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SCIENCE
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THE LIBRARY
OF
CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE.
PROSPECTUS.
Some degree of truth has been admitted In the charge not
unfrequently brought against the English, that they are assiduous
rather than solid readers. They give themselves too much to
the lighter forms of literature. Technical Science is almost ex-
clusively restricted to its professed votaries, and, but for some
of the Quarterlies and Monthlies, very little solid matter would
come within the reach of the general public.
But the circulation enjoyed by many of these very periodicals,
and the increase of the scientific journals, may he taken for
sufficient proof that a taste for more serious subjects of study is
now growing. [ndeed there is good reason to believe that if
trictly scientific subjects are not more universally cultivated, it
is mainly they are not rendered more accessible to bhe
people. Such themes are treated either too elaborately, or in
Forbidding a style, or else brought out in too costly a form
to be easily available to .ill classes.
'Ih" splendid conquests of Modern Science in ■. try branch
of human knowledge are moreover, as a rule, scattered over a
multiplicity of monographs, essays, memoirs, and special works of
all sorts. Except in the Encyclopaedias, their varied results are
nowhere to be found, so to say, under one cover, and even in
these unwieldy compilations they are necessarily handled more
summarily than is always desirable.
"With the view of remedying this manifold and increasing
inconvenience, we are glad to be able to take advantage of a
comprehensive project recently set on foot in France, emphatically
the land of Popular Science. The well-known publishers, MM.
Keinwald & Co., have made satisfactory arrangements with some
of the leading savants of that country to supply an exhaustive
3 of works on each and all of the sciences of the daj', treated
in a style at once lucid, popular, and strictly methodic.
The names of MM. P. Eroca, Secretary of the Societe
d' Anthropologic ; Ch. Martins, Montpellier University ; C. Vogt,
University of Geneva ; G. de Mortillet, Museum of Saint Ger-
main ; A. Guillemin, author of " Ciel " and " Phenomenes de la
Physique;" A. Hovelacque, editor of the " Eevue de Linguis-
tique;" Dr. Dally, Dr. Letourneau, and many others, whose co-
operation has already been secured, are a guarantee that their
respective subjects will receive thorough treatment, and will in all
cases be written up to the very latest discoveries, and kept in
every respect fully abreast of the times.
We have, on our part, been fortunate in making such further
arrangements with some of the best writers and recognised
authorities here, as will enable us to present the series in a
thoroughly English dress to the reading public of this country.
Tn so doing we feel convinced that we are taking the best means
of supplying a want that has long been deeply felt.
The volumes in actual course of execution, or contemplated,
will embrace sucli subjects as : Anthropology, Biology, Science-
of Language, Comparative Mythology, Astronomy, Prehistoric
Archaeology, Ethnography, Geology, Hygiene, Political Economy,
Physical and Commercial Geography, Philosoplrv, Architecture,
Chemistry, Education, General Anatomy, Zoology, Botany,
Meteorology, History, Finance, Mechanics, Statistics, &c. &c.
All the volumes, while complete and so far independent in
themselves, will be of uniform appearance, slightly varying,
according to the nature of the subject, in bulk and in price.
The present volume, on the Science of Language, with which
the English series is introduced, and which will be immp.din.tely
followed by others on Biology and Anthropology, may be
accepted as a fair sample of the style and execution of these
works.
"When finished they will form a complete collection op
standard works op reference on all the physical and mental
sciences, thus fully justifying the general title chosen for the
scries — " Library op Contemporary Science."
CHAPMAN AND HALL.
193, Piccadilly, W.,
Hay loth, 1877.
LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE.
Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN
THE
SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE
LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY, ETYMOLOGY.
ABEL HOVELACQUE.
TRANSLATED BY
A. H. KEANE, B.A.,
AUTHOR OF
1 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, " " GERMAN INFLEXION." "FRENCH ACCENTS.'
X'onboit :
CHAPMAN AM) BALL, L93, PICCADILLY.
1877.
CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,
CRYSTAL PAT.ACE PRESS.
T
■ tARY
LMvr';- . , of California'
SAM A BARBARA
THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
To the last years of the eighteenth century was reserved the
privilege of giving hirth to the true methods of scientific research.
The undertaking was immense; but the men by whom it was
attempted were fully equal to the task. The Encyclopedists led
the way in the new era by introducing the modern system of
experimental science.
The methodic spirit recast the processes of research and of
instruction hitherto pursued, while mathematics, chemistry, the
physical sciences, broke at last, once for all, with metaphysics.
The Science of Language, to which this volume is devoted.
is neither the least important nor the Leasl interesting of con-
temporary sciences. Our purpose is to show its real place in
the natural history of man. And at the very outset we shall
Lave- to define its scope and nature. The most delicate questions
. . f are daily discussed and solved by persons ignoranl
alike of ite objecl and of it- method. This, however, is hut
the general fate of all the natural sciences. The lack of deep
3 tudy, based on experience, is supplied by assertions of a purely
timental character. It is thus that we constantly hear people
boldly proclaiming themselves polygenista or monogenists, friends
v i AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
or foes of the doctrine of evolution, without having ever set foot
in an anthropological museum.
We shall not seek to shirk the question of the origin of
speech, which is in itself a purely anthropological one. With-
out troubling ourselves with the fancies it has given rise to,
we shall treat it solely on the standpoint of natural history —
that is to say, of anatomy and physiology. Articulate speech
is a natural fact, subject, like all others, to free and unpre-
judiced inquiry ; hence there is nothing rash in attempting to
broach the question of its origin. To put it aside under the
pretext that all inquiry into "first origins" must be proscribed,
is of itself an admission of the possibility of these hrst causes.
Avhich mathematics and chemistry themselves have amply vindi-
cated.
By the side of questions purely philological, we have here
and there, though sparingly, introduced certain linguistic matters
directly connected with them. We have more readily discussed
some points of linguistic ethnography, though in a very incom-
plete manner, with the intention of returning to the subject.
Even the strictly philological questions themselves, the nature
and aim of this series has compelled us to treat in a very cursory
way, and it is to be hoped that the reader will make allowance
for this difficulty.
In conclusion, we may lie permitted to express our thanks
to MM. Picot and Vinson for then- co-operation in the work.
To them we are much indebted for notes, information, and. above
all, for their safe and methodical suggestions.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
Casting about for a suitable title to his " Introduction a l'Etude
de la Science du Langage," Domenico Pozzi asks almost in
despair: "How, then, shall we name it! Linguistics with many
French writers, or G-lottics and < llottology with some Germans'?"
And after, on various grounds, rejecting these and other still
more incongruous terms, he ends by adopting the expression,
•■ Science of Language." Vet it is obvious that, after all, this
is rather an explanation of a title than a title in the strict
5ense thai botany or zoology are titles. It tells us in so many
wli.it this particular branch of knowledge is, describing
it as a science, dealing with language as Its subject matter.
Still the expression has been sanctioned by the authority of
some great names, and is, on the whole, the best thai has been
yet suggested. In the absence of any better equivalent for the
German term " Sprachwissenschaft," it will probably continue to
hold its -round, and has been accordingly adopted as the title
of this English edition of M. Hovelacque's work. It has the
advantage of being sufficiently general without being vague,
and of being perfectly intelligible without committing us to any
i no di'jhi consideration in the present state of
tli'-
viii TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
The distinguished Author belongs to the advanced school of
anthropologists, and as such, of course, treats language as strictly
and exclusively a physical science. Many of his views will,
doubtless, fail to meet with universal acceptance, while it must
be confessed that some of his conclusions are utterly unwarranted,
at least in the present state of our knowledge. This is par-
ticularly true of his argument for the original plurality of the
human race, based upon the assumed original plurality of human
speech. (Ch. vi. § 2, pp. 304-7.) In the actual state of the
science, philology can no more prove the primeval diversity than
it can the primeval unity of articrdate speech itself ; and until
this point is settled, it can tell us absolutely nothing about tin;
original unity or plurality of mankind.
But, although this and one or two collateral questions are
really foreign t< ■ the subject, the Translator did not on that
account consider himself justified in tampering with the text.
The preferable course in all such cases seemed to be to let the
Author set forth his own views in his own way, and then, where
desirable, point out their fallacies, and warn the reader against
their illogical nature. All such comments, as well as all other
supplementary matter, for which the Translator alone is re-
sponsible, will he found either in special notes or interspersed.
in square am! round brackets, throughout the work.
With the view of rendering it, as far as possible, a complete
handbook of the subject, he has also supplied an Appendix,
illustrated by a philological map, presenting, so to say, a birdseye
view of all known languages, living and dead, and thus forming
a clearly tabulated summary of it< varied contents.
Some thought has also been given to the important matter of
the spelling of foreign names. It would, of course, be hopeless
TRANSLATOR'S PEEFACE. ix
to look for uniformity amidst the chaos at present prevailing
amongst English writers. But we may still aim at least at
consistency, and avoid the absurdities of those who at one
moment somewhat ostentatiously write Kimon for Cimon, and
the very next give us Thucydides for Thukydides. Besides this
modest virtue of consistency, the Translator has further endea-
voured to be correct, in all cases giving preference to what he
considered the better forms, where two or more were in current
use. Thus it is that he writes Kafir, not Kaffir, the / not
being doubled in the Arabic Jf = Kafir = infidel. So also u long-
everywhere supersedes the clumsy oo and the Trench ou, whence
Rumanian, Beluch, Bantu, &c, and not Roumanian, BeloocJi,
Bantou, &C. Diacritical marks, however, have been very sparingly
used, being always cumbersome and mostly needless. Thus there
is no danger that anyone will give the same sound to the first
syllable of Rumanian that he does to the English word rum,
although the u does nol beaT the usual mark of the long vowel
.,;. On the other hand, eccentricities arc avoided, such
[ties, for instance, as would lead us to write the strictly
eorreel Tchalifah and Mrdicansarde for our old friends calif and
caravansary. 8.
It remain-- to be mentioned that, though based on the firsl
edition of the original, this translation has been carefully corn-
el with the proofs of the second now being issued All
improvements and important additions have been embodied in
the text, which it is boped will thus be found to preseni a
faithful picture of the present state of philolo dies.
A. li. K.
1 1. Aotoih Tj bba< i , N'.W.,
CONTENTS.
The Author's Preface v
Translator's Preface vii
Chapter I. — Linguistics — Philology — Etymology ... ... ... 1
§1. Difference between Linguistics and Philology ... 1
§ 2. The Life of Languages 8
§3. Linguistics and Philology mutually useful to each
other 10
§4. The Polyglot 11
§ 5. The Dangers of Etymology ... ... ... ... 13
Chapter II. --The Faculty of Articulate Speech — Its Locality and
importance in Natural History ... ... ... 17
Chapter III. — First Form of Speed Monosyllabic or Isolating
Languages ... ... ... ... ... ... 31
; 1. Chinese :; l
' 1. Annamese ... ... ... ... ... ... 11
:;. Siamese or Thai ... ... ... ... ... 12
§ I. Burmao ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12
§5. Tibetan ... ... ... IS
xii ■ CONTENTS.
PAGE
Chapter IV. — Sceoiid Form of Speech — Agglutination — The Agglu-
tinating Languages ... ... ... ... ... 44
§1. What is Agglutination ? 45
§2. South African Languages ... ... ... ... 47
(1) Hottentot 47
(2) Bushman Dialects ... ... ... ... 51
§3. Languages of the African Negroes ... ... ... 51
(1) Wolof 52
(2) Mancle group ... ... ... ... ... 56
(3) Felup group 56
(4) Sonra'i ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
(5) Hausa, or Hawsa ... ... ... ... 56
(6) Bornu group ... ... ... ... ... 5S
(7) Kruh group 58
(8) Ewe, or Ife group ... ... ... ... 58
§ 4. Bantu, or Kafir Family ... ... ... ... 59
§ 5. The Fuhi group ... ... ... ... ... 64
§ 6. The Niibian Languages ... 66
§ 7. Languages of the Negritos ... ... ... ... 66
§8. Languages of the Papuas ... ... ... ... 66
§ 9. Australian Languages ... ... ... ... ... 67
§ 10. The Malayo-Polynesian Idioms ... ... ... 68
§11. Japanese ... ... ... ... ... ... 72
§12. Corean ... 76
§13. The Dra vidian Tongue.-- 77
§14. The Fmno-Tataric, or Uralo-Altaic Languages ... 88
§15. Basque 10f>
§16. The American Languages ... ... ... ... 123
§17. The Sub-Arctic Languages ... ... ... ... 135
§18. Languages of the Caucasus ... ... ... ... 136
CONTENTS.
Chapter IV. (continued).
§ 19. On some little known idioms classified with the
Agglutinating Languages ...
(1) Sinhalese, or Elu
(2) Munda
(3) Brahui
(4) The Pretended Scythian Language
(5) The Language of the Second Column of the
Cuneiform Inscriptions
(6) The so-called Sumerian or Accadian Lan
gnage
§20. The Theory of the Turanian Languages
137
137
138
138
138
139
141
114
Chapter Y. — Third Form of Speech — Iuflection
§1. What is Inflection ? ...
§ 2. Aryan and Semitic Inflection
A. The Semitic Lan^,,
146
147
148
151
§ 3. The Semite and the Semitic Languages collectively 151
■j Arameo- Assyrian group ... ... ... ... 155
(1) Chaldee and Syriac ... ... ... ... 155
(2) Assyrian ... ... ... ... ... ... 157
'.j. The Canaanj Lc group... ... ... ... ... 160
160
(2j Phoenician 161
§0. Tl 1G6
(1) Arabic 167
(2) I. ' rabia and Abj i inia ... 170
Theix Primeval
... ... 172
CONTENTS.
Chapter V. {emit
B.
'?iwecZ).
The Hamitic Languages
PAGE
.. 174
§1-
The Egyptian group ...
.. 175
§2.
The Libyan group
.. 179
§3.
The Ethiopian group ...
.. 180
c.
The Aryan Languages...
.. 181
§1.
The Common Aryan mother-tongue ...
.. 182
§2.
The Indie branch
.. 189
(1) The Ancient Hindu Languages
.. 180
(2) Modern Indian Languages
.. 193
(3) Gipsy Dialects ...
.. 195
§3.
The Iranic branch
... 196
(1) Zend
... 197
(2) Old Persian
.. 200
(3) Armenian
.. 202
(4) Huzvaresh
... 203
(5) Parsi
... 205
(6) Persian ...
... 206
(7) Ossetian, Kurdic, Belilchi, Afghan, &c.
... 207
§4,
The Hellenic branch ...
.. 208
§5-
The Italic branch
.. 217
(1) Primitive Italic Languages
.. 218
(2) The Neo-Latin Languages
.. 227
(a) French
.. 233
(/3) Provencal...
.. 236
(y) Italian
.. 237
(§) Ladin
.. 238
(e) Spanish ...
.. 239
(£) Portuguese
.. 210
(?;) Rumanian
.. 240
CONTENTS.
Chapter V. [continued).
§6. The Keltic Languages...
§ 7. The Teutonic Tongues
(1) Gothic
(2) The Norse Tongues
(3) The Low German group
(4) The High German group
§8. The Slavonic Lauguages
§ 9. The Lettic group
(1) Lithuanian
(2) Lettish
(3) Old Prussian
§ 10. Unclassified Aryan Tongues . . .
(1) Etruscan...
(2) Dacian
(3) The Aryan Languages of Asia Minor...
(4) The so-called " Scythic " Aryan Tongues
(5) Albanian...
§11. On the ramification of the Common Aryan Speech,
; on its primitive home ...
PAGE
212
252
254
255
257
264
268
2S5
2S5
28S
288
289
2S0
291
292
293
293
291
( . ! 0] ginal Plurality of Speech, and Transmutation of
Linguistic Systems
§1. How to re& nistic Affinities
j2. Original plurality of Linguistic groups and con-
iof
/:;. [] Language and Race maj cease
in be convi
§ l. The Permutation of S] i
302
302
301
307
308
THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER I.
LINGUISTICS — PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY.
§ 1. — Difference between Linguistics and Philology*
It is seldom that in ordinary language, or even in scientific works,
any distinction is observed between the two terms linguistics and
philology. They are usually employed one for the other, almost
at haphazard, and according to the more or less urgent euphonic
requirements of a phrase or a sentence. The best writers, and even
scientific men themselves, constantly confuse them ; too often treat-
ing philology and linguistics as nothing more than the study of
etymologies, and describing those engaged in such pursuits as
philologists or linguists indifferently. The inquiry into the pos-
* In what follows, I ho tonus lijviv.istic* and ;>/m7(, /.,./;/, owing to the dif-
ferent usage of tho two languages, have necessarily changed sides. Philology
and. comparative philology, according to tho English practice, now mean
what is more comprehensively understood by tho Scienco of Language,
linguistics being moro usually restricted to tho critical study of a given
language. Bui the moro correct French writers uso la philologie in this
sense of linguistics, and la linguistique in tho senso of tho Scienco of Lan-
iv. terms thus forming respectively tho French and the
English titles of the present work. It may bo added that in this translal ion
arms Science of Language, Philology, and Comparative Philology, are
aged as practically synonymous. In the words of Schleicher, quoted further
on, "philology is nothing unless comparative." — Kote by Tram '"/ »'.
i;
2 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
sible relationship of two Australian idioms, or the revision of a
text of Plautus, would be spoken of by them either as a linguistic
or philological work indistinctly.
But this is very far from being the case, and we must at the
outset endeavour to combat such a serious error.
Philology is a natural, linguistics an historical science.
In his dictionary of the French language, M. Littre, using the
term linguistique in the sense now usually given by English
writers to the word philology, describes it as "the study of lan-
guages, considered in their principles, their relations, and as an
involuntary product of the mind of man." In spite of all its
vagueness, this definition possesses the great merit of not being
quite so easily applicable to the word linguistics (in the English
sense). On the other hand, to the term philology — by it partly
understanding linguistics — he assigns three different meanings :
1st, A kind of general learning, respecting belles-lettres, languages,
criticism, &c. ; 2nd, More definitely, the study and knowledge of a
language in so far as it is the instrument or medium of literature ;
3rd, Comparative philology, a study applied to several languages,
which are explained by being mutually compared with each other.
Of these three definitions the first two are correct, but the third
can scarcely be accepted, according to the present use of the term
by Erench writers. The author justly distinguishes between
philology, properly so-called, and linguistics ; but, without suffi-
cient reason, sanctions the unjustifiable practice which confuses
the science of comparative philology with mere linguistics.
It is difficult to understand how, by becoming comparative, the
one coidd be changed to the other. Comparative physiology em-
bracing, for instance, the relations of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, does not surely cease to be physiology. And so with
the comparative anatomy of the various races of mankind, or even
of man and the other primates, which still claims the title of
anatomy. It is clearly the same with philology, which by becoming
comparative cannot by any means thereby forfeit its true and
proper designation.
Kollin defined linguists as "those who have studied the old
Chap, i.] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 3
writers for the purpose of examining, correcting, explaining, and
expounding them," and this definition is still largely applicable.
It corresponds, as we have seen, to M. Littre's two first meanings
of philology; and in truth, the province of the linguist is the
critical study of literature from the standpoint of archaeology, art,
and mythology ; the inquiry into the history of languages, and
incidentally into their geographical extension ; the discovery of the
elements they have mutually borrowed from each other during the
course of ages ; the restoration and the correction of texts.
This is on the face of it an historical science, and an important
branch of learning. Before the modern development of the natural
sciences, languages could be regarded only from this historical point
— that is to say, linguistics necessarily long preceded philolophy.
Strictly speaking, linguistics are concerned with one language
only. This it criticises, interprets its records, improves extant
texts, according to the data and materials furnished by this one
language itself. When this study becomes extended to two dif-
ferent languages, or to several branches of the same language, it
becomes so far comparative. Thus what we understand by classical
linguistics are most commonly comparative studies, because occu-
pied with both Greek and Latin texts. In the same way, Romance,
Teutonic, and Slavonic linguistics are all comparative. They will
. for instance, of the influence exercised by the Euphuists of
tie- sixteenth century on the current speech of succeeding gene-
rations; nf tie- pail played by Luther's version of the Bible in the
formation of New High German; of the westward spread of the
Slavonic tongues during the Middle Ages, and of their subsequent
retirement towards the' Last.
Equally comparative are "oriental linguistics," as they are called,
and which embrace three languages scientifically distinct— Persian,
Arabic, and Turkish. Lastly, Buddhism in India and the extreme
; ■■ - given birth toyel another branch of comparative linguistics.
We are indebted more particularly to Schleicher,* Curtius,t
* " Dio deutscln Bprache," [ntrodnotion, chap. vi.
f "Philologie and SpraohwieBeneohaft."
4 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
Kuhn, Ohavee,* and Spiegel, + for this important distinction be-
tween the two sciences of linguistics and philology. All these
writers agree on the cardinal point — that the one belongs to the
province of historic knowledge, and the other to that of the natural
sciences.
The Science of Language, or Phdology, may be defined : The
study of the constituent elements of articulate speech, and of the
various forms by which these elements are or may be affected. In
other words, philology is the two-fold study of the phonetics and
of the structure of languages.
It is easy to see how philology trenches on physiology by the
study of the phonetic material of languages — that is, of then-
sounds. The first care of the phdologist is to arrange the vowels
and the consonants of the languages he is studying, and to establish
the laws of their changes or modifications, and the discovery of
these laws will be all the more easy for him according to his
acquaintance with the action of the vocal organs.
Vowels and consonants make up the fundamental elements of
language. There are others growing out of these, which are at
times, strictly speaking, described as maple elements, although
often in fact already compound; these are the monosyllables
usually called roots.
Inquiry will sIioav us that these monosyllables he at the bottom
of all philological systems. Sometimes they are formed by one
pure element, that is by a single vowel : i = to go in the Aryan
languages. Sometimes they are formed by the union of several
fundamental elements : ta corresponding in Chinese to the various
conceptions of greatness. But their meaning must always be
very general, never being limited by any consideration of gender,
case, number, person, time, or mood.
The study of these elements forms, as stated, one of the first
cares of the philologist. To this study succeeds the examination
of the forms by which such elements are or may be affected. This
* " Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthi-opologie de Paris," 1862, p. 198.
f " Die traditiouelle Literatur der Parsen," p. 48.
Chap, l] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 5
new study receives the name of morphology. We shall treat
farther on of the several morphological varieties in language, that
is of the different kinds of structure that languages may present. It
will then be seen that idioms classified in this relation in one and
the same group, as for instance the agglutinating languages, may
possibly be otherwise, and, in respect of their constituent elements,
entirely strangers to each other. Thus the Aryan and the Semitic
languages, whose roots are totally different and incapable of being
identified, are both found in the same morphological division; so
also with Turkish, Bascpie, Japanese, and Tamil, which present tin-
same general structure, but the roots of which are so essentially
dift'erent that it becomes impossible to reduce them to one common
stock or origin.
This subject will claim all due attention in its proper place.
Meanwhile our object is thoroughly to establish the cardinal fact
that philology belongs to the group of natural sciences, and that to
classify it with the historical sciences we must ignore at once its
aim and its method.
It is to Augustus Schleicher (pb. 1868, at Jena, where he taught)
that we are indebted for the clearest and most conclusive writings
on this important subject. Schleicher was especially distinguished
amongst his fellow-countrymen for a turn of mind altogether free
from metaphysical reveries. Like so many others, he had waded
through the schools of the transcendentalists, and followed the
expounders of hyperphysicism and " theourgics," but their subtle-
had failed to allure his positive intellect, which could ill rot
fied with dogmatic and empty assertions. His was essentially
an experimental and methodic mind. lie. was confessedly the first
to draw up the general scheme of the phonetics and structure of
tic- Aryan languages, whose relationship had been definitely pro-
claimed by Sir W. Jones at the end of the last, and scientifically
demonstrated by Bopp at the beginning of the present century.
A- Schleicher was himself wont to remark, his extensive botanical
information was of the greatest service to him in his researches into
the morphology of languages, so entirely identical are the processes
of analysis and comparison in the stud) of all the natural sciences.
G LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
Here the ingenious analogy deserves to he quoted, which, in
order to render clear the difference "between the science of language
and linguistics, he was fond of estahlishing between the philologist
and the botanist on the one hand, and the linguist and horti-
culturist on the other.*
" Linguistics," he Avrites, " are a historical science, a science
which has no place except where we are in possession of a
literature and a history. In the absence of monuments or of
a literary culture, there is no room for the linguist. In a word,
linguistics are applicable to historic documents alone. It is very
different with philology, whose sole object is language itself,
whose sole study is the examination of language in itself and
for itself. The historical changes of languages, the more or
less accidental development of the vocabulary, often even their
syntactical processes, are all but of secondary importance for
the philologist. He devotes his whole attention to the study
of the phenomenon itself of articulate speech ; a natural function,
inevitable and determined, from which there is no escape,
and which, like all other functions, is of inexorable necessity.
It little matters to the philologist that a language may have pre-
vailed for centuries over vast empires ; that it may have produced
the most glorious literary monuments ; that it may have yielded to
the requirements of the most delicate and refined intellectual
culture. He little cares, on the other hand, that an obscure idiom
may have perished without fruits or issue, stifled by other tongues
and ignored utterly by the mere linguist. Literature is unquestion-
ably a powerful aid, thanks to which it becomes easy to grasp the
language itself, to recognise the succession of its forms, the phases
of its development, a valuable, but by no means an indispensable
ally. Moreover, the knowledge of a single language is insufficient
for the philologist, and herein he is again distinguished from the
linguist. There exists a Latin linguistic science, for instance,
totally independent of the Greek; a Hebrew equally independent
of the Arabic or Assyrian. But we cannot speak of a purely Latin
* " Die deutsclie Sprache," Introduction.
Chap, i.] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 7
or a purely Hebrew philology. Philology, as above stated, is
nothing unless comparative. In fact, we cannot explain one form
without comparing it with others. Hence linguistics may be
special, and restricted to one language. But when there is question
of the constituent elements, and of the structure of a language, Ave
must be previously familiar with the phonetics, and the structure
of a certain number of other tongues. Let us repeat it once more :
the researches of the philologist are consequently always and
essentially comparative, whereas those of the linguist may be cpiite
special."
It is here that Schleicher introduces his ingenious and reasonable
comparison. " The philologist," he remarks, " is a naturalist. He
studies languages as the botanist studies plants. The botanist must
embrace at a glance the totality of vegetable organisms. He
inquires into the laws of their structure and of their development ;
but he is in no way concerned with their greater or less intrinsic
worth, with their more or less valuable uses, the more or less
acknowledged pleasure afforded by them. In his eyes, the first wild
flower to hand may have a far higher value than the loveliest rose,
or the choicest lily. The province of the linguist is far different.
It is not witli the botanist, but with the horticulturist that he must
•mparecL Tin- latter devotes his attention only to such or such
3 that may be the object of special attraction ; what he seeks
i- beauty of form, colour, and perfume. A useless plant has no
value in 1. he has nothing to do Avith the laws of structure
or development, and a vegetable that in this respect may possess the
I isl value, may possibly lie' for him nothing but a common weed."
Th.- comparison is correct, and, betterthan any more or less lucid
explanation, points out clearly enough that the philologist studies
in man the phenomenon of articulate s| h and its results, just as
all physiologists study such other functions as locomotion, smell,
. digestion, or circulation of the blood. And not only does he
inquire into ami determine the normal laws peculiar to this phe-
nomenon, but he al-o discovers and describes the changes, really
pathological in their nature, which are frequentlj presented during
the course of tic life of languages.
LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
§ 2. — The Life of Languages.
For in point of fact languages are born, grow, decay, and perish,
like all other living tilings. They pass first through an embryonic
period, then reach their highest development, and lastly enter on a
stage of retrogressive disintegration. It is precisely this conception
of the life of language that, as already remarked, distinguishes the
modern science of language from the unmethodical speculations of
the past.
In another chapter we shall speak of the birth of languages, and
of the origin of the faculty of articulate speech. We shall also see,
farther on, how the most intricate philological systems grow out of
rudimentary systems ; how, in a word, the highest morphological
stratifications ever rest upon others of a lower order.
Languages once born, cannot be said to enter at once on their
historic career, if by this we are to understand that their develop-
ment becomes henceforth subject to the whims and caprice of
fashion. To suppose so would be a serious error, for their develop-
ment is determined beforehand, and the course of then life can by
no conceivable departure from the natural laws escape from the
necessities common to all living things. Under the influence of
favourable or adverse circumstances, they may undergo more or less
serious modifications, they may advance more or less precipitately
to decrepitude and extinction, but nothing can ever bend or change
then organic tendencies. They are, in a word, what then nature
compels them to be.
There are, for instance, no such things as mixed languages, nor is
it possible to conceive, say, an Aryan tongue, whose grammar is
partly Slavonic, partly Latin. English again, into which have been
introduced so many foreign and especially French (and Lathi)
elements, remains none the less as it will remain to the last, a true
Teutonic tongue. Basque is similarly circumstanced, its constant
borrowings from two Komance tongues never having been able to
affect its inner structure. In the same way the Husvaresh, or
Paldavi, remained throughout medieval times an Aryan language,
Chap, l] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 9
notwithstanding the large amount of Semitic elements which found
then- way into it.
But it cannot he douhted that such intellectual commerce, and
that such borrowings, the inevitable results of civilisation, in a
marked manner hasten on or promote the life of languages. To
this truth the most evident and tangible facts hear witness. Thus
amongst the Teutonic tongues English has run a singularly rapid
course, whilst Icelandic has often preserved some very primitive
forms with striking fidelity. The obscure Lithuanian may he looked
upon as the hest preserved of ah Aryan languages in Europe, and
in all probability woidd still for a long time to come challenge our
admiration of its ancient and precious forms, did not the rough
competition of German threaten it with approaching extinction.
It is thus that such unecpial hut inevitable struggles daily cause the
destruction of beings full of life and health, and which under less
disastrous conditions would have enjoyed a long term of existence,
instead of perishing miserably and without issue.
It is difficult to believe that a philological system, once it has
attained its most iiomishing state and its highest development, does
not forthwith enter on its downward course, and it is equally hard
to suppose that this period is not itself characterised in a special
manner by an ever-increasing tendency towards independence on
tin- pari of the various idioms of such a system. "We know, for
instance, that the [ndo-European or Aryan tongues — Indie, Iranic,
Eellenic, [talic, Keltic, Teutonic, Slavonic, Lettic — spring from a
common mother, whose phonetic elements it has been possible to
determine, and whose morphology and structure have been re-
covered, at least in all their essential features. Now, it may be
assumed thai the period of formation, to which must in all likeli-
hood I- assigned a very protracted duration, was brought to a close
,11 as dialectic divergencies began to make their appearance,
ami thai no sensible interval elapsed between the firsl stage and the
period of retrogressive change. One of the most important duties
of philology is precisely to determine, or rather to restore, the forms
,,f mother-tongues possessing no written monuments, at the time
when they were breaking up into dialectic subdivisions. The task
10 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap, i
as stated, lias been all but accomplished for the Aryan system ; but
it has scarcely yet been roughly sketched for the Semitic family —
Chaldee, Syriac, Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic, &c. — while all has
yet to be done for the other systems ; as, for instance, the so-called
Hamitic (ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Ta-Masheq, Galla, &c), and
that of the Dravidian tongues, such as Tamil, Telugu, &c.
However, the life of languages is not a matter to be disposed of
in a few pages. To do it justice would require a whole volume, and
a long series of examples drawn from the various families of
languages respectively. The matter cannot be here further dwelt
upon ; and we must rest satisfied Avith having pointed out the
general and persistent fact of this life, of this material energy, under
one of its most curious and instructive aspects.
§3. — Linguistics and Philology mutually useful to each other.
It cannot be denied that philology finds at times a powerful ally
in the employment of the historic method. This latter is in fact
indispensable when we come to enter upon the still almost virgin
soil of syntax, where a more or less sensible individual influence
may make itself felt. Let us, however, repeat that the natural
science of philology and the historical science of linguistics are not
rivals, and that there is nothing to justify the assumption that they
are two hostile sciences. In truth, two branches of knowledge,
however different in their nature, cannot lead to contradictory
results, nor can two true sciences, really worthy of the name, be in
any sense enemies of each other. The various sciences are on the
contrary the complements one of the other, each being at once both
debtor and creditor of all the rest.
Such is especially the case both with philology and linguistics.
The latter must, at least in a general way, recognise the results
obtained by the former. If it knows nothing of speech itself,
which is such a powerful aid to progress, if it ignores its structure
and constituent elements, it can never form an adequate judgment
Chap, i.] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 11
on the acquisitions of this agent. As well say that an ethno-
graphist might derive profit from a collection of elementary data
respecting the anatomy of races, without taking them even into
calculation. This is almost a truism, and yet there are many
linguists whom it has so far failed to convince. Hence those
interminable and abstract discussions, without object, without
sound knowledge, and mostly pedantic, that medley of idle hair-
splitting, in which declamation competes with shallowness and
inanity.
On the other hand, the linguist himself collects valuable
materials for the philologist. He facilitates a knowledge of the
historic forms of languages, and reveals all that he has been able to
discover respecting their chronology and succession. Lastly, he
discloses all the dialectical divergencies which are so pregnant with
valuable instruction.
Hence, if it is necessary carefully to distinguish these two
sciences in their aim and their method, it is no less important to
acknowledge that they are both of them destined to render each
otheT mutual, and possibly very considerable assistance. Thus it is
that history has frequently furnished useful materials for the study
of the races of mankind, and that anthropology lias, in its turn,
thrown light upon many historic events.
§ L—The Polyglot.
The practical knowledge of languages, or, to speak more exactly,
the art of Bpeaking them fluently and correctly, depends mainly on
natural capacity, winch is itself developed by a more or less pro-
d exercise. But it would be a mistake ever to regard it as a
science. One is often surprised to meel with an author of numerous
and sound philological works, who is incapable of conversing in
three or four different languages, and we are still more astonished
to find that he is perhaps unable to make \\>*- of any language
except his own with ease and fluency. Hut this arises from a
12 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
misunderstanding. The philologist is not a polyglot, or at least he
need not be one. The polyglot, again, has no claim based on his
art to the title of philologist ; yet we constantly hear this name
given to persons who, thanks to some exceptional circumstances,
and especially to the individual aptitude above mentioned, dis-
course with more or less ease in ten or twelve languages, occa-
sionally even in a still greater number, without at the same time
possessing the least notion of their inner structure.
What has been above stated concerning the nature of philology
and of philological studies obviates the necessity of dwelling further
on this common confusion of ideas. At the same time, however,
we are of opinion that the results of philology may to a certain
point facilitate the study of the art here in question. Let us take,
for instance, the Eomance tongues, which Aoav directly from vulgar
Latin. It cannot be denied that we may pass from one to another
of these idioms, according to tolerably fixed rules, in all that more
especially concerns their phonetics and the interchange of con-
sonants. A very small number of general principles gives the key
to the more usual equivalents, showing that the resemblance of
French, Italian, and Spanish words is not accidental. By this
treatment it becomes logical and rational, rendering the study of
the languages themselves all the more rapid the less it is given up
to mere chance and routine.
In the same way the Teutonic idioms possess laAvs in common
which are generally definite. For instance, to such or such German
consonants correspond such or such English, Dutch, or Swedish
letters uniformly. And so with the Slavonic group, where
Bohemian, Bussian, Croatian have a perfectly settled phonology,
permitting us to pass without much trouble from the forms of any
one of these languages to those of the kindred tongues. Jfor are
any great mental efforts needed in order to reach these results,
nothing more being required than a knowledge of a few elementary
principles. Unfortunately there are still wanting practical manuals
free from all scientific parade, and planned in such a way as to
clearly, and, if needs be, somewhat empirically summarise these
few and extremely simple laws. Such little works would be of
Chap, i.] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY-ETYMOLOGY. 13
inestimable aid to the complicate and obsolete systems still in
use.*
§ 5. — TJie Dangers of Etymology.
If a special capacity for the practical acquisition of languages is
not a science, etymology, on the other hand, can be looked upon
neither as a science nor an art. In itself it is nothing but a sort of
trick or sleight-of-hand, the greatest and most relentless foe to
which is the genuine philologist. In a word, etymology, hi itself
and for itself, is mere guess-work, ignoring all experience, over-
riding all objections, and resting satisfied with specious show, and
with results which are scarcely probable, or even at all possible.
At first sight the German words, haben, to have; bereit, ready;
ahnlieh, like ; abenteuer, adventure, seem to answer, letter for
letter, with the Latin habere, paratus, the Greek dvaXoyos, and the
French aoenture, as the English to call does to the Greek Kakeiv.
And yet appearances are here deceptive, philological analysis show-
ing the futility of such comparisons as these, which in fact cannot
for a moment stand the test of sound criticism.
* This passage is suppressed in the second edition, and the following
substituted : "Let us not be too sanguine as to the amount of success
likely to be attendant on the introduction of a few elementary notions of
comparative Grammar into the lower classes. A lad of ten, twelve, or
fifteen years can scarcely show any sustained interest in the laws regulating
the interchange of letters in the languages he is studying. He tries to
learn Greek and Latin as ho has learned his mother-tongue, that is by dint
of sheer practice, without paying any heed to rules more or less eruditely
framed. But would it not be very useful, for those at least who are en-
gaged in teaching, to be acquainted with the existenco of these laws, and
to have some knowledge of the principal and most elementary of them ?
In our opinion it would not bo going too far to insist upon so much." But
the original passage is here retained in the text, because it points, how-
ever timidly, at a great principle, which is gradually, but surely, making its
way. The translator has himself devoted many years to the solution of the
problem, how best to utilise the conclusions of comparative philology in
facilitating the acquirement of languages. In spite of much opposition,
and much ignorant contempt, ho has at least succeeded in convincing somo
few intelligent teachers that the problem admits of solution, and that the
day i- perhaps not distant when science will be happily and advantageously
combined with routine in the teaching of languages. — Note by Translator.
14 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
It is by means of such-like fantastic methods that attempts have
been made to compare languages absolutely unconnected with each
other — the Semitic with the Aryan tongues, Irish with Basque.
The most distinguished Semites, who have rendered the greatest
services to the philology of the Syro-Arabic languages, have fre-
quently allowed themselves to fall into this trap, and a large
number of their works swarm with uncritical comparisons with
Aryan roots and words. The celebrated Gesenius himself has not
escaped from the misapprehension, so that it is not perhaps sur-
prising that, following in his steps, orthodox interpreters have
yielded to it with a keen relish. There is nothing more risky than
to get hold of two ready-made words and compare them together.
What at first sight seems to establish the most convincing relation-
ship is often the most deceptive.
On the other hand, forms that we should never dream of com-
paring together are often found to be most intimately related witli
each other. Since their primitive connection and identity in one
and the same form, each of them has been subjected to different
modifying laws. But these laws are now discovered, and the
absolute unity of the forms themselves placed beyond doubt.
Thus, for instance, we reduce to one and the same primitive form
the Greek rj8vs and the Latin suairis; the Latin solus, and the old
Persian haruva, all; the old Irish il and the Sanskrit purus, nume-
rous ; the Greek Us, poison, and the Latin virus ; the English Jive
and the Croatian pet ; the Dutch vader and the Armenian hayr; the
Armenian se, I, and the Croatian ja. It is thus, also, that words
belonging to one and the same language, and which at the first
blush seem to be in no way connected, belong in reality to one and
the same root. For instance, in Trench, solide, solder, soldat, seul,
serf; jeu, hon, jour, divin; auspice, sceptique, eveque, epice, repit;
assister, couter, ('table, obstacle. We should be exceeding the limits
assigned to this treatise were we to set forth in detail the principles
that connect all these forms together, and which mere guess-work
would, doubtless, never suspect of being so related.
What then is etymology? — or, rather, what ought it to be,
to deserve consideration and lay claim to any scientific value?
Chap, i.] LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. 15
It is simply a result — -a result both of philology and of
linguistics.
In the first case it is deductive ; in the second, historical.
The history of the French language teaches us for example that
dinde, turkey, is a contraction of poule d'Lide; that hussard
comes indirectly from the Hungarian husz, meaning twenty ; that
the English jockey represents the Old French jaguet. These are
all so many examples of linguistic, or, if you will, of historic
etymologies. In this department, in fact, it is historical criticism
alone that can decide on the reasonableness or likelihood of sup-
positions, on their improbability or incorrectness. It is historical
criticism that deals with the multitude of etymologies relying on so
many whys and wherefores, amongst which there are many which,
however obvious at the first glance, must nevertheless be looked
upon as absolutely arbitrary. Thus, according to the Latin jurists,
the slave, servus, was so called because through the clemency of
the victor he had been saved, preserved, from the death-blow. But
the fact is, the primitive meaning of the word is that of protector
or guardian, in its nominative singular form corresponding closely
to the Zend haurvo, keeper, pacus-haurvo, guard or keeper of cattle
in the Avesta. It is by means of the why-and-wherefore argument
that feu, defunct, is derived from fait, he was. One step more
and cadaver will come from ca [ro] da [ta] ver [mibus] = caw data
vermibu8' } nobilis from non vilis; and digitus from (li-tjetuis = &
kind of Ood.
Philological is <juite as dangerous — perhaps even more dangerous
than linguistic etymology. "Do you know," asks the learned
doctor, "whence conies the expression galant homme?" — Le
Barhouille: "Whether it came from Villejuif or d'Aubervilliers,
I care little." The Doctor: "Know that the expression galant
homme comes from elegant; taking the g and the a from the
I ijn ; and then taking the /, adding an u and
the t\v. last Letters, that, makes galant; and then adding homme,
that makes galant homme."
Tie- Least indifferent of such etymologies, if all are noi alike
. maybe said without exaggeration to be but little superior
16 LINGUISTICS— PHILOLOGY— ETYMOLOGY. [Chap. i.
to this. Thus, it is not more reasonable to compare the Greek
fj-npcpfj, form, figure, appearance, with the Latin forma, by assuming
that the consonants m and / have simply changed place, than it is
to derive galant homme from elegant. The Latin consonant /
initial, as will he seen farther on, answers to an aspirated explosive
(bh, dh, or gh) of the primitive Aryan form, here to dh, which
gives us the Sanskrit dharma, meaning jus, justitia, and which
explains the force of the Latin diminutive formula = form, rule,
precept, whereas p-opfyr] is akin to fidpnTa = I seize, a totally different
root. Yet how many take as perfectly natural this pretended and
fallacious resemblance of p-op(prj to forma, Avho are the first to laugh
at Menage for deriving rat from the Latin mus by means of the
assumed intermediate form muratus, whence ratus.
