 
duties corresponded in many respects with 
those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their 
number was ten, five for the city, and five 



AGROTERAS THUSIA. 

for the Peiraeeus, and they were chosen 
by lot. 

The principal duty of the Agoranomi was, 
as their name imports, to inspect the market, 
and to see that all the laws respecting its 
regulation were properly observed. They 
had the inspection of all things that were sold 
in the market, with the exception of corn, 
which was subject to the jurisdiction of 
special officers, called Sitophylaces 



c). 
R 



AGRARIAN LAWS. [AGER PUBLICUS ; 
LEX.] 

AGRAU'LIA (dypc^ua), was a festival 
celebrated by the Athenians in honour of 
Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was 
perhaps connected with the solemn oath, 
which all Athenians, when they arrived at 
manhood (t+q8ot\ were obliged to take in 
the temple of Agraulos, that they would fight 
for their country, and always observe its 
laws. 

AGRIMENSO'RES, or " land surveyors," 
a college established under the Roman em- 
perors. Like the jurisconsults, they had 
regular schools, and were paid handsome 
salaries by the state. Their business was to 
measure unassigned lands for the state, and 
ordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fix 
and maintain boundaries. Their writings on 
the subject of their art were very numerous ; 
and we have still scientific treatises on the law 
of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus and 
Hyginus. 

AGRIO'NIA ('Aypjva), a festival which 
was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in 
honour of Bacchus, surnamed Agrionius. A 
human being used originally to be sacrificed 
at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have 
been avoided in later times. One instance, 
however, occurred in the days of Plutarch. 

AGRO'NOMI (cLjpov6fj.oC), the country-po- 
lice, probably in Attica, whose duties corre- 
sponded in most respects to those of the asty 
nomi in the city, and who appear to have per- 
formed nearly the same duties as the hylori 
(vhupot). 

AGRO'TERAS THU'SIA ('Ayporepaf 
f)vaia), a festival celebrated every year at 
'Athens in honour of Diana, surnamed Agro- 
tera (from dypa, the chase). It was solemn- 
ized on the sixth of the month of Boedromion, 
and consisted in a sacrifice of 500 goats, which 
continued to be offered in the time of Xeno- 
phon. Its origin is thus related : When the 
Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made 
a vow to sacrifice to Artemis (Diana) Agrotera 
as many goats as there should be enemies slain 
at Marathon. But when the number of ene- 
mies slain was so great that an equal nu,mbflr 



ALAUDA. 

of goats could not be found at once, the Ath- 
enians decreed that 500 should be sacrificed 
every year. 

AISUMNE'TES (olov^r^f), an individ- 
ual, who was sometimes invested with unlim- 
ited power by the Greek states. His power, 
according to Aristotle, partook in some degree 
of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical 
authority, since he was appointed legally, and 
did not usurp the government, but at the same 
time was not bound by any laws in his public 
administration. The office was not heredita- 
ry, nor was it held for life, but it only contin- 
ued for a certain time, or until some particu- 
lar object was accomplished. Dionysius com- 
pares it with the dictatorship of the Romans. 

ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM, a ves- 
sel or pot used for containing perfumes, or 
rather ointments, made of that species of 
marble which mineralogists call gypsum, and 
which is usually designated by the name of 
alabaster. When varieties of colour occur in 
the same stone, and are disposed in bands or 
horizontal strata, it is often called onyx ala- 
baster ; and when dispersed irregularly, as if 
in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabns- 
ter. The term seems to have been employed 
to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, 
even when they were not made of the material 
from which it is supposed they originally re- 
ceived their name. Theocritus thus speaks 
of golden alabastra. These vessels were of 
a tapering shape, and very often had a long 
narrow neck, which was sealed ; so that when 
Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. 
Mark to break the alabaster box of ointment 
for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it 
appears probable that she only broke the ex- 
tremity of the neck, which was thus closed. 

ALA, ALA'RII. The troops of the allies 
in the Roman army were called Aiarii, because 
they were usually stationed on the two wings 
(alae), and each of these two divisions of the 
allied troops was called an Ala. The alarii 
consisted both of horse and foot soldiers, and 
were commanded by praefecti, in the same 
manner as the legions were commanded by 
tribuni. The cavalry of the allies was called 
equites alarii, to distinguish them from the 
cavalry of trie legions (equites legionarii), and 
the infantry was called cohortes alariae, to dis- 
tinguish them from the cohortes legionariae. 
Under the empire the word Ala was applied 
to a regiment of cavalry, which usually con- 
sisted of 500 men. 

ALAUDA, the name of a legion which 
Caesar levied in Cisalpine Gaul, and organ- 
ized at his own expense during his Gallic 
wars. He afterwards gave the Roman citizen- 
ship to the soldiers of this legion. The soldiers 



AL1PTAE. 



15 



themselves were also called Alaudae, whence 
Cicero speaks of the legio Alaudarum and of 
Alaudae ceterique veterani. The legion was 
called Alauda or " lark," from the form of the 
crests which the soldiers wore on their 
helmets. 

ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which 
the praetor's edicts, and the rules relating to 
actions and interdicts, were written. The 
tablet was put in a public place, in order that 
all the world might have notice of its contents. 
According to some authorities, the album was 
so called, because it was either a white mate- 
rial, or a material whitened, and of course the 
writing would be a different colour. Accord- 
ing to other authorities, it was so called be 
cause the writing was in white letters. 

Probably the word album originally meant 
any tablet containing anything of a public na- 
ture. We know that it was, in course of time, 
used to signify a list of any public body ; thus 
we find album judicum, or the body out of which 
judices were to be chosen [JuDEx], and album 
senatorium, or list of senators. 

A'LEA, gaming, or playing at a game of 
chance of any kind. Hence aleo, aleator, a 
gamester, a gambler. Playing with tali, or 
tesserae, was generally understood, because 
this was by far the most common game of 
chance among the Romans. 

Gaming was forbidden by the Roman laws, 
both during the times of the republic and 
under the emperors, but was tolerated in the 
month of December at the Saturnalia, which 
was a period of general relaxation ; and old 
men were allowed to amuse themselves in this 
manner at all times. 

AL1PTAE (afolTTTai), among the Greeks, 
were persons who anointed the bodies of the 
athletae preparatory to their entering the pa- 
laestra. The chief object of this anointing 
was to close the pores of the body, in order 
to prevent much perspiration, and the weak- 
ness consequent thereon. The athleta was 
again anointed after the contest, in order to 
restore the tone of the strained muscles. He 
then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and oil 
scraped off his body, by means of an instru- 
ment similar to the strigil of the Romans, and 
called stlengis (or/ley Tif) an ^ afterwards xys- 
tra (Zvarpa). The aliptae took advantage of 
the knowledge they necessarily acquired of 
the state of the muscles of the athletae, and 
their general strength or weakness of body, 
to advise them as to their exercises and 
mode of life. They were thus a kind of medi- 
cal trainers. 

Among the Romans, the aliptae were slaves 
who scrubbed and anointed their masters in 
the baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae 



16 AMBITUS. 

appear to have attended to their masters' con- 
stitution and mode of life. They were also 
called unctores. They used in their operations 
a kind of scraper called strigil, towels (lintea), 
a cruise of oil (guttus), which was usually of 
horn, a bottle (ampulla), and a small vessel 
called lenticula. 

ALLIES of the Romans. [Soon.] 

ALTARS. [ARA.] 

ALTA'RE. [ARA.] 

ALU'TA. [CALCEUS.] 

ALYTAE ('A/lvraO, persons whose busi- 
ness it was to keep order in the public games. 
They received their orders from an alytarches 
(uhvTdpxqc), who was himself under the di- 
rection of the agonothetae, or hellanodicae. 

AMANUENSIS, or AD MANUM SER- 
VUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it 
was to write letters and other things under 
his master's direction. 

The amanuenses must not be confounded 
with another sort of slaves, also called ad ma- 
num servi, who were always kept ready to be 
employed in any business. 

AMARY'NTHIA, or AMARY'SIA ('A^a- 
pvvOia or 'Afiapvaia), a festival of Artemis 
(Diana) Amarynthia. or Amarysia, celebrated 
as it seems, originally at Amarynthus in Eu- 
boea, with extraordinary splendour, but also 
solemnized in several places in Attica, such as 
Athmone. 

AMBARVA'LIA. [ARAVALES FRATRES.] 

AMBASSADORS. [LEGATUS.] 

A'MBITUS, which literally signifies "a 
going about," cannot, perhaps, be more nearly 
expressed than by our word canvassing. After 
the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, 
and when the whole body of the citizens had 
become very greatly increased, we frequently 
read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts 
which it was necessary for candidates to make 
in order to secure the votes of the citizens. 
At Rome, as in every community into which 
the element of popular election enters, solici- 
tation of votes, and open or secret influence 
and bribery, were among the means by which 
a candidate secured his election to the offices 
of state. The following are the principal terms 
occurring in the Roman writers in relation to 
the canvassing for the public offices : A can- 
didate was called petitor and his opponent 
with reference to him competitor. A candidate 
(candidatus) was so called from his appearing 
in public places, such as the fora and Campus 
Martius, before his fellow citizens, in a 
whitened toga. On such occasions the can- 
didate was attended by his friends (deductores), 
or followed by the poorer citizens (sectatores), 
who could in no other manner show their 
good will or give their assistance. The word 



AMBITUS. 

| assiduitas expressed both the continual pres- 
: ence of the candidate at Rome and his con- 
| tinual solicitations. The candidate, in going 
I his rounds or taking his walk, was accom 
panied by a nomenclator, who gave him the 
names of such persons as he might meet ; the 
candidate was thus enabled to address them 
by their name, an indirect compliment, which 
could not fail to be generally gratifying to the 
electors. The candidate accompanied his ad- 
dress with a shake of the hand (prensatio). 
The term benignitas comprehended generally 
any kind of treating, as shows, feasts, &c. 

The ambitus, which was the object of sev- 
eral penal enactments, taken as a generic 
term, comprehended the two species, ambi- 
tus and largitiones (bribery). Liberalitas and 
benignitas are opposed by Cicero, as things 
allowable, to ambitus and largitio, as things 
illegal. Money was paid for votes ; and in 
order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, 
persons called interpretes were employed to 
make the bargain, sequestres to hold the mo- 
ney till it was to be paid, and divisores to dis- 
tribute it. The offence of ambitus was a mat- 
ter which belonged to the judicia publica, and 
the enactments against it were numerous. 
One of the earliest, though not the earliest of 
all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia (B. c. 181) was 
specially directed against largitiones. The 
Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B. c. 159) punished the 
offence with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpur- 
nia (B. c. 67) imposed a fine on the offending 
party, with exclusion from the senate and all 
public offices. The Lex Tullia (B. c. 63), 
passed in the consulship of Cicero, in addition 
to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted ten 
years' exsilium on the offender ; and, among 
other things, forbade a person to exhibit gladi- 
atorial shows (gladiatores dare) within any 
two years in which he was a candidate, un- 
less he was required to do so, on a fixed day, 
by a testator's will. Two years afterwards, 
the Lex Aufidia was passed, by which, among 
other things, it was provided that, if a candi- 
date promised (pronuntiavit) money to a tribe, 
and did not pay it, he should be unpunished ; 
but, if he did pay the money, he should fur- 
ther pay to each tribe (annually ?) 3000 sester- 
ces as long as he lived. This enactment oc- 
casioned the witticisms of Cicero, who said 
that Clodius observed this law by anticipa- 
tion ; for he promised, but did not pay. The 
Lex Licinia (B. c. 58) was specially directed 
against the offence of sodalitium, or the whole- 
sale bribery of a tribe by gifts and treating ; 
and another lex, passed (B. c. 52), when Pom 
pey was sole consul, had for its object the es 
tablishment of a speedier course of proceed 
ing on trials for ambitus All these enact 



AMENTUM. 

merits failed in completely accomplishing 
their object. That which no law could sup- 
press, so long as the old popular forms re- 
tained any of their pristine vigour, was ac- 
complished by the imperial usurpation. Cae- 
sar, when dictator, nominated half the candi- 
dates for public offices, except the candidates 
for the consulship, and notified his pleasure 
to the tribes by a civil circular ; the populus 
chose the other half: and Tiberius transfer- 
red the elections from the comitia to the sen- 
ate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its 
proper sense, entirely disappeared. 

The trials for ambitus were numerous in the 
time of the republic. The oration of Cicero 
in defence of L. Murena, who was charged 
with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. 
Plancius, who was charged with sodalitium, 
are both extant. 

AMBRp'SIA (tipppoata), the food of the 
gods, which conferred upon them eternal 
youth and immortality, and was brought to 
Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by 
the gods for anointing their body and hair; 
whence we read of the ambrosial locks of 
Jupiter. 

AMBUBAIAE (probably from the Syriac, 
abub, aubub, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls, 
who frequented chiefly the circus at Rome, 
and obtained their living by prostitution and 
lascivious songs and dances. 

AMBU'RBIUM, a sacrifice which was per- 
formed at Rome for the purification of the 
city. 

AMICTUS. The verb amicire is commonly 
opposed to induere, the former being applied 
to the putting on of the outer -garment, the 
pallium, laena, or toga (faaTioy, 0apoc) ; the 
latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, 
the tunic (%ir&v). In consequence of this 
distinction, the verbal nouns amictus and in- 
dutus, even without any farther denomination 
of the dress being added, indicate respectively 
the outer and inner clothing. 

In Greek amicire is expressed by 
a6ai, ujUTrexecrdai, tTrttfahfaodai, 
faaSai : and induere by ivSvveiv. Hence 
came d/iTre^ov?/, 7Ti'/?/l7?//a, and e7u/36/leuov, 
TTKpi!37(,r)fj.a, and 7repi(3dAaiov, an outer gar- 
ment, a cloak, a shawl ; and vdv(j,a, an inner 
garment, a tunic, a shirt. 

AMENTUM, a leathern tl^ng tied to the 
middle of the spear, to assist in throwing it. 
We are not informed how the amentum added 
to the effect of throwing the lance ; perhaps 
it was by giving it rotation; and hence a 
greater degree of steadiness and directness in 
its flight, as in the case of a ball shot from a 
rifle gun. This supposition accounts for the 
frequent use of the verb torquere, to whirl or 
B2 



AMPHICTYONES. 



17 



twist, in connection with this subject. The 
amentum was called ancule(ayKv^.r]) in Greek, 
and the verb evayKvhdu was used in reference 
to the fastening of the thong to the spear or 
javelin. 

In the annexed figure the amentum seems 
to be attached to the spear at the centre oi 
gravity, a little above the middle. 




AMMA (ufifia), a Greek measure of length, 
equal to forty Tnfaetf (cubits), or sixty irodeq 
(feet) ; that is, twenty yards 8 . 1 inches Eng- 
lish. It was used in measuring land. 

AMPHI'CTYONES ('A/*0eri;we?). In- 
stitutions called amphictyonic appear to have 
existed in Greece from time immemorial. 
They seem to have been originally associa- 
tions of neighbouring tribes, formed for the 
regulation of mutual intercourse and the pro- 
tection of a common temple or sanctuary, at 
which the representatives of the different 
members met, both to transact business and 
to celebrate religious rites and games. One 
of these associations was of much greater im- 
portance than all the rest, and was called by 
way of eminence, the Amphictyonic League o> 



18 



AMPHICTYONES. 



Council ('Afj,<j>iKTVovia). It differed from oth- ] 
er similar associations in having two places ; 
of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities ; 
which were the temple of Demeter (Ceres), in 
a village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where 
the deputies met in autumn ; and that of : 
Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in ' 
spring. Its connexion with the latter place \ 
not only contributed to its dignity, but also to ; 
its permanence. 

Its early history is involved in obscurity. 
Most of the ancients suppose it to have been 
founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion 
and Pyrrha, from whom they imagined that 
it derived its name : but this opinion is desti- 
tute of all foundation, and arose from the ' 
ancients assigning the establishment of their 
institutions to some mythical hero. There ; 
can be little doubt as to the true etymology of 
the word. It was originally written uju^iKTi- \ 
ovef, and consequently signified those that 
dwelt around some particular locality. Its j 
institution, however, is clearly of remote an- i 
tiquity. It was originally composed of twelve ; 
tribes (not cities or states, it must be observed), 
each of which tribes contained various inde- ; 
pendent cities or states. We learn from Aes- 
chines that, in B. c. 343, eleven of these tribes 
were as follows : The Thessalians, Boeotians 
(not Thebans only), Dorians, lonians, Per- 
rhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or 
Oenianians, Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, 
Malians, and Phocians ; other lists leave us 
in doubt whether the remaining tribe were 
the Dolopes or Delphians ; but as the Del- 
phians could hardly be called a distinct tribe, 
their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, 
it seems probable that the Dolopes were ori- 
ginally members, and afterwards supplanted 
by the Delphians. All the states belonging 
to each of these tribes were on a footing of 
perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no ad- 
vantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two 
small towns in Doris : and Athens, an Ionic 
city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, 
and Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic 
cities. 

The ordinary council was called Pylaea 
vhaia), from its meeting in the neighbour- 



hood of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the same 
name was given to the session at Delphi as 
well as to that at Thermopylae. The coun- 
cil was composed of two classes of represen- 
tatives, one called Pylagorae (Tlvhayopcu), 
and the other Hieromnemones ('lepofj.i'ij/j.ove^). 
Athens sent three Pylagorae and one Hie- 
romnemon ; of whom the former were elected 
apparently for each session, and the latter by 
lot probably for a longer period. Respecting 
the relative duties of the Pylagorae and Hie- 



romnemones we have little information : the 
name of the latter implies that they had a 
more immediate connexion with the temple. 
We are equally in the dark respecting the 
numbers who sat in the council and its mode 
of proceeding. It would seem that all the 
deputies had seats in the council, and took 
part in its deliberations ; but if it be true, as 
appears from Aeschines, that each of the 
tribes had only two votes, it is clear that all 
the deputies could not have voted. 

In addition to the ordinary council, there 
was an ecclesia (eKK^Tjma), or general assem- 
bly, including not only the classes above men- 
tioned, but also those who had joined in the 
sacrifices, arid were consulting the god. It 
was convened on extraordinary occasions by 
the chairman of the council. 

Of the duties of the Arnphictyons nothing 
will give us a clearer view than the oath they 
took, which was as follows : " They would 
destroy no city of the Arnphictyons, nor cut 
off their streams in war or peace ; and if any 
should do so, they would march against him, 
and destroy his cities ; and should any pillage 
the property of the god, or be privy to or plan 
anything against what was in his temple (at 
Delphi), they would take vengeance on him 
with hand and foot, and voice, and all their 
might." From this oath we see that the main 
duty of the deputies was the preservation of 
the rights and dignity of the temple of Delphi. 
We know, too, that after it was burnt down 
(B. c. 548), they contracted with the Alcmae- 
onidae for the rebuilding. History, moreo- 
ver, teaches that if the council produced any 
palpable effects, it was from their interest in 
Delphi ; and though it kept up a standing re- 
cord of what ought to have been the interna- 
tional law of Greece, it sometimes acquiesced 
in, and at other times was a party to, the 
most iniquitous acts. Of this the case of 
Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the 
Gulf of Corinth, near Delphi, and was much 
frequented by pilgrims from the West. The 
Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians 
with undue exactions from these strangers. 
The council was against them, as guilty of a 
wrong against the god. The war lasted ten 
years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the 
waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then 
poisoned, and turned again into the city. The 
besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon 
razed to the ground ; and thus, if it were an 
Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly 
violated. Its territory the rich Cirrhaean 
plain was consecrated to the god, and cur- 
ses imprecated upon whomsoever should 
til! or dwell in it. Thus ended the First 
Sacred War (B. c. 585), in which the Athf 



AMPH1CTYONES. 

nians were the instraments of Delphian ven- 
geance. 

The second, or Phocian War (B. c. 350), 
was the most important, in which the Am- 
phictyons were concerned; and in this the 
Thebans availed themselves of the sanction 
of the council to take vengeance on their en- 
emies, the Phocians. To do this, however, 
it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, 
who readily proclaimed himself the champion 
of Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own 
ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B. c. 
346), and the council decreed that all their 
cities, except Abae, should be razed, and the 
inhabitants dispersed in villages not contain- 
ing more than fifty persons. Their two votes 
were given to Philip, who thereby gained a 
pretext for interfering with the affairs of 
Greece ; and also obtained the recognition 
of his subjects as Hellenes. 

The Third Sacred War arose from the Am- 
phissians tilling the devoted Cirrhaean plain. 
The Amphictyons called in the assistance of 
Philip, who soon reduced the Amphissians to 
subjection. Their submission was immedi- 
ately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia 
(B. c. 338), and the extinction of the indepen- 
dence of Greece. In the following year, a 
congress of the Amphictyonic states was held, 
in which war was declared as if by united 
Greece against Persia, and Philip elected 
commander-in- chief. On this occasion the 
Amphictyons assumed the character of na- 
tional representatives as ol old, when they set 
a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his trea- 
son to Greece at Thermopylae. 

It has been sufficiently shown that the Am- 
phictyons themselves did not observe the 
oaths they took ; and that they did not much 
alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what 
they had sworn to do, is proved by many in- 
stances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was 
destroyed by Argos (B. c. 535), Thespiae and 
Plataea by Thebes, and Thebes herself swept 
from the face of the earth by Alexander, with- 
out the Amphictyons raising one word in op- 
oosition. Indeed, a few years before the Pel- 
uponnesian war, the council was a passive 
spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sa- 
cred War (6 tepof 7rd/lf//of), when the Lace- 
daemonians made an expedition to Delphi, 
and put the temple into the hands of the Del- 
phians, the Athenians, after their departure, 
restoring it to the Phocians. The council is 
rarely mentioned after the time of Philip. 
We are told that Augustus wished his new 
city, Nicopolis (A. D. 31), to be enrolled among 
the members. Pausanias, in the second cen- 
tury o f our era, mentions it as still existing, 
but deprived of al! power and influence. 



AMPHITHEA 'RUM. 



19 



AMPHIDRO'MIA ('Apy Ipofiia or Apo/j- 
idftQiov ijfj-ap], a family festivu' of the Athe- 
nians, at which the newly-born child was in- 
troduced into the family, and received its 
name. The friends and relations of the pa- 
rents were invited to the festival of the am- 
phidromia, which was held in the evening, 
and they generally appeared with presents. 
The house was decorated on the outside with 
olive branches when the child was a boy, or 
with garlands of wool when the child was a 
girl ; and a repast was prepared for the guests. 
The child was carried round the fire by the 
nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the 
gods of the house and to the family, and at 
the same time received its name, to which 
the guests were witnesses. The carrying of 
the child round the hearth was the principal 
part of the solemnity, from which its name 
was derived. 

AMPHITHEA'TRUM, an amphitheatre, 
was a place for the exhibition of public shows 
of combatants and wild beasts, entirely sur- 
rounded by seats for the spectators ; where- 
as, in those for dramatic performances, the 
seats were arranged in a semicircle facing the 
stage. An amphitheatre is therefore fre- 
quently described as a double theatre, con- 
sisting of two such semicircles, or halves, 
joined together, the spaces allotted to their 
orchestras becoming the inner inclosure, or 
area, termed the arena. The form, however, 
of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, 
but invariably an ellipse. 

Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild 
beasts (venationes) were first exhibited in the 
forum and the circus ; and it appears that the 
ancient custom was still preserved till the 
time of Julius Caesar. The first building in 
the form of an amphitheatre is said to have 
been erected by M. Scribonius Curio, one of 
Caesar's partisans ; but the account which is 
given of this building sounds rather fabulous. 
It is said to have consisted of two wooden 
theatres made to revolve on pivots, in such a 
manner that they could, by means of wind- 
lasses and machinery, be turned round face 
to face, so as to form one building. Soon 
after Caesar himself erected a real amphithe- 
atre in the Campus Martius, made of wood ; 
to which building the name of amphitheatrum 
was for the first time given. 

The first stone amphitheatre was built by 
Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at 
the desire of Augustus. This was the only 
stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time of 
Vespasian. One was commenced by Calig- 
ula, but was not continued by Claudius. The 
one erected by Nero in the Campus Martius 
was only a temporary building, made of wowV 



20 



AMPHITHEATRUM. 



Th? amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was 
burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero ; 
and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespa- 
sian commenced the celebrated Amphitheatrum 
Flavianum in the middle of the city, in the 
valley between the Cnclian, the Esquiline, 
and the Velia, on the spot originally occupied 
by the lake or large pond attached to Nero's 
palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. 
It was dedicated by Titus in A. D. 80, but was 
not completely finished till the reign of Do- 
mitian. This immense edifice, which is even 
yet comparatively entire, covered about five 
acres of ground, and was capable of contain- 
ing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at 
the present day the Colosseum. 

The interior of an amphitheatre was divi- 
decr into three parts, the arena, podium, and 
gradus. The clear open space in the centre of 
the amphitheatre was called the arena, be- 
cause it was covered with sand, or sawdust, 
to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and 
to absorb the blood. The size of the arena 
was not always the same in proportion to the 
size of the amphitheatre, but its average pro- 
portion was one third of the shorter diameter 
of the building. 

The arena was surrounded by a wall dis- 
tinguished by the name of podium ; although 
such appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to 
merely the upper part of it, forming the par- 
apet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost 
seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, 
therefore, was no more than an open oval 
court, surrounded by a wall about eighteen 
feet high, measuring from the ground to the 
top of the parapet ; a height considered ne- 
cessary, in order to render the spectators 
perfectly secure from the attacks of wild 
beasts. There, were four principal entrances 
leading into the arena ; two at the ends of 
each axis or diameter of it, to which as many 
passages led directly from the exterior of 
the building; besides secondary ones, inter- 
vening between them, and communicating 
with the corridors beneath the seats on the 
podium. 

The wall or enclosure of the arena is sup- 
posed to have been faced with marble, more 
or less sumptuous ; besides which, there ap- 
pears to have been, in some instances at least, 
a sort of network affixed to the top of the po- 
dium, consisting of railing-, or rather open 
trellis-work of metal. As a farther defence, 
iitches, called euripi, sometimes surrounded 
the arena. 

The term podium was also applied to the 
terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above 
the arena, which was no wider than to be ca- 
pable of containing two, or at the most three 



ranges of movable seats, or chairs. This 
as being by far the best situation for distinctly 
viewing the sports in the arena, and also more 
commodiously accessible than the seats high- 
er up, was the place set apart for senators and 
other persons of distinction, such as the am- 
bassadors of foreign parts ; and it was here, 
also, that the emperor himself used to sit, in 
an elevated place, called suggestus or cubicu- 
lum, and likewise the person who exhibited 
the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or 
tribunal (editoris tribunal). 

Above the podium were the gradus, or seats 
of the other spectators, which were divided 
into macniana, or storie.s. The first maenianum, 
consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble 
seats, was appropriated to the equestrian or- 
der. The seats appropriated to the senators 
and equites were covered with cushions, 
which were first used in the time of Caligula. 
Then, after an interval or space, termed a 
praecinctio, and forming a continued landing- 
place from the several staircases in it, suc- 
ceeded the second maenianum, where were 
the seats called popularia, for the third class 
of spectators, or the populus. Behind this 
was the second praecinctio, bounded by a 
rather high wall ; above which was the third 
maenianum, where there were only wooden 
benches for the pullati, or common people. 
The next and last division, namely, that in 
the highest part of the building, consisted of 
a colonnade, or gallery, where females were 
allowed to witness the spectacles of the am- 
phitheatre, some parts of which were also oc- 
cupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was 
not only divided from the other by the prae- 
cinctio, but was intersected at intervals by 
spaces for passages left between the seats, 
called scalae, or scalaria ; and the portion be- 
tween two such passages was called cuneus, 
because the space gradually widened like a 
wedge, from the podium to the top of the 
building. The entrances to the seats from 
the outer portices were called vomitoria. At 
the very summit was the narrow platform for 
the men who had to attend to the velarium, or 
awning, by which the building was covered 
as a defence against the sun and rain. The 
velarium appears usually to have been made 
of wood, but more costly materials were some- 
times employed. 

The first of the following cuts represents a 
longitudinal section of the Flavian amphithe- 
atre, and the second, which is on a larger 
scale, a part of the above section, including 
the exterior wall, and the seats included be- 
tween that and the arena. It will serve to 
convey an idea of the leading form and gen- 
eral disposition of the interior. 



AMPHITHEATRUM. 




Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre. 




Eleration of one side of the preceding section. 



EXPLANATION. 

A, The arena. 

/>, The wall or podium inclosing it. 

p, The podium itself, on which were chairs, 
or seats, for the senators, &c. 

M', The first maenianum, or slope of benches, 
for the .equestrian order. 

M", The second maenianum. 

M"', The third maenianum, elevated consid- 
erably above the preceding one, and appro- 
priated to the pullati. 

w, The colonnade, or gallery, which con- 
tained seats for women. 

z, The narrow gallery round the summit of 
the interior, for the attendants who worked 
the velarium. 

pr, pr, The praecinctiones, or landings, at the 
top of the first and second maenianum ; in 
the pavement of which were grated aper- 
tures, at intervals, to admit light into the 
vornitoria beneath them. 

v v v v, Vornitoria. 

G G G, The three external galleries through 



the circumference of the building, open to 

the arcades of the exterior. 
gg, Inner gallery. 

The situation and arrangement of the stair 
cases, &c., are not expressed, as they could 
not be rendered intelligible without plans at 
various levels of the building. 

For an account of the gladiatorial contests, 
and the shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the 
amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES and VENA- 
TIO. 

A'MPHORA (anQopevc;), a vessel used for 
holding wine, oil, honey, &c. 

The following cut represents amphorae in 
the Bntish Museum. They are of various 
forms and sizes ; in general they are tall and 
narrow, with a small neck, and a handle oti 




Amphorae. 

each side of the neck (whence the name, from 
u/utii, on both sides, and <j)spu, to carry), and 
terminating at the bottom in a point, which 



22 AMPLIATIO. 

was let into a stand or stuck in the ground, 
so that the vessel stood upright : several am- 
phorae have been found in this position in the 
cellars at Pompeii. Amphorae were com- 
monly made of earthenware. Homer mentions 
amphorae of gold and stone, and the Egypt- 
ians had them of brass; glass vessels of this 
form have been found at Pompeii. 

The most common use of the amphora, both 
among the Greeks and the Romans, was for 
keeping wine. The cork was covered with 
pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans) on 
the outside the title of the wine was painted, 
the date of the vintage being marked by the 
names of the consuls then in office ; or, when 
the jars were of glass, little tickets (pittoria, 
tesserae) were suspended from them, indicating 
these particulars. 



ANACR1SIS. 




Mode of filling Amphorae from a Wine-Cart. 

The Greek amphoreus and the Roman am- 
phora were also names of fixed measures. The 
amphoreus, which was also called metretes 
(fiETptfTTjc), and cadus (/cddof), was equal to 
three Roman urnae= 8 gallons, 7.365 pints, 
imperial measure. The Roman amphora was 
two-thirds of the amphoreus, and was equal 
to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7.577 
pints ; its solid content was exactly a Roman 
cubic foot. 

AMPLIA'TIO, an adjournment of a trial, 
which took place when the judices, after 
hearing the evidence of the advocates, were 
unable to corne to a satisfactory conclusion. 
This they expressed by giving in the tablets, 
on which were the letters N.L. (non liquet), 
and the praetor, by pronouncing the word am- 
plius, thereupon adjourned the trial to any day 
ne chose. The defendant and the cause were 
then said ampliari. 



AMPYX (U/HTTV^ ufj.7TVKT^p, Lai. frontale), 
a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal, which 
ladies of rank wore above the forehead as part 
of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was 
called by the same name. The annexed cut 
exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, 
in contrast with the corresponding ornament 
as shown on the heads of two females. 




Ampyces, Krontlets. 

AMPULLA (hjJKvQo?, (3onf3v?itoc),a bottle, 
usually made among the Romans^ either of 
glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable 
materials. The dealer in bottles was called 
ampullarius. 

AMULE'TUM (TrepiaTTTov, 7repiafj,/j,a, <j>v- 
TiaKTTJpiov), an amulet. 

This word in Arabic (hamalet) means that 
which is suspended. It was probably brought 
by Arabian merchants, together with the arti- 
cles to which it was applied, when they were 
imported into Europe from the East. 

An amulet was any object a stone, a plant, 
an artificial production, or a piece of writing 
which was suspended from the neck, or 
tied to any part of the body, for the purpose 
of warding off calamities and securing advan- 
tages of any kind. Faith in the virtues ot 
amulets was almost universal in the ancient 
world, so that the whole art of medicine con- 
sisted in a very considerable degree of direct- 
ions for their application. 

ANACEIA ('KvuKeia, or 'AvaKeiov), a fes 
tival of the Dioscuri or Anactes ("Ava/cref) as 
they were called at Athens. These heroes, 
however, received the most distinguished hon- 
ours in the Dorian and Achaean states, where 
it may he supposed that every town celebrated 
a festival in their honour, though not under 
the name of Anaceia. 

ANA'CRISIS (avuKpiaic). an examination, 
was used to signify the pleadings preparatory 
to a trial at Athens, the object of which waa 



ANC1LE. 

to determine, generally, if the action would 
lie. The magistrates were said avaKpiveiv 
TJJV 6tKi]v or TOVS avriditiovg, and the parties 
avaKpiveoOat. The process consisted in the 
production of proofs, of which there were five 
kinds: 1. the laws ; 2. written documents ; 

3. testimonies of witnesses present (/j.apTvpiat,') . 
or affidavits of absent witnesses (K/j,apTvpiai)', 

4. depositions of slaves extorted by the rack ; 

5. the oath of the parties. All these proofs 
were committed to writing, and placed in a 
box secured by a seal (^ZVoc) till they were 
produced at the trial. 

If the evidence produced at the anacrisis 
was so clear and convincing that there could 
not remain any doubt, the magistrate could 
decide the question without sending the cause 
to be tried before the dicasts : this was called 
diamartyria (diafiaprvpla). The archons were 
the proper officers for holding the anacrisis ; 
they are represented by Athena (Minerva), in 
the Eumenides of Aeschylus, where there is 
a poetical sketch, of the process in the law 
courts. 

For an account of the anacrisis or examina- 
tion,which each archon underwent previously 
to entering on office, see ARCHON. 

ANAGNOSTES, slaves, whose duty it 
was to read or repeat passages from books 
during an entertainment, and also at other 
times. 

ANATOCISMUS. [FENUS.] 

ANCHOR. [ANCORA.] 

ANCI'LE, the sacred shield carried by the 
Salii, and made of bronze. 

The original ancile was found, according to 
tradition, in the palace of Nurna ; and, as no 



ANCORA. 



23 



j the Roman state would endure so long as this 
shield remained in Rome. To secure its pres- 
ervation in the city, Numa ordered eleven 
other shields, exactly like it, to be made by 
the armourer, Mamurius Veturius, and twelve- 
priests of MarsGradivus were appointed under 
the denomination of Salii, whose office it was 
to preserve the twelve ancilia. They were 
kept in the temple of that divinity, on the 
Palatine mount, and were taken from it only 
once a year, on the calends of March. The 
feast of the god was then observed during 
several days ; when the Salii carried their 
shields about the city, singing songs in praise 
of Mars, Numa, and Mamurius Veturius, and 
at the same time performing a dance, which 
probably in some degree resembled our morris 
dances, and in which they struck the shields 
with rods, so as to keep time with their voices, 
and with the movements of their dance. The 
preceding cut shows one of these rods, as 
represented on the tomb of a pontifex salius, or 
chief of the Salii. 
A'NCORA (ajKvpa), an anchor. 
The anchor used by the ancients was for the 
most part made of iron, and its form resembled 
that of the modern anchor. The shape of the 
two extremities illustrates the unco morsu and 
dente tenaci of Virgil. Indeed, the Greek and 




Ancilia carried by Salii. 

numan hand had brought it there, it was con- 
cluded that it had been sent from heaven. At 
the same time, the haruspices declared that 




Latin names themselves express the essential 
property of the anchor being allied to ay/cii/lof, 
uyKUV, angulus, uncus, &C. 

The anchor as here represented and as com- 
monly used, was called bidens, dnr^rj, a^L- 
/?o/lof or ufjt(j)iffTOfiof, because it had two teeth 
or flukes. Sometimes it had one only, and 
then it had the epithet erepocrro/zof. The fol- 
lowing expressions were used for the three 
principal processes in managing the anchor : 
Ancoram solvere, ayitvpav xaXuv, to loose the 
anchor. Ancoram jacere, ftdTOieiv, ptTrreiv, to 
cast anchor. Ancoram tollere, aipeiv, uvatpel- 
cdat, uvd(7Traa6at, to weigh anchor. Hence 
alpeiv by itself meant to set sail, aynvpav be- 
ing understood. 

The anchor usually lay on the deck, and was 



24 ANNULUS. 

attached to a cable (funis), which passed 
through a hole in the prow, termed oculus. 




Galley with the Cable to which the Anchor is attached passing 
through the Oculus in the Prow. 

In the heroic times of Greece we find large 
stones, called evvai (sleepers), used instead 
of anchors. 

ANDABATA. [GLADIATOR.] 

ANDROLEPS'IA or ANDROLEPS'ION 
(aydpohrj^ia or uv6po%,iJTJ.>Lov), the right of re- 
prisals, a custom recognized by the interna- 
tional law of the Greeks, that, when a citizen 
of one state had killed a citizen of another, 
and the countrymen of the former would not 
surrender him to the relatives of the deceased, 
it should be lawful to seize upon three, and 
not more, of the countrymen of the offender, 
and keep them as hostages till satisfaction 
was afforded, or the homicide given up. 

ANGUSTICLA'VII. [CLAVUS.] 

ANNO'NA (from annus, like pomona from 
pomum). 1. The produce of the year in corn, 
fruit, wine, &c., and hence, 2. Provisions in 
general, especially the corn, which, in the later 
years of the republic, was collected in the 
storehouses of the state, and sold to the poor 
at a cheap rate in times of scarcity ; and which, 
under the emperors, was distributed to the 
people gratuitously, or given as pay and re- 
wards. 3. The price of provisions. 4. A 
soldier's allowance of provisions for a certain 
time. It is used also in the plural for yearly 
or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c. 

A'NNULUS (daKTMtotf, a ring. 

It is probable that the custom of wearing 
rings was introduced into Greece from Asia, 
where it appears to have been almost univer- 
sal. They were worn not merely as orna- 
ments, but as articles for use, as the ring al- 
ways served as a seal. A seal was called 
sphragis (aQpayie), and hence this name was 
given to the ring itself, and also to the gem 
or stone for a ring in which figures were en- 



ANQUISITIO. 

graved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn 
on the fourth finger (Trapu/ueao?). 

At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was be- 
lieved to have been introduced by the Sabines, 
whowere described in the early legends as wear- 
ing golden rings with precious stones of great 
beauty. But whenever introduced at Rome, 
it is certain that they were at first always of 
iron ; that they were destined for the same 
purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as 
seals ; and that every free Roman had a right 
to use such a ring. This iron ring was worn 
down to the last period of the republic by such 
men as loved the simplicity of the good old 
times. In the course of time, however, it 
became customary for all the senators, chief 
magistrates, and at last for the equites also, 
to wear a golden seal-ring. The right of wear- 
ing a gold ring,which was subsequently called 
the jus annuli aurei, or the jus annulorum, re- 
mained for several centuries at Rome the 
exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, 
and equites, while all other persons continued 
to wear iron ones. 

During the empire the right of granting the 
annulus aureus belonged to the emperors, and 
some of them were not very scrupulous in 
conferring this privilege. The emperors Se- 
verus and Aurelian conferred the right of 
wearing golden rings upon all Roman sol- 
diers ; and Justinian at length allowed all the 
citizens of the empire, whether ingenui or 
libertini, to wear such rings. 

During the republic, and the early times of 
the empire, the jus annuli seems to have made 
a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and 
to have raised him to the rank of eques, pro- 
vided he had the requisite equestrian census, 
and it was probably never granted to any one 
who did not possess this census. Those who 
"ost their property, or were found guilty of a 
criminal offence, lost the jus annuli. 

The signs engraved upon rings were very 
various : they were portraits of ancestors or of 
"riends, subjects connected with mythology ; 
and in many cases a person had engraved 
upon his seal symbolical allusion to the real 
or mythical history of his family. The part 
of the ring which contained the gem was 
called pala. 

With the increasing love of luxury nnd 
show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, 
covered their fingers with rings. Some per- 
sons also wore rings of immoderate size, and 
others used different rings for summer and 
winter. 

ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.] 
ANQUISI'TIO, signified, in criminal trials 
at Rome, the investigation of the facts of the 
case with reference to the penalty that was 



ANTAE. 

to he imposed : accordingly the phrases 
pecunia capitis, or capitis anquirere are used. 
Under the emperors the term anquisitio lost 
its original meaning, and was employed to 
indicate an accusation in general ; in which 
sense it also occurs even in the times jof the 
republic. 

ANTAE (Trapacrracfcf), square pillars, 
which were commonly joined to the side- 
walls of a building, being placed on each side 
of the door, so as to assist in forming the por- 
tico. These terms are seldom found except 
in the plural ; because the purpose served by 
antae required that they should be erected 
corresponding to each other, and supporting 
the extremities of the same roof. Their posi- 
tion and form will be best understood from 
the cut, in which A A are the antae. The 
temple in antis was one of the simplest kind. 
It had in front antae attached to the walls 
which inclosed the cella ; and in the middle, 
between the antae, two columns supporting 
the architrave. The following is a specimen 
of the temple in antis, together with a plan of 
the pronaos. 



ANTEF1XA. 



'25 





Temple in antis. 

A, A, the antae ; B, B, the cella or vaof ; o, the 
ittar. 

C 



ANTEAMBULO'NES, slaves who were 
accustomed to go before their masters, in 
order to make way for them through the crowd. 
The term anteambulones was also given to the 
clients, who were accustomed to walk before 
their patroni, when the latter appeared in 
public. 

ANTECESSO'RES, called also ANTE- 
CURSO'RES, horse-soldiers, who were ac- 
customed to precede an army on march, in 
order to choose a suitable place for the camp, 
and to make the necessary provisions for the 
army. They do not appear to have been 
merely scouts, like the speculatores. 

ANTEFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited 
various ornamental designs, and were used in 
architecture to cover the frieze (zophorus) of 
the entablature. 

These terra-cottas do not appear to have 
been used among the Greeks, but were prob- 
ably Etruscan in their origin, and were thence 
taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. 

The name antefixa is evidently derived from 
the circumstance that they were fixed before 
the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the 
censor, complained that the Romans of his 
time began to despise ornaments of this de- 
scription, and to prefer the marble friezes of 
Athens and Corinth. The rising taste which 
Cato deplored may account for the superior 
beauty of the antefixa preserved in the Brit- 
ish Museum, which were discovered at Rome. 







Antefixa representing Minerva superintending the constructing 
of the Ship Argo. 

The two imperfect antefixa that follow, are 
among those found at Velletn, and described 
by Carkmi. (Roma, 1785.) 



ANTENNA. 





ANTENNA, (Kepaia, icfyas), the yard of a 
ship. The ships of the ancients had a single 
mast in the middle, and a square sail, to raise 
and support which a transverse pole, or yard 
(antenna), was extended across the mast, not 
far from the top. To the two extremities of 
the yard (cornua, a/cpo/cepam), ropes (funes) 
were attached, which passed over the top of 
the mast, and thus supported the yard : these 
ropes were called ceruchi. Sometimes the 
yard had two, and at other times four ceruchi, 
as in the annexed cut. 




Antenna, Yard of a Ship. 

When a storm arose, or when the port was 
obtained, or before an engagement, the an- 
tenna was lowered to the middle of the 
mast. 

From numerous representations of ships on 
antique coins, intaglios, lamps, and bas-reliefs, 
we here select two gems, both of which show 



ANTLIA. 

the velata antenna, but with the sail reefed in 
the one, and in the other expanded and swol- 
len with the wind. 




Velata Antenna. 

ANTEPJLA'NI. [EXERCITUS.] 

ANTESIGNA'NI appear to have been a 
body of troops, selected for the defence of the 
standard (signum), before which they were 
stationed. They were not light troops, as 
some have supposed, and they were probably 
selected for this duty on occount of their bra- 
very and experience in war. 

ANTI'DOSIS (ftvr/<Jo<wf), in its literal and 
general meaning, " an exchange," was, in the 
language of the Attic courts, peculiarly ap- 
plied to proceedings under a law which is said 
to have originated with Solon. By this, a 
citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia, such 
as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among 
the property-tax payers, in a class dispropor- 
tioned to his means, was empowered to call 
upon any qualified person not so charged to 
take the office in his stead, or submit to a 
complete exchange of property, the charge in 
question of course attaching to the first party, 
if the exchange were finally effected. For the 
proceedings the courts were opened at a stated 
time every year by the magistrates that had 
official cognizance of the particular subject ; 
such as the strategi in cases of trierarchy and 
rating to the property-taxes, and the archon 
in those of choregia. 

ANTIGRAPHE (fonypaM), originally 
signified the writing put in by the defendant, 
his " plea " in all causes whether public or 
private, in answer to the indictment or bill ol 
the prosecutor. It is, however, also applied 
to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or 
accuser. 

A'NTLIA (avTJiia), any machine for rais- 
ing water, a pump. 

The most important of these machines 
were: 1. The tympanum; a tread- wheel, 
wrought by men treading on it. 2. A wheel 
having wooden boxes or buckets, so arranged 
as to form steps for those who trod the wheel. 
3. The chain pump. 4. The cochlea, or Ar- 
chimedes's screw. 5. The ctcsibica machina 



APATUR1A. 

or forcing pump. Criminals were condemned 
to the antlia or tread-mill. 

ANTYX (avrvf), the rim or border of any 
thing, especially of a shield or chariot. The 
rim of the large round shield of the ancient 
Greeks, was thinner than the part which it 
enclosed : but on the other hand, the antyx 
of a chariot must have been thicker than 
the body to which it gave both form and 
strength. 

In front of the chariot the antyx was often 
raised above the body, into the form of a cur- 
vature, which served the purpose of a hook 
to hang the reins upon. 




Antyx of a Chariot 

APAGO'GE (a-Ttayuyrf), a summary pro- 
cess, allowed in certain cases by the Athenian 
law. The term denotes not merely the act of 
apprehending a culprit caught in ipso facto, 
but also the written information delivered to 
the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The 
cases in which the apagogr was most generally 
allowed were those of theft, murder, ill-usage 
of parents, &c. 

APATU'RIA (uTTarovpta) was a political 
festival, which the Athenians had in common 
with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with 
the exception of those of Colophon and Ephe- 
sus. It was celebrated in the month of Py- 
anepsion, and lasted for three days. The 
name airarovpia is not derived from cnrardv, 
to deceive, but is composed of u=(ifj.a, and 
Trarvpia, which is perfectly consistent with 
what Xenophon says of the festival, that 
when it is celebrated the fathers and relations 
assemble together. According to this deri- 
vation, it is the festival at which the phratriae 
met to discuss and settle their own affairs. 
But, as every citizen was a member of a phra- 
tria, the festival extended over the whole na- 
tion, who assembled according to phratriae. 

The festival lasted three days. The third 



APHRACTUS. 27 

day was the most important ; for on that day, 
children born in that year, in the families of 
the phratriae, or such as were not yet regis- 
tered, were taken by their fathers, or in their 
absence by their representatives (nvpLoi), be- 
fore the assembled members of the phratria. 
For every child a sheep or a goat was sacri- 
ficed. The father, or he who supplied his 
place, was obliged to establish by oath that 
the child was the offspring of free-born pa- 
rents, and citizens of Athens. After the victim 
was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes, 
which they took from the altar of Jupiter 
Phratrius. When the majority voted against 
the reception, the cause might' be tried before 
one of the courts of Athens ; and if the claims 
of the child were found unobjectionable, its 
name, as well as that of the father, was en- 
tered into the register of the phratria, and 
those who had wished to effect the exclusion 
of the child were liable to be punished. 
APERTA NAVIS. [APHRACTUS.] 
APEX, a cap worn by the flamines and 
salii at Rome. The essential part of the 
apex, to which alone the name properly be- 
longed, was a pointed piece of olive-wood, 
the base of which was surrounded with a 
lock of wool. This was worn on the top of 
the head, and was held there either by fillets 
only, or, as was more commonly the case, by 
the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and 
was also fastened by means of two strings or 
bands. 




Apices, Caps worn by the Salii. 



APHRACTUS (fypaicTOf vovf), called 
also navis aperta, a ship which had no deck, 
but was merely covered with planks in the 
front and hinder part, as is represented in 



23 



APLUSTRE. 



APOSTOLEUS. 



the following cut. The ships which had 
decks were called cataphracti (itaTutypaKToi), 
and tectGE or strata. At the time of the Tro- 
jan war the Greek ships had no decks, but 
were only covered over in the prow and 
stern, which covering Homer calls the lupta 




Aphractus. 

APHRODFSI A ('A0po<ta7ta),were festivals 
celebrated in honour of Aphrodite (Venus), in 
a great number of towns in Greece, but partic- 
ularly in the island of Cyprus. Her most 
ancient temple was at Paphos. No bloody 
sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, 
but only pure fire, flowers, and incense. 

APLUSTRE (atyaarov), an ornament of 
wooden planks, which constituted the high- 
est part of the poop (prumnis) of a ship. From 
the representations of two ancient ships an- 
nexed, we see the position of the aplustre. 
It rose immediately behind the gubernator, 
who held the rudder and guided the ship, and 
it served in some degree to protect him from 
the wind and the rain. 




Aplustre. 

At the junction of the aplustre with the 
stern, on which it was based, we^ commonly 
observe an ornament resembling a circular 
shield ; this was called uamdelov or affTudi- 
CKIJ. It is seen on the two aplustria here 
repiesented. 




Aplustre. 

APODECTAE (anode/crai), public officers 
at Athens, who were introduced by Cleis- 
thenes in the place of the ancient colacretae 
(/CGj/Uz/eperaO- They were ten in number, 
one for each tribe, and their duty was to col- 
lect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute 
them among the separate branches of the ad- 
ministration which were entitled to them. 

APOGRAPHE (ttTToypa^), literally "a 
list, or register ;" signified also, 1. An accusa- 
tion in public matters, more particularly when 
there were several defendants. It differed but 
little, if at all, from the ordinary graphe. 2. 
A solemn protest or assertion before a magis- 
trate, to the intent that it might be preserved 
by him till it was required to be given in evi- 
dence. 3. A specification of property, said 
to belong to the state, but actually in the 
possession of a private person ; which speci- 
fication was made with a view to the confis- 
cation of such property to the state. 

APOLLINA'RES LUDI. [LuDi APOLLI- 

NARES.] 

APOPHORE'TA (u7ro06/w?ra) were pres- 
ents, which were given to friends at the end 
of an entertainment to take home with them. 
These presents appear to have been usually 
given on festival days, especially during the 
Saturnalia. 

APOSTOLEUS (uTroffrotavf), the name 
of a public officer at Athens. There were 
ten magistrates of this name and their duty 
was to see that the ships were properly equip- 
ped and provided by these who were bound 



APOTHEOSIS. 

to discharge the trierarchy. They had the 
power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the 
trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships 
properly. 

APOTHE'CA (dTrodtJKJ]), a place in the 
upper part of the house, in which the Ro- 
mans frequently placed the earthen amphorae 
in which their wines were deposited. This 
place, which was quite different from the cello, 
vinaria, was above ihefumarium ; since it was 
thought that the passage of the smoke through 
the room tended greatly to increase the fla- 
vour of the wine. 

APOTHEO'SIS (a7T00ewc7ic), the enrol- 
ment of a mortal among the gods. The my- 
thology of Greece contains numerous instan- 
ces of the deification of mortals ; but in the 
republican times of Greece we find few ex- 
amples of such deification. The inhabitants 
of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to 
Brasidas after his death. In the Greek king- 
doms, which arose in the East on the dis- 
memberment of the empire of Alexander, it 
appears to have been not uncommon for the 
successor to the throne to offer divine honours 
to the former sovereign. Such an apotheo- 
sis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described 
by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. 

The term apotheosis, among the Romans, 
properly signified the elevation of a deceased 
emperor to divine honours. This practice, 
which was common upon the death of almost 
all the emperors, appears to have arisen from 
the opinion which was generally entertained 
among the Romans, that the souls or manes 
of their ancestors became deities; and as it 
was common for children to worship the 
manes of their fathers, so it was natural for 
divine honours to be publicly paid to a de- 
ceased emperor, who was regarded as the 
parent of his country. This apotheosis of 
an emperor was usually called consecratio ; 
and the emperor who received the honour of 
an apotheosis was usually said in deorum 
numerum referri, or consecrari, and whenever 
he is spoken of after his death, the title of 
divus is prefixed to his name. The funeral 
pile on which the body of the deceased em- 
peror was burnt, was constructed of several 
stories in the form of chambers rising one 
above another, and in the highest an eagle 
was placed, which was let loose as the fire 
began to burn, and which was supposed to 
carry the soul of the emperor from earth to 
heaven. 

The following wood-cut is taken from an 
agate, which is supposed to represent the apo 
theosis of Germanicus. In his left hand he 
holds the cornucopia, and Victory is placing a 
laurel crown upon his head. 
c2 



APPELLATIO. 




APPA'RITOR, the general name for a pub- 
lic servant of the magistrates at Rome, namely 
the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTER- 
PRES, LICTOR, PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, 
VIATOR, of whom an account is given in sep- 
arate articles. They were called apparitores 
because they were at hand to execute the 
commands of the magistrates (quod Us appare- 
bant). Their service or attendance was called 
apparitio. 

APPELLA'TIO, appeal. 1. GREEK (tyeais 
or avadiKta). Owing to the constitution of 
the Athenian tribunals, each of which was 
generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects 
of cognizance, and therefore could not be con- 
sidered as homogeneous with or subordinate 
to any other, there was little opportunity for 
bringing appeals properly so called. It is to 
be observed also, that in general a cause was 
finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict 
of the dicasts (dint) avroTeZrjc)- There were 
only a few exceptions in which appeals and 
new trials might be resorted to. 

2. ROMAN. The word appellatio, and the 
corresponding verb appellare, are used in the 
early Roman writers to express the applica- 
tion of an individual to a magistrate, and par- 
ticularly to a tribune, in order to protect him- 
self from some wrong inflicted, or threatened 
to be inflicted. It is distinguished from pro- 
vocatio, which in the early writers is used to 
signify an appeal to the populus in a matter 
affecting life. It would seem that the provo- 
catio was an ancient right of the Roman citi- 
zens. The surviving Horatius,who murdered 
his sister, appealed from the duumviri to the 
populus. The decemviri took away the pro- 
vocatio ; but it was restored by the Lex Vale- 
ria et Horatia, B. c. 449, in the year after the 
decemvirate, and it was at the same time 



30 



AQUAE DUCTUS. 



enacted, that in future no magistrate should 
be made from whom theje should be no ap- 
peal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs 
were now protected by the provocatio and the 
tribuntcium auxilium ; this latter term has ref- 
erence to the appellatio properly so called. 
The complete phrase to express the provoca- 
tio is provocare ad populum ; and the phrase 
which expresses the appellatio is appellare 
ad, &c. 

AQUAE DUCTUS, signifies an artificial 
channel or watercourse, by which a supply of 
water is brought from a considerable distance, 
upon an inclined plane raised on arches, and 
carried across valleys and uneven country, and 
occasionally under ground, where hills or rocks 
intervene. 

As nearly all the ancient aquaeducts now 
remaining are of Roman construction, it has 
been generally imagined that works of this 
description were entirely unknown to the 
Greeks. This, however, is an error, since 
some are mentioned by Pausanias and others, 
though too briefly to enable us to judge of their 

E articular construction. Probably those which 
ave been recorded such as that built by 
Peisistratus at Athens, that at Megara, and 
the celebrated one of Polycrates at Samos 
were rather conduits than ranges of building 
like the Roman ones. Of the latter, few were 
constructed in the times of the republic. It 
was not until about B. c. 311, that any were 
erected, the inhabitants supplying themselves 
up to that time with water from the Tiber, or 
making use of cisterns or springs. The first 
aquaeduct was begun by App. Claudius the 
censor, and was named after him, the Aqua 
Appia. Subsequently seven or eight aquae- 
ducts were built, which brought an abundant 
supply of water to Rome. 

The specus, or water channel, was formed 
either of stone or brick coated with cement, 
and was arched over at top, in order to ex- 
clude the sun, on which account there were 
apertures or ventholes at certain distances. 
The water, however, besides flowing through 
the specus, passed also through pipes, either 
of lead or burnt earth (terra-cotta). At the 
mouth and termination of every aquaeduct 
there was a large reservoir, called castellum, 
and there were usually also intermediate cas- 
tella at certain distances along its course. The 
castellum at the mouth or opening into the 
aquaeduct was also called piscina lintosa, be- 
cause the water was collected in it, in order 
that it might first deposit its impurities. The 
principal castellum was that in which the 
aquaeduct terminated, and whence the water 
was conveyed by different branches and pipes 
to various parts of the city. 



ARA. 

During the times of the republic, the cen- 
sors and aediles had the superintendence of 
the aquaeducts ; but under the emperors par 
ticular officers were appointed for that pur- 
pose, under the title of curatores or praefecti 
aquarian. These officers were first created 
by Augustus, and were invested with con- 
siderable authority. In the time of Nerva and 
Trajan, about seven hundred architects and 
others were constantly employed, under the 
orders of the curatores aquarum, in attending 
to the aquaeducts. The oflicers who had 
charge of these works were, 1. The villici, 
whose duty it was to attend to the aquaeducts 
in their course to the city. 2. The castellarii, 
who had the superintendence of all the cas- 
tella both within and without the city. 3. 
The circuitores, so called because they had to 
go from post to post, to examine into the state 
of the works, and also to keep watch over 
the labourers employed upon them. 4. The 
silicarii, or paviours. 5. The tectores, or plas- 
terers. All these officers appear to have been 
included under the general term ofaquarii. 

AQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDI'CTIO. 

[EXSILIUM.] 

AQUA'RII, slaves who carried water for 
bathing, &c. into the female apartments. The 
aquarii were also public officers who attended 
to the aquaeducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] 

AQUEDUCT. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] 

A'QUILA. [SlGNA MlLITARIA.] 

ARA (/fo^of 6vTTJpiov), an altar. Ara was 
a general term denoting any structure elevated 
above the ground, and used to receive upon 
it offerings made to the gods. Altare, prob- 
ably contracted from alta ara, was properly re- 
stricted to the larger, higher, and more expen- 
sive structures. 

Four specimens of ancient altars are given 
below ; the two in the former wood-cut are 




square, and those in the latter round, which 
is the less common form. 

At the top of three of these altars we seo 
the hole intended to receive the fire (ka%a- 
pif, ffpa) : the fourth was probably in- 



A K AT RUM. 



31 



vended for the offering of fruits or other gifts, 
which were presented to the gods without 




Arae, Altars. 

fire. When the altars were prepared for sacri- 
fice, they were commonly decorated with gar- 
lands or festoons. These were composed of 
certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which 
were considered consecrated to such uses, 
and were called verbenae. 

The altars constructed with most labour 
and skill belonged to temples ; and they were 
erected either before the temple or within the 
cella of the temple, and principally before the 
statue of the divinity to whom it was dedi- 
cated. The altars in the area before the tem- 
ple were altars of burnt-offerings, at which 
animal sacrifices (victimae, crQdyia, lepeta) 
were presented : only incense was burnt, or 
cakes and bloodless sacrifices offered on the 
altars within the building. 

ARATRUM (aporpov), a plough. Among 
the Greek and Romans the three most essen- 
tial parts of the plough were the plough-tail 
(yv?7C, buris, bura), the share-beam (IAv/za, dens, 
dentate), that is, the piece of wood to which the 
share is fixed, and the pole (pv/j,6^, /<7ro/30t>c, 
temo). In the time and country of Virgil it was 
the custom to force a tree into the crooked 
form of the buris, or plough-tail. The upper 
end of the buris being held by the ploughman, 
the lower part, below its junction with the 
pole, was used to hold the dentale or share- 
beam, which was either sheathed with metal, 
or driven bare into the ground, according to 
circumstances. The term vomer was some- 
times applied to the end of the dentale. 

To these three parts the two following are 
added in the description of the plough by 
Virgil : 

1. The earth-boards, or mould-boards (aures), 
rising on each side, bending outwardly in such 
a manner as to throw on either hand the soil 
which had been previously loosened and raised 
by the share, and adjusted to the share-beam 



(dentale), which was made double for the pur- 
pose of receiving them. 

2. The handle (stiva). Virgil describes this 
part as used to turn the plough at the end of 
the furrow ; and it is defined by an ancient 
commentator on Virgil as the "handle by 
which the plough is directed." It is probable 
that as the dentalia, the two share-beams,were 
in the form of the Greek letter A, which Virgil 
describes byduplicidorso,ihe buris was fastened 
to the left share-beam and the stiva to the 
right, so that the plough of Virgil was more 
like the modern Lancashire plough, which is 
commonly held behind with both hands. 
Sometimes, however, the stiva was used 
alone and instead of the buris or tail. In 
place of stiva the term capulus is sometimes 
employed. 

The only other part of the plough requiring 
notice is the coulter (culler), which was used 
by the Romans as it is with us. It was in- 
serted into the pole so as to depend vertically 
before the share, cutting through the roots 
which came in its way, and thus preparing for 
the more complete overturning of the soil by 
the share. 

Two small wheels were also added to some 
ploughs. The annexed cut shows the form of an 
ancient wheel-plough. It also shows distinctly 
the temo or pole (1), the coulter (2), the dentale 
or share-beam (3), the buris or plough-tail (4), 




Aratrum, Plough. 

and the handle* or stiva (5). It corresponds 
in all essential particulars with the plough 
now used about Mantua and Venice, of which 
an engraving is given. (See following page.) 

The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed 
their land three times for each crop. The 
first ploughing was called proscindere, or no- 
vare (veovaOai, veu^eadai) ; the second nffrin- 
gere, or iterare ; and the third lirare, or tertiare. 
The field which underwent the " proscissio," 
was called vervactum or novale (ve6$ ), and in 
this process the coulter was employed, be- 



32 



ARCA. 



cause the fresh surface was entangled with 
numberless roots which required to be divided 




Aratrum, Plough. 

1. Buns. 2. Temo. 3. Dentale. 4. Culter. 
5. Vomer 6 6. Aures. 

before the soil could V e turned up by the share. 
The term " off ringer e" from ob and fr anger e, 
was applied to the second ploughing ; because 
the long parallel clods already turned up were 
broken and cut across, by drawing the plough 
through them at right angles to its former di- 
rection. The field which underwent this pro- 
cess was called ager iteratus. After the second 
ploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the 
clods were often, though not always, broken 
still further by a wooden mallet, or by har- 
rowing (occatio}. The Roman ploughman then, 
for the first time, attached the earth-boards to 
his share. The effect of this adjustment was 
to divide the level surface of the " ager itera- 
tus " into ridges. These were called porcae, 
and also lirae, whence came the verb lirare, to 
make ridges, and also delirare, to decline from 
the straight line. The earth-boards, by throw- 
ing the earth to each side in the manner al- 
ready explained, both covered the newly-scat- 
tered seed, and formed between the ridges 
furrows (enUa/cef, sulci) for carrying off the 
water. In this state the field was called seges 
and rpfTTO/loc. 

When the ancients ploughed three times 
only, it was done in the spring, summer, and 
autumn of the same year. But in order to 
obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks 
and the Romans ploughed four times, the 
proscissio being performed in the latter part 
of the preceding year, so that between one 
crop and another two whole years intervened. 

A'RBITER. [JUDEX.] 

ARCA (/a/foroc). 1 . A chest, in which the 
Romans were accustomed to place their 
money ; and the phrase ex area solvere had the 
meaning of paying in ready money. The term 
arcae was usually applied to the chests in 
which the rich kept their money, and was op- 
posed to the smaller loculi, sacculus, and cru- 
mena. 2. The coffin in which persons were 
buried, or the bier on which the corpse was 
placed previously to burial. 3. A strong cell 
made of oak, in which criminals and slaves 
were confined. 



ARCHON. 

ARCH. [ARCUS; FORNIX.} 

ARCHEION (dp^efov), properly means any 
public place belonging to the magistrates, but 
s more particularly applied to the archive 
office, where the decrees of the people and 
other state documents were preserved. This 
office is sometimes merely called TO dr/poaiov. 
At Athens the archives were kept in the tem- 
ple of the mother of the gods (uffrpuov), and 
the charge of it was entrusted to the presi 
dent (eTTtcrrdrTyf) of the senate of the Five, 
hundred. 

ARCHERS. [ARCUS.] 

ARCHIMI'MUS, the chief actor in a pan- 
tomime, was especially applied to the chie. 
mimus, who represented at a funeral the de- 
ceased person, and imitated his words ami 
actions. 

ARCHITHEO'RUS (dp^tflfopof). [THEO- 

RUS.] 

ARCHON (dp;j;<yv). The government of 
Athens began with monarchy, and after pass- 
ing through a dynasty* and aristocracy, ended 
in democracy. Of the kings of Athens, con- 
sidered 3 the capital of Attica, Theseus may 
be said to have been the first ; for to him, 
whether as a real individual or a representa- 
tive of a certain period, is attributed the union 
of the different and independent states of At- 
tica under one head. The last was Codrus ; 
in acknowledgment of whose patriotism in 
meeting death for his country, the Athenians 
are said to have determined that no one 
should succeed him with the title of king 
(ftaaifavtf. It seems, however, equally prob- 
able, that it was the nobles who availed them- 
selves of the oportunity to serve their own in- 
terests, by abolishing the kingly power for 
another, the possessors of which they called 
Archontes (up^qvrec) or rulers. These for 
some time continued to be, like the kings pi 
the house of Codrus, appointed for life : still 
an important point was gained byrtie nobles, 
the office being made accountable (virevdvvo^), 
which of course implies that the nobility had 
some control over it. 

This state of things lasted for twelve reigns 
of archons. The next step was to limit the 
continuance of the office to ten years, still 
confining it to the Medontidae, or house oi 
Codrus, so as to establish what the Greeks 
called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryx- 
ias, the last archon of that family elected as 
such. At the end of his ten years (B. c. 684), 
a much greater change took place : the ar- 
chonship was made annual, and its various 



* By this is meant that the supreme power, thougb 
not monarchical, was confined to one family. 



ARCHON. 



33 



duties divided among a college of nine, chosen 
by suffrage ( xeiporovia) from the Eupatridae, 
or Patricians, and no longer elected from the 
Medontidae exclusively. This arrangement 
lasted till the time of Solon, who still con- 
tinued the election by suffrage, but made the 
qualification lor office depend, not on birth, 
but property. The election by lot is believed 
to have been introduced by Cleisthenes (B. c. 
508). The last change is supposed to have 
been made by Aristeides, who after the battle 
of Pl'ataea (B. c. 479) abolished the property 
qualification, throwing open the archonship 
and other magistracies to all the citizens ; 
that is, to the Thetes, as well as the other 
classes, the former of whom were not al- 
lowed by Solon's laws to hold any magistracy 
at all. 

Still, after the removal of the old restric- 
tions, some security was left to insure respec- 
tability ; for, previously to an archon entering 
on office, he underwent an examination, call- 
ed the anacrisis (avditptatr), as to his being a 
legitimate and a good citizen, a good son, and 
qualified in point of property, but the latter 
limitation was either 'done away with by Aris- 
teides, or soon became obsolete. Yet, even 
after passing a satisfactory anacrisis, each of 
the archons, in common with other magis- 
trates, was liable to be deposed on complaint 
of misconduct made before the people, at the 
first regular assembly in each prytany. On 
such an occasion the evicheirotonia (kirixeipo- 
rovia), as it was called, took place : and we 
read that in one case the whole college of ar- 
chons was deprived of office (u/ro^etporo- 



In consequence of the democratical tenden- 
cy of the assembly and courts of justice es- 
tablished by Solon, the archons lost the great 
political power which they at one time pos- 
sessed. They became, in fact, not as of old 
directors of the government, but merely mu- 
nicipal magistrates, exercising functions and 
bearing titles described below. 

It has been already stated, that the duties 
of the single archon were shared by a college 
of nine. The first, or president of this body, 
was called Archon, by way of pre-eminence, 
or Archon Eponymus (aprwv ^Trwvv/zof ), from 
the year being distinguished by and registered 
in his name. The second was styled Archon 
Basileus (upruv paciXevc,), or the King Ar- 
chon ; the third Polemarchus ( no At/f ap^of ), 
or commander-in-chief ; the remaining six, 
Thesmothetae (dso/j-odeTai), or legislators. As 
regards the duties of the archons, it is 
sometimes difficult to distinguish what be- 
longed to them individually, and what col- 
lectively. 



It seems that a considerable portion of the 
judicial functions of the ancient kings devol- 
ved upon the Archon Eponymus, who was also 
constituted a sort of state protector of those 
who were unable to defend themselves. Thus 
he was to superintend orphans, heiresses, 
families losing their representatives, widows 
left pregnant, and to see that they were not 
wronged in any way. This archon had also 
the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, 
and the Thargelia. 

The functions of the King Archon were al- 
most all connected with religion ; his distin- 
guishing title shows that he was considered 
a representative of the old kings in their ca- 
pacity of high priest, as the Rex Sacrificulus 
was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Le- 
naea, or older Dionysia; superintended the 
mysteries and the games called Lampade- 
phoriae, and had to offer up sacrifices and 
prayers in the Eleusinium, both at Athens 
and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for im- 
piety, and controversies about the priesthood, 
were laid before him ; and, in cases of mur- 
der, he brought the trial into the court of the 
areiopagus, and voted with its members. His 
wife, also, who was called Basilissa (fiaci- 
/lio-cra), had to offer certain sacrifices, and 
therefore it was required that she should be 
a citizen of pure blood, without stain or blem- 
ish. 

The Polemarch was originally, as his name 
denotes, the commander-in-chief, and we find 
him discharging military duties as late as the 
battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the ten 
Strategi ; he there took, like the kings of old, 
the command of the right wing of the army. 
This, however, seems to be the last occasion 
on record of this magistrate appointed by lot 
being invested with such important functions ; 
and in after ages we find that his duties 
ceased to be military, having been, in a great 
measure, transferred to the protection and 
superintendence of the resident aliens, so that 
he resembled in many respects the praetor 
peregrinus at Rome. Thus, all actions af- 
fecting aliens, the isoteles and proxeni were 
brought before him previously to trial. More- 
over, it was the polemarch's duty to offer the 
yearly sacrifice to Diana, in commemoration 
of the vow made by Callimachus. at Mara- 
thon, and to arrange the funeral games in 
honour of those who fell in war. 

The six Thesmothetae were extensively con- 
nected with the administration of justice, and 
appear to have been called legislators, because 
in the absence of a written code, they might 
be said to make laws, or thesmi (deajioi), in 
the ancient language of Athens, though in 
reality they only explained them. They v? ere 



31 



ARGUS TRIUMPHALIS. 



required to review, every year, the whole body 
of laws, that they might detect any inconsis- 
tencies or superfluities, and discover whether 
any laws which were abrogated were in the 
public records amongst the rest. Their re- 
port was submitted to the people, who referred 
the necessary alterations to a legislative com- 
mittee chosen for the purpose, and called No- 
mothetae (vo^oderaC). The chief part of the 
duties of the thesmothetae consisted in re- 
ceiving informations, and bringing cases to 
trial in the courts of law, of the days of sitting 
in which they gave public notice. They 
did not try them themselves, but seem to 
have constituted a sort of grand jury, or in- 
quest. 

The trial itself took place before the Dicas- 
tae. [DiCASTAE.] 

It is necessary to be cautious in our inter- 
pretation of the words apxrj and apxovrec, 
since they have a double meaning in the At- 
tic orators, sometimes referring to the archons 
peculiarly so called, and sometimes to any 
other magistracy. 

The archons had various privileges and 
honours. The greatest of the former was the 
exemption from the trierarchies a boon not 
allowed even to the successors of Harmodius 
and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office, 
they wore a chaplet or crowp of myrtle ; and 
if any one struck or abused one of the thes- 
mothetae or the archon, when wearing this 
badge of office, he became atimus (an/uoe), or 
infamous in the fullest extent, thereby losing 
his civic rights. The archons, at the close 
of their year of service, were admitted among 
the members of the areiopagus. [AREIOPA- 

GUS.l 

ARGUS TRIUMPHA'LIS, a triumphal 
arch forming a passage way, and erected in 
honour of an individual, or in commemoration 
of a conquest. 

Triumphal arches were built across the 
principal streets of Rome, and, according to 
the space of their respective localities, con- 
sisted of a single archway, or a central one 
for carriages, and two smaller ones on each 
side for foot passengers. Those actually 
made use of on the occasion of a triumphal 
entry and procession were merely temporary 
and hastily erected ; and, having served their 
purpose, were taken down again, and some- 
times replaced by others of more durable ma- 
terials. 

Stertinius is the first upon record who 
erected anything of the kind. He built an 
arch in the Forum Boarium, about B. c. 196, 
and another in the Circus Maximus, each of 
which was surmounted by gilt statues. 

There are twenty-one arches recorded by 



ARGUS. 

different writers, as having been erected in 
the city of Rome, five of which now remain : 
1. Arcus Drusi, which was erected to the 
honour of Claudius Drusus on the Appian 
way. 2. Arcus Titi, at the foot of the Pala 
tine, which was erected to the honour of 
Titus, after his conquest of Judaea ; the bas- 
reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from 
the temple of Jerusalem carried in triumphal 
procession. 3. Arcus Septimii Severi, which 
was erected by the senate (A. D. 207) at the 
end of the Via Sacra, in honour of that em- 
peror and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, 
on account of his conquest of the Parthians 
and Arabians. 4. Arcus Gallieni, erected to 
the honour of Gallienus by a private indi- 
vidual, M. Aurelius Victor. 5. Arcus Con- 
stantini, which was larger than the arch of 
Titus. 

ARCUS (fiioc, rofrv), the bow used for 
shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient 
of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia 
rather than of Europe. In the Roman ar- 
mies it was scarcely ever employed ex- 
cept by auxiliaries ; ary} these auxiliaries, 
called sagittarii, were chiefly Cretans and Ara- 
bians. 

The upper of the two figures below shows 
the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung ; 
the lower one represents the ufeual form 
of the Grecian bow, which had a double cur- 
vature, consisting of two circular portions 
united by the handle. When not used, the 
bow was put into a case (ro^od-fjKrjj yupvro?, 
corytus), which was made of leather, and 
sometimes ornamented. 




Arcus, Bow. 

The action of drawing a bow is well ex- 
hibited in the following outline of a statue 
belonging to the group of Aegina marbles. 
The bow, placed in the hands of this statue, 
was probably of bronze, and has been lost. 



AREIOPAGUS. 




A HE A (&Awf, or uAwu), the threshing- 
tioor, was a raised place in the field, open on 
all sides to the wind. Great pains were 
taken to make this floor hard ; it was some- 
times paved with flint stones, but more usu- 
ally covered with clay and smoothed with a 
roller. 

AREIOPAGUS (6'Apetoc irayog, or hill 
of Mars), was a rocky eminence, lying to the 
west of, and not far from the Acropolis at 
Athens. It was the place of meeting of the 
council ('H ev 'Apeiu 7ry^ /3ovA?;), which 
was sometimes called The Upper Council 
('H avu /3ov/lJ7), to distinguish it from the 
senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the 
Cerameicus within the city. 

It was a body of very remote antiquity, 
acting as a criminal tribunal, and existed 
long before the time of Solon, but he so far 
modified its constitution and sphere of duty, 
that he may almost be called its founder. 
What that original constitution was, must in 
some degree be left to conjecture, though 
there is every reason to suppose that it was 
aristocratical, the members being taken, like 
the ephetae, from the noble patrician families. 

[EPHETAE.j 

By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus 
was composed of the ex-archons, who, after 
an unexceptionable discharge of their duties, 
" went up" to the Areiopagus, and became 
members of it for life, unless expelled for 
misconduct. As Solon made the qualifica- 
tion for the office of archon to depend not on 
birth but on property, the council after his 
time ceased to be aristocratic in constitution ; 
but, as we learn from Attic writers, continued 
so in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have 
formed the two councils, the senate and the 
Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democra- 
cy ; that, as he himself expressed it, " the 



I state riding upon them as- anchors might be 
| less tossed by storms." Nay, even after the 
archons were no longer elected by suffrage 
but by lot, and the office was thrown open 
by Areisteides to all the Athenian citizens, 
the "nipper council" still retained its former 
tone of feeling. 

Moreover, besides these changes in its con- 
stitution, Solon altered and extended its func- 
tions. Before his time it was only a criminal 
court, trying cases of " wilful murder and 
wounding, of arson and poisining," whereas 
he gave it extensive powers of a censorial 
and political nature. Thus we learn that he 
made the council an " overseer of every thing, 
and the guardian of the laws," empowering 
it to inquire how any one got his living, and 
to punish the idle ; and we are also told that 
the Areiopagites were "superintendents of 
good order and decency," terms rather unlim- 
ited and undefined, as it is not improbable 
Solon wished to leave their authority. When 
heinous crimes had notoriously been com- 
mitted, but the guilty parties were not known, 
or no accuser appeared, the Areiopagus in- 
quired into the subject, and reported to the 
demus. The report or information was called 
apophasis. This was a duty which they 
sometimes undertook on their own responsi- 
bility, and in the exercise of an old establish- 
ed right, and sometimes on the order of the 
demus. Nay, to such an extent did they 
carry their power, that on one occasion they 
apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who 
had been acquitted by the general assembly, 
and again brought him to a trial, which end- 
ed in his condemnation and death. Again, 
we find them revoking an appointment where- 
by Aeschines was made the advocate of Ath- 
ens before the Amphictyonic council, and 
substituting Hyperides in his room. 

They also had duties connected with reli- 
gion, one of which was to superintend the 
sacred olives growing about Athens, and try 
those who were charged with destroying 
them ; and in general it was their office to 
punish the impious and irreligious. Inde- 
pendent, then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal 
court in cases of wilful murder, which Solon 
continued to the Areiopagus, its influence 
must have been sufficiently great to have 
been a considerable obstacle to the aggran- 
dizement of the democracy at the expense of 
the other parties in the state. Accordingly, 
we find that Pericles, who was opposed to the 
aristocracy, resolved to diminish its power 
and circumscribe its sphere of action. His 
coadjutor in this work was Ephialtes, a 
statesman of inflexible integrity, and also 
a military commander. They experienced 



36 



AREIOPAGUS. 



much opposition in their attempts, not only 
in the assembly, but also on the stage, where 
Aeschylus produced his tragedy of the Eu- 
menides, the object of which was to impress 
upon the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, 
and constitutional worth of the institution 
which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to re- 
form. Still the opposition failed : a decree 
was carried by which, as Aristotle says, the 
Areiopagus was "mutilated," and many of 
its hereditary rights abolished, though it is 
difficult to ascertain the precise nature of 
the alterations which Pericles effected. 

The jurisdiction of the Areiopagus in case 
of murder was still left to them. In such 
cases the process was as follows : The king 
archon brought the case into court, and sat 
as one of the judges, who were assembled in 
the open air, probably to guard against any 
contamination from the criminal. The ac- 
cuser first came forward to make a solemn 
oath that his accusation was true, standing 
over the slaughtered victims, and imprecating 
extirpation upon himself and his whole fam- 
ily, were it not so. The accused then denied 
the charge with the same solemnity and 
form of oath. Each party then stated his 
case with all possible plainness, keeping 
strictly to the subject, and not being allow- 
ed to appeal in any way to the feelings or 
passions of the judges. After the first speech, 
a criminal accused of murder might remove 
from Athens, and thus avoid the capital pun- 
ishment fixed by Draco's Thesmi, which on 
this point were still in force. Except in 
cases of parricide, neither the accuser nor 
the court had power to prevent this ; but the 
party who thus evaded the extreme punish- 
ment was not allowed to return home, and 
when any decree was passed at Athens to le- 
galize the return of exiles, an exception was 
always made against those who had thus left 
their country. 

The Areiopagus continued to exist, in name 
at least, till a very late period. Thus we 
find Cicero mentions the council in his let- 
ters ; and an individual is spoken of as an 
Areiopagite under the emperors Gratian and 
Theodosius (A. D. 380). 

The case of St. Paul is generally quoted 
as an instance of the authority of the Areio- 
pagus in religious matters ; but the words of 
the sacred historian do not necessarily imply 
that he was brought before the council. It 
may, however, be remarked, that the Areio- 
pagites certainly took cognizance of the in- 
troduction of new and unauthorized forms of 
religious worship, called iTridera ispd, in con- 
tradistinction to the TTdrpta or older rites of 
the state. 



ARGENTARII. 

ARE'NA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] 

ARETA'LOGI, persons who amused the 
company at the Roman dinner tables. 

A'RGEI, the name given by the pontifices 
to the places consecrated by Numa for the 
celebration of religious services. Varro calls 
them the chapels of the argei, and says they 
were twenty-seven in number, distributed in 
the different districts of the city. There was 
a tradition that these argei were named from 
the chieftains who came with Hercules, the 
Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capito- 
line, or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian 
hill. It is impossible to say what is the his- 
torical value or meaning of this legend ; we 
may, however, notice its conformity with the 
statement that Rome was founded by the 
Pelasgians, with whom the name of Argos 
was connected. 

The name argei was also given to certain 
figures thrown into the Tiber from the Sub- 
lician bridge, on the Ides of May in every 
year. This was done by the pontifices, the 
vestals, the praetors, and other citizens, after 
the performance of the customary sacrifices. 
The images were thirty in number, made of 
bulrushes, and in the form of men. Ovid 
makes various suppositions to account for the 
origin of this rite : we can only conjecture 
that it was a symbolical offering, to propitiate 
the gods, and that the number was a repre- 
sentative either of the thirty patrician curiae 
at Rome, or perhaps of the thirty Latin town- 
ships. 

ARGENTA'RII, bankers or money-chang- 
ers at Rome. The public bankers, or mensa- 
rii, are to be distinguished from the argenta- 
rii. The highest class of mensarii, the men- 
sarii quinqueviri or triumviri were a sort of ex- 
traordinary magistrates ; their business was 
to regulate the debts of the citizens, and to pro- 
vide and distribute specie on emergency. 
[MENSARII.] The argentarii, on the con- 
trary, were private bankers. Almost all mo- 
ney transactions were carried on through 
their intervention, and they kept the ac- 
count-books of their customers. Hence, all 
terms respecting the relation between debt- 
or and creditor were borrowed from bank- 
ing business ; thus, rationem accepti scribere 
(" to put down on the debtor's side in the 
banker's book") means " to borrow money ;" 
rescribere, " to pay it back again ;" nomen (an 
item in the account) is " a debt," or even " a 
debtor." These books of account have given 
rise to the modern Italian system of book- 
keeping by double-entry. 

The functions of the argentarii, besides 
their original occupation of money- changing 
(permutatio argcnti) were as follows: I. At- 



ARIES. 

tending public sales as agents for purchasers, 
in which case they were called interpretes. 
2. Assaying and proving money (probatio num- 
morum). 3. Receiving deposits, or keeping a 
bank, in the modern sense of the word. If 
the deposit was not to bear interest, it was 
called depositum, or vacua pecunia ; if it was 
to bear interest, it was called creditum. The 
argentarii were said not only recipere, but also 
constituere, so that an action constitutae pecu- 
niae would lie against them. 

The shops of the bankers were in the 
cloisters round the forum ; hence, money 
borrowed from a banker is called aes circum- 
foraneum ; and the phrases/oro cedere, or abire, 
foro mergi, &c., mean " to become bankrupt." 
The argentarii at Rome were divided into 
corporations (sodetates), and formed a colle- 
gium. The argentarius was necessarily a 
freeman. 

ARGENTUM (upyvpoc), silver. Accord- 
ing to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first 
people who put a stamp upon silver ; but, ac- 
cording to the testimony of most ancient 
writers, silver money was first coined at 
Aegina, by order of Pheidon, about B. c. 748. 

Silver was originally the universal currency 
in Greece, and it was not till a comparatively 
late time that copper or gold was coined in 
that country. [AES ; AURUM.] Accordingly 
we find that all the words connected with 
money are derived from apyvpof, as aarap- 
yvpou, " to bribe with money ;" ap-yvpaftot- 
|3dc, " a money changer ;" &c. ; and apyvpoc, 
is itself not unfrequently used to signify mo- 
ney in general, as aes in Latin. 

Silver was not coined at Rome till B. c. 
269, five years before the first Punic war. 
The principal silver coins among the Greeks 
and Romans were respectively the drachma 
and denarius. [DRACHMA; DENARIUS.] 

ARGYRA'SPIDES (apyvpaaKidec), a di- 
vision of the Macedonian army, who were so 
called because they carried shields covered 
with silver-plates. 

A'RIES (/cpioc), the battering-ram, was 
used to batter down the walls of besieged 
cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of 
the trunk of a tree, especially of a fir or an 
ash. To one end was fastened a mass of 
bronze or iron (/ce</>a/l^, u(3o%,7J, Trporo/z??), 
which resembled in its form the head of a 
ram. The upper figure in the annexed cut 
shows the aries in its simplest state, and as 
it was borne and impelled by human hands, 
without other assistance. 

In an improved form, the ram was surround- 
ed with iron bands, to which rings were at- 
tached for the purpose of suspending it by 
ropes or chains from a beam fixed transversely 
D 



ARMA. 

\ 

over it. See the lower figure in the \ 
cut. By this contrivance the soldiers were 




tt 



nc 



Ariea, Battering Ram. 

relieved from the necessity of supporting the 
weight of the ram, and they could with ease 
give it a rapid and forcible motion backwards 
and forwards. 

The use of this machine was further aided 
by placing the frame in which it was sus- 
pended upon wheels, and also by construct 
ing over it a wooden roof, so as to form a 
" testudo," which protected the besieging 
party from the defensive assaults of the be- 
sieged. 

ARMA, ARMATU'RA (li/rca, rev^ea, 
Horn. ; O7r/la), arms, armour. 

Homer describes in various passages an en- 
tire suit of armour, and we observe that it 
consisted of the same portions which were 
used by the Greek soldiers ever after. More- 
over, the order of putting them on is always 
the same. The heavy-armed warrior, hav- 
ing already a tunic around his body, and pre- 
paring for combat, puts on 1. his greaves 
(nvrifude^., ocreae) ; 2. his cuirass (6upa^, lori- 
ca), to which belonged the fiirprj underneath, 
and the zone (&VTJ, faarrip, cingulum), above ; 
3. his sword (i00f ensis, gladius), hung on 
the left side of his body by means of a belt 
which passed over the right shoulder ; 4. the 
large round shield (o-a/coc, doTr/o, clipeus, scu- 
tum), supported in the same manner; 5. his 
helmet (/copvo, KVVETJ, cassis, galea) ; 6. he 
took his spear (ey^oc, <5(>pv, hasta), or, in 
many cases, two spears. The form and use 
of these portions are described in separate 



38 



ARMA. 



ARMARIUM. 



articles, under their Latin names. The an- another description of men, the peltastae 
nexed cut exhibits them all. (jre^Taarai), also formed a part of the Greek 





Greek Soldier. 

Those who were defended in the mannei 
which has now been represented are called 
by Homer aspistae (aaTriarai), from their great 
shield (d<77Uf) ; also angemachi (ayxs/udxot'), 
because they fought hand to hand with their 
adversaries ; but much more commonly pro- 
machi (Trp6fj.a%ot), because they occupied the 
front of the army. 

In later times the heavy-armed soldiers 
were called hoplitae (<5;r/lmu)> because the 
term hopla (oTrAa) more especially denoted the 
defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By 
wearing these they were distinguished from 
the light-armed (ijj&oi, avoirhoi, yy/j.voi, 
yvjAVTJTai, yvfivi^req ),who, instead of being de- 
fended by the shield and thorax, had a much 
slighter covering, sometimes consisting of 
skins, and sometimes of leather or cloth ; and 
instead of the sword or lance, they commonly 
fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows, 
or slings. 

Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers, 



Roman Soldier. 

army, though we do not hear of them in early 
times. Instead of the large round shield, they 
carried a smaller one called the pelte (TT&TTI), 
and in other respects their armour, though 
heavier and more effective than that of the 
psili, was much lighter than that of the hop. 
lites. The weapon on which they principally 
depended was the spear. 

The Roman legions consisted, as the Greek 
infantry for the most part did, of heavy and 
light-armed troops (gravis et levis armatura). 
The preceding figure represents a heavy-armed 
Roman soldier. On comparing it with that of 
| the Greek hoplite in the other cut, we per- 
ceive that the several parts of the armour cor- 
j respond, excepting only that the Roman sol- 
| dier wears a dagger) /udxcupa, pugio), on his 
! right side instead of a sword on his left, and 
j instead of greaves upon his legs has femoralia 
\ andcaligae. All the essential parts of the Rom an 
| heavy armour (lorica,ensis,clipeus,galea, hasta), 
\ are mentioned together, except the spear, in 
| a well-known passage of St. Paul (Eph,vi.l7). 
ARMA'RIUM, originally a place for keep- 
I ing arms, afterwards a cupboard, in xvhich 



ARVALES FRATRES. 

were kept not only arms, but also clothes, 
books, money, and other articles of value. 
The armarium was generally placed in the 
atrium of the house. 

ARM1LLA (ipafaov, -ty&iov, or ^E^IOV, 
xhidtJv, a//0idea), a bracelet or armlet, worn 
both by men and women. 

The Roman generals frequently bestowed 
armillae upon soldiers for deeds of extraordi- 
nary merit. 

ARMJLU'STRIUM, a Roman festival for 
the purification of arms. It was celebrated 
every year on the 19th of October, when the 
citizens assembled in arms, and offered sacri- 
fices in the place called Armiluslrum, or Vi- 
cus Armilustri. 

ARMOUR. [ARMA.] 

ARMS. [ARMA.] 

ARMY. [EXERCITUS.] 

ARRA, A'RRABO, or ARRHA, A'RRHA- 
BO, was the thing which purchasers and ven- 
ders gave to one another, whether it was a 
sum of money or anything else, as an evidence 
of the contract being made ; it was no essen- 
tial part of the contract of buying and selling, 
but only evidence of agreement as to price. 

The term arrha, in its general sense of an 
evidence of agreement, was also used on other 
occasions, as in the case of betrothment (spon- 
salid). Sometimes the word arrha is used as 
synonymous with pignus, but this is not the 
legal meaning of the term. 

ARROGA'TIO. [ADOPTIO.] 

ARROWS. [ARCUS.] 

ARTABA (aprdftr)), a Persian measure of 
capacity=l medimnus and 3 choenices (At- 
tic^ 102 Roman sextarii=12 gallons, 5.092 
pints. 

ARTEMI'SIA ('Apre^'crm), a festival cele- 
brated at Syracuse in honour of Diana Pota- 
mia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which 
were principally spent in feasting and amuse- 
ments. Festivals of the same name, and in 
honour of the same goddess, were held in 
many places in Greece, but principally at 
Delphi. 

ARTOPTA. [PisTOR.] 

ARU'RA (apovpa), a Greek measure of sur- 
face, mentioned by Herodotus, who says that 
it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direc- 
tion. Now the Egyptian cubit contained 
nearly 17| inches ; therefore the square of 
100 X 17| inches, i.e. nearly 148 feet, gives 
the number of square feet (English) in the 
arura, viz. 21,904. 

ARUSPEX. [HARUSPEX.] 

ARVA'LES FRATRES, formed a college 
or company of twelve priests, and were so 
called from offering public sacrifices for the 
fertilit of the fields That they were of ex- 



AS. 39 

treme antiquity is proved by the legend which 
refers their institution to Romulus, of whom 
it is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia 
lost one of her twelve sons, he allowed him- 
self to be adopted by her in his place, and 
called himself and the remaining eleven " Fra- 
tres Arvales." We also find a college called 
the Sodales Titii, and as the latter were con- 
fessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted for 
the purpose of keeping up the Sabine reli- 
gious rites, it is probable that these colleges 
corresponded one to the other the Fratres 
Arvales being connected with the Latin, and 
the Sodales Titii with the Sabine element of 
the Roman state. 

The office of the fratres arvales was for life, 
and was not taken away even from an exile 
or captive. One of their annual duties was 
to celebrate a three days' festival in honour of 
Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres, sometimes 
held on the 17th, 19th, and 20th, sometimes 
on the 27th, 29th, and 30th of May. But be- 
sides this festival of the Dea Dia, the fratres 
arvales were required on various occasions, 
under the emperors, to make vows and offer 
up thanksgivings. 

Under Tiberius, the Fratres Arvales per- 
formed sacrifices called the Ambarvalia, at 
various places on the borders of the ager Ro- 
manus, or original territory of Rome ; and it 
is probable that this was a custom handed 
down from time immemorial, and, moreover, 
that it was a duty of the priesthood to invoke 
a blessing on the whole territory of Rome. 
There were also the private ambarvalia, which 
were so called from the victim (hostia ambar- 
valis) that was slain on the qccasion being led 
three times round the corn-fields, before the 
sickle was put to the corn. This victim was 
accompanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the 
reapers and farm-servants dancing and singing, 
as they marched, the praises of Ceres, and 
praying for her favour and presence.while they 
offered her the libations of milk, honey, and 
wine. This ceremony was also called a lus- 
tratio, or purification. 

ARX signifies a height within the walls of 
a city, upon which a citadel was built, and 
thus came to be applied to the citadel itself. 
Thus the summit of the Capitoline hill at 
Rome is called Arx. 

AS, or Libra, a pound, the unit of weight 
among the Romans. [LIBRA.] 

AS, the unit of value in the Roman and old 
Italian coinages.was made of copper, or of the 
mixed metal called Ass. It was originally of 
the weight of a pound of twelve ounces, 
whence it was called as libralis and aes grave. 

The oldest form of the as is that which 
bears the figure of an animal (a bull, ram, boar, 



40 



AS. 



or sow). The next and most common form is 
that which has the two-faced head of Janus 
on one side, and the prow of a ship on the 
other (whence the expression used by Roman 
boys in tossing up, Capita ant navim.) 

The annexed specimen from the British 
Museum weighs 4000 grains : the length of 
the diameter is half that of the original coin. 




Roman As, or Libra. 

Pliny informs us, that in the time of the 
first Punic war (B. c. 264 241), in order to 
meet the expenses of the state, this weight of 
a pound was diminished, and asses were 
struck of the same weight as the sextans 
(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the an- 
cient weight) ; and that thus the republic paid 
off its debts, gaining five parts in six ; that 
afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the 
dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus (B. c. 217), 
asses of one ounce were made, and the dena- 
rius was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, 
the republic thus gaining one half; but that 
in military pay the denarius was always given 
for ten asses ; and that soon after, by the Pa- 
pirian law (about B. c. 191), asses of half an 
ounce were made. 

The value of the as, of course, varied with 
its weight. Before the reduction to two oun- 
ces, ten asses were equal to the denarius = 
about 8 pence English [DENARIUS]. There- 
fore the as = 3-4 farthings. By the reduc- 



ASCIA. 

tion the denarius? *vas made equal to 16 asses ; 
therefore the as = 2 farthings. 

The as was divided into parts, which were 
named according to the number of ounces 
they contained. 

They were the deunx, dextans, dodrans, bes, 
septunx, semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans or te- 
runcius, sextans, sescunx or sescuncia, and uncia, 
consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 
4, 3, 2, li, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions 
the following were represented by coins ; 
namely, the semis, quincunx, triens, quadrans, 
sextans, and uncia. 

After the reduction in the weight of the as, 
coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and 
even 10 asses, which were called respectively 
dussis or dupondius, tressis, quadrussis, and de~ 
cussis. Other multiples of the as were deno- 
ted by words of similar formation, up to cen- 
tussis, 100 asses ; but most of them do not 
exist as coins. 

In certain forms of expression, in which aes 
is used for money without specifying the de- 
nomination, we must understand the as. 
Thus deni aeris, mills aeris, decies aeris, mean 
respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 asses. 

The word as was used also for any whole 
which was to be divided into equal parts ; and 
those parts were called unciae. Thus these 
words were applied not only to weight and 
money, but to measures of length, surface, 
and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, 
farms, and many other things. Hence the 
phrases haeres ex asse, the heir to a whole es- 
tate ; haeres ex dodrante, the heir to three- 
fourths. 

ASC1A, dim. ASCIOLA (GK.eTtu.pvov, or 
(TKeTrapviov), an adze. Muratori has published 
numerous representations of the adze, as it is 
exhibited on ancient monuments. We select 
the three following, two of which show the 




instrument itself, with a slight variety of form, 
while the third represents a ship-builder hold- 
ing it in his right hand, and using it to shape 
the rib of a vessel. 

ASSEMBLIES of the people at Athens 
[ECCLESIA] ; at Rome [COMITIA]. 

ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains 
the same root as the verb adserere, which, 
when coupled with the word manu, signifies 
to lay hold of a thing, to draw it towards one. 
Hence the phrase adserere in libertatem, or lib- 
c.rali adserere manu, applies to him who lays 
his hand on a person reputed to be a slave, 
and asserts, or maintains his freedom. The 
person who thus maintained the freedom of a 
reputed slave was called adsertor. The per- 
son whose freedom was thus claimed was 
said ?;> be adsertus. The expressions liberalis 
causa,, and liberalis manus, which occur in con- 
nection with the verb adserere, will easily be 
understood from what has been said. Some- 
times the word adserere alone was used as 
equivalent to adserere in libertatem. The ex- 
pression asserere in servitutem, to claim a per- 
son as a slave, occurs in Livy. 

ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one 
who sits by the side of another. Since the 
Consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, and 
the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted 
with the law and forms of procedure, it was 
necessary that they sho-ld have the aid of 
those who had made the law their study. The 
assessors sat on the tribunal with the magis- 
trate. Their advice or aid, was given during 
the proceedings as well as at other times, 
but they never pronounced a judicial sen- 
tence. 

ASTY'NOMI (u<7Tvv6fj.oi\ or street-police 
of Athens, were ten in number, five for the 
city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The as- 
tynomi and agoranomi divided between them 
most of the functions of the Roman aediles. 
[AGORANOMI.] 

ASY'LUM (aavTiov). In the Greek states 
the temples, altars, sacred groves, and statues 
of the gods, generally possessed the privilege 
of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, 
who fled to them for refuge. The laws, how- 
ever, do not appear to have recognized the 
right of all such sacred places to afford the 
protection which was claimed, but to have 
confined it to a certain number of temples or 
altars, which were considered in a more es- 
pecial manner to have the aay'hia, or jus asyli. 
There were several places in Athens which 
possessed this privilege ; of which the best 
known was the Theseium, or temple of The- 
seus, in the city, near the gymnasium, which 
was chiefly intended for the protection of ill- 
treated slaves, who could take refuge in this 

D'2 



ATHLETAE. 4\ 

place, and compel their masters to sell tu- a 
to some other person. 

In the time of Tiberius, the number of places 
possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in 
Greece and Asia Minor, became so numerous 
as seriously to impede the administration of 
justice ; and consequently, the senate, by the 
command of the emperor, limited the jus asyli 
to a few cities. 

The asylum, which Romulus is said to have 
opened at Rome to increase the population oi 
the city, was a place of refuge for the inhabi- 
tants of other states, rather than a sanctuary 
for those who had violated the laws of the 
city. In the republican and early imperial 
times, a right of asylum, such as existed in 
the Greek states, does not appear to have been 
recognized by the Roman law ; but it existed 
under the empire, and a slave could fly to the 
temples of the gods, or the statues of the em- 
perors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master. 

ATELEIA (tiTeheid), immunity from pub- 
lic burthens, was enjoyed at Athens by the 
archons for the time being ; by the descend- 
ants of certain persons, on whom it had been 
conferred as a reward for great services, as in 
the case of Harmodius and Aristpgeiton ; and 
by the inhabitants of certain foreign states. It 
was of several kinds : it might be a general im- 
munity (are^eta airdvTCjv) ; or a more special 
exemption, as from custom duties, from the 
liturgies, or from providing sacrifices. 

ATELLA'NAE FA'BULAE, were a spe 
cies of farce or comedy, so called from Atella, 
a town of the Osci, in Campania. From this 
circumstance, and from being written in the 
Oscan dialect, they were also called Ludi 
Osci. 

These Atellane plays were not praetextatae, 
i. e. comedies in which magistrates and per- 
sons of rank were introduced, nor tabernariae, 
the characters in which were taken from low 
life ; they rather seem to have been an union 
of high comedy and its parody. They were 
also distinguished from the mimes by the ab- 
sence of low buffoonery and ribaldry, being 
remarkable for a refined humour, such as 
could be understood and appreciated by edu- 
cated people. They were not performed by 
regular actors (histrion.es), but by Roman citi- 
zens of noble oirth, who were not on that 
account subjected to any degradation, but re- 
tained their rights as citizens, and might serve 
in the army. The Oscan or Opican language, 
in which these plays were written, was spread 
over the whole of the south of Italy, and from 
its resemblance to the Latin, could easily be 
understood by the more educated Romans. 

ATHLE'TAE (ud^rai, uflA^pef), per- 
sons who contended in the public games of 



I'J 



ATHLETAE. 



the Greeks and Romans for prizes (d0Aa, 
whence the name of (aO^Tai), which were 
given to those who conquered in contests of agil- 
ity and strength. The name was in the later 
period of Grecian history, and among the Ro- 
mans, properly confined to those persons who 
entirely devoted themselves to a course of 
training which might fit them to excel in such 
contests, and who, in fact, made athletic ex- 
ercises their profession. The athletae differed, 
therefore, from the agonistae (ay6mora/),who 
only pursued gymnastic exercises for the sake 
of improving their health and bodily strength, 
and who, though they sometimes contended 
for the prizes in the public games, did not 
devote their whole lives, like the athletae, to 
preparing for these contests. 

A thletae were first introduced at Rome, B. c. 
186, in the games exhibited by M. Fulvius, on 
the conclusion of the Aetolian war. Aemilius 
Paullus, after the conquest of Perseus, B. c. 
167, is said to have exhibited games at Am- 
phipolis, in which athletae contended. Under 
the Roman emperors, and especially under 
Nero, who was passionately fond of the Gre- 
cian games, the number of athletae increased 
greatly in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. 

Those athletae who conquered in any of 
the great national festivals of the Greeks 
were called Hieronicae (tepovtKdi), and re- 
ceived the greatest honours and rewards. 
Such a conqueror was considered to confer 
honour upon the state to which he belonged ; 
he entered his native city through a breach 
made in the walls for his reception, in a cha- 
riot drawn by four white horses, and went 
along the principal street of the city to the 
temple of the guardian deity of the state. 
Those games, which gave the conquerors 
the right of such an entrance into the city, 
were called Iselastici(hom elfefatvveiv). This 
term was originally confined to the four great 
Grecian festivals, the Olympian, Isthmian, 
Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards 
applied to other public games. In the Greek 
states, the victors in these games not only 
obtained the greatest glory and respect, but 
also substantial rewards. They were gene- 
rally relieved from the payment of taxes, and 
also enjoyed the first seat (irpoedpia) in all 
public games and spectacles. Their statues 
were frequently erected at the cost of the 
state, in the most frequented part of the city, 
as the market-place, the gymnasia, and the 
neighbourhood of the temples. At Athens, 
according to a law of Solon, the conquerors 
in the Olympic games were rewarded with a 
prize of 500 drachmae ; and the cpnquerors 
in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with 
one of M)0 drachmae ; and at Sparta they 



ATRAMENTUM. 

had the privilege of fighting near the person 
of the king. The privileges of the athletae 
were secured, and in some respects increased 
by the Roman emperors. 

The term athletae, though sometimes ap- 
plied metaphorically to other combatants, 
was properly limited to those who contended 
for the prize in the five following contests : 
1. Running (dp6[j.o, cursus). [STADIUM.] 
2. Wrestling (Kakfi lucta). 3. Boxing (jrvy- 
(jirj, pugilatus). 4. The pentathlum (irevTaQ- 
hov), or, as the Romans called it, quinquerti- 
um. 5. The pancratium (TrayKpurtov). Oi 
all these an account is given in separate ar- 
ticles. Great attention was paid to the train- 
ing of the athletae. They were generally 
trained in the palaestrae, which, in the Grecian 
states, were distinct places from the gymna- 
sia. Their exercises were superintended by 
the gymnasiarch, and their diet was regu- 
lated by the aliptes. [ALIPTAE.] 

ATI'MIA (u.Tifj,ia), the forfeiture of a man's 
civil rights at Athens. It was either total 
or partial. A man was totally deprived of 
his rights, both for himself and for his de- 
scendants (KaduTrat; aTijuoc;), when he was 
convicted of murder, theft, false witness, 
partiality as arbiter, violence offered to a 
magistrate, and so forth. This highest de- 
gree of atimia excluded the person affected 
by it from the forum, and from all public as- 
semblies ; from the public sacrifices, and 
from the law courts ; or rendered him liable 
to immediate imprisonment, if he was found 
in any of these places. It was either tempo- 
rary or perpetual, and either accompanied or 
not with confiscation of property. Partial 
atimia only involved the forfeiture of some 
few rights, as, for instance, the right of plead- 
ing in court. Public debtors were suspended 
from their civic functions till they discharged 
their debt to the state. People who had 
once become altogether atimi were very sel- 
dom restored to their lost privileges. The 
converse term to atimia was epitimia (errm- 
O). 

ATRAMENTUM, a term applicable to 
any black colouring substance, for whatever 
purpose it may be used, like the melan (/u&av) 
of the Greeks. There were, however, three 
principal kinds of atramentum : one called 
librarium or scriptorium (in Greek, ypatytKov 
yue/lav), writing-ink ; another called sutorium, 
which was used by the shoemakers for dye- 
ing leather ; the third tectorium or pictorium, 
which was used by painters for some pur- 
poses, apparently as a sort of varnish. The 
inks of the ancients seem to have been more 
durable than our own ; they were thicker and 
more unctuous, in substance and durability 



ATRIUM. 

more resembling the ink now used by print- 
ers. An inkstand was discovered at Hercula- 
neum, containing ink as thick as oil, and still 
usable for writing. The following cut repre- 
sents inkstands found at Pompeii. 




The ancients used inks of various colours. 
Red ink, made of minium or vermilion, was 
used for writing the titles and beginning of 
books. So also was ink made of rubrica, 
" red ochre ;" and because the headings of 
laws were written with rubrica, the word 
rubric came to be used for the civil law. So 
album, a white or whited table, on which the 
praetors' edicts were written, was used in a 
similar way. A person devoting himself to 
album and rubrica, was a person devoting him- 
self to the law. [ALBUM.] 

A'TRIUM (called ai>/b? by the Greeks and 
by Virgil, and also fj,etjayhi,ov, irspiarvhov, 
Trepiaruov), is used in a distinctive as well as 
collective sense, to designate a#particular 
part in the private houses of the Romans 
[DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, 
so called? from their general resemblance in 
construction to the atrium of a private house. 
An atrium of the latter description was a 
building by itself, resembling in some re- 
spects the open basilica [BASILICA], but con- 
sisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium 
Publicum in the capitol, which, Livy informs 
us, was struck with lightning, B. c. 216. It 
was at other times attached to some temple 
or other edifice, and in such case consisted 
of an open area and surrounding portico in 
front of the structure. 

Several of these buildings are mentioned 
by the ancient historians, two of which were 
dedicated to the same goddess, Libertas. The 
most celebrated, as well as the most ancient, 
was situated on the Aventine" Mount. In 
this atrium there was a tabularium, where 
the legal tablets (tabulae) relating to the cen- 
sors were preserved. The other Atrium Lib- 



AUCTOR. 43 

ertatis was in the neighbourhood of the Fo 
rum Caesaris, and was immediately behind 
the Basilica Paulli or Aemilia. 

AU'CTIO signifies generally " an increas- 
ing, an enhancement," and hence the name is 
applied to a public sale of goods, at which 
persons bid against one another. The sale 
was sometimes conducted by an argentarius 
or by a magister auctionis ; and the time, place, 
and conditions of sale, were announced either 
by a public notice (tabula, album, &c.), or by 
a crier (praeco). 

The usual phrases to express the giving 
notice of a sale were, auctionem proscribere, 
praedicare ; and to determine on a sale, auc- 
tionem constituere. The purchasers (emtores), 
when assembled, were sometimes said ad 
tabulam adesse. The phrases signifying to 
bid are, liceri, licitari, which was done either 
by word of mouth, or by such significant 
hints as are known to all people who have 
attended an auction. The property was 
said to be knocked down (addici) to the pur- 
chaser. 

