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THE LIBRARY
The Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education
Toronto, Canada
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
A]:^ ACCOU]^T
HISTORY, ORGANIZATION, ADMINTSTRATION, STUDIES, DISCIPLINE AND
STATISTICS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE AND FOR
ALL CLASSES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
By henry BARNARD, LL.D.
NOW READY.
FJementnry and Secondanj Inslrclion in the (iermnii States : Anlinlt, Aiisfrin, Bnden, Bnva-
rin, Brunswick, Hanover, HesseCnssel, Hesse- Dnmistniit, Liechtenstein. Lippe DeiniipUl.Liiipe-
Schntimbiir':, Lii.xenihiirg mid Liinbcrg. Mecklniliurg Scliwerin. Rlecklenbiirg-Strelitz. Nassau,
Olilenburg. Prussia, Reuss, Saxiiiiy, Siixe .Altenbnrg, Sa.xe-Coburg, Saxe Meiningen. Sn.\e-VVei-
mnr, Walilerk, Wiirtemberg, and tbe Free Cities, wwth a general summary of tlie Educational
Systems and Statistics for the whole of Germany. 856 pages. Price, $4.50. Sewed and in
paper rovers.
Element'iry and Secondary Instruction it) Switzerland (each of the 23 Cantons), France, Bel-
gium, Ilol'a'id, Denmark. Norway and Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Portugal and
Spain. 801) Pages. Price, $4.50. Sewed and in pa[)er covers.
Scientific and liid strinl Ed cation in .\ustria. Baden, Bavaria, Brunswick, Free Cities, Han-
over, Nassau, Prussia. Saxony. Saxon-Principalities, Wurtemberg, France, Belgium, Hullandi
Dciicnnrk, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Switxerlanil, Italy. SllO Pages. Price, §4 50.
SiJi'ciil Instruction in Great Britain, with an .Appendix containing selected Chapters fmrn
the Report on Scientific and Industrial Education in other £uro|>eun States with particular refer-
ence to Drawing, and Systems of Technical Schools. 500 Pages. Price, §3.00.
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
The subscriber will begin early in 1871, to print under the general title of National
Education, a series of volumes designed to embrace a comprehensive survey of the His-
tory, Organization, Administration, Studies, Discipline, and Statistics of Public Schools
of different grades and for all classes, and of other Institutions and Agencies for the Educa-
tion of the people, and for the public service generally in different Countries. The series
will embrace —
Parts I and II. Elementary and Secondary Instruction.
Volume I. The German States. — Viz: Anhalt, Austria, Baden, Bayaria, Brunswick, Hanover,
Hesse-Cassel, Ilesse-Darmstadt, Lieelitenstein, Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Shaumberg,
Luxemburg, Jlecklenburg, Nassau, Oldenburg, Russia, Reuss, Saxony, Saxe-Al-
tenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Weimar, Schwarzburg, Waldeck,
Wurtemberg, and the Free Cities, together with a Summary of the Educational
\ Systems and Statistics for the whole of Germany.
II. Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Russia,
Turkey, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain.
III. Great Britain and the American States — with a comparison of the systems and con-
dition of Public Schools of the Elementary and Secondary Grades in the United
States, with those of the more advanced States of Europe.
Part III. Universities, Colleges, and other Institutions op Supebiob In-
struction IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
Part IV. Professional, Class, and Special Instruction.
Volume I. Scientific and Technical Schools preparatory to the occupations of Agriculture, Architecture,
Commerce, Engineering, Manufacturing, Mechanics, Mining, Navigation, &c.
II. Normal Schools, Teachers Institutes and Associations, and other Agencies for the Profession-
al Training and Improvement of Teachers.
III. Military Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science and Art of ^ar by Land and Sea.
IV. Preventive and Reformatory Schools and Agencies tot Neglected, Truant, Vicious, and Crimi-
nal Children and Youth.
V. Professional Schools, Associations, aud Legal Requirements respecting the Practice of Law,
Medicine, and Theology.
VI. Female Education : or Public Schools and other Institutions for the Education of Girls.
Til. Institutions and Special Instruction for the Exceptional Classes — the Deaf-mute, Blind,
Feeble-minded, Orphan, &c.
Part V. Institutions for Supplementary Instruction.
To provide for the Deficiencies or the Continuance of the Instruction given in Regular S<|iool8,
(such as Libraries, Lectures, Special Classes.)
Part VI. Societies and Museums for the Advancement of Arts, Educa-
tion, Literature, and Science.
Part VII. Catalogue of the best Publications on Schools and Education
IN Different Countries.
TERMIS :
Each Volume will be complete in itself, and will contain at least seven hundred pages, of the same sire
type and paper, as the American Journal of Education, and will be forwarded by mail, express, or other-
wise, accrrding to the directions, and at the risk and expense of the person ordering the same.
Orders will be received for any one of the Volumes in advance of publication at §3.50 per copy sewed
and in paper cover, for which at least $4.50 will be charged after publication.
Persons ordering any volume will be notified when the same is ready for delivery and it will be forward,
ed, on receiving the subscription price according to the above terms.
UENRY BARNARD, Publisher of American Journal of Education.
Jan. 15, 1S71. Hartford, Conn
cicnrc ani) %xt.
SYSTEMS,
IXSTITUTIO:sS AXD STATISTICS
OF
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION,
^rPLIED TO NATIONAL INDUSTRIES IN
DIFFERENT
MAY 26 r:.'
_Itl£_QNTARIO INSTITUTE
BY HENRY BA iK3im$)TU01£3)lN EDUCATION
VOLUME I.
ArSTRIA,
pnrs'^iA,
PENMARK,
BADEN,
SAXONY,
NORWAY,
BAVARIA,
SAXON-PRINCIPALITIES,
SWEDEN,
BRUXSWICIC,
VCRIEMDEUG,
RUSSIA,
FREE CITIES,
FRANCE,
SWITZERLAND,
HAXOVER,
BELGIUM.
ITALY
KASaAU,
HOLLAND,
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY E. STEIGER,
22 AND 24 FRANKFORT STREET.
1S72.
I
r
7 OH 77
'i
PREFATORY NOTE.
The following Report on Technical Schools, and Special Instruction gener-
ally in different countries, was printed in its present form by the siil)scri»x;r in
pursuance of a call, Jan. 19th, 1870, by the House of KtproscnUitivcs on the
Commissioner of Education for information on the subject. It was not completed
so as to be communicated to Conj^ress at the time (March 15) his connection
with the Office ceased; and has been brought to its present, still incomplete,
condition, at the special request of members of the House Committee on Edu-
cation and Labor, at whose instance the call was originally made. This jx>rtion
(pages 33 to 786) is now published under the order of the House to i)rint, in ad-
vance of the completion of the chapters relating to Great Britain and the Uni-
ted States, at the suggestion of the Commissioner of Education, to meet the
calls on him for information respecting this class of institutions.
As originally planned, this Document would have constituted a portion (Part
IV) of a comprehensive survey of National Education in different countrica,
which the undersigned had commenced in 1854, in view of a thorough discus-
sion of the condition and improvement of Public Instruction in the United States.
This Surt'cy would embrace —
Pabts I AXD II. Elementary and Secondary Education.
Volume I. The German States.
II. Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and 8w«<)«o,
Rusria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Great Ilritain.
III. The American States — with a comparison of the lyRtem.i and coodlllon of
Public Schools in the United States, with those of tha mor« adruievd
states of Europe.
Part III. Universities, Colleges, and other I.vstitdtioxs of bupb-
RiOR Instruction.
Part IV. Professional, Class, and Special Instruction.
(Schools of Theology, Law, MeUiiine, Teaching, Agriculturt, Coinm«T7«,
Engineering, Navigation, Mines, Technologj", &c.)
Part V. Supplementary Isstkuction.
(Libraries, Lectures, Evening SchooU, 4c.)
Part VI. Societies, Museums, and Collections for the Promotion or
Education, Science, Literature, and the Arts.
So for as the information relating to systems of elementary and aecondarj
instruction was collected and prepared for publication in the Department or Offic*
Education, it will be communicated In a few dnye to the Secretary of the
Interior, with a plan for its speedy completion ami publication.
HENRY BARNARD.
â– Washington, June 29, 1870.
"^1
\
^
lAL Education : an Account of Systems,
rses of Instruction in the Principles of Sci-
..^ j/...,M >- » — Arts of Peace and War in diftcrcut Countries.
COE"TENTS.
iNTROOrCTlON, 21— !«
Progreasive L)evelo|iineiit of Schools ami Praclirnl Courses of Instruction in Science 21
1. Gciveriiinent Institutiois for Militnrv and other I'uhlic Services 2i
2. Riiynl mill P(ivile;;eii Aciideuiies of Science iiiul Art 21
3. Ueiili.-tic. Scieotilic, nmi 'rechniral Museums, Schi;ols, Clusses, I^borutories, and
\VorksliO|is devolod to Kutiouul Imluslrie*, 23
PART I. SVSTKMS ANU lNSTlTi;-noNS OF St'ECIAL AND TttHNICAL iNSTRUtTION, ..33 — 8<)0
I. AUSTRIA.
iNTRonrr-Tiov 33
Poiiiilmioi aiic) Nntlonal Industries 33
Sjstem and Statistics of Public Instruct ion 34
Bvsi KM AND Institutions of Spki iaL Instri'CTION, 35
Progressive I)evelo|iiiieiit of the System 35
1. Industrial Element in ronui.on Schools, 35
2. Sunday Itnprovement-Schools, 35
3. Burgher Schools, - 3fi
4. Real Schools, •T.T^S... ".".: IS
5. Polytechnic Schools,..^,.'' "'"_ '''\ 3H
G. Si>e"( iai Acadeinies^fiTj^",,- iVsii'tuiions ! !.".'!.".." .' 39
Technical and Speciit, c^(,„ol, • 39
1. E.h"l^<^WU^„„,,o\^„,enl and Supi'lementnry Schools ...'Z'.'.'.'.. 39
U-,p„ie and W-.H^.^s Sch..o at Vu^nua
U-^
y"
y
-. v^)MSXr;:^:ndTradeschooiatPr^e ;;:::::::;:::::::;:::::::. 4.
•^ (3) Mechanics' nnd Weaving School at Brunn 4.,
2 H."her Mecl.an'C^nd Trade Schools 43
1 Munici,alPract.culSchoom Vienna 44
iX -V Provincial Practical Pchi.ol at Prague • ■- 45
^ (3)Im,,eri«IPrnrticnlSch..ol.n\.ennD .••-••■• 4fi
3 PolvtecHnic Institutions • '
■nivisnn C — ronstruclifin of Jliichines, 4!l
Slv;<onD:--TeclW,ogcalChem.stry ■••••;•; W
(2). Polytechnic Institute at Vienna ••• -^
Historical Development .....■..• • -Ti
Organization and Condition .n 1836.. .^.t
h'^'Z^E:^:^of^^^^'^^-^'i'^'^"^-^ :::::::: ^
|:g::^t:?M^":j their Uistr.hu.ion '"to Courses, •;;;;;;;:;:;::;:: 57
Preparatory Division,.. .-■■- •• •
4. comparative View of A-;^-;^ .t^^^i^llprofessor^PupiU ■•;;;;; ^
(1.) nate-I-ocation-nivismns . ^^^^^ ^
(2 General Organization as to Siut.jecis ^^
(3.) Preparatory Instruction ...... ^^••••■—^^^^,,,,ji,,g_VVork»hops
a 1 Biiildme and .Arcniiecioic .
.. 75
(7.) Chemisiry nu>. ^ - nireclor
8. Board of Di^e'-V°"-^"<^t "s" r-Tuit
(9) Classification of P'M"— >""'" "^.^e and Rural Affair.,.
B^c'ial School,.nd -';'-':°" "\^St"'a„d AUenburg
iiilnTrmedia.e Schools at Fro^sau •••;;;; <*
S^S^^'^^^-en^R-ingBec;::;:...^ ;«
6 Schools of Forestrv,... ■..••••• -«
^'^i^;i^t:!:^'^ssz..:
12 SCIENriFIC, TFXIINICAI,, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
PAse.
7. Schiiols of Commerce • iZ
(1 ) Aciult'iny tirCiiiiinifrce nl Vijiina, ;'
(-.'.) Aciiileiii'y DfCoimiierce fit I'riigue, J°
(.i.) AcMileniy of Coiiiinerce ut Pestii.? jV
8. Pidinols of iMi les iidiI Miners tit Scliciiinitz unil Lcol>en, ^jj
y. Sclmols of i\nvig:ition '
i-lioi.ls of Art, Dniwiii;;, ami Music '^
111.
IX. Speciul Trofessional Schools lot Women,.
n. BADEW.
&>
81
iNTRonumov, ^i
I'opuliitioii — .Nii'.ionul Imliistries ,
System iiiid Stiitistics of Public Instruction Y_X
Systkm ani> Institutions of JJpe< ial Instruction, ^;*
1. I'olyteclinic t^clioul nt Ciirlsriilie, â„¢
(1.) (Jenenl Scientilic Studies ^
(-2.) Civil Ei»,'ineer8 „.
(3.) Builders • ^-r
(4.) Foresters, eg
(5.) Analvtic Cliemists, _
<(i ) Miiclii .i-ts â„¢
(7.) Merclmnts, • • „;.
(8 ) Post and otlier Pul.lic Officers ^•'
Maiiugement, Building, Liiboruturics, &c ^ • â–
2. Trade Schools ,,,
(1.) Trade School for A|>i)reiitices in Bnden ^'
(•>.) Scliool for Watch and Cli;,-;:;::?nkinj nt Fnrtwangen, j --
(3 ) Workshoi'S for Practical Improvei.sent ut Furtwnngen • ^
(4.) Pc-liool of Straw-jdiiting .~' ."..-^ nj
3. Schools of Afiricnltnre and Rural Economy ;..x*" nl
(1.) AiiricuUiiral School nt Hochhnrg T^.-^ „?
(•i.) Agrictdture in Common Schools,
4. Military Schools
Schoid of Cndets
5. Normal School for Teachers of Gymnastics, •"^''^ **
m. BAVARIA. w _
T '^
iNTRODFCnoif, ,
Population and National Industries, 9'/
General System nnd Statistics of Public Instruct 'on 97
System anp Institutions of Techs ipal Education, 101
Historical Development of the System, lUl
Existing Organization KfJ
1. Trade-schools — IMechaiiica', Commercial, Agricultural 105
2. Real-Gyninnsiiim in Provincial Towns, lOti
3. Central Polytechnic School, 1(17
General Scientific Course of two years, 1(17
Special Divisions or Schools 108
(1.) Architecture and Building, 1(18
('2.) Mechanical Engineering; ](>'.)
(3 ) 'Pechnicnl Chemistry, 109
(4 ) Commerce, 110
Institutions and Classes of Special iNSTiturnoN, Ill
1. Sundav and Holiday Improvement Schools, Ill
1. Siindav Teehiical School at Nuremheri, ] 12
2. Sunday and Ilidiilav Schools in Munich, 112
a. Central Holiday School for boys, 1J2
8. .loiirnevnien's School 113
c. Handicrafts School, 1 1.-?
3. Female Holidav Schoids 113
a. Central Holidav S -ho..] 114
b. Parish H.diday Schools 114
2. Higher Trade Schools,' 114
3. District Trade School at Nuremberg 1 14
1 Regular Course of three years , 114
'2 Sunday School for Artis-ms : JI5
3. Flleiiientarv DrawiuL' School, 1 15
4. Higher Trade School nt Passnii 115
n. Conimorcial Division of Trade School, '. 115
b. Higher Improveriient School, 116
c. Weaving Schoid 11(»
5. Higher Trade School at Mtindeberg IIR
1. Wea viio School, *. 116
2. Siindav Technical School. 1 16
6. Wood-carving Scho(d nt Berchtesgnden, 116
7 Roval School of Machinery nt Augsburg 117
Workshop for Model-making 117
8. Polytechnic School ut Munich,.. .. ..' 118
SCIENTIFIC, TECUNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. J .j
9. Schools of the Fine Arts, nnd of DrniX'injf j jU
J. Iloyiil Aciiileiiiy of I'liie Arts in Munich, ', IJU
Scliool of Instructiciii in Art, jijO
Governinent Ai>()r(i|>riiitj(>ns to Art, . .*. l'.*0
l/'nicin of Art mid 'i'rudes |-J0
2. Royiil Si-liool olllie Arts npplicd to lllllll^trlllI rr«Kluctioii« ut Niiri>iiiU-rg I'.'l
3. Speciul t?(diool of Iiidii>tri:il Drawing iil Nureinheri;, 1-JI
4. OHieiiil Prograniine lor lii«lructiuii in Drawing in T'echiiicul Scliuuli IW
1. Tnide Schools I-.ij
2. Agriciiltnrnl Schools, \'l\
3. Real .Schools l'£l
5. Instructiiin in Dnnvin^ in t'oiiMnun Schools, |-J3
10. Special Instruct i(Mi in Music I'.M
1. Musical Kc(|nireiiienls of I'nnmry School, I'.M
Si. Prograrnnie of Instruction in Teiichers' Seminiirics, I'J.'i
3. Royal Schixd of Music in Wur/.hurg, I ill
4. Royal Conservatory of Music I'.'ii
11. Schools and Instruction in Agriculture and Rural Affairs J'/7
1. Central Iliu'h School of Auri<'nltiire at Weiliensleplmn I'i7
2. Ajjricultund ScIiih.I at I ichlcnliof 132
3 School of Practical I'arniing at Scidcisshciin i;i3
4. School of forestry VM
13. Sj)ecial Instruction for VV'umen, , 130
IV. BRUNSWICK.
iNTROntlTTIOV I.T7
Population and National Industries 137
Ceneral .System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction, 137
Systkm and Institutions of Si-ei ial iNSTRumoN 137
1. Polytechnic School ut Urunswick, 137
Special Schools, 13*
(1 ) l^instrnctioo of Machines 13fl
(2.) (>ivil Engineering, Construction, and Architecture, 13'J
(3.) Mines and Mining, HI
(4.) Technical Chemistry Hi
(5.) Pharmaceutical Chemistry, H-
(0.) Forest Economy H3
(7.) Agriculture '■•4
(8.) Railways and Roads, • H.'»
(1) ) Government Surveys, 14i
2. Builders' School at Ilolzininden '*7
V. FREE CITIES OF GERMANY.
I. HAMBURG IJ2
Introduction lyt
Population * â– *
System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction '*"
SVSTKM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPKCIAL INSTRUCTION, l-JJ*
1. Trade School \^
2. Winter School for Building Trades '•"
3. Plan for a System of Technical Instruction, '^'_
4. Navigation Schools j;"^
5. Music in Puhlic Schools '-j^
U. FRANKIOR r ^i
Intropuction. • .,'i
Piipulation ','-
System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction 'J'
Institutions ok Spkcial Instrk-tion '?°
1. Trade Schoc:!
2. School of Commerce, |' •
III. LUBECK Jf^JJ
Introduction, • 1^
Population ,,.,
System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction, j "
Institutions of Spkcial Instruction, '
Trade School ot Lubeck, ...
IV. BREM EN • ; ■! ! ir.i
Introduction, j|.,j
Population ■-•: .,•,.
Svslem and Statistics of Public Inslrortinn
Institutions ot Spkcial Instruction
VI. HANOVER. ,
I«n
iNTROnrCTIOV, _ \fy%
Population Kg
Svstem nnd Statistics of Puhlic Instruction | 1^^
Bvstkm and Institutions of Spk< i»i. Isstruction ^^
1. Improvement SchooU for Apprentices,
24 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
Pjicc.
Artisnn Srliool nt Hanover, 164
Wiirknien's Si)ciety Classes 104
CoinriiercinI School ^ 164
Buililirig Trade.-! Sc-hiiols at Nienberj, ]')4
2. PDlvtecliiiio Schiiol at Ilnnover J65
Proprrarniiie fur Preparntnry School, !•>'»
Prograiniiie for Polytechnic School Hifi
1. Chemists ili6
2. A;;riciilturists, ICO
3. Surveyors, 106
4. Mechanicians, 107
5. Architects, 167
6. Civil Engineers, 167
DistrihutiuD of Students, lOd
VU. HESSE-CASSEL.
Introbuction, 169
Population 169
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 109
Institutions of Special Instruction, 169
VIII. HESSE-DARMSTADT.
iNTRorrcTioN 170
Population 170
"System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 170
Institutions or Special Instruction, 170
IX. MECKLENBERG.
Introduction, 171
Populnliun 171
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 171
Institutions or Special Instruction 171
X. NASSAU.
Introduction, 172
Population, 172
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, , 172
Institutions of Special Instruction r 172
1. Industrial Schools of the Gewerbe-Verein, 173
System of Apprenticeship 173
3. Agricultural Institute at Geisberg 175
XL OLDENBURG.
Introduction, 176
Population, 176
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 176
Institutions of Special Instruction, 176
XII. PRUSSIA.
Introduction, 177
Population, 177
System and Statistics of Public Instruction 179
System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 181
Sunday and Furtlier Improvement Schools 181
Real and Burgher Schools 18J
Special Technical Schools, 182
Trade Schools, 183
1. General Scientific Instruction, 184
2. Special Schools 185
Inalitulions of Technical Instruction 187
1. Stniday Trade School nt Kijnigsberg 187
2. Workingmen's Union Schools at Berlin, 187
3. Provincial Trade School nt Dantzic, 18!)
4. R ivnl Real School at Berlin, I'Jl
5. Citv Trade School at Berlin 192
6. Royal Trade Academy at Berlin 192
Organization and Condition in 1837 1U2
Reorganization and Condition in 1867 197
(1 ) Generiil Technological Department, 198
(2.) Special Technological Section, 193
a. Mechanicians « 198
b. Chemists and Smelters, 199
e. Ship-builders 199
7. School of Industrial Drawing 2(10
8. Royal Acndemv of Architecture, 201
9. Building School at Berlin 202
JO. Superior Weaving School at Elberfeld, 203
\\
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, ANU SPECIAL SCHOOLS. j r,
11. Instruction in Agriculture nnil Rnrnl Kconomy 'JU5
System — t'liissilieution ol'Scliuolj — Collections of Tooli, ttc, -JOj
1. Interniedinte .'\gricultural Sdiool at AnnaUerg 'Jlii
2. Superior Institutes of Agriculture -^Ki
O ) Agriculturiil .Acoileiiiy 111 .Miiclin, estiiblislicd liy 'i'liacr 'JIHI
(2.) Royal .Agrieultunil .\ciicieuiy nt l'u|i|>elsilorf, -JO?
Object, and Course of Instruction "JO?
I. Studies coiMiected with Kuniiing 'HH
A. Soils — Manures — Drainage — Iniplcineiits — Cro|n act
B. Breeding of .-Viiimals 21 M
C. Tlieiiry of I'a ruling — Svslenn — Accounts 'ilO
D. Ilisiory and Liteniture of Agriculture 'JIO
II. Forest Economy — Culture — Prutcctiun — Uaine, 'ill
III. >iutural Pliilosupliy and llistorv, '.'.I
Chemistry — Physics — .Mincrnlogy and (Jenlogy '2ri
Bi taiiv — Physiology and Diseases of Planti 21.
Zoiilogv 21 J
VL Matheimitics 'Jill
Practicil (Jeomelry — Surveying — Mechanics 21.1
V. P.;lit cut Economy...' 21 J
VI. Jurisprudence relating to Land 213
VII. Veterinary Science, 2M
Anntoniy and Physiology of Domestic Animals, 2H
Disorders and their Treatment 2I'I
Shoeing and Tending 2M
VIII. Architeclure 2M
Materials and .Art of Construction for Farming PurposM, 2M
IX. Teehnol gv, 214
Mil term Is for fuel, lieht. brewing 214
Visit to School bv Secretary of Massachusetts Uoord of Agriculture, 215
3. Royal Academy of Azricultiire ifl Eldeno, 216
4. A:;ricultiirnl .Academy at Pr<iskau 217
5. Superi.ir Institute of .Agriculture at Regenwulde, 217
6. School of Horticulture nt Potsdam, 217
7. Superior Speri . I School of Forestry at Neusladt and Ebenwold, 217
8. Veterinary School at Herlin 2IH
12. School.^ of Commerce and Navigatiim, 2lil
1. Superior School of Commerce nt Rorlin 219
2. (.'oiniiiercial and Industrial School for Women at Berlin, 219
3. Schools of Navigation, ".W
13. School of Mines and .Mining 221
1. Mining Aci\(!emv nt Berlin '--'
2. School of Practical .Mining at Bochum, "'
14. Instruction in Drawing, 223
1. Ministerial Programme of Instruction in Drawing, 223
For 0\ mnnsiums '-^Jj
For Traile Schools 224
Schmidt's, and Duhuis's method, '■^•^
2. Plans and Suff^ostions for Drawing in Common Schools, *•-<
15. Hints and Methods for Teaching Music in Common Schools 249
10. New Chemical Laboratories for Instruction and Original Research 27"J
1 Bonn 279
2. Berlin, 2>*3
17. Aquarium at Berlin, ^W
xHi. SAXON y.
IsTRoorrTTOV 2P7
Population, and National Industries 2''7
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, S**?
I.NsriTlTIONS OF ShKCIaL INSTRUCTION, '•^'^
1. Renl Sch.Mils 2>^
2. Commercial Schools ""
1. Public Ciimmercinl Schools at I<eipsic. Chemnitz, and DresjJen 291
2. Comiuerciul Scho<d3 fur .Apprentices and Clerks, 2!>2
3. Comniercia! Schiwd for A'oung Women **•
3. Polytechnic School at Dresden, --*'
Orjaniziiti tii of Studies — "^
A. Mecliai'i'-al Engineering, ^?
B. Civil Engin»pri"g ^
C. Clieinislrv — General and Technics', • "JJ
D. Train ing'of Teacher* of Scientific and Technical Schoo'i, ^^
Stenopraphy — Stone-cut tuig, T^L
E. Mndeling and Ornamentnl Drawing School ^"^
4. H igher IndiiKlrinI School at Cbemniti ; ^^
A Mechani -nl rnginecring and Construction, ;^
B. Chemicnl Technology, '. 5t
C. .A grid It lire and RiirnI Affa'", ^5
Royal Wnrkmnster"' School ^?
Arrhilrctornl Pchivnl for Mn«ons and Cer()enter» ^
5. Higher Wea\ing School ot Cheranilz ^^
/I
J (J SCIENTIFIC, TECIINICAI,, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
Paob.
6. AcniTemy of Forestry Bt Thnrnnd I^O?
Historical I)evel(>|(meiit, •^"S
Cimrse nf Studies in Agriculture 310
Course of Studies in Forestry, f^'
(Joveriiment grunt in nid of Agriculture, -^07
7. Agriculturiil Academy in Flagwitz, 313
Course ol' Studies, y'3
8. Mining .Vcidcniy at Freburg, 318
(listi)ricai Development, 314
Pl:iu of Studies, 31<>
Stale Fxaniinntion for Miners, Machinists, and Metallurgists, '117
9. School of Practical Miners nt Freiburg, 318
School of Con I Miners nt Zwickau, p'9
10. Ste :ographic Institution nt Dresden, _31i>
11. Nnrnial School for Teachers of (jymnnstics 3-'l
12. S.iii|ileiuentary Schools for Apprentices and Adults, 3-J.J
( I .) Sunday Schools — General and Special, 3"J3
(i ) Evening Schools, • 3'2.}
(;!.) CiimmercinI Schools in twelve large towns 3'J.j
(4 ) Oriiainentiil Drawing School at Chemnitz and Seitfen, .. 3-2.2
(').) Industrial ScIumiI at Dresden ^~^>
(i> ) Workingmen's Association Schools 325
(7.) Mining Schixds at Freiburg. Zwickau, and Allenburg, 325
(8.) Nautical Schools for Pilots, &c 32.5
(0.) .\lnsic Schools in connection with factories of musical instruments, 325
(10.) Weaving Schools 325
(II.) Fringe-making School at Annaberg, 32;j
(12 ) The Mode, or the Dress-cutting Academy, ; 326
(13.) Spinning Schools m Lusatia, 326
(14.) Straw-working Schools f 326
(15 ) Lace-miiking and Embroidery Schools, 326
13. Instruction in the Arts of Painting. Sculpture, and Engraving 326
(1.) Royal .Academy of the Fine Arts in Dresden 327
Academy <if Arts, 327
Architectunil Academy 329
(2.) Academy of Arts in Leipsic, 331
14. Instruction in Music 332
(1.) Conservatory of Music in Leipsic 332
(2.) Conservatory of Music in Dresden, , 333
XIV. SAXE-ALTENBURG.
iNTRODrcTlON, 333
Population,
333
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 333
Institutions of Special Instruction, 333
XV. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA.
Introduction, 334
Population 3,34
System and Statistics of Public Instruction 334
Institutions of Special Instruction 334
XVI. SAXE-MEININGEN.
Introduction 3.3.5
Populati(m 33.5
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 3:t.5
Institutions of Spkcial Instruction, 335
XVIL SAXE-VVEIMAR.
Introduction, • • • • 3.36
Population 336
System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 336
Institutions of Special Instruction, 336
XVIII. WURTEMBERG.
Introduction, 337
Population nnd National Industries 337
System nnd Statistics of General Public Instruction, 3.38
System and Statistics of Special Instruction, 339
1. System nnd Institutions of Agricultural Education, 345
2. Public Instruction in Drawing 347
Systematic Technical Education, By J. Scott Russell, 3.57
1. The Polytechnic University 358
2. College for the Building Trades 358
3. Agriculture and Forestry Establishments, 3.59
Technical Instruction in detail 300
1. Technical University in Stuttgard, 360
2. College fot the Building Trades, 3G2
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. l*J
3. High Triule School, M,-i
Or^'Miii/iitiDii and Stiidi 'S, 'MA
I. Tixliiiical r iiivLr-i:y :UH
A. .Miill.eiiiuticiil mill Merciiiitilc Division Sli.'i
15. Tei-liiiKiil DiviaiDii 3<ifl
(1.) .\lri(lieii]ii!i 's iiiid Mecliiinicit lUiK
(•2) Niituriil History :u,(l
Ci.) Teilinoli gy *'7
(4 ) .Miicliiiiery , S*'"
(5 ) Enpiiieerin;; ... *''H
I'i ) Arcliitoctiiro '•^'^
Drinvins iiiid iMmlelin^ 3fi.H
rinii iif .•*l!i(l, III (k't 111, iiml |ira(ti<-c in eiicli school :i(;'J
A. Agricnlliirai .Scliiiul, -'"l*
I?. KuL' n 'crs' Sriiuol Mi'.l
C. Mriiljiiierv Sciiiicl 'M''->
U. ClieiiiicirStli.iol 'M'<9
11. Col e^e lor tlio UuiliiiiiK 'I'rmles ItllU
I'liiii »f Instruction hy clnsscs jIT"
(ioonR't;i':il ( 'In^s *^i
III. Collese ol' Agriculture iiml rorc-try, 1*2-
1. IiKt.tuli 111 III lliilieuluiui I''-
A. Agriculture iiiul Forestry Ac;.ileniy, 'Si^i
B. riinuiiig Sclio 1 •'j-'
V (Jiirdeniiig Sclii>ol, ■'^•/
D. P|icciiil Airricnltural Courses 3'-'
(1.) .Meiidow lauds, jj2?
(J.) Slice|)inaiiageinont •'2''
(3.) I'm It trees •••• ^^
(4.) .Agricultural Instruetioii for Tciicliers of Public ScnooU .3^3
E. Advice on .Agricultural Matters 3j^.'
2. Schoo's of Practical Farnimg ^'^
(1 ) Eliwangen; ('J.) Ocliseiilmuseii ; (:t.) Kirchlierg J73
3. F:iriiii ig Schools and Classes, and Agricultural Meetings X3
IV. A'rleriiiarv College ^*
V. Schnol of .Art- workmen ^*
VI. Science Schools ^*
A. Gvinnnsiuni and Lyceum, â– 'i'*
B. Real Schools ±.^
VII. Elcmentarv Puhlic Schools f',.
VUI. liidnstriul Seliools iL]l
rilAlTIl AL KksILTS of TllK SysIKM OF TK( lIMi AL Eol-CATIOX J-'
InTERNATIO.NAL LesSO.NS O.N TeCUNICAL EdLI. ATiOS, » *'»
XIX. FRANCE.
, 401
I.NTRonrrTios, ^^^^
l'o|)iiliitioa and National Industries „ ,
(;encriil System of Puhlic Instruction *
SVilTEM AND lN.STlTirioN.S OF SfHrlAI, iNSTKLtTION J^
I. Special Stnte ScliooU fir llic Puhlic Service Jlljj
1. Polylccliiiic Sclii ol of rraiice.. . . ..,.
2. Goverunieiit Schools of Apjilicition, *
3. Cor|is and Scliocd of Civil E-ipiuecrs •
4. Schools of .Mines and Miners 'y,
II. Government Iiisiitiiiions in ad of Arts mid Trudc J^
1. Omservatorv of .Arts and Trades... .^^
2. Covorimieiit Schools of .Arts and Trailc- ^^
1. Schfiol nt Paris .„.
2. Scho lis at Chalons. A' g"rs. and Aix i," •,••', JM
III. Special Corporate. Couimin al. and HcpMrlmenln I Schools, '
J. Central School of Arts and .Mnnufactutes, nl Piiris, Jl.
2. St. Nicho'ns Inst tule. at Paris.. ^^
3. ConiniiMial and Depnrtniciit I Schools..- "
1. Ln Martini^re 'lechnical School at Lyons, ^^^
2. Schools for Wntchinaking, " j ^,j.,
3. Schoi 1 of Lnce-ma'.i ig ^j^
4. Sch.i. I of Rihboii designing nnd Weaving, • ^J^
5 Technical inslriiclion nt CreiizoJ : ^^
G. Sclio.lI of Weaviiii at .Miilhoiisc •••■. 41i7
IV. Instruct on in the Fine Arts. Drawing, nnd Music ^^
1. (Mivernmcnl Pchods of the Fine Arts '.'..'.'.'. 498
(I ) Sclioi I at Paris '.'..'.'. SIO
(2 ) School nt Lyons, !!!!!!!! SM
I'.i ) School at Ilijon.. '.'.'.".. i'^J
2. Instruct I in in Archilertiire nml HuilHinc. ',.,'.. SUi
(1.) .Architectural Scctio'i in School of Fine Arts ^^
(2 ) Central School of Architecture nt Paris....... ' ^g
3. Instruction ill Drawing np! lied to the Industrial Arts ;•„••■.: .. JU
n.) Governmenlul Scho d of Drawing and Ornarocnlnl on at I •r»
18 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
Pack.
(i) School of Drawing for Women nt Paris •^'i
{.i.) ("LMitriil Uniuii, Musoiiin. iiiid (,'olle^'e of linliistniil Art •"'-»
(4.) Miinii-i|i;il Scl U of Driiwiiif; ;.' ''
(0.3 Kriuiii;,' 111 I'uMu- Scliools •_• j
(I.) I'riiiiaryScliools ; (-J.) Noriiiul Schools -^''^
(3.) Lyceoiii3 ; (4.) Secondary Speciiil f'chools 5 «
Uejiofl ot' M. Riiviiis.-oii on Uriiwiii'; in I'lihlic Schools, •''•»
4. In»lrucllon in Music, •.'•;'
(;ovcrnniL'nt ron^fr\ iilory of Music and Ucclnuiulion, ^'-â– '
Music ill Nvcciiins :\imI Sccoiidnry Spccinl Schools â– ^>;*1
Po|i(iliir Mu*ic in I'lihlic Schools of Paris, ;?;'"-
V. Specinl Schools of Commerce, ■.';•;
1. Superior School of Commerce at Paris ;';';*
2. Com iierciil School of Piris Chuniher of Commerce ^•»-|
3. Con mere nil CJourse in Mnnicipnl Schools, •'■|''
Specimen of Lessons in Leiriyluliim U.<iielle, -f^'
VI. Speciiil Schools and Encour.ifrcuicnl of A-riiculture ^J-*
Historical Development of Auricnltural Schools, •^■'•>
1. (Jcncral Survey of the System and Institutions in 1848 and J86tl, .HjJ
2. Airricnltunil Sclionl at (Jrijnon *'':*
3. Asricnltiiral School of Grand Jonun, ^L'^
4. School of Forestry nt Nancy '^i ^
5. Uural Kcoiiomy in Priniiiry Schools •^;;^"-
G. Axricnltnre in Secoiuhiry Special Schools, 5l'i
VIL Special Schools for the Mercantile 11 nd Military Marine, 3^'
1. Natio lal School for Orphans of Seamen, 91
2. Scholarships for Sailors ^'•*
3. Naval Apiirentice Schools 5f<l
4. School for Boatswains and Under-OHicers, -^^
5. School fir Naval Engineers and Stokers, 5W.>
6. Naval Drawinj; School ^^)1
7. Scliools of Navigation and Hydrography, ^f*^
8. Naval School at Brest ?;•'»
9. School of Naval Architecture ^■'•J
10. School of Marine Artillery •^■Jj
1 1. Board of Hvdro!;raphy ^^3
Vin. Lahorntories of'Ori^'inul Research, and Practical School, 5-J.>
XX. BELGIUM.
Intropuction, 6^^
Population and National Industries, CD"
System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction, 608
Systkm and Instiiutioss of SPEtiAL Instruction, C09
1. System of Technical Training, <>'''•'
(I.) Museum of Industry, ';"'â– '
(•2.) Workshops for Apprentices, f'l"
(3.) Iiuhistrial Schools CI I
2. Institutions of Special Technical Instruction, fil-5
Lower Technical Schools, '>H
(1.) Industrial Schoil at Ghent, I;14
Scientific Instruction f'H
Practical Instruction, f>i4
Distrilnition of Stmlents hy studies and trades, 0J->
(2.) School of Meclianical Art. Woolen Mamifacture. and Design, at Verviers, 6Kt
(I).) School of .Applied Mechanics, Steam-engine, and Industrial Drawing, at Tournai, 614
Higher Technical Instruction, 619
(1.) Superior School of Arts and .Manufactures at Ghent, 6-2 1
(2.) Superior Sc^hool of Mines at Liege 617
(4.) School for Sto'ie-cutting at Soignics 6i7
(5.) School for Mechanical and Building Constructions at Conrtrai 617
(6.) School for Foremen of Manufacturing Estahlish meats at Liege, 6f^
(7.) School for .\dult Workmen at fluy 618
(1.; Universitv Schoid of Arts and Mines at Liege, 61!)
Preparatory School, 61!)
School of Mining, 619
School of Manufactures 620
School of Mechii iiics 620
Machine and Worksho|is, 620
(2) Cniversltv School of Engineering, Manufactures and Architecture, at Ghent 621
Preparatory School 621
School for Engineers 621
â– 3.) School of Mines at llainnnlt 622
3. Schools of Commerce and Navigation, 623
(1.) Superior School of Commerce nt Antweri 623
(2.) Schools of .N'avigation at .\nt\verp and Ostend, 627
4. Agricultural Institutions and Instruction, 62!)
(1.) Superior Council of .Agriculture 629
(2.) Provincial Commissions of .Agriculture, 629
(3.) .Agricultural Associations and Societies, 630
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. jg
(4.) Ediicationnl IiiJlitiitions ,jj
J. StHte Aijrlciiltiiriil .Scliiiol 111 (ienililiiux, !!....'..'.]...'.* t'M
2. Stiite I'riicticiil llurticulliirul School lit V'llvurde, '.'.'..'..'.....'.'........'. ii'-t'-i
'.i. Stiite Veterinary Scliixil at Cureyliem, .!.!.!! iV.A
4. Klin St ry ScIidoI at ltiiiiilli>n, ) ;i4
5. Institutidiis anil instruct, on in the Kino Arts, Uruwing, and Mumi',: .................. I.:i7
(1.) Ac iileinies anil Si'luiols nt' tlie Fine Arts, t ;i7
I. Ilrst Tical Devil p|)ineiit I ;i;
iJ. I'resent Or^'ain/.alion (.4.5
Olfic nl ('ias>iic-atii>n (i^5
Supervisiiiii — ilircctioii m
Ailinisiiiiin — KeveMiies— K.\|ien{litures I .tii
Ki|ui|i!nt!rit ,1'hI Mnseniii ul' .Miidi-js 147
iSnlijiHts iiuil .Mcthnils of )n!^t^lM tloii {â– \)i
'I'eac-lif rs — I'npiis — I'rizes ( ."iij
(lovernnient Ai I to Art and Srieni-tt in 1HR7 ti;i:i
(2.) Methods of liistruetion in Drawinj,' C:,H
1. Elenicnl.iry Instruction {\'yj
2. Higher listrnotion (;';i)
(3.) Piililic liistniclicMi ill Music, C^J
1. Conseruiloire of Music in Brussels, Itf-'i
2. C.inservatoire of Mu-ic in l.iege Ut]
3. Conservatoire of Music in Cheiit ( H(
4. (;oni|ietiti m f.)r Prizes for Mnsiciil Coin|.o»ition, 1 fll
5. Scliools ani Societies of Music, Ii^!t
6. Music in Public Scliools, GUU
XXL HOLLAND.
IsTROnrrTtoM, 6ni
l'o|inlation ( 'Jl
SvstJiii and Statrsti s of Puliliii Instruction i;!ll
Systkm of Spki Ial Ins iRiK TION, (".ilJ
1. iLveuinj; Hur;,'lier Schools ("J.'t
H >rher liurglier Schorls . . t'i'.l'.i
2. AfT ion tural Scliools (,!i.|
a. l'olylech:iic Schools C'.M
Instilntioiis of 'rechniciil Instruction, (:'.U
1. Hijlier Burjrlier Silioih i;t Miuistrict, (!'.i4
2. Asrii-ultural School nl Croningen (I'.l.i
3. Polytechnic Sclio, 1 at Delft, C'!!?
4. Schojl ofNuvijtali n,. OSW
XXII. DENMAUK.
Introiui Tiov, rSD
Po,>iilatio;i and Nnl onnl Industries (>!'!)
Sy;t:in of ruhlin Instruction • ilj
Institi' iioNs AND Classes of Si'Ei ial IssTurrTioN, "til
1. Koyal A^rricultiiral and \eterinary School, "HI
2. Si:iui:iy Iinprovemenl Schools, "lO.i
3. Technical Institute at Copenliugen, 'O'-t
XXIII. NORWAY.
ROPUrTION ^fli
Popiiat on J"-]|
Pvstem and Stat'st'cs of Prhlic In^triictini, T'H
BysTKM aNP S( IIOOI.S of Sl'Ki l\L 1 SSTKtTTION 707
1. IJoyiil School of Arts and Desii^n, 7' ~
2. Provincial Dra\v:n: Schools, 7<>8
3. 'I'echn ca! School at llorteii 7f !»
4. School of Mines at Koig4>er: Jl<>
Plan for a System of Technica' Instruction, 71(1
J. Sunilay anil Evening Schoo's ^ l"
2. Techiiicnl Elenieiitary Schools ^ '••
3. Polytechnic Institute ut Christiaiiiu ""J
XXIV. SWEDEN.
iNTnonrrTloN ' "
Po;ndation,
^ll
System and Statistics of Public Instruction _; | '
Sysi KM AND InsTITITIONS of SrEt lAl. IssTRL'tTION, ^''
1. Sunday and Even ins Schoid at Eskilslnnn j';|
2. Elementary Technical School at Norkopinj ^'•|
3. Industrial Schools at Stockholm and Cothenburg j.'^
4 Mining Schools at Filiiistad and Kablun ij,
5. P..lvtechnic School nl Stnckholin ;;^
(>. Chalmers' Higher Teclinicnl School nt Cothenburg
7. School of Naval Architecture nt Cnrlscronn
8. E\ eiiing Schools of Art, — •■— • • •"- •■"•
16
7 111
lie
20 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND gPECIAL SCHOOLS.
XXV. RUSSIA.
Page.
IvTROIUTTlOV i.\L
I' .|i(iiiitniii iiml Nntioiinl Industries ^4
Pysteiii luid StMtislii-5 of I'lililiK liistruition, jl '
Sl'K lAr. Si Udlll.S KOll TlIK I'l'HI.U ShKVK K, AND THK AkTS ]j ' J
i. I'o vtoi-lriK- Sclui'il at St. I'etcrslmrg I'-i
(i.) Mei-lmiiic:il Se -tioii ^â– â– ^'
(v!) Cheniciil Sectiuti ^"-_l
2. Vi)lvt('clmic Si-hiii)l Ml Rigi ^^•'
(1 ) I'repiiriitary Ciiirse j^24
I'i.) Ciiiirse lb' Miiniil'iictiirers J-4
(.( ) Cmirse o.- Merclinnts ^--i
(4 ) Ciiiirse t'lr .\L'ricii!luri5ls 7'-4
(â– ) ) ("oiirse c iiniuon In Mmliiii sts, .Areliileits, iind Kngiiieers, ^'i.^i
( i.) Siieciiil Cmirse for ('uiitlructnrs of ,Mncliinery, 7--(J
(7) Course f'r .\ri:li tects J-0
(-i ) SiieL-iiil Course fur Engineers ^-'>
(.) ) Speciiil (''iiirse fur Surveynrs VJ7
3. Sc'ImdIs uf .Mining iin<l Miners '^-J_
(1.) H g!iRr In^titnthni for Wining Engineers T-^
(â – i.) L .wer Sr-li II Is of Mining J"37
4. Com mere 111 .â– \i-!\<leiny lit Moscow J -3
5. Schools of .A;.'ricn.ture iind l'"nre>try 2*^
(I.) I'.i^'lier .A^irii-nllnrnl Aealeniy lit Gnrygoretsk "riS
(â– i.) Eore-t Aciulemes 7-28
6. Schools of Law, Surveying, and 'l'o|)ogniphv 'i~>i
(J.) Imperial I,aw Si-hool fir Government Clerks 1-8
(•i ) Constantine Si-hooi of Surveying 7*^
7. Schoo's for the Civil aud l)i|iloinnlic Service 7-3t)
(i). Scliool of Oriental I aignni'cs 7-,'0
(I.) Schools fir Civil Admi I strnti n 72J
f>. U"piiit of .Iiiry of I'liris InleriiiitionMl E.nposition in l.-^fiT, 7:!0
9. Museama availablj iind useful m 'J'ecliiucal Instruction, 733
XXVI. SWITZERIiAND
iNTROnt'fTION, 7X5
Population, '.5
Pvslem and Statistics of Piihlic liistriictHni 7!'5
Schools and Classks of Si'ki ial iNSTiiUcrioN, 7:i7
1. i Veil meal I list 1 till e at Lausanne, 71)7
2. Indistrial School for Girls lit Neiichiitel 742
3. Iiiiliislrial Scliool for Boys iit Lausanne 742
4. Federal Polytechnic Schoid at Zurich, 743
(1). Historical llevelipnient 743
Report of Com mil tee of Federal Council. J8.r> 743
Law c rent ill!: 'he !''eileral PoUtechnic School 744
Rognlations of Federal Counci. in IHtiO, 748
(2) Pn gramme of Stud. es for 18o»J-7 749
1. .Architecture : 74!)
2. Cu il Engineering 7.^0
3. Industrial Mechanics, '. 7.") I
4 Industrial Cheniislry 7.''^1
5. Forestrv and Rural .MVairs 7;V2
C. Philosophical and Pi l.tical Science, , 7.53
in.) Natural Sciences 7.5-3
(b.) Miithemal ical Si i?nce, 7.")J
(c.) Li'erarv, Moral, and Political Science 7.53
{d ) Fine Arts 7.59
Apparatus — Lahoratories — Cahinets — .Methods, 7.5'
(3 ) Programme of Studies for 1867-8, 7.56
APPENDI.'C, 7G1
XXVII. ITALY.
Intuohittion, 791
Population 7;tl
System and Statistics of Piihlic Iiistructioii 7il2
SysTKM AND Institutio.ns of Si'liCiAL Lnstruction 7y3
XXVIIL SPAIN.
IsTRoni-cTiOM 797
Poinilation 797
System and Statistics of Puhlic Instruction, 797
Lnbtitutidns or Spkcial Instruction, 798
XXIX. POTITITGAL.
iNTRODfCTtON 79!)
Po mlatliin 7il9
Svstem aid Statistics of Pnldic Instruction, 709
Institi -iioNs OF Special Instruction, f'OO
INDEX TO VOLUME 1 811
PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMEXT OF TECHXICAL IXSTRUCTIOX. .
(1.) Tlie adaiitation of the stiulies of the School to at least a general
preparation of the pnpils for the life they were designed or desired to
lead, has attracted the attention of teachers and educators in every age
and nation, as will be seen in the historical development of public
schools in the volume devoted to Elementary and Secondary Educa-
tion.
(2.) The organization of studies and schools with special reference
to certain i:)rofessions which were found essential to the well-being of
society — the theologians, doctors, lawyers, and the governing class
generally, has been, in most countries, secured by the endowments,
and other privileges of Universities.
(3.) The advancement of Science, and the Arts, and their cultivation,
with special reference to the military service, the ornamentation of
public buildings, and the gratification of the esthetic tastes of a few,
have been secured by the creation of Academies and Special Schools
in every civilized country.
An account of Universities, Military Schools, and Academies of
Science and the Fine Arts, and their origin, growth, and present
condition in different countries, will be given in another volume.
(4.) The pojjular exposition of the familiar phenomena of nature,
and of the more obvious principles of science which underlie all local
industries, dates back only to Comenius, and was brought into the
range of the popular school by the labors of Hecker, Semler, Pes-
talozzi, Fellenberg, and particularly of the great Swiss educators.
The establishment of Special Schools for thorough scientific training
for civil as well as military jjurposes, belongs to the present century.
The necessity for this training, and the subject and methods of this in-
struction, were pointed out by Bacon, and Milton, in the former cen-
tury, but their suggestions made hardly a perceptible impression on
the practices of their age. The Polytechnic School at Paris, was
the earliest and best school of this class, and its remarkable success
in the department of engineering and construction, as well as prepar-
atory to the special Avork of war, led slowly to the establishment of
similar institutions with a wider range of studies, in every nation of
22 DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
Europe. The order of their institution was as follows : at Paris, in
1794 ; Prague, 1806 ; Vienna, 1815 ; Berlin, 1 821 ; Carlsruhe, 1825 ;
Munich, 1827; Dresden, 1828; Stuttgart, 1829; St. Petersburg,
1830; Hanover, 1831 ; Lisbon, 1851 ; Zurich, 1851.
(5.) The Real,and Trade Schools which grew out of the Real School
of Hecker, and the Sunday and other Improvement Schools of Ger-
many, recognized the necessity, and demonstrated the utility of special
instruction in the principles, and, to some extent, the processes of the
workshops ; and schools and classes for this purpose now form part of
the system of public instruction in every Continental State.
(6.) The success of the Mercantile Academy at Vienna in 1770,
and Prague in 1765, has led to the establishment of public Commer-
cial Schools in every great capital of Europe.
(7.) The Conservatory of Arts in Paris, the Museums of Industrial
productions, and of raw material in the great centers of mechanical
and manufacturing industry, have demonstrated their great usefulness
to the skilled laborers of each country.
(8.) The International Expositions of 1851, 1856, 1861, and 1866,
have brought the productions of the workshop of different countries
into open competition, and the palm of superiority has been given to
the workman, the shop, the country, in which the hand of the laborer
had been guided by a cultivated taste and a scientifically tramed in-
tellect.
The results of these manifold experiences in the European States
— in Schools, Museums, and Expositions, are somewhat elaborately
presented in the following articles, which are made part of this Intro-
duction, although they belong to a volume devoted to Special and
Scientific Instruction in Great Britain.
PLAN OF A TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
BY J. SCOTT BUSSELL.
Uiuler the title of Systematic Technical Education for the Eng-
lish People, J. Scott Russell, a civil engineer of large experience,
and wide observation of the results, both of deficient and thorough
professional training in the designing, construction, and superin-
tendence of great public works, and private manufacturing and me-
chanical establishments, has developed an elaborate scheme of
special training for the different occupations demanded by the
exigencies of modern society in England. These diverse trainings —
the subjects and methods he has distributed into different schools,
and then grouped into an institution which he calls the English
Technical University. We have elsewhere copied his illustration
of such a system, and of such institutions, drawn from the expe-
rience of Wurtemburc: and Switzerland. We here brino: too-ether
a condensed statement of the classes and schools for which he would
provide.
Classes /or whom Systematic Education and Training is necessary.
CLASS I.
]. The Statesman. 2. The Soldier and Sailor. 3. The Theologian. 4 The
Lawyer. 5. The Doctor.
(The first, third, fourth and fifth of these are provided by the Universities,
and the second by the military schools.)
CLASS n.
G. The Agriculturist 7. The Miner. 8. The Metallurgist. 9. The Manufac-
turer. 10. The Civil Engineer. 11. The Mechanical Engineer. 12. The Ma-
ciiinist. 13. Tlie Architect, li. The Naval Architect. 15. Tlie Merciiant.
10. The Sliip-owner. 17. The Merchant Sailor. 18. The Practical Clieiuist.
19. The Astronomer. 20. The Marine Engineer. 21. Tlie Surveyor.
(Some of these are provided for bj' Government in the Royal School of
Mines and of Naval Architecture, which might form portions of the future
systematic course of education.)
CLASS in.
22. The Professor of Pure Science. 23. The Professor of Literature. 24. The
Professor of Fine Arts. 25. The Teacher or Schoolmaster. 26. The Political
Economist.
(Some of these are imperfectly provided for in schools and universities.)
24
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
We omit Mr. Rnssell's classification of the Sciences and give Lis
grouping of these Sciences with their practical applications, and
Avork, into schools.
ENGLISH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY.
When we liave provided ia our university fifty-six courses of study, cover-
ing the wide fields of education in matter and mind, it is quite obvious tliat we
have merely embarrassed the youthful student by the number and variety of
the sul)jcels from which ho has to select; and if we leave him free liberty of
choice, it is evident that he will run the risk of much wa.'^te of energy and time.
In nvih-r tliat our university maj^ be of tlie greatest practical service to our stu-
dent, we must aid him in his choice by presenting him with that selection of
sniijects which will most directly lead up to his aim in life, and most easily con-
duct liim through the difficulties of learning to technical knowledge and tech-
nical skill. As we have in the former Chapter classed our professors according
to the nature of the science tliej^ have to teach, so now we must cla«s our stu-
dents and their studies according to the n;iture of the aims in life which tliey
have in view. This will group both teachers and taught into entirely new sub-
divisions.
It lias already been agreed that we shall provide technical education for
twenty-one or twenty-two professions, embracing all tlie modern professions,
and cxchiding the three ancient ones, — theology, law, and medicine. And our
first question is, whether for all these we must provide twenty-two separate
and independent courses of study.
If tiiese professional men were all to be educated in different schools — in
buildings apart from one another — we might have to provide twenty-two courses
of education; but as they are all meant to be taught in a single building, we
shall be able to simplify the matter by means of systematic combination. Re-
suming here the list of professions for whom we are to provide education, we
should have to form the following groups of studies, corresponding to tlie tech-
nical occupations of the students : —
SCHOOL OF IIECHANICS.
Pure Science. — Iligher Geometry; Higher Algebra; Iliglicr Aritlmietic;
Higlier Statics ; Iligher Dynamics ; Higher Energetics ; Iligher Chemistry ;
Iligher Metallurgy.
Practical Applications. — Descriptive Geometry ; Constructive Geometry ;
Geometric Movements ; Sources of Materials ; Properties of Materials ; Strengtii
of Materials; Elements of Mechanics; Structural Mechanics; Machinery and
Tools; Engines and Prime Movers; Economics of Work; Endurance of Ma-
chinery; Machine Shops and Buildings; Mechanical Manufactures; Political
Economj' ; Workshop Economy ; Principles of Design.
Work. — In the Drawing Ofiice; In the Collection of Machines; Tn the Col-
lection of Machine Materials ; In the Collection of Raw Materials of Manufac-
tures; In the Collection of Engines, &c. ; In Mechanical Experiment; In the
Factory ; Round the Tour of Home Manufactories ; In Foreign Travel.
THE SCHOOL OF CIVIL CONSTRUCTION.
THE ARCniTECTURAL.
Tare Science. — Highest Geometrj^; Laws of Number and Proportion; Statics;
Psychology; ^Esthetics; Physics; Chemistrj'; Animal Physiology; Botanic
Organography; Geology; Art History.
Prartiral Applications. — Descriptive Geometry; Geometry of Vision ; Con-
structive Geometry; Graphic Geometry and Surveying; IIistor3^ of Building
iMaterials; Strengths of Materials; Chemistry of Building Materials; Geology
of Stones and Cements; Mineralogy; Stability of Foundations ; Stability of
Structures ; Theory of Arches and Roofs ; Forms of Beauty ; Forms of Strength ;
Proportions of Mass ; Linear Decoration ; Surface Decoration ; Solid Decora-
tion; Bujlding Processes, Tools and Machinery; Building Economy ; Building
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 9-
Endiirnnce; Domestic TTcnltli : Domestic Economy; Domestic ComTort; Liuvs
of Sound and Hearinj;: in liaildin,^; Laws oi'lnj^iess, Egress, and Seeing; Laws
of Climate and WeatlRT; On Use, Purpose, and Fitness; Priuciplcs of Design;
Laws of Property and Buildings; Landscape Design.
Woi/c. — In the Drawing Office: In Scliool of Design ; In Modeling S.liool;
In Meclianical Experiment; In tlie Mnseuin of Aneieiit Models; In llie Mu-
seum of Modern Architecture; In the Collection of Building Materials: Tn tlio
Colf-'ction of Decorations and Art Workmansh'p ; In an Office of Works ; On
the Works ; Ou Travel at Home ; On Foreign Travel.
ENGIN'ECRINO.
Pwe Science. — Higher Geometry; Higher Algebra; Higher Arithmetic:
Higher Statics; Higher Dynamics; Higher ilnergetics; Higher Hydrology;
Higher Ciiemistry; Higher Geology; Higher Crystalhgy.
Fradical Applicaiiom. — luigines and Prime Movers; Thcorj' of Tehiclesand
Locomotive Machines; Theory of Ships and Steamboats; Cliemi.stry of Build-
ing Materials; Geolog}' of Stones and Cements; Mineralog\' and Metallurgy;
Stability of Foundations; Building Combinations uf Materials; Sources of Ma-
terials of Constructiou ; Theory of Bridges, Roofs, and Tunnels; Constiuciive
Geometry; (jraphic Geometry and Surveying; Descriptive Geometry; Per-
spective Geometry ; Ge:)metric Movements; Strengths of Materials; Elements
of Mechanics; Machines and Tools ; Theory of Rivers; Theory of Tides and
"Waves; Theor)- of Roads, Railroads, and Canals; Principles of Architectural
Design; Principles of Metallurgy ; Economies of Construction; Endurance of
Structures, Engines, Machines, and Implements.
Work. — In the Drawing Office ; In tiie Collection of Engineering Models;
In the Collection of Building Materials; In the Collection of Mae'.iines; In ilie
Laboratory of Strength of Materials; In the Chemical Laboratory; In Engi-
neering Experiment; In the Factory ; On the Works; In Foreign Travel.
TIIE SCHOOL OF illXES.
Pure Science. — Mathematics ; Physics ; Chemistry ; Geology ; Political
Economy.
Practical Applications. — Descriptive Geometry; Trigonometrical Surveying;
Mineralo^ical Drawing; DistriV)Ution of Minerals; Practical Mechanics: Ele-
ments of ilachinery; Steam Engines and Boilers; Ventilation; Drawing;
Physiology and Chemistry of Life.
Work. — In the Chemical Laboratory: In the Physical Laboratory: In the
Drawing Office; In the Museum of Geology; la the Mine; In Foreign Mines.
THE MfJTALLURGIST.
Pure Science. — Mathematics; Physics; Chemi-try; Geology.
Pradl'-al Applies tiow. — Smelting and Re'ining; Practical Mechanics: Strength
of Materials; Descriptive Geometry; Mineralogical Drawing: (,'ombustion and
Yenfilation: Elements of Machinery; Steam Engines and Boilers: Statics of
Buildings; Nature of Machine Tools; Hj'draulic Machinery ; Electro-Magnetic
Metallurgy.
Work. — In the Chemical Laboratory ; In the Physical Laboratory ; Tn the
Drawing Office; In the Museum of Geology; lu the Metal Manufactory; lu
Foreign Travel.
THE SCHOOL OP AGRICULTURE.
Pure Science. — Mathematics; Physics: Chemistry: Natural History; Geology.
Applirat'ons of Science. — Anatomy of Plants; Physiology of Plants; Anat-
omy of Animals ; Physiology of Animals ; Geology of Soils ; Chemist vy of Soils ;
Chemistry of Manures: Chemistry of Food; Veterinary Medicine and Surgery;
Survej'ing, Leveling, Plan-drawing, and Draining; Practical Mechanics; Prin-
ciples of Steam Enc-ines; Agricultural Machinery and Implements: Nature and
Influence of Clim;ites; Buildings, Roads, Gates, and Fences; Training Fruit
Trees, and Timber.
Practical Work. — In the Mechanical Workshop ; In the Hospital fbr Ani-
Og SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
inals: Tn tlio Farm ; In Foreign Travel; Tn tlie Chemical Laboratory; In the
Pliy.sical Laborat^'ry ; Jii the Drawing Utliee; lu the iiuseum of Natural His-
tory; lu tlie Musemu of Geology.
TIIK GARPENliR AND FORESTER.
TTave an education of similar nature to the Agriculturist, with a specialt}' in
each case. Both have, in ;;dciiti( ii, to study ti.e prihcip.es of beauty in their
apphca;ions to Landseajie Decoration, and in tlieir combinations with Arclii-
teciure; bo.li require a hi rge course of instruction in the Theory of Climate,
and in Pliysical (Geography and Botanical Geography — both, therefore, must
study Decorative .\rchitecture. For tlie rest, the study of the same courses as
the ^Agriculturist is ULcessarj*.
THE SCHOOL OF COMMERCE.
THE MERCHANT.
Pure Sri?nce. — Geograghy; Natural History; Ethnology; Political Econ-
omy; Doctrine of Probabihtier^ ; Histoiy; Languages; P^tliics; Law.
rruclical AjiplkatMHS. — Construction and Outfit of Ships ; Doclis and "Ware-
houses; Physical Geography; Political Geograpliy ; Geography' of Plants;
Geography of Animals; Geography of Minerals; Weights and Measures of
Nations; Mone3's of Nations; Statistics and "Wealth of Nations; Laws of
Tahie; Laws of Insurance; Laws of Navigation ; Principles of Exchange;
Theories of Price; Interest and Banking; Laws of Commerce and Ship] ing.
Work. — In Natural llistoiy Collections; In Collection of Raw Materials; In
Counting-house and "Warehouse ; In Foreign Travel
TUE MANUFACTrRER.
Pure Science. — Mathematics; Phj-sics; Chemistry; Natural History ; Politi-
cal Econom3^
P.artical Ajiplications. — Geometrical Drawing; Decorative Drawing; Light
and Siiade; Light and Color; Principles of Beauty; Principles of Design ;
Cliemistry of Color; Animal Substances; "Vegetable Substances ; Mineral Sub-
stances; Geography of Raw Materials; Mechanics of Raw Materials; Archi-
tectin-e of ManutlutoriLs; Architecture of Warehouses; Manuliicturing Ma-
chiiier}' : Connnerce and Banking.
Wdi-Ic. — In Natural Histoiy Collections; Tn Collection of Raw Materials; la
Collection ff M.u-him* Models; In Collection of Patterns of Manufactured
Goods; lu tlie -Liuooiatoiy ; lu the I'actorj' ; lu Foreign Travel
THE SHIP OWNER.
Pure Science. — Elementary Geometry ; Elementary Arithmetic; Elementary
Hydrostatics; Elementaiy Hydrodynamics; Elementary' Pneumatics; Elemen-
tary Chemistiy; Elementary Geography; Elementary Natural History; Ele-
nientarj- Ethnology ; Elementary Political Economy; Elementary Languages;
Elementary Ethics; Elementary Law.
Practic.il Applications — Descriptive Geometry; Strength and Values of Ma-
terials; Sources of Materials; Physical Geography; Weights and Measures
of Nations; Laws of Nations (:'ud Customs); Moneys of Nations; Laws of
Commerce; Insurance (Principles of); Principles of E.Kchange; Docks, and
Harbors, and Warehouses; Navigation; Seamanship; Ship Building; Marine
Jln.iine Building; Sail Making; Masting and Rigging; Equipment and On! tit;
Lading and Storing; Manning and Clearing Out; Laws of Commerce aiid Ship-
ping; Laws of Freight and Insurance; Laws of Measurement and Tonnage;
S'lip's Husbandry; Health, Food, and Safeij'; Wages and Disliursemenis;
Merchandise and Exchange; Banking and Interest; Navigation Laws; Book-
keeping; Stowage.
Work. — In the Drawing OfR'p; In the Ship Model Room; In the Fng"ne
Model Room; In the Building Yard ; In the Engine Factory ; In the Harbor;
In the Ship's Store Rooms; In the Warelionses; In the Docks; In the Re-
pairing Yard ; In Sail-makcr"s, Mast-maker's, Rigger's Yard.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 27
THE SCHOOL OF ASTRONOMY, NAVIGATIOX, AN'D SURVEYING.
Tiie: SAILOR.
Pure Science. — Elementary Geometry; Elementary Alp:ebra; Elementary
Aritlimetic: Elementary (Jeograpliy ; Elementary Astronomy; l-Memeutary Mo-
ciiaiiics; Elementary Languages; Elemeutaiy Pneumatics; Elementary Hy-
draulics.
Frar.liiyd AppUratians. — Drawing; Strength of ifaterials ; Pli^y.^ieal Oeog-
rapliy; Commercial Geography ; Nautical Astronomy; t'liart-niaking; Marine
Surveying; Submarine Surveying; Ship Building; Equipment of Ships and
Outfit; Stowage and Tonnage; Masting and Rigging; Laws of Tonnage; Cus-
toms and Clearance; Laws of Nations; Navigation Laws; Laws of Storms;
Laws of Commerce; Laws of i'reigiit and hisiU'ance; Shiji's Ilu.shandrv;
TIealtli, Food, and Safety ; Book-keeping; Navigation; Seamanship; Ihirbors,
] >oi-ks, and Slips ; Weights, Measures, and Moneys ; Steam-engines and Boilers;
Artillery; Naval Tactics.
Work. — In the Drawing Office; Tn thcCluirt Room ; In the Calculating Room ;
In tiie Ship Model Room; In the Engine Mode] Room; In the Building Yard;
In the Engine Factory; In the Repairing Yard; In the Training Ship; la
Ships at Sea; In IIarb:irs; In Surveying Ships ; In Ships of "War.
THE SCHOOL OF XAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
THE NAVAL ARCHlTErT.
Pure Science. — Higher Geometry; Higher Algebra; Higher Arithmetic;
Higher St:itics; Higher Il3^drostatics ; Higher Dynamics; Higher Hj-dro-
dynamics; Higher Chemistry ; Higher Metallurgy; Higher Pneumatics.
Practical Ap/dicatioas. — Descriptive Geometry ; Constructive Geometry ;
Sources of Materials ; Properties of Materials ; Strength of Materials ; Ele-
ments of Mechanic-: Structural Mechanics; Engines and Boikrs; Pro{)eller3
and Mechanism; Artillerv and Protection ; Metallurgy; Economics of "Work ;
Laws of Connnerce and Shipping; Freight and Insurance; Navigation; Sea-
manship; Lading and Ship's Husbandry; Naval Tactics and War; Health,
Food, and Climate; Ship's "\Vages and Economics; Harbors and Docks; Equip-
ment. Rigging, and Outlit; Storing and Lading; Measurement and Tonnage.
Work. — In the Drawing Office; In the Model Lrift; On the Moulding Floor;
In the Collection of Marine Engines; In the Collection of Materials; In the
Collection of Ship Mod>*ls; In tiie Experiments of Materials; In the Building
Yard ; At Sea ; In the Engine Factory.
THE MARINE ENQIKEER.
This is a mixture of the Ship-builder and the Mechanical Engineer's courses
of education, with experience superadded of buildiug Marine Engines, erecting
them on board ship, and managing them at sea.
We have now to consider how we shall group the students of these schools,
that they may avail themselves simultaneously of such courses of education as
are common to each group.
It is plain at first sight, that the civil engineer and the architect are allied
professions; that the mechanical engineer and the machinist belong in one
group; that tlio merchant and the sliip-owner go together ; that the manufac-
turer and the practical chemist have need of the same knowledge; that the
miner and the metallurgist maj- be grouped together, as also the astronomer,
the surveyor, and sailor: that the statesman, the political economist, and the
man of literature, have many studies in common: and we shall thus be able to
simplify much the courses of study each pupil may have to seek out and ap-
propriate to himself.
I. — The Schnol of Mechanics. — 1. The Mechanical Engineer. 2. The Ma-
chinist. 3. Tlie Marine Engineer.
\\.—The Shool of Civil Construction.— I. The Civil Engineer. 2. The
Architect. 3. The Naval Architect.
28
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
III. — The School of Naval Architecture. — 1. The Naval Architect. 2. The
Ship-owner. 3. The Marine Engineer. 4. The Sailor.
IV.— ne School of CheinMnj.—\. The Professor. 2. The rraetical Cliem-
i.st. 3. The Dyer. 4. The Mineralogist. 5. The Aualj'St. 6. The Chemiral
Manufacturer.
Y.— The School of Jlines.—l. The Miner. 2. The Metallurgist. 3. The
Practical Chemist.
VI. — The S:h'iol of Commerce. — 1. The Merchant. 2. The Manufacturer.
3. The Political Economist. 4. The Ship-owner.
VII. — TIw. ScJiool of Agriculture. — 1. The Agriculturist. 2. The Gardentr.
3. The Forester.
VIII. — 2'he School of Astronomy., Kavigaiion, and Surveying. — 1. The As-
tronomer. 2. The Surveyor. 3. The Sailor.
IX. — The School of Literature and Language. — 1. The Statesman. 2. The
Political Economist. 3. The Teacher. 4. The Professor.
X.—The Srhoul of Fine Arts.—\. The Architect. 2. The Sculptor. 3. The
Painter. 4. The Decorator. 5. The Designer.
XL — The School of Political Economij. — 1. The Statesman. 2. The Econo-
mist. 3. The Merchant. 4. The Manufacturer. 5. The Professor.
XII. — The School of M(^ta2)hy.',ics and Ethics. — 1. The Statesman. 2. The
Professor. 3. The Moral Philosopher.
XAll.—The School of Fedagogij.—l. The Professor. 2. The Teacher. 3. The
Schoolmaster.
XIV. — The Prepar (dory and Suxtplementary School. — A provisional arrange-
ment for bringing up students who are iusuflicientlj- prepared lor the University.
XV.— The School of Mathematics.— \. The Calculator. 2. The Actuary.
3. The Statistician. 4. The Survej'or. 5. The Astronomer. 6. The Pro-
fessor.
XVI. — The School of Science and Philosophy. — This is a school for the
training of philosopher.s, men of science, and men of leisure, who ma3' not pro-
pose to become members of professions, but who desire to cultivate the sciences
and the philosophies for purposes of personal improvement, and hope to apply
their knowledge to the advancement of human society.
liach School must have its Museum of material, apparatus, and practical
machinery, and each Science its technical books, and means of special illustra-
tion or experiment.
Local Technical Colleges. .
Subordinate to this metropolitan university, local technical colleges should
be placed in every great centre of local industry. Tlie subjects taught would
be nearly the same as in the university, only the theoretical part would not be
carried to the same heights of science, and tlie technical part would be more
fully carried out into the technical details of the industries of the neighborhood.
Speciallj^ attached also to each of them would be an extensive collection of
models, examples, materials belonging to the local industries, and a free teeh-
uical library, with a comfortable reading room.
Country Trade Schools.
The lower class of institutions would be those which either form preparatory
schools for the technical colleges, or linishing technical schools lor tlio e who
can go no further; and these should pervade not only the whole countr}^, but
tliO large towns and the metropolis, there being one such institution for every
20,000 inliabilauls in town districts, and for every 10,000 in country districts;
and either in the same building or in a different one there should be technical
schools in the evening, as complete in their course of instruction for the \\-ork-
ing men, as in t!ie morning for the j-outh of the district; and to these schools
should be attached a library, museum, and reading-room, siniihu' to that of the
colleges, only more elementary, and on a small(»r scale. It is these local night
schools and libraries for the working men that ought to fultill tlie duties in
which our mechanics' institutions have so wofuUy tailed, and it ma,v in some
cases he couvenient that the government should make use of the building ai;d
orgauizatiou of these mechanics' institutes for these technical evening schools.
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
HISTORICAL.
The most important event in the liistory of governmental interposition in
scieiitilic and technical instruction in Great Britain was the Universal Exposi-
tion of tlie Industries of Nations held in Loudon in 1851 — the lirst of that
series of sublime lessons, read of all men, of the dignity and value of human
labor and artistic skill, when directed by science to a knowledge and to the
observance of the laws of nature, which has already modilied, not only in
Great Britain, but in all civilized nations, systems and institutions of industrial
training. The approach to this Orst great demonstration of the existing con-
dition of the industry and products of the world — to this series of competitive
trials of intelligence and skill between workmen of the same and difl'ereut na-
tions, trained in different ways in the use of the same material, for the same
purposes of utility and ornamentation — was gradual. In all civilized countries,
exhibitions of a local or provincial cliaracter, and in some cases of national
scope, had been held within the last half century. In England, the Society of
Art.s, as early as 1736, had olTered prizes for specimens of tapestry, carpets and
porcelain, and in 1761, of pictures and engravings, displaj'cd in rooms of the
Society at London ; but it was not till 1828 that a national exhibition of the
products of the workshops, factories and studios of England, of a varied and
'general cliaracter, took place in London, under the name of the Royal Reposi-
tory. This was followed, in 1837, 1839, and 1849, at Manchester, Leeds, and
Birmingham.
In France the first systematic and successful Industrial Exhibition of na-
tional importance was held in 1798, on the suggestion, and under the manage-
ment of the Marquis d'Avcze, commissioner of the national manufactories of
Scvres and tlie Gobelins. The second took place in 1801, and the third in 1802,
under the active lead of the First Consul {N^npoleon), assisted by a commission
of the most seientilic men of France, who visited the most important factories,
workshops, and ateliers of France, to explain the individual and national ad-
vantages of such an exhibition of the products of every department of labor
and skill. That of 1801 was held in the quadrangle of the Louvre, and one of
the bronze medals was awarded to Jacquard for his loom. To give staV'ility
and provide the agencj' of similar exhibitions, a Societj* for the Encouragement
of the Industrial Arts and Manufactures of France was instituted in 1802, and
under its auspices, aided by the government, numerous National Fairs have
been held — each with a larger number of exhibitors, and with more varied
specimens of scientific invention and artistic skill — especially in the direction
of common wants. The Exhibition of 1S49 is remarkable for the proposition
30
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT ERITAIN.
of M. Buffet, the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, to all the Chambers of
Commerce, to include specimens of the industrial productions of other nations
in tlie competitions for honorable mention and premiums. But the proposition
did not meet with general favor, and its consideration was dropped. The va-
rious French Expositions had been much frequented by the manufacturers and
designers of other countries, and numerous illustrations of the finest articles in
the domain of Art had been published — especially of those of 18-15, and 18-19
— in other countries ; the broad international advantages of such displays of
the perfected specimens of artistic and trained labor impressed many minds in
different countries, but nowhere with such immediate practical results as in
England. It only needed the right word from the voice of authority to bring
this feeling into action ; and that word was uttered by liis Royal Highness,
Prince Albert of England, to the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,
of which he was President: — "Now is the time to prepare for a Great Exhi-
bition — an Exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country, not merely
national in its scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the wliole world, and I
offer myself to the public as their leader, if they are willing to assist in the un-
dertaking." The offer was accepted — the Society, the press, capitalists, manu-
facturers, artists, artisans, and finally the government, enlisted; and in the
summer of 1851, in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, in the presence of 100,000
people of every nation, the Great International Exhibition of the products of
every clime, and the fabrics of the workshops of every tribe, was inaugurated.
The Exhibition — the first great competitive trial of nations in the peaceful field
of industry — was a complete success — a sublime monument of the dignity and
value of labor, when directed by intelligence and taste, to minister to the
necessities and rational pleasures of mankind.
RESULTS.
The benefits resulting to Great Britain, and sooner or later in the influence
of this and similar exhibitions, to all countries, from the Great Industrial Expo-
sition of 1851, can not be over-estimated, although it may be difiScult to pre-
sent them in a condensed statement. "We shall notice only a few, with special
reference to technical instruction — the formal training of workingmen of all
grades in knowledge, taste and skill in their several occupations, through famil-
iarity with the best specimens of material, implements, machinery, and work,
collected in museums or exJiibitions, and opportunities of study and practice in
schools organized and conducted with special reference to imparting such
knowledge, taste, and skill.
1. Every person, who made even a brief visit to the Exhibition, had a clearer
conception of a finished specimen of manufacture or handicraft, in the line of
Lis own wants, than he had before, and thus a demand for a better style of
workmanship was created.
2. Every artist, manufacturer, foreman, or operative who visited the Exhi-
bition, and especially those wlio studied the departpient with whicli he was
most familiar, or the most interested, had in his mind a higher standard of possi-
ble attainment than most of them had before reached. Efforts at improvement
in design, and in detail, were at once made, and the means for further improve-
ment were demanded, and, to some extent, furnished.
3. The attention of capitalists, public-spiiited citizens and statesmen was
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 3^
forcibly arrested to the necessity of providing at once better elementary train-
ing for all classes, and especially for those who have to live by their labor; ;iiid
at the «ame time, securing to designers, engineers, foremen and superiiitendfnts
generally of large works, better artistic and scientific training. The ininu'diato
results of this attention, and agitation, were more liberal appropriations for pri-
mary schools, and for schools of science and art, a general discussion of the
whole subject of National Education, and the final passage in 1870 of an uot,
establishing a system of elementary schools for Kngland, as well as the earlier
creation of the Government Department of Science and Art, Avhich is rapidly
changing the whole aspect of scientitic and technical instruction in Great Biit-
ain, and influencing its development in every civilized country. The Museum
of Industrial Art at South Kensington, created since 1852, with its affiliated
schools and museums, central and provincial, is now the model for imitation for
Europe and America.
4. The perpetuation of the unique structure designed speciall}' for the Exhi-
bition, in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, and its equipment, and the embel-
lishment of the grounds for the avowed purposes of public utility and recreation
"in the direction of science and art," at a cost of over £1,500,000 — has already
accomplished its object with more than 4,000,000 visitors who have been at-
tracted to the spot up to 1369.
5. The permanent org^mization and continued activity of the original Com-
mission, composed of some of the most eminent men (in science, letters, arts
and alTairs) in the kingdom, through whose wise management this unprece-
dented enterprise was a pecuniary success — is another result, which is perpet-
uating the influence of the Great Exhibition in many directions: —
Fii-bt — In securing the possible union of many institutions of Science and
Art, on almost the only central spot within the vast circumference of the me-
tropolis which could be secured for the purpose. The purchase of the Gore
Estate in South Kensington, having with subsequent exchanges and purchases
an area of 100 acres, accessible by railways and other cheap public convc}--
anccs, and connected with public parks and grounds, already highly improved,
to an extent of 640 acres — out of the surplus income of the Exhibition (150,-
000/.) and a special grant of a like sum b}- Parliament.
S'xond — The subsequent erection on this estate of buildings devoted to Art
and Science at a cost of over 1,000,000/., and the gathering within them of
museums and collections (hardly yet begun) which the like sum could not even
now purchase.
Third — The erection of an appropriate hall for annual exhibitions of indus-
trial productions, and other purposes, at an expense of near 300,000/.
The purchase and improvement of this estate for the promotion of scientific
and artistic knowledge, as applicable to productive industry, would not have
been possible but for the GreaT; International Exhibition of 1851. No fitter me-
morial of the first suggester of this enterprise — the good Prince Albert, " to
whose far-seeing and comprehensive philanthropy its first conception was due,
and to whose clear judgment and untiring exertions in directing its execution,
the world is indebted for its unprecedented success,"— could be devised than this
estate thus improved. No monument at once so attractive for all classes in the
kingdom, or so full of instruction and inspiration of the noblest kind for all
time, in every department of industrial activity, both that which ministers to
32 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.
the necessities and comforts of life, and tliat which labors to realize in form and
color, tlie loftiest ideal of the artist and poet, — could be erected to perpetuate
tlie nieuiory of this great evept in tlie history of national industries, tli;in the
grounds and structures devoted to Science and Art in South Kensington, se-
cured by the wise mauageiuent of the Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851.
ALBERT HALL OF ARTS AND SCIEN'CES.
The first stone of a solid, majestic, and ornamental structure was laid by her
Majesty the Queen on tlie 20th of May, 1867, on the site nortli of the Gardens
of the Roj-al Horticultural Society at South Kensington — to be known as the
Alueut Hall of Arts and Sciences, and to be used for tlie promotion of
scientific and artistic knowledge as applicable to productive industr}'. The
Eoyal Commissioners gave a site valued at 60,000?., and advanced the sum of
5O,O00L towards the cost of the building, which has been contracted for within
the orig'nal estimate of 200,000/. The hall will accommodate 9,000 persons,
and will be used ou]y in the interests of Science and Art— the firt>t occasion
being the inauguration of the First Permanent Exhibition of Industrial Art in
he spring of 1871.
The objects for which the Hall will be available, as enumerated in the
Charter of Incorporation, are : —
(a.) Congresses, both national and international, for the purposes of Science
and Art.
{!).) Performances of Music, including performances on the organ.
(c.) The distribution of prizes by public bodies and societies.
(d.) Conversaziones of societies established for the promotion of Science and
Art.
(e.) Agricultural, horticultural, and the like exhibitions.
(/.) Xational and international exhibitions of works of arc and industry, in-
cluding industrial exhibitions by the artizan classes.
ANNUAL IXTERXATIOXAL EXHIBITIONS.
The Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1851 have arranged
for a series of Annual International Exhibitions of Select "Works of Fine and
Industrial Art and Scientific Invention — arranged in classes and not according
to nations. The first of the series will be opened, Monday, May 1, 1871, in
permanent buildings adjoining the arcades of the Eoj-al Horticultural Gardens,
and closed Saturday, September 30, 1871. The objects in the first exhibitioa
will consist of the following classes: —
I. Fine Arts Aiiplied or vot Applied to Works of UHlity — embracing (1.) Paint-
ing of all kinds. (2.) Sculpture, modeling, carving, and chasing. (3.) En-
graving. (4.) Architecture. (5 ) Tapestries, carpets, embroideries. (9.) De-
signs for decorations, manufactiu'es. (7.) Copies of mosaics, enamels, &c.
II. Scientific Inventions and Nezu Discoveries of all kinds.
III. Manufactures. — (a.) Pottery of all kind.s. (b.) Woolen and worsted fab-
rics, (c.) Educational. — 1. Sehool buildings, fitting, and furniture. 2. Books,
maps, globes, &c. 3. Appliances for physical training, inckiding toys and
games. 4. Specimens and illustrations of teaching fine art, natural history,
and physical science.
IV. IlurticuUure. — International exhibitions of new and rare plants, fruits,
vegetables, flowers, &c., will be held by the Royal Horticultural Society, in
conjunction with the above exhibition.
One-third portion of the whole available space will be assigned absolutely to
foreign exhibitors.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
IXTRODCCTION.
Since the cession of the Lombaido-Venetian provinces to Italy,
the Austrian monarchy has an area of 227,234 square miles, and a
population in 1864 of 34,432,890, distributed throughout —
I. The Empire of Austria, comprising the provinces of Lower
Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Illyria,
Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Buko-
wina, Dalmatia ; and
II. The Kingdom of Hungary, comprising the provinces of Hun-
gary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, and the Military Frontier.
Each of the two great divisions has its own ministry, parliament,
and entirely separate administration, and every province has its own
provincial diet.
Austria [Empire] has, on an area of 124,116 square miles, a pop-
ulation of 20,602,736, and the Kingdom of Hungary, on an area of
103,118, a population of 13,830,154. The national industries are
as varied as the climate and soil, and have called into existence a
large number of special schools.
The total expenditure in 1864 was 508,781,793 florins, of which
sura 2,951,523 florins were expended for public instruction of all
kinds, viz., 139,828 fl. in Hungary, and 2,580,670 fl. in Austria.
The institutions of public instruction, both in Austria proper and in
Hungary, are under a separate and special minister, except such as
are specially connected with the administration of other depart-
ments, such as those of war, finance, &c.
The system of public instruction is comprehensive,* and in every
department at the present time there is progress. The recent school
code (1869) will compare favorably with the most advanced legis-
lation of any country in respect to elementary, instruction.
The following statistics are gathered from the latest official doc-
uments.
•For a historical development of public instruction in Austria, see American Journal of Edu-
catioD, vol. xvi. p. 1—32, 009; xvii. p. 129. Special Report on JJ'ational Education : Part L
Germany — .Austria.
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STBCIAL IXSTEUCnOX IS AUSTRIA. 35
SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL IXSTBUCTION.
The system of special technical instruction in Austria includes in
its early stages, or at least recognizes, the future occupation of the
pupils, in the primary schools of every grade, and in one of the
grades of schools usually class :'d as secondary.
IKDtJSTRIAl- INSTECCTIOV IX COMMOX SCHOOLS.
The first notice of the industrial element in Austrian schools, we
find in the normal, or model school of Kindermaun, at KapUtz in
Bohemia- In 1773, hp taught and demonstrated to his pupU-teachers,
and the country school-masters, how to occupy a portion of their O'^rn
time and that of their older pupils, in and out of school hours, in such
in-door industries as knitting, sewing, wool carding, and spuming, and
out-door work as kitchen gardening, culture of trees, and raising silk-
worms. ''The advantages of these occupations are great and impor-
tant. They protect against vice and crime, and promote the welfare
of human society." Under his lead, in the first year of this century,
2,644: public schools were in operation in Bohemia, 54 of which were
burgher-schools, in which the aim was " to give the future citizen an
instruction adapted to his special occupation."
Instruction in needle-work and like feminine emplov-ments, is now
usual in the female schools, and the girls' classes in mixed schools, and
receives special attention in the industrial schools of the religious cor-
porations and ladies' societies. Instruction iu the care of mulberry
trees, grape vines, bees, and orchards is given in the normal schools,
and by their pupils to the older boys in a large number of districts.
StrXDAY AXD OTHER IMPROTEMEXT SCHOOLS.
In close connection with the common school, and through the same
asenc'es, the "further instruction" of bovs after leaving school and en-
tering into apprenticeship, is carried on with the assist;inoe and special
inspection of Chambers of Commerce, and local associations of trades-
men. The instruction is given on Sunday and holidays (except the
h\cr\\ feasts), and in the mornins and evening ot other davs. It is
not confined to a review of the rudimentary studies, but is extended
to'higher arithmetical calculations, book-keeping. Iwnk dealings, busi-
ness correspondence and forms, natural history, and particularly to
di-awing. A record of attendance fs kept, and delinquent parents
and emplo3'ers are fined, and proprietors of large establishments are
subject to arrest and imprisonment for persistent neglect in nx*peot to
their apprentices and other juvenile operatives.
36 . SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IX AUSTRIA
BUBGHER SCHOOLS.
The burgher school, which belongs to the primary system, origi-
nally intended to prepare pupils for the occupation of tradesmen and
mechanics by a better general education, has become a subordinate
real school, the students generally entering the higher real school after
finishing the course.
There are thirty hours of instruction per week, embracing re-
ligion, composition, German, arithmetic, geography, natural philos-
ophy, chemistry, geometry, architecture, geometrical and architect-
ural drawing, and a little historical detail. French, Italian, English,
music, and gymnastics, are optional. The tuition fees are small,
and are remitted if the pupil is poor and has conducted himself well.
In 1865, there were 117, of which but seven gave a three years'
course, the rest only two years ; instruction being given by the director
and catechist of the primary high school, with 365 additional teachers.
The instruction in arithmetic, German composition, geography, natural
philosophy, chemistry and drawing, is given in the higher classes in
special reference to a commercial and mechanical career.
REAL SCHOOLS.
The object of the real school is to give to its pupils a general edu-
cation, the dead languages being excepted, and ''to fit them to enter
the technical schools, or to pursue industrial careers."
They have been gradually developing since 1751, but do not ap-
pear as distinct organizations before 1851. In 1863, there were
forty of them in the Austrian empire, of which there are sixteen
" lower real schools," with a course of ordy three years, and twenty-
four " complete real schools," which carry their students through six
years, thus adding three years to the course at the lower real school.
There is, in three of the lower schools, an additional class, in which
instruction is given in technology, commodities raw and manufactured,
commercial transactions, and particularly in drawing.
The lower real schools turn out pupils well prepared, theoretically,
to become master workmen and overseers ; those called complete,
prepare students who finish the course, to enter the technical schools.
The course of study varies somewhat in different places. The
obligatory studies are, German (or the language of the province),
one modern language — French, Italian, or English, geography, his-
tory, arithmetic, geometry, physics, chemistry, commercial law, nat-
ural history, drawing, modeling (in the highest class), ornamental
penmanship, architecture, and mechanics. Latin has been added in
some of the lowest classes. The modem languages, singing, gym-
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 37
nasties, and stenography are optional. Of the above Ptiulies, eleinent-
ary mathematics, machinery, and the modern tongues arc taught only
in the higher classes, in which calligraphy is no longer obligatory.
The complete schools have twelve professors, the lower schools
seven. Those applying for these positions must par's an examination
as to their scientific attainments, and undergo a year's probation in a
public real school, before receiving the appointment. At the head
of the corps of teachers is a director, who, with the council of teachers,
governs the school, subject to the supervision of the general coun-
cilor of schools.
The fees paid by pupils vary from eight to twenty florins annually,
besides a fee of about two florins at admission. All the fees may be
remitted to poor pupils conducting themselves well.
The yearly expenses of a lower school amount to from 8,000 to
11,000 florins ; of a higher school, to from 15,000 to 20,000. They
are either imperial royal, in which case the general government sup-
ports them, or communal, supported by the towns. Besides these,
two are endowed, and one is private, assimilated.
SPECIAL TECnXICAL SCHOOLS.
Technical instruction in Austria is of very long standing, and
at the beginning of this century three important technical schools
were in operation, and others were instituted long befoi'e the neigh-
boring German States had moved in this direction.
In 1717, a professorship for military and civil engineering was
established at Prague, which gradually extended itself into a school
of engineering, and became in 1806 the first independent polyteclinic
school in Austria. It has undergone many changes, and in 1865 was
organized on the plan of special schools, uniting on a general prepar-
atory course.
In 1745, the Empress Maria Theresa organized in Vienna the first
university lectures on experimental physics, and in 1757, on mechan-
ics, and in 1763, permitted instruction in book-keeping to be given at
the Piarist schools, and at the same time established several schools
for apprentices. In 1770, a Real and Mercantile Academy was es-
tablished in Vienna, which became in 1816 the polytechnic institute.
In the year 1763, the first lectures were held on mining at Schem-
nitz, and in 1770, the school in Prague being given up, the Mining
Academy was founded there. Its fame was soon so great that
Fourcroy, in his brilliant speech made in the French National As-
sembly, 1794, as an incentive to the erection of the polytechnic school
in Paris, referred to this school as a well known model for imitation.
: 1 ui.t;ssui a .
54
1963
- 25
617
13
196
- 11
229
14
171
- 24
201
16
154
gg SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
In 1811, the Johanneum in Gratz was founded by the Archduke
John, as a museum and institution for natural sciences, and was
afterwards changed, little by little, into a polytechnic institute.
In 1843, the Real and Mercantile School in Lembergwas changed,
by the addition of several courses, into a technical institute, and in
1846, a technical school was founded at Cracow, and in 1849, an-
other at Briinn.
In 1856, the Industrial School at Pesth was removed to Ofen, and
received there the organization of a Polytechnic Institute, so that in
1859 there were seven technical institutions of the first class, with
157 professors, and 3,531 students, distributed as follows :
Location.
Vienna Polytechnic Institute, - - -
Pnigue " " - -
Briinn " «...
Lemberg " " . . .
Cracow " «...
Ofen " « . . -
Gratz " "...
The plan of instruction embraced both technical and commercial
studies, except at Prague and Ofen, where technical instruction only
was given. In Vienna there was a preparatory school, and a school
of industrial drawing, which accounts for the larger number of pupils ;
Cracow has a school of fine arts, and of music, and Ofen a prepara-
tory school.
In 1850, a reorganization of the technical institutions was proposed,
by which they should be raised into institutes of the highest class,
with a system of special schools, as had been already instituted at
Carlsruhe. After many years of agitation, in which the professors,
and large manufacturers, and capitalists, as well as statesmen, took
part, a new plan ot studies was introduced at Prague in 1864—65 ; at
Gratz in 1865-66, and in Vienna in 1866-67. At Vienna and Prague
there are four schools : 1. Civil Engineering; 2. Architecture; 3. Ma-
chinery; 4. Technical Chemistry. At Gratz, agriculture and forest
economy, and surveymg take the place of architecture. At Gratz and
Vienna there are two general classes, which precede the special courses.
At Briinn by decree of 1866, two regular courses for construction
of machinery and technical chemistry, and three special courses, one
for commerce, and one for master mechanics and builders, and a
third for miners, have been established.
Besides the Technical schools, there has grown up in Austria spe-
cial schools of Agriculture, Commerce, Navigation, &c., of which a
rapid survey will now be given, drawn from original documents, and
the reports of the French and English commissioners.
SPKCIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 39
II. TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS AND CLASSES.
We will now give from official documents, or from the Reports of the English
and French Commissions, drawn up from the same or similar documents, with
the advantage of recent personal vi.sits to the institutions described, a brief notice
of a few specimens of each grade of scientific and technical instruction.
APPRENTICE AND WORKMEN'S SCHOOLS.
The schools, which are known in Prussia and great part of Germany by the
name of Improvement Schools (Fortlildungschulen) are in Austria called Trade
Schools ( (lewcrbeschulen), or industrial schools. The confusion which these dif-
ferent significations of names may cause, ceases when we examine the object, the
conditions, and the nature of the instruction given in these establishments.
Their creation in Austria, and in Vienna especially, dates only from the year
1857, when the Industrial Society was formed, with the approbation of the Gov-
ernment and the assistance of the municipality.
The members of this Society imposed on themselves, in principle, the obliga-
tion of sending their apprentices, during the last year at least of their time, to
follow the classes, which, under the title of Gewcrbesohulen, should be opened in
the Real or practical schools of the State or those of the town, and also to pay a
subscription in proportion to the importance of their establishments, even when
they had no apprentices. This voluntary contribution is fixed at four kreutzers
per florin (or one-fifteenth) of the taxes paid. On the other hand, it was decided
that the apprentices should attend these classes during their last year, or in de-
fault should not be regarded as having finished their apprenticeship.
The teaching in each of these schools is under the supervision of the director,
and is given by the professors of the practical school to which it is attached. The
latter receive an addition to their salary in proportion to the number of hours'
lessons ; if one of the professors be unable to undertake this additional work, the
director appoints another person in his stead.
In 1861, owing to the efforts made by the Chambers of Commerce and the
manufiicturcrs, there already existed in the suburbs of Vienna five of these
schools annexed to the practical schools of Gumpendorf, Wieden, Landstrasse,
Jiigerzeile, and Schottenfeld, as well a sa school of weaving ( Weberschiile) at Gum-
pendorf, and a practical school of building. They have the use of the premises,
collections, and teaching appliances of the practical schools without any expense ;
but the models of a more technical kind required are purchased with their own
funds.
1. TRADE SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES IN VIENNA.
There are six trade or industrial schools in Vienna attached to the Real
Gymnasium or Practical Schools, having a general resemblance, but with special
instruction adapted to the vocation of the pupils who are apprentices and journey-
men from the vicinity of the school.
The instruction is divided into an elementarj' section having two classes, and
several sections relating to different industrial specialties. In the elementary
section theoretical instruction is given and the pupils are practised in the art of
drawing, with especial adaptation to the future career of each. In the special
sections, the knowledge acquired is applied to the branches of industry choseu
40 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
by the pupil. The organization of the specialties must be adapted, in cver>- dis-
trict, to the requirements of the local industries. The specialties of the Gum-
pendorf school are therefore principally those necessary for weavers, workers in
silk, ribbons, trimmings, dyeing, &c. The school of Wieden has specialties con-
nected with machinery, and such trades as brass-turners, jofners, bookbinders,
workers in copper and bronze, founders, &c. In the Jajgerzeile school the
courses bear chiefly on the building trades.
The number of hours is nine and a half during the week, partly after half-past
six in the evening, and partly on Sundays in the forenoon. No class must ex-
ceed 50 pupils ; if there are.more, it must be divided into two. In the first class
of the elementary section the time allotted to the different lessons is as follows :
Religion, 30 minutes ; German la-nguage, 2 hours ; arithmetic, 2 hours ; calli-
graphy, 1 hour; drawing, 4 hours; total, 9 J hours per week.
The following is the allotment of time in the second class of the elementary
section: Religion, half hour ; German, exercises in style and commercial corres-
pondence, 1 hour; arithmetic and mensuration, 1 hour; elements of ].liysics, 2
hours ; geography, 1 hour ; drawing, geometrical and free-hand, projections,
drawing of ligures and ornament, and modeling, 4 hours ; total, 9^ hours per
week.
By this arrangement a single pupil attends, including the three kinds of draw-
ing, 17j hours instruction per week at most.
In the special sections the lessons are thus distributed : Industrial drawing,
4 hours ; architectural drawing, estimates, 4 hours ; drawing of machines, me-
chanics, study of machines, 4 hours ; modeling, and drawing from the round, 4
hours ; general chemistry, 1 hour ; study of raw materials, 1 hour ; commercial
book-keeping, &c., 1 hour ; applied mechanics, 1 hour ; applietH chemistry, 1 hour ;
total, 2i h6urs per week.
In the two elementary sections, the instruction is compulsory for all the courses.
In the special sections, on the contrary, the choice of courses is left to the pupils.
The school year commences on the 1st of October and ends on the 31st of July.
At the end of the year, the pupils receive certificates giving an account of their
behavior, application, and progress in the different branches. The most pro-
ficient pupils receive as prizes silver or bronze medals, or honorable mentions.
The director of the practical school, to which the school for apprentices is
annexed, is the principal manager. He, however, shares this authority with a
delegate of the Industrial Society. They both endeavor to introduce into the
teaching all the improvements required by the necessities of the local industries
as indicated by the presidents of the industrial associations which patronize the
schools. The instruction, as already stated, is given by the professors of the
corresponding courses of the practical school (Rcalschule,) provided that the pro-
fessors have sufficient time at their disposal and are satisfied with the payment
offered. When any professor declines to undertake a course in the apprentice
school, the director has to look for a teacher elsewhere. For the technical in-
struction, the director may, with the authorization of the municipal authority,
admit as professors either manufacturers or foremen, who, in everything con-
nected with the teaching, will be under his orders. For the purchase of apparatus
and all things necessary for consumption and use, there is a yearly budget placed
at the disposal of the director in concert with the professor of the specialty con-
cerned.
The general management of the trade schools of Vienna is entnistod to a
council composed of the presidents and vice-presidents of the chambers of com-
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
41
merce and manufactures, of the representatives of the province and city of Vienna,
of the president of tlic committee of each school, and, lastly, of members of the
chambers of commerce elected for the purpose. This council meets on certain
days in general assembly, to ascertain, in the presence of the directors, the state
of the schools and to deliberate on the means of extending their usefulness.
Every member of the Industrial Society for promoting the estat)lislimcnt of
echools, whether he have apprentices or not, is bound to pay a contribution cal-
culated on such a basis that the total, with the addition of sundry subventions,
will cover the whole probable expenses of the school during the current year.
By so doing, he has the right to send his apprentices (if they have received the
proper elementaiy instruction) to the school, without any further payment, ex-
cept for writing and drawing materials. Apprentices, after becoming journey-
men, cannot continue to attend the school without the payment of regular fees.
2. manufacturers' and tradesmen's school of PRAGUE.
In 1847, the Society for the Encouragement of Industry- in Bohemia founded
a Sunday and evening school for drawing and modeling in plaster for appren-
tices in Prague, which, in 1860, was extended in its range and thoroughness of
instruction to the working classes generally. The plan was drawn up by an
eminent engineer, who had studied the organization of industrial education in
France and other countries, and adopted by the Diet of Bohemia and the
council of the town.
The town provided a building for the establishment, as well as the furniture,
and a yearly grant of 1 ,500 florins, the D'et voted 2,000 florins, and the Indus-
trial Society engaged to give another 2,000 florins. The school, therefore, has
a fixed income of 5, .500 florins. The immediate superintendence of the school is
entrusted to a ccumcil of three members elected by the Diet, three members of
the municipal council, and three members of the Industrial Society.
The school was opened in 1863. The pupils are taught through the medium
of both the German and the Bohemian languages, which, in some cases, renders
two professors necessary for the subjects. The 16 professors are nearly all
attached to the professorial staffs of the tAvo higher practical schools of the town,
in the diflferent class-rooms of which the lessons are given.
The plan of studies for the year 1867-68 is as follows :
C
B
From 8 to 9 a.m.,
From 8 to 10 p.m..
From 10 to 12 a.m.,
From 2 to 4 p.m.,
One hour.
Two hours.
Two hours.
Technology.
Practical weaving.
Exercises in linear drawing.
Exercises in free-hand drawing.
Drawing of machines.
Free-hand drawing of ornament.
Exercises in linear drawing.
Exercises in free-hand drawing.
Drawings for construction of buildings.
Free-hand drawing of ornament.
Lectures on machines.
Chemistry-
Natural history.
Algebra and geometry.
Drawing for construction of buildings.
Modeling.
One hour,
>^ .•
s ip
Two liours,
S o
HS
Two hours,
-§ ^«
One hour.
tn B
el â–
Two hours,
-5 s
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Two hours,
t^tc
One hour.
rt C
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Two hours,
r
>>
One hour,
In"
-s 1
Two hours.
02 S
, Two hours,
42 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
( Arithmetic.
( Art of construction.
( Written compositions and stylo.
( Chemistry.
I Drawing of machines.
â– ? Modeling.
( Drawing of patterns.
- Algebra and geometry.
( Lectures on machines.
} Art of construction.
( Lessons in ornamentation.
- Drawing of patterns,
j Physics and mechanics.
I Technology.
( Lectures on machines.
) Art of construction.
( Modeling. ^
I Geography.
} Natural history.
( Lectures on machines,
i Arithmetic.
) Book-keeping.
( I'hysics and mechanics.
- Modeling.
In winter evening classes are held from half-past six to half-past eight, and in
summer from seven to nine o'clock. The lectures and drawing relating to the
building arts end at Easter, those for other industries last from the beginning of
October to the end of July. Candidates for admission to tlie preparatory school
must be able to read, write, and calculate; and to attend the courses of the
special divisions they must produce a certificate of capacity from the preparatory
school, or from a lower real school. The fee is half a florin a year for each
course attended ; it is paid half-yearly, and in advanc>..
The technical and practical teaching is distributed into five principal divisions,
according to the branches of industry in which the pupils are engaged.
The Jir-st is the school for the building trades, for masons, stone-cutters, car-
penters, joiners, &c. ; the instruction includes geometry, the elements of algebra,
the art of building in general, drawing for building and modeling, notions of
physics and mechanics, the cftccts of heat ; these studies require two winter half-
years. The second is the school for the construction of machines ; for smiths,
mechanicians, conductors of machines, coppersmiths, modelers, joiners, &c. ; they
are taught geometry, the rudiments of algebra, the elements of physics and me-
chanics, the description and study of machines, and also drawing ; these studies
require two years. The third, or chemical school, is for dyers, brewers, tanners,
soapboilers, &c. ; the lectures treat of general chemistry and chemical technology.
The fourth is the school for weaving and spinning ; here the pupils are taught
practical weaving, the calculations relative thereto, the preparations of the cards,
taking out of patterns, &c. Thejifh, or school of industrial art, is intended for
manuiacturcrs of porcelain and earthenware, glass blowers, goldsmiths, confec-
tioners, &c. ; the instruction consists of drawing and modelin"-. â– *â–
At the close of the courses there are examinations, after which certificates of
capacity are given to the deserving, and the two pupils at the head of each divis-
ion receive prizes. The number of workmen who attended the Prague school in
1863-64 was 762. The expense was 5,900 florins, of which 2,380 was for pro-
fessors, besides 1,620 for drawing and modeling.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN AUSTRIA.
43
3. mechanics' school at bruenx.
In 18.51, tlic Chamber of Imlustry and Commerce in Briinn (a city, in 1860,
of 45,000 inhabitants,) stimulated by the government activity in the thorough
organization of real schools, established a Mechanics' school with two sections,
the elementary for apprentices, who are deficient in even primary education ; and a
higher for such additional studies as geometry, physics, free-hand, and geometri-
cal drawing, besides lectures and practice in book-keeping, banking, and com-
mercial correspondence. Chemistry is an o])tional study for ten hours a week.
The pupils arc divided into tliree principal classes: (1) for builders, with a
special winter course for masons, joiners, and stone-cutters; (2) for mechanics,
including a special class in weaving; (3) for technical applications of chemistry.
The instruction is given on Sunday, and the evenings, and in the winter, one
hour by daylight, on Thursdays, is secured for drawing. Besides, several special
assistants ; and in the weaving class, two foremen from the largest establishment
in the city, twenty teachers from the real school, higher technical institute, and
gymnasium, are employed. The school is free, and the attendance large.
REAL GTMNASItTM OR PRACTICAL SCHOOL,
In 1867, there were 87 Real schools of the lower or three years' course, and 24
of the higher or live years' course. These are all located in the chief towns, but
draw their pupils from all parts of the districts where they are placed.
HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT PRAGUE.
This school, the origin of which the Bohemians trace with justifiable pride
through the successive transformations, which the progress of industry rendered
necessary, to the year 1576, in the reign of Rudolph II., an epoch long anterior
to the foundation of most of the schools now existing in Germany, follows the
same programme of studies as the Vienna schools, as will be seen from the fol-
lowing table. The pupils, (513 in 1867,) are divided into six classes, requiring
six years. The subjects of instruction and number of hours are indicated below.
1st
Class.
2d
Class.
3d
Class.
4 th
Class.
5 th
Class.
6 th
Class.
Totals.
Religious instruction,
2
2
2
2
2
2
12
German language,
4
4
4
3-5
4
4
23-25
Geography and history,
3
3
3
3-5
4
4
18-20
Arithmetic, - - .
4
4
3
-
—
—
11
Natural history, -
2
2
_
2
2
2
10
Useful knowledge.
2
3
_
—
_
_
5
Bohemian language, -
3
3
3
3
3
3
18
Calligraphy, - . -
2
2
2
2
_
—
8
Freehand drawing.
—
6
7
6
6
6
31
Chemistry, ...
—
_
6
2
2
2
12
Construction of buildings, -
—
_
2
_
_
_
2
Mathematics, ...
-
_
_
8
5
2
15
Linear drawing, ...
-
—
-
-
4
4
8
Physics, ....
-
-
—
—
4
4
8
Description of machines, -
-
-
-
-
—
2
2
Drawing of machines.
—
_
—
-
_
2
2
Modeling, ....
_
_
_
_
_
4
4
Geometry and construction
drawing.
10
4
-
-
-
-
14
Italian, . . . ^
(2
...
French, - - - [Outofc
lass.
•
.
m
\^
_
Stenography, - - \
u
-
u
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
The French commissioners remark : Of all the practical schools in Germany
that of Prayuc is certainly the one where linear drawing is best taught, and Ave
are inclined to attribute this fact to the attention given from the very outset to
the practice of freehand drawing, which early habituates the pupil to trace his
lines with a light hand.
The instruction is given in German and Bohemian, but the professors are free
to choose which language they please. There arc, in some cases, professors of
each language for the same course. The class-rooms, amphitheatres, and labo-
ratories arc spacious and well arranged. The collections are well stocked with
models, and the workshop for modeling will accommodate 25 pupils at once.
IMPERIAI, HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT VIENNA.
The Imj;cri;il gymnasium in the Landstrasse is accommodated in a building
rented for the ]nirpose, formerly the residence of Prince Lichtcnstein. It has
numerous collections, especially of mineralogy and natural history. "Well ar-
ranged laboratories have been fitted up to enable the pupils who are so disposed
to make themselves acquainted with the elements of chemical manipulation.
There is a workshop for modeling, and the pupils are exercised in that art from
a drawing, and conversely in drawing from models. The drawing-class rooms
are very spacious and well lighted : the pupils have plenty of room. For draw-
ing from the round or from models in relief, even elementarv, there are cabinets
or cells lined with green cloth, and in which the models arc lighted by a single
gas burner, so that the shadows may be more distinct.