The idea of looking on the philologist as a mere manufacturer of
etymologies is far too common, though it can be entertained by
those alone who have no notion either of the scope or the method
of philology. In truth, the scientific linguist looks on the more or
less striking resemblances that give rise to the so-called elegant
etymological explanations as the very opposite of conclusive. Ex-
perience has shown him how far they may be deceptive; but
before and above all it has taught him that languages are not
the result of mere chance, but, like all other functions, correspond
to an organic necessity; that the laws regidating them reveal a
precision all the more striking in proportion as they are the more
methodically studied; that these laws, in a Avord, in many cases
discover and explain the direct or indirect relationship of words ;
but that the inquiry into such relationship is but an accessory, an
accidental fact, void of all scientific interest.
The etymologist, it has been said, makes little account of the
consonants, and neglects the vowels altogether. But this is not
all. Hopelessly to shut the eyes to the true nature of linguistics,
and, if possible, to be still more blind to the nature of philology —
such is the basis, such the raison d'etre of the pretended science of
etymology. It is by means of such etymological processes that
Basque has been brought into relationship with Irish, that French
and Provencal have been converted into Keltic dialects, that Latin
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 17
has been derived from Greek, that Phoenician has been transformed
into anything or everything. It is by means of etymology that
even now attempts are made to characterise the language of the
ancient Iberians with the help of a few geographical terms taken
at random; it is by the same medium that the Etruscan inscrip-
tions have been recently read off fluently in two or three different
languages.
It cannot be too often insisted upon that philology has nothing
in common with these mental gymnastics. The very first shoal
that it guards its followers against, is the temptation to deal with
words ready made. The etymologist is fain to yield to this
temptation, precisely because it forms the basis of his operations;
and the phdologist himself must doubtless at times rest satisfied
with mere assumptions. But these will have no Aveight either on
his conclusions or his method of research. What he aims at dis-
covering and studying are the simple elements of speech and their
manner of coalescing together, the functions of organic forms, the
laws that regulate tin.' development and subsequent modifications
of these forms.
Philology is therefore nothing but a natural science, a truth
which will be further confirmed by the consideration of a fresh
subject connected with it.
CHAPTEE II
THE ! IlTB SPEECH— ITS LOCALITY AND IMPORTANCE
J.\ NATURAL BISTORT.
Max is man in virtue of the faculty of articulate speech. This
proposition, at one time received with suspicion, lias now become a,
truism, at least for those who believe thai metaphysics have ran
their com e. Though it may not be a very convincing argument to
own authoritie i, we may still be per-
mitted to quote, in connection with this subject, the opinion of
authors, of whom science is justly proud Such, for instance,
c
18 ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. ii.
is that of M. Charles Martins : " Articulate language is the dis-
tinctive character of man."* That of Ch. Darwin: "Articulate
speech is peculiar to man, although, like other animals, he may be
able to express his intentions by inarticulate cries, by gestures, and
by the muscular movements of his features, "t That of M. Hunfaly:
" The origin of man ought to be considered coincident with that of
speech."! That of M. Haeckel : " Nothing can have transformed
and ennobled the faculties and the brain of man so much as the
acquisition of language. The most complete differentiation of the
brain, its perfection and that of its noblest functions, that is to say,
of the intellectual faculties, while reciprocally influencing each
other, still kept pace with their manifestation in speech. It is
therefore with good reason that the most distinguished cultivators
of comparative philology look upon human speech as the most
decisive step man has taken to separate himself from his animal
ancestors. This is a point that Schleicher has ably handled in his
work on the importance of language in the natural history of man.
There is seen the connecting link between zoology and comparative
philology, the doctrine of evolution, enabling each of these sciences-
to follow step by step the origin of language." And farther on,
" This man-ape did not yet possess true speech, that is articulate
language expressing ideas."§
We shall return at the proper time to the question of the
coincidence of the birth of man with that of the faculty of
articidate speech. For the present, let us be satisfied with insisting
on the capital point, that the faculty in question constitutes the
one absolute characteristic of humanity.
In studying the comparative anatomy of man and other in-
ferior animals, all attempts have failed to discover any difference
* " La Creation du Monde Organise," in the " Revue des Deux Mondes,"
December 15th, 1871, p. 778.
f " The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection," vol. i. p. 58.
J " International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology,
Fifth Session," vol. i. p. 58.
§" History of the Creation of Organised Beings, according to Natural
Laws." French translation, by Ch. Letourneau, pp. 592 and 614.
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 19
beyond one of degree between the two. And even this divergence
has been greatly diminished in the eyes of all unprejudiced
observers, since the discovery of the African anthropoids. The
sentimental theory of the supremacy of man may be said to be at
an end, and to have at last fallen into utter discredit. Man is no
longer distingui she d from the anthropoids, either by the structure of
the teeth, the character of the intermaxillary bone, the formation
of the hands and feet, the constitution and functions of the vertebral
column, the structure of pelvis and sternum, the muscular system,
the facts connected with the external sensorial apparatus, the
digestive organs, or the anatomical and morphological characters of
the brain.*
Xay more, there exists in this respect a far more serious gap
between the inferior apes and the anthropoids, than between these
latter and man.t Reliance was accordingly then placed on the so-
called non-physical characters. But the inferior animals also were
found to possess foresight, memory, imagination, the reasoning
faculty, the amount of will compatible with their organic systems,
giving the most unecpiivocal proofs of feelings of pity, wonder
ambition, affection, love of ride, and method in their work.
At last recourse was iinally had to the two arguments hitherto
held in ceserve — that is, to those based on religion and morality
though with but indifferent success. And in truth it is easy to
Bubject the religious sentiment to the same critique that takes
cognisance of .-til other mental phases, and to show that it lias
it^ origin in fear, the dread of the unknown: primus in orbe deos
* Broca, " Discours surl'Homme et les Animaux," in tho " Bulletins of the
Paris AntLropological Society," 1866, p. 53 ; " L'Ordre des Primates," ib.
L869, }>. --S; " Etudes sur la Constitution des Vertebras caudales ohez Les
Primates Bans Queue," in the " Revuo d' Anthropologic," ii. 577. See also
Vogt , " Lemons sur l'Homme," eighth lesson ; Schaffhausen, " Les Questions
Anthropologiques de notre Temps," "Revuo Scicntifique," 1868, p. 76U ;
Paul Bert, " Bulletins de la Xoriote" d'Anthropologie de Paris," L862, p. 473 :
Bertfllon, ib. 1865, p. 605 ; Magitot, ib. 1869, p. 113.
t Broca, "L'Ordre des Primates, &c," op. rit. passim ; Dally, " L'Ordro
'lc Primafa . J et, ! ■ Transforniisme," in tho " Bulletins de la Socicte d'Anthro-
pologie," 1868, p. 673.
2
20 ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. II.
fecit timer. The child is not born into the world endowed with
the religions faculty : " On this point he knows what he is taught,
but he guesses nothing; he has no intuitive perception."* All
this has been excellently set forth by M. Broca : " The author of
a religious conception brings into play certain active faculties,
amongst which the imagination often occupies the chief place.
Here we have a first species of religiosity which I will call the
active religious sentiment. But this manifests itself in a very
limited number of individuals only. The greater part, the vast
majority of men, have nothing beyond a passive religion, which
consists merely in believing what they are told to believe, without
being required to understand it ; and this f eeling itself is for the
most part nothing but the result of education. From his earliest
infancy the chdd is reared in the midst of certain behefs, to which
his mind is moulded without his being in a position to argue or to
reason on the matter. No intellect can escape from the action of
such systematic instruction, planned and perfected during the
course of ages. The child submits in all cases, and frequently
once for all. He bebeves without inquiry, because still incapable
of examining for himself, and because in all matters, whether reli-
gious or not, he refers blindly to the authority of his instructors.
In all this there is nothing to reveal the existence of a faculty,
of a capacity, or of any. special promptings of the mind. But with
years, experience, and especially study, this passive state always
gives place to a certain degree of scepticism. We begin to lose
confidence to a greater or less extent in the statements of others ;
it is no longer enough merely to hear a thing asserted in order to
accept it ; we ask for proofs, and when any one takes for granted
everything that he is told, we say of him that he is credulous as a
child.
* Letourneau, " De la Religiosite et des Religions au point de Vne anthro-
pologique," in the "Bulletins de la Societe d' Anthropologic," 1865, p. 581 ;
"Sur la Methode qui a conduit a etablir un Regne Humain," ib. 1866, p. 269;
Lagneau, ib. 1865, p. 648; Coudereau, ib. 1S66, p. 329; Broca, " Discours,"'
&c, ib. 1866, pp. 59 and 74; Dally, "Du Regne Humain et de la Religiosity,"
ib., 1866, p. 121.
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 21
The spirit of criticism, which grows with the growth of the
intellect itself, is at first concerned with material actions, the
events of everyday life, in many cases never getting beyond this
order of phenomena. But in many others, without at all changing
its character, it widens its circle so as to embrace metaphysical and
religious thought. Hence in every country, and especially in those
where the mind of man is cultivated, we meet with a great number
of individuals Avho little by little give up a part or even the whole
of their religious views. Has then this human sentiment, which
you call religiosity, been effaced from their minds 1 Would you
place on a level with brute creation those men, who are often
distinguished by the extent of their learning and the vigour of
their mental powers '?
Thus, from whatever point, of view we consider this religious
element, it becomes impossible to look upon it as a universal fact,
inseparable from the nature of man. The active sentiment, which
gives birth to religious conceptions, exists in a few individuals
only. The passive sentiment, which is but a form of obedience to
authority, or of the adaptation of the mind to its surroundings,
though indefinitely more diffused, is still very far from being
universal. Were it otherwise, the zealots of the various forms of
religion would not keep thundering as they do against unbelief.
It should be carefully borne in mind that this pretended sen-
timent is not only not shared in by a great many men of science,
but is further absolutely non-existent amongst a good many reputed
savage peoples. It is needless here to reproduce the emphatic
statements of a crowd of unprejudiced observers — statements which
have been vainly called in question. Tribes living without definite
faiths or forms of worship have been supposed to believe at least in
supernatural forces and manifestations. But it is certain in fact,
self-evident— that the very inferiority of these races lenders them
incapable of at all distinguishing between the natural and the
^>-<;alled supernatural. Hence Lhe iieee ilv of in all cases again
ultimately falling back on that fear, in itself easily enough
accounted for, which has been above spoken of— the Eeax of an
unknown, or rather of the unknown. But if in this we are to
22 AETICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. ii.
recognise a religion, then there is no animal, however low, to
whom the religions sentiment can he denied.
It is needless to dwell upon the last objection — the assumed
sentiment of morality. It is an ascertained fact that it does not
exist amongst a multitude of savage trihes, as the records of eth-
nology clearly prove ; while on the other hand, it is unmistakably
■to he detected in the acts of a large number of animals, at least
of the social order.
Thus it is the faculty of articulate speech that ultimately and
conclusively distinguishes man from the inferior creation, where
no trace of this faculty has ever been detected. Xo argument
can of course be based on the power of parrots to repeat words —
words which are no doubt articulate, but the utterance of which
is totally disconnected Avith any corresponding mental conception.
This very correspondence and intimate association between the
word and the thought precisely constitutes the true character of
articulate human speech, which the parrot does but unconsciously
echo.
I*his characteristic, again, is common to all the races of man-
kind, which is in itself conclusive. However rude the idioms of
the lowest types may appear, they have none the less a full claim
to the title of true speech ; and the greater or less degree of harmony
and grace possessed by them in no way affects their true nature.
Besides, it should be observed that it is only the utterance and
sounds of their languages that may seem strange, their structure
being often far from rudimentary.
But it is objected that individuals not possessing this pretended
distinctive human character, the deaf and dumb, for instance, from
their birth, or persons stricken with speechlessness in consequence
of some injury to the brain, could not in this case be considered as
human beings, though on the other hand their claim to the title
cannot be gainsaid.
This two-fold objection, though scarcely possessing the force of a
specious argument, may still be Worth refuting.
What the mute lacks at birth is by no means the faculty here in
question, but the power of exercising it. He is dumb only because
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 23
lie i.s deaf, his deafness alone preventing liim from making use of
the faculty of speech. Besides, careful instruction may remove
this obstacle, and in point of fact those born deaf and dumb do
learn to speak and make use of the inherent gift of articulate speech.
"The mute, properly so-called, is no more affected in the cerebral
or vocal organs of speech than is a person whose legs are tied in the
organs of locomotion. [Neither the one nor the other lacks the
native faculty. They lack nothing but the liberty of exercising it,
and this itself is due to a circumstance foreign to the faculty
itself/'*
We shall consider more fully the case of a cerebral lesion
resulting in the loss of speech. Assuredly there can be no doubt
that persons so affected retain their right to be considered as
human beings, even when speechlessness is complete. But the
residts of the important studies made in Trance on this subject do
not yet seem to be sufficiently known ; hence it is well, and even
necessary, here to proclaim them. It may at the same time help to
throw further light on the true nature of philological research.
The attempts made during the last century to localise the cerebral
faculties v 1 em a sound principle, but they Avere necessarily
red misuccessful through the want of experimental processes.
At the present day the question has been resumed by pathological
anatomy, and it is diflicidt to overlook the great importance of the
- arrived at by M. Broca in this domain, t We shall here pass
them rapidly in review. +
* Vaisse, " Bulletins de la Societe dAnthropologie do Paris," 1866, p. 146.
f "Bulletins de la Societe' Anatomique," 1861, 1863; "Bulletins de la
Societe de Chirurgie," 1861; "Bulletins de i.i Societe dAnthropologie do
1861, 18G3, 1865, 1866; " Expose des Titres et Travaux Scientifiqucs,"
1868.
X What follows may be rendered more intelligible to tbe unscientific
reader by a brief account of the. parts of the cncephalon alluded to. The
cerebrum, or brain proper, as distinguished from the cerebellum, ou which
it partly rests, is divided by the great longitudinal fissure into two lateral
halves, known respectively as the right and left hemispheres. The under
Surface of each hemisphere is marked off into three parts or lobes — anterior,
middle, and posterior, according to their position; the posterior being that
part overlapping the cerebellum, while the anterior and middle are clearly
2i ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. ir.
The exercise of the faculty of articulate speech would seem to he
dependent " on the integrity of a very circumscribed portion of the
cerebral hemispheres, and more especially of the left. This portion
is situated on the upper border of the Sylvian fissure, opposite the
Island of Eeil, occupying the posterior half, or probably not more
than the third part of the third frontal convolution." It was the
autopsy of those subject to aphasia, that is, of those the muscles of
whose articulation are not in the least paralysed, that has demon-
strated this localisation. In truth, this autopsy almost constantly
reveals " a very decided lesion of the posterior half of the right or
left third frontal convolution," nearly always, or about nineteen in
twenty times on the left side. A serious lesion of the right has in
many cases not affected the power of speech; but "this faculty
has never been known to survive in the case of those whose
autopsy has disclosed a deep lesion of the two convolutions in
question."
"We need not here mention the series of operations bearing on this
point, which, in our opinion, are entirely conclusive, and which have
been placed on record by a number of anatomists. Those who are
curious in the matter, will find them in the works quoted in the last
note. The interesting question, however, presents itself, why the
exercise of the faculty of articidate speech should depend so much
more particularly on a convolution of the left cerebral hemisphere,
than on the corresponding one on the right, although the functions
of both hemispheres do not seem to be radically different. This
curious phenomenon is due to the fact, that the convolutions of the
left hemisphere have in general a much more rapid development
divided by a deep cleft known as the Fissure of Sylvius, or Sylvian fissure.
On opening this fissnre there is exposed to view a triangular prominent por-
tion of the cerebral mass, called the Island of Reil, marked by small and
short convolutions, or gyri operti. These convolutions, concealed in the
Sylvian fissure, are amongst the earliest to be developed, and are themselves
surrounded by a very large convolution forming the lips of the Sylvian
fissure, and known as the Convolution of the Sylvian fissure. Lastly, both
hemispheres are moulded into numerous smooth and tortuous eminences,
also called convolutions or gyri, and marked off from each other by deep-
furrows, sulci, or anfractuosities. — Note by Translator.
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 25
than those of the right.* "The first are already clearly planned,"
remarks M. Broca,t "at a time when the others are not yet per-
ceptible." The left hemisphere, on which depend the movements
of the right members of the body, is therefore more precociously
developed than the opposite one. Thus we see why the child,
from the first moments of existence, more readily makes use of
those members, whose nervous system is then more perfect ; why,
in other words, he becomes right-handed. The upper right member,,
being from the first stronger and more apt than the left, is on that
very account brought more frequently into play, thus acquiring at
the outset greater strength and skill, which of course goes on
increasing with years. Hitherto I have called those right-handed,
who more readily make use of the right, and left-handed, those
who more readily make use of the left hand. But these expres-
sions are drawn from the outward manif estation of the phenomenon,
which, when considered in relation to the brain, rather than to its
mechanical agents, teaches us that the greater part of mankind are
naturally left-handed, so far as the brain itself is concerned, and
that some few, those known as left-handed, are, on the contrary,
exceptionally right-handed in the same sense. . . .
" The fundamental phenomenon of articulate speech lies neither
in the muscles, nor in the motor nerves, nor in the motor organs of
the brain, such as the optical layers or the striate bodies. Were
there nothing beyond these organs, speech would be impossible; for
they exist at times hi a perfectly healthy and normal state in indi-
viduals that have become totally speechless, or in idiots who have.
never been able either to learn or understand a language. Articu-
late Bpeech therefore depends on the portion of the brain connected
with intellectual phenomena, of which the motor organs of the
brain are in a way nothing but the agents. Now this function of
the intellectual order, governing the, dynamic no less than the
mechanical part of articulation, seems to he the almost invariable
concomitant of the convolutions "f the Left hemisphere, since the
* Gratiolet, MM. Bertillon, Baillar^cr.
f "On the Beat "f the Facility of Articulate Speech," in the " Bull
de la Socii;tc d'Anthropologie do Pane," 1865, p. 3S3.
26 ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. 11.
lesions productive of speechlessness are nearly always found to exist
in this hemisphere. This is as much as to say that, so far as speech
is concerned, we are left-handed (if such a term can he applied to
the brain) ; we speak, so to say, with the left hemisphere. It is a
habit Ave acquire from our earliest infancy. Of all the things we
have to learn, articulate speech is perhaps the most difficult. Our
other faculties exist, at least, hi a rudimentary state, amongst other
animals. 33ut although they undoubtedly possess thoughts, and
although they are able to communicate them by the medium of a
veritable language, articulate speech is itself altogether beyond them.
It is this intricate and difficult task that the child has to grapple
with from his most tender years, and he succeeds in mastering it by
dint of much groping, and by brain work of the most complicate
order. Xow, this very task is imposed on him at a period almost
coincident with those embryonic stages in which the left hemisphere
is in a more advanced state of development than the right. Hence
there is nothing inconsistent in admitting that the most developed
and most precocious cerebral hemisphere is in a better position than
the other to guide the execution and co-ordination of the acts, at
once intellectual and muscular, that constitute articulate sjieech.
Thus arises the habit of speaking with the left hemisphere, a habit
which at last becomes so much a part of our nature, that, once
deprived of the functions of this hemisphere, we lose the power of
making ourselves understood by speech. But from this it does not
follow that the left hemisphere is the exclusive seat of the abstract
faculty of speech, which consists in establishing a fixed relation
between an idea and a sign, nor even of the special facidty of arti-
culate speech, which consists in establishing a definite relation
between an idea and an articulate word. The right hemisphere is
no more alien to this special facidty than the left, and the proof is
that the individual rendered speechless by a serious lesion of the
left hemisphere is, generally speaking, deprived only of the power
of himself reproducing the articulate sounds of language. He con-
tinues to understand what is addressed to him, conseepiently he
perfectly grasps the relations between the idea and the word. In
•other words, the facidty of perceiving these relations belongs at
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 27
once to both hemispheres, which in case of disease may recipro-
cally supplement each other ; but the faculty of expressing these
relations by co-ordinate movements — a habit to be acquired only
after long practice — seems to belong to one hemisphere only, -which
is nearly always the left.
<: Xow, as there are left-handed people, with whom the innate
pre-eminence of the motor forces of the right hemisphere imparts
a natural and ineradicable pre-eminence to the functions of the
left hand, in the same way we see how there may be a certain
number of persons with whom the natural pre-eminence of the
convolutions of the right hemisphere will reverse the order of
phenomena here indicated. In their case the faculty of co-ordi-
nating the movements of articulate speech will, in consequence
of a habit contracted hi infancy, devolve definitely on the right
hemisphere. These exceptional beings in respect of language may
be compared to those who are left-handed in respect of the func-
tions of the hand. Both alike are right-handed in respect of the
brain The existence of a few individuals exceptionally
speaking with the right hemisphere would very well explain the
exceptional eases in which speechlessness is the result of a lesion
of this hemisphere. It follows from the foregoing statement that
a snbject, whose third left frontal convolution (the ordinary seat
of articulate speech) happened to be in a state of atrophy from
birth, would learn t i jp >ak, and would speak, with the third rigid
frontal convolution, just as a child born without the right hand
becomes as skilful with the left hand as others usually are with
the right."*
To this quotation, which sums up the state of the question, we
have but one remark to add. It is, that the observations hitherto
led, which are very numerous, nil go to confirm the doctrine
of the locality of Bpeech. This main point is more conclusive than
all the rest, when the question is to show that the study of arti-
* Roc also Adr. Proust, "Alterations de la Parole," in the " Bulletins de
..'n- d'Anthropologie de Paris," 1873, p. 786; and by the same author,
"De L'Aphaaie," in the "Archives Generates de Bfeaeoine," Tan's, 1872.
28 ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. ii.
culate speech is really a branch of natural history, as we have
endeavoured to make clear in the preceding chapter.
At the same time the possession of the mere faculty itself can
tell us nothing as to how it will be applied by the individual
endowed with it. This application is, in fact, an art, and a very
difficult one. The child stammers and stutters for a long time,
until, thanks to a certain intellectual development, and to the habit
thus acquired, he succeeds at last in using his native faculty like
those around him. In other words, the faculty is natural, but its
exercise is an art; the former being well expressed by the Greek
term ivepyeia, as the latter is by epyov. Hence those purely auto-
matic acts so constantly exhibited in the exercise of the function in
question, no less in its normal manifestations than in its pathologic
state.*
This distinction is important, and by overlooking it we would
run the risk of forming the most extravagant and unscientific
notions on the origin of speech.
In the second book of his history, Herodotus relates that Psam-
meticus, king of Egypt, wishing to find out who were the oldest
inhabitants of the earth, entrusted two new-born infants to the
keeping of a shepherd, with injunctions to bring them up in
seclusion, and never allow them to hear a human voice. Goats
supplied them with nourishment, and after a lapse of two years
the shepherd was hailed by them with the repeated cry of /3eKosv
Psammeticus, on inquiry, ascertained that this Avas a Phrygian
word, meaning bread ; whereupon the Egyptians acknowledged the
right of the Phrygians to be considered the most ancient people.
This absurd story, which represents two chUdren, ignorant of
every other word, inventing and seemingly declining an un-
doubtedly derivative noun, gives us a tolerably fair estimate of
the philological criticism of the ancients. The experience of
Psammeticus implies a total ignorance of the essential and indis-
putable fact, that the exercise of the lingual faculty is a difficult
* Onimus, " Dn Langage," in the " Bulletins de la Societe cV Anthropo-
logic de Paris," 1873, p. 759, and following.
Chap, ii.] ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. 29
ar t — oik- that is acquired and handed down from generation to
generation. To separate from his like a new-born and of course
utterly inexperienced infant, and expect him to hammer out a
glottic system of his own, betrays a state of mind absolutely
devoid of methodic principles. A language, that has already
passed through several phases of its existence, cannot be invented ;
for here, as in all things else, the present is the result of the past.
How could an isolated individual of himself possibly again build
up that long series of different stages that all languages have under-
gone'? A linguistic system is not a thing that can be manufac-
tured ; it is formed and developed of itself step by step ; but it is
formed when man is born— not the individual man, but man taken
in the aggregate, the human race, if you will. As above stated,
the appearance of the faculty of articulate speech determines the
point of evolution when one of the primates becomes entitled to the
name of man.
Schleicher, in his cursive though solid essay on the importance
of language for the natural history of man, and in his no less
remarkable treatise on the Darwinian theory and the science of
language, has discussed this coincidence of the birth of man with
the dawn of articulate speech. " If," he says, " it is language that
constitutes man, then our first progenitors were not real human
beings, and did not become such till language was formed in virtue
of the development of the brain and of the organs of speech."
Philology, like all the other natural sciences, compels us to admit
thai man takes his origin in the evolution of inferior forms. We
have ourselves alluded to this subject in connection with the
Hen! communication on "The Precursor of Man," made by
ML de Mortillet to the French A jociation for the Advancemenl of
the Sciences,* on the occasion of the finding of the chipped Bints
in the marl deposits of the limestone period at Beauce. According
to ilc laws of paleontology, actual man could not have existed at
that epoch. The succession of the fauna in the- various geological
d fact, now well established From age to age animals
* Second Session, held at Lyons in August, 1878.
30 ARTICULATE SPEECH IN NATURAL HISTORY. [Chap. ii.
become modified, and their varieties fall off all the more rapidly
in proportion to the greater intricacy of their organisation. Three
times at least the fauna have been renewed since the formation of
the above-mentioned limestone deposit at Beauce, and the mamma-
bans contemporary with the flints in question belong to extinct
genera, the precursors of, but distinct from, those now living. It
is not reasonable to suppose that man alone has escaped from these
modifications — man, above all, whose organisation is precisely of
all others the most complicate. Hence the chipped flints of the
middle tertiary epoch would belong to a genus the forerunner of
present man. This opinion is in our eyes extremely probable,
and corresponds in every respect with the doctrine set forth by
Schleicher in the above-mentioned treatise.
If it cannot be admitted, without falling into metaphysical and
chddish conceptions, that the lingual facidty was acquired all of a
sudden, without cause, without origin — hi fact, ex nihilo — it must
be allowed to be the result of a progressive development of the
organs of speech. This assumes before man — fhat is, before the
being distinguished by the faculty of articidate language — another
being on the way towards its acquisition ; that is to say, on the
way towards becoming man. As Schleicher teaches, we must admit
that a certain number only of such beings succeeded in acquiring
the facrdty under the influence of favourable circumstances, from
which time they also acquired the right to the title of men ; while
others again, less favoured by circumstances, broke down in their
onward progress, and fell back into a retrograde inetamorphosis.
Their representatives we may possibly have to recognise in the
anthropomorphic creatures, the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the ourang-
outang, the gibbon, and the like. We shall see farther on, when
passing in review the various phases of languages, that these dif-
ferent stages bear witness, in the most unmistakable manner, to
constant progress, to natural development, and regular tendency
towards perfection.
Thus, then, in the presence of this perpetual spectacle of evolu-
tion unfolding itself before our eyes everywhere throughout nature,
we cannot but acknowledge that the faculty of articulate speech
Chap, in.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 31
lias been acquired little by little, in virtue of a progressive deve-
lopment of the organs of speech. It matters little whether this
development he due to the various kinds of selection, natural or
sexual, or proceed from other hitherto unascertained causes. This,
however, is a matter on which we cannot now dwell. It belongs
rather to the general study of the variations and permutation of
species, which Ave can do no more than allude to. Here, doubtless,
as in everything else, the function has had much to do with the
progress of the organ itself ; but here also, as elsewhere, the organ,
such as it is — that is, the organ in its actual form — must have
necessarily proceeded from some lower organism.
It must be therefore definitely admitted that this distinctive
property of man is purely relative. We detect its origin and its
rudimentary state ; * we see that our progenitors accpiired it only by
degrees, in the struggle for excellence, in which they were destined
to prove victorious.
Bnt, though relative only, this faculty is not the less special and
peculiar to man, and it is in virtue of it alone that the first of the
primates is entitled to this name, which he has earned by incessant
struggles, fought out during the course of ages.
CHAPTER III.
PIBST FOBM OF SPEECH — M0X0SYLLADIC — THE ISOLATING
LANGUAGES.
< )!■■ all the various forms that languages or groups of languages
may present, the monosyllabic is the simplest. In this elementarj
Estate .-ill the terms are mere root-words, or word-roots, corresj ling
in their essence with general conceptions, ami unrestricted by anj
idea* of person, gender, number; of time or mood; of relationship,
* Lamarck, " Philosophic) Zoologiquc," ud. Ch. Martins, i. 346, Paris, 1S7:5;
Darwin, " Descent of .Man," i. p. 5U; Hteckel, "Histoire do la Creation dee
Ktres organises," trad, fr., p, 501 .
32 MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. hi.
prepositions, or conjunctions. In this first stage the language is
made up of elements only, the sense of which is essentially general,
without suffixes, prefixes, or any modification whatsoever, by which
any kind of relation might be implied. Hence, in this first state,
the simplest of all others, the sentence is made up of the formula :
root + root + root, &c. &c, and it is particularly to be noted that
these successive roots are always unchangeable.
From this brief statement it becomes clear why the languages of
this class have received the name of monosyllabic or isolating,
their words being in fact composed of simple monosyllabic roots,
isolated, and, as a rule, independent of each other.
It may be well to state at once that all linguistic systems have
passed through this monosyllabic period. The languages whose
forms are the most complicate, that is those liable to inflection — as,
for instance, the Aryan family — when subjected to scientific analysis
betray unmistakable traces of a monosyllabic origin, remote and
indirect it may be, but which cannot for a moment be gainsaid, as
-will be shown in its proper place. We shall also see that the
intermediate stage, the period of agglutination — that for instance of
Basque, Japanese, and the Dravidian group — has given rise to the
inflectional system, whilst itself deriving from the lower stage, that
is the monosyllabic — with which Ave are now occupied.
Not that it can be asserted that all agglutinating idioms must
some day become inflectional, or that all the isolating and mono-
syllabic ones must pass into the agglutinative state. Many tongues
belonging to the two lower orders have perished, and it is certain
that amongst those now living, whether monosyllabic or agglutina-
tive, the greater number are definitely fixed in those states. Thus,
it may be unhesitatingly asserted that Basque and the idioms of
North America will perish in their present form.
Besides, it is not without determining causes that such and such
languages have definitely assumed their actual forms, whether
monosyllabic or agglutinative, while showing but very feeble and
rare tendencies to work into the higher stage. These causes may
possibly have been multiplied, and may be of very different kinds,
the discovery of which is an arduous task, not yet even attempted.
Chap, hi.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 33
Yet it must in the end prove successful, for the simple reason that
there is a cause for everything, and we are making daily advances
from the known to the unknown.
Doubtless the most powerful cause of the effect here spoken of
is the fact that these languages have entered on their liistoric life,
and have become the instruments of literature. This fact of itself
alone proves that the language, such as it was, felt itself equal to
the recpiirements of a developed nationality. In this sense it is
not incorrect to say that, at Ins first step into liistoric life, man
reaches the period which in natural history is called the period
of retrogressive metamorphosis. This, however, may or may not
be confirmed by the future ; nor is it possible, in the present
state of scientific knowledge, to indulge in much more than purely
conjectural assertions on the point.
It is easy to understand that a system of successive roots, all
implying the most general ideas, coidd offer but a very limited
resource to language. On the other hand, the imperious necessity
"f expressing the various relations of ideas must have made itself
felt at a very early stage. But we have seen that the essence of
lie- root-words was the negation and even exclusion of the re-
lational elements, such as active and passive, unity and plurality,
pas!, present, and future. Yet such a period must have necessarily
existed It must, doubtless, be removed hack to extremely remote
prehistoric ages, and in all probability, it succeeded itself to a still
more primitive period, 'luring which the routs were formed by the
inn of the simple phonetic elements.
In course of time an ingenious expedient was devised asaremedy
for the intolerable defect of precision. This consisted in rigorously
the position of the roots, that is of the words, in the sentence.
Thus syntax was born before accidence or grammar, properly so-
called. As we shall have to show farther on, this expedienl of
rigidly axing the position of the words in the sentence ultimately
gave rise to the second, or agglutinative stage. By passing in
rapid review the various monosyllabic languages, Ave shall see how
important result was turned to account, as well as how its
have gradually become oh cured.
i)
34 MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. hi.
However this be, we already see that the grammar of all mono-
syllabic or isolating idioms is necessarily and entirely a question
of syntax. In fact, the word in these tongues is inflexible ; in
spite of all changes of position in the sentence, it remains in variable
and always the same, position alone determining its value or force,
as subject or predicate, noun or adnoun, substantive or verb, and so
on.
It should also be noted, in a general way, that intonation is an
important element in monosyllabic languages, a point which does
not seem to have received sufficient attention in the various works
on this class of idioms. Not the least important function of tone
is the differentiation according to circumstances of a large number
of homophones, that is of words identical in form, but different
in their respective applications, a point we shall presently have to
enter into somewhat more fully.
The principal monosyllabic languages — that is, those that con-
stitute or represent an independent glottic system — are five in
number: CJrinese, Annamese, Siamese, Burman, and Tibetan. To
these, however, must be added a considerable number of isolated
idioms in Transgangetic or Further India, such as the Pegu in
British Burma, and the Kassia, confined to a small district in the
south of Assam, on the left bank of the Brahmaputra, and about
two hundred miles from the head of the Bay of Bengal. These,
however, are not of sufficient importance to claim further notice
here.
It is not our intention, nor would it here be possible, to treat in
ininiite detail all these different languages. It will be enough to
give some general information respecting each of them, while
dwelling more particularly on Chinese, the most characteristic of all
the languages of this class.
§ 1. — Chinese.
Its three great divisions are: the Mandarine, vernacular in the
central provinces, and employed as a cultivated language through-
out the empire ; the dialect of Canton ; and that of Fo-Kien. All
Chap, hi.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 35
three, while belonging to the same language, are vastly different, so
that the natives of the northern and southern provinces have the
greatest difficulty in understanding each other.
The study of Chinese is composed of two clearly-defined
branches — the writing system, and the language itself. Let us
first speak of the latter.
As already stated, it is purely and simply syntactic. The first
rock it had to avoid, in common with all the isolating tongues, was
the constant uncertainty of meaning, arising from the multiplicity
of senses which one and the same form is susceptible of. Thus the
form tao means indifferently : to reach, to ravish, to cover, tanner,
corn, to lead, way, without reckoning two or three other senses in
which it may he taken. The syllable lu stands for : to turn aside,
vehicle, precious stone, dew, to forge, way, besides three or four others.
It was a somewhat artless, yet very exact expedient, to place
side by side two terms capable of being synonymous in some one
of their meanings, as for instance tao and lu, both answering to the
idea of way. Thus, while tao by itself might leave us to choose
between nine or ten senses, tao lu can mean nothing but way or
road. Is this, as has been assumed, a case of real composition 1 ?
By no means, for a compound term always implies relationship,
while we have here nothing but a heaping-up of homonyms. Not
even the juxtaposition of two such words as f/i. father, and mu,
mother = parents, can be looked on as forming a true compound,
though at the first glance it may seem to be one; and so with
yuan, distant, and Jan, near = distance. In point of fact, in this
of coupling of words together, the first no more depends on the
ond do.s on the first.
It may well 1"' supposed that gender also can be determined
only by means of a second term. Recourse, for instance, is had to
nan, male, masculine ; niu, female, feminine whence nan tse = aon;
,..',/ tse =s daughter ; niu jin = woman. In the case of animals, the
distinguishing terms are different, but the process is the same.
Nothing can be simpler than fhis expedient, which we shall
meet with in the agglutinating languages, such as Wolof,
Japanese, &c, and even in the most highly-developed forms of
D 2
3G MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. hi.
speech. In Latin, for instance, there occur the forms mas cards,
femina canis, femina porcus, anguis fe.mina, and many analogous
expressions. Thus it is that many phenomena peculiar to the first
phase of speech have struggled on through the course of ages into
the last and highest stage of all.
^Number is expressed, in principle, by the general context only.
Still, at times use is made of some word expressive of multitude,
totality : tojin = & crowd of people, many persons, people.
The subject is at once denoted by the fact that it is always the
first word in the proposition. The direct object also, in simple
sentences, is indicated by its always following the word expressing
the action, much as we should say, "James strikes John," and
" John strikes James." But in other circumstances the direct
object is determined by the employment of certain accessory words ;
which help-words, however, can in no case be looked on as true
prepositions. They are always pure root-words, the only kind of
words known* in Chinese, as already remarked ; but that they
always and constantly retain their proper and independent value-
in the mind of those who employ them can scarcely be. admitted.
This value becomes gradually weakened and ever more subordinate ;
and it is this very subordination that in time converts isolating
into agglutinating languages.
The ideas of locality, of dativity, instrumentality, privation,
and the like, are also conveyed either by the aid of certain words, or
by position in the sentence. It will, doubtless, be enough to indicate
this general fact, without entering into the analysis of a series of
examples, which may be found in special works on the subject.
The genitive is clearly expressed by placing the leading term after
the relative, as in Hen tse, heaven son = sun of heaven; or in the.
Mandarine language, by introducing the syllable ti between the two
words placed in the same order as before.
The conceptions of quality and comparison are expressed in
perfectly analogous ways. Lastly, that of action, on which the
whole proposition turns, is also denoted by a purely syntactical
process, or else will have to be deduced from the general sense
of the context. Thus, there is nothing in Chinese answering to
Chap, hi.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 37
our imperfect forms, and the future also must at times be evolved
out of the context. As to the moods, the Romance conditional is
recognised by its syntactical position, while the subjunctive and
the optative are eked out by auxiliaries.
In Chinese there is no more room for a verb than for a noun,
and it cannot be too often repeated, that syntax alone defines the
sense. Out of its place in the sentence the word is nothing but,
a root taken in the vaguest possible way. In position alone, it
awakens precise ideas of individuality, of quality, relation, action.
Thus, for instance, the single syllable, ngan means to obtain rest,
to enjoy rest, in the manner stated, repose. So with ta-=great,
greatly, greatness, to make great', another = round, a ball, to round
off, in a circle; another = to be, \ruLy, he, the letter, thus.
As above stated, and as we shall have again to repeat, the use
of accessory words, in order to impart the recpiired precision to
the principal terms, is the path that leads from the monosyllabic
to the agglutinative state. The meaning of these auxiliaries
becomes gradually obscured, until the time comes when they
acquire a value partly arbitrary. But there was a period, the
golden age, so to say, of the monosyllabic system, when their true
sense, their full and independent signification, suggested itself at
once to the mind. This is a fact that the Chinese themselves
have observed with astonishing shrewdness, when they divided
the roots into two distinct classes — the full and the empty words
(chi-tsen and lin-tsen). By the first, they understood those roots
that retained their Ml and independent meaning ; the roots that
reappear in a translation as nouns and verbs. They called empty
words those roots whose proper value was becoming gradually
obscured, and which, little by little, acquired the function of
fi-ging precisely the extremely vague idea of the full words, whose
primitive sense was still fully preserved In this they showed a
remarkable power of discernment, which, hetter than many other
discoveries, gave, proof of a care degree of perspicacity. "What
is grammar?" the Chinese teacher asks his pupil. "It is a verj
Useful art," replies the pupil; "an art that teaches us to (lis
liii'juish between the full and empty word-.''
38 MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. in.
The different tones occurring not very frequently in Chinese,
form so many methods of accentuation, extremely useful where
it "becomes necessary to distinguish the meanings, at times very
different, of syllables made up of the same phonetic elements.
The Chinese vocabulary, of almost Academic authority, gives
42,000 different ideographic symbols, each of which has its pro-
nunciation sharply determined. But as the spoken language
possesses only about 1,200 consonances, " it follows that the same
utterance must be given on an average to thirty characters"
(d'Hervey Saint-Denys). From this we see that if intonation
has not been able to meet every difficulty, it was, at all events,-
of great service. This circumstance, as stated, is common to all the
monosyllabic tongues. Special Avorks quote a number of examples
which need not here be repeated, and without entering into further
details, it will perhaps suffice to describe this ingenious and very
practical process.
The Chinese phonetic system is not very intricate, without, how-
ever, ranking with the most simple. Amongst the consonants g, d,
and b are missing in the Mandarine dialect, but d oidy in that of
Fo-Kien ; but in the latter the sibilants are less varied than in the
former. The absence of r is a well-known fact. The vowels call
for no special remark : they are often met with in the form of
diphthongs, and frequently also nasalised.
It is a characteristic fact that the monosyllables begin with a
consonant and close with a vowel, the signs n or ng, met with at
the end of Chinese words transcribed in Soman letters, merely
indicating the nasalisation of the preceding vowels. There is but
one solitary word that has escaped from this strict rule of an initial
consonant and final vowel — ml = two and ear.
Purely graphic questions do not come Avithin the province of
philology. They form a special study, doubtless very interesting,
but quite distinct and independent. It may still be useful to say a
feAV Avords on the Chinese graphic system, and to sIioav Avith what
skill this people have contrived to adapt to their singular speech
a collection of characters seemingly but little suited for the service
required of them.
Chap, in.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 39
Considering the great number of homophones in a monosyllabic
Language, that is, of syllables formed of the same phonetic elements,
but answering to totally different ideas, it became a serious difficulty
how to determine the various meanings of such monads, in a written
system. The Chinese solved the puzzle by employing two sorts of signs.
The first is composed of nothing but images, or true designs —
the picture of a tree, a mountain, or a dog — at times employed inde-
pendently, at others, coupled together to reproduce a more or less
complex idea. Thus, the image of water and that of the eye placed
in juxtaposition convey the idea of tears. A door and an ear give
the nation of listt ning or hearing; while the sun and the moon stand
for brightness.
