Marine Biological Laboratory Library
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Gift of F. R. Lillie estate - 1977
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SCIENCE AND LEARNING
IN FRANCE
SCIENCE AND LEARNING
IN FRANCE
rn
WITH A SURVEY OF OPPORTUNITIES
FOR AMERICAN STUDENTS IN
FRENCH UNIVERSITIES
AN APPRECIATION
BT
AMERICAN SCHOLARS
THE SOCIETY FOR
AMERICAN FELLOWSHIPS IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES
1917
Copyright 1917, by
JOHN H. WIGMORE
All Rights Reserved
TO
' THE SCHOLARS OF FRANCE
WORTHY CUSTODIANS
OF THEIR COUNTRY'S INTELLECTUAL GREATNESS
THIS VOLUME
PREPARED IN A TIME
WHEN FRANCE HAS REACHED
THE HEIGHTS OF MORAL GREATNESS
IS OFFERED
WITH HEARTFELT ADMIRATION AND SYMPATHY
IN THE NAME OF
THE SCHOLARS OF AMERICA
PREFACE
Our purpose in this volume is, primarily, to put before
the American public the contributions of France in all
fields of scientific knowledge, and to show her status in
the forefront of the world's progress; and, in addition,
to furnish to American university students all informa-
tion bearing on graduate work in France.
Each chapter sets forth briefly, for a particular field:
1. The record of French scholarship during the past
century; the notable achievements; the eminent leaders;
the special lines of development; in general, the share
of France in the world's progress;
2. The courses of instruction given, now or recently,
at the universities of France, particularly at the Uni-
versity of Paris; the names of the most important schol-
ars, with mention of their principal contributions and of
the special fields of research over which they preside;
3. The facilities available for study and research,
including the libraries, laboratories, archives, and mu-
seums, the auxiliary institutes, special schools, and learned
societies and committees.
There is also:
An Introduction, describing the general intellectual
spirit of France and Paris, and the interest and attrac-
tions that capital and country offer to the foreign scholar;
and
An Appendix, describing the organization of French
universities, the standards of preparation expected of the
student, the system of degrees, the customs as to resi-
dence and attendance, the regulations as to fees and
the like; and other facts useful to the visiting student.
ix
x PREFACE
The book has been made possible by the liberality of
the Society for American Fellowships in French Univer-
sities, which has borne all the expense of publication.
The ultimate and cardinal mission of the book will be
an act of homage to French science. Let the scholars
of France know that their American colleagues are eager to
pay this just tribute ! The great place of France in the
world of knowledge - - the place that it always has
held and always will hold — can never be forgotten by
their debtors on this side of the ocean.
The men who wrote this book are qualified to speak
on their subjects; a glance at their names will show that
their word is decisive. They represent American schol-
arship. They have spoken frankly, sincerely, and
judicially, without reserve or exaggeration.
Their message goes out to the American people.
May it convey some fresh light to our fellow-countrymen,
and help to fix in their conviction the true status of
French learning in the world!
This book was planned and begun towards the end of
the year 1915; and in presenting it now, when the bonds
of mutual esteem and gratitude between France and
America have been drawn even more closely, the Authors
believe that they are not only pointing the youth of our
country to splendid sources of knowledge and wisdom,
but are also serving, in the measure of their ability, to
strengthen and confirm that comradeship of scholars
which symbolizes the enduring friendship of the two
nations.
THE EDITOR.
June, 1917.
CONTENTS
PAGE
List of Authors xiii
List of Sponsors xvii
INTRODUCTION
The Mind of France i
The Intellectual Inspiration of Paris .... 5
ANTHROPOLOGY 19
ARCHAEOLOGY and HISTORY OF ART .... 29
ASTRONOMY 45
BOTANY and AGRICULTURE 55
CHEMISTRY 67
CRIMINOLOGY 79
EDUCATION 87
ENGINEERING 95
GEOGRAPHY 105
GEOLOGY —
Geology ... . . 115
Mineralogy and Petrology 122
Palaeontology 127
HISTORY
LAW
MATHEMATICS 161
MEDICINE —
Introductory Survey 171
Physiology 175
Neurology 179
Medicine 187
Surgery 196
Pathology 202
xi
xii CONTENTS
PHILOLOGY —
Classical 207
Romance 221
Oriental 233
Semitic 243
English 250
PHILOSOPHY 257
PHYSICS 271
POLITICAL SCIENCE — including
Economics and
International Law 279
PSYCHOLOGY 303
RELIGION 311
SOCIOLOGY 321
ZOOLOGY 329
APPENDIX I: Educational Advantages for Ameri-
can Students in France; with a History of the
Recent Changes in its University System . . 345
APPENDIX II: Institutions of Higher Learning;
their Organization, Degrees, Requirements,
Fees, etc. . . . . 373
APPENDIX III: Practical Suggestions to the In-
tending Graduate Student 413
Index 427
LIST OF AUTHORS
Introduction
CHARLES W. ELIOT
Harvard University
GEORGE E. HALE
Foreign Secretary of the
National Academy of Sciences
Anthropology
CHARLES H. HAWES
Dartmouth College
ALFRED M. TOZZER
Harvard University
Archaeology
GEORGE H. CHASE
Harvard University
HAROLD N. FOWLER
Western Reserve University
A. L. FROTHINGHAM
Princeton University
J. R. WHEELER
Columbia University
Astronomy
PHILIP Fox
Dearborn Observatory
(Northwestern University)
GEORGE E. HALE
Carnegie Institution
Observatory, Mt. Wilson
W. D. MACMILLAN
University of Chicago
FOREST R. MOULTON
University of Chicago
HENRY N. RUSSELL
Halsted Observatory
(Princeton University)
Botany and Agriculture
JOHN M. COULTER
University of Chicago
Chemistry
WILDER D. BANCROFT
Cornell University
FRANK B. DAINS
University of Kansas
L. J. HENDERSON
Harvard University
Criminology
CHARLES A. ELLWOOD
University of Missouri
MAURICE PARMELEE
College of the
City of New York
ARTHUR J. TODD
University of Minnesota
Education
JOHN DEWEY
Columbia University
FREDERIC E.FARRINGTON
U. S. Bureau of Education
PAUL H. HANUS
Harvard University
CHARLES H. JUDD
University of Chicago
Xlll
XIV
LIST OF AUTHORS
Engineering
IRA N. HOLLIS
Worcester Polytechnic In-
stitute
HENRY M. HOWE
Columbia University
ALEX. C. HUMPHREYS
Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology
ALBERT SAUVEUR
Harvard University
Geography
WM. M. DAVIS
Harvard University
R. H. WHITBECK
University of Wisconsin
Geology (including Mineral-
ogy, Petrology, and Pa-
laeontology)
THOS. C. CHAMBERLIN
University of Chicago
U. S. GRANT
Northwestern University
WM. H. HOBBS
University of Michigan
HENRY F. OSBORN
Columbia University
S. W. WlLLISTON
University of Chicago
ALEX. N. WINCHELL
University of Wisconsin
History
CHARLES H. HASKINS
Harvard University
JAMES A. JAMES
Northwestern University
ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN
University of Chicago
DANA C. MUNRO
Princeton University
J. T. SHOTWELL
Columbia University
Law
JOSEPH H. BEALE
Harvard University
LAYTON B. REGISTER
University of Pennsylvania
MUNROE SMITH
Columbia University
JOHN H. WIGMORE
Northwestern University
Mathematics
DAVID R. CURTISS
Northwestern University
THOS. F. HOLGATE
Northwestern University
ELIAKIM H. MOORE
University of Chicago
E. B. WILSON
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Medicine (including Physi-
ology, Pathology, Medi-
cine, Surgery, and
Neurology)
LLEWELLYS F. BARKER
Johns Hopkins University
ARTHUR D. BE VAN
University of Chicago
FREDERICK P. GAY
University of California
LIST OF AUTHORS
xv
WM. H. HOWELL
Johns Hopkins University
THEODORE C. JANEWAY
Johns Hopkins University
HUGH T. PATRICK
Northwestern University
D. B. PHEMISTER
University of Chicago
MORTON PRINCE
Tufts College
WM. S. THAYER
Johns Hopkins University
Philology, Classical
WM. GARDNER HALE
University of Chicago
E. K. RAND
Harvard University
JOHN A. SCOTT
Northwestern University
Philology, Romance
CHARLES H. GRANDGENT
Harvard University
H. R. LANG
Yale University
KENNETH MCKENZIE
University of Illinois
RAYMOND WEEKS
Columbia University
Philology, Oriental
FRANKLIN EDGERTON
University of Pennsylvania
E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
Yale University
CHARLES R. LANMAN
Harvard University
Philology, Semitic
J. R. JEWETT
Harvard University
CHARLES C. TORREY
Yale University
Philology, English
ARTHUR C. L. BROWN
Northwestern University
ROLLO W. BROWN
Wabash College
JOHN L. LOWES
Washington University
Philosophy
RALPH B. PERRY
Harvard University
JAMES H. TUFTS
University of Chicago
CHARLES B. VIBBERT
University of Michigan
R. M. WENLEY
University of Michigan
Physics
HENRY CREW
Northwestern University
A. A. MlCHELSON
University of Chicago
WALLACE C. SABINE
Harvard University
Political Science (including
Economics and Inter-
national Law)
JAMES W. GARNER
University of Illinois
LEON C. MARSHALL
University of Chicago
xvi LIST OF AUTHORS
JESSE S. REEVES FREDERICK S. DEIBLER
University of Michigan Northwestern University
ABBOTT P. USHER FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS
Cornell University Columbia University
Psychology EDWARD A. Ross
JAMES R. ANGELL University of wisconsin
University of Chicago Zoology
ROBERT H. GAULT GARY N. CALKINS
Northwestern University Columbia University
Religion FRANK R. LILLIE
GEORGE B . FOSTER University of Chicago
University of Chicago WM. A. LOCY
NORMAN B. NASH Northwestern University
Episcopal Theological School Appendix
(Cambridge) JAM£S GEDDES> JR
Sociology Boston University
THOMAS N. CARVER CHARLES B. VIBBERT
Harvard University University of Michigan
Officers of the ^Authors' (Committee
JOHN H. WIGMORE CHARLES H. GRANDGENT
Northwestern University Harvard University
Chairman V ice-Chairman
Editor
JOHN H. WIGMORE
Northwestern University
LIST OF SPONSORS
These A merican scholars have expressed a cordial desire to join
with the Authors in making this book a national homage, offered
from the Universities of America to the Universities of France:
G. G. ABBOT
Smithsonian Institution
FRANK FROST ABBOTT
Princeton University
J. F. ABBOTT
Washington University
W. C. ABBOTT
Yale University
ISAAC A. ABT
Northwestern University
C. D. ADAMS
Dartmouth College
E. D. ADAMS
Leland Stanford University
EDWARD L. ADAMS
University of Michigan
G. B. ADAMS
Yale University
JOSEPH Q. ADAMS, JR.
Cornell University
THOMAS S. ADAMS
Yale University
R. G. AlTKEN
Lick Observatory
HOMER ALBERS
Boston University
RAYMOND M. ALDEN
Leland Stanford University
H. B. ALEXANDER
University of Nebraska
CHARLES E. ALLEN
University of Wisconsin
CLIFFORD G. ALLEN
Leland Stanford University
R. C. ALLEN
State Geologist of Michigan
CEPHAS D. ALLIN
University of Minnesota
FRANCIS G. ALLINSON
Brown University
HECTOR ALLIOT
Southwest Museum
C. W. ALVORD
University of Illinois
JOSEPH S. AMES
Johns Hopkins University
F. M. ANDERSON
Dartmouth College
C. M. ANDREWS
Yale University
E. WYLLYS ANDREWS
Northwestern University
J. N. ANDERSON
University of Florida
J. S. ANKENY
University of Missouri
C. F. ANSLEY
University of Iowa
R. C. ARCHIBALD
Brown University
A. C. ARMSTRONG
Wesleyan University
EDWARD C. ARMSTRONG
Johns Hopkins University
JOSEPH C. ARTHUR
Purdue University
GEORGE F. ATKINSON
Cornell University
XV11
XV111
LIST OF SPONSORS
C. B. ATWELL
Northwestern University
WALLACE W. ATWOOD
Harvard University
GEORGE D. AYERS
University of Idaho
F. C. BABBITT
Trinity College
EARLE B. BABCOCK
New York University
HERMAN BABSON
Purdue University
B. W. BACON
Yale University
GRACE M. BACON
Mt. Holyoke College
EDWARD P. BAILLOT
Northwestern University
GEO. P. BAKER
Harvard University
C. S. BALDWIN
Columbia University
ALLAN P. BALL
College of the City of New York
MARGARET BALL
Mt. Holyoke College
THOMAS B ARBOUR
Harvard University
CHARLES R. BARDEEN
University of Wisconsin
E. E. BARNARD
Yerkes Observatory
G. E. BARNETT
Johns Hopkins University
WINFIELD S. BARNEY
Pennsylvania College
Jos. BARRELL
Yale University
LEROY C. BARRET
Trinity College
ALBERT M. BARRETT
University of Michigan
GEORGE A. BARTON
Bryn Mawr College
FLORENCE BASCOM
Bryn Mawr College
O. H. BASQUIN
Northwestern University
S. E. BASSETT
University of Vermont
HENRY M. BATES
University of Michigan
KATHERINE L. BATES
Wellesley College
W. N. BATES
University of Pennsylvania
W. J. BATTLE
University of Texas
PAUL BAUR
Yale University
JEAN B. BECK
Bryn Mawr College
SCOTT E. W. BEDFORD
University of Chicago
HAROLD H. BENDER
Princeton University
HENRY MARVIN BELDEN
University of Missouri
HARRIS M. BENEDICT
University of Cincinnati
R. R. BENSLEY
University of Chicago
CHARLES E. BENNETT
Cornell University
L. L. BERNARD
University of Missouri
E. BERNBAUM
University of Illinois
ANDRE BEZIAT
Tulane University
H. A. BlGELOW
University of Chicago
HERMAN M. BIGGS
New York University
C. P. BILL
Western Reserve University
F. H. BILLINGS
University of Kansas
W. V. BlNGHAM
Carnegie Institute
HIRAM B INCH AM
Yale University
G. D. BlRKHOFF
Harvard University
LIST OF SPONSORS
xix
DAVID H. BISHOP
University of Mississippi
F. W. BLACKMAR
University of Kansas
ELIOT BLACK WELDER
University of Illinois
G. A. BLISS
University of Chicago
D. S. BLONDHEIM
University of Illinois
JOSEPH C. BLOODGOOD
Johns Hopkins University
ERNEST L. BOGART
University of Illinois
M. T. BOGERT
Columbia University
GEO. H. BOKE
University of California
H. E. BOLTON
University of California
ALEXANDER L. BONDTJRANT
University of Mississippi
R. J. BONNER
University of Chicago
PERCY BORDWELL
University of Iowa
J. L. BORGERHOFF
Western Reserve University
BENJAMIN P. BOURLAND
Western Reserve University
CAROLINE B. BOURLAND
Smith College
H. E. BOURNE
Western Reserve University
ARCHIBALD L. BOUTON
New York University
BENJAMIN L. BOWEN
Ohio State University
E. W. BOWEN
Randolph-Macon College
ISAIAH BOWMAN
American Geographical Society
JEAN C. BRACQ
Vassar College
EDGAR E. BRANDON
Miami University
JOHN C. BRANNER
Stanford University
JAMES H. BREASTED
University of Chicago
W. T. BREWSTER
Columbia University
J. R. BRACKETT
Harvard University
P. W. BRIDGMAN
Harvard University
THOMAS H. BRIGGS
Columbia University
A. P. BRIGHAM
Colgate University
ISABELLE BRONK
Swarthmore College
WALTER C. BRONSON
Brown University
A. H. BROOKS
United States Geological Survey
ALFRED M. BROOKS
Indiana University
CARLETON BROWN
University of Minnesota
E. V. L. BROWN
University of Chicago
E. W. BROWN
Yale University
FREDERIC W. BROWN
Bowdoin College
HARRY G. BROWN
University of Missouri
PHILIP M. BROWN
Princeton University
CHARLES A. BRUCE
Ohio State University
J. DOUGLAS BRUCE
University of Tennessee
HENRY R. BRUSH
University of North Dakota
M. P. BRUSH
Johns Hopkins University
W. F. BRYAN
Northwestern University
H. G. BRYANT
Philadelphia Geographical Society
XX
LIST OF SPONSORS
CARL D. BUCK
University of Chicago
GERTRUDE BUCK
Vassar College
DOUGLAS L. BUFFUM
Princeton University
CHARLES J. BULLOCK
Harvard University
HERMON C. BUMPUS
Tufts College
W. L. BURDICK
University of Kansas
GEORGE L. BURR
Cornell University
E. D. BURTON
University of Chicago
HARRY E. BURTON
Dartmouth College
HENRY F. BURTON
University of Rochester
RICHARD BURTON
University of Minnesota
STEPHEN H. BUSH
University .of Iowa
W. T. BUSH
Columbia University
FREDERICK A. BUSHEE
University of Colorado
NICHOLAS M. BUTLER
Columbia University
HENRY T. BYFORD
University of Illinois
S. CALVERT
University of Missouri
W. W. CAMPBELL
Lick Observatory
ARTHUR G. CANFIELD
University of Michigan
WALTER B. CANNON
Harvard University
EDWARD CAPPS
Princeton University
A. J. CARLSON
University of Chicago
D. H. CARNAHAN
University of Illinois
E. C. CASE
University of Michigan
JULIA H. CAVERNO
Smith College
J. MCKEEN CATTELL
Columbia University
BARRY CERF
University of Wisconsin
LYMAN CHALKLEY
Kentucky University
ROBERT CHAMBERS, JR.
Cornell University
FRANK W. CHANDLER
University of Cincinnati
A. C. CHAPIN
Wellesley College
F. STUART CHAPIN
Smith College
C. E. CHAPMAN
University of California
MABEL A. CHASE
Mt. Holyoke College
W. H. CHENERY
Washington University
FREDERICK D. CHEYDLEUR
Williams College
E. P. CHEYNEY
University of Pennsylvania
CLARENCE G. CHILD
University of Pennsylvania
C. M. CHILD
University of Chicago
GILBERT CHINARD
University of California
HENRY C. CHRISTIAN
Harvard University
GEO. B. CHURCHILL
Amherst College
PHILIP H. CHURCHMAN
Clark College
EDWARD B. CLAPP
University of California
CHARLES C. CLARKE
Yale University
WALTER E. CLARK
University of Chicago
LIST OF SPONSORS
xxi
WALTER E. CLARK
College of the City of New York
WM. B. CLARK
Johns Hopkins University
ALBERT T. CLAY
Yale University
HAROLD L. CLEASBY
Syracuse University
FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS
University of Minnesota
HARRY E. CLIFFORD
Harvard University
GEORGE A. COE
Union Theological Seminary
VICTOR COFFIN
University of Wisconsin
LOTUS D. COFFMAN
University of Minnesota
WILLIAM M. COLE
Harvard University
C. B. COLEMAN
Butler College
WILLIAM W. COMFORT
Cornell University
J. R. COMMONS
University of Wisconsin
G. C. COMSTOCK
University of Wisconsin
CLARA CONKLIN
University of Nebraska
E. G. CONKLIN
Princeton University
WALTER W. COOK
Yale University
CHARLES H. COOLEY
University of Michigan
A. C. COOLIDGE
Harvard University
JAMES W. COOPER
Whitman College
W. F. COOVER
Iowa College of Agriculture
C. L. CORY
University of California
GEO. P. COSTIGAN, JR.
Northwestern University
E. S. CORWIN
Princeton University
STANLEY COULTER
Purdue University
FREDERICK V. COVILLE
United States Department of Agri-
culture
HENRY C. COWLES
University of Chicago
WM. L. COWLES
Amherst College
ELIZABETH B. COWLEY
Vassar College
C. W. CRANDALL
University of Florida
R. S. CRANE
Northwestern University
J. P. WlCKERSHAM CRAWFORD
University of Pennsylvania
J. E. CREIGHTON
Cornell University
A. L. CROSS
University of Michigan
WHITMAN CROSS
United States Geological Survey
W. L. CROSS
Yale University
F. B. CROSSLEY
Northwestern University
ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY
Standford University
J. W. CUNLIFFE
Columbia University
W. C. CURTIS
University of Missouri
HARVEY GUSHING
Harvard University
R. A. DALY
Harvard University
LINDSAY T. DAMON
Brown University
EDWARD S. DANA
Yale University
FRANCIS DANIELS
University of Missouri
E. P. DARGAN
University of Chicago
HENRI C. DAVID
University of Chicago
.
XX11
LIST OF SPONSORS
W. J. DAVIDSON
Northwestern University
BRADLEY M. DAVIS
University of Pennsylvania
D. J. DAVIS
University of Illinois
W. W. DAVIS
University of Kansas
E. DAWSON
Hunter College
EDMUND E. DAY
Harvard University
JAMES Q. DEALEY
Brown University
Louis DELAMARRE
College of the City of New York.
J. B. DE LEE
Northwestern University.
WM. K. DENISON
Tufts College.
RALPH B. DENNIS
Northwestern University
A. L. P. DENNIS
University of Wisconsin
JOSEPH V. DENNEY
Ohio State University
SAMUEL C. DERBY
Ohio State University
EDWARD T. DEVINE
Columbia University
H. J. DEVONPORT
Cornell University
WILLIAM M. DEY
University of North Carolina
SHERWOOD O. DICKERMAN
Williams College
L. E. DICKSON
University of Chicago
FRANK H. DIXON
Dartmouth College
R. B. DIXON
Harvard University
ELEANOR C. DOAK
Mt. Holyoke College
ARMISTEAD M. DOBIE
University of Virginia
GEORGE DOCK
Washington University
W. E. DODD
University of Chicago
DANIEL K. DODGE
University of Illinois
J. M. DODSON
University of Chicago
G ASTON DOUAY
Washington University
EARLE W. Dow
University of Michigan
CHARLES A. DOWNER
College of the City of New York
E. C. DUDLEY
Northwestern University
BENJAMIN M. DUGGAR
Missouri Botanical Garden
KNIGHT DUNLAP
Johns Hopkins University
EDWARD D. DURAND
University of Minnesota
CHARLES L. DURHAM
Cornell University
GEORGE M. DUTCHER
Wesleyan University
E. L. EARP
Drew Theological Seminary
E. M. EAST
Harvard University
DE LA WARR B. EASTER
Washington and Lee University
FREDERICK C. EASTMAN
University of Iowa
LUCILE EAVES
Simmons College
DAVID L. EDSALL
Massachusetts General Hospital
JAMES C. EGBERT
Columbia University
C. H. ElGENMANN
University of Indiana
L. P. ElSENHART
Princeton University
J. B. EKELEY
University of Colorado
LIST OF SPONSORS
xxni
ELOISE ELLERY
Vassar College
A. CASWELL ELLIS
University of Texas
ELLEN D. ELLIS
Mt. Holyoke College
CHARLES A. ELLWOOD
University of Missouri
HERBERT C. ELMER
Cornell University
J. ELMORE
Leland Stanford University
R. T. ELY
University of Wisconsin
BENJAMIN K. EMERSON
Amherst College
C. P. EMERSON
University of Indiana
OLIVER F. EMERSON
Western Reserve University
S. F. EMERSON
University of Vermont
FRED. PARKER EMERY
Dartmouth College
JOSEPH ERLANGER
Washington University
F. A. C. ERNST
University of Wisconsin
HAROLD C. ERNST
Harvard University
JOHN ERSKINE
Columbia University
H. M. EVANS
University of California
FRANK C. EWART
Colgate University
B. C. EWER
Pomona College
JAMES EWING
Cornell University
ARTHUR FAIRBANKS
Boston Museum of Fine Arts
H. R. FAERCLOUGH
Leland Stanford University
J. A. FAIRLIE
University of Illinois
EDITH FAHNE STOCK
Vassar College
W. C. FARABEE
University of Pensylvania
FRANK E. FARLEY
Simmons College
WILLIAM G. FARLOW
Harvard University
H. W. FARNAM
Yale University
WILLIAM O. FARNSWORTH
University of Pittsburgh
MAX FARRAND
Yale University
CHARLES E. FAY
Tufts College
EDWIN W. FAY
University of Texas
PERCIVAL B. FAY
University of California
N. M. FENNEMAN
University of Cincinnati
W. S. FERGUSON
Harvard University
F. A. FETTER
Princeton University
J. WALTER FEWKES
United States National Museum
J. A. FIELD
University of Chicago
JOHN H. FINLEY
New York State Education De-
partment
C. R. FISH
University of Wisconsin
IRVING FISHER
Yale University
CHRISTABEL F. FISKE
Vassar College
GEO. C. FISKE
University of Wisconsin
THOS. S. FISKE
Columbia University
JOHN D. FITZ- GERALD
University of Illinois
JOHN D. FLEMING
University of Colorado
XXIV
LIST OF SPONSORS
J. B. FLETCHER
Columbia University
ROBERT H. FLETCHER
Grinnell College
F. M. FLING
University of Nebraska
GUY S. FORD
University of Minnesota
HENRY J. FORD
Princeton University
J. D. M. FORD
Harvard University
JAMES FORD
Harvard University
H. E. W. FOSBROKE
General Theological Seminary
BENJAMIN O. FOSTER
Leland Stanford University
H. D. FOSTER
Dartmouth College
FRANK F. FRANTZ
Vanderbilt University
PIERRE J. FREIN
University of Washington
EDWIN B. FROST
Yerkes Observatory
THEODORE C. FRYE
University of Washington
CAROLINE E. FURNESS
Vassar College
CHARLES S. GAGER
Brooklyn Botanical Garden
EUGENIE GALLOO
University of Kansas
STANLEY L. GALPIN
Trinity College
CAROLINE M. GALT
Mt. Holyoke College
W. E. GAMBLE
University of Illinois
H. N. GARDINER
Smith College
CHRISTIAN GAUSS
Princeton University
E. F. GAY
Harvard University
CHARLES M. GAYLEY
University of California
WILLIAM F. GEPHART
Washington University
J. L. GERIG
Columbia University
GORDON H. GEROULD
Princeton University
A. R. GlFFORD
University of Vermont
BASIL L. GlLDERSLEEVE
Johns Hopkins University
EUGENE A. GILMORE
University of Wisconsin
O. C. GLASER
University of Michigan
WILLIAM H. GLASSON
Trinity College
HAROLD C. GODDARD
Swarthmore College
P. E. GODDARD
American Museum of Natural
History
A. J. GOLDFARB
College of the City of New York
J. PAUL GOODE
University of Chicago
THOMAS D. GOODELL
Yale University
FRANK J. GOODNOW
Johns Hopkins University
E. J. GOODSPEED
University of Chicago
NOLAN A. GOODYEAR
Emory University
HARRY M. GORDIN
Northwestern University
RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL
Columbia University
CASWELL GRAVE
Johns Hopkins University
C. A. GRAVES
University of Virginia
JOHN H. GRAY
University of Minnesota
R. P. GRAY
University of Maine
LIST OF SPONSORS
XXV
Louis M. GREELEY
Northwestern University
EVARTS B. GREENE
University of Illinois
HERBERT E. GREENE
Johns Hopkins University
EDWIN GREENLAND
University of North Carolina
CHESTER N. GREENOUGH
Harvard University
G. G. GROAT
University of Vermont
G. GROJEAN
Leland Stanford University
CLIFFORD G. GRULEE
University of Chicago
F. B. GUMMERE
Haverford College
FOSTER E. GUYER
Dartmouth College
ARTHUR T. HADLEY
Yale University
A. S. HAGGETT
University of Washington
ELIZABETH H. HAIGHT
Vassar College
E. E. HALE
Union College
EDWIN H. HALL
Harvard University
J. P. HALL
University of Chicago
WINFIELD S. HALL
Northwestern University
ALBERT E. HALSTEAD
University of Illinois
THEODORE E. HAMILTON
University of Ohio
W. H. HAMILTON
Amherst University
M. B. HAMMOND
Ohio State University
FRANK H. HANKINS
Clark University
IRVING HARDESTY
Tulane University
SAMUEL B. HARDING
University of Indiana
C. W. HARGITT
Syracuse University
HERBERT HARLEY
Northwestern University
ROBERT A. HARPER
Columbia University
KARL P. HARRINGTON
Wesleyan University
PHILIP W. HARRY
Colby College
JOHN W. HARSHBERGER
University of Pennsylvania
ALBERT B. HART
Harvard University
B. C. H. HARVEY
University of Chicago
CARLTON J. H. HAYES
Columbia University
DOREMUS A. HAYES
Northwestern University
E. C. HAYES
University of Illinois
JOHN F. HAYFORD
Northwestern University
E. R. HEDRICK
University of Missouri
L. HEKTOEN
University of Chicago
F. B. R. HELLEMS
University of Colorado
GEO. L. HENDRICKSON
Yale University
GEORGE N. HENNING
George Washington University
C. J. HERRICK .
University of Chicago
JAMES B. HERRICK
University of Chicago
AMOS S. HERSHEY
University of Indiana
AMY HEWES
Mt. Holyoke College
A. W. HEWLETT
Leland Stanford University
XXVI
LIST OF SPONSORS
JOHN G. HIBBEN
Princeton University
F. C. HICHS
University of Cincinnati
HINDA T. HILL
North Carolina Normal College
JOHN HILL
University of Indiana
ELIJAH C. HILLS
Colorado College
MURRAY A. HINES
Northwestern University
EDWARD W. HINTON
University of Chicago
W. E. HOCKING
Harvard University
F. H. HODDER
University of Kansas
WESLEY N. HOHFELD
Yale University
R. T. HOLBROOK
Haverford College
A. D. HOLE
Earlham College
E. H. HOLLANDS
University of Kansas
JACOB H. HOLLANDER
Johns Hopkins University
HENRY W. HOLMES
Harvard University
S. J. HOLMES
University of California
W. H. HOLMES
United States National Museum
DONALD HOOKER
Johns Hopkins University
E. A. HOOTON
Harvard University
HUGO C. HORACK
University of Iowa
R. G. HOSKINS
Northwestern University
W. E. HOTCHKISS
Northwestern University
WILLIAM O. HOTCHKISS
Wisconsin State Geologist
LYNN H. HOUGH
Northwestern University
THEODORE HOUGH
University of Virginia
GEORGE E. HOWARD
University of Nebraska
GEORGE HOWE
University of North Carolina
W. D. HOWE
University of Indiana
GEO. E. HOWES
Williams College
WILLIAM HOYNES
University of Notre Dame
ALES HRDLICKA
United States National Museum
F. G. HUBBARD
University of Wisconsin
HECTOR J. HUGHES
Harvard University
E. M. HULME
University of Idaho
W. H. HULME
Western Reserve University
CHARLES H. HUNKINS
Brown University
REID HUNT
Harvard University
T. WHITEFIELD HUNT
Princeton University
W. J. HUSSEY
Detroit Observatory
C. A. HUSTON
Stanford University
H. B. HUTCHINS
University of Michigan
J. L. HUTCHINSON
Cornell University
CHAS. CHENEY HYDE
Northwestern University
ROSCOE R. HYDE
Indiana Normal School
Jos. P. IDDINGS
University of Chicago
E. F. INGALS
University of Chicago
LIST OF SPONSORS
XXVll
ALEXANDER J. INGLIS
Harvard University
E. S. INGRAHAM
University of Ohio
EDMUND J. JAMES
University of Illinois
J. FRANKLIN JAMIESON
Carnegie Institution
T. A. JENKINS
University of Chicago
JEREMIAH W. JENKS
New York University
H. S. JENNINGS
Johns Hopkins University
M. W. JERNEGAN
University of Chicago
ELMER E. JONES
Northwestern University
GUERNSEY JONES
University of Nebraska
H. C. JONES
University of West Virginia
LEWIS R. JONES
University of Wisconsin
WM. CAREY JONES
University of California
ALVIN S. JOHNSON
Leland Stanford University
D. W. JOHNSON
Columbia University
GEORGE E. JOHNSON
Harvard University
H. JOHNSON
Bowdoin University
HENRY JOHNSON
New York Teachers College
J. B. JOHNSTON
University of Minnesota
DANIEL JORDAN
Columbia University
HARVEY E. JORDAN
University of Virginia
HARRY PRATT JUDSON
University of Chicago
A. B. KANAVEL
Northwestern University
I. L. KANDEL
Columbia University
EDWARD KASNER
Columbia University
G. F. KAY
University of Iowa
EDWIN R. KEEDY
University of Pennsylvania
A. H. KELLER
Yale University
W. E. KELLICOTT
Goucher College
GEO. DWIGHT KELLOGG
Union University
HOWARD A. KELLY
Johns Hopkins University
F. W. KELSEY
University of Michigan
EDWIN W. KEMMERER
Princeton University
Jos. F. KEMP
Columbia University
ARTHUR I. KENDALL
Northwestern University
W. S. KENDALL
Yale University
ARTHUR E. KENNELLY
Harvard University
C. W. KENT
University of Virginia
ROLAND G. KENT
University of Pennsylvania
ANDREW KEOGH
Yale University
ALEXANDER M. KIDD
University of California
W. H. KlEKHOFER
University of Wisconsin
J. S. KlNGSLEY
University of Illinois
DAVID KINLEY
University of Illinois
JOSEPH E. KIRKWOOD
University of Montana
CHARLES KNAPP
Columbia University
XXV1U
LIST OF SPONSORS
HENRY McE. KNOWER
University of Cincinnati
C. A. KOFOID
University of California
G. P. KROPP
Columbia University
G. T. LADD
Yale University
THEODORE DE LACUNA
Bryn Mawr College
GORDON J. LAING
University of Chicago
A. G. LAIRD
University of Wisconsin
HENRY C. LANCASTER
Amherst College
ALFRED C. LANE
Tufts College
O. W. LANE
Tufts College
COURTNEY LANGDON
Brown University
ERNEST F. LANGLEY
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
JAMES L. LARDNER
Northwestern University
W. W. LAWRENCE
Columbia University
ABBY LEACH
Vassar College
IRVILLE C. LECOMPTE
Yale University
GEO. LEFEVRE
University of Missouri
J. A. LEIGHTON
Ohio State University
W. G. LELAND
American Historical Association
J. E. LE ROSSIGNOL
University of Nebraska
A. O. LEUSCHNER
University of California
MORITZ LEVI
University of Michigan
CHARLTON M. LEWIS
Yale University
E. PERCIVAL LEWIS
University of California
G. N. LEWIS
University of California
I. F. LEWIS
University of Virginia
WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS
University of Pennsylvania
WINFORD L. LEWIS
Northwestern University
M. F. LlBBY
University of Colorado
J. P. LlCHTENBERGER
University of Pennsylvania
WILLIAM M. LILE
University of Virginia
SAMUEL M. LINDSAY
Columbia University
W. E. LlNGELBACH
University of Pennsylvania
A. A. LIVINGSTON
Columbia University
BURTON E. LIVINGSTON
Johns Hopkins University
A. H. LLOYD
University of Michigan
F. C. LOCKWOOD
University of Arizona
L. E. LOCKWOOD
Wellesley College
GONZALES LODGE
Columbia University
Louis A. LOISEAUX
Columbia University
JOHN H. LONG
Northwestern University
O. FLOYD LONG
Northwestern University
W. T. LONGCOPE
Columbia University
HORACE C. LONGWELL
Princeton University
Louis E. LORD
Oberlin College
J. E. LOUGH
New York University
LIST OF SPONSORS
XXIX
A. O. LOVEJOY
Johns Hopkins University
E. O. LOVETT
Rice Institute
A. LAWRENCE LOWELL
Harvard University
W. H. LOYD
University of Pennsylvania
W. E. LUNT
Cornell University
F. B. LUQUIENS
Yale University
JOSEPH LUSTRAT
University of Georgia
PETER C. LUTKIN
Northwestern University
FRANK E. Luxz
American Museum of Natural
History
A. H. LYBYER
University of Illinois
MATTHEW C. LYNCH
University of California
MARGARET LYNN
University of Kansas
H. L. McBAiN
Columbia University
W. D. MACCLINTOCK
University of Chicago
C. E. McCLUNG
University of Pennsylvania
DUNCAN B. MACDONALD
Hartford Theological Seminary
DANIEL T. MACDOUGAL
Desert Laboratory
R. M. MACDOUGALL
New York University
THOMAS McCRAE
Jefferson Medical School
NELSON G. McCREA
Columbia University
WALTON B. MCDANIEL
University of Pennsylvania
E. B. McGlLVARY
University of Wisconsin
H. McGuiGAN
Northwestern University
ANNA J. McKEAG
Wellesley College
HUGH M. MCKENNA
University of Illinois
WILLIAM MCPHERSON
Ohio State University
G. H. MCKNIGHT
Ohio State University
W. R. MACKENZIE
Washington University
O. H. MACLAY
Northwestern University
J. J. R. MACLEOD
Western Reserve University
GRACE H. MACURDY
Vassar College
JESSE MACY
Grinnell College
WILLIAM F. MAGIE
Princeton University
R. V. D. MAGOFFIN
Johns Hopkins University
GEORGE C. MANLY
University of Denver
J. M. MANLY
University of Chicago
W. R. MANNING
University of Texas
C. CARROLL MARDEN
Princeton University
ANTONIO MARIONONI
University of Arkansas
EDWARD L. MARK
Harvard University
LIONEL S. MARKS
Harvard University
CLARENCE S. MARSH
Northwestern University
PAUL L. MARTIN
Creighton University
E. WHITNEY MARTIN
Leland Stanford University
JAMES F. MASON
Cornell University
FRANK J. MATHER
Princeton University
XXX
LIST OF SPONSORS
A. P. MATHEWS
University of Chicago
SHAILER MATHEWS
University of Chicago
BRANDER MATTHEWS
Columbia University
ALFRED G. MAYER
Princeton University
GEO. H. MEAD
University of Chicago
W. E. MEAD
Wesleyan University
ALEXANDER MEIKLEJOHN
Amherst College
J. C. MERRIAM
University of California
ELMER T. MERRILL
University of Chicago
WM. A. MERRILL
University of California
R. B. MERRIMAN
Harvard University
M. M. METCALF
Oberlin College
ADOLF MEYER
Johns Hopkins University
TRUMAN MICHELSON
United States Bureau of American
Ethnology
WM. E. MIKELL
University of Pennsylvania
ROBERT W. MILLAR
Northwestern University
G. A. MILLER
University of Illinois
G. M. MILLER
Wabash College
R. A. MlLLIKAN
University of Chicago
EDWIN MIMS
Vanderbilt University
STEWART L. MIMS
Yale University
J. B. MINER
Carnegie Institute of Technology
RALEIGH C. MINOR
University of Virginia
S. A. MITCHELL
University of Virginia
JULIEN C. MONNET
University of Oklahoma
PAUL MONROE
Columbia University
WM. P. MONTAGUE
Columbia University
J. A. MONTGOMERY
University of Pennsylvania
A. W. MOORE
University of Chicago
CLIFFORD H. MOORE
Harvard University
CLARENCE K. MOORE
University of Rochester
E. S. MOORE
Pennsylvania State College
FRANK G. MOORE
Columbia University
GEORGE F. MOORE
Harvard University
GEORGE T. MOORE
Washington University
J. LEVERETT MOORE
Vassar College
J. P. MOORE
University of Pennsylvania
ADELBERT MOOT
University of Buffalo
L. T. MORE
University of Cincinnati
S. GRISWOLD MORLEY
University of California
GEORGE D. MORRIS
University of Indiana
W. A. MORRIS
University of California
BERNARD MOSES
University of California
CLELIA D. MOSHER
Leland Stanford University
LEWIS A. MOTT
College of the City of New York
ELTON J. MOULTON
Northwestern University
WILFRED P. MUSTARD
Johns Hopkins University
LIST OF SPONSORS
XXXI
ARTHUR B. MYRICK
University of Vermont
H. F. NACHTRIEB
University of Minnesota
H. V. NEAL
Tufts CoUege
W. A. NEILSON
Harvard University
AVEN NELSON
University of Wyoming
CLARA A. NELSON
Ohio Wesleyan University
G. H. NETTLETON
Yale University
WILLIAM R. NEWBOLD
University of Pennsylvania
FREDERICK C. NEWCOMBE
University of Michigan
H. H. NEWMAN
University of Chicago
A. O. NORTON
Wellesley College
WALLACE NOTESTEIN
University of Minnesota
FREDERICK G. NOVY
University of Michigan
A. A. NOYES
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
W. A. NOYES
University of Illinois
H. C. NUTTING
University of California
W. F. OGBURN
Reed CoUege
F. A. OGG
University of Wisconsin
IDA H. PGILVIE
Columbia University
M. B. OGLE
University of Vermont
THOMAS E. OLIVER
University of Illinois
EVERETT W. OLMSTEAD
University of Minnesota
RAYMOND C. OSBURN
Connecticut College for Women
WlNTHROP J. V. OSTERHOUT
Harvard University
H. A. OVERSTREET
College of the City of New York
ARTHUR L. OWEN
University of Kansas
FREDERICK M. PADELFORD
University of Washington
L. J. PAETOW
University of California
CURTIS H. PAGE
Dartmouth College
ELIZABETH H. PALMER
Vassar College
GEORGE H. PALMER
Harvard University
DEWITT PARKER
University of Michigan
GEO. H. PARKER
Harvard University
HORATIO PARKER
Yale University
AMOS W. PATTEN
Northwestern University
WM. PATTEN
Dartmouth College
JOHN T. PATTESON
University of Texas
F. L. PAXSON
University of Wisconsin
CHARLES PEABODY
Harvard University
RAYMOND PEARL
Maine Agricultural Experiment
Station
GEO. B. PEGRAM
Columbia University
ADELINE PELLISSIER
Smith College
J. H. PENNIMAN
University of Pennsylvania
B. PERRIN
Yale University
BLISS PERRY
Harvard University
A. PETRUNKEVITCH
Yale University
XXX11
LIST OF SPONSORS
RUTH S. PHELPS
University of Minnesota
WILLIAM L. PHELPS
Yale University
F. S. PHILBRICK
University of California
JOHN PICKARD
University of Missouri
FRANK H. PIKE
Columbia University
W. B. PlLLSBURY
University of Michigan
LOUIS V. PlRSSON
Yale University
W. B. PlTKIN
Columbia University
SAMUEL B. PLATNER
Adelbert College
WILLIAM V. POOLEY
Northwestern University
W. T. PORTER
Harvard University
EDWIN POST
De Pauw University
ALBERT K. POTTER
Brown University
MARY Ross POTTER
Northwestern University
LOUISE POUND
University of Nebraska
J. B. PRATT
Williams College
W. K. PRENTICE
Princeton University
HENRY S. PRITCHETT
Carnegie Foundation for Teachers
LAWRENCE PUMPELLY
Cornell University
W. A. PUSEY
University of Illinois
ROBT. S. RADFORD
University of Tennessee
A. P. RAGGIO
University of Maine
S. W. RANSOM
Northwestern University
FREDERICK L. RANSOME
United States Geological Survey
PERLEY O. RAY
Northwestern University
JOHN D. RE A
Earlham College
CONYERS READ
University of Chicago
BYRON J. REES
Williams College
FRANK O. REED
University of Wisconsin
W. P. REEVES
Kenyon College
H. F. REID
Johns Hopkins University
J. E. REIGHARD
University of Michigan
IRA REMSEN
Johns Hopkins University
E. R. RENSCH
Mount Holyoke College
EDWARD L. RICE
Ohio Wesleyan University
JOHN P. RICE
Williams College
RICHARD A. RICE
Smith College
WM. N. RICE
Wesleyan University
A. N. RICHARDS
University of Pennsylvania
H. S. RICHARDS
University of Wisconsin
HERBERT M. RICHARDS
Columbia University
JOSEPH W. RICHARDS
Lehigh University
THEODORE W. RICHARDS
Harvard University
LEON J. RICHARDSON
University of California
MARY L. RICHARDSON
Smith College
W. Z. RlPLEY
Harvard University
LIST OF SPONSORS
xxxm
D. M. ROBINSON
Johns Hopkins University
EDWARD ROBINSON
New York Metropolitan Museum
FRED N. ROBINSON
Harvard University
J. H. ROBINSON
Columbia University
A. K. ROGERS
Yale University
JOHN C. ROLFE
University of Pennsylvania
JAMES HARDY ROPES
Harvard University
W. T. ROOT
University of Wisconsin
M. A. ROSANOFF
University of Pittsburgh
ELEANOR ROWLAND
Reed College
C. RUBNER
Columbia University
GEO. H. SABINE
University of Missouri
JOSEPH SCHAFER
University of Oregon
LUCY M. SALMON
Vassar College
ALFONSO DE SALVIO
Northwestern University
E. B. DE SAUZE
Temple University
R. L. SANDERSON
Yale University
J. S. SCHAPIRO
College of the City of New York
FELIX E. SCHELLING
University of Pennsylvania
ALBERT SCHINZ
Smith College
E. C. SCHMIDT
University of Illinois
WILLIAM H. SCHOFIELD
Harvard University
J. G. SCHURMAN
Cornell University
F. N. SCOTT
University of Michigan
MARY AUGUSTA SCOTT
Smith College
W. A. SCOTT
University of Wisconsin
WM. B. SCOTT
Princeton University
VlDA D. SCUDDER
Wellesley College
JACOB B. SEGALL
University of Maine
COLBERT SEARLES
University of Minnesota
HELEN M. SEARLES
Mt. Holyoke College
C. E. SEASHORE
State University of Iowa
HORACE SECRIST
Northwestern University
E. R. A. SELIGNAN
Columbia University
G. C. SELLERY
University of Wisconsin
WILLIAM A. SETCHELL
University of California
LEWIS P. SHANKS
University of Pennsylvania
EDGAR F. SHANNON
Washington and Lee University
FRANK C. SHARP
University of Wisconsin
J. B. SHAW
University of Illinois
EDWARD S. SHELDON
Harvard University
W. H. SHELDON
Dartmouth College
WILLIAM P. SHEPARD
Hamilton College
F. W. SHEPARDSON
University of Chicago
Lucius A. SHERMAN
University of Nebraska
STUART P. SHERMAN
University of Illinois
XXXIV
LIST OF SPONSORS
MARGARET SHERWOOD
WeUesley College
H. W. SHIMER
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
F. W. SHIPLEY
Washington University
PAUL SHOREY
University of Chicago
GRANT SHOWERMAN
University of Wisconsin
W. H. SlEBERT
Ohio State University
E. G. SlHLER
New York University
V. G. SlMKHOVTTCH
Columbia University
WILLIAM E. SIMONDS
Knox College
S. SIMPSON
Cornell University
F. SLATE
University of California
MOSES S. SLAUGHTER
University of Wisconsin
C. S. SLIGHTER
University of Wisconsin
WILLIAM M. SLOANE
Princeton University
A. W. SLOCUM
University of Vermont
ALBION W. SMALL
University of Chicago
CHARLES N. SMILEY
Iowa College
ALEXANDER SMITH
Columbia University
BERTRAM G. SMITH
Michigan Normal College
CHARLES FORSTER SMITH
University of Wisconsin
C. ALPHONSO SMITH
United States Naval Academy
EDGAR F. SMITH
University of Pennslyvania
ERWIN F. SMITH
Department of Agriculture
GEORGE O. SMITH
United States Geological Survey
H. L. SMITH
University of Wisconsin
HAROLD B. SMITH
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
HARRY DE F. SMITH
Amherst College
HUGH A. SMITH
University of Wisconsin
R. WILSON SMITH
McMaster University
STANLEY A. SMITH
Leland Stanford University
WARREN Du PRE SMITH
University of Oregon
WILLIAM R. SMITH
Bryn Mawr College
HENRY L. SMYTH
Harvard University
HERBERT W. SMYTH
Harvard University
GUY E. SNAVELY
Allegheny College
ADA L. T. SNELL
Mt. Holyoke College
FRANKLYN B. SNYDER
Northwestern University
VIRGIL SNYDER
Cornell University
EDWARD H. SPIEKER
Johns Hopkins University
WILLIAM G. SPILLER
University of Pennsylvania
H. J. SPINDEN
American Museum of Natural
History
C. M. SPOFFORD
Harvard University
JOEL STEBBINS
University of Illinois
OLIVER M. W. SPRAGUE
Harvard University
MADISON STATHERS
University of West Virginia
D. A. K. STEELE
University of Illinois
LIST OF SPONSORS
XXXV
FREDERIC C. VANSTEENDEREN
Lake Forest College
FRANK L. STEVENS
University of Illinois
G. N. STEWART
Western Reserve University
C. R. STOCKARD
Cornell University
ANSON P. STOKES
Yale University
ELMER E. STOLL
University of Minnesota
HARLAN F. STONE
Columbia University
ELLERY C. STOWELL
Columbia University
RICHARD P. STRONG
Harvard University
CHARLES MACAULAY STUART
Northwestern University
DUANE R. STUART
Princeton University
H. W. STUART
Leland Stanford University
EDSON R. SUNDERLAND
University of Chicago
A. H. SUTHERLAND
Yale University
GEORGE F. SWAIN
Harvard University
THOS. W. SWAN
Yale University
J. R. SWANTON
Smithsonian Institution
GLEN L. SWIGGETT
University of Tennessee
W. O. SYPHERD
Delaware College
HENRY TABER
Clark University
WILLIAM H. TAPT
Yale University
ELLEN B. TALBOT
Mt. Holyoke College
MARION TALBOT
University of Chicago
MIGNON TALBOT
Mt. Holyoke College
J. H. TANNER
Cornell University
F. B. TARBELL
University of Chicago
J. S. P. TATLOCK
Leland Stanford University
EDWARD W. TAYLOR
Harvard University
ROBERT L. TAYLOR
Williams College
OLIN TEMPLIN
University of Kansas
A. A. TENNEY
Columbia University
BENJAMIN S. TERRY
University of Chicago
H. P. THIEME
University of Michigan
FRANK THILLY
Cornell University
CALVIN THOMAS
Columbia University
JOSEPH M. THOMAS
University of Minnesota
C. B. THOMPSON
Wellesley College
ASHLEY H. THORNDIKE
Columbia University
E. L. THORNDIKE
Columbia University
CHARLES F. THWING
Western Reserve University
ED. S. THURSTON
University of Minnesota
E. B. TlTCHENER
Cornell University
H. A. TODD
Columbia University
ALBERT H. TOLMAN
University of Chicago
PAYSON J. TREAT
Leland Stanford University
WILLIAM TRELEASE
University of Illinois
XXX VI
LIST OF SPONSORS
N. M. TRENHOLME
University of Missouri
WILLIAM TRICKETT
Dickinson School of Law
RODNEY H. TRUE
United States Department of
Agriculture
HARRY R. TRUSLER
University of Florida
E. R. TURNER
University of Michigan
F. J. TURNER
Harvard University
CHARLES A. TURRELL
University of Arizona
H. W. TYLER
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
CHARLES M. UNDERWOOD, JR.
Simmons College
A. H. UPHAM
Miami University
WARREN UPHAM
Minnesota Historical Society
ROLAND G. USHER
Washington University
W. R. VANCE
University of Minnesota
PAUL VAN DYKE
Princeton University
J. N. VAN DER VRIES
University of Kansas
LA RUE VAN HOOK
Columbia University
C. H. VAN TYNE
University of Michigan
E. B. VAN VLECK
University of Wisconsin
VICTOR C. VAUGHAN
University of Michigan
OSWALD VEBLEN
Princeton University
FRANCIS P. VENABLE
University of North Carolina
J. M. VINCENT
Johns Hopkins University
W. V. VREELAND
Princeton University
M. EDWARD WADSWORTH
University of Pittsburgh
G. D. WALCOTT
Hamline University
A. T. WALKER
University of Kansas
W. WALKER
Yale University
ALICE WALTON
Wellesley College
H. B. WARD
University of Illinois
ROBERT DEC. WARD
Harvard University
JOHN N. WARE
University of the South
CHARLES H. WARREN
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
E. H. WARREN
Harvard University
F. M. WARREN
Yale University
H. LANGFORD WARREN
Harvard University
HERBERT L. WARREN
Harvard University
JACOB WARSHAW
University of Missouri
ISABELLE WATSON
Carleton College
J. B. WATSON
Johns Hopkins University
T. L. WATSON
University of Virginia
U. G. WEATHERLY
University of Indiana
HERBERT J. WEBBER
University of California
A. G. WEBSTER
Clark University
D. HUTTON WEBSTER
University of Nebraska
J. C. WEBSTER
University of Chicago
WILLIAM H. WELCH
Johns Hopkins University
LIST OF SPONSORS
xxxvu
CHARLES H. WELLER
University of Iowa
J. E. WELLS
Beloit College
LESLIE C. WELLS
Clark College
BARRETT WENDELL
Harvard University
ANDREW F. WEST
Princeton University
J. H. WESTCOTT
Princeton University
MONROE N. WETMORE
Williams College
BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER
University of California
ARTHUR L. WHEELER
Bryn Ma\vr College
WM. M. WHEELER
Harvard University
G. M. WHICHER
Hunter College
G. H. WHIFFLE
University of California
GEORGE C. WHIFFLE
Harvard University
W. A. WHITAKER
University of Kansas
ALBERT B. WHITE
University of Minnesota
F. I. WHITE
Boston University
FLORENCE D. WHITE
Vassar College
HENRY S. WHITE
Vassar College
JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE
Harvard University
S. F. WHITING
Wellesley College
MARIAN P. WHITNEY
Vassar College
H. L. WlEMAN
University of Cincinnati
LEO WIENER
Harvard University
R. L. WILBUR
Leland Stanford University
A. M. WlLCOX
University of Kansas
ELMER A. WILCOX
University of Iowa
E. J. WlLCZYNSKI
University of Chicago
N. WILDE
University of Minnesota
H. H. WILDER
Smith College
INEZ W. WILDER
Smith College
M. S. WlLDMAN
Leland Stanford University
H. L. WlLGUS
University of Michigan
E. H. WlLKINS
University of Chicago
C. S. WILLIAMSON
University of Illinois
W. F. WlLLCOX
Cornell University
FREDERICK W. WILLIAMS
Yale University
TALCOTT WILLIAMS
Columbia University
MABEL C. WILLIAMS
University of Iowa
BAILEY WILLIS
Leland Stanford University
SAMUEL WILLISTON
Harvard University
C. C. WlLLOUGHBY
Harvard University
GEO. GRAFTON WILSON
Harvard University
HENRY H. WILSON
University of Nebraska
J. G. WILSON
Northwestern University
C. T. WINCHESTER
Wesleyan University
CLARK WISSLER
American Museum of Natural
History
xxx vm
LIST OF SPONSORS
LlGHTNER WlTMER
University of Pennsylvania
A. B. WOLFE
University of Texas
J. E. WOLFF
Harvard University
B. M. WOODBRIDGE
University of Texas
JAMES A. WOODBURN
University of Indiana
E. H. WOODRUFF
Cornell University
L. L. WOODRUFF
Yale University
JAMES H. WOODS
Harvard University
FREDERIC C. WOODWARD
University of Chicago
J. B. WOODWORTH
Harvard University
T. S. WOOLSEY
Yale University
HOWARD WOOLSTON
College of the City of New York
C. H. C. WRIGHT
Harvard University
A. S. WRIGHT
Case School of Applied Scieace
H. W. WRIGHT
Lake Forest University
L. J. WYLIE
Vassar College
R. M. YERKES
Harvard University
ABRAM VAN EPPS YOUNG
Northwestern University
ALLYN A. YOUNG
Cornell University
ANNE S. YOUNG
Mt. Holyoke College
BERT E. YOUNG
Vanderbilt University
CHARLES E. YOUNG
Beloit College
CLARENCE H. YOUNG
Columbia University
J. W. YOUNG
Dartmouth College
J. W. A. YOUNG
University of Chicago
KARL YOUNG
University of Wisconsin
MARY V. YOUNG
Mt. Holyoke CoUege
ROBERT T. YOUNG
University of North Dakota
C. S. ZDANOWICZ
University of Wisconsin
C. F. ZECK, JR.
Southern Methodist University
CHAS. ZELENY
University of Illinois
HANS ZINSSER
New York College of Physicians
and Surgeons
INTRODUCTION
THE MIND OF FRANCE
THE INTELLECTUAL INSPIRATION
OF PARIS
PARIS — Le « Penseur » de Rodin
THE THINKER
(Rodin's Statue at the Entrance to the Pantheon)
THE MIND OF FRANCE'
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, France
produced a large number of great masters in all fields of
thought — in literature, science, and the arts. She thus
kept abreast of all intellectual progress in Europe, and
often led the way.
These great men were usually skilful teachers as well
as creators and discoverers; so that they had worthy
disciples — groups of younger scholars who spread abroad
the masters' ideas, and prolonged their influence by adding
the needed interpretations and modifications. In many
fields, the works of these French leaders set standards not
only for France, but for the world.
Their intellectual work possessed, as a rule, certain
qualities which characterize the French mind, such as
broad sympathy, constructive imagination, and a ten-
dency to prefer the concrete or realistic to the abstract,
and fact to speculation. These intellectual characteristics
of the French have proved to be extraordinarily perma-
nent, abiding generation after generation, and surviving
immense political and social changes. The French scholar
is apt to be an open-minded man, receptive toward new
ideas, and an ardent lover of truth fluent and progres-
sive. The French scientists have rarely been extreme
specialists, narrow in their interests and their chosen
objects. They have recognized that no science can be pur-
sued successfully in isolation ; its affiliations and adjuncts
must also be studied. They have not been subdued
l[By CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT, emeritus President of Harvard
University. — ED . ]
2 INTRODUCTION
by the elaborate sorting and compiling machinery of
modern scholarship.
The French people under all their forms of govern-
ment — monarchical, imperial, or republican — have al-
ways shown cordial appreciation of intellectual achieve-
ments, and particularly of scientific investigation in
philology, history, physical science, biology, sociology,
and law. They place high among their national heroes
their great scholars, writers, artists, and scientists. This
popular appreciation has given vitality and enduring
national influence to French scholarship in a great va-
riety of fields.
All French masters in science and literature have had
the advantage, in expounding and communicating the
fruits of their labors, of expressing themselves in the
French language, which lends itself to elegance and
clearness, and to nice discrimination and perfect accuracy
in statement. It is well-nigh impossible for teacher or
expounder to be clumsy, obscure, or disorderly in the
French language. Indeed, many of the most profound
French philosophers and investigators have also exhibited
a high degree of literary skill. A French style may be
exaggerated, redundant, or diffuse, but it never fails to
be clear. The French language, therefore, has been of
great advantage to the French masters of thought, and
through them to all the students who follow them —
native or foreign.
To an unexampled degree the spirit of liberty has
animated all the French leaders and schools of thought
for two centuries. For them intellectual inquiry has been
free. This is true not only in the field of social and political
ideas and the philosophy of government, but also in the
institutions intended to promote the development of
science, literature, and art. The French Academies of
Science and Letters all illustrate it, and so do the noble
INTRODUCTION 3
professional traditions in French Courts of Justice and
the French Bar, both the Courts and the Bar having set
high examples of courage, independence, and bold insis-
tence on judicial and professional privileges. Science,
letters, and art in France have always shared, and often
enkindled, the people's love of freedom and their pas-
sionate advocacy of democracy.
American students, thinking to take advanced studies
in Europe, have often in times past supposed the French
to be an inconstant, pleasure-loving, materialistic people.
They have now learned through the Great War that the
French are an heroic people, constant to great political
and social ideals, a people intelligent, fervid, dutiful, and
devoted to family, home, and country. They have also
come to see that the peculiar national spirit of France is
one of the great bulwarks and resources of civilization,
which ought to be not only preserved, but reinforced.
Cambridge, 4 May, 1917.
THE INTELLECTUAL
INSPIRATION OF PARIS'
That delightful American humanist, George Ticknor,
whose Spanish library is one of the literary treasures of
Boston, has given us in his Life and Letters an admirable
picture of the University of Gottingen a century ago.
The University of Berlin had just been founded, and the
characteristics that were to mark this essentially modern
German city were as yet unknown. Goethe still reigned
at Weimar, and the academic calm of the university
towns was a fit environment for the study and investi-
gation that made them famous. Still wrapped in an
atmosphere of classicism, they were about to feel the
quickening spirit of the physical sciences, and to embark
upon that rapid advance which has brought wealth
and prosperity to modern Germany. Yet Humboldt, the
cosmopolite, who epitomized the nascent science of his
native land, still lingered among the brilliant leaders of
the Paris Academy, although yielding at length, with the
deepest reluctance, to the royal command to share the
king's table at Potsdam.
Ever since that day of high ideals, when Goethe and
Schiller talked in the quiet gardens of Jena or crossed
the Alps to joint the literary colony of Rome, the uni-
versities of Germany have drawn to their hospitable
halls the students of the United States. To these
J[By GEORGE ELLERY HALE, Foreign Secretary of the National
Academy of Sciences, Correspondent of the Institute of France. — ED.]
5
6 INTRODUCTION
institutions we owe much of the regard for scholarship
and much of the spirit of research that now characterize
our own universities. Wolcott Gibbs at Harvard, in
1863, and Gilman at Johns Hopkins, in 1876, definitely
fixed in our advanced courses the laboratory methods
they had learned in Germany. Since their time, in a
rapidly widening circle of universities, research leading
to the doctor's degree has become universal, greatly to
the advantage of American science. No faculty member,
if perchance half-hearted in his desire for new knowledge,
can afford to ignore completely the growing custom of
original research. To be most successful as a teacher
he must be counted among those who realize that in-
spiration springs from advancing knowledge — not from
the sealed books of the Aristotelian, whose pedantic
vision, which paralyzed progress in the past, would be
no less deadly at the present day if the spirit of research
were destroyed.
The influence of the German university on American
education has thus been of incalculable value. It has
taught the student to look beyond the bachelor's degree
to the possibility of advancing knowledge by his own
efforts, and to realize the high privilege of never-ceasing
research. It has also taught him the advantage of foreign
travel and experience, needed so imperiously in the midst
of our slowly decreasing insularity. But, in working so
much of good, it has almost inevitably involved an ele-
ment of harm, by centering our educational ideals too ex-
clusively in a single country. The time has surely come
to look farther afield. And in widening our vision, the
great debt we already owe to the Ecole des Beaux Arts is
an ample assurance of the rich benefits we may reason-
ably hope to derive from the other schools of France.
When Ticknor sailed from Boston in 1815, the Paris
Academy of Sciences was near the zenith of its fame.
INTRODUCTION 7
Never in the history of Europe had so brilliant a company
of scientific men concentrated in one spot the superb
productions of their genius.1 Alexander von Humboldt,
contrasting Paris and Berlin at a later period, charac-
terized the latter as "an intellectual desert, an insig-
nificant city devoid of literary culture." Goethe, too,
longed for the intellectual joys of Paris. Writing to
Eckermann in 1827, he said:
"Truth to say, we all lead a miserably isolated existence.
We meet with but little sympathy from the common herd
around us, and our men of genius are scattered over Germany.
One is at Vienna, another at Berlin, a third at Konigsberg, a
fourth at Bonn or Diisseldorf - - all separated by some hun-
dreds of miles, so that personal intercourse and a viva wee
interchange of thought is a matter of rare occurrence. I am
vividly impressed with the keen enjoyment this would yield
when I am in the company of men like Alexander von Hum-
boldt, who in one day carry me farther toward all I am seeking
and yearning to know than I could attain during years of
solitary study.
"Only imagine, however, a city like Paris, where the clever-
est heads of a great kingdom are grouped together in one spot,
and in daily intercourse incite and stimulate each other by
mutual emulation; where all that is of most value in the king-
doms of nature and art, from every part of the world, is daily
open to inspection; and all this in a city where every bridge
and square is associated with some great event of the past,
and where every street-corner has a page of history to unfold.
And withal not the Paris of a dull and stupid age, but the
Paris of the nineteenth century, where for three generations
such men as Moliere, Voltaire, and Diderot have brought into
play a mass of intellectual power such as can never be met
with a second time on any single spot in the whole world."
It would be easy to fill this book with distinguished
eulogies of French culture, of the clearness and pre-
xSee the present writer's "National Academies and the Progress of
Research," Science, November 14, 1913.
8 INTRODUCTION
cision of French thought and expression, of the optimism
and charm of French life, — qualities that still remain
the dominant characteristics of the civilization of France.
The intellectual growth that reached its finest flower
in the days of the First Empire was deeply rooted in a
scholarly past. Under the sheltering walls of Notre
Dame a colony of students rose into view in the twelfth
century, and soon outgrew the confines of the Island
of the City. Within a few decades the University of
Paris had assumed definite form in its present locality,
and its fame drew students from all quarters of the
civilized world. The provinces were not without their
schools of higher education, some of which attained
great distinction. But the concentration that has both
helped and hindered France focused in Paris the intel-
lectual life of the nation. Favored by the Court, sharing
the prestige which made and maintains the French
language as the medium of diplomacy, and fostered by
the world's approval, the higher spirit of France grew
apace. Never in the world's history, excepting the single
case of Alexandria, has one city sheltered so much of a
nation's intellectual greatness. Woven for centuries into
the fabric of the national life, it still finds expression in that
high civilization which is so universally admired. And its
appreciation by the State, generally withheld in other
lands, is visibly demonstrated to every visitor to Paris.
If you would feel the inspiration of a great nation's
centuries of thought and brilliant expression, go to the
Luxembourg Gardens on a bright summer's afternoon.
From this center you may set out to observe, as in no
other region of the world, the widely recorded evidences
of intellectual progress.
We are in the midst of the greatest of all wars, and
the roar of the heavy guns at Verdun and on the Somme
is almost audible. The nation has been stripped of
INTRODUCTION 9
able-bodied men to defend its frontier, and the crowd
that still returns to these pleasant gardens, to rest
among beds of flowers and pools of water, is made sombre
by the ever-present marks of mourning. Yet the chil-
dren, who must carry on the great traditions of France
after the war has ended, mercifully spared the depression
which their elders so bravely conceal, sail their boats
across the pond as in happier days. A string orchestra,
with many women now among its musicians, draws a
group about it beneath the trees. In spite of the war
the old life of Paris still goes on.
Encircling the pool, and stretching away on all sides,
the busts and statues of eminent men look out of the
past. Even the light reflected from the windows of the
palace tells of great discoveries. For on a winter's day
in 1808, while looking at one of these windows through
a piece of Iceland spar, Malus detected for the first time
that remarkable property of light --its polarization by
reflection — which aided greatly in the establishment of
the wave theory by Fresnel.
To our left rises the great dome of the Pantheon,
inscribed " Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante,"
enshrining the tombs of Hugo, Lagrange, and Bougain-
ville, and testifying, in the mural decorations of Puvis
de Chavannes and in Rodin's "Le Penseur," to the
perennial flow of French genius. Here, in 1851, Foucault
suspended from the lantern of the dome an immense
pendulum which, swinging in an unchanging plane as
the floor turned beneath it, made visible the rotation
of the earth. Close at hand stands the Bibliotheque de
Sainte-Genevieve, with its rich collection of manuscripts
and early printed books; flanked by the Ecole de Droit,
fronting on the broad Rue SoufHot. Book shops are
everywhere, devoted to law or to medicine, to history,
art or science, to theology or belles-lettres. On all sides
io INTRODUCTION
the achievements of French civilization are honored or
offered for public service.
Beyond the pond, the garden extends toward the south
in the long rectangle of the Avenue de 1'Observatoire.
Crossing the Rue Auguste Comte, we leave the children's
area behind, and watch the vista down the long rows of
clipped horse-chestnuts. In May they are superb in
their white wealth of blossoms, and now in early Sep-
tember, though their leaves are rusting, the effect of
skilful massing is still retained. Beyond the Rue Herschell
and the Rue Cassini rises the great stone structure of the
Observatory, the domes at its two extremities coaxial
with the alleys of trees. Built under Louis XIV by
Claude Perrault, physician and architect, its lofty
facade speaks eloquently of the enlightened appreciation
of pure science which France has always shown. Here,
during its early years, was housed the Academy of
Sciences, and Leclerc has recorded for us in one of his
engravings a visit of Louis XIV to the members assembled
in the Observatory.
Four generations of the house of Cassini succeeded to
the directorate of the Observatory, first held in 1671 by
Giovanni Domenico Cassini, discoverer of the four
Saturnian satellites and of the well-known division in
Saturn's ring. Among their successors were Arago, the
brilliant Perpetual Secretary of the Paris Academy of
Sciences, and Le Verrier, Senator of France, whose immor-
tal researches on the irregular motions of Uranus led
in 1846 to the discovery of Neptune. The statue of
Le Verrier before the Observatory, and that of Arago in
the Boulevard Arago, were erected by national sub-
scription.
The same fine sense of fitness which has given the
streets about the Observatory the names of great astron-
omers is repeatedly illustrated in adjoining regions of
INTRODUCTION n
Paris. The broad area of the Jardin des Plantes, extend-
ing to the Seine, is bounded by the Rue Cuvier, the
Rue de Buffon (named for the first director of the
Garden), and the Rue Geoffroy St.-Hilaire. The vast
menagerie, gardens, and exhibits, including the herbaria
of Lamarck and Alexander von Humboldt and Cuvier's
celebrated collection of comparative anatomy, together
with the statues of many eminent men of science,
are not the only attractions of this home of the natu-
ralist. Here in a small laboratory, where their original
instruments may still be seen, four generations of the
family of Becquerel have carried on their classic inves-
tigations. Most significant of these is the discovery
by Henri Becquerel, in 1896, of the invisible radia-
tions of uranium, the starting point of research in radio-
activity.
Were we to attempt to mention here even a tithe of the
laboratories, the schools, the great names, or the funda-
mental contributions to knowledge, which press for
recognition in all points of the Latin Quarter, these intro-
ductory pages would be multiplied beyond the reader's
patience. But as we pass from the Jardin des Plantes
through the Rue de Jussieu or the Rue Linne toward
the core of France's scholastic heart, our gaze is often
diverted. Across the Place Monge rises the Ecole Poly-
technique, flanked by the Rue Descartes and the Rue
Laplace. Farther on we reach the College de France and
the great pile of the Sorbonne. The statue of Claude
Bernard before the College must appeal to every scholar;
for his "Introduction a 1'etude de la medecine experimen-
tale," unfortunately veiled from workers in other fields
by its medical title, is one of the classics of science.
Here, in the crystalline clearness of perfect French,
devoid, in large part, of professional details, the general
principles of scientific research are superbly presented.
12 INTRODUCTION
No investigator unfamiliar with this great work should
leave it long unread.
If we elect to enter the Place de la Sorbonne through
the Rue Champollion, a fascinating chapter in the
history of science will rise before us. For the erudition
of Germany in the field of Egyptology all goes back to
the achievements of Champollion, first to decipher the
royal cartouches on an obelisk and to read the trilingual
inscription of the Rosetta Stone. Napoleon (who in-
variably signed himself while in Egypt "Membre de
ITnstitut, General en Chef") had paved the way for
Champollion by taking to Cairo a brilliant company of
men of science, who recorded in the great "Description
de 1'figypte" the inscriptions of the Nile, while a French
officer had found the Stone itself at the Rosetta mouth.
Since these distinguished beginnings, the stirring tradi-
tions of French archaeology have been ably maintained
by Mariette, Maspero, and their colleagues, both in
Egypt and in France.
The Church of the Sorbonne affords a fitting entrance
to the Sorbonne itself. The marble figure of Richelieu,
beneath his cardinal's hat suspended from the ceiling,
marks the tomb of the founder of the Academic Fran-
gaise and the builder of the Sorbonne. His private
library, with many other valuable collections of early
books and manuscripts, is still preserved; while the
stimulus he gave to letters by his creation of the French
Academy was soon emphasized in other fields by
Colbert, under whom the Academic des Sciences, the
Academic des Beaux Arts, and the French Academy at
Rome were established. Colbert even conceived the
plan of the Institute of France, but the Institute itself
did not come into existence until after the Revolution.
The great amphitheater of the Sorbonne, with its
superb mural paintings and its statues of Robert de
INTRODUCTION 13
Sorbon (founder of the original hostel for poor students) ,
Richelieu, Descartes, Pascal, Rollin, and Lavoisier, is
the chief place for university functions. These six figures
epitomize the many-sided achievements of French intel-
lectual progress. Even Pascal alone embodies an excep-
tional range of activity; we find him again represented at
the base of the Tour St. Jacques, which he is said to
have ascended to repeat his experiments proving the
decrease in the pressure of the atmosphere with increasing
elevation. Each of these tempting names, which might
furnish a text for long discourse, must be passed by in
favor of one more recent, which for the student repre-
sents most truly the spirit of modern France.
Memories of Louis Pasteur are best recalled in the
regions associated with his life and work. The broad
Avenue de Breteuil, coaxial with the Hotel des In-
valides, extends from the Tomb of Napoleon to the
Boulevard Pasteur. At the center of the Place Breteuil
stands the monument erected by France in Pasteur's
honor. When it is remembered that by popular vote
Pasteur was declared the greatest of Frenchmen, the
national significance of this monument will be appre-
ciated.
Pasteur's later work was done in the Institut Pasteur,
which stands in the Rue Dutot, not far from the Boule-
vard Pasteur. Here also is his tomb. But the reader of
his biography by Vallery-Radot — a book to which
every young investigator, in whatever field of science,
should go for inspiration and guidance — will remember
with keenest pleasure those simple beginnings when
Pasteur, an obscure student from the little village of
Dole, embarked upon his career of discovery. He
was studying the crystals of racemic acid, intent only
on the advancement of knowledge, and with no thought
of practical ends, when he noticed a curious dissymmetry,
i4 INTRODUCTION
which had escaped even such skilled investigators as
Mitscherlich and La Provostaye. Two crystals of pre-
cisely the same chemical composition were seen to be
identical also in form, except in one respect: although
the interfacial angles were the same, the two could not
be superposed - - the small facets were inclined in some
cases to the right, and in others to the left. Carefully
separated into two heaps and then dissolved, the two
types of crystals in solution, though chemically iden-
tical, produced opposite effects on a beam of polarized
light — one rotating it to the right, the other to the left.
Mixed in equal parts, they caused no rotation.
This discovery, to the lay mind so valueless, excited
Pasteur beyond measure. He rushed from the laboratory,
and in the long alleys of the Luxembourg Gardens
unfolded his vision of its consequences to his friend
Chappuis. The constitution of racemic acid, formerly
so mysterious, had been found; a new class of isomeric
substances had been discovered; the phenomenon of
rotatory polarization and the properties of crystals had
been illuminated: in short, a new and unforeseen route
had been opened in science. Biot, when Pasteur repeated
the experiment for him, exclaimed: "Mon cher enfant,
j'ai tant aime les sciences dans ma vie que cela me fait
battre le cceur!"
Beautiful as this discovery appeared to the veteran
Biot, it was still more marvelous in its possibilities to
Pasteur himself. For his powerful imagination carried
him far beyond its immediate applications in chemistry
and physics toward the still greater consequences that
he already half divined. Eager to pursue the new path,
he followed up his work. How is racemic acid produced?
With the aid of Mitscherlich, Pasteur set out in hot
haste for the chemical factories of Germany, Austria, and
Bohemia. Everywhere he found traces of the acid
INTRODUCTION 15
in tartrates. Returning to Paris, he succeeded in pro-
ducing racemic acid experimentally, and incidentally
won the Chevalier's ribbon of the Legion of Honor.
Twenty years later, as a direct consequence of these
experiments on crystalline dissymmetry, arose the new
science of stereochemistry, which tells us of the arrange-
ment in space of the atoms constituting a molecule.
But far more important, Pasteur's studies of racemic
acid showed him that while one class of crystals would
ferment, the others remained inert in the liquid. Why
should this be? Because, he replied, "Les ferments de
cette fermentation se nourrissent plus facilement des
molecules droites que des molecules gaudies." But
what, then, is fermentation, that strange process regarded
by Liebig and others as a purely chemical phenomenon?
The answer was immediately given by Pasteur, who
showed it to be due to the presence of hosts of bacteria,
which eagerly devoured one class of crystals and ignored
the others.
Here was the beginning of that great study of putre-
factive changes, and of the part played by bacteria in
disease, which made the world Pasteur's debtor.
Modern surgery, the cure of rabies, the germ theory of
infection, — all go back to those simple experiments
in pure science that laid the foundation of his career.
What a privilege for the student to follow in his foot-
steps, to feel the stimulus of his example, to realize in
some measure that high sense of devotion to truth,
of obligation to humanity, best typified in Louis Pasteur !
But the fascination of Pasteur has tempted us far
afield. Here in the Luxembourg Gardens, to which
his talks with Chappuis have brought us back, we may
well pause to reflect on the demands that the American
student may fairly make on the country he elects for
16 INTRODUCTION
university work. Paris, as Goethe and Humboldt
declared, and as those who are acquainted with French
scholars today will heartily reiterate, is full of intel-
lectual opportunity and charm. The admirable courses
of instruction offered in every department of knowledge
are fully set forth in the . present volume. If in
some fields there is room for improvement of the facili-
ties now available for research, we have the strongest
assurances that these will be rapidly augmented. Thus,
from the intellectual standpoint, the scholastic attrac-
tions of Paris should leave nothing to be desired.
But may not the student ask for more? May he not
hope to find, in the country he visits for graduate study,
the inspiring qualities of an advanced civilization, the
high ideals of a nation devoted to progress in the finest
sense? Let us test France from this viewpoint.
Glance at the past, and realize how deep-rooted is
her culture. The courtliness and taste of the old
regime, its refinements in art, the elegance of its litera-
ture, the lasting contributions to civilization made by
its greater statesmen, still find expression in the life
and institutions of Paris. And this rich heritage stands
free from the defects of an earlier social structure and the
aggressive ambitions of imperial days. France, fortu-
nate among nations, has conserved the good and rejected
the evil experienced in her national progress. The
dark passions of the Revolution have utterly disappeared,
giving place to the spirit of liberty, equality, fraternity,
truly expressed in the national life, and uniting France
and the United States by unbreakable bonds.
But the present, not the past, must determine the
student's choice. Here he will not hesitate, for France
stands, as all the world knows, at the highest level of
her moral attainment. The baseless charge of deca-
dence, the ignorant depreciation based on an imperfect
INTRODUCTION 17
knowledge of the French people and an inability to per-
ceive their deeper qualities — all this, occasionally heard
in the past, has been forever silenced by the War, re-
vealing a devotion to the State, a quiet but unyielding
persistence in the defense of national ideals, which no
opponent can overcome. The inspiring vision of war-
swept France, indomitable in the face of sudden invasion,
will draw to her universities in the coming days of peace
many a student who would taste for himself the quali-
ties he has admired and envied from the comfortable
security of the United States.
PARIS, September, 1916.
ANTHROPOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY'
The history of Anthropology, with its four subdivi-
sions of Physical Anthropology, Prehistoric Archaeology,
Ethnology, and Ethnography, can be traced in France
perhaps better than in any other country of the world.
Physical Anthropology. This statement is especially
true of Physical Anthropology. It was a French traveller,
BERNIER (1625-1688) who first attempted to distinguish
the races of mankind; this preceded the classification of
LINNAEUS by over fifty years. BUFFON (1707-1788)
was one of the first to insist that man was a single species.
The " Transformism " of LAMARCK (1744-1829) was the
first coherent theory of evolution. This hypothesis
was supported by SAINT-HILAIRE (1772-1844), and
attacked by CUVIER (1769-1832), who put forward
"the catastrophic theory" as his solution of the ques-
tion of the history of the animal world. Hair as the
most perfect of the criteria of race was recognized as
early as 1827 by SAINT-VINCENT and in 1858 by SAINT-
HILAIRE. But it was not until 1863, when PRUNER
BEY read his classic memoir before the Societe dAnthro-
pologie, that the importance of this criterion for a classi-
fication of the races of man was fully realized.
Alfred Haddon 2 has called BROCA, TOPINARD, and
DE QUATREFAGES the " Systematisers " of Anthropol-
ogy. BROCA (1824-1880), the greatest of all physical
1 [Drafting Committee: C. H. HAWES, Dartmouth College; A. M.
TOZZER, Harvard University. — ED.]
2 A History of Anthropology," N. Y., 1910.
21
22 ANTHROPOLOGY
anthropologists, was the prime mover in the establish-
ment of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris in 1859
and of the ficole d'Anthropologie in 1876. His pioneer
work on craniology led to his invention of numerous im-
portant instruments for this study. His work on the
hybridization of the human species was the first study
to be made of race-mixture. TOPINARD made valuable
investigations on the living population of France, and
his work " L' Anthropologie " (1876) has remained the
standard text-book almost up to the present time. The
third of the " Systematisers " was DE QUATREFAGES
(1810-1892), professor of Anthropology in the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris. He was an early champion
of the much derided claim of man's great antiquity
upon this earth. His book "L'Espece humaine" (1877)
was one of the first to take into account the importance
of fossil forms of man.
A list of other French physical anthropologists and their
interests should include DENIKER and his "Races et
peuples de la terre" (1900); HAMY; COLLIGNON, in pig-
mentation and anthropometrical surveys; QUETELET, a
pioneer of the biometric method; VERNEAU and his work
on the Grimaldi and Cro-Magnon "races"; BOULE on
the bones from La Chapelle-aux-Saints; and MANOUVRIER.
Mention should be made here of the work of BERTILLON
on the identification of criminals.
Prehistoric Archaeology. In the field of prehistoric
archaeology, France has played the leading part. This
is due to some extent to the rich field for archaeology
to be found in France. It is significant that the current
modern name of each of the periods of the palaeolithic
culture in Europe is a French name associated with a
site where typical forms of stone implements were found.
The name of BOUCHER DE PERTHES stands out in this
PAUL BROCA (1824-1880)
ANTHROPOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY 23
field of prehistoric archaeology. His discoveries at
Abbeville, in 1825, of the bones of extinct animals asso-
ciated with flint implements led him to champion the
cause of early man in France. It was not until 1859
that these finds were completely substantiated by the
investigations of the English archaeologists, PRESTWICH,
LYELL, and Sir John EVANS. The importance of this
validation cannot be over-estimated in the history of
prehistoric archaeology. COURMANT (who may be called
the successor of Boucher de Perthes) and D'ACY have
worked in the river-drift deposits.
We come next to the great period of cave man in the
famous Dordogne district. Beginning with the classical
discoveries at Les Eyzies by LARTET and his English
companion, CHRISTY, we have a long series of names,
including the father of prehistoric archaeology, GABRIEL
DE MORTILLET, and his son, ADRIAN DE MORTILLET,
MASSENAT, GIROD, and later the investigations, largely
undertaken in concert, by 1'Abbe BREUIL, CAPITAN,
BOULE, VERNEAU, and PEYRONY. The Menton caves
have been described by ABBO, RIVIERE, and CARTAILHAC.
Mention should also be made of the work of ARCELIN
at Solutre, MARTIN at La Quina, and CHAUVET near
Angouleme. PIETTE stands out alone for his researches
in the Pyrenees on the "painted pebbles" and the sculp-
tures, and for his establishment of the genuineness of
the palaeolithic cave paintings and etchings. The sub-
ventions of the Prince of Monaco made possible extensive
recent excavations, the results of which are under the
care of 1'Abbe LAVILLE in the Musee Oceanographique
at Monaco.
As Boucher de Perthes was the vindicator of Quater-
nary man in France, 1'Abbe BOURGEOIS stands as the
champion of Tertiary man. The battle over the Eolithic
question has been a warm one, and its center has been
24 ANTHROPOLOGY
in France. DESNOYERS in 1863 at Saint-Prest, 1'Abbe
BOURGEOIS in 1867 at Thenay, and RAMES in 1877 at
Puy-Courny, are some of the protagonists. In spite
of the efforts of the Belgian, RUTOT, to assume the onus
of an affirmative solution, French scholars, led by BOULE,
have, as a whole, refused to accept this answer.
The investigations in Neolithic France have been
made by CHATELLIER in Brittany (1807) with his
museum at Kernuz; BONSTETTEN, CUSSET, BAYE, 1'Abbe
HERMET, in the dolmens, and BERTRAND at Carnac.
GUEBHARD, VIRE, BAUDOUIN, and JACQUOT, are a few
of the others interested in the prehistoric monuments
of France.
The Age of Bronze was first investigated in France
by CHANTRE (1876) in the Rhone Basin. COUTIL is
another name to note in this horizon. DECHELETTE,
BERTRAND, COROT, and PIROUTET, are the names of
some of those associated with investigations in the
Iron Age.
It is impossible to speak of the large mass of literature
on prehistoric France. Special mention should, however,
be made of G. DE MORTILLET'S "Le Prehistorique"
(1883), EDMOND'S "Musee Osteologique " (1907), S.
REINACH'S "Repertoire de 1'Art Quaternaire" (1913),
and DECHELETTE 's monumental work "Manuel d'Arche-
ologie prehistorique" (3 vols. 1898-1912).