The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted 
the part of the modern auctioneer, so far as 
calling out the biddings, and amusing the 
company. Slaves, when sold by auction, 
were placed on a stone, or other elevated 
thing ; and hence the phrase homo de lapide 
emtus. It was usual to put up a spear (hasta) 
in auctions ; a symbol derived, it is said, from 
the ancient practice of selling under a spear 
the booty acquired in war. 

AUCTION (sale). [Aucxio.] 

AUCTOR, a word which contains the 
same element as aug-eo, and signifies gen- 
erally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives 
to a thing its completeness and efficient 
form. The numerous technical significa- 
tions of the word are derivable from this 
general notion. As he who gives to a thing 
that which is necessary for its complete- 
ness may in this sense be viewed as the 
chief actor or doer, the word auctor is also 
used in the sense of one who originates or 
proposes a thing ; but this cannot be viewed 
as its primary meaning. Accordingly, the 
word auctor, when used in connection with 
lex or senatus consultum, often means him 
who originates and proposes. Whon a 
measure was approved by the senate before 
it was confirmed by the votes of the people, 
the senate were said auctores fieri, and 
this preliminary approval was called senatus 
auctoritas. 

When the word auctor is applied to him 
who recommends but does not originate a 
legislative measure, it is equivalent to suasor. 
Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used 



AUGURES. 



in the same sentence, and the meaning of 
each is kept, distinct. 

With reference to dealings between indi- 
viduals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this 
sense auctor is the seller (venditor), as opposed 
to the buyer (emtor) ; and hence we have the 
phrase a malo auctore emere. 

Auctor is also used generally to express any 
person under whose authority any legal act is 
done. In this sense it means a tutor who is 
appointed to aid or advise a woman on account 
of the infirmity of her sex. 

AUCTORAMENTUM, the pay of gladia- 
tors. [GLADIATORES.] 

AUCTO'RITAS. The technical meanings 
of this word correlate with those of auctor. 

The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus- 
consultum ; it was a measure, incomplete in 
itself, which received its completion by some 
other authority. 

Auctoritas, as applied to property, is equiv- 
alent to legal ownership, being a correlation 
of auctor. 

AUGURES (oluvoTtohoi), priests, who 
formed a college or corporation at Rome. 

The institution of augurs is lost in the ori- 
gin of the Roman state. According to that 
view of the constitution which makes it come 
entire from the hands of the first king, a col- 
lege of three was appointed by Romulus, an- 
swering to the number of the three early tribes. 
Numa was said to have added two ; yet at the 
passing of the Ogulnian law (B. c. 300) the 
augurs were but four in number : whether, as 
Livy supposes, the deficiency was accidental, 
is uncertain. By the law just mentioned, their 
number became nine, five of whom were cho- 
sen from the plebs. The dictator Sulla fur- 
ther increased them to fifteen, a multiple of 
their original number, which probably had a 
reference to the early tribes. This number 
continued until the time of Augustus, who, 
among other extraordinary powers, had the 
right conferred on him, in B. c. 29, of electing 
augurs at his pleasure, whether there was a 
vacancy or not, so that from this time the 
number of the college was unlimited. 

The augurs, like the other priests, were 
originally elected by the comitia curiata, or 
assembly of the patricians in their curiae. As 
no election was complete without the sanction 
of augury, the college virtually possessed a 
veto on the election of all its members. They 
very soon obtained the privilege of self-elec- 
tion (jus cooptationis), which, with one inter- 
ruption, viz/ at the election of the first ple- 
beian augurs, they retained until B. c. 104, the 
year of the Domitian law. By this law it was 
enacted that vacancies in the priestly colleges 
Bhould be filled up by the votes of a minority 



of the tribes, i. e. seventeen out of thirty-five, 
chosen by lot. The Domitian law was re- 
pealed by Sulla, but again restored, B. c. 63, 
during the consulship of Cicero, by the tri- 
bune, T. Annius Labienus, with the support 
of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated 
by Antony; whether again restored by Hirti- 
us and Pansa, in their general annulment of 
the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. The 
emperors, as mentioned above, possessed the 
right of electing augurs at pleasure. 

The augurship is described by Cicero, him- 
self an augur, as the highest dignity in the 
state, having an authority which could prevent 
the comitia from voting, or annul resolutions 
already passed, if the auspices had not been 
duly performed. The words alio die, from a 
single augur, might put a stop to all business, 
and a decree of the college had several times 
rescinded laws. 

The augurs were elected for life, and, even 
if capitally convicted, never lost their sacred 
character. When a vacancy occurred, the 
candidate was nominated by two of the elder 
members of the college ; the electors were 
sworn, and the new member took an oath of 
secresy before his inauguration. The only 
distinction among them was one of age, the 
eldest augur being styled magister collegii. 
Among other privileges, they enjoyed that of 
wearing the purple praetexta, or, according to 
some, the trabea. On ancient coins they are 
represented wearing a long robe.which veiled 
the head and reached down to the feet, thrown 
back over the left shoulder. They hold in the 
right hand a lituus, or curved wand, hooked at 
the end like a crosier, and sometimes have the 
capis, or earthen water-vessel by their side. 
The chief duties of the augurs were to ob- 
serve and report supernatural signs. They 
were also the repositaries of the ceremonial 
law, and had to advise on the expiation of 
prodigies, and other matters of religious ob- 
servance. Other duties of the augurs were to 
assist magistrates and generals in taking the 
auspices. At the passing of a lex curiata, three 
were required to be present, a number prob- 
ably designed to represent the three ancient 
tribes. 

One of the difficulties connected with this 
subject is to distinguish between the religious 
duties of the augurs and of the higher magis- 
trates. Under the latter were included con- 
sul, praetor, and censor. A single magistrate 
had the power of proroguing the comitia by 
the formula se de coelo servare. [AuspiciuM.j 
The law obliged him to give notice before- 
hand, so that it can only have been a religious 
way of exercising a constitutional right. The 
spectio, as it was termed, was a voluntary duty 



AUREUS. 

on the part of the magistrate, and no actual 
observation was required. On the other hand, 
the augurs were employed by virtue of their 
office ; they declared the auspices, from im- 
mediate observation, without giving any pre- 
vious notice ; they had the right of nuntiatio, 
not of spectio, at least in the comitia; in other 
words, they were to report prodigies, where 
they did, not to invent them, where they did 
not", exist. 

Augury was one of the many safeguards 
which the oligarchy opposed to the freedom 
of the plebs: of the three comitia curiata, 
cenluriata, and tributa the two former were 
subject to the auspices. As the favourable 
signs were known to the augurs alone, their 
scruples were a pretext for the government to 
put off an inconvenient assembly. Yet in 
early times the augurs were not the mere 
tools of the government, and their indepen- 
dence under the kings seems to be testified by 
the story of Attus Naevius. During many 
centuries their power was supported by the 
voice of public opinion. Livy tells us that 
the first military tribunes abdicated in conse- 
quence of a decree of the augurs ; and on 
another occasion the college boldly declared 
the plebeian dictator, M. Claudius Marcellus, 
to be irregularly created. During the civil 
wars the augurs were employed by both par- 
ties as political tools. Cicero laments the 
neglect and decline of the art in his day. The 
college of augurs was finally abolished by the 
emperor Theodosius. 

AUGURA'LE, the place where the aus- 
pices were taken. [AUSPICIUM.] 

AUGU'RIUM, divination by the flight and 
voice of birds. [AUSPICIUM.] 

AUGUST A'LES(sc./ttd, also called Augus- 
talia), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, 
at Rome and in other parts of the Roman em- 
pire. They were exhibited annually at Rome 
in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the 
plebs, but afterwards by the praetor pere- 
grinus. 

AUGUSTA'LES, an order of priests in the 
municipia, who were appointed by Augustus, 
and selected from the libertini, whose duty it 
was to attend to the religious rites connected 
with the worship of the Lares and Penates, 
which Augustus put in places where two or 
more ways met. 

These Augustales should be distinguished 
from the sodales Augustales, who were an 
order of priests instituted byTiberiusto attend 
to the worship of Augustus, and were chosen 
by lot from among the principal persons of 
Rome. 

AULAEUM. [SiPARiDM.] 

AUREUS. [AURUM.] 



AURUM CORONAR1UM. 



45 



AURI'GA. [CIRCUS.] 

AURUM (xpyaotf, gold. Gold appears not 
to have been coined at Athens till the time ot 
the Macedonian empire, with the exception of 
a solitary issue of a debased coinage in B. c. 
407. But from a very early period the Asiatic 
nations, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor 
and the adjacent islands, possessed a gold 
coinage, which was more or less current in 
Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians 
were the first who coined gold ; and the stater 
of Croesus appears to have been the earliest 
gold coin known to the Greeks. The daric 
was a Persian coin. Staters of Cyzicus and 
Phocaea had a considerable currency in 
Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos 
as early as the time of Polycrates. [DARICUS ; 
STATER.] 

The standard gold coin of Rome was the 
aureus nummus, or denarius aureus, which, ac- 
cording to Pliny, was first coined sixty-two 
years after the first silver coinage [ARGEN- 
TUM], that is, in B. c. 207. The lowest de- 
nomination was the scrupulum, which was 
made equal to twenty sestertii. The value 
of the aureus is 11. Is. Id. and a little more 
than a halfpenny. This is its value accord- 
ing to the present worth of gold ; but its cur 
rent value in Rome was different from this, 
since the relative value of gold and silver 
was different in ancient times from what it 
is at present. The aureus passed for twen- 
ty-five denarii ; therefore, the denarius being 
8%d., the aureus was worth 17s. 8%d. The 
following cut represents an aureus of Au- 
gustus in the British Museum, which weighs 
121 grains. 




Aureus of Augustus. 

Alexander Severus coined pieces of one- 
half and one-third of the aureus, called semis- 
sis and tremissis ; after which time the aureus 
was called solidus. 

AURUM CORONA'RIUM. When a gen- 
eral in a Roman province had obtained a vic- 
tory, it was the custom for the cities in his 
own provinces, and for those from the neigh- 
bouring states, to send golden crowns to him, 
which were carried before him in his triumph 
at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears 
to have been usual for the cities of the prov- 
inces, instead of sending crowns on occasion 



46 AUSPICIUM. 

of a victory, to pay money, which was called 
aurum coronarium. This offering, which was 
at first voluntary, came to be regarded as a 
regular tribute, and was sometimes exacted 
by the governors of the provinces, even when 
no victory had been gained. 

AUSPrCIUM, originally meant a sign 
from birds. The word is derived from avis, 
and the root spec. As the Roman religion 
was gradually extended by additions from 
Greece and Etruria, the meaning of the word 
was widened, so as to include any supernat- 
ural sign. The chief difference between auspi- 
cium and augurium seems to have been that 
the latter term is never applied to the spectio 
p? the magistrate. [AUGUR.] 

Birds were divided into two classes oscines 
and praepetes ; the former gave omens by 
singing, the latter by their flight and the mo- 
tion of their wings. Every motion of every 
bird had a different meaning, according to 
the different circumstances or times of the 
year when it was observed. 

Another division of birds was into dextrae 
and sinistrae, about the meaning of which 
some difficulty has arisen from a confusion 
of Greek and Roman notions in the writings 
of the classics. The Greeks and Romans 
were generally agreed that auspicious signs 
came from the east, but as the Greek priest 
turned his face to the north the east was on 
his right hand, the Roman augur with his 
face to the south had the east to his left. 
The confusion was farther increased by the 
euphemisms common to both nations ; and 
the rule itself was not universal at least with 
the Romans ; the jay when it appeared on the 
left, the crow on the right being thought to 
give sure omens. 

The auspices were taken before a marriage, 
before entering on an expedition, before the 
passing of laws, or election of magistrates, 
or any other important occasion, whether 
public or private. In early times such was 
the importance attached to them that a sol- 
dier was released from the military oath, if 
the auspices had not been duly performed. 

The commander-in-chief of an army re- 
ceived the auspices, together with the imperi- 
um, and a war was therefore said to be car- 
ried on ductu et auspicio imperatoris, even if he 
were absent from the army, and thus, if the 
legatus gained a victory in the absence of his 
commander, the latter, and not his deputy, 
was honoured by a triumph. 

The ordinary manner of taking the auspi- 
ces was as follows: The augur went out 
before the dawn of day, and sitting in an 
open place, with his head veiled, marked out 
with a wand (lituus) the divisions of the 



AUTHEPSA. 

heavens. Next he declared in a solemn form 
of words the limits assigned, making shrubs 
or trees, called tesqua, his boundary on earth 
correspondent to that in the sky. The tern- 
plum augurale, which appears to have included 
ooth, was divided into four parts : those to 
the east and west were termed sinistrae and 
dextrae ; to the north and south, anticae and 
posticae. If a breath of air disturbed the 
calmness of the heavens, the auspices could 
not be taken ; and according to Plutarch it 
was for this reason the augurs carried lan- 
terns open to the wind. After sacrificing, 
the augur offered a prayer for the desired 
signs to appear, repeating after an inferior 
minister a set form ; unless the first appear- 
ances were confirmed by subsequent ones, 
they were insufficient. If, in returning home, 
the augur came to a running stream, he again 
repeated a prayer, and purified himself in its 
waters ; otherwise the auspices were held to 
be null. 

Another method of taking the auspices, 
more usual in military expeditions, was from 
the feeding of birds confined in a cage, and 
committed to the care of the pullarius. An 
ancient decree of the college of augurs al- 
lowed the auspices to be taken from any bird. 
When all around seemed favourable, either 
at dawn or in the evening, the pullarius 
opened the cage and threw to the chickens 
pulse, or a kind of soft cake. If they refused 
to come out, or to eat, or uttered a cry (oc- 
cinerunt), or beat their wings, or flew away, 
the signs were considered unfavourable, and 
the engagement was delayed. On the con- 
trary, if they ate greedily, so that something 
fell and struck the earth (tripudium solistimum ; 
tripudium quasi terripavivm, solistimum, from 
solum, the latter part of the word probably 
from the root stimulo), it was held a favoura- 
ble sign. 

The place where the auspices were taken, 
called auguraculum, augurale, or auguratorium, 
was open to the heavens. One of the most 
ancient of these was on the Palatine hill, the 
regular station for the observation of augurs. 
Sometimes the auspices were taken in the 
capitol. In the camp a place was set apart 
to the right of the general's tent. 

The lex Aelia and Fufia provided that no 
assemblies of the people should be held, nisi 
prius de coelo servatum esset. It appears to 
have confirmed to the magistrates the power of 
obnunciatio,or of interposing a veto. [ AUGUR.] 

AUTHEPSA (avdeipjj^, which literally 
means " self-boiling," or " self cooking," was 
the name of a vessel which is supposed to 
have been used for heating water, or for keep 
ing it hot. 



BALNEUM. 



47 



AUTO'NOMI (avTOvdftoi), the name given 
oy the Greeks to those states which were gov- 
erned by their own laws, and were not subject 
to any foreign power. This name was also 
given to those cities subject to the Romans, 
which were permitted to enjoy their own 
laws and elect their own magistrates. 

AUXI'LIA. [Soon.] 

AXE. [SECURIS.] 

AXIS. [CURRUS.] 

AXLE. [CURRUS.] 

A'XONES (4fwf), wooden tablets of a 
square or pyramidal form, made to turn on 
an axis, on which were written the laws of 
Solon. 



B. 



BAIL. [ACTIO.] 

BAKER. [PisTOR.] 

BALISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.] 

BALL, game at. [PiLA.] 

BA'LNEUM or BALI'NEUM (Aoerpov or 



, fiahavetov, also balneae or balineae), 
a bath. Balneum or balineum signifies, in its 
primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such 
as most Romans possessed in their own 
houses ; and from that it came to mean the 
chamber which contained the bath. When 
the baths of private individuals became more 
sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the 
plural balnea or balinea was adopted, which 
still, in correct language, had reference only 
to the baths of private persons. Balneae and 
balineae, which have no singular number, were 
the public baths. But this accuracy of dic- 
tion is neglected by many of the subsequent 
writers. Thermae (from depart, warmth) mean 
properly warm springs, or baths of warm 
water, but were afterwards applied to the 
structures in which the baths were placed, 
and which were both hot and cold. 'There 
was, however, a material distinction between 
the balneae and thermae, inasmuch as the for- 
mer was the term used under the republic, 
and referred to the public establishments of 
that age, which contained no appliances for 
luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot 
and cold baths, whereas the latter name was 
given to those magnificent edifices which 
grew up under the empire, and which com- 
prised within their range of buildings all the 
appurtenances belonging to the Greek gym- 
nasia, as well as a regular establishment ap- 
propriated for bathing. 

Bathing was a practice familiar to the 
Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. 
The artificial warm bath was taken in a vessel 
called asaminthus (liadftivdog), by Homer, and 



puelus (TTiieAof) by the later Creeks. It did 
not contain water itself, but wa only used for 
the bather to sit in, while the varm water 
was poured over him. On Greek vases, how- 
ever, we n^ver find anything corresponding 
to a modem bath in which persons can stand 
or sit ; but there is always a round or oval 
basin (Aour^p or hovrftpiov), resting on a 
stand, by the side of which those who are 
bathing are standing undressed and washing 
themselves. 




In the Homeric times it was customary to 
take first a cold and afterwards a warm bath ; 
but in later times it was the usual practice of 
the Greeks to take first a warm or vapour, and 
afterwards a cold bath. At Athens the fre- 
quent use of the public baths, most of which 
were warm baths (j3a2.avela, called by Homer 
6epfj,a yloerpa), was regarded in the time of 
Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of lux- 
ury and effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion 
was said to have never bathed in a public 
bath, and Socrates to have used it very 
seldom. 

After bathing, both sexes anointed them- 
selves, in order that the skin might not be left 
harsh and rough, especially after warm water. 
Oil (Zhaiov) is the only ointment mentioned 
by Homer, but in later times precious un- 
guents (/u,vpa) were used for this purpose. The 
bath was usually taken before the principal 
meal of the day (deiTrvov.) 

The Lacedaemonians,who considered warm 
water as enervating, used two kinds of baths ; 
namely, the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, 
and a dry sudorific bath in a chamber heated 
with warm air by means of a stove, and from 
them the chamber used by the Romans for a 



BALNEUM. 



similai purpose was termed Laconicum. 
sudorific or vapour bath (Trvpia or 

Sov) is mentioned as early as the time of 
erodotus. 

At what period the use of the warm bath 
was introduced among the Romans is not re- 
corded ; but we know that Scipio had a warm 
bath in his villa at Liternum, and the practice 
of heating an apartment with warm air by 
flues placed immediately under it, so as to pro- 
duce a vapour bath, is stated to have been in- 
vented by Sergius Grata, who lived in the age 
of Crassus, before the Marsic war. 

By the time of Cicero the use of baths of 
warm water and hot air had become common, 
and in his time there were baths at Rome 
which were open to the public upon payment 
of a small fee. In the public baths at Rome 
the men and women used originally to bathe 
in separate sets of chambers; but under the 
empire it became the common custom for both 
sexes to bathe indiscriminately in the same 
bath. This practice was forbidden by Hadrian 
and M. Aurelius ; and Alexander Severus pro- 
hibited any baths, common to both sexes, from 
being opened in Rome. 

The price of a bath was a quadrant, the 
smallest piece of coined money, from the age 



of Cicero downwards, which was paid to the 
keeper of the bath (balneator). Children below 
a certain age were admitted free. 

It was usual with the Romans to take the 
bath after exercise, and before the principal 
meal (coend) of the day ; but the debauchees 
of the empire bathed also after eating as well 
as before, in order to promote digestion, and 
to acquire a new appetite for fresh delicacies. 
Upon quitting the bath the Romans as well as 
the Greeks were anointed with oil. 

The Romans did not content themselves 
with a single bath of hot or cold water ; but 
they went through a course of baths in suc- 
cession, in which the agency of air as well as 
water was applied. It is difficult to ascertain 
the precise order in which the course was 
usually taken ; but it appears to have been a 
general practice to close the pores, and brace 
the body after the excessive perspiration of 
the vapour bath, either by pouring cold water 
over the head, or by plunging at once into the 
piscina. 

To' render the subjoined remarks more 
easily intelligible, the annexed woodcut is in- 
serted, which is taken from a fresco painting 
upon the walls of the thermae of Titus at 
Rome. 




Fresco from the Thermae of Titus. 



The chief parts of a Roman bath were as 



follow :- 

1. Apodyterium. 



Here the bathers were ex- 



pected to take off their garments, which were 
then delivered to a class of slaves called cap- 
sarii, whose duty it was to take charge of 
them. These men were notorious for dis- 
honesty, and were leagued with all the thieves 



of the city, so that they connived at the rob- 
beries which they were placed to prevent. 

There was probably an Elaeothesium or Unc- 
torium, as appears from the preceding cut, in 
connexion with the apodyterium, where the 
bathers might be anointed with oil. 

2. Frigidarium or Cella Frigidaria,"where the 
cold bath was taken. The cold bath itself 



BALNEUM. 

was called Ifalatio. Natatorium, Piscina, Bap- 
tistcriiim, or Puteus. 

3. Tepidarium would seem from the prece- 
ding cut to have been a bathing room, for a 
person is there apparently represented pour- 
ing water over a bather. But there is good 
reason for thinking that this was not the case. 
In most cases the tepidarium contained no 
water at all, but was a room merely heated 
with warm air of an agreeable temperature, 
in order to prepare the body for the great 
heat of the vapour and warm baths, and upon 
returning from the latter, to obviate the dan- 
ger of a too sudden transition to the open 
air. 

4. The Caldarium or Concamerata Sudatio 
contained at one extremity the vapour bath 
(Laconicum), and at the other the warm bath 
(balneum or calda lavatio), while the centre 
space -between the two ends was termed su- 
datio or sudatorium. In larger establishments 
the vapour bath and warm bath were in two 
separate cells, as we see in the preceding cut : 
in such cases the former part alone was called 
rsmcamerata sudatio. The whole rested on a 
suspended pavement (suspensura), under which 
was a fire (hypocaustum), so that the flames 
might heat the whole apartment. (See cut.) 

The warm water bath (balneum or calda lava* 
tio), which is also called piscina or calida pisci- 
na, labrum and solium, appears to have been a 
capacious marble vase, sometimes standing 
upon the floor, like that in the preceding cut, 
and sometimes either partly elevated above 
the floor, as it was at Pompeii, or entirely 
sunk into it. 

After having gone through the regular 
course of perspiration, the Romans made use 
of instruments called strigiles or strigles, to 
scrape off the perspiration. The strigil was 
also used by the Greeks, who called it stlengis 
(GTfa-y-yie) or xystra (^varpa). One of the 
figures in the cut on p. 47, is represented with 
a strigil in his hand. As the strigil was not 
a blunt instrument, its edge was softened by 
the application of oil, which was dropped upon 
it from a small vessel called guttus or ampulla, 
which had a narrow neck, so as to discharge 
its contents drop by drop, whence the name 
is taken. A representation of a guttus is 
given in the annexed cat, together with 
some strigils. 

In the Thermae, spoken of above, the baths 
were of secondary importance. They were a 
Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium, 
contained exedrae for the philosophers and 
rhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for the 
idle, and libraries for the learned, and were 
adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded 
walks and plantations. M. Agrippa, in the 
E 



BARATHRON. ^9 

icign of Augustus, was the first who afforded 
these luxuries to his countrymen, by be- 




Strigiles, and Guttus. 

queathing to them the thermae and gardens 
which he had erected in the Campus Martius. 
The example set by Agrippa was followed by 
Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the ruins of 
whose thermae are still visible, covering a 
vast extent, partly underground, and partly 
above the Esqxiiline hill. Thermae were also 
erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, 
of the two last of which ample remains still 
exist. 

Previously to the erection of these estab- 
lishments for the use of the population, it 
was customary for those who sought the fa- 
vour of the people to give them a day's bath- 
ing free of expense. From thence it is fair to 
infer that the quadrant paid for admission into 
the balneae was not exacted at the thermae, 
which, as being the works of the emperors, 
would naturally be opened with imperial gen- 
erosity to all, and without any charge. 

BA'LTEUS (reha/Liuv), a belt, a shoulder 
belt, was used to suspend the sword. See 
the figs, on p. 38. In the Homeric times the 
Greeks used a belt to support the shield. 
The balteus was likewise employed to sus- 
pend the quiver, and sometimes together with 
it the bow. More commonly the belt,whethei 
employed to support the sword, the shield, 01 
the quiver, was made of leather, and was fre- 
quently ornamented with gold, silver, and 
precious stones. In a general sense balteus 
was applied not only to the belt,which passed 
over the shoulder, but also to the girdle (cin- 
gulum), which encompassed the waist. 
BANISHMENT. [EXSILIUM.] 
BANKER. [ARGENTARII; MENSARII.] 
BARATHRON (8dpa6pov), a deep cavern 
or chasm, like the Ceadas at Sparta, behind 
the Acropolis at Athens, into which criminal 8 
were thrown. [CEADAS.] 



50 



BASILICA. 



BARB A (;njywv, yevetov, VTTTJVJJ), the beard. 
The Greeks seem generally to have worn the 
heard till the time of Alexander the Great ; 
and a thick beard was considered as a mark 
of manliness. The Greek philosophers in 
particular were distinguished by their long 
beards as a sort of badge. The Romans in 
early times wore the beard uncut, and the 
Roman beards are said not to have been shaved 
till B. c. 300, when P. TiciniusMaena brought 
over a barber from Sicily ; and Pliny adds, that 
the first Roman who is said to have been 
shaved every day was Scipio Africanus. His 
custom, however, was soon followed, and 
shaving became a regular thing. In the later 
times of the republic there were many who 
shaved the beard only partially, and trimmed 
it, so as to give it an ornamental form ; to 
them the terms bene barbati and barbatuli are 
applied. 

In the general way at Rome, a long beard 
(barba promissa) was considered a mark of 
slovenliness and squalor. The first time of 
shaving was regarded as the beginning of 
manhood, and the day on which this took 
place was celebrated as a festival. There was 
no particular time fixed for this to be done. 
Usually, however, it was done when the 
young Roman assumed the toga virilis. The 
hair cut off on such occasions was conse- 
crated to some god. Thus Nero put his up 
in a gold box, set with pearls, and dedicated 
it to Jupiter Capilolinus. 

With the emperor Hadrian the beard began 
to revive. Plutarch says that the emperor 
wore it to hide some scars on his face. The 
practice afterwards became common, and till 
the time of Constantino the Great, the em- 
perors appear in busts and coins with beards. 
The Romans let their beards grow in time of 
mourning ; the Greeks, on the other hand, on 
such occasions shaved the beard close. 

BARBER. [BARBA.] 

BA'RBITUS (popping), or BA'RBITON 
(fidpftiTOv), a stringed instrument, tjie origi- 
nal form of which is uncertain. Later writers 
use it as synonymous with the lyra. [LYRA.] 

BASI'LICA (sc. aedes, aula, portions j3aat- 
TiLKrj, also regia), a building which served as a 
court of law and an exchange, or place of 
meeting for merchants and men of business. 
The word was adopted from the Athenians, 
whose second archon was styled archon basi- 
leus (upyuv panihevc), and the tribunal where 
he adjudicated */oa &<m7'us(r)/3a<7t/le0f orou), 
the substantive aula or portions in Latin being 
omitted for convenience, and the distinctive 
epithet converted into a substantive. 

The first edifice of this description at Rome 
was not erected until B. c. 183, It was situated 



in the forum adjoining the curia, and was de- 
nominated Basilica Portia, in commemoration 
of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. Besides this 
there were twenty others, erected at different 
periods, within the city of Rome. 

The following is a representation of the 
Basilica Aernilia, from a medal of Lepidus. 




The forum, or, where there was more than 
one, the one which was in the most fre- 
quented and central part of the city, was al 
ways selected for the site of the basilica ; and 
hence it is that the classic writers not unfre- 
quently use the terms forum and basilica sy- 
nonymously. The ground plan of all these 
buildings is rectangular, and their width not 
more than half, nor less than one-third of the 
length. This area was divided into three 
naves, consisting of a centre (media portions}, 
and two side aisles, separated from the centre 
one, each by a single row of columns. At one 
end of the centre aisle was the tribunal of the 
judge, in form either rectangular or circular, 
as is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica 



LETT 



Ground Plan of a Basilica. 



at Pompeii. In the centre of the tribunal was 
placed the curule chair of the praetor, and 
seats for the judices and the advocates. The 
two side aisles, as has been said, were sepa- 
rated from the centre one by a row of columns, 
behind each of which was placed a square pier 
or pilaster (parastatd), which supported the 
flooring of an upper portico, similar to the 
gallery of a modern church. 

The upper gallery was in like manner dec- 
orated with columns, of lower dimensions 
than those below ; and these served to sup- 
port the roof, 'nd were connected with one 



BESTIARII. 

another by a parapet-wall or balustrade ( plu- 
teus~), which served as a defence against the 
danger of falling over, and screened the crowd 
of loiterers above (snb-basilicani) from the peo- 
ple of business in the area below. Many of 
these edifices were afterwards used as Chris- 
tian churches, and many churches were built 
after the model above described. Such 
churches were called basilicae, which name 
they retain to the present day, being still 
called at Rome basiliche. 
BATH. [BALNEUM.] 
BATTERING-RAM. [ARIES.] 
BEAKS OF SHIPS. [Nxvis.] 
BEARD. [BARBA.] 
BED or COUCH. [LECTUS.] 

BELL. [TlNTINNABULUM.] 

BELLOWS. [FOLLIS.] 

BELT. [BALTEUS; ZONA.] 

BEMA (,%/a). [EccLEsiA.] 

BENDIDEIA (pevditeid), a Thracian fes- 
tival in honour of the goddess Bendis, who 
is said to be identical with the Grecian Arte- 
mis and with the Roman Diana. The festi- 
val was of a bacchanalian character. From 
Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it 
was celebrated in the Peiraeeus, on the 19th 
or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the 
Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis 
was called Bendideion. 

BENEFFCIUM, BENEFICIA'RIUS. The 
term beneficium is of frequent occurrence in 
the Roman law, in the sense of some special 
privilege or favour granted to a person in re- 
spect of age, sex, or condition. But the word 
was also used in other senses. In the time 
of Cicero it was usual for a general, or a gov- 
ernor of a province, to report to the treasury 
the names of those under his command who 
had done good service to the state ; those 
who were included in such report were said 
in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri. In beneficiis 
in thes'e passages may mean that the persons 
so reported were considered as persons who 
had deserved well of the state ; and so the 
word beneficium may have reference to the 
services of the individuals; but as the object 
for which their services were reported was 
the benefit of the individuals, it seems that 
the term had reference also to the reward, 
immediate or remote, obtained for their ser- 
vices. The honours and offices of the Ro- 
man state, in the republican period, were 
called the beneficia of the Populus Romanus. 

Beneficium also signified any promotion 
conferred on or grant made to soldiers, who 
were thence called beneficiarii. 

BESTIA'RII (dtjptofj.axot), persons who 
fought with wild beasts in the games of the 
circus. They were either persons who fought 



BIBLIOTHECA. 



51 



for the sake of pay (auctor -amentum), and, who 
were allowed arms, or they were criminals, 
who were usually permitted to have no means 
of defence against the wild beasts. 

BIBLIOPO'LA (/fy&UoTnj^f), also called 
librarius, a bookseller. The shop v/as called 
apotheca or taberna libraria, or merely libraria. 
The Romans had their Paternoster-row ; for 
the bibliopolae or librarii lived mostly in 
one street, called Argiletum. Another fa- 
vourite quarter of the booksellers was the Vi- 
cus Sandalarius. There seems also to have 
been a sort of bookstalls by the temples ot 
Vertumnus and Janus. 

BIBLIOTHF/CA ([3i(32,i.odf}K7i, or faoOq- 
KTJ j&jftUuy), primarily, the place where a 
collection of books was kept; secondarily, 
the collection itself. Public collections of 
books appear to have been very ancient. 
That of Peisistratus (B. c. 550) was intended 
for public use ; it was subsequently removed 
to Persia by Xerxes. About the same time 
Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, is said to have 
founded a library. In the best days of Athens, 
even private persons had large collections of 
books ; but the most important and splendid 
public library of antiquity was that founded 
by the Ptolemies at Alexandrea, begun under 
Ptolemy Soter, but increased and re-arranged 
in an orderly and systematic manner by Ptole- 
my Philadelphus, who also appointed a fixed 
librarian, and otherwise provided for the use- 
fulness of the institution. A great part of 
this splendid library was consumed by fire in 
the siege of Alexandrea by Julius Caesar; 
but it was soon restored, and continued in 
a flourishing condition till it was destroyed 
by the Arabs, A. D. 640. The Ptolemies 
were not long without a rival in zeal. Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus, became a patron 
of literature and the sciences, and established 
a library, which, in spite of the prohibition 
against exporting papyrus issued by Ptolemy, 
jealous of his success, became very extensive 
and perhaps next in importance to the library 
of Alexandrea. 

The first public library in Rome was that 
founded by Asinius Pollio, and was in the 
Atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. The 
library of Pollio was followed by that of Au* 
gustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount Pal- 
atine and another, bibliothecae Octavianae, 
in the theatre of Marcellus. There were 
also libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of 
Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the 
Ulpian library, which was the most famous, 
founded by Trajan. Libraries were also 
usually attached to the Thermae. [BALNE- 
UM.] 

Private collections of books were made a 



BOEOTARCHES. 



52 

Rome soon after the second Punic war. The 
zeal of Cicero, Atticus, and others, in increas- 
ing their libraries is well known. It became, 
in fact, the fashion to have a room elegantly 
furnished as a library, and reserved for that 
purpose. The charge of the libraries in 
Rome was given to persons called librarii. 

BIDENTAL, the name given to a place 
where any one had been struck by lightning, 
or where any one had been killed by light- 
ning and buried. Such a place was consid- 
ered sacred. Priests, who were called biden- 
tales, collected the earth which had been torn 
up by lightning, and every thing that had 
been scorched, and burnt it in the ground 
with a sorrowful murmur. The officiating 
priest was said condere fulgur ; he farther 
consecrated the spot by sacrificing a two- 
year-old sheep (bidens), whence the name of 
the place and of the priest, and he also erect- 
ed an altar, and surrounded it with a wall or 
fence. To move the bounds of a bidental, or 
in any way to violate its sacred precincts, 
was considered as sacrilege. 

BIGA or B1GAE. [CuRRUs.] 

BIGA'TUS. [DENARIUS.] 

BI'KOS (/tocof), the name of an earthen 
vessel in common use among the Greeks. 
Hesychius defines it as a aTu.fj.vog with han- 
dles. It was used for holding wine, and salt- 
ed meat and fish. Herodotus speaks of-fti- 
tcovg <j>oivtKr]iov KaTuyovci, olvov TT/leovf, 
which some commentators interpret by " ves- 
sels made of the wood of the palm-tree full 
of wine." But as Eustathius speaks of olvov 
^OLVLKfjlov PIKOC, we ought probably to read 
in Herodotus (3iKov(; QOIVLKIJIOV, AC. r. A., 
" vessels full of palm wine." 

BIPENNIS. [SECURIS.] 

BIRE'MIS. 1. A ship with two banks of 
oars. [NAVIS.] Such ships were called di- 
crota by the Greeks, which term is also used 
by Cicero 2. A boat rowed by two oars. 

BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM, 
p. 60.] 

BOEDRO'MIA (j3or)dp6/tia), a festival cel- 
ebrated at Athens on the seventh day of the 
month Boedromion, in honour of Apollo Bpe- 
dromius. The name Boedromius, by which 
Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other 
parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by 
this festival he was honoured as a martial 
god, who either by his actual presence or by 
his oracles afforded assistance in the dangers 
of war. 

BITS of horses. [FRENUM.] 

BOEOTARCHES (poiuTdpxve, or ftoi- 
UTdpxoe ), the name of the chief magistrates 
of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the 
different states. Their duties were chiefly 



BOULE. 

of a military character. Each state of the 
confederacy elected one boeotarch, the The- 
hans two. The total number from the whole 
confederacy varied with the number of the 
independent states, but at the time of the 
Peloponnesian war they appear to have, been 
ten or twelve. 

The boeotarchs, when engaged in military 
service, formed a council of war, the deci- 
sions of which were determined by a majority 
of votes, the president being one of the two 
Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alter- 
nately. Their period of service was a year, 
beginning about the winter solstice; and 
whoever continued in office longer than his 
time was punishable with death, both at 
Thebes and in other cities. 

BONA, property. The phrase in bonis is 
frequently used as opposed to dominium or 
Quiritarian ownership (ex jure Quiritium). The 
ownership of certain kinds of things among 
the Romans could only be transferred from 
one person to another with certain formali- 
ties, or acquired by usucapion (that is, the 
uninterrupted possession of a thing for a cer- 
tain time). But if it was clearly the intention 
of the owner to transfer the ownership, and 
the necessary forms only were wanting, the 
purchaser had the thing 'in bonis, and he had 
the enjoyment of it, though the original own- 
er was still legally the owner, and was said to 
have the thing ex jure Quiritium, notwith- 
standing he had parted with the thing. The 
person who possessed a thing in bonis was 
protected in the enjoyment of it by the prae- 
tor, and consequently after a time would ob- 
tain the Quiritarian ownership of it by usu- 
capion. [USUCAPIO.] 

BOOK. [LIBER.] 

BOOKSELLER. [BIBLIOPOLA.] 

BOOT. [COTHURNUS.] 

BOREASMUS (Bopeaajioc or Bopeaa/toi), 
a festival celebrated by the Athenians in 
honour of Boreas,which, as Herodotus seems 
to think, was instituted during the Persian 
war, when the Athenians, being commanded 
by an oracle to invoke their ya/Ltfipb? iiriicov 
poc, prayed to Boreas. But considering that 
Boreas was intimately connected with the 
early history of Attica, we have reason to sup- 
pose that even previous to the Persian wars 
certain honours were paid to him,which were 
perhaps only revived and increased after the 
event recorded by Herodotus. The festival, 
however, does not seem ever to have had any 
great celebrity. 

BOTTOMRY. [FENUS.] 

BOULE' (Bovhq ?} rtiv TrevraKoaiuv). In 
the heroic ages, represented to us by Homer, 
the boult is simply an aristocratica! council of 



BOULE. 



53 



the elders amongst the nobles, sitting under 
their king as president, which decided on pub- 
lic business and judicial matters, frequently 
in connexion with, but apparently not subject 
to an agora, or meeting of the freemen of the 
state. [AGORA.] This form of government, 
though it existed for some time in the Ionian, 
Aeolian, and Achaean states, was at last 
wholly* abolished in these states. Among the 
Dorians, however, especially among the Spar- 
tans, this was not the case, for they retained 
the kingly power of the Heracleidae, in con- ! 
junction with the Gerousia or assembly of el- 
ders, of which the kings were members. [GE- 
ROUSIA.] At Athens, on the contrary, the 
boule was a representative, and in most re- 
spects a popular body (drj/nortKov). 

The first institution of the Athenian boule, 
is generally attributed to Solon ; but there are 
strong reasons for supposing that, as in the 
case of the Areiopagus, he merely modified the 
constitution of a body which he found already 
existing. But be this as it may, it is admitted 
that Solon made the number of his boule 400, 
] 00 from each of the four tribes. When the 
number of the tribes was raised to ten by Clei- 
sthenes (B. c. 510), the council also was in- 
creased to 500, fifty being taken from each of 
the ten tribes. The bouleutae (povXevrai) or 
councillors, were appointed by lot, and hence 
they are called councillors made by the bean 
(ol UTTO TOV KVU/J.OV flovfevTai), from the use 
of beans in drawing lots. They were required 
to submit to a scrutiny or docimasia, in which 
they gave evidence of being genuine citizens, 
of never having lost their civic rights by atimia, 
and also of being above 30 years of age. They 
remained in office for a year, receiving a 
drachma (fiicdb^ fiovfavTiKOs) f r eac h day 
on which they sat : and independent of the 
general account (cvdvvai), which the whole 
body had to give at the end of the year, any 
single member was liable to expulsion for mis- 
conduct, by his colleagues. 

The senate of 500 was divided into ten sec- 
tions of fifty each, the members of which were 
called prytanes (Trpvruveitf, and were all of 
the same tribe ; they acted as presidents both 
of the council and the assemblies during thirty- 
five or thirty-six days, as the case might be, 
so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days 
(12 x 29). Each tribe exercised these func- 
tions in turn ; the period of office was called 
a prytany (TrpvTavEia), and the tribe that pre- 
sided the presiding tribe ; the order in which 
the tribes presided was determined by lot, and 
the four supernumerary days were given to 
the tribes which came last in order. More- 
over, to obviate the difficulty of having too 
many in office at once, every fifty was subdi- 

w 91 



vided into five bodies of ten each ; its prytany 
also being portioned out into five periods of 
seven days each ; so that only ten senators 
presided for a week over the rest, and were 
thence called proedri (Trpoedpoi). Again out 
of these proedri an epistates (eTTKTTUTijg) was 
chosen for one day to preside as a chairman 
in the senate and the assembly of the people : 
during his day of office he kept the public 
records and seal. 

The prytanes had the right of convening the 
council and the assembly (e/c/c/tjycmz). The 
duty of the proedri and their president was to 
propose subjects for discussion, and to take 
the votes both of the councillors and the peo- 
ple ; for neglect of their duty they were liable 
to a fine. Moreover, whenever a meeting, 
either of the council or of the assembly, was 
convened, the chairman of the proedri selected 
by lot nine others, one from each of the non- 
presiding tribes ; these also were called proe- 
dri, and possessed a chairman of their own, 
likewise appointed by lot from among them- 
selves. But the proedri who proposed the 
subject for discussion to the assembly be- 
longed to the presiding tribe. 

It is observed, under AREIOPAGUS, that the 
chief object of Solon, in forming the senate 
and the areiopagus, was to control the demo- 
cratical powers of the state : for this purpose 
he ordained that the senate should discuss 
and vote upon all matters before they were 
submitted to the assembly, so that nothing 
could be laid before the people on which the 
senate had not come to a previous decision. 
This decision, or bill, was called probouleuma 
(irpopovfavfta) ; but then not only might this 
probouleuma be rejected or modified by the 
assembly, but the latter also possessed and 
exercised the power of coming to a decision 
completely different from the will of the sen- 
ate. In addition to the bills which it was the 
duty of the senate to propose of their own 
accord, there were others of a different cha- 
racter,viz. such as any private individual might 
wish to have submitted to the people. To ac- 
complish this, it was first necessary for the 
party to obtain, by petition, the privilege of 
access to the senate, and leave to propose his 
motion ; and if the measure met with their 
approbation, he could then submit it to the 
assembly. A proposal of this kind, which had 
the sanction of the senate, was also called pro- 
bouleuma, and frequently related to the con- 
ferring of some particular honour or privilege 
upon an individual. Thus the proposal of 
Ctesiphon for crowning Demosthenes is so 
styled. In the assembly the bill of the senate 
was first read, perhaps by the crier, after the 
introductory ceremonies were over ; and ther. 



54 



BRASS. 



the proedri put the question to the people, 
whether they approved of it. The people de- 
clared their will by a show of hands (irpoxei- 
porovia). If it was confirmed it became a pse- 
phisma (^(fnaaa), or decree of the people, 
binding upon all classes. The form for draw- 
ing up such decrees varied in different ages. 
In the time of Demosthenes the decrees com- 
mence with the name of the archon; then 
corne the day of the month, the tribe in office, 
and lastly, the name of the proposer. The 
motive for passing the decree is next stated : 
and then follows the decree itself, prefaced 
with the formula deJo^&u ry ftovhy nai TCJ 
drifj.^. 

The senate house was called Bouleuterion 



The prytanes also had a building to hold 
their meetings in, where they were enter- 
tained at the public expense during their pry- 
tany. This was called the Prytaneion, and 
was used for a variety of purposes. [PRY- 

TANEION.] 

BOW. [ARCUS.] 

BOXING. [PUGILATUS.] 

BRACAE, or BRACCAE (dtfefvptfer), 

t^owsers, pantaloons, were common to all the 




BUCCINA. 

| BRAURO'NIA (ftpavpuvia), a festival cel- 
ebrated in honour of Diana Brauronia, in 
j the Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes 
[ and Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauria, 
were supposed by the Athenians to have land- 
ed, and left the statue of the Taurian goddess. 
It was held every fifth year, and the chief so- 
lemnity consisted in the Attic girls between 
the ages of five and ten years going in solemn 
procession to the sanctuary, where they were 
consecrated to the goddess. During this act 
the priests sacrificed a goat, and the girls 
performed a propitiatory rite, in which they 
imitated bears. This rite may have simply 
risen from the circumstance that the bear 
was sacred to Diana, especially in Arcadia. 
There was also a quinquennial festival called 
Brauronia, which was celebrated by men and 
dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of 
Bacchus. 

BREAKFAST. [COENA; DEIPNON.] 

BREASTPLATE. [LORICA.] 

BRIBERY. [AMBITUS.] 

BRIDE. [MATRIMONIUM.] 

BRIDGE. [PONS.] 

BRIDLE. [FRENUM.] 

BRONZE. [AEs.] 

BROOCH. [FIBULA.] 

BU'CCIN A (fivKavrj), a kind of horn trum- 
pet, anciently made put of a shell (buccinum), 
the form of which is exhibited in the two 
specimens annexed. In the former it is curved 
for the convenience of the performer with a 
very wide mouth, to diffuse and increase the 
sound. In the next, it still retains the origi- 
nal form of the shell. The buccina was dis- 
tinct from the cornu ; but it is often confound- 
ed with it. The buccina seems to have been 



Bracae, Trowsers. 

nations which encircled the Greek and Ro- 
man population, extending from the Indian to 
the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn by the 
Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly 
the monuments containing representations of 
people different from the Greeks and Romans 
exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing 
them from the latter people. An example is 
seen in the preceding group of Sarmatians. 

BRACELET. [ARMILLA.] 

BRASS. [AES.] 




Buccinae, Trumpets. 



chiefly distinguished by the twisted form of 
the shell, from which it was originally made 



BUXUM. 

In later times it was carved from horn, and 
perhaps from wood or metal, so as to imitate 
the shell. 

The buccina was chiefly used to proclaim 
the watches of the day and of the night, hence 
called buccina prima, secunda, &c. It was 
also blown at funerals, and aV festive enter- 
taiments both before sitting down to table 
and after. 

BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, 
so called from its resemblance in form to a 



CADUCEUS. 



55 




Bulla, usual form and size. 

bubble floating upon water. Bright studs of 
this description were used to adorn the sword 
belt ; but we most frequently read of bullae as 
ornaments worn by children, suspended from 
the neck, and especially by the sons of the 
noble and wealthy. The bulla was usually 
made of thin plates of gold. 

BURIS. [ARATRUM.] 

BUSTUM. It was customary among the 
Romans to burn the bodies of the dead be- 
fore burying them. When the spot appoint- 
ed for that purpose adjoined the place of sep- 
ulture, it was termed bustum ; when it was 
separate from it, it was called ustrina. 

From this word the gladiators, who were 
hired to fight round the burning pyre of the 
deceased, were called bustuarii. 

BURIAL. [FuNus.] 

BURNING the dead. [FuNus.] 

BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the 
wood of the box-tree, but was given as a 
name to many things made of this wood. The 



tablets used for writing on, and covered with 
wax (tabulae ceratae), were usually made ol 
this wood. In the same way the Greek TTV- 
iov, formed from Trufof, " box-wood," came 
to be applied to any tablets, whether they 
were made of this wood or any other sub- 
stance. 

Tops were made of box-wood, and also all 
wind instruments, especially the flute. Combs 
likewise were made of the same wood. 

BYSSUS (/3va<70f), linen, and not cotton. 
The word byssus appears to come from the 
Hebrew butz, and the Greeks probably got it 
through the Phoenicians. 



C. 



CABEI'RIA (xafteiptay, mysteries, festi- 
vals, and orgies, solemnized in all places in 
which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, 
but especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lem- 
nos, Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and Be- 
rytos. Little is known respecting the rites 
observed in these mysteries, as no one was 
allowed to divulge them. The most cele- 
brated were those of the island of Samo- 
thrace, which, if we may judge from those ot 
Lemnos, were solemnized every year, and 
lasted for nine days. Persons on their ad- 
mission seem to have undergone a sort of 
examination respecting the life they had 
led hitherto, and were then purified of all 
their crimes, even if they had committed mur- 
der. 

CADISCI or CADI (tcadcaKoi or tiddoi), 
were small vessels or urns, in which the 
counters or pebbles of the dicasts were put, 
when they gave their votes on a trial. There 
were in fact usually two cadisci : one made 
of copper, in which the voting pebble was 
put; the other made of wood, in which the 
other pebble, which had not been used, was 
put. After all had voted, the presiding offi- 
cer emptied the counters or pebbles from the 
metal urn, and counted them on the table. 
Judgment was then given accordingly. 

CADU'CEUS (KrjpvKEtov, K.r]pi>K.iov), the 
staff or mace carried by heralds and ambas- 
sadors in time of war. This name is also 
given to the staff with which Hermes or Mer- 
cury is usually represented, as is shown in 
the following figure of that god. 

From caditceus was formed the word cadu- 
ceator, which signified a person sent to treat 
of peace. The persons of the caduceatores 
were considered sacred. 



CAERITUM TABULAE. 




Mercury bearing the Caducevs. 

CADUS (Kudo?, /ea(Woc), a large earthen 
vessel, which was used for several purposes 
among the ancients. Wine was frequently 
kept in it, and we learn from an author quoted 
by Pollux, that the amphora was also called 
cadus. The vessel used in drawing water 
from wells was called cadus, or yav/ldf. 

CAE'CUBUM V1NUM, a name given to a 
wine which was at one time the best growth 
of the Falernian vineyards. " Formerly," says 
Pliny, " the Caecuban wine.which came from 
the poplar marshes of Amyclae, was most es- 
teemed of all the Campanian wines ; but it has 
now lost its repute, partly from the negligence 
of the growers, and partly from the limited ex- 
tent of the vineyard, which has been nearly 
destroyed by the navigable canal that was be- 
gun by Nero from Avernus to Ostia." The 
Caecuban wine is described by Galen as a 
generous, durable wine, but apt to affect the 
head, and ripening only after a long term of 
years. It appears to have been one of Horace's 
favourite wines, of which he speaks in gen- 
eral as having been reserved for important 
festivals. After the breaking up of the prin- 
cipal vineyards which supplied it, this wine 
would necessarily become very scarce and 
valuable. 

CAE'RITUM TA'BULAE. The inhabi- 
tants of Caere obtained from the Romans, in 
early times, the Roman franchise, but with- 
out the suffragium. The names of the citizens 



CALCAR. 

of Caere were kept at Rome in lists called 
tabulae Caeritum, in which the names of all 
other citizens, who had not the suffragium, 
appear to have been entered in later times. 
All citizens who were degraded by the cen- 
sors to the rank of aerarians, were classed 
among the Caerites ; and hence we find the 
expressions of aerarium facere, and in tabulas 
Caeritum referri, used as synonymous. [AE- 

RARII.] 

CALAMISTRUM, an instrument made of 
iron, and hollow like a reed (calamus), usfcd 
for curling the hair. For this purpose it was 
heated, the person who performed the office 
of heating it in wood ashes (cinis) being called 
ciniflo, Or cinerarius. 

CA'LAMUS, a sort of reed which the an- 
cients used as a pen for writing. The best 
sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus. 

CA'LATHUS (Kdhadoe, also called r/l<z- 
pof), usually signified the basket in which 
women placed their work, and especially the 
materials for spinning. In the following cut 
a slave, belonging to the class called quasil- 
lariae, is presenting her mistress with the 
calathus, 




SlaTe presenting a Ca 



Baskets of this kind were also used for 
other purposes, such as for carrying fruits, 
flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also 
given to cups for holding wine. Calathus 
was properly a Greek word, though used by 
the Latin writers. The Latin word corre- 
sponding to it was qualus or quasillus. From 
quasillus came quasillaria, the name of the 
slave who spun, and who was considered the 
meanest of the female slaves. 

CALCAR, a spur, that is, a goad attached 
to the heel (calx) in riding on horseback, and 
used to urge on the horse to greater swiftness. 
The early adoption of this contrivance by the 
Romans appears from the mention of it in 
Plautus and Lucretius. It is afterward often 



CALCEUS. 

alluded to by Cicero. Ovid, Virgil, and subse- 
quent Roman authors. On the other hand, 
we do not find that the Greeks used any 
spurs, and this may account for the fact, that 
they are seldom, if ever, seen on antique 
statues. 

CA'LCEUS, CALCEA'MEN, CALCEA- 
MENTUM (vTrodrjfia., Tredt/lov), a shoe or 
boot, anything adapted to cover and preserve 
the feet in walking. 

The use of shoes was by no means univer- 
sal among the Greeks and Romans. The Ho- 
meric heroes are represented without shoes 
when armed for battle. Socrates, Phocion, 
and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Ro- 
man slaves had no shoes. The covering of 
the feet was removed before reclining at 
meals. People in grief, as for instance at 
funerals, frequently went barefooted. 

Shoes may be divided into those in which 
the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the 
sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by a cover- 
ing for the toes or the instep [So LEA ; CRE- 
PIDA ; Soccus] ; and those which ascended 
higher and higher, according as they covered 
the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg. 
To calceamenta of the latter kind, i. e. to 
shoes and boots, as distinguished from san- 
dals and slippers, the term calceus was applied 



CALCULI. 



57 



in its proper and restricted sense. There were 
also other varieties of the calceus according 
to its adaptation to particular professions or 
modes of life. Thus^the CALIGA was princi- 
pally worn by soldiers ; the PERO, by labour- 
ers and rustics ; and the COTHURNUS by tra- 
gedians, hunters, and horsemen. The calcei 
probably did not much differ from our shoes, 
and are exemplified in a painting at Hercu- 
laneum, which represents a female wearing 
bracelets, a wreath of ivy, and a panther's skin, 
while she is in the attitude of dancing and 
playing on the cymbals. 

On the other hand, a marble foot in the 
British Museum exhibits the form of a man's 
shoe. Both the sole and the upper leather 
are thick and strong. The toes are uncovered, 
and a thong passes between the great and the 
second toe, as a sandal. 





Calcei, W 



Calceus, Man's 

The form and colour of the calceus indi- 
cated rank and office. Roman senators wore 
high shoes like buskins, fastened in front with 
four black thongs, and adorned with a small 
crescent. Among the calcei worn by sena- 
tors, those called mullei, from their resem- 
blance to the scales of the red mullet, were 
particularly admired ; as well as others called 
alutae, because the leather was softened by 
the use of alum. 

CALCULATOR (Aoy^rrjfr), a keeper of 
accounts in general, and also a teacher of 
arithmetic. In Roman families of importance 
there was a calculator or account-keeper, who 
is, however, more frequently called by the 
name of dispensator, or procurator : he was a 
kind of steward. 

CAL'CULI, little stones or pebbles, used 
for various purposes, as, for instance, among 
the Athenians for voting. Calculi were used 
in playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently, 
instead of pebbles, ivory, or silver, or gold, or 
other men (as we call them) were used ; but 
they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi 
were also used in reckoning; and hence the 
phrases calculum ponere, calculum subducere. 



CALENDARIUM. 



CALDA'RIUM. [BALNEUM.] 
CALENDAE or KALENDAE. [CALEN- 



GALEN DA'RIUM or KALENDA'RIUM, 

generally signified an account-book, in which 
were entered the names of a person's debtors, 
with the interest which they had to pay, and 
_it was so called because the interest had to be 
"paid on the calends of each month. The word, 
however, was also used in the signification of 
a modern calendar or almanac. 

J. GREEK CALENDAR. The Greek year was 
divided into twelve lunar months, depending 
on the actual changes of the moon. The first 
day of the month (vov/urjvia') was not the day 
of the conjunction, but the day on the even- 
ing of which the new moon appeared ; conse- 
quently full moon was the middle of the 
month. The lunar month consists of twenty- 
nine days and about thirteen hours ; accord- 
ingly some months were necessarily reckoned 
at twenty-nine days, and rather mo're of t'hem 
at thirty days. The latter were called full 
months (TrAjypeZf), the former hollow months 
(KolXot). As the twelve lunar months fell 
short of the solar year, they were obliged 
every other year to interpolate an intercalary 
month (fiTjv ///3o/U//<uof) of thirty or twenty- 
nine days. The ordinary year consisted of 
354 days, and the interpolated year, therefore, 
of 384 or 383. This interpolated year (rple- 
T7jpt) was seven days and a half too long, and 
to correct the error, the intercalary month 
was from time to time omitted. The Attic 
year began with the summer solstice : the fol- 
lowing is the sequence of the Attic months, 
and the number of days in each : Hecatom- 
baeon (30), Metageitnion (29), Boedromion 
(30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion (30), Po- 
seideon (29), Gamelion(30),Anthesterion(29), 
Elaphebolion (30), Munychion (29), Tharge- 
lion (30), Scirophorion (29). The intercalary 
month was a second Poseideon inserted in the 
middle of the year. Every Athenian month 
was divided into three decads. The days of 
the first decad were designated as iara^ivov 
or apxofievov MVOC, and were counted on re- 
gularly from one to ten ; thus devrepa upvo- 
uevov or IGTCL/LIEVOV is " the second day of the 
month." The days of the second decad were 
designated as ini de/ca, or peaovvTOf, and 
were counted dn regularly from the llth to 
the 20th day, which was called dica? . There 
were two ways of counting the days of the 
last decad ; they were either reckoned on- 
wards from the 20th (thus, Trp&Tr) km elitaSt 
was the 21st), or backwards from the last day, 
with the addition 00i'vovroc, 7ravofj,svov, Ttf)- 
yovro?, or airiovro^, thus the twenty- first day 
of a hollow month was kvdrr] tytiivovroq ; of a 



full month, denari] 6BivoVTOf. The last day 
of the month was called evrj Kol vea, " the old 
and new," because as the lunar month really 
consisted of more than twenty-nine and less 
than thirty days, the last day might be con- 
sidered as belonging equally to the old and 
new month. 

Separate years were designated at Athens 
by the name of the chief archon, hence called 
archon eponymus (up%uv kiruvvLto^), or "the 
name giving archon ;" at Sparta, by the first 
of the ephors ; at Argos, by the priestess of 
Juno, &c. The method of reckoning by 
Olympiads was brought into use by Timaeus 
of Tauromenium about B. c. 260. As this 
clumsy method of reckoning is stfti retained, 
it will be right to give the rules for convert- 
ing Olympiads into the year B. c., and vice 
versa : 

1. To find the year B. c., given nth year 
of Ol. p., take the formula 781 (4 p + n). 
If the event happened in the second half of 
the Attic year, this must be farther reduced 
by 1 ; for the Attic year, as mentioned above, 
commenced with the summer solstice. Thus 
Socrates was put to death in Thargelion of 
Ol. 95, 1. Therefore in B. c. 

( | 781 (4X95+1) | 1) =(781 381) 

1 = 4001 = 399. 

2. To find the Olympiad, given the year 

. 781 n 

n. B. c., take the formula - 

4 

The quotient is the Ol., and the remainder 
the current year of it ; if there is no remain- 
der, the current year is the fourth of the 
Olympiad. If the event happened in the 
second half of the given year, it must be in- 
creased by 1. Thus, to take the event just 
mentioned, Socrates was put to death 
781 (399 + 1 )_781 400 _ 

4 4 ',-'" 

Demosthenes was born in the summer of 
781382 399 

382, therefore in = =r Ol. 

4 4 

99,3. 

II. ROMAN CALENDAR. The old Roman, 
frequently called the Romulian year, consist- 
ed of only ten months, which were called 
Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quinctilis, 
Sextilis, September, October, November, De- 
cember. That March was the first m>?nth in 
the year is implied in the last six names. Of 
these months four, namely, Martius, Maius. 
Quinctilis, and October, consisted of thirty- 
one days, the other six of thirty. The four 
former were distinguished in the latest form 
of the Roman calendar by having their nones 
two days later than any of the other months. 



CALENDARIUM. 



59 



The symmetry of this arrangement will ap- 
pear by placing the numbers in succession : 
31, 30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30 ; 31, 30, 30. 

The Romulian year therefore consisted of 
304 days, and contained thirty-eight nundinae 
or weeks ; every eighth day, under the name 
of nonae, or nundinae, being especially devoted 
to religious and other public purposes. Hence 
we find that the number of dies fasti after- 
wards retained in the Julian calender tally 
exactly with these thirty-eight nundines : 
besides which, it may be observed that a year 
of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days 
nearly the ratio of five to six, six of the Ro- 
mulian years containing 1824, five of the solar 
years, 1825Ulays ; and hence we may explain 
the origin of the well-known quinquennial 
period called the lustrum, which ancient 
writers expressly call an annus magnus ; that 
is, in the modern language of chronology, a 
cycle. It was consequently the period at 
which the Romulian and solar years coin- 
cided. 

The next division of the Roman year was 
said to have been made by Numa Pompilius, 
who instituted a lunar year of 12 months and 
355 days. Livy says that Numa so regulated 
his lunar year of twelve months by the inser- 
tion of intercalary months, that at the end of 
every nineteenth year (vicesimo anno) it again 
coincided with the same point in the sun's 
course from which it started. It is well 
known that 19 years constitute a most con- 
venient cycle for the junction of a lunar and 
solar year. 

It seems certain that the Romans continued 
to use a lunar year for some time after the 
establishment of the republic ; and it was 
probably at the time of the decemviral legis- 
lation that the lunar year was abandoned. 
By the change which was then made the 
year consisted of 12 months, the length of 
each of which was as follows : 
Martins, 31 days. September, 29 days. 
October, 31 
November, 29 
December, 29 
Januarius, 29 
Febuarius, 28 ,, 

The year thus consisted of 355 days, and 
this was made to correspond with the solar 
year by the insertion of an intercalary month 
(mensis intercalaris or intercalarius), called 
Mercedonius or Mercidonius. This month of 
22 or 23 days seems to have been inserted 
in alternate years. 

As the festivals of the Romans were for 
the most part dependent upon the calendar, 
the regulation of the latter was entrusted to 
the college of pontifices, who in early times 



Aprilis, 
Mai 



29 

lams, 31 
Junius, 29 
Quinctilis, 31 
Sextilis, 29 



were chosen exclusively from the body of 
patricians. It was therefore in the power of 
the college to add to their other means of op- 
pressing the plebeians, by keeping to them- 
selves the knowledge of the days on which 
justice could be administered, and assemblies 
of the people could be held. In the year 304 
B. C., one Cn. Flavius, a secretary (scriba), of 
Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently to have 
made the Fasti public. The other privilege 
of regulating the year by the insertion of the 
intercalary month gave the pontiffs great po- 
litical power, which they were not backward 
to employ. Every thing connected with the 
matter of intercalation was left to their un- 
restrained pleasure ; and the majority of them, 
on personal grounds, added to or took from 
the year by capricious intercalations, so as 
to lengthen or shorten the period during 
which a magistrate remained in office, and 
seriously -to benefit or injure the farmer of 
the^Ublic*revenue. 

The calendar was thus involved in com- 
plete confusion, and accordingly we find that 
in the time of Cicero the year was three 
months in advance of the real solar year. At 
length, in the year B. c. 46, Caesar, now 
master of the Roman world, employed his 
authority, as pontifex maximus, in the cor- 
rection of this serious evil. The account of 
the way in which he effected this is given by 
Censorinus : " The confusion was at last 
carried so far that C. Caesar, the pontifex 
maximus, in his third consulate, with Lepidus 
for his colleague, inserted between Novem- 
ber and December two intercalary months of 
67 days, the month of February having al- 
ready received an intercalation of 23 days, and 
thus made the whole year to consist of 445 
days. At the same time he provided against 
a repetition of similar errors, by casting aside 
the intercalary month, and adapting the year 
to the sun's course. Accordingly, to the 355 
days of the previously existing year he added 
ten days, which he so distributed between 
the seven months having 29 days that Janu- 
ary, Sextilis, and December received two 
each, the others but one ; and these addi- 
tional days he placed at the end of the seve- 
ral months, no doubt with the wish not to 
remove the various festivals from those posi- 
tions in the several months which they had 
so long occupied. Hence in the present cal- 
endar, although there are seven months of 31 
days, yet the four months, which from the 
first possessed that number, are still distin- 
guishable by having their nones on the sev- 
enth, the rest having them on the fifth of the 
month. Lastly in consideration of the quar- 
ter of a day, which he considered as completing 



CALENDARIUM. 



the true year, he established the rule that, at 
the end of every four years, a single day 
should be intercalated, where the month had 
been hitherto inserted, that is, immediately 
after the terminalia ; which day is now called 
the bissextum." 

The mode of denoting the days of the month 
will cause no difficulty, if it be recollected that 
the kalends always denote the first of the 
month ; that the nones occur on the seventh 
of the four months of March, May, Quinctilis 
or July, and October, and on the fifth of the 
other months ; that the ides always fall eight 
days later than the nones ; and lastly, that the 
intermediate days are in all cases reckoned 
backwards upon the Roman principle of 
counting both extremes. 

For the month of January the notation will 
be as follows : 

1. Kal. Jan. 

2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan. 

3. a. d. III. Non. Jan. 

4. Prid. Non. Jan. 

5. Non. Jan. 

6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan. 

7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan. 

8. a. d, VI. Id. Jan. 

9. a. d. V. Id. Jan. 

10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan. 

11. a. d. III. Id. Jan. 

12. Prid. Id. Jan. 

13. Id. Jan. 

14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb. 

15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb. 

16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb. 

17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb. 

18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb. 

19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb. 

20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb. 

21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb. 

22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb. 

23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb. 

24. a.d. IX. Kal. Feb. 
25; a! d. VIII. Kal. Feb. 

26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb. 

27. a.d. VI. Kal. Feb. 

28. a.d. V. Kal. Feb. 

29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb. 

30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb. 

31. Prid. Kal. Feb. 

The letters ad are often, through error, 
written together, and so confounded with the 
preposition ad which would have a different 
meaning, for ad kalendas would signify by, i. e. 
on or before the kalends. The letters are in fact 
an abridgement of ante diem, and the full 
phrase for " on the second of January " would 
be ante diem quarturn nonas Januqrias. The 
word ante in this expression seems really to 



belong in sense to nonas, and to be the cause 
why nonas is an accusative. Whether the 
phrase kaiendae Januarii was ever used by the 
best writers is doubtful. The words are com- 
monly abbreviated ; and those passages where 
Aprilis, Decembris, &c. occur are of no avail, 
as they are probably accusatives. The ante 
may be omitted, in which case the phrase will 
be die quarto nonarum. 

In the leap year (to use a modern phrase), 
the last days of February were called, 

Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart. 

Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart, posteriorem. 

Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart, priorem. 

Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart. 

Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart. 

Feb. 28. a. d. Ill Kal. Mart. 

Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart. 

In which the words prior and posterior are 
used in reference to the retrograde direction 
of the reckoning. 

From the fact that the intercalated year has 
two days called ante diem sextum, the name 
bissextile has been applied to it. The term 
annus bissextilis, however, does not occur in 
any classical writer, but in the place of it the 
phrase annus bissextus. 

The names of two of the months were 
changed in honour of Julius Caesar and Au- 
gustus. Julius was substituted for Quinctilis, 
the month in which Caesar was born, in the 
second Julian year, that is, the year of the 
dictator's death, for the first Julian year was 
the first year of the corrected Julian calendar, 
that is, B. c. 45. The name Augustus in place 
of Sextilis was introduced by the emperor 
himself in B. c. 27. The month of September 
in like manner received the name of Germa- 
nicus from the general so called, and the ap- 
pellation appears to have existed even in the 
time of Macrobius. Domitian, too, conferred 
his name upon October ; but the old word was 
restored upon the death of the tyrant. 

The Julian calendar supposes the mean trop- 
ical year to be 365 d. 6 h. ; but this exceeds 
the real amount by 11' 12", the accumulation 
of which, year after year, caused at last con- 
siderable inconvenience. Accordingly, in the 
year 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. again reformed 
the calendar. The ten days by which the 
year had been unduly retarded were struck 
out by a regulation that the day after the 
fourth of October in that year should be called 
the fifteenth ; and it was ordered that whereas 
hitherto an intercalary day had been inserted 
every four years, for the future three such in- 
tercalations in the course of four hundred 
years should be omitted, viz. in those years 
which are divisible without remainder by 100, 



CALENDAR1UM. 



61 



but not by 400. Thus, according to the Julian 
calendar, the years 1600, 1700,1800,1900,2000, 
were to be bissextile as before. The bull 
which effected this change was issued Feb. 
24th, 1582. The Protestant parts of Europe 
resisted what they called a papistical inven- 
tion for more than a century. In England the 
Gregorian calendar was first adopted in 1752. 
In Russia, and those countries which be- 



longed to the Greek church, the Julian year 
or old style, as it is called, still prevails. 

In the ancient Calendars the letters A, B, 
C, D, E, F, G, H, were used for the purpose 
of fixing the nundines in the week of eight 
days ; precisely in the same way in which the 
first seven letters are still employed in eccle- 
siastical calendars, to mark the days of the 
Christian week. 



JANUARIUS. 


E. 


14 


XVI. 


APRILIS. 


H. 16 


XVII. 


QUINCTILIS, or 


A. 1 
B. 2 
C. 3 
D. 4 
E. 5 
F. 6 
G. 7 
H. 8 
A. 9 
B. 10 
C. 11 
D. 12 
E. 13 
F. 14 
G. 15 


Jan. Kal. 
IV. 
III. 
Prid. 
Non. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 
Id. 
XIX. 
XVIII. 


F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 


15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 


XV. 
XIV. 
XIII. 
XII. 
XI. 
X. 
IX. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 


D. 1 
D. 2 
E. 3 
F. 4 
G. 5 
H. 6 
A. 7 
B. 8 
C. 9 
D. 10 
E. 11 
F. 12 
G. 13 
H. 14 
A. 15 


Apr. Kal. 
IV. 
III. 
Prid. 
Non. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 
Id. 
XVIII. 
XVII. 


A. 17 
B. 18 
C. 19 
D. 20 
E. 21 
F. 22 
G. 23 
H. 24 
A. 25 
B. 26 
C. 27 
D. 28 
E. 29 
F. 30 
G. 31 


XVI. 
XV. 
XIV. 
XIII. 
XII. 
XI. 
X. 
IX. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 


F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 


JULIUS 

1 Jul. 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


Kal. 
Vi. 
V. 
IV. 
III. 
Prid. 
Non. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 


H. 16 
A. 17 
B. 18 
C. 19 
D. 20 
E. 21 
F. 22 
G. 23 
H. 24 
A. 25 
B. 26 
C. 27 
D. 28 
E. 29 
F. 30 
G. 31 


XVII. 
XVI. 
XV. 
XIV. 
XIII. 
XII. 
XL 
X. 
IX. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 


D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 


MARTIUS. 

1 Mart. Kal. 
2 VI. 
3 V. 
4 IV. 
5 III. 
6 Prid. 
7 Non. 
8 VIII. 
9 VII. 
10 VI. 
11 V. 
12 IV. 
13 III. 
14 Prid. 


B. 16 
C. 17 
D. 18 
E. 19 
F. 20 
G. 21 
H. 22 
A. 23 
B. 24 
C. 25 
D. 26 
E. 27 
F. 28 
G. 29 
H. 30 


XVI. 
XV. 
XIV. 
XIII. 
XII. 
XI. 
X. 
IX. 
VIII. 
VII. 
VI. 
V 
IV. 

III. 

Prid. 


JUNIUS. 

H. 1 Jun. Kal. 
A. 2 IV. 
B. 3 III. 
C. 4 Prid. 
D. 5 Non. 
E. 6 VIII. 
F. 7 VII. 
G. 8 VI. 
H. 9 V. 
A. 10 IV. 
B. 11 III. 
C. 12 Prid. 
D. 13 Id. 


D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 
I). 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
A. 
B. 
C. 


15 Id. 
16 XVII. 
17 XVI. 
18 XV. 
19 XIV. 
20 XIII. 
21 XII. 
22 XL 
23 X. 
24 IX. 
25 VIII. 
26 VII. 
27 VI. 
28 V. 
29 IV. 
30 III. 






B. 


15 


Id. 


MAIUS. 


E. 14 


XVIII. 


D. 


31 


rnci. 






C. 


16 


XVII. 






F. 15 


XVII. 








FEBRUARIUS. 


D. 


17 


XVI. 


A. 1 


Mai. Kal. 


G. 16 


XVI. 


SEXTILIS 


. or 






E. 


18 


XV. 


B. 2 


VI. 


H. 17 


XV. 


AUGUSTUS. 


H. 1 


Feb. Kal. 


F. 


19 


XIV. 


C. 3 


V. 


A. 18 


XIV. 








A. 2 


IV. 


G. 


20 


XIII. 


D. 4 


IV. 


B. 19 


XIII. 


E. 


1 Aug. 


Kal. 


B. 3 


III. 


H. 


21 


XII. 


E. 5 


III. 


C. 20 


XII. 


F. 


2 


IV. 


C. 4 


Prid. 


A. 


22 


XI. 


F. 6 


Prid. 


D. 21 


XI. 


G. 


3 


III. 


D. 5 


Non. 


B. 


23 


X. 


G. 7 


Non. 


E. 22 


X. 


H. 


4 


Prid. 


E. 6 


VIII. 


C. 


21 


IX. 


H. 8 


VIII. 


F. 23 


IX. 


A. 


5 


Non. 


F. 7 


VII. 


D. 


25 


VIII. 


A. 9 


VII. 


G. 24 


VIII. 


B. 


6 


VIII. 


G. 8 


VI. 


E. 


26 


VII. 


B. 10 


VI. 


H. 25 


VII. 


C. 


7 


VII. 


H. 9 


V. 


F. 


27 


VI. 


C. 11 


V 


A. 26 


VI. 


D. 


8 


VI. 


A. 10 


IV. 


G. 


28 


V. 


D. 12 


IV. 


B. 27 


V. 


E. 


9 


V. 


B. 11 


III. 


H. 


29 


IV. 


E. 13 


HI. 


C. 28 


IV. 


F. 


10 


IV. 


C. 12 


Prid. 


A. 


30 


III. 


F. 14 


Prid. 


D. 29 


III. 


G. 


11 


III. 


D. 13 


Id. 


B. 


31 


Prid. 


G. 15 


Id. 


E. 30 


Prid. 


H. 


12 


Prid 



CALENDARIUM. 



A. 13 


Id. 


E. 10 


IV. 


A. 8 


VIII. 


E. 5 


Non. 


A. 3 


III. 


B. 14 


XIX. 


F. 11 


III. 


B. 9 


VII. 


F. 6 


VIII. 


B. 4 


Prid. 


C. 15 


XVIII. 


G. 12 


Prid. 


C. 10 


VI. 


G. 7 


VII. 


C. 5 


Non. 


D. 16 


XVII. 


H. 13 


Id. 


D. 11 


V. 


H. 8 


VI. 


D. 6 


VIII. 


E. 17 


XVI. 


A. 14 


XVIII. 


E. 12 


IV. 


A. 9 


V. 


E. 7 


VII. 


F. 18 


XV. 


B. 15 


XVII. 


F. 13 


III. 


B. 10 


IV. 


F. 8 


VI. 


G. 19 


XIV. 


C. 16 


XVI. 


G. 14 


Prid. 


C. 11 


III. 


G. 9 


V. 


H. 20 


XIII. 


D. 17 


XV. 


H. 15 


Id. 


D. 12 


Prid. 


H. 10 


IV. 


A. 21 


XII. 


E. 18 


XIV. 


A. 16 


XV11. 


E. 13 


Id. 


A. 11 


III. 


B. 22 


XI. 


F. 19 


XIII. 


B. 17 


XVI. 


F. 14 


XVIII. 


B. 12 


Prid, 


C. 23 


X. 


G. 20 


XII. 


C. 18 


XV. 


G. 15 


XVII. 


C. 13 


Id. 


D. 24 


IX. 


H. 21 


XL 


D. 19 


XIV. 


H. 16 


XVI. 


D. 14 


XIX. 


E. 25 


VIII. 


A. 22 


X. 


E. 20 


XIII. 


A. 17 


XV. 


E. 15 


XVIII. 


F. 26 


VII. 


B. 23 


IX. 


F. 21 


XII. 


B. 18 


XIV. 


F. 16 


xvn 


G. 27 


VI. 


C. 24 


VIII. 


G. 22 


XI. 


C. 19 


XIII. 


G. 17 


XVI. 


H. 28 


V. 


D. 25 


VII. 


H. 23 


X. 


D. 20 


XII. 


H. 18 


XV. 


. 29 


IV. 


E. 26 


VI. 


A. 24 


IX. 


E. 21 


XI. 


A. 19 


XIV. 


B. 30 


III. 


F. 27 


V. 


B. 25 


VIII. 


F. 22 


X. 


B. 20 


XIII. 


C. 31 


Prid. 


G. 28 


IV. 


C. 26 


VII. 


G. 23 


IX. 


C. 21 


XII. 






H. 29 


III. 


D. 27 


VI. 


H. 24 


VIII. 


D. 22 


XI. 


SEPTEMBER. 


A. 30 


Prid. 


E. 28 


V. 


A. 25 


VII. 


E. 23 


X. 


D. 1 


Sept. Kal 






F. 29 


IV. 


B. 26 


VI. 


F. 24 


IX. 


E. 2 


IV. 


OCTOBER. 


G. 30 


III. 


C. ?7 


V. 


G. 25 


VIIL 


F. 3 


III. 


B. 1 


Oct. Kal. 


H. 31 


Prid. 


D. 28 


IV. 


H. 36 


VII. 


G. 4 


Prid. 


C. 2 


VI 






E. 29 


III. 


A. 27 


VI. 


H. 5 


Non. 


D. 3 


V. 


NOVEMBER. 'F. 30 


Prid. 


B. 28 


V. 


A. 6 


VIII. 


E. 4 


IV. 


A. 1 


Nov. Kal. 




C. 29 


IV. 


B. 7 


VII. 


F. 5 


III. 


B. 2 


IV DECEMBER. 


D. 30 


III. 


C. 8 


VI. 


G. 6 


Prid. 


C. 3 


III! G. 1 


Dec. Kal. 


E. 31 


Prid. 


D. 9 


V. 


H. 7 


Non. 


D. 4 


Prid. H. 2 


IV. 







CA'LIGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn 
by the Roman soldiers, but not by the superior 
officers. Hence the common soldiers, inclu- 
ding centurions, were distinguished by the 
name of caligati. The emperor Caligula re- 
ceived that cognomen when a boy, in conse- 
quence of wearing the caliga and being inured 
to the life of a common soldier. 

The cuts on pp. 38, 57, showthe difference 
between the caliga of the common soldier and 
the calceus worn by men of higher rank. 

CALIX (/cv/Uf), was sometimes applied to 
a large cup or vessel, but generally signified 
a small drinking cup used at symposia and on 
similar occasions. Its form is exhibited in the 
woodcut under SYMPOSIUM. 

CALO'NES, the slaves or servants of the 
Roman soldiers, so called from carrying wood 
(/cd/la) for their use. They are generally sup- 
posed to have been slaves, and almost formed 
a part of the army. The word calo, however, 
was not confined to this signification, but was 
also applied to farm servants. The calones and 
lixae are frequently spoken of together, but 
they were not the same : the latter were free- 
men, who merely followed the camp for the 
purposes of gain and merchandize, and were 
so far from being indispensable to an army, that 
they were sometimes forbidden to attend it. 



CALU'MNIA. When an accuser failed in 
his proof, and the accused party was acquit- 
ted, there might be an inquiry into the con 
duct and motives of the accuser. If the per- 
son who made this judicial inquiry found that 
the accuser had merely acted from error of 
judgment, he acquitted him in the form non 
probasti ; if he convicted him of evil intention, 
he declared his sentence in the words calum- 
niatus es, which sentence was followed by the 
legal punishment. 

The punishment for calumnia was fixed by 
the lex Remmia, or as it is sometimes, per- 
haps incorrectly, named, the lex Memmia. 
But it is not known when this lex was passed, 
nor what were its penalties. It appears from 
Cicero, that the false accuser might be branded 
on the forehead with the letter K, the initial of 
Kalumnia. The punishment for calumnia was 
also exsilium, relegatio in insulam, or loss of rank 
(ordinis amissio) ; but probably only in criminal 
cases, or in matters relating to status. 

CA'MARA(/ca^apa),orCA'MERA. 1. A 
particular kind of arched cieling, formed by 
semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged 
at small lateral distances, over which a coat- 
ing of lath and plaster was spread, and the 
whole covered in by a roof, resembling in con- 
struction the hooped awnings in use amongst 



CANDELA. 

us. 2. A small boat used in early times by 
the people who fnhabited the shores of the 
Palus Maeotis, capable of containing from 
twenty-five to thirty men. These boats were 
made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing 
proas of the Indian seas, and continued in use 
until the age of Tacitus. 

CAMILLI and CAMILLAS, the names of 
certain boys and girls who assisted at sacri- 
fices among the Romans. 

CAMI'NUS. [DOMUS.] 

CAMP. [CASTRA.] 

CAMPESTRE (sc. subligar), a kind of 
girdle or apron,which the Roman youths wore 
around their loins, when they exercised naked 
in the Campus Martius. The campestre was 
sometimes worn in warm weather, in place of 
tte tunic under the toga. 

CAMPUS SCELERA'TUS, was a spot 
within the walls, and close by the Porta Colli- 
na, where those of the vestal virgins who had 
transgressed their vows were entombed alive, 
from which circumstance it took its name. As 
it was unlawful to bury within the city, or to 
slay a vestal.whose person, even when pollu- 
ted by the crime alluded to, was held sacred, 
this expedient was resorted to in order to 
elude the superstition against taking away a 
consecrated life, or giving burial within the 

C1 CAMPUS MA'RTIUS, an open plain out- 
side of Rome, so called because it was conse- 
crated to the god Mars. It properly comprised 
two plains, which, though generally spoken 
of collectively, are sometimes distinguished. 
The former of these was the so-called ager 
Tarquiniorum, which originally belonged to 
the Tarquins, but was taken possession of by 
the people upon the expulsion of the Tarquins ; 
the other was given to the Roman people by 
the vestal virgin Caia Taratia or Suffetia, and 
is sometimes called Campus Tiberinus, and 
sometimes Campus Minor. 

The Comitia Centuriata were held in the 
Campus Martius, and hence the word campus 
is put for the comitia. It was included in the 
city by Aurelian when he enlarged the 
walls. 

This plain was covered with perpetual ver- 
dure, and was a favourite resort for air, exer- 
cise, or recreation, when the labours of the 
day were over. Hence campus is used as " a 
field" for any exercise, mental or bodily. 

CANDE'LA, a candle made either of wax 
(cerea), or tallow (sebacea), was used univer- \ 
sally by the Romans before the invention of 
oil lamps (lucernae). In later times candelae | 
were only used by the poorer classes ; the ' 
htmses of the more wealthy were always 
lighted by lucernae. 



CANDYS. 



63 



CANDELABRUM, originally a candle- 
stick, but afterwards the name of a stand for 
supporting lamps (Au^voy^oi)> in which sig- 
nification it most commonly occurs. The 
candelabra of this kind were usually made to 
stand upon the ground, and were of a consid- 
erable height. The most common kind were 
made of wood ; but those which have been 
found in Herculaneum and Pompeii are 




Bronze Candelabrum. 

mostly of bronze. Sometimes they wer<= 
made of the more precious metals, and ever 
of jewels. The candelabra did not alway? 
stand upon the ground, but were also placed 
upon the table. Such candelabra usually 
consisted of pillars, from the capitals of which 
several lamps hung down, or of trees, from 
whose branches lamps also were suspended. 
The preceding cut represents a very elegant 
candelabrum of this kind, found in Pom- 
peii. 

CANDIDA'TUS. [AMBITUS.] 

CANDYS (/cuvdvf), a robe worn by the 
Medes and Persians over their trowsers and 
other garments. It had wide sleeves, and 
was made of woollen cloth, which was either 



64 CANTHARUS. 

purple or of some other splendid colour. In 
the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the 
annexed figures are taken, nearly all the prin- 
cipal personages wear it. 



CAPITOLIUM. 




Candys, Persian Cloak. 

CANE'PHOROS (navriQopoc), a virgin 
who carried a flat circular basket (KUVEOV, 
canistrum) at sacrifices, in which the chaplet 
of flowers, the knife to slay the victim, and 




CanephorL 

sometimes the frankincense were deposited. 
The name, however, was more particularly 
applied to two virgins of the first Athenian 
families who were appointed to officiate as 
canephori at the Panathenaea. The pre- 
ceding cut represents the two canephori ap- 
proaching a candelabrum. Each of them 
elevates one arm to support the basket while 
she slightly raises her tunic with the other. 
CANVASSING in elections. [AMBITUS.] 
CA'NTHARUS (Kuvdapoc) a kind of drink- 
ing cup, furnished with handles. It was the 
cup sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently 
represented on ancient vases holding it in his 
band. 




Bacchus holding a Cantharus. 

CA'NTICUM, an interlude between the 
acts of a Roman comedy, and sometimes, 
perhaps, a tragedy. It consisted of flute 
music, accompanied by a kind of recitative 
performed by a single actor, or if there were 
two, the second was not allowed to speak 
with the first. In the canticum, as violent 
gesticulation was required, it appears to have 
been the custom, from the time of Livius An- 
dronicus, for the actor to confine himself to 
the gesticulation, while another person sang 
the recitative. 

CAPILLUS. [COMA.] 
CA'PITE CENSI. [CAPUT.] 
CA'PITIS DEMINU'TIO. [CAPUT.] 
CAPITO'LIUM. 1. A small temple, sup- 
posed to have been built by Numa, and dedi- 
cated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, situated 
on the Esquiline. It was a small and humble 
structure suited to the simplicity of the age 
in which it was erected, and was not termed 
Capitolium until after the foundation of the 
one mentioned below, from which it was then 
distinguished as the capitolium vetus. 

2. The temple of Jupiter Optimus Maxi- 
mus on the Mons Tarpeius, so called from 
a human head being discovered in digging 



CAPSA. 

the foundations; whence the hill also was 
called Mons Capitolinus. Tarquinius Pris- 
cus first vowed, during the Sabine war, to 
build this temple, and commenced the foun- 
dations. It was afterwards continued by 
Servius Tullius, and finally completed by 
Tarquinius Superbus out of the spoils col- 
lected at the capture of Suessa Pometia ; but 
was not dedicated until the year B. c. 507, by 
M. Horatius. It was burnt down during the 
civil wars, at the time of Sulla, (B. c. 83,) and 
rebuilt by him, but dedicated by Lutatius 
Catulus, B. c. 69. It was again burnt to the 
ground by the faction of Vitellius, (A. D. 69,) 
and rebuilt by Vespasian, upon whose death 
it was again destroyed by fire, and sumptu- 
ously rebuilt, for the third time, by Domitian. 
The capitolium contained three temples 
within the same peristyle, or three cells par- 
allel to each other, the partition walls of 
which were common, and all under the same 
roof. In the centre was the seat of Jupiter 
Optimus Maximus, called cella Jovis. That 
of Minerva was on the right, and that of 
Juno upon the left. Th.3 representation of 
the capitolium in the cut is taken from a 
medal. 



CAPUT. 



65 




Capitoline Temple. 

3. Capitolium is sometimes put for the 
whole Capitoline mount, including both sum- 
mits o/ the mountain. Sometimes it is used 
to designate one only of the summits, and 
that one apparently distinct from the arx, 
which obscurity is further increased, because, 
on the other hand, arx is sometimes put for 
the whole mount, and at others for one of the 
summits only. 

There were three approaches from the Fo- 
rum to the Mons Capitolinus. The first was 
by a flight of 100 steps, which led directly to 
the side of the Tarpeian rock. The other 
two were the clivus Capitolinus and clivus 
Asyli, one of which entered on the north, and 
the other on the south side of the intermon- 
tium. 

CAPSA, or SCRI'NIUM.abox for holding 
books among the Romans. These boxes 
P2 



were of a cylindrical form. There does not 
appear to have been any difference between 




the capsa and scriniwn, except that the latter 
word was usually applied to those boxes 
which held a considerable number of rolls. 

The slaves who had the charge of these 
book-chests were called capsarii, and alsocus- 
todes scriniorum ; and the slaves who carried 
in a capsa behind their young masters the 
books, &c., of the sons of respectable Romans, 
when they went to school, were called by 
the same name. 

CAPSA'RII, the name of three different 
classes of slaves. [BALNEUM; CAPSA.] 

CAPUT, the head. The term " head" is 
often used by the Roman writers as equiva- 
lent to " person," r " human being." By an 
easy transition it was used to signify " life :" 
thus, capite damnari, plecti, &c., are equiva- 
lent to capital punishment. 

Caput is also used to express a man's status, 
or civil condition ; and the persons who were 
registered in the tables of the censor are 
spoken of as capita, sometimes with the addi- 
tion of the word civium, and sometimes not. 
Thus to be registered in the census was the 
same thing as caput habere: and a slave and a 
filius familias, in this sense of the word, were 
said to have no caput. The sixth class of 
Servius Tullius comprised the proletarii and 
the capite censi, of whom the latter, having 
little or no property, were barely rated as so 
many head of citizens. 

He who lost or changed his status was 
said to be capite minutus, deminutus, or capitis 
m inor. 

Capitis minutio or deminutio was a change 
of a person's status or civil condition, and 
consisted of three kinds. A Roman citizen 
possessed freedom (libertas), citizenship, (ci- 
vitas'), and family (familias) : tne loss of all 
three constituted the maxima capitis deminutio. 
This capitis deminutio was sustained by those 



06 



CARCER. 



who refused to be registered at the census, 
or neglected the registration, and were thence 
called incensi. The incensus was liable to be 
sold, and so to Idse his liberty. Those who 
refused to perform military service might 
also be sold. 

The loss of citizenship and family only, 
ds when a man was interdicted from fire and 
water, was the media capitis deminutio. [Ex- 

6ILIUM.] 

The change of family by adoption, and by 
the in manum conventio, was the minima ca- 
vitis deminutio. 

A judicium capitate, or poena capitalis, was 
one which affected a citizen's caput. 

CAPUT. [FENUS.] 

CARACALLA, an outer garment used in 
Gaul, and not unlike the Roman lacerna. It 
was first introduced at Rome by the ernperor 
Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled 
all the people that came to court to wear it, 
whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. 
This garment, as worn in Gaul, does not ap- 
pear to have reached lower than the knee, 
but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach 
the ankle. 

CARCER (kerker, Germ. ; yopyvpa, Greek), 
a prison, is connected with ep/cof and elp-yu, 
the guttural being interchanged with the as- 
pirate. 

1. GREEK. Imprisonment was seldom used 
amongst the Greeks as a legal punishment 
for offences ; they preferred banishment to 
the expense of keeping prisoners in confine- 
ment. The prisons in different countries 
were called by different names: thus there 
was the Ceadas (Keddaf), at Sparta; and, 
among the lonians, the Gorgyra (yopyvpaj 
as at Samos. The prison at Athens was in 
former times called Desmoterion (SecuuTij- 
piov), and afterwards, by a sort of euphemism, 
ocKrj/Lia. It was chiefly used as a guardhouse, 
or place of execution, and was under the 
charge of the public officers called the 
Eleven. 

2. ROMAN. A prison was first built at Rome 
by Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. 
This was enlarged by Servius Tullius, who 
added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called 
from him the Tullianum. Sallust describes 
this as being twelve feet under ground, walled 
on each side, and arched over with stone 
work. For a long time this was the only 
prison at Rome, being, in fact, the " Tower," 
or state prison of the city, which was some- 
times doubly guarded in times of alarm, and 
was the chief object of attack in many con- 
spiracies. There were, however, other pris- 
ons besides this, though, as we might expect, 
the words of Roman historians generally re- 



CARDO. 

fer to this alone. In the Tullianum prisoners 
were generally executed, and this part of the 
prison was also called robur. 

CA'RCERES. [CIRCUS.] 

CARCHE'SIUM (Kaptfaiov), a beaker 
or drinking-cup, which was used by the 
Greeks in very early times. The same term 




was used to designate the tops of a ship, that 
is, the structure surrounding the mast imme- 
diately above the yard [ANTENNA], into 
which the mariners ascended in order to 
manage the sail. This was probably* called 
carchesium on account of its resemblance in 
form to the cup of that name. The ceruchi, 
or other tackle, may have been fastened to 
its lateral projections, which corresponded to 
the handles of the cup. 

CARDO, a hinge or pivot. The first fig- 
ure, in the annexed woodcut, is designed to 
show the general form of a door, as we find 



an 




Hinge. 

it with a pivot at the top and bottom (a, 6) in 
ancient remains of stone, marble, wood, and 



CARNEIA. 

bronze. The second figure represents 
bronze hinge in the Egyptian collection of 
the British Museum: its pivot (6) is exactly 
cylindrical. Under these is drawn the thresh- 
hold of a temple, or other large edifice, with 
the plan of the folding-doors. The pivots move 
in holes fitted to receive them (b, b), each of 
which is in an angle behind the antepagmen- 
tum. 

The Greeks and Romans also used hinges 
exactly like those now in common use. Four 
Roman hinges of bronze, preserved in the 
British Museum, are shown in the following 
woodcut. 



CARPENTUM. 



C7 




Roman Hinges. 

CARMENTA'LIA, a festival celebrated in 
honour of Carrnenta or Carmentis, who is fa- 
bled to have been the mother of Evander, who 
came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and settled 
in Latium : he was said to have brought with 
him a knowledge of the arts, and the Latin 
alphabetical characters as distinguished from 
the Etruscan. This festival was celebrated 
annually on the llth of January. A temple 
was erected to the same goddess, at the foot 
of the Capitoline hill, near the Porta Car- 
mentalis, afterwards called Scelerata. The 
name Carmenta is said to have been given to 
her from her prophetic character, carmens. 
or carmentis being synonymous with vates. 
The word is, of course, connected with car- 
men, as prophesies were generally delivered 
in verse. 

CARNEIA (Kapveia), a great national fes- 
tival celebrated by the Spartans in honour of 
Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the 
seventh day of the month of Carneios=Me- 
tageitnion of the Athenians, and lasted for 
nine days. It was of a warlike character, 
similar to the Attic Boedromia. During the 
time of its celebration nine tents were pitched 
near the city, in each of which nine men 
lived in the manner of a military camp, obey- 
ing in everything the commands of a herald. 
The priest conducting the sacrifices at the 
Carneia was called Agetes ('Ay^rfc ), whence 



the festival was sometimes designated by the 
name Agetoria or Agetoreion ('Ayijropia or 
'A.yr}-6peiov), and from each of the Spartan 
tribes five men (KapveaTai) were chosen as 
his ministers, whose office lasted four years, 
during which period they were not allowed 
to marry. When we read in Herodotus and 
Thucydides that the Spartans during the 
celebration of this festival were not allowed 
to take the field against an enemy, we must 
remember that this restriction was not pe- 
culiar to the Carneia, but common to all the 
great festivals of the Greeks : traces of it are 
found even in Homer. 

CA'RNIFEX, the public executioner at 
Rome, who executed slaves and foreigners, 
but not citizens.who were punished in a man- 
ner different from slaves. It was also his 
business to administer the torture. This office 
was considered so disgraceful, that he was 
not allowed to reside within the city, but 
lived without the Pprta Metia or Esquilina, 
near the place destined for the punishment 
of slaves, called Sestertium under the em- 
perors. 

CARPENTUM, a cart ; also a two-wheeled 
carriage enclosed, and with an arched or slo- 
ping cover overhead. The carpentum was 
used to convey the Roman matrons in the 
public festal processions ; and, as this was a 
high distinction, the privilege of riding in a 
carpentum on such occasions was allowed to 
particular females by special grant of the 
senate. 




Carpentum. 

This carriage contained seats for two, and 
sometimes for three persons, besides the 
coachman. It was commonly drawn by a 
pair of mules, but more rarely by oxen or 
horses, and sometimes by four horses like a 
quadriga. 

Carpenta, or covered carts,were much usea 
by the Britons, the Gauls, and other northern 
nations. These, together with the carts of 



68 



CASTRA. 



the more common form, including baggage- 
waggons, appear to have been comprehended 
under the term cam, or carra,\vhich is the Cel- 
tic name with a Latin termination. The Gauls 
took a great multitude of them on their mili- 
tary expeditions, and when they were en- 
camped, arranged them in close order, so as to 
form extensive lines of circumvallation. 

CARRU'CA, a carriage, the name of which 
only occurs under the emperors. It appears 
to have been a species of rheda [RHEDA], had 
four wheels, and was used in travelling. 

CARRUS. [CARPENTUM.] 

CARYA'TIDES. Caryae was a city in 
Arcadia, near the Laconian border, the inhab- 
itants of which joined the Persians after the 
battle of Thermopylae. On the defeat of 
the Persians the allied Greeks destroyed the 
town, slew the men, and led the women into 
captivity ; and Praxiteles and other Athenian 
artists employed female figures, representing 
Caryatidae, or women of Caryae, instead of 
columns in architecture. This account is 
illustrated by a bas-relief with a Greek in- 
scription, mentioning the conquest of the 
Caryatae. 




Caryatides. 

CASSIS. [GALEA.] 

CASTELLUM AQUAE. [AQUAE Duc- 

TUS.] 

CASTRA, a camp. The system of encamp- 
ment among the Romans was one of singular 
regularity and order, and has been clearly de- 
scribed by Polybius, the friend and companion 
of Scipio Africanus, the younger. From his 
description the annexed plan has been drawn 
up. 

A, praelorium. B, tents of the tribunes. 
C, tents of the praefecti sociorum. D, street 
100 feet wide. E, F, G, and H, streets 50 feet 
wide. L, select foot and volunteers. K, se- 
lect horse and volunteers. M, extraordinary 
horse of the allies. N, extraordinary foot of 
the allies. O, reserved for occasional auxili- 



aries. Q, the street called Quintans, 50 feet 
wide. V. P, via principals, 100 feet wide. 

The duty of selecting a proper situation for 
the carnp (castra metari) devolved upon one Oi 
the tribunes and a number of centurions who 
were specially appointed for that purpose, and 
sent in advance whenever the army was about 
to encamp ; they were called Metatores, from 
their office. The camp was divided into two 
parts, the upper and the lower. The upper 
part formed about a third of the whole. In it 
was the praetorium (A) or general's tent 
praetor being the old name of the consul. A 
part of the praetorium was called the Augurale, 
as the auguries were there taken by the gen- 
eral. On the right and left of the praetorium 
were the forum and quaestorium; the former a 
sort of market-place, the latter appropriated 
to the quaestor and the camp stores under his 
superintendence. 

On the sides of and facing the forum and 
quaestorium, were stationed select bodies of 
horse (K) taken from the extraordinaries,with 
mounted volunteers, who served out of re- 
spect to the consul, and were stationed near 
him. And parallel to these were posted simi- 
lar bodies of foot soldiers (L). Before the 
quaestorium and the forum were the tents of 
the twelve tribunes of the two legions (B), 
and before the select bodies of horse and in- 
fantry the tents of the praefecti sociorum were 
probably placed (C). Again, behind the prae- 
torium, the quaestorium, and the forum, ran 
a street or via (D), 100 feet broad, from one 
side of the camp to the other. Along the 
upper side of this street was ranged the main 
body of the " extraordinary " horse (M) : they 
were separated into two equal parts by a street 
fifty feet broad (E). At the back of this body 
of cavalry was posted a similar body of in- 
fantry (N), selected from the allies, and facing 
the opposite way, i. e. towards the ramparts of 
the camp. The vacant spaces (O) on each 
side of these troops were reserved for foreign- 
ers and occasional auxiliaries. 

The lower part of the camp was divided 
from the upper by a street, called theFw Prin- 
cipalis (V P), orPrincipia, a hundred feet broad. 
Here the tribunal of the general was erected, 
from which he harangued the soldiers, and 
here the tribunes administered justice. Here 
also the principal standards, the altars of the 
gods, and the images of the emperors were 
placed. The lower pait of the camp was 
occupied by the two legions and the troops of 
the allies according to the arrangement of the 
following cut. 

Between the ramparts and the tents was 
left a vacant space of 200 feet on every side, 
which was useful for many purposes : thus it 



CASTRA. 



aerved for the reception of any booty that was 
taken, and facilitated the entrance and exit of 
the army. 

The camp had four gates, one at the top and 
bottom, and one at each of the sides ; the top 
or back-gate, which was the side most away 
from the enemy ,was called the decumana. The 
bottom or the front gate was the praetoria, the 
gates of the sides were the porta principalis 
dextra, and the porta principalis sinislra. The 
whole camp was surrounded by a trench 
(fossa), generally nine feet deep and twelve 
broad, and a rampart (vallum) made of the 
earth that was thrown up (agger}, with stakes 
(valli) fixed at the top of it. TWe labour of 
this work was so divided, that the allies com- 



pleted the two sides of the camp alongside of 
which they were stationed, and the two Ro- 
man legions the rest. 

In describing the Roman camp and its in- 
ternal arrangements, we have confined our- 
selves to the information given by Polybius, 
which, of course, applies only to his age, and 
to armies constituted like those he witnessed. 
When the practice of drawing up the army 
according to cohorts, ascribed to Marius 01 
Caesar [ExERcixus], had superseded the an- 
cient division into maniples, and the distinc- 
tion of triarii, &c. the internal arrangements 
of the camp must have been changed accord- 
ingly. 

A certain number of troops was appointed 



Porta Decumana. 



? 

-3 

2. 


Left Wing of the Allies. 


2<I 

x- 

Hs- 

tali 


200 

Roninn Legion. < ;<M..I. 


11 Legion. 

V 


1 


light Wing of the Allies 


. 

200 


200 


Foot 


Horse 




Prm- 
cipes 




i Horse 




Horsi 







Prih- 
cipes 


Has- 

tali 


Hone 


Foot 


















G 







H 










!I 






G 




F 
























































G 


_ 










50 


II 




rss 

1 

I 


Horse 




I 


5 




Foot 


Foot 


Horse 


Has- 

tati 


Prin 
cipes 


Horst 


Prin- 
c.ipes 


Hns- 

tnti 




Horse 






^ 




F 
































































































IIH 

5- 

en 


C B V P> B C 

jnaaaa ana nan aannaa anaaaa 


? 


L 


K 




Quawtorium 


A 


Forum 




K 


L 




D 


O 




M 




M 







N 




N 


200 



70 



CATHEDRA. 



to keep guard before the gates of the camp, 
on the ramparts, and in different parts of the 
camp; and these guards were changed every 
three hours. The guards placed before the 
gates of the camp were called stationes. The 
word excubiae denotes guards either by day or 
night ; vigiliae by night only. The night was 
divided into four watches, each of three hours' 
length. Certain persons were appointed every 
night to visit all the watches, and were hence 
called circuitores. There was always a watch- 
word given for the night, inscribed on a four- 
cornered piece of wood, and hence called tes- 
sera, which was circulated through the army. 

C ATA'LOGUS (/cardAoyof), the catalogue 
of those persons in Athens who were liable to 
regular military service. At Athens, those 
persons alone who possessed a certain amount 
of property were allowed to serve in the regu- 
lar infantry ,whilst the lower class, the thetes, 
had not this privilege. [CENSUS.] Thus the 
former are called ol e/c /cara/ldyon arparevov- 
ref, and the latter ol eo) TOV Kara^oyov. 

CATAPHRACTA. [LORICA.] 

CATAPHRACT1 (/card^pa/crpi). 1. Heavy- 
armed cavalry, the horses of which were also 
covered with defensive armour. Among many 
of the Eastern nations, who placed their chief 
dependence upon their cavalry, we find horses 
protected in this manner ; but among the Ro- 
mans we do not read of any troops of this de- 
scription till the later times of the empire, 
when the discipline of the legions was de- 
stroyed, and the chief dependence began to be 
placed on the cavalry. 

This species of troops was common among 
the Persians from the earliest times, from 
whom it was adopted by their Macedonian 
conquerors. They were called by the Per- 
sians dibanarii. 

2. Decked vessels, in opposition to Aph- 
racti. [APHRACTUS.] 

CATAPULTA. [TORMENTUM.] 

CATARACTA (/cara/^d/cr?^), a portcullis, 
so called because it fell with great force and 
a loud noise. It was an additional defence, 
suspended by iron rings and ropes, before the 
gates of a city, in such a manner that, when 
the enemy had come up to the gates, the 
portcullis might be let down so as to shut 
them'in, and to enable the besieged to assail 
them from above. 

CATEIA, a missile used in war by the Ger- 
mans, Gauls, and some of the Italian nations, 
supposed to resemble the ACLIS. 

CATERVA'RII. [GLADIATORES.] 

CATHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more 
particularly applied to a soft seat used by 
women, whereas sella signified a seat common 
to both sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, 



CAUPONA. 

of various forms and sizes; but they usually 
appear to have had backs to them. On the 
cathedra in the annexed cut, is seated a bride, 
who is being fanned by a female slave with a 
fan made of peacock's feathers. 




Cathedra. 

Women were also accustomed to be carried 
abroad in these cathedrae instead of in lecti- 
cae, which practice was sometimes adopted 
by effeminate persons of the other sex. The 
word cathedra was also applied to the chair or 
pulpit from which lectures were read. 

CAVAE'DIUM. [DOMUS.] 

CAVALRY. [ExERCixus; EQUITES.] 

CA'VEA. [THEATRUM.] 

CAUPO'NA. 1. An inn, where travellers 
obtained food and lodging ; in which sense it 
answered to the Greek words iravdoKflov, 
ayuytov, and narakvci^. Inns for the 
accommodation of persons of all classes exist- 
ed among the Greeks and Romans, although 
they were not equal either in size or conven- 
ience to similar places in modern times. 

An inn was also called taberna and taberna 
diversoria, or simply diversorium or deversorium. 

2. A shop, where wine and ready-dressed 
meat were sold, thus corresponding to the 

reek Kairrj^elov. The person who kept a 
caupona was called caupo. In Greek KCLTTIJ/IOC 
signifies in general a retail trader, who sold 
goods in small quantities; but the word is 
more particularly applied to a person who 
sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially 



CAUTIO. 

wine in small quantities. In these 

only persons of the very lowest class were 

accustomed to eat and drink. 

In Rome itself there were, no doubt, inns 
to accommodate strangers; but these were 
probably only frequented by the lower classes, 
since all persons in respectable society could 
easily find accommodation in the houses of 
their friends. There were, however in all 
parts of the city, numerous houses where 
wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. 
The houses where persons were allowed to 
eat and drink were usually called popinae and 
not cauponae; and the keepers of them, po- 
pae. They were principally frequented by 
slaves and the lower classes, and were con- 
sequently only furnished with stools to sit 
upon instead of couches. The Thermopolia, 
where the calida or warm wine and water 
was sold, appear to have been the same as 
the popinae. Many of these popinae were little 
better than the lupanaria or brothels ; whence 
Horace calls them immundaspopinas. The ga- 
neae, which are sometimes mentioned in con- 
nection with the popinae were brothels, whence 
they are often classed with the lustra. Under 
the emperors many attempts were made to 
regulate the popinae, but apparently with lit- 
tle success. 

All persons who kept inns or houses of 
public entertainment of any kind were held 
in low estimation among both the Greeks 
and Romans. They appear to have fully de- 
served the bad reputation which they pos- 
sessed, for they were accustomed to cheat 
their customers by false weights and meas- 
ures, and by all the means in their power. 

CAU'STA (Kvoaia), a hat with a broad 
brim, which was made of felt, and worn by 
the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in 
the annexed figures, which are taken from a 
fictile vase, and from a medal of Alexander I. 
of Macedon. The Romans adopted it from 
the Macedonians. 



CENSOk 



71 




Causia, Hat. 

CATJ'TIO, CAVE'RE. These words are 
of frequent occurence. and have a great vari- 



ety of significations, according to the matter 
to which they refer. Their general signifi- 
cation is that of security given by one person 
to another, or security which one person ob- 
tains by the advice or assistance of another. 
The cautio was most frequently a writing, 
which expressed the object of the parties to 
it ; accordingly the- word cautio came to sig- 
nify both the instrument (chirographum or in- 
strumentuni) and the object which it was the 
purpose of the instrument to secure. Cicero 
uses the expression cautio chirographi mei. 
The phrase cavere aliquid alicui expressed the 
fact of one person giving security to anothei 
as to some particular thing or act. 

The word cautio was also applied to the 
release which a debtor obtained from his 
creditor on satisfying his demand ; in this 
sense cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt ; 
it is the debtor's security against the same 
demand being made a second time. Thus 
cavere ab aliquo signifies to obtain this kind oi 
security. 