Amongst the true designs must also be included the grouping-
together of lines or points, expressing either number — one, two,
three — or superiority, inferiority, inclination to one side or another,
and so on. There was a time when these ideographs, thanks to the
correctness of their drawing, directly awakened the conception they
were intended to represent. But these simple and truthful symbols
gradually lost their original outlines, and in the signs now standing
for the notions of dog, sun, moon, mountain, we can no longer, at
the first glance, detect the primitive images that directly awakened
different ideas. The characters of this first category have been
c dculated at least at about 200.*
The B ad class is more intricate, involving two (dements, a
phonetic and an ideographic. From all that has been said, it will be
v understood that the object of the latter is to determine, the,
at times, very diverse value of the phonetic element. This last, if
left standing alone, might leave the reader's mind wavering between
i iplicity of homophones. The ideographic element puts an end
.:,, f ssting a definite conception, or at least a
,:■■,- of i i 1 1. Thus, the character taken in it-- totality denotes
both the pronunciation and the meaning, each part being comple-
ixy to the other. I m ■ of them, however, is looked on as of no
i its phonetic ralue is concerned, the utterance
• Abel Renrasat, "Beoherches sur l'Origine ei Is Formation de la Langue
Ghinoige," ia " M£ uoirea de L'Acad. dee [ni oriptiona ei Belles-lettres," 1820.
40 MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. hi.
being determined by the other alone. If, for instance, the sign cheu,
vessel, is placed before those representing huo, fire, and ma, horse,
these last two will lose their phonetic value, and the whole will be
read off as cheu, but this cheu will no longer mean vessel. In con-
sequence of the character following it, its meaning wdl be either
the flickering of a flame or a particular kind of horse.*
The Chinese have limited to 214 the number of signs which they
call "tribunals," and to which European grammarians have given
the name of "keys" or "radicals." Besides the 1G9 ideographs,
whose object in association with a non-phonetic element has been
explained above, these 214 keys comprise a small number of signs
that are purely graphic, or simple pictures. They contain the ele-
ments of all the Chinese characters, of which there are about
50,000 (43,49G according to a calculation based on the Imperial
Chinese Dictionary), and to the keys all the rest must, therefore,.
he subordinate. This is Avhat the Chinese, have done in then lexical
classification, taking care to arrange the keys in consecutive order,
according as they are composed of one, two, three, or more strokes,
the last of all (jah, a musical instrument) being made up of seven-
teen such strokes. This arbitrary classification, it is evident, has
nothing to do with the language itself. In fact, as above stated,
the study of Chinese embraces two distinct parts — that of the lan-
guage, and the written system. Hence the serious difficulties met
with by those beginning to study Chinese.
Let us add that all the signs may on certain occasions be
employed as purely phonetic symbols. It is in this way that the
Chinese are able to write foreign words or names, such as 'la si 'la,
Asia ; 'In ki li, English ; 117 hi to Via, Victoria. We also know
that it was from the Chinese characters, treated as phonetic signs,
that was derived the Japanese system of writing, while the
Japanese language is so totally different from the Chinese.
* Stephan Endlichers Chinese Grammar is the simplest we are ac-
quainted with, though too often displaying a lack of criticism. — " Anfangs-
griinde der Chinesischen Gratnmatik," Vienna, 1845. The rules for the posi-
tion of the words in the sentence may be profitably studied in the " Syntax
nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise," by Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1S69.
Chap, hi.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 41
As to the Chinese signs themselves, we have already seen that
they arose out of a genuine pictorial system. They are still met in
this primitive form on some old monuments, so that it becomes
possible step by step to follow the gradual changes they have,
undergone during the course of ages. Several graphic systems
have been very clearly determined and employed during periods of
many centuries, owing their more or less serious subsequent modifi-
cations entirely to accidental circumstances. There, moreover, exist
among the Chinese several other kinds of writing, amongst which
is a very rapid cursive hand in common use.
But we cannot enter further into the question of the Chinese cha-
racters, which is merely incidental to the subject, as we are not
concerned with graphic systems, but with the structure and phonetic
elements of speech.
§ 2. — Annamese.
This is the language of the extreme eastern portion of Further India,
that is, of Cochin-China on the south and of Tonkin on the north.
It is separated, at least towards the south-west, from the Siamese by
the Cambodian, on the nature of which it is still very difficult to
form an opinion. A very interesting ethnographic chart of the
south-eastern portion of this peninsula has been drawn up by
Francis ( rarnier.*
The Annamese language is absolutely independent of Chinese,
both in its phonetic system and its roots, that is to say, its words,
since the rout constitutes the word itself in all monosyllabic tongues.
Gender and number are expressed, as in Chinese, by adding to the
principal syllable others with the meaning of male, female, nil.
many, and the like. The adjective is recognised by its position
after the noun it qualifies. Lastly, in tie' verb, tense and mood are
denoted by the simultaneous employment of the root on which the
Sentence turn-, and of others, the general meaning of which is that
of past, future, and so on.
What has been said of the structure of Chinese is, therefore,
* " Journal Afiiatique,'' Aout-Siptcinlirc, 1N7-.
42 MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. [Chap. in.
applicable in all its details to Annamese. Here, also, the tonic system
plays a chief part, as in Chinese, distinguishing words, the utterance
of which would he exactly alike, although their sense may he
quite different. There are in Annamese six tones — the acute, very
hard to describe ; the interrogative ; the pitched or rising, not very
different from the interrogative; the subdued or lowering; the grave;
and the equal or uniform.
The Annamite writing system is figurative, that is, ideographic,
and was at a remote period borrowed from the Chinese, but has
undergone serious modifications and numerous additions.
The language itself has also borrowed largely from Chinese,
especially from the southern dialect. This fact has deceived some
writers, who have endeavoured to compare the two languages, and
derive them from one common source. But however great be
the number of such borrowed words, they have nothing to do Avith
the essence of the language, or with its proper roots. These, even
were they much less numerous than they are, would still suffice to
establish the undoubted originality and independence of Annamese.
§ 3. — Siamese or Thai.
Siamese occupies the region to the north of the Gulf of Siam, ex-
tending to some distance into the interior, and also along the western
shore of the gulf. Towards the east, it comes in contact with the
still but little-known language of Cambodia ; and towards the west,
with the Burmese, also a monosyllabic language. The name Thai,
or Siamese, is peculiar to a certain people, but has been extended to
the neighbouring and kindred races, as, for instance, to those of
Laos to the north.
The Siamese phonetic system is one of the richest, especially in
aspirates and sibilants. Its grammar, like the Chinese and Anna-
mese, is purely monosyllabic, and it has four different intonations,
serving to distinguish words of like form but different meaning.
§ I. — Barman.
Spoken in' the north-west of the peninsula, between Siamese and
the Aryan languages of India. Its phonetic elements are not so
Chap, hi.] MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. 43
numerous as the Siamese, and it reckons but one sibilant. Its
intonations also are less numerous than the Chinese and Annamese,
whilst its grammatical expedients and processes are absolutely the
same.
§ 5. — Tibetan.
Tibet is indebted to the Buddhism of India for most of its intel-
lectual culture, including its alphabet and its not inconsiderable
literature. It is difficult to say what Tibetan literature may have
been before the great religious movement entirely revolutionised
it. There are no documents dating from that period, and the
Buddhist missionaries' first care was to translate into Tibetan the
religious works composed in Sanskrit (or Pali). The alphabet
employed by them, and which is still in use, was (a modification
of the Devanagari) current in Northern India. Its origin is per-
fectly clear ; and anyone who can read Devanagari may in a few
hours learn Tibetan, which derives directly from it.
The different authors that have written on Tibetan have not
made its monosyllabic character sufficiently clear. The processes
employed by it are analogous to those made use of in Chinese,
Annamese, and the other isolating languages. Thus it possesses
neither number nor gender, expressing the latter by the addition of
tier word meaning male or female: ra pho, he-goat; ra ma,
s >at. And so with number, denoted by the help of some second
term, generally implying the idea of all or multitude. The pre-
tended Tibetan cas; - are no more cases than are those that have
be d attributed to < !hin< se and Annamese. II. re also the full root
is determined by words which become empty, that is, which lose a
of their primary sense, and serve as adjuncts to the principal
word.
In itself the term i no more a simple noun (or adjective) than
it is a verb, its nature bi ing in each case determined either by its
>ii in the :- ntence or by the addition of some empty root.
After what has been said of the monosyllabic tongues in general,
and of Chinese in partic to go more minutely
into the structure of Tibetan, li does no! differ from that of the
4A SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. it.
other isolating tongues, and Ave must not be led astray by what
grammarians without judgment tell us of its pretended gender,
number, eases, persons, moods, and tenses. These are merely so
many ways of speaking, which shoidd not be taken literally ; and
all traces of which will disappear in the comparative syntax of the
various monosyllabic languages, which will doubtless soon be com-
posed. Anyone undertaking this task, without attempting to
reduce to a common form the essentially different roots of these
idioms, would supply one of the first desiderata of philology. It
would above all be necessary that the idea be thoroughly dis-
seminated that, in order to study any monosyllabic language
whatsoever, we forget for a moment all that we know concern-
in<* the structure and processes of our flexional forms of speech.
Unfortunately, this woidd seem to be no slight difficulty.
CHAPTEE IV.
SECOND FORM OF SPEECH AGGLUTINATION.
Tlie Agglutinating Languages.
Of all known languages, those that by their form belong to this
second class are by far the most numerous. Beyond all manner
of doubt they belong to a great many stocks, very distinct, inde-
pendent, and incapable of being reduced to a common source.
Professed etymologists may have attempted to bring them back to
one origin, herein more or less wittingly ministering to the ten-
dency of theological systems ; but their efforts have been crowned
with no better success than they deserved. Doubtless, all etymo-
logists will lend themselves to a comparison of Magyar and Basque,
of Tamil and Algonquin, of Japanese and the Australian dialects.
But what is etymology? We have already explained that it is a
mass of fictions and delusions, an intellectual trifling, a constant
defiance of the most rudimentary principles of method, and most
frequently of the first elements of common sense.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION". 45
§ 1. — What is Agglutination.
While in the idioms of the first form, Chinese, Siamese, &c,
the words are invariably monosyllabic forms, following each other
without the least fusion or connection, and each retaining its
proper force; in those of the second category many elements are
placed in close association, in a way agglutinating, or agglomerating
together, whence the name of agglutinating, or agglomerating
languages. Of these diverse elements, one alone contains the
leading idea, the main thought or conception, the others losing
their independent value altogether. They certainly still retain
a personal or individual sense, hut this is now entirely relative.
The element preserving its primitive force, strike, take, keep,
becomes surrounded by others determining its manner of being
or manner of action, while these other elements themselves,
thus tacked on to the primary one, play the exclusive part of so
determining its manner of being or action.
Making i;, the initial of the word "root," stand for the essen-
tial element of the. word, and rrr, for those that have sunk to
the condition of mere elements of relationship, we may assume
in an agglutinating language the following formulae: rE, where
the primary root is preceded by a prefix of relationship; Rr Avhere
it is followed by a ^uliix ; u R i;, where it stands between two rela-
tional terms ; r R r r, and so on.
Two or three examples from the Magyar Language will make
this explanation clear. In the indicative present kert'ek, you pray,
leer is the vol, thai is the element whose meaning remains
unclouded, while t'ek is the relational element, denoting person.
Hence the formula here is R h. Iii the present optative kernetek,
may you pray, where lie ne is also a relational sign, showing that
ilc- genera] and prevailing idea of Jeer is taken in an optative sense,
the formula \\ ill he I; it k.
Now )el ua take the p,ol ■_,!,-, to shili, and hi us consider some
of [\ called derivatives, which, in fad, are nothing hut cases
of agglutination or juxtaposition. They put in the clearest light
the real nature of this proce . Eere are a few of its forms in
46 SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
the third person singular, where the element implying lie or she
is understood : zdrhat, he can shut, formula R R ; zdrogat, lie often
shuts, same formula ; zdrogathat, he can often shut, formula Rrr;
zdrat, he causes to shut, formula Er; zdratgat, he causes often to
shut, formula Err; zdratgathat, he can often cause to shut,
formula R B R R.
Thus we see that two characteristic facts distinguish the agglu-
tinating from the isolating class. In the former the word is no
longer composed of the root alone, Irat is formed by the union of
several roots. In the second place, one only of these roots thus
agglomerated retains its real value, in the others the individual
meaning becoming obscured and passing into the second rank.
They serve now only to fix precisely the manner of being or of
action of the leading root, whose primitive meaning remains
unaffected.
The primary root being thus retained in its primitive form, the
others lose their independence, and fall into their place side by-
side of each other; and this is precisely what constitutes agglutina-
tion. Here the word is formed by the union of several different
elements or roots, and thus becomes complex. It is this that
distinguishes it from the word as conceived in the isolating lan-
guages, where it is composed of the root itself and of that alone.
In any case, let us state at once that in the agglutinating tongues
there is no true declension or conjugation. The use of these
terms, as well as of the corresponding words case, nominative,
accusative, genitive, and so on, when speaking of Japanese, Basque,
Wolof, &c, is merely a conventional way of expressing oneself,
not, perhaps, to be absolutely condemned, but yet to be taken with
great reserve.
We have stated that the agglutinating idioms are very nume-
rous, in fact embracing the great majority of known lan-
guages. We shall now proceed to notice at least such of them
as seem best to illustrate the principal agglutinating systems.
Some we shall have to treat very summarily, such as the Corean
and those of the African negroes. But we shall have to enter
more fully into the details of some others, such as the different
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 47
languages of the Uralo-Altaic group, the Basque and the American
languages. The relatively greater importance of the latter "will
probably be a sufficient justification of the greater attention they
must command at our hands.
After mentioning the principal agglutinating systems, we shall
have a word to say on the " Turanian " theory, on the pretended
" Turanian languages," and on the principal speculations that this
theory has given rise to.
We shall begin with the agglomerating languages of Africa —
those of the Hottentots, the Bushmen, the true Negroes, the Kafirs,
the Fida tribes, and the Nubians. Proceeding eastwards, we shall
then treat of the Negritos, the Papuas, and the Australians.
Returning northwards, we shall meet the Malayo-Polynesian
system ; ami still farther north, the Japanese and Corean, on the
extreme east of the Asiatic continent. Eetracing our steps west-
wards, we shall take the Dravidian group in the south of India ;
the Uralo-Altaic family in Asia and Europe; the Bascpie at the
foot of the Western Pyrenees ; and, crossing the Atlantic, the
languages of the New World. AVe shall conclude with the idioms
of the ' acasus, and certain other tongues either little known or
not yet classified.
The first part of this category is purely geographical, but aw
have had certain grammatical reasons fur arranging consecutively
the Dravidian, the Uralo-AltaiV, Basque, ami American system--.
It would be, perhaps, difficult here to explain these reasons, but
they will become apparent later on, and more particularly when we
com»; t" treat of tie- American languages.
§ 2. — South African Languages.
Under this heading we do not include the idioms of the " Bantu"
;:;, which will be treated of farther on, under the nai >f
By South African, as b re u ed, we under-
stand the languages of the Bottentots and of the Bushmen only.
(1) Hottentot
Tin; origin of bhifl race i involved in greal oh aor is that
48 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
of their language at all 1 tetter known. Attempts have unsuccess-
fully been made to group it with the Hametic system, Old Egyptian,
Coptic, etc. ; but, as it stands, it seems to be isolated and inde-
pendent of all other tongues. It is, however, clearly agglutinating.
Of the Hottentot there are three dialects : Nam.a or Namaqua,
Khora, and Cape Hottentot.
Of these, the first, spoken by some twenty thousand persons, is
the most important. Converging northwards on the Herero (a
Bantu idiom, of which presently), and limited on the south by
the Orange River, Narhaqua Land is bounded westwards by the
Atlantic, and eastwards by the Kalahari desert.*
Khora, or Klmrana, is spoken much farther to the east, in the
district watered by the Vaal, Modder, and Caledon, about the 29°
south latitude. It bears a certain affinity to the Namaqua tongue,
but is rapidly dying out.
Cape. Hottentot is well-nigh extinct. It was formerly diffused
throughout the colony, bordering north-eastwards on the idioms of
the Kafir system, northwards on the Khora, and on the north-
west on the Xamaqua. At present there remain but a small
number of Griquas, Avho still speak Hottentot amongst them-
selves, Dutch, English, and Kafir having elsewhere almost entirely
extinguished it.
However, all these dialects differ but little from each other, so
that the Griquas have no great difficulty in understanding the
Namaqua of the Atlantic seaboard.
The Hottentot in his own language calls himself Khoikhoib, in
the plural Khoikhoin, a word which means "man of men," or
"friend of friends." — (Halvn, op. cit., p. 8).
The Namaqua phonetics are very varied, possessing a very deli-
cately graduated series of vowels, all of which are capable of being
nasalised. There are also a considerable number of diphthongs —
about twelve altogether.
It is no less rich in consonants, besides the ordinary explosives
* Th. Hahn, "Die Sprache dor Nama," Leipzig, 1870; Tyndall, "A
Grammar and Vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot Language ;" Bleek,
"A Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages," London, 1869.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 49
(p, t, k, and b, d, g), including k, h, and several other gutturals ; the
sibilants s and z (as in sister, zeal) ; a peculiar nasal, somewhat
resembling the nasal sound heard in the German word enge; v, r, h,
and a palatal, which, however, does not occur in the Namaqua
dialect.
To these various consonants must be added four others of a
special order — the so-called clicks. The dental click, denoted by
a vertical stroke | , or, according to some writers, by the letter c ;
the palatal, marked by two horizontal bars crossing a vertical
one, =|±, or by the letter v; the cerebral, represented by a sign of
exclamation, ! , or by the letter q ; the lateral, expressed by two
vertical bars, ||, or by the letter x. These click-letters, though
sounding strange to an European ear, are yet capable of being
imitated. They will be found fully described in special grammars,
all, at least, except the fourth, which is very peculiar, and is
so called because the side teeth play an important part in its
utterance.
The click-letters may precede the gutturals n, It, and all the
vowels, and they occur moreover every moment — in fact, almost
in every word.
Word-formation is extremely simple: root followed by a suffix
— that is, by some derivative element.
Let us observe at once that these derivative elements have each a
fold form: one for the word when subject; another for the
word when object, whether direct or indirect — the first receiving
the name of subject or, the second that of i<hj, : <-tlrv • the third form
is the vocative or init rjective.
in, these suffixes have a singular, a dual, and a plural form,
making for one and the same element altogether nine forms j as
there may he a subjective singular, an objective dual, an inter-
jective plural and so on.
We find on a the other hand confronted by a triple
supposition : The derivative element of the root may he an element
of t!r : o i (J, we two, we), ")■ of the second (thou, ye two,
common or third per ona] elemenl j and on il,i j
depends the nature of the suffix itself.
i:
Mas.
Fem.
Neut.
Subjective
... b
s
i
Objective
ba
sa
e
Subjective
kha . .
ra
kha or va.
Objective
kha . .
ra
• »; j)
Subjective
... gu ..
ti
n
Objective
ga
. te
na
50 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
In the first two cases, words arc formed with the sense, for
instance, of " I king, I who am king," " thou who art queen,"
and so on. In a word, the element, as already stated, changes
nine times for one and the same word, according as the form is
suhjective, objective, interjective, singular, dual, or plural.
Let us add that the suffix varies according as the individual is
masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Passing from words derived hy an element of the first or second
person to those formed by a common or impersonal suffix, Ave find
the subjoined endings in the jSTamaqua dialect, to which these
remarks are restricted :
Singular
Dual
Plural
Glancing at this scheme, we at once see that the word taras,
woman, is subjective, singular feminine. In the expression " I see
the woman," it will become tarasa ; in " the two women say," it
will be tarara ; and so on. The form Tchoib, man, Avill be used in
the sentences, " the man says," " the man strikes ; " in " the men
say," " the men strike," it will be Jchoigu, and in " they strike the
men," Jckoigci. All this, doubtless, requires a little attention and
practice, but is otherwise easy enough.
Secondary derivation is effected by adding fresh suffixes to those
already attached to the root ; and it is also by means of fresh
elements thus added to the end of the word that are expressed the
relations of locative, ablative, instrument, and the like. Adjectives
also are derived from substantives by the same process.
Causatives, diminutives, intensitives, desideratives, are all formed
by adding secondary or derivative elements to the principal root.
As to the pretended verbal forms, they simply consist in the
agglomeration of elements, one expressing person, another the
principal root, a third, time — present, past, or future.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 51
Lastly, Hottentot, like the monosyllabic tongues, distinguishes
its homophones by uttering them in various tones. Of these tones
there are three, as in the word ikaib, meaning either darkness,
place, or linen, according to its intonation. Such homophones,
however, are not very numerous.
On the other hand, the true accent falls invariably on the radical
syllable, that is, on the first, the Hottentot formula always being :
root + suffix, or root + suffixes. In the case of compound words,
the accent falls on the principal component.
(2) Bushman Dialects.
The Bushmen, who are scattered in a great number of small
tribes over the country, have no generic name for their race. The
Hottentots call them San, that is, aboriginal or indigenous; and
the d ion of Bushmen was first given them by the Dutch.
But little is known of the various idioms spoken by the
Bushmen. If there is any common affinity between them, great
differences at least prevail amongst some of their tribes, Avhile the
attempt to connect them with the Hottentots has been unsuccessful.
■ as we know them, the Bushmen dialects are, hi fact, quite
independent of those of the Hottentots. In any case, they belong
to tli aating order of languages, and are said to possess six
click-letters.
It is not easy to fix their geographical limits. They are met
with ist of the Herero district, north-east of JSTamaqualand,
and north of the Kalahari desert; while some tribes arc round
south of this desert and of the Orange River, in the nor,:
' Colony. In fact, according to Fritsch, they must have at
id over the whole of South Africa, from the Cape to
the '/. mb -i, and even beyond that river,* whence th -.
■ iually driven by the pr sure of more powerful i
Languages of th. African Negroes.
Tl,< d irth of Africa is occupied pi rtly by Arabic, which be]
to the Si initio, and partly by Berber, which belongs to the Bamitic
* "Dio Eingcborcncn Sfid-Afrika's." Brcslau, L872.
i: •_'
52 SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
family. On the east coast there are also Semitic tongues, more
especially related to the Arahic hranch ; and farther south, that is,
immediately north of the equator, some Hamitic idioms, grouped
under the general designation of Ethiopian languages. The whole
of the south-fast, and a large portion of the south-west coast, are
occupied by the Kafir tongues, forming a distinct family in them-
selves ; while the Bushman and Hottentot dialects stretch thence
southwards to the Cape. In the centre of the continent, going
from the south of Upper Egypt westwards, we meet with the
Nubian and Eida groups, neither of which have anything in
common with the others here mentioned.
The rest of Africa, that is, the middle of the west coast, and a
great portion of the centre, is in possession of idioms spoken by the
negroes proper, who are anthropologically to be distinguished from
the Kafir race.
The number of these negro dialects is considerable. Some of
them are closely enough related to constitute together certain well-
defined groups, though the common origin of these various groups
cannot yet be scientifically proved. They all, doubtless, belong to
the agglutinating order, but this in no way implies a common
source. Notwithstanding numerous reciprocal borrowings, both
their vocabularies, and especially their grammars, differ greatly.
In the actual state of our information, we may say that there are a
certain number of negro languages, or groups of languages, entirely
distinct and independent of each other.
Fr. Midler reckons twenty-one of such groups, but whether this
number will be increased or diminished by further research, it is
impossible to say. For the present it will be enough to point out
that the expression " Languages of the African Negroes," forming
the title of this paragraph, is purely geographical, involving no
necessary affinity between these languages themselves. We shall
take them as nearly as possible in their geographical order, proceed-
ing from the north southwards, and from the west eastwards.
(1) Wolof.
There are a number of grammatical treatises on this language,
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 53
Avliose accidence and vocabulary are tolerably well known. Still
all these works are deficient in method and critical acumen. They
supply us with the materials for a scientific Wolof grammar ; but such
a work has yet to be written, nor can it be looked for from the
missionaries labouring in this field. Their numerous publications
betray the most complete ignorance of the principles of the modern
science of language, and they seem to be wholly unconscious of the
true nature of an agglutinating tongue.
The phonetics of the Wolof are tolerably rich, possessing, besides
the short vowels a, e (sharp), %, o, u, the long sounds d, 1, 6, u, e
and a sharp e, also long, besides another e, seemingly answering to
the e of the French je, te, Is, and a short a, which seems intermediate
between the French a and e. In a few words there occurs a nasal a,
answering to an in the French grand; but, as a rule, the vowel pre-
ceding n is not nasal. Wolof also possesses the French u as in tu,
hi, but only in words borrowed from that language.
The consonantal system is equally rich, possessing, besides the
three pairs of simple explosives (k g ;t d;p b), a t and a d liquid,
Bribed by /' d'; the nasals m n n' (gn French) and a nasal
ibed as guttural, which is both initial, medial, and final;
further, a very soft U and a guttural h', answering to the German ch
in nach ; y, r, I, the hard fricative s and a z, for words taken from
the French ; lastly, the fricative /and aw, very difficult to be grasped
by European ears. The groups mp, mb, nt, nd, ng are very frequent,
but they are mere combinations, not distinct sounds.
Nouns and adjectives are undeclinable, as in all agglutinating
ie s, ill" case endings of inflexional languages being expressed
by particles or prepositions. When, however, the direct and indi-
ted objed come together, as in "Give a book to John," the particle
jsed at all, recourse being then had to a purely syn-
in the isolating Idioms. In fact, the sense is
deduced from the position o\ the word in the sentence, the indirect
a! way.-: preceding the direct object. Nouns dependent on other nouns,
Q ■• | he i i ' are placed after them, the conjunction u
intervening, though this particle is sometimes understood.
i j ,,.]. . . addition of some other term meaning
54 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
male or female, connected with the qualified word by means of a
relational particle. The form of the word is otherwise invariable,
even for number, the plural also being denoted by the particle i,
which, in the case of a noun Avith a complement is inserted between
the two words, thus replacing the above-mentioned particle u, this
latter being restricted to the singular.
The noun is often accompanied by a determinating suffixed
particle, composed of a consonant and a vowel. The consonant
varies according to a euphonic law, regulated by the nature of the
initial letter of the word so determined, as thus : bdy-ba = father-the,
fds-vd = horse-the, kar-ga = house-the. The vowel also varies ac-
cording as the determined object is present (i), near, but not
present (u), at a distance (a), at a great distance (a). Thus, Mr-go,
as above, implies that the house spoken of is at a distance; whereas
it woidd become Mr-gi were the house close by, and so on. In the
plural, again, the suffixed particle is also modified according to the
four cases of greater or less distance ; thus becoming yi, yu, &c, and
in certain cases, n'i n'u (n liquid) : kar-yi = ihe houses close at
hand, &c. This determinating plural particle yi, yd, yu, obviously
contains the above-mentioned plural sign i, whence we may con-
clude that in the singular particles gi, bd, kit, &c, the real deter-
minating element is the vowel, though the part played by the
initial consonant g, b, k, &c, has not yet been clearly ascer-
tained.
By means of these hints the learner begins to understand such
elementary expressions as : fas u bur = horse-of-king ; fas u bur-bd =
the horse-of-the king ; fas u bur-yd = the horse-of-the kings ; fas i
bur = horses-of-king ; fas i bur-ba = the horses-of-the king; fas i
bur-yd = tKe horses-of-the kings. Apart from the determinating
element of this suffixed particle, the process is very elementary and
easdy grasped. From these examples it appears that the first noun
does not take the determinating sign, so that if the second is unde-
termined neither of them take it : fas u bur; dah' u »//r/ = butter-of-
cow.
Another means of still more closely determining the word, is by
transposing the determinating particle : bi-bdy, bd-bdy, bu-bdy =
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 55
this father; or "by suffixing the particle U to the word already
determined by the usual process : bdy-bi-le, bdy-bu-lc, &c, and even
bile-bay, bvrle-bay, and so on ; these forms of course becoming in the
plural yi-bdy, My-yi-U = these fathers.
It need scarcely be said that the Wolof verb is no more capable
of being conjugated, than is the noun of being declined. The so-
called verbal forms occurring in the endless schemes of Wolof
grammars, drawn up on Greek and Latin models, are nothing but
an accumulation of independent words placed side by side, as in all
other agglutinating tongues. The root always retains its general or
abstract force, and to it are tacked on, either as prefixes or suffixes,
certain particles expressing the various relational ideas of past,
future, conditional, subjunctive, &c. In all this there is no real
change, the words so placed in juxtaposition never varying in form.
Hence, in this so-called conjugation we have merely to supply the
required pronouns, /, thou, he, &c. ; which, however, are placed,
according to circumstances, in various positions in this agglomeration
of words.
The number of such combinations is considerable, two-thirds of
all Wolof grammars being usually devoted to this pretended con-
jugation. Yet all that is needed, is a knowledge of a certain
number of accessory words or particles, and of the place they
occupy in the general scheme. Thus, the particle on, answering to
tin' imperfect tense, is placed after the principal word and before the
personal pronoun : mus-ad = have-1 ; mas-on-nd = having-was-L
! he forms, however, are usually much more complicated than this,
at first sight appearing very intricate, and often involving six, seven,
eight, or even more accessory elements. Thus mds-dgiirnu-won-sqpa-
lu = Ave have not yet made a show of loving, is but one com-
pound term, made up of sundry agglutinated particles, all fused
her, liui each playing a fixed part, and occupying a settled place
in the agglomeration. Hie last three elements mean "not to make
a show of Loving ;" the first (mas) i spresses the action Itself \ agu
implies that the action has no1 yel begun; nu is the persona]
element, and won the i ign of the imperfect. We may add that this
is by no means an exceptional case, and man)- other far more
56 SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
intricate examples might be quoted, but tbe formative process is
always tbe same.
Of all tbe pure Negro tongues, Wolof is one of the most
important, so far as concerns the interests of European civilisation.
Tbe French Senegal settlements are in daily contact with the
Wolofs, who have borrowed a number of words from the French
language. All along the river Senegal, Wolof borders on the Arabic
spoken on its right bank, and stretches southwards over a large
portion of Senegambia. It is the current speech of Jolof, Kayor,
Walo, Dakar, and is also spoken hi Baol, Sine, and Gambia.
(2) Alcalde Group.
Mandingan occupies the southern portion of Senegambia, and
the region of Upper Guinea. Bambara is spoken a little more to
the north, and east of central Senegambia, To the same family
belong the Susu, Vei, Tene, Gbandi, Landoro, Mende, Gbese, Toma,
and Memo.
(3) Fdup Group
Also occupies the southern parts of Senegambia and the districts
a little farther south. It touches at various points on the
Mandingan, and comprises a number of dialects, such as Feltip, on
the Gambia ; Filliam, on the Casamanze ; Bola, Severe, Pepel, in
the Bissagos islands ; Biafada, on the river Geba ; Pajade, Baga,
Kallum, Timne, Bidlom, Sherbro, Kissi.
(4) Sonra'i
Occupies an isolated position on the Niger, south-east of Tim-
buctu, about the 15° north latitude. It is therefore spoken in a
portion of South Sahara, its domain confining on that of the
Tuaric, which stretches more northwards. Speaking generally, it
may be said to be spoken in the district lying between Timbuctu
and Agades.
(5) Hausa, or Haivsa,
"Which is split up into a considerable number of dialects, may
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 57
be described as the proper language of Soudan (or, more correctly,
of the region lying between the Niger on the west and Lake Chad
on the east). No other idiom of Central Africa is so diffused as
the Hausa, which is the commercial speech of this part of the
continent. It is now tolerably well known, thanks especially to
the writings of the English missionary, the Rev. James F. Schon.
Its vowel system is rich; besides a, i, u, long and short, possess-
ing o, e, an e and an i very short, not easily distinguished from
each other, a labial intermediate between a and o, which may be
lengthened, lastly a and e obscure and guttural. The consonantal
system is less complicated, consisting of p, t, h ; b, d, g, m, u ; r,
1 ; /, s, z, s' (sh) ; j French ; ch, j, a; and a nasal analogous to
the English wj in king.
Gender is distinguished not only by some secondary term mean-
in- male or female, but also by the ending ia or nia, the force of
which has not yet been quite cleared up : sa— bull; sania = covr.
Its origin, however, is doubtless the same as that of the other
process. Number also is denoted either by a particle, of which
there are, several varieties, or by doubling the last syllable of the
word. In practice this process presents certain difficulties, but
is in itself simple and intelligible enough.
There is no true declension in Hausa any more than in any other
fcinating tongues. The various relations of the Greek and
Latin casi 3 are expressed either by the position of the word in the
ace, or by the help of particles joined to the noun : masa =
to him; marta—her; garesa = oi or from him The subject and
the object are also denoted by their position, the latter naturally
following the former. Lastly, the idea of possession is expressed
by placing the principal word immediately before the other, or
else by connecting the two with the particle na <>r n masculine, ta
feminine.
in other agglutinating idioms, the pretended moods and
tenses of the Hai are formed by means of distinct words
that have reached the stage of particles. The Bystem seems at
lir-i somewhat complex, but it presents no difficulties that cannol
rercome by means of a little scientific analysis.
58 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
(G) Bornu Group
Is situated in the neighbourhood of Lake Chad, to the east of
the Hausa, and comprises some half-dozen dialects, amongst which
Kanem, Tcda (or Tebu), both spoken by Tebu tribes, north and
north-east of the lake, Kanuri, Murio, and Nguru.
(7) Kruli Group,
Including Grebo (Basa, &c), brings us to the "Windward and
Grain Coast, near the river St. Paul (in Liberia).
(8) Ewe or Ife Group
Occupies the western portion of the Gidf of Guinea, about the
7° north latitude, and somewhat farther north. It embraces four
idioms, all akin to each other— Ewe, Yoruba, Oji (or O-tyi), and
Gel or AJcra.
Besides these groups there remain to be mentioned the Ibo and
Nupe spoken, the first in the north, the second in the south of
the Niger Delta.
Michi, an isolated idiom, a little to the east of the foregoing,
about the 7° north latitude.
Mosgu, Batta, and Lor/one, still farther east, south of the Bomu
group and of Lake Chad, and forming a group of themselves.
Baghirmi, to the east of the preceding, in the very heart of
Africa, and stretching south-east from Lake Chad (in the direction
of Darfur).
Maba, in the same direction, and unconnected with the sur-
rounding dialects.
Lastly, eastwards of Central Africa, south of Nubia, and west of
Abyssinia, another negro group, known as that of the Upper Nile,
and comprising the ShiluJc, on the west bank of the Bahr-el-Abiad ;
Dinka, on the right bank of the same river ; Nuer, immediately
below Shiluk and Bari, about the 5° north latitude (or between
Gondokoro and the great equatorial lake system).
In conclusion, let us repeat that the various groups of languages,
spoken by the negroes of Senegambia, Soudan, and Upper Guinea,
are all independent of each other. We have here mentioned the
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 59
majority of the one-and-twenty groups hitherto recognised; but
groups do not constitute so many branches or ramifications of
some one linguistic family. They are no doubt all agglutinating, but,
as already stated, this analogy establishes no sort of affinity between
languages so constituted. In a word, Wolof, Hausa, Sonra'i, and
Ban are no more cognate tongues than are Basque and Japanese, or
Magyar and Tamil.
§ 4. — Bantu, or Kafir Family.
Occupies a wide domain, roughly comprising the whole of the
smith-east of the continent, reaching southwards to the neighbour-
hood of the Cape, and northwards a little beyond the equator,
where it meets the Ethiopian group of the Hamitic family, and the
dialects of the negroes of Guinea, thus spreading north and south
over about one-half of the whole continent.
About one-fourth of the natives of Africa speak the various
dialects of this family. These are very numerous, and are derived
all from one common source, which, as we have seen, is far from
being the case with the languages spoken by the negro tribes in the
• and west of the continent. The mother-tongue of this great
family is utterly unknown, but it may possibly yet be restored in
all its essential grammatical and lexical features.
The general name of Kafir, often given to the Bantu family, is
purely conventional The word, which is Arabic, and means
inficL /, was at first applied to all the tribes of south-east Africa, but
gradually limited, until it has now come to be restricted to
those stretching from the north-east of Cape Colony to Delagoa
llav. Bence it cannot with propriety be any longer applied to
as the Kisuaheli, spoken in Zanzibar, or to the
Fernandian, in the < lulf of < ruin< a.
The term Bantu is in every way preferable. It is the plural of.
.old meaning man, lias the sense of men, population, people,
and may readily be extended to the language itself.
The phonetic j tern of the whole family ; one of the richest,
nor is it lacking in harmony. A a rule words are modified not by
suffixing, but by prefixin ate of relationship.
60 SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
It is divided into three great branches — a western, a central, and
an eastern, each of which is again subdivided into a number of
minor groups. They are thus classified by Fr. Midler and Halm* :
Eastern Branch. — Languages of the Zanzibar district ; languages
of the Zambesi ; Zulu-Kafir group.
Central Branch. — Sechuana and Tegeza.
Western Branch. — Kongo ; Herero, &c.
The principal dialects of the north-eastern or Zanzibar district
are the Ki-Pokumo, a little to the south of the equator ; Ki-Suaheli,
about the 5° south latitude ; Ki-Nika, Ki-Kamba, Ki-Hiau, about
the 13° south latitude. Of the tribes speaking these idioms, the
Suaheli is the best known.
Somewhat farther south are the Zambesi languages, Tette, Sena,
and others. Makua, a little more to the north-east, is spoken in the
Mozambique country.
Still farther south are the Kafir proper and the Zulu, closely
related to each other, and tolerably well known through the writings
of the English missionaries. t Zulu is spoken by the Amazulus, in
Zulu-land and Natal ; Kafir, by the Amakhosas or Kafirs proper,
south of Natal. To these is related the Fingu, spoken by the
Amafingus, the Amasuazis, and some other obscure tribes. Thus
this Kafir group reaches from Cape Colony to Delagoa Bay.
Of the two languages of the central group, Tegeza is the least
known.
Sechuana, with which we are much better acquainted, is the
language of the Bechuanas, north of the 20° and south of the
25° latitude. It includes eastwards the Sesuto, spoken by the
Basutos ; westwards, the Serolowj and Seldapi, spoken by the
Barolongs and the Bahlapis.
Coming to the west or Atlantic coast, we find the Bantu system
less prevalent here than on the east coast.
Northwards it stretches four or five degrees beyond the equator,
thus bordering on the languages of the Negroes proper.
The northern division of this western branch comprises the
* " Grundzuge einer Grammatik cles Herero," p. 5. Berlin, 1857.
f Appleyard, " The Kafir Language." London, 1850.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 61
dialects of Fernando Po, Mpongwe, Di-Kele, Isubu, Dualla, and
Kongo, which last is the most important of the group.
More to the south are the Bunda (in Angola), Benguda, Londa,
and Serero, abont the 19° south latitude, and reaching southwards
as far as the Hottentot Namaqua dialect.
Bleek classifies all these languages somewhat differently, dividing
them into three distinct branches.*
The first comprises Kafir, Zhdu, Sehlapi, Sesuto, and Tegeza.
The second embraces five subdivisions : 1, Tette, Sena, Mafcua,
Ki^Hiau; 2, Ki-Kamba, Kir-Nika, Ki-Suaheli, Ki-Sambala; 3,
Baydye (in the interior); 4, Herero, Sindonga (spoken by the
Ovambo), Nano (in Benguela), Angola ; 5, Kongo, Mpongwe.
The third division includes the Di-Kele, Benga (in the islands of
Corisco Bay), Dualla, Isubu, Fernandian.
It is difficult to venture an opinion on this arrangement, many
languages in the interior of South Africa being unknown. But
fresh discoveries and researches will doubtless enable us to classify
more exactly the idioms already known.
Tin- phonetics of the Bantu family call for no particular remark,
except that the vowels are liable to contraction, to euphonic sup-
rions, and to rather numerous variations, but always in accord-
ance with well-determined principles. In this respect the Kafir
idioms an- more refined than many other agglutinating tongues;
instances occurring in them of true vowel harmony, that is of the
vowel of one syllable assimilating to that of another in the same
word.
The consonantal system seems somewhat complex, owing especially
to the great number of double co , whose first element is a
nasal : nt, nd, mp, &c. <fec.
On the other hand we again meet here with some of the click-
rsdescribed when treating of the Hottentot phonetics. The
K,.,i, fco have borrowed them from their Hottentot neigh-
bours, as they occur in those Kafir dialects only thai border on the
for in tance, in those of the Zulu branch.
* Bleek, " A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages," p. 5.
London, 1
62 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
The farther we proceed from this neighbourhood, the less frequent
these letters become ; hence they do not occur at all in Mpongwe.
Nor can the clicks precede other consonants in Kafir as they can in
Hottentot ; and of the four Hottentot clicks, two only (especially
the dental) are of frequent occurrence. Of the other two, one is
very rare and the other altogether unknown.
The number of other consonants is very considerable. They are
subject to fixed euphonic laws, and interchange regularly between
the various members of the Bantu family, a great many of such
concordances being already well known and determined.* Kafir
seems the most highly developed of the cognate tongues in its
euphonic system.
All these languages have this in common : that the word is built
up by elements not suffixed, but prefixed to the principal root.
Thus the agglutinating formula in Kafir, Tegeza, Herero, &c, is
R E (see p. 45).
Of these prefixes, some denote the singidar, others the plural.
Thus, hi Kafir, the singular prefixes are : ill, izi, u, via, um ; those
of the plural : aba, ama, imi, izi, izim, izin, o. Thus umntu = man,
abantu = men ; udade = sister, odade = sisters.
These various formative prefixes of course differ in the various
idioms of the Bantu family, but they all, nevertheless, derive from
older common forms. At some unknown period there existed a
common Bantu tongue, which subsequently broke up into different
dialects, all characterised by special euphonic laws. Hence the
various prefixes of this primitive speech were naturally modified in
the various idioms derived from it.
A comparison with the other members of the family shows that
the initial vowel of the Kafir prefixes um aba, above referred to,
really constitutes another prefix. The words umntu, abantu would
thus be decomposed into u-m-ntu, a-ba-ntu ; the elements m, ba,
being, in this instance, the true derivative elements of the word.
In Sesuto (a Sechuana dialect) the singular, motu, becomes plural,
batu ; in Sena, munto and vanttu ; in Ki-Hiau (the Zanzibar dialect)
mundu and vandu respectively. But in Herero, as in Kafir, we
* Bleek, op. cit., p. 81.
Chap, iy.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION.
63
meet with another element prefixed: omundu, ovandu ; so also in
Kongo : omuntu, oantu. Hence, those writers that employ the
word Abantu as the general designation of the whole family, would
do better to use the form Bantu for this purpose, this being the first
or most direct derivative of the term.
Subjoined is a table of the singular and plural forms of this word
in some of the languages in question :
Sing.
PL
Ki-Suaheli
mtu
watu.
Ki-Xika
mutu
atu.
Ki-Karnba
mundu . . .
andu.
Ki-Sambala
niuntu
wantu.