American Archaeology. It is perhaps significant of
the wide interest taken in the subject of prehistoric
archaeology by France to note that American archaeology
has by no means been neglected. The only complete
treatise on American archaeology is that of the late
M. BEUCHAT, "Manuel d'Archeologie americaine"
(1912). NADAILLAC has also written two books dealing
with America. Middle American archaeology, and
ANTHROPOLOGY 25
especially the hieroglyphic writing, have been investi-
gated by many French scientists. Among these are
Brasseur DE BOURBOURG, CHARENCY, HAMY, DE ROSNY,
PINART, and LEJEAL. Several French explorers have
made extensive investigations in Central America.
WALDECK, CHARNAY, and the Comte DE PERIGNY are
among this number. The most famous of all American-
ists is the Due DE LOUBAT, who has established professor-
ships in Mexican Archaeology at the College de France,
at the University of Berlin, and at Columbia University.
His masterly reproductions of many of the pre-Colum-
bian and post-Columbian manuscripts have made these
valuable documents available to students.
Ethnology and Ethnography. The investigations in
these subjects started with the noble work of the
Jesuit missionaries in Canada, South America, and Asia.
Among other investigators in this side of anthropology
are BUFFON; DE QUATREFAGES on the Pygmies; BOU-
GAINVILLE and D 'ENTRECASTEAUX in the Pacific; DE
BRAZZA, who opened up the French Congo; DUVEGRIER
and SCHIRMER, in the Central Sahara; SOGONZAC, in
Morocco; TILHO, at Lake Chad; and D'ORBINY, in
South America.
Sociology. COMTE (1798-1857) was the founder of
the modern science of Sociology. There is an illustrious
list of French scholars interested in problems of Social
Anthropology: GIRAUD-TEULON; LETOURNEAU on
primitive marriage; DURKHEIM, HUBERT, and MAUSS,
who have made "L'Annee sociologique" famous; and
TARDE.
Linguistics. All students of primitive languages are
under obligations to ROUSSELOT for the invention of
the Kymograph for recording sounds graphically. It
is possible to speak of a few only of the French students
26 ANTHROPOLOGY
of primitive languages; Rene BASSET, for his work on
Hametic languages, and FAIDHERBE, MASQUERAY, and
MOTYLYNSKY on Berber, should be mentioned.
Instruction. Anthropological instruction is offered at
the College de France under CAPITAN, who gives courses
on Mexican archaeology; at the Museum d'Histoire
Naturelle, under VERNEAU, on the prehistoric races of
Europe; at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes a la
Sorbonne, under MANOUVRIER, on physical anthropology,
and under RAYNAUD, on the religions of pre-Columbian
America; and at theiEcole d 'Anthropologie, under A. DE
MORTILLET on ethnography, MAHOUDEAU on zoological
anthropology, PAPILLAULT on sociology, VINSON on linguis-
tics, HERVE on ethnology, CAPITAN, and MANOUVRIER.
Mention should be made also of the Oriental schools
at Cairo, in Egypt; at Saigon, in Cochin China, and in
Cambodia.
Field work in prehistoric archaeology is available, as
in no other place in the world, in the river-drift and cave
deposits of France. French investigators in this field
have always shown a cordiality and welcome to foreign
investigators. In taking into account the opportunities
for work in prehistoric archaeology, it should be noted
that, whereas formal instruction is seldom offered any-
where except in Paris, the extensive work of the scientific
societies, which will be discussed later, is available to
all properly accredited students.
Museums. France has more archaeological and an-
thropological museums than any other country in the
world. In addition to the famous Musee des Antiquites
Nationales, at Saint-Germain, there is the Musee
d'Ethnographie, at the Palais du Trocadero; the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle; the department of Archeologie
Celtique et Gauloise, at the Louvre; and the Musee de
ANTHROPOLOGY 27
Pficole d'Anthropologie. There are no less than ninety
archaeological museums in France, not to mention those
in the French possessions.
Scientific Societies. France has the honor of having
the oldest anthropological society, the Societe des
Observateurs de 1'Homme, established in Paris in 1800.
This was succeeded by the Societe ethnologique de
Paris in 1839. There followed the Societe d'Anthropo-
logie in 1859, the Societe d'Ethnographie in the same year,
the Societe americaine de France, the Societe prehis-
torique, the Congres prehistorique de France, and the
Commission d'Etude des enceintes prehistoriques et forti-
fications antehistoriques, and the Institut international
d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie. All these societies
have valuable series of publications.
Mention should also be made of the inauguration at
Nancy in 1875 of the Congres international des Ameri-
canistes, which has had a long and prosperous history.
There should also be noted the anthropological societies
of Lyon and Bordeaux, together with no less than forty
associations for anthropological or archaeological research
scattered through France.
Scientific Publications. In addition to the publication
of Bulletins and Memoirs by many of the preceding
societies, there are a large number of scientific publications
devoted to anthropology. Among these are the "Revue
anthropologique," a continuation of the "Revue d'Ecole
d'Anthropologie"; "1'Anthropologie," one of the fore-
most anthropological publications in the world;
"L'Homme"; "Materiaux pour 1'Histoire primitive et
naturelle de Phomme"; "Revue d'Ethnographie";
"L'Ethnographie"; "L'Homme prehistorique"; "Revue
des fitudes prehistoriques" ; "Prehistorique de France";
and "Bulletin de la Commission archeologique de
1'Indochine."
28 ANTHROPOLOGY
Libraries. The libraries of the various institutions
mentioned have large collections of anthropological
material. The Bibliotheque de la Societe des Antiquaires
de France, at the Louvre, specializes in archaeology;
and the Bibliotheque Nationale has probably the largest
collection of original Mexican manuscripts of any in-
stitution in the world.
ARCHAEOLOGY
AND
HISTORY OF ART
ARCHAEOLOGY
AND
HISTORY OF ART1
In the development of Archaeology from a "handmaid
of Philology" into a definite science, with its own tradi-
tions and methods of procedure (which is one of the most
characteristic achievements of the nineteenth century),
French scholars have played an important part.
CHAMPOLLION'S discovery of the key to the Egyptian
hieroglyphic writing ranks first, perhaps, in the record
of their achievements; but his is only one among many
prominent names. In the same field of Egyptology,
MARIETTE will always be remembered as the discoverer
of the tombs of the Apis bulls and of many other monu-
ments, and as the organizer of the great museum in
Cairo. And the rapid advance in knowledge of ancient
Egypt in recent years is very largely due to MASPERO,
the learned and broad-minded Director General of the
Department of Antiquities under the Egyptian govern-
ment for many years before his death in June, 1916. The
exploration of the Syrian region and the study of Semitic
epigraphy and archaeology owe much to RENAN, though
his great fame rests on his "Life of Jesus" and other
works not strictly archaeological in character. In the fasci-
nating story of research in Babylonia and Assyria, the work
of BOTTA and PLACE in exploring the palace of Sargon at
Khorsabad (the first of the great palaces of this region to
1 [Drafting Committee: GEORGE H. CHASE, Harvard University;
HAROLD N. FOWLER, Western Reserve University ; A. L. FROTHINGHAM,
Princeton University; J. R. WHEELER, Columbia University. — ED.]
32 ARCHAEOLOGY
be excavated), and that of DIEULAFOY and SARZEC in
the mound of Tello, occupy a prominent place; and the
recent excavations of MORGAN at Susa and Persepolis
have brought to light a mass of important material for
the early history of the Orient. OPPERT, HEUZEY, and
MENANT have led in elucidating this new material.
In the development of classical archaeology, also,
the part played by French scholars is noteworthy, espe-
cially in the exploration of Greek lands. Even before
the establishment of the modern kingdom of Greece,
the Expedition scientifique de Moree in 1829 and 1830,
under the leadership of BLOUET, collected materials for
an elaborate publication devoted to the ancient ruins in
the Peloponnesus, then very imperfectly known; and the
explorations of TEXIER in Asia Minor in 1833-37 Per~
formed a similar service for the monuments of that region
and supplemented the earlier work of English travelers.
New stimulus to such researches was given by the
establishment, in 1847, of the ficole franchise d'Athenes,
the first of the "foreign" schools in Athens, which
served as a model for those established later by other
nations in the capital of Greece. With this school
most of the French classical archaeologists of the last
half of the nineteenth century have at some time been
associated. Members of the School have conducted
many excavations in Greek lands, the most notable
of which are those at Myrina (1880-82), at Delos (begun
in 1873, and still in progress), and at Delphi (1892-97,
with supplementary work in more recent years). Among
the famous members of the School who are no longer
living, mention may be made of Albert DUMONT, Director
in 1875-78, a prolific writer on many aspects of ancient
art, who in 1873-75 established the important French
School of Archaeology in Rome; Olivier RAYET, explorer
of the great temple of Apollo at Didyma in 1873 and
ARCHAEOLOGY 33
founder of the "Monuments de 1'Art antique" (2 vols.,
1881-83); and Georges PERROT, a critic of unusual
acumen, joint author (with the architect CHIPIEZ) of the
comprehensive "Histoire de PArt," the tenth volume of
which was published just before his recent death. Other
notable scholars in this field were Francois LENORMANT,
founder of the "Gazette Archeologique" (1875-89), a
voluminous writer in many fields, who was famous no
less as an orientalist than as a classical archaeologist, and
Henri COHEN, whose great "Description historique des
monnaies frappees sous 1'Empire romain" (2d ed.,
8 vols., 1880-92) is an indispensable book to all workers
in Roman numismatics.
The establishment of French rule in Algeria (1830) and
in Tunis (1881) threw open to French archaeologists two
most interesting districts, which they have explored with
great success. A new Pompeii has been laid bare at
Timgad. Many of the important Roman sites have
been cleared of debris, museums have been established,
and knowledge of Roman Africa has been greatly in-
creased, under the leadership of GSELL, TOUTAIN,
GAUCKLER, SALADIN, and CAGNAT.
Meanwhile the investigation of the monuments of
France itself has been eagerly pursued. Local antiquarian
societies have conducted excavations in many places
and built up local museums, devoted at first to Gallic
and Gallo-Roman antiquities, but later, with the growth
of interest in prehistoric monuments, to relics of earlier
times as well. In the development of the science of
"prehistory," a leading place belongs to Gabriel DE
MORTILLET, whose well-known "Prehistorique" (first
published in 1883; 3d ed., 1900) was one of the first
attempts at a comprehensive treatment of the ages of
stone, bronze, and iron. The French government set a
brilliant example to all nations in organizing an official
34 ARCHAEOLOGY
census of all French monuments more systematic and
complete than any attempted elsewhere. The Com-
mission des Monuments Historiques has largely directed
it, as well as the restorations, and has issued volumes of
folio plates since 1855. The Roman period in Algeria and
Tunisia has been illustrated by splendid publications, of
which the monograph on Timgad is the most spectacular.
In France itself ESPERANDIEU has given a corpus of all
the Roman sculptures, and BLANCHET had described
the Gallo-Roman cities. LE BLANT has collected all the
early Christian sarcophagi, second in importance only to
those of Italy. To VERNEILH is due the first collective
study of Byzantine architecture. For the Romanesque
period, just preceding the Gothic, the field was covered
in the South by REVOIL and in the North by RUPRICH-
ROBERT. The scientific basis for the understanding of
Gothic art, not only in France, where it originated, but
everywhere, was laid by QUICHERAT, and expanded by
his brilliant successors, DE LASTEYRIE ("Origines de
F Architecture gothique" and many other works), and
ENLART, whose comprehensive "Manuel d'Archeologie
francaise" (1902-16), a full history of French art, is the
authoritative statement of the modern school.
Almost contemporary with QUICHERAT, and far more
popular, was VIOLLET-LE-DUC, whose studies in the
mediaeval architecture and art of France were published
in a great series of beautifully written volumes, and who
had charge of the restoration of many of the greatest
national monuments; the most familiar of his books is
his " Dictionnaire raisonne de 1'Architecture frangaise du
xie au xvie siecle" (10 vols., 1867-73). Another orig-
inal teacher was COURAJOD, whose courses at the Ecole
du Louvre were revolutionary. The most brilliant
illustrator of the art of the Renaissance in France has
been PALUSTRE.
EUGENE EMMANUEL VIOLLET-LE-DUC (1814-1879)
ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCHAEOLOGY 35
In the general post-classic field, several French scholars
have done invaluable work. DE VOGUE revealed a new
branch of early Christian architecture in the ruined
cities of Syria ("La Syrie centrale"); in Byzantine art
may be noted the work of SCHLUMBERGER (with his
triology of "Nicephore Phocas," "L'fipopee byzantine,"
"Basile II," his numismatic and other studies) and of
DIEHL ("L'Art byzantin dans PItalie meridionale,"
"Justinien," "Ravenne," etc.). DARTEIN was the first
to make known the architecture of Lombardy, and
BERTEAUX has done much for South Italian art in the
Middle Ages. MUNTZ is invaluable in correlating the
art of the Italian Renaissance with its life and its politics.
In the special field of the scientific history of Architec-
ture, the greatest modern authority is CHOISY, whose
"Histoire de 1' Architecture" (1899) is completed by
large special histories: "L'Art de batir chez les Ro-
mains," "L'Art de batir chez les Byzantins," and "L'Art
de batir chez les Egyptiens."
Aside from the great Annual Congress, which meets
each year in a different section of France, the two main
forums for archaeology are the meetings of the Academic
des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres of the French Institute,
and the Societe Nationale des Antiquaires de France,
both of which publish their Compte-rendus and the latter
its Memoires.
Instruction at the Universities. As in most other
matters, so in facilities for the study of archaeology,
Paris is the center of France. In Paris, naturally, are
found the richest museums and libraries, and to Paris,
ultimately, most of the scholars who distinguish them-
selves are drawn. A mere enumeration of the men who
are engaged in teaching in the higher institutions of the
capital is impressive.
36 ARCHAEOLOGY
Among the members of the Faculty of the University
of Paris are : Maxime COLLIGNON, professor of Archae-
ology, a recognized authority on the history of Greek
art. His "Histoire de la Sculpture grecque" (2 vols.,
1892, 1897) is undoubtedly the best history of Greek
sculpture that has yet been written. His other writings
include, besides numerous articles and pamphlets,
"Pergame" (1900), a semi-popular account of the earlier
excavations at Pergamon, written in collaboration with
the architect Pontremoli; "Le Parthenon" (1910-12), a
magnificently illustrated volume on the finest of the
Greek temples; "Les statues funeraires dans 1'art
grec" (1911). He lectures regularly on some aspect
of Greek art, and offers advanced instruction for ad-
vanced students. Charles DIEHL, professor of Byzantine
History, one of the most learned of modern Byzan-
tinists. His best known works are his "Etudes byzan-
tines" (1905); " Figures byzantines" (2 vols., 1906, 1908);
and "Manuel d'Art byzantin" (1910). His lectures
deal with different phases of Byzantine history, always
with considerable emphasis on the evidence of the monu-
ments. Maurice HOLLEAUX, Charge de cours in Greek
Literature and Epigraphy, was Director of the French
School in Athens from 1904 to 1912. With his predeces-
sor (and successor) Theophile HOMOLLE, whose long work
in Greece has brought great honor to French scholarship,
he is engaged in editing the official publication of the
excavations at Delos, " L'Exploration archeologique de
Delos" (begun in 1909). His lectures and conferences
usually have to do with Greek history, with special con-
sideration of the evidence of epigraphy. £mile MALE,
professor of the History of Mediaeval Art, a writer of
distinction in his special field. Among his works are
"L'Art religieux de la fin du moyen age en France"
(1908), and "L'Art religieux du xiiie siecle en France"
ARCHAEOLOGY 37
(3d ed., 1910). His courses deal with different aspects
of the art of the Middle Ages.
From the faculty of the College de France, the list of
names is equally impressive: Ernest BABELON, professor
of Ancient and Mediaeval Numismatics, is Curator of
the Department of Medals and Antiquities in the Biblio-
theque Nationale, and is a recognized authority in his
particular field. Among his more important writings
are "Description historique et chronologique des mon-
naies de la Republique romaine" (2 vols., 1885, 1886);
"Les origines de la Monnaie" (1897); " Traite des Mon-
naies grecques et romaines" (5 vols., 1901-10). His
courses deal with different phases of the development
of ancient coinage. Rene CAGNAT, professor of Roman
Epigraphy and Archaeology, a scholar whose name is
closely associated with the exploration of Roman Africa.
Among his best known works are " Cours d'Epigraphie
latine" ($d ed. 1898-1904); "L'Armee romaine
d'Afrique et 1 'Occupation militaire de 1'Afrique sous
les empereurs" (2 vols., 1913); and many articles and
books having to do with Roman Africa. His courses
usually deal with Roman monuments and the inter-
pretation of Latin inscriptions. Charles CLERMONT-
GANNEAU, professor of Semitic Epigraphy and Archae-
ology, a scholar deeply versed in the history and the
monuments of Western Asia, author of "Archaeological
Researches in Palestine during the years 1873-1874"
(2 vols., 1896, 1899); "Mission en Palestine et en Phenicie
entreprise en 1881" (1882); "Recueil d 'archeologie
orientale" (8 vols., 1888-1907). He offers every year a
course in recently discovered Semitic monuments. Paul
FOUCART, professor of Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology,
author of "Les mysteres d 'Eleusis" (1914). His courses
commonly deal with Greek inscriptions. Stephane
GSELL, professor of North African History, who has
38 ARCHAEOLOGY
conducted excavations in Italy as well as in his chosen
province. His works include "Les Monuments antiques
de 1'Algerie" (2 vols., 1901); "Atlas archeologique de
1'Algerie" (1911); "Histoire ancienne de 1'Afrique du
Nord" (vol. i, 1913; to be complete in six volumes).
His courses in recent years have been devoted to Carthage
and the Punic wars. The professorship of Egyptology
was long held by MASPERO, by whose recent death the
Faculty has lost one of its most distinguished members.
His work in Paris will no doubt be ably continued by
his successor, when appointed.
In the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Section des Sciences
historiques et philologiques, several courses of interest
to students of archaeology are offered. Among the
Directeurs d 'Etudes in the section are: Bernard
HAUSSOULLIER, for Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology,
well known as one of the investigators of the temple
at Didyma (cf. "Didymes: Fouilles de 1895 et de 1896,"
in collaboration with E. Pontremoli, 1904), and as one
of the authors of the "Recueil des inscriptions juridiques
grecques" (2 vols., 1891-1904). His courses are devoted
to the study of Greek history and legal antiquities, with
reference especially to the evidence of inscriptions and
the papyri. Antoine HERON DE VILLEFOSSE, for Latin
Epigraphy and Roman Archaeology, Curator of Greek and
Roman Antiquities in the Louvre, author of a "Rapport
sur une mission archeologique en Algerie" (1875), "Le
tresor de B osco Reale " ( 1 899) , and numerous articles. He
offers one course in inscriptions relating to the officials
of the "tres Galliae." In this school, also, CLERMONT-
GANNEAU offers a course in the antiquities of Palestine,
Phoenicia, and Syria, and another in Jewish archae-
ology; some work in Egyptology is given under the
direction of Paul GUIYESSE and Alexandre MORET; and
studies in Assyrian Philology and Archaeology are in charge
ARCHAEOLOGY 39
of the learned Victor SCHEIL, though his formal courses
in recent years have been devoted to the interpretation
of texts and to palaeography rather than to archaeology.
The Ecole du Louvre, founded in 1882, offers an inter-
esting three-year program of courses, intended primarily
to train directors and curators of museums, but open
to auditors, as well as to regularly enrolled students.
The subjects covered include the archaeology of France,
Oriental archaeology and ancient ceramics, Egyptian
archaeology, Greek and Roman archaeology, Semitic
antiquities, the history of painting, the history of mediae-
val, Renaissance, and modern sculpture, the history of
French art in the iyth and i8th centuries, and the history
of industrial art in France. The work in Greek and
Roman archaeology is under the direction of HERON DE
VILLEFOSSE, who has already been mentioned. The pro-
fessors for the other subjects are officials of the Louvre and
other museums, not members of other faculties. Among
them are: Georges BENEDITE, Curator of Egyptian An-
tiquities in the Louvre, author of several works in his
special field, including two of the scholarly catalogues
of the Cairo Museum. Leonce BENEDITE, Curator
of the Musee National du Luxembourg, a prolific writer
on modern art, one of the founders of the "Bulletin
des Musees" and "L 'Album des Peintres lithographes."
Paul LEPRIEUR, Curator of the Department of Paintings
in the Louvre. Andre MICHEL, Curator of Mediaeval,
Renaissance, and Modern Sculpture in the Louvre, best
known as editor of the comprehensive "Histoire de 1'Art
depuis les premiers temps chretiens jusqu'a nos jours"
(begun in 1905, and still in course of publication).
Gaston MIGEON, Curator of the Department of the Minor
Arts of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Modern
Times in the Louvre, an authority on the art of the
East as well as that of the West. Pierre de NOLHAC,
40 ARCHAEOLOGY
Curator of the Musee National de Versailles, editor of
the " Bibliotheque litteraire de la Renaissance." He
has written numerous works on Versailles and the famous
persons associated with it, "Petrarque et Phumanisme,"
(2d ed., 2 vols., 1907) and other works relating to the
Renaissance. Edmond POTTIER, Curator of Oriental
Antiquities and Ancient Ceramics in the Louvre, a
critic who makes even catalogues interesting; known
to classical scholars through many attractive books
and articles on ancient ceramics and terra-cottas, and
also as the responsible editor of all the later parts of the
great Daremberg and Saglio " Dictionnaire des Antiquites
grecques et romaines." Salomon REESTACH, Curator of
the Musee des Antiquites nationales at St.-Germain-en-
Laye, who is, perhaps, the best known of all the French
archaeologists, a man of vast erudition and wide inter-
ests. He has placed archaeologists of all countries
under lasting obligations to him through the convenient
books of reference which he has edited, the "Repertoire
de la statuaire grecque et romaine" (4 vols., 1897-1910);
"Repertoire des vases peints" (2 vols., 1899, 1900);
"Repertoire des peintures du moyen age et de la Renais-
sance" (3 vols., 1905-10); "Repertoire des reliefs grecs
et remains" (3 vols., 1909-12). The breadth of his
interests is suggested by this list, and even more by the
titles of some of his other books: "Manuel de Philologie
classique" (2d ed., 1904); "Cultes, mythes, et religions"
(4 vols., 1905-12); "Orpheus; Histoire generate des
Religions" (5th ed., 1905). His "Apollo," a brief but
scholarly attempt to treat the history of art from
palaeolithic times to the present day, has been several
times re-issued and translated into other languages.
He has been for many years one of the editors of the
important "Revue archeologique," associated formerly
with G. PERROT, now with E. POTTIER,
ARCHAEOLOGY 41
The Ecole Nationale des Beaux Arts, where so many
of our foremost American architects and artists have
been taught, has for many years been a proof of the close
union that might exist in so many other spheres. Its
teaching is historical as well as technical, and it has
valuable educational material in casts as well as in original
works and in reconstructions of ancient monuments.
Its librarian for many years, Eugene MUNTZ, was one of
the earliest, most inspiring and fruitful historians of
Renaissance art; his masterpiece is the "Histoire de 1'Art
pendant la Renaissance" (3 vols., 1889-1891).
Finally, in the Ecole Nationale des Charles, intended
primarily to train archivists and librarians, a course in
the Archaeology of the Middle Ages is given by Eugene
LEFEVRE-PONTALIS, joint editor with Robert de LAS-
TEYRIE of the earlier volumes of the " Bibliographic des
travaux historiques et archeologiques " (1885 on), of
whose works " L 'Architecture religieuse dans 1'ancien
diocese de Soissons au xie et au xiie siecles" (2 vols., 1894-
96) is perhaps the best known.
Other Universities. Of opportunities for the study
of archaeology outside of Paris it is impossible to give
more than a brief account. Most of the fifteen smaller
universities make some provision for archaeology and
related subjects, sometimes with reference to special
conditions; so, in the University of Algiers, instruction
is given in the antiquities and geography of Africa and
in Mohammedan civilization and the history of the
Arabs. Work in "archaeology" is formally provided
for at Aix; in "archaeology and the history of art,"
at Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lyon, and Toulouse. In
several universities, the professors of the classics offer
courses in Greek and Roman antiquities. The American
student will occasionally find himself attracted to a
particular place by the special attainments of one of
42 ARCHAEOLOGY
its professors, but in such a brief account as this it is
impossible to enter into details.
Museums. In special facilities for graduate work,
Paris again is "facile princeps" among the cities of
France. Of its more than forty museums, over twenty
contain collections which are of interest to the student of
archaeology and the history of art. First among them
stands the great Musee du Louvre, with its wealth of
monuments of sculpture, painting, and the minor arts
from many regions and periods. Especially important
are the collections of Greek and Roman sculpture; Egyp-
tian, Babylonian, and Assyrian antiquities (the stele of
the Hammurapi Code is here); Greek vases; and Renais-
sance and modern paintings and sculptures. The Musee
des Antiquites nationales at St.-Germain-en-Laye con-
tains the largest collection in the world of antiquities of
France, covering the prehistoric, Gallic, Gallo-Roman,
and French periods to the Carolingian epoch. In the
Trocadero are the Musee de Sculpture comparee, con-
taining casts of important monuments of many different
periods; the Musee d'Ethnographie and the Musee
Indo-Chinois, the character of which is sufficiently in-
dicated by the names. The Musee de la Bibliotheque
Nationale contains not only manuscripts, early printed
books, and prints, but in the Cabinet des Medailles
it possesses important collections of vases, gems, coins
and medals. The Musee de Cluny is devoted to the
art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance; the Musee
Guimet to that of the Far East; and there are many
other special museums and private collections of im-
portance. Moreover, Paris is one of the great cen-
ters of the trade in antiquities, and the student will
constantly find opportunities to acquire a knowledge
of prices and methods of buying and selling objects
of art.
ARCHAEOLOGY 43
With several of the smaller universities, museums of
original materials and reproductions are connected. In
these museums, many objects of archaeological interest,
dating from the Old Kingdom in Egypt to modern
times, are to be found. Special mention may be made
of the collections at Bordeaux (Greek and Graeco-
Roman sculpture and vases and monuments of early
Iberic art); Lille (casts, photographs, and some original
monuments); Lyon (large collection of casts and photo-
graphs from Egyptian, Greek, and Graeco-Roman
monuments); Montpellier (casts from ancient sculpture,
photographs, and prints); and Nancy (casts and some
original monuments). Interesting collections of local an-
tiquities, often rich in Roman and Gallic sculpture, are at
Nimes, Aries, Aix, Langres, Autun, Vienne, and Narbonne.
Libraries. Among the libraries of Paris, the great
Bibliotheque Nationale, with its 3,000,000 volumes, is
especially rich in works on archaeology; and its 110,000
manuscripts and some 1,000,000 prints offer many
opportunities for research work along documentary lines.
There are, besides, several special libraries, where books
not in the Bibliotheque Nationale can often be found.
Among these the most important are the Bibliotheque
d'Art et d'Archeologie (some 100,000 volumes); the
Bibliotheque du Musee de Sculpture comparee (about
2,000 volumes and over 60,000 drawings, prints, and
photographs); the Bibliotheque de 1 'Association pour
1 'Encouragement des Etudes grecques (about 5,000
volumes); the Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole des Beaux Arts
(rich in drawings, photographs, and illustrated works);
and the Bibliotheque de la Societe des Antiquaires de
France (about 4,000 volumes).
Periodicals. The "Revue Archeologique " covers the
entire field, with admirable summaries of investigations
44 ARCHAEOLOGY
and discoveries everywhere. The "Gazette des Beaux
Arts" occupies a similar position in the more restricted
field of art history. The "Bulletin Monumental" does
the same, but mainly for France. The most sumptuous
medium for the publication of important works of historic
art is supplied by the folios of the "Monuments Piot,"
an endowed periodical of the Academic des Inscriptions,
whose only rival is the "Denkmaler" of the German
Institute. Prehistoric studies are best represented in
"L'Anthropologie" and the "Revue de 1'Ecole d'Anthro-
pologie." The "Annales du Musee Guimet" make a
specialty of the Far East; so does the "Bulletin de
1'Ecole francaise de 1'Extreme-Orient." Other Eastern
spheres are taken care of in the "Revue figyptologique,"
the "Revue d'Assyriologie," the "Revue d' Archeologie
Orientale," the "Revue Semitique" and the "Memoires"
of the Mission au Caire.
Special subjects have their organs also, as the "Revue
fipigraphique" and "L'Annee fipigraphique"; the
"Revue de Numismatique," and the "Gazette Numis-
matique francaise." Several reviews not strictly archaeo-
logical have a strong archaeological section, such as the
"Revue de 1'Histoire des Religions." Each of the
Archaeological Schools has its special review: that at
Athens, the "Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique";
that at Rome, the "Melanges d'Archeologie et
d'Histoire." Both are devoted largely to Greek and
Roman studies, but give a fair share to the Christian
period. A very special review is the "Revue de TArt
Chretien." Devoted to France almost exclusively is
"L'Ami des Monuments."
ASTRONOMY
ASTRONOMY1
In all branches of Astronomy — in Geodesy, Observa-
tional Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Celestial Mechanics
— France has made noteworthy contributions. In the
first three named, she has kept abreast of all progress
and has often led the way; and in Celestial Mechanics,
or Mathematical Astronomy, she is well-nigh supreme.
Her work in Mathematics, in developing methods of
analysis and lines of attack; and in Physics, in estab-
lishing standards of wave-lengths of light, in fact in the
whole field of radiation; is reflected in the progress of
Astronomy. It sometimes happens, moreover, that
noteworthy advances follow achievements in fields quite
apart from that of the direct research; and as one such
instance, GUTLLAUME'S discovery of invar, in relation to
the errors, due to temperature effects, which creep into
all instrumental observations, must be regarded as one of
the indirect influences promoting advances of prime
importance.
Celestial Mechanics. Since the publication of New-
ton's Principia in 1686, the contributions of all other
nations combined would scarcely equal in this field the
contributions of France alone.
It was CLALRAUT (1713-1783) who first published the
differential equations of motion for the problem of
three bodies, and their ten integrals. The formidable
1 [Drafting Committee: PHILIP Fox, Northwestern University; G. E.
HALE, Carnegie Institution; F. R. MOULTON and W. D. MACMILLAN,
University of Chicago; H. N. RUSSELL, Princeton University. — ED.]
47
48 ASTRONOMY
mathematical difficulties of this problem and the im-
portance of its solution for Astronomy, particularly for
an understanding of the motion of the moon, challenged
the attention and abilities of the mathematicians of the
entire world. No great mathematician, until very
recent times, has escaped the charm of this problem.
From France, however, has come the greater part of our
present knowledge of a subject which has tested to
the utmost the strength of the human intellect since the
time of the immortal NEWTON. The first two analytical
theories of the motion of the moon were presented on the
same day to the Paris Academy by CLAIRAUT and by
D'ALEMBERT (1717-1783), and these were the first efforts
at an analytical solution of the problem of three bodies.
D'ALEMBERT introduced even the rotation of the earth
into his theories, and thus developed the theory of the
precession of the equinoxes. The first rigorous solution
of the problem of three bodies, due to LAGRANGE (1736-
1813), is contained in a paper of great elegance published
in 1772. Many other theorems of great importance were
contained in his later papers. In his epochal "Meca-
nique analytique" he made it his boast that he had freed
the subject of mechanics from geometrical intuition, and
brought all of its problems into the domain of pure
analysis. In striking contrast to the method of
Lagrange was that of POISSON (1781-1840), who strove
to develop the geometrical intuitions to the utmost in
the solutions of mechanical problems.
LAPLACE (1749-1827), however, even more than
Lagrange, devoted himself to the mechanics of the
celestial bodies. The theory of the motion of the moon,
the mutual perturbations of the planets and their satel-
lites, and the determination of the orbits of comets,
received masterly treatment in his hands; and no prob-
lem in this field escaped his critical attention. His
ASTRONOMY 49
"Traite de la Mecanique celeste," in five large volumes,
will always be one of the great classics in the domain
of mathematical astronomy. His Nebular Hypothesis
of the origin of the solar system exercised a profound
influence upon the fundamental conceptions of almost
every science during the entire nineteenth century. It
was the first successful effort in the modern doctrine of
evolution.
The theory of the motion of the moon was a highly
favored subject during the first half of the last century.
The theory developed by Laplace was carried to a high
degree of perfection by DAMOISEAU (1768-1846). A
second theory was worked out extensively by DE PONTE-
COULANT (1795-1874); a third, and by far the most
perfect theory was developed by DELAUNAY (1816-
1872). The theory of Delaunay, which was the result
of twenty years of constant labor, was published between
1860 and 1867.
A dramatic event about the middle of the nineteenth
century immortalized the names of LE VERRIER (1811-
1877) of France and ADAMS of England. Their mathe-
matical analysis led these two men independently to
point to a certain position in the sky and say, "In that
direction lies a planet not yet seen by mortal eyes."
This prediction, verified promptly by the telescope, has
been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of
man's powers of analysis. It was also under Le Verrier's
directions that the theory of the perturbations of the
planets was carried to its high state of perfection.
In the last decade of the last century TISSERAND
(1845-) °f Paris published his "Traite de la Mecanique
celeste," which is today the standard work of reference
in its field. It is complete in its details and embodies
all the essential developments in the field of celestial
mechanics up to the time of Poincare.
50 ASTRONOMY
The last name which will be mentioned in this field,
and perhaps the greatest, is that of Henri POINCARE
(1854-1912). His remarkable work " Methodes nouvelles
de la Mecanique celeste," furnished a great wealth of new
ideas, which were developed with the very highest
mathematical skill. Periodic orbits of various types,
asymptotically periodic orbits, and integral invariants,
were the fundamental conceptions which were examined
with all of the resources of modern mathematics and
with all of the rigor which modern mathematics demands.
It is a modest statement to say that with POINCARE
begins a new epoch in celestial mechanics. In addition
to his contributions to the theory of the motions of the
celestial bodies should be mentioned his contributions to
the theory of their figures. It was CLAIRAUT who first
showed that an oblate spheroid is a figure of equilibrium
of a slowly rotating fluid mass. POINCARE showed that
besides the ellipsoidal figures already known there
exists an infinity of other forms corresponding to higher
rates of rotation. His theorems relating to stable and
unstable figures of equilibrium are of great importance.
These investigations find their application not merely in
the figures of such planets as Jupiter and Saturn but also
in the question of the origin of binary and multiple stars.
With such a wealth of noble tradition in the field of
Celestial Mechanics, it is quite safe to assume that the
Universities of France, and especially of Paris, will
always be a source of inspiration to students who may
be interested in this field.
Geodesy. The monumental works of the French in
the past are being paralleled by contemporary contribu-
tions. This is well illustrated in the geodetic work in
the recent achievement of the expedition under BOUR-
GEOIS, which has remeasured with the highest precision
PIERRE SIMON DE LAPLACE (1749-1827)
ASTRONOMY
ASTRONOMY 51
the "arc of Peru," --that arc which when measured by
French astronomers in an earlier century afforded the
first practical proof of the ellipticity of the earth. The
same scale of achievement is seen in the work of precise
leveling conducted by LALLEMAND and his associates,
repeating and extending the earlier work of BOURDALOUE.
The French have been very active in developing the
application of wireless telegraphy in longitude deter-
minations. This is illustrated by their observations
between Paris and Poulkovo, Paris and points in Al-
geria, and culminating in the Paris-Washington campaign
of 1913.
Observational Astronomy. France has equipped many
observatories where work is being conducted, following
carefully prepared plans, well organized, and actively
executed. The long series of publications from these
institutions— Paris, Bordeaux, Nice, Abbadie, Toulouse,
Meudon, Besancon, Marseille, Lyon, Algiers— bear
ample testimony of their fruitfulness. In the field of
observations of position, the most notable among
many excellent star catalogues is that of the Paris Ob-
servatory, in eight volumes. BOSSERT'S catalogue ^of
proper motions is important in any work dealing with
stellar motion. Double stars have been actively observed
at Toulouse and by JONCKHEERE, who made many and
important discoveries in this field, at the Observatoire
d'Hem and later at Lille. In the discovery of celestial
bodies the French observers present about sixty comets,
about 1 80 asteroids, and many nebulae. Here the
names CHARLOIS, CHACORNAC, COGGIA, PERROTIN, the
brothers HENRY, STEPHAN, BORRELLY, TEMPLE, GIACO-
BINI, QUENISSET, and others, are familiar. In photo-
metric work the numerous and careful observations of
LUIZET are of especial value.
52 ASTRONOMY
Practical Astronomy. Among astronomical instru-
ments of French invention, mention may be made of
the equatorial coude of LOEWY and PUISEUX; the in-
dependent design of the spectroheliograph by DESLAN-
DRES (at practically the same time as by the American
HALE); the " spectroenregistreur des vitesses" of
DESLANDRES; and the recent use of the "astrolabe a
prisme" in the determination of latitude and time.
In spectroscopy, the French contributions to the
development of the science have been very great. In
solar physics, they include the discovery of the spectro-
scopic visibility of the solar prominences, independently
of solar eclipses, by JANSSEN in 1868 (also made inde-
pendently by LOCKYER in England) ; the recent researches
of DESLANDRES (whose spectro-heliograms are in many
respects of unrivalled excellence) upon the upper layers
of the solar atmosphere and the relative motion of their
parts. In stellar spectroscopy, they include the
FIZEAU extension of the DOPPLER principle, which made
possible the whole movement for the spectroscopic de-
termination of radial velocity; the discovery of those
remarkable bodies which are still known, in honor of
their discoverers, as the WOLF-RAYET stars; the spectro-
scopic work of HAMY; and the work of FABRY and his
collaborators on the Orion nebula.
In astronomical photography, France occupies a
leading position. This is perhaps natural, because the
development of photography is in so large a part due to
the French. The Atlas of the Moon, by LOEWY and
PUISEUX, is the standard in its field; the solar photo-
graphs of JANSSEN are in a class by themselves; but
above all other work in importance towers the "Carte
Photographique du Ciel," which, as its name implies,
owes its inception largely to French influence. The
headquarters of the international committee which
ASTRONOMY 53
supervises this great enterprise has always been in Paris,
and zones have been undertaken and in large measure
completed by the Observatories of Paris, Bordeaux,
Toulouse, and Algiers. This committee has also or-
ganized other important investigations, notably the
campaign of observations on the asteroid Eros in 1900-
1901, which has resulted in the most precise determina-
tion of the distance of the Sun that has yet been made.
The influence of France has been directed toward
friendly cooperation on the large problems of astronomy,
and thus Paris naturally has been the seat of many
important astronomical Conferences. At the Conference
on fundamental star positions, in 1896, a uniform system
of values of the fundamental constants of astronomy
was adopted for use in all astronomical ephemerides.
At the "Conference Internationale des Ephemerides
astronomiques," in 1911, a uniform system of presenta-
tion of astronomical data was adopted by all the national
Ephemerides, and arrangements were perfected for
exchange of work involved in their computation and
publication; these have been among the very few frag-
ments of international cooperation to survive the shock
of the Great War.
Instruction. University of Paris. Here the principal
courses of interest to the advanced student of Astronomy
are the following: By ANDOYER, a distinguished student of
all matters which bear upon elegance and accuracy of com-
putation: 1914-15, Theory of eclipses; 1915-16, Elemen-
tary solutions of the fundamental problems of Celestial
mechanics. By APPELL, widely known as a mathematician :
1914-15, 1915-16, Celestial Mechanics, Works of Poincare.
By PUISEUX, known for his studies on the Moon and on
other astrophysical questions: 1914-15, Stars and Nebu-
lae; 1915-16, The Sun, solar spectrum, eclipses.
54 ASTRONOMY
Other Universities. Courses in Astronomy are given in
almost all the provincial universities of France. The op-
portunities of most interest to the graduate student are
likely to be found at
MARSEILLE, where the observatory is open to foreign
men of science for research, and practical instruction for
students is arranged, under the direction of FABRY, the
distinguished spectroscopist, known for his work on the
precise measurement of wave-lengths.
LYON, where the observatory at St.-Genis-Laval,
though principally devoted to research, admits students
for practical instruction in astronomy, under the care of
LUIZET, one of the best-known students of variable stars.
TOULOUSE, where the observatory, which has taken
an important share in the preparation of the great inter-
national photographic "Carte du Ciel," admits foreign
investigators, and gives practical instruction to students
in the University.
The observatories of ALGIERS and BORDEAUX, which
are also doing work of the first quality, are likewise con-
nected with the Universities situated in these cities.
BOTANY and
AGRICULTURE
BOTANY
French botanists have been conspicuous chiefly in
the development of Taxonomy and Palaeobotany.
The first great name in the history of classification is
that of TOURNEFORT (1656-1708), Professor at the Royal
Gardens in Paris. He was the founder of genera; that is,
he was the first who organized groups of species into the
next higher category of classification. Later Antoine
DE JUSSIEU, Director of the Museum of Natural History
in Paris, published the first natural system of classifica-
tion in his "Genera Plantarum" (1789), in which he
first established the category of classification known as
families, which are natural groups of genera. Then
Auguste DE CANDOLLE, first of Paris and later of Geneva,
first grouped families into orders, the next higher cate-
gory of classification, and established a sequence of
families long used in all manuals of botany.
As a consequence of this early work in classification,
the Herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes contains more
of the early "types" of North American plants than
any other European collection, and must always be
consulted in any monographic work.
One of the outstanding names in the history of French
botany is that of LAMARCK (1744-1829), who for twenty-
five years was Director of the Royal Gardens, to which
he gave the name "Jardin des Plantes," which has been
used ever since. He was the author of the first "Flora of
France," the pioneer manual of French botany. It was
1 [Drafting Committee: J. M. COULTER, University of Chicago. —
ED.]
57
58 BOTANY
during his activities as a botanist that an unusual number
of North American plants came to Paris for identifica-
tion, and that the herbarium under his direction became
rich in American "types." Later Lamarck became a
zoologist, and proposed the first great explanation of
organic evolution, which is now usually referred to as
"Lamarckism."
The fossil flora of France is one of the best preserved
in the world, and this has been taken advantage of in
the strong development of Palaeobotany by such leaders
as BRONGNIART, who published the first extensive ac-
count of fossil plants ; followed by DE SAPORTA, RENAULT,
ZEILLER, BERTRAND, GRAND-EURY, and LIGNIER. This
very unusual group of palaeobotanists has contributed
more to our knowledge of ancient vegetation than any
group of palaeobotanists in the world.
The more modern fields of botany, as morphology,
plant pathology, anatomy, ecology, and plant breeding,
have received important contributions from such in-
vestigators as VAN TIEGHEM, who first put the study of
vascular anatomy upon its modern scientific basis;
BONNIER, who was a pioneer in the study of the effect
of environment on plants, especially the changes induced
in the same plant by alpine and lowland habitats; Gui-
GNARD, who was a pioneer in the field of modern morphol-
ogy, especially contributing to our knowledge of the
reproduction and embryology of the higher plants, and
discovering the phenomenon of double fertilization;
and in addition BAILLON, DANGEARD, SAUVAGEAU,
COSTANTIN, and PRILLEUX.
Instruction at Paris. The different institutions com-
ing under the general title of the University of Paris
offer unusual and varied opportunities to students of
botany, especially the Sorbonne, the ficole superieure de
JEAN LOUIS LEON GUIGNARD (1852-)
BOTANY
BOTANY 59
Pharmacia, and the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The
laboratories are well equipped and rich in material, and
the investigators in charge are constant contributors to
botanical literature. Among the more notable teachers
and investigators now available are the following:
At the Sorbonne, BONNIER lectures upon the chem-
istry of plant nutrition, a fundamental subject in scien-
tific agriculture. MOLLIARD supplements the point of
view developed by BONNIER, by means of lectures in the
physics of plants. Together these two courses intro-
duce the student to the great modern field of plant
physiology. In addition, MATRUCHOT is an authority
upon the lower plant groups (algae, fungi, and bacteria),
and includes in his work with these groups a course in
plant pathology.
At the ficole superieure de Pharmacie, a notable
figure is that of GUIGNARD, pioneer in modern morphol-
ogy, whose discoveries and technique in this field are
surpassed in no laboratory. His material includes chiefly
the higher plants, but associated with him is RADAIS,
an authority in cryptogams. The whole range of plant
morphology, therefore, is presented by these two in-
vestigators.
At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle a notable group
of three investigators supplement one another, and offer
a wide range af opportunity. LECOMTE deals with the
phanerogams, while MANGIN is a specialist in cryptogams.
Perhaps the unique opportunity, however, is offered by
COSTANTIN in his remarkable work on the scientific
culture of plants. Recently he has solved the riddle of
orchid culture, discovering that an associated parasite is
necessary for seed germination. This indicates the
fundamental nature of his culture studies.
Opportunities Outside of Paris. There are at least
three botanical institutions outside Paris that deserve
60 BOTANY
special mention because of the unusual opportunities
they offer.
The Laboratoire de Biologic vegetale at Fontainebleau
is established in that famous forest, and furnishes a
unique opportunity for what may be called field studies,
in contrast with laboratory studies. The investigation
of the activities of plants in the open is a necessary
supplement to a knowledge of their structures as revealed
in the laboratory. No student of botany in France should
fail to come in contact with the Fontainebleau establish-
ment.
At Montpellier, the Ins ti tut de Botanique in connec-
tion with the university is one of the famous establish-
ments of the world. Its well equipped laboratories and
library and its extensive botanic garden have long been
used in connection with important research work. The
distinguishing feature of the institute is its important
work in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. In
addition to the equipment referred to, there is a moun-
tain laboratory (Laboratoire du mont Aigoual), with an
elevation of 1300 meters, which is organized for the
study of mountain plants and alpine conditions.
At Nancy, the Institut Agricole is a famous establish-
ment, providing instruction in the profession of scientific
agriculture in Europe or in the French colonies. Its
five sections indicate the scope of the work and the
opportunity: agriculture, dairy-farming, economics,
colonial studies, and forestry.
AGRICULTURE1
The recent history of agriculture in France has been
that of a general movement, at first opposed, but finally
remarkably successful. No training in agriculture is
complete without including some knowledge of the
organization and methods developed in France.
The first movement was in the direction of agricultural
education. In 1848 the government adopted a plan
which provided agricultural teaching of three grades:
(i) elementary practical instruction, (2) secondary
practical and theoretical instruction, and (3) advanced
training in the Institut National Agronomique. From
the beginning good results were obtained, but opposi-
tion led to the suppression of the Institut, and to a re-
duction in the number of the other schools. Later,
through the efforts of Eugene TISSERAND, a successful
organization of agricultural education was established,
and the Institut National Agronomique was re-estab-
lished with a competent staff, and since 1876 has been
demonstrating its great usefulness.
Secondary instruction is given in the three great central
schools of Grignon, Montpeliier, and Rennes; horti-
culture is cared for by the Ecole Nationale d'Horti-
culture, founded at Versailles in 1874; while the special
needs of various regions have been met by secondary
schools. Between the farm schools, intended to train
skilled laborers in the practical side alone, and the
secondary schools, there seemed to be too wide an inter-
1 [Drafting Committee: J. M. COULTER, University of Chicago. —
ED.]
61
62 BOTANY
val, and to meet this deficiency a law was passed in
1875 organizing experimental agricultural schools to
assist in the training of farmers' sons and daughters.
Traveling schools also went from district to district, giving
similar instruction in short courses.
In 1879 a law was passed providing for professors and
administrators of agriculture to visit the various dis-
tricts, and from that time they have played an important
role in organizing short courses, conferences, agricult-
ural societies, mutual insurance societies, farmers'
mutual loan companies, and organizations promoting
cooperation in buying, selling and producing. Also
demonstration fields and experiment stations, together
with a variety of experimental research laboratories,
were established in various parts of the country.
The progress of agricultural education has been aided
largely through the efforts of agricultural societies. The
Societe Nationale d' Agriculture, founded in 1761, is
foremost among these societies, and is now very properly
properly called the Academic d'Agriculture. Its annals
for a century and a half have contained the names of
eminent scientists, who have contributed to the develop-
ment of agriculture through chemistry, physics, botany,
and zoology. It is still of great assistance in bringing
the results of science to the solution of soil problems.
Several other large societies are grouped about the
Academic d'Agriculture, ranging from La Societe des
Agriculteurs de France, the oldest of the societies, with
9000 members scattered throughout the country, to the
recently founded Societe Nationale d'Encouragement
a PAgriculture. La Societe Nationale d'Horticulture de
France for 25 years has been prominent in caring for
the horticultural interests, while vine growers are rep-
resented by La Societe des Viticulteurs de France. About
these large organizations are grouped very numerous
AGRICULTURE 63
smaller societies, all contributing to the cultivation of
interest in agriculture by means of bulletins, meetings,
and fairs.
A summary of the advancement in agricultural educa-
tion in France during the past 40 years is as follows:
establishment of education in scientific agriculture
through the Institut National Agronomique; providing
for secondary agricultural education in national schools;
organization of primary agricultural education by estab-
lishing schools of practical agriculture; creation of a
complete staff of professors to teach the best and most
useful methods in rural communities; inauguration of
practical agricultural instruction for girls and popular
instruction for adults through traveling schools of short
courses, held during the winter; dissemination and
popularization of agricultural knowledge by agricultural
societies; supplementing theoretical and practical instruc-
tion by demonstrations at various fairs, permitting
farmers to know and appreciate the annual advance of
agricultural science.
Another notable feature of French agriculture is
agricultural cooperation. While only a minority of the
farmers have come in direct contact with the instruction
provided, economic stress has tended to bring all the
farmers together. In 1884 a law was passed for the
organization of professional syndicates, and by an
amendment it was extended to include the farmers.
The purpose of the agricultural syndicate was to study
and defend the economic and other interests of the
farmers. One of the first undertakings was the purchase
on a large scale of fertilizers, thus giving the small
farmer the advantages of reduced prices, guaranteed
quality, and low freight charges upon this important
commodity. The scope of these syndicates was ex-
tended later to include large purchases of selected seed,
64 BOTANY
well bred farm animals, agricultural machinery, and
insecticides. This not only resulted in economy from
wholesale buying and shipping, but had a beneficial
educational effect in the introduction of improved seed,
better cattle, tools, and methods. Later, attention
was directed to conditions of marketing, and many
syndicates collected and graded the crops of their mem-
bers, marketing them to much greater advantage and
gaining the further advantage of low freight charges
upon car-load shipments.
The syndicates have proved great social factors in
bringing together, upon an entirely equal footing, pro-
prietor, tenant, and laborer, under the motto "All for
each, and each for all." In 1887 there were 214 syndi-
cates; in 1805 the number was 1188, including 400,000
adherents; and at the present time there are more than
6000 organizations, including nearly 1,000,000 farmers.
Another feature of agriculture in France is the farm
loan system, which created a system of credit for farmers
somewhat different from commercial credit. Mutual
farm loan companies have been established by members of
the farmers' syndicates. These loan companies were made
possible by advances from the State, through the Bank of
France. In 1910 there existed 98 central companies and
3000 local companies, comprising 152,000 members; and
the plan has proved to be extremely successful.
Before 1898 no special encouragement was given to
agriculture by mutual insurance societies; then laws
were passed authorizing insurance societies to benefit
by the law in reference to rural syndicates, and in 1912
there were 13,000 local mutual organizations insuring
against loss by death of cattle or by fire. A series of
guarantees is provided, extending from the local societies,
through central companies, to "The Central Trust of
the Syndicate of Farmers of France."
AGRICULTURE 65
The whole syndicate movement in France has been
a happy means of grouping all the vital forces of agri-
culture into a common and democratic movement. In
consequence, the condition of the rural population has
been immensely improved, both in spirit and in product.
The standing of agriculture in France was improved
in 1 88 1 by the appointment of a Minister of Agriculture.
Before that time the interests of agriculture were en-
trusted successively to the Minister of the Interior, of
Commerce, and of Public Works. The Minister of
Agriculture has, among his other duties, charge of the
supervision of agricultural education, cooperation, and
improvements; of horse-breeding and veterinary educa-
tion; of suppressing frauds in agricultural products.
The improvements under the regime of ministers of
agriculture have been marked. Among the means
adopted for encouraging agriculture may be cited the
organization of central and local fairs, awarding prizes
for crops, investigations of the suitability of farm ma-
chinery, encouragement of the industrial use of denatured
alcohol, and the collection and publication of annual
statistics of farm products.
The forestry school of Nancy, founded in 1824, became
more truly a scientific institution when in 1888 its stu-
dents were required to present diplomas from the In-
stitut National Agronomique for their matriculation.
Other schools for advanced and secondary work in
forestry were also established. The Forest Service ad-
ministered the State forests, and at the same time had
charge of projects for the reforestation of mountains
and the conservation of woodlands. Since 1880 the
State forests have been increased 22 per cent., and each
year 7000 hectares are reforested. The rural hydraulic
service has charge of drainage and irrigation projects and
the flood control of streams. The development and
66 BOTANY
utilization of the water-power of the wooded mountains
through easily transportable electric power has received
attention, and as a result many thousands of horse-
power are available from the French Alps. Recently
efforts have been made to utilize some of this power
in promoting rural industries.
The remarkably effective organization of the agri-
cultural interests of France deserves the careful study of
all students of agriculture in this country.
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY
There was a time, thanks chiefly to the genius of
LAVOISIER, when chemistry was in truth a "French
science." Now that it has diffused from France over the
whole world and become international, the labors of
that epoch remain as an inspiration to chemists of every
nation. There is hardly a single tendency of the science
which is not founded upon the researches of the French.
From the time of LAVOISIER, the development of
French chemistry was rapid and broad, because founded
upon measurement and established in a very favorable
environment. BERTHOLLET, GAY-LUSSAC, and THENARD,
at the beginning of last century; later CHEVREUL, DUMAS,
LAURENT and GERHARDT, WURTZ, SAINTE-CLAIRE
DEVILLE, and BERTHELOT, together with AMPERE and
PASTEUR (two great names better known in other fields),
contributed a large part of the principles, the theories,
and the facts upon which the modern science rests.
More recently BERTHELOT (the undisputed head of French
chemistry, and perhaps the most versatile of modern
chemists), MOISSAN, BECQUEREL, CURIE, and others
still alive, have worthily continued the great national
tradition.
Dalton's rudimentary atomic theory required the prin-
ciple of Lavoisier as its necessary foundation. To its
development, GAY-LUSSAC contributed the law of
volumes and a study of the radical of cyanogen, AMPERE
1 [Drafting Committee: W. D. BANCROFT, Cornell University;
F. B. DAINS, University of Kansas; L. J. HENDERSON, Harvard
University. — ED.]
69
7o CHEMISTRY
an independent formulation of the hypothesis of Avo-
gadro, DUMAS the idea of substitution, LAURENT and
GERHARDT the conception of types, PASTEUR the beau-
tiful and subtle theory of molecular asymmetry, LE BEL
and GUYE the fundamentals of stereochemistry. To
the development of organic chemistry, which served at
every later stage as the support of the growing atomic
theory, CHEVREUL contributed the explanation of the
constitution of the fats; DUMAS, RAOULT, GUYE,
WURTZ, ST.-GILLES, and BERTHELOT, a great variety of
important discoveries. Not less do inorganic chemistry
(through the labors of a large number of investigators),
crystallography (through the researches of ROME DE
L'IsLE and HAUY), and physical chemistry (through
those of BERTHOLLET and GAY-LUSSAC), take their
origin in France. Turning to another field, the begin-
nings of the science of metabolism are to be found in
the researches of LAVOISIER and LAPLACE, while the
labors of PASTEUR have revolutionized chemical biology
and created chemical pathology. The early develop-
ment of agricultural chemistry is illustrated by the
work of BOUSSINGAULT. And lastly the history of
chemistry has profited by many important investigations
of BERTHELOT and DUHEM.
University instruction and research in France at the
present time may be summarized by mentioning the
best-known workers:
Instruction at Paris. I. At the Sorbonne (faculty
of sciences): Mme. CURIE, professor of physics, the
co-discoverer (with her husband, who died in 1906) of
radium, the discoverer of polonium, and the author of a
series of investigations in the important field which
her own labors, extending Henri BECQUEREL'S discovery
of the radio-activity of uranium, have opened to science;
ANTOINE LAURENT LAVOISIER (1743-1794)
CLAUDE LOUIS BERTHOLLET (1748-1822)
(From a painting in the Sorbonne)
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY 71
Mme. Curie is a Nobel Laureate and (with P. CURIE)
the author of a work "Traite de radioactivite" (2 vols.,
Paris, 1910); LE CHATELIER, professor of chemistry,
a physical chemist of great eminence and versatility,
author of researches on chemical thermodynamics,
on pyrometry, the equilibria of alloys, and the micros-
copy of alloys; he has published "Recherches experi-
mentales et theoriques sur les equilibres chimiques,"
(Paris, 1880), "Introduction a Tetude de la metallurgie,"
(Paris, 1912), "Lecons sur le carbone, la combustion, les
lois chimiques" (Paris, 1908), and " La silice et les sili-
cates"; URBAIN, professor of chemistry, famous especially
for his investigations upon the rare earths, their separa-
tion and their spectroscopy, author of "Introduction a
1'etude de la Spectrochimie," (Paris, 1911); HALLER,
professor of organic chemistry, a specialist in the investi-
gation of camphor and its derivatives, of alcohol, and of
reactions of reduction, author of "Theorie generate des
alcools" (Paris, 1879), and "Les recents progres de la
Chimie organique" (3 vols., Paris, 1904-1908); G.
BERTRAND (of the Institut Pasteur), professor of biol-
ogical chemistry, a student of enzymes, especially the
oxydases, and of the sugars; CHABRIE, professor of
applied chemistry; Jean PERRIN, professor of physical
chemistry, who has conducted important investigations
on the Brownian movement, the theory of colloids, and
the molecular kinetic theory, author of "Rayons catho-
diques et rayons de Roentgen" (Paris, 1897), "Traite
de Chimie physique, Les principes" (Paris, 1903), and
"Les atomes" (Paris, 1913).
II. At the College de France: MATIGNON, a physical
chemist whose researches have been especially in the
field of thermochemistry, and of the rare earths; JUNG-
FLEISCH, an organic chemist who has made important
investigations upon tartaric acid and certain derivatives
72 CHEMISTRY
of benzene, (with Berthelot) author of "Traite de Chimie
organique" (4th ed., 3 vol., Paris, 1907-1908), and
"Lemons sur les methodes generates desynthese en chimie
organique" (Paris, 1864).
III. At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle: MAQUENNE,
whose researches extend over the field of the carbo-
hydrates, author of "Les Sucres et leurs principaux
derives" (Paris, 1900); and ARNAUD.
IV. At the Ecole Siiperieure de Pharmacie: BEHAL,
an organic chemist who, among other subjects, has
studied unsaturated compounds and creosote, author of
"Traite de Chimie organique" (2 vols., Paris, 1909-1911,
3d ed.); GAUTIER, known for various investigations in
organic chemistry, in chemical toxicology, and in
hygiene, author of "Cours de Chimie organique" (Paris,
1906, 3d ed.), "Ptomaines et leucomaines" (Paris, 1866),
and " L 'Alimentation et les regimes chez rhomme sain
et chez les malades" (Paris, 1904); D. BERTHELOT,
author of important researches on the theory of gases,
the determination of molecular weights, and photo-
chemistry; MOUREU, a student of the rare gases of the
atmosphere, and an eminent organic chemist, author of
"Notions fondamentales de Chimie organique" (Paris,
1902); BOURQUELOT, whose researches upon enzymes are
well-known, author of "Les Ferments solubles" (Paris,
1896); VILLIERS; GUIMBERT; and LEBEAU.
V. At the Ecole Municipale de Chimie, HANRIOT
and COPAUX; at the Faculty of Medicine, DESGREZ;
at the Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques,
HAMONET.
There are also at Paris, chiefly at the Institut Pas-
teur, a number of others, including BERTRAND, Roux,
MESNIL, DELEZENNE, CHAMBERLAND, MARTIN, MAZE,
MOUTON, J. DUCLAUX, whose investigations fall in the
borderland of chemistry, physiology, pathology, and
CHEMISTRY 73
general biology. Also in Paris, but not connected with
the ministry of public instruction, are a considerable
number of other chemists of distinction, including
LE BEL, G. LEMOINE, SCHLOESING, SCHLOESING FILS,
and MUNTZ.
In 1914-15 the courses in chemistry given in Paris
were as follows:
I. Faculty of Sciences. General Physics: Mme.
CURIE, "Ions in Gases and the Phenomena of Radio-
activity." General Chemistry: LE CHATELIER, "The
Properties of the Metals and the General Laws of Chem-
istry." Chemistry: URBAIN, "Thermochemistry and
the Energetics of Chemical Reactions." Organic
Chemistry: HALLER, "The Aromatic Series." Physical
Chemistry: PERRIN, "General Physical Chemistry."
Applied Chemistry: CHABRIE, " Fuels, Precious Metals
and the Manufacture of Alcohol." Biological Chemistry:
BERTRAM), "The Chemical Composition of Living
Organisms."
In addition to these courses, numerous conferences
were held, as follows: OUVRARD, "Technology;"
GUICHARD, "The Study of Original Memoirs in General
Chemistry, and the Metalloids and Metals;" V. AUGER,
"Inorganic Chemistry;" BLAISE, "Organic Chemistry,
General Principles and Study of the Aliphatic Series;"
FERNBACH, "Microbes in the Fermentation Industry,
and Alcoholic Fermentation."
II. Institut de Chimie Appliquee. In this institute,
under the direction of CHABRIE, are given certain courses
supplementary to those of the faculty of sciences, in-
cluding elementary qualitative and quantitative analysis
by Binet du JASSONNEDC, qualitative organic analysis
and organic preparations by FREUNDLER, analysis and
preparation of industrial products by MARQUIS, and
physical chemistry and electrochemistry by MARIE.
74 CHEMISTRY
Students, including foreigners, over eighteen years of age
are admitted to this school by examination.
III. At the Faculte de Medecine, there are courses
on chemistry applied to medicine, conducted by DESGREZ
and LABBE, together with other courses in physiology,
medical physics, hygiene, pharmacology, pathology,
etc.
IV. At the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie there are
the following courses: VILLIERS, qualitative and quanti-
tative analysis; GAUTIER, inorganic chemistry; GRIMBERT,
biological chemistry; BEHAL, organic chemistry; LEBEAU,
toxicology; BOURQUELOT, pharmacy; MOUREU, chemical
pharmacy.
V. At the Institut Pasteur there is a section of biol-
ogical chemistry, comprising a laboratory of biological
chemistry (affiliated with the faculty of sciences), the
service of fermentations, a laboratory of agricultural
chemistry, and a laboratory for instruction in biological
chemistry. This section of the Institute gives theoretical
and practical instruction in the several branches of the
subject; to this instruction properly qualified foreigners
are admitted.
VI. There are also courses on chemistry and allied
subjects at the College de France, at the Museum d'His-
toire Naturelle, and in various other places.
VII. The Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes includes
a number of chemical laboratories. Qualified students
are admitted as members of this school, without regard
to age or nationality or formal qualification, into its
laboratories, at the pleasure of the laboratory chief.
This arrangement makes free the access to nearly all
the advanced laboratories of Paris.
Laboratories in the following subjects are associated
with this school: Inorganic chemistry at the Sorbonne
(Le Chatelier, director) ; Chemistry, at the ficole Normale
CHEMISTRY 75
(Lespieau, director); Inorganic Chemistry, at the Col-
lege de France (Matignon, director); Biological Chemis-
try, at the Institut Pasteur (Roux, director); Organic
Chemistry, at the College de France (Jungfleisch,
director); Organic Chemistry, at the Sorbonne (Haller,
director); Pathological Chemistry, at the College de
France (Goupil, director).
VIII. The Institute of Hydrology and Climatology
includes the following laboratories, among others: Water
Analysis, at the Sorbonne (Urbain, director); Physical
Chemistry, at the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie
(Moureu, director).
IX. There are also chemical laboratories in the
various institutes and schools of agriculture, horticulture,
veterinary medicine, etc., which abound in the capital
and its environs, as well as at the iLcole Municipale de
Chimie.
Provincial Universities. Opportunities for study and
research in chemistry at the other universities are far less
varied than at Paris, and in the different institutions
are decidedly unequal. In some instances, as at Nancy,
every department of the science is represented, and the
student has every necessary opportunity at his disposal.
But in certain smaller institutions each faculty has but
a single chair of chemistry. The subject is, however,
always represented in both the faculty of sciences and
the faculty (or "ficole preparatoire ") of medicine; it is
also represented in certain "Facultes libres;" and there
are, of course, in connection with the schools of medicine,
various chairs which are chiefly concerned with one or
another aspect of the more fundamental science. In
some instances, there are also institutes of chemistry
and applied chemistry affiliated with the university
faculties. It should be distinctly understood that some
of the best chemists in France are to be found in the
76 CHEMISTRY
provinces. The following list includes most of the
principal chemists of the several provincial universities:
Besanqon. Faculty of sciences: L. BOUTROUX, pro-
fessor of chemistry; TISSIER, professor of applied chem-
istry.
Bordeaux. Faculty of sciences: GAYON, professor of
chemistry; VEZES, professor of inorganic chemistry and
director of a technical laboratory; VIGOUROUX, known
for his researches on alloys; M. DUBOURG, adjunct
professor of agricultural chemistry and head of the
school of applied chemistry. Faculty of medicine and
pharmacy: BLAREZ, professor of chemistry; DENIGES,
professor of biological chemistry, known for his investi-
gation of a number of interesting reactions.
Caen. Faculty of sciences: BESSON, professor of
chemistry. School of medicine: CHRETIEN, professor
of chemistry.
Clermont. Faculty of sciences: CHAVASTELON, pro-
fessor of chemistry. School of medicine: HUGUET, pro-
fessor of chemistry.
Dijon. Faculty of sciences and School of medicine:
PIGEON, professor of chemistry. Faculty of sciences:
METZNER, adjunct professor of industrial and agricultural
chemistry.
Grenoble. Faculty of sciences: RECOURA, professor
of chemistry, known for his researches in inorganic
chemistry; FLUSIN, professor of electrochemistry and
electrometallurgy, who is also associated with the
Institut filectrotechnique.
Lille. Faculty of sciences: LEMOULT, professor of
general chemistry; BUISINE, professor of industrial and
agricultural chemistry and director of the institute of
chemistry. Among the other chemists in this faculty
may be mentioned: Faculty of medicine: LAMBLING,
professor of organic chemistry; LESCCEUR, professor of
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CHEMISTRY 77
inorganic chemistry and toxicology. There are also at
Lille chairs of chemistry in the "Facultes libres" of
medicine and sciences.
Lyon. Faculty of sciences: BARBIER, professor of
chemistry, an eminent organic chemist, well known for
his numerous researches in the determination of consti-
tution and on reduction; VIGNON, professor of industrial
and agricultural chemistry; and several others. Faculty
of medicine: HUGOUNENQ, professor of medical chem-
istry, known for his spectroscopical work; MOREL,
professor of organic chemistry; and several others.
Marseille. Faculty of sciences: PERDRIX, professor
of general chemistry; RIVALS, professor of industrial
chemistry. School of medicine: MOITESSIER, professor
of medical chemistry.
Montpellier. Faculty of sciences: DE FORCRAND, pro-
fessor of chemistry, known for his investigation upon
heterogeneous equilibrium, thermochemistry, and
thermodynamics; OECHSNER DE CONINCK, professor of
chemistry, and likewise a well-known investigator; in
this faculty there are also several other chemists. Faculty
of medicine: VILLE, professor of medical chemistry.
Nancy. Faculty of sciences: MULLER, professor of
physical chemistry; PETIT, professor of agricultural
chemistry; WAHL, professor of industrial chemistry;
GUNTZ, professor of inorganic chemistry and director
of the Institut Chimique, known for his researches on
lithium and barium; GRIGNARD, professor of organic
chemistry, winner of the Nobel prize for his researches
upon organomagnesium compounds, author of "Sur les
combinations organomagnesiennes mixtes et leurs
applications" (Lyon, 1901); MINGUIN, professor of
chemistry; GUYOT, professor of the chemistry of dyeing
and printing. Faculty of medicine: GARNIER, professor
of medical chemistry.
78 CHEMISTRY
Poitiers. Faculty of sciences: Roux and BODROUX,
professors of chemistry. School of medicine: SAUVAGE,
professor of chemistry.
Rennes. Faculty of sciences: BOUZAT, professor of
chemistry. School of medicine: LENORMAND and
LAURENT, professors of chemistry.
Toulouse. Faculty of sciences: Paul SABATIER, pro-
fessor of chemistry and director of the institute of
chemistry, whose researches upon catalytic organic
reductions have been awarded the Nobel prize, author
of "La Catalyse en Chimie organique" (Paris, 1913);
GIRAN, professor of chemistry; FABRE, professor of agri-
cultural and industrial chemistry and director of the
Station Agronomique. Faculty of medicine: ALOY,
professor of chemistry. At the Faculte libre of Toulouse,
1'abbe SENDERENS, the collaborator with Sabatier in
his important researches, is professor of chemistry.
CRIMINOLOGY
CRIMINOLOGY
Ever since the famous reports of LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-
LIANCOURT to the National Assembly in 1790 and 1791,
France has been a center of lively interest in the subject
of criminalistics. His studies of mendicity, reforma-
tories, poor relief, and the Philadelphia prison system,
have been guide-posts for a century. But even before
that, VOLTAIRE had popularized the ideas of Beccaria.
The tradition was carried on in the nineteenth century
by great sociologists like QuETELET,who laid the founda-
tions of criminal statistics; by great publicists like
DE TOCQUEVILLE, who added a strand to the bonds
between France and America by his notable report on
the penitentiary system in the United States and its
application in France (1833); by great physiologists like
LAUVERGNE, who anticipated some of Lombroso's
theories; by great men of letters like LAMARTINE, who
thought it no condescension to offer to the cause of
neglected childhood some of his most masterly eloquence;
and by great medical men like MOREL and DESPINE,
who blazed new paths in criminal psychiatry. The
whole nineteenth century was a period of free trade
between these two republics in the field of charities and
correction. France borrowed ideas of prison adminis-
tration. America in return imported both ideas and men
for developing our system of caring for the blind, deaf-
mutes, feeble-minded, and insane. Recently France
1 [Drafting Committee: C. A. ELL WOOD, University of Missouri;
MAURICE PARMELEE, College of the City of New York; A. J. TODD,
University of Minnesota. — ED.]
81
82 CRIMINOLOGY
once more exemplified the same principle by taking
over from us the Juvenile Court. Another illustration
may be found in the proposal by TARDE to substitute
our system of electrocution for the guillotine as the
best method of capital punishment. Finally, it is not
too much to say that the American system of the inde-
terminate sentence and parole is to no small degree
the child of French inspiration. For it appears that
the first public proclamation of the principle of con-
ditional liberation of prisoners came through a remarkable
address of BONNE VILLE DE MARSANGY at Rheims in
1846; this address (translated and published by F. H.
Wines in 1866) formed one of the foundation stones of
our Elmira Reformatory System.
France, then, offers two fields for the student of crim-
inalistics: penal administration and criminology proper.
The French School of Criminology. The tendency of
the French criminologists has been to lay special em-
phasis upon the influence of the environment in the
causation of crime. Consequently, the so-called "French
School" of criminology has frequently been called the
"school of the environment." This tendency has been
due in part to an attempt to oppose and counteract the
tendency of the Italian criminologists to put excessive
emphasis upon the influence of pathological and abnormal
anatomical and physiological traits in the causation of
crime. It has also been due to the important place
given in France to the study of law, politics, and the
social sciences.
At the same time the notable achievements of the
French in physiology, psychology, and anthropology
have had their influence upon the development of crim-
inology in that country. A number of careful studies
have been made of the physical traits of criminals, and
GABRIEL TARDE (1843-1904)
(From the monument by Injalbert)
CRIMINOLOGY
CRIMINOLOGY 83
much attention has been given to the psychiatric aspect
of crime. Legal medicine has been developed in France
perhaps further than in any other country.
Criminologists. Two French criminologists deserve
special mention. One of them is the sociologist, the late
Gabriel TARDE, who was at first a provincial magistrate,
later chief of the Bureau of Statistics, and then professor
at the College de France in Paris. In all of his crimino-
logical writings his principal effort was to analyze the
influence of the social factors in the causation of crime.
Among his books are "La philosophic penale" (translated
into English), "La criminalite comparee," "fitudes
penales et sociales," "Les transformations du droit,"
"Les transformations du pouvoir."
The other is Alexandre LACASSAGNE, professor of legal
medicine at the University of Lyon, and founder and
editor of the leading criminological journal in France
(and perhaps in the world), the "Archives d'Anthropologie
criminelle, de Medecine legale, et de Psychologic nor-
male et pathologique." Lacassagne has, in a sense, been
the official spokesman of the French school of crim-
inology. He is the leader of a group of criminologists
who have been very active in research work and in
criminological publication. He has written volumin-
ously on the statistical and other social aspects of
crime, while his medico-legal treatises make him one
of the leading authorities in the world on the subject of
legal medicine.
A. CORRE has published several valuable books con-
taining both general and specialized studies of the causes
of crime: "Crime et suicide," "Les criminels," "L'eth-
nographie criminelle" (with P. Aubry), "Documents de
criminologie retrospective." E. LAURENT has made
special studies on prisons, and has also written about
84 CRIMINOLOGY
the general problems of criminology: "Les habitues des
prisons de Paris," "Le criminel," "L'anthropologie
criminelle et les nouvelles theories du crime." C. PER-
RIER has made special studies on prisons : "Lescriminels,"
" Emprisonnement et criminalite." H. JOLY has pub-
lished numerous works containing many statistical data:
"Le crime," "La France criminelle," "L'enfance cou-
pable," "La Belgique criminelle," "Problemes de science
criminelle." L. PROAL, a magistrate, has written vo-
luminously and graphically: "Le crime et la peine,"
"La criminalite politique," "Le crime et le suicide
passionnels." J. MAXWELL, a public prosecutor, has
written scholarly works on the nature of crime: "Le
crime et la societe," "Le concept social du crime."
G. VIDAL has published voluminous compilations of
criminal law and of the data of modern criminological
science: "Principes fondamentaux de la penalite dans
les systemes les plus modernes," "Cours de droit criminel
et de science penitentiaire." J. DALLEMAGNE has pre-
pared several useful little handbooks of the different
aspects of criminology: "Les theories de la criminalite,"
"Les stigmates anatomiques de la criminalite," "Les
stigmates biologiques et sociologiques de la criminalite."
Criminology in the Universities. In all of the law
schools are given courses on criminal law and procedure.
In the medical schools of the universities of Paris, Bor-
deaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, and Toulouse,
are given courses on legal medicine. The two universi-
ties at which the facilities for studying criminology are
sufficiently extensive to require special mention are
these of Paris and Lyon.
At the University of Paris, in the law school are given
courses on criminal law and penology by GAR£ ON and
LE POITTEVIN. There is a special seminary room for
RENE BERENGER (1830-)
CRIMINOLOGY
CRIMINOLOGY 85
students of criminology. A diploma is given for special
studies in penal science ("Certificat de science penale").
In the medical school are given courses in legal medicine
by THOINOT and RIBIERRE. There is a laboratory and
an institute of legal medicine. To those who qualify
is given the diploma of medico-legal expert (medecin
legiste). In addition to these medical and legal courses
should be noted the courses of DURKHEIM, which cor-
relate closely criminalistics with other social phenomena.
In addition to the courses in the University, courses of
interest to students of criminology are frequently given
in various other educational institutions in Paris. Among
these are the College de France, Ecole d'Anthropologie,
Institut general Psychologique, Ecole libre des Sciences
Politiques, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, College
libre des Sciences Sociales.
At the University of Lyon, where LACASSAGNE is the
chief figure, special courses in penology are given in the
law school. Courses on legal medicine are given in the
medical school, and there is a celebrated medico-legal
laboratory.
In Paris an extensive criminological literature is to
be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and in the library
of the Law School. The Musee Social also affords some
facilities in this line. At the Palais de Justice, where
BERTILLON worked out his famous anthropometric system
of identification, are the identification bureau and the
school for teaching identification methods to the police.
The Societe Generale des Prisons holds frequent meetings
of interest to students of criminology. There are several
prisons in or near Paris illustrating different types of
prisons, among them the Prison de la Sante, La Petite
Roquette, etc.
There are many other penal institutions in France
worthy of inspection; perhaps the most famous of these
86 CRIMINOLOGY
is the Colonie de Mettray, a pioneer in juvenile reforma-
tories.
At the University of Lyon are a museum of legal
medicine and a museum of criminal anthropology.
Penal Administration. The large number of "patro-
nages, "particularly for the care and protection of neglected
and delinquent children in Paris, Lyon, Le Havre, and
other large cities, offer opportunity for research into
both causative and preventive factors in crime. Nor
should the "Tribunaux pour enfants et adolescents"
be overlooked. So important has this juvenile court
movement become that a special journal, the "Revue
des Tribunaux pour Enfants," was founded in 1913. Its
collaborators include Senator BERENGER (the great philan-
thropist who fathered the probation system of 1891), Pro-
fessors CUCHE of Grenoble, GARCON and LE POITTEVIN of
Paris, GARRAUD of Lyon, and such distinguished advocates
and judges as ALBANEL, FLORY, LEMERCIER, PREVOST,
PRUDHOMME, ROBERT, ROLLET, TEUTSCH, and VIDAL-
NAQUET. The famous psychological clinic founded by
BINET at the University of Paris furnishes opportunities
for co-ordinating this study of juvenile delinquency; the
so-called "Binet-Simon scale" is the basis for most of
the psychopathic testing employed in American courts
and institutions.
Finally, the admirable statistical service of both
national and municipal bureaus offers to the student
unusual opportunities for access to bodies of statistical
fact and also for training in statistical method. The
French official "Compte general de 1'administration de
la justice," beginning in 1826, is the longest systematic
record available for any country in the world.
EDUCATION
EDUCATION1
Educational theorists have never been lacking in France,
as names like RABELAIS, MONTAIGNE, and ROUSSEAU
easily indicate. In French educational history during
the nineteenth century, names like GUIZOT, DURUY,
FERRY, PECAUT, GREARD, BUISSON, COMPAYRE, and
LIARD, come most readily to mind. Of these, all save
Pecaut and Compayre will go down in history as or-
ganizers or administrators. PECAUT, of sweet spirit,
is the only one who lives pre-eminently as a teacher.
COMPAYRE enjoys relatively greater renown outside
France than in his native country. BUISSON, encyclo-
pedist, administrator, professor in the University of
Paris; and for many years an active and influential mem-
ber of the Chamber of Deputies, still lives in Paris.
Buisson worked hand and glove with Jules Ferry in
effecting the great reforms of the early '8o's which
veritably made the present system of primary educa-
tion in France. LIARD, of eloquent speech and true
pedagogical insight, the worthy successor of Greard as
vice-rector of the University of Paris, has long wielded
a powerful influence in university and secondary circles
at the French capital.
DUPANLOUP, QUINET and MICHELET, Jules SIMON
and Michel BREAL, MARION, LAVISSE, FOUILLEE, GUYAU
and PEREZ, Madame PAPE-CARPENTIER and Madame
1 [Drafting Committee: JOHN DEWEY, Columbia University;
FREDERIC E. FARRINGTON, U. S. Bureau of Education; PAUL H.
HANUS, Harvard University; CHARLES H. JUDD, University of
Chicago.]
89
90 EDUCATION
KERGOMARD, BINET and RIBOT (these latter two, psy-
chologists), have all made valuable contributions to the
development of educational thought.
But during the past hundred years French educators
have been nothing if not practical. Teacher-training
has loomed large in French educational life. In support
therefor one has only to cite the centenary of her higher
normal school, celebrated over two decades ago, and the
hundred and sixty or more primary normal schools, scat-
tered through the various departments, to say nothing
of the girls' higher normal schools, two higher primary
normal schools, as well as other teacher-training institu-
tions— all included within an area less than three-quarters
the size of Texas.
In all these training schools, three aims have been
constantly kept to the fore: The student should know
his subject thoroughly; he should know more than his
subject; and he should know how to teach his subject.
It may fairly be asserted that during the past generation
no country in the world has succeeded better than France
in accomplishing this triple purpose in teacher-prepara-
tion.
Curricula, courses of study, methods of instruction
and organization, textbooks, and innumerable other
details are regulated by a central authority, usually at
Paris itself, after carefully culling the best ideas from
the educational leaders of the country. A system or-
ganized on such a basis may make less striking innova-
tions in educational procedure, and may reduce the
opportunities for experimentation and scientific work,
but at the same time it conduces to more consistent
educational progress. In fact, long before the term
gained general acceptance, France was following a kind
of pedagogical pragmatism in the conduct of its edu-
cational affairs. In a word, France has little to offer
FERDINAND BUISSON (1841-)
EDUCATION
EDUCATION 91
the foreign student in the way of mere formal study of
educational theory as a university subject, much less
does it hold out any inducement to the mere seeker
after academic distinction.
On the other hand, for the educator of mature mind,
able to use his educational theory as a tool, capable
of observing, judging, and evaluating educational or-
ganization and practice, France offers an almost virgin
field for study. With a highly organized educational
system in full working order, with practically every type
of educational institution in successful operation, France
yields to no other country in the world in the excellence
of its individual institutions of learning. These are
well worth the study of the professional educator, from
the University with its traditional faculties, as well as
its more modern adjuncts (to say nothing of independent
institutions of university grade like the College de
France, the £cole des Hautes fitudes Sociales, the Institut
Oceanographique, and the like), through its famous old
lycees and other types of secondary schools, its various
grades of scientific and technical schools, its commercial,
industrial, and agricultural schools, all the way down to
the modest primary school. Each type or each school
has an organization and in many cases a methodology
of its own.
In view of the practical trend in French education,
the absence of education courses, in the narrow sense
of the term, occasions no surprise. In the University
of Paris, only one professor, DURKHEIM, lectures in that
field, announcing three courses under the general cap-
tion: Science of education and sociology. One of these
courses is in ethics; one is concerned with the history of
pedagogical doctrines; and one is a practical course de-
signed to meet the needs of candidates for the master's
92 EDUCATION
degree. What may be called special method courses,
however, are very numerous in the faculty of letters.
In 1914-15, for example, fourteen of the twenty-five
instructors giving courses in history, and four of the
five giving courses in geography, announced special
work for candidates for the higher certificates or degrees.
DURKHEIM, who enjoys an international reputation
as a sociologist through his work on "Suicide," was
called from Bordeaux some years ago as successor to
the late Henri MARION.
Some attention is given to educational theory in the
course of the Ecole Normale Superieure, as well as in
several of the other teachers' training schools in the
Academy of Paris, but admission to these courses may
be obtained only by special dispensation.
Courses in educational theory are likewise few in the
provincial universities. Six : of the fifteen other uni-
versities announce courses in education, viz.: Besanc,on
offers one course in psychology applied to education,
and another in practical pedagogy; Dijon and Toulouse
give the work under "philosophy and pedagogy";
Grenoble, Lille, and Lyon use the caption "science of
education." What has been said of the general nature
of the work at Paris is likewise true of that offered at the
provincial universities.
Despite the lack of theoretical courses in education in
the French universities, there is a wide field for historical
research which has scarcely been touched. We in this
country know little about the historical development of
French institutions. Most of our history of education
has come to us from Germany by way of direct transla-
tion of German treatises. Barnard's great contributions
1 Data on this particular topic are those given in "1'Annuaire de
1'instruction publique" for 1913, the latest available information.
EDUCATION 93
to our knowledge in this field came from German sources.
(It is interesting in passing to note that his promised
volume on French educators was never written). Yet the
first great university was founded in Paris; the most
powerful teaching body the world has ever seen was or-
ganized in Paris by Loyola; Ramus, Rollin, and Rolland
d'Erceville were all important men in the development
of education in France, yet one searches in vain through
the index of the most comprehensive text in the history
of education published in this country for even a mention
of their names. Rashdall in his scholarly "Universities
of Europe during the Middle Ages," and Denifle and
Chatelain in their monumental " Chartularium universi-
tatis Parisiensis," have set the standard in their contri-
butions to early university history. For the ensuing
six hundred years, save for accounts of the more famous
educational theorists, the whole development of educa-
tion in France is well-nigh inaccessible in English. This
offers a great field for research.
Paris is strikingly a city of libraries. Their number is
legion, and includes almost every conceivable subject.
Many of these libraries contain works bearing upon
education in some of its phases. By far the most valu-
able of the pedagogical libraries, and fortunately the
one most readily accessible to the student, is the Bi-
bliotheque de 1'Enseignement Public, at the Musee
Pedagogique, 41 rue Gay-Lussac. Here one finds a
collection of some 75,000 volumes, unfortunately not all
catalogued in the most approved fashion. This, however,
is one of the great educational libraries of the world, and
every facility is afforded for research work; its collection
of American school-texts of the mid-nineteenth century
is surprisingly large. Other libraries may be consulted
for special fields of educational study, notably the library
of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry for all
94 EDUCATION
material relating to technical (i. e. commercial and in-
dustrial) education. The serious and qualified student
of educational problems will find every door open and
every courtesy extended by the authorities of our sister
republic.
ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING-
The teaching of the fundamental sciences of mathe-
matics, mechanics, physics and chemistry, as well as the
application of these sciences to the solution of engineer-
ing problems, calls for clear thinking and for rational
and logical mental processes. Should we not then turn
to France, the land of clear thinking par excellence, for
illuminating and inspiring instruction in sciences, both
pure and applied? The French mind, to which obscurity
is as abhorrent as vacuum is to nature, is peculiarly
fitted to grasp and to teach the physical laws of nature
and their application, and France has given to the world
a rich galaxy of eminent scientific thinkers and dis-
coverers.
It will suffice for our purpose to name a few of the great
French engineers whose achievements have made ,them
famous. Such are Ferdinand DE LESSEPS, the builder
of the Suez Canal; EIFFEL, who conceived and constructed
the tower that bears his name; PERRONNET, PONCELET,
HENNEBIQUE and MESNAGER, civil engineers of world-
wide reputation; SAUVAGE and COUCHE in railroad en-
gineering; Sadi CARNOT, the discoverer of some of the most
fundamental laws of thermodynamics; fitienne LENOIR;
Beau DE ROCHAS and Fernand FOREST, who by their
pioneer work in the development of the internal combus-
tion engine prepared the way for the automobile and the
1 [Drafting Committee: IRA N. HOLLIS, Worcester Polytechnic In-
stitute; HENRY M. HOWE, Columbia University; ALEX. C. HUMPHREYS,
Stevens Institute of Technology; ALBERT SAUVEUR, Harvard Univer-
sity.— ED.]
97
98 ENGINEERING
aeroplane; GRAMME, who developed the dynamo-electric
machine, and took an important part in the discovery that
dynamo machines are reversible, i.e., capable of being
employed as motors; BAUDOT, the designer of a multiplex
system, extensively used; Marcel DEPREZ, who was a
pioneer in the electric transmission of power; FOUCAULT,
who first discovered the losses of power in dynamos due
to eddy currents; MASCART; JOUBERT; HOSPITALLER;
Andre BLONDEL and Maurice LE BLANC, all of whom made
important contributions to electrical engineering science
and standards; the illustrious AMPERE and COULOMB,
who, though generally classified as physicists, have power-
fully contributed through their basic discoveries to the
progress of applied electricity ; filie DE B EAUMONT ; COMBES ;
GALLON; HAUY; Albert DE LAPPARENT; Haton DE LA
GOUPILLIERE; DE LAUNAY; DAUBREE, all mining en-
gineers or geologists who have contributed largely to
engineering progress.
In metallurgy may be mentioned SAINTE-CLAIRE
DEVILLE, whose laboratory experiments opened the way to
much metallurgical progress; REAUMUR, who discovered
the process by which castings of cast-iron may be made
malleable and which today is of great industrial import-
ance; MOISSAN, who in his electric furnace first succeeded
in reducing oxides hitherto deemed unreducible, and
produced a whole series of new carbides; GRUNER, to
whom we owe many of our scientific conceptions of the
complex reactions of the iron blast furnace; Pierre MAR-
TIN, who first succeeded in manufacturing steel in an open-
hearth furnace; OSMOND, the father of metallography;
HEROULT, who (though ignorant of the work done at the
time by the American metallurgist, Hall) invented the
electrolytic method of extracting metallic aluminum
from its ores, and whose electric furnaces are playing
an increasingly important part in the metallurgy of steel ;
ENGINEERING 99
POURCEL, who contributed so much to the early introduc-
tion of the Bessemer process on the Continent, and was
a pioneer in the manufacture of f erro-manganese ; Henri
LE CHATELIER, eminent chemist and metallurgist, whose
inventions of the thermo-electric pyrometer, and numer-
ous other contributions, have made possible much im-
portant progress in the art of treating metals ; SCHNEIDER,
of the Creusot Steel Works; Leon GUILLET and George
CHARPY, productive workers of great talent.
Several of the living engineers mentioned above are prof-
essors in some of the French engineering schools (LE
CHATELIER, MESNAGER, DE LAUNAY, GUILLET, and
others).
Instruction. Applied science in its many ramifica-
tions is taught in France in a large number of institutions.
In Paris alone not less than fourteen well-known schools
are devoted to technical teaching, namely: (i) Con-
servatoire National des Arts et Metiers, (2) Ecole Natio-
nale Superieure des Mines, (3) Ecole Nationale des Ponts
et Chaussees, -(4) Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufac-
tures, (5) Ecole Professionnelle Superieure des Postes et
Telegraphies, (6) Ecole Speciale des Travaux Publics,
du Batiment et de 1'Industrie, (7) Ecole Municipale de
Physique et de Chimie Industrielles, (8) Ecole Nationale
des Arts et Metiers, (9) Ecole Superieure d'Electricite,
(10) Ecole d'Electricite et de Mecanique Industrielles,
(TI) Ecole Pratique d'Electricite industrielle, (12) Ecole
Breguet (electricite et mecanique), (13) Ecole Speciale
de Mecanique et d'Electricite, and (14) Ecole Superieure
d ' Aeronautique et de Construction Mecanique. Im-
portant schools of Business Administration, of Archi-
tecture, of Agriculture, and of Military Engineering,
are also located in Paris.
Applied science is likewise part of the teaching of
nearly- all the provincial universities. These universities
ioo ENGINEERING
are situated at Aix-Marseille, Besancon, Bordeaux,
Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Mont-
pellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.
Confining our attention to the teaching of Engineering,
the most important engineering schools of France are
here briefly mentioned. It is believed that each of
them will heartily co-operate in any effort tending to
facilitate the enrollment of foreign students by remov-
ing the obstacles which in the past have stood in the way.
The entrance requirements for foreign students here
mentioned are those in force before the War. It
is not unlikely that, in some instances at least, they
may be materially modified.
Ecole Poly technique (Paris). This ancient and famous
institution does not confer engineering degrees, but gives
instruction preparatory only to professional studies in
engineering or in military science.
The fact that one hundred and twenty-three of its
graduates have become members of the Institute of
France testifies to the broadness and excellence of its
teaching. Of these, eight have become members of
the Academic Francaise (the list includes DE FREYCINET,
POINCARE, Marcel PREVOST) ; ninety-six, members of the
Academic des Sciences (including ARAGO, Elie DE BEAU-
MONT, CAUCHY, GAY-LUSSAC, DULONG, A. C. BECQUEREL,
H. BECQUEREL, REGNAULT, LE CHATELIER, MICHEL
LEVY,DE LAPPARENT); seven, members of the Academic
des Sciences Morales et Politiques; nine, members of
the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres; and
three, members of the Academic des Beaux Arts. Among
other illustrious graduates of the Ecole Polytechnique
the following may be cited: Auguste LE COMTE, SADI-
CARNOT, Admiral COURBET, General DE MIRIBEL, Haton
DE LA GOUPILLIERE. The School offers a two-year
program including instruction in Calculus, Geometry,
ENGINEERING 101
Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Geology,
History and Literature, Political and Social Economy,
Architecture and drawing.
Foreign students are admitted to the School as day
students only and after passing successfully a special
entrance examination. Successful completion of the
work generally admits students to such schools of applied
science as the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees,
Genie Maritime, etc. Foreign students pay no tuition
fees.
Ecole Nationale superieure des Mines. The Ecole des
Mines is one of the oldest in the world, having been
founded in 1783. Many of its graduates have become
illustrious. The list includes Joseph BERTRAND, RESAL,
Henri POINCARE, BERTHIER, CAILLETET, Rrvox, RE-
GNAULT, DELAUNOY, POTIER, CORNU, DUFRENOY, Elie
DE BEAUMONT, MALLARD, Marcel BERTRAND, DE LAP-
PARENT, COMBES, GALLON, GRUNER, Paul HEROTJLT,
SAUVAGE, COUCHE, LE CHATELIER. Among the many
Americans who have in the past studied at the Ecole
des Mines, the names of Egleston, who later helped to
found the School of Mines of Columbia University,
and of Eckley B. Coxe, the eminent mining engineer,
are conspicuous.
Admission to the School is by competitive examina-
tion in Algebra, Calculus, Trigonometry, Analytical
Geometry (plane and solid), Descriptive Geometry,
Mechanics, Physics and Chemistry. Students are
also admitted as "auditeurs libres" to some of the
courses.
The instruction covers a period of three years and
includes courses in Mineralogy and Petrography
(GRAND JEAN), in Palaeontology (PAINVIN and ZEILLER,
both members of the Institute), Geology (TERMIER, mem-
ber of the Institute, and DE LAUNAY), Mining (LEBRETON),
102 ENGINEERING
Metallurgy (ANGLES DAURIAC), Analytical Chemistry
(CHESNEAU, director of the School), Mechanics (SAUVAGE),
Railroad Engineering (LEGRAIN, General Manager of the
State Railroads), Resistance of Materials (HUMBERT),
Industrial Electricity (LENARD), Mining Laws (AQUILLON),
Industrial Economics (PELLETAN).
The library contains over 50,000 books, pamphlets
or maps and receives over 300 periodical publications.
Its collections of mineralogy (over 30,000 specimens),
palaeontology, and geology are famous and occupy 50
large rooms. Fully equipped laboratories for Chemistry,
Electricity, Mechanics, Mineralogy and Petrography,
Metallurgy, Physics, and Surveying are maintained.
The degree conferred on foreign students is that of
"Ingenieur Civil des Mines, "or else a certificate of study.
The tuition fee is 1000 francs per year.
Ecole Nationale des Fonts et Chaussees (Paris). This
important school was founded in 1747 and its reputa-
tion is universal. Admission is by competitive exam-
ination in Algebra, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry
(plane and solid), Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics,
Physics, Chemistry, Free Hand Drawing. Students are
also admitted as visitors to some of the courses.
The School offers a two-year program including in-
struction in Applied Mechanics (PIGEAUD, MOURET),
Construction (LAUNAY), Road Building (LIMASSET),
Railroading (FOUAN), Applied Electricity (Guillebot DE
NERVILLE), Mineralogy and Geology (DE LAUNAY),
Architecture (BONNET), Law (CHAREYRE, ROMIEU),
Materials of Construction and Reinforced Concrete
(MESNAGER), Metal Bridges (RESAL), Masonry Bridges
(SEJOURNE), Naval Works (DE JOLY), Internal Navi-
gation (DUSUZEAU), Steam Engines and other Thermal
Engines ( WALCKENAER) , Hydraulics (IMBEAUX), Po-
litical Economy (COLSON).
HKNRI LE CI I ATELIER (1850-)
ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING 103
The School confers the degree of "Ingenieur des
Constructions Civiles" or a certificate of study. There
is no tuition fee.
Ecole d' Application du Genie Maritime (Paris). Ad-
mission to this School is by competitive examination,
including Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics,
Drawing, Physics, and Chemistry. Properly qualified
foreign students may be admitted without examination.
Visitors ("auditeurs libres") are also permitted to attend
some of the courses.
A two-year course is offered, consisting of winter ses-
sions in Paris and of summer work in arsenals and ship
yards. The instruction, conducted by officers of the
Genie Maritime and by engineers of Naval Artillery,
includes courses in Ship Construction, Armament and
Protection, Applied Mechanics, Steam Engines, Boilers,
Metallurgy, Technology (Tools and Materials), Aero-
nautics, Naval Architecture, Land Construction, Torpe-
does, Administration and Bookkeeping, Submarines,
Applied Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Naval
Artillery, Graphic Problems and Projects.
The school confers the degree of "Ingenieur Civil des
Constructions na vales" or a certificate of study. The
cost of instruction to foreign students is about 1800
francs per year.
Ecole Superieure d'Electricite (Paris). Admission to
this important School is by competitive examination,
including Mathematics (Algebra, plane analytical
Geometry, Calculus), general and applied Mechanics,
Physics, Chemistry, Electricity, and Resistance of
Materials. Properly qualified students may be excused
from the entrance examination. Visitors ("auditeurs
libres") are also admitted. The studies, which last one
year, include instruction in Applied Electricity (con-
struction, generation, transformation, transmission,
104 ENGINEERING
utilization, thermal and chemical application, tests and
measurements), in Theoretical Electricity, and in Teleg-
raphy and Telephony. Visits and projects are part of
the work. The School also offers a three months' course
in Wireless Telegraphy.
The degree conferred is that of "IngenieurElectricien."
The tuition fee is 1000 francs for the regular course and
750 francs for the course in Wireless Telegraphy.
Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (Paris). Ad-
mission to the School is by competitive examination
in Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. It offers a
three-year program, including instruction in Calculus,
Descriptive Geometry, Mineralogy and Geology, Archi-
tecture and Civil Construction, Hygiene, Drawing,
Public Works, Mining Methods, Metallurgy (general
and specific), Construction of Machinery, Mechanics
(theoretical and applied), Industrial Application of
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, Railroading, Physics
(general and industrial), Analytical Chemistry, Indus-
trial Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Engineering of
Construction, Thermal Engines, Industrial Law.
The School confers the degree of "Ingenieur des Arts
et Manufactures," or else a certificate of study. The
tuition fee is 900 francs the first year and 1000 francs
for each of the following years.
Institut Chimique de I'Universite de Nancy (Nancy;
Meurthe et Moselle). Students are admitted on the
presentation of certificates from preparatory schools of
good standing (lycees, high schools, etc.) or by examina-
tion in mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. Two
years are devoted to the study of theoretical and practical
chemistry and one year to specialized work. The degree
of "Ingenieur Chimiste" is conferred. The tuition is
650 francs per year.
GEOGRAPHY
ELISEE RECLUS (1830-1905)
GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY-
The development of Geography as a university study
is of about as recent a date in France as in other European
countries. Cartography at home and exploration abroad
have flourished longer.
The maps of France, published on various scales and
styles by the Service Geographique de PArmee and other
official departments, are of unusual excellence; the
contoured sheets for Algeria on a scale of 1:50,000 are
admirable specimens of topographic art. But (as is
generally the case) the topographers who have produced
these fine maps have left to others the development of a
scientific method of accurately and intelligibly describ-
ing in words the facts of form and distribution which
maps portray graphically. A partial exception to this
statement is found in General BERTHAUT'S "Topologie"
(1909-10), in which many beautiful examples of topo-
graphic work are reproduced, but the text savors of an
earlier century than the 2oth.
French explorers of oceans and continents have de-
servedly gained renown for bringing to light the existence
of previously unknown lands and waters; but, like
most other explorers, those of France have not con-
tributed greatly to the systematic aspects of modern
geographical science. The great SOCEETE DE GEO-
GRAPHIE of Paris gives opportunity for study in its
extensive library, supports exploration with its funds,
publishes the results in its journal, "La Geographic,"
1 [Drafting Committee: W. M. DAVIS, Harvard University; R. H.
WHITBECK, University of Wisconsin. — ED.]
107
io8 GEOGRAPHY
and rewards them with its medals. But, like nearly all
other large geographical societies, its activities are more
associated with popularization than with research;
and the same is true of several smaller geographical
societies elsewhere in France. Certain societies of com-
mercial geography have also been founded, but their
publications seldom contain anything more than an
elementary geographical basis for studies that are largely
of a statistical or economical nature.
The great compilers, MALTE-BRUN early in the igth
century and RECLUS near its close, each produced a
"Geographic universelle" in many volumes that will
endure as monuments to the authors' patience and eru-
dition; but these works were completed before the
philosophy of evolution, inorganic and organic, had
given to geography its modern scientific spirit, and they
no longer serve as models for geographic treatment.
In more recent years the higher study of geography
in France has advanced in two directions: first in phys-
ical geography, under the inspiration of DE LA NOE
and DE MARGERIE, whose " Formes du Terrain" (1888)
revealed new lines of research in an old subject, and later
under the leadership of the eminent geologist, DE LAP-
PARENT, whose "Lecons de geographic physique" (1896)
attracted renewed attention to the modern aspects of
the study of land forms; secondly in descriptive geography,
under the leadership of VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, whose
earlier training was in history. In the first of these direc-
tions, BARRE has prepared an excellent local work, "L'ar-
chitecture du sol de la France" (1903), and DE MARTONNE
has produced a systematic work, "Traite de Geographic
physique" (1907, 1913), which is today recognized as
of standard value. But it is in the second direction that
geography has recently flourished in France; for, although
its leader has now retired from teaching, nearly all the
GEOGRAPHY 109
more notable modern geographical studies in France
are the work of his pupils, or of his pupils' pupils, a
goodly number of whom have become professors of geog-
raphy in French universities. Among the recent works
thus and otherwise inspired the following deserve espe-
cial mention: SCHIRMER, "Le Sahara" (1893), DELE-
BECQUE, "Les lacs franc, ais" (1898), BRUNHES, "L 'irri-
gation" (1902), DE MARTONNE, "La Valachie" (1902),
BERNARD and LACROIX, "L 'evolution du nomadisme en
Algerie" (1906), BLANCHARD, "La Flandre" (1906),
VALLAUX, "La Basse-Bretagne" (1907), VACHER,
"Le Berry" (1908), PASSERAT, "Les plaines du Poitou"
(1909), DEMANGEON, "Le relief du Limousin" (1910),
LEVAINVILLE, "Rouen" (1913), SORRE, "Les Pyrenees
mediterraneennes " (1913). The "Annales de Geo-
graphic," founded in 1893 by VIDAL DE LA BLACHE and
still edited by him in collaboration with DE MARGERIE
and GALLOIS, is an important medium of scientific pub-
lication; its "Bibliographic annuelle," compiled by
RAVENEAU and many collaborators, is an indispensable
aid in serious study.
Instruction. The French School of Geography^ is
today, since the retirement of its founder, chiefly in the
hands of his former pupils who are now professors in
various universities. While their work is sufficiently
marked by individuality, it nevertheless bears the
imprint of their master, whose attractive but not always
specific style may be studied in his noted volume, "La
France, Tableau geographique " (1903, 1908), prepared
as an introduction to Lavisse's History of France. He
has been engaged for several years past, in conjunction
with a number of his disciples, on a regional geography
of the world, the volumes of which are awaited with
interest.
no GEOGRAPHY
The leading characteristic of this school is a devoted
studiousness, the natural result of the severe discipline
of the "agregation," or competitive examination, held
in Paris, and based on a specified course of advanced
geographical study, which must be taken by all candi-
dates for teaching positions in France and in which
only as many candidates are passed as are needed to
fill vacant positions. During the assiduous preparation
for this examination and in the preparation of the thesis
which accompanies it, every pertinent element is gathered
from geology, geography, and biology, and above all
from history, with the intent of finally combining all
these elements in regional descriptions. The product
of this intent is, in the opinion of some critics, too geol-
ogical at its beginning, too historical at its end, and not
systematic enough through much of its course to repre-
sent the finest geographical ideal. But it is still an ad-
mirable product, worthy of attentive examination by
American students, even though its imitation in this
country may be difficult because our historical records
are for the most part so brief and scanty, — to say nothing
of its being unnecessary because at present the demand
for geographical scholarship is in most of our universi-
ties so small.
It is naturally in Paris and at the Sorbonne (as
that part of the University of Paris is called which is
directed by the Faculties of Letters and of Sciences)
that the French school of Geography is best exemplified.
Here the courses and laboratories in general geography,
developed under the Faculty of Letters by VIDAL DE LA
BLACHE, and under the Faculty of Sciences by VELAIN
(courses and laboratories which it is to be hoped will be
united and administered under a single geographical
institute), are now, since the retirement of their seniors,
carried on by GALLOIS, DEMANGEON, DE MARTONNE,
EMMANUEL DE MARTOXXE (1873-)
" GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY in
and their associates. In more or less close association
with the Sorbonne are various additional establish-
ments: the College de France, where BRUNHES
lectures on human geography; the Institut oceano-
graphique, founded by the Prince of Monaco, where
lectures and conferences are held; and other institutions
where subjects allied to geography may be pursued.
Inter-university excursions, ordinarily held in the
spring, give practical but brief experience in field study.
The fourteen provincial universities of France offer
less expanded opportunity for geographical study than
is found in Paris, yet in many of them certain lines of
work are well developed and may be pursued to much
advantage. Thus, FLAHAULT has made a specialty of
plant geography at Montpellier, and BLANCHARD of
alpine geography at Grenoble. The situation of these
universities necessarily exercises much influence over
the subdivisions of geography which they can best
illustrate. Thus, commercial and colonial geography
have exceptional encouragement at Bordeaux; features
of volcanic origin are best exemplified at Clermont-
Ferrand in the classic region of Auvergne; unusually
varied opportunity for the study of cuestas in their
influence on population and history is afforded in the
neighborhood of Nancy; coastal features of large va-
riety and practical importance in maritime relations
are found near Rennes. An advantage which students
may enjoy at the smaller universities is the close personal
association with their professors, which counts for so
much in advanced work.
GEOLOGY
INCLUDING
MINERALOGY, PETROLOGY,
AND PALAEONTOLOGY
GEOLOGY'
The part which France has played in the long history
of geological science is a particularly distinguished one.
In the controversial period of rival schools of geology,
which preceded that of careful observation, she was
fortunate in not being drawn within the charmed circle
of the followers of Werner at Freiberg, where the sedi-
mentary origin of basalt was proclaimed and hotly
defended. It was in France, through the work of
GUETTARD and DEMAREST, that this colossal error, which
held back for decades the development of the science,
was finally overthrown. As regards the other dominant
error which characterized eighteenth century geology —
the elevation crater idea of the Prussian geologist von
Buch — France was less fortunate, for one of her most
brilliant geologists, Elie DE BEAUMONT, fell under the
spell of this delusion.
When, with the dawn of the nineteenth century, geol-
ogy developed as an observational science, largely in the
fields of stratigraphy and palaeontology, the contribu-
tions of French geologists were noteworthy. It is neces-
sary only to mention the names of CUVIER, LAMARCK,
d'ARCHiAC, d'ORBiGNY, and BRONGNIART, to confirm
this statement. CUVIER'S famous "Discours sur les
revolutions de la surface du globe et sur les changements
qu'elles ont produits dans le regne animal," which ap-
peared in 1822, supplies one of the great landmarks in
1 [Drafting Committee: T. C. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago;
U. S. GRANT, Northwestern University; W. H. HOBBS, University of
Michigan. — ED.]
n6 GEOLOGY
the development of the science. The foundations of the
relatively modern science of physiographical geology had
already been laid in the eighteenth century, through
studies by DEMAREST in the valleys of the Auvergne of
Central France, — studies which have been ably extended
in our own day by DE LA NOE, DE MARGERIE, and DE
MARTONNE. The brilliant DE BEAUMONT, in collabo-
ration with DUFRENOY, gave a great impetus to geological
mapping, at the time in its infancy, by the preparation
of the geological map of France begun in 1825.
Earthquake study necessarily began with the collec-
tion of facts connected with the great earthquakes of the
past. These data, as assembled by Alexis PERREY of
Dijon between the years 1841 and 1874, constitute a
great reservoir from which all later investigations have
drawn their supplies. Today the greatest systematizer
in seismology and its leading authority is a Frenchman,
Count DE MONTESSUS DE BALLORE. Within the field of
oceanography, studies of the most fundamental character
dealing with the deposits upon the sea bottom have been
carried out by THOULET. In the field of structural
geology, it is today generally recognized that the key
to the solution of that most complex problem, the struct-
ure of the Alps, was supplied by BERTRAND, upon the
basis of studies made in the north of France. His other
investigations covered a very wide field and were of
prime importance. Experiments to reproduce rock
structures in the laboratory have had their origin and
development very largely in France; the leading part (if
we except the most recent work by refined methods)
having been taken by DAUBREE. A reservoir of data
upon existing glaciers is the "Materiaux pour 1'etude
des glaciers," by DoLLFUs-AussET, which appeared in
thirteen volumes between 1864 and 1870. The most
noteworthy of general treatises upon geology, in the
GEOLOGY 117
French language, are those of DE LAPPARENT (in five
volumes) and of HAUG (in two volumes).
University Studies of Today. For students purposing
to pursue geological studies in France, by far the best
opportunities are offered in Paris by the University,
the College de France, and the Ecole Superieure des
Mines, supplemented as they are by the almost unrivaled
collection of museums and libraries to be found in the
city. Outside Paris, the best opportunities are realized
at the provincial universities of Grenoble, Lille, and at
Clermont, either because of exceptional strength of the
geological staff in the University or because of special
facilities for study in the field. Unlike other depart-
ments, the laboratory of geologists is out of doors, and
opportunities for the investigation of definite problems
in the field may well be a determining factor in the
choice of the university, provided other conditions are
met. At Grenoble exceptional facilities are found for
structural, stratigraphical, and palaeontological studies,
and for those upon existing glaciers as well. The Uni-
versity of Clermont is situated within a classic region of
recent though extinct volcanoes, and offers numerous
problems in vulcanology. The University of Lille is at
the heart of the great coal mining region of the north of
France, and special attention is there given to problems
of economic geology, to structural geology, and, because
of the preeminence of the head of the department in the
field of the crystalline rocks, to pre-Cambrian geology
as well.
The attention which for the first time in recent years
has been devoted to the geology of the desert areas makes
it desirable to draw attention to the unique opportuni-
ties offered by the University of Algiers for the study of
such conditions. Situated on the borders of the greatest
u8 GEOLOGY
of all deserts, and connected by railways with different
sections of the desert area, a student may work under
the guidance of specialists who have already acquired a
wide reputation by their studies of arid conditions.
Paris. At the University of Paris the work in geology
is in charge of fimile HAUG, whose major investigations
have dealt principally with the great problems of sedi-
mentation in connection with areas of denudation. His
principal monograph upon this subject is "Les geosyn-
clinaux et les aires continentales, Contributions a 1'etude
des transgressions et des regressions marines," published
in 1900. He has also contributed to the study of the
great nappes of the Alps and his "Traite de geologic"
(the second volume appeared in 1911) is the most mod-
ern of geological treatises printed in the French language.
Physical geography is in charge of Emmanuel DE MAR-
TONNE, well-known for his studies in the Carpathians and
Roumania, and for his "Traite de geographic physique,"
which was published in 1909 and is the best general
treatise upon the subject in any language.
At the College de France, the teaching of geology is
conducted by Lucien CAYEUX, well-known for his studies
upon the microscopical structure of sediments.
At the Ecole Superieure des Mines, geology is in
charge of Pierre TERMIER, who is also the Chief Engineer
of Mines and Director of the Service de la Carte Geolo-
gique. Outside the special field of mining, TERMIER has
acquired distinction from his investigation of the prob-
lems of Alpine structure.
Louis DE LAUNAY, well-known for his studies of ground
water and ore deposition, is in charge of geology at the
Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees.
At the ficole des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques of the
Institut Catholique, Jean BOUSSAC, known for his studies
of Alpine structure, occupies the chair of geology.
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GEOLOGY 119
A number of geologists of distinction, not connected
directly with any of the French schools, are resident in
Paris and actively engaged in geological studies ; these in-
clude Em. DE MARGERIE, former president of the Societe
Geologique, translator of Suess' "Das Antlitz der Erde,"
and possessing perhaps the widest knowledge of geological
literature of any one now living; Alfred LACROIX, pro-
fessor of Mineralogy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle,
and one of the greatest authorities on volcanoes; Stanislas
MEUNIER, in charge of geology at the same institution,
known particularly for his studies upon meteorites;
Charles RABOT, a leading authority upon glaciers and
lately president of the International Commission on
Glaciers, editor of "La Geographic"; Leon CAREZ,
the principal collaborator in the French Geological
Service; Commandant O. BARRE, an authority on tec-
tonic geology; and General BERTHAUT, author of a
two-volume work of great value upon topography in
relation to physiography. Some of these (such as
LACROIX and MEUNIER) give courses of lectures open to
students.
Supplementary to the geological collections in labora-
tories of the University and other higher institutions of
learning, there are the great collections of the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, situated in the Jardin des Plantes.
Of libraries of special interest to geologists, one of the
best is located in this museum, and in addition there
are the large geological libraries of the Societe Geologique
de France and that of the French Academy.
The principal geological periodicals published in Paris
are the "Bulletin" and "Memoires" of the Societe
Geologique de France, and "Comptes rendus hebdoma-
daires des seances de 1'Academie des Sciences," "Annales
des Mines," "Bulletin des Services de la Carte geolo-
gique de la France et des Topographies souterraines,"
120 GEOLOGY
"Annales de Geographic," :'La Geographic," "Annales
de 1'Institut Oceanographique."
The Provinces. As already stated, while undoubtedly
the best opportunities for geological study are to be found
in Paris, there are often special reasons why the work
of a graduate student may best be carried on at one of
the universities of the provinces, which offer a wide
variety of geological problems in the rocks of their
surroundings. Among professors in charge of the work
in geology at the provincial universities are the follow-
ing: Lille: Charles BARROIS, a leading authority upon
the geology of the pre-Cambrian rocks, and particu-
larly those of Brittany; Grenoble: W. KILIAN, an
authority upon the stratigraphy and palaeontology of the
Cretaceous formation; Dijon: Louis COLLOT; Mar-
seille: Gaston VASSEUR, whose field of study has been
the Tertiary of Western France; Nancy (where there is
a School of Geological Engineering) : Rene NICKLES, an
authority upon the geology of Southeastern Spain;
Clermont-Ferrand: Ph. GLANGEAUD, whose special field
has been the volcanic region of Central France; Lyon:
Charles DEPERET, an authority upon Miocene geology,
with whom is associated Frederic ROMAN in the field of
agricultural geology; Bordeaux: Emmanuel FALLOT;
Toulouse: Charles JACOB, in the field of Alpine geology
and glacial geology; Caen: Alexandre BIGOT, an authori-
ty upon the crystalline rocks of Brittany; Poitiers: Jules
WELSCH, who has given much attention to the tectonic
geology of Western France; Rennes: Jean SEUNES;
Besanqon: Eugene FOURNIER, tectonic geology, hydrology,
and speleology; Montpellier: A. DELAGE.
At the University of Algiers, where such unexcelled
facilities are offered for the study of desert geology,
there is a strong staff of specialists in this field, and ex-
ceptional opportunities are afforded for the study of
GEOLOGY 121
Arabic and for the investigation of economic problems
connected with the exploitation of deserts. The head of
the geological department, and Adjunct Director of the
Service de la Carte geologique de 1'Algerie, is Emile
FICHEUR. He is assisted by Arbel BRIVES, who is a
collaborator upon the survey as well as a professor in
the geological department. Georges FLAMAND occupies
the chair of physical geography of the Sahara, and
enjoys a wide reputation for his explorations in the
desert. In addition the University of Algiers supports
a professor of the geography of Africa in the person of
Emile-Felix GAUTIER, deservedly well-known for many
important works in this field. Inasmuch as the geology
of deserts is a subject likely to occupy an important
place in the discussions of geologists in the near future,
the advantages of Algiers as a place of study may well
be emphasized.
MINERALOGY and
PETROLOGY'
In the fields of Mineralogy and Petrology, French
scientists have made contributions of inestimable value,
and in some parts of these fields they have opened the
way and taken a predominant part in the work of de-
tailed investigation as well as exploration.
MINERALOGY
Knowledge of minerals is based upon a study of them
in crystal form; the science of crystals was founded and
built in France; as truly stated by Mallard: "Crystal-
lography was thus created as a whole by the genius of
HAUY, and his successors have scarcely had to do more
than perfect the details of his work. No other branch of"
human knowledge is, to the same extent, the work of one
man." Later, DELAFOSSE and BRAVAIS developed the
theory of a mesh or space-lattice of physical units as the
structure of crystals — a theory completely established,
within the past two years, by means of studies with X-
rays. FIZEAU and LE CHATELIER made numerous investi-
gations of the expansion of crystals upon heating, some of
which have had an important bearing upon questions of
the condition of formation, especially of quartzose rocks.
An excellent method of chemical analysis of silicate
minerals was early developed by STE.-CLAIRE-DEVILLE.
1 [Drafting Committee: A. N. WINCHELL, University of Wisconsin.
— En.]
122
AUGUSTE MICHEL-LEVY (1844-)
MINERALOGY
MINERALOGY 123
Spectral analysis of zinc blende from the Pyrenees led
BOISBAUDRAN to the discovery of gallium. Radium was
discovered by the CURIES as a result of careful investi-
gation of pitchblende and other uranium-bearing miner-
als. FRIEDEL and GRAND JEAN have recently studied the
nature of the water in zeolites, and have shown that
it can be expelled and reabsorbed or replaced by other
liquids or gases without destroying or changing the
nature of the crystal structure.
The methods of synthetic mineralogy were developed
in France. FOUQUE and MICHEL-LEVY reproduced all
the minerals of volcanic rocks, except quartz and ortho-
clase, by means of crystallization from dry fusion. By
the same process, GAUDIN and VERNEUIL produced ruby
and sapphire, the manufacture of which has now become
an important industry. Fusion in the presence of min-
eralizers is a method which has yielded important results
in the hands of several experimenters, notably DEVILLE,
HAUTEFEUILLE, BOURGEOIS, GORGEU, FREMY, and
EBELMEN. Finally, several minerals have been produced
in the presence of water (or water-vapor) heated in a
sealed tube, by DAUBREE, SARASIN, and FRIEDEL.
The minerals of metalliferous veins and ore deposits
are of much practical importance; BEAUMONT was the
first to present a complete and rational theory to explain
the origin of such deposits; many of the classic experi-
ments of DAUBREE were devised to shed light on the
same problem. DE LAUNAY has continued this work
and prepared scientific descriptions of the ores of the
world.
i24 GEOLOGY
PETROLOGY
Rocks are composed of minerals; therefore a knowl-
edge of minerals is essential to an understanding of rocks,
and the science of mineralogy was necessarily developed
before that of petrology. In rocks, minerals are usually
present in very small crystals; therefore rocks are studied
chiefly by microscopic methods. FOUQUE and MICHEL-
LEVY introduced in France these methods, which are
based on optical properties first deduced by FRESNEL.
DES CLOIZEAUX applied the methods to the study of
minerals as such, and thus supplied the fundamental
data necessary for petrographic work. MICHEL-LEVY
and LACROIX continued the determination of data, de-
veloping at the same time additional methods of using
optical properties in identifying minerals.
FOUQUE and MICHEL-LEVY proposed a classification
of igneous rocks, based on mineral composition and on
texture, which is the foundation of the classification now
in use in France, and has contributed much to classifi-
cations in use in other countries. MICHEL-LEVY empha-
sized the importance of mineralizing agents in processes
of differentiation as well as in those of contact metamor-
phism.
LACROLX has shown that contact exomorphism con-
sists not only in physical changes, but also includes
chemical transformations due to introduction of material
of magmatic origin. He has also described evidence to
show that granitic magmas may be changed to diorites,
etc., by contact endomorphism. LACROLX has also
written a monographic work on the "Mineralogy of
France," in which he has emphasized the varying modes of
occurrence and of alteration of minerals in order to fix
the mode of origin and conditions of stability. In a similar
PETROLOGY 125
way he has studied the lavas of Mont Pelee from all points
of view, in order to draw general conclusions concern-
ing their origin.
University Studies of Today. Paris. At the present
time the leading mineralogist and petrologist in France
is Alfred LACROIX, who succeeded DES CLOIZEAUX as pro-
fessor of mineralogy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle
in 1893. He has published a five- volume work on "La
mineral ogie de France," which is a standard treatise on
the optical properties and modes of occurrence of min-
erals; a volume on "Les enclaves des roches volcaniques;"
two volumes on volcanic activity at Vesuvius and Mont
Pelee; and numerous important studies of minerals, of
contact metamorphism, of descriptive petrography, and
of rock alteration. He offers courses of lectures on
mineralogy; but the student prizes especially the oppor-
tunity to study in his laboratories under his inspiring
guidance. At the same institution Stanislas MEUNIER
holds the chair of geology ; he is the author of an impor-
tant work on "Lesmethodes de synthese enmineralogie."
At the" University of Paris, Louis GENTIL, wrho has
described petrographically certain districts in Algeria,
offers excellent courses in general petrography.
At the College de France, the eminent crystallographer,
F. WALLERANT, is in charge of the work in mineralogy ;
he has published important contributions to crystal
theory. Here, also, is L. CAYEUX, who is an authority
in the relatively neglected field of the petrography of
sedimentary rocks; recently he has extended his studies
to include all types of iron ores.
At the ficole des Mines is the well known mineralogist,
TERMIER, who has been a close student of individual
minerals and of the crystalline schists of the Alps. L.
DE LAUNAY offers courses at this school and also at the
i26 GEOLOGY
Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees; he has published several
important volumes treating of the origin of the minerals
in ore deposits.
LE CHATELIER, URBAIN, and MATIGNON are primarily
chemists, but they have made various contributions to
mineralogy, especially from the chemical point of view.
LE CHATELIER and URBAIN are at the University of
Paris; MATIGNON is at the College de France.
Outside of Paris. One of the most prominent mineral-
ogists is G. FRIEDEL at the Ecole des Mines of Saint
Etienne at Lyon, who has done notable experimental
work with the zeolites, and has published works on
crystallography. At the University of Montpellier, miner-
alogy is in charge of CURIE, who studied the eruptive
rocks of Algeria, and has been associated in some work
on piezo-electricity with the discoverer of radium. At
the University of Nancy, THOULET has made studies of
the physical and chemical properties of microscopic
minerals. Joseph CARALP is professor of mineralogy at
the University of Toulouse. At Nancy, the Institute of
Geology trains mining engineers.
From a petrographic point of view the University of
Lille is the most important institution outside of Paris.
It is here that BARROIS is professor of geology, and
OFFRET professor of mineralogy. BARROIS has described
in detail the contact metamorphism of sandstones,
shales, and limestones, and OFFRET has made petrographic
studies of certain rocks and minerals.
ADOLPHE BRONGNIART (1801-1876)
GEOLOGY: PALAEONTOLOGY
PALAEONTOLOGY1
In the history of palaeontology there is no nation so
rich in memories as France, none held in so great regard
by students — in almost reverential regard by the
student of extinct vertebrates especially, for there his
science was born a century ago, and CUVIER was its
father. The world's greatest scientist of his time, and
one of the greatest naturalists of all time, CUVIER first
taught the real meaning of fossils, and especially verte-
brate fossils. With him began a new epoch in all palaeon-
tology, one based upon zoology; and fossils ceased to be
mere curiosities in the rocks, or the mere tools of geology.
The great Sir Richard OWEN of England was his stu-
dent, but all felt the effects of CUVIER 's brilliant mind.
DE BLAINVILLE, DESLONGCHAMPS, FILHOL, GERVAIS,
MILNE-EDWARDS, SAUVAGE, LARTET, and GAUDRY are
among the many Frenchmen of the nineteenth century
who won enduring fame wherever vertebrate palaeon-
tology is studied; and among those of the present day,
DEPERET, BOULE, PREEM, LERICHE, and THEVENIN, are
some of those whose reputations have extended world-
wide.
Nor is invertebrate palaeontology any less indebted to
France of the nineteenth, and even the eighteenth
centuries. Beginning with the famous BUFFON, who for
more than a century was a delight to children every-
where, the most noted of all, perhaps, though not ex-
clusively a palaeontologist, was LAMARCK, who found in
1 [Drafting Committee: S. W. WILLISTON, University of Chicago. —
ED.]
127
i28 GEOLOGY
the "animaux sans vertebres," both living and fossil,
the foundations for his famous theories of development,
theories which are even more vigorously discussed today
than when they were first offered. Suffice it to mention
the names of only a few that every student of the science
knows: BARRANDE, BRONGNIART, DESHAYES, A. MILNE-
EDWARDS, POMEL, LEMOINE, and especially d'ORBiGNY.
And in palaeobotany the indebtedness of the world is
equally great, perhaps greater; for Adolphe BRONGNIART
has been rightly called the father of the science. And what
naturalist has not heard of SAPORTA? And there have
been and are many others.
One is safe in saying, on a survey of the great names of
palaeontology, that no nation of the nineteenth century
did as much to advance the science of palaeontology ; none
has a greater list of eminent scientific names in palaeon-
tology.
Instruction. What has France to offer the student of
palaeontology today? First of all, a rich and inspiring
memory of the great scientific men of the past. And,
secondly, the rich collections that have served these men
in their investigations, and the great museums and able
teachers of today.
These collections are scattered more or less throughout
the institutions of France. But (it goes without saying)
the most extensive and important of all are in Paris,
and especially in the great Natural History Museum,
where American scientists have spent very pleasurable
and fruitful days. One of the divisions of its vast collec-
tions is formed by palaeontology ("Galerie d'anatomie
comparee, d'anthropologie, et de paleontologie," founded
by Cuvier). The library contains 250,000 volumes, and,
besides the lecture courses, there are monthly meetings
of the scholars pursuing research there. At the Ecole
PALAEONTOLOGY 129
Nationale Superieure des Mines also, there is a valuable
and noted collection in palaeontology. The Universities
of Caen, Grenoble, and Lille, also have special collections
in palaeontology.
One of the few periodicals anywhere devoted to palaeon-
tology is the Annales de Paleontologie, published for the
past ten years at Paris under the direction of BOULE.
Palaeontology cannot be pursued as an isolated science.
Fossils are merely animals and plants that have been
dead longer than others, as Huxley once said, and must
be studied in connection with living organisms and with
geology. The student should therefore seek those uni-
versities where geology, and especially historical geology,
is given much attention, and where also botany and
zoology in all their branches are well represented. Per-
haps there is no university in France, and few if any in
all Europe, where all these requirements are better met
than in Paris. Of the eighteen chairs in the Natural
Sciences at the Museum of Natural History, one is as-
signed to Palaeontology; its present incumbent is BOULE,
well known for his work in anthropology and palaeontology,
more especially vertebrate palaeontology. In the Uni-
versity, under the Faculty of Sciences, a course in palaeon-
tology is given by THEVENIN, author of notable works in
both invertebrate and vertebrate palaeontology, but
especially the latter.
There are other universities in France where palaeon-
tology is taught as a distinct science, and where the
student may find better conditions for special studies;
in the final work it is often the teacher who counts more
than anything else. Courses in palaeontology are given
at Caen by BIGOT, at Grenoble by KILIAN, and at Lille
by BERTRAND. But there is no place, we believe, where
he will find greater encouragement in his early studies
than Paris.
130 GEOLOGY
From there he will easily find opportunity to inspect
the institutions and museums of other cities, and to visit
the numerous localities in France where the deposits of
prehistoric times are so especially abundant and cele-
brated. In vertebrate palaeontology many famous fossils
have been described from the Carboniferous and Lower
Permian rocks of Autun, the Jurassic and Cretaceous of
northern France, to the Eocene of Paris, Rheims, Aix,
Soissons, the famous Oligocene of Quercy, the Miocene of
theDept. Allier, St.-Gerand-le-Puy, Soissons, and elsewhere.
One need not add that the Paris Basin, of early Cenozoic
age, was first made famous by Cuvier. In Anthropology
no name is more eminent perhaps than that of BOUCHER
DE PERTHES, who first really demonstrated the existence
of fossil man. And the names of QUATREFAGES, LARTET,
SERRES, and TOPINARD, are but little less so. But at
this point we enter a field more fully described already
in the Chapter on ANTHROPOLOGY.
HISTORY
HISTORY
American students do not need to be reminded at
length of the nature and extent of the contribution of
France to the modern study of history. To the age of
erudition France contributed the labors of the great
Benedictines and of pre-eminent individuals of the type
of Du CANGE, CUJAS, SCALIGER, and CASAUBON. In
the eighteenth century it took the lead in the application
of general ideas to history in the works of MONTESQUIEU
and VOLTAIRE. A century later it had its brilliant
group of literary historians, represented by RENAN,
TAINE, and MICHELET. It founded Egyptology, and pro-
duced the greatest of recent mediaevalists in Leopold
DELISLE. It has taken a notable part in the develop-
ment of the sciences auxiliary to history, in the publica-
tion of great collections of sources, and in the main-
tenance of schools and the encouragement of explora-
tion in the remoter portions of the earth. At the same
time, amid the vast accumulations of historical detail,
French historians have not lost their sense of proportion
or their interest in the larger aspects of history; without
sacrificing thoroughness of research or finish of work-
manship, they have also preserved qualities of clearness,
order, and literary skill which are characteristically French.
Fields of Instruction. French universities offer a
wide range of instruction in the history of every period
1 [Drafting Committee: C. H. HASKINS, Harvard University;
J. A. JAMES, Northwestern University; A. C. MCLAUGHLIN, University
of Chicago; D. C. MUNRO, Princeton University; J. T. SHOTWELL,
Columbia University. — ED.]
133
134 HISTORY
and of most parts of the world, as well as in a large
number of related fields. History is there conceived
in a broad and liberal spirit, with no exaggerated em-
phasis upon political details or special "interpretations."
Less attention than is usually the case in the United
States is given to economics and political science and
to their relations to history, the instruction in these
subjects being confined for the most part to the faculties
of law. Legal history, however, receives more emphasis
in France than with us, and law professors (such as
FOURNIER, GIRAKD, CAiLLEMER, and others) have much
to offer to students of history. Certain other aspects of
history receive their due more fully in French than in
American universities, or, in some cases, than anywhere
else. This is notably true of geography, which in the
French programs is brought into a close and at times
even artificial connection with history; of archaeology
and the history of art, studied in the midst of a great
wealth of illustrative material at Paris; and of the history
of religions, represented at the College de France by LOISY,
and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes by a faculty of
seventeen, unequalled in number or quality at any other
center of learning in the world. Church history in the
state universities is taught only as a part of general
history and the history of religions; but courses of the
more conventional type are given in the private facul-
ties of theology, both Catholic and Protestant.
In Ancient History, Paris has JULLIAN, whose
"Histoire de la Gaule" is a synthesis of a vast number
of special studies in the field of history, philology, and
archaeology; BOUCHE-LECLERC, whose manual of
Roman institutions has served a generation of scholars;
BLOCH, GLOTZ (on Greek law), GREBAUT; GSELL, the
historian of Domitian and of Northern Africa; in archaeol-
ogy and epigraphy, BABELON, COLLIGNON, FOUCART,
ERNEST LAVISSE (1842-)
HISTORY
HISTORY 135
HAUSSOULLIER, HERON DE VILLEFOSSE, HOLLEAUX, and
CAGNAT; and a number of scholars in the fields of Semitic
history, ancient religion, and early Christianity. In the
provincial universities, ancient history is represented by
RADET at Bordeaux, BESNIER at Caen, HOMO at Lyon,
JOUGUET at Lille, LAURENT at Nancy, CLERC at Aix,
and LECRIVAIN at Toulouse.
In the History of the Middle Ages, the French uni-
versities are excellently equipped. At Paris one may
study under BEMONT, editor of the "Revue Historique"
and an admirable teacher, who has long been one of the
world's leaders in the study of English history; DIEHL,
the eminent writer on Byzantine history and Byzantine
art; Ferdinand LOT, whose studies have remade a con-
siderable portion of French history in the period of the
Carolingians and their immediate successors; POUPARDIN
and THEVENIN on the early Middle Ages; PFISTER
and JORDAN on the later period; and FLACHon the history
of institutions. All the courses of the Ecole des Chartes
are of interest to the mediaevalist, notably the work
of its learned and helpful director, Maurice PROU. On
the side of art and archaeology, the supreme achievements
of mediaeval France can be studied under ENLART,
author of the indispensable "Manuel d'archeologie
francaise," and MALE, the authority on mediaeval sculp-
ture. The mediaevalists of the provincial universities
include HALPHEN and FLICHE at Bordeaux; PRENTOUT
at Caen; GUIRAUD at Besancon; STOUFF at Dijon;
BREHIER at Clermont; GAY at Lille; KLEINCLAUSZ at
Lyon; PARISOT at Nancy; SEE at Rennes; CALMETTE
and GALABERT at Toulouse.
In Modern History, perhaps the most distinguished
French professor in active service (LAVISSE having now
retired) is AULARD, who through his own work and that
of his disciples has remade the history of the French
i36 HISTORY
Revolution. Others of note at Paris are BOURGEOIS,
the historian of diplomacy, DENIS for the nineteenth
century, and SEIGNOBOS for historical method and
general topics. More special courses are offered by
BERNARD, BLOCH, CULTRU, DEBIDOUR, REVON, and
REUSS, and work in diplomatic history is given by
BOURGEOIS and others at the Ecole des Sciences Poli-
tiques. In provincial universities there should be men-
tioned HAUSER and FEBVRE at Dijon; BOISSONNADE and
CARRE at Poitiers; DESDEVISES DU DEZERT at Clermont;
BLANCHARD at Grenoble; GAFFAREL at Aix; MATHIEZ at
Besangon; WEILL at Caen; MARIE JOL and WADDINGTON
at Lyon; SAGNAC and ST. LEGER at Lille; PARISOT at
Nancy; GACHON and BOURRILLY at Montpellier; DUMAS
at Toulouse; and COURTEAULT at Bordeaux.
Institutions. The natural center for historical stu-
dents is the Faculty of Letters at Paris, generally known
as the Sorbonne, with which the courses of the Ecole
Normale (formerly reserved exclusively for its own
students) are now merged. Historical instruction is
given by formal lectures (open to the public, and serving
as excellent examples of the art of presentation); by
private courses and discussions; and by exercises for
the training of future teachers.
To many, the opportunities of the Sorbonne, with
its nineteen lecturers on history, will appear sufficient.
American students, however, accustomed to the com-
parative simplicity and centralization of university
organization in the United States, need to have their at-
tention directed to the great number of special schools
and institutes outside of the central faculties of letters,
science, law, and medicine. Those most closely con-
nected with the study of history are the College de
France, which maintains important courses of lectures
HISTORY 137
in convenient proximity to the Sorbonne; the Ecole
Coloniale; the Ecole d'Anthropologie; the Ecole du
Louvre; the Institut Catholique de Paris; the Ecole
Pratique des Hautes fitudes; the Ecole des Chartes;
and the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques. For the
majority of students the three last-named are the most
important.
The historical sections of the ficole des Hautes Etudes,
now housed in the buildings of the Sorbonne, offer
advanced instruction in the form of a wide variety of
seminary and special courses. The work is open to all,
without distinction of age, degree, or nationality, who
are willing to take active part in the exercises and can
satisfy the instructor of their competence. Beyond this
there are no conditions as to admission and no restric-
tions on the number and choice of courses. There is
no fixed curriculum; those who have been in attend-
ance three years and present a satisfactory thesis receive
a diploma but no degree. The high quality of the theses
is seen in the imposing "Bibliotheque de 1'ficole des
Hautes Etudes," a series of historical and philological
monographs which comprises more than two hundred
volumes.
The ficole des Chartes is a special school for the train-
ing of archivists and librarians for the public service.
It embraces the whole period of French history down
to 1789, with special emphasis upon the Middle Ages.
It offers instruction in palaeography, diplomatics,
archaeology, Romance philology, history of French
law and institutions, sources of French history, and
organization of libraries and archives. The curriculum
covers three years, and the number of regular pupils
is limited, but qualified outsiders are admitted to the
courses. The school has a long and honorable tradition
in the history of French scholarship and has served as a
138 HISTORY
model for similar institutions in Vienna and Florence.
Its alumni publish an important historical journal, the
"Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole des Chartes."
The ficole Libre des Sciences Politiques is a private
institution, occupying quarters in the Rue St. Guil-
laume, about fifteen minutes' walk from the Sorbonne.
It was established in 1871, primarily for the purpose
of fitting young men for the higher branches of the civil
service, and its organization and character are deter-
mined by the examinations of the various government
departments for which it prepares. Economics and
political science naturally predominate, but attention
is given to recent history, especially on the diplomatic
and constitutional sides. The standing of the school
is indicated by the names of its successive directors,
BOUTMY, Anatole LEROY-BEAULIEU, and D'EICHTHAL,
and by its publication, now known as the "Revue des
Sciences Politiques."
Libraries, Archives, and Museums. The historical
resources of Paris are greatly increased by the Biblio-
theque Nationale and the various archives and museums.
The Bibliotheque Nationale has the largest body of
printed books in the world, and unrivalled collections of
manuscripts and maps. Of the various depositories of
unpublished documents, the most important for the
American student are the Archives Nationales, under
the enlightened direction of Charles V. LANGLOIS, the
Archives des Affaires Etrangeres, and the Archives de
la Marine. The Carnegie Institution of Washington
has nearly completed an elaborate guide to the mate-
rials for American history in these and other French
collections. For daily use the library of the Sorbonne
is well equipped and well administered, with the library
of Ste.-Genevieve close at hand; and the special schools
HISTORY 139
also have useful libraries of reference. Paris is especially
rich in museums of historical interest, notably the
unique riches of the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the
museum of Comparative Sculpture at the Trocadero,
and the Musee Carnavalet, where the history of Paris
from the earliest times is unrolled before the visitor.
Finally, Paris itself is full of history, from the baths of
the Emperor Julian to the memorials of the present war,
and constitutes an unfailing source of inspiration to the
intelligent student.
Provincial Universities. The provincial universities
naturally offer fewer opportunities than Paris, but their
faculties comprise eminent scholars and teachers, com-
petent in many cases to direct work in important his-
torical fields outside of the history of France. Several
of these universities have special chairs of local or regional
history, and they all afford an excellent introduction to
French life and thought.
On the whole it is the advanced student of history,
and not the beginner, who will derive most advantage
from a sojourn in France, and especially in Paris. The
immature youth, who has not yet secured a good grasp
of the essential facts of history, who has not received
some substantial training in investigation, and has not
some clear ideas concerning the nature of historical
study and the reasons why he is pursuing it — a man
of this sort is ill prepared to work wisely amid the mul-
tiplicity of special courses and the manifold distractions
of the French capital. Thanks to the rapid development
of American universities in the past thirty years, it is
no longer necessary to cross the Atlantic in order to begin
one's historical apprenticeship, or even, in some lines,
in order satisfactorily to complete it; and there can be
i4o HISTORY
no question that the proportion of those who pursue their
entire graduate course abroad has much decreased. Their
place is being taken by a growing number of mature
students — professors on leave, traveling fellows, newly-
made doctors, and others — who desire to continue work
already well begun here. During their residence abroad
these men will no doubt increase their stock of historical
information and learn valuable lessons in historical
method. But their greatest profit will come from access
to great collections of historical material, from the stimulus
of contact with new teachers and new ideas, and from
first-hand knowledge of the monuments of the European
past and the life of the European present. To such
students France offers a warm welcome and a wide
opportunity.
LAW
JEAN DOMAT.
JEAN DOMAT (1625-1696)
LAW
The learned and systematic study of law, though
never entirely broken off in the Middle Ages, begins
virtually for the modern world with the revival of the
study of Roman Law under Irnerius at the University
of Bologna, in the second half of the looos A. D. From
Italy germinated the subsequent growth of legal science
in other countries. After four centuries, when the
schools of the Glossators and the Commentators had
successively risen and fallen in that country, the primacy
in legal studies passed to France, which gave to the
brilliant Italian Humanist, ALCIAT, a home at Avignon,
in 1518, and afterwards at Bourges. " Jurisprudentia
romana," said the Englishman Duck in 1650, "si apud
alias gentes extincta esset, apud solos Gallos reperiri
posset." The "mos Gallicus" had become the fashion
in the juristic world; and for two centuries France
held this European primacy, under CUJAS, DONEAU,
BAUDOUIN, DUMOULIN, BRISSON, DOUAREN, GODEFROI,
and HOTMAN. By that time legal science had become
more nationalized. Every country of Western Europe
was developing its jurists.
In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries
France's great task was the complex one of consolidating
and nationalizing its own composite body of law. The
labors of DOMAT, D'AGUESSEAU, LAMOIGNON, COLBERT,
POTHIER, and others of that period, and the commercial
1 [Drafting Committee: J. H. BEALE, Harvard University; L. B.
REGISTER, University of Pennsylvania; MUNROE SMITH, Columbia Uni-
versity; J. H. WIGMORE, Northwestern University. — ED.]
143
144 LAW
and procedural legislation under Louis XIV, prepared
the way for the grand results of the Napoleonic codifi-
cation; and the political philosophies of MONTESQUIEU
and ROUSSEAU initiated a world-influence which has not
yet ceased.
The promulgation of the Napoleonic Codes (Civil,
Penal, Commercial, Criminal, Procedural) between 1804
and 1810, was the greatest legal fact of the first half
of the nineteenth century. These Codes represented
the legal side of the vast social and political revolution
of ideas in the Western world; and they belted the globe
with their influence. Not only many European countries,
but almost all the Latin-American States, used the
Codes in framing their own legislation. In the stimulus
given by them indirectly in many departments of law,
the Napoleonic Codes continued to be dominant legal
factors until the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
The method of textual commentary, based on the fixed
categories of the Codes, absorbed most of the energies
of French jurists during the first three quarters of the
century ; and these Commentaries are still in common use
even in foreign States (like Latin America, Louisiana,
and Quebec) which had based their legislation on the
French Code.
But changed social and political conditions raised
new problems and shifted the emphasis laid on older and
persistent needs. The spread of the Historical School
(championed from Germany by SAVIGNY in the second
quarter of the century) and the interest in historical and
comparative studies created by Sir Henry MAINE, FUSTEL
DE COULANGES, and Albert POST; the expanding claims of
philology, archaeology, psychology, anthropology, and
other sciences; the development of social philosophies in
France and elsewhere; the growth of commercial, indus-
trial, and maritime interests; and the increased attention
LAW 145
paid to international law and administrative law — all
these influences helped to open new fields of investiga-
tion outside of the Civil Code.
With this shifting of emphasis, the last quarter of the
century began to see active attention paid to the other
and now dominant fields of legal interest. During the
last forty or fifty years, and increasingly so in that period,
every department of the world's legal thought has been
represented in France by master minds in the university
chairs and by treatises embodying the most approved
methods and original results in legal research.
In Latin America and in some European countries
(such as Belgium, Greece, and Roumania), the study of
the French Codes is the study of their source-law. But
for American students, no country's law, except that of
England, presents such a direct reason for pursuing its
advanced study abroad. Technical law is essentially
local; its materials are largely the legislation and practice
of each country. In this respect, legal science differs
from (let us say) mathematics or zoology.
Nevertheless, law has its universal aspects, and they
are growing with each decade. Among the important
topics which thus have an extra-national value and
interest for the legal scholar are Roman Law, Compara-
tive Law and Legislation, Legal History, Philosophy of
Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Interna-
tional Law, Criminology and Criminal Law.
In all of these fields, France offers interesting and
valuable opportunities for university study under the
most accomplished masters.
But before noting the instruction offered in these
particular subjects, a few words may be offered regard-
ing some other features of French law interesting to
the American lawyer.
146 LAW
One of these is the splendid professional tradition
dominant in French courts of justice.1 The position of
the advocate, in courage, independence, professional
privilege, and fidelity to his client, is comparable only
to that of our own professional predecessors in England,
Ireland, Scotland, and our own country. The judges,
having come up to the Bench from the Bar, as in England
and America, have shared this spirit of professional
independence. No other country is as notable as
France in this common trait. Four times in French
legal history has the entire Bar resigned its functions,
and left the courts without lawyers, rather than submit
to the arbitrary dictation of princes and politicians. The
glorious incidents that are treasured in our professional
annals find their parallels in all periods of the French Bar.
If we are proud for this reason of the names of Coke, of
Mansfield, of Erskine, of Brougham, of Denman, of Otis,
of Hamilton, of Henry, of Choate, France too has its tradi-
tions,— of Talon, exiled by the crafty Cardinal Mazarin
for resisting an unjust decree; of Servin, who fell dead
while uttering a similar protest in the presence of Cardinal
Richelieu and Louis XIII; of Elie de Beaumont, whose
memoir against the unjust execution of Galas- was read
throughout Europe and led to Voltaire's famous diatribe
against the criminal law; of Bellart, who defended many of
the victims of the Terror, before the most bloodthirsty
Tribunal the world has ever seen; of Malesherbes, who
dared to act as counsel for the unfortunate Louis XVI be-
fore the Convention, and himself met his client's fate at the
guillotine two years later; of Bonnet, who defied Napoleon
in defending General Moreau ; of Berry er, who defended the
1 As far back as Juvenal's day, Gaul was famous throughout the
Empire for its lawyers: " Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos"
(Satire xv, 1. 1 1 1) ; " Accipiat te Gallia vel potius nutricula causidicorum
Africa, si placuit mercedem imponere linguae" (id. vii, 1. 147).
JKAX BRISSAUD (1854-1904)
LAW
LAW 147
future Napoleon III on a charge of treason against Louis
Philippe; and of Captain Dreyfus' courageous counsel,
Labori, whose recent death the two Republics lament.
These traditions, continuous over five centuries, are not
without meaning to the American student of law. They
impress themselves on the whole system of law and justice.
A country which possesses and prizes such traditions of the
Bar is one which offers the Anglo-American student an in-
spiration congenial and fruitful to his professional studies.
Another feature worth recalling — intangible, per-
haps, but real — is the rich variety of legal reminiscences
that meet the visitor at every spot in France, and help
to arouse interest in the history and romance of the law.
Every epoch of law here purveys for him something of
its sentiment. In Paris, he may linger before the veritable
pillar of Hammurabi's Code, four thousand years old.
In the South and in the museums and libraries of Paris
he may trace, in manuscripts and monuments, the vast
influx, in a later epoch, of the great system of Roman
law, as it spread over Celtic Gaul. In the next great
epoch, the revival of Roman law a thousand years later,
he finds everywhere, south of the Loire, the reminiscences
of the world-jurists of the day, — at Toulouse, where
Coras lectured to 4000 hearers; at Avignon and at
Valence, where Alciat brought the new law-learning from
Italy four centuries ago; and at Bourges, where Cujas
taught, at whose renowned name (Hallam tells us) the
law students of Germany were accustomed to take off
their hats; and where also the great Hotman lectured,
who once said that our Littleton's classical treatise on
"Tenures" was "incondite, absurde, et inconcinne
scrip turn," and was thereupon pilloried by our patriotic,
irascible Coke ("Stultum est absurdas opiniones refel-
lere.") In Normandy, at Rouen, he may enter the
superb Court House, the oldest building in Europe (now
148 LAW
that Westminster Hall is deserted by the judges) where
justice has been dispensed continually since its erection;
and at Caen, the home of William the Conqueror, he
may see the manuscript of the Custom of Normandy,
of which English law for a time was a branch only. In
Brittany, at Treguier, he may pay homage at the shrine
of Yves, the patron saint of our profession, the only
lawyer ever canonized ("Advocatus sed non latro, res
miranda populo"); and at Rennes, for modern flavor,
he may visit the court-room where the second trial of
Captain Dreyfus took place, the world's most famous
trial for half a century past. At Bordeaux, he may see
the home and the statue of Montesquieu, whose philoso-
phy of law and government is still embodied in the
American Constitution; and at Toulouse, he finds, Sir
Thomas Smith composed his "Commonwealth of Eng-
land," by two centuries a precursor of Sir William
Blackstone's "Commentaries." At St. Omer, where the
great College of the Jesuits once flourished, he comes
upon the traces of our famous Irish advocate and cross-
examiner, Daniel O'Connell, who was there educated.
At Bourges, Scotch lawyers once studied. At Clermont,
he finds the birthplace of Domat, whose works are still
cited by our Supreme Court of Louisiana. — And so he
may continue, marking off in his pilgrimage at every
spot some significant event or personage that has con-
tributed to the world's movement in law.
This "sentimental journey," it is true, may not
directly assist his technical proficiency; and it may not
appeal to all temperaments. But for the American stu-
dent abroad one of the greatest gains must always be
the sense of union with the notable events and persons
of the past in his chosen field. And the profession of the
law in America needs to become less insular and less
narrow in its outlook on the present, and more aware of
LAW 149
the continuity of all legal traditions and knowledge.
The future American jurist who spends a time in France
may be assured of finding there the most varied interest,
and the most lasting inspiration for the broadening and
deepening of his professional studies.
Instruction in the Universities. It remains to sum-
marize the specific resources for university instruction
in the chief subjects of general interest.
Roman Law. The great tradition of ORTOLAN'S name,
whose treatise first appeared in 1827 ("Legislation
romaine; explication historique des Instituts de Jus-
tinien"; i2th ed., 3 vols., 1883), is worthily maintained
by a group of distinguished scholars, representing every
field of Roman law and the most modern methods of
archaeological and philological research. Among them
may be named these: P. F. GIRARD (Paris), the veteran
master, one of the two or three living scholars who re-
ceive the world's homage in this field; his "Textes de
droit romain" and "Manuel elementaire de droit
romain" are handbooks in many countries; APPLETON
(Lyon), whose principal work is "La propriete preto-
rienne" (2 vols., 1889); CUQ (Paris), author of "Les in-
stitutions juridiques des Remains" (2 vols., 1902-1907),
who lectures on Roman legal history; JoBBE-DuvAL
(Paris), author of "fitudes sur 1'histoire de la procedure
chez les Remains" (1896), and of essays on the history
of Continental procedure, who lectures on the Digest
(or Pandects, as the current French usage has it); Au-
DIBERT (Paris), also a specialist in the history of
Roman law; MEYNIAL (Paris), professor of the history
of Roman and French law; MAY (Paris), whose "Ele-
ments de droit romain" has gone into its tenth edition;
HUVELIN (Lyon), whose "Le Furtum" (vol. I, 1914))
150 LAW
represents a lifetime's labors and ranges over the entire
area of primitive Roman ideas ; COLLINET (Lille), author of
" Etude historique sur le droit de Jus tinien " (vol. 1, 1912);
THOMAS (Toulouse), whose specialty is the papyrology of
Roman Law in Egypt; DESSERTEAUX (Dijon), author of
numerous works on technical Roman law; MONNIER
(Bordeaux), whose specialty is Byzantine Roman Law;
FLACH (Paris) , whose vast authority in the historical field
makes him a specialist in medieval Roman law.
Legal History. The position of France as the Western
haven of mingling racial streams of immigration and con-
quest — Celtic, Romanic, Germanic — has always been
a stimulus to the decipherer of historical riddles of law.
And its rich collection of records of customary law has
served as fertile training material for historical scholars.
The notable names of the first three-quarters of the
nineteenth century - - PARDESSUS, GINOULHIAC, LABOTJ-
LAYE, LAFERRIERE, GARSONNET, GIRAUD, BEUGNOT —
occupied themselves chiefly with the critical editing of
these sources (on which, indeed, the greater number of
modern scholars are still laboring). Then came a
period of masters who devoted themselves to works of
larger scope; and this period now continues. The earlier
ones (but just passed off the stage) include FUSTEL DE
COULANGES (a contemporary of Sir Henry Maine's,
and almost as influential in his ideas); GLASSON (whose
volumes cover the legal history not only of France but
also of England); TARDIF (who specially worked in
Norman law); ESMEIN (a versatile master in many
fields); BEAUNE and VIOLLET (whose works have each
a special merit); and BRISSAUD, who was perhaps the
greatest modern historian of law in any country; cer-
tainly Maitland, B runner, and Schupfer (of Rome)
can alone be mentioned with him.
LAW 151
Of the older generation of masters now pursuing their
labors these may be mentioned in passing: FOURNIER
(Paris) , whose specialty is the history of mediaeval Roman
and ecclesiastical law; FLACH (Paris), whose "Origines
de 1'ancienne France " marks his special interest in the
history of public law; his chair is that of the Compara-
tive History of Legal Systems; JOBBE-DUVAL (Paris),
one of whose specialties is mediaeval procedure.
Among those masters who may be spoken of as juniors,
but in age only, not in achievement, are these: HUVELIN
(Lyon), whose History of Commercial Law (now in
preparation) will take the place of Goldschmidt's in the
coming generation; LAMBERT (Lyon), whose interests
extend into Comparative Legal History; CAILLEMER
(Grenoble), whose "History of Executors" has thrown
much light on English law; DECLAREUIL (Toulouse),
whose special field has been the Frankish law; GENESTAL
(Paris), whose principal work is in the history of Canon
laws; CHENON, MEYNIAL, and LEFEBVRE (Paris), who
represent general French legal history; the "Histoire
du droit matrimonial franc, ais" (4 vols., 1908-14), by
the last-named scholar, is still unfinished; COLLINET
(Lille), who besides holding the chair of French Legal
History is an authority in Roman Law.
The Societe d'Histoire du Droit et des Institutions
cultivates specially this field. In the chapter on History
in this book will be found a more particular account of
the resources available for research in History generally.
Comparative Legal History. This subject (as distin-
guished from Comparative Contemporary Legislation)
naturally is linked with that of Roman and Western
European legal history, and several of the incumbents
of chairs above mentioned deal with aspects of it in their
treatises and courses. But, in another relation, it merges
i52 LAW
into the History of Universal Legal Ideas, or Evolution
of Law; and the cultivation of this branch of learning
has gone on apace in France, since the classic days
of Sir Henry MAINE and FUSTEL DE COULANGES, whose
works, appearing about the same time in the '6os, have
passed into numerous editions in many languages and
have set going a world-wide wave of ideas. It may be
said that KOHLER, in Germany, and DARESTE (recently
deceased) in France, have been the two chief inspirers
of research in this field in the past generation. But the
social, economic, and anthropological fields are here so
intimately involved that much valuable work has been
done by scholars who cannot strictly be classed as jurists.
In France, Paul GIDE, LAVELEYE, LETOURNEAU, TARDE,
ARBOIS DE JOUBAINVILLE, represent the general literature
of the past generation on this subject. The brothers
REVILLOUT, with their prolific works on Egyptian and
Babylonian law, gave new directions to the zest for
general ideas in this field. DE LA GRASSERIE (recently
deceased) emphasized its sociologic aspects.
For living teachers, no one stands out as specially
devoted to it; the several aspects must be sought among
the specialists in history, philology, ethnology, sociology,
archaeology, and philosophy. For example, GLOTZ
(Paris), in Greek law; DURKHEIM (Paris), in primitive
religions; HAUSSOULIER (Paris), in epigraphy; SCHEIL
(Paris) , in Assyriology , are powerfully stimulating the com-
parative treatment of legal evolution in its border rela-
tions with philology, religion, economics, and sociology.
There is also a special Ecole d'Anthropologie at Paris.
Comparative Contemporary Law. This field, which
sometimes merges into the former, is richly represented
in French learning. The Societe de Legislation com-
pare*e, founded in 1870 (the oldest of its kind) publishes
LAW 153
an "Annuaire de legislation comparee," as well as a
"Bulletin"; and the Ministry of Justice has long had a
Bureau, the Comite de legislation etrangere, which
publishes translations of the important foreign codes.
A number of chairs or courses are especially entitled
"de legislation comparee," or "de droit compare," such
as those of CAPITANT (Paris), CHAVEGRIN (Paris),
MASSIGLI (Paris), FLACH (Paris), LAMBERT (Lyon),
LYON-CAEN and THALLER (Paris), with more or less
specializing in the several departments of civil, criminal,
commercial, or constitutional law.
Systems of Colonial Legislation naturally receive at-
tention in nearly every faculty of law. Officials of the
colonial service are contributing valuable publications
of materials on Mohammedan, Chinese, and African law
and custom. In the ficole Coloniale (Paris) are given
courses in general colonial law, in the law of China, Indo-
China, Algeria, Tunis, occidental and equatorial Africa,
and in Mohammedan law. Industrial Legislation has
now become a subject of comparative study. Beside the
courses under the Faculties of Law by JAY and PERCEROU
(Paris), LESCURE (Bordeaux), Pic (Lyon), BERENGER
(Marseille), and others, instruction is given in this
subject at the Conservatoire National des Arts et
Metiers, at the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures,
and at the ficole de Legislation Professionelle. The Asso-
ciation Internationale pour la protection legale des Tra-
vailleurs has its headquarters at Paris, and is an active
stimulator of research.
Legislative Methods are coming into the field of com-
parative law. The necessity for re-casting or replacing
the century-old Civil Code has stimulated a number of
activities, particularly the Societe d'Etudes Legislatives,
a unique organization, which studies the Code topically,
and through separate Committees prepares and discusses
i54 LAW
drafts of proposed new chapters framed in the light of
contemporary needs and comparative law. The Aca-
demic des Sciences Morales et Politiques has a section
for Legislation, which conducts lectures and debates.
At Toulouse, the Academic de Legislation conducts
debates and publishes a Recueil. And a number of
prize competitions for essays are devoted especially to
the subject of contemporary legislation.
The rich resources available for legal research in libraries
and archives are fully set forth in the chapter on Political
Science in this book, and need not be here repeated.
Philosophy of Law and Jurisprudence. Neither the
analytic jurisprudence of Austin, made dominant by
him for Anglo-America, nor the metaphysical philosophy
of law, pursued in Germany since Kant's time, obtained
much footing with French jurists during the iSoos.
Nor have the universities of France, any more than those
of America, included courses on jurisprudence and phil-
osophy of law as a formal part of their prescribed cur-
riculum. The philosophy of law was left to the philoso-
phers,— Comte, Fourier, Proudhon, Fouillee.
But the last twenty-five years have seen a remarkable
growth in France of a vigorous interest in both of these
allied branches of study, — chiefly inspired and led (so
far as personal influence was responsible) by the eminent
idealist philosopher FOUILLEE, and by the great jurist
SALEILLES,, whose recent death is lamented in many de-
partments of legal science. A host of younger men now
cultivate this field with such originality and success
that, for the philosophy of law of the coming generation,
the French systems are vital for every American student,
— the more so as they are the product of a democratic
nation whose traditions, experiences, and ideals are
germane to our own.
LAW 155
Among the principal contributors now occupying uni-
versity chairs may be mentioned: BEUDANT (Grenoble),
author of "Le droit individuel et 1'Etat" (1891); CHAR-
MONT (Montpellier), author of "Le droit et 1'esprit
democratique," and "La renaissance du droit naturel";
CAPITANT (Paris) and PLANIOL (Paris), whose books,
entitled "Elementary Treatise on Civil Law," represent
most nearly what we are accustomed to term "Ana-
lytical Jurisprudence"; DUGUIT (Bordeaux), whose
masterly works "Le droit social, le droit individuel, et
la transformation de PEtat" and "Les transformations
generates du droit civil" have recently been published
(in part) in American translations, together with repre-
sentative parts of CHARMONT'S and DEMOGUE'S works;
GENY (Nancy), whose "Methode d'interpretation et
sources en droit prive positif " (1899) has stirred European
philosophic legal thought as no other single book has
done since von Ihering's "Der Zweck im Recht"; DE-
MOGUE (Lille), author of "Notions fondamentales de droit
prive" (1911), which has instantly been recognized as
the work of a master; HAURIOU (Toulouse), author of
"Le mouvement social," and of "Principes du droit
public" (1909), one of the most original treatises of the
time; LAMBERT (Lyon), whose work bridges the gap
between comparative law and general jurisprudence;
LARNAUDE (Paris; dean of the Faculty of Law), whose
progressive influence in this field is comparable to that
of the lamented SALEILLES.
Nor is the expanding power of French thought in this
field to be measured by a few names in the principal
chairs; for the published works of RICHARD ("L'origine
del'idee du droit"), MICHOUD ("La theorie de la person-
nalite morale"), CRUET ("La vie du droit"), ROLIN
(" Prolegomenes de la science du droit"), TANON, chief
justice of the Court of Appeal ("L'evolution du droit");
iS6 LAW
LEROY ("La loi"), and others, demonstrate that the
entire region of general jurisprudence and philosophy
of law is being cultivated with abundant originality and
power for the coming generation.
A more ample view of the scope of current French
work on these subjects is obtainable in vol. VII of the
Modern Legal Philosophy Series, entitled ''Modern
French Legal Philosophy" (Boston, 1916).
Criminal Law. Criminal law is now everywhere be-
coming recognized as dependent on Criminal Science in
general (or Criminology), and thus presents many com-
mon problems of theory and method in all countries.
France's contributions to Criminology are elsewhere in
this volume fully treated under that head. It is enough
here to note that the study of Criminal Law itself is in
France fully in touch, both in theory and in legislative
spirit, with the forward movement of the last half cen-
tury.
The French Penal Code of 1810 was the first radical
legislative response in Europe to the humanizing revolu-
tion of opinion led by Beccaria, Howard, and Voltaire.
Progress in theory during the nineteenth century was
followed by successive legislative reforms in all fields;
legislation for juvenile offenders, for example, was
enacted as early as 1875; f°r release on parole, in 1885;
and for suspended sentence, in 1891. In the subjects
of criminal procedure, of indeterminate sentence, and of
revision of penal definitions generally, discussion still
progresses. The student will find in France as in America
the same general and active ferment of constructive
inquiry, experiment, and debate, among all interested
groups. The scientific and literary activity outside of
the Universities would make a long bibliography, and indi-
cates the fertility of current French thought in this field.
PAUL FREDERIC GIRARD (1852-)
LAW
LAW 157
In the law schools, Criminal Law receives in general
more attention than in any American law school. At
Paris, there are two professors,— GARC.ON, who has anno-
tated the Code Penal, and LE POITTEVIN, who has
annotated the Code d'Instruction Criminelle; the latter
has also published elaborate practical treatises on Crim-
inal Procedure, Police Procedure, and Judicial Records;
both give alternately a course in Comparative Criminal
Law. The masterly treatise of SALEILLES (recently
deceased; one of France's most famous modern jurists),
on "The Individualization of Punishment," has been
translated into English for an American Committee, in
the Modern Criminal Science Series.
At Lyon is GARRAUD, the best known criminal jurist
of France. Enough to say that his two treatises on
Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure (six volumes
each, now appearing in their second and third editions)
are the most nearly perfect of their kind in any language.
At Bordeaux is BONNECASE; at Caen, DEGOIS; at Dijon,
Roux; at Grenoble, GUETAT; at Lille, DEMOGUE; at
Rennes, CHAUVEAU; at Toulouse, MAGNOL; at Mont-
pellier, LABORDE, who offers a special course in Criminal
Procedure and Penal Methods.
International Law and Public Law. The general
activities and the university instruction in these two
fields are so fully set forth in the chapter on Political
Science, in this book, that a repetition here is needless.
Suffice it to say that in each of them the student of law
will find the most extensive and helpful opportunities.
General Legal Subjects. In addition to the foregoing
subjects of supranational interest, the American student
will find a valuable field for comparison in the courses
on distinctively national law, both in the arrangement of
158 LAW
the curriculum and in the mode of teaching and study.
In two main respects the curriculum differs from the
accepted American plan, — it includes more of political
and legal science, i. e., non-private law subjects, and it
makes fewer subdivisions of the private law. For example,
the three-year curriculum for the Licence degree at Paris
covers, respectively, six, six, and eleven courses; of these
twenty-three courses, three are in political economy, two
in Roman law, two in international law, three in public
and administrative law, one in history, and one in colonial
legislation; leaving three for commercial law, one for
criminal law, two for civil procedure, and five for civil or
private law. The last group would with us be so sub-
divided as to form at least two thirds of the curriculum.
In the curriculum for the Doctorate, all of the above
subjects are pursued in advanced topics, with fewer
lecture hours and with opportunity for specialization.
In some of the provincial universities (but not in Paris),
there is a separate Institut Pratique de droit, and (in
Paris also) an Ecole du Notariat, where the technical
niceties of pleading, practice, and conveyancing, are
specially studied. Thus the foreign student is less
likely, under the regular University curriculum, to find
the local practitioner's point of view as prominently
emphasized as it is in most American schools.
Methods of Instruction. The American law student,
trained in the case-system of study and the Socratic meth-
od of instruction, finds himself in the French law school
an attendant at formal lectures, where he is a mere
"auditeur." The size of classes (especially at Paris),
and the traditions of French teaching, have not encourag-
ed the close contact of faculty and student that obtains
in the best American schools today. This may be at
first a cause of disappointment, and even of discourage-
LAW 159
ment, to the energetic student. But it should rather prove
a test of his mettle. The problem of self-adjustment to
new methods and materials is of itself valuable to the
thinker. And, of course, to the earnest and talented
aspirant, personal contact with the most eminent profes-
sors is attainable.
Perhaps equal in value to the acquirement of positive
knowledge are the influences of the French "milieu,"
scholastic, public and private; these, if the student be
sensible to them, must inevitably draw him, as an earnest
partisan on one or the other side, into the stimulating
movements which are characterizing French thought
today.
Finally it may be noted that the French genius for
formal public expression should offer to the receptive Am-
erican aspirant a stimulus and a model, such as would
profit both the practitioner and the university teacher in
America.
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS1
The study of Mathematics has always made a special
appeal to the French genius, distinguished by its fondness
for logic and its striving for perfection in form. Since
the tune of VIETA, FERMAT, DESCARTES, and PASCAL,
there has never been a period in which French mathe-
maticians have not held a commanding position in their
field. In particular, during the great epoch of 1730-
1820, when the Calculus and its applications received
their formal development, it has been well said that
"the scepter of Mathematics was in French hands."
To justify this, one needs mention only the names of
LAGRANGE, LAPLACE, LEGENDRE, PONCELET, and MONGE,
among a host of others.
Though this period was followed by one somewhat less
brilliant, especially after the passing of FOURIER and
POISSON; yet the work of CAUCHY alone, in the first
three decades after 1820, would have upheld the great
tradition. To this epoch also belong GALOIS, who before
his death at twenty-one had discovered principles that
recreated modern algebra, and STURM and LIOUVILLE,
whose names are attached to fundamental results in
algebra and the theory of linear differential equations.
To HERMITE belongs the distinction of leading the
French school of mathematicians from the death of
CAUCHY till the rise of the present group, who may well
be regarded as having restored the preeminence of
H Drafting Committee: D. R. CURTISS, Northwestern University;
T. F. HOLGATE, Northwestern University; E. H. MOORE, University of
Chicago; E. B. WILSON, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — ED.]
163
164 MATHEMATICS
France in Mathematics. He was in a special sense their
master, equally great as teacher and scholar, and, in the
wide field he covered, typical of the modern school.
Among the notable contributors of this period was CHASLES.
The present era in French mathematics may be said
to date from the early work of DARBOUX and JORDAN, in
the late sixties and early seventies. In rapid succession
appear the names of PICARD, POINCARE, APPELL, PAIN-
LEVE, GOURSAT, HADAMARD, and BoREL. Nor have the
achievements of the still younger group given ground to
believe that successors will be wanting. The brilliance
of the modern school has been enhanced by the broadness
of its leaders' achievements; the contributions of PICARD,
POINCARE, and HADAMARD, for example, have been re-
markable in geometry, algebra, and applied mathematics,
as well as in analysis. The latter field has, however,
been perhaps the most cultivated.
No account of recent French mathematics can be com-
plete which fails to yield its tribute to the genius of
POINCARE. At his death, in 1912, it was the universal
verdict that he must be considered the greatest mathe-
matician of his age.
Mathematicians of Today and their Work. It has
undoubtedly been true for many years that the group of
mathematicians resident in Paris was the most distin-
guished to be found at any one place in the world, and
there is no reason to believe that this situation will soon
be altered. The centralization of French scientific
activity presents distinct advantages to the mathematical
student from abroad, especially to the man of more mature
type. The older and more eminent mathematicians are
grouped in Paris. However, many of the provincial
universities have on their faculties one or more men,
usually of the younger scholars, who have such special
HENRI POINCARE (1854-1912)
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS 165
knowledge of a given field that the visiting student cannot
afford to ignore the opportunity of working with them.
Thus, within a few years past two younger men as well-
known as BOUTROUX and FRECHET were to be found at
Poitiers; and, to mention but one other name, BAIRE
was at another provincial university. The university
of Toulouse has always had a strong mathematical
faculty.
The dean of French mathematicians, still active, is
DARBOUX, perhaps the most distinguished living worker
in the field of differential geometry. His great treatise
is the standard authority on that subject. In spite of
the demands made on his time by his other duties (he is,
for example, permanent secretary of the Academy of
Sciences), he continues to give each year a course at the
Sorbonne on higher geometry that no visiting student
can afford to miss. It would be worth while to sit under
him, if only to absorb something of his great charm as a
lecturer. l
PICARD is equally noted for his life and inspiration in
the class-room; he is one of the few men who are great
both as teachers and investigators. For nearly forty
years his contributions to the theory of functions and to
differential equations have been of fundamental im-
portance. Many of them have been summed up in his
great "Traite d'analyse," of which the fourth and last
volume is still in preparation, and in the two volumes
of the "Theorie des fonctions algebriques de deux vari-
ables independantes." The field represented by this
last work has of late years especially occupied his atten-
tion. His lectures at the Sorbonne share with Darboux's
the distinction of being among the most popular under
the Faculty of Sciences.
1 [We regret to chronicle, since this chapter went to press, the death
of this eminent scientist. — AUTHORS.!