Cavere is also applied to express the pro- 
fessional advice and assistance of a lawyei 
to his client for his conduct in any legal mat 
ter. 

Cavere and its derivatives are also used to 
express the provisions of a law, by which 
any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the 
phrase, Cautum eat lege, &c. It is also used 
to express the words in a will, by which a 
testator declares his wish that certain things 
should be done after his death. 

CE'ADAS or CAE'ADAS (Keadag or Kac 
ddac), a deep cavern or chasm, like the Bar 
athron at Athens, into which the Spartans 
were accustomed to thrust persons condemned 
to death. 

CEILINGS OF HOUSES. [DOMUS.] 

CE'LERES, were three hundred Roman 
knights whom Romulus established as a body- 
guard. Their number, 300, has reference to 
the number of the patrician gentes. They 
were under the command of the Tribunus 
Celerum. See TRIBUNUS. 

CENOTA'PHIUM, a cenotaph (/cevo? and 
rri^of), was an empty or honorary tomb, 
erected as a memorial of a person whose 
body was buried elsewhere, or not found for 
burial at all. 

CENSER. [AcERRA.] 

CENSOR (n/j.riT'fjc). The office of censor 
was instituted at Rome in B. c. 443, its func- 
tions having previous to that year been per- 
formed by the kings, consuls, or military tri- 
bunes with consular power. The ostensible 
reason for instituting the office in B. c. 443 
was, that the consuls were too much occu 
pied by war and other matters to conduct tlV 



72 



CENSOR. 



census ; but this was not the real reason. 
The office of the military tribunes with con- 
sular power, who supplied the place of the 
consuls, had been instituted the year before, 
and was open to the plebeians as well as the 
patricians ; and since the latter were anxious 
to curtail, as much as possible, the power 
which had been given to the plebeians, they 
entrusted the discharge of the censorial func- 
tions to two new magistrates, two censors, 
who were to be exclusively patricians. For 
a considerable period this dignity was held 
by patricians only, and the first plebeian cen- 
sor was C. Marcius Rutilus, in B. c. 351. It 
now became a rule that one of the censors 
should always be a plebeian. In later times, 
when the distinction between patricians and 
plebeians ceased to be of importance, it even 
happened occasionally that both censors were 
plebeians, the first instance of which occurred 
in B. c. 131, when Q. Caecilius Metellus and 
Q. Pompeius Rufus were censors. Censors 
continued to be elected down to the end of 
the republic, until Augustus, under the title 
of Praefectus Morum, undertook himself the 
functions of the censors, although occasion- 
ally he transferred some of them to other per- 
sons. Tiberius and Caligula likewise took 
the title of Praefectus Morum ; but Claudius 
assumed that of censor, and made Vitellius 
his colleague, A. D. 48. Vespasian, Titus, 
and Nerva followed his example, and Domi- 
tian even assumed the title of Censor Per- 
petuus. Trajan and the later emperors only 
took it for the time that they were actually 
engaged in holding the census. The empe- 
ror Decius made an attempt to restore the 
censorship, and at his command the senate 
elected Valerianus censor ; but the example 
was not followed, and we afterwards hear no 
more of censors. 

The office of censor lasted at first for a 
lustrum, that is, five years; but in B. c. 335 
the dictator L. Aemilius Mamercinus carried 
a law (lex Aemilia), which limited the period 
of office to eighteen months, so that during 
the remaining three years and a half of each 
lustrum no censors existed at all, for censors 
continued to be elected only every five years. 
The censorship was considered the highest 
dignity in the republic, partly on account of 
its connection with religion, and partly on 
account of the great importance of its func- 
tions ; hence it was usually the last in the 
series of offices through which Roman states- 
men passed, most men having been con- 
suls before they aspired to the censorship. 
For the same reason it was not customary 
for any one to hold the office more than once. 
If one of the two censors died during the pe- 



riod of his office, the vacancy was not filled 
up, as the death of a censor was regarded as 
an evil omen ; but the survivor was obliged 
to resign the censorship, and two new cen- 
sors were elected. 

The censors were elected by the comitia 
of the centuries and not of the curiae, and 
the same comitia centuriata at a second 
meeting ratified the election. The curiae 
had nothing to do with the election, because 
the censors had no imperium, which no 
assembly but that of the curiae could have 
given them ; the censors had only the jvs 
censendi, of which all their other rights were 
merely the necessary results. It is not known 
whether the censors had any outward dis- 
tinctions in their dress, for the purple robes 
mentioned by Polybius were probably worn 
by them only in the earliest times, and after- 
wards we hear simply of the toga praetexta. 
Nor is there any ground for supposing that 
the censors had lictors as their attendants, 
like the consuls ; but their numerous and 
extensive functions, which had to be perform- 
ed in the short period of 18 months, required 
a great number of other attendants, such as 
scribes and viatores. 

The principal and original function of the 
censors, from which they received their title, 
was that of holding the census, at which every 
one had to give in his name, and to declare on 
oath the amount of his property. [CENSUS.] 
A second part of their functions consisted in 
a kind of moral jurisdiction, for they had the 
right of censuring and punishing every thing 
that was contrary to good conduct or estab- 
lished customs, while really illegal acts or 
crimes were punished by the ordinary courts 
of justice. This moral jurisdiction appears to 
have formed part of the censorial functions 
from the very first, inasmuch as it was their 
duty to observe, in holding the census, all 
cases in which a man managed his affairs 
badly, and thus reduced his property ; and 
they had consequently to remove him from a 
higher, and place him in a lower class of citi- 
zens. In the course of time this superintend- 
ence of the conduct of Roman citizens ex- 
tended so far, that it embraced the whole of 
the public and private life of the citizens. 
Thus we have instances of their censuring or 
punishing persons for not marrying, for break- 
ing a promise of marriage, for divorce, forbad 
conduct during marriage, for improper educa- 
tion of children, for living in an extravagant 
and luxurious manner, and for many other 
irregularities in private life. Their influence 
was still more powerful in matters connected 
with the public life of the citizens. Thus w 
find them censuring or punishing magistrates 



OtiNSOR. 

who were forgetful of the dignity of their 
office or guilty of bribery, as well as persons 
who were guilty of improper conduct towards 
magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their 
duties both in civil and military life. 

The punishment inflicted by a censor dif- 
fered from that imposed by a court of law, in- 
asmuch as a censor could not deprive a person 
either of his life or of his property, but could 
only affect his status in society : the proper 
name for such a punishment is in general nota 
or nota censoria, and in particular ignominia or 
infamia. Such a punishment, moreover, did 
not necessarily last a man's whole life ; but if 
his conduct improved, another censor might 
restore him to the position from which his 
predecessor had removed him. The greatest 
and severest punishment was the expulsion of 
unworthy members from the senate ; and ac- 
cording as the conduct of a senator might be 
more or less culpable, the censors had even 
the right of degrading him to the condition of 
an eques or of an aerarius. They had to in- 
form the culprit of the cause of his degrada- 
tion, and to mark it in the censorial lists ; 
hence the nota censoria. An eques might be 
punished by the censors by being obliged to 
give up his public horse, and this punishment 
might be accompanied by his being compelled 
to serve in the army on foot, or by his being 
excluded from his tribe (tribu movere). The 
act of removing the person from his tribe was 
originally the same as degrading him to the 
rank of an aerarian ; bat afterwards, when 
there existed a difference of rank among the 
tribes, a person might either be transferred 
from a tribus rustica (which ranked higher) to 
a tribus urbana, or he might be excluded from 
all the tribes, and thus lose all the rights and 
privileges connected with them, that is, the 
right of holding a magistracy and of voting in 
the assembly. When a person thought that 
the punishment inflicted by the censors was 
undeserved, he might try to justify himself be- 
fore the censor (causam agere apud censores) ; 
and if he did not succeed, he might endeavour 
to gain over one of the censors, for no punish- 
ment could be inflicted unless both censors 
agreed. Such cases often gave rise to vehe- 
ment disputes between the censors. A further 
appeal was not legal, although it was tried in frequently ; in some states every year ; 



some instances, especially by inducing the 
bunes of the people to interfere. 
Another branch of the censorial functions 



had reference to the finances. As the censors demarchs performed the office of censor. 



CENSUS. >i*, 

which were under the supreme control of the 
senate, so that the censors were in fact the 
ministers of finance to the senate. Every 
thing which belonged to the state, and from 
which it derived revenues, was let out to farm, 
by the censors ; among them we may mention 
the ager publicus, ager vectigalis, mines, tolls, 
salt- works, &c. They further had the super- 
intendence of all public buildings ; and when 
new ones were to be erected, they gave them 
in contract (locabant) to the lowest bidder, and 
afterwards they had to see that the contractor 
had fulfilled his obligations, and done his 
work in the proper way. In like manner they 
gave in contract every thing else that had to 
be paid out of the state treasury, even down 
to the maintenance of the capitoline geese and 
the painting of the statues of the gods. The 
senate always informed them of the sums they 
might lay out, and the actual payment was 
not made by the censors, but by the quaestors 
or paymasters. 

When the business of the cens6"rs wars over, 
they celebrated the lustrum or general purifi 
cation [LUSTRUM], and brought the censorial 
lists, and all other documents connected with 
their functions, into the aerarium,whence they 
were carried into the temple of the Nymphs, 
where they were deposited and kept for ever. 

CENSUS, a register or valuation of per- 
sons and property. 

1. The census at Athens seems to date from 
the constitution of Solon. This legislator 
made four classes (rLfj,r]fj.aTa, reA^). 1. Pen- 
tacosiomedimni (TTEVTaKoaiojuedt/ivot), or those 
who received 500 measures, dry or liquid, from 
their lands. 2. Knights (iTnreif), who had an 
income of 300 measures, and formed the Athe- 
nian cavalry. 3. Zmgitae (&vylTat),\\hose in 
come was 150 measures, and who were so called 
from their being able to keep a team (fevyof) 
of oxen. 4. Thetes (d^ref), whose property 
was under 150 measures. The word thetes 
properly means a hired labourer, and this class 
corresponds to that of the capite censi at Rome. 
In order to settle in what class a man should 
be entered on the register (dTroypa^), he re- 
turned a valuation of his property, subject, 
perhaps, to the check of a counter-valuation 
The valuation was made very 
in 



others, every two or four years. The censors 
who kept the register at Athens, were proba- 
bly at first the naucrari, but afterwards the 



were best acquainted with the property of the 



378 a new valuation of property too 



citizens, and consequently with the amount place, and classes (avupopiai) were introduce v 
of taxes they had to pay to the state, and as expressly for the property-tax (eltfopa). The 
they had to fix the tributum, they were the nature of these classes is involved in consider 
fittest magistrates to manage the finances, | able obscurity. Thus much, however may 



CENSUS. 



be stated, that they consisted of 1200 individ- 
uals, 120 from each of the ten tribes, who, by 
way of a sort of liturgy, advanced the money 
for others liable to the tax, and got it from 
them by the ordinary legal processes. In a 
similar manner classes were subsequently 
formed for the discharge of another and more 
serious liturgy, the trierarchy ; and the stra- 
tegi, who nominated the trierarchs, had also 
to form the symmoriaefor the property- taxes. 
When the constitution essentially depended 
on the distribution of the citizens according to 
oroperty, it was called by the Greeks a timo- 
cracy, or aristocracy of property 



2. The census at Rome was instituted by 
Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome: in 
his constitution the political rights and duties 
of the citizens were regulated according to the 
amount of property they possessed, and ac- 
cordingly the census was a necessary conse- 
quence of that constitution. It was further 
necessary t<y repeat the census from time to 
time, as the property of the citizens, of course, 
fluctuated at different times and under dif- 
ferent circumstances : hence it was the rule 
at Rome that the census should be held every 
five years. 

The census was held by Servius Tullius, 
and for some time afterwards, in the Campus 
Martius, but subsequently in a public building, 
the villa publica, which was erected in the 
Campus Martius. Before the business com- 
menced, the auspices were consulted, as on 
all other public occasions, and all the citizens 
were summoned by a herald (praeco) to ap- 
pear before the censors at the appointed time : 
on the day of meeting the citizens were called 
upon, in the order of their tribes, to make 
their returns. It seems, however, to have 
been customary to call up first those whose 
names had a favourable meaning, such as Va- 
lerius, Salvius, &c. Every one gave his full 
name (nomen, praenomen, and cognomen), the 
tribe to which he belonged, the names of his 
father, wife, and children, and a statement of 
his own age. Freedmen had to give the same 
account, except that instead of their father, 
they had to state the name of their patron. 
Widows and children under age, being under 
a guardian (tutor),vfere represented by him, and 
entered by the censors in separate lists. The 
aerarii,caerites, and municipes, residing at Rome, 
were likewise entered in separate lists. When 
these lists were drawn up, every one had to 
make on oath a return (profiteri, censere, or 
censeri) of his property. It must be observed, 
however, that as it was the names of Roman 
citizens alone that could be included in the 
census, so likewise real Roman property, prin- 



cipally land (quiritarian property, dominium),wa 
alone registered. Whether a man's capital or 
debts were taken into account is uncertain. 
The portions which persons occupied of the 
ager publicus were not assessed, as they were 
not quiritarian property ; but in the times of the 
empire, when the whole system of taxation 
was based on different principles, public lands 
seem to have been assessed. Every person 
stated the amount of his real property , but the 
censors might nevertheless rate him higher, 
if they thought proper; and those who ab- 
sented themselves for the purpose of avoiding 
the census, and without appointing anybody 
to act as proxy, were severely punished. The 
soldiers who were absent from Rome had to 
make their returns to special commissioners 
appointed by the censors. When the lists of 
persons and of their property were completed, 
the censors proceeded to divide the whole body 
of citizens into senators, equites, &c., as well 
as into classes and centuries, and assigned to 
every citizen his proper place, his rights as 
well as his duties in the republic, for which 
purpose Servius Tullius had divided all Ro- 
man citizens into six classes and 193 centuries. 
If a person's property had become altered 
since the last census, or if his conduct re- 
quired it, the censors assigned him a different 
position in the social scale from that which he 
held before. Some were thus degraded,while 
others were raised. The results of these pro- 
ceedings were then made known, and we have 
numerous instances in Livy, in which not only 
the sum total of Roman citizens are recorded, 
but likewise of all persons, including womer> 
and children (capita). When the whole busi- 
ness of the census was over, one of the cen- 
sors was ordered to celebrate the lustrum 
[LUSTRUM], and before he did so, he delivered 
an address to the people, either to the whole 
body or to particular individuals, by way of 
admonition, advice, and the like. 

In the Roman municipia, as well as in the 
colonies, the census was held independently 
of the one at Rome, but the lists containing 
the returns were sent to Rome, where they 
were deposited in the archives. When all 
the inhabitants of Italy received the franchise, 
the local census appears to have continued, 
although many persons went to the capital 
to have their property registered there. In 
the provinces the census was conducted by 
censors who were either elected in the prov- 
inces themselves, or were sent thither from 
Rome. In the time of the empire, the same 
system of conducting the census in the prov- 
inces was continued, but it was carried out 
with greater strictness and on a more exten- 
sive scale, for which purpose the rrarnbcr ol 



CENTURIO. 

inferior officers and clerks was considerably 
increased. 

CENTU'MVIRI were judices, who re- 
sembled other judices in this respect, that 
they decided cases under the authority of a 
magistratus ; but they differed from other ju- 
dices in being a definite body or collegium. 
This collegium seems to have been divided 
into four parts, each of which sometimes sat 
by itself. The origin of the court is unknown. 
According to an ancient writer, three were 
chosen out of each tribe, and consequently 
the whole number out of the 35 tribes would 
be 105, who, in round numbers, were called 
the hundred men. If the centumviri were 
chosen from the tribes, this seems a strong 
presumption in favour of the high antiquity 
of the court. 

It was the practice to set up a spear in the 
place where the centumviri were sitting, and 
accordingly the word hasta, or hasta circumvi- 
ralis, is sometimes used as equivalent to the 
words judicium centumvirale. The praetor pre- 
sided in this court. 

The jurisdiction of the centumvin was 
chiefly confined to civil matters, but it ap- 
pears that crimina sometimes came under 
their cognizance. 

The younger Pliny, who practised in this 
court, makes frequent allusions to it in his 
letters. 

CENTU'RIA. [CENTURIO ; COMITIA.] 

CENTU'RIO, the commander ofacenturia 
or company of infantry, varying in number 
with the legion. 

The century was a military division, cor- 
responding to the civil one curia ; the centu- 
rio of the one answered to the curio of the 
other. From analogy we are led to conclude 
that the century originally consisted of thirty 
men. In later times the legion was com- 
posed of thirty maniples, or sixty centuries. 
As its strength varied from about three to 
six thousand, the numbers of a century would 
vary in proportion, from about fifty to a hun- 
dred. 

The duties of the centurion were chiefly 
confined to the regulation of his own corps, 
and the care of the watch. The vitis was 
the badge of office with which the centurion 
punished his men. The short tunic was an- 
other mark of distinction. The following 
cut represents a centurio with the vitis in 
one of his hands. The centurions were usu- 
ally elected by the military tribunes, subject 
probably to the confirmation of the consul. 
In every maniple there were two centuries, 
distinguished by the title of prior and posteri- 
or, because the former ranked .above the lat- 
ter. The centurion of the first century of 



CEREALIA. 




the first maniple of the triarii was called pri- 
mus pilus, primipilus, primi pili centurio, prin- 
ceps centurionum, and was the first in rank 
among the centurions. The centurion of 
the second century of the first maniple of the 
triarii was called primipilus posterior. In like 
manner the two centurions of the second 
maniple of the triarii were called prior centu- 
rio and posterior centurio alterius pili, and so on 
to the tenth, who were called prior centurio 
and posterior centurio decimi pili. In the same 
manner we have primus princeps, primus has- 
tatus, &c The primipilus was entrusted 
with the care of the eagle, and had the right 
of attending the councils of the general. 

The optiones, uragi or succenturiones, were 
the lieutenants of the centurions, and their 
deputies during illness or absence ; they were 
elected by the centurions. 

The pay of the centurion was double that 
of an ordinary soldier. In the time of Poly- 
bius the latter was about ten denarii, or 
7s. Id. per month, besides food and clothing. 
Under Domitian we find it increased above 
tenfold. 

CEREA'LIA, a festival celebrated at Rome 
in honour of Ceres, whose wanderings in 
search of her lost daughter Proserpine were 
represented by women, clothed in white, run- 
ning about with lighted torches. During its 
continuance, games were celebrated in the 
Circus Maximus, the spectators of which ap- 
peared in white ; but on any occasion of pub- 
lic mourning the games and festivals were 
not celebrated at all, as the matrons could 
not appear at them except in white. The 
day of the Cerealia is doubtful ; some think 



76 



CHALCIOECIA. 



it was the ides or 13th of April, others th 

7th of the same month. 
CERO'MA (KTjpufta), the oil mixed wit! 

wax (/cjypdf) with which wrestlers wen 

anointed ; also the place where they were 

anointed, and, in later times, the place where 

they wrestled. 
CERU'CHI. [ANTENNA.] 
CESTUS. 1. The thongs or bands o: 

leather, which were tied round the hands o: 
boxers, in order to render their blows more 
powerful (ijnuvTEf, or iuavref _ TTVK.TLKOL) 
The cestus was used by boxers in the earli- 
est times, and is mentioned in the Iliad ; but 
in the heroic times it consisted merely ol 
thongs of leather, and differed from the ces- 
tus used in later times in the public games, 
which was a most formidable weapon, being 
frequently covered with knots and nails, and 
loaded with lead and iron. 




2, A band or tie of any kind, but more par- 
ticularly the zone or girdle of Venus, on 
which was represented everything that could 
awaken love. 

CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, i. e. a 
small round shield, made of the hide of a 
quadruped. It formed part of the defensive 
armour of the Osci, and of the people of Spain, 
Mauritania, and Britain, and seems to have 
been much the same as the target of the 
Scotch Highlanders. The Romans do not 
appear to have used the cetra ; but we find 
mention of cetratae cohortes levied in the prov- 
inces. Livy compares it to the pelta of the 
Greeks and Macedonians, which was also a 
small light shield. 

CHALCIOE'CIA (Xa^KiotKia), an annual 
festival, with sacrifices, held at Sparta in ho- 
nour of Minerva, surnamed Chalcioecus (XaA- 
KioiKog), i. e. the goddess of the brazen-house. 
Young men marched on the occasion in full 
armour to the temple of the goddess ; and 
the ephors, although not entering the temple, 
but remaining within its sacred precincts, 
were obliged to take part in the sacrifice. 



CHEL1DONIA. 

CHARIOT. [CuRRUs.] 

CHARI'STIA (from xapifrftcu, to grant a 
favour or pardon), a solemn feast among the 
Romans, to which none but relations and 
members of the same family were invited, in 
order that any quarrel or disagreement which 
had arisen amongst them might be made up. 
The day of celebration was the 19th of Feb- 
ruary. 

CHEIROTO'NIA (xeiporovia). In the 
Athenenian assemblies two modes of votin 
were practised, the one by pebbles 
aflat),the other by a show of hands 

V}. The latter was employed in the elec- 
;ion of those magistrates who were chosen 
n the public assemblies, and who were hence 
alled xeipoTovr/Toi, in voting upon laws, and 
n some kinds of trials on matters which con- 
cerned the people. We frequently find, how- 
ever, the word jnfilcoOat used where the 
otes were really given by show of hands. 
The manner of voting by a show of hands 
>vas as follows : The herald said : "Who- 
ever thinks that Meidias is guilty, let him 
ift up his hand." Then those who thought 

stretched forth their hands. Then the 
lerald said again : " Whoever thinks that 
Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his 
land ;" and those who were of frhis opinion 
tretched forth their hands. The number 
if hands was counted each time by the her- 
Id ; and the president, upon the herald's re- 
ort, declared on which side the majority 
oted. 

It is important to understand clearly the 
ompounds of this word. A vote condemn- 
ng an accused person is Karaxetporovia : 
ne acquitting him, airoxeiporovia ; imxei- 
OTOVEIV is to confirm by a majority of votes : 
TUYeiporovia T&V vontiv was a revision of 
tie laws, which took place at the beginning 
f every year : eTuxei-poTovia rtiv upxtiv was 

vote taken in the first assembly of each 
rytany on the conduct of the magistrates; 

1 these cases, those who voted for the con 
rmation of the law, or for the continuance 

n office of the magistrate, were said eTrixet- 
orovtlv i those on the other side aTroxsiporo- 
eiv : diaxeipoTovia is a vote for one of two 
Iternatives : uvrixf ipoTovelv, to vote against 
proposition. The compounds of ^j^lee#flu 
ave similar meanings. 
CHELIDO'NIA (x&iMvia) a custom ob- 
srved in the island of Rhodes, in the month 
f Boedromion, the time when the swallows 
eturned. During that season, boys, called 
doviarai, went from house to house col- 
ecting little gifts, ostensibly for the return- 
ig swallows, and singing a song which is 
till extant. The chelidonia, which have 



CHIRODOTA. 

been sometimes called a festival, seem to 
have been nothing more than a peculiar mode 
of begging, which, on the occasion of the re- 
turn of the swallows, was carried on by boys 
in the manner stated above. Many analogies 
may still be observed in various countries at 
the various seasons of the year. 

CHIRAMA'XIUM ( X Eipa^iov, from^e/p 
and afia^a), a sort of easy chair, or go-cart, 
used for invalids and children. It differed 
' from the sella gestatoria, which answers to 
our sedan-chair, in which the person was 
carried by his slaves or servants, since it 
went upon wheels, though moved by men in- 
stead of animals. 

CHIRODO'TA (xeipiduToc, from %eipi^ 
manica), a tunic with sleeves. The tunic of 
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans was 
originally without sleeves, or they only came 
a little way down the arm. On the other 
hand, the Asiatic and Celtic nations wore 
long sleeves sewed to their tunics. Also the 
Greeks allowed tunics with sleeves to fe- 
males, although it was considered by the Ro- 
mans indecorous when they were worn by 
men. Cicero mentions it as a great reproach 
to Catiline and his associates, that they wore 
long tunics with sleeves. The annexed cut 
represents the figure of a woman, whose 
sleeves reach to the elbow, and who wears 



JHLAMYS. 



77 




ChiridotA, Tunic with sleeves. 

the capistrum to assist her in blowing the 
tibiae pares. 



CHIRO'GRAPHUM (xeipoypajov), meant 
first, as its derivation implies, a handwriting 
or autograph. In this its simple sense, x tp 
in Greek and manus in Latin are often sub- 
stituted for it. From this meaning was easily 
derived that of a signature to a will or other 
instrument, especially a note of hand given 
by a debtor to his creditor. 
CHITON (XIT&V). [TUNICA.] 
CHLAENA (x^alva). [PALLIUM.] 
CHLAMYS (x^a/tys, dim. x/\,afj,v6iov), a 
scarf, denoted an article of the amictus, or 
outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for 
the most part woollen ; and it differed from 
the himation (i/tdriov), or cloak, the usual 
amictus of the male sex, in being smaller, 
finer, and oblong instead of square, its length 
being generally about twice its breadth. 

The scarf does not appear to have been 
much worn by children. It was generally 
assumed on reaching adolescence, and was 
worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to 
twenty years of age, and hence was called 
#/la/zi>c <^r}(3iK7J. It was also worn by the 
military, especially of high rank, over their 
body armour, and by hunters and travellers, 
more particularly on horseback. 

The usual mode of wearing the scarf was 
to pass one of its shorter sides round the 
neck, and to fasten it by means of a brooch 
(fibula), either over the breast (cut, p. 17.), in 
which case it hung down the back, or over 
the right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm 
(cut, p. 79.). In the following cut it is worn 
again in another way. 




Chlamys 

Among the Romans the scarf came more 
into use under the emperors. Caligula wore 
one enriched with gold. Severus, when he 
was in the country or on an expedition, wore 
a scarf dyed with the coccus. 



78 



CHORUS. 



CHOENIX (xolviZ), a Greek measure of 
capacity, the size of which is differently giv- 
en ; it was probably of different sizes in the 
several states. Some writers make it equal 
to three cotylae ( 1 .4866 pints English) ; 
others to four cotylae ( = 1 .9821 pints Eng- 
lish) ; others again make it eight cotylae 
( = 3 .9641 pints English). 

CHORA'GUS (xopijyo?), a person who 
had to bear the expenses of the choragia (%o- 
prj-yia), one of the regularly recurring state 
burthens (eyKVK^ioi TieirovpyiaC) at Athens. 
Originally [see CHORUS] the chorus consisted 
of all the inhabitants in the state. With the 
improvement of the arts of music and danc- 
ing, the distinction of spectators and perform- 
ers arose ; it became more a matter of art to 
sing and dance in the chorus ; paid perform- 
ers were employed ; and at last the duties of 
this branch of worship devolved upon one 
person, selected by the state to be their rep- 
resentative, who defrayed all the expenses 
which were incurred on the different occa- 
sions. This person was the choragus. It 
was the duty of the managers of a tribe (ETU- 
(leTirjral 0u/l^c), to which a choragy had 
come round, to provide a person to perform 
the duties of it ; and the person appointed by 
them had to meet the expenses of the chorus 
in all plays, tragic or comic and satirical; 
and of the lyric choruses of men and boys, 
the pyrrhichistae, cyclian dancers, flute-play- 
ers, &c. He had first to collect his chorus, 
and then to procure a teacher (^opodtduaKa- 
Aoc), whom he paid for instructing the cho- 
reutae. The chorus were generally main- 
tained, during the period of their instruction 
at the expense of the choragus. The chora- 
gus who exhibited the best musical or thea- 
trical entertainment received as a prize a 
tripod, which he had the expense of conse- 
crating, and sometimes he had also to build 
the monument on which it was placed. There 
was a whole street at Athens formed by the 
line of these tripod-temples, and called " The 
Street of the Tripods." 

CHORUS (#opof), a band of singers and 
dancers, engaged in the public worship of 
some divinity. This is, however, only the 
secondary meaning of the Greek word. The 
word chorus, which is connected with #wpoc, 
^cjpa, properly denoted the market-place, 
where the chorus met. 

In the oldest times the chorus consisted of 
the whole population of the city, who met in 
the public place to offer up thanksgivings to 
their country's god, by singing hymns and 
performing corresponding dances. The hymn, 
however, was not sung by the chorus, but 
some poet or musician sang or played the 



hymn, and the dancers, who formed the cho- 
rus, only allowed their movements to be 
guided by the poem or the tune. The poet, 
therefore, was said to " lead off the dance" 
(et;dpx?tv /HO^TT^^). This old chorus, or the 
chorus proper, was always accompanied by the 
cithara, the lyre, or the phorminx, which were 
different kinds of stringed instruments ; when 
the accompaniment was the flute, it was not 
a chorus, but an agla'ta (ay/lam) or a comus 
(KM/HOC), a much more riotous affair, which 
was always rather of the nature of a proces- 
sion than of a dance, and in which there was 
often no exarchus, but every one joined into 
the song or cry of joy at his pleasure. 

The chorus received its first full develop- 
ment in the Doric states. The Doric deity 
was Apollo ; consequently we find the Doric 
chorus, which was properly accompanied by 
the lyre, immediately connected with the 
worship of Apollo, the inventor of the lyre. 

The most important event in the history 
of Greek choral poetry was the adaptation of 
the dithyramb, or old Bacchic song, to the 
system of Doric choruses ; for it was to this 
that we owe the Attic drama. The dithy- 
ramb was originally of the nature of a comus 
it was sung by a band of revellers to a flute 
accompaniment ; and Arion, the celebrated 
player on the cithara, was the first to prac- 
tise a regular chorus in the dithyramb, and 
to adapt it to the cithara. The dithyramb 
was danced round a blazing altar by a chorus 
of 50 men or boys ; hence it was called a cir- 
cular chorus (Kvnhio? xopoe). 

Tragedy arose from the recitations of the 
leaders of the dithyrambic chorus, and the 
first beginning of it is supposed to have been 
when the poet, Thespis, as leader of his 
dithyrambic chorus, either made long epic 
or narrative speeches, or conversed with his 
chorus. Aeschylus introduced a dialogue 
between two of the exarchi, who thus became 
actors. The tragic chorus subsequently con- 
sisted of twelve or fifteen persons, the comic 
of twenty-four, and the satyric probably of 
nine or six. 

The tragic chorus still mustered around 
the thymele or altar of Bacchus in the theatre, 
thereby showing some last traces of its dithy- 
rambic origin ; and though the lyre was its 
general accompaniment, it did not by any 
means repudiate the flute, the old accompani- 
ment of the dithyramb. 

The expense of the chorus, as is stated 
under CHORAGUS, was defrayed by the cho- 
ragus, who was assigned to the poet by the 
archon. In the case of a dramatic chorus, 
the poet, if he intended to represent at the 
Lecaea, applied to the king-archon ; if at the 



CIPPUS. 

great Dionysia, to the chief archon, who 
" gave him a chorus," if his play was thought 
to deserve it. The comic dance was not at 
first thought worthy of a public chorus, but 
the chorus in that species of drama was at 
first performed by amateurs. 

CHOUS or CHOEUS (^ovf or oJ?), 
equal to the Roman congius, and contained 
six fecrrai, or sextarii ( = 5 .9471 pints Eng- 
lish). It seems that there was also a small- 
er measure of the same name, containing 
two sextarii (= 1 .9823 pints English). 

CHRYSE'NDETA, costly dishes used by 
the Romans at their entertainments, appa- 
rently made of silver, with golden ornaments. 

CINCTUS GABI'NUS. [TOGA.] 

CI'NGULUM. [ZoNA.] 

CINERA'RIUS. [CALAMISTRUM.] 

CI'NERES. [FuNus.] 

CI'NIFLO. [CALAMISTRUM.] 

CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, 
but more frequently rectangular. Cippi were 
used for various purposes ; the decrees of the 
senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; 
and with distances engraved upon them, they 
also served as mile-stones. They were how- 



CIRCUS. 



79 



VIX'ANN-XVllI 
MENS-1'QIEXXIV 
UVIRIVSHEL1V5 
JCNlN/CI-DVlfM 




Cippus, Sepulchral Monument 

ever, more frequently employed as sepulchral 
monuments. 
It was also usual to place at one corner of 



the burying-ground a cippus, on which the 
extent of the burying-ground was marked, 
towards the road (in fronte), and backwards 
to the fields (in agrum). 
CIRCENSES LUDI. [CIRCUS.] 
CIRCITO'RES,or CICUITO'RES. [CAS- 

TRA.] 

CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had 
taken the town of Apiolae from the Latins, 
he commemorated his success by an exhibi- 
tion of races and pugilistic contests in the 
Murcian valley, between the Palatine and 
Aventine hills ; around which a number of 
temporary platforms were erected by the pa- 
tres and equites, called spectacula,fori, or/o- 
ruli, from their resemblance to the deck of a 
ship ; each one raising a stage for himself, 
upon which he stood to view the games. 
This course, with its surrounding scaffold- 
ings, was termed circus ; either because the 
spectators stood round to see the shows, or 
because the procession and races went round 
in a circuit. Previously, however, to the 
death of Tarquin, a permanent building was 
constructed for the purpose, with regular 
tiers of seats in the form of a theatre. To 
this the name of Circus Maximus was sub- 
sequently given, as a distinction frorr. the 
Flaminian and other similar buildings, which 
it surpassed in extent and splendour ; and 
hence it is often spoken of as the Circus, with- 
out any distinguishing epithet. 

Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige 
now remains ; but this loss is fortunately sup- 
plied by the remains of a small circus on the 
Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a 
state of considerable preservation : it is repre- 
sented in the annexed cut, and may be taken 
as a model of all others. 

Around the double lines (A, A) were ar- 
ranged the seats (gradus, sedilia, subsellia), as 
in a theatre, termed collectively the cavea; the 
lowest of which were separated from the 
ground by a podium, and the whole divided 
longitudinally bypraecinctiones, and diagonally 
into cunei, with their vomitoria attached to 
each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the ex- 
tremity of the upper branch of the cavea, the 
general outline is broken by an outwork (B), 
which was probably the pulvinar, or station for 
the emperor, as it is placed in the best situa- 
tion for seeing both the commencement and 
end of the course, and in the most prominent 
part of the circus. In the opposite branch is 
observed another interruption to the uniform 
line of seats (C), betokening also, from its 
construction, a place of distinction ; which 
might have been assigned to the person at whose 
expense the games were given (editor spectacu- 
lorum). In the centre of the area was a low 



HO 



CIRCUS. 



wall(D) running lengthways down the course, I of the dorsal bone in the human frame was 
which, from its resemblance to the position | termed spina. 




Ground Plan of the Circus. 



At each extremity of the spina were placed 
upon a base (E, E), three wooden cylinders, 
of a conical shape, like cypress trees, which 
were called metae the goals. Their situation 
is distinctly seen in the following cut. 

The most remarkable objects upon the spina 
were two columns (F) supporting seven coni- 
cal balls, which, from their resemblance to 
eggs, were called ova, and these are also seen 
in the following cut. Their use was to ena- 
ble the spectators to count the number of 
rounds which had been run ; and they were 
seven in number, because seven was the num- 
ber of the circuits made in each race. As 
each round was run, one of the ova was either 
put up or taken down. An egg was adopted 
for this purpose, in honour of Castor and Pol- 
lux. At the other extremity of the spina were 
two similar columns (G), sustaining seven 
dolphins, termed delphinae, or ddphinarum co- 
lumnae, which do not appear to have been in- 
tended to be removed, but only placed there 
as corresponding ornaments to the ova ; and 
the figure of the dolphin was selected in 
honour of Neptune. 

At the extremity of the circus in which the 



two horns of the cavea terminate, were placed 
the stalls for the horses and chariots (H,H), 
commonly called carceres, but more anciently 
the whole line of building at this end of the 
circus was termed oppidum : hence in the cir- 
cus, of which the plan is given above, we rind 
two towers (I, I), at each end of the carceres. 
The number of carceres is supposed to have been 
usually twelve, as in this plan. They were 
vaults closed in front by gates of open wood- 
work (cancdli), which were opened simultane- 
ously upon the signal being given. There were 
five entrances to the circus, one (L) in the centre 
of the carceres, called portapompae, because it 
was the one through which the Circensian pro- 
cession entered ; the others at M, M, N, and O. 
At the entrance of the course, exactly in the 
direction of the line (J, K), were two small 
pedestals (hermuli) on each side of the podium, 
to which was attached a chalked rope (alba 
linea), for the purpose of making the start 
fair, precisely as is practised at Rome for the 
horse-races during Carnival. Thus.when the 
doors of the carceres were thrown open, if any 
of the horses rushed out before the others, 
they were brought up by this rope until the 




Spina of the Circus, from an ancient bas-reliet 



CIRCUS. 



81 



whole were fairly abreast, when it was 
loosened from one side, and all poured into 
the course at once. This was also called calx, 
and creta. The metif served only to regulate 
the turnings cf f .he course, the alba linea an- 
swered to the starting and winning post of 
modern days. 

From this description the Circus Maximus 
differed little, except io size and magnificence 
of embellishment. The numbers which the 
Circus Maximus was capable of containing 
are computed at 150.000 by Dionysius, 260,000 
'.y Pliny, and 385,000 by P. Victor, all of 
which are probably correct, but have refer- 
ence to different periods of its history. Its 
length, in the time of Julius Caesar, was three 
stadia, the width one, and the depth of the 
buildings occupied half a stadium. 

When the Circus Maximus was perma- 
nently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each 
of the thirty curia had a particular place as- 
signed to it ; but as no provision was made for 
the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that 
the Circus Flaminius was designed for the 
games of the commonalty, who in early times 
chose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian 
field. However, in the latter days of the re- 
public, these invidious distinctions were lost, 
and all classes sat promiscuously in the cir- 
cus. The seats were then marked off at in- 
tervals by a line or groove drawn across them 
(linea), so that the space included between 
two lines afforded sitting room for a certain 
number of spectators. Under the empire, how- 
ever, the senators and equites were separated 
from the common people. The seat of the 
emperor (pulvinar, or cubiculum) was most 
likely in the same situation in the Circus 
Maximus as in the one above described. 

The Circensian games (Ludi Circenses) were 
first instituted by Romulus, according to the 
legends, when he wished to attract the Sabine 
population to Rome, for the purpose of furnish- 
ing his own people with wives, and were cele- 
brated in honour of the god Consus, or Nep- 
tunus Equestris, from whom they were styled 
Consuales. But after the construction of the 
Circus Maximus, they were called indiscrimi- 
nately Circenses, Romani, or Magni, They em- 
braced six kinds of games : I. CURSUS ; II. 
LUDUS TROJAE ; III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS; 
IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM ; V. VENATIO ; 
VI. NAUMACHIA. The two last were not pe- 
culiar to the circus, but were exhibited also 
in the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropri- 
ated for them 

The games commenced with a grand pro- 
cession (Pompa Circensis), in which all those 
who were about to exhibit in the circus as 
well as persons of distinction bore a part. The 



statues of the gods formed the most conspicu- 
ous feature in the show, which were paraded 
upon wooden platforms, called fercula and 
thensae. The former were borne upon the 
shoulders, as the statues of saints are car- 
ried in modern processions ; the latter were 
drawn along upon wheels. 

I. CURSUS, the races. The carriage usually 
employed in the circus was drawn by two or 
four horses (biga, quadriga). [CuRRUS.] 

The usual number of chariots which started 
for each race was four. The drivers (aurigae, 
agit.atores) were also divided into four compa- 
nies, each distinguished by a different colour, 
to represent the four seasons of the year, and 
called a factio : thus factio prasina, the green, 
represented the spring ; factio russata, red, the 
summer ; factio veneta, azure, the autumn ; 
and factio alba or albata, white, the winter. 
Originally there were but two factions, albata 
and russata, and consequently only two char- 
iots started at each race. The driver stood in 
his car within the reins, which went round his 
back. This enabled him to throw all his 
weight against the horses, by leaning back- 
wards ; but. it greatly enhanced his danger in 
case of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort 
of knife or bill-hook was carried at the waist, 
for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case 
of emergency. 

When all was ready, the doors of the car- 
ceres were flung open, and the chariots were 
formed abreast of the alba linea by men called 
moratores from their duty ; the signal for the 
start was then given by the person who pre- 
sided at the games, sometimes by sound of 
trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a nap- 
kin ; whence the Circensian games are called 
spectacula mappae. The alba linea was then 
cast off, and the race commenced, the extent 
of which was seven times round the spina, 
keeping it always on the left. A course of 
seven circuits was termed unus missus, and 
twenty-five was the number of races run in 
each day, the last of which was called missus 
aerarius, because in early times the expense of 
If was defrayed by a collection of money (aes) 
made amongst the people. The victor de- 
scended from his car at the conclusion of the 
race, and ascended the spina, where he re- 
ceived his reward (bravium, from the Greek 
PpapElov), which consisted in a considerable 
sum of money. 

The horse-racing followed the same rules as 
the chariots. 

The enthusiasm of the Romans for thes 
races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the horse& 
(libella), with their names and colours, and the 
names of the drivers, were handed about, and 
heavv bets made upon each faction ; and some. 



82 



CISTA. 



times the contests between two parties broke 
out into open violence and bloody quarrels, 
until at last the disputes which originated in 
the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Jus- 
tinian his crown. 

II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said 
to have been invented by Aeneas, performed 
by young men of rank on horseback, and often 
exhibited by the emperors. 

ill. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET PEDESTRis, a re- 
presentation of a battle, upon which occasions 
a camp was formed in the circus. 

IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. SeeATHLETAE, 
and the references to the articles there given. 

V. [VENATIO.J VI. [NAUMACHIA.j 

C/SIUM, a light open carriage with two 
wheels, adapted to carry 
two persons rapidly from 
place to place. 

The cisia were quickly 
drawn by mules. Cicero 
mentions the case of a 
messenger who travel- 
led 56 miles in 10 hours 
1 ' :M '-"" in such vehicles, which 

were kept for hire at the stations along the 
great roads ; a proof that the ancients con- 
sidered six Roman miles per hour as an extra- 
ordinary speed. 

CISTA (/acm?), a small box or chest, in 
which anything might be placed, but more 





Cista. 



CIVITAS. 

particularly applied to the small boxes which 
were carried in procession in the festivals of 
Ceres and Bacchus. These boxes, which 
were always kept closed in the public pro- 
cessions, contained sacred things connected 
with the worship of these deities. In the re- 
presentations of Dionysiac processions on an- 
cient vases, women carrying cistae are fre- 
quently introduced. 

The cista was also the name of the ballot- 
box, into which those who voted in the co- 
initia and in the courts of justice cast their 
tabellae. It is represented in the an- 
nexed cut, and should not be confound- 
ed with the situla or sitella, into which 
sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.] 

CISTO'PHORUS (/aCTTo06poe), a silver 
coin, which is supposed to belong to Rhodes, 
and which was in general circulation in Asia 
Minor at the time of the conquest of that 
country by the Romans. It took its name 
from the device upon it, which was either the 
sacred chest (cista) of Bacchus, or more pro- 
bably a flower called KLOTO^. Its value is ex- 
tremely uncertain : some writers suppose it to 
have been worth in our money about l\d. 

C1THARA. [LYRA.] 

CITIZEN. [CIVITAS.] 

CIVIS. [CIVITAS.] 

CFV1TAS, citizenship. 

1. GREEK (Tro/Ure/a). Aristotle defines a 
citizen (Trp/Ur^f) to be one who is a partner 
in the legislative and judicial power (^ero^oj 1 
Kpiaeu? Kal ap^?jf). No definition will equally 
apply to all the different states of Greece, or 
to any single state at different times ; the 
above seems to comprehend more or less pro- 
perly all those whom the common use of lan- 
guage entitled to the name. * 

A state in the heroic ages was the govern- 
ment of a prince ; the citizens were his sub- 
jects, and derived all their privileges, civil as 
well as religious, from their nobles and prin- 
ces. The shadows of a council and assembly 
were already in existence, but their business 
was to obey. Upon the whole the notion of 
citizenship in the heroic age only existed so 
far as the condition of aliens or of domestic 
slaves was its negative. 

The rise of a dominant class gradually over- 
threw the monarchies of ancient Greece. Of 
such a class, the chief characteristics were 
good birth and the hereditary transmission of 
privileges, the possession of land, and the per- 
formance of military service. To these charac- 
ters the names gamori (ydftopoi), knights (/TT- 
TTif), eupatridae (eviraTpidai), &c. severally 
correspond. Strictly speaking, these were 
the only citizens ; yet the lower class were 
quite distinct from bondmen or slaves. It com- 



CIVITAS. 



b3 



monly happened that the nobility occupied the 
fortified towns, while the demus (6^/j.o^) lived 
in the country and followed agricultural pur- 
suits: whenever the latter were gathered 
within the walls, and became seamen or 
handicraftsmen, the difference of ranks was 
soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. 
The quarrels of the nobility among themselves, 
and the admixture of population arising from 
immigrations, all tended to raise the lower 
orders from their political subjection. It must 
be remembered, too, that the possession of 
domestic slaves, if it placed them in no new 
relation to the governing body, at any rate 
gave them leisure to attend to the higher du- 
ties of a citizen, and thus served to increase 
their political efficiency. 

During the convulsions which followed the 
heroic ages, naturalization was readily grant- 
ed to all who desired it ; as the value of citi- 
zenship increased, it was, of course, more 
sparingly bestowed. The ties of hospitality 
descended from the prince to the state, and 
the friendly relations of the Homeric heroes 
were exchanged for the Trpot-eviai of a later pe- 
riod. In political intercourse, the importance 
of these last soon began to be felt, and the 
Proxenus at Athens, in after times, obtained 
rights only inferior to actual citizenship. 
[HospiTiuM.] The isopolite relation existed, 
however, on a much more extended scale. 
Sometimes particular privileges were grant- 
ed : as kTuyafiia, the right of intermarriage ; 
eyKTTjatc, the right of acquiring landed prop- 
erty : arehcia, immunity from taxation, es- 
pecially ari'X.eia /ueToiidov, from the tax im- 
posed on resident aliens. All these privileges 
were included under the general term iaori- 
Aem, or iaoTro^ireta, and the class who ob- 
tained them were called /crore/leif. They 
bore the same burthens with the citizens, 
and could plead in the courts or transact 
business with the people, without the inter- 
vention of a TrpoaTdrris or patron. 

Respecting the division of the Athenian 
citizens into tribes, phratriae and denies, see 
the articles TRIBUS and DEMUS. 

If we would picture to ourselves the true 
notion which the Greeks embodied in the 
word polls (Tro/lif), we must lay aside all mo- 
dern ideas respecting the nature and object of 
a state. With us practically, if not in theory, 
the essential object of a state hardly embraces 
more than the protection of life and property. 
The Greeks, on the other hand, had the most 
vivid conception of the state as a whole, every 
part of which was to co-operate to some great 
end to which all other duties were considered 
as subordinate. Thus the aim of democracy 
was said to be liberty ; wealth, of oligarchy ; 



and education, of aristocracy. In all govern- 
ments the endeavour was to draw the social 
union as close as possible, and it seems to 
have been with this view that Aristotle laid 
down a principle which answered well enough 
to the accidental circumstances of the Gre- 
cian states, that a polis must be of a certain 
size. 

This unity of purpose was nowhere so fully 
carried out as in the government of Sparta. 
The design of Spartan institutions was evi- 
dently to unite the governing body among 
themselves against the superior numbers of 
the subject population. The division of lands, 
the syssitia, the education of their youth, all, 
tended to this great object. [HELOTES ; PE- 

RIOECI.] 

In legs rights all Spartans were equal : 
but there were yet several gradations, which, 
when once formed, retained their hold on the 
aristocratic feelings of the people. First, 
there was the dignity of the Heraclid fami- 
lies ; and, connected with this, a certain pre- 
eminence of the Hyllean tribe. Another dis- 
tinction was that between the Homoioi (o/uoi- 
01) and Hypomeiones (vTro/teiovec), which, in 
later times, appears to have been considera- 
ble. The latter term probably comprehended 
those citizens who, from degeneracy of man- 
ners or other causes, had undergone some 
kind of civil degradation. To these the Ho- 
moioi were opposed, although it is not cer- 
tain in what the precise difference consisted. 

All the Spartan citizens were included in 
the three tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes, or Dy- 
manatae, and Pamphilians, each of which 
was divided into ten obes or phratries. The 
citizens of Sparta, as of most oligarchical 
states, were land-owners, although this does 
not seem to have been looked upon as an es- 
sential of citizenship. 

2. ROMAN. Civitas means the whole body 
of cives, or members, of any given state, and 
the word is frequently used by the Roman 
writers to express the rights of a Roman citi- 
zen, as distinguished from those of other per- 
sons not Roman citizens, as in the phrases 
dare civitalem, donare civitate, usurparc civita- 
tem, 

Some members of a political community 
(cives) may have more political rights than 
others ; and this was the case at Rome under 
the republic, in which we find a distinction 
made between two great classes of Roman 
citizens, one that had, and another that had 
not, a share in the sovereign power (o-ptimo 
jure, non optimo jure cives). That which pe- 
culiarly distinguished the higher class, or the 
optimo jure cives, was the right to vote in a 
tribe (jus suffragiorum), and the caoacity Ov 



84 CIVITAS. 

enjoying magistracy (jus honorv,m). The in- 
ferior class, or the non optima jure cives, did 
not possess the above rights, which the Ro- 
mans called jus publicum, but they only had 
the jus privatum, which comprehended the 
jus connubii and jus commercii, and those who 
had not these had no citizenship. 

Under the empire we find the free persons 
who were within the political limits of the 
Roman state divided into three great classes. 
The same division probably existed in an 
early period of the Roman state, and certainly 
existed in the time of Cicero. These classes 
were, cives, Latini, and peregrini. Civis is he 
who possesses the complete rights of a Ro- 
man citizen. Peregrinus was incapable of 
exercising the rights of commercium and con- 
nubium, which were the characteristic rights 
of a Roman citizen ; but he had a capacity 
for making all kinds of contracts which were 
allowable by the jus gentium. The Latinus 
was in Hn intermediate state ; he had riot the 
connubium, and consequently he had not the 
patria potestas nor rights of agnatio ; but he 
liad the commercium or the right of acquiring 
quiritarian ownership, and he had also a ca- 
pacity for all acts incident to quiritarian 
ownership, as the power of making a will in 
Roman form, and of becoming heres under a 
will. 

The rights of a Roman citizen were ac- 
quired in several ways, but most commonly 
by a person being born of parents who were 
Roman citizens. 

A slave might obtain the civitas by manu- 
mission (vindicta), by the census, and by a 
testamentum, if there was no legal impedi- 
ment ; but it depended on circumstances 
whether he became a civis Romanus, a Lati- 
nus, or in the number of the peregrini dediticii. 
[MANUMISSIO.] 

The civitas could be conferred on a foreign- 
er by a lex, as in the case of Archias, who 
was a civis of Heraclea, a civitas which had 
a foedus with Rome, and who claimed the 
civitas Romana under the provisions of a lex 
of Silvanus and Carbo, B. c. 89. By the pro- 
visions of this lex, the person who chose to 
take the benefit of it was required, within 
sixty days after the passing of the lex, to 
signify to the praetor his wish and consent to 
accept the civitas (profiteri). This lex was 
intended to give the civitas, under certain 
limitations, to foreigners who were citizens 
of federate states (foederatis civitatibus ad- 

scripti). [FOEDERATE ClVITATES.] TllUS 

the great mass of the Italians obtained the 
civitas, and the privileges of the former civi- 
tates foederatae were extended to the provin- 
ces, first to part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, 



CLAVUS. 

under the name of Jus Latii or Latinitas. 
This Latinitas gave a man the right of ac 
quiring the Roman citizenship by having ex- 
ercised a magistratus in his own civitas ; a 
privilege which belonged to the foederatae ci- 
vitates of Italy before they obtained the Ro- 
man civitas. 

CLARIGA'TIO. [FETIALES.] 

CLASSES. [CAPUT; COMITIA.J 

CLA'SS^ICUM. [CoRNU.] 

CLAVIS (Ac/lejf, dim. K^eidiov), <i key. 
The key was used in very early times, and 
was probably introduced into Greece from 
Egypt ; although Eustathius states, that in 
early times all fastenings were made by 
chains, and that keys were comparatively of 
a much later invention, which invention he 
attributes to the Laconians. We have no 
evidence respecting the materials of which 
the Greeks made their keys, but among the 
Romans the larger and coarser sort were 
made of iron. Those discovered at Pompeii 
and elsewhere are mostly of bronze. The 
annexed woodcut represents a key found at 
Pompeii, the size of which indicates that it 
was used as a door key. 




CLAVUS LATUS, CLAVUS ANGUS- 
TUS. The clavus, as an article of dress, 
seems to have been a purple band worn upon 
the tunic and toga, and was of two fashions, 
one broad and the other narrow, denominated 
respectively clavus latus and clavus angustus. 
The former was a single broad band of pur- 
ple, extending perpendicularly from the neck 
down to the centre of the tunic ; the latter 
probably consisted of two narrow purple slips, 
running parallel to each from the top to the 
bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. 
The latus clavus was a distinctive badge of 
the senatorian order; and hence it is used to 
signify the senatorial dignity, and latidavius, 
the person who enjoys it. 

The angustus clavus was, the decoration of 
the equestrian order ; but the right of wear- 
ing the kttus clavus was also given to the 
children of equestrians, at least in the time 
of Augustus, as a prelude to entering the 
senate-house. This, however, was a matter of 
personal indulgence, and was granted onjy to, 
persons of very ancient family and correspond- 
ing wealth and then by special favour of ih* 



CLEKUCII1. 

emperor. In such cases the latus clavus 
was assumed with the toga virilis, and worn 
until the age arrived at which the young 
equestrian was admissible into the senate, 
when it was relinquished and the angustus 
Clavus resumed, if a disinclination on his 
part, or any other circumstances, prevented 
him from entering the senate, as was the 
case with Ovid. But it seems that the 
iatus clavus could be again resumed if the 
same individual subsequently wished to be- 
come a senator, and hence a fickle character 
is designated as one who is always changing 
Iiis clavus. 

The latus clavus is said to have been intro- 
duced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and to 
have been adopted by him after his conquest 
of the Etruscans ; nor does it appear to have 
been confined to any particular class during 
l he earlier periods, but to have been worn by 
all ranks promiscuously. It was laid aside in 
public mourning. 

CLEPSYDRA. [HOROLOGIUM.] 

CLERU'CHI (Khrjpovxot), the name of 
Athenian citizens who occupied conquered 
lands : their possession was called cleruchia 
(K2,7]pov%ia). The Athenian Cleruchi differed 
from the UTTOIKOL or ordinary colonists. The 
only object of the earlier colonies was to re- 
lieve surplus population, or to provide a home 
ibr those whom internal quarrels had exiled 
from their country. Most usually they origi- 
nated in private enterprize, and became inde- 
pendent of, and lost their interest in, the pa- 
rent state. On the other hand, it was essen- 
tial to the very notion of a cleruchia that it 
should be a public enterprize, and should 
always retain a connection more or less inti- 
mate with Athens herself. 

The connection with the parent state sub- 
sisted in all degrees. Sometimes, as in the 
case of Lesbos, the holders of land did not re- 
side upon their estates, but let them to the 
original inhabitants, while themselves re- 
mained at Athens. The condition of these 
cleruchi did not differ from that of Athenian 
citizens who had estates in Attica. All their 
political rights they not only retained, but ex- 
ercised as Athenians. Another case waswhere 
the cleruchi resided on their estates, and either 
with or without the old inhabitants, formed a 
new community. These still retained the 
rights of Athenian citizens, which distance 
only precluded them from exercising : they 
used the Athenian courts; and t if they or their 
children wished to return to Athens, naturally 
and of course they regained tire exercise of 
their former privileges. 

Sometimes, however, the connection might 
gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi sink into 



CLIENS. 



85 



the condition of mere allies, or separate wholly 
from the mother country. 

It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly 
indebted for the extension and permanence of 
her colonial settlements. His principal object 
was to provide for the redundancies of popu- 
lation, and raise the poorer citizens to a for- 
tune becoming the dignity of Athenian citi- 
zens. It was of this class of persons the 
settlers were chiefly composed ; the state pro- 
vided them with arms, and defrayed the ex 
penses of their journey. 

The cleruchiae were lost by the battle of 
Aegospotami, but partially restored on the re- 
vival of Athenian power. 

CLETE'RES or CLE'TORES (K "krirrjpeg , 
/c/b?Topef), surnmoners, were at Athens not 
official persons, but merely witnesses to the 
prosecutor that he had served the defendant 
with a notice of the action brought against 
him, and the day upon which it would be re- 
quisite for him to appear before the proper 
magistrate. 

CLIBANA'RII. [CATAPHRACTI.] 

CLIENS is said to contain the same ele- 
ment as the verb cluere, to "hear" or "obey," 
and may be accordingly compared with the 
German word horiger, " a dependent," from 
horen, " to hear." 

In the earliest times of the Roman state we 
find a class of persons called cZiew<es,who must 
not be confounded with the plebeians, from 
whom they were distinct. The clients were 
not slaves : they had property of their own 
and freedom, and appear to have had votes in 
the comitia centuriata, but they did not pos- 
sess the full rights of Roman citizens ; and the 
peculiarity of their condition consisted in 
every client being in a state of dependence 
upon or subjection to some patrician, who was 
called his patronus, and to whom he owed cer- 
tain rights and duties. The patronus, on the 
other hand, likewise incurred certain obliga- 
tions towards his client. This relationship 
between patronus and cliens was expressed 
by the word cZiene/a,which also expressed the 
whole body of a man's clients. 

The relative rights and duties of the patrons 
and the clients were, according to Dionysius, 
as follow : 

The patron was the legal adviser of the 
cliens ; he was the client's guardian and pro- 
tector, as he was the guardian and protector 
of his own children ; he maintained the cli- 
ent's suit when he was wronged, and defended 
him when another complained of being wrong- 
ed by him : in a word, the patron was the 
guardian of the client's interests, both private 
and public. The client contributed to the 
marriage portion of the patron's daughter, if 



% CLIPEUS. 

the pairon was poor ; and to his ransom, or 
that of his children, if they were taken prison- 
ers ; he paid the costs and damages of a suit 
which the patron lost, and of any penalty in 
which he was condemned ; he bore a part of 
the patron's expenses incurred by "his dis- 
charging public duties, or filling the honour- 
able places in the state. Neither party could 
accuse the other, or bear testimony against 
the other, or give his vote against the other. 
This relationship between patron and client 
subsisted for many generations, and resembled 
in all respects the relationship by blood. 

The relation of a master to his liberated 
slave (libertus) was expressed by the word pa- 
tronus, and the libertus was the cliens of his 
patronus. Distinguished Romans were also 
the protectors of states and cities, which were 
in a certain relation of subjection or depend- 
ence to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also 
find patronus in the sense of adviser, advocate, 
or defender, opposed to cliens in the sense of 
the person defended or the consultor a use 
of the word which must be referred to the 
original character of the patronus. 

CLIENTE'LA. [CI.IENS.] 

CLI'PEUS (a(T7r/c), the large shield worn 
by the Greeks and Romans, which was origi- 
nally of the circular form, and is said to have 




ClipeuB, Shield. 



CLITELLAE. 

been first used by Proetus and Acrisiusof Ar- 
gos, and therefore is called clipeus Argolicus, 
and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is 
often represented in Roman sculpture of an 
oblong oval, which makes the distinction be- 
tween the common buckler and that of Argos. 

The outer rim was termed uvrvt; by the 
Greeks ; and in the centre was a projection 
called 6/z0a/l6c or umbo, which served as a 
sort of weapon by itself, or caused the mis- 
siles of the enemy to glance off from the 
shield. 

In the Homeric times, the Greeks merely 
used a leather strap (Teha/uAv) to support the 
shield, but subsequently a handle (oxavov or 
o^ttVT?), the use and form of which are exhib- 
ited in the annexed cut. 




Clipeus, Shield. 

When the census was instituted by Servius 
Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the 
clipeus, and the second were armed with the 
scutum [SCUTUM] ; but after the Roman sol- 
diery received pay, the clipeus was discontin- 
ued altogether for the scutum. 

CLITE'LL AE, a pair of panniers.and there- 
fore only used in the plural number. In Italy 
they were commonly used with mules or 
asses ; but in other countries they were also 
applied to horses, of whicK an instance is 
given in the annexed woodcut from the col- 
umn of Trajan. 



COACTOR. 



COENA. 



87 




CLOA'CA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was 
intersected by numerous sewers, some of 
which were of an immense size : the most 
celebrated of them was the cloaca maxima, 
the construction of which is ascribed to Tar- 
quinius Priscus. It was formed by three 
tiers of arches, one within the other, the in- 
nermost of which is a semicircular vault of 
14 feet in diameter. The manner of its con- 
struction is shown in the annexed cut. 




Under the republic, the administration of 
the sewers was entrusted to the censors ; but 
under the empire, particular officers were ap- 
pointed for that purpose, called cloacarum cu- 
ratores, who employed condemned criminals 
in cleansing and repairing them. 

CLOCK. [HOROLOGIUM.] 

COA VESTIS, the Coanj robe, was a 
transparent dress, chiefly worn by women of 
loose reputation. It has been supposed to 
have been made of silk, because in Cos silk 
was spun and woven at a very early period. 

COACTOR, the name of collectors of va- 
rious sorts, e.g. the servants of the publicani, 
or fanners of the public taxes, who collected 



the revenues for them, and those who collect 
ed the money from the purchasers of things 
sold at a public auction. Horace informs us 
that his father was a coactor of this kind. 
Moreover, the servants of th'e money-changers 
were so called, from collecting their debts 
for them. The " coactores agminis" were 
the soldiers who brought up the rear of a line 
of march. 

CO'CHLEAR(/co;/Uapoi;),a kind of spoon, 
which appears to have terminated with a point 
at one end, and at the other was broad and 
hollow like our spoons. The pointed end 
was used for drawing snails (cochleae) out of 
their shells, and eating them, whence it de 
rived its name ; and the broader part for eat 
ing eggs, &c. 

Cochlear was also the name given to t 
small measure like our spoonful. 

CODEX, identical with caudex, as Claudius 
and Clodius, claustrum and clostrum, cauda and. 
coda, originally signified the trunk or stem of 
a tree. The name codex was especially ap- 
plied to wooden tablets bound together and 
lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose of 
writing upon them, and when, at a later age, 
parchment or paper, or other materials were 
substituted for wood, and put together in the 
shape of a book, the name of codex was still 
given to them. In the time of Cicero, we 
find it also applied to the tablet on which a 
bill was written. At a still later period, du- 
ring the time of the emperors, the word was 
used to express any collection of laws or con- 
stitutions of the emperors, whether made by 
private individuals or by public authority, as 
the Codex Gregorianus, Codex Theodosianus, 
and Codex Justiniarieus. 

COE'MPTIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] 

COENA. As the Roman meals are not 
always clearly distinguished, it will be con- 
venient to treat of all under the most impor- 
tant one ; and we shall confine ourselves to 
the description of the ordinary life of the mid 
die ranks of society in the Augustan age, no- 
ticing incidentally the most remarkable devi- 
ations. 

The meal with which the Roman some- 
times began the day was the jentaculum, 
which was chiefly taken by children, or sick 
persons, or the luxurious. A n irregular meal 
(if we may so express it) was not likely to 
have any very regular time ; two epigrams of 
Martial, however, seem to fix the hour at 
about three or four o'clock in the morning. 
Bread formed the substantial part of this 
early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried 
fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes 
added. 

Next followed the prandium or luncheon, 



COENA. 



with persons of simple habits a frugal meal, 
asnally taken about twelve or one o'clock. 

The coena, or principal meal of the day, 
corresponding to our " dinner," was usually 
taken about three o'clock in the time of Cice- 
ro and Augustus, though we read of some 
persons not dining till near sunset. A Ro- 
man dinner at the house of a wealthy man 
usually consisted of three courses. The first 
was called promulsis, antecoena or gustatio, 
and was made up of all sorts of stimulants to 
the appetite. Eggs also were so indispensa- 
ble to the first course that they almost gave 
a name to it (ab ovo usque ad mala}. The fru- 
gality of Martial only allowed of lettuce and 
Sicenian olives ; indeed he himself tells us 
that the promulsis was a refinement of mo- 
dern luxury. It would far exceed our limits 
to mention all the dishes which formed the 
second course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, 
the Guinea hen (Afra avis), the pheasant (pha- 
siana, so called from Phasis, a river of Col- 
chis), and the thrush, were most in repute ; 
the liver of a capon steeped in milk, and bec- 
caficos (ficedulae) dressed with pepper, were 
held a delicacy. The peacock, according to 
Macrobius, was first introduced by Horten- 
sius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and 
acquired such repute among the Roman gour- 
mands as to be commonly sold for fifty dena- 
rii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck 
(anas), especially its head and breast ; the 
woodcock (attagen), the turtle, and flamingo 
(phoenicopterus), the tongue of which, Martial 
tells us, especially commended itself to the 
delicate palate. Of fish the variety was per- 
haps still greater : the charr (scarus), the tur- 
bot (rhombus), the sturgeon (acipenser), the 
mullet (mullus), were highly prized, and dress- 
ed in the most various fashions. Of solid 
meat, pork seems to have been the favourite 
dish, especially sucking-pig. Boar's flesh 
and venison were also in high repute, espe- 
cially the former, described by Juvenal as 
animal propter convivia natum. Condiments 
were added to most of these dishes : such 
were the muria, a kind of pickle made from 
the tunny fish ; the garum sociorum, made 
from the intestines of the mackerel (scomber), 
so called because brought from abroad ; alec, 
a sort of brine ; faex, the sediment of wine, 
&c. Several kinds of fungi are mentioned, 
trufles (boleti), mushrooms (tuberes), which 
either made dishes by themselves, or formed 
the garniture for larger dishes. 

It must not be supposed that the artistes of 
imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves 
in the preparations and arrangements of the 
table. In a large household, the functiona- 
ries to whom this important duty was en- 



trusted were four, the butler (promus), the 
cook (archimagirus), the arranger of the dish- 
es (structor), and the carver (carptor or scissor). 
Carving was taught as an art, and performed 
to the sound of music, with appropriate ges- 
ticulations. 

" minimo sane discritnine refert, 

Q,ou vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur." 

In the supper of Petronius, a large round 
tray (ferculum, repositorium) is brought in, with 
the signs of the zodiac figured all round it, 
upon each of which the artiste (structor) had 
placed some appropriate viand, a goose on 
Aquafius, a pair of scales with tarts (scriblitae) 
and cheesecakes (placentae) in each scale on 
Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive 
supported by delicate herbage. Presently four 
slaves come forward dancing to the sound of 
music, and take away the upper part of the 
dish ; beneath appear all kinds of dressed 
meats ; a hare with wings, to imitate Pega- 
sus, in the middle ; and four figures of Mar- 
syas at the corners, pouring hot sauce (garum 
piperatum) over the fish, that were swimming 
in the Euripus below. So entirely had the 
Romans lost all shame of luxury, since the 
days when Cincius, in supporting the Fan- 
nian law, charged his own age with the enor- 
mity of introducing the porcus Trojanus, a sort 
of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other ani 
mals. 

The third course was the bellaria or dessert, 
to which Horace alludes when he says ot Ti- 
gellius ob ovo usque ad mala citaret ; it consisted 
of fruits (which the Romans usually ate un- 
cooked),. such as almonds (am ygdalae), dried 
grapes (uvae passae), dates (pabnulae, laryotae, 
dactyli) ; of sweetmeats and confections, called 
edulia mellita, dulciaria, such as cheesecakes 
(cupediae, crustula, liba, placentae, artologani), 
almond cakes (coptae), tarts (smMtae),whence 
the maker of them was called pistor dulciarius, 
placentarius, libarius, &G. 

We will now suppose the table spread and 
the guests assembled, each with his mappa or 
napkin, and in his dinner dress, called coena- 
toria or cubitoria, usually of a bright colour, and 
variegated with flowers. First they took of! 
their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which 
was often inlaid with ivory or tortoisesbell, 
and covered with cloth of gold. Next they lay 
down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow 
and supported by cushions. There were usu- 
ally, but not always, three on the same couch, 
the middle place being esteemed the most 
honourable. Around the tables stood the ser- 
vants (ministri) clothed in a tunic, and girt 
with napkins ; some removed the dishes and 
wiped the tables with a rough cloth, others 
gave the guests water for their hands, o 



COLLEGIUM. 

cooled the room with fans. Here stood an i 
eastern youth behind his master's couch, ready , 
to answer the noise of the fingers,while others j 
bore a large platter of different kinds of meat 
to the guests. 

Dinner was set out in a room called coenatio i 
or diaeta (which two words perhaps conveyed j 
to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction 
as our dining-room and parlour). The coena- 
tio, in rich men's houses, was fitted up with 
great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a 
supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, 
constructed like a theatre.with shifting scenes 
to change with every course. In the midst 
of the coenatio were set three couches (tricli- 
m'fl), answering in shape to the square, as the 
long semicircular couches (sigmata) did to the 
oval tables. An account of the disposition of 
the couches, and of the place which each 
guest occupied, is given in the article TRI- 
CLINIUM. 

For an account of Greek meals, see the ar- 
ticle DEIPNON. 

COENA'CULUM. [DOMUS.] 

COENA'TIO. 



COFFIN. [FuNus.] 

COGNATI, COGNA'TIO. The cognatio 
was the relationship of blood, which existed 
between those who were sprung from a com- 
mon pair ; and all persons so related were 
called cognati. 

The foundation of cognatio is a legal mar- 
riage. The term cognatus (with some excep- 
tions) comprehends agnatus ; an agnatus may 
be a cognatus, but a cognatus is only an agnatus 
when his relationship by blood is traced 
through males. 

Those who were of the same blood by both 
parents were sometimes called germani ; con- 
sangumei were those who had a common father 
only ; and uterini those who had a common 
mother only. 

CO'GNITOR. [AcTio.] 

COGNO'MEN. [NOMEN.] 

COHORS. [ExERciTUs.] 

COLLE'GIUM. The persons who formed 
a collegium were called collegae or sodales. 
The word collegium properly expressed the 
notion of several persons being united in any 
office for any common purpose ; it afterwards 
came to signify a body of persons, and the 
union which bound them together. The col- 
legium was the iraipia of the Greeks. 

The legal notion of a collegium was as fol- 
lows : A collegium or corpus, as it was also 
called, must consist of three persons at least. 
Persons who legally formed such an associa- 
tion were said corpus habere, which is equiva- 
ent to our phrase of being incorporated ; and in 
later times they were said to be corporati, and the 
H2 



COLONIA. 89 

body was called a corporatio. Associations of 
individuals, who were entitled to have a cor 
pus, could hold property in common. Such a 
body, which was sometimes also called a uni 
versitas, was a legal unity. That which was 
due to the body, was not due to the individu- 
als of it ; and that which the body owed, was 
not the debt of the individuals. The common 
property of the body was liable to be seized 
and sold for the debts of the body. 

It does not appear how collegia were form- 
ed, except that some were specially established 
by legal authority. Other collegia were pro- 
bably formed by voluntary associations of in- 
dividuals under the provisions of some general 
legal authority, such as those of the publi- 
cani. 

Some of these corporate bodies resembled 
our companies or guilds ; such were the/airo- 
rum, pistorum, &c. collegia. Others were of a 
religious character; such as the pontificum, 
augurum, fratrum arvalium collegia. Others 
were bodies concerned about government and 
administration ; as tribunorum plebis, quaesto- 
rum, decurionum collegia. 

According to the definition of a collegium, 
the consuls being only two in number were 
not a collegium, though each was called col- 
lega with respect to the other, and their union 
in office was called collegium. 

When a new member was taken into a col- 
legium, he was said co-optari, and the old 
members were said with respect to him, re- 
cipere in collegium. The mode of filling up va- 
cancies would vary in different collegia. The 
statement of their rules belongs to the several 
heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c. 

COLO'NIA, a colony, contains the same 
element as the verb colere, " to cultivate," and 
as the word coZonus,which probably originally 
signified a " tiller of the earth." 

1. GREEK. The usual Greek words for a 
colony are airoiKia and /c/l^poir^/a. The lat- 
ter word, which signified a division of con- 
quered lands among Athenian citizens, and 
which corresponds in some respects to the 
Roman colonia, is explained in the article 
CLERUCHI. 

The earlier Greek colonies, called inrotKtat, 
were usually composed of mere bands of ad- 
venturers, who left their native country, with 
their families and property, to seek a new 
home for themselves. Some of the colonies, 
which arose in consequence of foreign inva- 
sion or civil wars, were undertaken without 
any formal consent from the rest of the com- 
munity ; but usually a colony was sent out 
with the approbation of the mother country, 
and under the management of a leader (OIKI- 
appointed by it. But whatever mav 



90 



COLONIA. 



have been the origin of the colony, it was 
always considered in a political point of view 
independent of the mother country, called 
by the Greeks metropolis (^77 rp 6 Tro^c), the 
" mother-city," and entirely emancipated from 
its control. At the same time, though a col- 
ony was in no political subjection to its parent 
state, it was united to it by the ties of filial 
affection ; and, according to the generally re- 
ceived opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the 
parent state corresponded to those of a daugh- 
ter to her mother. Hence, in all matters of 
common interest, the colony gave precedence 
to the mother state ; and the founder of the 
colony (olKtarfa), who might be considered 
as the representative of the parent state, was 
usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero. 
Also, when the colony became in its turn a 
parent, it usually sought a leader for the colony 
which it intended to found from the original 
mother country ; and the same feeling of re- 
spect was manifested by embassies which 
were sent to honour the principal festivals of 
the parent state, and also by bestowing places 
of honour and other marks of respect upon 
the ambassadors and other members of the 
parent state, when they visited the colony at 
festivals and on similar occasions. The col- 
onists also worshipped in their new settlement 
the same deities as they had been accustomed 
to honour in their native country : the sacred 
fire, which was constant! y kept bu rn ing on their 
public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium 
of the parent city ; and sometimes the priests 
also were brought from the mother state. In 
the same spirit, it was considered a violation 
of sacred ties for a mother country and a colony 
to make war upon one another. 

The preceding account of the relations be- 
tween the Greek colonies and the mother 
country is supported by the history which 
Thucydides gives us of the quarrel between 
Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was a colony 
of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Cor- 
cyra ; but the leader (oiKiarfa) of the colony 
of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who was in- 
vited from the metropolis Corinth. In course 
of time, in consequence of civil dissensions, 
and attacks from the neighbouring barbarians, 
the Epidamniaus apply for aid to Corcyra, 
but their request is rejected. They next ap- 
ply to the Corinthians, who took Epidamnus 
under their protection, thinking, says Thucy- 
dides, that the colony was no less theirs than 
the Corcyreans' : and also induced to do so 
through hatred of the Corcyreans, because 
they neglected them though they were colo- 
nists ; for they did not give to the Corinthi- 
ans the customary honours and deference in 
the public solemnities and sacrifices, which 



the other colonies were wont to pay to the 
mother country. The Corcyreans, who had 
become very powerful by sea, took offence at 
the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under 
their protection, and the result was a war be- 
tween Corcyra and Corinth. The Corcyre- 
ans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask as- 
sistance ; and in reply to the objection that 
they were a colony of Corinth, they said 
" that every colony, as long as it is treated 
kindly, respects the mother country : but 
when it is injured, is alienated from it ; for 
colonists are not sent out as subjects, but 
that they may have equal rights with those 
that remain at home." 

It is true that ambitious states, such as 
Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over 
other states on the ground of relationship ; 
but, as a general rule, colonies may be re- 
garded as independent states, attached to 
their metropolis by ties of sympathy and 
common descent, but no farther. The case 
of Potidaea, to which the Corinthians sent 
annually the chief magistrates (dtjfuovpyoC), 
appears to have been an exception to the gen- 
eral rule. 

2. ROMAN. A kind of colonization seems 
to have existed among the oldest Italian na- 
tions, who, on certain occasions, seijt out 
their superfluous male population, with arms 
in their hands, to seek for a new home. But 
these were apparently mere bands of adven- 
turers, and such colonies rather resembled 
the old Greek colonies, than those by which 
Rome extended her dominion and her name. 

Colonies were established by the Romans 
as far back as the annals or traditions of the 
city extend, and the practice was continued, 
without intermission, during the republic and 
under the empire. Colonies were intended 
to keep in check a conquered people, and 
also to repress hostile incursions ; and theii 
chief object was originally the extension and 
preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy. 
Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the pro 
pugnacula imperil. Another object was to in 
crease the population. Sometimes the imme- 
diate object -of a colony was to carry off a 
number of turbulent and discontented per- 
sons. Colonies were also established for the 
purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a 
practice which was begun by Sulla, and con- 
tinued under the emperors : these coloniae 
were called militares. 

The old Roman colonies were in the nature 
of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and 
the colonists had a portion of the conquered 
territory (usually a third part) assigned to 
them. The inhabitants retained the rest of 
their lands, and lived together with the new 



COLONIA 



01 



settlers, who alone composed the proper col- 
ony. The conquered people must at first 
have been quite a distinct class from, and in- 
ferior to the colonists. 

No colonia was established without a lex, 
plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum ; a fact 
which shows that a Roman colony was never 
a mere body of adventurers, but had a regular 
organization by the parent state. When a 
law was passed for founding a colony, persons 
were appointed to superintend its formation 
(coloniam deducere). These persons varied in 
number, but three was a common number 
(triumviri ad colonos deducendos). We also 
read of duumviri, quinqueviri, vigintiviri for the 
same purpose. The law fixed the quantity 
of land that was to be distributed, and how 
much was to be assigned to each person. 
No Roman could be sent out as a colonist 
without his free consent, and when the colo- 
ny was not an inviting one, it was difficult to 
fill up the number of volunteers. 

The colonia proceeded to its place of des- 
tination in the form of an army (sub vexillo), 
which is indicated on the coins of some colo- 
niae. An urbs, if one did not already exist, 
was a necessary part of a new colony, and 
its limits were marked out by a plough, which 
is also indicated on ancient coins. The co- 
lonia had also a territory, which, whether 
marked out by the plough or not, was at 
least marked out by metes and bounds. Thus 
the urbs and territory of the colonia respect- 
ively corresponded to the urbs Roma and its 
territory. Religious ceremonies always ac- 
companied the foundation of the colony, and 
the anniversary was afterwards observed. It 
is stated that a colony could not be sent out 
to the same place to which a colony had 
already been sent in due form (auspicato de- 
ducta). This merely means, that so long as 
the colony maintained its existence, there 
could be no new colony in the same place ; a 
doctrine that would hardly need proof, for a 
new colony implied a new assignment of 
lands ; but new settlers (novi adscripti) might 
be sent to occupy colonial lands not already 
assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a 
colony to receive additions, and a colony 
might be re-established, if it seemed necessa- 
ry, from any cause. 

The commissioners appointed to conduct 
the colony had apparently a profitable office, 
and the establishment of a new settlement 
gave employment to numerous functionaries, 
among whom Cicero enumerates apparitores, 
scribae, librarii, praecones, architect!. The foun- 
dation of a colony might then, in many cases, 
not only be a mere party measure, carried for 
the purpose of gaining popularity, but it would 



give those in power an opportunity of pro 
viding places for many of their friends. 

The colonies founded by the Romans were 
divided into two great classes of colonies of 
Roman citizens and Latin colonies ; names 
which had no reference to the persons who 
formed the colonies, but merely indicated 
their political rights with respect to Rome as 
members of the colony. The members of a 
Roman colony (colonia civium Romanoruni) 
preserved all the rights of Roman citizens. 
The members of a Latin colony (colonia Latino) 
ceased to have the full rights of Roman citi- 
zens. Probably some of the old Latin colo- 
nies were established by the Romans in con- 
junction with other Latin states. After the 
conquest of Latium, the Romans established 
colonies, called Latin colonies, in various 
parts of Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to 
join such co'lonies, gave up their civic rights, 
for the more solid advantage of a grant 
of land, and became LATINI. [CiviTAS.] 
Such colonies were subject to and part 
of the Roman state ; but they did not pos- 
sess the Roman franchise, and had no po- 
litical bond among themselves. The lex Ju- 
lia, passed B. c. 90, gave the Roman franchise 
to the members of the Latin colonies and the 
Socii ; and such Latin colonies and states ot 
the Socii were then called municipia, and be- 
came complete members of the Roman state. 
Thus there was then really no difference be- 
tween these municipia and the Roman colo- 
niae, except in their historical origin : the 
members of both were Roman citizens, and 
the Roman law prevailed in both. 

In the colonies, as at Rome, the popular 
assembly had originally the sovereign power ; 
they chose the magistrates, and could even 
make laws. When the popular assemblies 
became a mere form in Rome, and the elec- 
tions were transferred by Tiberius to the 
senate, the same thing happened in the colo- 
nies, whose senates then possessed whatever 
power had once belonged to the community. 
The common name of this senate was ordo 
decurionum ; in later times, simply ordo and 
curia ; the members of it were decuriones or 
curiales. Thus, in the later ages, curia is op- 
posed to senatus, the former being the senate 
of a colony, and the latter the senate of 
Rome. But the terms senatus and senator 
were also applied to the senate and members 
of the senate of a colony. After the decline 
of the popular assemblies, the senate had the 
whole internal administration of a city, con- 
jointly with the magistratus ; but only a de- 
curio could be a magistratus, and the choice 
was made by the decuriones. 

The highest magistratus of a colonia were 






92 



COLUMBARIUM. 



COLUMNA. 



the duumviri or quattuorviri, so called, as the I formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders 
members might vary, whose functions may be j or dependents of great families ; and in the 



compared with those of the consulate at Rome 
before the establishment of the praetorship. 
The name duumviri seems to have been the 
most common. Their principal duties were 
the administration of justice, and accordingly 
we find on inscriptions " Duumviri J.D." (juri 
dicundo), " Quattuorviri J. D." The name 
consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote 
this chief magistracy ; and even dictator and 
praetor occur under the empire and under the 
republic. The office of the duumviri lasted 
a year. 

In some Italian towns there was a praefectus 
juri dicundo ; he was in the place of, and not 
co-existent with, the duumviri. The duum- 
viri were, as we have seen, originally chosen 
by the people ; but the praefectus was ap- 
pointed annually in Rome, and sent to the 
town called a praefectura, which might be 
either a municipium or a colonia, for it was 
only in the matter of the praefectus that a 
town called a praefectura differed from other 
Italian towns. . Arpinum is called both a mu- 
nicipium and a praefectura ; and Cicero, a na- 
tive of this place, obtained the highest honours 
that Rome could confer. 

The censor, curator, or quinquennalis, all 
which names denote the same functionary, 
was also a municipal magistrate, and corre- 
sponded to the censor at Rome, and in some accompanying specii 
cases, perhaps, to the quaestor also. Censors on the left hand is 
are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the 
twelve Latin colonies. The quinquennales 
were sometimes duumviri, sometimes quattu- 
orviri ; but they are always carefully distin- 
guished from the duumviri and quattuorviri 
J. D. ; and their functions were those of cen- 
sors. They held their office for one year, and 
during the four intermediate years the func- 
tions were not exercised. The office of cen- 
sor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than 
that of the duumviri J. D., and it could only 
be filled by those who had discharged the other 
offices of the municipality. 

COLOSSUS (Kohoceo?), is used both by 
the Greeks and Romans to signify a statue 
larger than life ; but as such statues were 
very common, the word was more frequently 
applied to designate figures of gigantic di- 
mensions. 

Such figures were first executed in Egypt, 
and were afterwards made by the Greeks and 
Romans. Among the colossal statues of 
Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze 
colossus at Rhodes, dedicated to the sun, the 
height of which was about 90 feet. 

COLUMBA'RIUM, a dovecot or pigeon- 
house, also signified a sepulchral chamber 



plural, the niches in which the cinerary urns 
(ollae) were deposited. 

COLUMNA (KIUV, crvTio^}, a pillar or 
column. 

The use of the trunks of trees placed up- 
right for supporting buildings, unquestionably 



ption of similar suppo 
s the tree required I 



rts wrought 
required to be based 



led to the ado 
in stone. As 

upon a; flat square stone, and to have a stone 
or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to 
preserve it from decay, so the column was 
made with a square base, and was covered 
with an abacus. [ABACUS.] Hence the princi- 
pal parts of which every column consists are 
three, the base (basis), the shaft (scapus), and 
the capita] (capitulum). 

In the Doric, which is the- oldest style of 
Greek architecture, we must consider all the 
columns in the same row as having one com- 
mon base, whereas in the Ionian and Corin- 
thian each column has a separate base, called 
spira. The capitals of these two latter orders 
show, on comparison with the Doric, a much 
richer style of ornament ; and the character 
of lightness and elegance is further obtained 
in them by their more slender shaft, its height 
being much greater in proportion to its thick- 
ness. Of all these circumstances some idea 
may be formed by the inspection of the three 
ing specimens of pillars. The first 
Doric, the second Ionic, 
and the third Corinthian. /' 




In all the orders the shaft tapers from the 



COMA. 

Dottom towards the top. The shaft was, 
however, made with a slight swelling in the 
middle, which was called the entasis. It was, 
moreover, almost universally channelled or 
fluted. 

Rows of columns were generally employed 
in the interior and exterior of buildings ; but 
single columns were also erected to com- 
memorate persons or events. Among these, 
some of the most remarkable were the colum- 
nae rostratae, called by that name because 
three ship-beaks proceeded from each side of 
them, and designed to record successful en- 
gagements at sea. The most important and 
celebrate i of those which yet remain, is one 
erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, 
on occasion of his victory over the Cartha- 
ginian fleet, B. c. 261. 



COMIT1A. 



93 




Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana. 

Columns were also employed to commemo- 
rate the dead. The column on the right hand 
in the last woodcut exhibits that which the 
senate erected to the honour of the Emperor 
Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the 
memory of many of the Roman emperors. 

COMA (KG/LIT)), the hair of the head. 

In very early times the Romans wore their 
hair long, and hence the Romans of the Au- 
gustan age designated their ancestors intonsi, 
and capillati. But this fashion did not last 
after the year B. c. 300. The women, too, 
dressed their hair with simplicity, at least un- 



til the time of the emperors, and probably 
much in the same style as those of Greece , 
but at the Augustan period a variety of differ- 
ent head-dresses came into fashion. 

Both Greeks and Romans had some pecu- 
liar customs connected with the growth of 
their hair. The Spartans combed and dressed 
their heads with especial care when about to 
encounter any great danger. The sailors of 
both nations shaved off their hair after an 
escape from shipwreck, or other heavy calam- 
ity, and dedicated it to the gods. In the earlier 
ages, the Greeks of both sexes cut their hair 
close in mourning ; but subsequently this 
practice was confined to the women, the men 
leaving theirs long and neglected, as was the 
custom amongst the Romans. 

In childhood, that is, up to the age of pu- 
berty, the hair of the males was suffered to 
grow long amongst both nations, when it was 
clipped and dedicated to some river or deity. 
At Athens this ceremony was performed o'n 
the third day of the festival Apaturia, which 
is therefore termed Kovpe&Ti. 

In both countries the slaves were shaved as 
a mark of servitude. 

The vestal virgins also cut their hair short 
upon taking their vows ; which rite still re- 
mains in the papal church, in which all fe- 
males have their hair cut close upon taking 
the veil. 

COMISSA'TIO (derived from /cw/zof), the 
name of a drinking entertainment, which took 
place after the coena, from which, however, 
it must be distinguished. 

The comissatio was frequently prolonged 
to a late hour at night, whence the verb comis- 
sari means " to revel," and the substantive co- 
missator a " reveller," or " debauchee." 

COMI'TIA, the public assemblies of the 
Roman people (from com-eo for coco), at which 
all the most important business of the state 
was transacted, such as the election of magis 
trates, the passing of laws, the declaration of 
war, the making of peace, and, in some cases, 
the trial of persons charged with public crimes. 
There were three kinds of comitia, acccording 
to the three different divisions of the Roman 
people. 

I. The COMITIA CUKJATA, or assembly of 
the curiae, the institution of which is assigned 
to Romulus. 

II. The COMITIA CENTURIATA, or assembly 
of the centuries, in which the people gave 
their votes according to the classification in- 
stituted by Servius Tullius. 

III. The COMITIA TRIBUTA, or assembly of 
the people according to their division into the 
local tribes. The first two required the autho- 
rity of the seaute, and could not be held with 



COMITIA. 



out taking the auspices ; the comitia tributa did 
not require these sanctions. 

I. COMITIA CURIATA. This primitive as- 
sembly of the Romans originated at a time 
when there was no second order of the state. 
It was a meeting of the populus, or original 
burgesses, assembled in their tribes of houses, 
and no member of the plebs could vote at such 
a meeting. The ancient populus of Rome con- 
sisted of two tribes the Ramnes or Ramnenses 
and iheTitienses or Titles, called after the two 
patronymic heroes of the state Romus, Remus, 
or Romulus, and Titus Tatius ; to which was 
subsequently added a third tribe, the Luceres 
or Lucerenses. The Ramnes are supposed to 
have been the Romans proper, the Titles, Sa 
bines, and the Luceres, Latins or of a Tyrrhe- 
nian stock. 

The three original tribes of the populus or 
patres were divided into thirty curiae, and each 
of these into ten gentes or houses ; and this 
number of the gentes also corresponded to the 
number of councillors who represented them 
in the senate, which consisted of 300 mem- 
bers. 

The comitia curiata were thus the assembly 
of the original patricians, in which they voted 
by curiae. This assembly was chiefly held 
for confirming some ordinance of the senate : 
no matter could be brought before them ex- 
cept by the authority of the senate ; and with 
regard to elections and laws, they had merely 
the power of confirming or rejecting what the 
senate had already decreed. After the estab- 
lishment of the comitia centuriata, the two 
principal reasons for summoning the comitia 
curiata were, either the passing of a lex curiata 
de imperio, or the elections of priests. The lex 
curiata de. imperio was necessary in order to 
confer upon the dictator, consuls, and other 
magistrates, imperium or military command ; 
without this they had only a potestas or civil 
authority, and were not allowed to meddle 
with military affairs. The comitia curiata were 
also held for the purpose of carrying into effect 
the form of adoption called adrogatio, for the 
confirmation of wills, and for the ceremony 
called detestatio sacrorum. They were held in 
that part of the forum which" was called comi- 
tium, and where the tribunal (suggestum) stood. 
The patrician magistrates properly held the 
comitia curiata ; or, if the question to be pro- 
posed had relation to sacred rights, the ponti- 
fices presided. As the popular element in the 
Roman state increased in power and import- 
ance, and the plebeians came to be placed on 
a footing of political equality with the patrici- 
ans, the meetings of the comitia curiata were 
little more than a matter of form ; their suffra- 
ges were represented by the thirty lictors of 



the curiae, whose duty it was to summon the 
curiae when the meetings actually took place, 
just as the classes in the comitia centuriata 
were summoned by a trumpeter (cornicen or 
classicus}. Hence, when the comitia curiata. 
were held for the inauguration of a flamen, for 
the making of a will, &c., they were called 
specially the comitia calata, or " the summoned 
assembly." 

II. The COMITIA CENTURIATA, or, as they 
were sometimes called, the comitia majora, 
were a result of the constitution generally at- 
tributed to Servius Tullius, the sixth king of 
Rome. The object of this legislator seems to 
have been to unite in one body the populus or 
patricians the old burgesses of the three 
tribes, and the plebs, or the commonalty who 
had grown up by their side; and to give the 
chief weight in the state to wealth and num- 
bers, rather than to birth and family preten- 
sions. With a view to this he formed a plan 
by virtue of which the people would vote on 
all important questions according to their 
equipments when on military service, and ac- 
cording to the position which they occupied 
in the great phalanx or army of the city : in 
other words, according to their property ; foi 
it was this which enabled them to equip them- 
selves according to the prescribed method. In 
many of the Greek states the heavy armed sol- 
diers were identical with the citizens possess- 
ing the full franchise ; and instances occur in 
Greek history when the privileged classes 
have lost their prerogatives, from putting the 
arms of a full citizen into the hands of the com- 
monalty ; so that the principle which regu- 
lated the votes in the state by the arrange- 
ment of the army of the state, was not pe- 
culiar to the constitution of Servius. This 
arrangement considered the whole state as 
forming a regular army, with its cavalry, 
heavy-armed infantry, reserve, carpenters, 
musicians, and baggage-train. The cavalry 
included, first, the six equestrian centuries, 
or the sex suffragia, which consisted exclu- 
sively of patricians, who had the requisite 
amount of property ; to which were added 
twelve centuries of plebeian knights, selected 
from the richest members of the commonalty. 
The foot-soldiers were organized in the follow- 
ing five classes : 1. Those whose property 
was at least 100,000 asses or pounds' weight 
of copper. They were equipped in a complete 
suit of bronze armour. In order to give theii 
wealth and importance its proper political, in- 
fluence, they were reckoned as forming 80 
centuries; namely, 40 of young men (juniores) 
from 17 to 45, and 40 of older men (seniorcs) 
of 45 years and upwards. 2. Those whose 
property was above 75,000 and under 100,000 



COMITIA. 



95 



asses, and who were equip} ed with the wooden 
scutum instead of the bronze clipeus, but had 
no eoat of mail. They made up 20 centuries, 
10 of juniores and 10 of seniores. 3. Those 
whose property was above 50,000 asses and 
below 75,000, and who had neither coat "of 
mail nor greaves. They consisted of the same 
number of centuries as the second class, simi- 
larly divided into juniores and seniores. 4. 
Those whose property was above 25,000 asses 
and below 50,000, and who were armed with 
the pike and javelin only. This class also 
contained 20 centuries. 5. Those whose pro- 
perty was between 12,500 and 25,000 asses, 
and who were armed with slings and darts. 
They formed 30 centuries. The first four 
classes composed the phalanx : the fifth class, 
the light-armed infantry. Those citizens 
whose property fell short of the qualification 
for the fifth class were reckoned as supernu- 
meraries. Of these there were two centuries 
of the accensi and velati, whose property ex- 
ceeded 1500 asses ; one century of the prole- 
tarn,whose property was under 1500 asses and 
above 375 ; and one century of the capite-censi, 
whose property fell short of 375 asses. All 
these centuries were classed according to 
their property : but besides these, there were 
three centuries which were classed according 
to their occupation ; the fabri or carpenters, 
attached to the centuries of the first class ; 
the cornicines or horn-blowers, and the tubicines 
or liticines, the trumpeters,who were reckoned 
with the fourth class. Thus there would be 
in all 195 centuries, 19 of cavalry, 140 of 
heavy infantry, 30 of light infantry, 4 of re- 
serve and camp-followers, and 3 of smiths and 
musicians. In voting it was intended to give 
the first class and the knights a preponderance 
over the rest of the centuries, and this was 
effected as we have just mentioned ; for the 
first class, with the knights and the fabri, 
amounted to 99 centuries, and the last four 
classes, with the supernumeraries and musi- 
cians, to 96 centuries,who were thus outvoted 
by the others, even though they themselves 
were unanimous. Even if we suppose that 
the fabri were expected to vote rather with 
the lower classes than with the first class to 
which they were assigned, the first class.with 
the knights, would still have a majority of one 
century. The same principle was observed 
when the army was serving in the field. As 
the centuries of seniores consisted of persons 
beyond the military age, the juniores alone 
are to be taken into the account here. The 
first class sent its 40 centuries of juniores, of 
which 30 formed the principes and 10 were 
posted among the triarii, who probably owed 
t.heir nama to the fact that they wore made 



up out of all the three heavj rmed classes; 
the second and third classes furiJshed 20 cen- 
turies apiece, i. e. twice the number of their 
junior votes, and 10 from each class stood 
among the triarii, the rest being hastati with 
shields ; the fourth class supplied 10 centuries, 
the number of its junior votes,who formed the 
hastati without shields : the fifth class fur- 
nished 30 centuries, twice the number of its 
junior votes, who formed the thirty centuries 
of rorarii. To these were added 10 turmae of 
cavalry, or 300 men. This was the division 
and arrangement of the army as a legion. But 
when it was necessary to vote in the camp, 
they would of course revert to the principles 
which regulated the division of the classes for 
the purpose of voting at home, and would re- 
unite the double contingents. In this way,we 
have 85 centuries of junior votes, or 90 with 
the five unclassed centuries. Of these, the 
first class with the fabri formed 41 centuries, 
leaving 49 for the other centuries ; but with 
the first class the 10 turmae of the cavalry 
would also be reckoned as 10 centuries, and 
the first class would have 51, thus exceeding 
the other moiety by 2. 

The comitia centuriata were held in the 
campus Martins without the city, where they 
met as the exercitus urbanus or army of the 
city ; and, in reference to their military or- 
ganization, they were summoned by the sound 
of the horn, and not by the voice of the lie- 
tors, as was the case with the comitia curiata. 

On the connection of this division into cen- 
turies with the registration of persons and 
property, see CENSORS and CENSUS. The 
general causes of assembling the comitia cen- 
turiata were, to create magistrates, to pass 
laws, and to decide capital causes when the 
offence had reference to the whole nation, 
and not merely to the rights of a particular 
order. They were summoned by the king, 
or by the magistrates in the republic who 
represented some of his functions, that is by 
the dictator, consuls, praetors, and, in the 
case of creating magistrates, by the interrex 
also. The praetors could only hold the co- 
mitia in the absence of the consuls, or, if 
these were present, only with their permis- 
sion. The consuls held the comitia for the 
appointment of their successors, of the prae- 
tors, and of the censors. It was necessary 
that seventeen days' notice should be given 
j before the comitia were held. This interval 
j was called a trinundinum. or " the space of 
I three market-days'' (trcs nundinae, ' three 
j ninth-days"), because the country people 
| came to Rome to buy and sell every ninth, or 
I rather every eighth day, according to our 
mode of reckoning, and spent the interval oi 



COM1T1A. 



seven days in the country. The first step in 
holding the comitia was to take the auspices. 
The presiding officer, accompanied by one of 
the augurs (augure adhibito), pitched a tent 
(tabernaculum cepit) without the city, for the 
purpose of observing the auspices. If the 
tent was not pitched in due form, all the pro- 
ceedings of the comitia were utterly vitiated, 
and a magistrate elected at them was com- 
pelled to abdicate his office. The comitia 
might also be broken off by a tempest ; by 
the intercession of a tribune ; if the standard, 
which was setup in the janiculum, was taken 
down ; or if any one was seized with the 
epilepsy, which was from this circumstance 
called the morbus comitialis. 

The first step taken at the comitia centuriata 
was for the magistrate who he Id them to repeat 
the words of a form of prayer after the augur. 
Then, in the case of an election, the candi- 
dates' names were read, or, in the case of a law 
or a trial, the proceedings or bills were read 
by a herald, and different speakers were heard 
on the subject. The question was put to 
them with the interrogation, Velitis, jubeatis, 
Quirites ? Hence the bill was called rogatio, 
and the people were said jubere legem. The 
form of commencing the poll was : " Si 
vobis videtur, discedite, Quirites;" or "Ite in 
suffragium, bene jurantibus diis, et quae pa- 
tres censuerunt, vps jubete." The order in 
which the centuries voted was decided by 
lot ; and that which gave its vote first was 
called the centuria praerogativa. The rest were 
called jure vocatae. In ancient times the peo- 
ple were polled, as at our elections, by word 
of mouth. But at a later period the ballot 
was introduced by a set of special enactments 
(the leges tabellariae), having reference to the 
different objects in voting. These laws were, 
1. The Gabinian law, introduced by Gabin- 
ius, the tribune, in B. c. 139. 2. The Cas- 
sian law, B. c. 137. 3. The Papirian law in- 
troduced by C. Papirius Carbo, the tribune, 
in B. c. 131. 4. The Caelian law, B. c. 107. 
In voting, the centuries were summoned in 
order into a boarded enclosure (septum or 
ovile), into which they entered by a narrow 
passage (pons) slightly raised from the ground. 
There was probably a different enclosure for 
each century, for the Roman authors gener- 
ally speak of them in the plural. The tabellae 
with which they had to ballot were given to 
the citizens at the entrance of the pons by 
certain officers, called rogatores, because they 
used, before the ballot was introduced, to ask 
(rogare) each century for its vote, and here 
intimidation was often practised. If the busi- 
ness o the day were an election, the tabellae 
har' **- initials of the candidates. If it were 



the passing or rejection of a law, each voter 
received two tabellae : one inscribed U. R., 
i. e. vti rogas, " I vote for the law ;" the other 
inscribed A., i. e. antiquo, " 1 am for the old 
law." The tabellae were thrown into the cis- 
tae, or ballot-boxes [CISTA] ; and when the 
voting was finished, the rogatores collected 
the tabellae, and handed them over to other 
officers, called diribitores, who divided the 
votes, while a third class of officers, termed 
custodes, checked them off by points (puncta) 
marked on a tablet. Hence punctum is used 
metaphorically to signify " a vote." The ro- 
gatores, diribitores, and custodes were generally 
friends of the candidates, who voluntarily 
undertook these duties. But Augustus select- 
ed 900 of the equestrian order to perform 
these offices. 

The acceptance of a law by the centuriata 
comitia did not acquire full force till after it 
had been sactioned by the comitia curiata [but 
see LEX PUBLILIA], except in the case of a 
capital offence against the whole nation, 
when they decided alone. 

III. The COMITIA TRIBUTA were not es- 
tablished till B. c. 491, when the plebs had 
acquired some considerable influence in the 
state. They were an assembly of the peo- 
ple according to the local tribes, into which 
the plebs was originally divided : for the plebs 
or commonalty took its rise from the forma- 
tion of a domain or territory, and the tribes 
of the commonalty were necessarily local, 
that is, they had regions corresponding to 
each of them ; therefore, when tho territory 
diminished the number of these tribes dimin- 
ished also. Now, according to Fabius, there 
were originally 30 tribes of plebeians, that 
is, as many plebeian tribes as there were 
patrician curiae. These 30 tribes consisted 
of 4 urban and 26 rustic tribes. But at the 
admission of the Crustumine tribe, when App. 
Claudius with his numerous train of clients 
migrated to Rome, there were only 20 of 
these tribes. So that probably the cession of a 
third of the territory to Porsena also diminished 
the number of tribes by one-third. [TRIBUS.] 

Such being the nature of the plebeian tribes, 
no qualification of birth or property was re- 
quisite to enable a citizen to vote in the comitia 
tributa ; whoever belonged to a given region, 
and was in consequence registered in the cor 
responding tribe, had a vote at these comitia. 
They were summoned by the tribuni plebis, 
who were also the presiding magistrates, if 
the purpose for which they were called was 
the election of tribunes or aediles ; but con- 
suls or praetors might preside at the comitia 
tributa, if they were called for the election of 
other inferior magistrates, such as the quaes- 



COMITIA. 



97 



tor, proconsul, or propraetor, who were also 
elected at these comitia. The place of meet- 
ing was not fixed. It might be the campus 
Martins, as in the case of the comitia ceutu- 
riata, the forum, or the circus Flamininus. 
Their judicial functions were confined to 
cases of lighter importance. They could not 
decide in those which related to capital of- 
fences. In their legislative capacity they 
passed plebiscite, or " decrees of the plebs." 
which were originally binding only on them- 
selves. At last, however, the plebiscita were 
placed on the same footing with the leges, by 
the Lex Hortensia (B. c. 288), and from this 
time they could pass whatever legislative 
enactments they pleased, without or against 
the authority of the senate. The influence 
of the comitia tributa, however, was more di- 
rected towards the internal affairs of the state 
and the rights of the people, while the comitia 
centuriata exercised their power more in re- 
lation to the foreign and external relations 
of the state, although towards the end of the 
republic this distinction gradually vanished. 

The comitia centuriata were, as we have 
seen, in reality an aristocratic, or, as the 
Greeks would say, a tirnocratic assembly, 
since the equites and the first class, by the 
great number of their centuries, exercised 
such an influence, that the votes of the other 
classes scarcely came into consideration. 
Now as patricians and plebeians had gradu- 
ally become united into one body of Roman 
citizens with almost equal powers, the neces- 
sity must sooner or later have become mani- 
fest that a change should be introduced into 
the constitution of the comitia of the centu- 
ries in favour of the democratic principle, 
which in all other parts of the government 
was gaining the upper hand. The object of 
this change was perhaps to form the two co- 
mitia, centuriata and tributa, into one great 
national assembly. But this did not take 
place. A change, however, was introduced 
in favour of the democratic principle ; but 
the exact nature of this change it is almost 
impossible to determine. The time at which 
it was introduced is likewise uncertain ; but 
it is clear that it did not take place till after 
the time when the number of the thirty-five 
tribes was completed, that is, after the year 
B. c. 241, perhaps in the censorship of C. 
Flaminius (B. c. 220), who is said by Poly- 
bius to have made the constitution more de- 
mocratical. With respect to the nature of 
the alteration, so much is certain, that it con- 
sisted in an amalgamation of the centuries 
and the tribes ; but we are not told in what 
way this amalgamation was made. In the 
absence of all positive testimony, the follow- 



ing may be taken as a probable view of the 
change which was effected. 

The five classes instituted by Servius Tul- 
lius continued to exist, and were divided into 
centuries of seniores and juniores ; but the 
classes were in the closest connection with 
the thirty-five tribes, while formerly the tribes 
existed entirely independent of the census. 
In this amalgamation of the classes and the 
tribes the centuries formed subdivisions of 
both ; they were parts of the tribes as well 
as of the classes. There were perhaps 350 
centuries in the thirty-rive tribes, and the 
senators and equites voted in the first class 
of each tribe, as seniores and juniores. The 
centuries of fabri and cornicines are no long- 
er mentioned, and the capite censi voted in 
the fifth class of the fourth city tribe. Each 
century in a tribe had one suffragium, and 
each tribe contained ten centuries, two (seni- 
ores and juniores) of each of the five classes. 
The equites were comprised in the first class, 
and voted with it, and were, perhaps, called 
the centuries of the first class. The mode of 
voting remained, on the whole, the same as 
in the former comitia centuriata. The equites 
voted with the senators, but the former usu- 
ally among the juniores, and the latter among 
the seniores. The following particulars, how- 
ever, are to be observed. We read of aprae- 
rogativa in these assemblies, and this might 
be understood either as a tribus praeroga- 
tiva, or a centuria praerogativa. But as we 
know that the votes were given according 
to centuries, and according to tribes only 
in cases when there was no difference of 
opinion among the centuries of the same 
tribe, we are led to conclude that the praero- 
gativa was a century taken by lot from all 
the seventy centuries of the first class, two 
of which were contained in each of the thir- 
ty-five tribes, and that all the centuries of the 
first class gave their votes first, that is, after 
the praerogativa. From the plural form prae- 
rogativae, it is moreover inferred that it con- 
sisted of two centuries, and that the two cen- 
turies of the first class contained in the same 
tribe voted together. The century of the 
first class drawn by lot to be the praerogativa 
was usually designated by the name of the 
tribe to which it belonged, e. g. Galeria juni- 
orum, that is, the juniores of the first class in 
the tribus Galeria. C. Gracchus wished to 
make the mode of appointing the centuria 
praerogativa more democratical, and proposed 
that it should be drawn from all the five class- 
es indiscriminately ; but this proposal was 
not accepted. When the praerogativa had 
voted, the result was announced (renuntiare), 
and the other centuries then deliberated whe- 



98 



COMITIA. 



ther they should vote the same way or not. 
After this was done, all the centuries of the 
first class voted simultaneously, and not one 
after another, as the space of one day would 
otherwise not have been sufficient. Next 
voted in the same manner all the centuries 
of the second, then those of the third class, 
and so on, until all the centuries of all the 
classes had voted. The simultaneous voting 
of all the centuries of one class is sometimes 
for this very reason expressed by prima, or 
secunda classis vocatur. When all the centu- 
ries of one class had voted, the result was 
announced. It seems to have happened some- 
times that all the centuries of one tribe voted 
the same way, and in such cases it was con- 
venient to count the votes according to tribes 
instead of according to centuries. 