The time devoted, weekly, to lessons and graphic exercises, under the eye of the
professors, is distributed as shown in the following table :
Compulsory.
Religion, - - -
Arithmetic,
Mathematics,
German, - - -
Geograjdiy and history, -
Natural history, -
Phj'sics, - - .
Chemistry,
Writing or calligraphy, -
Fi'cchand drawing,
Descriptive geometry draw-
Linear drawing of buildings,
^Machine drawing.
Lectures on machines,
Modeling, - - -
1st
2d
3d
4th
5th
6 th
Class.
Class.
Class.
Class.
Class.
Class.
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
3
-
—
-
-
-
-
9
5
2
5
5
4
5
3
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
2
2
-
2
2
-
2
4
â– "
—
4
4
—
—
6
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
—
-
10
6
7
4
6
6
_
_
^
_
4
_
— â–
4
3
2
—
4
"*
~"
_
4
4
2
4
Totals.
12
11
16
26
21
8
14
12
8
39
4
9
4
2
12
The time, per week, allotted to optional studies, is as follows : English language,
5 hours ; Italian language, 3 ; French language, 3 ; stenography, 2 ; singing, 2 ;
gymnastics, 2.
"We see by this table the immense importance attached to the teaching of free-
hand drawing, almost exclusively executed frorii models in relief. For the six
classes it occupies 39 hours per week, whilst to linear drawing with rule and
compass only 16 hours are given.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOM IN AUSTRIA.
45
At the close of every year there is an examination, and marks are given ; ac-
cording to the results the pupils pass to the upper clnsses. According to the
iiiforniiUion and notes of eauh professor the pupils are classed, and any note
statin" deficiency in a single branch of instruction prevents the pupil from enter-
ing the upjicr class, and, on leaving, deprives him of the certificate of satisfaction
required for admission to the technical institutes. It is evident, by these rules,
that the system of outdoor pupils is compatible with strict discipline. When a
pupil leaves the sixth class of a higher jn-actical school with a certificate of emin-
ence he is admitted de jure into the first class of the Polytechnic Institute, other-
wise he must go through a year's jjreparatory studies. The examinations are
very strict. The school fee at Vienna is 18 to 20 florins a year. The pupils
who perform chemical manipulations in the laboratory j)ay an additional en-
trance fee of two florins and unc flurin per month. The reagents arc furnished
by the State.
CITY HIGHER TRACTICAL SCUOOL IX VIENNA.
The Real gymnasium, located in the suburb of Wieden, founded by the city
and administered by the municipal authorities, is of the same order as the Gov-
ernment School. The building is a very handsome one, and is most conven-
ientlv arranu^ed. The class-rooms for drawing and study, and the laboratories,
are large and well lighted, and there are very good collections of apparatus and
models. Drawing is taught from objects and models in relief Free-hand draw-
in"- receives far greater attention than linear drawing ; the former has .33 hcnirs
weekly in the different classes, the latter only eight, and yet the results are satis-
factory.
The subjects of instruction are distributed, per class and hours, as follows :
Eeligion, -
Arithmetic,
Mathematics,
German, - - -
Geography and history, -
Natural history, -
Phj-sics, -
Chemistry,
"Writing and calligraphy, -
Descriptive geometry.
Free-hand drawing,
Linear drawing of building:
and machines, -
Lectures on machines.
Construction of buiUUngs,
Total, -
1st
Class.
2
4
5
3
2
2
10
2d I .3d
Class. Class.
4 th
Class.
2
4
2
5
3
2
3
2
6
2
2
4
4
3
6
2
6
2
2
9
5
4
2
2
2
2
4
.5th
Class.
5
3
4
2
4
2
4
6
Gth
Class.
Total.
30
31
31
32
32
2
12
—
12
2
18
4
26
4
21
2
10
4
13
2
12
—
8
—
6
6
38
4
8
2
2
-
2
32
We see by this table that the distribution of time and lessons is almost identi-
cal with that adopted at the Imperial and Royal School in the Landstrasse. It
is the same with regard to the selection of the subjects for drawing, which, after
relatintr to questions of general education, are divided into distinct industrial
specialties.
46 SPECIAL IXSTRCCTIOX IX AUSTRIA.
POLYTECHNIC SCnOOLS.
The oLjcct of the technical institutions sit Vienna, Prague, and Gratz, is, to
give a thorough, scicntilic, and, so fiir as can he done, also ]jractical education.
Instruction is imparted in separate courses, (Farhschnlcn,) of -which there arc four
at Vienna and Prague; 1. Construction of roads, canals, bridges, &c. 2. Ar-
chitecture. 3. Construction of machinery. 4. Technical chcmistrj-. Other
technical studies are not excluded, if they have reference to the above courses.
In Gratz, instead of arciiitecturc, there is a course of agriculture and forest
economy. Likewise a course of surveying and meadow culture. At Gratz and
Vienna the accessory studies, which form the general scientific basis of the sepa-
rate courses (mathematics, physics, and drawing,) are taught in two general
classes, which precede tlic separate courses of study. The other subjects of in-
struction are partly such as must be taught in tlie separate courses, in corres-
pondence with the aim and object of tlic institution, partly such as offer an oppor-
tunity to students for other and deeper studies.
The students are classed as ordinary and extraordinary.
The ordinary students, for the first year's course at Vienna and Prague, must
hold either a certificate from a real school or gymnasium, (besides giving evi-
dence of some proficiency in free-hand and geometrical drawing,) or pass an
examination on the studies of the same. To become an extraordinary student at
any of tlie three polytechnic scliools, the candidate must give proof of posfcssin"-
sufficient preliminary knowledge to enable him to attend the lectures with profit.
lu Vienna and Gratz, the ordinary students must follow strictly the plan of
studies laid down for each year ; unless, with the consent of the authorities a
different plan for themselves has been formed. In Prague, the plan of studies is
not obligatory. The frc e choice of lectures is permitted, with the only condition
tiiat satisfactory evidence is given of a sufiicient preliminary knowledge.
The charge for tuition for ordinan,- students, in Vienna and Prague, is 50
florins; in Gratz, for ordinary and extraordinary students, 30 florins. The ehan-c
for the extraordinary students, at Vienna, is at the rate of I florin 50 kreuzcrs
for each loetin-e (two drawing hours arc counted as one). Extra lectures are
to be paid for separately. Students, unable to pay, who show great abilities, may
be allowed to studv partly or total! v free of charge.
The internal administration of these institutions is in the hands of a board of
professors, at whose head is a rector, (called director at Gratz,) who is chos.n
annually ])y the professors. The choice must be confirmed by the government.
In Vienna, he can only be chosen again after two years' interval. The rectors at
Vienna and Prague have an additional saLary of 1,000 florins; the director at
Gratz, who is chosen annually from among the professors of some other technical
school, has 500 florins. The board of professors is formed by all the ordinary
and extraordinary professors and representatives of the tutors (clocenten).
Each of the separate divisions has a president, who is chosen from among the
ordinary i)rofes.ors engaged in each separate course of study, in Vienna for two
years, in Gratz and Prague for one year. These prcsi.h'nts superintend the
course of studies as well as the disciijline of the students in each division. Each
division has again its own board of lirofes.-ors, which settles the claims of stu-
dents to dispense with one or the other course of studies, to decide in doubtful
cases as to the admission of students, and their promotion to the next class.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 47
POLYTECHNIC IKSTITUTE AT PRAGUE.
The Polytechnic Institute is intended to give the pupils who follow its studies
a fundamental scientific education adapted to the profession they mean to adopt,
and to make them so well acquainted with technical and scientific progress that
they may he able witliout further preparation to enter on the duties of practical
life. To attain this end, the instruction is distributed in four special divisions :
A. Division, bridges, roads and civil engineering ( Wasser und Strassenbau).
B. Division of architecture and civil buildings (Hoclibau).
C Division of the construction of machines (Maschinenbau).
D. Division of applied chemistry ('J'ec/iH(Ac/ie Chcmie).
The following instruction is common to all the pupils :
I. — Mathematics. Three courses of a year each. \st Course. — Algebra, an-
alysis, elements of differential calculus, analytical geometry, plane and solid (7
hours). 2(/ Course. — Higher equations, integral and differential calculus, with
applications to geometry (6 hours). 3d Course. — DitJerential equations, varia-
tions, calculations of least squares (5 hours).
II. — Descriptive Geometry. 1. Orthogonal projections, oblique and polar
in general, with a view to technical applications, (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings
(10 hours). 2. Stereotomy, application of descriptive geometry to cutting of
stones and voussoirs (2 hours) ; execution of models in stone-cutting (4 hours).
III. — Land Surveying. \st Course. — Surveying, leveling, theory and de-
scription of instruments and apparatus ("5 hours) ; topographical drawing from
models (6 hours) ; practical surveying and leveling in the field (14 days in the
year at least). 2a Course. — Contouring; geodesic leveling (3 hours) ; practice
in the field (for 8 days in the year at least).
IV. — Mechanics and Construction of Machines. 1. Elementary me-
chanics, terrestrial statics and dynamics, hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerostatics
and aerodynamics (3 hours). 2. Analytical mechanics, in the summer term (5
hours). 3. Mechanics of constructions (3 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours).
4. Study of machines, application of mechanics to the theory and the drawing of
machines (no time specified). 5. Construction of machines, knowledge of ma-
terials, and instruction in certain kinds of machines (5 hours). 6. Encyclopa;dia
of machines, for pupils not destined for any specialty (3 hours); drawing of ma-
chines (6 hours). 7. Construction of machines in the workshop (at least 4 hours).
v. — Technological Mechanics. Working of metals, wood, textile sub-
stances, spinning, manufacture of woolen tissues and of paper (5 hours).
VII. — Architecture and Civil Engineering. \st Course. — Mason's and
carpenter's work, constructions in iron, materials of formation and stability of
buildings (4 hours) ; designs of construction (no time given). 2. 2c? Course. —
Technical study of edifices, preparatory works, &c., (5 hours) ; drawing of build-
ings (6 hours). 3. 3d Course. — Project of a large building from a given pro-
gramme (12 hours). 4. Studies of style with drawings (courses of 6 hours each);
modeling in clay (6 hours).
VII. — ^Hydraulic Construction and Road-making. 1st Course. — Foun-
dations, embankments, lakes and canals, construction of roads, resistance of
bridges and railways (5 hours) ; drawings of constructions (no time given). 2d
Course. — On bridges and railways (3 hours) ; drawing of ditto (8 hours) ; pro-
jects of hvdraulic constructions and roads from a given programme (8 hours).
VIII. — General notions on Hydraulic Works and Road-making. For
pupils not destined for any specialty of construction (5 hours) ; drawing of build-
ings (6 hours).
IX. — General Physics. 1. Statics, dynamics, magnetism, electricity, heat,
optics, acoustics (5 hours). 2. Technical physics : application of physics to tech-
nical questions and industry, pyrotechny, telegraphy, galvano-plastics (2 hours).
X. — General Chemistry. 1. Raw materials and their uses; working of
metals, alloys; study of salts; organic chemistry (7 hours). 2. Analytical
chemistry ; use of the blow-pipe ; qualitative and quantitative analysis, in winter
(5 hours) ; practical analyz'ng in the laboratory (two courses of 1.5 hours each),
3. Technological chemistry: 1st Course. — Chemical fermentation (in winter] j
48 SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
agnciiltuval chemistry, bleaching and drying (in summer, 5 hours). 2(7 Course. —
Manufacture of sugar (in winter, no time specified) ; man ufacture of glass, chem-
istry of salts (in summer, 5 hours). 4. Chemical encyclopaadia, for pupils not
iutending to follow any chemical specialty.
XI. — MiNEUALOGY. On the technical and industrial applications (in summer).
XII. — Geology and Paleontology. Their technical and industrial bear-
ings (3 hours).
XIII. — Botany. Technical and industrial applications (in summer, 3 hours).
XIV. — Zoology. Technical and industrial applications (5 hours).
XV. — Free-hand Drawing. According to their special technical studies
(4 hours).
SPECIAL SCHOOLS, OR DIVISIONS.
The course of special instruction occupies five years for the first three divisions
of the first category of pupils (bridges and roads, architecture, construction of
machines,) and four years for the fourth division (applied chemistry).
â– The subjects of instruction are spread over the successive years as follows :
Division A. — Bridges and Roads. ,
First Year. — Mathematics, 1st course (7 hours); descriptive geometry (5 hours) ;
working drawings (10 hours) ; general physics (5 hours) ; mineralogy (4 hours) ;
free-hand drawing (4 hours). In all, 35 hours per week.
Second Year. — Mathematics, 2d course (G hours); land surveying, 1st course
(5 hours) ;, drawing of plans (6 hours) ; elementary mechanics (.5 hours) ; general
chemistry (3 hours) ; technical physics (2 hours). In all, 27 hours per week ;
and during the summer 14 days practical surveying in the field.
Third Year. — Mathematics, 3d course (5 hours); analytical mechanics, and
description of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; architecture
(4 hours) ; drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours). In all, 29 hours
per week. Besides geological excursions.
Fourth Year. — Eoad-making and hydraulic works, 1st course (.5 hours) ; draw-
ing for ditto (8 hours) ; architecture, 2d course (5 hours) ; drawing tor ditto
(6' hours) ; mechanics of building (3 hours) ; cutting of stones (2 hours) ; prac-
tical modeling and stone-cutting (2 hours). In all 30 hours per week.
Fifth Year. — Road-making and hydraulic works (2 hours) ; drawings for ditto
(8 hours) ; drawing of projects (8 hours) ; technical mechanics (5 hours) ; land
surveying, 2d course (3 hours). In all, 25 hours per week, and also at least a
week in the year in visiting remarkable engineering Avorks.
Division B. — Architecture and Civil Constructions.
First year. — Same as Division A.
Second year. — Same as Division A, plus 6 hours per week for the study of style,
1st course.
Third year. — Same as Division A, plus 2d course of style ( 6 hours).
Fourth year. — Same as Division A, plus 3d course of style (6 hours).
Fifth year. — Architecture and civil constructions, 3d course, drawing up of
projects (12 hours) ; natiomd economy (5 hours in winter, 4 hours in summer) ;
account-keeping (3 hours)^ technical mechanics (5 hours) ; study of style, 4tli
course (G hours) ; modeling (6 hours). In all, 33 hours per week, besides visits
to interesting constructions.
Division C. — Construction of Machines.
First and second years. — Same as Division A.
TA/z-f/^en?-.— Mathematics, 3d course, in winter; analytical mechanics, in
summer (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; encyclopaedia of construc-
tion (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (8 hours). In all, 30
hours per week.
Fourth year. — Construction of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of ditto (10 hours) ;
projects of ditto (5 hours); technological mechanics (5 hours) ; technological
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN AUSTRIA. 49
chemistry and metallurgy (2 hours) : national economy, in winter (5 hours) ;
accomit-ke'jping, in summer (3 liours) ; practice in workshop (4 liours at least).
In all 35 hours, besides visits to great â– worksliojis.
Fifth i/Mi: — Practice in workshops.
Division D. — Technological Chemistry.
First year. — JIathenuxtics, 1st course (7 hours) ; general ])hysics (5 hours);
mineralogy (3 hours' lessons, 1 hour of application) ; zoology in winter, botany
in summer (5 hours). In all 21 hours.
Second year. — General chemistry (7 hours) ; technical physics (2 hours) ; gen-
eral mechanics (6 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours).
In all 23 hours, hesides geological excursions.
Third year. — Analytical chemistry, in winter (,5 hours) ; analysis in laboratory
(15 hours) ; technical chemistry, in winter (5 hours) ; agricultural chemistry, in
summer (5 hours) ; cncyclopa.'dia of construction (5 liours) ; drawing of buildings
(6 hours). In all 36 hours per week in winter, 31 in summer.
Fourth year. — Analysing in laboratory (at least 15 hours) ; sugar-making, iron-
works, glass-making, pottery, and chemistry of salts (5 hours) ; national economy
and account-keeping (4 hours). In all 29 hours per week.
It will be seen that in this programme the instruction given to mechanicians
is continued without interruption for four years, and that practice in workshops
is required only in the fifth year, which appears preferable to the plan adopted
nt Dresden, of obliging the pupils to pass a year in the workshop after the first
year's studies.
The institute has 20 ordinary professors, 11 exti-aordinary professors of the
first class, 20 tutors, and 6 masters. The number of pupils in 1862-G3 was ,as
follows: Natives of Prague, 120; of Bohemia, 575; of Moravia, 14; of other
parts of the empire, 38; total, 747. The age of the pupils ranged from 16 to
25, the great majority (526) being between 19 and 23.
The Prague Institute possesses numerous collections well supplied with the
necessary appliances for teaching. They consist of — 1. A library with from
10,000 to 12,000 volumes. 2. Complete sets of models for descriptive geometry,
models of surfaces generated by straight lines, &c. 3. Instruments for topogra-
phy, surveying, and leveling for the use of the pupils ; topographical models in
relief (Bardin's system). 4. Models of machines in great number and variety ;
parts of machines ; apparatus to demonstrate the laws of flailing bodies ; dyna-
mometers ; divers prime movers. 5. Instruments for physical experiments, com-
prising most of the new inventions in that depai-tmcnt. 6. Technology — differ-
ent tools; raw products, &e. 7. Architecture — models in plaster; handsome
models of suspension and other bridges in wood, iron, &c. ; models of roofs and
other carpenter's work. 8. Agricultiure — well-executed models of fiirming ma-
chinery and imi^lements. 9. Natural history and mineralogy — collection of min-
erals and rocks placed at the disposal of the pupils ; birds, reptiles, &c.
The Institute has, for the study of applied chemisti^, a complete laboratory,
in which 40 pupils can simultaneously perform the principal manipulations.
The French commissioner remarks, " we found here linear drawing in the great-
est perfection. The lines are fine and light ; all the various kinds of working draw-
ings are executed there, and the projects of public works, buildings, and machines
are carefully got up."
4
50
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AT VIENNA.
The Polj'technic Institute in Vienna, as organized in 1815, was the culmina-
tion of efforts begun in 1765 to shape the instruction of the schools to meet the
special wants of pupils in their future mechanical or commercial occupations.
In 1835-36, we found it the best equipped school of its class (for mechanical
and commercial industries) in Europe, and it was thus described by Prof Bache.
The whole institution is intended to fulfill a tlireefold purpose, as a school for
tlio mechanic arts, manufactures, and commerce, as a conservatory of arts and
manufactures, and as an institute for the promotion of national industry. The
last named object is effected by public exhibitions, from time to time, of the pro-
ducts of manufoetures, under the direction of the institute. For the better exe-
cution of this object, a spacious building is now erecting on the premises, adapted
to the occasional display and permanent deposit of specimens of the mechanic
arts. Tlie collections which form the conservators of arts are also used for in-
struction in the school, and will be described in connection with it.
The whole institution is under the control of a director, who is responsible to
the higher authorities of public instruction, and of trade and manufactures. The
director is the general superintendent of the business of the institute and of the
instruction, but does not teach. He regulates the admission of pupils and the dis-
cipline. The money concerns are under the charge of a treasurer, who is re-
sponsible to the director. The inferior officers are responsible to the same
authority. The discipline of the scholastic department is simple but rigid, no
pupil being allowed to remain connected with it whose deportment is not proper.
The courses are gratuitous, except a small entrance fee, and this is considered as
warranting prompt removal when the pupil does not perform the duties prescribed
by .the institution.
The department of instruction is composed of three schools, a technical, a com-
mercial, and a " real school." The last named is a preparatory school for the
two others, and may be entered as early as thirteen years of age. Its courses
arc of religious instruction, of German language, elementary mathematics, geog-
raphy, history, natural history, elocution, calligraphy, and drawing, and are obli-
gatory upon the pupils. Italian and French may be studied if the pupil desires
it. As these courses lead in tlu'ee j'cars to the other departments of the institu-
tion, "he candidates for admission are required to possess the elementary attain-
ments necessary to their successful prosecution. There are five professors and
four tenbhers connected with this school, which is superintended by the vice-direc-
tor of tl\e institute. The instructors rank by regulation with those in the gym-
nasia or jclassical schools of the empire. The course of instruction is not as com-
prehens"A'c as that in the Prussian real schools, but is an adequate preparation for
the nexi higher divisions, which supply in part these deficiencies.
The technical and commercial schools furnish special instruction according to
the intended pm-suits of the pupil, though he may, in fact, select the courses
which he wishes to attend, not being limited as to the number or character of the
branches. The director advises with the pupil, on admission, as to the studies
most appropriate to be followed, if his intended calling is fixed, and he is not
allowed to join the claaees, the courses of which require preparation, without pre-
senting a certificate from the school at which he has been instructed, or being
examined, to ascertain his proficiency. In regard to other courses, there is no
such restriction. The age for admission is sixteen years.
The instruction is given in the technical school by eight professors and two
assistants ; the professors lecturing, and in some of the courses, interrogating the
pupils. Certain lectures are also gone over by the assistants with the classes.
The courses which combine practice with teaching will be pointed out in enumer-
ating the subjects of study. The division of these subjects, and the time devoted
to them during the week, are as follows :
I. General Chemistry, applied to the arts, five hours.
II. Special Technical Chemistry, ten hours. This course gives a particular account
of all the processes of the arts of which the principles were developed in the general lectures.
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. g-^
There is a special laboratory devote d to tile coursp. where. untUr Ihe supr rinteiidence of the
professor or of his assistants, tiie pupils !;o tlirouyli the [irocesses on a small scale. Tlioae
who have a particular ohject in view, as dyeini;, bh achin;;, printing upon stuffs, or Ihe inan-
ufacmre of chemical preparations or inilallur!.'y, are directed in their invisligatioiis espe-
cially to the parts of clmnistry which they will have to apply. Practice and theory are thus
combined.
III. Phtsigs, with special reference to its applications, five hours.
IV. Elemkntakv Mathe.matics, including arilhmetic. algebra, j:eometry, and mensura-
tion, ten hours. This course Is intended for those who have not passed through the real
school.
V. Higher Mathematics, five hours. There is a repetition by an assistant, also of five
hours
VI. Mechanics, inchidinc the description and calculation of machines, five hours. This
subject is lonndtd upon a course of muchiies, considered as an application of descriptive
geometry and drawing, superintended by an ass*tant.
VII. Phactical Geometry, iiiclndiii^ land and topographical surveying, levelling. &c.,
five hours. The lectures are accompanied by practice in Ihe use of instruments in the field.
VIII Civil and HvDRAULic AuCHiTEUTi'KE, ten hours. This includes a complete course
of engineering, in its various branches. It is aecompanitd by e.\ercises in drawing.
IX Teciinologv. or a general discussion of arts and trades, five hours. The subjects
which come under the head of special chemistry are omitted ai the lectures of this division.
X. The assistant professor of chemistry delivers an extra lecture, daily, on the methods of
measuring Specific Gkavities, durini; part of the course.
XI. Elementary Drawing for those who have not passed through the real school, five
hours. There are e.xira courses in Ihe Latin, Bohemian, and English languages, for those
who wish to follow them.
The time devoted to drawing depends upon the student, but it is obvious that
liis knowledge must be very incomplete, and that lie will carry away from the
school but an imperfect record of descriptive geometry and its applications, unless
he devotes a great deal of time to this branch. In this respect the arrangement
of the school is entirely difl'erent from that at Berlin, where the dra.wings ;iccom-
punying the courses are made as much a matter of regular duty as the attendance
upon the lectures themselves. This is certainly the proper plan, and while it ap-
peared to me that the time spent in the graphic exercises at Berlin was even
beyond the measure of their importance, I am decidedly of opinion that a strict
attention to this department is essential.
The collections, by the aid of which these courses are carried out, are — 1 . An
extensive collection of chemical preparations for both special and general chemis-
try. The pupils in special chemistry, as already stated, make preparations in the
departments of the art which they intend to follow, and some of these are left
behind them as specimens of their skill. In the department of the dyer there is
quite a large series of specimens collected in this way. Tlie laboratories for both
special and general chemistry are admirably adapted to their purpose.* 2. A
cabinet of instruments for the course of practical geometry. 3. A considerable
collection of physical apparatus. 4. A collection of models of machines, and in
engineering. 5. A technological cabinet of a most complete character, and ad-
mirably arranged ; it contains many of tlie best specimens of Austrian arts and
manufactures. All these collections are under the care of the professor in whoso
department they find a place ; there being, besides, curators for the innnediate
charge of them, and for keeping them in repair. Tlie cabinet of physical appa-
ratus, and of models and machinery, were in the main supplied from the work-
shops of the institution. Tltese shops have long been celebrated for the astronom-
ical and geodesic instruments furnished from them. They are still kept up,
though on a reduced scale, their chief object having been accomplished. They
were never intended, like those of Berlin, to afford practical instruction to the
pupils. The institution, indeed, does not recognize the principle that this can be
done to advantage in the mechanical department. It is certain, as already stated,
that great care is required to render such establishments of any avail beyond the
point of giving to the pupil a general readiness with his hands, and that even
when well conducted they are expensive. Success in practical chemistry requires
essentially a very considerable knowledge of theory ; the processes on a small
scale represent, in general, fairly those upon the hirgc, and experiments thus made
frequently save the outlay which is required to make them in the large way. The
52 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA.
practice in the laboratory of a school is, besides, very nearly of the kind required
lor the manufactory. These, among other circumstances render the problem in
regard to successful preparation for the arts depending upon chemistry, difierent
from that relating to the art of the machinist. It is in this department that the
polytechnic school of Vienna is particularly strong. There can be no doul>t that
Austrian mamUacturcs in general have received a great impulse through the me-
dium of this institution, and particularly of its scholastic department, but while
praise is yielded to the difierent courses, the arrangements for teaching chemistry
must be considered as having a preference over the others.
The lessons in the commercial school embrace the following subjects : —
I. Commercial correspondence, three hours per week.
II. The science ot'trade (Handelswissenschalt.) three hours.
III. Austrian laws relating to trade and exchange, three hours.
IV'. Commercial arithmetic, six hours.
V. Book-keepini:, by single and double entry, four hours.
VI. Account of the materials of trade. (Waarenkunde,) the sources, uses, properties, kinds,
adulterations to which they are subject, &c., four hours.
VII. Commercial geography, three hours.
VIII. History of commeixe, three hours. There are five professors in this sch'bol.
Once a week the professors of the institute meet, under the presidency of the
director, to confer on the business of the institution. Saturday is appropriated in
part to this purpose, and there are no exercises for the students on that day.
One of the professoi's is secretary of the board. The professors rank by regula-
tion with those of the i;niversities.
Tlie lectures last from October to August of every year. At the close of them,
a pupil who wishes a certificate in any branch, presents himself, and is examined
by a professor, in presence of a director and of two members of the imperial com-
mission of studies. A student who has attended the leetui-es, and does not wish
to bo examined, may receive a certificate of attendance.
To supply the place of a regular division of stuilies for different callings, one
of the earlier programmes contained a recommendation of certain courses of study
as preparatory to particular occupations. The recommendations were the follow-
ing : — For tradesmen, the two years of the real school, and one year of the com-
mercial school ; or for a more complete education, an additional year, embracing
the courses of chemistry, physics, and technology of the technical school. For
dyers, printers in stufts, bleachers, manufacturers of chemical products, of salt,
of saltpeter, for miners, metallurgists, brewers, &c., special chemistrj', physics,
and technology, with some of the courses of the commercial school. For ma-
chinists, hydraulic engineers, mill-wrights, foremen in manufactories, and mining
" engineers — a course of two years was recommended, the first to embrace mathe-
matics, physics, and drawing, and the second, mechanics, machine-drawing, and
tcehnologj'. As a preparation for agriculturists and foresters — courses of mathe-
matics, physics, practical geometry, chemistry and book-keeping. For miners,
mathematics, physics, practical geometry, mechanics, drawing, and book-keeping.
For surveyors, mathematics, physics, practical geometry, drawing, and book-
keeping.
There is still a regular course laid down for architects and civil engineers, the
satisfactory completion of wliich entitles to a diploma. The first year includes
elementary mathematics, technologj', and drawing; the second, higher mathe-
matics, physics, and drawing ; the third, the applied mathematics, mechanics,
practical geometry, and dra\A'ing ; the fourth, architecture, engineering, drawing,
technology, chemistry, and book-keeping.
The library of the institute is appropriated to the several departments, and is
used by the students, as well as by the professors. Yearly appropriations, besides
the entrance and diploma fees, are devoted to its increase. The professors liave
tlie right of recommending such works to be purchased as they may deem of use
in their departments. An annual is published by the institute, consisting of origi-
nal and selected scientific articles, by the professors, and notices of th e institution.
To mark the advance in the subjects and courses of instruction, we give in
detail, (1) the requirements for admission to either of the special divisions in
1868, and (2) the distribution of studies in the I. Technical Section; II. Com-
mercial Section ; and III. The Special Courses.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRLV. 53
Requirements for Admission into the Polytechnic Institution in Vienna.
Candidates for admission as ordinary stndents into tlio rolytccliiiic Institution,
are subject to examination in the subjects, ami to tlie extent given below.
a. Mathematics.
1. Arithmetic and Algebra. — Ciphering in genera], and calculation with com-
mon fi-actions and decimal fractions in particular; change of common fractions
into decimal fractions, and continuous fractions, rule of three, reduction, chain
rule, division; calculation, with logarithms; extraction of square and-cu!.ic
roots of numbers ; the rules of algebra ; the ])ropertics of products and quotieius,
of powers, riulicals, and logarithms; divisibility of numljers; greatest common
measure, and least common multiple ; properties of common continued fractions ;
outlines of the theory of conibiiuvtiou ; Newton's binomial pro])osition ; siui]:!e
equations with one and more unknown quantities, C(piations of the second degree
with one and two unknown quantities, and equations of higher degrees with one
and more unknown cjuantities, in as far as they can lie resolved into quadratic
equations; simple indeterminate equations; arithmetical and geometrical pro-
gression ; calculation of interest.
2. Plane Geometry ; a. — Planimetry; congruence, similarity, superficial con-
tents, and transformation of rectilinear figures, more particularly of triangle
and square; properties of the circle; lines and angles of the circle; its rela-
tion to the triangle, to the sf^uare, and to I'cgular polygons ; its periphery and
contents.
b. Goiiiometri/ and Trifjononnetrif. — The goniometric functions, their properties
and mutual relations, and the more important formulas connected v\-itli them,
particularly for the sums and differences of two angles, and for double and semi-
angles ; problems of the resolution of the triangle, and application of this calcu-
lation in given cases.
c. Anali/tical Geometry. — Propositioii of the equations for the straight line and
the circle in rectangular co-ordinates ; problems relating to the straight lines and
the circle ; proposition of the equations for the ellipse, the parabola, and hyper-
bola from their definition ; deduction of the principal properties of these lines,
more particularly as regards the focus and the tangents.
3. So'i'l Geometry; a. — Stereometry; propositions and problems as to the re-
lations between points, straight lines, and planes ; properties of the parallel-
opipedon, of the prism in general, of pyramids, of regular bodies; superficies
ami solid contents of angular bodies ; properties of the cylinder, the cone and
the sphere, their superficies and solid contents, lines and angles on the surface of
the sphere.
b. Sp/wrical Trigonometry. — Properties of the spherical triangle ; problems for
the solution of this ; execution of the calculation in given cases.
In all these matters accurate understanding of the theory, as well as skill and
certainty in the execution of the calculations is required.
b. Geography and History.
Geography. — Knowledge of the leading points of mathematical and physical
geography, particularly of orography and hydrography ; survey of political
geography ; knowledge, of the most important branches of production, and of
the internal relations of the leading countries ; closer acquaintance with tlie
political geography and statistics of Austria, particularly relating to the national
and ])roductive circumstances, and the state of civilization in the several portions.
History. — Synoptical knowledge of ancient history, more especially of Grecian
history to the period of the downfall of the Macedonian Empire. As regards
the history of the East, the develoj)ment of the Egyptians, the Persians, and the
trading colonies of the Phoenicians is more ])articularly to be held in view ; the
Hellenic states and constitutions during tlie heroic jicriod ; the wanderings of tlie
Darians ; the Greek colonics; the legislation of Lycurgus, and the ^lessinian
war ; Solon ; the Persian war ; the Peloponnesian war ; the Theban war, and
the leadership of Thelies; Philip of Macedonia; Alexander's expeditions into
Asia; the fate of the States which were formed out of the empire of Alexander.
Roman History up to the time of Augustus. — The constitution of Rome during
the time of the kings ; the Republican constitution ; the struggles between patri-
54 SPKCTAI. INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
cians and pKl)ians for equality of rights ; the war with Tarcnto and Pyvrlius ;
thu Punic wans ; the Gracclii-Mariiis and Sulla; the lirst triumvirate; Julius
Casar; the second triumvirate; Cresar Octavian Augustus.
Survev of niediajval history, and more particularly of German history. Con-
stantine'thi; Great and the development of Christianity. The migration of na-
tions and the founding of new empires. The Franks, Charlemagne. Dissolu-
tion of the emi)ire of the Franks. The Saxon Emperors, especially Otto I, the
Salic Frank Dynasty, Conrad II, Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V. The
Crusades and their consequences. The Babenbergs. Foundation of the power
of the Hapsburgs. Charles IV and Wenzel. Sigismund and the ecclesiastical
relations of his times. Germany under Fi-ederick III and Maximilian I. The
Italian republics of the middle ages.
jNIore detailed acquaintance with the history of modern times, and more par-
ticularly with the history of Germany and Austria. Discoveries and inventions.
Tlie revival of art and science. The Reformation. Charles V, Philip II, and
the Netherlands. The religious wars in France. Henry IV. The thirty years
war. England under the Tudors, the Stuarts, Cromwell. France under Riche-
lieu and Mazarin. The age of Louis XIV. The Austro-Turkish wars. Sweden
imder the Vasas. War of the Sj>anish succession. The northern war. Charles
VI. The Silesian war and the war of the Austrian succession. Maria Theresa.
Joseph II. The North American war of indei)endeuce. History of the revolu-
tionary period Irom 1789 to 1815.
c. Physics.
The requirements are in — a. General knowledge : a perfectly distinct under-
standing of the fundamental principles of the science, and a knowledge of the
most important phenomena in nature and of the laws that govern them, founded
on experimental demonstration, and on elementary mathematical proofs.
b. Special knowledge : knowledge of the general properties of physical bodies,
of the different forces working in them, of the various forms of aggregation, of
the ditferc^nt degrees of solidity, of the laws of elasticity, adhesion, decomposi-
tion, crystalization.
In general mechanics, determination and measurement, combination, and res-
olution {zerkgung) of forces from a single point of attack, or from several points,
the momentum of revolution (Drehmgsmomerit) and itj composition, the simplest
and most impintant of the complex mechanical principles of the theory of mo-
tion, uniform and irregular motion, velocity, combination, and resolution of mo-
tion, curvelinear motion, centripetal and centrifugal ibrce, gravity, and the mo-
tion proihiced by it, projectile motion, oscillatory motion, revolving motion,
point of inertia, free axis of rotation, impingement of elastic and of non-elastic
bodies, resistance of motion, motion of working power and of vital force.
Theory of the balance, absolute and specific Weight, influence of the earth's
rotation round its axis on its form, and on the intensity of gravitation in differ-
ent geographical latitudes, ebb and flood.
Fundamental principles of liquid bodies, form of the free surface and the con-
ditioning causes, pressure on the bottom and the side walls of the containing
vessel, and the practical applications to be deducted tlierefrom. Efpiilibrium in
connnunicating vessels, the most important phenomena of capillary attraction,
rising (Avftrcib) equilibrium of floating bodies, determination of density by
means of areometer and water poise, velocity of outflow under a constant amount
of pressure, re-action of the jet and its applications, the shock of fluids, and the
most important applications to water-wheels, turbines, &c.
General properties of elastic fluid bodies, measurement of elasticit}', atmos-
pheric pressure, and the measurement of this by means of dift'ei-ent kinds of
barometers, its variableness at different altitudes above the level of the sea.
Mariotte's law and its most important applications ; different kinds of air pumps.
Determination of the specific weight of atmospheric air, and of the density of
gases. Gay-Lussac's law : theory of the balloon, forcing pumps, siphons, &c.
Laws of absorption, velocity of out-flow under constant uniform pressure.
Principal phenomena of magnetism. Outlines of the magnetism of the earth,
magnetic point, magnetic axis, laws of distant effects of magnetism, methods of
magnetising, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism.
i
SPECI.VL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTlUA. 55
â– n-inci]):!! electrical fihcnomcna, electrostatic iiuluction, laws of distant action,
ami the ]>r()(liictioii of such action l>y means of tlie revolving- Ixilance (Ihrhwa/jf),
the electroscojie, tlic Leydcn jar, and the condensator; elcctroiihorical action,
rapidity of the transmission of the electric condition, principal phenomena of
contact electricity, laws of the gradation of tension, theory of the simple and
comjjleK voltaic jules, hattery, current, physiological, thermal and chemical cflfects
of the current. Principal features of electrolysis, the strength of the current,
and its measurement by chemical eft'ects. Effects of the magnetic current, galva-
nometers, multiplicators, &c. Eleetrodynamic and magnetic-electric induction,
thermo-electricity, idea of the resistance of conduction, Ohm's law, and its most
important applications, bifurcation of the current. The leading points in the
applications of the laws of electro-magnetism to telegraphy and electro-magnetic
motors. Atmospheric electricity.
Leading points in the theory of undulation. Different kinds of waves, reflec-
tion and interference of waves, particularly of the waves of sound, rapidity of
sound, conditions of sound, nuisical tones and determination of the number of
their vibrations, tones of tightly strung cords, of bars, of sound-boards (sound
figures), and of columns of air, reverberation of sound, structure of the organ
of hearing.
Elements of the science of light. Elements of the theory of shadows, princi-
ples of photometry, reflection by plane and curved surfaces ; simple refraction on
plane and spherical surf;\ces (elements of the theory of lenses), distribution of
color. Franenbofer's lines, ]>rinciples of spectrum analysis, achromatic prisms
and lenses, chemical eft'ects of light, o|)tical instruments of certain construction
(camera-obscura, camera-chiara, telescope, &c.), the eye and its structure, sub-
jective phenomena of color, and diaphragmatic phenomena. Rapidity of the
transmission of light, the most important phenomena of interference and refrac-
tion, the fundamental phenomena of double refraction, })olarisation by refraction
and reflection, color of laminte, explanation of these phenomena by the theory
of undulations.
Principles of the theory of heat ; expansion of bodies by heat, the thennome-
ter, conduction of heat ; change of the state of cohesion, latent and specific heat,
the elements of caiometry, generation of steam, laws of the tension of steam,
determination of the density of steam, vapor contained in the atmosphere, hy-
grometry, the steam-engine. Radiating heat and the means of measuring the
intensity of this, laws of radiation. Phenomena of combustion, heat caused by
combustion.
d. Natural History.
Minemhcji/. — The candidate should be acquainted with the most important of
those properties of minerals by which they are characterized, and in accordance
with these to determine and describe the most common minerals, or those which
are most imjiortant as to their uses. But the knowledge of a definite scientific
system of minerals is not required.
With respect to the general portions of mineralogy (characterization, termin-
ology, ) the examination will extend to :
1. Crystallography, embracing the morphological properties of minerals. A
knowledge of the six systems of crystals according to the uses on which they
are based, and according to their sample forms, as also of the most common
combinations of two or more forms will be required. The knowledge of crj-stal-
lographic symbols, or of calculating and measuring crystallography, will not be
required.
2. Mineral physics embracing the physical properties of minerals : divisibility,
hardness, and specific weight ; brightness, transparency, color (idiochromatic
and allochromatic) minerals, veins {strich} ; difttrcnce between minerals with
simple and with double refraction, between magnetic and non-magnetic minerals ;
fusibility.
3. Mineral chemistry, or chemical properties of minerals ; elements, combina-
tions, equivalents, chemical constitution ; difference between metallic and non-
metallic minerals ; definition of ores, (sulj)hurous, oxygenated, and saline ores,)
of stones, Csilicate,) and of salts, (carlionate, sulphate, &c.)
A knowledge of the chemical reaction of minerals is not required.
56 SPECIAL IXSTPvCCTION IN AUSTRIA.
Amon.2: the most common, and most important minerals, as to their uses in
special mineralogy arc counted :
1. From among the group of metallic minerals.
a. The metals occurring in a pure form.
6. The most important ores, such as iron pyrites, magnetic iron, iron glance,
red oxide of iron, brown iron ore, sparry iron ore, manganese, red ore of nickel,
shining cobalt ore, copper ore, variegated copper pyrites, copper glance, red cop-
per ore, malachite, lapis lazuli, sulphuret of load, white lead ore, green and brown
lead ore, tin-stone, shining silver ore, gray copper, red silver ore, cinnabai', sul-
phuret of zinc, lamellar calamine, sulphuret of antimony, arsenical pyrites.
2. From among the group of non-metallic minerals.
a. Sulphur and grapliite.
b. The most important stones : quartz, opal, feldspar, analcime, staurolite, mica,
chlorite, talc, serpentiae, steatite, hornblende, augite, granite, vesiivian, cyanite,
olivine, tourmaline ; also the most important of the precious stones ; the diamond,
corundum, (sapphire and mby,) topaz, spinel, zircon, beryl, (emerald.)
c. The most important salts ; calcareous spar, aragonite, gypsimi, anhydrite,
ponderous spar, celestine, apatite, nitre, fluor spar, rock salt.
The candidate must he able to indicate the most important morphological,
physical, and chemical properties of all the^e minerals, as also their most impor-
tant uses, and the localities in M'hich they are principally found.
The knowledge of a systematic nomenclature (as for instance that of Mohs)
is not required, nor either the chemical formulas.
Botany and Zoologij. — In botany and zoology the candidate is expected to lie able
to give a systematic sketch of each of the kingdoms, and to possess a knowledge
of the most important plants and animals which enables him to distinguish and
characterize them. By the most important plants and animals are meant such
as are especially interesting on account of their fi-equcnt presence in our coun-
try, of their application in arts and industiy, of their usefulness, or their inju-
riousness, of the conspicuous place which they occupy in the household of na-
ture, or of their peculiar gci)graphical distrilnition.
Plants and animals of this kind will be laid before the candidate for him to
classify and characterize.
As more important subjects of examination may he mentioned :
a. In Botany : principal organs of the phanerogamous plants; fonns of the
roots, the pedicels, and the leaves ; blossoms ; vai-ious parts of the tlower ; outer
circle of petals, anther, stamen, pistil, and seed bud; survey of the ditferent
kinds of fruits ; properties of the seed.
Characteristics of the crj'ptogamous plants in general. Linne's sj-stem.
Classification of plants according to the natural system.
Characteristics of the various classes of non-flowering plants, and the different
orders of vasculiferous cryptogamia, {Gcfaf scry toga mm.)
Characteristics, affinities, geographical distribution, and iise of the most im-
portant families of seed-bearing plants.
b. In Zoology : the principal functions of animal life, motion, sensation, nutri-
tion, and propagation ; indication of the most important organs connected there-
with; the local position of the latter in the animal body, and their nature in
general must be demonstrated on one of the higher (verteln-atc) animals; influ-
ence of climate on animal life ; division of the animal kingdom into classes,
(vcrtebrata, mollusca, &c.,) indicating the distinctive characteristic of each; di-
vision of mammalia, birds, reptiles, and insects into orders. Distinctive charac-
teristics of the various families of camivora, of pachyderma, and of ruminata.
c. Geometrical and Free-hand Drawing.
Orthogonal projection ; representation of straight lines and planes ; graphic
solution of problems relative to their mutual relations ; representations of bodies
bounded by planes; intersections of their surfaces; representation of conic,
cylindrical, and rotative surfaces ; their intersection with straight lines and
planes, and their mutual intersections, as also their points of contact with planes ;
application of this to the determination of shadows.
Elements of the method of perspective projection.
Free-hand drawing, to draw a head or an entire figure in correct outline from a
model, and to draw an ornament with shading.
POLVTECIIMC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA.
57
I. TECHXICAL SECTION.
The course of instruction consists of a preparatory division comprising two
years, and four special divisions, viz : 1. Bridges and roads. 2. Architecture.
3. Construction of machines. 4. Ciicmistry. The teaching commences on the
1st of Octol)er and ends on the 31st of July. It is divided into courses of a
year, and courses of half a year. The subjects taught are •
A. Matlicmatics, descriptive geometry, practical geometry, higher land sur-
veying, spherical astronomy, technical mechanics, analytical mechanics, general
physics, technical physics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical
chemistry, niincralog}', geology, zoology, paleontology, and botany.
B. Study of machines, general elements of machinery, construction of ma-
chines, mechanics relating to construction, general elements of the construction
of buildings, architecture and the art of building ; bridges and roads, railways,
description of soils ; technical chcmistiy, knowledge of mcrch.andise, agricultural
and forest economy.
C. General history, history of Austria, history of the building art, history
of the inductive sciences ; Gennan literature ; a:!sthetics, political economy, sta-
tistics; mercantile law, law of exchange, maritime law; Austrian organization
and administration ; book-keeping.
D. Technical and free-hand drawing ; decoration, and drawing of ornaments ;
landscape drawing ; modeling.
E. French, Italian, and English languages; stenography.
These subjects are distributed between the preparatory and special divisions,
and nearly the same number of hours is allotted to each, as irf the Prague Insti-
tute just described. The lessons in botany, zoology, geology, mechanical and
chemical technology, construction of machines, art of building, and in the agri-
cultural sciences, are followed by excursions and visits to establishments. The
practical course of geometry is also terminated by important field operations.
The following are studies, with the hours per week allotted to each :
Preparatory
Division.
■«-lXTER.
SUMMER.
SUBJECTS.
Lessons
of 1| hours
each.
Hours
devoted to
drawing.
Lessons
of li hours
each.
' Hours
devoted to
drawing.
FIRST YEAR.
Mathematics, (1st course,) -
Descriptive geometry, - - .
Inorganic chemistry, . - - -
Mineralogy,
Geology,
Technical and free-hand drawing, -
5
3
2
3
8
6
5
3
2
3
8
8
Total,
13
U
13
14
SECOND TEAR.
Mathematics, (2d course,) -
General physics, - - - .
Technical mechanics, . - - -
Practical geometry, - - - -
Technical and free-hand drawing.
3
2
3
3
6
8
3
3
3
3
6
10
Total,
11
14
12
16
58
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA
I. — Division of Bridges and Roads.
WINTER.
SUMMER.
SUBJECTS.
Lessons
Hours
Lessons
Hours
of 1 2^ hours
devoted to
of H hours
devoted to
each.
drawing.
each.
drawing.
FIRST YEAR.
Stercotomy and perspective,
-
-
3
6
Surveying,
3
—
2
—
Analytical mechanics,
3
-
-
-
Elements of machinery, - - -
3
6
3
6
Construction, (1st course,) -
4
8
4
8
Total,
13
14
12
20
SECONB TEAR.
Technical physics, .. . . -
2
~~
2
—
Applied mechanics, - - - -
3
-
-
-
Mechanism,
2
-
2
-
Land surveying, - - - -
-
-
1
4
Bridges and roads, - - - -
3
-
3
-
Projects and construction.
-
15
-
15
Total,
10
15
8
19
THIRD YEAR.
History of constructive art.
3
-
-
—
Organization of construction, -
1
—
_
—
Construction of bfidges, - - -
2
_
2
_
Construction of railways,
2
—
2
—
Projects, ------
-
15
-
20
Total,
8
15
4
20
II.- — Division of Architects and Buildings.
FIRST YEAR.
Stereotomy and perspective,
Elements of machinery, - - -
Constructive mechanism, - - -
History of constructive art,
Architecture, (1st course,) - - -
3
2
3
4
6
8
3
3
2
4
6
6
8
Total,
12
14
12
20
SECOND YEAR.
Technical physics, . - . -
Applied mechanics, - - . -
Elements of construction, - - -
Architecture, (2d course,)
Architectural drawing and projects, -
2
3
5
14
3
3
5
6
14
Total,
10
14
11
20
THIRD YEAR.
Organization of construction.
Architecture, (3d course,)
Projects,
1
3
15
3
15
Total,
4
15
3
15
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
III. — Division of Mechanicians.
59
WINTER.
SUMMER.
SUBJECTS.
Lessons
of 1 i hours
eaeh .
Hours
devoted to
drawing.
Lessons
of 1] hours
each.
Hours
devoted to
drawing.
FIRST TEAR.
Technical physics, - - . .
Elements of coiistniction,
Analytical mechanics, -• - .
Machinery, - - - - -
Machine construction, . - .
Manufocture of machines,
2
3
3
3
6
10
2
3
4
3
6
10
Total,
11
16
12
16
SECOND TEAR.
Constructive mechanism.
Applied mechanics, - - - -
Apparatus for warming and lighting,
Metallurgy, - - - - -
Machine construction, - - -
Projects and manufacture, -
2
3
1
2
3
15
3
3
15
Total,
11
15
6
15
^ IV. — Division of Applied Chemistrif.
♦
FIKST TEAR.
General physics,
Applied mechanics, - - - .
Botany,
Zoology,
2
3
3
-
3
3
3
-
Organic chemistry, - - - .
Analytical chemistry, - . -
Manipulation in the laboratory, -
2
1
10
2
10
Total,
11
10
11
10
SECOND TEAR.
Technical physics, ....
2
—
2
—
Elements of construction,
3
-
—
—
Technoloiiv of mechanics, - - -
3
—
3
_
Acquaintance with raw materials, -
—
—
2
—
Metallurirv and salt works, - - .
2
—
1
—
Materials for heating and lighting, -
1
—
—
_
Manufacture of salts, glass, &c.,-
—
—
3
—
Manipulation in the laboratory,
-
10
10
Total,
11
10
11
10
THIRD TEAR.
Elements of machinery, -
3
-
3
-
Printing:, dvein<^, bleaching, &c..
5
-
-
-
Fermented "liquors, manufacture of sugar.
soap, stcarinc, &c., - - - -
Manipulation in the laboratory,
-
15
5
15
Total,
8
15
8
15
60
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA.
II. Commercial Section. — The course of instruction comprises tlie follow-
ing subjects:
1. Commercial science, giving a complete exhibit of commercial 'economy, of
arts and manufactures, commercial afl'airs in relation to the statistics of the
population and the commercial history of the world : 5 hours per week.
2. Commercial law, legislation with regard to commerce, maritime law, &c. :
3 hours per week.
3. Commercial composition, ordinary commercial style and correspondence : 5
hours.
4. Commercial calculations, with special reference to the principal practical
applications of pohtical arithmetic : 5 hours.
5. Book-keeping — book-keeping as a special science, and as applied to com-
merce and industry : 4 hours.
6. Knowledge of goods ; the qualities and properties of different products,
materials, and manufactures : 3 hours.
1. Commercial geography : 3 hours.
8. Statistics, from an industrial and commercial point of view: 4 hours.
9. History of the Austrian constitutional law: 2 hours.
10. History of the Austrian administrative law: 2 hours.
III. ExTR.A. Courses. — Connected with the Polytechnic Institute, special
courses are given in:
1. Mechanical constructions, comprising the application of mechanics to arch-
itecture and the art of constructions : 3 hours.
2. National political economy, with special regard to arts and manufactures:
2 hours.
3. History of Austrian commercial law: 1 hour.
4. Sphei'ic astronomy: 3 hours.
5. Science of the guarantee of capital and interest. This comprises an ex-
hibit of the development of this science, its usefulness and its importance, and
an exhibit of its theoretical basis.
6. Instruction in first surgical aid to be rendered in cases of accidents result-
ing from certain industries: 2 hours.
7. Calligraphy: 2 hours.
8. Stenography (Gabelsberger's system) : 3 hours.
9. German literature ; Commentaries on the life and poetry of Goethe : 2
hours.
10. Organic chemistry ; Alcohols.
11. General and microscopic vegetable anatomy, (during the winter half-year.)
12. Vegetable physiology in its relation. to agriculture, (during the summer
half-year.)
IV. School of Languages. — Instruction is given in the following lan-
guages: Turkish, 5 hours ; Persian, 5 hours ; Arabic. 6 hours ; Italian language
and literature, 6 hours; English language and literature, 3 hours; French lan-
guage and literature, 5 hours.
V. School OF Industrial Drawing. — 1. Elementary drawing, comprising :
(a.) Drawing from nature : figures, plants, ornaments, &c. ; (b.) Descriptive
geometry; (c.) drawing of projections and perspective.
2. Technical drawing, comprising all the varieties of drawing applied to the
designing and construction of models intended for spinning, printing tapestry,
&c.
3. Drawing applied to the arts of construction and metallurgy.
4. Popular course of machine-drawing, with explanations of the construction
and the working of machines.
The drawing-classes are open every day from 8 to 12, and on Sundays from
9 to 12.
The whole Institute numbers: 19 public and ordinary professors ; 1 public
extraordinary professor ; 1 assistant professor ; 7 tutors ; 6 private professors ;
2 extra tutors ; 1 8 assistants ; 3 librarians; 2 superintendents of the techno-
logical museum ; 2 superintendents at the astronomical observatory.
The technological museum comprises more than 200,000 specimens of models,
machines, &c., admirably arranged.
EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. /,1
GENERAIi ORGANIZATION OF THE EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS
(Extracts from Prof. Koristka's account of Higher Pdytechnic Instruction in Ger-
many, France and Switzerland).*
The Polytechnic schools are the creation of our own clay. Not one of them
is a huiulrcd years old, for the oldest, that in Paris, was founded in 1794. Tlicn
followed the school of Prague, 1806, (begun, it is true, as a special school, in
17G5); Vienna, 1815; Berlin, 1821; Carlsruhc, 182.5; the Paris central school,
(eco/ecf)(;ra/e,) 1829; Munich, 1827 ; Nuremhurg, 1 829 ; Augsburg, 183.3 ; Stutt-
gart, 1829, then Hanover, 1831 ; in Belgium, Liege, and Ghent, 1835, and at
length, within the last twenty years, the new polytechnic institutes in Austria,
and also certain beginnings in England. At the same time, wc must mention
that only a kw of these schools in Germany received in the beginning the name
or had the full character of poly technic schools. They were founded under the name
of Industrial Schools, extended their scojjc gradually, and at length received the
new designation as well as their present internal organization.
The first schools of this kind, both in Austria and in Germany, comprised all
technical subjects which the scholars were obliged to learn in turn. In the be-
ginning, while industry was little developed and technical knowledge little cared
for, these institutions answered fully to the demand, and the schools of Vienna
and of Pjuigue were, at t"hat time, considered model institutions. But tlu-ough
the rapid advances of art and industry in our day, these schools did not need so
long a time, as did those of former times, to divide themselves into groups. In
the course of twenty to thirty years followed the di%nsion of labor, and with this
came the problem : how to extend the single schools so that those who desired
it could carry on exliaustive studies on particular subjects, and on the other
hand, to provide for a general course, taking up all branches as formerly. It was
found impossible to unite these two aims.
Necessarily, then, those schools, which wished to supply the new demands of
technical knowledge and industry, were gradually obliged to alter their organi-
zation ; to fulfil especially the chief requirements of the same ; tp introduce more
exhaustive courses, so that, for instance, a course which originally consisted of
instruction in mechanics was divided into two jjarts, theoretical and practical
mechanics, afterwards into three parts, when the construction of machines was
added to the two former studies, and later yet special instruction was given in
the making of steam-engines and locomotives.
It was the same with the art of building, and with technical chemistry. Almost
all the schools in Germany, Belgium, and France, yielded sooner or later to this
practical necessity, and so arose the organization of the so-called /^t/c/i-schools, i. c,
â– schools in which particular branches of business are taught.
In Austria, however, and in some parts of Bnvaria, the old order of things re-
mained, for which they offered as excuse the actual state of industry and the
little need of a present division of labor ; but they were at length obliged to yield.
True, Hanover did not accept the organization of schools for particular indus-
tries (FachschuJcn), but it has been found, on comparing the plans of their schools
•with those of Carlsruhc or Zurich that they differ only in name. Still, there was
wanting in Hanover the plan of supervision adopted in the special schools, and
* Der noehere polytechnische Untenicht in Deiilschland , in der Schtveiz, in Frankreich, Rl'
gien und England. Carl Koristka, Prof, am poljtcchnlsclifrL Landcsinstitut zu Prague, &c.
Q2 EUROPEAN POLYTECUNIC SCHOOLS.
with this tlie conferences of the teachers seemingly so necessary to their pros-
perity; but this also was not long wanting. Finally, we might add that ac-
cording to the plan of education in Paris, there was no real division for special
studies there also, but all that has been said of Hanover applies to Paris as well,
and besides, there the lectures of the professors form but a part of the instruction.
Instruction by recitation forms a feature of even more importance, and the pupils
were certainly divided according to their intended pursuits.
As for the number of the divisions, we find in all the schools at least four : chemi-
cal, mechanical, architectural (the latter divided into two parts, that of building
with especial attention to architectural ornament), and that of highways, rail-
ways, bridges, &c., styled in France and Belgium des ponts et chausseei,.
These four groups form the principal divisions in most polytechnic schools ;
only a short time ago, Berlin transfen-ed the building department from the in-
dustrial school to the academy designed for this special study, but in Dresden
both branches of building are united. In Belgium the schools at Liege and at
Ghent are connected with each other.
The division of technical studies into these three or four distinct parts is so
decidedly demanded by the nature and practice of technical science, that it is
unnecessary to defend or support it here.
Another question is, whether the whole field is occupied by these four groups,
or if others are not necessary. It cannot be denied that there is a great number
of branches, which it would have been better to confide to special schools : as for
instance, mining, foundries, agriculture, forest culture, ship-building, &c., not to
speak of military fortifications. There is no doubt that one might give special
instruction in these in the polytechnic schools just as well as m mechanics, chem-
istry, &c., provided thorough instruction in these branches is desired. Mean-
while, at tne same time with the polytechnic schools, even earlier there arose,
at Freiburg, Schemnitz, Mariabrunn, Tharand, Altenburg, Hohenheim, &c.,
special schools wlvere practical as well as theoretical instruction was imparted
with great success.
This further division has resulted only in profit to the polytechnic schools, their
organization becoming more simplified, and united action being much facilitated.
Some of them possess one or more of these special schools besides the before-
mentioned, as, for instance, Zurich has a forest-school, Carlsruhe a forest, mer-
cantile, and post school, Berlin a sliip-building department, Liege a mining
school, &c.
No one will deny that almost all branches of science are in some way, more or
less, connected, and that it is, without doubt, very necessary and desirable that
the intelligent workman (techniker) should know something out of his own nar-
row field. This argument was for a long time the chief weapon of the defenders
of the old state of things in Austria ; according to their notions, the artist should
have made himself thoroughly famihar with a course of general study. But cer-
tain as it is, that a mechanic should possess sufficient knowledge of building as to
be able to judge a plan accurately, so sure is it, that at present one no longer ex-
pects from a machinist that he should be able to plan and superintend the build-
ing of a railway, nor from an architect a chemical analysis ; and the change,
moreover, is regretted by no one. In order to meet the real necessities of the
case, lectures on the most practical and important parts of other branches of
science should be judiciously given.
In almost all the polytechnic schools, we find one or more general classes, in
EUROPEAN POLYTECUXIC SUUOOLis. Q3
which those things are taught which form the common basis of all technical
knowledge, or which give the pupils superior culture, Carlsrulie has three, Stutt-
gart two, Dresden one, Berlin, Liege, and Ghent, one or two such general
classes ; in Paris the whole polytechuic school, consisting of two classes, is noth-
ing more than a general preparation for the sjjccial departments. Even in Zu-
rich, where there was formerly great opposition to this phm, a preparatory class
has lately been formed, although these classes are very much opposed, there are
certainly branches on which all tchnical science, in every department, is based,
such for instance as higher mathematics, physics, with the geometrv involved in
it, which might be taught with advantage in one or two general mathematical
classes, which all pupils, without exception, would pass through. We cannot
demand of these preparatory schools that they give their pupils the pure disci-
pline of science, so far as is necessary in the polytechnic schools, but on the other
hand, since these subjects, which really demand a i-iper judgment for their com-
prehension, are to be taught in the polytechnic school, this leaves time to the
pupils during the one or two years they pass in the preparatory school, to choose
their occupation or profession.
Let us sum up in a few words the present organization of the polytechnic
schools : First, one grand division consisting of one or two classes, and open to
all scholars in common ; then four branches for the four technical divisions, for
building, architecture, mechanics, and chemistry, to which sjiccial courses may be
added with advantage.
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION.
A preparation for entering the Polyteclmic Schools, in both Germany and
Switzerland, can be sought in private or even self-instruction, since examinations
are always held on entering the schools, and it is not necessary that the candid-
ate should have been through any particular school. Meanwhile, it is plain that
this method is very uncertain and expensive, and therefore, in all countries,
where polytechnic institutions have been established, preparatory schools have
also been established wherever they did not before exist.
These latter schools have, however, not the aim alone of preparing for the poly-
technic school, but instruction for the middle classes of the industrial population
is joined with it, is indeed for the most part, the real aim, preparation for the
polytechnic school being only a mino'- end. Many polytechnic schools of Han-
over and Dresden give tliis preparatory instruction themselves, either in a pre-
paratory course or in their lowest classes.
The different names of these preparatory schools are : Trade [geiccrhc) schools,
(schools for artizans), real schools (schools where modern languages and the
sciences are taught), real gymnasiums (corresponding to the American High
School), industrial schools, &c. These must be carefully distinguished from the
secondary and other improvement schools mainly for mechanics, which admit only
artizans and work-people as scholars, and give instruction mostly during the even-
ing and on Sundays. As chief representatives of this class of schools, we would
mention the " Canton schools for artisans" (Kaiiton-InJustriescladen), "the dis-
trict school for artisans" (Kreisgewerbeschulen), and the projected school of lan-
guage and science (Rcalgymnasien) in Bavaria, and the " provincial schools " for
artisans (Provinzialgeicerbcsclnden) of Prussia.
The chief branches of study everywhere are the elementary nwthematics and
drawing, further thorough instruction in the mother-tongue, physics, and foreign
C4. EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
modern languages. In mathematics the course goes at least as far as the use of
logarithms, equations of tlic second degree, plane trigonometry, and in the Swiss
schools still further. We cannot of course dwell longer on these schools here,
our only object being to see the requirements for entering the polytechnic
schools.
The schools for artisans, of Switzerland, form generally a second division of
the canton-schools, whose first division is the gymnasium. The ^ase is the same
with the industries-school at Zurich. It forms, together with ^he gymnasium
there, the admirably organized canton-school, whicli is directly connected with
the common-school (Volkschule). The industrial-school has the work of prepar-
ing the pupil directly for practical life or for admission to higher technical schools.
It is divided into an upper and lower school, each of which has three sub-divis-
ions. The hours of instruction, per week, are specified. In the lower industrial
school are taught: religion 6 hours, German language 12, geography 5, history
8, natural history 4, natural philosophy 4, practical arithmetic (including de-
cimals and proportions) 9, mathematics, including fundamental rules and equa-
tions of the 1st and 2d degree, 4, geometry (planimetry and measurement of
bodies) 6, geometrical figures 6, French langiiage 16, English language (not ob-
ligatory) 8, (free-hand drawing) designing 8, calligraphy 4, singing 3, gymnastics
6, use of weapons.
lu the upper school all these branches (gymnastics and use of weapons ex-
cepted) are not obligatory. Pupils can enter any one of the three principal
departments, that of mechanics, of chemistry, or of commerce, into which the
instruction is divided. The rector is, however, required to see that in the choice
of branches by the scholar, he does not take special studies alone and entirely
neglect the general branches. Every scholar must be occupied at least thirty
hours a week. In the upper school are taught : religion, only in the first year,
2 hours, theoretical mathematics, continued fractions, logarithms, j^rogressions,
algebraic analysis, higher equations, plane and spherical trigonometry in full,
analytical geometry 20 hours a week in all three year courses, geometry by
figures 6, technical design 18, practical geometry, with simple field-measurements
and designs, 7, theoretical mechanics, and mechanical technology, 6, chemistry
aiul chemical technology with practice in the laboratory 10, lectures 8, exercises,
botany and zoology, 3, mineralogy 2, knowledge useful to merchants, in seven
courses, 26, French 11, English 12, Italian 10, German 7, history 12, geography
5, free-hand drawing 1 0, calligraphy 2, singing, gymnastics, and the use of arms.
The canton-school at Zurich is admirably arranged. The total number of
scholars at the industrial school, in 1861, was 370. As soon as there are over
forty scholars in a class a division is made.
The Provincial schools for artisans (Kreisgeiverheschulen) and the gymnasium
for language and science (Realgymnasien) of Bavaria, which we wish to bring
up as a second example of the ^preparatory instruction, have the same double
aim as the first mentioned example. According to the present organization
tliese schools have a three years' course divided for industrial occupations and
commerce. The following branches are taught : higher arithmetic 5 hours, ele-
mentary mathematics, including logarithms and plane trigonometry, 12, natural
history and cncyclopaidia of science 10, physics 3, practical chemistrv' 5, religion
6, German 10, geography 6, sketching, projecting, and designing, 24, calligraphy
2, modeling in clay 8, those who are to be merchants take, instead of the draw-
ing and modeling, French and English, 10, mercantile, arithmetic, and counting-
EUROPEAX POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
65
room knowledge, 15. An important reform is projected (carried out in 1864)
for these and all technical schools in IJavaria, so that the school of science
is alone to fit this class of pupils, while the real gymnasiums arc to take a
middle place between these and the polytechnic schools. This is to have a four
years' course, and to teach the following branches : mathematics, arithmetical
equations, the study of functions, plane and spherical trigonometry, 25 hours,
natural history 5, physics and chemistry 10, geometry by figures 6, designing 24,
religion 8, German 9, Latin 10, French 16, English 4, geography and history 7.
In several of the greater States of middle Germany already such real gymnasi-
ums exist, and it is not to be denied that there arc many good reasons fur organi-
zation. They give, in truth, a second drill, and are often used as a preparation
for the polytechnic schools. The provincial schools for artisans throughout
Prussia have a similar organization, and such ought really to be organized in
every capital city. Each of these schools have only two classes and a one year's
course. These are especially designed for boys of 14 at least, that they may
there obtain that instruction necessary to them in their business, or prepare them
to be received into the Trade Institute at Berlin.
The following are the branches taught with the number of hours devoted to
them : elementary mathematics, including logarithms, equations of the second
degree and progressions, plane trigonometry and conic sections, elements of dcr
scriptive geometry, 21 hours, physics and chemistry, with experiments, 12, me-
chanics and instruction on machines 3, instruction in building 3, mineralogy 2,
designing and modeling 14, sketching 18. The lower class is chiefly for theo-
retical instruction and drawing, the upper for the practice of what has already
been learned. ^ . , V
Besides these there arc, in Germany, a great number of similar schools under
the name of real schools, as at Darmstadt, &c., or higher district schools, people's
schools, as at Hanover, which undertake, also, the courses of a gymnasium, and
usually accomplish the whole in from six to seven years.
MECHANICS — IKSTRUCTION OX MACHINE BUILDING AND MECHANICAL
TECHNOLOGY.
LECTURES.
DRAWING.
Teachers.
Terms.
Uours.
Terms.
Ilours.
Zurich, . . -
10
38
4
48
4
Carlsruhe,
6
24
2
20
4
Stuttgart,
5
24
3
24
4
Dresden, . - -
10
35
2
36
3
Berlin,
11
26
9
28
5
Hanover, - - -
6
31
2
16
4
Paris, (Central School)
7
14
3
6
Liege, (School of Arts) -
5
18
3
32
3
Prague, (old plan)
2
15
1
10
2
" (new plan)
8
33
4
32
4
In no field of technical science has such great progress been made in the last
thirty years as in that of mechanics. In no branch of study, therefore, is the
difference between our Austrian and foreign institutions of learning so great as
in this, and that also as much in the manner of teaching as in the arrangement
of the subjects taught and the helps used.
gg EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
While â– with us, in Prague and in Vienna, last yeai' [1862] the whole suljcct,
excepting mechanical technology, was taught hy a single teacher in a single
course of a year with from five to ten weekly hours of instruction, the same sub-
ject has been divided in Germany into thi'ee individual branches with at least
one teacher for each branch.
Theoretical and analytical mechanics, and machine constniction, ai-e the chief
branches taught at every good polytechnic school, and the last mentioned is even
divided into two or more branches besides the necessary instruction in drawing
and construction. We need only to glance at the figures of the foregoing table
in order to see how far behind the others we are. Certainly, it heightens the
merits of the Austi-ian teachers of mechanics, who thus, in the short time granted
them by the school-programme of instruction, must go over the whole extended
subject with its branches, and every unprejudiced person will acknowledge that
they have accomplished much under the unfavorable circumstances.
As for the division of the subject, this is described in the account of the schools
at Carlsruhe, Zurich, Dresden and Berlin. We will only add a few remarks ;
and first, the school at Zurich differs from most others, in the opinion that differ-
ent courses of lectures shall be given on the theory of machines (maschinen-lehre)
and on their construction (maschinen-hau) but that these lectures shall be given
by separate professors, while other schools, particularly Carlsruhe, consider this
impossible, or, at least injudicious.
It is certainly true that the theory of machines differs from machine-building,
and that, since Redtenbacher, Weissbach, and especially Reuleaux, have brought
the latter to an independent art, a union of these two subjects under one teacher
can scarcely exist without more or less neglecting one or the other. On the
other hand, we must also acknowledge that, since both subjects complete each
other, the lectures must be so arranged that this difficulty can only be overcome
by the most friendly understanding between the two professors, as happily is the
case in Zurich at the present time.
In France, it is only lately that the new opinions have been adopted. By the
old plan mechanics were taught in two branches : theoretical and practical, the
latter being divided into several courses, as hydraulic machines, steam-machines,
&c. With their excellent mathematical apparatus, the French technical teachers
explained with ease the general principles involved in every machine, regarding
each as an independent example, but their defect lay in paying little regard to
empiricism, while the English fell into just the opposite mistake, and devoted
themselves exclusively to proportions and to innumerable experiments and
proofs.
A second remark has reference to machine shops as to whose introduction into
the Austrian schools there is such difference of opinion ; the call from business
men (industriellen) being so loud for such workshops, that to appease them the
scholars should become finished mechanics before coming to them.
It would be well to take counsel from the experience of the schools mentioned
in the first part of this report. The institute at Berlin has the greatest and old-
est arrangement of this kind. The work-shop costs over 9,000 thalers yearly,
but the interest shown by the scholars is very little, and all competent judges at
Berlin desire it to be discontinued or greatly limited. Then come Augsburg
and Nuremburg, where the work-shops are on a more modest scale, but where,
on account of the severe discipline and the small number of scholars (not over
twenty), the results have been most favorable. Then we must mention Liege,
EUROPEAN POLYXECUNIC SCUOOLS. giT
whei-e the work-shops are leased to a machinist, and where, also, a very practical
arrangement is made with regard to agriculture. In our opinion, although the
number of scholars is even suiuller, the results are even more favorahle. In all
other schools the machine-shojjs, whenever there arc any, are considered as side-
affairs, as in Carlsruhc and Zurich. lu Hanover, Dresden, and the central
school of Paris there are no such work-shops for scholars. Dresden gives the
most instruction in this respect. True, there were no machine-shops arranged
for the school, but the government liad made a contract with one quite celebrated,
by which the scholars were i)crmitted to work there a certain number of hours,
weekly, during the whole course, and to receive instruction there. In the year
1829, these hours comprised 48 per cent, of the whole time of instruction, but it
diminished yearly, the lectures and exercises in designing being increased at its
expense, so that, in 1835, it was only 35, in the year 1838 only 2G, in 1849 only
14 per cent., and in 1852 was wholly discontinued.
All these results speak in no waj- favorably for the work-shops. It is also in
the nature of the case that their estaldishment can never have the cx])ectcd re-
sults in most polytechnic schools ; for, in the first place the costs of such a work-
shop, and its yearly support, is very considerable. Secondly, only a fcAV scholars
can be taught, for it is impossible to instruct 60 to 80 scholars, which is the
number at V^ienna and Prague, without enormous outlay. Thirdly, the matter
must be regarded ni an economical point of view, as it is plain that in a private
machine-shop much more economy of time and work can be practiced than at
such a public school Finally, the milder discipline of a polytechnic school is a
hindrance to success, since the pupils are under no more strict regulations in
their practical work than in their theoretical studies, and yet, as every one knows,
the severest discipline, the most exact observance of the hours of labor, is neces-
sary in a machine-shop (fahrik) if anj'thing is to be accomplished, and order to
be sustained. The opinion of those who think that young men are only spoiled
in the shops is therefore not wholly without reason. But should a school which
has large means and few scholars wish to establish such work-shops, we would
recommend the method of Liege, or that of Augsburg and Nurcmburg.
But what shall we do then ? How shall young mechanics fit themselves, prac-
tically, for their work ?
We reply, that a part, and that a very important one of the practical education,
consists in a systematic study of machine-building, as that, at present, is taught
in the better polytechnic schools, the great industry in the construction and de-
siii'nins: of machines in the school itself But we can never demand from a
school that it should instruct the pupil in all the practical points relating to
machine construction as thoroughly as the work-shop can do with regard to the
single machine, to whose construction it has been dedicated for j'cars. If, how-
ever, we demand this kind of practice, it can be obtained only by the pujjil's
taking practical lessons in a machine-shop either before his entrance into the
school or after he graduates. The easiest method, and the one we would recom-
mend, is the one in present use in Dresden and proposed at Stuttgart, namely,
that the scholar enter upon this practical part after the first year passed at the
school, for reasons previously given. In Austria little attention has as yet been
given to this branch, and provision for the scholars in home institutions, since
manv of these are in the hands of foreigners, is extremely difficult. To help the
scholars in this respect, the school-committee should make a contract with the
best manufactories (Fabriken) to receive yearly, for a specified sum, a certain
fiS
EUROPEAN POLYTECIIXIC SCHOOLS.
Tumihcr of young mechanics as apprentices. The schoLirs should pay this stim
lo t!ie scliool and the school to the factory. Those of the best scholars who have
no means slioiild receive assistance, tlie school payini^ for them out of its own
funds. Wc are convinced that the best factories would consider this an honor,
and that this branch of manufactures in Austria would thus be so raised, that in
twenty years all such aid would be unnecessary. This plan has been tried in
Hanover, and in a very short time obtained the best results. Naturally, we hold
tliJ establishment of a small work-shop, with an experienced superintendent at
its head, as very desirable for eveiy polytechnic school. The chief aim of such
v/ork-shops should be to keep in repair the models it already possesses, to invent
new according to the directions of the teachers, and to reserve a few places for
such scholars for whom it had previously been impossible to visit a machine-shop
in order to instruct such in the more common practical parts of working in metals,
and to prepare thCm to attend a larger work-shop. A small number of places
would answer for a large number of scholars by letting them take turns, and
great care is to be taken that this instruction be kept in the background, and at
the same time that it do not degenerate into a mere pastime.
BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE.
SCHOOLS.
LECTURES.
DESIGN.
Terms.
Hours.
Terms.
Hours.
Zurich, . - - -
Carlsruhe, . - -
Stuttgart, - - - -
Munich, (Engineers' School,)
Dresden, - - - -
Hanover, - - - -
Paris, (Central School,)
Ghent, (Civil Engineering,)
Prague, (old plan,)
" (new plan,)
5
10
7
6
3
6
1
3
1
7
14
25
21
8
6
21
2
6
5
20
9
8
8
3
3
8
1
2
1
8
40
41
40
30
18
.52
5
43
4
4
4
3
2
3
1
2
1
3
From this table we see that the greatest number of courses and lectures on this
subject are given in the school at Carlsruhe. As for the lessons of design, we
must remark that here in mechanics, as well as in the making of bridges and
roads, the number of hours given in the plan is only the minimum. In reality,
the industrious student must, in order to satisfy his teachci-, devote much more
time to construction and designing. The chief difference between the Austrian
and other schools is, that in ours the constructive part (chiefly at least) is taught,
while the architectural part is left in the hands of the art academies, (not to be
confused, however, with special schools, like that of the Berlin Building Acad-
emy ) while in all the foreign schools, with exception of the Parisian, several
terms are devoted to this ; sometimes, also several teachers demanded. And, in-
deed, one cannot understand why it should not be possible to give a thorough
education to architects of the highest grade at our polytechnic schools. The
building of houses is indeed a branch in itself, and the desire to separate the
practical from the esthetical part of planning a building, and to establish differ-
ent schools for each, seems to us unnecessary, and moreover, directly opposed to
a harmonious union of both aims. Besides this, the pupils after leaving the school
will be much governed in their future course by inclination. If one, however.
EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
00
grants to the polytechnic school the right of educating professional architects,
one should not take from it the right to form the taste of the pupils, and tJKir
appreciation of the beautiful, at least as much as is now done in the Austrian
schools, for under present arrangements, the pupil would find it much more use-
ful to travel for one year, than to spend three there.
For this I'cason, we find lectures on building materials and building, as well
as those upon style, history of architecture, &c., given in great numbers at for-
eign schools, as is also intended by the new plan at Prague.
In the l)est schools, the demands upon the scholar in the highest course (last
term) are very great. We have had opportunity to see in Carlsruhe and Zurich
great and detailed designs, made by scholars, of wliich many skilled architects
need not have been ashamed. There is difference of opinion, as to whether at Carls-
ruhe and Zurich there should be one general course of study for all the scholars,
or whether one should adapt the studies to each individual scholar, as at other
schools. Those persons who superintend special schools are really the only ones
who should decide here.
In all schools, for the purpose of illustrating the courses, models in wood, clay,
and plaster of Paris, are furnished. We do not contradict ourselves in the
opinion given in the previous article, by recommending the establishing of such
workshops as these everywhere. Their cost is not great, the interest of the pupils
is kept awake, and leads soon to the wished-for result ; a thing not always to be
affirmed of the machine shops. The reparation of wood models, the modeling
of ornaments in clay, stone, and the forming of objects from drawings, are
excellent exercises for the pupil. That here too, a previous practical experience
is very useful, and in many schools is understood to precede these, we do not
need to state. Excursions to interesting buildings in process of construction,
accompanied by the professor, are at all times to be recommended.
CONSTRUCTION OF EOADS AND BRIDGES.
LECTURES.
DESIGNS.
SCHOOLS;
Tpaohpr^i
Terms.
Hours.
terms.
Hours.
Zurich, . - - -
2
12
2
12
2
Carlsruhe, . - .
4
20
4
20
2
Stuttgart, - - -
2
14
2
14
1
Munich, - - - -
2
12
2
12
2
Dresden, - . - .
1
12
1
12
1
Hanover, - - - -
2
16
2
16
2
Paris, (Koads and Bridges,)
6
12
3
, ,
6
Ghent, (Civil Engineering,)
3
9
3
2
Prague, (old plan,)
1
5
1
5
1
" (new plan,)
3
12
4
27
2
This subject is, without question, best provided for, as the table shows, in the
school des pouts et chaussees in Paris, which school is entirely devoted to this
branch. We .shoidd also remark that one or two courses and one teacher might
in this table be added to the German schools. We have already mentioned them
in the article on building. They comprise instruction on building materials, and
carpentry and masonry, but belong ecjually to the construction of streets and
bridges. That which has been said in the previous article about workshops for
70
EUROPKAN POLYTECHNIC SCUOOLS.
modolini^ in wood, clay, and plaster of Paris, applies perfectly to this subject.
It is acknowledged in all schools that pn])ils in this l]rrinch need the most thorough
and exhaustive mathematical instruction, as well as that instruction on machines,
at least belongs to the preparatory course. On the other hand they are, in gen-
eral, excused from the greater part of the architectural branches. We haxe
already given the programme of instruction in Carlsruhe and at Paris. It only
remains for us to express the wish that the professors of the technical schools
should join with those of the building and railway department, in order that the
students in this bi-anch may have the opportunity of prolonged practice, for the
simple visiting of a building in process of construction with the professors, as is
the custom in many schools, cannot snflBce.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.
SCHOOLS.
Terms.
Hours.
Teachers.
Zurich,
10
22
3
Carlsruhe, ------
7
14
3
Stuttgart,
6
19
2
Dresden, -..--.
5
10
3
Berlin,
9
20
5
Hanover,
3
13
2
Paris, (Central School,) - - - -
5
13
5
Liege, (School of Arts,) - - -
5
20
4
Prague, (old plan,)
6
11*
1
" (new plan,) . . - -
7
22
2
The practical exercises of the scholars in the chemical laboratoi-y are not given
here, since in most schools no regular time, but often a whole day, on which the
lectures are suspended, is devoted to them. There is only a very small difference
in this respect between foreign schools and ours. Everywhere there is the same
division into general, analytical, and special chemistry, which latter division has,
in general, four or five subdivisions. It is to be wished, first, that the laboratories
were at least twice as large, in order to satisfy present needs, and to accommo-
date all capable scholars with practical work ; in the second place, that the labo-
ratories were better endowed and arranged, since they are very poorly furnished,
that of Vienna excepted ; and thirdly, that there might be more teachers, in
order to take up the subjects more in detail. The school course of Zurich, Carls-
ruhe, and the Central School at Paris, show the division of instruction, and at
the last school the comprehensive analytical method of treating the most impor-
tant inorganic and organic compounds is especially interesting. The schools
of Zurich and Carlsruhe have perhaps the best laboratories ; those of Stuttgart,
Berlin, Hanover, and Dresden are good.
BOARD OF TEACHERS AND DIRECTION OF POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
We have already remarked that the proper organization of a technical institu-
tion is very essential to its success. Even more important is the method of teach-
ing, for it is possible that a school under the old system of things might accom-
plish much, if possessing some superior professors ; but it is completely impossi-
ble that a school should answer the wants of the age, if it possesses inferior
teachers, even though it have the best possible organization.
It is thus a natural question, in what way and by what means a school is to
obtain a superior class of instructors 1 Before answering that question, we must
EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCUOOLS. 71
mention anotlicr important point connected with this. In most schools the
chief ])iorcs-or.s foiiu a corps of instructors, the faculty, wliich has certain rip,Iits,
and upon which ialls directly the discipline and direction of the school, Berlin
being the only exception. The present arrangement at the Austrian Universi-
ties, which is projected in Prague, is convenient, namely, that the assistant
teachers, tutors, resident graduates, &c., vote certain ones among their num-
ber into the faculty. The system of tutors is indeed as yet allowed only
in the polytechnic school at Zurich, but we cannot see why this plan should
not work as well elsewhere. In the Austrian schools there is more lilwrality.
At the head of the faculty, and hence of the school, in all schools is a director
(president). He is cither chosen yearly and approved by government, or is ap-
pointed directly by government, as at Dresden, Berlin, Hanover, and of course
at Paris also. This circimistaiicc, the yearly choice of a director or his appoint-
ment by government, is of great importance for the progress of each school, for
it is sure that in the first case this, as well as the direct guidance of the school,
is in the hands of the faculty, while in the second case, whatever rights may be
granted the faculty, they are really vested in the hands of the director. It is
rather a delicate point for us to. endeavor to express the different views held in
Germany on this subject, since, however much we may guard against it, we may
be accused of seeking our own interests. Notwithstanding, we hold it for our
duty, here where a principle is in question, and where we are not sure that any one
director will agree with us, to pronounce our oi^inion, that under the present cir-
cumstances in the higher technical institutions, we would much prefer the periodi-
cal choice of a director (wc state no term of service), and that by choice of the
faculty. The most weighty arguments against the choice are the greater author-
ity of a constant director, his influence upon the instruction that it may be well-
ordered, the more severe dii-cipliue which he could enforce, the avoiding of quar-
rels and jealousies among the professors, as is the case at a yearly choice. These
advantages have not always been obtained, for the authority of the (public school)
teachers from among whom the director should be chosen, rests only upon their
ability and success. Careless teachers would certainly be corrected sooner by
the general disapproval of the faculty, than by the director alone, for in quiet
times good disciphne depends upon the individual teachers, and in disturbed
years severe discipline can be carried out least of all by a director who does not
always possess the confidence and support of the faculty. Certainly any of us,
who has lived the last twenty years, can cite examples of this. Finally, there are
parties in every corporation, to avoid which, one must have no faculty at all.
On the other hand, a yearly choice has the advantage, that only a very worthy
member of the faculty will be chosen. This director, clothed with the whole
moral power of his brother professors, the man in whom they place full con-
fidence, has thus great influence on the students. The faculty will choose
only such a man as will Avork energetically to ftirther the interests of the school,
and who will not pursue his own department of science to its injury.
In places where the director is chosen yearly, the practical instruction must
naturally be separatc^d from the scientific, and be entrusted to a teacher or other
officer. In the universities this method has so fiir succeeded admirably.
But certainly the worst method is that adopted in some of our neighbor States,
where the direction of technical institutions has been put in the hands, not of
former teachers, but of officers of the ministerial department, and no influence
at all, in the direction of the school, granted to the faculty.
72 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
If WO come now to the rights of the faculty, the one above-named is certainly
the most important, iiamnly, the choice of a director, since the wliolc tone of the
institution, and its attitude towards the world, depends directly upon this, and in
this way is directly countenance^ by the faculty. The other most important
rights are those of discipline, which all focultics possess, that of making sugges-
tions as to endowments and stipends, as well as suggesting reforms of individual
branches of instruction, Mdiich right appertains to most faculties in Germany,
but those of France do not possess it. Finally, the right of making suggestions
when a vacancy in the faculty is to be filled. This is a privilege Avhich only the
Austrian schools enjoy, but one to be wished most heartily to others. The ob-
jection has been raised that in such case, out of desire to aid friends, quite other
than pure scientifie merit may procure the appointment, and this objection is not
wholly without grounds. It would, however, never be dangerous, since the fi\c-
ulty has only the right of proposing two or three candidates, not of appointing
them, this right remaining in the hands of the supreme authority under which
the school stands. We could, however, wish that the faculty might possess more
rights than are commonly possessed by it ; and thus we come again to the ques-
tion with which we started in this article, nam«ly, how a technical institution
may secure for itself and maintain a thorough system of instruction ?
In the German schools it is not a matter of so great importance that the foc-
ulty has no influence over the filling of vacancies in the school, since it has al-
ways been a point of honor in the middle and smaller States to obtain the great-
est possible reputation for their own university and iiolytechnic school. We
have seen how even ministers of state have not scorned to make a journey and
to negotiate personally with the persons devoted to this or that science. In
Austria this is quite different, for by the system of salaries, a kind of regular
advancement takes place when vacancies occur, so that worthy scientific men
have no hope of rising through their talents. In Prague the salaries have been
very considerably reduced since 1806. In many institutions of Austria they are
less than are given to an overseer in a factory. How can we demand men to
give a young man the education of an engineer, or of a superintendent of a fac-
tory, for the purpose of teaching, when he can at once get three times as large a
salary in the workshop as in the school. Notwithstanding we hear comjilaints
that so few talented men engaged in industrial pursuits, and devote themselves to
technical instruction, while the very best teachers in the technical schools in Ger-
many, as Karmaroch in Hanover, Redtenbachcr (now dead) in Carlsruhe, Schnei-
der in Dresden, &c., are Austrians who have deserted their own country because
it oflTers them no situation befitting their talents.
Wherever the school is divided according to the different branches, as at Zurich,
Carlsruhe, and Stuttgart, frequent meetings are everywhere held by their pro-
fessors, who watch over the progress of instruction at the special schools ; and
choose from their own number a president of these meetings.
In <^he French schools, as well as at Zurich, Berlin, and Hanover, a special
committee is appointed to watch over the progress of the school. This com-
mittee consists of a director and two or three professors, besides several distin-
guished scientifie and business men, and the higher ministerial authority. These
are appointed by government, which then makes directly on it all calls for ad-
vancement in instniction, and for filling vacant professorships. It is evident that
this superintendence of government must be granted in conciu'rence with the
professors and the director,
EL-KOPEAX POLYTKCIINIC SCUOOLS. 73
CONDITION- OF THE SCHOLARS AT POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
The division of tlic pupils, the niothod of admission, fees of tuition, discipline
and examinations are to be considered under this head.
In ahnost all the schools of Germany and Switzerland there arc two classes
of scholars. One of them, which is the principal one everywhere, has the name
scholar or student, (in Austria, audience) ; the second category has in Zurich
and Hanover, the name " hearers ; " in Carlsruhc and Dresden, " transient aud-
itors " (hospos) ; in Stuttgart, and also in Austria, "special hearers or scholars."
The first class bind themselves to go through the whole course, jirove their
preparation on entering, and conform to the customary reviews, examinations,
and written work. The latter class arc not bound to any of these things. They
arc men in an indepfudent position, or with regular emj)loymcnts, hearing only
certain lectures without being obliged to pass an examination on them. In the
French schools, in that of bridges and highways, as well as in the mining school,
there arc also two divisions, the clcves ingcnieures and the eleves externes, but the
only difference here is that the first arc graduates of the polytechnic school, Mho
have to submit to no entrance examination, and who will be received into the
service of the state, while the second class have none of these privileges, and
must go through the whole course. In the Central School at Paris, and at the
Belgian schools, there is onlj' one class of pupils.
At all the polytechnic schools it is required that the pupils shall be of a certain
age on entering; at Zurich and Berlin, 17 years old ; at Stuttgart, Dresden, and
Hanover, 16; the Paris schools alone demand no particular age. Further, an
examination is required in all schools on entering ; but in Berlin and Dresden
the certificate of a gymnasium or of an industrial school is accepted. At all
these examinations, mathematics and designing are the principal requirements, -
but some knowledge of physics, natural history, and style, is required. These
examinations are most severe in France, where a list of questions is made out
for every suliject, and an examining committee are apjwinted who are exceed-
ingly conscientious in their duties. In the German schools these examinations,
from the desire to fill up the schools, are unfortunately not as severe as they
should be for the good of the schools. The introduction of such examinations
would be of great advantage to the schools of Vienna and Prague, since this
would bring all the scholars, so differently prepared at different schools, up to
one level, leave the poorer scholars to the industrial schools, and picking out
only the best, would at once reduce the number, and bring together a more intel-
ligent and energetic class of students.
The tuition varies exceedingly at the different polytechnic schools. The
smallest tuition fee is that paid at Stuttgart, 15 florins; next year this is to be
doubled. Then follows Zurich, 50 francs ; this also is to be doubled ; then Han-
over, from 24 to 36 thalers ; Berlin and Dresden, 40 thalers ; in Dresden, for
natives only, foreigners pay 60 ; and finally, Carlsruhc, 66 florins. The most
expensive school is the ecolc centrale of Paris, where the annual tuition is 800
francs. In all these schools, practice in the chemical laboratories is extra ; in
Zurich, it is 40 francs ; in Carlsruhc, 44 florins ; in Berlin, 50 thalers. In almost
all schools, industrious and poor scholars are released from these expenses, but
this for only a few at a time; for instance, in Hanover, generally only 4 or 5 per
cent. ; in Zurich, 6 ; in Carlsruhc, 10 ; in Dresden, at the most, 20 per cent.
We are pleased with the two conditions, high tuition fees and few exceptions to
74 ErnoPEAN polytechnic schools.
their payment. In the higher institutions of learning, the tuition should not be
merely nominal, even thoug!i the State itself be bound to render assistance to
the institution. Ratiier help the poor student with stipends sufficient to obtain
him his daily bread, and to permit him to devote himself exclusively to his
studies. This is the method at the industrial institute at Berlin, and at both the
polytechnic and the central school of Paris. The tuition fees in all the poly-
technic schools come into the school fund, with the one exception of Zurich,
where two-thirds of it is divided among the professors.
In oi'der to give a fair judgment upon the discipline of all the schools, it would
be necessary to make quite a stay at each, since the practice is generally milder
than tlie rule would indicate. The French schools are certainly the most severe,
confinement (career) being among their punishments. For the rest, in some
German schools, as at Dresden and Carlsruhe, conduct while out of the school is
watched, and irregularities censured, but in most schools, conduct during session
hours alone is regarded, and whatever misdeeds occur out of these hours are left
to the police. In Stuttgart the pupils of the mathematical department are sub-
ject to severer discipline than those of the special departments. On the other
hand, in Berlin, where a few years ago such extremely severe discipline was
practiced, they are fallen now into the opposite extreme.
In our opinion, severe discipline is of little avail. This is proved in the
Parisian schools. If the students are intelligent and ambitious, the discipline
will be good without rules. Whenever admission examinations are demanded, a
sure means of discipline is secured. A second means seems to lie in the hands
of the individual teachers, who by frequent association with the students, will
inspire them with zeal, and awaken intellectual activity within them. Should
there, notwithstanding, be some unruly spirits, a fifteen years' experience has
proved to us that in most cases, a careful examination by the faculty will accom-
plish much more than severe military rules.
The greatest diflJerence between the Austrian schools and those of other coun-
tries we find to consist in the way in which the progress and industry of the
scholars are judged. In the French and Belgian schools, even when the student
does not board in the school, he is required to pass his time there from eight in
the morning to six in the evening, one hour only being taken out for dinner.
The lectures themselves occupy little time ; during the greater part of it, the
scholar must occupy himself M-ith his studies in the school-room, where he is un-
der the constant surveillance of the repeaters (repetiteurs) . In Germany this
surveillance is not so severe ; home study is more recommended to the scholar.
In other schools more time is given to repetitions and to written work than in
Austria, for these alone determine the ability and knowledge of the student, and
that much more surely than the final examinations in the latter countrv, to
which all students, who desire a certificate at the end of the year, have to subject
themselves. That these final examinations are in reality no sure proof of the
industry and ability of the student, all Austrian technical teachers are agreed,
but also they agree as fiilly that in those of our technical institutions, which like
Vienna and Prague, are so ovei-fiUed, so long as this lasts, without at least the
doubling of the number of teachers, the abolition of the final examinations and
the introduction of the other method is a pure impossibility. In Germany, the
ratio of teachers to scholars is 1 : 8 to 1 : 18; in Prague and Vienna, 1 ; 25 and
1 : 30; and in some years even greater.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
75
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE A'ND RURAL AFFAIRS.
There arc three kinds of institutions designed to give special instruction in
agriculture and kindred industries, ^iz : 1. Schools of Agriculture, which are
of three grades ; 2. Schools of Forestry, which are likewise classified into supe-
rior, middle, and lower grades ; 3. Veterinary Schools, of which there are 6 with
21 professors, and 391 pupils.
I. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE.
The Special Schools of Agriculture, of which there are seventeen, may be
classed as follows :
1. The superior agricultural schools of Austria are among the oldest and best
in Europe, that at Krumman in Bohemia, having been founded in 1799, and that
at Graetz, Trieste, Lomberg, and Trutsch, in 1809.
The school at Graetz has nine professors, a model farm, a botanical garden,
rich collections in natural history, and an establishment for silk worms.
The superior school at Krumman in Bohemia, founded by Prince Schwart-
zenberg in 1799, is located on an immense domain, and is conducted with every
appliance of botanical gardens, model farms, stock, illustrative collections of imple-
ments and machines, laboratories, herbarium, and numerous and able professors.
The superior school or academy at Altenburg in Hungary, provides for the com-
plete study of agricultural science. It has nine professors and 147 pupils. The
school fee is 63 florins ; the total yearly cost 19,400 florins. It is a government
establishment, possessing collections of all kinds, a chemical laboratory, a tech-
nological gallery, a library, and a botanical garden. It gives instruction in ar-
boriculture and in rural and forest management. The exhibition of samples of
the grain cultivated, and models of the implements used on the model farm, of
the insects and animals which injure the plants, the herbals and soils, the copy-
books, and drawings by the students, exhibited at Paris Exhibition of 1867, re-
ceived the special notice and award of the jury.
2. Middle agricultural schools have been founded at Grossau, in Lower Aus-
tria; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia; at Kreutz, in Croatia, and at Dublany,
in Gallicia. The studies occupy two years. There are 27 professors, and 164
outdoor pupils. The school fee is from 30 to 52 florins. The yearly expendi-
ture amounts to 9,200 florins. They are maintained by local resources and agri-
cultural societies.
3. There are seven lower agricultural schools : at Grossau, in Lower Austria ;
at Liebejci-Rabin ; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia ; at Gratz, in Styria ; at
Kreutz, in Gallicia ; at Ezemichow, in Gallicia ; and at Laybach, in Carinthia.
These schools have 23 professors and 230 pupils. The school fee varies from 30
to 40 florins, partly met by the work of the pupils.
4. Besides the aboye, there are several schools devoted to special departments
of rural economy, such as raising of bees, &c., as well as chairs of agriculture
in 13 higher literary institutions.
II. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF FORESTKY.
The Schools of Forestry, (9, with 36 professors,) are classified as follows :
1. Superior forest academies are established at Mariabrunn in Lower Austria,
and at Schemnitz in Hungary. The studies extend over from tvvo to three
years. The qualification for admission is a certificate of studies from a gymna-
yg SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
sium or a superior practical school. These estahlishments have a museum, col-
lections, a botanical garden, and a laboratory. They have 14 professors and 160
pnpils in the two tOL^ethcr. The school fee is 10 florins. There are some gratu-
itous pupils. Both schools are maintained by the government.
2. The middle forest schools arc situated at Wiessewasser, in Bohemia; at
Aussen, in IMoravia ; at Kreutz, in Croatia. The studies occupy from two to
three years. The primary school preparation only is required. These schools
have 12 professors and 100 pupils. The gratuitous admission is compensated by
the work of the pupils.
3. At Pibram, in Bohemia;, at Windschacht, in Hungary; and at Nagnay, in
Transylvania, there are lower Forest Schools. The courses extend over two or
three years. The preparation required is the primary school and the habit of
working. There are eight professors and eighty-seven pupils, all gratuitous.
These establishments are maintained by the State.
IMPERIAL FOREST ACADEMV AT SIARIABRUNN.
The Imperial Forest Academy at Mariabrunn passed through various phases
before it was reorganized in 1866. Formerly the Minister of Finance had the
general superintendence, but at present it is assigned to the Minister of Com-
merce and Political Economy. Its aim is to impart a thorough theoretical and
practical instruction in forest economy, for which purpose the large imperial
forests in the neighborhood are placed at its disposal. The course is of three
years duration, and consists partly of class lectures, and partly of scientific ex-
cursions and studies in the sxu-rounding forests.
The students are eitlier regular, who go through the complete course, or extra-
ordinary, who take only a partial course. Students are admitted on presentation
of a testimonial certificate of satisfactory scholarship in a real school or gymna-
sium ; if from the latter, they must give additional evidence of proficiency in
geometrical drawing. Since " maturity examinations " liave not been generally
introduced in the real schools, those students who cannot present a testimonial,
have to undergo an examination extending over all those subjects which are re-
quired for admission at the polytechnic institute in Vienna. As a general rule
all candidates must give proof that for one year they have been engaged in prac-
tical forest economy. To be admitted as an cxtraordinarj^ student, the candidate
must have completed the 18th j^ear of his age^ and be sufficiently versed in the
preliminary studies.
Formerly students were obliged to live in the academy buildings, Avhich condi-
tion has been lately abolished. Ordinary students, who have gone through the
complete course of instruction, may be admitted to a rigorous examination, (for
a diploma,) the conditions of which are prescribed by an imperial resolution of
January 16th, 1850. This examination is held by a special examination com-
mittee, and consists of two divisions : First, mathematics, geodesy, forest sur-
veying, mechanics, construction of machinery, architecture, chemistry, forest
botany, geology, climatology, forest entomology. Second, forest economy in all
its various branches. This examination is both v\Tittcn and oral.
The director of the academy is chosen by the ministry, who at the same time has
the functions of a professor, and is assisted by four professors and three assistants.
The salary of the director is 3,000 florins ; that of the professors, 1,500 ; 2,000
after ten years' service, and 2,500 after twenty years. The. assistants' salaiy is
500 floi'ins. The director, professors, and assistants live rent free in the academy
buildings.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
77
ACADEMIES AND CLASSES FOR COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION.
We find in Austria the earliest efforts to adapt schools and instruction to the
needs of a commercial career. Tha plan drawn up by Wolf of Baden, and aj)-
proved by the Empress Maria Theresa, (who had authorized instruction in book-
keeping in the Piarist schools in 17C.3,) for a Commercial Academy in Vienna
in 1770, was intended " to offer to young men who intend to devote themselves
to commercial pursuits, a fundamental knowledge of all that distinguishes a skil-
ful commercial man from a shop-keeper." The number of pupils was limited to
sixty, and the course embraced, besides other studies, tlie German, French, and
Italian languages, general and commercial geography, commercial and maritime
law, book-keeping, and drawing. In 1799, the plan of this academy jvas re-
modeled, and again in 1808, making the studies more scientific, as well as more
practical. On the model of this school, institutions were founded at Brunn in
1811, at Brody in 1815, and at Lemberg in 1817, and a commercial class, in
the same year, was added to the navigation school at Trieste. In all the modifi-
cations of the real schools, the commercial classes have been provided for.
ACADEMY OF CO.MMERCB AT VIENNA.
1. In 1857, the Academy of Commerce at Vienna was founded for young men
intending to follow commercial pursuits. A capital of 400,000 florins was sub-
scribed, and suitable premises built for the purpose. The school is provided
with technological collections, a museum of natural productions, and complete
chemical laboratories. A committee composed of nine members presides over
the general management. The instruction is given in two divisions, one of them
preparatory, requiring two years' study, the other technical, occupying the same
length of time. The number of hours per week devoted to the dift'erent branches
of instruction is shown in the following table : ^
PREPARATORY DIVISION.
TECHNICAL DIVISION.
SUBJECTS TAUGHT.
No. of hours.
03
1
SUBJECTS TAUGHT.
No. of hours.
1st
J'ear.
2d
year.
1st
year.
2d
year.
.3
Religion, -
German, -
Arithmetic,
Geography, -
History,
Natural history,
Calligraphy,
Rook-kceping,
Physics,
2
4
5
4
3
4
2
2
3
4
3
3
2
4
2
2
4
7
9
7
6
6
6
2
2
Commercial calculations,
Rook-kceping, . - -
Commercial correspondence,
Political economy, -
Commercial law anil exchanges,
Geograph}-, commercial and
statistical, . - -
Commercial history, -
Chemistry, - - . .
Physics, - - . -
Study of merchandise and tech-
nology, - - - -
Austrian commerce and manu-
factures, ...
Model counting-honse,-
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
4
8
6
2
3
6
4
5
5
2
7
8
Totals, -
24 1 25
—
Totals, - - - -
24 24
—
Besides this compulsory curriculum there are French, English, and Italian
classes, one or other of which every pupil must attend, or two, or all, if he
pleases. There are excellent laboratories for those pupils who wish to learn
how to analyze different kinds of merchandise. This study is altogether op-
78 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA.
tional. In winter, qualitative analysis is taught, and quantitative in summer.
The school fee is 157 floriiis, 50 kr. a year for all the courses.
Into the first class of the academy are admitted : those youths who have satis-
factorily finished a higher real school, or higher gymnasium, or the preparatory
class of some commercial academy ; furthermore, those who in a rigorous exam-
ination for admission give satisfactory evidence of possessing the degree of gen-
eral knowledge acquired usually in the preparatory course of the academy. As
a general rule, only such are admitted to this examination as have entered tlieir
16th year. For entering the second class of the academy, it is necessary either
to have gone through the first class, or pass a rigorous examination.
To the first year of the preparatory course are admitted : youths who have
absolved a three years' class, lower real school or lower gymnasium ; those who
(wherever they may have received their previous instruction) by a rigorous ex-
amination show the degree of knowledge usually acquired at the schools.
To the second year of the preparatory course, those are admitted who have
either gone through the first class of the same course, or (wherever they may
have been educated) show that degree of knowledge which is necessary for un-
derstanding the subjects taught in the second class. Only such are admitted to
an examination for this class as have entered the 15th year of their age. Everj*
scholar is obliged to attend all the recitations marked obligatory in the plan of
study. Extraordinary students are only admitted in the higher classes.
At the close of the courses there are examinations for those Avho please to pre-
sent themselves, and certificates of capacity are given to all who pass satisfacto-
rily. Among the optional branches of instruction are stenography, to which
some importance is attached, and drawing, which is cultivated both artistically
and for its commercial uses.
Besides the regular classes during the day, there are evening classes for per-
sons already engaged in business. These are held from 7 to 9 o'clock from Oc-
tober till Easter, and are attended by about 250 persons who pay four florins
for each course, with the exception of the living languages, wliich are only two
florins, and stenography, fixed at one florin. The subjects taught in these
classes are commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, commercial correspondence, tho
rules of commerce, and exchange, &c., the living languages, and stenography.
The majority of the persons attending the evening classes present themselves for
examination to obtain certificates.
ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AT PRAGUE.
2. The Academy of Commerce at Prague was founded in 1826. It has a three
years' course, in addition to a certificate of studies completed in the trade school,
or the real gymnasium. The French language is obhgatory ; English and Italian
are optional studies. There were in 1867, 204 pupils.
ACADEMY OP COMMERCE AT PESTH.
3. The Academy of Commerce at Pesth was founded in 1859, by the Chamber
of Commerce, and in 1867 had 136 pupils, distributed through a three years'
course, which was founded on the basis of the studies of the real school com-
pleted. It employs 29 professors, a portion of whom are attached to otheiiinsti-
tutjons of the city, giving special instruction in this academy.
The commercial academies at Graetz and at Reichenberg (Bohemia) has a
similar organization.
SPECIAL INSTRCCTION IN AUSTRlX. yg
ACADEMIES OF THE TINE ARTS AND INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING AND SIUSIC.
The following are the schools of art, as applied to painting, sculpture, engrav-
ing, and music, in Austria :
ACADEMIES AXD SCHOOLS OF ART.
1. The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts in Vienna was founded by Joseph
I, in 1704, and completed by Charles V, in 1726. It is a State institution, as a
gallery, a body of artists, and a school of instruction in art having 11 professors
and an average of over 200 pupils. It has a valuable collection of pictures,
several of them by the first artists, such as Claude, Murillo, and Titian.
2. At Gratz, tlicre is an Academy of Painting, maintained by the province,
with 30 to 50 i)upils.
3. At Prague, the Academy of Arts is maintained by the "Patriotic Society
of the Friends of Art," with an average of 61 pupils.
4. Tlic School of Fine Arts at Cracow is maintained in connection with the
Technical Institute, with 5 professors and 24 pupils.
5 Drawing is taught as a regular and indispensable branch in all technical
schools, and in fifty-two art schools so designated.
INSTRUCTIOX IN MUSIC.
1. The Consci"vatory of Music at Vienna originated with an association, but
receives an annual subsidy from the government. It has a six years' course ;
fees, 4 to 6 florins jjer month. It has a director, 20 professors, and an average
of over 200 pupils of both sexes.
2. The Conservatory of Music at Prague is supported by the " Society for the
Improvement of Music," with aid from the government. It has three depart-
ments : one for instrumental music, with a six years' course ; one for singing,
with a two years' course ; and one for the opera, with a two or three years'
course. The teaching is gratuitous for natives. There is a director, a sub-
director, and 19 professors.
3. The fifty-two art schools mentioned above, are also schools of music. They
are partly organized by associations, partly by professors, and number in all, 231
professors, and 3,973 pupils of both sexes.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE EDUCATION.
Thei'C are several institutions of special and professional instruction for women,
of which we give a brief notice.
1. There exists in Vienna an Institute, where the daughters of officers with
limited means and large families are educated so as to be able to take situations
as governesses in wealthy families.
The pupils arc 78 in number, and the expense of the establishment is defrayed
by the government and private benefactions.
Girls are admitted from six to eight years of age, and remain till they are 20.
The pupils are distributed into four classes, and each class has two divisions.
The directress of the establishment has under her orders four sub-directresses,
a mistress for needlework, and a mistress to teach housekeeping.
2. There are 8 schools for midwives : at Linz, Klagenfurt, Laybach, Trieste,
Alle-Laste near Trent, Zara, Venice, Czernovicz. Instruction of the same kind
is also given to women at the faculties of medicine and surgical establishments
go SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA,
A large number of apprenticc-midwives receive considerable pecuniary assistance
during their studies from the provinces and townships.
Candidates must l)e at least 24 years of age, and less than 50, must be able to
road and write, be of good reputation, and of healthy constitution.
The course of instruction occupies, according, to circumstances, four, five, or
six months. It is both theoretical and practical, and is given by a professor of
obstetrics, aided by a midwife and a nurse.
In most of the schools there are two promotions yearly. On leaving, the
pupils have to undergo a severe examination, for which those who have the
means pay a fee of 30 florins.
There arc ten professors engaged in these schools, with a like number of mid-
wives and nurses. The professor's salary is from 420 to 630 florins. IMore than
1,200 midwivcs are instructed every year in these establishments. The expen-
diture amounts to 9,815 florins.
INSTRUCTION IN MINES AND METALLURGY.