Ki-Hiau
mundu . . .
vandu.
Sena
muntto ...
vanttu.
Makua ...
muttu
attu.
Kafir
umntu
abantu.
Zulu
umuntu ...
abantu.
Sehlapi ...
rnothu
bathu.
Sesuto ...
motu
batu.
Tegeza ...
amuno
vano.
Herero ...
omundu ...
ovandu.
Sindonga
umtu
oantu.
Nano
oniuno . . .
omano.
Angola ...
omutu . . .
oatu.
Congo
omuntu ...
oantu.
Benga ...
moto
bato.
Duabla ...
motu
batu.
Isubu
motu
batu.
The case elements are also prefixed. Thus in Herero, the instru-
mental sign being na, we get nomundu or namundu=wiiih or by
the man. Eere a euphonic law comes into play, the first form
being naomundu for na + omundu. So in Kafir, umntu = maxL, and
abantu = mem, become ngomuntu =wiifo the man, ngabantu = with.
the men. Eere the instrumental sign is nga, answering to the
i na, and we sir how it is prefixed to the word formed by a
primary derivative element singular and plural
Tin- adjective is formed with the si i derivative elemenl as the
noun it qualifies, or if there be a difference it is a1 Least vi ry slight.
In Kafir, L'li" being great, umntu omkula will be great man ;
64 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
abantu abakulu, great men. The word into = thing, being izinto
in the plural, into erikulu = great thing; izinto ezinkulu = great things.
In a word, the adjective necessarily agrees, even in its formation
with its noun.
Thus the word Jculu = great, may, in a sentence, have four or five
different prefixes, if it happen to he repeated so many times as quali-
fying so many words also formed by means of these prefixes. This
process is common to all the members of the Bantu family, whence
the title of alliteral languages, which has been given them.
The method of expressing the relations of mood and tense seems,
at first sight, somewhat intricate, but is really cpiite simple, consist-
ing, as is usual in agghitinating tongues, in tacking independent
particles on to the principal root. But, as already stated, the special
feature of the Bantu family is the formation of words by means of
prefixes, hence the secondary elements are here placed, not after,
but before the chief radical.
§ 5.— The Fulu Group.
The Fulas (also Pul or Peul) occupy the centre of Africa, between
the tenth and twentieth degrees of north latitude ; on the west, ap-
proaching the coast of Senegal, and stretching eastAvards towards
Lake Chad. It is. a vast region, about 750. leagues in length, and
divided into two nearly equal parts by the [Niger. Its mean breadth
is about 125 leagues, between the tenth and fifteenth degrees of
north latitude. The principal Fula dialects are the Futatoro, the
Futajallo, the Bondu, and the Sokoto.
The phonetic system of this group is not very complex, possessing
neither sli, the French j, nor the Semitic gutturals.
Fula knows no distinction between the masculine and feminine
genders, but still divides beings into two classes. It distinguishes,
on the one hand, everything belonging to humanity, and on the
other, everything else — the brute creation and inanimate objects.
M. Faidherbe calls these two classes the liuman and the brute
genders* This distinction is essential for the Fula grammar.
* " Genre hominin et Genre brute," in his "Essai sur la Langue Poule."
Paris, 1875.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 65
Words referring to human beings, whether nouns, adjectives, or
participles, all end in the singular, in o, which is nothing but
a pronominal root agglutinated : gorko = man. This class ends in the
plural, in be, which again is the pronoun they (masculine and femi-
nine). In the brute gender, the singular ends either with a vowel,
an /. or am, o being very rare. The plural seems more complex, and
certain euphonic laws seem to play a great part in agglutinating
endings to the root. The initial consonants of words in the singular
are liable to interchange with others in the plural. The verb, how-
ever, is much simpler, its different tenses, as in all agglutinating
idioms, being formed by the agglomeration of sundry elements,
whose analysis remains always perfectly clear.
The Fida syntax is not very intricate, the order of the succession
of ideas determining, in principle, the order of the words in the
sentence. Thus, the name of the possessor is preceded by that of
the thing possessed, and the object, whether direct or indirect,
follows the verb (in the active voice). In fact, the whole difficulty
of Fula consists in the great variety of its euphonic laws, but this
is no slight difficulty.
With the adoption of Mohammedanism, the Fulas took over a
certain number of Arabic words, religious, legal, and suchlike. But
setting this element aside, it remained to be seen whether there were
any, and if bo, what kind of relationship between certain Senegal
idioms, such as the AVolof and the Serer, and the Fida. No one, of
course, pretends to deny that they have all a certain number of
words in common. But in the actual state of our knowledge it
would be al least rash to base an assumed, and, in itself, a very pro-
blematica] affinity on a rather weak lexical agreement. M. Faid-
I is, '.villi good reason, very reserved on tin's pretended connection
of the Fula with the Wblof and Serer. Theoretically it is the very
of probable ; practically, it remains si ill to be proved. We
know thai the Fulas reached Senegal only after having crossed
Centra] Africa, and, in all likelihood, their primitive stock is to be
looked for in Eastern Africa, where there may be found idioms
related to theirs, if any still .survive.
66 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
§ 6. — Tlie Nubian Languages.
Ethnologists treat the Nubians and the Fulas as one race, of
Avhich the first forms an eastern, the second a western division.
But however this he, the languages spoken by them seem to he
different.
Nubian proper, that is, the speech of the Barahras, is spoken
in the Nile Valley, between the twenty-first and twenty-fourth
degrees north latitude, by about 40,000 people.
Dongola, spoken somewhat farther south, differs but little
from it.
Tumal is spoken in the south of Kordofan, north of Shiluk,
and is a negro dialect.
Konjari, also spoken in parts of Dar Fur and Kordofan, has been
included in this group, but the point is not yet quite settled. There
may be also other idioms related to it, but in the absence of com-
plete information, it is impossible to speak very positively on the
subject.
§ 7. — Languages of the Negritos.
But little is knoAvn concerning the dialects spoken by the various
Negrito tribes, so that for the present Ave can do no more than
mention them.
The Negritos — by some writers connected with the Papuas, but
by others, seemingly with more reason, distinguished from them —
are met with in the Peninsula of Malacca, in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, and in certain districts of the Sundas and the Philip-
pines. They have been traced farther northwards towards Japan,
and are even supposed to exist in Central India. The geographical
area occupied by the Negritos has been discussed by MM. de
Quatrefages and Hanry, in their " Crania Ethnica," and in the first
numbers of the "Eevue d'Antliropologie."
§ 8. — Languages of the Papuas.
These, also, are but indifferently known. Spoken to the east of
the Malay, north of the Australian idioms, in New Guinea, and in
Chap, it.] SECOND FOKH OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 67
a number of the adjacent islands, they form several dialects more
or less differing from each other.
But sufficient is known to pronounce them decidedly agglutinative.
Thus, in one of their dialects, the plural element being si, the words
snun= man, bien = woman, become, in the plural, snunsi, bi&nsi.
The particles answering to the case-endings of inflectional tongues
are here prefixed to the word : rosnun = of the man ; bemiin = to
the man ; romunsi = of the men ; besnumi = to the men.
The languages of the Papuas have been treated by Mayer in the
67th vol. of the " Journal of the Vienna Academy."
§ 9. — Australian Languages.
The numerous Australian idioms seem all related to each other,
bnt have no affinity with any other linguistic famdy.
Their phonetics are extremely simple, possessing neither sibilants
nor aspirates. In nearly all of these idioms the idea of number is
but little developed, and that of gender not at all. On the other
hand, there is a certain wealth of suffixes expressive of nominal
relations, constituting what are improperly called cases in the agglu-
tinating tongues.
The Australian idioms are divided into three groups. The eastern
branch, on the Pacific seaboard, is spoken in parts of Queensland
and of New $outh Wales, ami includes the Kamiloroi or Kamilroi,
near the river Barwan; the Koiriberri, the Wiraiuroi, the Wailwun,
in the region of the Barwan, towards Fort Bourke ; the Kokai,
farther north, on the rivers Maranoa and Kogun ; the Wolaroi ; the
Pikumbul ; the Paiamha • the Kinlci; the I)i/>/>i!, north of Moreton
Bay; the Turrubnl., near the river I.rishane.
The central group comprises the idioms spoken north of Adelaide,
in South Australia.
The western group includes the dialects spoken in the south of
Western Australia, to the east and south of Perth.
Thus all these languages belong to the southern portion of the
Australian continent. Those of the centre and north may be said
to 1)" as yet utterly unknot a,
r 2
6S SECOND FORM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
The phonetics of the Australian tongues are very simple, in-
cluding hut a small numher of vowels and consonants. They seem
to possess the soft explosives only (b, d, g). Words are formed hy
means of suffixes alone, the formative element heing placed always
at the end of the word, as in Aryan, and never at the beginning,
as in the Bantu system : tippin = bird ; tippinko — to the bird ;
punnul = sun ; punnidko = to the sun.
The numeral system is one of the most limited. They reckon
up to four inclusive, but after that they use some general term
expressive of multitude, or a great quantity.
The language of the Tasmanians seems to have been related to
those of the mainland ; but our information regarding it is very
incomplete, and, as is well known, the Tasmanians are now ex-
tinct, Truganina, the last of the race, having died in 1876.
§ 10. — The Malay o-Polynesian Idioms.
These are sometimes called Oceanic, although including some
spoken in Africa (or its islands), such as the Malagasse, and others
in Asia, such as the Forcnosan.
They are thus classified by Frederic Miiller, in his account of
the cruise of the " Novara " round the globe,* and in his " Allge-
meine Ethnographie " :
Melanesian Group. — Figi, Annatom, Erromango, Tana, Mallikolo,
Lifoo, Baladea, Bauro, Guadalkanar.
Polynesian Group. — Samoa, Tonga, Maori, Tahiti, Rarotonga,
Marquesas dialects, Hawaii or Sandwich.
Malay Group. — Tagala branch : Language of the Philippines
(Tagala, Bisaya, Pampanga, Bicol, &c.) ; Ladrone or Marianne
dialects ; Malagasse of Madagascar ; Formosan. Malayo-Javanese
branch : Malay, Javanese, language of the Sunda Islands, Madura,
Mankasar, Alfooroo, Battak, Dayak.
Two facts seem now firmly established : (1) That the Malayo-
Polynesian idioms have all a common origin ; (2) That they are
independent of all other linguistic systems. Bopp made an ill-
* "Reise dor osterreichischen Fregatte."
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. G9
starred attempt to connect them with the Aryan family ; while
others have fancied that they belong to a pretended Turanian
group, of which we shall have something to say in § 19 of the
present chapter. But all this was labour lost. Their phonetic
system is quite distinct from that of all others ; their roots are
thorougldy original, and afford no elements of comparison with
those of the Ar} r an, Uralo- Altaic, or any other system Avhatsoever.
According to Frederic Midler, the primitive Malayo-Polynesian
phonetic system was composed of three explosives, A-, t, p; three
corresponding nasals ; h, r ; the fricatives s, f, v ; and the vowels
a, t, u ( = oo), e, o. It was not tdl a later period that the other
sounds appeared — for instance, g, d, h, ch,j, y, I, &c.
The elements attached to the root to form words are sometimes
prefixed, and sometimes suffixed, while in certain dialects they are
intercalated, that is, incorporated in the body of the word.
Of the three Malayo-Polynesian groups, the Malayan seems to
present the fuUest and most highly-developed forms, the Tagala
branch being especially distinguished in this respect. Next comes
the Melanesian; and last of all, the Polynesian, which shows great
poverty when compared with the Tagala, Formosan, and Malagasse.
But this would not justify the statement that the Malay group
more faithfully represents the common forms that have given birth
to ill'' Tagala and the Javanese, as well as to the Tahitian ami the
Marquesas dialect. The view to take of the matter is that the
Polynesian group was detached from the parent stock at a period
when lln' language was not yet very developed, and that the state
of its civilisation did not permit of its further development.
" Whilst tin; inflectional languages," says Frederic Midler, "broke
up into separate divisions at an epoch when their structure was
already perfect, whilst their history henceforth reveals uothing but
a continuous modification of their forms, the uninnectionaJ idioms
.seem, on the contrary, to have split- up at a time when their
ore was still in an unfinished state. Thus each of them,
after having heroine detached from its congeners, was obliged to
make provision out of its own resources for the completion of its
inner structure, Bence the identity of roots and of their formative
70 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
elements ; but hence also the rare coincidence of the ready-made
words."*
The grammar of the Malayo-Polynesian idioms is like that
of all other agglutinating tongues. There is no true declension,
particles performing the functions of the Latin and Greek case-
endings, and of our prepositions. Thus, in New Caledonian,*
"belonging to the Melanesian group, vangaevu = lord, the lord ;
o vangaevu = of the lord; vangaevu 04 = the lords; o vangaevu
oi = oi the lords. In Maori (Polynesian group), te tanata = the
man ; a te tanata = of the man ; hi te tanata = to the man.
No special element is agglutinated to the noun in order to
denote number. In Fiji, for instance, a tamata means both man
and men ; in Erromango, niteni = son and sons. Hence plurality is
expressed by certain artificial processes, as in the Melanesian
dialect of Mare, where the word nodei = crowd, is placed before the
noun to make it plural : ngome = a man ; nodei gnome = men. In
New Caledonian the noun is either preceded by the collective
va, or followed by oi ; vangaevu = the lord; vangaevu oi = the
lords. In the Malay group the noun is either doubled or else
accompanied by some collective term. The repetition of the word
is regulated by special laws, as in Formosan, which doubles the
first syllable : sjien = the tooth ; sisjien = the teeth ; while in
Javanese the whole word may be doubled : ratu = the prince ;
raturatu = the princes.
Gender also is denoted not by agglutination but by some
secondary word, as in Fiji, tagane = male ; aleva = female ; a gone
tagane = boy ; a gone aleva = girl. In Tahiti metua means parent,
of either sex, father and mother being distinguished by the
accompanying words tune and vahine respectively. In the case of
animals two other terms are used, such as oni and ufa. Thus :
moa oni = cock; moa «/« = hen.|. Neither is there any true
* " Allgemeine Ethnographie," p. 285.
•f- H. V. D. Gabelentz, " Die Melanesischen Sprachen," " Memoirs of the
Saxony Academy," Philosophy and History sections, vol. iii. Leipzig, 1861.
X Ganssin, " Du Dialecte de Tahiti, de celni des ilea Marquises, et, en
general, de la Langue Polynesienne." Paris, 1853.
Chap, rv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 71
conjugation, the notions of tense and mood being expressed by
means of affixes, or words no longer possessing anything more
than a subordinate sense. As a rule, the verb itself comes
last, as in the Melanesian dialect of Annatom :
Ek asaig = I say.
Ek mun asaig = I have said.
Ekis asaig = I was saying.
Ekis mun asaig = I had said.
Ekpu asaig = I shall say.
Eku vit asaig = If I say, &c. &c.
Still this is by no means an invariable rule.
It has just been said that the secondary or relational elements
may be placed either before the principal word, as in the Bantu
family, or after it, as in the Aryan tongues, or, lastly, embodied in
the word itself.
Tims in Mare (Melanesian group) from vose = to tie, and
menenge = to dwell, are formed namenen<jc = a dwelling; navose = n,
place, where the derivation is effected by means of prefixes; so
also in the Xew Caledonian : ngavie = warrior ; ngaveka = giver —
from vie = to light, veka = to give; and in the Malay: herpakei =
dressed ; berbini= married — from pdkei= clothes, &&w=woman.
In Tagala, on the contrary, derivation is effected by means of
suffixes, as in pwtian = whiteness — from puti — white; bigayan = gift
— from bigay = giver.
Lastly, in the Malay group the derivative element is sometimes
incorporated in the radical itself; but this incorporating process will
be more fully discussed in the chapter devoted to the American
Languages.
The Malayo-Polynesian tongues have all of them a more or less
developed literature. The natives of Polynesia possess a great
number of stories, tales, and traditional songs.* Malay literature
*A i table contribution to tho study of Polynesian oral literature
baa just been made by the Kev. William Wyatt Gill, by his "Myths and
Bongs from the South Pacific," London, 1876. The interi I and importance
(<f this work are not a Little enhanced by the admirable preface, from tho
pen of Profi ssor Has Mullet-. Note by Translator.
72 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
itself is tolerably rich,* owing partly to its extensive borrowings.
Its philosophic writings have been inspired by those of the Hindus
or the Mussulmans. But its tales and romances are often indigenous,
and its poetry is nearly altogether original. It embraces not only
fugitive pieces, dialogues, proverbs, and fables, but genuine epic
and dramatic poems.
Javanese possesses a literature winch is largely indebted to
Sanskrit, not only for its general tone and spirit, but also for its
vocabulary. It has also its original poems, songs, fables, and legends.
Malay is written with the Arabic characters, introduced with the
Mohammedan religion, and the nature of its original writing system
is now unknown. The other idioms of the Malay group, Tagala,
Javanese, Mankasar, &c, have borrowed their different systems from
an ancient Indian alphabet, as has been shown by Frederic
Midler, f
§ 11. — Japanese.
The attempt has been too frequently made to compare Japanese
with the Uralo- Altaic group — Mongolian, Turkish, Magyar, Suomi,
and the cognate tongues. JN"o doubt the Japanese race must have
originally passed over from the Asiatic continent to the islands now
occupied by them. But does it f ollow from this, that their language
must have a common origin with those of the mainland, even
situated nearest to them 1 By no means, nor is a mere assertion
enough to establish such a conclusion. Hitherto, apart from some
fruitless and unmethodical attempts, little heed has been paid to any
sound arguments that might otherwise demonstrate this pretended
relationship. In vain lists have been complacently drawn up of
fifty, a hundred, or a hundred and fifty words, which seem to offer
more or less analogy with each other. This is nothing but etymology,
not philology. We could freely give up the five hundred Mongolo-
Japanese cpiasi-homonyms, without reckoning the five hundred or a
* L. de Backer, " L'Archipel Indien. Origincs, langues, litteratures, &c."
Paris, 1874.
f " Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malayschen Volker," in the " Bulle-
tins of the Vienna Academy," 1865.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 73
thousand others that might be discovered in two hours of wasted time,
for the startling coincidence of the Portuguese definite article with
the Magyar article a and the Basque article a. This is doubtless quite
as little to the purpose, but appearances are here at least far better
respected. And if we argue on the large number of assumed
agreements between Japanese and Mongolian or Magyar words, the
case will be made only the more hopeless ; the more such whims
are indulged in, the less excusable we become. In vain also that
such and such syntactical analogies are appealed to. "Would the
Bulgarian, which places after the noun the article it has developed
within itself, be on that account related to the Moldo-Wallachian,
which also postpones the article to the noun 1 To expect syntax,
whose laws are quite secondary, to throw any light on the affinities
of languages, is but again to show the greatest ignorance of the
true scientific method. Where the roots are not common, there is
positively nothing from which we can hope for any serious proof of
the common origin of two or more languages. Assumed syntactical
resemblances are of no greater value than the comparison of a
multitude of words already fully developed. The more we heap
them up, the more we give proof of scientific inconsistency.
Until there is scientific proof of the contrary, we shall therefore
continue to look upon the Japanese as an isolated language, inde-
pendent of all other linguistic systems, so far, of course, as the
individuality and irreductibility of its roots are concerned.
Japanese occupies the southern and central portions of the
archipelago lying between the Sea of Japan and the Pacific. It
comprises a number of dialects, which, however, do not seem
materially to differ from each other.
The present writing system, which is not free from certain
difficulties for those commencing the study of Japanese, is derived
from the Chinese, characters, and is referred to about the third
century of the Christian era. Strange to say, this ideographic
writing seems to have been substituted in the place of an alpha-
betic system adopted from the Coreans at a still earlier epoch. A
fresh and very desirable change, thai is the adoption of the Etonian
likely to take place at anj day.
74 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
At the first assembly of the Congress of Orientalists, this point
was discussed, and the general impression seemed to he that this
great undertaking had some hope of success.* At the same time,
however, the urgent necessity was once more made evident of
introducing some new and simple founts into our typographic
establishments, for the purpose of avoiding dangerous misunder-
standings in transcribing languages that do not make use of the
Eoman characters.t For instance, sh, which is the French cJi, the
German sch, the Polish sz, and the Hungarian s, would require to
be represented by a single type, in the transcription of a text written
in foreign characters. This might very well be the sign employed
by the Croatians and the Bohemians. But without pretending to
arrive at absolute simplicity, some practical system might perhaps
be devised, to which Japanese (and other Oriental tongues) would
adapt themselves without much difhciilty. J
Japanese phonetics are simple enough, and the formation of the
words enables us clearly to show what an agglutinating language
really is. The cases are very distinctly expressed by adding to
the primary root certain secondary ones, that have lost their in-
dependence, and now serve to denote relational ideas only. In
transcribing Japanese texts, some writers would be inclined to
separate by a hyphen the stem from these relational elements :
* Oriental Congress, Paris, 1873.
f E. Picot, " Tableau Phonetique des principals Langues usuelles," in the
" Revue de Linguistique," vi. p. 362.
X A good foundation of such a system is offered by the little known but
really admirable scheme of Colonel Henry CUnton, as explained and illus-
trated by him in his " International Pronunciation Table, proposed as a
basis for the establishment of a uniform method of denoting and describing
the pronunciation of many of the sounds, separate and combined, used in
human speech," London, 1870. This scheme is so simple, and yet so elastic,
that, as the ingenious author justly remarks, " it might be translated into
any language in which instruction in pronunciation is to be given ; when,
mutatis mutandis, it might serve to aid in establishing, for popular use, a
general system of denoting the pronunciation of all the most usual sounds of
many languages." Its object is, of course, different from the more elaborate
and better known, though, for international purposes, not quite so service-
able, scheme of Mr. A. J. Ellis. — Note by Translator.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 75
hito-no, of the man; hito-de, with the man ; but this plan can no
more be justified than could that of separating, for instance, our
plural sign s, and writing buolc-s, walls, stones. The closest juxta-
position is the proper feature of agglutinating languages, nor can
they be represented in writing, otherwise than they exist in speech,
without effacing the strikingly characteristic manner in which
words are formed in these idioms. At the most, the prefixes o, mc,
denoting gender, might be so separated : neko, cat ; o-neko, tom-cat >
me~ne7co, she-cat. The particles of number, such as tatsi, ought to
be attached, like those of case, immediately to the stem : Mtotatdno,
of the men; hitotatside, with the men ; as in the singular : hitono,
hitode.
Like all agglutinating verbs, the Japanese verb admits of those
series of elements placed in juxtaposition, which have already been
spoken of, and which more or less precisely determine the sense of
the primary root — negative, causative, optative elements, and the
like. It seems needless to give a list of examples, which would be
absolutely analogous to those already quoted, or to others we shall
have to introduce, when speaking more in detail of the Uralo- Altaic
group.
Japanese literature, though evidently interesting, has not yel
found a historian. It is largely occupied with history, historical
novels, stories, and romance in general. There are also a great
number of works on religious philosophy and poetry, and amongsl
the sciences, linguistics and botany have been cultivated. It will,
doubtless, be no easy matter in these compositions to separate the
purely national element from what is due to Chinese influence,
which mad'' it.s> If felt more particularly about the third century of
our era. Still, we may hope that this undertaking may be accom-
plished at no very remote period.
All the Chinese words introduced through this literary pre-
dominance have been subjected to the principle of juxtaposition,
jus! as tli" Romance and Latin words have conformed to the
encies of Low German accidence in English: conform-ed,
conformring, rapid-ly, and so on.
We have Btated that the present alphabet is derived from the
VG SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
Chinese ideographic system ; and, like it, the characters are written
in parallel columns from right to left. Besides this cursive writing,
which is called hirakana, and is everywhere current, there is
another, the katakana, vastly more simple, but employed mainly by
foreigners little acquainted with the other system.
[This katakanu system — the i-ro-fa, as it is called, from the
names of the first three signs — is strictly syllabic, consisting of
forty-seven characters, each representing a full syllable : ri, ru ;
wo, wa, &c. Of these, five are purely vowel sounds : i, u, o, a, a ;
.the rest combinations in which the consonant in all cases precedes
the vowel : ro, fa, ni, and so on. By the addition of the soft
accent, nigori, consisting of two minute strokes to the right, of the
hard accent, mctru — a little dot or circle also to the right — and of a
sign for the solitary true consonant n, the original forty-seven
characters are raised to seventy-three, and are then differently
arranged. There are a few other orthographic signs, such as koto,
tama, site, &c, but the whole system is so simple and ingenious
that the Avonder is it has not long ago superseded the cumbrous,
half-ideographic, half-phonetic systems, that still prevail everywhere
throughout the country.]
§ 12.- — Corean.
This language has been grouped with various agglutinating
idioms, more particularly with the Japanese. Without absolutely
denying the possibility of such a connection, before admitting it we
must wait till it is supported by some methodic arguments, which
have so far not been forthcoming.
Of all the languages of the extreme east, Corean is the least
known and the least studied. It possesses a true alphabet, com-
posed of detached vowels and consonants, which is simple enough,
and dates probably from the fourth century of our era. But in
spite of all the hypotheses propounded on the subject, its origin
is still clouded in mystery.
In Corean, as in other agglutinating idioms, suffixes are used to
express the various relational ideas denoted by case-endings in the
inflectional languages. ^Number is denoted either by repeating
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 77
the word, or by the addition of some secondary term meaning all
or many.
In the Corean vocabulary there are a great number of Chinese
words, Avhich, however, are easily recognised, though their pronun-
ciation is by no means uniform.
§ 13.— Tito Dravidian Tongues.
This group, which is also spoken of as the Tamulu, the Tamil,
and the .Malabaric family, derives its name from a Sanskrit word,
originally denoting those Hindus who had settled in that part of
India known afterwards as the Deccan. In course of time the
word was applied to the country itself, and more particularly to
that part of it where Tamil was spoken, which is the most important
member of the group.
These languages occupy the whole southern portion of India
proper, from the Vindhay mountains and the river ^Nerbudda to
Cape Comorin. In this vast region, containing a population of
about 50,000,000 inhabitants, there are a few European and
Mussulman settlements; but the number of those speaking the
Dravidian idioms exclusively may be estimated at upwards of
45,000,000.
In his important work on the Dravidian tongues, Caldwell
divides them into two groups, according as they arc cultivated or
not. The first consists of six languages : Tamil, Malayalam,
i, Kanarese, Tulu, and Kudagu. The second also comprises
six dial ets, which will be presently mentioned.
The Tamil, also (but improperly) Tamul (the second vowel in
the Dative spelling being distinctly a short i, not a u), occupies in
many respects the same position in the Dravidian group that
Sanskril does in the Aryan, surpassing, as it does, all the others in
the richness of its vocabulary, the purity and antiquity of its
forms, and in its higher literary cultivation. It is the ordinary
spi li of 1 1,500,000 people, occupying the whole plain to the east
of the Western Ghats, from Pulicat to ('ape Comorin, and the
west coast as far as Trivandram. Then- are also numerous Tamil
78 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iy.
communities in the north-west of Ceylon, and in the Nizam's
Dominions.
The long strip stretching along the coast between the Ghats
and the Arabian Sea, from Trivandram to Mangalore, is the home
of the Malayalam, or Malayajma, spoken by about 3,000,000 of
natives. It is looked on as an older dialect of the Tamil, into
which a large number of Sanskrit words have found their way.
The Tulu, formerly spreading north of the Malayalam, is now
confined to the neighbourhood of Mangalore, on the coast east of
the Ghats, and is spoken by probably not more than 300,000.
Though sometimes considered as a dialect of the Malayalam, it
differs very decidedly from that language ; and, in fact, constitutes
a real branch of the Dra vidian family.
The Kanarese, or Kannada, occupies the north Dravidian district,
extending over the plateau of Mysore and the western portion of
the Nizam's Dominions. The number of those by whom it is
spoken is now estimated at about 9,000,000. This language is
extremely interesting, as it often retains forms more antique and
purer even than those of the Tamil.
The Telugu, also Telinga, is the Andhra of Sanskrit writers.
It limits the Dravidian group on the east and the north, and is
spoken by 15,500,000 natives. Its forms have been less faithfully
preserved than those of its congeners, and its phonetic system has
also been greatly changed, under the influence of harmonic laws,
that have earned for it the name of the Italian of the Deccan.
Of all the cultivated Dravidian tongues, Kudagu is the least
important, being spoken by not more than 150,000 natives, west of
Mysore. Caldwell, who had formerly looked on it as a dialect of
the Kanarese, gives it an independent position in the second edition
(1875) of his " Dravidian Grammar."
Amongst the secondary dialects may be mentioned the Kota, the
Tuda, the Gond, the Ku or Khond, and perhaps the Rajmdhal, and
the Union.
The Kota is spoken by a half-savage tribe, reckoned at about
1,100, in the gorges of the JNTeilgherries. The Tuda is the dialect
of another Neilgherry tribe, consisting of not more than 750. The
Chap, it.] SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 79
Oond is the language of 1,600,000 in the hilly districts in the
territories of Gondvana, Nagpore, Sangor, and the Nerbudda. The
Ku, or Khond, is spoken at Goomsur, on the hills of Orissa, and
in the eastern parts of Gondvana, by about 270,000. The Bajmahal,
or Muler, and Urunn, are spoken in Central India — -the first by
40,000, the second by upwards of 260,000 — and both of these
dialects are somewhat closely related to each other. Some writers
add to this list the Badaga, current in a corner of the Neilgherries ;
but Caldwell treats it merely as an old dialect of the Kanarese,
•without any claim to be separately classified.
The territories still owned by France in these vast regions, which
once rang with the names of a Dupleix, a Bussy, and a Lally-
Tollendal, are so disposed that four of them are comprised within.
the Dravidian province. The two most important, Pondicherry and
Karikal, are in Tamil land ; Make is on the Malayalam coast, and
Tanoan in the Telugu country.
In this rapid sketch of the limits still occupied by the Dravidian
tongues, the question arises, Were they always so circumscribed?
And are we to assume that they have been driven into their
present domain by the first Aryan immigrations'? This, though
likely enough in itself, has so far not been clearly proved. It lias
been merely conjectured that the non-Aryan elements of the idioms
spoken in Northern India may have a Dravidian origin. But, apart
from the fact that they are very few and of but little importance,
it is very difficult not only to analyse, but even to determine them.
In the Dravidian family itself, a great deal of the vocabulary of
certain rude varieties is of unknown origin. We should, therefore,
accept with considerable reserve all statements made regarding a
I [hie former expansion of the Dravidian languages. Farther on
we shall have to speak <>f the language of Ceylon, whither Tamil
has been extended, in comparatively recent times, possibly about the
epoch of the great Buddhist emigration.
The Dravidian tongues may safely be regarded as an independent
group, related to no other linguistic family. They have doubtle
been connected, al one time, with the mythical Scythian languages;
at another with the Uralo Altaic group, and again with the Aryan,
80 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iy.
the Semitic, and many others. But all such comparisons were
absolutely void of scientific method. A number of Tamil or Telugu
words were compared with certain Sanskrit or Hebrew words, or with
others taken from any other quarter whatever — this being the usual
method of those who confound fanciful etymological resemblances
with, true philological affinity. It is not Tamil or Telugu that Ave
have to compare with Sanskrit or Hebrew. The first thing to be
done is to restore the primitive Dravidian type, by the comparison
alone of which with other families can any satisfactory conclusions
be arrived at. We repeat, however, that the deductions already
firmly established, seem more than sufficient to show the absolute
independence of the Dravidian family from any other.
Attention has long been directed to the Dravidian tongues, which
were discovered some time before the Sanskrit, by the Dutch,
Danish, French, and English adventurers. They were acquired
by Europeans, at first, for trading purposes, and afterwards as a
means of spreading Christianity among the natives. The Protestant
missionaries were the first to compose grammars and dictionaries,
most of which never have been published. The first Tamil grammar*
is that of the Danish missionary Ziegenbald, written in Latin, and
printed in 1716 ; but the first Malayalam grammar had already
appeared in India in the year 1780. W. Carey did not publish his
Telugu and Kanarese grammars till 1814 and 1817, at Serampore.
Tulu has had to wait till 1872, when it was taken in hand by
M. Erigel, of the Easel missions, whose printing establishment at
Mangalore issues a number of sound works on the study of the
Dravidian tongues.
* That is, the first composed iu an European tongue. The first in Tamil,
known as the Tolkapyam, dates from about the eighth century of our era,
and is, perhaps, the very oldest Tamil work extant. It was written by
Trinadhumagni, one of the followers of Agastya, who is popularly supposed
to have invented the Tamil language, in opposition to the Sanskrit of the
north. The Tolkapyam, itself, however, is rather a treatise on grammar,
composed in Tamil, than a Tamil grammar in the strict sense ; and though
not written in Sanskrit must still be considered as an Aindra work, that is
the work of a disciple of the Aindra school of Sanskrit grammarians. — Note
by Translator.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 81
They are also now cultivated in Europe by a certain number of
linguists, and in France, especially by M. J. Vinson, to whom we
are indebted for some valuable details on this subject. Dravidian
scholars are by no means rare in England, and we may refer, before
all others, to Caldwell, whose excellent treatise, although encum-
bered with too many metaphysical theories on the so-called Turanian
theory, and on the assumed probability of a common origin for all
languages, has justly become a standard work on the Dravidian
group of languages.*
Dravidian grammar may be said to be remarkably simple, its
phonetic system presenting no serious difficulties, and being com-
posed of not over-numerous elements. In the whole group of the
five literary languages, there exist only the five vowels a, e, i, o, u,
long and short, which seem primitive, besides the two diphthongs
ai and an, of which the latter at least does not belong to the
common Dravidian stock. In the course of time these vowels
became weak and attenuated in their utterance, wbence arose a
in number of intermediate sounds, unrepresented in their
written systems. Thus it happens that the spoken Tamil differs very
rihly from the literary language.
The consonants also are limited in number. They include five
groups of strong and weak explosives — guttural, palatal, lingual,
dental, and labial — -with their corresponding nasals; y, r, I, v, r
strong ; two cerebrals; and one sibilant, .v. There may be added a new
■ if explosives peculiar to Tamil and Telugu, transcribed by
Caldwell as tr, dr, but which M. A'inson looks on as dentals pre-
ceded by a " mouillemeni." The aspirates are unknown in these
idioi primitive consonantal system seems to have been
even -till more simple than at present. Thus, AT. Vinson flunks
that the palatals — oh,j — are comparatively recent. However, these
nants, like the rowels, have, been modified in the spoken
language. Thus, both in Tamil and Malayalam, the dental-!
are now showing a decide. 1 tendency towards the English ///
• " Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages." London, 1858-76.
O
82 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
soft* while in Telugu the ch and the j become at times ts
and dz.
The utterance of these different sounds presents no very great
difficulty, those Unguals alone, perhaps, excepted which are gener-
ally but wrongly described as cerebrals. The final I in the English
syllable ble gives an approximate idea of these lingual consonants, *
of which there are five altogether : t, d, n, j, and r, transcribed in
Eoman letters with a dot below. Sanskrit also possesses lingual
consonants, but not organic, so that these letters would seem to
form a distinctive feature of the Dravidian group.
Of the phonetic laws resulting from a comparison of these
various idioms and their dialects, we shall mention but one, which
is common also to the Aryan family. The Kanarese k often answers
to the Telugu ch and to a Tamil c or s. Thus the word ear, which
is sevi in Tamil and chevi in Telugu, becomes Jcevi in Kanarese, and
this last must have been the primitive form. [Compare the Latin,
Italian, and French caelum, cielo, del, where the initial, as pro-
nounced, would be represented by the English letters Jc, ch, and s
respectively.]
There are two other interesting facts peculiar to the Dravidian
group. The letter r does not occur as an initial, hence, foreign words
beginning with this letter must be preceded by a vowel. Thus the
Sanskrit word raja appears in Tamil, as irdyan or irdsan. Again,
no word can begin with a soft explosive, h, d, &c, while no hard
explosive can occur alone, or isolated, in the body of the word.
Hence Tamil, in borrowing the Sanskrit word gati, renders it by
Jcacii, in accordance Avith this double rule.
But the phonetic laws of these important idioms have not been
yet sufficiently studied to enable us definitely to fix the laws that
have been brought into play in the formation of words. Enough,
however, is known to allow of our classifying the Tamil, Telugu,
* The Dravidian cerebral r also has been identified by Mr. F. T. Ellworthy
with the south-western or west Somersetshire r ; he further shows how com-
pletely it differs from the trilled r of the north, from the French r grassey& }
and the Danish uvular r. See his " Dialect of West Somersetshire." Publi-
cations of the English Dialect Society, Series D.- -Note by Translator.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 83
and their congeners, and ascertaining their relative ages. Dravidian
words seem ultimately reducible to roots, or better, to dissyllabic
roots, nominal and verbal. By a further comparison of these roots
with each other, we see that the}", in their turn, can be reduced to
still more elementary groups, each comprising several of the radicals
in question. This study has so far been little more than just
entered on ; but it maybe said to have already rendered highly
probable the theory of the - primitive monosyllabic nature of the
Dravidian roots.
Derivatives are formed by the strictly agglutinating process, in
which the fresh elements are always suffixed.* Thus, to a verbal
root will be added a syllable denoting present time, then another
implying negation, then the sign of personality, this agglomeration
resulting in a word meaning, for instance, thou dost not sen, but
which should be thus transcribed: to see + now + not + thou.
The sense of each of these elements is always present to the mind
of the Dravidian, who treats them just as we do our pronouns,
articles, and prepositions. Doubtless a large number of these
derivatives have become so disguised that their primitive form can
no longer be recognised. But many others, especially those in-
tended to be placed last, and most of those serving to distinguish
the so-called cases, are still independent words, retaining their
natural sense of rest, contact, vicinity, conserpience, &c. &c.
Many of those derivative elements pass from one allied language to
another, which sufficiently establishes the original independence of
their suffi
If it is easy to perceive the great advantage languages of this
class have over the purely monosyllabic ones, where the roots are
not thus subordinate to each other, it is, on the other hand, equally
* Not always suffixed, the vowels a, e, i (which aro tho initials of
avan = that one; ivcm = this one ; and evan = which one ?) being prefixed,
as in the- Tamil: "'" = that thing; ithu — this thing; ethu = which
thing ? - Note by 7
f No donbi these raffixes wore originally independent words, as were the
eorresponding Semitic and Aryan caee-endingB. Bui in the pre
Tamil language, a native has no more sense of tin; primitive and
G 2
84 SECOND FOKM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
evident how surpassed they must he hy inflectional tongues, in all
that pertains to clearness and precision of expression. A certain
vagueness is the logical consequence of the multiplicity of forms
in certain agglutinating idioms. Hence, also, certain combinations
peculiar to them, which seem very strange to us, accustomed as we
are to the comparative simplicity of the Indo-European languages.
In these last, the elements of personal relationship — amat, he loves;
arnamus, we love — are confined to verbal inflection or conjugation.
In the same way the elements intended to denote subject, object,
position in space, are restricted to nominal inflection, or declension :
films, son (subject) ; filium (direct object). But the agglutinative
system allows of mixed processes. Thus we find in a great number
of agglutinating tongues nouns combined with personal suffixes;
these are true possessive substantives. In Magyar, for example,
the noun haz, house, and the personal suffix am, in the verb
denoting the first person, produce the noun hazam, my house.
We meet with the same thing in the Dravidian group ; but here,
in words of this sort, the personal element imparts, so to say, an
attributive sense, an assertion of existence. Thus, in Tamil, tevarir
(from tevar, God, honorific plural ; and ir, second personal ending
in the verb) means, you are God ; and, in fact, may be declined in
the sense of you who are God. Here is another significant and
curious fact, though now occurring only in the older texts, especially
in ancient Tamil poetry, where we meet with forms such as
sarndayJcku, to thee that hast approached — which must be thus
analysed : sdr, to reach, approach, arrive ; n, euphonic ; d, sign of
independent meaning of the accnsative ei, the dative Tcu, or the genitive in,
than a Eoman had of the corresponding em, i, and is, as in —
Tamil. Latin.
Ace. Kallai = lapidem = a stone (object).
Dat. Kallukku = lapidi = to a stone.
Gen. Kallin = lapidis = of a stone.
Nom. Kal = lapis = a stone (agent).
Nor is the essential difference between agglutination and true inflection at
all so clear in such cases as is generally assumed. But the subject is too
extensive and too technical to be here discussed. — Note by Translator.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORil OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. S5
the past ; ay, thee, thou, verbal second personal suffix ; k, euphonic ;
and lea, to, nominal dative suffix.
Tulu, one of the least important of the Dravidian group, offers
a peculiarity which cannot be overlooked. In Tamil, Telugu,
Kanarese, and Malayalam, every verb gives rise to a causative, by
the insertion of a certain syllable between the radical and the
element of tense. Thus, in Tamil, from seyven = I will do, we get
seyvippen = I will cause to do. But in Tidu the number of such
secondary forms is far more considerable. Thus, malpuve = I do,
gives mdlpeve = I usually do (frequentative) ; malpave = I cause to
do (causative) ; malt rurr = 1 do do (intensitive). By the insertion
of a fresh element, each of these derivatives may become negative :
7ndipdvuji = l do not cause to do, and so on. This phenomenon is
again met with in Turkish, where the verbs teem with examples of
this process, and where one single word expresses, I cause to love,
I can love, I love myself, they love one another • and so on.
The Dravidian group has no article, although in old documents
instances occasionally occur of the demonstrative pronoun being
employed in a determinative sense. The adjective, always
unchangeable (as in English), is generally a mere noun of quality,
invariably preceding the noun it qualifies. Distinction of gender
must have originally been unknown, and even now it is applied
only to human beings that have arrived at the years of discretion.
The nouns referring to children are neuter in all the group, as are
also the names of women in the singular in most of them. The
verb has three tenses only — present, past, and indefinite future —
and one mood, the indicative. Grammarians speak of two voices,
a positive and a negative \ but this last is easily reduced to its
primitive form, being made up merely of a negative particle,
inal suffixes, and the simple radical verb.
The Dravidian vocabulary implies rather a low order' of civilisa-
tion. Notwithstanding the pretended consensus of all mankind,
before the arrival of the Aryan race the Dravidians possessed
neither "God," nor "soul;" neither "temple," nor"priest." It
.., the other hand, true thai they lacked words for "book,"
"writing," "grammar," and "will." Thej could not count as far
86 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap.iv.
as 1,000 ; and Telugu, the only Dra vidian tongue possessing a
special word for this number, has derived it from ve = ardour, mul-
tiplication. None of them can render the abstract sense of the
verbs to be, to have.