The comitia tributa in the latter days of the 
republic acquired supreme importance, though 
the comitia centuriata, with their altered and 
more dempcratical constitution, still contin- 
ued to exist, and preserved a great part of 
their former power along with the comitia of 
the tribes. During this time the latter ap- 
pear to have been chiefly attended by the 
populace, which was guided by the tribunes, 
and the wealthier and more respectable citi- 
zens had little influence in them. When the 
libertiniand all the Italians were incorporated 
in the old thirty-five tribes, and when the po- 
litical corruption had reached its height, no 
trace of the sedate and moderate character 
was left by which the comitia tributa had 
been distinguished in former times. Violence 
and bribery became the order of the day, and 
the needy multitude lent willing ears to any 
instigations coming from wealthy bribers and 
tribunes who were mere demagogues. Sulla 
for a time did away with these odious pro- 
ceedings ; since, according to some, he abol- 
ished the comitia tributa altogether, or, ac- 
cording to others, deprived them of the right 
of electing the sacerdotes, and of all their 
legislative and judicial powers. But the con- 
stitution, such as it had existed before Sulla, 
was restored soon after his death by Pompey 
and others, with the exception of the juris- 
dictio, which was for ever taken from the 
people by the legislation of Sulla. The peo- 
ple suffered another loss in the dictatorship 
of J. Caesar, who decided upon peace and 
war himself in connection with the senate. 
He had also the whole of the legislation in 
his hands, . through his influence with the 
magistrates and the tribunes. The people 
thus retained nothing but the election of 
magistrates ; but even this power was much 
limited, as Caesar had the right to aupoint 
half of the magistrates himself, with tne ex- 



CONGIARIUM. 

ception of the consuls, and as in addition to 
this, he recoir mended to the people those 
candidates whom he wished to be elected: 
and who would have opposed hie wish ? Un- 
der Augustus the comitia still sanctioned 
new laws and elected magistrates, but their 
whole proceedings were a mere farce, for 
they could not venture to elect any other per- 
sons than those recommended by the empe- 
ror. Tiberius deprived the people even of 
this delusive power, and conferred the power 
of election upon the senate. When the elec- 
tions were made by the senate the result was 
announced to the people assembled as comi- 
tia centuriata or tributa. Legislation was 
taken away from the comitia entirely, and 
was completely in the hands of the senate 
and the emperor. From this time the comitia 
may be said to have ceased to exist, as all 
the sovereign power formerly possessed by 
the people was conferred upon the emperor 
by the lex regia. [LEX REGIA.] The peo- 
ple only assembled in the campus Martins for 
the purpose of receiving information as to 
who had been elected or appointed as its ma- 
gistrates, until at last even this announce- 
ment (renuntiatio} appears to have ceased. 

COMMEA'TUS, a furlough, or leave of ab- 
sence from the army for a certain time. 

COMMENTA'RIUS or COMMENTA'RI- 
UM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book, 
whence the expression Caesaris Commentarii. 
It is also used for a lawyer's brief, the notes 
of a speech, &c. 

COMME'RCIUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).] 
COMPITA'LIA, also called LUDI COM- 
PITALPCII, a festival celebrated once a year 
in honour of the lares compitales, to whom 
sacrifices were offered at the places where two 
or more ways met. In the time of Augustus, 
the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, 
but were restored by him. 

The compitalia belonged to the feriae con- 
ceptivae, that is, festivals which were celebrated 
on days appointed annually by the magistrates 
or priests. The exact day on which this fes- 
tival was celebrated appears to have varied, 
though it was always in the winter, generally 
at the beginning of January. 
CONFARREA'TIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] 
CONGIA'RIUM (scil. vas, from congius), a 
vessel containing a congius. [CONGIUS.] 

In the early times of the Roman republic 

the congius was the usual measure of oi 1 01 

! wine which was, on certain occasions, dis- 

i tributed among the people ; and thus congia 

| rium became a name for liberal donations to 

I the people, in general, whether consisting ot 

oil, wine, corn, money, or other things, while 

1 donations made to the soldiers were called 



CONSUL. 






donativa, though they were sometimes also 
termed congiaria. Congiarium was, moreover, 
occasionally used simply to designate a pre- 
sent or pension given by a person of high rank, 
or a prince, to his friends. 

CO'NGIUS.aRoman liquid measure.which 
contained six sextarii, or the eighth part of the 
amphora (=5.9471 pints Eng.). It was equal 
to the larger chous of the Greeks. 
CONNU'BIUM. [MATRIMONIUM.] 
CONQUISITO'RES, persons employed to 
go about the country and impress soldiers, 
when there was a difficulty in completing a 
levy. Sometimes commissioners were ap- 
pointed by a decree of the senate for the pur- 
pose of making a conquisitio. 
CONSANGUI'NEI. [COGNATI.] 
CONSECRA'TIO. [APOTHEOSIS.] 
CONSJ'LIUM. [CONVENTUS.] 
CONSUA'LIA, a festival,with games, cele- 
brated by the Romans, according to Ovid and 
others, in honour of Census, the god of secret 
deliberations, or, according to Li'vy, of Nep- 
tunus Equestris. Some writers, however, say 
that Neptunus Equestris and Consus were 
only different names for one and the same de- 
ity. It was solemnized every year in the cir- 
cus, by the symbolical ceremony of uncovering 
an altar dedicated to the god, which was bu- 
ried in the earth. For Romulus, who was 
considered as the founder of the festival, was 
said to have discovered an altar in the earth 
on that spot. The solemnity took place on 
the21stof August with horse and chariot races, 
and libations were poured into the flames 
which consumed the sacrifices. During these 
festive games horses and mules were not al- 
lowed to do any work, and were adorned with 
garlands of flowers. It was at their first cele- 
bration that, according to the ancient legend, 
the Sabine maidens were carried off. 

CONSUL ({iTrarof), the title of the two 
chief officers or magistrates of the Roman re- 
public. The word is probably composed of 
con and sul, which contains the same root as 
the verb salio, so that consules signifies " those 
who come together," just as praesul means 
" one who goes before," and exsul, " one who 
goes out." The consulship is said to have 
been instituted upon the expulsion of the kings 
in B.C. 509, when the kingly power was trans- 
ferred to two magistrates, whose office lasted 
only for one year, that it might not degenerate 
into tyranny by being vested longer in the 
same persons ; and for the same reason two 
were appointed instead of one king, as neither 
could undertake anything unless it was sanc- 
tioned and approved by his colleague. Their 
original title was praetores, or commanders of 
the armies, but this was changed into that of 



consules in B. c. 449, and the latter title re- 
mained in use until the latest periods of the 
Roman empire. The consuls were at first 
elected from the patricians exclusively. Their 
office was suspended in B. c. 451, and its func- 
tions were performed by ten high commission- 
ers (decemmri), appointed to frame a code of 
laws. On the re-establishment of the consul- 
ship, in B.C. 449, the tribunes proposed that 
one of the consuls should be chosen from the 
plebeians, but this was strenuously resisted by 
the patricians, and a compromise effected by 
suspending the consular office, and creating 
in its stead military tribunes (tribuni militum) 
with consular power, who might be elected 
indifferently both from the patricians and ple- 
beians. They were first appointed in B. c. 444. 
The plebeians, however, were not satisfied 
with this concession, and still endeavoured to 
attain the higher dignity of the consulship. 
At length after a serious and long-protracted 
struggle between the two orders, it was 
enacted by the Licinian law, in B. c. 367, that 
henceforth the consulship should be divided 
between the patricians and plebeians, and that 
one of the consuls should always be a ple- 
beian. Accordingly, in B. c. 366, L. Sextius 
was elected the first plebeian consul. This 
law, however, was not always observed, and 
it still frequently happened that both consuls 
were patricians, until, in later times, when the 
difference between the two orders had entirely 
ceased, and the plebeians were on a footing of 
perfect equality with the patricians, the con- 
suls were elected from both orders indiscrimi- 
nately. 

During the later periods of the republic it 
was customary for persons to pass through 
several subordinate magistracies before they 
were elected consuls, though this rule was 
departed from in many particular cases. The 
age at which a person was eligible to the con- 
sulship was fixed in B. c. 180, by the lex an- 
nalis [LEX ANNALIS] at 43. The election of 
the consuls always took place in the cornitia 
of the centuries, sometime before the expira- 
tion, of the official year of the actual consuls, 
and the election was conducted either by the 
actual consuls themselves, or by an interrex 
or a dictator, and the persons elected, until 
they entered upon their office, were called con- 
sules designati. While they were designati, 
they were in reality no more than private per- 
sons, but still they might exercise consider- 
able influence upon public affairs, for in the 
senate they were asked for their opinion first. 
If they had been guilty of any illegal act, 
either before or during their election, such aa 
bribery (ambitus) they were liable to prosecu 
tion, and the election migM be declared void. 



100 



CONSUL. 



The time at which the old consuls laid down 
their office and the consules designati entered 
upon theirs, differed at different times. The 
first consuls are said to have entered upon 
their office in October, then we find mention of 
the 1st of August, of the ides of December, the 
1st of July, and very frequently of the ides of 
March, until, in B.C. 153, it became an estab- 
lished rule for the consuls to enter upon their 
duties on the 1st of January ; and this custom 
remained down to the end of the republic. 
On that day the senators, equites, and citizens 
of all classes conducted in a procession (de- 
ductio or processus consularis) the new magis- 
trates from their residence to the capitol, 
where, if the auspices were favourable, the 
consuls offered up sacrifices, and were in- 
augurated. Thence the procession went to 
the curia, where the senate assembled, and 
where the consuls returned thanks for their 
election. There they might also speak on any 
subject that was of importance to the republic, 
such as peace and war, the distribution of pro- 
vinces, the general condition of the state, the 
feriae Latinae, and the like. During the first 
five days of their office they had to convoke a 
contio, and publicly to take a solemn oath, by 
which in the earliest times, they pledged them- 
selves not to allow any one to assume regal 
power at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain 
the laws of the republic (in leges jurare). On 
the expiration 3f their office they had to take 
another oath, stating that they had faithfully 
obeyed the laws, and not done anything against 
the constitution. The new consuls on enter- 
ing upon their office usually invited their 
friends to a banquet. When a consul died 
during his year of office, his colleague imme- 
diately convoked the comitia to elect a new 
one. A consul thus elected to fill a vacancy 
was called consul suffectus, but his powers 
were not equal to those of an ordinary consul, 
for he could not preside at the elections of 
other magistrates, not even in the case of the 
death of his colleague. In the latter case, as 
well as when the consuls were prevented by 
illness or other circumstances, the comitia 
were held by an interrex or a dictator. 

The outward distinctions of the consuls 
were, with few exceptions, the same as those 
which had formerly belonged to the kings. 
The principal distinction indicative of their 
imperium were the twelve lictors with the 
fasces, who, however, preceded the consuls 
wily when they were out of the city. This 
rmtward sign of their power was taken by 
tie consuls in turn every month, and while 
me consul was preceded by the twelve lictors 
vith their fasces, the other was during the 
ame month preceded by an accensus, and fol- 



lowed by the lictors ; and the one was called 
| during that month consul major, and the other 
' consul minoi . Other distinctions of the con- 
suls were the curule chair (sella curulis), and 
the toga with the purple hem (toga praetexta). 
The ivory sceptre (scipio orsceptrum) and pur- 
ple toga were not distinctions of the consuls 
in general, but only when they celebrated 
a triumph. Under the empire a consul was 
sometimes distinguished by the senate with 
a sceptre bearing an eagle on the top, but his 
regular ensigns consisted of the toga picta, 
the trabea, and the fasces, both within and 
without the city. 

The consuls were the highest ordinary 
magistrates at Rome. Their power was at 
first quite equal to that of the kings, except 
that it was limited to one year, and that the 
office of high priest, which had been vested 
in the king, was at the very beginning de- 
tached from the consulship, and given to the 
rex sacrorum or rex sacrificulus. The auspicia 
majora, however, continued to belong to the 
consuls. This regal power of the consuls, 
however, was gradually curtailed by various 
laws, especially by the institution of the tri- 
bunes of the plebs, whose province it was to 
protect the plebeians against the unjust or 
oppressive commands of the patrician magis- 
trates. Nay, in the course of time, whole 
branches of the consular power were detached 
from it ; the reason for which was, that, as 
the patricians were compelled to allow the 
plebeians a share in the highest magistracy, 
they stripped it of as much of its original 
power as they could, and reserved these de- 
tached portions for themselves. In this man- 
ner the censorship was detached from the 
consulship in B. c. 443, and the praetorship 
in B. c. 367. But notwithstanding all this, 
the consuls remained the highest magistrates, 
and all other magistrates, except the tribunes 
of the plebs, were obliged to obey their com- 
mands, and show them great outward re- 
spect. 

The functions of the consuls during the 
time of the republic may be conveniently de- 
scribed under the following heads : 1. They 
were in all civil matters the heads of the state, 
being invested with the imperium, which ema- 
nated from the sovereign people, and which 
they held during the time of their office. In 
this capacity they had the right of convoking 
both the senate and the assembly of the peo- 
ple ; they presided in each (in the comitia of 
the curies as well as in those of the centuries), 
and they took care that the resolutions of the 
senate and people were carried into effect. 
They might also convoke contiones, whenever 
they thought it necessary. In the senate 



COiSSUL. 



101 



they conducted the discussions, and put the 
questions to the vote, thus exercising the 
greatest influence upon all matters which were 
brought before the senate either by themselves 
or by others. When a decree was passed by 
the senate, the consuls were usually commis- 
sioned to see that it was carried into effect ; 
though there are also instances of the consuls 
opposing a decree of the senate. 

2. The supreme command of the armies 
belonged to the consuls alone by virtue of 
their imperium. Accordingly, when a war 
was decreed, they were ordered by a senatus 
consuiturn to levy the troops, whose number 
was determined by the senate, and they ap- 
pointed most of the other military officers. 
While at the head of their armies they had 
full power of life and death over their soldiers, 
who, on their enrolment, had to take an oath 
(sacramentum) to be faithful and obedient to 
the commands of the consuls. When the 
consuls had entered upon their office, the 
senate assigned them their provinces, that is, 
their spheres of action, and the consuls either 
settled between themselves which province 
each was to have, or, which was more com- 
mon, they drew lots. Usually one consul re- 
mained at Rome, while the other went out 
at the head of the army ; sometimes both 
left the city, and carried on war in different 
quarters; and sometimes, when the danger 
was very pressing, both consuls commanded 
the armies against one and the same enemy. 
If it was deemed advisable, the imperium of 
one or both consuls was prolonged for the 
particular province in which they were en- 
gaged, in which case they had the title of 
proconsuls [PROCONSUL], "and their succes- 
sors either remained at Rome or were en- 
gaged in other quarters. During the latter 
period of the republic the consuls remained 
at Rome during the time of their office, and 
on its expiration they had a foreign province 
(in the real sense of the word) assigned to 
them, where they undertook either the peace- 
ful administration, or carried on war against 
internal or external enemies. While in their 
provinces, the consuls and proconsuls had 
the power of life and death over the provin- 
cials, for they were looked upon in their prov- 
inces as the chief military commanders ; and 
the provincials, being peregrini, did not enjoy 
the privileges of Roman citizens. 

3. The supreme jurisdiction was part of 
the consular imperium, and as such vested 
in the consuls so long as there were no prae- 
tors. In civil cases they administered justice 
to the patricians as well as plebeians, either 
themselves asjudices, or appointing others as | 
judices and arbitri. In criminal cases there j 

12 



appears from early times to have been this 
difference : that patricians charged with cap- 
ital offences were tried by the curies, while 
the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of 
the consuls, whose power, however, was in 
this case rather limited, partly by the inter- 
cession of the tribunes of the people, and 
partly by the right of appeal (provocatio) from 
the sentence of the consuls. The consuls 
might, further, summon any citizen before 
their tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, 
seize him (prendere), and fine him to a certain 
amount. After the institution of the praetor- 
ship, the consuls no longer possessed any 
regular ordinary jurisdiction ; and whenever 
they exercised it, it was an exception to the 
general custom, and only by a special com- 
mand of the senate. 

4. Previous to the institution of the cen- 
sorship the consuls had to perform all the 
functions which afterwards belonged to the 
censors : they were accordingly the highest 
officers of finance, held the census, drew up 
the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After 
the establishment of the censorship they still 
retained the general superintendence of the 
public economy, inasmuch as they had the 
keys of the aerarium, and as the quaestors or 
paymasters were dependent on them. But 
still in the management of the finances the 
consuls were at all times under the control 
of the senate. 

5. In all relations with foreign states the 
consuls were the representatives of the Ro- 
man republic. Hence they might conclude 
peace or treaties with foreign nations, which 
had, however, to be sanctioned by the senate 
and people at Rome ; and unless this sanc- 
tion was obtained a treaty was void. They 
received foreign ambassadors, and introduced 
them into the senate, and in short all negoti- 
ations with foreign princes or nations passed 
through their hands. 

6. In matters connected with their own offi- 
cial functions, the consuls, like all other magis 
trates, had the power of issuing proclamations 
or orders (edicta), which might be binding 
either for the occasion only, or remain in force 
permanently. 

Although the consular power had been gra- 
dually diminished, it was in cases of immi- 
nent danger restored to its original and full 
extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon 
the consuls videant ne quid res publica detrimenti 
capiat. In such cases the consuls received 
sovereign power, but they were responsible for 
the manner in which they had exercised it. 

It has already been observed, that to avoid 
collision and confusion, the two consuls did 
not possess the same power at the same time, 



102 



CONSULARIS. 



but thiit each had the imperium every other 
month. The one who possessed it, as the con- 
sul major, exercised all the rights of the office, 
though he always consulted his colleague. In 
the earliest times it was customary for the 
elder of the two consuls to take the imperium 
first, afterwards the one who had had the 
greater number of votes at the election, and 
had therefore been proclaimed (renuntiare) first. 
In the time of Augustus it was enacted that 
the consul who had most children should take 
precedence of the other ; and some distinction 
of rank continued to be observed down to the 
latest times of the empire. Towards the end 
of the republic the consulship lost its power 
and importance. The first severe blow it re- 
ceived was from Julius Caesar, the dictator, 
for he received the consulship in addition to 
his dictatorship, or he arbitrarily ordered 
others to be elected, who were mere nominal 
officers, and were allowed to do nothing with- 
out his sanction. He himself was elected con- 
sul at first for five, then for ten years, and at 
last for life. Under Augustus the consulship 
was a mere shadow of what it had been : the 
consuls no longer held their office for a whole 
year, but usually for a few months only ; and 
hence it happened that, sometimes one year 
saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls. 
Those who were elected the first in the year 
ranked higher than the rest, and their names 
alone were used to mark the year, according 
to the ancient custom of the Romans of mark- 
ing the date of an event by the names of the 
consuls of the year in which the event occur- 
red. During the last period of the empire it 
became the practice to have titular or hono- 
rary consuls, who were elected by the senate 
and confirmed by the emperor. Constantine 
appointed two consuls, one for Rome and 
another for Constantinople, who held their 
office for a whole year, and whose functions 
were only those of chief justices. All the other 
consuls were designated as honorarii or consu- 
lares. But though the consulship had thus 
become almost an empty title, it was still re- 
garded as the highest dignity in the empire, 
and as the object of the greatest ambition. It 
was connected with very great expenses, 
partly on account of the public games which 
a consul had to provide, and partly on account 
of the large donations he had to make to the 
people. The last consul at Rome was Deci- 
mus Theodorus Paulinus, A.D. 536, and at 
Constantinople, Flavius Basilius, junior, A. D. 
541. 

CONSULA'RIS, signified under the repub- 
lic, a person who had held the office of con- 
sul, but under the empire, it was the title of 
many magistrates and public officers, who en- 



CONVENTUS. 

joyed lie insignia of consular dignity, without 
having filled the office of consul. Thus we 
find commanders of armies and governors 
of provinces called Consulares under the 
empire. 

CONTUBERNA'LES (avaKyvoi), signi- 
fied originally men who served in the same 
army and lived in the same tent. The word 
is derived from taberna (afterwards tabernacu- 
lum), which was the original name for a mili- 
taiy tent, as it was made of boards (tabulae). 
Each tent was occupied by ten soldiers (con- 
tubernales); with a subordinate officer at their 
head, who was called decanus, and in later, 
times caput contubernii. 

Young Romans of illustrious families used 
to accompany a distinguished general on his 
expeditions, or to his province, lor the purpose 
of gaining under his superintendence a practi- 
cal training in the art of war, or in the ad- 
ministration of public affairs, and were, like 
soldiers living in the same tent, called his 
contubernales . 

In a still wider sense, the name contuber- 
nales was applied to persons connected by ties 
of intimate friendship, and living under the 
same roof ; and hence, when a free man and a 
slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to 
contract a legal marriage, lived together as 
husband and wife, they were called contuber 
nales : and their connection, as well as their 
place of residence, contubernium. 

CONTUBE'RNIUM. [CONTUBERNALES.] 

CONVENI'RE IN MANUM. [MATEI- 

MONIUM.] 

CONVENTUS, was the name applied to 
the whole body of Roman citizens who were 
either permanently or for a time settled in a 
province. In order to facilitate the adminis- 
tration of justice, a province was divided into 
a number of districts or circuits, each of which 
was called conve ntus, forum, orjurisdictio. Ro- 
man citizens living in a province were entirely 
under the jurisdiction of the proconsul ; and 
at certain times of the year, fixed by the pro- 
consul, they assembled in the chief town of the 
district, and this meeting bore the name of 
conventus (avvodo^). Hence the expressions 
conventus agere, peragere, convocare, dimittere. 
At this conventus litigant parties applied to 
the proconsul, who selected a number of 
judges from the conventus to try their causes. 
The proconsul himself presided at the trials, 
and pronounced the sentence according to the 
views of the judges, who were his assessors 
(consilium or consiliarii). These conventus ap- 
pear to have been generally held after the pro- 
consul had settled the military affairs of the 
: province ; at least, when Caesar was procon- 
sul of Gaul, he made it a regular practice to 



CORONA. 



103 



hold the conventus after his armies had retired 
to their winter quarters. 
CONVI'VIUM. [SYMPOSIUM.] 
CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently 
made of horn, but afterwards of brass. Like 
the tuba, it differed from the tibia in being a 
larger and more powerful instrument, and 
from the tuba, itself, in being curved nearly in 
the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to steady 
the instrument for the convenience of the per- 
former. It had no stopples or plugs to adjust 
the scale to any particular mode ; the entire 
series of notes was produced without keys or 
holes, by the modification of the breath and 
of the lips at the mouth-piece. The classicum, 
which originally meant a signal, rather than 
the musical instrument which gave the signal, 
was usually sounded with the cornu. 




CORO'NA (ore^avof ), a crown, that is, a 
circular ornament of metal, leaves, or flowers, 
worn by the ancients round the head or neck, 
and used as a festive as well as funereal de- 
coration, and as a reward of talent, military 
or naval prowess, and civil worth. 

Its first introduction as an honorary reward 
is attributable to the athletic games, in some 
of which it was bestowed as a prize upon the 
victor. It was the only reward contended for 
by the Spartans in their gymnic contests, and 
was worn by them when going to battle. 

The Romans refined upon the practice of 
the Greeks, and invented a great variety of 
crowns formed of different materials, each 
with a separate appellation, and appropriated 
to a particular purpose. 

I. CORONA OBSIDIONALIS. Amongst the 
honorary crowns bestowed by the Romans for 
military achievements, the most difficult of 
attainment, and the one which conferred the 
highest honour, was the corona obsidionalis, 
presented by a beleaguered army after its 
liberation, to the general who broke up the 



siege. It was made of grass, or weeds and 
wild flowers, thence called corona graminea, 
and graminea obsidionalis, gathered from the 
spot, on which the beleagured army had been 
enclosed. 

II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour 
and importance, was presented to the soldier 
who had preserved the life of a Roman citizen 
in battle. It was made of the leaves of the oak. 

The soldier who had acquired this crown 
had a place reserved next to the senate at all 
the public spectacles ; and they, as well as 
the rest of the company, rose up upon his en- 
trance. He was freed from all public burthens, 
as were also his father, and his paternal grand- 
father ; and the person who owed his life to 
him was bound, ever after, to cherish his pre- 
server as a parent, and afford him all such 
offices as were due from a son to his father. 




104 



CORONA. 



III. CORONA NAVALisor ROSTRATA, called 
also CLASSICA. It is difficult to determine 
whether these were two distinct crowns, or 
only two denominations for the same one. It 
seems probable that the navalis corona, besides 
being a generic term, was inferior in dignity 
to the latter, and given to the sailor who first 
boarded an enemy's ship ; whereas the rostrata 
was given to a commander who destroyed the 
whole fleet, or gained any very signal victory. 
At all events, they were both made of gold ; 
and one at least (rostrata) decorated with the 
beaks of ships like the rostra in the forum. 

The Athenians likewise bestowed golden 
crowns for naval services ; sometimes upon 
the person who got his trireme first equipped, 
and at others upon the captain who had his 
vessel in the best order. 

IV. CORONA MuRAHs,was presented by the 
general to the first man who scaled the wall 
of a besieged city. It was made of gold, and 
decorated with turrets. 

V. CORONA CASTRENsisor VALLARIS, was 
presented to the first soldier who surmounted 
the vallum, and forced an entrance into the 
enemy's camp. This crown was made of gold, 
and ornamented with the palisades (valli) used 
in forming an entrenchment. 

VI. CORONA TRIUMPHALIS. There were 
three sorts of triumphal crowns : the first was 
made of laurel or bay leaves, and was worn 
round the head of the commander during his 
triumph ; the second was of gold, which, be- 
ing too large and massive to be worn, was 
held over the head of the general during his 
triumph by a public officer. This crown, as 
well as the former one, was presented to the 
victorious general by his army. The third 
kind, likewise of gold and of great value, was 
sent as a present from the provinces to the 
commander. [AURUM CORONARIUM.] 




Corona TriXjmphalis 



VII. CORONA OVALIS, was given to a com- 
mander who obtained only an ovation. It was 
made of myrtle. 

VIII. CORONA OLEAGINA, was made of the 
olive leaf, and conferred upon the soldiers as 
well as their commanders. 

The Greeks in general made but little use 
of crowns as rewards of valour in the earlier 
periods of their history, except as prizes 
in the athletic contests ; but previous to the 
time of Alexander, crowns of gold were pro- 
fusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at 
least, for every trifling feat, whether civil, 
naval, or military, which, though lavished 
without much discrimination as far as regards 
the character of the receiving parties, were 
still subjected to certain legal restrictions in 
respect of the time, place, and mode in which 
they were conferred. They could not be pre- 
sented but in the public assemblies, and with 
the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people, 
or by the senators in their council, or by the 
drifioTai to members of their own 6fjfj.0. Ac- 
cording to the statement of Aeschines, the 
people could not lawfully present crowns in 
any place except in their assembly, nor the 
senators except in the senate-house ; nor, ac- 
cording to the same authority, in the theatre, 
which is, however, denied by Demosthenes ; 
nor at the public games, and if any crier there 
proclaimed the crowns he was subject to ati- 
mia. Neither could any person holding an 
office receive a crown whilst he was vrrevdv- 
vof, that is, before he had passed his accounts. 

The second class of crowns were emble- 
matical and not honorary, and the adoption of 
them was not regulated by law, but custom. 
Of these there were also several kinds. 

I. CORONA SACERDOTALIS, was worn by the 
priests (sacer -dotes), with the exception of the 
pontifex maximus and his minister (camillus), 
as well as the bystanders, when officiating at 
the sacrifice. It does not appear to have been 
confined to any one material. 

II. CORONA FuNEBRisand SEPULCHRALIS. 
The Greeks first set the example of crowning 
the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, 
which was imitated by the Romans. Garlands 
of flowers were also placed upon the bier, or 
scattered from the windows under which the 
procession passed, or entwined about the cine- 
rary urn, or as a decoration to the tomb. In 
Greece these crowns were commonly made 
of parsley. 

III. CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of 
chaplets at festive entertainments sprung like- 
wise from Greece. They were of various 
shrubs and flowers, such as roses (which were 
the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy. philyra, and 
even parsley. 



CORVUS. 

IV. CoRONANupTiALis. The bridal wreath 
was also of Greek origin, among whom it was 
made of flowers plucked by the bride herself, 
and not bought, which was of ill omen. 
Amongst the Romans it was made of verbena, 
also gathered by the bride herself, and worn 
under theflammeum, with which the bride was 
always enveloped. The bridegroom also wore 
a chaplet. 

The doors of his house were likewise de- 
corated with garlands, and also the bridal 
couch. 

V. CORONA NATALITIA, the chaplet sus- 
pended over the door of the vestibule, both in 
the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a 
child was born. At Athens, when the infant 
was male, the crown was made of olive ; when 
female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, 
ivy. or parsley. 

CORTI'NA, the name of the table or hollow 
slab, supported by a tripod, upon which the 
priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her respon- 
ses ; and hence the word is used for the ora- 
cle itself. The Romans made tables of marble 
or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian 
tripod, which they used as we do our side- 
boards, for the purpose of displaying their plate 
at an entertainment. These were termed cor- 
tinae Delphicae., or Delphicae simply. 

CORYMBUS (Kopvfipog) was a particular 
mode of wearing the hair amongst the Greek 
women ; when worn in the same style by the 
men it was called crobylus (/cpw/3v/loc). It 
consisted in the hair being drawn up all round 
the head from the front and back, and fastened 
in a bow on the top. 

CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Du- 
ilius against the Carthaginian fleet in the bat- 
tle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (B. c. 260). The 
Romans, we are told, being unused to the 
sea, saw that their only chance of victory was 
by bringing a sea fight to resemble one on 
land. For this purpose they invented a ma- 
chine, of which Polybius has left a minute 
description. In the fore part of the ship a 
round pole was fixed perpendicularly, twenty- 
four feet in height and about nine inches in 
diameter ; at the top of this was a pivot, upon 
which a ladder was set, thirty-six feet in 
length and four in breadth. The ladder was 
guarded by cross-beams, fastened to the up- 
right pole by a ring of wood, which turned 
with the pivot above. Along the ladder a rope 
was passed, one end of which took hold of the 
corvus by means of a ring. The corvus itself 
was a strong piece of iron, with a spike at the 
end, which was raised or lowered by drawing 
in or letting out the rope. When an enemy's 
ship drew near, the machine was turned out- 
xvards, by means of the pivot, in the direction 



COTHURNES. 



105 



of the assailant. Another part of the machine 
was a breastwork, let down from the hdder, 
and serving as a bridge, on which to board the 
enemy's vessel. By means of these cranes 
the Carthaginian ships were either broken or 
closely locked with the Roman, and Duiliu? 
gained a complete victory. 

CORY'TOS or CORY'TUS (yupvros , KCJ- 
purof ), a bow-case. This was worn suspend- 
ed by a belt over the right shoulder, and it 
frequently held the arrows as well as the 
bow ; whence it is often confounded with the 
pharetra or quiver. 

COSME'TAE, a class of slaves among 
the Romans, whose duty it was to dress and 
adorn ladies. 

COSMI (KOCTJUOI), the supreme magistrates 
in Crete, were ten in number, and were chosen, 
not from the body of the people, but from cer- 
tain yivrj or houses, which were probably of 
more pure Doric or Achaian descent than 
their neighbours. The first of them in rank 
was called prolocosmus, and gave his name to 
the year. They commanded in war, and 
also conducted the business of the state with 
the representatives and ambassadors of other 
cities. Their period of office was a year ; 
but any of them during that time might re- 
sign, and was also liable to deposition by his 
colleagues. In some cases, too, they might 
be indicted for neglect of their duties. On 
the whole, we may conclude that they formed 
the executive and chief power in most of the 
cities of Crete. 

COTHU'RNUS (/cdtfopvof), a boot. Its 
essential distinction was its height ; it rose 
above the middle of the leg, so as to surround 
the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as 




10(3 



COTYLA. 



the knees. It was worn principally by horse- 
men, by hunters, and by men of rank and au- 
thority. 

The sole of the cothurnus was commonly 
of the ordinary thickness ; but it was some- 
times made much thicker than usual, proba- 
bly by the insertion of slices of cork. The 
object was, to add to the apparent stature o f 
the wearer ; and this was done in the case of 
the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the 
soles made unusually thick as one of the 
methods adopted in order to magnify their 
whole appearance. Hence tragedy in general 
was called cothurnus. 

As the cothurnus was commonly worn in 
hunting, it is represented as part of the cos- 
tume of Diana. The preceding cut shows 
two cothurni, both taken from statues of 
Diana. 

COTTABUS (/cdrra/3of), a social game 
which was introduced from Sicily into Greece, 
where it became one of the favourite amuse- 
ments of young people after their repasts. 
The simplest way in which it originally was 
played was this : One of the company threw 
out of a goblet a certain quantity of wine, at 
a certain distance, into a metal basin. While 
he was doing this, he either thought of or 
pronounced the name of his mistress ; and if 
all the wine fell in the basin, and with a full 
sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This 
simple amusement soon assumed a variety 
of different characters, and became in some 
instances, a regular contest, with prizes for 
the victor. One of the most celebrated modes 
in which it was carried on is called Si' 6t;v(3d- 
<j>uv. A basin was filled with water, with 
small empty cups (6v/3a0a) swimming upon 
it. Into these the young men, one after an- 
other, threw the remnant of the wine from 
their goblets, and he who had the good for- 
tune to drown most of the bowls obtained the 
prize, consisting either of simple cakes, sweet- 
meats, or sesame-cakes. 

COTY'TTIA (/comma) a festival which 
was originally celebrated by the Edonians of 
Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys 
or Cottyto. It was held at night. The wor- 
ship of Cotys, together with the festival of 
Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states, 
chiefly those which were induced by their 
commercial interest to maintain friendly rela- 
tions with Thrace. The festivals of this god- 
dess were notorious among the ancients for 
the dissolute manner and the debaucheries 
with which they were celebrated. 

CO'TYL A (KOTvliij), a measure of capacity 
among th Romans and Greeks : by the for- 
mer it was also called hemina ; by the latter, 
and riuiva or jjfj.ijuva. It was the 



CROTALUM. 

half of the sextarius or fecT7?f, and contained 
6 cyathi, =. .4955 of a pint English. 

COUCHES. [LECTUS.] Respecting their 
use for reclining on at meals, see ACCUBATIO 
and TRICLINIUM. 

COVI'NUS (Celtic, kowain), a kind of car, 
the spokes of which were armed with long 
sickles, and which was used as a scythe-cha- 
riot chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Brit- 
ons. The Romans designated, by the name 
of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, 
which seems to have been covered on all 
sides with the exception of the front. It had 
no seat for a driver, but was conducted by 
the traveller himself, who sat inside. The 
covinarii (this word occurs only in Taci- 
tus) seem to have constituted a regular and 
distinct part of a British army. Compare 
ESSEDUM. 

CRATER (uparrip, Ionic Kprjrfjp, from KS- 
pdvvvjLii, I mix), a vessel in which the wine 
according to the custom of the ancients, who 
very seldom drank it pure, was mixed with 
water, and from which the cups were tilled. 

Craters were among the first things on the 
embellishment of which the ancient artists 
exercised their skill ; and the number of cra- 
ters dedicated in temples seems everywhere 
to have been very great. 

CRE'PIDA (uprjmd, a slipper. Slippers 
were worn with the pallium, not with the 
toga, and were properly characteristic of the 
Greeks, though adopted from them by the 
Romans. 

CRISTA. [GALEA.] 

CRITES (KpLTijti a judge, was the name 
applied by the Greeks to any person who did 
not judge of a thing like a ootocrfc, accord- 
ing to positive laws, but according to his own 
sense of justice and equity. But at Athens a 
number of Kpiral were chosen by ballot from 
a number of selected candidates at every cel- 
ebration of the Dionysia, and were called oi 
Kpirai, /car' et-oxijv. Their office was to judge 
of the merit of the different choruses and dra- 
matic poems, and to award the prizes to the 
victors. Their number was five for comedy 
and the same number for tragedy, one being 
taken from every tribe. 

CRO'BYLUS. [CORYMBUS.] 

CROCO'TA (sc. vestis, KPOKUTOV sc. 1/j.u- 
TLQV, or /cpo/cwrof sc. ^trwv), was a kind of 
gala-dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn 
occasions, and in Greece especially, at the 
festival of the Dionysia. Its name was de- 
rived from crocus, one of the favourite colours 
of the Greek ladies. 

CRO'TALUM (/cpora/lov), a kind of cym- 
bal. It appears to have been a split reed or 
cane, which clattered when shaken with the 



CULINA. 

hand. Women who played on the crotalum 
were termed crotalistriae. The annexed cut 
represents one of these crotalistriae perform- 
ing. 



CURATOR. 



107 




Female playing on the Crotala. 

CROWNS. [CORONA.] 

CUBICULA'RII, slaves who had the care 
of the sleeping and dwelling-rooms. Faithful 
slaves were always selected for this office, as 
they had, to a certain extent, the care of 
their master's person. It was the duty of 
the cubicularii to introduce visiters to their 
master. 

CUBI'CULUM usually means a sleeping 
and dwelling room in a Roman house [Do- 
MUS], but it is also applied to the pavilion or 
tent in which the Roman emperors were 
accustomed to witness the public games. It 
appears to have been so called, because the 
emperors were accustomed to recline in the 
cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently 
the practice, in a sella curulis. 

CU'BITUS (mfauf), a Greek and Roman 
measure of length, originally the length of the 
human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to 
the knuckle of the middle finger. It was 
equal to a foot and a half, which gives 1 foot 
5.4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot 
6.2016 inches for the Greek cubit. 

CUCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was 
intended to be used in the open air, and to be 
drawn over the head to protect it from the 
injuries of the weather, instead of a hat or 
cap, it was attached only to garments of the 
coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used 
by persons in the higher circles of society, 
when they wished to go abroad without being 
known. 

CU'LEUS, or CU'LLEUS, a Roman mea- 
sure, which was used for estimating the pro- 
duce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid 
measure used by the Romans, containing 20 
amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7.546 pints. 

CULI'NA. [DoMUs.] 



CULTER ({jidxaipa, /co/u'f, or 
knife with only one edge, which formed a 
straight line. The blade was pointed, and 
its back curved. It was used for a variety of 
purposes, but chiefly for killing animals either 
in the slaughter house, or in hunting, or at the 
altars of the gods. The priest who conducted 
a sacrifice never killed the victim himself; 
but one of his ministri, appointed for that pur- 
pose who was called either by the general name 
minister, or the more specific popa or cultrarius, 
The annexed woodcut represents the tomb- 
stone of a cultrarius, with two cultri upon it 



Q.TIBVRTI.Q.L, 
MENOLAm 

OVI.TB.AK1. OSS A 
HEIC.SJTA.SVNT 




Tombstone of a Cultrarius. 

CULTRA'RIUS. [CULTER.] 

CU'NEUS was the name applied to a body 

j of foot soldiers, drawn up in the form of a 

wedge, for the purpose of breaking through 

an enemy's line. The common soldiers called 

it a caput porcinum, or pig's head. 

The name cuneus was also applied to the 
compartments of seats in circular or semi- 
circular theatres, which were so arranged as 
to converge to the centre of the theatre, and 
diverge towards the external walls of the 
building, with passages between each com- 
partment. 

CUNrCULUS (VTTOVO/LIOS), a mine or pas- 
sage underground was so called from its re- 
semblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. 

CURA'TOR. Till a Roman youth attained 
the age of puberty, which was generally fixed 
at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of 
any legal act, and was under the authority of 
a tutor or guardian ; but with the attainment 
of the age of puberty, he became capable of 
performing every legal act, and was freed from 
the control of his tutor. As, however, a per 



108 



CURRUS. 



son of that tender age was liable to be imposed 
upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every 
person between the time of puberty and 
twenty-five years of age should be under the 
protection of a curator. The date of this lex 
is not known, though it is certain that the law 
existed when Plautus wrote (about B. c. 200), 
who speaks of it as the lex quina vicemaria. 
This law established a distinction of age, 
which was of great practical importance, by 
forming the citizens into two classes, those 
above and those below twenty-five years of 
age (minores viginti quinque annis). A person 
under the last-mentioned age was sometimes 
simply called minor. The object of the lex 
was to protect persons under twenty-five 
years of age against all fraud (dolus). A per- 
son who wasted his property (prodigus), and 
a person of unsound mind (furiosus, demens), 
were also placed under the care of a curator. 

CURATO'RES were public officers of va- 
rious kinds under the Roman empire, such 
as the curatores annonae, the curalores ludo- 
rum, &c. 

CU'RIA. [CuRio.] 

CU'RIAE. [COMITIA CURIATA.] 

CURIA'TA COMI'TIA. [COMITIA.] 
CU'RIO. Each of the thirty curiae at Rome 
[COMITIA CURIATA] had a president called 
Curio, who performed the sacred rites, a par- 
ticipation in which served as a bond of union 
amongst the members. The Curiones them- 
selves, forming a college of thirty priests.were 
presided over by the Curio Maximus. More- 
over, each of these corporations had its com- 
mon hall, called curia, in which the citizens 
met for religious and other purposes. But be- 
sides the halls of the old corporations, there 
were also other curiae at Rome, used for a 
variety of purposes ; the most important of 
which was the curia in which the senate 
generally met ; sometimes simply called curia, 
sometimes distinguished by the epithet Hos- 
tilia, as it was said to have been built by Tul- 
lus Hostilius. 

CURSUS. [CIRCUS, p. 79.] 
CURU'LIS SELLA. [SELLA.] 
CURRUS (apfj.a), a chariot, a car. These 
terms appear to have denoted those two- 
wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, 
which were open overhead, thus differing from 
the carpentum, and closed in front, in which 
they differed from the cisium. The most es- 
sential articles in the construction of the cur- 
rus were, 1. The rim (avrt/f ) [ANTYX]. 2. The 
axle (lifav, axis). 3. The wheels /cv/c/la, rpo- 
\oi, rotae), which revolved upon the axle, and 
were prevented from coming off by the inser- 
tion of pins (eu/?oAoi) into the extremities of 
the axles. The parts of the wheel were : 



(a) The nave (Trtyfzvr/, modiolus). (b) The 
spokes (nvrmai, literally, the legs, radii.) (c) 
The felly (Zruf). (d) The tire (tniaurpov 
canthus). 4. The pole (p'u/zof , temo). 

All the parts above mentioned are seen in 
the ancient chariot annexed. 




The Greeks and Romans appear never to 
have used more than one pole and one yoke, 
and the currus thus constructed was com- 
monly drawn by two horses, which were at- 
tached to it by their necks, and therefore called 
di&yee ITTKOI, ovvupig, gemini jugales, equi bi- 
juges, &c. If a third horse was added, as was 
not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by 
traces. The horse so attached was called 
Trapijopoc, jrapdastpo?, aeipafyopog, in Latin, 
funalis, and is opposed to the (,vylrat or fyyiot, 
the yoke-horses. The Latin name for a chariot 
and pair was biga. When a third horse was 
added, it was called triga ; and by the same 
analogy a chariot and four was called quadri- 
ga; in Greek, TErpaopia or Tedpnmoc. 

The horses were commonly harnessed in a 
quadriga after the manner already represent- 
ed, the two strongest horses being placed 
under the yoke, and the two others fastened 
on each side by means of ropes. This is 
clearly seen in the two quadrigae in the next 
cut, especially in the one on the right hand. 
It represents a chariot overthrown in passing 
the goal at the circus. The charioteer hav- 
ing fallen backwards, the pole and yoke are 
thrown upwards into the air ; the two trace- 
horses have fallen on their knees, and the 



CYATHUS. 

two yoke-horses are prancing on their hind 
legs. 

The currus was adapted to carry two per- 
sons, and on this account was called in Greek 



C 1MB ALUM. 



109 



One of the two was of course the 
driver. He was called rjvLo^o^, because he 
held the reins, and his companion ir 
from going by his side or near him. 




Quadrigae. 



In the Homeric ages, chariots were com- 
monly employed on the field of battle. The 
men of rank all took their chariots with them, 
and in an engagement placed themselves in 
front. 

CUSTO'DES. [COMITIA.] 

CY'ATHUS (Kvadotf, a Greek and Roman 
liquid measure, containing one-twelfth of the 
sextarius, or .0825 of a pint English. The 
form of the cyathus used at banquets was 
that of a small ladle, by means of which the 
wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups 
from the large vessel (crater] in which it was 
mixed. Two of these cyathi are represented 
in the following woodcut. 



Cyathi. 



CYCLAS (/cv/cAuf), a circular robe worn 
by women, to the bottom of which a border 
was affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to 
have been usually made of some thin mate- 
rial. 

CY3V1BA (nvfj-prj) is derived from Kvp/3oc, 
a hollow, and is employed to signify any 
small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. 
It appears to have been much the same as the 
acatium and scapha. 

CY'MBALUM (v//.3aAov), a musical in 
strument, in the shape of two half globes, 
which were held one in each hand by the 
performer, and played by being struck against 
each other. The word is derived from KV,U- 
(3oe, a hollow. 




Woman playing with Cymbal*, 



110 



DAREICUS. 



The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, 
being used in the worship of Cyhele, Bacchus, 
Juno, and all t.he earlier deities of the Grecian 
and Roman mythology. It probably came 
from the East. For sistrum, which some 
have referred to the class of cymbala, see Sis 

TRUM. 



D. 



DAE'DALA (AeuJa^a), the name of two 
festivals, celebrated in Boeotia in honour of 
Juno, and called respectively the Great and 
the Less Daedala. The latter were cele- 
brated by the Plataeans alone ; in the cele- 
bration of the former, which took place only 
every sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined 
by the other Boeotians. 

DAGGERS. [Puoio; SICA.] 

DANACE (davdK.rj}, properly the name of 
a foreign coin, was also the name given to the 
obolos, which was placed in the mouth of 
the dead to pay the ferryman in Hades. 

DANCING. [SALTATIO.]. 

DAPHNEPHO'RIA (Aa^^opm), a fes- 
tival celebrated every ninth year at Thebes 
in honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or 
Galaxius. Its name was derived from the 
laurel branches (6d<f>vat) which were carried 
by those who took part in its celebration. 

DAREICUS (dapeiKoe), a gold coin of Per- 
sia, stamped on one side with the figure of 
an archer crowned and kneeling upon one 
knee, and on the other with a sort of quad- 
rata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed 
to have derived its name from the first Da- 
reius, king of Persia. It is equal to about 
II. Is. Wd. 1.76 farthings. 




Dareicu.. 



DECEMVIRI. 

DAY. [DIES.] 
DEBTOR. [NEXUM.] 
DECE'MPEDA, a pole ten feet long, used 
by the agrimensores [AGRIMENSORES] in mea- 
suring land. Thus we find that the agri- 
mensores were sometimes called decempeda- 
tores. 

DECE'M VIRI, or the " ten-men," the name 
of various magistrates and functionaries at 
Rome, of whom the most important were : 
1.- DECEMVIRI LEGIBUS SCRIBENDIS, ten 
commissioners, who were appointed to draw 
up a code of laws. They were entrusted 
with supreme power in the state, and all the 
other magistrates were suspended. They 
entered upon their office at the beginning of 
the year B. c. 451 ; and they discharged their 
duties with diligence, and dispensed justice 
with impartiality. Each administered the 
government day by day in succession as du- 
ring an interregnum ; and the fasces were 
only carried before the one who presided for 
the day. They drew up a body of laws, dis- 
tributed into ten sections; which, after being 
approved of by the senate and the comitia, 
were engraven on tables of metal, and set up 
in the cornitium. On the expiration of their 
year of office, all parties were so well satis- 
fied with the manner in which they had dis- 
charged their duties, that it was resolved to 
continue the same form of government for 
another year ; more especially as some of the 
decemvirs said that their work was not fin- 
ished. Ten new decemvirs were accordingly 
elected, of whom App. Claudius alone be- 
longed to the former body. These magistrates 
framed several new laws, which were ap- 
proved of by the centuries, and engraven on 
two additional tables. They acted, however, 
in a most tyrannical manner. Each was at- 
tended by twelve lictors, who carried not the 
rods only, but the axes, the emblem of sove- 
reignty. They made common cause with the 
patrician party, and committed all kinds of 
outrages upon the persons and property of the 
plebeians and their families, When their 
year of office expired they refused to resign 
or to appoint successors. At length, the un- 
just decision of App. Claudius, in the case of 
Virginia, which led her father *o kill her 
with his own hands to save her from prosti- 
tution, occasioned an insurrection of the peo- 
ple. The decemvirs were in consequence 
obliged to resign their office, B. c. 449 ; after 
which the usual magistracies were re estab- 
lished. 

The ten tables of the former, and the two 
tables of the latter decemvirs, form together 
the laws of the Twelve Tables, which were 
the groundwork of the. Roman laws. This 



DECUMAE. 

the first attempt to make a code, remained 
also the only attempt for near one thousand 
years, until the legislation of Justinian. 

2. DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS, some- 
times called simply DECEMVIRI SACRORUM, 
were the members of an ecclesiastical colle- 
gium, and were elected for life. Their chief 
duty was to take care of the Sibylline books, 
and to inspect them on all important occasions 
by command of the senate. 

'Under the kings the care of the Sibylline 
books was committed to two men (duumviri) \ 
of high rank. On the expulsion of the kings, | 
the care of these books was entrusted to the 
noblest of the patricians, who were exempted j 
from all military and civil duties. Their num- j 
ber was increased about the year 367 B. c. to j 
ten, of whom five were chosen from the pa- 
tricians and five from the plebeians. Subse- 
quently their number was still further in- 
creased to fifteen (quindecemviri), probably by 
Sulla. 

It was also the duty of the decemviri to 
celebrate the games of Apollo, and the secular 
games. 

DECIMA'TIO, the selection, by lot, of 
every tenth man for punishment, when any 
number of soldiers in the Roman army had 
been guilty of any crime. The remainder 
usually had barley allowed to them instead of 
wheat. This punishment appears not to have 
been inflicted in the early times of the republic. 

DECRE'TUM seems to mean that which 
is determined in a particular case after exam- 
ination or consideration. It is sometimes ap- 
plied to a determination of the consuls, and 
sometimes to a determination of the senate. 
A decrelum of the senate would seem to differ 
from a senatus-consultum, in the way above in- 
dicated : it was limited to the special occa- 
sion and circumstances, and this would be 
true whether the decretum was of a judicial 
or a legislative character. But this distinc- 
tion in the use of the two words, as applied 
to an act of the senate, was, perhaps, not al- 
ways observed. 

DE'CUMAE (sc.partes) formed a portion 
of the vectigalia of the Romans, and were paid 
by subjects whose territory, either by con- 
quest or deditio, had become the property of 
the state (ager publicus). They consisted, as 
the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the 
produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators 
(aratores) or occupiers (possessores) of the 
lands, which, from being subject to this pay- 
ment, were called agri decumani. The tax of 
a tenth was, however, generally paid by corn 
lands : plantations and vineyards, as requir- 
ing no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the 
produce. 



DEIPNON. 



Ill 



A similar system existed in Greece also 
Peisistratus, for instance, imposed a tax of a 
tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which 
the Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth. At 
the time of the Persian war the confederate 
Greeks made a vow, by which all the states 
who had surrendered themselves to the enemy 
were subjected to the payment of tithes for 
the use of the god at Delphi. 

The tithes of the public lands belonging to 
Athens were farmed out as at Rome to con- 
tractors, called AeKaTtivai : the term deKarfj- 
hoyoi was applied to the collectors ; but the 
callings were, as we might suppose, often 
united in the same person. The title deKarev 
rat is applied to both. A deKarrj, or tenth o 
a different kind, was the arbitrary exactioi 
imposed by the Athenians (B. c. 410) on thi 
cargoes of all ships sailing into or out of the 
Pontus. They lost it by the battle of Aegos- 
potami (B. c. 405) ; but it was re-established 
by Thrasybulus about B. c. 391. The tithe 
was let out to farm. 

DECU'RIA. [EXERCITUS.] 

DECURIO'NES. [COLONIA ; EXERCI 

TUS.] 

DECUSSIS. [As, p. 45a.] 

DEDITI'CII, were those who had taken up 
arms against the Roman people, and being 
conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such 
people did not individually lose their freedom, 
but as a community lost all political existence, 
and of course had no other relation to Rome 
than that of subjects. 

DEDUCTO'RES. [AMBITUS.] 

DEIPNON (SeiTTvov), the principal meal 
of the Greeks, dinner. The present article is 
designed to give a sketch of Grecian meals 
and customs connected with them. 

Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and 
Odyssey ariston (apiGrov), deipnon (deiTrvov), 
dorpon (Sopirov). The word ariston uniformly 
means the early, as dorpon does the late rneal ; 
but deipnon, on the other hand, is used for 
either, apparently without any reference to 
time. 

In the Homeric age it appears to have been 
usual to sit during meal-times. Beef, mutton, 
and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats, 
usally eaten roasted. Cheese, flour, and occa- 
sionally fruits, also formed part of the Homeric 
meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and 
salt (a/If, to which Homer gives the epithet 
deloe), are mentioned. 

The Greeks of a later age usually partook 
of three meals, called acratisma (d.Kpu.TiG[j.a), 
ariston, and deipnon. The last, which cor- 
responds to the dorpon of the Homeric poerns, 
was the evening meal or dinner ; the ariston 
was the luncheon ; and the acratisma, which 



112 



DEIPNON. 



answers to the ariston of Homer.was the early 
meal or breakfast. 

The acratisma was taken immediately after 
rising in the morning. It usually consisted 
of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (uicparoc), 
whence it derived its name. 

Next followed the ariston or luncheon ; but 
the time at which it was taken is uncertain. 
It is frequently mentioned in Xenophon's Ana- 
basis, and appears to have been taken at dif- 
ferent times, as would naturally bo the case 
with soldiers in active service. We may con- 
clude from many circumstances that this meal 
was taken about the middle of the day, and 
that it answered to the Roman prandium. The 
ariston was usually a simple meal, but of 
course varied according to the habits of indi- 
viduals. 

The principal meal was the deipnon. It was 
usually taken rather late in the day, frequently 
not before sunset. 

The Athenians were a social people, and 
were very fond of dining in company. Enter- 
tainments were usually given, both in the 
heroic ages and later times, when sacrifices 
were offered to the gods, either on public or 
private occasions ; and also on the anniver- 
sary of the birthdays of members of the family, 
or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead. 

When young men wished to dine together 
they frequently contributed each a certain 
sum of money, called symbole (<7ty//?o)l^), or 
brought their own provisions with them. 
When the first plan was adopted, they were 
said UTTO cvufiohtiv dsnrvEiv, and one indivi- 
dual was usually entrusted with the money 
to procure the provisions, and make all the 
necessary preparations. This kind of enter- 
tainment, in which each guest contributed to 
the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the 
name of epavoc. An entertainment in which 
each person brought his own provisions with 
him, or at least contributed something to the 
general stock, was called a deltrvov inrb ciry- 
pidoc, because the provisions were brought in 
baskets. 

The most usual kind of entertainments, 
however, were those in which a person invi- 
ted his friends to his own house. It was ex- 
pected that they should come dressed with 
more than ordinary care, and also have bathed 
shortly before. As soon as the guests arrived 
at the house of their host, their shoes or san- 
dals were taken off by the slaves, and their 
feet washed. After their feet had been wash- 
ed, the guests reclined on the couches. It 
has already been remarked that Homer never 
describes persons as reclining, but always as 
sitting at their meals ; but at what time the 
change was introduced is uncertain. The 



Dorians of Crete always sat ; but the other 
Greeks reclined. The Greek women and 
children, however, like the Roman, continued 
to sit at their meals. [ACCUBATIO.] It was 
usual for only two persons to recline on each 
couch. After the guests had placed them- 
selves on the couches, the slaves brought in 
water to wash their hands. The dinner was 
then served up ; whence we read of rag rpa- 
TTE& dcQepeiv, by which expression we are 
to understand not merely the dishes, but the 
tables themselves, which were small enough 
to be used with ease. 

In eating, the Greeks had no knives 01 
forks, but made use of their lingers only, ex- 
cept in eating soups or other liquids, which 
they partook of by means of a spoon, called 
fj,variXrj, fivcrpov, or /uvurpo?. 

It would exceed the limits of this work to 
give an account of the different dishes which 
were introduced at a Greek dinner, though 
their number is far below those which were 
usually partaken of at a Roman entertain- 
ment. The most common food among the 
Greeks was the /id&, a kind of frumenty or 
soft cake, which was prepared in different 
ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the 
second most usual species of food ; it was 
sometimes made at home, but more usually 
bought at the market of the apro7rt)Aat or 
apT07ru?uSeg. The vegetables ordinarily eat- 
en were mallows (/j.aXdxij), lettuces (dpidat;}, 
cabbages, (putyavoi), beans (KVO/UOI), lentils 
(0a/ca/7), &c. Pork was the most favourite 
animal food, as was the case among the Ro- 
mans. It is a curious fact, which Plato has 
remarked, that we never read in Homer of 
the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, 
however, fish was one of the most favourite 
articles of food of the Greeks. 

A dinner given by an opulent Athenian 
usually consisted of two courses, called re- 
spectively rcpurai TpdTTE&i and dtvrepai rpd- 
Tre^ai. The first course embraced the whole 
of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish, 
poultry, meat, &c. ; the second, which cor- 
responds to our dessert and the Roman bella- 
ria, consisted of different kinds of fruit, sweet- 
meats, confections, &c. 

When the first course was finished, the ta- 
bles were taken away, and water was given 
to the guests for the purpose of washing their 
hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers 
were also then given to them, as well as va- 
rious kinds of perfumes. Wine was not drunk 
till the first course was finished ; but as soon 
as the guests had washed their hands, unmix- 
ed wine was introduced in a large goblet, of 
which each drank a little, after pouring out 
a small quantity as a libation. This libation 



DELPHINIA. 

was said to be made to the " good spirit" 
(ayadov <Ja//zovof), and was usually accom- 
panied with the singing of the paean and the 
playing of flutes. After this libation mixed 
wine was brought in, and with their first cup 
the guests drank to Aidf Swr^poj 1 . With 
the libations, the deipnon closed ; and at the 
introduction of the dessert (devTepai Tpcnre- 
;<u) the Trorof, av/Lnrocrtov, or /ce^uof com- 
menced, of which an account is given under 
SYMPOSIUM. 

DE'LIA (drjliia), the name of festivals and 
games celebrated in the island of Delos, to 
which the Cyclades and the neighbouring 
lonians on the coasts belonged. The Delia 
had existed from very early times, and were 
celebrated every fifth year. That the Athe- 
nians took part in these solemnities at a very 
early period, is evident from the Deliastae 
(afterwards called deupoi) mentioned in the 
laws of Solon ; the sacred vessel (deupic), 
moreover, which they sent to Delos every 
year, was said to be the same which Theseus 
had sent after his return from Crete. 

In the course of time the celebration of this 
ancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and 
it was not revived until B. c. 426, when the 
Athenians, after having purified the island in 
the winter of that year, restored the ancient 
solemnities, and added horse-races, which 
had never before taken place at the Delia. 
After this restoration, Athens, being at the 
head of the Ionian confederacy, took the most 
prominent part in the celebration of the Delia : 
and though the islanders, in common with 
Athens, provided the choruses and victims, 
the leader (ap^ftfwpof), who conducted the 
whole solemnity, was an Athenian, and the 
Athenians had the superintendence of the 
common sanctuary. 

From these solemnities, belonging to the 
great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish 
the lesser Delia, which were mentioned above, 
and which were celebrated every year, proba- 
bly on the 6th of Thargelion. The Athenians 
on this occasion, sent the sacred vessel (deu- 
pf), which the priest of Apollo adorned with 
laurel branches, to Delos. The embassy was 
called deupia; and those who sailed to the 
island, deupoi ; and before they set sail a so- 
lemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at 
Marathon, in order to obtain a happy voyage. 
During the absence of the vessel the city of 
Athens was purified, and no criminal was 
allowed to be executed. 

DELPHI'NIA (Setyivid), a festival of the 
same expiatory character as the Apollonia, 
which was celebrated in various towns of 
Greece in honour of Apollo, surnamed Del- 
phinius. 

K2 



DEMUS. 



113 



DELUBRTIM. [TEMPLUM.] 

DEM ARCH1 (dr/napxoL), officers,who were 
the head-boroughs or chief magistrates of the 
demi in Attica, and are said to have been first 
appointed by Clisthenes. Their duties were 
various and important. Thus, they convened 
meetings of the demus, and took the votes 
upon all questions under consideration ; the) 
made and kept a register of the landed es 
tates in their districts, levied the monies due 
to the demus for rent, &c. They succeeded 
to the functions which had been discharged 
by the naucrari of the old constitution. 

DEMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given 
to Roman slaves monthly or daily. It usu- 
ally consisted of four or five modii of corn a 
month. 

DEMINU'TIO CA'PITIS. [CAPUT.] 

DEMIURGI (6rj/j.iovpyoi), magistrates, 
whose title is expressive of their doing the 
service of the people, existed in several of 
the Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans 
and Mantineans they seem to have been the 
chief executive magistracy. We also read 
of demiurgi in the Achaian league, who pro- 
bably ranked next to the strategi, and put 
questions to the vote in the general assembly 
of the confederates. Officers named epidemi- 
urgi, or upper demiurgi, were sent by the Co- 
rinthians to manage the government of their 
colony at Potidaea. 

DEMO'SII (dij/uooioi), public slaves at 
Athens, who were purchased by the state. 
The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, 
formed the city guard ; it was their duty to 
preserve order in the public assembly, and to 
remove any person whom the prytanies might 
order. They are generally called bowmen 
(roforai) ; or from the native country of the 
majority, Scythians (SitvOai) ; and also Speu- 
simans, from the name of the person who first 
established the force. They originally lived 
in tents in the market-place, and afterwards 
upon the Areopagus. Their officers had the 
name of toxarchs (ro^ap^oi). Their number 
was at first 300, purchased soon after the bat- 
tle of Salamis, but was afterwards increased 
to 1200. 

DEMUS (%/of), originally indicated a dis- 
trict or tract of land ; and in this meaning of 
a country district, inhabited and under culti- 
vation, it is contrasted with Tro^Uf. 

When Clisthenes, at Athens, broke up the 
four tribes of the old constitution, he substi- 
tuted in their place ten local tribes (<pv?ial 
TOTTiKai), each of which he subdivided into 
ten demi or country parishes, possessing each 
its principal town ; and in some one of these 
demi were enrolled all the Athenian citizens 
resident in Attica, with the exception, per 



114 



DENARIUS. 



haps, of those who were natives of Athens 
itself. These subdivisions corresponded in 
some degree t:> the naucrariae (vavitpapiai) of 
the old tribes, and were originally one hun- 
dred in number. 

These demi formed independent corpora- 
tions, and had each their several magistrates, 
landed and other property, with a common 
treasury. They had likewise their respec- 
tive convocations or " parish meetings," con- 
vened by the JL-marchi, in which was transact- 
ed the public business of the demus, such as 
the leasing of its estates, the elections of offi- 
cers, the revision of the registers or lists of 
6rifj.6rat, and the admission of new members. 
Independent of these bonds of union, each de- 
mus seems to have had its peculiar temples 
and religious worship. There were likewise 
judges, called fiiKaaTdl Kara fifinovs, who de- 
cided cases where the matter in dispute was 
of less value than ten drachmae. 

Admission into a demus was necessary, be- 
fore any individual could enter upon his full 
rights and privileges as an Attic citizen. The 
register of enrolment was called 



DENA'RIUS, the principal silver coin 
among the Romans, was so called because it 
was originally equal to ten asses ; but on the 
reduction of the weight of the as [As], it was 
made equal to sixteen asses, except in mili- 
tary pay, in which it was still reckoned as 
equal to ten asses. The denarius was first 
coined five years before the first Punic war, 
B.C. 269. [ARGENTUM.] 




Denarius. 

The average value of the denarii coined at 
the end of the commonwealth is about 8%d., 
and those under the empire about 7%d. 

If the denarius be reckoned in value 8ef., 



DIAETETAE. 

the other Roman coins of silver will be of the 
following value : 

Pence. I Karth. 

Teruncius .53125 

Sembella 1.0625 

Libella 2.125 

Sestertius 2 .5 

Quinarius or Victoriatus . . 4 1 
Denarius 8 2 

Some denarii were called serrati, because 
their edges were notched like a saw, which 
appears to have been done to prove that they 
were solid silver, and not plated ; and others 
bigati and quadrigati, because on their reverse 
were represented chariots drawn by two and 
four horses respectively. 

DESIGNATOR. [FuNUs.] 

DESULTOR, a rider in the Roman games, 
who generally rode two horses at the same 
time, sitting on them without a saddle, and 
vaulting upon either of them at his pleasure. 
The annexed woodcut shows three figures of 
desultores. 




DIADE'MA, original jy a white fillet, used 
to encircle the head. It is represented on the 
head of Dionysus [see cut. p. .], and was, 
in an ornamented form, assumed by kings as 
an emblem of sovereignty. 

DIAETETAE (faarnjraC), or arbitrators, 
at Athens, were of two kinds : the one public 



DICE. 



1x5 



~d appointed by lot (K^ITJPUTOI), the other j 
private, and chosen (alperoi) by the parties 
who referred to them the decision of a disputed 
point, instead of trying it before a court of 
mstice ; tiie judgments of both, according to 
Aristotle, being founded on equity rather than 
law. The number of public arbitrators seems 
to have been 40, four for each tribe. Their 
jurisdiction was confined to civil cases. 

DICASTES (&/ea<7rfa), the name of a 
judge, or rather juryman, at Athens. The 
conditions of his eligibility were, that he 
should be a free citizen, in the enjoyment of 
his full franchise (iniTi^ia), and not less than 
thirty years of age, and of persons so quali- 
fied six thousand were selected by lot for the 
service of every year. Their appointment 
took place every year under the conduct of 
the nine archons and their official scribe ; each 
of these ten personages drew by lot the names 
of six hundred persons of the tribe assigned to 
him ; the whole number so selected was again 
divided by lot into ten sections of 500 each, 
together with a supernumerary one, consist- 
ing of a thousand persons, from among whom 
the occasional deficiencies in the sections of 
500 might be supplied. To each of the ten 
sections one of the ten first letters of the al- 
phabet was appropriated as a distinguishing 
mark, and a small tablet (TuvaKiov), inscribed 
with the letter of the section and the name of 
the individual, was delivered as a certificate 
of his appointment to each dicast. 

Before proceeding to the exercise of his 
functions, the dicast was obliged to swear the 
official oath. This oath being taken, and the 
divisions made as above mentioned, it remain- 
ed to assign the courts to the several sections 
of dicasts in which they were to sit. This 
was not, like the first, an appointment in- 
tended to last during the year, but took place 
under the conduct of the thesmothetae, de 
novo, every time that it was necessary to im- 
panel a number of dicasts. As soon as the 
allotment had taken place, each dicast re- 
ceived a staff, on which was painted the letter 
and the colour of the court awarded him, 
which might serve both as a ticket to procure 
admittance, and also to distinguish him from 
any loiterer that might endeavour clandes- 
tinely to obtain a sitting after business had be- 
gun. While in court, and probably from the 
hand of the presiding magistrate (rjyeiuuv dma- 
ffrrjpiov), he received the token or ticket that 
entitled him to receive his fee 



This payment is said to have been first insti- 
tuted by Pericles, and was originally a single 
obolus ; it was increased by Cleoji to thrice 
that amount about the 88th Olympiad. 
DICE, game of. [TESSERA.] 



DICE' (6iKij), signifies generally any pro- 
ceedings at law by one party directly or medi- 
ately against others. The object of all such 
actions is to protect the body politic, or one 
or more of its individual members, from injury 
and aggression ; a distinction which has in 
most countries suggested the division of all 
causes into two great classes, the public and 
the private, and assigned to each its peculiar 
form and treatment. At Athens the first of 
these was implied l>y the terms public di/tat, 
or uycDyef, or still more peculiarly by -ypatyai; 
causes of the other class were termed private 
6tKui, or ayuvcg , or simply diKat in its limited 
sense. 

In a diKrj, only the person whose rights were 
alleged to be affected, or the legal protector 
(xvpiOf) of such person, if a minor or other- 
wise incapable of appearing suo jure, was per- 
mitted to institute an action as plaintiff; in 
public causes, with the exception of some few 
in which the person injured or his family were 
peculiarly bound and interested to act, any 
free citizen, and sometimes, when the state 
was directly attacked, almost any alien, was 
empowered to do so. The court fees, called 
prytaneia, were paid in private but not in pub- 
lic causes, and a public prosecutor that com- 
promised the action with the defendant was 
in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand 
drachmae and a modified disfranchisement, 
while there was no legal impediment at any 
period of a private lawsuit to the reconcilia- 
tion of the litigant parties. 

The proceedings in the dint) were com 
menced by a summons (rcpo^K'kriaL^) to the 
defendant to appear on a certain day before 
the proper magistrate (e/faywyevf), and there 
answer the charges preferred against him. 
This summons was often served by the plain- 
tiffin person, accompanied by one or two wit- 
nesses (/c/l?7r?7pef ),whose names were endorsed 
upon the declaration (/.jy&f or ey/cvb^a). Be- 
tween the service of the summons and ap- 
pearance of the parties before the magistrate, 
it is very probable that the law prescribed the 
intervention of a period of five days. If both 
parties appeared, the proceedings commenced 
by the plaintiff putting in his declaration, and 
at the same time depositing his share of the 
court fees (Trpvravela), which were trifling in 
amount, but the non-payment of which was a 
fatal objection to the further progress of a 
caue. When these were paid, it became the 
duty of the magistrate, if no manifest objec- 
tion appeared on the face of the declaration 
to cause it to be written out on a tablet, and 
exposed for the -inspection of the public on the 
wall or other place that served as the cause 
list of his court. 



116 



DICE. 



The magistrate then appointed a day for the I 
further proceedings of the anacrisis [ANACRI- 
SIS]. If the plaintiff failed to appear at the 
anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to the 
ground ; if the defendant made default, judg- 
ment passed against him. An affidavit might 
at this, as well as at other periods of the ac- 
tion, be made in behalf of a person unable to 
attend upon the given day, and this would, if 
allowed, have the effect of postponing further 
proceedings (vTrujuoaia) ; it might, however, 
be combated by a counter-affidavit, to the 
effect that the alleged reason was unfounded 
or otherwise insufficient (avOvTru/noaia') ; and 
a question would arise upon this point, the 
decision of which, when adverse to the de- 
fendant,would render him liable to the penalty 
of contumacy. The plaintiff was in this case 
said ep^/j,ijv l?ieiv ; the defendant, eprj/.njv 66- 
Tielv, diKTjv being the word omitted in both 
phrases. The anacrisis began with the affi- 
davit of the plaintiff (rrpoufioaia), then fol- 
lowed the answer of the defendant (UVTCJ- 
liocia, or avriypatirj), then the parties pro- 
duced their respective witnesses, and reduced 
their evidence to writing, and put in originals, 
or authenticated copies, of all the records, 
deeds, and contracts that might be useful in 
establishing their case, as well as memoranda 
of offers and requisitions then made by either 
side (Trpo/c/l^oT/.f). The whole of the docu- 
ments were then, if the cause took a straight- 
forward course (rMhtikid), enclosed on the 
last day of the anacrisis in a casket (^frof), 
which was sealed, and entrusted to the cus- 
tody of the presiding magistrate, till it was 
produced and opened at the trial. During the 
interval no alteration in its contents was per- 
mitted, and accordingly evidence that had 
been discovered after the anacrisis was not 
producible at the trial. In some causes, the 
trial before the dicasts was by law appointed 
to come on within a given time ; in such as 
were not provided for by such regulations.we 
may suppose that it would principally depend 
upon the leisure of the magistrate. Upon the 
court being assembled, the magistrate called 
on the cause, and the plaintiff opened his case. 
At the commencement of his speech, the 
proper officer (6 <p' vdup) filled the clepsydra 
with water. As long as the water flowed 
from this vessel the orator was permitted to 
speak ; if, however, evidence was to be read 
by the officer of the court, or a law recited, 
the water was stopped till the speaker recom- 
menced. The quantity of water, or, in other 
words, the length of the speeches, was differ- 
ent in different causes. After the speeches j 
of the advocates, which were in general two I 
on each side, and the incidental reading of ! 



DICTATOR. 

the documentary and other evidence, the di 
casts proceeded to give their judgment by 
ballot. 

When the principal point at issue was de- 
cided in favour of the plaintiff, there followed 
in many cases a farther discussion as to the 
fine or punishment to be inflicted on the de- 
fendant (iradelv r, airoTtaat). All actions 
were divided into two classes, aytivef Itrl- 
lirjToii suits not to be assessed, in which the 
fine, or other penalty, was determined by the 
laws ; and ayuvef TijUTjToi, suits to be assessed, 
in which the penalty had to be fixed by the 
judges. If the suit was an uyuv ri/a^TOf- 
the plaintiff generally mentioned in the plead 
ings the punishment which he considered the 
defendant deserved (n/^a) ; and the defend- 
ant was allowed to make a counter-assess- 
ment (avrtTifiCiadai or vTrort/Liuadai}, and to 
argue before the judges why the assessment 
of the plaintiff ought to be changed or miti- 
gated. In certain causes which were deter- 
mined by the laws, any of the judges was 
allowed to propose an additional assessment 
(Trpofn'jUT^a) ; the amount of which, howev- 
er, appears to have been usually fixed by the 
laws. Thus, in certain cases of theft, the 
additional penalty was fixed at five days' and 
nights' imprisonment. 

Upon judgment being given in a private 
suit, the Athenian Jaw left its execution very 
much in the hands of the successful party, 
who was empowered to seize the movables 
of his antagonist as a pledge for the payment 
of the money, or institute an action of eject- 
ment (fou/l77f) against the refractory debtor. 
The judgment of a court of dicasts was in 
general decisive (diKrj awTO-e/bfc) : but upon 
certain occasions, as, for instance, when a 
gross case of perjury or conspiracy could be 
proved by the unsuccessful party to have op- 
erated to his disadvantage, the cause, upon 
the conviction of such conspirators or witness- 
es, might be commenced de novo. 

DICTA'TOR. The name and office of 
dictator are confessedly of Latin origin : thus 
we read of a dictator at Tusculum in early, 
at Lanuvium in very late times. 

Among the Romans, a dictator was gener- 
ally appointed in circumstances of extraordi- 
nary danger, whether from foreign enemies 
or domestic sedition. Instances occur very 
frequently in the early books of Livy, from 
whom we learn that a dictator was sometimes 
created for the following purposes also: 1. 
For fixing the " clavus aimalis" on the tem- 
ple of Jupiter, in times of pestilence or civil 
discord. 2. For holding the comitia, or elec- 
tions, in the absence of the consuls. 3. Foi 
appointing holydays (ftriafum const 



DICTATOR. 

causa) on the appearance of prodigies, and 
officiating at the ludi Romani, if the praetor 
could not attend ; also for holding trials, and 
on one occasion, for filling up vacancies in 
the senate. 

According to the oldest authorities, the 
dictatorship was instituted at Rome in B. c. 
50] , ten years after the expulsion of the Tar- 
quinii, and the first dictator was said to have 
been T. Lartius, one of the consuls of the 
year. Another account states, that the con- 
suls of the year in which the first dictator 
was appointed were of the Tarquinian party, 
and therefore distrusted. 

This tradition naturally suggests the infer- 
ence, that the dictator was on this first occa- 
sion appointed to direct and supersede the 
consuls, not only with a view to foreign wars, 
but also for the purpose of summarily punish- 
ing any member of the state, whether belong- 
ing to the commonalty or the governing pa- 
tricians, who should be detected in plotting 
for the restoration of the exiled king. The 
powers with which a dictator was invested, 
will show how far his authority was adequate 
for such an object. 

In the first place, he was formerly called 
magister populi, or master of the patricians or 
burghers ; and though created for six months 
only, his power within the city was as su- 
preme and absolute as that of the consuls 
without. In token of this, the fasces and se- 
cures (the latter, instruments of capital pun- 
ishment) were carried before him, even in the 
city. Again no appeal against the dictator 
was at first allowed either to the commons 
or the burghers, although the latter had, even 
under the kings, enjoyed the privilege of ap- 
pealing from them to the great council of the 
patricians (provocare ad populwn) ; a privilege 
which the Valerian laws had secured to the 
plebeians likewise. This right, however, was 
subsequently obtained by the patricians, and 
perhaps eventually by the plebeians. 

Moreover, no one was eligible for the dic- 
tatorship unless he had previously been con- 
sul or praetor. The first plebeian dictator 
was C. Martius Rutilus, nominated by the 
plebeian consul, M. Popillius Laenas, B. c. 
356. 

With respect to the mode of election, the 
common practice was, for the senate to select 
an individual, who was nominated (dictus) in 
the dead of the night by one of the consuls, 
and then received the imperium or sovereign 
authority from the assembly of the curies. 
This ratification was in early times indispens- 
able to the validity of the election, just as it 
had been necessary for the kings, even after 
their election by the curies, to apply to them 



DIES. 



in 



for investiture with the imperium. In later 
times, however, and after the passing of the 
Maenian law, the conferring of the imperium 
was a mere form, Thenceforward it was 
only necessary that the consul should consent 
to proclaim the person nominated by the se- 
nate. 

The authority of a dictator is said to have 
| been supreme in everything; but there were 
some limitations to his power. 1. The period 
of office was only six months, and at the end 
of that time a dictator might be brought to 
trial for any acts of tyranny committed by him 
while in power. Many, however, resigned 
their authority before the expiration of the 
six months, after completing the business for 
which they were appointed. 2. A dictator 
could not draw on the treasury beyond the 
credit granted him by the senate, nor go out 
of Italy, nor even ride on horseback without 
the permission of the people ; a regulation 
apparently capricious, but perhaps intended 
to show whence his authority came. The 
usurped powers of the dictators Sulla and 
Julius Caesar are, of course, not to be com- 
pared with the genuine dictatorship. After 
the death of the latter, the office was abolish- 
ed for ever by a law of Antony, the consul. 
The title, indeed, was offered to Augustus, 
but he resolutely refused it in consequence 
of the odium attached to it from the conduct 
of Sulla when dictator ; in fact, even during 
the later ages of the republic, and for one 
hundred and twenty years previous to Sulla's 
dictatorship, the office itself had been in 
abeyance, though the consuls were frequently 
invested, in time of danger, with something 
like a dictatorial power, by a senatusconsul- 
tum, empowering them to take measures for 
securing the state against harm (ut darent ope- 
ram ne quid respublica detrimenti caper et). 

Together with the master of the burghers, 
or the dictator, there was always a magister 
equitum, or master of the knights, chosen by the 
dictator, though sometimes apparently by the 
senate or the people. 

DIES (^uepa), a day. The name dies was 
applied, like our word day, to the time during 
which, according to the notions of the ancients, 
the sun performed his course around the earth, 
and this time they called the civil day (dies 
civilis, in Greek vv^O^epov, because it in- 
cluded both night and day). The natural day 
(dies naturalis), or the time from the rising to 
the setting of the sun,was likewise designated 
by the name dies. The civil day began with 
the Greeks at the setting of the sun, and with 
the Romans at midnight. 

At the time of the Homeric poems the natu- 
ral day was divided into three parts. The first, 



118 



DIES. 



called jj6, began with sunrise, and compre- 
hended the whole space of time during which 
light seemed to be increasing, z. e. till mid-day. 
The second part was called /zecrov 7/fj.ap or 
mid-day, during which the sun was thought 
to stand still. The third part bore the name 
of Sdfy or deiehov 7j/J.ap, which derived its 
name from the increased warmth of the at- 
mosphere. Among the Athenians the first and 
last of the divisions made at the time of Homer 
were afterwards subdivided into two parts. 
The earlier part of the morning was termed 
7rp< Ji or Trpcj T% j/fj,pa$ : the latter, TrfyVovarjc 
rrig dyopac, or irepl TrfyOovaav ayopav. The 
ueaov fj/j-ap of Homer was afterwards express- 
ed by fj.ea7ifj.f3pia, /ueoov tffj.epa^, or /near] rjuepa, 
and comprehended, as before, the middle of 
the day, when the sun seemed neither to rise 
nor to decline. The two parts of the after- 
noon were called deify Trputr} or irputa, and 
deify oifjiT) or otpia. This division continued 
to be observed down to the latest period of 
Grecian history, though another more accu- 
rate division was introduced at an early period ; 
for Anaximander, or, according to others, his 
disciple Anaximenes, is said to have made 
the Greeks acquainted with the use of the 
Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called 
Trd/lof or upohoyiov), by means of which the 
natural day was divided into twelve equal 
spaces of time. 

The division of the day most generally ob- 
served by the Romans, was that into tempus 
antemeridianum and pomeridianum, the meridies 
itself being only considered as a.point at which 
the one ended and the other commenced. But 
as it was of importance that this moment 
should be known, an especial officer f ACCEN- 
sus] was appointed, who proclaimed the time 
of mid-day. The division of the day into 
twelve equal spaces, which were shorter in 
winter than in summer, was adopted at the 
time when artificial means of measuring time 
were introduced among the Romans from 
Greece. This was about the year B.C. 291, 
when L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with 
Pyrrhus in southern Italy, brought to Rome 
an instrument called solarium horologium, or 
simply solarium. But as the solarium had 
been made for a different meridian, it showed 
the time at Rome very incorrectly. Scipio 
Nasica, therefore, erected in B.C. 159, a pub- 
lic clepsydra, which indicated the hours of 
the night as well as of the day. Even after 
the erection of this clepsydra it was custom- 
ary for one of the subordinate officers of the 
praetor to proclaim the third, sixth, and ninth 
hours ; which shows that the day was, like 
the night divided into four parts, each consist- 
ing of three hours. 



DIONYSIA. 

All the days of the year were, according to 
different points of view, divided by the Romans 
into different classes. For the purpose of the 
administration of justice all days were divided 
into dies fasti and dies nefasti. 

DIES FASTI were the days on which the 
praetor was allowed to administer justice in 
the public courts ; they derived their name 
fromfari (fari tria verba ; do, dico, addicd). On 
some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, 
but not on all. The regular dies fasti were 
marked in the Roman calendar by the letter F, 
and their number in the course of the year 
was 38. Besides these there were certain 
days called dies intercisi, on which the praetor 
might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so 
that sometimes one half of such a day was 
/astas, while the other half was nefastus. Their 
number was 65 in the year. 

DIES NEFASTI were days on which neither 
courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to 
be held, and which were dedicated to other 
purposes. The term dies nefasti, which origi- 
nally had nothing to do with religion, but sim- 
ply indicated days on which no courts were to 
be held, was in subsequent times applied to 
religious days in general, as dies nefasti were 
mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods. 

In a religious point of view all days of the 
year were either dies festi, or dies profesti, or 
dies intercisi. According to the definition given 
by Macrobius, dies festi were dedicated to the 
gods, and spent with sacrifices, repasts, games, 
and other solemnities ; dies prof esti belonged 
to men for the administration of their private 
and public affairs. Dies intercisi were com- 
mon between gods and men, that is, partly de- 
voted to the worship of the gods, partly to the 
transaction of ordinary business. 

Dies profesti were either dies fasti, or dies 
comitiales, that is, days on which comitia were 
held, or dies comperendini, that is, days to 
which any action was allowed to be trans 
ferred ; or dies stati, that is, days set apart foi 
causes between Roman citizens and foreign- 
ers ; or dies proeliales, that is, all days on which 
religion did not forbid the commencement of a 
war. 

DIFFAREA'TIO. [DIVORTIUM.] 

DIMACHAE (diLuixcu), Macedonian horse- 
soldiers, who also fought on foot when occa- 
sion required, like our dragoons. 

DIMINU'TIO CA'PITIS. [CAPUT.] 

DINNERS, Greek [DEIPNON], Roman 

[COENA.] 

DIONY'SIA (Aiovvaia), festivals celeorat 
ed in various parts of Greece in honour oi 
Dionysus (Bacchus), and characterized by ex- 
travagant merriment and enthusiastic joy. 

Drunkenness, and the boisterous music o. 



DIONYSIA. 



119 



flutes, cymbals, and drums, were likewise 
common to all Bacchic festivals. In the pro- 
cessions called diaaoi (from dciafa), with 
which they were celebrated, women also took 
part in the disguise of Bacchae, Lenae, Thy- 
ades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with 
garlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in 
their hands, so that the whole train represent- 
ed a population inspired and actuated by the 
powerful presence of the god. The choruses 
sung on the occasion were called dithyrambs, 
and were hymns addressed to the god in the 
freest metres and with the boldest imagery, in 
which his exploits and achievements were 
extolled. [CHORUS.] The phallus, the sym- 
bol of the fertility of nature, was also carried 
in these processions. The indulgence in 
drinking was considered by the Greeks as a 
duty of gratitude which they owed to the giver 
of the vine; hence in some places it was 
thought acrime to remain sober at theDionysia. 

The Attic festivals of Bacchus were "four 
in number : the Rural or Lesser Dionysia 
(Aiovvata /car' uypoiif, or fj.iKpd), the Lenaea 
(A^va/.a), the Anthestetia ('Avfleor^pta), and 
the City or Great Dionysia (Aiovvcna kv UGTEI, 
uGTiKU. or //eyci/la). The season of the year 
sacred to Bacchus was during the months 
nearest to the shortest day ; and the Attic fes- 
tivals were accordingly celebrated in Poseide- 
on,Gamelion, Anthesterion, and Elaphebolion. 

The Rural or Lesser Dionysia, a vintage fes- 
tival, were celebrated in the various demes of 
Attica in the month of Poseideon, and were 
under the superintendence of the several local 
magistrates, the demarchs. This was doubt- 
less the most ancient of all, and was held with 
the highest degree of merriment and freedom; 
even slaves enjoyed full freedom during its 
celebration, and their boisterous shouts on the 
occasion were almost intolerable. It is here 
that we have to seek for the origin of comedy, 
in the jests and the scurrilevs abuse which 
the peasants vented upon the bystanders from 
a waggon in which they rode about. The 
Dionysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of 
the other demes of Attica, belonged to the 
lesser Dionysia. 

The second festival, the Lenaea (from X^vdf, 
the wine-press, from which also the month 
of Garnelion was called by the lonians Lenae- 
on), was celebrated in 'the month of Game- 
lion ; the place of its celebration was the an- 
cient temple of Bacchus Limnaeus (from 
\iur}v, as the district was originally a swamp). 
Phis temple was called the Lenaeon. The 
Lenaea were celebrated with a procession 
and scenic contests in tragedy and comedy. 
The procession probably went to the Lenae- 
on, where a goat (rpdyoe, hence the chorus 



and the tragedy which arose ut of it were 
called rpayt/cb? xP?> anc ^ fpuycjdm) was 
sacrificed, and a chorus standing'around the 
altar sang the dithyrambic ode to the god. 
As the dithyramb was the element out 01 
which, by the introduction of an actor trage- 
dy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the 
scenic contests of this festival, tragedy should 
have preceded comedy. The poet who wished 
his play to be brought out at the Lenaea applied 
to the second archon, who had the superin- 
tendence of this festival, and who gave him the 
chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it. 

The third festival, the Anthesteria, was cel- 
ebrated on the 1 1th, 12th, and 13th days of 
the month of Anthesterion. The second ar- 
chon likewise superintended the celebration 
of the Anthesteria, and distributed the prizes 
among the victors in the various games which 
were carried on during the season. The first 
day was called Tridoiyia : the second, ^ocf : 
and the third, xvrpot. The first day derived 
its name from the opening of the casks to 
taste the wine of the preceding year ; the se- 
cond from oi)f, the cup, and seems to have 
been the day devoted to drinking. The third 
day had its name from vvrpof, a pot, as on 
this day persons offerea pots with flowers, 
seeds, or cooked vegetables, as a sacrifice to 
Bacchus and Hermes (Mercury) Chthonius. 

It is uncertain whether dramas were per- 
formed at the Anthesteria; but it is supposed 
that comedies were represented, and that tra- 
gedies which were to be brought out at the 
great Dionysia were perhaps rehearsed at the 
Anthesteria. The mysteries connected with 
the celebration of the Anthesteria were held 
at night. 

The fourth festival, the City or Great Dio- 
nysia, was celebrated about the 12th of the 
month of Elaphebolion ; but we do not know 
whether they lasted more than one day or 
not. The order in which the solemnities 
took place was as follows : the great public 
procession, the chorus of boys, the comus 
[CHORUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of 
the dramas which were performed at the 
great Dionysia, the tragedies at least were 
generally new pieces ; repetitions do not, how- 
ever, seem to have been excluded from any 
Dionysiac festival. The first archon had the 
superintendence, and gave the chorus to the 
dramatic poet who wished to bring out his 
piece at this festival. The prize awarded to 
the dramatist for the best play consisted of a 
crown, and his name was proclaimed in the 
theatre of Bacchus. As the great Dionysia 
were celebrated at the beginning of spring, 
when the navigation was re-opened, Athens 
was not only visited by numbers of country 



120 



D10NYSIA 



people, but also by strangers from other parts 
of Greece, and the various amusements and 
exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike 
those of a modern fair. 

The worship of Dionysus, whom the Ro- 
mans called Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic 
mysteries and orgies (Bacchanalia), are said 
to have been introduced from southern Italy 
into Etruria, and from thence to Rome, where 
for a time they were carried on in secret, and, 
during the latter period of their existence, at 
night. The initiated, according to Livy, not 
only indulged in feasting and drinking at their 
meetings, but when their minds were heated 
with wine they practised the coarsest excess- 
es and the most unnatural vices. The time 
of initiation lasted ten days ; on the tenth, 
the person who was to be initiated took a so- 
lemn meal, underwent a purification by wa- 
ter, and was led into the sanctuary (Baccha- 
nal). At first only women were initiated, and 
the orgies were celebrated every year during 
three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian 
matron, pretending to act under the direct 
influence of Bacchus, changed the whole 
method of celebration : she admitted men to 
the initiation, and transferred the solemniza- 
tion, which had hitherto taken place during 
the daytime, to the night. Instead of three 
days in the year, she ordered that the Bac- 
chanalia should be held during five days in 
every month. It was from that time that 
these orgies were carried on with frightful 
licentiousness and excesses of every kind. 
The evil at length became so alarming, that, 
in B. c. 186, the consuls, by the command of 
the senate, instituted an investigation into 
the nature and object of these new rites. The 
result was that numerous persons were ar- 
rested, and some put to death ; and that a de- 
cree of the senate was issued, commanding 
that no Bacchanalia should be held either in 
Rome or Italy ; that if any one should think 
such ceremonies necessary, or if he could not 
neglect them without scruples or making 
atonements, he should apply to the praetor 
urbanus, who might then consult the senate. 
If the permission should be granted to him in 
an assembly of the senate, consisting of not 
less than one hundred members, he might 
solemnize the Bacchic sacra ; but no more 
than five persons were to be present at the 
celebration ; there should be no common fund 
and no master of the sacra or priest. A bra- 
zen table containing this important document 
was discovered near Bari, in southern Italy, 
in the year 1640, and is at present in the im- 
perial Museum of Vienna. 

While the Bacchanalia were thus suppress- 
ed, another more simple and innocent festival 



DISCUS. 

of Bacchus, the Liberalia (from Liber, or Li- 
ber Pater, a name of Bacchus), continued to 
be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th 
of March. Priests and aged priestesses 
adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through 
the city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, 
together with an altar with a handle (ansata 
am), in the middle of which there was a small 
fire-pan (foculus), in which from time to time 
sacrifices were burnt. On this day Roman 
youths who had attained their sixteenth year 
received the toga virilis. 

DIO'TA, a vessel having two ears (UTO) or 
handles, used for holding wine. It appears 
to have been much the same as the amphora. 
[AMPHORA.] 

DIPLO'MA, a writ or public document, 
which conferred upon a person any right or 
privilege. During the republic, it was grant- 
ed by the consuls and senate ; and under the 
empire, by the emperor and the magistrates 
whom he authorized to do so. It consisted 
of two leaves, whence it derived its name. 

DIPTYCH A (SiTTTvxa), two writing tab- 
lets, which could be lOlded together. They 
were commonly made of wood and covered 
over with wax. 

DIRIBITO'RES, officers in the comitia, 
whose duty it was to divide the votes (tabel- 
lae), when taken out of the cistae, or ballot- 
boxes, so as to determine which had the ma- 
jority. They handed them over to the cus- 
todes, who checked them off by points marked 
on a tablet. 

DISCUS ((5/a/cor),a circular plate of stone 
or metal, made for throwing to a distance as 




Throwing f,.- D.-cus. 



DIV1NATIO. 



12J 



an exercise ot strength and dexterity. It was 
one of the principal gymnastic exercises of 
the ancients, being included in the Pentathlum. 
The preceding woodcut represents a player | 
with the discus, and is copied from an ancient ' 
statue by Myron. 

DISPENSA'TOR. [CALCULATOR.] 

D1THYRAMBUS. [CHORUS.] 

DIVERSO'RIUM. [CAUPONA.] 

DIVINA'TIO (juavTtKij), a power in man 
which foresees future things by means of 
those signs which the gods throw in his way. 

Among the Greeks the mantels (/zairetf), 
or seers, who announced the future, were 
supposed to be under the direct influence of 
the gods, chiefly that of Apollo. In many 
families of seers the inspired knowledge of 
the future was considered to be hereditary, 
and to be transmitted from father to son-. To 
these families belonged the lamids, who from 
Olympia spread over a considerable part of 
Greece; the Branchidae, near Miletus; the 
Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis ; the Tel- 
liads, the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along 
with the seers we may also mention the Ba- 
cides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a 
very remote time, and were distinct from the 
manteis so far as they pretended to derive 
their knowledge of the future from sacred 
books (xprjaixoi) which they consulted, and 
which were in some places, as at Athens and 
Rome, kept by the government or some espe- 
cial officers, in the acropolis and in the most 
revered sanctuary. The Bacides are said to 
have bean descended from one or more pro- 
phetic nymphs of the name of Bacis. The 
Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably 
of Asiatic origin, whose peculiar custom 
seems to have been to wander with their sa- 
cred books from place to place. The Sibylla, 
whose books gained so great an importance 
at Rome, is reported to have been the Ery- 
thraean : the books which she was said to 
have sold to one of the Tarquins were care- 
fully concealed from the public, and only ac- 
cessible to the duumvirs. 

Besides these more respectable prophets 
and prophetesses, there were numbers of di- 
viners of an inferior order (xprjafj.o^6yoi), who 
made it their business to explain all sorts of 
signs, and to tell fortunes. They were, how- 
ever, more particularly popular with the lower 
orders, who are everywhere most ready to be- 
lieve what is most marvellous and least en- 
titled to credit. 

No public undertaking of any consequence 
was ever entered upon by the Greeks and Ro- 
mans without consulting the will of the gods, 
by observing the signs which they sent, espe- 
cially those in the sacrifices offered for the 
L 



purpose, and by which they were thought to 
indicate the success or the failure of the un 
dertaking. For this kind of divination no di- 
vine inspiration was thought necessary, but 
merely experience and a certain knowledge 
acquired by routine ; and although in some 
cases priests were appointed for the purpose 
of observing and explaining signs [AUGUR ; 
HARUSPEX], yet on any sudden emergency, 
especially in private affairs, any one who met 
with something extraordinary, might act as 
his own interpreter. The principal signs by 
which the gods were thought to declare their 
will, were things connected with the offering 
of sacrifices, the flight and voice of birds, all 
kinds of natural phenomena, ordinary as well 
as extraordinary, and dreams. 
f The interpretation of signs of the first class 
(iepOjLtavTcia or lepOGHOTria, haruspicium or ars 
haruspicina) was, according to Aeschylus, the 
invention of Prometheus. It seems" to have 
been most cultivated by the Etruscans, among 
whom it was raised into a complete science, 
and from whom it passed to the Romans. Sa- 
crifices were either offered for the special pur- 
pose of consulting the gods, or in the ordinary 
way; but in both cases the signs were ob- 
served, and when they were propitious, the 
sacrifice was said naTJ^upelv. The principal 
points that were generally observed were, 1. 
The manner in which the victim approached 
the altar. 2. The nature of the intestines 
with respect to their colour and smoothness ; 
the liver and bile were of particular importance. 
3. The nature of the flame which consumed 
the sacrifice. Especial care was also taken 
during a sacrifice, that no inauspicious or 
frivolous words were uttered by any of the 
bystanders : hence the admonitions of the 
priests, Eii^rjunre and eix^rj/Liia, or aiyare, 
GIUTTUTE, favete linguis, and others; for im- 
proper expressions were not only thought to 
pollute and profane the sacred act, but to be 
unlucky omens. 

The art of interpreting signs of the second 
class was called oiuvtariKri, augurium, or aus- 
picium. It was, like the former, common to 
Greeks and Romans, but never attained the 
same degree of importance in Greece as it did 
in Rome. [AuspiciUM.] The Greeks, when 
observing the flight of birds, turned their face 
toward the north, and then a bird appearing 
to the right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, 
or a falcon, was a favourable sign ; while 
birds appearing to the left (west) were con 
sidered as unlucky signs. 

Of greater importance than the appearance 
of animals, at least to the Greeks, were the 
phenomena in the heavens, particularly during 
any public transaction. Among the unlucky 



122 



DIVORTIUM. 



phenomena in the heavens (Sioai][teta, signa, 
or portenta] were thunder and lightning, an 
eclipse of the sun or moon, earthquakes, rain 
of blood, stones, milk, &c. Any one of these 
signs was sufficient at Athens to break up the 
assembly of the people. In common life, 
things apparently of no importance, when oc- 
curring at a critical moment, were thought by 
the ancients to be signs sent by the gods, from 
which conclusions might be drawn respecting 
the future. Among these common occurrences 
we may mention sneezing, twinkling of the 
eyes, tinkling of the ears, &c. 

The art of interpreting dreams (oveipOTro- 
hia), which had probably been introduced into 
Europe from Asia, where it is still a universal 
practice, seems in the Homeric age to have 
been held in high esteem, for dreams were 
said to be sent by Jupiter. In subsequent times, 
that class of diviners who occupied them- 
selves with the interpretation of dreams, 
seems to have been very numerous and popu- 
lar ; but they never enjoyed any protection 
from the state, and were chiefly resorted to 
by private individuals. The subject of oracles 
is treated in a separate article. [ORACULUM.] 

The word divinatio was used in a particular 
manner by the Romans as a law-term. If in 
any case two or more accusers came forward 
against one and the same individual, it was, 
as the phrase ran, decided by divination, who 
should be the chief or real accuser, whom the 
others then joined as subscriptores ; i. e. by put- 
ting their names to the charge brought against 
the offender. This transaction, by which one 
of several accusers was selected to conduct 
the accusation, was called divinatio, as the 
question here was riot about facts, but about 
something which was to be done, and which 
could not be found out by witnesses or written 
documents ; so that the judices had, as it were, 
to divine the course which they had to take. 
Hence the oratio of Cicero, in which he tries 
to show that he, and not Q. Caecilius Niger, 
ought to conduct the accusation against Ver- 
res, is called Divinatio in Caecilium. 



DIVI'SOR. [AMBITUS.] 
DIVO'RTIUM (aTroAeiic, a 



m^if), di- 

vorce. I.GREEK. The laws of Athens per- 
mitted either the husband or the wife to call for 
and effect a divorce, if it originated with the 
wife, she was said to leave her husband's house 
(uTToAe/Tmv) ; if otherwise, to be dismissed 
from it (uiroTCEinrF.adai). After divorce, the 
wife resorted to her male relations, with whom 
she would have remained if she had never 
quitted her maiden state ; and it then became 
their duty to receive or recover from her late 
husband all the property that she had brought 
to him in acknowledged dowry upon their 



DOCIMASIA. 

marriage. If, upon this, both paities were 
satisfied, the divorce was final and complete 
if otherwise, an action U7ro/leii/;f, or UTTO 
7rf//Ve?> would be instituted, as the case 
might be, by the party opposed to the separa- 
tion. A separation, however, whether it ori 
ginated from the husband or the wife, wa> 
considered to reflect discredit on the latter. 

2. ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the 
Roman polity. As one essential part of a mar 
riage was the consent and conjugal affection 
of the parties, it was considered that this af 
fection was necessary to its continuance, and 
accordingly either party might declare his 01 
her intention to dissolve the connection. No 
judicial decree, and no interference of any 
public authority, was requisite to dissolve a 
marriage. The first instance of divorce at 
Rome is said to have occurred about B. c. 234, 
when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away his wife, 
on the ground of barrenness ; it is added that 
his conduct was generally condemned. 

Towards the latter part of the republic, and 
under the empire, divorces became very com 
mon. Pompey divorced his wife Mucia foi 
alleged adultery; and Cicero divorced his 
wife Terentia, after living with her thirty 
years, and married a young woman. If a 
husband divorced his wife, the wife's dowry, 
as a general rule, was restored; and the same 
was the case when the divorce took place by 
mutual consent. 

Corresponding to the forms of marriage by 
confarreatio and coemtio, there were the forms 
of divorce by diffarreatio and remancipatio. In 
course of time, less ceremony was used ; but 
still some distinct notice or declaration of 
intention was necessary to constitute a di- 
vorce. 

The term repudium, it is said, properly ap- 
plies to a marriage only contracted, and divor- 
tium to an actual marriage ; but sometimes 
divortium and repudium appear to be used in- 
differently. The phrases to express a divorce 
are, nuncium remitters, divortium facere ; and 
the form of words might be as follows Tuas 
res tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito. The phrases 
used to express the renunciation of a marriage 
contract were, renunctiare repudium, repudium 
remittere, dicere, and repudiare ; and the form 
of words might be, Conditione tua non utor. 

DOCIMA'SIA (doKifiaaia). When any citi- 
zen of Athens was either appointed by lot, or 
chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office, he 
was obliged, before entering on his duties, to 
submit to a docirnasia, or scrutiny into his pre- 
vious life and conduct, in which any person 
could object to him as unfit. The docimasia, 
however, was not confined to persons ap- 
pointed to public offices ; for we read of the 



DOMUS. 



123 



denouncement of a scrutiny against orators 
who spoke in the assembly while leading pro- 
fligate lives, or alter having committed flagi- 
tious crimes. 

DO'LIUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat 
resembling our tubs or casks, into which new 
wine was put to let it ferment. 

DOMI'NIUM signifies quiritarian owner- 
ship, or property in a thing ; and dominus, or 
dominus legiti/nus, is the owner The dominus 
has the power of dealing with a thing as he 
pleases, and differs from the bare possessor, 
who has only the right of possession, and has 
not the absolute ownership of the thing. 

DOMUS (okoc), a house. 1. GREEK. A 
Greek house was always divided into two dis- 
tinct portions, the Andronitis, or men's apart- 
ments (dvfJpwvfrif), and the Gynaeconitis, or 
women's apartments (yvvaiKuvZrtg). In the 
earliest times, as in the houses referred to by 
Homer, and in some houses at a later period, 
the women's apartments were in the upper 
story (vTrep&ov), but usually at a later time 
the gynaecpnitis was on the same story with 
the andronitis, and behind it. 

The front of the house towards the street 
was not large, as the apartments extended 
rather in the direction of its depth than of its 
width. In towns the houses were often built 
side by side, with party-walls between. The 
exterior wall was plain, being composed gene- 
rally of stone, brick, and timber, and often 
covered with stucco. 

There was no open space between the street 
and the house-door, like the Roman vestibulum. 
The irpodvpa, which is sometimes mentioned, 
seems to be merely the space in front of the 
house. In front of the house was generally 
an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a rude obelisk 
emblematical of the god. Sometimes there 
was a laurel tree in the same position, and 
sometimes a head of the god Mercury. 

A few steps (avafiadfioL) led up to the house- 
door, which generally bore some inscription, 
for the sake of a good ornen, or as a charm. 
The door sometimes opened outwards; but 
this seems to have been an exception to the 
general rule, as is proved by the expressions 
used for opening, svdoiivat, and shutting it, 
emaTrurjacrdaL and <j>&K.vaaadai. The han- 
dles were called eTricnraaTfjpe^. 

The house-door was called atJAaof or av- 
heia dvpa, because it led to the avArf. It gave 
admittance to a narrow passage (Ovpupeiov, 
Kvhuv, 6vpuv), on one side of which, in a 
large house, were the stables, on the other 
the porter's lodge. The duty of the porter 
(0t>pcjp6c) was to admit visiters and to pre- 
vent anything improper from being carried 
into or out of the house. The porter was at- 



tended by a dog. Hence the phrase ev/la/3a 
adai rrjv Kvva, corresponding to the Latin 
Cave canein. 

From the dvpupelov we pass into the peri 
style or court (Trepiorv/Uop, a?)A^) of the an- 
dronitis, which" was a space open to the sky 
in the centre (viraidpov), and surrounded on 
all four sides by porticoes (aroai), of which 
one, probably that nearest the entrance, was 
called TrpoGToov. These porticoes were used 
for exercise, and sometimes for dining in. 
Here was commonly the altar on which sacri- 
fices were offered to the household gods. In 
building the porticoes the object sought was 
to obtain as much sun in winter, and as much 
shade and air in summer, as possible. 

Round the peristyle were arranged the 
chambers used by the men, such as banquet- 
ing rooms (ohoi, av6ptivec},which were large 
enough to contain several sets of couches 
(rpiK'Aivoi, ^TTTUK^IVOI, TptaKovraK^ivoc), arid 
at the same time to allow abundant room for 
attendants, musicians, and performers of 
games ; parlours or sitting rooms (egedpai), 
and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms 
(<5cj/zuna, KOITUVE?, oln-nfiaTa) ; picture-gal- 
leries and libraries, and sometimes store- 
rooms ; and in the arrangement of these apart- 
ments attention was paid to their aspect. 

The peristyle of the andronitis was con- 
nected with that of the gynaeconitis by a door 
called ^erauAoo, /ueouy/loc, or /zecrav/Uof, 
which was in the middle of the portico of the 
peristyle opposite to the entrance. By means 
of this door all communication between the 
andronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off. 
Accordingly Xenophon calls it dvpa pahavu 
r6f. Its name uraavho? is evidently derived 
from //e<rof , and means the door between the 
two ayhai or peristyles. 

This door gave admittance to the peristyle 
of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that 
of the andronitis in having porticoes round 
only three of its sides. On the fourth side 
were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a consi- 
derable distance from each other. A third of 
the distance between these antae was set off 
inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, 
which was called Trpoordf, Trapacrdf, Trpd- 
<Jpo/zof . On the right and left of this Trpotfruf 
were two bedchambers, the 0dAa/zof and 
ufj,(j)iddha/Lio, of which the former was the 
principal bedchamber of the house, and here 
also seem to have been- kept the vases, and 
other valuable articles of ornament. Beyond 
these rooms were large apartments (lartivec) 
used for working in wool. Round the 
peristyle were the eating-rooms, bed-cham- 
bers, store-rooms, and other apartments in 
common use. 



DOM US. 



6vpa) 



Besides the avheioc Ovpa an 
dvpa, there was a third door 
leading to the garden. 

The following is a conjectural plan of the 
ground-floor of a Greek house of the larger 
size. 




Ground Plan of a Greek House. 



a, House-door, avXetof dvpa : 6vp, passage, 
(foptspuov or dvpuv : A, peristyle, or av^fj of 
the andronitis; o, the halls and chambers of 
the andronitis ; ft, /ueravhoc; or //eom>/lof 6vpa , 

, peristyle of the gynaeconitis ; y, chambers 



of the gynaeconitis ; TT, Trpooru 
6, 0dAayof and a(j.<j)i6u%.aftO ; I, rooms for 
working in wool (/orwvef) ; K, garden-door, 
Ktjnaia dvpa. 

There was usually, though not always, an 
upper story (vrreptiov, 6i.7jpe^), which seldom 
extended over the whole space occupied by 
the lower story. The principal use of the 
upper story was for the lodging of the slaves. 
The access to the upper floor seems to have 
been sometimes by stairs on the outside of 
the house, leading up from the street. Guests 
were also lodged in the upper story. But in 
some large houses there were rooms set apart 
for their reception (fevuvef) on the ground- 
floor. 

The roofs were generally flat, and it was 
customary to walk about upon them. 



In the interior of the house the place o. 
i doors was sometimes supplied by curtains 
j (7rapa7T6Tdc7//ara), which were either plain, 
or dyed, or embroidered. 

The principal openings for the admission 
of light and air were in the roofs of the peri- 
styles ; but it is incorrect to suppose that the 
houses had no windows (Ovpide^, or at least 
none overlooking the street. They were not 
at all uncommon. 

Artificial warmth was procured partly by 
means of fire-places. It is supposed that 
chimneys were altogether unknown, and that 
the smoke escaped through an opening in 
the roof (KcnrvodoKr]), but it is not easy to un- 
derstand how this could be the case when 
there was an upper story. Little porta- 
ble stoves (iaxupai, ia%apidc) or chafing- 
dishes (avdpuKia) were frequently used. 

The houses of the wealthy in the country, 
at least in Attica, were much larger and more 
magnificent than those in the towns. The 
latter seem to have been generally small 
and plain, especially in earlier times, when 
the Greeks preferred expending the resources 
of art and wealth on theirtemples and public 
buildings; but the private houses became 
more magnificent as the public buildings be- 
gan to be neglected. 

The decorations of the interior were very 
plain at the period to which our description 
refers. The floors wfcre of stone. At a late 
period coloured stones were used. Mosaics 
are first mentioned under the kings of Per- 
gamus. 