Austria was one of the earliest to establish courses of instruction in the
sciences connected with the profitable exploration of mines, and the smelting
of ores. The Academy at Sehemnitz was founded in 1763, lectures having been
given at even an earlier period to a class of men charged Avith the superinten-
dence of the salt-works, mines, collieries, and furnaces belonging to the crown.
MINIKG ACADEMIES.
Mining academies exist at Sehemnitz, in Hungary ; at Lcoben, in Styria ; and
at Pibram, in Croatia.
The courses last from two to four years. The qualification for admission is a
certificate from a gymnasium or a higher practical school. There are 23 pro-
fessors and 255 pupils. The school fee is 10 florins, and many jjupils are ad-
mitted without payment. The total expense is 14,700 florins. These establish-
ments are supported by the State.
In addition to these special schools of mining, the sciences which belong to
the subject are thoroughly taught at the Polytechnic School, and illustrated iu
the collections of the Geological Institute, at Vienna.
MINING ACADEMY AT SCHEMNITZ.
The Mining Academy at Sehemnitz was founded during the reign of Maria
Theresa, to aid in the developing the mines adjacent to that town, and distrib-
uted througli the surrounding district, and in training engineers and overseers
of the imperial mines in other parts of the empire.
The institution is well endowed, and well equipped with a laboratory, and all
the fltcilities of assaying and smelting. The course extends through three years.
First year. — Geometry, algebra, trigonometry, and conic sections, physics, me-
chanics, crystallograjjliy, and drawing. Second i/ecn: — Chemistry, mineralogy,
metallurgy, and geology. Third year. — Surveying, machinery, art of mining,
•with practical exercises, dressing of ores, smelting, construction of machines and
buildings, mining accounts, &c. A fourth year is given to additional practical
exercises.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX L\ DUCHY OF BADEN.
INTKODUCTIOX.
The Grand Duchy of Baden had, in 18G1, on a territory of 5,904
square miles, 1,369,291 inhabitants, of whom 89G,683 were Catholics,
2-4,099 Jews, and the rest Protestants.
About two-thirds of the population are engaged in agriculture, and
tlie industrial activity of the other third is turned to ribbons and cot-
ton fabrics, clocks and fabrics of straw, toys and trinkets. There
are over 300 large manufocturing establishments. The income for
1862 was 17,140,192 florins, (about $7,000,000,) and the state budget
for public instruction, in 1863, contains the following items:
Fiorina
Popular schools, - - - - .
- 86,084
Normal schools, ......
30,086
Special aid to teachers in primary schools.
50,000
Higher Imrghcr schools, ....
31,000
Secondary schools, ....
- 68,838
Teaching of gymnastics, ....
8,250
Universities, ' -
- 178,087
Technical or professional schools, ...
18,025
Cabinets of physics, collections of natural history, &c.
, at
Carlsruhe, ......
3,279
Aid to sarants, artists, museums, &c.,
5,677
Total, -....- 485,326
The supervision of public instruction, and of all institutions of
education aided out of the budget, belongs to the Ministry of the
Interior, who acts through a Council of Education, which is com-
posed of a member for each of the four circles, or districts, into
which the kingdom is divided, and a representative of each of the
highest authorities in the evangelical, Catholic, and Jewish churoh
organizations.
The system of public schools* embraces:
I. Primary Sc/wols, — which, in Baden, are denominational in
their local management, but which must be attended l)y all children
over six and under fourteen years, unless excused. There were in
1866, 2,157 primary schools, of which 1,389 were Catholic, 740
Protestant, and 28 Jewish, with an aggregate attendance of 200,000
»See Report on National Education in Europe, Part I, Germany.
6
82 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
pupils. Eveiy parish must provide in -winter, in the primnvy ? clool-
house, for a class of girls in sewing, knitting, and other home-work,
for one hour after the boys are dismissed. An evening class is main-
tained twice a week, for young persons (whose attendance is optional,)
who have left school, for further instruction in penman-hip, letter
Avriting, and the elements of natural history, and the industries of
the locality.*
II. Secondary Schools, — including 28 burgher schools, (superior
primary schools,) with 2,154 pupils; 5 high schools for girls, with
280 pupils ; 3 pedagogiums, with 382 pupils in a coui-se of 6 years ;
8 lyceums, with 2,108 pupils in a course of 9 years ; and 5 gymna-
siums, with 652 pupils in a course of 8 years.
III. Superior Schools, or Universities, viz : One at Heidelberg,
founded in 1386, with a faculty of theology, philosophy and philology,
medicine, mid law, and an aggregate of 752 students ; 1 at Freiburg,
founded in 1454, with a faculty of Catholic theology, law, medicine,
and jihilosophy, and an aggregate of 356 students ; 1 Catholic archi-
episcopal seminary, with 35 students.
IV. Special and Professioncd Schools, viz : 3 primary normal
schools, with 170 pupils ; 3 superior normal schools, (connected with
the pedagogiums,) with 50 pupils ; 2 agricultural schools, with 80
pupils; 1 veterinary school, with 10 pupils ; 2 military schools, (one
a review school for staff officers,) with 60 pupils ; 1 normal school
for gymnastics, Avith 35 pupils ; 1 school of the fine arts, with 35
pupils ; 41 schools of arts and trades, with 4,803 pupils ; 1 poly-
technic school, Avith six seciions, (1 for mechanics, 1 for engineers,
1 for builders, 1 for foresters, 1 for chemists, 1 for constructors of
machines, 1 for post office and other public service,) and 589 pupils ;
1 watchmaking school, with 80 pupils ; 3 sti'aw-plaiting schools,
Avith 120 pupils ; 1 Avorkmen's society mdustrial school, with 80
pupils ; 1 institution for deaf mutes, AA'ith 30 pupils ; 1 institution
for the blind, Avith 25 pupils.
V. Associations for the Advancement of Literature, Science, and
the Arts. — Under this head thei-e are : 1 museum of natural history;
1 gallery of paintings and statuary ; 5 public libraries, Avith an aggre-
gate of 200,000 Aoluraes, .&c., &c
*By the law of 18(54, the primary schools are divided into elementary and superior ; the ele-
mentary are confined to the rural districts which can maintain only one teacher, and the mini-
mum instruction fixed by law , the superior primarj' schools are taught by two or more teachers,
each of Vhom must give thirty-two lessons a week. AVhen a school exceeds sixty pupils, there
must be three classes. The schools are to become less denominational, and each commune can
elect its own committee, one of whom must be the teacher, and in the /nrgfr communes, a
physician, as well as the pastor.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 83
SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION.
Out of the many excellent institutions for special instruction in
the Grand Duchy of Baden, we select for particular description, two
which have attained great rei)utation.*
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT CARLSRl'IIE.
The Polytkchxic School of the Grand Duchy of Baden is located at
Carlsruhc, the capital of the diuliy, a city of 2.5,000 inhabitants in 18G0. The
germ existed in a scliool of engineering founded in 1814, which was exi)anded
into a large scientific school in 1825, by Prof. Winter, under the encouragement
and aid of the Grand Duke Louis, receiving a building, and a forest .school in
1832, and a chemical, a machine construction, and a commercial department in
1836, and then attained, by steady growth, the proportions of the most complete
polytechnic school in Germany. Without large or diversified industries in the
city of its location, and with several competing institutions of the same charac-
ter in close proximity, (Stuttgart, Darmstadt, and lately Zurich,) the number
of scholars has steadily increased, and its range of instruction has kept pace
with the demands of the age, because its managers have been successful in ob-
taining and retaining an aide corps of professors, and have provided tliem with
suitable class-rooms, leeture-halls, laboratories, workshops, and aH the material
aids of technical instruction.
ORGAXIZATIOX.
This establishment is a kind of technical university, which, in addition to
scientific studies of a high order, comprises in its organization several sjiccial
divisions. The first of these is devoted not merely to mathematical science, as
its name would seem to indicate, but also to the general scientific knowledge
necessary for the other teclmical divisions, and which the pupils may acquire bv
following the particular courses relating to those sciences. Tliis institution was
the first of its class to introduce the system of independent schools, or divisions
in the several great departments of industry, founded on a coninioa scientific
basis.
The technical divisions, or schools, are :
Engineers, . - . . requiring 2 or 2^ years.
. , ., , ( Builders, - - " 2 "
Architects, | ^^,^^^^^^^\s^ . . « 4 «
Foresters, - - - - " 2 "
Chemists, - - - - " 2 "
Constructors of macliines, - - " 2 "
Commerce, .... " 1 " â–
Posts, . - - . " 1 «
The only qualification for admission is that the candiaate shall possess the
requisite instruction to enable him to follow one of the divisions. There is no
absolutely compulsory series of study ; the examinations alone impose on the
pupils the necessity of acquiring the necessary instruction, and thus indicate to
them the courses which are indispensable.
•Compiled from Programmes of Institution?, Report of French Commission, and Report ol
Hamburgh Committee, and memoranda of a Ti.-it.
84
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
Alathematical Division.
The studies of this division extend over two years. For admission to the first
year's course the candidate must be above 17 years of age, and must prove that
lie is sufficiently acquainted with elementary mathematics, and can treat of a
given subject in the German language. A candidate may enter the second year's
course at once on showing that he knows the subjects taught in the first year,
and that he is 18 years of age. The following is the programme of studies:
Hours.
First Year:
Differential and integral calculus, - - - - 5
Plane and spherical trigonometry, - ... 2
Analytical geometry of two dimensions, ... -2
Descriptive geometry, - • - - - 6
Elements of mechanics, - - - - - 5
Experimental physics, ----- 4
(And one hour of repetition.)
German language, - - - - - - 2
French language, ------ 3
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - 2
Modeling, ' - - --- - - 4
Second Year:
DiiTcrcntial and integral calculus, - - - - 4
Analytical geometry of three dimensions, - - - 2
Analytical mechanics, - - - - - - 5
Descriptive geometry, . . - . - 4
Technical drawing, (summei',) - - - - - 4
Practical geometry, ------ 4
Higher physics, (winter,) - - - - - . 3
Physical experiments, (summer,) - - - - 6
General chemistry, (course of the chemical division,) - - 4
Mineralogy and geology, - - - - -3 to 4
German literature, - - - - - - 2
French language, ------ 3
English language, - - - - - - 3
Free-hand drawing, ------ 4
Modeling, - - - - - - -4
Division of Engineers.
This division prepares for all the branches of the profession, military engineer-
ing excepted.
To be admitted, the candidate must possess the knowledge acquired in a gym-
nasium or lyceum as far as the second class, and that of the two years' mathe-
matics of the preceding school In the absence of certificates, the candidate
must pass an examination.
The studies occupy t^vo years, according to the following programme :
Hours.
First Year:
Calculation of variations, (winter,) - - - - 2
Surveying, ----... 2
Method of least squares, - - - - - 1
Applied mechanics, ------ 3
Technological chemistry, - - - - - 3
Roads, hydraulic constructions, (with three afternoons of ex-
periments,) - - - - - - -5
Construction of machines, ----- 12
German literature, - - - - - - 1
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 35
Hours.
Ancient and mcdi;cval literature, - ... 5
Tractical constnictior. in wood and stone, - - 4 to 6
Free-hand and landscape drawing, - ... 4
English language, - - - - - - 3
Secoml Year:
Bridges and roads, -.--.- 6
Construction of railways, - - - - - 2
Exercises in practical huilding every afternoon in winter, and
both morning and afternoon in summer, - . -
Construction of mailunes, - - - - . 6
Questions in mathematical physics, (summer,) - - 2
Popular law, ...... 2
German literature, - - • • • .5
Ancient and mcdia'val history, - ... 5
Free-hand and landscape drawing, • . . - 4
Third Year :
This course, which is one of six months only, is intended for engineers who
intend to practice in the Grand Duchy. They have to familiarize themselves
with the regulations and usages as to contracts for public works, as well as to
price currents (two hours per week.).
Hours.
Drawing up of projects, specifications, estimates, - - 8
Higher architecture, ------ 3
The pupils arc taken out for excursions to building yards and works in course
of execution ; in this case the lessons are inten-upted.
Division of Builders.
This division is subdivided into two parts ; the lower section is intended to
train builders, {werkmeister,) capable of projecting and executing all ordinary
buildings for dwellings and manufacturing purposes. The higher division is
meant to train architects in the higher sense of the word, and those wlio pass
thi'ough it are expected to improve themselves subsequently by traveling to study
the more remarkable creations of their art.
This division requires four years' study; the qualifications for admission are
the same as for the engineering division, except that only the first year's course
of the mathematical division is necessary.
First Year:
General and inorganic chemistry, (chemical course,
1st division,) . - . - -
Mineralogy and geology, - - - 3
Building materials, ....
Descriptive geometry, . . - -
Statics of buildings, ....
Architectural drawing from copies,
Drawing of plans, - - . - -
Landscapes, .....
Drawing of ornaments, ....
IVIodeling in plaster, - . - -
Building arches in the yard, ...
Modeling in wood, ....
Ancient and mcdi;eval history,
German literature, ....
Hours in
Ilour.^ ia
Winter.
Summer.
se.
4
4
to 4
3 to 4
2
2
4
4
2
2
4
6
â– 4
6
4
4
4
6
4
—
—
4
4
4
5
5
1
1
86
Sl'ECIAL, IXSTUUCTIOX IN BADEN'.
Hours in Hours in
Winter. Summer.
Second Year.
Knowledge of machines, - - - - 6 6
Bridges and roads, - . - • . 5 5
Teilinical architcetiirc, - - - - 4 4
Eknientary studies of projects, - - 2 2
Arthitectural drawing from models and copies,
projects, . - ... 4 6
Projects of dwelling houses, ... 4 6
Landscape drawing, - - - - 4 4
W Drawing ornaments from copies, - - - 4 6
â– Modeling in plaster, - - - - 4 -
Building arches in the yard, . . . _ 4
Modeling in wood, - . . - 4 4
Ancient and medieval history, - . - - _
.Literatm'C, ------ _
Third Year:
Technical course of architecture, 2d part, - 3 3
Higher art of building, - - - 3 3
History of ancient architecture, - - - 2 2
Plans of dwelling houses, - - - 6 9
Graphic studies on the more remarkable orders and
edifices, ..-•-. 2 3
Aerial perspective, . . . - 2 3
Drawing oniaments from models and nature, 3 3
Drawing of figures, - . . - 4 4
Prce-hand drawing, - - - - 4 4
Modeling from models, - - - - 5 4
Ancient and mcdireval history, . - _ _
German literature, - - - - - - , -
Fourth Year:
Popular law, ----- 2 2
Higlier art of building, - - - - 3 3
History of mediajval and modern architecture, 2 2
Projects of great pulilic buildings, - - 6 9
Study of the architecture of the middle ages, and
copying of the principal monuments, - - 2 3
Pcrs])cctive views in water colors, - - 2 3
Drawing of ornaments, - - . - 2 3
Figure drawing from plaster models and nature, 4 4
Pree-hand drawing, . - - - 4 4
Modeling from nature or fancy, - - 5 4
Ancient and mediaival history, - - . _ —
German literature, ----- -
The mornings left free are devoted to graphic studies, and, at the end of the
school year, there is a competition for the fourth class. A gold medal is given
for the best project.
In these programmes for the architectural division, it is worthy of remark that
thcic is no mention of mathematical instruction with regard to the stability of
buildings, the strength of materials, &c. Such being the case, it is not easy to
see the utility of the high mathematics and mechanical analysis required for ad-
mission into this division, the first two years of which are intended to form
builders and overseers of works. It would, perhaps, be better to require less of
the higher mathematics and more of the applications of the principles of science
to the art of building. The practice of exercising the pupils of this division in
the actual construction of various arches appears to be excellent. But as this
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 87
can only be done with bricks, it should not set aside that of making vaults and
other constructions in plaster on a reduced scale, which oblige the pupils to trace
all the panels and completely realize the different parts.
After the first two years' studies, the pupils who have no higher ambition
than to become builders or overseers of works have acquired sufficient theoreti-
cal and practical instruction.
Division of Foresters.
The instniction of this division consists of: 1. A preparatory course; 2.
Two years' studies. To enter the preparatory course, the qualification required
is proficiency in the subjects taught in a lyceum as for as the second class, or
else in all the classes of a gymnasium. The following is the programme :
Ilours.
Preparatory Course:
Arithmetic and algebra, - - >• - - 3
Plane and solid geometry, - - - - - 3 '
Experimental jihysics, - - - - - - 4
General and special botany, .... 4
Zoology, - - - - - - -3
Botanical excursions and observations once a 'week in summer.
History of German literature, - - - - - 2
Popular law, ...... 2
Rudiments of forest science, - - - - - 2
Practical instruction in forest questions and in the accounts of
forest administration, - - - - - —
First Year:
General arithmetic and algebra, .... 2
Plane polygonometry, spherical trigonometry, - - - 2
Mathematical forest exercises, .... 4
General chemistry, - - - - - - 4
Mineralogy, (winter,) . - ... 3
Geology, (summer,) - - - - - - 4
Practical mineralogy, ..... 2
General botany, anatomy, chemistry, physiology, geography,
(winter,) -----.. 4
Climate, meteorology, knowledge of soils, - - - 3
Natural history of timber trees, . - . - 2
Forest management, (winter,) - - - - - 3
Forest dues, --..... 2
Practical geometry, - - . - - - 4
Excursions and explanations in the forest, - . - -
Botanical excursions, - --.-._
Second Year:
Solution of problems, .-.--. 2
Agricultural chemistry, - - - . - 2
Administrative science, political and financial economy, - 2
Roads and hydraulic constructions, (elements,) - - 2
Guarding and protecting of forests, - - - 2
State of forest science, - - - - . - 2
Working and valuations after rational methods, - - 4
Valuation of the soil and produce of the forest as the basis of
their real worth, .--.-. 2
Notions on the chase, - - - - - - 2
Forest administration, ..... 2
Forest police, - - - - - --3
Forest laws and those of the chase, - - - - 2
Excursions and journeys with applications.
gg SPECIAlj INSTRUCTION IN BADBN.
Division of Chemists.
This division is especially devoted to young men who purpose following careers
in which a knowledge of chemistry, physics, and natural history may be useful,
whether they intend to devote themselves to chemistry or to engage in mining
or metallurgical works. Admission is fi-ec to all who possess the instruction
necessary for following the courses, and arc full 17 years of age. The subjects
taught are summarily stated in the following programme :
Hours.
General chemistry, 1st course, inorganic part, (winter term,) - 4
Organic chemistry, (summer term,) - . . 4
General chemistry, 2d course, history and philosophy of chem-
istry, (one year,) - - - - - - 1
Repetition of chemistry, (winter,) - - - - 2
Conference on chemical analysis, (summer,) - - 2
Art of assaying metals, - - - - - — '
Manipuhxtions in the laboratory, - - - . _
Qualitative and quantitative analysis, - - - - —
Agricultural chemistry, (winter,) - - . - 2
Chemical technology, organic and inorganic, various manu-
factures, (one ycai-,) ----- 3
Metallurgy, (one year,) - - - - - - 2
Experimental physics, ... - . 4
Repetitions of physics, - - - - - - 1
Higher physics, ....-._
Botany and geology, - - - - - - 7
Mineralogy, (winter,) - - - - . 3
Physical geography, (summer,) - - - - 4
Knowledge of useful minerals, (winter,) - - - 2
Practical mineralogy, excursions, &c., (summer,) - - 2
Crystallography, (winter,) ----- 2
This very extensive curriculum constitutes a series of courses which may be
followed, not only by the pupils more especially destined for the chemical arts,
but also for those of the other divisions. To take part in the chemical maiiipu-
lations, the pupils pay 44 florins a year, and are supplied with all the needful
re-agents.
Division of Constructors of Machines.
The qualification for admission is the instruction acquired by a pupil during
the first year of the mathematical division. The whole course takes two years.
The number of hours per week devoted to each subject is indicated in the follow-
ing programme :
First Year:
On machines, -------6
Construction of machines, - - - - - 4
Arrangements of machines, - - - - - 6
Experimental physics, - .... 4
Applied mechanics, - - - - - - 3
Practical geometry, - - - - - - -
Mechanical technology, - - - - - - 2
Chemical technology, ....._
Metallurgy, - - - - . - .—
Knowledge of useful minerals, .... 2
Roads and hydraulic constructions, - - - - 5
Free-hand drawing, ---.-. 4
Ancient and mcdiicval history, - - . • - 5
Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m., . . . -
German and French literature, - . . . - 4
Hours.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEX.
89
Second Year :
On iiuicliincs, - - . .
CoiistriKtion of machines,
Piittiiiu' up iiuuhiiu's, ...
Mechaiiiriil torlmnlog'y, - . .
Select (iiK'stious of inathcmatical physics, -
Higlicr iilivsics-, - - - -
General chemistry, - - - .
Id. rc])ctitioiis, (winter,) -
Road and hyth-anlic constructions,
Kaihvays, (summer,) ...
Chemical tecliuolugy, ...
MctaHurjry, - ' -
Ancient and mediaeval history,
German literature, ...
Free-hand drawing - - . .
English langtuige, ...
Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m., -
Hours.
6
4
6
2
2
6
4
2
6
2
4
4
Commercial Division.
The qualification for admission to this division is the instruction that can be
acquired in an upper middle class school.
the follo\\ing programme :
On commerce, . . -
Book-keeping,
Commercial correspondence,
Commercial arithmetic,
Knowledge of merchandise,
Conmiercial geography.
Commercial history,
! German,
French, -
English,
Calligrajihy, - . .
Drawing, . . -
The instruction is given according to
Hours.
.5
2
3
3
3
3
1
4
4
3
2
2
Post Office Division .
The qualification for admission is the degree of instruction acquired on leaving
the upper class of a gymnasium or the higher division of the fifth in a lyccum.
Two years are required to complete the courses which are arranged as follows :
First Year:
Arithmetic, - - - - -
Mechanics, . . - - .
Experimental physics, . - - .
French language, ....
German language, ....
Calligraphy,- - . - -
Second Year:
Political arithmetic, . - - .
Geography, - - . . -
General notions of political economy, (summer,)
Popular law, - . - - .
Commercial law, ....
Application of mechanics to conveyance, -
Hours.
3
3
4
4
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
2
90 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
Hours.
Ancient and mcditeval history, - - - - - 5
German literature, ------ 2
Frcneli lan;j;uage, - - - - • - 3
French literature, ------ 2
EnjrJish language, - - - - - - 3
Calligrapliy^ 2
Manayevient.
The committee of management consists of a director, two councillors, the
lihrarian, the secretary, and an accountant. The staff of teachers, professors,
assistant professors, and masters is arranged as follows :
Prof. Assist.
Mathematics, ----- 4 2
Natural sciences, ... - 6 2
Architecture and building, - - - 4 1
Bridges and roads, . - - - 3 —
Knowledge of machines, ... 3 —
Forest sciences, .... 3 -
Commerce, - -- - -2 -
Masters.
General courses, (languages and literature,) - - - 9
Sculpture, .--.---1
Calligraphy, ...---- 1
"Workshops, .-..-..3
The professors are appointed and paid by the government. The director is
elected for one year, by the heads of the several divisions.
The students are classified as regular or irregular. The latter are persons of
ripe age, and generally graduates of other technical schools, and attend only
special courses of lectures, by permission. The regular students must be mem-
bers of some particular division, and pay an admission fee of $3.00, and an annual
tuition of 06 Klieuish florins. The tuition covers more than half the expendi-
tures of the institution. The rest is paid by the government.
The discipline of the institution is strict, and the head of each department is
charged with the supervision of his pupils.
The number of pupils, regular and irregular, in 1861, was 826, and the age
ranges from 18 to 22 years.
Buildings and Afaterial Equipments.
The building, laboratories, and collections for illustrating the studies of the
several divisions, are among the best in Europe. The main building is 406 feet
(Bavarian) long, and 42 feet deep, with wings 100 feet long, by 40, in the rear.
The laboratory of the chemical department is in a separate structure, (220 feet
long, by 50 deep,) and will accommodate 100 students at their manipulations,
with separate rooms for distillation, and other processes. There is a separate
building, of the same size, for the lectures, models and designs for machines, in
â– which the collections arc very large and complete. The workshops, three in
number, are not large, and the only one appropriated to students is not largely
resorted to. The cost of the buildings was about $250,000. The collections
and instruments, for illustration in each division, are large and admirably selected,
or constructed on the jiremises for use.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 91
TRADE SCHOOLS.
The object of the trade schools (gewerbeschulen,) of Baden, as expressed in the
â– words of tlic law, is " to afford to young persons who propose to follow a ti-adc,
or mechanic art, which requires no hiyh grade of technical or scientiiic training,
and wlio have already acipiired a practical knowledge of its rudiments, such
knowledge and skill as will make them capable of an intelligent pursuit of it."
The schools arc open to apprentices, or those about to become apprentices,
above the ago of fo\irtccn ; to journeymen, of good character, possessing sufli-
cient preparatory knowledge, and to any one who may ^\ish to attend any single
course.
Attendance upon them was, until recently, obligatory upon all apprentices,
but the regulation was found to bring m pupils who felt no interest in the studies,
and did not profit by the instruction, but disturbed those who were studious.
There were 4,920 pupils in all the schools, (forty-one in 1868,) of which about
500 were journeymen, and 800 pujnls not yet connected with any trade.
The number of professors was, in 1862, thirty-four, with thirty-six assistants,
and the total of their salaries was 30,.5.33 florins of the Rhine. The expenses are
defrayed in part by the state, in part by the parishes, and a small tuition fee is
charged, which may be remitted, in case of inability to pay.
The school is hold, during the winter, from seven to ten in the moniing; during
the summer, from six to nine, and on the afternoon of Sundays. The whole
course lasts three years, and is preceded by a preparatoiy course; Pupils are not
obliged to pursne those studies which have no reference to their future occupation.
The best of these schools, although not the one nvmibering the most pupils, is
that at Baden-Baden. Its curriculum, which wc take as an example, is as follows ;
TUADE SCHOOL AT BADEN.
Commercial course, 1st class, (1 hour per week,) keeping accounts, drawing up
bills, letters of credit, bills of exchange, notes, receipts, &c. ; 2d class, (1 hour,)
certificates, forms eonferrnig powers of attorney (formuhs de pleins pouvoirs,) ad-
vertisements, letters of credit, &c. ; 3d class, (1 hour,) bills of exchange, pirinci-
pal documents made valid by tlie mere signature of the individual putting them
forth, { principaux actes sous sishig price,) petitions to the government, commercial
letters, &c.
Course of arithmetic, 1st class, (2 hours,) simple fractions and decimals, com-
parison of the weights and measures used in France and Baden, proportions, rule
of three; 2d class, (1 hour,) review of what was t.iught the first class, rules of
interest, alligation, partnership, extraction of square root; 3d class, (1 hour,)
ccmations of tlie first degree and several unknown quantities, continuation of the
rules of partnership and of interest, extraction of cube root.
Course of qeometrij, l.st class, (1 hour,) triangles, squares, and polyg(mal figures ;
2d cbass, (1 hour,) mensuration of surfaces; 3d class, (1 hour,) mensuration of
the volume and weight of regular bodies.
Course of industrial iconomii, 2d class, (1 hour,) connections between workman
and employer; 3d class, (1 hour,) connections between employer, master work-
man, and workman.
Course of hook-Jccepinq, 3d class, (1 hour,) drawing up of inventories, transac-
tion of fictitious business.
Course of natund history and mechanics, 2d class, (1 hour,) considerations upon
the general tpmlities of bodies, centres of gravity, stability, parallelogram of
foixes; 3d class, (1 hour,) hydraulic press, pumps of various kinds, heat, and
magnetism.
Course of geometrical drawing, includes a course of free-hand drawing and
modeling.
^2 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
Course of free-hand draicing, 1st class, (1 hour,) regular plane figures ; 2(1 class,
(I hour,) regular solids; 3(1 class, (3 hours,) machines, plans, sulijects, &c.
Course of iiiodeliiiij, tlie 3 ehisses, (4 hours,) turning, metal and wood work.
To the practical course arc assigned five workshops, i7i which the jjupils work
from half past seven to nine. The number of pupils in this school is 200.
The other leading trade schools are at Constance, 233 pujails ; Freiburg, 361 ;
Carlsruhe, 304 ; Pforzheim, 483 ; Heidelberg, 424 ; and Mannheim, 282.
SCHOOL' FOR AVATCII AND CLOCKMAKING AT FURTWANGEN.
Since the sixteenth century the manufacture of clocks has been one of the
staple trades of this part of Germany ; and in 1847 it is estimated that there
were more than 4,000 persons emjjloyed in watchmaking. In the year 1849 a
special school for this branch of industry was established, and the place selected
for its seat was Furtwangen, in the canton of Freiburg, the old centre of the
clock manufacture in the Black Forest.
This school now comprises: 1. A general trade school ( GewerbescJuih) teach-
ing more especially everything connected with clockmaking. 2. A purely prac-
tical school, with workshops for improving workmen in the different branches
of the art, and provided with everything required for promoting the progress of
liorological manufactures in Baden generally.
Industrial School. — The instruction given here consists of three courses, each
occupying a year. The classes ai-e always held in the morning, beginning at six
o'clock in winter, and at five in summer, and vary from seven hours to fifteen
and a half hours per week for each class of pupils. ISIoreovcr, seeing the gen-
eral importance of free-hand drawing, three hours are devoted to it every Sunday
for apprentices and workmen. The clockmaking school even supplies pupils of
insufficient means with all the necessary material.
For children of either sex, between the ages of eight and fourteen, there are
three courses of drawing. Instruction in modeling is given to joiners, sculptors,
and painters, if they desire it. Besides, pupils are also taught moulding, the art
of casting, of taking impressions on various materials, gilding on wood and
stone, burnishing, varnishing, polishing, copper plate printing, &e.
In 1861 this school had 49 pupils and seven free auditors.
There are : 1. A principal professor of special drawing, of mechanics, of the
knowledge of machines, of applied physics and chemistry. 2. A professor of
free-hand drawing, of ornaments, modeling, and decoration. 3. An assistant
master for German, arithmetic, geometry, geometrical constructions, and com-
mercial accounts.
The instruction is thus distributed among the three classes :
Hours.
First Class:
Arithmetic and plane geometry, - - - - 3
German language, ------ 2
Geomctricnl constructions ; drawing applied to clockmaking, 2 to 3
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - -lto3
Second Class:
Arithmetic and geometry, surfaces, volumes, cun-es, &c., - 2 to 3
Gennan, contracts, commercial correspondence, - - 2
Book-keejiing, ------ 1
Applied mechanics and physics, power and work, centre of
gravity, the pendulum, simjile machines, lever, wedge,
screw, pulley, - - - - - - -2
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 93
Hours.
Motions of clockwork, generalities on tlic measure of time,
constituent parts, and their relations, - - - I
Drawing geometrical constructions, penetrations, cunxs for
the teeth of wheels, tools, - - - - 2 to 3^
Free-hand drawing with the pencil, shading, - - 1 to 3
Third Class :
Arithmetic and mechanics, problems in clockwork, transfor-
mation of movements, - - - - - 1 to 2
Motions of clockwork, calculation of wheels, the different
kinds of clocks, the bejit escapements, tools, and machines, - 2
Applied physics, especially with relation to clockwork, - 1^
Special drawing for clockwork, - - - - - 4
Free-hand drawing, shading, - - - - 1^
Workshops fur Improvement. — There are at present three of these workshops,
two for watches and one for clocks.
The first watch workshop adnaits young men who intend to follow the trade,
and gives them all the means of becoming expert workmen. The second shop
is a continuation of the first, that is to say, as soon as a young man has acquired
in the first sutficient skill to take part in the manufacture of watches, he is at
liberty either to enter any private manufactory or to pass into the second shop,
where he continues to work under the direction of the professor, at the same
time receiving wages. Skilful watchmakers arc also received in this second shop
to work by the piece. Both these shops are under the same roof as the school.
The workshop for clocks is, on the contrary, owing to want of room, in the resi-
dence of the professor, and as he keeps a workshop of his own for clocks, the
organization is analogous to the one we have described for watches. Every
pupil has a place to himself like a workman ; the tools are exactly the same as
in a complete watch and clock manufactory, organized according to the best and
most recent processes, and on the system of division of labor.
The workshops are never elosed for want of work ; but there are holidays at
Easter, at the end of the school year, and in Carnival time, just the same as in
the other manufactories of the Black Forest. The Avorking hours are, in accord-
ance with the general usages of the trade, from 7 to 11.30 a. m., and from 1 to
7 p. m., that is 10^ hours' work per day, — 63 hours per week. Of those who
attend the trade school, those in the first class have seven hours' instruction, and
58 of piuictice in the workshops, in all 65 hours in winter; those of the second
class, 12 hours and 54 hours, or 66 hours in all ; those of the third class, 7 hours
and 58 hours, or 65 hours. In summer the theoretical courses begin at an earlier
hour, which prolongs to 66 or 68 hours the time employed per Aveek.
In the workshop for clocks the hours of work, according to the custom prevor
lent in the Black Forest, are 13 per day. In the second shop those who work
by the piece can leave off at dusk.
There is no time fixed for pupils to remain in either workshop ; their stay de-
pends on the aptitude, application, and progress of each individual. In general
the apprenticeship docs not exceed three years. In the contract signed on enter-
ing, the pupil engages to pay a certain sum in case he leaves the school by his
own desire, or if, on withdrawing from the watch workshop, he leaves the Black
Forest. In all other cases the instruction is gratuitous.
Each of the two workshops has a bench for 10 pupils, the number of practical
pupils, therefore, can not exceed 20.
94 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
Workshops for Watches. — The principle of division of labor is adopted in those
shops, so that, as soon as a pnpil possesses a general knowledge of the trade, he
is ad\ised to select the particular speciality for which he has most aptitude, or
which best meets the actual wants of the establishment.
The instruction therefore consists: 1. Of a general part common to all the
pupils. 2. Of a part special to each pupil, and whicli will render him perfectly
competent to undertake one or more of the branches fonning the complete manu-
facture. 3. Of a part intended to form workmen thoroughly versed in both the
practice and the theory of the art.
The first, or general part, forms the basis of all the subsequent instruction,
and is, therefore, of the utmost importance. While the pupils are going through
it the professor has ample opportunities of appreciating their capabilities and
of deciding what special branch will best suit them.
In this part of the course the pupil has to acquire, — dexterity in filing, turn-
ing, drilling, polishing, <S:c. ; a knowledge of the treatment of materials, harden-
ing and annealing of steel, hammer-hardening of brass, &e. ; the power of mak-
ing small tools, such as punches, drills, counter-sinks, rimers, screw-taps, &c. ;
the use of the simple machine tools ; a facility of producing pieces in the rough,
a knowledge of the constituent parts of a Avatch, the practice of drawing Avatches,
and all their parts.
The details of the practical teaching are so numerous that it is impossible to
give them here. Strict attention is paid to the perfection of the Avork, and to
the exact pix)]X)rtions of size. The parts most minutely examined fur the mak-
ing of the pieces in the rough are the IcACr, escapements, the balances, the cut-
ting and setting of the jcaa'cIs the position of the Avhccls, &c. The instruction
of the complete Avatchraaker embraces a knoAvlcdge of all parts of the divided
labor ; it must also familiarize the pupil Avith the geometrical proportions of the
parts of a Avatch, enable him to judge of its movement, to undertake improve-
ments, and even to devise ncAV systems.
This instruction is given by a professor and his assistant, both practical watch-
makers.
In the year 1860 there Avere 13 pupils, four of AA-hom had completed the course
at its close. In 1860-61 there Avereonly 11 pupils, as none are admitted but
those who display more than the average talent.
Workshops for Clocks. — The object of these is to improve this branch of manu-
factures in the Black Forest. OAving to the peculiar organization of the clock
manufacture, it is Aery difficult to establish the principle of division of labor in
this branch ; the instruction given, therefore, is such as to enable every pupil to
take any Avoi-k that he can obtain in establishments already existing, or to set
Tip a Avorkshop of his OAvn. It is indispensable that, Avhile more especially culti-
vating the branch for Avhich he feels most inclined, he must none the less leam
to make complete movements, and to prepare the different pieces in the rough,
otherAA'ise he could not be of much use in the present manufactories of the Black
Forest. It is nevertheless necessary for him to knoAv the system of the division
of labor, and the use of the more expensive and more perfect machines, so as to
be able to take advantage of them AvhencA'er an opportunity occurs.
The instruction is divided into: 1. The general elementary teaching com-
mon to all the pupils ; 2. The general improAement of the pupil in all the
branches, but Avith a more particular study of that for Avhich the 'pupil is
best fitted.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 95
The pupil has to acquire : Dexterity in rtliiig, drilling, turuin;,-; the knoM'l-
edge of materials, and manner of treating them ; the making of the dillLient*
tools ; instruction in the use of the various macliines required in the manufacture
of clocks ; the knowledge of the constituent parts of a clock, their purpose, and
execution. Tiie concluding instruction consists in teaching how to make the
cases, barrels, and wheels ; the moving powers ; the conditions indispensable for
good working of the wheels ; the making of ordinary movements ; striking and
repeating clocks ; finishing with jjicccs in the rough. As there are always in the
workshops pupils of various degrees of proficiency, this last course can not be
divided into sections. The instruction is given by a professor.
The Turtwangcn school has in all six professors, one of whom is director ;
there arc also two workmen and one man servant.
During the last yeai- there were 80 pupils :
In the indiLstrial school of the first year, - - - 29
" " second year, - - 11
" " third year, - - - 9
T ,1 1 , (for watches, - - . -
In the workshops •; ,. , , '
^ I lor clocks, ...
14
17
Fift}--four boys, from 8 to 14 years of age, and 18 girls, from 8 to 13, have
attended the school for free-hand drawing. The yearly sum allowed for the
school by the govei-nnient is at present 10,000 florins.
PLAITING SCHOOLS.
Another of the staple industries of the Black Forest is straw-plaiting, and this
also has been encouraged by the opening of schools. In 1851 a school for girls
was established at Furtwangen under an able mistress, and in this school skilful
workers were trained who have since themselves become mistresses. Numerous
other schools for straw-plaiting have been opened in the Black Forest.
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY.
There is a school of agriculture at Hochburg, withal pupils; of arboriculture
at Carlsruhc, for only eight or ten weeks, with 10 pupils ; of horticulture at
Carlsruhe, with 13 pupils ; of grazing and meadow culture at Cai-lsruhe, with
16 pupils.
The agricultural school at Hochburg was founded in 1848, on the national
domain. Its course of instruction is ample, with 12 lessons a week in winter,
and 1 7 in summer, and extends through three years. The practical instruction
in the first year is devoted to ordinary farm labor ; in the second, to the cai-e
of animals generally ; and the third year in particular to horses. Instruction is
gratuitous. Each pupil receives a gratuity of $16, and regular wages for his
work, amounting the first year to S28 ; the second, to S37 ; and the third, to S46.
The cost of board is alwut S70 dollars a year.
The knowledge of agriculture is also propagated in the primarj' schools, the
masters of which are bound to give lectures on the subject beyond the limits of
elementary teaching, projjerly so called, especially to the improvement and even-
ing classes. The central commission of agriculture sends competent persons to
see that this instruction is properly given, and awards prizes to the masters who
perform this part of their duty with distinguished aliilit}-.
For the diffusion of knowledge concerning agriculture there is, nnder the
direction of the central commission of the Grand Duchy, an agricultural society
96 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN.
Mliith extends its action over the whole country. At the end of 1862 this society
''numbered 11,9.34 members, and it publishes a weekly journal of agriculture
which has a circulation of 9,000 copies.
MILITARY SCHOOLS.
In 1820, the Grand Duke Louis founded the School of Cadets for the educa-
tion of young officers; but its existing organization dates only from 1851.
Youths are admitted to this school from 15 to 18 years of age, after being recog-
nized as fit for the military service, and having proved that they possess the
rc([nisitc instruction, which comprises all that is taught in the gymnasia of the
Grand Duchy as far as the fourth class inclusively.
The studies last three years, and embrace :
Theoretical Course. — Gemian and French mathematics, the military code, tac-
tics, the military art, fortification, history, geography, land-sui-veying.
Practical Courses. — Infantry and artillery exercises, manoeuvres, and the use
of arms, fortification, surveying, and rcconuoitering.
Gymnastics. — Fencing and sword exercise ; gymnastics, riding, swimming.
The number of cadets, in 1867, was 60.
There is likewise at Carlsruhe an improving school for superior officers.
SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS.
At Carlsruhe there is a central school of gymnastics partly supported by the
government, the object of which is to train all those who intend to teach this
branch of education. Those candidates who are already employed in teaching
gymnastics in various degrees complete their training in this establishment ; such
persons as arc employed in assisting the actual professors of gymnastics are also
admitted. In case of need, assistance is granted to these candidates.
This institution is also in connection with the establishments of public instruc-
tion at Carlsruhe, and especially with the lyccum. The pupils of the last-named
schools receive their gymnastic lessons there, and a part at least of the pupils
of other public schools may also be admitted.
The experience of Baden in reference to Trade schools is, that the attendance
of pupils .should not be obligatory, and that every pupil should be required to
pay a small fee. If the instruction is good and cheap, those likely to be improved
will attend, and if only a moderate tuition is required and paid in advance, they
will attend more promptly, regularly, and diligently.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
INTRODUCTIOX.
The Kingdom of Bavaria, on an area o. 29,617 Englisli square
miles in 1864, had 4,807,440 inhabitants, of whom 679 out of every
1000 were engaged in agriculture, and 227 in mechanical arts and
commerce, and the balance in other occupations.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Bavaria, in
1864, amounted to 46,720,597 florins, of which 902,507 florins were
expended for general instruction and 138,578 for technical, making
a total of 1,041,085 by the two departments for educational pur-
poses. This amount was independent of all local expenditure,
which raised the sum to about 4,000,000 florins.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by two
ofiices; those of general education by the Minister of Education
and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and those of a special character by the
Minister of Commerce and Public Works.
1. Primary or Common Schools, ( Volkssckulen.) — Of these there
were in 1863, 7,113 schools with 8,937 teachers and 946,275 pupils.
Besides the primary-schools there are 1,550 Sunday and holiday-
schools, [Sonn-und Feiertagsschulen,) open one or two hours on cer-
tain evenings and on Sundays, completing and extending the course
pursued in the primary-schools, with 129,128 pupils. So general is
the attendance on elementary-schools, public and private, that all
but eight per cent, of the recruits who joined the army in 1864 read
and wrote well. Besides the regular primary schools, there are 91
infant schools, with 6,796 pupils, and 143 private schools, with 6,853
pupils, most of whom are in elementary studies. Taking the whole
of the kingdom, there is one primary-school for every 530 inhab-
itants.
2. Secondary Schools. — 95 Latin schools or preparatory gymna-
siums, with 8,205 pupils; 28 classical gymnasiums, with 3,800
pupils ; 6 real or scientific gymnasiums, with 1,200 pupils ; 30 pub-
lic high-schools for girls, with 1,200, and 143 boarding-schools for
girls, with 6,853 pupils.
Qg SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
3. Superior Schools. — 10 lyceums, with university studies, at«
tended by VOO scholars, (mostly Catholic, preparing for the priest-
hood ;) 3 universities, (Munich, Wiirzburg, Erlangen,) each with
four faculties, and a total of 2,959 students in 1867; 1 academy of
science, with cabinet of natural history, royal library of 800,000
volumes, chemical laboratory, (under Baron de Liebig,) wjiich are
made subservient to the university at Munich. The conservatorium
of scientific collections and laboratories embraces 12 sections, and
has an ii>come of 48,000 florins from the government.
4. S]}ecial and Professional Schools. — Bavaria is well supplied
â– with institutions adapted to special occupations and classes, viz. :
10 Normal schoola for primary school teachers, with 18 teachers and 518
pupils.
3 Seminary courses for secondary school teachers, (one in each university,
with 96 seminarists.
4 Superior agricultural schools, with 29 agricultural sections in the trade
schools; with an aggregate of 2,114 pupils.
1 School of forestry, with 40 pupils.
1 School of horticulture, with 30 pupils.
1 School of veterinary surgery, with 1 8 teachers and 140 pupils.
2 Commercial schools, with 18 commercial divisions in the trade schools, and
an aggregate of 2,000 pupils.
29 Trade schools, with an agricultural, commercial, and mechanical section.
3 Polytechnic schools — now existing as 1 Central Polytechnic at Munich, 1
School of Arts at Nuremberg, and the School of Machinery at Augsburg.
1 Academy of painting and sculpture, with 1 director, 13 professors, and 231
pupils.
1 School of architecture, with 9 teachers, and 143 pupils.
261 Schools of drawing, of which 121 are independent, and 140 are united
with other institutions — with 9.973 pupils.
1 Conservatorium of music, with 1 director, 14 teachers, and 94 pupils.
10 Schools of music.
1 Central and 9 provincial institutions for the deaf and dumb, with a total
of 23 teachers and 256 pupils.
1 Institution for the blind, with 3 teachers, 13 assistants, and 76 pupils.
1 Institution for idiotic children, with 3 teachers and 23 pupils.
3 Schools of midwifery, with 14 teachers and 132 students.
35 Orphan institutes, with 1,400 children; and 75 rescue homes for neglected
and vicious children, with 2,250 inmates.
Besides the royal Hbrary of 800,000 volumes, the University of Munich has a
library of 150,000; that of Wurzburg, 100,000 volumes; of Erlangen, 140,000
volumes ; and 24 public Ubraries, with an aggregate of 2,000,000 volumes.
The logical arrangements of the schools of science and literature
in the system of Public and Special Instruction in Bavaria impressed
the French Commissioners so favorably, that they have represented
them in the accompanying diagram.
t^
5 •
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. {qi
SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.
Bavaria was one of the first states in Germany to found a scliool
of art, in its highest sense, and one of the earliest to apply instruc-
tion in science to the development of mechanical industry, and to
bring its young artisans and workmen of every kind into systematic
courses of technical instruction.*
The Academy of Art in Nuremberg was founded by Sandrart in
1662, and after being long conducted by him, gained new distinction
under Preissler, and no school of art out of Munich has done so
much in our day to develop taste and skill in artisans and artists as
the Royal School of Art, and several private schools of drawing now
in successful operation in that quaint old town.
The first Technical School, so called, in Germany, was opened in
Nuremberg in 1823, under the lead of Scharrer, afterwards mayor
of the city, who gave the impulse, by providing instruction one
hour on Sunday, and two evenings in the week, in drawing (free-
hand and architectural) and mathematics. lie was assisted by Hei-
deloflf, architect, and Hermann, afterwards professor in the Poly-
technic and counselor of state. The school was adopted by the
municipal authorities, and as the instruction was of the best kind,
it was completely successful, and by the expansion of its studies and
length of term, grew into a Trade School, under the law of 1834,
till 1836, when it had 7 teachers, with 490 pupils (one-fourth of
them journeymen) in 11 divisions, receiving instruction in mathe-
matics, drawing, modeling, molding and casting metals, Avood-carv-
ing, &c. The pupils of this school, (called, in 1836, Mechanic
School,) created a new trade for this district of Bavaria ; and the
example of special schools on Sunday, evenings, and holidays, was
followed by other cities, until in several of them the mechanic
schools grew into polytechnic schools — Munich in 1827, Nuremberg
in 1829, and Augsburg in 1833, none of which, however, attained
to the highest scientific development — the pupils not being required
to go through a thorough course of theoretical study, as in some
other institutions of this class. In all, the plan of instruction was
pretty much the same, but gradually Munich turned its force
towards construction and engineering; Augsburg and Nuremberg
to mechanical handicrafts. In 1862 the school at Munich was di-
vided into two parts, the polytechnic proper, and the school for con-
struction and engineering.
*For the detnils of this system, sec National Education, Part I, Geruam Statbs, Bavaria.
â– â– Q2 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
In 1864 the whole system of real-schools, trade-schools, and poly-
technic schools, which had grown up since 1808, was reorganized.
After the law of 1808, real-schools and real-institutes were set up
in the large centres of population parallel with the progymnasiums
and gymnasiums. The real-schools added to the elementary course
the study of French, drawing, the elements of natural history, and
algebra. The real-institute added to the real-school course, Avhich
usually terminated at the fourteenth year, the natural sciences, more
of mathematics, history, general philosophical studies, as well as the
literature of modern languages. This course, if carried out, occu-
pied four years, and was intended to prepare for higher academical
studies and for special careers, such as financiers, merchants, &c.
The system did not work well, and was modified in 1816 — the real-
institutes beins discontinued, and the real-schools converted into
higher burgher-schools — which were only the higher classes of an
elementary school. The deficiency of State realistic seminaries was
partially supplied by the municipal authorities, associations and in-
iudividuals, in artisan schools, further-improvement or Sunday-
schools, mechanic schools, and polytechnic institutes, in which the
arts of design and drawing received particular attention. To give
this new instruction, which the necessities of society had created,
thorough organization and symmetry, the government, in 1829 and
in 1833, decreed the establishment of technical schools in all the
large cities of the kingdom. The law of 1833 discontinued the
higher burgher-schools and laid down the outline of a course of in-
struction for the technical schools, which was perfected by the
law of 1836. The object of the technical schools, in the language
of the law, is " to carry the sciences into industry, and to put indus-
trial pursuits themselves upon a footing corresponding to the prog-
ress of technical art and the competition of foreign industry." With
this aim the technical schools had their central point in the exact
sciences, and were preparatory for, 1, the artist's vocation proper;
2, the technical branches of the public service, especially architec-
ture, mining, salt works, and forests ; 3, for technical departments
of civil life ; 4, for strictly civic vocations, particularly for carrying
on improvements in manufacturing, agricultural, and mechanical
industries.
In the development of this system there sprung up, and existed
in 1863, the following institutions:
1. Schools of arts and trades, or technical gymnasiums, with an
agricultural, commercial, and mechanic arts division. Of these
there were twenty-nine, in as many centres of population and in-
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 103
dustry. They received pupils at twelve years of age, and dismissed
them at the end of three years. With several were connected pre-
paratoiy schools, and with all, a Sunday and holiday or feast-day
school for apprentices and journeymen.
2. Polytechnic schools or technical lyceums. Of these there were
three, located at Munich, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. They received,
their pupils at the completion of their fifteenth year, and with a
preparation equal to the attainments of the graduates of the tech-
nical gymnasium.
3. Special courses, or schools for the completion of technical in-
struction: (1,) engineering in the polytechnic school at Munich;
(2,) mining, foundries, and salt works in the department of public
economy in the University of Munich ; (3,) higher forestry service
in the Royal Forestry School at AschafFenburg, and one year in the
University; (4,) higher agricultural training, in the Central School
of Agriculture at Weihenstephan, near Freising ; (5,) for the fine
arts, including architecture and ornamentation of an artistic character,
the Royal Academy of Arts in Munich, and (6,) for higher chemical
analysis, the laboratories of the Academy of Science, the Conserva-
torium, and the University.
This system, although it developed a prodigious amount of scien-
tific and artistic talent, and in several directions, of improved indus-
trial fabrics, did not satisfy all the wants of different classes and
different industries. In consequence of " urgent pressure from the
Department of Commerce and Public Instruction," the king promul-
gated in 1864 a new law respecting technical institutions, according
to which they are now classified and administered.
EXISTING ORGANIZATION OP TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
The system of technical instruction, as organized under the law
of 1864, and in force after 1868, when the classes under the former
system will have completed their curriculum, and the new classes
will be in full operation, consists of —
I. The trade-school, [gewerbschiden — twenty-nine in all, located
in the principal centres of population and industries,) designed to
impart a fitting general education, and the theoretical knowledge
preparatory to different occupations, and the professions in which
science forms the basis of the highest success. The instruction be-
gins where the common school leaves off, and while it is passably
complete in itself, it is the systematic preparation for a more ex-
tended course in commercial and agricultural studies which can be
104
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
organized iu the institution with the sanction of the highest author-
ities, or pursued in the special institutions of a higher grade.
Eight of these institutions, one in the chief town of each of the
eight distiicts or circles into Avhich the kingdom for administrative
purposes is divided, are designated in the law as district or higher
trade-schools.
II. The real-gymnasium — this class of schools, of which there are
six, one in the chief town of each of the six provinces, is of a higher
grade than the trade-school, and includes' in a four years' course,
the study of Latin and one or more modern foreign languages. It
presupposes the attainments of the primary-school and of the first
year of the classical gymnasium, with Avhich its first year is par-
allel. The final examination and certificate entitles to admission
into the polytechnic school at Munich, and into the university, for
participation in such studies as do not fall within the special limits
of the three faculties of theology, jurisprudence, and medicine, and
if found qualified after special examination, into the higher special
schools of forestry, agriculture, veterinary science, or separate
branches of the public service.
III. The polytechnic school at Munich, in which the different
professional studies of engineering, architecture, technical chem-
istry, trade and commerce, are treated independently of each other,
in courses of two years each, on the basis oi a common scientific
instruction in mathematics and the natural sciences, and the art of
drawing, pursued to the extent deemed necessary for each profes-
sional course.
The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg, and the Royal
School of Art at Nuremberg, both of which were polytechnic
schools up to 1865, are not yet permanently organized as part of
the system. Their present course of instruction exceeds the course
of the district trade-schools, and fells short of the Central Poly-
technic School.
With each of these institutions or their teachers are associated,
more or less directly, supplementary schools and classes, designed
to impart instruction in subjects of immediate utility to apprentices
and workmen in various crafts and occupations ; and above them
all in the lectures, collections, libraries and laboratories of the uni-
versities, and in the higher special schools of agriculture, forestry,
and art, the student can carry his artistic, artisan, or purely scien-
tific studies to the highest point.
We append the substance of the regulations recently issued for
the government of these schools :
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jQg
TRADES SCHOOLS.
The trades schools of Bavaria were originally known by the narao of agricul-
tural and industrial schools, but received their present name in the decree of
1864. They are generally government institutions, but the municipalities or as-
sociations contribute more or less to the support of some of Ihem, the teachers
being appointed by the power that supports them, although all the appoint-
ments must be confirmed by government.
The qualifications for admission are that the candidate sliall be between the
ages of twelve and fourteen; shall be able to read, write and compose without
gross blunders in spelling or language ; shall be master of the first four rules of
arithmetic, and possess a proper knowledge of religion.
The plan of studies occupies three years, and is as follows :
Hours per week. Course I. Course II. Course III.
Religion, 2 2 2
German, 5 4 3
Geography 2 2 2
History 2 2 2
Arithmetic, 5
Algebra, 2 4
Natural History, 4 4
Phvsics, 4
Dra'wing, 8 8 4
Modeling and embossing, 2 6
French, ..f 2 2 2
Plane geometry, 4
Descriptive " 2
Solid geometry and plane trigonometry, . . 2
Chemi.stry, 4
Popular mechanics, 4
Making thirty hours a week for each class.
In some places part of the scholars pursue a commercial or agricultural course
of study, varying in some particulars from the above. Those in the commercial
section omit drawing and embossing, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and me-
chanics, devoting three hours more a week to French during the whole course,
and studying calligraphy, arithmetic, the science, geography and history of
commerce, and in the last class, Englis^h.
Those in the agricultural section omit natural history, physics, algebra, de-
scriptive geometry and plane geometry, mechanics, and French, and have
only two hours a week in drawing. They add to the course the study of hus-
bandry and rural economy, with practical labor on the farm, nine hours in the
first class, six in the second and third.
Sunday, Holiday, and Evening Trades Schools.
Connected with the district trade-schools there is a higher class of supple-
mentary schools whose object is to impart a free education to those apprentices
or workmen whose education has been neglected, and to offer tlie means of far-
ther advance to those who have finished the course of the trade schools, in the
buildings of which they are generally held, although in some cases they form
separate institutions. The only requirement for admission is having attended
the primary-schools during the six years required by law. The instructors are
generally the teachers of the trade-schools, but practical workmen are engaged
to teach particular handicrafts. The schools are held on Sundays, holidays, and
two evenings in the week. The course is divided into two sections, the ele-
]06 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
mentary, which is a continuation of the course pursued at the primary-schools,
and the special section, dealing with matters of trade and commerce, and with
practical trades or handicrafts.
In the elementary section are taught religion, German, arithmetic, and draw-
ing. Under German are included composition, commercial style, &c.
In the special section are taught drawing, embossing, modeling, arithmetic in
its applications to trade and commerce, geometry, natural historj-, the histoiy
of staples, mercantile book keeping, and practical exercises in different trades
and handicrafts. There are fourteen of these institutions, attended by 5G0
scholars. They are supported by the communes or from other local sources.
THE REAL-GYMNASIUMS.
The real-gymnasiums of Bavaria, sometimes called technical gymnasiums,
have for their aim to give "the requisite preparation for entering upon the .study
of a profession which demands an intimate acquaintance witli tlie exact sci-
ences." Tliey are at once literary and scientific. Tliere are six of tliese schools.
They are all government institutions, and tlie teachers, who must have been
graduates of a Latin-school, a polytechnic school, and have spent at least one
vear at a university in their special study, are considered government employes.
Pupils are admitted between the ages of thirteen and sixteen, after liaving
completed the course at a Latin school, or passing an examination upon the
studies there pursued. Hospitants are received only exceptionally. The aca-
demical year begins October 1st and ends August 15th, with a fortnight's holi-
day at Easter. The courses are all obligatory and as follows :
Course I. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra. 4; Plane geometry, 3;
German, 4; Latin, 4; French, 4; Geogrnphy, 3; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 liour.s.
Courtie II. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra, 3 ; Plane geometry, 2 ;
Natural history, (zoology and botany.) 4; German, 3 ; Latin, 4; French, 4;
Geograpliy, 2 ; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 hours.
Course III. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Solid geometry, 2 ; Algebra and
trigonometry, 4; Physics, 5 ; Descriptive geometry, 2 ; German, 2 ; Latin, 3 ;
French, 3; History, 2; Drawing and embossing, 6. — Total, 31 hours.
Course IV. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Elements of higher analysis, 2;
Anal3'tical geometry, 2; Descriptive geometry, 3; Mineralogy and chemistry,
5 ; Latin, 3 ; French, 2 ; English, 4 ; History, 2 ; Drawing and modeling, 6. —
Total, 31 hours.
Annual written and oral examinations take place, and the pupil who fails
two 3'ears in succession in one of the lower classes is excluded from the school.
At the close of the course a pupil may demand to be specially examined for an
absolutorium, which is in writing, and extends over three days, as follows:
First day. — 1. A religious theme to be completed in one hour ; 2. A histor-
ical essay in German on some given subject, three hours ; 3. A problem in
descrptive geometry, two hours ; 4. Two themes, one in zoology, one in bot-
any, one hour.
Second day. — 1. Solution of two problems in the lower and one in the higher
analysis, two hours ; 2. Solution of two problems, one in elementary' and one
in analytical geometry, two hours; 3. Two themes in physics, one hour; 4. A
French composition, two hours.
Third day. — 1. Solution of two problems in trigonometry, two hours; 2. Two
themes in chemistry, one to have reference to mineralogy, one hour; 3. A Latin
composition, two hours; 4, An English composition, two hours.
Every scholar pays 20 florins annually; hospitants only half this sum if they
attend but one course. The whole may be remitted to poor and capable students.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. ^Ql^
THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL.
In the organic system of the technical institutions, the polytechnic school
stands in immediate connection witli the real gymnasium, and forms the apex
of the system of technical instruction.
In place of three, tlie law designs to place at least one school on the basis of a
broad and thorough scientific preparation, and then to provide for at least four
leading interests by a complete course in each.
It is divided into —
A. A general class, and
R Special classes for individual branches of technical business.
The general class or division comprises a course of two years, and its object
is to impart instruction in the mathematical and natural sciences, and the art
of drawing to the extent required to make them a general foundation for the
commencement of separate branches of technical studies, and at the same time
to constitute a course of general scientific culture.
The special classes are to impart knowledge of and skill in the particular
sciences required in individual branches of technical business, and these studies,
in organic connection with the studies of the general class, are to complete the
technical professional education.
The polytechnic school comprises four special classes or divisions: —
A. For architecture, the course extending over two years.
B. For mechanical engineering, the course extending over two years.
C. For teclinical chemistry, the course extending over two years.
D. For trade and commerce, the course extending over one year.
The principal object of the polytechnic school is to treat the different profes-
sional studies independently of each other.
The preliminary studies lead up to these, and must therefore precede these in
the degree prescribed and deemed necessary.
In order that the regular gradations which are considered absolutely
necessary may be observed, the students must strictly follow the coutbs of
instruction laid down.
A. — GENERAL DITISIOir.
COURSE I.
Lessons. Hours in the Week. Semester I. II.
Analytical geometry 3 3
Differential and integral calculus 4 4
Analytical mechanics 5 5
Mathematical pliysics 6
Applied physics with practical exercises 6
Elements of architectural construction 6 6
Elements of machine construction 6 6
Free drawing 6 6
Elementary mechanics 5 5
Zoology 5
Botany 5
PoHtical ecomony 4
French language 3 3
Italian language 3 3
History of German literature 2 2
2Qg SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
couitsE n>
Lessons. Hours in the Week. Semester I. II.
Applied mechanics 5 5
Application of descriptive geometry to perspective,
shading and stone-cutting 3 3
General chemistry 4
Special chemistry 4
Oryctognosy 4
Geology 4
Architectural designing (construction and architectural
forms) • 6 6
Machine designing (elements of construction) 6 6
General knowledge of machinery 6 6
Constitutional and administrative law 4
French language 3 3
English language 3 3
Italian language 3 3
B. — SPECIAL DIVISIONS.
I. Architectural Class.
On entering this class the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is taught in the two courses of the
general division.
Analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, analytical and applied
mechanics, mathematical and applied physics, general and special chemistry,
applied descriptive geometry, oryctognosy, geology, architectural and mechani-
cal designing, drawing, (the latter studied during two hours a week,) and
political economy.
COURSE I.
a. For architects and luilding engineers in common.
Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester I. IL
General civil engineering - 2 2
Knowledge of building materials, and of sanitary
matters connected witli building 4
Estimates of cost, and conditions of contract 4
Plan drawing {Situatioiis zeichnen) , -. 4 4
(6.) Separate instruction for architects.
Architectural styles and liistory of architecture 4 4
Plans of elevation (Hoclihauttn) 14 14
Figure and landscape drawing 4 4
Separate instruction for building engineers.
Bridge building 4 4
Plans of bridges 8 8
Geodesy and hygrometry 6 6
The construction of machinery 4 4
COURSE II.
(a.) For architects and building engineers in common.
Plans of architectural buildings 6 6
Plans of engineering works of construction 6 6
Stone cutting and modeling .' 4
Constitutional and administrative law 4
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. |Qn
(b.) Separate instruction for architects.
History of architecture 2 2
Elements of tlie science of road building, bridge
building, and the construction of water works 2 2
Measurement 4
Plans of architectural buildings 12 8
Separate instruction for engineers.
Science of road making and of constructing water works. 6 6
History of engineering 2 2
Plans of engineering works 8 8
II. Mechanical Enoineerino.
On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the
general division :
Differential and integral calculus, analytical geometry, the application of
descriptive geometry, mathematical and applied physics, designing (architectu-
ral and mechanical,) general knowledge of machinery, analytical and applied
mechanics, general and special chemistry, geology.
COURSE It.
Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II.
Theory of machinery (Maschinenlehre) 4 4
Construction of machinery 4 4
Exercises in designing 8 8
Raihvaj'^, canal, &c., engineering 3
Leveling and measurements 4
Manufacturing engineering [Fahrikhau) 3
Metallurgy 5
Techuology (of manufactures, building trades, and
implement making)
Excursions: practical work in the mechanical work-
shops
III. Technical Chemistry.
On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the
general division :
Zoology, botany, oryctognosy, geology, mathematical and applied physics,
general and special chemistry, architectural drawing.
COURSE I.
Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester I. Il
Elementary mechanics 5 5
Technical physics (pyrotechnics) 4
Technical chemistry 5 5
Elements of mechanical designing 6 6
Knowledge of building materials '. 4
Political economy 4
Y^ork in the laboratory
IIQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
COURSE II.
Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. IT.
General theory of machiner}' 6 6
General civil engineering 2 2
Metallurg}', including smelting and casting 5
Physical chemistry 5
Technology 5 5
Work in the laboratory
IV. Trade and Commerce
SOLS COURSE.
Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II.
Theory of commerce, including the sciences of the
counting-house 6 6
Commercial geography and commercial statistics 2 2
History of commerce 2
Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange 3
Political arithmetic 3
Commercial arithmetic 3
Knowledge of goods 3 3
Mechanics (as applied to the means of transport) 2
Political economy 4
Constitutional and administrative law 4
French language 3 3
English 3 3
Italian 3 3
Mercantile correspondence in French and English 3
Previous to the commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the
estabhshraent must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various
divisions, the programme of studies, and this must then be published.
The institution is managed by a board of directors.
Admission to the special divisions or schools is based on a thorougli mastery
of the two preparatory courses, and to their equivalent in mental discipline and
knowledge obtained in a real gymnasium.
On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitants, must pay
an admission fee of five florins.
The school honorarium is twenty florins per semester. Hospitants pay four
or six florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly.
For participation in the work of the laboratoiy, pupils pay fifteen florins, and
hospitants twenty florins.
Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time
of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees.
An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the
subject of examination being fixed by the professors in council.
Such are the principal provisions of the new regulations for the government
of the Central Polytechnic School at Munich.
Up to the reorganization of technical instruction in 1864, the three schools
at Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg, had the same general characteristics.
Under the present plan, much higher scientific culture will bo attainable at
Munich, while a very thorough special course in construction and manufactures
will be given, the first at Augsburg, and the last at Nuremberg.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. m
SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
Out of the many excellent institutions and classes for technical training in
the arts of construction, ornamentation, and industrial production generally, of
which we have received recent programmes or find described iu the Heports of
the French and English Commissions, we will present specimens of each grade.
SUNDAY IMPROVEMENT-SCHOOLS.
The Sunday-school in Germany is not, in its aim and instruction, identical
with the institution known by that name in England and the United States, the
great leading object and characteristic of the latter being almost ignored in tho
former — we mean religious instruction. The name is sometimes applied to
schools taught in the evening of other days, or in the morning for one or two
hours before nine o'clock, in harvest time and on church holidays, although
generally these last are called by the name of the day on which they are held.
All of these schools, however called, are in the first place review or repetition
schools, for those who have left at the age of twelve or fourteen the in-
struction given in the regular primary-school, or they continue elementary
instruction in the direction of the special occupation in which the pupils are
already engaged, or for which they are destined. In the latter condition, they
are frequently known as trade improvement-schools, commercial improvement-
schools, or agricultural improvement-schools. In this view of their aim and
methods, they constitute a highly valuable part at once of the system of pop-
ular and of technical instruction. Infrequent and sliort as the sessions are, they
fix a large amount of valuable knowledge in tho memory by timely repetition,
and add to the stock just that kind of knowledge which in his daily avocations
the pupil feels to be necessary and useful, and which thus passes as it were into
the substance of the mind — his daily thinking and practice. Such educators as
Niemeyer, with a full knowledge of the operation of these schools, expresses
himself very favorable to this class of schools. " It would be a great gain in
every place, large or small, city or village, if young persons, servants, appren-
tices, clerks, could have, every week, even one or two hours of regular instruc-
tion and mental exercise, under the care of a well-qualified teacher.'' Although
the practice has been opposed, on account of its violating the usual observance
of Sunday, and its interfering with the engagements of teachers as organists,
and adding to their already heavily-taxed services, as well as on account of the
very restricted range of instruction — the system continues; and Fur the?' Im-
provement Schools, under some name, and on several hours of the week, con-
stitute an important part of the elementary and technical education of the
working classes of Germany.
Sunday-schools have existed in "Wurtemberg since 1695, (for children not yet
confirmed, and to prepare them for confirmation,) in Baden since 1*754, in Prus-
sia since 1TC3, and in Bavaria since 1803. The}' are established by law in
Austria, Bavaria, Coburg-Gotha, Nassau, and other States, while in Saxony
and Hesse their institution depends on the action of the separate communities.
When they exist bylaw, the same studies are pursued as in the regular common
or primary-school, and always attended by those whose opportunities of school-
attendance on week-day schools have been abridged. There is, however, in
112 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
these States frequently a class of pupils who have completed the regular course
at fourteen years of age, and devoted two years more to additional instruction.
With these pupils, and in schools in large commercial, mechanical, and other
centres, the instruction is generally technical, and is given by experts, and is,
not unfrequently, of the highest value.
STUnDAY-SCHOOL AT KUREMBEEG.
The technical school founded in 1823, when on Sunday mornings the architect
Heideloff gave instruction in free-hand and architectural drawing ; Hermann,
professor in the gj'mnasium, taught mathematics ; and Keippler, the mechan-
ician, taught machine-drawing — has continued to the present time, with a con-
stantly-widening range of studies in additional classes, which were provided
for in two evenings of each week. The average attendance from 1837 to 1853
was 700;_in 1854 it was 1,200, and in 1856, it amounted to 1,600.
The establishment combines the teaching of drawing, modeling, sculpture,
and engraving, with elementary instruction in geometry, arithmetic, pliysics,
and chemistry. The first and most important part of the curriculum is con-
nected with the arts of design. Tlie first and second courses, graduated ac-
cording to the capabilities of the pupils, are devoted to free-hand drawing,
ornaments, architectural drawing, with or without shading, figure-drawing,
geometrical drawing, and tinting in Indian ink. The third course has four
divisions, according to the special destination of the pupils : the first division
comprises every thing connected with buildings, from the first details of masons'
and carpenters' work to the typos and styles of architecture ; the second is
devoted to jomers' work ; the third to turners in wood or metal ; the fourth' to
divers trades.
The second part of the curriculum teaches modeling in wax, clay, or plaster,
engraving, and sculpture. The third is devoted to arithmetic and geometry
applied to mensuration of superficies, solids, and to plotting. The fourth im-
parts the rudiments of physics and mechanics, so far as applicable to local
industries. The fifth and last treats of industrial chemistry. These courses
were attended, in 1864, by 228 pupils for drawing, and 1,354 hearers for the
other courses.
SCXDAY AXD HOLIDAY SCHOOLS IN ITCMCH.
As a specimen of the city Sunday and holiday schools, we give an account
of the large central institutions of this class in Munich, from the annual report
of the committee for 1866-67 :
Every ordinary parish-school has attached to it a holiday school, which is,
therefore, called a parish holiday school, and which consists of three classes
designated by the numbers I, II, and III.
There is, in addition to this, a central holiday educational institution, which
embraces the whole city, and which has also three subdivisions, viz. :
(a.) The Central Holiday School, an elementary school with three morning
and three afternoon classes, designated by the numbers IV, V, VI.
This central holiday school is not, however, supplementary to, or a continua-
tion of the pari.sh holiday schools in so far that scholars must necessarily pass
into it from the.se latter. It obtains its scholars from among such as have (1)
passed through course IV, (2) who having performed their duty in the week-
day schools, have left these with certificate Xo. 1, and (3) who leaving a higher
educational institution, after the probationary months, have returned to the
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN UAVARIA.
113
workshop. Such pupils must not bo admitted into the parisli holiday sohools,
but iiuist be sent to the central holiday school.
{b.) The Joi.uiieymens S.hool. — This embraces four classes, and impart.s, dur-
ing one hour of the morning, elementary instruction to journeymen, who aro
cither still within the ago lixed lor attendance at school, or who. feeling tho
deticiencios of tho school instruction they have previously received, voluntarily
enter their nuues iu this institution. This being once done, they are, like tho
other scholai-s, bound to attend during the whole year.
(c.) T/ie Htl'day Shool for Uunlicrafh, iu which instruction is given in — 1.
Geometry and arithmetic: 2. Physics; 3. Technical chemistry; -1. Oesc'riptivo
geometry, theory of machinery, and mechanical designing; 5. Tractical me-
chanics; G. Free-hand, geometrical, and architectural drawing.
The last branch of instruction is divided into five regularly-organized classes,
four of which have of lato years had to be subdivided into" eight parallel
classes, on account of the great number of students attending them.
The unifoi-mity of tho instruction given, and its regularly progressive char-
acter is insured by tho supervision of a technical director, under whom rank
also the holiday drawing-schools in the suburbs of Au, llaidliausen, andUlcsing,
which form branches of the central drawing-school.
This central school is so regulated as to be in strict harmony with the system
of drawing-instruction introduced into all the week-day schools.
Sole Course. Hours in the week. Semester I. II.
Theory of commerce, including the sciences of the counting-house, . . G 6
Conunorcial geographj' and commercial statistics, 2 2
History of commerce, 2
Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange,
Political arithmetic, 3
Commercial arithmetic, 3
Knowledge of goods, 3 3
Mechanics, (as applied to the means of transport,) 2
Political economj-, -1
Constitutional and administrative law, -1
French lauijuau^e, 3 3
English, ..."...". 3 3
Italian, 3 3
Mercantile correspondence in French and English, 3
Previous to tlie commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the es-
tablishment must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various divis-
ions, the progrannne of studies, and this must then be published.
It must be observed that in the instruction given in this institution each
handicraft is taken into due account, so that each pupil may obtain the knowl-
edge specially required for his trade.
With the holiday school for handicrafts is connected a lithographic establish-
ment, which supplies the drawing-schools with systematically-arranged models,
and thus m.iintains the regularly progressive character of tliese.
The schools enumerated under a. b, and c, constitute together one great
whole, under the superintendence of a special inspector. The guidance of it is,
however, beset by great dilBeulties, and demands au amount of tact and en-
ergy which will be easily appreciated by those who know, by actual intercourse
with them, the character of our apprentice boys. It is, therefore, the more to
be admired that among so large a number of scholars brought into such close
contact with each other, so few aberrations should h;ive taken place.
Tho female holidav schools arc. like tho male schools, divided into: —
a. A central holiday school ; and
h. Parish holiday schools.
The tirst mentioned consists of three classes, which, to distinguish them from
the lower holiday schools, aro designated by the numbei-s IV, V, and \'I. No.
IV is, on account of the great number of scholars, subdivided into three classes,
viz., A, B, and C : and instruction is given both in the morning and in the
at\ernoon, iu order to render it more easy for the girls to attend.
8
114 SPECIAL I.\STRUCTiON IN BAVARIA.
With this school is connected a so-called preliminary division, in whicli girls
who have been unfavorably- situated with regard to th.e attainment of education
are enabled to obtain proper instruction. This division has been incorporated
with the central holiday school, because, as in its object and its methods of
teacliing it holds an exceptional position, it would otherwise be quite isolated;
and because, were the pupils who frequent it to be distributed among the parish
schools, they would foil to obtain tlie special attention which their case requires.
In connection with this school tliere is also a class for instruction in partuil
work, which is open to girls wlio liave already gone to service, as well as to
others.
The elementary instruction, which increases in each class, and which in
classes V and VI extends to practical life, was, during the last year, attended
by 504 girls, and the working class by 125 girls.
In all its features, both as regards the teachers and the greater number of the
scholars, iu their efforts to impart and to attain culture and dignity, tliis school
offers a most attractive picture of what holiday schools may be.
Holiday Schools for Girls.
b. The parish holiday schools for girls, of which there were, during the year,
11, with 27 classes, also effect mucli that is good and useful, yet it can not be
denied that their effectiveness miglit be far greater. The cliief obstacle to their
activity is not only the lukewarmness of the scholars themselves, but more es-
pecially the contempt in which the schools are held by many parents and
employers.
Prizes, mostly consisting of money, are annually distributed in all these
schools, and the names of the scholars who have distinguished themselves by
steady industrj^ are published in the year]}' reports.
During the school-year 1866-67, tlie number of pupils attending these various
schools and classes has been as follows: — The Sunday and Holiday School for
Handicrafts : — Religious classes, 208 ; arithmetic and geometry, 65 ; physics,
64 ; technical cliemistry, 99 ; descriptive geometry, 62 ; theory of machinery,
79; designing, 63; practical mechanics, 50; embossing, 77; chasing, 22 ; arch-
itectural drawing, 88 ; linear, 299 ; more advanced ornamental drawing, 367 ;
free-hand drawing and elements of ornamentation, 296. The Journei/muris
School, 167. The Ccrdral Holidan School for Boys, 341. The Farish ilolidoy
Schools for Boys, lAQI. The Central Holiday School for Girls, Q^ki:. Tlie Parish
Holiday Schools for Girls, 1,303.
DISTRICT TRADE-SCHOOL AT KDREMBERG.
The district trade-school at Nuremberg will serve as an example of the high-
est grade of these schools : 1. The district trade-school; 2. The Sunday-school
for artisans; 3. Tiie elementary drawing-school.
1. The district trade-school affords instruction to persons who require for
the intelligent pursuit of their several callings a knowledge of mathematics, of
natural philosophj^, and facility in drawing and modeling, or to .'^uch as wish to
devote themselves to the technical service of the State. It also serves as
prepai'ator}' to the Polytechnic School. The instruction embraces in a course
of three j-ears : —
Religion, German and French languages, history, geograpliy, elementary
mathematics, physics, thoretical and practical chemistry, mechanics, technology,
geometry, plane and solid, trigonometry, natural history, free-hand and linear
drawing, modeling in clay and wax.
After the first year, pupils who take a commercial career devote more time
to the French and Englisli languages, arithmetical calculations, and geography
in reference to the natural resources and industries of nations, and to commer-
cial forms. Those whose destination is agriculture, pursue chemistry in refer-
ence to soils, and the implements and processes of husbandry.
The first instruction in drawing is according to Wolff's principles of rational
instruction in drawing, the more advanced from large drawings and solid
SPECIAI, INSTRUCTION IN IIAVAUIA. J -J 5
objects. In all the classes there are from seven to eight hours for drawing
weekly.
2. The Sunday-»cJiool for artisans gives instnictiou to apprentices and
journeymen in drawing, modeling, engraving, arithmetic, geometry, physics,
and chemistry. Tiie instruction in drawing, in throe courses, begins with free-
hand drawing according to WoUi's system; then follows the drawing of orna-
ments, vasfs, &c., in outline, with n-ference to the trade of the pupil, geomotric
drawing, drawing from bas-reliefs; finally, in the last course, special drawing.
This is divided into four sections: — a. For builders; b. For joiners; r. Por
turners; d. For woikcrs at various trades.
3. Tiie dtm^aianj drawiivj-sdiooL is for those boys who are still attending tlic
popular school, and who wish later to engage in a trade, after which thej' entci
into the trade-school. In two courses drawing and modeling alone are
taught.
AH these schools in Nuremberg have a large number of pupils. In 1867 the
first had 212, the second 1,87(3, and tlie last 228 pupils. The school-fees in tlio
trade-school and the elementar}' school amount, at the most, to two florins an-
nually ; on the other hand, there is for apprentices and journeymen under
eigiiteen j'ears of ago, a strict compulsory school attendance.
The annual income of the above schools from the town and the State amounts,
exclusive of premises rent free, to 16,000 florins, to which add the amount of
school-fees received, 1,800 florins, and we get the total cost at 17,800 florins.
The establishments in Nuremberg possess a library, out of which works of gen-
eral utility and belles-lettres are lent to diligent pupils. It thus gives an oppor-
tunit}^ of rewarding good behavior, and is also calculated to impart mucli in-
formation which the school does not teach. A bad choice of books is also in
this way prevented.
HIGHER TRADE-SCHOOL AT PASSAU.
The trade-school at Passau is organizjd with two divisions; with 57 pupils
in 1867 in the commercial and 44 in the industrial or mechanical division — both
under a rector, assisted by 14 teachers.
The special subjects included in the commercial division, besides the Freqch
and English languages, are thus drawn out in the programme :
Course II. — Commercial Arithmetic. — Calculation of profits by multiplication
and division. Compound rule of three. Simple and complex partnership ac-
counts. Compound calculations and calculation of per cenlage. Calculation
of interest, and discount. Lessons in the knowledge of coins, measures, and
weights. Bankers' accounts. Direct and indirect reduction of bills of exchange.
Bills of lading and invoices.
Mercantile Science. — The most essential parts of the theory of banking, with
explanation of the most common terms used in baidving. Making out of various
forms of bills of exchange. Invoices and calculations. Simple book-keeping.
Elaboration of a course of business, making the necessary entries connected
with it in the proper books, and then making up the latter. Composition of
the most important letters for simple book-keeping. Opening and closing of
accounts current according to various rates of interest.
Course III. — Mtrcantile Science. — Arbitration. Banking commissions. Pub-
lic stocks. Customs and trade regulations. Commercial associations and mer-
cantile systems. Book-keeping by double-entry ; composition of most irapoit-
ant letters for this.
Commercial Geography and Commercial HistorT/.— The various States of Eu-
rope, with reference to their commercial production.s, the principal seats of their
commerce and indu.stry, their lines of traffic, their customs, laws, &c.
The Nature of Colonies. — Synoptic history of commerce during the middle
ages, more particularly of German commerce. Influence of geographical dis-
coveries, and especially of the discovery of America, and of the ocean road to
India, on the intercourse of nations. Commercial history of the PJuropcan mar-
itime powers in modern times.
JJ0 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
The higher improvement-schoul at Passaii, opened in 1866, provides for in-
struction on Sunday mornings and week-day evenings, and lias been well at-
tended, mostly by adult apprentices and assistants; several master- work men
also have attended. It h:!S a rector and four teachers (masters,) and the
branches taught are book-keeping, commercial science, geometry, natural phi-
losophy, chemistry, technology, and drawing. Its pupils number one or two
hundred.
Weaving-school— Connected with the higher trade-school at Passau is a
weaving-school, teaching the whole art, including the history and preparation
of the materials, hemp and flax. This is also a week-day and Sunday-school.
There are thirty-three pupils.
Regular conferences of weavers are held in connection with these schools.
WEAVING-SCHOOL AT MUNDEBERG.
The weaving-school at Mundeberg is intended to impart thorough theoretical
and practical instruction in weaving in all its branches, and to give instruction
not only to pupils, but to give whatever information may be demanded by any
body already in the business. It is open to young men from fourteen to twenty-
two years of age, from the whole province of Yoigtland, preference being
given to natives of Mundeberg. It is a boarding-school, and is provided with
two salaried masters and one pupil-teacher.
The course embraces two years, during both of which are taught German,
arithmetic, geography, drawing, and religion. During the first, pupils are
taught the simpler processes connected with weaving, and the weaving of plain
fabrics ; during the second, theoretical and practical instruction is given in the
more advanced processes. Certain manufacturers in the neighborhood furnish
the raw materials and buy the woven fabrics at the usual rates. There are six-
teen pupils. Bavarians pay 150 florins, natives of other countries 200 florins
annually for board, lodging, and instruction, in addition to which the school re-
ceives their earnings.
Connected with the school is a gratuitous Sunday-school, open from 1 to 3
P. M, of two classes, the first of which is open to all persons engaged in in-
dustry without exception, teaching German, compositions being written on sub-
jects relating to trade, arithmetic, linear and free-hand drawing. The second
class imparts theoretical and practical instruction in their trade to weavers
alone.
WOOD-CARVING SCHOOL AT BERCHTESGADEN.
At Berchtesgaden, in the Salzburg district, a technical-school has been insti-
tuted by the government, in aid of an industry which has long been carried on
in that mountainous region, namely, the handicraft of carving ornamented arti-
cles in wood and bone.
The course embraces instruction in drawing, modeling, and carving, free of
charge to all persons domiciled in the district, and to strangers who pay a small
tuition.
Tho school is well supplied with patterns and models, and there is a reposi-
tory in which the work of the pupils is sold for their benefit. The school-hours
are from 7 to 11 A. M., and from 12 to 4 P. M. The pupUs are arranged in two
classes, and can remain four years.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DAVARIA. 117
ROYAL SCHOOL OF MACHINERY AT AUGSBURG.
The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg was formerly a Polytechnic
school, but under the law of 186-4 it lias a special organization. The conditions
for admission are a thorough knowledge of algebra, inclusive of logarithms and
geometry, and a certain amount of practice in linear drawing. Pupils must be
over fifteen. Ilospitants must give proof of possessing the preliminary knowl-
edge requisite to thoroughly understand the subject taught.
The curriculum consists of two courses: — Fimt course: Mathematics, four
hours weekly; designing, eight hours weekly in winter and ten in summer.
Second course : Elementary mechanic?, differcutial and integral calculus, ph y.sics,
mechanical engineering and designing. There are for both courses two hours
of daily practice in the workshops, except on Saturdays. There are twenty-five
pupils, paying each twenty florins annual school-fee.
Prof Koristka, in his account of the Polytechnic Schools of Bavaria, takes
the following notice of the workshops at Augsburg :
Although in general the establishment of machine-shops at the Polytechnic
schools has been given up for want (jf success, as at Dresden, Berlin. Carlsruhe,
Zliricli, &e., we must cmfess tliat these workshops liave had marked success at
Nuremberg and Aug-sburg. The instructive and beautifull3--made models of
Augsburg are to be found in almost every collection of models in Germany,
ancf the Principal of the Augsburg workshop (Prof. Walter) has for years de-
voted all his energies to this branch of instruction. To give a little idea of the
way in which this instruction is given, we add the plan, condensed as far as
possilile, as it was explained to us by Prof Walter. During the tirst year, two
hours daily are spent in the workshops; during the second year, one hour daily ;
in the third year three, and tliat from 4 to 7, after the tlieoretical instruction.
The most of the scholars have never had any practical experience. Tlie
scholar is placed at a screw, a coarse lile and a piece of (smith's) iron are given
him. He is to practice himself in filing first planes at right angles and then
parallel to one another. Then he is made to do the same witii a finer file.
Nothing can b3 done superficially, and no pupil is allowed to go on until he lias
been thoroughly successful. Then the sjholar is practiced in boring, in cutting
of screws, and in making faucets. Then comes the turning of round surfaces
and of screw.s, the smoothing off, &c., and this is all done with simple pieces of
iron, out of which difterent articles, sucii as paper-weights, &c., are made. The
next tasks given are the completion of correct rulers, simple steel angles, turn-
ers' compasses, and so on, until the pupil is able to make a pair of brass com-
passes, with steel points soldered in. If tlie pupil can do all this correctly, he
is capable of taking a simple model of some motion and working on without
assistance. Ho generally reaches this point during the third course. This
instruction is not obligatory, but if a scholar has once undertaken it, he is held
strictly to all its duties. Scholars are paid for the models they complete. When
they have finisiied the course tliey are generally far enough advanced to be able
to support themselves by work in any factory. The workshops at Augsburg
liave twenty-one screws, with a perfect assortment of tools belonging to each,
five (foot) turning-lathe-s, and a great lathe more than twenty feet long. Be-
sides this, there are joiners' beuciies, two planing machines, a large and two
small wheel-cutting engines, a boring machine, a smithy, &c. Many of these
things are made here, so that it is impossible to give the cost of the whole
machine-sliop. The following prices may give a faint idea of the expense : a
screw, with its appurtenances, $52, a turning-lathe and its belonging.?, $179, a
planing-bench, witii its tools, $50. The common tools used would amount to
about $1,960. The tools for the blacksmith's sliop cost $240. According to
this we should estimate the furnishing of similar workshops at about $4,000 or
$5,000. Beside the scholars, day-laborers also work in these shops, and are
regularly paid. In 1860 the expenses for labor, reparations, material, salary
of the overseer, &c., amounted to $959, the receipts to $976.80.
f
I
218 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS AT MUNICH.
The plan on which the Polytechnic School at Munich is now organized, and
the distribution of subjects in the general division of mathematics and natural
sciences, and the four special divisions or schools of architecture, mechanical
engineering, technical chemistry, and of trade and commerce, has been so fully
set forth in the general exposition of the system of technical instruction as
established by the law of 1864, that any further description here is unnecessary
except to give a few particulars from the last prospectus.
The conditions of admission are, the necessary preliminary knowledge, and
good moral conduct.
The pupils of the general division are bound to take part in the lessons on at
least five subjects in each semester.
The pupils in the special divisions are bound to take part in all the studies
mentioned in the programme of the division.
Admission into the Polytechnic School is only granted to those who can pro-
duce a certificate of having passed the absolutorium of a technical gymnasium,
or who will submit to examination in all the subjects of study pursued in those
institutions.
Adunssion to pupils or hospitants, who wish to attend only some particular
lessons, is, however, granted on less difficult conditions.
On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitants must pay
an admission fee of 5 florins.
The scliool honorarium is 20 florins per semester. Hospitants pay 4 or 6
florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly.
For p'lrticipat'ion in the work of the laboratorj', pupils pay 15 florins, and
liospitanis 20 florins.
Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time
of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees.
An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the sub-
ject of examination being fixed by the professors in council.
The premises heretofore occupied are spacious, and the equipment every way-
suitable ; the lecture and class-rooms are large and well lighted, and the labora-
tories for the chemical students afford eveiy convenience for manipulations.
The rooms for drawing are well provided with models, and the collections of
all kinds for illustrations in architecture, mechanics, and engineering, are largo,
and of the most recent construction.
To these facilities for instruction within its own premises, this great technical
school can hold out to the student the splendid galleries of art, the vast collec-
tions in natural history, the well-equipped and officered laboratories of the Con-
servatorium, and the great industrial establishments generally of Munich, which
are now commanding a patronage fairly won by the scientific and artistic train-
ing which the foremen and workmen generally have received.
The General Conservatory of Scientific Collections at Munich embraces twelve
distinct collections, viz. : the cabinet of coins ; the antiquarium ; the observa-
tory ancT meteorological institutes ; the chemical laboratory ; the mineralogical,
geological, zoological, and paleontological collections ; a botanical garden, and
an anatomical institution. The Conserva tori urn has an income of 50,000 florins.
The Academy of Sciences, originally founded by tlie Elector Maximilian III,
but reorganized by King Louis and placed in immediate connection with the
University; the Royal Library, with over 800.000 volumes, and the University
Library of 160,000 volumes; tlie School of Mines, the Cameralistio studies, or
science of finance and public economy ; the general artistic and scientific pur-
suits of Munich— make it desirable as a place of higher scientific study.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. j^g
ACADEMY AND SCHOOLS OF THE FINE ARTS.
Witliiu a very recent period, Bavaria has become one of tlie great art centres
of Kuropo, and its capital, wliich has increased in iiopulation from 20,000 in
]805 to 155,000 in 18G8, not only possesses in its galleries and collections valu-
able remains of ancient art, and the modern productions of other countries, but
is rich in specimens of architecture, painting, statuary, castings, and frescoes,
executed by her own artists trained in her own schools and ateliers. The late
King Louis expended on buildings and works of art in Bavaria over $80,000,-
000. This expenditure was not confined to the fine arts, in the construction, orna-
ment, and equipment of public buildings, and galleries for the po.«sessiou and
enjoyment of the few, but was intended and felt in its beneficence throughout
all the mechanical industries, and by every class of the kingdom.
ROY.\L ACADEMY OF TUE FINE ARTS.*
For the youth who has determined to embrace the career of an artist, the
Royal Academy of the Fine Arts offers the requisite means of completing his
education. This institution has its origin in the drawing-school founded by the
Elector Maximilian III, in 1770, and reestablished by King Maximilian the
First, in 1808; but its present flourishing condition is the work of King Louis,
who gave it a new constitution in 1846. It is at once a society of artists and
a school of art.
The instruction given in the academy is both practical and theoretical. The
former embraces historical painting, sculpture, architecture, and copper-engra-
ving; the latter, the history of art, anatomj^, perspective, descriptive geometry,
and shading. The common basis of artistical studies is considered to be draw-
ing after the antique ; but especial attention is also directed to the drawing,
modeling, and painting after nature. The instruction in historical painting is
given in four separate schools, each under the direction of a distinct professor.
There are also separate schools of sculpture, architecture, and engraving. Lec-
tures are delivered regularly on the history of art, ancient and Christian, as
well as on anatomy, and on the other branches of theoretical knowledge.
The admission to the academy is free both to natives and foreigners, provided
they are qualified by the possession of adequate elementary knowledge and
facility in the higher branches of drawing, with a proper scholastic education,
and a good moral character. The pupils destined for architecture must, if na-
tives, have passed through the polytechnic school ; and if foreigner.*, produce
certificates of their mathematical attainments. The candidates execute an ex-
perimental performance, upon the result of which their admission depends ; and
they must, further, remain a half-year on probation before they are definitively
enrolled as pupils. Tlie maximum period of study in the academy is six years,
but pupils may leave it earlier if qualified. Diligent and talented pupils, who
are natives of Bavaria, and poor, may obtain small stipends, besides being fur-
nished gratuitously with models for the cartoons, pictures or statues which they
may execute within the academy.
A general exhibition of modern works of art takes place about every three
years, under the direction of the academy.
* Abridged from Report of J. Ward, Secretary of the English Legation at Munich,
120 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
The academy hag also the execution or direction of all public works witliiu
the sphere of painting or sculpture. It forms a kind of council to the King in
all matters of art.
The staff of the academy consists of a director, (for many years tlie celebrated
Kaulbach,) five professors respectively of painting, sculpture, architecture, en-
graving, the history of art, and the technics of painting, with teachers of anat-
omy and of perspective, descriptive geometry, and shading, and a corrector of
the pupils' performances, a teaching force of fourteen persons. It has a secre-
tary, an inspector, and proper attendants.
The usual number of pupils is 230, among whom are several foreigners.
The annual expenses of the academy itself amount, in the whole, to 22,816
florins, or £2,281 sterling — a very moderate sum, considering the efficiency of
the institution and the merits of the professors. The budget of the academy,
however, in the government estimates, comprises the annual charge of the
public galleries, &c., and stands thus for 1864: — 1. The Academy of the Fine
Arts, 22,816 florins; 2. Galleries of Art, the property of the State, (viz., the
Glyptothek, Pinacothek, New Pinacothek, &c.,) 20,501; 3. Working artists,
1,800; 4. Allowances and pensions to artists, 6,721; 5. Cashier's department,
500 ; 6. General Reserve Fund, 35*7. Total, 52,745 florins, equivalent to about
$21,000.
There are other institutions in Munich which the inhabitants themselves have
formed for the furtherance of the same objects, such as the Art Union, the
Trades' Union, and the like. The Society for the Improvement of Manufectures
has, in particular, had a very useful tendency, by the constant communications
which it keeps up between the class of artists and that of mechanics. It was
founded in 1850, and the chairman is the eminent architect De Voit. The so-
ciety gives to its members drawings and models for all articles to be worked or
manufiictured in the department of industry, arranges occasional exhibitions,
and publishes a journal. Whilst the artist furnishes the drawings or designs,
the artisan is often able to give useful suggestions with respect to the materials
best suited for. the work ; and so both the one and the otlier is mutually im-
proved. The progress which has been made in casting, and other branches of
metallic work — of which the late Paris Industrial Exhibition has furnished
evidence — is considered as in some measure attributable to this society, which
aims at raising the character of manufacturers, by bringing them more closely
into contact with the fine arts.
The number of artists constantly residing in Munich is very large, and is
stated to be about eight hundred. They are chiefly Germans, but artists from
foreign countries are also continually visiting the Bavarian capital. The daily
association of these persons with each other can not fail to be attended with
beneficial results. Not only is the principle of emulation called into action, but
ideas are exchanged in a social intercourse which often lead to the realization
of important vorks. Munich offers, in this respect, on a small scale, the same
advantages that Rome does on a larger. Nor are the artists by any means con-
fined to their own set. They mix pretty freely with other classes of society —
with learned men, tradesmen, mechanics, and artisans ; and hence their ten-
dency has become more scientific than formerly ; they have become more dis-
posed to avail themselves of practical science in the execution of artistic works.
This improvement is partly attributable to the influence of the polytechnic
school.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. ,.,,
As a school of pure art, tlicre is no place (,ut of Italy wliicb holds out ho
many attractious to the student. He fluds in the Glyptothek, tho Piuucollick
and tlie other Royal collections, the best opportunities of copying fnun tho
antique, and of forming his knowledge of tiic painiing and sculpture of moro
modern times. He sees around iiini magnificent public building.?, and churches
whose architecture is only surpassed by the beauty of their iutcrnal decorations.
ROYAL SCHOOL OF ARTS APPLIED TO TRADES, AT NUUEilUEUO.
The Royal School of Arts applied to Trades {Kunslgeive7bschule)at'Surcmhcrg
aims not only to promote art, but to improve the artistic character of indu.^triul
products. It receive pupils above sixteen. Tiie curriculum is as follows:
Division I, (12 hours a week to eacli stud^-.)— 1. Drawing from ornamental
models; 2. Practice in architectural drawing, with theoretical lectures; 3.
Drawing from antique models; 4. Modeling and drawing ornaments and figures.
Division IL — 1. Painting, drawing, and modeling from life, for arti.-^ts; 2.
Plastic studies for artists ; 3. Exercises in composing and executing subjects in
figures and of an ornamental character ; 4. Embossing and sculpture ; 5. Wood-
carving, exercises in carving orn.uuents and figures, and execution of objects
of hidustriai art ; 6. Brass-founding — exercises in forming, founding, and en-
graving.
SKjrplemenial classes, (2 hours weekly to each branch.) — 1. Perspective and
shadows; 2. Anatomy.
The practical branches, such as architecture, sculpture, and ornamentation,
are made the chief subjects of instruction, and are taught with special reference
to the present requirements of industry.
Tho general opinion of the persons who have made a study of questions con-
nected with teaching, not only in Bavaria, but also in other parts of Germany,
is that the Nuremberg school has contributed more than any otlier to tho prog-
ress of tho national industry. This progress is especially manifest in tiic very
decided improvement in the manufacture of children's toys, wliich are one of
the staple productions of the country. For some years past, the improvement
in the forms of the articles, whether molded in clay or sculptured in wood, with
which the Nuremberg manufacturers supply the shops of Paris, has siiown us
that great progress must have been made in tho teaching of drawing, and
ample confirmation of this opinion may be obtained on visiting the liigher
drawing-school of this town. The Parisian manufacturer.'!, thougii .Biiperior in
other matters dependent on the arts of design, arc, with regard to children's
toys, very inferior to the Nuremberg artisans.
SPECIAL SCHOOL OF IXDCSTRFAL DRAWING AT N'UREMnERO.
In this town, so noted for its various manufactures, there arc several draw-
ing-scliools of difTcrcnt degrees, according to the trade the pupils intend to
follow. The first and most important is the higher school of industrial drawing
conducted by M. Kroling. It is justly regarded in Germany as the one which
has rendered most services to industrj-. In order tiiat the jmpils may, in a few
years, acquire some real skill, none aro admitted but those who have already
attained considerable proficiency. Tho principle adopted by tho professor of
this school is tliat, in order to form good industrial drauglitsmen, tho pnpils
must pass through all the degrees of artistic drawing, so iliat they mayb" 'i''".
122 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
ill the very varied and difierent combinations required by manufacturers, to
blend judiciously and harmoniously all the various kinds, without there being
any necessity, as often happens, for having recourse to one artist for the archi-
tectural part, to another for the figures, and to a third for the ornaments, &c.
As for the method of teaching, it is exclusively based on drawing from
models in relief^ graduated according to the proficiency of the learners, and ad-
vancing from the simplest models to the finest left by ancient art, and then to
nature. The talented director expresses his antipathy to copying from litho'
graph.?, which he regards 'as calligraphy, not drawing. In accordance with
these principles, he has formed for his pupils very fine and very complete col-
lections of models. The teaching is distributed in three divisions: — 1, drawing
of ornament; 2, drawing from the antique; 3, drawing from nature. After
attaining proficiency in drawing, the pupils pass on to modeling and sculpture
in wood and stone; then, as soon as they have attained a certain degree of
skill, tliej'- have to compose designs, and to model and carve them.
As a preparation tor the higher drawing-school, there is an elementary school
with courses occupying two years. The first, of eight hours' lessons per week,
is entirely devoted to free-hand drawing, beginning with exercises on straight
lines and curves, on plane surfaces, on symmetrical and regular bodies, and on
simple and complex ornaments, finishing with compositions. The second
course, of six hours per week, is devoted to drawing ornaments, to drawing
from the round, from the antique, and also to drawing furniture.
INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING.
The instructions drawn up in the Department of Commerce and Public "Works,
for the government of the newly-organized technical schools, mark out a detailed
course for drawing founded on the long experience of the famous schools of
Nuremberg and Munich.
PROGRAMIIE FOR DRAWING IN TRADE-SCHOOLS.
Course I. — First half-year. — Exercise of. eye and hand in drawing lines and
geometrical figures ; delineation of objects of suitable size, and with plane sur-
faces ; explanations of the nature of vision, and with this the first elements of
perspective; linear drawing without instruments should be combined with free
drawing. (Frethandzekhnung.)
Second half-year — Continuation of the free drawing; delineation of simple
ornaments from cartoons, or from plaster models, in slight relief or perforated ;
linear drawing, with the aid of compasses and mathematical instruments; draw-
ing, division and measurement of straight lines, right angles, and figures ; con-
struction of scales, measurement, &c.
Course II. — Free drawing of more elaborate ornaments from plastic models ;
the proportions of the human head and its various parts, from simple outlines;
exercises in the construction of regular curved lines, architectural members,
projection of simple surfaces, and of regular equilateral figures; embossing
from simple plastic models in difierent sizes.
Course III. — Continuation of exercises in free drawing from the round; de-
lineation of animals and plants, in as far as these may be applicable to orna-
mentation, with slight indication of shade.?, so as to make the form distinct ;
explanation of style ; delineation of the human body, and its proportions, in
outline; linear drawing; continuation of exercises in designing simple ma-
chines and models; the five orders of architecture ; industrial tools; profiles,
&c., as fin- as possible in natural size, from models; sketching ft-om nature; ex-
ercises in drawing witli Indian ink ; slight coloring of profiles, kc. ; embossing
from drawings of simple classical artistic forms.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 123
Modifications for Vie Agricultural Division.
Course I.— First A«/y"-?/frtr.— [Substantially the same as in the trade course.]
Second half-year. — Linear drawing, with help of compasses and niathenialical
instruments; drawing, dividing, and measuring atraiglit lines, piano angles and
figures, and coustrucliou of scales of measurement; exercises in drawing plans
and elevations of simple geometrical bodies, in various positions, and in tiio
rules of the theory of proportions.
Course II. — Exercises in drawing plans and elevations of separate architec-
tural parts, more especially of the stationary arrangements of farm-buildings,
from models, and also trom nature ; delincalion of simple agricultural imple-
ments ; first rules of plan-drawing.
Course III. — Exercises in drawing entire buildings from models on a differ-
ent scale of measurement; delineation of ground-plans, elevations, and sec-
tions ; delineation of more complete agricultural tools and machines without
models.
PROGRAMIIE FOR REAL-GYMNASICJIS.
Course I. — Free drawing; exercises in drawing straight lines and geomet-
rical figures formed by them; delineation of bodies with piano surfaces, with
explanations of the nature of vision, and of the most simple phenomena of per-
spective, illustrated by single objects, or groups of objects, of suitable size;
exercises in drawing curved lines and simple ornaments formed of these; out-
line delineation of sjnnmetrical ornaments and vessels from cartoons and plaster
casts in slight relief, of simple antique artistic forms.
Coi.'RSE II. — Free drawing; division and proportion of the separate parts of
the Innnan frame drawn from cartoons ; foreshortening of the several parts in
different po.:;ition3, tlien of tlie whole body, using the geometrical lay figure as
a model ; more elaborate ornaments in outline from embossed and plane models ;
exercises in the use of rules, compasses, and other instruments, by delineation
and division of plane figures; explanation of the planes of projection ; exer-
cises in the delineation of simple bodies by means of their projections, with use
of the prismatic compass when copying from cartoons ; measurement and pro-
jection of solid models in different positions, and according to different scales
of reduction.
Course III. — Simple exercises in shading, at first from models of plane orna-
ments, afterwards from ornaments in relief; drawing of heads, hands, and feet
in different positions, from slightly-executed models; ornaments belonging to
various periods of art, as much as possible in connection with architect\n-al fea-
tures ; measurement of complex solid models with plane surfaces, and projec-
tion of the same according to the rules of descriptive geometry, and to a given
scale of reduction, and in a prescribed position ; modeling of ornaments in re-
lief, firet from solid models, and then from plane patterns, and on a different
scale.
Course IV. — Delineation of animal and vegetable forms, if possible, from
models in relief, and with strict attention to foreshortening and bends ; elucida-
tion of styles and exercises therein ; delineation of figures from simple piano
models; ornaments in combination with human and animal forms, from tho
piano and fVom the round ; projection of solids with curved surfaces and their
intersections (DurchdringurKjen ;) delineation of the different orders of columns
from cartoons ; exercises in linear perspective and shading,
drawing in the C0M3I0N AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.
Drawing is made obligatory in all the higher classes of the popular or com-
mon school, but it is more systematically attended to in tho Further Improve-
ment School, and in the special drawing-schools, of which there are now 261,
in which arc emploj'ed 270 well-trained teachers, with an aggregate attendance
of over f,000 pupils. Of these institutions, 219 are public, and 121 inde-
pendent; 140 united with other institutions. There is in Munich a special
drawing-school for women.
124 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
PUBLIC PROVISION FOR INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC.
Great attenlLon is paid to musical culture, uot ouly in tlie capital, and chief
cities, but throughout the kingdom. It is made obligatory in all common
schools, and ability and success in its instruction is secured by ample provision
in the training of teacliers, and in a rigorous examination on this point of all
candidates. Mr. Julius Eichberg, director of musical instruction in tlie Girls'
High and Normal School in Boston, in a recent (1868) communication addressed
to Dr. Uphara, Chairman of the Committee on Music in the Boston Public
Schools, respecting the manner and extent of popular musical instruction in
certain European cities, remarks: "In no part of Germany does music receiv^
more attention than in Bavaria and in Bavarian schools."
MUSICAL STUDIES FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS.
By royal decree, dated September 29, 1866, concerning the education of
school teachers, their musical studies, which are continued through the three
years of the seminary course, are fixed as follows :
1. Primary School Ttachers.
First Course. — (A) Singing. — General rules for the cultivation of the voice,
breathing, position of mouth and bodj'. Practice of major and minor scales,
general musical theor}', practice of intervals and singing of short songs within
the diatonic scale.
(Bj Piano. — Knowledge of the ke_y-board, notes and measures, five notes
finger exercises, easy major and minor scales.
Books to be used: — Piano Method, bj' Wohlfahrt, Part I; finger exercises by
A. Schmidt; one hundred exercises bj^Czeruy, and Enkhausen's first Beginning.
(C) Violin Playing. — Position of the body. Practice of scales and intervals.
Book used: — Hohmann's Violin School, Part I.
Second Course. — (A) Singing. — Practice of more difficult intervals. Use of
accidents. Singing of two-part songs, for soprano and alto. Attention to be
given'to correct breathing.
(B) Piano. — More difficult scales in two octaves, continuation of Czerny's
one hundred exercises and Wohlfahrt's Piano method. Sonatos by Mozart and
Haydn.
(C) Violin. — All the scales in Hohmann II.
(D) Ilarmony. — Intervals. Theory of con.sonances and dissonances. Major
and minor triads and connection of the same. Plaj'ihg the perfect cadences by
heart, in every way.
Third Course. — (A) Singing. — The preceding exercises have enabled the
pupils (unless hindered by mutation of voice) to assist in the church clioirs.
For Catliolic institutions the practice of easy Latin or German masses is re-
quired; for Protestant institutions the practice of easy motets by Rink or Dro-
bisch, as also the chorals of moderate difficulty from the Bavarian Church
Melodv Book, by Zahn.
(B) Piano. — Practice of Bertini op. 29, running passages by Czerny, sonatas
by lla_vdn, Clementi, and Mozart. Four-hand exercises by Bertini.
(C) 0;-(/a«.— Explanation of the pedals and the various stops. Practice of
simple cadences.
Book used : — Rink's first three months on the organ.
(D) Violin. — Progressive practice of exercises and ducts. Holnnann's Book
III. Practice of violin — parts from works by Llichael Haydn, Mozart, and
others.
(B) Harmony. — Inversion of triads and their connection with triads. Chords
of Seventh. Book used, Fiirster's Examples I. The conducting of church
music being among the duties of scliool teachers, pupils of the preparing school
should now get acquainted with the use and nature of the several stringed and
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
125
wind instruments, as afterwards, when in the seminary, but little time can be
given for this purpose. Nevertlieless, tlie study of those instruments is not
obligatory on the pupils.
2. Plan of lessons for the Preparing School.
Courses I axd II. — Religious instruction, 3 hours per week ; German lan-
guage, 6; arithmetic. 4 ; geograph3% 2; history, 2; natural history, 2; callig-
raphy, 2 ; drawing, 2 ; music, (3. Total, 29 hours.
Religious instruction, the study of the German language, of arithmetic, and
of music, are considered the principal branches, insufficient progress in cither
of which entails with it the repetition of the course. But if insufficiency in
music is owing to lack of talent and not of industry, no repetition of the course
is necessary.