166 MATHEMATICS
Although APPELL has long been dean of the Faculty
of Sciences at the Sorbonne, he has continued to give a
course there each year. His contributions to analysis
and applied mathematics are indicated by his well-known
volumes on algebraic functions and their integrals (in
collaboration with GOURSAT), on elliptic functions,
(jointly with LACOUR), and especially by his three-volume
"Traite de mecanique rationnelle." He has been espe-
cially distinguished as a teacher, and for a number of
years gave a most successful course in the Sorbonne on
general mathematics for students of other sciences; this
is now accessible in published form. In 1915-16 he
lectured on analytic mechanics and celestial mechanics.
GOURSAT has long covered the field of differential and
integral calculus at the Sorbonne. His lectures have
formed the basis of his celebrated "Cours d'analyse,"
one of the most widely used modern texts in its field.
Only less well-known are his works on partial differential
equations and on algebraic functions, while his frequent
contributions have made his name familiar to readers
of mathematical periodicals.
BOREL bears the title of professor at the Sorbonne, and
in some years has given public lectures there. In the
year 1915-16, however, his work was confined to the
Ecole Normale Superieure, and was open to visiting stu-
dents only by special arrangement. He may be con-
sidered, perhaps jointly with HADAMARD, as the leader
in a younger group of French analysts. He is probably
best known by the series of monographs (on the theory
of functions) of which he is the editor, and of a number
of which he is the author.
In 1915-16, GUICHARD and CAHEN gave courses in
the Sorbonne on rational mechanics. Both these men
have done important work also in other fields, the former
in geometry, the latter in the theory of numbers. Their
MATHEMATICS 167
brilliant predecessor in the chair of mechanics,
PAINLEVE, has been for a time occupied with governmental
work, as Minister of Education.
The courses of BOUSSINESQ and KOENIGS in mathe-
matical physics should also be mentioned, though they
lie partly without the field we are considering.
In addition to the lecture courses mentioned above,
conferences were held at the Sorbonne and the Ecole
Normale in 1915-16 by LEBESGUE, whose new theory
of integration is already classical; VESSIOT, perhaps best
known for his work in extending the Galois theory to
linear differential equations; CARTAN, whose name is
familiar to students of group theory; and MONTEL, who
has made brilliant contributions to the theory of func-
tions.
If we have deferred mention of HADAMARD, it is not
because he can be assigned any other than a foremost
position among French mathematicians, but on account
of the fact that his work in not at the Sorbonne, but
at the College de France and the ficole Poly technique.
At the latter institution his classes are not open to the
public; but at the former, where he holds the chair
of Analytic and Celestial Mechanics, all hearers are
welcome. His courses are by no means confined to the
subjects indicated; in the year 1915-16 he lectured on
the analytic theory of prime numbers, to which he made
contributions of such fundamental importance in his
earlier work. Like Poincare, his genius has covered
almost the whole field of mathematics, and he has espe-
cially enriched analysis and applied mathematics by his
researches.
At the College de France one may also hear the lec-
tures of HUMBERT, perhaps best known by his "Cours
d'analyse." His work is mainly in algebra and analysis.
The courses in mathematical physics given here by
1 68 MATHEMATICS
BRILLOUIN and LANGEVIN fall at least partly in the field
we are considering.
Special Facilities for Work in Mathematics. The
difficulty of obtaining personal assistance and direction
has by some been considered, in past periods, an obstacle
to the study of mathematics in France. It is true that
there is nothing like a seminary system, but men of some
maturity who are pursuing research along a special line
will find the experts in that field glad to confer with them.
The leaders in French mathematics are unusually acces-
sible personally, and many American students have
derived inspiration and encouragement from them.
It is possible for foreign students to obtain admission
to the Ecole Normale Superieure, and in the past a
few have done so. One may thus attend courses closed
to the public and have access to the large mathematical
library of the school. The mere association with the
intellectual elite of French students is a privilege worth
while in itself.
The great library of the Sorbonne has a complete
mathematical collection; one who joins the French mathe-
matical society has the privilege, enjoyed by members,
of access to the shelves of the library. Another mathemat-
ical collection of considerable value to one lodged in the
student quarter of Paris is that of the Bibliotheque
Sainte-Genevieve.
MEDICINE
INCLUDING
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY,
PHYSIOLOGY, NEUROLOGY,
MEDICINE, SURGERY,
AND PATHOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY OF
FRENCH MEDICAL SCIENCE1
To catch and imprison within the rigid symbols of
language the spirit of a people, as shown in any aspect
of their national life, so that the printed page may render
back to each reader a faithful picture, is as difficult as the
task of the painter, who would depict upon his canvas not
merely the features, but the essence of that inner life
which lies back of the ever-changing expression as a
central unity. Without this there can be no true portrait.
French medical science, in the modern sense, has a history
of a little more than one hundred years, of rapid growth,
of constantly increasing diversification, of shifting inter-
ests like the swing of the pendulum, often too far to one
side, then to the other. Nevertheless, through it all can be
traced something individual, a central stream of tendency
essentially French, which, impinged on from either side by
the flow of thought into it from other lands, has produced
the actual achievements in each of the lines of special en-
deavor that will be recounted in the chapters which follow.
Sympathy and imagination are perhaps the most char-
acteristic attributes of the French mind, as common-sense
and justice are of the Anglo-Saxon, and orderliness of
the German. Sympathy and imagination may, I believe,
be traced through the whole development of French
medicine. Wide and sympathetic interest in the relief of
human suffering through the advance of knowledge of
disease has been instinctive in their greatest scientists,
^Drafting Committee: T. C. JANEWAY, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity.—ED.]
171
172 MEDICINE
and has prevented that intense absorption in a single
field of research which leads to complete detachment and
isolation of the investigator. Because of this, French
physiology, from MAGENDIE through the immortal Claude
BERNARD and MAREY to its modern exponents, has always
been experimental medicine. Each of these men, while
aiming at the elucidation of the normal function of the
body, constantly strove to apply his discoveries to the
unraveling of their complex disorders. The mention of
Claude Bernard's name evokes first of all the thought of
diabetes, not of the normal liver function. These men
taught as they thought, presenting their subject in its
relation to pathology and to clinical medicine, not as
something independent and self-sufficient. The earlier
chapters of Claude Bernard's "Lemons de physiologic ex-
perimentale" contain the program of the modern medical
clinic, set forth with a cogency and a lucidity which have
never been equalled, a program which we are only just
beginning to realize. So too PASTEUR, the chemist, with
the highest type of scientific imagination, seeing in his
discovery of the nature of putrefaction the key which
would unlock the door to knowledge of the infectious
diseases, and planning the simplest experiments by which
he might reach his goal, is kin to the creative artist who,
with a few bold lines, draws the picture that will live when
mere photographs, with all their wealth of detail, shall
have faded into nothingness.
Closely allied to the insight which grows out of imagina-
tion and sympathy is a certain attitude toward reality as a
whole, which the French exemplify in their thought as in
their medical science. They love life in all its baffling
complexity better than abstract formulations. An in-
tense desire to see and accurately describe every varied
feature of disease in the actual patient has enabled French
physicians to detect and record for the first time many
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY 173
rare morbid conditions and symptoms. They have been
masters of the arts of clinical observation and description.
This interest in the actual, in seeing things as they are
through one's own eyes, is of all qualities the most im-
portant for the practitioner of medicine. It consorts ill
with the tendency of the compiler, who laboriously
gathers from other sources than his own experience all
existing knowledge, and, systematizing it, makes it avail-
able for the mass of men. He is the bookkeeper of
science, useful but uninspiring. The infinite variety of
the expressions of disease in the individual has at times
led the French school to erect unnecessary distinctions;
but, in spite of occasional excesses, its keen discrimina-
tions have been the means of detecting many unsuspected
clinical syndromes. Because of this fundamental interest
in the concrete, French medical students have always
entered the hospitals from the very beginning of their
course, and have seen sick patients during the years in
which they were mastering anatomy, physiology, and the
other underlying medical sciences.
Finally, that passion for the mastery of his language
as a vehicle for thought, which is so strong in the French-
man, has lent ,to his medical teaching and to the pub-
lication of his scientific work a clarity, elegance, and charm
which are rarely equalled in any other country. To the
earnest student of medicine the manner in which he
clothes his ideas can never be of small consequence; and
the example which will be constantly before him as he
listens to the presentation of a case in the hospital ward,
or to the announcement in a few concise and telling words
of an important discovery at a meeting of the Societe de
Biologic or the Societe des Hopitaux, will be one worthy of
emulation.
In modern science, machinery and method have of late
almost obscured from view that hidden, but essential,
174 MEDICINE
factor in progress, the mind of man. Machinery and
method have proved their value, and we shall not discard
them. France has perhaps in the past laid too little
stress on the organization of research, but she has never
failed to preserve that atmosphere of free intellectual
inquiry and unconquerable scientific curiosity in which
the genius who creates new machinery and devises new
methods to solve new problems can best develop. The
first great American physicians, one hundred years ago,
sought in Paris at the feet of LAENNEC and Louis, of
PINEL and RICORD, of DUPUYTREN and VELPEAU, and of
the great MAGENDIE, the inspiration which enabled them
to lay the foundation of scientific medicine in our land.
American medical science is now thoroughly organized,
rich in facilities for research in hospitals and laboratories,
full of enthusiasm for high achievement. It must appro-
priate and adapt to its own uses the best that it finds in all
lands. In France it will find scientific imagination of the
highest order, sympathy so wide as to unite all groups of
specialists in devotion to the aims of medicine as a whole,
acute observation of the finer details of clinical symptoms,
a spirit which loves reality so intensely that it will not
cramp it within too simple and artificial categories, and
the best model for its imitation in the creation of its
medical literature.
2 _=
PHYSIOLOGY1
The historian who attempts to trace the development
of modern physiology (that is to say, physiology as an
experimental science based on physics and chemistry)
will find it necessary to refer constantly to the names
of the great French physiologists of the igth century,
Francois MAGENDIE and Claude BERNARD. While much
good work was being done in England at that period,
largely on anatomical lines, and in Germany Johannes
MULLER and his famous pupils were making notable
contributions to physiology and, indeed, to biology in
general, the really modern spirit of physiological research
found its most earnest advocates and exemplars in the
two French physiologists named. In his wonderful ex-
perimental lectures, given at the College de France,
MAGENDIE over and over again emphasized the impor-
tance of experimental investigation as opposed to specu-
lation and theorizing, and in his words and by his works
he indicated clearly the lines along which physiology
should advance, — the lines in fact along which it has
advanced. His great pupil BERNARD, rilled with his
master's spirit, and endowed with a scientific mind of
the first order, made those remarkable discoveries which
entitle him to be ranked as the greatest physiologist
that the world has produced. At that time physiology
was the sole experimental medical science; and the great
influence exerted by these two men made itself felt not
only upon the subsequent development of physiology
1 [Drafting Committee: WM. H. HOWELL, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity.— ED.]
175
176 MEDICINE
as a separate science but in the modernization of medi-
cine as a whole. Medical men from all countries went
to Paris to work with Bernard, and by this means his
influence was extended through personal contact over a
wide area.
In addition there grew up round him a group of
pupils, MAREY, FRANCOIS-FRANCK, BERT, RICHET,
d'ARSONVAL, GREHANT, DASTRE, and others, who in
their turn have contributed brilliantly to the advance-
ment of the subject. The work of BERT upon barometric
pressure is worthy of special notice. Conceived and
executed in a scientific and comprehensive spirit, it met
at first, singularly enough, with some bitter criticism
from abroad; but it has since come to be recognized as
the classic and starting point for all investigations
dealing with the physiological effects of variations in
atmospheric pressure. No less noteworthy are the
important contributions made by MAREY to the study
of movements and the development of a beautiful tech-
nique for graphic reproductions of all kinds. Physiol-
ogists of all countries are deeply indebted to his genius
in devising apparatus and methods.
The living French physiologists comprise such names
as RICHET, DASTRE, d'ARSONVAL, FRANCOIS-FRANCK,
GLEY, WEISS, MORAT, DOYON, LANGLOIS, NICLOUX,
LAPICQUE, — names known to the physiologists in all
countries because of the important contributions to
science associated with them. RICHET has had the honor
of a Nobel prize for his fundamental work in anaphylaxis.
D 'ARSONVAL, brilliant as a physicist as well as physiol-
ogist, is remembered also in connection with some of
the early work upon internal secretions done in collabora-
tion with BROWN-SEQUARD. GLEY'S work has taken a
wide range, but his contributions to the physiology of
the internal secretions, especially of the parathyroid
PHYSIOLOGY 177
glands, have been of fundamental importance. FRAN-
COIS-FRANCE: has published many beautiful papers upon
vasomotor regulation, important in their results and
models of technical skill. DASTRE, in his own name and
through the workers in his well-equipped laboratory, is
known for work in all branches of physiology and physi-
ological chemistry. The work of these men and their
pupils includes all the existing fields in physiology.
The longer contributions appear in the "Journal de
Physiologic et de pathologic generale," the successor to
the well known "Archives de Physiologic normale et
pathologique :" but the pages of the weekly journal
" Comptes rendus de la Societe de Biologic" teem with
shorter communications that touch on every phase of
biological research, and reflect like a mirror the latest
thoughts and aspirations of the workers in science.
Instruction. Any student who wishes to pursue
advanced work in Physiology or desires instruction in
modern methods of research will find in France, and
especially of course in Paris, able and distinguished
teachers and ample laboratory facilities. In the labo-
ratories of the Faculte de Medecine, at the Sorbonne in
the Faculte des Sciences, at the College de France, the
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, and the Institut Pasteur,
opportunities are offered for investigative work in all
branches of physiology, and in biological chemistry and
physics. Details in regard to the lecture courses and
laboratory courses which may be followed are furnished
by the "Livret de 1'Etudiant" of the University of
Paris; but arrangements in regard to participation in
research work must be made of course with the directors
of the laboratories.
Libraries are numerous and complete. In addition to
the great Bibliotheque Nationale, there are special
178 MEDICINE
libraries at the School of Medicine, the Pasteur In-
stitute, the Biological Society, etc. In the use of these
libraries the American student will not find the same
freedom and liberality that he is accustomed to in
American universities. So far as the writer is informed
none of the Continental libraries follow the generous
American plan of giving students free access to books and
periodicals. But if the regulations in force are learned
and observed, no serious difficulty is encountered in
obtaining any literature that may be desired.
Outside this routine work in lectures and in labora-
tories, the physiological student in Paris has an almost
unequaled opportunity to acquire a broad cultural basis
in the related sciences and in the historical develop-
ment of his subject. Numerous public lectures and
exercises may be attended without charge; and in the
many museums, especially in the Museum of the Con-
servatoire National des Arts et Metiers, objects of
historical interest in science may be seen and studied.
UE: PROF* E:SS EUR CHARCOT
Mt-mbro «!-- r
JEAN MARTIN CHARCOT (1825-1893)
MEDICINE: NEUROLOGY
NEUROLOGY'
Since the dawn of scientific medicine the neurology
of France has been preeminent, sometimes almost to the
point of isolation. And the present maintains the tra-
ditions of the past. Now, as formerly, productivity in
this department is largely concentrated in Paris. Unless
it be on account of some sporadic activity (such as the
work in hypnotism at Nancy thirty years ago), the
student of nervous diseases will have no occasion to go
elsewhere. In the Capital the science and art of neurol-
ogy flourish as on no other soil. Enormous hospitals
and infirmaries furnish clinical and pathological material
without parallel, and here are more men of parts actively
engaged in neurological work than in any other city of the
world. The Societe de Neurologic de Paris is the best,
the best organized, and the most active neurological
society in existence. There are numerous laboratories
where research work is constantly prosecuted; there
are regular courses covering the various aspects of
neurology; during vacation periods there are short
courses for graduates; and there is a medical library of
160,000 volumes. Added to this, there is a policy of
freedom, a ready accessibility, and a personal welcome
such as are found in no other great medical center of
Europe.
In presenting a brief outline of the opportunities for
graduate work in neurology we may assume that the
1 [Drafting Committee: HUGH T. PATRICK, Northwestern Univer-
sity; MORTON PRINCE, Tufts College. — ED.]
179
MEDICINE
student has mastered the more elementary steps. If
he has not, there are laboratories where he can familiarize
himself with the structure of the nervous system and
histological technique. Likewise he will find practical
courses in methods of clinical examination, diagnosis,
and treatment. Such courses are given especially in
connection with the Clinic for Diseases of the Nervous
System at the Salpetriere, where the material is pecu-
liarly rich.
The more advanced student will wish to spend his
time with the leaders of French neurology in the various
hospitals and in the laboratories for research and patho-
logical work. Here it is difficult to separate the man from
the institution, and consequently we shall make an
attempt to consider them together,— a quite illogical,
but we think useful method. And first of all,
La Salpetriere (Hospice de). This is a huge infirmary
or poorhouse for women. But it is on a hospital basis,
divided into well organized services with complete at-
tending and house staffs, the patients studied and re-
corded as in any modern hospital. It was here that
CHARCOT pursued his epoch-making researches and
where he finally induced the faculty to establish the
far-famed university clinic for diseases of the nervous
system. Later, to this service were added two large
wards for men. On this terrain Charcot developed
what was known as the School of Charcot, and here
delivered the scintillating clinical lectures which have
been the admiration and despair of other teachers and
have remained a tradition and an example for his
followers.
On his death in 1893, he was succeeded temporarily
(two years) by the brilliant and beloved BRISSAUD,
whose two volumes of lectures here delivered are neurol-
ogical gems. The productive RAYMOND followed him;
NEUROLOGY 181
and the present incumbent is J. DEJERINE/ who for many
years has been one of the strongest neurologists of France.
He is the author of a remarkable "Semiologie des
Maladies du Systeme Nerveux"; with Mme. Dejerine
has written a great Anatomy of the Nervous System;
and has published innumerable valuable papers. During
the school year he gives two clinics a week. That of
Tuesday is more informal, more directly practical, in-
volving the presentation of more patients without ex-
haustive consideration of any subject. The Friday
lecture generally is devoted to more fundamental, sys-
tematic treatment of some disease or problem, and the
same subject may run through several lectures. The
great wealth of clinical material makes these lectures
extraordinary. With this service is a large out-patient
department.
At the Salpetriere is also another immense service prac-
tically devoted to nervous diseases. The head is Pierre
MARIE, perhaps the most celebrated neurologist of
France. Only to catalogue his notable contributions to
neuro-pathology would require a small book. Perhaps
he is best known from his work on acromegaly, various
aspects of apoplexy, scoliose rhizomelique, and aphasia;
but there is scarcely a phase of organic disease of the
nervous system which he has not touched to illuminate.
He delivers no formal lectures but once a week has a
"consultation d'externe," or dispensary service, where
he holds an extemporaneous clinic. The patients are
examined under his eye, and he makes diagnoses, com-
ments and explanations. Of necessity the work is rapid
and hence rather superficial; but the master exhibits a
combination of erudition, perspicacity, and perspicuity,
1 [We regret to have to chronicle his decease, which occurred after
this chapter went to the printer. Presumably he will be succeeded
by Marie. — AUTHORS.]
182 MEDICINE
to be met not more than once or twice in a lifetime. For
the student of nervous diseases it is a mine of informa-
tion and inspiration. For more mature study and treat-
ment many of these patients are taken into the wards
which Marie visits nearly every day. The ward visits
are free to any graduate, who thus hears the reports of
assistants and internes, the comments, corrections, and
conclusions of the chief. This is not a course of instruc-
tion, but routine work, and the visitor's tact will indicate
to what extent he may ask questions.
In connection with these two dominant services at the
Salpetriere, associates and assistants frequently give
courses relating to some special subject. These junior
members of the staff are trained and generally eminent
neurologists. One may mention Andre THOMAS, who
knows as much of the cerebellum as any man; Henri
MEIGE, who (following Brissaud) has made a profound
study of the various tics; CROUZON, a good all-round
man; Foix, who is a laboratory expert as well as a good
clinician; and whosoever happens to be chief of clinic
for Dejerine.
In connection with the University clinic, but used
also by the other services, is a very complete electric
department under the personal direction of Dr. BOUR-
GUINON, capable, enthusiastic, amiable. This, like every-
thing else, is quite accessible to the graduate student,
and offers unequalled opportunity to become familiar
with electrodiagnosis and electrotherapeutics.
We may here state, for the Salpetriere as well as for
all other hospitals and infirmaries of Paris, that the
qualified graduate will have no difficulty in associating
himself with assistants and internes so as to watch their
daily work, learn their methods and become acquainted
with their cases. In many instances he may procure
the privilege of examining patients himself, thus becoming
NEUROLOGY 183
familiar with rare types as well as classical clinical
pictures.
Bicetre (Hospice de) is an infirmary for men, corre-
sponding to the Salpetriere (though not so conveniently
located), and is second only to the latter in wealth of
neurological material. In the nature of things the cases
are mostly chronic. Here patients are kept and observed,
and here they come to autopsy. At Bicetre the visitor
will find many a patient who has served as text for a
dissertation; he will recall his picture seen in a medical
journal, and later he will read of the post mortem find-
ings. Prof. A. SOUQUES, who was preceded by Dejerine
and Pierre Marie, now has the choice service. As a rule
he gives no regular course of instruction, but one may
always make the ward visits with him and will be richly
repaid. He is one of the ablest and best informed of the
Paris school, as well as one of the most approachable,
and he has a collection of patients not to be duplicated.
Their careful study is well worth the time of any neurol-
ogist.
In the same institution is a huge service for the feeble-
minded (idiots and imbeciles), where BOURNEVILLE
made his remarkable pioneer studies and whence issued
his valuable detailed reports.
L 'Hopital de la Pitie should next be mentioned, because
here is BABINSKI, universally known from the reflex
called by his name; certainly one of the most original,
astute, and forceful of living neurologists. He seems to
combine Gallic brilliance with the methodical thorough-
ness of the German, and by some is considered the great-
est French neurologist. Having true scientific insight,
the fruit of his labor is rarely without value. Deprived
of his contributions on the reflexes, on spinal and brain-
stem localization, on cerebellar disorders, hysteria and
many other things, modern neurology would be far from
184 MEDICINE
being what it is. He has not nearly so many beds as
Marie, Dejerine, and Souques; but his turnover is more
rapid, he has more acute cases and also a large out-
patient following. During at least one semester he
gives a course of semi-weekly clinical lectures which are
unexcelled and which no student of neurology can afford
to miss. Also one may make the ward visits with him
and witness the examination of such patients as are
brought to his "cabinet."
Imy is a suburb where is located another huge hospice,
like the Salpetriere and Bicetre, and like them it houses
a large number of neurological cases. Until the outbreak
of the present war this service was in charge of Prof.
J. A. SICARD. This conflict once over, probably he will
be transferred to a service within the city. Wherever
he may be, he is well worth following, as he has had quite
exceptional training, and is one of the most clear-sighted,
enthusiastic, and energetic of the present generation.
The government plan of promoting hospital physicians
("medecins des hopitaux") from one service to another
makes it impossible to predict where the younger men
may be found a year hence. Still, we must indicate some
of these rising and risen men, whose courses should be
taken and whose services visited as occasion offers. A
full list is impossible; but of the best are Georges GUIL-
LAIN, Henri CLAUDE, HUET, ALQUIER, Andre LERI,
LAIGNEL-LAVASTINE, CAMUS, KLIPPEL, ENRIQUEZ,
JUMENTIE, and LHERMITTE; for surgery of the nerv-
ous system, DE MARTEL.
We would particularly note that no follower of neu-
rology should miss the monthly or semi-monthly meetings
of the Societe de Neurologic.
Laboratories. In addition to the regular University
laboratories of anatomy and pathology, there are labora-
tories of neuro-pathology in connection with the services
NEUROLOGY 185
of Dejerine, Marie, Babinski, and Souques. That of the
Clinic for Diseases of the Nervous System is extensive
and well organized, and offers instruction in laboratory
methods and normal and abnormal nervous tissues. In
all of them a volunteer competent to work on pathological
material or to carry on research work will be welcome,
and will have the guidance, the support, and the inspira-
tion of trained experts. Gustave ROUSSY, who is chief
of the University laboratory of pathology, is a trained
neurologist and especially interested in pathology of the
nervous system.
Psychiatry. The focus of psychiatric teaching is at
the Asile Sainte-Anne, where the professor of this de-
partment of medicine is chief and where he gives
clinics. Who is to succeed the late lamented BALLET is
not now known to us, but he is sure to be a strong man
and a good teacher. For years it has been customary
at this institution to give a two-hour clinic on Sunday
mornings. At Ste.-Anne there is also another large
service in mental diseases, so that the student devoting
himself to this branch can with profit put in a large part
of his time here. At the Salpetriere and at Bicetre are
departments for the insane, freely accessible to graduates
and where from time to time courses are given.
As nearly all ward visits are made in the morning and
most clinical lectures delivered "ante meridian," the
student devoted to clinical work alone may be a little
embarrassed in the disposition of his afternoons. Espe-
cially welcome to him will be the Infirmerie Speciale du
Depot in the Quai de 1'Horloge where every afternoon
Prof. Ernest DUPRE (the worthy successor of LASEGUE
and GARNIER) examines those mentally deranged or
suspected of mental disorder who have been arrested or
picked up by the police. The work involves no profound
study of any case, as the Infirmerie is a depot of transit;
i86 MEDICINE
but we believe that nowhere can one so well learn how to
go quickly to the kernel of a case of insanity. In most
semesters Dupre gives a clinic once a week at which the
cases are gone into more in detail. He is a psychiatrist
of the highest order and a fine teacher.
The Societe de Psychiatric and several excellent
journals afford the forums and clearing houses necessary
to maintain the traditions and continue the honorable
heritage of French psychiatry.
MEDICINE'
In France at the beginning of the last century modern
methods of clinical observation had their birth.
BICHAT, following the great MORGAGNI, began to
reveal those changes which occur in the organs as the
result of disease, and to correlate the pathological altera-
tions with symptoms which occur during life. And when
his too short day was past, there followed a remarkable
group of eager clinicians who endeavoured on the one
hand, by physical means, to detect these changes during
life and by the accumulation of careful clinical and post
mortem observations to improve the art of diagnosis;
and on the other, by the employment of a rigid statistical
method to test the accuracy of diagnosis and treatment.
It was into French that the generally neglected contri-
bution of AUENBRUGGER, announcing the discovery of
the art of percussion, was first translated (de Roziere de la
Chassagne, "Manuel des pulmoniques, etc.," 16°, Paris,
Humaire, 1770); and later, in 1808, it was CORVISART
who first recognized the value of percussion and intro-
duced it into general use (Auenbrugger, "Nouvelle
methode, etc.," par J. N. Corvisart, 8°, Paris, Migneret,
1808).
LAENNEC followed with his discovery of the art of
auscultation, which for the first time made possible the
accurate diagnosis of diseases of the chest. The clinical
methods of this great man, as set forth in the preface
of his famous work " L'auscultation mediate, etc.," (8°,
1 [Drafting Committee: W. S. THAYER, Johns Hopkins University. —
ED.]
187
i88 MEDICINE
Paris, Brosson & Chaude, 1819) are models for all time.
His descriptions of emphysema, bronchiectasis, pul-
monary oedema, and hepatic cirrhosis, are classical.
These precursors were followed by a remarkable body
of students of whom a few may be mentioned:
BOUILLAUD, whose acute observations first called
attention to the relation between acute polyarthritis
and endocarditis, was also one of the earliest to point
out the phenomena of cerebral localization. ANDRAL
and CHOMEL, able clinicians and conscientious ob-
servers. RAYER, one of the earliest students of diseases
of the kidneys, whose beautiful atlas is still regarded
as a treasure by the fortunate possessor. Louis,
who through his patient studies and his "numerical
method," contributed greatly to the elucidation of the
symptomatology of tuberculosis, of yellow fever, and
especially of typhoid fever which he and his students
first clearly distinguished from typhus. To Louis' in-
fluence more than to that of any other one man do we
owe the introduction of accurate clinical methods into
America. Inspired by him, a large group of students,
including the Jacksons, the Warrens, Bowditch, Holmes,
and Shattuck of Boston; Alonzo Clark, Valentine Mott,
and Metcalf of New York; Gerhard, Norris, Stille,
Clymer, Ruschenberger, and Pepper, Sr., of Philadelphia;
Power of Baltimore; Gaillard, Gibbs, and Porcher of
Charleston; Cabell, Selden, and Randolph of Virginia;
brought home enthusiasm and ideals which have been of
incalculable benefit to American medicine.
BRETONNEAU, celebrated for his studies on diphtheria
to which he gave its name. VILLEMIN, who in 1866
demonstrated the transmissibility of tuberculosis.
TROUSSEAU, the brilliant clinician, author of the cele-
brated Clinique de 1'Hotel-Dieu. MAREY, initiator of
graphic methods of the study of the circulation. POTAIN,
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1895)
MEDICINE: MEDICINE
MEDICINE 189
whose early studies on the blood pressure and other
cardio-vascular problems contain so much that is sug-
gestive and valuable; author with Teissier, Vaquez,
Franc. ois-Franck and others, of " Clinique medicale de la
Charite" (8°, Paris, Masson, 1894). LANCEREAUX, who
first suggested the relation of the pancreas to diabetes.
HUCHARD, student of diseases of the circulatory appa-
ratus. RICORD, whose contributions to venereal disease,
especially to the definite separation of syphilis and
gonorrhoea are, as Garrison has said, "memorable in
the history of medicine." FOURNIER, the famous syphil-
ographer. HANOT, well known for his studies on cirrhosis
of the liver, who, with Chauffard, first described pigmen-
tary cirrhosis. CHARCOT, probably the greatest clinician
of his day, whose earlier contributions on various branches
of general medicine were scarcely less valuable than his
classical studies upon nervous diseases which followed.
DIEULAFOY, student and successor of Trousseau, fascinat-
ing clinician, author of the well-known treatise on medi-
cine and of six volumes of clinical lectures. DUCHENNE of
Boulogne, the great neurologist; BRISSAUD, JOFFROY,
GlLLES DE LA TOURETTE, LANDRY, and MORVAN, to
mention but a few only of those who have made notable
contributions to neurology.
PASTEUR, who opened the whole chapter of the rela-
tions of infection to medicine; whose service to mankind
looms larger with every addition which has been made
to our knowledge of infectious deseases. YERSIN, to
whom we are indebted for the sero-therapy and pro-
phylaxis of plague.
These are but a few of the Frenchmen who within the
last century have contributed to the advance of medicine.
Instruction. These men have had worthy successors;
and it may be well briefly to mention a few of the living
i9o MEDICINE
leaders of French medicine whose influence and inspira-
tion the student of today may seek.
Roux, the director of the Pasteur Institute, who
with Yersin, in 1888, demonstrated the existence of the
toxin of diphtheria, and later, independently and almost
simultaneously with Behring, introduced the method
of treating diphtheria by antitoxin.
RICHET, the brilliant professor of physiology, who with
HERICOURT in 1888 demonstrated the presence of antitoxic
substances in the blood of animals convalescent from infec-
tious diseases; who in 1891 made the first sero- therapeutic
injection in man; who with PORTIER in 1902 first demon-
strated the important phenomenon of anaphylaxis.
LAVERAN, the distinguished discoverer of the parasites
of malaria, who from the laboratory of the Institut Pasteur
is still giving forth valuable contributions to parasitology.
LANDOUZY, whose name, with that of DEJERINE, is
associated with a form of muscular atrophy; who has
contributed to many branches of medicine but especially
to the study of tuberculosis, pointing out, among the
earliest, the almost constant relation of tuberculosis to
the so-called idiopathic sero-fibrinous pleurisy. Dean
today of the Medical Faculty, he is still active in his
clinic for tuberculosis at the Hopital Laennec.
DEJERINE, professor at the Faculty, one of the most
distinguished of living neurologists, author of a monumental
anatomy of the nervous system and (with ANDRE-
THOMAS) of the volume on diseases of the spinal cord
in the "Nouveau Traite de medecine et de therapeutique "
(1909); a brilliant clinician whose exercises at the Sal-
petriere are most stimulating.1
Pierre MARIE, professor at the Faculty, who first
described the disease Acromegaly and pointed out its
1 [His death, since this chapter went to press, is chronicled with
deepest regret. — AUTHOR.]
MEDICINE 191
association with tumours of the pituitary body; author
of many contributions to the science of neurology and
especially of the admirable "Legons sur les maladies de
la moelle" (1892); editor of "La pratique neurologique "
(Paris, 8°, Masson, 1911); presides now over a clinic
at the Salpetriere.
BLANCHARD, professor at the Faculty, who is today
probably the leading parasitologist of the world.
WIDAL, professor of medicine, distinguished clinician,
well known for his adaptation of the Gruber-Durham
phenomenon to the diagnosis of typhoid fever; who,
through a long series of studies has made important con-
tributions to our knowledge of nephritis, as well as
notable investigations concerning haemolytic jaundice;
director of a well organized service at the Cochin with
good laboratories offering an excellent opportunity for
the well equipped post-graduate student.
CHAUFFAKD, professor at the Faculty, a brilliant and
suggestive clinician; (with HANOT) described pigmentary
cirrhosis (1882); author of many contributions to various
branches of medicine, including (with LAEDERICH) an
excellent work on diseases of the kidney (1909); dis-
coverer of the nature of haemolytic jaundice (1907);
director of a service at the Hopital Saint-Antoine.
VAQUEZ, agrege, able clinician, whose studies have
especially concerned the cardio-vascular apparatus;
author of many contributions to medical literature;
discoverer of the disease Polycythaemia, which is some-
times spoken of as Vaquez' disease; editor of the
"Archives des maladies du cceur," etc.; director of
an active service at the Saint-Antoine, which should
offer a good field for post-graduate study.
LETULLE, professor at the Faculty, author of an im-
portant work on pathological anatomy, director of a
service at the Hopital Boucicault.
192 MEDICINE
BABINSKI, distinguished neurologist; author of import-
ant contributions to this branch of medicine; presides
over a clinic at the Pitie.
MARFAN, professor at the Faculty, a leading authority
on diseases of children; one of the ablest and most
stimulating clinicians in Paris, whose visits at the
Enfants-Malades, where he directs a service, are always
replete with suggestion.
NETTER, agrege, who has made many contributions
to the study of the meningi tides and of poliomyelitis; di-
rector of a clinic at the Trousseau.
GAUCHER, professor at the Faculty, director of the
great dermatological clinic at the Hopital Saint-Louis,
where almost unequaled advantages are offered for the
study of diseases of the skin; author of an excellent volume
on dermatology (1909).
GILBERT, professor at the Faculty of Medicine, director
of the old clinic of Trousseau at the Hotel-Dieu, who
has made many contributions concerning diseases of the
liver and jaundice; editor of the "Nouveau traite de
medecine et de therapeutique."
ACHARD, professor at the Faculty, director of a clinic
at the Hopital Necker, known especially for his studies
of renal function.
JANET, professor of psychology at the College de
France; director of a laboratory at the Salpetriere;
whose contributions to the study of hysteria are well
known.
LABBE, agrege, who has devoted himself especially
to the diseases of nutrition and metabolism; director of
a service at the Charite.
TEISSIER, agrege, collaborator with Potain in his
studies on the cardio- vascular system; editor of his
posthumous volume on the blood pressure; physician at
the Claude Bernard.
MEDICINE 193
GUILLAIN, agrege, one of the most active and pro-
ductive of the younger neurologists; director of a clinic
at the Hopital Cochin.
BERNARD, agrege, whose studies on renal function, on
the supra-renal glands, and on tuberculosis are well
known; one of the editors of the admirable "Annales de
medecine."
RIST, director of a clinic at the same hospital, a sug-
gestive clinician who has contributed to many branches
of medicine.
LEGUEU, clinical professor of diseases of the urinary
tract, director of Guyon's old clinic at the Hopital
Necker, in whose service the valuable work of AMBARD
on the normal and pathological physiology of the kid-
neys was done.
HENRIQUEZ, author of valuable work on diseases of the
digestive tract; director of a service at the Pitie.
CASTAIGNE, agrege, who has written ably on diseases
of the kidney and liver.
These are but a few of the many leaders of modern
French medicine.
Good opportunities for study are offered also in the
well organized clinics of Lyon, where the names of
LEPINE, TEISSIER, COURMONT, GALLAVARDIN, MOURI-
QUAND, and others, are well known; and in Lille, where
CALMETTE, distinguished for his many contributions to
bacteriology and serology, especially for his discovery of
anti-venine and for his studies on tuberculosis, presides
over the Pasteur Institute.
Opportunities for Graduate Work. There are in
France few of those regularly organized and rather
superficial short courses for post-graduate students which
are so well known in some other continental countries.
On the other hand, there are good opportunities for
i94 MEDICINE
the student who desires to pursue research in any
special branch or to acquire experience in clinical medicine.
As one looks back over the past hundred and fifty years
it may be said that the French have excelled as clinical
observers and as students of the symptomatology of
disease. They have been peculiarly talented as clini-
cians and remarkably acute in the detection of pictures
of disease by bedside study and investigation, and in the
correlation of these pictures with the underlying patho-
logical changes. The same may be said today. In no
country is the clinical symptomatology of disease studied
with greater acuteness or intelligence than in France.
The organization of the hospitals as relates to special
laboratories for experiment and research has hitherto
not been so attractive as in some other European coun-
tries; but great advances are being made, and varied
opportunities for serious post-graduate study may be
found now in many of the clinics as well as at the Pasteur
Institute. This is especially true with regard to diseases
of the nervous system.
Regular courses of lectures and clinics, all of which
are open to the public, are given annually by different
members of the faculty. These exercises, which vary in
character from year to year, are often as valuable to
the post-graduate as to the undergraduate student.
The opportunities for clinical observation in the hos-
pitals of Paris during the daily public visits of the physi-
cians are almost unequaled.
Libraries and Museums. Paris offers also great
advantages in the way of libraries. The Bibliotheque
Nationale, with its unrivaled collections, affords every
opportunity for general study. The Library of the
Faculty of Medicine, with 160,000 volumes, is accessible
to all students, and the privilege to work in the Library
MEDICINE 195
of the Academy of Medicine may be obtained on special
presentation.
The Musee Dupuytren has a valuable collection of
pathological specimens; and the Musee Orfila at the
ficole de Medecine is an excellent museum of normal
anatomy and physiology. Valuable parasitological col-
lections are also to be found at the laboratory of para-
sitology, and there are special collections at various
hospitals.
Societies. Especially valuable to the post-graduate
student are the weekly meetings of the Societe de biologic,
the Societe medicale des hopitaux, as well as the reunions
of the Academic de Medecine, at which he may listen to
the discussion of the actualities of medicine and biological
science by the leading students of the day.
SURGERY
Following the Napoleonic wars there was a rapid ad-
vance in the French school of surgery, and Paris became
the center of graduate study for the entire world.
DUPUYTREN (1777-1835) was the most illustrious
French surgeon of the first half of the century. His
clinics at the Hotel-Dieu drew students from all coun-
tries. His most lasting contributions were in the field
of surgical pathology. He was the first accurately to
describe contracture of the palmar fascia and fracture
about the ankle joint. His treatises on Injuries and
Diseases of the Bones and Lemons Orales were extensively
translated. VELPEAU (1795-1867) was a great operating
surgeon, who wrote the first detailed treatise on Surgical
Anatomy; a three- volume treatise on Operative Surgery,
and an extensive work on Diseases of the Breast, were
also among his writings. VELPEAU 's bandage for fixa-
tion of the arm is familiar to every medical student.
MALGAIGNE (1806-65) was we^ known for his work in
experimental surgery, especially on the healing of frac-
tures. His treatise and atlas on fractures and disloca-
tions remained a classic for many years. He is described
by Billings as "the greatest surgical historian and critic
whom the world has yet seen." His historical writings
dealt especially with the Hippocratic period, and with
the works of Ambroise PARE, the most famous surgeon
of the 1 6th century, who at the siege of Damvilliers, in
1552, had begun to practise hemostase by ligation.
1 [Drafting Committee: A. D. BEVAN, University of Chicago;
D. B. PHEMISTER, University of Chicago. — ED.]
196
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SURGERY 197
CIVIALE was the first to perform lithotrity in 1824. Au-
guste NELATON (1807-73) had an international reputation
as a teacher and operator. He wrote a treatise on surgi-
cal pathology, and is familiar to the modern student for
his introduction of a valuable rubber catheter.
Paul BROCA (1824-1880) was the first great brain
surgeon, and a leader of the modern French school of
anthropology. He located the speech center in the
third left frontal convolution, and introduced the term
" motor aphasia." He invented craniometry, and was
an ardent supporter of the theory of evolution; at the
period of its introduction he was credited with the
aphorism: "I would rather be a transformed ape than
a degenerate son of Adam."
The work of PASTEUR revolutionized surgery, as it
did all of the other special branches of medicine, but the
French surgeons were not the first to see its great prac-
tical importance in their particular field. After LISTER
had established antiseptic surgery, it was quickly adopted
by the French. LUCAS-CHAMPIONNIERE (d. 1916) was
its earliest advocate in France and on the continent.
Aside from his early work on antisepsis and asepsis, he
wrote an exhaustive treatise on fractures, in which he
advocated early massage and passive motion as the
most successful agents for preventing delayed and non-
union and stiffness of neighboring joints.
Overlapping the antiseptic period were a number of
well known French surgeons. OLLIER (1825-1900), of
Lyon, did the most extensive and valuable experimental
work of the century on bone regeneration and trans-
plantation. His pathological and clinical writings on
diseases of the bones are noteworthy contributions.
Felix GUYON (1831-1903) was one of the great genito-
urinary surgeons of his time. His clinic at Hopital
Necker attracted students from all over the world.
i98 MEDICINE
REVERDIN, of Geneva, belonged to the French school,
and is famous for his method of skin grafting, and for his
needle which is still extensively used in France.
Many of the French surgeons who have contributed
so largely to the advances in aseptic surgery are still
living or have died only in recent years. TERRIER
(1837-1908) contributed extensively to the development
of abdominal surgery, especially to the operative treat-
ment of gall-stone disease. BERGER (1845-1908) was
best known for his operative treatment of fracture
of the patella and interscapulothoracic amputation.
RECLUS has taken a leading part in the development of
local anaesthesia. For twenty years he has performed
about two thirds of the operations in his clinic at the
Hotel-Dieu under local anaesthesia. JABOULAY, of Lyon,
showed the relation between the cervical sympathetic
ganglia and the thyroid gland, and introduced cervical
sympathectomy for the treatment of exophthalmic
goitre. Felix LEJARS is one of the ablest surgical anat-
omists of the day. His book on emergency surgery
has been translated into many languages. Edmund
DELORME (1847-) nas been a prominent figure in
French military surgery, and introduced the operation
of pulmonary decortication in chronic empyema. DOYEN
(d. 1917) was a brilliant operator, and is well known for
his numerous improvements in operative technique and
as the inventor of a number of valuable surgical instru-
ments. His magnificent private hospital, excelled by
none in its equipment, was in 1917 placed at the disposal
of the American Red Cross, under Dr. J. A. Blake.
The names of the leaders in surgery of today will be found
in the list of the staff members of the Paris hospitals.
Instruction. The opportunities for graduate work in
surgery that attract the American student to France
AUGUSTE XELATON (1807-1873)
MEDICINE: SURGERY
SURGERY 199
are found almost entirely at the University of Paris.
Of the specialties that are found at some of the pro-
vincial Universities — such as legal medicine at Lyon —
space does not here permit an account.
The French school of surgery has been renowned for
its efficiency in anatomy, many of the ablest clinicians
having advanced from anatomy into surgery. Conse-
quently, excellent opportunities for work in surgical
anatomy and operative surgery are to be had, particu-
larly in the department of anatomy at the Ecole Pratique,
which is under the direction of NICOLAS. The undergrad-
uate work in surgery is taught in the surgical divisions
of the various city hospitals, the staffs of which are
controlled by the University. It is in connection with
these clinics that the best opportunities for graduate
work are to be found. Students work on the service as
clinical clerks, have ward walks with the chief and staff,
attend the operations and clinics, and work in the out-
patient department. It is possible under certain condi-
tions for graduate students to secure these positions,
which are analogous to clinical clerkships in the English
schools. Special courses in diagnosis and operative
courses on the cadaver in general surgery and the various
specialties are given from time to time by the assistants
in some of the clinics. Laboratories are attached to cer-
tain clinics where opportunities for pathological, bac-
teriological and research work are to be had.
General surgery. In most of the hospitals there is no
division of the surgical service; general surgery, genito-
urinary surgery, and gynecology being done by the same
staff. The principal hospitals with their chief and as-
sistant attending surgeons at the onset of the war were
as follows: — Hopital Beaujon: TUFFIER, with BAZY and
MICHAUX. Hopital Bichat: MORESTIN and staff. Ho-
pital Cochin: QUENU, with SCHWARTZ and FAURE.
200 MEDICINE
Hospice des Enf ants-Assistes : JALAGUIER and VEAU.
Hopital des Enfants-Malades: KIRMISSON, with BROCA
and PERRIN. Hotel Dieu: RECLUS, with POTHERAT
and Pierre DESCAMPS. Hopital Laennec: HARTMANN,
with SAUVE. Hopital Lariboisiere : CHAPUT, REYNIER
and PICQUE; Oto-rhino-laryngology, SEBILEAU. Hopital
Necker: Pierre DELBET, with ROUTIER; Geni to-urinary,
LEGUEU. Hopital de la Pitie: WALTHER and ARROU.
Hopital Saint- Antoine: LEJARS and RICARD. Hopital
Saint-Louis: BEURNIER, RIEFFEL, ROCHARD, and
MOUCHET. Hospice de la Salpetriere: GOSSET.
Gynecology. Most of the gynecology is done as a part
of general surgery; but the gynecological clinic of the
University is at Hopital Broca, under the headship of
Pozzi. Ward walks, operations, and clinics are held in
the forenoon. Special courses in diagnosis and operative
gynecology are given by the assistants in the department
by arrangement. There is a very efficient gynecological
service at the Hopital Cochin in charge of Dr. FAURE.
No regular instruction is given here, but the operations
and ward walks are open to visitors and will be found
of extreme interest.
Genito-urinary surgery. The French school has long
held a leading place in the field of genito-urinary surgery.
The University clinic is located at Hopital Necker. The
chair of surgery (formerly occupied by GUYON and
ALBARRAN) is now held by LEGUEU. Special courses
are given by the chief of staff and assistants as follows:
Clinics, by LEGUEU; Diagnostic courses, by PAPIN;
Polyclinic and out-patient courses, by MARSAN and
DICHIRARA; Practical courses in urine examination,
functional tests, etc.,byAMBARD; Genito-urinary pathol-
ogy and bacteriology, by VERLIAC; Cystoscopy, by
PAPIN; Ureteroscopy, by MARSAN; Electrotherapeutics,
by COURTADE.
SURGERY 201
Foreign students may be attached to the clinic as
monitors for periods of 6 to 12 months. Special after-
noon courses for foreign students in cystoscopy and
diagnosis and in operative surgery on the male and female
are given according to demand.
Orthopedic and Children's Surgery. Special courses
in diagnosis and treatment are offered as follows:— Hopital
Trousseau: SAVARIAUD. Hopital des Enfants-Malades :
KERMISSON with BROCA. Hopital de la Charite : Special
clinic on diseases of bones and joints by MANDAIRE.
In the large orthopedic hospital at Berck-sur-mer,
CALOT offers special diagnostic and therapeutic courses
during the summer months.
Oto-rhino-laryngology. The University clinic is located
at Hopital Lariboisiere, under the direction of SEBILEAU.
There is a large ward and out-patient service, and in
addition to the routine work of the clinics special courses
are given upon request.
PATHOLOGY-
The term Pathology is here used to comprise morbid
anatomy, bacteriology, and hygiene.
General Courses. In the University of Paris certain
courses in the regular curriculum belong properly to
the field of Pathology. They are briefly as follows: a
course in general pathology, by CASTAIGNE; a course
in pathological anatomy, by Pierre MARIE, assisted by
ROUSSY; a course in the history of medicine and surgery,
by LETULLE; a course in hygiene, by CHANTEMESSE;
and a course in experimental and comparative pathology,
by ROGER. These courses are accompanied by practical
laboratory work.
^Other courses are given in Paris in institutes affiliated
with the University. Among such courses are those
in bacteriology and hematological technic, by ROGER;
in parasitology, by BLANCHARD; and in tropical pathology
and hygiene, by WURTZ; all given at the Institute of
Colonial Medicine (Institut de Medecine coloniale).
Completion of the course in colonial medicine in this
institution entitles the graduate to a special diploma in
the subject, given by the University of Paris (Diplome
de Medecine coloniale).
The course in Medical Microbiology, given each year
at the Pasteur Institute in Paris from November i5th to
March i5th, is perhaps the most famous, complete, and
practical course in this subject given anywhere in the
world. It is offered by the division of microbiology
under the direction of Roux and with the immediate
1 [Drafting Committee: F. P. GAY, University of California.— ED.]
202
FRANCOIS XAVIER BICHAT (1771-1802)
MEDICINE: PATHOLOGY
PATHOLOGY 203
laboratory supervision of BORREL, NICOLLE, and others.
Completion of satisfactory work in this course leads to a
certificate from the Institute (Certificat de presence et
d 'etudes).
Special Research. Opportunities for advanced study
of special problems are afforded in the University labora-
tories in pathology, hygiene, and also particularly in
connection with the various hospitals which are affiliated
with the University. It is sufficient comment on the
true investigative spirit of the French to note that these
opportunities are not listed in their catalogues. They
depend on the particular desire of a graduate student
to do some definite piece of work, and on the attraction
of some particular man's name or personality to decide
him where that work shall be done. Graduate study is
represented by no definite curriculum and by a reward in
the shape of a diploma in its initial phases only. True
graduate study, even in medicine, consists essentially in
the personal stimulation of some particular master
and the intensive study of some specialty or the inves-
tigation of some particular problem.
The practical aspects of pathological research, in its
bearing on clinical diagnosis, are well exemplified in
Paris, where many able practitioners are also pathol-
ogists of note. Men like Maurice LETULLE and NATTAN-
LARRIER may be mentioned in this connection.
The opportunities for advanced scientific research in
Paris are more specifically available in connection with
the Pasteur Institute. This institute is divided into
several services which deal in turn with the practical
applications in preventive and curative medicine, par-
ticularly in relation to the infectious diseases. There
is a clinic for the preventive treatment of rabies, under
the direction of CHAILLON and VIALA, and a service of
serum therapy under the direction of MARTIN with the
204 MEDICINE
assistance of DOPTER. These two services include the
Pasteur Hospital for the treatment of those infectious
diseases which the Institute has studied or is studying.
In addition to these more practical applications of
the scientific advances in pathology is the service of
scientific research (Service de Recherches scientifiques)
so-called, formerly under the direction of the late Elie
METCHNIKOFF, and including such men as BESREDKA,
BURNET, DUJARDIN-BEAUMETZ, and LEVADITI. There
is also the service of colonial microbiology (Micro-
biologie coloniale) with LAVERAN and MESNIL. The
mention of these names alone is sufficient to indicate
the type of original investigation that is going on, and
in which properly accredited investigators may par-
ticipate for a nominal fee to pay the expense of material.
Space permits no extended reference to the general
medical curriculum in the universities of France outside
of Paris. As examples of more advanced work certain
men may be mentioned in connection with some of
these universities, as for example: RODET in Mont-
pellier, COURMONT in Lyon, and particularly CALMETTE
in Lille. Lille possesses, in addition to the university,
a Pasteur Institute under the direction of CALMETTE,
with whom are associated BRETON and GUERIN, whose
work in occupational diseases and particularly in tuber-
culosis is well known.
PHILOLOGY
INCLUDING
CLASSICAL, ROMANCE, ORIENTAL,
SEMITIC, AND ENGLISH
PHILOLOGY
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY
LA TIN '
The Renaissance had its birth in Italy, and Italy
gives her name to the first period of classical scholarship.
To the second, France gives hers. If we set aside ERAS-
MUS, Dutch by birth, and LIPSIUS, Belgian, we may say
that by far the commanding figures in Latin philology
in the sixteenth century are the French scholars BUDE,
who was the first important worker in Roman law and
Roman coinage; Robert ESTIENNE, lexicographer and
editor; MURET, TURNEBE, and LAMBIN, critics and
editors; CASAUBON, editor, and founder of the study of
ancient life; PITHOU, editor, and active collector of
manuscripts; and SCALIGER the younger, the greatest
scholar of his time, — critic, editor, epigraphist, numis-
matist, and chronologist.
In the seventeenth century the lead was taken by
the English and the Dutch. Nevertheless, France
produced three notable scholars: SAUMAISE, text critic
and commentator; Du CANGE, lexicographer of medi-
aeval Latin; and MABILLON, who, at the instance of
the Benedictine order, set himself especially to the study
of the methods of determining the genuineness of manu-
scripts and their dates. From the resulting work, "De
Re Diploma tica," sprang the science of Latin palae-
ography.
The love of Latin studies persisted in the eighteenth
century in France with undiminished vigor, but without
1 [Drafting Committee: WM. GARDNER HALE, University of Chicago;
E. K. RAND, Harvard University. — ED.]
207
2o8 PHILOLOGY
noteworthy originality, except in the case of MONT-
FAUCON, who endeavored to present antiquity visually
to the modern reader by the publication of drawings of
ancient monuments ("Antiquite appliquee et representee
en figures").
In the latter part of the eighteenth century Germany
took the lead, under the influence of WOLF, the founder
of modern philology. About the middle of the nine-
teenth century, modern philology became a possession
of all nations. France took her part, attaining in
the latter part of the century the high rank which
she now holds, with certain distinguished and precious
characteristics of her own. Her rise to eminence was
gradual.
Beginning in 1837, QUICHERAT put forth work of high
importance in his treatise on Latin versification, his
lexicon of Latin poetry, and his edition of the Latin
lexicographer and grammarian Nonius Marcellus. The
middle of the century (to speak roughly) was character-
ized by admirable literary studies like those of NISAKD
on the Latin poets of the decadence (1834), the first
important work of this peculiarly French type; of Con-
stant MARTHA on the moralists of the Empire (1864) and
on morals, religion, and science in the poem of Lucretius
(1869); of PATIN on Latin poetry (1869); of BOISSIER
(who continued his work into the present century) on
Cicero and his friends (1865) and on Roman religion
(1874); and the striking essays of TAINE on Livy (1856)
and SAINTE-BEUVE on Virgil (1857). These two essays,
the work of men primarily engaged in other fields, ex-
emplify the exceptional sympathy with humanistic
studies with which the French literary mind is generally
endowed; and correspondingly the writings of profes-
sional Latinists in France, while marked by a pene-
trating precision, are characterized as a rule by an acute
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 209
and sensitive literary appreciation. The combination
of these qualities in classical investigation is as important
as it is rare.
The rise in France of the modern scientific spirit in
Latin studies is due in good part (not to speak of scholars
happily still living) to THUROT, who earnestly advocated
the double ideal of literary appreciation and scientific
method; to BENOIST, who urged the return to manu-
scripts in constituting a text, as against the acceptance
of tradition; to WEIL, whose doctorate dissertation on
the order of words in the ancient languages (1844)
inaugurates the scientific study of the subject; and to a
group of men of high achievement whose names bring
us to the present century. Among these, special men-
tion may be made of RIEMANN, syntacticist (whose
premature death cannot be too much regretted) ; DELISLE,
whose researches in palaeography and the history of
mediaeval libraries have contributed greatly to our
knowledge of the preservation and transmission of
Latin texts; BREAL, comparative philologist, with a
wide range in Latin philology, including the dialects,
and the science of semantics, which he established and
named; Victor HENRY, comparative philologist; ANTOINE,
syntacticist; Emile JACOB, editor; DAREMBERG, who pro-
jected the " Dictionnaire des Antiquites grecques et
romaines"; and SAGLIO, who was for many years its
editor.
Among living workers now in retirement, Max BONNET
demands special notice for his exhaustive book (1890)
on the Latin of Gregory of Tours, important alike for
Latin in its decadence and for the Romance languages
in their origins; and for his study of the principal Paris
manuscript of Catullus (1871), a work performed with
a penetration and accuracy which were very rare at the
time, and are not common now. And mention should
210 PHILOLOGY
also be made of fimile THOMAS, author of many mono-
graphs and editions of classical authors (Cicero, Cat-
ullus, Petronius, Servius), and of a vivid presentation
of Roman civilization under the early empire ("Rome et
I'Empire aux deux premiers siecles de notre ere," 1897).
Instruction at the Universities. The remainder of
our account concerns the men who are now teaching in
universities or other institutions of similar rank. It
is to be regretted that the limits of our task make it
necessary to omit the names of a number of distinguished
scholars who are not attached to any teaching body.
The attribution "Paris" is to be understood as cover-
ing the University of Paris (which includes the Ecole
Normale Superieure), the College de France, the Ecole
Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and the Ecole Nationale
des Chartes. The teaching in these different institu-
tions in Paris is to a large extent connected, and all of
it will be available. The professors will be found to be
cordial and generous of help in their dealings with their
students. It may here be noted also that, outside of the
teaching institutions, Paris and its neighborhood afford
rich material for the advanced scholar in certain fields.
The general reading room of the Bibliotheque Nationale
contains a splendid working library for students of the
classics and related subjects; while the Salle des Manu-
scrits, in the same building, has a smaller but generally
sufficient collection of texts and works of reference, with
the largest apparatus of catalogues of manuscripts
anywhere to be found. The distinguished curator of
manuscripts, Henri OMONT, is one of the most genial
and helpful of librarians. Finally, the department of
Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Louvre, and the
Museum of Saint Germain, are extraordinarily rich in
material that concerns the classical student; and their
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 211
curators (respectively HERON DE VILLEFOSSE and Salomon
REINACH) are among the most eminent of specialists.^
In addition to his specialized training, the student in a
French university will be under the constant influence of
admirable models of the art of exposition. Almost
invariably the French lecturer, whatever his subject,
handles it with a large and philosophical grasp, with an
instinctive sense of organization, and with an animation
and charm of manner not often matched in other coun-
tries.
The opportunities which Paris offers to the student of
Latin are thus seen to be great. But it should also be
understood that the faculties of the provincial universities
contain many scholars of high ability and accomplish-
ment.
In the following exhibition of the types of work
prosecuted by French Latinists who are now engaged
in teaching, names of leading scholars are selected,
many that deserve mention being necessarily omitted.
In the case of each one given, the prominent line or
lines of activity, so far as publication shows, will be
indicated by a statement or by the title of a book.
But it should be borne in mind that many scholars for
whom a technical specialty is mentioned work in the
field of literary interpretation and criticism as well, and
vice versa.
With allowance for these crossings of lines, the names
are arranged under the order of the groups (i) literature
and criticism, (2) grammar (sounds, inflexions, syntax,
etc.), (3) metrics and prose rhythms, (4) palaeography,
epigraphy, numismatics, (5) history, institutions, religion,
antiquities, (6) topography, geography.
HAVET, of Paris, has worked in critical editing ("Plauti
Amphitruo," 1895; "Notes critiques sur le texte de
Festus," 1914), in versification, in the metrics of prose
212 PHILOLOGY
("La prose metrique de Symmaque et les origines du
Cursus," 1892), in pronunciation, in word-order, and in
the principles of criticism ("Manuel de critique verbale
appliquee aux textes latins," 1911). MONCEAUX, of
Paris, has worked especially in the literary history of
Christian Africa ("Histoire litteraire de PAfrique chre-
tienne," 1901-12), and in the Christian epigraphy of
Africa ("Enquete sur 1'epigraphie chretienne d'Afrique,"
in each number of the "Revue Archeologique " since
1903). LEJAY, of the Catholic Institute, Paris, has
worked especially in Horace (the Satires were pub-
lished in 1912, and the Epistles are now in hand), and
in syntax ("Le progres de 1'analyse dans la syntaxe
latine," 1909; several editions of Riemann's "Syntaxe
Latine"), and is a constant contributor to the "Revue de
Philologie," of which he is one of the editors. PLESSIS,
of Paris, has published upon Latin poetry ("La poesie
latine," 1909; Etudes critiques sur Properce," 1889),
and upon versification ("Traite de metrique grecque et
latine," 1889), and is now engaged upon the Odes and
Epodes of Horace, complementing the work of LEJAY.
GOELZER, of Paris, has worked especially in the charac-
teristics of later Latin ("Etude lexicographique et gram-
maticale de la latinite de Saint Jerome," 1884; "Le
latin de Saint Avit," 1909), in Tacitus, and in com-
parative grammar ("Grammaire comparee du grec et
du latin," 2 vols., 1897 and 1901, the most considerable
work of its kind produced in France). Jules MARTHA, of
Paris, has published upon Cicero ("Brutus," 1892;
"Comment Cicero est arrive aux honneurs," 1903).
CARTAULT, of Paris, has published upon Horace (the
Satires, 1899), Tibullus and the authors of the Corpus
Tibullianum (1909), the elegiac distich in Tibullus,
Sulpicia, and Lygdamus (1911), Virgil and Lucretius.
COURBAUD, of Paris, has published upon Cicero ("De
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 213
Oratore," I, 1905), and upon Horace ("Horace; sa vie
et sa pensee a 1'epoque des epitres," 1914). COLLIGNON,
of Nancy, has published upon Petronius ("Etude sur
Petrone," 1892; "Petrone en France," 1905). ERNOUT,
of Lille, has published upon Lucretius (Book IV, intro-
duction, text, translation, notes, 1915) and upon the
vocabulary, syntax, and morphology of Latin ("Le
parler de Preneste," 1905; "Morphologie historique du
latin," 1914). LAFAYE, of Paris, has published upon
Statius, upon Catullus, Ovid, Terence, and their Greek
models ("Le modele de Terence dans 1'Hecyre," 1916),
upon institutions and religion, and upon inscriptions.
He is editor, with POTTIER, of the " Dictionnaire des
antiquites grecques et romaines," and a large contributor
to it. For his epigraphical work, see under Cagnat.
BORNECQUE, of Lille, has published upon Seneca
Rhetor (text, translation, notes, 1902), upon the metrics
of prose ("Les clausules metriques latines," 1907), and
upon history ("Rome et les Remains," in collaboration
with Dornet, 1912). FABIA, of Lyon, has published upon
Caesar, the Prologues of Terence, Tacitus ("Les sources
de Tacite dans lesHistoires et les Annales," 1893; "Ono-
masticon Taciteum," 1900), and Roman history and
institutions. DE LA VILLE DE MIRMONT, of Bordeaux, has
published upon Livius Andronicus, Laeyius, Ausonius,
Ovid, Virgil, and early Latin poetry ("Etudes sur 1'an-
cienne poesie latine," 1903). VALLETTE, of Rennes, has
published upon Apuleius ("L'Apologie d'Apulee," 1908).
CONSTANS, of Aix-Marseille, has published upon Sallust
and Tacitus ("Etudes sur la langue de Tacite," 1893).
MACE, of Rennes, has published upon Suetonius and
upon pronunciation ("Essai sur Suetone," 1900).
DELARUELLE, of Toulouse, has published upon Cicero
("Etude critique sur le texte du De Divinatione," 1911).
R. WALTZ, of Lyon, has published upon Seneca ("Seneca
214 PHILOLOGY
de Otio," 1909; "La vie politique de Seneque," 1916).
DURAND, of Paris, has published upon Cicero ("La
date du De Divinatione," 1903). THIAUCOURT, of Nancy,
has published upon Cicero, St. Augustine, and Sallust
("Les Academiques de Ciceron et le Contra Academicos
de Saint Augustin," 1903). LECRIVAIN, of Toulouse,
has published on the Historia Augusta and on institu-
tions ("Etudes sur 1'histoire auguste," 1904). RAMAIN,
of Montpellier, has published upon the use of the Codex
Bembinus in the restoration of the text of Terence (1904),
and upon word-groups in the versification of the dramatic
poets (1904).
MEILLET, of Paris, has worked over a wide range in
the field of linguistics ("De quelques innovations de la
declinaison latine," 1906; "Linguistique," 1911; "In-
troduction a 1'etude comparative des langues indo-
europeennes," 3rd ed., 1912; "L 'Evolution des formes
grammaticales," 1912). VENDRYES, of Paris, has
worked in linguistics ("Recherches sur 1'histoire et
les effets de 1'intensite initiale," 1902; "De Hibernicis
vocabulis quae a Latina lingua origines duxerunt," 1902;
"Sur 1'hypothese d'un futur en italoceltique," 1909).
GAFFIOT, of Paris, has published especially upon syntax
("Le Subjonctif de subordination en latin," 1906; "Pour
le vrai latin," 1909). MAROUZEAU, of Paris, has pub-
lished upon forms, order, and syntax ("Sur la forme du
passif parfait latin," 1909; "Place du pronom personnel
sujet en latin," 1907; "L'Emploi du participe present
latin a 1'epoque republicaine," 1911). CHABERT, of
Grenoble, has published especially upon syntax ("De
Latinitate Marcelli in libro de Medicamentis," 1897;
"Marcellus de Bordeaux et la syntaxe frangaise," 1901.)
AUDOUIN, of Poitiers, has published upon inflexions
and upon meters ("De la declinaison dans les langues
indo-europeennes," 1898). GRAMMONT, of Montpellier,
EMILE CHATELAIN (1851-)
CLASSICAL PHIL(IL(n;V
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 215
has published upon sounds ("La dissimilation consonnan-
tique," 1895). VERNIER, of Besancon, has published on
versification ("Sur un passage de 1'Epitre aux Pisons":
"Horace et Boileau juges de 1'ancienne versification,"
CHATELAIN, of Paris, has published a long and im-
portant list of works in palaeography (" Paleographie
des classiques latins; collection de fac-similes des princi-
paux manuscrits," 1884-1900; "Introduction a la
lecture des notes tironiennes," 1900; "Uncialis scriptura
codicum Latinorum novis exemplis illustrata," 1901;
"Les palimpsestes latins," 1905; "Lucretius, codex
Vossianus quadratus," 1913). PROU, of Paris, has pub-
lished upon palaeography ("Recueil de fac-similes d'ecri-
ture du ve au xne siecle," 1904; "Manuel de paleo-
graphie latine et francaise," $d ed., 1910). CAGNAT,
of Paris, has worked in epigraphy, antiquities, history,
chronology, geography. (The list of his publications is
very long, including: "L'annee epigraphique," 1888 to
the present time, since 1900 in collaboration with Besnier;
"Explorations epigraphiques et archeologiques en
Tunisie," 1883-86; "Cours d'epigraphie latine," 4th ed.,
1914; "Corpus Inscriptionum Lat. VIII, Supplementum,"
Pars I, in collaboration with J. Schmidt, 1891; Pars II,
in collaboration with J. Schmidt, 1904; "Inscriptions
Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes," Vol. I with Toutain
and Jouguet, 1911, Vol. Ill with Lafaye, 1905; "Les bi-
bliotheques municipales dans I'empire remain," 1906;
"Carthage, Timgad, Tebessa, et les villes antiques de
1'Afrique du Nord," 1909). JOUGUET, of Lille, has pub-
lished in epigraphy (see under Cagnat above) and in history
and institutions ("La vie municipale dans 1'Egypte ro-
maine," 1911; also ' 'Papyrus de Theadelphie," 191 1 ;" Sup-
plement aux papyrus de Theadelphie,"i9i2). BABELON,
of Paris, has worked especially in numismatics ("Traite
2i6 PHILOLOGY
des monnaies grecques et romaines," 1901-; "Moneta,"
1914). He is a large contributor to the "Dictionnaire des
antiquites."
BOUCHE-LECLERCQ, of Paris, is engaged upon history
and institutions (" Republique et empire," 1909; UL 'Intol-
erance religieuse et la politique," 191 1 ;" Manuel des insti-
tutions romaines," 1 886) . B LOCH, of Paris, has published
upon history and institutions ("La plebe romaine,"
1911; "La republique romaine," 1913). He has con-
tributed many articles to the "Dictionnaire des
antiquites." GSELL, of Paris, has published especially
upon the history and archaeology of North Africa
("Algerie et Tunisie," 1911; "Atlas archeologique de
1 'Algerie," 1911; "Histoire ancienne de 1'Afrique du
Nord," 1913). ATJDOLLENT, of Clermont, has published
on institutions, inscriptions, and topography ("Defixio-
num tabellae quotquot innotuerunt," 1904; "Carthage
romaine," 1901). BOXLER, of the Institut Catholique,
Paris, has published on institutions ("Precis des institu-
tions publiques de la Grece et de Rome," 1903). Tou-
TAIN, of Paris, has worked especially in religion and
epigraphy ("Les cultes pa'iens dans Pempire remain,"
1907, 1911; "Etudes de mythologie et d'histoire des
religions antiques," 1909; many articles in the "Diction-
naire des antiquites." For epigraphy, see under Cagnat).
RENEL, of Lyons, has published on religion ("Cultes
militaires de Rome," 1903; "Les religions de la Gaule
avant le Christianisme," 1906; many articles in the
''Dictionnaire des antiquites.") DEGERT, of the Institut
Catholique, Toulouse, has published on moral ideas
and characteristics ("Les idees morales de Ciceron,"
1909). HERON DE VILLEFOSSE, of Paris, has published
extensively on antiquities ("Le tresor de Boscoreale,"
1899; "Crustae aut emblemata," 1903; "Deux inscrip-
tions relatives a des generaux pompeiens," 1898).
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 217
BESNIER, of Caen, has worked especially in geography,
topography, and epigraphy ("La geographic economique
du Maroc dans 1'antiquite," 1906; "L'lle tiberine dans
1'antiquite," 1902; "Lexique de geographic ancienne,"
1914; "Recueil des inscriptions antiques du Maroc,"
1904. See also under Cagnat).
GREEK '
France in the early ages of the revival of Greek studies
was the home of many noted scholars, — such as Robertus
STEPHANUS, Henricus STEPHANUS (Robert and Henri
Estienne), TURNEBE, LAMBIN, MURET, MONTFAUCON,
CASAUBON, and the two SCALIGERS. All of these men
in modern esteem hold positions of unquestioned leader-
ship, and much of their work has not been superseded or
improved.
This heritage has passed to worthy heirs, and during
the last century France has had many eminent Greek
scholars. BOISSONADE was editor of many previously
unpublished Greek writers; among his productions were
twenty-four volumes in an annotated series of the Greek
poets, five volumes of Anecdota Graeca; he is especially
famous as being the first editor of the poet Babrius.
BURNOUT was editor of a most valuable Greek Grammar;
PATIN, author of a series of sympathetic and learned
comments on the Greek Tragic poets; ALEXANDRE,
editor of the Sibylline Oracles; LITTRE, famous both as a
physician and a scholar, editor and translator of Hip-
pocrates in ten volumes; MILLER, one of the most expert
of palaeographers, and the editor of many works which
had not been previously published; MARTIN, author of
important works in Music, Astronomy, Geometry, and
1 [Drafting Committee: J. A. SCOTT, Northwestern University. —
ED.]
218 PHILOLOGY
Anatomy; TANNERY, author of a standard work on Greek
Science; DAREMBERG and SAGLIO, editors of the famous
Dictionary of Antiquities; THUROT, one of the best inter-
preters of the works of Aristotle; WEIL, editor and
commentator in many fields of Greek Language and
Literature; C. LENORMANT and his son, F. LENORMANT,
authors of works of the greatest importance on Numis-
matics, Sculpture, and Epigraphy. Such men as
BURNOUF, DUMONT, REINACH, FOUCART, HOMOLLE, and
HAUSSOULLIER, partly of this and partly of the preceding
generation, are everywhere regarded as among the leading
scholars and interpreters of Hellenic life and culture.
The grasp and productivity of some of these men passes
belief; e.g., Salomon REINACH'S published works up to
1914 amounted to over 60 volumes and nearly 3000
separate articles, and as he was not born until 1858
this means an average of one book every six months
and an article every four days of his adult career.
The History of Greek Literature (five volumes of
nearly 4000 pages) by Maurice and Alfred CROISET is the
best that has been written in any language, showing
not only broad and exact learning, but in particular a
fine and sympathetic appreciation of the spirit of the
Greeks.
BERARD, by his efforts to identify sites which had
been regarded as purely mythical, and by his proofs of
the great importance of a knowledge of geography in
understanding early history, has created a new field of
research.
PSICHARI is the recognized leader of those writers who
are elevating the vernacular of Modern Greek to the
dignity of a literary language, and who by their own
productions are giving it a literature.
This list of conspicuous Hellenic scholars might be
multiplied, since in every field of Greek studies a place
HENRI WEIL (1818-1901)
CLASSICAL PHILOLOCV
CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 219
of eminence is held by one or more French scholars.
The thing which stamps their learning with its own
peculiar mark is literary appreciation and sanity, since
few of the phantastic theories which have wasted and
diverted sound scholarship originated in France.
Museums and Libraries. Paris, because of its valuable
collections of many of the most important Greek manu-
scripts, its original works of Greek art, its unrivaled
wealth in collections of inscriptions, and its immense
libraries, offers to students of Greek life, history, litera-
ture, or language, facilities possessed by no other center
of learning. This preeminence in original material has
drawn to Paris most of the great scholars of France.
Accordingly American students in Greek will find it to
their advantage to begin, at least, their work in Paris;
hence the work done in other parts of France will be
passed by in this brief summary.
Courses. In Paris, courses in Palaeography and Epig-
raphy are given by HOLLEAUX, HOMOLLE, HAUSSOULLIER,
and FOUCART. As the French conducted the important
excavations at Delos and Delphi, an unprecedented
wealth of material came into their possession, and most
of the inscriptions thus found have been interpreted by
these four scholars. Courses in Greek History and Ge-
ography are given by BERARD, BOUCHE-LECLERCQ, GLOTZ,
and BABELON. Here too the abundance of original mate-
rial has given these scholars peculiar advantages.
Courses in Greek Language and Literature are given
by Maurice and Alfred CROISET, PUECH, GIRARD,
BOURGUET, MAZON, JACOB, JOUGUET, SERRUYS, BREAL,
DESROUSSEAUX, HA VET, and TOUTAIN. Even this list
makes no reference to the courses in Greek Art, Greek
Philosophy, Latin, Sanskrit, or to the many courses of
great interest to Greek students in allied departments.
220 PHILOLOGY
Periodicals. The following journals and periodicals,
dealing entirely or in part with Greek, are published by
French scholars: "Bulletin de correspondance hellenique" ;
"Revue archeologique" ; "Revue critique"; "Revue de
philologie"; "Revue des etudes grecques"; "Revue des
etudes anciennes"; also many other periodicals of a
more general nature which frequently contain articles
of value on Greek subjects.
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY'
The student of Neo-Latin naturally directs his steps
to one of the Latin lands, and with double profit; for,
although the honor of first placing Romance linguistics
on a scientific basis was achieved by a German, F. C.
DIEZ (1794-1876), and although Germany is still an
abundant and able contributor, the countries that can
now boast of the greatest number of truly eminent
Romance scholars are Italy and France. Of these,
France, with her concentration of intellectual life, offers
the better facilities for study. From early times, Paris
has been the center where the leading men of other
Romance countries — princes, statesmen, scholars, and
ihen of letters — have sought their education and re-
ceived much of their best inspiration; and through
them, of course, Parisian influence has reached the
peoples from which they came. At the present day,
Paris offers the student an unequalled opportunity to
come into contact with cultivated and prominent rep-
resentatives of the various Romance nations, and to
learn to understand the spirit that animates them —
that Latin genius which has already given the world
three great civilizations, the Roman, the Neo-Latin
culture of Europe, and the Hispanic civilization in
America.
The essential unity of the principal Romance tongues
was recognized by French scholarship as early as the
1 [Drafting Committee: C. H. GRANDGENT, Harvard University;
H. R. LANG, Yale University; KENNETH MCKENZIE, University of
Illinois; RAYMOND WEEKS, Columbia University. — ED.]
221
222 PHILOLOGY
1 6th century, and notably by H. ESTIENNE, who found
their source in popular rather than in literary Latin.
To that century belongs also the first edition of the
invaluable "Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et infimae
Latinitatis " by Du CANGE. Nevertheless, despite some
lexicographical and speculative studies, Romance phil-
ology made little headway for some two hundred and
fifty years. Then, between 1815 and 1845, appeared
the stimulating works, " Grammaire romane," "Grammaire
comparee des langues de 1 'Europe latine," "Lexique
roman, ou Dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours,"
of F. J. M. RAYNOUARD, a pioneer who might have
anticipated Diez, had he been more accurately schooled
in phonology, and less dominated by a preconceived idea
that mediaeval Provencal (or "Roman," as he called
it) represented an intermediate stage between Latin and
all the modern forms of Romance speech. His "Lexique,"
with a recent supplement by LEVY, is still the standard
Old Provencal dictionary. The Old French vocabulary-
was industriously listed by F. GODEFROY in his "Dic-
tionnaire de 1'ancienne langue franchise" (1881-1902).
Meanwhile (1872-79) E. LITTRE had published his
historical "Dictionnaire de la langue francaise," a model
for all subsequent lexicographers, and in particular for
A. HATZFELD, A. DARMESTETER, and A. THOMAS, authors
of the "Dictionnaire general de la langue franchise"
(1890-1900), which marks a further progress in the
treatment of etymology, semantics, and pronunciation.
For many years the most commanding figure in the
Romance field, after the death of Diez, was his pupil,
Gaston PARIS (1839-1903), who first came into promi-
nence in 1861 with his" Etude sur le role de 1'accent latin
dans la langue francaise." Beside him stood A. DAR-
MESTETER (1846-88), investigator of the formation and
the life of words, and Paul MEYER, who with Paris
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 223
launched "Romania," the most famous vehicle of
Romance studies. Their disciples, all over the world,
were the teachers of the next generation. Among their
contemporaries may be mentioned C. CHABANEAU, an
authority on French and Provencal grammar; C.THUROT,
who traced the development of French pronunciation;
and M. BREAL, who, though not primarily a Neo-Latinist,
did much to advance the study of the meanings of
Romance words. The fruits of previous researches, and
of his own, are embodied by F. BRUNOT in his vast and
still unfinished "Histoire de la langue francaise des origines
a 1900" (5 vols., 1906-13). Linguistic science adopted
novel methods under the guidance of the Abbe Rous-
SELOT, the founder of experimental phonetics, whose
great publications began in 1891; and of J. GILLEERON
and E. EDMONT, compilers of that enormous storehouse
of dialect material, the "Atlas linguistique de la France"
(1902-13). Much had been already garnered in the
"Revue des patois gallo-romans" (1887-92) and the
"Bulletin de la Societe des parlers de France" (1893-
99); the former was continued by L. CLEDAT'S "Revue
de philologie francaise." More general are "La Parole"
(1889-) and the "Revue de dialectologie romane"
(1909-). Brunot has in the Sorbonne building an im-
portant and growing collection of speech records known
as the "Archives de la parole." The facts revealed by
all these recent investigations have led to a new inter-
pretation of dialect phenomena, exemplified, for instance,
in "Les Aires morphologiques dans les parlers populaires
du nord-ouest de I'Angoumois" (1914)? by A. L. TER-
RACHER.
For the comprehensive study of mediaeval literature,
the way was prepared, in the Renaissance and Neo-
Classical periods, by the collection, description, and trans-
lation of manuscripts; and some important attempts
224 PHILOLOGY
at collective presentation were made in the i6th cen-
tury by Jehan de NOSTREDAME and Claude FAUCHET, in
the 1 8th by MONTFAUCON and LA CURNE DE SAINTE-
PALAYE. During the first half, and more, of the igth
century, literary scholars devoted themselves, for the
most part, to the publication of the huge mass of docu-
ments preserved. Some, to be sure, by their general
portrayal of the poetry of a bygone age, succeeded also
in lending a romantic interest to mediaeval letters:
RAYNOUARD gave the public not only the "Choix des
poesies originales des troubadours" (1816-21), but also
"Des Troubadours et des cours d'amour" (1817);
FAURIEL wrote an admirable "Histoire de la poesie
provencale" (1846); Paulin PARIS is remembered both
for "Les Manuscrits francais de la Bibliotheque du Roi"
(1836-48) , and for " Les Romans de la Table Ronde mis en
nouveau language" (1868-77); Leon GAUTIER attempted
a great treatise on "Lesfipopees frangaises" (1865-68).
The task of synthesis and systematic investigation was,
however, reserved in the main for the latter part of the
century. Here once more we find the insight, the charm,
the enthusiasm of Gaston PARIS and the keenness and
indefatigable zeal of Paul MEYER. Among the works
of the former, the best known are the "Histoire poetique
de Charlemagne" (1865); "La Litterature Francaise au
moyen age" (1888), "Francois Villon" (1901); to the
latter are due the "Recherches sur P epopee francaise "
(1867), "Les derniers troubadours de la Provence" (1871),
"Alexandre le Grand dans la litterature francaise du
moyen age" (1886). Two of the many distinguished
pupils of Gaston Paris, A. JEANROY and J. BEDIER, have
given an entirely new turn to our conception of the
course respectively of lyric and of epic poetry. Mediaeval
life and learning have been interestingly investigated
by C. V. LANGLOIS; the stage, by E. LINTILHAC. The
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 225
printing of texts has been continued by the "Societe
des anciens textes francais," founded in 1876. Provencal
is represented by the "Bibliotheque meridionale " and the
"Annales du Midi" (1889-).
As to the historical and critical study of modern
French literature, its glorious career, from VILLEMAIN to
LANSON, is too familiar to require specification. It is
enough to recall such names as SAINTE-BEUVE, TAINE,
RENAN, SCHERER, BRUNETIERE, LEMAITRE, FAGUET.
Aside from the more popular magazines, some of the prin-
cipal journals today are the "Revue d'histoire litteraire de
la France" (1894-), the "Revue du seizieme siecle"
(1913-, succeeding the "Revue des etudes rabelaisiennes, "
1903-12), the "Revue du dix-huitieme siecle" (1913-).
The study of letters from the comparative standpoint —
first emphasized by Madame de STAEL — has been suc-
cessfully pursued of late by J. TEXTE, E. BOUVY, F.
BALDENSPERGER, E. PICOT, E. ESTEVE, P. HAZARD, E.
HAUMANT, J. VIANEY, E. MARTINENCHE.
Italian and Spanish studies, too, have flourished for a
hundred years. The nine volumes of P. L. GINGUENE'S
"Histoire litteraire d'ltalie (1811-19), A. F. OZANAM'S
masterly treatises on "Dante et la philosophic catholique
au XIHe siecle" (1839) and "Les Poetes franciscains en
Italie" (1852), and the two posthumous volumes of
Claude FAURIEL, on "Dante et les origines de la langue
et de la litterature italiennes" (1854), were followed by a
procession of authoritative works on the history, art,
music, and letters of Italy. Especially noteworthy, for
the literary side, are the researches of E. GEBHART on
the Renaissance, the mystics, and the story-writers;
those of C. DEJOB on the influence of religious ideas;
and those of E. PICOT on the relations between France
and Italy in the i6th century; the books on Petrarch by
A. MEZIERES, P. de NOLHAC, H. COCHIN, and J. VIANEY;
226 PHILOLOGY
A. THOMAS'S " Francesco da Barberino et la litterature
provenc.ale en Italic au moyen age" (1883); P. SABA-
TIER'S "Saint Francois d'Assise" (1894); H. HAUVETTE'S
"Luigi Alamanni" (1903), "Dante" (1911), and
"Boccace" (1914); A. JEANROY'S "Carducci" (1911);
and P. HAZARD'S "Leopardi" (1913). An excellent
summary is HAUVETTE'S "Litterature italienne" (1906).
The publication of investigations is facilitated by the
"Bulletin italien," started in 1901.
Spain, after having been revealed to France, in the first
half of the century, by such men of letters as Prosper
MERIMEE, Emile DESCHAMPS, and Theophile GAUTIER,
by translators like DAMAS-HINARD, and by scholars of
the standing of L. VIARDOT, F. DENIS, and P. CHASLES,
was assiduously cultivated under the Second Empire by
A. de LATOUR, T. de PUYMAIGRE, E. LAFOND ("Lope de
Vega"), E. CHASLES ("Cervantes"), P. ROUSSELOT ("Les
Mystiques"). In our time the most distinguished
names are those of A. MOREL-FATIO, editor, with E.
MERIMEE and P. PARIS, of the "Bulletin hispanique,"
and R. FOULCHE-DELBOSC, editor of the "Revue
hispanique" and director of the "Biblioteca hispanica."
With them may be chosen for mention J. CORNTJ, L. de
VIEL-CASTEL, E. MERIMEE, and L. P. THOMAS, students
respectively of the Cid, the theater, Quevedo, and preci-
osity. E. MARTINENCHE has treated of the influence of
the Spanish drama on the French. Compared with
France, the Teutonic countries have at present few
students of Hispanic speech and letters, and none of
great authority. In conclusion, it may be recalled that
two of the most important Spanish texts, the "Cronica
rimada del Cid" and the "Cancionero general" of 1554,
were printed in France (in 1846 and 1878), and that
Paris was the seat of publication of the sixty volumes
of the "Coleccion de los mejores autores espanoles"
GASTON PARIS (1839-1903)
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 227
(1845-72). The Bibliotheque Nationale and the Parisian
bookshops are particularly rich in Spanish manuscripts
and printed books.