The walls, up to the 4th century B. c., 
seemed to have been only whited. The first 
instance of painting them is that of Alcibi- 
ades. This innovation met with considera- 
ble opposition. We have also mention ot 
painted ceilings at the same period. At a 
later period this mode of decoration became 
general. 

2. ROMAN. The houses of the Romans 
were poor and mean for many centuries after 
the foundation of the city. Till the war with 
Pyrrhus the houses were covered only with 
thatch or shingles, and were usually built of 
wood or unbaked bricks. It was not till the later 
times of the republic, when wealth had been 
acquired by conquests in the East, that houses 
of any splendour began to be built ; but it 
then became the fashion not only to build 
houses of an immense size, but also to adorn 
them with columns, paintings, statues, and 
costly works of art. 

Some idea may be formed of the size and 
magnificence of the houses of the Roman no- 
bles during the later times of the republic by 
the price which they fetched. The consul 



DOMUS. 



125 



Messala bought the house of Autronius for 
3700 sestertia (nearly 33.000/.), and Cicero 
the house of Crassus, on the Palatine, for 
3500 sestertia (nearly 31,OOOZ.) The house 
of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost 
14,800 sestertia (about 131.000/.); and the 
Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with 
such magnificence, that when it was burnt 
by his slaves, he lost 100,000 sestertia, up- 
wards of 885,000/. 

Houses were originally only one story high ; 
but as the value of ground increased in the 
city they were built several stories in height, 
and the highest floors were usually inhabited 
by the poor. Till the time of Nero, the streets 
in Rome were narrow and irregular, and bore 
traces of the haste and confusion with which 
the city was built after it had been burnt by 
the Gauls ; but after the great fire in the time 
of that emperor, by which two-thirds of Rome 
was burnt to the ground, the city was built 
with great regularity. The streets were made 
straight and broad ; the height of the houses 
was restricted, and a certain part of each was 
required to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, 
which was proof against fire. 

The principal parts of a Roman house were 
the, 1. Vestibulum, 2. Ostium, 3. Atrium, or 
Cavum Aedium, 4. Alae, 5. Tablinum, 6. Fau- 
ces, 1. Peristylium. The parts of a house which 
were considered of less importance, and of 
which the arrangement differed in different 
houses, were the, 1. Cubicula, 2. Triclinia, 
3. Oeci, 4. Exedrae, 5. Pinacotheca, 6. Biblio- 
theca, 7. Balineum, 8. Culina, 9. Coenacula. 
10. Diaeta, 11. Solaria. We shall speak of 
each in order. 

1. VESTIBULUM did not properly form part 
of the house, but was a vacant space before 
the door, forming a court, which was sur- 
rounded on three sides by the house, and was 
open on the fourth to the street. 

2. OSTIUM, which is also called janua and 
fores, was the entrance to the house. The 
street-door admitted into a hall, to which the 
name uf ostium was also given, and in which 
there was frequently a small room (cella) for 
the porter (janitor or ostiarius), and also for a 
dog, which was usually kept in the hall to 
guard the house. Another door (janua inte- 
rior) opposite the street-door led into the 
atrium. 

3. ATRIUM or CAVUM AEDIUM, also written 
Cavaedium, are probably only different names 
of the same room. 

The Atrium or Cavum Aedium was a large 
apartment roofed over with the exception of 
an opening in the centre, called compluvium, 
towards which the roof sloped so as to throw 
the rain- water into a cistern in the floor, termed 
1.2 



impluvium, which was frequently ornament- 
ed with statues, columns, and other works 
of art. The word impluvium, however, is 
also employed to denote the aperture in the 
roof. 

The atrium was the most important room 
in the house, and among the wealthy was 
usually fitted up with much splendour and 
magnificence. Originally it was the only sit- 
ting-room in the house; but in the houses of 
the wealthy it was distinct from the private 
apartments, and was used as a reception-room, 
where the patron received his clients, and 
the great and noble the numerous visiters 
who were accustomed to call every morning 
to pay their respects or solicit favours. But 
though the atrium was not used by the 
wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it 
still continued to be employed for many pur- 
poses which it had originally served. Thus 
the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium 
opposite the door, and also the instruments 
and materials for spinning and weaving,which 
were formerly carried on by the women of 
the family in this room. Here also the ima- 
ages of their ancestors were placed, and the 
focus or fire-place, which possessed a sacred 
character ; being dedicated to the Lares of 
each family. 

4. ALAE, wings, were small apartments or 
recesses on the left and right sides of the 
atrium. 

5. TABLINUM was in all probability a re- 
cess or room at the farther end of the atrium 
opposite the door leading into the hall, and 
was regarded as part of the atrium. It con- 
tained the family records and archives. 

With the tabJinum the Roman house ap- 
pears to have originally ceased ; and the 
sleeping-rooms were probably arranged on 
each side of the atrium. But when the atri- 
um and its surrounding rooms were used for 
the reception of clients and other public vis- 
iters, it became necessary to increase the size 
of the house ; and the following rooms were 
accordingly added : 

6. FAUCES appear to have been passages, 
which passed from the atrium to the peristy- 
lium or interior of the house. 

7. PERISTYLIUM was in its general form 
like the atrium, but it was one-third greater 
in breadth, measured transversely, than in 
length. It was a court open to the sky in the 
middle ; the open part, which was surrounded 
by columns, was larger than the impluvium 
in the atrium, and was frequently decorated 
with flowers and shrubs. 

The arrangement of the rooms, which are 
next to be noticed, varied according to the 
taste and circumstances of the owner. It is 



DOMUS. 



therefore impossible to assign to them any 
regular place in the house. 

I. CUBICULA, bed-chambers, appear to have 
been usually small. There were separate 
cubicula for the day and night ; the latter 
were also called dormitoria. 

' 2. TRICLINIA are treated of in a separate 
article. [TRICLINIUM.] 

3. OECI, from the Greek okof, were spa- 
cious halls or saloons borrowed from the 
Greeks, and were frequently used as tricli- 
nia. They were to have the same proportions 
as triclinia, but were to be more spacious on 
account of having columns, which triclinia 
had not. 

4. EXEDRAE were rooms for conversation 
and the other purposes of society. 

5. PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery. 

6. 7. BIBHOTHECA and BALINEUM are treat- 
ed of in separate articles. 

8. CULINA, the kitchen. The food was 
originally cooked in the atrium ; but the pro- 
gress of refinement afterwards led to the use 
of another part of the house for this purpose. 

9. COENACULA, properly signified rooms to 
dine in ; but after it became the fashion to 
dine in the upper part of the house, the whole 
of the rooms above the ground-floor were called 
coenacula. 

10. DIAETA, an apartment used for dining 
in, and for the other purposes of life. It ap- 
pears to have been smaller than the triclinium. 
Diaeta is also the name given by Pliny to rooms 
containing three or four bed-chambers (cubicu- 
la). Pleasure-houses or summer-houses are 
also called diaetae. 

II. SOLARIA, properly places for basking in 
the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses. 

The cut annexed represents the atrium of a 
house at Pompeii. In the centre is the implu- 
vium, and the passage at the further end, is 
the ostium or entrance hall. 




of tlie House of Ceres at Pompeii. 



The preceding account of the different 
rooms, and especially of the arrangement ol 
the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c., is best 
illustrated by the houses which have been dis- 
interred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of one 
is accordingly subjoined. 

L 



TJ/l^ 
U > fT 



m 



Ground Plan of a Roman House. 

Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, 
it had no vestibulum according to the mean- 
ing given above. 1. The ostium or entrance- 
hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty 
long. Near the street-door there is a figure 
of a large fierce dog worked in mosaic on the 
pavement, and beneath it is written Cave Ca- 
nem. The two large rooms on each side of 
the vestibule appear from the large openings 
in front of them to have been shops; they 
communicate with the entrance hall, and were 
therefore probably occupied by the master of 
the house. 2. The atrium, which is about 
twenty-eight feet in length and twenty in 
breadth ; its impluvium is near the centre of 
the room, and its floor is paved with white 
tesserae, spotted with black. 3. Chambers 
for the use of the family, or intended for the 
reception of guests,who were entitled to claim 
hospitality. 4. A small room with a stair-case 
leading up to the upper rooms. 5. Alae. 6. 
The tablinum. 7. The fauces. 8. Peristyle, 
with Doric columns and garden in the centre. 



DOMUS. 



The large room on the right of the peristyle 
is the triclinium ; beside it is the kitchen ; and 
the smaller apartments are cubicula and other 
rooms for the use of the family. 

Having given a general description of the 
rooms of a Roman house, it remains to speak 
of the (1) floors, (2) walls, (3) ceilings, (4) 
windows, and (5) th i mode of wanning the 
rooms. For the doors, see JANUA. 

(1.) The floor (solum) of a room was seldom 
boarded : it was generally covered with stone 
or marble, or mosaics. The common floors 
were paved with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones, 
&c., forming a kind of composition called ru- 
deratio. Sometimes pieces of marble were im- 
bedded in a composition ground, and these 
probably gave the idea of mosaics. As these 
floors were beaten down (pavita) with ram- 
mers (fistucae), the word pavimentum became 
the general name for a floor. Mosaics, call- 
ed by Pliny lithostrota (/U06crpa>ra), though 
this word has a more extensive meaning, 
first came into use in Sulla's time, who made 
one in the temple of Fortune at Praeneste. 
Mosaic work was afterwards called Musi- 
vum opus, and was most extensively employ- 
ed. 

(2.) The inner walls (parietes) of private 
rooms were frequently lined with slabs of 
marble, but were more usually covered by 
paintings, which in the time of Augustus were 
made upon the walls themselves. This prac- 
tice was so common that we find even the 
small houses in Pompeii have paintings upon 
their walls. 

(3.) The ceilings seem originally to have 
been left uncovered, the beams which sup- 
ported the roof or the upper story being visible. 
Afterwards planks were placed across these 
beams at certain intervals, leaving hollow 
spaces, called Lacunaria or laquearia, which 
were frequently covered with gold and ivory, 
and sometimes with paintings. There was 
an arched ceiling irr common use, called CA- 

MARA. 

(4.) The Roman houses had few windows 
(fenestrae). The principal apartments, the 
atrium, peristyle, &c., were lighted from 
above, and the cubicula and other small rooms 
generally derived their light from them, and 
not from windows looking into the street. 
The rooms only on the upper story seem to 
have been usually lighted by windows. 

The windows appear originally to have been 
merely openings in the wall, closed by means 
of shutters, which frequently had two leaves 
(biforts fenestrae). 

Windows were also sometimes covered 
by a kind of h ttice or trellis work (clathri), 
and sometimes by net-work, to prevent ser- 



pents and other noxious reptiles from getting 
in. 

Afterwards, however, windows were made 
of a transparent stone, called lapis specularis 
(mica) ; such windows were called specularia. 
Windows made of glass (vitrum) are first men- 
tioned by Lactantius, who lived in the fourth 
century of the Christian era ; but the disco- 
veries at Pompeii prove that glass was used 
for windows under the early emperors. 

(5.) The rooms were heated in winter in 
different ways ; but the Romans had no stoves 
like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and other 
rooms, which were intended for winter use, 
were built in that part of the house upon 
which the sun shone most ; and in the mild 
climate of Italy this frequently enabled them 
to dispense with any artificial mode of warm- 
ing the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun 
were sometimes called heliocamini. The rooms 
were sometimes heated by hot air, which was 
introduced by means of pipes from a furnace 
below, but more frequently by portable fur- 
naces or braziers (foculi), in which coal or 
charcoal was burnt. The caminus was also a 
kind of stove, in which wood appears to have 
been usually burnt, and probably only differed 
from the foculus in being larger and fixed to 
one place. The rooms usually had no chim- 
neys for carrying off the smoke, but the smoke 
escaped through the windows, doors, and 
openings in the roof; but still chimneys do not 
appear to have been entirely unknown to the 
ancients, as some are said to have been found 
in the ruins of ancient buildings. 

DONA'RIA (uvadfifiara or ava/ca//va), 
presents made to the gods, either by individ- 
uals or communities. Sometimes they are 
also called dona or dtipa. The belief that the 
gods were pleased with costly presents was 
as natural to the ancients as the belief that 
they could be influenced in their conduct to- 
wards men by the offering of sacrifices ; and, 
indeed, both sprang from the same feeling. 
Presents were mostly given as tokens of grat 
itude for some favour which a god had be 
stowed on man ; as, for instance, by persons 
who had recovered from illness or escaped 
from shipwreck ; but some are also mention- 
ed, which were intended to induce the deity 
to grant some especial favour. Almost all 
presents were dedicated in temples, to which 
in some places an especial building was ad- 
ded, in which these treasures were preserved. 
Such buildings were called OrjaavpoL (trea- 
suries) ; and in the most frequented temples 
of Greece many states had their separate 
treasuries. The act of dedication was called 
avaridevai, donare, dedicare, or sacrare. 

DONATI'VUM. 



128 



DRACHMA. 



DOORS. [JANUA.] 

DORMITO'RIA. [HOUSE.] 

DOS (fapvy, Tcpoit;), dowry. 1. GREEK. 
In the Homeric times it was customary for 
the husband to purchase his wife from her 
relations, by gifts called dva or eedva. But 
at Athens, during the historical period, the 
contrary was the case ; for every woman had 
to bring her husband some dowry, and so 
universal was the practice, that one of the 
chief distinctions between a wife and a Tra/l- 
^aurji or concubine* consisted in the former 
having a portion, whereas the latter had not ; 
hence, persons who married wives without 
portions appear to have given them or their 
guardians an acknowledgment in writing by 
which the receipt of a portion was admitted. 
Moreover, poor heiresses were either married 
or portioned by their next of kin, according to 
a law, which fixed the amount of portion to 
be given at five rninae by a Pentacosiome- 
dimnus, three by a Horseman, and one and a 
half by a Zeugites. The husband had to give 
to the relatives or guardians of the wife se- 
curity (ttTron/z^a) for the dowry, which 
was not considered the property of the hus- 
band himself, but rather of his wife and chil- 
dren. The portion was returned to the wife 
in case of a divorce. 

2. ROMAN. The dos among the Romans 
was everything which on the occasion of a 
woman's marriage was transferred by her, or 
by another person, to the husband. AH the 
property of the wife which was not made dos 
continued to be her own, and was comprised 
under the name of parapherna. The dos upon 
its delivery became the husband's property, 
and continued to be his so long as the mar- 
riage relation existed. 

In the case of divorce, the woman, or her 
relations, could bring an action for the resti- 
tution of the dos; and, accordingly, a woman 
whose dos was large (dotata uxor) had some 
influence over her husband, inasmuch as she 
had the power of divorcing herself, and thus 
of depriving him of the enjoyment of her pro- 
perty. 

DOWRY. [Dos.] 

DRACHMA (dpaxfJ-ij), the principal silver 
coin among the Greeks. The two chief stan- 
dards in the currencies of the Greek states 
were the Attic and Aeginetan. The average 
value of the Attic Drachma was 9f<i of our 
money. It contained six obols (dpoJioi) ; and 
the Athenians had separate silver coins, from 
tour drachmae to a quarter of an obol. There 
were also silver pieces of two drachmae and 
four drachmae. The following table gives 
the value in English money of the Athenian 
coins, from a quarter obol to a tetradrachm : 



i Obol . . . 
i Obol . . 
Obol . . . 
Diobolus . . 
Triobolus . . 
Tetrobolus . 
Drachma . . 
Didrachm . 
Tetradrachm 



Faith. 

1.625 

3.25 

2.5 

1 

3.5 

2 

3 

2 



The Mina contained 100 drachmae, and 
was consequently equal to 41. Is. '3d. ; and 
the talent 60 minae, and was thus equal to 
2431 15s. Respecting the value of the dif 
ferent talents among the Greeks, see TALEN- 
TUM. 

The tetradrachm in later times was called 
stater. The latter word also signifies a gold 
coin, equal in value to twenty drachmae. 
[STATER.] 

The obolos, in later times, was of bronze, 
but in the best times of Athens we only read 
of silver obols. The xahnovc was a copper 
coin, and the eighth part of an obol. 




Attic Drachma. 

The Attic standard prevailed most in the 
maritime and commercial states. It was the 
standard of Philip's gold, and was introduced 
by Alexander for silver also. The Aeginetan 
standard appears to have been the prevalent 
one in early times : we are told that money 
was first coined at Aegina by order of Phei- 
don of Argos. In later times the Aeginetan 
standard was used in almost all the states 
of the Peloponnesus, except Corinth. The 
average value of the Aeginetan drachma was 
Is. \%d. in our money ; and the values of the 
different coins of this standard are as fol- 
lows : 





SliilL 


Pence. 


Kartn. 


\ Obol 




1 

2 


0.583 
1.166 


Obol 


Diobolus 




4 


2.33 


Triobolus .... 




6 


2.5 


Drachma 


1 


1 


3 


Didrachma ... 


2 


3 


2 


As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so 


the Greeks generally reckoned by drachmae ; 
and when a sum is mentioned in the Atuc 



ECC^ESIA. 



320 



writers, without any specification of the unit, 
drachmae are usually meant. 







Aeginetan Drachma. 

DRAUGHTS, game at. [LATRUNCULI.] 

DRUM. [TYMPANUM.] 

DUCENA'RII. 1. The name given to the 
Roman procuratores, who received a salary of 
200 sestertia. The procuratores first received 
a salary in the time of Augustus. 

2. A class or decuria of judices, first estab- 
lished by Augustus. They were so called 
because their property, as valued in the cen- 
sus, only amounted to 200 sestertia. They 
appear to have tried causes of small impor- 
tance. 

DUCENTE'SIMA was a tax of half per 
cent upon all things sold at public auctions. 
The centesima, or tax of one per cent, was 
first established by Augustus, and was re- 
duced to half per cent by Tiberius. 

DUPO'NDIUS: [As.] 

DUU'MVIRI, or the two men, the name 
of various magistrates and functionaries at 
Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. 
1. DUUMVIRI JUKI DICUNDO were the high- 
est magistrates in the municipal towns. [Co- 
LONIA.] 2. DUUMVIRI NAVALES, extraordi- 
nary magistrates, who were created, when- 
ever occasion required, for the purpose of 
equipping and repairing the fleet. They ap- 
pear to have been originally appointed by the 
consuls and dictators, but were first elected 
by the people, B. c. 311.* 3. DUUMVIRI PER- 
DUELLIONIS. [PERDUELLIO.] 4. DUUMVIRI 
QUINQUENNALES, were the censors in the 
municipal towns, and must not be confounded 
with the duumviri juri dicundo. [CoLONIA.] 
5. DUUMVIRI SACRORUM originally had the 
charge of the Sibylline books. Their duties 
were afterwards discharged by the decemviri 
sacris faciundis. [DECEMVIRI.] 6. DUUMVI- 
RI were also appointed for the purpose of 
building or dedicating a temple. 



E. 



ECCLE'SIA (eKKfyaia), the name of the 
general assembly of the citizens at Athens, in 
which they met to discuss and determine 



upon matters of public interest, and which 
was therefore the sovereign power in the 
state. These assemblies were either ordinary 
(vdfiipoi or Kvpiai), and held four times in 
each prytany, or extraordinary, that is, spe- 
cially convened, upon any sudden emergency, 
and therefore called avyKhr/Toi. 

The place in which they were anciently 
held was the agora. Afterwards they were 
transferred to the Pnyx, and at last to the 
great theatre of Bacchus, and other places. 
The most usual place, however,was the Pnyx, 
which was situated to the west of (he Areio- 
pagus, on a slope connected with Mount Ly- 
cabettus, and partly at least within the walls 
of the city. It was semicircular in form, with 
a boundary wall, part rock and part masonry, 
and an area of about 12,000 square yards. On 
the north the ground was filled up and paved 
with large stones, so as to get a level surface 
on the slope. Towards this side, and close to 
the wall, was the bema (Sfj/ua), a stone plat- 
form or hustings ten or eleven feet high, with 
an ascent of steps. The position of the bema 
was such as to command a view of the sea 
from behind, and of the Propylaea and Par- 
thenon in front, and we may be sure that the 
Athenian orators would often rouse the na- 
tional feelings of their hearers by pointing to 
the assemblage of magnificent edifices, " monu- 
ments of Athenian gratitude and glory," which 
they had in view from the Pnyx. 

The right of convening the people was 
generally vested in the prytanes or presidents 
of the Council of Five Hundred [see BOULE], 
but in cases of sudden emergency, and espe- 
cially during wars, the strategi also had the 
power of calling extraordinary meetings, for 
which, however, the consent of the senate 
appears to have been necessary. The pry- 
tanes not only gave a previous notice of the 
day of assembly, and published a programme 
of the subjects to be discussed, but also, it 
appears, sent a crier round to collect the citi- 
zens. All persons who did not obey the call 
were subject to a fine, and six magistrates 
called lexiarchs were appointed, whose duty 
it was to take care that the people attended 
the meetings, and to levy fines on those who 
refused to do so. With a view to this,when- 
ever an assembly was to be held, certain pub- 
lic slaves ( 2 Kv6ai or ro6r<u) were sent round 
to sweep the agora, and other places of public 
resort, with a rope coloured with vermilion. 
The different persons whom these ropemen 
met,were driven by them towards the ecclesia, 
and those who refused to go were marked by 
the rope and fined. An additional inducement 
j to attend, with the poorer classes, was the 
, or pay which they re 



130 



ECCLESIA. 



ceived for it. The payment was originally an 
obolus, but was afterwards raised to three. 

The right of attending was enjoyed by all 
legitimate citizens who were of the proper age 
(generally supposed to be twenty, certainly 
not less than eighteen), and not labouring 
under any atimia, or loss of civil rights. 

In the article BOULE it is explained who the 
pry tanes and the proedri were; and we may here 
remark, that it was the duty of the proedri of 
the same tribe, under the presidency of their 
chairman (6 eTTiorar^f), to lay before the 
people the subjects to be discussed ; to read, 
or cause to be read, the previous bill (TO irpo- 
PovhevjLia') of the senate, without which no 
measure could be brought before the ecclesia, 
and to give permission to the speakers to ad- 
dress the people. The officers who acted 
under them, were the crier (6 /cr)pi>f), and the 
Scythian bowmen. 

Previous, however, to the commencement 
of any business, the place was purified by the 
offering of sacrifices, and then the gods were 
implored in a prayer to bless the proceedings 
of the meeting. 

The privilege of addressing the Assembly 
was not confined to any class or age among 
those who had the right to be present : all, 
without any distinction, were invited to do so 



by the proclamation, T/c ayopeveiv /3ot/Aerat, 
which was made by the crier after the proedri 
had gone through the necessary preliminaries, 
and laid the subject of discussion before the 
meeting ; for though, according to the institu- 
tions of Solon, those "persons who were above 
fifty years of age ought to have been called 
upon to speak first, this regulation had in later 
times become quite obsolete. The speakers 
are sometimes simply called ol TrapiovTs?, and 
appear to have worn a crown of myrtle on 
their heads while addressing the assembly. 
The most influential and practised speakers 
of the assembly were generally distinguished 
by the name of pijrops^. 

After the speakers had concluded, any one 
was at liberty to propose a decree, whether 
drawn up beforehand or framed in the meet- 
ing, which, however, it was necessary to pre- 
sent to the proedri, that they might see, in 
conjunction with the nomophylaces, whether 
there was contained in it anything injurious 
to the state or contrary to the existing laws. 
If not, it was read by the crier ; though even 
after the reading, the chairman could prevent 
it being put to the vote, unless his opposition 
was overborne by threats and clamours. Pri- 
vate individuals also could do the same, by 
engaging upon oath (vTru/uoaia) to bring 
' against the author of any measure they might 
objoct to, an accusation called a ypafyrj irapa- 



EDICTUM. 

vo/J.uv. If, however, the chairman refused to 
submit any question to the decision of the 
people, he might be proceeded against by en- 
deixis ; and if he allowed the people to vote 
upon a proposal which was contrary to exist- 
ing constitutional laws, he was in some cases 
liable to atimia. If, on the contrary, no oppo- 
sition of this sort was offered to a proposed 
decree, the votes of the people were taken, by 
the permission of the chairman and with the 
consent of the rest of the proedri. The deci- 
sion of the people was given either by show 
of hands, or by ballot, i. e. by casting pebbles 
into urns (Kadianoi) ; the former was express- 
ed by the word ^etporovelv, the latter by 
^Tj^eadai, although the two terms are fre- 
quently confounded. The more usual method 
of voting was by show of hands, as being more 
expeditious and convenient (%tipoTovia). Vote 
by ballot, on the other hand, was only used in 
a few special cases determined by law ; as, 
for instance, when a proposition was made for 
allowing those who had suffered atimia to ap- 
peal to the people for restitution of their former 
rights ; or for inflicting extraordinary punish- 
ments on atrocious offenders, and generally, 
upon any matter which affected private per- 
sons. In cases of this sort it was settled by 
law, that a decree should not be valid unless 
six thousand citizens at least voted in favour 
of it. This was by far the majority of those 
citizens who were in the habit of attending ; 
for, in time of war, the number never amount- 
ed to five thousand, and in time of peace sel- 
dom to ten thousand. 

The determination or decree of the people 
was called a TprjQto/Lia, which properly signifies 
a law proposed to an assembly, and approved 
of by the people. Respecting the form for 
drawing up a i/;^icr//a, see BOULE. 

When the business was over, the order for 
the dismissal of the assembly was given by 
the prytanes, through the proclamation of the 
crier ; and as it was not customary to continue 
meetings, which usually began early in the 
morning, till after sunset, if one day were not 
sufficient for the completion of any business, 
t was adjourned to the next. But an assem- 
aly was sometimes broken up, if any one, 
whether a magistrate or private individual, 
declared that he saw an unfavourable omen, 
or perceived thunder or lightning. The sud- 
den appearance of rain also, or the shock of 
an earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of 
the kind called 6ioar}/u.iai, was a sufficient 
reason for the hasty adjournment of an as- 
sembly. 

EDiCTUM. The Jus Edicendi, or power 

of making edicts, belonged to the higher wa- 

istratus populi Romani, but it was principally 



EISANGELIA. 

exerci-sed by the two praetors, the praetor ur- 
banus, and the praetor peregrinus,whose juris- 
diction was exercised in the provinces by the 
praeses. The curule aediles likewise made 
many edicts ; and tribunes, censors, and pon- 
tifices also promulgated edicts relating to the 
matters of their respective jurisdictions. The 
edicta were among the sources of Roman 
law. 

The edictum may be described generally as 
a rule promulgated by a magistratus on enter- 
ing on his office, which was done by writing 
it on an album and placing it in a conspicuous 
place. As the office of a magistratus was an- 
nual, the rules promulgated by a predecessor 
were not binding on a successor, but he might 
confirm or adopt the rules of his predecessor, 
ind introduce them into his own edict, and 
hence such adopted rules were called edictum 
tralatitium, or vetus, as opposed to edictum novum. 
A. repentinum edictum was that rule which was 
made (prout res incidit) for the occasion. A 
oerpetuum edictum was that rule which was 
made by the magistratus on entering upon 
)ffice, and which was intended to apply to all 
:ases to which it was applicable, during the 
year of his office : hence it was sometimes 
called also annua lex. Until it became the 
practice for magistratus to adopt the edicta 
of their predecessors, the edicta could not 
form a body of permanent binding rules ; but 
when this practice became common, the edicta 
{edictum tralatitium) soon constituted a large 
body of law, which was practically of as much 
importance as any other part of the law. 

EICOSTE' (dttocTri), a tax or duty of one- 
twentieth (five per cent.) upon all commodi- 
ties exported or imported by sea in the states 
of the allies subject to Athens. This tax was 
first imposed B. c. 413, in the place of the di- 
rect tribute which had up to this time been 
paid by the subject allies ; and the change- 
was made with the hope of raising a greater 
revenue. This tax, like all others, was farm- 
ed, and the farmers of it were called duooTo- 
/I6yo<. 

EIREN or IREN (dpijv or Ipr/v}, the name 
given to the Spartan youth when he attained 
the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he 
emerged from childhood, and was called /ztA- 
faipijv. When he had attained his twentieth 
year, he began to exercise a direct influence 
over his juniors, and was entrusted with the 
command of troops in battle. The word ap- 
pears to have originally signified a commander. 
The t'pevfc mentioned in Herodotus, in con- 
nection with the battle of Plataeae, were cer- 
tainly not youths, but commanders. 

EISANGE'LIA (e/oayycAm), signifies, in 
its primary and most general sense, a denun- 



EISPHORA. 



131 



1 ciation of any kind, but, much more usually, 
i an information laid before the council or the 
assembly of the people, and the consequent 
impeachment and trial of state criminals at 
Athens under novel or extraordinary circum- 
stances. Among these were the occasions 
upon which manifest crimes were alleged to 
have been committed, and yet of such a nature 
as the existing laws had failed to anticipate, 
or at least describe specifically (aypaqci a6t~ 
K^uara), the result of which omission would 
have been, but for the enactment by which 
the accusations in question might be preferred 
(vo//of e/fayye/le/crt/cof), that a prosecutor 
would not have known to what magistrate to 
apply ; that a magistrate, if applied to, could 
not with safety have accepted the indictment 
or brought it into court ; and that, in short, 
there would have been a total failure of 
justice. 

EI'SPHORA (ei^opa) an extraordinary 
tax on property, raised at Athens, whenever 
the means of the state were not sufficient to 
carry on a war. 

It is not quite certain when this property- 
tax was introduced ; but it seems to have 
come first into general use about B. c. 428. It 
could never be raised without a decree of the 
people, who also assigned the amount re- 
quired; and the strategi, or generals, superin- 
tended its collection, and presided in the 
courts where disputes connected with, or 
arising from, the levying of the tax were set- 
tled. The usual expressions for paying this 
property-tax are : ei^psiv ^p^uara, e/f0- 
peiv e/f rov wfejuov, /c TTJV aurrjpiav rrj^ 
TTO/lewc, e/c0opaf d^epstv, and those who 
paid it were called ol d^spovre^. 

The census of Solon was at first the stand- 
ard according to which the eisphora was raised, 
until in B. c. 377 a new census was instituted, 
in which the people, for the purpose of fixing 
the rates of the property-tax, were divided 
into a number of symmoriae (avfifiopiat) or 
classes, similar to those which were after- 
wards made for the trierarchy. Each of the 
ten tribes or phylae, appointed 120 of its 
wealthier citizens ; and the whole number of 
persons included in the symmoriae was thus 
1200, who were considered as the representa- 
tives of the whole republic. This body of 
1200 was divided into four classes, each con- 
sisting of 300. The first class, or the richest, 
were the leaders of the symmoriae (f/ye/zovef 
crvpnopitiv), and are often called the three 
hundred. They probably conducted the pro- 
ceedings of the symmoriae, and they, or,which 
is more likely, the demarchs, had to value the 
taxable property. Other officers were an. 
oointed to make out the lists of the rates, ai./ 



132 



ELEUSINIA. 



were called eraypa^tic, diaypafals or /c/lo- 
yef. When the wants of the state were 
pressing, the 300 leaders advanced the money 
to the others, who paid it back to the 300 at 
the regular time. The first class probably 
consisted of persons who possessed property 
from 12 talents upwards : the second class, 
of persons who possessed property from 6 
talents and upwards, but under 12 : the third 
class, of persons who possessed property from 
2 talents upwards, but under 6 : the fourth 
class, of persons who possessed property from 
25 minae upwards, but under 2 talents. The 
rate of taxation was higher or lower accord- 
ing to the wants of the republic at the time ; 
we have accounts of rates of a 12th, a 50th, 
a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable pro- 
perty. 

If any one thought that his property was 
taxed higher than that of another man on 
whom juster claims could be made, he had 
the right to call upon this person to take the 
office in his stead, or to submit to a complete 
exchange of property. [ANTIDOSIS.J No 
Athenian, on the other hand, if belonging to 
the tax-paying classes, could be exempt from 
the eisphora, not even the descendants of Har- 
modius and Aristogeiton. 

ELEVEN, The. [HENDEOA.] 

ELEUSrNIA (kTiEvaivLa), a festival and 
mysteries, originally celebrated only at E leu- 
sis in Attica, in honour of Ceres and Pro- 
serpina. The Eleusinian mysteries, or the 
mysteries, as they were sometimes called, 
were the holiest and most venerable of all 
that were celebrated in Greece. Various tra- 
ditions were current among the Greeks, re- 
specting the author of these mysteries ; for, 
while some considered Eumolpus or Musaeus 
to be their founder, others stated that they 
had been introduced from Egypt by Erech- 
theus, who at a time of scarcity provided 
his country with corn from Egypt, and im- 
ported from the same quarter the sacred rites 
and mysteries of E leu sis. A third tradition 
attributed the institution to Ceres herself, 
who, when wandering about in search of her 
daughter, Proserpina, was believed to have 
come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus, to 
have supplied its inhabitants with corn, and 
to have instituted the mysteries at Eleusis. 
This last opinion seems to have been the most 
common among the ancients, and in subse- 
quent times a stone was shown near the well 
Callichoros at Eleusis, on which the goddess, 
overwhelmed with grief and fatigue, was be- 
lieved to have rested on her arrival in Attica. 
All the accounts and allusions in ancient 
writers seem to warrant the conclusion, that 
the legends roncernin? the introduction of the 



! Eleusinia are descriptions of a period when 
! the inhabitants of Attica were becoming ac- 
quainted with the benefits of agriculture and 
of a regularly constituted form of society. 

In the reign of Erechtheus a war is said to 
have broken out between the Athenians and 
Eleusinians ; and when the latter were de- 
feated, they acknowledged the supremacy of 
Athens in everything except the mysteries, 
which they wished to conduct and regulate 
for themselves. Thus the superintendence 
remained with the descendants of Eumolpus 
[EUMOLPIDAE], the daughters of the Eleu- 
sinian king Celeus, and a third class of priests, 
the Ceryces, who seem likewise to have been 
connected with the family of Eumolpus, though 
they themselves traced their origin to Mercury 
and Aglauros. 

At the time when the local governments of 
the several townships of Attica were concen- 
trated at Athens, the capital became also the 
centre of religion, and several deities who had 
hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were 
now raised to the rank of national gods. This 
seems also to have been the case with the 
Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus 
we rind mention of a temple at Athens, called 
Eleusinion, probably the new and. national 
sanctuary of Ceres. Her priests and priest- 
esses now became naturally attached to the 
national temple of the capital, though her 
original place of worship at Eleusis, with 
which so many sacred associations were con- 
nected, still retained its importance and its 
special share in the celebration of the national 
solemnities. 

We must distinguish between the greater 
Eleusinia, which were celebrated at Athens 
and Eleusis, and the lesser, which were held 
at Agrae on the Ilissus. The lesser Eleusi- 
nia were only a preparation (TrpoKaOapci? or 
TTpodyvevais) for the real mysteries. They 
were held every year in the month of Arithes- 
terion, and, according to some accounts, in 
honour of Proserpina alone. Those who 
were initiated in them bore the name of Mys- 
tae (nvaraC), and had to wait at least another 
year before they could be admitted to the 
great mysteries. The principal rites of this 
first stage of initiation consisted in the sacri- 
fice of a sow, which the mystae seem to 
have first washed in the Cantharus, and in 
the purification by a priest, who bore the 
name of Hydranos ('Ifdpavdc). The mystae 
had also to take an oath of secrecy, which 
was administered to them by the Mystagogus 
(fj-var lywyoc, also called lepo^avrr]^ or Trpo- 
0??r?7o), and they received some kind of pre- 
paratory instruction.which enabled them after- 
wards to understand the mysteries which 



ELEUSINIA. 



133 



were revealed to them in the great Eleu- 
sinia. 

The great mysteries were celebrated every 
year in the month of Boedromion, during 
nine days, from the 15th to the 23d, both at 
Athens and Eleusis. The initiated were 
called EiroTTTat, or epvpoi. On the first day, 
those who had been initiated in the lesser 
Eleusinia, assembled at Athens. On the se- 
cond day the mystae went in solemn proces- 
sion to the sea-coast, where they underwent 
a purification. Of the third day scarcely any- 
thing is known with certainty ; we are only 
told that it was a day of fasting, and that in 
the evening a frugal meal was taken, which 
consisted of cakes made of sesame and honey. 
On the fourth day the /cd/la#oc Kadodog seems 
to have taken place. This- was a procession 
with a basket containing pomegranates and 
poppy-seeds ; it was carried on a waggon 
drawn by oxen, and women followed with 
small mystic cases in their hands. On the 
fifth day, which appears to have been called 
the torch day (77 r&v "kafjt.Tru.6uv r]fj,epa), the 
mystae, led by the daJou^of, went in the 
evening with torches to the temple of Ce- 
res at Eleusis, where they seem to have 
remained during the following night. This 
rite was probably a symbolical representa- 
tion of Ceres wandering about in search of 
Proserpina. The sixth day, called lacchos, 
was the most solemn of all. The statue of 
lacchos, son of Ceres, adorned with a gar- 
land of myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, 
was carried along the sacred road amidst joy- 
ous shouts and songs, from the Ceramicus 
to Eleusis. This solemn procession was ac- 
companied by great numbers of followers and 
spectators. During the night from the sixth 
to the seventh day the mystae remained at 
Eleusis, and were initiated into the last mys- 
teries (sTTOTTTeia). Those who were neither 
eTTOTTTut nor fwarai were sent away by a 
herald. The mystae now repeated the oath 
of secrecy which had been administered to 
them at the lesser Eleusinia, underwent a 
new purification, and then they were led by 
the mystagogus in the darkness of night into 
the lighted interior of the sanctuary (QUTO,- 
yuyia), and were allowed to see (avTotpia) 
what none except the epoptae ever beheld. 
The awful and horrible manner in which the 
initiation is described by later, especially 
Christian writers, seems partly to proceed 
from their ignorance of its real character, 
partly from their horror of and aversion to 
these pagan rites. The more ancient writers 
always abstained from entering upon any de- 
scription of the subject. Each individual, 
after his initiation, is said to have been dis- 
M 



missed by the words /coyf, ofnrat;, in order to 
make room for other mystae. 

On the seventh day the initiated returned 
to Athens arnid various kinds of raillery and 
jests, especially at the bridge over the Cephi- 
sus, where they sat down to rest, and poured 
forth their ridicule on those who passed by. 
Hence the words ycfyvpi&Lv and -y^vpia/ao^. 
These cKu^ara seem, like the procession 
with torches to Eleusis, to have been drama- 
tical and symbolical representations of the 
jests by which, according to the ancient le- 
gend, lambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief 
of the goddess and made her smile. We may 
here observe, that probably the whole history 
of Ceres and Proserpina was in some way 
or other symbolically represented at the Eleu- 
sinia. The eighth day, called Epidauria ('ETTI- 
davpia), was a kind of additional day for 
those who by some accident had come too 
late, or had been prevented from being initi- 
ated on the sixth day. It was said to have 
been added to the original number of days, 
when Aesculapius, coming over from Epidau- 
rus to be initiated, arrived too late, and the Athe- 
nians, not to disappoint the god, added an 
eighth day. The ninth and last day bore the 
name of Tr/l^o^ocu from a peculiar kind of 
vessel called TT^TJ/J.OXOTJJ which is described 
as a small kind of /corn/loo. Two of these 
vessels were on this day rilled with water or 
wine, and the contents of the one thrown to 
the east, and those of the other to the west, 
while those who performed this rite uttered 
some mystical words. 

The Eleusinian mysteries long survived 
the independence of Greece. Attempts to 
suppress them were made by the emperor 
Valentinian, but he met with strong opposi- 
tion, and they seem to have continued down 
to the time of the elder Theodosius. Re- 
specting the secret doctrines which were re- 
vealed in them to the initiated, nothing cer- 
tain is known. The general belief of the 
ancients was, that they opened to man a com- 
forting prospect of a future state. But this 
feature does not seem to have been originally 
connected with these mysteries, and was pro- 
bably added to them at the period which fol- 
lowed the opening of a regular intercourse 
between Greece and Egypt, when some of the 
speculative doctrines of the latter country, 
and of the East, may have been introduced 
into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names 
of the venerable bards of the mythical age. 
This supposition would also account, in some 
measure, for the legend of their introduction 
from Egypt. In modern times many attempts 
have been made to discover the nature of the 
mysteries revealed to the initiated, but the 



134 



EMBLEM i. 



results have been as various and as fanciful 
as might be expected. The most sober and 
probable view is that, according to which, 
" they were the remains of a worship which 
preceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology 
and its attendant rites, grounded on a view 
of nature, less fanciful, more earnest, and bet- 
ter fitted to awaken both philosophical thought 
and religious feeling." 

ELEUTHE'RIA (&ev6ptd), the feast of 
liberty, a festival which the Greeks, after the 
battle of Plataeae (479 B. c.), instituted in ho- 
nour of Jupiter Eleutherius (the deliverer). It 
was intended riot merely to be a token of their 
gratitude to the god to whom 'they believed 
themselves to be indebted for their victory 
over the barbarians, but also as a bond of 
union among themselves ; for, in an assembly 
of all the Greeks, Aristides carried a decree 
that delegates (rrpdpovhoi KCU deupoi) from 
all the Greek states should assemble every 
year at Plataeae for the celebration of the 
Eleutheria. The town itself was at the same 
time declared sacred and inviolable, as long as 
its citizens offered the annual sacrifices which 
were then instituted on behalf of Greece. 
Every fifth year these solemnities were cele- 
brated with contests, in which the victors 
were rewarded with chaplets. 

EMANCIPA'TIO, was an act by which 
the patria potestas was dissolved in the life- 
time of the parent, and it was so called be- 
cause it was in the form of a sale (mancipatio). 
By the laws of the Twelve Tables it was 
necessary that a son should be sold three 
times in order to be released from the paternal 
power, or to be sui juris. In the case of 
daughters and grandchildren, one sale was 
sufficient. The father transferred the son by 
the form of a sale to another person, who 
manumitted him, upon which he returned 
into the power of the father. This was re- 
peated, and with the like result. After a 
third sale, the paternal power was extinguish- 
ed, but the son was re-sold to the parent, 
who then manumitted him, and so acquired 
the rights of a patron over his emancipated 
son, which would otherwise have belonged 
to the purchaser who gave him his final man- 
umission. 

EMBAS (t-yu/3uf), a shoe worn by men, 
which is frequent'y mentioned by Aristopha- 
nes and other Gieek writers. This appears 
to have been the most common kind of shoe 
worn at Athens. Pollux says it was invented 
by the Thracians, and that it was like the 
low cothurnus. The i/j..3ci was also worn 
by the Boeotians, and probably in other parts 
Of Greece. 

EMBLE'MA (jjtySAqpa, tpiraiapa), an in- 



EMISSARIUM. 

laid ornament. The art of inlaying was em- 
ployed in producing beautiful works of two 
descriptions, viz : 1st, Those which resem- 
bled our marquetry, boule, and Florentine 
mosaics ; and 2dly, those in which crusts 
(crustae), exquisitely wrought in bas-relief and 
of precious materials, were fastened upon the 
surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. 
To the latter class of productions belonged 
the cups and plates which Verres obtained 
by violence from the Sicilians and from which 
he removed the emblems for the purpose of 
having them set in gold instead of silver. 

EME'RITI, the name given to those Ro- 
man soldiers who had served out their time, 
and had exemption (vacatio) from military ser- 
vice. The usual time of service was twenty 
years for the legionary soldiers, and sixteen 
for the praetorians. At the end of their period 
of service they received a bounty or reward 
(emeritum), either in lands or money, or in 
both. 

EMISSA'RIUM, an artificial channel form- 
ed to carry off any stagnant body of water, 
like the sluices in modern use. Some works 
of this kind are among the most remarkable 




Emtpsarium. 



EPANGELIA. 

eftorts of Roman ingenuity. That through 
which the waters of the lake Fucinus dis- 
charged themselves into the Liris, is repre- 
sented in the preceding woodcut. 

EMPO'RIUM (TO tfiiropiov), a place for 
wholesale trade in commodities carried by sea. 
The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port 
town, but it properly signifies only a particular 
place in such a town. The word is derived 
from /z7ropof, which signifies in Homer a 
person who sails as a passenger in a ship 
belonging to another person ; but in later 
writers it signifies the merchant or wholesale 
dealer, and differs from /CUTT?;?^, the retail 
dealer. 

The emporium at Athens was under the in- 
spection of certain officers, who were elected 
annually (eTn/ns^ijTal TOV ifiTropiov). 

ENDEIXIS (ftxfet#f)j properly denotes a 
prosecution instituted against such persons- as 
were alleged to have exercised rights or held 
offices while labouring under a peculiar dis- 
qualification. The same form of action was 
available against the chairman of the proedri 
(7nordr?7f), who wrongly refused to take the 
votes of the people in the assembly ; against 
malefactors, especially murderers ; traitors, 
ambassadors accused of malversation, and per- 
sons who furnished supplies to the enemy du- 
ring war. The first step taken by the prose- 
cutor was to lay his information in writing, 
also called endeixis, before the proper magis- 
trate, who then arrested, or held to bail, the 
person criminated, and took the usual steps 
for bringing him to trial. There is great ob- 
scurity with respect to the punishment which 
followed condemnation. The accuser, if 
unsuccessful, was responsible for bringing 
a malicious charge (ijjevdove 



EPHEBUS. 



135 



E'NDROMIS (Ivdpofiitf, a thick coarse 
blanket, manufactured in Gaul, and called 
" endromis," because those who had been ex- 
ercising in the stadium (kv <5p6,uw) threw it 
over them to obviate the effects of sudden 
exposure when they were heated. Notwith- 
standing its coarse and shaggy appearance, 
it was worn on other occasions as a protec- 
tion from the cold by rich and fashionable 
persons at Rome. 

ENSIGNS, MILITARY. [SIGNA MILI- 

TARIA.] 

ENSIS. [GLADIUS.] 

EPA'NGELIA (k-irayyeMa). If a citizen 
of Athens had incurred atimia, the privilege of 
taking part or speaking in the public assem- 
bly was forfeited. But as it sometimes might 
happen that a person, though not formally de- 
clared atimus, had committed such crimes as 
would, on accusation, draw upon him this 



punishment, it was of course desirable that 
such individuals, like real atimi, should be ex- 
cluded from the exercise of the rights of citi- 
zens. Whenever, therefore, such a person 
ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athe- 
nian citizen had the right to come forward in 
the assembly itself, and demand of him to es- 
tablish his right to speak by a trial or exami- 
nation of his conduct (donLfiaaia TOV j&'ov), 
and this demand, denouncement, or threat, 
was called epangelia or epangelia docimasias 
(eTrayyeAm dQKtfUurlag). The impeached in- 
dividual was then compelled to desist from 
speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into hif 
conduct, and, if he was convicted, a forma 
declaration of atimia followed. 

EPHE'BUS (tytf/tof), the name of Ata- 
man youths after they had attained the ag 
of 18. The state of ephebeia (k$r$tia) lasted 
for two years, till the youths had attained the 
age of 20, when they became men, and were 
admitted to share all the rights and duties of 
citizens, for which the law did not prescribe 
more advanced age. 

Before a youth was enrolled among th 
ephebi, he had to undergo a docimasia (doKi 
paaia), the object of which was partly to as- 
certain whether he was the son of Athenian 
citizens, or adopted by a citizen, and partly 
whether his body was sufficiently developed 
and strong to undertake the duties which 
now devolved upon him. After the docimasia 
the young men received in the assembly a 
shield and a lance ; but those whose fathers 
had fallen in the defence of their country re- 
ceived a complete suit of armour in the thea 
tre. It seems to have been on this occasion 
that the ephebi took an oath in the temple 
of Diana Aglauros, by which they pledged 
themselves never to disgrace their arms or to 
desert their comrades ; to fight to the last in 
the defence of their country, its altars and 
hearths ; to leave their country not in a worse 
but in a better state than they found it ; to 
obey the magistrates and the laws ; to resist 
all attempts to subvert the institutions of At- 
tica; and finally, to respect the religion of 
their forefathers. This solemnity took place 
towards the close of the year, and the festive 
season bore the name ofephebia(<j>r/fiia). The 
external distinction of the ephebi consisted in 
the chlamys and the petasus. 

During the two years of the ephebeia, which 
may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship 
in arms, and in which the young men prepared 
themselves for the higher duties of full citi- 
zens, they were generally sent into the country, 
under the name of peripoli (irepiTrohoi), to keep 
watch in the towns and fortresses, on the 
coast and frontier, and to perform other duties 



136 



EPHORI. 



which might be necessary for the protection 
of Attica. 

EPHEGE'SIS (eyjjyrjaic), denotes the me- 
thod of proceeding against such criminals as 
were liable to be summarily arrested by a pri- 
vate citizen [APAGOGE] when the prosecutor 
was unwilling to expose himself to personal 
risk in apprehending the offender. Under 
these circumstances he made an application 
to the proper magistrate, and conducted him 
and his officers to the spot where the capture 
was to be effected. 

E'PHETAE (ItfTai), the name of certain 
judges at Athens, who tried cases of homicide. 
They were fifty-one in number, selected from 
noble families, and more than fifty years of 
age. They formed a tribunal of great antiquity, 
and were in existence before the legislation of 
Solon, but, as the state became more and more 
democratical, their duties became unimportant 
and almost antiquated. 

EPHORI ((j)opot). Magistrates called 
Ephori or overseers were common to many 
Dorian constitutions in times of remote anti- 
quity; but the ephori of Sparta are the most 
celebrated of them all. The origin of the 
Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their 
office in the historical times was a kind of 
counterpoise to the kings and council, and in 
that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the 
Dorian states. Their number, five, appears 
to have been always the same, and was pro- 
bably connected with the five divisions of the 
town of Sparta, namely, the four K&jLiai, Lirn- 
nae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the 116/Uf 
or city properly so called, around which the 
K&/LKU lay. They were elected from and by 
the people, without any qualification of age or 
property, and without undergoing any scru- 
tiny ; so that the people enjoyed through them 
a participation in the highest magistracy of 
the state. They entered upon office at the 
autumnal solstice, and the first in rank of the 
five gave his name to the year, which was 
called after him in all civil transactions. 

They possessed judicial authority in civil 
suits, and also a general superintendence over 
the morals and domestic economy of the nation, 
which in the hands of able men would soon 
prove an instrument of unlimited power. 

Their jurisdiction and power were still far- 
ther increased by the privilege of instituting 
scrutinies (evftvvat) into the conduct of all the 
magistrates. Even the kings themselves could 
be brought before their tribunal (as Cleomenes 
was for bribery). In extreme cases the ephors 
were also competent to lay an accusation 
against the kings as well as the other magis- 
tral es, and bring them to a capital trial before 
the great court of justice. 



EPIBATAE. 

In later times the power of the ephors was 
greatly increased ; and this increase appears 
to have been principally owing to the fact, 
that they put themselves in connection with 
the assembly of the people, convened its meet- 
ings, laid measures before it, and were consti- 
tuted its agents and representatives. When 
this connection arose is matter of conjecture. 
The power which such a connection gave 
would, more than anything else, enable them 
to encroach on the royal authority, and make 
themselves virtually supreme in the state. 
Accordingly, we find that they transacted busi- 
ness with foreign ambassadors ; dismissed 
them from the state; decided upon the govern- 
ment of dependent cities ; subscribed in the 
presence of other persons to treaties of peace ; 
and in time of war sent out troops when they 
thought necessary. In all these capacities the 
ephors acted as the representatives of the na- 
tion, and the agents of the public assembly, 
being in fact the executive of the state. Jn 
course of time the kings became completely 
under their control. For example, they fined 
Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to 
make himself popular, and interfered even 
with the domestic arrangements of other 
kings. In the field the kings were followed 
by two ephors, who belonged to the council 
of war ; the three who remained at home re- 
ceived the booty in charge, and paid it into the 
treasury, which was under the superintend 
ence of the whole College of Five. But the 
ephors had still another prerogative, based on 
a religious foundation, which enabled them to 
effect a temporary deposition of the kings. 
Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose 
a calm and cloudless night to observe the 
heavens, and if there was any appearance of 
a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign 
that the gods were displeased with the kings, 
who were -accordingly suspended from their 
functions until an oracle allowed of their re- 
storation. The outward symbols of supreme 
authority also were assumed by the ephors ; 
and they alone kept theirseats while the kings 
passed; whereas it was not considered below 
the dignity of the kings to rise in honour of 
the ephors. 

When Agis and Cleomenes undertook to 
restore the old constitution, it was necessary 
for them to overthrow the ephoralty, and ac- 
cordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors 
for the time being, and abolished the office 
(B. c. 225) ; it was, however restored under 
the Romans. 

EPI'BATAE (sTriSurat), were soldiers or 
marines appointed to defend the vessels in 
the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct 
from the rowers, and also from the land sol- 



EPITROPUS. 

diers, such as hoplitae, peltasts, and cavalry. 
It appears that the ordinary number of epi- 
batae on board a trireme was ten. 

The epibatae were usually taken from 
the thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citi- 
zens. 

The term is sometimes also applied by the 
Roman writers to the marines, but they are 
more usually called classiarii milites. The 
latter term, however, is also applied to the 
rowers or sailors as well as the marines. 

EPI'DOSEIS (eTudoaeie), voluntary con- 
tributions, either in money, arms, or ships, 
which were made by the- Athenian citizens 
in order to meet the extraordinary demands 
of the state. When the expenses of the state 
were greater than its revenue, it was usual 
for the prytanes to summon an assembly of 
the people, and after explaining the necessi- 
ties of the state, to call upon the citizens to 
contribute according to their means. Those 
who were willing to contribute then rose and 
mentioned what they would give ; while those 
who were unwilling to give anything remain- 
ed silent, or retired privately from the as- 
sembly. 

EPI'STATES (e7n<rrar?7f). 1. The chair- 
man of the senate and assembly of the peo- 
ple, respecting whose duties see BOULE and 
ECCLESIA. 2. The nam ' of the directors of 
the public works. ('ETuararat TUV drjuo- 
ciav epyuv.) 

EPISTOLEUS (emaroAevf), the officer 
second in rank in the Spartan fleet, who suc- 
ceeded to the command if anything happened 
to the navarchus (vavapxoc) or admiral . When 
the Chians and the other allies of Sparta on 
the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request 
that Lysander might be again appointed to 
the command of the navy, he was sent with 
the title of epistoleus, because the laws of 
Sparta did not permit the same person to 
hold the office of navarchus twice. 

EPl'TROPUS (imTpoTcofi, the name at 
Athens of a guardian of orphan children. Of 
such guardians there were at Athens three 
kinds : first, those appointed in the will of 
the deceased father ; secondly, the next of 
kin, whom the law designated as tutores le- 
gitimi in default of such appointment, and 
who required the authorization of the archon 
to enable them to act ; and lastly, such per- 
sons as the archon selected if there were no 
next of kin living to undertake the office. 
The duties of the guardian comprehended 
the education, maintenance, and protection 
of the ward, the assertion of his rights, and 
the safe custody and profitable disposition of 
his inheritance during his minority, besides 
making a proper provision for the widow if 



EQUITES. 



137 



she remained in the house of her late hus- 
band. 

EPULO'NES, who were originally three 
in number (triumviri epulones), were first cre- 
ated in B. c. 196, to attend to the Epulurp 
Jovia, and the banquets given in honour of 
the other gods ; which duty had originally 
belonged to the pontifices. Their number 
was afterwards increased to seven, and they 
were called septemviri epulones or septemviri 
epulonum. 

The epulones formed a collegium, and were 
one of the four great religious corporations 
at Rome ; the other three were those of the 
Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri. 

E'PULUM JOV1S. [EPULONES.] 

EQUTRIA, horse-races, which are said to 
have been instituted by Romulus in honour 
of Mars, and were celebrated in the Campus 
Martius. There were two festivals of this 
name ; of which one was celebrated A. D. III. 
Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. Mart. 

E'QUITES, horsemen. Romulus is said 
to have formed three centuries of equites ; 
and these were the same as the 300 celeres, 
whom he kept about his person in peace and 
war. A century was taken from each of the 
three tribes, the Ramnes, Titienses, and Lu- 
ceres. Tarquinius Priscus added three more, 
under the title of Ramnes, Titienses, and Lu- 
ceres posteriores. These were the six patri- 
cian centuries of equites, often referred to 
under the name of the sex suffragia. To these 
Servius Tullius added twelve additional cen- 
turies, for admission into which, property and 
not birth was the qualification. These twelve 
centuries might therefore contain plebeians, 
but they do not appear to have been restricted 
to plebeians, since we have no reason for be- 
lieving that the six old centuries contained 
the whole body of patricians. A property 
qualification was apparently also necessary 
by the Servian constitution for ad mission into 
the six centuries. We may therefore sup- 
pose that those patricians who were included 
in the six old centuries were allowed by the 
Servian constitution to continue in the'm, if 
they possessed the requisite property ; and 
that all other persons in the state, whether 
patricians or plebeians, who possessed the 
requisite property, were admitted into the 
twelve new centuries. We are not told the 
amount of property necessary to entitle a per 
son to a place among the equites, but it was 
probably the same as in the latter times of 
the republic, that is, four times that of the 
first class. [CoMiTiA, p 94.] 

Property, however was not the only quali 
fication ; for in the ancient times of the re 
public no one was admitted among the eques- 



138 



EQUITES. 



trian centuries unless his character was un- 
blemished, and his father and grandfather 
had been born freemen. 

Each of the equites received a horse from 
the state (equus publicus), or money to pur- 
chase one, as well as a sum of money for its 
annual support; the expense of its, support 
was defrayed by the orphans and unmarried 
females ; since", in a military state, it could 
not be esteemed unjust, that the women and 
the children were to contribute largely for 
those who fought in behalf of them and of 
the commonwealth. The purchase-money 
for a knight's horse was called aes equestre, 
and its annual provision aes hordearium. The 
former amounted, according to Livy, to 10,000 
asses, and the latter to 2000. 

All the equites of whom we have been 
speaking, received a horse from the state, 
and were included in the 18 equestrian cen- 
turies of the Servian constitution ; but in 
course of time, we read of another class of 
equites in Roman history who did not receive 
a horse from the state, and who were not in- 
cluded in the 18 centuries. This latter class 
is first mentioned by Livy, in his account of 
the siege of Veii, B. c. 403. He says that 
during the siege, when the Romans had at 
one time suffered great disasters, all those 
citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and 
no horse allotted to them, volunteered to 
serve with their own horses ; and he adds, 
that from this time equites first began to serve 
with their own horses. The state paid them, 
as a kind of compensation for serving with 
their own horses. The foot soldiers had re- 
ceived pay a few years before ; and two years 
afterwards, B. c. 401 , the pay of the equites 
was made three-fold that of the infantry. 

From the year B. c. 403, there were there- 
fore two classes of Roman knights : one who 
received horses from the state, and are there- 
fore frequently called equites equo publico, and 
sometimes Flexumines orTrossuli, and another 
class, who served, when they were required, 
with their own horses, but were not classed 
among the 18 centuries. As they served on 
horseback they were called equites ; and when 
spoken of in opposition to cavalry, which did 
not consist of Roman citizens, they were also 
called equites Romani ; but they had no legal 
claim to the name of equites, since in ancient 
times this title was strictly confined to those 
who received horses from the state. 

The reason of this distinction of two classes 
arose from the fact, that the number of equites 
in the 18 centuries was fixed from the time of 
Servius Tullins. As vacancies occurred in 
them, the descendants of those who were ori- 
ginally enrolled succeeded to their places, pro- 



vided they had not dissipated their property. 
But in course of time, as population and 
wealth increased, the number of persons who 
possessed an equestrian fortune also increas- 
ed greatly ; and as the ancestors of these per- 
sons had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, 
they could not receive horses from the state, 
and were therefore allowed the privilege of 
serving with their own horses among the ca- 
valry, instead of the infantry, as they would 
otherwise have been obliged to have done. 

The inspection of the equites who received 
horses from the state belonged to the censors, 
who had the power of depriving an eques of 
his horse, and reducing him to the condition 
of an aerarian, and also of giving the vacant 
horse to the most distinguished of the equites 
who had previously served at their own ex- 
pense. For these purposes they made during 
their censorship a public inspection, in the 
forum, of all the knights who possessed pub- 
lic horses (equitatum recognoscere). The tribes 
were taken in order, and each knight was 
summoned by name. Every one, as his name 
was called, walked past the censors, leading 
his horse. 

If the censors had no fault to find either with 
the character of the knight or the equipments 
of his horse, they ordered him to pass on (tra- 
duc equum) ; but if on the contrary they con- 
sidered him unworthy of his rank, they struck 
him out of the list of knights, and deprived 
him of his horse, or ordered him to sell it,with 
the intention no doubt that the person thus 
degraded should refund to the state the money 
which had been advanced to him for its pur 
chase. 

This review of the equites by the censors 
must not be confounded with the Equitum 
Transvectio, which was a solemn procession 
of the body every year on the Ides of Quintilis 
(July). The procession started from the tem- 
ple of Mars outside the city, and passed through 
the city over the forum, and by the temple of the 
Dioscuri. On this occasion the equites were 
always crowned with olive chaplets, and wore 
their state dress, the trabea, with all the 
honourable distinctions they had gained in 
battle. According to Livy, this annual pro- 
cession was first established by the censors 
Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B.C. 304; but ac- 
cording to Dionysius it was instituted after 
the defeat of the Latins near the lakeRegillus, 
of which an account was brought to Rome by 
the Dioscuri. 

It may be asked how long did the knight re- 
tain his public horse, and a vote in the eques- 
trian century to which he belonged ? On this 
subject we have no positive information ; but 
as those equites, who served with their own 



EQUITES. 



139 



horses, were only obliged to serve for ten 
years (stipendia) under the age of 46, we may 
presume that the same rule extended to those 
who served with the public horses, provided 
they wished to give up the service. For it is 
certain that in the ancient times of the repub- 
lic a knight might retain his horse as long as 
he pleased, even after he had entered the 
senate, provided he continued able to dis- 
charge the duties of a knight. Thus the two 
censors, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius 
Nero, in B. c. 204, were also equites, and L. 
Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of his 
horse by the censors in B. o. 185, had himself 
been censor in B. c. 191. But during the later 
times of the republic the knights were obliged 
to give up their horses on entering the senate, 
and consequently ceased to belong to the 
equestrian centuries. It thus naturally came 
to pass, that the greater number of the equites 
equo publico, after the exclusion of senators 
from the equestrian centuries, were young 
men. 

The equestrian centuries, of which we have 
hitherto been treating, were only regarded as 
a division of the army : they did not form a 
distinct class or ordo in the constitution. The 
community, in a political point of view, was 
divided only into patricians and plebeians ; 
and the equestrian centuries were composed 
of both. But in the year B. c. 123, a new class, 
called the Ordo Equestris, was formed in the 
state by the Lex Sempronia, which was in- 
troduced by C. Gracchus. By this law, or 
one passed'a few years afterwards, every per- 
son who was to be chosen judex was required 
to be above 30 and under CO years of age, to 
have either an equus publicus, or to be quali- 
fied by his fortune to possess one, and not to 
be a senator. The number of judices, who 
were required yearly, was chosen from this 
class by the praetor urbanus. 

As the name of equites had been originally 
extended from those who possessed the public 
horses to those who served with their own 
horses, it now came to be applied to all those 
persons who were qualified by their fortune 
to act as judices, in which sense the word is 
usually used by Cicero. 

After the reform of Sulla, which entirely 
deprived the equestrian order of the right of 
being chosen as judices, and the passing of 
the Lex Aurelia (B. c. 70), which ordained 
that the judices should be chosen from the 
senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii, the influ- 
ence of the order, says Pliny, was still main- 
tained by the publican*, or farmers of the pub- 
lic taxes. We find that the publicani were 
almost always called equites, not because any 
particular rank was necessary in order to ob. 



tain from the state the farming of the taxes, 
but because the state was not accustomed to 
let them to any one who did not possess a con- 
siderable fortune. Thus the publicani are 
frequently spoken of by Cicero as identical 
with the equestrian order. The consulship of 
Cicero, and the active part which the knights 
then took in suppressing the conspiracy of 
Catiline, tended still further to increase the 
power and influence of the equestrian order ; 
and " from that time," says Pliny, " it became 
a third body (corpus) in the state, and, to the 
title of Senatus Populusque Romanus, there be- 
gan to be added Et Equestris Ordo" 

In B. c. 63, a distinction was conferred upon 
them, which tended to separate them still 
further from the plebs. By the Lex Roscia 
Othonis, passed in that year, the first fourteen 
seats in the theatre behind the orchestra were 
given to the equites. They also possessed the 
right of wearing the Clavus Angustus [CLA- 
vus], and subsequently obtained the privilege 
of wearing a gold ring, which was originally 
confined to the equites equo publico. 

The number of equites increased greatly 
under the early emperors, and all persons 
were admitted into the order, provided they 
possessed the requisite property, without any 
inquiry into their character, or into the free 
birth of their father and grandfather. The 
order in consequence gradually began to lose 
all the consideration which it had acquired 
during the later times of the republic. 

Augustus formed a select class of equites, 
consisting of those equites who possessed the 
property of a senator, and the old requirement 
of free birth up to the grandfather. He per- 
mitted this class to wear the latus clavus ; and 
and also allowed the tribunes of the plebs to 
be chosen from them, as well as the senators, 
and gave them the option, at the termination 
of their office, to remain in the senate or re- 
turn to the equestrian order. This class of 
knights was distinguished by the special title 
illustres (sometimes insignes and splendidi) equi- 
tes Romani. 

The formation of this distinct class tended 
to lower the others still more in public esti- 
mation. In the ninth year of the reign of Ti- 
berius, an attempt was made to improve the 
order by requiring the old qualifications ot 
free birth up to the grandfather, and by strictly 
forbidding any one to wear the gold ring un- 
less he possessed this qualification. This 
regulation, however, was of little avail, as 
the emperors frequently admitted freed men 
into the equestrian order. When private per- 
sons were no longer appointed judices, the 
necessity for a distinct class in the communi- 
ty, like the equestrian order, ceased entirely ; 



140 



EQUITES. 



and the gold ring came at length to be worn 
by all free citizens. Even slaves, after their 
manumission, were allowed to wear it by 
special permission from the emperor, which 
appears to have been usually granted provided 
the patronus consented. 

Having thus traced the history of the eques- 
trian order to its final extinction as a distinct 
class in the community, we must now return 
to the equites equo publico, who formed the 
18 equestrian centuries. This class still ex- 
isted during the latter years of the republic, 
but had entirely ceased to serve as horse-sol- 
diers in the army. The cavalry of the Ro- 
man legions no longer consisted, as in the time 
of Polybius, of Roman equites, but their place 
was supplied by the cavalry of the allied 
states. It is evident that Caesar in his Gal- 
lic wars possessed no Roman cavalry. "When 
he went to an interview with Ariovistus, and 
was obliged to take cavalry with him, we are 
told that he did not dare to trust his safety 
to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore mounted 
his legionary soldiers upon their horses. The 
Roman equites are, however, frequently men- 
tioned in the Gallic and civil wars, but never 
as common soldiers; they were officers at- 
tached to the staff of the general, or com- 
manded the cavalry of the allies, or sometimes 
the legions. 

After the year B. c. 50, there were no cen 
sors in the state, and it would therefore fol- 
low that for some years no review of the body 
took place, and that the vacancies were not 
filled up. When Augustus, however, took 
upon himself, in B. c. 29, the praefectura mo- 
rum, he frequently reviewed the troops of 
equites, and restored the long neglected cus- 
tom of the solemn procession (transvectio) . 
From this time these equites formed an hon- 
ourable corps, from which all the higher 
officers in the army and the chief magistrates 
in the state were chosen. Admission into 
this body was equivalent to an introduction 
into public life, and was therefore esteemed 
a great privilege. If a young man was not 
admitted into this body, he was excluded 
from all civil offices of any importance, ex- 
cept in municipal towns ; and also from all 
rank in the army, with the exception of cen- 
turion. 

All those equites, who were not employed 
in actual service, were obliged to reside at 
Rome, where they were allowed to fill the 
lower magistracies, which entitled a person 
to admission into the senate. They were di- 
vided into six turmae, each of which was 
commanded by an officer, who is frequently 
mentioned in inscriptions as Sevir equitum 
Rom. turmae i. II., &c., or commonly Sevir 



ESSEDA. 

turmae or Sevir turmarum equitum Romanorum 
From the time that the equites bestowed the 
title of principes juventulis upon Caius and 
Lucius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, 
it became the custom to confer this title, as 
well as that of sevir, upon the probable suc- 
cessor to the throne, when he first entered 
into public life, and was presented with an 
equus publicus. 

The practice of filling all the higher offices 
in the state from these equites appears to 
have continued as long as Rome was the cen- 
tre of the government and the residence of 
the emperor. After the time of Diocletian, 
the equites became only a city guard, under 
the command of the praefectus vigilum ; but 
they still retained, in the time of Valentini- 
anus and Valens, A. D. 364, the second rank 
in the city, and were not subject to corporal 
punishment. Respecting the Magister Equi- 
tum, see DICTATOR. 

EQUULEUS or ECULEUS, an instru- 
ment of torture, which is supposed to have 
been so called because it was in the form of 
a horse. 

E'RANI (epavoi), were clubs or societies, 
established for charitable, convivial, commer- 
cial, or political purposes. 

Unions of this kind were called by the gen- 
eral name of iraipiai, and were often con- 
verted to mischievous ends, such as bribery, 
overawing the public assembly, or influencing 
courts of justice. In the days of the Roman 
empire friendly societies, under the name ot 
erani, were frequent among the Greek cities, 
but were looked on with suspicion by the 
emperors, as leading to political combinations. 
Tlnegilds, or fraternities for mutual aid, among 
the ancient Saxons, resembled the erani oi 
the Greeks. 

ERGA'STULUM, a private prison attach- 
ed to most Roman farms, where the slaves 
were made to work in chains. The slaves 
confined in an ergastulum were also employed 
to cultivate the fields in chains. Slaves who 
had displeased their masters were punished 
by imprisonment in the ergastulum ; and in 
the same place all slaves, who could not be 
depended upon or were barbarous in their 
habits, were regularly kept. 

ERrCIUS, a military engine full of sharp 
spikes, which was placed by the gate of the 
camp to prevent the approach of the enemy. 

ESSEDA'RII. [ESSEDUM.] 

E'SSEDA, or E'SSEDUM (from the Cel- 
tic Ess, a carriage), the name of a chariot 
used, especially in war, by the Britons, the 
Gauls, and the Germans. It was built very 
strongly, was open before instead of behind, 
like the Greek war-chariot, and had a wide 



EUMOLPiDAE. 

pole, so that the owner was able, whenever 
he pleased, to run along the pole, and even 
to raise himself upon the yoke, and then to 
, retreat with the greatest speed into the body 
f of the car, which he drove with extraordinary 
Hfeiftness and skill. It appears also that these 
> cars were purposely made as noisy as possi- 
I ble, probably by the creaking and clanging of 
the wheels ; and that this was done in order 
to strike dismay into the enemy. The war- 
riors who drove these chariots were called 
essedarii. Having been captured, they were 
sometimes exhibited in the gladiatorial shows 
at Rome, and seem to have been great favour- 
ites with the people. 

The essedum was adopted for purposes of 
convenience and luxury among the Romans. 
As used by the Romans, the essedum may have 
differed from the cisiurn in this ; that the ci- 
siurn was drawn by one horse (see cut, p. 82), 
the essedum always by a pair. 

EUMO'LPIDAE (EfyzoATn&u), the most 
distinguished and venerable among the priestly 
families in Attica. They were devoted to 
the service of Ceres at Athens and Eleusis, 
and were said to be the descendants of the 
Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to 
some legends, had introduced the Eleusinian 
mysteries into Attica. The high priest of the 
Eleusinian goddess (itpofyavTijs or ^ucrraycj- 
y6f), who conducted the celebration of her 
mysteries and the initiation of the mystae, 
was always a member of the family of the 
Eumolpidae, as Eumolpus himself was be- 
lieved to have been the first hierophant. The 
hierophant was attended by four epimeletae 
(eTn/ueAijTai), one of whom likewise belonged 
to the family of the Eumolpidae. The Eu- 
molpidae had on certain occasions to offer up 
prayers for the welfare of the state. They 
had likewise judicial power in cases where 
religion was violated. The law according to 
which they pronounced their sentence, and 
of which they had exclusive possession, was 
not written, but handed down by tradition ; 
and the Eumolpidae alone had the right to 
interpret it, whence they are sometimes called 
Exegetae (tfyyrjTai). In cases for which the 
law had made no provisions, they acted ac- 
cording to their own discretion. In some 
cases, when a person was convicted of gross 
violation of the public institutions of his 
country, the people, besides sending the of- 
fender into exile, added a clause in their ver- 
dict that a curse should be pronounced upon 
him by the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpi- 
dae could pronounce such a curse only at the 
command of the people, and might afterwards 
be compelled by the people to revoke it, and i 
purify the person whom they had cursed before. ! 



EUTHYNE. 



141 



EVOCA'TI, soldiers in the Roman army, 
who had served out their time and obtained 
their discharge (missio), but had voluntarily 
enlisted again at the invitation of the consul 
or other commander. There appears always 
to have been a considerable number of evocati 
in every army of importance ; and when the 
general" was a favourite among the soldiers, 
the number of veterans who joined his stand- 
ard would of course be increased. The evo- 
cati were doubtless released, like thevexillarii, 
from the common military duties of fortifying 
the camp, making roads, &c., and held a higher 
rank in the army than the common legionary 
soldiers. They are sometimes spoken of in 
conjunction with the equites Romani, and 
sometimes classed with the centurions. They 
appear to have been frequently promoted to 
the rank of centurions. 

EUPA'TRIDAE (EvrraTpidai), descended 
from noble ancestors, is the name by which 
in early times the nobility of Attica was de- 
signated. In the division of the inhabitants 
of Attica into three classes, which is ascribed 
to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first 
class, and thus formed a compact order of 
nobles, united by their interests, rights and 
privileges. They were in the exclusive pos- 
session of all the civil and religious offices in 
the state, ordered the affairs of religion, and 
interpreted the laws human and divine. The 
king was thus only the first among his equals, 
and only distinguished from them by the du- 
ration of his office. By the legislation of So- 
lon, the political power and influence of the 
Eupatridae as an order was broken, and pro- 
perty instead of birth was made the standard 
of political rights. But as Solon, like all an- 
cient legislators, abstained from abolishing any 
of the religious institutions, those families of 
the Eupatridae, in which certain priestly offi- 
ces and functions were hereditary, retained 
these distinctions down, to a very late period 
of Grecian history. 

EURI'PUS. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] 

EUTHY'NE (EvOvvTj). All public officers 
at Athens were accountable for their conduct 
and the manner in which they acquitted them- 
selves of their official duties. The judges in 
the popular courts seem to have been the only 
authorities who were not responsible, for they 
were themselves the representatives of the 
people, and would therefore, in theory, have 
been responsible to themselves. This account, 
which officers had to give after the time of 
their office was over, was called evdvvij, and 
the officers subject to it, vTcevdvvot, and after 
they had gone through the euthyne, they be- 
came uvsvOvvot. Every public officer had to 
render his account within thirty davs after the 



142 



EXERCITUS. 



expiration of his office, and at the time when 
he submitted to the euthyne any citizen had 
the right to come forward and impeach him. 
The officers before whom the accounts were 
given were at Athens ten in number, called 
evdvvot or Tio-yiarai, in other places k&Taorai 
or avvnyopoi. 

EXAUCTORA'TIO. [Missio.] 

EXAUGURA'TIO, the act of changing a 
sacred thing into a profane one, or of taking 
away from it the sacred character which it 
had received by inauguratio, consecratio, or 
dedicatio. Such an act was performed by the 
augurs, and never without consulting the 
pleasure of the gods, by augurium. 

EXCU'BIAE. [CASTRA.] 

EXCUBITO'RES, which properly means 
watchmen or sentinels of any kind, was the 
name more particularly given to the soldiers 
of the cohort who guarded the palace of the 
Roman emperor. 

EXE'RCITUS, army. I. GREEK. The 
organization of the Lacedaemonian army was 
more perfect than that of any other in Greece. 
It was based upon a graduated system of sub- 
ordination, which gave to almost every indi- 
vidual a degree of authority, rendering the 
whole military force a community of com- 
manders, so that the signal given by the king 
ran in an instant through the whole army. 
The foundation of this system is attributed to 
Lycurgus, who is said to have formed the La- 
cedaemonian forces into six divisions, called 
morae (/j.6pai). Each mora was commanded by 
apolemarchus (TTO/le/zap^of ), under whom were 
four lochagi (Ao^ayoi)) eight pentecosteres (TTEV- 
and sixteen enomotarchi 



; consequently, two enomotiae (evw/zo- 
ritui formed a pentecostys (KEVTTJKOGTVC), two 
of these a lochus (Ao^oc), and four lochi made 
a mora. The regular complement of the eno- 
motia appears to have been twenty-four men, 
besides its captain. The lochus, then, con- 
sisted ordinarily of 100 and the mora of 400 
men. The front row of the enomotia appears 
to have usually consisted of three men, and 
the ordinary depth of the line, of eight men. 
The number of men in each enornotia was, 
however, not unfrequently increased. Thus 
at the battle of Mantinea another file was 
added ; so that the front row consisted of four 
men, and each enomotia consequently con- 
tained thirty-two men. At the battle of Leuc- 
tra, on the contrary, the usual number of files 
was retained, but the depth of its ranks was 
increased from eight to twelve men ; so that 
each enomotia contained thirty-six men. In 
the time of Xenophon the mora appears to have 
consisted usually of 600 men. The numbers 
seem, however/to have fluctuated consider- 



ably, according to the greater or less increase 
in the number of the enomotia. 

To each mora of heavy- armed infantry there 
belonged a body of cavalry bearing the same 
name, consisting at the most of 100 men, and 
commanded by the hipparmostes (iTnra.pfj,o<y- 
r^f). The cavalry is said, by Plutarch, to 
have been divided in the time of Lycurgus 
into oulami (ovha.fj,oi) of fifty men each ; but 
this portion of the Lacedaemonian army was 
unimportant, and served only to cover the 
wings of the infantry. The three hundred 
knights forming the king's body guard must 
not be confounded with the cavalry. They 
were the choicest of the Spartan youths, and 
fought either on horseback or on foot, as oc- 
casion required. 

Solon divided the Athenian people into four 
classes, of which the first two comprehended 
those persons whose estates were respectively 
equivalent to the value of 500 and 300 of the 
Attic measures called medimni. These were 
not obliged to serve in the infantry, nor on 
board ship, except in some command ; but 
they were bound to keep a horse for the pub- 
lic, and to serve in the cavalry at their own 
expense. The third class, whose estates were 
equivalent to 150 such measures, were obliged 
to serve in the heavy-armed foot, providing 
their own arms ; and the people of the fourth 
class, if unable to provide themselves with 
complete armour, served either among the 
light-armed troops or in the navy. The minis- 
ters of religion, and persons who danced in 
the festival of Bacchus, were exempt from 
serving in the armies ; the same privilege was 
also accorded to those who farmed the re- 
venues of the state. There is no doubt that, 
among the Athenians, the divisions of the 
army differed from those which, as above 



I 



stated, had been appointed by 
legislator ; but the nature of th 



the Spartan 
e divisions is 

unknown, and it can only be surmised that 
they were such as are hinted at in the Cyro- 
paedeia. In that work, Xenophon, who, being 
an Athenian, may be supposed to have in view 
the military institutions of his own country, 
speaking of the advantages attending the sub- 
divisions of large bodies of men, with respect 
to the power of reforming those bodies when 
they happen to be dispersed, states that the 
taxis (raftf) consists of 100 men, and the lo- 
chus (/lorof) of twenty-four men (exclusive of 
their officer) ; and in another passage he men- 
tions the decas (tfe/cuf), or section of ten, and 
the pempas (Tre/ZTrdo), or section of five men. 
The taxis seems to have been the principal 
element in the division of troops in the Athe- 
nian army, and to have corresponded to the 
Peloponnesian lochus. The infantry was com- 



EXERCITUS. 



113 



manded by ten strategi [STRATEGI] and ten 
taxiarchs, and the cavalry by two hipparchs 
and ten phylarchs. These officers were 
chosen annually, and they appear to have ap- 
pointed the subordinate officers of each taxis 
or lochus. 

The mountainous character of Attica and 
the Peloponnesus is the reason that cavalry 
was never numerous in those countries. Pre- 
viously to the Persian invasion of Greece, the 
number of horse-soldiers belonging to the 
Athenians was but ninety-six, each of the 
forty-eight naucrariae (vavKpapiat), into which 
the state was divided, furnishing two persons ; 
3ut soon afterwards the body was augmented 
io twelve hundred heavy-armed horsemen, 
and there was besides an equal number of 
archers, who fought on horseback. The 
horses belonging to the former class were 
covered with bronze or other metal, and they 
were ornamented with bells and embroidered 
clothing. Before being allowed to serve, both 
men and horses were subject to an examina- 
tion before the hipparchs, and punishments 
were decreed against persons who should 
enter without the requisite qualifications. 

Every free citizen of the Greek states was 
enrolled for military service from the age of 
18 or 20, to 58 or 60 years. The young men, 
previously to joining the ranks, were instruct- 
ed in the military duties by the tactici (TCIKTI- 
K.OL), or public teachers, who were maintained 
ay the state for the purpose ; and no town in 
Greece was without its gymnasium, or school. 
At Athens the ephebi [EPHEBI] guarded the 
city and the frontier from the age of 18 till 20. 
At "20 years of age the Athenian recruit could 
De sent on foreign expeditions ; but, among 
;he Spartans, this was seldom done till the 
soldier was 30 years old. 

An attention to military duties, when the 
;roops were encamped, was strictly enforced 
in all the Greek armies ; but a considerable 
difference prevailed in those of the two prin- 
cipal states with respect to the recreations of 
the soldiers. The men of Athens were al- 
lowed to witness theatrical performances, and 
to have in the camp companies of singers and 
dancers. In the Lacedaemonian army, on 
the contrary, all these were forbidden ; the 
constant practice of temperance, and the ob- 
servance of a rigid discipline being prescribed 
to the Spartan youth, in order that they might 
excel in war (which among them was consid- 
ered as the proper occupation of freemen) ; 
and manly exercises alone were permitted in 
the intervals of duty. Yet, while encamped, 
the young men were encouraged to use per- 
fumes, and to wear costly armour, though the 
adorning of their persons, when at home, 



would havo subjected tr. em > the reproach 
of effeminacy. 

In the early times of the Greek republics 
the soldier served at his own expense in that 
class of troops which his fortune permitted 
him to join. 

Pericles first introduced the practice at 
Athens ot giving pay to a class of the soldiers 
out of the public revenue ; and this was sub- 
sequ ent ly adopted by the other states of Greece. 
The amount of the pay varied according to 
circumstances from two oboli to a drachma. 
The commanders of the lochi received double, 
and the strategi four times the pay of a pri- 
vate foot-soldier. 

The strength of a Grecian army consisted 
chiefly in its foot-soldiers ; and of these there 
were at first but two classes : the Hoplitae 
(oTr/UraO, who wore heavy armour, carried 
large shields, and in action, used swords and 
long spears ; and the Psili (ijji'Aoi), who were 
light-armed, having frequently only helmets 
and small bucklers, with neither cuirasses 
nor greaves, and who were employed chiefly 
as skirmishers in discharging arrows, darts, 
or stones. An intermediate class of troops, 
called Peltastae (TreXraaTai), or targeteers, 
was formed at Athens, by Iphicrates, after 
the Peloponnesian war : they were armed 
nearly in the same manner as the Hoplitae, 
but their cuirasses were of linen instead of 
bronze or iron ; their spears were short, and 
they carried small round bucklers, called pel- 
tae (Tre/lrat)' These troops, uniting in some 
measure the stability of the phalanx with the 
agility of the light-armed men, were found to 
be highly efficient ; and from the time of their 
adoption, they were extensively employed in 
the Greek armies. 

Scarlet, or crimson, appears to have been 
the general colour of the Greek uniform, at 
least in the days of Xenophon. 

The oldest existing works which treat ex- 
pressly, of the constitution and tactics of the 
Grecian armies are the treatises of Aelian and 
Arrian; which were written in the time of 
Hadrian, when the art of war had changed its 
character, and when many details relating to 
the ancient military organizations were for- 
gotten. Yet the systems of these tacticians, 
speaking generally, appear to belong to the 
age of Philip or Alexander; and, conse- 
quently, they may be considered as having 
succeeded those which have been indicated 
above. 

Aelian makes the lowest subdivision of the 
army to consist of a lochus, decas, or enomotia, 
which he says were then supposed to have 
been respectively files of 16, 12, or 8 men, and 
he recommends the latter. The numbers in 



144 



EXERCiTUS. 



the superior divisions proceeded in a geome- 
trical progression by doubles, and the princi- 
pal bodies were formed and denominated as 
follow : Four lochi constituted a tetrarchia 
( 64 men), and two of these, a taxis (=128 
men). The latter doubled, was called a syn- 
tagma (ovvTayaa) or xenagia (Zevayia) (=256 
men), to which division it appears that five 
supernumeraries were attached ; these were 
the crier, the ensign, the trumpeter, a ser 
vant, and an officer, called uragus (ovpayoe), 
who brought up the rear. Four of the last- 
mentioned divisions formed a chiliarchia (x^i- 
apxia.) ( = 1024 men), which doubled became 
a telos (re/lof), and quadrupled, formed the 
body which was denominated a phalanx (Qa- 
Xayf). This corps would, therefore, appear 
to have consisted of 4096 men ; but, in fact, 
divisions of very different strengths were, at 
different times, designated by that name, and 
before the time of Philip of Macedon, phalanx 
was a general expression for any large body 
of troops in the Grecian armies. That prince, 
however, united under this name 6000 of his 
most efficient heavy-armed men, whom he 
called his companions ; he subjected them 
to judicious regulations, and improved their 
arms and discipline ; and, from that time, the 
name of his country was constantly applied 
to bodies of troops which were similarly or- 
ganized. 

The numerical strength of the phalanx was 
probably the greatest in the days of Philip 
and Alexander ; and, if the tactics of Aelian 
rnay be considered applicable to the age of 
those monarchs, it would appear that the 
corps, when complete, consisted of about 
1 6,000 heavy-armed men. It was divided into 
four parts, each consisting of 4000 men, who 
were drawn up in files generally 16 men deep. 
The whole front, properly speaking, consisted 
of two grand divisions ; but each of these 
was divided into two sections, and the two 
middle sections of the whole constituted the 
centre or 6/z0a/l6c. The others were desig- 
nated Kepara, or wings ; and in these the 
best troops seem to have been placed. The 
evolutions were performed upon the enomoty, 
or single file, whether it were required to ex- 
tend or deepen the line : and there was an 
interval between every two sections for the 
convenience of manoeuvring. 

The Greek cavalry, according to Aelian,was 
divided into bodies, of which the smallest was 
called He (Ihrj) : it is said to have consisted of 
64 men, though the term was used in earlier 
times for a party of horse of any number. A 
troop, called epilarchia (kirihapxia), contained 



two ilae, 128 men; and a division, subse- 
quently called tarantinarchia (TapavTt.vap%ia), 



from Tarentum in Italy, was double the former. 
Each of the succeeding divisions was double 
that which preceded it ; and one, consisting 
of 2048 men, was called telos (reAoc): finally, 
the epitagma (kTrirajfJia} was equal to two tele 
(T&TJ), and contained 4096 men. 

In making or receiving an attack, when 
each man occupied about three feet in depth, 
and the Macedonian spear, or sarissa, which 
was about 18 or 20 feet long, was held in a 
horizontal position, the point of that which 
was in the hands of a front-rank man might 
project about 14 feet from the line ; the point 
of that which was in the hands of a second- 
rank man might project about 11 feet, and so 
on. Therefore, of the sixteen ranks, which 
was the ordinary depth of the phalanx, those 
in rear of the fifth could not, evidently, con- 
tribute by their pikes to the annoyance of the 
enemy : they consequently kept their pikes in 
an inclined position, resting on the shoulders 
of the men in their front ; and thus they were 
enabled to arrest the enemy's missiles, which, 
after flying over the front ranks, might other- 
wise fall on those in the rear. The ranks be- 
yond the fifth pressing with all their force 
against the men who were in their front,while 
they prevented them from falling back, in 
creased the effect of the charge, or the resist 
ance opposed to that of the enemy. 

In action it was one duty of the officers to 
prevent the whole body of men from inclining 
towards the right hand ; to this there was 
always a great tendency, because every sol- 
dier endeavoured to press that way, in order 
that he might be covered as much as possible 
by the shield of his companion ; and thus dan- 
ger was incurred of having the army outflanked 
towards its left by that of the enemy. Previ- 
ously to an action some particular word or 
sentence (cvvdrjfjLii) was given out by the com- 
manders to the soldiers, who were enabled, 
on demanding it, to distinguish each other from 
the enemy. 

It may be said that, from the disposition of 
the troops in the Greek armies, the success of 
an action depended in general on a single 
effort ; since there was no second line of 
troops to support the first, in the event of any 
disaster. The dense order of the phalanx was 
only proper for a combat on a perfectly level 
plain ; and, even then, the victory depended 
rather on the prowess of the soldier than on 
the skill of the commander, who was com- 
monly distinguished from the men only by 
fighting at their head. But, when the field of 
battle was commanded by heights, and inter- 
sected by streams or defiles, the unwieldy mass 
became incapable of acting, while it was over- 
whelmed by the enemy's missiles. 



EXERC1TUS. 



145 



2. ROMAN. The organization of the Roman 
army in early times was based upon the con- 
stitution of Servius Tullius,which is explained 
in the article COMITIA CENTURIATA. It is 
only necessary to observe here, that it appears 
plainly, from a variety of circumstances, that 
the tactics of the Roman infantry in early 
times were not those of the legion at a later 
period, and that the phalanx, which was the 
battle-array of the" Greeks, was also the form 
in which the Roman armies were originally 
drawn up 

In the time of Polybius, which was that of 
Fabius and Scipio, every legion was com- 
manded by six military tribunes. The consuls, 
after they entered upon their office, appointed 
a day on which all those who were of the 
military age were required to attend. When 
the day for enrolling the troops arrived, the 
people assembled at the Capitol ; and the con- 
suls, with the assistance of the military tri- 
bunes, proceeded to hold the levy (delectus), 
unless prevented by the tribunes of the plebs. 
The military tribunes, having been divided 
into four bodies (which division corresponded 
to the general distribution of the army into 
four legions, two for each consul), drew out 
the tribes by lot, one by one; then, calling up 
that tribe upon which the lot first fell, they 
chose (legerunt, whence the name legio) from 
it four young men nearly equal in age and 
stature. From these the tribunes of the first 
legion chose one ; those of the second chose 
a second, and so on : after this four other men 
were selected, and now the tribunes of the 
second legion made the first choice ; then 
those of the other legions in order, and, last of 
all, the tribunes of the first legion made their 
choice. In like manner, from the next four 
men, the tribunes, beginning with those of 
the third legion, and ending with those of the 
second, made their choice. Observing the 
same method of rotation to the end, it follow- 
ed that all the legions were nearly alike with 
respect to the ages and stature of the men. 
Polybius observes that, anciently, the cavalry 
troops were chosen after the infantry, and that 
200 horse were allowed to every 4000 foot ; but 
he adds that it was then the custom to select 
the cavalry first, and to assign 300 of these to 
each legion. Every citizen was obliged to 
serve in the army, when required, between the 
ages of 17 and 46 years. Each foot-soldier 
was obliged to serve during twenty campaigns, 
and each horseman during ten. And, except 
when a legal cause of exemption (vacatio) ex- 
isted, the service was compulsory ; persons 
who refused to enlist could be punished by 
fine or imprisonment ; and in some cases they 
might be sold as slaves. The grounds of ex- 



emption were age, infirmity, and having served 
the appointed time. The magistrates and 
priests were also exempted, in general, from 
serving in the wars ; and the same privilege 
was sometimes granted by the senate or the 
people to individuals who had rendered ser- 
vices to the state. In sudden emergencies, or 
when any particular danger was apprehended, 
as in the case of a war in Italy or against the 
Gauls, both of which were called tumultus, no 
exemption could be pleaded, but all were 
obliged to be enrolled. Persons who were 
rated by the censors below the value of 400 
drachmae, according to Polybius, were allow- 
ed to serve only in the navy ; and these men 
formed what was called the legio classica. 

In the first ages of the republic each consu 
had usually the command of two Roman le- 
gions, and two legions of allies ; and the latter 
were raised in the states of Italy nearly in the 
same manner as the others were raised in 
Rome. The infantry of an allied legion was 
usually equal in number to that of a Roman 
legion, but the cavalry attached to the former 
was twice as numerous as that which belonged 
to the latter. The regulation of the two allied 
legions was superintended by twelve officers 
called prefects (praefecti), who were selected 
for this purpose by the consuls. In the line 
of battle the two Roman legions formed the 
centre, and those of the allies were placed, 
one on the right and the other on the left 
flank : the cavalry was poster at the two ex- 
tremities of the line ; that of the allies on each 
wing being on the outward flank of the le- 
gionary horsemen, on which account they had 
the name of Alarii. [ A LARII.] A body of the 
best soldiers, both infantry and cavalry, con 
sisting either of volunteers or of veterans se 
lected from the allies, guarded the consul in 
the camp, or served about his person in the 
field ; and these were called extraordinarii. 

The number of men in a Roman legion va- 
ried much at different times. When Camillus 
raised ten legions for the war against the 
Gauls, each consisted of 4200 foot-soldiers, 
and 300 horse-soldiers, but previously to the 
battle of Cannae the senate decreed that the 
army should consist of eight legions, and that 
the strength of each should be 5000 foot- sol- 
diers. In the time of Polybius (B. c. 150) the 
legion contained 4200 men, except in cases of 
great emergency, when it was augmented to 
5000 men. 

Besides being designated by numbers, prima 
legio, decima legio, &c., the legions bore parti- 
cular names. Thus we read of the martia le- 
gio, the alauda, &c. [ALAUDA.] 

After the selection of the men who were to 
compose the legion, the military oath was ad 



146 



EXERC1TUS. 



ministered (sacramentum) : on this occasion 
one person was appointed to pronounce the 
words of the oath (qui reliquis verba sacramenti 
praeirei), and the rest of the legionaries, ad- 
vancing one by one, swore to perform what 
the first had pronounced (in verba ejus jura- 
bant}. The form of the oath differed at differ- 
ent times : during the republic it contained an 
engagement to be faithful to the Roman senate 
and people, and to execute all the orders that 
should be given by the commanders. Under 
the emperors, fidelity to the sovereign was in- 
troduced into the oath ; and after the estab- 
lishment of Christianity, the engagement was 
made in the name of the Trinity, and the 
majesty of the emperor. Livy says that this 
military oath was first legally exacted in the 
time of the second Punic war, B. c. 216, and 
that previously to that time each decuria of 
cavalry and centuria of foot had only been ac- 
customed to swear, voluntarily among them- 
selves, that they would act like good soldiers. 
The Roman armies were, as has been ob- 
served above, originally drawn up in the form 
of the phalanx. In course of time the pon- 
derous mass of the phalanx was resolved into 
small battalions marshalled in open order, 
which were termed manipuli, and which varied 
in numbers at different periods, according to 
the varying constitution of the legion. The 
original meaning of the word manipulus which 
is derived from manus, was a handful or wisp 
of hay, and this, according to Roman tradition, 
affixed to the end of a pole, formed the primi- 
tive military standard in the days of Romulus ; 
hence it was applied to a detachment of sol- 
diers serving under the same ensign. The 
earliest account of the division of the legion 
into manipuli is given by Livy in his descrip- 
tion of the battle fought near Vesuvius in B.C. 
337. On this occasion the front line or hastati, 
so called from the hasta, or long spear, which 
each man carried, consisted of 15 manipuli, 



each manipulus containing 62 soldiers, a cen 
turion, and a vexillarius : the hastati were the 
youngest of the soldiers. The second line or 
principes consisted in like manner of ] 5 mani 
puli ; these were men of mature age. and from 
their name it would appear that anciently they 
were placed in the front line. This combined 
force of 30 manipuli was comprehended under 
the general appellation of antepilani. The 
third line or triarii was also drawn up in 15 di- 
visions, but each of these was triple, contain- 
ing 3 manipuli, 3 vexilla, and 186 men. The 
triarii were so called because they formed the 
third line; they were the veteran soldiers: 
each of them carried two pila, or strong jave- 
lins, whence they were sometimes called pi- 
lani ; and the hastati and principes, who stood 
before them, antepilani, as already remarked. 
In the third line the veterans or triarii proper 
formed the front ranks ; immediately behind 
them stood the rorarii, inferior in age and re- 
nown ; while the accensi, less trustworthy than 
either, were posted in the extreme rear. 
The battle array is represented in the cut 
below. 

If the hastati and principes were success- 
ively repulsed, they retired through the open- 
ings left between the maniples of the triarii, 
who then closed up their ranks so as to leave 
no space between their maniples, and pre- 
sented a continuous front and solid column to 
the enemy : the heavy-armed veterans in the 
foremost ranks with their long pila now bore 
the brunt of the onset, while the rorarii and 
accensi behind gave weight and consistency 
;o the mass, an arrangement bearing evidence 
to a lingering predilection for the principle of 
the phalanx, and representing, just as we 
tnight expect at that period, the Roman tactics 
in their transition state. 

In the time of Polybius, when the legion 
contained 4200 men, it was divided into 1200 
hastati, 1200 principes, 600 triarii, the remain- 

-. r , ISMani- 

[ puli of 
-J I ! ' Hastati. 




15 Mani- 
puli of 
Principes 



15 triple 
Manipuli 
ofTr'arii 



Kxrcitus, Battle Arra 



EXERCITUS. 



147 



1200 being velites, or light-armed troops, 
vho were distributed equally among the three 
lines. When the legion exceeded 4200, the 
numbers of the hastati, principes, and velites 
were increased in proportion, the number of 
triarii remaining always the same (600). The 
hastati, principes, and triarii were subdivided 
each into 10 manipuli or ordines, and in each 
manipulus there were two centurioncs, two op- 
tiones, and two signiferi : hence, when the le- 
gion consisted of4200, a manipu lus of the hastati 
or of the principes would contain 120 men, in- 
cluding officers, and a manipulus of the triarii 
in all cases 60 men only. 

To Marius, or Caesar, is ascribed the prac- 
tice of drawing up the Roman army in lines 
by cohorts, which gradually led to the aban- 
donment of the ancient division of the legion 
into manipuli, and of the distinctions of hastati, 
principes, and triarii. Each legion was then 
divided into ten cohortes*, each cohort into 
three manipuli, and each manipulus into two 
cent-urine, so that there were thirty manipuli 
and sixty centuriae in a legion. It appears 
that very anciently the allies or auxiliaries of 
Rome were arranged by cohorts. 

The cavalry of the legion was divided into 
ten turmae, each containing 30 men ; and each 
t urma into three decuriae, or bodies of 10 men. 
Each turma had three decuriones, or command- 
ers of ten ; but he who was first elected com- 
manded the turma, and was, probably, called 
dux turmae. 

In the time of the republic, the six tribunes 
who were placed over a legion commanded by 
turns. [TRIBUNI MIHTUM.] To every 100 
men were appointed two centurions : the first 
of whom was properly so called ; and the 
other, called optio, uragus, or subcenturio, acted 
as a lieutenant, being chosen by the centurion. 
[CENTURIO.] The centurion also chose the 
standard-bearer or ensign of his century (sig- 
nifer or vexillarius}. Each century was also 
divided into bodies of ten, each of which was 
commanded by a decurio or decanus. 

The allied troops were raised and officered 
nearly in the same manner as those of the 
Roman legions ; but probably there was not 
among them a division of the heavy-armed in- 
fantry into three classes. They were com- 
manded by praefecti, who received their orders 
from the Roman consuls or tribunes. The 
troops sent by foreign states for the service of 
Rome were designated auxiliaries (auxilia) ; 
and they usually, but not invariably, received 



* Cohors or cfiors, the Greek x<fy>?, originally sig- 
nified an enclosure for sheep or poultry, and was 
afterwards used to designate the number of men 
which could stand within such an enclosure. 



their pay and clothing from the republic. 
[Socn.] 

According to Livy, the Roman soldiers at 
first received no pay (stipendium) from the 
state. He says that it was first granted to the 
foot, B. c. 405, in the war with the Volsci, and 
three years afterwards to the horse, during the 
siege of Veii. It appears, however, the troops 
received pay at a much earlier period, and that 
the aerarians [AERARII] had always been 
obliged to give pensions to the infantry, as 
single women and minors did to the knights : 
the change alluded to by Livy probably con- 
sisted in this, that every soldier now became 
entitled to pay, whereas previously the num- 
ber of pensions had been limited by that of 
the persons liable to be charged with them. 
Polybius states the daily pay of a legionary 
soldier to have been two oboli, which were 
equal to 3J asses, and in thirty days would 
amount to 100 asses. A centurion received 
double the pay of a legionary, and a horseman 
triple. 

The pay of the soldiers was doubled by Ju- 
lius Caesar. In the time of Augustus the pay 
of a legionary was 10 asses a day (three times 
the original sum), or 300 a month, which was 
increased still more by Domitian. Besides 
pay, the soldiers received a monthly allowance 
of corn ; and the centurions double, and the 
horse triple that of a legionary. There was 
also a law passed by C. Gracchus, which pro- 
vided that, besides their pay, the soldiers- 
should receive an allowance for clothes; but 
this law seems either to have been repealed, 
or to have fallen into disuse. 

No one order of battle appears to have been 
exclusively adhered to by the Romans during 
the time of the republic, though, in general, 
their armies were drawn up in three extended 
lines of heavy-armed troops (triplex acies) ; the 
cavalry being on the wings, and the light 
troops either in front or rear according to cir- 
cumstances. 

The Praetorian troops are treated of in a 
separate article. [PRAETORIANI.] 

After the establishment of the imperial au- 
thority, the sovereign appointed some person 
of consular dignity to command each legion in 
the provinces ; and this officer, as the empe- 
ror's lieutenant, had the title of praefectus, or 
legatus legionis. The first appointment of this 
kind appears to have taken place in the reign 
of Augustus, and Tacitus mentions the exist- 
ence of the office in the reign of Tiberius. 
The authority of the legatus was superior to 
that of the tribunes, who before were respon- 
sible only to the consul. 

EXl'LIUM. [EXSILIUM.] 

EXO'DIA (#6<fw, from f and 6cJ6f) were 



148 



EXPEDITUS. 



old-fashioned and laughable interludes in 
verses, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in 
the Atellanae. The exodium seems to have 
been introduced among the Romans from 
Italian Greece ; but after its introduction it 
became very popular among the Romans, and 
continued to be played down to a very late 
period. 

EXO'MIS (i^GUcfr), a dress which had only 
a sleeve for the left arm, leaving the right 
with the shoulder and a part of the breast 
free, and was for this reason called exomis. 
It is represented in the following figure of 
Charon. 




The exomis was usually worn by slaves 
and working people. 

EXOSTRA (ifrcTTpa, from ^0eu), a the- 
atrical machine, by means of which things 
which had been concealed behind the curtain 
on the stage were pushed or rolled forward 
from behind it, and thus became visible to the 
spectators. 

EXPEDI'TUS is opposed to impeditus, and 
signifies unencumbered with armour or with 
baggage (impedimenta). Hence the epithet 
was often applied to any portion of the Ro- 
man army, when the necessity for haste, or 
the desire to conduct it with the greatest fa- 
cility from place to place, made it desirable 
to leave behind every weight that could be 
spared. 



EXSIL1UM. 

EXPLORATO'RES. [SPECULA-TORES.] 

EXSE'QUIAE. [FuNus.] 

EXSrLIUM(0t;y^), banishment. 1 .GREEK. 
Banishment among the Greek states seldom, 
if ever, appears as a punishment appointed 
by law for particular offences. We might, 
indeed, sxpect this, for the division of Greece 
into a number of independent states would 
neither admit of the establishment of pena'. 
colonies, as among us, nor of the various kinds 
of exile which we read of under the Roman 
emperors. The general term 0vvr) (flight) 
was for the most part applied in tne case of 
those who, in order to avoid some punish- 
ment, or danger, removed from their own 
country to another. At Athens it took place 
chiefly in cases of homicide, or murder. 

An action for wilful murder was brought 
before the Areopagus, and for manslaughter 
before the court of the Ephetae. The ac- 
cused might, in either case, withdraw him- 
self ((frtciiyeiv) before sentence was passed ; 
but when a criminal evaded the punishment 
to which an act of murder would have ex- 
posed him had he remained in his own land, 
he was then banished for ever (favyei at-iQv- 
yiav\ and not allowed to return home even 
when other exiles were restored upon a gen- 
eral amnesty. 

Demosthenes says, that the word (j>tvyeiv 
was properly applied to the exile of those who 
committed murder with malice aforethought, 
whereas the term /LteOiffTaadat was used where 
the act was not intentional. The property 
also was confiscated in the former case, but 
not in the latter. 

When a verdict of manslaughter was re- 
turned, it was usual for the convicted party 
to leave his country by a certain road, and to 
remain in exile till he induced some one or 
the relatives of the slain man to take compas- 
sion on him. We are not informed what 
were the consequences if the relatives of the 
slain man refused to make a reconciliation ; 
supposing that there was no compulsion, it is 
reasonable to conclude that the exile was 
allowed to return after a fixed time. Plato, 
who is believed to have copied many of his 
laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes 
the period of banishment for manslaughter at 
one year. 

Under (frvyrj, or banishment, as a general 
term, is comprehended ostracism (oarpaKL- 
o/idf). Those that were ostracized did not 
lose their property, and the time as well as 
place of their banishment was fixed. This 
ostracism is supposed by some to have been 
instituted by Clisthenes, after the expulsion 
of the Pisistratidae ; its nature and object 
are thus explained by Aristotle :-" Demo- 



EXSILIUM. 



149 



cratical states (he observes) used to ostracize, 
and remove from the city for a definite time, 
those who appeared to be pre-eminent above 
their fellow-citizens,-by reason of their wealth, 
thenumberof their friends, or any other means 
of influence." Ostracism, therefore, was not 
a punishment for any crime, but rather a pre- 
cautionary removal of those who possessed 
sufficient power in the state to excite either 
envy or fear. Thus Plutarch says, it was a 
good-natured way of allaying envy by the hu- 
miliation of superior dignity and power. The 
manner of effecting it at Athens was as fol- 
lows : A space in the agora was enclosed 
by barriers, with ten entrances for the ten 
tribes. By these the tribesmen entered, each 
with his ostracon (oarpaKov), or piece of tile 
(whence the name ostracism), on which was 
written the name of the individual whom he 
wished to be ostracized. The nine archons 
and the senate, i. e. the presidents of that 
body, superintended the proceedings, and the 
party who had the greatest number of votes 
against him, supposing that this number 
amounted to 6000, was obliged to withdraw 
((iTaaTfjvaL) from the city within ten days ; 
if the number of votes did not amount to 6000, 
nothing was done. 

Some of the most distinguished men at 
Athens were removed by ostracism, but re- 
called when the city found their services in- 
dispensable. Among these were Themisto- 
cles, Aristides, Cimon, and Alcibiades. The 
last person against whom it was used at 
Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue of 
low birth and character ; but the Athenians 
thought their own dignity compromised, and 
ostracism degraded by such an application of 
it, arid accordingly discontinued the practice. 

From the ostracism of Athens was copied 
the Petalism (7rera$.f 0/i6f ) of the Syracusans, 
so called from the Trera/lov, or leaf of the 
olive, on which was written the name of the 
person whom they wished to remove from 
the city. The removal, however, was only 
for five years: a sufficient time, as they 
thought, to humble the pride and hopes of 
the exile. 

In connection with petalism it may be re- 
marked, that if any one were falsely register- 
ed in a demns, or ward at Athens, his expul- 
sion was called eKQvhhotyopia, from the votes 
being given by leaves. 

Besides those exiled by law, or ostracized, 
there was frequently a great number of politi- 
cal exiles in Greece ; men who, having dis- 
tinguished themselves as the leaders of one 
party, were expelled, or obliged to remove 
from their native city, when the opposite fac- 
tion became predominant. They are spoken 
x 2 



of as 01 <j>evyovT, or ol EKKEGOVTE j-, and as 
ol K.a.T?(,d6vTc after their return (^ KaOodog) 
the word Kardyetv being applied to those who 
were instrumental in effecting it. 