^ 3. Seminaries for Teachers.
Course I. — (A) Singing, (a) Catholic Seminaries. — Theory of choral singing.
Practice of psalm melodies, antiplionies, and other Church songs. Practice of
one-part chorals, with the organ accompaniment played by the student.
(b) Protectant Seminaries. — Learning by heart of chorals, from the Bavari;in
Choral Book for the Protestant Church. Zahn's harmonization of chorals, for
male voices ; also, the four-part songs, by J. Rietz.
(B) Piano. — School of velocity, by Czerny. Organ lessons to be prepared on
the piano.
(C) Organ. — Review of the lessons from the preparing school. Use of ped-
als. Preludes, by Rink and others. Protestants to practice the whole of the
Bavarian Melody-Book, as also preludes by Herzog and Ett.
(D) Violin. — Hohmann, Book IV. Review of previous studies. Practice in
orchestra-playing.
(E) Harmony. — Theory of connected chords of the seventh and their inver-
sions. Prolongations, their inversions. Organ-point. Playing of figured
basses. Fiirsler's Examples B, II and III.
Course IT. — (A) Singing. — Protectant Seminaries. — Church Songs of the 16th
and 17th centuries, by Zahn. Yolks-Klacnge, for male voices, by Erk. Sacred
choruses, for male voices, by "W. Greef
(B) Piano. — To be considered as a preparatory study for the organ. The
more advanced students to practice sonatas, by Beethoven, and Clementi's
Gradus ad Parnassum.
(C) Organ — Protestant Seminaries. — J. S. Bach's chorals, for four mixed
parts, as preparation for the more difficult preludes. Study of the longer pre-
ludes and chorals, by Ilerzog and Ett. Extemporaneous preludes. System of
ancient tonalities.
(D) Violin. — Hohmann, Part T. By diligent practice the student ought to
acquire the capability of playing the first violin part of orchestral works, by
Haydn and Mozart, correctly.
(E) Uarmony. — Theory of modulations, demonstrated by the student, both in
writing and at the piano. Four-part harmonization of chorals, or other given
subjects. The study of the other instruments, without being obligatory, is ad-
visable. The most advanced students are to practice orchestra-playing once a
week. The practice of so-called brass music is forbidden.
Religious instruction, German language, arithmetic, mathematics, theory of
teaching and music, are to be considered the principal branches; the other
branches secondary.
The_following is the division of hours in the Royal Bavarian Seminaries for
Teachers, both courses being equal: — Religious instruction, 3 hours per wcek^
German language, 4 ; arithmetic and mathematics 3; geograpliy, 1 ; history,
2; natural history, 2; science of teaching, 5; natural philo.sophy, 2; drawing,
2; music, 6. Total, 30 hours per week.
The following is a schedule, to be filled up at the annual examinations:
Jfatural Disposition. Moral Conduct. Industry. Progress.
I. \'ery great. Very prnisewortliy. Very greut. Very great.
II. (Jrcnt. Praiseworthy. Great Great.
III. SiitTicient. Satisfactory. Satisfnctory. Satisfactory.
IV. Little. Not free from blame. Unsatisfactory. Unsatisfactory.
126 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
According to section 75, students applying for situations as school teachers,
must have received at least No. Ill, for their musical qualifications.
PUBLIC MUSIC SCHOOL IN WURZBUEG.
In all the Bavarian cities where school seminaries are established, there exist,
as branch establishments, public music-schools, where the seminarists receive
their musical instruction. These music-schools are, like the seminaries, under
the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction in Munich, and an annual
sum is provided by the budget for their maintenance. The Roj'al Music School
inWiJrzburg is the oldest of these institutions, having been founded on the I8th
of April, 1804, since which date it has given a sound musical instruction to
countless school-teachers, and in consequence has vastly advanced the cause q#
music in Bavaria. Although designed at first as a branch to the WiJrzburg
Seminary, it has long since outgrown these limits, and has become one of the
most prominent of German musical high-schools, from which numbers of emi-
nent men have graduated in succession. The founder and first Director was
the celebrated Dr. Joseph Frcihlich, professor of aesthetics at the "Wiirzburg
University, one of the profoundest musical theorists of the century. After his
death, in 1862, he was succeeded by the present Director, Mr. T. G. Bratsch, to
whose kindness I owe a host of interesting facts concerning the good work that
is being done in the Bavarian schools.
In these schools singing is not merely tolerated, but forms a principal part in
the common-school education. Pupils are not permitted to show a listless, in-
different manner at their music lessons, but are made to understand that this
branch of education is considered by the school authorities as equally important
with the 'three R's,' as we call them. Select voices from the public schools
are occasionally allowed to join the seminarists in the performance of some im-
portant musical work, such as cantatas and oratorios ; and I have before me
the programmes of Pierson's oratorio, ' Jerusalem,' and Spohr's oratorio, ' Our
Saviour's Last Moments,' performed solely by the seminarists and select pupils
of the public schools, including solo parts, choruses, and the full orchestra.
I was present, by invitation, at the musical examination of aspirants to the
seminary, and when it is taken into consideration that it comprised singing,
organ-playing, violin, and piano, some shortcomings in an}' of these branches
wiU not be wondered at. The choral and orchestral forces of the music-schools
(composed, as above stated, of seminarists and pupils of the public schools,)
meet, assisted by the music-teachers, twice a week for the practice of oratorios
and symphonies. The public are admitted to these exercises without charge or
any formality whatsoever. The exercises are conducted alternately by the
most advanced students, under the supervision of Mr. Bratsch.
No musical text-books are in use in Bavarian schools, but the teacher uses
the blackboard for the theoretical instruction, and for choral practice in addition
to the publications of L. Erk and GreefJ selections from cantatas, motets or
masses within their reach.
CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC.
The Royal Conservatorium of Music at Mvmich has a director and 14 teach-
ers, with an average of over 100 pupils, and receives aid from the government
to the amount of 8,000 florins.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jo'j
INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY.
The establishments for instruction in agriculture consisted till 1 8G4 of three
central schools of agriculture, forestry, and veterinary science, and ;iu a<^riculiu-
ral course or siiecial divisions in the trade schools. Of thcs • last there were
thirty iu 1864. Since then several of them have been discontinued, and the
whole system has been reorganized as follows :
CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL OR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE.
The Agricultural Institute was established in 1835, in the royal domain of
Weiheustephan, iu the old town of Feising, twenty miles north of Munich.
The grounds include nine hundred and thirty-eight acres of arable and
pasture land, as well as of forest, with an immense building, standing on a
gentle elevation which overlooks a wide extent of beautiful country. The
building forms a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court, and
providing for the laboratory, collections and cabinets of various kinds, halls of
stud}-, dormitories, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, aud other
structures.
The live stock comprises all kinds of domestic animals, and there arc also : —
Experimental fields for various cultures. A brewery and distillery. A
nursery. A hop ground. A cheese dairy. Technological collections. A
chemical laboratory. A collection of various seeda A collection of the pro-
ductions of the Bavarian soil. A cabinet of instruments for experiraenial
physics. A collection of agricultural implements and models. A library. A
plantation of mulberry trees for the study of silkworms. An anatomical col-
lection for veterinary studies. The neighboring forests oQ'er opportunities for
the study of resinous trees.
The instruction is distributed as follows: —
First Year. Winter Term. — Agricultural implements. Experimental
chemistry. Arithmetic. Elements of construction. Drawing of plans and
farm implements. Physiology of plants, agronomy, agriculture. Forest
science. Anatomy, physiologj-, and dietetics of domestic animals.
Summer Term. — Practical farming. Experimental chemistr}'. Con.^truction.
Drawing of plans, surveying. Breeding of cattle, races, diseases. Physiology
of plants. Agronomy. Agriculture. Forest management.
Second Year. Whiter Term. — Organization of rural economj^ and manage-
ment. Agricultural chemistry. Roads. Drawing of plans and farm imple-
ments. Breeding of cattle. Veterinary police, warranty of cattle sold.
Physical geography, ileteorology. Climatolog3\
Summe7- Term. — Valuation of farm property, and book-keeping. Agricul-
tural chemistry. Farm buildings, meadows, and draining. Agricultural
technology. Breeding and rearing of cattle. Veterinar}- police, warrant}' of
cattle sold. Physical geography. Meteorology. Climatology.
The studies last two years, and the instruction is given by nine professors
and two assistant professors. The youths who attend this school are divided
into two classes, ordinary pupils and free auditors. There are about twenty of
the former and forty of the latter. To bo admitted, the candidate must have
attained sixteen years of age, have followed the studies of an agricultural
school (Landtcirthichaft Schule) or of a trade school; he must also know
enough Latin to understand the value of the terms borrowed from that
language, and be able to undergo an examination on the subjects taught in
those schools.
128 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
Owing to local circumstances the pupils are, contrary to tlic general usage in
Germany, received as boarders; Bavarian subjects for one hundred and twenty-
five florins per half year, and foreigners for one hundred and fifty florins.
This charge includes teacliing, board, and lodging; bool:s and school neces-
saries tlie pupils find themselves. They also have to pay two florins per half
year for the reading room. The free pupils pay thirrj'-five florins per half
year for each course they follow, and may obtain a certificate relative thereto.
The courses begin on the 1st of October and end on the last day of August,
witli a fortnight's vacation at Easter. At the end of the year, examinations
are held, and the deserving pupils receive certificates of aptitude.
Mr. C. L. Flint, secretary of the Massachusetts board of agriculture, in a
report of his visits to several agricultural institutions abroad in 1863, thus
speaks of Weihenstephan :
I arrived tliere from Ratisbon on a bright summer morning, introduced
myself to the first man I met, told him mj^ object, and learned at what hours
the various lectures took place, attended two or three of them and became
acquainted with the professors, visited and examined tlio collections, the
stables, the brewery, the farm and experimental field, the sheep, &c.
The estate lying in connection with this institute comprises, I believe, about
six hundred and fifty acres, of which there are usually about eighty in wheat,
over forty in rape and root crops, about thirty-five in oats, twelve to fifi:een in
potatoes, fifteen to twenty in rye, eighteen to twenty in barley, eight to ten in
beans, five in hops, about one hundred and thirty in fodder crops, such as
lucerne, clover, vetches, etc., while about one hundred and fifty are in mowing
fields and so on. The land is of excellent quality.
The stock consists of twelve horses, twenty -two pairs of oxen, fifty-nine
milch cows, seven young cattle, thirty swine, and five hundred and seventy
sheep. The cows are mostly of the AUgauer and Miirzthalcr breeds, which are
considered best for milk after the Dutch. The cross with the Allgiiuer and
Swiss, they say, makes fine working oxen.
The buildings form a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court,
around which are arranged the various departments, as the chemical laboratory,
the rooms for study, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, the dairy
and stables, the granary, the brewery, the plough manufactory, &c. There
are also various other establishments, a distillery, a flour mill, &c.
The number of students is about seventy. The course of instruction does
not materially difier from that at Hohenheim.
During the summer term, for instance, there were lectures by the Director,
on soils, their origin, the different kinds of soil, weathering, irrigation,
drainage, division and natural classification ; the comparative value of soils for
the production of plants; circumstfmces which modif^v this value; the soil
differs according to tlie coarseness of its particles and its tenacity ; sand, loam,
clay, marl nnd humus ; subdivisions of soils ; taxation of mowing lands,
pastures, gardens, vineyards, swale lauds, fisheries, &c.; double-entry book-
keeping as a check upon farming operations.
Dr. Riederer lectured upon the following topics :
1. Introduction to agricultural practice, idea and object in general and the
systems of Tliaer, Thiinen and Liebig.
2. The positive and negative means of a good farm management, as the
judicious division of land, proper number of laborers, education of tlie farmer,
necessar}- capital, &c.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of large and small estates. Influence of
a judicious regulation of the corn trade, at home and abroad, on the profits of
farming, &c.
4. The most important directions in regard to keeping animals and the
proper estimation of tlieir products.
Text-books are used in connection with the lectures.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 129
Professor Knobloch lectured three hours a week upon —
1. Ap;ricultural Chemistry. — Chemistry of fermentation, decomposition,
formation of humus. The chemical contents of manure, excrements of birds,
solid and liquid excrements of man and animals, strawy materials, disinfection.
The chemical principles of the preparation of composts. Bone manuring,
pliosphorites, and koprolites, pypsuni, wood and peat ashes. Manuring witli
oil-caice.«!, ammonia, and nitric acid salts. Fish guano. Tlic formation of soil
tiirough the culture of agricultural plants. The chemical principles of fallowing
and rotation. Drainage. Chemical analysi.s of soils and l<inds of manure, the
ashes of plants, of spring and running water, and of dilTerent agricultural
products. On Lieijig; cliemistry in its application to agriculture and physi-
olog}', &.C.
In connection with these lectures, the chemical laboratory was open daily
during the term, and the students worked industriously in it, in making
analyses of soils, manures and ashes, milk, potatoes, feeding materials and
cereals, sulphuric acid and pliosphoric acid determinations, &c.
2. Agricultural Technology. — Four hours weekly. Fermentative processea
of the beer brewery, the brandy distillery and vinegar manulactory in its whole
range. Making of butter and chcL'se, making of starch, and the application of
the latter to the ]3roduction of sago. Lime and brick burning. Turf cutting.
Technological Practice, four half-days a week in the winter term, and one.
half-day in the summer terra. Manufacture of Bavarian normal and strong
beer, potato, grain and maize brandy, vinegar, starcli, &c. Demonstrations in
the brandy distillery, the cheese dairy, tlie brickyard, at the limekiln, and on
tlio turf or peat meadows. Investigation of various raw materials and fabrics.
Agricultural technological mechanics. Excursions to farming estates in the
neighborhood.
Professor May gave lectures in the winter term, five hours weekly, upon —
1. The anatomy of the horse, the sheep and the swine, with demonstrations
by skeletons and preparations/
2. Physiology of domestic animals, in connection with the feeding proper
for them.
3. The races of the larger farm animals. Study of the different races,
breeds and families of improved domestic animals, their form, characteristics
and useful qualities.
4. General principles of the production of animals. Methods and principles
of breeding. Green, dry, root, bulb and corn fodder. "Wastes of the farm.
Loss and injury from particular feeding materials. Comparative composition of
different materials, and their nutritive value. Preservation, economy and
production of fodder.
Sanimei- Term, four hours a rveeh — 1. Swine-breeding. Choice of animals.
Pregnancy and care of the litter. Parturition. Treatment of the dam and
pigs. Close confinement. Keeping at pasture. Fattening.
2. Horse-breeding. Study of the subject from an agricultural and a
national economical point of view. Choice of draught horses-. Pairing.
Treatment of the mare in foal. Handling of colts during the first, second,
third and fourth years. Checks in the development.
3. Knowledge of wool. Its normal and abnormal conditions.
4. Importance of a knowledge of veterinary science in the treatment of
domestic animals.
SbcoN'd Course. Winter Term, four hours a week. — 1. On wool (continu-
ation.) Wool staple. The wool fleece. Evenness of wool. Cloth and comb-
wools. Working of wool.
2. Sheep-breeding. Choice of animals. Numbering and classification of
sheep. Treatment of ewes in lamb. Time of lambing. Management of the
young. Pasturing sheep. Washing and shearing. Sorting of wool. Treat-
ment and sale of wool. Fattening. Valuation of the fodder u.sed in sheep
husbandry.
3. Cattle-breeding. Choice and selections of animals for breeding. Devia-
tions from the normal presentation. Suckling and artificial raising of calves,
General management in all cases.
ft/
130 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
4. External diseases of the larger useful farm animals.
5. Shoeing. Treatment of the ordinary breaks and diseases of the hoof.
Summer Term, Jive hours a week. — 1. Cattle-breeding (continued.) Stall
and pasture treatment. Use of cattle — milk, fattening and dxaught. Valuation
of fodder to be used.
2. Knowledge of the exterior of the horse.
3. Knowledge of the exterior of cattle.
4. Internal diseases of domestic animals. Contagious diseases and their
origin.
Practical exercises of judging correctly of animals, on the part of the
students, also of wool ; the true modes of breeding and the diseases of stock
are constantly enforced.
Prof. Lidl lectures in the winter term, on —
1. Cursory view of the geognostical relations of Bavaria.
2. Agronomy. Mold and subsoil, humus, sand, clay, lime, gravel and
alluvial soils. Local aspects and their influence on vegetation.
3. Agriculture. Cultivation — working of the soil by cultivation, by different
implements. Improvement of soils.
4. Anatomy and physiology of plants. Cells and vessels of plants. Dif-
ference in them. Contents of cells. Plant-cells in their various relations.
Intercellular tissue. Nourishment of plants. Motion of the sap. Production
by seeds and spores. Diseases of vegetation.
5. Morpholog3^ Root, stem and leaf organs, flowers, fruits and seeds.
Summer Term.-^\. Special plant culture — grain fodder and root-plants.
2. Economical botany. The most important weeds and poisonous plants.
Secoxd Course. Winter Term. — 1. Fruit culture.
2. Cultivation of special plant.s, root, commercial and coloring plants.
Summer Term. — 1. Culture of special plants, grains, pulse and oil fruits.
Fodder plants and tubers.
2. Wine growing.
3. Continuation of lectures on botany.
Two botanical excursions are made each week in connection with this
course.
Prof. Dohlemann lectures in the winter term, on —
1 . Applied mathematics. Recapitulation of the most necessary principles
of algebra, geometry and stereometry; calculation, division and alteration of
surfaces; calculation of the cubic contents of different bodies.
2. General architecture. Earth and foundation work. Construction of ore
pits. Restoration of hewn stone and brick wall work. Stone binding for
pillars. Chimney flues, &c.
3. Practice in drawing. Drawing of situations. Copying and sketching
of simple agricultural buildings and parts of buildings. Drawing of agricultu-
ral implements and machines.
Summer Term. — 4. Continuation of general architecture. Construction of
different kinds of vaults; ornamental works; carpenter's work; joiner's and
locksmith's work.
5. Surveying, with exercises in the field. Explanation of the most useful
instruments for length and angle measuring. Solution of diSerent problems of
practical geometrj', on the field and in practice.
Second Course. Winter Term. — Agricultural architecture. Laying out
and construction of houses and stables. Buildings for the preservation of
agricultural crops, &c.
2. Meadow management, with practical exercises. Theory and use of
different leveling instruments. Water measuring. Improvements of fields in
general. Drainage. Irrigation. Practice in leveling and water measuring.
Professor Meister lectured in the winter te'rm, three hours a week, on
Physical geography, the atmosphere and climatology. The barometer,
thermometer, hj'grometer, and psychrometer. Effect of clearing off of forests.
Relations of temperature to the atmosphere and the earth, and the consequent
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 131
distribution of plants. Peculiarities of Inud and sta climate, and their causes.
Winds. Warmth and moisture. Aiii.niiit of rain, dew, number of rainy days,
storms, fall of hail, and their distribution over tlie year, and the coii.'seciuent
physical characteristics of tlie soil. E.xplanation of the century calendar, and
of the so-called rules for determining tlie weather. Temperature of tlie soil.
Observations at different deptlis. Barometrical and thermometrical measure-
ment of lieiglits. Construction of sun-dials.
Judge Schleisinjrer lectures in the second course twice a week, in both terms,
on the general German agricultural law in regard to the more important private
rights and later laws in regard to cultivation.
This course was comprehensive, embracing the general principles of rights,
persons and tilings, and the laws affecting propertj^, real and personal.
The royal master of forests, Bierdimpfel, lectured in the winter term on the
introduction to the management of forests, the structure of woods, plants, and
their relation to the air, climate and soil, and on the definition of the technical
forest expressions.
Summer Term. — On forest cultivation, protection of forests. These courses
were illustrated by excursions into the neighboring forests.
In addition to the short and frequent botanical and other excursions in the
neighborhood, long excursions are made, from time to time, to various parts of
the kingdom, the students being accompanied on them by one or more profes-
sors. Special subjects are assigned to some one or more of the class on which
to write out a detailed report. As an example, the last great excursion which
took place previous to my visit was made to Northern Bavaria, to Nurnberg,
and so round to Augsburg, to visit the wool market in that city. In the former
city, there was at that time a great meeting of Bavarian farmers, for the dis-
cussion of agricultural topics; an agricultural convention, in other words.
That was taken into the trip. That part of the kingdom, as well as Franconia,
through which the direction lay, is largely devoted to the culture of hopf.
Now two of the students were appointed to write out an account of tlie
journey in general; three to write on the culture of the hop; two on fruit
culture, as seen in the excursion ; another on irrigation ; another on garlic-
land ; another on the art of manuring ; four others on cattle ; two others on the
visit to Lichtenhof Agricultural School; another on bees; two others on the
wool market, &c. A full report of the excursion, mostly written by the students
themselves, is printed in connection with the annual report of the school.
The nurseries on the farm are extensive and the sales from them profitable ;
but probably the brewery is the most profitable branch of the establishment.
Here are used more than J;en thousand bushels of malt a year. In the year
ending with July 1st, 1863, it used 3,GG8 Bavarian scheffel, or about 11,000
bushels. In the same year over a thousand bushels of potatoes were used in
the distillery. There were sold from the nursery, 8,520 trees.
Just before I was there a terribly destructive hailstorm had occurred, and I
never saw such magnificent fields of wheat and other grain so completely
riddled and ruined. It was painful to look upon. It had given promise of an
extraordinary yield up to the time of the hail, but it was very nearly a dead
loss when I saw it. A committee of appraisers from the insurance company
for crops was on to estimate the damages. The wide-spread system of
insurance, of which the institute had fortunately availed itself, saved it from
very great loss, which otherwise would have fallen very heavily upon it-
132
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
I should add that much instruction is given in the field and the nurseries, in
the barn and other parts of the establishment, by practical demonstrations.
There is a reading-room, a library, and extensive collections and other appliances.
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT LICHTENHOF.
At Lichtenhof, in the neighborhood of Nuremberg, there is a school of
agriculture, established by Dr. Weidenkeller, in 1832, as a trade-school with
two sections, the other section being devoted to the mechanical arts, with a
preparatory course common to both.
The school of agriculture comprises : — 1-. A preparatory school. 2. A school
of husbandry. 3. A school of agricultural science.
1. The preparatory school is intended to receive lads whose education has
been neglected, and in it they are taught the following subjects: — Religion,
two hours per week ; principles of theoretical agriculture, two ; practical
agriculture, four ; arithmetic, four ; reading, one ; caUigraphy, four ; German lan-
guage, four ; geography, two ; natural history, two ; drawing, eight. Total, 33.
2. The school of husbandry is intended to educate farmers, bailiffs, and
managers. The instructioia occupies a year, and embraces the following
subjects: — Religion, two hours per week; German language, four; chemistry,
two; arithmetic, four;, geography, two; drawing; three; calligraphy, four;
theoretical agriculture, six; practical agriculture, four. Total, 31 hours.
3. The school of agricultural science is intended to render young men
capable: — 1, of managing and cultivating farms of moderate size; 2, of being
admitted into a central school of agriculture, or into the Munich Veterinary
School. The instruction occupies three years, and there were in 1862-63,
thirty-nine pupils of the first, eighteen of the second, and fifteen of the third
year; in all seventj--two pupils.
These numbers show that less than one-half of the pupils go through the
whole course of studies. The school of husbandry had only two pupils, the
preparatory school eight, which makes a total of eighty-two pupils, for whom
there are thirteen professors and three masters.
The programme of the school of agricultural science is aS follows: —
SVBJECTS TAUGHT.
Religion,
Theorv of aa;riculture,
Practical agriculture,
Zoology,
General and special botany,
Pure mineralogy,
Applied mineralogy,
Phj'sics,
Chemistry,
Arithmetic,
Geometry,
German language,
Geography, .'
Free hand and linear drawing,
Calligraphy,
Anatomy and treatment of domestic animals.
Hours per week.
1st year.
3d year.
2d year.
2
2
2
5
7
4
12 to 30
2
2
12 to 20
12 to 30
1
4
3
2
4
4
—
2
3
4
4
3
4
—
—
6
4
4
4
2
Mr. C. L. Flint thus speaks of his visit to this school: —
This institute is about a mile from NiirnbeYg towards the south. It was
founded in 1832, by Dr. Weidenkeller. The farm, originally composed of sand
and gravel, almost barren, was gradually changed into a good soil, now
apparently fertile and productive, by the students.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN UAVARIA. 133
The stately buildings of the institute stand at the right of the entrance, and
on the left the botanic garden. Tlio buildings are in a modern style, contrast-
ing strangely with the antique structures in the neighborhood. The dwelling
of the inspector is witliin the college inclosure, as also that of Mrs. Weidenlvel-
ler, and just beyond, the dormitories for eighty students, the lecture-rooms, the
laboratory, a spacious eatiug-saloon, which serves also as a work-room, a
library and wash-room.
Tiio botanical garden contains all, or nearly all, the agricultural plants,
arranged in tiio Ijiuniean order, besides many of tlic more conunon forest trees.
The garden of the institute for the growth of vegetables and fruits also joins
the botanical gard n. Among the fruit trees stands the monument to Dr.
Weidenl<eller, the founder. A little way beyond lies the experimental field.
The improved grounds near by contain a good nursery of trees. In a little
grove on a Isnoll, a monument is erected to his majesty, King Max. A broad
space is devoted to ornamental plants and farm crops. The experimental field
is about two acres in extent. There is also a hop-garden on a piece of
reclaimed swamp. Tliis piece was improved by the pupils witiiout much co.st.
Near the main building stands a second, which contiins the collections.
* They consist of skeletons and anatomical preparations, a crocodile, birds,
domestic game and some malformation.s, several models of systems of irrigation,
collections of insects, minerals, &e.
The stocks of bees were presented by Dzierzon, and are therefore of special
interest. The mode of operation is easily seen from the arrangement of the
hives.
The farm buildings consist of cow and horse stalls, shed and coach-house.
There were about thirty cows, consisting of Allgiiuers and Sinimenthalens, a
few Ansbachcrs and Ellingers. The roof of the cow-house is built of wood,
the sides of stone.
Tlio instruction at this institute is not strictly agricultural. Much of it, in
fact, has no more bearing on agricultural than on any other calling. Religion,
the German language, geography, arithmetic, zoology and drawing are
prescribed studies in the first ycav. Agriculture and practical agricultural
exercises come in for a share of attention, but they don't seem to be especially
prominent in the programme.
The second j-ear is a continuation of the first, with a little botany, geometry,
mineralogy and history added, while in the third year, agricultural chemistry,
farm accounts, rural architecture, machinery, the anatomy and physiology of
animals, veterinary medicine, drawing, riding, fencing, and other practical
exercises, come in and add variety.
This institute ranks as intermediate in the list of Bavarian agricultural
schools.
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT SCHLEISSHEIM.
The school of practical farming at Sehlcis.^lieim was founded in 1822 as an
institute for theoretical as well as practical agriculture, after the model of
Hohenheim, but the plan was more fully carried out at Weihenstephau, and
this institution has been carried on apparently to illustrate the pursuit of
agriculture under difficulties.
Mr. Flint thus describes his visit in 1863 : —
The estate consists of about six thousand five hundred acres, and like many
other estal)lisluncnfs of the kind, it possesses a fine old royal residence or
chateau, tiie whole lying in an immense, but not very fertile valley. I have
seen it intimated that the lands were so decidedly inferior and unproductive
that the intention of tiie government in giving it over to the school to be
managed by scientific men was to put the value of scientific principles in agri-
culture to the severest po.ssible test. I believe, if sucii was the case, that tiicrc
has been little reason to exult in the triumphs gained over such powerful
natural obstacles as a poor soil and an ungenial climate, and I think it may be
taken to be as great a mistake to select land for a model farm, or an agricultu-
ral college farm, that is much below the average of natural fertility, as it
J34 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
would be to select one verj' much above it. In the first case even scientific
nianagement cau liardly be charged with the responsibility of a failure to
produce high crops, and in the latter, it would not get the credit of whatever it
did produce. Neither would be a fair test of the skill and science applied
to it.
The character of the soil led to the early adoption of a twenty years rotation,
in which wheat came in but once, oats five times, rye and barley one year
each, grass occupying six years, and one year being given over to an idle
fallow.
The building.s are old and immense in extent, arranged in the form of paral-
lelograms, with broad open courts or yards between. The whole has an air of
majestic desolation. I do not think palaces especially well adapted for the
purposes of agricultural schools. The endless stables were partially occupied
by horses belonging to the Bavarian cavalry.
The course of instruction is more practical than theoretical, that is, of the
time devoted to study and training, two-thirds is given to practical work and
one-third to tiieoretical.
The theoretical instruction, which comes mostly in winter and on rainy days
in summer, when it becomes impracticable to work out doors, embraces —
1. Religion. A brief survey of the history of religion and biblical history.
2. Elementary studies, arithmetic, orthography. In arithmetic, the funda-
mental rules and fractions, exercises in reducing common currencie.-^, weights
and measures, and measurements of space. It is especially mathematics
applied to agriculture. As large a proportion as possible is mental.
About an hour a week is devoted to orthography, to teach correct writing
and language, and to develop facility in writing. It includes examples of
receipts, bills, notices, &c.
3. Agriculture. On climate, atmosphere, knowledge and estimation of
kinds of soil and their cultivation or working. On machines and implements,
their manufacture and repair, the parts of which they are composed and their
use, the handling and management of sowing, threshing and cut;ting machines,
to guard against accidents. On the formation of manure heaps and the
manufacture of manure, the application of different sorts of manure. On the
knowledge of seeds, and the different methods of sowing and planting. The
treatment of plants during the period of growth. The reduction of diff'erent
feeding substances to the hay value. Estimation of the necessary requirements
of manure. On the various methods of harvesting, threshing, preservation and
drying. On the valuation of fruits. On the arrangement and keeping of simple
farm registers. Plan and model drawing from' measurement.
TECHNIC.4.L Employments. — On milk and the products of milk. On the
erection and management of brandy distilleries, and the suitable materials to
use.
Culture of Mowing Lands. — Preliminary instruction. 1. Leveling by the
application of the level and other inst'-uments. 2. Measuring of level surfaces,
lines, angles, and figures; triangles, quadrangles, right angles, tiie circle, prac-
tical exercises in these operations. 3. Laying- out trenches and dams for
water or irrigated meadows, calculation of bodies of water, and the require-
ments of water for irrigated meadows. 4. Tools for field culture
The practical management of meadows. Study of meadow or field plants.
Requirements of seed and time of sowing. Seed raising. Manuring mowings
with barn and compost manures, with liquid and artificial manures ; the hay
harvest and its yield. Preparation of brown hay ; care and improvement of
meadows other than irrigation.
Drainage. — When and how to be applied. The work preparatory to
draining.
Cattle Breeding. — Application of anatomy to horse, cattle, sheep, and
swine breeding. The various breeds and their characteristics. Explanation of
particular methods of improving the breeds of cattle, through the introduction
of foreign males, and through in and in breeding, &c.
1. E)xplanation of characteristics according to the kind of use required,
feeding tor beef, milk and draught.
2. Choice of animals for breeding, according to age, use, special points.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. ^35
3. Treatment of the breeding animal, feeding and care.
4. Parturition. Treatment immediately after.
5. Management of the calf Methods of raising. Quantity and quality of
milk for its nourishment.
6. Feeding, management and care of the young animal up to the period of
use.
7. The same of the full-grown animal. Quantity and quality of food for
milking, fattening, and working animals. Housing of sheep, product of wool,
and the cleansing of it.
8. Adai)tation to work.
9. Purchase and sale of animals, especially the horse.
The students are instructed in veterinary manipulations, which as far as pos-
sible are applied to practice. Bleeding at several points in different animals.
Treatment of wounds, &c. Shoeing of horses and oxen.
The proper management of forests in all its branches, also forms a part of the
instruction, as well as that of fruit trees.
Excursions are also made to neighboring estates for the purposes of observa-
tion, the results of which are written out by the pupils. Money is sometimes
appropriated by the government to defray the expenses of long excursions.
Experiments are conducted in the making of implements, the application
of manures, and the cultivation of plants.
There is a coUectiou of models, a herbarium, a library, and tools and work-
shops for repairing the smaller agricultural implements, and the preparation of
models. The students are held to a pretty strict line of conduct ; neatness,
order and industry are inculcated and required. An examination takes place
at the close of the course, and prizes are awarded according to merit.
The number of cows kept is ninety; the number of yokes of oxen, thirty-
six. They make cheese and butter. The age of the students varies from
sixteen to twenty. The tuition, board, &e., amounts to about eighty florins, or
about thirty-three dollars. Each student costs the government about one
hundred and twenty-tive florins, but the balance is made up from the pubUc
treasury.
The young men are certainly not liable to acquire luxurious habits here. I
visited them, by invitation of Professor Anselra, teacher of agriculture, while
they were at supper, and had various opportunities for conversation with
several of them. Their fare appeared to be what, in our reformatory and
correctional institutions, would be called "very liard," and yet they seemed to
be quite contented and happy.
I should think the institution well calculated to send out a hardy, frugal,
intelligent, industrious class of young men, who might testify with regard to
their training as Socrates did with regard to Xantippe, '• being firmly convinced
that in case I should be able to endure her, I shouW be able to endure all
others."
There is nothing imposing in the buildings or their arrangement. They are
substantially built of stone, in low, long ranges surrounding a large yard or
open space. There is a blacksmith's and a wheelwright's shop in a part of the
range, and many agricultural implements are turned out here by the slow
processes of hand labor, some of them excellent, but all rather more remark-
able for strength than elegance.
INSTRCCTION IN FORESTRY AND HORTICCTLTUKE.
1. In addition to the instruction given in the agricultural section of the real
gymnasium and the trade schools, there are arranged courses of lectures in the
university at Munich, and another special course of two years in the royal
forestry school at AschafFenberg.
2. 'The lectures on botany and vegetable physiology in the university, the
practical work of the botanical garden, and the plantations of the public parks
and grounds, afford rare opportunity for horticultural study as well as land-
scape gardening.
136 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOB WOMEN.
Besides the numerous schools of the usual grades for girls and young ladies
in Munich, there are several institutions of a peculiar character to prepare them
for profitable occupations. Under the lead of several noble women, among
whom are Mrs. Maria Yon "Weber, Eugenia DoUman, daughter of the celebrated
architect Klentze, Mrs. Maria Volk, daughter of Kolbach, Caroline Hay, and
others, an Art School for Young Women has been instituted — one of the first
of its kind in Germany. Beginning in a small hired apartment, they bought
models, procured the services of an experienced teacher of drawing — a pupil of
Leutze before he came to this country, and opened the school ; and before the
close of the first year numbered twenty-four eager pupils. The second year
opened with a class in painting, under the instruction of an eminent artist —
and during the following winter, lectures were delivered to the school on Es-
thetics and the History of Art, by a Professor of the Royal Academy of Arts—
the object of the school being to train its pupils to become themselves teachers
of drawing and painting, and designers of patterns for various textUe fabrics,
household furniture and ornamentation.
There is also another institution for training girls between the ages of thir.
teen and sixteen for commercial business. It has been supported for several
years at the expense of Mr. Adolph Remenschmied, a philanthropic merchant
of Munich. The branches taught are such as are usually required in Schools of
Commerce for Young Men, and are designed to fit young women to judge of
the quality of goods, effect sales, keep accounts for others, and for independent
business for themselves, if they should have the talent and opportunity.
Graduates of this school are already in responisible situations as book-keepers
and managers of business for themselves and others.
The success of the school has led to the establishment of similar institutions
in other commercial cities of Germany.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK.
INTRODUCTION.
The Duchy of Brunswick, on an area of 1,526 square miles, com-
prised in two portions widely separated, had in 1861, 282,400 inhab-
itants.
Tiie governmental supervision of public schools belongs to a divis-
ion in the department of the Interior, in which the consistory of the
Lutheran church is largely represented. The system* and statistics
of public schools and education in 1867, were as follows,:
1. Elementary Schools : 379 parish schools in rural districts, with
406 teachers and 33,700 pupils ; 41 village and city public schools,
with 255 teachers and 12,000 pupils.
2. Secondary Schools : 5 Classical Gymnasium, (including 1 real
school and 1 progymnasium,) with 67 teachers, 871 pupils, besides
21 latin classes in other schools.
3. Superior School: Collegium Carolinum, with a classical, tech-
nical, and commercial department, with 25 professors and 180 pupils,
including the technical division, which has an independent course.
4. Special and Professional Schools : The technical department of
the Collegium Carolinum with eight special schools ; 1 caipenters
school ; 1 agricultural school ; 3 secondary and every-trade schools ;
1 theological seminary; 2 normal schools for common school teachers;
5 young ladies' seminaries ; 1 institute for deaf mutes ; 1 school for
the blind; 5 orphan asylums; 2 rescue and reform schools ; 5 infant
gardens and schools ; 3 parish schools for Catholic children ; 1 Jewish
institution with an endowment of $100,000.
TECHNICAL COLLEGE AT BRUNSWICK.t «
The Collegium Carolinum, in the city of Brunswick, prepares
young men by a scientific and technical education, for the special
careers of — mechanicians, civil engineers, architects, metallurgists
for mining and salt works, manufacturing or dispensing chemists,
forest engineers, agriculturists, olTicers for railways and roads, and
surveyors.
•For an account of the system of Public Instruction in Duchy of Brunswick, see Special Re-
port on National K.lucation, I'art I, Gfrwan SlittfS
tThc Jctails of the Technical Collcjre are taken from the report of the French Commission,
anU the Programmes of the Institution.
;^38 SPECIAL'INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK.
From tlie comprehensive curriculum, each pupil chooses the sub-
jects required for his future destination. But when the pupil has
entered his name for a particular line of studies, and he wishes to
obtain Irom the College a certificate of proficiency, he is obliged to
follow all the courses taught in that technical branch.
Besides these special studies there are college courses of litera-
ture, living languages, history, general and political geography, sta-
tistics, political economy, which the pupils are encouraged to follow
as useful adjuncts to the scientific teaching.
The duration of the complete studies of the nine technical divis-
ions is fixed as follows :
1. Construction of machines, .... 3 years.
2. Civil cngineerinjj, construction and architecture, - - 4 "
3. Metal works and salt mines, - - - - 3 "
4. Maiiutacturing chemistry, - - - - - 3 "
5. Dispensing chemistry, - - - - - 1 "
6. Forest economy, - - - - - - 2 "
7. Agricultural economy, - - - - - 2 "
8. Service of railways and posts, - - - - 1 "
9. Government survey, - - - . - ' - 2 "
The teaching elementary mathematics, experimental physics, gen-
eral chemistry, the rudiments of the natural sciences and of free-
hand draAving, is coiumon to all the divisions. Proof of sufficient
preparatory instruction is required for admission to each division.
At the end of every year's studies, the Director and professors
decide as to the passing of the pupils to the upper class of their
division. Those whose proficiency is doubtful have to undergo, on
their return after the vacation, a special examination, after which the
decision is given. A pupil who has followed the complete courses
of his division receives on leaving a certificate of proficiency.
Besides the pupils regularly matriculated for the technical divisions,
free students ai'e admitted to certain courses, as well as to the lessons
in drawing, painting, and sculpture ; young men are at all times
admitted to the class-rooms and studies.
Numerous ahd well arranged collections and a good library are
placed at the disposal of the professors and the use of pupils.
The following tables show the number of hours alloted weekly to
each branch of instruction for the special divisions for a half-year.
The pupils Avho do not follow the plan of studies indicated for any
special branch, do not receive the certificate relating thereto.
First Technical Division. — Mechanicians, Constructors, ^c.
In order to shorten the length of the studies, the pupils begin to
SPPJCIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 139
attend the special courses before their instruction in the higlier
matliematics is completely terminated. The courses of construction
of machines are to follow simultaneously and in connexion with those
of mechanics, the study of machines, or projects, and exercises of
constiuction.
Hours per week
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, .-.-.. 5
CJcoinetry nml tri<i:onometry, - - - - - - 5
Kiio\vli.'ili;c of instruments, ...... 2
ExiK'iimontnl jihysies, - - - - - - -5
In(>rj>anie ehenii.stry, -------5
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - —
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical ti-igonometry, - - - - - 5
E(iii;itions, ........ 2
Analytical geometry, - - - - - - .5
Practical geometry*, ....... 5
Experimental chemistry, second course, - - - - 5
Drawing of plans*, -.....- —
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - —
Second Year. — 3d Term.
DiflFi'rcntial calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5
Descriptive geometry, 1st course, - - - - - 4
Mineralogy, -----.-.5
Technical chemistry, 1st course, ----- 5
Drawing of machines, - - - - - - - —
4tii Term.
Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - 5
Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - .... 4
Geology, --..-....5
Mechanics, 1st course, ...... 4
Elements of building construction, - - - - - 4
Drawing of machines, ...... —
Second Technical Division. — Construction of Buildings.
The divisions for the construction of buildings, for civil engineer-
ing, and for architecture have nearly all the preparatory studies in
common ; they have also several points in common with the special
studies. So, when the pupils have decided for one or other of the
eight subdivisions, it is only in the exercises of drawing, projects and
the applications relating thereto, that their teaching diiFers from that
of the other two subdivisions.
Hours per week.
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5
Cicometry and trigonometry, ..... -. 5
Knowledge of instruments, - - - - - - 2
•These courses are not compulsory ; but the pupils are earnestly recommendecl to follow
punctually the courses comprised in their studies, and not to neglect those which tend to tlio
general culture of the mind.
140
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK.
Experimental pliysies, 1st course,
Iiiorf^aiiic cheiiiistry,
Free-hand thMwin"-,
Hours per week.
5
- 5
2d Term.
Stereometry ami spherical trigonometry,
Theory of equations, - - . -
Analytical jjjeometry, ....
Practical j^'-eometry, . - . . ,
Experimental jjhjsics, ....
Drawing of jjlans, ....
Free-hand drawing, ....
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Differential calculus, 1st course, - - .
Descriptive geometry, 1st course.
Land surveying*, ....
Technical chemistry, - - - . ,
Mineralogy, .....
History of architecture, 1st course,
Drawing of ornaments, ....
4th Terji.
Differential calculus, 2d course.
Descriptive geometry, 2d course,
Higher land survej-ing*, ....
Geology, ......
Mechanics, 1st course, ....
Elements of l)uilding construction, 1st course,
Drawing of ornaments, ....
Arcliitectural drawing, . . . ,
Third Year. — 5th Term.
Differential calculus, 3d course, ...
Descriptive geometry, 3d course,
Technical physics, 1st course, ...
Mechanics, 2d course, - - -
Ek'inents of building construction, 2d course,
Architectui'al drawing and construction.
- 5
2
- 5
5
- 5
- — i
5
4
2
.5
5
2
.5
4
3
5
4
I
2
4
2
5
4
6tii Term.
Technical ph^'sics, 2d course.
Mathematical physics, 2d course,
Mechanics, 3d course, ...
Elements of building construction, 3d course,
History of architecture, 2d course.
Building materials, ....
Architectual drawing and construction, -
2
2
4
4
4
2
Fourth Year. — 7th Term.
Analytical mechanics,
Mechanics of liuilding.
Roads and railways.
Building of Bridges,
Civil law, -
Drawing of buildings, â–
Architectural projects,
Landscape tlrawing,
4
2
4
4
3
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 141
Hours per week.
8x11 Term.
Ilydraulic constructions, ----...4
Study of inacliincs, -----..4
Law relating to the erection of buildings, - - - . -2
Drawing of constructions, -----.
Arciiitectural projects, - - - - . . . —
Landscape drawing, ---.... —
Third Technical Division — Salt Mines and Metallurgical Works.
These two subdivisions require the same preparatory studies.
For the salt-mines a sound knowledge of geology and fossils is re-
quired, and for metallurgical works great proficiency in chemistry
and mineralogy.
Hours per week
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - . .5
Geometry and irigunometry, --.... 5
Knowledge of instruments*, - - - - - -2
Experimental physics, 1st course, ..... 5
Inorganic chemistry, - - • . . . -5
Fre^i-hand drawing, ....... —
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, . - - . .5
Theory and equations, -----.. 2
Analytical geometry, . . - . - . .5
Practieal geometry*, --.....5
Experimental physics, 2d course, . - . . .5
Drawing of plans*, -----..
Free-hand drawing, . - . - . . .
Second Year. — 3d Term.
DifFerential calculus, 1st course, - - . . . .5
Descriptive geometry, 1st course, ..... 4
Technical physics, 1st course, . . . . . .2
Chemical jihysics, ....... 2
Mineralogy, - - - . . . . -5
Drawing of m.ichines, --....
Manipulations in the laboratory, . - - .
4th Term.
Differential calculus, 2d course, - . • • . - 5
Descriptive geometry, 2d course, . • - • . 4
Technical physics, 2d course, . - - - . -2
Geology, - - - . ... . . 5
Mechanics, 1st course, . . . . . . -4
Elements of construction, --.-.. 4
Drawing of macliines and constructions ; manipulations, . .
Third Year. — 5th Term.
Mechanics, 2d course, - - . - . . .5
Mineralogical exercises, ...... 2
Elements of construction, 2d course, - . . . -A
Projects of metallurgical works, ..... —
Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - • . . —
6th Term.
Mechanics, 3d course, - . - • - . 4 or 5
Metallurgy, . • 2 or 3
142 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK.
Hours per week.
Geological exercises, ------- 2
Element? of construction, 3(1 coiirse, - - - - - 4
Projects of metallurgical works, - - - - - —
Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - - - - —
Fourth Technical Division. — Technical Chemistry.
Besides a profound acquaintance with chemistry, the pupils of this
division must know something about the construction of machines and
buildings. An acquaintance witli descriptive geometry is consequent-
ly necessary for them.
In the third year they are almost exclusively occupied with manip-
ulations in tiie laboratory.
Ilours per week.
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algehra, ----..-5
Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5
Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - "5
Inorganic chemistry, -----.-5
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - —
2d Term.
Stereometry and trigonometry ; physics, - - - - - 5
Experimental physics, 2d course, ----- 5
Organic chemistry, - - - - - - -5'
Botany, ..-.-...5
Eree-hand drawing, - - - - - -- —
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Decriptive geometry, 1 st course, - - - - - -4
Chemical physics, ------- 2
Technical chemistry, 1st conrse, - - • - - - 5
Technical physics, 1 st course, . - ... 2
Mineralogy, - - -- - - - -5
Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations, - - —
4th Term.
Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - - - - 4
Technical chemistry, 2d course, ----- 5
Technical physics, 2d course, - - - - - - 3
Geology, .....-.- 5
Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations, - - - —
Third Year. — 5th Term.
Elements of machinery, - - - - - - -4
Statistics, - . . . .... 3
Projects of manufactories and working in the laboratory, - - —
6th Term.
Political economy, - - - . - - -3
Projects of manufactories and working in the laboratory, - - —
Fifth Technical Division. — Pharmaceutical Cliemists.
The pharmaceutical studies must have been preceded by a practical
apprenticeship.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 143
Hours per wi ck.
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, ------- 5
Gcoiiutn- jtiiil trij;:ouoiuetry, ------ 5
KxjK'riiiK'iital ]iln"sics, 1st course, - - - - - 5
luort^auic chemistry, ------- 5
IVIiuiilHilutioii in tlie laboratory, - - - - - - —
2d Term.
Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - • - 5
( )ruanic chemistry, ..---.-5
I'utaiiy, -..-..---5
riiannacy, -.....--5
C'liciiiical jurisprudence, - - - - - - 2
Miiuipulatiou in the laboratory, .... - —
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Mineralogy, ........5
Zoology, .....-.-5
Pharniarognosy, -...----4
Chemical physics, ..-.-.-2
Manipulation in the laboratory, - - - - - - —
Sixth Technical Division. — Forest Economy.
The j^lan of studies here separates the special from the prepara-
tory studies. The pupils in the forest service of the country are
advised to follow the first year of this division immediately on leav-
ing the primary or other elementary schools, and then to have a
year's practical apprenticeship in the forests, before they come to fol-
low the special course of the second year.
Hours per week.
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5
Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5
Experimental physics, 1st course, - • - - - .5
Inorganic chemistry, .-----.5
Zoology, --...-.--5
Mineralogy, - - - - - - - - 5
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - 5
Practical geometry, --...-.5
Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - - - 5
Organic chemistry, -.---..5
Botany, - - - - - -• - -5
Geology, ........ 5
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Mathematical exercises, -- - - - - 2 to 4
Climatology and knowledge of soils, ----- 2
Physiology of forest plants, - - - - - - 4
Forest botany and culture of forests, - - . - 6
Valuations of forests, -.---..3
Forest history and statistics, ------ 2
Civil Law, ---..-.-.3
4th Term.
Mathematical exercises, - • - - - - 2 to 4
Organization of labor, .-...- 4
lU
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK.
Protection of forests. — Forest insects,
I'orest economy and police,
Utilization of forests.
Elements of the chase.
Forest laws, . . -
Hours per week
- 4
4
- 3
2
- 2
Seventh Technical Division. — Rural Economy.
The pupils are advised to separate their studies in the same man-
ner as in the preceding division.
First Year — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, . - - -
Geometry and trigonometry, - . - .
Experimtntal physics, 1st course,
Inorganic chemistry, - - . - .
Zoology, ......
Mineralogy, .... -
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, -
Practical geometry, . - - .
Experimental physics, 2d course,
Organic chemistry, ....
Botany, .--.--
Geology, ......
Drawing of plans, ....
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Agricultural economy, . - - .
Anatomy of domestic animals,
l{earing of cattle, ....
Rearing of horses, . . . -
Technical chemistry, . - . -
General knowledge of machines*.
Agricultural book-keeping, ...
4th Term.
Theory of agriculture proper, ...
Culture of plants, . . . -
Diseases of domestic animals, ...
Elements of surgery and medicine.
Valuation of farm property, ...
Elements of agricuUural building construction.
Manipulations in the laboratory.
Third Tear.— 5th Term.
Differential calculus, 3d cour.se.
Descriptive geometry, 3d course.
Technical jjhysics*, ....
Mechanics, 2d course, ...
Constr action of machines, 1st course.
Elements of building construction, 2d course.
Construction of machines (exercises,)
6th Term.
Technical physics, 2d course.
Mathematical physics, -
Mechanics, 3d course.
Hours per week.
- 5
5
- 5
5 â–
- 5
5
2
4
2
5
2
4
2
2
4
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK.
145
Construction of machines, 2d course,
Study of machines, 2d course ,
Klenicnts of building construction, 3d course.
Construction of machines (exercises,)
Hours per week.
2
- 4
4
4
2
2
4
4
Fourth Year. — 7th Teem.
Analytical mechanics*, . - . - -
Mechanics of building, .....
Construction of machines, 3d course, ...
Study of machines, -..-.-
Civil engineering*, .....
Construction of machines (exercises), .... —
Eighth Technical Division. — Raihcays and Roads.
The knowledge necessary for admission into this division are ele-
mentary mathematics, geography, statistics, the history of modern
languages and literature.
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, . - - -
Geometry and trigonometry, ...
Experimental physics, ....
Geography and statistics, ...
French language, - . . - -
English language, ....
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, -
Political economy, - - -
History, .....
German literature, ....
French language and literature, ...
English language and literature.
Second Year — 3d Term.
Mathematical exercises*, - -
Technical pln-sics, ....
History, ......
German literature, ....
French language and literature, . - -
English language and literature,
Civil law, ..-.--
Hours per week.
5
3
5
3
3
8
2 to 4
2
- 2
2
2
2
- 2
Ninth Technical Division. — Officers of the Government Survet/.
The young men who intend to enter this service must follow a
course of two years composed nearly as follows : '
First Year. — 1st Term.
Arithmetic and algebra, .....
Geometry and trigonometry, - - -
Matheniatical exercises, . - . . -
Knowledge of instruments, .....
Experimental physics, .....
2d Term.
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - .
Theory of equations, .--..-
10
Hours per
week
.
5
•
5
4 to fi
.
2
-
5
5
.
2
\
246 spe:ial instkuction in Brunswick.
Hours per week.
Analytical geometry, -------5
l'r;irtifal p-eoinetry, .--.-- -5
Mathematical exercises, - - - - - - -4
Kxperimental physic, ...--- 5
Drawing- of plans, - - - - - - - —
Second Year. — 3d Term.
Differential calcnlns, 1st course, - - - - - - 5
Descriptive geometry, 1st course, . ... - 4
Spherical astronomy, - - - - - - -3
]\Iatheniatical exercises, - - - - - -2 to 4
Technical ]ihysics, --------2
Drawing of plans, - - - - -.- - —
4th Term.
Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - - 5
Descriptive geometry, - - - - . â– . . - 4
Higher land surveying, .....--3
Geology, ....---.5
Management. — The direction is entrusted to a committee of three
members, the oldest of whom is chairman. This committee is under
the immediate control of the Minister of State. The college or
council of professors is consulted with regard to the general interest,
or for any change of the existing arrangements. It comprises all
the principal professors, and is convoked by the chainnan, or at the
instance of one of the members of the managing committee. The
conference of the professors is composed of all the professors and
tutors. It is convoked to discuss the business of the school.
School Fees. — The young men matriculated as regular pupils pay
18 thalers for the half-yearly term, and if they take part in the man-
ipulations an additional sum of 6 thalers. They also give the labor-
atory attendant 20 gros.
Tlie young men who do not matriculate for the six months' terra
pay three thalers for a course of three hours a week, six thalers for
one of five hours; the maximum paid is 18 thalers, whatever num-
ber of courses may be followed. For the laboratory, these pupils
pay 10 thalers, and to the attendant 20 gros.
For daily participation in the lessons in arts, from eight in the
morning till two in the afternoon, the fee is three thalers per quarter,
and half that sum for three days a week.
The matriculation fee is two thalers, with 20 gros. to the apparitor
and 10 srros. for the admission card.
Discipline- -Though all the pupils live outside the college, disci-
pline is maintained in-doors and in the classes by the professors, each
for his own course, and by the managing committee for general order
and conduct out of college.
The Polytechnic Institution of Brunswick has no less than twenty-
five professors for the different branches of instruction there given.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BUUNSWICK. • I47
builders' school at nOLZMINDEN.
In the small town of Ilolzminden, there i.s an establishment for
special histiuction, which, by a remarkable exception to the general
rule in Germany, receives boarders. It is devoIeJ to the class of
artisans designated in France under the general term of the build-
ing trade ; masons, stone-cutters, carpenters, joiners, smiths, slaters,
glaziers, painters, cabinet makers, &c.
The instruction is chiefly given during the winter half year, when
work is generally suspended ; but it is continued during the fine
season als^o for those pupil:; who are di^^posod to attend. To be ad-
mitted, a young man must have already entered one of the trades
connected with buikling, and must supply the necessary information
as to his age, his parents, his residence, the master for whom ho has
worked, and as to his mo: al character ; he must also submit to a
medical examination with regard to his health. During their stay
at the school, the pupils wear a uniform, which facilitates discipline.
On entering they must bring linen, a few other articles, and a case
of mathematical instruments.
The establishment supplies during the usual term of residence,
which is twenty weeks for the winter half-year:
Lodging and board for the sum of - - - 27 thalers.
Teaching, firing, lighting, necessaries for writing and
drawing, the uniform, medical attendance and wash- *
ing, for 45 thalers.
Total 72 thalers.
Thus, during this period of one hundred and forty days, a young
man can be boarded, lodged, taught, and supplied with every neces-
sary for less than two francs per day.
The pupils are divided according to their proficiency, into three
classes. In the two lower classes, the pupils are improved in ordin-
ary and commercial arithmetic, writing, and composition. At tlie
same time in all the classes they are taught free hand drawing, details
of construction, of ornament, of line-drawings relative to their different
trades, the objects and models being chosen according to the capaci-
ties of the pupils.
The discipline is nearly the same as in a college. They rise at six
in the morning, wash themselves and perform other necessary duties
tiU half-past eight, and the studies continue till half-past nine in the
evening, except the intervals for meals and recreation. They go to
148 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BBUNSWICK.
bed at ten. The school can accommodate five hundred and fifty
pupils.
At the close of each complete period of instruction, the pupils who
are found deserving, and have attended long enough, receive a cer-
tificate stating their degree of proficiency in the studies bearing on
their profession. The pupils who have not completed their studies
receive a certificate of their conduct and application during the time
passed at the school. This certificate must be countersigned by their
parents or masters when they return for the next half yejir.
The general curriculum of the school comprises calligraphy, orthog-
raphy, composition, ordinary and commercial arithmetic, the elements
of algebra, book-keeping, elementary geometry, descriptive geometry,
projections, stereometry, elementary and technical physics, the detai4s
of the construction of machines and buildings ; joining of stone, wood,
and iron ; technical chemistry, the knowledge of building materials,
drawing up of estimates, laws affecting buildings, free-hand drawing,
architectural drawing, studies of forms and orders, drawing of ma-
chines, drawing up of projects, modeling. The pupils are expected
during the summer half-year, to visit works in course of execution;
and write reports of their excursions.
.5PECIAL INSTRUCTION IN THE FREE CITIES OF GERMANY.
I. HAMBURG.
The small republic of Hamburg had, in 1869, a population of
315,000, of which there are in the city and its suburbs 225,000, and
in the outlying districts, 90,000.
Besides being a great commercial emporium, and the centre of a
very extensive business in marine insurance, it has important branches
of home industry ; shipbuilding on a large scale, with sail-cloth, ropes,
sugar refining, distilling and dyeing, manufacture of cigars, &c.
Tlie total expenditure for educational purposes amounted, in
1869, to about 800,000 thalers, of which 109,302 were borne by the
State, to which last item is to be added 12,640 thalers for special
schools, and about 5,500 for the city library, botanic garden, and
similar establishments.
The educational institutions of Hamburg number 437, with 2,521
instructors and 39,098 pupils, and are, in the official report, divided
into the following classes :
(1.) Public Schools. City and Parish schools 64, with 183 teach-
ers and 8,135 pupils. Schools for the poor {Armen Oschulen) 20,
with 142 teachers, and 5,079 pupils. Foundation schools {Stiflungs-
schulen) 2\, w'lih 131 teachers and 2,376 pupils. Church Schools
(Kirchensc?iulen) 27, with 130 teachers and 4,235 pupils.
(2.) Private Schools. Elementary schools 49, with 127 teachers
and 1,922 pupils. Middle schools 108, with 562 teachers and 8,212
pupils. Higher schools 89, with 1,046 teachers and 7,686 pupils.
There are, besides, 29 Kindergarten, of which 7 are in connection
with other schools, with 68 teachers and 973 children attending.
Also 30 private courses, with 132 instructors and 480 pupils.
Elementary Schools. — Nearly all the schools included in the above
official statement as Public Schools, may be classed as elementary.
Secondary Schools. — The gymnasium has eight classes, with 11
professors, and 7 assistants. The Model School has a Real depart-
ment, and Female High School.
Superior Education. — The Gymnasial Academy, founded in 1632,
is a connecting link between the classical schools and the University.
(149)
â– 1 - Q SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG.
Tliere are four professors ; one of classical philology, who is also city-
librarian ; one of chemistry, one of biblical philology and philosophy,
and one of natural history, who is also director of the botanic gar-
den. There is also a teacher of mathematics.
Professional and Special Schools. There are four special schools
for teachers, — one for gymnasiums and real schools, two for elementary
schools, one for males and one for females, and one for the Kindergar-
ten ; — one evening trade school for males with 29 teachers and 809
pupils; one trade school for females with 77 pupils ; one trade school
ill the suburb St. Paul with 4 teachers and 36 pii2:)ils ; a winter day
school for the building trades, with 106 pupils ; the evening school
of the educational union, with about 200 pupils ; one polytechnic
})reparatory school with 1 6 teachers and 38 pupils ; a navigation
school Avith 3 teachers and 85 pupils ; a private seamen's school Avith
5 teachers and 43 pupils.
PUBLIC TRADE SCHOOL AND SCHOOL FOR THE BUILDING TRADES.
The public trade, and the building school ( Gewerhe Sckule, und Schulefur Bau-
handicerl-er,) at Hamburg, have for their object to give to all men engaged in any-
trade, but especially apprentices and workmen connected with the building
trades, such instruction as shall be of use to them in their occupations. They
are held in the same rooms and under the same director.
The hours of instruction in the ti'ade school are two to sixteen weekly, in the
evening, and the branches are German with business writings in German, book-
keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, free hand drawing, and drawing
with the compass, drawings as applied to the trades of building, ship-building,
metal working, and those trades in which some knowledge of art is required,
modeling and elementary instruction in drawing for boys.
The hours for instruction in the building trade schools are fifty -four, weekly,
during the winter, and three winters are required to finish the course. The num-
ber of pupils in the trade school is (1868) 809, in the building school 106.
The number of scholars (1868) is, in the trade school about 500 in winter, and
600 in summer; in the architectural school, held only in the winter, 106.
The director is paid about 1,500 thalersper annum; the teachers (28 in all)
thirty thalers per week during the course. Tuition in trade school, 2 to 4
thalcrs the course ; in the building schools, 30 th.alers the half year.
We add a brief notice of the common method of teachinfr drawino- :
Free drawing without instruments begins with drawing from wooden models,
according to Heimerdinger's method, inVhich simple objects, such as tools used
by joiners, engineers, &c., are included; attention being paid to the vocation of
the pupil in the choice of the models. Ornamental drawing from plaster casts, in
outline, and in respect to shading, then follows Those pupils who A^-otQ them-
selves to building or ornamental trades, study the figure from casts and anatomy.
The metal workers draw freely, without instruments, portions of maeliincrv, &c.
The mode of execution (which is with lead pencil, pen, brush, and rubber,) is
always the most suitable to the branch of technical art to which the pnj)il intends
to devote himself. In close connection with this stjde of drawing, are the exer-
cises in ornamental design. Plants, flowers, and leaves are drawn from life, and
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN UAMBLUG 15X
these drawings are used in designing. By those oxcreises the pupils l)eeome very
soon indcpciulent of all help, (iooinetrieal drawings are executed t'rotii large
copies. Tiie teachers explain the perfect jiriiicii)les of construction, and jiay
special attention to exactness in execution. Wlicn the pu])il has accpiired conti-
dcncc in the use of his iustrunients, and has nia.-^tered tiie es.'sential principles,
the measuring and drawing of sonic simple and more complicated bodies follows.
This class is attended by metal-workers, joiners, builders, and carpenters, car-
riage-builders, ship-builders, &c. Tiie instruction is imparted by measuring and
drawing real objects, such as i)arts of niaehincry, tools, furniture, doors, windows,
carriages, &c., according to fixed rules and specified ]ilans.
Instruction in free-hand drawing can oidy be of use to the pupils when they
use real objects, an<l not drawings. By the method pursued lure, the hand
needs no particular jjreparation, becan.sc the nearest model oftci-s an examjilc by
which the hand and eye arc both alike exercised. No particular introduction to
the rules of perspective is needed, the scholar learns to see correctly, and his
attention is directed to the principles of perspective by the teacher.
From the specimens of free-hand drawing which were exhibited at Paris this
year, it would appear that no method can com])arc with that here refeiTcd to, for
proilucing a satisfactory result in a short time. The results of .several other
industrial schools are in this respect far behind those of the Hamburg school.
Drawing from specimens should be entirely avoided in industrial schools, in free-
» hand as well as in geometrical and technical drawing. In the instruction of
teachers, this method has bc/?n followed for a nnndier of years in Mr. Jesscn's
Polytechnic Institute, and also for the last two years in the Hamburg Trade
School, with most satisfactory results. The pupils of both show great applica-
tion and zeal, and make good progress. There arc no workshops connected
with the trade school.
PLAN OF A TRADE SCHOOL.
In 1862-63, the Hamburg Patriotic Society, established for the
promotion of art and industry, appointed a committee to visit dif-
ferent countries in which attention had been paid to institutions
of science and art, especially in reference to the advancement of
national industries, and report a plan for the re-organization of exist-
ins institutions of this kind in Hamburg, or the establishment of
new. The committee, after visiting the polytechnic and trade schools
of Bremen, Frankfort, Brunswick, Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, Munich,
and other cities, as the result of their inquiries, recommended the
following
Plan for a Trade School for Hamburg.
The aim of the Trade School shall he to give those employed in trades an
opportunity of acquiring such knowledge and attainments as they stand in need
of for an intelligent prosecution of their callings.
In order to carry out this object in a comprehensive manner, a complete trade
school should be divided into three quite different departments :
1. A Sumldi/ and emiintf srhool for .siich pupils as can take advantage of the
instruction during the few hours of the week which they have at liberty from
their other school time or from being otherwise engaged.
2. .1 icinier school of architecture for those engaged in the building trades, and
who will be able to give their time exclusively during the winter months to the
attainment of theoretical knowledge and skill.
3. A day trade school for young persons who have already left the primary
school, and are in a ])osition to be able to devote the whole of their time lor a
year to their industrial education before they are appenticcd to a trade.
Although the education of artisans is the end which these departments have
in view, and this can be attained, for the most part, >)y the same subjects of study,
yet there must be a difference between them aciording to the requirements of the
Bugils attending the different estahlishments ; and especially as to the time to
152
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG.
regards
the subjects taught, as also as
be given to separate subjects, as well as
regards the extent to which they are taught.
Whilst in all three departments the instnietion will be, as for as possible, the
same, especial regard will be paid, in all the subjects taught, to the profession
which the pupils may have already embraced, or for which they may be destined.
I. SUNDAY AND EVENING SCHOOL.
The subjects taught comprise :
1. Commercial composition and book-keeping, (orthography, the formation of
words and sentences, the composition of letters, invoices, agreements, &c.)
2. Mathematics, a. Arithmetic and algebra, (fractions, algebraic notation,
equations, 1st and 2d degree.) h. Geometry, (plane and solid geometry.)
3. Physics, (elements of physics in general, the science of heat, elements of
acoustics, optics, electricity, and magnetism.
4. Mechanics, (elementary mechanics, gravity, motion, friction, pressure of
water, water power, pressure of air, steam engines.)
5. Chemistry, (elements of inorganic chemistry, special important branches of
organic chemistry.)
6. Technology and knowledge of implements.
7. Political economy.
8. Free-hand drawing, (from simple objects, from ornamental objects, figures, ,
parts of machinery, &c.)
9. Geometric drawing, (drawing by compass,^ and geometric figures, (geomet-
rical constructions, measuring and drawing by rule, perspective.)
10. Special drawing with practice in design and construction, (in 5 classes,
for building, for manufactures, for workers in metal, for workers in wood, for
ship-building. )
11. Modeling in clay, wood, and Avax.
The course of stttdy is for three years, and the regular entrance of the pupils
takes place at Easter. Young persons arc received as pupils who have completed
their fourteenth year and possess a competent knowledge of the usual branches
of school education. To each pupil is prescribed by the superior wliich classes
he is to attend ; of course, as far as possible, in this matter the wishes of the
pupil or of his relations are taken into consideration.
The school is intended for 600 pupils, and the committee think they may with
certainty reckon upon this number, when it is considered that towns such as Ku-
remberg and Chemnitz have trade schools which are attended by 1,800 pupils.
The average number for each class is to be reckoned at 3.5 pupils.
The school is under the superintendence of a director, subordinate to him are
masters for the various subjects.
The number of lessons weekly, amounts, for each pupil, to from 6 to 8.
Weekly Plan of the Lessons.
LESSONS.
COURSE OP THE TEAR.
I.
II.
III.
1 . Commercial knowledge, &c., -
2. Mathematics, - - -
3. Physics,
4. Mechanics, - - - -
5. Chemistry, - - - -
6. Technology,
7. Political economy, -
8. Free-hand drawing,
9. Geometric drawing, &c., -
10. Special drawing, -
11. Modeling, . - . -
Classes. Hours.
4 of 2
4 of 2
4 of" 4
2 of 4
-Classes. Hours.
4" of' "2
2 of 2
'2" 'of "4
4 of 4
Classes. Hours.
1' ' of' i
'4 " of' 2
2 of 2
1 of 2
1 of 1
6 of 4
2 of 4
40 hours.
36 hours.
48 hours.
SPECIAL INSTUUCTIOX IN HAMBURG. 153
Tims, altojjcthcr 124 hours of study weekly.
To the Suuthiy and eveiiiug school there is also a preparatory class annexed,
for those who are not yet suiticiently ae(|uainted with the ordinary hranehes of
School knowledge. This preparatory class comprises the following suhjects :
1. German language.
2. Arithmetic.
3. ( I come try.
4. iVee-hand drawing.
And the arrangement of the classes is as follows :
1 . German language, - - - 2 classes of 2 hours.
2. Arithmetic, - - - - 2 " 2 "
3. Geometry, - - - . 2 " 2 "
4. Free-hand drawing, - . - 2 " 2 "
Total, - - - - 1 6 hours weekly.
The yearly expenditure for the Sunday and evening school, and for the pre-
paratory class, is estimated altogether at 25,000 marks current, according to the
following table :
Mks. ct.
For the director, including a salary for 10 hours lessons a week, - 4,000
Salary for 1.30 liours lessons a week at 100 mks. ct. each per year, 13,000
Kent of ])remises, - - - - - - ' - 5,000
School apparatus, --..... 500
Servants, ---.-... 20O
Warming, lighting, and cleansing, - - . . . 2,000
Total,- ...... 25,000
To meet this wc may reckon upon a yearly income of 18,000 marks current,
viz : 600 pupils, at 30 marks school fees per year, so that a yearly grant is requi-
site of 7,000 marks current.
II. TVINTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE.
The subjects taught are :
1 . Commercial composition and book-keeping.
2. Mathematics.
a. Arithmetic and algebra.
b. Geometry,
3. Physics.
4. Mechanics.
5. Frec-liand drawing.
6. Geometric drawing.
7. Applied geometry.
8. Architectural drawing, and plans of buildings.
9. The art of building, the knowledge of construction, and estimating the cost
of buildings.
10. Constructive modeling.
The course of study is for three years, and the instruction is given during the
five winter months, (November to']March,) in 48 weekly lessons ; besides these,
written exercises are prepared under the superintendence of a teacher in 12
weekly lessons.
Such persons arc accepted as pupils as arc engaged in construction, and wlio
are acquainted with the ordinary school knowledge ; those who are deficient in
the latter are referred to the Sunday and evening school.
The school is intended for 100 pupils ; it is placed under the superintendence
of the director of the trade school. There are masters who teach under and in
addition to him.
154
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG.
Plan of the Lessons
LESSONS.
COURSE OF THE TEAR.
I.
II.
III.
1 . Commercial knowledge, &c , -
2. Matheiiiaties :
Arithmetic and algebra, -
Geometry, - - - -
3. Physics, '-
4. Mechanics, - - . .
5. Free-hand drawing,
6. Geometric drawing,
7. A])plied geometry,
8. Drawing of buildings, -
9 Art of building, .ic., -
10. Constructive modeling, -
Hours.
2
6
6
2
8
8
16
Hours.
2
3
3
1
8
8
16
7
Hours.
2
4
6
20
7
8
48
48
43
Besides this, 13 hours arc set apart weekly for the preparation of written exer-
cises, under the sujierintendcnce of a teacher ibr all the classes in common, at
the same time, participation in this instruction is not obligatory tor those who
undertake this work at home. The yearly expenditure is estimated at 8,300
marks current, viz:
Mks. ct.
For superintendence, including salary for 6 lessons per week, - 1,000
Salary for 150 lessons per week, for 5 months, at 40 marks per lesson, 6,000
School a]iparatus, ..-----• 300
Servants, -------- liiQ
Premises, (those of the Sunday and evening schools,) - - ....
Warming, lighting, and cleansing, . - . . 359
Total,
8, .300
Against this we maj- reckon upon a yearly rcccijit of .5,000 marks current,
viz: 100 pupils at 50 marks, so that an annual addition of 3,300 marks cur-
rent will be necessary.
III. THE DAY TRADE SCHOOL.
The subjects taught comjirise :
1 . German and composition.
2. Mathematics.
a. Arithmetic and algebra. (Fractions, algebraic notation, equations of the
first and second degree, powers and roots, logarithms.)
6. Geometry. (Plane and solid geometry.)
c. Trigonometry. (Plane trigonometry.)
3. Physics. (Pln'sics in general, science of heat, principles of the remaining
branches.)
4. Chemistry. (Inorganic, and some sections of organic chemistry.)
5. Free-hand drawing.
6. Geometric draw-ing.
The course of lessons is for one year, and the regular entrance of pupils takes
place at Easter.
Such young persons arc accepted as pupils as have completed their fourteenth
year, and who sliow^ proof of the requisite capacity to comprehend the above-
named subjects.
The school is primarily intended for a class of 35 pujiils ; it is jilaccd under
the director of the trade school. A master instructs in the head jjranches
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN IIAMBURO. 155
asslstcfl 1iy teachers. The annual expenditure is estimated at 5,200 marks cur-
rent, viz :
S:il;iry of the head-master, who gives 24 lessons per week, 3,000 marks ; sahiry
for 18 lessons ]ier week, 1,800; premises (those of the Sunday scliool and even-
ing school) ; school ajjparatus, 200; servant, 50; warming, 150; total, 5,200.
Against this we may reckon upon an annual income of 3,500 marks, viz : 35
pupils at 100 marks, which will require an annual addition of 1,700 marks
current.
A trade educational estahlishnient, (comprising : a. A Sunday and evening
school ; h. A winter scliool of construction ; r. A day trade school ;) would, there-
fore, reiiuire an annual expenditure of 38,500 marks current ; deducting from this
the estimated annual reccijit of 20,500, there will remain to be asked an annual
grant of 12,000 marks current from the municipality.
IV. INDUSTRIAL MUSEUM.
As a second means towards the sujjport and promotion of the industry of the
citv, the committee recommend the establishment of an industrial iiniSPiim with
erfiihitioHS of products, after the model of those in other states, especially in Wur-
temburg, Englaiul, and France.
Although for years past the importance of education through the eyes has been
recognized as essential for the completion of instruction jjrojjer in industry, still
a long time elapsed before the example of France, who in 1783, founded the Con-
servatoire des Arts et Metiers, has been followed in otlier countries.
It was only in 1850 that an exhibition was opened at Stuttgart, under the
direction of the Royal Academy, for industry and connnerce, and it was first the
great universal exhil)ition in London, in the year 1851, which induced the Eng-
lish to found their riehly endowed Kensington Museum. Since that time, in
many places, efforts have been made to supply this defieiency, and at this time
we hear of even small towns which are occnj)ied in the establishment of indus-
trial museums. The special experience of Wurtemburg is most favorable as to
tiic utility of such an establishment.
In addition, the foundation in Hamburg of an industrial museum is to be
reconnnended on commercial considerations. Hamburg despatehes daily to the
interior, raw materials ; travelers from Hamburg range through the interior in
order to find out objects of export. Might not in many cases the manufacture
of these materials be carried on here? In the second place, might not many
Hamburg manufactures, which have already obtained a good reputation abroad,
attain still greater success if the manufacturers, profiting by the beautiful forms
brought uniler their eyes in a museum, were to employ these in their fabrics.
The aim of such an institution as the committee proposes, is to promote exist-
ing trades, to call forth new ones, and to increase the sale of manufactured goods.
This ann is to be reached by the exhii^ition of raw nuitcrials, of the jiroccss of
manufacture of improved implements, and of superior products of industry with
special regard to the formation of taste.
The arrangement of an industrial museum will be as follows :
1. A Technical Section. — This contains raw materials, manufactures in process,
implements, models, &c.
The collection of raw materials, and of manufoctures in the different stages
of their ] (reparation shoubl have in view an exact knowledge of their origin and
price as well as of their uses, and at the same time should point out new uses.
The collection of implements, utensils, and machinery should indicate means to
the artisan of working l)etter ami at less cost.
2. A Section for Art Maunfartitres. — This comprises casts, engravings, draw-
mgs, ])hotographs, &c., which ought to serve especially in the foiTnatiou and iin-
provement of taste in industrial drawing and design.
3 The Exhibition of Products. — This section contains especially good or useful
new products of industn,-. The artisan should here be made acquainted, from
seeing the fabric itself, with new combinations, beautiful forms, and new emjdoy-
ment of materials, &c., in order that he may perceive clearly the ])Ossibility of
a profitable new or improved manufaeture. The commercial interest will also
find here new fabrics, and be made acquainted with their origin. Every object
should have attached to it the price, and the name and residence of the hkiuu
tacturer.
J56 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG.
The whole establishment is under the superintendence of a director, who should
pay close attention to home and foreign industry, in order to develop the former
from the experience of the latter. To this end he must place himself in corres-
jtondence ^vith foreign exhibitions and industrial societies, &c., as also with the
consuls for Hamburg, and with the home manufacturers.
Entrance to the museum should, as far as possible, be facilitated, and there-
fore the committee think it desirable on four days in the week to give admittance
to all gratis, and on the other days to charge a moderate jn-ice of admission, in
order in this way to gain a contribution towards the yearly cost.
The use of the museum must always under regulations be open to the trades
schools, as they have a free claim to the use of the drawings and models therein
contained, as means of instruction.
The committee think it necessary to give a right to the manufacturers of the
city, not only to study the fabrics in the different sections in the locality of the
exhibition, but if they desire it, to take these home with them for closer study.
NAVIGATION SCHOOLS.
1. The Navigation School, opened in 1826, by the Chamber of Commerce, con-
tains two classes : one for lads who are pursuing the usual primary studies ; and
the other for seamen, who are qualifying themselves by a study of ai-ithmctic,
trigonometry, surveying, navigation, nautical astronomy, drawing, with special
reference to charts ; code of signals, theory of winds, tides, and currents, mer-
cantile laws and usages, practical use of instruments used at sea, book-keeping,
and correspondence. Steam and mechanics have been recently added.
No one can be employed as a master or under officer in a steam or sailing veS'
sel belonging to Hamburg, without a certificate of proficiency in the studies of
this school, which is managed by a committee of the Chamber of Commerce.
2. The Seamen's School, a private enterprise, receives as boarders 43 lads,
under 15 years of age, for a two years' course in navigation. It employs three
teachers, and charges 210 thalers a year for board and instruction.
MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
Music is a regular subject of instruction in the public schools of Hamburg,
but the method is left with each school and teacher. Mr. Eichberg, in his com-
munication to the Boston School Committee on musical instruction in the prin-
cipal cities of Germany, says :
Music is not taught unifomily in the Hamburg public schools, but the several
teachers instruct independently of system. Two music lessons of one hour each
are given to the pupils, either by their regular, or, in the higher schools, by an
appointed special teacher. In the Latin school, four part songs, motets and
chorals, are sung, the lower classes singing soprano and alto, while the higher
classes take the tenor and basso parts. Pupils are not allowed to sing during
the mutation of the voice, but have to be present at the music lessons. Great
care is taken to avoid choruses requiring great extent of vocal compass. I found
here Mr. Benedict Widmann's ditferent publications well spoken of. They are
named "Little Singing School, for the Three Divisions of Boys' and Girls'
Schools," and "Prefatory Instruction in Singing." These two little works,
(sixty-four and eighty-two pages respectively, in 12mo,) contain many novel
ideas on class teaching. The author strongly advocates musical instruction in
the primary schools, and maintains that the imitative faculties of the child render
the teaching of singing far easier at an early age than it would be when the vocul
organs have passed the period of their elastic softness.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. I57
n. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANIvFORT.
INTRODUCTION.
The Free City of Frankfort, (now a portion of the new province
of Nassau, in the kingdom of Prussia,) to which our school statistics
refer, on a territory of 43 square miles, had in 18GI a population
of 87,518, of which 70,000 belonged to tlie city proper. Besides its
vast banking interests, there are large mechanical industries, in which
beauty of form and nicety of execution are required, and which have
been secured by the appropriate training of artists and artisans.
The public educational establishments are administered by five co-
ordinate authorities, in which the city and the four religious denom-
inations arc represented, each by one commissioner. The expendi-
tures for teachers (salaries and pensions), buildings, apparatus, and
equipment generally by the city, are very liberal, but would be more
effective by a simpler administration. The schools, except the gym-
nasium and the special schools, are mainly denominational in their
management, and may be classified as follows :
I. Elementary Schools. — Eight country schools of a higher char-
acter, with 2,820 pupils ; 4 Protestant burgher schools, with 2,230
pupils; 4 Catholic schools, with 950 pupils ; 2 Jewish burgher schools,
with 940 pupils. Total elementary pupils, 6,940.
II. Secondary and Superior Schools. — One gymnasium, with 20
teachers, a ten years' course, and an average of 160 pupils; 4 real-
schools, with a Latin class in each, and about 900 pupils in all ; 3
higher burgher schools, (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish,) with a
total of 1,350 pupils, male and female; and 3 female high schools,
with 840 pupils, besides a large number (forty-four in 18 Go,) of pri-
vate institutions with elementary and secondary classes.
III. Special Schools and Institutions. — One noi*mal school, with
30 pupils ; 1 gallery of architecture, painting, and sculpture, with a
school of fine arts ; 1 high school of arts and trades, with a prepara-
tory school, and a total of 260 ])upils ; 1 school of commerce, with a
preparatory school, and public lectures; 1 institute for deaf mutes,
with 20 pupils ; 1 orphan home, with 46 inmates : 2 infant asylums,
with 60 inmates ; 1 school of gymnastics ; 1 house of refuge, with
24 inmates ; the Senkenberg museum of natural history ; public
library of 70,000 volumes, &c. In addition, we may mention the
Sunday and evening industrial school of the Society of Public Wel-
fare, which receives subventions from the government ; a ])rivate acad-
emy of commerce ; a permanent museum for the exhibition of ma-
chinery ; a school for medical gymnastics.
1^9 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT.
SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, AND ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.
The Sch»ol of Commerce at Frankfort includes : (1.) An improvement school
for clerks ; (2.) A regular commercial school; (.3.) An academy of conmicrce
and industry. The school, like that at Leipsic, belongs to the chamber of com-
merce, and its direction is confided to a committee chosen by it, -which com-
mittee renders a monthly report.
(1.) The Improvement School is open to pupils after they leave the primary
schools. They must undergo an examination before being admitted. If they
fail in this, they enter into a supplementary school annexed to the establishment,
where they ren\ain until they receive the necessary preparation, or fail in a second
examination, in which last case they are advised not to pursue their studies.
The course lasts two years. The term begins after Easter and continues until
Michaelmas ; there are two lessons daily, one in the morning, and one in the
afternoon, the hours varying according to the season and the press of business,
being fixed by the chamber of commerce.
The studies pursued are German, French, English, commercial coiTcspondcnce,
the arithmetic, geography, and history of commerce, book-keeping, and callig-
raphy. The school is well attended, and the teaching is successful.
( 2. ) The Commercial Division is open to all who have finished the burgher school,
or all but one of the classes of a gymnasium, or can pass <in examination show-
ing an equivalent grade of cultivation. By these means, pupils with a fair de-
gree of sccondar}^, general, and classical instruction are secured.
The course includes two classes of one semester each, and the branches taught
are as. follows, the hours being three hours in the morning and three in the after-
noon : German, French, English, the arithmetic, correspondence, geography, and
history of commerce, book-keeping, physics, chemistry, articles of commerce,
calligraphy, and political economy applied to German commerce.
The following branches are optional, given at extra hours, and for a varying
fee, according to special agreement : Italian, Spanish, and stenography.
(3.) The Acadcmjj for Commerce, open to all who desire to attend, on payment of a
fee, is a course of lectures or conferences, which may be considered an additional
semester to the last. The plan was boiTOwed from Faraday's lectures in the
Royal Institution in London. Its aim is to give a high commercial education to
the burgher class. It is administered by a committee of eight, chosen by ballot.
The course commences after Easter ; the lectures occupy two or three hours
in the morning aiid two or three in the afternoon. There are courses upon the
languages, ethics, commerce, and science. The course upon the languages ex-
plains the principles of comparative grammar, illustrating with English, French,
and German. It also includes remarks upon the literary styles of these tongues,
and extracts from the best authors are repeated. That upon ethics embraces re-
marks upon the principal systems of philosophy, ancient and modem, the pro-
gress of material and moral civilization, and the influence of literature, and the
growth of the arts upon social manners throughout the world. The course upon
commerce embraces commercial law and convention, political economy, particu-
larly in regard to the commerce of Germany, commercial geography and history,
and the universal history of the industrial arts. That on science treats of the
present condition of science, of the most recent discoveries in physics, and of
chemistry applied to the knowledge of merchandise. There is also an afternoon
course of Italian and Spanish, the fee, which varies according to the number of
courses, being from ten to thirty francs the semester.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. 158
TRADES' SCHOOLS.
The Frankfort Trades' Schools were founded by a society, formed in 1816,
and called the " Society for the Promotion of useful Arts and Allied Sciences."
They include : (1.) A Sunday school for artisans; (2.) An evening school;
(•3.) A higher trades' school. The first aims at the completion of elementary
education for such young persons as have already left the popular school. The
second ofters exclusive instruction in industrial technical drawing.
The Hkjhtr Trades' School imj)arts general and special instruction to those
about to enter a trade, and prepares those about to devote themselves to some
branch of technical industry for the special classes of higher institutions and the
polytechnic school. Each class is complete in itself, every pupil leaving when
fitted for his future business. For instance, those intended for the building trade
leave after the second class ; those who wish to devote themselves to architecture
or engineering go on through the first.
The branches taught are mathematics, (including algebra, geometry, trigo-
nometry, analytical and practical geometry, analysis,) natural philosophy, physics,
chemistry, mechanics and machinery, dcscrijjtive geometry, architectural and •
machine drawing, topographical and free-hand drawing, German, French, history,
literature, geography, and calligraphy.
Free-hand drawing is begun from copies, and goes on, as soon as possible, to
drawing from easts. Particular attention is paid to ornamental drawing. Only
the best pupils are allowed to undertake shading, and then only with the stump.
Linear drawing begins with the construction of geometrical figures by which the
pupil is practiced in the use of the rule, the compass, and the drawing pen, after
which comes drawing from simple implements, then from wooden models, and
finally the pupil is exercised in construction. i |
The fees for the evening school are six florins annually. There are none for the
Sunday school, but a moderate entrance money is charged. In the higher trades'
schools the fees vary from 30 to 50 florins, according to the class, of which there
are four.
These fees, together with the contributions of the society, pay the expenses
of the trades' schools. The cost of the Sunday and the evening schools is de-
frayed by the monthly fees, by contributions from the treasury of the society, and
by the interest from a special school fund which is in the trusteeship of the society,
and is increased by donations, by entrance fees to the Sunday school, and the
interest of that portion of the fund Avhich is less than 1,000 florins complete.
The administration of these schools is in the hands of a board of directors,
consisting of nine members chosen by the society, of which three go out annually.
They choose among themselves a director who presides, a vice-director, a secre-
tary, a treasurer, a manager, and an assistant librarian. The immediate direc-
tion of the school, the maintenance of the fixed })lan of studies, the care for the
health and conduct of the pupils, and the conduct of the masters, and the execu-
tion of the orders of the board, is in the hands of the liead-master, who has a
seat in the board. The director conducts all business matters, and represents the
school at the meetings of the society. The board has for its duties, to arrange
the plan of studies, and to name the books, to provide apparatus, to appoint
and dismiss teachers, to arrange prize competitions and holidays, and to manage
the funds. They must consult the teachers in forming the plan of studies, and
must attend the recitations from time to time.
160
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN LUBECK.
IV. LUBECK.
The free city and State of Lubeck, the nominal capital of the
Hanse towns, on several isolated portions of territory, had a total
population of 44,357, of which 31,898 were in tlie city and immediate
suburbs. It has considerable commercial activity, but no special
school calculated to prepare young men for it.
The public schools, although numerous enough for the poor, are inef-
ciently organized, and administered by conflicting authorities, civil, ec-
clesiastical, and corporate; the statistics may be classified as follows :
I. Elementary School. — 1 city school for 700 poor children ; 15
schools of educational societies with an aggregate of 4,800 pupils.
There are numerous private schools, both elementary and secondary,
which absorb the interest of the educated and wealthy families.
II. Secondary and Superior Schools. — 1 gymnasium, founded in
1163, and known as Catharineum, wiih. 128 classical scholars. Ill
real scholars, and a preparatory section with 82 scholars, — a total of
321 scholars, and 19 teachers; 3 endowed schools, with Latin classes,
and 450 pupils. The public library has upward of 50,000 volumes.
III. Special Schools. — There are several institutions for orphan
and neglected children ; and for special classes, but of these we have
no information except the
TRADE SCHOOL AT LUBECK.
The trade school, at Lubeck, dates from 1841, and owes its origin and support
to the Lubeck Society for the " Promotion of objects of Public Utility." Its plan
is to give such theoretical instruction to apprentices as may be useful to them in
their several trades, but it is open to all lads above the age of twelve who intend
to enter upon some mechanical occupation, or wish to fit themselves for the agri-
cultural and polytechnic schools, &c. They must be acquainted with the first
four rules of arithmetic and write readily from dictation. Most are, in reality,
farther advanced than this.
The present head teacher was educated at the Hanover Polytechnic, the others
in teachers' seminaries, after having attended the trade school. Their ability to
teach is ascertained by examinations and testimonials. They are engaged per-
manently, but may be dismissed at six months' notice.
No special mode of instruction is prescribed, it being thought that diiFerent
matters require different methods, and that the individual action of the teachers,
in this i-egard, ought not to be interfered with. The endeavor is to stimulate con-
tinuuUy the minds of the pupils, and cultivate independence of thought. All
subjects, however, are illustrated by experiments, for which purpose there is a
large and increasing stock of apparatus, models, plans, and chemical prepara-
tions.
The total number of pupils, in 1867, was 200. The expenses of the school are
discharged by the tuition fees, at the rate of about $5.00 per head, the annual
cost of the whole, not including the rent, being $1,250. Orphans are received
free of charge, and the fees for apprentices are sometimes discharged by the mas-
ters. The institution has proved itself to be useful, and is well patronized. _j
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BREMEN. Jgl
IV. BREMEN.
The free city of Bremen had m 1864 a population of 98,575, on a
territory of 106 square miles. Of the entire population, 31,358 live
without the city. The city has extensive commercial interests.
The superior administration of the schools is in the hands of the
Sc/tolarcliat, of four members of the senate, each school having a
municipal commission or a school delegation.
I. Public Primary Schools, a. Nine parish schools, with 2,939
pupils, in four classes, both sexes being mingled in the three lower.
Each is governed by the Bauherren or representatives of the com-
mune, presided over by the pastor, b. Nine free schools, with
2,062 pupils, all state institutions, school materials being supplied gra-
tuitously, c. Twenty-four private schools, with 2,118 pupils, opened
after special permission, and directed by females, who receive half
their rent from the state if their annual pay is under ] 2 thalers.
d. Two schools of the women's societies, or industrial schools, with
78 pupils, e. Asylums for children.
The masters of the parish schools receive from 175 to 500 thalers,
with lodging; of the free schools, 180 to 485 thalers. The first
masters receive 20 thalers additional every five years, until the whole
salary reaches 550. The masters of the free schools are pensioned
by the state ; of the parish schools, from a special fund. There is
also a fund formed by contributions of four thalers from each teacher,
which is for the widows and orphans.
f. Twenty-four rural schools, mostly overcrowded, with an insufH-
cient number of teachers. They receive an annual subvention of
8,740 thalers
II. Higher and Private Schools, a. Gymnasium, 11 teachers,
117 scholars, b. Preparatory school, 12 teachers, 278 scholars.
c. Six private schools, preparatory to gymnasium and burgher
schools, 366 scholai-s. d. Four private burgher and real schools,
555 scholars, e. Nine higher female schools, private institutions,
648 scholars. /. Fifteen elementary schools for children of the
wealthier classes, 627 pupils.
III. Special and Professional Schools, a. Commercial school
15 teachers, 227 scholars, b. Teachers' seminary, 30 pupils.
11
162 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN AUSTRIA.
SCHOOLS FOR THE MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE.
1. Military Marine.
There are in Austria several kinds of naval schools, as follows : One each
for sailor boys, fur marines, for quartermasters, for naval pupils of the first class,
for naval pupils of the second class, a theoretical school for naval cadets, and a
superior establishment for naval officers.
1. The school for sailor boys is intended to train, as petty officers for the na^y,
young men from the Slave and German provinces, admitted between 12 and 14
years of age into the naval service. The instruction lasts until the pupil has
attained the age for the conscription ; he is then entered as a sailor and becomes
a petty officer as soon as he gets sufficiently used to the sea. The highest post
he can attain is that of upper boatswain (Hochhootsmann.)
2. The schools for marines (Zeurjscorps) receive men dra-wn from different
corps of the army. They are trained as petty officers, and a part receive the
uniform. Those who are fit to become officers receive their promotion when they
leave their corps to enter the school.
3. The sciiool for naval cadets of the first class is kept on board a war vessel
selected for the purpose. The object is to prepare for the naval scnice youths
of 16 or 18 years of age, who, on entering the school have already received a
complete civil technical education. The teaching here consists, therefore, chiefly
of practical seamanship, and also of the application of previously acquired scien-
tific knowledge to navigation and nautical astronomy. The course occupies a
year ; on leaving, the pupil is received as a naval cadet. After passing two or
three years at sea these cadets enter the theoretical school for naval cadets.
4 The school for naval cadets of the second class is intended solely to prepare
them to become officers. In this school, beside the pupils placed there at the
cost of the State, there are others maintained by endowments, and also others
who pay for their instruction. The sons of officers and State functionaries are
entitled to enter this school at the public expense, and any Austrian subject who
has the necessary qualifications is admitted on payment. Foreigners are also
admissible as paying pupils, provided they ctm obtain authorization from their
own government to enter the Austrian service. To be admitted, candidates
must be between 12 and 14 years of age, of sound health without bodily defect,
and able to pass a previous examination. The instruction is given in accordance
with a determined plan, on board a vessel prepared expressly to receive the pupils.
After three years' instruction the pupils leave the school as naval cadets and are
sent to sea. At the end of two or three years' active service the cadets are ad-
mitted to the theoretical school. This school receives from 40 to 50 pupils. The
chaplain on board is charged with the religious instruction ; the other teaching
is given by professors from the hydrographic schools. The naval officers of the
school-ship give the instruction in practical seamanship.
?>. The theoretical school for naval cadets is on shore, and its course occupies
a year, after which the pupil undergoes the examination prescribed for his com-
mission as an officer. On leaving this theoretical school the pupils are still naval
cadets, but become officers when appointed to a ship.
6. The superior school for naval officers is intended for the further improve-
ment in mathematical and hydrographic studies, of such young men as have
sho^vn decided talent and taste for those sciences.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER.
INTRODUCTION.
The kingdom of Hanover, before its absorption into Prussia, on an
area of 14,84G English square miles, in 18G4 had 1,888,070 inhab-
itants. In the Hartz mountains extensive mining operations are
carried on, and the total' annual produce is A'alued at 5,523,885
thalers. Agriculture and the raising of cattle, form, however, the
most important sources of income. On the coast, in the rivers, and in
2,500 fish-ponds, a large amount of fish is caught every year. The
number of manufactories, mostly linen, was in 18G1, 7,141, employ-
ing 41,855 people. The trade is largely absorbed by Hamburg and
Bremen.
The total annual expenditure in 1864, amounted to 20,066,011
thalers, of which sum 184,000 thalers were expended on public in-
struction — 1 1 6,000 thalers on primary, and 68,000 thalers on second-
ary schools. The institutions of public instruction are admiuLstered
by the minister of education and ecclesijistical affairs, and embrace :
1. Primari) Instruction. There are 3,584 primary schools, with 281,348 schol-
ars, and 3,812 teacliers.
2. Sccondani Instruction. There are 8 real schools, with 965 scholars, and
39 teacJKTs ; il higher burjrher schools, with 2,181 scholars, and 112 tcjxchers;
17 gymnasia, with 5,192 scholars, and 205 teachers ; 3 progymnasia, with 272
scholars, and 23 teachers; 11 higher girls' schools, with 1,862 scholars, and
107 teachers ; making a total of 44 secondary schools, with 10,472 scholars, and
486 teachers.
3. Superior Instruction. The University at Gcittingen, with 4 faculties, had in
1868, 809 students, and 119 i)rofessors.
4. SiKc.iai and Professional Instruction. Eleven teachers' seminaries, with 254
pupils, viz: 1 (preparatory institute) at Hanover, with 32 pupils; 1 (head semi-
nary) at Hanover, with 24 pupils; 1 (after-training) at Hanover, with 12 pupils;
1 (city and county teachers) at Alfeld, with 50 pupils; 1 (l>oardiug seminary) at
Liineburg, with 32 pupils ; 1 at Aurich, with 26 pupils ; 1 at Stade, with 20
pupils; 1 at Neucnhaus, with 10 pupils; 1 (catholic) at Osnabriick, with 12
pupils ; 1 (pi'otestant) at Osnabriick, with 24 pupils ; 1 (catholic) at Hildcsheim,
with 12 pujiils. 3 navigation schools; 3 commercial academies; 1 agricultural
school; 1 polytechnic school, at Hanover ; I mining school ; 1 school of forestry ;
1 military academy; 3 theological seminaries; 1 asylum for the blind, at Hano-
ver, with 75 pupils; 1 institution for the deaf mutes, at Hildcsheim, with 120
pupils ; 1 do. at Emden, with 25 pupils ; 2 with normal schools, at Stade and
Osnabriick, with 48 pupils ; 1 for imbeciles; 3 rescue houses; 1 Pestalozzi home
and refuge ; 5 orphan houses ; 20 infant schools and gardens.
Since 1866 Hanover forms part of the kingdom of Prussia, constituting the
province of Hanover. "*" â– â– '"
(16")
164 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER.
SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.
Of the educational institutions of Hanover designed or used to prepare young
persons for their special career, and to meet the demands of the public service
or of particular industries or special classes, we select a few for brief notice.
IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES.
An apprentice can not become a member of his trade without the approba-
tion of a committee of the guild, over which presides a member of the municipal
councO. One of the conditions imposed by the committee is evidence of regu-
lar attendance on the eve'ning and the Sunday classes established at the expense
of the town, and under the supervision of a government board. These im-
provement classes include drawing and geometry, besides a review of the pri-
mary studies. Of these schools there were 37 iu 1863, with 170 teachers, 4,077
apprentices, and 3,763 journeymen.
artisans' SCHOOL AT HANOVER.
Besides the apprentice improvement schools, there exists in the capital a
trade or artisan school, with a preparatory class. In the latter, there is an
average attendance of 234 pupils, and in the school proper over 600 workmen
every year. Drawing constitutes the principal subject of instruction, and in
1864, out of 344 attending to it, 102 were classed as free-hand; 149 special, 07
geometrical and architectural ; and 26 from the cast.
workmen's societies' classes.
Connected with societies of workmen, which exist iu the chief towns, there
are classes (taught by paid professors) which in Hanover were attended in 18G4
by 814 members, of whom more than one-half were taught in different classes
of drawing, modeling, and wood-carving.
REAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HANOVER.
The real-school was originally established in 1835 for young men whose
parents intended them to follow a trade, but it was deemed best to exclude all
matters special and technical, and the municipality instituted an independent
course of commercial instruction, book-keeping, and kindred subjects, distrib-
uted through two years, of four terms of six months each, held four evenings
in the week. The merchants' guild selects the pupils who apply, and their mas-
ters are bound to give them the necessary time, and to enforce their regular
attendance.
BUILDING TRADE SCHOOL AT XIENBERG.
In Nienberg there is a special school for workmen in the building trades —
open in the winter from October 21 to the end of March, and divided into three
classes, in which sixty hours a week are devoted by practical masons, joiners,
and those pursuing other trades, mainly to technical studies.
Lowest Class. — Compositions in the German language, 8 hours per week ;
Arithmetic and algebra, 9 ; Plane geometry, calculation of areas, 7 ; Linear
drawing and descriptive geometry.— jointing roofs, framing, &c., 15; Elementa
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 1(55
of physics, 4; Architectural drawing, 5; Free-hand drawing, and ornament, 12
— a total of 60 hours for five months.
Second Class. — Syntax, punctuation, business letters in German, 4 liours ; Al-
gebra, 6 ; Plane and solid geometrj'. — Similitude, polygons, tlio circle, planes,
cubature, 4 hours per week ; Descriptive geometry. — tiaming of roofi<, vaults,
staircases, compound apparatus, parts of machines, sliadows, perspective, 8 ;
Technical physics. — forces, eft'ects, centre of gravity, simple machines, 4; Les-
sons on buildings for stone-cutters, masons, carpenters, slaters, with drawing of
plans, sections, elevations, orders, entablatures, details, 21; Lessons on huilding
materials, 3; Drawing of ornaments, from models, 6; Modeling in clay or
plaster, wood or stone, 4. Total, 60 hours per week.
First Class. — German language. — Written and oral compositions, 2 hours ;
Manufacturers' book-keeping, 2 ; Algebra, geometry, plane and solid, (rcinti-
tions and exercises,) 4; Practical geometry. — Surveying of land, road.s, parts of
towns, leveling, plotting, 4; Technical phj^sics. — Machines employed in build-
ing, resistance of materials, pressure of water, hoisting machines — Mechanics
connected with building, 6; Course on building. — Erection of houses. &c. —
Study of ground — Foundations — Establisliment of complete projects with esti-
mates — Design of building — Laws affecting buildings, 80 ; Drawinp: of orna-
ment, 6; Modeling in plaster and claj', stone and wood, 6 to 12. Total, 60 to
66 lessons per week.
This school, in 1863-64, had 14 professors and 195 pupils, of whom there
were 89 masons, 87 joiners, 2 tilers, 9 millwrights and fitters, 7 cabinet-makers,
1 locksmith.
The majority of the pupils were from 17 to 25 years of age; the youngest
was 15, and the eldest 37.
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT HANOVER.
The first impulse towards the erecting of this institution was given by the
old Industrial Club in Hanover, which urged upon the ministers of state (in
1830) the necessity of a technical school. The ministry entered into the ideo,
caused means to be furnished, and appointed the distinguished Karmarsch, still
at its head, to take immediate charge of the school, under the Royal Commis-
sioners of Technical Schools. The first term of the higher industrial school,
which name it took, commenced October 3d, 1831. In 1834 the hired buildings
proved insufficient, and a new building was begun for its accommodation and
completed in 1837, at an expense of $80,000. A careful choice of teachers,
watchful superintendence of the instruction, and a marked progress in the ex-
tension of the latter, made this school soon famous, and won confidence, espe-
cially in foreign lands. Next to Carlsruhe it has the greatest number of
foreigners. In 1847 it received the name of Polytechnic school, which it had
really been for a long time.
The aim of the school is in general the .same as that of other institutions of
the kind, viz., a preparation for technical State service in architecture, railway
building, and the making of machinery, as well as to give a scientific education
and special studies to those who wish to fit themselves for carrying out scien-
tific and industrial undertakings. The instruction is divided into a preparatory
course, and the school proper, which includes the higher special studies.
A comparison can not be instituted between this preparatory course and the
general mathematical classes of other schools, since differential and integral
calculus is not taught here. In like manner, the school proper is not, as else-
where, divided into special departments, but the whole course is given in single
subjects, more or less of which, according to circumstances, form the scientific
education of the pupils for any particular department. To prevent pupils from
1^0" SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN flXl^bVER.
taking an unsuitable course of study, certain acquirements are necessary for
entering each class, whereby, in an indirect way, a definite course is secured.
To meet the increasing demands for special instruction, additional studies
have from time to time been added to the printed announcements, and in these,
certain fixed courses are recommended to students for special technical depart-
menta
The chief subdivisions of the teaching are regulated with a view to giving
the instruction necessary: 1. For manufacturing chemists; 2. For agricul-
turists; 3. For surveyors ; 4. For mechanicians and constructors of machines;
5. For architects ; 6. For hydraulic, railway, and road engineers.
To be admitted as a pupil in the preparatory school, candidates must be six-
teen years of age, and seventeen for the upper school or for special divisions.
The instruction required for the preparatory school comprises the German lan-
guage and the habit of composition therein, the use of decimal fractions, the
rules of three and of proportions, the elements of algebra, plane geometry, and
general notions of geography and history. As for the special courses of the
superior school, candidates must be masters of the matters taught in the pre-
paratory school, of which we give the details below. However, the pupils who
intend to follow only the courses of natural history, are not obliged to undergo
an examination in mathematics. No examination is imposed on those who
mean to attend only the lessons on drawing and modeling.
Programme of the Preparatory School. — Elementary mathematics; algebra
as far as equations of the third and fourth degrees ; elements of geology and
botany; elements of mineralogy ; free-hand drawing; luiear drawing; elements
of descriptive geometry.
Programme of the Polytechnic School. — Pure mathematics, in two courses, as far
as the calculus of variations ; descriptive geometry ; practical geometry ; me-
chanics; higher mechanics, theoretical and applied; construction of machines;
study of machines ; study of prime movers and other machines ; building con-
struction, in tliree courses; roads and railways; bridges and hydraulic con-
structions ; geology, mineralogy, and physical geography ; pure physics ; applied
physics ; chemistry, theoretical and applied with manipulation ; manual labor,
including instruction in working in metals and in wood, spinning and weaving,
modeling, and the construction of small models.
To enable the pupils to select the courses which they may attend, and to pre-
clude numerous inquiries, the general regulations state that the preparatory
school comprises, in tlie course of a year, the following subjects : zoology, bot-
any, mineralogy, elementary mathematics, free-hand and linear drawing.
The order of the studies, after leaving the preparatory school and for special
branches, is shown by the following programme :
For Chemists. — First Tear. — Preparatory school.
Second Year. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, theoretical and applied
physics and mechanics.
Third Year. — Geology and physical geography, or instead, general knowledge
of Ujachines and applied chemistry.
Fourth Year. — Chemical manipulation.
For Agricultcrists. — First Year. — Preparatory school.
Second Year. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, physics, mechanics.
Tiiird Year. — General knowledge of machines, first course of building con-
struction, practical geometry and drawing of plans, or else chemical manipula-
tion, practical chemistrj\
For Surveyors. — First Year. — Preparatory school
Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; theoretical and appUed
physics ; descriptive geometry.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. jg^
Taird Tear. — Practical goometrj with drawing of plans. Geology and phy-
sical geography.
For Mechanicians and Machine-makers. — First Year. — Preparatory
school.
Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics; mechanics, technology,
descriptive geometry, theoretical physics.
Tfiird Year. — Knowledge of machines, construction of machines, first course
of construction, higher niechauica
Fourth Year. — Knowledge of special machines ; second course of higher
matliematics, pure clieniistry, applied physics.
For Architects. — First Year. — Preparatory school.
Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; technology, descriptive
geometry, mechanics, theoretical physics.
Third Year. — First course of construction and ornamentation, practical geom-
etry and drawing of plans, general knowledge of machines, modeling, drawing
from the cast.
FourUi Year. — Second course of construction and ornamentation, physical
geography, construction of roads and railways, modeling and drawing from the
cast.
Fifth Year. — Third course of construction and ornamentation, bridges and
hydraulic constructions, tlieorctical chemistry.
For Civil Engineers. — First Year. — Preparatory school.
Second Year. — First course of higlior mathematics ; technology, descriptive
geometrj', theoretical physics, and mechanics.
T/u'rd Year. — Second course of higher mathematics; first course of building
construction; practical geometry and drawing of plans, construction of ma-
chines.
Fourth Ytar. — Road and railways; second course of building construction ;
higher mechanics, physical geography, and applied physics.
Fifth Year. — Hydraulics and construction of bridges, third course of building
construction; special machines, and tlieorctical chemistry.
The French Commission submit the following observations on the above
courses :
The details which have been given show that the order of the tcacliing is so
regulated that, for certain important divisions, such as those of mechanicians
and architects, pupils may receive a very serviceable amount of technical in-
struction, with the aid of elementary mathematics, and enter upon the practice
of their professions without going through the whole course of studies. Such
an arrangement is very suitable for many joung men, and in no way injurious
to the soundness of their education.
Thus, to enable them to attend the first course of mechanics, the course of
construction of machines, those of hydraulics, prime movers, and of tlie prin-
cipal machme-tools, and for the drawing up of projects relative to these ma-
chines, the mechanical engineers do not require more than the elementary and
fundamental principles of geometry, algebra, trigonometrj-, and descriptive
geonietrj'. Tliere is no necessity for them to study the higher pure mathe-
matics, whicli, notwillistanding their utility, present considerable difHculties to
certain minds, and require no Utile time and effort. The same may be said of
the instruction given to architects; for, after attending the first two courses of
constructioti, the pupils may have acquired the knowledge necessary for ordi-
nary buildings.
Tliis gradation of instruction greatly diminishes the inconvenience, above
mentioned, of the high reading in the second course of pure mathematics.
Moreover, the table showing tlie distribution of the students among the diflerent
branches of learning, which we are about to give, justifies our observations ;
for it will thereby be seen that whilst 89 pupils are inscribed for elementary
matliematics, and 83 for the first course of higher mathematics, there are only
14 for the second course of the same studies. It is therefore more than prob-
able that a small proportion of the 83 pupils of the first course really profit by
those lessons.