After this sketch the reader, we may hope, wdl be able to form
some idea of the nature of the Dravidian tongues. They are
agglutinating idioms arrested in the development of their forms at
a, so to say, premature period, and this check was, in all probability,
due to the Aryan invasion. But however that be, it is easy to assign
to the Dravidian system its natural place in the scale of the aggluti-
nating idioms. They must be comprised among the first in the
ascending order, that is among those immediately following the iso-
lating system, and anterior to Turkish, Magyar, Basque, and the
American languages. They show no trace of inflection, and the vocal
modifications that they allow of are purely phonetic. These modi-
fications in no way answer to any corresponding change of sense
in the word so modified.
We have said that contact with the Aryans was the probable
cause of the Dravidians entering on their historic life. In fact
everything points to the Aryans as at once the conquerors of the
plains and forests of the Deccan, and the civUisers of their savage
occupants. A few wandering and wretched tribes, rude and
difficult of access, still inhabit some scarcely yet fully explored
districts of this fertile region. If we can but conjecture that the
Dravidians were civilised by the Aryan invasion, it is at least
certain that they owe to it their writing system. Their five literary
languages are usually transcribed by means of three different
alphabets. Tulu employs the same characters as the Kanarese —
Kanarese itself and Telugu being written hi two varieties of the
same alphabet, the forms of their letters presenting very little
difference. This alphabet is characterised by the general round
form of its signs. Tamil, on the contrary, possesses a special
alphabet in which the square form prevails. It has, moreover,
twenty-eight letters only, while the others faithfully reproduce the
order and full number of the Sanskrit system. Hence, in writing
Sanskrit, the Tamil Brahmans make use of a special alphabet
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 87
called Qrantham, derived from the Devanagari, and from which
{lie ordinary Tamil alphabet is itself derived. Intermediate be-
tween the Tamil and Kanaro-Telugu- comes the Malayalam, also
derived directly from the Grantham. The old Dravidian in-
scriptions are written in two different characters, one peculiar to
Tamil, the other used in writing Sanskrit and the indigenous
tongues, and closely resembling the old Devanagari forms. The
latter would seem to be the prototype of all the alphabets of the
Decean, whde the former, according to Burnell, was borrowed
directly from the Semitic.
It may be asked whether races without a writing system can be
paid to possess a literature properly so called. Many instances
occur of utterly illiterate peoples, amongst whom long compositions,
always in poetry, have been orally handed down through successive
generations, and there are everywhere to be found popular songs
and legends that have never been committed to writing. Though
it cannot be positively asserted that this was the case amongst the
ancient Dravidians, still their literature is very rich. At the same
time all the works of which it is composed, down to the smallest
fragment, are long posterior to their first contact with the Aryans.
So far as number and worth are concerned, the Tamil and Telugu
compositions far surpass the others; though Kanarese still offers a
curious and not yet explored mine of wealth to the researches of
the learned.
But in any ease the Tamil literature remains the most copious, the
mosl fruitful, the most interesting, and, at the same time, the most
ancient. Nor is it merely a simple reflex of the Sanskrit, without
any originality of its own. It has had the good fortune to have
Ion time the language of the Shiva sectaries, as well as
lie Jaina and Buddhist heretic . who wrote much, and whose
works are the masterpieces of ancienl Tamil poetry, it should be
added thai all the old Dravidian monuments, or al Lea I those pos-
v intrinsic worth, are always written in verse. Tamil
purer in point of style and mor rrecl than the prose,
and much mor< eludes foreign words. The opposite Is
the ca e in Telugu, Kanarese, and Malayalam poetry, in which Aryan
88 SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
words abound. The Tamil vocabulary is, moreover, very rich, and
possesses a large number of synonyms.
Dravidian literature is particularly rich in moral poems, and in
collections of wise saws and aphorisms, which constitute the most
ancient monuments of Tamil poetry. It has also produced long epic
poems, remarkahle for the exaggeration and minuteness of their
details, and otherwise not very attractive to Europeans. To a more
recent period must be referred a number of lyric songs, full of energy,
some monotonous religious hymns, and erotic tales of a very licen-
tious character. Still more recently were composed some scientific
works, almost exclusively medical. At the present day the Dra vidians
can do no more than hash up then* venerable poetry, faithful to the
conservative instinct which Caldwell justly condemns, and which
one of their most celebrated grammarians has thus formulated :
" Propriety of composition consists in writing on the same subjects,
with the same expressions, and in accordance with the same plan, as
the classic writers."
§ 14. — TJie Finno-Tataric or Undo- Altaic Languages.
Let us state at once that these are divided into five groups :
Samoyedic, Finnic, Turkic or Tataric, Mongolian, Tungusian.
They are entitled to special attention in this work, not only on
account of the historical importance of some amongst them, but
also because of their structure itself, which is so frequently and so
justly appealed to in illustration of the agglutinating stage generally
of articulate speech. The simplest plan will be to pass first in
review the five groups and the languages comprised in them, and
then proceed to discuss the questions of their affinity, of the best
name by which to embrace them all, and lastly, of the extravagant
" Turanian " theory, which it is to be hoped there will soon be no
longer any necessity even of refuting.
The various idioms composing the five groups present great
differences, as well in then structure as in their vocabulary. Still,
whatever opinion we may form of the actual degree of their affinity
to each other, it is easy to see that they have certain morphological
features in common, sufficiently marked to allow of their being
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 89
comprised in a general notice of this sort. Thus they all in some
way or other suffix the possessive pronoun to the noun, and divide
the conjugation into definite and indefinite, the first being marked
by the union of the direct pronominal object to the verb. They
are alike also in the main features of their syntax, in their method
of determining the noun, lastly, and above all, in their vocalic
harmony, a most important fact, "which will challenge special notice
in its proper place.
(1) The Samoyedic Group
(Stretches from the White Sea eastwards along the shores of the
Arctic Ocean in Europe, and the western portion of the coast of
Siberia in Asia. About 20,000 people speak Samoyede, of which
there are five principal dialects, nearly all of which are again split
up into a immber of sub-dialects.
Yurdk is spoken in European Russia and in the north-west of
Siberia as far as the river Yenisei.
Yenisei Samoyede occupies the region watered by the Lower
Yenisei.
Tagwi is spoken more to the east, as far as the mouth of the
Khatanga.
Ostyak Samoyede lies more to the south-west, about the Middle
Obi, and in the direction of the Tom and Chulim.
Kniini.txir is spoken by a small tribe in South Siberia.
The Finn < lastren, one of the founders of Uralo-Altaic philology,
published a comprehensive and scientific treatise on the
Samoyede dialects, in which he carefully compares them together.*
In his opinion Samoyede is more closely related to Finnish than to
other Uralo-Altaic group, both in its structure and component
element -.
The vowel system is simple enough, whereas that of the con-
; if highly developed. Of these there are more than thirty,
amongsl them the liquids t, d, I, 8, and z.
We shall speak farther on of progressive vowel harmony, a
feature of the Uralo-Altaic system, which is farfrom being uniformly
* " Gramnmtik der Samojedischen Sprachen." St. Petersburg, L854.
90 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iy.
carried out in the Samoyede group. 1 icing in fact fairly developed
in the Kamassic dialect alone. Here the strong vowels (a, u, o)
cannot occur together with the weak (a, it, 6), while the neutrals
(/, e) may readily occur in connection with either the strong or the
weak.
As in the other Uralo-Altaic tongues, declension is effected in
Samoyede by agglutinating secondary or relational particles to the
principal root. Thus, in Ostyak Samoyede the suffix n expressing
possession, loga, fox, and hide, raven, make logan, of the fox, kulen,
of the raven. If to these themes he added the plural element, la,
we get logdla, the foxes, logalan, of the foxes ; hulela, the ravens,
I:nhlan, of the ravens ; than which process nothing can he simpler.
(2) Tlic Finnic Group
Is of far greater interest than the preceding, occupying a more
prominent position than any other of the whole family. It has
been called Ugrian, or Finno-Ugric, or Ugro-Finnic, hut the
languages composing it have not yet been definitely distinguished
from each other. Still, most writers recognise five sub-groups, thus
classified by Dormer :
West Finnic : Suomi, Karelian, Wepsic, Livonian, Krewinian,
Esthonian, "Wotic.
Lapponlc.
Finno-Permian : Siryenian, Permian, "Wotyak.
Volga-Finnic : Mordvinian, Cheremissian.
Ugrlc : Magyaric, "Wogulic, Ostyak.
Some writers reduce these five groups to four, by including
Lapponie with the West Finnic.
Suomi occupies the greater part of Finland, but does not stretch
along the whole coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, where Swedish is
spoken at some points, as about Vasa. On the south it touches
only a few unimportant points of the Gidf of Finland, the northern
shores of which, as about Helsingfors, are also Swedish. There
are, moreover, some Finns in the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg,
but altogether they cannot number 2,000,000.
Chip. i\\] SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 91
With the Suomi are grouped the Karelian, reaching northwards
to Lapland, southwards to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga,
and east to the "White Sea and Lake Onega ; the Chudic, situated
in a very scattered district south of Lake Onega; the Wepsic,
which is northern Chudic; and Wotic, which is southern Chudic;
lastly, Krewinian, spoken in Courland.
Esthonian, or rather Elide or Este, is much less widely diffused
than Suomi, being restricted to the greater part of the south coast
of the Gulf of Finland and the northern half of Livonia (Dorpat).
Its literature also is much inferior to the Suomi. There are two
principal dialects, those of Level and Dorpat, which are again
divided into several sub-dialects, but have never succeeded in
producing a common Uterary standard, notwithstanding the attempt
made to develop such a standard towards the close of the seven-
teenth century.* Hence Esthonian literature is far inferior to that
of the Suomi.
Livonian is now almost confined to the north-west corner of
Courland, a tract some few leagues in extent. Landwards it is
continually encroached upon by Lettic, an Aryan tongue allied to
Lithuanian.
Lei us here say a few words on the grammar, first of the
SuomLt and then of the Esthonian.
The Suomi consonantal system is very simple. Besides the
explosives Z\ t,.p } it possesses /'. /, m, n , another nasal like that of
tli- German lang; 8, />. v, y (written j); but it rejects both the
aspirated explosives and/. The weak explosives, g, <l, l>, occur,
but rather as foreign elements, or replacing the older letters /•, /. />.
I of the hiatus, and any vowel may, as a rule, close
the word, except '• ; but this is not true of the consonants, n being
most frequently met with at the end of words.
i- the principle of vowel harmony more developed
than in Suomi. If the vowel of the root be strong, those of the
• Wiedemann, " Grammatik der Eahtnischeo Spraohe." St. Petersburg,
IS?:,.
■f K< Ugren, " Die Grnndzuge der Pinnischen Spraohe mit Rucksioht auf
don Oral-Altai chen Spraci Berlin, 1M7.
92 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. it.
suffixes must also be strong ; if weak, tlic suffixes must similarly
be weak ; and if neutral, the suffixes must still be weak.
Words are never formed of prefixes, so that the principal root
always stands first ; and it is on this syllable also, as in Magyar,
that the leading accent falls. Altogether, Suomi is an extremely
harmonious language, readily assimilating consonants, especially
those that end the root, with the initials of the formative elements.
No doubt this assimilation is not constant, but when it does not
take place another process is adopted, to avoid the clash of two
consonants of different orders. This consists in introducing (at least
in speaking, if not in writing) a very short vowel between such
letters. Thus pitha is pronounced pitika.
The case-endings of inflectional languages are expressed, as in
other agglutinating tongues, by means of suffixes attached to the
radical. Thus n denotes the genitive, as in Jcarhu = the bear;
Jcarhun = oi the bear. The plural sign is t for the subject, but
otherwise i, inserted between the root and the relational suffix.
Thus the theme lapse = child, gives lap>sen = of the child ; lapset =
the children ; lapsein — of the children.
The personal pronouns are added to the noun in order to express
the person to which it refers. The first person so affixed is ni,
singular ; mme, plural ; second, si and nne ; the third, nsa (or ?isa,
according to the exigencies of vowel harmony), for both numbers.
Thus tapa = custom, gives tapani = my custom; tapamme = our
customs; tapansa = his custom, or their customs.
Verbal modifications are also effected by suffixes, the root always
com in g first, after which the causative, diminutive, or frequentative
elements ; then the modal ; the personal ; and lastly, the subject of
the action.
The Esthonian consonantal system presents nothing very unusual,
except that t, <l,n, r, I, s, z, become liquid under certain conditions,
in which case they take a small stroke to the right d', n', &c. The
Dorpat dialect utters g, d, and b, more forcibly than the others,
occasionally changing them to the corresponding I; t, p. Amongst
the nine vowels is the Trench u, written il, besides a special sound
Chap, it.] SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 93
between o and e. These vowels are both long and short, and some-
times form diphthongs.
Vowel harmony is far from being uniformly developed in Estho-
nian, in fact, occurring only in the eastern Dorpat dialect, though
traces of it are evident in the western, as well as to the west and
south of the Revel dialect.
The principal accent falls on the first syllable, this, as in Suomi,
being the radical.
The so-called cases are formed in the same way as in other agglu-
tinating tongues, then* number being limited only by the number of
post-positions that may be attached to the noun. Hence they are
fixed by one writer at twelve, by another at twenty, this very
uncertainty being of itself sufficient to show how essentially such
pretended cases differ from the true cases of the Aryan system.
Conjugation also is entirely analogous to that of the Suomi.
Lapponic occupies the extreme north-west of Russia, to the north
of Karelian, and some regions in the north of Sweden and Norway.
It presents four dialectic varieties, and its grammar closely resembles
tli I of the cognate tongues, Suomi and Esthonian.
The Volga-Finnic idioms are divided into two branches : Chere-
un and Mordvinian. The first is spoken by some 200,000
persons, on the left bank of the Volga, a little to the west of Kasan
and east of ISTijni Novgorod, without, however, reaching very closely
to the environ-! of either city. There is a highland and lowland
variety. Mordvinian is spoken by nearly 700,000 people, on either
side "1' the Volga, about Simbirsk, Samara, Stavropol, and some
points still farther south. It is divided into two dialects, the Erze
and Moksha. Between the Mordvinian and the Cheremissian is the
( lhavak, belonging not to the Finnic, but to the Turkic group.
Farther north are the Permian, spoken by about 60,000; the
Siryenian, by 80,000 ; and the Wotyak, by upwards of 200,000
people. Wotyak occupies a relatively compact district, to the north-
east of the Cheremissian, and south of Glatzov. Permian stretches
to the north of the Wotyak, west, of the river Kama, as far north as
Solikansk. Siryenian, still farther north of its congeners, occupies
94 SECOND FORM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
a much, more extended territory, reaching northwards to the Samo-
yede zone, and, touching on the Wogulic, which, with Magyaric
and Ostyak, forms the Ugric group. Wogul is spoken by about
7,000, and Ostyak by some 20,000 persons ; the first lying east of
Siryenian, the second still farther east, along a considerable stretch
of the river Obi, as far north as the Samoyede. Wogul comprises at
least two dialects, while there are varieties of the Ostyak at Irkutsk,
Surgut, and Obdorsk.
Magyaric must occupy us more at length. Its geographical
position, the political relations of the five millions speaking it, and
its somewhat interesting literature, entitle it to a special place in
the Finnic group.
Magyar, or Hungarian, occupies two regions of unequal extent,
and separated from each other by a tract some forty-five or fifty
leagues wide. The principal or western division forms an irregular
pentagon, at whose angles are the towns of Presburg (in Magyar,
Porsony), Unghvar (which is Slovak), Nagi Banya (Magyar), Xovi
Sad (in German, ISFeusatz, where Syrmian Serbe joins it), and
Limbach, a little to the north of Warasdin in Croatia. Thus the
extreme length of this pentagon is a hundred and odd leagues by
some eighty in breadth. It does not, however, form a compact
territory, being encroached upon on the north by the Slovak, by
Servian on the south, and German on the west and south. The
eastern division is more homogeneous, though only about a sixth in
extent of the western. It is situated in the very heart of the
Ptumanian region, with two German tracts on its western frontier
(Mediasch and Kronstadt). It forms the extreme south-east portion
of the kingdom of Hungary, including no places of any particular
note (Maros, Yasarhely, Udvarhely, etc.).
Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to explain the word
Magyar. Hungarian would seem to mean Hun-itgrian, which
agrees well enough "with their origin, and with what we know of
their arrival in Central Europe in the ninth century.* The inva-
* Sayous, " Les Origines et l'Epoque Pa'i'enne de l'Histoire des Hongrois,"
Paris, 1874 ; Piiedl, " Magyarische Grammatik," Vienna, 185S, Introduction ;
Castren, " Uber die Ursitze des Finnischen Yolkes," Helsingfors, 1849.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 95
sion of Attila is with much, probability supposed to have heen but
a first incursion of races closely allied to the present Magyars.
But in any case, these are now totally isolated from the other
Finnic peoples, and are hemmed in on all sides by the German,
Eumanian, and various Slavonic tongues, and there can be little
doubt that their language must ultimately die out, notwithstanding
the great advantages secured to it by political circumstances. But
it will not disappear without having left a worthy history behind
it. Its most ancient record dates from the end of the twelfth
century, since when it has been regularly traced, though its pro-
ductions have mostly remained sealed books for the generality of
the foreign men of letters.
There are a good many Magyar dialects, some spoken in Lower,
others in Upper Hungary. However, they differ but slightly from
each other, and it may even be said that the language has not
undergone any considerable change from the date of its oldest
historic monuments, though a large amount of foreign elements has
been absorbed, chiefly from Slavonic, and a few from German.
All the languages here briefly touched upon are undoubtedly
related and derived from some common source. The true compara-
tive method has so far been but partially applied to them, the
labour of doing bo being all the more delicate, inasmuch as idioms
are here dealt with that have been separated from each other for
many centuries, and have been subjected to the almost continual
influence of the Aryan tongues, whose inner structure is superior to
their own.
A comparison of the various Finnic idioms reveals some singular
phonetic variations, though presenting, on the whole, nothing very
novel. Here are some cases in point: The hand in Suomi is hate,
in Wepsic hazi, in Wotic tchaei, in Esthonian had, in Livonian
/•"/v. in Lapp giet andMf, in Siryenian, Permian, and Wbtyak hi,
in WLordvinian hed, in Cheremissian het, in Ostyak hit or k6t, in
1 hat, and in Magyar h&& Fish is hala in Suomi, guolle in
Lapp, hoi in Mordvinian, hul in Wbgul, hal in Magyar.
In general, Magyar seems to have reduced 01 shortened the
primitive words, whilst Suomi shows a very decided tendency to
96 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iy.
multiply the vowels. A comparison of old with modem Magyar
shows analogous facts, proving that it has within itself undergone
changes that now normally take place between it and its congeners.
Amongst these idioms, the best studied are the Suomi, Magyar,
and Esthonian, very little having so far been done for the others.
Magyar literature is rich, its most interesting and original works
being in poetry. Since the kingdom of Hungary has acquired fresh
importance at the expense of the adjoining Servian and Rumanian
provinces, its language also has at least in this respect grown into
greater consideration. But its works have been too frequently
thought out in German, strongly reflecting the foreign education of
the writers. Besides the Magyar, Suomi literature is almost the
only other that offers any interest. Its principal monument is the
great mythological epic of the " Kalevala."
It is impossible here to attempt anything like a complete summary
of the grammatical structure of these languages, but we may briefly
describe their more general features. Beginning with some details
of the Magyar phonetic system, we shall then devote a few words
to the particular sounds of the other members of the group, con-
cluding with a glance at their formative processes.
Magyar phonetics are not very complex. Seven short vowels,
a, e (more or less open), i, o, u, o = French eu, ii = French u, with
their seven corresponding long vowels, these last being distinguished
in writing by a stroke to the right : a', e, o, u'. The consonants are
not very numerous, but some, such as ty, gy, are peculiar. It might,
perhaps, be better to use one sign for their notation, which is other-
wise detestable, as, for instance, in its use of sz, zs, and s. Sz is our
ordinary s, zs is the Croatian and Bohemian z, that is the French j,
and s is the English sh. Unfortunately it would be now useless to
attempt a reform of this vicious system. The Slavs have long been
alive to the importance of some change for the better, and have to
a great extent realised it • but national prejudice still stands in the
way of any reform in Magyar orthography. Eniile Picot has drawn
up a synoptical table of the correspondence of written symbols for
a number of the more important languages, which may be consulted
with advantage, especially in connection with geographical names.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 97
In it the TTralo-Altaic family is represented "by Magyar and
Turkish.*
As in Suomi, the root in Magyar comes first, and is rarely pre-
ceded hy a prefix, such cases being probably due to Aryan influence.
At least the history of the language shows that they are recent.
As in Suomi also, the accent falls on the radical, or rather always
on the first syllable of the word, even when that syllable happens
to be a prefix.
Magyar derivation is extremely simple. The plural is denoted
by an agglutinated element : lidz-ak = the houses ; atyd-k = the
fathers ; and the case elements are placed after this plural particle :
aiya = pater ; atyat=patrem; atydk = patres (nom.) ; atydkat =
patres (ace).
Magyar has developed an article — a before consonants, az before
vowels : az ember = the man.
It is rich in verbal elements, incorporating the third person, when
it is the direct object, as is the case with all other members of the
Finnish group. Thus :
Vdr = he awaits ;
Vdrja = he awaits him ;
Vdrjdk = they await him ;
where ja denotes the direct pronominal object, and 1: the plural.
But Magyar is capable even of incorporating the second pro-
nominal object, though only when the subject is the first person
singular : vdrdk = I await ; vdrlak = I await thee. This is a point
to be carefully noted, and we shall see farther on that Basque goes
even farther, incorporating both the direct and the indirect personal
objects, bo as to express in one word not only " I give it," but "I
give it to thee."
M. I'.udenz reckons in the Ugrian group collectively nine vowels
and thirty-three consonants, amongst which the French,/', the two-
fold German <7/. the semi-linguals of the Ostyak, the weak and
sibilant Lapp d, and the liquid cunsonants. None of these idioms
really indigenous graphic system.
* Picot, "Tableau Phonftique dea Prinoipalea L^n^ues UBuelles," in
'• liovue do Lingaistiqae et de Philologie Compared," \ i. p. 863. Paris, 1871-
n
98 SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap.iv.
The Finnic tongues ignore gender, "but possess the three numhers,
dual and plural "being expressed hy different suffixes. The article
is used in accordance with our practice in Magyar alone, where it is
an before vowels, and a before consonants. Mordvinian, however,
is able to determine the nouns, as in Basque, by suffixing to them
the demonstrative pronoun sll or se of the third person. Siryenian
and Wotyak have something analogous to this, and Budenz finds
traces of it in other members also of the same family. Thus in
Magyar the affix of the third person a or e = his, her, is a derivative
element common enough, as in Pest varosa = the city of Pest,
literally, Pest its city.
As in all other true agglutinating tongues, here also real declension
is wanting. Post-positions and particles are used, answering in sense
to our prepositions, but tacked on at the end of the word, without
any separating mark in writing. In the same way are formed the
augmentatives, diminutives, and superlatives, but the suffixes
answering to the Aryan case-endings always come last, for the
simple reason that they do not affect the inner sense of the root,
merely indicating its manner of being (to, at, in, with, of, &c.) in
relation to the other terms of the proposition. The number of
these particles being considerable, writers who have conceived the
eccentric idea of composing grammars of the agglutinating tongues
on the classic model, have given them a number of pretended cases,
for which they have invented the most fantastic names in ive, utterly
ignoring the nature of speech in general, and of the agglutinating
type of language in particular.
In this last the verb presents itself with an endless suite of
forms, whose derivation, however, offers no difficulty. In the first
place the root, expressing the idea of action in a general way, may
receive successive additions, showing that the action is done or
suffered, possible, compulsory, or voluntary, and so on. Thus arise
secondary radicals, that is so many derived forms. Add to this the
incorporation of the third personal pronoun when it is direct object
— I see Mm, for instance, thus becoming one word. All the Finnic
idioms make use of this incorporation, while Magyar further
incorporates the second person objective, when the first person is
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 99
subject. TVogul does the same whatever he the subject, and, lastly,
Mordvinian is able so to express even the first person objective.
We shall have, for example, in the Moksha dialect, palasa, I em-
brace him ; af palatansa, he does not embrace thee ; palamait,
thou didst embrace me. Forms, however, exist in which the object
is not so incorporated, nor can any of them incorporate the indirect
object, as does the Basque, when it throws into one word the
phrase, I give it to thee.
These few remarks, notwithstanding their brevity, will, we
trust, suffice to render clear the mechanism of these interesting
members of the Finnic group.
(3) Tlie Turkic Group,
Known also by the name of Tatar, by a sorry play of words (or
misconception) changed to Tartar. The tribes speaking its numerous
dialects now stretch from the shores of the Mediterranean to the
banks of the Lena in Eastern Siberia. Their original point of
departure is generally said to be Turkestan, whence within the
historic period countless daring hordes have gone forth, overrunning
vast regions in Asia, and penetrating westwards through Europe as
far as French territory.*
Philologically considered, the Turks, in the widest sense of the
word, are divided into five families, each speaking a distinct
language, which in its turn is itself split up into a greater or less
number of dialectic varieties. Coming westwards and southwards,
these live branches are: The Yakutic, Kirghiz, Wiguric, Nogairic,
and Turkish.
Yakutic is spoken by about 200,000 people in the midst of
Tungusian tribes in the north-cast of Siberia.
The Black Kirghiz, or Burnt, occupy that part of Turkestan
attached to the Chinese empire. The Kazak Kirghiz extend more
wards, as far as the Aral Sea and to the north of the Caspian.
Of the Uiguric there are three varieties : The Uigur proper,
* Abel Rcmusat, " Recherches sur les Languca Tatares," p. 328.
Paris, 1820.
II 2
100 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
the Jagataic, and the Turkoman (or Turkmenian). Of all its
congeners Uiguric has attained the highest degree of literary
culture. It was reduced to "writing so early as the fifth century,
as evidenced hy Chinese authors, employing an original alphahet,
since lost, and replaced under the influence of the jSestorian
missionaries hy a system "based on the Syriac alphahet, as is also
that of the Mandchus, the Kalmuks, and the Mongolians.
Nogairic is spoken by about 50,000 persons toward the north
of the Volga, at Astrakhan, in some districts between the Black
Sea and the Caspian, in a small tract north of the Sea of Azov,
and throughout the Crimea. It is the language of the Eussian
Tatars, properly so called. The KumuTc variety is spoken on the
north-east of the Caucasus.
The fifth family is that of the Turkish dialects proper, with
which is included the Cliuvak, spoken, as above stated, between
the two Finnic idioms, Mordvinian and Cheremissian. It occupies
a somewhat compact territory to the south-west of Kazan, and a
great number of detached points in the neighbourhood of Simbirsk.
Chuvak presents some remarkable features, though it cannot be
looked on with some writers as a mixture of Turkish and Finnic.
M. Schott has clearly shown that it belongs to the Turkish group,
some connecting it rather with Xogairic than with Turkish proper.
Turkish, which for most Europeans is the most interesting
member of this fifth group, is not, however, to be considered as the
purest and most correct. It varies very strikingly in the different
localities where it is spoken, the form current in Constantinople,
for instance, being much freer from Arabic elements than the
official and learned Osmanli. Of this we shall give a rapid sketch.
Such is the clearness and precision of its structure that it may be
regarded as the most striking type of an agglutinating language.
There is no lack of Turkish grammars, mostly, however, wanting
in critical discernment. La our remarks we shall avail ourselves
mainly of that of Eedhouse.*
Turkish is written with the Arabic alphabet, though this is but
* " Grammaire Raisonnee de la Langue Ottomane." Paris, 1846.
Chap. rv.] SECOND FORM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 101
little suited to the purpose. It has already "been stated, and will
he again presently repeated, that in the Uralo-Alta'ic group the
vowels play a chief part, whereas the Arahic graphic system lends
itself very indifferently to vowel notation. The Turkish alphabet
consists of thirty-one characters, each susceptible of twelve modify-
in"' marks, some representing the several vowels, others doubling
the consonant or suppressing it altogether. But apart from this,
the phonetic elements proper consist of seven simple vowels :
a, e, 6, u, eu, u French, short and long ; the French nasal in of
maintien; the semi-vowel y ; and twenty-two consonants, in-
cluding some gutturals, fricatives, and a few sibilants. Redhouse
treats the vowel system somewhat differently from this, and Picot's
tables, quoted ahove, may he advantageously consulted on the point.
The Turkish language is entirely subject to an imperious law of
vowel harmony, which will again engage our attention farther on,
and which is here extended even to the words horrowed from
Arahic and Persian. In virtue of this law the infinitive ending is
maq if the accented vowel of the root is hard, hut meq if soft.
Thus, to love is sevmeq, hut to write = yazmaq.
The distinction of gender ohserved in Turkish for Persian or
Arabic words is otherwise entirely foreign to the Tatar languages.
There are but two numbers, the singular and plural, but Arahic
words retain their dual form. Like all the Uralo-Altaic idioms,
Turkish expresses the Aryan case-endings by means of postpositions
or independent syllables at the end of the word, and joined to it in
writing. The plural sign, lar or ler, according to the prevailing
vowel of the radical, is intercalated between the noun and the
post-positions, thus : dil, tongue; dile, to the tongue; dillere, to the
tongues. These terminal suffixes answer so completely to our
bat one of them suffices for a series of subordinate
words, as, for instance, a noun coupled with a number of adjectives.
Besidi . some of them are independent words still used as common
nouns in the ordinary language.
The adjective, which is a mere qualifying ooun, comes always
before the word it qualifies, and the degrees of comparison are
exprec ed by words meaning more, farther, less, &c.
LIBRARY
j LIFORNL
I BARBARA
102 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
The pronouns are both isolated and attached, the latter coming
naturally after the plural sign : hoghaz-e, his throat ; taraq-lar-e,
their combs.
The Turkish verb is often quoted for the richness and variety of
its forms, in which the agglutinating system, so to say, runs riot.
Yet, notwithstanding the vast framework of tenses, moods, and
derivative voices piled up by the grammarians, the Finnic tongues
must be allowed herein to surpass even the Turkish. Magyar, by
incorporating the direct object, says in a single word i" see him,
which Turkish cannot compass. Its marked speciality consists in
the play of the so-called derived voices, that is, of forms expressing
various shades of the manner of being of the same action. These
secondary forms are obtained by adding to the simple root a number
of suffixes, whose vowels are of course modified according to the
laws of progressive harmony. Thus ma, me, being the negative
particle, the infinitive sevmek, to love, will yield sevmemek, not to
love ; dir denotes causality, il the passive, and in the reflex idea ;
hence sevdirmek = to cause to love; seuilmek = to be loved, and
sevinmek = to love oneself. But these and other such suffixes may
be combined together, resulting in such forms as, sevinmemek = not
to love oneself. In this way every root might furnish some fifty
derived forms.
AVhat are called the tenses and moods are similarly formed by
the insertion of certain elements between the root and the personal
ending. But besides this natural conjugation, there is another that
may be called the indirect, or periphrastic — that is, in which the
simple forms are replaced by circumlocutions. It is based on the
union of the various participles with the auxiliary to be, and by
means of it may be expressed a multiplicity of exceedingly minute
shades of meaning.
The limits of this work prevent us from casting even a glance at
Turkish syntax. We can merely observe that it is all the more
complex in consecmence of the great change effected in the language
by the intrusion of foreign words. Hence the grammars are full
of rides, some restricted to Persian, others to Arabic words, and
some again common to both, while still inapplicable to the native
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 103
element. The vocabulary is deeply affected by Semitic and Aryan
words, introduced successively by the Persians and the Arabs.
In Asia, Turkish is spoken in the interior of Asia Minor ; the
north and south coasts, as -well as that of the Sea of Marmora,
being Greek. In Europe it occupies but a small portion of the
Ottoman empire ; its more important points being situated on the
south and east, at Larissa in Thessaly, here and there in Thrace,
and in some tracts scattered up and down Bulgaria, such as the
neighbourhood of Philippopoli, and especially the north-east of the
Balkan peninsula, below Silistria. In Candia it still possesses a
somewhat compact little territory in the interior of the island ; but
here also the Greek language is encroaching on its domain.
(4) TJte Tungusian Group
Comprises three distinct branches : the Maudcliu, the Lamutic,
and the Tungusian proper.
The Tunguses, numbering about 70,000, are situated about the
centre of Siberia ; the Lamuts stretch more to the north-east, and
are connected with the Mandchus, who occupy the north-east corner
of the Chinese empire.
The Mandchus possess a curious graphic system, of Syriac origin,
and consisting of twenty-nine letters, each with a triple form, as in
Arabic, according as they are initial, medial, or final, though the
change at times is but slight.* To these are added some complex
signs derived from the Chinese, and serving, apparently, for the
transcription of foreign words. The letters mostly consist of a
ending in various corves, and are written in vertical lines
from left to right, in which arrangement Chinese influence may be
recognised The Tungus has no special graphic system.
(in the Mandchu vowels there is not much to be said, but the
inantal system is somewhat complex, rendering its classification
rather difficult. There are two kinds of /•, g } h, t, and </, one of
* Besides these there is the full, unconnected form, of which tho others
are obvious curtailments, always showing more; or less conspicuously tho
essential part of tho letter. — Note by Translator.
104. SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. it.
■which is joined to the strong vowels a, o, 6, only, the other to the
so-called neutral vowels i, u, and to the weak e — a distinction we
shall have again to refer to in speaking of vowel harmony. A
cnrious point, occurring also in the Dravidian languages, is that
words cannot hegin with the soft explosives g, d, b. In Mandchu
there are several (two) kinds of n, the sounds ch and y, and various
sibilants.* In the Siberian dialects, which allow of the soft con-
sonants, initial, there is a much greater number of sounds, including
a series of liquid consonants, analogous, for instance, to the Magyar
9!/> ty> fy- The accent falls on the last syllable.
In Mandchu the noun has neither gender nor number, but the
Tungus dialects have retained a plural sign. The so-called de-
clension, as in all agglutinating tongues, is effected by means of
suffixes answering to our prepositions. The adjective is naturally
invariable, being nothing but a noun placed before another to
qualify it (as in the English wine-merchant, house-top). The
conjugation presents the same pecidiarities as the Turkish and
other agglutinating idioms, and comprises a large number of
secondary forms. The root to drink, for instance, gives such
derivative forms as "to cease to drink," "to come from drinking,"
" to go to drink," " to drink together," and so on. In all this the
Siberian dialects resemble the Mandchu, but possess greater wealth
of forms, especially in their derived voices.
The Mandchu-Tungus vocabulary, as might be supposed, is far
from copious. Properly speaking, it does not possess the verb
to have, a common feature of the first two types of speech ; and it
has borrowed largely from Chinese, more or less modifying the
forms of the words.
The question of priority has been decided by M. Lucien Adam
in favour of Tungusic over Mandchu, on the ground that it
possesses the sign of number, the possessive pronouns affixed, and
other important elements unknown to its congener. In other
respects they are both closely allied, as shown by the constant
* L. Adam, " Grammaire de la Langue Mandchoue." Paris, 1872. By the
same writer, " Grammaire de la Langue Tongouse." Paris, 1874.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 105
identity of the principal pronouns, of the numerals, the most
important suffixes, and the great bulk of their vocabularies. They
clearly come of one source, and must have been separated only
after a long period of grammatical development in common.
(5) TJie Mongolian Group
Comprises three dialects : Eastern (or Sliarra) Mongolian, spoken
in Mongolia proper, that is, in the centre of the northern portion
of the Chinese empire, and west of Mandchuria ; Kalmuk, or
Western Mongolian, reaching westwards into Eussia as far as the
Caspian, towards the mouth of the Yolga, between the two Turkic
tribes of the Kirghiz and Xogair ; the Buryetic or Northern
Mongolian, spoken by a tribe numbering about 200,000, near
Lake Baikal, in Southern Siberia, thus verging on the Eastern
Mongolian spoken still farther south j lastly, some other Mongolian
varieties occur in the neighbourhood of Cabul.
Although quite as interesting as the foregoing group, these
idioms need not detain us long, as their main features are very
analogous to those of the others noticed in this chapter; the chief
differences between Tungus and Mongolian being found in their
vocabularies, and in their greater or less grammatical development.
Mongol has an alphabet closely related to the Mandchu, em-
bracing seven vowels, a, e, i, o, u, eu French, ii (French u), and
ii teen consonants, amongst which ts and ds. The letters, as in
Mandchu, vary in form according as they are initial, medial, or
final ; and each consonant, as in Devanagari, has always an
inherent vowel, except when it is final.
The progressive vowel harmony characterising the Uralo-Altaic
group forms a feature of the Mongolian also, but with some pecu-
liarities, anion--! which are, in Buryetic, the elision of final rowels,
and certain modifications experienced by the consonants in contae.t
with each other. As to conjugation, it may be remarked thai in
Mongol tli" direct pronominal object i. mil incorporated with tin-
verb. Thus, the forms " I Bee it," " I eal it." which in Turkish are
expressed by one word, appear as two in Mongolian.
103 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
The little-known Buryetic occupies a very important place in
the Mongolian group, its grammatical development, according to
M. Adam, being all the more instructive, that in it there occur the
intermediate forms through which the pronouns have passed in
becoming suffixes. But this phenomenon of the superiority of a
comparatively rude dialect over literary and cultivated tongues,
such as Mongol and Mandchu, is by no means of rare occurrence.
(6) Vowel Harmony.
The phenomenon of vowel harmony, in the Altaic tongues, is all
the more important, that it forms one of the main arguments gene-
rally relied upon to establish the affinity of the Samoyede, Finnic,
Turkic, Tungus, and Mongol groups. In what then consists this
quality 1 what is its origin, its value ] and what conclusions are to
be drawn from its simultaneous prevalence in these various idioms 1
This progressive vocal assinrilation may be described as a sort of
progressive umlaut, «and is practically reduced to this : the vowels
being divided into two classes, all those in a word that follow the
vowel of the primary root must be of the same class as that root-
vowel. La certain Uralo- Altaic tongues, however, there are what
are called the " neutral " vowels, occurring indifferently with either
class. The vowels, in some of the leading members of this family,
are thus classified :*
Neutrals.
e, i
e, i
e, i
In this table u stands for the French ou ; 6 = French eu ; il —
French u. The classifi«ation is much the same everywhere of the
* L. Adam, "De l'Harmonie des Voyelles dans les Langues Uralo-
Alta'ique." Paris, 1874.
Gutturals,
Palatals,
or hard.
or weak.
Suomi
u, o, a
ii, o, a
Magyar ...
ii, o, a
ii, 6
Mordvinian
u, o, a
a, i
Siryenian ...
6, a
ii, i, e
Turkish ...
u, o, a, e ..
ii, 6, e,
Mongolian . . .
n, o, a
u, o, a
Buryetic ...
u, o, a
u, o, a
Mandchu . . .
6, o, a
e
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 107
three primitives a, u, i, the first two being, in principle, guttural,
the third neutral. In the same way the intermediate are in principle
weak or palatal. But great differences prevail in practice. Thus,
the harmony may extend to the whole word, or he restricted to the
suffixes ; it may apply to all the words or to the simple ones only ;
that is, to those that are not composed. For instance, in Turkish,
the whole word must he harmonised, as is the case also in Manclchu,
Mongol, Suomi, and Magyar ; whde in Mordvinian and Siryenian,
the final vowels alone are affected. In Magyar, again, compounds
retain the vowels of the simple word.*
But whence arises this phenomenon 1 is it primitive or recent 1
M. Adam, who has devoted himself specially to this subject, finds
little difficulty in refuting the opinion of those Avho, with Bcehtlingk,
see in it nothing but the result of local physiological circumstances,
or who, with Pott, look on it as merely a mechanical accident.
But Schleicher and, after him, Biedl have found the true solution
of the problem. Schleicher had turned his attention only to the
most general and most remarkable case, that of the harmony of the
suffixed vowels, presenting each of them a double form, hard or soft,
according to the nature of the suffix. He was struck by the way in
which the terminal vowels were affected by the root; and he con-
cluded that it was the necessary result of agglutination, and of the
* With this singular law of vowel harmony may be compared the Irish
rule of " broad to broad," and " slender to slender ; " which is also, in fact,
a species of progressive assimilation. The Irish broad vowels a, o, u, answer
to the Uralo-Alta'ic u, o, a, as above ; the corresponding slenders being e, i.
According to this law, Irish grammarians tell us that a broad vowel must be
followed by a broad in the next succeeding syllable, and a slender vowel in
the same way by a slender. To this are also analogous the peculiar modifi-
cations of the Latin root-vowels, produced by prefixes, whether these be duo
to composition or reduplication, as in cado, cecidi ; ars, iners ; lego, diligoj
annus, perennus, &c. But here it is the root-vowel that is modified by pre-
fixes, whereas in the Uralo-Altai'c system, there being no prefixes, the root-
vowel remains unchanged, the progressive harmonj affecting some or all of
the following syllables, as the case may lie. Hut the principle is probably
the same in all these linguistic groups, In-in^ imply more consistently
carried out, or more highly developed in some than in others: in Turkish
for instance, than in Latin. — Note by Translator.
108 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
tendency in speech to bring into the closest possible juxtaposition
the idea and its relations so intimately associated in the mind.
Eiedl has shown that such was really the case, for the study of
the old Magyar documents revealed in this respect a very marked
development from the twelfth century to the present time. In the
oldest texts, anti-harmonic forms abound ; thus, haldl-nek, at death,
which would now have to be haldl-nah ; tiszta-seg for tiszta-sag,
purity, and so on.
M. Adam rightly concludes that previous to the twelfth century
the number of harmonised derivatives was still more restricted,
being replaced by real inharmonic compounds. " Take," he says,
" two radicals, fa, tree, and vel (veli), companion ; where fa-vel will
be the unharmonised compound of these two nominal elements.