2. ROMAN. Banishment as a punishment 
did not exist in the old Roman state. The 
aquae etignis interdictio, which we so frequently 
read of in the republican period, was in reality 
not banishment, for it was only a ban, pronounc- 
ed by the people (by a lex), or by a magistrate 
in a criminal court, by which a person was 
deprived of water and of fire ; that is, of the 
first necessaries of life ; and its effect was to 
incapacitate a person from exercising the 
rights of a citizen ; in other words, to deprive 
him of his citizenship. Such a person might, 
if he chose, remain at Rome, and submit to 
the penalty of being an outcast, incapacitated 
from doing any legal act, and liable to be 
killed by any one with impunity. To avoid 
these dangers, a person suffering under such 
an interdict would naturally withdraw from 
Rome, and in the earlier republican period, if 
he withdrew to a slate between which and 
Rome isopolitical relations existed, he would 
become a citizen of that state. 

This right was called jus exoulandi with 
reference to the state to which the person 
came ; with respect to his own state, which 
he left, he was exsul, and his condition was 
exsilium ; and with respect to the state which 
he entered, he was inquilinus* In the same 
way a citizen of such a state had a right of 
going into exsilium at Rome ; and at Rome 
he might attach himself (applicare se) to a 
quasi-patronus. Exsilium, instead of being 
a punishment, would thus rather be a mode 
of evading punishment ; but towards the end 
of the republic the aquae et ignis interdictio be- 
came a regular banishment, since the sentence 
visually specified certain limits, within which 
a person was interdicted from fire and water. 
Thus Cicero was interdicted from fire and 
water within 400 miles from the city. The 
punishment was inflicted for various crimes, 
as vis publica, peculatus, veneficium, &c. 

Under the empire there were two kinds oi 
exsilium ; exsilium properly so called, and re- 
legatio ; the great distinction between the two 
was, that the former deprived a person of his 
citizenship, while the latter did not. The 
distinction between exsilium and relegatio ex- 
isted under the republic. Ovid also describes 
himself, not as exul, which he considers a 



* This word appears by its termination inus, to 
denote a person who was one of a class, like the 
word libertinus. The prefix in appears to be the 
correlative, of ex in exsul, and the remaining part 
quil is probably related to col in incola and colonua 



150 



FALX. 



term of reproach, but as relegatus. The chief 
species of exsilium was the deportatio in insu- 
lam, or deportatio simply, which was intro- 
duced under the emperors in place of the 
aquae et ignis interdictio. The relegatio merely 
confined the person within, or excluded him 
from particular places. The relegatus went 
into banishment ; the deportatuswas conduct- 
ed to his place of banishment, sometimes in 
chains. 

EXTISPEX. [HARUSPEX.] 
EXTRAORDINA'RII, the soldiers who 
were placed about the person of the consul 
in the Roman army. They consisted of about 
a third part of the cavalry, and a fifth part of 
the infantry of the allies, and were chosen by 
the prefects. Hence, for a legion of 4200 
foot and 300 horse, since the number of the 
infantry of the allies was equal to that of the 
Roman soldiers, and their cavalry twice as 
many, the number of extraordinarii would be 
840 foot and 200 horse, forming two cohorts ; 
or, in an army of two legions, four cohorts. 



FASCES. 

on the reverse, a man cutting dotfn corn 
with a sickle. The lower figure is taken 
from the MSS. of Columella, and represents 
a falx vinitoria, or pruning knife ot a vine- 
dresser. 



F. 



FABRI are workmen who make anything 
out of hard materials, as fabri tignarii, carpen- 
ters, fabri aerarii, smiths, &c. The different 
trades were divided by Nu.ma into nine col- 
legia, which correspond to our companies or 
guilds. In the constitution of Servius Tul- 
lius, the fabri tignarii and the fabri aerarii or 
ferrarii were formed into two centuries, which 
were called the centuriae fabrum (not fabro- 
rum). They did not belong to any of the 
five classes into which Servius divided the 
people ; but the fabrii tign. probably voted 
with the first class, and the fabri aer. with the 
second. 

The fabri in the army were under the com- 
mand of an officer called praefectus fabrum. 

FALA'RICA. [HASTA.] 

FALX, dim. FA'LCULA (apTrrf, flpsTtavov, 
poet. dpeTtdvj], dim. dpeTrdviov), a sickle; a 
scythe; a pruning knife or pruning hook; a bill ; 
a falchion ; a halbert. As cwfterdencted a knife 
with one straight edge,/a/# signified any sim- 
ilar instrument the single edge of which was 
curved. By additional epithets the various 
uses of the falx were indicated. Thus the 
sickle, because it was used by reapers, was 
called falx messoria ; the scythe, which was 
employed in mowing hay, was called falx 
fasnaria, &c. A rare coin published by Pel- 
lerin, shows the head of one of the Lagidae, 
kings of Egypt, wearing the Diadema, and, 




FAMI'LIA. The word familia contains 
the same element as the word famulus, a 
slave, and the verb famulari. Jn its widest 
sense it signifies the totality of that which 
belongs to a Roman citizen who is sui juris, 
and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in cer- 
tain cases of testamentary disposition, the 
word familia is explained by the equivalent 
patrimonium ; and the person who received 
the familia from the testator was calledyami- 
liae emptor. 

But the word familia is sometimes limited 
to signify <4 persons," that is, all those who 
are in the power of a paterfamilias, such as 
his sons (Jilii-familias), daughters, grand-chil- 
dren, and slaves. 

Sometimes familia is used to signify the 
slaves belonging to a person, or to a body of 
persons (societas). 

FANUM. [TEMPLUM.] 

FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry. 

FASCES, rods bound in the form of a bun- 
dle, and containing an axe (securis) in the 
middle, the iron of which projected from them 
These rods were carried by lictors before the 
superior magistrates at Rome, and are often 
represented on the reverse of consular coins. 
The following woodcuts give the reverses of 
four consular coins ; in the first of which we 
see the lictors carrying the fasces on their 
shoulders ; in the second, two fasces, and, be- 
tween them a sella curulis ; in the third, two 
fasces crowned, with the consul standing be- 



FASCES. 

tween them; and in the fourth, the same, 
only with no crowns around the fasces. 



FASTI. 



15J 




The fasces appear to have been usually 
made of birch, but sometimes also of the 
twigs of the elm. They are said to have 
been derived from Vetulonia, a city of Etru- 
ria. Twelve were carried before each of the 
kings by twelve lictors ; and on the expulsion 
of the Tarquins, one of the consuls was pre- 
ceded by twelve lictors with the fasces and 
secures, and the other by the same number 
of lictors with the fasces only, or, according 
to some accounts, with crowns around them. 
But P. Valerius Publicola, who gave to the 
people the right of provocatio, ordained that 
the secures should be removed from the fas- 
ces, and allowed only one of the consuls to 
be preceded by the lictors while they were at 
Rome. The other consul was attended only 
by a single accensus [ACCENSUS]. When 
they were out of Rome, and at the head of 
the army, each of the consuls retained the 
axe in the fasces, and was preceded by his 
own lictors, as before the time of Valerius. 

The fasces and secures were, however, 
carried before the dictator even in the city, 
and he was also preceded by twenty-four lic- 
tors, and the magister equitum by six. 

The praetors were preceded in the city by 
two lictors with the fasces ; but out of Rome 
and at the head of an army by six, with the 
fasces and secures. The tribunes of the 
plebs, the aediles and quaestors, had no lie- 
tots in the city, but in the provinces the quaes- 
Luis were permitted to have the fasces. 



The lictors carried the fasces on theii 
shoulders, as is seen in the coin of Brutus 
given above ; and when an inferior magistrate 
met one who was higher in rank, the lictors 
lowered their fasces to him. This was done 
by Valerius Publicola, when he addressed 
the people, and hence came the expression 
submittere fasces in the sense of to yield, to 
confess one's self inferior to another. 

When a general had gained a victory, and 
had been saluted as Imperator by his soldiers 
he usually crowned his fasces with laurel. 

FASCIA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, 1. 
round the head as an ensign of royalty ; 2 
by women over the breast ; 3. round the legs 
and feet, especially by women. When thr 
toga had fallen into disuse, and the shorte 
pallium was worn in its stead, so that th; 
legs were naked and exposed, fasciae crurales 
became common even with the male sex. 

FASTI. Fas signifies divine law: the ep*- 
thetfastus is properly applied to anything in 
accordance with divine law, and hence those 
days upon which legal business might, with- 
out impiety (sine piaculo), be transacted before 
the praetor, were technically denominated 
fasti dies. i. e. lawful days. 

The sacred books in which the fasti dies of 
the year were marked were themselves deno- 
minated fasti ; the term, however, was em- 
ployed to denote registers of various descrip- 
tions. Of these the two principal are the Fasfi 
Sacri or Fasti Kalendares, and Fasti Annalet, 
or Fasti Historici. 

I. FASTI SACRI or KALENDARES. For nearly 
four centuries and a half after the foundation 
of the city a knowledge of the calendar was 
possessed exclusively by the priests. One of 
the pontifices regularly proclaimed the appear- 
ance of the new moon, and at the same time 
announced the period which would intervene 
between the Kalends and the Nones. On the 
Nones the country people assembled for the 
purpose of learning from the rex sacrorurn 
the various festivals to be celebrated during 
the month, and the days on which they would 
fall. In like manner all who wished to go to 
law were obliged to inquire of the privileged 
few on what day they might bring their suit, 
and received the reply as if from the lips of an 
astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long a 
source of power and profit, and therefore jea- 
.ously enveloped in mystery, was at length 
made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe 
;o App. Claudius ; who, having gained accets 
to the pontifical books, copied out all the re 
quisite information, and exhibited it in t li- 
bra m for the use of the people at large. I-'r. > : , 
this time forward such tables became common . 
and were known by the name of Fasti. They 



152 



FAST1GIUM. 



usually contained an enumeration of the 
months and days of the year; the Nones, Ides, 
Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti, Comitales, 
Atri, &c., together with the different festivals, 
were marked in their proper places : astrono- 
mical observations on the risings and settings 
of the fixed stars, and the commencement of 
the seasons were frequently inserted. [CA- 

LENDARIUM ; DlES.] 

II. FASTI ANNALES or HISTORIC!. Chro- 
nicles such as the Annales Maximi, contain- 
ing the names of the chief magistrates for each 
year, and a short account of the most remark- 
able events noted down opposite to the days 
on which they occurred, were, from the re- 
semblance which they bore in arrangement 
to the sacred calendars, denominated fasti ; 
and hence this word is used, especially by the 
poets, in the general sense of historical records. 
In prose writers fasti is commonly employed 
as the technical term for the registers of con- 
suls, dictators, censors and other magistrates, 
which formed part of the public archives. 
Some most important fasti belonging to this 
class, executed probably at the beginning of 
the reign of Tiberius, have been partially pre- 
served, and are deposited in the capitol in 
Rome, where they are known by the name of 
the Fasti Capitolini. 

FASTI'GIUM. An ancient Greek or Ro- 
man temple, of rectangular construction, is 
terminated at its upper extremity by a trian- 
gular figure, both in front and rear, which 
rests upon the cornice of the entablature as a 
base, and has its sides formed by the cornices 
which terminate the roof. The whole of this 
triangle above the trabeation is implied in the 
term fastigium, called uerufj.a by the Greeks, 
pediment by our architects. 




Fastigium. 

The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no 
gable ends ; consequently when the word is 
applied to them, it is not in its strictly techni- 
cal sense, but designates the roof simply, and 
is to be understood of one which rises to an 



FEN US. 

apex, as distinguished from a flat one. The 
fastigium, properly so called,was appropriated 
to the temples of the gods ; therefore, when 
the Romans began to bestow divine honours 
upon Julius Caesar, amongst other privileges 
which they decreed to him, was the liberty ol 
erecting a fastigium to his house, that is, a 
portico and pediment towards the street, like 
that of a temple. 

FAX (0avoc), a torch. In the annexed wood- 
cut, the female figure is copied from a fictile 
vase. The winged figure on the left hand, 
asleep and leaning on a torch, is from a fune- 
ral monument at Rome. The other winged 
figure represents Cupid as Aixrepwf , or Lethce- 
us Amor. In ancient marbles the torch is 
sometimes more ornamented than the exam- 
ples now produced, but it always appears to 
be formed of wooden staves or twigs, either 
bound by a rope drawn round them in a spiral 
form', as in the middle figure below, or sur- 
rounded by circular bands at equal distances, 
as in the two exterior figures. The inside of 
the torch may be supposed to have been filled 
with flax, tow, or other vegetable fibres, the 
whole being abundantly impregnated with 
pitch, rosin, wax, oil, and other inflammable 
substances. 




FECIA'LES. [FETIALES.] 

FENESTRA. [DOMUS.] 

FENUS orFOENTJS (ro/cof), interest of 
money. I.GREEK. At Athens there was no 
restriction upon the rate of interest. A rate 
might be expressed or represented in two dif- 
ferent ways: (1) by the number of oboli or 
drachmae paid by the month for every mina ; 
(2) by the part of the principal (TO up%alov or 
KEQdhaiov) paid as interest either annually or 
for the whole period of the loan. According 
to the former method, which was generally 



r/juiofio^iu, probably, 
generally adopted in 



FENUS. 

used when money was lent upon real security 
(TOKOI eyyvoi or eyyeiot), different rates were 
expressed as follows : 10 per cent, by im TrevTe 
dfioAotc , i.e. 5 oboli per month for every mina, or 
60 oboli a year= 10 drachmae= _ l _ of a mina. 
Similarly, 

12 per cent, by em dpa^/iy per month. 

16 per cent. TT' 6/cn 
18 per cent. err' 
24 per cent. em 6val 
36 per cent. em Tpiat 
5 per cent. 

Another method was 

cases of bottomry (TO VCLVTIKOV. TOKOI vav~i 
KOL, or eKdoatc), where money was lent upon the 
ship's cargo or freightage (em TCJ vavhu), or 
the ship itself, for a specified time, commonly 
that of-the voyage. By this method the fol- 
lowing rates were thus represented : 

10 percent, by TOKOI emdeKdToi, i.e. interest 
at the rate of a tenth ; 12$, 16|, 20, 33$, by 
TOKOI 7roydooi, e(j)KTOt, imTrefiTTTOi, and em- 
TPITOI, respectively. 

The usual rates of interest at Athens about 
the time of Demosthenes varied from 12 to 18 
per cent. 

2. ROMAN. Towards the close of the repub- 
lic, and also under the emperors, 12 per cent, 
was the legal rate of interest. The interest 
became due on the first of every month : hence 
the phrases tristes or celeres calendae and calen- 
darium, the latter meaning a debt-book or book 
of accounts. The rate of interest was express- 
ed in the time of Cicero, and afterwards, by 
means of the as and its divisions, according to 
the following table : 

Asses usurae, or one as per 
month for the use of one 
hundred = 12 per cent. 

Deunces usurae . .11 



FERIAE. 



153 



Dextantes 
Dodrantes 



Septunces 

Semisses 

Quincunces 

Trientes 

Quadrantes 

Sextantes 

Unciae * 

Instead of the phrase asses usurae, a syno- 
nyme was used, viz. centesimae usurae, inas- 
much as at this rate of interest there was paid 
in a hundred months a sum equal to the whole 
principal. Hence binae centesimae = 24 per 
cent., and quaternae centesimae 48 per cent. 
The monthly rate of the centesimae was of 
foreign origin, and first adopted at Rome in 
the time of Sulla. The old yearly rate estab- 
lished bv the Twelve Tables (B. c. 450) was 



the unciarium fenus. The uncia was the 
twelfth part of the as, and since the full (12 
oz.) copper coinage was still in use at Rome 
when the Twelve Tables became law, the 
phrase unciarium fenus would be a natural ex- 
pression for interest of one ounce in the 
pound ; i. e. a twelfth part of the sum borrow- 
ed, or 8J per cent., not per month, but per 
year. This rate, if calculated for the old Ro- 
man year of ten months, would give 10 per 
cent, for the civil year of twelve months, 
which was in common use in the time of the 
decemvirs. 

If a debtor could not pay the principal and 
interest at the end of the year, he used to bor- 
row money from a fresh creditor, to pay off his 
old debt. This proceeding was very frequent, 
and called a versura. It amounted to little 
short of paying compound interest, or an ana- 
tocismus anniversarius, another phrase for which 
was usurae renovatae e. g. centesimae renovatae 
is twelve per cent, compound interest, to which 
Cicero opposes centesimae perpetuo fenore 12 
per cent, simple interest. The following 
phrases are of common occurrence in connec- 
tion with borrowing and lending money at in- 
terest : Pecuniam apud aliquem collocare, to 
lend money at interest ; relegere, to call it in 
again ; caver e, to give security for it ; opponere 
or opponere pignori, to give as a pledge or mort- 
gage. The word nomen is also of extensive 
use in money transactions. Properly it de- 
noted the name of a debtor, registered in a 
banker's or any other account-book : hence it 
came to signify the articles of an account, a 
debtor, or a debt itself. Thus we have bonum 
nomen, a good debt ; nomina facere, to lend 
monies, and also to borrow money. 

FERA'LIA. [FUNUS, p. 164.] 

FE'RCULUM (from/er-o)is applied to any 
kind of tray or platform used for carrying any- 
thing. Thus it is used to signify the tray or 
frame on which several dishes were brought 
in at once at dinner ; and hence fercula came 
to mean the number of courses at dinner, and 
even the dishes themselves. 

The ferculum was also used for carrying the 
images of the gods in the procession of the 
circus, the ashes of the dead in a funeral, and 
the spoils in a triumph ; in all which cases it 
appears to have been carried on the shoulders 
or in the hands of men. 

FERETRUM. [FUNUS.] 

FE'RIAE, holidays, were, generally speak- 
ing, days or seasons during which free-born 
Romans suspended their political transactions 
and their law-suits, and during which slaves 
enjoyed a cessation from labour. All feriae 
were thus dies nefasti. The feriae included all 
days consecrated to any deity ; consequently 



154 



FERIAE. 



all days on which public festivals were cele- 
brated were feriae or dies feriati. But some 
of them, such as the feria vindernialis, and the 
feriae aestivae, seem to have had no direct 
connection with the worship of the gods. The 
nundinae, however, during the time of the 
kings and the early .period of the republic, 
were feriae only for the populus, and days of 
business for the plebeians, until, by the Hor- 
tensian law, they became fasti or days of busi- 
ness for both orders. 

All feriae publicae, i. e. those which were ob- 
served by the whole nation were divided into 
feriae stativae, feriae conceptivae, and feriae im- 
perativae. Feriae stativae or statae were those 
which were held regularly, and on certain 
days marked in the calendar. To these be- 
longed some of the great festivals, such as the 
Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. Fe- 
riae conceptivae or conceptae were held every 
year, hut not on certain or fixed days, the time 
being every year appointed by the magistrates 
or priests. Among these we may mention the 
feriae Latinae, feriae Sementivae, Paganalia, 
and Compitalia. Feriae imperativae were those 
which were held on certain emergencies at 
the command of the consuls, praetors, or of a 
dictator. 

The manner in which all public feriae were 
kept bears great analogy to the observance of 
our Sunday. The people visited the temples 
of the gods, and offered up their prayers and 
sacrifices. The most serious and solemn 
seem to have been the feriae imperativae, but 
all the others were generally attended with 
rejoicings and feasting. All kinds of busi- 
ness, especially law-suits, were suspended du- 
ring the public feriae, as they were considered 
to pollute the sacred season. 

The most important of the holidays desig- 
nated by the name of feriae. are the Feriae 
Latinae or simply Latinae (the original name 
was Latiar), which were said to have been in- 
stituted by the last Tarquin in commemora- 
tion of the alliance between the Romans and 
Latins. This festival, however, was of much 
higher antiquity ; it was a panegyris, or a fes- 
tival of the whole Latin nation, celebrated on 
the Alban mount ; and all that the last Tar- 
quin did was to convert the original Latin 
festival into a Roman one, and to make it the 
' means of hallowing and cementing the alli- 
ance between the two nations. Before the 
union, the chief magistrate of the Latins had 
presided at the festival ; but Tarquin now as- 
sumed this distinction, which subsequently 
after the destruction of the Latin common- 
wealth, remained with the chief magistrates 
of Rome. The object of this panegyris on the 
AUmn mount was the worship of Jupiter La- 



FETIALES. 

tiaris, and, at least as long as the Latin repuo- 
lic existed, to deliberate and decide on mat- 
ters of the confederacy, and to settle any 
disputes which might have arisen among its 
members. As the feriae Latinae belonged to 
the conceptivae, the time of their celebration 
greatly depended on the state of affairs at 
Rome, since the consuls were never allowed 
to take the field until they had held the La- 
tinae. This festival was a great engine in the 
hands of the magistrates, who had to appoint 
the time of its celebration (concipere, edicere, 
or indicere Latinas] ; as it might often suit 
their purpose either to hold the festival at a 
particular time or to delay it, in order to pre- 
vent or delay such public proceedings as 
seemed injurious and pernicious, and to pro- 
mote others to which they were favourably 
disposed. The festival lasted six days. 

FESCENNI'NA, sell, carmina, one of the 
earliest kinds of Italian poetry, which con- 
sisted of rude and jocose verses, or rather 
dialogues of extempore verses, in which the 
merry country folks assailed and ridiculed one 
another. This amusement seems originally 
to have been peculiar to country people, but 
it was also introduced into the towns of Italy 
and at Rome, where we find it mentioned as 
one of those in which young people indulged 
at weddings. 

FETIA'LES or FECJA'LES, a college of 
Roman priests, who acted as the guardians of 
the public faith. It was their province, when 
any dispute arose with a foreign state, to de- 
mand satisfaction, to determine the circum- 
stances under which hostilities might be com- 
menced, to perform the various religious rites 
attendant on the solemn declaration of war, 
and to preside at the formal ratification ot 
peace. When an injury had been received 
from a foreign state, four fetiales were deputed 
to seek redress, who again elected one of their 
number to act as their representative. This 
individual was styled the pater patratus populi 
Romani. A fillet of white wool was bound 
round his head, together with a wreath of sa- 
cred herbs gathered within the inclosure of the 
Capitoline hill ( Verbenae ; Sagmina) whence he 
was sometimes named Verbenarius. Thus 
equipped, he proceeded to the confines of the 
offending tribe, where he halted, and address- 
ed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the god to wit- 
ness, with heavy imprecations, that his com- 
plaints were well founded and his demands 
reasonable. He then crossed the border, and 
the same form was repeated in nearly the 
same words to the first native of the soil whom 
he might chance to meet ; again a third time 
to the sentinel or any citizen whom he en- 
countered at the gate of the chief town ; and 



FIDEICOMM1SSUM. 

a fourth time to the magistrates in the forum 
in presence of the people. If a satisfac- 
tory answer was not returned within thirty 
days, after publicly delivering a solemn de- 
nunciation of what might be expected to fol- 
low, he returned to Rome, and, accompanied 
by the rest of the fetiales, made a report of his 
mission to the senate. If the people, as well 
as the senate, decided for war, the pater pa- 
tratus again set forth to the border of the 
hostile territory, and launched a spear tipped 
with iron, or charred at the extremity and 
smeared with blood (emblematic doubtless of 
fire and slaughter) across the boundary, pro- 
nouncing at the same time a solemn declara- 
tion of war. The demand for redress, and 
the proclamation of hostilities, were alike 
termed clarigatio. The whole system is said 
to have been borrowed from the Aequicolae or 
the Ardeates, and similar usages undoubtedly 
prevailed among the Latin states. 

The number of the fetiales cannot be ascer- 
tained with certainty, but they were probably 
twenty. They were originally selected from 
the most noble families, and their office lasted 
for life. 

FI'BULA (nepovrj, Trepovic, Trspovijrpic, irop- 
TH?, &c.), a brooch, consisting of a pin (acus), 
and of a curved portion furnished with a hook. 
The curved portion was sometimes a circular 
ring or disc, the pin passing across its centre 
(woodcut, figs. 1, 2), and sometimes an arc, 
the pin being as the chord of the arc (fig. 3). 
The forms of brooches.which were commonly 
of gold or bronze, and more rarely of silver, 
were, however, as various in ancient as in 
modern times ; for the tibula served in dress 
not merely as a fastening, but also as an or- 
nament. 



FLA MEN. 



155 




Fibulae, Brooches. 

FIDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be 
a testamentary disposition, by which a person 
who gives a thing to another imposes on him 
;he obligation of transferring it to a third per- 
son. The obligation was not created by words 
of legal binding force (civilia verba), but by 
words of request (precative), such as fidncom- 



mitto, peto, volo dari, and the like ; which were 
the operative words (verba utilia). 

FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under the 
republic the public treasury was called Aera- 
rium. [AERARIUM.] On the establishment 
of the imperial power, there was a division of 
the provinces between the senate, as the re- 
presentative of the old republic, and the Cae- 
sar or the emperor ; and there was conse- 
quently a division of the most important 
branches of public income and expenditure. 
The property of the senate retained the name 
of Aerarium, and that of the Caesar, as such, 
received the name of Fiscus. The private 
property of the Caesar (res privata principis, 
ratio Caesaris) was quite distinct from that of 
the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a wick- 
er-basket, or pannier, in which the Romans 
were accustomed to keep and carry about 
large sums of money ; and hence fiscus came 
to signify any person's treasure or money 
chest. The importance of the imperial fiscus 
soon led to the practice of appropriating the 
name to that property which the Caesar 
claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, with- 
out any adjunct, was used in this sense. Ul- 
timately the word came to signify generally 
the property of the state, the Caesar having 
concentrated in himself all the sovereign pow- 
er, and thus the word fiscus finally had the 
same signification as aerarium in the republi- 
can period. 

Various officers, as Procurators, Advocati, 
Patroni, and Praefecti, were employed in the 
administration of the fiscus. 

FLAMEN, the name for any Roman priest 
who was devoted to the service of one par- 
ticular god, and who received a distinguishing 
epithet from the deity to whom he ministei 
ed. The most dignified were those attached 
to Diiovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the Flamen 
Dialis, Flamen Martialis, and Flamen Quiri- 
nalis. They are said to have been established 
by Numa. The number was eventually in- 
creased to fifteen : the three original flamens 
were always chosen from among the patri- 
cians, and styled Majores ; the rest from the 
plebeians, with the epithet Minores. Among 
the minores, we read of the Flamen Floralis, 
the Flamen Carmentalis, &c. 

The flamens were elected originally at the 
Comitia Curiata, but it is conjectured that 
subsequently to the passing of the Lex Domi- 
tia (B. c. 104) they were chosen in the Comi- 
tia Tributa. After being nominated by the 
people, they were received (capti) and install 
ed (inaugurabantur) by the pontifex maximus, 
to whose authority they were at all times 
subject. 

The office was understood to last for life ; 



156 



FLORALIA. 



but a flamen might be compelled to resign 
(flaminio abire) for a breach of duty or even 
on account of the occurrence of an ill- omened 
accident while discharging his functions. 

Their characteristic dress was the apex 
[APEX], the laena [LAENA], and a laurel 
wreath. The most distinguished of all the 
flamens was the Dialis ; the lowest in rank 
the Pomonalis. The former enjoyed many 
peculiar honours. When a vacancy occurred, 
three persons of patrician descent, whose pa- 
rents had been married according to the cere- 
monies of confarreatio, were nominated by the 
Comitia, one of whom was selected (captus), 
and consecrated (inaugurabatur) by the ponti- 
fex maximus. From that time forward he 
was emancipated from the control of his fa- 
ther, and became sui juris. He alone of all 
priests wore the albogalerus ; he had a right to 
a lic.tor, to the toga praetexta, the sella curulis, 
and to a seat in the senate in virtue of his 
offu e. If one in bonds took refuge in his 
house, his chains were immediately struck off. 
To counterbalance these high honours, the 
dialis was subjected to a multitude of restric- 
tions. It was unlawful for him to be out of 
the city for a single night ; and he was for- 
bidden to sleep out of his own bed for three 
nights consecutively. He might not mount 
upon horseback, nor even touch a horse, nor 
look upon an army marshalled without the 
pomoerium, and hence was seldom elected to 
the consulship. The object of the above rules 
was manifestly to make him literally Jovi ad- 
siduum sacerdotem ; to compel constant atten- 
tion to the duties of the priesthood. 

Flaminica was the name given to the wife of 
the dialis. He was required to wed a virgin 
according to the ceremonies of confarreatio, 
which regulation also applied to the two other 
rlamines majores ; and he could not marry a 
second time. Hence, since her assistance was 
essential in the performance of certain ordi- 
nances, a divorce was not permitted, and if 
she died, the dialis was obliged to resign. 

The municipal towns also had their flamens. 
Thus the celebrated affray between Milo and 
Clodius took place while the former was on 
his way to Lanuvium, of which he was then 
dictator, to declare the election of a flamen 
(adflaminem prodendum). 

FLA'MMEUM. [MATRIMONIDM.] 

FLORA'LIA, or Florales Ludi, a festival 
which was celebrated at Rome in honour of 
Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning 
on the 28th of April and ending on the 2nd of 
May. It was said to have been instituted at 
Rome in 238 B. c., at the command of an ora- 
cle in the Sibylline books, for the purpose of 
obtaining from the goddess the protection of 



FOLLIS. 

the blossoms. The celebration was, as usual? 
conducted by the aediles, and was carried on 
with excessive merriment, drinking, and las- 
civious games. 

FOCA'LE, a covering for the ears and neck, 
made of wool, and worn by infirm and delicate 
persons. 

FOCUS, d*m.FO'CULUS(&m'a: ec^upa, 
xapic), a fire-place ; a hearth ; a brazier 
The fire-place possessed a sacred character, 
and was dedicated among the Romans to the 
Lares of each family. Movable hearths, or 
braziers, properly called foculi, were frequently 
used. 




Foculus, Movable Hearth. 

FOEDERA'TAE CIVITA'TES,FOEDE- 
RA'TI, SO'CII. In the seventh century of 
Rome these names expressed those Italian 
states which were connected with Rome by a 
treaty (foedus). These names did not include 
Roman colonies or Latin colonies, or any place 
which had obtained the Roman civitas or citi- 
zenship. Among the foederati were the Latini, 
who were the most nearly related to the Ro- 
mans, and were designated by this distinctive 
name ; the rest of the foederati were comprised 
under the collective name of Socii or Foederati. 
They were independent states, yet under a 
general liability to furnish a contingent to the 
Roman army. Thus they contributed to in- 
crease the power of Rome, but they had not 
the privileges of Roman citizens. The dis- 
content among the foederati, and their claims 
to be admitted to the privileges of Roman 
citizens, led to the Social War. The Julia 
Lex (B. c. 90) gave the civitas to the Socii and 
Latini ; and a lex of the following year con- 
tained, among other provisions, one for the ad- 
mission to the Roman civitas of those peregrini 
who were entered on the lists of the citizens 
of federate states, and who complied with the 
provisions of the lex. [CIVITAS.] 

FOENUS. [FENUS.] 

FOLLIS, dim. FOLLI'CULUS. 1. An in 
flated ball of leather, filled with air. Boys and 
old men, among the Romans, threw it from 
one to another with their arms and hands, as 



FORUM. 



15/ 



a gentle exercise of the body, unattended with 
danger. 2. Two inflated skins, constituting a 
pair of bellows. The following woodcut is 
taken from an ancient lamp, and represents a 
pair of bellows like those we now employ. 




Follig, Bellows. 

FOOT (measure of length). 

FOREIGNERS, at Athens [METOECUS] ; 
at Rome [PEREGRINUS.] 

FORES. [DOMUS.] 

FORNACA'LIA, a festival in honour of 
Fornax, the goddess of furnaces, in order that 
the corn might be properly baked. This an- 
cient festival is said to have been instituted 
by Numa. The time for its celebration was 
proclaimed every year by the curio maximus, 
who announced in tablets, which were placed 
in the forum, the different part which each 
curia had to take in the celebration of the fes- 
tival. Those persons who did not know to 
what curia they belonged performed the sa- 
cred rites on the Quirinalia, called from this 
circumstance the Stultorum feriae, which fell 
on the last day of the Fornacalia. 

FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synony- 
mous with ARCUS, but more commonly im- 
plies an arched vault, constituting both roof 
and ceiling to the apartment which it en- 
closes. 

FORUM, originally, signifies an open place 
(area) before any building, especially before 
a sepulchrum, and seems, therefore etymolo- 
gically to be connected with the adverb foras. 
The characteristic features of a Roman forum 
were, that it was a levelled space of ground 
of an oblong form, and surrounded by build- 
ings, houses, temples, basilicae or porticos. 
It was originally used as a place where jus- 
tice was administered, and where goods were 
exhibited for sale. We have accordingly to 
distinguish between two kinds of fora ; of 
which some were exclusively devoted to com- 
O 



mercial purposes, and were real market-places, 
while others were places of meeting for the' 
popular assembly, and for the courts of jus- 
tice. Mercantile business, however, was not 
altogether excluded from the latter, and it was 
especially the bankers and usurers who had 
shops in the buildings and porticos by which 
the fora were surrounded. The latter kinds 
of fora were sometimes called fora judicialia, 
to distinguish them from the mere market- 
places. 

Among the fora judicialia the most impor- 
tant was the Forum Romanum, which was sim- 
ply called forum, so long as it was the only 
one of its kind which existed at Rome. At a 
late period of the republic, and during the em- 
pire, when other fora judicialia were built, the 
Forum Romanum was distinguished from 
them by the epithets vetus or magnum. It was 
situated between the Palatine and the Capi- 
toline hills, and its extent was seven jugera. 
It was originally a swamp or marsh, which 
was said to have been filled up by Romulus 
and Tatius. In its widest sense the forum in- 
cluded the comitium, or the place of assembly 
for the curiae, which was separated from the 
forum in its narrower sense, or the place of 
assembly for the comitia tributa, by the Rostra. 
These ancient rostra were an elevated space 
of ground or a stage (suggestum), from which 
the orators addressed the people, and which 
derived its name from the circumstance that, 
after the subjugation of Latium, its sides were 
adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of 
the Antiates. In subsequent times, when the 
curiae had lost their importance, the accurate 
distinction between comitium and forum like- 
wise ceased, and the cornitia tributa were 
sometimes held in the Circus Flaminius ; but 
towards the end of the republic the forum 
seems to have been chiefly used for judicial 
proceedings, and as a money-market. The 
orators when addressing the people from the 
rostra, and even the tribunes of the people in 
the early times of the republic, used to front 
the comitium and the curia ; but C. Gracchus, 
or, according to others, C.Licinius, introduced 
the custom of facing the forum, thereby ac- 
knowledging the sovereignty of the people. 
In 308 B. c. the Romans adorned the forum, 
or rather the bankers' shops (argentariae) 
around, with gilt shields which they had 
taken from the Samnites ; and this custom of 
adorning the forum with these shields and 
other ornaments was subsequently always ob- 
served during the time of the Ludi Rornani, 
when the aediles rode in their chariots (tmsae) 
in solemn procession around the forum. After 
the victory of C. Duilius over the Carthagin- 
ians, the forum was adorned with the cele- 



158 



FUNDA. 



brated columna rostrata [COLUMNA]. In the 
upper part of the fornm, or the comitium, the 
laws of the Twelve Tables were exhibited for 
public inspection, and it was probably in the 
same part that, in 304 B.C., Cn. Flavius ex- 
hibited the Fasti, written on white tables (in 
albo), that every citizen might be able to know 
the days on which the law allowed the ad- 
ministration of justice. Besides the ordinary 
business which was carried on in the forum, 
we read that gladiatorial games were held in 
it, and that prisoners of war and faithless 
colonists or legionaries were put to death 
there. 

A second forum judiciarium was built by 
Julius Caesar, and was called Forum Caesaris 
or Julii. The levelling of the ground alone 
cost him above a million of sesterces, and he 
adorned it besides with a magnificent temple 
of Venus Genitrix. ' 

A third forum was built by Augustus, and 
called Forum Augusti, because the two ex- 
isting ones were not found sufficient for the 
great increase of business which had taken 
place. Augustus adorned his forum with a 
temple of Mars and the statues of the most 
distinguished men of the republic, and issued 
a decree that only the judicia publica and the 
sortitiones judicum should take place in it. 

The three fora which have been mentioned 
seem to have been the only ones that were 
destined for the transaction of public business. 
All the others, which were subsequently built 
by the emperors, such as the Forum Trajani 
or Ulpium, the Forum Sallustii, Forum Diocle- 
tiani, Forum Aureliani, &c.,were probably more 
intended as embellishments of the city than to 
supply any actual want. 

Different from these fora were the numerous 
markets at Rome, which were neither as large 
nor as beautiful as the former. They are al- 
ways distinguished from one another by epi- 
thets expressing the particular kinds of things 
which were sold in them, e. g. forum boarium, 
the cattle-market; forum olitorium, the vege- 
table-market ; forum piscarium, fish-market ; 
forum cupedinis, market for dainties ; forum co- 
quinum, a market in which cooked and pre- 
pared dishes were to be had, &c. 

FRA'MEA. [HASTA.] 

FRATRES ARVA'LES. [ARVALES FRA- 

TRES.] 

FREEDMEN. [LIBERTUS.] 

FUGITl'VUS. [SERVUS.] 

FUNDA (atevdavij), a sling. Slingers are 
not mentioned in the Iliad ; but the light troops 
of the Greek and Roman armies consisted in 
great part of slingers (funditores, GtyevdovrJTai). 
The most celebrated slingers were the inhab- 
itants of the Balearic islands. Besides stones, 



FUNUS. 

plummets, called glandes (uo2,v,3didee), of a 
form between acorns and almonds, were cast 
in moulds to be thrown with slings 

FUNDITO'RES. [FUNDA.] 

FUNERALS. [FUNUS.] 

FUNUS, a funeral. 

1. GREEK. The Greeks attached great im- 
portance to the burial of the dead. They be- 
lieved that souls could not enter the Elysian 
fields till their bodies had been buried ; and so 
strong was this feeling among the Greeks, that 
it was considered a religious duty to throw 
earth upon a dead body, which a person might 
happen to find unburied ; and among the 
Athenians, those children who were released 
from all other obligations to unworthy parents, 
were nevertheless bound to bury them by one 
of Solon's laws. The neglect of burying one's 
relatives is frequently mentioned by the orators 
as a grave charge against the moral character 
of a man ; in fact, the burial of the body by 
the relations of the dead was considered one 
of the most sacred duties by the universal law 
of the Greeks. Sophocles represents Antigone 
as disregarding all consequences in order to 
bury the dead body of her brother Polynices, 
which Creon, the king of Thebes, had com- 
manded to be left unburied. The common 
expressions for the funeral rites, TO. dtKata, 
vo/Ltiua or vo/j,td/4eva, Trpo^Kovra, show that 
the 'dead had, as it were, a legal and moral 
claim to burial. 

After a person was dead, it was the custom 
first to place in his mouth an obolus, called 
danace ( Javd/CT?), with which he might pay the 
ferryman in Hades. The body was then 
washed, and anointed with perfumed oil, the 
head was crowned with the flowers which 
happened to be in season, and the body dressed 
in as handsome a robe as the family could af- 
ford. These duties were not performed by 
hired persons, like the pollinctores among the 
Romans, but by the. women of the family, 
upon whom the care of the corpse always 
devolved. 

The corpse was then laid out(7rpd#(7c, Trpo- 
TlQeaOaC) on a bed, which appears to have 
been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow for 
supporting the head and back. By the side 
of the bed there were placed painted earthen 
vessels, called MjKvOot, which were also 
buried with the corpse. Great numbers of 
these painted vases have been found in modern 
times ; and they have been of great use in 
explaining many matters connected with an- 
tiquity. A honey-cake, called jUe/Urroura, 
which appears to have been intended for Cer- 
berus, was also placed by the side of the 
corpse. Before the door a vessel of water was 
placed, called ocrrpa/cor, &pddfaov or apfia 



FUNUS. 



159 



viov, in order that persons who had been in 
the house might purify themselves, by sprink- 
ling water on their persons. The relatives 
stood around the bed, the women uttering 
great lamentations, rending their garments, 
arid tearing their hair. On the day after the 
Ttpodeats, or the third day after death, the 
corpse was carried out (e/c0opa, e/c/co^id;)) for 
burial, early in the morning and before sun- 
rise. A burial soon after death was supposed 
to be pleasing to the dead. In some places it 
appears to have been usual to bury the dead 
on the day folio wing death. The men walked 
before the corpse, and the women behind. 
The funeral procession was preceded or fol- 
lowed by hired mourners (ftpijv^doi], who ap- 
pear to have been usually Carian women, play- 
ing mournful tunes on the flute. 

The body was either buried or burnt. The 
word OdTTTetv is used in connection with 
either mode ; it is applied to the collection of 
the ashes after burning, and accordingly we find 
the words naietv and duTrrety used together. 
The proper expression for interment in the 
earth is KaropvTTeiv. In Homer the bodies 
of the dead are burnt ; but interment was also 
used in very ancient times. Cicero says that 
the dead were buried at Athens in the time of 
Cecrops ; and we also read of the bones of 
Orestes being found in a coffin at Tegea. The 
dead were commonly buried among the Spar- 
tans and the Sicyonians, and the prevalence 
of this practice is proved by the great number 
of skeletons found in coffins in modern times, 
which have evidently not been exposed to the 
action of fire. Both burning and burying ap- 
pear to have been always used to a greater or 
less extent at different periods ; till the spread 
of Christianity at length put an end to the 
former practice. 

The dead bodies were usually burn* on piles 
of wood, called pyres (Trvpai). The body was 
placed on the top ; and in the heroic times it 
was customary to burn with the corpse ani- 
mals and even captives or slaves. Oils and 
perfumes were also thrown into the flames. 
When the pyre was burnt down, the remains 
of the fire were quenched with wine, and the 
relatives and friends collected the bones. The 
bones were then washed with wine and oil, 
and placed in urns, which were sometimes 
made of^old. 

The corpses which were not burnt were 
buried in coffins, which were called by various 
names, as cropoi, 7rt>eAod, ?\,r)voi, Aapva/cf, 
Jp"?rai, though some of these names are also 
applied to the urns in which the bones were 
collected. They were made of various ma- 
terials, but were usually of baked clay or 
earthenware. 



The dead were usually buried outside the 
town, as it was thought that their presence in 
the city brought pollution to the living. At 
Athens none were allowed to be buried within 
the city ; but Lycurgus, in order to remove 
all superstition respecting the presence of the 
dead, allowed of burial in Sparta. 

Persons who possessed lands in Attica were 
frequently buried in them, and we therefore 
read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, however, 
were most frequently built by the side of roads, 
and near the gates of the city. At Athens, the 
most common place of burial was outside of 
the Itonian gate, near the road leading to the 
Piraeeus, which gate was for that reason 
called the burial gate. Those who had fallen 
in battle were buried at the public expense in 
the outer Ceramicus, on the road leading to 
the Acadeinia. 

Tombs were called BfjKac, Ta<j>oi, /ivy/uaTd, 
fj.vr)/Lteta, arjuara. Many of these were only 
mounds of earth or stones (^w^ara, /coAwvoti, 
Tvfj.3oi). Others were built of stone, and fre- 
quently ornamented with great taste. 

Some of the most remarkable Greek tombs 

are those which have recently been discovered 

in Lycia by Mr. Fellows. The following 

woodcut will give an idea of their general 

I appearance. 




Some GreeK. tombs were built under ground, 
and called hypogea (vTroyata or VTroyeia). 
They correspond to the Roman conditoria. 



160 FUNUS. 

The monuments erected over the graves of 
persons were usually of four kinds: 1. or^/lat, 
pillars or upright stone tablets ; 2. Kiovec, col- 
umns ; 3. vaitiia, or ^pa, small buildings in 
the form of temples ; 'and 4. TpuTre&i, flat 
square stones, called by Cicero mensae. The 
term crf/hai is sometimes applied to all kinds 
of funeral monuments, but properly designates 
upright stone tablets, which were usually ter- 
minated with an oval heading, called 7rifl?j/ua. 
These k'KiQruj.ara were frequently ornamented 
with a kind of arabesque work, as in the two 
following specimens : 






Sepulchral Stelai. 

The KIOVKC, or columns, were of various 
forms, as is shown by the three specimens in 
the annexed cut. 




Sepulchral Columns. 

The inscriptions upon these funeral monu- 
ments usually contain the name of the de- 
ceased person, and that of the demus to which 
he belonged, as well as frequently some ac- 
count of his life. 

The following example of an jjptiov will give 
a general idea of monuments of this kind. 



Sepulchral Heroon. 

Orations in praise of the dead were some- 
I times pronounced ; but Solon ordained that 
such orations should be confined to persons 
who were honoured with a public funeral. Jn 
the heroic ages games were celebrated at the 
funeral of a great man, as in the case of Patro- 
clus ; but this practice does not seem to have 
been usual in the historical times. 

All persons who had been engaged in fune- 
rals were considered polluted, and could not 
enter the temples of the gods till they had 
been purified. 

After the funeral was over, the relatives 
partook of a feast, which was called Trspi- 
denrvov or veKpotisnrvov. This feast was al- 
was given at the house of the nearest relative 
of the deceased. Thus the relatives of those 
who had fallen at the battle of Chaeronea 
partook of the Trepidsnrvov at the house of 
Demosthenes, as if he were the nearest rela- 
tive to them all. 

On the second day after the funeral a sacri- 
fice to the dead was offered, called rpira ; but 
the principal sacrifice to the dead was on the 
ninth day, called svvara or Ivara. The 
mourning for the dead appears to have lasted 
till the thirtieth day after the funeral, on which 
day sacrifices were again offered. At Sparta 
the time of mourning was limited to eleven 
days. During the time of mourning it was 
considered indecorous foi the relatives of the 



FUNUS. 



16 



deceased to appear in public ; they were ac- 
customed to wear a black dress, and in an- 
cient times they cut off their hair as a sign of 
grief. 

The tombs were preserved by the family 
to which they belonged with the greatest 
care, and were regarded as among the strong- 
est ties which attached a man to his native 
land. In the Docimasia of the Athenian ar- 
chons it was always a subject of inquiry 
whether they had kept in proper repair the 
tombs of their ancestors. On certain days 
the tomb 1 * were crowned with flowers, and 
offering, %vere made to the dead, consisting 
of garlands of flowers and various other things. 
The act of offering these presents was called 
ivayi&tv, and the offerings themselves kva- 
yiafj.ara, or more commonly xoai. 

The yeveaia mentioned by Herodotus ap- 
pear to have consisted in offerings of the 
same kind which were presented on the an- 
niversary of the birth-day of the deceased. 
The vtKvaia were probably offerings on the 
anniversary of the day of the death ; though, 
according to some writers, the veKvaia were 
the same as the yEviaa. 

Certain criminals who were put to death 
by the state, were also deprived of the rights 
of burial, which was considered as an addi- 
tional punishment. There were certain places, 
both at Athens and Sparta, where the dead 
bodies of such criminals were cast. A person 
who had committed suicide was not deprived 
of burial, but the hand with which he had 
killed himself was cut off and buried by itself. 
The bodies of those persons who had been 
struck by lightning were regarded as sacred ; 
they were never buried with others, but usu- 
ally on the spot where they had been struck. 

[BlDENTAL.] 

2. ROMAN. When a Roman was at the 
point of death, his nearest relation present 
endeavoured to catch the last breath with his 
mouth. The ring was taken off the finger of 
the dying person ; and as soon as hejvas dead 
his eyes and mouth were closed by the near- 
est relation, who called upon the deceased 
by name, exclaiming have or vale. The corpse 
was then washed, and anointed with oil and 
perfumes, by slaves, called pollinctores, who 
belonged to the libitinarii, or undertakers. 
The libitinarii appear to have been so called 
because they dwelt near the temple of Venus 
Libitina, where all things requisite for fune- 
rals were sold. Hence we find the expres- 
sions vitare Libitinam and evadere Libitinam 
used in the sense of es-'aping death. At this 
temple an account (rat-*, ephemeris) was kept 
of those who died, and & small sum was paid 
for the registration of their names. 

9 



A small coin was then placed in the mouth 
of the corpse, in order to pay the ferryman in 
Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch 
in the vestibule of the house, with its feet to- 
wards the door, and dressed in the best robe 
which the deceased had worn when alive. 
Ordinary citizens were dressed in a white 
toga, and magistrates in their official robes. 
If the deceased had received a crown while 
alive as a reward for his bravery, it was now 
placed on his head ; and the couch on which 
he was laid was sometimes covered with 
leaves and flowers. A branch of cypress was 
also usually placed at the door of the house, 
if he was a person of consequence. 

Funerals were usually called funera justa 
or exsequiae ; the latter term was generally 
applied to the funeral procession (pompafune- 
6m). There were two kinds of funerals, pub- 
lic and private ; of which the former was 
called funus publicum or indictivum, because 
the people were invited to it by a herald ; the 
latter funus taciturn, translatitium, or plebeium. 
A person appears to have usually left a cer- 
tain sum of money in his will to pay the ex- 
penses of his funeral: but if he did not do so, 
nor appoint any one to bury him, this duty 
devolved upon the persons to vyhom the pro- 
perty was left, and if he died without a will, 
upon his relations, according to their order 
of succession to the property. The expenses 
of the funeral were in such cases decided by 
an arbiter, according to the property and rank 
of the deceased, whence arbitria is used to 
signify the funeral expenses. The following 
description of the mode in which a funeral 
was conducted only applies strictly to the 
funerals of the great ; the same pomp and 
ceremony could not of course be observed in 
the case of persons in ordinary circumstances. 

All funerals in ancient times were perform- 
ed at night, but afterwards the poor only 
were buried at night, because they could not 
afford to have any funeral procession. The 
corpse was usually carried out of the house 
(efferebatur) on the eighth day after the death. 
The order of the funeral procession was regu- 
lated by a person called designator or dominus 
funeris, who was attended by lictors dressed 
in black. It was headed by musicians of va- 
rious kinds (cornicines, siticines), who played 
mournful strains, and next came mourning 
women, called praeficae, who were hired to 
lament and sing the funeral song (naenia or 
lessus} in praise of the deceased. These 
were sometimes followed by players and buf- 
foons (scurrae, histriones), of whom one, called 
archimimus, represented the character of the 
deceased, and imitated his words and actions 
Then came the slaves whom the deceased 



162 



FUNUS. 



had liberated, wearing the cap of liberty (pi- 
leati) ; the number of whom was occasionally 
very great, since a master sometimes liberated 
all his slaves in his will, in order to add to 
the pornp of his funeral. Before the corpse 
the images of the deceased and of his ances- 
tors were carried, and. also the crowns or mil- 
itary rewards which he had gained. 

The corpse was carried on a couch (lectica), 
to which the name offeretrum or capulum was 
usually given ; but the bodies of poor citizens 
and of slaves were carried on a common kind 
of bier or coffin, called sandapila. The san- 
dapila was carried by bearers, called vespae 
or vespillones, because they carried out the 
corpses in the evening (vespertino tempore). 
The couches on which the corpses of the 
rich were carried were sometimes made of 
ivory, and covered with gold and purple. 
They were often carried on the shoulders of 
the nearest relations of the deceased, and 
sometimes on those of his freed-men, Julius 
Caesar was carried by the magistrates, and 
Augustus by the senators. 

The relations of the deceased walked be- 
hind the corpse in mourning; his sons with 
their heads veiled, and his daughters with 
their heads bare and their hair dishevelled, 
contrary to the ordinary practice of both. 
They often uttered loud lamentations, and 
the women beat their breasts and tore their 
cheeks, though this was forbidden by the 
Twelve Tables. If the deceased was of illus- 
trious rank, the funeral procession went 
through the forum, and stopped before the 
rostra, where a funeral oration (laudatio) in 
praise of the deceased was delivered. This 
practice was of great antiquity among the 
Romans, and is said by some writers to have 
been first introduced by Poplicola, who pro- 
nounced a funeral oration in honour of his 
colleague Brutus. Women also were hon- 
oured by funeral orations. From the forum 
the corpse was carried to the place of burn- 
ing or burial, which, according to a law of 
the Twelve Tables, was obliged to be outside 
the city. 

The Romans in the most ancient times 
buried their dead, though they also early j 
adopted, to some extent, the custom of burn- | 
ing, which is mentioned in the Twelve Ta- i 
bles. Burning, however, does not appear to 
have become general till the later times of 
the republic. Marius was buried, and Sulla 
was the first of the Cornelian gens whose 
body was burned. Under the empire burn- i 
ing was almost universally practised, but was 
gradually discontinued as Christianity spread, 
FO that it had fallen into disuse in the fourth 
century. Persons struck by lightning were 



not burnt, but buried on the spot, which was 
called Bidental, and was considered sacred. 
[BiDENTAL.] Children also, who had net cut 
their teeth, were not burnt, but buried in a 
place called Suggrundarium. Those who 
were buried were placed in a coffin (area or 
loculus), which was frequently made of stone, 
and sometimes of the Assian stone, which 
came from Assos in Troas, and which con- 
sumed all the body, with the exception of the 
teeth, in 40 days, whence it was called sarco- 
phagus. This name was in course of time 
applied to any kind of coffin or tomb. 

The corpse was burnt on a pile of wood 
(pyra or rogus}. This pile was built in the 
form of an altar, with four equal sides,whence 
we find it called ara sepulchri and funeris ara. 
The sides of the pile were, according to the 
Twelve Tables, to be loft rough and unpolish- 
ed, but were frequently covered with dark 
leaves. Cypress trees were sometimes placed 
before the pile. On the top of the pile the 
corpse was placed, with the couch on which 
it had been carried, and the nearest relation 
then set fire to the pile with his face turned 
away. When the flames began to rise, various 
perfumes were thrown into the fire, though 
this practice was forbidden by the Twelve Ta- 
bles ; cups of oil, ornaments, clothes, dishes 
of food, and other things, which were sup- 
posed to be agreeable to the deceased, were 
also thrown upon the flames. 

The place where a person was burnt was 
called bustum, if he was afterwards buried on 
the same spot, and uslrina or ustrinum if he was 
buried at a different place. Sometimes ani- 
mals were slaughtered at the pile, and in an- 
cient times captives and slaves, since the 
manes were supposed to be fond of blood ; but 
afterwards gladiators, called bustuarii, were 
hired to fight round the burning pile. 

When the pile was burnt down, the embers 
were soaked with wine, and the bones and 
ashes of the deceased were gathered by the 
nearest ^relatives, who sprinkled them with 
perfumes, and placed them in a vessel called 
urna, which was made of various materials, 
according to the circumstances of individuals. 
The urnae were also of various shapes, but 
most commonly square or round ; and upon 
them there was usually an inscription or epi- 
taph, (titulus or epitaphium), beginning with 
the letters D. M. S., or only D. M., that is Dis 
MANIBUS SACRUM, followed by the name of the 
deceased, with the length of his life, &c. 

After the bones and ashes of the deceased 
had been placed in the urn, the persons pre- 
sent were thrice sprinkled by a priest with pure 
water from a branch of olive or laurel for the 
purpose of purification : alter which they were 



FUNUS. 



163 



dismissed by the praefica, or some other per- 
son, by the solemn word Ilicet, that is, ire licet. 
At their departure they were accustomed to 
bid farewell to the deceased by pronouncing 
the word Vale. 

The urns were placed in sepulchres, which, 
as already stated.were outside the city, though 
in a few cases we read of the dead being buried 
within the city. Thus Valerius, Poplicola, 
Tubertus, and Fabricius, were buried in the 
city ; which right their descendants also pos- 
sessed, but did not use. The vestal virgins 
and the emperors were buried in the city. 

The verb sepelire, like the Greek daTTTeiv, 
was applied to every mode of disposing of the 
dead ; and sepulchrum signified any kind of 
tomb in which the body or bones of a man 
were placed. The term humare was originally 
used for burial in the earth, but was after- 
wards applied like sepelire to any mode of dis- 
posing of the dead ; since it appears to have 
been the custom after the body was burnt, to 
throw some earth upon the bones. 

The places for burial were either public or 
private. The public places of burial were of 
two kinds ; one for illustrious citizens, who 
were buried at the public expense, and the 
other for poor citizens, who could not afford 
to purchase ground for the purpose. The for- 
mer was in the Campus Martius, which was 
ornamented with the tombs of the illustrious 
dead, and in the Campus Esquilinus ; the lat- 
ter was also in the Campus Esquilinus, and 
consisted of small pits or caverns, called puti- 
culi or puticulae ; but as this place rendered 
the neighbourhood unhealthy, it was given to 
Maecenas, who converted it into gardens, and 
built a magnificent house upon it. Private 
places for burial were usually by the sides of 
the roads leading to Rome ; and on some of 
these roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs 
formed an almost uninterrupted street for 
many miles from the gates of the city. They 
were frequently built by individuals during 
their life-time ; , thus Augustus, in his sixth 
consulship, built the Mausoleum for his sepul- 
chre between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber, 
and planted round it woods and walks for pub- 
lic use. The heirs were often ordered by the 
will of the deceased to build a tomb for him ; 
and they sometimes did it at their own ex- 
pense. 

Sepulchres were originally called busta, but 
this word was afterwards employed in the 
manner mentioned under BUSTUM. Sepul- 
chres were also frequently called monumenta, 
but this term was also applied to a monument 
erected to the memory of a person in a differ- 
ent place from where he was buried. Condi- 
toria or conditiva were sepulchres underground, 



in which dead bodies were placed entire, in 
contradistinction to those sepulchres which 
contained the bones and ashes only. 

The tombs of the rich were commonly built 
of marble, and the ground enclosed with an 
iron railing or wall, and planted round with 
trees. The extent of the burying ground was 
marked by cippi [Cippus]. The name of mau- 
soleum, which was originally the name of the 
magnificent sepulchre erected by Artemisia to 
the memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, was 
sometimes given to any splendid tomb. The 
open space before a sepulchre was called fo- 
rum [FORUM], and neither this space nor the 
sepulchie itself could become the property of 
a person by usucapion. 

Private tombs were either built by an indi- 
vidual for himself and the members of his 
family (sepulchrafamiliaria),or for himself and 
his heirs (sepulchra hereditaria). A tomb,which 
was fitted up with niches to receive the fune- 
ral urns, was called columbarium, on account 
of the resemblance of these niches to the holes 
of a pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes 
of the freedmen and slaves of great families 
were frequently placed in vessels made of 
baked clay, called ollae, which were let into 
the thickness of the wall within these niches, 
the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions 
placed in front. 

Tombs were of various sizes and forms, ac- 
cording to the wealth and taste of the owner. 

A sepulchre, or any place in which a person 
was buried, was religiosus ; all things which 
were left or belonged to the Dii Manes were 
religiosae; those consecrated to the Dii Superi 
were called sacrae. Even the place in which 
a slave was buried was considered religiosus. 
Whoever violated a sepulchre was subject to 
an action termed sepulchri violati actio. 

After the bones had been placed in the urn 
at the funeral, the friends returned home. 
They then underwent a further purification, 
called suffitio, which consisted in being sprink- 
led with water and stepping over a fire. The 
house itself was also swept with a certain 
kind of broom ; which sweeping or purifica- 
tion was called exverrae, and the person who 
did it everriator. The Denicales Feriae were 
also days set apart for the purification of the 
family. The mourning and solemnities con- 
nected with the dead lasted for nine days after 
the funeral, at the end of which time a sacri- 
fice was performed, called novendiale. 

A feast was given in honour of the dead, but 
it is uncertain on what day ; it sometimes ap- 
pears to have been given at the time of the 
funeral, sometimes on the novendiale. and 
sometimes later. The name of silicernium was 
given to this feast. 



61 



FURCA. 



After the funeral of great men, there was, in 
addition to the feast for the friends of the de- 
ceased, a distribution of raw meat to the 
people, called visceratio, and sometimes a pub- 
Tic banquet. Combats of gladiators and other 
games were also frequently exhibited in hon- 
our of the deceased. Public feasts and fune- 
ral games were sometimes given on the anni- 
versary of funerals. At all banquets in honour 
of the dead, the guests were dressed in white. 

The Romans, like the Greeks, were accus- 
tomed to visit the tombs of their relatives at 
certain periods, and to offer to them sacrifices 
and various gifts, which were called inferiae 
and parentalia. The Romans appear to have 
regarded the manes or departed souls of their 
ancestors as gods ; whence arose the practice 
of presenting to them oblations, which con- 
sisted of victims, wine, milk, garlands of flow- 
ers, and other things. The tombs were some- 
times illuminated on these occasions with 
lamps. In the latter end of the month of Feb- 
ruary there was a festival, called feralia, in 
which the Romans were accustomed to carry 
food to the sepulchres for the use of the 
dead. 

The Romans were accustomed to wear 
mourning for their deceased friends, which 
appears to have been black under the republic 
for both sexes. Under the empire the men 
continued to wear black in mourning, but the 
women wore white. They laid aside all kinds 
of ornaments, and did not cut either their hair 
or beard. Men appear to have usually worn 
their mourning for only a few days, but 
women for a year when they lost a husband 
or parent. 

In a public mourning on account of some 
signal calamity, as, for instance the loss of a 
battle, or the death of an emperor, there was 
a total cessation from business, called justi- 
lium, which was usually ordained by public 
appointment. During this period the courts 
of justice did not sit, the shops were shut, 
and the soldiers freed from military duties. 
In a public mourning the senators did not 
wear the latus clavus and their rings, nor the 
magistrates their badges of office. 

FURCA, which properly means a fork, 
was also the name of an instrument of pun- 
ishment. It was a piece of wood in the form 
of the letter A, which was placed upon the 
shoulders of the offender, whose hands were 
tied to it. Slaves were frequently punished 
' vnis way, and were obliged to carry about 
the furca wherever they went; whence the 
appellation of furdfer was applied to a man 
as a term of reproach. The term furca was 
used in the ancient mode of capital punish- 
ment among the Romans ; the criminal was 



FUSUS. 

tied to it, and then scourged to death. The 
patibulum was also an instrument of punish, 
ment, resembling the furca ; it appears to 
have been in the form of the letter Tl. Both 
the furca and patibulum were also employed 
as crosses, to which criminals appear to have 
been nailed. 

FURIO'SCJS. [CURATOR.] 

FU'SCINA (rp'uuvd), a trident, more com 
monly called tridens, meaning tridens stimulus, 
because it was originally a three-pronged 
goad, used to incite horse's to greater swift- 
ness. Neptune was supposed to be armed 
with it when he drove his chariot, and it thus 
became his usual attribute, perhaps with an 
allusion also to the use of the same instru 
ment in harpooning h'sh. 

In the contests of gladiators, the retiarius 
was armed with a trident. [GLADIATOR ES ] 

FUSTUA'RIUM (vAo/co7rm), was a cap- 
ital punishment inflicted upon Roman soldiers 
for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It 
was administered in the following manner ; 
When a soldier was condemned, the tribune 
touched him slightly with a stick, upon which 
all the soldiers of the legion fell upon him 
with sticks and stones, and generally killed 
him upon the spot. If, however, he escaped, 
for he was allowed to fly, he could not return 
to his native country, nor did any of his rela- 
tives dare to receive him into their houses. 

FUSUS (arpa/crof), the spindle, was al- 
ways, when in use, accompanied by the dis- 
taff (colus, ^/la/cdr??), as an indispensable part 
of the same apparatus. The wool, flax, or 
other material, having been prepared for spin- 
ning, was rolled into a ball (rpAvTTT/, ghmus), 
which was, however, sufficiently loose to 
allow the fibres to be easily drawn out by the 
hand of the spinner. The upper part of the 
distaff was then inserted into this mass ot 
flax or wool, and the lower part was held 
under the left arm in such a position as was 
most convenient for conducting the operation. 
The fibres were drawn out, and at the same 
time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use ot 
the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand ; 
and the thread (filum, stamen, vf)[ia) so pro- 
duced was wound upon the spindle until the 
quantity was as great as it would carry. 

The spindle was a stick. 10 or 12 inches 
long, having at the top a slit or catch (dens, 
aynLarpov) in which the thread was fixed, so 
that the weight of the spindle might continu- 
ally carry down the thread as it was formed. 
Its lower extremity was inserted into a small 
wheel, called the whorl (vorticellum), made of 
wood, stone, or metal (see woodcut), the use 
of which was to keep the spindle more steady, 
and to promote its rotation. The 



GALEA. 

nying woodcut shows the operation of spin- 
ning, at the moment when the woman has 
drawn out a sufficient length of yarn to twist 
it by whirling the spindle with her right thumb 
and fore-tinger, and previously to the act of 
taking it out of the slit to wind it upon the 
bobbin (Tnjviov) already formed. 

It was usual to have a basket to hold the 
distaff and spindle, with the balls of wool 
prepared for spinning, and the bobbins already 
spun. [CALATHUS.] 



GALL1. 



165 




Fusus, Spindle. 

The distaff and spindle, with the wool and 
thread upon them, were carried in bridal pro- 
cessions ; and, without the wool and thread, 
they were often suspended by females as of- 
ferings of religious gratitude, especially in 
old age, or on relinquishing the constant use 
of them. They were most frequently dedi- 
cated to Pallas, the patroness of spinning, 
and of the arts connected with it. They 
were exhibited in the representations of the 
three Fates, who were conceived, by their 
spinning, to determine the life of every man. 



G. 



GABl'NUS CINCTUS. [TOGA.] 
GAESUM (yatc'of), a term probably of 
Celtic origin, denoting a kind of javelin which 
was used by the Gauls wherever their ramifi- 
cations extended. It was a heavy weapon, 
the shaft being as thick as a man could grasp, 
and the iron head barbed, and of an extraor- 
dinary length compared with the shaft. 

GA'LEA (/cpdvof, poet, /copfcf, Tny^j^), a 
helmet : a casque. The helmet was origi- 



nally made of skin or leather, whence is sup 
posed to have arisen its appellation, KVVETJ, 
meaning properly a helmet of dog-skin, but 
applied to caps or helmets made of the hide 
of other animals, and even to those which 
were entirely of bronze or iron. The leathern 
basis of the helmet was also very commonly 
strengthened and adorned by the addition of 
either bronze or gold. Helmets which had 
a metallic basis were in Latin properly called 
cassides, although the terms galea and cassis 
are often confounded. 

The additions by which the external ap- 
pearance of the helmet was varied, and which 
served both for ornament and protection, were 
the following : 

1. Bosses or plates (0aAof), proceeding 
either from the top or the sides, and varying 
in number from one to four (u/z^a/lof, re- 
rpa^a/lof). The </>ei/lof was often an em- 
blematical figure, referring to the character 
of the wearer. Thus in the colossal statue 
of Minerva in the Parthenon at Athens, she 
bore a sphinx on the top of her helmet, and a 
griffin on each side. 

2. The helmet thus adorned was very com- 
monly surmounted by the crest (crista, A600f), 
which was often of horse-hair. 

3. The two cheek-pieces (bucculae, rrapa- 

, which were attached to the helmet 



by hinges, so as to be lifted up and down. 

They 

for fastening the helmet on the head. 



"hey had buttons or ties at their extremities, 



4. The beaver, or visor, a peculiar form of 
which is supposed to have been the avAwmf 
rpv<j)ufeta, i. e. the perforated beaver. The 
gladiators wore helmets of this kind. 

The five following helmets are selected 
from antique gems, and are engraved of the 
size of the originals. 




Oaleae, Helmets. 

GALLEYS. [NAVIS.] 
GALL1, the priests of Cybele, whose wor- 
ship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia. 



166 



GENS. 



The Galli were according to an ancient cus- 
tom, always castrated, and it would seem 
that, impelled by religious fanaticism, they 
performed this operation on themselves. Jn 
their wild, enthusiastic, and boisterous rites 
they resembled the Corybantes. They seem 
to have been always chosen from a poor and 
despised class of people, for, while no other 
priests were allowed to beg, the Galli were 
allowed to do so on certain days. The chief 
priest among them was called archigallus. 

GAMBLER, GAMING. [ALBA.] 

GAME'LIA (ya//7?;Ua). The demes and 
phratries of Attica possessed various means to 
prevent intruders from assuming the rights of 
citizens. Among other regulations, it was or- 
dained that every bride, previous to her mar- 
riage, should be introduced by her parents or 
guardians to the phratria of her husband. 
This introduction of the young women was 
accompanied by presents to their new phra- 
tores, which were called gamelia. The women 
were em oiled in the lists of the phratries, and 
this enrolment was also called gamelia. 

GAUSAPA, GAUSAPE, or GAUSAPUM, 
a kind of thick cloth, which was on one side 
very woolly, and was used to cover tables, 
beds, and by persons to wrap themselves up 
after taking a bath, or in general to protect 
themselves against rain and cold. It was worn 
by men as well as women. 

The word gausapa is also sometimes used 
to designate a thick wig, such as was made of 
the hair of Germans, and worn by the fashion- 
able people at Rome at the time of the em- 
perors. 

GENE'SIA. [FuNus, p. 161.] 

GENS. According to the traditional ac- 
counts of the old Roman constitution, the 
Gentes were subdivisions of the curiae, just as 
the curiae were subdivisions of the three an- 
cient tribes, the Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres. 
There were ten gentes in each curia, and con- 
sequently one hundred gentes in each tribe, 
and three hundred in the three tribes. Now 
if there is any truth in the tradition of this 
original distribution of the population into 
tribes, curiae, and gentes, it follows that there 
was no necessary kinship among those fami- 
lies which belonged to a gens, any more than 
among those families which belonged to one 
curia. The name of the gens was always 
characterized by the termination ia, as Julia, 
Cornelia, Valeria ; and the gentiles, or mem- 
bers of a gens, all bore the name of the gens 
to which they belonged. 

As the gentes were subdivisions of the three 
ancient tribes, the populns (in the ancient 
sense) alone had gentes, so that to be a patri- 
cian and to have a gens were synonymous ; 



GEROUS1A. 

and thus we find the expressions gens and 
patricii constantly united. Yet it appears that 
some gentes contained plebeian familiae, 
which it is conjectured had their origin in 
marriages between patricians and plebeians 
before there was connubium between them. 

A hundred new members were added to the 
senate by the first Tarquin. These were the 
representatives of the Luceres, the third and 
inferior tribe ; which is indicated by the gen- 
tes of this tribe being called minores, by way 
of being distinguished from the older gentes, 
majores, of the Ramnes and Tities, a distinc- 
tion which appears to have been more than 
nominal. [SENATUS.] 

There were certain sacred rites (sacra gen- 
tilitia) which belonged to a gens, to which 
all the members of a gens, as such, were 
bound. It was the duty of the pontifices to 
look after the due observance of these gentile 
sacra, and to see that they were not lost. 
Each gens seems to have had its peculiar 
place (sacellum) for the celebration of these 
sacra, which were performed at stated times. 
By the law of the Twelve Tables the property 
of a person who died intestate devolved upon 
the gens to which he belonged. 

GEO'MORI. [TRIBUS.] 

GEROU'SIA (yepovaia), or assembly of el- 
ders, was the aristocratic element of the Spar- 
tan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only, 
but found in other Dorian states, just as a 
Boule (0ov%,rj) or democratical council was an 
element of most Ionian constitutions. The 
Gerousia at Sparta included the two kings, its 
presidents, and consisted of thirty members 
(yepovTE ) : a number which seems connected 
with the divisions of the Spartan people. 
Every Dorian state, in fact, was divided into 
three tribes : the Hylleis, the Dymanes, and 
the Pamphili. The tribes at Sparta were 
again subdivided into obae(&!3ai) t which were, 
like the Gerontes, thirty in number, so that 
each oba was represented by its councillor; 
an inference which leads to the conclusion that 
two obae at least of the Hyllean tribe, must 
have belonged to the royal house of the Hera- 
clids. No one was eligible to the council till 
he was sixty years of age. and the additional 
qualifications were strictly of an aristocratic 
nature. We are told, for instance, that the 
office of a councillor was the reward and prize 
of virtue, and that it was confined to men ot 
distinguished character and station. 

The election was determined by vote, and 
the mode of conducting it was remarkable for 
its old-fashioned simplicity. The competitors 
presented themselves one after another to the 
assembly of electors ; the latter testified their 
esteem by acclamations, which varied in in- 



GLADIATORES.. 



167 



tensity according to tne popularity of the can- 
didates for whom they were given. These 
manifestations of esteem were noted by per- 
sons iu an adjoining building, who could judge 
of the shouting, but could not tell in whose 
favour it was given. The person whom these 
judges thought to be most applauded was de- 
clared the successful candidate. The office 
lasted for life. 

The functions of the councillors were partly 
deliberative, partly judicial, and partly execu- 
tive. In the discharge of the first, they pre- 
pared measures and passed preliminary de- 
crees,which were to be laid before the popular 
assembly, so that the important privilege of 
initiating all changes in the government or 
laws was vested in them. As a criminal court, 
they could punish with death and civil degra- 
dation (ari/nia). They also appear to have ex- 
ercised, like the Areopagus at Athens, a gen- 
eral superintendence and inspection over the 
lives and manners of the citizens, and probably 
were allowed a kind of patriarchal authority, 
to enforce the observance of ancient usage 
and discipline. ft is not, however, easy to de- 
fine with exactness the original extent of their 
functions ; especially as respects the last-men- 
tioned duty, since the ephors not only en- 
croached upon the prerogatives of the king 
and council, but also possessed, in very early 
times, a censorial power, and were not likely 
to permit any diminution of its extent. 

GIRDLE: [ZONA.] 

GLADIATO'RES (jitovofidxot) were men 
who fought with swords in the amphitheatre 
and other places, for the amusement of the 
Roman people. They are said to have been 
first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to have 
had their origin from the custom of killing 
slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the 
deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.] A show of 
gladiators was called munus, and the person 
who exhibited (edebat) it, editor, munerator, or 
dominus, who was honoured during the clay of 
exhibition, if a private person, with the official 
signs of a magistrate. 

Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in 
B. c. 264, in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus 
and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their 
father. They were at first confined to public 
funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals 
of most persons of consequence, and even at 
those of women. Combats of gladiators were 
also exhibited at entertainments, and especially 
at public festivals by the aediles and other 
magistrates, who sometimes exhibited im- 
mense numbers, with the view of pleasing 
the people. Under the empire the passion of 
the Romans for this amusement rose to its 
greatest height, and the number of gladiators 



who fought on some occasion* appears almost 
incredible. After Trajan's trium,. h over the Da- 
cians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited. 

Gladiators consisted either of captives, 
slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free- 
born citizens who fought voluntarily. Free- 
men, who became gladiators for hire were 
called auctorati, and their hire auctor -amentum 
or gladiatorium. Even under the republic, free- 
born citizens fought as gladiators, but they ap- 
pear to have belonged only to the lower orders. 
Under the empire, however, both knights and 
senators fought in the arena, and even women. 

Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi), where 
they were trained by persons called lanistae. 
The whole body of gladiators under one la- 
nista was frequently called familia. They 
sometimes were the property of the lanistae, 
who let them out to persons who wished to 
exhibit a show of gladiators ; but at other 
times they belonged to citizens,who kept them 
for the purpose of exhibition, and engaged la- 
nistae to instruct them. Thus we read of the 
ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar's lu 
dus at Capua. The gladiators fought in these 
ludi with wooden swords, called rudes. Great 
attention was paid to their diet, in order to in- 
crease the strength of their bodies. 

Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at the 
funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but 
more frequently in the amphitheatre. [AM- 
pfciTHEATRUM.] The person who was to ex- 
hibit a show of gladiators, published some 
days before the exhibition, bills (libelli) con- 
taining the number and frequently the names 
of those who were to fight. When the day 
came, they were led along the arena in pro- 
cession, and matched by pairs ; and their 
swords were examined by the editor to see if 
they were sufficiently sharp. At first there 
was a kind of sham battle, called praelusio, in 
which they fought with wooden swords, or 
the like, and afterwards at the sound of the 
trumpet the real battle began. When a gla- 
diator was wounded, the people called out 
habet or hoc habet ; and the one who was van- 
quished lowered his arms in token of submis- 
sion. His fate, however, depended upon the 
people, who pressed down their thumbs if they 
wished him to be saved, but turned them up 
if they wished him to be killed, and ordered 
him to receive the sword (ferrum recipere), 
which gladiators usually did with the greatest 
firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator 
was spared, he obtained his discharge for that 
day, which was called missio; and hence in an 
exhibition of gladiators sine missione, the lives 
of the conquered were never spared. This 
kind of exhibition, however was forbidden by 
Augustus. 



168. 



GLADIATORES. 



Palms were usually given to the victorious 
gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes 
those who had only fought for a short time, 
were discharged from the service by the editor 
at the request of the people, who presented 
each of them with a rudis or wooden sword ; 
whence those who were discharged were 
called Rudiarii. 

Gladiators were divided into different 
classes, according to their arms and different 
mode of fighting, or other circumstances. 
The names of the most important of these 
classes is given in alphabetical order: 

Andabatae wore helmets without any aper- 
ture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to 
light blindfold, and thus excited the mirth of 
the spectators. 

Catervarii was the name given to gladiators 
when they did not fight in pairs, but when 
several fought together. 

Essedarii fought from chariots, like the 
Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.] 

Hoplomachi appear to have been those who 
fought in a complete suit of armour. 

Meridiani were those who fought in the mid- 
dle of the day, after combats with wild beasts 
had taken place in the morning. These gla- 
diators were very slightly armed. 

Mirmillones are said to have been so called 
from their having the image of a fish (mormyr, 
uopfivpof) on their helmets. Their arms were 
like those of the Gauls, whence we find th'at 
they were also called Galli. T nev were 
usually matched with the Retiarii or Thra- 
cians. 

Provocatores fought with the Samnites, but 
we do not know anything respecting them 
except their name. 

Retiarii carried only a three-pointed lance, 
called tridens or fuscina [FusciNA], and a net 
(rete), which they endeavoured to throw over 
their adversaries, and they then attacked them 
with the fuscina while they were entangled. 
The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, 




A M rnillo au<l a Retiarius. 



GLADiUS. 

and wore nothing on his head. If he missed 
his aim in throwing the net, he betook him- 
self to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his 
net for a second cast, while his adversary fol- 
lowed him round the arena in order to kill him 
before he could make a second attempt. His 
adversary was usually a secutor or a mirmillo. 
In the preceding woodcut a combat is repre- 
sented between a retiarius and a mirmillo ; 
the former has thrown his net over the head 
of the latter, and is proceeding to attack him 
with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind 
the retiarius. 

Samnites were so called, because they were 
armed in the same way as that people, and 
were particularly distinguished by the oblong 
scutum. 

Secutores are supposed by some writers to 
be so called because the secutor in his com- 
bat with the retiarius pursued the latter when 
he failed in securing him by his net. Other 
writers think that they were the same as the 
supposititii, who were gladiators substituted 
in the place of those who were wearied or 
were killed. 

Thraces or Threces were armed, like the 
Thracians,with around shield or buckler, and 
a short sword or dagger (sica). They were 
usually matched, as already stated, with the 
mirmillones. The following woodcut repre- 
sents a combat between two Thracians. A 
lanista stands behind each. 




GLADIUS (#tfof. poet, uop, (jxiayavov), a 
sword or glaive, by the Latin poets called en- 
sis. The ancient sword had generally a 
straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and 
nearly of equal width from 'hilt to point. The 
Greeks and Romans wore them on the left 
side [cut, p. 38], so as to draw them out of the 
sheath (vagina, /coAedc) by passing the right 
hand in front of the body to take hold of the 
hilt with the thumb next to the blade. The 
early Greeks used a very short sword. Iphi- 



GUBERNACULUM. 

crates, who made various improvements in 
armour .about 400 B. c., doubled its length. 
The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and 
more formidable than the Greek. 

GLANDES. [FUNDA.] 

GOLD. [AURUM.] 

GRAMMATEUS (ypa^arerif), a clerk or 
scribe. Among the great number of scribes 
employed by the magistrates and government 
of Athens, there were three of a higher rank, 
who were real state-officers. One of them was 
appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the 
time of the administration of each prytany, 
though he always belonged to a different pry- 
tany from that which was in power. He was, 
therefore, called ypafifj.aTvg Kara Trpvraveiav. 
His province was to keep the public records, 
and the decrees of the people which were 
made during the time of his office, and to de- 
liver to the thesmothetae the decrees of the 
senate. 

The second grammateus was elected by the 
senate, by xeiporovia, and was entrusted with 
the custody of the laws. His usual name was 



GYMNASIUM. 



ion 



A third grammateus was called 
TTJG Trd/lewf, or ypa^arevf rfiq povije na 
TOV dqfjtov. He was appointed by the people, 
by x^t-porovLa, and the principal part of his 
office was to read any laws or documents 
which were required to" be read in the assem- 
bly or in the senate. 

GRAPHE' (ypatirt). [DICE'.] 

GREAVES. [OCREA.] 

GUBERNA'CULUM (Tn/dd/ltov), a rudder. 
Before the invention of the rudder,which Pliny 
ascribes to Tiphys, the pilot of the ship Argo, 
vessels were both propelled and guided by oars 
alone. This circumstance may account for 




Gttbcrnnculura, Rudder. 
P 



the form of the ancient rudder, as well as for 
the mode of using it. It was like an oar with 
a very broad blade, and was commonly placed 
on each side of the stern, not at its extremity. 
The annexed woodcut presents examples of 
its appearance as it is frequently exhibited on 
coins, gems, and other works of art. 

The usual position of the rudder at the 
side of the stern is seen in the woodcut at 
p. 25. 

The gubernaculum was managed by the 
gubernator (KvflepvrfTrjc) ', who is also called 
the rector as distinguished from the magister, 
and by the Greek poets o/a/coorrpp0of and 
olaKovofioe, because he turns and directs the 
helm. 

GUSTATIO. [CoENA.] 

GUTTUS. [BALNEUM, p. 49.] 

GYMNA'SIUM (-yvfivdatov). The whole 
education of a Greek youth was divided into 
three parts grammar, music, and gymnastics 
(ypd/Lt/btaTa, uovaturj, yv/LtvaaTiKJ]), to which 
Aristotle adds a fourth, the art of drawing or 
painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought 
by the ancients a matter of such importance, 
that this part of education alone occupied as 
much time and attention as all the others put 
together; and while the latter necessarily 
ceased at a certain period of life, gymnastics 
continued to be cultivated by persons of all 
ages, though those of an advanced age na- 
turally took lighter and less fatiguing exer- 
cises than boys and youths. The ancients, 
and more especially the Greeks, seem to have 
been throroughly convinced that the mind 
could not possibly be in a healthy state, un- 
less the body was likewise in perfect health, 
and no means were thought, either by philo- 
sophers or physicians, to be more conducive 
to preserve or restore bodily health than well- 
regulated exercise. The word gymnastics is 
derived from yv\ivdq (naked), because the 
persons who performed their exercises in pub- 
lic or private gymnasia were either entirely 
naked or merely covered by the short chiton. 

Gymnastic exercises among the Greeks 
seem to have been as old as the Greek na- 
tion itself; but they were, as might be sup- 
posed, of a rude and mostly of a warlike cha- 
racter. They were generally held in the open 
air, and in plains near a river, which afforded 
an opportunity for swimming and bathing. 
It was about the time of Solon that the Greek 
towns began to build their regular gymnasia 
as places of exercise for the young, with baths, 
and other conveniences for philosophers and 
all persons who sought intellectual amuse- 
ments. There was probably no Greek town 
of any importance which did not possess its 
gymnasium. Athens possessed three great 



170 



GYMNASIUM. 



gymnasia, the Lyceum (Au/ceiov), Cynosar- 
ges (Kwdaapytf), and the Academia ('A/ca- 
6rj/j.ia) ; to which, in later times, several 
smaller ones were added. 

Respecting the superintendence and admin- 
istration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know 
that Solon in his legislation thought them 
worthy of great attention , and the transgres- 
sion of some of his laws relating to the gym- 
nasia was punished with death. His laws 
mention a magistrate, called the gymnasiarch 
(yv[j,vaatap%0(; or yvfivaaiapxijc), who was 
entrusted with the whole management of the 
gymnasia, arid with everything connected 
therewith. His office was one of the regular 
liturgies like the choregia and hierarchy, and 
was attended with considerable expense. He 
had to maintain and pay the persons who 
were preparing themselves for the games and 
contests in the public festivals, to provide 
them with oil, and perhaps with the wrest- 
lers' dust. It also devolved upon him to 
adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the 
agones took place. The gymnasiarch was a 
real magistrate, and invested with a kind of 
jurisdiction over all those who frequented or 
were connected with the gy mnasia. Another 
part of his duties was to conduct the solemn 
games at certain great festivals, especially 
the torch-race (Aa//7r adrjfyopia), for which he 
selected the most distinguished among the 
ephebi of the gymnasia. The number of gym- 
nasiarchs was ten, one from every tribe. 

An office of very great importance, in an 
educational point of view, was that of the 
Sophronistae (autypoviaTai). Their province 
was to inspire the youths with a love of <rw- 
<j>po(7vv7j, and to protect this virtue against all 
injurious influences. In early times their 
number at Athens was ten, one from every 
tribe, with a salary of one drachma per day. 
Their duty not only required them to be pre- 
sent at all the games of the ephebi, but to 
watch and correct their conduct wherever 
they might meet them, both within and with- 
out the gymnasium. 

The instructions in the gymnasia were 
given by the Gymnastae (yvfivacrTai) and the 
Paedotribae (Trai6orpif3ai) ; at a later period 
hypopaedotribae were added. The paedotribes 
was required to possess a knowledge of all 
the various exercises which were performed 
in the gymnasia; the gymnastes was the 
practical teacher, and was expected to know 
the physiological effects and influences on the 
constitution of the youths, and therefore as- 
signed to each of them those exercises which 
he thought most suitable. 

The anointing of the bodies of the youths 
and strewing them with dust, before they 



GYMNOPAEDIA. 

commenced their exercises, as well as the 
regulation of their diet, was the duty of the 
aliptae. [ALIPTAE.] 

Among all the different tribes of the Greeks 
the exercises which were carried on in a 
Greek gymnasium were either mere games, 
or the more important exercises which the 
gymnasia had in common with the public 
contests in the great festivals. 

Among the former we may mention, J. 
The game at ball (ofyatpiaTiKTJ), which wr<s 
in universal favour with the Greeks. [Pi LA.] 
Every gymnasium contained one large room 
for the purpose of playing at ball in it (ctyaL- 
pioTJjpLov). . 2. TLaifctv &KVffTiv6a, di&- 
Kvarivda, or 6iti -ypafiftrjc, was a game in 
which one boy, holding one end of a rope, 
tried to pull the boy who held its other end, 
across a line marked between them on the 
ground. 3. The top ((3enf3rj%, /?//,& pdfi- 
/fof, (rrp6/?/loc), which was as common an 
amusement with Greek boys as it is with 
ours. 4. The TTEvruhiOoe, which was a game 
with five stones, which were thrown up from 
the upper part of the hand and caught in the 
palm. 5. 2/ea7rep&z, which was a game in 
which a rope was drawn through the upper 
part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on 
each side of the post, turning their backs to- 
wards one another, took hold of the ends of 
the rope and tried to pull each other up. This 
sport was also one of the amusements at thf 
Attic Dionysia. 

The more important games, such as run- 
ning (dpd/zof), throwing of the d/a/cof and the 
aituv, jumping and leaping (uA/za, with and 
without a^Tijpeg), wrestling (ira/l??), boxing 
), the pancratium (irayKpctTiov), TTEV- 
%,a/j,7rad7}(j)0pia, dancing (opiate;), 
&.C., are described in separate articles. 

A gymnasium was not a Roman institution. 
The regular training of boys in the Greek 
gymnastics was foreign to Roman manners, 
and even held in contempt. Towards the 
end of the republic, many wealthy Romans 
who had acquired a taste for Greek manners, 
used to attach to their villas small places for 
bodily exercise, sometimes called gymnasia, 
sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn them 
with beautiful works of art. The emperor 
Nero was the first who built a public gymna- 
sium at Rome. 

GYMNOPAE'DIA (yvpvoTraidia), the fes- 
tival of " naked youths," was celebrated at 
Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Py- 
thaeus, Diana, and Latona. The statues of 
these deities stood in a part of the agora called 
%opo, and it was around these statues that, 
at the gymnopaedia, Spartan youths perform- 
! ed their choruses and dances in honour o< 



HALTERES. 

Apollo. The festival lasted for several, per- 
haps for ten, days, and on the last day men 
also performed choruses and dances in the 
theatre ; and during these gymnastic exhi- 
bitions they sang the songs of Thaletas and 
Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. 
The leader of the chorus (TrpoardT^ or %o- 
poTTOtoc) wore a kind of chaplet in com- 
memoration of the victory of the Spartans at 
Thyrea. This event seems to have been 
closely connected with the gymnopaedia, for 
those Spartans who had fallen on that occa- 
sion were always praised in songs at this fes- 
tival. The boys in their dances performed 
such rhythmical movements as resembled the 
exercises of the palaestra and the paneration, 
and also imitated the wild gestures of the 
worship of Bacchus. The whole season of 
the gymnopaedia, during which Sparta was 
visited by great numbers of strangers, was 
one of great merriment and rejoicings, and 
old bachelors alone seem to have been ex- 
cluded from the festivities. The introduc- 
tion of the gymnopaedia is generally assigned 
to the year 665 B. c. 



H. 



HAIR. [COMA.] 

HALTE'RES (aAr^pcf), were certain 
masses of stone or metal, which were used in 
the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and 
Romans. Persons who practised leaping fre- 
quently performed their exercises with halteres 
in both hands ; but they were also frequently 
used merely to exercise the body in somewhat 
the same manner as our dumb-bells. 



HARUSPICES. 



171 




HARMAMAXA (ap/m/zaa), a carriage for 
persons, covered overhead and inclosed with 
curtains. It was in general large, often drawn 
by four horses, and attired with splendid orna 
ments. It occupied among the Persians the 
same place which the carpentum did among 
the Romans, being used, especially upon state 
occasions, for the conveyance of women and 
children, of eunuchs, and of the sons of the 
king with their tutors. 

HARMOSTAE (appoarai, from bpftdfa, 
to fit or join together), the name of the go 
vernors whom the Lacedaemonians, after the 
Pelqponnesian war, sent into their subject 
or conquered towns, partly to keep them in 
submission, and partly to abolish the demp- 
cratical form of government, and establish in 
its stead one similar to their own. Although 
in many cases they were ostensibly sent for 
the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical go- 
vernment of a town, and to restore the people 
to freedom, yet they themselves acted like 
kings or tyrants. 

HARPASTUM. [PiLA.] 

HARU'SPICES, or ARU'SPICES (iepo- 
aKoiroi), soothsayers or diviners, who inter- 
preted the will of the gods. They originally 
came to Rome from Etruria, whence harus- 
pices were often sent for by the Romans on 
important occasions. Theartoftheharuspices 
resembled in many respects that of the au- 
gurs ; but they never acquired that political 
importance which the latter possessed, and 
were regarded rather as means of ascertain- 
ing the will of the gods than as possessing 
any religious authority. They did not in fact 
form any part of the ecclesiastical polity of 
the Roman state during the republic ; they 
are never called sacerdotes, they did not form 
a collegium, and had no magister at their 
head. 

The art of the haru spices, which was called 
haruspicina, consisted in explaining and inter- 
preting the will of the gods from the appear- 
ance of the entrails (exta) of animals offered 
in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called 
extispices, and their art extispicium ; and also 
from lightning, earthquakes, and all extraor- 
dinary phenomena in nature, to which the 
general name of portenta was given. Their 
art is said to have been invented by the Etrus- 
can Tages, and was contained in certain books 
called libri haruspicini, fulgurales, and toni- 
truales. 

This art was considered by the Romans so 
important at one time, that the senate decreed 
that a certain number of young Etruscans, be- 
longing to the principal families in the state, 
should always be instructed in it. In later 
times, however, their art fell into disrepute 



172 HASTA. 

among well-educated Romans ; and Cicero 
relates a saying of Cato, that he wondered 
that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw 
another. 

The name of haruspex is sometimes applied 
to any kind of soothsayer or prophet. 

HASTA (ey^of), a spear. The spear is de- 
fined by Homer, 66pv ^aA/c^pef , " a pole fitted 
with bronze." The bronze, for which iron 
was afterwards substituted, was indispensable 
to form the point (nlxM, UKUKTJ, Homer; 
/Ioyp7, Xenophon; acies, cuspis, spiculum) of 
the spear. Each of these two essential parts 
is often put for the whole, so that a spear^ is 
called 66pv and dopdnov, alxuij, and /loy;^. 
Even the more especial term pehia, meaning 
an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, be- 
cause the pole of the spear was often the 
stem of a young ash, stript of its bark and 
polished. 

The bottom of the spear was often inclosed 
in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic 
writers aavpuTTJp, and oiipm^of, and in Attic 
or common Greek arvpa^. By forcing this into 
the ground the spear was fixed erect. 

Under the general terms hasfa and ly^of 
were included various kinds of missiles, of 
which the principal were as follow: 

Lancea (Aiiy^), the lance, a comparatively 
slender spear commonly used by the Greeks. 

Pilum (iaCTOf), the javelin, much thicker 
and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its shaft 
was partly square, and 5 feet long. The 
head, nine inches long, was of iron. It was 
used either to throw or to thrust with ; it was 
peculiar to the Romans, and gave the name of 
pilani to the division of the army by which it 
was adopted. 

Veru or Verutum, a spit, used by the light 
infantry of the Roman army. It was adopted 
by them from the Samnites and the Volsci. 
Its shaft was 3 feet long, its point five 
inches. 

Besides the terms jaculum and spiculum 
(UKUV, UKOVTIOV), which probably denoted 
darts, we find the names of various other 
spears, which were characteristic of particular 
nations. Thus, the gaesurn was the spear pe- 
culiar to the Gauls, and the sarissa the spear 
peculiar to the Macedonians. This was used 
both to throw and as a pike. It exceeded in 
length all other missiles. The Thracian rom- 
phea, which had a very long point, like the 
blade of a sword, was probably not unlike the 
sarissa. 

The iron head of the German spear, called 
framea, was short and narrow, but very sharp. 
The Germans used it with great effect, either 
as a lance or a pike ; they gave to each youth 
t framea and a shield on coming of age. The 



HELOTES. 

falarica or phalarica was the spear of the Sa- 
guntines, and was impelled by the aid of 
twisted ropes : it was large and ponderous, 
having a head of iron a cubit in length, and a 
ball of lead at its other end ; it sometimes car- 
ried flaming pitch and tow. The matara and 
tragula were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain ; 
the tragula was probably barbed, as it required 
to be cut out of the wound. The aclis and 
cateia were much smaller missiles. 

A spear was erected at auctions [AucTio], 
and when tenders were received for public 
offices (locationen). It served both to announce, 
by a conventional sign conspicuous at a dis- 
tance, that a sale was going on, and to show 
that it was conducted under the authority of 
the public functionaries. Hence an auction was 
called hasta, and an auction-room hastarium. 
It was also the practice to set up a spear in 
the court of the CENTUMVIRI. 

HASTA'TI. [ExERCiTus, p. 146.] 

HELLANO'DICAE (iMavodiKai), the 
judges in the Olympic games, of whom an 
account is given under OLYMPIA. The same 
name was also given to the judges or court- 
martial in the Lacedaemonian army, and 
they were probably first called by this name 
when Sparta was at the head of the Greek 
confederacy. 

HELLENOTA'MIAE (kfartvoTOftitu), or 
treasurers of the Greeks, were magistrates 
appointed by the Athenians to receive the 
contributions of the allied states. They were 
first appointed B. c. 477, when Athens, in con- 
sequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had 
obtained the command of the allied states. 
The money paid by the different states, which 
was originally fixed at 460 talents, was de- 
posited in Delos, which was the place of 
meeting for the discussion of all common in- 
terests ; and there can be no doubt that the 
hellenotamiae not only received, but were 
also the guardians of, these monies. The of- 
fice was retained after the treasury was trans- 
ferred to Athens on the proposal of the Sa- 
mians, but was of course abolished on the 
conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. 

HELMET. [GALEA.] 

HELO'TES (eUwrec), a class of bondsmen 
peculiar to Sparta. They were Achaeans, 
who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the 
last, and had been reduced to slavery as the 
punishment of their obstinacy. 

The Helots were regarded" as the property 
of the state, which, while it gave their ser- 
vices to individuals, reserved to itself the 
power of emancipating them. They were 
attached to the land, and could not be sold 
away from it. They cultivated the land, and 
paid to their masters as rent a fixed measure 






HENDECA. 

of corn, the exact amount of which had been 
fixed at a very early period, the raising of that 
amount being forbidden under heavy impre- 
cations. Besides being engaged in the cul- 
tivation of the land, the Helots attended on 
their masters at the public meal, and many 
of them were no doubt employed by the state 
in public works. 

In war the Helots served as light-armed 
troops (ijjihoi), a certain number of them at- 
tending every heavy-armed Spartan to the 
field ; at the battle of Plataeae there were 
seven Helots to each Spartan. ^ These at- 
tendants were probably called u^TriTTape^ 
(i. e. au<j)iaTavT), and one of them in partic- 
ular, the dspaxuv, or servant. The Helots 
only served as hoplites in particular emer- 
gencies; and on such occasions they were 
generally emancipated. The first instance 
of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas, 
B. c. 424. 

The treatment to which the Helots were 
subjected was marked by the most wanton 
cruelty ; and they were regarded by the Spar- 
tans with the greatest suspicion. Occasion- 
ally the ephors se'ected young Spartans for 
the secret service dcpvirreia.) of wandering 
over the country, in order to kill the Helots. 

The Helots might be emancipated, but 
there were several steps between them and 
the free citizens ; and it is doubtful whether 
they were ever admitted to all the privileges 
of citizenship. The following classes of eman- 
cipated Helots are enumerated : u^erai, 
adHaiTOToi, epvitTJjpe^, deairoaLovavTat., and 
vo6afj.tJdsi<;. Of these the tKperai were pro- 
bably released from all service ; the ipvKTTfpe^ 
were those employed in war; the SZGTTQGIOV- 
avTat, served on board the fleet ; and the vto- 
dancjdeic were those who had been possessed 
of freedom for some time. Besides these, 
there were the fj.6dtjv or fj,66aKE, who were 
domestic slaves, brought up with the young 
Spartans, and then emancipated. Upon being 
emancipated they received permission to dwell 
where they wished. 

HE'NDECA (ot evdsKa), the Eleven, were 
magistrates at Athens of considerable impor- 
tance. They were annually chosen by lot, 
one from each of the ten tribes, and a secre- 
tary (ypa//uar/f), who must properly be re- 
garded as their servant (vrrrjpeTTjc), though 
he formed one of their number. 

The principal duty of the Eleven was the 
care and management of the public prison 
(dzGfjLUTrjpiov}, which was entirely under their 
jurisdiction. The prison, however, was sel- 
dom used by the Athenians as a mere place 
of confinement, serving generally for punish- 
ments and executions. When a person was 



I1EKMAE. 



173 



condemned to death he was immediately given 
into the custody of the Eleven, who were 
then bound to carry the sentence into execu- 
tion according to the laws. The most com- 
mon mode of execution was by hemlock juice 
(Kuveiov), which was drunk after sunset. 
The Eleven had under them jailors, execu- 
tioners, and torturers. When torture was 
inflicted in causes affecting the state, it was 
either done in the immediate presence of the 
Eleven, or by their servant (6 6jjju,ioc). 

The Eleven usually had only to carry into 
execution the sentence passed in the courts 
of law and the public assemblies ; but in some 
cases they possessed jurisdiction. This was 
the case in those summary proceedings called 
apogoge, ephegesis and endeixis, in which the 
penalty was fixed by law, and might be in- 
flicted by the court on the confession or con- 
viction of the accused, without appealing to 
any of the jury courts. 
HEPHAESTEIA. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] 
HERAEA ('Hpata), the name of festivals 
celebrated in honour of Hera (Juno) in all thf 
towns of Greece where the worship of this di- 
vinity was introduced. The original seat of 
her worship was Argos ; whence her festivals 
in other places were, more or less, imitations 
of those which were celebrated at Argos. Her 
service was performed by the most distin- 
guished priestesses of the place ; one of them 
was the high-priestess, and the Argives count- 
ed their years by the date of her office. The 
Heraea of Argos were celebrated every fifth 
year. One of the great solemnities which 
took place on the occasion, was a magnificent 
procession to the great temple of Juno, be- 
tween Argos and Mycenae. A vast number 
of young men assembled at Argos, and march- 
ed in armour to the temple of the goddess. 
They were preceded by one hundred oxen 
, whence the festival is also called 



i^Kar6fj.f3aia). The high-priestess accompa- 
nied this procession, riding in a chariot, drawn 
by two white oxen. The 100 oxen were sa- 
crificed, and their flesh distributed among all 
the citizens ; after which games and contests 
took place. 

Of the Heraea celebrated in other coun- 
tries, those of Samos, which island derived 
the worship of Juno from Argos, were per- 
haps the most brilliant of all the festivals of 
this divinity. The Heraea of Elis, which 
were celebrated in the fourth year of every 
Olympiad, were also conducted with consid- 
erable splendour. 

HERMAE ('EouaD, square blocks of stone, 
surmounted by the head of a divinity. They 
were probably so called because the first statue* 
of this kind were those of Hermes or Mercury 



HISTRIO. 



Houses in Athens had one of these statues 
placed at the door, and the great superstition 
attached to them is shown by the alarm arid 
indignation which were felt at Athens in con- 
sequence of the mutilation of the whole num- 
ber in a single night, just before the sailing 
of the Sicilian expedition. 

As the square part of the statue represent- 
ed Hermes (Mercury), his name is often com- 
pounded with that of the deity whose bust it 
supports. Thus, the Hermathena which Attica 
sent from Athens to Cicero bore the bust of 
Athena or Minerva; the Hermeradae, those 
of Heracles (Hercules.) 

HERMAEA ("Ep/uaia), festivals of Her- 
mes (Mercury) celebrated in various parts 
of Greece. As Mercury was the tutelary 
deity of the gymnasia and palaestrae, the 
boys at Athens celebrated the Herrnaea in the 
gymnasia. 

HIEROMNE'MONES (lepofj.vrj^oveg'}, the 
more honourable of the two classes of repre- 
sentatives who composed the Amphictyonic 
council. An account of them is given under 
AMPHICTYONES. We also read of hieromne- 
mones in Grecian states, distinct from the 
Amphictyonic representatives of this name. 
Thus the priests of Neptune, at Megara, were 
called' hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, 
which was a colony of Megara, the chief ma- 
gistrate in the state appears to have been 
called by this name. 

HIERONI'CAE. [ATHLETAE.] 

H1LA/RIA (Udpm),a Roman festival, cel- 
ebrated on the 25th of March, in honour of 
Cybele the mother of the gods. 

HrSTRlO(v7To/cpm7f), an actor. I.GREEK. 
It is shown in the articles CHORUS and Dio- 
NYSIA that the Greek drama originated in the 
chorus which at the festivals of Bacchus 
danced around his altar, and that at first one 
person detached himself from the chorus, 
and, with mimic gesticulation, related his 
story either to the chorus or in conversation 
with it. If the story thus acted required 
more than one person, they were all repre- 
sented in succession by the same actor, and 
there was never more than one person on the 
stage at a time. This custom was retained 
by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus in- 
troduced a second and a third actor ; and the 
number of three actors was but seldom ex- 
ceeded in any Greek drama. The three reg- 
ular actors were distinguished by the techni- 
cal names of TrpuTayuviOTrjc, devrepayuvio- 
rfo , and TpLTayuviOTris, which indicated the 
more or less prominent part which an actor 
had to perform in the drama. 

The female characters of a play were al- 
ways performed by young men. A distinct 



class of persons, who made acting on the 
stage their profession, was unknown to the 
Greeks during the period of their great drama- 
tists. The earliest and greatest dramatic 
poets, Thespis, Sophocles, and probably Aes- 
chylus also acted in their own plays, and in 
all probability as protagonistae. It was not 
thought degrading in Greece to perform on the 
stage. At a later period persons began to de- 
vote themselves exclusively to the profession 
of actors, and distinguished individ ua! s received 
even as early as the time of Demosthenes ex- 
orbitant sums for their performances. 

2. ROMAN. The word histrio, by which the 
Roman actor was called, is said to have been 
formed from the Etruscan hister, which signi 
fied a ludio or dancer. In the year 364 B. c. 
Rome was visited by a plague, and as no hu- 
man means could stop it, the Romans are said 
to have tried to avert the anger of the gods by 
scenic plays (ludi scenici), which, until then, 
had been unknown to them ; and as there 
were no persons at Rome prepared for such 
performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for 
them. The first histriones, who were thus 
introduced from Etruria, were dancers, and 
performed their movements to the accompani- 
ment of a flute. Roman youths afterwards 
not only imitated these dancers, but also re- 
cited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the 
movements of the dance and the melody of the 
flute. This kind of amusement, which was 
the basis of the Roman drama, remained un- 
altered until the time of Livius Andronicus, 
who introduced a slave upon the stage for the 
purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, 
while he himself performed the appropriate 
dance and gesticulation. A further step in 
the development of the drama, which is like- 
wise ascribed to Livius, was, that the dancer 
and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a 
story with the accompaniment of the flute 
The name histrio, which originally signified a 
dancer, was now applied to the actors in the 
drama. The atellanae were played by free 
born Romans, while the regular drama was 
left to the histriones, who formed a distinct 
class of persons. The histriones were not citi 
zens ; they were not contained in the tribes, 
nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the 
Roman legions ; and if any citizen entered the* 
profession of an histrio, he, on this account, 
was excluded from his tribe. The histriones 
were therefore always either freedmen, stran- 
gers, or slaves, and many passages of Roman 
writers show that they were generally held in 
great contempt. Towards the close of the re- 
public it was only such men as Cicero, who, 
by their Greek education, raised themselves 
above the prejudices of their countrymen, and 



HOROLOGIUM. 



175 



diued the person no less than the talents of 
an Aesopus and a Roscius. But notwithstand- 
ing this low estimation in which actors were 
generally held,distinguished individuals among 
them attracted immense crowds to the thea- 
tres, and were exorbitantly paid. Roscius 
alone received every day that he performed 
one thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son 
a fortune of 200,000 sesterces, which he had 
acquired solely by his profession. 

The pay of the actors was called lucar, which 
word was perhaps confined originally to the 
payment made to those who took part in the 
religious services celebrated in groves. 

HONO'RES, the high offices of the state 
to which qualified individuals were called by 
the votes of the Roman citizens. The words 
" magistratus " and " honores " are sometimes 
coupled together. The capacity for enjoying 
the honores was one of the distinguished 
marks of citizenship. [CiviTAS.] 

Honor was distinguished from munus. The 
latter was an office connected with the ad- 
ministration of the state, and was attended 
with cost (sumptus) but not with rank (digni- 
tas). Honor was properly said deferri, dari ; 
munus was said imponi. A person who held 
a magistratus might be said to discharge mu- 
nera, but only as incident to the office, for the of- 
fice itself was the honor. Such munera as these 
were public games and other things of the kind. 

HOPLI'TAE. [ExERCixus, p. 143.] 

HORA. [DIES.] 

HOROLO'GIUM (upohoyiov), the name of 
the various instruments by means of which the 
ancients measured the time of the day and night. 
The earliest and simplest horologia of which 
mention is made,were called polos (TTO/IOC) and 
gnomon (yvufj.ov'). Both divided the day into 
twelve equal parts, and were a kind of sun- 
dial. The gnomon, which was also called stoi- 
cheion (aToi%f:tov), was the more simple of the 
two, and probably the more ancient. It con- 
sisted of a staffor pillar stapding perpendicular, 
in a place exposed to the sun (aKcddnpoy), so 
that the length of its shadow might be easily as- 
certained. The shadow of the gnomon was 
measured by feet.which were probably marked 
on the place where the shadow fell. In later 
times the name gnomon was applied to any 
kind of sun-dial, especially to its finger which 
threw the shadow, and thus pointed to the hou r. 

The polos or heliotropion (jy/UorpoTuov), on 
the other hand, seems to have been a more 
perfect kind of sun-dial ; but it appears, never- 
theless not to nave been much used. It con- 
sisted of a basin (/le/cav/f), in the middle of 
which the perpendicular staffor finger (yvu- 
tfov) was erected, and in it the twelve parts 
.! the day were marke I by lines. 



Another kind of horologium was the clepsy- 
dra (/c/lei/wrJpa). It derived its name from 
K^eTTTsiv and vdup, as in its original and sim- 
ple form it consisted of a vessel with several 
little openings (rpvTn^wara) at the bottom, 
through which the water contained in it es- 
caped, as it were, by stealth. This instru- 
ment seems at first to have been used only for 
the purpose of measuring the time during 
which persons were allowed to speak in the 
courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollow 
globe, probably somewhat flat at the top part, 
where it had a short neck (at>/l6f), like that 
of a bottle, through which the water was 
poured into it. This opening might be closed 
by a lid or stopper (Troika), to prevent the 
water running out at the bottom. As the time 
for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus 
measured by water, the orators frequently use 
the term vdup instead of the time allowed to 
them. An especial officer (6 e</>' vdup) was 
appointed in the courts for the purpose of 
watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when 
any documents were read,whereby the speaker 
was interrupted. The time, and consequently 
the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, de- 
pended upon the importance of the case. 