Instruction at Paris. To the Romance student of
today, Paris presents not only the resources of the
Sorbonne, which contains the Faculte des Lettres, the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and the Ecole des Chartes,
but likewise those of the College de France, across the
street. Some Americans may be attracted also by the
Normal Schools, or by the National Conservatory, which
are open to foreigners under specified conditions. Many
will certainly take advantage of the special French
instruction offered to foreigners by the Comite de Patro-
nage des etudiants etrangers de la Faculte des Lettres
(November to May), by the Alliance Franchise, 186
Boulevard St. Germain (one group of courses in July,
one in August), and by the Guilde Internationale, 6 rue
de la Sorbonne (one set of courses during the school year,
another from July to September). In addition to the
collections of books and records in the Sorbonne building,
the student has at his disposal the Bibliotheque Natio-
nale, the Bibliotheque de 1' Arsenal, the Bibliotheque Sainte-
Genevieve, the Bibliotheque Mazarine, not to mention the
Bibliotheque Historique de la Ville de Paris and various
other special libraries. At 1 1 rue Mazarin is an informa-
tion bureau for students of Romance Philology; at 96
boulevard Raspail, a Centre d'Etudes Franco-Hispa-
niques.
In the Faculte des Lettres the history of the French lan-
guage is expounded especially by F. BRUNOT (author of
"La Doctrine de Malherbe," 1891; "Histoire de la
langue franchise des origines a 1900," 1906); French
literature and bibliography, by G. LANSON (editor of
Racine, Sainte-Beuve, Voltaire; author of works on
228 PHILOLOGY
Nivelle de la Chaussee, Bossuet, Boileau, Corneille;
"Conseils sur Fart d'ecrire," 1890; "Hommes et livres,"
1895; "Histoire de la litterature franchise," 1895;
"Manuel bibliographique de la litterature franchise, "
1909; "La Methode de 1'histoire litteraire, " 1911);
French and Provencal linguistics and mediaeval literature,
by A. THOMAS ("Francesco de Barberino et la litterature
provencale en Italic au moyen age," 1883; "Essais de
philologie francaise," 1902; "Melanges d'etymologie
francaise," 1902; "Nouveaux essais de philologie fran-
caise," 1904; editor of Bertran de Born, former
editor of "Romania," collaborator on the "Dictionnaire
general de la langue francaise"); southern European
literature, particularly Provencal, by A. JEANROY ("Les
Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen age, "
1889; "Carducci, " 1911; "Les Joies du Gai Savoir, "
1914; editor of Provencal texts); Italian, by H. HAU-
VETTE ("Luigi Alamanni" 1903; "Litterature italien-
ne," 1906; "Dante," 1911; "Boccace, " 1914);
Spanish, by E. MARTINENCHE ("La Comedie espagnole
en France de Hardy a Racine," 1900; "Moliere et le
theatre espagnol," 1906); Rumanian, by M. ROQUES
("Le Gargon et 1'aveugle, jeu du XIII6 siecle, " 1911;
author with J. Gillieron of " Etudes de Geographic linguis-
tique, " 1912; editor and bibliographer of the works of
Gaston Paris ; editor of "Romania)." French literature
may be studied also with F. STROWSKI ("Pascal et son
temps," 1907-09; "Les Essais de Montaigne," 1906-
09) ; H. CHAMARD (editor and biographer of Du Bellay) ;
G. REYNIER (three volumes on the novel); G. MICHAUT
(investigator of Sainte-Beuve, Senancour, and La Fon-
taine); E. HUGUET ("La Syntaxe de Rabelais," 1894).
Mediaeval French history is taught by F. LOT ("Les Der-
niers Carolingiens, " 1891; Breton history, Hugh Capet,
Charles the Bald).
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 229
At the College de France, Spanish literature is repre-
sented by A. MOREL-FATIO ("L'Espagne au XVIe et au
XVIIe siecle," 1878; "Calderon," 1882; "Etudes sur
1'Espagne," 1888-1904; "Catalogue des manuscrits
espagnols et des manuscrits portugais," 1892; "Le
Theatre espagnol," with L. Rouanet, 1900; "Ambrosio
de Salazar," 1901; "El Libro de Alixandre," 1906;
"Historiographie de Charles-Quint," 1913; editor of
"Bulletin hispanique ") ; Renaissance and modern French
literature, by A. LEFRANC ("Les Navigations de Panta-
gruel," 1905; "Calvin, 1'Institution chretienne," 1911;
"Rabelais, (Euvres completes," 1912-13; "A. Chenier,
CEuvres inedites," 1914); mediaeval French literature, by
J. BEDIER ("Les Fabliaux," 1893; "Le Roman de
Tristan et Iseult traduit et restaure," 1900; "Etudes
critiques," 1903; "Les Legendes epiques," 1908-13).
The Neo-Latinist can here follow also with profit the
Latin instruction of L. HA VET ("La Prose metrique de
Symmaque et les origines du Cursus," 1892; "Phaedri
Fabulae," 1895; "Manuel de critique verbale," 1911),
and the Celtic courses of J. LOT (best known to Romance
scholars for his translation of the " Mabinogion, " 1899
and 1913, and for his "Contributions a 1'etude des
romans de la Table ronde," 1912).
Advanced studies may be pursued at the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes under the direction of some of the men
above mentioned (Thomas, Morel-Fatio, Jeanroy,
Roques, Havet, Lot), of J. GILLIERON ("Le Patois de la
commune de Vionnaz," 1880; "Atlas linguistique de la
France," with E. Edmont, 1902-13; "Etudes de geo-
graphic linguistique," with M. Roques, 1912), for dialect-
ology; of H. GAIDOZ in Celtic ("Etudes de mythologie
gauloise," 1886; works on folk-lore and mythology); and
of J. MAROUZEAU, in Latin ("La Phrase a verbe 'etre'
en latin," 1910). At the ficole des Chartes there are
23o PHILOLOGY
general courses in French and Provencal philology and in
palaeography. The Institut Catholique, 74 rue de Vau-
girard, offers, in addition to courses in literature, history,
and palaeography, an exceptional opportunity for the
study of experimental phonetics and linguistic science
under the Abbe ROUSSELOT (author of "Les Modifica-
tions phonetiques du langage etudiees dans le patois
d'une famine de Cellefrouin, " 1891, and of the "Prin-
cipes de phonetique experimentale, " 1897-1908).
Instruction at Other Universities. Copious as are the
resources of Paris, some Americans may well prefer the
quiet, inexpensive life of the provincial universities, among
which the following are to be recommended for Romance
studies: Bordeaux, Montpellier, Lyon, Toulouse, Gre-
noble, Rennes, Caen. All of these have introduced, beside
their regular courses, special instruction for foreigners;
and all have organized committees or offices to minister
to the particular needs of visitors from other countries.
Grenoble has devoted much care to the housing of stran-
gers, with a view to hygiene, economy, and practice in
speaking French. At Bordeaux there is a Maison des
etudiants. Toulouse has a Stadium for athletic sports.
Several of the provincial universities have developed
summer schools for foreign pupils: the most flourishing
is that of Grenoble, noted for its excellent administra-
tion, its unusual facilities for the study of phonetics,
and its situation in the midst of mountain scenery; that
of Rennes, which is held at St. Malo, combines good
teaching with the attractions of seashore. For the
regular winter work, the opportunities presented by the
several institutions are listed below:
Bordeaux. — Romance philology and the speech and
letters of southwestern France, under E. BOURCIEZ
("Les Mceurs polies et la litterature de cour sous Henri
CAMILLE CHABANEAU (1831-1909)
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 231
II," 1886; "Precis de phonetique franchise, " 1900;
"Elements de linguistique romane," 1910); Modern
French literature, with A. LE BRETON (studies on the
novel in the last three centuries, 1890-1901; "Balzac,
Thornme et 1'ceuvre, " 1905; "La Comedie Humaine de
Saint-Simon," 1914); Italian literature, with E. BOUVY
("Voltaire et FItalie," 1898); Spanish, with G. CIROT
(contributor to the ' ' B ulletin hispanique ") , and H. COLLET
(" Le mysticisme musical espagnol au XVe siecle, " 1913).
Caen. — French literature, under M. SOURIAU ("Ber-
nardin de Saint Pierre," 1915), and P. VILLEY ("Les
Sources et Fevolution des Essais de Montaigne," 1908).
Grenoble. — Phonetics and philology, with T. ROSSET,
director of the Institut de Phonetique ("Les Origines de
la prononciation moderne etudiees au XVIF siecle,"
1911; "Recherches experimentales pour Finscription de
la voix parlee," 1911); French literature, with P.
MORILLOT ("Scarron et le genre burlesque," 1888).
Italian language and literature.
Lyon. — French philology, under L. CLEDAT (editor of
the "Revue de philologie frangaise"; "Du Role historique
de Bertrand de Born," 1879; "Grammaire raisonnee
de la langue francaise," 1894; a Dictionnaire etymolo-
gique de la langue francaise," 1912). Courses in modern
French literature and in Italian.
Montpellier. — Comparative philology, under M.
GRAMMONT ("La Dissimilation consonantique," 1895;
"Le Vers francais," 1913). French literature, with J.
VIANEY, (" Mathurin Regnier, " 1896; "Le Petrarquisme
en France au XVIe siecle," 1909), and J. MERLANT
("Le Roman personnel de Rousseau a Fromentin,"
1905; "De Montaigne a Vauvenarques, " 1914). In-
struction in Romance philology, Spanish, and Italian.
Rennes. — French literature, with G. ALLAIS ("Mon-
taigne et ses lectures," 1885; "Malherbe et la poesie
232 PHILOLOGY
francaise a la fin du XVIe siecle, " 1892; "Les Debuts
dramatiques de Victor Hugo", 1903). French litera-
ture and Breton folklore, under A. LE BRAZ ("La Chan-
son de la Bretagne, " 1892 and 1901; "La Legende de la
mort chez les Bretons armoricains, " 1893 and 1902;
"Au Pays des pardons," 1904; "Au Pays d'exil de
Chateaubriand," 1909). Celtic and Romance philology.
Toulouse. — Provencal, under J. ANGLADE ("Le Trou-
badour Guiraut Riquier, " 1905; "Les Troubadours,"
1908). Spanish, with E. MERIMEE ("Quevedo," 1886).
Modern French literature.
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY'
The beginnings of modern comparative grammar date
from the studies of the Englishman, Sir William JONES,
and the Germans, BOPP and GRIMM. The translation
into French by Michel BREAL of Bopp's great systematic
work on Indo-European grammar gave a distinct start
and direction to linguistic studies in France. Previous
investigators had dwelt mostly on the development of
the forms of words and too little on that of their logical
content. To the latter aspect of the growth of language
Breal's "Essai de semantique" (1897) addresses itself,
and — if it has not already done so - - it seems destined
yet to mark an epoch in the history of linguistics. Fer-
dinand DE SAUSSURE (1857-1913) taught for a decade
at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and his work, with that
of Breal, has had great influence upon French science.
To continue the labors of Breal and de Saussure, MEILLET
was called to the College de France. His "Introduction
a Fetude comparative des langues indo-europeennes"
shows how a rigorously scientific exposition is not incom-
patible with the grace of form and charming luminosity
that are so characteristic of the French temperament.
The work had already come to a third edition in 1912,
and we may hope that a long career of continued use-
fulness still lies before it. Under his vigorous leadership
have arisen pupils of promise and achievement: to
mention only a few, — DOTTIN in Celtic, VENDRYES in
1 [Drafting Committee: FRANKLIN EDGERTON, University of
Pennsylvania; E. W. HOPKINS, Yale University; C. R. LANMAN,
Harvard University. — ED.]
233
234 PHILOLOGY
Latin and Celtic, GAUTHIOT in the Baltic languages,
CUNY in Greek, ERNOUT and MAROUZEAU in Latin,
Jules BLOCK in the languages of India.
Indology. The mystical and theological speculations
of Ancient India, as contained in the Upanishads, were
first introduced to the Occident by ANQUETIL-DUPER-
RON, who went to the Orient as an employee of the East
India Company. Without ever learning the sacred lan-
guage of India, the Sanskrit, he studied the Upanishads
in a Persian translation, and from that he made a Latin
version which he published in 1801-02. CHEZY, as pro-
fessor of Sanskrit at the College de France, delivered
his inaugural address on the use and value of that study
in 1815. Fifteen years later he published the text of
the masterpiece of the Hindu drama, Kalidasa's £akun-
tala, in an edition which after almost a century is still
used and respected. It contains not only the drama,
but also the text of the epic form of the £akuntala-
story as it appears in the Maha Bharata, thus presenting
the data for an interesting study in literary genetics.
Eugene BURNOUT (1801-1852) was the successor of
Chezy at the College de France; in him were united a
prodigious power of work, endless patience, scrupulous
accuracy, and wonderful divinatory gift, — a combina-
tion amounting to nothing short of genius. Besides
being a most eminent Sanskritist, Burnouf was a pioneer
in the sacred language of Buddhism, the Pali, and in
Tibetan and Siamese and Burmese, and even in the
language of the Avesta, the ancient texts of which he
interpreted. His text and translation of the history of
Krishna (the Bhagavata Purana) make three folios,
magnificent, and yet so ponderous as hardly to be usable
for every-day study. His "Introduction a 1'histoire du
Buddhisrne indien" is the first great Occidental work
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 235
on the religion of Buddha, and it was followed in 1852
by his "Lotus de la bonne loi," the first Occidental trans-
lation of an important Buddhist text, issued with a
score of relevant learned memoirs. Burnouf made Paris
the chief center for Indian studies and Indianists in the
forties; and the power of his personality and teaching
is shown by the fact that he drew to himself such
famous pupils as Adolphe REGNIER and BARTHELEMY-
SAINT-HILAIRE, GoLDSTUCKER, Rudolf ROTH, and Max
MtJLLER.
It is the times of bitterest trial for France that have
witnessed some of the most notable events in the history
of French Orientalism. Chezy's inaugural was delivered
only a few months before the battle of Waterloo. The
£cole des Hautes Etudes was opened in 1868. And it
was only a little after the disasters of the Franco-German
war of 1870-71 that a splendid trio of. Indianists — SE-
NART and BERGAIGNE and BARTH — arose to give luster
to French scholarship. SENART, a native of Rheims, by
his "Grammar of Kaccayana" (1871), laid a solid foun-
dation for the further study of Pali, begun by Burnouf.
The grammar was soon followed by his Essay on the
Legend of Buddha. Many of the most important texts
relating to this subject are contained in the Maha Vastu;
Senart published an edition of this in three volumes
(1882-1897) which may truly be called monumental.
So also are his two volumes entitled "Les inscriptions
de Piyadasi" or Agoka (about 250 B.C.), the "Constan-
tine of Buddhism," containing very old and impor-
tant data for the study of the palaeography and the
linguistics of India and of its religious and political
history.
Abel BERGAIGNE (1838-1888), pupil of a devoted
teacher, HAUVETTE-BESNAULT, inaugurated the instruc-
tion in Indology at the Sorbonne, and founded a school
236 PHILOLOGY
of Indianists who have kept up and advanced the noblest
traditions of French science. His Vedic investigations
— as laid down in his "La Religion Vedique d'apres les
hymnes du Rig- Veda" (3 volumes, 1878-83, to which
was added a fourth volume of indices by the American
Indologist Maurice Bloomfield in 1897), "£tudes sur
le lexique du Rig-Veda" (1884), "Quarante hymnes du
Rig- Veda traduits et commentes" (1895), and in his
numerous essays — touch not only the form and vocab-
ulary of these venerable documents, but also their essen-
tial substance, and indicate what further products of
his learning we might have expected, had notBergaigne's
life been cut short untimely by a mountaineering accident
in the French Alps.
A third great name which, with those of Senart and
Bergaigne, came to high distinction in the seventies, is
that of the Alsatian, Auguste BARTH (1834-1916), who
for many years sent to the "Revue critique d'Histoire
et de Litterature" contributions of such solid worth as to
make him an authority of the highest standing in the
world of scholars. Oral teaching from a professor's
chair was not feasible for him, on account of deafness,
but he was in fact, to a host of younger men, a teacher,
lovable, loved, respected, and followed. His "Religions
de 1'Inde" (1879; English ed., London, 1882; Russian
ed., Moscow, 1896) traces the development of this
mighty factor of Hindu life from the earliest Vedic
times to those of modern reformers. The recognized
importance of his results is due to the fact that they are
drawn directly from the original sources, not taken at
second hand. For Indianists, Barth was the court of
highest appeal. His "Bulletins," published from 1880
to 1902 in the "Revue de PHistoire des Religions, "consti-
tute at once a history of the progress of Indian studies
and a wonderfully clear and convenient resume of their
EMILE SENART (1847-)
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 237
principal results. The modest form in which they ap-
peared, as review-articles, is wholly out of keeping
with their importance, and they have now been re-
published, in two dignified volumes, as a part of his
collected works. This is most fitting, for his judg-
ments are so sound and well-reasoned as to be of enduring
value.
It is not easy to lose sight of his "Inscriptions san-
scrites du Cambodge" (1885), a monument to his skill
and industry as an epigraphist, for it is an independent
work; but his minor articles form an even greater testi-
monial to his vast and accurate learning and sound
judgment, although they fail to give an adequate impres-
sion of their author's rare gifts, because it is hard to
judge them as a whole, scattered as they are through
some hundred and fifty volumes of a dozen different
periodical publications. To the devotion of his col-
leagues, Senart, Foucher, and Finot, we owe the hope that
these too will soon be published as part of his collected
works.
Not only Bergaigne, but also his pupil Victor HENRY,
another Alsatian, devoted much time and strength to
the important task of making text-books. Bergaigne's
"Manuel pour etudier la langue sanscrite" (texts, lexicon,
grammar) has a host of admirably practical features;
and so has Henry's "Elements de Sanscrit classique."
The two in collaboration wrote also a hand-book for
Vedic study. Henry's manual for Pali, and that of the
Danish scholar Dines ANDERSEN, are the best at present
available for the sacred language of Buddhism. Henry's
interests and activities were very many-sided: he has
left us two manuals of comparative grammar, excellent
for brevity and avoidance of too great technicality; an
austere treatise (in collaboration with the Dutch scholar
CALAND) on the ritual (Agnishtoma) ; good literary
238 PHILOLOGY
translations of Sanskrit works; and popular books on
magic and on the literatures of India, etc.
The career of Sylvain LEVI, both as investigator and
as teacher, sheds luster upon his departed master, Ber-
gaigne. His youthful work on the Hindu theater ("Le
Theatre indien," 1890) no one has even yet attempted
to supplant. An elaborate treatise upon the doctrine
of the sacrifice in the Brahmanas was doubtless sug-
gested by his studies in that direction under Bergaigne;
while for his work on Nepal ("Le Nepal, etude historique
d'un royaume hindou," 3 vols., 1905-8), the labors of
the eager traveler are joined to those of the student of
the written word. His text and translation of Asanga's
Exposition of the Doctrines of the Greater Vehicle are a
weighty contribution to Occidental knowledge of the
Maha-Yana Buddhism. The Indian Miscellanies
("Melanges d'indianisme," 1911) form a volume written
by his pupils to celebrate his completion of twenty-five
years of service as a teacher. Among the twenty-three
contributors (to mention only a few) stand the names of
FlNOT, FOUCHER, LACOTE, MEILLET, PELLIOT, VEN-
DRYES, — men already distinguished for their achieve-
ments in archaeology and exploration, in the history of
Buddhism and of literature, and in linguistics. The
numerous and beautiful works of Foucher upon Buddhist
archaeology, especially his volumes on the Greco-Buddhist
art of Gandhara and on Buddhist iconography, are a
revelation of the charm of Oriental study in its most
fascinating aspects.
Sinology. — China and Chinese were made the object
of scientific study by Frenchmen — Jesuit missionaries
— almost two hundred years ago. Then, in 1815,
Abel REMUSAT was made professor of Chinese at the
College de France; and his successor, Stanislas JULIEN,
SYLVAIN LEVI (1863-)
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 239
who taught from 1832 to 1873, was the best Sinologist
of his day. His translation of the life and travels of
the illustrious Buddhist pilgrim, Hiouen Thsang, serves
the Indianists much as Pausanias serves the Hellenists.
Stagnating somewhat upon the death of Julien, French
Sinology sprang to new life again in the hands of the
Jesuit missionaries Pere SERAPHIN-COUVREUR and Pere
WIEGER, and of CHAVANNES, CORDIER, and PELLIOT.
Father COUVREUR'S " Dictionnaire Chinois-f rancais "
(3rd ed., 1911) has been of inestimable value in pro-
moting Chinese studies in France; and Father WIEGER'S
"Textes historiques" serve admirably for a general
knowledge of the history of the Middle Kingdom. Henri
CORDIER 's " Bibliotheca Sinica" (2d ed., 1908) is the
most minute and learned Occidental repertory of Chinese
bibliography. Edouard CHAVANNES has published the
first five volumes of his complete version of the " Memoires
historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien." Besides this vast historical
work may be mentioned his archaeological investigations
contained in his "Sculpture sur pierre en Chine" and
in his "Mission archeologique dans la Chine septentri-
onale" (with nearly 500 plates). His three beautiful
and charming volumes, "Cinq cents contes et apologues,
extraits du Tripitaka chinois et traduits en f rancais,"
have already been most fruitful in the hands of students
of comparative literature.
The exploration of Central Asia by Sir Aurel STEIN,
PELLIOT, and others, has opened up a new world to stu-
dents of India and China. PELLIOT'S finds in his journey
of 1905-8 were astounding beyond measure. He visited
the "Grottos of the Thousand Buddhas," examined the
manuscripts (some fifteen to twenty thousand) which
had been walled up in the eleventh century (mostly
Chinese and Tibetan, but some in Indian writing), and
brought to France material for the researches of scholars
24o PHILOLOGY
for decades to come. In 1911 he was made professor of
the languages and history and archaeology of Central
Asia at the College de France.
Instruction. — Lectures for oriental students are
numerous and are given in the College de France and at
the Sorbonne. At the latter is located the £cole pratique
des Hautes fitudes, which has a section devoted particu-
larly to the science of religion. In addition to these
three, there is a practical National School for Living
Oriental languages (Ecole speciale des Langues orientales
vivantes), where courses are given for three successive
years in the modern languages of Arabia, Persia, China,
Japan, Siam, Annam, India (Hindustani and Tamil),
Armenia, Turkey, Russia, and Greece, with comple-
mentary courses (by CORDIER) on the history and legis-
lation of Moslem races (in Morocco, Algeria, etc.). This
school has a special library of 75000 volumes and numer-
ous manuscripts and maps.
As an example of the wealth of instruction given in
one year on Oriental subjects, the courses offered in
1914-1915 may be briefly enumerated. They are chiefly
one-hour courses. In the College de France, MASPERO
gave a course on Egyptian grammar and one on the
religious and political crisis under Amenothes; FOSSEY,
a course on Babylonian law; CLERMONT-GANNEAU, a
course on Semitic epigraphy and antiquities; LODS, one
course on Hebrew grammar and one on the history of
Hebrew religion; CASANOVA, a course on the Koran
and another on different forms of Islam; Sylvain LEVI,
one course on Indian literature and one on the Sikhs and
Gurkhas; and CHAVANNES, one course on Chinese
literature and one on Buddhism in China. There were
also general courses on the archaeology of Central Asia,
by PELLIOT; on the languages and nations of the
ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 241
Indo-Europeans, by MEILLET; and on the history of sacri-
fice by LOISY. A " public " course on the art of India, by
FOUCHER, and one on comparative grammar, by VEN-
DRYES, were supplemented by conferences intended to
extend over several years; thus, for example, FOUCHER
gave in the first year lectures on Sanskrit grammar,
which were to be followed the next year by exercises in
translation of Sanskrit text and during the following third
and fourth years by the study of Vedic and Pali texts;
and VENDRYES gave special courses on Irish, Gothic,
and Old High German.
At the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, following
about the same order, we find HALEVY offering three
one-hour courses on Ethiopic (grammar and texts) and
Turanian; SCHEIL, on Assyrian texts; BARTHELEMY, two
courses, on Arabic texts and dialects; and LAMBERT
three, on Hebrew and Syriac texts. LEVI here offered
one course on Sanskrit texts (reading one of Kalidasa's
plays) and another on recent publications, his course
being supplemented by BLOCH with a course on Bengali
texts, and by BACOT with one on Tibetan texts. In
Avestan, one course was offered by GAUTHIOT. For the
near East, courses on Byzantine philology and history
were given by DIEHL and PSICHARI. Courses were also
offered by CLERMONT-GANNEAU, on Oriental antiquities
(besides a special course on Hebrew archaeology), and by
Isidore LEVI, on Alexandrine literature and the History
of Israel.
In the Section des Sciences religieuses, two courses
were offered by GRANET (Chinese festivals and mourning
texts) ; one on Babylonian and biblical myths, by FOSSEY;
two on the cult of Israel and Ecclesiastes, by VERNES;
one on Talmudic and Rabbinical Judaism, by Israel
LEVI; and two on the Koran and on Persian mysticism,
by Clement HUART; while India was represented by two
242 PHILOLOGY
courses (Upanishad and Buddhist texts) by FOUCHER, and
Egypt by two, Egyptian Religion and Book of the Dead,
by AMELINEAU.
Periodicals. — The periodicals published by French
scholars on Oriental subjects, and appearing in Paris under
the auspices of the University or the closely connected
learned bodies whose members are University professors,
are also worthy of notice. The "Journal Asiatique,"
published by the Societe Asiatique, is the oldest and best;
its contributors are mainly from the University. The
"Memoires de la Societe de linguistique " and the "Bul-
letin de 1'Ecole franchise d'Extreme-Orient " are also
valuable periodicals in their respective scientific and
practical lines; while the "Journal des Savants," though
more general in scope, is not less scientific. Under the
care of the Musee Guimet appears the "Revue de
Thistoire des religions," an invaluable aid to all workers
in the field of comparative religion; while the "T'oung
Pao," now in its eighteenth year, and the "Revue Semi-
tique," published by Halevy, are indispensable for the
Sinologue and Semitic scholar.
Libraries. — Besides the general libraries of the College,
the Sorbonne, and the Institute, the student of Orientalia
has the Musee Guimet (7 Place dTena), which contains
32000 volumes on the history and culture of the extreme
Orient, and the Musee Indo-Chinois (Palais du Troca-
dero), which contains a rich collection of Oriental anti-
quities. There is a special Salle de travail (Galerie
Saint- Jacques) reserved for foreign students wishing to
obtain the Certificat d'fitudes franchises.
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY'
Interest in the Semitic languages has been a cherished
tradition in France. As Abel Lefranc tells us in his
valuable "Histoire du College de France depuis ses
origines jusqu'a la fin du premier empire," this institu-
tion started with two professors of Hebrew, and another
was added the next year. From that day to this, nearly
four hundred years, instruction in Hebrew has been
given continuously in this college. The diplomatic,
religious, and commercial relations of France with North
Africa and the Near East had been such that practical
considerations early called attention to the importance
of Arabic. It is true that not till 1587 do we find men-
tion of an Arabic chair at the College de France (the
incumbent of which was Arnoul DE L TSLE) ; but nearly
fifty years earlier, in 1538, the celebrated Guillaume
POSTEL was appointed for " 1'enseignement des lettres
grecques, hebra'iques et arabiques." It was a professor
at the College de France, Antoine GALLAND, who early
in the eighteenth century published his translation of
the Arabian Nights. This work was not only one of
great literary importance, but it has aroused and kept
alive an interest in things Oriental to an extent difficult
or impossible to estimate.
But it was not till the nineteenth century that great
advances in Semitic philology were made. Napoleon's
expedition stimulated interest in the Near East, while
CHAMPOLLION'S discovery of the key to the Egyptian
1 [Drafting Committee: J. R. JEWETT, Harvard University;
C. C. TORREY, Yale University.— ED.]
243
244 PHILOLOGY
language not only was a great achievement in itself,
but helped all Oriental learning. The decipherment of
the cuneiform writing opened up new vistas in the
world's history, and in this work French scholars took
a splendid part. The names of LENORMANT, MENANT,
Jules OPPERT, BOTTA, DE SAULCY, and others, are familiar
wherever these languages are studied. The Crimean
War and the French expedition to Syria in 1860 not
only helped general interest in things Oriental, but the
latter gave an opportunity to RENAN to make a journey
not only to Phoenicia, but also to the Holy Land proper,
results of which appear in some of those works which
have made his name so famous. Meantime the genius
of DE SACY (1758-1838) had aroused new interest in
Arabic, and Caussin DE PERCEVAL (1795-1871), QUA-
TREMERE (1782-1857), and others, had done fine work in
this field. The conquest of Algiers (1830-1847) had
brought Islam to the very doors of France. The occu-
pation of Tunis brought still more Moslems under
French control; and with the acquisition of Morocco
France has become a great Mohammedan power and
must perforce give much study and attention to the
Arabic language and to Islam.
In Archaeology, French scholars have done splendid
work, — work in which they have had the intelligent and
liberal support of the government. Some of the results of
this work and this support are to be found, for example, in
the magnificent collections of Oriental antiquities at the
Louvre, in the Institut francais d'archeologie orientale du
Caire, and in such publications as the "Memoires publics
par les membres de la Mission archeologique au Caire,"
those of the Institut francais just mentioned, and above all
in the magnificent "Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum."
Such well known names as those of DEFREMERY,
SLANE, and Garcin DE TASSY (Arabic and Mohammedan
JEAN FRANCOIS CHAMPOLLION (LE JEUNE) (1790-1832)
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 245
science) ; MARTIN, DUVAL, and NAU (Syriac studies espe-
cially); DE VOGUE, BERGER, and CHABOT (Epigraphy);
Joseph and Hartwig DERENBOURG (Hebrew, Arabic,
South Arabian and other studies) ; and THUREAU-DANGIN
in the field of Old Babylonian science, may also receive
mention here.
Instruction. Courses of interest to students of Semitic
philology are given in the following institutions: Uni-
versite de Paris; College de France; ficole pratique des
Hautes fitudes; Ecole speciale des Langues Orientales
vivantes; Ecole du Louvre; Ecole Coloniale; Institut
Catholique de Paris; Cours de Langues vivantes.
It must suffice here to mention the men giving instruc-
tion in Semitic philology in the first three of these in-
stitutions, with a statement of the lectures or courses
they have offered, and of the institution in which the
instruction was given. The names of the instructors
are arranged alphabetically, and in certain cases attention
is called to some of their published works. The state-
ment of courses is based on the "Livret de 1'etudiant,"
1914-15. Following the name of the instructor are,
in order, the name of the institution, the title of his chair,
and the subject of his courses.
BARTHELEMY (Adrien). ficole des Hautes fitudes.
I. Classical Arabic. Interpretation of the Beyrouth
Madjani 1'adab. II. Arabic Dialectology.
CASANOVA (Paul). College de France. Arabic lan-
guage and literature. I. The schools and sects of Islam.
II. Interpretation and critical study of the most ancient
parts of the Coran. (Casanova is the author of
"Mohammed et la fin du monde, etude critique sur
ITslam primitif," the first part of which was published
in 1911; but much of his best work has appeared in
the "Memoires publics par les membres de la mission
246 PHILOLOGY
archeologique au Caire," and in those published by the
Institut francais d'archeologie orientale du Caire.)
CLERMONT-GANNEAU (Charles). College de France.
Semitic epigraphy and antiquities. Study of various
Semitic monuments and texts recently discovered. — Also,
at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes: Oriental archaeology.
I. Oriental antiquities (Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria).
II. Hebrew archaeology. (CLERMONT-GANNEAU has done
so much valuable work in the field of oriental archaeology
and has published so much that a complete bibliography
would be a very long one. Perhaps it will suffice to
mention here his " Archaeological Researches in Palestine,"
1873-74; published for the Committee of the Palestine
Exploration Fund, 2 vols., 1896 and 1899; also his great
"Recueil d'archeologie orientale," of which seven full
volumes and part of an eighth had appeared by 1907).
FOSSEY (Charles). College de France. Assyrian
Philology and archaeology. Topics in Babylonian and
Assyrian law. — Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Assyro-
Babylonian religion. Certain Babylonian and Biblical
myths. (Among Fossey's works may be mentioned:
"La magie assyrienne: etude suivie de textes magiques,
transcrits, traduits et commentes," Paris, 1902; "Con-
tribution au dictionnaire sumerien-assyrien, supplement
a la Classified list deBrunnow," Paris, 1905-7; "Manuel
d'assyriologie, fouilles, ecriture, langue, litterature, geo-
graphic, histoire, religion, institutions, art," Tome I,
Paris, 1904.)
GREBAUT. Universite de Paris. Ancient History of
the Peoples of the Orient. The Egyptian conquests in
Asia.
GSELL (Stephane). College de France. History of
North Africa. I. History of Carthage, constitution and
administration of the Carthaginian Empire. II. Study
of the ancient texts relative to the military operations in
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 247
Africa during the first and second Punic Wars. (Among
GSELL'S published works are: "Les monuments antiques
de 1'Algerie," 2 vols., Paris, 1901; "L'Algerie dans
1'antiquite," Alger, 1903; "Histoire ancienne de 1'Afrique
du Nord," Paris, 1913.)
HALEVY, J. Ecole des Hautes fitudes. Ethiopic-
himyarite languages and Turanian languages. I. Gram-
mar of the Ethiopic language; Interpretation of texts.
II. Interpretation of texts drawn from the "Corpus
inscriptionum semiticarum." III. Turanian languages;
Grammar; Interpretation of texts. (Among HALEVY'S
published works are "Recherches Bibliques: 1'histoire des
origines d'apres la Genese," Paris, 1895-1907: "Melanges
d'epigraphie et d'archeologie semitiques," Paris, 1874.
In 1893 Halevy founded the "Revue Semitique d'epi-
graphie et d'histoire ancienne," to the pages of which he
has contributed very extensively.)
HUART (Clement). Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Islam
and religions of Arabia. I. Interpretation of the Coran
(Chapter IV) with the aid of Tabari's commentary.
II. Persian mysticism according to the Methnewi of
Djelal-ed-din Roumi. (Among HUART'S works are: "A
History of Arabic Literature," New York, 1903; "Histoire
des Arabes," vols. I, II, Paris, 1912-13.)
LAMBERT (Mayer). ficole des Hautes fitudes.
Semitic languages. I. Hebrew: Grammar, and the
interpretation of the Book of Deuteronomy. II. Inter-
pretation of the Book of Isaiah. III. Syriac: Outline of
Syriac grammar; Interpretation of texts.
LE CHATELIER (Alfred). College de France. Moslem
sociology and sociography. The Chadeliga in North
Africa, their religious, political, and social role. (Among
Le Chatelier's published works are: "Les confreries
musulmanes du Hedjaz," Paris 1887; "L 'Islam au xixe
siecle," Paris, 1888. Some of his most valuable work
248 PHILOLOGY
has been in connection with the "Revue du Monde
Musulman;" the first number bears the date November,
1906, and he has been director from the beginning.)
LEVI (Israel). Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Talmudic
and Rabbinic Judaism. I. The Rabbinic commentaries
on the Psalms. II. The religious poems of Juda Halevi.
LEVY (Isidore). £cole des Hautes Etudes. Ancient
History of the Orient. I. Researches in the Alexandrian
literature. II. History of Israel.
LODS (A.). University of Paris. History of the Hebrew
religion. I. The beginnings of Hebrew literature. II.
The prophets of Israel and their time. III. Interpreta-
tion of texts. IV. Elements of Hebrew grammar.
LOISY (A.). College de France. History of Religions.
I. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians. II. General
history of sacrifice. (Among Loisy's writings may be
mentioned: "Les mythes babyloniens et les premiers
chapitres de la Genese", Paris, 1901; "L'evangile et
1'eglise," 3d ed., 1904.)
SCHEIL (V.). Ecole des Hautes fitudes. Assyrian
philology and antiquities. I. Interpretation of texts.
Critical examination of the translations attempted by the
first decipherers. II. Deciphering of epistolary texts.
(Scheil has done so much valuable work that his
name is familiar to every student of the cuneiform
writings; beyond a reference to the texts which he edited
for the "Memoires de la Delegation en Perse," among
them the Code of Hammurabi, it would be impracticable
to enumerate here his numerous important publications.)
VERNES. ficole des Hautes £tudes. Religions of
Israel and of the western Semites. I. Researches on
the ancient organization of the clergy and of worship in
Israel. II. Interpretation of Ecclesiastes. (Among
VERNES' works may be mentioned: "Histoire des idees
messianiques depuis Alexandre jusqu'a 1'empereur
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 249
Adrian," Paris, 1874; "Du pretendu polytheisme des
Hebreux; essai critique sur la religion du peuple d 'Israel
suivi d'un examen de 1'authenticite des ecrits prophe-
tiques," Paris, 1891, 2 vols.).
Libraries and Museums. The following Libraries
and Museums may be mentioned as having especial
value for the student of Semitic philology and history.
A detailed account of their several treasures worthy of
mention is here impossible: Libraries: Bibliotheque de
1 'Alliance Israelite; Bibliotheque d'Art de d'Archeologie;
Bibliotheque du College de France; Bibliotheque de
1'Ecole des Hautes Etudes; Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole
speciale des Langues orientales vivantes; Bibliotheque de
1'Ecole normale Israelite ; Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole rab-
binique centrale; Bibliotheque de ITmprimerie Nationale;
Bibliotheque de 1'Institut Catholique; Bibliotheque de
ITnstitut de France; Bibliotheque Mazarine; Biblio-
theque du Musee Guimet; Bibliotheque Nationale;
Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve; Bibliotheque de la
Societe Asiatique; Bibliotheque de la Societe biblique
protestante. Museums: i. Musee du Louvre; 2. Musee de
la Bibliotheque Nationale; 3. Musee Guimet; 4. Musee
monetaire.
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY'
We all know TAINE'S "Histoire de la Litterature ang-
laise" which appeared in 1864. It has been translated
into English, and it may be found, sometimes in an ab-
breviated form, on the shelves of every bookshop and
among the bethumbed volumes of every library. This
book, despite its impatience of detail, may by its astonish-
ing vogue introduce us at once to some of the dominating
characteristics of French scholarship. French scholars
have a talent for popularizing great ideas in a distinguish-
ed way; and they are more profoundly interested in
literature than in linguistics and grammar.
This is not saying that linguistic studies in English
do not appear in France. We may mention, at random,
DEROCQUIGNY, "A Contribution to the Study of the
French Element in English," 1904; BARBEAU, "On Dif-
ferences between the use of the Definite Article in the
Bible and in the Speech of To-day," 1904; BIARD,
"L'Article THE et les caracteristiques differentielles de
son emploi," 1908; THOMAS, " On the Epic Verse of John
Milton," 1901; and VERRiER,"Essaisur lesprincipes de la
metrique anglaise," 1909; but the French incline to re-
gard such investigations as subsidiary to the study of
literature.
Another history of English Literature, which is the
work of the French Ambassador at Washington, and
which is in the hands of every serious student of English
Drafting Committee: ARTHUR C. L. BROWN, Northwestern Uni-
versity; ROLLO W. BROWN, Wabash College; JOHN L. LOWES, Wash-
ington University. — ED.
250
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 251
is JUSSERAND'S "Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais."
This book, which is also known in an English version,
appeared in several volumes from 1895 to I9°9- More
thoroughly documented than the History of Taine, more
historical in tone, more inclusive of different origins and
influences, Jusserand's History illustrates by its clarity
and charm the prevailing tendencies of French scholarship.
Jusserand is the author of numerous other works relating
to English literature, among which are: "La vie nomade
et les routes d'Angleterre au xive Siecle," 1884 (known
in an enlarged English version as "English Wayfaring
Life in the Fourteenth Century," 1891); "Le Roman au
temps de Shakespeare," 1887; and "Shakespeare en
France sous Tancien regime," 1898.
French scholars of English have devoted the most of
their energies to the modern period which begins with
Wyatt and Surrey. Yet students who go abroad with a
primary interest in the literature of mediaeval England
can nowhere find more congenial surroundings for work
than at the University of Paris, where the spirit of GASTON
PARIS, the prince of mediaevalists, still lingers, and where
the most eminent of his pupils, such men as JEANROY
and BEDIER, are publishing mediaeval studies that arouse
the attention of the entire world of letters. LEGOUIS'
"Chaucer," 1912, which in the English translation by
Lailavoix has become a standard book of reference in our
college courses in Chaucer, is an example of French work
in the older period of English A good specimen of a
French thesis in this field is Miss SPURGEON'S "Chaucer
devant la critique en Angleterre et en France depuis son
temps jusqu' a nos jours," 1911.
In literary criticism of the Modern English period,
the French surpass every other foreign nation. It is
advantageous for a student of English to learn to look
at our literature sometimes from a foreign point of view,
252 PHILOLOGY
and no foreigners have looked at English so steadily and
so discerningly as have the French.
BELJAME, who till 1906 held in the University of Paris
the chair of English which is now occupied by Legouis,
began a new era in French criticism of English by the
publication in 1881 of his "Le Public et les hommes de
lettres en Angleterre au xvme siecle." Other works deal-
ing with a period or a movement have followed, for exam-
ple: CAZAMIAN, "Le Romantisme social en Angleterre,"
1904; BASTTDE, " John Locke, ses theories politiques et leur
influence en Angleterre," 1906; GUYOT, "Le Socialisme
et 1'evolution de PAngleterre contemporaine," 1913.
For the most part, however, French scholarship has
turned to the study of individual authors. The first of
these studies in date is STAFFER'S "Laurence Sterne,"
1870, and perhaps the most charming is ANGELLIER'S
"Robert Burns," 1893. Only a few others can be men-
tioned merely as examples : FEUILLERAT (a scholar who is
also known for his studies of English theatrical com-
panies)," John Lyly," 1910; DELATTRE, " Robert Herrick,"
1911; MOREL, "James Thomson," 1895; LEGOUIS, "La
Jeunesse de W. Wordsworth," 1896; DEROCQUIGNY,
"Charles Lamb," 1904; LAUVRIERE, "Edgar A. Poe,"
1904; and DHALEINE, "Nathaniel Hawthorne, sa vie et
ses oeuvres," 1905. These are books of an average
length of five hundred pages, which represent from five
to ten years' toil for the French ' 'doctorat es lettres. ' ' They
display the most painstaking research combined with un-
usual skill in expression. In each of them the effort is
to study the author's life as throwing light on his writings,
and his writings, in turn, as illuminating his character.
HEDGCOCK'S "David Garrick and his French friends,"
1912, is an expansion of his thesis which was written at
Paris. MASSECK'S "Richard Jefferies: Etude d'une per-
sonnalite," 1913, is a good example of a thesis for the new
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JEAN JULES JUSSERAND (1855-)
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 253
"Doctoral de 1'Universite de Paris." Studies like these
show how well French scholars have guarded their pupils
from the pitfalls of inaccuracy and vagueness, and at the
same time have stimulated them to sympathetic literary
appreciation.
Instruction at the Universities. The student of
English who goes to France will naturally establish him-
self at Paris. Here is the great library, the Bibliotheque
Nationale, with its 3,000,000 volumes, and 110,000
manuscripts, and almost unlimited resources. Other
libraries such as the Bibliotheque Mazarine, the Biblio-
theque Sainte-Genevieve, the latter in the immediate
neighborhood of the Sorbonne, may also interest him as
convenient places for all ordinary researches. There is
also of course, the library of the Sorbonne itself, with its
"salle de travail" and numerous special collections.
In the Faculte des Lettres, LEGOUIS and CAZAMIAN lec-
ture regularly on some special topic in English literature
with appropriate "conferences" and exercises. In 1914-15
Legouis lectured on The Life and Work of Edmund Spen-
ser, and Cazamian on Special Topics relating to the His-
tory of Civilization in England. Beside, the works above
mentioned, Cazamian has written, "Carlyle," 1913, and
"L'Angleterre moderne, son evolution," 1914. HUCHON,
author of "George Crabbe," 1907, also lectures on The
History of the English Language and Its Anglo-Saxon
Origins, with a "conference" in which an Anglo-Saxon text
is read.
The student of English will naturally take also courses
relating to his special interests. If he is pursuing the
comparative study of literature, he will follow the lectures
of BALDENSPERGER, author of various books, as for ex-
ample: "La Litterature, Creation, Succes, Duree," 1913.
If he is investigating the mediaeval field, he will hear
254 PHILOLOGY
BEDIER, renowned for his "Les Fabliaux," 1893, and "Les
Legendes epiques," 1908-13, or JEANROY for his "Les
Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen age,"
1889. If he is a student of Celtic influences on English,
he will hear LOTH, known for his "Les Mabinogion,
traduits en franc, ais avec un commentaire explicatif,"
1913, and GAIDOZ, as the founder of "Melusine" and
the "Revue celtique." If he is interested in palaeo-
graphy, he will be delighted by the unexampled facilities
of the Ecole des Chartes. If he has a turn for linguistics,
he will hear THOMAS, one of the editors of the "Diction-
naire general de la langue francaise;" BRUNOT, who is
writing the as yet unfinished "Histoire de la langue
francaise des origines a 1900" (5 vols., 1906-13), and
ROQUES, one of the authors of the "Etude de Geogra-
phic linguistique," 1912. If he is interested in the renais-
sance, he will follow the courses of LEFRANC, editor of
"Calvin, 1'Institutionchretienne," 1911, and of "Rabelais,
Oeuvres completes," 1912-13. If he inclines to the
modern field, he will attend the lectures of LANSON,
author of the " Histoire de la litterature francaise," 1895.
Whatever his subsidiary interest may be, whether for
example in History, or Spanish, or Italian, or mediaeval
Latin, he will find these subjects expounded weekly by a
master.
In the smaller universities of France, the chair of
English is often occupied by a scholar of distinction.
At Rennes, the professor of English is FEUILLERAT, and
at Lille, DEROCQUIGNY; the writings of these men have
already been mentioned. At Bordeaux, the professor
of English is CESTRE, author of "Les Poetes anglais et
la Revolution francaise," 1905; at Caen is BARBEAU,
who wrote "Une Ville d'eau anglaise au xvuf Siecle,"
1904; and at Poitiers is CASTELAIN, author of "La Vie
et Pceuvre de Ben Jonson," 1906.
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 255
Although in the provincial universities instruction in
English is not often carried into the higher branches,
the serious student will be sure to find lectures on some
subsidiary topic that will help him to understand the
life and the literature of the past. At Bordeaux, for
example, he may profit by the lectures of LE BRETON,
author of "Le Roman au xvne Siecle," 1898, and
" Balzac, Fhomme et 1'oeuvre," 1905. If he is interested
in folklore, he may at Rennes hear the courses of
DOTTIN, known for his "Manuel d'irlandais moyen,"
1913, and of LE BRAZ, author of "La Legende de la mort
chez les Bretons armoricains," 1893, and "Au Pays de
pardons," 1894. It is worthy of note that numerous
French scholars of literary eminence are unconnected
with a university, but teach in a "lycee," as for example
PELLISSIER, author of "Le Mouvement litteraire au xrxe
Siecle," 1899; and "Le Mouvement litteraire contempo-
rain," 1901.
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
'The role of France in the evolution of modern phil-
osophy is perfectly clear: France has been the great
initiator. Elsewhere as well there have appeared phil-
osophers of genius; but nowhere has there been, as in
France, an uninterrupted continuity of original philo-
sophical creation." Does this claim of Bergson ("La
Science frangaise," I, 15) in behalf of French philosophy
appear too sweeping? Yet even a slight survey of the
course of French thought goes far towards justifying
it. Not that French philosophers have always developed
their ideas systematically and in detail; on the contrary
they have shown a certain distrust of system-making,
preferring instead to keep their ideas in close contact
with the concrete problems of experience which suggested
them. The happy result of this tendency is seen in the
peculiarly intimate relation throughout French history
between philosophy and the other main thought-currents
of the day, literary and art criticism, social and political
movements, religious reforms, scientific discoveries and
achievements. Perhaps in no country as in France have
the current philosophical ideas permeated and influenced
the great mass of the people. No nation has lived so
concretely its philosophy.
Two of the most fundamental but opposed methods
and tendencies in all modern thought were initiated by
Frenchmen. DESCARTES gave to modern rationalism its
1 [Drafting Committee: R. B. PERRY, Harvard University; J. H.
TUFTS, University of Chicago; C. B. VIBBERT, University of Michigan;
R. M. WENLEY, University of Michigan. — ED.]
259
260 PHILOSOPHY
method and main outlines; but he also left open a way of
interpreting problems which, taken up and developed by
PASCAL, has furnished the method for all succeeding anti-
rationalistic and romantic philosophies. In the eight-
eenth century the ENCYCLOPAEDISTS, extending the
method of Descartes to psychological, social, ethical and
religious phenomena, sketched the outlines of all future
materialism. At the same time ROUSSEAU, continuing
the tradition of Pascal in his own unique way, inaugurated
the romantic movement.
At the very beginning of the nineteenth century
appear two thinkers whose ideas and methods of proced-
ure were destined to develop into the two most opposed
tendencies in French philosophy to-day. MAINE DE
BIRAN, in his "Essai sur les fondements de la psychologic
et sur ses rapports avec 1'etude de la nature," 1812, re-
affirmed the tendency, employed so successfully by
Descartes, of making self-conscious analysis the basis for
metaphysics. On the one hand, he attached himself to
the Ideologists who continued the tradition of CON-
DILLAC'S sensational psychology; but, on the other, he
so deepened the scope of this psychology that he made
it reveal the inner consciousness of man as a continually
unfolding dynamic process in which the sense of effort is
central and in which man's freedom is revealed. On the
basis of this psychological analysis Maine de Biran sug-
gested the possibilities of a spiritualistic interpretation
not only of human nature but also of physical nature.
This suggestion, taken up and developed by Victor
COUSIN, Felix RAVAISSON, Jules LACHELIER, Emile
BOUTROUX, Henri BERGSON, and others, has continued
down to the present day as one of the most original
strands of idealistic thought in the nineteenth century.
Unfortunately COUSIN mingled Maine de Biran's fruitful
suggestions with diverse and incongruous elements
HENRI BERGSON (1859-)
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY 261
into a shallow Eclecticism, altogether too subservient
to conservative political ends and the requirements of
a school philosophy. RAVAISSON, on the contrary, in
"De 1'habitude" and " Rapport sur la philosophic en
France au xixe siecle," making full use of de Biran's
method and ideas, but also drawing on Aristotle, Leibnitz,
and Schelling, arrived at a comprehensive realistic spirit-
ualism in which nature appears as a refraction or diminu-
tion of mind (' 'esprit' ') . Falling under the spell of Ravaisson
but also profoundly influenced by Kant, whose thought he
introduced into academic circles in France, LACHELIER,
in "Du fondement de Finduction," "Etude sur le syl-
logisme," and " Psychologic et metaphysique," has
demonstrated the necessity of subordinating ultimately
physical causation and mechanism to final causation and
teleology. Influenced alike by Ravaisson's doctrine of
habit as the analogy most illuminating in interpreting
the relation between the material and spiritual aspects
of our experience and by Lachelier's criticism of the
causal concept, BOUTROUX, in "De la contingence des
lois de la nature, " and " De 1'idee de loi naturelle," sketches
an evolutionary conception of the world in which laws,
conceived on the analogy of habits, are contingent and
ever in course of development.
In this same general current of tradition stands BERG-
SON. In a brilliant series of monographs, ' ' Essai sur les don-
nees immediates de la conscience," "Matiere et memoire,"
and "L'E volution creatrice," he has attempted, on the
one hand, to show the fallacy involved in the method of
intellectual analysis and the inadequacy of the rational,
mechanical interpretation of the world in which it in-
evitably issues; on the other hand, he has endeavored to
display the fruitfulness of intuition as the method which
can reveal the immediately given data which make up
our concrete experience. On the basis of these data the
262 PHILOSOPHY
world discloses itself to us as a qualitative process of
continuous change, unfolding itself after the manner of
our innermost psychological life of which the very
essence is time. Closely associated with this same ten-
dency, though basing their conclusions more directly on a
critical examination of the methods and results of science,
are the three mathematicians, the late Henri POINCARE,
Gaston MILHAUD, and Edouard LsRoY. Milhaud and
LeRoy have recently entered the ranks of professional
philosophers.
In sharp contrast to this spiritualistic tendency in
French thought is the current which is characterized, on
the one hand, by the attempt to make the study of social
relations the starting point for the solution of all philo-
sophical problems; and, on the other hand, by its method,
called Positivistic, which maintains that explanation
consists in stating as accurately as possible the constant
relations which are observed to hold between our sense-
impressions, elimination having been made of all theories,
hypotheses, or other intellectual interpretations. SAINT-
SIMON in his "Reorganisation de la societe europeenne"
and numerous other works emphasized the first phase of
the movement. His pupil, Auguste COMTE, added to it
the method, and thus became the founder of Positivism.
The systematic application of this method to social re-
lations in his great work, " Cours de philosophic positive,"
entitles Comte to the honor of founding the strict science of
Sociology. The dominant idea in his doctrine of the classi-
fication of the sciences - - that the sciences are arranged in
a hierarchy of increasing complexity passing from mathe-
matics to sociology, and that the subject matter of no
science is reducible to the laws and principles of another —
has become almost an axiom of subsequent thought.
If the positivistic method be interpreted broadly as a
distrust of all metaphysics and as a demand to keep to
PHILOSOPHY 263
concrete problems, especially the problems of man's
social and historical life, then is it possible to attach to
this same tradition Ernest RENAN and Hippolyte TAINE.
Not, however, that the standpoint of either of these
original thinkers can be identified the one with the other
or with orthodox Positivism. RENAN, in his "Dialogues
et fragments philosophiques " and "L'Avenir de la
science, ' ' supports the standpoint of scientific probabilism ;
while TAINE, in his famous work "De 1'intelligence "
unfolds and illustrates the method of intellectual analysis.
Both Renan and Taine are quite as well, if not better,
known for their great historical than for their philoso-
phical works. (Vide Renan: "Les origines du Christia-
nisme," "Histoire du peuple d'Israel," "Vie de Jesus;"
Taine: "Histoire de la litterature anglaise" and "Les
origines de la France contemporaine.")
Today the tradition of Positivism is represented by a
very influential and closely organized school with an organ
of its own, "L'Annee sociologique." Emile DURKHEIM,
the recognized leader of the school, has developed the
method of its procedure in "Les regies de la methode
sociologique." This method has been carried out in a
systematic and brilliant manner by DURKHEIM, in "De la
division du travail," "Le suicide," "Les formes elementaires
de la vie religieuse" and other studies; by LEVY-BRUHL,
in "La morale et la science des mceurs" and "Les fonc-
tions mentales dans les societes inferieures;" by C.
BOUGLE in "Le regime des castes;" by H. HUBERT and
M. MAUSS, in "Le sacrifice," "La magie," and other
studies; by Fr. SIMIAND, in "Le salaire des ouvriers des
mines;" by M. HALBWACHS in "La classe ouvriere et les
niveaux de vie;" and by numerous others in the studies
of "L'Annee sociologique."
Aside from its spiritualistic and positivistic tendencies,
French thought has shown its vigor and originality in
264 PHILOSOPHY
several other directions. Taking as his point of depart-
ure the philosophy of KANT but stressing especially the
Critique of Practical Reason, Charles RENOUVIER worked
his way out to a strictly independent standpoint in
his "Essais de critique generale." He affirms the inde-
pendence of the human person; he shows how freedom
must be reintegrated in the very structure of the world.
Among the thinkers who have attached themselves to
this standpoint of Neo-Criticism are the late F. PILLON,
for many years the editor of the organ founded by
Renouvier, "L'Annee philosophique"; the late 0. HAME-
LIN; and L. DAURIAC.
Drawing his inspiration alike from the philosophy of
Plato, which he so brilliantly expounded in his earlier
years, and from the doctrine of evolution which made
such a profound impression on French thought in the latter
part of the nineteenth century, Alfred FOUILLEE arrived
at an evolutionary conception of the world which is both
strictly rational and teleological. This evolution is
mediated through what Fouillee has called "idees-
forces," ideas which are at the same time activities
tending to realize themselves. This doctrine he has set
forth in "L'fivolution des idees-forces," "La psychologic
des idees-forces," and numerous other works. His nephew,
J. M. GTJYAU, supported vigorously this same doctrine
till his untimely death.
We have touched upon only a few of the more promi-
nent and original currents in French thought in the nine-
teenth century which are still influential to-day. Limi-
tation prevents us from more than mentioning several
other tendencies. The profound movement in the phi-
losophy of religion, generally known as Modernism, has
been developed within very liberal Catholic circles mostly
by French thinkers such as LOISY, Maurice BLONDEL, LA-
BERTHONNIERE, E. LsROY, FONSEGRIVE, WlLBOIS, and
PHILOSOPHY 265
others. In Protestant circles Auguste SABATIER has origi-
nated a new and profound doctrine in his works : " Esquisse
d'une philosophic de la religion d'apres la psychologic
et 1'histoire " and " Les religions d'autorite et la religion de
1'esprit." French scientists have always shown a veritable
genius for developing the logic of their own methods
and subjecting them to criticism. Within the last third of
a century scientific logic and methodology has been almost
completely transformed by the works of Claude BERNARD,
Ant. COURNOT, Paul and Jules TANNERY, LECHALAS,
COUTURAT, DUHEM, PiCARD, PERRIN, BOREL, Pierre
BOUTROUX, Henri and Lucien POINCARE, BLOCH, WINTER,
MEYERSON, and many others. Highly important contri-
butions have been made to the fields of ethics, aesthetics,
history of philosophy, psychology and social philosophy.
Inadequate as such a brief sketch as this must be in even
suggesting the full originality of French philosophical
thought, still it must suffice, since the prospective student
of philosophy in France is likely to be more interested
in the actual organization of the courses in the French
schools to-day than in the achievements of the past.
Instruction at the Universities. Paris. It is a trite
statement that Paris is the intellectual center of France;
yet so far at least as philosophy is concerned this is
literally true. The courses at the Faculty of Letters of
the University of Paris and at the College de France
represent only a small portion of the entire philosophical
activity of the capital. Outside the University teaching
staff are many men prominent in the philosophical
world: editors and staff-men of the various publications
and men in private life, such as X. LEON, H. BERR, P.
GAULTIER, L. DAURIAC, R. BERTHELOT, L. WEBER, M.
WINTER, Fr. PAULHAN, G. PALANTE ; administrators of the
educational system, such as L. LIARD, G. BELOT, J.
266 PHILOSOPHY
LACHELIER, E. BOUTROUX; teachers in lycees, colleges,
private and technical schools, such as D. PARODI, FONSE-
GRIVE, MALAPERT, BAZAILLOS, CRESSON, DUNAN, PIAT,
SERTILLANGES, HALEVY, LECHALAS. It is possible from
time to time for the foreign student to come into direct
contact with the thought of some of these men through
the special courses arranged from year to year at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes sociales and the College libre
des Sciences sociales and through the discussions of the
Societe franchise de Philosophic. This latter society,
founded in 1901, has become the great clearing-house
for philosophical ideas in France. The hospitality of its
meetings, held monthly from December to May, is not
infrequently extended to foreigners through the courtesy
of some member.
At the College de France and at the Sorbonne the
greatest freedom is allowed the lecturers in the choice of
the subjects which they treat; consequently no definite
description of courses can be given. At the College de
France BERGSON lectures twice a week, one hour pre-
senting some phase of his own philosophy, the other hour
expounding the work of some classical philosopher.
During 1914-15 and 1915-6, LsRov of the Lycee Saint-
Louis has been substituting for Bergson. He has been
lecturing on the modern criticism of experimental science
and its philosophical consequences, a theme which he
brilliantly developed a few years ago in a series of studies
in "La Revue de metaphysique et de morale," 1899-1901.
IZOULET, who occupies the chair of Social Philosophy,
usually treats of some phase of French social development
in the eighteenth or nineteenth century. He is widely
known for his work on "La cite moderne.": Pierre
JANET, perhaps the most distinguished representative of
pathological psychology today, treats of a wide range of
subjects within his field.
PHILOSOPHY 267
At the Faculty of Letters about a third of the courses
are organized exclusively with reference to the require-
ments for obtaining the two French degrees, the "licence"
and the "diplome d'etudes superieures," and for passing
the competitive examination, known as the " agregation,"
which aims at selecting teachers for the lycees and
colleges. The rest of the courses cover an unlimited
range of subjects. DELACROIX, the most distinguished
representative of psychology of religion in France,
usually deals with some phase of this subject. (Vide his
"Essai sur le mysticisme speculatif en Allemagne au
XlVe siecle" and "Etudes d'histoire et de psychologic
du mysticisme.") BRUNSCHVICG is best known for his
study in Spinoza and his work on the logic of mathe-
matics, "Les etapes de la philosophic mathematique."
LALANDE always expounds some phase of the logic and
methods of science. (Vide his "La dissolution opposee
a 1'evolution dans les sciences physiques et morales.")
MILHAUD has made some remarkable contributions to
the history, criticism, and logic of science in his "Essai
sur les conditions et les limites de la certitude logique,"
"Le rationnel," and his two series of studies in the
history of scientific thought. L. ROBIN has charge of
the work in ancient philosophy, and F. PICAVET of the
work in mediaeval philosophy. The former has pro-
duced two excellent studies in Plato: "Theorie platoni-
cienne des idees et des nombres d'apres Aristote" and
"La theorie platonicienne de 1'amour." The latter has
written two of the most accurate and impartial histories
of mediaeval philosophy and theology ever produced:
"Esquisse d'une histoire generale et comparee des
philosophies medievales" and "Essais sur 1'histoire
generale et comparee des theologies et des philosophies
medievales." Of the achievements of DURKHEIM and
two of his associates at the Sorbonne, L^VY-BRUHL and
268 PHILOSOPHY
BOUGLE, we have already spoken. DURKHEIM occupies
the combined chair of Education and Sociology, and
usually presents courses along both of these lines. LEVY-
BRUHL always lectures on some aspect of the history of
modern philosophy. BOUGLE holds the chair of Social
Economy; in 1914-5 he treated the following subjects:
"La formation du socialisme democratique en France de
1830 a 1848" and "Recherches sur 1'economie politique
et la morale sociale." G. DUMAS, who fills the chair of
Experimental Psychology, keeps closely to the French tra-
dition of treating this subject from the pathological
standpoint. He has written several notable works:
"Le sourire," "La tristesse et la joie," "Psychologic de
deux messies positivistes."
Other Universities. Though Paris offers a wealth of
talent in philosophy both within and without the Uni-
versity which cannot be duplicated in any other center
in France, still there is a large number of notable and
original thinkers occupying chairs of philosophy in
the other fifteen universities scattered throughout the
country. Maurice BLONDEL became one of the initia-
tors of the Modernistic movement through his famous
work entitled "L' Action." At Bordeaux are BREHIER,
who has written one of the best works on Schelling, and
RUYSSEN, who has produced some excellent studies in the
history of philosophy, especially on Kant and Schopen-
hauer. Abel KEY, at the University of Dijon, has
vigorously championed the extreme mechanical standpoint
of science in his two works: " L 'Energetique et le
mecanisme" and "La theorie de la physique chez les
physiciens contemporains." E. GO-BLOT, at the Univer-
sity of Lyon, has done some very original work in the
classification of the sciences. FOUCAULT, at the Uni-
versity of Montpellier, and BOURDON, at the University
PHILOSOPHY 269
of Rennes, are both well known for their investigations
in psychology. (Vide Foucault: "La psychophysique "
and "Le reve"; Bourdon: "De Fexpression des emotions
et des tendances dans le langage.") P. SOURIAU, at the
University of Nancy, has made very valuable contribu-
tions to the subject of aesthetics: "La reverie esthetique,"
"La beaute rationnelle," and "La suggestion dans 1'art."
MAUXION and RIVAUD, at the University of Poitiers,
have both contributed to the history of philosophy, the
former by his works on Herbart, the latter by his work
on Spinoza and his study in "Le probleme du devenir
et la notion de la matiere, des origines jusqu'a Theo-
phraste."
But these are only a few philosophers among many in
the provincial universities whose achievements entitle them
to special mention. This sketch can only be suggestive.
Since the work in all the French universities is highly
co-ordinated under one central administration, there are
no difficulties in passing from one university to another
without loss of time, grade, or privileges. This makes
it possible to seek out anywhere in France the represen-
tative of any line of work in which one may be interested
and to pursue one's studies under his direction. If to
the unusually varied and intense creative activity mani-
fested by French philosophy today be added the very
hospitable and generous attitude of the administration
of philosophical studies toward foreigners, especially
Americans, there would seem to be every reason why an
increasing number of students from the United States
should avail themselves of the opportunities which France
offers.
PHYSICS
PHYSICS'
Some forty years ago a young American physicist
conceived, planned, and executed an experiment of
unusual difficulty. He impressed upon a small electric
charge a speed so great that this charge, while in motion,
exhibited the magnetic properties of an ordinary electric
current — a phenomenon of first importance. The
manipulative skill required for this experiment was so
great that more than one European physicist, attempting
to repeat the process, failed. Most noteworthy of these
failures was that of Cremieu, working under the auspices
of the Sorbonne, with an equipment which left little
to be desired. In the meantime (1900), the original work
had been repeated and verified by another young Ameri-
can physicist, who was invited by the University of Paris
to come to France and repeat the experiment in conjunc-
tion with Cremieu, in order that all doubt might be re-
solved and the facts of the case established. The invita-
tion was accepted; the two men working together dis-
covered the cause of Cremieu's negative results, and then
wrote up their work in a joint paper (Phys. Rev., 1903)
which established, probably for all time, the original
discovery.
This incident is mentioned merely as an illustration
of that openness of mind, receptivity for new ideas, and
love of truth which is thoroughly characteristic of the
French man of science. It was this same attitude of mind
1 [Drafting Committee: HENRY CREW, Northwestern University;
A. A. MICHELSON, University of Chicago; W. C. SABINE, Harvard
University. — ED.]
273
274 PHYSICS
which prompted the French to invite another American
to Paris when they decided to determine the metre in
terms of the wavelength of light.
A second characteristic of the French scholar is a
quality of mind best described, in terms of his own
language, as " clarte." It is that ability in clear exposition
which comes only to him who has studied the matter
profoundly. The lucidity of the French treatise is that
of an author who has renounced every idea which he has
not made thoroughly his own.
A third characteristic of the French investigator is of
interest to every young man who is thinking of studying
abroad, namely, his vivacious good humor, his lightness
of touch, his cheerful, optimistic disposition. No one
esteems these traits more highly than the man who
works in a physcial laboratory.
The high originality which is typical of the French
mind may, perhaps, be best illustrated by running briefly
over a few of the contributions which this nation has
made to some of the subdivisions of physics.
A backward glance at the literature of the world soon
convinces one that the classics are not many in number.
The mature student of any subject, indeed, finds the
facts and phenomena multitudinous, while its principles
may usually be counted upon the fingers of two hands.
In like manner, one who considers the history of any
science finds not many names of the first rank. The chief
actors are few, but of these France has had a very large
share.
If modern physics may be dated from the birth of
NEWTON and the death of GALILEO (1642) — the time
when HUYGENS, DESCARTES, PASCAL, and TORRICELLI
were in their prime — and if one makes an inventory of
fundamental ideas introduced during the nearly three
centuries which have followed that date, the chances
ALFRED CORXU (1841-1902)
PHYSICS
PHYSICS 275
are that he will be somewhat surprised at the role which
the investigators of France have continuously played.
For the features of a landscape upon which a people live
are not more permanent than the intellectual character
of that people.
As regards Mechanics: Father MERSENNE investi-
gated the dynamics of vibrating strings as early as 1636 —
six years before the birth of Newton. VARIGNON shares
with Newton the credit of introducing the new dynamics
— now called the Newtonian dynamics. His "Project"
appeared in the same year with Newton's "Principia"
and quite independently of it.
Students of Mechanics can never forget the three
brilliant contemporaries — D'ALEMBERT, LAGRANGE, and
LAPLACE — who were living in Paris when Benjamin
Franklin was there, so ably representing the American
cause. A half century later POINSOT created our rota-
tional dynamics; later this was followed by the experi-
mental researches of FOUCAULT on the pendulum and
gyrostat. Eminent contributions to the theory of
elasticity and wave-motion came from POISSON and
CAUCHY; work along the same line being carried on to-
day by BOUSSINESQ and HADAMARD.
In the domain of vibrating bodies, the names of
LAGRANGE, FOURIER, LISSAJOUS, and KOENIG at once come
up. A distinct and important contribution to thermal
science is recognized at the mention of each of the follow-
ing men, CARNOT, CLAPEYRON, DULONG and PETIT,
REGNAULT, BECQUEREL, POUILLET, AMAGAT, CHAPPUIS,
GUILLAUME. The wave theory of light — the theory of
transverse vibrations — was created and established
largely by FRESNEL, ARAGO, CAUCHY, JAMIN, FIZEAU,
FOUCAULT, CORNU, and MASCART.
Just as the quantitative side of Electrostatics was
set forth by COULOMB, so the quantitative description
276 PHYSICS
of Electromagnetism was first given by AMPERE, BIOT
and SAVART. FOURIER'S formulation of heat-conduction
was early adapted by OHM to the case of electric conduc-
tion. GRAMME in 1876 sent to America two of his new
generators, equipped with ring-armatures of his own
design; these machines mark the beginning of a new era
of large electric currents and of electrical transmission of
power.
In the field of radioactivity, BECQUEREL and the
CURIES are known even to the man on the street.
Instruction in the Universities. Paris. To-day this
brilliant succession of investigators is continued, in the
Faculte des Sciences of the University of Paris, by such
productive scholars as BOUSSINESQ, who is lecturing on
Heat Conduction; B DUTY, who offers courses on Thermo-
dynamics; LIPPMANN, whose subject is announced as
Electrocapillarity and Optics; and Mme. CURIE, whose
topic is naturally Radioactivity. Still other courses in
physics are offered by LEDUC Cotton ABRAHAM, and
KOENIGS.
In the department of Mathematics, certain other
lectures with a physical trend are given by APPELL,
GUICHARD, DRACH, and others.
The astrophysical investigations of DESLANDRES in
the observatory at Meudon are known to be of the
highest order and along the same lines in which HALE
in our own country has acquired eminence.
Many advanced students in physics will be interested
in the opportunities for work along the closely related line
of Physical Chemistry in which courses are offered by
LE CHATELIER, URBAIN, and PERRIN. In the College
de France, the work of LANGEVIN in experimental physics
and HADAMARD in mathematical physics is well known
in America.
PHYSICS 277
Both at the Sorbonne and at the College de France
the laboratory equipment is remarkably complete and
quite available.
Other Universities. But the opportunities which
France offers for higher work in Physics are not limited
to Paris.
Along the western portion of the country lie the well
known Universities of Rennes, Poitiers, and Bordeaux.
At the first named institution, LE Roux offers ^ distin-
guished courses in Mechanics, pure and applied; at
POITIERS, one finds GARBE and TURPAIN, in Physics.
DUHEM, whom the world has just lost, has made Bor-
deaux a familiar name in Physics everywhere. Here
H. BENARD offers opportunities in general physics.
Among the many charms of Southern France are
always to be included the three renowned universities
at Toulouse, Montpellier, and Marseille. BOUASSE and
COSSERAT, in Physics and Astronomy respectively, are
among the leading men on the staff at Toulouse. MESLIN
is in charge of Physics at MontpeUier. Some American
students, whose work is now well known, have already
enjoyed the privileges of study at the city of Marseille,
at once so ancient and so very modern. Here will be
found a distinguished trio of productive scholars in L.
HOULLEVIQUE, C. FAERY, and H. BUISSON. It is doubt-
ful if better opportunities for research in Spectroscopy
are to be found in any other place.
At Lyon, a little farther north, yet s.till in the southern
half of France, the student of Physics will find unusual
opportunities with the well known investigator, Georges
GOUY.
The above mentioned are but a portion of the facilities,
intellectual and material, to which France generously
opens wide the door.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
INCLUDING
ECONOMICS AND
INTERNATIONAL LAW
POLITICAL SCIENCE-
Creative achievement in the legal and political sciences
has long been eminent in France, as is testified by the
early commentaries and treatises of CUJAS, DONEAU,
BODIN, GODEFROY, DuMOULIN, DOMAT, POTHIER, ROUS-
SEAU, MONTESQUIEU, and many others. During the
early and middle nineteenth century, the literature of
political science was enriched by the writings of Benjamin
CONSTANT, ROYER-COLLARD, CHATEAUBRIAND, GUIZOT,
ROSSI, DE TOCQUEVILLE, DE BROGLIE, PREVOST-PARADOL,
Jules SIMON, VIVIEN, DUPONT-WHITE, LABOULAYE, and
a host of others. As early as 1834 a chair of constitutional
law was established at Paris; it was occupied for ten
years by the famous Rossi, who resigned it in 1845 to
become ambassador to Rome. In 1871 fimile BOUTMY
founded at Paris the "Ecole Libre des Sciences Poli-
tiques," a school which has done much to stimulate inter-
est in the study of political science, and which is today
attended by a large number of students. Boutmy during
his lifetime contributed much to the literature of political
science, and his works are well-known and admired in
America.
The achievements of recent French scholarship in this
field, as in so many others, have not generally been ap-
preciated at their full value in America. In quantity of
output the Germans have undoubtedly outstripped the
French. But in quality the contributions of French
1 [Drafting Committee: J. W. GARNER, University of Illinois;
L. C. MARSHALL, University of Chicago; J. S. REEVES, University of
Michigan; A. P. USHER, Cornell University. — ED.]
281
282 POLITICAL SCIENCE
scholars to scientific literature surpass in lucidity, order-
liness of arrangement, and attractiveness of style, those
of any other nation. It may be seriously doubted whether
any other country at present has a larger group of distin-
guished authorities or a richer literature in the fields of in-
ternational law and administrative science.
In more recent years the literature of Constitutional
Law has been enriched by the scholarly contributions of
SALEILLES, ESMEIN, LARNAUDE, JEZE, DUGUIT, HAURIOU,
MOREAU, BARTHELEMY, BERTHELEMY, and others, all of
whom (except the first two) are still active. ESMEIN, who
died in 1913, was recognized as the highest authority on
French constitutional law and legal history. His works
are many, the best known being his "Histoire du droit
frangais" and his "Elements de droit constitutionnel
franc, ais et compare." The latter is recognized in France
as the standard treatise; it has gone through many edi-
tions, and is well known in America. Of the living scholars
in this field, DUGUIT, professor in the University of Bor-
deaux, occupies the first place among the French authori-
ties on political science and constitutional law. His best
known works are his "Traite de droit constitutionnel"
(2 vols.), "Les transformations du droit public," "fitudes
de droit public" (2 vols.), and "Le droit social"; the
first mentioned work is one of the most valuable treatises
on comparative constitutional law and government to be
found in any language, and for the study of the French
constitution it is indispensable.
In the field of Administrative Science and Administra-
tive Law, French scholars have long excelled those of
other countries. The older treatises of CORMENIN
("Questions de droit administratif," 2 vols., 1822),
SERRIGNY ("Traite de droit public des Frangais," 2 vols.,
POLITICAL SCIENCE 283
1845), and VIVIEN ("fitudes administratives," 2 vols.,
1852), laid the foundations of a great branch of juris-
prudence such as is not found in America. This literature
was later enriched by the more comprehensive treatises
of LAFERRIERE ("Traite de la juridiction administrative,"
2 vols., 1887-1888; the standard work on the subject),
of BATBIE ("Traite theorique et pratique du droit public
et administratif," 7 vols., 1862), and DUFOUR, ("Traite
general de droit administratif," 8 vols., 1867-1870).
Of the living authorities in this field, the best known are
BERTHELEMY of Paris, whose "Traite de droit adminis-
tratif" is regarded in France as the standard general
authority on French administrative law; JEZE, likewise
of Paris, whose recently published work, "Les principes
generaux du droit administratif," reflects the highest
credit upon French scholarship; HAURIOU, of Toulouse,
author of many works in this field, the best known of
which is his "Precis de droit administratif et de droit
public" (8th ed., 1914); MOREAU, of Aix-Marseilles,
author of a notable study entitled "Le reglement ad-
ministratif;" BREMOND; JACQUELIN; TESSIER; CAHEN;
and others, the titles of whose studies it is impossible
for lack of space to mention. It may be safely said
that no other country has produced so many distin-
guished writers in this field, or a literature so extensive
and valuable.
In the field of International Law, both public and
private, the French have likewise long held a preeminent
place. No other country has produced a larger number
of high authorities or a more extensive and scholarly
literature. It is impossible here to do more than merely
mention the names of the leading authorities. By com-
mon consent, RENAULT of Paris is recognized as occupy-
ing the first place among the scholars of France, if not
284 POLITICAL SCIENCE
of the world, as an authority on international law.
In 1907 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. As-
sociated with him in the University of Paris are
PIEDELIEVRE and PILLET, whose contributions to the
literature of the law of war are regarded with high respect,
and G. DE LAPRADELLE, whose collection of international
arbitrations is well known. BONFILS, of the University
of Toulouse, is the author of a treatise entitled " Manuel
de droit international public," which is regarded as the
standard general authority in French. The ponderous
treatise of PRADIER-FODERE, "Traite de droit interna-
tional public Europeen et Americain," in eight volumes,
is the most elaborate work of the kind in any language.
MERIGNHAC of Toulouse is likewise a well-known authori-
ty, and is the author of a number of works, the most
notable of which is his "Traite de droit international
public" in two volumes. DESPAGNET is another highly
respected writer in this field, and the author of many
publications, his principal contribution being a work
entitled "Cours de droit international public." An im-
portant contribution on international law as applied to
maritime warfare is DE BOECK'S "De la propriete privee
ennemie sous pavilion ennemi"; while LEMONON and
DUPUIS have both made substantial contributions to the
literature dealing with the work of the two Hague con-
ferences. Among other important French writers in this
field may be mentioned the older authorities, HAUTE-
FEUILLE, PlSTOYE, DU VERDY, ROUARD DE CARD, and
the more recent authors, FUNCK-BRENTANO, SOREL,
ROLLAND, VALLERY, POLITIS, DESJARDINS, DUPLESSDC,
BASDEVANT, IMBART DE LA TOUR, GUELLE, FERAND-
GIRAUD, FAUCHILLE (the learned editor of the 'Revue
Generate de Droit international public"), and WEISS,
the author of a monumental work in four volumes
entitled "Droit international prive."
CHARLES, BARON DE MONTESQUIEU (1680-1755)
POLITICAL SCIENCE
POLITICAL SCIENCE 285
The large number of distinguished French scholars in
this field, the richness of the literature, and the excep-
tional library facilities, especially in Paris, easily make
the University of Paris the most important center of the
world for the study of international law.
In the field of Colonial Administration and Legislation,
French interest and scholarship are scarcely less pre-
eminent, and the literature is extensive. In this field
GIRAULT and LARCHER are the two leading authorities.
It may be mentioned in this connection that there is a
special school at Paris for the training of young men for
careers in the colonial service. At Bordeaux there is a
Colonial Institute; at Aix-Marseille, a School of Colonial
Medicine and Pharmacy; at Nancy, a Colonial Institute.
In Legal History, the researches of the French have
been especially noteworthy, and the literature in this
field is extensive in quantity and unexcelled in quality.
Among the more recent French scholars who have made
notable contributions along this line may be mentioned
FUSTEL DE COULANGES, LUCHAIRE, GLASSON, DARESTE,
PLANIOL, CHENON, GARRAUD, and LEFEBVRE. Naturally
the French have given much attention to the study of
Roman law, as is testified by the treatises of ORTOLAN,
GIRARD, GIDE, GERARDIN, GIRAUD, CUQ, APPLETON,
MAY, AUDIBERT, HUVELIN, and others. On the theory
and philosophy of law there are likewise numerous treatises
of a scholarly character, among which may be mentioned
the writings of LARNAUDE, GENY, DUGUIT, LAMBERT,
MICHOUD, HAURIOU, SALEILLES, and DEMOGUE. The
most comprehensive treatise on the history of political
theory in any language is JANET'S "Histoire de la science
politique dans ses rapports avec la morale" (2 vols.), a
work which not only bears the ear-marks of erudition
but is written in a style at once clear and fascinating.
286 POLITICAL SCIENCE
In Economic Science, French contributions to economic
theory have been numerous, and from the outset have
exerted an important influence upon the development of
economic thought. The term "political economy"
seems to have been first used as a title for a general treatise
by Antoine DE MONTCHRETIEN in his volume "Traite
de Fficonomie Politique," published in 1615. His book
was a formal exposition of the principles of mercantilism,
which probably received a wider acceptation and applica-
tion as a State policy in France under Colbert than in any
other country. On account of the extremes to which
mercantilism was carried and the evils that arose there-
from, the first vigorous protest against mercantilism
was voiced in France. BOISGUILLEBERT, Marshal
VAUBAN, and FENELON contributed to that protest.
However, it was not until about the middle of the
eighteenth century that reaction against mercantilism
became an open protest against the economic policies of
the State. The leaders in this movement were the
founders of the Physiocratic School of economic thought.
From the viewpoint of economic theory, Francois
QUESNAY was the chief figure in this school. His most
imporant writings were an article "Fermiers," one on
"Grains," "Tableau economique," "Maximes generates
du gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole,"
and "Droit Naturel." Among other representatives of
this school the names of GOURNAY and TURGOT should
be mentioned. Turgot, while keeping himself formally
distinct from the physiocrats, was in essential agreement
with their main doctrines, and as statesman gave prac-
tical application to their theories. In fact, the achieve-
ments of the French Revolution were to a large extent
the realization of the reforms advocated by the physio-
cratic school. In addition, their contributions had an
immediate and a profound influence on the economic
POLITICAL SCIENCE 287
thinking of the last half of the eighteenth century.
Through the writings of Smith and Ricardo, who were
both clearly indebted to them, physiocratic influence
was carried over into the economic thought of the nine-
teenth century.
But with the close of the eighteenth century, with
the exception of J. B. SAY, France neither produced
any important economic works, nor possessed a school
of economists, until about 1845, although Utopian
Socialism flourished in this period.
The rationalism of the eighteenth century led in
scientific circles to an unobtrusive but insistent realism,
to a distrust of large abstractions, and to a search for
objective facts. In the social sciences, this temper re-
sulted in the subordination of the theory of distribu-
tion to the concrete problems of State administration and
local amelioration. SISMONDI and SAINT-SIMON are
more characteristic of the temper of French thought than
J. B. SAY and Frederic BASTIAT, and, as might be sup-
posed, the positive contribution of France in the social
sciences is in sociology rather than in economics. Al-
though the liberal views of the eighteenth century have
maintained a strong hold on French opinion, there has
been a skepticism and a tendency to reaction, which
appeared in its extreme forms in the Utopian com-
munism of SAINT-SIMON and FOURIER and in the socialism
of Louis BLANC and PROUDHON. This reaction against
the mechanistic theories was not without its influence
upon John Stuart Mill.
The passion of the realist for facts appears notably in
LE PLAY'S monographs of families, in the historical work
of LEVASSEUR, and in the highly diversified work of P.
LEROY-BEAULIEU.
About the middle of the century, there was a revival of
"classical" economic thought, which was associated with
288 POLITICAL SCIENCE
the writings of DONOYER and BASTIAT. English influence
was clearly uppermost at this time ; and after the tariff
barriers between England and France had been largely
removed in 1860, the influence of the Manchester School
became even more pronounced. The commercial agree-
ment just alluded to was largely the work of the eminent
French statesman and economist, CHEVALIER, and the
English free-trader Cobden.
During the last quarter of the nineteenth century,
two factors had an important bearing upon the character
of French economic thought. The host of practical
questions resulting from the Franco-Prussian War
stimulated research in the direction of solutions for
these pressing problems. Beginning in 1878, this ten-
dency received additional momentum by the institution
of economic courses in the law faculties of various French
Universities, in which the instruction was given a more
practical turn, greater emphasis being placed upon the
legal and administrative phases of these problems.
The teaching of economics is profoundly influenced by
this realistic tendency. Economics is studied either as
preparation for administrative work or in connection with
engineering and business. It is taught in nearly all the
technical schools, and some subjects that receive general
attention here appear only in the curricula of the tech-
nical schools. The economic problems of railroads, for
instance, are treated at the Ecole des Fonts et Chaus-
sees. Opportunities for advanced study are most con-
siderable at Paris. The larger choice of courses is offered
by the Law School and the Ecole Libre des Sciences
Politiques, the latter a private institution not subject
to the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction.
Some work in economics is done at the Ecole Pratique
des Hautes Etudes, and there are public lectures at the
College de France. At the Law School and at the ficole
POLITICAL SCIENCE 289
Libre, the study of economics is pursued with special
reference to meeting the examination requirements for the
higher branches of the administration. The Ecole
Libre also offers a course for prospective business men.