168 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER.
The pupils were distributed among the different branches as follows :
Elementary mathematics, 89 Mineralogy, 57
„ ., .. IJstcourse, 83 Geology 40
Pure mathematics, | ^^ ^^^^^^ • j^ Theoretical physics 24
Mechanics, 93 Technical physics, 10
Higher mechanics, CO Theoreliciil chemistry, 50
Practical geometry 57 Technical chemistry, 27
Descriptive geometry 73 Practical chemistry, 29
c, 1 c u- t 1st course, 86 Technologv, 82
Study of machmes, J .,^, ^^^^^^; 3-, linear drawing, 79
Construction of machines, 65 Free-hand drawing %
1st course,. 79 Drawing from the round and reliefs, 10
Construction of buildings, â– v 2d course, . 45 RIodelinff, 5
imgs, <i
f »
3d course,. 27 French language, 11
History of the art of building, / „« English language, 21
Construction of roads and bridges, ( ' " ' History. 16
Hydraulic constructions, 30 Law and police of buildings, 20
ZoiJIogy and botany, 52
This table clearly shows what courses best suit the requirements of the class
of persons who attend institutions of this kind.
Tliey are iu the order of the preceding table : — Elementary mathematics ;
first course of pure matliematics (wliich might be simplified;) elementary me-
chanics (which might be extended;) practical geometry; descriptive geometry;
the study of machines, first course {which might be made more elementary;)
the construction of macliines ; building construction ; zoology and botany ;
theoretical chemistry ; technology ; linear drawing ; free-hand drawing.
It would seem therefore that attention ought to bo directed principally to
these dift'erent branches of learning, and every effort made to facilitate their
study by the adoption of the simplest methods. It seems clear that the teach-
ing of the sciences of a high order has a repellant efiect on the pupils. That
pliysics should be among the number of the studies least followed is remarkable
and much to be regretted. There are, perhap.s, particular causes for this, but,
in any case, that science ought to hold a higher rank in the programme and to
have greater facilities for experimenting.
The number of pupils for the last three years has averaged about 440, of
whom 380 were regular — the age ranges from eleven to twenty, a majority
being under sixteen years.
There are 21 regular professors, 3 tutors, and several special teachers.
The State pays all expenses over the receipts from tuition, (which amount to
about $6,500 a year,) and supplies the building and equipment.
Prof Koristka, in his account of the Higher Polytechnic Institutions of Ger-
many, speaks of this school:
The school at Hanover rightly enjoys great reputation in foreign lands. It
stands firm by its first organization, wliich followed closely that of Austria. It
is not divided into separate schools, but its whole course is given in single sub-
jects, which are, however, combined in such a way as to give most of the
advantages of special schools. Its experience is proof that success depends
as mucli on the excellence and cooperation of the teachers as on organization
and courses of study. All the teachers (twenty-four, of whom six liave the
title of professors and three of assistant-professor.s) constitute a board, which
meets once a month in council and decides on all general rules as to studies
aul discipline. All submit to tlie "directorj^," which is lodged in two persons
appointed bj^ the government — one, the principal, is responsible for tlie finances
and the collections, and the other, for the discipline. The general supervision
belongs to a royal commission, consisting of the two directors, and four other
members. This commission appoints the professors and must visit the class and
lecture-rooms, and report annually. Terms in the preparatory school, $24;
and in the Polytechnic tliere is a fee for each course, which varies according to
the length from $3 to $16.
SPECIAL LNSTRUCTION IN HESSE-CASSEL.
INTRODUCTION.
The Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, on an area of 4,430 Englisli
square miles, in 1864 had 745,0G3 inhabitants. It is chiefly an agri-
cultural and cattle-producing country ; factories are only to be found
in the larger towns, and these chiefly devoted to linen, and of late
years also to cotton fabrics. There are also some paper, glass, iron,
and other workshops, and 338 distilleries.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse-Cassel
in 1865, amounted to 4,897, G80 thalers, of which 90,330 thalers were
expended for general instruction. The amount of school-fees is
estimated at 60,000 thalers annually.
The mstitutions of j^iiblic instruction are administered by the
minister of the interior, and under him by the provincial and district
authorities, and include :
1. Primary or Common Schools ( Volksschulen). Of these there
were in 1865, about 1,300, of which 117 are burgher and city
schools, with about 126,000 scholars, and 1,163 teachers.
2. Secondary Schools. 2 Latin schools, with 89 scholars, and 5
teachers ; 2 progymnasia, with 128 scholars, and 13 teachers ; 6 gym-
nasia, with 1,333 scholars, and 92 teachers ; 10 real schools and higher
burgher schools, with 2,254 scholars, and 110 teachers; making a
total of 20 secondary schools, with 3,804 scholars, and 220 teachers.
3. Superior Schools. The University at Marburg, with four facul-
ties (theology, law, medicme, philosophy), had 50 professors, and
310 students.
4. Special and Professional Schools.
3 Teachers' seminaries.
1 Higher industrial school.
1 School of forestry.
1 School of agriculture.
A catholic seminary at Fulda.
A cadet school at Cassel.
An academy of arts at Cassel.
Afler the war of 1866, the Elector was deposed, and the whole
country annexed to Pru>sia, of which kingdom it now forms, together
with Nassau and Frankfort, the })rovince of Ilesse and Franhcn.
(169)
SPECIAL mSTRUCTION IN HESSE-DARMSTADT.
INTRODUCTION.
The Grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on an area of 3,240 Eng-
lish square miles, in 1864 had 816,902 inhabitants. Hesse-Darm-
stadt is chiefly an agricultural country ; on the Rhine the vine is
extensively cultivated, and the region of the Odenwald and the Wet-
terau are famous for excellent fruit.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse-Darm-
stadt in 1866, amounted to 9,372,962 florins, of which 44,463 florins
were extended for primary instruction, and 28,040 florins for second-
ary instruction.
The institutions of public instruction, administered by the minis-
ter of the interior, embrace :
1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 1,756, with 150,568
scholars, and 1,382 teachers.
2. Secondary Schools. 6 gymnasia, with 1,171 «cholars, and 81
teachers; 10 real schools, with 1,818 scholars, and 110 teachers; 3
higher burgher schools, with 646 scholars, and 29 teachers; making
a total of 19 secondary schools, with 3,635 scholars, and 220 teachers.
3. Superior Schools. The University at Giessen, with four facul-
ties (theology, law, medicine, and philosophy), had in 1868-9, 45
professors, and 326 students.
4. Special and Professional Schools,
2 Teachers' seminaries.
1 School of forestry.
1 Commercial academy.
1 Military academy.
2 Schools of agriculture.
1 School of veterinary surgery.
2 Polytechnic schools.
2 Deaf and dumb asylums.
1 Institution for the blind.
(170)
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MECKLENBURG.
I. MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN.
The Grand Duchy of Mecklcuburg-Schwerin, on an area of 4,834 English
square miles, in 1864, had 552,612 inhabitants, entirely agricultural, the rural
population bemg little removed from the condition of serfs. The trade in corn,
cattle, butter, &c., is chiefly carried on by the two ports of Wismar and Rostock.
The total annual expenditure in 1865 was 3,430,028 thalers, of which sum
about 30,000 was expended for public instruction.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister of
Education, who at the same time is Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs.
1. Primary Schools. — There are 1,334 elementary schools and 45 burgher-
schools. The exact number of scholars and teachers is not given officially, but
by estimation there were in 1864 about 69,000 pupils, under 1,517 teachers.
2. Secondary Schools. — There are 5 gymnasia, with 2,083 scholars and 91
teachers; and 8 real-schools and higher burgher-schools, with 1,429 scholars
and 02 teachers; making a total of 13 secondary schools, with 3,512 scholars
and 153 teachers.
3. Superior Schools. — There is 1 university at Rostock, with 4 faculties (the-
ology, law, medicine, and pliilosophy,) with 38 professors and 171 students.
4. Special and Professional Schools :
2 Teachers'" seminaries, one at Neukloster with 64 pupils, and a second
at Dobberan with 10 pupils.
1 Deaf and dumb institution at Ludwigslust, with 58 pupils.
1 Commercial academy.
1 Milit;iry adademy.
1 Scliool of agriculture.
3 Nautical schools (Wustrow, Rostock, and TVismar,) with an aggregate
of 200 pupils. That at Wustrow has a three years' course, and a
preparatory class.
1 School of veterinary surgery.
1 Polytechnic school.
40 Evening trade-schools, for apprentices and journeymen.
II. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on an area of 997 English square
miles, in 1861, had 99,060 inhabitants, who are mainly engaged in agriculture
as tenants.
There is only one "Minister of State," who manages all the affairs of the
Grand Duchy, including the public schools, viz. :
1. Primary Schools. — There are 231 primary schools. The number of schol-
ars and teachers can not be ascertained from official documents, but it is esti-
mated that there were in 1864 about 13,000 pupils, under 250 teachers.
2. Secondary Schools.-^TheTO are 3 gymnasia, with 814 scholars and 33
teachers; and 4 real and higher burgher-schools, with 1,162 scholars and 33
teachers, making a total of 7 secondary schools, with 1,976 scholars and 66
teachers.
3. Special and Professional Schools. — 1 Teachers' seminary at Mirow, with 16
pupils; 3 institutions for neglected children, with 65 pupils; 5 industrial
schools for girls (teach sewing, &c.,) with 95 pupils.
SPECIAL mSTRUCTION IN NASSAU.
INTRODUCTION.
The Duchy of Nassau, on an area of 1,802 English square miles,
in 1865 had 465,636 inhabitants. There are considerable iron, lead,
and copper, as also a few silver mines, employing about 10,000 men ;
but more than mining, agriculture employs a large proportion of the
population. The vine is cultivated on the banks of the Rhine, and
the wines raised in Nassau, (Rudesheimer, Johannisberger, Hock-
heimer, &c.,) are considered the best in Germany.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Nassau in
1862, amounted to 5,117,831 florins.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min-
ister of state, and embrace :
1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 716, with 1,059 teach-
ers, and 72,296 scholars.
2. Secondary Schools. There are 3 gymnasia, with 50 teachers,
and 711 scholars; 4 progymnasia, with 26 teachers, and 274 schol-
ars ; 13 real schools, with 109 teachers, and 1,345 scholars ; making
a total of 20 secondary schools, with 2,330 scholars, and 185 teachers.
3. Special and Professional Schools. Of these there are the
following :
2 Teachers' seminaries, 1 for catholic teachers (62), at Monta-
baur, and another at Usinglen, for protestant teachers (79).
2 Theoloixical seminaries.
1 Military school.
1 Commercial academy.
1 Agricultural school, at Geisberg, with 35 pupils.
27 Mechanical, or trade schools.
1 Institute for the deaf and dumb.
Since 1866, Nassau has formed part of the kingdom of Prussia, to-
gether with Hesse Cassel and Frankfort, constituting the province of
Ifesse and Franken.
(172)
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NASSAU. ji^o
SCHOOLS AND LABORS OF THE GEWEUBE-VEREIN.
One of the most important steps of this Society, has been the establishing in
various pasts of the Duchy, of what are called Gewerbe-schulen, or industrial
schools, consisting of —
Firstly, Evening classes, (Apend-schulen,) held in winter time for the purposo
of giving young Artizans and others an useful complement to their elementarj-
education, in such branches as commercial reckoning and correspondence, and
practical geometry.
Secondly, Sunday Classes, (Soiitag-schulen,) intended for departments of
study which are not so well taught in the evening as by daylight, and held on
Sundays for the benefit of young men, chiefly ai)prentices, whose occupations
would not allow them to attend conveniently during the week. They comprise
the various branches of drawing required for the industrial trades, and geometry
applied to the arts of design.
According to the annual Report, read at the General Meeting of the Geweibe-
Verein, on the 11th of May, 1853, by the able Secretary, Dr. Casselmann, the
number of Industrial Schools in activity in various parts of the Duchy, is at pres-
ent twenty-five, witli an aggregate number of about two thousand students.
A MoJeling School has also been established at Weisbaden, and is attended at
present by between thirty-five and forty students.
The Report gives 7419 florins, or about 618/. sterling, as the amount expen-
ded in the last financial year, for founding and maintaining the above schools,
whereof about two thousand florins were furnished by the Society, and four
thousand florins were covered by a government grant ; the remainder was sup-
plied by the localities.
To secure a proper degree of intelligence and practical skill in all
who pursde any trade, there is a legalized system of apprenticeship,
which Mr. Twining thus describes.
The would-be Artizan must be able to exhibit proof of having concluded his
attendance at school, (which as I have mentioned elsewhere, is obligatory from
the sixth to the fourteenth year,) by satisfactorily passing his final examination ;
he must also have passed his confirmation, whicli takes place about the same
time ; it is preceded for a considerable period, by strict religious instruction, and
is solemnized by both Protestants and Catholics in a very impressive manner.
If a lad is quite a dunce, and especially if he can not satisfactorily get through
his Catechism, he may be retained under . tuition another year ; or if his vicious
propensities are found incorrigible by ordinary means, he may be sent oft" to a dis-
ciplinarian school, called Rettuiigs-haus. One of these establishments was
founded in 1851, near the little town of Nassau, by the Countess von Giech, and
now contains about ten boys ; another has just been erected near Weisbaden by
a pious Evangelical Society.
If all is tolerably right, the lad receives in due form his educational certificate,
and he and his friends set about looking out for the right sort of sliop, and a
comfortable master ; but before a definite agreement is come to, German prudence
steps in very appropriately, and prescribes two weeks' preliminary trial. If this
turns out to mutual satisfaction, a contract is drawn up, of which the legalization
is obtained with very little expense, or none at all, if the parties are poor.
For ordinary trades, such as those of the shoemaker, tailor, joiner, baker, &c.,
tlie usual term is three years, and the total sum to be paid to the master varies
from thirty to sixty florins, (S12 to $20 ; ) or a term of four years is agreed upon,
without payment, the work of the apprentice in the last year being expected to
form an equivalent.
With respect to more difficult trades, such as those of the watchmaker, mech-
anician, lithographer, &c., the term is usually three or four years, with a payment
of eighty to two hundred florins, ($33 to S40.) Some few trades, requiring lit-
tle or no technical training, are exceptional with regard to payments ; thus ap-
prentices engaged in the operations of building, whitewashing, &c., not only have
nothing to pay, but receive at once a daily remuneration of a few kreuzers.
la no case does an apprenticeship last longer than four years ; serious disagree
J.174 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DUCHY OF NASSAU.
menfs between masters and apprentices are in some measure obviated by the ex-
amination which must be undergone before an artizan can settle anywhere as mas-
ter ; but iti all cases redress is facilitated by the practice of paying the stipulated
sum by installments, so that one-thh-d or one-half the amount st;mds over to the
conclusion of the t-rm. If an apprentice has just cause for complaint, he is
releas.'d by the local authorities from further obligations towards his master, and
his friends from fuither payment.
At the expiration of his term, the apprentice must furnish proof of the extent
of his acquirements, by executing some appropriate piece of handiwork, in the
presence of the official judges of the trade, forming a kind of jury, which, from
its usefulness, deserves some attention.
Every threa years the m:isters in each trade residing in a district, or in a group
of districts if the trade is a scarce one, assemble to elect, or re-elect, three repre-
sentatives for the purpose of examining the certificates, and of testing and record-
ing the abilities of industrial candidates.
If the examiners are not satisfied with the young man's performance, he must
find means of improving himself, within half-a-year, against another trial ; if, on
thj contrary, they are well pleasLid, he obtains liis certificate as Gesell, or jour-
neyman, and sets out for his travels.
When the Gesell arrives at a town, he goes forthwith to the Herberge, or spe-
cially appointed inn of his trade, where the Herberge Voter, (inn father,) from
whom he is entitled to receive paternal attentions and advice, shows him a regis-
ter, in the form of a slate, or blackboard, on which is inscribed the name of any
master wanting a hand. If the register is a blank, and the Gesell has no cash
in purse from previous savings, he may claim his Viaticum, or traveling money,
which is either paid from the treasury of the town, or from a subscription purse
of the trade, or made up by small donations which he gets at the several work-
shops of his calling, where he applies in succession for that purpose ; in so doing,
he generally makes good his claim to brotherly assistance by some token which he
b ars, or by mysteriously symbolicalical signs and passwords, analogous to those
used in freemasonry.
At Frankfort, where trade affairs are reckoned to be on a more liberal, or more
antiquated footing than elsewhere, an itinerant servant of the proud company of
hair-cutters receives from a special purse as nmch as thirt3'-six kreuzers, (one
shilling ; ) but this may be accounted exceptional, and in the generality of cases,
the total amount which a common journeyman obtains by legitimate means, is no
more than a few pence. At all events, the sum is definitive ; except in case of ill-
ness, no further sum can be claimed, and it will be wi'll if the next morning's
dawn sees our wanderer trudging contentedly onward, his knapsack on his back,
with a boot sticking out at each end of it, and his faithful pipe dangling at the
side of his mouth, whilst he sings some classical ditty of the biotheihood.
There was a time when the industrial vocabulary construed the word fechten
as a justifiable kind of begging, which did not disgrace a needy journeyman, but
now it is inscribed in the bl tck-book of the police ; and if a poor fellow, com-
pelled by sheer necessity, extends an unwilling hand toward a stranger, and a
gend'arme espies him in the act, he is not only punished with arrest, but this fact
is noted down in his pass-book, and subjects him, wherever he goes, to be
watched with a suspicious eye, and to increased severity in case of a repetition
of the offence.
Before the journeyman can become a master in his art, or profession, and fix his
abode as such in a place of his choice, a few important steps remain to be taken. If a
native of another state, he must obtain the freedom of the one of which he wishes
to become a denizen ; if merely of another parish, he must still get admission to
parochial rights, wh'ch are sometimes expensive: in every case, ho is required to
accomplish single-handed, for strict inspection by the Prufungs Commission,
some model piece of workmanship, sufficient to show, not merely a moderate
amount of skill, as when he was a candidate for a journeymanship, but his thor-
ough knowledge of the arcana majora of his calling. If he can folbw up
the display orally, with theoretical evidence, he is entitled to be admitted forthwith
to the Honorable Company of the Masters of the Trade.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NASSAU. 17;
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE AT GEISBERG.*
The agricultural institute at Geisberg, near Wiesbaden, stands on an elevated
plateau, overlooking a most enchanting region of country, witli the fashionable
invalid resort of Wiesbaden close by, while at a little distance rolls tiic winding
Rhine between its vine-clad hills. The celebrated vineyard of Johannisberg Is
not far down tlie river. This school diflfera from most others in giving instruc-
tion only in winter.
It is on the isolated and independent plan, and is designed for the instruction
of practical farmers, without teaching practice on tlie place. Applicants must
be sixteen years old, possess a good elementary education, and a good
"character." They have to bring a written certificate of willingness on the
part of the parent or guardian that they should enter the school, and it is
expected that the pupils shall have spent one or more summers in work on the
farm, before they enter. If the requisite certificate of proficiency in the
elementary studies can not be produced, or if it is not satisfactory, the applicant
is examined, and either rejected or accepted with conditions, not unlike tho
practice in entering Harvard College, where comparatively few get in without
"conditions." Each pupil is required to attend all the lectures; but tliey have
a class of pupils, as they have at Hohenheim, called hospitanten, or students who
take only the partial course.
The theoretical instruction is given in a regular course of two winters, the
term beginning on the 15tii of October of each year, and ending on the 31st
of March. During the intervening summer they are either at home, at work on
the farm, or if they desire it, the director of the institute procures tlaem suitable
places with skillful practical farmers.
Natives of Nassau pay no tuition. Outsiders pay forty-four florins, or about
eighteen dollars a year. All the pupils board iu the town of Wiesbaden. The
instruction is by lectures and written and verbal questions on the studies.
After the return of the students from their summer's work on the farm, they
are required within six weeks to present a full written detail of operations,
which, atYer suitable corrections, are returned to the writer.
The parents or guardians are informed, from time to time, of the industry and
conduct of the pupil. Gambling, so fashionable and exciting at Weisbaden, is
forbidden, and no student is allowed to smoke or to keep a dog.
The institute possesses a library, which appeared to be tolerably well stocked,
very good collections and fine lecture and study rooms. It is on rather a small
scale as compared with some others, though it may be called one of the
superior clas.s. It was founded in 1835, and as may be inferred from what has
been said above, on the principle that it is of no use to try to teach theory
and practice at the same school. There is a small farm connected with the
school, but, judging from the helter-skelter, or generally mi.xed-up condition of
every thing about the premises, I should think the}' were quite right in not
attempting to teach practice there. Old ploughs, drags, carls, harrows and
every thing else lay around the buildings in no small confusion. Wlien I drove
into tho yard I felt sure we had made some mistake, and had got upon the
premises of a very slovenly farmer, but the driver was sure he was right, and
the result justified Jiis topographical knowledge.
The farm buildings are irregular and crowded, not large or imposing, but
rather ordinary in every respect, though the building used by the students and
the collections was better.
These collections consisted of minerals, birds, quadrupeds, seeds, grains, and
grasses, and a fine collection of wax fruits.
The instruction embraces, in the first term or winter, the German language,
arithmetic, botany, mineralogy, physics, general agriculture, cultivation of
meadows, rural architecture, and veterinary science. In the second winter
the boys take up zojlog}-, physics, farm accounts, special agriculture, special
zooteclmy, horticulture, technology, veterinary medicine and composition.
The price of farm labor there, I learned, was thirty-six kreutzers, or twenty-
four cents a day, the men boarding themselves.
* Report of C. L. Flint on Agricultural Schools, &c.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN OLDENBURG.
INTRODUCTION.
The Grand-duchy of Oldenburg, on an area of 2,417 English
square miles, in 1864 had 314,416 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in
agriculture, with very few engaged in manufactories and other forms
of industry. Though favorably situated for maritime commerce, it
has but a small seafaring population, and its trade is principally
confined to coasting traffic.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Oldenburg in
1865, amounted to 2,386,110 thalers, of which 70,900 thalers were
expended for public instruction (46,200 for primary, and 24,700 for
secondary instruction).
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min-
ister of education, who at the same time is minister of the grand-
ducal house, of justice, and of foreign affairs.
1. Primary Schools. There were in 1865, 490 elementary schools,
with 43,174 scholars, and 630 teachers.
2. Secondary Schools. There are 10 higher burgher schools, with
1,395 scholars, and 58 teachers ; 4 gymnasia, with 644 scholars, and
47 teachers ; 1 progymnasia, with 65 scholars, and 10 teachers ;
making a total of 15 secondary schools, with 2,104 scholars, and 115
teachers.
3. Special and Professional Schools.
2 Teachers' seminaries for evangelical teachers, at Oldenburg,
with 30 pupils, and another at Vechta, with 20 pupils.
1 Deaf and dumb institute.
1 Military academy.
1 Nautical school, with 30 pupils.
1 Trade school, with 30 pupils.
1 Agricultural school, with 44 pupils.
1 Orphan home, at Varel, with 30 inmates.
7 Infant schools and gardens.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
INTRODUCTION.
The kingdom of Prussia, on an area of 107,757 English square
miles in 1864, (before its recent accession of territory and people,)
had a population of 19,269,563, of which number 8,395,418 were
engaged in agriculture, 178,903 in mining, 1,067,593 in mechanical
and manufacturing pursuits, and 215,078 in commerce.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Prussia in
1865 amounted to 169,243,365 thalers, of which sum 1,865,309
thalers were expended for public instruction, art, and science, in ad-
dition to communal and provincial appropriations.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the
Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; the mili-
tary schools are under the Minister of War ; and the special schools
of trade, mines, and agriculture, are under the control of the several
ministers charged severally with the administration of those interests.
1. Piimary or Common Schools. — Of these there were in 1864:
25,05G elementary schools, with 36,157 teachers and 2,825,322 scholars.
271 burgher-schools for boys, with 1,171 teachers and 43,731 scholars.
90G licensed private schools, with 1,G83 teachers and 52,692 scholars.
205 private schools for boys,with 515 teachers and 8,421 scholars.
239 licensed private schools for girls, with 1,456 teachers and 47,321
scholars.
300 private schools for sjirls, witli 2,161 teachers and 27.593 scholars.
Making a total of 27,073 primary schools, with 43,143 teachers and 3,005,080
scholars.
2. Secondary Schools. — There were in 1864:
117 Higher burgher and real-school.=, with 1,210 teachers and 27,189
scholars.
28 Progymnasia, with 223 teachers and 3,058 scholars.
147 Gymnasia, with 2,117 teaclicrs and 49,331 scholars.
Making a total of 292 secondary schools, with 3,550 teachers and 70,578
scholars.
3. S'jp'rior ScJiools. — In 1864 there were G universities [Berlin, Bonn, Brcs-
lau, Halle, Kiinigsbcrg, Greifswald,] each with four faculties, viz., theology,
law, medicine, and philosophy, and 1 Catholic academy at Miinster with two
faculies, viz., theology and philosophy. These 7 institutions have a total of 389
professors and 170 private professors \2)rwat docenien,] and C,077 students. Be-
sides these there were 2 Catholic theological .seminaries [Padcrborn and Brauns-
berg,] 1 Protestant theological seminar}' [Prussian State-church] at "Witten-
berg, and 1 Moravian theological seminary at Gnadenfeld, Silesia. There are
large scientific collections and libraries connected with most of these institu-
tions, and the Royal Library at Berlin numbers upwards of 500,000 volumes
and 10,000 manuscripts. The two chemical laboratories at Bonn and Berlin
recently erected are the most complete in Europe.
12
178
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
4. Special and Professional Schools.
60 Teachers' seminaries, [19 Catholic and 41 Protestant,] with about
3,800 students; besides 44 small institutions and classes, which
are not recognized as government seminaries.
1 Seminaries for secondary school teachers and professors.
3 Academies of art [Berlin, Dusseldorf, and Kiinigsberg.]
1 Academy of architecture.
5 Art and building (baugeicerk) schools.
2 Technical academies or institutes (at Berlin and Cologne.)
27 Provincial technical schools, with 2,600 pupils.
2 Superior weaving-schools.
1 Weaving and pattern-drawing school.
2G5 Industrial schools for mechanics.
1 Royal military academy.
1 Artillery and engineer-school.
5 Cadet-schools.
1 Military academy of surgery and medicine.
1 Military school of surgery.
1 School of veterinary surgery.
1 Military school of veterinary surgery.
1 Central school of gymnastics.
4 Military schools.
16 Garrison schools (for soldiers' children.)
5 Nautical schools.
14 Schools of midwifery.
26 Schools for deaf-mutes.
10 Schools for the blind.
1 Couservatorium and 6 schools of music.
34 Schools of agriculture.
1 Mining academy (Berlin.)
8 Schools of practical mining.
6 Schools of commerce.
4 Schools of forestry.
The only statistics of Prussian scbools since the accession of ter-
ritory and population in 1866, are for the Secondary Schools, which
we give from Dr. Wiese's Report on High Schools for 1869.
STUDENTS Df SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
1863.
8 old Provinces.
I. Gymnasiums.
Rej;ular Classes 42,973
Preparatory Classes 4,046
Total of both, 47,019
II. Pro-Gymnasia.
Regular Classes, 2,430
Preparatory Classes, 167
Total of both, 2,597
m. Real Schools.
Regular Classes 18,741
Preparatory Classes, 3,362
Total of both 22,103
rV. Higher Burgher Schools.
Regular Cliisses, 1,991
Preparatory Classes, 452
Total of both 2,443
V. Secondart/ Schools of all kinds.
Regular Classes, 66,135
Preparatory Classes 8,027
Total of both 74,162
8 old Provinces.
1868.
3 new Provinces.
48,977
5,945
7,136
1,192
54,922
8,328
2,227
205
190
2,432
190
20,741
3,678
2,455
839
24,419
3,294
4,547
1,172
4,010
1,307
5,719
5,317
76,492
11,000
13,791
3,338
Total.
56,113
7,137
63,250
2,417
205
2,622
23,196
4,517
27,713
8,557
2,479
11,036
90,283
14,338
87,492 17,129
104,621
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PUUSSIA.
179
SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIOXS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.
SUNDAY SCHOOLS.
Sunday schools, for instructing the young people of a parLsL in
the catechism, and biblical and church hi.story,-existed in Prussia and
throughout Germany, certainly as earlj-^ as the sixteenth ccnturv, but
their recognition as part of the public school system dates from 1703,
when F'rederick 11, in his General Eegulatiojis of Schools (section fi),
ordains that " on Sundays, besides the lesson of the catechism or i-cpc-
tition school given by the minister in the'church, the school-master
shall give in the school recapitulary lessons to the unmarried people
of the township. They shall there practice reading and Avritiiig."
In the General regulations for the Catholic schools in Silesia, opened
in 1765, " the older children are required to attend the Sunday in-
struction in Christianity every Sunday afternoon, and after that to
participate for two hours in the lessons in reading and writing given
in the school, which lessons the teachers shall give under the direc-
tion of the pastor, that they may become useful to the young. Those
also who have left school, and are not yet twenty years of age,
must attend these lessons, and their employers are bound to send
them to school at such time, that they may review what they Icai-ucd
before, and acquire necessary knowledge." On this basis of law and
habit, by degrees the instruction of the Sunday sc-liool was extended
and systematized, and became an important portion of the elementary
education of the people. In the large villages and cities, di'awing,
and the first principles of natural history and mechanics, composition
in the form of business correspondence, and other branches bearing
on the occupations of the pupils, were gradually introduced into this
cla-s of schools, which were also held on Monday mornings, in the
evening of other days, as Avell as on the half-l»o!idays of AVednesday
and Saturday, and on holidays. They were also connected with the
real schools and trade institutes, and got the name of Further Im-
provement Schools. In Prussia in 1854, there were 220 such schools,
with 18,000 pupils; and in Berhn, the trade improvement schools are
taught on Sunday by the teachers of the higher schools, and consti-
tute an important agency in the technical instruction of apprentices
and workingmen.
KEAL SCHOOLS AJfD BURGnER SCHOOLS.
The real school, which in Prussia now occupies a well-defined place
in the system of general education, had originally a direct technical
aim, in the plan of Francke in 1698, and of Semler in 1706 and
jgQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
1 738, and of Hecker in 1747 * Francke projected a special pedago-
glum for children, who wished to become " secretaries, clerks, mer-
chants, administrators of estates, or learn useful arts." Semler calls his
sch(tol " a mathematical trades school," and in the mathematical, me-
chanical, and economical real school," opened by him in Berlin in
1708, the instruction given was "in connection with models and real
object^," — things, as he designates them.
Eev. J. J. Ilecker, in the programme of his " Economical Mathe-
matical School," opened in the schools of Trinity church in 1747, he
pledges to all his pupils " a preparation to facilitate their entry into
any trade they may choose." Among his classes was one of " archi-
tecture and building," another of " manufacture, commerce and trade,"
and another of " agriculture ; " moreover, " drawing shall be prac-
ticed." The views of Hecker were encouraged by Frederick II, who
named his institution the " Eoyal Real School." This school became
the noi^mal school for teachers of schools on the crown domains ; and
to it, Felbingcr sent a number of pupil-teachers, who became the or-
ganizers of improved schools in Austria, in which realistic studies and
methods were prominent.
In connection with the real school should be mentioned the Higher
Burgher School — the high school of the primary system in all large
towns, and which received its earliest and highest development in
Leii:)sic, but which in Kcenigsberg, Dantzig, and other large provincial
centres, aimed to fit their pupils for practical careers. Both the real
school and the higher burgher schools, although they no longer aim
to bo technical or professional schools, even for a commercial career,
do give a scientific preparation for such higher vocations of the
State as do not require an academic career, and they also prepare
students for the special and purely technical schools. Without them,
the subordinate departments of the public service would not be so
well filled, and the special schools of trade, commerce, agriculture,
and forestry could not attain their present high development.
SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS.
The immense strides made in mechanical, manufacturing, and com-
mercial industry, and the gigantic works in engineering and construc-
tion which the public service in peace and in war have required in
the last half century, have made necessary the establishment of spe-
cial schools, in which architects, builders, machinists, engineers, artil-
lerists, and technical chemists could be taught and trained. Hence
* For an account of the educational labors and views of Francke and Ilecker, see Barnard's
Edifntionat Rfformers of Germany.
SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
181
in every State we find govennnent schools for these purposes, and in
all the great centres of 2)opuhition and special industries, these in.<ti-
tutions ai"e as varied in their independent organization or associated
classes, as are the industries and wants to be supplied. Prussia has
felt deejily these necessities, and side by side with the thorough re-
organization and extension of her general system of education — the
multiplication and improvement of primary, secondary, and superior
schools — has grown up a system of special instruction — schools of ag-
riculture, forestry, commerce, navigation, architecture, engineering,
construction in wood and metal, and trades of all sorts, wliich will
compare favorably with the best in other countries of Europe. Al-
though not as early in the field as some of the smaller States, and
not acting with such entire disregard of the general system as some
others, in which the manufacturing and mechanical establishments are
relatively more nimierous anil important, this class of institutions in
Prussia are worthy of particular study on account of the superior
system of general education on which they all rest.
TRADE SCnOOLS.
The earliest Trade Schools, ( Gewerhe Schulen, as they are called,
the word gewerbe being used in its resti-icted meaning, equivalent to
the improvement of material for the purposes of gain,) in Prussia,
were organized by Beuth in 1817-18, at Berlin and at Aix la Cha-;
pelle, to meet a want of government for better workmen in building
operations. The school at the latter place was expressly founded to
improve the general and special education of carpenters, mill-wrights,
masons, stone-cutters, cabinet-makers, locksmiths, house-painters, bra-
ziers, pewterers, and other handicrafts. They were first connected
with the Sunday schools.
Those established at that time were called Handiverher fortUldung
schulen, and belonged to the class of " improvement schools," being
planned to add to the knowledge of the local handicraftsmen and
their apprentices. Schools for s^iecial trades or industries did not
rise until a few years later. The whole system underwent a reorgan-
ization in 1850, when all the establishments of this character were
assigned to the Department of the Minister of Commerce.
There are now not far from 500 giving instruction in almost all
branches of industrial activity, and all being exclusively devoted to
technological studies. The real and burgher schools, (of which there
were in 1868, over 190,) through which those pupils who are intend-
ing to enter the higher technical institutions generally pass, and
182 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
which, moreover, give some instruction in commerce, are not included
in this list.
The technical schools may be divided into those imparting general
industrial instruction, and those devoted to S2:)ecial branches.
I- — The class giving general instruction emljraces the following :
(1.) Establishments corresponding to Improvement Schools. — There
are a number of varieties of these : the evening, Sunday, and finish-
ing schools ; societies for apprentices to which improvement schools
are added ; journeymen's schools, and workmen's societies, which also
make provision for technical instruction.
This class does not carry technical studies very far, except in draw-
ing, the general aim being to extend the knowledge gained in the ele-
mentary schools,and nothing more than this is required at admission.
(2.) Foremen's Schools. — These aim to train foremen for various
mechanical occupations. The institution at Koenigsberg has 7 teach-
ers and 69 scholars, (1867) ; the fees are about six thalers per half
year. The requirements for admission are the studies of the i>rimary
schools.
(3.) Tlie Provincial and Municipal Trade Schools. — These two
classes of establishments form the next grade in technical instruction,
and prepare pupils to enter the central academy at Berlin. They re-
ceive those who have had a partial course in the gymnasiums, real
gchools, or burgher schools. There are in Prussia about 30 of these,
averaging four or five teachers, with 2,600 scholars in all. The fees
vary exceedingly. There is a journeyman's improvement school con-
nected with each.
(4.) Central Trade Academies. — The highest grade of education
for mechanicians, chemists, and ship-builders is obtained at these estab-
lishments, which approaches the character of a polytechnic univer-
sity. There are now two — the Academy, ( Gcxoerhe Academic, form-
erly called Geiverbe Institut,) is at Berlin; another, recently organ-
ized (1867), at Aix la Chapelle. The Berlin Academy receives
scholars who have completed the course at the provincial trade
schools, real schools, or the gymnasiums. Of this institution, J.
Scott Russell, in his elaborate treatise on systematic technical educa-
tion for the English people, thus speaks :
Here in Berlin, I found a larpe and handsome huilding, close by the king's
palace, in one of the best parts of the town, and this was "called, at that time, a
' (a-iniiie Srinilc," or royal school for trade teaching. This very humble desig-
nation did not lead me to expect the high scientific education and' training which
was there provided for the young professional men of Berlin. The truth is, that
in Berlin, everything but the three learned professions, law, medicine, and theol-
ogy, were still called trades, and not yet admitted to the rank of jjrofessions, just
as, in our country, the time was when Brindley, the canal engineer, was still
SPEC.AL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 183
reckoned a fort of superior ditclwliffgcr, and Gcore:c Stephenson a sort of superior
enfjjinc-drivcr. Tlio tradition liad still enoa,i,'-li intlucnec in Berlin to call a tceli-
nieal university for the modern professions a " trade school.''
Since that time, the dignity o{ the " Gewerbe Sc/iule" hi\s heen recognized.
Its buildings, its endowments, the rank and salaries of its professors, the number
and preliminary qualifications of its pupils, have all liecn raised. It has now
the recognized rank of a technical university, with professors of equtJ dignity,
and degrees of equal weight.
Berlin being the first technical university with which I became acquainted, and
also one of the earliest, I should naturally quote, as an example of a " technical
university abroad," this Gcwcrbc Institut, or Gewerbe Aauhmie, of Berlin. I
recommend those of my countrymen who care for such things, to visit that insti-
tution, which is admirably conducted, systematically organized, and a great boon
to the professional men of Prussia. They will find that it in every way lends
itself, by means of evening as well as morning lectures, by trade associations con-
nected with it, by free libraries and museums, to the education not merely of the
hiu^her professional men, but also of the working men who have leisure and dis-
position to desire high trade knowledge.
In very many respects, therefore, 1 consider Berlin a model technical university.
I do not quote it, however, as my type of what such a university miglit be, be-
cause it labors under some traditional and local disadvantages, which somewhat
narrow its sphere, derange its synnnetry, and cramp its development. It is not
symmetrical in the liighcst degree, becau.se in Berlin there had already existed,
before it attained its present growth, surrounding institutions, which had monop-
olized a portion of its ground.
Kindred academies, institutions, or universities, had already provided educa-
tion and training for some of the arts and professions which a more isolated uni-
versity would have systematically included in its curriculum ; and which it was,
therefore, unwise, unnecessary, or inconvenient to include in the new organization.
Precisely, therefore, because the Berlin Gewerbe Academic fits its place, and an-
swers its special purpose, it is less fitted to serve as a type of a symmetrical insti-
tution than some others of more recent growth, more remote from the overshad-
owing influence of rival and more ancient institutions.
II. — Institution.? giving instruction in special professions, include :
1. Building Professions: (1.) Building Schools. — There are
many of these ojien to all building artisans -who have received an
elementary education, and imparting theoretical and practical instruc-
tion in their special departments. They rank with " improvement
schools." The fees are about six thalers per half-year.
(2.) Building Academy. — This academy at Berlin educates archi-
tects and engineers of the highest grade.
2. Mixing Pursuits : (1.) Mining Schools. — These correspond
in grade to the provincial industrial schools, and educate foremen and
master workmen in the mines.
(2.) Miniyig Academy at Berlin, which gives the highest education
in mining and in metal working, and prepares mining engineers.
3. "Weaving AND Dyeing: (1.) Weaver's Schools. — The weav-
ing schools belong to the grade of improvement schools. There are
3 of them in Prussia, with 12 teachers and 98 pupils in all. The
fees are 20 thalers per half-year.
(2.) Superior Weaving Schools. — There are 5 superior weaving
schools, with 12 teachers. They require the same qualifications as
234 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IX I'RUSSIA.
the provincial industrial schools. The fees are about 20 thalers per
hall-year.
(3.) Industrial Drawing School. — The industrial drawing school
at Bei'lin gives aasthetic and practical instruction to designers for va-
rious tissues and to weavers. It is a distinct institution.
4. Commerce. — Commercial instruction is given to some extent
in schools of a general literary aim. Of the special institutions of
this class, the school of commerce for young women, at Berlin, de-
serves attention.
5. Navigation.; — There are six schools intended to train young
men to be pilots and captains of merchant vessels. These are at
Memel, Dantzig, Pillau, Grabow, Stettin, and Stralsund.
6. Agriculture. — There are thirty-two institutions, in which
both the theory and jiractice of agriculture, and kindred occupations,
are taught, and several of them, in the range and thoroughness of in-
struction, are not surpassed in any country of the Avorld. T!:e work
of the school is carried home to neighborhoods by itinerant teachers
paid by the government, who go from village to village, and the re-
sults of improved methods are seen and disseminated by the action
of upwards of five hundred agricultural associations, which by con-
ferences, exhibitions, and prizes, keep up a lively interest in agricul-
tural improvement.
7. The new laboratories, as well for original research as for higher
instruction, may be regarded not only as " arsenals '"' of science, but
as mighty engines of industrial development.
The teachers of the lower and middle grades of technical schools
become pi-epared by giving instruction in a gymnasium or real school,
and afterwards studying in the Berlin trade academy for three years.
Teachers from other schools are also employed, and, in the lowest
grades of technical schools, instruction is often given gratis by private
manufacturers.
To all of these institutions are attached libraries, and to many be-
long collections of models, and other aids of instruction ; especially
full is the collections of the central academy at Berlin.
The result of the system has been to convert workmen into refined
and thinking men, and to develop rapidly the industrial resources
of the country, as was sho^vn in the late international exhibition at
Paris.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IX PRCSSIA. 2g5
SUNDAY IMPROVEMEN'T TRADE SCHOOL AT KOENIGSBERG.
The Sunday School of the Society of Industry, (Geicerbe GeseUsc/ia/l) at
Konigsberg instructs apprentices in the ordinary trades. It requires no previous
practical edut-ation, tlie only ro(iiiiremcut being that the candidate has jjasscd
through the elementary sdiools, which implies some rudimentary knowledge of
religion and Bible history, German, history, geography, natural historj^, arith-
metic, mensuration, drawing, singing, and gymnastics.
Instruction is given by the professors of the Provincial Trade School in the
same city, who receive extra pay for serving. The branches pursued arc the fol-
lowing: algebra, arithmetic, gravitation (planimetry- and geometry), elementary
mechanics and mechanical technology, physics and clicniistry in their funda-
mental doctrines, knowledge of wares and tools, drawing (architectural, machine,
free-hand, and geometrical), modeling in clay, wax, wood, &c., book-keeping and
business writings.
The course lasts one or two years. Tliere is no charge, the expense being
borne by the Society of Industry of the Province of Prussia. There arc from 80
to 100 scholars.
WORKING-MEN'S UNION AT BERLIN.
The Working-Men's Union, at Berlin (Berlin Handwerker Verein), stands in
the first rank of associations of this class in Germany. It was founded in
1843, dissolved in the revolutionary period of 1848, and again rc-organizcd. It
has for its object to promote good morals, general culture, and special professional
knowledge among its members. Its doors are ojjcn to artisans of all degrees,
masters, workmen, and apjjrentices. Every young man, of good character, can
join it on being introduced by a member, and paying a fee of three silver groschcn
(about seven cents) a month. In its organization is a Committee of Instruction,
composed of friends of industry and of the working classes who volunteer their
services, among whom are some of the most prominent men in tlie capital.
The objects of the Society are accomplished by debates, instruction, both gen-
eral and special, free lectures and social gatherings. The meetings take place
four times a week, in the evening, after working hours, and are occupied with
study and debating, always ending with choral singing.
Debates. The debaters are generally members of the Committee of Instruc-
tion, the subject being chosen, and the names of the participants published three
months beforehand. Between 1861 and 1865, there were .592 such debates, about
half of the subjects being questions relating to industry and science. In general,
each meeting completes a subject, but sometimes the subject is can-icd through
several in succession. All subjects except politics and religion may be dis-
cussed.
Lectckes. The lectures are held on the evenings of Monday, TVednesda}-,
Saturday and Sunday. The subjects are very various. In 1867, lectures were
given, during the first nine months, on the following subjects, many of them oc-
cupying only one lecture : physics, chemistry, technology, natural history, unity
of natural forces and agencies, history and mode of lighting with gas, value of
machiner}-, laws of exchange, public law, national rewards, paper money, security
of insurance companies, cultivation of industry, manufivcturing towns in France,
weaving, lace making, calling and position of the female sex, relations of man
and wife, of parents and children, woman in literature and in art, sanitarv laws.
186
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN PRUSSIA.
physiology, anatomy of the intestines, music, history and works of art, history,
liistory of religion, Egraont and Orange, severance of tlie Netlicrlands and Spain,
literature, trick and romance, lyrics, Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea, Faust,
Lessing, Don Juan Fahel, translation of that work, Arkwright, Wedgewood,
upon Grahtic and Ilebbcl, Franz Dunker, Zimmermann and A'illage education,
Paris exhibition, Brelcck, Born and Ebert's report from Paris, sketches of a jour-
ney, German emigration, German life in London, Venice, education, education
in the Verein, medicine, domestic economy.
Lectures begin at 8^, and are not to last longer than forty-five minutes, on
Monday evenings fifteen minutes. Members of other societies pay one silver
groschen ; those who do not belong to the societies 2^ groschen. Once a week,
on Wednesday evening, each member can bring two ladies, without entrance fee.
The courses of instmction are as follows, the principle of demanding special
payment having been adopted after mature consideration :
Studies.
Hours Weekly.
Fee for 3 Months.
I.
Calligrapliy and reading.
7^ groschen.
2.
Orthogra])hy " "
lO'
3.
German (grammar and reading).
2
10
4.
" (syntax and reading).
n "
5.
" (composition and ej^istolary style), -
6.
Arithmetic. — Course I, -
lo' "
7.
II, - - -
7^ "
8.
Geometrical and architectural drawing ( Sunday
A
morning), . - . - .
15 "
9.
Geometry, -----
1\ "
10.
Book-keeping by single entry, theory of bills of
exchange (Sunday morning).
1 thaler.
11.
Commercial arithmetic (Sunday morning),
1
12.
Book-kcei)ing, double entry, " "
1 5 groschen.
13.
Mechanical designing, " "
1 thaler.
14.
Projection, .....
7^ groschen.
15.
Singing, in two courses, each
7i "
16.
Stenography (Sundays), ...
l" thaler.
17.
Modeling, - - - . • .
15 groschen.
18.
French (2 courses), ....
2
1 h thaler.
19.
English (2 courses), ...
2
H "
20.
Pattern reading for weavers (Sunday),
1
15 groschen.
In pursuance of the purpose of opening classes in special trades, a school for
the building-trades has been opened, under the supervision of two architects con-
nected with the Committee of Instruction, imparting the theoretical knowledge
necessary for a young artisan in a building-trade, and to enable him to pass the
examination for becoming a master in his guild. There are four courses, each
occupying four winter months, comprising eight hours of instruction daily. The
subjects taught are : German, arithmetic, theory of proportions, algebra, geome-
try, geometrical projection, elements of physics, theory of mechanical powers,
theory of heat, theory of architecture, agricultural architecture, ornamentation,
architectural and free-hand drawing and modeling in clay. The fees are from
4 to 6 thalers monthly, but there is a deficit of from 400 to 500 thalers annually,
made up by the Union.
The recreations, which may be considered as means, and powerful means, of
moral education, are participated in by the female relations of the members. The
i
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 187
days selected for this purpose are Sundays and holidays ; the amusements con-
sist of discussions suited to the capacity of the female auditors, concerts, choral
singing, dramatic readings, balls and scenic representations, held in the Society's
hall, or in a large park outside of the city. Excursions into the country take
l>lace often. .
There is a savings bank for the members, on the i)lan of Sclmlze Delitzsch,
and an insurance company affiliated to the great Germania company.
As a minor arrangement of great possible utility may be mentioned the box
for questions by workmen on matters lartaiuing to practical life, or arising from
their reading. It is tilled every cTcning, and emptied by the teachers at each
successive general meeting.
The Union now numbers 3,000 permanent memliers, nine-tenths of whom be-
long to the industrial classes. As many as 10,000 temporary members have
been inscribed in one year. The lectures arc attended by 10,000 to 12,000 hear-
ers, and the school by 1,300 students, of all grades, apprentices, journeymen,
workmen, and masters.
The building of the Union cost, in 1864, together with the land, 68,000 thalers.
It is the first in Germany, exclusively devoted to the instruction of working-
men. The central hall is 80 feet long, 60 wide and 20 high, and will contain
more than 2,000 jjersons. It opens directly on a garden, the two together afford-
ing sufficient room for all the members and their families on festive occasions.
Two entire stories are occupied by the lecture-rooms, &c., and the library. The
latter is free to all the members, books being exchanged two evenings in the
week. The number of volumes (1865) is 3,500, of which from 250 to 500 are
taken out weekly. The average number of readers is, in summer 500, in winter
700. There is a great demand for books upon commerce and industry. The
reading-room is mostly furnished by the generosity of the editors of the various
periodicals, and contains 70 journals, besides political, technical, literary and
religious reviews. It is visited by a very large number.
PROVINCIAL TRADE SCHOOL AT DANTZIC.
The Provincial Trade School at Dantzic, wdiich may be considered as a fair
example of its class, has for its object to instruct commercial assistants and mas-
ters or overseers in small manufactories. A further olycct is the preparing can-
didates for the polytechnic institutes at Berlin. It is governed by a director, who
with four other persons ajipointcd by the provincial government, forms a school
committee, regulating the financial and other affairs of the school. The profes-
sorships are, one for mathematics, mechanics, engineering, and mechanical tech-
nology, one for the natural sciences, namely, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, and
chemical technology, and one, with an assistant, for sketching, modeling, and
geometrical drawing. The director is one of the two first, the others rank ac-
cording to seniority. They arc considered government officers.
Professors are appointed by the provincial government, after an examina-
tion before a special board, but the province may appoint assistants temporarily
without this formality. All appointments are to .be confirmed by the minister,
to whom also the board reports the results of its examinations, and who may-
dispense with the latter in the case of those who have undergone it at a previous
period, or have the reputation of having had experience in giving instruction.
If the candidate has not had practice in teaching, the engagement is made for
six months only, but he is definitely settled if he has been in active service for a
188 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
period of from tlirce to five years. He is entitled to a pension, his time of sen-ice
being counted from the date of the beginning of his probation, and a regular an-
nual deduction being made from his salary.
The ]\Iini.ster of Commerce exercises supervision over the plan of instruction
to render the system of the provincial trade schools uniform. This plan is
forwarded to him every year, in August, together with a detailed report on the
condition of the institution from the provincial government.
It receives scholars at fourteen, who can read and write con-ectly, who have
some practice in drawing, can explain any German book within the capacity of
their ago, "be able to use books for self instruction," and possess a knowledge
of arithmetic as far as vulgar fractions, besides being acquainted with the solu-
tion of ordinary questions, such as measuring the superficies of polygonal planes
and prismatic bodies.
Young mechanics, with only the knowledge acquired in the primary schools,
can obtain the necessary preparation in the journeyman's Sunday and evening
improvement sc'.:ool, which is connected with the institution. But if it is thought
necessary, a preparatory class may be opened, supjiorted liy the community, and
not as an integral part of the higher establishment ; it is also desired that its
course be so arranged as to be profitable to those not intending to pursue their
studies farther. If such a preparatory class be organized, it is to be provided
with a good elementary teacher, and to be under the control of the director of the
provincial trade school.
The course lasts two years, and is divided into a junior class for theoretical
studies and drawing, and a senior class for application of the instruction received
to the differ ent branches of industrial pursuits. The term commences at the
beginning of October, and there are only two months vacation in the year. The
number of hours of lessons is not to exceed 36 a week ; the director gives 16 to
18 hours, the other professors 20 to 24. As the number of scholars in the school
is over forty, they are divided, according to the law, into two drawing classes,
and an assistant is engaged for the lower class. The curriculum includes the
following studies : German composition, arithmetic, with extensive exei'ciscs in
its practical application, theoretical and applied geometry with practical appli-
cations to survej'ing, algelira, trigonometry, descriptive geometry, conic sec-
tions, stereotomy, physics, with strength of materials, mechanics, theory of
wheel-works, chemistry and the technology of chemistry, mineralogy as applied
to pi-actice, various architectural constructions in the various materials used, ge-
ometrical drawing carried to constructing parts of machines from logarithms,
free-hand drawing of ornaments, and outline sketches from models, in pencil,
ink, chalk, and elpia; finally, clay modeling from plaster casts. There is no
religious instruction.
Between the senior and junior classes Jfe an examination. Those failing are
allowed to continue in the junior class another year. Any one who can pass this
examina.ion is allowed to enter the senior class, whether he has studied in the
school or not.
This institution enjoys, as well as some of the other provincial trade schools,
the right of issuing certificates after a final examination of those who have com-
pleted the course of study. This privilege is obtained, in all cases, after special
petition, accompanied with specimen drawings and written exercises from all the
members of the senior class. This petition is granted if a favorable report is re-
ceived by the Minister of Commerce from a commissary sent to examine the class.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. I39
The final examination for the " certificates of maturity " is held in July, or at
the bej;innin<^ of August, and is open to all who choose to announce tlicir inten-
tion in writing, whether they have been jnijnls in the institution or not. It is
held liefore a board consisting of a government commissary, tlic director and the
professors of the senior class, and is both written and oral. From tlie oral part,
however, those proposing to engage in certain trades in house-building arc ex-
cused. Four compositions are to be written under the eye of a professor, without
books or aids of any kind ; one in four hours, in German, on some subject well
known to the pupil that he may have little to do but to arrange his thoughts,
and three others to be finished in seven hours each ; one on a subject taken from
physics, one from chemistry and chemical technology, and one from mechanics
and engineering.
Those passing the examination are excused from two of their three years' mili-
tary service, andmay be admitted to the Royal Trade Academy, ((/eicerbe academie,)
at Berlin. Like other provincial trade schools, that at Dantzic has the right of
conferring a stipend and a free place at the gcwerbe acachinie.
There are (1867) 25 in the first and 35 in the second class. Few of these are
preparing for the Berlin academy. The fees are 12 thalers a year. It is a day
school. The building is furnished by the city, the Government having paid the
first expenses of opening it, which amounted to about 4,000 thalers, half of which
was for instruments and half for a library and drawing models. The annual
cost is shared by the State and the city, and amounts to about 3,200 thalers.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN BEELIN.
Excellent and useful as arc the provincial schools of arts and trades in Prussia,
we must look to Berlin and its neighborhood for the most complete development
of the system of scientific studies, and facilities fur the practical application of
the same to national industries, although there is no graded or administrative
connection between the institutions The two schools which give a thorough
preparation for the highest special schools, are the Royal Real School, and the
City Trade School. The programmes of these excellent schools were drawn up
by eminent teachers, assisted by the suggestions of successful business men, and
will be found in the following account by Prof Bache. They are valuable as a
general preparation for business life, as well as for the higher training of a poly-
technic school.
The Royal Real School, whose history is given in another place,* as well as
the City Trade School, had its origin in the conviction that Latin and Greek were
not the only nor the highest objects of study, either for mental discipline, or for
the use of pupils who are to grapple with practical problems of life in the public
ser\'ice or in national industries; and its continued work for 100 years has
demonstrated the value of modern laifguages, drawing, mathematics, (including
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry), physics, natural history, and chemistry,
for the highest purposes for which public schools, for the great majority of the
community, are instituted It was the pioneer institution in that great revolu-
tion in pedagogy which has asserted the claims of science in agriculture, archi-
tecture, commerce, and manufactures, in modem systems of public instruction.
* Special Report of Commi.ssioner of Education on Condition and Improvement of Public
Schools in the District of Columbia, 1867-8. — Appendix. — Notes on the Public Schools of Berlin
and Prussia.
190
ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
The Frederick Williarn-Gymnasium is regarded by Dr. Bache, as a
fair specimen of tiiis class of schools in Prussia ; in the organization and
instruction of which a good degree of liberty is tolerated by the govern-
ment, to enable them the better to meet the peculiar circumstances of
each province, and the peculiar views of each director.
The Royal Real School, and City Trade School of Berlin, furnish a
course of instruction of the same general value for mental discipline, but
better calculated for that class of pupils who are destined in life, not for
what are designated as the learned profession, but for tradesmen and me-
chanics. There is less of verbal knowledge but more of mathematics
and their application to the arts ; and the whole is so arranged as to fa-
cilitate the acquisition of those mental habits which are favorable to
the highest practical success.
ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
The Royal Real School of Berlin was founded as early as 1747, by Counsellor
Ilecker. At the period in wliichtliis school was founded, Latin and Greek were
the exclusive objects of study in the learned schools, and the avowed purpose of
this establishment was that " not mere words should be taught to the pupils, but
realities, explanations being made to them from nature, from models and plans,
and of subjects calculated to be useful in after-life." Hence the school was called
a " real school," and preserves this name, indicative of the great educational
reform which it was intended to promote, and the success of which has been,
though slow, most certain.
The successor of Hecker, in 1769, divided this flourishing school into three de-
partments, the pedagogium, or learned school, the school of arts, and the German
school : the whole establishment still retaining the title of real school. The first
named department was subsequently separated from the others, constituting the
Frederick William gymnasium ; the school of arts, and the German, or elemen-
tary school, remain combined under the title of the royal r^al school. The same
director, however, still presides over the gymnasium and the real school.
The question has been much agitated, whether the modern languages should be
considered in these schools as the substitutes for the ancient in intellectual educa-
tion, or whether mathematics and its kindred branches should be regarded in this
light. Whether the original principle of the " realities" on which the schools
were founded, was to be adhered to, or the still older of verbal knowledge, only
with a change of languages, to be substituted for it. In this school the languages
will be foimd at present to occupy a large share of attention, while in the similar
institution, a description of which follows this, the sciences have the pre-
ponderance.
In the royal real school the branches of instruction are — religion, Latin, French,
English, German, physics, natural history, chemistry, history, geography, draw-
ing, writing, and vocal music. Tlie Latin is retained as practically useful in some
branches of trade, as in pharmacy, as aiding in the nomenclature of natural his-
tory, and as preventing a separation in the classes of this school and that of the
gymnasium, which would debar the pupils from passing from the former to the
latter in the upper classes. It must be admitted that, for all purposes but the last,
it occupies an unnecessaiy degree of attention, especially in the middle classes.
The following table shows the distribution of time among the courses. There
are seven classes in numerical order, but ten, in fact, the third, fourth, and fifth
being divided into two ; the lower fourth is again, on aceomit of its numbers, sub-
divided into two parallel sections. Of these, the seventh, sixth, and fifth are ele-
mentary classes, the pupils entering the seventh at between five and seven years of
age. In the annexed table the number of hours of recitation per week of each
class in the several subjects is stated, and the vertical column separating the ele-
mentaiy classes from the others, contains the sum of the hours devoted to each
branch in the higher classes, excludinjr the lower section of the foui'tli class,
which has not a distinct course from that tif the other division.
I
ROVAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
191
TABLE BHOWINO THE NUMBER OF HOURS OF RECITATION PER WEEK, OF EACH CLASS,
IN THE SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
scBfEcn or study.
Latin. . .
French, .
English, .
Gorman,
Religion,
Mathematics,* . .
Xntural ILstory,
Pliysics,
Chemistry, ....
Geography, ....
History,
Drawing,
Writing,.
Singing, .
»
~.^
a
s ^
zs
•
•<
Ba
ss
.
V
s
B4
a
i^
-i
.
s
a
O
^
^
U
(JO
J= 2.
e
C3
o
O
U
J3
'S =^
U
U
o
^
E
s
o
o
1
3
3 3
ii
s
s
X
a
>
Ix
en
b
H
U.
Ci.ft«
n %
Ix
(x
CO
CA
4
4
4
5
6
5
6
28
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
22
4
5
2
2
6
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
20
8
8
10
10
O
A.
2
2
2
2
2
2
12
2
3
o
6
6
5
6
1
6
4
35
4
3
6
6
3
2
2
2
9
2
2
2
8
2
9
2
2
S
3
3
3
3
9
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
15
2
2
2
2
9
2
2
2
2
12
2
2
2
4
4
4
6
8
2
4
3
2
2
2
2
15
36
36
35
35
32
32
32
26
26
26
26
Troportion of other
studies to German
in the
1.4
1.1
0.3
1.0
0.6
1.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.7
So
â– - s
2.9
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.1
O.lt
0.2+
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.6
~h
3
0.9
1.0
0.8
1.6
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.6
Pupils who enter this school between five and seven years of age, and go regu-
larly through the elementary classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher
chisses, or to enter the lowest of the gj'mnasium. It is thus after the fifth class
tliat a comparison of the two institutions must begin. Tlie studies of the real
school proper, and of the gj'mnasium, have exactly the siime elementary basis,
and they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil, by taking extra instiaic-
tion in Greek, may pass from the lower third class of the former to the lower third
of the latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real schools must be
institutions for secondary instruction, since the pupils have yet three classes to pass
through after reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to separate the
real schools from the higher*burgher schools, since the extreme limit of the
courses of the latter, with the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables
the pupil to reach the lower third class of the gj'mnasium. In general, a pupil
would terminate his studies in the real school at between sixteen and eighteen
years of age. The difference between the subjects of instruction in the real
school and the Frederick William g}^nnasilun, consists in the omission in the
former of Greek, Hebrew, and philosophy, and the introduction of English and
chemistry. The relative proportions of time occupied in the same subjects in tho
two schools, will be seen by comparing the two coliunns next on the right of the
numbers for the seventh class, in the table just given. The first of these eolunms
contains the proportion of the number of hours per week devoted to the different
subjects in the six classes of the real school above the elementarj', the number of
houi-s devoted to the German being taken as unity ; and the second, the same
proportion for six classes of the gj-mnasium, beginning with the lowest, the same
number of hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding colunm. To bring
the natural historj- and physics into compavison, I have taken the numbei-s for tho
* Including arithmetic, eeometry, alffebm. and trigonometry.
t These numbers include the entire course.
192 KOYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
upper classes of the gymnasiuiQ in which these branches are taught. Of the
courses common to the two geHools, those to which nearly equal attention is paid
in both mstitutions, are— the religious instruction, the German, geography and
history, writing, and vocal music. The French, mathematics, physics, and nat-
ural history, prcjiominate in the real school, the Latin in the gymnasiiun. The
effect of reckgaing the first, second, and upper third classes of the gymnasium,
does not njaterially change the proportionate numbers of the courses which are
commouio the two schools, except as to Latin and mathematics. To show this,
the erfiumn on the extreme right of the table is introduced, containing the pro-
portions for all the nine classes of the Frederick William gymnasium.
There were, in 1838, five hundred .and ten pupils in this real school, under the
charge of fourteen regular or class mAsters, teaching several subjects in the lower
classes, and of six other teachers. Kach of the efeven class divisions thus aver-
ages about forty -six, who are under the charge of one teacher at a time.
The elementary course in the real school is similar to that described in the
burgher schools, beginning with the phonic method of reading, the explanations
of all the words and sentences being required at the same time that the mechani-
cal part of reading is learned. Written and mental arithmetic are taught together
in the lowest cla.ss. The religious instruction consists of Bible stories adapted to
their age ; and verses are committed to improve the memory of words. The ex-
ercises of induction are practiced, but in a way not equal to that with objects,
introduced by Dr. Mayo in England. Some of the pupils are able to enter the
gymnasirmi after going through the two lowest classes.
In regard to the real classes proper, as I propose to enter into the particulars of
the course of study of the trade school, I shall here merely make a few remarks
upon two of the branches studied in them, namely, French and drawing. The
remarks in regard to the French will serve to show how great a latitude
a teacher is allowed in the arrangement of his methods, the result of which
is, that those who have talent are interested in improving their art by observation
and experiment. The French teacher to whom I allude had been able to secure
the speaking, as well as the reading, of French from his pupils. From the very
beginning of the course this had been a point attended to, and translation from
French into German had been accompanied by that from German into French :
the conversation on the business of the class-room was in French. The pupils
were exercised especially in the idioms of the language in short extempore sen-
tences, and the differences of structure of the French and their own language
were often brought before them, and the difficulties resulting from them antici-
pated. Difficult words and sentences were noted by the pupils. Declamation
was practiced to encourage a habit of distinct and deliberate speaking, and to
secure a correct pronunciation. The chief burthen of the instruction was oral.
Without the stimulus of change of places, the classes imder this gentleman's in-
struction were entirely alive to the instruction, and apparently earnestly engaged
in the performance of a duty which interested them. If such methods should
fail in communicating a greater amount of knowledge than less lively ones, which
I belive can not be the case, they will serve, at least, to break down habits of in-
tellectual sloth to promote mental activity, the great aim of intellectual education.
The drawing department of this school is superintended by a teacher who has
introduced a new method of instruction, particularly adapted to the purpose for
which drawing is to be applied in common life and in the arts ; a method which
is found to enable a much larger proportion of the pupils to make adequate pro-
gress than the ordinaiy one of copying from drawings.* In this method the pupil
begins by drawing from simple geometrical forms, those selected being obtained
from models in wood or plaster, of a square pillar ,t a niche, and a low cylinder,
(the form of a mill-stone.) Tlie square pillar separates in joints, affording a cube
and parallelepipeds of different heights. The hemisphere which caps the niche
may be removed, leaving the concave surface of its cylindrical part. The exer-
cises of the pupil ran thus : First, to place upon a board, or upon his paper or
* Mr. Peter Schmidt, who now, in his oIJ age. has received from the government a pension
in return for the introduction of his method, and the instruction in it of a certain number ol
teachers.
t Seven and a half inches high, and one inch and a hall lu .„.. -Jj.are section.
CITY TRADE SCHOOL. 193
.te, a point vertically above another, or so that the lines joining the two shall
parallel to the right or left hand edge of the board, paper, or slate. Second,
join them. Third, to place a point horizontally from the second, and at a dis-
ice equal to tliat between the first and second points. Fourth, to place one
rtically over the third, and at a distance equal to that below the first, and to
n the third and fourth. The first and fourth being then joined, a square is
•med. After practice in this, the simple elevation of the cube is drawn. Next,
>erspcctive, by the use of a small frame and silk threads, such as is common in
lehing the elements of this subject, and by means of which the pupil acquires
idily a knowledge of the practice. The drawing of lines in various positions,
d with various proportions, terminates this division of the subject. The niche
d cylinder afford a similarly gi-aduated series of lessons on the drawing of curved
cs, and the drawing of lines of different degrees of strength and of shadows is
produced. This is accompanied with some of the more simple rules of shadow
d shade. ISIore difficult exercises of perspective follow from natural objects
d from works of art or mechanism, according to the direction to the pupil's at-
nments and the amount of taste which he displays. This method of teaching
s been introduced quite generally in Prussia, and with the best results as to the
•mation of accui-acy of eye and of hand.
I CITY TRADE SCHOOL.
Tlie City Trade School was founded to give a more appropriate education for
e mechanic arts and higher trades than can be had through the courses of clas-
jjal schools. It is a great point gained, when the principal is admitted that dif-
I'ent kinds of education are suited to different objects in life ; and such an ad-
lission belongs to an advanced stage of education. As a consequence of a gen-
al sentiment of this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruction of
ose not intended for the learned professions grow up by the side of the others.
The city of Berlin is the patron of the trade school which I am about to notice,
the king is of the real school already spoken of Its stability is thus secured,
it the means of furnishing it with the necessary materials for instruction are
lerally provided.* The trade school is a day school, and consists of five classes,
which the lowest is on the same grade as to age and qualification at admission,
the fourth class of a gymnasium. It is assumed that at twelve years of age it
11 have been decided whether a youth is to enter one of the learned professions,
to follow a mechanical employment, or to engage in trade, but the higher classes
e not closed against pupils. Of the five classes, four are considered necessary
• certain pursuits and the whole five for others ; the courses of all but the first
iss last one year, that of the first, two years, a youth leaving the school at from
' to 17 or 18 years of age, according to circumstances. During the year 1836-7,
e number of pupils in the several classes were, in the first class, eleven ; in the
3ond, twenty-nine ; in the upper third, forty-three ; in the lower third, fifty-
o ; in the fourth, fifty ; total, one hundred and eighty-five ; from which num-
rs it appears that a considerable proportion of the pupils leave the school without
tering the first class. The number of teachers is nineteen, five being regular or
iss teachers, and fourteen assistants. The director gives instruction.
The following list of the callings to which pupils from this school have gone on
iving it, will show that it is really what it professes to be, a school for the in-
uction of those who intend to follow occupations connected with " commerce,
Is useful arts, higher trades, building, mining, forestry, agriculture, and military
';;" and further, that its advantages are appreciated by the class for whom it is
ended. The list includes the pupils who have left the school from the first and
2ond classes, in the years 1830, 1832, 1833 and 1837. From the first class, two
lehers, five architects, one chemist, twenty-six merchants, one machinest, two
ico-printers, two glass-workers, one cloth manufacturer, one silk manufacturer,
e miner, thirteen agriculturalists, eight apothecaries, two gardeners, one painter,
e mason, one carpenter, one tanner, one miller, one baker, one potter, one
idler, one soap-boiler, one cabinet-maker, two soldiers, one musician, five to
'The present director of 1^'° school, Mr. Kloden, was formei-ly director of the higher
rgher school at Potsdam, and Is one of the most distinguished teachers iu his line in Persiai
13
294: CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN.
public offices, one to the trade institution, six to gj'mnasium. From the second
class, forty-one merchants, one teacher, one chemist, one machinest, one ship-car-
penter, nine agriculturist, one sugar-refiner, three dyers, one tanner, one brewer,
two distillers, one miner, two lithographers, one dye-sinker, three apothecaries,
one dentist, two painters, two gardeners, three masons, five carpenters, one miller,
four bakers, one butcher, one to the trade institution, three to public offices, two
to a gyninasium, one musician, one veterinary surgeon, one soldier, being ninety
from the first class, and ninety-seven from the second, in the period of four years.
In the course of instruction, the sciences and kindred branches are made the
basis, and the modern languages are employed as auxiliaries, the ancient languages
beino- entirely omitted. The subjects embraced in it are — religious instruction,
German, French, English, geography, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry,
technology, natural history, writing, drawing, and vocal music.
The courses are fully laid down in the following list, beginning with the studies
of the'lowest or fourth class.
FOURTH CLASS.
Religioxis Instruction* The gospel according to St. Luke, and ttie Acts of the Apostles
explained, with a catechetical development of the truths of religion and ethical applications.
Two hours per week.
German. Grammatical exercises in writing. Recital of poetical pieces.
French. Grammatical exercises. Regular and irregular verbs. Reading from Lauren's
Reader. One hour of conversation. Four hours.
Arithmetic. Mental and written, including proportions and fractions, with the theory of
the operations. Four hours.
Geometry. Introductory course of forms. Two hours.
Geographxj. Elementary, mathematical, and physical geography. Two hours.
Natural History. In the summer term, elements of botany, with excursions. In the win-
ter, the external characters of animals. Two hours.
Physics. Introductory instruction. General properties of bodies. Forms of crystals,
speciiic gravity, &c. Two hours.
Writing. Two ho\irs.
Drawing. Outline drawing and shadows, from models and copy-boards. Two hours.
Vocal Music. Two hours.
LOWER THIRD CLASS.
Religioxis Instruction. The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles read and explained.
Two hours.
German. Grammar with special reference to orthograph'-'and etymology. Written exer-
cises upon narrations made by the teacher. Delivery of poetical pieces. Four hours.
Fretich. Translation from French into German from Gredicke's Chrestomalhy. Grammar ;
irregular verbs. Extemporalia, and translations from German into French. Four hours.
Arithmetic. Partly ab.^tract, partly pi-aclical, from Diesterweg's Instructor. Four hours.
Geoxnetj-y. Determination of angles in triangles and polygons. Equality of triangles.
Dependance of angles and sides of triangles. Constructions. Three hours.
Geography. Physical description of the parts of the earlh, except Europe. Two hours.
Natux-al History. Mineralogy. In summer, botany, the class making excursions for prac-
tical exercise. Man. Three hours.
Physics. General properties of bodies and solids in particular. Doctrines of heat and
their application to natui-al phenomena and the arts. Two hours.-
Chcxnistry. Introduction. Atmospheric air. Experimental illustrations of chemistry,
applied to the arts. Two hours.
Writixxg. Two hours. Arcliitectural and topographical drateing. Two hours. Drawing
by hand lor those who do not take part in the other. Two hours. *
Vocal Mxisic. Two hours.
UPPER THIRD CLASS.
Religious Instruction. Christian morals, from Luther's Catechism. Two hours.
Gcrxixaxi. Simple and comple.x sentences. Compositions on special subjects. Poems ex-
plained and committed. Four hours.
French. Translation from Gredicke's Chrestomalhy, oral and in writing. Written trans-
lations from Beauvais' Introduction, from German into French. Grammar, examples treated
extempore. Four hours.
Arithxnetic. Properties of numbers. Powers. Roots. Decimal fractions Practical
Ar'*hmet;c from Diesterweg. Four hours.
Geoixietry. .Similar figures. Geometrical proportion. Exercises. Mensuration of rectili-
near figures. Three hours.
Geography. Physical geography of Europe, and in particular of Germany and Prussia.
Two hours.
Natxtral Histoxy. Continuation of the mineralogy of the lower tMrd class. Review in
outline of zoology and the natural history of man in particular. Botany, with excursions in
summer. Three hours.
* Roman Catholic pupils are not required to take part in this instruction, which is commu-
nicated by a Protestant clergyman.
CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. 195
Physics. Electricity and magnetism, witn experiments. Two lioiirs.
C/iemhfri/. Water and noii-nietall'C bcidips. willi exnrrimeiits. Two hours.
Wriling Two liours. Archilnclural ami lopn^rii/tliirdl rlrairhig. Two liours. Some o(
the pupils diirins this time are engaged in ornami;ntal drawing.
Vucal Music. Two hours.
StsCOND CLASS.
Rrligious Instruction. E.xplanation of tlie first tliree gospels. History of the Christian
reliffiori and clnirch to llie reformalion. Two hours.
German. Correction of exercises wriiien at liome, upon subjects assigned by the teacher.
Oral and written exercises. Introduction lo tlie history of German poetry Tlirce hours.
French. Griimm.nr; extempuralia for the appliralinn of the rules. Written and oral
translations from German into Frencli, from Ueauvais' JManual, and vice versa, from Meier
and Nolte's Manual. Four hours.
English Exercises in reading and speaking. Translation into German, from Burkhardf.
Dictation. Verbs. Two hours.
Arithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to include simple and quadratic equa-
tions. Logarillims. Three hours.
Geometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonometry. Three liours.
Geography. The states of Eurojje, with special reference to their popidation, manufac-
tures and commerce. Two hours. •
Ilislnry. Principal events of the history of the middle ages and of later times, as an intro-
duction to recent history. One hour.
Natural Tlistury. Mincraloijy. Physiology of plants. Three hours.
Chemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, wiih experiments. Three hours.
Architectural, tiipographicnl, 071(1 plain draicing. Drawing with instruments. Introduc-
tion to Inilia ink drawing. Beginning of the science of constructions. Two hours.
Drawing. From copies, and from pla.ster and other models. Two hours. This kind of
drawing may be learned instead of the above.
Vocal Music. 'J'wo hours.
FIRST CLASS.
Religious Instruction. History of the Christian religion and church continued. Refer-
ences to the b'.ble. One nour.
German. History of German literature to recent times. Essays. Exercises of delivery. .
Three hours.
French. Reading from the manual of Buchner and Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic
authors read. Review of Grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free dehvery.
Correction of exercises. Four hours.
English. Syntax, with written and extempore e.xercises from Burkhardt. Reading of
classic authors. Writing of letters. E.\'ercises in speaking.
Arithmetic. Algebra. Simple and quadratic equations. Bitiomial and polynomial theo-
rems. Higher equations. Commercial arthmetic continued. Tln'ee hours.
Geometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications. Conic sections. Descriptive Geome-
try. Three hours.
History. History of the middle ages. Modern history, with special reference to the prog-
ress of civilization, of inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry. Three hours.
Natural History. In summer, boraiiy, the principal families, according to the natural sys-
tem. In wiiiter, zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of examining specimens to
the Royal Museum.
Phyiics. In summer, optics with experiments. In winter the system of the world.
Three hours.
Technology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades, described and illustrated by mo-
dels. E.xcursions to visit the principal workshops. Four hours.
Architectural and machine drawing. Two hours. Those pupils who do not take part in
this, receive lessons in ornamental drawing from plaster models.
Vocal Music. Two hours.
The pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in manipulating in the laboratory of the insti-
tion several hours each week.
Tlie courses require a good collection of apparatus and specimens to carry
them out, and this school is, in fact, better furnished than any other of its grade
which I saw in Prussia, besides which, its collections are on the increase. The
facilities for the courses are furnished by a collection of mathematical and physiciil
apparatus, a labratory, with a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and series of
tests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures (or technological col-
lection,) a collection of dried plants, and of engravings for the botanical course,
and a small garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collection of insects,
a collection in comparative anatomy, a series of engravings for the drawing course,
and of plaster models, a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some as-
tronomical instruments, and a libran,-. The pupils are taken from time to time,
to the admirable museum attached to the university of Berlin, for the examination
of zoological specimens especially.
That this school is as a preparation for the higher occupations, and for profes-
sions not ranking among the learned, the equivalent of the gymnasium is clearly
shown by the subjects and scope of its courses, and by the age of its pupils.
196
CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN
Some of these occupations require no higher instruction, others that the pupils
shall pass to the special schools inti-oductory to them. So also, many of the pupils
of the gj'mnasia pass at once into active life, others enter the university.
The class of schools to which the two last described belong, are most important
in their influence. In many countries, an elementai-y education is the limit beyond
which those intending to enter the lower grades of the occupations enumerated in
connection with the City Trade School of Berlin, do not pass ; and if they are in-
clined to have a better education, or if intending to embrace a higher occupation,
they desire to be better instructed, they must seek instruction in the classical
schools. The training of these schools is, however, essentially different from that
required by the tradesman and mechanic, the verbal character of the instruction
is not calculated to produce the habits of mind in which he should be brought up,
and the knowledge which is made the basis of mental training is not that which
he has chiefly occasion to use. Besides, were the course ever so well adapted to
his object, the time at which he must leave school only permits him to follow a
part of it, and he is exposed to the serious evils which must flow from being, as it
were, but half taught.
In fact, however, he requires a very different school, one in which the subjects
of instruction are adapted to his destination, while they give him an adequate in-
tellectual culture ; where the character of the instruction will train him to the
habits which must, in a very considerable degree, determine his future usefulness ;
and where the course which he pursues will be thorough, as far as it goes, and
will have reached before he leaves the school the standard at which it aims. Such
establishments are furnished by the real schools of Germany, and as the wants
which gave rise to them there, are strongly felt every where, this class of institu-
tions must spread extensively. In Germany they are, as lias been seen, no new
'experiment, but have stood the test of experience, and with various modifications
to adapt them to differences of circumstances or of views in education, they are
spreading in that country. As they become more diffused, and have employed a
greater number of minds in their organization, their plans will no doubt be more
fully developed.
It is certainly highly creditable to Germany that its " gymnasia," on the one
hand, and its " real schools" on the other, offer such excellent models of secondary
instruction in its two departments. The toleration which allows these dissimilar
establishments to grow up side by side, admitting that each, though good for its
object, is not a substitute for the other, belongs to an enlightened state of senti-
ment in regard to education, and is worthy of the highest commendation
DISTJirBUTlON OF STUDIES IN THE CITY TR.\DE SCHOOL OF BERLIN.
so. OF HOURS PER TFEEK.
SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION.
Religion,
German,
French,
English,
Arithmetic,
Geometry,
Geography,
History,
Is atural History,
Physics,
Chemistry,
Technology,
Writing,
Drawing,
Vocal Rlusic,
Total,
First
Class.
1
3
4
2
3
3
3
2
3
4
2
34
Second
Class.
2
3
4
2
3
3
2
1
3
4
2
32
Upper
Tliird
Class.
2
4
4
4
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
32
Lower
Third
Class.
2
4
4
4
3
2
3
2
2
2
32
Fourth
Class.
2
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
28
Total.
9
18
20
4
18
14
8
4
13
9
7
4
6
14
10
SPECIAL IXSmUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 197
THK ROYAL TRADE ACADEMY IN BERLIN.
The Roj'al Trade Academy [KoniijUche Geioerbe Acadamie), formerly the Royal
Trade Institute (Tnstitut), at Berlin, was founded in 1821, and underwent a re-
organization in 1849.
Its object, according to tlie terms of a circular of 1860, is " to give the student
an opijortunity to qualify himself for the position of a superintendent or owner
of a techiiological establishment." It stands at the summit of technical instruc-
tion. It may be considered, together with the building and mining academies,
of which a description is given elsewhere, as a polytechnic school.
The institution is in the department of the Jlinister of Commerce, Industry
and Public Works. It is governed by a Council of Studies, composed of a high
official of the Bureau of Commerce, Industry and Public Works, of the director
of the academy as his substitute, of two i)rofcssors of the school, and of tv.-o
other gentlemen " as independent representatives of science and industry." All
the interests of the institution, and all changes in its organization, are deliberated
upon by this Council, and the results of its deliberations laid before the Ministry.
The immediate management is in the hands of the director already mentioned.
lie is not a teacher. There are ten titular pi-ofessors, and twelve other teachers.
Most of the former fill professorships in other establishments, as in the Univer-
sity. The teaching corps forms a board, called together at the close of tlie term
to a school conference on the order of classes. There is also in this institution
a class of instructors called Privatdocenten, receiving fees from their private pupils,
hut no salary from the government. They must have completed the three years'
course, and have been in practice as competent engineers.
The conditions of admission are as follows : 1. The candidate must be l>e-
tween 17 and 27 years of age, and must bring a certificate of birth to prove this.
2. He must present a certificate of maturity from a provincial trade school, from
a first class real school, or from a gymnasium. 3. Students in the shipbuilding
division must prove that thev have been engaged, for at least one year, in prac-
tical work in the shipyard of a seaport, before they can go on in the special
studies of their profession. The requirement of one year's practical work was
originally made from all candidates, but it was repealed, because a great part of
what had been acquired at the gymnasium was often forgotten during the inter-
val. In the case of shii^builders, however, the year's experience is absolutely
necessary.
The period of instruction is three j-ears, with six half-yearly terms. Of these,
the first three, Section A, are occupied with general and purely theoretical tech-
nical studies, for all the students in common. During the last three. Section B,
special courses are pursued, and practical exercises are added. The special de-
partments are :
I. Special technology, as mechanics.
II. Chemistry and metallurgy.
III. Ship-building.
The studies of Section A are obligatory on all, but those students of chemistry
who aim only at being assistants in factories. It is thouglit that " those having
this modest object in \new, can do very well without the mathematics of the third
term, and will employ their time more usefully in the laboratory. The director
may, therefore, allow that class of chemists to experiment in the laboratory after
having attended the lectures in the first theoretical section for one year." Those
198
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
intending to cst:iblish or superintend chemical factories, must go through the
whole course. The period of study can be jirolongcd hy students of mechanics,
who arc allowed to spend an additional year in tlic workshojjs connected with
the institution. ■•
The aeadeniical year begins October 1st, and closes August ],5th, with a vaca-
tion of ten days at Christmas, and one of the same length at Easter.
In regard to the studies pursued, we extract from the circular of August 23,
1860, already cited, the following paragraph, which shows the admirable spirit in
which they arc planned :
The characteristic peculiarity of the course of instruction is this, that the
students do n(Jt ol)tain the knowledge necessary to their future career by a series
of lectures, independent of one another, as at the University, but that the lec-
tures form a complete and well organized course, intimately connected with each
other, and so arranged that the student passes through all the theoretical and
practical branches of science and art, step by step from the moment he becomes
a member of the second section to the time Avlicn he leaves the Institute. This
is til. ]â– 'ason why teacliers and students are not jjermittcd to select the objects
of te:ii hing and study, that the students are obliged to pass through the general
theoretical section, and that the professors must arrange their lectures in har-
mony with tlic general plan of the Institute. Free choice is, however, allowed
within certain specified limits.
The curriculum, which has undergone many changes, is as follows :
A. IN THE GENERAL TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
a. Complement to general knowledge of figures; liighcr equations.
b. Siiherical trigonometry.
c. DilFerential and integral calcxdations.
d. Analytical statics and mechanics.
e. Thcoiy of mechanical cfl^t'cts of heat.
f. Descriptive geometry, and application of it to perspective construction of
shadows and lithotomy.
(â– /. Special inorganic chemistry.
k. Physics.
i. General experimental chemistry.
k. General knowledge of constructive building.
/. Knowledge of simple machines.
m. Drawing.
n. Modeling.
B. IN THE SPECIAL TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
I. — For mechanicians :
a. Theory of solidity of buildings, and of parts of machinery ; calculations
with regard to buildings put together; theory of Arone's counterpoise;
and {Fuiter mauern) building of sluices.
h. Motion of water and air in natural and artificial ducts ; practical hydrau-
lics ; theory of heating apparatuses ; fireplaces.
c. General theory of machines ; their I'csistance and regulation, particularly
the theory of hydraulic motors and steam engines.
d. Calculations with regard to simple parts of machinery ; general princi-.
pies of their construction.
e. Details of machines ; power machines.
f. Mechanical technology.
(f. Chemical technology.
A. Practice in ]dans of parts of machines, and whole machines.
r. Practice in plans of power machinery.
k. Practice in plans of machines and factory grounds.
/. Plans and drawings of such artistic forms as can be executed in cast iron.
VI. Mathematical foundation of the most important pliysieal laws.
SPECIAL INSTRDCXION IN PRUSSIA.
199
II. — For chemists and smelters:
a. Special iiior;,Muic chemistry.
b. lS]joci:il organic cheiuistrj.
c. Mineralogy.
d. GeofTiiosy.
c. Met!ilhirg;ic chemistry.
f. Chemical technology.
//. Special knowledge of machines and machine power.
h. Practice in planning chemical works.
i. Practical studies in the laboratory.
III. — For ship-builders :
a. (up to (') as in II. 1.
k. Drawing of vessels and parts of vessels.
/. Art of ship-building, general displacement and stability, first part; hy-
drostatic calculations.
m. Art of ship-building, knowledge of stability, second part; theory of sail-
ing and steam vessels, general principles with regard to form of vessels ;
knowledge of construction of wooden and iron vessels.
n. Practice.
o. Planning and calculating cost and capacity of vessels.
At the close of every term a review of the studies pursued during the term is
held. This review, whicli is a kind of examination, and is called " repetition,"
is obligatory only upon the stipendiaries, and that class of students who avail
themselves of the free places in the school.
On leaving the Academy, the student receives a certificate, signed by the
council of teachers ; it enumerates all the lectures and practical exercises he has
attended ; reports his standing in the repetitions and adds a critique on the skill
and judgment displayed hy him in the practical department.
There is a fine collection of models, which has recently been re-arranged and
newly classified. They ai'c in bronze, and plaster of Paris, and consist of models
of ornaments and of the plastercasts for the drawing class, models for wood and
cotton manufactures, and some illustrating descriptive geometry. Most of them
were made at the school. TThere is a )-ich collection for machinery and mechan-
ical technology. The library is open to the public at stated hours. The pupils
can use the collections under certain restrictions.
There is a laboratory for organic chemistry, with room for 50 pupils, and one
for inorganic chemistry with room for 20.
The reagents are arranged on tables, each large enough for six pupils, and
provided with cupboards and shelves. Evaporating processes are carried on in
glazed and closed stoves, vdth gas burners, and hot sand baths, the whole well
closed and ventilated.
The workshops connected with the academy are more extensive than at any
other technical establishment, and not only give practical instruction in mechan-
ics and ship-building, but encourage the construction of new machines, and man-
ufacture models for the drawing-school, and for general industrial uses. There
are consequently always a certain number of regular workmen employed in them.
The pupil begins with the making of a screw, and proceeds in regular order to
the most difficult mechanical operations, for wliich the large machines and mon-
uments made here afford a good opportunity.
The number of pupils in the Academy was 440 in 1867. In 1861-62 there
were 374 pupils, of whom 67 were mechanics, 20 chemists, and .3 ship-builders.
The fees are twenty thalcrs per half year ; forty-five thalers for those who work
200 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
practically in the chemical laboratory, and the student must pay for all l)re;,kajres,
&c., caused by his negligence. For practical work in the \vorkslioi>s, the fee is
one thaler per half year; for work in the photographic atelier once a week, two
thalcrs per half year. Masters of establishments, workingmen's unions, &c., often
pay these fees for gifted young men whom they send.
The institution has a large number, 150 in all, of free places. These are —
1. StlpauUa. Every province of Prussia can give a stipend of 200 thalers to a
pupil who excels at the Provincial Trade School. 2. Free places. Besides the
stipendiaries, each province can send up a pupil to whom the fees are remitted.
The same pi-ivilege is given to the directors of various scholastic establishments.
In exceptional cases, the State government does the same. Stipendiaries and
those who fill the free places are obliged to take all the courses in their depart-
ment, and to attend the repetitions. If they do not -succeed well in the repeti-
tions, they are liable to lose their subsidies.
The professors are paid at the rate of a hundred thalers annually for every
hour spent weekly. Most of them eke out their incomes by teaching in other
establishments, as the resulting salaries are only from 1,200 to 1,600 thalers a
year. The whole annual expenses of the school are as follows :
Salaries of director and teachers,
Collections, .--.-..
Tliree chemical laboratories, - . . .
Machine shops, superintendent's salary.
Machine shops, materials, ....
Library, .......
Stipcndia, aid, excursions, &c., - . . -
Heating, lights, maintaining of repairs, ...
Administration, servants, ....
Total,
INDUSTRIAL DRAWING SCHOOL.
The Industrial Drawing School (Muster Ztichnen Schule), trains designers of
patterns %y printing silk, woollen and cotton tissues, and paper hangings, together
with all the theoretical and practical branches of weaving. It has its own director.
The candidate must be fourteen, and be acquainted with rudimentary draAviiig.
The course, covering two years, is as follows* First year. — Drawing frem
models in relief, 24 hours a week ; applied physics and chemistry, 4 hours ; in-
dustrial drawing, 4 hours. Second year, — Composition and execution of designs
for prints and figured tissues, 36 hours ; preparing looms for quiltings, velvets,
and practice in weaving, 16 hours; decomposition of tissues, and preparing the
cards for weaving them.
Instruction is also given in drawing patterns for paper hangings, for oil cloths,
silk, cotton, woollen, or linen prints, figured stuffs and ribbons, upholstery, fabrics,
carpets, embroider^-, and lace. The course of industrial drawing commences
with the copying of flowers from nature ; then from select drawings, and no pains
are spared to accustom the pupils to the composition of new patterns. Drawing,
is, in all cases, commenced from models or from nature, not from prints.
During the vacation of each year there is an exhibition of the pupil's draw-
ings. Part of the drawings executed by the pupils remain in the establishment.
Certificates are given stating the extent of the instruction of each pupil.
The school fee is 12 thalers per half-year.
22,000 thalers,
1,500
3,000
7,000
2,000
l,.50O
7,000
4,000
2,000
50,000 thalers
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IX I'UUSSIA.
201
ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTrUE AT BERLIN.
Tlie Academy of Architecture <it Berlin (Imiu Akademie), hiis for its aim to
train public and private architects, and civil and assistant engineers. The teach-
ing staff of the institution numbers twenty-nine, five being titular luid six as-
sistant professors.
Tlie course of instruction pursued at the Academy is divided into two sections,
the first designed for assistant supervising architects ( Baiifiihrer) , the second for
architects proper and engineers in the Government service.
For admission to the first section, the candidate is required to bring a certificate
of having been in the highest class of a gymnasium, or of having finished the
course of a real school of the highest class ; he must also prove, by certificate,
that he has been practically employed for at least one year by an examined archi-
tect, and must i)roduce several drawings executed under his superrision. A
knowledge of leveling and measuring is also required. After passing this exam-
ination, he is matriculated, and is entitled to admission to all the lectures deliv-
ered in connection with the course, at the schools, the University, or the polj'-
tcchnic, and to the various collections and the exhibitions at tlie Academy of
Arts.
The instruction is given by means of lectures, and the following arc attended
by those desirous of obtaining the title of Baufuhrer. There are two semesters
in each j-ear.
First Semester. Solid, analytical, and descriptive geometry, with the applica-
tion of the latter to constructions ; spherical trigonometry; analysis, including
ditFerential calculus and conic sections. Physics, particularly as applied to light,
heat, electricity, and magnetism. Chemistry, the elements and compounds, jjar-
ticularly those having relation to building materials. Architecture, construction,
beauty and symmetry of form and practical usefulness, ancient architecture, its
character and applicability to modern needs. Outline and ornament drawing.
Second Semester. Integral calculus and its applications. Scientific and prac-
tical study of perspective and shadows. Mineralogy and geognosy. Systematic
study of building materials and their cost. Architecture; constructions; ancient
architecture. Drawing; arcliitectural and ornamental, with landscapes in pencil
or sepia.
Third Semester. Dynamics ; on statics of solid bodies and strength of mate-
rials. Machinery and mechanical action, such machines as are used in architec-
ture being specially considered. Architecture ; ancient, agricultural, with various
industrial agricultural establishments ; hydraulic architecture and bridge con-
struction. Drawing ; projecting and draughting of buildings ; elaborate draw-
ings from ancient architecture.
Fourth Semester. Dynamics as applied to architecture ; mechanics, hydrosta-
tics, aerostatics, and pneumatics. Suiweying and leveling, with practical exercises.
Building materials ; their cost, source, and the means of olUaining them ; their
artificial manufacture. Architecture, hydraulic, bridges and roads ; mills. Pro-
jecting and draughting of buildings Estimates; sujjcrintendencc ; laws of the
country regarding buildings and their construction.
Besides the above there are certain architectural designs to be drawn up and
handed in at stated periods. These arc the following : Four architectural draw-
ings; one illustrating the laws of projection ; one of perspective; four studies in
ancient architecture; four elaborate dra^nngs of ornament; two of engines and
202 SPECIAL INSTEUCTION IN KlUSSIA.
their parts ; two projects of simple buildings ; two of agricultui-al establishments.
After the examination, the title of Baufuhrer is conferred ; the candidate chooses
the district where \\i will practice his art, reports there and is sworn in. He is
obliged to send in an annual report of his occupations, and must be ready to
respond to any call from government if he should desire to be admitted to the
examination as government ai'chitect. If he intends to enter the government
service as architect or engineer, he returns to the school after two years of pro-
fessional labor. The lectures now pursued are different for architects and engi-
neers.
For Architects. First Semester. — Ancient architecture. Italian architecture
during its highest development. Projecting and drawing of architectural subjects,
especially of the first class and public buildings. Ornament.
Second Semeste?: — Technology. Principles of construction as applied to ex-
tensive buildings and cases presenting special difficulty. Internal arrangement
iind exterior style of dwellings and edifices of art. Public buildings, their pro-
jection. Drawing and projecting. Gothic ornament, with drawings and lectures.
For Engineers. — First Semester. Computation of probabilities applied to
the theory of the reliability of obsei-vations and experiments. Mechanics, and
engine construction. Sketching and computations regarding construction and
power of engines. Hydraulic architecture. Railroads and all matters connected
with them.
Second Semester. Analytical dj-namics, and all its applications in architecture
and engineering. Geodesy, Avith practical exercises. Draughts of engines. Pro-
jection, draughting, and comijutation of cost of liydraulic works. Railroads ;
construction of stations, depots, and " running stock." Arcliitectural technology.
Telegrajjhy.
Modeling, foreign languages, &c., are taught, but form no part of the exam-
inations for government situations. The examinations are open also to persons
who have not pursued the course at the school. Candidates for the title of pri-
vate architect must be a master in one of the three trades of mason, carpenter, or
stone-cutter. Assistant engineers are not examined, their attendance in the past
is examined and they are then sworn in. There are no prizes, but the one suc-
cessful in. an annual and optional competition, receives a donation of about 2,000
francs for traveling abroad.
The fees are as follows : — One at matriculation, of 10 thalers, and lecture fees
of about 18 tlialers, annually. The titular professors receive 2 thalers for the
hour's lesson, the others, IJ thalers, and the assistants, 1. The school fees
amoimt (1865), to 11,500 thalers; the expenses were 25,975 thalers. Half of
the excess was furnished by the Government, the other half came from various
sources.
In the same year there were 472 pupils ; 314 being entered for the service of
the State, 34 as private architects, 55 as foreigners, and 69 as free auditors.
BUILDING SCHOOL AT BERLIN.
The Building School, (Baugeicerhe Schule,) at Berlin, gives theoretical instruc-
tion to all classes of building artisans, as carpenters, masons, roofers, potters, &c.
The course includes German, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, elements
of force and heat, lessons in proportions, construction of buildings, fundamental
doctrine of projection, agricultural buildings, architectural and free-hand drawing,
and modeling in clay. Fourteen thalers arc paid for the whole course ; for tha
winter course alone, five.
SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WiUSSlA. 203
SUPERIOR WEAVING SCHOOL AT ELBERFELD.
The Superior Wcavinf^ School at Ellierfekl, a town owinj^ its rapid growth
ptincipally to this hranch of industry, has for its object to impart tlieorctical and
practical instruction in the various departments of the art, and also includes a
department of general technical drawinj;'. It is open to pupils of all countries.
The course is divided into three divisions, and the puj)!! can attend them all if
he pleases. These are — (1) weaving; (2) pattern drawing ; (3) the chemical
processes of weaving and dyeing.
Division I. The first division teaches the whole art of weaving, theoretical
and practical, the instruction being carried so far that the pupil can undertake
the independent management of a manufactory or of an establishment trading iu
these fabrics. It occupies 3C hours a week for a year and a half, the course
commencing twice a year, and consisting of two parts, the analytical lasting
twelve months, and the composition course lasting six. By analysis [decomposi-
tion) is imderstood the elements of weaving, a knowledge of the machines and
materials used ; analysis of the modes of making patterns in plain fal)rics, practi-
cal exercises in the various operations of weaving, the elements of Jacquard
weaving, analysis of and mode of setting patterns for these fabrics, practical ex-
ercises with the Jacquard looms, free-hand drawing, jiainting and modeling from
nature. The second part, for composition, can be entered upon only by those
who possess the knowledge imparted iu the preceding. It comprises further in-
struction in materials, their prices, and in all processes connected with the weav-
ing of linen, t^otton, woolen, and silk; the choice and calculation of the quantity
of yarn to be used for various materials with reference to the changes caused by
dyeing, and the loss sustained in weaving ; knowledge of the composition of all
kinds of textile fabrics from the simplest to the most complicated, and of all the
technical and artistic processes connected with their production ; calculation of
the special items, and of the entire cost of the fabrics; and practical exercises in
all the details of the preparation of weaving with all the different kinds of looms,
and in the composition of designs, patterns, &e.
The pupils of this division may attend the lectixres on chemistry and physics
in the chemical department without adding to their term-fees. The practical
exercises in the workshops are held from 8 to 12 A. M., and from 2 to 7 P. M.
The fee for the entire division is 120 thalcrs, the second part alone costing 90.
Division II. The second division teaches the art of drawing and inventing
designs and patterns for all woven and printed goods, and pattern-card makers
who are able to arrange every pattern correctly on the cards. There is also in-
struction in general technical drawing. The method adopted is that of Dupuis,
in which the pupil begins with drawing from nature or from the model in relief.
The course is divided into two sections, beginning twice a year, and occupies
twenty-four hours a week. Lessons are given in free-hand drawing, and paint-
ing, first from models, afterwards from natural objects, such as plants, flowers,
vases, &c. ; knowledge of the colors used in manufactures, and the mode of ap-
plying them ; composition of patterns, and knowledge of and praetieal'exercise
in pattern-making from textile fabrics, drawing,, &c. The annual fee is 30 tha-
lei-s. There is a special morning and evening class for scholars who cannot atr
tend the regular course, held eight hours a week, at two-thirds of a thaler the month.
Division III. The third division imparts thorough theoretical and practical
instruction in technical chemistry to dyers, printers, manufacturers of colors and
204 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
chemicals, &c., and also to those who wish to qualify themselves to become tech-
nical teachers There are two courses, the first being for practical chemists in
general, the sccoiul for dyers, printers, bleachers, color manufacturers, and man-
ufacturers of ciicmicals specially. Each lasts a year, with a summer and winter
course, and no one can enter the second without being prepared in the first.
The instruction given in the first course is as follows :
1. Inonjanic chemistry. A full course. Connexion between chemistry and the
other branches of natural science. The objects to be accomplished by chemistry ;
its progressive development. Stoichiomctry. The lectures are illustrated by the
use of a large collection of specimens, and by constant experiments ; 4 hours
weekly. 2. KnowUdge of chemical substances (Droguen). Inorganic chemicals.
Particular inorganic substances (as sulphurous acid, soda, chlorine, &c.,) of es-
pecial importance to technical chemists arc selected and thoroughly discussed.
Visits to manufactories, examination of the chemicals belonging to the school
and practical exercises further complete the lessons. 3. Analysis. Qualitative
and quantitative analysis, extended to all substances important to technical
chemists, the course of qualitative analysis being general, that of quantitative
adapted to the future calling of each pupil. Particular attention given to tritu-
ration (trituren). 2 hours. 4. Physics ajiplied to industry', 2 hours.
In the second course are taught : 1. Dyes and colors. — Special lectures on color-
ing stuffs, with practical exercises. The collection is studied 6 hours. 2. Analysis.
— General analysis continued ; special analysis of dye stuffs, 2 hours. 3. Physics
continued, 2 hours. 4. Theory of dyeing. — Chemical and physical consideration
of raw materials (cotton, linen, avooI, and silks); analysis of -simple mixed
stuffs; preparation of the yarns for dyeing (bleaching of cotton and linen yarn,
removing the greasiness of woollen textures, scouring silk) ; influence of the re-
actionary agents (air, light, heat) ; relation of vegetable and animal fibres to
dyeing stuffs ; substantive colors ; abjective colors; theory of tanning ; tanning
stuffs ; choice of dressing for printed goods ; its influence on the shades of colors,
&c. Glazing (chemical and mechanical arrangements). All the lectures are
elucidated by experiments, and, indeed, one of the chief objects held in view,
is that the pupils have practice in dyeing and coloring all kinds of yai-ns and tex-
tures, 6 hours. 5. Analysis of colored stuffs, 2 hours.
Only dyers, printers, &c., need to go through both courses. For other techni-
cal pursuits, the first is enough. The fee for the lectures is 20 thalers per half-
year ; for participation in the laboratory practice, 40 thalers additional. There
is no extra charge for gas or other materials.
Each pupil in the school keeps a book in wliich arc collected the patterns of the
different kinds of tissues which he has to analyze and decompose, calculating
their elements, and reproducing the perforations of the cards by sketches. He
prepares a pattern, arranges cards, and then makes ready the loom, and sets to
work. The school provides materials, but little work, however, is done.
There are 78 pupils ; 45 in the first division, 25 in the second, and 8 in the third.
The building was built by the town, the looms and other furniture provided by
the State. It possesses 42 looms, and a large collection of every kind of machin-
ery and other implements connected with weaving ; of specimens of ancient and '
modern tissues, home and foreign ; drawings, engravings, models, compositions,
&c., for the use of the scholars. There are well arranged laboratories, with room
for twenty or thirty pupils, for special technical analysis.
The annual expenditure is about 10,000 thalers, and the excess of the expendi-
tures over the receipts is paid half by the town and half by the government.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 205
INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMV.
To a Prussian citizen is due the credit of having established the first scientific
agricultural seliool in Prussia. This was the institution at Miiglin, founded in
180G by the celebrated Thaor.* Tlie first step taken in tliis matter by the
Prussian govermuont was in 1819, when the school of Miiglin was made a royal
institution.
The agricultural schools of Prussia are divided into primary, intermediate,
and superior. In the superior schools the course is verj' full and includes many
high theoretical studies; in the intermediate class the pupils arc prepared for
the higher, and receive an exclusively practical instruction, except during the
winter ; in the inferior class the pupils take the place of hired servants, pay
little or nothing, or are paid for their services. They are occupied in manual
labor or in tending horses and cattle.
There are thirty-two of these schools in Prussia. Five are superior: Moglin,
Eldena, Proskau, Regcnwalde, and Poppelsdorf. The whole number of pro-
fessors in these is thirtj^-three. Eldena is the best attended. Two are in con-
nection with universities : Eldena with Greifswald, and Poppelsdorf with Bonn.
There are two intermediate schools and twelve of the inferior class.
There are tliirtecn special schools connected with agriculture, of which we
will mention the following: two of meadow culture, one for shepherds, eight
for the raising, dressing, and working of flax, and one, at Potsdam, of garden-
ing. At Berlin tliere is a veterinary school. The two of meadow culture are
at Kramenz, in Pomerania, and at Janowitz, near Heyerswerda. There is a
forestry school at Neustadt Eberswald.
Instruction in pomology, or the cultivation of fruit-trees, is given in the
normal and primary schools to an immense number of children.
As an accessory to the system of agricultural education, may be noticed the
large collection of farming tools and specimens of forest, farm and industrial
productions at Berlin and Breslau.
All of these establishments are under the supervision of the Minister of
Agriculture.
* Albreckt Daniel ThaUr was born at Celle, in Hnnover, May J4th, 175'2. He studied medicine
at the University of Gotlingen, and took a degree in that profession, and was very successful in
its practice. During Ins leisure, he occupied himself with cultivnting flowers, and in this way
gardening and agriculturul pursuits became a passion with him, and he withdrew from the pro-
fession. He died October 2Gth, 1828. He published the fuUowing books on agriculture:
1798. English .Agriculture, with a view to the improvement of German.
1709. Annals of Lower Saxon Agriculture.
1890. Cattle-Breeding — .Additions to Bergen's work.
1803. Agricultural Implements.
1804. Bell's Agriculturnl Essays, translated, with rhapsodical addition!.
1805. Annnls of Agriculture.
1810. Principles of Rational Agriculture.
1811. Annals of Agriculture at Moglin from 1817 to 1823.
1811. On Fine-wooled Sheep.
1813. Attempt to ascertain the Net Produce of Farms.
1815. General System of Agricultural Knowledge.
1815. My Farming, (at Moglin.)
1815. Circular to obtnin the Net Produce, as a Basis for Correct Ta.^ation of the Land.
1815. Wool and Sheep-breeding.
206 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SCUOOL AT AXXABERG.
The Royal Agricultural School at Annaberg, which we select as an example
of the intermediate class, has for its object to train peasant farmers and bailiffs.
It admits none but sons of small farmers, about twentj'-five years of age, pro-
vided with a certilicate of baptism, of having attended school, of good mental
capacity and conduct, and of tlie place to which they belong.
The course of instruction lasts one year, and pupDs are not allowed to quit
before the close, or remain beyond the time. The plan is to make the pupils
acquainted with all the branches of a well-organized farming business, and
more particularly to explain the necessary connection of its several branches
and the reasons why every thing is done.
The theoretical instruction is, in summer, confined to explanations in connec-
tion with the farm work performed. In winter, several hours daily are devoted
to drawing up simple reports, agreements, receipts, &c., the leading principles
of natural science, of special sciences applied to agriculture, and veterinary
medicine. Popular hand-books are used as text-books, and the rich collections
and apparatus of the Academy of Poppelsdorf.
The practical instruction is pursued according to a fixed plan for gradually
perfecting the pupils in all the varied work of a farm. Thej^ alternate therefore
in feeding and tending cattle, in using manures, in cultivating and gathering
crops, and the processes following the harvest, in draining, and in meadow work.
The school farm is the royal domain of Annaberg, and is conducted on the
plan of securing a high and permanent profit. It includes a large orchard, nurs-
ery, and vegetable garden, besides meadows, and waste lands which are being
gradually redeemed. The character of its soil is very varied, affording oppor-
tunities for many different kinds of culture.
The number of scholars is temporarily fixed at six, and board at $69 a year.
AGRICULTUR.^L SCHOOL AT JIOGLIN.
The Royal Institute of Agriculture at Moglin was founded by Thaer in 1806,
and kept in existence through those troubled times only by the great talents of
the founder. In 1819, the Prussian government, following the example of
"Wiirtemberg, constituted it a royal institute and assimilated its professors to
those of a gymnasium, both as to rank and salary, with the condition that cer-
tain pupils, sent from Berlin, should receive gratuitous instruction.
It is a boarding-school, and is governed by a director. The course lasts four
years, beginning October 1st and closing on the 1st of August. The instruction
includes lessons in mathematics and the physical and natural sciences as applied
to agriculture, rural economy, veterinary art, and forestry. It gives more spe-
cial instruction in form accounts, raising fine wool, meadow irrigation, and
potato cultivation on a large scale. The price of board and instruction is, for
the whole course, $240. Pupils are admitted temporarily at $7,00 per week.