The cleps)dra used in the courts of justice 
was, properly speaking, no horologium ; but 
smaller ones, made of glass, and of the same 
simple structure, were undoubtedly used very 
early in families for the purposes of ordinary 
life, and for dividing the day into twelve equal 
parts. In these glass clepsydrae the division 
into twelve parts must have been visible, either 
on the glass globe itself, or in the basin into 
which the water flowed. 

The first horologium with which the Ro- 
mans became acquainted was a sun-dial (sola- 
rium, or horologium sciothericum), and was said 
to have been brought to Rome by Papirius 
Cursor twelve years before the war with 
Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when 
the sky was cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his 
censorship, 159 B.C., established a public clep- 
sydra, which indicated the hours both of day 
and night. This clepsydra was in aftertimes 
generally called solarium. After the time of 
Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly sola- 
ria, seem to have been erected in various pub- 
lic places at Rome. 

Clepsydrae were used by the Romans in their 
camps, chiefly for the purpose of measuring 
accurately the four vigiliae into which the 
night was divided. 

The custom of using clepsydrae as a check 
upon the speakers in the courts of justice at 
Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn. Porn- 
peius, in his third consulship. Before that 
time the speakers had been under no restric 



176 



HOSPITIUM. 



tions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper. 
At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to 
the speakers, depended upon the importance 
of the case. 

HOSPI/T1UM (fevfo, Trpo&vld), hospital- 
ity, was in Greece, as well as at Rome, of a 
twofold nature, either private or public, in so 
far as it was either established between indi- 
viduals, or between two states. (Hospitium 
privatum, and hospitium publicum, t;evia and 
irpot-evia.) 

In ancient Greece the stranger, as such 
(t;vog and hostis), was looked upon as an 
enemy; but whenever he appeared among 
another tribe or nation without any sign of 
hostile intentions, he was considered not only 
as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and 
Jupiter was the protecting deity of strangers 
and suppliants (Zctf femoc). On his arrival, 
therefore, the stranger was kindly received, 
and provided with every thing necessary to 
make him comfortable. It seems to have been 
customary for the host, on the departure of 
the stranger, to break a die (aarpdyahos ) in 
two, one half of which he himself retained, 
while the other half was given to the stranger; 
and when at any future time they or their de- 
scendants met, they had a means of recogniz- 
ing each other, and the hospitable connection 
was renewed. Hospitality thus not only ex- 
isted between the persons who had originally 
formed it, but was transferred as an inheri- 
tance from father to son. 

What has been said hitherto, only refers to 
hospitium privatum ; but of far greater import- 
ance was the hospitium publicum (Trpo^evia, 
sometimes simply %evia) or public hospitality, 
which existed between two states, or between 
an individual or a family on the one hand, and 
a whole state on the other. Of the latter kind 
of public hospitality many instances are re- 
corded, such as that between the Pisistratids 
and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had 
no share. The hospitium publicum among 
the Greeks arose undoubtedly from the hos- 
pitium privatirm, and it may have originated 
in two ways. When the Greek tribes were 
governed by chieftains or kings, the private 
hospitality existing between the ruling fami- 
lies of two tribes may have produced similar 
relations between their subjects, which, after 
the abolition of the kingly power, continued 
to exist between the new republics as a kind 
of political inheritance of former times. Or a 
person belonging to one state might have either 
extensive connections with the citizens of an- 
other state, or entertain great partiality for the 
other state itself, and thus offer to receive all 
those who came from that state either on pri- 
vate or public business, and to act as their 



patron in his own city. This he at first did 
merely as a private individual, but the state to 
which he offered this kind service would na- 
turally soon recognize and reward him for it. 
When two states established public hospital- 
ity, and no individuals came forward to act as 
the representatives of their state, it was ne- 
cessary that in each state persons should be 
appointed to show hospitality to, and watch 
over the interests of, all persons who came 
from the state connected by hospitality. The 
persons who were appointed to this office as 
the recognized agents of the state for which 
they acted were called proxeni (rrpogevoi), but 
those who undertook it voluntarily ethdoprox- 
eni (idehoTrpo^evoi.) 

The office of proxenus, which bears great 
resemblance to that of a modern consul or 
minister-resident, was in some cases heredi- 
tary in a particular family. When a state ap- 
pointed a proxenus, it either sent out one of 
its own citizens to reside in the other state, or 
it selected one of the citizens of this state, 
and conferred upon him the honour of prox- 
enus. The former was, in early times, the 
custom of Sparta, where the kings had the 
right of selecting from among the Spartan 
citizens those whom they wished to send out 
as proxeni to other states. But in subsequent 
times this custom seems to have been given 
up, for we find that at Athens the family of 
Callias were the proxeni of Sparta, and at 
Argos, the Argive Alciphron. 

The principal duties of a proxenus were to 
receive those persons, especially ambassadors, 
who came from the state which he represent- 
ed ; to procure for them admission to the as- 
sembly, and seats in the theatre ; to act as the 
patron of the strangers, and to mediate be- 
tween the two states if any disputes arose. 
If a stranger died in the state, the proxenus 
of his country had to take care of the property 
of the deceased. 

The hospitality of the Romans was; as in 
Greece, either hospitium privatum or publi- 
cum. Private hospitality with the Romans, 
however, seems to have been more accurately 
and legally defined than in Greece. The 
character of a hospes, i. e. a person connected 
with a Roman by lies of hospitality, was 
deemed even more sacred, and to have greater 
claims upon the host, than that of a person 
connected by blood or affinity. The relation 
of a hospes to his Roman friend was next in 
importance to that of a cliens. The obliga- 
tions which the connection of hospitality with 
a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, were to 
receive in his house his hospes when travel- 
ling ; and to protect, and, in case of need, to 
represent him as his patron in the courts of 



HYACINTHIA. 

justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the 
hospes the claims upon his host which the 
client had on his patron, but without any de- 
gree of the dependence implied in the clien- 
tela. Private hospitality was established be- 
tween individuals by mutual presents, or by 
the mediation of a third person, and hallowed 
by religion ; for Jupiter hospitalis was thought 
to watch over the jus hospitii, as Zevf ^eviOf 
did with the Greeks, and the violation of it 
was as great a crime and impiety at Rome as 
in Greece. When hospitality was formed, the 
two friends used to divide between themselves 
a tessera hospitalis, by which, afterwards, they 
themselves or their descendants for the con- 
nection was hereditary as in Greece might 
recognize one another. Hospitality, when 
thus once established, could not be dissolved 
except by a formal declaration (renuntiatio), 
and in this case the tessera hospitalis was 
broken to pieces. 

Public hospitality seems likewise to have 
existed at a very early period among the na- 
tions of Italy ; but the first direct mention of 
public hospitality being established between 
Rome and another city, is after the Gauls had 
departed from Rome, when it was decreed 
that Caere should be rewarded for its good 
services by the establishment of public hospi- 
tality between the two cities. The public hos- 
pitality after the war with the Gauls gave to 
the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, 
that is, the civitas without the suffragium and 
the honores. [COLONIA.] In the later times 
of the republic we no longer find public hos- 
pitality established between Rome and a fo- 
reign state ; but a relation which amounted 
to the same thing was introduced in its stead, 
that is, towns were raised to the rank of mu- 
nicipia, and thus obtained the civitas without 
the suffragium and the honores ; and when a 
town was desirous of forming a similar rela- 
tion with Rome, it entered into clientela to 
some distinguished Roman, who then acted 
as patron of the,client-town. But the custom 
of granting the honour of hospes publicus to 
a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the 
senate, seems to have existed down to the end 
of the republic. His privileges were the same 
as those of a municeps, that is, he had the 
civitas but not the suffragium or the honores. 
Public hospitality was, like the hospitium pri- 
vaturn, hereditary in the family of the person 
to whom it had been granted. 

HOUR. [DiKs.] 

HOUSES. [Doiwus.] 

HYACI'NTHIA (vt xivdia), a great national 
festival, celebrated every year at Arnyclae by 
the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in 
honour of the Amyclae.m Apollo and Hyacin- 



J ANUA. 



177 



thus together. This Amyclaean Apollo, how- 
ever, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated 
in later times, must not be confounded with 
Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. 
The festival was called after the youthful hero 
Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his name 
from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of death 
among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo 
accidentally struck dead with a quoit. The H y- 
acinthia lasted for three days, and began on 
the longest day of the Spartan month Heca- 
tombeus, at the time when tender flowers, op- 
pressed by the heat of the sun, drooped their 
languid heads. On the first and last day of 
the Hyacirithia, sacrifices were offered to the 
dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was la 
mented. During these two days nobody wore 
any garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, 
but only cakes and similar things, and when 
the solemn repasts were over, everybody went 
home in the greatest quiet and order. The 
second day, however, was wholly spent in 
public rejoicings and amusements, such as 
horse-races, dances, processions, &c. The 
great importance attached to this festival by 
the Amyclaeans and Lacedaemonians is seen 
from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even when 
they had taken the field against an enemy, 
always returned home on the approach of the 
season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not 
be obliged to neglect its celebration ; and that 
in a treaty with Sparta, D. c. 421, the Atheni- 
ans, in order to show their good-will towards 
Sparta, promised every year to attend the 
celebration of this festival. 

HYDRIAPHO'RIA (vdpia^opia), was the 
carrying of a vessel with water (vdpia), which 
service the married alien (//ero^/coi) women 
had to perform to the married part of the fe- 
male citizens of Athens, when they walked to 
the temple of Minerva in the great procession 
at the Panathenaea. 



JA'CULUM. [HASTA.] 

JANUA (dvpa}, a door. Besides being ap- 
plicable to the doors of apartments in the in- 
terior of a house, which were properly called 
ostia, this term more especially denoted the 
first entrance into the house, '. e., the front 
or street door, which was also called anticum, 
and in Greek Ovpa avfaio$, avAeia, avhioc, 
or aiikia. The houses of the Romans com- 
monly had a back-door, called posticum, posti- 
ca, orposticula, and in Greek Trapd6vpa, dim. 
.7rapa6vpt.ov. 

The door-way, when complete, coiisied 



178 



IMAGO. 



of four indispensable parts ; the threshold, or 
sill (limen, ,3ij2,6^, ovda^) ; the lintel (jugumen- 
tum, limen superum) ; and l,he two jambs (past- 
es, craO/noi). 

The door itself was called foris or valva, 
and in Greek travif, itKiGiaq, or Qvperpov. 
These words are commonly found in the plu- 
ral, because the door-way of every building, 
of the least importance contained two doors 
folding together. When foris is used in the 
singular, it denotes one of the folding doors 
only. 

The fastenings of the door (claustra, obices) 
commonly consisted in a bolt (pessulus ; fj,dv- 
da/lof, KdToxeve, ufaldpov), placed at the 
base of each foris, so as to admit of being 
pushed into a socket made in the sill to re- 
ceive it. 

By night, the front door of the house was 
farther secured by means of wooden and some- 
times an iron bar (sera, repagula, yuo#/ldc) placed 
across it, and inserted into sockets on each 
side of the door-way. Hence it was neces- 
sary to remove the bar (TOV fiox^bv Trapdfa- 
petv) in order to open the door (reserare.) 

It was considered improper to enter a house 
without giving notice to its inmates. This 
notice the Spartans gave by shouting ; the 
Athenians and all other nations by using the 
knocker, or more commonly by rapping with 
the knuckles or with a stick (icpoveiv, KOTT- 
Tetv). In the houses of the rich a porter 
(janitor, ctistos, Ovpupo?) was always in at- 
tendance to open the door. He was com- 
monly a eunuch or a slave, and was chained 
to his post. To assist him in guarding the 
entrance, a dog was universally kept near it, 
being also attached by a chain to the wall ; 
and in reference to this practice, the warning 
cave canem, evXaflov rrjv Kvva, was sometimes 
written near the door. The appropriate name 
for the portion of the house immediately be- 
hind the door (dvptiv), denotes that it was a 
kind of apartment; it corresponded to the 
hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately ad- 
joining it, and close to the front door, there 
was in many houses a small room for the 
porter. 

IDUS. [CALENDARIUM.] 

IGNOMI'NIA. [CENSOR ; INFAMIA.] 

IGNO'BILES. [Novi HOMINES.] 

IMA'GO, a representation or likeness, an 
image or figure of a person. Among the Ro- 
mans those persons who had filled any of the 
higher or curule magistracies of the state, 
had the right of making images of themselves 
(jus imaginum), which privilege was permitted 
to no one else. These images were made of 
wax, and painted, and were likenesses of the 
nersons they represented, down to the shoul- 



IMPUBES. 

ders. They were preserved with great care 
in cases in the atria of houses, and were only 
brought out on solemn occasions, as, for in- 
stance, on occasion of the funeral of a mem- 
ber of the family. Hence the word imagines 
is frequently used as equivalent to nobility of 
birth, and homo multarum imaginum signifies a 
person of great nobility, many of whose an- 
cestors had held the higher offices of the 
state. Nobiles, therefore, were men who had 
such images in their family, and ignobiles those 
who had not. [Novi HOMINES.] 

IMPERATOR. [IMPERIUM.] 

IMPE'RIUM, was under the republic a 
power, withoxit which no military operation 
could be carried on as in the name and on 
the behalf of the state. It was not incident 
to any office, and was always specially con- 
ferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed 
in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not 
even a consul could act as commander of an 
army, unless he were empowered by a lex 
curiata. It could not be held or exercised 
within the city in the republican period ; but 
it was sometimes conferred specially upon 
an individual for the day of his triumph with- 
in the city, and at least, in some cases, by a 
plebiscitum. 

As opposed to potestas, imperium is the pow- 
er which was conferred by the state upon an 
individual who was appointed to command 
an army. The phrases consularis potestas and 
consulare imperium ^ might both be properly 
used ; but the expression tribunitia potestas 
only could be used, as the tribuni never re- 
ceived the imperium. 

In respect of his imperium, he who received 
t was styled imperator. After a victory it 
was usual for the soldiers to salute their com- 
mander as imperator, but this salutation nei- 
her gave nor confirmed the title, since the 
itle as a matter of course was given with 
he imperium. Under the republic the title 
came properly after the name ; thus Cicero, 
when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could prop- 
erly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Impera- 
;or, for the term merely expressed that he 
lad the imperium. The emperors Tiberius 
and Claudius refused to assume the praeno- 
men of imperator, but the use of it as a prae- 
nomen became established among their suc- 
cessors. 

The term imperium was applied in the re- 
publican period to express the sovereignty of 
;he Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cice- 
ro to have come under the imperium and ditio 
of the populus Romanus. 

IMPLU'VIUM. [DOMUS, p. 125.] 

IMPRISONMENT. [CARCER.] 

IMPU'BES. An infans was incapable of 






INFANS. , 

doing any legal act. An impubes, who had 

Kassed the limits of infantia, could do any 
jgal act with the auctoritas of his tutor. 
With the attainment of pubertas, a person 
obtained the full power over his property, and 
the tutela ceased : he could also dispose of 
his property by will ; and he could contract 
marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, 
was attained with the completion of the four- 
teenth, and in a female, with the completion 
of the twelfth year. 

Upon attaining the age of puberty a Ro- 
man youth assumed the toga virilis, but until 
that time he wore the toga praetexta, the 
broad purple hem of which (praetexta) at once 
distinguished him from other persons. The 
toga virilis was assumed at the Liberalia in 
the month of March, and though no age ap- 
pears to have been positively fixed for the 
ceremony, it probably took place as a general 
rule on the feast which next followed the 
completion of the fourteenth year ; though it 
is certain that the completion of the four- 
leenth year was not always the time observed. 
Still, so long as a male wore the praetexta, 
Le was impubes, and when he assumed the 
x)ga virilis, he was pubes. 
INAUGURA'TIO, was in general the cere- 
mony by which the augurs obtained, or en- 
deavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods 
to something which had been decreed by 
man ; in particular, however, it was the cere- 
mony by which things or persons were con- 
secrated to the gods, whence the terms dedi- 
catio and consecratio were sometimes used as 
synonymous with inauguratio. Not only 
were priests inaugurated, but also the higher 
magistrates, who for this purpose were sum- 
moned by the augurs to appear on the capi- 
tal, on the third day after their election. This 
inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity upon 
the magistrates, but was merely a method of 
obtaining the sanction of the gods to their 
election, and gave them the right to take aus- 
picia ; and on important emergencies it was 
their duty to make use of this privilege. 

1'NDUTUS. [AMICTUS.] 

JNFA'MIA, was a consequence of condem- 
nation for certain crimes, and also a direct 
consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, 
prostitution, appearing on the public stage as 
an actor, &c. A person who became infamis 
lost the suffragium and honores, and was de- 
graded to the condition of an aerarian. Infamia 
should be distinguished from the Nota Cen- 
soria, the consequence of which was only ig- 
nominia. [CENSOR.] 

INFANS, INFA'NTIA. In the Roman law 
there were several distinctions of age which 
were made with reference to the capacity for 



INTERCESSION 



179 



doing legal acts: 1. The first period was 
from birth to the end of the seventh year, du- 
ring which time persons were called Infantes, 
or Quifari non possunt. 2. The second period 
was from the end of seven years to the end of 
fourteen or twelve years, according as the per- 
son was a male or female, during which per- 
sons were defined as those Qui fari possunt. 
The persons included in these first two classes 
were Impuberes. 3. The third period was from 
the end of the twelfth or fourteenth to the end 
of the twenty-fifth year, during which period 
persons were Adolescentes, Adulti. The persons 
included in these three classes were minores 
xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for 
brevity's sake, called minores only [CCRA- 
TOR] ; and the persons included in the third 
and fourth class were Puberes. 4. The fourth 
period was from the age of twenty-five, during 
which persons were Majores. 

INFE'RIAE. [FuNus, p. 164.] 

I'NFULA, a flock of white and red wool, 
which was slightly twisted, drawn into the 
form of a wreath orfillet, and used by the Ro- 
mans for ornament on festive and solemn oc- 
casions. In sacrificing it was tied with a white 
band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and 
also of the priest. 

INGE'NUI, were those free men who weie 
born free. Consequently, freed in en (libertini) 
were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini 
were ingenui ; nor could a libertinus by adop- 
tion become ingenuus. The words ingenuus 
and libertinus are often opposed to one another ; 
and the title of freeman (liber), which would 
comprehend libertinus, is sometimes limited by 
the addition of ingenuus (liber et ingenuus.) 
Under the empire a person not ingenuus 
by birth, could be made ingenuus by the em- 
peror. 

INK. [ATRAMENTUM.] 

INN. [CAUPONA.] 

INQUILI'NUS. [EXSILIUM, p. 149.] 

1'NSTITA (TrepifTodtov), a flounce ; a fillet. 
The Roman matrons sometimes wore a broad 
fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom of 
the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use 
of it indicated a superior regard to decency 
and propriety of manners. 

PNSUL A was, properly, a house not joined 
to the neighbouring houses by a common wall. 
An insula, however, generally contained sev- 
eral separate houses, or at least separate apart- 
ments or shops, which were let to different 
families; ana hence the word domus under 
the emperors seems to be applied to the house 
where a family lived, whether it were an in- 
sula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings. 

INTERCE'SSIO was the interference of a 
magistratus to whom an appeal [APPELLATIO! 



180 



INTERDICTUM. 



was made.. The object of the intercessio was 
to put a stop to proceedings, on the ground of 
informality or other sufficient cause. Any 
magistratus might intercede, who was of 
equal rank with or of rank superior to the 
magistratus from or against whom the appel- 
latio was. Cases occur in which one of the 
praetors interposed (intercessit) against the pro- 
ceedings of his colleague. The intercessio is 
most frequently spoken of with reference to 
the tribunes,who originally had not jurisdictio, 
but used the intercessio for the purpose of 
preventing wrong which was offered to a per- 
son in their presence. The intercessio of the 
tribunes of the plebs was auxilium, and it 
might be exercised either in jure or in judicio. 
The tribune qui intercessit could prevent a ju- 
dicium from being instituted. The tribunes 
could only use the intercessio to prevent exe- 
cution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune 
could effect this, and against the opinion of 
his colleagues. 

INTERCrSI DIES. [Dies.] 

INTERDICTUM. InXertain cases (cer- 
tis ex causis) the praetor or proconsul, in the 
first instance (principaliter), exercises his au- 
thority for the termination of disputes. This 
he chiefly does when the dispute is about 
possession or quasi-possession ; and the ex- 
ercise of his authority consists in ordering 
something to be done, or forbidding something 
to be done. The formulae and the terms 
which he uses on such occasions, are called 
either interdicta or decreta. They are called 
decreta when he orders something to be done, 
as when he orders something to be produced 
(exhiberi) or to be restored : they are called 
interdicta when he forbids something to be 
done, as when he orders that force shall not 
be used against a person who is in possession 
rightfully (sine vitio), or that nothing shall be 
done on a piece of sacred ground. Accord- 
ingly all interdicta are either restitutoria, or 
exhibitoria, or prohibitoria." 

This passage, which is taken from Gaius, 
the Roman jurist, contains the essential dis- 
tinction between an actio and an interdictum. In 
the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces 
no order or decree, but he gives a judex,whose 
business it is to investigate the matter in dis- 
pute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently 
with the formula, which is his authority for 
acting. In the case of an actio, therefore, the 
praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to be 
done, but he says, Judicium dabo. In the case 
of an interdict, the praetor makes an order 
that spmething shall be done or shall not be 
done, and his words are accprdingly words of 
command ; Restitutes, fxibeas, Vim fieri veto. 
is immediate interposition of the praetor is 



, INTERREX. 

appropriately expressed by the word princi- 
paliter. 

INTEREST OF MONEY. [FENITS.] 

INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class 
of persons became very numerous and neces- 
sary to the Romans as their empire extended. 
In large mercantile towns the interpreters, 
who formed a kind of agent through whom 
business was done, were sometimes very nu- 
merous. 

All Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaes- 
tors who were entrusted with the administra- 
tion of a province, had to carry on all their 
official proceedings in the Latin language, and 
as they could not be expected to be acquaint- 
ed with the language of the provincials, they 
had always among their servants [APPARI 
TORES] one or more interpreters, who were 
generally Romans, but in most cases un- 
doubtedly freedmen. These interpreters had 
not only to officiate at the conventus [CoN- 
VENTUS], but also explained to the Roman 
governor everything which the provincials 
might wish to be laid before him. 

INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.] 

INTERREX. This office is said to have 
been instituted on the death of Romulus, when 
the senate wished to share the sovereign ' 
power among themselves, instead of electing 
a king. For this purpose, according to Livy, 
the senate, which then consisted of one hun- 
dred members, was divided into ten decuries ; 
and from each of these decuries one senator 
was nominated. These together formed a 
board of ten, with the title of Interreges, each 
of whom enjoyed in succession the regal 
power and its badges for five days ; and if no 
king was appointed at the expiration of iifty 
days, the rotation began anew. The period 
during which they exercised their power was 
called an Interregnum. These ten interreges 
were the Decem Primi, or ten leading senators, 
of whom the first was chief of the whole 
senate. 

The interreges agreed among themselves 
who should be proposed as king, and if the 
senate approved of their choice, they sum- 
moned the assembly of the curiae, and proposed 
the person whom they had previously agreed 
upon ; the power of the curiae was confined 
to accepting or rejecting him. 

Interreges were appointed under the repub- 
lic for holding the comitia for the election of 
the consuls, when the consuls, through civil 
commotions or other causes, had been unable 
to do so in their year of office. Each held the 
office for only five days, as under the kings. 
The comitia were hardly ever held by the first 
interrex ; more usually by the second or third j 
but in one instance we read of an eleventh, 



ISTIIMIA. 

and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The 
interreges under the republic, at least from 
B. c. 482, were elected by the senate from the 
whole body, and were not confined to the 
decem primi or ten chief senators, as under 
the kings Plebeians, however, were not ad- 
missible to this office ; and consequently, 
when plebeians were admitted into the senate, 
the patrician senators met without the ple- 
beian members to elect an interrex. For this 
reason, as well as on account of the influ- 
ence which the interrex exerted in the elec- 
tion of the magistrates, we find that the tri- 
bunes of the plebs were strongly opposed to 
the appointment of an interrex. The interrex 
had jurisdictio. 

Interreges continued to be appointed occa- 
sionally till the time of the second Punic war, 
but after that time we read of no interrex, till 
the senate, by command of Sulla, created an 
interrex to hold the comitia for his election 
as dictator, B. c. 82. In B. c. 55 another in- 
terrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in 
which Pompey and Crassus were elected 
consuls; and we also read of interreges in 
B. c. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years 
an interrex held the comitia in which Pompey 
was appointed sole consul. 

1'STHMIA ('ladLna), the Isthmian games, 



JUDEX. 



181 



one of the four great national festivals of the 
Greeks. This festival derived its name from 
the Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. 
Subsequent to the age of Theseus the Isthmia 
were celebrated in honour of Neptune ; and 
this innovation is ascribed to Theseus him- 
self. The celebration of the Isthmia was 
conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus 
had reserved for his Athenians some honour- 
able distinctions : those Athenians who at- 
tended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic 
gulf in a sacred vessel (deupi?), and an hono- 
rary place (Trpoedpla), as large as the sail of 
their vessel, was assigned to them during the 
celebration of the games. In times of war 
between the two states a sacred truce was 
concluded, and the Athenians were invited 
to attend at the solemnities. These games 
were celebrated regularly every other year, 
in the first and third years of each Olympiad. 
After the fall of Corinth, in 146 B. c., the Si- 
cyonians were honoured with the privilege 
of conducting the Isthmian games ; but when 
the town of Corinth was rebuilt by Julius 
Caesar, the right of conducting the solemni- 
ties was restored to the Corinthians. 

The season of the Isthmian solemnities 
was, like that of all the great national festi- 
vals, distinguished by general rejoicings and 
feasting. The contests and games of the 
isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, 

Q 



and embraced all the varieties of athletic per- 
formances, such as wrestling, the pancratium, 
together with horse and chariot racing. Mu- 
sical and poetical contests were likewise car- 
ried on, and in the latter women were also 
allowed to take part. 

The prize of a victor in the Isthmian games 
consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, 
and afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple 
as such a reward was, a victor in these games 
gained the greatest distinction and honour 
among his countrymen; and a victory not 
only rendered the individual who obtained it 
a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over 
his family, and the whole town or community 
to which he belonged. Hence Solon estab- 
lished by a law, that every Athenian who 
gained the victory at the Isthmian games 
should receive from the public treasury a re- 
ward of one hundred drachmae. His victory 
was generally celebrated in lofty odes, called 
Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still 
possess some beautiful specimens among the 
poems of Pindar. 

JUDEX, JUDI'CIUM. A Roman magis- 
tratus generally did not investigate the facts 
in dispute* in such matters as were brought 
before him : he appointed a judex for that 
purpose, and gave him instructions. [AcTio.] 
Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was 
expressed by the twb phrases Jus and Judici- 
um, of which the former comprehended all 
that took place before the magistratus (in 
jure), and the latter all that took place before 
the judex (injudicio). 

In many cases a single judex was appoint- 
ed: in others, several were appointed, and 
they seem to have been sometimes called re- 
cuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. 
Under certain circumstances the judex was 
called arbiter: thus judex and arbiter are 
named together in the Twelve Tables. 

A judex when appointed was bound to dis- 
charge the functions of the office, unless he 
had some valid excuse (excusatio). There were 
certain seasons of the year when legal busi- 
ness was done at Rome, and at these times 
the services of the judices were required 
These legal terms were regulated according 
to the seasons, so that there were periods of 
vacation. 

When the judex was appointed, the pro* 
ceedings in jure or before the praetor were 
terminated. The parties appeared before the 
judex on the third day (comperendinatio), un- 
less the praetor had deferred the judicium for 
some sufficient reason. The judex was gen- 
erally aided by advisers (jurisconsulti) learned 
in the law, who were said in consilio adesse ; 
but the judex alone was empowered to givo 



182 



JUDEX. 



j udgment. The matter was first briefly stated 
to the judt'X (causae conjectio, collectio) and the 
advocates of each party supported his cause 
in a speech. Witnesses were produced on 
both sides, and examined orally : the witness- 
es on one side were also cross-examined by 
the other. 

After all the evidence was given and the 
advocates had finished, the judex gave sen- 
tence : if there were several judices, a major- 
ity decided. If the matter was one of diffi- 
culty, the hearing might be adjourned as often 
as was necessary (ampliatio) ; and if the judex 
c ;uld not come to a satisfactory conclusion, 
he might declare this upon oath, and so re- 
lease himself from the difficulty. This was 
done by the form of words non liquere (N. L.). 
The sentence was pronounced orally, and was 
sometimes first written on a tablet. If the 
defendant did not make his appearance after 
being duly summoned, judgment might be 
given against him. 

According to Cicero, all judicia had for 
their object, either the settlement of disputes 
between individuals (controversiae), or the pun- 
ishment of crimes (maleficia). This refers to 
a division of judicia, which appears in the 
jurists, into judicia publica and judicia privata. 
The former, the judicia publica, succeeded to 
the judicia populi of the early republican pe- 
riod : the latter were so called because in 
them the populus acted as judices. Origi- 
nally the kings presided in all criminal cases, 
and the consuls succeeded to their authority. 
But after the passing of the Lex Valeria 
(B. c. 507), which gave an appeal to the pop- 
ulus (that is, the comitia curiata) from the 
magistratus, the consul could not sit in judg- 
ment on the caput of a Roman citizen, but 
such cases were tried in the comitia, or per- 
sons were appointed to preside at such in- 
quiries, who were accordingly called Quaesi- 
toresor Quaestor es parricidii or rerum capitalium. 
In course of time, as such cases became of 
more frequent occurrence, such quaestiones 
were made perpetual, that is, particular ma- 
gistrates were appointed for the purpose. It 
was eventually determined, that while the 
praetor urbanus and peregrinus should continue 
to exercise their usual jurisdictions, the other 
praetors should preside at public trials. In 
such trials any person might be an accuser 
(accusator). The praetor generally presided 
as quaesitor, assisted by a judex quaestionis, 
ana a bpay of judices called his consilium. 
The judices were generally chosen by lot out 
of those who were qualified to act ; but in 
some cases the accuser and the accused (reus} 
had the privilege of choosing (edere) a certain 
number of judices out of a large number, who 



were thence called Edititii. Both the accu 
sator and the reus had the privilege of le- 
jecting or challenging (rejicere) such judices 
as they did not like. In many cases a lex 
was passed for the purpose of regulating the 
mode of procedure. 

The judices voted by ballot, at least gener 
ally, and a majority determined the acquittal 
or condemnation of the accused. Each judex 
was provided with three tablets (tabulae), on 
one of which was marked A, Absolvo ; on a 
second C, Condemno ; and on a third N. L. f 
Non liquet. The judices voted by placing one 
of these tablets in the urns, which were then 
examined for the purpose of ascertaining the 
votes. It was the duty of the magistratus to 
pronounce the sentence of the judices ; in the 
case of condemnation, to adjudge the legal 
penalty ; of acquittal, to declare him acquit- 
ted ; and of doubt, to declare that the matter 
must be farther investigated (amplius cogno- 
scendum). 

A judicium populi, properly so called, was 
one in which the case was tried in the comitia 
curiata, but afterwards in the comitia centu- 
riata and tributa. The accuser had to be a 
magistratus, who commenced it by declaring 
in a contio that he would on a certain day ac- 
cuse a certain person, whom he named, 01 
some offence, which he also specified. This 
was expressed by the phrase diem dicere. If 
the offender held any high office, it was neces- 
sary to wait till his time of service had ex- 
pired, before proceedings could be thus com- 
menced against him. The accused was re- 
quired to give security for his appearance on 
the day of trial ; the security was called vades 
in a causa capitalis, and praedes when the 
penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. 
If such security was not given, the accused 
was kept in confinement. If nothing prevented 
the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed 
for it, the trial proceded, and the accuser had 
to prove his case by evidence. The investi- 
gation of the facts was called anquisilio with 
reference to the proposed penalty: accord- 
ingly, the phrases pecunia, capite or capitis an- 
quirere, are used. When the investigation 
was concluded, the magistratus promulgated 
a rogatio, which comprehended the charge 
and the punishment or fine. It was a rule of 
law that a fine should not be imposed together 
with another punishment in the same rogatio. 
The rogatio was made public during three 
nundinae, like any other lex, and proposed at 
the comitia for adoption or rejection. The 
accused sometimes withdrew into exile before 
the votes were taken ; or he might make his 
defence. 

The offences which were the chief subject 



JUDEX. 

of judicia populi and publica were majestas, 
adulteria and stupra, parricidiurn, falsum, vis 
publica and privata, peculatus, repetundae, 
ambitus. 

With the passing of special enactments for 
the punishment of particular offences, was 
introduced the practice of forming a body of 
judices for the trial of such offences as the 
enactments were directed against. The Album 
Judicum was the body out of which judices 
were to be chosen. It is not known what was 
the number of the body so constituted, but it 
has been conjectured that the number was 
350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe, 
and thus the origin of the phrase Decuriae Ju- 
dicum is explained. It is easy to conceive that 
the judicia populi, properly' so called, would 
be less frequent, as special leges were framed 
for particular offences, the circumstances of 
which could be better investigated by a smaller 
body of judices than by the assembled people. 
The Lex Servilia (B. c. 104) enacted that the 
judices should not be under thirty nor above 
sixty years of age, that the accuser and ac- 
cused should severally propose one hundred 
judices, and that each might reject fifty from 
the list of the other, so that one hundred 
would remain for the trial. Up to B. c. 122, 
the judices were always senators, but in this 
year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took 
the judicia from the senators and gave them to 
the equites. This state of things lasted nearly 
fifty years, till Sulla (B.C. 80) restored the ju- 
dicia to the senate, and excluded the equites 
from the album judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B. c. 
70) enacted that the judices should be chosen 
from the three classes of senators, equites, 
and tribuni aerarii ; and accordingly the ju- 
dicia were then said to be divided between the 
senate and the equites. The tribuni aerarii 
were taken from the rest of the citizens, and 
were, or ought to have been, persons of some 
property. Thus the three decuriae of judices 
were formed ; and it was either in conse- 
quence of the Lex Aurelia or some other lex, 
that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the 
decuriae had severally their balloting urn, so 
that the votes of the three classes were known. 
It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined 
the number of judices in any given case. The 
Lex Pompeia de Vi, and De Ambitu (B. c. 52) 
determined that eighty judices were to be se- 
lected by lot, out of whom the accuser and 
the accused might reject thirty. In the case 
of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, 
there were fifty-six judices. It is conjectured 
that the number fixed for a given case, by the 
Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. 

Augustus added to the existing three decu- 
;ae judicum a fourth decuria, called that of 



JUGUM. 



183 



the Ducenarii, who had a lower pecuniary 
qualification, and only decided in smaller mat- 
ters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order 
to diminish the labours of the judices. 

JUDGES, Greek [DICASTES], Roman [Ju- 
DEX.] 

JU'GERUM, a Roman measure of surface, 
240 feet in length and 120 in breadth, contain- 
ing therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the 
double of the Actus Quadratus, and from this 
circumstance, according to some writers, it 
derived its name. [Ac-rus.] The uncial di- 
vision [As] was applied to the jugerum, its 
smallest part being the scrupulum of 10 feet 
square, =.100 square feet. Thus the jugerum 
contained 288 scrupula. The jugerum was 
the common measure of land among the Ro- 
mans. Two jugera formed an heredium, a hun- 
dred heredia a centuria, and four centuriae a sal 
tus. These divisions were derived from the 
original assignment of landed property in 
which two jugera were given to each citizen 
as heritable property. 

JUGUM (vyoO) v~y6v), signified in general 
that which joined two things together, such as 
the transverse beam which united the upright 
posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scale- 
beam, &c., but it denoted more especially the 
yoke by which ploughs and carriages were 
drawn. The following woodcut shows two 
examples of the yoke : the upper one is pro- 
vided with two collars, the lower one with 
excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give 
more ease and freedom to the animals. The 
latter figure shows the method of tying the 
yoke to the pole (temo, /5u//dc) by means of a 
leathern strap. 




184 



LACERNA. 



The word jugum is often used to signify sla- 
very, or the condition in which men are com- 
pelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, 
to labour for others. Hence, to express sym- 
bolically the subjugation of conquered nations, 
the Romans made their captives pass under a 
yoke (sub jugum mittere), which, however, was 
not made like the yoke used in drawing car- 
riages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear 
supported transversely by two others placed 
upright. 

JURIS'DICTIO, signifies generally the au- 
thority of the magistrate " qui jus dicit," and 
is mostly applied to the authority of the prae- 
tor in civil cases, such as the giving of the 
formula in an actio and the appointment of a 
judex. [ACTIO.] 

JUS. The law peculiar to the Roman state 
is sometimes called Jus Civile Romanorum, but 
more frequently Jus Civile only. The Jus 
Quiritium is equivalent to the Jus Civile Ro- 
manorum. The jus civile of the Romans is di- 
visible into two parts, jus civile in the narrower 
sense, and jus pontifidum, or the law of reli- 
gion. This opposition is sometimes expressed 
by the words Jus and Fas. The law of re- 
ligion, or the Jus Pontifidum, was under the 
control of the pontih'ces, who in fact originally 
had the control of the whole mass of the law ; 
and it was only after the separation of the jus 
civile in its wider sense into the two parts of the 
jus civile, in its narrower sense, and the jus 
pontificium, that each part had its proper and 
peculiar limits. Still, even after the separa- 
tion, there was a mutual relation between 
these two branches of law ; for instance, an 
adrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless 
it was valid by the jus pontificium. Again, 
jus pontificium, in its wider sense, as the law 
of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus 
augurum, pontificium, &c. 

JUS CIVI'LE. [Jus.] 

JUS LA'TIl. [CiviTAS ; LATINITAS.] 

JUS PONTIFI'CIUM. [Jus.] 

JUS QUJRl'TIUM. [Jus.] ' 

TUSTI'TIUM. [FUNUS, p. 164.] 

K. SEE C. 



L. 

LA'BARUM. [SioNA MILITARIA.] 
LACERNA (juav6va<;Mav6vr)),& cloak worn 
by the Romans over the toga. It differed 
from the paenula in being an open garment 
like the Greek pallium, and fastened on the 
right shoulder by means of a buckle (fibula), 
whereas the paenula was what is called a 
vestimentum clnusum with an opening for the 



LAMPADEPHORIA. 

head. The Lacerna appears to have been 
commonly used in the army. In the time of 
Cicero it was not usually worn in the city, 
but it soon afterwards became quite common 
at Rome. 

The lacerna was sometimes thrown over 
the head for the purpose of concealment ; but 
a cucullus or cowl was generally used for that 
purpose, which appears to have been fre- 
quently attached to .he lacerna, and to have 
formed a part of the dress. 

LACI'NIAE, the angular extremities of 
the toga, one of which was brought round 
over the left shoulder. It was generally tuck- 
ed into the girdle, but sometimes was allowed 
to hang down loose. 

LACO'NICUM. [BALNEUM, p. 49.] 

LACU'NAR. [DoMus, p. 127.] 

LA EN A (xkalva), a woollen cloak, the 
cloth of which was twice the ordinary thick- 
ness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over 
the pallium or the toga for the sake of warmth. 

In later times the laena seems, to a certain 
extent, to have been worn as a substitute for 
the toga. 

LAMPADEPHO'RIA 
torch-bearing, LAMPADEDROMIA 
fiia), torch-race, and often simply LAMPA 
TTuf ), was a game common throughout Greece. 

At Athens we know of five celebrations of 
this game : one to Prometheus at the Pro- 
metheia, a second to Minerva at the Pana- 
thenaea, a third to Vulcan at the Hephaes- 
teia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thra- 
cian Diana or Bendis. The three former 
are of unknown antiquity ; the fourth was in- 
troduced soon after the battle of Marathon ; 
the last in the time of Socrates. 

The race was usually run on foot, horses 
being first used in the time of Socrates ; some- 
times also at night. The preparation for it 
was a principal branch of the Gymnasiarchia, 
so much so indeed in later times, that Lam- 
padarchia ("kanKadapxia), seems to have been 
pretty much equivalent to the Gymnasiarchia. 
The gymnasiarch had to provide the lampas, 
which was a candlestick with a kind of shield 
set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shel- 
ter the flame of the candle ; as is seen in the 
following woodcut, 
taken from a coin. 
He had also to pro- 
vide for the training 
of the runners, which 
was of no slight con- 
sequence, for the race 
was evidently a se- 
vere one, with other 
expenses, which on 
the whole were very 




LATINIIVS. 

heavy, so that Isaeus classes this office with 
the choregia and trierarchia, and reckons that 
it had cost him 12 minae. 

LAMPAS. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] 
LAMPS. [LUCERNA.] 

LA'NCEA. [HASTA.] 

LANISTA. [GLADIATORES.] 

LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some 
other metal, and sometimes embossed, used 
at splendid entertainments to hold meat or 
fruit ; and consequently at sacrifices and fu- 
neral banquets. 

LA'QUEAR. [DoMus, p. 127.] 

LARENTA'LIA, sometimes written LA- 
RENTINA'LIA and LAURENTA'LIA, a 
Roman festival in honour of Acca Larentia, 
the wife of Faustulus and the nurse of Rom- 
ulus and Remus. It was celebrated in De- 
cember, on the 10th before the calends of Jan- 
uary. 

LARGI'TIO. [AMBITUS.] 

LATERNA or LANTERNA (lirvof, lv- 
Xvovro?, in later Greek, 0av6f), a lantern. 
Two bronze lanterns, constructed with nicety 
and skill, have been fc"nd in the ruins of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii. One of them is 
represented in the annexed woodcut. Its 



LECT1CA. 



185 




form is cylindrical. Within is a bronze lamp 
attached to the centre of the base, and pro- 
vided with an extinguisher shown on the 
right hand of the lantern. The plates are of 
translucent horn. A front view of one of the 
two upright pillars is shown on the left hand. 
LATICLA'VII. [CLAVUS.] 
LATI'NAE FE'RIAE. [FERIAE.] 
LATI'NITAS, LA'TIUM, JUS LA'TII. 
All these expressions are used to signify a 
certain status intermediate between that of 
Q2 



cives and peregrini. Before the passing of 
the Lex Julia de Civitate (B. c. 90) the above 
expressions denoted a certain nationality, and 
as part of it a certain legal status with refer- 
ence to Rome ; but after the passing of that 
lex, these expressions denoted only a certain 
status, and had no reference to any national 
distinction. About the year B. c. 89, a Lex 
Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Trans- 
padani, and consequently the privilege of ob- 
taining the Roman civitas by having filled a 
magistratus in their own cities. To denote 
the status of these Transpadani, the word 
Latinitas was used, which since the passing 
of the Lex Julia had lost its proper significa- 
tion ; and this was the origin of that Latini- 
tas which thenceforth existed to the time of 
Justinian. This new Latinitas or jus Latii 
was given to whole towns and countries ; as, 
for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of 
Spain. 

It is npt certain wherein this new Latinitas 
differed from that Latinitas which was the 
characteristic of the Latini before the passing 
of the Lex Julia. It is, however, clear that 
all the old Latini had not the same right with 
respect to Rome ; and that they could ac- 
quire the civitas on easier terms than those 
by which the new Latinitas was acquired. 

LATRU'NCULI (ireaaot, iffitoi), draughts. 
The invention of a game resembling draughts 
was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes ; 
and it is mentioned by Homer. There were 
two sets of men, one set being black, the other 
white or red. Being intended to represent a 
miniature combat between two armies, they 
were called soldiers (milites), foes (hostes), 
and marauders (latranes, dim. latrunculi) ; also 
calculi, because stones were often employed 
for the purpose. The Romans often had 
twelve lines on the draught-board, whence 
the game so played was called duodecimscripta 

LAUDA'TIO. [FuNirs, p. 162.] 

LAURENTA'LIA. [LARENTALIA.] 

LAWS. [LEX.] 

LECTTCA (KMvrj, K^tvidiov, or Qopeiov), 
was a kind of couch or litter, in which per- 
sons, in a lying position, were carried from 
one place to another. They were used for 
carrying the dead [FuNus] as well as the 
living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed 
or mattress, and a pillow to support the head, 
placed upon a kind of bedstead or couch. It 
had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, 
extending over the couch and resting on four 
posts. The sides of this lectica were covered 
with curtains. In the republican period it 
appears to have been chiefly used by women, 
and by men only when they were in ill health. 
When this kind of lectica was introduced 



186 



LECTISTERNIUM. 



among the Romans, it was chiefly used in 
travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself. 
But towards the end of the republic, and un- 
der the empire, it was commonly used in the 
city, and was fitted up in the most splendid 
manner. Instead of curtains,it was frequently 
closed on the sides with windows made of 
transparent stone (lapis specularis), and was 
provided with a pillow and bed. When stand- 
ing, it rested on four feet, generally made of 
wood. Persons were carried in a lectica by 
slaves (lecticarii), by means of poles (asseres) 
attached to it, but not fixed, so that they might 
easily be taken off when necessary. The 
number of lecticarii employed in carrying one 
lectica varied according to its size, and the 
display of wealth which a person might wish 
to make. The ordinary number was probably 
two ; but it varied from two to eight, and the 
lectica is called hexaphoron or octophoron, ac- 
cording as it was carried by six or eight 
persons. The following woodcut represents 
a lectica. It is taken from the tombstone of 
M. Antonius Antius. 




LECTISTE'RNIUM. Sacrifices being of 
the nature of feasts, the Greeks and Romans, 
on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, 
placed images of the gods reclining on couch- 
t>a, with tables and viands before them, as if 
they were really partaking of the things of- 
fered in sacrifice. This ceremony was called 
i. lectisternium. The woodcut here introduced 




LECTUS. 

exhibits a couch employed on one of these 
occasions. It has a cushion covered by a 
cloth hanging in ample folds down each side. 
This beautiful pulvinar is wrought altogether 
in white marble, and is somewhat more than 
two feet in height. 

LECTUS (2,&of, KMvq, evvij), a bed. The 
complete bed (evvij) of a wealthy Greek in 
later times generally consisted of the follow- 
ing parts : K^ivrj, TTITOVOI, rvhelov or nvefya- 
hov, TrpocKedafalov, and orpcj//ara. 

The KJiivr) is, properly speaking, merely the 
bedstead, and seems to have consisted only of 
posts fitted into one another and resting upon 
four feet. At the head part alone there was a 
board (avaKTitvrpov or iTriK^ivrp^ov) to sup- 
port the pillow and prevent its falling out. 
Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a 
bedstead was likewise protected by a board, 
so that in this case a Greek bedstead resem- 
bled what we call a French bedstead. 

The bedstead was pro ided with girths 
(rovot, kiTlrovoi, Keipia] on which the bed or 
mattress (Kve<t>a?iov, Tvfaiov, Kotv&f, or rvhrj) 
rested. The cover or ticking of a mattress 
was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of 
leather, and the usual material with which it 
was filled was either wool or dried weeds. 
At the head part of the bed, and supported by 
the irriK^tvTpov, lay a round pillow (7rpof/f- 
0d/lefov) to support the head. 

The bed-covers (orpw//ara) were generally 
made of cloth, which was very thick and 
woolly, either on one or on both sides. 

The beds of the Romans (lecti cubiculares) 
in the earlier periods of the republic were pro- 
bably of the same description as those used in 
Greece ; but towards the end of the republic 
and during the empire, the richness and mag- 
nificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans 
far surpassed everything we find described in 
Greece. The bedstead was generally rathei 
high, so that persons entered the bed (scandere, 
ascendere) by means of steps placed beside it 
(scamnum). It was sometimes made of metal, 
and sometimes of costly kinds of wood, or ve- 
neered with tortoise shell orivory; its feet(//- 
chra) were frequently of silver or gold. The 
bed or mattress (culcita and torus) rested upon 
girths or strings (restes, fasciae, institae, orfu- 
nes), which connected the two horizontal side- 
posts of the bed. In beds destined for two 
persons, the two sides are distinguished by 
different names ; the side at which persons 
entered was open, and bore the name sponda ; 
the other side, which was protected by a 
board, was called pluteus. The two sides of 
such a bed are also distinguished by the names 
torus exterior and torus interior, or sponda. exte- 
rior and sponda interior ; and from these ex- 



LEGATUS. 



187 



pressions it is not improbable that such lecti , soon as the report of the landing of foreign 
had two beds or mattresses, one for each per- j ambassadors on the coast of Italy was brought 
son Mattresses were in the earlier times ! to Rome, especially if they were persons of 
rilled with dry herbs or straw, and such beds great distinction, or if they came from an ally 
continued to be used by the poor. But in I of the Roman people, some one of the inferior 



subsequent times wool, and, at a still later 
period, feathers, were used by the wealthy 
for the beds as well as the pillows. The cloth 
or ticking (operimentum or involucrum) with 
which the beds or mattresses were covered, 
was called (oral, torale, linteum, or segestre. 
The blankets or counterpanes (vestes stragulae, 
stragula, peristromata, peripetasmata) were in 
the houses of wealthy Romans of the most 
costly description, and generally of a purple 
colour, and embroidered with beautiful figures 
in gold. Covers of this sort were called peri- 
petasmata Attalica, because they were said to 
have been first used at the court of Attains. 
The pillows were likewise covered with mag- 
nificent casings. 

The lectus genialis or adversus was the bridal 
bed, which stood in the atrium, opposite the 
janua, whence it derived the epithet adversus. 
it was generally high, with steps by its side, 
and in later times beautifully adorned. 

Respecting the lectus funebris see Fimus, 
p. 161. An account of the disposition of the 
couches used at entertainments is given under 
TRICLINIUM. 

LEGA'TiO LFBERA. [LEGATUS, p. 188.] 

LEGATUS, from lego, a person commis- 
sioned or deputed to do certain things. They 
may be divided into three classes : 1. Legati 
or ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign na- 
tions; 2. Legati or ambassadors sent from 
Rome to foreign nations and into the provin- 
ces ; 3. Legati who accompanied the Roman 
generals into the field, or the proconsuls and 
praetors into the provinces. 

1. Foreign legati at Rome, from whatever 
country they came, had to go to the temple of 
Saturn, and deposit their names with the 
quaestors. Previous to their admission into 
the city, foreign ambassadors seem to have 
been obliged to give notice from what nation 
they came and for what purpose ; for several 
instances are mentioned, in which ambassa- 
dors were prohibited from entering the city, 
especially in case of a war between Rome and 
the state from which they came. In such 
cases the ambassadors were either not heard 
at all, and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience 
was given to them by the senate (senatus lega- 
tis datur) outside the city, in the temple of 
Bellona. This was evidently a sign of mis- 
trust, but the ambassadors were nevertheless 
treated as public guests, and some public villa 
outside the city was sometimes assigned for 
ther reception. In other cases, however, as 



magistrates, or a legatus of a consul, was de- 
spatched by the senate to receive, and conduct 
them to the city at the expense of the repub- 
lic. When they were introduced into the 
senate by the praetor or consul, they first ex- 
plained what they had to communicate, and 
then the praetor invited the senators to put 
their questions to the ambassadors. The 
whole transaction was carried on by interpre- 
ters, and in the Latin language. [!NTER- 
PRES.] After the ambassadors had thus been 
examined, they were requested to leave the 
assembly of the senate, who now began to dis- 
cuss the subject brought before them. The 
result was communicated to the ambassadors 
by the praetor. In some cases ambassadors 
not only received rich presents on their de- 
parture, but were at the command of the 
senate conducted by a magistrate, and at the 
public expense, to the frontier of Italy, and 
even farther. By the Lex Gabinia it was de- 
creed, that from the 1st of February to the 1st 
of March, the senate should every day give 
audience to foreign ambassadors. There was 
a place on the right-hand side of the senate- 
house, called Graecostasis, in which foreigr. 
ambassadors waited. 

All ambassadors, whencesoever they came, 
were considered by the Romans throughout 
the whole period of their existence as sacred 
and inviolable. 

2. Legati to foreign nations in the name of 
the Roman republic were always sent by the 
senate ; and to be appointed to such a mission 
was considered a great honour, which was 
conferred only on men of high rank or emin- 
ence : for a Roman ambassador had the 
powers of a magistrate and the venerable 
character of a priest. If a Roman during the 
performance of his mission as ambassador died 
or was killed, his memory was honored by the 
republic with a public sepulchre and a statue 
in the Rostra. The expenses during the jour- 
ney of an ambassador were, of course, paid by 
the republic ; and when he travelled through 
a province, the provincials had to supply him 
with everything he wanted. 

3. The third class of legati, to whom the 
name of ambassadors cannot be applied, were 
persons who accompanied the Roman generals 
on their expeditions, and in later times the 
governors of provinces also. They are men- 
tioned at a very early period as serving along 
with the tribunes, under the consuls. They 
were nominated (legabantur) by the consul or 



188 



LEGATUS. 



the dictator under whom they served, but the 
sanction of the senate was an essential point, 
without which no one could be legally con- 
sidered a legatus. The persons appointed to 
this office were usually men of great military 
talents, and it was their duty to advise and 
assist their superior in all his undertakings, 
and to act in his stead both in civil and mili- 
tary affairs. The legati were thus always 
men in whom th consul placed great confi- 
dence, and were frequently his friends or re- 
lations ; but they had no power independent 
of the command of their general. Their num- 
ber varied according to the greatness or im- 
portance of the war, or the extent of the pro- 
vince : three is the smallest number that we 
know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had fif- 
teen legati. Whenever the consuls were ab- 
sent from the army, or when a proconsul left 
his province, the legati or one of them took his 
place, and then had the insignia as well as the 
power of his superior. He was in this case 
called legatus pro praetore, and hence we 
sometimes read that a man governed a pro- 
vince as legatus without any mention being 
made of the proconsul whose vicegerent he 
was. During the latter period of the repub- 
lic, it sometimes happened that a consul car- 
ried on a war, or a proconsul governed his 
province, through his legati, while he himself 
remained at Rome, or conducted some other 
more urgent affairs. 

When the provinces were divided at the 
time of the empire [PROVINCIA], those of the 
Roman people were governed by men who 
had been either consuls or praetors, and the 
former were always accompanied by three 
legati, the latter by one. The provinces of 
the emperor, who was himself the proconsul, 
were governed by persons whom the emperor 
himself appointed, and who had been consuls 
or praetors, or were at least senators. These 
vicegerents of the emperor were called legati 
augusti pro praetore, legati praetorii, legati con- 
sulares, or simply legati, and they, like the 
governors of the provinces of the Roman peo- 
ple, had one or three legati as their assistants. 

During the latter period of the republic it 
had become customary for senators to obtain 
from the senate the permission to travel 
through or stay in any province at the ex- 
pense of the provincials, merely for the pur- 
pose of managing and conducting their own 
personal affairs. There was no restraint as 
to the length of time the senators were allow- 
ed to avail themselves of this privilege, which 
was a heavy burden upon the provincials. 
This mode of sojourning in a province was 
called legatio libera, because those who availed 
themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of 



LEITURGIA. 

a public legatus or ambassador, without hav 
ing any of his duties to perform. At the time 
of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera was 
abused to a very great extent. Cicero, there- 
fore, in his consulship (B. c. 63) endeavoured 
to put an end to it, but, owing to the oppo- 
sition of a tribune, he only succeeded in lim- 
iting the time of its duration to one year. 
Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time 
during which a senator might avail himself 
of the legatio libera to five years. 

LE'GIO. [ExERCiTUs.] 

LEITU'RGIA (JieiTovpyia, from falrov, 
Ion. 2,7/iTov, i. e. Oijfioaiov, or, according to 
others, TrpvravEiov), a liturgy, is the name of 
certain personal services which at Athens, 
every citizen, who possessed a certain amount 
of property, had to perform towards the state. 
These personal services, which in all cases 
were connected with considerable expenses, 
were at first a natural consequence of the 
greater political privileges enjoyed by the 
wealthy, who, in return, had also to perform 
heavier duties towards the republic ; but when 
the Athenian democracy was at its height, 
the original character of these liturgies be- 
came changed, for, as every citizen now en- 
joyed the same rights and privileges as the 
wealthiest, they were simply a tax upon pro- 
perty connected with personal labour and 
exertion. 

All liturgies may be divided into two classes, 
1. ordinary or encyclic liturgies (E-VKVK^LOL 
TiELTOVpyiaC), and 2. extraordinary liturgies. 
The former were called encyclic because they 
recurred every year at certain festive sea- 
sons, and comprised the Choregia, Gymnasiar- 
chia. La?npadarchia, Architheoria, and ITestiasis. 
Every Athenian who possessed three talents 
and above, was subject to them, and they 
were undertaken in turns by the members of 
every tribe, who possessed the property qual- 
ification just mentioned, unless some one 
volunteered to undertake a liturgy for an- 
other person. But the law did not allow any 
one to be compelled to undertake more than 
one liturgy at a time, and he who had in one 
year performed a liturgy, was free for the 
next, so that legally a person had to perform 
a liturgy only every other year. Those whose 
turn it was to undertake any of the ordinary 
liturgies, were always appointed by their own 
tribe. 

The persons who were exempt from all 
kinds of liturgies were the nine archons, heir- 
esses, and orphans until after the commence- 
ment of the second year of their coming of 
age. Sometimes the exemption from litur 
gies (are/lem), was granted to persons for 
especial merits towards the republic. 



LEX. 



189 



The only kind of extraordinary liturgy to 
which the name is properly applied, is the 
trierarchia (Tpirjpapxia) ; in the earlier times, 
however, the service in the armies was in re- 
ality no more than an extraordinary liturgy. 
[See EISPHORA and TRIERARCHIA.] In later 
times, during and after the Peloponnesian 
war, when the expenses of a liturgy were 
found too heavy for one person, we find that 
in many instances two persons combined to 
defray its expenses. Such was the case with 
the choragia and the trierarchy. 

LEMURA'LIA or LEMU'RIA, a festival 
for the souls of the departed, which was cel- 
ebrated at Rome every year in the month of 
May. It was said to have been instituted by 
Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus, 
whom he had slain, and to have been called 
originally Remuria. It was celebrated at 
night and in silence, and during three alter- 
nate days, that is, on the ninth, eleventh, and 
thirteenth of May. During this season the 
temples of the gods were closed, and it was 
thought unlucky for women to marry at this 
time and during the whole month of May, 
and those who ventured to marry were be- 
lieved to die soon after, whence the proverb, 
mense Maio malae nubent. Those who cel- 
ebrated the Lemuralia walked barefooted, 
washed their hands three times, and threw 
black beans nine times behind their backs, 
believing by this ceremony to secure them- 
selves against the Lemures. As regards the 
solemnities on each of the three days, we 
only know that on the second there were 
games in the circus in honour of Mars, and 
that on the third day the images of the thirty 
Argei, made of rushes, were thrown from the 
Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal 
virgins. [ARGEI.] On the same day there 
was a festival of the merchants, probably be- 
cause on this day the temple of Mercury had 
been dedicated in the year 495 u. c. 

LENAEA. [DiONvsiA.] 

LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with re- 
ference to the mode of enactment, there were 
properly two kinds, Leges Curiatae and Leges 
Centuriatae. Plebiscite are improperly called 
leges, though they were laws, and in the 
course of time had the same effect as leges. 
[PLEBISCITUM.] 

Originally the leges curiatae were the only 
leges, and they were passed by the populus 
in the cornitia curiata. After the establish- 
ment of the comitia centuriata, the comitia 
curiata fell almost into disuse ; but so long 
as the republic lasted, and even under Au- 
gustus, a shadow of the old constitution was 
preserved in the formal conferring of the im- 
perium by a lex curiata only, and in the cere- 



mony of adrogation being effected only in 
these comitia. [ADOPTIO.] 

Those leges, properly so called, with which 
we are acquainted, were passed in the comi- 
tia centuriata, and were proposed (rogabantur) 
by a magistratus of senatorial rank, after the 
senate had approved of them by a decretum. 
Such a lex was also designated by the name 
Populi Scitum. 

The word rogatio (from the verb rogd) pro- 
perly means any measure proposed to the 
legislative body, and therefore is equally ap- 
plicable to a proposed lex and a proposed ple- 
bisciturn. It corresponds to our word bill, as 
opposed to act. When the measure was pass- 
ed, it became a lex or plebiscitum ; though 
rogations, after they had become laws, were 
sometimes, though improperly, called rogati- 
ones. A rogatio began with the wotds velitis, 
jubeatis, &c., and ended with the words ita 
vos Quirites rogo. The corresponding expres- 
sion of assent to the rogatio on the part of 
the sovereign assembly was uti rogas. The 
phrases for proposing a law are rogare legem, 
legem ferre, and rogationem promulgare ; the 
phrase rogationem accipere applies to the enact- 
ing body. The terms relating to legislation 
are thus explained by Ulpian the jurist " A 
lex is said either rogari orferri ; it is said ab- 
rogari, when it is repealed ; it is said derogari 
when a part is repealed ; it is said subrogari, 
when some addition is made to it ; and it is 
said abrogari, when some part of it is changed." 

A privilegium is an enactment that had for 
its object a single person, which is indicated 
by the form of the word (privilegium) privae 
res, being the same as singulae res. The word 
privilegium did not convey any notion of the 
character of the legislative measures ; it might 
be beneficial to the party to whom it referred, 
or it might not. Under the empire, the word 
is used in the sense of a special grant pro- 
ceeding from the imperial favour. 

The title of a lex was generally derived 
from the gentile name of the magistratus who 
proposed it, as the Lex Hortensia from the dic- 
tator Hortensius. Sometimes the lex took its 
name from the two consuls or other magis- 
trates, as the Acilia Calpurnia, Aelia, or Aelia 
Sentia, Papia or Papia Poppaea, and others. 
It seems to have been the fashion to omit the 
word et between the two names, though in- 
stances occur in which it was used. A lex 
was also designated, with reference to its ob- 
ject, as the Lex Cincia de Donis et Muneribus, 
Lex Furia Testamentaria, Lex Julia Municipalis, 
and many others. Leges which related to a 
common object, were often designated by a 
I collective name, as Leges Agrariae, Judiciariae, 
'' and others. A lex sometimes took its name 



190 



LEX AGRARIA. 



from the chief contents of its first chapter, as 
Lsx Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus. Sometimes 
a lex comprised very various provisions, re- 
lating to matters essentially different, and in 
that case it was called Lex Satura. 

The number of leges was greatly increased 
in the later part of the republican period, and 
Julius Caesar is said to have contemplated a 
revision of the whole body. Under him and 
Augustus numerous enactments were passed, 
which are known under the general name of 
Juliae Leges. It is often stated that no leges, 
properly so called, or plebiscita, were passed 
after the time of Augustus ; but this is a mis- 
take. Though the voting might be a mere 
form, still the form was kept. Besides, vari- 
ous leges are mentioned as having been passed 
under the empire, such as the Lex Junia 
under Tiberius, the Lex Visellia, the Lex 
Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia 
on the tutela of women. It does not appear 
when the ancient forms of legislation were 
laid aside. 

A particular enactment is always referred 
to by its name. The following is a list of the 
principal leges, properly so called ; but the 
list includes also various plebiscita and privi- 
legia : 

ACI'LIA. [REPETUNDAE.] 

ACI'LI A C ALPU'RNIA or C ALPU'RNI A. 
[AMBITUS.] 

AEBU'TIA, of uncertain date, which with 
two Juliae Leges put an end to the Leges 
Actiones, except in certain cases. 

This or another lex of the same name, pro- 
hibited the proposer of a lex, which created 
any office or power (curatio acpotestas], from 
having such office or power, and even ex- 
cluded his collegae, cognati, and affines. 

AE'LIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex passed 
about the end of the sixth century of the city, 
gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio, or 
power of preventing or dissolving the comitia, 
by observing the omens and declaring them to 
be unfavourable. 

AE'LIA SEN'TIA, passed in the time of 
Augustus (about A. D. 3). This lex contained 
various provisions as to the manumission of 
slaves. 

AEMI'LIA. A lex passed in the dictator- 
ship of Mamercus Aemilius (B. c. 433), by 
which the censors were elected for a year and 
a half, instead of a whole lustrum. After this 
lex they had accordingly only a year and a 
half allowed them for holding the census and 
letting out the public works to farm. 

AEMI'LIA BAE'BIA. [CORNELIA BAE- 

BIA.] 

AEMI'LIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] 
AGRA'RIAE, the name of laws which had 



LEX CAECILIA. 

relation to the ager publicus. [ACER PUBLI- 
C-US.] The most important of these are men- 
tioned under the names of their proposers. 
FA.PPULEIA; CASSIA; CORNELIA; FLAMINIA; 
FLAVIA; JULIA; LICINIA; SEMPRONIA ; SER- 
VILIA; THORIA.] 

A'MBITUS. [AMBITUS.] 

ANNA'LIS or VI'LLIA, proposed by L.Vil- 
lius Tapulus in B.C. 179, fixed the age at 
which a Roman citizen might become a can- 
didate for the higher magistracies. It appears 
that until this law was passed, any office 
might be enjoyed by a citizen after completing 
his twenty-seventh year. The Lex Annalis 
fixed 31 as the age for the quaestorship, 37 for 
for the aedileship, 40 for the praetorship, and 
43 for the consulship. 

A'NTIA. [SUMTUARIAE LEGES.] 

ANTO'NIAE, the name of various enact- 
ments proposed or passed by the influence of 
M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator 
J. Caesar. 

APPULE'IA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the 
tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus, B. c. 101. 

APPULE'IA FRUMENTA'RIA, proposed 
about the same time by the same tribune. 

APPULE'IA MAJESTA'TIS. [MAJES- 

TAS.] 

ATE'RNIA TARPE'IA, B. c. 441. This 
lex empowered all magistrates to fine persons 
who resisted their authority ; but it fixed the 
highest fine at two sheep and thir'.y cows, or 
two cows arid thirty sheep, for the authorities 
vary in this. 

A'TIA DE SACERDOTII8(B.c. 63), pro- 
posed by the tribune T. Atius Labienus, re- 
pealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis. 

ATI'NI A, of uncertain date, was a plebisci- 
tum which gave the rank of senator to a tri- 
bune. This measure probably originated with 
C. Atinius, who was tribune B. c. 130. 

AUFI'DIA. [AMBITUS.] 

AURE'LIA (B.C. 70), enacted that the judi- 
ces should be chosen from the senators, equites, 
and tribuni aerarii. [JUDEX, p. 183.] 

BAE'BIA (B. c. 192 or 180), enacted that 
four praetors and six praetors should be cho- 
sen alternately ; but the law was not ob- 
served. 

CAECI'LIA DE CENSO'RIBUS or 
CENSO'RIA (B.C. 54), proposed byMetellus 
Scipio, repealed a Clodia Lex (B. c. 58),which 
had prescribed certain regular forms of pro- 
ceeding for the censors in exercising their 
functions as inspectors of mores, and had re- 
quired the concurrence of both censors to in- 
flict the nota censoria. When a senator had 
been already convicted before an ordinary 
court, the lex permitted the censors to remove 
him from the senate in a summary way. 



LEX CINCIA. 

CAECI'LIA DE VECTIGA'LIBUS (B.C. 
62), released lands and harbours in Italy from 
the payment of taxes and dues (portoria). 
The only vectigal remaining after the passing 
of this lex was the Vicesima. 

CAECI'LIA Dl'DIA (B. c. 98) forbade the 
proposing of a Lex Satura, on the ground that 
the people might be compelled either to vote 
for something which they did not approve, or 
to reject something which they did approve, if 
it was proposed to them in this manner. This 
lex was not always operative. 

CAE'LIA. [TABELLARIAE LEGES.] 

CALPU'RNJA DE A'MBITU. [AMBI- 
TUS.] 

CALPU'RNIADEREPETUNDIS. [RE- 

PETUNDAE.] 

CANULE'IA (B. c. 445) established con- 
nubium between the patres and plebs, which 
had been taken away by the law of the Twelve 
Tables. 

CA'SSIA (B.C. 104), proposed by the tri- 
bune L. Cassius Longinus, did not allow a 
person to remain a senator who had been con- 
victed in a judicium populi, or whose imperi- 
um had been abrogated by the populus. 

CA'SSIA empowered the dictator Caesar 
to add to the number of the patricii, to prevent 
their extinction. 

CASS'IA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the 
consul Sp. Cassius, B. c. 486. This is said to 
have been the first agrarian law. It enacted 
that of the land taken from the Hernicans, 
half should be given to the Latins, and half to 
the plebs, and likewise that part of the public 
land possessed by the patricians should be dis- 
tributed among the plebeians. This law met 
with the most violent opposition, and appears 
not to have been carried. Cassius was ac- 
cused of aiming at the sovereignty, and was 
put to death. [ACER PUBLICUS.] 

CA'SSIA TABELLA'RIA. [LEGES TA- 
BELLARIAE.] 

CA'SSIA TERE'NTIA FRUMENTA'- 
RIA (B. c. 73) for the distribution of corn 
among the poor citizens and the purchasing 
of it. 

CI'NCIA DE DONIS ET MUNE'RIBUS, 
a plebiscitum passed in the time of the tribune 
M. Cincius Alimentus (B. c. 204). It forbade 
a person to take anything for his pains in 
pleading a cause. In the time of Augustus, 
the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus- 
consultum, and a penalty of four times the 
sum received was imposed on the advocate. 
The law was so far modified in the time of 
Claudius, that an advocate was allowed to 
receive ten sestertia ; if he took any sum be- 
yond that, he was liable to be prosecuted for 
repetundae. It appears that this permission 



LEX CORNK r A. 



191 



was so far restricted in Trajv Vs time, that 
the fee could not be paid till i>e work was 
done. 

CLO'DIAE, the name of various plebiscita, 
proposed by Clodius, when tribune, B.C. 59. 

CLODIA DE AUSPICIIS prevented the magis 
tratus from dissolving the comitia tributa, by 
declaring that the auspices were unfavourable 
This lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Fu 
fia. It also enacted that a lex might be passed 
on the dies fasti. [AELIA LEX.] 

CLODIA DE CENSORIBUS. [CAECILIA.] 

CLODIA DE CIVIBUS ROMANIS INTEREMP- 
TIS, to the effect that " qui civem Romanum 
indemnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni in- 
terdiceretur." It was in consequence of this 
lex that the interdict was pronounced against 
Cicero, who considers the whole proceeding 
as a privilegium. 

CLODIA FRUMENTARIA, by which the corn, 
which had formerly been sold to the poor citi- 
zens at a low rate was given. 

CLODIA DE SODALITATIBUS or DE COLLE- 
GIIS restored the Sodalitia, which had been 
abolished by a senatus-consultum of the year 
B. c. 80, and permitted the formation of new 
Sodalitia. 

There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, 
which were however privilegia. 

CORNE'LIAE. Various leges passed iu 
the dictatorship of Sulla, and by his influence, 
are so called. 

AGRARIA, by which many of the inhabitants 
of Etruria and Latium were deprived of the 
complete civitas, and retained only the com 
mercium, and a large part of their lands 
were made public, and given to military co 
lonists. 

DE FALSIS, against those who forged testa- 
ments or other deeds, and against those who 
adulterated or counterfeited the public coin, 
whence Cicero calls it testamentaria and num.- 
maria. 

JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 183.] 

MAJESTATIS. [MAJESTAS.] 
DE PROSCRIPTIONS ET PROSCRIPTIS. 
[PROSCRIPTIO.] 

DE PARRICIDIO. [PARRICIDA.] 
DE SACERDOTIIS. [SACERDOS.] 
DE SICARIIS ET VENEFICIS, contained pro- 
visions as to death or fire caused by dolus ma- 
lus, and against persons going about armed 
with the intention of killing or thieving. The 
law not only provided for cases of poisoning, 
but contained provisions against those who 
made, sold, bought, possessed, or gave poison 
for the purpose of poisoning ; also against a 
magistratus or senator who conspired in order 
that a person might be condemned in a judi- 
cium publicum, &C. 



192 



LEA FRUMENTARIA. 



U NCI ARIA appears to have been a lex which 
lowered the rate of interest, and to have been 
passed about the same time with the Leges 
Surnptuariae of Sulla. 

There were also Leges Corneliae, which 
were proposed by the tribune C. Cornelius 
about B. c. 67, and limited the edictal power 
by compelling the praetors Jus dicere ex edictis 
suis perpetuis. 

Another lex of the same tribune enacted 
that no one legibus solveretur, unless such a 
measure was agreed on in a meeting of the 
senate at which two hundred members were 
present, and afterwards approved by the peo- 
ple ; and it enacted that no tribune should put^ 
his veto on such a senatus-consultum. 

There was also a Lex Cornelia concerning 
the wills of those Roman citizens who died in 
captivity (apud hastes). 

CORNE'LIA BAE'BIA DE AJVlBITU, 
proposed by the consuls P. Cornelius Cethe- 
gus and M. Baebius Tamphilus, B. c. 181. 
This law is sometimes, but erroneously, at- 
tributed to the consuls of the preceding year, 
L. Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [AMBITUS.] 

DI'DIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] 

DOMFTIA DE SACERDOTIIS. [SA- 

OERDOS.] 

DUI'LlA(B.c. 449), a plebiscitum proposed 
by the tribune Duilius, which enacted that 
whoever left the people without tribunes, or 
created a magistrate from whom there was 
no appeal (provocatio), should be scourged and 
beheaded. 

DUI'LIA MAE'NIA, proposed by the tri- 
bunes Duilius and Maenius (B. c. 357), restored 
the old uncial rate of interest (unciarium fe- 
nus\ which had been fixed by the Twelve Ta- 
bles. [FENUS.] The same tribunes carried a 
measure which was in tended, in future, to pre- 
vent such unconstitutional proceedings as the 
enactment of a lex by the soldiersout of Rome, 
on the proposal of the consul. 

FA'BIA DE PLA'GIO. [PLAGIUM.] 

FALCI'DIA. [LEX VOCONIA.] 

FA'NNIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] 

FLAMI'NIA was an Agraria Lex for the 
distribution of lands in Picenum, proposed by 
the tribune C. Flaminius, in B. c. 228 according 
to Cicero, of in B. c. 232 according to Polybius. 
The latter date is the more probable. 

FLA'VIA AGRA'RIA, B. c. 60, for the dis- 
tribution of lands among Pompey's soldiers, 
proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who com- 
mitted the consul Caecilius Metellus to prison 
for opposing it. 

FRUMENTA'RIAE, various leges were so 
called which had for their object the distribu- 
tion of grain among the people, either at a low 
price or gratuitously. [APPULEIA ; CASSIA 



LEX JULIA. 

TERENTIA; CLODIA; LIVIA; OCTAVIA ; SEM- 
PRONIA.] 

FU'FIA DE RELIGIO'NE, B.C. 61, was 
a privilegium which related to the trial of 
Clodius. 

FU'RIA or FU'SIA CANI'NIA limited 
the number of slaves to be manumitted by 
testament. 

FU'RIA or FU'SIA TESTAMENTA'- 
RIA, enacted that a testator should not give 
more than three-fourths of his property in le- 
gacies, thus securing one-fourth to the heres. 

GABI'NIA TABELLA'RIA. [LEGES TA- 

BELLARIAE.] 

There were various Gabiniae Leges, some 
of which were privilegia, as that for conferring 
extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius for con- 
ducting the war against the pirates. 

A Gabinia Lex, B. c. 58, forbade all loans of 
money at Rome to legationes from foreign 
parts. The object of the lex was to prevent 
money being borrowed for the purpose of bri- 
bing the senators at Rome. 

GE'LLIA CORNE'LIA, B.C. 72, which 
gave to Cn. Pompeius the extraordinary 
power of conferring the Roman civitas on 
Spaniards in Spain, with the advice of his 
consilium. 

GENU'CIA, B.C. 341, forbade altogether 
the taking of interest for the use of money. 

HIERO'NICA was not a lex properly so 
called. Before the Roman conquest of Sicily, 
the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and 
other produce had been fixed by Hiero ; and 
the Roman quaestors, in letting these tenths 
to farm, followed the practice which they 
found established. 

HORA'TIAE ET VALE'RIAE. [LEGES 
VALERIAE.] 

HORTE'NSIA DE PLEBISCITE. [LE- 
GES PUBLILIAE ; PLEBISCITUM.] 

Another Lex Hortensia enacted that the 
nundinae, which had hitherto been feriae, 
should be dies fasti. This was done for the 
purpose of accommodating the inhabitants of 
the country. 

ICFLIA, B. c. 456, by which the Aventinus 
was assigned to the plebs. This was the first 
instance of the ager publicus being assigned to 
the plebs. 

Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribune 
Sp. Icilius, B. c. 470, had for its object to pre- 
vent all interruption to the tribunes while act- 
ing in the discharge of their duties. In some 
cases the penalty was death. 

JTI'LIAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were 
passed in the time of C. Julius Caesar and 
Augustus. 

DE ADULTERIIS. [ADULTERIUM.] 

AGRARIA, B. c. 59, in the consulship of Cae- 



LEX JULIA. 

sar, for distributing the ager publicus in Cam- 
pania among 20.000 poor citizens, who had 
each three children or more. 

DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.] 

DE BONIS CEDENDIS. This lex provided 
that a debtor might escape all personal mo- 
lestation from his creditors by giving up his 
property to them for the purpose of sale and 
distribution. It is doubtful if this lex was 
passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of Au- 
gustus, though probably of the former. 

DE CIVITATE was passed in the consulship 
of L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, 

B. C. 90. [ClVITAS ; FOEDERATAE ClVI- 
TATES.j 

DE FENORE, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis 
or Creditis (B. c. 47), passed in the time of 
Julius Caesar. ' The object of it was to make 
an arrangement between debtors and credit- 
ors, lor the satisfaction of the latter. The 
possessiones and res were to be estimated at 
the value which they had before the civil 
war, and to be surrendered to the creditors 
at that value ; whatever had been paid for in- 
terest was to be deducted from the principal. 
The result was, that the creditor lost about 
one-fourth of his debt ; but he escaped the 
loss usually consequent on civil disturbance, 
which would have been caused by novae ta- 
bulae. 

JUDICIARIAE. [JUDEX.] 

DE LIBKRIS LEGATIONIBUS. [LEGATUS.] 

DE MAJESTATE. [MAJESTAS.] 

MUNICIPALS, commonly called the Table 
of Heraclea. In the year 1732 there were 
found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the 
neighbourhood of the city of ancient Herac- 
lea, large fragments of a bronze table, which 
contained on one side a Roman lex, and on 
the other a Greek inscription. The whole is 
now in the Museo Borbonico at Naples. The 
lex contains various provisions as to the police 
of the city of Rome, and as to the constitu- 
tion of communities of Roman citizens (muni- 
cipia, coloniae, praefecturae, fora, conciliabula 
civium Romanorum). It was accordingly a j 
lex of that kind which is called Satura, and 
was probably passed in B. c. 44. 

JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA. Augustus ap- 
pears to have caused a lex to be enacted about 
B. c. 18, which is cited as the Lex Julia de 
Mtiritandis Ordinibus, and is referred to in the 
Carmen Seculare of Horace, which was writ- 
ten in the year B. c. 17. The object of this 
lex was to regulate marriages, as to which it 
contained numerous provisions; but it ap- 
pears not to have come into operation till the 
year B. c. 13, In the year A. D. 9, and in the 
consulship of M. Papins Mutilus and Q. Pop- 
pauus Secundua (consules su/ecti), another lex 



LEX JUNIA. 193 

was passed as a kind of amendment and sup- 
plement to the former lex, and hence arose 
the title of Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea, by 
which this lex is often quoted. The lex is 
often variously quoted, according as reference 
| is made to its various provisions ; sometimes 
I it is called Lex Julia, sometimes Pappia Pop- 
paea, sometimes Lex Julia et Papia, sometimes 
Lex de Maritandis Ordinibus, from the chapter 
which treated of the marriages of the sena- 
tors, sometimes Lex Caducaria, Decimaria, &c. 
from the various chapters. 

The Lex Julia forbade the marriage of a 
senator or senator's children with a libertina, 
with a woman whose father or mother had 
followed an ars ludicra, and with a prosti- 
tute ; and also the marriage of a libertinus 
with a senator's daughter. 

In order to promote marriage, various pen- 
alties were imposed on those who lived in a 
state of celibacy (caelibatus) after a certain 
age, and various privileges were given to 
those who had three or more children. 

A candidate for the public offices who had 
several children was preferred to one who had 
fewer. After the passing of this lex, it be- 
came usual for the senate, and afterwards the 
emperor (princeps), to give occasionally, as a 
privilege to certain persons who had not chil- 
dren, the same advantage that the lex secured 
to those who had children. This was called 
the Jus Liberorum, and sometimes the Jus 
trium Liberorum. 

DE PROVINCIIS. [PROYINCIAE.] 
REPETUNDARUM. [REPE.TUNDAE.] 
SUMTUARIAE. [LEGES SuMTUARIAE.J 
THEATRALIS, which permitted Roman equi- 
tes, in case they or their parents had ever had 
a census equestris, to sit in the fourteen rows 
(quatuordecim ordines) fixed by the Lex Roscia 
Theatralis, B c. 69. 

DE Vl PUBLICA AND PRIVATA. [VjSL.] 
VlCESIMARIA. [VlCESIMA.l 

JU'NIA DE PEREGRI'NIS, proposed 
B. c. 126, by M. Junius Pennus, a tribune, 
barush,ed peregrini from the city. 

A lex of C. Fannius, consul B. c, 122, con- 
tained the same provisions respecting the 
Latini and Italici; and a lex of C. Papius, 
perhaps B. c. 65, contained the same respect- 
ing all persons who were not domiciled in 
Italy. 

JU'NIA LICI'NIA. [LICINIA JUNIA.] 

JU'NIA NORBA'NA, of uncertain date, 
but probably about A. D. 17, enacted that when 
a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave with- 
out the requisite formalities, the manumission 
should not in all cases be ineffectual, hut the 
manumitted person should have the status o{ 
a Latinus. 



194 



LEX LIVIA. 



JU'NIA REPETUNDA'RUM. [REPE- 

TUNDAE.] 

LAETO'RIA, the false name of the Lex 
Plaetoria. [CURATOR.] 

Sometimes the lex proposed by Volero for 
electing plebeian magistrates at the comitia 
tributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria. 

LICI'NIA DE SODALITIIS. [AMBI- 
TUS.] 

LICI'NIA JU'NIA, or, as it is sometimes 
called, Junia et Licinia, passed in the consul- 
ship of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Sila- 
nus, B. c. 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, in 
connection with which it is sometimes men- 
tioned. 

LICI'NIA MU'CIA DE CIVIBUS RE- 
GUNDIS passed in the consulship of L. Li- 
cinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, B. c. 
95, enacted a strict examination as to the 
title to citizenship, and deprived of the exer- 
cise of civic rights all those who could not 
make out a good title to them. This mea- 
sure partly led to the Marsic war. 

LICI'NIA SUMTUA'RI A. [LEGES SUM- 

TUARIAE.] 

LICI'NIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who 
was tribune of the people from B. c. 376 to 
367, and who brought the contest between 
patricians and plebeians to a happy termina- 
tion. He was supported in his exertions by 
his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which 
he proposed were: 1. That in future no 
more consular tribunes should be appointed, 
but that consuls should be elected as in for- 
mer times, one of whom should always be a 
plebeian. 2. That no one should possess 
more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor 
keep upon it more than 100 head of large, or 
500 of small cattle. 3. A law regulating the 
affairs between debtor and creditor, which 
ordained that the interest already paid for 
borrowed money should be deducted from the 
capital, and that the remainder of the latter 
should be paid back in three yearly instal- 
ments. 4. That the Sibylline books should 
be entrusted to a college X)f ten men (decem- 
viri), half of whom should be plebeians, in or- 
der that no falsifications might be introduced 
in favour of the patricians. These rogations 
were passed after a most vehement opposition 
on the part of the patricians, and L. Sextius 
was the first plebeian who, in accordance 
with the first of them, obtained the consul- 
ship for the year B. c. 366. 

LI'VIAE, various enactments proposed by 
the tribune M. Livius Drusus, B. c. 91, for 
establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily, dis- 
tributing corn among the poor citizens at a 
low rate, and admitting the foederatae civi- 
tates to the Roman civitas. He is also said 



LEX PAP1A. 

to have been the mover of a law for adulter- 
ating silver by mixing with it an eighth part 
of brass. Drusus was assassinated, and the 
senate declared that all his laws were passed 
contra auspicia, and were therefore not leges. 

LUTA'TIA DE VI. [Vis.] 

MAE'NIA LEX, is only mentioned by 
Cicero who says that M. Curius compelled 
the patres ante auctores fieri in the case of the 
election of a plebeian consul, ' which," adds 
Cicero, " was a great thing to accomplish, as 
the Lex Maenia was not yet passed." The 
lex therefore required the patres to give then- 
consent at least to the election of a magis- 
tratus, or in other words, to confer or agree 
to confer the imperium on the person whom 
the comitia should elect. It was probably 
proposed by the tribune Maenius B. c. 287. 

MAJESTA'TIS. [MAJESTAS.] 

MANI'LIA, proposed by the tribune C. 
Manilius, B. c. 66, was a privilegium by which 
was conferred on Pompey the command in 
the war against Mithridates. The lex was 
supported by Cicero when praetor. 

MA'NLIA, also called LICI'NIA, B. c. 196, 
created the triumviri epulones. 

MA'NLIA DE VICE'SIMA, B. c. 357, im- 
posed the tax of five per cent, (vicesima) on 
the value of manumitted slaves. 

MA'RCIA, probably about the year B. c. 
352, adversus feneratores. 

MA'RCIA, an agrarian law proposed by the 
tribune L. Marcius Philippus, B. c. 104. 

MA'RIA, proposed by Marius when tribune 
B. c. 119, for narrowing the pontes at elec 
tions. 

ME'MMIA or RE'MMIA. [CALUMNIA.J 

MINU'CIA, B. c. 216, created the triumviri 
mensarii. 

OCT A'VIA, one of the numerous leges fru- 
mentariae which repealed a Semproma Fru- 
mentaria. It is mentioned by Cicero as a 
more reasonab'e measure than the Sempro- 
nia, which was too profuse. 

OGU'LNIA, proposed by the tribunes B.C. 
300. increased the number of pontitices to 
eight, and that of the augurs to nine ; it also 
enacted that four of the pontirices and five ot 
the augurs should be taken from the plebes. 

O'PPIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] 

O'RCHIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] 

OVI'NIA, of uncertain date, was a plebis- 
citum which gave the censors certain powers 
in regulating the lists of the senators (ordo 
senatorius} : the main object seems to have 
been to exclude all improper persons from 
the senate, and to prevent their admission, it 
in other respects qualified. 

PA'PIA DE PEREGRI'NIS. [LEX JUNU 
DE PEREGRINIS.] 



LEX POMPEIA. 

PA'PJA POPPAEA. [LEX JULIA ET PA- 
PIA POPPAEA.] 

PAPl'RIA, or JULIA PAPI'RIA DE 
MULCTA'RUM AESTlMATlOiNE (B. c. 
430), tixed a money v-alue according to which 
lines were paid, which formerly were paid in 
sheep and cattle. Some writers make this 
valuation part of the Aternian law [ATERNIA 
TARPEIA], but in this they appear to have 
been mistaken. 

PAPI'RIA, by which the as was made se- 
muncialis, one of the various enactments 
which tampered with the coinage. 

PAPl'RIA, B. c. 332, proposed by the prae- 
tor Papirius, gave the Acerrani the civitas 
without the suffragium. It was properly a 
privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the 
history of the extension of the civitas Ro- 
mana. 

PAPI'RIA, of uncertain date, enacted that 
no aedes should be declared consecratae with- 
out a plebiscitum. 

PAPl'RIA PLAU'TIA, a plebiscitum of 
the year B c. 89, proposed by the tribunes C. 
Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in 
the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and 
L. Porcius Cato, is called by Cicero a lex of 
Silvanus and Carbo. [See CIVITAS ; FOE- 

DERATAE ClVITATES.] 

PAPI'RIA POETE'LIA. [LEX POETE- 

LIA.] 

PAPI'RIA TABELLA'RIA. [LEGES TA- 

BELLARIAE.] 

PEDUCAEA, B. c. 113, a plebiscitum, 
seems to have been merely a privilegium, and 
not a general law against incestum. 

PETRE1A, de decimatione mililum, in case 
of mutiny. 

PETRO'NIA, probably passed in the time 
of Augustus, and subsequently amended by 
various senatus-consulta, forbade a master to 
deliver up his slave to fight with wild beasts. 

PINA'RIA, related to the giving of a judex 
within a limited time. 

PLAETO'RIA. [CURATOR.] 

PLAU'TIA or PLO'TIA DE VI. [Vis.] 

PLAU'TIA or PLO'TIA JUDIClA'RIA, 
enacted that fifteen persons should be annu- 
ally taken from each tribe to be placed in the 
Album Judicum. 

POETE'LIA, B. c. 358, a plebiscitum, was 
the first lex against ambitus. 

POETE'LIA PAPl'RIA, B. c. 326, made 
an important change in the liabilities of the 
iNexi. 

POMPEIAE. There were various leges 
so called. 

DE CIVITATE, proposed by Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo, the father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus, 
probably in his consulship, B. c. 8U, gave the 



LEX PUBLILIA. 



195 



jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the 
Transpadani, and probably the civitas to the 
Cispadani. 
DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.] 

JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 181.] 

DE JURE MAGISTRATUUM, forbade a person 
to be a candidate for public offices (petitito ho 
norum) who was not at Rome ; but J. Caesai 
was excepted. This was doubtless the old 
law, but it had apparently become obsolete. 

DE PARRICIDIIS. [PARRICIDIUM.] 

TRIBUNITIA (B. c. 70), restored the old tri- 
bunitia potestas, which Sulla had nearly de- 
stroyed. [TRIBUNI.] 

DE Vi, was a privilegium, and only referred 
to the case of Milo. 

PO'RCIAE DE CA'PITE CIVIUM, or 
DE PROVOCATIO'NE, enacted that no 
Roman citizen should be scourged or put to 
death. 

PO'RCIA DE PROVFNCIIS, about B.C. 
198, the enactments of which are doubtful. 

PUBLI'LIA. In the consulship of L. Pi- 
narius and P. Furius, B. c. 472, the tribune 
Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of 
the tribes, that the tribunes should in future 
be appointed in the comitia of the tribes (ut 
plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis jierent), in- 
stead of by the centuries, as had formerly been 
the case ; since the clients of the patricians 
were so numerous in the centuries, that the 
plebeians could not elect whom they wished. 
This measure was violently opposed by the 
patricians, who prevented the tribes from coin- 
ing to any resolution respecting it throughout 
this year ; but in the following year, B. c. 471, 
Publilius was re-elected tribune, and together 
with him C. Laetorius, a man of still greater 
resolution than Publilius. Fresh measures 
were added to the former proposition : the 
aediles were to be chosen by the tribes, as 
well as the tribunes, and the tribes were to be 
competent to deliberate and determine on all 
matters affecting the whole nation, and not 
such only as might concern the plebes. This 
proposition, though still more violently resist- 
ed by the patricians than the one of the pre- 
vious year, was carried. Some said that the 
number of the tribunes was now for the first 
time raised to five, having been only two pre- 
viously. 

PUBLI'LIAE, proposed by the dictator Q. 
Publilius Philo, B. c. 339. According to Livy, 
there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. The 
first is said to have enacted, that plebiscita 
should bind all Quirites, which is to the same 
purport as the Lex Hortensia of B. c. 286. It 
is probable, however, that the object of this 
law was to render the approval of the senate 
a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum, and 



196 



LF.X REGIA. 



to make the confirmation of the curiae unne- 
cessary. 2. The second law enacted, ut legum 
<)'iae comitiis centuriatis ferrerentar ante iiufurn 
8-uJfragitun patres auctores fierent. By patres 
Livy here means the curiae ; and accordingly 
this Jaw made the confirmation of the curiae 
a mere formality in reference to all laws sub- 
mitted to the comitia centuriata, since every 
law proposed by the senate to the centuries 
was to be considered to have the sanction of 
the curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that 
one of the two censors should necessarily be 
a plebeian. It is probable that there was also 
a fourth law, which applied the Licinian law 
to the praetorship as well as to the censor- 
ship, and which provided that in each alter- 
nate year the praetor should be a plebeian. 

PU'PIA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to 
have enacted that the senate could not meet 
on comitiales dies. 

QUI'NTIA, was a lex proposed by'T. 
Quintius Crispinus, consul B. c. 9, for the pre- 
servation of the aquaeductus. 

RE'GIA. A Lex Regia during the kingly 
period of Roman history might have a twofold 
meaning. In the first place, it was a law 
which had been passed by the comitia under 
the presidency of the king, and was thus dis- 
tinguished from a Lex Tribunicia, which was 
passed by the comitia under the presidency 
of the tribunus celerum. In later times all 
laws, the origin of which was attributed to 
the time of the kings, were called Leges Re- 
giae, though it by no means follows that they 
were all passed under the presidency of the 
kings, and much less, that they were enacted 
by the kings without the sanction of the cu- 
ries. Some of these laws were preserved and 
followed at a very late period of Roman his- 
tory. A collection of them was made, though 
at what time is uncertain, by Papisius or Pa- 
pirius, and this compilation was called the 
Jus Civile Papirianum or Papisianwn. 

The second meaning of Lex Regia during 
the kingly period was undoubtedly the same 
as that of the Lex Curiata de Imperio. [!MPE- 
KIUM. This indeed is not mentioned by any 
ancient writer, but must be inferred from the 
Lex Regia which we meet with under the em- 
pire, for the name could scarcely have been 
invented then ; it must have come down from 
early times, when its meaning was similar, 
though not nearly so extensive. During the 
empire the curies continued to hold their 
meetings, though they were only a shadow of 
former times ; and after the election of a new 
emperor, they conferred upon him the impe- 
rium in the ancient form by a Lex Curiata de 
Imperio, which was now usually called Lex 
The imperium, however, which this 



LEX SACK AT A. 

Regia Lex conferred upon an emperor, was oi 
a very different nature from that which in 
former times it had conferred upon the kings. 
It now embraced all the rights and powers 
which the populus Rbmanus had formerly pos- 
sessed, so that the emperor became what for- 
merly the populus had been, that is. the sove- 
reign power in the state. A fragment of such 
a lex regia, conferring the imperium upon 
Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen table, is 
still extant in the Lateran at Rome. 

RE'MNIA. [CALUMNIA.] 

REPETUNDA'RUM. [REPETCNDAE.] 

RHO'DIA. The Rhodians had a maritime 
code which was highly esteemed. Some of its 
provisions were adopted by the Romans, and 
have thus been incorporated in the maritime 
law of European states. It was not, however, 
a lex in the proper sense of the term. 

RO'SCIA THEATRA'LIS, proposed by 
the tribune L. Roscius Otho, B. c. 07, which 
gave the equites a special place at the public 
spectacles in fourteen rows or seats (in quatu- 
ordecim gradibus sine ordinibus) next to the 
place of the senators, which was in the or- 
chestra. This lex also assigned a certain 
place to spendthrifts. The phrase ' sedere in 
quatuordecim ordinibus is equivalent to having 
the proper census equestris which was re- 
quired by the lex. There are numerous allu- 
sions to this lex, which is sometimes simply 
called the Lex of Otho. or referred to by his 
name. It is supposed by some writers to have 
been enacted in the consulship of Cicero, 
B.C. 63. 

RU'BRTA. The province of Gallia Cisal- 
pina ceased to be a provincia, and became a 
part of Italia, about the year B. c. 43. When 
this change took place, it was necessary to 
provide for the administration of justice, as 
the usual modes of provincial administration 
would cease with the determination of the 
provincial form of government. This was 
effected by a lex, a large part of which, on a 
bronze tablet, is preserved in the Museum at 
Parma. The name of this lex is not known, 
but it is supposed by some to be the Lex Ru- 
bria-. 

RUPI'LIAE LEGES (B. c. 131), were the 
regulations established by P. Rupilius, and 
ten legati, for the administration of the pro- 
vince of Sicily, after the close of the first ser- 
vile war. They were made in pursuance of a 
consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks of 
these regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, 
which he says they call Lex Rupilia ; but it 
was not a lex proper. The powers given to 
the commissioners by the Lex Julia Munici- 
palis were of a similar kind. 

SACRA'TAE. Leges were properly to 



LEX SEMPRONIA. 

called which had for their object to make a 
thing or person sacer. 

A lex sacrata militaris is also mentioned by 
Livy. 

SA'TURA. [LEX, p. 190.] 

SCANTI'NIA, proposed by a tribune ; the 
date and contents are not known, but its ob- 
ject was to suppress unnatural crimes. It ex- 
isted in the time of Cicero. 

SCRIBO'NIA. The date and whole im- 
port of this lex are not known ; but it enacted 
that a right to servitutes should not be acquired 
by usucapion. 

SEMPRONIAE, the name of various laws 
proposed by Tiberius and Caius Sempronius 
Gracchus. 

AGRARIA. In B.C. 133 the tribune Tib. 
Gracchus revived the Agrarian law of Licinius 
[LEGES LICINIAE]: he proposed that no one 
should possess more than 500 jugera of the 
public land, and that the surplus land should 
be divided among the poor citizens, who were 
not to have the power of alienating it : he also 
proposed as a compensation to the possessors 
deprived of the land, on which they had fre- 
quently made improvements, that the former 
possessors should have the full ownership of 
500 jugera, and each of their sons, if they had 
any, half that quantity : finally, that three com- 
missioners (triumvir^ should be appointed 
every year to carry the law into effect. This 
law naturally met with the greatest opposi- 
tion, but it was eventually passed in the year 
in which it was proposed, and Tib. Gracchus, 
C. Gracchus, and Appius Claudius were the 
three commissioners appointed under it. It 
was, however, never carried fully into effect, 
in consequence of the murder of Tib. Grac- 
chus. Owing to the difficulties which were 
experienced in carrying his brother's agrarian 
law into effect, it was again brought forward 
by C.Gracchus, B.C. 123. 

DE CAPITE CIVIUM ROMANORUM, proposed 
by C.Gracchus B.C. 123 enacted that the 
people only should decide respecting the ca- 
put. or civil condition of a citizen.' This law 
continued in force till the latest times of the 
republic. 

FRUMENTARIA, proposed by C. Gracchus 
B. c. 123, enacted that corn should be sold by 
the state to the people once a month at five- 
sixths of an as for each rnodius : Livy says 
semissis et triens, that is 6 oz. and 4 oz. = 10 oz., 
because there was no coin to represent the 
dextans. [As.] 

JumeiARtA. [JuDEX, p. 181.] 

MILITARIS, proposed by C.Gracchus B.C. 

123, enacted that the soldiers should receive 

their clothing gratis, and that no one should 

be enrolled as a soldier under the age of seven- 

R2 



LEX SULPICIA. 



197 



teen. Previously a fixed sum was deducted 
from the pay for all clothes and arms issued 
to the soldiers. 

NE QUIS JUDICIO CIRCUMVENIRETUR, prG- 

posed by C. Gracchus, B. c. 123, punished all 
who conspired to obtain the condemnation of 
a person in ajudicium publicum. One of the 
provisions of the Lex Cornelia de Sicariis was 
to the same effect. 

DEPROViNCiisCoNSULARiBus, proposed by 
C. Gracchus, B.C. 123, enacted that the senate 
should fix each year, before the comitia for 
electing the consuls were held, the two pro- 
vinces which were to be allotted to the two 
new consuls. 

There was also a Sempronian law concern- 
ing the province of Asia, which probably did 
not form part of the Lex de Provinces Con- 
sularibus : it enacted that the taxes of this 
province should be let out to farm by the cen- 
sors at Rome. This law was afterwards re- 
pealed by J. Caesar. 

SEMPRO'NIA DE FE'NERE, B. c. 193, 
was a plebiscitum proposed by a tribune 
M. Sempronius, which enacted that the law 
(jus) about money lent (pecunia credita) should 
be the same for the Socii and Latini (Socii ac 
nomen Latinum) as for Roman citizens. The 
object of the lex was to prevent Romans from 
lending money in the name of the Socii who 
were not bound by the fenebres leges. The 
lex could obviously only apply within the ju- 
risdiction of Rome. 

SERVi'LIA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the 
tribune P. S. Rullus in the consulship of Cice- 
ro, B. c. 63, was a very extensive agrarian ro- 
gatio. It was successfully opposed by Cicero ; 
but it was in substance carried by J. Caesar, 
B. c. 59 [LEX JULIA AGRARIA], and is the lex 
called by Cicero Lex Campana, from the pub- 
lic land called ager campanus being assigned 
under this lex. 

SERVI'LIA GLAU'CIA DE CIVITA'- 
TE. [REPETUNDAE.] 

SERVI'LIA GLAU'CIA DE REPETUN- 
DIS. [REPETUNDAE.] 

SERVI'LIA JUDICIA'RIA,B.c.l06. [Ju- 
DEX p. 191.] It is assumed by some writers 
that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia re- 
pealed the Servilia Judiciaria two years after 
its enactment. 

SILVA'NI ET CARBO'NIS. [LEX PA- 
PIRIA PLAUTIA.] 

SULPI'CIAE, proposed by the tribune P. 
Sulpicius Rufus, a supporter of Marius, B. c. 
88, enacted the recall of the exiles, the distri- 
bution of the new citizens and the libertini 
among the thirty- five tribes, that tho command 
in the Mithridatic war should be taken from 
Sulla and given to Marius, and that a senator 



108 



LEX SUMTUAKIA. 



should not contract debt to the amount of 
more than 2000 denarii. The last enactment 
may have been intended to expel persons from 
the senate who should get in debt. All these 
leges were repealed by Sulla. 

SULPl'CIA SEMPRO'NIA,B.c.304. No 
name is given to this lex by Livy, but it was 
probably proposed by the consuls. It prevent- 
ed the dedicatio of a templum or altar with- 
out the consent of the senate or a majority of 
the tribunes. 

SUM TUA'RIAE, the name of various laws 
passed to prevent inordinate expense (sumtus] 
in banquets, dress, &c. In the states of an- 
tiquity it was considered the duty of govern- 
ment to put a check upon extravagance in 
the private expenses of persons, and among 
the Romans in particular we find traces of 
this in the laws attributed to the kings, and 
in the Twelve Tables. The censors, to whom 
was entrusted the disciplina or cura morwn, 
punished by the nota censoria all persons guilty 
of what was then regarded as a luxurious 
mode of living; a great many instances of 
this kind are recorded. But as the love of 
luxury greatly increased with the foreign con- 
quests of the republic and the growing wealth 
of the nation, various leges surntuariae were 
passed at different times with the object of 
restraining it. These, however, as may be 
supposed, rarely accomplished their object, 
and in the latter times of the republic they 
were virtually repealed. The following list 
of them is arranged in chronological order: 

OPPIA, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius 
in B. c. 215, enacted that no woman should 
have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear 
a dress of different colours, nor ride in a car- 
riage in the city or in any town, or within a 
mile of it, unless on account of public sacri- 
fices. This law was repealed twenty years 
afterwards, whence we frequently find the 
Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex sumtu- 
aria. 

ORCHIA, proposed by the tribune C. Or- 
chius in B. c. 181, limited the number of 
guests to be present at entertainments. 

FANNIA, proposed by the consul C. Fan- 
nius, B. c. 61, limited the sums which were 
to be spent on entertainments, and enacted 
that not more than 100 asses should be spent 
on certain festivals named in the lex, whence 
it is called centussis by Lucilius; that on ten 
other days in each month not more than 30 
asses, and that on all other days not more 
than 10 asses, should be expended ; also that 
no other fowl but one hen should be served 
up, and that not fattened for the purpose. 

DIDIA, passed B. c. 143, extended the Lex 
Fannia' to the whole of Italy, and enacted 



that not only those who gave entertainments 
which exceeded in expense what the law had 
prescribed, but also all who were, present at 
such entertainments, should be liable to the 
penalties of the law. We are not, however, 
told in what these consisted. 

LICINIA, agreed in its chief provisions with 
the Lex Fannia. and was brought forward, 
we are told, that there might be the authority 
of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch as 
the Lex Fannia was beginning to be neglect- 
ed. It allowed 200 asses to be spent on en- 
tertainments upon marriage days, and on other 
days the same as the Lex Fannia ; also, that 
on ordinary days there should not be served 
up more than three pounds of fresh, and one 
pound of salt meat. It was probably passed 
in B. c. 103. 

CORNELIA, a law of the dictator Sulla, B. c 
81, was enacted on account of the neglect oJ 
the Fannian and Licinian laws. Like these, 
it regulated the expenses of entertainments. 
Extravagance in funerals, which had been 
forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was 
also restrained by a law of Sulla. 

A EMILIA, proposed by the consul Aemilius 
Lepidus, B. c. 78, did not limit the expenses 
of entertainments, but the kind and quantity 
of food that was to be used. 

ANTIA, of uncertain date, proposed by An 
tius Resto, besides limiting the expenses of 
entertainments, enacted that no actual magis- 
trate, or magistrate elect, should dine abroad 
anywhere except at the houses of certain per- 
sons. This law however was little observed ; 
and we are told that Antius never dined out 
afterwards, that he might not see his own law 
violated. 

JULIA, proposed by the dictator C. Julius 
Caesar, enforced the former sumptuary laws 
respecting entertainments, which had fallen 
into disuse. He stationed officers in the pro- 
vision market to seize upon all eatables for 
bidden by the law, and sometimes sent lictors 
and soldiers to banquets to take every thing 
which was not allowed by the law. 

JULIA, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 ses- 
terces to be expended upon festivals on dies 
profesti, 300 on those of the calends, ides, 
nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 
upon marriage feasts.. There was also an 
edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which as 
much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were al- 
lowed to be expended upon entertainments, 
the increase being made with the hope of se- 
curing thereby the observance of the Jaw. 

Tiberius attempted to check extravagance 
in banquets; and a senatus-consultum was 
passed in his reign for the purpose of restiain- 
ing luxury, which forbade gold vases to be 



LEX TRIBUNITIA. 

employed, except for sacred purposes, and 
also prohibited the use of silk garments to 
men. This sumptuary law, however, was but 
little observed. Some regulations on the sub- 
ject were also made by Nero and the succeed- 
ing emperors, but they appear to have been 
of little or no avail in checking the increasing 
love of luxury in dress and food. 

TABELLA'RIAE, the laws by which the 
ballot was introduced in voting in the cornitia. 
As to the ancient mode of voting at Rome, 
see SUFFRAGIUM. 

GABINIA, proposed by the tribune Gabinius, 
B. c. 139, introduced the ballot in the elec- 
tion of magistrates ; whence Cicero calls the 
tabella vindex tacitae libertatis. 

CASSIA, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius 
Longinus, B. c. 137, introduced the ballot in 
the indicium populi, or cases tried in the comi- 
tia by the whole body of the people, with the 
exception of cases of perduellio. 

PAPIRIA, proposed by the tribune C. Papi- 
rius Carbo, B. c. 131, introduced the ballot in 
the enactment and repeal of laws. 

CAKLIA, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, 

B. c. 107, introduced the ballot in cases of 
perduellio, which had been excepted in the 
Cassian law. 

There was also a law brought forward by 
Marius, B. u. 119, which was intended to se- 
cure freedom and order in voting. 

TARPE'lA ATE'RNIA. [ATERNIA TAE- 
PEIA.] 

TERENTI'LIA, proposed by the tribune 

C. Terentilius, B. c. 462, but not carried, was 
a rogatio which had for its object an amend- 
ment of the constitution, though in form it 
only attempted a limitation of the irnperium 
consulare. This rogatio probably led to the 
subsequent legislation of the decemviri. 

THO'RIA, passed B. c. 121. concerned the 
public land in Italy as far as the rivers Ru- 
bicon and Macra, or ail Italy except Cisalpine 
Gaul, the public land in the province of Africa, 
the public land in the territory of Corinth, 
and probably other public land besides. It 
relieved a great part of the public land of the 
land-tax (vectigaV). Some considerable frag- 
ments of this lex have come down to us, en- 
graved on the back part of the same bronze 
tablet which contained the Servilia Lex Ju- 
diciaria, and on Repetundae. 

TREBO'NIA, a plebiscitum proposed by 
L. Trebonius, B. c. 448, which enacted that 
if the ten tribunes were not chosen before the 
comitia were dissolved, those who were elect- 
ed should not rill up the number (co-optare), 
but that the comitia should be continued till 
the ten were elected. 

TRIBUNI'TIA. LA law passed in the times 



LEX VAT1N1A. 