But when vel has come to be successively suffixed to a certain
number of roots it will begin sensibly to lose its original meaning of
companion, gradually assuming the sense of the relational with in
connection with the root to which it is added."*
We have here, therefore, a case of phonetic decay, arising from
forgetfulness of the primitive sense of the formative element. But
the process was very slow, nor at all uniform in the various
Uralo-Altaic idioms, many of which, such as the highland Chere-
missian and Wotyak, even now betray but the merest traces of
rudimentary vowel harmony. M. Adam, however, believes that
these two dialects have lost the principle of progressive assimilation
under the pressure of powerful foreign influences. According to
him, they woidd seem still to possess sufficient traces of it to
enable us to conclude that at some epoch all the Uralo-Altaic
family was subject to vowel harmony. We certainly look upon
the principle as a feature of great importance, though, after all,
but a relatively recent historic fact. This is not the place to seek
for the causes and conditions of its development ; but we do not
believe that of itself alone it would suffice to prove the common
descent of the five groups that have here been described.
Meanwhile, we may say that if their original parentage is highly
* Op. cit., p. 67.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 109
probable, it has not yet been definitely established. There is room
to hope that it may be, some day or other ; but many preparatory
studies of details "will have, doubtless, to precede such a result.
In any case, progressive vowel harmony connects the members of
the Uralo- Altaic family, in their morphological aspect, in such a way
as to render it extremely undesirable to separate them from each
other in the general series of agglutinating tongues.
§ 15. — Basque.
This remarkable and interesting language is at present spoken
by scarcely more than 450,000 persons, possessed of no great social
originality or separate political existence. About three-fourths of
this number belong to Spanish nationality, and the rest, approxi-
mately 140,000, to France. There are also about 200,000 Basques
settled on the shores of the river Plate.
We are, of course, here speaking only of the individuals using
the Basque language, without at all considering the special question
of the Basque race. In truth, thanks to the excellent treatises of
M. Broca, we now know that there are Basques and Basques ■
that, for instance, the Spanish Basques are of much purer blood
than the French.*
The attempt has frequently been made to fix the limits of the
Basque language, but not till lately have any results been arrived
at Avhich, without being altogether unassailable, are nevertheless
entitled to be considered as really trustworthy. The chart recently
drawn up by M. Broca, and published by him in " La Revue
d'Anthropologie," seems to us more particularly reliable.t
Let us endeavour to give some more or less accurate idea of its
outlines. Starting from a point on the coast a little to the south
* " Sur lee Cranes Basques de Saint Jean do Luz," in the "Bulletins de
la Soc. d'Anthropologie de Paris," 1868, p. 18; with which compare " Be\ ue
d' Anthropologic," iv. p. 29, Paris, 1875.
f "Sur L'Origine et la Repartition de la Langue Masque," op. ri/., iv.
p. 1 et suiv., planohe Hi. Paris, L875. The larger chart of Princo
L. L. Bonaparte does i this. It places Puente la
Jlciua in the zone whi is still Bpoken.
110 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
of Biarritz, the border line passes to the south-east of Bayonne,
follows the course of the Adour somewhat closely, and by a
brusque movement southwards encloses the territory of Bastide-
Clairence. It then by an equally sharp turn returns towards the
Adour, and, passing below Bidache, Sauveterre, and Navarreins,
advances in the direction without reaching the town of Oloron.
It returns almost horizontally westward to Tardets, whence it
gains the Pic d'Anie, and enters Spanish territory. It then
proceeds towards ISTavascues, surrounding the northern environs
of Pamplona, redescends towards Puente la Eeina, passes a little
above Estella and Vitoria, reaches Orduna on the north-west, and
reascends towards Portugalete, here terminating at the coast. Its
greatest length (from Orduna to about five kilometers to the west
of Oloron) would therefore be approximately 190 kilometers, its
breadth varying from 50 to 80.
Information drawn from an independent but not less reliable
source agrees on all points with these data. According to it the
frontier line leaving the Gulf of Gascony a little above Biarritz
strikes the Adour below Saint-Pierre d'Irube, two kilometers south
of Bayonne, follows this river to a point beyond Urcuit, then
quits it so as to enclose Briscous and Bardos (to the exclusion of
Bastide-Clairence), then Saint-Palais and Esquiule, near Oloron,
thus reaching the Pic d'Anie. In Spain its limits reach beyond the
valley of Eoncal in the direction of Aragon. After passing Burgui
it bends to the left towards Pamplona, which it skirts, thence
redescending till it gets beyond Puente la Eeina, returning in an
almost straight line to Vitoria, whence it ascends towards the sea,
Avhich it reaches a little to the west of Portugalete.
The Basque district therefore comprises in Spain nearly the
whole of the Spanish province of Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, the northern
j)ortion of Alava, and nearly half of Navarre ; in France, one
commune of the arrondissement of Oloron, and nearly the whole
of those of Mauleon and Bayonne, corresponding to the ancient
local divisions of La Soule, Basse-Navarre, and Labourd.
There exists no really historic proof that in former times Basque
occupied a wider geographical area than this. We shall revert in
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. Ill
another place to the Iberian question, meantime remarking that in
France it is quite impossible to show with any certainty that
Basque was at any time spoken in any of the hamlets where Gascon
is now exclusively current. On the other hand, it is undeniable
that in Spain it has been losing ground for some centuries past.
Thus Pamplona, formerly Basque, is now altogether Spanish ; and
in our own days it is easy to show a perceptible shifting in the
more important localities subject to the influence of modern life and
to greater contact with strangers. The dialects of San Sebastian
and of SarmVJean de Luz, for instance, are very incorrect, having
appropriated a great number of Spanish and French words.
Another very important fact should be noted. M. Broca's chart
comprises not only the three zones — Gascon (Bayonne, Orthez,
Oloron); Basque (Tolosa, Saint-Jean de Luz, Mauleon ; Spanish
(Vitoria, Estella, Pamplona) — but also a fourth, or mixed Basque
and Spanish zone, in some places from 15 to 20 kilometers
wide, in others extremely narrow, and containing besides other
towns those of Bilbao, Orduna, Agiz, and Eoncal. In his memoir
on the distribution of the Basque language, M. Broca has offered
an ingenious explanation of the absence of an analogous zone
between Basque and Gascon. " In Spain," he says, " Basque comes
into collision with Spanish on its border under conditions of such
inferiority as to render inevitable the gradual encroachment of the
latter. But in France the dialect hemming in the Basque is not,
like the Spanish, an official, administrative, political and literary,
language. It is merely a local idiom, an old patois, without any
expansive power, but, on the contrary, actually dying out. There is
no good reason why such a dialect should supplant the Basque, or
t]i>; Basque encroach upon it. The two idioms, therefore, remain
stationary, both equally weak and alike threatened to be sooner or
absorbed by the French, which language alone the Basques
have any interest in learning. All those that have received any
instruction are already familiar with it, and all the inhabitanl oi
towns of any importance peal or understand it. Tim-;, everytoTra
and market-place becomes a focus for the spread of French, ami a
time must come when Basque will cease to be spoken, except in the
112 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
most secluded hamlets and least accessible valleys, and will ultimately
fall into abeyance even there. It will therefore perish under
influences that doubtless will not be felt on all points to the same
extent, but which will everywhere be felt simultaneously. Thus
it will not retire, step by step, as in Spain, before the ever-forward
march of Spanish, because in France it is not pressed more on the
frontier than in the rest of its domain. We do not say, however,
that it will maintain itself to the last in its actual limits. It is
very probable that the Beam patois encircling it will first disappear,
and that French, thus coming to press on the Basque frontier, will
drive it gradually southwards towards the Pyrenees, whose upper
villages will probably be the last refuge of the oldest language in
Europe." *
The proper and original name of the Basque is Escuara, Euscara,
Uscara, according to the various dialectic forms, whence the French
Euscarien, synonymous with Basque. The Spaniards call it Vas-
cuence, and those who speak it Vascongados. On the origin of
these terms it is not easy to pronounce definitely. The most likely,
though not fully established etymology of escuara, is no doubt that
of M. Malm, who explains it as " manner of speech," " language."
The explanations given by the people themselves are, as might be
expected, extremely fantastic. When they compare their language
with those of their neighbours, they find themselves so completely
at sea that they forthwith fall into ecstasies of admiration for their
mother-tongue. One of them, the Jesuit Larramendi, whose work
bears the grandiloquent title of " El Imposible Vencido," (" The
Impossible Overcome ") makes it pretty well the common source of
all other languages. Another, Astarloa, asserts that each of the
Escuara letters possesses a hidden virtue. A third, the Abbe
Darrigol, proves, with the aid of Beauzee, the everlasting perfection
of Basque. Chaho invents his ingenious theory of the Basque
"seers," whose precocious civilisation was extinguished by the
Kelto-Scythian barbarians; and the Abbe dTharce de Bidassouet
makes Escuara the language in which the Eternal Father conversed
with the first of the Jews.
* Op. cit.
Ciiap. iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 113
But there is no absurdity to which this precious relic of the
primeval languages of Europe has not given occasion. In truth,
Escuar presented insurmountable difficulties to those who were ac-
customed to nothing but commenting on Greek and Latin texts by
means of empiric processes. Accordingly, the learned in medieval
times looked on Basque as an indecipherable puzzle, an utterly
insoluble problem. A proverb preserved in the north of Spain
pretends that the devil himself spent seven long years amongst the
Basques without succeeding in understanding a single word of the
language. We are thus enabled to explain the following remarkable
definition in a Spanish dictionary : " Vascuence : Lo que esta tan
confuso ij oscuro que no se j>uede entender •" that is, Basque: any-
thing so confused and obscure as to be unintelligible.
Unfortunately the problem has been taken in hand by many
learned men unacquainted with philological principles, and by many
foreign amateurs, without special preparation for such studies.
Hence their bootless efforts have merely had the effect of increasing
the infatuation by which the Basques had already been inspired by
so many previous abortive attempts in the same direction. The study
of Basque may, without much exaggeration, be said to have led to
downright insanity. But things have greatly changed since the
discovery of the true philological method. The sphinx, more skil-
fully attacked. Las been made to yield up her secret, and although
a number of points <\\\\ remain to be settled, it may be presumed
that, at uo distant day, we shall be able to congratulate ourselves
on having mastered the numerous ami intricate laws of the Basque
i ige. There were undoubtedly many excellent things in the
writings of Oihenart, of Chaho, and, above all, of Lecluse ; but the
quite recent works of Prince L. L. Bonaparte, W. Van Eys, and
Julien Vinson* have more decidedly tended towards a solution of
tie' difficulty.
* Prince L. L. Bonaparte has issued many text - and a valuable I real ise on
erb. To Van Eys we owe tin' Brat Basque-French dictionary ever
■ elementary grammar: "E ai de Grammaire de la
Langue Basque," 2nd edition, Amsterdam, L867. The numerous writings,
with whiofa M. Vinson has enriohed the "Revue 'I'' Linguistique," are,
ia our opinion, among the bi < modern contributions Id the study of
i
114 SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
Basque, for a stranger, is in a completely isolated condition, offer-
ing no point of contact with the surrounding tongues, either in the
formation of its words or its morphology ; and the Magyar, which
most resembles it in some general features, is geographically widely
separated from it. Besides, we have some knowledge of the history
of the Hungarian language, while that of the Bascpie is utterly un-
known. No unequivocal traces of the Basque tongue are to be
met with in any authentic documents older than the tenth century.
And even to this epoch nothing can he referred except a Latin
chart, dated 980, limiting the episcopal diocese of Bayonne, and
giving the names of some Basque districts in a more or less modified
form. It is now well established that the pretended Basque war-
songs, attributed to a period many centuries older than the tenth
century, are purely apocryphal. Even from the tenth to the
sixteenth century we meet with nothing beyond some few names of
places in sundry charters, letters patent, pontifical bulls, and the
like. The first to speak of the Escuara tongue, and to give some of
its words, is Lucius Marinams Siculus, in his " Cosas Memorables
de Espana," Alcala, 1530. The oldest printed text known to us is-
the short discourse of Panurge, in the famous ninth chapter of the
tenth book of Eabelais, published in 1542. The first printed book,
however, is dated 1545. It consists of poems, partly religious and
partly erotic, by Bernard Dechepare, cure of Saint-Michelde-vieux,
in Lower Navarre, and has recently been correctly reissued.*' The
changes the language has undergone since that time, though doubt-
less perceptible enough, cannot be said to be very important.
Even now, more serious divergences are ascertained to exist
between the various dialects. In fact its varieties are, so to say,
innumerable, every hamlet presenting some local forms peculiar to
itself. Of course there is nothing abnormal in this ; but while, side
by side with their spoken and local forms, most languages have a
general or conventional standard, the result of education, and often
closely resembling the written form, in Basque there is no such
philology, based on sound knowledge and scientific method. To them wo
are ourselves largely indebted.
* Edition Cazals. Bayonne, 1874.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 115
general standard, each -writer forming one to suit his own fancy.
Some writers have reckoned as many as eight dialects, yielding no
less than twenty-five principal varieties — in Spam, the Biscay an,
Guipuzcoan, Upper Navarrese, north, Upper Navarrese, south; in
France, the Labourdin (in the south-west of the arrondissement of
Bayonne) ; the Souletin, in the two cantons south-east of the arron-
dissement of Alaulcon (old JSavarre), the Lower Navarrese, east,
and Lower Navarrese, west, spoken in French Xavarre, that is in
the rest of these two anondissements.
But these eight dialects are easily reducible to three principal
groups. The first of these, comprising Biscayan alone, is especially
remarkable for the originality of its verb. The second, including
the Souletin and the Lower Navarrese, is marked by frequent
aspirates and the interchange of u with i. The third, embracing
the four remaining dialects, Guipuzcoan, Labour dm, and Upper
Navarrese, north and south, presents fuller and generally less
modified forms than the second group.
"Without attempting to indicate the more or less striking differences
by which these dialects are distinguished from each other, it may be
stated in a general way that the four French dialects possess the
aspirate, which is utterly unknown to those of Spain. As to the
•A interest that they may present, it may be remarked that the
Souletin, the Lahourdin, the Guipuzcoan, and the Biscayan have
alone been seriously studied, because they alone possess a literature,
such as it is. The central dialects, Guipuzcoan and Labourdin,
to have undergone the least changes, while the others have all
of them been more or Less deeply modified. M. Vinson places
Labourdin even before Guipuzcoan in this respect.
It is, of course, only by the simultaneous and comparative study
of all its eight dialect-, thai il becomes possible to determine the
general character of the Basque language, by restoring, as far as may
be, its common forms. Their phonetics, ■which alone can accom-
plish this result, must now briefly engage our attention.
There are five simple vowels, a, e, i, o, » ; six diphthongs, ai, >i,
oi, '"', '/'/, < '/ ; the two semi-vowels, y and w; and twenty-two con-
sonants, which may he thus classified : /', 'j, gh ; eh, te ; t, d, th j
i 2
116 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
p, h, ph ; n of the Greek ayyeXos ; n mouille of the French agneau;
n dental ; m ; the fricatives h, sh, z, s ; r hard, nearly rr ; r soft (very-
near to I) ; lastly, Z. But were the sounds peculiar to the various
dialects to be included in this list, it would have to be more than
doubled, so as to embrace the French u (for Souletin), the French
j, the Spanish jota, and the liquids g, t, d, 1.
Some of the more important phonetic laws, which are somewhat
numerous, may here be described. In the case of two vowels coming
together, the first is elided, if it be at the end of a word. But if they
occur in the body of the word, a hiatus is the general rule, with a
change, such as e to i, o to u, &c, a always remaining unmodified.
The consonantal changes are much more remarkable. Thus a
final sharp, when followed by an initial soft, disappears, the soft
then becoming sharp. Thus hunat golti, here above, is pronounced
hunahoiti. Again, sharp explosives, 7c, t, &c, disappear before
nasals; after sibilants the explosives must be sharp, but after a
nasal they must be soft. Double consonants, tt, gg, &c, are
unallowable ; sharp explosives, initial, readily become soft ; between
two vowels, g, d, b, n, and r are entirely suppressed ; foreign words
take an initial vowel, the French raison thus becoming arrazoin.
The orthography now mostly in iise is somewhat recent, and in
any case is merely a reform of former systems. JN'ot having pre-
served any special graphic signs, if it ever possessed them, in
transcribing the Basque sounds, recourse was necessarily had to the
Latin alphabet, as current amongst the Gallo-Bomans or Hispano-
Fcomans of the Pyrenees districts. Thus, two orthographic systems
perceptibly different, the Spanish and the French, were brought
into use, each possessing the capital defect of representing the same
sound by different letters. Thus they wrote z, c, and p for s and e,
qu and k for 7c. The reformed orthography was based more on the
Spanish than the French system ; z, however, is pronounced as s.
Coming to the formation of words, declension and conjugation
must first claim our attention.
The Basque declension is simple enough, consisting in post-
positions attached to the noun. Thus, they do not say to the man,
but, man the to (as in the Urdu : admi-ho), employing post instead
Chap, it.] SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 117
of pre-positions ; that is, suffixes more or less agglutinated to the
noun or article. The principal suffixes are en, of (possessive) ; i, to
(dative) j ho, of, for, til:, from (ablative) ; n, in, z, by, kin or gaz,
with, ra, towards, //<•, some (partitive); reo, till, into; gabe, without ;
gat He, on account of ; tzat, for, &c.
Besides the definite declension, which takes the article, gram-
marians distinguish the declension of rational beings from that of
irrational ones. The first would seem to be characterised by the in-
sertion of the syllable baith between the article and the suffix, a
syllable which has not been yet explained, but which etymologists
have naturally compared confidently with the Hebrew beth, a house,
on the ground that it is inserted only after local suffixes, in,
towards, <fec.
The indefinite declension is so far unique that it has positively
neither a singular nor a plural number. This arises from the fact
that Basque nouns cannot take a plural sign unless they are de-
termined ; hence it cannot say men, but the men. It follows that
the plural sign, which is /.-, is added as a suffix to the article a only,
which was itself an old demonstrative pronoun, still preserved in
Biscayan. Thanks, therefore, to this article, the definite declension
has both a singular and a plural.
Great irregularities result from the addition of the suffixes to the
noun, as, for instance, the occasional disappearance of the article
and of the sign of plurality. But in a sketch of this sort it is
impossible to enter into such details.
From the foregoing remarks we readily see how inconsistent it
would be to speak of cas is, aominative, genitive, &c, in connection
with Basque nouns. At times these expressions are used, but they
should not deceive us, as they are simply a conventional way of
speaking. In Basque then- can be no such thing as a nominative,
itive, or other suffix, such as the s and m of the Latin
domillUrS, dominVrm. The theme alone is used in its simple state;
but when it is the subjecl of an active verb it takes the suffix /.-, of
unknown origin. Thus: gizonak eman du, the man has given ii ;
gizonak yo dute, the men have struck him : where gizon man, a =
the article, /,- - -Lui of the BUbjecl JUSI mentioned.
118 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
A feature, though not a very exceptional one, of the Basque
language, is the large number of words, often reduced to one
syllable, attached to others to denote enlargement, diminutives,
plenty, bad qualities, excesses, want, attachment, repugnance, and
the like. But many modern and other languages also possess, to a
greater or less degree, this power of forming diminutives, augnien-
tatives, &c.
The adjective, which never changes, is placed invariably after the
noun. The expression, " the fine house of the little man," would
run in Basque : " man little the of house fine the," where we see
the adjective inserted between the article and its noun, while the
genitive " of the man " precedes the noun " house " on which it
depends (as in the alternative English form : the little man's fine
house).
The personal pronouns are: ni, I; gu, we; hi, thou; zu, you.
The present language uses the second plural for a polite singular, as
in French ; hence another real plural, zuek = ye, has been developed
on the previous. There are no relative pronouns, the interrogatives,
in imitation of French and Spanish, being now often used relatively ;
but this is utterly opposed to the essential genius of the language.
As regards number, there is no original word for a thousand, and
everything points at a vigesimal system. Thus thirty-nine becomes
twenty + nineteen ; sixty is three score, and so on.
The verb is either simple or periphrastic. In the simple con-
jugation derivative elements attached to the root denote tense, mood,
and person ; in the periphrastic, the two simple auxiliaries dut, to
have, and naiz, to be, are joined to a noun of action subject to
inflection. The whole question of the Basque verb is of great
importance. It is the feature of the language which causes most
trouble to those accustomed to Greek and Latin grammars, nor can
it be said to be yet settled, even after the labours of Van Eys,
Prince L. L. Bonaparte, and M. Vinson.* One of the first points
that have been discussed turns on the relative priority of these two
conjugations. In the opinion of Mahn, Van Eys, and Vinson, the
* " Le Verbe Basque," " Revue de Linguistique," vi. p. 238. Paris, 1874.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OP SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 119
simple conjugation alone is primitive, and the other developed
within the historic life of the language. Without entering into the
special arguments which, in our opinion, indisputably confirm this
xievr, we need but remark that the opposite theory, maintaining the
existence of a radical with a verbal sense in the forms of the
auxiliaries, has a metaphysical stamp about it, which amounts to a
prima facie argument against it.
The periphrastic conjugation has the advantage of allowing to
each verb a double expression, answering to a transitive and an
intransitive sense. The intransitive voice is a noun of action,
accompanied by naiz, to be ; the transitive is a noun also of action,
accompanied by did, to have. Like the Semitic verb, which
incorporates the direct object, or rather expresses it by a pronominal
sign attached to the verb ; like a similar process in Magyar, Wogulic,
and Mordvinian (though the pronominal sign is not here put in the
same place as in the Semitic tongues), the Basque verb proceeds
somewhat similarly, but with the disadvantage, when compared with
these languages, that it is unable to separate its direct object from
the active verb. For instance, it cannot say / love a woman, but
only / her Jove a woman. But in its verb the Basque expresses the
indirect object, saying in one word / give it to him; here also,
however, it cannot omit the direct object, and say simply, I give to
him.
Each of these complex forms is siibject to four modifications,
according as they speak familiarly to a man or to a woman, to a
person they wish to honour, or, lastly, when no account is taken of
such considerations. Grammarians describe these- modifications
c the names of masculine, feminine, respectful, and indefinite
treatment.
' lertain features of the Basque language, as has often been re-
ed, are met also in the American idioms. The Basque verb
has, no doubt, certain analogies with the conjugation in those
; ■ ; but to conclude from thi writers do not hesitate
t'. '1". thai Basque is intimately related to Chippewa; and Lenape'
etching the argument very far indeed. Before asserting that
lie, like these idioms, ie polysynthetic or inoorporative, it would
120 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
"be desirable, in the first place, to determine the exact meaning of
these terms. We shall endeavour to do so in the section devoted to
the American languages, meanwhile resting satisfied with indicating
a feature of the idioms of the New World, which is met with in
Basque also. This is composition "by syncope, which, however, is not
quite unknown to modern European tongues. From ortz, cloud,
and azantz, noise, Basque forms ortzanz, thunder, cloud-noise. But
compounds of this sort are not very numerous, being more usually
met with in the names of localities, those precious but too often
inexplicable relics of a primeval epoch.
Such names of places may possibly some day enable us to
restore many words that have become obsolete, and at length for-
gotten. In its present imperfectly-known condition the Escuara
vocabulary may be described as somewhat poor. Excluding the
many Gascon, French, Spanish, and Latin words it contains, be-
sides others that can be referred to some other foreign sources, it is
probable that the genuine Basque words express no abstract ideas.
Thus there is no simple Basque word answering to the wide sense
of tree, animal. Thus also in Basque God is "the Lord on high;"
and if they have a term answering to our will, it means also
thought, desire, fancy, indifferently.
In order, as far as possible, to restore the common Basque
vocabulary, it will be necessary to collect all the words current in
the several dialects, and of course not even then admit them as
original until they have been also shown to belong to no foreign
tongue. History tells us that the region occupied by the Basque
language has been at different times traversed by Keltic, Teutonic,
Arabic, and especially Bomance speaking peoples. The influence
of Latin must have been all the greater for having been felt during
a period of nearly two thousand years, and more actively than any
of the others. In order, therefore, to properly understand Basque
it is necessary to know Latin thoroughly, as well as the history of
its two modern forms, French and Spanish, and to be as familiar
with their patois in the Pyrenees regions as with their literary
standards.
Unfortunately no help can be derived from written documents,..
Chap, it.] SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 121
sucli is the singular poverty of Basque literature, which is composed
almost exclusively of translations of devotional works, absolutely
without interest in themselves. There is little inducement to spend
one's time poring over " meditations," " hymns," " spiritual guides,"
and other such-like " moral " and " moralising " productions. No
doubt some collections of popular songs have been published, but
nearly all of indifferent merit. Xo tales have yet appeared, nor any
of those interminable " pastorals," that the Basques of La Soule de-
light in on their local feast-days. These are so far curious, from the
fact that they have been evidently inspired by the " chansons de
geste," the " soties," and the epic poems of medieval times. There
are scarcely a thousand Basque books altogether, including even all
the works on the language, the country, the manners, and the
origin of the Basque people, written in French, Spanish, Latin,
Italian, German, and even Himgarian.
This last subject of their origin has given rise to numerous
writings ; but, in our opinion, the problem remains yet to be
solved. "We persist especially in holding that if Escuara was the
language of the ancient Iberians, or at least one of the dialects of
their language, the fact has not yet been scientifically proved.
According to some very old traditions, the Iberians, before the
arrival of the Aryans, occupied the whole of the Spanish peninsula,
as well as all that part of Gaul known afterwards as Gallia Nar-
bonensis. Their first known relations with any foreign race date
back to the times of the Phoenician expeditions mentioned in
history. Then came the Keltic invasion. The Keltiberians bravely
ted the Roman 1< gionaries, and after submitting to the sway of
the Yisi-< i-oths, stdl held out against the Moslem.
Kept alive in the region occupied by the Iberians, Escuara, being
neither Semitic nor Aryan, began naturally to be looked upon as
one of the direct representatives of the old [berian language.
In support of this opinion three different kinds of arguments are
usually urged- those based on the customs, on the type, and on
the language it -'-It'.
The argumenl based on customs is Limited to a legal disposition
prevailing in the French Pyrenees, even beyond the Basque
122 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
district, establishing in inheritance an absolute right of primogeni-
ture, without distinction of sex ; and Strabo tells us that amongst
the Cantabrians, seemingly an Iberian people, daughters inherited
property. But M. J. Balasque, a Bayonne jurisconsult, has shown
that the right of primogeniture is derived from the essentially Gallic
or Keltic principle, requiring patrimony to be preserved entire.
The Basque type is uoav well known. We possess the charac-
teristics of the true Basque skull, that of Spain. But however
widely it may have been spread throughout the whole of the Peninsula
(and it is undoubtedly met with in Corsica also and the north of
Africa), it woidd never prove that this one race may not have spoken
several distinct languages, as is even now very frequently the case.
The linguistic proofs turn upon attempts to explain Iberian words
through the Basque. The monuments of the Iberian language that
have reached us are of two kinds, medals and inscriptions on the
one hand, on the other, proper names, and especially topographical
ones, transcribed by classical writers. The medals and the inscrip-
tions offer the elements of an alphabet derived from the Phoenician ;
but it would be idle to deceive ourselves on their pretended inter-
pretation, than which nothing can be more problematical. "We
agree with M. Vinson in seeing in the various readings hitherto
proposed nothing but hazardous and strained renderings.
The form of names collected by Strabo, Pliny, and other ancient
writers, on the other hand, presents a certain basis ; which, however,
the etymologists have, as usual, recklessly perverted to their pur-
poses. The explanations proposed by Humboldt, and after him by
a number of etymologists without sound principles or method, are,
to say the least, very doubtful. It may be remarked that the only
two pbilologists deserving our full confidence in this department,
Van Eys and Vinson, entirely agree on the point."" We adopt
their view, and we hold that the name of Humboldt is not of itself
sufficient to settle the matter conclusively. His conjectures may
have been just — it is possible, it is even probable, that the ancient
* Van Eys, "La Languc Iberienne et la Langue Basque," " Revue de
Linguistique," vii. p. 1, Paris, 1871 ; Vinson, " La Question Iberienne,"
" Mernoires du Congres Scientifique de France," ii. p. 357, Paris, 187L
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 123
inhabitants of Iberia spoke a language akin to the Basque, if not
even an older form of this tongue. But it cannot be allowed that
this has yet been proved, nor is it possible to establish it in the
actual state of our knowledge without compromising the strict
scientific method.
To resume, this assumed identity is quite possible, but the facts
quoted in its support have merely rendered it a plausible hypothesis
still awaiting definite settlement.
§16. — The American Languages.
In no part of the globe, says Frederic Midler, do so many
languages exist as hi America, whose resemblance is so striking,
but Avhose constituent elements are so different. This is the reason
why their study has as yet been scarcely commenced, and why it is
so very difficidt to form even some general and definite notion
of them. There are, no doubt, a great number of grammars,
vocabularies, devotional books, such as catechisms and versions of
Scripture, calculated to facditate the study of many of them.
But most of these works have been composed for objects so
purely unscientific, or in so defective a manner, that but very little
help is, as a ride, to be obtained from them.
Amongst the most instructive of these writings maybe mentioned
John Pickering's " Remarks on the Indian Languages of North
America," which has been long before the public ; Duponceau's
heme Grammatical des Langues de quelques Nations de
l'Amenque du Nord," crowned by the Institute in 1836; sundry
es by Malm, Frederic Muller, and Charencey, that have ap-
peared mostly in special periodicals. We have also consulted the
"Etudes but quelques Langues Sauvages de I'Amerique," 1>\ X. 0.,
an ex-missionary. This work contains an interesting and seemingly
trustworthy sketch of the Algonquin and of the Iroquois, bul the
author shows himself far too ignoranl of the moat elementary
scientific meth
According to Fr. Muller, there would I"- in the whole continent,
from < Jape Horn to the region of the Eskimos, twenty-six langu
124 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
or rather groups of different languages ; a large number, when we
remember that the native population bears no comparison with that
of the Old World.
Midler's classification we here subjoin :
1. Kenai' group, north-east of North America.
2. Athapasque group, east of the Kena'i, stretching from the Yukon, and
the Mackenzie, to the month of the Churchill in Hudson's Bay. Much
farther south, and separated from the bulk of this group, are other dialects
belonging to it. Such are the Qualihoqua, north of the Columbia river ;
the Umpqua, south of it ; Apache, still farther south, in Nevada and Upper
California.
3. Algonquin group, south of Hudson's Bay, and stretching eastwards to
the Atlantic. It includes the Mikmak, on the east coast of the Canadian
Dominion and in Newfoundland ; the Leni-Lenape or Delaware dialects
(Narraganset, Mohican, &c.) ; Kree, Ojibway, Ottawa, and others.
4. Iroquois group : Onondago, Seneca, Oneida, Cayuga, Tuskarora.
5. Dakotah group, in the centre of North America, including the Sioux
and others.
6. Pawnee group.
7. Appalache group, including, amongst others, the Cherokee, Kataba,
Chacta, Krik, Natchez.
8. Koloche, in the extreme west of British North America.
9. Oregon group, farther south.
10. Californian group : Periku ; Monki ; Cochimi.
11. Yuma group, in Lower Colorado.
12. The independent idioms of the Pueblos de la Sonora and of Texas
(Zuni, Tegua, and others).
13. The independent Mexican idioms: Totonak, Othomi, Taraska,
Mixtek, Zapotek, Mazahua, Mame, and others.
14. Aztek group, and the languages of Sonora,* including, on the one
hand, Nahuatl or Aztek, and on the other Kahita, Kora, Tarahumara,
Tepeguana ; Opata, Tubar ; Pima, Papago ; Kizh, Netela, Kahuillo ; Choch-
oni, Komanche, Moki, Utah, Pah-Utah, &c.
15. Maya group, in Yucatan, including Maya, in the north, Quiche,
Huastek, in the north-east of Mexico.
16. The independent idioms of Central America and of the West Indies,
such as Kueva, towards the Isthmus of Panama, Cibuney in the Antilles.
17. Carib and Arevaque; the former (called also Galibi) in Venezuela
and French Guiana, the latter in British and Dutch Guiana.
18^ Tupi, Guarani, and Omagua, of which the two first form a special
*Buschmann, " Grammatik der Sonorischen Sprachen," "Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences." Berlin, 18G3.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 125
group, including the dialects spoken in the regions watered by the Parana,
the Paraguay, and the Uruguay rivers. Here, also, are certain idioms, such
as that of the Botocudes, east of the San Francisco river, which do not seem
to belong to this group.
19. The independent languages of the region of the Andes.
20. Araucanian.
21. Guaykuru, spoken between the Paraguay and the Pilcomayo;
Abipon, in the valley of the Salado (Argentine Republic).
22. Puelche, in the Pampas, west of Buenos Ayres.
23. Tehuelche, the language of the Patagonians.
21. The various idioms of Tierra del Fuego, and neighbouring islands.
25. Chibcha, west of the Andes, in New Granada, as far as the vicinity
of Santa Fe de Bogota.
26. Quichua group, farther south, from the frontiers of New Granada
and Equador to the northern parts of Chile. Related to the Quichuas are
the Aymaras, on the borders of Peru and Bolivia.
All these idioms are generally assumed to resemble each other,
and to possess some salient features in common. We shall now
have to see in what the common character consists.
It may first of all he asked whether their forms and functions
are so very discrepant and peculiar, as to prevent us from classifying
them in any one of the three greaf, categories — isolating, agglu-
tinating, and inflectional — which embrace all the languages of the
Old "World ? This is the opinion of many writers, who suppose that
the American tongues have a special property, requiring them to be
classed apart, or in a fourth category, called by them the incorpo-
rating or polysynthetic system.
Whilst endeavouring to avoid any needless, dry details, let us
line the nature of the phenomena on winch this doctrine of a
distinct classification is based. We shall conclude with a brief
notice of the Algonquin and Iroquois groups, spoken in large tracts
of North America, and undoubtedly the best known of all the
. Lean tong
Tlii' meaning of the terms isolating and agglutinating has already
1 ii explained more than once. The former is characterised by the
use of independent and invariable runts,
while in the latter the primary idea alone i expre <■! le, an in-
dependent coot, those of relationship being dependent upon and
126 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
attached to them. We shall see, later on, that true inflection occurs
only where the various relations of time and space can he expressed
hy an organic modification of the radical vowel. It becomes
impossible to he mistaken as to the position to he assigned to any
given language, if it can he ascertained to possess one or other of
these three characters — isolation, agglutination, inflection. Thus
the Semitic group is eminently inflectional, although agglutination
occurs, for instance, in the pronominal prefixes and suffixes of the
verb, and even in the development of the derivative voices. Hence
M. Chavee was, to a certain extent, right in treating as defective
the name that has been given to the intermediate class. In truth,
however far the formative elements may become fused, the moment
that there are as many distinct roots as there are principal and
relational ideas, agglutination is established. From this point of
view Sanskrit in no way differs from Magyar. In our sixth and
concluding chapter we shall speak of the encroachments of one
class on another, and of the absolute certainty of the progressive
order of succession from the monosyllabic, through the agglutinative,
to the inflectional state.
The number of agglutinating idioms is vast, but in them agglu-
tination assumes every possible phase and variety. If, therefore, we
have to establish a secondary morphological division, it cannot be
based exclusively on the intensity, or greater or less amount of ag-
glutination in these tongues. Account must also be carefully taken
of the usual order in which the formative elements occur, that is,
of then- more or less marked tendency to be placed in the beginning,
at the end, or even in the body of the primary word. Such, doubt-
less, was Schleicher's view, when he refused to recognise a fourth
category, formed by the American idioms.
What, then, is this polysyntliesis, or incorporation, which we are
asked to accept as constituting a fourth type of human speech?
Here is what Fr. Miiller says on the subject, in his " Allgemeine
Ethnowraphie : " " The American tongues, taken as a whole, rest on
the principle of polysynthesis, or incorporation. While, in our lan-
guages, the isolated conceptions bound together in the sentence are
represented by separate words, they are, on the contrary, in the
Chap.it.] SECOND FOKM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 127
American idioms, joined together in one indivisible whole ; conse-
quently, here word and sentence are confused (or become convertible
terms)."
The polysynthetic theorists give, as special features of these lan-
guages, the folloATing peculiarities : Fusion of the pronouns, and
even of the direct object with the verb ; nominal possessive conjuga-
tion ; verbal modification to express a change of object or greater
emphasis in the action of the verb ; lastly, indefinite composition
by means of syncope and contraction.
The first and second of these pretended characteristics Avill not
stand the test of a moment's criticism. In truth, the nominal pos-
Bessive conjugation is common to the Semitic group and to many
agglutinating tongues in the Old World. The Algonquin nirda*
w ma, my sister, and the Iroquois onMasita, the foot of us two, are
formed on the same principle as the Hebrew sl-i, my God, and the
Magyar atyar-nh, our father ; although here the formative elements
are not placed quite in the same way. As to the verbal modifica-
tions, intended to vary the meaning of the action, Duponceau
quotes, after Molina, the Chilian dun, to give ; eluguen, to give
: i luduamm, to wish to give ; eluzquen, to seem to give ; elit-
. to be able to give, &c. But does not this very example
ible exactly analogous Turkish forms? Besides, in many ag-
glutinating idioms, we find traces of similar derivatives closely
abling the voices of the Semitic verb. Instances have already
Aven from the Dravidian languages and from the Basque.
More weight might, perhaps, be attached to the third charac-
teristic; that is, the fact that the verb varies with its object. In
Cherokee, for example, kutawo means, •• I wash myself;" kuka^jnu,
"I wash my face;" tsekusquo, "I wash another's face.;" takung-
l.-.i '■>. •• I wash my clothe- : '' takldeyti, "1 wash Wishes," &c. In
I ,jucuru is " to eat bread ;" jemeri, "to eat fruit, honey;"
janeri, "to eat cooked food," &c. In Lenape, and Chippeway, there
are differenl verba for "to eat soup," ami "to eat pap." But are
of composition by jyncope? If so, they present a
;,. thai we shall have presently to examine. If aot, we can see
nothing in this phenomenon beyond that repugnance to abstraction,
128 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap, rv,
that absence of general ideas already observed in many of the
agglutinating tongues.
The objective pronouns are joined to the verb by processes
analogous to that of nominal conjugation. Hence this feature
prevails also amongst those idioms that blend the possessive affixes
"with the noun. Here Basque presents a striking exception, as it
rejects nominal affixes altogether. On the other hand, its " objec-
tive" conjugation is richer than that of any other European or
Asiatic language. In fact, it incorporates with the verb not oidy
the direct pronominal object — me, thee, him — but the indirect also,
whilst Mordvinian (Uralo-Altaic group) is able to express the three
persons as direct objects only. Wogulic, of the same group, but
less wealthy in forms, incorporates the second and third persons
only, and Magyar, showing still greater poverty, can, in principle,
render the third person only in this way. But these different
languages have what the Basque has not, that is the verb by itself,
and independent of its object. In the Semitic group the con-
jugations "by pronouns affixed "are in any case real objective
conjugations. The Hebrew sabagtani = thou hast forsaken me ; the
Magyar latlak = I see him ; the Basque demogu = we give it to him ;
and the Iroquois kheiawis = I give to them, so far as concerns their
formation, differ only in the order of the elements composing the
word.
As to the incorporation of nouns with the verb, said to be an
ordinary feature of the American idioms, we cannot at the moment
quote a more pregnant example than the Algonquin nadholineen =
bring us the canoe, made up of vaten = to bring, amochol = canoe,
i euphonic, and neen = to us ; or the Chippeway word soghrinjimti-
zoyan = ii I do not take the hand, in which sogendt = to take,
and oninjina = hand, are components. Formations of this sort are
but simple extensions of the principle by which the verb incor-
porates its object. It has been justly remarked that certain
locutions in the modern Bomance languages are genuine instances
of rudimentary incorporation. When the Italian says portandovi =
taking to you, portandovelo = taking it to you, and the Gascon
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 129
deche-m droumi=let me sleep, the process recalls the incorporating
method of the Basque and the American idioms.*
We hold, in fact, with Mr. Sayce, that polysynthesis must be
distinguished from incorporation, which last should be reserved for
the phenomena that we have just examined, and which, as we have
seen, are neither peculiar to the American tongues nor important
enough to justify the creation of a fourth great morphological
category. Mr. Sayce is even of opinion that there is much greater
difference between incorporation and polysynthesis than between
incorporation and inflection.
We shall therefore express by polysynthesis the last feature
appealed to as peculiar to the American idioms, that is the hide-
finite composition of words by syncope and ellipsis. This is
certainly the most important character, and is that which Fr. Miiller
describes in the above-quoted passage. Duponceau, who does not
confuse incorporation with polysynthesis, gives this last as the
distinctive mark of the languages of the !New World, and he assures
us that he has met with it in all the idioms known to him from
Greenland to Chili. They all blend together a great number of
ideas under the form of one and the same word. This word,
generally of considerable length, is an agglomeration of diverse
others, often reduced to a single intercalated letter. Thus the
Greenland iiiilisiiri'irfni-asuarpdk, he hastened to go fishing, is formed
of aulisar, to Bah, peartor, to be engaged in anything, pinnesuarpok,
* But there is a wide difference between the two. The former incor-
porate the pronominal element only, while the latter incorporate the nominal
object also. Hence the one is limited to the few possible combinations of
verb and pronoun, while the other is practically unlimited, the number of
i do nouns capable of being blended with the verb being numberless.
If the Italian could melt down into one word the phrase portandovi il bastone,
fetching the Btiob to you, and say, for instance, portaridovilstone, the analogy
fronld 1c; bo far complete between it and the American process. But even
then only so far, because in point of fact the American tongues fuse to-
gether whole sentences, including verb, nominal object, pronominal subject,
and indirect object, conjunctions, conditional, honorific, euphonic, and other
formative elements. It is this iiiiii-i-rsiiUt y of the process that seems to con-
stitute the real di tinotion between the polysynthctic and the agglutina-
ting systems. — Note by Translator.
K
130 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
he hastens. The Algonquin amawjanachqiumiurld, broad-leaved
oaks, is formed of amangi, great, large, nachk, hand, quim, ending
of names of shell-fruit, and ackpansi, trunk of a tree. The Mexican
notlazomahuizteopixcaMtzin, my beloved, honoured, revered, priestly-
father, is made up of no, my, tlazotli, beloved, mahuitztic,
honoured, teopixqui (from Teotl, God, and pia, to keep guard),
priestly, tatl't, father, and tzin, a reverential ending.* The Chippeway
totochabo, wine, is formed of toto, milk, and clwmindbo, bunch of
grapes.
Polysynthesis, therefore, consists of composition by contraction ;
some of the components losing their first, others their last syllables.