The domain, which is yet in the hands of the Thaer family, consists of 1,050
acres of poor, sandy land, 50 of natural meadows, and a wide extent of pine
forest. There is a vast stock of sheep, cows and bulls, horses and swine. In
all, at the time of the visit of M. Royer in 1844, there were 1,850 animals,
among which were 1,600 sheep, 60 cows and oxen, and 12 horses, with 21 farm
laborer.?. The principal industry was distilling potato spirit and raising wool.
It admits 20 pupils; 511 have been through the four years' course.
SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 207
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY AT POPPELSDORF.
The object of this academy is: 1. To afford an opportunity to young flirmers
who have a certain amount of prehminary, scientilic, and general knowledge,
and who are skilled in handling the implements of their calling, to make tliem-
sclves acquainted with the sciences specially applicable to agriculture, as also
the auxiliary sciences, in as far as is required for the rational fanning and ad-
ministration of a landed estate in the present day ; and, 2. To oflcr to students
of jurisprudence and of political science, as well as to all others wliose future
vocation may render some acquaintance with the rational mode of conducting
an agricultural business useful (though they may not intend to become practical
formers,) the means of learning to know the theoretical as well as the practical
prlnci[)lcs of such a business, and to acquire a distinct notion of its organization
and the mode of conducting it.
The aim of tlie academy is thus not only to educate men to be thoroughly
capable of conducting the business of larger or smaller estates, whether as pro-
prietors, farmers, or land-stewards, but also to enable future officials in the
administrative departments of government, who may require more than a super-
ficial knowledge of rural economy, to obtain this.
The studies in the academy are distributed as follows :
L BRANCHES OF STUDY CONNECTED WITU FARMING.
A. Agriculture. — 1. Knowledge of the soil:
Upper stratum of the earth. Atmospheric action of constituents of the earth.
Tlie influence of mountain formations on the composition and fertility of tlie
soil. Pli3'sical properties of the soil. The classiflcat'ou of soils. The distri-
bution of soils. Sub-soil and surface soil.
2. Studij of manures :
Principles governing the nourishment of plants. The difference between
wild and cultivated plants. Stable manure. Combination of tlie different
animal manure.s. with stable litter. Treatment of manure in the stable, the
yard, and tlie field. Liquid manure, litter, nightsoil, other animal, vegetable,
and mineral manures. Economic importance and use of the same. Different
processes for preparing manures for sale, and dili'erent methods of applying
them.
3. Clearing^ draining, and â– working the land.
The most important process of tillage ; different modes of culture Required
for woods, heatlis, moors, and sandy places.
Evils of dampness. Different melliods of draining, more particularly by
underground drains. Draining combined with practical demonstrations ; cost
and results.
Various objects and various methods of tillage, deep soil culture, fallows.
Different metliods of cropping, change of crops. Rules to be followed in sow-
ing, reaping, and storing produce.
4. The knowledge of agricultural itjijylements and machines.
The importance of agricultural implements and machines. Materials used in
their construction.
Implements for working the ground; hand tools; horse machines; the
plough. The importance and history of the plough ; what is expected from it.
Tlie work of the plough. Theory of the plough. Its different parts. Classifi-
cation of ploughs. Judgment of the different kinds of ploughs with reference
to the uses they are to be put to. The extirpator, the scarifier, horse chopper,
drag, roller.
Sowing machine system ; machines for broadcast, drill and dibble sowing.
Criticism of the methods most in u.«e. Machines for spreading manure. Ma-
chines for pulverizing manure. Machines for liquid manure.
208
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
Various renping machines, machines for mowing com, grass mowing ma-
chine, horse rakes, haymaking machines, potato-digging machines.
System of tliresliing by machinery ; hand winch, and steam threshing ma-
chines.
Criticism of the most important
Macliines for cleaning grain (cleansing and sorting machines.)
Groat, flour, and crushing mills, and oil-cake crushers.
Chopping machines and root-cutters.
Other machines and implements, pumps and hydraulic engines. Machines
for making drainage pipes. Winchwork. Implements of transport, (carts,
wagons, sledges.)
5. TIte cultkation of grain and fodder :
The special culture required for each plant ; requirements as to climate and
soil.
Succession of crops; preparation and manuring of fields ; arrangement; care
during vegetation, harvesting, storing, and transport.
6. The cultivation of materials for manufacture :
The special culture of each plant as in JSTo. 5.
The lectures on the cultivation of special plants will be elucidated by prac-
tical demonstrations on the farms of Poppelsdorf and Annaberg.
7. The cultivation of grass lands:
Examination of the different modes of culture, distribution of meadow land.
The forming of meadows bj- sowing.
The treatment of meadows which can not be irrigated. Clearing, leveling,
manuring, breaking up or draining; forming of water meadows, advantages of
irrigation, implements used in the cultivation of meadows, trenching ; otiier
operations counected with the artificial treatment of meadows, flooding, aque-
ducts, special methods of irrigation, overflooding, the Peterson system, making
valuations, the care and keeping up of artificial meadows.
8. Tlie cultivation of vines and vegetables :
(a) The cultivation of grape-vines ; on the nature of the grape. The places in
which it is indigenous; the climatic requirements; the propagation and im-
provement of vines; making and working vineyards; different methods of pro-
duction ; treatment and cultivation; quantity and quality produced; the
diseases of grape-vines.
(6) The importance of the cultivation of vegetables, where there are accessible
markets. The laying out of the vegetable garden. The cultivation of vege-
tables on sound principles, with special reference to the kinds of vegetables
suited for country populations, and for sale in large quantities.
9. The cultij-ation of fruit trees:
Principal facts in the history of fruit culture. Knowledge of fruit culture,
â– with demonstrations. The choice of the best and most useful varieties. Their
requirements as to climate, situation, and soil. The raising of fruit trees, with
demonstrations. The laying out and management of nurseries for fruit trees.
The planting, division, and management of the improving orchards. Improve-
ment of the quality of fruit trees. The theory and modes of proceeding as to
different methods of grafting, with practice. Rearing, cutting, and shaping the
grafted tree. Fruit tree plantations, mode of planting and tending them. The
diseases of fruit trees. The use and storing of different fruits. The profits
derived from fruit culture.
B. Cattle-breedixg. — 1. The general rearing of animaU :
Relations of cattle-breeding to agriculture. Importance of this at the present
time. The fundamental principles of cattle-breeding, &c. The art of breeding;
the origin of races ; artificial and natural races. Technical expressions ; breed-
ing; descent; influence of both sexes on the breed. Influence of parentage;
individual influence, cross breeds, thorough breeds. The school of Buflon.
Breeding in and in. Different methods of crossing. Darwin "On the Origin of
Species." Instruction as to feeding. Different kinds of food and their con-
stituent parts. Efl'eets of different kinds of food. Tlie natural inclinations of
domestic animals with respect to different kinds of food. The volume of food.
The amount of water contained in the fodder. The relation of protein to
hydro-carbon. The effects of fat. Preparation of food. Salt as an ingredient
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
209
of diet. Mixed fodders. Rules for determining tlio amount of nourishment in
diBerent kinds of food. Of the individual kinds of fodder. Matters to betaken
into consideration in determining the quantity of food. Mode ol" estimating
quantities to bo given for substance, for fattening, and lor diminisiiing fat.
Tlie iurtiier care of domestic animals. The allotment ol' Ibod for .stated meal-
times. Ciiange of food. Drinks. Temperature of the stables. Air, light,
exercise, treatment in other respects.
2. The hretdlw] of homed cattle :
Importance of breeding horned cattle. Points in natural history. Breeds of
oxen, the Eiiglisli breed in particular.
Breeding, cli!)ice of breed, meihod of breeding, choice of individuals for
breeding. The relation between bodily form and usefulness in various respects.
Rearing of calves.
Feeding and tending full-grown cattle :
General principles on which cattle should be fed. Amount of food required
Summer stall-feeding. Pasturing, a mixture of the two. "Winter food. Alter-
nation of fodder. The stable arrangements. Persons tending the cattle.
Em[)loyinent of cattle on a farm :
The dairy. Chemieal and other properties of milk. Testing milk. Matters
that intiuence the quantity and quality of milk. The making of butter and
cheese. Fa'.tening — CJhoice of stock for fattening. The process of fattening
calves. The meat market. Classification of meat. Tlie purchase of fat beasts.
The use of o.xen for labor. Choice as to breeding or purchasing.
3. Ilorse-hreeding and knoioledge of the external -parts of horses :
Horse-breeding. — Its importance. Natural history. Principal races of horses.
Choice for the various purposes of breeding. Pairing. Keejjing and tending
stallions and marcs. Tending of and feeding foals. The most important dis-
eases incident to foals. A knowledge of the external parts of horses. Bodily
structure of the horse. The relation of one part to the other. Difterences of
form and development with reference to the various services for which the
horses are destined. Paces. Age of teething. Precautions to be observed in
purchasing horses. Practical demonstrations.
4. Bearing sheep aiid the knowledge of icools :
{a.) Sheep-breeding ; importance of breed. Natural history. Breeds of
sheep. The history of merinos. Breeding, right method of breeding. Choice
of direction of breeding. Process of breeding. Choice of stock for breeding.
Register of breedings. Pairing. Lambing. Keeping of lambs and ewes.
The nourishing and tending of the full-grown animals. (Jeneral principles as
to the nourishment of sheep. Amount of food required. Stall-feeding. The
two methods combined. Winter fodder. The preparation of food. Tlie choice
of food. Persons attending the sheep. Arrangement of the folds. Utensils
for holding food.
Treatment and sale of produce. The uses of wool. Washing. Shearing.
The sale of wool. Use of the milk. Separating the sound animal from the
unsound. The sale of fatted beasts. Sale of sheep for breeding.
The use of sheep on the farm. Principles of different modes of sheep farm-
ing. Composition of flocks. Calculation of the cost and profit of different
modes of slieep farming.
5. Tlie knoidedge of ivool:
Of wool in general. Technical preparation. Cloth wool and carding wool.
Special properties of wool. Fineness, curl, softnes.s, strength of fibre, elas-
ticity, length, color, gloss, oiliness.
Wool in staple and fleece; quality of staple. Thickness of the wool ; out-
ward form of the staple. Inward construction of the staple. Shortness, even-
ness. Matters to be observed in judging of the yield of the wool.
6. Rearing of smaller ariirnals:
(a.) Rearing pigs. Importance of rearing pigs. Natural history. Breeds.
Breeding. 'Selection of breeds. Process of breeding. Choice of individuals
for breeding. Register of breeds. Birth. Care of the litter.
The feeding of piga General principles of feeding. Amount of food re-
quired. Alternation of food. Gradual process of fattening. Sale of the fatted
animals. _ .
14
210 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
(&.) The rearing of domestic poultry. Knowledge of races, breeding, feeding,
and lending. Ditlerent plans of management.
Sanllan/ mailers connected ivith the treatment of domestic animals. — General
external infUienees which aftect the bodily condition and health of animals, and
the amount and quality of the animal ; product more particularly.
(a.) Atmospheric inlluences affecting respiration, the developing heat, and the
functions of the skin. Heat and cold, moisture, crowding, exercise, light, &c.
{b.) Food and drink. General character of these. Their relations to the
organs of digestion, and the different purposes of feeding. Amount of food to
be given. Preparation of food, &c.
(c.) Tending and care, housing.
C. Theory of Farming. — 1. Principles of 2}olitical economy involved in rural
economy :
Object of rural economy : land and soil, and their adaptability for different
modes of culture. Position of the different classes of agricultural laborers.
"Work done by horses. Choice of cattle for draft. Number of laborers required.
Application of machinery. Capital, its distribution. Productivity of the capital
invested in the various branches. Relative proportion of these sums to each
other, to the land worked. Sale of products. Character, size, and distance of
the market-town. Influence of trade relations on the entire business of the
farm. T/ie Farmer — Ilis education. Administration of the estate by the pro-
prietor. Letting to a farmer. Conduct of large and small farms. The relation
of industry to agriculture. Agricultural associations and means for taking
credit.
2. Farming systems :
The management of large estates, and the preparation for carrying out plans
for working.
Nature of objects aimed at in the management of an estate. Different sys-
tems of farming and different rules of rotation. Critical examination of the
same. The conditions on which they can be profitably carried on. Parceling
out of fields. Diffusion of the established systems and alterations introduced
by progressive civilization. Change to a new system and new rotations. Choice
of collateral branches of business in connection with the farm. Conduct of
the business. Persons engaged in the management. Their duties and position.
Choice and acquisition of estate by purchase or on lease. Agreements for pur-
chasing and taking leases. Founding new estates. Instructions for laying out
a farm.
3. Valuation of land and instruction in making estimates of productions:
Meaning and object of valuation. Different reasons for valuation.
Principles of valuation. Improvements. Different methods of classification.
Estimate of gross revenue derived from the various branches, and from the en-
th-e outlay on the estate. Estimate of net profits. Estimate of the capital
value. Special and general valuation. Practical instructions for making esti-
mates of revenue.
4. Agricultural hook-heepijig :
As a guide to the lectures, treating of the importance, the principles, and the
method of the improved system of keeping agricultural accounts, the director,
Dr. Harstein's work on the subject shall be used, and for practical exercise the
pupils siiall make out a year's accounts of the Poppelsdorf estate, according to
the system of double entry.
5. AgricuKural calculations :
These lectiu'es, which are illustrated by examples, treat of the solution of
manifold questions connected with the administration of landed property by
means of arithmetical formulas. For instance, calculation of the cost of pro-
duction of, and of profits which ought to be realized on, various agricultural
products ; proofs of the advantages of various operations, such as the use of
particular macliines, of new luethods of cultivation, of the technical manipula-
tion of pro.lucts, &c.
D. History of Agriculture. — 1. Ilistnry and statistics of agricidture :
History of the gradual development of agriculture, especially in Germany.
Sketch of the present state of agriculture as shown by official statistics. The
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 211
condition of Germany will hold a prominent place with regard to tliis branch
of the subject also.
2. Likralure of agriculture, with fp^cial ni'mtion of tlte newest publications :
The gradual development of agricultural literature, as shown bj' the leading
ancient works on the subject. Critical cxauiinntiou of the most important
modern works on agricultural subjects.
3. Goinparative statement of the condition of agriculture in thf 2)rincipal Euro-
pean countries, jvith particul'ir rtfertnce to Eiujlnnd ond Germany :
â– Comparative account as above, taking into account the natural conditions of
the various countries, their means of ccimmunication, &c., with a view to aflbrd-
ing German agriculturists a clear understanding of their own position in relation
to those of other countries, and of the advantages and deficiencies of German
agriculture.
II. Forest Economy. — 1. Forest culture :
The importance of forest culture. Cursory view of forest botany. Tlie arti-
ficial and natural tirst growths and after growths of the useful forest products,
with practical demonstrations.
2. Forest industry, tlie protection of forests, and valuation :
A knowledge of the qudity and proper use of ditlcrent woods. The ingath-
ering and improvement of forest products (forest technology.) The transport
and valuation of the useful produce of the woods. Measures of protection with
regard to the damage done to woods by men, hurtful beasts, and bad
weather. Accounts of the produce of woods, and calculation of the net profit
thence accruing from them, and of the consequent capital value of the woods.
In these lectures, particular notice will be taken of private woodlands, and the
most important subjects relating to such will be treated in detail.
3. Concerning huutiny and fishinij :
Division of subjects. History. Breeding of game. Preservation of game.
Hunting, and proceeds of hunting. Formation, maintenance, and management
of fish-ponds.
III. Natctral Philosophy. — 1. Inorganic experimental chemistry :
Introduction. Properties of simple bodies. Laws of chemical combinations
and decomposition. Description and conditions of compound inorganic sub-
stances. The whole department of inorganic chemistry will be discussed in
these lectures, and illustrated by experiments, a deeper study being devoted
more especially to those elements and their combinations, which are of special
importance in the economy of nature, and which play a prominent part in agri-
culture.
2. Organic expsrimental chemistry.
Introduction. Special character of organic combination. Substances of im-
mediate and mediate organic origin, among the first, hydro-carbon, vegetable
acid.s f.itt}^ substances, substances containing nitrogen, &c. ; am.ong the second,
alcohols, ethers, the products of drj^ distillation,' kc. The extent of the in-
struction given on these subjects will be in proportion to their importance with
regard to the vital processes of plants and animals. The lectures will be illus-
trated by experiments.
3. Analytical chemistry, icith practical exercises in the laboratory :
Introductory lectures on analytical chemistry. The students receive, first,
instruction in qualitative examination of minerals, vegetable ashes, soils, ma-
nures, &c. ; and afterwards in quantitative anah^sis, for which the chemical
laborator)' has every requisite. Participation in practical work will onlj' be
allowed to those who have gone through previous study of inorganic chemistr}'.
4. Chemistry of soils :
General survej' of the process of chemical decomposition of arable soiLs, both
with respect to its mineral and its organic constituents. The chemical theory
of the exhaustion of soiLs, and of manures. These lessons are completed by
lectures on the practical knowledge of soils.
5. Animal chemistry :
Chemical principles of the process of animal nutrition, and of change of sub-
stances. A critical examination of the most important experiments in feeding
characteristics of the animal substances most important in practical life.
0]2 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN TRIISSIA.
6. Literature of agricultural chemistry :
History of ngricultural chemistry. A survey and criticism of the most im-
portant works of ancient as well as modern literature bearing upon this science.
A detailed repetition of selected chapters on the subject of theoretical chemistry.
I. E.iperimenial 2'fiysics :
(a.) Statics and dj-namics. Introductorj' lecture. General properties of mat-
ter. Laws governing the equilibrium and motion of solids, liquid, and aeriform
bodies. The phenomena of diffusion and endosmose. ,
(b.) Science of heat and meteorology. On conducted and radiated heat. The
most important effects of heat. Expansion of bodies, alterations of the state
of aggregation. Elasticity of steam. Detailed descriptions and illustrations
of the steam-engine. Influence of heat on climatic changes. Origin and meta-
morphosis of the atmospheric precipitates {Niederscldage.)
(c.) Electricity, magnetism, sound and light. General physical theory of the
laws governing the powers of nature. Explanation of their natural action,
(TsTorthern lights, tempests, their effects on vegetation, &c.,) and their applica-
tions in practical life. Telegraphy, photography, &c. The course of lectures
on physics will be illustrated by experiments.
Each of these three sections of physics will form a connected whole, so that
the study can begin with either without much loss. Besides the first section
on statics and dj-namics will be taught in the lectures given during one half-
year of the second year's course on agricultural machinery aud mechanics.
8. Mimralogy and geology : *
A brief sketch of geology.
Composition of the crust of the earth. Rock formations, their structure, po-
sition, and origin. Mountain formations, uplieavings aud sinking. Volcanic
phenomena. The geological action of water, (springs, erosion, and deposits
caused bj- rivers, seas, and lakes.) Characteristics of the most important sedi-
mentary formations. Coal, peat, salt deposits, &c. History of the inorganic
world. The characteristics of minerals which constitute the chief ingredients
of rocks, and the products of the decomposition of which form the soil. Min-
erals most important to miners and for technical purposes.
9. Botany in general and the anatomy of plunk :
Morphology. The outward form and anatomical characteristics of the organs
of plants.
Principles of systemization. Characteristics of the classes, orders, and most
important families of the vegetable kingdom, their habitual, anatomical, and
morphological distinctions. Eeference to the general principles of natural sys-
tematization.
Tlie most nnporiant facts touching the geography of plants ; limits within which
plants are distributed over the earth ; their natural habitation and their emi-
grations.
Paleontology of plants. Characteristics of the vegetation of various geological
epochs.
10. Physiology of plants :
Detailed representation of the structure and functions of the organs of plants
and of outward influences on vegetation, (for instance, of nourishment taken in
through roots and leaves, assimilation and course of the sap, transportation,
the influence of light, of warmth, of air, of the soil, &c., on the vital process of
plants, &c.)
II. Agricultural botany and the diseases of 2^T-<ints :
Monographic descriptions of all the agricultural plants and meadow grasses
in Gerniany, their habits, germination, vegetation, and fructitication. Reference
to the relations of their physiological conditions, to their cultivation, countrj"-,
history, and distribution of the several kinds of plants suited for cultivation.
The lectures will be illustrated by demonstration on living plants, in the lecture-
room and during excursions.
In the description of agricultural plants, their diseases, and what is noxious
to them, will be touched upon ; afterwards a general survey of the diseases of
plants, and more especially of those caused by parasites, will be given.
12. Selected sections of general botany and vegetable anatomy and physiology :
The most important matters comprised in these departments will be specially
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 213
dwelt upon, and tlio newest pnl)lications on these sulijccts will be mentioned
so as to enable the student to continue his studies in this direction.
13. Pradkal exercise in using the microscope, and experiments as to the physi-
ology of pluitti:
(a.) Use of the Microscope. Introduction to the use of the microscope. Ex-
hibition and preservation of microscopic preparations, and practice in micro-
scopic investigations; {b.) Introduction to experiments on plants. Tiio student
will have the opportunity of personally testing tlio most important questions in
the pliysiologyof plants. For example, the examination of transpiration, nour-
ishment, tlio influence of light, of warmth, &c. Only those students who have
heard the necessary preparatory lectures can take part in these microscopic and
and plu'siological experiments.
14. Anatomical and physiological survey of the animal kingdom:
The most important points bearing on the organization of the classes and
orders of the animal kingdom. The influence of external and internal struc-
ture on the habits of life. General- remarks on the processes of nutrition, res-
piration, and circulation, the action of the nerves and muscles, functions of the
organs of sense and propagation. These lectures will be illustrated by numer-
ous demonstrations.
15. Xalural history of invert'ihrafe animals:
Tho chief part of these lectures will treat of the natural history of insects
important to the agriculturist and to the manager of forests; and that of bees
and silkworms will be fully elucidated bj-deuionstration. The rest of the lower
classes of animals will bo briefly treated of, and their relation to man specially
touched upon.
16. Xatural history of vertebrate animals:
Characteristics of mammalia of birds ; of amphibious animals and of fish.
Their chief anatomical and physiological features, with particular reference to
the species useful or hurtful to man. Anatomical demonstrations.
17. li'-petitions in natural philosophy â– :
During these repetition.^, students, and more particularly those who have
been unable to follow and complete the two years' course of instruction, will
have an opportunity of gaining an eneyclop;edic insight into all the various
branches of natural philosophy taught separately in the academy.
IV. M.\TiiEitATics. — 1. Practical geometry and exercises in measuring land
and leveling :
Theorems in practical geometry; their use in the art of measuring fields.
Application of the latter to agriculture Practical exercise in measuring fields,
(with measuring bars, cross discs, the surveyor's table, the compass, the theod-
olite,) and in leveling.
2. Agricultural mechanics, and the study of machinery :
Laws of motion ; natural powers; estimation of their strength and working
capacity, friction, solidity of bodies, mechanical powers, their application and
combination as agricultural machinery.
"Water pressure, motion of water, (in rivers, canals, and conduits.) "^'ater
power and water wheels.
Atmospheric pressure, and its practical application. Steam power and steam-
engines. Mills.
V. PoLiTic.vL Economy. — 1. Tlie 2Yrinciples of national economy :
Fundamental idea of property. Systems of national political economy. The
characteristics of national wealth. Laws governing the production, the distri-
bution, and the consumption of goods.
2. Political economy :
Relation of tho State to the national wealth. Way and means of governing
in order to obtain the maximum of national prosperity.
Administrative measures and regulations relative to the production, distribu-
tion, and consumption of goods.
VI. JuitiSPBUDEXCE. — 1. Introduction to the laivs respecting agriculture:
A short view of the exi.sting works on land in Germany. Explanations of
the idea connected with the terms, person, things, action, agreement, &c. Laws
concerning property, law of inheritance, law of entail, &c.
214 SPECIAL LXSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
Tlic lectures on the general principles of law will hold constantly in view the
M-lation of these to agricultural law, and the very extensive subject will thus be
limited and deterruined.
2. Agricultural law.
3. Agrarian legislation (Agral Gesetzgebung.)
VII. Vetekixary Science. — 1. Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals:
These anatomical and physiological lectures, wliich are to be considered as
laying the foundation of the knowledge of veterinary science, of sanitary sci-
ence, of the law.? of health as regards animals, and of the breeding of animals,
treat of these subjects in detail, and in connection with numerous demonstra-
tions on living and dead animals.
2. Acute and contagious disorders of domestic animals:
This lecture treats of the most common internal disea.ses, and of all infectious
and contagious complaints of animals, their classification according to the parts
they affect, (diseases affecting the organs of respiration and digestion, &c.,) their
causes and course. As the object is not to give profound veterinary knowledge,
but rather to enable the former to recognize the first symptoms of illness, and
so' form a right judgment as to their danger, to treat slight illnesses himself,
and, in urgent cases, when the veterinary surgeon can not be obtained quickly,
to apply the proper medical and surgical treatment; that part of therapeutics
will be taught, more especially, which has reference to the treatment of slight
and acute diseases.
3. Exfermd diseases of domestic animals :
Their division according to the seat of the disease in the various parts of the
body. In respect of these diseases, also their appearance, their usual course,
their local and general importance, and their tendency to become hereditary,
&c., will be taught more in detail than the therapeutical and surgical treatment
of them. As far as possible, practical demonstrations will be added to scientific
teaching. Besides this, practical exercise will be aftbrded by the performance
of special .slight operations, such as bleeding, cauterizing, &c.
4. Shoeing and tending.
{a.) Shoeing. — A short sketch of the anatomy and phy.sio]ogy of the hoof.
The horse-shoe. Shoeing sound hoofs. Shoeing diseased hoofs. Shoeing in
abnormal positions and for irregular paces. Practical illustrations.
(b.) Tending. — All matters relating to the symptoms and treatment of female
animals during bearing time.
VIII. Technology. — 1. General Technology :
Introduction. Study of materials for burning and lighting. Preparation of
fuel. The technical importance and application of water. The manufacture of
animal and vegetable fats, of weaving and spinning fibres. Clay, gypsum, and
lime-burning.
2. Technology of collat-^ral branches of rural economy :
Importance, application, regulation, and management of allied industries,
showing the most recent scientific and practical improvements ; for instance, in
the manufacture of starch and sugar, brewing and distilling, the making of
wine, the manufacture of vinegar, the preparation of bread, butter, and cheese.
Illustrations by experiments, drawings, models, and visits to manufactories.
IX. Aechitectcre. — 1. Building materials and the art of building :
Tlie knowledge of building materials, the mode of obtaining them, and rules
for their selection. Descriptions of the most important building works, their
valuation, and terms which ought to be paid for their construction.
2. Construction and arrangement of agricultural and industrial buildings:
These lectures will be illustrated by drawings and models, as well as by
buildings already erected.
3. Comtrwtion of roads and canals:
Constructing and keeping up roads, as well as the needful ditches, thorough-
fares, and bridges. Constructions for protection against inundations and swamp-
ing; making of weirs and sluices.
4. Exercise in draicing:
_ The drawing of plans and of agricultural implements and machines, and de-
signs for agricultural buildings.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
215
Mr. Flint, in the account of his visits to European agricultural institutions, in
18G3, thus speaks of his visit to Poppelsdorf: —
The agricultural college at Poppelsdorf, connected with the university at
Bonn, is some ten miles above Cologne, beautifully situated on the left bank of
the river, within sight of the far-famed Siebengebirge, or seven mountains, and
the Draciicnfels. It is reached by a magniticcnt avenue leading Inini Bonn to
Poppelsdorf, studded with superb chestnuts in double rows on eitlier side.
I called at once on Dr. Hartsteiu, tlio director of the agricultural scliool, who
kindly gave me the intbrmation I sought in regard to its present position and
prosperity. Close by his hou.se is an ancient castle, now used as a depository
of the extensive scientific collections belonging to the university, to which the
students in agriculture have access. Tlie model farm of the agricultural insti-
tute is also, close at hand. Tliis is used for the purpose of experiment, and the
crops on^lie experimental plots were very striking. Extensive nmlberry hedges
surround the field.s, and the silk-worm was in the full tide of succe^isful operation.
The scientific lectures extend over not only the branches requisite in the
Uepartnieiit of agriculture, but also the fundamental and auxiliary sciences con-
nected with it, viz.: —
(a.) Agriculture in its whole range as a leading science, and especially
1. Tlie science" of tillage, which is divided into a general and special branch.
In the one are the knowledge of soils, mnnure.s, and the working of the land,
the seed, care of tlie crop, and harvesting of agricultural products in general is
taught; in the other, more exact instruction is given as to the judicious culti-
vation of each one of these products. In this connection the formation of
permanent meadows, and especiall}' artificial meadow.*, is considered.
2. The science of cattle-breeding or the production of animals, which also
includes a general and a special cour.se. In the first, instruction is given as to
the ditferent races, the pairing, breeding, feeding, care and fattening of cattle in
general ; in the second, the breeding of cattle, sheep, horses, swine, &c.
3. The proper farm management, taking in the whole agricultural profession,
and including general rules and principles. The principal divisions are, the
objects of agriculture, land, capital and labor, sale and leasing of estates,
different systems of agriculture, the arrangements and direction of farms, and of
taxation and book-keeping.
To the.se lectures upon agriculture are added those on fruit management,
garden, fruit and vineyard culture.
(b.) Chief and auxiliary sciences.
1. The natural sciences, chemistry and iMiysics, zoology, botany and mineral-
ogy, with special reference to agriculture, and so far as they are of importance
to the farmer in the oversight and judicious direction of his estate.
2. Mathematical sciences, especially applied geometry, stereometry, statics,
hydrostatics and machinery, connected with the practice in field-measuring,
leveling, drawing of plans, &c.
3. Popular agricultural literature, so far as it serves as a safe ground-work
for practical agricultural instruction.
4. Agricultural technology.
5. Veterinary science.
6. Agricultural mechanics.
7. Laws relating to agriculture and the cultivation of lands.
8. History, statistics and literature of agriculture.
The farm connected with the institute serves for practical illustration, as well
as the excursions which, from time to time, are taken in the neighborhood, and
during vacations, also, into more distant regions. The institute is in want of no
au.xiliary means of making the theoretical and practical instruction most use-
ful. Among these are the chemical laboratorj', erected especially for agricultu-
ral investigation, the physical apparatus and the instruments for land measuring
and leveling, the collection of minerals and ores, the zoiilogical and veterinary
collection, the collection of models and implement.s, and of wool, the lil)rary,
the economic botanic garden, the botanical collection and the estate, with the
experimental fields and the vineyard. Besides these peculiar means of instruc-
tion of the institute, the use of the rich collections and apparatus of the
216 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
University, tlie royal university library, botanic garden and natural liislory
museum, is available.
Students pay an entrance fee of six thalers, and a fee for tuition of forty
thalers, or tliirty dollars, for tlie first term. The amount for the second term is
tliirty thalers, the third twentj^ and the fourth ten, making the fee for the whole
course of two years, one hundred thalers, or seventy-five dollars.
The lectures embrace a two j'ears' course, the terms being arranged to con-
form with those of the university. The special plan of instruction is made
known each term. The school is designed for those who desire to educate
themselves for skillful farmers, and those who devote themselves to the studies
of the university, and at the same time wish to become fomiliar with the opera-
tions of agriculture. Students who are entered at the Universitj^ of Bonn, and
enrolled in any of the faculties, can attend the agricultural lectures on applica-
tion to the director.
Applicants have to bring certificates of good conduct. No proof #f specific
attainments in elementary school studies is required, but it is desired that,
before visiting the institute, the pupil should be familiar with the practical
manipulations of farming, and be able to show proof of it.
On admission, the student is matriculated and enrolled in the foculty of
philosopliy at the university. Bj' this he acquires all the rights and undertakes
all the obligations of the university students.
The whole establishment is under the control of the royal ministry for agri-
cultural affairs at Berlin.
The experimental farm, close by the school, contains, I believe, about seventy
acres. I visited the barns and out-buildings, all of which appeared to be in
admirable condition, a place for everj^ thing and every thing in its place.
But seven or eight cows are kept, and those are all Dutch, wliich are thought
there to be among the best for milk. No experiments appear to be made there
to test the comparative merits of different breeds. A long series of experi-
ments in the fields near the house seemed to be conducted in the most careful
manner. Many of the plots of wheat were of extraordinary growth. A great
variety of plants are cultivated, chiefly for the purpose of instruction.
ROYAL ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY AT ELDENA.
The superior agricultural school at Eldena is connected with the University
of Griefswald. It was opened in 1834, and connected with the university on
account of the vast manor connected with the latter, which was, moreover, suf-
fering from lack of students.
It is governed by a director, who is at the same time teacher of agriculture
and rural economy. The professors of the university give instruction in vete-
rinary art, the natural sciences, and mathematics. The students must matric-
ulate there, but are bound only for one semester. They must be over seventeen
and must produce testimonials of good conduct and of having pursued classical
studies. The instruction extends over two years, and includes :
1. Political Economy : — Finances; Rural police; Constitutional law in Prus-
sia ; Governmental organization ; Politico-economic discussions. 2. History
and Staiktics of Agriculture: — Agriculture in general; Agriculture special;
Cultivation of meadows ; Zootechny in general ; Raising of sheep ; Raising of
horned animals; Rural economy ; Systems of culture; Valuation of rural estates;
Agricultural book-keeping, theoretic and practical. 3. Sylviculture in general,
(culture of groves.) 4 Horticulture : — Culture of garden vegetables; Culture
of fruit trees; Arboriculture, (culture of trees and shrubs for timber, &c.) 5.
liaising of Horses : — Anatomy and phj'siology of domestic animals; Veterinary
medicine ; Hygiene. 6. Chemistrxj : — Experimental and agricultural, organic
and inorganic chemistry, (exercises in the laboratory,) physics, and meteorology;
Technology, with practical demonstration in the distillery ; Brewery; Tile-kiln,
and dairy; Excursion to the .saline of Griesswalde ; to the beet-sugar manufac-
tory of Stralsuud; Manufactory of instruments and mills. 7. Anatomy, riiy-
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 217
si'olo'jij, and Geology of Plants : — Botany, general and applied to agriculture;
Horticulture and Sylviculture; Zoiilog}', general and applied to agriculture;
Excursions. 8. An'thmtiir. and Matheinatics : — Surveying; Leveling; General
and applied meelianics. 9. Drawing : — Rural arcliitecture; Praclicai estimates
of constructions. 10. Rural Law.
It is liberally endowed and possesses a collection of machines and tools.
It lias nine professors and eiglitj- pupils, of wliicli ten will devote themselves
to the higher departments of government, where a knowledge of agriculture is
needed. Tlio fees are about $90, board not Included.
AC.\DESIY OF AGRICULTUEE AT PROSKAU.
The Agricultural Academy at Proskau, in Silesia, was opened in 1847, and,
up to 18C7, had been attended by 1,0G7 students. Its curriculum is identical
with that at Poppelsdorf. There are eight professors, and a farm of 2,31 2 acres.
There is also an inferior practical school for young farmers here, called prak-
tikanten station. The instruction is given them by the administrator of Proskau
and the farm-inspector at Schemnitz, in whose house they are boarded.
SCHOOL OP AGRICULTURE AT REGEXWALDE.
The Superior Institute of Agriculture at Regenwalde was established in 1842.
It has four professors, with a course like tlsat given at Poppelsdorf. Tlie fees
are about $221 per annum. The farm includes about 1,100 acres.
SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AT POTSDAJL
The gardening school at Potsdam was opened in 1 823. It admits pupils who
have passed two years in the preparatory school of Schonberg. There are six
professors, and the course consists of a review of elementary studies, geometry,
drawing, and the cultivation of trees, esculent vegetables, ornamental plants,
and those employed in industry. The school possesses land for experiments,
and a nursery of about eighty acres, whence fruit and forest-trees are sold.
There are about thirty pupils, of which ten or twelve are bursars.
SCHOOL OF FORESTRY AT XEUSTADT EBERSWALD.
The superior special forestry school at Neustadt Eberswald is administered
and directed by the Minister of Finance. It was founded at Berlin in 1820, and
united to the university ; in 1830 it was removed to its present site.
The course lasts two years, with two terms in the year. The branches
taught are forestry, general and special botany, the eneyclopa?dia of the natural
sciences, entomology, general and applied to forestry, phytotomy, vegetable
physiology, mineralogy and geognosy, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometrj-,
stereotomy, statics and dynamics. Conferences are held upon natural historj',
mathematics, political economy, and forestry; many excursions are made into
the forests connected with the school, and one annually into those of the Elbe
and Harz. Four botanical and surveying excursions are made weekly. For
coppice-working there is a district appropriated to the school at Obcrsdorf, in
Tiiuringia. The school receives onl}- forty pupils.
The fees are fifty thalers the term. There are many bursars. Young soldiers
who have practiced forestry and have served five years in a batallion of chas-
seurs, and can pass an examination in geometry, are received free into the
school, continue to draw their army pay, and after two years, may present
themselves at the examination of forest-inspectors.
218 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
VETERINARY SCHOOL AT BERLIN.
The Yeterinary School at Berlin has for its chief object to teach the art of
military veterinary surgery, and almost exclusively of the horse.
There are nine or ten teachers and forty pupils. The course consists of anat-
omy, physiology, zoology, the veterinary art, and horse-shoeing, and extends
over three years. There is an examination every six months, and one at the
close of the course, after which the pupils enter the regiments or are assigned
to posts. A clinique where sick animals are treated is connected with the
school, and is free of charge, but their owners pay for food and medicines.
French estimate of Prussian Agricultural Schools.
M. de Laveleye, in the Revue des Deux Mondes for September, attributes
the great advance made by Prussia in agriculiure, first, "to the complete system
of general education throughout the rural districts ;" and second, " to the tech-
nical instruction provided not only for the manufacturing and mechanic classes,
but for the agriculturists."
Prussia maintains four Ro3'al Academies of Agriculture, at which both the
theor}' and practice of farming are taught during two years, at a cost to each
student of less tlian 8^. a year for instruction in political and rural economy,
tlie management of trees and woods; in the mode of manufacturing sugar, beer,
bricks and draining tiles ; in mineralogy, geology, botany, and chemistry, with
experiments and excursions; and lastly, in mathematics, trigonometr}^, land-
surveying, practical mecliiuiics, veterinary surgerj-, rural law, the history of
tlieir countrj', and constitutional law. Excursions into the most interesting
districts are common. The persons who attend these academies are those wlio
have to make tlieir living by their own farms, commonly of small extent. For
amateurs a less practical course is provided at institutes connected with the
Universities of Halle and Berlin. Tliere are nineteen provincial schools of agri-
culture below the academies, subsidized by the State to the amount of about
2,000^., and generall}' taught by some large farmer, assisted by the neighboring
apothecarj', schoolmaster, and veterinary surgeon. There are also numerous
special schools, for particular branches, such as market-gardening, and the cul-
tivation of meadows and woods. The care of fruit-trees is taught in one hun-
dred and thirty-four schools in the ancient provinces alone.
Tlie sj'stem of paid instruction is extended by the institution of itinerant
teachers, wlio go from village to village, criticising the cultivation and giving
advice about rotation of crops and the most suitable kinds of manure. Tlie
State also maintains seven experimental institutes of organic and agricultural
cheniistrj', which, on different soils and under diflerent circumstances, are test-
ing and completing the theories of Liebig, and in proving the quality of the
artificial manures of commerce.
Finall}'. there are 519 voluntary agricultural associations, which by confer-
ences, exhibitions and prizes, assist in spreading information. Apart from tlie
academies and institutes of chemistry, the State does little. There is a central
commission, presided over by a Minister of Agriculture, but its expenses in
lfG2 were only 177Z. Three large stud flirms, maintained at a cost of 20,000^.
a j'ear, continually improve tlie breeds of liorses for war as well as peace.
Eleven hundred stallions, distributed from tliese fiirms through the provinces,
get annually 35,000 foals — a number sufBeient to modify the breeds throughout
the country in any desired direction in a verj-- few j'ears.
M. do Laveleye assigns much importance "to the simple and economic habits
of the German fjirmer, and to the fact that Prussia is fortunate in having no
Algiers, no largo fleet, and especially no Paris to oppress agriculture by the
drain of both money and men ; but the great secret of the success of Prussian
agriculture is diffused education and technical instruction."
SPECIAL INSIRUCHON IN PKUSSIA. 219
COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS.
In Prussia, the Real school, and even the Higher Burgher school, has been
regarded as suflicicnt to give all the ai)i>ropriatc and special instruction rcijuircd
for a mercantile career, the practical part ol' which could, it was thought, he better
acquired by a few years service in a subordinate position in the counting-room
than in any school.
COMMERCIAL SCHOOL AT BERLIN.
The Commercial School at Berlin, founded in 1848, by Br. Schweitzer, and
now under the direction of Dr. Frantz, has for its object the sjiccial preparation
of pupils for commercial pursuits. There are but few schools of this special
eharacti'r in Prussia, as it is generally maintained that the gymiuisiums and real
schools atlbrd the best general culture necessary to the merchant of good social
standing, while the counting-room is the best practical school. However, the
government has sanctioned this establishment.
The course of instruction covers two years, and there are four divisions : class
III, class II B, II A, and class I. The branches taught are aritlimetic, geom-
etry, physics, history, geography, drawing, calligraphy ; the history, geography,
statistics, and science of commerce ; history of mercantile stajiles, technical chem-
istry, laws of exchange, coinage, &c. ; book-keeping, French, English, and Ger-
man languages, and correspondence.
There is a Government Board of Inspection of the final examination. Suc-
cessful candidates are excused from two of their three years' military service.
From 1856 to 1862, 122 pupils passed, of whom 21 were characterized as "ex-
cellent," 64 " good," and 37 " passable."
The number of pupils was in 1862, 100 in the first year, and 140 in the second ;
in 1863, 173 and 176; and in 1864, 204 and 213; these statistics showing an in-
crease of public confidence in the institution.
COMMERCIAL AXD INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR YOUNG WOMEN, AT BERLIN.
The commercial institution for young women, at Berlin, was opened in 1866. Its
purpose is to impart to young women already possessing considerable education,
such theoretical and practical knowledge as will cualile them to fill resi)onsiblc
commercial and industrial positions, especially those of book-keepers, accountants,
and correspondents. It has seven professors.
The course is divided into two divisions ; the first (A) extends over two years,
giving general preparatory culture, with a view to future emi)loyment in com-
merce or industry ; the second (B) of one year, suited to those who wish to obtain,
as soon as possible, the knowledge necessary for entering at once into some prac-
tical employment. Ladies over 15 are admitted to Division A; over 16, to
Division B. The subjects and hours, per week, are spccilicd below.
General knowledge of commerce and industry; definition of commerce; differ-
ent kinds of trade; auxiliary means of trade; coinage; weights and measures;
money ; banking and exchange business. The most iin]iortaiit laws n-lative Jo
commerce and industrv, 1 hour during the first year; 2 during the second ; 2 in
Division B. Commercial and industrial bo<)k-kec]»)ng (l>y single and doiildc
entry,) 1 hour first year; 2 the second; 2 in Division B. Connnercial hand-
writing and practice' therein bv writing themes on commercial business, 3 iiours
first vear; 3 in Division B. Arithmetic general and ajiplied to coinnicroc and
industrv, 4 hours first year, 2 the second ; 4 in Division B. Gcnnan laiiguagc
and composition, 2 hoiirs first year ; 1 the second ; 3 in Division B. Gcrmaa
220 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRDSSIA.
coiumcrcial correspondence, 1 hour tlic second year ; English language and cor-
respondence, 3 hours botli years ; 2 hours in Division B. French language and
correspondence, 3 hours in both years, and Division B. Drawing, especially
free-hand and pattern drawing, 3 hours both years and in Division B. Stenog-
raphy, according to choice. Elements of natui'al history, 2 hours in both years,
and Division B, and the elements of physics and clieniistry, 2 hours both years,
and in Division B, to ])rcparefor the study of couimercial geography and history,
2 hours in the second year, and 1 in Division B,aiid the knowledge of goods and
technology, 2 hours in the second j'car, and in Division B. Knowledge of mat-
ters connected with the vocation of women, more esjjccially domestic economy, 1
hour in the second year.
The last branch applies science to domestic life, and treats the subject as fol-
lows : Knowledge of sustentat ion — alimentary substances, varieties, source, value for
nourishment, adulterations, and tests. Animal and vegetable food in all its varie-
ties. Cheapest and best diets. Cooking ; materials for fire, utensils, modes of cook-
ing. Preservation of food. Fermentations ; putrefaction, and modes of prevent-
ing it. Various modes of preserving food ; the ice-house ; storing food.
Dairy products. Alimentary stuffs, and household goods, and materials. Care
of house linen, nursing, sanitary laws, management of servants, accounts, and
various other household functions.
The above plan of studies is only temporarily established, and is subject to
change. Visits are made to workshops, goods depots, &c.
At the close of the course, after an examination, a diploma may be conferred.
The school fees are a matriculation fee of three thalers ; an annual fee of 50
thalers ; in Division B there are 10, additional for English, French, and draw-
ing. Pupils are not received for less time than a year, but may attend single
courses for 1|^ to 2 thalers the course per semester. There are 49 pupils.
Connected with the institution is a collection of books, specimens of goods,
physical, chemical, and technological apparatus.
SCHOOL OF NAVIGATION, AT STETTIN.
This school is intended to train mariners and masters of merchant vessels. It
is under the superintendence of a director, residing at Dantzig, who has the same
control over the other navigation schools in Prussia, and is provided with two
professors and an assistant, who teaches drawing.
To be admitted to the lowest class, the candidate must be able to read and
write, be acquainted with elementary mathematics, and must be able to make a
fair composition in German. The lessons are given during 32 hours a week, and
during three years, the first year being a course for jjilots, while, during the last
two is taught the art of navigating the high seas.
The course iu pilotage comprises the following branches ; arithmetic, plane
geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, terrestrial
and astronomical obsenations, drawing of sea-charts and astronomical maps, and
English. That of the higher division comprises the preceding studies carried
farther, rigging, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the commercial rules rela-
tive to ships' papers, and to the course of exchange at the principal commercial
ports, ic.
On leaving the school an examination is held, and a certificate of proficiency
awarded to those undei-going it in a satisfactory manner. This certificate is the
basis of all promotion to any and the different stations of command of a mer-
cantile vessel.
The fees, paid quarterly, are six thalers for the pilot's course, and ten for the
higher course in navigation.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. £21
MINING ACADKMY AT BERLIN.
The Milling Academy (Berg Ahidcmie) at Berlin, gives a superior finisliing
education to persons connected witli mines or the working of metals. It is gov-
erned by a director, and has a corps of nine professors, three attached to the
school, and six connected with the University, who attend to give their practiial
courses. The pupils must inscribe their names for the courses they intend to fol-
low, and persons not belonging to the school may hear single courses after the
same formality. The school fees are calculated at the rate of 1^ thalers the term
for each hour's lesson attended per week ; thus a course with six lessons in the
week costs 9i thalers per half year. Laboratory manipulations cost 20 thalers
additional, and assaying 10.
The course of instruction includes : 1. Mathematics; 2. Geometry; .3. Me-'
chanics, elementary, higher, and applied ; 4. Physics; 5. Construction of mining
machinery; 6. Chemistry, theoretical, technological, and analytical ; 7. Mineral-
ogy, crystalography ; 8. Geology, paleontology; 9. Survej-ing, general and
practical; 10. Architecture, and construction in reference to mining; 11. Met-
allurgy, assaying by the dry and the wet method, and the blow pipe; 12. Min-
ing law and business system, including book-keeping; 13. Drawing, through
the whole course, with referL«ice to construction, platting of grounds, sections, &c.
At the end of the course there is an examination, giving the pupil who passes
it the title ofeleve dcs mines (pupil of mines). If he is to enter the State service,
he must pass two more, the first, for the title of auditor of mines (rl-ferendaire dcs
minex), after two years' practical mining ; and the second, for that of assessor of
mines, after two years' of administrative labor under a chief engineer.
The three professors attached to the academy and the director receive each
1,000 thalers a year. The total expense of the establishment is 12,000 thalers,
and the part not covered by the receipts is borne by the State, which lias also
jirovided the building, the cabinets, and the apparatus. There are very complete
geological and mincralogical collections, and very commodious and -wxll-organizcd
laboratories. Of the latter there are two, one for the dry and one for the humid
method of assaying. Reagents arc placed freely at the disposal of the students.,
only the more costly ones being given out under supervision.
SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL MINING AT BOCltUM.
The Mining School at Bochum was founded in 1863, out of the surplus funds
of a miners' association. The management is in the hands of the Director of the
Mining Bureau, and of the trustees of the old miners' fund. It is designed for
superintendents of mines, and master workmen.
The pupils must have worked three years in a mine before entering the school-
They must enter early enough to finish the course before being called out to
military duty, or else have finished their period of service.
The course occupies two years ; the first year is preparatory and optional ; the
studies of the second occupy 30 hours weekly, and include mathematics, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, physics, mechanics, and the elements of
building construction, the law, administration and accounts of mining, and draw-
ing. It is held only in winter, the summer being spent in work in the mines.
Instruction is gratuitous to indigent pupils only, who, if they give promise of
excellence, find no difficulty in getting pecuniary assistance.
There is, connected with the school, an excellent library of works relating to
mining matters and to the studies pursued, and a collection of geological and
paleontological specimens.
222
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
THE STEEL WORKS OF KRUTP.
In connection with this brief description of the Scliool for Practical Miners at
Bochum, which wc compile from the letter of Mr. Sarauelson, on " Technical
Education in various countries abroad," we introduce a few extracts from the same
letter, to show the commercial importance of the region of country, in Avhich this
and otlier schools intended to give a high scientific training to the engineers and
foremen of the great industrial establishments, which the wise policy of Prussia
now fosters and protects, are located :
The coal basin of Westphalia will be the foundation of an industrial develop-
ment for the continent of Europe, second only to that of Great Britain. Its area
is not yet fully ascertained, Init the yield will last for centuries, even at a higher
rate of production required to supply the steel and ironworks now in full activity,
and the numerous factories v.hieh arc springing up through all this region.
At Essen, in the heart of the great coal basin and rich mineral district of West-
phalia, are the celebrated steel works of Krupp. They consume 800 to 1 ,000
tons of coal per day raised from pits within the walls of the works or immediately
adjoining, the cost at the works being less than 5.s. per ton, probably the lowest
cost of fuel in any metallurgical Morks on the continent. The machinery is as
pei'fect as the magnificent products of the work would lead one to expect. The
range of crucible fiirnaccs is a sight of its kind unparalleled in the world, except
perhaps at the neighboring works of Bochum. A steel 1,000-pounder breech-
loading gun was nearly completed for Russia, and several 200-pounders and 300-
pounder steel guns, hooped and rifled, also breech-loaders for the German Navy.
Hundreds, I think I may say thousands, of steel guns, of every size, from those
I have named down to 4-pounders, and for every nation under the sun, all rifle
breech-loaders, but of endless patterns, were in every stage of progress, from the
solid ingot, passing lindcr the ponderous steam-hammer to the bored and turned
gun, fitted with its breech-piece, and sighted. Besides the guns, U'amberless rail-
way wheels and tyres were in progress. I may notice a number of Ibrged cast-
steel cranked axles, one of enormous size, tor a transatlantic steamer, building at
Greenock, by the Alessrs. Caird, and several steel hoops for the Elswick gun
factory. Nearly 8,000 men are employed at these works, producing 60,000 tons
of steel annually, or more than twice the entire export of steel from the United
Kingdom ; and the human tide, as it pours frona the numerous gates at the din-
ner hour, is not the least suggestive of the sights of Essen. At the outbreak of
last year's war, ( 1866,) a thousand men were called imder arms, but 250 of them
were quickly sent back, lest the manufacture of cannon should suffer interruption.
The administration is like that of a small State. All the heads of the technical
departments are pupils of the various Polytechnic schools of Germany. The
Commercial stafT includes a jurist, by whom all contracts are settled, and legal
questions determined. The foremen have all risen from the ranks.
In the very centre of the works stands the modest dwelling-house, and the very
workshop in which JNIr. Krupp succeeded to his fiither's trade at the age of 15,
forty years ago, employing at that time a single journeyman at the forge, and
himself traveling on horseback to sell his steel wares throughout the country.
The wages of the puddlers here arc about 4s. per day, but it is probably above
the average of the district. Rollers earn 4s., mechanics up to 5s. ; the hammer-men,
at the enormous steam hammers, 5s. to 6s. ; their assistants, 3s. to 4s. 6f/. Here
again, there is no sub-contracting — the share of every man, in the tonnage rate,
is fixed by the managers and paid to him at the pay-table.
The facility and certainty with which solid ingots of steel, Mcighing from 4o
to 50 tuns, are turned out of the works, are not more astonishing than the pro-
duction of the largest as well as the most delicate moulded castings in steel at
Bochum. The steel disc-wheels of Bochum, cast in a single piece, are now to be
found on nearly every Gennan railway, and while the price scarce exceeds that
of iron wheels, their durability is incomparably greater; about 20,000 of them are
already running. Bochum, like Essen, is in the Westphalian coal-liasin.
Scarcely inferior in interest are the great iron and steel works of Ilocrde, cm-
ploying 4,500 work people. The heads of the teclmical departments here, as
elsewhere, are pupils of the higher schools ; the foremen are suj^erior workmen.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN I'KUSSIA.
223
INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
Drawiii":, since the estahlishmciit of the Acadeiny of tlie Fine Arts in Berlin
in Itl'JO, and of the Real Seiioul hy llcekcr in 1747, has funned an important
branch of instruction, not only in profe-sional and Icchiiical srhools, Imt in insti-
tutions of "general culture, of the liiulicst and lowest t;rade. In the classical and
scicutitic schools, in the trade scIkjoIs and (urtlier inii)ro\cnieTit sciiools, in the
primary and secondary schools, wc are sure to find its place in the ]>ro;;raninie of
studies. In 18;5I, it was made a matter of S))ccial regidation hy the Minister of
Pidilic Instruction, which was revised hy the same authority in 1803, with sug-
gestions as to the aims and methods of this branch of instruction.
The followinji; l}ejj:ulations for instruction in Drawing in tli'j Gymnasiums and
Trade Schools of I'russia, was issued by the Minister of Pul)lie Instruction
(Von Muchlcr), October 2, 18G3 :
Instruction in drawing is an important element in the education of youth, and
forms an essential jiart of the ])rogranime of superior schools.
Experience has demonstrated that the actual state and results of instruction in
this branch, as well as the develojiment of scientific teaching, and the condition
of art and industry, rcipiirc a revision of the regulations of March 14, 1S.'31.
With tiie advice of the royal academies of tine arts of Berlin, Dusseldorf, and
K(enigsberg, and of the provincial academic councils, and of several teachers
of tried experience, the following regulations ha\o been prescribed :
I. PROGRAMME FOR GYMNASIUMS.
1. Instruction in drawing in gymnasiums is given in four classes or consecu-
tive courses, the trade school constifuting the fifth class.
Independent of this division of courses, jtupiis, as far as local convenience
permits, shall be classed in sjiccial divisions, according to their capacities and
progress.
Lower Class :
2. Elements of the theory of drawing; lines of dilTcrent direction-;, and diin.'^n-
sions in various coniI>inations. Drawing of straight and curvetl lines Avithout
mo Id.
In the first course, that steadiness of hand is not to be expected, which is
necessary for drawing lines and circles with tliL- j»erfection attained with the use
of instruments.
Scrond Class :
3. First elements of perspective, with the occasional use of the ruler and com-
pass if necessary. The pupils may draw after models of wood ; the ajiparcnt
changes of aspect to which bodies are subject must be explained ; also the elllct
of light on the surface of liodies, and the shading of solids, beginning with those
with plane surfaces. The models are to be turned successively to the right or
left and ])laced at various distances from the pupil.
Moreover, in this class free-hand drawing after engravings is entered u]ion, ad-
vancing to parts of the face and to entire heads, giving at first only contours and
blight indications of shade.
Third Class :
4. Advanced exercises in free-hand drawing after models and plaster casts, or-
naments, leaves, parts of the human body ; copying engravings is to be continued,
and landscajjC drawing to lie begun.
Progressive development of perspective ; drawing from models in various posi-
tions and at various distances. Theory of the vanishing-point.
Introduction to the use of the ruler and compass in the principles of architec-
tural design.
Fouiih Class :
5. Free-hand drawing after engravings, arabesques, animals, heads, and com-
plete figures ; more diflicult landscapes.
Drawing from busts, full heads, use of stump and drawing with two crayons.
Persjiectivc continued to drawing apartments and groups of difficult objects not
presenting too great difficulties.
294 SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IN PRUSSIA.
II. PROGRAMME FOR TRADE SCHOOLS.
6. The four prcccdinj; classes, comprising the course of a gymnasium, are also
the first four chisscs in the trade schools, with the difference, however, that in the
latter, free-hand drawing is taught to pupils of the superior classes, together with
linear drawing (ruler and conipa>s), beginning in the third class. The method
of projections, on a jdane or in elevation, is theoretically and practically exposed,
and extended much farther than at the gymnasiums, while a greater uumber of
hours also are devoted to instruction in drawing in the superior classes. Beyond
this, the trade schools add a special fifth class to the course pursued at the gym-
nasium.
Special or Fifth Class :
7. Continuation of free-hand exercises ; problems from pei'spective and the
theory of shadows, with scientific explanations ; exercises in linesir drawing ac-
conling to the special profession of each pupil ; elements of topography.
8. As a close to the instruction in drawing, polytechnic schools can impose
proofs of capacity upon pupils leaving the institute :
1. Linear Draicimj. — A geometrical or prospective projection, including con-
struction of shadows, simple objects in ai-chitecture, mechanics, or other branches.
This proof implies the sup])Osition that pupils of the superior course of a poly-
technic school are able to trace back any graphic representation to its elementary
geometrical construction ; that they are familiar with descriptive geometry, with
the theor}^ of shadows and of perspective, and that they are sufficiently practiced
in designing architecture and machines, without having completely exhausted the
theoretical part of the branches.
2. Free-hand Drawinc/. — In this branch the- individual disposition of each pupil
should be considered ; their inequality in this respect does not admit of a fonnal
prog-ramme as definite as that for linear drawing. The more advanced piipils
should be able to draw with the free-hand, arabesques, landscapes, animals, heads
and entire from engravings, and various objects, including shaded heads from
models in ]d;ister, and prove their comprehension of the principles involved.
3. Drawing of plans and topographical drawing must also, to a moderate de-
gree, become familiar to the pupils
To this programme are appended the following suggestions :
1. Instruction in drawing should proceed gradually from the most easy to the
most difficult studies, avoiding that pedantic monotony which weakens the atten-
tion of pupils, and passing lightly over isolated details, accustoming the student
at an early period to consider the whole. There is no want of excellent models
for the first courses in iiistruction ; but it is recommended that the teacher should
sometimes make his own models that the pupils may see tne method of construct-
ing them. In the beginning the entire class should be engaged in the same
problems in order to better sustain their attention and to elevate and stimulate
their zeal.
2. The programme of instruction in drawing in the superior schools, particu-
larly in gymnasiums, embraces also, besides the training of the eye and the hand,
the development of the feeling for the beautiful. Pupils will learn by progressive
exercises, to take in at a glance the characteristic forms of objects, and to properly
appreciate the beauties of natural scenery and the master-pieces of plastic art.
3. Free-hand drawing is the most important exercise at the gymnasium, and
the cour-^e should correspond with the indications of the programme, without be-
coming purely mechanical ; but should, on the contrary, be pursued with the
object of elevating the student to spontaneous and intelligent reflection. Noth-
ing should be done by the beginner without previous theoretical and practical ex-
planations. The education of the mind must accompany that of the hand ; the
latter can produce only what the eye sees, and the eye sees incorrectly without
the aid of the understanding. The copying hand is not only an instrument in
the service of the eve, but the auxiliary of a reasoning mind.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTION IN PUUSsIA. 225
To iittuin this object, it is pr.rticularly imiiortant that the instructions sliuuld
not be linutcd, as is often done, to llie mere copying of engravings, a system from
â– \vhieh -seieiiec and method ai'O ahnost always exehided. Drawing from enj^rav-
ings alone is injurious to the eye, because tlie object to be reproduced is always
too near; and it will happen that pu])ils, after following a course in drawing
thronirh several vears, will nut be able to ilraw eorreetlv even a chair or anv other
simple body.
4. Experience shows that most pupils leave the gvninasium to choose a jiro-
fcesion after the third or fourth class, for which reason the complete drawing
course for a gymnasium has been so organized tliat the pupil can ac(juire, iiel'oie
he leaves, besides some skill in free-hand and linear drawing, the theory of making
plans and elevations as well as the elements of perspective ; in short, they ai"e suffi-
ciently familiarized with the principles of design to pursue the cour^^e by them-
selves, if their vocation requires.
In gymnasiums the use of the ruler and compass in architectural design is re-
served for the higher classes.
The education of the aesthetic sense, aimed at in all the other literary studies
of the gymnasium, is also assisted by the study of models from the antiipie, and
pupils in the higher classes should be made familiar not only with the classic
antiquities, but also with some of the master-works in sculpture and architecture,
5 The polytechnic schools, by the terms of their organic regulations and to
respond to their object, should initiate their pupils into a thorough knowledge of
nature, science and art, by giving due importance to the instruction in drawing.
By it, pupils should become accustomed to observation, in order that, by pene-
trating mathematical forms, they may be able to find and recognize them in all
the natural combinations into wliich they enter, and to determine their jicculiar
and external characteristics. The better they understand the laws of nature, the
more the sense of the beautiful will develop itself within them.
G. If, for the object of polytechnic schools, linear design occupies an important
f lace in the programme, it is not with the desire that free-hand drawing be neg
lected ; on the contrary, it should be cultivated in an earnest and methodical
manner, always connected with instruction in perspective. It is recommended to
add it to the plan of the fifth class, and if thought proper, to the preceding
courses, in connection with lessons in natural science, and to introduce as a model
the skeleton of tlie hunum body.
Before commencing linear drawing, properly so termed, the pupil should have
acquired skill in free-hand drawing. This branch may begin in the third class,
with the theory of projections, since perspective has been a subject in preceding
classes, and may be continued with the theory of shadows.
7. Instructi<m in drawing should not generally pass the limits assigned in the
pix)gramme of the school ; its object is not to form artists, but to exercise pupils
in the elementary principles of art, in the understanding of form, in sureness of
eye, in the habit of estimating proportions, and in steadiness and skill of hand.
Copying landscape studies is often dispensed with in higher classes, as the time
and labor spent are out of proportion to the usefulness of the practice, and be-
cause both teacher and pupil arc easily deceived by productions of this sort.
8. In the selection of studies, regard should be had to the needs of instruction,
rather than to method and iesthetics.
9. Besides a collection of studies and models, it is indispensable that superior
schools should be provided with a well-lighted hall specially adapted to this in-
15
226 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
struction, where suitable objects for observation, the copies of characteristic and
celebrated works of art, busts, ornaments, fragments of architecture, etc., will be
the best decorations. Tlie daily contemplation of these models will contribute
essentially to the development of the faculties concerned in drawing.
Schmidt's method.
In 1836, Mr. Peter Schmidt received a pension from the government in
acknowledgement of the services rendered the schools and the country by a new
method of drawing introduced by him into the Koyal Real School, and taught
by him to the teachers of the trade school and of the city normal school.
In this method, pupils begin by draAving from geometrical forms, made in wood
or ])laster, of a square pillar (seven and a half inches high and one inch and a
half in its square section), a niche, and a low cylinder. The square pillar sep-
arates in joints, affording a cube and parallelopipcds of different heights. ' Tlie
hemisphere, which caps the niche, may be removed, leaving the concave surface
of its cylindrical part. Each of these models afford a graduated series of lessons
on the drawing of solids, and of curved lines, and the di-awing of lines of different
degrees of strength, and of shadows. This is accompanied with some of the
more simple rules of shadow and shade. More difiicnlt exercises follow from
natural objects, and from works of art, or mechanism, according to the attain-
ment of the pupil and the direction of his taste. An account of this method
will be found in Prof Bache's description of the Royal Real School of Berlin.
DUBL'IS' METHOD.
The method proposed by M. Alexander Dubuis, of giving tlie human head,
or bust, which presents only very general masses, or features ; after this, another
bust, with some additional indications of the head'; then a third, in which the
details are more numerous and more decided ; and lastly, a fourth, in which
the details are according to nature. These four busts, each placed in different
positions, presenting four successive stages of the same figure, is in use in some
public, as well as private drawing schools.
DRAWING IN COMMON SCHOOLS.
Although drawing receives some attention in the common schools, and the
teachers are systematically trained for this purpose, its scope in Prussia is far
more restricted than in schools of the same class in Bavaria and Wurtemberg.
By the " Rer/ulativ" of 1854, drawing in the Teachers' Seminary "must not go
beyond introductory lessons in the linear repi'esentation of simple objects," and
in the ordinary one class elementary school, it must not be taught beyond the
simplest free-hand drawing from flat examples. Practically, it is not carried, as
in the best Bavarian schools, into elaborate penmansliip, tasteful as well as accu-
rate map-drawing, ornamental designing, and the culture of the sense of llie
beautiful generally. Nor is it applied in the common schools, as in "Wurtem-
berg, to the industrial details of the future occupations of the pupils. Instruc-
tion of this kind is reserved for the adult, or supplementary schools, and to the
trade and art schools.
In the absence of any official directions as to the system of teaching drawing in
in this class of schools, we introduce a very valuable paper on the subject, prepared
by Dr. Ilentschcl for Diesterweg's " We(/weiser," a manual which has special ref-
erence to the organization, instruction, and discipline of common schools :
DRAWING.*
BY DR. ERNST RBNTSOREL.
I. DEFINITIONS.
" The cultivation of the faculties of representation and form, gives us a feeling
for beauty, grace, form, and symmetry." — Harnisch.
Drawing is a mode of representing solid forms by lines upon
surfaces.
A drawing, as a result of artistic labor, lias either a purpose out-
side of the art — such are mechanical drawings, plans, anatomical
drawings, (fee. — or it is executed for its own sake ; as are landscapes,
fi'uit pieces, &c. In the former case, their purpose is principally one
of material usefulness ; in the second, they are executed with an en-
deavor after a beautiful external form ; and are thus a representation
of the ideal. But those of the first sort do not exclude the beautiful,
for every object, without any exception, can be beautifully represented.
Material forms are either natural or artificial ; and either geomet-
rical, or irregular.
Various species of drawing are practiced ; as,
1. Linear drawing, which gives only an outhne of the object ;f and
shaded drawing, in which surfaces are shaded.
2. Geometrical and perspective drawing. The first represents
objects in their correct relative proportions as to magnitude; the sec-
ond, as they appear to the eye. The geometrical delineation of one
side of a body is called an elevation ; that of its plan, a ground-plan.
3. Free drawing and sketching ; either with or without the use
of rule, compasses, <fec.
4. Copying, or drawing from another drawing ; drawing from na-
ture, or of real objects ; imaginative drawing, or drawing of things
conceived of by one's self; of which the two former are of things as
they are directly seen, and the latter are indirectly based upon the
vision of real things.
In all drawing, the eye, the hand, and the sense of beauty, are em-
ployed ; as are also, in drawing from memory, the faculty of concep-
tion, and in drawing from imagination, that faculty.
' Translated from Dicsterwpg's 'â– \Vegxc':iscr."
t iMany persons include in linear drawing, drawing by the aid of the compasses and ruler.
228 DRAWING.
II. SCOPE, OBJECT, AND IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING.
Instruction in drawing should include —
1. E.Kcrcises in understanding
a. Form, in itself,
h. The beautiful in form.
These constitute culture of the eje and of the sense of beauty.
2. Exercises in representing
a. What lies immediately before the student ; as in copying and
drawing from nature ;
b. What has heretofore been before him ; as in drawing from mem-
ory and from imagination.
These constitute the education of the hand in the service of the
eye; and culture of the memory, the imagination, and the sense of
beauty.
From another point of view, we may distinguish as follows : —
1. Exercises in drawing lines, angles, and geometrical figures, as a
basis for all studies in drawing ; that is, elementary drawing. !
2. Exercises in representing objects of all kinds, or applied drawin;
The chief advantage of drawing is the culture of the various pow
which it calls into action.
Training of the eye and hand. — The knowledge of what God? '
made, and of vvhat man has made, depends in great part upon the
apprehension of the forms of things. Form, therefore, is one of the
most important phenomena of the material world. And who will
deny that the knowledge of the creation is important? God, who
has made such various woiks, and has given us the power of accom-
plishing and being conscious of our own culture, must prefer not to
have us go blind through the world. And to open a child's eyes,
not only to the forms of nature, but to those of the world of art ; so
that he can apprehend and remember not only the form of a plant or
an animal, the course of a river or of a chain of mountains, but also
the architecture of an edifice, the construction of a machine, or the
plan of a city, must be admitted to be of very great importance.
The training of eye and hand which drawing furnishes, is a means
of acquiring this power. Not only do v/e become accurately ac-
quainted with the form of what we draw, but the work of drawing
sharpens our observation of the forms of what we do not draw.
Thus, drawing afibrds a knowledge of the material world.
In addition to this, we acquire the power of representing forms to
others in a visible manner. This is a power of universal importance.
A few lines will often do more than a long description.
Training of the eye and hand is also of great importance, not
DRAWING. 229
merely as a means of knowing wliat there is in tlie vvorkl, and of
representing that knowledge, but also as a preparation for the duties
of life. Thus it is of great use to many kinds of artizans to be able
to draw a little, <fec.
Training of the conceptive faculty. — Without tliis culture, the
knowledge and understanding of the forms of the visible world is not
possible. Through its exercise, the pictures are represented to the
mind, from which the imagination develops new forms. And without
the exercise of the imagination, it is impossible to conceive of any
progress into the hmits of the supersensual, the abode of religion.
Training of the sense of beauty. — This introduces us to that uni-
versal pleasure, that enjoyment exclusively possessed by none, which
is derived from the beautiful in nature and art.
Every man, it is true, is to some degree fitted by nature to perceive
and enjoy the beautiful, up to a certain point, but no further. He
whose sense of beauty is not trained, loses infinitely. Take for in-
stance the first example that occurs in actual life. A journeyman
travels through a city full of beautiful architectural works. He goes
stupidly in at one gate, and out at the other ; there is no such thing
as beauty for him. The buildings which he passes by neither have
any present interest for him, nor will they hereafter be remembered
except as masses of stone, rising high in the air, hollow within, ac-
commodated with doors and windows, alike in one place and another,
and erected merely from the necessity of security against wind and
weather, thieves and robbers. But suppose another and better edu-
cated journeyman passing through the same city. How much delight
will he receive throuo-h his cultivated artistic faculties? He will lin-
ger for houre, with the liveliest pleasure, before each building ; and
will go forward, stored with wealth of new studies, and remembering
all his life with delight those impressions of his journeying-years.
The connection of culture in the beautiful with culture in morals is
clear. In the recognition and the feelinof, the lovinof and doing of
the beautiful, coarseness and vulgarity, and tendencies toward debas-
ing and sensual enjoyments, find a countervailing power. The vir-
tues especially developed by the study of drawing are, persevering
industry, love of unobtrusive right action, order, jiurity and decency.*
A brief quotation from Goethe may conclude this introduction.
* Frederic the Great used to recognize his soldiers long after they had left the army, by tlie
good order of their houses. An instructor in drawing might do the like. A boy who had
attended school where, among other things, he had been obliged to Itarn the greatest neatness
in writing and drawing, brought about at his return home a most beneficial reform in the ex-
ternallife of (he whole family, by the vigor with which he opposed any deficiency in cleanli-
ness and order.
230 DRAWING.
The importance of instruction in drawing as a part of education, will best ap-
pear when we consider that by means of that aequiiement we gain an increase of
beautiful and noble pleasures derived from the external world. The whole realm
of forms and colors opens to him ; he acquires a new mental organ; he receives
the most delightful ideas, and learns to recognize, to respect, to love and to enjoy,
the beauties of nature.
Upon considering all that has been said of the intrinsic importance
of instruction in drawing, and of its various practical advantages, we
shall find that it includes no small number of qualities directly valua-
ble as educational influences, both formal and material ; and that it
is accordingly an important aid in solving the problem of the common
schools ; which is, the bringing of the child to what is beautiful, true,
and good.*
* The hundreds who frequent a public museum can not sit comfortably in a liquor shop ;
and will soon come to feel that there is a direct contrast between men raised by art to the
level of demigods, and men degraded by brandy to the level of beasts. — ^'■England in 1835,''
by Fr. von Raumer.
The more recent reforms in education make this depirtment of culture a universal benefit,
no longer to be enjoyed exclusively by the painter, the sculptor, and the architect. And to
this end, the primary school must provide that the eyes of its pupils are trained, iheir hands
practiced in certainly and accuracy of delineation, and their feeling for beauty awakened and
cultivated. In this manner an important service will be done to the farmer, the laborer, the
mechanic, and the manufacturing operative. The farmer who can draw, will be far less the
victim of his own ignorance, or of designing enemies, in setting out lands and woods, in divi-
ding meadow, arable land, gardens, in adjusting his tools, and in all matters relating to build-
ing, hedging, and irrigation. One who is undertaking to build, whether from pleasure or
necessity, can, if his .school instruction has enabled him, judge correctly by the preparatory
drawings of the taste, strength, arrangement, and convenience of 'he proposed edifice, esti-
mate materials and cost, and then save himself and his architect much vexation and now and
then a lawsuit. A wealthy patron of the arts will thus be enabled to understand better the
works of artists, to estimate thus more correctly, and to value more highly and remunerate
more fairly the artists themselves. Indeed, there is scarcely any person who would not de-
rive benefit from this most desirable study. It has also a moral value which is far from con-
temptible. Young persons who have learned to draw, will in that way occupy many vacant
hours which would otherwise be passed in idleness, with all its evil consequences. The re-
sult of this can not but be beneficial in families ; and when the young have themselves grown
up, and are themselves fathers and mothers, the benefit will be still greater. But individuals
as well as families, will reap similar advantages from it, through its efficiency in averting
many harmful and prejudicial influences. Any occupation of a regular nature, and fitted to
employ hours of recreation, is a rich source of pure and quiet pleasures, elevating bothto the
mind and the feelings. — Wirth, in the '■^Universal Swiss School Gaietle," vol, ii. p. S, 9.
But setting aside all questions of mere practical usefulnes.s, and therefore passing by the in-
quiry in what and how many human avocations drawing is useful and necessary — aside from
all this, we know of scarcely any practice of more comprehensive inlluence than drawing.
Instruction in it, in connection with that in the intuitional knowledge of geometrical forms,
has an influence in stimulating and conjoining those two great elements of life, receptivity
and productivity, unequaled by any other, so far as regards material e.vistence. ' It makes
demands upon eye and hand, upon mind and heart ; and alTords a methodical culture in ac-
curacy, neatness, and in the sense of symmetry and of beauty. It offers the most efficient ot
all aids to instruction in natural history, natural science, geography, writing, and mathemat
ics.— Dr. Zehlicke, in ^'Mecklenburg School Gazelle," vol. i. p. 3.
Drawing is not only a suitable occupation for the young, but sharpens the vision, trains
the hand for writing and other delicate employments, gives practice in observation and quick
ness of apprehension, affords a store of instructions and ideas, develops the faculty of order
and the sense of beauty, gives activity and cheerfulness, and is absolutely indispensable in
many occupations.— Zerrenner's '•Principles of Education and Instruction." Edition oJ
1S33.
DRAWING. 231
To aid in the actual solution of this problem is the purpose of
drawing. If without it, it can not be completely and in all respects
solved, the importance and indeed the necessity of it as a study are
beyond doubt. It is always the duty of the common schools to give
instruction in drawing ; and only unavoidable deference to still
higher necessities can exceptionally justify a temporary omission of it.
The actual state of affairs, it is true, argues against this opinion.
In far the majority of the common schools, no instruction at all is given
in it. Calligraphy is practiced with zeal and a great expenditure
of time ; a multitude of names of Asiatic rivers and Brazilian apes
are committed to memory ; and the most abstract grammatical rela-
tions are taught.. But no care is taken to make the children familiar
with the sphere of phenomena lying immediately around them, and
to fit them better for real life, by means of drawing. The unpractical
nature of the German mind is one reason for this ; another is, that the
Pestalozzian principle of a harmonious development of the funda-
mental human faculties, has, during the last ten years, not only not
gained in currency, but actually lost. Whether this last fact is the
result of our inabihty, light-mindedness and want of judgment, or of
the truth that every idea has its periods of brightness and obscurity,
is a question to be settled by others. To return to the practical view
of the subject. The French are in this matter, as in others, more
judicious than we. There the law enforces the teaching of drawing
in all the elementary schools.*
III. APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION TO DRAWING.
A. Outline of the Proper Exercises for the Common School.
1. Both elementary drawing (of lines, angles, geometrical figures,)
and applied drawing must be practiced ; the former as a very neces-
sary substructure for the latter, on the principle of beginning with the
elements ; and the latter, because the forms of the world around us,
' The Royal Government of Magdeburg, in a circular order to the common and burgher
schools on the subject of drawing, of April 0, 1847, reproves the neglect of it ; which is Ihe
more surprising, inasmuch as there is scarcely to be found one school inspector who is not
convinced " that drawing, which is in itself an occupation appropriate for the young, p.nd
of an innocent character, sharpens the vision, quickens the hand, trains the attention and tlie
apprehension, conducts to intuitions and to ideas, develops the faculty and the sense of
beauty, prevents tedium and idleness, and is of great pedagogical importance ; and who does
not know how many occupations require a knowledge of drawing; and that, especially at the
present day, when such rapid progress is made in all industrial pursuits, drawing is a study
afcsjlutely indisi ensable " And the circular adds, '-It is very true that at present, many
thii^gs are studied in our burgher and common schools, and in many ways. But it is also
true that all such studies, whenever they exceed what is necessary, should not be permitted ;
and that therefore Ihe school department has long been endeavoring to fix the proper limits to
the field of study ; and that for a study so important as drawing, the necessary time must be
found.
232
DRAWING
without comprehending and representing which neither the formal
nor the material object of drawing will be reached, are almost always
not plane figures, but solid forms.
The educating power possessed by elementary drawing, is not
doubted even by its opponents. Nor does it deserve the common ac-
cusation of dryness and wearisorneness, if properly commenced and
continued. Experience shows that boys find an especial pleasure in
dividing an angle into three, four, or more equal or proportional parts,
in consti-ucting an equilateral triangle, an octagon, a circle, &c.
Many maintain that the fundamental forms should be practiced only
in real drawing— in drawing actual objects. But this would destroy
a portion of the expected advantages ; for besides the fundamental
forms, all the collateral work which drawing from nature requires,
must be repeated exactly as often as the fundamental form ; usually
without any benefit. An equilateral triangle must be drawn cor-
rectly, not merely once — for chance may bring that about — but twenty
times ; which would show that chance has nothing to do with it, and
that certainty of execution has been obtained. But who would need
to design twenty times over the whole decoration of which the trian-
gle may form a part ?
2. In appHed drawing, exercises in drawing by hand and out-
line sketching, perspective and geometrical drawing, copying and
inventive drawing, should, none of them, be wholly omitted. But as
a general rule, the drawings in all these departments should be linear
only, and not filled out by means of any shadowing.
The practice of free oflT-hand drawing is evidently indicated as nec-
essary, by both the formal and material purposes of instruction in
drawing. This formal purpose requires as great a variety of stimuli
as possible. These can not be conceived of without free off-hand
drawing. In respect to the material objects of drawing, the pupil
who restricts himself to outline sketching, must give up the idea of
representing a very large number of forms which could well be pro-
duced in free oflf-hand drawing. But there should not be such an
omission. Instruction should be in accordance with nature ; and this
requires that the perceptions of the pupil should be directed to the
whole world of nature and art.
With reference to the other kinds of practice, may be mentioned —
a. Reasons for practicing outline drawing.
The great accuracy which this requires, affords a peculiarly good
practice of hand and eye, and has, in particular, great value as a train-
ing to observant, judicious, and provident activity. Any one who
has accustomed himself to go about with circular and ruler, square
DKAWINO. 233
and pencil, is much readier at apprehending than those who are igno-
rant of the use of them. Many objects in practical life, also, can not
be drawn except in outline.
b. Reasons for practicing coptjing.
1. The requirements of actual life demand it.
2. A harmonious culture of the artistic faculties is impossible with-
out practice in copying; and this both with reference to the technics
of art, and to the cultivation of the sense of beauty. Such a culture
doubtless requires in particular that the pupil should accurately com-
prehend a large number of given forms'. But the mathematical part
of drawing implies much less apprehension than representation, and
even this only according to fixed and very simple relations. Drawing
from nature again affords, more especially, training in apprehension ;
and the subjects selected may be as difficult as is desired ; but still,
only a relatively very small field of forms can thus be introduced into
the common school for actual apprehension and representation. In
drawing most animals, for instance, there would be very much disci-
pline for both eye and hand ; yet animals could hardly be made
models for drawing in the common schools. The taste, again, would
be very much cultivated by the study of classic architectural orna-
ments ; but it is out of the question to go to Cologne or Strasburg to
draw those there, not to mention crossing the Alps. Thus the neces-
sity of copying becomes clearly obvious.
c. Reasons for drawing from nature ^ geometrical (elevations) and
perspective.
1. The pupil improves in power of apprehending the various forms
around him,* and in remembering them.
2. It enables the pupil to understand perspective drawings imme-
diately upon seeing them.
3. There are frequent occasions in actual life when it is important
and even necessary,
4. As an immediate, free and independent mode of reproducing
what the eyes perceive, it has an entirely peculiar attraction for the
pupil.
6. Acquaintance with the laws of perspective introduces the pupil
to an entirely new world of ideas and thoughts ; and it is certain that
such an occurrence can not be without influence upon his general in-
tellectual development.
These reasons in favor of perspective drawing, founded both upon
the formal and the material purpose of instruction in drawing, are not
*"lt is astonishing how many deceptions remain undiscovered without the practice of
this art, and how invariably we see otherwise ttian as we suppose." — Otto.
234 DRAWING.
without weight. There can be no complete instruction in drawing
â– without that in perspective. If perspective has hitherto found littlo
or no favor in our common schools, the reason is, partly the imdenia-
ble difficulty of the subject itself, and partly the lack of time, room
and apparatus. It can therefore perhaps never be a universal study.
But in all schools where space and time are not too limited, at least
the more advanced pupils should make a beginning in perspective.
Some details on this point will be given belovi^.
d. Reasons for practicing inventive drawing. ,
1. The power of producing the beautiful already exists in the
child, and shows itself in innumerable ways. We must develop it if
we desire to avoid a one-sided culture.
2. It is certain that, as Otto says, this independent creation of beau-
tiful pictures elevates the pupil to a consciousness of the rays of that
divine creative power which appears in the human imagination.
3. Practical life often calls for ability to arrange or construct in a
tasteful manner. Many mechanics could not get on without the fac-
ulty of inventing beautiful forms.*
6. Reasons for and against drawing with shaded surfaces,
aa. For.
1. It aflbrds a knowledge of lio-ht and shade as found in the world
without ; that is to say, of one distinct aspect of the phenomena «f
objects.
2. It relieves the pupil from his dissatisfaction, upon comparing his
unshaded sketches with the common shaded pictures, and discover
ing his own to be comparatively incomplete.
bb. Against.
1. It is of but little value, in comparison with a knowledge of out
line drawing, in regard to the ajjprehension of objects in nature and
art. Light and shade change continually, while outlines are more
permanent.
* Although I use the word " inventive " in an entirely general manner, the term of course
naturally applies to the invention of symmetrical figures from modifications of the funda-
mental mathematical form?. 1 am not of the opinion of those who think that such exercises
should be rejected on account of the lack of reality in such figures.
Those who doubt whether such figures can be called beautiful at all. seem to doubt also
whether the habit is to be approved which has prevailed for so many centuries, of using such
forms on walls, doors, windows, fireplaces, hangings, cupboards, tables, furniture, carpets,
tablecloths, book covers, embroidery patterns, and in a hundred other such ways. But the
fact that these objects do certainly exist, and that other similar ones continue to be designed
and used, so that the figures in question do in fact have a relation to real objects, is a suffic
ient reason for not omitting them from instruction in drawing.
Otto states the necessity of the three principal departments of drawing, viz., copying.draw
ing from nature, and inventive drawing, as follows: "Drawing from visible bodies train<
especially the eye ; drawing forms kept before the mind by the imagination and jiroduccd by
it, and still more the work of imagining them, trains the imagination ; and the copying ii(
pictures already executed, the sense of beauty."
DRAWING. 235
2. For such drawing as is required in practical life it has some-
times no value, and at other times a very subordinate one.
3. If not very well prepared for and very well managed, it fre-
quently produces a bad eftect, and thus obstructs the cultivation of
the taste instead of promoting it ; and even renders the minds of
immature scholars obscure and stupefied.
4. It wastes time needed for other most indispensable exercises.*
These reasons on both sides indicate that this department should
be studied, but that its practice should be confined within somewhat
close limits. Only remarkably talented and industrious pupils should
be permitted to pursue it, and then not unless they have prepared
the way by a thorough practice of outline drawing. Those collec-
tions of copies for drawing are quite unpedagogical, in which every
thing is shaded, even from the very beginning. Unfortunately there
are so many such, that more proper points are too often entirely
omitted.
Having thus discussed the necessity of studying in the common
schools the various departments of elementary and applied drawing,
free ofi'-hand drawing, outline sketching, copying, drawing from na-
ture and inventive drawing, the next inqury is,
B. The relations of these different departments of practice to each other.
1. Elementary drawing is the basis for all the others, and is there-
fore the first step.
2. Perspective drawing from nature is the most difficult, and there--
fore should constitute the last or fourth stage.
Want of elementary practice has an astonishing power of interfer-
ing with the results in perspective drawing. This latter, moreover,
requires a certain maturity of the whole man ; and it is also less im-
portant for ordinary use than the other kinds. And in the small
extent to which it can be learned at the common schools, it can have
but a small influence, relatively, in developing the sense of beauty.
All these considerations indicate that j^erspective should be the last
department taught.
3. Outline drawing is not to be taken up with the elementary
* The shading is certainly a main reason why, in so large a share of the common schools,
notwithstanding all the time spent in drawing lessons, the people do not learn to draw. As
Boon as Johnny has practiced lines and outlines for a few months, he is given a large fruit-
piece, a group of animals, a landscape, or a head, to shade. The outline is very quickly exe-
cuted, for the circle is used ; and " the circle is on purpose for drawing outlines ;" and on he
goes, with his shading. For twenty or forty lessons, he sits scratcbing vacantly, humming
.ind thoughtless, until the wonderful work is completed. Then it is glazed and framed, is
handed all round at the e.xcmiination, stared at and bepraised by people who do not under-
stand it, and our young hero, who can not draw a right angle, nor sketch a window, and who
has no idea of beauty of form, receives a prize. At home, they hang up the picture with
great ceremony, " in everlasting remembrance," in the best parlor. Poor Johnny !
236 DRAVVINQ.
course, but should come later, immediately before drawing in per-
spective from nature, except so far as it belongs to geometry, and is
employed in the construction of purely geometrical figures. It thus
should constitute the third step, or last but one.
On the subject of practicing outline drawing in the elementary
course, opinions differ. Rarasauer says that it would be an unjusti-
fiable waste of time to work with ruler and circle before the eye and
hand gain firmness. Hippius directs a whole series of elementary
exercises with the ruler, before beginning free off-hand drawing.
Most teachers of drawing are of the opposite opinion to this. We
incline toward the side which experience seems to have indicated,
namely, that of the majority.
4. Between elementary drawing and outline sketching is the place
for free off-hand drawing, applied to actual objects ; which thus occu-
pies the second place.
5. Having thus determined upon four principal departments, the
question will come up, Where does copying come in ; and elevations;
and inventive drawinof? We answer:
a. Inventive drawing has already been practiced in the elementary
stage. But the pupil must always be made master of the materials
with which he works ; he must have seen specimens of inventions of
the sort which he is exjjected to make.
The child can not develop the idea of the beautiful from himself.
Some of the Pestalozzians have erred to an unspeakable extent on
this point. Never was a more unpedagogical problem proposed than
that of J. Schmid, for beginners — "Make a beautiful combination of
isolated points !"
But where the imagination has been set in action by examining
models, the pupils may be permitted to make some experiments in
invention, for which reason we have admitted it as above. For it is
certainly according to nature, to begin to develop the different phases
of the artistic faculty in children, from even the very point where
they begin to spring out. We must, it is true, have regard to the
old motto, " JVon multa sed multuni ;'''' in order that we may not, in
avoiding one-sidedness, fall into the opposite error of studying too
many things at once.
h. Drawing from nature, so far as it consists in making simple
elevations, may be practiced during the second stage. For those just
beginning it is too difficult, principally on account of the usually nec-
essary reduction to a diminished scale.
c. Copying may be commenced in a very easy way, as soon as a
good beginning is laid in elementary drawing.
DRAWING. 237
All the preceding details may be grouped as follows, in a
General Scheme for Instruction in Drawing.
First Grade, or Elementary Drawing ; and in connection witli it,
Inventive Drawing and Copying.
Second Grade, Application of free off-liand drawing; including
Copying, Geometrical Drawing from nature, and Inventive Drawing.
Third Grade, or Outline Sketching ; with a continuation of Copy-
inor and Inventive Drawinof.
Fourth Grade, Perspective Drawing, exclusively.
This plan is in accordance with nature, as relates both to the pupil
and to the subject.
C. Directions for further practice in the different departments.
GENERALLY.
The same principles which have been laid down ix4ative to the
succession and connection of the various departments of practice, are
applicable also to the choice and selection of the materials for each
separate one.
It is therefore necessary,
First, To draw various forms. For if the instruction given is to
communicate any formal culture, the child must, as has been said,
comprehend its entire scope. It is an error to choose artificial forms
only, or natural forms only. The teacher utterly misapprehends the
ciiaracter of the coiiimon school, who causes architecture, or tools, or
flowers, or landscapes, either of them exclusively, to be drawn. The
pupil does not see either of them exclusively ; nor is it the business
of the common school to educate especially for any one occupation
such as that of the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, &c.
Secondly, It is the iiniversal rule to begin with what is easy, and
to proceed from that only with great caution. Now the easiest part
of drawing is that with right lines ; not perhaps where the fewest
lines are used, but where the relations of lines and angles are easy of
comprehension. Of the regular forms, for instance, an easy one is
the regular octagon ; and a difficult one, the regular pentagon. Ir-
regular forms are easy, if they are derived from regular ones ; as, for
instance, the semi-circle ; but difficult otherwise, as in the case of the
eye, nose, ear, hand, &c. ; all animals ; most flowers and fruits ; all
trees ; most tools, <tc. Thus many of the designs most frequently
given to children as elementary exercises, are entirely improper for the
jturpose ; and great care must be taken not to be led astray by such
titles as " The Little Flower Draftsman,^'' 'â– 'â– Elementary Exorciaes in
Jjandscupe Drawing" ^^ Studies of Animals for Industrious Boys," &c.
238 DRAWING.
The principal disadvantages of selecting too difficult subjects to be
copied are, waste of time, discouragement of the pupils, or else vanity
and overestimate of their powers. And in schools where there are
several classes, a teacher who proceeds in a thorough manner, will
find himself cast into the shade by this faulty mode of proceeding by
his colleagues.
" But the children will not work well at easy exercises." Unfortu-
nately this is too true. They want to make a great picture, of the
market-place at Leipzig, and that, if possible, during the great Easter
fair ; the shipwreck of the Medusa ; St. Genevieve ; the battle of
Katzbach, &c. But it will not do to permit this. The more difficult
it is to bring the children, by a course of instruction unbroken, and
yet interesting, appropriate, attractive and not wearisome, to the point
where they will find their pleasure in solving with certainty the pro-
blems laid before them, instead of in their extent, so much the more
zealously should we labor to accomplish it.
But even the most careful arrangement of the order of problems
will not avail, unless.
Thirdly^ The pupils receive the necessary explanations and assist-
ance. Here failure is frequent. Perhaps the pupil is set to copy a
flower. He begins at once, at one of the extreme points ; and goes
on to draw leaves, anthers, petals, pistils, &c., one after another, as
zealously as possible, down to the minutest parts and details. After
long and careful labor, his flower is finished ; an excellent flower, but
unfortunately quite different from the original. There are schools
where drawing is practiced in this manner, year after year. But how
easily would the pupil have accomplished his work in the case pro-
posed, if he had at first been taught how to see the blossom correctl3\
The fundamental form would have been laid out perhaps by three or
four points ; and all the details would then have fallen into their
places of themselves.
It must be plainly said, that in most drawing schools, instruction
in intuition and apprehension is unjustifiably neglected. Many teach-
ers have scarcely any idea of the basis of all drawing,, of which ths
judicious Brauer, in his " Theory of Free Apprehension,^'' has ob-
served, " Before any figure is drawn, it is necessary that it should be
seen or understood in all its parts and relations.'' Here is a princijia)
reason why so little progress is commonly made in this study.
But supposing that all the conditions hitherto laid down have been
complied with ; then, lastly and
Fourthly, It must be strictly required of the pupil, that he draw
well ; that is, correctly and with entire neatness. No botching or
DRAWING. 239
working over, indistinctness or fancifulness, smearing or rubbing,
trifling or talking, will accomplish this. The whole of the pupil's
power must be earnestly and persevoringly exerted upon liis work.
It is only by this means that drawing will become the important
educational instrumentality that it may be made.
Working in company is much to be recommended. The task may
be given out, the mode of performing it stated, and then followed at
the same time, from point to point, by all. This trains to intelligent,
orderly and regular labor. It is unnecessary to argue that all possi-
ble means should also be tried to enlist the interest of the children in
the work which they are to do, and to conciliate their love of it.
DETAILS.
1. .Elementary Draioing.
a. Should elementary drawing follow geometry, or geometry draw-
ing? Neither, and for this reason ; that the order of study of the
two subjects must often be very different. Geometry considers the
triangle before the square ; while in drawing, many squares may be
considered before many triangles are. And much that pertains to
geometry is of no importance to drawing. For it results from the
nature of the case, that the po)'tion of geometry which is of use in
drawing, is studied during intuitional instruction, and therefore long
before drawing is commenced. Such points are, ability to recognize
a right angle, a square, a circle, &c. I find no use in connecting
geometry with drawing. But it is a different thing to repeat while
drawing the fundamental forms, that part of geometry which relates
to them. This will aid in thorough comprehension of the case, and
is to be recommended.
h. There are elementary exercises which consist in drawino- riffht
and curved lines by the children together by beat, large free lines, if
possible with a movement of the whole arm. These exercises are
of great importance ; they should be practiced at the same time with
such others as require the closest care, and where therefore the pupil
is working more by himself and in detail.*
c. Exercises in estimating the lengths of such straight lines as may
be found at hand, by natural or artificial means, may, from time to
* The opposition of many of Peter Schtnid's pupils to this class of exercises, has for a long
time been much less violent. Ramsauer says. " Brief and definite orders, and prompt and
uninterrupted work according to them, regulated by keeping time, will accomplish an infin-
ite amount of good in acquiring any kind of manual skill where practice is the thing required.
While on this point, a word should be said of the applied art of writing. Markwordt, of Ber-
lin, practices much in large free strokes. A great part of the so-called ' American method \n
â– writing,' also consists of large free movements in unison ; and the results are so evidently
good, that the system is daily coming more into use."
240 DRAWING.
time, be introduced between the drawing exercises proper, but sbould
not be carried too far.
d. In arranging the subjects for practice, the objective and subjec
ti\'e order should be, as far as possible, united. According to tht
purely scientific or objective arrangement of the fundamental forms,
the equilateral triangle should come before the rectangle ; but in
drawing the order should be different, because the latter is much the
easiest to draw. The same is true of the pentagon and octagon. A
course of instruction arranged with reference to subjective principles
may, it is true, at first seem disorderly rather than orderly ; but a
more acute vision will discern the " red thread " which leads through
the whole.
2. Copying.
a. Subjects beautiful in themselves should be selected for copying.
For example, a finely formed vase should be selected rather than a
common kettle. The faculties used in drawing will be as well trained
by one as by the other, while the former is of greater value in devel-
oping the sense of beauty,
h. For beauty of execution, only the very best designs are suffic-
iently good ; those only moderately well done can not go.
c. For the purpose of working in classes together, the use of de-
signs large enough to be seen by the whole class — those made to be
hung up — is much to be recommended. An industrious teacher will
even, if necessary, prepare such himself.
It is still more important that the teacher be able to design on the
blackboard. Hippius says, " The children can see the drawing con-
structed ; can watch the beginning and the end of it ; and can obtain
more thorough ideas as to apprehension of objects. They should
themselves proceed to imitate these drawings, which should be suited
to their capacities, on a smaller scale. The manipulation of the work
should be such as to serve as a model to the children ; the teacher
locating in the proper places the necessary initial points, in a careful,
I had almost said a learner-like manner. When the figure on the
blackboard is complete, it should be analyzed, and understood both
as a whole, and in the relations of itself to its parts and of the parts
among themselves. After this mode of intuitional study has been
sufficiently practiced, the teacher should again go through with the
process of drawing the figure, as it were in his thoughts, by dictating
the work point by point. At the same time he should pass round
among the benches, directing and assisting wherever necessary, re-
proving or praising, and endeavoring to keep all the pupils in cheer
ful activity.
DRAWING. 241
d. Even when the children draw each by himself, after small sep-
arate originals, they should often be made to draw their copies on
a larger or smaller scale, for the sake of gaining in freedom of
conception,
e. With an eye to the ultimate and principal purpose of instruction
in drawing, it will be better for the pupils to sketch many objects
with few strokes, than to occupy the same time over a few drawings,
more elaborated. But these latter should not be entirely excluded.
The best mode is to produce, from time to time, some larger work,
and to draw between or along with these many sketches not so much
finished in detail as full of meaning.
/. For copying, more reference should be had to the sex of the chil-
dren than was the case in elementary drawing. Thus, architectural
subjects should be chosen for the boys, and beautiful vases for the
girls ; weapons for the former, flowers for the latter, &c. One-sided-
ness in selection should, however, be avoided. The girls should be
made to comprehend the beautiful forms of the higher departments
of architecture, and the boys the characteristics of leaves and fruit.
In short, to repeat the principle once more/ . is the whole world of
forms which the school should prepare its j pils to comprehend.
3. Inventive Drawing.
a. This may be practiced both upon spontaneous conceptions and
upon real things. In either case, the pupil may be required either to
complete a design, to decorate it, to vary it, or wholly to invent it.
For instance,
1. Ideal representations. Completion — to draw the whole of some
figure from half or a third of it. Decoration — to ornament a rectan-
gle with lines all converging to its center. Variation — to change a
regular octagon into an irregular one. Entire invention — to draw a
group of equilateral triangles and decorate them at pleasure.
2. Real objects. Completion — to draw a window, having one
quarter of it given. Decoration — to ornament a design for a table
top. Variation — to change a quadrangular window into one with
curved lines at the top. Invention — to design a beautiful trellised
gate.
The usual order of these exercises should be, first, free representa-
tions of real objects, together with drawing mathematical figures.
Completing a design is usually easier than decorating it, and that
again than varying it; while absolute invention is the most difficult
of all. The lessons should be arranged in accordance with these
principles.
6. Occasionally an entire class, or at least a section of it, should
16
242 DRAWING.
work together at invention. If, for instance, the problem is to decorate
a square, the children may step up to the board, one at a time, and work
upon a square drawn upon it. This will furnish many opportunities
for remarks, and the inventive faculties of each pupil will benefit all.
c. Sometimes the pupils should merely sketch their conceptions
without completing them ; and the teacher may then criticise the
sketches. In this way, several designs may be sketched at one lesson.
The slates may be sometimes exchanged about in such a manner,
that each pupil can see the designs of all the others.
d. Invented designs which are to be finished in detail, should be
approved in outline, to prevent expending hours of the pupil's labor
on a design which may, perhaps, at last be rejected.
4. Drawing from Nature.
First, as to geometrical drawing from nature.
a. Either actual objects, such as are about the children, should be
drawn, such as doors, gates, trellises, floors, windows, cupboards,
stoves, monuments, <fec., or there should be used, as Otto very judic-
iously recommends, an apparatus on purpose, by means of which all
sorts of figures can be set up together, on a ledge on the blackboard.
The drawing may either be of the natural size or on a reduced scale.
In the latter case, great care must be taken that the children shall
justly estimate the relative sizes of the reduced objects.
b. Just at this point it is of especial importance that, in the begin-
ning especially, much work should be done in common. Before the
children put pencil to paper, they must fix upon all the relative di-
mensions, not by means of a mere cursory view of the object, but of
a careful survey of it. It should be a point of honor to come as near
as possible to correctness. When all the estimates have been made,
the teacher may name the dimensions before the class ; and then they
may proceed to draw.
c. This is a very appropriate place for tasks to be performed at
home. " Draw the front of your father's house ; the windows of the
sitting-room, &c. I will take occasion to compare the drawings with
the originals." And so on.
About this time a beginning may be made with perspective draw-
ing, perhaps somewhat as follows : —
a. Practice the children in seeing real objects in a perspective
manner. This is not very difficult, and has the advantage of showing
the pupil what perspective is, even if he does not become able to draw
on its principles.
b. Perspective may be taught by copying. Perspective designs
may be given to be copied, arranged in a progressive manner, and
DRAWING. 243
instruction on the laws of perspective may be given at the same time.
This is the method of Soldan, Wannholz, and others; and is not
liable to any weighty objections.
c. Exercises both on copying and seeing should be practiced.
d. Drawing from real objects should be practiced, either by section
of the class at once, or singly.
Drawing is of course a more useful exercise than mere seeing ; and
drawinof from real bodies is better than from another drawinsf. And
it is better to display the article to be drawn conveniently upon a
table for one, two, three, or at most four scholars, than to elevate it
Bomewhere for the whole class to draw from.
The circumstances must govern in each particular case. I would
however have some exercises in seeing, in every school where draw-
ing is practiced at all. I add a few hints for such as have proceeded
far enough to draw real bodies.
a. To complete the shading of what is drawn should be uncondi-
tionally forbidden. The common school has no time for this, if the
chi'dren are to be made at all acquainted with perspective.
6. The subjects should not be too difficult ; such, for instance, as
plaster heads, landscapes, groups of animals. The principal thing is
to teach the children to comprehend and represent with ease the sim
plest perspective appearances.
c. The children should not be troubled with diflacult theories of
pei-spective, nor, on the other hand, should they be restricted to the
brief rule, "Draw what you see." Some knowledge of the laws
of perspective is indispensable for the moderately and less capable
pupils, as well as an acquaintance with some simple means of aiding
in seeing in a perspective manner.
d. These laws of perspective, however, should not be given, but
discovered. It is wrong, for instance, to tell a pupil that a circular
surface or thin body can be seen as a straight line, and then to hold
it up to him that he may be convinced of it.
e. The most practical possible application should be made of the
principles which lie within the scope of the common school. These
should be joined to the exercises on cubes and prisms, for instance, a
drawing of a chimney, a chest of drawers, an open door, <fec. ; and the
best scholars may afterwards draw a house, a bridge, a gateway, &c.
5. Outline Sketching.
a. The common school is not the place for designing pillai-s, capi-
tols, and similar architectural constructions. They belong to the
industrial school. The business of the common school is limited to
this : 1. Geometrical construction of lines, angles, and figures ; 2.
244 DRAWING.
The application of these to the drawing of simple sketches and ground-
plans.
b. Great skill may be attained in this kind of drawing, so far as it
can be carried with the aid of the simple instruments which the chil-
dren can be trusted to use. Without using these, the practice would
do more harm than good.
c. The use of the circle and ruler must be industriously practiced,
in order to the acquisition of skill in it. Many simple problems
should be given out for using them ; as, for instance, to draw four
angles one after another, each half as large as the preceding ; to mag-
nify to many times its own size, <fec.
d. As to selecting subjects for ground-plans and elevations, the fol-
lowing suggestions may, perhaps, be of service : —
1. Select for drawing, a plan of the school garden ; the church-
yard ; of some building, as the church ; an elevation of the school
house, &c.
2. Let the children copy some plans, ground-plans, elevations, <fec.,
in order to become acquainted with the usual mode of doing such
work.
3. Let each pupil himself make out some such plans, ground-plans
or elevations of his father's house or garden, &c.
D. Course of Study.
This is rather to indicate one mode of arranging the work, than to
be followed to the letter.
1. Common schools of three classes. — Drawing should be practiced
only in the middle and higher classes ; not in the lower. It is safe
to calculate that children of at least three different grades are always
to be found in each class ; so that divisions must be made. More
than two such divisions are usually too many, as experience indi-
cates. Thus each class will have a two year's course, and each pnj^il
will, at least in that part of the study where the whole section works
together, go twice through one of the halves of the course.
a. Middle class. — Here it will be well to permit the capacity and
industry and progress of each pupil to determine which half of the
course he shall go twice through with. The course should be as
follows : —
First half —
1. Elementary drawing. Lines, angles, the easiest divisions of
lines and angles, the rectangle, isosceles triangle, square, rhombus,
rhomboid, equilateral triangle. Straight and curved lines together,
by beat.
DRAWING. 245
2. Copying. The simplest forms with straight lines, partly repre-
sentations of real things, partly variations of fundamental forms.
3. Invention. The easiest exercises in completing and varying
forms ; usually to be executed in common.
4. Beginning of estimating dimensions ; usually of those where one
of the dimensions to be estimated may serve as a measure of the
others.
5. Examination of the model drawings.
Second half —
1. Elementary drawing. Continuation of the division of lines and
angles. The regular hexagon. The regular octagon. Different
curves on straight lines, and half and quarter circles. Irregular poly-
gons ; waving, serpentine and spiral lines ; the circle, ellipse and
oval. Curved strokes together, by beat.
2. Copying. In the first half year of designs with straight lines
only ; in the second, of those with curved and crooked lines. The
straight lines should always be in simple combinations; the curved
ones in connection with straight ones ; and easy flowers and fruit
given only to the most capable of the children.
3. Invention. Tasks somewhat more difficult, but no designs of
real objects yet to be permitted.
4. Drawing from nature. Very easy elevations ; and only to be
practiced as a secondary exercise.
5. Study of model drawings.
6. Estimating dimensions ; partly with and partly without the use
of the legal measures of size and distance.
h. Upper class. — Here the scheme must be a little more carefully
arranged. I suppose the children to draw in perspective only during
the last year of school, and then during both lessons ; so that their
copying and inventive drawing must be done at home. The children
of thirteen years of age, again, should form one section, (Section 1,)
and those of eleven and twelve another, (Section 2.) Then the in-
struction for the year may be arranged as follows : —
1. From Easter to St. John's day. For Section 2, oft'-hand draw-
ing ; exercises in copying and invention. Section 1, perspective ; first
beginning.
2. From St. John's day to Michselmas. Section 2, off-hand draw
ing ; copying, invention, elevations. Section 1, perspective, continued.
3. From Michaelmas to Christmas. Section 2, outline sketching;
geometrical constructions ; but for the girls instead, oft-hand drawing.
Section 1, perspective, further continued.
4 From Christmas to Easter. Section 2, outline sketching ; ground-
246 DRAWING.
plans, and in ofF-hand drawing ; copying, invention, elevations. Sec-
tion 1, perspective, concluded.
Observations on the foregoing plan.
1. In the first quarter. Section 2 is so employed that the teacher
may busy himself mostly with Section 1, where his aid will be quite
indispensable. And in Section 2, also, the exercises, in copying es-
pecially, can be adjusted to the capacities of each individual scholar.
2. In the second quarter, Section 2 will have advanced far enough
to work by themselves for say half an hour together. That time may
thus be spent in introducing Section 2 to the department of drawing
elevations. The pleasant summer da3's will be found quite suitable
for drawing in the open air ; and the pupils, while unoccupied during
vacation, may execute many drawings. Towaid the end of this quar-
ter, Section 1 may be set at drawing easy buildings in perspective, in
the open air.
3. The third quarter will find Section 2 busily employed with circle
and ruler. The pupils of twelve years old, who are going over the
ground a second time, will be able to assist those of eleven, so that
the teacher will get time to do some open air work in pleasant
autumn days with Section 1. But if he does not think it safe to
leave Section 2 alone, he may take them out also and let them sketch
elevations.
4. When winter comes round again, Section 1 will be employed
again in the house, in learning something of drawing bodies bounded
by lines not straight. Section 2 will take up oft'-hand drawing again,
in the departments of copying and invention ; and some ground-plans
may also be drawn.
5. The exercises in copying and invention should continue what
•was begun in the middle class, but not too rapidly.
For copying, pictures of flowers, fruit, ornaments and characteristic
animal forms may be gradually introduced. The inventive drawing
may be in part of imagined forms, in part from real objects. No
teacher who pursues his subject with a really vivid interest, can fail
to find abundance of materials for lessons and models.