199 



of the kings under the presidency of the tri- 
bunus celerum, and was so called to distin- 
guish it from one passed under the presidency 
of the king. [Lex REGIA.] 2. Any law pro- 
posed by a tribune of the plebs. 3. The law 
proposed by Pompey in B. c. 70, restoring to 
the tribunes of the plebs the power of which 
they had been deprived by Sulla. 

TU'LLIA DE A'MBITU. [AMBITUS.] 

TU'LLIA DE LEGATIO'NE LI'BERA. 
[LEGATUS, p. 188.] 

VALE'RIAE, proposed by the consul P. 
Valerius Publicola, B.C. 508, enacted: 1. That 
whoever attempted to obtain possession of 
royal power should be devoted to the gods, 
together with his substance. 2. That who- 
ever was condemned by the sentence of a 
magistrate to be put to death, to be scourged, 
or to be fined, should possess the right of ap- 
peal (provocatio) to the people. The patri- 
cians possessed previously the right of appeal 
from the sentence of a magistrate to their 
own council, the curiae, and therefore this 
law of Valerius probably related only to the 
plebeians, to whom it gave the right of appeal 
to the plebeian tribes, and not to the centu- 
ries. Hence the laws pcgposed by the Vale- 
rian family respecting the right of appeal are 
always spoken of as one of the chief safe- 
guards of the liberty of the plebs. The right 
of appeal did not extend beyond a mile from 
the city, where unlimited irnperium began, to 
which the patricians were just as much sub- 
ject as the plebeians. 

VALE'RIAE ET HORA'TIAE, three laws 
proposed by the consuls L. Valerius and M. 
Horatius, B. c. 449, in the year after the de- 
cemvirate, enacted: 1. That a plebiscitum 
should be binding on the whole people, re- 
specting the meaning of which expression, 
see PLEBISCITUM. 2. That whoever should 
procure the election of a magistrate without 
appeal should be out-lawed, and might be 
killed by any one with impunity. 3. Renew- 
ed the penalty threatened against any one who 
should harm the tribunes and the aediles, to 
whom were now added the jndices and de- 
cemviri. There is considerable doubt as to 
who are meant by the judices and decemviri. 

VALE'RIA, proposed by the consul M. Va- 
lerius, B. c. 300, rs-enacted for the third time 
the celebrated law of his famliy respecting 
appeal (provocatio} from the decision of a ma- 
gistrate. The law specified no fixed penalty 
lor its violation, leaving the judges to deter- 
mine what the punishment should be 

VA'RIA. [MAJESTAS.] 

VATI'NIA DE PROVI'NCIIS, was the 
enactment by which Julius Caesar obtained 
the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyri- 



LIBER. 



cum for five years, to which the senate added 
Gallia Transalpina. This plebiscitum was 
proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A Trebo- 
nia Lex subsequently prolonged Caesar's im- 
periuin for five years. 

VATl'NIA. [REPETUNDAE.] 

VATI'NIA DE COLONIS, under which 
the Latina Colonia [LATINITAS] of Novum- 
Comum in Gallia Cisalpina was planted 
B. c. 59. 

DE VI. [Vis.] 

VIA'RIA. A viaria lex which Cicero says 
the tribune C. Curio talked of; but nothing 
more seems to be known of it. Some modern 
writers speak of leges viariae, but there do 
not appear to be any leges properly so called. 
The provisions as to roads in many of the 
Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and 
had no special reference to roads. 

VI'LLIA ANNA'LIS. [Lsx ANNALIS.] 

VOCO'NIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. 
Voconius Saxa, a tribunus plebis, B. c. 169. 

One provision of the lex was, that no per- 
son who should be rated in the census at 
100,000 sesterces (centum millia aeris) after 
the census of that year, should make any fe- 
male (virginem neve mulierem) his heres. The 
lex allowed no -exceptions, even in favour of 
an only daughter. It only applied to testa- 
ments, and therefore a daughter or other fe- 
male could inherit ab intestate to any amount. 
The vestal virgins could make women their 
heredes in all cases, which was the only ex- 
ception to the provisions of the lex Another 
provision of the lex forbade a person, who was 
included in the census to give more in amount, 
in the form of a legacy to any person, than 
the heres or heredes should take. This pro- 
vision secured something to the heres or he- 
redes, but still the provision was ineffectual, 
and the object of the lex was only accom- 
plished by the Lex Falcidia, B. c. 41, which 
enacted that a testator should not give more 
than three fourths in legacies, thus securing 
a fourth to the heres. 

LIBER (fitflUov) a book. The most com- 
mon material on which books were written 
by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin 
coats or rind (liber, whence the Latin name 
for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus. This 
plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos 
(^ii/3/loc), whence the Greeks derived their 
name for a book (j3t/3kle>v). The papyrus- 
tree grows in swamps to the height of ten 
feet and more, and paper (charta) was pre- 
pared from the thin coats or pellicles which 
surround the plant. The form and general 
appearance of the papyri rolls will be under- 
stood from the following woodcut taken from 
paintings found at Pompeu. 




Libri, Books. 

Next to the papyrus, parchment (membrana) 
was the most common material for writing 
upon. It is said to have been invented by 
Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in conse- 
quence of the prohibition of the export of pa- 
pyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy Epiphanes. 
It is probable, however, that Eumenes in- 
troduced only some improvement in the man- 
ufacture of parchment, as Herodotus men- 
tions writing on skins as common in his time, 
and says that the lonians had been accus- 
tomed to give the name of skins (diQdepat) 
to books. 

The ancients wrote usually on only one 
side of the paper or parchment. The back 
of the paper, instead of being written upon, 
was usually stained with saffron colour or 
the cedrus, which produced a yellow colour. 

As paper and parchment were dear, it was 
frequently the custom to erase or wash out 
writing of little importance, and to write upon 
the paper or parchment again, which was 
then called Palimpsestus (TraA/jU^orof). 

The paper or parchment was joined together 
so as to form one sheet, and when the work 
was finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence 
it was called a volumen ; and hence we have 
the expression evolvere librum. When an au- 
thor divided a work into several books, it was 
usual to include only one book in a volume 
or roll, so that there 'was generally the same 
number of volumes as of books. 

In the papyri rolls found at Herculane- 
um, the stick on which the papyrus is rolled 
does not project from the papyrus, but is con- 
cealed by it. Usually, however, there were 
balls or bosses, ornamented or painted, called 
umbilici or cornua, which were fastened at 
each end of the stick and projected from the 
papyrus. The ends of the roll were carefully 
cut, polished with pumice-stone and coloured 
black ; they were called the gemmae f routes. 

To protect the roll from injury it was fre- 
quently put in a parchment case, which was 
stained with a purple colour or with the yel- 
low of the Lutum. 



LIBRA. 

The title of the book (titulus, index) was 
written on a small strip of papyrus or parch- 
ment with a light red colour (caecum or minium.') 
LIBERA'LIA. [DIONYSIA, p. 120.] 
Ll'BERI. [INGENUI ; LIBERTUS.] 
LIBERTUS, LIBERTI'NUS. Freemen 
(liberi) were either Ingenui [!NGENUI] or Lib- 
erlini. Libertini were those persons who had 
been released from legal servitude. A manu- 
mitted slave was Libertus (that is, liberatus) 
with reference to his master : with reference 
to the class to which he belonged after man- 
umission, he was Libertinus. Respecting the 
mode in which a slave was manumitted, and 
his status after manumission, see MANUMISSIO. 
At Athens, a liberated slave was called 
7reAeu0epof. When manumitted he did not 
obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a 
metoicus [METOicus], and, as such, he had to 
pay not only the metoicion (jueTOiKiov), but a 
triobolon in addition to it. His former mas- 
ter became his patron (Trpoordr^f), to whom 
he owed certain duties. 
LIBITINA'RII. [FuNus, p. 161.] 
LIBRA, dim. LIBELLA (<7ra%6f), a bal- 
ance, a pair of scales. The principal parts 
of this instrument were: 1. The beam (jugum). 
2. The two scales, called in Greek raAavra, 
and in Latin lances. The beam was made 
without a tongue, being held by a ring or 
other appendage (Ugula, f>v/j,a), fixed in the 
centre. The annexed woodcut represents 
Mercury and Apollo engaged in exploring the 
fates of Achilles and Memnon, by weighing 
the attendant genius of the one against that 
of the other. 



LICTOR. 



201 



The uncial division, which has been noticed 
in speaking of the coin As, was also applied 
to the weight. The following table shows 
the divisions of the pound, with their value iu 
ounces and grains, avoirdupois weight. 



As or Libra 


Unciae 
1 


. Oz. 

in 


Grs. 

60 45 


Deunx 


]] 


10? 


64 54 


Dextans or Decuncis . . 
Dodrans .... 


10 
q 


9i 

Rl 


38. 5C 
42 5"* 


Bes or Bessis .... 


R 




76 75 


Septunx 


7 


fij 


80 88 


Semis or Semissis . ... 
Quincunx ...... 


6 

ft 


55 
41 


84. 95 
89 05 


Triens i 


4 


3 


93 14 


Quadrans or Teruncius . 
Sextans 


3 

9 


2| 

13 


97. 21 
101 29 


Sescuncia or Sescunx . . 
Uncia . . . 


1*1 


H 
o? 


103.624 
105. 36 




Libra, Pair of Scalos. 

LIBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight 
among the Romans and Italians. 



or 433.666 

The divisions of the ounce are given under 
UNCIA. Where the word pondo, or its abbre- 
viations p. or POND., occur with a simple num- 
ber, the weight understood is the libra. 

The name libra was also given to a measure 
of horn, divided into twelve equal parts (- 
ciae) by lines marked on it, and used for 
measuring oil. 

LIBRA 'RII, the name of slaves, who were 
employed by their masters in writing or copy- 
ing, sometimes called antiquarii. They must 
be distinguished from the Scribae publici, who 
were freemen [SCRIBAE], and also from the 
booksellers [BIBLIOPOLA], to both of whom 
this name was also applied. 

LIBRARIES. [BiBLioTHECA.] 

LI'BRIPENS. [MANCIPIUM] 

LI BURN A, LIBU'RNICA, a light vessel, 
which derived its name from the Liburni. 
The ships of this people were of great assist- 
ance to Augustus at the battle of Actium; and 
experience having shown their efficiency, ves- 
sels of a similar kind were built and called by 
the name of the people. 

LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on 
the chief Roman magistrates. The number 
which waited on the different magistrates is 
stated in the article FASCES. 

The office of lictor is said to have been de- 
rived by Romulus from the Etruscans. The 
lictors went before the magistrates one by one 
in a line ; he who went last or next to the 
magistrate was called proximus lictor, to whom 
the magistrate gave his commands ; and as 
this lictor was always the principal one, we 
also find him called primus lictor. 

The lictors had to inflict punishment on 
those who were condemned, especially in the 
case of Roman citizens ; for foreigners and 



202 LI FUUS. 

slaves were punished by the Carnifex ; and 
they also probably had to assist in some cases 
in the execution of a decree or judgment in a 
civil suit. The lictors likewise commanded 
persons to pay proper respect to a magistrate 
passing by, which consisted in dismounting 
from horseback, uncovering the head, stand- 
ing out of the way, &c. 

The lictors were originally chosen from the 
plebs, but afterwards appear to have been 
generally freedmen, probably of the magis- 
trate on whom they attended. 

Lictors were properly only granted to those 
magistrates who had the Imperium. Conse- 
quently, the tribunes of the plebs never had 
liclors, nor several of the other magistrates. 
Sometimes, however, lictors were granted to 
persons as a mark of respect, or for the sake of 
protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs 
every vestal virgin was accompanied by a lie- 
tor, whenever she went out, and the honour 
of one or two h'ctors was usually granted to 
the wives and other female members of the 
Imperial family. 

There were also thirty lictors called Lictores 
Curiati, whose duty it was to summon the 
curiae to the comitiacuriata ; and when these 
meetings became little more than a form, 
their suffrages were represented by the thirty 
lictors. 

LIMEN. [JANUA.] 

LINTER, a light boat frequently formed of 
the trunk of a tree, and drawing little water. 

LITHOSTRO'TA. [Doaius, p. 127.] 

LITRA ( /Urpa), a Sicilian silver coin equal 
in value to the Aeginetan obol. 

LITURGIES. [LEITOUKGIA.] 

LI'TUUS probably an Etruscan word sig- 
nifying crooked. I. The crooked staff borne 
by the augurs, with which they divided the 
expanse of heaven, when viewed with refer- 






Lituus, Augur's Staff. 



LORICA. 

ence to divination (templum), into regions (re- 
giones). It is very frequently exhibited upon 
works of art. The figure in the middle of the 
preceding illustrations is from an ancient 
specimen of Etruscan sculpture, representing 
an augur ; the two others are Roman denarii. 
2. A sort of trumpet slightly curved at the ex- 
tremity. It differed both from the tuba and 
the cornu, the former being straight, while the 
latter was bent round into a spiral shape. 
Its tones are usually characterized as harsh 
and shrill. 




Lituus, Trumpet 

LIXAE. [CALONES.] 

LOD1X, a small shaggy blanket. It was 
also used as a carpet. 

LOGISTAE. [EuTHYNE.] 

LOOKING-GLASS. [SPECULUM.] 

LOOM. [TELA.] 

LORI'CA (Oupat;), a cuirass. The cuirass 
was worn by the heavy-armed infantry both 
among the Greeks and Romans. The sol- 
diers commonly wore cuirasses made of flex- 
ible bands of steel, or cuirasses of chain mail ; 
but those of generals and officers usually con- 
sisted of two yvaka, the breast-piece and 
back-piece, made of bronze, iron, &c., which 
were joined by means of buckles (Trepovat). 
The epithets heiridoTo and oo/Uctaro are 




LUCERNA. 



203 



applied to a cuirass ; the former on account 
of its resemblance to the scales of fish (AeTu- 
atv), the latter to the scales of serpents (0o- 



Ainon;; the Asiatic nations the cnirass was 
frequently made of cotton, and among the 
Sarmatians and other northern nations o 
horn. 




Lorira as worn by a Roman Emperor. 
LOTS. [SORTES.] 

LUCAR. [HisTRo.] 

LU'CERES. [TRIBUS.] 

LUCERNA (M>xyo$ an oil lamp. The 
Greeks and Romans originally used candles ; 
hut in later times candles were chiefly con- 
fined to the houses of the lower classes. 
[C ANDELA.] A great number of ancient lamps 
has come down to us ; the greater part of 
which are made of terra cotta, but also a con- 
siderable number of bronze. Most of the 
lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the 
top, on which there are frequently figures in 
relief. In the lamps there are one or more 
round holes, according to the number of wicks 
(ellychnia) burnt in it ; and as these holes were 
called from an obvious analogy, fj,vKTJipe<; or 
ivfai, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp 
;as also called Monomyxos, Dimyxos, Tri- 



Lorlca as worn by a Greek Warrior. 

j Dories or holes for the wicks. The follow- 
ing ;-= nn example of a dimvxns lucerna, upon 
there is a winged boy wirh a goose. 




myxos, or Polymyxos, according as it contain- ! been found, 
ed one, two, three, or a greater number of ing Silenus 



Lncerna, Lamp. 

The next woodcut represents one of th. 
most beautiful bronze lamps v hich has \<> 



Upon it is the figure 



204 



LUDI. 




Lucerna, Lamp. 

The lamps sometimes hung in chains from 
the ceiling of the room, but they generally 
stood upon a stand. [CANDELABRUM.] 

LUCTA, LUCTATIO (irdfy, iru^iaifffia, 
KahaiGfioovvT), or K.aTa/3%.7]TiKr/), wrestling. 

The Greeks ascribed the invention of wrest- 
ling to mythical personages, and Mercury, the 
god of all gymnastic exercises, also presided 
over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrest- 
ling was much practised : during this period 
wrestlers contended naked, and only the loins 
were covered with the perizoma (Trepi'fw/^a), 
and this custom probably remained through- 
out Greece until OI. 15, from which time the 
perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers 
fought entirely naked. In the Homeric age 
the custom of anointing the body for the pur- 
pose of wrestling does not appear lo have 
been known, but in the time of Solon it was 
quite general, and was 'said to have been 
adopted by the Cretans and Lacedaemonians 
at a very early period. After the body was 
anointed, it w'as strewed over with sand or 
dust, in order to enable the wrestlers to take 
a firm hold of each other. If one combatant 
threw the other down three times, the victory 
was decided. Wrestling was practised in all 
the great games of the Greeks. The most 
renowned wrestler was Milop, of Croton. 
[PANCRATIUM.] 

LUDI, the common name for the whole 
variety of games and contests which were 
held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly 
at the festivals of the gods ; and as the ludi 
at certain festivals formed the principal part 
of the solemnities, these festivals themselves 
are called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also 
ld in honour of a magistrate or a deceased 



person, in which case they may be considered 
as ludi privati. 

All ludi were divided by the Romans into 
two classes, ludi circenses and ludi scenici, ac- 
cordingly as they were held in the circus or 
in the theatre ; in the latter case they were 
mostly theatrical representations wilh their 
various modifications ; in the former they con- 
sisted of all or of a part of the games enume- 
rated in the articles CIRCUS and GLADIATORES. 
Another division of the ludi into stati; impera- 
tivi, arid votivi, is analogous to the division of 
the feriae. [FERIAE.] 

The superintendence of the games, and the 
solemnities connected with them, was in most 
cases entrusted to the aediles. [AEDILES.] 
If the lawful rites were not observed in the 
celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the 
decision of the pontiffs whether they were to 
be held again (instaurari) or not. An alpha- 
betical list of the principal ludi is subjoined. 

LUDI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome 
during the second Punic war, after the battle 
of Cannae (212 B. c.), at the command of an 
oracle contained in the books of the ancient 
seer Marcius, in order to obtain the aid of 
Apollo. They were held every year under 
the superintendence of the praetor urbanus, 
and ten men sacrificed to Apollo, according 
to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two 
white goats also with gilt horns, and to La- 
tona a heifer with gilt horns. The games 
themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, 
the spectators were adorned with chaplets, 
and each citizen gave a contribution towards 
defraying the expenses. In B. c. 208, it was 
ordained that they should always be celebrated 
on the Cth of July. 

LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AuGUSTALES.] 

LUDI CAPITOLINI were instituted a. c. 387, 
after the departure of the Gauls from Rome, 
as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter Capi- 
tolinus, who had saved the capitol in the hour 
of danger. The superintendence of the games 
was entrusted to a college of priests called 
Capitolini. 

LUDI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNi,were 
celebrated every year during several days, 
from the fourth to the twelfth of September, 
in honour of the three great divinities, Ju- 
piter, Juno, and Minerva, or, according to 
others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and 
Neptunus Equestris. They were superin- 
tended by the curule aediles. For further 
particulars see CIRCUS. 

LUDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.] 

LUDI FLORALES. [FLORALIA.] 

LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at 
the funeral pyre of illustrious persons. Such 
pames are mentioned in the very early legends 



LUDI. 

of the history of Greece and Rome, and they 
continued with various modifications until the 
introduction of Christianity. It was at such 
a ludus funebris, in B. c. 264, that gladiatorial 
rights were exhibited at Rome for the first 
time, which henceforwards were the most 
essential part in all funeral games. [GLA- 
DIATOR ES.] 

LUDI LlBERALES. [DlONYSIA.] 

LUDI MERALENSES. [MEGALESIA.] 

LUDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in 
commemoration of the reconciliation between 
the patricians and plebeians after the first se- 
cession to the mons sacer, or, according to 
others, to the Aventine. They were held on 
the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and 
were conducted by the plebeian aediles. 

LUDI SAECULARES. During the time of the 
republic these games were called ludi Taren- 
tini, Terentini, or Taurii, and it was not till 
the time of Augustus that they bore the name 
of ludi saeculares. 

The names Tarenti or Taurii are perhaps 
nothing but different forms of the same word, 
and of the same root as Tarquinius. There 
were various accounts respecting the origin 
of the games, yet all agree in stating that they 
were celebrated for the purpose of averting 
from the state some great calamity by which 
it had been afflicted, and that they were held 
in honour of Dis and Proserpina. From the 
time of the consul Valerius Poplicola down 
to that of Augustus, the Tarentine games 
were held only three times, and again only 
on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed 
period, so that we must conclude that their 
celebration was in no way connected with 
certain cycles of time (saecula). Not long 
after Augustus had assumed the supreme 
powerin the republic, the quindecimviri an- 
nounced that according to their books ludi 
saeculares ought to be held r and at the same 
time tried to prove from history that in former 
times they had not only been celebrated re- 
peatedly, but almost regularly once in every 
century. 

The festival, however, which was now held, 
was in reality very different from the ancient 
Tarentine games ; for Dis and Proserpina, to 
whom formerly the festival belonged exclu- 
sively, were now the last in the list of the di- 
vinities in honour of whom the ludi saecula- 
res were celebrated. The festival took place 
in summer, and lasted for three days and 
three nights. On the first day the games 
commenced in that part of the Campus Mar- 
tius, which had belonged to the last Tarquin, 
from whom it derived its name Tarenturn, 
and sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno, 
Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, 



LUPERCALIA. 



205 



Ceres, Vulcan, Mars, Diana, Vesta, Hercules, 
Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpi- 
na. The solemnities began at the second 
hour of the night, and the emperor opened 
them by the river side with the sacrifice ol 
three lambs to the Parcae upon three altars 
erected for the purpose, and which were 
sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The 
lambs themselves were burnt. A temporary 
scene like that of a theatre was erected in the 
Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and 
fires. 

In this scene festive hymns were sung by a 
chorus, and various other ceremonies, together 
with theatrical performances, took place. Du- 
ring the morning of the first day the people 
went to the capitol to offer solemn sacrifices 
to Jupiter ; thence they returned to the Ta- 
rentum, to sing choruses in honour of Apollo 
and Diana. On the second day the noblest 
matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assem- 
bled on the Capitol, offered supplications, sang 
hymns to the gods, and also visited the altar 
of Juno. The emperor and the quindecimviri 
offered sacrifices which had been vowed be- 
fore, to all the great divinities. On the third 
day, Greek and Latin choruses were sung in 
the sanctuary of Apollo by three times nine 
boys and maidens of great beauty whose pa- 
rents w'ere still alive. The object of these 
hymns was to implore the protection of the 
gods for all cities, towns, and officers of the 
empire. One of these hymns was the carmen 
saeculare by Horace, which was especially 
composed for the occasion and adapted to the 
circumstances of the time. During the whole 
of the three days and nights, games of every 
description were carried on in all the circuses 
and theatres, and sacrifices were offered in 
all the temples. 

The first celebration of the ludi saeculares 
in the reign of Augustus took place in the 
summer of B. c. 17. 

LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [Luoi SAE- 
CULARES.] 

LUDTTS. [GLADIATORES, p. 167.] 
LUDUS TROJAE. [CIRCUS, p. 82.] 
LUPERCA'LIA, one of the most ancient 
Roman festivals, which was celebrated every 
year, in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertil- 
ity. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and 
hence its introduction at Rome was connected 
w.ijth the names of Romulus and Remus, the 
kings of shepherds. It was held every year, 
on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, 
where Romulus and Remus were said to have 
been nurtured by the she- wolf ; the place con- 
tained an altar and a grove sacred to the god 
Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled on 
the day of the Lupercalia, and sacrificed to 



206 



LUPUS. 



the god goats and young dogs. Two youths 
of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, 
and one of the latter touched their foreheads 
with a sword dipped in the blood of the vic- 
tims ; other Luperci immediately after wiped 
off the bloody spots with wool dipped in milk. 
Hereupon the two youths were obliged to 
break out into a shout of laughter. This 
ceremony was probably a symbolical purifi- 
cation of the shepherds. After the sacrifice 
was over, the Luperci partook of a meal, at 
which they were plentifully supplied with 
wine. They then cut the skins of the goats 
which they had sacrificed, into pieces: with 
some of which they covered parts of their 
body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who 
was represented half naked and half covered 
with goat skin. The other pieces of the skins 
they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding 
them in their hands they ran with them 
through the streets of the city, touching or 
striking with them all persons whom they 
met in their way, and especially women, who 
even used to come forward voluntarily for the 
purpose, since they believed that this cere- 
mony rendered them fruitful, and procured 
them an easy delivery in childbearing. This 
act of running about with thongs of goatskin 
was a symbolic purification of the land, and 
that of touching persons a purification of men. 
for the words by which this act is designated 
arefebruare and lustrare. The goatskin itself 
was called februum, the festive day dies feb- 
raata, the month in which it occurred Februa- 
rius, and the god himself Februus. 

The festival of the Lupercalia, though it 
necessarily lost its original import at the time 
when the Romans were no longer a nation of 
shepherds, was yet always observed in com- 
memoration of the founders of the city. M. 
Antonius, in his consulship, was one of the 
Luperci, and not only ran with them half 
naked and covered with pieces of goatskin 
through the city, but even addressed the 
people in the forum in this rude attire. 

LUPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. 
They formed a college, the members of which 
were originally youths of patrician families, 
and which was said to have been instituted 
by Romulus and Remus. The college was 
divided into two classes, the one called Fabii 
or Fabiani, and the other Quinctilii or Quincti- 
liani. The office was not for life, but how long 
it lasted is not known. Julius Caesar added 
to the two classes of the college a third with 
the name of Julii or Juliani, and made Anto- 
nius their high-priest. He also assigned to 
them certain revenues (vectigalia) which were 
afterwards withdrawn from them. 

LUPUS FE'RREUS, the iron wolf used 



LUSTRATIO. 

by the besieged in repelling the attacks of the 
besiegers, and especially in seizing the batter 
: ing-ram and diverting its blows. 

LUSTRA'TIO (Kddupaitf, was originally 
a purification by ablution in water. But the 
lustrations, of which we possess direct know- 
ledge, are always connected with sacrifices 
and other religious rites, and consisted in the 
sprinkling of water by means of a branch of 
laurel or olive, and at Rome sometimes by 
means of the aspergillum, and in the burning 
of certain materials, the smoke of which was 
thought to have a purifying effect. Whenever 
sacrifices were offered^ it seems to have been 
customary to carry them around the person 
or thing "to be purified. Lustrations were 
made in ancient Greece, and probably at 
Rome also, by private individuals when they 
had polluted themselves by any criminal ac- 
tion. Whole cities and states also sometimes 
underwent purifications to expiate the crime 
or crimes committed by a member of the com- 
munity. The most celebrated purification of 
this kind was that of Athens, performed by 
Epimenides of Crete, after the Cylonian mas- 
sacre. Purification also took place when a 
sacred spot had been unhallowed by profane 
use, as by burying dead bodies in it, as was 
the case with the island of Delos. 

The Romans performed lustrations on many 
occasions, on which the Greeks did not think 
of them; and the object of most Roman lus- 
trations was not to atone for the commission 
of crime, but to obtain the blessing of the gods 
upon the persons or things which were lus- 
trated. Thus fields were purified after the 
business of sowing was over, and before the 
sickle was put to the corn. [ARVALES FRA- 
TRES.J Sheep were purified every year at 
the festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies 
before they took the field were lustrated, and 
as the solemnity was probably always con- 
nected with a review of the troops, the word 
lustratio is also used in the sense of the mod- 
ern review. The establishment of a new col- 
ony was always preceded by a lustratio with 
solemn sacrifices. The city of Rome itself, 
as well as other towns within its dominion, 
always underwent a lustratio, after they had 
been visited by some great calamity, such as 
civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. 
A regular and general lustratio of the whole 
Roman people took place after the completion 
of every lustrum, when the censor had finished 
his census and before he laid down his office. 
This lustratio (also called lustrum) was con- 
ducted by one of the censors, and held with 
sacrifices called Suovetaurilia, because the 
sacrifices consisted of a pig (or ram), a sheep, 
and an ox. It took place in the Campus Mar- 



LYRA. 



207 



tius, where the people assembled for the pur- 1 
pose. The sacrifices were carried three times j 
around the assembled multitude. 

LUSTRUM (from /MO, Gr. Aouw) is properly 
speaking a lustration or purification, and in 
particular the purification of the whole Roman 
people performed by one of the censors in the 
Campus Martius, after the business of the 
census was over. [CENSUS; LUSTRATIO.] 
As this purification took place only once in 
five years, the word lustrum was also used to 
designate the time between two lustra. The 
first lustrum was performed in B. c. 566, by 
king Servius, after he had completed his cen- 
sus, and it is said to have taken place subse- 
quently every five years, after the census was 
over. The census might be held without the 
lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are 
recorded which happened in B. c. 459 and 214. 
In these cases the lustrum was not performed 
on account of some great calamities which 
had befallen the republic. 

The time when the lustrum took place has 
been very ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. 
Six ancient Romulian years of 304 days each 
were, with the difference of one day, equal to 
five solar years of 365 days each, or the six 
ancient years made 1824 days, while the five 
solar years contained 1825 days. The lus- 
trum, or the great year of the ancient Romans, 
was thus a cycle, at the end of which, the be- 
ginning of the ancient year nearly coincided 
with that of the solar year. As the coinci- 
dence, however, was not perfect, a month of 
24 days was intercalated in every eleventh 
lustrum. Now it is highly probable that the 
recurrence of such a cycle or great year was, 
from the earliest times, solemnized with sac- 
rifices and purifications, and that Servius 
Tullius did not introduce them, but merely 
connected them with his census, and thus set 
the example for subsequent ages. 

Many writers of the latter period of the re- 
public and during the empire, use the word 
lustrum for any space of five years, and with- 
out any regard to the census, while others 
even apply it in the sense of the Greek pen- 
taeteris or an Olympiad, which contained only 
four years. 

LYRA (Avpa, Lat.^des), a lyre, one of the 
most ancient musical instruments of the 
stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the 
invention of the lyre to Mercury, who is said 
to have formed the instrument of a tortoise- 
shell, over which he placed gut-strings. The 
name Ai>pa, however, does not occur in the 
Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, called 
in Homer phorminx (06p/uy) and citharis 
(niBapic), seems rather to have resembled 
the cithara of later times, which was in some 



respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara 
the strings were drawn across the bottom, 
whereas in the lyra of ancient times they 
were free on both sides. The lyre is also 
called %&V or X&UVTJ, and in Latin testudo, 
because it was made of a tortoise-shell. 

The lyre had originally three or four strings, 
but after the time of Terpander of Antissa 
(about B. c. 650), who is said to have added 
three more, it was generally made with seven. 
The ancients, however, made use of a variety 
of lyres ; and about the time of Sappho and 
Anacreon several stringed instruments, such 
as magadis, barbiton, and others, were used in 
Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had 
been introduced from Asia Minor, and their 
number of strings far exceeded that of the 
lyre, for we know that some had even twenty 
strings, so that they must have more resem- 
bled a modern harp than a lyre. 

But the lyra and cithara had in most cases 
no more than seven strings. The lyre had a 
great and full-sounding bottom, which con- 
tinued as before to be made generally of tor- 
toise-shell, from which the horns rose as from 
the head of a stag. A transverse piece of 
wood connecting the two horns at or near 
their top-ends served to fasten the strings, 




Lyra. 

and was called Cvyoi', and in Latin transtil- 
lum. The horns were called 7T7/x i G or cornua. 
Th?se instruments were often adorned in the 



208 



MAGISTRATUS. 



most costly manner with gold and ivory. The 
lyre was considered as a more manly instru- 
ment than the cithara, which, on account of 
its smaller sounding bottom, excluded full- 
sounding and deep tones, and was more cal- 
culated for the middle tones. The lyre when 
played stood in an upright position between 
the knees, while the cithara stood upon the 
knees of the player. Both instruments were 
held with the left hand and played with the 
right. It has generally been supposed that 
the strings of these instruments were always 
touched with a little staff called plectrum 
(Tr/Uy/crpov), but among the paintings discov- 
ered at Herculaneum we find several instan- 
ces where the persons play the lyre with their 
fingers. The lyre was at all times only played 
as an accompaniment to songs. 

The Latin name fides, which was used for 
a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the 
same as the Greek c<pid^, which signifies gut- 
string. 

The lyre (cithara or phorminx) was at first 
used in the recitations of epic poetry, though 
it. was probably not played during the recita- 
tion itself, but only as a prelude before the 
minstrel commenced his story, and in the in- 
tervals or pauses between the several parts. 
The lyre has given its name to a species of 
poetry called lyric ; this kind of poetry was 
originally never recited or sung without the 
accompaniment of the lyre, and sometimes 
also of an appropriate dance. 



M. 



MAGADIS. [LYRA.] 

MAGISTER,which contains the same root 
as mag-is and mag-nus, was applied at Rome 
to persons possessing various kinds of offices, 
and especially to the leading person in a col- 
legium or corporation [COLLEGIUM]; thus the 
magister societatis was the president of the 
corporation of equites, who farmed the taxes 
at Rome. 

MAGISTRATUS was a person quijuri di- 
cundo praeest. The King was originally the 
sole Magistratus ; he had all the Potestas. 
On the expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls 
were annually appointed, and they were Ma- 
gistratus. In course of time other Magistratus 
were appointed ; namely, dictators, censors, 
praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs, and 
the Decemviri litibus judicandis. The go- 
vernors of provinces with the title of Proprae- 
tor or Proconsul were also Magistratus. 

The word Magistratus contains the same 
element as mag(ister) and mag(nus) ; and it sig- 



| nifies both the person and the office, as we see 
I in the phrase se magistratu abdicare. 

The auspicia maxima belonged to the con- 
! suls, praetors, and censors, and the minora 
i auspicia to the other rnagistratus ; accord- 
I ingly, the consuls, praetors, and censors were 
j called Majores. and they were elected at the 
comitia centuriata ; the other rnagistratus 
were called Minores. The former had the 
imperiurn, the latter had not. The magistra- 
tu s were also divided into curules and ihose 
who were not curules : the rnagistratus cu- 
rules were the dictator, consuls, praetors, cen- 
sors, ana the curule >iediles, who were so 
called, because they had the ins sellae curulis. 
The magistrates were chosen only from the 
patricians in the early republic, but in course 
of time the plebeians shared these honours, 
with the exception of that of the Interrex : 
the plebeian rnagistratus, properly so called, 
were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni 
plebis. 

MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to 
treason in English law ; but all the offences 
included under majestas comprehend more 
than the English treason. One of the offences 
included in majestas was the effecting, aiding 
in, or planning the death of a magistratus po- 
puli Romani. or of one who had imperium or 
potestas. Though the phrase crimen majesta- 
tis was used, the complete expression was 
crimen laesae, imminutae, diminutae, minutae, 
majestatis. 

The word majestas, consistently with its 
relation to mag(nus), signifies the magnitude 
or greatness of a thing Accordingly, the 
phrases majestas populi Romani, imperii majes- 
tas, signify the whole of that which consti- 
tuted the Roman state ; in other words, the 
sovereign power of the Roman state. The 
expression minuere majestatem consequently 
signifies any act by which this majestas is 
impaired. In the republican period the term 
majestas laesa or minuta was most commonly 
applied to cases of a general betraying or sur- 
rendering his army to the enemy, exciting 
sedition, and generally by his bad conduct in 
administration impairing the majestas of the 
state. 

The old punishment of majestas was per- 
petual interdiction from fire and water. In 
the later imperial period, persons of low con- 
dition were thrown to wild beasts, or burnt 
alive ; persons of better condition were simply 
put to death. 

In the early times of the republic, every act 
of a citizen which was injurious to the state 
or its peace was called perdnellio, and the of- 
fender (perduellis] was tried before the popu- 
lus (populi judicio), and, if convicted, put to 



MALLEUS. 

death. Perduellis originally signified hostis ; 
and thus the old offence of perduellio was 
equivalent to making war on the Roman state. 
The trial for perduellio (perduellonis judicium) 
existed to the later times of the republic; but 
the name seems to have almost fallen into dis- 
use, and various leges were passed for the pur- 
pose of determining more accurately what 
should be majestas. These were a lex Apu- 
leia, probably passed in the fifth consulship of 
Marius, the exact contents of which are un- 
known, a lex Varia B. c. 91, a lex Cornelia 
passed by L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex 
Julia, which continued under the empire to 
be the fundamental enactment on this sub- 
ject. This lex Julia is by some attributed to 
C. Julius Caesar, and assigned to the year 
B.C. 48. 

Under the empire the term majestas was 
applied to the person of the reigning Caesar, 
and we find the phrases majestas Augusta, im- 
peratoria, and regia. It was, however, no- 
thing new to apply the term to the emperor, 
considered in some of his various capacities, 
for it was applied to the rmgistratus under the 
republic, as to the consul and praetor. Horace 
even addresses Augustus in the terms majes- 
tas, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise 
than as a personal compliment, and not as said 
with reference to anv of the offices which he 
held. 

MALLE'OLUS, a hammer, the transverse 
head of which was formed for holding pitch 
and tow, which, having been set on fire, was 
projected slowly, so that it might not be ex- 
tinguished during its flight, upon houses and 
other buildings in order to set them on fire : it 
was therefore commonly used in sieges to- 
gether with torches and falaricae. 

MA'LLEUS, dim. MALLE'OLUS (pai- 
<7Tijp, &<l)vp(i, dim. Gipvpiov), a hammer, a mal- 
let. In the hands of the farmer the mallet of 
wood served to break down the clods (occare) 
and to pulverize them. The butcher used it 
in slaying cattle, by striking the head, and we 
often read of it as used by the smith upon the 
anvil. When several men were employed at 
the same anvil it was a matter of necessity 
that they should strike in time, and Virgil, 
accordingly, says of the Cyclopes, " inter se 
brachia tollunt in numerum." (Georg. iv. 174; 
Aen. viii. 452.) The scene which he describes 
is represented in the annexed woodcut, taken 
from an ancient bas relief, in which Vulcan, 
Brontes, and Steropes, are seen forging the 
metal, while the third Cyclops, Pyracmon, 
blows the bellows. Beside the anvil is seen 
the vessel of water in which the hot iron or 
bronze was immersed. 

But besides the employment of the hammer 
s2 



u 



MANCIPIUM. 



209 




M:i!!eus, Hammer. 

upon the anvil for making all ordinary uten 
sils, the smith wrought with this instrument 
figures which were either small and fine, some 
of their parts being beaten as thin as paper, 
and being in very high relief, as in the bronzes 
of Siris, or of colossal proportions, being com- 
posed of separate plates riveted together. 

MALUS. [NAVIS.] 

MANCEPS has the same relation to Man- 
cipiurn that Auspex has to Auspicium. It is 
properly qui manu capit. But the word has 
several special significations. Mancipeswere 
they who bid at the public lettings of the cen- 
sors for the purpose of farming any part of the 
public property. Sometimes the "chief of the 
publican! generally are meant by this term, as 
they were no doubt the bidders and gave the 
security, and then they shared the undertak 
ing with others or underlet it. The mancipea 
would accordingly have distinctive names ac- 
cording to the kind of revenue which they 
took on lease, as De.cumani,Portitores,Pecuarii 

MANICIPA'TIO. [MANCIPIUM ] 

MANCl'PIUM, MANCIPA'TIO. These 
words are used to indicate the formal transfer 
of the ownership of a thing, and are derived 
from the fact that the person who received the 
thing took hold of it (mancipatio dicitur quia 
manu res capitur). It was not a simple corpo- 
real apprehension, but one which was accom- 
panied with certain forms described by Gaius 
the jurist : " Mancipatio is effected in the 
presence of not less than five witnesses, who 
must be Roman citizens and of the age of pu- 
berty (puberes), and also in the presence of 
another person of the same status, who holds 
a pair of brazen scales, and hence is called 
Libripens. The purchaser {qui mancipio acci- 
pit), taking hold of the thing, says: I affirm 
that this slave (homo) is mine Ex Jure Quiri- 



210 



MANUMISSIO. 



tium, and he is purchased by me with this 
piece of money (aes) and brazen scales. He 
then strikes the scales with the piece of 
money, and gives it to the seller as a symbol 
of the price (quasi pretii loco)." This mode of 
transfer applied to all free persons or slaves, 
animals or lands, all of which persons and 
things were called Res Mancipi ; other things 
were called Nee Mancipi. Lands (praedia) 
might be thus transferred, though the parties 
to the mancipatio were not on the lands ; but 
all other things, which were objects of man- 
cipatio, were only transferable in the pre- 
sence of the parties, because corporeal appre- 
hension was a necessary part of the ceremony. 
The party who transferred the ownership of a 
thing pursuant to these forms was said man- 
cipio dare ; he who thus acquired the owner- 
ship was said mancipio accipere. The verb man- 
cipare is sometimes used as equivalent to man- 
cipio dare. 

Mancipium may be used as equivalent to 
complete ownership, and may thus be opposed 
to usus and tofructus. Sometimes the word 
mancipium signifies a slave, as being one of 
the res manr.ipi. 

MANDA'TUM, often signifies a command 
from a superior to an inferior. Under the em- 
pire the mandata principum were the com- 
mands and instructions given to governors of 
provinces and others. 

MANI'PULUS. [EXERCITUS, p. 146.] 

MANU'BIAE. [SPOLIA.] 

MANUMI'SSIO was the form by which 
slaves were released from slavery. There 
were three modes by which this was effected, 
namely, Vindicta, Census, and Testamentum. 
Of these the manumissio by vindicta is pro- 
bably the oldest, and perhaps was once the 
only mode of manumission. It is mentioned 
by Livy as in use at an early period ; and, in- 
deed, he states that some persons refer the 
origin of the vindicta to the event which he 
relates, and derive its name from Vindicius ; 
the latter part, at least, of the supposition is 
of no value. 

The ceremony of the manumissio by the 
vindicta was as follows: The master brought 
his slave before the magistratus, and stated 
the grounds (causa) of the intended manumis- 
sion. The lictor of the magistratus laid a rod 
(festuca) on the head of the slave, accom- 
panied with certain formal words, in which 
lie declared that he was a free man ex jure 
quiritium, that is, vindicavit in libertatem. The 
master in the meantime held the slave, and 
after he had pronounced the words kunc homi- 
nem liberum volo, he turned him round and let 
hi in go (emisitemanu), whence the general name 
of the act of manumission. The word vindicta 



MATRALIA. 

itself, which is properly the res vindicata, is 
used for festuca by Horace. 

In the case of the census the slave was 
registered by the censors as a citizen with his 
master's consent. The third mode of manu- 
mission was, when a master gave liberty to a 
slave by his will (testamentum). 

The act of manumission established the re- 
lation of patronus and libertus between the 
manumissor and the manumitted. When 
manumitted by a citizen, the libertus took the 
praenornen and the gentile name of the manu- 
missor, and became in a sense a member of 
the gens of his patron. To these two names 
he added some other name as a cognomen, 
either some name by which he was previously 
known, or some name assumed on the occa- 
sion : thus we find the names M.Tullius Tiro, 
P. Terentius Afer, and other like names. The 
relation between a patronus and libertus is 
stated under PATRONUS. 

Before the year B.C. 311, the Hbertini had 
not the suffragium, but in that year the cen- 
sor Appius Claudius gave the libertini a place 
in the tribes, and from this time the libertini 
had the suffragium after they were duly ad- 
mitted on the censors' roll. In the year B. c. 
304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae, 
and not allowed to perform military service. 
In the censorship of Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 
169, they were placed in one of the tribus ur- 
banae, determined by lot. Subsequently, by 
a law of Aemilius Scaurus, about B. c. 116, 
they were restored to the four city tribes, and 
this remained their condition to the end of the 
republic, though various attempts were made 
to give them a better suffrage. 

A tax was levied on manumission by a lex 
Manlia, B c. 357 : it consisted of the twen- 
tieth part of the value of the slave, hence 
called Vicesima. 

MANUS FERREA. [HARPAGO.] 
MARRIAGE. [MATRIMONIUM.] 
MARSUT1UM (ftapavTTiov, (3a9iuvTiov^, 
a purse. The purse used 
by the ancients was com- 
monly a small leathern 
bag, and was often closed 
by being drawn together 
at the mouth. Mercury 
is commonly represented 
holding one in his hand, 
of which the annexed 
woodcut from an intaglio 
in the Stosch collection 
at Berlin presents an ex 
ample. 

MATERFAMI'LIAS. [MATRIMOMUM, 
p. 212.] 

MATRA'LIA, a festival celebrated at Rome 




supium, Purse. 



MATRIMONiUM. 



211 



every year on the llth of June, in honour of the 
goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood 
in the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated 
only by Roman matrons, and the sacrifices 
offered to the goddess consisted of cakes 
baked in pots of earthenware. Slaves were 
not allowed to take part in the solemnities, or 
to enter the temple of the goddess. One slave, 
however, was admitted by the matrons, but 
only to be exposed to a humiliating treatment, 
for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the 
cheek, and then sent her away from the tem- 
ple. The matrons on this occasion took with 
them the children of their sisters, but not 
their own, held them in their arms, and prayed 
for their welfare. 

MATRON A'LIA, a festival celebrated on 
the Kalends of March in honour of Juno Lu- 
cina. Hence Horace says, " Martiis caelebs 
quid agam Kalendis." 

MATRIMO'NIUM, NU'PTIAE, (ya/iof), 
marriage. 1. GREEK. The ancient Greek 
legislators considered the relation of marriage 
as a matter not merely of private, but also of 
public or general interest. This was particu- 
larly the case at Sparta, where proceedings 
might be taken against those who married too 
late or unsuitably, as well as against those 
who did not marry at all. 

But independent of public considerations, 
there were also private or personal reasons, 
peculiar to the ancients, which made marriage 
an obligation. One of these was the duty in- 
cumbent upon every individual to provide for 
a continuance of representatives to succeed 
himself as ministers of the Divinity ; and an- 
other was the desire felt by almost every one, 
not merely to perpetuate his own name, but 
to leave some one who might make the cus- 
tomary offerings at his grave. We are told 
that with this view childless persons some- 
times adopted children. 

The choice of a wife among the ancients 
was but rarely grounded upon affection, and 
scarcely ever "could have been the result of 
previous acquaintance or familiarity. In many 
cases a father chose for his son a bride whom 
the latter had never seen, or compelled him 
to marry for the sake of checking his extra- 
vagances. 

By the Athenian laws a citizen was not 
allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor 
conversely, under very severe penalties, but 
proximity by blood (uy^ore/a), or consan- 
guinity (avyyeveia), was not, with some few 
exceptions, a bar to marriage in any part of 
Greece ; direct lineal descent was. 

At Athens the most important preliminary 
to marriage was the betrothal (i-yyvqaig), 
which was in fact indispensable to the com- 



plete validity of a marriage contract. It was 
made by the natural or legal guardian (6 KV- 
piOf ) of the bride elect, and attended by the 
relatives of both parties as witnesses. The 
wife's dowry was settled at the betrothal. 

On the day before the gamos, or marriage, 
or sometimes on the day itself, certain sacri- 
fices or offerings (Trpore/ieia ya/tzwv or vrpo- 
vdfieia) were made to the gods who presided 
over marriage. Another ceremony of almost 
general observance on the wedding day, was 
the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom 
in water fetched from some particular fount- 
ain, whence, as some think, the custom of 
placing the figure of a /Iovrpo06pof or " water 
carrier" over the tombs of those who died 
unmarried. After these preliminaries, the 
bride was generally conducted from her 
father's to the house of the bridegroom at 
nightfall, in a chariot (i<j>' ufj.d^ij^) drawn by a 
pair of mules or oxen, and furnished with a 
kind of couch (ufavif) as a seat. On either 
side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his 
most intimate friends or relations, who from 
his office was called the paranymph (Trapu- 
w/z0of or vvfj.(j)VT7j^) ; but as he rode in the 
carriage (o^rj/^a) with the bride and bride- 
groom, he was sometimes called the Trapo^of. 

The nuptial procession was probably accom- 
panied, according to circumstances, by a num- 
ber of persons, some of whom carried the nup- 
tial torches. Both bride and bridegroom (the 
former veiled) were decked out in their best 
attire, with chaplets on their heads, and the 
doors of their houses were hung with festoons 
of ivy and bay. As the bridal procession 
moved along, the hymenaean song was sung 
to the accompaniment of Lydian flutes, even 
in olden times, as beautifully described by 
Homer, and the married pair received the 
greetings and congratulations of those who 
met them. After entering the bridegroom's 
house, into which the bride was probably con- 
ducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, 
it was customary to shower sweetmeats upon 
them (Karaxvatiara), as emblems of plenty 
and prosperity. 

After this came the nuptial feast, to which 
the name gamos was particularly applied ; it 
was generally given in the house of the bride- 
groom or his parents ; and besides being a 
festive meeting, served other and more import- 
ant purposes. There was no public rite, 
whether civil or religious, connected with the 
celebration of marriage amongst the ancient 
Greeks, and therefore no public record of its 
solemnization. This deficiency then was 
supplied bythe marriage feast, for the guests 
were of course competent to prove the fact of 
a marriage having taken place. To this feast, 



212 



MATRIMONIUM. 



contrary to the usual practice amongst the | 
Greeks, women were invited as well as men ; 
but they seem to have sat at a separate table, 
with the bride still veiled amongst them. At 
the conclusion of this feast, she was conduct- 
ed by her husband into the bridal chamber ; 
and .a law of Solon required that on entering 
it they should eat a quince together, as if to 
indicate that their conversation ought to be 
sweet and agreeable. The song called the 
Epithalamium was then sung before the doors 
of the bridal chamber. 

The day after the marriage, the first of the 
bride's residence in her new abode, was called 
the epaulia (iiravTua) ; on which their friends 
sent the customary presents to the newly 
married couple. On another day, the apaulia 
(iinavTiLa), perhaps the second after marriage, 
the bridegroom left his house, to lodge apart 
from his wife at his father's-in-law. Some of 
the presents made to the bride by her husband 
and friends were called anacalypteria (uyana- 
hvTTTjjpia), as being given on the occasion of 
the bride first appearing unveiled : they were 
probably given on the epaulia, or day after the 
marriage. Another ceremony observed after 
marriage was the sacrifice which the husband 
offered up on the occasion of his bride being 
registered amongst his own phratores. 

The above account refers to Athenian cus- 
toms. At Sparta the betrothal of the bride by 
her father or guardian (K.vpLo<;} was requisite 
as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at 
Athens. Another custom "peculiar to the 
Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was 
the seizure of the bride by her intended hus- 
band, but of course with the sanction of her 
parents or guardians. She was not, however, 
immediately domiciled in her husband's house, 
but cohabited with him for some time clandes- 
tinely, till he brought her, and frequently her 
mother also, to his home. 

The Greeks, generally speaking, enter- 
tained little regard for the female character. 
They considered women, in fact, as decidedly 
inferior to men, qualified to discharge only the 
subordinate functions in life, and rather ne- 
cessary as helpmates than agreeable as com- 
panions. To these notions female education 
for the most part corresponded, and in fact 
confirmed them ; it did not supply the elegant 
accomplishment and refinement of manners 
which permanently engage the affections 
when other attractions have passed away. 
Aristotle states, that the relation of man to 
woman is that of the governor to the subject; 
and Plato, that a woman's virtue may be sum- 
med up in a few words, for she has only to 
manage the house well, keeping what there 
is in it, and obeying her husband. Among the 



Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta, 
women enjoyed much more estimation than 
in the rest of Greece. 

2. ROMAN. A legal Roman marriage was 
called justae nuptiae, justum malrimonium, as 
being conformable to jus (civile) or to law. A 
legal marriage was either Cum conventions ux- 
oris in manum viri, or it was without this con 
ventio. But both forms of marriage agreed in 
this : there must be connubiurn between the 
parties, and consent. The legal consequences 
as to the power of the father over his children 
were the same in both. 

Connubium is merely a term which compre- 
hends all the conditions of a legal marriage. 
Generally it may be stated, that there was 
only connubium between Roman citizens ; the 
cases in which it at any time existed between 
parties not both Roman citizens, were excep- 
tions to the general rule. Originally, or at 
least at one period of the republic, there was 
no connubium between the patricians and the 
plebeians ; but this was altered by the Lex 
Canuleia (B.C. 445), which allowed connubi- 
um between persons of those two classes. 

There were various degrees of consanguin- 
ity and affinity, within which there was no 
connubium. 

An illegal union of a male and female, 
though affecting to be, was not a marriage : 
the man had no legal wife, and the children 
had no legal father: consequently they were 
not in the power of their reputed father. 

The marriage Cum conventione differed from 
that Sine conventione, in the relationship which 
it effected between the husband and the wife ; 
the marriage cum conventione was a necessary 
condition to make a woman a mater familias. 
By the marriage cum conventione, the wife 
passed into the familia of her husband, and 
was to him in the relation of a daughter, or, 
as it was expressed, in manum convenit. In 
the marriage sine conventione, the wife's re- 
lation to her own familia remained as before, 
and she was merely uxor. " Uxor" says Cice- 
ro, "is a genus of which there are two spe- 
cies ; one is rnaterfamilias, ouae in manum con~ 
vcnit ; the other is uxor only." Accordingly, 
a materfamilias is a wife who is in Manu, and 
in the familia of her husband. A wife not in 
manu was not a member of her husband's fa- 
milia, and therefore the term could not apply 
to her. Matrons, was properly a wife not in 
manu, and equivalent to uxor ; and she was 
called matrona before she had any children. 
But these words are not always used in thesf 1 
their original and proper meanings. 

It does not appear that any forms were re- 
quisite in the marriage sine conventione ; and 
apparently the evidence of such marriage was 



MATR1MONIUM. 



cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matri- 
rnonh causa might be proved by various kinds 
of evidence. 

In the case of a marriage cum conventione, 
there were three forms: 1. Usus, 2. Farretun, 
and 3. Coemptio. 

1. Marriage was effected by usus, if a woman 
lived with a man for a whole year as his wife ; 
and this was by analogy to usucaption of 
movables generally, in which usus for one 
year gave ownership. The law of the Twelve 
Tables provided that if a woman did not wish 
to come into the rnanus of her husband in 
this manner, she should absent herself from 
him annually for three nights (trinoctium) and 
so break the usus of the year. 

2. Farreum was a form of marriage, in which 
certain words were used in the presence of 
ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a 
certain religious ceremony, in which panis 
farreus was employed ; and hence this form 
of marriage was also called confarreatio. It 
appears that certain priestly offices such as 
that of Flamen Dialis, could only be held by 
those who were bora of parents who had been 
married by this ceremony (confarrealiparentes). 

3. Coemptio was effected by mancipatio, 
and consequently the wife was in mancipio. 
[MANCIPIUM.] A woman who was cohabit- 
ing with a man as uxor, might come into his 
manus by this ceremony, in which case the 
coernptio was said to be matrimonii causa, 
and she who was formerly uxor became apud 
maritum filiae loco. 

Sponsalia were not an unusual preliminary 
of marriage, but they were not necessary. 
The sponsalia were an agreement to marry, 
made in such form as to give each party a 
right of action in case of non-performance, 
and the offending party was condemned in 
such damages as to the judex seemed just. 
The woman who was promised in marriage 
was accordingly called sponsa, which is equi- 
valent to promissa; the man who was en- 
gaged to marry was called sponsus. The spon- 
salia were of course not binding, if the par- 
ties consented to waive the contract. Some- 
times a present was made by the future hus- 
band to the future wife by way of earnest 
(arrha, arrha sponsalitia), or, as it was called, 
propter nuptias donatio. 

The consequences of marriage were 

1. The power of the father over the chil- 
dren of the marriage, which was a completely 
new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, 
but cue which had no influence over the re- 
lation of tne husband and wife. [PATRIA Po- 
TESTAS.] 

2. The liabilities of either of the parties to 
tho punishments affixed to the violation of 



the marriage union. [ADULTERIUM; DIVOR- 

TIUM.J 

3. The relation of husband and wife with 
respect to property. [Dos.] 

When marriage was dissolved, the parties 
to it might marry again ; but opinion con- 
sidered it more decent for a woman not to 
marry again. A woman was required by 
usage (mos) to wait a year before she con- 
tracted a second marriage, on the pain of 
infamia. 

It remains to describe the customs and 
rites which were observed by the Romans 
at marriages. After the parties had agreed 
to marry and the persons in whose potestas 
they were had consented, a meeting of 
friends was sometimes held at the house of 
the maiden for the purpose of settling the 
marriage-contract, which .was written on 
tablets, and signed by both parties. The 
woman after she had promised to become 
the wife of a man was called sponsa, pacta, 
dicta, or sperata. It appears that, at least 
during the imperial period, the man put a 
ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge 
of his fidelity. This ring was probably, like 
all rings at this time, worn on the left hand, 
and on the finger nearest to the smallest. 
The last point to be fixed was the day on 
which the marriage was to take place. 

The Romans believed that certain days 
were unfortunate for the performance of the 
marriage rites, either on account of the reli- 
gious character of those days themselves, 
or on account of the days by which they 
were followed, as the woman had to perform 
certain religious rites on the day after her 
wedding, which could not take place on a 
dies ater. Days not suitable for entering 
upon matrimony were the calends, nones, and 
ides of every month, all dies atri, the whole 
months of May and February, and a great 
number of festivals. 

On the wedding-day, which in the early 
times was never fixed upon without consult- 
ing the auspices, the bride was dressed in a 
long white robe with a pu rple fringe, or adorned 
with ribands. This dress was called tunica 
recta, and was bound round the waist with a 
girdle (corona, cingulum, or zona), which the 
husband had to untie in the evening. The 
bridal veil, called flammeum, was of a bright 
yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her 
hair was divided on this occasion with tne 
point of a spear. 

The bride was conducted to the house of 
her husband in the evening. She was taken 
with apparent violence from the arms of her 
mother, or of the person who had to give her 
away. On her way she was accompanied 



214 



MATRIMONIUM. 



by three boys dressed in the praetexta, and 
whose fathers and mothers were still alive 
(patrimmet matrimi). One of them carried 
before her a torch of white thorn (spina), or, 
according to others, of pine wood ; the two 
others walked by her side, supporting her by 
the arm. The bride herself carried a distaff 
and a spindle, with wool. A boy called 
camillus carried in a covered vase (cumera, 
cumerum, or camillum) the so-called utensils 
of the bride and playthings for children (cre- 
pundia). Besides these persons who officiated 
on the occasion, the, procession was attended 
by a numerous train of friends, both of the 
bride and the bridegroom. 

When the procession arrived at the house 
of the bridegroom, the door of which was 
adorned with garlands and flowers, the bride 
was carried across the threshold by pronubi, 
i. e. men who had 'been married to only one 
woman, that she might not knock against it 
with her foot, which would have been an evil 
omen. Before she entered the house, she 
wound wool around the door-posts of her new 
residence, and anointed them with lard (adeps 
suillus) or wolfs fat (adeps lupinus}. The 
husband received her with fire and w.ater, 
which the woman had to touch. This was 
either a symbolic purification, or a symbolic 
expression of welcome, as the interdicere 
aqua et igni was the formula for banishment. 
The bride saluted her husband with the 
words : ubi tu Cam.?, ego Caia. After she 
had entered the house with distaff and spin- 
dle, she was placed upon a sheep-skin, and 
here the keys of the house were delivered 
into her hands. A repast, (coena nuptialis) 
given by the husband to the whole train of 
relatives and friends who accompanied the 
bride, generally concluded the solemnity of 
the day. Many ancient writers mention a 
very popular song, Talasius or Talassio, which 
was sung at weddings ; but whether it was 
sung during the repast or during the proces- 
sion is not quite clear, though we may infer 
from the story respecting the origin of the 
song, that it was sung whilst the procession 
was advancing towards the house of the hus- 
band. 

It may easily be imagined that a solemnity 
like that of marriage did not take place among 
the merry and humorous Italians without 
variety of jests and railleries, and Ovid men- 
tions obscene songs which were sung before 
the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after 
the company had left. These songs were 
probably the old Fescennina [FESCENNINA], 
and are frequently called Epithalamia. At 
the end of the repast the bride was conducted 
by matrons who had not had more than one 



husband (pranubae}, to the lectus genialis in 
the atrium, which was on this occasion mag- 
nificently pdorned and strewed with flowers. 
On the following day the husband sometimes 
gave another entertainment to his friends, 
which was called rupotia, and the woman, 
who on this day undertook the management 
of the house of her husband, had to perform 
certain religious rites ; on which account, as 
was observed above, it was necessary to select 
a day for the marriage which was not followed 
by a dies ater. These rites probably consisted 
of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. 

The position of a Roman woman after 
marriage was very different from that of a 
Greek woman. The Roman presided over the 
whole household ; she educated her children, 
watched over and preserved the honour of the 
house, and as the materfamilias she shared 
the honours and respect shown to her hus- 
band. Far from being confined like the Greek 
women to a distinct apartment, the Roman 
matron, at least during the better centuries 
of the republic, occupied the most important 
part of the house, the atrium. 

MASKS. [PERSONA.] 

MAUSOLE'UM. [FUNUS, p. 163.] 

MASTS OF SHIPS. [ANTENNA; NA- 
vis.] 

MEALS, Greek, [DEIPNON] ; Roman, 

[COENA.] 

MEASURES of length [PES; JUGERUM] ; 
of capacity, [METRETES; MEUIMNUS ; Mo- 
DIUS ; SEXTARIUS.] 

MEDIMNUS (ue&pof). the principal dry 
measure of the Greeks. It was used espe- 
cially for measuring corn. The Attic medim- 
nus was equal to six Roman modii. 

The medimnus contained 11 galls. 7.1456 
pints, Eng. It was divided into the following 
parts : 



6 EKTOi 

12 

48 

96 

192 

of which 



each = 



Gulls. 

1 



Pta. 

7.8576 
7.9288 
1.9822 
.9911 
.4955 

, Zsartjc, and korvfoi, and 
their further 'subdivisions, were common to 
the dry and fluid measures, but the roZVff was 
of different sizes. [METRETES ; CHOENIX ; 
XESTES ; COTYLA.] 

MEGALF/SIA, MEGALF/NSIA, orME- 
GALENSES LUDf. a festival with games, 
celebrated at Rome in the month of April and 
in honour of the great mother of the gods 
(Cybele. jueydliT} #<?% whence the festival de- 
rived its name). The statue of the goddess 
was brought to Rome from Pessinus in B. c. 
203, and the day of its arrival was solemnized 



MENSA. 

with a magnificent procession, lectisternia, 
and games, and great numbers of people car- 
ried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. 
The regular celebration of the Megalesia, 
however, did not begin till twelve years later 
(B. c. 191), when the temple, which had been 
vowed and ordered to be built in B. c. 203, was 
completed and dedicated by M. Junius Brutus. 
The festival lasted for six days, beginning on 
the 4th of April. The season of this festival, 
like that of the whole month in which it took 
place, was full of general rejoicings and feast- 
ing. It was customary for the wealthy Ro- 
mans on this occasion to invite one another 
mutually to their repasts. 

The games which were held at the Mega- 
lesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. 
They were at first held on the Palatine, in 
front of the temple of the goddess, but after- 
wards also in the theatres. The day which 
was especially set apart for the performance 
of scenic plays was the third of the festival. 
Slaves were not permitted to be present at the 
games, and the magistrates appeared dressed 
in a purple toga and praetexta, whence the 
proverb, purpura Megahnsis. The games were 
under the superintendence of the curule 
aediles, and we know that four of the extant 
plays of Terence were performed at the Me- 
galesia. 

MEMBRA'NA. [LIBER.] 

MENSA (rpaTreCo), a table. The simplest 
kind of table was a round one with three legs, 
called in Greek Tpirrov^. It is shown in the 
drinking scene painted on the wall of a wine 
shop at Pompeii, and is represented in the 
annexed woodcut. Tables, however, must 



METc 



215 




i, Table. 

\T<\>:\ My hnv-' h:rl (our logs, as the etymology 
of T;>ti.-f\a, 'he common word for table, indi- 
cates. For the houses of the opulent, tables 
were made of the most valuable and beautiful 
kinds of wood, especially of maple, or of the 
citrus of Africa, which was a species of cy- 
press or juniper. 

As the table was not large, it was usual to 
I lace the dishes and the various kinds of meat 



upon it, and then to bring U thus furnished 
to the place where the guests v ->re reclining 
On many occasions, indeed, each guest either 
had a small table to himself, or the company 
was divided into parties of two or three, with 
a separate table for each party, as is distinctly 
represented in the cut under SYMPOSIUM. 
Hence we have such phrases as mensam ap- 
ponere or opponere, and mensam auferre or re- 
movere. 

The two principal courses of a deipnon and 
coena, or a Greek and Roman dinner, were 
called respectively Trpurri Tpuirefc, dwrepa 
TpaTTZ^a,, and mensa prima, mensa secunda. 
[COENA; DEIPNON.] 

MENSA'RII, MENSULA'RU,orNUMU- 
LA'RII, a kind of public bankers at Rome 
who were appointed by the state ; they were 
distinct from the argentarii, who were com- 
mon bankers, and did business on their own 
account. [ARGENTARII.] The mensarii had 
their tables or banks (mensae) like ordinary 
hankers, in the forum, and in the name of the 
aerarium they offered ready money to debtors 
who could give security to the state for it. 
Such an expediency was devised by the state 
only in times of great distress. The first time 
that mensarii (quinqueviri mensarii) were ap- 
pointed was in B. c. 352, at the time when 
the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, 
that they were obliged to borrow money from 
new creditors in order to pay the old ones, 
and thus ruined themselves completely. On 
this occasion they were also authorized to or- 
dain that cattle or land should be received as 
payment at a fair valuation. With the ex- 
ception of this first time, they appear during 
the time of the republic to have always been 
triumviri mensarii. One class of mensarii, how- 
ever, (perhaps an inferior order), the mensula- 
rii or numularii, seem to have been perma- 
nently employed by the state, and these must 
be meant when we read, that not only the 
aerarium but also private individuals, deposi- 
ted in their hands sums of money which they 
had to (dispose of. 

MENSIS. [CALENDARIUM.] 

MERENDA. [COENA.] 

METAE. [CIRCUS, p . 80.] 

METALLUM. [VECTIGALIA.] 

METOiCI (iiEToiKoi), the name by which, 
at Athens and in other Greek states, the resi- 
dent aliens were designated. They must be 
distinguished from such strangers as made 
only a transitory stay in a place, for it was a 
characteristic of a metoicus. that he resided 
permanently in the city. No city of Greece 
perhaps had such a number of resident aliens 
as Athens, since none afforded to strangers 
so many facilities for carrying on mercantile 



216 



METOICi. 



business or a more agreeable mode of living 
In the census instituted by Demetrius Pha- 
lareus (B. c. 309), the number of resident aliens 
at Athens was 10.000, in which number wo- 
men and children were probably not included. 
The jealousy with which the citizens of the 
ancient Greek republics kept their body clear 
of intruders, is also manifested in their regu- 
lations concerning aliens. However long they 
might have resided in Athens, they were al- 
ways regarded as strangers, whence they are 
sometimes called gevoi, and to remind them 
of their position, they had on some occasions 
to perform certain degrading services for the 
Athenian citizens [HYDRIAPHORIA]. These 
services were, however, in all probability not 
intended to hurt the feelings of the aliens, but 
were simply acts symbolical of their relation 
to the citizens. 

Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed 
property in the state they had chosen for their 
residence, and were consequently obliged to 
live in hired houses or apartments. As they 
did not constitute a part of the state, and were 
yet in constant intercourse and commerce 
with its members, every alien was obliged to 
select a citizen for his patron (Trpoorar^c), 
who was not only the mediator between them 
and the state, through whom alone they could 
transact any legal business, whether private 
or public, but was at the same time answer- 
able (kyyvTjTrjs} to the state for the conduct 
of his client. On the other hand, however, 
the state allowed the aliens to carry on all 
kinds of industry and commerce under the 
protection of the law ; in fact, at Athens nearly 
all business was in the hands of aliens, who 
on this account lived for the most part in the 
Peiraeeus. 

Each family of aliens, whether they availed 
themselves of the privilege of carrying on any 
mercantile business or not, had to pay an 
annual tax (HETOLKIOV or ZEVIKO) of twelve 
drachmae, or if the head of the family was a 
widow, of only six drachmae. If aliens did 
not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right 
of citizens, and probably also in case they re- 
fused to select a patron, they not only forfeit- 
ed the protection of the state, but were sold 
as slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies 
(elc(j)opai and feiTovpyiai) devolved upon 
aliens no less than upon citizens. The aliens 
were also obliged, like citizens, to serve in the 
regular armies and in the fleet, both abroad 
and at home, for the defence of the city. 
Those aliens who were exempt from the bur- 
thens peculiar to their class were called iso- 
ttles (iaore/lfcic). They had not to pay the /j.e- 
roiKiov (uTeAeta fj.TotKiQv), were not obliged 
to choose a 7rpo<7re2rj?f , and in fact enjoyed 



MIMUS. 

all tne rights of citizens, except those of a 
political nature. Their condition was termed 
IffOTtfaia, and laoTrolureia. 

METRE'TES 0/erp7/r W ), the principal 
Greek liquid measure. The Attic metretes 
was equal in capacity to the amphora, con- 
taining 8 galls. 7.365 pints, English. [AM- 
PHORA.] It was divided into 

Galls. 



12 

48 xovuces 
72 
144 



each = 



Pts. 

7.577 
5.9471 
1.4867 
.99H 
.4955 
[SeeCnous; CHOEMX; XESTES; COTYLA.] 

METRO'POLIS. [COLONIA, p. 100.] 

MILIA'RE, MILLJA'RIUM, or MILLE 
PASSUUM (fiihiov), the Roman mile, con- 
sisted of 1000 paces (passus) of 5 feet each, 
and was therefore = 5000 feet. Taking the 
Roman foot at 11.6496 English inches [Pes], 
the Roman mile would be 1618 English yards, 
or 142 yards less than the English statute 
mile. The most common term for the mile 
is mille passuum, or only the initials M. P. ; 
sometimes the word passuum is omitted. The 
Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia. 

The mile-stones along the Roman roads 
were called milliaria. They were also called 
lapides ; thus we have ad tertium lapidem (or 
without the word lapidem) for 3 miles from 
Rome. Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the 
Forum, where the principal roads terminated, 
which was called milliarium aureum ; but the 
miles were not reckoned from it, but from the 
ijates of the city. Such central marks appear 
to have been common in the principal cities 
of the Roman empire. The "London stone" 
'n Cannon-street is supposed to have marked 
the centre of the Roman roads in Britain. 

MIMUS (//moo), the name by which, in 
Greece and at Rome, a species of the drama 
was designated, though the Roman mimus 
differed essentially from the Greek. 

The Greek mimus seems to have originated 
among the Greeks of Sicily and southern 
[taly, and to have consisted originally of ex- 
.emporary representations or imitations of 
ridiculous occurrences of common life at cer- 
;ain festivals. At a later period these rude 
representations acquired a more artistic form, 
which was brought to a high degree of per- 
fection by Sophron of Syracuse (about B.C. 
420). He wrote his pieces in the popular 
dialect of the Dorians and a kind of rhythmical 
prose. 

Among the Romans the word mimus was 
applied to a species of dramatic plays as well 
as to the persons who acted in them. It is 
certain that the Romans did not derive their 



MISSIO. 

mimus from the Greeks in southern Italy, 
but that it was of native growth. The Greek 
mimes were written in prose, and the name 
IJ.ifj.oq was never applied to an actor, but if 
used of a person it signified one who made 
grimaces. The Roman mimes were imita- 
tions of foolish and mostly indecent occur- 
rences, and scarcely differed from comedy 
except in consisting more of gestures and 
mimicry than of spoken dialogue. At Rome 
such mimes seem originally to have been ex- 
hibited at funerals, where one or more per- 
sons (mimi) represented in a burlesque man- 
ner the life of the deceased. If there were 
several rnimi, one of them, or their leader, 
was called archimimus. 

These coarse and indecent performances 
had greater charms for the Romans than the 
regular drama. They were performed on the 
stage as farces after tragedies, and during 
the empire they gradually supplanted the 
place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to 
the actors in these mimes, to wear neither 
masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus.whence 
they are sometimes called planioedes. 

MINA. [TALENTUM.] 

MINES. [VECTIGALIA.] 

MINOR. [CURATOR ; INFANS.] 

MINT. [MONETA.] 

MIRMILLO'NES. [GLADIATORES 

MI'SSIO, the technical term used by the 
Romans to express the dismissal of soldiers 
from service in the army. There were three 
kinds of missio : 1. Missio honesta, which 
was given to soldiers who had served the le- 
gitimate number of years ; 2. Missio causaria, 
which was granted to soldiers who could no 
longer bear the fatigue of military service on 
account of ill health ; and 3. Missio ignomini- 
osa, by which a man was excluded from the 
service in the army for crime or other bad 
conduct. 

As regards the missio honesta, it was granted | 
by the law to every soldier who had attained | 
the age of 46, or, who had taken part in 20 I 
campaigns, and to every horseman who had I 
served in ten campaigns. The legitimate ! 
time of service was called legitima stipendia. 

The missio ignorniniosa or cum ignominia was 
inflicted as a punishment not only upon indi- 
viduals, but upon whole divisions and even 
whole legions of an army, and it might be ap- 
plied to the highest officers no less than to 
common soldiers. In dismissing soldiers for 
bad conduct, it was generally expressed that 
they were sent away cum ignominia, but some- 
times the ignorninia was not expressly men- 
tioned, though it was understood as a matter 
of course. 

In all cases of missio it was necessary to 
T 



MONETA. 



2i 



release the soldiers from the military oath (sa 
cramenturn) which they had taken on entering 
the service. The act was called exauctoratio. 
During the time of the republic and the earlier 
part of the empire, the word exauctorare sim- 
ply signified to release from the military oath, 
without implying that this was done curn ig- 
nominia; but during the latter period of the 
empire, it is almost exclusively applied to sol- 
diers dismissed cum ignominia. 
MISSIO. [GLADIATORES, p. 167.] 
MiTRA, (/ztrpa). 1. An eastern head- 
dress, sometimes spoken of as characteristic 




Mitrae, Female Head-Dresses. 

of the Phrygians. It was also the name of 
a head-band or head-dress worn by Greek 
women, which was made of close materials. 
It must be distinguished from the KEKpv<j)a?iO, 
or reticulum, made of net. [RETICULUM.] 2. 
A belt. [ZoNA.] 

MO'DIUS, the principal dry measure of the 
Romans, was equal to one-third of the am- 
phora, and therefore contained one gall. 7.8576 
pints English. It was divided into 

Pints. 

2 semimodii, or semodii, each = 7.9288 
16 sextarii , .9911 



32 herninae 

64 quartarii , 

128 acetabula 

192 cyathi . . 

768 lingulae 



4955 
.2477 
.1238 
.0825 
.0206 

The modius was one-sixth of the medim 
as. 

MONE'TA, the mint, or the place where 



218 



MONILE. 



money was coined. The mint of Rome was 
a building on the Capitoline, and attached to 
the temple of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium 
was to the temple of Saturn. The officers 
who had the superintendence of the mint 
were the Triumviri Monetales, who were perhaps 
first appointed about B.C. 269. Under the repub- 
lic, the coining of money was not a privilege 
which belonged exclusively to the state. The 
coins struck in the time of the republic mostly 
bear the names of private individuals; and it 
would seem that every Roman citizen had the 
right of having his own gold and silver coined 
in the public mint, and under the superin- 
tendence of its officers. Still no one till the 
time of the empire had the right of putting his 
own image upon a coin : Julius Caesar was 
the first to whom this privilege was granted. 
MONEY. [AES; ARGENTUM ; AURUM.] 
MONI'LE (op/zoc), a necklace. Necklaces 
were worn by both sexes among the most 
polished of those nations which the Greeks 
called barbarous, especially the Indians, the 
Egyptians, and the Persians. Greek and Ro- 
man females adopted them more particularly as 
abridal ornament. They were of various forms, 
as may be seen by the following specimens : 





Monilia, Necklaces. 



HYSTERIA. 

MONTHS. [CALENDARIUM.] 
MONUMENTUM. [FUNUS, p. 159.] 
MOSAICS. [DOMUS, p. 127.] 
MOURNING for the dead. JFuNus.J 
MULSUM. [VINUM.] . 
MUN ERA'TOR. [GLADIATOHES.] 
MU'NICEPS, MUNICIPIUM. [COLO- 

NIA ; FOEDERATAE ClVITATES.] 
MUNUS. [HONORES.] 
MUNUS. [GLADIATORES.] 

MURA'LIS CORONA. [CORONA.] 

MU'SCULUS was a kind of vinea, one of 
the smaller military machines, by which the 
besiegers of a town were protected. 

MUSE'UM (povaziov), the name of an in- 
stitution founded by Ptolemy Philadelphia, 
about B. c. 280, for the promotion of learning 
and the support of learned men. The museum 
formed part of the palace, and contained clois- 
ters or porticoes (TrepiTruroc), a public theatre 
or lecture-room (effjpa), and a large hall 
(OIKOC //eyaf), where the learned men dined 
together. The museum was supported by a 
common fund, supplied apparently from the 
public treasury ; and the whole institution 
was under the superintendence of a priest, 
who was appointed by the king, and after 
Egypt became a province of the Roman em- 
pire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoological 
gardens appear to have been attached to the 
museum. 

MYSTE'RIA. The names by which mys- 
teries or mystic festivals were designated in 
Greece, are /uvaTrjpia, TE Atrcu, or opym. The 
name opyia (from eopya) originally signified 
only sacrifices accompanied by certain cere- 
monies, but it was afterwards applied espe- 
cially to the ceremonies observed in the wor- 
ship of Bacchus, and at a still later period to 
mysteries in general. Te/ler^ signifies, in 
general, a religious festival, but more particu- 
larly a lustration or ceremony performed in 
order to avert some calamity, either public or 
private. M.var7Jptov signifies, properly speak- 
ing, the secret part of the worship, but it was 
also used in the same sense as re'AeTij, and for 
mystic worship in general. 

Mysteries in general maybe defined as sa- 
crifices and ceremonies which took place at 
night or in secret within some sanctuary, 
which the uninitiated were not allowed to 
enter. What was essential to them, were 
objects of worship, sacred utensils, and 
traditions with their interpretation, which 
were withheld from all persons not initi- 
ated. 

The most celebrated mysteries in Greece 
were those of Samothrace and E leu sis, which 
are described in separate articles. [CABEI- 
RIA ; ELEUSINIA.] 



NAUCRARIA. 

N. 

NAE'NIA. [FUNDS, p. 161.] 

NAMES. [NoMEN.] 

NATA'TIO, NATATO'RIUM. [BALNE- 
UM, p. 49.] 

NAVA'LIA. docks at Rome where ships 
were built, laid up, and refitted. They were 
attached to the emporium outside of the Porta 
Trigemina, and were connected with the Ti- 
ber. The emporium and navalia were first 
included within the walls of the city by 
Aurelian. 

The docks (veugoiKoi or veupta) in the Pei- 
raeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents, and having 
been destroyed in the anarchy by the contrac- 
tors foMhree talents, were again restored and 
finally completed by Lycurgus. They were 
under the superintendence of regular officers, 
called kTCLLLE^-nral rtiv veupiuv. 

NAVA'LIS CORO'NA. [CORONA.] 

NAVARCHUS (vavapxoe), the name by 
which the Greeks designated both the captain 
of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. 
The office itself was called vavapxia. The 
admiral of the Athenian fleet was always one 
of the ten generals (arparrfyoL) elected every 
year, and he had either the whole or the 
chief command of the fleet. The chief offi- 
cers who served under him were the trierarchs 
and the pentecontarchs, each of whom com- 
manded one vessel ; the inferior officers in 
the vessels were the Kvflepvrjrai or helmsmen, 
the Ks^evarai or commanders of the rowers, 
and the -rrpupdrai, who must have been em- 
ployed at the prow of the vessels. 

Other Greek states who kept a navy had 
likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral 
of the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and 
the second in command epistoleus (iTnaro^Evg.) 
The same person was not allowed to hold the 
office of navarchus two successive years at 
Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.] 

NAUCRA'RIA (vavKpapia), the name of a 
division of the inhabitants of Attica. The 
four ancient phylae were each divided into 
three phratries, and each of these twelve 
phratries into four naucraries, of which there 
were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries 
were previous to the legislation of Solon is 
not stated anywhere, but it is not improbable 
that they were political divisions similar to 
the denies in the constitution of Clisthenes, 
and were made perhaps at the time of the in- 
stitution of the nine archons, for the purpose 
of regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial 
and military affairs in general. At any rate, 
however, the naucraries before the time of 
Solon can have had no connection with the 
navy, for the Athenians then had no navy ; 



NAVIS. 



'219 



the word vavKpapo? therefore cannot be de- 
rived from vai>, ship, but must come from 
vaiu, and vavKpapoc is thus only another form 
! for vavK.2,r)po in the sense of a householder, 
as vavhoy was used for the rent of a house. 

Solon in his legislation retained the old in- 
stitution of the naucraries, and charged each 
i of them with the equipment of one trireme 
i and with the mounting of two horsemen. A1J 
military affairs, as far as regards the defray- 
ing of expenses, probably continued as before 
to be regulated according to naucraries. Cli- 
sthenes, in his change of the Solonian con- 
stitution, retained the division into naucraries 
for military and financial purposes ; but he 
increased their number to fifty, making five 
for each of his ten tribes ; so that now the 
number of their ships was increased from 
forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from 
ninety-six to one hundred The statement of 
Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war 
against Aegina had only fifty ships of their 
own, is thus perfectly in accordance with the 
fifty naucraries of Clisthenes. The func- 
tions of the former vavtcpapoi, or the heads of 
their respective naucraries, were now trans- 
ferred to the demarchs. [DEMARCHI.] The 
obligation of each naucrary to equip a ship of 
war for the service of the republic may be re- 
garded as the first form of trierarchy. As 
the system of trierarchy became developed 
and established, this obligation of the naucra- 
ries appears to have gradually ceased, and to 
have fallen into disuse. [TRIERARCHIA.] 

NAVIS, NAVI-GIUM (vavf, nholov), '< 
ship. 

The numerous fleet with which the Greeks 
sailed to the coast of Asia Minor in the Trojan 
war, must on the whole be regarded as suffi- 
cient evidence of the extent to which naviga- 
tion was carried on in those times, however 
much of the detail in the Homeric description 
may have arisen from the poet's own imagi- 
nation. In the Homeric catalogue it is stated 
that each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried 
120 warriors, and a ship which carried so 
many cannot have been of small dimensions. 
What Homer states of the Boeotian vessels 
applies more or less to the ships of other 
Greeks. These boats were provided with a 
mast U'oroc), which was fastened by two 
ropes (Trporovoi) to the two ends of the ship, 
so that when the rope connecting it with the 
prow broke, the mast would fall towards the 
stern, where it might kill the helmsman. 
The mast could be erected or taken down as 
necessity required. They also had sails (ia- 
ria), but only a half-deck. Each vessel, how- 
ever, appears to have had only one sail,which 
was used in favourable winds ; and the prin 



220 



NAVIS. 



cipal means of propelling the vessel lay in the 
v owers,who sat upon benches (/cAr/Ztfec). The 
oars were fastened to the side of the ship with 
leathern thongs, in which they were turned 
as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are 
mostly called black (/Li&aivat), probably be- 
cause they were painted or covered with a 
black substance, such as pitch, to protect the 
wood against the influence of the water and 
the air ; sometimes other colours, such as 
uiKroq, minium (a red colour), were used to 
adorn the sides of the ships near the prow, 
whence Homer occasionally calls ships jii\- 
TOTtupyoi, i.e. red-cheeked; they were also 
painted occasionally with a purple colour 
((poiviKOTrdpTioi). When the Greeks had land- 
ed on the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn 
on land, and fastened at the poop with a rope 
to large stones, which served as anchors [AN- 
CORA]. The Greeks then surrounded the 
fleet with a fortification, to secure it against 
the attacks of the enemy. The custom of 
drawing the ships upon the shore, when they 
were not used, was followed in later times 
also. Homer describes in a passage in the 
Odyssey the building of a boat. Ulysses 
first cuts down with his axe twenty trees, and 
prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting 
it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He 
then bores the holes for nails and hooks, and 
fits the planks together and fastens them with 
nails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like 
that of a broad transport vessel, and raises the 
bulwark (input), fitting it upon the numerous 
ribs of the ship. He afterwards covers the 
whole of the outside with planks, which are 
laid across the ribs from the keel upwards to 
the bulwark ; next the mast is made, and the 
sail-yard attached to it, and lastly the rudder. ' 
When the ship is thus far completed, he 
raises the bulwark still higher by wicker- 
work, which goes all around the vessel, as a 
protection against the waves. This raised 
bulwark of wicker-work and the like was used 
in later times also. For ballast Ulysses 
throws into the ship v/ljy, which, according to 
the Scholiast, consisted of wood, stones, and 
sand. Calypso then brings him materials to 
make a sail of, and he fastens the vxepai, or 
ropes which run from the top of the mast to 
the two ends of the yard, and also the KU^OI, 
with which the sail is drawn up or let down. 
The node? mentioned in this passage were 
undoubtedly, as in later times, the ropes at- 
tached to the two lower corners of the square- 
sail. The ship of which the building is thus 
described was a small boat, a a%e6ia as Ho- 
mer calls it ; but it had, like all the Homeric 
"hips, a round or flat bottom. Greater ships 
mist have been of a more complicated struc- 



ture, as ship-builders are praised as artists. 
A representation of two boats is given on 
p. 26, which appear to bear great resemblance 
to the one described above. 

The Corinthians were the first who brought 
the art of ship-building nearest to the point at 
which we find it in the time of Thucydides, 
and they were the first who introduced ships 
with three ranks of rowers (rpiypEtc, triremes). 
About B. c. 700. Ameinqcles, the Corinthian, 
to whom this invention is ascribed, made the 
Samians acquainted with it; but it must have 
been preceded by that of the biremes (diTfpeif), 
that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which 
Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans. These 
innovations, however, do not seem to have 
been generally adopted for a long time ; for 
we read that about the time of Cyrus (B.C. 
550), the Phocaeans introduced ships with 
long and sharp keels, called irevTTjKovropoi. 
These belonged to the class of long ships of 
war (VT) fiaKpai), and had fifty rowers, 
twenty-five on each side of the ship, who sat 
in one row. It is further stated, that before 
this time vessels called crpoyyvKai, with 
large round or rather flat bottoms, had been 
used exclusively by all the lonians in Asia. 
At this period most Greeks seem to have 
adopted the long ships with only one rank of 
rowers on each side ; their name varied ac- 
cordingly as they had fifty, or thirty (rpia- 
TOpotf, or even a smaller number ot 
rowers. 

The first Greek people who acquired a navy 
of importance were the Corinthians, Samians, 
and Phocaeans. About the time of Cyrus and 
Cambyses the Corinthian triremes were gen- 
erally adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by 
the Corcyraeans, who soon acquired the most 
powerful navies among the Greeks. In other 
parts of Greece, and even at Athens and in 
Aegina, the most common vessels about this 
time were long ships with only one rank of 
rowers. Athens, although the foundation of 
its maritime power had been laid by Solon 
[NAUCRARIA], did not obtain a fleet of any 
importance until the time of Themistocles, 
who persuaded them to build 200 triremes 
for the purpose of carrying on the war against 
Aegina. But even then ships were not pro- 
vided with complete decks (KaraaTpufiara) 
covering the whole of the vessel. A complete 
deck appears to have been an invention of 
later times. At the same time when The- 
mistocles induced the Athenians to buril a 
fleet of 200 sail, he also carried a decree, that 
every year twenty new triremes should be 
built from the produce of the mines of Lau- 
rium. After the time of Themistocles as 
many as twenty triremes must have been built 



JSAViS. 



221 



every year both in times of war and of peace, 
as the average number of triremes which was 
always ready was from 300 to 400. Such fn 
annual addition was the more necessary, as 
the vessels were of a light structure, and did 
not last long. The whole superintendence of 
the building of new triremes was in the hands 
of the senate of the Five Hundred, but the 
actual business was entrusted to a committee 
called the Tpiypoirotoi, one of whom acted as 
their treasurer, and had in his keeping the 
money set apart for the purpose. Under the 
Macedonian supremacy the Rhodians became 
the most important maritime power in Greece, 
The navy of Sparta was never of great im- 
portance. 

Navigation remained for the most part what 
it had been before : the Greeks seldom ven- 
tured out into the open sea, and it was gene- 
rally considered necessary to remain in sight 
of the coast or of some island, which also 
served as guides in the daytime : in the night, 
the position and the rising and setting of the 
different stars, also answered the same pur- 
pose. In winter, navigation generally ceased 
altogether. In cases where it would have 
been necessary to coast around a consider- 
able extent of country, which was connected 
with the main land by a narrow neck, the 
ships were sometimes drawn across the neck 
of land from one sea to the other, by machines 
called 67iKoi. This was done most frequently 
across the isthmus of Corinth. 

The various kinds of ships used by the 
Greeks may be divided, according to the num- 
ber of ranks of rowers employed in them, 
into Moneres, Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, 
Quinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous ship 
with forty ranks of rowers, built by Ptolemy 
Philopator. But all these appear to have been 
constructed on the same principle, and it is 
more convenient to divide them into ships of 
war and ships of burden (0oprt/ca, 0opr?7yot, 
6/l/cucJef, TT/loZa, orpoyyvAat, naves onerariae, 
naves actuarial}. Snips of the latter kind were 
not calculated for quick movement or rapid 
sailing, but to carry the greatest possible quan- 
tity of goods. Hence their structure wasbulky, 
their bottom round, and although they were 
not without rowers, yet sails were the chief 
means by which they were propelled, 

The most common ships of war, after they 
had once been generally introduced, were the 
Triremes and they are frequently designated 
only by the name vjjjef, while the others are 
called by the name indicating their peculiar 
character. Triremes, however, were again 
divided into two classes ; the one consisting 
of real men-of-war, which were quick sailing 
vessels (raretai), and the other of transports 
T 2 



either for soldiers (arpaTturide^ or 6:r/Ura- 
ywyoO or for horses (linrr/yoi, /TTTraywyoi)- 
Ships of the latter class were more heavy and 
awkward, and were therefore not used in bat- 
tle except in cases of necessity. The ordi- 
nary size of a war galley may be inferred from 
the fact that the average number of men en- 
gaged in it, including the crew and marines, 
was 200, to whom on some occasions as many 
as thirty epibatae were added. [EPIBATAE.] 

Vessels with more than three ranks of row- 
ers were not constructed in Greece till about 
the year B. c. 400, when Dionysius I., tyrant 
of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon 
his navy, built the first quadriremes (reTpr/pa^, 
and quinqueremes (Trevnjpet^). In the reign of 
Dionysius II. hexeres (e^petf) are also men- 
tioned. After the time of Alexander the Great 
the use of vessels with four, five, and more 
ranks of rowers became very general, and it 
is well known that the first Punic war was 
chiefly carried on with quinqueremes. Ships 
with twelve, thirty, or even forty ranks of 
rowers, such as were built by Alexander and 
the Ptolemies, appear to have been mere cu- 
riosities, and did not come into common use. 
The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels 
larger than triremes, probably because they 
thought, that with rapidity and skill they could 
do more than with large and unwieldy ships. 
In B. c. 356 they continued to use nothing but 
triremes ; but in B. c. 330 they had already a 
number of quadriremes. The first quinquere- 
mes at Athens are mentioned in anancient docu- 
ment belonging to the year B. c. 325. After 
B. c. 330 the Athenians appear to have gradu- 
ally ceased building triremes, and to have con- 
structed quadriremes instead. 

Every vessel at Athens, as in modern times, 
had a name given to it, which was generally 
of the feminine gender. The Romans some- 
times gave to their ships masculine names. 
The Greek names were either taken from 
ancient heroines, such as Nausicaa, or they 
were abstract wards, such as Forethought, 
Safety, Guidance, &c. In many cases the 
name of the builder was also added. 

The Romans had nothing but a very insig- 
nificant fleet of triremes up to the time of the 
first Punic war. They seem first to have 
built a small fleet in B. c. 311, in the course 
of the second Samnite war, when duumviri 
navales were first appointed. It was probably 
connected with the establishment of a colony 
in the Pontian islands. In B. c. 260, when 
they saw that without a navy they could not 
carry on the war against Carthage with any 
advantage, the senate ordained that a large 
fleet should be built. Triremes would now 
have been of no avail against the high-bul- 



NAVIS. 



warked vessels (quinqueremes) of the Car 
thaginians. But the Romans would have been 
unable to build others, had not fortunately a 
Carthaginian quinquereme been wrecked on 
the coast of Bruttium, and fallen into their 
hands. This wreck the Romans took as their 
model, and after it built 120, or according to 
others 130 ships. From this time forward 
they continued to keep up a powerful navy. 
Towards the end of the republic they also 
increased the size of their ships, and built 
war-vessels with from six to ten ordines of 
rowers. The construction of their ships, how- 
ever, scarcely differed from that of Greek ves- 
sels ; the only great difference was, that the 
Roman galleys were provided with a greater 
variety of destructive engines of war than 
those of the Greeks. They even erected tur- 
res and tabulata upon the decks of their great 
men-of-war (naves turritae), and fought upon 
them as if they were standing upon the walls 
of a fortress. 

The following is a list of the principal parts 
of ancient vessels : 

1. The prow (Trpupa or peTUTrov, prora), or 




KoitrH, Beaks of Ship*. 



fore part of the ship, was generally ornament- 
ed on both sides with figures, which were 
efcher painted upon the sides or laid in. It 
seems to have been very common to repre- 
sent an eye on each side of the prow. Upon 
the prow or fore-deck there was always some 
emblem (napaarjiLiov, insigne,figura'), by which 
the ship was distinguished from others. Just 
below the prow, and projecting a little above 
the keel, was the rostrum (e/z/3oAof , efj,(3oXov), 
or beak, which consisted of a beam, to which 
were attached sharp and pointed irons, or the 
head of a ram, and the like. It was used for 
the purpose of attacking another vessel and 
of breaking its sides. These beaks were at 
first always above the water, and visble ; after 
wards they were atttached lower, so that 
they were invisible, and thus became still 
more dangerous to other ships. The upper 
part of the prow was frequently made in the 
form of a swan's or goose's neck, and hence 
called cheniscus (^rjvtaKo^), and to the extreme 
part of the prow, whatever it might be, the 
general name of aerostation (d/cpoordyliov), was 
given. 

The command in the prow of a vessel was 
exercised by an officer called Trpwpcvc, who 
seems to have been next in rank to the steers- 
man, and to have had the care of the gear, 
and the command over the rowers. 

2. The stern or poop (Trpvjuvrj, puppis} was 
generally higher than the other parts of the 
deck, and in it the helmsman had his elevated 
seat. It is seen in the representations of an- 
cient vessels to be rounder than the prow, 
though its extremity is likewise sharp. The 
stern was, like the prow, adorned in various 
ways, but especially with the image of the 
tutelary deity of the vessel (tutela). It fre- 
quently terminates with an ornament of wood- 
en planks, called aphlaston (iKb^aarov) and 
aplustre, and sometimes it had a cheniscus. 
(See the cut, p. 223.) At the end of the stern 
was frequently erected a staff or pole, to 
which a streamer or ribands were attached 
(fascia or taenia). In some representations a 
kind of roof is formed over the head of the 
steersman. 

3. The bulwark of the vessel (rpa07?f), or 
rather the uppermost edge of it. In small 
boats the pegs (ovca/l/m, scalmi), between 
which the oars move, and to which they are 
fastened by a thong (rpo7rc,m}p), vrere upon 
the rpd077f. In all other vessels the oars 
passed through holes in the side of the vessel 
(6(f)6a^fJ,Oi, rprj/LiaTa, or rpvTn^uara). 

4. The middle part of the deck in most 
ships of war appears to have been raised 
above the bulwark, or at least to a level with 

! its upper edge, and thus enabled the soldiers 



to occupy a position from which they could 
see far around, and hurUtheir darts against the 
enemy. Such an elevated deck appears in the 
annexed cut, representing a Moneris. In this 
instance the flagisstandingupon the hind-deck. 




5. One of the most interesting, as well as 
important parts in the arrangements of the 
biremes, triremes, &c., is the position of the 
ranks of rowers, from which the ships them- 
selves derive their names. Various opinions 
have been entertained by those who have 
written upon this subject. Thus much is 
certain, that the different ranks of rowers, 
who sat along the sides of a vessel, were 
placed one above the other. In ordinary ves- 
sels, from the moneris up to the quinquere- 
mis, each oar was managed by one man. 
The rowers sat upon little benches attached 
to the ribs of the vessel, and called &Jw/Ua, 
and in Latin fori and transtra. The lowest 
row of rowers was called dd^a/no^, the rowers 
themselves Qakaulrai or dahdjuioi,. The up- 
permost ordo or rowers was called Opdvoq, 
and the rowers themselves dpavlrai. The 
middle ordo or ordines of rowers were called 
vya, tyyioi, or fyyirat. 

The gear of a vessel was divided into wood- 
en and hanging gear (cmevr) %v7iLva, and 



I. WOODEN GEAR. 

1. Oars(Kuirai,remi). The collective term 
for oars is rap/66c, which properly signified 
nothing but the blade or flat part of the oar, 
but was afterwards used as a collective ex- 
pression for all the oars with the exception 
of the rudder. The oars varied in size, ac- 
cordingly as they were used by a lower or 
higher ordo of rowers, and from the name of 
the ordo by which they were used, they also 
received their especial names, viz. Ktiirai 6a- 
i, tyyiai, and dpaviridef. Each Athe- 



223 

nian trireme had on an average 170 rowers. 
In a Roman quinquererne, during the first Pu- 
nic war, the average number of rowers was 
300 : in later times we even find as many as 
400. The lower part of the holes through 
which the oars passed, appears to have been 
covered with leather (acr/cw//a), which also 
extended a little way outside the hole. 

2. The rudder. [GuBERNACULUM.] 

3. Ladders (/c/Uywa/a'rfef, scalae). Each tri- 
reme had two wooden ladders. 

4. Poles or punt poles (Kovroi,conti). Three 
of these belonged to every trireme, which 
were of different lengths. 

5. Parastatae (Trapaardrai), or supports for 
the masts They seem to have been a kind 
of props placed at the foot of the mast. 

6. The mast (/ordf, mains}, and yards (KS- 
patat, antennae). A trireme had two masts, 
the smaller one of which was usually near 
the prow. The smaller or foremast was 
called iarbg u/ctmof. the larger or mainmast 
iarbs fj,eyag. The mast-head was called car- 
chesium. [CARCHEsiUM.] Respecting the 
mode in which the yard was affixed to the 
mast, see ANTENNA. 

II. HANGING GEAR. 

1. Hypozomata (vTro&[taTa).vrere thick and 
broad ropes which ran in a horizontal direc 
tion around the ship from the stern to the 
prow, and were intended to keep the whole 
fabric together. They ran round the vessel 
in several circles, and at certain distances 
from one another. The Latin name for VTTO- 
&ua is tormentum. Sometimes they were 
taken on board when a vessel mailed, and not 
put on till it was thought necessary. The 
act of putting them on was called VTTO&VVV- 
vai or diafavvvvat, or &aai. A trireme re- 
quired four VTTo&juara. 

2. The sail (ICFTIOV, velum). Most ancient 
ships had only one sail, which was attached 
with the yard to the great mast. In a trireme, 
too, one sail might be sufficient, but the tri- 
erarch might nevertheless add a second. As 
each of the two masts of a trireme had two 
sail- yards, it further follows that each mast 
might have two sails, one of which was placed 
lower than the other. The two belonging to 
the mainmast were probably called iaria 
fj.eyd'ka* and those of the foremast iaria O.KU- 
na. The former were used on ordinary oc- 
casions, but the latter probably only in cases 
when it was necessary to sail with extraor- 
dinary speed. The sails of the Attic war- 
galleys, and of most ancient ships in general, 
were of a square form. Whether triangular 
sails were ever used by the Greeks, as has 
been frequently supposed, is very doubtful. 



224 



i\AYIS. 



The Romans, however, used triangular sails, 
which they called suppara, and which had 
the shape of an inverted Greek A (y), the 
upper side of which was attached to the yard. 
3. The cordage (rondo) differed from the 
<j%oivia. The axoivia (funes) are the strong 
ropes to which the anchors were attached, 
and by which a ship was fastened to the Jand ; 



while the roTma were a lighter kind of ropes 
and made with greater care, which were at- 
tached to the masts, yards, and sails. Each 
rope of this kind was made for a distinct pur- 
pose and place (roTrof, whence the name 
roTTsia). The following kinds are most wor- 
thy of notice : a. itahcjdia or KU^OI, are the 
ropes by which the mast was fastened to both 




A Prorv, Trpt'opa 

B. Oculus, 

C. Rostrum, fj,j3o7io^. 

D. Cheniscus, 

E. Puppis, TT/ 

F. Aplustre, ufyAaGTov, with the pole con- 

taining the fascia or teema. 

G. rpu^. 

H. Remi, Ktitrai. 

I. Gubernaculinn, 



K. Mains, /CTTOC. 

L. Velum, iariov. 

M. Antenna, Kcpaia, Kepa. 

N. Cornua, uKpOKepaiat. 

O. Ceruchi, 

P. Carchesium, 

Q. 

R. 

S. Pe.des, node f. 

T, Opifera, vrrepar. 



NAUMACHIA. 

sides of the ship, so that the Trpdrovot in the 
Homeric ships were only an especial kind of! 
nahtidta, or the /ca/Uj&a themselves differ- j 
ently placed. In later times the Trporcwof 
was the rope which went from the top of the 
mainmast to the prow and sometimes the 
stern of the ship, and thus was. what is now 
called the mainstay. 6. Ceruchi (Kpov%oi, 
IftuvTEg), ropes which ran from the two ends 
of the sailyard to the top of the mast. In more 
ancient vessels the l^dg consisted of only one 
rope ; in later times it consisted of two, and 
sometimes four, which, uniting at the top of 
the mast, and there passing through a ring, 
descended on the other side, where it formed 
the irriTovos, by means of which the sail was 
drawn up or letdown, c. ayKoiva, Latin an- 
quina, the rope which went from the middle 
of a yard to the top of the mast, and was in- 
tended to facilitate the drawing up and letting 
down of the sail. d. Ilddef (pedes) were in 
later times, as in the poems of Homer, the 
ropes attached to the two lower corners of a 
square-sail. These Trddef ran from the ends 
of the sail to the sides of the vessel towards 
the stern, where they were fastened with 
rings attached to the outer side of the bul- 
wark, e. 'YTrepai were the two ropes at- 
tached to the two ends of the sail-yard, and 
thence came down to a part of the ship near 
the stern. Their object was to move the yard 
in a horizontal direction. In Latin they are 
called opifera, which is perhaps only a cor- 
ruption of hypera. 

4. Tlapappvaara. The ancients as early as 
the time of Homer had various preparations 
raised above the edge of a vessel, which 
were made of skins and wicker-work, and 
which were intended as a protection against 
high waves, and also to serve as a kind of 
breast-work, behind which the men might be 
safe against the darts of the enemy. These 
elevations of the bulwark are called Trapappv- 
fnara. They were probably fixed upon the 
edge on both sides of the vessel, and were 
taken off when not wanted. Each galley ap- 
pears to have had several Trapappvjaara, two 
made of hair, and two white ones, these four 
being regularly mentioned as belonging to one 
ship. 

NAUMA'CHIA, the name given to the 
representation of a sea-fight among the Ro- 
mans, and also to the place where such en- 
gagements took place. These fights were 
sometimes exhibited in the circus or amphi- 
theatre, sufficient water being introduced to 
float ships, but more generally in buildings 
especially devoted to this purpose. 

The combatants in these sea-fights, called 
Naumachiarii, were usually captives, or crim- 



NEBRIS. 



225 



mals condemned to death, who fought as 
in gladiatorial combats, until one party was 
killed unless preserved by the clemency of 
the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea- 
fights were divided into two parties, called 
respectively by the names of different mari- 
time nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rho- 
dians and Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, 
Corcyraeans and Corinthians, Athenians and 
Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were ex- 
hibited with the same magnificence and lav- 
ish expenditure of human life as character- 
ized the gladiatorial combats and other public 
games of the Romans. In Nero's naumachia 
there were sea-monsters swimming about in 
the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited 
by Titus there were 3000 men engaged, and 
and in that exhibited by Domitian the ships 
were almost equal m number to two real 
fleets. 

NECKLACES. [MONILE.] 

NEFASTI DIES. [DiEs.] 

NEBRIS, a fawn's skin (from ve[3p6?, a 
fawn) worn originally by hunters and others, 
as an appropriate part of their dress, and 
afterwards attributed to Bacchus, and conse- 
quently assumed by his votaries in the pro- 
cessions and ceremonies which they observed 
in honour of him. The annexed woodcut, 




r^G NEXUM. 

taken fiom Sir William Hamilton's vases, 
shows a priestess of Bacchus in the attitude 
of offering a nebris to him or to one of his 
ministers. 

NEMEA (ve/nea, vefj.ua, or ve/JLala), the 
Nemean games, one of the four great national 
festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Ne- 
mea, a place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is 
said to have been originally instituted by the 
Seven against Thebes in commemoration of 
the death of Opheltes, afterwards called Ar- 
chemorus. They were revived by Hercules, 
after he had slain the Nemean lion ; and were 
from this time celebrated in honour of Jupiter. 
The games were at first of a warlike charac- 
ter, and only warriors and their sons were 
allowed to take part in them ; subsequently, 
however, they were thrown open to all the 
Greeks. The various games were horse- 
racing, running in armour in the stadium, 
wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, box- 
ing, throwing the spear and shooting with the 
bow, to which we may add musical contests. 
The prize given to the victors was at first a 
chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a 
chaplet of green parsley. The presidency of 
these games, and the management of them, 
belonged at different times to Cleonae, Co- 
rinth, and Argos. They were celebrated 
twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the com- 
mencement of every second Olympic year, 
in the winter, and soon after the commence- 
ment of every fourth Olympic year, in the 
summer. 

NE'NIA. [FuNtrs, p. 161.] 
NEXUM, was either the transfer of the 
Ownership of a 'thing, or the transfer of a thing 
to a creditor as a security : accordingly in one 
sense Nexum included Mancipium [MANCI- 
PIUM] ; in another sense, Mancipium and 
Nexum are opposed in the same way in which 
Sale and Mortgage or Pledge are opposed. 
The formal part of both transactions consisted 
in a transfer per aes et libram. 

The person who became nexus by the effect 
of a nexum or nexus (for this form of the word 
also is used) was said nexum inire. The phra- 
ses nexi datio, nexi libcratio, respectively ex- 
press the contracting and the release from the 
obligation. 

The Roman law as to the payment of bor- 
rowed money was very strict. By a law of 
the Twelve Tables, if the debtor admitted the 
debt, or had been condemned in the amount 
of the debt by a judex, he had thirty days al- 
lowed him for payment. At the expiration of 
this time, he was liable to be assigned over to 
the creditor (addictus} by the sentence of the 
praetor. The creditor was required to keep 
him for sixty days in chains, during which 



NOMEN. 

time he publicly exposed the debtor on three 
nundinae, and proclaimed the amount of his 
debt. If no person released the prisoner by 
paying the debt, the creditor might sell him 
as a slave or put him to death. If there were 
several creditors, the letter of the law allow 
ed them to cut the debtor in pieces, and to 
take their share of his body in proportion to 
their debt. There is no instance of a creditor 
ever having adopted this extreme mode of 
satisfying his debt. But the creditor might 
treat the debtpr,who was addictus, as a slave, 
and compel him to work out his debt ; and the 
treatment was often very severe. 

The Lex Poetilia (B. c. 326) alleviated the 
condition of the nexi. So far as we can un- 
derstand its provisions, it set all the nexi free, 
or made them soluti, and it enacted that for 
the future there should be no nexum, and 
that no debtor should for the future be put in 
chains. 

NO'BILES. [Novi HOMINES.] 
NOMEN (ovof^a), a name. The Greeks 
bore only one name, and it was one of the es 
pecial rights of a father to choose the names 
for his children, and to alter them if he pleased, 
It was customary to give to the eldest son the 
name of the grandfather on his father's side ; 
and children usually received their names on 
the tenth day after their birth. 

Originally every Roman citizen belonged to 
a gens, and derived his name (nomen or nomen 
gentilicium) from his gens, which nomen gen- 
tilicium generally terminated in ius. Besides 
this, every Roman had a name, called prae- 
nomen, which preceded the nomen gentilicium, 
and which was peculiar to him as an indivi- 
dual, e.g. Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius, 
Sextus, &c. This praenomen was at a later 
time given to boys on the ninth day after their 
birth, and to girls on the eighth day. This 
day was called dies lustricus, dies nommum or 
nominalia. The praenomen given to a boy 
was in most cases that of the father, but 
sometimes that of the grandfather or great- 
grandfather. These two names, a praenomen 
and a nomen gentilicium, or simply nomen, were 
indispensable to a Roman, and they were at 
the same time sufficient to designate him ; 
hence the numerous instances of Romans be- 
ing designated only by these two names, even 
in cases where a third or fourth name was