Consequently there is this difference between incorporation and
polysynthesis, that the process of the latter is essentially syntac-
tical. Incorporation belongs to the period of development, while
polysynthesis took its rise during the historic life of the lan-
guage.
Hence polysynthesis is not a primitive feature, but an expansion,
or, if you will, a second phase of agglutination, offering insufficient
grounds for constituting the American idioms in a separate class.
They will simply be placed last in the ascending order of the
agglutinating series. For instance, we shall have, in the first place, the
Dravidian group, with its scanty grammatical forms ; then the some-
what more developed Mandchu, the Turkish already incorporating ;
after which the Finnic tongues in this order : Suomi, Magyar, Wogulic,
Mordvinian, all incorporating ; then the Basque, of which more
farther on, and which is incorporating with polysynthetic tendencies ;
lastly, the American languages, which are incorporating and poly-
synthetic. But tliis progressive arrangement no more proves the
original parentage of these different tongues, than do certain common
features that of the amentacea and the conifera.
Besides, the historic stage once reached, all languages might be-
come polysynthetic, and in a great many of them there are forms
*Hervas, "Idea dell' Universo," xviii. ; also the Translator's "English
Language," p. 49 of enlarged edition, 1875.
Chap.it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 131
of expression quite analogous to the contractions of the American
tongues. Thus in German, beim = bei dent, in or by the ; zur = zu
dt r, at or to the ; in current French mamzelle for ma demoiselle.
[But see Translator's note at p. 129.]
As Duponceau has well observed, these contractions are readily-
produced in compound words in current use, which have gradually-
become simple words, whose original complex nature has been
forgotten. In Europe the Basque seems to have made the greatest
use of this process, and it is on this account that, in a progressive
morphological arrangement of the agglutinating languages, it may
be placed between the Uralo- Altaic and the American idioms.
It is impossible to notice, even in the most summary way, all
the different languages above enumerated. While, therefore, occa-
sionally alluding to the others, we shall confine ourselves to a
general sketch of the two more important groups in Xorth America
— the Algonquin and the Iroquois. These are not related to each
other, offering noteworthy differences both as regards their phonetic
and formative systems.
Algonquin, spoken in Canada and in the north of the United
-. is subdivided into some thirty dialects, the principal of
which arc the MiJcmak, in Canada, ]S T ova Scotia, and neighbouring
ms; Abenaki, in Maine and Massachusetts; Narragam&ets in
Rhode Island ; and Mohican, in Connecticut. The Languages of
l ida proper: Algonquin, properly so called; ChippewaytxOjibway-,
Ottawa, .'/' nomeni, and ( V- e.
The Iroquois tribes occupy the western portion of the state of
5Tork, and generally the southern shores of the great lakes.
They may 1"- subdivided into the Onondago, Seneca, Oneida,
/■i. and Tu&corora.
The Algonquin phonetic system is poor, ami tin' Iroquois poorer
still. They have our vowels, a, e, i, <>, some dialects adding u ; also
the two semi-vowels, y and w, the second changing to a sorl of
labial sibilant. This Is the Bound that the missionaries transcribe
by the cipher 8. undejr the pretext that thi tnbles the
'■: 8, while, the French huit expresses the sound in question,
k 2
132 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
But the use of this 8 gives the strangest appearance to the American
texts in which it occurs.*
Algonquin possesses the two gutturals Jc, g, whilst Iroquois has
one only, sometimes transcribed by g, sometimes by 1c. Both have
the palatal ch, and some Algonquin dialects j also. Algonquin
employs t and d, Iroquois t only, and it has no labials, while Algon-
quin has p and b. Both have the nasals belonging to their respective
explosives, and I and r, always interchangeable and often indistinct.
In Algonquin there are numerous sibilants, h, ch hard (German),
s, z, and French j. But in Iroquois, h and s alone occur, / being
restricted to some dialectic varieties. Both have three nasal vowels :
an, en, on. The only sound presenting any difficulty to Europeans
seems to be the w placed before a consonant. On this, Duponceau
remarks : " It is like ou in the French out, but followed imme-
diately by a consonant, and uttered without any intermediate rest,
for which reason it is called sibilant ou or w, because, in fact, we
must pronounce it with a whistle. The same utterance exists in
Abenaki, but, instead of being labial, as in Lenape, it is guttural,
being pronounced from the depths of the throat .... It occurs
neither in Algonquin proper nor in Chippeway, and iu OttaAva ou
takes its place. Thus, whilst a Lenape says w'danis, his daughter
(with a Avhistle), the Ottawa will say oudanis."
He further observes that the Algonquins articulate very distinctly,
pronouncing the vowels very openly, the short with the sharp, the
Ion" with the grave accent, the last syllable of the phrase being
uttered with great energy. The South American pronunciation is
rougher than that of the North.
Many American tongues, notably Algonquin and Iroquois, do
not distinguish the verb from the noun, the verb being nothing but
* The names of a team of Iroquois Indians, who played the Canadian
o-ame of " La Crosse," before the Queen at Windsor, during last summer,
appeared in the periodicals at the time in this wise : Aton8a Tekanennao-
8iheu (Hickory Wood Split) ; Sha8atis Anasotako (Pick the Feather) ; Sha-
8atis Aientonni (Hole in the Sky) ; 8ishe Taiennontii (Flying Name) ; Aton8a
TeronkoSa (The Loon) ; 8ishe Ononsanoron (Deer House), &c. — Note by
Translator.
Chap. i\\] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 133
a noun accompanied by suffixes denoting possession. This seems to
us somewhat the case with the agglutinating languages generally,
and we have shown how the Dravidian verb may take nominal
suffixes, just as the noun itself is declined by means of pronominal
suffixes.
The article, which some writers do not recognise, Duponceau
detects at least in Algonquin. It is, as is usually the case, a
demonstrative pronoun, monko (in Massachusetts), reduced to m
prefixed. But its presence is now so little felt, that it is retained
concurrently with the possessive affixes. Thus the Chippeway says
mittig, tree, and hi mittig, thy tree; and the Lenape liittul; tree ;
m'hittulc, the tree; and Ic'hittuJ:, his tree. The article occurs in
other idioms also, as in Iroquois ne, and in Othomi na, but it has
often been overlooked, owing to the tendency of those languages
towards determinating forms, causing the nouns to be always
accompanied by a possessive affix.
In Algonquin there is no distinction of gender, while in Iroquois
there are two genders, called by the grammarians noble and ignoble ;
tli- first being applied to divinities and to the male of the human
race, the seeond to everything else. But in the declension there are
particles or different affixes for animate and inanimate beings.
The nominal conjugation, or rather, as above explained, the
posses-ive derivative, is formed by the addition of the pronominal
ate to the beginning of the noun, tin- adjective being always in-
variable, and placed, in Algonquin, before the qualified "word. Thus,
kuligatchis, thy pretty little paw, is formed of/,-/, thy, voulit, pretty,
wichgat, paw, and the diminutive cMs', and Kitanittowit, the Great
Spirit, of kita, anitu, spirit, and the adjectival ending wit.
The Algonquin verb may he either absolute, that is, without an
object; transitive, that is, with a direcl object; or passive. A great
number of moods have \>a-n wrongly ascribed to it, there 1» ing, in
reality, none al all, or at most a conditional, formed by the insertion
of a particle. The Iroquois verb i al o absolute, reflective, recip-
rocal, passive, and transitive, with direct and indirect object.
There would al bo be in some idioms traces of a so-called
sexual conjugation. Thn . in Abenaki, a man would say nenanan*
134 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
basanbai, -where a -woman would say nenananbaseskouai, I am not
very intelligent. Thanks to such numerous variations, one begins
to see how the English missionary, Edwin James, came to credit the
Chippe-way verb with six or eight thousand forms.
Algonquin and Iroquois are no more able than are the Dravidian
tongues to express the absolute sense of to be and to have. Thus
the sentence, I am a man, in Xarragansets will be ninin = l man ;
and in Lenape, lenno n' hackey = a man my body. The question,
Whose is this canoe ? is in Ottowa watchimdnei = to whom canoe 1 ?
In Menomeni, wahotosoydwik = who owns canoe 1 ?
Altogether the vocabulary of these idioms is very poor, lacking,
as might be supposed, nearly all the abstract terms, which are
replaced either by words from English, French, Spanish, and even
German, or else by developed periphrases, often spoken of by
grammarians as words of ten or twelve syllables.
In the Algonquin dialects the five first numerals are simple
words, and these alone seem to be primitive. "Ten" seems to be
" five more " (than five) ; a hunched, " ten times ten ;" and a thou-
sand " the great ten of tens." Iroquois, on the contrary, seems to
have reckoned as far as ten.
Many curious remarks might be made on the terms of relation-
ship, which in Iroquis, for instance, are very numerous. They
have been arranged in categories — superior consanguinity, as father,
mother ; inferior, as son, younger brother ; superior affinity, as
father-in-law ; inferior, as daughter-in-law. Collateral connections,
as brother-in-law, &c.
The Dravidian group is also remarkably rich in words of this
sort, distinguishing, for instance, the elder from the junior brothers,
just as in Basque a woman's sister is distinguished from a man's.
The cause of these intricacies is, we have no doubt, the lack of
general expressions, which is a usual feature of inferior languages,
though not unfrequently mistaken for wealth by writers on ethno-
graphy and geography.
Notwithstanding the length of these remarks, we shoidd have
liked, did our space afford it, to give some further illustrations, and
analyse some complete sentences. The American languages con-
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 135
tinue to give occasion to such unscientific •writings that their connec-
tion with the other agglutinating tongues cannot be too much
insisted upon. We trust, hoAvever, that the distinction has been
made perfectly clear between the terms polysynthesis and incor-
poration, the misunderstanding of which may and does give rise to
many serious errors.
§ 17. — The Sub-Arctic Languages.
Under this geographic designation are comprised all the idioms
spoken in the Arctic regions.
Tukagirie, the speech of about 1,000 persons in the north-east
of Siberia, immediately east of Yakutic, which belongs to the
Turkish group.
Ghukchik (Asiatic), and Koryak, still further east, in the extreme
north-east of Siberia. These two idioms are nearly akin to each
other.
Kamchadale, in the south of the peninsula;* still farther south,
in the Kuriles and northern islands of the Japanese Archipelego,
the language of the AinosA
Ghilial; on the mainland opposite.
Ostyak-Ti nisei and Kotte, in the heart of Siberia.
Innuit dialects, spoken by the Eskimos along the northern coast
of America. Related to them is the American Chukchik, on the
north-west coast, and not to be confounded with the Asiatic Chuk-
chik above mentioned.
Ah idian dialects, essentially different from the Innuit.
But although grouped under one common designation, we cannot,
on that account, form any conclusion as to the greater or less affinity
of these languages, either amongst themselves or with any other
idioms. On this subject there is still room for many hypotheses ;
•See"The I Sthnograp hie Chart of Kamchatka," by C.deDittmar," Bulletins
of ih" Bistorical, Philological, and Political Beotion of the St. Petersburg
Academy," viii. p. 107. St. Peteri burg, 1856.
t Pfizmaier, "I eberden Baa der Aino.Spraohe," " Bulletins of the Vienna
Acadomy," vii. p. 382. Vienna, 1851.
136 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
but it is probable that some of them will permanently resist any
attempts that may be made to classify them with any other better-
known groups.
§ 18. — Languages of the Caucasus.
Frequent futile attempts have been made to identify these idioms
both with the Aryan and the Semitic system. We agree with
Fr. Muller in regarding them as an entirely distinct group, different
even from the TJralo- Altaic. They are divided into two branches —
the Northern and the Southern.
Tlie Northern Division extends along the northern slopes of the
Caucasus, between the Caspian and the northern shores of the
Black Sea, as far as the Straits of Yenicale, and comprises three
distinct sub-branches : the Lesgian in Daghestan, bordering on
the Caspian, and numbering about 400,000 souls; the Kistian,
central, and much less considerable than the previous ; the Cher-
Jcessian, or Circassian, occupying nearly half of the entire north-
west of the Caucasus, and nearly as numerous as the two foregoing
groups.
In the Lesgian are included the Avare, Khasia-Kumuk or Laic,
Alcusha, Kurine, Tide, and other dialects.
The Kistian group comprises the Ingush or Lamur, Karabuldk,
Chechenze, Tush or Mosok, which last, though belonging to the
Northern Division, is spoken south of the Caucasus towards the
source of the Alasan. The various Kistian idioms are spoken
altogether by about 140,000 individuals. Formerly the Circassians
numbered about 500,000, but large numbers of them have in
recent times migrated to European Turkey.
The Southern Divison comprises Georgian, Suanian, Mingrelian,
and Lazian. The Suanian lies north-east of the Georgian, and the
Mingrelian lies south of the Suanian and west of the Georgian.
Lazian is spoken still farther to the south, in Lazistan, a province
of Asiatic Turkey, on the south-east coast of the Black Sea.
These last four languages would seem to derive from a common
source, but their affinity with the Northern Division is far from
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 137
having been established. Xor has the relationship of the idioms
of this division itself been even yet made clear, although several of
the Caucasian tongues have been carefully studied, notably by
Schiefner, in the ''Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy."
They are all of them obviously agglutinating, the idea of case being
expressed in the usual way by suffixes, between which and the root
is inserted the element denoting number. Occasionally, hoAvever,
the derivative element precedes the root, as from busiani = garden,
mebustani = gardener, pmri = bread, mepuri = baker.
§ 19. — On some little-known Idioms classified with the
Agglutinating Languagt s.
We have just mentioned those sub-Arctic idioms which have no
known connection with any other group, which seem to differ even
from each other in the most decided manner, but which, by their
structure, belong all of them to the agglutinating class.
We have now to say a few words on those sorts of languages that
have been also classed amongst the agglutinating, but concerning
which we possess such unsatisfactory and contradictory information
that they must be spoken of with the greatest reserve. Some of
these are still spoken, such as the Brahui ; whilst others are extinct,
such as that of the second column of the trilingual cuneiform
inscriptions, and the so-called Sumerian or Accadian tongue.
(1) Sinhalese or Elu.
Sinhalese, spoken by the indigenous population in the southern
districts of Ceylon, is an agglutinating language — by some writers,
on insufficient grounds, connected with the Dravidian group, and
with still Less probability, by R. C. Childers, with the Sanskrit;
though it cannot be denied that it has borrowed largely from that
source.
The Kin consonantal system is tolerably rich • possessing, besides
the ordinary explosives, the lingual explosives t,d, and the fricatives
ch f j.
Number is expressed l>y the addition of sundry particles, vol, hu t
138 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap.it.
Id, and others, some being reserved for animate, others for inanimate
beings. The cases also are denoted by suffixes : geval = the houses,
gehi = in the house, geoalM-va. the houses.
Amongst the numerous Sanskrit elements in Sinhalese, that of
the numerals is one of the most striking. Sanskritists will readily
recognise Sanskrit or Pali forms in the Sinhalese eka = one, deka =
two, tuna= three, hatara = four, pdha=* fire.
The Sinhalese writing system is of Dravidian origin.
(2) Munda.
The language of the Kols, or Kolhs (south-west of Calcutta),
would seem, like Sinhalese, to be independent of the Dravidian
group.
(3) Brdhui,
Spoken in the neighbourhood of Kelat, in the north-east corner
of Beluchistan. Although largely imbued with Sanskrit and
Arabic terms, it would seem to be related to the Dravidian family.
(4) The Pretended Scythian Language.
The term Scythian has been used in two different ways, having
been applied both to a particular people and to a collection of tribes
more or less related together. In the first case some one definite
Scythian language and people is implied; in the second will be
understood not one, but many Scythian races and languages. The
first opinion has found but few defenders, while the second has
contrived to seduce even such competent authorities, for instance, as
"Whitney, who has given to the Uralo- Altaic group the name of
Scythian, a term applied by the Greeks if not to all, at least to
many of the nomad tribes dwelling on the north-east.*
But this appellation seems to us much too vague. It is,
doubtless, very likely that the ancients included in it more than
one tribe belonging to the Uralo-Altaic group, although no direct
* " Language and the Study of Language," third edition, p. 309. London,
1870.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION, 139
proof can be advanced in support of the statement.* But, on the
other hand, it seems quite certain that they also gave the name of
Scythians to races speaking Aryan tongues ; as, for instance, the
Scythians of Pontus, whose language, as Miillenhoff has endeavoured
to show, seems to have been Iranian.
Several writers have, with some probability, considered that a
section of the Scythians spoke an idiom akin to the Slavonic
group. t In a word, we agree with Frederick Midler | that Scythian
is merely a geographical expression, answering to no definite idea
of race or language. Scythia is simply the north of Europe and of
Asia, and the Scythian races are the nomad tribes inhabiting those
regions. Hence it seems to us at least somewhat rash to speak of
a Scythian language, or even of a Scythian group, and give this
name, whose origin is otherwise very obscure, to the collective body
of the Uralo-Altaiic tongues.
(5) The Language of the Second Column of the Cuneiform
Inscriptions.
The first column of the triglott inscriptions of the time of the
Achamienides, as is well known, is composed in Old Persian ; and
this was the first to be deciphered. The third column, which was
not interpreted for a long time after the first, is in Assyrian, a
Semitic dialect.
To the language of the second column various names have been
given j amongst others, those of Median and Scythian. This last,
proposed and employed by Eawlinson§ and iNorris, || is far too
vague to be applied to any definite Idiom, as explained in the
* Schicfner, " Sprachliche Bcdcnken gegen das Mongolenthum der
Skvthen," " Melanges Asiatiquos," ii. p. 531. 1856.
+ See Gr. Krek, " Einlcitung in die Slavische Litex&tnrgesohichte und
Darstellung ihrer iilteren Period," i. p. 36, Graz, 1871; also Fr. Spiegel,
Lsche AliiTihumskundc," i. p. '.VA'.\ and following, Leipzig, 1873.
J "Allgemeine Ethnographie," p. 851. Vienna, lsT.'i.
§ "Notes on the Early History of Babylonia," in "Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society," xv. p. 215.
|| "Memoir on the Soythio Version of the Behistnn Inscription," "Journal
of the Koyal Asiatic Society," xv. p. 1. London, 1853.
140 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. rv.
foregoing paragraph. That of Median seems more suitable ; and
in its favour is urged the fact that certain inscriptions composed in
the language of the second column of these monuments have also
been found in the regions of Ancient Media, unaccompanied by
Iranian or Assyrian versions. The three languages of these rock
inscriptions, it is added, must have been those of the three prin-
cipal nations of the empire. But the first being Persian and
the third Assyrian, the second could have been no other than
Medic*
iSTorris held this so-called Median as a member of the Uralo-
Alta'ic group, closely allied to Magyar, Ostyak, Permian, and others
of the same family. Mordtmann also made it an Uralo-Altaic
language, grouping it, however, with the Turkish or Tatar branch, t
and assuming the intrusion at different epochs of a certain number
of Aryan elements. He gave it the name of the language of
Susiana.
Oppert also has discussed this matter, j and, after adopting the
term Scythie, has finally decided in favour of Medic, regarding it
as the language of the Median dynasty, which seems to have
reigned from 788 to 560 B.C., and to have differed both in language
and religion from the dynasty of the Achtemenides. However,
Oppert prudently avoids connecting the language in question either
with the Uralo-Altaic or with the Sumerian.
But the question ultimately hangs on these two points : Does
the language of the second column belong to the Uralo-Altaic group %
Is this language that of the Medes ? On the first we can un-
hesitatingly answer with Spiegel § that the language in question
has not yet been deciphered. The above-mentioned writers, to
whom may be added some others, such as Westergaard, are far from
having induced all competent judges to accept their opinion on the
* Benfey, " Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft und Orientalischen Philo-
logie in Deutschland," p. 633. Munich, 1869.
f " Ueber die Keilinscnriften zweiter Gattung, Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," xxiv. p. 76. Leipzig, 1870.
t Ibid.
§ " Eranische Alterthiimsknnde," i. p. 381. Leipzig, 1871.
Chap, iv.] SECOND FOEM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 141
Finnic or Tatar character of this tongue, nor has Caldwell been
more successful with his assumed Dravidian affinity. In the
present state of the question it therefore seems wise to await the
results of further research.
Besides, it seems somewhat rash to look on the ancient Medes as
a people of Uralo- Altaic, origin. Spiegel is vmable to adopt this
view, and it must be confessed that his arguments are very formid-
able against it. The evidence of Herodotus is explicit, and that of
Strabo no less so ; and they both regard the Medes as Aryans.
Moreover, their proper names and geographical terms can all be
interpreted, not by the Finnic or Turkic, but by the Iranian
tongues.*
It seems, therefore, reasonable, pending further information, to
abstain from at all classifying or giving any special name to the
language of the second column of the cuneiform rock inscriptions.
(6) TJie so-called Sumerian or Accadian Language.
Some twenty years ago it was supposed that a race speaking an
agglutinating idiom had occupied the Babylonian plains before the
Assyrians, and that Semitic civilisation had gained a footing in the
country by grafting itself on to this anterior civilisation. To this
language Hincks gave the name of Accadian, which, though pro-
posed by him with all reserve, seems now to enjoy a certain
amount of favour. < >ppert, however, takes Accadian to be
absolutely synonymous with Assyrian, both simply implying the
Semitic speeeh <>i Nineveh and Babylon, the language of the
third column of the Achaemenidian cuneiform inscriptions. To
the race that La assumed to have preceded the Semites in Assyria,
and to have transmitted to them their cuneiform letters and their
civilisation, Oppert gives the name of Kasdo-Scythic, ox.Suin&rian y
and calls their Language Sumerian. We shall not attempt to decide
the point at issue.
The champions of the Sumerian, or of the Accadian theory, as
the case may be, assume that this language disappeared at a certain
* Spiegel, Op. cit., i. p. 381.
142 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
crisis, but that the so-called " Turanian " priests carefully preserved
it in the practice of their religion. From this there was needed
but one step to set about restoring the language in question, by
means of monuments, where this pretended "Turanian" text,
written in Assyrian cuneiform characters, was supposed to be
accompanied by an interlinear Assyrian version. The step was
taken, and the doctrine was proclaimed that the forerunners of the
Assyrian Semites on Babylonian soil had spoken an Uralo-Altaic
tongue, more specially allied to the Finnic group ; that they had
reached a high state of culture ; that they had communicated to
the Assyrian immigrants their cuneiform graphic system ; lastly,
that before losing their own language they had initiated the new
comers into a civilisation which these latter had not, therefore,
arrived at independently.
This Sumerian theory was not of a nature to be accepted off-
hand, and after twenty round years since its announcement it can
scarcely be said to have yet hopelessly routed the objections of its
opponents. On the contrary, not satisfied with merely assailing it,
M. Joseph Halevy* has recently attempted an interpretation of
the texts totally different from that of the " Accadians." He first
of all set himself to show that the language in question has
nothing in common with those of the Uralo-Altaic family, from
which its phonetic system differs widely, while its roots have
neither the same form nor the same use. Moreover, the manner of
formino- words is quite different — the pronouns have nothing in
common, the conjugation is constructed on essentially different con-
ditions, and, lastly, the two vocabularies do not bear serious compari-
son. There are scarcely a dozen so-called Accadian words that can
be at all made to answer to a corresponding number brought
together from the various Finnic tongues. Halevy, therefore, holds
that the presence of an Uralo-Altaic speaking people on Mesopo-
tamian soil has been proved neither by the monuments, which all
belong to Semitic art, nor by the geographical names (also Semitic),
nor yet by the evidence of writers.
* " Observations Critiques sur les pretendus Touraniens de la Babylonie,"
" Journal Asiatique." June, 1874.
Chap, it.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 14S
In fact, the Accadian texts would seem to be Assyrian, pure
and simple, no longer written with a phonetic system, but by means
of monograms artificially combined. In other words, we would
have, in both cases, nothing but Assyrian, the so-called Sumerian
texts being merely written in an ideographic instead of a phonetic
graphic system.
Let us, however, hasten to say that M. Halevy's theory, especially
in its positive statements, does not seem to us at all convincing.
We do not, of course, say that it is absolutely improbable, but we
cannot admit as conclusive the proofs on which it relies. But we
do not on that account accept the Sumerian or Accadian theory,
on which, till better informed, we shall continue to hold the same
views that M. Kenan does.*
There can be no doubt that before the arrival of the Assyrians
and of the Iranians, Babylonia had already been the field of a true
civilisation, which, adds M. Benan, very probably possessed, and
even invented the cuneiform manner of writing. But to convert
their speech into an Uralo-Altai'c language passes all reasonable
bounds. There were good grounds to feel surprised at seeing
"this ancient underlying Babylonish culture credited to the
Turkish, Finnic, or Hungarian races — races that have scarcely
ever been able to do aught but destroy, and who have never
created a civilisation of their own. Truth, however, may at times
seem unlikely, and if they can prove to us that Turks, Finns,
and Hungarians really were the founders of the most powerful
and the most intelligent of the ante-Semitic and ante-Aryan civi-
lisations, we shall believe — for all <) priori considerations must yield
1o ') posteriori arguments. But the strength of such proofs must
be in proportion to the unlikelihood of the wsue." Let us add,
that whatever may be constantly said to the contrary, these proofs
}, | ■■ ■ ,• .1 been supplied. We are quite ready to accept the
Sumerian, and class it with the agglutinating idioms, ami even
attach it to the Finnic group \ but we awail conclusive arguments,
a genuine grammar — not a of etymologies which cannot.
* "Journal AHiatique," p. 42. July, L87S.
144 SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. [Chap. iv.
advance the question a single step. Much — too much, perhaps — is
already written on the Accadian theory, whereas a short hut methodic
work might suffice to cause it to he accepted. Such a demonstra-
tion may he near at hand, hut so far it has not appeared. The
defenders of the Sumerian theory must, ahove all, he perfectly
familiar with the phonetics, the structure, and the special vocabu-
lary of the Uralo-Altaic idioms, which can scarcely be said to be
the case with all those that have written upon the subject.
§ 20. — The Theory of the Turanian Languages.
During the formative stage of new sciences, while the chief
object still is to group and classify the first secured results, there
often arise some of those general theories alluring to minds fond
of the simple and the easy, but which are doomed, soon or late,
to collapse hopelessly before the onward march of sound criticism.
Philology has not escaped from such theories, amongst the most
eccentric of which may be included that of a Turanian Family,
which, notwithstanding its improbability, still continues to enjoy
a certain credit. This theory may be said to have two essential
qualities. It is at once indefensible and pretentious. Before
speaking of its origin and its name, let us see wherein it consists.
And in the first place it is necessary to distinguish between two
varieties of the Turanian school — the absolute and the moderate
party.
The first, or the orthodox, school holds that all languages that
are neither Aryan, Semitic, nor Hamitic, constitute a "Turanian"
group. The idioms of this group would have in common not only
a certain amount of structural processes, but also a large number of
roots. There would therefore thus be a common language, a
Turanian mother-tongue. In some indefinite and unexplained way,
there are admitted into this group two great divisions, a Northern
and a Southern ; the first comprising the already-described Uralo-
Altaic idioms, the second not only all the other agglutinating
tongues, but also the monosyllabic languages of the extreme East.
The second, or heterodox, party may be divided into two varie-
Chap, iv.] SECOND FORM OF SPEECH— AGGLUTINATION. 115
ties. The first, strictly speaking, no longer believes in the Turanian
theory proper, but by a sort of conservative instinct would like to
preserve at least the name of the thing. This they apply to our
Cralo- Altaic family, including all its five groups, as above ex-
plained.
The second variety, less daring than the previous one, makes the
Turanian group consist not only of the Uralo- Altaic tongues, but
also of the 1 )raviilian, the Malayo-Polynesian, the Tibetan, and the
Siamese. We are simply stating the case, without criticising, hence
are not called upon to ask why Chinese is excluded, together with
the Annamese, the Eurman, the Caucasian tongues, the Basque, the
Nubian and Fula groups, the Corean, the Japanese, the American,
the sub- Arctic, Australian, African, Hottentot, and New Guinea
languages.
This theory, we have said, is essentially deceptive, calculated to
mislead the credulous, or those who lack time and the means of
testing for themselves the statements advanced in the name of
science itself. Some venerable patriarch, " Tur," is assumed to have
given birth to a race, whose speech would thus be the common
mother-tongue of the various so-called Turanian idioms. A Persian
legend was skilfully grafted on to this invention, nor did Iudaico-
Christian orthodoxy fail to discount a theory which, though utterly
unsupported by any serious argument, did not on that account seem
the less acceptable, since it readily accommodated itself to the
teachings of Holy Writ,
If there is one fact better verified than another it is thai which
Schleicher, Whitney, and so many others with them have clearly
shown, namely, that these pretended Turanian languages have bul
one thing in common the whiiasic.il name conferred on thcin.
The general structure of Basque, Japanese, and Magyar, is doubt-
iir. They all suffix to the noun perfectly analogou
ments, thai is, they are all, in a word, agglutinating. Bui the
elements constituting the common fcoct of each are different, and
their roots incapable of being reduced to unity. It is in vain
boldly to proclaim th'-ir common origin or identity, while we are
unable even remotely to reduce them to a common form.
i.
146 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
The Turanian theory cannot therefore he taken seriously. Begot
of much assumption, it vanishes hefore a very little criticism.
Hence it is to he regretted that, while condemning it, certain authors
should do the name of Turanian the honour of looking on it as a
thing that can he no longer got rid of. It is hy this very con-
descension that it may acquire fresh vitality, and possihly succeed
in establishing itself permanently. The hest means of combating it
is therefore, perhaps, to pass it over in silence. The unlucky term
" Semitic " answers at least to a well-defined collection of definite
facts, and can he accepted without any reserve. But that of
" Turanian " and " Turanian tongues " is only calculated to per-
petuate serious misconceptions.*
CHAPTER V.
THIRD FORM OP SPEECH INFLECTION.
"We have now reached the third and last form of articulate
speech — inflection. We have seen that during the monosyllabic
period root and word were one, the sentence being a mere
series of monosyllabic roots isolated one from the other. In the
second phase we saw that certain roots, passing from the position
of independent words to that of mere suffixes or prefixes, serve
henceforth to express the relations only, whether active or passive,,
of the roots that have retained their full meaning.
In the first stage, the formrda of the word, as already explained,
is simply R, and that of the sentence R + R + R, &c, R standing
for the root. If we represent by r those roots whose sense has
* The term " Turanian " continues to hold its ground in popular English
works on ethnology, as in Dr. R. Brown's " Races of Mankind," the fourth
and last volume of -which has recently appeared. In it the human race is
divided into the following groups, an arrangement which, it need scarcely
be remarked, is utterly irreconcilable with any intelligible philological
distribution: 1. American ; 2. Oceanic ; 3. Turanian; 4. Persian ; 5. Indian ;
6. African; 7. Caucasian; 8. European. — Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 147
become obscured, and which thus pass to the state of prefixes and
suffixes, we shall have as formulae of the words in the second
period, Eb, Err, rE, rEr, and such like analogous combinations.
Two systems of languages, the Semito-Hamitic and the Aryan,
after passing through the monosyllabic and the agglutinating
phases successively, arrived at last, and independently of each
other, at the third or inflecting state.
§ l.—W7tat is Inflection?
Its essence consists in the power of the root to express, by a
modification of its own form, its various relations to other roots.
In an inflecting language, however, the roots of all words are not
necessarily mo lifted, remaining at times such as they were in the
agglutinating stage, but they may be modified. Languages in
which relations may thus be expressed, not only by suffixes and
prefixes, but also by a modification of the form of the roots, are
inflectional languages.
Eepresenting this power of the root by the index x , the aggluti-
nating formula Eb may become E x r in the inflecting stage. Nay,
more; not only may the "full" root — as the Chinese call it —
receive this index, as in the foregoing formula, but even the rela-
tional root, or suffix, may be similarly modified. An example
taken from the Aryan system will make this dear. The Sanskrit
<7/, he goes, the Latin it ("Id form eit), ami the Lithuanian eiti
Bow all from one common form AIti= he goes. The two roots of
which this word is composed are I = to go, ami TA =the demonstrative
pronoun met with in the Greek to the (muter), and in the Latin
These two roots have been subjected to inflection in the word
in question, though we do not know the peal cause that has brought
about the modification of the radical I to AX We do know,
however, tli at the element, TA has been changed to Tl in passing
from the pa* ive to the active state. Thus we End this pr am
with a pa use wherever it retains its pure form, as in tin-
Latin 9Crip4Vr8, written, rujp-tu-8, broken; in the Greek Of-To-s,
placed, w«fl-To-r, known. In its modified form, on the contrary, it
l -1
148 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
imparts an active sense to the root to which it is suffixed, as in the
Latin ves-tis, and the Greek iiav-n-s, a seer. This same suffix ti has
produced in the Aryan tongues a number of active nouns, as
opposed to the passive and older forms in fa. Thus, in .Sanskrit,
pati = master, lord = the Latin poti (nominative potis or pos, as in
compos, i in i " '•-■) = the Lithuanian pati (nominative pats).
In an inflecting idiom the formula of the word may therefore
also be E X R X , Rr x , Err x , besides many other combinations that
cannot here be enumerated.
§ 2. — Aryan and Semitic Inflection.
We shall presently notice in more or less detail the two systems
of inflecting languages — the Aryan (Sanskrit, Persian, Greek,
Latin, Slave, Keltic, &c.) and the Semitic (Hebrew, Arabic, &c).
But a very important fact of a general nature must be first placed
in a clear light. It is that the Aryan and the Semitic languages
differ altogether from each other, not only in their roots, but also
in their structure itself. Both are unquestionably inflecting tongues,
but the inflection of the one is not that of the other. Schleicher*
and Whitney t have examined this question carefully, in the safe
and methodical way that characterises all their writings, and Ave
cannot do better than here reproduce what they say on the subject.
Before breaking up into distinct languages, says Schleicher, the
Semitic system had no roots to which a sonant form of any sort can
be given, as in the case of the Aryan system. The general sense of
the root rested in simple consonants, this general sense receiving
its various relational meanings by the addition of vowels to the
consonants. Thus the three consonants q, t, I, constitute the root
of the Hebrew qdtal and of the Arabic qatala - he killed, of qutila =
he was killed, of the Hebrew hiqttt = he caused to kill, and of the
Arabic maqtulun = killed. The case is altogether different in the
* "Die Deutsche Sprache," 2nd edition, p. 21, Stuttgart, 1869;
" Semitisch und Indo-Germauisch, Beitrage zur Vergleichcnden Sprach-
forschung," ii. p. 236, Berlin, 1861.
f " Language and the Study of Language," 3rd edition, p. 300. London,
1870.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 149
Aryan system, where the sense and the full utterance of the
syllable are coincident.
Further, the Semitic root admits of all the vowels capable of
modifying its sense, -while the Aryan root possesses one organic
vowel, as in the root of the Sanskrit manve = I mind or think;
of the Greek fxevos = the mind; of the Latin mens, moneo', of the
Gothic gamunan = to mind, where the organic vowel of the root is
not a, e, o, », indifferently, hut, necessarily, >i alone. Besides, this
organic vowel can he changed into certain others, only under certain
conditions and according to laws recognised and determined by
philological analysis.
A third difference consists in the triliteral character of the
Semitic root: qtl = to kill, Mb = to write, dbr- to speak, derived
no doubt from simpler primeval forms, hut which are now thus
reconstituted. On the other hand, the Aryan root is much more
varied in form, as in & = to go, sa = to pour, to shed, though always
monosyllahic.
The Semitic system had tlnee cases and two tenses only, while
tin- Aryan has eight cases and at least five tenses.
All Aryan words have one and the same form, that of the root
(modified or not) accompanied by the derivative suffix. This
form occurs in Semitic also, as in the Arabic qatalta thou man,
thou hast killed; but it also possesses the form in which the
derivative elemenl is prefixed, where the root comes between two
derivative elements, and others also.
Semitic inflection, observes Whitney in his turn, is wholly
differenl from the Aryan, so that the two systems cannot he derived
oir- from tie- other any more than from one common system. The
fundamental character of the Semitic resides in the triliteral form
of it s roots, which are composed of three consonants, to which are
joined various vowels iii their formative capacity— that is, as
formative elements indicating the various relations of the root.
Thus in Arabic the rout qtl presents the idea of to kill, and qatala
means he killed, qutila=he was killed, qatl murderer, qitl
enemy, Ac. Jointlj with this inflection, dm- 1o the use made ,,('
various vowels, the Semitic also forms its words by means of
150 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
suffixes and prefixes, and occasionally with infixes. But it does
not pile up affixes on affixes, or derivatives on derivatives — whence
the almost complete uniformity of the Semitic tongues.
The structure of the Semitic verb differs profoundly from that of
the Indo-European. In the second and third persons it distinguishes
the gender (masculine or feminine) of the subject : qatalat = she
killed, qatala = he killed — which is not the case in the Aryan
tongues: bharaM=he or she bears.* The contrast between past,
present, and future — so fundamental in Aryan — does not exist in
Semitic, which has two tenses only, answering, the one to the
action done, and the other to the action not done.
We thus see how serious are the structural differences between
the two systems, and how discrepant is their method of inflection.
To what has been said must be added the other characteristic fact,
that the Aryan system alone has the power of augmenting its
vowels. This feature consists in prefixing an a to an a, an i, or a
* But it may be doubted whether the process by which gender is or is
not distinguished in the personal endings, constitutes a fundamental differ-
ence between the Aryan and Semitic families, or whether the fact that the
organic Aryan does not so distinguish gender is due to more than an
accidental line of development taken by it at a certain stage. It is at least
certain that Hindi, without at all ceasing to be Aryan in its structure, has
also come in the course of time to distinguish gender in its conjugation, not
only in the second and third, but in all three persons, singular and plural ;
and not only in tenses that may be looked upon merely as declined parti-
ciples, but in the future, which is based on an organic aorist. Hence it is
that this tense is, so to say, both conjugated and declined, as thus :
Masculine form. Feminine form.
Sing. 1. jalunga jaliingl "N
2. 3. jalega jalegl ( Shall or will
PI. 1. 3. jalenge jalengln f burn.
2. jaloge jalogln J
There are even cases in Hindi where the verb so agrees, not with the sub-
ject but with the object, as in us-ne larkyan marin=he struck the girls ; here
■nidrin = struck, being feminine plural in agreement with the object larkyan —
girls. Thus it is that features which would at first sight seem to constitute
radical differences between two distinct families of speech may be found to
exist.in both, showing that their presence or absence is often the result of
some particular tendencies worked out while the languages were being
developed either in a synthetic or an analytic direction. — Note by Translator.
€hap. v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 151
u radical. In the Aryan form AImi = I go (Sanskrit emi, Greek
eifxi, Lithuanian eimi) the radical 7 = to go, is augmented in this
particular tense, mood, and person, and in Semitic there is nothing
resembling this.
These two languages have therefore emerged from the agglu-
tinating state by different ways, and are accordingly as independent
of each other in their structure as in their roots, the assumed
possibility of reducing which to older forms common to both no
longer calls for special refutation.*
We shall now proceed to speak in their turn, under three main
divisions, of the Semitic, Hamitic, and Aryan languages.
(.4) TJie Semitic Languages.
It is needless to say how entirely conventional are the terms
Semite and Semitic tongues. They do not even agree with the
biblical account, which treats as descendants of Shem races whose
idioms cannot be classed amongst those that we call Semitic, and
which, on the other hand, does not regard him as the father of
peoples whose speech is undoubtedly Semitic. But however this
be, the Avoids hare now acquired such currency, that it would be
hopeless to attempt to supplant them by others of a more accept-
able nature. The mure rational expression, Si/ro-Arnhic, is some-
times used, but it can scarcely be expected to lake the place of
the now generally received nomenclature. As remarked by
M. iienant in his now classical work, to which we are largely
indebted, its use can occasion no inconvenience, once it is taken
as merely a conventional name, its utter inadequacy being other-
wise thoroughly understood.
§ 3.-77"' Semite and the Semitic Languages collectively.
In spite of the labours of Gresenius (1780-1812) and of Kwald,
we still lack a comparative grammar of these tongues, and even
any really comprehensive work on their main features. Such a
* Th. Ntwlteke ind Occident," ii. p. W5. Gtottingen, L868.
t "Histoire Generate et Systeme Comparee tea Semitiqoes,"
premiere panic, " ELtetoire Generate de Semitiqnes."
152 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
work once successfully carried out, the so-called Hanrite group
should be taken in hand, and the general Hamite forms should
then be compared with the primitive Semitic forms, and an effort
be thus made at last to restore the broad outlines of a rudimentary
Hamitico-Semitic grammar. Such a grammar might doubtless be
contained in a very few pages, but the possibility of composing it
can scarcely be questioned. A deeper insight may even yet be
had into the secrets of the evolution of inflecting idioms, so as to
attempt the reconstruction of the main features they must have
presented while still in the agglutinating stage.
Efforts have already been made to reduce to a biliteral form the
triliteral, or rather triconsonantal, Semitic roots, and it is not too
much to hope that this undertaking will prove successful.* Benfey
rightly thinks that it will be greatly promoted by a knowledge
of the Hamitic roots. + The Semitic quadriliteral roots, no one
now doubts, will be all, without exception, ultimately restored to
an older triliteral form.
In the Semitic system the noun is formed, in the first instance,
by the addition of certain vowels to the triconsonantal root.
It will be the duty of a comparative Semitic Grammar to deter-
mine the use made of the various vowels that impart such and
such a character to the noun thus formed. This method of
nominal formation is elementary enough ; but there is another,
that of derivation, in which certain syllables are prefixed or even
suffixed to the root, the latter process being more recent than that
in which they are prefixed.
In the common Semite speech, the noun would seem to have
had the three genders, J the neuter disappearing at a very remote
period. The masculine was expressed by no special element,
* Chavee, " Les Langnes et les Races," p. 44, Paris, 1862 ; Renan, op. cit.,
i. ch. 3 ; " Rapport Annuel Journal Asiatique," vii. serie iv. p. 27, Paris,
1874 ; Schleicher, " Die Unterscheidung von Nomen und Verbum in der
Lautlichen Form," p. 18.
+ " Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft und Orientalischen Philologie in
Deutschland," p. 691. Munich, 1869.
X Ewald, " Ausfuhrliches Lehrbnch der Hebraischen Sprache," 8th ed.
p. 415. Gottingen, 1870.
Chap, v.] THIRD F0B3I OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 153
whereas the feminine was in all likelihood denoted by the ending
at* The organic plural ending was probably mthi,i possibly umu,
or unHyX or even some other form, and it seems to have been
anterior to the dual.