2. Common schools of two classes.
a. Lower class. If the pupil remains five years in this class, he
should draw during the last two. Thus we shall have pupils of eight
and nine years of age, in one section ; so that each will go twice over
the year's course. The course should include all the first half of
what was prescribed for the middle class of a school of three classes.
b. Upper class. Here there are many difficulties. I shall sup-
DRAWING. 247
pose two sections to be formed ; one of tlie pupils of ten and eleven,
and the other of those of twelve and thirteen, so that each section
shall go twice through the course. The lower section should draw
what was directed for the upper division of the middle class in a
school of three classes. The first division may alternately draw in
perspective one hour, and in the next partly make outline sketches
and partly work at copying and inventing. There are many disad-
vantages in this arrangement, but I have not been able to make a
better one which was not too intricate; and our pedagogical literature
aflfords very little aid on this subject.
3. Common schools of one class.
Nothing can here be done in perspective. The pupils should draw,
from their tenth year upwards, in two sections. The course of study
should be that for the middle class of the school of three classes ;
except that the children should learn something of outline sketching
during the last half year of their schooling. Some of the better
scholars may perhaps be permitted to copy some of the exercises laid
out for the middle class.
E. Miscellaneous Observations.
1. Beware lest the instruction in drawing educate the children in
falsehood. Where every drawing which is shown at an examination
is more than half done by the teacher, or by his assistants, such a
result is certain to follow.*
2. The purely technical exercises of off-hand drawing should chiefly
be done on the slate ; but copying, elevations, finished inventive
drawings, &c., on paper. It is necessary to be economical, but then
pains should also be taken to enable the children to enjoy repeated
examinations of what they have drawn by care and industry. It is
always unpleasant to children to see a piece of work which is care-
fully finished, thrown away at last.
3. Avoid all luxury, especially in poor neighborhoods, in pencils,
paper, &c. The children should understand the necessary truth that
man must always learn to accomplish the greatest possible results
with the simplest means.
4. It is not judicious unsparingly to cross out every ill done work
from the pupils drawing book, for this may frequently destroy m a mo-
ment the work of many laborious hours, besides disgracing the book,
as the children say. Only evident idleness should undergo so severe
a punishment.
" Act honestly ! Let your examination be a proof, not of what your powers as an artist
are, but of what you can do, as a teacher, through the efforts of your pupils. Honor trull) ;
and she will honor thee in tujrn." — Hippiua
248 DRAWING.
5. The strictest care should be taken to make the children sit cor-
rectly while drawing; for carelessness in this particular will very
easily lead to crookedness in weakly children. It is a great evil for
the pupil even to turn constantly towards the right hand to look at
the design to be copied. A conscientious teacher will use every
means of avoiding such habits.
6. The pupils must be protected from too bright sunshine, by cur-
tains or some equivalent means.
7. All conversation should be strictly forbidden during the drawing
lesson. It is astonishing to what an extent the looking oft' from the
work which is inseparable from whispering, interferes with and de-
feats the comprehension of the design and success in reproducing it.
8. The frequent use of India rubber is decidedly to be prevented.
This is, in many schools, practiced to a miserable extent; no drawing
being finished without having been rubbed out in every part, nobody
knows how many times. Instruct the pupil in a truly elementary
manner, teach him to apprehend, make him work with attention and
care, and away with the India rubber !
9. Whatever work is given to the children to be done at home,
must invariably be shown and examined when completed.
10. If possible, let the most skillful pupils be employed as assist-
ants in instruction.
INSTRUCTION IN SINGING,
BY DR. E. HENTSCHEL.
I. DEFINITIONS.
By singing we understand the production of the beautiful, as ac-
compHshed by the human voice, by means of the union of musical
tones with poetical words ; the union of music and poetry.
The elements of speech are sounds ; of music, tones. From sounds
are formed syllables, words, sentences, periods ; from tones, 1, in suc-
cession, melodies, which consist of phrases and periods ; and 2, in
combination, harmonies or chords. Every succession of tones, and of
combinations of tones, whether of single tones or those consisting
of several tones together, (chords,) may be considered in three
respects.
1. Height or lowness, or melodically. This department is called
Melody.
2. Length or shortness, or rhythmically. This department is called
Rhythm.
3. Loudness or softness, or dynamically. This department is called
Dynamics.
The relation of tones to each other with respect to their simulta-
neous sound, is the harmonic relation ; and the study of them is
called Harmony.
The distinctions between the various kinds of singing, such as the
church, solo, choral, &c., are understood by every one. Either solo
or choir singing may be in unison or in harmony. A mixed choir is
one in which there are women's or boys' voices as well as men's.
Singing, as a development of the beautiful, is an expression or rep-
resentation of the feelings. The beautiful is within the singer or sub-
ject, as the occasion of his feelings ; and it appears also as the object
of feelings, through the medium of poetry and music.
Several of the faculties are exerted in singing. The singer is con-
cerned, first, with words. These he must learn (unless in the case
where he composes them himself, which is not considered here), re-
member and reproduce. In learning and understanding the words,
their logical and poetical natures are to be considered ; and use is
made of the understanding, the memory, the imagination, the fancy,
250 SINGING.
and the sense of beauty. And in reproducing these words, besides
the above faculties, the voice is employed.
Secondly, the singer is concerned with musical tones. And these
also he must learn, (except in the case, not here considered, where he
himself composes them), remember and reproduce. In learning these
tones, he must, firstly, consider them with exclusive reference to their
melodic, rhythmical, dynamic, and harmonic character, and secondly
with reference to their inner or aesthetic character, through which they
exemplify the beautiful. The former of these two is accomplished by
the musical faculties; the latter, by the fancy and the sense of
beauty.
The musical faculties include the musical memory, and the powers
of apprehending and of reproducing sounds — usually termed the ear ;
and also the rhythmical faculty, or faculty of time ; as well as that
which appreciates the degree of loudness of sounds. The power of
apprehending sounds, if developed to the point of intuition of sounds,
presupposes a systematic knowledge of sounds, which requires the ex-
ercise of the numbering and reckoning faculties, as well as of the
memory. In order to the comprehension of tones from the written
marks, or notes, which indicate them, is required, besides the musical
faculties, a system of notation ; which is an affair of the understand-
ing and the memory. And to produce the tones thus indicated, the
voice is necessary.
Singing represents feeling ; sometimes a feeling which indicates a
condition which is not in any proper sense that of the singer, and can
perhaps never be so. This is the case for instance, almost always in
oratorio, in opera, in ballads and romances, and in singing war-songs,
hunting-songs, sea-songs, and -many others. But the singing is in-
tended to give pleasure ; artistic pleasure ; and of this there are dift'er-
ent kinds and degrees ; the highest being that where the reflective
faculties are quiescent, and we are transferred so wholly into a foreign
condition of feeling, that we are wholly carried out of ourselves; and
every feeling that speaks in the music, whether of grief or joy, becomes
entirely our own. This is most easily the case with children, who
are always more poetical than adults. Jean Paul says, " Singing im-
parts to children something of the enjoyment of heaven ; for they
have not yet lost any of their rights to it."
Men also find in singing an inexhaustible fountain of the noblest
pleasure,* which no one is forbidden to enjoy. The delights of this
art are in nowise confined to the saloons of the rich and great ; its
pleasures and beauties will abide in the most lowly room, under the
* "The most joyous of joys, tnvLsic."—Klope(ock.
SINGING. 251
humblest roof, if the occupants only know how to introduce them
there.
Singing also produces an artistic transfer of the consciousness, not
as it were into a foreign condition of life, but into an excitement of a
sort at fii"st strange, but which becomes natural through the influence
of the singing. Thus a cheerful song enlivens the sad ; a spirited one
refreshes the weary ; and a devotional one gathers together the
thoughts, all distracted by the incessant impulses of outward
occupations, and elevates them to God. In such cases as these,
there obviously takes place not only a mere transitory pleasure,
but often a profound and permanent influence upon the whole inner
man.*
In other circumstances, again, no stimulus, no excitement of the
sensibilities is necessary ; the heart itself is " full of a thousand feel-
ings," and they overflow in song. A victorious array sings a Te
Deum ; the mournful choir laments the fallen ; a rich harvest blessing
opens the lips in joyful hymns; friends departing to distant lands
mournfully sing a departing song; a Christian congregation joyously
shouts its inspiriting hosanna to the Lord ; an anguished and stricken
* A remarkable instance of this nature is related in Schubert's " History of the Soul," of
the preacher Kiihze of Berlin, who was freed, by listening to a devotional song, from an ag-
onizing fear of an apparently necessary operation upon his eye ; a result which also had such
a favorable intluence upon the eye, that the operation was found unnecessary.
" And I can testify," says Luther, " which also e.\perience demonstrates, that after the holy
word of God, nothing is so good, and so highly to be praised and famed, as music ; and that
for the reason that it is a controller of all the movements of the human heart, and has such a
power over it, that men are often governed and overcome by it. as by a master."
Acoustics, so far as I know, does not yet account for the fact that we feel pleasure in hear-
ing chords, and displeasure at discords. We know that musical tones are produced by regu-
lar atmospheric vibrations, and that all vibrations of aliquot parts chord. If two or more
tones sound together, either the atmospheric waves coincide and strengthen each other, or
they obstruct and destroy each other. These promotions or obstructions evidently commu-
nicate themselves through the ear to the nervous system and the mind, in one case in a man-
ner promoting their natural action, and therefore pleasant ; in the other, in a manner ob-
structing it, and therefore unpleasant. The first of these two kinds of impressions we call a
consonance or chord, the latter a dissonance or discord. By the use of both, the artist com-
municates to us the joy or sorrow of his soul, in an immediate manner ; and by the solving
of dissonances, which concludes a contest of tones, he communicates that eicitement which
always follows the conversion of grief into joy.
But more than this, acoustics can not at present tell us. Music hus not only scientific but
psychological abysses : and no psychologist, even thoush likewise learned in art, has yet beeo
able to penetrate them. But they exist, because the composer's elevation into pure feeling,
into the feeling of the harmony of his own inner nature with the world of sound, exists. '*It
is," says Prof Grassmann of Stettin, in his excellent treatise on "Acoustics," (Stettin, 1837, p.
25,) " the joyful or sorrowful emotion, which we feel within ourselves in a truly physical and
real manner ; and again, it is the pulse of our own heart, the deepest longing of our breast, which
takes full possession of nature, and is given back again to us through musical tones ; bo that
we may feel ourselves to be no longer individualized, but sunk again within the depths of the
universal life. This most secret and profound emotion within us, by a wonderful sympathy,
arouses even the least stimulable portions of our nature, and leads us into joy or grief, inso-
much that we can hear, sounding back to us, the most secret tremors of the soul ; as if nature
were calling to us, ' I understand thy profoundest desires ; I partake of thy pleasure and thy
sorrow.' "
•252 SINGING.
heart cries out of the depths, in lowly penitence. Song is the lan-
guage of the feelings ; and human nature is under a profound neces-
^ sity to speak in this language. This is proved, not only by the story
of " John the Soap-boiler,"* but by the history of all times and peo-
ple, and especially by that of Christianity.f
Singing has a great influence upon the life of the feelings. There
is truly such a power as the Power of Song.J From the battle-songs
of the ancient Germans, therefore, down to the patriotic songs of the
present day ; from the hymns of the early Christian Church to the chorals
of Luther, we find it employed for the highest and holiest purposes
of our race ; not to refer to the analogous place which it filled among
the nations of antiquity. It should especially be remembered that it
operates, by awakening and stimulating the religious feelings, upon
the will, and thus becomes a means of elevating the moral nature.
Song is not only a promoter of the Beautiful, but through it of the
Good.§
II. CHARACTER, PURPOSE, IMPORTANCE, AND NECESSITY OF INSTRUCTION IN SINGINO.
The character of instruction in singing, is derived from the charac-
acter of the art itself. As this has for its object to produce the beau-
tiful by means of a union of words and tones, the former has for its
object, words, tones, and the union of ihrm. It therefore includes
exercises in
1 . Understanding and pronouncing words, which comprehends hear-
ing, reading, understanding ; or expression.
2. Understanding and producing tones, comprehending melody,
rhythm, dynamics, harmony ; or, vocal exercises.
3. Conjoining tones and words, which is the union of the two
former, in singing, proper; or, execution.
The exercises in words are the same for singing and language,
" I will quote one similar case from my own experience. In each of the rooms of a schooi,
the class was in the habit of beginning their daily work with a short morning song. The
mingling of different tunes and modes sounded ill without; and as circumstances did not
permit all the classes to be assembled together for a common morning devotional exercise, it
was decided that only one class should sing at a time, each in its turn, a prayer being offered
in each of the other rooms. But after a short time all the pupils petitioned for the restora-
tion of the old custom, alleging that it was impossible for them to begin their work without
singing.
t " When Christianity had awakened the life of the feelings, and had supplied it with the
loftiest ideals of existence, humanity could find only in music a sufficing mode of expression,
and thus was gained a new Christian art." — "jEslhetics nf Music," by Dr. Hand, 1837.
t " By the influence which music exerts upon the hearts of all, it operates most powerfully
upon the character." — Kocher's " Music in the Church."
§ Klopstock said to Rouget de Lisle, author of the "Marseilles Hymn," that he was a dan-
gerous man ; for that he had killed more than fifty thousand Germans. What then might be
said of Korner, Arndt, Schenkendorf, and others 1 Henry the Lion's motto was
"Fight without song
Can not be strong."
SINGING. 253
They secure for the pupil a store of imaginations and thoughts ; and,
as has been observed, they train the understanding, the memory, the
fancy, and the aesthetic faculties.
Exercises in tones belong properly to instruction in singing. They
give a knowledge of the system of tones, as a separate department of
creation, distinguished by an abundance of phenomena ; they develop
the acoustic faculties, without whose cultivation no education in har-
mony is possible; and as has been already observed, they train the
understanding, the memory, the sesthetic faculties, and the voice.
The exercises in singing, to repeat the observation, have a pecu-
liar influence in enriching and elevating the emotional life, and indi-
rectly upon the determination of the will toward what is good. For
it may here be observed, that the sense of beauty, as it becomes
developed in any one direction, becomes also, according to the laws
of psychology, easier and freer of development in other directions ;
in this case, namely, in the direction of what is morally beautiful.
Such are the formal and the substantial educational influences of
singing. It is likewise in a high degree adapted to assist in lead-
ing the child toward what is beautiful, good and true ; and to really
accomplish this, is its purpose.
It is for this purpose, also, that it is so important for the common
schools, which are themselves intended to serve the cause of the
beautiful, the good and the true. It may even be said to be abso-
lutely indispensable as a department of common school duty, be-
cause it promotes the objects of all the rest, in a manner not other-
wise to be supplied.*
The consideration of some of the special influences of singing as
a duty, will only confirm their views of its value. It is an excellent
means of sharpening the powers of observation, and of accustoming
the pupil to acting promptly as directed by a word, a nod, a look.
It thus counteracts both the indolent carelessness and indifference of
some, and the precipitate hasty ways of others. In short, it is of great
value in a gymnastic and disciplinary point of view.
In most other studies, each single pupil stands by himself and acts
for himself; or at least a community of action is not indispensable.
But the study of singing puts a close and stiict constraint upon all
the class together, both in an external and internal sense.f
*•• Music, by its rhythm and time, imbues the feelings with a regulated liarmony. So
highly did the Greeks value music, and in so many ways did they practice it, that the ex-
pression a "musical man" was e{iuivalent to ours of a "cultivated man." They therefore be-
stowed the extreul^st care upon this study, which was designed to unite in a beautiful liabi-
tude, readiness, openness, circumspection, and a most powerful mental discipline. "Peda-
gogy as a system," (Die PUdagogik als Sysle/n,) by Dr. Karl Rosenkranz. 184 -i.
t " A choir is like an association of brothers. It opens the heart ; and in the streams of
■ODg they feel themselves to have but one soul and one heart." — Ilerdir.
25-4 SINOING.
And lastly ; it may be observed, that good instruction in singing,
by developing the pupil's faculties for rhythm, accent, and melody in
speaking, renders very valuable assistance to the increasing efforts at
present being made to elevate the style of reading above the repul-
sive sing-song practiced in so many of the ancient schools.
In concluding this statement of the importance and necessity of
teaching singing in the common schools, I may not inappropriately
quote the following authoritative opinions :
Musio is a means of culture so healthful for sense and soul, so powerfully pro-
motive of virtue and godliness, that we are bound to train our youth in it with con-
scientiousness aiid dignity, zeal and perseverance. Nageli.
Music may be considered a department of man's intellectual life, which lie can
not omit without restricting and weakening himself. It is one of those intellectual
endowments by means of which he is to become conscious of, and joyful in the
world, himself, and his mental life. Marr.
Even if the young are unable to attain to any important grade of artistic power,
music deserves, on account of its educational value, as possessed of a peculiar
power of influencing the mind and the heart, one of the highest places as a
department of study. Natorp.
III. APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION IN BINCrNG.
A. Two Courses; Iheir relation.
The instruction in singing should be both formal (disciplinary) and
material (efficient in the study itself.) These two purposes require :
1. A series of elementary exercises; an elementary course.
2. Practice in singing songs, &c. ; a singing course.
The former is to give the pupil a knowledge of the necessary prin-
ciples, and a mastery of them ; and the latter, to train him in expres-
sion and feeling. We may lay down, therefore, with a view to secure
these objects, the following principles:
The elementary course should
1. Continue during the whole period of school attendance.
2. Include all the elementary tones.
3. Proceed by an unbroken progression.
And the singing course should
1. Also last during the whole school period.
2. Be related to the whole life of the child, both within and with-
out the school.
3. Include nothing which is not significant and attractive.
We shall hereafter recur to these principles and add to them. The
present purpose is, to inquire what should be the relation of these
two courses to each other within the school ?
Should the elementary course precede the other ? In this case, t**^®
children would during a certain time have only preparatory exerci ^^^^>
without singing; and for a long period together; for the element ^'"7
course, to comply with the second and third principles just laid dowL'^
11
SINGING.
255
respecting it, could not be concluded for weeks and months ; which
would violate the first principle relating to the singing course, and
also the first relative to the elementary course.
We are thus naturally led to the idea of connecting both courses.
The most suitable way of accomplishing this, seems to be, to apply
in the singing course, the. principles learned in the elementary course.
This however, sometimes leads to a violation of the principles relating
to both courses. It is evidently impossible, for instance, to find songs
which shall correspond with all the steps of the long unbroken series
of exercises, which shall be satisfactory in point of beauty, and shall
bear upon all the various aspects of the child's life.*
There is therefore no mode left, except to divide what can not be
connected ; to conduct the singing course independently, parallel
with the elementary course. We must be able to sing, at Christmas,
"Glory to God in the Highest!" and on the king's birthday, "God
save the King," without having to inquire whether in either of them
there has not been used some progression or measure which had not
been practiced. If some such freedom is not taken, we shall never
see the fruits ripen which have been for thirty years looked for from
the instruction in singing.
But, it may be asked, How then shall the children be taught to
sing ? I answer, in that manner which is adapted to the grade of
development of their musical powers. Those who can only sing by
ear, should sing so ; and he who can do more, should do more ;
whether he can only follow in a general manner the outline of what
the notes set before him, or whether he can sing strictly and
surely the notes as they stand. The singing course requires the ap-
plication of all that was learned in the elementary course, but in se-
lecting songs we should not depend entirely upon the former. The
pupils should in good season receive the notes, with a brief general
explanation. Then each of them should make the best he can of
them. Such is both the ancient and modern practice of almost all
instructors in singing in chorus, both for small and large classes.
But, it may be further inquired, is not this too mechanical a prac-
tice ? Does not such a course almost altogether prevent singing with
a due feeling of the expression ?
* At the Martin's Foundation in Erfurt, as appears by the Rhenish ^^ Gazelle," (Rheinische
Blatter,) Vol. VI., No. 3, p. 273, all the songs are learned by rote, without notes; that is to
say, without any artistic and methodical gradation in their order. It is stated a little further
on (p. 2S6,) th it the director of that institution often spends as much as a fortnight in search-
ing and referring, and years in corresponding, to find a suitable song or melody, " because he
subordinates the religious instruction entirely to that in singing;" and "rejects all songs
which are not good in text and melody, in every particular." I would inquire how long his
researches and hie correspondence would be, if he should have reference, in addition to any-
thing like systematic progress?
256 SINGING.
To this I may reply :
The problem which the child must solve in order to sing with
proper expression, is usually stated thus : To be able to sing a choral
or simple air from the notes without the aid of the teacher. But do
you know what is required for this ? This problem, in the first place,
is one in which many persons never learn to solve ; because it has
not pleased God to endow them with the requisite power of appre-
hending the tones as written.* Neither, again, do even remarkably
endowed pupils often solve it before their eleventh or twelfth year,
however early their instruction is begun, however carefully and skill-
fully conducted. And only those children solve it at once, who
possess very distinguished musical powers ; such who open the whole
world of musical sounds to themselves as it were with one magical
blow.
And do not be misled if you hear of, or even think you have found,
one or another school where the pupils have learned in a very short
time to sing from notes or figures. Upon a close examination you
•will always find one or the other of the following cases true.
Either the airs sung consist of short phrases scarcely including any
notes except the first, third, fifth and eighth, and unsatisfactory and
crippled, such as the following :
3=^
T
T
T
^ :5^
How bright - ly glows the morn - ing red^
or, the pupils do nothing except to keep time ; that is, the) follow
after a certain feeling of the succession of the tones, while the teach-
er, in the pride of his heart, thinks they are reading the notes ; or,
some more capable children are acting as choristers to the rest, who
sing after them unintelligently, by ear.
But again, what does " mechanical" mean ? Where does it begin,
* The result of my observations vfpon more than a thousand pupils of the most various
ages and grades of development, is as follows :
Memory of tones, is universal.
A certain sense of tones, without any clear intuition of tones, is quite frequent.
Comprehension of tone, and certainty in it, quite rare.
And these conclusions are confirmed by the following extract from the " Rhenish Gazette,"
(Vol. X., No. 3,) of an article on instruction in singing, by Karow : "For singing, as well as
for music generally, certain natural endowments are necessary, and one destitute of these,
whatever his efforts, will not learn to sing. We may compute that, of the singing classes in the
schools, t' e following proportions will be found ; of eighty children, ten will become very
skillful and competent singers; twenty others, not distinguished, but still competent; five
and twenty others, will sing well enough with the rest, but not in solo, as they will depend
upon the rest ; twenty others will not trouble themselves with the notes, but will sing only by
ear ; and the remaining five will be unable to sing, being defective in ear or voice, or both."
SINGING. 257
and where dots it end ? A, sings an air wholly by ear, while B sings
it by the notes, by his comprehciision of the intervals of the octave.
A, it may be said, learns mechanically. B, however, although in a
higher grade, also loarns mechanically. C, again, who feels the
meaning of all the intervals, sings by note accurately without de-
pending merely upon a knowledge of the scale, but does not under-
stand what are the harmonies at the base of the melody : — he also sings
mechanically. D, who sings also without depending upon mere
knowledge of the scale, knows these harmonies, but not the laws of
their connection : — he sings mechanically too. Lastly comes E ;
whose attainments are equal to theirs and who knows the last item
also, but has no idea of the mathematical basis of the system of
musical tones ; — he is a mechanical singer too ! The truth is simply
this ; — children will, and ought to, and must learn songs all the time ;
joyous, powerful, living songs. And what can be the harm, if they
only sing them by rote, if they can not sing by a knowledge of the
scale ; or by that knowledge if they have it, if they have not attained
to the intuition of the melodic interval ? Each one of our faculties is
from God, the inferior as well as the higher. Therefore watch over
each and make it useful in its own time, and accomplish some good
thing with it!
B. Contents and Management of the two Courses considered^ further.
I. Generally : and
a. Notation. To about the end of the eighth year the children
should study without making use of written notes. After that time,
however, they should always be used. This delay in using them
follows from the principles of proceeding from the simple to the
complex, and from the known to the unknown.
It is however necessary both for formal and substantial reasons,
that written music be invariably taught. For however little the
pupil may know of singing by note, his execution will always be
freer in character then if he has learned exclusively by rote. But
the very great majority of teachers of singing unite in testifying
that under all circumstances, the use of the notes is an important
aid in all practice and repetition. And if others maintain from
their experience the opposite, and perhaps even say that the notes
are a hindrance, they only prove that however interested they may
be in singing, they do not know how to use the written notes.
In teaching singing, we should distinguish two principal stages;
singing by ear, and singing by note.
The instruction should be by means of actual vision. The repre-
sentation of sounds by notes is the method most obvious to the eye,
17
258
SINGING.
and therefore unconditionally to be preferred. " Compare the following
two modes of writing an air :
fi=H
l*irn
I ^
A ^
f ^ ^
r
Zk #<1*
O J 1
r 5 * ^
f »
1
fl\\ Vy
** J
II*
^~^
ci ^l
viy J
<:> 1 1 1
o ^ 1
1
v '
^ U
Those exceptionally able pupils who are now and then found in
every school, can, according to all experience, sing with equal ease
from notes and figures. But it is quite otherwise with all the rest.
Whatever may be said to the contrary, they find the notes much
the easiest; that is, unless they are drilled in a quantity of unmeaning
rhythmic and melodic phrases, instead of real airs, that present a variety
of rhythms and intervals. With most children, either the musical
faculty gradually develops to the point where they can sing an air
with an entire understanding of it, or that degree of attainment is
altogether wanting. They are thus, until their fourteenth year, if
not permanently, left to practice singing by note, in such a way that
they guide themselves, in general, by the form and location of the
notes, but where they bring out each single note rather by a sort of
feeling of what ought to follow the preceding one, and by means of a
knowledge of the scale, than by any real and clear knowledge of
melody or the air itself. As long, therefore, as a pupil is not able of
himself to execute each note of a written melody, exactly as it ought
to sound, so long he has nothing to do with figures, and would get
none except utterly indeterminate information from them. But the
Eaethod by notes always gives him some assistance ; it represents to
him the relations of the tones, and he has only to look at the notes,
to find at least a leading sketch of the melody. And this material
representation is of great use in retaining the melody. As the eye
seizes upon the groups of notes, the memoiy connects the tones with
them ; and it often needs but one glance at the notes to recall whole
melodies which have been forgotten. But the figures aftbrd no such
assistiinee. One row of figures looks just like another ; and the pupil
must go one by one through the whole series, and pick out each note,
before he can tell, what the melody is. Therefore, no figures.
The notes should be learned in the key of G, not in that of C,
which is in scarcely any collection that most used.
6. With respect to singing.
Whatever is learned by children should be learned as thoroughly
SINGING. 259
as possible; or if tliat has not been the case, should at once be made
fio. What is defective neither educates in form nor in substance;
and indeed in the former sense it is positively injurious. One third
sung too flat brings after it twenty other flat thirds ; and passing
over one pause endangers the time at every other pause ; &c.
In every stage must be unconditionally required purity of intona-
tion, correctness of rhythmic representation, observance of the dy-
namic marks, clearness of enunciation. Other things must receive a
proper relative share of attention.
This perfection in what the children learn must especially be re-
quired in three respects ; Firstly, the problems, to be solved must
always be suitable to the pupil's grade of attainment ; the course of
instruction must be one of unbroken progression. This principle is
universally known and yet often quite disregarded. In many schools,
music too difficult is selected for practice; and the unavoidable result
is a lamentable disfigurement of musical works perhaps the noblest
of their kind. What is the occasion of such errors?. Often vanity;
often ignorance of music, not always of an excusable kind.
Secondly; the teacher must be competent to give in every case
such directions and guidance as are required, in order to avoid what
is false, or to remedy it. No pupil can arrange the succession of
problems for himself, without the invigorating aid of the teacher.
A whole class may perhaps sing an interval too low, and all exhor-
tation to sing it higher may be fruitless, however earnestly they
endeavor to do so, because they do not see what the interval is. In
such a case the teacher must aid them, by singing or playing the
required note correctly.
If the possibility of correctness by the pupil is conceded, then
thirdly, the teacher must insist with persevering and unbending strict-
ness, that the problems proposed be solved without error. This pro-
ceeding will accustom the pupil to correctness, which will become to
him both a musical and a moral necessity. Once more, therefore,
endure nothing erroneous ! Every thing depends upon this. He is
a forlorn teacher enough who permits inaccurate singing for four
whole yeai's, with the idea that things will improve in the fifth year,
because " people learn to walk by stumbling." That proverb, like
many others, is a heap of meal with a cat in it; and he who can not
apply it better than that ought to be ashamed. To such I would
say : It is not by stumbling that people learn to walk ; it is by
walking.
Rules for practice.
As important aids toward singing correctly I may name the
following :
2go SINGING.
1. Unless tlie contrary is strictly prescribed, sing with the full
strength of the voice. It is a great fault for the children not to pro-
duce a good full tone. A whispering, lisping, powerless melody is never
true. But loud singing is not screaming. If the pupils keep strict-
ly to the musical tones they can not scream.
2. In much of the practice, an instrument should be used. For-
tunate is the teacher whose school children come every Sunday to
church, and standing around the organ, sing the chorals with care
and perseverance. That will be worth three singing-lessons a week.
And generally, of elementary singing practice, we may say:
No instrument. Very bad.
Piano-forte. Somewhat better.
Small school-organ. Better again.
Violin. In general, better still.
Church-organ. Very good in some cases.
Sometimes one and sometimes another, according to circumstances.
Best of all.
The non-use of an instrument occasions such crying evils, that every
one must understand them himself. Of the instruments above-named,
the piano-forte and organ are better than the violin, for accompany-
ing part-singing ; but for exercises in accent, and practicing single
voices, the latler is much to be preferred. For while playing the
violin, the eye can be kept upon all the children, which is not often
the case with keyed instruments in ordinary school-rooms ; it can be
carried about; and its sharp and piercing tones are much more im-
pressive than those of a piano-forte, or of a small school-organ. The
tones, again, can be modified upon the violin, in any desired way, <tc.
But let me not be misunderstood. Singing with an accompani-
ment is not an end, but is the means to an end. A choir accom-
plishes its proper, real, and most beautiful work, only when singing
truly and surely without accompaniment — a capella. The same ob-
ject should be sought in every village school.
3. In singing by beat, the beat should be kept without any break,
either by the teacher or by the children, or by both. The teacher
should keep time by counting aloud, or by movements of his bow, a
rgd, &c., each pupil being to go strictly by it. If the children keep
time, it shoul(i be either by causing some to count aloud while the
others sing, or by having all mark time. This they should do, not
by using movements like those of the instructor, up, down ; up, right,
do^/n, &c., but by audible strokes of the hand either on a table or
into the other hand ; a much easier, more natural, and more useful
method.
4. If orthography is the schoolmaster's heaviest cross, enunciation
SINGING. 2G1
while singing is certainly one of the second rank. Nothing will avail
toward this «nd, except for the teacher to use zealous and uiiinteniiit-
ting strictness with the children — no, tirst with himself, and after-
wards — with himself again, and after that with the children — in the
enunciation of everything that is read or sung in the school.*
II. In particular ; and
a. Elementary course. This should include
aa. Exercises in the understanding of the melodic, rhythmic, dy-
namic, and harmonic relations of tones ; exercises in hearing, which,
by causing the pupil to note by written iijarks what he hears, will
lead to a knowledge of writing music.
bb. Exercises in singing; in the production of melodic, rythmic,
dynamic, and harmonic tone formations. A distinction should be
made between dynamic exercises and vocal exercises proper, in the
strict sense ; such as are intended to operate upon the material of the
voice, and to give it strength, endurance, sweetness, flexibility, and
quickness. Nor can the harmonic exercises be properly referred to
those in melody. In order to avoid confusion, the following compen-
dious classification will be found convenient: 1. Melodic exercises,
including those in harmony, 2. Rhythm. 3. Exercises for the voice,
including dynamics.
To proceed to the necessary directions as to the arrangement and
conduct of these departments of practice.
1. It has already been stated that the elementary course should
extend through the whole school period, its easiest exercises may be
commenced with children of five or six years old. For the rest, "Art
is long, and school time short." There are many things which must
be studied only by advanced scholars, such for instance as the minor
key, &c.
2. The elementary course, as has also been observed, should include
all the elements, and therefore the harmonic. Harmony, even in its
elements, is of especial value for formal training ; and is also very at-
tractive to pupils. It opens to them an entirely new view of music.
3. The principle already laid down, that the elementary exercises
should proceed without any intermission, is a universal one; but in
singing it is of especial importance, which is the reason why it is re-
peated here,
4. The matter should be arranged at once subjectively and objee-
• There was a little girl who, in a song to Spring which Bhe had learned in school, sang
"A Moor oat of his shell, springs out the tender shoot," (Ein Mohr, S/'c.,) instead of " Up-
varda out of, Sec." (Empor, ^r.,) and when told that the latter was the correct word, she
answered that her teacfher knew best about that.
Again ; a boy was asked what they sung in school, and said, 'â– ' The Chnndeh'er," (Ver
Kronleuchter ;) having caught that sound instead of the word "Scale," (Tonleiter.)
262
SINGING.
lively. To arrange it wholly objectively is unpedagogical ; wholly
subjectively, impossible. It is not correct to pursue one department
through, as rhythm for instance, and then melody, but they should
be taken in corresponding portions ; first the etisiest parts of all the
departments, so far as they belong to the matter in hand, then
the more difficult ones, and so on. But this subdivision must not be
carried too far, for fear of losing the connection of what is taucjlit.
5. The different departments should be so taught that some one of
them shall always be the main subject, and yet so that from one step
to another they shall always form a wliole. The former of these
requisites follows from the principle of taking simple things before
complex; the latter will enliven the children, and render the teaching
substantial and significant. If, for instance, the time be f, and the
melody that of the major common chord of the first, there may result
forms like this,
t"^
1 1
~jL "
<)
1 1 1
ff "l ^ r-i
_
^
^ 1
ViJ4 O
•
w
1
•/ *
w
^
^
And words may be set to such phrases ; as, for instance,
-^ o I I _ _ _ I I I I , I -
• /" t> I I .^ # j^ I I I I I I 11
Rise up from your pil-Iow, for cock-crow is past!
The smaller the attainments of the pupils, the more care is neces-
sary to preserve them from what is unmusical and unpoetical. As
they proceed further, it is of course easier and easier to select not only
brief musical phrases, but entire songs, which can be used first for
illustration, and then in the sing-ing course. But care must be taken
that the songs do not become the principal thing, and the practice of
the elements secondary.
The rule that only one department is to be the object of study at a
time, must not be construed to mean that no time should be kept
while studying melody, and that the rhythmic exercises should be in
monotone. So complete a disjunction as this of the elements of
music, neither accords with the nature of music nor with that of the
child. We often find rhythm without melody it is true, as in the
drum; but melody will not accept the converse, and go without its
companion and supporter, rhythm. Even the simplest exercises very
Boon become wearisome and distasteful if they include no rhythm.
SINGING.
263
vTbe children's minds develop all parts together; and therefore the
melodic exercises should have some rhythmic forms, and the rhyth-
mic ones some melodic form.
6. The course of proceeding should be from things to their names
and signs. When, for instance, the children are to go from quarter
notes to eighth notes, some quarter notes should first be played, while
the children beat in four-four time ; then a sudden transition should
be made to eighth notes, which will strike the attention of the chil-
dren, after which the name of the shorter note may be told them,
and its representation shown.
7. Even during the stage of singing by ear, melodic and rhythmic
voice-exercises should be given.
8. The harmonic element should be as much as possible omitted
from the melodic exercises at this stage. It should only be intro-
duced so far as is necessary to understand and correctly sing the
major common chord in its simplest forms.
9. The vocal exercises of this period should be arranged with very
great care to limit them to the capacities of the age of the children.
They should, in general, consist of very easy successions of quarter
notes of moderate pitch, sung sometimes loudly and sometimes softly ;
such, for instance, as these :
^^i
-1^-^
10. The harmonic element is most appropriately brought out in
connection with the scale. It is true that very little work can be
done with it, but that is no reason wh) none should be done. The
following points may be taught :
aa. Construction of common chords or triads upon the first, fifth
and fourth of the key.
bb. Construction of the chord of the seventh on the fifth of the
key.
cc. Establishment of the following as the fundamental musical
chords :
X,
V.
•I.
!•
IV.
I.
J-a
IV.
I.
V.
I.
J..
V.
I.
IV.
I.
IV.
V.
I.
It will be of course understood that these principles must be brought
â– ^ut by means of actual intuition. Mere words and figures would be
2(54 SINGING.
entirely useless. The children must hear the chords and their suc-
cessions. For this purpose the school organ* will be found very use-
ful, but not indispensable, for the teacher will have a living organ ;
namely, the children themselves.
11. Vocal exercises in the scale — with rather more advanced chil-
dren therefore — should be made a chief study here.
The best material for this practice is the scale itself, which should
be suno- in loner, sustained, crescendo and diminuendo tones. The
common schools have nothing to do with artistic runs, trills, <fec. In-
strumental accompaniment is especially necessary here.
The middle notes of the voice should be chiefl|^practiced, and in
the scales of D, E|j, E, and F. The children should never be required
to force out very high notes by a violent effort, which proceeding can
only do harm. And it is as unfair as it is ill-calculated, to endeavor
to train the children to a more correct style of singing by making
them sing every air a third or a fourth higher than it was set by the
composer.
12. The pupils should be trained to write upon the staff the notes
which they hear. Diligent practice in writing music should there-
fore be required. Otherwise the pupils' attainments will be entirely
one-sided. To sing from note is one thing ; but it is another, and
equally important for musical culture, to be able to write down notes
that are heard. Writing music also constrains that class of scholaj-s
who are disposed to accommodate their singing to that of the rest, to
the exertion of all their musical faculties. And it is the only mode of
continuing the instruction after the children have arrived at the point
of intuitional com]>rehension of the music, and of preserving them
from innumerable errors. If Nageli had done nothing except to in-
troduce writing music as an exercise into the schools, be would even
then have done them an exceedingly great service.
h. Singing Course.
I shall repeat here the three laws already laid dowTi, and shall add
others.
1. The singing course should continue through the whole school
period. Even the youngest pupils will readily sing simple airs by
ear ; and according to all experience will partake of their enlivening
and improving effects.
2. The singing should have a real reference to the life of the
child.f . •
' The melodeon, perhaps, in an American school. — Traas.
t " The simplest enjoyment and the simplest instruction, are enlivened and reinforced by
sinsing ; and what we even fail to accomplish by instruction in faith and morals, may be
taught by song." — Goethe, Wilhelm Meisttr's Wander-Years.
At the Rauhe Haus near Hamburg, great stress is laid upon singing. Credible reporters.
SINGING. 265
Singing is intended to enliven, ennoble, and cheer the whole of
man's life. Regard should be had to the present and the future
of the child ; to his permanent and varying relations to nature, other
men, and God. With reference to the present condition of the chii-
dren, instruction in singing should, above all things, stand in the
closest connection with religious instruction ; including the faith, love,
and hope of Christians. And on every occasion of school life when
the religious feelings of the pupils are appealed to, at the beginning
and end of lessons, weeks, months, or years, at preparation for a
church festival, at confirmation, the king's birthday, &c., singing
should be employed. In our day, the liturgical element, in which
singing holds an important place, has been introduced for religious
purposes into schools. This is much to be rejoiced at ; and may be
of very great service.
There should be a little singing festival in the church at least once
a month ; and not merely on such occasions as visitations, consecra-
ting an organ, &c. This might be done without difficulty almost
every where. But it will be necessary to confine the selections to
the simplest class of music, and to persevere in accustoming the con-
gregation by little and little to take more pleasure in such music, than
in the ungodly uproar of the usual style of church music. Materials
truly useful should be selected, every thing should be thoroughly prac-
ticed, and care should be taken that the audience may understand
the words.
Besides religious songs, secular ones should also be learned, so that
the children may use them as a means of enjoying themselves at
home, at play, at festivals, during walks, journeys, <fec. And for this
purpose, such music is appropriate as has the artistic effect of trans-
porting the child into conditions of existence quite strange to him.
How shall reference be had, in the school singing, to the future of
the scholars ?
First, by having a good stock of chorals.* Chorals are an indis-
pensable necessity of religion and sacred worship. Every child should
be able at leaving school, to sing at least fifty or sixty chorals from
memory.
There should also be a suitable number of secular songs. With
proper management, the pupil may graduate in possession of as many
as thirty such. What should their subjects be ? Experience shows
that the religious feelings of the people expresses itself through the
medium of chorals. For this reason I should use songs for other
describe the judicious mode in whieh Mr. VVichern makes use of it at prayer and labor, ex-
hortation and admonition, at serious and cheerful occasions, and sorrow and joy, and of th<
<inportant good which he thus accomplishes.
* These correspond to our usual church psalmody. — Trans.
266 SINGING.
purposes. Of them, also, I should exclude some kinds, viz: 1. All
songs of particular vocations, except war-songs, and for their proper
localities, mountain songs and sea-songs. 2. Songs for occasions
that rarely happen in actual life ; such as, " Up ! with raountain-staflf
in hand, forth with joy to Switzerland ;" which is nevertheless in
itself a good song, 3. All songs which, though perhaps good in
themselves, do not correspond with the popular mode of thought and
feeling ; such as, " Know'st thou the land where the lemon-trees
bloom ?" 4. Love songs. 5. Drinking songs. I add a mere sug-
gestion of the proportion in which I would perhaps arrange thirty
songs to be learned, namely : five, to incite to good company ; three
soldier's songs ; three traveling songs ; six for general expressions of
pleasure, and for observation of nature ; four patriotic ; five romantic
historical ; four miscellaneous. Total, thirty. For girls, I would
substitute cradle songs for the soldiers' songs, and for the traveling
songs, others referring to the observation of nature.
3. All songs should be beautiful, both poetically and musically.
What is worthless in itself can never develop the artistic sense, nor
properly cultivate the feelings. There are good words to bad tunes,
and wretched rhymes to beautiful tunes. And it requires much study
on the part of the teacher to acquire a sure judgment on this subject.*
Especial care is needed with respect to children's songs, properly so
called ; for among the great number of them are many bad ones. A
children's song is never good unless it can be sung with some enjoy- •
ment by grown persons also. Moralizing songs for children, in par-
ticular, are bad, and always will be ; and so are those where the
children are made to sing to each other, and encourage each other to
joy, to innocent cheerfulness, &c. ; such as,
" Open brothers, ear and heart,
TJnto teachings wise."
" Our daily work is done at length :
Now for a joyous game !
Pleasure for working gives us strength,
And strengthens all the frame."
• " Notwithstanding the great number of songs for the young, yet but very few of them are
really adapted for use ; partly on account of their faulty and spiritless melodies, and partly,
and especially, on account of unsuitable words. * * * * The text of a song must be
adapted to the young, clear and plain, joyous and vivid ; equally removed from watery and
feeble sentimentality, and from a stupid jumble of morals and phrases."— it/emoria? of the
i^urembeTg Education Society.
As music is variously taught and practiced in the teachers' seminaries, many young teach
erscometo believe that it is an easy thing to compose for singing So they proceed with
great confidence to make motets, and hymns and cantatas, and make all possible haste to
introduce their compositions into a church or a school. Great evils are to be apprehended
from this source.
SINGING. 267
Some valuable observations upon this pseudo-poetry are to be found
in Franz Horn's ^'^ Forte-piano,^' and Iliecke's 'â– 'â– Instruction in German
in the German ffj/mnasia^^ [Der deutsche Unterricht auf deutschen
Gymnasien.)
With regard to the relation between the words and music, we can
not be too mistrustful, in particular, of operatic airs with words set to
them.*
Songs, to be appropriate, must be both objectively beautiful, in
themselves considered, and suited to the children's capacity. Children
should not be forced up to any thing which is without the sphere of
their apprehensions. On this point, I shall hereafter remark further.
4. Each style of songs should be used for its proper purpose; for
each has its peculiar influence in training the pupil.
a. Sufficient reasons have already been given for cultivating both
church and secular singing in schools, it may be added, that the
former can not properly be very extensively used in the lower classes,
and must commonly be sung somewhat faster than at subsequent
periods.
h. Care should be taken to have the singing in unison, or in parts,
as the case may demand either. Children less than nine years old,
usually sing in unison. Part singing is not natural to them, whatever
credit it would obtain at examinations. With older children the case
is difterent ; they may sing in parts; but should still not transgress
the limits of popular requisites in the artistic direction. Part-singing
is however so efficient a means of artistic training, and its power over
the feelings is so great, that it should not be omitted, even in the
smallest school.
On this important subject many mistakes are made. The follow-
ing principles may serve the reader as initial points for his belief.
aa. A mixed choir is always most efficient ; and should therefore
be formed wherever possible. The school will furnish sopranos and
altos ; and there can always be found some accommodating youths or
men, who will sing tenor and bass. The thing can easily enough be
done without sounding drums and trumpets, with prudence and per-
severance.
The societies for men's choirs seem in some places and lately to
have hindered the prosperity of small mixed choirs. This is much to
be regretted, however useful those societies are. Forget not the
children 1
*In an extensively used collection of songs, the " Hunter's Chorus in the Freyschutz," is
to be found, set to an Advent hymn ! In the same, '• Christ a gardener," is set to the duett
from Titus, " In friendship's arms ;" which, as a reviewer in the '^ South German Messenger,"
{Suddeuticher Boten,) says, " fits like a theatrical costume on a clergyman."
268 SINGING.
66. In schools where only the children can be employed, the fol-
lowing plan may be adopted, which will prevent very various errorS;
namely : The children should sing chorals, generally, in unison ; secu-
lar songs in two parts ; and all music for religious, and especially
church festivities, in three parts.
Chorals can not and should not be sung in parts, for the reason that
time will not be found for practicing them in that manner ; and be-
cause it would prevent those appointed for the middle and lower parts,
from thoroughly learning the air — a great disadvantage.
Only on some few special occasions should a choral be sung by the
children in three parts ; and if such an experiment should succeed, it
would probably be beneficial.
Chorals in two parts are always sorhewhat dry. But if the teacher
will have some such, let him be careful to see that the second part is
of an independent and marked character.
The reasons for singing secular songs in two parts are these : —
1. This method is indicated by the nature of that sort of music.
2. The practice will be found sufficient for the needs of the chil-
dren in that particular.
3. It does not, like singing in three parts, impose on some of the
children the necessity of sacrificing themselves for the sake of the rest,
by the unnatural practice of singing in the lower register, which is
also in itself uninteresting to them, and if long continued, very wear-
ing.* But the church requires a more dignified style. Here, singing
in two parts seems empty and dry ; at least three parts are necessary.
Nor should the choruses in the liturgy be sung in two parts only ;
but rather in unison, with organ accompaniment. Children can
profitably sing in four parts only under very favorable circumstances.f
c. Solo singing, as well as singing in choir, must also be attended
to. This is necessary both on account of the individual develop-
ment of the pupil as well as the formation of his style, and the con--
sequent influence of it on the feelings. With regard to this last
point, I need only refer to such songs, motets, and little choruses,
as are used in school in which choruses and solos alternate.
The effect of such pieces when well executed, is very good. It also
has a very good effect, when some single verse of a song is sung by
some one person, the whole singing the next. The solo singers
should be trained separately, by which however I do not mean that
they should be trained in the higher artistic departments of music.
*Gersbach, Herder, Rinck, Miihliney, B. Klein, and the profund Nageli, have, I believe,
scarcely set any children's songs in more than two parts. Their statements of the reasons,
however, are not sufficiently lucid.
t There are very various opinions ou this point, and I know that many persons differ from
me. But I have many authorities on my side.
SINGING. 2G9
5. Care should be taken, not only to select music suitable to the
children's capacity, but to practice them long enough to be able to
execute them with certainty and freedom.
This principle has already been indicated in substance, but ought
to be here again stated in full and expressly.* It is not until all
technicalities are done away with, and all sense of constraint or im-
pediment by difficulties is removed, that the heart of the singer opens
itself. The desperate efforts of some singers, or entire choirs, to ac-
complish a task beyond their abilities, does not even atibrd the audi-
ence the pleasure derived from the breakneck leaps of a rope-dancer.
Therefore, no great contrapuntistic choruses, nor elaborate solos. All
that is required is simple songs, and little motets and choruses, at
the utmost not more difficult than the most difficult of Hientzsch and
Erk. If circumstances imperativ*ily require that the children should
execute some more elaborate piece of church music, the most skillful
of them should be selected, and practiced in private on the cantatas,
hymns, <kc.
6. The practicing of songs, during the period of singing by ear,
should be by playing or singing them over to the children, who
should then endeavor to execute them.
When the period of singing from note begins, some ten or twelve
lessons will probably be needed to acquaint the children with the
main points as to the meaning of the notes, especially their rhythmi-
cal value ; which should be thoroughly illustrated by examples. Then
will follow the use of the notes in practicing songs. The children
should be prevented from becoming discouraged if they do not at first
understand more than a very little of the details of the system of
notes. They should be allowed to be astonished, not at what the
notes do not do for them, but on the other hand as the real help which
they afford. And they will be much delighted, as the meaning of the
written notes, at first so puzzling, becomes gradually more and more
distinct, and when at last the song which is given them to sing shall
contain its own explanation.
• C. INSTRUCTION IN BINGING, IN COMMON SCHOOLS OF THREE CLASSES. +
(Two hours of singing in each class, weekly.)
1. Lower Class. — (Four half hours.) In each half hour ; Elementary E.vercises,
ten minutes ; Songs, twenty minutes.
2. Middle Class. — (Two full hours.) First : Indispensable information as to
the notes, and for practicing songs ; together with repetition of songs previously
learned. Tliis during from four to six weeks.
* "In order that the execution of compositions may be as little as possible interrupted or
hindered by ignorance or hesitation, anj that no perplexity may interfere with the artistic
conceptions of the singer, and thus prevent the successful training of his kel\ags."—N(igeli.
t Viz., of a three years' course.
270
SINGING.
Next, in each hour ; Vocal Exercises, ten minutes ; other Elementary Exercises,
twenty minutes; Songs, thirty minutes.
3. Upper Class. — (Two full hours.) First : Continuation of the fundamentals
of written music, and repetition of songs already learned. This during three or
four weeks.
Then, during each hour; Vocal Exercises, ten minutes; other Elementary Ex-
ercises, twenty minutes; Songs thirty minutes.
Details on the abate points,
a. Lower class.
The elementary cotirse consists of sitnple exercises, in the singing
by rote of single tones and simple connected tones ; in distinguishing
high and low, long and short, loud and soft tones, in counting to
time, &c. ; such as are prescribed in almost all the better class of
books on the subject. A course of vocal exercises should also be
combined with this.
Take for example the following cadence.
The teacher plays these notes, the children counting them. Then
let them describe them, somewhat thus ; " The second tone was lower
than the first, and the third higher than the second ; and the third
was like the first." Then let them sing them, to the sound ah, first
getting the measure of their duration from the playing of the teach-
er ; who must by the way watch carefully to see that the last note is
not flat. Then let them count to each tone, one, two, and one, two,
three, and one, two, three, four, while the teacher is playing them ;
and let them also beat time. And then let them do the same to
their own singing of the notes. In these cases, they will sing the
following.
p:
xr
TT
i&-
p:
lOj
-p.
IT)'
-o-
Then let them sing the same notes to words, such as " summer
comes," or the like ; which will give an opportunity to train them in
enunciation. That is, they must say, not " sum-mer," dwelling on
the m with their mouths shut, but su-mraer, holding the vowel
sound, &c. Lastly, the cadence may have a name given to it ; it is
a " cadence from below." Such exercises will be found very interest-
ing, if conducted with spirit.
The songs, in the lower class, must be sung by ear, after being
SINGING.
271
played or sung by the teacher. The following may serve as an
example :
rrrrrfr^
Oh how cold the weather's growing, And the sky all cloud -ed o'er,
From the North fierce winds are blowing, And the sun-shine's seen no more.
First the words should be repeated to the class, and said over by
them. Any mispronunciations should be corrected ; and the words
" o'er," " north," " fierce," <fec., briefly explained. The teacher then
announces that he will play the melody. All are attentive. He
plays the first half of it, once, twice, thrice, four times ; the children
beating time, which they can easily do. Some of them will at once
begin to hum over the air, but should be stopped. The fifth time,
they may all sing it, softly. Then the teacher sings it alone, then
plays it alone; and then the children sing it by themselves, the
teacher marking time for them. Perhaps they will sing the second
or thii-d G too low, or fall behind the time, or take breath after " cold,"
or make the first note of the third full measure too short, &c. ; all of
which errors should be corrected on the spot. For a change, some-
times part of the class may sing, and sometimes all ; and perhaps
some one of them may be found bold enough and able enough to sing
in solo. The teacher should always accompany, to prevent falling
from the pitch. After the first half of the melody has been learned,
the second should be practiced in the same way. When the whole
is well committed, the teacher may play second to the children's so-
prano, or sing a second, and play the first. It will not sound well
for him to sing the air. Then the remaining stanzas of the song may
be learned. Every thing should be executed correctly and well. The
result of such a course of training will be very satisfactory. When
the children go home, they will be singing the song, wherever they
are. What more could be desired 3
272
SINGING.
h. Middle class.
As has been stated, this class should begin by devoting from four
to six weeks to a very siini)Ie preparation for singing by note. The
object of this preparation should be to make the children acquainted
with the leading points of the notation, without burdening them with
details. It can not be expected that the children shall learn to sing
independently by note ; but they will receive whatever assistance the
notes can give them ; their eyes, ears, and feeling for time, will be
trained. An excessively long step will be avoided, by thus placing
the children midway of the great space between singing without
notes, and the free reproduction of what the notes represent. They
will attain to the position occupied by those many thousand singers
who do not indeed really sing by note, but who still would not on
any account be without the notes. In short, the pupils will be placed
in a situation where they will learn songs, not with a full intuitional
appreciation, but with the aid of the use of their faculties of tune
and time.
What should be the exact importance of these acquirements ? I
think it should be sufficient, if the children learn that
1. The tones, rise, or fall, as the notes do.
2. The notes show whether the tones proceed onward by grada-
tions or jumps.
3. The steps of the latter kind are various; thirds, fourths, fifths,
sixths, sevenths, octaves. The pupils must learn to recognize these
promptly by the notes. A short series of exercises should be given
to acquire this facility, preparations having been already made for it
in the lower class ; by playing one and another of these intervals in
different parts of the major scale, and making the children what they
are ; and then by the reverse method of calling for an interval, which
the children are to sing. But nothing difficult should be introduced.
4. The notes indicate the length of the tones.
5. There are whole, half, fourth, eighth and sixteenth notes. A
whole one is as long as two half ones, a half as two fourths, <fec.
â– 6. There are also rests or pauses, fourth rests, eighth rests, <fec.
7. A note or a rest very often has a point or dot with it; which
increases its length one half.
8. The notes are arranged into groups or sections, each of which
is called a measure. One measure may contain four quarter notes, or
three, or two ; or three eighth notes, or six, &c. The pupils must be
able to name all these.
9. They must also be able to beat time. For f time, four motions
of the hand must be made, for -f three, for f two, for -f three, for f
six, or sometimes two. It will be a sufficient exercise to them, if ap-
SINGING. 273
propriate portions of airs are written on the blackboard, named, and
then played, while the children keep time, counting aloud.
10. Various marks are used to indicate whether to sing loudly,
moderately, or softly.
11. The words are printed underneath, one syllable to each note;
if several notes are connected together by a stroke or a curved line,
they are all to be sung to one syllable.
12. Tiiere are many other marks, which will bo learned afterward.
The present is only a small beginning.
To knew the mimes of the notes will be of no use to the children
in this stfcge, because the present object is not an introduction to the
system of the tones, but merely to aftbrd the means of gathering by
the eye fen acquaintance with the outlines of a melody.
About midsummer, if the course commenced about Easter, the
children can continue their singing practice in the green and flowery
meadows ; where they may wander without being constrained by
methodical hedges and ditches, walls and timbers ; freely, joyously,
and, if God will, piously.
Rules for singing practice.
1. Whatever is to be understood must, so far as the children's
capacity will go, be made entirely clear to them, and then stated by
them.
2. In general, the children should be encouraged to make exertions
of themselves ; and they should be encouraged — especially those who
ai(3 in their second year — to endeavor frequently to sing the air which
is in hand, without assistance. But this must be done cheerfully and
with interest; without any misery or any inflictions.
3. Where the children's knowledge fails them, play them the
air.
4. Part of them — to repeat the suggestion once more — only count
time aloud, while the others sing. But all of them must always keep
time by light blows on the other hand or on the table, until the music
is learned with entire certainty.
5. Every eye should be strictly required to be directed to the music.
The less capable may often be assisted by pointing out one note after
another with a stick.
Close adherence to these fourth and fifth rules will often give the
children a facility in singing by note beyond what could have been
believed.
An example will illustrate this course of proceeding. I select the
beginning of a well-known song by Nageli : —
18 â–
274
SINGING.
A 4*
IV FV
-it o A 9 m 1
\ ** \ ^~
^1
Vt\) i
?^ =^
— •
# _
ai' m 9
y \
VM/ â– ^
^
^^ — ^
9 W
1
^
<
Gold-en eve-ninof
sun I
How art thou so bright?
Let the notes be very plainly written on the blackboard, at first
without the words. Then let the notes be first read, thus : " Dot-
ted eighth ; sixteenth, rising second; fourth, rising second; fourth,
falling second, &c., &c. ;" ending with "fourth, rising fourth; half,
falling third."* Then a rising fourth and a falling third may be sung.
The children can sing these intervals themselves, with occasional
assistance, if their ear has been sufficiently well trained. That is, if
they remember clearly the triad g, b, d, they will not sing g, b,
instead of g, d. Then those who are in their second or third year's
practice may sing the scale with fa, except a few who are to be sta-
tioned with the smaller children, to count aloud, keeping time, also,
with blows on the hand or the table. If the air is correctly sung,
well ; if not, let it be played over by the teacher. Then the smaller
children may sing along with the rest, another section counting; or
â– all may beat time. This exercise should continue until the melody
lis sung with entire correctness and in strict time. Then the text
may be wiitten under the music.
This practice is for the last half of the singing lesson. The first
half should be used for the elementary coui-se. My mode in this
particular would be the following : Take one of the better works on
teaching singing, and begin where the subject of written notes is
introduced, and proceed strictly as is written, going very slowly,
«ince there is time enough; and be satisfied with whatever acquire-
ments can be made. Only, some portions of the songs given as
•exercises in time or melody may perhaps be omitted, if the purpose
of comprehending the written tones is attained ; since the singing-
eourse has particular reference to the development of the feelings of
the children.
This should usually be opened by vocal exercises ; which are also
often properly introduced just before or during the singing exercises.
Our practice (at Weissenfels) is to practice the scale, at first in two
* This mensuration of the intervals is of the greatest importance ; at least, my own experi-
ence shows that for the majority of pupils it is the simplest and surest way of learning to sing
truly. It is an excellent thing when a pupil feels the key so well as to be able to strike the in-
tervals correctly by taking the notes in their relation to the key note. But this power will fail
him as soon as the melody passes a little beyond the limits of the simplest juvenile songs,
and even wiihin those iimits will be much confused by a modulation. In these case.s, if
the pupil is not practiced in the sort of knowledge of the intervals referred to in the \t\X, he
will grope about in a^i uncertain manner, as is the case with too many who sing by figures.
SINGING.
27;
tetrachords (c, d, e, f; and g, a, b, c:) then altogether, usually with
the sound a, b, sometimes loudly and sonietiines softly, (the latter is
much the most ditlicult, but is very iiiiportant ;) and always beating
time (with two, three, four or six beats to a note.)
Thus the pupil makes his way through the middle class. At his
leaving it, his voice will be found somewhat developed, a fund of
songs laid up in his memory, and his power of reading at sight
gratifyingly cultivated. The latter however is very seldom the case
to an extent that makes it allowable to dispense with carrying on the
elementary course together with the singing course, in the higher
class. Careful beating time must also still be kept up for a long
period yet ; it is only in the latter years of their school life that the
more capable of the children will be found capable of singing inde-
pendently by note.
c. Upper class.
Before proceeding here with the singing course, the pupils must
be somewhat further practiced in written music, for the sake of easier
understanding. From three to four weeks at the beginning of the
course may be specially devoted to this purpose. However much
progress may have been made in the middle class, or the elementary
course, they must yet be taught in the upper class : —
1. That there is a universal (chromatic) scale which is several times
repeated.
2. That it consists of twelve tones.
3. That the tones are so near together that it would not be easy to
sing another between them.
4. That the steps from one of these tones to the other is called a
half tone or semitone.
5. That these tones have their fixed names and signs ; and what
these are. The scale most natural to commence with will be that of
C, the intermediate tones being added. The nature of these semi-
tones may be illustrated by marks, by a scale, a staircase, the keys
of the piano-forte, the situation of the tones on the neck of the
violin, and by playing and singing them over.
Reading written music, to which the middle class has at least
afforded an introduction, must here become an indispenable prelimin-
ary to singing practice. The subject of the different keys can not
be begun in these three weeks of instruction ; it must be left
for the elementary course, to be there treated deliberately and
thoroughly.
About Whitsunday, of the third year, again, singing practice may
recommence, the vocal exercises being resumed, and the elementary
course taken up again where it was left oft' in the middle class.
21Q
SINGING.
I may properly give an instance of the instruction in singing of
the upper class ; for which I will select a Whitsunday hymn.
#^ #
Deck the walls with wrellth^i of flowers, And conne - crate to God llie
ft— r
~i
"I r
— P ^ I
:«=i=::^
■#•"
231
i
hours,
And let the
al - tar
al - so
bloom.
The course of instruction may be as follows : — 1. The key,
signature and time may be determined. 2. Count the measures.
3. Read the notes, as follows, a; a; rising fourth, d; rising third,
f sharp ; falling second, e ; falling second, d ; rising second, e ; rising
second, f sharp ; falling third, d, &c. 4. Take up the longer in-
tervals. Which are the thirds? The fourths? Who can sing a
fourth ? How does a sixth sound ? &c. 5. The upper section makes
an attempt to sing the scale with la, the lower section beating time
and counting aloud. Every eye fixed on the notes! Trifling varia-
tions from the melody can easily be corrected with the violin ; if
there are any serious ones, the class must be stopped, and the error
expressly corrected. If they do not succeed after two or three at-
tempts, play the passage to them.
6. All the class sings the scale, naming the notes by name, and
beating time accurately.
7. The words are put under the music.
When afterward the keys are discussed, they can be properly
spoken of at each lesson. The principal thing, however continues to
be that the children shall recognize the intervals, even if only by
their numeral designation, and not by the interval of sound. Expe-
rience teaches that those who learn on that plan gain a very good
degree of certainty and fecility. It will of course be observed that
as the elementary course progresses, the increasing vocalizing powers
of the class can be more and more exercised.
I could now proceed, if my space would permit, to describe in verv
bright colors our scholar, now stepping forth from the upper class
into active life, free, joyous, bold, and if God please, pious. But I
eave every young teacher to. imagine such a picture for himself.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 277
NEW CHEMICAL LABORATORIES IN PRUSSIA.
The establishment of two f^reat chemical laboratories in connection with the
two otherwise best cquipixid universities of Prussia, on a scale and with an ex-
penditure unprecedented, not only in that, but in any country, is a recognition
of the jjosition which chemistry now occupies in reference both to scientific
inquiry, and to the industrial arts. The following account is abridged from a
Keport* to the English Deiiartment of Science and Art, by Dr. Hoffman, under
whose direction the laboratory of the School of Chemistry in London, now at-
tached to the School of Mines, was constructed. The example of Prussia h:is
already attracted the attention of the lUissian, English, and French government <;
and the Minister of Public Instruction in France has already obtained the ncces-
sarj- pecuniary means to enlarge and reorganize the laboratories of the Museum
of Natural History, the School of Medicine, and the Superior Normal School,
and to est ib'idi in Paris, others, larger and more comj)Iete, designating them
" the arsenals in which are to be forged the weapons for new conquests in the
field of experimental science and industrial development."
I BONN.
The first negotiations respecting the building of a new laboratory in Bonn
commenced in 1861. Situated on the high road of Europe, on the banks of the
mighty Khine, surrounded by some of the most charming scenery of the world,
distant but a, few iiours from the Belgium frontier, and scarcely farther removed
from France, within reach of England by a short diiy's journey, in the midst of a
large agricultural, vine-growing, and mining populations, in close proximity
with the great manufacturing districts of Khineland and Westjihalia, united with
the focus of this large industrial territory by a network of railways whose meshes
are augmenting daily, itself the seat of one of the most flourishing universities
and schools of agriculture in Germany, — the city of Bonn embodied a number
of conditions which cannot fail to secure the rapid success of a large chemical
institution established within its walls.
The scientific arrangements of the building were entnisted to Professor A. W.
Hoffman, after a careful stiuly of the latest structures of the kind in Europe.
The foundation was laid in the spring of 1865, and the construction has gone on
under the direct superintendence of an able young architect, Mr. Jacob Neumann,
and the building, properly equipped, was handed over to the university in the
summer of 1868.
Of the several institutions in the Rhenish university, part only arc situated in
the electoral castle in Bonn, granted to the university at its foundation in the
year 1818; others, for instance, the natural history collections, the magnificent
and world-renowned astronomical observatory, the botanic gardens, the agricul-
tural academy, are located in the village of Poppelsdorf, about fifteen minutes'
walk from the castle, Init connected with it by one of the finest chestnut avenues
in Germany. In close proximity to the castle of Poppelsdorf, a tract of land,
the freehold property of the university, was chosen for the site of the new labo-
ratory, and a more favorable situation could scarcely have been found.
The land allotted by the university is of very considerable extent. The spa-
cious building, covering, with its four enclosed courts, an area of 45,000 square
♦■Report of Dr. Hoffman to the Department of Science and Art, of the Committee of Council
on Education, London.
278 SPECIAL -INSTRUCTION IN PRrSSIA.
feet, is surrounded liy a luindsome garden, which at tlu- Lack extends to some
depth, leaving ample room for the erection of any accessory buildings that may
he required at some later time. Thus unfettered by narrowness of space, or the
fear of having air or liglit shut out by the close proximity of other buildings, and
on a well drained soil, the architect was enabled to lay out the j-lan of the edifice
with a degree of freedom that has materially promoted the beauty and harmony
of his work.
Even the slight distance from the city of Bonn might appear at first sight a
disadvantage. Since, however, the natural science in.-titutions of the university,
almost without exception, arc concentrated at Poppclsdorf, it is a real conven-
ience to the students that the chemical laboratory is in their neighborhood, be-
sides being removed from the annoyances of a rapidly growing town, and com-
manding views of unsurpassed beauty ; on one side, the chestnut avenues and
the city of Bonn with the lofty spire of its cathedral; on the other side, the
castle, with the adjacent botanic gardens; in the distance, the Kreuzbcrg, with
its chapel ; and farther still, on the opposite bank of the Rhine, the graceful out-
lines of the Siebengbirge, the castled crag of Drachenfels, and the sheen, and
near and distant flow of that abounding river.
The new chemical institution is provisionally intended for sixty students ; the
space, however, has been meted out so liberally, that accommodation can be sup-
plied without inconvenience to a much greater number ; besides this, the building
has been so constructed as to allow of enlargement at any future time, by the
addition of a second story, without detracting from the harmony of its structure,
either as regards outward appearance or internal arrangement.
In addition to the various apartments required for educational purposes, for
practical analysis, for scientific and technical investigations, for class exercises,
and for the lectures, there are in the new building sets of rooms for the families
and servants, apartments for three assistants, and also a magnificent residence
for the director, consisting of a suite of rooms, which, as regards number and
extent, would be very seldom met with in a private house. Lastly, there is a
considerable number of Avell-lighted basement rooms, which have as yet no. spe-
cial use assigned to them, but the construction of which, on account of the greater
depth of the foundations on the street side, could not be avoided. On any later
enlargement of the institution, however, these rooms cannot fail to be adapted
to some useful purpose.
The various departments of the building are spread over three floors, the base-
ment, the ground floor, and the first floor. The first floor, however, extends
over but a small portion of the structure, and is exclusively occupied by the
private apartments of the director. But few of the rooms devoted to the pur-
poses of the institution are found in the basement, as, for instance, the store-
rooms, the rooms for metallurgical and other operations, requiring large quanti-
ties of fuel, those for mediCo-legal, and chemico-physiological research, &c. All
the remaining space intended for educational purposes, viz : the laboratories,
with their adjoining rooms for special operations, and side-rooms, balance-rooms,
rooms for volumetric analysis, combustion-rooms, lecture-theatres, the halls for
collections, the study and private laboratory of the director, the apartments of the
assistants and other officers of the institution, are on the ground floor, an ad-
vantage which would not have been obtained had the site of the building been
of more limited dimensions.
The ground floor contains no less than forty-four rooms, exclusive of vestibules,
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
279
corridors, and closets. After ascending the massive fliglit of stairs we enter the
large vestibule, the rich architectural decoration of which at once bespeaks the
dignity of a great public building dedicated to science. Before the spectator
stretches a long corridor of considerable width, the mam artery of the entire
building. It is brilliantly lighted by a number of windows, (each nine feet high
and four feet wide,) on the left side. The large folding doors at the further
end of the corridor lead to the director's spacious study, which is proviiled with
a large bow-window for micro.scopic observations. From this central situation
the various parts of the great building are quickly and easily accessible.
There arc three laboratories, each with permanent working-places for twenty
students, with more than sufficient space, and every convenience for work.
The Jirst of these laboratories is for lieginners, that is to say, those who, having
become acquainted with the rudiments of chemistry by attending lec'turcs, enter
the laboratory to l)ecome exercised in chemical nianijiulation, to make prepara-
tions, and to go through an elementary course of qualitative analysis.
The second laboratory is for adranccd students, or those who, having acquired
practice in qualitative cxi)eriments, are occupied with quantitative analysis, both
ponderal and volumetric.
Tlie tinrd laboratory is for young chemists sufficiently conversant with the prin-
cipal departments of chemistry to engage in original experimental investigations,
either suggested by the director qr chosen by themselves. In these laboratories
the students have their ])ermanent working-places. To each one is allotted for
this purpose a table anq)ly sup])lied with gas and water, as well as lock-up
drawers and cupboards in which to kccj) apparatus, re-agcnts, &c. ; in a word, liis
own chemical estate. At these working benches all ordinary chemical work, and
all operations not requiring the special arrangements provided in other parts
of the institution, are carried on.
In the side apartments attached to the three laboratories are three closets in
direct communication with the main rooms. They are in charge of the respect-
ive assistants, and are intended for preserving delicate and costly apparatus, pla-
tinum and silver vessels, expensive re-agents, &c.
Besides the three laboratories in which the students, as already stated, have
spacious and permanent benches, liberally provided with gas and water, and every
facility for carrying off" vapors and liquid products, there arc a series of rooms for
certain operations which cannot be well conducted in them, stich as distillations,
making of gases, heating of bodies in particular gas-atmospheres, and all exper-
iments requiring large and complicated apparatus. Tliis class of work is carried
on in these special rooms or in the " evaporation-niches " let into their walls.
Should, however, for any particular purpose, even more space or greater pro-
tection from noxious or offensive emanations be required, such as preparing
sulphur compounds or similar substances, provision has likewise been made for
such contingencies. Each working-room communicates with a covered colonnade,
opening towards a back-court, and fitted up with gas and water and all the requi-
sites for this special work. Flights of steps lead from the open sides of the col-
onnades down to the two back-courts lying between the three laboratories, and
here the student finds an additional supply of water in the large central res-
ciToirs, the tabular parapets of which serve as working-benches for a variety of
operations.
Besides the chief apartments already mentioned, there are the following rooms :
a laboratory for gas analysis, a volumetrical analysis room, two balance-rooms,
280 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
not only intended for the reception of chemical balances, but also of the more
delicate physical instruments made use of in analysis, such as air-pumps, barom-
eters, &c., two rooms for fusions and ignitions capable of being carried out by
means of gas, a library, a large and excellently arranged lecture room cajial le
of seating conveniently two hundred and fifty students, a chemical and mincr-
alogical museum, storo-rooms, &c.
The basement has nearly thirty rooms, which are at present mainly used for
store-rooms, coal-cellars, lumber-rooms, &c., but capable of being utilized if nec-
essary. Only the front block of the building has a second story ; this contains
a spacious and attractive suite of apartments, provided for the director of the
institution, commanding the finest scenery in the world. There are abimdauce
of rooms ibr servants, domestic oflices, and storage.
The external aspect of the new laboratories is in perfect keeping with the
scale of grandeur of the ground plan. The street front, 180 feet in length, con-
sists of a long centre structure, two stories in height, with richly decorated win-
dows and pillars, terminated. by two end blocks of greater height, each containing
a main entrance, with an ornamented balcony above. The side-front facing the
city of Bonn, with the tnain entrance for students, has a depth of 250 feet, and
consists of two parts, sc'ijarated from each other by the can-iage-way leading to
the courts. One of these parts is the north-east comer of the front block ; the
other, perfectly symmetrical in itself, has for its centre the main vestibule, with
its richly decorated entrance, and classically ornamented roof rising consider-
ably above and projecting prominently from the remainder of this fa9ade. On
either side of this vestibule branch forth two long wings, which, though only of
one story, are nevertheless of imposing attitude, being relieved, moreover, on the
two corners by slightly projecting portions of somewhat greater height, and
marked by the more elaborate architecture of the windows. The impression
made on the spectator by the animated appearance of this front is exceedingly
pleasing. The inner and outer f;i9ades and the principal architectural mould-
ings, are in stone. The architectural ornamentation of the interior is in keeping
with that of the exterior. The principal vestibule, a hall of considerable dimen-
sions, is lighted by a band of highly elevated windows running round the four
sides of the building immediately under the roof. The ceiling is divided into or-
namental squares, and the walls are enlivened by projecting pillars bearing cary-
atides, and a rich door architecture framing the entrance to the corridor.
The lecture-room is lighted from both sides through a range of windows, which
are separated from one another by columnar pillars. Its walls and ceiling are
correspondingly decorated in stucco and color.
The three laboratories, despite their necessary simple ornamentation, will not
fail to make a favorable impression by their liberal proportions, by the enlivening
effect of the wainscoting and the evaporating niches projecting from the walls
above it, as well as by their elegant and in all respects suitable fittings. The
rooms adjoining the laboratories, the small lecture-theatre and the museums, and
the director's spacious residence, are all richly and tastefully ornamented, and are
in all respects worthy of the institution to which it belongs.
The cost of the building, aside from the land, which belonged to the university,
and of the equipment, was 183,000 thalers.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTION IX PRUSSIA. 281
II. BERLIN.
Chemical Laboratory of the Frederick William University of Berlin.
The University of Berlin, like that of Bonn, had its origin witliin the present
century, having been founded in 1810, at a period when the pressure of foreign
domination weii^hcd almost insupportaM y on Prussia; and it will ever remain
significant of the direction of the German mind, that the great men of that
time should have expected to gather in the focus of science and letters the forces
necessary for the political regeneration of their country.
To the present time, there have l)een three leaders of chemical science in this
University since its foundation, Klaproth, Mitscherlich, and II. Rose, who have
taught in succession, or at the same time. The existence of the Royal Academy
of Sciences, instituted by Licbnitz in 1700, and reorganized by Frederick the
Great in 1740, o])erated, among other causes, against the establishment of a great
chemical institution at the university, as that academy was a scientific corpora-
tion, including chemistry within its scope. Ever since the foundation of the
university the chemical chair has invariably been occupied by the chemist of the
academy, and the university was thus exempt from the necessity of providing
the chemical professor with working accommodations, which he already enjoyed
in his capacity of academician. This double position, however, proved a disad-
vantage, when the demands for chemical instruction and investigation had in-
creased in consequence of the rapid advance of science, and the industrial arts to
which chemistry could minister.
In the autumn of 1863 the university and the academy suffered a heavy loss
in the death of Mitscherlich ; and not long after, by that of H. Rose. Professor
A. W. Hoffman, F. R. S., then at Bonn, was selected to fill the chair thus va-
cated, principally on the grounds of the experience he had just acquired in organ-
izing a chemical institution at Bonn, as it was universally conceded that the time
had come when the building of a great chemical laboratory for the university of
Berlin must be vigorously undertaken.
Site. The site of the new Berlin laboratory is in the midst of the great rep-
resentative institutions of the kingdom, and in close proximity to the uniAersity
and the military medic.il school, at the east end of the beautiful street and prom-
enade, " Unter den Linden," so called from its two parallel avenues of lime trees,
which extend through the city from the monumental Brandenburg gate, in a di-
rection from west to east. At the east end of this street, next to the splendid
palace built by Frederick the Great for his brother. Prince Henry of Prussia, now
devoted to the university, and the spacious edifice of the Academy of Sciences,
near to other great public structures, the library, the academy of arts, the arsenal,
and the royal resid.iii;e, is the site of the new laboratory.
The relations of the university and academy with respect to their participation
in the new institution, and the various preliminary conditions having been satis-
factorily settled, the scientific details of the institution were arranged substan-
tially after suggestions and plaHs of Prof. Hoffman at Bonn. The architectural
details embodied by Mr. A. Creamer, an architect of great experience, were com-
mitted to two young achitects, Messrs. Cornelius & Drawe.
The area occupied by the building is 21,680 square feet; aud the building has
two stories and a basement. The foundations rest principally upon arches
thrown over concrete piles sunk through the yielding peat to the solid stratum
below. The whole expense of the building and the additional grounds pur-
chased (over 318;100 thalers), was borne by the Prussian government.
282 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
The broad frontage of the Georgenstrass was selected for the ])rincipal facade,
with the main entrance for students. On the back of tlic lar^e rectangle form-
ing the site, parallel to the main edifice, nins a corresponding wing, and two
structures, connected on either side by long galleries, and in the middle by a more
massive block of buildings containing the great lecture-theatre of the institu-
tion. Thus two quadrangles were formed.
The principal front of the institution rises in two lofty stories over a massive
basement, facing the Gcorgen-strass. The main entrance, consisting of three
arched jjortals, is in the middle of the edifice. On the right hand corner there is
a carriage-way leading to the quadrangles.
On entering by one of the middle portals and ascending three granite steps,
the imposing vaulted Vestibule is reached, which is separated from the street by
iron gates of ornamental trellis-work, closing the portals. Half-way across the
vestibule a flight of nine steps, extending across the entire breadth of the hall,
leads to the Corridor on the main floor. The construction of this splendid ojx^n
vestibule was an architectural necessity, the Municipal Board of Works in Berlin
not permitting th€ projection of steps into the street more than two feet.
The more important rooms of the institution are in the first or main story.
The corridor above referred to extends through the entire length of the front
building, being lighted in part from the staircase, and in part from three large
windows appropriately situated.
The Ground Floor. The branch of the corridor on the right of the vesti-
bule leads to a large glass door opening on a flight of steps which descends to
the carriage-way, thus forming a communication between the ground floor and
the quadrangles with the several wings that surround them. From this branch
of the corridor, access is had to two rooms very near the carriage-way, viz : a
small lecture-theatre for special lectures, and their recapitulations or reviews to
be held by the assistants of the institution ; and between this and the vestibule
a special room for the lectures, as well as for the preparation of the experiments
for the lectures. Being between the two entrances, these rooms are selected for
these uses on account of their accessibility, being reached by students not work-
ing in the laboratory, without in any way interfering with the general business
of the institution, while a great majority of the practical students are Morking
in the first floor above, and have therefore only to descend the principal staircase.
The branch of the corridor extending from the left of the vestibule, leads to
three imjjortant laboratories, opening into one another, which are fitted up for
smelting operations on a large scale, involving the use of wood, coal, or coke.
For this purpose the walls adjacent are traversed by a succession of flues for the
several furnaces set up in the rooms. All these rise vertically to the height of
about sixty feet, aflbrding as great a draught as can be required. These rooms
are so ample in their dimensions, however, as to be available for many other op-
erations besides smelting ; one of them, for instance, contains the large press of
the laboratory, and another the steam-boiler, supplying the institution with dis-
tilled water, and heating, by means of pipes rising througli the ceiling, the dry-
ing-ovens in the gallery on the first floor. In these I'ooms all the experiments
made' under great pressure are performed ; for which special arches are let into
the walls, provided with strong iron doors for the protection of the manipulator
in case of explosion. The third room, in addition to the doors communicating
with the corridor and the middle room, has a third door, leading into the Collon-
nade for open air work nearly one hundred feet in length.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IN PRUSSIA. 283
This colonnade receives air and lii^ht through seven great arches, the middle
one of wlik'h leads to a doul)le flight of steps, descending to the quadrangle. This
liall has all the requisites fur chemical work, such as gas, water, etc., whilst three
recesses in the partition wall serve to carry away such vapors as arc to be avoided
even in open air. The colonnade, in addition to the main staircase, has a spiral
one uniting it with the first flocn-.
On the landing, directly op])ositc the main entrance, and visible from the
street, is the entrance to the Great Lecture Theatre. This hall differs from that
at Bonn by lieing much higher, rising through the two stories of the building, to
an elcvalion of not less than 37 feet.
In direct communication with this theatre are the rooms for preparing the
lectures and that containing the scientific collections of the institution. The
Preparation Laboratory proper is accessible from the theatre by two doors, one on
either side of a large niche behind the middle of the lecture table. This room is
amply provided with all the requisites for chemical manipulation, and is well
lighted, and has a flight of steps communicating with both the quadrangle and
basement. It has also several other doors by means of which access is easy to
the corridor, the waiting-room, the instrument-room, and the Great Museum for the
Scienfinr Collections of the Institution, the latter being a magnificent hail 60 feet
long and 2.5 broad, the arched roof of which is sujiported by iron columns.
The architecture of this museum suggests a division of the collections into
three; minerals, rocks, ami metallurgical products, occupying one section; the
chemical collection proper, another ; and models, drawings, diagrams, etc., the
third. The specimens in the museum can be transmitted directlj- to the lecture
theatre by means of a small truck, of the same height as the lecture table, nm-
ning on wheels with India-rubber tires. There are several other rooms on this
floor, which it is not necessary to enumerate and describe specifically, being ap-
plied to uses connected with the main object, and made convenient in their outfit,
and accessible.
The First Floor. As has been stated, the first floor contains the most im-
portant rooms for manipulation, for only by this arrangement could the requisite
amount of light be secured. The first room reached is the spacious OjK'ration
Boom, lighted by the three middle windows of the front facade, and communi-
cating on the right and left with two magnificent Laboratories, having a row of
colossal windows on each side. The first of these laboratories is intended for be-
ginners, the other for more advanced students. Each of them has ample space
for 24 students, and is capable of accommodating a greater number if required.
These rooms are most completely provided with all the requisites for work ; in
all the window pillars are evaporation niches, the flues of which communicate
with the open air by chimney-pots, concealed behind the pillars of the attic run-
ning along the roof of the building. The walls of the laboratories are also traversed
by flues, ventilating the large recesses here provided for fitting up lengthy pieces
of apparatus.
From the great working laboratories for the beginners and advanced students
branch out two galleries, nearly 100 feet long by 12 wide, one of which lies over
the thoroughfiire, and tlie other over the colonnade for open air work, each
lighted by seven large windows. These galleries arc not only useful as means of
commimication with the first floor and the apartments of the cross wing, but also
for a variety of purposes requiring an amount of light which could not be other-
wise secured.
Among the rooms which it is not easy to locate and specify, by a simple de-
284 'SPECIAL INSTRtJOTIOX IN PRUSSIA.
Fcription, but connected with the operations prosecuted on this floor, arc a Lihrary,
Jjiboratorks for Fusions and Ignitions, a Balance Rotmi, a Lahoratorij for Scientific
Research, a Gas AnaJijsis Lahoratorij, a Photometric Room, a Private Laboratory, Com-
bustion Room, etc.
The Basement. The basement contains also a large numljcr of rooms de-
voted to tlic olijects of the institution ; such as the laboratories for medico-legal
investigations and physiological research, a room for the rougher operations for
the lectures, a repository for chemicals, store rooms, coal cellars, wash-rooms,
and household cellarage for the director's residence.
EXTEEXAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE IXSTITCTION.
The principal fa9ade, in the Georgen-Strasse, is of brick ; all the ornaments
are terra-cotta from the celebrated works of March, of Charlottenburg. The
ground floor is six feet above the level of the street and eighteen feet from floor
to ceiling. The first or upper story- has the same altitude ; and the attic story,
together with the ballustrade crowning the roof, is 10^ feet high. The whole
building has, therefore, an elevation of 52^ feet above the level of the street ; and
the length upon this street is 134j feet.
The angles between the arches of the windows furnish spaces for fourteen
medallions of large size to exhibit in relief a number of portraits of celebrated
chemists. As these are set at a height of eighteen feet from the street, it was
necessary to make the likenesses over life size, the modeling of which was en-
trusted to the sculptor, Mr. W. Wolff", from whose models the medallions will be
executed in terra-cotta by Messrs. March of Charlottenburg.
The selection of the persons thus to be distinguished, was entrusted by the
architect to Prof. Hoffman ; but as he desired the advice of others, Pi-ofessors
Dove, du Bois-Reymond, Gustav Magnus, Poggendorff", Rammelsberg, Eiess,
and Gustav Rose, all members of the physico-mathematical class of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, gave this question their joint consideration. At a meet-
ing, held March 1, 1866, it was, in the first place, decided that it would be
best to honor the present leaders of chemical science by placing their busts in
the entrance hall of the institution, and to dedicate the monumental medallions
of the fa9ade exclusively to the great teachers of the past. After considerable
discussion, the following list was, with unanimity, ultimately adopted : .
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, - - -
Karl Wilhelm Scheele, - . . -
Henry Cavendish, ....
Joseph Priestly, .....
John Dalton, - - ' -
Claude Louis Berthollet, ....
Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac, . . .
Humphrey Dav)-, . . . . -
Jacob Berzelius, - . . . -
Eilhard Mitscherlich, - - -
Martin Heinrich Ivlaproth, ...
Heinrich Rose, .....
Leopold Gmelin, ....
Charles Gerhardt, .....
Auguste Laurent, ....
The two last named chemists, united during their life time by ties of friend-
ship, and having laid the foundation of the chemical views of the present day by
their joint labors, are framed in the same medallion.
BORX.
Died.
1743
1794
1742
1786
1731
1810
1733
1804
1766
1844
1748
1822
1778
1850
1778
1829
1779
1848
1794
1863
1743
1817
1795
1864
1788
1853
1, 16
1856
1807
1853
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 285
THE AQUARIUM AT BERLIN.
The first step towards realizing the long-cherished idea of founding an Aqua-
rium on an extensive scale in Berlin, was taken July 8, 1867, when a joint-stock
company, formed for this purpose, held its first meeting, when, chiefly through
the exertions of a wealthy merchiinl of Berlin, F. Stehlsclimidt, the sum of
200,000 Prussian dollars was raised. Of the many plans submitted, the one by
the architect, Wilhchn Lucr, was accepted. The eminent zoologist, Dr. Alfred
Brelini, was entrusted with the technical and scientific superintendence of the
building, and the work was commenced at once. Great and manifiJld were the
diflioulties encountered in this undertaking. From the ILirtz and the Thcerin-
gien mountains, from the hanks of the Khineand the valley of the Aar, from the
mines of Silesia and Saxony the materials had to be brouglit, for all the pillars,
vaults and walls of the building were to be of genuine specimens of various rocks
and minerals to the exclusion of all artificial imitations. Groat technical difficul-
ties also presented themselves in ventilating, heating and lighting the edifice ;
but by the indefatigable eflforts of the men superintending the building, and by
the thoroughness and eminent skill of the best technicians of Berlin employed in
the work, all these difficulties were successfully overeoiiae, and in the month of
May, 1869, the establishment was opened to the public.
The aquarium proper occupies only a portion of the building, which covers an
area of 13,550 square feet. It contains no less than 118 cages, reservoirs, and
ponds, for the reception of the different animals ; the length of the galleries is
780 feet, and their height varies from 15 to 17 feet, the open aquaria holds 6,000
cubic feet of water, and the resen'oirs 13,220 ; 2,000 persons can, at one time,
without being inconveniently crowded, visit the institution. The number of
specimens of living animals already now very large, is constantly being increased,
and will soon reach 40,000, the highest number contemplated.
The building is located on the corner of Schadow street, and that magnificent
thoroughfare, " Unter den Linden." After having mounted a massive staircase
the visitor enters through a glass-door, the desert or serpent's gallerij, a broad and
lofty hall, the walls of which are occupied by the cages with serpents and other
amphibious animals. These cages are all very large, and convey as far as possi-
ble a faithful idea of the localities in which the various animals are found. Here
are to be seen harmless European snakes as well as the rattle-snake, the moccasin-
snake, the boa-constrictor, and many other varieties. This gallery opens into a-
ravino 31 feet broad and 55 feet high, called the geological grotto, whose walls, in a
hitherto unsurpassed manner, form an exact representation of the different geo-
logical layers of the earth's surface, all composed of genuine specimens ; a cas-
cade, whose foaming waters tumble over the moss and fern-grown rocks forms
the back ground of this fairy-grotto ; the visitor mounts a balcony, from which an
excellent view of the romantic scene below may be obtained ; parrots and other
birds of brilliant plumage are resting on the projecting rocks, or on the branches
of the many tropical trees, and down among the rocks at the bottom of the cliff
turtles have their home. A broad stone-staircase of ten steps leads from the
geological grotto to the primeval forest of the tropics; in the centre of this hall
is a magnificent cage of airy wire-work 28 feet high and 4^ feet in diameter ;
more than 1,200 birds, amongst the rest 25 varieties of pan-ots inhabit this cage;
round about tliero is a broad and high walk of natural rock in the clefts of which
there are cages, reservoirs, and small ponds. There is an alligator-pond with ten
alligators, a turtle-pond, a reservoir for nest-building, fishes and cages with
2S6 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
sweet-singing birds, cages with flj'ing squirrels, desert-mice, eagles, and monkeys.
On leaving tliis hall a wide perspective opens, and wc enter the polar or arctic
grotto, after having passed throagli the fnsh-waUr grotto, inhaliitcd Ly fresh-
water fish and singing birds. There murmuring streams of water ai-e (lowing
between the rocks. From this grotto we descend a spiral staircase to the bottom
of the great ocean. On our way thither we pass reservoirs in the rocky walls,
representing the different kinds of pisciculture, Avith illustrations of the Frencn
system, KuiTs system, and Brchm's system. Before entering the large ocean
aquarium we pass the beaver-pond, where some beavers arc building their artifi-
cial structures. In the basins of a long gallery of natural rock we see all those
fishes which belong to fresh-water, but which, at certain times of the j'car, go out
into the ocean ; tlien follows a large number of reservoirs illustrating the plants
and animals of the different seas, first the North sea, then the Baltic-reservoir,
and in the centre an immense aquarium representing the Atlantic ocean with its
bays and gulfs ; through a narrow entrance called the Strait of Gibralter, Ave
reach the last of the series, the Mediterranean reservoir. — Uber Land unci Meer.-
Elementary and Technical Education for England.
The result of an examination of the great industrial districts of France,
Switzerland, and Germany, and of the technical institutions which supply them
with engineers and foremen, and of the public schools which give to all the
workmen, in most prosperous sections, a good elementary education, Air. Sam.
uelson, in his Letter on Technical Education, embodies as follows :
First, as to Elementary Education. Let no child under 12 be allowed to work
until it can read and write. Make it the duty of every parent to see that its
children have the means of elementary instruction.
Encourage elementary schools by special grants to establish advanced classes.
Assist the pujiils of elementary schools who have shown remarkable ability to
continue their ctlucation in a superior school.
Secondly, as to T< clinical Education. Give a thoroughly scientific training to a
small number of joung men to qualify them as professors of science. Supple-
ment local efforts to establish or to extend secondary or sujierior scientific schools,
by building grants, and by the endowment or partial endowment of professor-
ships. Let one condition of assistance to a scientific school be, that a perfecting
school {(fortbildunijsschuk) shall be affiliated to it; and of the endowment of a
professorship, that the professor shall teach in the perfecting school.
Mr. Samuclsou evidently favors the introduction of the superior mental train-
ing of the gymnasium into the preparation of pupils for the polytechnic schools,
as well as a larger infusion of literature into the Gewerbe Schulen. In speaking
of the Gewerbe Schule of Barmen, in Westphalia :
It has about 200 pupils, five-sixths of whom leave the school at the end of
three years (in the second class), to enter into some industrial or mercantile oc-
cupation, the other sixth remain and generally go from the school to a Polytech-
nic institution, not unfrequently serving a short apprenticeship of one or two
years, in a workshop, between the termination of their school career, and their
entrance upon the course of higher instruction. The third and fourth classes,
forming the lower school at Barmen, include French, history, and geography,
arithmetic, algebra, natural philosophy, geometry, and drawing. These studies
are continued in the second class, with the additjon of chemistry, and the exten.
sion of drawing to machine details. In the first class, mineralogy, building, con-
struction, and m|chanics, theoretical and applied, and practical work in the shop,
are added.
Mr. Samuelson does not favor the system of apprenticeship schools on the
part of the government. " They fall properly within the province of benevolent
individuals and societies, and their success will depend on the judgment with
which they are organized and superintended." ^ ..
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.
INTRODUCTION.
The Kingdom of Saxony, on an area of G,777 English square
miles, in 18G4 had a population of 2,343,994, of which number
1,248,677 were engaged in mechanical and manufacturing industries,
559,013 in agriculture, and 172,946 in commerce.
The total annual expenditure of the government of the Kingdom
of Saxony during the tinancial period 1863-06, amounted to 12,356,-
352 thalers, of which sum about 300,000 thalers were expended
in public instruction, independent of all local expenditure, which
amounted to about 1,000,000 thalers. A system of public instruc-
tion in Saxony has been in operation since 1580, and under its benef-
icent influence there has grown up a precious national inheritance of
school habits, which now secures the regular attendance of all chil-
dren of the legal school age, at some school, public or private, and
furnishes the higher institutions of learning, and the numerous
special schools of agriculture, architecture, commerce, mining, and
other industries, with well-prepared quota of students. Mr. Mun-
della, member of parliament, and large employer of laborers in
En"'land and Saxony, in a recent speech in Nottingham (his place of
residence), said that ho had never found a native born Saxon who
could not read and w^rite.
The institutions of public instruction, administered by the minister
of education and ecclesiastical affairs, are as follows :
1. Primary Schools. Of these there were in 1867, 1,976 schools, with 3,996
teachers, and 400,229 scholars (199,446 boys, and 2,783 girls); 93 Sunday
schools, designed to complete the elementary education, with 7,024 scholars ;
and 80 schools for poor children in cities.
2. Secondary Schools. There were in 1868, 9 gymnasia, with 2,066 scholars,
and 159 teachers; 7 gymnasia with real-classes, with 1,440 scholars, and 166
teachers ; 3 real-schools and progymnasia combined, with 874 scholars, and 54
teachers; 3 real-schools, with 1,183 scholars, and 55 teachers; making a total of
22 secondary schools, with 5,563 scholars, and 434 teachers.
3. Superior Schools. The University at Leipsic, in 1867-68 had 111 professors,
and 1,190 students (297 theology, 362 law, 181 medicine, 350 philosophy and
philology).
(287)
2SS SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.
4. Special and Professional Schools.
3 Public commercial schools, with 177 scholars.
15 Commercial schools for apprentices.
1 Commercial school for young ladies, with 112 pupils, and 9 teachers.
I Polytechnic school, at Dresden, with 360 students, and 28 teachers ;
and connected with this school there is a modeling and ornamental
drawing school, with 16 scholars.
1 Higher industrial school, at Chemnitz, with 225 pupils, and 19 teachers.
Connected with this school there is 1 royal work-masters' school, with
82 scholars, and 10 teachers.
5 Baugewerkenschulen (architectural schools for masons and carpentersji,
with 548 pupils, and about 20 teachers.
1 Higher weaving school, at Chemnitz, M'ith 33 pupils, and 4 teachers.
1 Academy of forestry and agriculture, with 13 teachers, and 91 students.
1 Agricultural academy, with 38 students.
1 Mining academy, with 13 professors, and 51 students.
1 School for practical miners, with about 60 pupils.
2 Mining schools, with 64 pupils.
2 Stenographic institution, with 130 pupils.
1 Normal school for training teachers in gymnastics, with 10 teachers,
and a varying number of pupils.
1 Royal military school, with 124 scholars.
1 Royal veterinary school, with 39 students, and 9 teachers.
4 Nautical schools (for pilots on the Elbe), with 60 to 70 pupils.
2 Music schools, with about 80 pupils.
7 Weaving schools, with about 550 pupils.
2 Fringe-making schools, with about 300 pupils.
1 Tailors', or Mode academy, Avith 38 pupils, and 5 teachers.
3 Straw-working schools.
30 Lace-making and embroidering schools.
2 Schools for deaf mutes, with 208 pupils, and 28 teacners.
2 Schools for the blind, one with 128 pupils, at Dresden, and a prepara-
tory school, at Hubertsburg, with 17 pupils.
2 Academies of fine arts, one at Dresden, founded in 1705, with 136 stu-
dents, and a second, at Leipsic, founded in 1764, with 100 pupils.
2 Academies of arts.
1 Conservatorio of music, with 146 students, and 14 teachers.
12 Teachers' seminaries, with 1,177 students, and 164 teachers.
SYSTEM OF SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
As preparing for a higher tcchuical career, we will notice, first, a
class of schools which belong also to the general system of public in-
Btruction.
I.— THE EEAL SCHOOX.S.
l.—0!Ject.
These schools may be said to correspond to the American or English
High Schools, so far as the latter are designed for a good general edu-
cation, with the exception of the classical department. Here flock
together all those who want an education superior to that which is ac-
quired in the elementary schools and are not destined for the university ;
c. ^., such as wish to be officers in the postal or custom service, or archi-
tects, farmers, engineers, or artists, in order to pursue a higher course
in one of the professional academies, and all such as desire to enter
business life with a cultivated mind. It should be understood that the
graduate of a gymnasium (college) is by no means prevented from
entering the polytechnic school, the academy for miners, the academy for
foresters and farmers, and the academy of arts ; but, for this purpose, the
Real School is to be preferred, because mathematics and modern languages
are more particularly attended to, whilst in the gymnasium the English
is not obligatory, and in some colleges mathematics and French are con-
sidered of less importance, and treated accordingly. In Freiberg and
Tharand the graduate of a gymnasium is at once admitted ; the gradu-
ate of a Real School conditionally, if he has a good record in mathe-
matics.
2. — Number and Location.
There are seven Real Schools in Saxony, each with a large number
of pupils; in all, 1,892 pupils, and 105 teachers in the last year. The
Bchools in Dresden, (2,) in Leipsic, and Chemnitz are city schools, and
supported by the municipalities ; the last mentioned with a slate grant.
In Annaberg, Plauen, and Zlttau are royal schools; the two latter joined
to the gymnasium ; the first mentioned, as well as that in Cheianitz, com-
bined with a pro-gymnasium of three classes. The Royal School in
Annaberg, with 13 teachers, (salaries: 1,200, 800, 900, 800, 700
thalers, etc.,) and 220 pupils, expended, in 1866, 8,482 thalers,and re-
* Prepared for the Commissioner of Education by Dr. Hermann Wiinmer, Dresden.
19 289
290 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
ceived from tne state 5,200 thalers. The Real School in Neustadt,
Dresden, with 16 teachers, expends yearly 12,500; the other in Dres-
den, 10,000; that in Lcipsic, (the first in Saxony, founded 1834^) with
20 teachers, 16,600 the lers. The tuition fee in Leipsic and Chemnitz
is 20-30, in Dresden 30-36 thalers.
The regulation of 1860, which caused a greater uniformity in those
schools of a comparatively new date, and formerly of a different char-
acter, requires six classes, (the pupil to have completed his 10th year,)
establishes a maturitdts examination prescribing the needed require-
meuts, and gives the approved graduates the right to enter without
further examination the above-named academies, or to enter the post
ofhce, custom house or telegraph office. At this examination the prin-
cipal of the polytechnic school presides.
3. — Classes and Plan of Instruction.
Of the six classes the lower are generally crowded, and therefore
divided into parallel classes, since the regulation does not allow more
than 40 pupils in one class. Thus, the 5th class in Chemnitz has four
parallel classes with about 30 pupils in each, the 4th of three, the 6th and
3d of two parallel classes, whilst the first class has 13 and the second
15 pupils in all. This fact is explained by the circumstance that for
most pupils the Real School is the highest school they attend before
entering, at their fourteenth year of age, on their commercial or techni-
cal apprenticeship, whilst the small number of pupils in the highest
classes consists only of such as wish to enjoy the benefits of the exami-
nation as graduates, most of them with the intention of continuing their
education in the professional academies, except the university. For
our purpose, therefore, it will be sufiicient to point out the studies of
the highest class, which may best show the attainments of a graduate of
these schools.
First or highest class, (in Chemnitz :)
ReUffion, 2 hours a week.
German, 5 hours. — a. History of literature ; read two dramatic pieces of
Schiller and Lessing. b. Rhythm and the various kinds of poetry ; practical
exercises, c. Review of the compositions written by the pupils once a month.
(/. Exercises in free elocution and in declamation, with a verbal criticism made
by the pupils.
French, 4 hours. — Grammar finished ; read the Avare of Moliere ; free compo-
sitions: extemporalia ; exercises in speaking.
J£nejUsh, 3 hours. — a. Read Shakspeare's Julius Caesar, Dickens' Christmas
Carol, b. Grammar, c. Exercises in writing ; a composition every third week,
and an extemporale weekly ; exercises in speaking.
History, 2 hours. — Modern history ; review of the history of ancient times and
middle ages.
Geography, 3 hours. — a. political ; Western Asia, Africa and Germany, (polit-
ically and physically.) b. Mathematical; the apparent and real movements of the
celestial bodies; the solar system and the fixed stars.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
291
Natural ITistonj, \ hour. — Mineralojry.
Chemistry, 3 hours, — Review and further study of inorganic chemistry, with
particular reference to metals and their associations.
Natural Philosophy, 2 hours. — Mechanics ; some parts of the theory of lijjht.
Arithmetic, 4 hours. — Logarithms reviewed and continued ; appHcation of the
same to numerical accounts ; use onnilfsicinhd and G<niss' Table ; equations of the
2d and 3d degree; alj/ebraic functions; general qualities and approximate solu-
tion of higher equations; the arithmetical and geometrical progressions, {rcihcn;)
interest, rents, sinking funds, and insurance.
Geometry, 3 hours. — Trigonometry concluded; stereometry; review of planim-
etry and trigonometry.
Surveying, 1 afternoon in summer. — Description and use of the single surveying
implements; measuring of straight and curved lines; surveying of single and
continuous grounds ; profiles; drawing of plans.
About Latin, the Regulative says that though very desirable for all pupils, it
is obligatory only on such as will pass the maturildls examination ; for all others
facultative, i. c., left to choice.
The general plan of instruction, as given in the Regulative, is as follows :
VI. V. IV. HI. II. I.
Hours per Week to Each Study .
Reli'sinn 4 4 3 3 3 2
German 4 4 4 3 3-4 3-4
Latin 6 4 3 3 3 3
Fro.ncli - 6 7 4 4 4
English - - - 4 3 3 1
Gcosraphy 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hi:^t<«rv ...2 2 2 2 2 2
Natural History 2 2 2 2 11
Natural riiilosopliv - - - 2 3 2
Clifinistrv - - - - 2 3
Arithmetic 4 4 4 2 2 1
Algebra - - - 3 3 3
Mathematics - - 2 3 3 3
Drawiuz 2 2 2 2 2 2
CalliRraphy 2 2 I - - - ,
Singing 1 1 1 1 1 1
35-36 36-37 36 33 33 29
Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 3 2
Gymnastics are considered as recreation.
II.-COMMEKCIAL SCHOOLS.
I. — PUBLIC COMMERCIAL SCHOOL.
1. — Number and Location.
There are three public commercial schools in Saxony — in Lcipsic
since 1831, in Chemnitz since 1848, and in Dresden since 1854 — all
founded by the Merchants' Associations of the respective towns. They
belong, like all the following technical schools, except the two acade-
mies in Frieberg and Tharand, to the Home Department, and the two
former receive an annual supply to their expenses («) of 1,5G0 thalers,
(h) of 800 thalers, with an additional supply of 200 thalers from
the city funds. The annual expenditure was, in 1862, Leipsic, 12,-
000; Chemnitz, 50,000; Dresden, 12,000 th. ; in Dresden, entirely
Documents.
1. Re^ulatio fUr die lieaJschulcn im K. Sachsen. Dresden, 1860 ; 2. Programme von Neustadt,
Dresden, of 1867; 3. Prngramme von Chemnitz, 1867, 1868, and of 1864; 4. Plan of Lessons in
the Real School at Neustadt, Dresden,
292 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
covered by the income of school-money, which amounted in 1866 to
17,617 th., with a surplus of 1,075 th. over the expenses.
The terms in Dresden are 120 th., or £18, for the first year; 100 th.,
or £15, for each of the succeeding years; in Leipsic, 150, 120, 100
th. , and in Chemnitz 80 thalers. Each pupil must remain at least one
year.
2. — Plan of Instruction.
The commercial schools prepare their pupils for entrance into practi-'
cal business life, and have in view their complete preparatory training
for mercantile pursuits jn a course of three years.
The plan of instruction is as follows :
III. IT. I.
First Year. Second Year. Third Year.
Commercial science and law 12 3
Political economy - - 2
Book-keeping — merchants' accounts 12 2
Correspondence — 2 2
Commercial aritbmetic 5 3 2
Mathematics 3 3 2
Natural history 3 _ _
Natural philosophy - 3 _
Mechanical technics - - 2
Chemistry , , - - 2
Raw material of trade _ _ i
Geography and statistics 2 2 2
History « 2 2 2
perman language and literature 4 3 3
English language and correspondence 4 4 4
French '^' " " 4 4 4
Italian, (not obligator}') - 2 2
Calligraphy 2 1-
Drawing 2 2 2
In the upper classes English and French are taught by natives. The
collections of the school consist of a library, maps, apparatus, and sam-
ples of goods.
3. — Pupils.
The number of pupils in Dresden was^ at Easter, 1867, 68, of which
there were 25 foreigners^ (6 from Norway, 1 Sweden, 6 Russia, 2 France,
2 England, 4 Holland, 2 Italy, etc. ;) in Leipsic 56, at Easter, 1865,
(16 foreigners;) in Gheniuitz, 1867, 53.
The pupils visited in the course of the year many different factories
in the neighborhood.
In connection with these three higher commercial schools there are
o
II. — COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES.
Besides the three schools, there are twelve more in other towns of
Saxony. Though belonging to a lower class of schools, to be men-
tioned below, they cannot well be separated from the higher commer-
BPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 293
cial schools, because they have the same board of trustees, members of
the Merchants' Association, the same teachers, and the same objects in
view, though differing in degree and the time given to the several
studies.
The pupils have to pay in Leipsic 18, in Chemnitz 24, in Dresden 36
thalers, if they are sons of members of the corporation ; if not, in
Leipsic 24, in Dresden 36 thaler.s. The number of pupils in all three
schools was 349, who arc taught in 10-14 hours a week, (in Leipsic,
.7-8, or 8-9, and 2-3,) in three classes of as many years.
The plan of studies in Leipsic is as follows :
III. II. I.
First Year. Second Year. Third Year,
German language 2 11
English language - 2 2
French language 2 2 2
Merchants' accounts 3 2 2
Commercial science - 1 1
Book-keeping, &c - 1 1
Correspondence - - 1
Geography 11-
Calligruphj 2 - -
10 10 10
The character of these schools is everywhere the same, though, of
course, the three which are joined to the higher commercial schools
enjoy greater advantages. I may mention that in Freiberg, where
there is a separate school for apprentices in mercantile business, the ex-
penditure of the last year was 1,921 thalers, except the expenses for
the library and premium funds.
III. — THE COMMERCIAL SCHOOL FOE YOUNG LADIES IN LEIPSIC.
A commercial school was established in 1863 for young ladies who
are more than 14 years old, and wish to acquire the knowledge needed
for business life, (commerce, post oflBce, telegraphing, etc.) It received
from its beginning aid from the state of several hundred thalers a year,
and a like sum from the town of Leipsic, so that 24 free and half-free
scholarships could he established. Until Easter, 1867, it had in all 242
female pupils; at present, 112 in five classes, with nine teachers. The
tuition fee is 36-48 thalers annually, and is now double what it was
Documents.
a. Public Commercial School, S,-c., in Leipsic : 1 . Statuten von 1830, p. 12 ; 2. Propprciii",
1866; 3. Miltheilun^en, {coininmncaiUiu^,) von Dr. O'lermann, p. 'H'J, ISf'S; 4. Haustrr^nlalio
for I, (higher.) ablheituns, 1867 ; 5. SectiOM plan for I, (liighcr,) abthcilung, IbOU; 6. Sections
plan far die II, abtheilunp, lt66.