In the domain of industrial legislation, the greatest
activity of studies is found, as appears not only from the
treatises of Pic, JAY, CAPITANT, CABOUAT, and BELLOUR,
but from the numerous courses of instruction offered in
nearly every university.
Reference must here be made to the remarkably
good work of French writers on cost analysis, in which
they are decidedly in advance of the United States, and
perhaps of other countries. Much of the good practical
work which is being done in the application of statistics
to business in America at the present day is a tardy
reflection of the method of cost analysis employed in
France. This work has been so fruitful that it may be
regarded as one of the parts of economics where our
students have most to learn from France.
There is much writing on economic theory, as each
professor usually publishes his course-lectures. COLSON
has published one of the most extensive works, "Cours
d'economie politique" (1901-07), and issues an annual
supplement. The work of GIDE is well known through
the translation so frequently used in our colleges. The
most original work on economic theory is that of LANDRY,
"L'interet du capital" (1904). The most distinguished
economists of the generation have been Paul LEROY-
BEAULIEU and the late Emile LEVASSEUR. The works
of LEROY-BEAULIEU cover a wide range: "L 'adminis-
tration locale en France et en Angleterre" (1872);
"L'etat moderne et ses fonctions" (1890); "Le collec-
tivisme" (1894, 1909); "De la colonisation chez les
peuples modernes" (1874-1908); "Essai sur la reparti-
tion des richesses" (1883); "La question ouvriere au
29o POLITICAL SCIENCE
xixe siecle" (1872); "Traite theorique et pratique
d'economie politique" (1896); "La question de la popula-
tion" (1913); and "Traite de la science des finances"
(2 vols., 1879-1912). LEVASSEUR occupies the first
place in economic history with scholarly general treatises :
"Histoire des classes ouvrieres et de I'industrie en France
avant 1789" (1859-1901); "Histoire des classes ouvrieres
. de 1789 a 1870" (1867-1904); "La population
francaise" (1889-92); "La France et ses colonies" (1890);
"Histoire du commerce de la France" (1911-12); in
addition to these general treatises he has also published
a number of minor works on economics and geography.
GIDE has written upon social problems: "La Coopera-
tion" (1900); "Les societes cooperatives de consomma-
tion" (1904); "ficonomie sociale, institutions de progres
social au debut du xxe siecle" (1907-1912).
In Finance, there are many notable names. JEZE has
confined himself largely to systematic treatises, "Cours
elementaire de science des finances" (1904-1912); and
' ' Traite de science des finances " (1910). C AILLAUX in the
field of taxation has written "L'impot sur le revenu"
(1910); and "Les impots en France" (1896-1904). Rene
STOURM and Marcel MARION have given special attention
to financial history, though both have published in other
fields. COLSON is an authority of note upon railroads.
His book "Transports et tarifs" (1906) is well known,
and his "Abrege de la legislation des chemins de fer et
tramways" is of importance. With MARLIO, one of the
younger men, Colson presented a notable paper to the
International Congress on railroads in 1910. RENAUD
has written much on contemporary labor problems, and,
in addition, has published a study in Florentine history,
("Histoire du travail a Florence," 1913.") He is also
editing the "Histoire universelle du travail," to which
POLITICAL SCIENCE 291
he has contributed. Raphael-Georges LEVY, of the
Institute, is well known in France for his many contribu-
tions on economics and financial questions, published
mainly in the "Revue des deux Mondes."
Institutions and Societies. The activity of French
scholars in the several fields with which this chapter deals
has by no means been confined to teaching and writing.
Through the agency of learned societies they have also
done much to stimulate popular interest in the study of
political, legal, economic, and penal science, and to
provide a body of scientific literature of great value to
students. Thus the Societe de Legislation Comparee,
founded in 1870, collects, annotates, and publishes in an
"Annuaire," of which 45 volumes have appeared, the
principal laws of different countries. The society holds
meetings from time to time at which important legis-
lative reforms and questions of public policy are dis-
cussed by experts. The proceedings are published in a
monthly bulletin, of which 45 volumes have appeared.
At one of the meetings, in 1902, for example, the question
of the power of the courts to declare acts of the legislature
null and void on the ground of unconstitutionally was
discussed by a number of the leading jurists of France,
and the published proceedings make one of the most
valuable contributions to the literature of the subject
to be found in any foreign language. In cooperation
with the recently formed Societe d'Etudes Legislatives,
which likewise publishes a bulletin, it has organized a
congress of comparative law, whose purpose is to study
the public and private institutions of foreign countries.
A somewhat similar body is the Comite de Legislation
fitrangere of the Ministry of Justice, which translates
and publishes the latest codes of the more important
countries.
292 POLITICAL SCIENCE
The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, one of
the five academies of the Institute of France, is a body
J
composed of a small select group of the most distin-
guished scholars, which devotes itself to the study of
questions of legal and political science and which offers
prizes for noteworthy productions. The proceedings of
the Academy are published, and constitute in the aggre-
gate a valuable body of literature on the subject with
which they deal.
Still another learned society which may be mentioned
in this connection is the Societe generate des Prisons.
It is composed mainly of professors of criminal law, crimin-
ology, and penology, magistrates, lawyers, and adminis-
trators of prisons, and is devoted to the study of ques-
tions of criminal law, penology, and the administration
of penal institutions. The Society publishes a valuable
monthly periodical, the "Revue penitentiaire et de droit
penal," of which 40 volumes have appeared.
The Institut de Droit International, although its
membership is not limited to Frenchmen, was neverthe-
less founded largely through the initiative of French
scholars; they constitute a large and influential part of
its membership and its proceedings are published in the
French language. The Institute holds annual sessions
at different places in Europe and publishes an " Annuaire"
(26 volumes to date) containing a report of its proceed-
ings, together with the texts, papers, reports, drafts of
projects, etc. The Institute has framed proposed codes
of international law, dealing with such matters as aerial
navigation, maritime war, land warfare, etc.; on account
of the distinguished reputations of the members, the
views of the Institute have exerted a marked influence
on the recent development of international law.
In addition to the publications of learned societies may
be mentioned certain publications of the universities.
JEAN-BAPTISTE SAY (1767-1832)
POLITICAL SCIENCE
POLITICAL SCIENCE 293
Notable are the "Annales de I'Universite de Lyon,"
which were started in 1891 and of which 100 volumes
have already appeared. The first 40 volumes contain
publications dealing with the sciences in general; the
others fall into two groups: first, those which deal with
the medical sciences; and, second, those which deal with
law and letters. This collection is the most extensive
and valuable of university publications in France, em-
bracing as it does the results of original work and research.
The University of Rennes has published, since 1885, the
"Annales de Bretagne," and since 1906 a series entitled
"Les travaux juridiques et economiques." Other uni-
versity publications in France of a serial character are;
the " Annales de I'Universite de Grenoble," which have
appeared regularly since 1890; the "Revue bourgui-
gnonne," which has been published by the University of
Dijon since 1891; the "Annales des Facultes de droit
et des lettres d'Aix" since 1905; and the "Travaux de la
conference de droit penal" of the Faculty of Law of the
University of Paris, since 1910.
Periodicals. The interest and activities of the French
in the legal, political, and economic sciences are still
further reflected in the numerous reviews and periodicals
which they publish. In addition to those already men-
tioned, and not enumerating those devoted to private law,
the best known are : the " Journal de Droit International
Prive," which has appeared regularly since 1874, and has
since its foundation been edited by the well-known
scholar, Edouard CLUNET; the "Revue Generale du
Droit International Public," now in its twenty- third
year, edited by FAUCHILLE; the "Revue de Droit Public
et de la Science Politique," edited by JEZE, now in its
thirty- third volume; the "Revue de Science et de Legis-
lation financieres," also edited by JEZE; the "Revue
294 POLITICAL SCIENCE
Generate de Droit, de Legislation et de Jurisprudence,"
founded in 1877; the "Revue des Sciences politiques"
(formerly known as the "Annales des sciences poli-
tiques"), published by the ficole des Sciences Politiques
(33 vols.); the "Revue Politique et Parlementaire,"
founded in 1895, and edited by FAURE (87 vols.); the
"Revue de Droit Internationale Prive et de Droit Penal
International," founded in 1905; "Questions pratiques
de Legislation ouvriere et d 'Economic sociale"; the
"Revue Generale d' Administration " (38 vols.); the
"Revue Internationale du Droit Maritime" (29 vols.);
the "Revue Communale" (24 vols.); the "Revue d'His-
toire Diplomatique" (27 vols.); and the "Archives
Diplomatiques" (129 vols.) All of these are scientific
publications containing articles by experts, chroniques,
book reviews, texts of important documents, and the
like.
For the convenience of students, teachers, and others,
there is provided a great variety of collections of laws,
decisions of judicial and administrative courts, bulletins,
"annuaires," "repertoires," "dictionnaires," etc. Among
them may be mentioned the great Collection of Duvergier
in 115 volumes, containing the texts of all the laws,
decrees, ordinances, etc., issued by the French govern-
ment since 1788; the annals of the Senate and Chamber of
Deputies, embracing now more than 450 volumes; the
"Annuaire" of French legislation in some 40 volumes;
the "Annuaire" of foreign legislation, about 45 volumes;
a collection of the principal codes of the world, nearly
30 volumes; Sirey's collection of the laws and "arretes,"
about 115 volumes; Dalloz's "Recueil" of laws and
decisions, 70 volumes; the decisions of the Council of
State since 1798, over 240 volumes; Dalloz's "Juris-
prudence Generale" (1887-1897), 69 volumes, supplement
(1887-1897), 19 volumes; Riviere and Weiss's "Pandectes
POLITICAL SCIENCE 295
francaises," 63 volumes; Bequet's "Repertoire de Droit
Administratif," over 30 volumes; and various others.
Courses of Instruction. Instruction in political
science, public law, international law, and economics
in the French universities is invariably given in the
Faculty of Law, thus indicating a closer connection be-
tween those fields and that of law than generally exists
in American universities. Of the sixteen universities,
all (except those of Besancon and Clermont-Ferrand)
maintain such faculties, and therefore offer instruction
in the above mentioned subjects. All of the law faculties
grant certificates of capacity and the degree of Licence
en Droit, and those of Paris, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille,
Lyon, and Nancy are empowered to grant the degree of
Doctor of Law. The latter degree is of two kinds, de-
pending on the nature of the course pursued by the
candidate: first, the doctorate in the juridical sciences,
and, second, the doctorate in the political and economic
sciences. Candidates for the doctor's degree must have
taken their Licence in law from a French university or
have graduated from an acceptable foreign university.
Paris. For the study of the subjects with which this
chapter deals, the University of Paris, of course, ranks
first. Its Faculty of Law numbers between forty and
fifty professors, agreges, and charges. It offers a large
and varied number of courses, in civil, commercial, and
criminal law, Roman law, legal history, constitutional,
administrative, and international law (both public and
private), political economy, public finance, statistics,
industrial and social legislation, comparative legislation
and jurisprudence, diplomatic law and history, colonial
law and administration, etc. During the year preceding
the outbreak of the great war in 1914, more than 8000
students — about one half the total registration of the
296 POLITICAL SCIENCE
university — were enrolled in the Faculty of Law. Viewed,
therefore, from the number of students enrolled, the
great variety of courses offered, and the number of dis-
tinguished professors, the Law Faculty of Paris leads
that of all other universities. It may be justly regarded
as the most important center of the world for the study
of public law, and political science. Among the most
distinguished scholars who compose the Faculty of Law
may be mentioned BERTHELEMY and JACQUELIN in ad-
ministrative law; BARTHELEMY in constitutional and ad-
ministrative law; JEZE in administrative law and public
finance; LARNAUDE in constitutional law; FLACH in com-
parative legislation; THALLER and LYON-CAEN in com-
mercial and maritime law; RENAULT, LAPRADELLE,
PILLET, and PLEDELIEVRE in international public law;
WEISS in international private law; FOURNIER and
LEFEBVRE in legal history; GIDE and FAURE in Econom-
ics; not to mention the names of GIRARD, CAPITANT,
CUQ, GARCON, PLANIOL, LEPOITTEVLN, TISSIER, and others,
whose subjects fall more distinctly in the field of private
law.
Closely connected with the University of Paris is the
ancient College de France, founded in 1530, which now
maintains forty-five chairs, among the occupants of
which may be mentioned Paul LEROY-BEAULLEU in
economics and FLACH in comparative legal history.
The library facilities for the study of political science,
public law, and economics in Paris are unsurpassed. The
library of the Faculty of Law contains 80,000 volumes,
and 352 seats are provided in the reading room for
students. The College de France has a library of 10,000
volumes reserved for the use of professors, besides eleven
special libraries. There are also many special but ex-
tensive collections in the city of Paris which are available
to students. Among these may be mentioned the library
POLITICAL SCIENCE 297
of the Court of Cassation, containing 40,000 volumes;
of the Court of Appeal, 13,000 volumes; of the Council
of State, 36,000 volumes; of the Chamber of Deputies,
250,000 volumes; of the Municipal Council in the Hotel
de Ville, 30,000 volumes; of the Court of Accounts, 25,000
volumes; of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 80,000
volumes, besides the libraries of the other ministries; of
the Office of Foreign Legislation and International Law,
60,000 volumes; the historical library of the City of
Paris, 400,000 volumes; of the office of Legislative and
Parliamentary Labor, 400,000 documents and reports;
the library of the Bar at the Palais de Justice, 65,000
volumes; the library of the Society of Comparative
Legislation, 18,500 volumes, 7,500 brochures, and 2,000
periodicals; of the Colonial School, 15,000 volumes; and
various others. Finally there is the National Library
containing 3,000,000 volumes and 110,000 manuscripts.
Other Universities. While Paris, by reason of its
larger faculties, its greater variety of courses and its
more extensive library facilities, is the chief center in
France for the study of political science, public law and
economics, nevertheless the opportunities and facilities
offered by some of the provincial universities are im-
portant and valuable.
Among the provincial universities, that of Lyon is the
largest. The Law Faculty embraces about 20 professors
and instructors; among the most distinguished names
being those of GARRAUD in criminal law, Paul Pic in
international law and industrial legislation, and APPLET/ON
in administrative law. A large number of courses in
public law, legal history, political economy, industrial
legislation, and public finance are offered, and the enroll-
ment of students exceeds in numbers that of any other
French university outside of Paris. The university has
298 POLITICAL SCIENCE
a collection of 300,000 volumes, of which 140,000 are in
the law library. It also has 132,000 theses and bro-
chures, and receives 1,300 periodicals.
A smaller French university which enjoys a high repu-
tation as a center for the study of political science is that
of Dijon. It has a law faculty of about 20 professors
and agreges, among the best known of whom, perhaps,
are DESSERTEAUX, DELPECH, DESLANDRES, and GAUDE-
MET. It is one of the favorite universities outside Paris
for foreign students, and it maintains a summer school
which is attended by many students from abroad.
The University of Grenoble, charmingly situated in the
Alps region, conducts, like Dijon, a summer school and
makes a special appeal to foreign students. During the
year 1912-13 over 1,500 students from foreign countries
were registered in this university. The Law Faculty,
composed of 16 professors and other members, is one of
the ablest of the provincial universities, among its most
distinguished professors being MICHOUD in administra-
tive law, BEUDANT in constitutional law, CAILLEMER in
legal history, and BASDEVANT in international law. All
have made notable contributions to the literature of their
respective subjects and rank among the leading French
scholars in their fields. The Law Faculty offers a great
variety of courses, and the University possesses a large
and well-equipped library.
The University of Lille also has a special strength in
political science. The literary activity of its Faculty
has been notable; and it numbers such well known
scholars as VALLAS, JACQUEY, GUERNIER, LEVY-ULL-
MANN, DEMOGUE, SCHATZ, and MOREL.
A smaller and less well-known university, but possess-
ing an able law faculty, is that of Montpellier in Southern
France. Among its leading scholars are BREMOND in ad-
ministrative law, CHARMONT in philosophy of law,
JEAN LOUIS RENAULT (1843-)
POLITICAL SCIENCE
POLITICAL SCIENCE 299
LABORDE in criminal law, DUBOIS in constitutional law,
VALERY in international private law, and MOYE in inter-
national public law. It offers courses in the usual sub-
jects taught in French law faculties.
The University of Nancy, likewise one of the smaller
institutions, possesses an able law faculty of 17 profes-
sors and agreges, including such well-known scholars as
GENY in civil law, MICHON in legal history, ROLLAND in
administrative law, GAVET in public law, and SIMONET
in constitutional law. The University has a library of
nearly 200,000 volumes; and the city library contains
about 145,000 volumes, including the publications of
over 400 learned societies and 263 reviews and peri-
odicals.
One of the oldest and best known provincial universi-
ties is that of Poitiers, which has an able law faculty and
a library of 100,000 volumes and 180,000 theses and
brochures. The University of Rennes, situated in the
picturesque country of Brittany, maintains a summer
school and, like Dijon and Grenoble, makes a special
appeal to foreign students. It has a law faculty of
about 20 members, several of whom enjoy distinguished
reputations. The university library contains 150,000
volumes and over 67,000 brochures. It is unique in
possessing a collection of the British and Foreign state
papers of 560 volumes.
The Universities of Bordeaux and of Toulouse, to
mention only two others, have strong law faculties, and
offer excellent facilities for the study of political science
and public law. Among the professors of Bordeaux, the
best known to American scholars is Leon DUGUIT, the
most eminent of the living French authorities in the
fields of constitutional law and political science. At
Toulouse, perhaps the best known to us are ROUARD
DE CARD, in international private law, MERIGNHAC, in
300 POLITICAL SCIENCE
international public law, HAURIOU, in administrative law,
THOMAS and DECLAREUIL, in legal history, and CEZAR-
BRU, in economic legislation.
Non-university Instruction. Aside from the Univer-
sities, there are in France a number of private institutions
which make a specialty of instruction in the political and
economic sciences. The more important of these are of
course in Paris, and include the Ecole Libre des Sciences
Politiques; the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales; the
College Libre des Sciences Politiques; and the ficole de
Legislation professionelle. The University of Lyon also
maintains an Institut des Sciences Economiques et
Politiques; there are also Instituts Coloniaux at Bordeaux
and Nancy for training young men for the colonial
service. Finally, there is an Ecole des Hautes Etudes
Commerciales at Paris and Institutes for the study of
commerce at Paris, Grenoble, and Nancy.
Of the above mentioned schools the best known is the
£cole Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. It was
founded by the late fCmile BOUTMY, who was its first
Director. It is now in its forty-fifth year, and is under
the direction of M. EICHTHAL of the Institute. It offers a
great variety of courses in the administrative sciences,
public finance, political and social economy, international,
public and private law and diplomacy, and diplomatic
history. Students and auditors are admitted to1 the
lectures without examination, and there is no age require-
ment for attendance. The course normally runs through
three years, and a diploma is granted upon the comple-
tion of the course. The corps of instruction is composed
of a large number of distinguished scholars of Paris,
including many of the professors of the University of
Paris, members of the Council of State, members of
Parliament, government officials, etc. The school issues
POLITICAL SCIENCE 301
a valuable bi-monthly publication, the "Revue des
Sciences Politiques," which contains articles mainly by
members of the faculty. It possesses a library of
about 25,000 volumes and receives some 160 French and
foreign reviews and periodicals. The school is very popu-
lar and is attended by a large number of students, in-
cluding Americans and other foreigners preparing for
the diplomatic service.
PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY-
There is a French Psychology as there is an English
and a German Psychology. It does not have the distinct-
ly introspective nor the experimental-psycho-physical
character that are predominant features of the English
and the German psychology. Positivism gave rise to
TAINE (1828-1893), whose struggle against the spiritual-
istic interpretation of psychologic phenomena prepared
the way in France for our present-day ideas regarding
the relation of genius to insanity and of double person-
ality and allied phenomena to the hysterical constitution.
Investigation of these relations was greatly advanced
by the work of CHARCOT (1825-1895), in his clinic for
nervous and mental diseases at the Salpetriere (1880),
which stimulated the scientific imagination of French
students of psychology, and so opened the way for a
series of brilliant researches, within recent years, into the
nature of certain abnormal mental phenomena. These
studies appear to be of fundamental importance. Under
controlled conditions they penetrate beyond the data of
introspection, and they have already developed our
concept of the Unconscious as a residuum of experiences,
intelligent in the sense of being adaptable, and hence
as supplying the motives of behavior, whether normal
or abnormal.
The French psychologists, too, have developed the
social aspects of their science. The disciples of Comte
had been busy at finding the place of social science in a
1 [Drafting Committee: J. R. ANGELL, University of Chicago;
R. H. GAULT, Northwestern University. — ED.]
305
3o6 PSYCHOLOGY
hierarchy of sciences. Those of spencer had been
occupied with tracing supposed analogies between biol-
ogical organisms and society, which was assumed to be
an organism also. Gabriel TARDE (1843-1904), however,
who was professor of Modern Philosophy at the College
de France from 1900 until his death, was the genius who
directed the current of thought away from these purely
academic ways, and drew attention to the analysis and
description of the nature and combinations of certain
distinct social phenomena. First were his studies of
imitation as a social fact, which appeared in the "Revue
philosophique" between 1882 and 1884, and eventually
were brought together in a volume, "Les Lois de 1'imita-
tion," in 1890; this work went into its second edition in
1895. It marks an epoch in the history of psychology,
for it opened the eyes of students to the possibility of
successful application of psychological method to the
study of the behavior of groups. "La Philosophic
penale" appeared in 1891; and later, among the products
of Tarde's work in the College de France, came his
"Etudes penales et sociales" and "Psychologic econo-
mique."
In the field of general psychology, French investigators
stand out less prominently, but here also progress has
been made, and the work of Th. RIBOT (1839-1903) is a
distinguished record. He became professor of Experi-
mental Psychology in the College de France in 1885.
In 1888 he set forth a "motor theory" of attention, which
was later more fully developed by the American James
Mark BALDWIN in "Mental Development in the Child
and the Race: Methods and Processes," (1906), and by
Ribot himself in "La Psychologic des Sentiments,"
(1897), in which the author transformed the feelings
into phenomena of the central nervous system accom-
panying bodily processes. Among other works by
ALFRED BINET (1857-1911)
PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY 307
Ribot which have set the course for present day investi-
gations in France are the following: "L'Heredite psycho-
logique" (i 88 2) ;"Les Maladies de la volonte" (1883; i4th
ed., 1899); "Les Maladies de la personnalite" (1885; 8th
ed., 1899); "La Psychologic de Inattention" (1889).
France is the source of a movement which, in American
departments of Psychology, is occupying more attention
than any other single object: the invention and applica-
tion of psychological tests. Alfred BINET (1857-1911),
in collaboration with Thomas SIMON (1873-), originated
the Binet Tests. Binet established the first psycho-
logical laboratory in France at the Sorbonne in 1889, and
in 1895 he began the publication of "L'Annee psycho-
logique," in which his most important works appear.
Taking the Psychological Review Indices for 1913 and
1914, about one-sixth of all the world's titles on Abnormal
Psychology are in the French language by French authors.
This will suggest the activity of contemporary work in
psychology in France.
Instruction. Paris. All of the sixteen universities in
France offer inducements to graduate students in psych-
ology.
Naturally the University of Paris presents the widest
range of opportunities, both directly through the uni-
versity itself and indirectly through numerous auxiliary
institutions in the neighborhood. Among these, one must
mention first of all, from the point of view of the student
of psychology, the College de France. Indeed one would
hardly go to Paris for research in psychology without
taking advantage of this institution of learning.
At the University of Paris are DELBOS (Philosophy and
Psychology), Georges DUMAS (Experimental Psychology),
LAIGNEL-LAVASTINE (whose studies of Aphasia and of
Dementia in syphilitic cases are well known), and
3o8 PSYCHOLOGY
Revault D'ALLONES (whose name is known to students
of general Psychology for his work on " Attention" and
"Les troubles de 1'intelligence"). At the clinic for mental
diseases at the Salpetriere are J. VOISIN, J. SEGLAS, whose
investigations relate chiefly to Hallucinations, and
P. CHASLIN.
At the College de France is Pierre JANET (Experimental
Psychology), a giant among scientists, who of contem-
porary French psychologists is by far the best known to
American students. He first demonstrated subconscious
perception of sensory stimulations applied to anaesthetic
tactile and visual areas; and, more fully than any other
investigator, he has analyzed the various forms of amnesia.
In his " L ' Automatisme psychologique " (1889) and
various recent publications in the "Journal de Psych-
ologic normale et pathologique " and other periodicals,
he has, on experimental grounds, developed the theory
of hysteria in its numerous manifestations, such as
double personality, automatic writing, phobias, etc., as
phenomena of dissociated processes independent of per-
sonal consciousness. These processes he conceives as
expressions of residua of early experiences; systematized
or organized residua which do not directly affect con-
sciousness, but which are, nevertheless, intelligent, in
the sense that, in the conditions of experiment, they lead
to suitable adaptations of behavior. It is thus that the
scientific imagination of Janet and his collaborators
carries us into an experimental psychology that reaches
back of the data of the introspection of normal conscious-
ness.
At the Sorbonne, also, are laboratories of Physiological
Psychology, PHILIPPE, Director; of Physiology of Sensa-
tion, Ch. HENRY, Director; Experimental Psychology,
at the Asylum of Villejuif, Edouard TOULOUSE, Director;
of Pathological Psychology, MARIE, Director. There is
PIERRE JANET (1859-)
PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY 3°9
also the Laboratory of Anthropology under the direction
of MANOUVRIER and PAPILLAULT.
The institutions for research in the city of Paris offer
almost unlimited opportunity to the student who is
interested in physiological psychology and mental path-
ology. Moreover, the French universities, almost with-
out exception, and especially the University of Paris
and the College de France, are rich in opportunities for
the student whose interest is in the social aspects of
Psychology, particularly in as far as this subject leads
into the study of Ethnography, Anthropology, and
Antiquities. Almost every university has its museum or
society devoted to one or all of these subjects.
Other Universities. While the great contributions to
Psychology by French scholars have been made in the
fields mentioned above, it is not to be inferred that in
other regions they are inactive. Noteworthy work has
recently been done by R. BOURDON at Rennes, for ex-
ample, in the perception of movements. Studies of atten-
tion have been made in the laboratory at Montpellier
in which the subjects were young children, and in the
same university FOUCAULT has lately contributed to
certain aspects of the psychology of learning.
On the whole it can be said that, in the provincial
universities outside of Paris, where the great hospitals
are lacking, the problems recently under investigation
are those of the older laboratory type which, to distin-
guish them from questions of abnormal and social psy-
chology, may be termed psycho-physical.
RELIGION
RELIGION
The chief contribution of France to the modern study
of religion is in the field of the history of religions, where
Paris alone now offers an organized body of instruc-
tion and where the work of French scholars has always
been preeminent. For example, the scientific study of
the Avesta was first seriously attempted by Eugene
BURNOUT (1801-1852), who laid the foundations of
our present knowledge of Zoroastrianism ("Zendavesta,"
Paris, 1829-1843; "Commentaire sur le Yacna," Paris,
1833), following up the explorations of that forerunner
of modern scholarship, ANQUETIL DUPERRON. BURNOUF
also did pioneering work of the first importance in the
study of Indian Buddhism ("Introduction a 1'histoire
du Buddhisme Indien," Paris, 1844; "Lotus de la bonne
loi," Paris, 1852), and developed the study of Hin-
duism ("Bhagavata Purana," vols. 1-3, Paris, 1840-
1849).
The succession has been notably carried on by Abel
BERGAIGNE, (1838-1888), whose revolutionary study of
the Veda destroyed completely the earlier view of the
extreme simplicity and antiquity of both literature and
religion ("La religion vedique d'apres les hymnes du
Rig-Veda," 3 vols., Paris, 1878-1883); and by James
DARMESTETER, with his studies and translation of the
Avesta. The entire field of Indian religion has been cov-
ered by the erudition of Auguste EARTH ("Quarante ans
d'Indianisme," 4 vols., Paris, 1914).
1 [Drafting Committee: G. B. FOSTER, University of Chicago;
N. B. NASH, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge. — ED.]
313
3i4 RELIGION
As with all other branches of Egyptology, the study of
Egyptian religion owes much to the great name of Gaston
MASPERO (1846-1916), whose scattered essays have been
collected under the title: "fitudes de mythologie et
d'archeologie egyptiennes" (6 vols., Paris, 1893-), and
constitute the most important single contribution to
the subject.
Of far different character from all these scholars, but
of very great significance for the study of religion, is the
genius of Ernest RENAN (1823-1892). His "Histoire
du peuple dTsrael" (5 vols., Paris, 1887-1894), and
his far more important "Histoire des origines du Christ-
ianisme" (7 vols., Paris, 1863-1882), represent, as does the
work of no other man, the reaction of the modern Occi-
dental mind upon its inherited religion, and their contem-
porary significance may have somewhat overshadowed
their undeniably great historical value. The "Vie de
Jesus" (1863; subsequently printed as vol. i of the "His-
toire des origines"), though marred, from the standpoint
of present-day taste, by excessive sentimentality, and
from that of contemporary scholarship by excessive reliance
on the Fourth Gospel, remains a classic.
The study of religion acquired academic standing in
France in 1880, when Albert REVILLE (1826-1906)
was appointed to the new chair of the history of religions
at the College de France. This recognition, together
with the foundation in the same year of the "Revue de
1'histoire des religions," still the chief periodical in its
field and one of the very best in any field, gave great
stimulus to the historical study of religion. Reville him-
self contributed much to this study ("Histoire des reli-
gions," 3 vols., Paris, 1883-1886; Hibbert Lectures, 1884;'
" Prolegomenes de 1'histoire des religions," Paris, 1880,
4th ed., 1886; tr. London, 1884; "Jesus de Nazareth,"
2 vols., Paris, 1897).
RELIGION 315
The instruction offered by a single chair at the College
de France was amplified in 1886 by the foundation of the
Section des Sciences Religieuses at the Ecole Pratique des
Hautes Etudes. Here has been built up undeniably the
leading school in the world for the historical study of reli-
gion.
But before recounting the opportunity for study there,
mention must be made of the work of Emile DURKHEIM,
professor of the science of education and sociology,
Faculty of Letters, University of Paris. He is the
leader of the so-called "sociological school," the most
notable recent development in the study of primitive
religions. In reaction from the excessive reliance upon
the more or less hypothetical psychology of primitive
man which marked previous study, Durkheim and his
followers emphasize the influence of social environment,
and find in totemism the primitive form of religion
(Durkheim, "Les formes elementaires de la vie reli-
gieuse," Paris, 1912, tr. New York, 1915). Hubert and
Mauss, "Melanges d'histoire des religions," Paris, 1909, is
a collection of studies reprinted from "L'Annee sociologi-
que" (Paris, 1896-), which represents this school both
through its exhaustive review of current literature and
through important articles by Durkheim and others. Out-
side the "sociological school," excellent work has also been
done by French scholars in the field of "primitive" reli-
gions.
Instruction at Paris. (I) Ecole Pratique des Hautes
Etudes: Section des Sciences Religieuses. The work done
here is admirably illustrated by the seventeen essays
published under the title of "fitudes de critique et
d'histoire" by the Section des Sciences Religieuses in
1896. The subjects of these essays range from Mela-
nesian taboo to the Christology of Paul of Samosata.
316 RELIGION
At the present time twenty directors of studies give
instruction in sixteen departments, of each of which but
brief mention can be made. The department, director
or directors, courses in 1914-1915, and important pub-
lications are given in order.
Religions of uncivilized peoples, Marcel MAUSS.
Primitive religions of Europe, Henri HUBERT: Irish
mythology; The sculptured monuments of the religion
of the Gauls. (Mauss and Hubert, both vigorous ad-
herents of the sociological school, have collaborated in
other publications beside the one already mentioned;
see "Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice,"
"L'Annee sociologique," vol. II, 1899, pp. 29-138).
Religions of pre-Columbian America, Georges RAY-
NAUD: Civil and religious history of pre-Columbian
Central America, Hieratic writings and hieroglyphics
of the same.
Religions of the Far East, Marcel GRANET: Feasts of
ancient China ("Revue de 1'histoire des religions,"
LXIX, 1914, No. 2, "Programme d'etudes sur 1'ancienne
religion chinoise.")
Religions of India, — (i) Sylvain LEVI ("La science des
religions et les religions d'lnde," Paris, 1892; Asanga:
Mahayana-sutralamkara, "Expose de la doctrine du
grand vehicule selon le systeme Yogacara," 2 vols.,
Paris, 1907-1911). (2) Alfred FOUCHER: The Chan-
dogya-Upanishad, Buddhist texts.
Assyro-Baby Ionian religion, Charles FOSSEY: Some
Babylonian and Biblical myths ("La magie assyrienne,"
Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'assyriologie," vol. I, Paris, 1904).
Religions of Egypt, Emile AMELINEAU: Ancient texts
relative to the religion and morals of Egypt, Book of the
Dead, ch. CXLVI ("Essai sur revolution historique et
philosophique des idees morales dans 1'figypte ancienne,"
Paris, 1895; " Prolegomenes a 1'etude de la religion
ERNEST RENAN (1823-1892)
RELIGION
RELIGION 317
egyptienne," vol. I, Paris, 1908, vol. II in press; Ame-
lineau has also made notable contributions to the study
of Christianity in Egypt: see "Essai sur le gnosticisme
egyptien," Paris, 1887; "Litterature chretienne de
1'Egypte grecque et copte.")
Religions of Greece and Rome, — (i) Jules TOUTAIN,
secretary of the Section: Cults of the mountains and
high places in Greece; Religion and cults in the pro-
vince of Egypt during the Roman period ("Les cultes
pai'ens dans 1'empire remain," vols. I-II, Paris, 1907-
1911; in "fitudes de mythologie et d'histoire des religions
antiques," Paris, 1909, Toutain appears as a lively
critic of the sociological school in their devotion to to-
temism). (2) A. BERTHELOT.
Religions of Israel and the western Semites, Maurice
VERNES, president of the section, and professor in the
College Libre des sciences sociales: Ancient organization
of the clergy and cultus in Israel; Ecclesiastes ("L'his-
toire des religions, son esprit, sa methode . . ."
Paris, 1887; "Histoire sociale des religions," vol. I,
Paris, 1911).
Talmudic and Rabbinic Judaism, Israel LEVI: Rabbinic
commentaries on the Psalms; The religious poems of
Juda Halevi (See "Revue des etudes juives, " Paris, 1880-,
passim; LEVI has been its editor since its beginning).
Islam and religions of Arabia, Clement HUART: The
commentary of Tabari on ch. IV of the Koran; Persian
mysticism according to the Mesnevi of Jelal-ed-Din
Rumi ("Le livre de la creation et de 1'histoire," text
and translation, 5 vols., Paris, 1899-1916; " Histoire
des Arabes," 2 vols., Paris, 1912-1913).
Byzantine Christianity, Gabriel MILLET: Byzantine
archaeology and religious history (Millet has edited a
description of "La collection chretienne et byzantine des
Hautes Etudes," Paris, 1903).
3i8 RELIGION
Christian literature and church history, — (i) Eugene
de FAYE: Moral and religious ideas and doctrines in the
3rd century A.D.; Apocryphal acts of Thomas and
others ("Clement d'Alexandrie," 2d ed., Paris, 1906;
"Etudes sur les origines des eglises de Tage apostolique,"
Paris, 1909). (2) Paul MONCEAUX: Documents con-
cerning the soldier-martyrs of the end of the 3rd century;
Christian epigraphy of southern Gaul ("Histoire lit-
teraire de 1'Afrique chretienne," 4 vols., Paris, 1901-1912).
History of doctrines and dogmas, — (i) Francois
PICA VET: The persistence of mediaeval philosophic and
theological doctrines in the philosophers and theologians
of the iyth and i8th centuries; The doctrines and dog-
mas of Christianity in the councils of the first six cen-
turies ("Esquisse d'une histoire generale et comparee
des philosophes medievales," 2d ed., Paris, 1907;
"Essais sur 1'histoire generale et comparee des theologies
et philosophies medievales," Paris, 1913). (2) ALPHAN-
DERY.
History of Canon Law, R. GENESTAL: Letters of Ivo
of Chartres; Relations and conflicts between the eccles-
tical and the secular jurisdiction ("Revue de 1'histoire
des religions," LXIX, 1914, No. i, "L'enseignement
du droit canonique").
History of the Catholic Church since the council of
Trent, L. LACROIX: History of the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy.
Thus, in the Section Religieuse of the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes alone there is such an opportunity for the
study of religions as can be found in no other city. But
this splendid faculty is supplemented by several other
institutions in Paris.
(II) Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes: Section des
Sciences Historiques et Philologiques. Egyptian antiqui-
ties and philology, Alexandre MORET ("Du caractere
RELIGION 319
religieux de la royaute pharaonique," Paris, 1902; "Le
rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte," Paris, 1902).
Ancient history of the Orient, Isidore LEVY, History of
Israel. Semitic languages, Mayer LAMBERT, the Book
of Isaiah (" Commentaire sur le Sefer yesira ou livre de la
creation," Paris, 1891). Byzantine and modern Greek,
Jean PSICHARI: St. Mark's gospel.
(III). University of Paris, Faculty of Letters. Antonin
DEBIDOUR, professor of Christianity in Modern Times:
Religious history of Europe since 1878 ("Histoire des
rapports de 1'eglise et de 1'etat en France de 1789 a 1870,"
Paris, 1898; "L'eglise catholique et 1'etat sous la troisieme
republique," 2 vols., Paris, 1906-1909). History of
Christianity in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Charles
GUIGNEBERT, charge de cours: Christian life in the 4th
century; Problems in the Apostolic Age ("Tertullien,"
Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'histoire ancienne du Christian-
isme: les origines," Paris, 1906; "Le probleme de
Jesus," Paris, 1914). History of the religion of the
Hebrews, Adolphe LODS, charge de cours: The begin-
nings of Hebrew literature; The prophets of Israel and
their times (" Le livre d'Henoch, fragments grecs . .,"
Paris, 1892; "La croyance a la vie future et le culte des
morts dans 1'antiquite Israelite," Paris, 1906). History
of Christian ideas and Literature of the i6th-i9th
Centuries, Louis REBELLIAU, charge de cours: Jansenism
in France ("Bossuet, historien du protestantisme,"
Paris, 1892; "Bossuet," in "Les grands ecrivains
franc. ais," Paris, 1900).
(IV). College de France. Paul FOUCART, professor of
Greek epigraphy and antiquities, ("Des associations
religieuses chez les grecs," Paris, 1873; three books on the
Eleusinian mysteries, Paris, 1895, 1900, 1914). Alfred
LOISY, professor of the history of religions: The epistle
to the Galatians, The history of sacrifice; the Abbe LOISY
320 RELIGION
won fame by his reply to Harnack's "Das Wesen des
Christentums" ("L'evangile et 1'eglise," 3d ed., Paris,
1904); equally important are his study of the Fourth
Gospel ("Le quatrieme evangile," Paris, 1903) and his
two volumes on the Synoptic gospels ("Les evangiles
synoptiques," Paris, 1907-1908); his five essays published
under the title, "A propos d'histoire des religions"
(Paris, 1911), represent his complete acceptance of the
comparative method in the study of religion.
Libraries. Beside the many general libraries in Paris,
a few special collections should be mentioned: (i)
Library of the Societe de 1'histoire du Protestantisme
fran^ais, about 60,000 vols. and mss. ; (2) Library of the
Faculte Libre de Theologie Protestante, about 36,000
vols. on all branches of the study of Christianity; (3)
Library of the Alliance Israelite, about 25,000 vols. on
Judaism; (4) Library of the ficole normale Israelite,
about 30,000 vols. on Jewish history and literature;
(5) Library of the ficole Rabbinique Centrale, about
15,000 vols.
Unique and extremely useful to the student is the
Musee Guimet, with its 32,000 vols. and its large col-
lection of religious objects of all kinds, photographs, etc.,
dealing principally with the religions of the Far East,
but including collections for many other religions.
SOCIOLOGY
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY
The French have made many important contributions
to the development of sociology as a science. The term
itself was invented by Auguste COMTE, who may be re-
garded as the founder of systematic sociology. While a
young man of about twenty, Comte became associated
with SAINT-SIMON, who exercised a decisive influence on
the direction which his speculation in the field of social
philosophy took. He was in no sense a follower of
Saint-Simon; but (to use his own word) Saint-Simon
"launched" him by suggesting the two starting-points
of what was later developed into the Comtist system —
first, that political phenomena are as capable of being
grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second,
that the true destination of philosophy must be social,
and the true object of the thinker must be the reorgan-
ization of the moral, religious, and political systems.
Although he later broke with Saint-Simon on account of
the latter's sentimental schemes of social reconstruction,
Comte was nevertheless indebted to him for these ideas,
and others of less importance, which he developed into
a philosophical structure, that has had a profound in-
fluence on all subsequent sociological thinking.
Prior to Comte, sociological studies everywhere had
been largely fragmentary and polemical. He undertook
to discover a principle of unity in society that would
mean for sociology what the law of gravitation meant for
1 [Drafting Committee: T. N. CARVER, Harvard University;
F. S. DEIBLER, Northwestern University; F. H. GIDDINGS, Columbia
University; E. A. Ross, University of Wisconsin. — ED.]
323
324 SOCIOLOGY
physics. He was obliged, however, to abandon his quest
for such a principle, and was led to emphasize in the
development of his social philosophy three stages, — the
theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, or scien-
tific. These three stages had been suggested both by
Turgot and Saint-Simon, but with Comte they became
fundamental. In reality Comte was a system-builder,
and it has been said of him that "so well did he do his
task that social philosophy since his day has done little
more than to fill in his outline and correct and supple-
ment his methods."
Following Comte, the contributions of French writers
to the development of sociological thought were meager
until after the war of 1870. However, in this interval,
COURNOT, in his "Essai sur le fondement de nos connais-
ances" and in his second volume, " Enchainement des
idees fondamentales," did undertake to build on the
physical and biological sciences a new positive science
that should treat of social questions. By 1870, Herbert
SPENCER had shown the application of the principle of
evolution to the development of social institutions, and
had particularly emphasized the resemblances between
social and biological organisms. Starting with this
concept, ESPINAS, in his work, "Les Societes animales"
(Paris, 1877), endeavored to illustrate and prove this
thesis. During the next thirty years, the French scien-
tists originated and developed some of the most widely
accepted sociological concepts and principles. The result
has been that French scholarship has exercised a dominat-
ing influence in stimulating sociological investigation the
world over. Some American scholars have expressed
their gratitude by saying that they have profited more
from the French sociologists than from all others combined.
Without attempting to make an inclusive list, the
following may be cited as persons who have made distinct
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-)
SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY 325
contributions to the development of the subject. Among
those who look upon classification as the principal means
of understanding social structure and social processes,
appear the names of LITTRE,DE RoBERTY,and LA COMBE.
FOUILLEE is representative of those who hold to the
analogy between social and biological organisms. Closely
akin to this group is LE BON, who has interpreted society
in terms of a quasi-psychological organism. Gabriel
TARDE, in his "Laws of Imitation," represents those
who have endeavored to explain social progress in terms
of a single principle. The name of Vacher DE LA POUGE
would appear among those who endeavor to explain
social progress through struggle and survival. Finally,
the name of LE PLAY, who founded the "Societe inter-
national des etudes pratiques d'economie sociale,"
stands high among those who follow the inductive method
in studying social facts and forces.
In addition to the above list, there are those who have
made distinct contributions to some specific field of
sociological research, or to the method of studying the
subject. QUETELET should be mentioned in this con-
nection for his efforts to adapt statistical methods to the
analysis and evaluation of social forces. Notable also
has been the work of LETOURNEAU on the evolution of
the family, of laws, of property, etc. ; of DUMONT on the
effect of depopulation and caste on the objective of
sociology; of DURKHEIM, on primitive forms of religious
life, on suicide, prohibition of incest, etc.; of HUBERT
and MAUSS, on sacrifice and magic; of BOUGLE, on the
regime of castes; of SIMIAND on the wages of mine work-
ers; and of many others.
Periodicals and Societies. Besides direct contribu-
tions to the subject, as indicated above, the French have
taken an active part in founding journals and societies
326 SOCIOLOGY
devoted to the advancement of sociological study and
research.
The most important of the journals are: "La Reforme
Sociale," founded by LE PLAY in 1881; "La Science
Sociale, suivant la methode de LE PLAY," edited since
1886 by Ed. DEMOULINS; "Annales de 1'Institut Inter-
national de Sociologie," edited since 1894 under the
direction of Rene WORMS; "Revue internationale de
Sociologie," published since 1896; "L'Annee Socio-
logique," edited since 1899 by E. DURKHEIM.
Among the learned societies in this field, there should
be mentioned the "Societe d 'Economic Sociale," "the
Societe de Statistique de Paris," and the "Societe
d 'Economic Politique ' ' located at Paris. Anthropological
societies are located at Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, and
Montpellier.
Instruction in the Universities. The chief center in
France for the study of sociology is at Paris. In the
Law School of the University of Paris, courses are offered
by GIDE, on comparative social economy; by GARCON,
on criminal law and comparative penal legislation; by
BEAUREGARD, RIST, PERREAU, and TRAUCHY, on po-
litical economy. Under the Faculty of Letters, courses
are offered by BOUGLE on socialism and social and
political economy, by DURKHEIM on education and
sociology. In the College of France, courses are offered
by FUSTER, on the struggle against tuberculosis and hous-
ing reforms, and on social insurance; by IZOULET, on social
philosophy; by LE CHATELIER, on sociology of the
Mussulmans; and by RENARD, on the history of labor.
Outside of Paris, to mention some of those who appear
in the faculty lists of the various Colleges and Univer-
sities as devoting their entire time to the subject of
sociology: at the University of Bordeaux, Gaston
SOCIOLOGY 327
RICHARD offers courses in the field of social science, as
does also Gabriel MELIN at the University of Nancy.
Courses in the kindred subjects of political economy,
history of economic thought, criminal law, and industrial
legislation are given at the Universities of Aix-Marseille,
Bordeaux, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Mont-
pellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.
ZOOLOGY
ZOOLOGY-
It is universally recognized that the French have taken
a prominent part in the development of biological science.
In the nineteenth century, CUVIER laid the foundations
of comparative anatomy and Claude BERNARD gave an
immense impetus to experimental physiology, while
LAMARCK, DUJARDIN, and PASTEUR were pioneers and
innovators in three of the greatest biological achievements
of the century. These three outstanding events that so
profoundly influenced the course of biological thought
are: the announcement of the theory of organic evolution,
the discovery of protoplasm, and the establishment of
the germ-theory of disease in connection with the science
of bacteriology. We may first briefly consider the part
played by Frenchmen in launching these three great
movements, and then take up matters that are more
strictly zoological. Inasmuch as Botany receives con-
sideration in a separate chapter, that which follows in
this chapter will apply to Zoology and its various sub-
divisions, and, also, to some of those movements which
in their broad applications affect the entire field of
biological science.
( i ) Organic Evolution. The doctrine of organic evolution
has produced the greatest intellectual ferment of the past
century. It has entered into the framework of all scien-
tific thinking, and has been characterized as "one of the
1 [Drafting Committee: G. N. CALKINS, Columbia University;
F. R. LILLIE, University of Chicago; W. A. LOCY, Northwestern
University. — ED.]
331
332 ZOOLOGY
greatest acquisitions of human knowledge." In the
establishment of this generalization a French zoologist,
LAMARCK, was the leader. Although the evolutionary
point of view had been vaguely suggested at different
times, Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first to announce
a comprehensive theory of organic evolution that has
maintained to the present time a creditable standing in
the intellectual world. His immediate predecessors,
BUFFON, GOETHE, and Erasmus DARWIN, dealt with the
same great theme, but much less rigorously than Lamarck,
whose theory was so much more thoroughly thought out
that it completely superseded all earlier attempts and
marks the beginning of evolutionary thought in its
modern sense. It was first announced by Lamarck in
1800 and was somewhat elaborated in 1802, 1803, and
1806. Finally, it was fully expounded in his "Philosophic
Zoologique," in 1809, and that year marks the first dis-
tinct epoch in the rise of evolutionary thought.
This is not the place to enter into consideration of
the principles laid down by Lamarck; but it is a signifi-
cant circumstance that, a century after being promul-
gated, his principle of use-inheritance should have been
revived, and, under the title of " Neo-Lamarckism,"
should occupy such a prominent place in the discussions
regarding the factors of organic evolution that are being
carried on at the present time. This shows better than
anything else the position commanded by this French
zoologist in the natural science of the nineteenth century.
After a long lapse of time the field of organic evolution
is now represented in Paris by a professorship of organic
evolution under the charge of Maurice CAULLERY.
(2) Protoplasm. The consequences that followed from
the discovery of protoplasm, and the recognition of its
true nature, form another notable scientific advance of
JEAN-BAPTISTE L.\MARCK (1744-1829)
ZOOLOGY
ZOOLOGY 333
the century. Although this substance had been casually
observed at intervals from 1755 onwards, its true nature
was entirely unrecognized. The turning point came
when Felix DUJARDIN (1801-1860) experimented with
it and distinguished between it and other forms of matter,
such as mucus, gum, gelatine, albumen, etc., with which
it had superficial resemblance. He designated it "sar-
code," recognized it as the physical substratum of life,
and in 1835 announced it as a living jelly endowed with
all the properties of life. This idea received elaboration
from various sources, and, finally, culminated in the
demonstration by Max SCHULTZE (1861) of the essential
identity of all living substance in plants and animals and
now designated protoplasm. This, in combination with
the cell theory of SCHWANN, led to the foundation of
biology in its modern sense, and Dujardin ranks as the
scientific discoverer of protoplasm.
(3) Germ Theory of Disease. The brilliant work of
PASTEUR (1822-1895) belongs to all biology. Starting
his scientific career as a chemist, he branched into bio-
logical fields, and through his later work came to be
recognized as one of the foremost men of biological
history. His supreme service was in applying the re-
sult of biological investigation to the benefit of man-
kind. In laying the foundation of micro-parasitology
(about 1875), ne opened a subject that overlaps the
different conventional divisions of biology, and his foun-
dations have been built upon by botanists, zoologists,
and physicians. His investigation gave an immense
impulse to the study of pathogenic organisms; and while
his researches supplied the foundations of scientific
medicine, at the same time they opened investigations
in the life-history of micro-organisms that have been so
extensively developed by zoologists.
334 ZOOLOGY
His studies on the spontaneous generation of life, his
observations on the nature of fermentation, on the
micro-organisms causing silkworm diseases, and on the
floating matter of the air, found applications in physiology
and surgery as well as in other departments of biological
investigation. These studies also formed the basis from
which, by a series of ascending steps, he rose to the study
of toxins and antitoxins and to the formation of various
serums and vaccines. The establishment of the first
Pasteur Institute in Paris, in 1888, served to unify his
work and to house the different kinds of biological inves-
tigation he had set under way.
The temper of the French people is shown in the
popular vote taken in 1907, that placed Pasteur at the
head of all their notable men. This is significant of the
cordiality extended by the French mind to scientific
investigation and to intellectual achievements.
The three scientific achievements spoken of above were
of general application to all biological science. We may
now turn attention more specifically to the zoological
side; and, in doing so, it tends to clearness to recognize
that some of the subjects of the medical curriculum are
zoological in nature. Such subjects as anatomy, histol-
ogy, embryology, and physiology, while they have their
practical utility for medical men, are divisions of the
zoological territory. Likewise, palaeontology, which has
been so cultivated by French investigators, belongs to
the morphological side of zoology.
(4) Comparative Anatomy. The morphological and
physiological aspects of animals constitute the foundation
of the zoologist's training. In the early years of the
nineteenth century, the influence of CUVIER (1769-1832)
was dominant in zoology. This French zoologist and
legislator showed great zeal for the study of animal
ZOOLOGY 335
structure; he founded comparative anatomy and verte-
brate palaeontology. The influence of LINN^US had
been to arouse an interest in natural history and in the
systematic arrangement of animals; but CUVIER directed
attention to more essential features, such as the struct-
ure, or organization, of animals, and he turned the current
of zoological progress into better and more promising
channels. In his investigations, he covered the whole
field of animal organization, from the lowest to the high-
est; and, combining his results with what had been
accomplished by earlier workers, he established com-
parative anatomy on broad lines ("Lecons d'anatomie
comparee," 1801-05) as an independent branch of natural
science. In the meantime he had also engaged in the
study of fossil vertebrates, and the publication of his
"Recherches sur les ossements fossiles" (1812) founded
the science of vertebrate palaeontology.
LAMARCK, his distinguished contemporary, observed
the fossil remains of invertebrate animals and, in the
early years of the nineteenth century, founded inverte-
brate palaeontology. It thus appears that the beginnings
of comparative anatomy of living animals and the com-
parative study of fossil remains rest on French founda-
tions.
Simultaneously with the earlier work of Cuvier, the
talented BICHAT (1771-1801) essayed a deeper analysis
of animal structure. He directed attention especially to the
tissues of animals, and thereby prepared the ground for
the rise of histology.
In the domain of comparative anatomy, the work of
CUVIER was developed in France by Henri MILNE-
EDWARDS (1800-1885) and by LACAZE-DUTHIERS (1821-
1901). Milne-Edwards' "Lecons sur la physiologic et
1'anatomie comparee," in fourteen volumes, 1857-1881,
is a mine of information for the comparative anatomist
336 ZOOLOGY
and the physiologist. Lacaze-Duthiers, by numerous
researches, by his stimulating influence on students, and
by his editorship of the "Archives de Zoologie experimen-
tale et generate" did much to further the progress of
comparative anatomy.
(5) General Physiology. On the physiological side
there has been no investigator that has surpassed Claude
BERNARD (1813-1878) either in the profundity of his
researches or in his influence on the progress of physiology.
Building upon the work of HARVEY, of HALLER, and of
Johannes MUELLER, he broadened physiology and gave
to it a distinctly modern aspect. His "Introduction a
1'etude de la medecine experimentale " (1865) establishes
his rank as the foremost expounder of experimental
physiology. Among his notable researches is the dis-
covery of the glycogonic function, or sugar formation
of the liver, one of the first and most complete studies
of internal secretions. He also discovered the existence
of vaso-motor nerves and experimentally observed their
influence in regulating the blood supply to different parts
of the body. The first comprehensive treatment of
general physiology was contained in his now classic
"Lemons sur les phenomenes de la vie communs aux
animaux et aux vegetaux." He gave a tremendous
impulse to physiology, and takes rank with the foremost
men of all time who have worked in this field.
Lamarck, Claude Bernard, and Pasteur, who may be
said to have opened in biology the broad fields of evolu-
tion, physiology, and preventive medicine, represent a
triumvirate of strength and ability worthy to stand with
the limited number of scientific men who have produced
results of the highest value to the intellectual world.
On these broad foundations, which were added to by
the productive minds of other nations, the French
developed a line of university studies that make a strong
ZOOLOGY 337
appeal to the student of zoology, and we may now give
attention to the opportunities that are open to advanced
students of this science in their universities.
Opportunities at the French Universities. — The
French universities are admirably equipped in personnel
and material for training biologists for university posi-
tions. The incidental advantages are to be placed co-
ordinate with the scientific. To miss the experience of
university studies in Paris is to lose "one of the greatest
opportunities of the intellectual life." To a penetrating
quality of mind the French university professors generally
add finish and refinement in the presentation of the
background and of the achievement of scientific investi-
gation. The method of lecturing in France is character-
ized by thoroughness, lucidity, finish, and philosophical
grasp; and contact with these excellent models is invalu-
able in molding the standard of production as well as
of literary form and the art of expression. Nicholas
Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, in
writing of his impressions as a student in Paris, makes
this pertinent observation: "For the first time the Latin
spirit came to have definite meaning and reality. It
was so different from the Anglo-Saxon spirit as revealed
in America and so different from the Teutonic spirit as
revealed in Berlin. Somehow it seemed subtler and more
refined, more delicate and more highly civilized than
either."
While the opportunities at Paris are alluring, it is un-
doubtedly a better plan to begin one's student life in
France at one of the provincial universities. One is less
diverted, and comes more thoroughly into touch with
French life; and there is no lack of men of distinction in the
various universities outside of Paris. The zoological
student might do well to start at Montpellier (DUBOSCQ),
338 ZOOLOGY
a relatively small city, where opportunities for zoological
instruction are excellent. Bordeaux, Grenoble (LEGER),
Lyon (TESTUT), and Toulouse (LECAILLON) also offer
especial attractions. The French universities, although
not all organized on the same scale of size, are on a parity
as regards standards. Some of the universities command
a foremost place on account of the presence of men of
unusual distinction on their faculties. The student of
zoology should select his university according to the pro-
fessors and the facilities for study in the particular phase
of zoology in which he is most interested. In general,
opportunities will be wider in those universities having
a medical as well as a scientific faculty.
Zoology. To enumerate a complete list of zoological
courses would be tedious and needless; they are set forth
in the various annual catalogues published under the
name of "Livret de PEtudiant." The following is
merely an abbreviated list of courses that serves to indi-
cate the range of subjects:
At the Sorbonne, the distinguished professor Yves
DELAGE (author of "L'Heredite et les grands problemes
de la biologic generale," etc.) supervises work in zoology,
comparative anatomy, and physiology. These zoological
courses are supplemented by PRUVOT, HOUSSAY,
PERRIER, PEREZ, and others. The complementary work
in general physiology is directed by DASTRE (textbook)
and general biology is conducted by LE DANTEC.
Maurice CAULLERY (exchange professor in 1915-16 at
Harvard University) offers courses in embryology and the
evolution of organized beings, and also directs a marine
station at Wimereux (Pas-de-Calais). Other seaside sta-
tions connected with the University of Paris are at Roscoff
(DELAGE, Director) and at Banyuls (PRUVOT, Director).
The Medical Faculty of Paris offers courses in physi-
ology by RICHET (" Dictionnaire de Physiologic") and
ZOOLOGY 339
LANGLOIS; in anatomy under NICOLAS ("Bibliographic
anatomique"); in parasitology by BLANCHARD ("Traite
de zoologie") and by BRUMPT; in histology by PRENANT
(author of a well-known textbook of embryology); and
in comparative and experimental embryology by LOISEL.
At the College de France, HENNEGUY offers work in
comparative and experimental embryology, and at the
Laboratoire de Cytologie courses in cytology. General
biology is under the charge of GLEY, and histology of the
nervous system under NAGOETTE. In addition should
be mentioned the laboratory of histology directed by
JOLLY.
At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, there are ex-
cellent opportunities for the study of particular divisions
of zoology, as under PERRIER, comparative anatomy;
ROULE, fishes, amphibia, and reptiles; JOUBIN, annelids
and mollusks; BONNIER, entomology; TROUESSART,
birds and mammals; BOULE, palaeontology.
At the Pasteur Institute, organized for complete instruc-
tion in bacteriology, serum pathology, etc., are Roux, the
Director; METSCHNIKOFF (author of researches on in-
flammation, immunity, etc.); and other distinguished
scholars.
Zoology has also been enriched by French investiga-
tions along special lines of interest giving rise to sub-
divisions of its larger provinces. There are, for illustra-
tion, unusual opportunities for the pursuit of proto-
zoology and parasitology, of entomology and palaeontology,
especially that part of it that relates to the fossil remains
of man.
Protozoology and Parasitology. — In regard to unicel-
lular organisms, there has been created the department
of protozoology with especial reference to pathogenic
protozoa, and with this there is often combined the study
of internal parasites, forming the subject of parasitology.
340 ZOOLOGY
In France, F. MESNTL, E. CHATTON, and others, have
been leaders. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that
until recently there has been associated with the Pasteur
Institute LAVERAN, a veteran in the study of pathogenic
protozoa, whose demonstration, in 1880, of the plas-
modium of malaria marks almost the beginning of work
in parasitic protozoology. Besides the work at the
Pasteur Institute, Raphael BLANCHARD, editor of the
" Archives de parasitologie," and member of the medical
faculty in Paris, offers courses in parasitology. Micro-
biology and parasitology are especially provided for at
the Universities of Algiers, Montpellier, Nancy, and
Poitiers.
Entomology.— r In this field, including life-histories,
structure, habits and relation of insects to the organic
world the French annals show many notable names.
On the structural side, comes to mind the famous mono-
graph of STRAUS-DURCKHEIM, and the investigations of
Leon DUFOUR. The late J. Henri FABRE (1823-1915)
holds high esteem in the study of the behavior of insects.
His ten volumes of "Souvenirs entomologiques " are
deservedly world-famous. Many of his books have been
translated into English and are widely known. As a
successor to this interesting naturalist, cultivating
entomology in the same spirit with a more modern direc-
tion, may be mentioned Pol MARSCHAL at the Institut
Agronomique. The courses in entomology by BONNIER
have been already indicated. At the University of
Rennes is a Station of Entomology, giving especial
attention to insects injurious to vegetation.
Zoological Palaeontology. — As already stated, the in-
vestigation of extinct animals is properly included in
zoology, since they were merely the forerunners of living
animals, although the study is usually pursued under a
separate division of science designated Palaeontology.
GEORGES CUVIER (1769-1832)
(From a painting in the Sorbonne)
ZOOLOGY
ZOOLOGY 341
While the whole field of palaeontology is illuminating to
zoologists, especial interest has centered about the fossil
remains of man that are already throwing so much light
on the question of human lineage. MANOUVRIER, of the
Medical faculty, BOULE of the Museum of Natural
History, and other Frenchmen are eminent in this line.
No richer territory for explorations of prehistoric man
have been opened than those of Southwestern France
in the region of the Dordogne and the Vezere. Boule's
many investigations, including his monograph on "Homo
moustierensis," have aroused the greatest interest, and
the student of fossil remains of man will find in France
excellent opportunities for observation and instruction.1
Sundry Subjects. Some special courses of interest to
students of zoology should be mentioned. Connected
with the University of Clermont-Ferrand is a fresh water
station devoted chiefly to the biology of rivers and lakes
(limnology). Courses in pisciculture are given at Nancy
and Toulouse, and at the latter University hydrobiology
is especially designated. History of the natural sciences
is offered at the University of Lyon, and History of the
medical sciences is provided for in the medical faculty
of Paris. In addition to the marine stations, mentioned
in connection with the University of Paris, are those at
Cette, in Herault (DUBOSCQ, of Montpellier, director);
the station of Arcachon, organized for study of the
fauna of the Arcachon basin and of the ocean, and con-
nected with the University of Bordeaux; the laboratory
of Luc-sur-mer of the University of Caen; the marine
laboratory du Portel of the University of Lille; St. Vaast-
le-Hougue, connected with the Museum and directed by
E. PERRIER; the station of Lamaris-sur-mer, connected
with the University of Lyon ; and the research station at
1 [See also the paragraphs on Palaeontology, in the Chapters on Geology
and Anthropology in this volume. — ED.]
342 ZOOLOGY
Endoume, connected with the University of Marseille.
L'Institut Oceanographique, maintained by Albert the
First, Prince of Monaco, possesses an unrivalled laboratory
and equipment, and is notable for contributions to the
science of oceanography.
Libraries, Museums, Societies, Periodicals. As ad-
juncts to the pursuit of zoology in France are many
scientific establishments, such as libraries, museums,
scientific societies, and periodicals for the publication of
results.
The library facilities of Paris are notable, with the
great Bibliotheque Nationale in the lead, possessing
more than 3,500,000 volumes and 500,000 pamphlets.
The library of the Sorbonne has upwards tof 600,000
volumes and the medical library 17,000. University
libraries having from 125,000 to 200,000 volumes exist
at Lyon, Lille, Toulouse, Nancy, and Montpellier.
Museums of interest to zoologists are found at
Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier,
and of course at Paris.
Scientific societies are highly organized and very active
in Paris. Many have their separate publications. Among
those of interest to zoologists may be mentioned : " Societe
anatomique"; "Association francaise pour Pavance-
ment des sciences"; "Societe de biologic"; "Societe
entomologique" ; "Societe de neurologic"; "Societe
zoologique"; etc.
Among the periodicals for the publication of researches
of a zoological character are to be noted the following:
"Archives de zoologie experimentale et generale";
"Annales de ITnstitut Pasteur"; "Archives d'anatomie
microscopique" ; "Archives de parasitologie" ; "L'An-
thropologie" ; "Bibliographic anatomique"; "Bulletin
scientifique de la France et de la Belgique"; "Revue
ZOOLOGY 343
critique de paleozoologie" ; "Revue neurologique" ; "Bul-
letin de 1'Institut oceanographique"; "Annales de 1'In-
stitut oceanographique"; etc.
It must be recognized that the French universities
afford great opportunities for the training of investiga-
tors in zoology and all those subjects that are basal to
the study of medicine. The distinctive qualities of
French instruction are fitted to supply a final polish to
the student already trained in the rigorous method of
the scientific laboratories. The judgment and the fine
feeling of the University professors of France for mental
attributes is a stimulus and a direct help in enabling one
to improve one's own standards of mental activity and of
intellectual production.
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX I1
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES FOR AMERICAN
STUDENTS IN FRANCE; WITH A HISTORY
OF THE RECENT CHANGES IN
ITS UNIVERSITY SYSTEM
I. PAST AND PRESENT.
It is becoming more generally recognized that, except in special
cases, an American student has no need of going abroad to secure
what was formerly unattainable at home. At the beginning of
the twentieth century the situation of America as regards educa-
tion is radically different from what it was at the beginning of the
nineteenth century. With the rapidity with which changes take
place as time goes on, the chances are that the changes that will
have taken place at the opening of the twenty-first century will be
even more remarkable to contemplate than those which have
occurred during the century just closed.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century there existed a
strong intellectual sympathy between France and America.
Benjamin Franklin, during his ministry in France (1776-1785),
had more to do with stimulating this friendly feeling than any
other American in those early days. Thomas Jefferson, however,
Franklin's successor as Minister to France (1785 — 1789), was no
whit behind his illustrious predecessor in encouraging these rela-
tions between the two countries. It was while in Paris that he
*[By Professor JAMES GEDDES, JR., of Boston University.
This valuable article, containing a history of Franco-American university
relations, first appeared in Bostonia (October, 1903, January and April, 1904).
It was separately reprinted. The first edition was soon exhausted. Owing to
repeated calls for the article, it finally appeared in the Waverley Magazine (Sep-
tember, October, and November, 1908), the organ of the North American
Teachers' League. In its final form, the article was thoroughly revised, con-
siderably augmented, brought to date of 1913, and reprinted. By consent of
the author, it is here reproduced, with several omissions and a few verbal
changes. — ED.]
347
348 APPENDIX I
conceived the idea of founding an academy of arts and sciences
at Richmond, Va., which should have branches in Baltimore, Phila-
delphia, and New York. But before his plans could be matured
the French Revolution interrupted them. Nevertheless, upon
his return to America the higher education continued actively
to interest him. He corresponded with the French political
economist, Dupont de Nemours, upon this subject. The result
of this correspondence was that the French scholar published an
essay embodying his own ideas in regard to education in the United
States. French was then the language of international communi-
cation. France had, through her distinguished writers, contributed
powerfully to enlarge science. In Jefferson's opinion the only two
modern nations whose career deserved to be closely studied were
France and England.
The trend of ideas, as shown by Jefferson's attitude, turned
gradually but persistently in another direction, towards Germany.
The scholarly methods and work of the Germans became appre-
ciated. Edward Everett was the first American to take the
degree of doctor of philosophy, at Gottingen, in 1817. His ex-
ample was followed by such well-known Americans as George
Bancroft, Basil Gildersleeve, and William Goodwin. In this
country, Yale University was among the first of the institutions
of learning to confer this degree, in 1861; Harvard followed in
1875, and Johns Hopkins in 1878. In all of these institutions
the reasons for conferring this degree were practically those for
which German universities gave it. That is, essentially, that
in addition to college instruction the student must have had
long training at a university in original investigation and proven
his right to be recognized as a master workman by university
examination and the publication of some results of original
research.
Thus it will be seen that if France and England hold places
of importance in the world of science, they are not the only coun-
tries whose ways of investigating subjects and accomplishing
results are considered worthy of attention. Particularly since
1870, Germany has developed remarkably, both materially and
intellectually. During the nineteenth century the prestige of
England, due largely to the admirable admininstration of her
colonial possessions, has not failed to receive due recognition.
Moreover, the ties of kinship, mutual interests, and common
language are factors that must ever attract American students
THE OLD SORBONNE. FACADE
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 349
toward English university centers. It is, therefore, easy to
understand why Americans went to the universities in Berlin,
Leipsic, Bonn, and Heidelberg, as well as to Oxford and Cam-
bridge. The influence of Americans who received their training
in German universities and are employed as teachers in many
institutions of learning throughout the United States has been very
sensibly felt. This is one of the reasons why hundreds of American
students could be counted in German university centers. The
inducements held out to foreign students in Germany were at-
tractive. They were hospitably received, and upon presenting
their credentials from an institution whose standing is known, were
ordinarily duly matriculated. Two years of serious work along
their chosen lines, together with a thesis showing some originality
and hard work, and the passing of an examination upon the entire
field covered, constituted a fair guarantee of receiving the degree
of doctor of philosophy. The value of this degree to a young man
intending to make teaching in his own country his life work nobody
will be disposed to question.
II. THE EFFECT OF CENTRALIZATION IN FRANCE.
The advantage, in all branches of learning, of a sojourn in
France, and especially in Paris, are unsurpassed. Nevertheless,
even for Romance studies, our students have gone in considerable
numbers to Germany. There, as has just been shown, besides a
hearty welcome and advantages of a high order, it was possible
for them to secure a reward in the shape of something tangible,
which upon their return home might prove of the most valuable
assistance in obtaining positions. These advantages were, gen-
erally speaking, very clearly understood by American students.
Why was it, then, that our students, who during the past fifty
years have known so well how to take advantage of the oppor-
tunities offered for study in England and Germany, have not been
attracted towards a friendly country no less distinguished in letters,
arts, and sciences than the other two foreign countries?
In the first place, because the organization of the higher educa-
tion in France has hardly been known. Almost everybody in the
scholastic world has heard of the Universite de Paris, of the Sor-
bonne,and of the College de France; also, perhaps, of the Universite
nationale-de France, the Ecole pratique deshautes etudes, and sundry
academies or universites in different parts of France, like Toulouse
35o APPENDIX I
Montpellier, Bordeaux, and Grenoble. But just what these insti-
tutions are, their relation to the State or to each other, whether
they receive foreign students, or if so, whether degrees are granted,
were questions not readily answered by those of us not making a
specialty of educational topics. The vicissitudes, moreover,
through which educational institutions along with everything else
in France passed during the French Revolution, have served to
make the status of higher education seem more complex than it
really is.
The Universite de Paris still exists, bearing at least the name of
the celebrated old seat of learning that came formally into existence
about the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Robert
de Sorbon, the chaplain and confessor of St. Louis, founded in the
University of Paris a school of theology. This school became one
of the constituent parts, and the predominant one, giving its name
to the entire theological faculty in the University; and today the
University of Paris itself is everywhere familiarly known as the
"Sorbonne," although the latter school ceased to exist in 1790.
The provincial universities in France arose to meet the wants of the
districts where they were, at different epochs after the founding
of the University of Paris. There were twenty-five of them, of
which Toulouse, founded in the first part of the thirteenth century,
and Montpellier, in the latter part, were the oldest. The College
de France was founded by Francis I, in 1529. The king believed
that the University of Paris was devoting too much attention to
some subjects and not enough to others. It was designed to pro-
mote the more advanced tendencies of the time and to counteract
the scholasticism taught in the University. The Ecole pratique
des hautes etudes is a unique institution of comparatively recent
origin, dating from the Second Empire (1852).
These names, then, so often heard in connection with the sub-
ject of education in France, have indicated institutions whose
status was clearly defined and easily understood. Why is it, then,
that these establishments do not stand forth clearly cut like
Oxford, Cambridge, Gottingen, and Bonn? Both the names of
the French universities, as well as the institutions of learning them-
selves, have a haze about them that is absent from similarly or-
ganized faculties of learning abroad.
The principal reason for this vagueness is that at the time of
the Revolution the entire system of education was revolutionized.
The University of Paris, as well as all the provincial universities,
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 351
was suppressed. The hand of Napoleon then made itself felt in the
new organization. Centralization in education became the order
of the day. The universities, originally independent, were con-
solidated into one great institution, the Universite nationale de
France, of which the Universite de Paris and the faculties at Tou-
louse, Montpellier, and elsewhere in the provinces were sections
known as academies. The whole system of education was directly
under the minister of public instruction, entirely a government
affair. Everything went on automatically and with such clock-
work precision that it was said the minister could tell a visitor not
only what subject was being taught throughout France at a par-
ticular time, but the verb itself that was being conjugated just then
in all the schools.
III. RECENT SWEEPING CHANGES;
THE "UNIVERSITY DEGREES."
Since those times there have been a great many changes,
covering the entire educational field in France. Together with
colonial expansion and the reorganization of the army, the
educational transformation is the most considerable undertak-
ing the government has accomplished. Characterized briefly, it
is this:
Public instruction has been developed in all directions and
withdrawn as far as possible from the influence of the church. The
laws relating to primary instruction have been improved and
elementary education has been made free and obligatory. More-
over, France has awakened to a realization of the benefits to be
derived by making her educational centers attractive to foreign
students. Before the act of July 10, 1896, higher education was
entirely under the control of the minister of public instruction.
The act of July 10, 1896, did away with State control of the insti-
tutions for higher education, giving to them an independent
existence of their own. Thus this act abolished Napoleon's consol-
idated organization, the Universite nationale de France, and restored
the academies to their former status of universities. These institu-
tions are no longer under State control, for the regulations govern-
ing them are made by the University Council, a body consisting
of the principal members of the various faculties. Moreover,
the French universities now have a legal standing like that of
individuals, and may receive bequests or gifts from any one
352 APPENDIX I
desiring to aid them financially; formerly they could not receive
gifts of money.
The innovation that is of most interest to American students
is one made especially to attract them, as well as foreign students
in general, to the various French seats of learning, the fifteen
universities in the different sections of the country. It pertains to
degrees, and especially to the doctorate. Formerly the only pos-
sible way for a foreigner to secure a French diplome or degree from
any educational institution was by undergoing the same training
and passing the same examinations prescribed for a French student.
The French diploma confers rights upon the one holding it. For
instance, the graduate who has received a degree from the medical
school has the right to practice in France; the graduate, likewise,
of the school of pharmacy has the right to open an apothecary shop ;
so, too, the law-graduate has a right to practice law and to aspire
to judicial government positions; and the graduate of the different
" ecoles normales " has the right to give instruction in the institution
of the grade for which he has fitted himself. The French student
begins at the age of sixteen a series of examinations, the first of
which is the baccalaureate, a degree which represents, speaking
broadly, attainments somewhat beyond those of our high-school
graduates but considerably below those of our best colleges. He
then goes on passing an examination yearly until he has reached
the age of twenty-four or twenty-five years, when he should pass
his final examination for the doctorate. These regulations still hold
good for French or foreign students who desire to practice the
learned professions in France.
Most foreign students, however, and particularly our own, have
no intention of pursuing studies with a view of competing with
natives or of profiting pecuniarily by their foreign acquisitions
elsewhere than at home. As a rule, American students desire cer-
tain advantages procurable by a residence of about two years in the
foreign country. They usually have had a college course at home
and have no desire to spend nine years in France in order to be-
come doctors in their specialties. Moreover, they can ill afford to
spend two years of hard work in a foreign country without having
an opportunity at the end of that time to possess a substantial
guarantee vouching for the genuineness of their efforts. From the
French standpoint, it was not possible for the French institutions
to exempt foreign students from the regular course or to credit
them with work done in foreign parts, without, in most cases,
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 353
giving them an undue advantage over their own students. By any
such method, the foreign student could secure a State degree in a
relatively shorter time than the native. The problem was to adapt
the curriculum to meet the wants of foreign students while pre-
serving intact the rights of French students. This the act of 1896
accomplished, by authorizing the universities to create titles of a
different character from the ones conferring State rights or priv-
ileges. In no case can the former degrees be considered a substi-
tute for the latter. These new degrees were known as "University
degrees," instead of "State degrees."
The different universities in France, in accordance with the act
of July 10, 1896, have created doctorates. The regulations per-
taining to acquiring this title are made by the university conferring
it, but practically the principle governing the bestowal of the de-
gree is the same in all of the sixteen French universities. The
State degrees remain as before, open to all foreigners who care to
submit to the same ordeal to obtain them as do the native
students.
It may now readily be seen that the higher education in France
is practically upon the same basis as that in the universities of Ger-
many or at the graduate schools of the well-known universities in
our own country. The system governing the reception of foreign
students, the splendid advantages offered, and the bestowal of the
doctorate by the universities in France, are all along similar lines
that in Germany have long proved attractive to Americans. The
requirements enabling a student to pursue the courses in any one of
the sixteen French universities — fitness shown by examination, or
by the presentation of a diploma, or certificate or degree, from a
college or school of high standing — are practically the same as
those called for in order to pursue courses in any one of the twenty-
six universities in Germany. The sixteen French universities, each
with four or five faculties (Letters, Law, Science, Medicine, Phar-
macy), now stand forth as clearly defined as the twenty-six sister
universities in Germany.
The act which has effected the great changes described in the
organization of the French educational system, and particularly
changed the attitude towards foreign students of all the institu-
tions for the higher education in France, is so important that before
going on to speak of the different universities it will be of interest
to learn something of the prune movers who brought about modi-
fications so beneficial and so far-reaching.
354 APPENDIX I
IV. ORIGIN OF THE RECENT CHANGES.
It seems a little odd that an American who, like many of his
countrymen, after finishing his college course in America, had com-
pleted his studies in Germany by taking the degree Ph. D. at Halle,
should have been the first to bring the matter of reorganization of
the higher education in France to the attention of the French au-
thorities. After having made, in 1895, quite a thorough examina-
tion of the principal schools in Paris, particularly the Sorbonne,
College de France, Ecole des hautes etudes, Mr. Harry J. Furber,
a graduate of the University of Chicago (1886), and for a number
of years a student abroad and in foreign universities, came to the
conclusion that the advantages which it might be possible for Amer-
ican students to procure in Paris were extraordinary. He then
asked himself why it was that, notwithstanding, there were but
thirty American students enrolled at the Sorbonne, while at the
same time at the University of Berlin there were over two hundred.
Moreover, if a count were made of all American students pursuing
courses in the twenty-six German universities, the sum total of
more than a thousand would offer a still more unfavorable and
striking contrast for France to the total number of American stu-
dents enrolled in the latter country's sixteen university centers.
As regards the number of artists and sculptors studying in Paris,
the sum total of Americans among them proved clearly the superior
attractiveness of the French capital to them as an art center over
all other places. Mr. Furber realized that if the figures showed in
the domain of letters so marked a predilection on the part of
American students for German university centers, the inducements
offered there in science and letters must be far superior to those
offered in France. He then found what has already been shown;
namely, that the regulations in force, while doubtless well adapted
to the needs of French students, were entirely unsuitable to the
wants of foreign students, and particularly Americans. Mr. Fur-
ber then drew up a memorial stating the case clearly to M. Poin-
care, the minister of public instruction. These ideas, of which a
summary has here been presented, were given to the general public
in an article published in the Journal des Debats, of June 7, 1895,
by M. Michel Breal, a member of the Institute and a professor at
the College de France. Moreover, M. Breal made a strong plea
for the advantages offered outside of Paris by the provincial uni-
versities. Nowhere, he said, could French life in all its intimacy
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 355
and purity be so well studied as in the different French provinces.
As examples of admirably equipped institutions, he cited those of
Lyon and Lille; while others peculiarly endowed by nature with
a rare climate and superb physical attractions are Dijon, Toulouse,
Bordeaux, and Montpellier. Were he to begin life over again, he
would be a student nowhere else than at Grenoble, the great natural
beauties of which are so familiar to so many of our tourists. Paris,
he concluded, may well be kept for the last semester and fittingly
crown the foreign student's sojourn in France.
The result of this article from the pen of so distinguished an
educator as M. Breal was the formation, about a fortnight later,
of a committee composed of the best known and influential men in
the educational world in and around Paris.
M. Breal addressed the meeting, supporting by word what had
already appeared in print. The discussion was participated in by
MM. Bonet-Maury, Greard, Lavisse, Maspero, Paul Mellon,
Paul Meyer, and Parrot. In the course of the discussion, the sym-
pathy and encouragement of M. Hanotaux, the minister of foreign
affairs, and of M. Poincaire, of public instruction, were clearly
shown by their approval of the plan or form a Franco-American
committee. On the other hand, Mr. Furber voiced the equally
hearty support of His Excellency, the ambassador of the United
States, for this movement towards closer intellectual affiliation.
A commission was then and there (June 26, 1895) appointed to
study into the question of how to facilitate the entrance of American
students into French schools, and what inducements might prop-
erly be held out. So important and far-reaching have been the
results attained by this commission that it must be of interest to
American students to know who the men are who have been instru-
mental in securing for them such magnificent opportunities for
study as are now to be had at a mere nominal cost in France. The
members of the French commission were MM. Bonet-Maury, Pro-
fessor in the Theological School; Michel Breal, of the Institute,
Professor in the College de France; Bufnoir, Professor in the Law
School; Darboux, of the Institute, Professor in the Scientific School;
Giry, then Professor in the Ecole des Chartes; Lavisse, of the French
Academy; Levasseur, Professor in the College de France; Maspero,
of the Institute; Paul Mellon, Secretary of the Commission; Paul
Meyer, of the Institute, Director of the ficole des chartes ; Gabriel
Monod, Professor in the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes ; Schefer, of
the Institute, then Director of the Ecole des langues orientales
356 APPENDIX I
vivantes. The name of the French ambassador to the United
States, at that time M. Jules Cambon, was afterwards added to
the list.
To cooperate with this commission and aid the members in ren-
dering their efforts as effective as possible, in accordance with Pro-
fessor Furber's suggestion, the following committee, chosen from
distinguished American educators, was appointed: President
Angell of the University of Michigan; President D wight of Yale
University; President Eliot of Harvard University; President Gil-
man of Johns Hopkins University; G. Brown Goode, Assistant Sec-
retary in the United States National Museum; E. R. L. Gould, Sec-
retary of the International Statistical Association; President G.
Stanley Hall of Clark University; Wm. T. Harris, U. S. Commis-
sioner of Education; S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institute; President Seth Low of Columbia College; Simon New-
comb, U. S. N., Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac; President
Schurman of Cornell University; Andrew D. White, ex-Minister
to Germany; President B. L. Whitman of Columbian University;
Carroll D. Wright, U. S. Commissioner of Labor. The commission
and the committee together constituted the Franco-American
Committee.
Immediately an active campaign to further the common cause
was begun by both the members of the commission and those of
the committee. In the way of propaganda, one of the best contri-
butions appeared in the Forum, New York, May, 1897, from the
pen of Simon Newcomb. This article was entitled "France as a Field
for American Students." The advantages to be had by the Amer-
ican students at the Sorbonne, College de France, andEcole pratique
des hautes etudes were well set forth. The article appeared before
the creation of the degree of doctor of the university; nevertheless,
the comparison between the French system then in vogue and the
German system is luminous and will repay reading at any time.
Another able article, most sympathetically written, and showing
the friendly feeling between France and America during critical
periods in the history of both, aimed to bring about closer intel-
lectual relations in the immediate future. This article, by Pro-
fessor Raphael George Levy, of theficole libre des sciences politiques,
was published in the Revue Internationale de 1'enseignement for Feb-
ruary, 1897. In 1899, the Franco-American Committee, 87 boule-
vard Saint-Michel, published a pamphlet containing in one hun-
dred and thirty-eight pages a clear account of the system of higher
THE NEW SORBONNE. FACADE
THE NEW SORBONNE. GENERAL VIEW
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 357
education in France, together with the changes recently effected,
and making requirements for the doctorate perfectly clear. This
publication has done much to do away with the lack of compre-
hension in regard to the status of the French universities. The
Comite de patronage des etudiants etrangers, office in the Sor-
bonne, issued a luminous pamphlet, entitled: "New Diplomas of
the French Universities; doctorate, license diplomas, certificates of
studies; for the especial use of foreign students." Finally, in 1907,
there appeared in the October number of the Echo des deux mondes,
issued in Chicago, perhaps the best French periodical published in
the United States, a concise summary of information upon the
entire subject, with practical hints to aid students going to France
for study. This summary was entitled ' ' Conseil aux Americains, ' ' and
was written by M. Robert Dupouey of the faculty of the University
of California. The substance of this useful article appeared in
English in the University of California Chronicle, vol. IX, No. 4,
1907, and was also separately printed.
There seems now to be hardly any reason why a student intend-
ing to study abroad should not obtain quite as clear an idea of the
university system in France and the opportunities it offers as of the
German university system and its advantages. To all of the above
mentioned articles, and especially to the useful report of the Franco-
American Committee, the writer of the present article desires to
acknowledge his indebtedness.
V. THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS.
Of the sixteen French universities, the University of Paris, or
the Sorbonne, is by far the most renowned. It possesses traditions,
like those of Salerno and Bologna, that only centuries of existence
can give. The most influential scholars have been and still are
connected with its teaching force. Of the original building con-
structed by Cardinal Richelieu in 1629 for the Sorbonne, then the
theological faculty of the University of Paris, the Church is the only
portion that has been preserved. Since 1885 extensive building
operations, only recently finished, have been going on, and now
the University of Paris possesses one of the finest and costliest
structures for educational needs to be found in all Europe. The
front of the building is on the rue des Ecoles, just opposite the
Hotel de Cluny, the site of the palace and baths of the Roman em-
perors. The beautiful new home of the University of Paris is
358 APPENDIX I
the seat of the French Academy and of the faculties of Letters,
Science, and Theology. The large amphitheater in the interior of
the building, where public functions take place, will hold three
thousand five hundred persons. This hall contains statues of
Sorbon, Richelieu, and Rollin, who so identified themselves with
the university, and of the eminent French scientists, Descartes,
Pascal, and Lavoisier. At the end of the hall is the celebrated
painting The Sacred Grove, by Puvis de Chavannes. Other por-
tions of the interior of the Sorbonne are beautifully decorated by
celebrated artists.
At the five faculties constituting the University of Paris, law,
letters, science, medicine, and pharmacy, the total number of stu-
dents registered and in attendance at the courses during the year
1906-1907 was 15,789. The lectures are free to the public. In
some cases in which the subject itself or the lecturer is popular, the
halls are apt to be crowded, and to obtain a seat it is necessary to
be on hand early. The courses in literature are much frequented
by ladies. This fact has been made the subject of much good-
humored pleasantry by French writers. In Edouard Pailleron's
comedy, Le Monde ou Von s'ennuie (which was very successful and
now belongs to the repertoire of the Comedie Francaise) the author
has amusingly set before the public the kind of fetich worship offered
to a popular professor by his fair constituency. There are, besides
the free lectures, courses called "cours f ermes, ' ' where the personnel is
restricted to the competency of those desiring to pursue them.
As regards impartiality in granting equal advantages to men
and women, as well as liberality in offering educational opportuni-
ties that are almost absolutely free of expense to all, France is un-
surpassed by any other nation. The function of offering exam-
inations and giving degrees is kept rigidly distinct from that of
offering instruction. The student pays for the former, but the
latter is, save in rare instances, absolutely free.
Inasmuch as the department of science is strictly separated
from that of letters, the courses given at the Faculty of Letters will
be found to be much along the lines laid down in the catalogs of
American universities and applicable to the courses given in the
college proper, omitting those devoted to the sciences and mathe-
matics. In brief, they consist of culture studies, and largely of
those so highly esteemed of old, and which, coming down through
the ages, still hold their own amid the multitudinous subjects that
are claiming recognition because of rapid changes in civilization.
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 359
These long-accepted and cherished studies are Philosophy, History,
Greek, Latin, French, Foreign Language and Literature, Political
Economy and Sociology, all of them in their different phases and
relations to allied topics; in a word, the humanities, using the word
in the broadest possible sense. A subject not usually put down in
the curriculum of American colleges or universities is Geography,
to which much attention is given in the faculty of letters of all the
French universities. Like the other subjects making up the
courses, it is gone into very thoroughly, and there appear courses in
modern, ancient, physical, colonial, and commercial geography. Po-
litical Economy and Sociology figure on the prospectus of the fac-
ulty of letters of the University of Paris, yet not as prominently as
in the law-school course. It is in the latter faculty that the sub-
ject is almost wholly pursued in all, or nearly all, the other French
universities. French Literature, French History, and French Philos-
ophy appear to be the centers to which attention is strongly di-
rected. It is undoubtedly due in a large measure to this fact that
France has in the past produced such brilliant philosophers, his-
torians, and litterateurs. This trend in the direction of studies cer-
tainly appears sensible from a practical standpoint, for it would
seem to be a duty to be well informed in regard to what directly
concerns one's native land and those who influence thought within
its borders.
Besides the ancient languages, Greek and Latin, whose litera-
ture and philology receive a good share of attention, Sanskrit and
Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European languages are studied
under some of the foremost scholars in this department of lin-
guistics. European literature, undoubtedly, embraces considerable
of the best in the field in northern and southern Europe. The stress
appears to be laid rather on the literary side of language than on
the philological. This feature is in contrast with the curricula in
some of the higher institutions of learning in the United States,
where the emphasis is rather on the linguistic or philological side of
language than on the literary. The two foreign languages to which
most time and attention are given at the University of Paris are
German and English, fully warranted by their importance. Paleog-
raphy, generally speaking, is a subject that appears quite prom-
inently in the courses offered by the faculties of letters in France,
and for the study of which Paris has opportunities that are un-
surpassed. American Institutions and Literature have within
recent years been given a place.
360 APPENDIX I
The Faculty of Sciences at the University of Paris embraces
purely scientific subjects. They are treated widely in all their
many phases, just as letters are in the Faculty of Letters. The sub-
jects pursued are : Astronomy, Botany, Chemistry, Geology, Mathe-
matics in all the higher branches, Mechanics, Mineralogy, Physical
Geography, Physics, Physiology, and Zoology. No subjects, for
instance, like Language, Letters, or Political Economy, such as are
taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, more or less
in connection with work in science, are found on the program
of studies of the Faculty of Sciences. The former subjects are con-
sidered as belonging to the department of letters, and to this latter
faculty, consequently, they are relegated. The prominence given
now in some of our scientific schools to Engineering, Architecture,
and Landscape Architecture is due to the development of these sub-
jects in recent years in this country. Although these topics are not
to be found on the program of the French faculties of science, the
subjects themselves have long received the most careful attention
in French technical schools.
The Faculty of Law of the University of Paris offers about forty
courses given by as many different professors. Compared with the
courses given in our law schools of good standing, the Paris courses
are not so technical, and, speaking broadly, have considerable more
educational value. There are no less than fifteen courses on political
and economical science, a number of which, like Comparative
Social Economy, Public International Law, History of Economic
Doctrines, are of much general interest and value. Judging by the
program of courses recently made at the Boston University School
of Law, that is, the introduction of courses on International, Co-
lonial, and Consular Law, it would appear that in the future more
such courses as are offered abroad, and which are of educational
value to all, are likely to be given in our law schools here. The
impetus in this direction is in a large measure due to national ex-
pansion.
The courses offered by the Faculty of Medicine are similar to
those that appear on the programs of our best medical schools.
About sixty professors give as many courses either at the school
itself, in the Place de l'Ecole-de-Medecine, or at various hospitals
in the city. As pointed out in comparing the announcement of the
law-school courses with similar ones in this country, the French
medical schools likewise may possibly offer a few more popular or
less technical courses than can be found in the American schools of
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 361
medicine. At least the subjects of some of the courses, Hygiene,
Physiology, Biological Physics, and Biological Chemistry, suggest
courses of educational value that may not be and probably are not
intended exclusively for specialists.
The studies pursued at the Ecole superieure de Pharmacie are
Analytical Chemistry, Galenic Pharmacy, Mineral Chemistry,
Natural History of Medicaments, Physics, Zoology. Over a year
of study is required at the school, and finally the presentation of a
thesis containing personal research, which the candidate for a
degree is called upon to elucidate.
As already stated, there is no longer a sixth faculty, that of the
£cole de Theologie protestante. The courses, however, at this school
continue to be given by ten professors, and are similar to those laid
down in the curricula of may Protestant theological schools in this
country. They include Ecclesiastical History, Evangelical Ethics,
German, History of Philosophy, Lutheran Dogma, New Testament,
Old Testament, Organization of the Reformed Churches in France,
Patristics, Practical Theology, Reformed Dogma, Revelation, and
Holy Scripture.
VI. THE PROVINCIAL UNIVERSITIES.
The fifteen universities outside of Paris and in the different
sections of France are Aix, Algiers, Besanfon, Bordeaux, Caen,
Clermont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier,
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. As their curricula are modeled
in a measure upon that at the University of Paris, no detailed de-
scription of them is necessary. None of them possesses, for ob-
vious reasons, the unrivaled opportunities found at the University
of Paris. Nevertheless, by this is not implied that they are lacking
in attractiveness either of natural or intellectual resources. Indeed,
the natural attractions of many of these institutions appeal to
many more strongly than the city advantages of Paris. With the
exception of the universities of Besancon and Clermont-Ferrand,
which have only the three faculties, Letters, Science, and Medicine,
the remaining provincial universities have four faculties: Law, Let-
ters, Science, and Medicine; or five, counting the schools of Phar-
macy, usually comprised in the medical schools. Toulouse had,
like the University of Paris, before the law of December 9, 1905, of
separation of church and state, a faculty of Protestant Theology.
The universities of Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, and
362 APPENDIX I
Toulouse are among the most important, by reason of their equip-
ment and advantages, of the provincial universities. Some of the
others, however, have in some respects advantages superior to any
one of the six just named.
It is possible, too, that each one of these university centers, by
reason of its situation, or of particular circumstances, may possess,
and probably does possess, superior advantages to any other for
pursuing special branches. Thus, because of the fine laboratories,
extensive collections, agricultural stations, botanical gardens and
museums in Bordeaux, Agriculture, Natural Sciences, and Chemistry
applied to industry are all especially studied. Among the courses
at the Faculty of Letters serving to differentiate the curriculum from
that offered by other institutions are found: History of Bordeaux
and the Southwest of France, Language and Literature of the South-
west of France, Hispanic Studies. The University of Lille, in the
ancient capital of Flanders, near the Belgian frontier, possesses very
fine material as well as intellectual equipment. Among the courses
at the Faculty of Letters, one will hardly fail to note, because not
found elsewhere, Walloon and Picardy Language and Literature.
The situation of the university in the heart of the Walloon district
is in itself an advantage in pursuing this specialty such as no other
university possesses. The University of Lyon, in one of the finest
cities in France, not far from Switzerland, possesses exceptional
advantages for the study of Archaeology. Industrial and agricul-
tural Chemistry holds an important place among the sciences. The
influence of the silk industry, as well as of the metallurgic industry
of the region, is traceable among the courses offered by the faculty
of science. The study of Psycho-physiology is one of the specialties
of this university. In the department of letters a course on the
History of Lyon is noticeable. The University of Montpellier is a
most active intellectual center. The Faculty of Medicine, to which
Rabelais belonged, and added lustre by his efforts in its behalf, still
retains its ancient prestige. The Jardin des plantes is one of the
finest in Europe. It contains a great number of rare trees and
plants. Botany and Natural Sciences are among the most popular
studies at Montpellier. Moreover, the Comite de patronage des
etudiants etrangers has recently issued a circular from the Universite
de Montpellier, announcing that during the winter semester of
1908-1909, courses adapted particularly to foreign students will
be offered. The program, embracing subjects in French, Italian,
Spanish, and Romance Philology, appears very attractive. Among
THE SORBONNE. AMPHITHEATRE
THE SORBONNE. PERISTYLE
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 363
the courses in letters at the University of Nancy, in the ancient
capital of Lorraine, are to be noted one on German Philology, an-
other on History of the East of France.
At the University of Toulouse, in the ancient capital of Langue-
doc, more attention is given by the Faculty of Letters to the study
of the Spanish language and literature than elsewhere in France.
The annual competition on the subjects of poetry and eloquence
still takes place in Toulouse, pleasantly commemorating the famous
Jeux floreaux, instituted there in 1323. At the universities of lesser
importance than those just named, courses in certain subjects will
be found which do not appear at all elsewhere. Thus at Aix, in
Provence, not far from Marseilles, the Faculty of Letters offers sev-
eral fine courses on Provencal History, Language, and Literature.
The University of Caen, situated in the very heart of Normandy,
offers a course on Norman Art and Literature, which cannot but be
of considerable interest to students of art and architecture.
Grenoble, in the midst of the Alps, not far from Italy, is beautifully
situated, possessing the warmth of a southern sun tempered by the
coolness of the mountains. There is an Italian colony in the town,
and the Faculty of Letters offers a course in Italian Language and
Literature, a subject not found upon the curricula of the other fac-
ulties of letters, excepting Clermont-Ferrand, which is considerably
farther away from the immediate vicinity of Italy. The facilities
for pursuing science, especially geology and botany, at Grenoble are
very fine. The summer courses, together with the superb natural
attractions of Grenoble, are beginning to attract thither many for-
eign students. Through the initiative of the Alliance Francaise,
now making a vigorous campaign at home and abroad in the in-
terest of French language and letters, holiday courses are now given
in Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer (in connection with the University
of Lille), Saint-Malo-Saint-Servan (in connection with the Univer-
sity of Rennes), and Villerville-sur-Mer. A number of universities
and schools in France and Switzerland have joined in the move-
ment either independently or in connection with the Alliance.
Courses are announcedfor the summer season of 1909 at Besancon,
Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lyon, Nancy, all provincial university
centers, at Lisieux, Bayeux (both in Calvados, Normandy), at the
Institut-Moderne, Marseilles, and at the Lycee for girls in Versailles
under the direction of Mme. Kahn; also at the universities of
Geneva, and Lausanne, and at the Academy of Neuchatel, in
Switzerland.
364 APPENDIX I
The University of Clermont-Ferrand, in the capital of the old
province of Auvergne, in the center of Southern France, like
Grenoble, is in the midst of the mountains. Clermont is the center
of a most important volcanic region and possesses unique interest
not only for geologists and mineralogists, but for geographers as
well. The University of Dijon, in the town of that name, capital
of the old province of Bourgogne, offers a course on the History
of Burgundy; the University of Poitiers, in the old province
of Poitou in Western France, where famous battles occurred
in olden times, offers a course on the History of Poitou; the
University of Rennes, in old Bretagne, offers a course in Celtic
Language and Literature; the University of Besancon, in Franche-
Comte, of which Besancon was the capital, a course in Russian;
also one on the History and Geography of Antiquity and the
Middle Ages, in which epoch Besancon played an interest-
ing part.
It will now be clear that while the provincial universities offer
courses in law, letters, science, and medicine quite similar to those
described as given by the University of Paris, they make up in a
measure for what they lack in variety by offering special courses,
for which they have advantages superior to any that can be found
elsewhere. The law-school courses are in many cases broadly edu-
cational as well as technical. The scientific courses are thoroughly
practical, as the names of some of them suggest: Industrial Elec-
tricity, Industrial Chemistry, Industrial Physics. The medical
schools are the equal in excellence of the schools of law, letters, and
science. The provincial universities, following the example of the
University of Paris, are gradually introducing the doctor's degree
for foreign students into their various faculties. An American
student who desires to receive this degree as a recompense for suc-
cessful work in France will have in the future only the perplexity
of deciding where he can most advantageously spend his time.
VII. SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION.
It remains to speak of several institutions, some of which are
not connected with the government, of no less interest to American
students than those just described. Many of these are termed
"ecoleslibres,"//7>re being used here in the sense of independent, and
not, as sometimes supposed, of free in the sense of tuition free,
although such is often the case.
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 365
First in importance is the College de France, rue des Ecoles, over
the portals of which is seen the inscription Omnia docet. Here
science and letters in their most advanced stage are taught by more
than forty of the ablest specialists in France. The late lamented
Gaston Paris was administrator of the institution, and his col-
leagues in their specialties are well known to scholars making re-
searches in like fields everywhere. Some of the French professors
whose visits to America or whose writings have made their names
particularly well known to men of letters in this country are Joseph
Bedier, Michel Breal, Gaston Deschamps, Louis Havet, Pierre
Janet, Leroy-Beaulieu, E. Levasseur (who succeeded Gaston Paris
as administrator of the College de France), A. Longnon, G. Maspe-
ro, Paul Meyer, Morel-Fatio, A. Reville, Georges Blondel.
Very similar in its aims is the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes,
Sorbonne. Over one hundred professors have charge of the in-
struction. The school is divided into five sections, each comprising
broad divisions: i° history, language, and philology; 2° mathe-
matics and mathematical sciences; 3° physics, chemistry, min-
eralogy; 4° natural sciences; 5° religious sciences. The most com-
plete liberty in regard to pursuing one's chosen subject exists. The
professor meets his students wiien and where it is most convenient,
and continues his work with them for as long or short a time as may
be deemed practicable. Each student may be pursuing some one
particular part of a subject, in which case the student and professor
come together by appointment, and carry on the special research
in whatever manner they may consider most profitable. No ex-
aminations are given nor are any degrees conferred. Probably no
school in Europe stands higher in its field or is more widely and fa-
vorably known than the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes.
The Ecole des langues orientales vivantes, 2 rue de Lille, is, per-
haps, one of the best known of the kind. In it are taught the lead-
ing oriental living idioms. The professors are assisted by native
teachers. The students pursuing the courses do so for political,
commercial, or philological reasons. Quite a number obtain po-
sitions as interpreters in eastern countries.
The Ecole nationale des chartes, 19 rue de la Sorbonne, founded
over eighty years ago, is frequented by specialists in archeology,
philology, history, and diplomacy. They come from all parts of the
world, attracted by the unrivaled resources of the school. The ad-
vantages, particularly for the study of paleography, because of the
abundance of rare manuscripts, are unsurpassed.
366 APPENDIX I
The Ecole libre des sciences politiques, 27 rue Saint-Guillaume,
fulfills a most useful mission. Here an excellent preparation can
be had for the various administrative careers in the government,
in conformity with the five sections composing the entire program:
i° interior administration; 2° finance; 3° political and social
economy; 4° diplomacy; 5° law and history. There are no ex-
aminations to enter. A course can be taken for two or three
years. A diploma is given when evidence is shown of good
ability to investigate problems. There is an enrollment fee of
$14.00 a year.
Social doctrines may be profitably pursued at the College libre
des sciences sociales, 28 rue Serpente. Of such institutions as the
Museum d'histoire naturelle, 57 rue Cuvier, where courses are given
in zoology, anthropology, and kindred subjects; the Ecole nationale
superieure des mines, 60 boulevard Saint-Michel, for the training of
mining engineers ; the Ecoles des ponts et chaussees, 292 rue Saint-
Martin, for bridge-builders and constructors; the Conservatoire des
arts et metiers, 292 rue Saint-Martin, for sciences and their indus-
trial application, in all of which the instruction is absolutely free,
nothing need be said other than that they represent the best modern
types of the kind. Such schools as the Ecole nationale et speciale
des beaux-arts, 14 rue Bonaparte, for the study of painting, sculp-
ture, architecture, and allied subjects, and the Conservatoire na-
tionale de musique et de declamation, 15 rue du Faubourg-Poisson-
niere, for vocal and instrumental music and the study of the voice,
will long continue to attract, as in the past, foreigners from distant
countries.
It is perhaps needless to say that the mere enumeration of
special schools that offer the foreign student as well as the native a
most attractive program of studies, either entirely free or at a nom-
inal cost, would make a long list. It must here suffice to note two
well-defined advantages that American students of art and language
may profit by, if disposed to make use of them. The American Art
Association has over two hundred members. Its function is that of
a club. It gives opportunity for American students and artists to
meet together informally and enjoy each other's society. The As-
sociation now possesses fine quarters at No. 2 Impasse Conti. A
large art library, fine reading rooms, recreation-halls, and a good
but inexpensive restaurant contribute to the comfort of the mem-
bers. The club is somewhat like the St. Botolph, in Boston, in that
art exhibitions are held in the rooms quite frequently. It is well
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 367
worth while for a student of art, intending to remain a year
in Paris, to become a member immediately upon arriving. The
fees are ten francs initiation and twenty francs membership
annually.
The second advantage is that offered during the summer
months by the Alliance Francaise, 186 boulevard Saint-Germain,
to students of the French language. Two series of courses are given,
the first during the month of July, and the second during the month
of August. Students are able to secure diplomas at the end of the
course after an examination upon it. The fee for either course,
which embraces, besides a large amount of instruction, lectures,
etc., many desirable privileges, is twenty dollars. The Alliance has
been wonderfully successful in Paris, and hundreds of students and
teachers pursue these courses yearly. This success has encouraged
the projectors of the movement, aided by the government, to start
a similar movement in the nature of a propaganda outside of
France. The object is to encourage the pursuit of the French
language and literature and to attract favorable attention to
France. Some idea of how successful the movement has been in
this country may be got from the fact that at the present time there
exist here and in Canada more than two hundred Alliances Fran-
caises, or branches, groups, as they are called, of the central organi-
zation in Paris. Moreover, some of these groups are very flourish-
ing, the one in Boston, for instance, having annually for several
years more than four hundred members. This group in particular
has been very ably managed by Professor de Sumichrast since
taking charge of its interests in 1900. Lectures and entertain-
ments in French, all of a high order, are given fortnightly. During
the years 1901, 1902, and 1903, the Boston group, at its own ex-
pense, sent over to Paris, each summer, a teacher in the public
schools to enjoy the advantages offered by the Alliance in Paris.
It is well to be familiar with the work of the Alliance Francaise
when preparing, whether here or abroad, to make a study of French
life, literature, and language. In this way it is quite possible to
keep abreast of what is going on in a rather extensive circle of
French interests. Both Frenchmen and Americans of distinction
are connected with the organization, and directly or indirectly
may be of signal service to a student. Perhaps the simplest way
to get posted quickly is to send for the Bulletin officiel de la Federa-
tion de 1'Alliance Francaise aux Etats-Unis et au Canada, 1402
Broadway, New York City.
368 APPENDIX I
VIII. L'ENTENTE CORDIALE.
It is beginning to be quite evident that the day is past when
thoughts, ideas, and the possession of truth are national and the
property of one particular people. The tendency of this generation
is fast towards denationalization. Foreign methods when proved
to be better than our own are no longer looked upon askance
because they are foreign, but are beginning to be adopted; just as
abroad practical American ideas have found widely a favorable
reception. The intrinsic value of ideas is an asset too precious to be
long ignored by any wide-awake nation.
In 1897, Ferdinand Brunetiere gave a course of lectures in
French at Johns Hopkins University which were notable and be-
sides attracted popular attention. He was invited to Harvard
University, where he gave three lectures on Moliere. The charm
and magnetism of the man will not easily be forgotten by anyone
privileged to hear him. Since that time the French lectureship
fund provided by Mr. James Hazen Hyde of the Class of 1898 has
made it possible for Americans to pass in review a long line of dis-
tinguished French men of letters; for not only have these gentle-
men lectured at Harvard University, but after finishing their course
there, usually have also lectured in many places in the United
States and Canada. The distinction of the lecturers and the variety
of the topics treated has naturally called attention to France, a
country for which American sympathy has been strong and lasting
from old colonial days. The following are the names of the eminent
lecturers who have visited our shores and their subjects:
1898. Rene Doumic: Histoire du romantisme francais.
1899. Edouard Rod: La Poesie dramatique francaise.
1900. Henri de Regnier: Poesie francaise contemporaine.
1901. Gaston Deschamps: Le Theatre francais contem-
porain.
1902. Hugues Le Roux: Le Roman francais et la societe
francaise.
1903. L. Mabilleau: Idees fondamentales de la politique
francaise.
1904. A Leroy-Beaulieu, de 1'Institut: Christianisme et
democratic.
1905. Rene Millet, ambassadeur: La France et I'lslam dans
la Mediterranee.
1906. Anatole Le Braz: La France celtique.
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 369
1907. Vicomte G. d'Avanel: Histoire economique de la
France.
1908. Andre Tardieu: La France et les alliances.
1909. AbelLefranc: Moliere.
Nearly all of these men have, after visiting us, recorded their
impressions of American life in books that students will have pleas-
ure in familiarizing themselves with. This is likely to have a
broadening effect upon their own point of view of a foreign country.
Moreover, under the auspices of the Alliance Francaise, or pos-
sibly, at times, independently, Germain Martin, Jules Huret,
Andre Michel, F. Funck-Bretano, Louis Madelin, Edmond Rossier,
Bonet-Maury, Marcel Poete, and other Frenchmen of note have
lectured in various parts of the United States and Canada. Dis-
tinguished Italians, Angelo de Gubernatis, Novell!, Guglielmo
Ferrero, have also addressed many groups of the Alliance.
So much activity on this side of the water has initiated a recip-
rocal movement in France. In 1904-1905, through the generosity
of Mr. Hyde, who has done so much to promote a good mutual
understanding between France and America, Professor Barrett
Wendell, of Harvard University, was invited to deliver a course of
lectures on American literature at the Sorbonne and at the uni-
versity towns in France. Students who intend studying in France
will do well to profit from Professor Wendell's experience by reading
his book, "The France of Today." He was followed by Professor
A. C. Coolidge, and he in turn by Professor George Pierce Baker,
also of Harvard University.
Of late years a number of French students have registered in
our leading universities, and not only pursued courses, but given
instructions and lectured in French at the university and outside.
This idea of foreign students coming here to study in our institu-
tions has been favorably received and encouragement is offered
them to come. In 1896, for the first time, a fellow of the Univer-
sity of Paris, Charles Cestre, was sent to Harvard. An interesting
contribution by him on the French Universities will be found in
the Harvard Graduates' Magazine for December, 1897. About
eight years later, in 1903-1904, a fellowship of the Cercle Francais de
1'Universite Harvard with a stipend of $600 was offered by Mr.
Hyde and has been since then continued annually. The French
fellow is selected by the Minister of public instruction in France.
According to the conditions of the fellowship, the young French-
man is expected to give a certain amount of assistance to the depart-
370 APPENDIX I
ment of French and other Romance languages. He is also to be ad-
mitted to any courses of instruction in the university he is qualified
to pursue. These young men occasionally assist in the annual pro-
duction of the Cercle Francais play. The appointment of the
American exchange fellow to Paris, to benefit by the fellowship
offered in return by the French ministry of public instruction, is
made on the recommendation of the president of Harvard Univer-
sity. The incumbents have been George Wallace Umphrey,
1903-4; Robert Bell Michel, 1904-5; Charles Marshall Under-
wood, 1905-6; Arthur Fisher Whittem, 1906-7; Warren Barton
Blake, 1907-8; Samuel Montefiore Waxman, 1908-9. The same
conditions govern the incumbent of this fellowship as those of the
James Hazen Hyde fellowship offered by the Cercle Francais.
The "boursiers," or fellows from France at Harvard, have been Rob-
ert Dupouey, 1903-4; to whose article, Americans in French Uni-
versities, reference has here twice been made; Henri Baulig,
1904-5, now an instructor in French in Harvard College; Mederic
Tourneur, 1905-6; Edmond Jean Eggli, 1906-7; Jean Marie Gi-
raudoux, 1907-8; Maurice Chelli, 1908-9.
About fourteen years ago, Baron Pierre de Coubertin made four
foundations for the study of French literature ; one each at Prince-
ton, Tulane, the University of California, and Leland Stanford.
By way of reciprocity, there are now the University of Paris:
i° The due de Loubat's foundation at the College de France for the
study of American antiquities. The late Leon Lejeal used to
lecture in this course. 2° Mr. James Hazen Hyde's foundation at
the Sorbonne for the study of America, American Ideas and Insti-
tutions; lectures in English by the American exchange lecturer.
3° The proposed foundation by some American bankers and finan-
ciers at the law-school of the University for the study of the
History and Outline of American Law; lectures in French, in
1904-5, by Charles F. Beach, Jr., a noted American lawyer and
student of economic problems.
Perhaps one of the best known of all the foreign traveling fel-
lowships is the Bourse du Tour du Monde, founded by Albert Kahn
in 1898. This bequest provides for sending around the world
"Cinq jeunes agreges de 1'universite," each on a fellowship of
$3,000. An account of experiences in foreign countries by thirteen
of these young men during the years 1898, 1899, and 1900, will be
found in"Autour dumonde, par les Boursiers de voyage del'Univer-
site de Paris" (Paris, Felix Alcan, 1904). The book is useful in giving
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 371
the American student who studies abroad an excellent French point
of view. Occasionally one of these graduate Frenchmen remains
in a foreign country some years, as in the case of M. Louis Allard,
who taught and lectured a year or more in Laval University, Que-
bec, and for the past two years has been one of the regular in-
structors in French in Harvard College. This year (1908) a young
woman, Mile. Elichabe, is one of the holders of the Around the
World Fellowship. Her lectures in different parts of the country
have been noteworthy.
A few of the largest and best-endowed institutions of learning
in this country, such as those already named, are well provided with
traveling fellowships. The catalogs of a number of our colleges
call particular attention to such special advantages; at Boston
University, for instance, the Ada Draper fund of $25,000, the in-
come of which is to be applied " to enable the most meritorious and
needy student among the young women to be sent to Europe after
graduation to complete her studies." In this way students, sure
of their future, are able to concentrate their whole time and thought
on the main object of their foreign residence.
Thus, from what has been shown, the signs of the times seem
to point not only to a mutual desire on the part of France and of
this country to bind more cordially together the old intellectual ties
of sympathy that were so strong in the days of Franklin and Jeffer-
son, but to a common world understanding that shall ultimately do
away with intellectual barriers between nations. That a movement
so thoroughly in accord with the best spirit of the times should be
fraught with success is the earnest hope of all who desire the moral
and intellectual advancement, not only of France and America, but
of all civilized nations.
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX II1
INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING;
THEIR ORGANIZATION, DEGREES,
REQUIREMENTS, FEES, ETC.
Offices Furnishing Information to Foreign Students. From the
beginning of the thirteenth century, when the University of Paris
was founded, till the present day, France has always generously
extended to the whole world the hospitality of her schools of higher
learning. This hospitality has been eagerly accepted in modern as
well as in mediaeval times, as is evidenced by an enrollment on
January 15, 1913, of 5560 foreigners in the Faculties of the French
Universities, nearly a seventh of the entire student body.
In order to emphasize this hospitality and render it concrete,
the French educational authorities have organized two offices or
bureaus whose business it is to facilitate in every possible way the
pursuit of studies in France and to render any service possible to
the prospective or resident foreign student. These offices are:
Bureau des Renseignements, at the Sorbonne, and Office National des
Universites et Ecoles Francises, 96 Boulevard Raspail, Paris.
The Bureau of Information publishes annually the "Livret de
1'fitudiant" of the University of Paris, which also contains a
complete detailed account of all the other institutions of higher
learning in the capital. The National Office of French Universities
and Schools publishes a Handbook which presents in schematic
outline a description of the organization, conditions of admission,
etc., of all the higher schools, not only in Paris, but also in the
provinces. The information contained in the following pages has
been reproduced for the most part from these two booklets, which
should be consulted for further details. Each University also
publishes a "Livret de 1'Etudiant" or "Annuaire" which gives an
even more detailed account of the particular University and of all
^Prepared by Professor C. B. VIBBERT, of the University of Michigan. —
ED.]
375
376 APPENDIX II
the higher schools in the administrative educational district
(Academic) in which the University is located.1
Each University has also established a committee which seeks
to promote in every possible way the interests of foreign students
("Comite de Patronage des etudiants etrangers"). The student
is strongly advised to supplement the necessarily limited informa-
tion contained in the following pages by consulting these various
handbooks, and, in case of doubt on any point, to apply directly
to one of the two bureaux of information indicated above, or to the
Deans of the various Faculties or the Directors of the various
Schools, or to the several Committees of Patronage.
The educational data to be described for the intending American
student in France can best be grouped under the following headings:
I. Organization of the Various Institutions of Higher Learning:
1. The Universities.
2. Other Institutions.
1 For further information upon the Universities of France, and upon the
educational system, consult the works in the following list, prepared by Pro-
fessor ROLLO W. BROWN, of Wabash College, at the request of the Editor of
this volume:
E. Delalain: "Annuaire de 1'Instruction publique." (Librairie Delalain
Freres, Paris.) This volume not only serves as a directory of the French
universities, but provides a convenient view of the entire scheme of French
education.
L. Liard: " L 'Enseignement superieur en France." (Armand Colin,
Paris. Two volumes.) A very complete and a thoroughly sound historical
study of French higher education, by the head of the University of Paris.
H. Vuibert: "Annuaire de la Jeunesse." (Librairie Vuibert, Paris.)
This volume is indispensable to the American student who wishes to be informed
on French educational organization. Ordinarily it contains more than a
thousand pages of well-indexed material.
Few books have been written in English on French education, and most of
these have dealt chiefly with the primary (utilitarian) or secondary schools.
The following volumes will help the student to form a notion of some aspects
of French educational methods and spirit:
English Board of Education: "Special Reports on Educational Subjects."
(Wyman and Sons, London.) Volumes 2, 18, and 24. Volume 2 is devoted in
part to French universities; volume 18 discusses the primary schools; and
volume 24 deals exclusively with the secondary schools.
Frederic Ernest Farrington: "The Public Primary Schools of France."
(Columbia University Press.) Same Author: "French Secondary Schools."
(Longmans, Green and Company.) These two books give a complete account
of French education below the university.
A. L. Guerard: "French Civilization in the Nineteenth Century." (Cen-
tury Company.) Chapter VII gives a brief historical view of French education.
Rollo Walter Brown: "How the French Boy Learns to Write." A study in
the teaching of the mother tongue. This volume acquaints the student with
present-day French methods of teaching language and literature.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 377
II. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates for work done in the
Universities.
III. Admission to the Universities.
IV. Credit allowable for Equivalent Degrees in Foreign In-
stitutions.
I. ORGANIZATION OF THE VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER LEARNING
Classes of Institutions. All institutions of higher learning in
France may be divided into three great groups, based on the general
principles of their inner organization:
I The National Universities, under the general administra-
tion of the Minister of Public Instruction, which prepare for and
confer the main degrees required in France for the practice
sarne P™^™^' o/wwoZ Schools, under the general direction of the
Ministry of Public Instruction or other ministries and administra-
tions which are either devoted primarily to pure research or pre-
pare 'for the various lines of specialization in the government
* Independent Institutions, established through private initia-
tive and supported by private gifts and endowments; the scope
and variety of the activities of these independent schools is almo<
unlimited.
I. THE UNIVERSITIES.
There are sixteen French Universities, scattered throughout
France, each having its seat in the city which is at the same time
the official center of an "Academic." These "Academies are
administrative districts, into which are grouped, for the organiza-
tion and direction of education, several " departements under the
direction of a" Recteur."
The sixteen French Universities are, besides Pans, the Univer-
sities of Aix-Marseille, Alger, Besanqon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont-
Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers,
Rennes, Toulouse. ,
These Universities have for the most part had a long and
glorious past; some of them, as the Universities of Paris and Mont
pellier, are among the oldest in the world. On the other hand, the
378 APPENDIX II
actual organization of the Universities as it exists today is very
recent. It dates from a law of July 10, 1896, which, grouping
together the various isolated and independent Faculties and Schools
existing at the seats of the various administrative educational
districts, organized them into Universities.
The work of the Universities is comprised under the four Facul-
ties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters, and the Higher School
of Pharmacy. However, not every University possesses all of
these five establishments. But, in whatever University they are
found, the Faculties or Schools are of the same type and offer
essentially the same lines of instruction.
The "Facultes de Medecine" and the "Ecoles superieures de
Pharmacie" provide complete instruction for the degrees of doctor
of medicine and registered pharmacist, and also offer full opportu-
nities for research along these lines. In some of the Universities
the work along these two lines is combined into one school, the
so-called "Facultes mixtes de Medecine et de Pharmacie" and the
"Ecoles de plein exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie." Other
Universities offer only the first three years of studies out of the
five required for the official degrees in medicine and pharmacy, in
the so-called "ficoles preparatoires de Medecine et de Pharmacie."
The "Facultes de Droit" are devoted not only to research and
instruction in the legal sciences, but also in the economic sciences,
such as political economy, finance, administration, etc.
The "Facultes des Sciences," especially devoted to the mathe-
matical, physical and biological sciences, offer instruction and
research in both pure and applied science.
Finally, the "Facultes des Lettres" give full instruction and
offer opportunities for research in philosophy, languages, philology,
history, geography, pedagogy, etc. A certain number have also
organized for the benefit of foreigners special courses in French
literature, philology, and phonetics, which are given either during
the regular school year or during the summer vacation.
"Instituts" and "Ecoles." In a number of Universities the
courses already offered, or the laboratory work already carried on
has been specially organized and co-ordinated with reference to the
achievement of certain special ends in pure science or in the applica-
tion of knowledge to special technical or practical purposes. The
courses so organized constitute the various "Instituts" and
"Ecoles," attached to the various Faculties to which they are
related. The Universities in which they are organized grant
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 379
various degrees and diplomas in recognition of the work success-
fully completed in these special schools.
In order to present a synoptic picture of the various Faculties,
Institutes and Schools which are comprised in each University
today, we have given below a list which is reproduced from the
Handbook of the Office National des Universites:
UNIVERSITE DE PARIS.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte de Medecine.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole superieure de
Pharmacie.
Ecole normale superieure.
Institut de Chimie
appliquee.
Institut aerotechnique.
Institut de Medecine
coloniale.
Institut de Medecine legale
et de Psychiatric.
UNIVERSITE D'AIX-MARSEILLE.
Faculte de Droit (a Aix).
Faculte des Sciences
(a Marseille).
Faculte des Lettres (a Aix).
Ecole de plein exercise de
Medecine et d,e Pharmacie
(a Marseille).
UNIVERSITE D'ALGER.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte mixte de Medecine
et de Pharmacie.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
UNIVERSITE DE BESANCON.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
ficole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
UNIVERSITE DE BORDEAUX.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte mixte de Medecine
et de Pharmacie.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole des hautes etudes
hispaniques de 1'Institut
francais de Madrid
(Espagne).
Institut colonial.
Ecole de Chimie appliquee a
1'industrie et a
1'agriculture.
Institut pratique de Droit.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
UNIVERSITE DE CAEN.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
ficole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers.
UNIVERSITE DE CLERMONT-
FERRAND.
Faculte des Sciences.
38o
APPENDIX II
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
UNIVERSITE DE DIJON.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Institut pratique de droit.
Institut cenologique et
agronomique.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
UNIVERSITE DE GRENOBLE.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
£cole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Institut francais de Florence
(Italie).
Institut polytechnique
(Institut electrotechnique
et Ecole de Papeterie).
Institut des Sciences
commerciales.
Institut de Phonetique.
Institut de Geographic
alpine.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
UNIVERSITE DE LILLE.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte mixte de Medecine
et de Pharmacie.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Institut francais de Londres
(Angleterre).
Institut pratique de Droit.
Institut electrotechnique.
Institut de Chimie.
Institut des Sciences
naturelles.
Institut pedagogique.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels a Lille. — Cours de
vacances a Boulogne-sur-
Mer).
UNIVERSITE DE LYON.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte mixte de Medecine
et de Pharmacie.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole francaise de Droit de
Beyrouth (Syrie).
Ecole francaise d'Ingenieurs
de Beyrouth (Syrie).
Institut des Sciences
economiques et politiques.
Institut bacteriologique.
Institut d'Hygiene.
Ecole de Chimie industrielle.
Ecole de Tannerie.
Institut agronomique.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
College oriental.
UNIVERSITE DE MONTPELLIER.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte de Medecine.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC.
ficole superieure de
Pharmacie.
Institut de Botanique.
Institut de Chimie.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels).
UNIVERSITE DE NANCY
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte de Medecine.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole superieure de
Pharmacie.
Institut electrotechnique et
de Mecanique appliquee.
Institut chimique.
Institut de Geologic.
Ecole de Brasserie et de
Malterie.
Institut agricole.
Institut commercial.
Institut colonial.
Institut dentaire.
Ecole de Laiterie.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels et Cours de
vacances).
UNIVERSITE DE POITIERS.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole preparatoire de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Institut pratique de Droit.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels a Poitiers et a
Tours. Cours de vacances
a Tours).
UNIVERSITE DE RENNES.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Ecole de plein exercise de
Medecine et de Pharmacie.
Cours speciaux de francais
pour les etrangers (Cours
annuels a Rennes. Cours
de vacances a Saint-Malo).
UNIVERSITE DE TOULOUSE.
Faculte de Droit.
Faculte mixte de Medecine
et de Pharmacie.
Faculte des Sciences.
Faculte des Lettres.
Institut electrotechnique.
Institut de Chimie.
Institut agricole.
Union des etudiants francais
et espagnols de 1'Institut
francais de Madrid
(Espagne) .
Institut d'Hydrologie.
Ecole pratique de Droit.
Methods of Instruction. In all the Faculties and Schools, instruc-
tion is given, in the first place, by means of " cours publics," the spe-
cial purpose of which is to set forth, in treating the more general
aspects of the problems, the actual state and results of the main
lines of human knowledge. Courses with a like purpose ("cours
libres") may be offered, on proper authorization, by scholars who
do not belong to the regular teaching staff of the Universities.
382 APPENDIX II
A more technical and intensive instruction is given in the
"cours reserves," open only to regularly matriculated and enrolled
students. These courses are supplemented by discussion periods,
seminaries, and laboratory work. These latter are the most
important factors in developing the student and training him in
scholarly methods.
Finally, the Universities place at the disposition of the students
libraries, museums, and special collections.
Academic Year. Vacations and Holidays. The academic year
begins the first of November and extends to the end of July.
However, because of the examinations, which occupy nearly the
entire month of July, the courses come to an end in June. Con-
sequently, no instruction is offered during the months of July,
August, September and October, except in the special courses
organized in some of the Universities in French literature, philology,
language, etc., for the convenience of foreigners.
Aside from the summer vacation, all courses are discontinued
on legal holidays, during the Christmas holidays (from December
24 to January 2) and during the Easter holidays (fifteen days).
Administration. Each University is administered by a "Con-
seil," composed of representatives of each Faculty or School and
of the "Recteur de I'Academie," who is, de jure, president of the
Council of the University. In the University of Paris, however, the
administrative head has the title of "Vice-Recteur," the Minister
of Public Instruction being "Recteur" ex qfficio.
Each Faculty or School is administered by a Dean or by a
Director, elected by his colleagues, and appointed for three years
by the Minister of Public Instruction.
Each Faculty or School possesses a Secretary's office, to which
the student should apply in fulfilling all the formalities relative to
admission, required courses, examinations, etc.
II. OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION.
The institutions of higher learning independent of the Uni-
versities naturally divide into two great classes: (i) Official institu-
tions under the direct administration of the State; (2) Independent
institutions due to private initiative and funds.
Their organization is as different as their aims. Some are
devoted primarily to research and to the presentation of the results
PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. ECOLE PRATIQUE
PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. ANATOMICAL BUILDINGS
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 383
of research; others aim at giving technical instruction in some
particular branch of learning. Each institution has its own courses
of studies, its special conditions of admission, etc.
No attempt will be made here to treat of each of these institu-
tions; they number more than a hundred. For the purposes of this
Appendix it will be sufficient to call attention to some of the main
differences in the conditions of admission, to give a list of the differ-
ent institutions, and then to single out a few of the more prominent
ones which may be of special interest to American students. For
complete information with reference to any of these schools, the
student is recommended to consult either the Handbook of the
Office National des Universites or the "Livrets de 1'Etudiant,"
issued by the various Universities, which usually contain a de-
scription of all the institutions of higher learning within the
administrative educational district ("Academic") of which the
University is the center.
Foreign students can usually gain admission to practically
every one of these higher institutions, if not directly by presenting
theu: diplomas and certificates, then through the representations of
their Ambassador or Minister before the proper French authorities.
Even though they may not be admitted as regular candidates
for the diploma, conferred by the school, they can usually attend
in the capacity of visitors. In case a student is interested in the
work of some special school, he should not renounce his intent to
enter till he has received a refusal through his embassy.
Admission to some of these establishments, as the College de
France, the Museum d'histoire naturelle, etc., is free of charge and
without scholastic requirement. Admission to others, as the
£cole polytechnique, Ecole des mines, ficole centrale, is gained
only on the basis of competitive examinations.
The following list of institutions of higher education, which
includes the various Instituts and Ecoles attached to the Faculties
of the different Universities, is reproduced from the Handbook of
the Office National des Universites et Ecoles Francaises. The
institutions are grouped under the heading of the branch of study
to which they are primarily devoted.
Etablissements scientifiques et de Hautes Etudes
College de France, a PARIS, place Marcellin-Berthelot.
Museum d'Histoire nahirelle, a PARIS, 57, rue Cuwer.
Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, a PARIS, a la Sorbonne.
384 APPENDIX II
Ecole Nationale des Charles, a PARIS, a la Sorbonne.
Ecole s petiole des Langues orientates vivantes, a PARIS, 2, rue de
Lille.
Ecole du Louvre, a PARIS, au Palais du Louvre.
Institut Pasteur, a PARIS, 26, rue Dutot.
Institut Pasteur de LILLE.
Institut Oceanographique, a PARIS, 195, rue Saint- Jacques.
Enseignement des Sciences juridiques, economiques,
politiques es sociales
Ecole libre des Sciences politiques, a PARIS, 27, rue Saint-
Guillaume.
Institut des Sciences economiques et politiques de 1'Universite de
LYON.
Ecole des Hautes Etudes sociales, a PARIS, 16, rue de la Sorbonne.
College libre des Sciences sociales, a PARIS, 28, rue Serpente.
Faculte libre de Droit de V Institut catholique de PARIS, 74, rue de
Vaugirard.
Facultes libres de Droit, a ANGERS, LILLE, LYON et MARSEILLE.
Ecole libre de Droit de NANTES.
Ecole de Legislation projessionnelle, a PARIS, 16, rue de VAbbaye.
Instituts pratiques de Droit des Universites de BORDEAUX, DIJON,
LILLE, POITIERS et TOULOUSE.
Ecole de Notarial, a Paris, 127, rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs.
Ecoles de Notarial, a ANGERS, BORDEAUX, DIJON, LIMOGES, LYON,
NANTES, POITIERS, RENNES, ROUEN et TOULOUSE.
Enseignement de la Medecine et des Sciences annexes
Ecole de plein exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie de NANTES.
Ecoles preparatoires de Medecine et de Pharmacie, a AMIENS,
ANGERS, LIMOGES, RENNES, ROUEN et TOURS.
Faculte libre de Medecine et de Pharmacie, a LILLE.
Institut de Medecine legate et de Psychiatric de 1'Universite de
PARIS.
Institut de Medecine coloniale de 1'Universite de PARIS.
Institut d'Hygiene de 1'Universite de LYON.
Institut d' Hygiene de 1'Universite de TOULOUSE.
Institut Pasteur, a PARIS, 26, rue Dutot.
Institut Pasteur de LILLE.
Ecole d'Anthropologie, a PARIS, 15, rue de rEcole-de-Medecinc.
Institut general psychologique, a PARIS, 14, rue de Conde.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 385
Institut psycho-physiologique, a PARIS, 49, rue Saint- Andre-
des-Arts.
Ecole franqaise d'Odontologie, a PARIS, 206, boulevard Raspail.
Ecole jranqaise de Stomatologie, a PARIS, 24, passage Dauphine.
Institut dentaire de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Ecole Odontotechnique, a PARIS, 5, rue Garanciere.
Ecole dentaire de Paris, 45, rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne.
Ecole dentaire jranqaise, a PARIS, 29, boulevard Saint-Martin.
Ecoles dentaires, a BORDEAUX et a LYON.
Enseignement des Lettres
Faculte libre des Lettres de I'Institut catholique, a PARIS, 74, rue de
Vaugirard.
Facultes libres des Lettres, a ANGERS, LILLE, LYON et TOULOUSE.
Enseignement des Sciences
Ecole libre des Hautes Etudes scientifiques , a PARIS, 74, rue de
Vaugirard.
Facultes libres des Sciences, a ANGERS, LILLE, LYON et TOULOUSE.
Enseignement de la Theologie
Faculte libre de Theologie de V Institut catholique de PARIS, 74, rue de
Vaugirard.
Facultes libres de Theologie catholique d'ANGERS, LILLE, LYON et
TOULOUSE.
Faculte libre de Droit canonique de V Institut catholique de
PARIS.
Faculte libre de Theologie protestante de PARIS, 83, boulevard
Arago.
Faculte libre de Theologie protestante de MONTAUBAN.
Enseignement du Francais pour les etrangers
Cours speciaux annuels des Universites de BESANCON, BORDEAUX,
CAEN, DIJON, GRENOBLE, LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER,
NANCY, POITIERS, RENNES et TOULOUSE, de I' Institut d' Etudes
franqaises de Touraine, a TOURS, et de la Guilde Internationale,
a PARIS, 6, rue de la Sorbonne.
Cours de vacances des Universites de BESANCON, BORDEAUX, DIJON,
GRENOBLE, LILLE (a Boulogne-sur Mer), LYON, NANCY, RENNES
(a Saint-Malo], TOULOUSE, et de V Institut d' Etudes fran$aises
de Touraine, a TOURS.
386 APPENDIX II
Cours de vacances de I' Alliance franqaise, a PARIS, 186, boulevard
Saint-Germain, et de la Guilde Internationale.
Ecoles preparatoires a Tenseignement
Ecole Normale superieure, a PARIS, 45, rue d'Ulm.
Ecole Normale superieure d* Enseignement secondaire des jeunes
filles, a SEVRES (Seine-et-Oise).
Ecole Normale superieure de I ' Enseignement technique, a PARIS,
751, boulevard de VHopital.
Ecole Normale superieure d'Instituteurs, a SAINT-CLOUD (Seine-et-
Oise).
Ecole Normale superieure d'lnstitutrices, a FONTENAY-AUX-ROSES.
Ecoles Normales primaires d'Instituteurs et d'lnstitutrices.
Ecoles Militaires
Ecole Superieure de Guerre, a PARIS, 33, avenue de la Motte-
Picquet.
Ecole Poly technique, a PARIS, 21, rue Descartes.
Ecole speciale militaire, a SAINT-CYR (Seine-et-Oise).
Ecole du Service de Sante militaire, a LYON.
Ecole du Service de Sante militaire, a PARIS, au Val-de-Grdce, 277, rue
Saint- Jacques.
Ecole du Service des Poudres et Salpetres, a PARIS. 12, boulevard
• Henri-IV. , ,
Ecoles de la Marine
Ecole Superieure de la Marine, a PARIS, 73, rue de VUniversite.
Ecole d Application du Genie maritime, a PARIS, 140, boulevard
du Montparnasse.
Ecole Navale, a BREST.
Ecole du Service de sante de la Marine, a BORDEAUX.
Ecole annexe de Medecine navale, a BREST.
Ecole du Commissariat de la Marine, a BREST.
Ecoles des Mecaniciens des equipages de la flotte, a BREST.
Ecoles d'Hydrographie, a ALGER, BORDEAUX, BOULOGNE, MAR-
SEILLE, NANTES, BREST, BASTIA, DUNKERQUE, LORIENT,
TOULON, LE HAVRE, SAINT-BRIEUC, AGDE, GRANVILLE, PAIM-
POL, SAINT-MALO et SAINT-TROPEZ.
Ecoles d ' Enseignement professionnel et technique des peches mari-
times, a BOULOGNE-SUR-MER, DIEPPE, CALAIS, ARCACHON,
CONCARNEAU, LE CROISIC, FECAMP, CROIX, LES SABLES-
D'OLONNE, SAINT-VAAST-LA-HOUGUE.
PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. FACADE
PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. READING ROOM
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 387
Enseignement agricole
Institut National agronomique, a PARIS, 16, rue Claude-Bernard.
Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets, a NANCY.
Ecoles Nationales d 'Agriculture, a GRIGNON (Seine-et-Oise).
MONTPELLIER et RENNES.
Institut agronomique de 1'Universite de LYON.
Institut agricole de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Institut agricole de 1'Universite de TOULOUSE.
Institut agricole de BEAUVAIS (Oise).
Ecole Nationale superieure d' Agriculture coloniale, a NOGENT-SUR-
MARNE.
Ecole Superieure d' Agriculture d' ANGERS.
Ecole Nationale d? Horticulture de VERSAILLES.
Ecole Nationale d' horticulture et de Vannerie de FAYL-BILLOT
(Haute-Marne).
Ecole Nationale des Industries agricoles de DOUAI.
Ecoles Nationales de V Industrie laitiere, a MAMIROLLE (Doubs) et
a POLIGNY (Jura).
Ecole de Laiterie de I'Universite de NANCY.
Ecole de Brasserie et de Malterie de I'Universite de NANCY.
Institut (enologique de I'Universite de DIJON.
Ecoles Nationales veterinaires, a ALFORT (Seine), LYON et TOU-
LOUSE.
Ecole des Haras, au PIN-AU-HARAS (Orne).
Enseignements concernant les Colonies
Ecole Coloniale, a PARIS, 2, avenue de rObservatoire.
Institut Colonial de I'Universite de BORDEAUX.
Institut Colonial de I'Universite de NANCY.
Institut de Medecine coloniale de I'Universite de Paris.
Cours de Medecine coloniale de I 'Ecole de Medecine de MARSEILLE.
Ecole Nationale superieure d' Agriculture coloniale de NOGENT-SUR-
MARNE.
Ecoles Coloniales dj Agriculture de TUNIS et de PHILIPPE VILLE
(Algerie).
Enseignement technique industriel
Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, a PARIS, 292, rue Saint-
Martin.
Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, a PARIS, i, rue Montgolfier.
388 APPENDIX II
Ecole Centrale lyonnaise, a LYON.
Institut industriel du nord de la France, a LILLE.
Ecole speciale des Travaux publics, du Bailment et de VIndustrie,
a PARIS, 3, rue Thenard.
Ecole d'Ingenieurs, a MARSEILLE.
Ecoles Rationales des Arts et Metiers de PARIS (751, boulevard de
I'Hopital), Aix, ANGERS, CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, CLUNY
(Saone-et-Loire) et LILLE.
Ecoles nationales professionnelles, a ARMENTIERES (Nord), NANTES,
VIERZON (Cher), VOIRON (Isere).
Ecole de la Martiniere, a Lyon.
Ecole Nationale des Fonts et Chaussees, a Paris, 28, rue des Saints-
Peres.
Ecole Nationale superieure des Mines, a PARIS, 60, boulevard Saint-
Michel.
Ecole Nationale des Mines de SAINT-ETIENNE.
Institut de Geologic de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Institut d'Hydrologie de 1'Universite de TOULOUSE.
Ecoles des Mattres mineurs d'ALAis et DOUAI.
Institut Electrotechnique de 1'Universite de GRENOBLE.
Institut Electrotechnique de 1'Universite de LILLE.
Institut Electrotechnique et de Mecanique appliquee de 1'Universite
de NANCY.
Institut Electrotechnique de 1'Universite de TOULOUSE.
Ecole Superieure d'Electricite, a PARIS, 12, rue de StaeL.
Ecole d'Electricite et de Mecanique industrielle, a PARIS, 50, rue
Violet.
Ecole d' Electricite industrielle, a MARSEILLE.
Ecole pratique d' Electricite industrielle, a PARIS, 53, rue Bel-
Hard.
Ecole speciale de Mecanique et d' Electricite, a PARIS, 20 bis, rue
Bertrand.
Ecole Breguet, a PARIS, 81-83, rue Falguiere.
Institut de Chimie appliquee de 1'Universite de PARIS.
Institut chimique de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Institut de Chimie de 1'Universite de TOULOUSE.
Institut de Chimie de 1'Universite de MONTPELLIER.
Institut et Ecole de Chimie de 1'Universite de LILLE.
Ecole de Chimie appliquee a I'industrie et d V agriculture de 1'Uni-
versite de BORDEAUX.
Ecole de Chimie industrielle de 1'Universite de LYON.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 389
Ecole municipale de Physique et de Chimie industrielles, a PARIS,
10, rue Vauquelin.
Institut de Chimie industrielle de CLERMONT-FERRAND.
Ecole de Chimie industrielle de ROUEN.
Institut Aerotechnique de 1'Universite de PARIS, a SAINT-CYR-
L'ECOLE (Seine-et-Oise).
Ecole Superieure d'Aeronautique et de Construction mecanique, a
PARIS, 92, rue de Clignancourt.
Ecole Superieure professionnelle des Pastes et Telegraphes, a PARIS,
103, rue de Crenelle.
Ecoles Nationales d'Horlogerie de BESANCON et de CLUSES (Haute-
Savoie).
Ecole de Papeterie de 1'Universite de GRENOBLE.
Ecole de Tannerie de 1'Universite de LYON.
Ecole de Brasserie et de Malterie de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Enseignement technique commercial
Ecole des Hautes Etudes commerciales, a PARIS, 43, rue de Tocque-
ville.
Institut des Sciences commerciales de 1'Universite de GRENOBLE.
Institut Commercial de 1'Universite de NANCY.
Institut Commercial de PARIS, 15, avenue de Wagram.
Ecole Superieure pratique de Commerce et d'Industrie, a PARIS,
7P, avenue de la Republique.
Ecole Superieure pratique de Commerce et d 'Industrie de LILLE.
Ecoles Superieures de Commerce d'ALGER, BORDEAUX, DIJON,
LE HAVRE, LYON, MARSEILLE, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, NANTES,
ROUEN et TOULOUSE.
Enseignement des Beaux-Arts
Ecole Nationale et speciale des Beaux- Arts, a PARIS, 14, rue Bona-
parte.
Ecole du Louvre, a PARIS, au Palais du Louvre.
Ecoles Nationales des Beaux-Arts, a ALGER, BOURGES, DIJON,
LYON, TOULOUSE.
Ecoles regionales des Beaux- Arts, a AMIENS, CLERMONT-FERRAND,
MONTPELLIER, NANCY, RENNES, ROUEN, SAINT-ETIENNE,
TOURS.
Ecoles Municipals des Beaux-Arts, a ANGERS, AVIGNON, BOR-
DEAUX, CAEN, GRENOBLE, LE HAVRE, LILLE, POITIERS.
Ecole speciale d' Architecture, a PARIS, 254, boulevard RaspaiL
390 APPENDIX II
Ecoles regionales d' Architecture, a LILLE, LYON, MARSEILLE,
RENNES et ROUEN.
Ecole de Sculpture, a GRENOBLE.
Ecole Nationale des Arts decor atijs, a PARIS, 5, rue de l'Ecole-de-
Medecine et 10, rue de Seine.
Ecoles Rationales des Arts decoratifs, a AUBUSSON, LIMOGES et
NICE.
Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts et des Arts decor at if s de BORDEAUX.
Ecole Nationale des Arts appliques a I' Industrie de BOURGES.
Ecole Nationale des Arts appliques a V Industrie, a ROUBAIX (Nord).
Ecole departementale d'Art applique de BORDEAUX.
Ecole des Beaux-Arts et des Sciences industrielles de TOULOUSE.
Ecoles regionales des Arts industriels, a REIMS et a SAINT-!ETIENNE.
Conservatoire National de Musique et de Declamation, a PARIS,
14, rue de Madrid.
Conservatoires Nationaux et Ecoles Nationales de Musique, a CHAM-
BERY, DIJON, LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, NANTES,
NIMES, PERPIGNAN, RENNES, TOULOUSE, AMDZNS, CAEN,
DOUAI, TOURS, etc.
Schola Cantorum, a PARIS, 269, me Saint- Jacques.
Among the schools enumerated above are several, mostly
located in Paris, to which special attention should be called, either
since they offer lines of work which are not presented by the
Universities or since their work extends and supplements trie work
of the Universities.
College de France. Founded in 1530 by Francis I, in opposi-
tion to the then mediaevalism of the Sorbonne, the College de France
has been throughout its history one of the most famous and
active seats of liberal investigation in the world. Its central aim
is to contribute to the progress of science by discoveries, research,
and instruction and finally by special undertakings and publica-
tions. As at present constituted, it comprises forty-five chairs of
research, representing nearly all the main lines of investigation.
In general function it corresponds very closely to our Carnegie
Institution.
The courses of lectures are open to the general public without
any charge. On the contrary, admission to the laboratories is
granted only to persons authorized by the professors in charge and
who evidence sufficient preparation. The College de France con-
fers no degree and grants no diploma. However, each professor
PARIS. THE PHARMACY SCHOOL. FACADE
PARIS. THE PHARMACY SCHOOL.
BOTANIC GARDEN AND LABORATORIES
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 391
may deliver either "Certificats d'assiduite" or "Certificats de
recherches" or "d'etudes," which are countersigned by the
Director.
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, at 57 rue Cuvier, Paris. The
Museum has as its object to provide public instruction in natural
history; but through its instruction and through the investiga-
tions carried on in its laboratories, it is an institution of pure
science, of free and disinterested research. It comprises eighteen
chairs, devoted to the different branches of biological science.
The courses of the Museum are open to the general public
free of charge. In order to follow the lectures and experiments,
it is necessary to enroll at the various laboratories ; but no diploma
is required, and foreigners are admitted on the same conditions
as Frenchmen. The Museum, like the College de France, confers
no degree and delivers no diploma. However, a "Certificat
d'assiduite" may be given at the end of the year to regular attend-
ants by the professors whose courses they have followed.
Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, at the Sorbonne. This
school is intended to furnish, alongside the purely theoretical
instruction of the Faculties, advanced practical work which may
strengthen and extend it.
The school is divided into five sections: (i) Historical and
philological sciences; (2) Mathematical sciences; (3) Physical-
chemical sciences; (4) Biological sciences; (5) Religious sciences.
But only the sections of Historical and Philological sciences and
that of Religious sciences are centralized, and, installed at the
Sorbonne, have a real and autonomous existence. The others are
constituted by courses and laboratories at the Museum, the
College de France, and at the Faculties of the University of Paris
and even of the provinces.
The courses are open to the public free of charge. No require-
ment as to age, nationality, or degree is demanded for enrollment.
But in order to be admitted to a laboratory, it is necessary to obtain
the permission of the Director.
The normal course of study is three years. At the end of the
first year, which is a sort of probation year, the regular attendants
who have done satisfactory work receive the title of "Eleves
titulaires de 1'ecole pratique des hautes etudes"; at the end of three
years, they may, by presenting a memoir, obtain the title of
"Eleves diplomes." "
392 APPENDIX II
Institut Pasteur, at 26, rue Dutot, Paris. The Institut Pasteur
is at the same time a center of research, a school of higher instruc-
tion, and, in certain of its sections, a medical establishment. It is
divided into three sections: Section of microbiology; Section of
serotherapy; Section of biological chemistry.
In this latter section theoretical and practical instruction is
offered, comprising courses and laboratory work during three
months beginning in November. The fees for laboratory work,
material, and instruction is 250 francs. A "Certificat de presence
et d'etudes" may be granted to students who have followed regu-
larly the courses and laboratory work.
Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, at 27, rue Saint-Guill-
aume, Paris. This is one of the most famous schools in the world,
in the field of the political, social, and economic sciences. Its
courses of study comprise all the sciences necessary for the train-
ing of anyone who would make politics his profession or would
enter upon an administrative career.
Organization. The courses and lectures are grouped under
five sections: Administrative section; Economic and Financial
section; Economic and Social section; Diplomatic section; General
section (Public law and history). The course of study normally
requires three years. A supplementary year, comprised of special
courses, is open to graduate students of the school.
Conditions of admission. The School receives regularly en-
rolled pupils or auditors, whether foreigners or Frenchmen. No
university degree nor any examination is required for admission.
Fees. Enrollment for the entire normal course of study:
350 francs a year. Partial enrollment for a single course or for
one lecture a week: 70 francs a year. Enrollment for the supple-
mentary year: 250 francs.
Degree. In each section, a partial examination is held at the
end of each year and a general examination at the end of the three
years' course. A diploma is conferred on the candidates who suc-
cessfully pass these examinations. Fees for the examinations and
the diploma: 140 francs.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 393
II. DEGREES, DIPLOMAS, AND CERTIFICATES
IN THE UNIVERSITIES.
Scholastic work done in French Universities may be attested
by certificates of assiduity, or by degrees, diplomas, and certificates.
There are two great and distinct groups of degrees, diplomas,
and certificates: (i) those conferred by the State; (2) those con-
ferred by the Universities.
(1) The degrees, diplomas, and certificates, conferred by the
State, grant to those who possess them various prerogatives, par-
ticularly the right of practising in France certain professions.
(2) The degrees, diplomas, and certificates conferred by the
Universities themselves, and in their own name, serve to attest
studies pursued for which the State has created no formal approval;
or again they put upon the same studies as those pursued for the
corresponding degrees of the State a stamp of equal value, without
conferring the right to practise in France the professions for which
the possession of the latter is required. As, in general, the condi-
tions of "inscription" for the degrees conferred by the Universities
make it possible to take fuller account of the scholastic work
already done in other countries, these degrees and diplomas are
more easily accessible to foreign students.
I. CERTIFICATES OF ASSIDUITY (" CERTIFICATE D'ASSIDUITE").
These certificates are especially useful to foreign students who
desire to receive credit in the universities of then- native country
for the time they have spent in a French University. They may
be earned by any foreign student who has been regularly matricu-
lated and who has taken part in the prescribed work of a Faculty or
School during at least one semester.
As the formalities for keeping track of this prescribed work
vary from University to University and from Faculty to Faculty,
all students desiring, at the end of then* studies, to obtain such a
certificate are recommended to make this intention known when
they matriculate at the office of the Secretary of their Faculty.
They will then receive instructions relative to their various obliga-
tions.
A request for a Certificate of Assiduity must be addressed to
the office of the Secretary of the Faculty at the end of the
semester.
394 APPENDIX II
II. DEGREES, DIPLOMAS, AND CERTIFICATES CONFERRED
BY THE STATE.
These degrees, diplomas, and certificates are those required by
the State for the practice in France of various professions.
They will be found enumerated in the following description,
grouped under the Faculties which confer them, together with an
indication of the work prescribed and fees required.
A . Degrees and Diplomas in Law
The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Facul-
ties of Law, are the "Certificat de capacite en droit," the "Licence
en droit," and the "Doctorat en droit."
Certificat de Capacite en Droit. Open to both French and
foreign students without any requirement as to degrees or diplomas.
Prescribed work: Two years of study, evidenced by eight "in-
scriptions;" examinations at the end of each of the two years.
Expenses involved: "Inscriptions," 260 francs; fees for ex-
aminations and certificate, 130 francs.
Licence en Droit. Open to French students who produce the
"baccalaureat" or an exemption from the "baccalaureat," and to
foreign students who can produce the "baccalaureat" or who
have obtained an equivalence of the "baccalaureat." Prescribed
course: Three years of study, involving twelve "inscriptions;"
examinations at the end of each of the three years of study. Suc-
cess in passing the examinations which close the second year
confers the degree of "bachelier en droit." Expenses involved:
"Inscriptions," 3 90 francs; fees for examinations and diplomas,
750 francs.
Doctorat en Droit. The "doctorat en droit" is general, as far
as the degree is concerned, but the diploma bears an indication of
one of the two lines of specialization: "sciences juridiques" or
"sciences politiques et economiques." Conditions of admission:
Candidates must be "licencies en droit." Foreigners who have
not obtained the "licence en droit," but who have already gradu-
ated from a foreign university, may become candidates for the
"doctorat" on the condition that they obtain an equivalence of the
"licence." Prescribed work: One year of study, involving four
"inscriptions;" examinations: two oral examinations and the
defense of a thesis. Expenses involved: "Inscriptions," 130
francs; fees for examinations, thesis and diploma, 445 francs.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 395
B. Degrees and Diplomas in Medicine
The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Facul-
ties of Medicine, the "Facultes mixtes," and the "Ecoles de plein
exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie," are the "Doctorat en
medecine," the "Diplome de chirurgien-dentiste," and the "Di-
plomes de sagefemme" (ist and 2nd class).
Doctorat en Medecine. The diploma of the State of " docteur en
medecine" is the degree which confers the right to practice medicine
throughout the entire extent of French territory. Conditions of
admission: Candidates must present the " baccalaureat francais"
and the "certificat d'etudes physiques, chimiques et naturelles"
("P. C. N."), granted by a Faculty of Science. No exemption or
equivalence is admitted. Prescribed course: Five years of re-
quired studies, involving twenty "inscriptions." Clinical work is
obligatory during the entire term of study. During the first four
years it must be pursued at the seat of the faculty or School itself;
during the fifth year, it may, with the consent of the Faculty, be
pursued in institutions at the choice of the student either in France
or abroad. Internes and externes attached to hospitals, who are
appointed on the basis of competitive examinations may count
their service as equivalent to the clinical work in medicine and
surgery. Examinations at the end of each of the five years of
study. Three clinical examinations. Defense of a thesis. Ex-
penses involved: "Inscriptions" and laboratory fees, 950 francs ;
fees for examinations, thesis and diploma, 690 francs.
Diplome de Chirurgien-Dentiste. This diploma is required of
everyone who wishes to practice dentistry in France. Conditions
of admission: Candidates must be at least 16 years old and must
present either the "baccalaureat," or the "brevet superieur de
I'enseignement primaire," or the "certificate d'etudes primaires
superieures," or the "diplome de fin d'etudes de I'enseignement
secondaire des jeunes filles." No equivalence or exemption is
permitted. Prescribed course: Five years, comprising three years
of studies and two years of clinical work, involving twelve "in-
scriptions." The clinical and scholastic work is done, either in the
Faculties or Schools of Medicine in which dental instruction is
organized, or in the independent institutions of higher dental
instruction; e. g., the "Ecole dentaire," the "Ecole odontotech-
nique," and the "Ecole dentaire francaise" in Paris. A partial
exemption from the prescribed course may be granted to foreign
dentists if they have already obtained one of the French diplomas
396 APPENDIX II
indicated above. Examinations: (i) A test of clinical knowledge
and ability; (2) three examinations, one at the end of each year of
scholastic work. Medical students who present twelve "inscrip-
tions" are admitted to the examinations for the "diplome de
chirurgien-dentiste," with complete exemption from the first of
these examinations if they complete successfully the two years of
clinical work. Expenses involved: The fees in the various in-
dependent schools of dentistry vary from 1000 to 2500 francs for
the three-year course; fees for examinations and diploma, 250
francs.
Diplome de Sage-Femme. These diplomas must be produced
by all women who would practice the art of midwifery in French
territory.
C. Degrees and Diplomas in the Sciences.
The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Faculties
of Sciences, are the " Certificat d'etudes physiques, chimiques et
naturelles" (P. C. N.), the "Certificats d'etudes superieures de
sciences," the " Licence," the "Diplomes d'etudes superieures de
sciences," and the "Doctorat es sciences."
Certificat d' Etudes Physiques, Chimiques et Naturelles (" P. C. N. ") .
Open to French students who present the "baccalaureat," or the
"brevet superieur," or the " Certificat d'etudes primaires supe-
rieures," or the "diplome de fin d'etudes de 1'enseignement secon-
dair° des jeunes filles." Foreign students who have not obtained
the "baccalaureat" may work for this certificate by obtaining an
equivalence therefor. However, all students, foreigners as well as
Frenchmen, who desire, by presenting this certificate, to become
candidates for the degree of "docteur en medecine" conferred by
the State, must absolutely be provided with the "baccalaureat
francais." Prescribed course: A year of study involving four
"inscriptions;" examinations at the end of the year. Expenses
involved: Inscriptions and laboratory fees, 220 francs; examina-
tion, 85 francs.
Certificats d'fitudes Superieures de Sciences. The number and
nature of these certificates vary according to the Universities. In
the sections devoted to the various Faculties of Sciences in the
hand-book published by the Office National des Universities et
Ecoles Francaises or in the "Livrets de 1'Etudiant" published by
each University, will be found a complete list of the certificates
conferred by each Faculty. Conditions of admission: These
PARIS. THE SCHOOL OF SCIENCES.
ONE OF THE BOTANICAL LABORATORIES
PARIS. THE SCHOOL OF SCIENCES.
LABORATORY OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
INSTITUTIONS DEGREES, ETC. 397
certificates are open to French students who present the "bac-
calaureat" or an exemption therefrom, and to foreign students who
have already obtained the " baccalaureat " or an equivalence for
the"baccalaureat." Prescribed course : One year of study involv-
ing four "inscriptions"; examinations comprise a written test, a
test as to laboratory ability, and an oral test. Expenses involved :
"Inscriptions," 130 francs; the laboratory fees vary from 40 to
100 francs according to the nature of the studies; examination
fee, 35 francs for the first certificate, and 30 francs for each suc-
ceeding certificate.
Licence es Sciences. The "diplome de licencie es sciences "is
conferred, on the payment of a diploma fee of 40 francs, to any
student who has obtained three of the "certificats d'etudes supe-
rieures," chosen by him from the list of those which the Faculty
is authorized to grant.
Diplomes d 'Etudes superieures de Sciences. These diplomas are
three in number and bear an indication of one of the following lines
of specialization: Mathematics, Physical sciences, Natural
sciences. Conditions of admission: No condition whatever as to
age, "inscription," degree, or nationality is required. Examina-
tions: (i) Composition of a monograph bearing on a subject
approved by the Faculty; (2) an oral examination on this work
and allied subject-matter.
Doctoral es Sciences. The "doctorat es sciences" is general, so
far as the degree is concerned, but the diploma may bear an indica-
tion of one of the following lines of specialization: Mathematics,
Physical sciences, Natural sciences. Conditions of admission:
Candidates must be "licencies es sciences" ("Licence d'enseigne-
ment") or, if they are foreigners, have obtained an equivalence of
the "licence." Examinations: Two theses or a thesis and a dis-
cussion of problems formulated by the Faculty. Fees for the
examination and diploma: 145 francs.
D. Degrees and Diplomas in Letters.
The degrees and diplomas of the State , earned under the Faculties
of Letters, are the "Licence es lettres," the "Diplomes d'etudes
superieures," and the "Doctorat es lettres."
The "dip!6me de licencie es lettres" bears an indication of one
of the following lines of specialization: Philosophy, History and
Geography, Classical Languages and Literatures, Modern Lan-
guages and Literatures. Conditions of admission: French candi-
398 APPENDIX II
dates must present the " baccalaureat " or an exemption therefrom,
and foreign candidates, if they have not the "baccalaureat fran-
cais," must have obtained an equivalence therefor. Prescribed
course: A year of study involving four " inscriptions;" the ex-
aminations comprise both written and oral tests. Expenses
involved: "Inscriptions," 130 francs; examination fee, 105
francs.
Diplome d'&udes Superieures de Lettres. These diplomas are
four in number, corresponding to the four following lines of spe-
cialization: Philosophy, History and Geography, Classical Lan-
guages and Literatures, Modern Languages and Literatures.
Conditions of admission: No requirement as to age, "inscription,"
degree, or nationality is demanded. Examinations: (i) Com-
position of a monograph on a subject approved by the Faculty;
(2) oral examination on this composition and allied subject
matter.
Doctoral es Lettres. The candidates must be "licencies es
lettres" or, if they are foreigners, have obtained an equivalence of
the "licence" (cf. infra). Examinations: Two theses must be pre-
sented and defended. The first must be written in French. The
second, which may be a memoir or a critical study, must be written
either in French or in one of the ancient or modern languages taught
at the Faculty. It should be, as far as possible, a work of erudition :
critical bibliography or catalogue, critical edition of an important
text not already published or badly published, critical examination
of or commentary on a document, etc. The subject and plan of
both the theses must be approved by the Faculty. The fees for
the theses and the diploma amount to 140 francs.
E. Degrees and Diplomas in Pharmaceutical Studies
The degrees and diplomas conferred by the State for pharma-
ceutical studies are the "Diplome de pharmacien," "Dipl6me
superieur de pharmacien," and "Certificats d'aptitude a la pro-
fession d'herboriste."
The "diplome de pharmacien" is required of every one acting
as a pharmacist in France. The "baccalaureat francais" is
absolutely required of all candidates, French or foreign, for either
of the first two degrees mentioned above.
Since the number of American students interested in this line
of work is apt to be much smaller than in the lines previously
mentioned, it will be sufficient to refer to the handbook of the
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 399
Office National des Universites or the "Livrets de PEtudiant"
of the various Universities for the conditions of admission, courses
prescribed, examinations and fees incident to each of these
degrees.
III. DEGREES, DIPLOMAS, AND CERTIFICATES CONFERRED
BY THE UNIVERSITIES.
As has already been said above, the Universities have
created degrees and diplomas, either for stamping with formal
approval and value courses of study to which no degree or diploma
of the State corresponds, or for rendering it possible for foreign
students, by receiving credit for then- previous foreign studies, to
obtain diplomas which have the same scientific value as the
corresponding diplomas conferred by the State, but which do not
grant the same right to practise in France certain professions.
Since these degrees and diplomas are created by the Univer-
sities themselves, the work prescribed and the fees required vary
from one University to another, even though the names by which
they are designated are the same. Furthermore, since the degrees
number nearly a hundred, each with its own requirements, it has
seemed wise to present merely a list of these degrees and diplomas
to indicate their variety and scope ; and then to single out for special
consideration a few in which American students would more likely
be interested.
In the following list, which is reproduced from the Handbook of
the Office National des Universites et Ecoles Francaises (pp. 48-
52), each degree and diploma is arranged under the head of the
Faculty which confers it. For a complete statement of the re-
quirements for obtaining these various degrees, consult the Hand-
book or the "Livrets de 1'etudiant" issued by the various Uni-
versities.
A. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in Law, Politics,
Economics, and Commerce
Doctoral en droit: Universites de PARIS, DIJON, GRENOBLE, LILLE,
LYON, et NANCY.
Doctoral es lots: Universite de CAEN.
Licence en droit: Universites de DIJON et de NANCY.
Certificat superieur de capacile en droit: Universite de GRENOBLE.
Certificat d1 eludes juridiques: Universite de NANCY.
400 APPENDIX II
Certificat deludes pratiques de droit: Universites de BORDEAUX,
CAEN, DIJON, LILLE, POITIERS.
Certificat d' 'etudes notariales: Universite de LYON.
Certificat d'etudes des sciences juridiques, politiques ou economiques:
Universite de DIJON.
Diplome de Vlnstitut lyonnais des sciences economiques et politiques:
University de LYON.
Certificat de sciences penales: Universite de PARIS.
Certificat d' etudes penales: Universite de MONTPELLIER.
Certificat d'etudes administrates et financier es: Universites de
PARIS et de TOULOUSE.
Certificat d' etudes administrates algeriennes: Universite d'ALGER.
Certificat superieur d'etudes administratives algeriennes: Universite
D'ALGER.
Dipldmes d' etudes coloniales: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome de Vlnstitut d ' enseignement commercial de 1'Universite de
GRENOBLE.
Certificat d'etudes de Vlnstitut d' enseignement commercial de 1'Uni-
versite de GRENOBLE.
Diplome d'ingenieur commercial: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome d'etudes superieures commer dales: Universite de NANCY.
Certificat d' etudes superieures commer dales: Universite de NANCY.
B. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in Medicine
and Allied Subjects
Doctoral en medecine: Universites de PARIS, ALGER, BORDEAUX,
LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, TOULOUSE.
Diplome de mededn colonial: Universites de PARIS et de BOR-
DEAUX.
Diplome d'etudes medicates coloniales: Universite d'Aix-MAR-
SEILLE.
Diplome de medecine legate et psychiatrie: Universite de PARIS.
Diplome d' etudes de medecine legate et de psychiatric medicolegale:
Universite de LILLE.
Diplome d' etudes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de LYON.
Diplome de docteur es sciences biologiques: Universite de NANCY.
Certificat d'etudes spcdales d'hygiene: Universite de LILLE.
Certificat d'etudes d'hygiene: Universites de LYON et de TOULOUSE.
Certificat d'etudes hydrologiques: Universite de TOULOUSE.
Diplome de chirurgien-dentiste pour les etudiants etrangers: Uni-
versites de BORDEAUX, LILLE et NANCY.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 401
C. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in the Sciences
(Pure and Applied Sciences, Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, Electrotechnic, etc.)
Doctoral es sciences: Universites de PARIS, AIX-MARSEILLE,
BESANCON, BORDEAUX, CLERMONT, DIJON, GRENOBLE, LILLE,
LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, TOULOUSE.
Diplome de mathematiques generates: Universite de LYON.
Diplome de licencie mecanicien: Universite de LILLE.
Diplome d'ingenieur mecanicien: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome de licencie physicien: Universite de LILLE.
Brevet d' electricite industrielle: Universites d' AIX-MARSEILLE et de
CLERMONT.
Certificat d'etudes d' electricite industrielle: Universite d'ALGER.
Diplome d' electricite appliquee: Universite de BESANCON.
Brevet ou certificat d'etudes electrotechniques: Universites de GRE-
NOBLE, LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER.
Diplome d'ingenieur electricien: Universites de GRENOBLE, NANCY,
TOULOUSE.
Brevet d' electricien: Universite de POITIERS.
Brevet de conducteur electricien: Universite de GRENOBLE.
Diplome d'ingenieur chimiste: Universites de PARIS, BORDEAUX,
LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, TOULOUSE.
Diplome de chimiste: Universites d' AIX-MARSEILLE, ALGER,
CLERMONT, RENNES.
Brevet de chimie industrielle: Universite de CLERMONT.
Brevet d'etudes techniques de chimie industrielle: Universite de
LYON.
Brevet de chimie agricole: Universite de CLERMONT.
Diplome de chimiste agricole: Universite de POITIERS.
Diplome de sciences chimiques et naturelles appliquees a V agriculture:
Universite de RENNES.
Diplome d' agriculture: Universite de BESANCON.
Diplome d'etudes agronomiques superieures: Universite de LYON.
Diplome d'etudes superieures agronomiques: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome d'etudes d' agronomic: Universite de CAEN.
Diplome d'etudes agricoles: Universite de TOULOUSE.
Diplome d'etudes coloniales: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome de licencie geologue: Universite de LILLE.
Diplome d'ingenieur geologue: Universite de NANCY.
Diplome de geologue mineralogiste: Universite d'ALGER.
402 APPENDIX II
Dipldme d'hydrobiologie et de pisciculture: Universite de TOULOUSE.
Certificat d1 etudes superieures de sciences appliquees au genie civil:
Universite d'ALGER.
Dipldme d' etudes superieures aerodynamiques: Universite de
NANCY.
Dipldme d'ingenieur horloger: Universite de BESANCON.
Brevet d'cenologie: Universite de DIJON.
Dipldme superieur d'etudes cenologiques: Universite de DIJON.
Dipldme d'ingenieur papetier: Universite de GRENOBLE.
Brevet de conducteur papetier: Universite de GRENOBLE.
Dipldme d 'etudes superieures de brasserie: Universite de NANCY.
Dipldme d'ingenieur brasseur: Universite de NANCY.
Certificat d'etudes de I'&cole de laiterie: Universite de NANCY.
Dipldme d'etudes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de LYON.
Certificat de maturite du College oriental de 1'Universite de
LYON.
Dipldme d'aptitude a V enseignement (mention Sciences} du College
oriental de 1'Universite de LYON.
Dipldme d'etudes scientifiques du College oriental de 1'Universite de
LYON.
D. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in the Humanities
(Literatures, Linguistics, Philosophy, History,
Geography, etc.)
Doctoral es lettres: Universites de PARIS, AIX-MARSEILLE, BE-
SANCON, BORDEAUX, CAEN, CLERMONT, DIJON, GRENOBLE,
LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, POITIERS, RENNES,
TOULOUSE.
Dipldme d'etudes universitaires: Universites de PARIS et de BOR-
DEAUX.
Certificat d'etudes litter air es: Universite de POITIERS.
Certificat d'etudes franqaises: Universites de PARIS, BESANCON,
BORDEAUX, CAEN, CLERMONT, GRENOBLE, LILLE, LYON,
MONTPELLIER, NANCY, POITIERS, RENNES, TOULOUSE.
Dipldme de langue franqaise: Universite de DIJON.
Brevet de langue franqaise: Universite de DIJON.
Dipldme de hautes etudes de langue et de litterature franqaises:
Universite de GRENOBLE.
Dipldme d'etudes superieures de phonetique franqaise: Universites
de GRENOBLE et de LILLE.
Certificat de maturite du College oriental de 1'Universite de LYON.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 403
Dipldme d'aptitude a V enseignement (mention lettres} du College
oriental de Universite de LYON.
Dipldme d1 etudes litter air es du College oriental de 1'Universite
de LYON.
Certificat d'aptitude a V enseignement du fran$ais a Vetranger:
Universites de GRENOBLE et de POITIERS.
Certificat superieur pour V enseignement du franqais a Vetranger:
Universite de GRENOBLE.
Dipldme deludes pedagogiques superieures: Universite de LYON.
Dipldme d 'etudes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de LYON.
Dipldme d' etudes russes: Universites de DIJON et de LILLE.
Dipldme d' etudes chinoises: Universite de LYON.
Dipldme d' etudes celtiques: Universite de RENNES.
E. Degrees and Diplomas for Pharmaceutical Studies
Doctoral en pharmacie: Universites de PARIS, ALGER, BORDEAUX,
LILLE, LYON, MONTPELLIER, NANCY, TOULOUSE.
Dipldme de pharmacien: Universites de PARIS, BORDEAUX, NANCY.
Dipldme d 'etudes de pharmacien de ire classe: Universite de LYON.
Dipldme superieur d' etudes de pharmacien de ire classe: Universite
de LYON.