6. FuhlicCorninfcrcial School in Dresden : 7. Programme, p. 55, 1867 ; 8. Dresden Commercial
School, Enelish and Dutch, 1867; 9. 2 Sections plan far I and II, 18C7.
c. Publlc'Coniinercial Sihool in Chemnitz : 10. Programme, p. 28, 18G7; 11. 2 Prospectt
* von I and If, 1807 ; 12. 2 Disciplinar Crules of di^cipline) vorschri/ten/ar I and II, 18G7,
294 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
in 1864. The course embraces two years, with 18-24 lessons a week,
given from nine to twelve and three to six daily, and comprises all the
branches taught in a commercial school, (German, French, Eng-
lish, commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, correspondence, commercial
science, political economy, commerce, history and geography, orna-
mental drawing, etc.) Besides, there is a course in stenograph)/, and
a French club from 6 to 8 on two evenings for practice in French con-
versation. It is not obligatory to join these two courses, and an extra
charge is made. The French conversation in the club is conducted by
a lady. Of the 242 ladies who passed through the course in the school
during the first four years, 47 were 20-83 years old; the rest, 14—19.
Many of them found employment when leaving the school.
Since the establishment of that school two more have sprung up, in
Dresden, formed by a teacher of the Commercial School, and in Chem-
nitz founded by the Trades' Union ; but they rank more with the
evening schools, (for continuing education,) to be mentioned hereafter.
The school in Dresden has 10-12 pupils, who have to pay 24 thalers a
year, and are instructed seven hours a week : in arithmetic, two ; Ger-
man, two; calligraphy, one; book-keeping, two; and commercial sci-
ence, one.
III.— THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT DRESDEN.
1 . — Origin — Receipts — Stipends.
The Royal Polytechnic School was established in 1828*, called then
the Technical Institution, with 11 teachers, all of whom were also em-
ployed in other institutions of Dresden. But its growth was so rapid,
especially after its present building had been erected (see annual report
of 1864-65) in 1846 — for which the legislature had granted 70,000 tha-
lers — that, in 1851, under the present excellent principal, Professor
Hulsse, it received its present name, and in 1853 had twenty-one teach-
ers, most of whom belonged exclusively to the school.
Now it has 28 teachers, 17 of them bearing the title professor, (Schu-
bert, Geinity, Schneider, etc.,) beside nine subalterns, with 376 stu-
dents.
. The Polytechnic School is under the immediate control of the Home
Documents.
1. Prospectus of the Commercial School for young ladies in Leipsic; 2. Report of the
school; Easter, 1807; pp. 14-23.
* There existed before that time in Saxony the Academy of Arts since 1764, (its " Indus-
trial School" was separated in 1S2S, and established as the Technical School ;) the Wining
Academy, in Freiberg, since 1766, and the Forest Academy in Tharand, 1816. Belore that
time Polytechnic Schools existed in Germany : in Prague, 1806; in Vienna, 1CJ15; in IJerlin,
1825 ; in Uarlsruhe, (Baden,) 1825 ; in Nuremberg and Munich, 1825.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 295
Department, and has a yearly income of 30/200 tlialers, of wbicli 23,000
are received from the State, and the rest paid by the students in tuition
fees. The latter sum would amount to 2,068 thalcrs more, if it v/a^
not released to the poorer students. The expenses for teachers amount
to 20,054 thalers; for the library, etc., 5,952 thalcrs, and other ex-
penses, 4,552 thalers.
The value of the library, of more than 10,000 volumes, and of thn
fifteen collections, is estimated at G5,000 thalcrs, and these are contin-
ually growing, since the state pays annually for the library 1,350 tha-
lers, and for the increase of the coUectious 3,000 thalers and more.
For obtaining a correct estimate of the library, there is made, at the
end of each year, a deduction of 5 per cent.
The students have to pay 40 thalers a year, or 20 for each course of
six months. Those who wish to attend the lessons only in one or sev-
eral branches of instruction may be admitted and pay accordingly, viz :
2 thalers annually for any one lesson a week; 10 thalers for construct-
ing machines ; 20 thalers for the practical exercises in surveying ; 8
thalers for one, 32 thalers for four or more, in exercises in the labora-
tory. All that are not Saxons have to pay one-half more, i. e. , 60 tha-
lers annually for the full course.
This pay was released in the last year to 73 students, amounting to
2,068 thalers. Nine students received out of state funds 342 thalers.
From the various funds established in recent times bv benefactors, 36
students received together 1,610 thalcrs in the last year. Besides, one
student, who had completed his studies, received 200 thalers for further
improvement, either by travelling or studying in any university. The
same person may have tbis grant for several years of not less than 100
nor more than 300 thalers. This fund for " travel stipends" was
founded 1853 by the professors of the school, and is growing fast by
public lectures given by them for this purpose, and by private gifts.
2 . — Organization of Studies,
The Polytechnic School is divided into two departments, the lower of
which, called the general course, prepares for the professional depart-
ments, and extends over three terms, each of six months. To enter the
lowest class the aspirant must be at least sixteen years old, and must
have either completed the full course in a real school or gymnasium,
or of the third class in the Industrial School in Chemnitz, or show in an
examination the same acquirements. This examination embraces, in
mathematics, planimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, and equations of
the third degree J experimental philosophy; geometrical drawing, and
296
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
the elements of projection. The candidate may enter a higher class if
showing the needed attainments.
This general course has two classes, the lower of one " semester,^'' the
upper of two, five or one year, in all eighteen months. The plan of
studies here will be easily understood from the studies in the following
classes, and from the required attainments on admission.
The professional course is divided mio four sections:
A. The Mechanic-Technical School, for constructing machines, etc.
B. The Engineer School, for surveying, and for building railroads,
bridges, etc.
C. The Chemical School.
D. The school for training teachers of mathematics, natural philoso-
phy and technical branches.
According to the plan of organization, the course of studies, and the
hours for work to each study in each class, are as follows :
Section A. — Mechanical Engineering.
III. II. I.
First Year. Second Year. Third Year.
Higher mathematics 4 - 2 .
'' mechanics ; - 4 —
Doctr'me of " soWdity " {/estigkeit) - 4 wi. -
Doctriae of machines 6 4 2
Drawing and designing of machines 6-8 16 20
Mecliauical technology 4 3-4 3-4
Hydraulics - 4 su. -
Exercises in sketching 2-4 - -
Higher physics - — 2
Mineralogy and petrography 4 _ _
Architect^ure (B) 2 - -
Architectural drawing (L>) 4 — —
Political economy — — -4
Elements of philosophy, short history of ph.,
logic, aesthetics, psychology... - — 2
History of literature 2 2 —
Section B. — Civil Engineering.
Besides higher mathematics, higher mechanics, doctrine of "solidity," hy-
draulics, -mechanical technology, mineralogy and petrography, political econ-
omy, menial philosophy, history of literature, in which the classes of the re-
spective years' course are combined with A, the following subjects are taught
particularlj' in this section :
III. II. r.
First Year. Second Year. Third Year.
Geodesy 5 wi. 4 wi. —
Gt'Odesy ami astronomy — — 2 wi.
Exercises in surveying 1 day. The whole September.
Drawing of plans 2-4 wi. 4 —
Arcliltecturc. (A with B) 24 1-2 —
Architectural drawing, CA with B) 4-8 — —
Construction or' roads, liydraulic architecture — 4 —
Constiiiction of bridges — — 4
Designing plans '. — 12 16
Geognosy — 3 —
Geognostical excursions — 1 aftern'n SU. —
Measuring exercises, (in tlie room) — -,- 4
Higlier physics — — 2
SPECIAL SCUOOLS IN SAXONY. 297
Section C. — Chemistry.
Mineralogy, general doctrine of machines, mechanical technology, political
economy, history of literature — A.
Geognosy, with excursions; architecture, with drawing — B.
III. ir. I.
First Year, Second Year. Third Year.
Theoretical chemistry 2 2 2
Chemical tL'clini)l()^'y 2 2 2
Chemical exercises 3 20 20
Section D. — For Training Teachers.
Higher mathematics and mechanics, hydraulics, doctrine of machines, mechan-
ical technology, mineralogy, political economy, mental philosophy — A.
Surveying, 5 hours; geognosy, with excursions; higher physics— A and B.
Chemistry, 2 hours, less exercises, with C.
irr. II. I.
First Year. Second Year. Third Year.
Higher pliypics - 2 2 besides 4 with A & B.
Piiysical exercises - 4 4
Besides, there are lessons for all, who choose, in stenography, 3 hours in winter ;
French, 2-3 hours in several classes ; English, 2-3 hours iu do. ; gymnastics, 2-3
hours in do.
For the students of the upper classes : Stone-cutting, 2 hours, (forB;) book-
keeping, 2 hours in winter; banking, (bills of exchange, ) 1 hour in winter ; the-
ory of firc-establishmenls, 3-1, (for A,) {fcuerungs-anlagen;) Saxon law, 2 hours
for I in all sections ; excursions to important manufactories iu the neighborhood.
The students are required in the last year to make the sketch of a
factory estabUshment ; they are, therefore, for the vacations, recom-
mended to a manufactory, in order to study it and prepare for their
task.
At the end of the last course, all sections pass a " closing examina-
tion," as it is called, to which all who apply for it, and want a testimo-
nial as graduates of the Polytechnic School, are admitted. The stu-
dents have to solve the problems given in their respective branches,*
from 4 to 6 hours being given to each composition. Besides, they have
to show their practical skill, by laying before the examining committee
designs and sketches, a chemical analysis, and a physical investigation.
Of 246 applicants from 1852 to 1867, 234 received the desired testimo-
nial. After this examination, if passed, the graduate has to work
practically with an engineer^ &c. , and then, with satisfactory testimonials,
both of the Polytechnic School and its master, with whom he must have
worked at least three years, be it continually or by intervals, he is ad-
mitted to the state examination for engineers. Until 1867, 141 per-
* A. — Doctrine of mechanics, mechanical technology, higher mathematics and mechanics,
higlier physics.
B. — Civil etit'ineering:, (rnads, hydraulics, bridcps, architecture in general, measuring and
astronomy, higlier matlicmaiics and mecliaiiics, higher physics, mineralogy and geognosy.)
V. — Tiicoretical chemistry, chemical technology, mineralogy and geognosy.
D. — Hinlier mathematics and mechanics, higher pliysics, measuring and astronomy, theoreti
cal chemistry, mineralogy and geognosy.
898 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
sons applied for examination, and 38 were not admitted or did not suc-
ceed. Of the 93 who succeeded, 56 became civil engineers, 6 me-
chanical engineers, 12 architects, (haumeister,) and 19 inspectors of the
fire insurance, as yet chiefly a matter of government in Saxony, and so
far obligatory on all proprietors in the kingdom, besides the many pri-
vate fire-insurance companies here.
The committee of the state examination consists partly of professors
of the Polytechnic School, to whom is added the professor of architec-
ture from the Academy of Arts, partly of practical engineers and
architects in the highest positions in their respective professions.
The higher architectural school (baiiscJiuIe) is not joined here, as else-
where, to the Polytechnic Institution, but to the Academy of Fine
Arts, which is described hereafter. But the students of architecture
in the academy have to attend the mathematical lessons in the Poly-
technic School, if they wish to pass the said state examination for en-
gineers and architects. Hence the professor of architecture in the
academy is a member of the examining committee.
Joined to the Polytechnic School is a —
3. — Modelling and Ornamental Drawing School.
It is intended to train («) good modellers for the industrial branches,
viz, for decorative forming in wood and stone ; for iron foundries, &c.; (&,)
ornamental di'awers for weaving and printing, and to give opportunity
to get a general instruction in decorative, porcelain and plate painting,
lithography, engraving, &c. The time of the whole course is generally
five years, but may be shorter, if the pupil enters well prepared. For
admission the pupil must be at least fifteen years old ; nothing but a
good elementary education is required, though the knowledge of the
respective trade is desired. Generally they are admitted by way of
trial in the first course of six months. The pay is six thalers annually
for a Saxon, and nine thalers for a foreigner. The pupils may attend
the lessons of the Polytechnic School, and if satisfactorily prepared,
have to attend the teachers on anatomy in the Academy of Arts, and
in the Veterinary school.
Of the above-mentioned 376 students, there were in the professional
schools 134; in A, 43 ; B, 69 ; C, 18; D, 4 ; in the general course,
141 ; for single branches, 85, and 16 in the Ornamental Drawing
School.
Documents.
1. Plan nf organization of tlie Polytechnic School, 1865, p. 67 ; 2. Prospect of 1867; 3. Die
Polytechnische Schule wdhrend der ersten 25 Jahre, von Prof. Hulsse, 1853, p. 54; 4. Pro-
(jiammes and Ropoits until 1867, [thirteen ;] 5. Die Baugewerkenschule in Dresden, 1837 to
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 299
On the Baugeioerlcensclmle, i. e., school for masons and carpenters,
being no proper part of the Polytechnic School, nor in the same build-
ing now, though under the same principal, (Professor Iliilsse,) see
below.
From 1852 to 1866 the closing examination in the Polytechnic
School was attended by 246, 12 of whom received no testimonial. Of
the 234, there belonged 70 to the Mechanical School, (A;) 117 to the
Engineering School, (B ;) 18 to the Chemical School, (C ;) 29 to the
section for teachers, (D.)
Though the three academies in Dresden, Freiling, and Tharand
come next in rank, the
IV.-HIGHER INDtrSTRIAIi SCHOOL AT CHEMNITZ
deserves a place here as being nearest related to the Polytechnic School,
though not having so high an aim. Founded in 1836, and having
four courses, (classes,) of one year each, its object is to prepare for a
technical or agricultural career, and may be compared to the general
course of the Polytechnic School ; but it has two classes below the
required attainments of the lowest class there, and wants the two highest
classes of its professional department. Hence the pupils are admitted
when 14 years old, instead of 16, and the graduates of the Ileal Schools
enter at once the second class, omitting the two lowest ones. To show
the importance of this school even to the lower classes, we mention that
of 18 boys who left the third class, ^. e., the second from below, five de-
voted themselves to agriculture, two to dyeing, one, respectively, became
appreteur, cotton-spinner, constructor of machines, miller, brewer,
merchant, and apothecary ; one went to a Polytechnic School, and of
two the profession chosen was not known.
The pupils are either full scholars or pursue only single branches of
instruction. Full scholars have to pay 24 thalers annually ; partial
scholars pay 2 thalers for any one-hour lesson a year; if they attend
three or more different lessons also, 24 thalers in all. The expenses for
books amount to 12-15 thalers a year. There were in the last year
225 pupils, and, besides the principal, Prof. Bottcher, IS teachers, 5
of them with the title of professor. It is a Royal School, and received,
in 1862, 10,000 thalers from the state, (Home Department.)
2.— Organization of Studies.
The school is divided into several sections, according to the profession
chosen by the pupils.
Section A.— a. For Mechanical Engineering.
300
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY
Section A. — h. For Chemical Engineering ; i. e., for sugar refining, calico print-
ing, &c. — 4 years.
Section B. for any Chemical business without the application of machines, as
Eoap-boiline, dyeing, coloring, &c — 3 years. The highest class corresponding to
II of A.
Section C, for Farming — lilcewise 3 years ; all combined in general branches.
There is added a course of Manufactural Drawing, {fabrikzeichnen,) in two
classes, with 25 pupils.
The studies in A and B being, on the whole line, the corresponding
(see above) classes in the Polytechnic School, (the present principal of
the latter was formerly principal in Chemnitz,) I shall point out here
the studios of Section C, the Agricultural Section, having added that
all who have passed through the course of the od class may^ without
examination, enter the lowest class of the Polytechnic School ; from
the 2d class they may enter the last term of the general course ; from
the 1st class they may enter the lowest class of the professional course,
or if practical skill is proved, the second year's course of the same, but
at its beginning.
Section C. — Agricultural School.
Fourth Class or First Year :
(a.) Common to all sections of that class.
1. Arithmetic, 6 hours. — With llofmann^s Aufgaben, 1 and 2 parts; the four
rules; interest; chain rule; involution; extracting square and cube roots ; alge-
braic fractions; equations with one unknown quantity.
2. Geometry, 4 hours. — Lines ; angles ; area of regular polygons and of circles;
equality and proportion of surfaces ; contents of figures.
3. Natural Philosophy, 6 hours in summer, 4 in winter. — With Ensmann'' s File-
ments of Physics. General introduction — climatology, doctrine of heat, magnet-
ism, and electricity.
4. Draifiny, (free-hand exercises,) 6 hours. — From geometrical bodies, plaster
models, (method of Dupiiis,) with pencil or *halk, chiefly in outlines.
5. Geometrical Drawing, 4 hours — Plain drawing, as preparing for projecting
and mechanical drawing ; exercises in painting, with India ink.
6. German language. 4 hours. — With Gotzinger't Grammar.
(6.) Agricultural School.
T. Natural History, 4 hours in summer. — Botany, with particular regard to such
plants as are important to common use ; outlines of the physiology of plants. In
winter, zoology, with outlines of anatomy and animal physiology, [mammalia.)
Third Class or Second Year :
(a.) With all sections.
1. General Chemistry, 8 hours. — Inorganic chemistry ; organic chemistry ; ele-
mentary analysis of organic bodies ; the more important vegetable and animal
matter, as fibre, starch, sugar, organic acids and bases, oils, colors, bones, flesh,
sugar, urine, etc. and their products of decomposition, (fermentation, distillation,
etc.;) their quality and use ; their relation to living vegetable and animal bodies.
2. German, 4 hours. — Two of these are grammar, and two oral and written ex-
ercises, alternating with reading of dramatic pieces.
(6.) Agricultural section.
3. Arithnetic, 2 hours. — Equations, with several unknown quantities ; equations
of the second degree ; logarithms ; arithmetical and geometrical progressions ;
interest on interest, etc.
4. Geometry, 2 hours. — Plain trigonometry ; stereometry.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 301
5. Natural Pkilosopki/, 2 hours. — Solid, liquid, and aerial bodies; acoustics;
optics.
6. Botany, 4 hours in summer. — With particular regard to such wild-growing
plants as are important for agriculture, with excursions.
7. Zoology, 2 hours in winter. — With particular regard to useful and injurious
animals.
8. Mineralogy, 4 hours in winter. — Cr\'sta]]ography ; ])hvsical and chemicHl
qualities of minerals in general ; physiography of minerals, with particular regard
to. such as are the component i)arts of the mould, (soil.)
9. Knowledge of mac/lines and technology, 4 hours in winter. — Description of the
chief motors and parts of machines, and of the manufacturing in wood and iron.
10. Mechanical drawing, 4 hours in summer ; in winter, 2 hours. — Brief de-
scription of parallel projection ; drawing of agricultural utensils and machinery.
11. Practical Geometry, (surveying.) — In summer, one afternoon, in several
divisions, each consisting of 5-G pupils.
12. Mercantile Arithmetic, "2 hours in summer. — E.xplanation of the Leipsic Ex-
change. List (courszettel ;) calculations of interest, of stocks and sluires, invoice, &c.
13. Book-keejiing and Correspondence, 2 hours in summer, 4 hours in winter. —
Theoretical and practical with regard to business concerns occurring on a farm of
middle size, and to l)rewery, distillery, <fec , besides topographical drawing,
belonging to 10, combined with the II class of section A.
Second Class or Third Tear, and last in this section :
(a.) With all sections.
1. German Language and Literature, 4 hours. — Two of them in history of litera-
ture ; one in oral and written exercises, with records ; one in popular logic and
rhetoric.
(6.) Agricultural section.
2. Physiology (/ Plants, 4 lessons in summer. — Anatomj' of cultivated jjlants
explained by microscopic illustrations ; general [ih. of cultivated plants ; influence
of soil and climate, etc.; doctrines of soil and manure; watering and draining;
raising and propagating of plants; crossing; varietie?, etc., with practical exer-
cises. In winter — special physiology of plants; systematic description of the
.cultivated plants and of the best methods of cultivating them.
3. Physiology of Animals, 2 lessons in summer. — Anatomy of doraestif. animals.
In winter 4 hours — general physiology of domestic animals ; cattle breeding ; the
plastic process ; excretion of milk ; the functions of nerves and muscles; special
phj-siology of domestic animals; the specific qualities; the production of flcsb,
milk, fat, wool ; muscular power with regard to feeding; the hoof of the horsc;
diseases of animals ; practical exercises.
4. Farming, 4 hours. — Principles of rural economy ; capital and labor, etc.;
requisites of farming; organization and management of a farm ; buildings, uten-
sils, manure; cattle breeding; agricultural book-keeping ; agricultural valuation.
5. Agricultural Architecture, 2 hours. — .Making of bricks, pipes, air and water
cement, burning of lime, etc.; best construction of buildings, barns, stables, etc.
6. Practical Geometry, 1 afternoon in summer — surveying of larger grounds.
In winter — theory of field surveying.
7. Geognosy: 2 hours in summer, with excursions.
8. Agricultural Chemistry, 4 lessons in summer, 2 lessons in winter. — Inorganic
and organic chemistry reviewed and completed, with particular regard to agricul-
ture.
Besides, there are —
Chemical Exercises with other sections, 4 in summer and 4-8 hours in winter.
Technical Chemistry, with section B, in 2 hours; especially on manufacturing
of starch, sugar, vinegar, or brewing, distilling, etc.
S^ if i if^ . '
sufficiently prepared in these subjects
302 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONT.
Joined with this school, and therefore to be mentioned here, is the
so-called —
3. ROYAL WOr.KMASTERS' SCHOOL.
{Formerly in Freihery ; for the last 15 years in Chemnitz.)
It has in view to train millwrights, makers and inspectors of wells
and water-works, as well as fo^remen in engine factories and spinning-
mills.
The journeyman-pupil, on admission, must be at least IG years old,
and have worked two years with a master, and produce a testimonial
from him.
The course, consisting of three half-year classes, commences on the
first of October and ends at Easter of the second year — 18 months.
The pupil has to pay six thalers for six months; and poor and worthy
pupils of the school may, as in other schools, pay nothing at all. Books
and stationery cost about ten thalers per annum. The number of schol-
ars amounts to 82, with 10 teachers, one of whom, with the title of pro-
fessor, particularly belongs to this school. It received, in 1862, an
annual supply from the state of 1,450 thalers.
The plan of lessons is :
in. n. T.
1st H. r. 2d H. Y. 3d H. Y.
Arithmetic 7 _ _
Maihf'niatics and mechanics, (logarithms, plane
trigonometry, statics) - 8 —
Jlechanics - _ , 4
Geometry, (stereometry) 5 — — '
Sir. veying, (measuring of field and water) - 4 .-
Geometrical drawing and projection 8 • — —
Natural j/hilosophy and chemistry 4 2-
Ornamental drawing 4 — 4
Architectural drawing — 4 _
Mechanical drawing — 8 8
Construction - 2 6
Mechanical technology - 4 _
Construction of mills, (for millers) - 2 2
Spinning and weaving, (for the respective jour-
neyman-pupils) — — 4
Construction of pipes and wells, (for conduit-
masters) - _ 4
German 4 4 _
Book-keeping - _ 2
The Eoyal Worlimmters^ ScJiool in Chemnitz has had from 1855 to
to 1866, in all, 326 pupils, of whom there were 206 from Saxony, (25
Chemnitz ;) 55 from Thuringia, 59 from Prussia, 8 from Schleswig-
Holstein, 8 from Austria, 5 from Russia, 4 from Anhalt, 5 from Wur-
temberg, H from Lubeck, 2 from France, 1 from Bavaria, 1 from Bre-
men, 1 from America. Of these 326, there were 239 constructors of
machinery, and iron workmen in general ; 52 constructors of mills, mill-
SrECIAL SCHOOLS IN S^AXONY. 303
Wrights and millers; 17 spinners, weavers, and oppretcurs ; 18 of va-
rious trades, as watchmakers, cabinet-makers^ founders, tinkers, gird-
lers, copper-smitbs, masons, stocking-manufacturers, gardeners, &c.
The full course has been passed by 157 pupils.
There is joined one more school to the Royal Industrial School at
Chemnitz, a so-called
4. — BACGEWERKENSCHULE.
[Architectural School for Masons and Carpenters.)
There are five such schools in Saxony, one of them mentioned as
being under the same management as the Polytechnic School at Dres-
den, another joined to the Academy of Arts in Leipsic, and two inde-
pendent ones in Plauen and Zittau. This seems to be the proper place
to speak of this class of schools.
These schools are intended to train good carpenters and mason mas-
ters, and require for admission the beginning of apprenticeships at least
for six months.
The course embraces the time of three winters, (in Leipsic of two,)
so that in summer the pupils work with their master ; only in Leipsic
and Zittau there is a summer course established for more advanced stu-
dents. The number of pupils in all five schools was, 1865-1866,
548 ; (in Chemnitz, 109 ; in Zittau, 149, &c.) In Leipsic the average
number in winter is 88 ; in summer, 25-30.
The expenditure for these schools by the Home Department is, aa-
nually, 7,550 thalers ; (for Leipsic, 1,850 thalers.) On the average,
the winter-course term of a pupil costs 21 thalers, of which 17.^o are
paid by the state, and o^^ by the pupil. The proper pay of the pupil
is 5 thalers for the term of six months.
Of the 736 pupils who attended the school in Dresden in the first 25
years, (1837-62,) there attended 191 during one winter term,
200 during two winter terms, 250 during three, 90 during four, and
5 during five.
Most of the students repeated the third course, and some, by compul-
sion, the first or second course.
Of the 117 pupils last winter in Dresden, there were 87 masons, 28
carpenters, and 2 stone-cutters ; of whom 51 were journeymen, and 66
apprentices.
Of the ten teachers in Chemnitz, (seven in Leipsic and Dresden,)
one professor is exclusively employed in this school ; another professor,
common to this and the Workmasters' School, and the rest employed in
the Home Industrial School.
304 SPECIAI/ SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
The plan of studies in Chemnitz is as follows :
III. ir. I.
First rv. T. Second W. T. Third W. T.
Arithmetic, (quadratic equations) 1 - -
Geometry, (stereometry) 5 — -
National philosoi^hy 4 — —
Mechanics - 4 2
German language 4 2 2
General architecture 4 2 -
Architectural drawing 6 4 4
Ornamental drawing 2 4 4
Projection 4 2 —
Embossing in clay — .— 3
Modelling - - 3
Perspective — 2 2
£?,»«%,} '-p««™'3' { : t :
Construction, (continuing the course on ma-
sonry.). - — 4
Designing of architectural plans — 6 8
Estimating of the costs — — 2
There is an examination at the close of each winter term, when the
pupil may get a testimonial from the school of his attainments, in order
to be admitted to the examinations for masters of architecture.
The plan of studies in the summer term at Leipsic is :
1. Architectural drawing, 12 lessons a week.
2. Drawing, (free-hand practice,) 4 hours.
3. Linear perspective, including construction of shades, &c., 4 hours.
4. Architectural style of middle ages, 4 hours.
5. Hisiorj' of architecture, with regard to masons and carpenters, 4 hours.
6. Reviewing exercises in construction, 4 hours.
'7. Trigonometry and higher equations, with application to architecture, 4
hours.
8. Guidance to solving problems of arithmetic and construing geometry, 4
hours.
9. Doctrine of trade, including laws of exchange, 2 hours.
10. German orthography and compositions, exercises in field-surveying, 4 hours.
According to the prospectus of the school in Leipsic, an appropriate
preparation is obtained in this school for such as wish to continue their
scientific-technical or artistic-architectural, either in the Polytechnic
School or in the Academy of Arts at Dresden.
The Royal Committee of Examination for such architects as are
trained in the Workmasters' School, i. e., for master masons and master
carpenters, (hcmhandwerher ,') consists in Dresden of eight members,
one of whom is a member of the municipality, (who presides;) one
the chief professor of the Workmasters' School ; one a master mason ;
one a master carpenter, with as many substitutes.
Second Winter Term, :
1. The simple principles of mechanics, with the application of the same to
architectural subjects, with exercises, 6 hours.
2. Doctrine of construction of buildings in their stone, wood, and iron parts, 6
hours.
SPECIAL SCnOOLS IN SAXONY. 305
3. Agricultural architecture, 4 hours.
4. Architectural drawing, with exercises in projcctinpf ground-plans, 2 hours.
5. Doctrine of making estimates of costs, with aa instruction in architectural
law, 4 hours.
6. German, embracing correspondence with private persons and magistrates ;
compositions and free discussion, 4 hours.
7. Book-keeping and iaws of exchange, 2 hours.
8. Modelling and embossing in clay, 4 hours.
Practical instruction in the Baugewerlcen does not come witliin the
purpose of the institution, yet, as far as is possible in the limited time,
there are modelling exercises for masons, carpenters, and stone-cutters
in the workshop of the Institution during the free time and on Sundays.
The proper course of two winter terms in Leipsic is as follows,
(lessons, 8-12 and 2-6 :)
First Winter Term :
1. Arithmetic, including the elements of algebra, 6 hours a week.
2. Dcscrij)live Geometry, Stereometry, and liectangular Trigonometry, 4 hours.
3. General Architecture, as introductory to the subject of building materials and
implements, as well as the purposes, parts, arrangements, requisites, and deficien-
cies of buildings, 6 hours.
4. Drawing, both free-hand and geometrical drawing, projections, with the
principles of the construction of shade, from models and jiapers, 8 hours.
5. Architectural Drawing, for learning the needed manual skill in drawing the
different parts of a building and constructions from papers, and after a given
Bcale, 12 hours.
6. Architectural doctrine of forms, or drawing of the most important arch
forms, (st3ies, ) with illustrations on the black-board, 4 hours.
7. German latiguage. 4 hours.
S. Modelling and embossing in clay, 4 hours.
V.-THE HIGHEK WEAVING SCHOOL AT CHEMNITZ.
1. — History and Object.
The Higher Weaving School at Chemnitz was founded in 1857, and
was so prosperous that the town of Chemnitz, assisted by the state,
erected, in 1865, a large and convenient building for the same, at a
cost of 20,037 thalers, the interest of which at the rate of 6 per cent.,
(1,502 thalers,) to be paid by the school to the town, (for which the
latter is bound to keep it in order,) has been guaranteed, and thus far
paid by the Minister of the Interior. Before that time the state had
given an annual grant of 500 thalers, of which 200 thalers were ex-
pended for the hired rooms, so that 240 thalers remained for the ex-
penditure of the school, which now must be brought up by the income
from tuition fees.
Documents relating to this School.
1. The FlighPr Industrial School at Chemnitz, projiraninic of 1867, containinj a report on the
Workmastrr School and on the Architectural School; 2. Prospectus of llic t^aine, in German,
1867; 3. Prospectus of the Workmastprs' School, 1867 ; 4. MiUhrilun^cnUlier die liaugtwerken-
$chule von \h'o7, bis lt6"2, pp. 14; 5. Annual reports on the same in the Prosrainmi-s of the
Polytechnic School, [twelve ;] 6. I'laii of lessons in the Bauzewerkcnschule at Leipsic,
[written in German, 1 1667-1868; 7. Prospectus of the same, [do.,] 1867-1868 ; 8. School laws in
the same, [do.,] 1867-18C8.
306 SPECIAL ECnOOLS IN SAXONY.
The annual cspenditure amounts to 3,000 thalers. Thepupil has to
pay for the full year's course 90 thalers ; for six months, 60 thalers.
For patterns and the necessary weaving material he has to pay, for six
months, 10 thalers in advance ; if more be needed in that time, he has
to supply the remainder. But the woven clothes the student receives
as his property at the end of the course.
The Directory consists of a member of the municipality, (at present
the president, Adv. Schmidt,) of a professor of the Royal Workmas-
ters' School, and two proprietors of weaving factories.
The institution is intended to train, by scientific instruction and prac-
tical exercises, workmasters and manufacturers for all kinds of weaving,
as well as to impart to young men who will devote themselves to the
manufacturing trade, either as buyers or sellers, an accurate knowledge
of manufacturing, and thus the ability of estimating the merchandise.
For this purpose the school has —
a. One shaft-room, with 22 hand-looms, and all auxiliary machines
for spooling, shearing, &c.
h. One Jacquard-room, with 16 Jaequard machine-looms, and 2 ma-
chines for stiffening by gumming, (kartenschlag ,^ spooling-wheels,
chenille machines, &c.
c. One machine-room, with a steam-engine and boiler; seven looms
[hraft) of English and German construction — some with Jaequard ma-
chines ; one hand-weaving loom ; one spooling machine, and one beam-
loom (hauiii) — all this worth about 4,000 thalers.
There were in the last summer term thirty-three pupils (seventeen
foreigners) and four teachers, with one master- weaver assisting in the
practical exercises.
2. — Course of Instruction.
The course of instruction one year, in two terms and classes. In-
struction is given from 8 to 12 A. M., and 2 to 4 P. M. daily, four
times a week. Each lesson is at least of two hours ; in the morning,
generally of four continuous hours
First term, (of six months :)
1 . Lectures on weaving material, two hours
2. Lectures on construction and systems of the various hand-weaving looms,
and of the auxiliary implements, two hours.
3. Free-hand drawing, (outlines, designing of patterns,) and chromatics,
(doctrine of colors,) four hours.
4. Analysis [decomposition) of pattern, making of cartoons, and calculation
of the respective stuff for hand and Jaequard weaving, with the appropriate in-
structio'i in "apprdur " (finishing) and its machines, eighteen hours.
5. Exercises in shaft weaving, six hours.
Second term, (class:)
I. Composition of patterns for hand and Jaequard weaving, four hours.
*>!•â–
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 307
2. Lectures on mechanic looms, and on the auxiliary machines for mechanic
weaving:, four hours.
3. Continuation of analysis {decomposition) of Jacquard stufiFs, Telvets,
gauzes and ribbons, eifrht hours.
4. Drawing, four hours.
5. Exercises in weaving on looms of various construction, twelve hours.
The parents of the pupils receive quarterly censuren, on application,
of the attainments and moral conduct of their sons.
On leaving school, after having finished the course, the student re-
ceives a testimonial. The best are honored with prizes or commenda-
tory testimonials.
AGRICULTURE IN SAXONY.
The state grants for agriculture in general 20,000 thalers yearly,
not including the academies in Tharand and Leipsic, which re-
ceived each 16,000 thalers. Half of that sura is given to the five dis-
trict associations, (Jcreisvereine,^ which they have to account for in a
regularly drawn up register of annual expenditure; the other 10,000
serve to pay the expenses of the experimental stations, ( Versuchs-sta-
tionen,) of the general secretary for the agricultural associations (Dr.
Reuning, privy counsellor of the government) and their office, of the lec-
tures in the associations, &c. Of the experimental stations, which were
first founded in Saxony, some are kept and supported by government, as
the one in Chemnitz, joined to the Industrial (Agricultural) School there,
with 1,200 thalers; another (physiological) joined to the Veterinary
School in Dresden with 900 thalers ; others are aided directly and indi-
rectly by government, as Pommritz, with 600 thalers; Mockern, near
Leipsic, with 500 thalers. Farming schools, such as are in Wurtem-
berg and Prussia, do not exist in Saxony. Having a merely practical
aim, to be attained by working and school instruction, the former is not
considered necessary here, and the latter impracticable ; likewise the
supplementary schools for farming, {forthildangs schiden,^ which have
sprung up here in the last twenty-five years, and have been partially
aided by government, were, with the exception of two, given up, and
left to their own resources.
Besides the Agricultural Academies,* much reliance for promoting
• In the session of the Diet in 1S67 it was proposed by the deputies, and as good as agreed to
by government, that the agricultural section in Tharand should be separated Irrnn the acad-
emy, and probalily transferred to Plagwitz, near Leipsic, in order to b^' connected with (he
university. Besides, ! am reminded here of tlie agricultural section in the Industrial School
at ''heraniiz, of the Veterinary School, and mention the institution fur horse brecdingcthe
stallion being sent thence at proper times througliout the country^ in Moritzburg, near Dres-
den, witli a Slate grant of 30,000 th.*iers.
Documents.
1. Prosperity of the Higher Weaving School at Chemnitz ; 2. Plan of Lessons ; 3. Lettei
from the President of the Directory, Adv. Schmidt.
308 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
the interests of agriculture is laid by the Saxon government on associa'
tions. To work through them efl&cientlj, first, a monthly official mag-
azine for these associations is issued, and edited by the general secre-
tary, which has been very successful. Also, scientific lectures are held,
chiefly by chemists, at the experimental stations, without having special
travelling teachers employed for this purpose, as is the case in other
countries. Finally, there are Agricultural Commissaries for benefiting
farms, who are instructed not only to hold lectures in the associations, but
also to assist the farmers with their advice. This is done by adjusting
farms, by projections of draining, construction of meadows, &c. Pro-
prietors of small farms receive this advice gratis. This institution has
been of great importance, for, by it, model farms in the hands of pri-
vate parties have been formed in great number, whereas the model
farms founded by the government in Saxony generally did not realize
the hopes.
The associations are quite independent. There are at present three
hundred. These unite to form district associations, the committees of
which are composed of the presidents of the former. Deputies of the
district associations form the Council of Agriculture, which is a con-
sulting board for government. Deputies of this council have to look
after the interests of the schools, of forestry, natural sciences, horse-
breeding, and horticulture.* It is not necessary to add that there are
frequent agricultural exhibitions in the districts and in the country.
Besides the direct and indirect aid to the agricultural interests of the
kingdom, the government renders still more important help by provid-
ing schools where scientific agriculturists can be trained.
VI.— THE ACADEMY OF FOKESTKY AND AGEICULTURE.
1. — Estdblishment, Organization and Admission.
This academy was founded in 1811 by H. Cottia, and established as
a state institution in 1815. The original building belonged to Cotta,
and was bought for 7,000 thalers in 1845 ; but the present house was
constructed in 1847 at an expense of 45,133 thalers.
The agricultural section was added in 1830, with 4 students, (in
1816, 62 students of forestry;) in 1837 there were 24 students of for-
estry and 26 of agriculture. From America there were, from 1852 to
* The botanical garden in Dresden has about twenty-five thousand cultivatedplants, and
sends away, on an averagi-, three thousand packages of seed annually, receiving nearly ihe
same amo' nt. It serves as a scientific and educationiil institution, and is open all day to any
visitor. Nearly the same may be said about tlie botanical garden in tlie university at Leipsic.
Document.
Letter from the General Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Reuning.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 309
1865^ 24 students — 14 of forestry and 10 of agriculture ; from England,
none of forestry, 14 of agriculture. On the average, there have been
admitted in the summer 28 students, (15 Saxons,) and in the winter,
15, (3 Saxons.)
H. Cotta died in 1844. The present principal is J. Fr. Judeich, to
whom we arc indebted for a presentation copy of the Tharandcr Jahr-
huch of 1866. The principal of the agricultural department is Dr.
Schober ; the administration of general affairs, however, is alwayg
entrusted to the principal of the forest department. Schober, since
1852, in Tharand^ has written the history of the academy to be found
in the above-mentioned book, which was published at the semi-centennial
anniversary.
The grounds belonging to the academy (forest of Thnrand, a botanical
garden, and the farm) cover an area of 10,928 Saxon acres. The
library consists of 670 books on forestry, 70 on huntsmanship, 710 on
agriculture, 31 on horticulture, 85 on veterinary science ; the rest on
other sciences, with 65 periodical publications on forestry, 91 on agri-
culture, &c.
The collection for foresters contains 132 different instruments and a
technological collection of 390 pieces; for huntsmanship, 63 plaster-
tables, with game tracks, and a well-arranged shooting stand. The
agricultural collection has 90 utensils and machines, 98 models, 18
sorts of apparatus, not to mention the botanical, zoological and min-
eralogical collections of all kinds. The physical cabinet contains an
apparatus of lit' ph. machines.
In the budget of 1864-1866, the annual expenses were estimated at
14,850 thalers, to which the state (the two academies in Tharacd and
Freiberg belong to the financial department) granted 13,050 thalers
per annum, expecting an income from the students of 1,200 thalers.
The expenses were, in thalers, (three English shillings :)
10,150 for salaries, 950 for the librarj', 250 for the gardens, 900 for the chemical
laboratory, 350 thalers to poor students, 600 for ihe building?, 200 for the
furniture, 110 for printing, &c., 370 for excursions, 50 for expeiimtnts in the
woods, 320 for fuel, light, &c., 100 for aiding scientific travels, 500 fur agricul-
tural experiments.
With the two principals, who are the first professors in their respective
departments, there are thirteen teachers, seven of whom bear the title
of professor, and six other inferior officers, with ninety-one students in
1866.
Every student in either department has to pay, if a Saxon, 50 thalers
yearly; if not, 75 for the whole instruction, besides an entrance fee of
10 thalers, (Saxons, 6J thalers,) and 3-15 thalers for the use of the
310 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXON V.
laboratory during a "semester'" or six-months' term. There are six
free scholars, six half-free, with stipends, though not as large as in
Leipsic, but sufficient for the limited Lumber of students, who also, gen-
erally speaking, are less dependent. These stipendiaries receive from
20 to 50 thalers per annum. Some riflemen of the royal army, if
they be practically prepared at least for one year in the service of a
forester, may be admitted as free scholars and receive some aid for board
and fuel. As in all schools which are supported by the state, the tui-
tion fee may be remitted to any poor student.
On admission, each student must be at least seventeen years old, and
so far prepared as to be benefited by the lectures. It is desired that
the aspirants should work one year before entering on a farm or with a
forester. Saxons, who wish to be royal officers of the forest, have to
produce a testimonial of maturity from a gymnasium, or from the In-
dustrial School at Chemnitz, or from a real school : in the last case with
a good mark in mathematics. They must also have worked one year
with a forester.
2. — Course of Studies.
Instruction in either section is divided into two annual courses, which
must have been completed by such as want to be officers of the forests.
The professors " keep themselves in perpetual intercourse with the stu-
dents, and superintend their study hours and general conduct." After
each semester, summer or winter term, the students receive censuren.
The Saxons are required to pass an examination at the same time.
The plan of studies for both sections during the two courses has been,
since 1857, as follows, (Schober, 1866, p. 98:)
First Year. Second Year.
Mathematics for foresters G h. ia s. —
Mathematics for agriculiurists 2 in s. —
Measuring for foresters 2 in w. 1 aft'nins.
Measuring for agriculturists 1 in w. 1 aft'n in s.
Special mathemaiics for foresters 2 in w. —
Mechanics for bolh sections — 2 h. in w.
Architecture, specially for agriculturists — 2 in w.
Architectural drawing 3-4, s. & W. 3-4, s. & w.
Natural philosophy ..3iaw. —
Meteorology — 2 in w.
Chemistry, general, with technology 4 in s, —
Agricultural chemistry (doctrine of soil) 4 in w. —
Chemical exercises — 2 aft'ns in s. & w.
Natural histori/ :
Mineralogy 5 h. in s. 2 aft'ns in s. & w.
Min. excursions 2 ins. —
Geognosy — 3 h. ins.
Botany, general .....Sins. —
Physiology of plants — Sins.
Botany for foresters ». — 2 in s.
Review of natural history — 1 in w.
Excursions ,« 1 afternoon in s. —
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 311
First Year. Second Year.
Zoology 3 h. ia w. —
Entomology, (general doctrine of insects) I in s. —
Entomology for foresters — 3 in w.
Entomology for agriculturists — 2 ia w.
Science of forestry :
Outlines 3 in s. —
Protection of forests [forslschutz) 2 in w. —
Administration of hunting grounds {jagdcer-
w(iUung) 1 in w. —
Cultivation of woods — 3 in 8,
Improvement of forests, with technology — 3 in s.
Management of forests — 2 in w. .
History of forestry and huntsmanship, with
literature — 2 in w.
State forest economy, with the principles of
political economy — 2 in w.
Exercises in valuation — 4 in 8.
Practical exercises <. o, â– '
(_ 4-6 h. in w. —
Science of agriculture :
Encyclopa?(iia 1 in w. — ^
Agricultural physiology of plants 4 in s. —
Cattle breeding 3 in w. —
Political economy — 4 in s.
Management of farms — 3 in w.
Agricultural excursion < . ^? ^- '
^ \^4-6 h. in w. —
Veterinary science :
Exterior or good points of domestic animals 2 h. in s. —
Anatomy oF domestic animals 2 in w. —
Physiology " " — 1 h. in w.
Diseases " " — 2 in s.
Regimen (care of health) of domestic animals. — 2 in s.
Shoeing of horses — 1 in w.
Horticulture :
Cultivation of fruits and Tines — 2 h. in s.
Cultivation of vegetables — 2 in w.
Science of the law for both sections — 3 in w.
3 . — Exam ination .
At Easter there is an examination for such as wisli to leave the acad-
emy as graduates, with a testimonial. All who wish to be royal officers
have to pass the full examination, which embraces two compositions
written in the last winter term on a subject chosen by the student and
on another given by the principal. Then they have to show their skill
in drawing by producing topographical and other forest plans, or an
architectural or mechanical drawing and the design of a plan ; then on
each branch to answer dictated questions, written within a certain
time in presence of two professors ; and if their writings have been
approved, to pass an oral examination in mathematics, botany,
physiology of plants, zoology and entomology, mineralogy and geog-
nosy, physics and meteorology, chemistry and doctrine of soil, science
of forestry or agriculture. Three censuren are given, besides those for
application and moral conduct, in sciences — "excellent," "good,"
312 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
"sufficient." The third or last cfnsjtr, however, is not sufficient for
being admitted to the state examination^ but they are allowed for that
purpose to pass again the above-mentioned examination after a third
year's course in the academy. " Volunteers," as foreigners or Saxons
who want no employment, may pass the full examination, or, if they
choose, be examined in single branches, in which they desire to have a
testimonial of the academy, according to the Regulative for the said
examination published in 1853.
VII.— THE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY IN PLAGWITZ, NEAR LEIPSIC.
1. — Statistics.
The Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz was founded in 1851, in
Lutzschena, 10 English miles from Leipsic, biit, in 1861, was transferred
to Plagwitz, in the vicinity of Leipsic, and constituted there as a part
of the university. Most teachers are professors in the university, and
the students have to attend in both lecture-rooms at Plagwitz and
Leipsic, distant 25 minutes. The present principal is Professor Birn-
baum.
The farm consists of 483 Saxon acres=l,086 Prussian acres, and is
the property of Dr. Heine, a rich gentleman, who, by cultivating the
grounds and covering them with buildings, has nearly joined Plagwitz
to Leipsic. The liberal offer of that farm for the purposes of an agri-
cultural academy was accepted in 1861 by the government. There are
on the farm a tile kiln, a steam brewery, and near it a manufactory of
agricultural machines and utensils.
The annual expenditure is 5,980 thalers, to whicb the state grants
as yet but 1,000 thalers.
The number of students since 1851 has been on the average 46 per
annum ; in all, 79 from Saxony, 105 from Prussia, 43 from Bohemia,
48 from Russia, (36 of whom are from the German Baltic provinces,)
&c. At present there are 38 students.
The whole course embraces three semi-annual terms ; but for those
who are insufficiently prepared a preparatory half-year's course in Plag-
witz is added. A certain ^ge is not required, but it is desired that the
student be at least 18 years old, and should have spent at least six
months on a well-managed farm.
The pay for the preparatory course in Plagwitz is 60 thalers for the
following courses : 15 thalers for the semester, besides the different
Document?.
1. Tharander Jahrbuch, (festschrift.) 18G6, pp. 478, containing a history of the academy by Dr.
Scholier; 2. General Plan of the Roycl Afailciiiy in Tharant, 1862; 3. Laws of Discipline; 4,
Plan of Studies, I86T-18G8; 5. llegulative for thu last examination, 1853.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 313
fees to be paid to the professors of the university; from 2-5 thalers for a
branch of instruction, and 10 thalers for the chemical exercises.
2. — Course of Studies.
The preparatory course in Plagwitz is as follows :
General agriculture, 4 hours, by the principal.
History and literature of agriculture, 2 hours, by the principal.
Inorgauic chemistry, 4 liours, by Dr. Ileppe.
Exercises in the laboratory, 8 hours, by Or. Heppe.
Mineralogy and geognosy, 2 hours, by Dr. Ileppe.
Anatoiiiy ami morphology of jjlaiUs, 2 hours, by Dr. Frank.
Anatomy of domestic animals, with good points of horses, and shoeing, 4 hours.
Book-keeping, 2 hours.
Surveying, on Saturday a. m.
Practical agricultural exercises, Saturday, p. m., by the principal.
Besides, a conversatorium, i. e. a conversational drill, on Thursday
evening, with all the students and with friends of agriculture, on agri-
cultural questions, exercises, and excursions, when the principal is
assisted by several teachers.
The regular course at Plagwitz and Leipsic is :
First term, (of six months :)
1. Cultivation of plants, (soil, manure, meadows, &c.,) 4 hours.
2. Doctrine of soil, with valuation, 2 hours.
Second term :
1. Cattle breeding, with knowledge of wool, &c., 4 hours.
2. Feeding cattle, (expenditure.)
Third (enn :
1. Doctrine of managing farms, (balance between exhaustion and compensa-
tion of fields, meadows, &c., ) 2 hours.
2. Valuation of crops, (for buying fiirms or having them to rent, or, in case of
employment, for making estimates in due form,) 4 hours.
This last and most important division combines a review of all the
subjects before treated.
All these lectures on agriculture are given by the principal.
The auxiliary sciences may be studied in lectures at the university,
viz, on —
Political economy, 4 lectures weekly, by Prof. Roscher.
Agricultural chemistry, 2 lectures, by Prof. Knop.
Exercises in the Agricultural Laboratory in Leipsic, conducted bythe same
professor and two astiitants, (hours ad libitum.)
Experimental philosophy, 3 lectures, in winter, by Prof Zollner,
Meteorology, 2 lectures, in summer, by Prof. Zollner.
Physiology of feeding, 4 lectures, by Dr. Iluppert.
Botany, with excursions, 3 lectures, by Dr. Frank.
Physiology of plants and use of the microscope, 4 lectures, by Dr. Frank.
Technology, 4 lectures, in winter, by Dr. Heppe.
Regimen of domestic animals, 4 lectures, in summer, privatim, and on other gen-
eral branches, such as mechanics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology, &c., by other
professors.
3. — Examination.
There is at the end of each term an examination^ (according to the
314 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
statutes sanctioned by government,) to wbich all are admitted who ap-
ply for it after having studied in the academy at least two terms — one
year. Before the examination the candidate has to solve accurately a
problem in writing at home, but must solemnly declare that it has been
done without the help of others. Then he has to answer, in the pres-
ence of professors, also in writing, two questions of less compass than
the one above mentioned. The oral examination embraces also agricul-
tural science and the auxiliary sciences, of which, however, the student
may choose two himself. It lasts two hours and a half. The pay for
the examination is 10 thalers, to be half remitted in case the candidate
does not succeed.
MINING AND MINER'S SCHOOLS.
VIII.— THE MINING ACADEMY IN FEEIBEKG.
1. — History and General Observations.
The Mining Academy at Freiberg was established in 1766. Its
founders and benefactors were Von Heynitz, afterwards Prussian Min-
ister, and Von Oppel, President of the Mining Department. Of the
seven presidents who succeeded Mr. Oppel, the three last may be men-
tioned above all: Herder, 1819-1838; Freiesleben, 1842; and Von
Beust, brother of the well-known Austrian Minister, who now leaves
his place to accept a similar position in Austria.
The chief office for all miners (the Oherbcrgamt) in Freiberg, under
the control of the Secretary of the Treasury, consists of a board of directors
of the mines in Saxony, (OberbergrdtJie,) and has, besides the superin-
tendence of all mining aifairs in Saxony, the direction of this academy,
so that the president of that board (^Oberhergliauptmanii) is at the same
time the chief director of the academy.
To the names of the presidents to whom the academy is much in-
debted for its prosperity there may be added from the great number of
professors the name of one, the centennial anniversary of whose birth-
day was celebrated by the academy in 1850, viz, A. G. Werner, profes-
sor, 1775; died, 1817. Other celebrated names, together with the
titles of what they have published, may be found pp. 1-43 of the "His-
tory of the Academy."
The grant for the first establishment amounted to no more than 1,400
thalers, 1,000 of which were expended for Oppel's library and collec-
tions. The expenditure of the year 1766 amounted to 1,535 thalers :
470 for instruction ; 623 for library, collections, inspection ; 400 for
Document-a,
1. The Agricultural Acaderrjy in Plagwitz, Leipsic, by Proi. Birnbaum, pp. 7? 2. Written
communications on tlie expenditure. Statutes.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 315
stipends, (free .scholarships;) 40 for prizes; but in 18G7 the expendi-
ture amounted to 1G,5G7 thalcrs, (10,278 for instruction and inspec-
tion ; 3,187 for the library, &c.,) 4,507 being the income of the acaii-
eniy, so that the state had to add 12,000 thalers.
Id 1765 the academy was lodged in Oppel's house, consisting of
three hired rooms on the ground floor, viz, one lecture room, a cabinet
of ores, and a room for books and models. In 1792 the house was bought
for 4,000 thalers. This sauie house is to this day the academy build-
ing, but renewed and enlarged by adding the neighboring houses :
3,526 thalers for a laboratory in 1797 ; 6,000 for a house and its ad-
justing in 1818 ; 1,950 for a house in 1835; 27,280 thalers for de-
molishing the last mentioned house and a part of the old one, and for
building on their place a new one ; 18,510 for enlarging the building
in 1857; 8,120 for the metallurgical laboratory in 1802; 9,234 for a
chemical room in the same year. It is, however, agreed that a new
building on an open place would have better served the purpose than
the present arrangement, especially since the light has been obstructed
by a large house raised on the opposite side in spite of all offers made
to the owner of the grounds by the state.
The library and the fifteen collections are valued at 125,000 thalers;
the librar}' at 30,000; the classified collection of minerals, one of the
five, 35,000 ; Werner's Mineral Museum, 18,000 ; for geognosy, 6^000 ;
fossils, 4,500 ; for geography, 5,000, &c. It may be worth mentioning
that the academy has also a sale collection of saleable minerals as old as
the academy itself, not originally intended as a source of income, but
valued as a means of intercourse and commerce with other countries,
and for showing the students the best way of making collections. The
name of the present administi-ator of the sale-room is R. B. Wappler.
There were, in 1866, 13 professors with 51 students. Since its estab-
lishment in 1766, 1,225 students from Saxony; 782 students from
Germany, without Saxony; 326 students from Europe, without Ger-
many; 132 students from America, &c.; total, 2,465 students.
The students are in part supported by the state, who must be Saxons,
and are expected to accept no employment in any other country, or if they
do, to return the pecuniary aid they may have received. They have to
pay, besides, a matriculation fee of 3 thalers, 6 thalers for the practi-
cal course, and for academical instruction 50 thalers annually, of which
any poor student may get, except in the first year, an abatement or the
allowance to pay it later, besides receiving money from the stipend
funds ; or such as study at their own expense have to pay 6 thalers
when matriculated, and about 47 thalers annually to the academy, and
316 SPKOIAL SCHOOLS IX SAXOXT.
the different feespaiol to the professors for the lectures and exercises, vii,
mathematics, 120 thalers ; geometry, 20 ; assaying. 30 ; mineralogy, 25 ;
theoretical chemistry, 25 ; practical chenustry, 30, &c. , annually.
For admission, the a^irant must be at least 16 years old, and bring
good testimonials of c<Hidaet. The former class of students (Saxons)
must hare a testimonial of graduation firom a gymnaaum, or the general
coarse of the Polytechmc School, or the Industrial School in Chemnitx,
or a Real School ; in the last ease, as in Tharand, the student must
baTe a good grade in mathematics; if not, he has to undergo the
exauunation for admi^on. Those xrho study at Uieir own expense
must produce, as the general expression is, proo& of satis&etory prep-
arati<m for academical studies.
The Saxon students are required to wear the presenbed miidng dress.
2.—jPtm ef Stmikt.
Tlie course begins on the first Tuesday in October, and ends with the
hist week of July. The fiodl course is not limited, but usually embraces
firom three to four years.
The different branches taught by lectures and exercises
1. Mathemstks, (eabie equations, trigtmometrj, analytical geometij, ) 4 lectnres
h. Etooaents of dt^acntial and integial calenloa, and the principal part tit
lugfaer uedianies, 4 lectm^.
2. Deseripdve gemnetnr, 4 lectuRS.
3. ESauHiitaij mechani<s, in 3 oooisK : «, gcnaal, 4 ketnres; i, mining me-
ciianics, 3 l«ctares.
4. Theiorj of nuung machines : Constraction, m^ genoal, 2 lectores; i, spe-
cial, 4 lectures.
5. Smrejing of nines, {wmHtaeknAbauL) c, guetal, 3 lectures ; 6, practical,
5 ledtures.
6. Clieinistiy: «^ theu^ieal, 4 kctuies; i, pnctieal, 4 lectures; 3, analytical,
4lectnRS.
t. ll^t^nifj: gaHsral, 4 kdtures.
8. Science of foundries, (eismHWen,) 2 lecturas.
9. ^i^ajiog, (ftreicrftBluC .-) «> dry, 6 lectoies ; i, practical, 15 honia ; e, liquid,
Sleettnr^.
10. Use of the blow-fape, 2 lecture ; exercises, 4 hours.
11. Mineralogy, 5 ketnres; exercises, 2 hours.
12. Crystallography, 1 leetnie.
13. PI^Ks, 4 ketnres.
14. Ge^ogy, 5 leetuies.
15. Science id fossils, 2 lectures.
16. Sdeace of the layexs (w beds) and Teim of oi^ {trdtfgentmm,) 1 leo-
taics.
IT. Seienoe of minii^ : «, 5 lecture ; ft, 5 lectures.
18. Ardiitectuiei, citiI, 3 lectures.
19. Bights and hnrsfrf^ raining, \4w,j-«a
20. Cbmraereialsi^klbrnrinets,/*"'^""^
SI. Book-keeping, 2 kctnies.
22. Drawing, 14 bonis.
23. French, 4 ketures.
24. Chemical technology, 1, (jBrnnrflnir.)
25. Hetoiy of ardutectiue^ 2, (private.)
BPBCIAL 8CE0OLS IX S4XOST. 317
The Monlaj of each week is eoieflj (iexoyr\ lo descendiDg into th'^
iTiine?. vijjitiag the araelting booses, to geologi-:al eicursioii', ic.
The theoretical iDStmedoD is, as in the noiTeratj, giren \jj leetnres,
and the student has tbe choice. The Saxoo stodents hare to pas an
examination at the close of each rear, and to present their jotimals or
daj-books, in which they are required to r^;ister, during the whole
Btody-time, their observations on theoretical and |ffaetieal suljects.
The indents who wish to get a pablic employment in Saxooj mnafc
pass a state examination, in which no more than three Rodents at once
are examined before' a board of examiners, conaating of the president
of mining afialrs, of one counsellor of the Oberberyamt, one of the
Oherhuftenamt, chief officer of the foondries, one of the Berjoani, (all
three chosen bj the Secretary of the Treasary,^ and one of the examin-
ing professcvs. Soch stodents as wish, after their examination, to study
law in Leipsic, are, if not graduates of a gymnaanm, examined in the
gymnasium of Freiberg before they are allowed to do so.
The Etate examiEation at the end of the course embi
1. — For JB»er».
HiBenlogy: __i:ij, with tbe bocbcc of Ae beds or atnta of oces;
of muting; elenieatarr mecfaanka; mathawUka ; hook-keepiBg; liniag law;
graeral art of ? --^-'- :<â– 'n^oes, (sobtemuKons geoBetry;) aatual pjiifcwnpliy ;
drawing. Be^ aata hare to testify to tbeir d^geat atttadaace of
I«aetic^£~'~ ~ r^aal dtta uAUj , metaflnrgy, {ja Uemht rn tirj ) amd
cirilarehi:. r jo be eramiiif d abo ia flicae famr h rm pt ^ t a .
2- q<^Jfai», (««rfadktfer.)
^ : anaenlogj-. Baited to tbe _
.. aadsdeaee of the beds orlayasof OR^
' Jig ; ijalanJ pfaOaei^j ; sdenee of ariaiag
3. — For MadamiMs.
hj; mil arddteetare; book-keep^;
r' er raathemafies ; eltHieatir ycchaa-
"^T hare to testify to their atteadaaee
on tbe leciuir:^ vu ^':_'. ^ ':-~. miaaakigy aadgeogaosy.
4—. ::emUaU.)
Tbeoretieal aad a tsd wet liquid aaaayiag; ase of fbe
blow-pipe; aKtall -iaealogy; tiementtaj aifrbia-
ic3 ; art of deaain . rrhig; drxwiag; maAaaatia.
Besdes, tbey bare : lec tan s oa geogaosr, dril
arcfaiteetnre, miniL. .- , __ - . _.__j..
At the examination they have to lay befinre the eommisBioo drawings
of a hrger size.
1. rtit»dkr^derBtrs-Jtwieanei»Freaerg,iam,vf.at»,vaDeliiaal^i X.
rtabets,Umi 3. Uitnititder YmUtmmun, VBa-H.
318 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
The oral examination lasts one day. On the second day they are
examined (a) in drawing, especially in sketching from models, &c.;
(i,) in making short compositions on given themes, to be done rapidly
•without any help, and may be connected with the drawing exercises,
by which compositions the student has to show that he is able to explain
himself appropriately and fully on a given subject without help and
promptly. The censiiren in the testimonial have three degrees — ' ' excel-
lent,"" good," "satisfactory" — for all branches, out of which, with
particular regard to the respective chief discipline, the principal censiir
is made up, if the student succeeded.
IX.-SCHOOLS FOE PKACTICAL MINEKS.
{l?i Freiberg.)
There are two such schools in Saxony, in Freiberg and in Zwickau,
the latter for coal-miners, both controlled by the hergamt in Freiberg,
(with the higher boards, the Oberhergamt in Freiberg and the Ministry
of Finances.) The former receives from the state about 800 thalers a
year ; the latter was founded and is supported by the proprietors of coal
mines at Zwickau. These mining schools (hergscliulcn) of a lower
rank have in view to train inferior officers, as workmasters, surveyors,
and sub-inspectors of the (royal) mines. The number of pupils in
Freiberg varies according to the wants of the government, but cannot
exceed 60.
On admission, the pupils must be 17-22 years old, and have bad the
education of an elementary school in plain handwriting, the elements
of arithmetic, including fractions, correct writing after a dictation, and
some skill in drawing, and must have worked in a mine at least one
year, and continue to work during their studies. Not to interrupt their
work nor to lessen their wages, the lesson hours are all in the afternoon
or evening, and arrangements are made with their masters that they
may, on school-days, ascend, and cease working somewhat earlier, if
far off from school ; and may, on permission from the principal, without
loss stay away a whole day in order to descend a shaft somewhere else.
The course of instruction comprises four years, in as many classes,
six to seven hours a week.
Ath Class — first year :
1. German, 2 hours a week.
2. Arithmetic, (algebra, equations with two unknown quantities,) 2 hours a
week.
3. Braving, 2 hours a week.
'id Class — second year :
1. Mineralogy, with an abridgment of geognosy, 3 hours a week.
2. Geometry and trigonometrvj 2 hours a week.
3. Drawing, 2 hours a week.
SPECrAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 319
2(1 Clans — third year :
1. Natural philosophy, elements of, applied ; mathematics, and popular doc-
trine of iiuichincs, 2 hours a week.
2. Science of mining, 2 hours a week.
3. Dnnving, 2 hours a week.
1st Class — fourth year :
1. Surveying of mines, 1st part, 2 hours a week.
2. " " 2d part, 2 hours a week.
3. Mincralogical exercises, 1 hour a week.
4. Book-keeping, 1 hour a week.
5. Drawing, 1 hour a week.
The school in Zwickau for coal miners is organized after the pattern
in Freiberg, -with four years' courses, but with one school day in the
week.
For continuing elementary education the attendance at Sunday schools
(evening schools) is required.
For their moral conduct, application, and attainments, the pupils re-
ceive, at the end of the fourth year, a testimonial, which will be of
influence on their being employed as inferior oiScers of the mines.
Also some smelters, but not more than three, may be allowed to
attend the mining school without being obliged to take the full course
of four years or to attend all lessons. They must be recommended by
the Oberhiittenamt, i. e. chief board, to superintend the furnaces, and
pass the examination of admission, as required of the mining scholars.
The mining school had, in the last year, in the four classes, 60 pupils.
The school receives from the state an annual grant of 902 thalers,
besides 40 thalers from the district funds.
There is also a mining school at Altenberg, which, in 1866, had 4
pupils, who were instructed in six lessons a week.
X.-STENOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION AT DRESDEN.
It was first established in 1834, when the stenographer, Wigard,
(disciple of Gabelsberger, in Munich,) was appointed by government as
stenographer for the sessions of the legislature, and obliged, at the same
time, to instruct gratuitously a limited number of pupils in semi-annual
courses, one hour and a half daily. In the first course, and until 1839,
the number of pupils was limited to fourteen. In 1839 the Royal
Stenographic Institution received its present organization, not much
altered by the regulative of 1850. In 1840 the number of pupils in-
creased to 35, in parallel classes of no more than 18 pupils; in 1842
to 57, &c. Instruction is given by different members of the institution
in each course, by one chosen always by the government, (Home De-
Ddtument.
Bettimmungtn (statute.-) dcr Freiberger Bergsckule, (drawn up In 1S68.)
320 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
partiuent,) who generally receives for it a fee of 70 thalers, in addition
to his salary, as member of the Stenographic Institution, of 500 to 800
thalers.
Instruction is given one hour daily for 8-10 months of the year. It
embraces the science and rules of the stenographic system, and practi-
cal exercises in writing from dictation. In each course there are two
examinations, at the end of the theoretical and of the practical instruc-
tion. The end of the course is reached when the majority of pupils are
(1) perfectly familiar with the system (of Gabelsberger) and the steno-
graphic orthography ; (2,) able to read fluently their own writings ; and,
(3,) have acquired some skill in stenographic writing of discourses.
The beginning of a course must be duly advertised in public papers
by the principal. The names of those who have applied, with the ap-
proval of the president, are to be submitted for decision to the ministry.
Such as have taken the full course of a gymnasium (college) and of the
university are preferred. The two examinations are held at the time
appointed by the ministry, in the presence of the principal and of two
other stenographers ; and in case the president has been himself the
teacher, of some other officer in his stead.
The number of pupils instructed last year in four courses by four
teachers was 114.
Besides, there are Forthildungscurse, i. e., courses for continuing
the study of stenography, consisting of a series of practical exercises
during the six months. Last year instruction was given in four
divisions to 130 pupils by the principal. Professor Heyde, who, more-
over, had to instruct officially seventeen gendarmes.
In these courses four writing-matches take place, the first of which
lasts fifteen, the second twenty, the third twenty-five, and the last thirty
minutes. Practical stenographers are excluded. In the first match forty
words are to be written in a minute, and in the last match, seventy to
eighty words. Every one has to read instantly his writing, to which,
as well as to the observation of the rules of the system, especially of
orthography, and to the hand-writing, particular regard is paid in the
distribution of prizes. The three prizes consist of books, worth five
thalers, two thalers, and less; but diplomas are added, and the names
published in the Dresden Journal. Only such competitors have to ex-
pect a prize who have partaken in the last and two previous matches,
and have, also, regularly attended the other exercises. Moreover, in-
struction was given in the Polytechnic School to eight pupils ; in the
Vitzthum Gymnasium, to 14 ; in the Commercial School, to 18 ; and to
several private classes. The rooms \^ere in the State House.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IX SAXONY. 321
Those who wish to know more nboufc this very liberally endowed in-
stitution, with its president, Ild-se, lloyal Counsellor, the principal,
Heyde — in all eight stenographers of the first class, of whom several
bear the title of professor, and three assistants — and about its organ-
ization, (a,) for the legislative, (of course omitted in this account;) (i,)
for instruction for the same purpose; (c,) for the dissemination of Ga-
belsberger's system, in opposition to the system of Stolze, adopted in
Prussia and in Dresden, maintained by a small association founded
in 1852, are referred to the documents given in note.
Xr.-THE NORMAL SCnOOL FOR TRAINING TEACHERS OF GYMNASTICS.
1. — History and General Observations.
This institution was founded by the government (Ministry of Public
Education) in 18i9, at Dresden, and is supported by the same, for the
purpose of obtaining a sufficient number of able teachers of gymnastics
in the public schools. The first impulse toward introducing gymnastics
into the public schools had been given by Prof. Werner, who established
a gymnastic institution in 1830 at Dresden. This private school was
closed with the departure of Werner to Dresden in 1839, but it had
been so far successful for Saxony that after 1837 the government and
legislature granted a certain sum for the instruction of gymnastics in
several chief schools of the kingdom. Thus it was that this Normal
School for obtaining teachers was established 17 years ago.
The new building, considered as a pattern establishment, was erected,
1863, at the expense of 45,415 thalers, viz : for gymnastic hall, 12,000 ;
fitting of the hall and of the grounds, with implements, 1,519, 882
thalers, &c. Its ground-plan may be seen in the document mentioned
below, with a description of the premises and of the technical arrange-
ments, pp. 21-28.
The course of instruction, in which teachers of all kinds of schools
may gratuitously partake, begins in October, and embraces one year.
The pupils are as yet chiefly young teachers in the primary schools at
Dresden, who, after finishing their course, are employed as teachers of
gymnastics (in most cases not exclusively) at Dresden or other towns
of Saxony. Occasionally, teachers in other parts of Saxony come to
Dresden for the purpose of joining this institution.
Documents.
1. Correspondenzblatt dcs ICs;!. StcnographUchcn. In'itituts,lSGi, pp. 33, in Uo, fcontainin? the
liij^tory ol" the Institute, and tlie UcLMilativf's ; 0. ("atalngiie ol" the Lil)rar.\-, (with l,10f' sieti-
opraphic works, (not volumes,) and 40J more ;) 3. Taschcnbiich fUr Gabclsberger Stenographen,
186S, pp. 74, (with an account of all Gabelsberger's associations in tlie world.)
322 SPECIAL SCUOOLS IN SAXONY.
2. — Practical Theoretical Exercises.
Not to disturb too much the teachers in their. school-work, they have
their gymnastic lessons on the afternoons of Wednesday and Saturday,
when the public schools are closed ; in winter in the gymnasium hall, in
summer on the gymnasium grounds. The practical exercises are fol-
lowed by theoretical lectures on the history, systems, and methods of
gymnastics. Besides, on two evenings of the week, certain hours are
given to further exercises in gymnastics. In summer, the master of a
swimming establishment is employed to teach 30 teachers, pupils of this
Normal School.
The said gymnastic lessons and exercises, with the principal, Dr.
Kloss, are accompanied by lectures and exercises in anthropology by
Prof. Giinther in winter ; on two evenings, anatomy and physiology ;
in summer, dietetics. After the anatomical course, ajDplication is made
by exercising the pupils in bathing-trowsers. Moreover, the teacher-
pupils may, at other times, attend the exercises of the school-classes,
(see below,) when they also find opportunity to assist.
At the end of the course there is an examination, in which all who
think themselves sufficiently prepared, even if they have not been pu-
pils of the Normal School, may partake. It consists of a trial lesson,
of an oral examination on theory of gymnastics and on anthropology,
and of a practical examination — all this in the presence of a counsellor
of the Ministry of Public Education, lasting 2-3 hours. A composi-
tion on a theme given by the Koyal Commissary is to be delivered two
weeks before the public examination. There was another course es-
tablished in 1860 of four to five weeks, generally in September and
October, to benefit teachers not residing in Dresden, who either in-
struct already or are preparing to instruct in gymnastics. They receive
leave of absence, and often are assisted by the government in bearing
the expenses of travel and board. These pupil-teachers have from 4
to 5 lessons daily, and also pass an easy examination as teachers of
gymnastics in elementary schools.
From 1850 till 1804 the full year!s course was taken by 168 pupils;
the examination was passed by 12 more=180.
From 1860 to 1864 the short course of 4 to 5 weeks was taken by 35
pupils, and 6 more were examined as teachers of gymnastics in ele-
mentary schools=41 persons.
In the same building, and under the same direction, instruction in
gymnastics is given to four classes of the Teachers' Seminary, 67 pu-
pils ; to seven classes of the Gymnasium, 294 ; to the first boys' school,
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 323
iu four classes, 188 ; and likewise to four classes of the first girls'
school, 1G7. Other schools have their exercises on other premises.
The priucipal is assisted by 10 teachers, several of whom are teachers
in the respective schools.
XII.— ROYAL MILITARY SCnOOL.
1. — Organization and Admission.
The Ttoyal Military School at Dresden was reorganized in 1867, after
the war, and organized like the schools of the same rank in Prussia.
Formerly it consisted of two separate schools, the artillery school and
the Caddtencorps, both completing the education of their pupils; but
now a higher academy in Prussia must be attended for finishing the
professional education, either in Berlin, Erfurt, &c.
By the new "regulative," the Cade.ttencorps in Saxony consists of
six classes, and has (1,) 20 free scholars; (2,) 84 half-free scholars; (3,)
20 not free scholars — iu all, 124. Besides these, " volunteers " maybe
admitted ; but, if foreigners, without any claim to being admitted after-
wards to the royal army.
For admission to any of the 124 places^ the sons of officers of the
army, killed or invalid, or of such subalterns as have served 25 years,
and of civil officers of high merits, are preferred to others.
The aspirant must have completed his 11th year of age, and not be
over 18 years of age.
In general the boys must have, if 11 years old, the requisite know-
ledge of Quinta; if 12, of Quarta ; if 13, of Quarta; if 14, of Tertia;
if 15-17, of Secunda, of a gymnasium, (college.)
On admission, every pupil has to pay 100 thalers for a full equip-
ment, for books, &c.; and to bring with him 12 shirts, 18 pairs of
stockings, 18 handkerchiefs, 6 drawers, 1 pair of house shoes, 2 white
cotton night-jackets.
During his stay every pupil has to pay, (besides 25 thalers for books
when transferred to III,) annually, (a,) 50 thalers, if a free scholar ; (6,)
110 if half free; (c,) 210 if not free; {d,) 200 if a Saxon '^volun- •
teer;" and, (e,) 300 if a foreign "volunteer."
2. — Course of Instruction.
The course of instruction in the Military School embraces six years,
with six classes, of which^ as was said before, VI, (the last,) V, IV, and
in correspond to V, IV, and III in a gymnasium, II and I to lower
Document.
Berickt Cher (report on) die Ki;l. Tumlchrrr Bildungsanstalt, von Dr. Kloss, 1864, pp. 34,
(with a representation of the grounds and buildings.)
324 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
and upper Sccunda, with the only difference, that instead of Greek, in-
struction is given in J^uglish and in the elements of a military education.
It will be, therefore, sufficient to mention the course of instruction in
the highest class as given in the new regulation.
1. Religion. (The number of lesson hours is not stated.)
2. Latin: Written exercises ; Livy, Ovid, Virgil.
3. German : History of literature ; explanation of dramatic pieces ; free dis-
courses, with a verbal resume, and debates.
4. French : Translations ; extemporalia ; compositions ; exercises in speaking.
5. Mathematics: Progressions; logarithms, and their application ; applying of
algebra to geometry ; trigonometry ; elements of stereometry,
6. English : Oral and written exercises ; free discourses on historical and geo-
graphicarsubjects ; review of the same in Eriglish ; reading of poetry.
7. History: Modern history ; reviewof universal history ; history of Northern
Germany.
8. Geography: Mathematical and physical geography ; review of political ge-
ography, with particular regard to Northern Germany.
9. Natural philosophy : Electricity, magnetism, sound and light.
10. Drawing of plans;' finishing the designs of the survey.
11. Surveying: Topographical surveying on a large scale ; drawing of grounds ;
CToquiren.
12. Free-hand drawing. (Not obligatory.)
Those cadets to whom, in consequence of the examination at the end
of the course, the testimonial of maturity for ensigncy can be given, are
presented to his Majesty as "characterized" ensigns, whilst all others
who do not answer the demands have to perform, in some other way,
their legal service in the army.
XIII.-THE KOYAL VETERINARY SCHOOL.
1. — Organization.
The Royal Veterinary School was founded as a private school, 1774,
and in 1780 raised to a public institution, at first only to train squadron
farriers for the Saxon army ; now, it has in view the education of vete-
rinary surgeons in scientific and practical knowledge, as well as instruct-
ing smiths in the shoeing of horses. For these purposes it has, in three
buildings, a hospital for all kinds of domestic animals ; a workshop for
shoeing ; a zootomical establishment for dissecting animals ; an apothe-
cary's shop for learning pharmacy ; collections of veterinary utensils and
model shoes ; a zootomical cabinet, with more than 3,000 preparations ;
a library of about 3,200 volumes, and a chemical laboratory for experi-
mental exercises.
The course of instruction embraces three years, in three classes. The
pupils of the higher classes receive, as far as possible, lodgings free in
the institution. There are nine teachers : one professor of the practical
♦
Document.
Auszug aits dcm (abridgment) Regulatio von Jahre, 1866, fUr das Kgl. S&chsische Cadetten-
corps, Dresden, 1867. Tp. 18.
SPECIAL SCUOOLS IN SAXONY. 325
veterinary science, and chief of all veterinary surgeons in Saxony; one
professor of zootomy and zoopbysiology ; one apotlieCary and professor
of physics and chemistry ; one prosector ; one assistant in the hospital ;
two in the experimental laboratory ; one teacher of shoeing, and one for
preparatory lessons.
The expenditure amounts to 11,310 thalers, of which the state pays
8,780- thalers.
The pupils pay 20 thalers annually. They must, for admission, be
at least 18 years old, and healthy, and either have a testimonial of ma-
turity from a real school, or have been at least six months in the se-
cunda of a gymnasium, or pass an examination. Ilospitanls, or such
as wish to attend the lectures without being admitted to the practical
exercises or to the closing examination, are admitted on application
without the aforesaid roquircQieuts. There were in all 39 pupils last
year, (10 in the highest class;) now^ 34 pupils and 10 lioxpitants ;
moreover, 17 civil and 10 military pupils in shoeing of horses. The
course, beginning on the 1st of October, embraces three years — for such
as have studied in another veterinary school, one year — ^before being ad-
mitted to the examination.
2 . — Examination.
This examination comprises —
1 . The shoeing of horses.
2. Anatomy : Entcrology, demonstration of single parts of the body, and mak-
ing of an anatomical preparation.
3. Surgery : Performing {by lot) of two operations.
4. Clinics : Examining and attending one exterior and one interior disease, and
making a composition thereupon or a report of dissection,
5. A composition on a given theme, taken from veterinary science, and written
in the presence of a professor.
G. An oral examination, embracing all theoretical sciences taught in the school.
The objects of instruction are divided .into three classes, viz :
A . Preparatory sciences :
1. General hodegetics. (How to study.)
2. Composition and elocution.
3. Mathematics: a, algebra; 6, lower geometry.
B. Natural sciences :
, 1. Botany.
2. Zoology.
3. Geology and mineralogy.
4. Natural philosophy.
5. Chemistry, inorganic and organic.
C. Special chief sciences :
1. History of veterinary science.
2. Encyclopedia and methodology.
3. Anatomy : a, general, as brief introduction to physiology ; b, special ; c, pa-
thological, with regard chiefly to police and judicial veterinary science.
4. Ph)-siology, taught in its whole extent, but always as a foundation to die-
tetics and pathology.
326 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
5. Pharraacolog}^ : a, drugs; J, efiFects of medicaments ; c, preparing of medi-
cameuts. Tlie apothecary shop visited.
G. Dietetics and cattle breeding, with ezlerieur.
1. Shoeing of liorses.
8. Pathology and therapeutics.
9. Surgery.
10. Science of operations.
11. Obstelrics.
12. Veterinary science for police and judicial affairs ; exercises in writing com-
positions.
The examination mentioned above, wliich gives the right to practise,
was passed by nine students, and two more who had not succeeded in a
former examination and repeated the same. Two higher examinations,
in order to be a veterinary surgeon of a lower or higher district, were
passed successfully by four surgeons. Two persons were examined as
military farriers. In shoeing, the examination before the royal com-
mittees in Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau, and Lusatia, was passed by 195
persons, of whom 59 smith-journeymen were rejected.
The direction of the school, the examination of the students, and the
inspection over all veterinary surgeons in Saxony, as well as the pass-
ing of judgments, if needed, on all veterinary affairs, are entrusted to a
Royal Commission for Veterinary Affairs, consisting of a commissary of
the Ministry of the Interior, (Home Department,) and of two professors
of the school, (Haubuer and Leisering.) In veterinary affairs extraor-
dinary members may be added to the commission, according to the
character of the question, as the general secretary of the Agricultural
Associations, (the Privy Counsellor, Dr. Reuning,) the Chief Equerry
of the state, an officer of the cavalry, and the chief farrier of the army.
As Saxony is divided into many districts, with a physician in each,
who is appointed by government, (generally with a small salary,) and
has to serve in all cases belonging to judicial or administrative cogni-
zance, &c., so there are several veterinary districts of a larger compass.
3. — Statistics.
The annual report of the commission of 1866-67 shows that in that
year 540 horses, 6 ruminant animals, 13 pigs, 308 dogs, 7 cats, and 9
fowls — in all 883 animals — have been treated in the clinics of the school,
442 of which were" dismissed cured and 102 in a better state. In the '
itinerant clinics, 1,408 animals were attended. The external clinics
comprised 234 animals. One hundred and seventy-five animals were
dissected.
Documents.
1. Bestimmitngcn den besuch der Thiemrznchchule betreffend ; 2. Viilerrichtsplan, (VXt^xi of
Studies,; pp. 12, with somn iKites by ProT. I^eisering; 3. La«-s.for the Pupils of the Veterinary
Scliool. pp. -24 ; A. Annual IlepDrt on Veterinary All'airs in Saxony for tlie year 186S, (llth
year,; by the Royal Commission, by Cliarles liaubner, pp. 7S.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 327
XIV.-SUPPLEMENTARY SCnOOLS.
Evening and supplementary schools, for by this name we may call
all those schools which arc intended for practical workmen, apprentices
and journeymen, who may, without being interrupted in their daily
work, supply any deficiencies in their general education, and acquire
some knowledge and skill appropriate to their respective trades.
SUNDAY SCHOOLS
In this class must first be mentioned the great mass of Sunday schools,
as they arc called here, because instruction is generally given on Sun-
day afternoon by one or more teachers of the public schools. Those
which aim at continuing general education are under the care of the
IMiuistry of Public Education, (A ;) whilst those of a more industrial
character are supported so far as it may be necessary and superintended
by the Ministry of the Interior, (B.)
1. The Sunday schools (A) founded and supported by associations or
municipalities received, in 1865, a State grant amounting to 3,035 tha-
lcrs=l 1,381 francs. There were 93 such schools, attended in the said
year by 7,021 pupils, with 299 teachers. By the latest account, in the
annual report of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the district
of Dresden for 1867,* the Sunday schools in the seventeen towns of the
district (Dresden, Freiberg, Meissen, &c.) had 1,415 pupils, (733 ap-
prentices,) with 56 teachers, in 46 classes, and 115 weekly lessons. In
these seventeen towns instruction was given in —
Lessons. Towns.
Drawing 40 All.
Modeling 2 1
Arithmetic 28 All.
Gcometrj' 6 6
Natur.al science 6 6
Natural history 1 l
Book-keeping 1 i
History- and geography 6 6
German composition 15 12
Calligraphy 16 14
They received from the State 525 thalers, (in 12 towns;) from the
municipalities, 307, (in 11 towns;) from the guilds, 102, (7 towns;)
from the industrial associations, 69, (7 towns;) from a school association
in Dresden, 147; in Freiberg, 98 thalers; voluntary grants, 76, (in
3 towns;) in all, 1,723 thalers, and expended 1,244 thalers. The
pupil, in nearly all the towns, pays a trifling entrance fee. To be more
* There are four such Chambers, in Dresden, Leipsic, Clicniiiitz, Pliiuen, besides Liisatia,
and as many annual reports. Tlie report of Dresden, mentioned above, contaiiis, <>n "iO'J pp.,
1, Opinions; 2, Statements of facts concfrninf; all kiinls of commerce ami nianuraclures, men-
tioning most accurately the amount of the diltrreiu raw productions and nianulaetured goods
in the district, as well as the railroad and postal commerce, ice; S^chools, p, liic — I'jb.
328 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXO^fY.
particular, the Sunday sc-hnol in DrcsJen, founded 181G by a Free
Masons' lodge, is supported by an association consisting of 168 members,
including 14 guilds and 2 Masonic lodges. It bad last year an income
of 729 and an expenditure of 404 thalers, 377 of which were paid to
teachers. The school was att 'uded during the year by 25G pupils.
The entrance fee amounts to one thaler, (in one town |- thaler, in one
town ^, in some ^ thaler, in others no pay at all.)
2. The Sunday schools (B) of a more special character are established
in the manufacturing towns or villages. There were, some years ago,
20 such schools, with 6,326 pupils and 140 teachers. The annual
expenditure was then 8,554 thalei's, to which the state (Ministry of the
Interior) granted 3,295. Of these schools, the most important is the
Sunday school in Chemnitz, founded in 1830, and kept by the Trades'
Union_, with 1,376 pupils in 1868, who were instructed by 40 teachers,
.n 48 classes, at an expense of 2,200 thalers, to which the state grants
1,000 thalers and the town of Chemnitz 200 thalers. Lessons are given
on Sunday A. M., 10 to 12, (20 classes,) and P. M., 1 to 3, (24
classes. Four classes (book-keeping, history and geography, and
French) are held in the evenings of week-days from 7 to 9 o'clock.
The different objects are —
1. Drawing, in 21 classes, viz :
a. Meclianical, in 7 classes.
b. Free-hand, in 7 classes.
c. From plaster models, 1 class.
d. From nature, 1 class.
e. Architectural, 3 classes.
/. Ornamental, 2 classes.
2. Arithmetic, in 7 classes.
3. Geometry, in 1 class.
4. Chemistry and natural philosophy, in 1 class.
5. Stenography, in 1 class.
C. Book-keeping, in 1 class.
7. History and geography, in 1 class.
8. German language and calligraphy, in 10 classes.
9. German composition, in 3 classes.
10. French, in 2 classes.
There was added to it in 1865 a supplementary school for young
ladies, as has been already mentioned. They are instructed in German
correspondence, (2 lessons,) commercial arithmetic, (2,) and in book-
keeping, (2,) on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 4 to 6. The
course embraces one year, and is attended on the average by 30 female
pupils.
Docuiiients.
1. Annual report of the Chamber of Commerce in the district of Dresden, 1867, pp. 209 ; 2.
Report 111 ihe Sunday schonl in Dresden, on its half-centennial anniversary, pp. la ; 3. Letter
of the principal of tlie Sunday school in Chemnitz ; 4. Expose on public education in Saxonv.
pp. 11.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 3^9
EVENING SCHOOLS
To this class of schools belong —
3. The Commercial Schools for apprentices, spoken of above.
4. The Ornamental Drawing School, which is joined to the Home
Industrial School in Chemnitz, and Las been spoken of in connection
with the same.
The Drawing Schools in SeifFcn, &c.
5. The Industrial School in Dresden. This school was founded in
1861 by the Trades Union, and embraces four sections, viz : Two for
apprentices and journeymen, (111 pupils:) one for established trades-
men, (18 ;) one for female pupils, (12.) The charge for the full course
is 12 thalers a year; for single branches, 4-8 thalers; balance is remit-
ted to poor pupils. The school received 200 thalers from the state,
200 from the town, and 215 from the Trades Union. The pupils are
instructed by seven teachers in seven classes, 7^-9|- in the evening and
on Sundays. Instruction is given in drawing, four lessons; arithme-
tic, four lessons; modeling, four lessons; German, four lessons; calli-
graphy, one lesson ; book-keeping, two lessons ; .geometry, two lessons ;
natural philosophy and chemistry, two lessons. There are more such
schools in Saxony.
6. The Workingmen's Association for Education in Dresden has 350
pupil-members, one-third of whom are less than 18 years old. In-
struction is given by six teachers: in arithmetic, two lessons; drawing,
three lessons ; German, one lesson ; French, two lessons ; English, two
lessons; singing, two lessons; and gymnastics, four lessons. The as-
sociation receives from thfe town 100 thalers, and has to raise annually
GOO thalers.
7. The Mining Schools in Freiberg and Zwickau also belong to this
class of schools. They are spoken of after the Academy for Miners in
Freiberg. Another mining school exists in Altenberg, with 4 pupils,
who are instructed in six lessons a week.
8. Four Nautical Schools have been established to give ihe necessary
instruction for the pilot's examination. The schools are kept in the
winter, when shipping on the Elbe is interrupted. They have 40-70
pupils, who pay one thaler for each course, and thus receive an annual
state grant of 350 thalers.
9. Two !Music Schools are established and supported by govern-
ment in two small towns where the chief trade is the manufacturing of
musical instruments, and carried on on a large scale, even with America.
They have about 80 pupils.
10. Seven Weaving Schools give nearly the same instruction as the
330 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
two higher weaving schools in Chemnitz (spoken of above) and
Glauchau, but on a reduced scale. They have about 550 pupils, and
receive from the state 290 tlialers a year.
11. Two Fringe-making Schools, in Annaberg and a neighboring
town, have each 150 pupils, and receive a state grant of 350 thalers.
12. The Tailors' Academy, in Dresden, founded by an association of
tailors from all parts of Germany, was inaugurated last year in a mag-
nificent building, and commenced its courses the 2d of January, 1868.
Besides the scientific course of one year, with 5-7 lessons daily and 3-5
hours exercises, for which the pupil pays 100 thalers, (boarding 180-
240 thalers,) the prospectus mentions five practical lessons from six
weeks to six months. In 1866 the school had five teachers and 38 pu-
pils. The institution, with which the school is and has been connected,
bears, since 1862, the name of ""European Academy of Modes." The
magazine is edited by the academy in German, French, and English,
with ten different titles : Australian Observer, Season of Fashion for
Gentlemen^ Telegraph, (for the United States and Canada,) V Observa-
teur, &c. The association consists at present of 14 directors, residing
in Berlin, London, New York, Paris, Petersburg, Vienna, and 408
members. The chief directory consists of three members, chosen for
life, (Miiller, in Dresden, the head and soul of all,) and has its perma-
nent seat in Dresden. The library contains 900 volumes for this special
branch, and the collections contain all sorts of models, gearing-ma-
chines, measuring apparatus, and other inventions.
Industrial schools for children who attend the elementary schools.
Spinning schools in some parts of Lusatia* three of which receive an
annual state grant of 150 thalers.
Straw-working schools, three of which receive a grant of 100 thalers.
Lace-making and embroidering schools have been likewise established
for children who attend this elementary school, chiefly in the poorest
parts of the Ore Mountains. There are about 30 such schools, with
1,600 to 1,900 children, with an annual state grant of 4,000 thalers.
For all of them an inspector is appointed, who has also the care of
training the needed (female) teachers.
SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES AND THE BLIND ]»r DRESDEN AND LEIPSIC.
The school in Leipsic was established by Heinicke in 1778, who
transferred it there from Eppendorf, near Hamburg ; it was one of the
first, if not the first in Germany. There are 50 boys and 50 girls,
instructed by 12 male and 2 female teachers. The expenditure is
13,000 thalers. The school in Dresden has 63 boys and 45 girls, with
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 331
12 male and 2 female teachers, and now all deaf and dumb persons in
Saxony enjoy the advantages of education.
Besides, there is in Dresden an asylum for deaf and dumb girls,
supported by an association, where a limited number of girls find a
refuge for life.
THE SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND IN DRESDEN.
This school was founded in 1809, and has about 111 pupils. The
expenditure is about 15,448, with an income of 1G,042 thalers. The
funds of the school amount to 42,615 thalers; those for the blind who
have left the schocl, to 43,000 thalers, and other funds to 40^800
thalers. Families have to pay G4 thalers a year ; communities, 32 thalers
for each pupil.
The preparatory school in Hubertsburg was opened in 1862. It
has 17 children until their 11th year of age, (the pay is 64 thalers,)
besides 3 ordinary male teachers and 3 female teachers. There are in
Dresden 2 teachers of music and singing, 1 of basket making, 1 of
rope making, and 1 of shoemaking ; in Hubertsburg, besides the
principal, 1 of bonnet making and 1 of knitting.
ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS,
I. — THE ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN DRESDEN.
1 . — General Observations.
The Academy of Fine Arts, (^Academie der hildenden Kiinste,) es-
tablished in 1705 as an academy of painting, was, in 1764, changed to
the Academy of Arts, and received in 1836 its present organization.
Its admiaistration is entrusted to an academical council, the honorary
president of which is H. R. H. Prince George. The council consists
of a IiO)'al Commissary, at present the Secretary of the Treasury, a coun-
sellor of the government as secretary, and nine professors. The same
council is the directory of the Academy of Arts in Leipsic.
There being no special principal of the academy in Dresden, the
superintendence of studies and discipline is entrusted temporarily to
one of the professors, who is at present, 1868, Gustavus Heine, pro-
fessor of architecture.
The academy consists of two sections, viz, the Academy of Arts,
{kunstaJcadenne,) and the Architectural School, (hauschule.^ There
are in all twenty-one professors, two of whom are employed mostly in
the Polytechnic and in the Veterinary School.
The number of students in 1866 was, in the first section, 95, with 41
not Saxons; in the Architectural Academy, 41, with 10 foreigners;
332 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
in all, 136 students, with 51 foreigners. The academy is situated
on the Bruhlsche Terrasse, and at the same place, during three
summer months, holds its well-known annual exhibition. The income
from the exhibition is half applied to purchasing good paintings,
exhibited by Saxon artists, to be placed in the picture gallery ; half
of it to the fund for supporting orphans and widows of artists.
This fund was founded without any particular capital in 1836, and
has increased to the present amount of 25,900 thalers, and in the
last few years has expended for relief annually 800 thalers; besides, it
is worth mentioning, that, for promoting art in Saxony, the state granted,
in 1858, 5,000, afterwards 10,000 thalers annually for constructing
excellent monumental works, which grant will probably be continued
henceforth by the government and legislature.
The budget of the home department shows an annual expenditure
for the academy of 18,030 thalers. The students pay an entrance fee
of 5 thalers, and annually 6 thalers in the lowest class ; 10 thalers in all
other classes.
Students who have exhibited artistical or architectural works, or
models of some merit, are rewarded at the end of the exhibition by
medals or diplomas. One of them receives a {reisestipendium) stipend
for travelling (to Florence and Rome, and on application to the council,
to other cities) of 1,200 thalers; 600 for each of the two years for
which it is granted. The great gold medal is considered of equal worth
as the stipend.
The summer term in the proper Academy of Arts begins April 15 ;
the winter term, November 1 ; in the Architectural Academy, October
1, and in some cases a student may be admitted here on the first of
March.
II. — THE ACADEMY OF ARTS — Kunstacademie. — section i.
The full course of the academy has three annual courses, (classes^)
called, III, the Drawing Hall^ (zeichnensaal ;) II, the Plaster Hall,
[gypssaal i) and, I, (the highest class,) the Painting Hall, Qmalersaal.)
Besides those classes, there exist for the higher training of the advanced
students seven "ateliers;" two for historical painting, I, (Profs. Hubner
and Schnorr ;) one for landscape painting, (Ludwig Eichter ;) one for stat-
uary, (Ilahnet;) one for engraving, (Gruner;) one for w'ood cutting,
(Biirkner ;) and one for architecture, (Nicolai.) The collections of art in
Dresden, of so great importance to the future artists, are too well known
to be pointed out here. The plan of studies is as follows :
Lower Class — Drawing Hall — undtr the Direction of Three Professors.
Drawing of single parts of the humaa body and of whole figures from copies;
SPECIAL SCUOOLS IN SAXONY. 333
first instruction in drawing from plaster models; 9-12 and 2— t daily, except
Saturday atternoou.
Middle Class — Plaster Hall — under the Direction of Three Professors.
Drawin'T Crom statues and from single parts of them in plaster casts, and every
fourth week f:rst instruction in drawing from the living model j 8-12 and 2-4, and
in some months 5-7 daily, except Saturday afternoon.
Upper Class — Painting Hall.
Drawing and painting from pictures and from nature, 8-12 and 2-4 daily,
except Saturday, only in winter, (October 1 till May) — one professor ; drawing and
modeling from the living model and from garments, .May till the end of September,
8-10 and 2-4 daily ; in winter, daily, 5-7, (to the end of February) — 4 professors.
The students of this class may attend the course in the lower classes, so for as the
room allows.
Ateliers.
The admission of students in the ateliers is left to the judgment of the
above-mentioced directory of the respective ateliers and to the academ-
ical council. The student of an atelier has to attend any instruction
which the director of his atelier may think approj^riate.
Scientific Instruction.
a. For all students of the two higher classes and of the ateliers, except the
students of the Architectural School :
1. Lectures on muscles and bones, in winter.
2. Anatomy of domestic animals, especially of horses, in the Veterinary School.
b. For all classes, except the architects ;
1. Lectures on histor}- of art, in winter.
2. General history, in winter.
3. Linear perspective, and the perspective of shade and light, in summer and
â– winter, on two days, 8-10 A. M. Vacations, besides the holiday weeks, the whole
mouth of August.
[Bauschule.)
Instruction from October 1 until February 28, and from March 1 to
August 31.
The plan of studies is as follows :
1. Exercises in projection ; construction of shades ; geometrical representation
of single parts of a building, of the orders of columns, of ground plans, as well
as of whole delineations, from approved models ; independent construction of
plans after given programmes; composing of ornaments, "and similar exercises."
2. Drawing, with pencil and Indian ink, of ornaments from papers and plaster-
models; exercises in applying perspective, with painting in water colors, &c.
3. Doctrine of iron construction, in application to the different kinds of archi-
tecture.
These exercises take place daily, 8-12 and 2-5, (in summer 2-4,)
under the direction of three professors.
Besides, there are lectures —
1. On the estin^.ating of the costs of a building [bauauschMgc) two hours a week
in winter.
2. Mathematics, four hours in winter.
3. History of architecture, two hours "1 ^„^^„„ „„ ^ ^:„t„„
. T .• . 1 > summer and Winter.
4. Lectures on perspective, two hours /
334 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
The more advanced students, generally after the third year, work in tho
above-mentioned ateliers of Prof. Nicolai, and prepare themselves there
for the practical application of architectural science. For admission,
all students of architecture must testify that they have successfully at-
tended either the general course of the Polytechnic School or made the
full course of an Industrial or of a lower Architectural School, {hau-
gewerkcnschide, for masons and carpenters, see above,) or at least have
attained the same knowledge which is acquired in the above-named
classes or schools.
For finishing the education in mathematics and in construction of
roads, bridges, and hydraulic works, the Polytechnic School may be at-
tended in the higher classes of its professional department. This is,
however, necessary for all who wish to pass the state examination,
which has been mentioned, after three years of practical work. The
instruction in architecture at the Academy of Arts aims at a higher
artistic education, while all students who want a scientific foundation
for their practical and technical studies are recommended to the Poly-
technic School.
To show the equal standing of the two sections of the Academy of
Fine Arts, and, so far as it is possible, the requisites for a prize work
of art, (the competitors being from the academy in Dresden and from
that in Leipsic, the latter, however, having no architectural academy,)
we add that the artistic branches, which are considered in granting the
highest prize, (stipend for travelling of 1,200 thalers for two years, at
600 thalers for each, or the great gold medal,) are set down in the
"Programme on Academical Prizes, 1864," in the following order:
A. Architecture. (See below.)
B. Statuary. (A statueat least 4 feet high, or a /^aui-reZif/" of two or more figures
at least 2\ feet high, which may be executed in plaster.)
C. Paiuting. (A perfect oil painting of history, ffe7ire, or landscape, including
the sea, with at least half-length figures.)
D. Engraving in copper.
a. A copper i^late from a historical painting, linear-shaped, at least 120 square
inches large, from such paintings as have not yet been sufficiently engraved.
b. Do., a landscape etched and executed by the chisel, of such worth that it
may be considered equal to a historical painting, and the figures, if there
be any on the engraving, at least 2 inches high.
In architecture, the plan of a building is required which is destined
to serve a higher purpose than common houses. The director of the
architectural atelier may propose a certain programme for all competitors.
The plan must embrace —
a. The requisite outlines, and, if needed, the topographical plan.
b. The sketches (elevations, aufschniUe) of the principal facades.
c. The transepts {durchschnilte) necessary for illustration.
d. Details on an accommodating scale.
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
e. A written exposition of the objects on which the organism of the work is
based, in two copie?, one for the Acadeuiical Council and one to be laid by the
side of the exhibited object.
II. — THE ACADEMY OF AIITS IN LEIPSIC.
1 . — Organization.
The Academy of Arts at Leipslc was founded in the same year, 17G4,
with the academy in Dresden, and is placed under the Academical
Council in Dresden.
According to the written statements of the principal. Professor Tager,
it contains —
1. A copying room, {copirsaal,') in which the students draw from
originals and make the needed preparatory studies in anatomy.
2. A plaster room, (^gypssaul,) where students draw from casts of
antique statues.
3. Living-model room [actsaal) and atelier. In this highest class
the students draw from portraits and living models; also they make their
own compositions in cartoons and oil paintings. The more advanced
students of the second class are allowed to join in these studies in winter,
from 5 to 7 P. M.
2. — Tuition and Studies.
The annual tuition fee in the two lower classes is 6 thalers ; in the
highest class 10 thalers; but poor students may, after the first year,
if provided with good testimonials from their teachers, attend gratis.
The principal directs the studies of the highest class, and in the
atelier. For the two lower classes there were formerly two teachers ;
at present they have but one.
It appears therefrom that it has no architectural section or academy
like that in Dresden ; but, instead of it, there is an Architectural
School for masons and carpenters [haiigeicerhensclade) joined to it,
(principal architect, Zocker,) as there is one connected with the Poly-
technic School, at least under the same principal, and one with the
Industrial School at Chemnitz, though they have separate organizations.
In regard to these architectural schools see above.
Documents.
1. Plans nf studies in tliH two sections of the Academy of Fine Arts in Dresden; 2. Prescrip-
tions for students concerning studies and discipline in Dresden ; 3. On academical prizes ; 4.
Two teslinionial^ as they are given to students after eacli six momliiy term and to graduates ;
5. A short account of tlie academy in Leipsic, written by Prof. Jag^er.
No. 1 contains many valuable notes, written by Prof. Heine, in Dresden.
There has been published at the centennial anniversary afestschrift, written by Dr. Weiss-
ner, the secretary of the academy, which contains its history.
336 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY.
THE CONSERVATORIO OF MUSIC IN LEIPSIC
1. — General Observations.
This academy of music at Leipsic, sanctioneil and snpported by the
favor of H. M. tlie King, was established at Easter, 1843, â– with the
energetic and intelligent co-operation of the celebrated Mendelssohn
Bartholdy. The object is the higher education in music. The instruc-
tion it imparts embraces, theoretically and practically, all branches of
music considered as an art and science. The supreme direction of the
academy is in the hands of five trustees^ who form the " directory;'' at
present one is the Minister of Public Education, (not as such ;) another a
member of the municipality, &c.
For admission, the pupils pass an examination to show their qualifica-
tions for understanding the lectures, and for a successful study of music.
The number of pupils is at present 146, 91 males and 55 females, with
14 teachers and one inspector.
The fee for the whole instruction (excepting the orchestral instru-
ments, double bass and wind instruments, for which a moderate extra
fee is paid) is 80 thalers a year, paid quarterly in advance, besides an
entrance fee of 3 thalers and one thaler to the castellan of the school.
There are six free scholarships founded by the king, to be held by
poor and talented Saxons for one year, whic-h may be prolonged to two
or three years. All pupils have to procure the instruments, (one piano,
which may be hired by foreigners,) music and books at their own
expense
2.— Studies.
The theoretical instruction, given chiefly by M. Ilauptmann, 18G8,
consists of a complete course on the theory of music and composition,
which is completed in three years. More advanced pupils, who are at
once placed in the upper classes, may complete the study in a shorter
time, but they are required to attend at the same time the lessons in the
lower classes as reviews. It comprises the following subjects :
a. Harmony, in 15 classes : During tlie first year, harmony, and part writing ; ia
the second, continuation of harmony and counterpoint ; in llie third, conlinuation
of harmony, double counterpoint and fugue.
b Form and composition, in 6 classes : Oral instruction and exercises, including
vocal and instrumental composition in their various forms and treatment, analysis
of classic.ll musical works.
c. Playing from score : Conducting, with practical exercises.
cl. Italian language for those who purpose to devote themselves to the higher
branches of solo singing.
Moreover, lectures on musical subjects, such as the history of ancient
and modern music, agsthetics of music, &c.
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IN SAXE-ALTEXBimG.
INTRODUCTIOX.
TiiK Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on an area of 509 English square
miles, iu IBG-t had a population of 141,83'J, who are almost exclu-
sively engaged in agriculture
The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Alten-
burg during the financial period 18G2-G4, amounted to 800,343
thalers.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min-
ister of education and ecclesiastical alFairs, who is at the same time
minister of the ducal house.
1. Priinarij Schools. Of these there were 179 schools, with
21,798 scholars, and about 190 teachers; 1 infants' asylum, with 80
children.
2. Secondary Schools. There is one gymnasium, with 189 schol-
ars, and 12 teachers; 1 progymnasium, with 18 J scholars, and 7
teachers; 1 higher burgher school, with 191 scholars, and 11 teach-
ers, besides 7 burgher schools, with two classes ; the Carolinum, with
4 classes, and 80 pupils ; besides several schools of girls, of the
highest grade and reputation.
3. Superior School. University students resort to Jena.
4. Special and professional Schools.
1 Teachers' seminary, at Altenburg, with 32 students.
7 Industrial {forthildung) schools, with about 350 pupils.
1 Commercial school, at Altenburg.
1 Agricultural colony, or asylum, ( George 4* 3fary House,) for
neglected children.
1 Agricultural winter school.
1 Institution for the widows and orphans of teachers.
1 Institution for the deaf and dumb.
Belonging to the primary schools, there is the Amelia Listitute at
Altenburg, with 80 pupils ; another at Kahla, with 40 pupils ; 3
kindergarten, at Kahla, Eonneburg, and Altenburg, with a total of
95 childi'en. There are several private schools for young children,
of great excellence.
(3.3.3)
SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA.
INTRODITCTIOX.
Tiic Duchy of Sase-Coburg-Gotlia, on an area of 816 English
square miles, had in 18G4, a population of 164,527, chiefly engaged
in ajjriculture.
The total annual expenditure in the financial period 1861-65,
amounted to 992,169 thalers, of which sum about 30,0(40 thalers
were expended for primary instruction, and 8,000 for secondary
instruction. The annual expense for the. salaries of common school
teachers in 1866, was 72,000 thalers.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min-
ister of state, and embrace :
1. Primary Schools. Of these there were in 1864, 223 schools,
with 355 teachers, and 22,609 scholars.
2. Seco7idary Schools, There are 2 gymnasia, with 35 teachers,
and 606 scholars ; 2 real schools, with 23 teachers, and 449 scholars ;
3 higher burgher schools, with 27 teachers, and 1,254 scholars ; 2
higher girls' schools, with 23 teachers, and 256 scholars.
3. Superior Schools. University students resort to Jena.
4. Special and Professional Schools.
3 Teachers' seminaries, with about 90 students, and about
25 teachers.
1 School for architects and carpenters; 1 supplementary school
for mechanics ; 1 school for machine-building, — with
about 150 scholars, and upwards of 20 teachers. Be-
sides tliis great institute, there are several schools for
mechanics receiving aid from the state.
1 Deaf mute institute, with 1 4 inmates.
1 Commercial school, with 5 teachers, and 110 pupils.
1 Agricultural school.
1 Music school.
1 Orphan asylum, at Friedrichroda, founded in 1712.
3 Kindergarten, with 150 children.
1 Rescue institution.
Salzman's Institute at Schnepfenthal, Dietendorfer Institute, Ma-
ria Institute at Gotha, have a high reputation.
(334)
SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOJf IN SAXE-iAlEIXi:;GEX-IIILDBURGIIAUSEX.
IXTRODLCTIOX.
The duchy of Saxe-Meiningen-IIildburghaiisen, on an area of 933
English square miles, in 18G4 had a popuhition of 178,005, of
whom the majority are engaged in agricidture, 549 in mining, 1,472
in porcelain manufactories, and about 8,000 in the manufacture of
wooden to^s.
The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Meinin-
gen in the financial period 18G2-G5, amounted to 1,845,042 florins,
of which 1G,000 florins were expended for primary schools, besides
the income (14,000 florins) from the crown lands. The main ex-
pense falls on the local districts.
The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min-
ister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, (who at the same time is
minister of justice, who is assisted in the inspection of schools by a
council consisting of two clergymen, and one layman, who must liave
been a teacher), and include :
1. Primary Schools. Of these there w 