Dipldme d1 etudes pharmaceutiques coloniales: Universite d'Aix-
MARSEILLE.
Two groups of degrees in this somewhat bewildering list will
prove of special interest to a large number of American students:
(i) the "doctorats de 1'universite" ("mention Droit, Medecine,
Sciences, Lettres, Pharmacie"); (2) the "certificats d'etudes
franjaises," "diplome de langue francaise," and other degrees
conferred on foreign students only, for their achievements in
French language and literature.
(i) The "doctoral de Vuniversite" which is conferred by the
Universities themselves, is the degree most often sought by Ameri-
can graduate students in France. And for two good reasons:
first, it is declared by the French educational authorities to have
the same scientific and academic value as the "doctorat de 1'Etat,"
and its status in this country is approximately that of the usual
American doctor's degree; secondly, the latitude permitted to the
Universities in establishing equivalences between college and uni-
versity work completed in another country and the French re-
quirements gives less difficulty in satisfying the technical conditions
4o4 APPENDIX II
for becoming a candidate for the degree. On this point consult
more particularly what is stated below, under "Equivalences."
The "doctorat de 1'universite" bears an indication of one of the
five lines of specialization, corresponding to the faculty in which
the studies are pursued, as Law, Medicine, Sciences, Letters, or
Pharmacy. Not all the Universities confer the degree in all these
lines of specialization, even when the University comprises a cor-
responding Faculty. For example, of the sixteen French Uni-
versities, two have no Faculty of Law (Besanjon and Clermont-
Ferrand). Out of the remaining fourteen which possess such
Faculties, only seven confer the "doctorat de 1'universite, mention
Droit."
In the following brief description of the "doctorat de 1'univer-
site" in the different branches in which it is conferred, the attempt
has been simply to indicate the Universities in which the degree
is granted, the general requirements, and the range of fees.
Doctorat de VUniversite, mention Droit. Conferred by the
Universities of Paris, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, and
Nancy. Open to foreign students only who present the French
diploma of "licence en droit," or who obtain from the Faculty,
on the basis of diplomas or degrees earned abroad, an equivalence
therefor. The term of study required is one year, except in the
Universities of Caen and Lille where it is two years. The prepara-
tion and defence of a thesis, and oral (sometimes also written)
examinations on problems or subject matter indicated in advance
by the Faculty. The total fees for matriculation or "inscriptions,"
examinations, thesis, and diploma vary from 161 to 380 francs,
according to the University.
Doctorat de I'Universite, mention Medecine. Conferred by the
Universities of Paris, Alger, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier,
Nancy, Toulouse. Open to foreign students only who have
obtained an equivalence of the " baccalaureat de 1'enseignement
secondaire." The prescribed course of study of five years, the
examinations and the fees are the same as for the corresponding
degree conferred by the State. Those who have already fulfilled
abroad some of the requirements may be given credit for it in the
French curriculum ("equivalence de scolarite").
Doctorat de I'Universite, mention Sciences. Conferred by the
Universities of Paris, Aix-Marseille, Besanfon, Bordeaux, Cler-
mont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy
and Toulouse. Open to both French and foreign students who
; />/ I PARIS. - l.'1-^lf de D'.'it. - LL.
PARIS. THE LAW SCHOOL. FACADE
PARIS. THE LAW SCHOOL. READING ROOM
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 405
present two or three "certificats d 'etudes superieures de sciences
d'Etat," or other degrees and diplomas judged by the Faculty to
be equivalent. The preparation and defence of a thesis and oral
(sometimes written) examinations on problems or subject matter
indicated in advance by the Faculty. The term of study required
is one year, except at the University of Montpellier where it is
two years. The fees for matriculation, examinations, thesis, and
diploma vary from 80 to 180 francs. In addition to this, labora-
tory fees run from 200 to 800 francs, according to the line of
work.
Doctoral de I'Universite, mention Lettres. Conferred by the
Universities of Paris, Aix-Marseille, Besancon, Bordeaux, Caen,
Clermont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier,
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. Open to any French or
foreign student who presents the "licence es lettres," or other
degrees or diplomas judged equivalent or otherwise sufficient by
the Faculty. The required term of study is usually two years,
one of which must be passed in residence at the University where
the degree is sought, while the other may be spent in another
French university, in some cases even in a foreign university.
However, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Nancy, and Toulouse require
only one year of study, while Rennes requires three. The prepara-
tion and defence of a thesis and an oral examination on problems
or subject matter indicated in advance by the Faculty. The
fees for matriculation, examination, thesis, and diploma vary from
100 to 200 francs.
Doctoral de VUniversite, mention Pharmacie. Open to French
students who present the"diplome de pharmacien,"and to foreign
students who obtain by examination the "certificat d'etudes de
pharmacie chimique et de toxicologie" and the " certificat de
pharmacie galenique et de matiere medicale," or who present
degrees and diplomas recognized as equivalent. The term of
study is one year. Preparation and defence of a thesis. The
fees for matriculation, laboratory, examination, and thesis vary from
530 to 730 francs.
(2) "Certificats d'etudes Fran$aises" "Diplome d'etudes fran-
qaises" etc. Open only to foreigners, without any requirement as
to degrees or titles. The term of study is usually one semester at
least. The fees are usually 30 francs for matriculation and from
20 to 50 francs for the examination. All the French Universities
4o6 APPENDIX II
(except Aix and Alger) offer courses leading to these certificates.
At a number of Universities summer schools during July and
August have been organized in connection with the elaborate
courses in French language, literature, and phonetics established
by the Alliance francaise. Work done in these summer courses is
often accepted in at least partial fulment of the requirements for
these certificates. For full information concerning these summer
courses in the Universities and in the various schools under the
direction of the Alliance francaise, consult the " Guide illustre de
1'etudiant etranger a Paris et en France," published under the
direction of the Alliance at the Librairie Larousse, and the "Bulle-
tin officiel de la Federation de 1'Alliance francaise aux £tats-Unis
et au Canada," 1420 Broadway, New York City.
III. ADMISSION TO THE UNIVERSITIES.
The student who seeks to enter any French University may be
admitted: (i) simply as a matriculated student; (2) as a student
enrolled (inscrit) as a candidate for a definite degree or diploma;
(3) as a pupil (eleve) in an Institute or School attached to a Uni-
versity.
Since the conditions of admission to the Institutes and Schools
vary somewhat from one to another, the necessary indications
pertaining thereto should be sought in the Handbook of the
Office National des Universites et £coles francaises, or in the
"Livrets de 1'Etudiant" issued by the Universities themselves.
Since, on the contrary, the regulations governing matriculation
and enrollment (inscription) are common to all the Universities,
these have been grouped together in the following description.
I. MATRICULATION.
The necessary, but adequate, condition for being admitted to
follow the courses and discussions of a University, to use its
libraries, collections, and instruments of work of every sort, is
Matriculation, which implies being registered in due form on the
books of a Faculty or School of the University.
Matriculation makes one a student and confers the right to
follow the instruction, not only of the Faculty or School in which
one is matriculated, but also of the various Faculties or Schools
which make up the University.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 407
It is the only formality required of students, and particularly
foreign students, who seek at the French Universities only a
cultural education, without working for a degree or diploma.
However, for certain degrees conferred by the Universities them-
selves (which will be indicated further on), mere matriculation
confers the right to take the examinations leading to these
degrees.
The student may matriculate at any time. Matriculation
holds good for the entire year, but must be renewed at the begin-
ning of each new academic year.
If, during the course of the year, the matriculated student
wishes to change to another University, he must matriculate again
in the new University.
Matriculation Fees. The uniform fee for matriculation is
thirty francs a year. However, if the student pursues laboratory
work, he must not only obtain the consent of the director of the
laboratory, but also pay the special laboratory fees. These fees
vary from Faculty to Faculty and from laboratory to laboratory.
Information as to the amount of these fees can be obtained by
applying directly to the office of the Secretary of the Faculty or
School.
Necessary Formalities. Matriculation must be sought by the
candidate in person at the office of the Secretary of the Faculty or
School whose instruction he wishes to follow. It cannot be sought
by correspondence or by proxy.
The student who wishes to matriculate must establish his
identity and prove that his previous studies qualify him to follow
with profit the instruction of the Faculty or School.
The student from the United States must present: (i) a pass-
port, countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the French consul of
the region whence he comes, or an affidavit likewise certified by the
consul; (2) a diploma or certificate attesting his previous studies
likewise certified by the consul; (3) a receipt indicating that he has
declared a residence in France ("declaration de residence").1
The documents indicated under i and 2 should be accompanied
by a certified translation either by the French consul who counter-
signs them or by a legalized translator in France.
1 This declaration must be made by the foreign student within fifteen days
after his arrival in France. It is made in Paris at the "Prefecture de Police,
Bureau des Etrangers," i, rue de Lutece, and, in the provinces, at the city-hall
of each city. The receipt for this declaration is delivered free of charge.
4o8 APPENDIX II
In the absence of any certificate or diploma of previous studies,
the right to matriculate may be granted by the Dean or Director
to either French or foreign students whose previous studies are con-
sidered adequate.
II. ENROLLMENTS ("INSCRIPTIONS").
Enrollment ("inscription") is the formality required of students
who seek to obtain a degree or diploma, and especially a degree or
diploma conferred by the State.
It attests the regularity with which the studies in view of ob-
taining a degree or diploma are pursued. Enrollment must be
renewed every three months. Every degree or diploma requires
a certain determinate number of enrollments which fix the minimum
duration of the required studies.
Enrollment implies the right and formality of matriculation.
An enrolled student is, ipso facto, matriculated without having to
pay the special fee of matriculation, and enjoys all the rights which
the latter confers.
Enrollments must be made at dates which vary from Faculty
to Faculty, but which are always announced on the bulletin
boards. The first "inscription" must be made at the beginning
of the school year, and at the latest before the first of December.
The student must keep up his "inscriptions "successively, with-
out interruption, at the dates fixed. In case of delay or interrup-
tion, the Dean or Rector may, upon special demand and for good
reasons, authorize the student to make up the required "inscrip-
tions" which are in arrears so that he may continue his studies
under regular normal conditions; provided that in each case the
delay does not exceed the legal limits.
Since the student must enroll every three months, he may,
during the course of the school year, pass from one University to
another, conserving all the benefits and privileges conferred by the
enrollments already made. In this case he should request the
Secretary of the Faculty in which he is enrolled to transfer his
record to the Faculty in which he wishes to enroll. This transfer
is granted in all cases where it is compatible with the special condi-
tions of residence required for the degrees or diplomas which
the student seeks.
Fees for "Inscriptions" The fee for enrollment every three
months is thirty francs, to which is added a library fee of two and
a half francs.
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 409
Enrollment with a view to obtaining any degree or diploma
requiring laboratory work involves the payment of special labora-
tory fees.
With a view to furnishing preparation for certain diplomas or
special certificates, the Universities have created special instruc-
tion and means of research, for the use of which special fees are
required.
The payment of the fees of enrollment pertaining to a certain
degree or diploma does not release one from paying the fees of
enrollment pertaining to any other degree or diploma sought at
the same time. The only exception made concerns students
enrolled for the " licence en droit " who may also be enrolled for the
"licence es lettres" without having to pay fees anew. In like
manner the students enrolled for the "doctorat en medecine" or
the "diplome de pharmacien" may be enrolled without further
charge at the Faculty of Science for the "certificats d'etudes
superieures;" but the reciprocal favor is not granted to students
enrolled for the "licence es lettres" or the "certificat d'etudes
superieures de sciences."
Enrollment must be requested by the candidate in person at the
office of the Secretary of the Faculty or School in which he wishes
to begin or pursue his studies. It cannot be sought by corre-
spondence or by proxy.
Formalities Required for "Inscription" In order to enroll for
the first time, the French or foreign student must, on the one hand,
establish his identity, and, on the other hand, prove that his
previous studies have prepared him to undertake the work which
will permit him to obtain the degree or diploma which he seeks.
The student from the United States who is beginning his studies
in France ought to present, when enrolling for the first time:
(i) a passport countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the French
consul of the region from which he comes, or an affidavit likewise
certified by the French consul; (2) the "diplome de bachelier fran-
cais"1 or, in lieu of this, a degree or diploma which has been
declared equivalent to, or a substitute for, the "diplome de bache-
lier;" (3) a receipt indicating that he has declared a residence in
France.
1 The "diplome de bachelier francais" or "baccalaureat de 1'enseignement
secondaire" is the certificate delivered to the French student who has passed
a difficult State examination at the completion of his studies in the secondary
school system. In general function it corresponds to our High-school or prep-
aratory school diploma; but it represents a much more arduous course of study.
4IO APPENDIX II
IV. CREDIT ALLOWABLE FOR EQUIVALENT DEGREES
OF FOREIGN INSTITUTIONS.
The foreign student who seeks to continue in France the
advanced studies which he has begun in his own country, and which
are already certified by examinations and by the possession of a
diploma, may obtain credit for this advanced work. He may be
granted, not only an equivalence of the French degree of "bac-
calaureat" or of any other degree, but also a reduction of the
scholastic requirements, such as a reduction of the number of
"inscriptions" required and exemption from certain examinations.
To make it possible for foreign students to begin their higher
studies in French Universities or to continue in France the ad-
vanced work they have already begun in their own country, the
Minister of Public Instruction has decreed that equivalences
may be established between French degrees and diplomas and
corresponding foreign degrees and diplomas.
The establishment of an equivalence is most often requested
in the case of the French "baccalaureat de 1'enseignement secon-
daire" or "diplome de bachelier," which is required in order to
enter upon studies in law, medicine, science, letters and pharmacy,
in the corresponding Faculties or Schools of the Universities; but,
to foreigners who have already completed in their native country
higher studies certified by degrees and diplomas, may also be
granted an equivalence of the "licence en droit," "licence es
sciences," and " licence es lettres," in order to enroll as candidates
for the "doctorat en droit," the "doctorat es sciences," and the
"doctorat es lettres" respectively.
In no case, however, does the establishment of an equivalence
confer the right to the corresponding degree. For example, even
in case a foreign student has had some degree or diploma obtained
in his own country declared equivalent to the French "bacca-
laureat," he does not become thereby a French "bachelier," nor
can he assume this title; he acquires only the eligibility to the next
higher diploma or degree which the equivalence previously granted
has made it possible for him to seek and obtain after passing the
required examinations.
In determining just what diplomas, titles, and degrees shall be
equivalent in the case of students from the United States, the
Minister of Public Instruction has proposed to recognize as a matter
of course the first-rank institutions as graded by the Carnegie
INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 411
Foundation.1 Any American student presenting one of these di-
plomas will be admitted as of course in full standing to any French
University. Diplomas from other institutions require special
action in each case, but may on the facts of the case be sufficient.
Interpreted in terms of the equivalences most likely to be
sought by students from the United States, this would seem
to signify that the degrees and diplomas of Bachelor of
Arts, Bachelor of Laws, and Bachelor of Science of approved
American colleges and universities will thus admit to candidacy,
presumably for the "doctorates lettres," the "doctorat en droit,"
and the "doctorat es sciences," conferred by the State, and cer-
tainly for the three doctor's degrees conferred by the Universities
in Law, Science, and Letters. They do not admit to regular en-
rollment for the "doctorat en medecine," "pharmacien," and
"chirurgien-dentiste" conferred by the S/a/e; and, for the doctorate
conferred by the Universities in Medicine and Pharmacy, no Ameri-
can substitute for the French preliminary degrees can be accepted
without special permission from the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion.
Fees. Formerly, whenever an equivalence was established
between a French and a foreign degree or diploma, the student
benefiting thereby was required to pay all the fees pertaining to
the original French degree or diploma for which an equivalence
had been granted. Sometimes these fees amounted to as much
as twelve hundred francs. By a new decree of the Minister of
Public Instruction, dated January 18, 1916, this old requirement
is abolished. Foreign students are now required to pay only the
fees corresponding to the studies actually undertaken and to the
degrees actually obtained.
Admission to Advanced Standing ("Equivalences de
scolarite"). — Admission to advanced standing aims at giving such
recognition to the studies already completed in a foreign country in
any special line of work that foreigners may continue in France
the studies which they have begun elsewhere. It may assume
the form either of a reduction of the term of residence required, or
the privilege of making up all at once as many "inscriptions" as
the duration and nature of the studies already completed may
warrant, or exemption from certain examinations.
1 A list of 119 institutions, representing those whose B. A. or B. S. degrees
stand highest in grade, was printed in the 1913 Proceedings of the Association
of American Universities.
4i2 APPENDIX II
Requests for admission to advanced standing should be ad-
dressed to the Minister of Public Instruction on a special sheet of
paper, bearing stamps to the value of sixty centimes. They must
be accompanied by all documents which bear upon or support the
request. These documents must be translated into French by a
legalized translator. Finally, they must be delivered to the office
of the Secretary of the Faculty in which the student wishes to
enroll.
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX III1
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TO THE INTENDING
GRADUATE STUDENT
In the preceding Appendix the attempt has been made simply
to set forth as concisely and exactly as possible the technicalities
involved in entering upon the courses and obtaining the degrees
of the French institutions of higher education. However, a state-
ment of these technicalities is not likely to answer all the questions
which may arise in the mind of the American student who intends
to study in France. Consequently, it has seemed wise to devote
a few words of explanation to some of the other problems which the
student is almost sure to encounter: such problems as the choice of
a university; the opportunities for association with other students
in clubs and societies; the facilities for acquiring the French lan-
guage; summer schools; the French doctor's degree conferred by the
Universities; the doctor's thesis; the relation of the French degrees
conferred by the State to our American degrees; general living ex-
penses; etc.
Some of these subjects have been adequately treated in various
works, setting forth the opportunities and advantages of study in
France. Aside from the handbook of the " Office national des
Universites," the "Livrets de 1'etudiant," and the two booklets
published by the Alliance Francaise already mentioned in Appen-
dix II, the student is advised to consult the following books and
articles: "The Universities of France: A Guide for American
Students," published in 1899 by the Franco-American Committee,
87, boulevard Saint Michel, Paris; "French University Degrees,"
published by the " Comite de patronage des etudiants etrangers,"
at the Sorbonne, Paris, 2nd edition, 1910; "Conseil aux
Americains" by Professor Robert Dupouey, in the University of
California Chronicle, Vol. IX, No. 4, 1907; this latter is a sum-
mary in English of a longer treatment in French which appeared in
1 [Prepared by Professor C. B. VIBBERT, of the University of Michigan. — ED.]
415
4i6 APPENDIX III
1907 in the "Echo des Deux Mondes," a French periodical pub-
lished in Chicago.
Choice of a University. — The student who intends to study in
France quite naturally plans at least to begin his sojourn in Paris.
And rightly so if he takes into account only the wealth of intellectual
opportunities offered by the capital. However, few American
students are prepared, on first arriving in France, to take immediate
advantage of these opportunities. Consequently, should he raise
the pertinent questions as to the most expeditious and normal
manner of orienting himself in French life, of acquiring that perfect
facility in the use of the language which all effective university
work requires, of obtaining a correct and sympathetic understanding
of French institutions, manners, customs, and ideals, he will decide
to take up his residence at first in a provincial town and to enter
upon his work in a provincial university, only settling in Paris
after he has become fully oriented in France. In this decision he
will find that nearly all Americans who have pursued serious studies
in France, as well as French educators themselves, will concur.
The claims of the provincial university have been very forcibly
stated by M. Steeg, a former Minister of Public Instruction, in
these words: "There is every advantage for the foreign student
entering into French life to begin his sojourn elsewhere than in
Paris. It is so much easier for him to adapt himself to his environ-
ment. He will be less likely to be distracted from his studies. He
will come into more direct contact with his instructors and with
his fellow students. Especially will he find that he can carry on his
laboratory work and all sorts of practical work to better advantage.
A foreigner who goes directly to Paris to study loses a great deal
of time simply in becoming oriented in the metropolis and even
in the Faculties. The residence in the capital is genuinely profi-
table only for those who settle there for the latter part of their
sojourn in France."
And is not this counsel essentially what we would give to a
foreign student coming to this country to study? Scarcely would
we recommend him to settle in New York City, attempt to acquire
there the English language, seek to adapt himself to the complex
life of our cosmopolitan city, and judge of our institutions, customs,
manners, and ideals in the light thereof. To the unoriented foreign
student, Paris presents essentially the same limitations as New York
City. The fear, sometimes expressed by students, lest they ac-
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 417
quire some pronunciation other than the correct Parisian French,
is scarcely well grounded. The French spoken in university circles
outside of Paris is apt to be quite as correct as that heard in the
capital itself, much more correct than the greater part of the or-
dinary French of the Paris streets.
Aside from offering a greater simplicity, geniality, and intimacy
of life than that of Paris, some of the provincial universities pre-
sent great natural beauty of environment and the most varied
attractions of out-of-door life. Universities like Grenoble, Cler-
mont-Ferrand, Montpellier, Toulouse, and Besancon rival in the
beauty of their surroundings and picturesqueness Heidelberg or
lena, Oxford or St. Andrews. Within recent years out-of-door
sports have undergone a marked revival in the provincial univer-
sities, as is evidenced by the wide-spread organization of clubs for
the encouragement of sports. Some of these students' athletic
clubs, as the Bordeaux-Etudiants-Club and the Stade toulousian,
have well-equipped club-houses and athletic fields.
The University Organizations Designed to Aid Foreigners,
Students' Clubs and Associations, etc. — "Comites de patronage
pour les etudiants etr angers." — Every French university has a
Committee of patronage for foreign students which stands ever
ready to offer any advice or information with reference to
university studies, instruction in the French language, general
conditions of living (board, lodgings, pension in private families,
etc.), or other difficulties which may confront the foreign student.
After determining to settle at a particular university, the
American student should communicate immediately with the
local "Comite de patronage." The office of the Committee
is usually located in one of the university buildings and is easily
accessible.
"Consuls universitaires." — Some of the universities have ap-
pointed so-called " Consuls universitaires," each of whom acts as
the director of studies and general counsellor of all the students
who speak the same language. The University of Bordeaux
has been especially successful in the development of this system.
The student should feel quite free to consult his University Coun-
sellor on any difficulties which arise.
"Associations generates des etudiants et etudiantes." — Every
French university now has its general Students' Association for
men, similar in its organization, aims, and advantages offered to our
4i8 APPENDIX III
well-known students' clubs, such as the Harvard Union at Cam-
bridge, Houston Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, and the
Reynolds Club at the University of Chicago. Some of these
"Associations generates" have sumptuous club-houses and excel-
lent facilities of every kind. The most perfectly equipped is the
new home of the "Association generale" of Paris, located at Nos.
13 and 15, rue de la Bucherie, at the very center of the old Latin
Quarter. It offers comfortable lounging, reading and study rooms.
The library numbers more than 40,000 volumes, grouped together
in special sections for the convenience of the students of the different
Faculties and Schools. All the principal newspapers and periodi-
cals, literary, scientific and general, whether French or foreign, are
kept on file. Its members enjoy certain concessions, such as
reductions in the price of theatre tickets, books, periodicals, and
even of many of the ordinary necessities of life. In cases of neces-
sity the Association also aids its members by loaning them money
and obtaining for them medical attention. It also furnishes
French teachers, translators, and companions for foreign students,
and runs an employment bureau for the benefit of students who
must needs help themselves.
Any student, whether a Frenchman or a foreigner, who is reg-
ularly enrolled in one of the Faculties of the University or in one of
the other institutions of higher learning in Paris, is eligible for
membership. The annual dues are 18 francs.
Though the Students' Associations in the provincial universi-
ties cannot always offer as elaborately equipped club-houses as
those found in Paris, still they are the active centers of the student
life. The American student, wherever he may settle, should iden-
tify himself with the local Association and profit by the advantages
it offers, not only in the way of good-fellowship, but also in co-
operating with his fellow-students in the common intellectual and
moral ideals of the University. In this way he will best enter into
and appreciate the real life of France.
Associations for women students, similarly organized and
equipped, have been established in most of the French universities.
The "Association generale des etudiantes" of the University of
Paris is comforably established at No. 55, rue Saint- Jacques.
In addition to offering parlors, reading rooms, a general information
bureau, an employment bureau and free medical service, it has
established a Women's Co-operative Restaurant where meals and
afternoon tea are served to members at very moderate prices.
LYON. THE UNIVERSITY. MAIN BUILDING
TOULOUSE. THE FACULTY OF SCIENCES
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 419
Clubs with a religious purpose. — There are also a number of other
Students' Clubs, especially in Paris, which not only offer many of
the same advantages as the General Associations of Students, but
are also organized with reference to certain specific ends and offer
special opportunities to students interested in these ends. Such
are the "Association generate des fitudiants Catholiques de Paris,"
1 8, rue du Luxembourg, open to all Catholic men enrolled in the
higher schools of Paris, and the "Association des Etudiants
Protestants," 46, rue de Vaugirard, open similarly to all Protestant
men. There is also a club for women, organized on similar lines,
the "Association chretienne d'Etudiantes," 67, rue Saint- Jacques,
which is open to any woman student without any restriction as to
faith or creed.
American Students' Clubs. — There are in Paris a number of
clubs, which have been organized primarily by generous Americans,
and provide admirably for the interests of American women
students. Among these are the Students' Hostel, 93, boulevard
Saint-Michel, which has a club-house admirably equipped in every
respect, including an infirmary; the American Girls' Club, rue
de Chevreuse, very comfortably situated in a retired street and
provided with a beautiful garden; and Trinity Lodge, rue du Val-de
Grace, under the auspices of the Anglican Church, very pleasantly
installed. All these clubs offer homes to a limited number of
American and English girls, as well as provide a complete social
center with all the necessary equipment for a much larger number.
Hitherto there have been no similar clubs, adequately equipped
for American men students. The old American Art Association,
which played such an important role in the life of American students
in Paris during so many years, has been allowed to die. But at
the time of going to press a "Maison des Etudiants Americains" is
being organized.1
1 The following program of assistance to American students was unanimously
adopted in 1916, by the Council of the University of Paris, on recommendation
of a Committee of which M. Emile Durkheim was chairman:
"i. Preparation of a book describing the several institutions of higher
education in Paris, their organization, resources, and general methods; to be
illustrated with numerous photographs; to be published in the French language
and distributed to American universities.
"2. Issuance of a university booklet annually, containing the information
that would be needed by American students.
"3. Appointment of one or more professors in each important American
university as a committee of correspondence with the University of Paris.
"4. Establishment of courses in spoken French in American universities.
420 APPENDIX III
Instruction in French Language and Literature.— No people
have made such earnest and systematic efforts to ensure the cor-
rect teaching of their language and literature to foreigners as
have the French in recent years. In this movement the Alliance
Francaise, with headquarters at 186, boulevard Saint-Germain,
Paris, has taken the lead. In co-operation with the higher educa-
tional authorities, the Alliance not only offers courses at its head-
quarters in Paris during the months of July and August, but also
has arranged similar vacation courses either under its immediate
direction or in connection with the Universities during the whole or
a portion of the period from July i to October 31.
Vacation courses are offered by the Universities of Besancon,
Bordeaux, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille (at Boulogne-sur-Mer), Lyon,
Nancy, Poitiers (at the "Institut d 'etudes de Touraine" at Tours),
and Rennes (at Saint-Malo).
Vacation courses under the direction of the Alliance Francaise
are also offered at Villerville, Lisieux, Bayeux, Marseille (at the
Institut moderne), Versailles (at the Lycee for girls), and Saint-
Valery-en-Caux.
Special courses in French for foreigners during the regular school
year, usually extending from the first of November till the end of
May, have been organized in all the French universities (except
Aix, Alger and Clermont).
Several private schools in Paris also offer excellent instruction
in French during both the regular school year and the vacation, and
even coach and prepare students for the examinations at the
Sorbonne for the "Certificats d'etudes franchises" and other
diplomas. Such schools are the "Guilde Internationale, " 6, rue
de la Sorbonne; the "Institut Saint- Germain," rue des Ecoles;
and others.
For a complete detailed description of all these vacation and
regular courses in French as given from year to year, consult the
two booklets, published annually by the Alliance Francaise, already
"5. Preparation of a list of boarding houses in Paris, carefully supervised
by a university committee, for American students, both men and women.
"6. Organization of committees to receive the student on arrival and assist
him in the prosecution of his studies.
" 7. Establishment of an American club or home, where American students
may meet and make acquaintance with each other and with the professors."
Pursuant to the last-quoted resolution, plans are going forward for a Maison
des fitudiants Americains. Professor Barrett Wendell, of Harvard University,
formerly exchange professor at the Sorbonne, is the American Chairman; the
Honorary Councillors include the presidents of several American universities.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 421
referred to: "Guide illustre de 1'etudiant etranger a Paris et en
France" and the "Bulletin officiel de la Federation del'Alliance
Francaise aux Etats-Unis et au Canada."
Responsible and capable private teachers in French can always
be obtained on the recommendation of the various "Comites de
patronage," the official bureau of information, or through the
various students' clubs.
If the American who has had a good grounding in French in our
schools, but has not acquired perfect facility in the use of it, will
go to France at the beginning of July, will settle down at a provin-
cial university where vacation courses are offered, and will not only
follow conscientiously these courses but also profit by the oppor-
tunities offered by life in a recommended private family, there is
is every likelihood that when the Universities open on the first of
November, he will be able not only to follow but also to partici-
pate actively in the courses offered.
The Doctor's Degree (in Law, Medicine, Sciences, Letters
and Pharmacy) conferred by the Universities. — The "Doctorats
de 1'universite" are of recent origin. Not until the Universities
were constituted as separate and autonomous bodies by the law of
July 10, 1896, were they delegated the power to establish and grant
degrees in their own na'me. Prior to 1896, the various Faculties
and Schools, now constituting the sixteen Universities, were inte-
gral parts of the "Universite nationale de France," a single uni-
versity system, administered by a "Grand Maitre," assisted by a
"Conseil de 1'Universite;" this university system was further sub-
divided into "Academies," each under the direction of a "Recteur,"
assisted by a "Conseil Academique." All the degrees granted un-
der this old system were degrees conferred by the State, usually
carrying with them the right to practice some profession in France.
Not only was the work prescribed for these degrees organized
almost exclusively with reference to the exigencies of professional
work in France; but the crowding of the professions and the conse-
quent intense competition for positions made it necessary to hedge
about these degrees with many restrictions. The substitution of
school or university work successfully completed in another coun-
try in the fulfillment of the requirements for these degrees was sel-
dom permitted. The result was that few Americans sought these
degrees; for they could not afford to spend the time and the money
to go to France to finish their secondary school education and so
422 APPENDIX III
obtain the " baccalaureat de 1'enseignement secondaire," required
for practically all the higher degrees conferred by the State.
No sooner were the Universities granted their autonomy in
1896 than they began to take advantage of their newly conferred
powers by establishing degrees of purely scientific and academic
value, divorced from any direct relation to the professions in France.
Among these degrees are the various "doctorats de 1'universite."
Though each University is free to determine for itself the conditions
required for obtaining these degrees, all have striven toward a
common standard, just as have our better institutions in giving
a fixed value to our Ph.D. This process of standardizing has
also been furthered by the desire to make the doctor's degrees,
conferred by the Universities, stand for the same grade of
scientific and scholarly achievements as those conferred by the
State.
Though the latter are still open to American and all other foreign
students under the conditions indicated in Appendix II, still, to
all intents and purposes, the university degrees serve the same
function as our own doctor's degrees, and are consequently the
degrees which most American graduate students in France will
likely seek.
The Doctor's Thesis and Examination. — A thesis is required in
order to obtain the Doctor's degree in France, no matter along
what line of specialization it is sought. In general this work cor-
responds in scope to the thesis required for our Ph.D. Yet it is
often a much more elaborate piece of work, amounting to a compre-
hensive and exhaustive monograph on the subject. No limit as to
its length and scope is laid down, as with us. Many French
doctorate theses have become classics in their particular field of
research and have raised their authors to the front rank of recog-
nized scholars.
The subject and general plan of the thesis must be submitted
for approval to the Faculty in which the degree is sought, by a pro-
fessor representing the special line of work implied in the thesis.
When completed, it is passed upon by a group of specialists ap-
pointed by the Dean, and, if accepted by them, is then approved
by the Dean himself. The "Recteur" of the "Academic" finally
passes upon it, a nd issues or denies a permission to print it. After
it is printed, the candidate is called upon to support and defend his
work in public before an examining committee, usually composed
of six members.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 423
The defence of the thesis consitutes the first part of the examina-
tion. The second part consists of an oral examination on prob-
lem and subject matter, chosen by the candidate and approved by
the Faculty. The candidate usually makes a list of the courses
he has pursued and the allied subjects he has studied; he is ques-
tioned on these subjects, which may be chosen among the courses of
the different Faculties. If he passes successfully, he is granted the
degree of Doctor with the mention of the specialty: "philosophy,"
if that be the subject, on his diploma.
The Significance of French Degrees conferred by the State,
and their Relation to our American Degrees. — The system of State
degrees and diplomas in France is so intimately related to the gen-
eral evolution of French educational institutions, and is so unique
in many respects, that it is difficult to interpret it in terms of any
other system. Since, however, the main structure of the univer-
sity system is constructed about these degrees, it is especially im-
portant for the American student who enters this system to know
something about them.
Baccalaureat. On completing successfully his secondary school
work, at the age of 17 to 19, the French student receives the
" baccalaureat de 1'enseignement secondaire" which permits him to
enter any of the Faculties or Schools of higher education, except
those admitting only on the basis of a competitive examination,
such as the "Fxole poly technique." The "baccalaureat" repre-
sents, in general attainments in knowledge, method and tech-
nique, two years or so in advance of that represented by the
diplomas of our best high schools and preparatory schools. In
particular, the "baccalaureat" stands for a degree of specializa-
tion and technical proficiency as yet not attained in our secondary
schools.
Licence. Most French students, on entering the university,
enroll as candidates for the degree of " licence " in one of the Facul-
ties in which it is conferred, Law, Sciences or Letters; or else they
work to obtain the "Certificate d'etudes physiques, chimiques et
naturelles," which is absolutely required for entrance on the regular
five-year course in medicine.
The "licence en droit" is absolutely required for admission to
the bar in France, and confers that right. In general function,
then, it corresponds to our degree of Bachelor of Laws, except that
it comprehends also our State bar examinations.
424 APPENDIX III
The "licence es sciences" and the "licence es lettres" confer
upon those who hold them the right to become candidates for the
teaching positions of "Charge de cours" in a "Lycee" or professor
in a "College." The "Lycee" is a higher and more completely
equipped preparatory school than the "College." These two
degrees correspond in a general way to our degrees of Bachelor
of Science and Bachelor of Arts respectively. However, the
French degrees stand for a very much higher degree of speciali-
zation than do ours; this is evidenced by the fact that the "licence"
can only be obtained along some one definite line of work, as
Modern Languages, Philosophy, etc. The system of graduating
with honors, as it is carried out at Harvard College, approaches
most closely the French scheme of specialization..
The "Diplomes d' etudes siiperieures" ("de sciences," "de
lettres") are even more difficult to interpret in terms of our de-
grees. In some respects they correspond to the Master of Arts
degree, especially as it used to be interpreted when it involved
the preparation of a thesis on a subject approved by the Faculty.
The preparation of the thesis is the main requirement for these
French degrees; but the thesis does not necessarily imply the origi-
nal research required for the Doctor's thesis but rather implies well-
grounded information and erudition. The candidate usually
spends about a year in preparation for the degree; but no formal
requirements are laid down. Since 1904 all candidates for the
"Agregation" are absolutely required to present this degree along
with the "licence."
"Agrege." As a special means of determining the fitness and of
choosing the candidates for regular professorships in the "Lycees"
and for teaching positions other than professorships in the Univer-
sities, the French educational authorities established as early as
1825, competitive examinations, the so-called " agregations de
1'enseignement secondaire" in lettres and the sciences. A certain
number of candidates along each line of specialization who stand
highest in these examinations are accorded the title of "agrege"
and receive appointments to the teaching positions which are open.
About the preparation for this degree a very considerable portion
of the work in every Faculty of Science and Faculty of Letters is
organized. Practically the entire work of the two higher normal
schools for men and women ("Ecole normale superieure" and
"Ecole normale superieure d'enseignement secondaire des jeunes
Filles") is organized in preparation for these "agregations."
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 425
The " agregations " are naturally not open to foreigners, except
under very special conditions. No one would likely seek the title
who did not desire to enter the teaching profession in France. The
only American title which in any respect corresponds to the title
of "agrege" is that conferred upon the recipient of a teacher's
diploma, respresenting some line of specialization. The right to
teach in a certain grade of school attaches to the French as it does
to the American degree.
The "Doctoral de I'Etat" is the absolutely required prerequisite
for appointment to a professorship in any French university. This
applies especially to the degree as conferred in the Sciences and in
Letters, and accounts for the fact that these degrees are generally
recognized as standing for a higher degree of scholarship than any
other similar degrees conferred in other countries to-day. The
Doctor's degree in Medicine is absolutely required of every one
practicing medicine in French territory.
It will be apparent that in general function the French doctor's
degrees in Lettres, Sciences, and Medecine correspond to our Ph. D.,
D.Sc., and M.D. respectively. The doctor's degree in Law,
on the contrary, is earned on the basis of scholastic work just as
are the other doctor's degrees, while with us it has been a purely
honorary degree, except for the J.D. recently adopted in some
universities, and the D.C.L. still surviving in others. No Amer-
ican university, it is believed, confers the doctor's degree especially
in Pharmacy.
General Expenses. — It is especially difficult, under the rapidly
changing conditions of living in France, to offer any exact estimate
of probable expenses. Under normal conditions in recent years,
pension in private families or in family hotels in Paris could be
obtained for 150 francs a month and up. Pension includes board
and lodging, and sometimes service. Lodgings in the Latin Quarter
run from about eight dollars a month up. In general, living ex-
penses in the provincial towns are considerably less than in Paris.
A student should scarcely go to France, expecting to defray
all his expenses during a year, for less than six hundred dollars.
With a thousand dollars a year at his disposal a student should be
able to live comfortably.
All the university fees for matriculation, enrollment, examina-
tions, theses, and diplomas have been indicated in Appendix II in
direct connection with the discussion of these topics.
426 APPENDIX III
The principal French steamship lines offer very considerable
reductions in fares to American students who are going to France
to study. Application should be made through the nearest French
consul.
Important Suggestions. — Be sure to obtain an American pass-
port and have it countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the nearest
French consul.
Do not forget to take with you all your diplomas and other docu-
ments attesting your scholastic work successfully completed.
These should also be countersigned and sealed by the French
consul of your region; and translated either under his direction or by
a legalized translator in France.
On arriving in France, do not fail to declare immediately your
residence there, either at the city-hall of the town in which you
settle, or in Paris at the Prefecture de Police (Bureau des Etrangers,
i, rue de Lutece).
BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE. READING ROOM
PASTEUR'S ORIGINAL LABORATORY
INDEX
PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS
UNIVERSITIES
PERSONAL NAMES
INDEX OF PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS1
Page Page
Administrative law. ... 157, 282 CHEMISTRY (chapter on) . . 69
AGRICULTURE (chapter on) 61 Chemistry, physiological .. 177
American archaeology. ... 25 Christian archaeology 35
religion 316 history 135,318
Anatomy 175,199,331,334 Church history . .135,318
ANTHROPOLOGY(chapteron) 21 law 151,318
Anthropology, palaeonto- Colonial law and adminis-
logical 130,341 tration i53>285
Anthropometry 22,85 Comparative grammar . ... 223
ARCHAEOLOGY (chapter on) 31 law 152
Archaeology, American. . . 25 legal history 151
Chinese 238 religion 314
Hindu 238 Constitutional law 282
prehistoric 22 Criminal law 156, 292
Semitic 244 CRIMINOLOGY (chapter on) . 81
Architecture, history of . . . 34 Criminology 156
practical 100 Crystallography 122
ART, HISTORY OF (chapter Ecclesiastical history. . 135, 318
on) 31 law 131,318
ASTRONOMY (chapter on) . . 47 ECONOMICS (chapter on) ... 279
Astronomical mathematics. 164 EDUCATION (chapter on) ... 89
Astrophysics 47, 276 Educational psychology . . . 307
Assyrian religion 316 Egyptian religion 314
Assyriology 241, 246 Egyptology 31, 244
Babylonian religion 316 Electricity 102, 103, 275
archaeology 27 ENGINEERING (chapter on) 97
Bacteriology 202, 333 ENGLISH PHILOLOGY (chap-
BIOLOGY (chapter on) 331 ter on) ... . . 250
Biology, chemical 70 Entomology 340
BOTANY (chapter on) 57 Epigraphy 31, 207
Byzantine archaeology . ... 317 Ethnography 24
history 36 Ethnology 24
philology 241 Evolution, organic 21,331
Cartography 107, 116, 121 Finance 290
Celestial mechanics 47, 166 Forestry 65
Celtic philology 223, 254 Geodesy 50
religion 316 GEOGRAPHY (chapter on) . . 107
1 The Index covers only the main chapters, not the Appendix
429
43o INDEX
Page Page
GEOLOGY (chapter on) .... 115 Medicine, experimental ... 336
GREEK PHILOLOGY (chap- Metallurgy 97
ter on) 205 Metaphysics 260
Greek archaeology 32 Methodology 265
religion 3*7 Microbiology 202
Gynecology 200 Micro-parasitology 333
/, >. MINERALOGY (chapter on) . 122
HISTORY (chapter on) 133 Mi i v
HISTORY o* MX (chapter ^ ^'San archaeo.ogy
History onaw '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. ' '. '. 150
of religion 3*4 __
of Rome . . 216 Naval architecture 103
Horticulture 62 NEUROLOGY (chapter on) .. 179
Hydrobiology 341 Neurology. 305
.. . Numismatics 33,211,218
Indie religion 313 . .
Indology 234 Observational astronomy.. 51
INTERNATIONAL LAW (chap- Oceanography 111116
ter Qn\ 27Q ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY (chapter
International law 157 <Jy • ' : 233
Italian philology 225 Oto-rhmo-laryngology . ... 197
Jurisprudence 154, 285 Palaeobotany 58, 128, 340
Palaeography 37, 207, 215
LATIN PHILOLOGY (chapter PALAEONTOLOGY (chapter
on) 205 on) I2?
LAW (chapter on) 143 Palaentology, anthropolog-
Law, administrative 282 jcaj 22
constitutional., .. 282 zoological.. 335,340
criminal 292 Parasitology 202, 333, 339
international 283 PATHOLOGY (chapter on) . . 202
Legal history 150, 285 Pathological psychology. . . 308
medicine 199 Pedagogy 89
Linguistics 25,214,223,233,250 penology 81, 292
Literature; see PHILOLOGY. PETROLOGY (chapter on) . . 124
Logic 265 PHILOLOGY (chapter on) . . . 205
Marine biology 338, 341 PHILOSOPHY (chapter on) . . 257
engineering 103 Philosophy, legal 154
MATHEMATICS (chap ter on) 163 psychological 307
Mathematical atronomy 47, 166 religious 318
philosophy -. 262 social 323
physics 276 Phonetics 223
Mechanics 102, 275 Photography, astronomical 52
MEDICAL SCIENCE (chapter PHYSICS (chapter on) 273
on) 169 Physics, chemical 70
MEDICINE (chapter on) — 187 mathematical 167
INDEX
Page
PHYSIOLOGY (chapter on) . . 175
Physiological psychology . . 308
zoology 33I>336
Political economy 286
POLITICAL SCIENCE (chap-
ter on) 279
Political science, history of. 134
Prehistory 24,33
Protoplasm 332
Protozoology 339
Psychiatry 185
PSYCHOLOGY (chapter on) . 303
Psychology, general 260
religious 3*5
RELIGION (chapter on) 311
Religion, Hindu 2,35
Semitic 247
Religious philosophy 264
sociology 325
Roman archaeology 32
history 134,216
law 149
religion 208,317
Page
ROMANCE PHILOLOGY (chap-
ter on) .............. 221
Seismology .............. 116
Semantics ........ 209, 222,233
Semitic archaeology ...... 37
religion ............. 314
SEMITIC PHILOLOGY (chap-
ter on) .............. 243
Sinology ................ 238
Social philosophy ......... 262
psychology ............ 306
SOCIOLOGY (chapter on) ... 321
Sociology, anthropological. 25
economics and ......... 287
philosophy and ......... 262
Spanish philology ........ 225
Statistics ........... 86,325
SURGERY (chapter on) .... 196
Taxonomy ........... 57
Vulcanology ...... 117, 119, 125
ZOOLOGY (chapter on) ..... 329
INDEX OF UNIVERSITIES ;
Page
AIX-MARSEILLE ; instruc-
tion in
Astronomy 54
Chemistry 77
Geology 120
History 135, 136
Law 153
Philology, Classical 213
Physics 277
Political Science. . . .283, 285
Zoology 342
ALGIERS; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Astronomy 54
Geology 117, 120
Zoology 340
BESAN^ON; instruction in
Chemistry 76
Education 92
Geology 120
History i35> J36
Philology, Classical 215
BORDEAUX; instruction in
Astronomy 54
Chemistry 76
Geography in
Geology 120
History 135, 136
Law i5o»IS3iISS»IS7
Philology, Classical 213
Romance 230
English 254,255
Philosophy 268
Physics 277
Political Science
282,285,299,300
Page
Zoology 338,34i
CAEN; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Chemistry 76
Geology 120
History 135, 136
Law 157
Palaeontology 129
Philology, Classical 217
Romance 231
English 254
Zoology . . 341
CLERMONT; instruction in
Chemistry 76
Geography in
Geology 117, 120
History 135, 136
Philology, Classical 216
Zoology 341
DIJON; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Chemistry 76
Education 92
Geology 120
History 135, 136
Law 15°, T57
Philosophy 268
Political Science 298
GRENOBLE; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Chemistry 76
Education 92
Geography in
Geology 117, 120
History 136
Law 151,155,157
Sociology 326 Palaeontology 129
1 See additionally the complete enumeration in Appendix II. The Index
covers only the main chapters.
433
434
INDEX
Page
Philology, Classical 214
Romance 231
Political Science 298, 300
Zoology 338
LILLE; instruction in
Chemistry 76
Criminology 84
Education 92
Geology 117,120
History 135, ^
Law iSOjISI»ISSiIS7
Medicine 193, 199? 204
Mineralogy 126
Palaeontology 129
Philology, Classical
213,215,216
English 254
Political Science 298
Zoology 341
LYON; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Astronomy 54
Chemistry 77
Criminology 84
Education 92
Geology 120
History 135, 136
Law... 149, 151,153,155,157
Medicine 193, 204
Mineralogy 126
Philology, Classical 213
Romance 231
Philosophy 268
Physics 277
Political Science 297,306
Zoology 338,341
MONTPELLIER ; instruction in
Agriculture 61
Botany 60
Chemistry 77
Criminology 84
Geography in
Geology 120
History 136
Law 155, 157
Page
Medicine 204
Mineralogy 126
Philology, Classical 214
Romance 231
Philosophy 268
Physics 277
Political science 298
Psychology 309
Zoology 337,340
NANCY; instruction in
Agriculture 60
Botany 60
Chemistry 77
Criminology 84
Engineering 104
Geography in
Geology 120
History i35> *36
Law 155
Mineralogy 126
Philology, Classical 214
Philosophy 269
Political Science 285, 299,300
Sociology 327
Zoology 34o>34i
PARIS; instruction in
Anthropology 26
Archaeology 36
Astronomy 53
Botany 59
Chemistry 70
Criminology 84
Education 91
Engineering 100
Geography no
Geology 1 1 8
History 134, i36
Horticulture 61
Law 149,150,151,152,
iS3, 155^57
Mathematics 164
Medicine, Physiology. . . 177
Neurology 179
Medicine 189
Surgery 198
Page
Pathology 202
Mineralogy 125
Palaeontology 128
Petrology 125
Philology, Classical
210-217, 2I9
Romance 227
Oriental 240
Semitic 245
English 253
Philosophy 265
Physics 276
Political Science 282
Psychology 307
Religion 315
Sociology 326
Zoology 334
POITIERS; instruction in
Chemistry 78
Geology 120
History 136
Mathematics 165
Philology, Classical 214
English 254
Philosophy 269
Physics 277
Political Science 299
Zoology 340
RENNES; instruction in
Agriculture 61
INDEX 435
Page
Chemistry 78
Geography in
Geology 120
History 135
Law 157
Philology, Classical 213
Romance 231
English 254,255
Philosophy 269
Physics 277
Political Science 299
Psychology 309
Zoology 340
TOULOUSE; instruction in
Archaeology 41
Astronomy 54
Chemistry 78
Criminology 84
Education 92
Geology 120
History 135,136
Law... 150, 151, 154, 155, 157
Mathematics 165
Mineralogy 126
Philology, Classical. . 213, 214
Romance 232
Physics 277
Political Science 283, 284, 299
Zoology 338>34i
INDEX OF PERSONAL NAMES
A Page Page
Abbo 23 Audibert 149, 285
Abraham 276 Audollent 216
Achard 192 Audouin 214
d'Acy 23 Auenbrugger 187
Adams 49 Auger 73
d'Aguesseau 143 Aulard 135
Albanel 86 Austin 154
Albarran 200 Avogado 70
Alciat I43>i47 D
d'Alembert 48, 275
Alexandra 217 Babelon 37, 134, 215
Allais 231 Babinski 183, 185, 192
Aloy 78 Bacot 241
Alphandery 318 Baillon 58
Alquier 184 Baire 165
Amagat 275 Baldensperger 225, 253
Ambard 193, 200 Baldwin 306
Amelineau 242, 316 Ballet 185
Ampere 69, 98, 276 Barbeau 250, 254
Andersen 237 Barbier 77
Andoyer 53 Barnard 92
Andral 188 Barrande 128
Andre-Thomas 190 Barre 108, 119
Angellier 252 Barrois 120, 126
Anglade 232 Earth 235, 236, 313
Anquetil-Duperron 313 Barthelemy 282, 283, 296
Antoine 209, 234 Barthelemy, A 245
Appell 53, 164, 166, 276 Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire . .
Appleton 149, 285, 297 235, 241
Aquillon 102 Basdevant 284, 298
Arago 10, 100, 275 Basset 26
Arbois de Joubainville .... 152 Bastiat 287, 288
Arcelin 23 Bastide 252
d'Archiac 115 Batbie 283
Aristotle 261 Baudot 98
Arnaud 72 Baudouin 24, 143
Arrou 200 Baye 24
d'Arsonval 176 Bazaillos 266
Aubry 83 Bazy 199
437
438 INDEX
Page Page
Beaumont 123 Besnier 135, 215, 217
see also ELIE DE BEAUMONT Besredka 204
Beaune 15° Besson 76
Beauregard 32° Beuchat 24
Beccaria 81, 156 Beudant 155, 298
Becquerel 69,275,276 Beugnot 150
Becquerel, A. C 100 Beurnier 200
Becquerel, Henri n, 70, 100 Biard 250
Bedier 224,229,251,254 Bichat 187, 335
Behal 72, 74 Bigot 120, 129
Behring 19° Bmet 86, 90, 307
Beljame 252 Binet du Jassonneix 73
Bellart 146 Biot 14, 276
Bellour • 289 Blackstone 148
Belot 265 de Blainville 127
Bemont 13$ Blaise 73
Benard 277 Blake 198
Benedite, G 39 Blanc 287
Benedite, L 39 Blanchard 109,111,136
Benoist 209 191, 202, 339, 340
Berard 218,219 Blanchet 34
Berenger 86, 153 Blarez 76
Bergaigne 235-238, 313 Bloch 134, 136
Berger 198, 245 216, 234, 241, 265
Bergson 59, 260, 261, 266 Blondel, A 98
Bernard 109, 136, 193 Blondel, M 260, 264
Bernard, Claude. . . n, 172, 175 Bloomfield 236
176, 265, 331, 336 Blouet 32
Bernier 21 Bodin 281
Berr 265 Bodroux 78
Berryer 146 de Boeck 284
Bert 176 Boisbaudran 123
Berthaut 107, 119 Boisguillebert 286
Berteaux 35 Boissier 208
Berthelemy . . 282, 283, 294, 296 Boissonade 136, 217
Berthelot, A 317 Bonfils 284
Berthelot, P 69, 70, 72 Bonnecase 157
Berthelot, R 265 Bonnet 102, 146
Berthier 101 Bonnet, M 209
Berthollet 69, 70 Bonneville de Marsangy... 82
Bertillon 22, 85 Bonnier 58, 59, 339, 340
Bertrand 24, 58, 116, 129 Bonstetten 24
Bertrand, G 71, 72, 73 Bopp 233
Bertrand, J 101 Borel 164, 166, 265
Bertrand, M 101 Bornecque 213
Page
Borrel 203
Borrelly 51
Bossert 51
Botta 31,244
Bouasse 277
Bouche-Leclercq . . 134, 216, 219
Boucher de Perthes.22, 23, 130
Bougainville 25
Bougie 263,268, 325,326
Bouillard 188
Boule 22,23,24,127,
129,339,341
Bourciez 230
Bourdaloue 51
Bourdon 268, 269, 309
Bourgeois 50, 123, 136
Bourgeois, 1'Abbe 23, 24
Bourguet 219
Bourguinon 182
Bourneville 183
Bourquelot 72, 74
Bourrilly 136
Boussac 118
Boussinesq 167, 275, 276
Boussingault 70
Boutmy 138, 281, 300
Boutroux 165
Boutroux, E 261, 266
Boutroux, L 76
Boutroux, P 265
Bouty 276
Bouvy 225, 231
Bouzat 78
Boxler 216
Brasseur de Bourbourg ... 25
de Brazza 25
Bravais 122
Breal 89,209,219, 223,233
Brehier 135, 268
Bremond 283
Breton 204
Bretonneau 188
Breuil 23
Brillouin 168
Brissaud 180, 182, 189
INDEX 439
Page
Brissaud, J 150
Brisson 143
Brives 121
Broca 21, 197, 200, 201
de Broglie 281
Brongniart 58, 115, 126
Brougham 148
Brown-Sequard 176
Brumpt 339
Brunetiere 225
Brunhes 109, 117
Brunner 150
Brunot 223, 227, 254
Brunschvicg 267
von Buch 115
Bude 207
Buffon 21,25,127, 332
Buisine 76
Buisson, F 89
Buisson, H 277
Burnet 204
Burnouf 217,234,235, 313
Cabouat 289
Cagnat.33,37,135,213, 215-217
Cahen 166,283
Caillaux 290
Caillemer 134, 151,298
Cailletet 101
Caland 237
Callon 98, 101
Calmette 135, 193, 204
Calot 201
Camus 184
de Candolle 57
Capitan 23,26
Capitant 153, 155, 289, 296
Caralp 126
Carez 119
Carnot 97, 100,275
Carre 136
Cartailhac 23
Cartan 167
Cartault. 212
440
INDEX
Page
Casanova 240, 245
Casaubon 133,207, 2I7
Cassini 10
Castaigne iQ3> 202
Castelain 254
Page
Chavegrin 153
Chenon 151, 285
Chesneau 102
Chevalier 288
Chevreul 69, 70
Cauchy 163,275 Chezy 234, 235
Caullery 332,338 Chipiez. . 33
Cayeux 118,125 Choate 146
Cazamian 252, 253
Cestre 254
Cezar-Bru 3°°
Chabaneau 223
Chabert 214
Chabot 245
Chabrie 7J,73
Chacornac 51
Chaillon 203
Chamard 228
Chamberland 72
Champollion 12, 31, 243
Chantemesse 202
Chantre 24
Chappuis 14, 15, 275
Chaput 200
Charcot 180, 189,305
Charency 25
Chareyre 102
Charlois 51
Charmont 155, 298
Charnay 25
Charpy 99
Chasles 164
Chasles, E 226
Choisy 35
Chomel 188
Chretien 76
Christy 23
Civiale 197
Cirot 231
Clairaut 47,48,50
Clapeyron 275
Claude 184
Cledat 223,231
Clerc 135
Clermont-Ganneau. . 37, 38, 240,
241,246
Clunet 293
Cobden 288
Cochin 225
Coggia 51
Cohen 33
Coke 146/147
Colbert 12,143,286
Collet ^231
Collignon 22,36,134,213
Collinet 150,151
Collot 120
Colson 102, 289, 290
Chasles, P 226 Combes 98, 101
Chaslin 308 Compayre 89
Chateaubriand 281
Chatelain 93,215
Chatellier 24
Chatton 340
Chauffard 189, 191
Chauveau 157
Chauvet 23
Chavannes, E 239, 240
Chavannes, Puvis de 9
Comte 25,154,262,305,
323,324
Condillac 260
Constans 213
Constant 281
Copaux 72
Coras 147
Cordier 239, 240
Cormenin . .... 282
Chavastelon 76 Cornu, A 101, 257
INDEX 44i
Page Page
Cornu, J 226 Dareste 152,285
Corot. 24 Darmesteter, A 222
Corre 83 Darmesteter, J 313
Corvisart 187 Dartein 35
Cosserat 277 Darwin 332
Costantin 58,59 Dastre 176,177,338
Couche 97, 101 Daubree 98, 116, 123
Coulomb 98, 275 Dauriac, A 102
Courajod 34 Dauriac, L 264, 265
Courbaud 212 Debidour 136, 319
Courbet 100 Dechelette 24
Courmant 23, 193, 204 Declareuil 151,300
Courbet 100 Defremery 244
Courtade 200 Degert 216
Courteault 136 Degois 157
Cousin 260 Dejerine, J 181-185, *99
Coutil 24 Dejerine, Mme 181
Couturat 265 Dejob 225
Coxe ioi Delacroix 267
Cremieu 273 Delafosse 122
Cresson 266 Delage, A 120
Croiset, A 218, 219 Delage, Yves 338
Croiset, M 218,219 Delaruelle 213
Crouzon 182 Delattre 252
Cruet 155 Delaunay 49
Cuche 86 see also DE LAUNAY.
Cujas 133, 143, 147, 281 Delaunoy ioi
Cultru 136 Delbet 200
Cuny 234 Delbos 307
Cuq 149, 285, 296 Delebecque 109
Curie, Mme. S 70, 71,73, Delezenne 72
123, 276 Delisle 133, 209
Curie, P 69,71,123,126, Delorme 198
276 Delpech 298
Cusset 24 Demangeon 109, no
Cuvier . ...11,21, 115, 127, 128, Demarest 115, 116
i3°>33i,334,335 Demogue 155, 157, 285, 298
Demoulins 326
D Denifle 93
Dallemagne 84 Deniges 76
Dalton 69 Deniker 22
Damoiseau 49 Denis 136
Damas-Hinard 226 Denis, F 226
Dangeard 58 Denman 146
Daremberg 209, 218 Deperet 120, 127
442 INDEX
Page Page
Deprez 9$ Duguit 155,282,285,299
Derenbourg, H 245 Duhem 70, 265, 277
Derenbourg, J 245 Dujardin 33Ii333
Derocquigny 250, 253 Dujardin-Beaumetz 204
Descamps, P 200 Dulong 100, 275
Descartes 13,163,259,260,274 Dumas 69,70,136
Deschamps 226 Dumas, G 268,307
Des Cloizeaux 124, 125 Dumont 325
Desdevises du Dezert 136 Dumont, A 32>2lS
Desgrez 72, 74 Dumoulin 143, 2Sl
Deshayes 128 Dunan 266
Desjardins 284 Dupanloup 89
Deslandres 52, 276, 298 Duplessix 284
Deslongchamps 127 Dupont- White 281
Desnoyers 24 Dupre 185,186
Despagnet 284 Dupuis 284
Despine 81 Dupuytren 172, 174, 196
Desrousseaux 219 Durand 214
Desserteaux 150,298 Durkheim. . .25,85,91, 92, 152
Dhaleine ' 252 263,267,268,315,325,326
Dichirara 200 Duruy 89
Diehl 35,36,135,241 Dusuzeau 102
Dieulafoy 32, 189 Duval 245
Diez 221, 223 Duvegrier 25
Dollfus-Ausset 116 Du Verdy 284
Dornat 143, 148, 281
Doneau 143, 281 „
Donoyer 288
Dopter 204 Ebelmen 123
Dornet 213 Edmond 24
Dottin 233, 255 Edmont 223, 229
Douaren 143 Egleston 101
Doyen 198 Eiffel 97"
Doyon 176 Elie de Beaumont . 98, 100, 101,
Drach 276 115,116,146
Dubois 299 Encyclopedists 260
Duboscq 337, 341 Enlart 34, 135
Dubourg 76 Enriquez 184
Du Cange 133, 207, 222 d'Entrecasteaux 25
Duchenne 189 Erasmus 207
Duck 143 Ernout 213,234
Duclaux 72 Erskine 146
Dufour 283 Esmein 150, 282
Dufour, L 340 Esperandieu 34
Dufrenoy 101, 116 Espinas 324
INDEX 443
Page Page
Esteve 225 Foulche-Delbosc 226
Estienne, Henri 217, 222 Fouque 123, 124
Estienne, Robert 207,217 Fourier.. .154, 163, 275, 276, 287
Evans 23 Fournier, E 120
Fournier, P... 134, 151,189, 296
Franf ois-Franck. . .176, 177, 189
Fabia 213 Franklin 275
Fabre 78 Frechet 165
Fabre, J 340 Fremy 123
Fabry 52, 54, 277 Fresnel 9, 124, 275
Faguet 225 Freundler 73
Faidherbe 26 de Freycinet 100
Falbot 120 Friedel 123, 126
Fauchet 224 Funck-Brentano 284
Fauchille 284, 293 Fustel de Coulanges. . . 130, 144,
Faure 199, 200, 294, 296 150, 152, 285
Fauriel 224, 225 Fuster 326
de Faye 318
Febvre 136 G
Fenelon 286 Gachon 136
Ferand-Giraud 284 Gaffarel 136
Fermat 163 Gaffiot 214
Fernbach 73 Gaidoz 229, 254
Ferry 89 Galabert 135
Feuillerat 252, 254 Galileo 274
Ficheur 121 Galland 243
Filhol 127 Gallavardin 193
Finot 237, 238 Gallois 109, no
Fizeau 52,122,275 Galois 163
Flach 135, 150, 151, 153, 296 Garbe 277
Flahault in Garyon. . . .84, 86, 157, 296, 326
Flamand 121 Gamier 77, 185
Fliche 135 Garraud 86,157,285,297
Flory 86 Garsonnet 150
Flusin 76 Gaucher 192
Foix 182 Gauchy 100
Fonsegrive 264, 266 Gauckler 33
de Forcrand 77 Gaudemet 298
Forest 97 Gaudin 123
Fossey 240,241,246,316 Gaudry 127
Fouan 102 Gaultier 265
Foucart. . .37, 134, 218, 219,319 Gauthiot 234, 241
Foucault . . 98, 268, 269, 275, 309 Gautier, A 72, 74
Foucher 237, 238, 316 Gautier, E. F 121
Fouillee 89,154,264,325 Gautier, L 224
444 INDEX
Page Page
Gautier, T 226 Gournay 286
Qavet 299 Goursat 164, 166
Gay 135 Gouy 277
Gay-Lussac 69, 70, 100 Gramme 98, 276
Gayon 76 Grammont . . 214, 231
Gebhart 225 Grand-Eury 58
Genestal 151, 3l8 Grandjean 123
Gentil 125 Granet.... ..241,316
Geny i55> 285, 299 de la Grasserie 152
Geoffrey St. Hilaire 21 Greard 89
Gerardin 285 Grebaut 134,246
Gerhardt 69, 70 Grehant 176
Gervais 127 Grignard 77
Giacobini 51 Grimm 233
Gibbs 6 Gruner 98, 101
Gide, C 289,290,296,326 Gsell 33,37,134,216,246
Gide, P 152, 285 Guebhard 24
Gilbert 192 Guelle 284
Gilles de la Tourette 189 Guerin 204
Gillieron 223, 228, 229 Guernier 298
Gilman 6 Guetat 157
Ginguene 225 Guettard 115
Ginoulhiac 150 Guichard 73, 166, 276
Giran 78 Guignard 58, 59
Girard, P 219 Guignebert 319
Girard, P. F . . 134, 149, 285> 296 Guillain 184, 193
Giraud 150, 285 Guillaume 47, 275
Giraud-Teulon 25 Guillebot de Nerville 102
Girault 285 Guillet 99
Girod 23 Guimbert 72, 74
Glangeaud 120 Guiraud 135
Glasson 150, 285 Guiyesse 38
Gley 176,339 Guizot 89, 281
Glotz 134,152,219 Guntz 77
Goblot 244, 268 Guyau 89, 264
Godefroi, J 143, 281 Guye 70
Godefroy, F 222 Guyon 197, 193, 200
Goelzer 212 Guyot 77, 252
Goethe 5,7, 16,332
Goldschmidt 151 j^
Goldstiicker 235
Gorgeu 123 Hadamard. . . 164, 166, 167, 276
Gosset 200 Haddon 21
Goupil 75 Halbwachs 263
de la Goupilliere 98, 100 Hale 276
INDEX 445
Page Page
Halevy 266 Homo 135
Halevy, J 241, 242, 247 Homolle 36,218, 219
Hall 98 Hospitaller 98
Haller 7*, 73, 75 Hotman 142, 147
Halphen 135 Houllevique 277
Hamelin 264 Houssay 338
Hamilton 146 Howard 156
Hamonet 72 Huart 241,247,317
Hamy 22,25,52 Hubert 25,263,316,325
Hanot 189, 191 Huchard 189
Hanriot 72 Huchon 253
Harnack 319 Huet 184
Hartmann 200 Hugounenq 77
Harvey 336 Huguet 76
Hatzfeld 222 Huguet, E 228
Haug 117, 118 Humbert 102, 167
Haumant 225 von Humboldt 5,7,11,16
Hauriou. . 155, 282, 283, 285, 300 Huvelin 149, 151, 285
Hauser 136 Huxley 129
Haussoullier 38, 135, 152, Huygens 274
218,219
Hautefeuille 123, 284
Hauvette 226, 228 von Ihering 155
Hauvette-Besnault 235 Imbart de la Tour 284
Haiiy 70,98,122 Imbeaux 102
Ha vet 211,219,229 Irnerius 143
Hazard 225, 226 Izoulet 266, 326
Hedgcock 252
Hennebique 97 J
Henneguy 339 Jaboulay 198
Henriquez 193 Jacob, A 219
Henry 146 Jacob, C 120
Henry, Ch 308 Jacob, E 209
Henry, P 51 Jacquelin 283, 296
Henry, Pr 51 Jacquey 298
Henry, Victor 209, 237 Jacquot 24
Henzey 32 Jalaguier 200
Hericourt 190 Jamin 275
Hermet 24 Janet 192, 266, 285, 308
Hermite 163 Janssen 52
Heron de Villefosse . 38, 39, 135, Jay 153, 289
211, 216 Jeanroy 224, 226, 227, 228,
Heroult 98, 101 251, 254
Herve 26 Jeze 282, 283, 290, 293, 296
Holleaux 36, 135, 219 Jobbe-Duval 149, 151
446 INDEX
Page Page
Joffroy 189 Laferriere 150, 283
Jolly 339 Lafond 226
de Joly 102 Lagrange . 48, 163, 275
Joly, H 84 Laignel-Lavastine 184, 307
Jonckheere 51 Lalande 267
Jones 233 Lallemand 51
Jordan 135,164 Lamarck 11,21,57,115, 127,
Joubert 98 331, 332, 335, 336
Joubin 339 Lamartine 81
Jouguet 135, 2I5, 2I9 Lambert 151, 153, 155, 241,
Julien 238,239 247,285,319
Jullian 134 Lambin 207,217
Jumentie 184 Lambling 76
Jungfleisch 71, 75 Lamoignon 143
Jusserand 251 Lamcereaux 189
de Jussieu 57 Landouzy 190
Landry 189, 289
Langevin 168, 276
Kant 154,261, 264,268 Langlois 176,339
Kergomard 90 Langlois, C. V 138, 224
Kilian 120, 129 Lanson 225, 227, 254
Kirmisson 200, 201 Lapicque 176
Kleinclausz 135 Laplace 48, 70, 163, 275
Klippel 184 de Lapparent 98, 100, 101,
Koenigs 167, 275, 276 108, 117
de Lapradelle 284, 296
L La Provostaye 14
Labbe 192 Larcher 285
Laberthonniere 264 Larnaude. . . . 155, 282, 285, 296
Laborde 157, 297 La Rochefoucauld-Lian-
Labori 147 court 81
Laboulaye 150, 281 Lartet 23, 127, 130
Labre 74 Lasegue 185
Lacassagne 83,85 de Lasteyrie 34, 41
Lacaze-Duthiers 335,336 de Latour, A 226
Lachelier 260, 261, 266 de Launay 98,99, 101, 102,
La Combe 325 118, 123, 125
Lacote 238 Laurent 135
Lacour 166 Laurent, A 69, 70, 78
Lacroix, A 109, 119, 124, 125 Laurent, E 83
Lacroix, L 318 Lauvergne 81
La Curne de Sainte-Palaye 224 Lauvriere 252
Laederich 191 Laveleye 152
Laennec 174, 187 Laveran 190, 204,340
Lafaye 213, 215, 219 Laville 23
INDEX 447
Page Page
Lavisse 89, 109, 135 Leon 265
Lavoisier 13, 69, 70 Lepine 193
Lebeau 72> 74 Le Play 287, 325, 326
Le Bel 7°, 73 Le Poittevin. ... 84, 86, 157, 296
Lebesgue 167 Leprieur, Paul 39
Le Blanc 98 Leri 184
Le Blant 34 Leriche. . 127
Le Bon 325 Le Roux 277
Le Braz 232, 255 Leroy, M 156
Lebreton 101 Le Roy, Ed 262, 264, 266
Le Breton 231, 255 Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole.. . 138
Lechalas 265, 266 Leroy-Beaulieu, Paul. . 287, 289,
Lecaillou 338 296
Le Chatelier, A 247, 326 Lescoeur 76
LeChatelier, H... 71, 73,74, 99i Lescure 153
100,101,122,126,276 Lespieau 75
Lecomte 59 de Lesseps 97
Le Comte, A 100 Letourneau 25, 152, 325
Lecrivain 135, 214 Letulle 191, 202, 203
Le Dantec 338 Levaditi 204
Leduc 276 Levainville 109
Lefebvre 151,286,296 Levasseur 287,289
Lefevre-Pontalis 41 Le Verrier 10, 49
Lefranc 229,243,254 Levi, Isidore 241,249,319
Legendre 163 Levi, Israel 241, 249,317
Leger 338 Levi, Sylvain. 238, 240,241,316
Legouis 251,252,253 Levy 222
Legrain 102 Levy, R. G 291
Legueu 193, 200 Levy-Bruhl 263, 267, 268
Leibnitz 261 Levy-Ullmann 298
Lejars 198, 200 Lhermitte. 184
Lejay 212 Liard 89, 265
Lejeal 25 Liebig 15
Lemaitre 225 Lignier 58
Lemercier 86 Limasset 102
Lemoine, G 73 Linnaeus 21,335
Lemoine, V 128 Lintilhac, E 224
Lemonon 284 Liouville 163
Lemoult 76 Lippmann 276
Lenard 102 Lipsius 207
Lenoir 97 de L'Isle, Arnoul 243
Lenormand 78 Lissajous 275
Lenormant 244 Lister 197
Lenormant, C 218 Littleton 147
Lenormant, F 33, 218 Littre 217,325
448 INDEX
Page Page
Littre, E 222 Marie, A 308
Lockyer 52 Marie, P.iSi, 182, 183, 184, 185,
Lods 240,249,319 190,202,308
Loewy 52 Mariejol 136
Loisel 339 Mariette 12,31
Loisy 130,248,264,319 Marion, H 89,92
Lombroso 81 Marion, M 290
Lot, F 135,228,229 Marlio 290
Lot, J 229 Marouzeau 214, 229, 234
Loth 254 Marquis 73
de Loubat, Due 25 Marsan 200
Louis 174, 1 88 Marschal 340
Loyola 93 de Martel 184
Lucas-Championniere 197 Martha, C 208
Luchaire 285 Martha, J 212
Luizet 32,5! Martin 23, 72, 98, 203,
Lyell 23 217,245
Lyon-Caen 153,296 Martinenche 225,226,228
de Martonne 108, 109, no,
M 116, 118
Mabillon 207 Mascart 98, 275
Mace 213 Maspero 12,31,38,240,314
Magendie 172, 174, 175 Masqueray 26
Magnol 157 Masseck 252
Mahoudeau 26 Massenat 23
Maine de Biran 260, 261 Massigli 153
Maine, Sir Henry. 130, 144, 150, Mathiez 136
152 Matignon 71,75,126
Maitland 150 Matruchot 59
Malapert 266 Mauss 25,263,316,325
Male 36, 135 Mauxion 269
Malesherbes 146 Maxwell 84
Malgaigne 196 May 149? 285
Mallard 101,122 Maze 72
Malte-Brun 108 Mazon 219
Malus 9 Meige 182
Mandaire 201 Meillet 214,233,238,241
Mangin 59 Melin 327
Manouvrier .... 22, 26, 309, 341 Menant 32, 244
Mansfield 146 Merignhac 284, 299
Maquenne 72 Merimee, E 226, 231
Marey 172, 176, 178 Merimee, P 226
Marfan 192 Merlant 231
de Margerie. . 108, 109, 116, 119 Mersenne 275
Marie 73 Meslin 277
INDEX 449
Page Page
Mesnager 97, 99, 102 Morgagni 187
Mesnil 72, 204, 340 de Morgan 32
Metschnikoff 204, 339 Morillot 231
Metzner 76 de Mortillet, A 23, 26
Meunier 119, 125 de Mortillet, G 23,24,33
Meyer 222, 224 Morvan 189
Meyerson 265 Motylynsky 26
Meynial 149, 151 Mouchet 200
Mezieres 225 Mouret 102
Michaut 228 Moureu 72,74>75
Michaux 199 Mouriquand. 193
Michel 39 Mouton 72
Michel-Levy 100, 123, 124 Moye 299
Michelet 89, 133 Muller . - - 77
Michon 299 Muller, J. . .175, 336
Michoud 155, 285, 298 Muller, M. . 235
Migeon 39 Miintz, A 73
Milhaud 262,267 Muntz, E 35, 41
Mill 287 Muret 207,217
Miller 217
Millet 317
Milne-Edwards. . . 127, 128,335 Nadaillac. ... . . 24
Minguin 77 Napoleon 12, 243
de Miribel 100 Nattan-Larrier 203
Mitscherlich 14 Nau 245
Moissan 69,98 Negoette 339
Moitessier 77 Nelaton 197
Molliard 59 Netter 192
Monaco, Prince of . .23, 111,342 Newton 25,26,274, 275
Monceaux 212,318 Nickles 120
Monge 163 Nicloux 176
Monnier 150 Nicolas 199, 339
Montaigne 89 Nicolle. . . . . 203
de Montchretien 286 Nisard 208
Montel 167 de la Noe 108, 116
de Montessus de Ballore . . . 116 de Nolhac 39>225
Montesquieu 133, 144, 281 de Nostredame 224
Montfaucon 208, 217, 224
Morat 176
Moreau 2 82, 283 O'Connell 148
Morel 77>8i, 298 Oechsner de Coninck 77
Morel, L : 252 Offret 126
Morel-Fatio 226, 229 Ohm 276
Morestin 199 Oilier 197
Moret 38,318 Omont 210
450 INDEX
Page Page
Oppert 32, 244 Perrin, J 71, 73, 276
d'Orbigny 115,128 Perronnet 97
d'Orbiny 25 Perrot 33>4°
Ortolan 149, 285 Perrotin 51
Osmond 98 Petit 77, 275
Otis 146 Peyrony 23
Ouvrard 73 Pfister 135
Owen 127 Philippe 308
Ozanam 225 Physiocrats 286
Piat 266
P Pic 153,289,297
Painleve 164, 167 Picard 265
Painvin 101 Picard, E 164, 165
Palante 265 Picavet 267, 318
Palustre 34 Picot 225
Pape-Carpentier 89 Picque 200
Papillault 23, 609 Piedelievre 284, 296
Papin 200 Piette 23
Pardessus 150 Pigeaud 102
Pare 196 Pigeon 76
Paris, Gaston 222, 224, 251 Pillet 284, 296
Paris, Paulin 224, 226 Pillon 264
Parisot 135,136 Pinart 25
Parodi 266 Pinel 174
Pascal 13, 163, 260, 274 Piroutet 24
Passerat 109 Pistoye 284
Pasteur. . . 13, 14, 15, 69, 70, 172, Pithou 207
189,197,331,333,334,336 PIace 31
Patin 208, 217 Planiol 155, 285, 296
Paulhan 265 Plessis 212
Pecaut 89 Poincare, H. . . 50, 100, 101, 164,
Pelletan 102 167, 262, 265
Pelliot 238, 239, 240 Poincare, L 265
Pellissier 255 Poinsot 275
Percerou 153 Poisson 48, 163, 275
de Perceval 244 Politis 284
Perdrix 77 Poinel 128
Perez 89,338 Poncelet 97
de Perigny, Comte 25 de Pontecoulant 49
Perrault 10 Pontremoli 36,38
Perreau 326 Portier 190
Perrey 116 Post 144
Perrier, C 84 Postel 243
Perrier, E 338>339,34i Potain 188,192
Perrin 200, 265 Potherat 200
INDEX 451
Page Page
Pothier 143, 281 Raoult 70
Potier 101 Rashdall 93
Pettier 40, 213 Ravaisson 260, 261
Pouillet 275 Raveneau 88, 109
Poupardin 135 Rayer 188
Pourcel 99 Rayet 52
Pozzi 200 Rayet, 0 32
Pradier-Fodere 284 Raymond 180
Prenant 339 Raynaud 26, 316
Prentout 135 Raynouard 222, 224
Prestwich 23 Reaumur 98
Prevost 86 Rebelliau 319
Prevost, M 100 Reclus 108, 198, 200
Prevost-Paradol 281 Recoura 76
Priem 127 Regnault 100, 101
Prilleux 58 Regnier 235
Proal 84 Reinach 24, 40, 211
Prou 135, 215 Remusat 238
Proudhon 154,287 Renan 31, 133, 225, 244, 263,314
Prudhomme 86 Renard 326
Pruner Bey 21 Renaud 290
Pruvot 338 Renault 58, 283, 296
Psichari 218,241,319 Renel 216
Puech 219 Renouvier 264
Puiseux 52,53 Resal 101, 102
Puvis de Chavannes 9 Reuss 136
de Puymaigre 226 Revault d'Allones 307
Reverdin 198
Q Reville 314
de Quatrefages. . . 21, 22, 25, 130 Revillout freres 152
Quatremere 244 Revoil 34
Quenu 199 Revon 136
Quenisset 51 Rey 268
Quesnay 286 Reynier 200
Quetelet 22, 81, 325 Reynier, G 228
Quicherat 34, 208 Ribierre 85
Quinet 89 Ribot 90, 306, 307
Ricard 200
Richard i55>327
Rabelais 89 Richelieu 12, 13
Rabot 119 Richet 176,190,338
Radais 59 Ricord 174, 189
Radet 135 Rieffel 200
Rames 24 Riemann 209, 212
Ramus 93 Rist 193,326
452
INDEX
Page
Page
Rivals 77 Sagnac 136
Rivaud 269 Saladin 33
Riviere 23
Rivot ioi
Robert 81
De Roberty 325
Robin 267
Rochard 200
Saleilles. . 154, 155, 157, 282, 285
de Saporta 58, 128
Sarasin 123
Sarzec 32
de Saulcy 244
Saumaise 207
de Rochas, Beau 97 de Saussure 233
Rodet 204
Rodin 9
Roger 202
Rolin 155
Rolland 284,299
Rolland d'Erceville 93
Rollet 86
Rollin 13,93
Remain 214
Roman 120
Rome de 1'Isle 70
Romieu . 102
Roques 228, 229, 254
Sauvage. ... 78, 97, ioi, 102, 127
Sauvageau 58
Sauve 200
Savariaud 201
Savart 276
Savigny 144
Say 287
Scaliger 133,207,217
Schatz 298
Scheil 39, 152, 241, 248
Schelling 261, 268
Scherer 225
Schiller 5
deRosny 25 Schirmer .25, 109
231
281
Rosset
Rossi
Roth 235
Rouard de Card 284, 299
Roule 339
Rousseau 89, 144, 260, 281
Rousselot, 1'Abbe. . . 25, 223, 230
Rousselot, P 226
Roussy 185, 202
Routier 200
Roux ... 72, 75, 78, 157, 190, 202,
339
Schloesing 73
Schloesing fils 73
Schlumberger 35
Schmidt 215
Schneider 99
Schultze 333
Schupfer 150
Schwann 333
Schwartz 199
Sebileau 200, 201
See 135
Seglas 308
Royer-Collard 281 Seignobos 136
Ruprich-Robert 34 Sejourne 102
Rutot 24 Senart 235, 236, 237
Ruyssen 268 Senderens 78
Seraphin-Couvreur 239
S Serres 130
Sabatier, A 265 Serrigny 282
Sabatier, P 78, 226 Serruys 219
de Sacy 244 Sertillanges 266
Saglio 209, 218 Servin 146
Page
Seunes 120
Sicard 184
Simiand 264,325
Simon, J 89, 281
Simon, T 307
Simonet 299
Sismondi 287
Slane 244
Smith 148
Sogonzac 25
le Sorbon, Robert 13
Sorel 284
Sorre 109
Souques, A 183, 184, 185
Souriau, M 231
Souriau, P 269
Spencer 306,324
Spurgeon 251
Sainte-Beuve 208, 225
Sainte-Claire Deville. . . .69,98,
122, 123
St. Gilles 70
Saint-Hilaire 21
St. Leger 136
Saint-Simon . .262, 287, 323, 324
Saint- Vincent 21
de Stael 225
Stapfer 252
Stein 239
Stephan 51
Stouff 135
Stourm 290
Straus-Diirckheim 340
Strowski 228
Sturm 163
Taine 133, 208, 225, 250,
263,305
Talon 146
Tannery, J 265
Tannery, P 218, 265
Tanon 155
Tarde.. 25,82,83,152,306,325
Tardif 150
INDEX 453
Page
de Tassy, Garcin 244
Teissier 189, 192, 193
Temple 51
Termier 101, 118, 125
Terracher 223
Terrier 198
Tessier 283
Testut 338
Teutsch 86
Texier 32
Texte 225
Thaller 153,296
Thenard 69
Thevenin 135
Thevenin 127, 129
Thiaucourt 214
Thoinot 85
Thomas, A ... 222, 226, 228, 229
Thomas, Andre 182
Thomas, Emile 210
Thomas, L. P 226
Thomas, Paul 150, 300
Thomas, W 250, 254
Thoulet 116,126
Thureau-Dangin 245
Thurot 209,218
Thurot, C 223
Ticknor 5,6
Tilho 25
Tisserand 49
Tisserand, E 61
Tissier 76, 296
de Tocqueville 81, 281
Topinard 21,22, 130
Torricelli 274
Toulouse 308
Tournefort 57
Toutain. . .33, 215, 216, 219,317
Trauchy 326
Trouessart 339
Trousseau 188, 189, 192
Turner 199
Turgot 286,324
Turnebe 207, 217
Turpain 277
454
INDEX
Page
Urbain ...... 71,73,75,126,276
Vacher 109
Vacher de la Pouge 325
Valery 299
Vallas 298
Vallaux 109
Vallery 284
Vallery-Radot 13
Valletta 213
Vaquez 189, 191
Van Tieghem 58
Varignon 275
Vasseur 120
Vauban 286
Veau 200
Velain no
Velpeau 174, 196
Vendryes 38, 214, 233, 241
Verliac 200
Verneau 22, 23, 26
Verneilh 34
Vernes 241,249,317
Verneuil 123
Vernier 215
Verrier 250
Vessiot 167
Vezes 76
Viala 203
Vianey 225, 231
Viardot 226
Vidal 84
Vidal-Naquet 86
Vidal de la Blache 108, 109, no
de Viel-Castel 226
Vieta 163
Vignon 77
Vigouroux 76
Ville 77
de la Ville de Mirmont . . . . 213
Villemain 225
Page
Villemin 188
Villey 231
Villiers 72,74
Vinson 26
Viollet 150
Viollet-le-Duc 34
Vire 24
Vivien 281,283
de Vogue 35, 245
Voisin 307
Voltaire 81,133,146,156
W
Waddington 136
Wahl 77
Walckenaer 102
Waldeck 25
Wallerant 125
Walther 200
Waltz, R 213
Weber 265
Weil 209,218
Weill 136
Weiss.. 176, 284, 296
Welsch 120
Werner 115
Widal 191
Wieger 239
Wilbois 264
Wines 82
Winter 265
Wolf 52,208
Worms 326
Wurtz 69,70,202
Yersin 189, 190
Yves, St 148
Zeiller 58, 101
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