In the declension there were three cases, a number much inferior
to that of the Aryan noun. They were the. nominative, genitive,
and accusative, but they have disappeared, to a large extent, from
all the idioms of the Semitic group except the Arabic, as will be
seen when we come to treat each of them separately. According
to some writers the vowel u was the sign of the nominative, i of
the genitive (in principle) and a of the accusative. S The case-
endings, according to Fr. Midler were : u for lift, third personal
pronoun; i relational suffix, and the demonstrative <m.\\
The common Semite tongue had two tenses only, as above stated
— a past tense denoting finished action, and an imperfect expressing
incomplete action. They are distinguished from each other by the
position of the pronominal suffix in regard to the theme. Thus the
suffix ta of the second person masculine singular, if placed after
the theme marks complete action, or the past tense : katabata =
thou hast written, in Arabic Icatabta ; if placed before the root it
denotes unfinished action, or the imperfect tense, as in the Arabic
tdkataba.
According to Fr. Midler, the organic Semite verb was capable of
being conjugated on fifteen themes (or modifications of the root):
the simple form 1cataba=he wrote, and a strengthened theme
kattaba, followed by a series of secondary ones, formed by the
help of sundry reflective and causative prefixes. However, none of
the | of the group have retained these fifteen tonus, all
having lost BOme, and several a great many of them. The same
* Bwald, "Aurfiihrlichea Lehrbuch der Eebraischen Spraobe," 8th ed.
p. 446. Gottingen, 1870.
f Ibid., p. 1(65.
-j- |. DerVerbalausdrucli in Bemitisohen Bpraohkreiae," "Sit-
znng der Phil. Bist. Classe der K. Aiademie [der WiasenBohaften„"
520. Vienna, L868.
§ OlflbauBen, op. «*., p. '^'>. Cf. Bwald, op. eit., p. 528 and following.
|| Op. cit, p. 51'J.
154 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
writer tliinks that the passive was merely a reflective form, con-
structed hy the aid of the pronominal element hu. The restored
form kutaba = it has been written — in Arabic Mtiba — would re-
present an older huhaMba. Comparative Semitic grammar is so
little advanced that it is well to record the sound and methodical
essays in tins direction, although still in a very incomplete state.
The Semitic alphabet, in its main features, would seem to have
been developed out of the Egyptian hieroglyphics,* not exactly by
the Phoenicians, says Ewald, but by some Semitic people intimately
associated Avith Egypt. Anyhow the name of the people is now
unknown to whom civilisation is indebted for the immense service
of having converted the old hieroglyphics into an alphabetic
system. This alphabet consists of twenty-two consonants, each of
which must have expressed the sound answering to the initial sound
of the being or object represented by the sign itself. Thus the old
picture of the camel stood for a g in the Semite alphabet, because
the name of the camel began with a g in their language : Chaldee,
gimel; Syriac, gomal. It is needless to observe that these new
alphabetical signs were diversely modified by the various peoples
adopting them.
The Semitic graphic system is generally divided into three
distinct groups. The western comprised the Phoenician and the
old Hebrew, which latter was still current in the second century
before our era. The eastern branch embraced the regions of the
Euphrates and the Tigris. Being of a rounder form than the
western type, it was soon changed into a cursive style, which was
diffused over the countries to the west and north of Arabia. In
the south of Arabia itself the third or Himyaro-Ethiopic system
had been developed. We shall say a few words on each of these
three varieties, when treating of the several idioms of the Semitic
group.
To the Assyrian cuneiform writing of the third text of in-
scriptions of the Achsemenides must be assigned a totally different
origin, as wdl be seen in its proper place.
* E. de Rouge, "Memoire sur l'Origine Egyptienne de 1' Alphabet
Phenicien." Paris, 1874.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 155
The classification of the Semitic idioms is now fairly determined,
though at first far from being so easy to settle as that of the Aryan
family. In truth they do not present amongst themselves such
marked features as those, for instance, that distinguish the Keltic
from the Iranian, the Italic from the Slavonic branches. It has
been justly remarked that all the various Semitic idioms do not
differ more widely from each other, than do the different members
of one single branch of the Aryan family ; as, for instance, Russian,
Bohemian, and Croatian (in the Slavonic) ; English, Flemish, and
Danish (in the Teutonic branch).
Still we may reckon three sufficiently distinct groups in the
Semitic family :
The Arameo-Assyrian Group, comprising the two Aramaic
dialects Chaldee and Syriac, together with the Assyrian.
The Canaanitic Group, embracing Hebrew and Phoenician.
The Arabic Group, including Arabic proper and the idioms of
South Arabia (and Abyssinia) — Himyaratic and EhMi : Gheez and
Tigre; Amharic, Harrari.
Some writer reduce this classification to two groups, including the
iirst two in one single branch, which they call the northern, in
contrast with the southern, composed of the two varieties of the
Arabic group.
We shall now briefly notice these various idioms, ami endeavour,
in conclusion, to ascertain whether it might not be possible to form
some eonjefcture as to their original home and common primeval
type.
^ 4. — Tlie Arameo-Assyrian Group.
(1) Chaldee <in<l Syriac.
The name of Aramean is given to two closely related varieties of
this group: the Chaldee, or eastern, and the Syriac, or western
dialect. The firsi i- spread over the greater part, if not tin- whole,
of Babylonia and Assyria, the second over Mesopotamia and Syria.
it general character, compared with the cognate tongues, con-
sisted the greater low it has sustained of the old Semitic vowels,
156 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
which relative inferiority may he attributed to its earlier develop-
ment. Though, as stated, differing little from each other, their
accentual system is quite distinct. While the accent in Chaldee
falls in principle on the last syllable, affecting the penultimate in
certain special cases only, in Syriac, on the contrary, it falls regularly
on the penultimate, in exceptional cases alone affecting the final
syllable.
Of the primitive Aramean tongue no documents have survived,
such as Ave possess of the Assyrian, which we shall presently speak
of. The oldest Aramean texts are contained in the sacred writings
of the Jews. They are generally spoken of as biblical Chaldee,
and may date from the fifth or sixth century before our era. Other
Aramean passages in Holy Writ are still more recent, and about the
Christian era there appear the Targums, translations and paraphrases
of the Jewish writings. The language of the Talmuds, some four
or five centuries older, is much more affected by foreign elements,
borrowed from the surrounding languages.
In his history of the Semitic tongues, M. Eenan treats succes-
sively of the Pagan and Christian Aramean — specimens of the
first of which we have in the Mendean and Nabatean. This last
name is equivalent to that of Chaldee, and of its important
literature Ave hoav possess nothing but the treatise on Xabatean
agriculture, of unknoAvn date, but translated into Arabic in the
tenth century. The Sabean — or, more correctly, the language of
the Mendeans — produced nothing at all so important or practical
as the iMabatean literature seems to have possessed. What we do
possess, including the " Book of Adam," a mass of extravagant
ravings, seems posterior to Islamism. M. Eenan mentions, as
peculiar features of Mendean, the confusion and frequent elision of
the gutturals, the interchange of sharps and flats, and numerous
contractions.
The Christian Aramean is represented by the Syriac; Avhich
shows nothing really national older than the first centuries of our
era, although it seems certain that a literature of this sort had been
developed at an earlier period. The Palmyrene inscriptions date
from the first three centuries, and the Syriac Avritings from the
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 157
latter half of the second century. The " Peshito " version of the
Bihle is the oldest Syriac work, and is referred to the second
century. Tn the fourth there, flourished a very important Christian
Aramean literature, though strongly impressed with Hellenic
influences. It served in a way as an intermediary "between Greek
and Arabic science, bringing about the transition from the former
to the latter. Xearly all the Arabic translations from the Greek,
says M. Kenan, would seem to have been made by Syrian writers *
and on Syriac versions.* Syrian letters began to decline about
the tenth century, when the ascendancy of Moslem culture was
finally established, and Syriac sank to the condition of a liturgical
language. It is now no longer spoken, except in a very few places
in the neighbourhood of Lake Urumiah ; and even these last
vestiges must ere long disappear before the advance of the Arabic.
In our fifth paragraph we shall speak of the Samaritan dialect,
which, though frequently grouped with the Chaldee and .Syriac, is
really more akin to the Hebrew; thus belonging, not to the
Aramean, hut to the Canaanitic group.
(2) Assyrian.
Side by side with the Aramean. the second language of the
north-eastern Semitic group, is that of the third text of the
cuneiform cock-inscriptions, to which has been given the name of
Assyrian, According to Oppert we might just as well call it
Accadian, the name given by Hincks to the still contested agglu-
tinating tongue, that Oppert calls Suinerian, and here spoken of
at p. HI.
The Assyrian waa nut admitted withoul a long and livelj
struggle into the Semitic family, its right to membership with
which can now no longer be seriously called in question. However,
the opposition it met writh bas been of singular advantage t<> the
studies connected with tie- Bubject, and it may be asserted that we
iv know nearly as much of its grammar as we are ever likely
to do. The important writings of ttawlinson definitely broughl !■>
Kenan, op. ctfe, iii. ch. 8, 2.
158 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
a close the series of works whose object was to settle the nature
itself of the Assyrian language. The objections fell one after the
other ; that first of all, which consisted in denying its Semitic
character, based on the difference of its alphabet from the ordinary
Semitic graphic system.
The various Assyrian writings, whether Xinevite or Babylonian,
are composed of wedge (or clove) shaped signs, of diverse length,
and differing in their disposition from those of the Persian system,
which will be described when we come to the Iranian tongues.
These cuneiform (literally wedge-shaped) letters derive from ancient
hieroglyphics, whose forms may still be easily recognised in some
of them. Though differing from the Persian, the Assyrian cunei-
forms are pretty much the same as those of the second text of the
rock inscriptions. Their common origin is obvious, and may be
detected at the first glance. Their number is considerable, and
they denote either ideas or sounds. The latter — that is the phonetic
signs — stand for full syllables, and for such and such vowels or
consonants — a fact pointed out by Hincks as far back as 1849.
They are easily transcribed in Eoman letters, which, of course,
is not the case with the ideographic signs. In fact, the phonetic
value of these can be ascertained only by secondary considerations,
and to meet the difficulty the ideograms are conventionally trans-
cribed precisely as if they were phonetic, but in Eoman capitals.
The Assyrian texts already collected and preserved in the
various museums of Europe are very numerous, and it is certain
that they will be still greatly increased. La the country itself
there are vast numbers of inscribed monuments, including some of
considerable length. Thus the third text of the inscriptions of
the Achamrenides is, as stated, in Assyrian. The language of the
second column has already been referred to at p. 139, and we shall
in its proper place speak of the Persian, which is that of the first
column.
Oppert, who has contributed greatly to the elucidation of the
Assyrian cuneiforms,* may be justly considered the founder of
* " Expedition scientifique en Mesopotamia," ii. Paris, 1859.
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 159
Assyrian grammar,* Ms writings marking a new period in Assyriology.
Other grammars have subsequently appeared, and the study of
Assyrian no longer presents any serious difficulty.t
We subjoin a few notes on Assyrian Grammar:
Its phonetics seem less changed than those of the other two
Aramean dialects, the sihdants especially having undergone hut
little modification.
The element at (at times it) in Assyrian, as in the other Semitic
tongues, denotes the feminine gender: s«r = king, sarrat = queen ;
<7« = god, Hat or ilit = goddess; rabu = great (masculine), rabU =
great (feminine).
The masculine plural is /, answering to the Aramean in and
Hebrew im : yum = day, yumi = days. The feminine plural is pro-
perly at (in Hebrew at), but also tit and it. The dual occurs but rarely.
The old case-endings have disappeared, though not without
leaving clear traces of their former presence. They were urn, nom.,
a m and vm for the two other cases. According to ( )ppert, this
" Humiliation " would seem to answer to the " nunnation," to be
referred to further on in Arabic. In course of time the final m
gradually disappeared, causing the preceding vowel itself to be
diversely affected
In Assyrian there is no article, but. as in the other Semitic
tongues, tin' possessive pronoun is expressed by a suffixed element:
bitya = my house ; babiya = my gates ; sumya = my name ; sumiya =
my names. For the second person singular ka masculine and/,/
feminine: gumka=thy name (speaking of a man); sumiki=iiky
names (speaking of a woman).
No trace of the organic Semitic perfed tense has been dis-
covered, there being nothing but the imperfect, expressing unfinished
action, and formed by the theme preceded bythe personal suffixes.
* " Elc'iri« ■ ammaire Assyrienne," 2nd edition. Paris, 1868.
f ftfenant, " E Elements de la Gran maire Lssyrienne," Paris,
L868; ''I/- Syllabaire Assyrian," Paris, L869-74; "Lecons d'Epigraphie
rien C-," Pari - 1873 Sayoe, " An A yriav Grammar," London, ls7_;
Bohrader, "Die -Babyloni ohen Keilin ohriften," "Zeitsohr. dei
i). u iiorgenlandiachen '■ it," xxi. p. L.392, Leipzig, L672.
160 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
The direct pronominal object is attached to the verb, as in the
Semitic system generally. Thus the phrase, " I have-subdued-
them," is expressed in one word, by adding the pronoun sunut =
them, to the form " I have subdued."
We may remark, in conclusion, that Assyrian was spoken down
almost to the Christian era, Avhen it was at length supplanted by
Aramean ; which, in its turn, had to yield to the spread of Arabic.
§ 5. — TIte Canaanitic Group.
The languages of this group have been, on the whole, much better
preserved than the Aramean, as is clearly shown by the forms of
old or classic Hebrew.
(1) Hebrew
Has passed through three successive phases, thus described by
Ewald.* The fragments, dating from the time of Moses, show
Hebrew already formed, and essentially the same as that of more
recent times. It must, therefore, even then have been already very
old. In the second period, dating from the Kings, it shows
symptoms of diverging into tAVO styles, an ordinary and a more
artistic style. The third period begins with the seventh century
before our era ; it is a period of decay, during which it is continually
encroached upon by the Aramean tongues.
However, the differences are but slight between each of these
periods. " The important point," says Eenan, " is to insist on the
grammatical unity of Hebrew, on the fact of the great uniformity
of records of such diverse times and sources as have entered into
the Jewish archives. It would doubtless be rash to assert, with
M. Movers, that one hand had retouched all the writings of the
Hebrew canon, in order to reduce them to a uniform language.
Still it must be allowed that few literatures present such an
impersonal character, or one so free from the particular stamp of
any individual writer or definite epoch. "f
* " Ausfiihrliches Lehxbuch cler Hebraischen Sprache," 8th ed. p. 23.
Gottingen, 1870.
\ Op. cit., ii. cb. 1.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 161
Xot till the eleventh century before our era do we meet with any
Hebrew writings that have not been subsequently retouched.
Three or four centimes later on, the Hebrew language enters on its
golden age, and towards the sixth century begins to disappear as a
national form of speech. Long before the epoch of the Maccabees
Aramean had assumed the ascendant in Palestine. Nevertheless,
works continued to be still written in Hebrew, till within about a
hundred years of our era, Kenan divides into two distinct periods
the history of modern or post-biblical Hebrew. The first extends
to the twelfth century, its principal monument being the Mishna, a
collection of Rabbinical traditions, or a sort of second Bible. In
it occur a certain number of Aramean, as well as some Greek and
Latin words. After having adopted Arabic culture in the tenth
century, the Jews saw a revival of their literature, when their
fellow-countrymen, banished from Mussulman Spain, found a refuge
in the south of France. The language of this epoch is still the
literary idiom of the Jews.
Tlie Hebrew vowel system, like the Aramean, is of the simplest,
but the consonantal, as in all the Semitic family, is rich in Bibilants
and aspirates. The sibilants are four in number, answering to our
■-■//. ■--. ::. and ts. These letters play a much more prominent part in
Hebrew than in the cognate tongues. There are also four aspirates,
two soft and two guttural, hheth and ayin, which last interchange
tonally with /.: and q. Besides the three pairs of explosives:
/.', ;/ : /. d l and/', b, there is a q, stronger (that is, uttered lower
down in tli' throat) than the simple 7c, ami a ///, as transcribed
by tome authors, stronger (or thicker) than the /: also a labial
explosive distinct from the //, and often represented by an /. It
should, ; be observed that those consonants naturally
ptible of being aspirated reallj are a pirated in pronunciation
when preceded l>. a vowel. Lastly, there are the / and /', the
nasals i .iml ///, the semi-vowels w and y.
In nouns lii- feminine is formed, as a rule, by adding the
element "/, Bubjecl to certain modifications, the / sometimes
changu i imple aspirate, and the a disappearing at others.
Ma eulines form their plural, in principle, l>\ the addition of im,
M
162 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
occasionally replaced by the Aramean in, and the general feminine
plural ending is at. The Hebrew dual, less general than in Arabic,
but better preserved than in Aramean, is formed by the ending aim.
The nominative is no longer marked by any special ending.
Whatever is to be said of the attempts made to restore the
primitive forms of the Semitic cases, there remain in Hebrew but
very doubtful traces of the old nominative suffix ; and the same is
true of the accusative and genitive.
Apart from the nominative, Avhich is expressed by the theme
itself, the Hebrew cases are now indicated either by prepositions or
by what is called the state of the noun in government. A noun
in this state, opposed to the " noun absolute," assumes a really
dependent position, from which we see that the principal function
of this state is to express the idea of the genitive. In the singular
masculine nouns in this state remain in principle unchanged, imme-
diately preceding the noun they govern. In the plural they lose,
in principle, their final m, at times the preceding vowel also. It
has been above stated that the final t feminine is sometimes
changed to an aspirate ; but in government the organic t of these
feminine nouns remains in full vigour, while in the plural they
retain the ending at. These, of course, are but the general laws,
subject to many exceptions that cannot here be noticed. We may
add, however, that the noun in construction may be followed, not
only by another noun, but also by a pronoun : gham-6 = his people ;
ben-i = my son.
By employing prepositions, as it does, instead of case-endings,
Hebrew exhibits so far a perfectly analytic character. It is, in
fact, incorrect to speak with grammarians of a dative, a locative,
or an ablative, the forms thus described being nothing but nouns
or pronouns combined with prepositions. The more frequently
recurring of these prepositions consist of a single consonant only :
7 = to, towards ; b = in. The origin of nearly all of these particles
is unknown, but they derive, in principle, from verbal roots,
whereas the corresponding Aryan prepositions are mostly of pro-
nominal origin.
Inflection plays an important part in the formation of nouns. It
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 163
consists, as already remarked, in the variation of the radical
vowels.
Besides the prepositions, Hebrew possesses an article, closely
united to the noun, its exclusive function being that of a simple
determinative.
It is diversely modified by euphonic laws, but its primitive
form seems to have been hal. The consonant I assimilates always
to the initial letter of the following noun, and the vowel a is
sometimes lengthened. Thus, from mdqom = place, we get ham-
mdqom = the place. After certain prepositions the h disappears.
We have already stated that the Semitic system has two tenses
only — one denoting complete, the other denoting incomplete action.
Hebrew remains faithful to this simple conception. The two
tenses, as stated, are distinguished by the position of the personal
suffix, which in the past is placed after, and in the imperfect before
the theme.
Thus in zaquanbi = I am old, I have grown old, in hdldkM = I
have gone, we recognise perfect forms; because here the pro-
nominal element ti is suffixed. But in ndsub = we will return,
the action is not yet completed, because the personal element is
prefixed.
The verbal forms themselves are now five only, whereas we have
seen that there were reckoned fifteen in the primitive Semitic type.
now Aramean possesses one more than the Hebrew, while
Arabic is still more wealthy. The fire Eebrew forms consist of
the simple and four derivative ones.
Until the last few centuries of the old era the rude and angular
Phoenician alphabet was that of the Jews also. It was then
advantageously replaced by the rounder and more flowing Chaldean
letters. The old alphabet is still found on the coins of the epoch
of the Maccabees, and on some others apparently struct later on
during the war with the Romans. Nevertheless, at the time of the
Maccabees the • >■ ■ were already in po ion of a more recent
alphabet, that continued in osi »ngst the Samaritans.*
'1 1,,- a ew, or < Ihaldean, alphabet no oiore di tinguiahed the rowels
* Olabauscn, op. ait., p. •"-.
u 2
161 THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
than did the old one. This was a serious defect, which was
attempted to be partly remedied by employing consonants to
represent vowel sounds ; but the device, though applied with some
judgment, could produce but partial and unsatisfactory results. To
the Massoretes is attributed the invention of the vowel points,
dating seemingly from the beginning of the sixth century of our
era. A certain number of usefid modifications was also introduced
in the character of the consonants. Thus, those meant to be uttered
strongly were distinguished from the others by a point (dagesh)
in the body of the letter. The sound of s and sh, hitherto repre-
sented by the same sign, were now distinguished by a diacritical
point over this sign to the right or the left, as the case might be.
(Thus ttf = s; # = sh).
A word on Samaritan, by some writers grouped with the Aramean
branch. Others seem, more correctly to classify it with the
Canaanitic division, while still admitting that it has been pro-
foundly influenced by Aramean.
(2) Phosnician*
Very little is known of the races occupying Palestine before the
arrival of the Semitic tribes, probably from the south-east, who
called themselves Canaanites. These tribes themselves, amongst
which must be included the Phoenicians, were obliged to give way
before the Beni-Israel, who, under the leadership of Joshua, over-
ran the greater part of Palestine about 1,300 years before our era.
The Canaanites were now driven westwards towards the coast, and
it may be supposed that this event contributed greatly to develop
their relations with the lands watered by the Mediterranean. The
Israelites, from whom civilisation has otherwise suffered so much,
may have thus, though indirectly, rendered it for the nonce a most
important service.
This is not the place to discuss the question whether the Israelites
originally spoke an Aramean dialect, afterwards adopting a Canaanitic
* Schroeder, "Die Phcenizische Sprache." Halle, 1869. One of the
best essays on Phoenician, to which we are indebted for much of these
details. Penan, op. cit., ii. ch. 2.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 165
form of speech. The only fact we are concerned with is the
present identity of Hebrew with Phoenician. It may be unhesi-
tatingly asserted that there existed a common Canaanitic language
that in due course gave birth to both of these varieties, which are
sister-tongues standing on the same level ; and it is therefore in-
correct to represent Phoenician, as is often done, as a dialect of the
Hebrew. The error dates from the time when the first attempts
were made to interpret the Phoenician documents. Comparative
grammar was still unknown at that period, and the linguists, who
came across Phoenician texts, naturally derived this language from
Hebrew, which they found it so strongly resembling. Put there is
now no longer room for any doubt on the subject ; the two idioms,
as stated, are cognate, descending both in parallel lines from a
common mother-tongue. Once severed from one another, they
followed each its own destiny, " developing themselves independ-
ently, amongst peoples of different character and manners, and
thus diverging in course of time, not so much in their grammar, as
in the general features of their composition." — (Penan.) It has
justly been said that their differences were mere provincial varieties.
Amongsi their more marked differences is mentioned the
Phoenician peculiarity of employing in the current speech a certain
number of forms and expressions that in Hebrew are looked on as
archaic, occurring in the more lofty style only. Many Phoenician
terms have a different meaning from the corresponding Hebrew
words, being sometimes taken in a wider, sometimes in a narrower,
On the "the]- hand, i'lui'iiician possesses a relative pro-
nominal form more primitive than the Hebrew form, and is
otherwise distinguished by some further peculiarities, now well
enough understood, bul which need not he here dwelt upon.
Phoenician, as it appears in its inscriptions, which are not of
verj greal antiquity, betrays important mark of Arameaii elements,
more, perhaps, than Hebrew does. The Phoenician of the colonies
jettled "a tli'- north coast of Africa also shows these same Aramaic
traces; though tie- fart is not surprising, when we consider the
me antiquity of Aramean influences, ami the constant relations
maintained by the African settlements with tic mother-country.
166 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Punic, or African Phoenician, which was of course the language
of the Carthaginians, is very clearly divided into two dialects— an
ancient and a more recent ; the first "being identical with the
Phoenician of Palestine. Xeo-Pivnic is more corrupt, and its
orthography often very defective. Its chief monuments are met
with in Tunis and Eastern Algeria. The neo-Punic alphabet
differs materially from the old Phoenician, of which, however, it is
but a variety. Its letters have been generally simplified, some of
them being reduced to a single stroke, and being often almost
confused with each other.*
Of Phoenician literature there survive only a few fragments of
Sanchoniathon's Phoenician history, and the " Periplous of Hanno,'*
translated into Greek ; further, some words occurring in the classics,
a passage in Plautus, and a series of coins and inscriptions. These
last monuments have been mostly discovered on various points
along the shores of the Mediterranean, at Marseilles, in Spain, on
the north coast of Africa, and in the islands of Cyprus, Sardinia,
and Malta— Phoenicia itself so far supplying but a limited number
of inscriptions.
Phoenician disappeared from Palestine even before Punic had
been, like it, absorbed by more fortunate tongues. We may believe,
with Penan, that Punic was spoken down to the Mohammedan
invasion, and that the ease with which Arabic spread over certain
regions of northern Africa, was precisely due to this persistence of
the Semitic Phoenician, from which Arabic itself did not greatly
differ, although belonging to another branch of the family.
§ 6.— The Arabic Group.
It is only for want of a better term that the name of Arabic is
given to the southern branch of the Semitic tongues. The word is,
properly speaking, applicable only to the Ishmaelitic, which is but
one of the two sub-divisions of the Arabic group. The Himyaritic,
Gheez, and other Semitic idioms of southern Arabia (and Abys-
Judas, "Etude demonstrative de la Langue Phenicienne et de la Langue
Libyque," Pax-is, 1817; also by the same writer, "Nouvelles Etudes sur une
Serie descriptions Numidico-Puniques," Paris, 1857.
Chap, v.] THIKD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 167
sinia) were not known for a long time after the Arabic, and it was
in consequence of their close affinity to this language that the
generic term of Arabic came to be somewhat incorrectly extended
to them also.
(1) Arabic.
The astonishing stability peculiar to the Semitic idioms is
nowhere more conspicuous than in the Arabic, nor is there any-
thing more singular, not to say strange, than the almost absolute
uniformity of this language, throughout the ages it has lasted and
the vast domain it has occupied.
Since the epoch of Mohammed (end of sixth and beginning of
seventh century), and even in the poems anterior to Islamism,
Arabic appears such as the literary language is at the present day,
that is, in full possession of all its forms, of its copious vocabulary,
and, one might say, perfect as ever.
The original form of the Koran was that of a sort of narrative
composition. According to Kenan's expression, it is, so to say, a
collection of Mohammed's " orders of the day." It was not entirely
composed in the lifetime of the Prophet, certain portions being
subsequent to his death. In any case his followers scraped together
all the shreds and fragments of his utterances, forming of them a
sort of typical or standard work, the copies of which were, in their
turn, revised by the Caliph Othman, in the middle <»f the seventh
century (644-656). The preponderance of the Koreish dialect,
spoken in the heart of Arabia, was thus definitely established. The
style of the Koran itself is of two kind-, the first a sort of poetic
1 1 < 1 rhythmical.
The older poems, above referred to, were certainly not much
anterior to [slamism, and the language of the Mollakats, referred to
the beginning of the sixth century, is pure literary Arabic, nol an
ancient or older form of the langu
The Semites of central Arabia were unacquainted with the art of
writing, properly so-called, previous to the beginning of the sixth
century. From the first very defective, and Leading to the con
fusion of certain consonants represented by one and the same
168 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
character, the Arabic alphabet was reformed at an early date, in
fact, during the first century of the hegira, as is supposed, though
the reform was not accomplished all at once. It was effected
gradually, reducing the alphabet to its present form, with its vowel
points and with certain diacritical marks, distinguishing several
of the characters whose primitive form was the same. (Thus :
C= M; £ = lth; £=/.)
Xot without good reason has Arabic been called the Sanskrit of
the Semitic race. In truth it plays the same part amongst its cognate
tongues that Sanskrit does amongst the Aryan languages, regard
being always had to the far more intimate resemblance of the
Semitic idioms to each other.
We have already remarked that Arabic has retained the three
cases of the primitive Semitic tongue — the nominative, accusative,
and genitive — faint traces only of which are to be detected in the
northern groups. These cases are formed, as already stated, by the
three A-owels, u, i, a, with which the word ends when preceded by
the article ; but when this is not the case, they are followed by a
nasal.
Thus the noun ends in un, an, in, as the case may be, when
unaccompanied by the article, but in u, nominative ; a, accusative ;
and i, genitive, when joined with the article. The state of govern-
ment exists in Arabic as well as in Hebrew.
Number is denoted in two ways. One is the usual Semitic pro-
cess, una for the nominative, and via for the oblicpie case mascu-
line ; dton and dtin for the corresponding feminine, with which
compare the Aramean in and 6t, and the Hebrew im, ut. This
plural form is called sound, 'perfect, external, or regular.
The second process is described as broken, imperfect, internal,
irregular. Here plurality is expressed by a modification of the
root : " Frangiiur forma singularis rel mutata una alterave vocalium,
re! aliqua literarum transposita ant abjecta,vel novaliterainserta."*
* Zschokke, " Institutiones Fundament. Ling. Ax.," Vienna, 1869 ; H.
Derenbourg, " Essai sur les Formes de Pluriels en Arabe," " Journal A.sia-
tique," 1867 ; S. Guyard, " Nouvel Essai sur la Formation du Pluriel Brise en
Arabe," Paris, 1870.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 169
At times the body of the word is lengthened, and a prefixed : tlfl =
child, atfal = children. Other processes may he seen in special
works on the subject.*
The dual endings are dni nominative, aini oblique: yadani = the
two hands.
Arabic retains the two organic Semitic tenses, the present being
expressed sometimes by one and sometimes by the other. Thus the
perfect is used if the present action has already been previously
accomplished, and if it is a continued action, as in the formula :
tique. But the other tense is used, if the present
action is connected with some other action presently to be spoken
of. The future is treated in the same way.
Both tenses are formed as in the other Semitic tongues. The
personal element is prefixed to express imperfect, and suffixed to
express perfect action.
It may he added that of the fifteen primitive forms, Arabic has
retained nine, which is considerably more than the Hebrew.
It would be a mistake to look on vulgar Arabic as anything more
than the literary language simplified The main difference between
the two is, that the vernacular lias allowed the cases to drop out of
current use, thus arriving at a state of analysis analogous to the
Aramean and Hebrew. It has also entirely lost the process of the
noun in government. In any ease, as Renan observes,t a number
of facts show that the main features of the literary language
existed also in the ancient Arabic tongue. Thus, the inflections
liar to the former are absolutely uecessary to explain the
metrical system of the old poetry. It is even supposed that certain
tribes of central Arabia still retain in ordinary speech the inflections
peculiar to the written form,} and which would elsewhere seem
pretentious and pedantic.
In ill'- literary stylethere can be no question of dialects. It is
a l;m : e EOT all, ami which musl 'lie out BUCh as it is,
without leaving any varieties behind it. but the same cannol l>e
* Derenbonrg, " Note Bnx la Grammaire Axabe," premiere partie, The*orie
<Ies Foi i..' . I
f "p. ,-,'., iv. cli. 'I. X lljid -
170 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
said of the spoken tongue, which, however little differing from the
other, differs from it precisely "by one of those changes that con-
stitute the very life of so many languages — that is, the transition
from the synthetic to the analytic state. "Vulgar Arabic grows,
no doubt, very slowly, but still it grows; whence its present
dialectic varieties, which are mainly four, those of Barbary, Arabia,
Syria, and Egypt. The last three are allowed to differ but slightly,
each possessing a number of local terms and peculiar expressions,
but the divergence goes no farther. The Barbary dialect presents
some grammatical differences, though not serious enough to prevent
it from being readily understood throughout the whole domain
occupied by the Arabic language.
Maltese is of Arabic origin, but is now nothing but a rude jargon
full of real barbarisms and foreign elements. The same was the
case with the Mosarabic of the south of Spain, which seems not to
have quite died out till the last century. *
Arabic has supplied a large number of words to certain European
and Asiatic languages. This is particularly true of the Iranian
idioms, including the present Persian, of the Turkish, and of some
modern Indian dialects, which swarm with Arabic words. Amongst
the neo-Latin tongues Spanish and Portuguese have borrowed both
directly and indirectly from it, and amongst the Arabic words in
English and French may be mentioned the following : cotton,
zero, cipher, algebra, crimson, magazine, nadir, chemistry, &c.
(See Translator's "English Language," p. 164.)
(2) Languages of South Arabia and Abyssinia.
The second branch of the Arabic group, known also as the
"Yoktanide," is composed of two branches, which it took some
time to classify not merely with the Arabic, but even with the
Semitic at all. It occupies on the east the south of Arabia, and
on the west at least a portion of Abyssinia.
The primitive Semitic language of the south of Arabia was the
Himyaritic, now known by a large number of inscriptions. It
possesses, like the Arabic, the peculiar form of " broken," plurals
* Renan, op. cit.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 171
already spoken of. Its alphabet has given occasion to some
interesting researches. It is now known to derive from the primitive
Semitic writing, from which, as we have seen, have also sprung the
Chaldean, Arabic, and, in fact, all the Semitic alphabets except the
Assyrian cuneiforms.
The Mohammedan conquest overthrew the Himyaritic civilisa-
tion, and Arabic spread gradually throughout the south of the
peninsula, as far as the shores of the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of
Aden. Still the Himyaritic language did not perish without
leaving some traces behind. In the extreme south of Arabia, and
more particularly in the Mahrah district, about 50° long, and
20° lat, some forty years ago there was discovered the EhTrili
language, which, if not a lineal descendant of the old Himyaritic,
is at least closely allied to it.
From a very remote period the Semites of South Arabia had
known and colonised the south-west coast of the Eed Sea. Many
r aturies before our era, though at what particular date it is now
impossible to say, they brought thither, together with their civili-
sation, the language known as the Gheez, sometimes also called by
the vague and misleading name of Ethiopian, whose forms arc
intimately related to those of the Himyaritic. The Gheez is now
no longer spoken, and exists only as a learned and liturgical language.
Christianity is known to have spread over Ethiopia towards the
fourth century, to which period must also in all probability be
referred the Gheez version of the Bible, besides which, Ethiopian
literature is enriched by translations of a number of Jewish,
Christian, Greek, and Arabic works. With the arrival of the
,;< in Abyssinia sel in the period of decay. Those formidable
apostles, whom the Abyssinians got rid of only too late, "by
attracting to themselves all the instruction and opposing the native
teaching, left the country in a state of profound barbariflin, from
which it has not yet recovered." *
Gheez was a highly-developed language, po easing, like the
Arabic, the "broken " plurals, and retaining certain endings thai
Hebrew and Aramean have lost. Of the fifteen primitive forms of
* Jtuimn, op. 'It., iv. OB. '•
172 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
the Semitic verb it preserved thirteen (Fr. Miiller, op. cit, p. 529),
that is, far more than any of the cognate tongnes. The Gheez
alphabet, though written from left to right, and not from right to
left, like the other Semitic alphabets, is now known to have derived
from the same source as the Himyaritic.
Besides the Gheez, which, as stated, is now a dead language,
there are still spoken in Abyssinia a number of Semitic idioms
belonging to the same group, and which, if they do not derive
directly from it, are at least closely related to Gheez. Of these
there are three leading languages : the Amharic, in the south-west
of Abyssinia ; the Tigre, in the north ; and the Harari, hi the
south-east, at about 40° long, and 10° lat. These have, perhaps,
been grafted on to older languages belonging to other families,
but their grammar is uncpiestionably Semitic, so that they must
necessarily be grouped with the Gheez.*
§ 7. — Individuality of the Semitic Idioms.
Their Primeval Home.
Much greater pains have been, and stdl are, taken to find a
common link between the Aryan and the Semitic families, than to
compare the various numbers of this last group together, and thus
restore, at least in its general outlines, the common mother-tongue
of all the Semitic languages. It may be presumed that, considering
the slight differences that exist between them, this task may, in the
present state of our knowledge, not prove too formidable. In any
case it must prove far less so than the analogous undertaking on
behalf of the Aryan tongues, which has so far been attended with
so little success.
It need scarcely be observed that the writers who have been
most zealous in their endeavours to compare the Semitic with the
Aryan group have never thought of the obvious objection, that they
should not compare Hebrew or Arabic with Zend, Sanskrit, or
Greek, but rather the common Semitic with the common Aryan
mother-tongue. All the points of resemblance they have sought
* Fr. Miiller, " Uebor die Harari- Spraclie im ostlichen Africa." Vienna, 1864.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 173
to establish may be said always to rely on etymologies, and never
on grammar : and this alone at once and hopelessly condemns them.
Etymology, as shown in our first chapter, is in no sense a science.
By means of it we might easily derive the most irreconcilable
languages one from the other— not only Basque from Irish, Etruscan
from Tibetan, but even Hebrew from Sanskrit, or Sanskrit from
Hebrew, ai pleasure. It is grammar, as Benan has well said, that
constitutes the individuality of a language ; hence " the attempt
must be abandoned to establish a connecting link between the
Aryan and Semitic grammatical systems, which are two distinct
creations, absolutely separated from each other." — [Op. fit., v. ch. 2.)
When speaking of inflection in general (p. 147), we remarked
upon the deep and radical difference that existed between the
Semitic and Aryan grammar. Here it will be enough to repeat
that the pretended relations sought to be established between
them are reduced to some futile etymologies, lacking all scientist-
character. All such facts, past, present, and future, would be at
once outweighed by one single argument drawn from the formation
of the words themselves.
Two principal causes seem to have been at the bottom of
the unscientific conception of the common origin of the Aryan
and Semitic tongues. The first of these lies in the nationality, or
t in the race itself, of a certain class of writers that have
upheld this opinion. Without quoting names, the fact is known
well enough that a great many of them are .lews; which will
accouni for much of the spirit pervading their writings. The second
lies in the biblical, <>'.■ clerical feeling, the spirit of infatuation
and medieval darkness, which sees nothing true excepl in theology,
and which begins by denouncing free ami secular inquiry, while
ready at the last moment to turn round and cry out that all
knowledge proceeds from it, and from it alone. Hut with this
::■[ cause we need not trouble ourselves, for discussion is out of
place with people who proclaim themselves inspired ami above
[i. The motive, however, is easily understood that induces
Eoly Writ to attribute to all the languages of
the universe one commo] , and more particularly to
174 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
them directly or indirectly with the assumed speech of the father
of the Jewish race. But, as Scripture itself says, we must let the
dead bury then dead.
It is difficult to pronounce dogmatically on the question of the
region in which was spoken the common mother-tongue of all
the Semitic idioms. The Arameans and Canaanites are generally
allowed to have entered Palestine from the south-east, hut it Avould,
perhaps, he wise to venture on nothing further. Some more daring
writers assume that this common speech — whence sprang the
Aramean, Canaanite, and Arabic — was spoken in the north of
Arabia, or, perhaps, in central Arabia. The fact, of course, is
possible, but so far utterly unsupported by any sort of positive
proof.*
Questions of this sort must always remain obscure, nor can they
be solved by philology alone without the aid of anthropology and
archeology.
(B) TJie Hamitic Languages.
It is needless to say that the expression Hamitic is quite as
defective as Semitic. But it seems now consecrated by use, and
we have been fain to adopt it for lack of a better. The term
"Libyan" has indeed been proposed, but it says too little, and is
applicable to one division only of the Hamitic family.
However probable in itself, it is difficult to assert positively that
the Hamitic tongues, spread over most of Egypt and along the
southern shores of the Mediterranean, did at any time occupy the
regions of the Euphrates and Tigris, thence making then way
through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia Petrsea into Africa,
Still less, if possible, is known as to the country in which the
Hamitic broke away from the Semitic family. All that can be
said on the subject is that the separation must have taken place at
a very remote epoch. The stability of the Semitic idioms in their
old forms throughout the historic period speaks at once for the
* The whole question has been fully discussed by Schrader in " Die
Abstammung der Chaldaer nnd die Ursitze der Semiten," " Zeitschr. der
Deutschen Morgenland. Gesellschaft," xxxvii. Leipzig, 1873.
Chap. v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 175
treat antiquity of the time when Semitic and Hamitic were yet to
be, hut when a now forever lost language did exist, whence both
would some day spring.
In his "AUgemeine Ethnographic" (p. 445) Fr. Muller well
describes the relations that existed between the two. Their affinity,
he justly remarks, is rather in the identity of the organism than
in the coincidence of fully-developed forms. The two families
must have separated at a time when their common mother-tongue
was still in a very backward state of development. Moreover, the
Hamitic group seems at a very early date to have split into two
branches, the various idioms of which are far less allied to each
other than is the case with the different members of the. Semitic
group.
The pronominal system of the two families has been mainly
instrumental in establishing their affinity, the roots of their pro-
nouns and the process of forming the plural by means of an ending
being identical in both ; * a fact which has now been thoroughly
ascertained.
In the philological section of "The Voyage of the Novara round
the World " (Vienna, 1867), Fr. Midler has essayed to draw a some-
what summary outline of the general Hamitic grammar. In the
nouns tin- feminine is characterised by the element ti, i ; the plural
si<m is, in principle, an, sometimes "/, and occasionally /', which
may be merely a secondary form of mi. There is in this group
no trace of nominal inflection properly so called, its place being
supplied by particles placed either before or after the noun, to
express the usual relations of the noun t<» the rest of the phrase.
Verbal forms are, numerous, as in tie' Semitic group, and the
. elementary, as will presently he Been.
The three Eamitic groups, as stated, are: the Egyptian, the
Libyan, and the Ethiopian. And first —
§ 1. — The Egyptian <irunj>.
I' : , the beginning of the present century that the ancient
■ Kaspero, ■■!>■■- Pronomi Personnels en B yptaen et <Ian.s tee Lai
Semitiquen. :i Paris, 1-7.'.
176 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Egyptian hieroglyphics were again deciphered, after having remained
a dead letter for many hundreds of years. Their interpretation has
shed a lustre on the name of Champollion, who, if not the only
expounder of these precious texts (having, in fact, been anticipated
by Young), has undoubtedly dune more than any other for their
rapid elucidation.
Here let us premise a few words on the nature of these hiero-
glyphics.*
The number of these characters is considerable, some being
phonetic, others figurative. The phonetic signs are easily tran-
scribed in Roman letters, though the Egyptians themselves often
wrote the consonants only, omitting the vowels of the word. Still
these may generally be easily restored, either from the context or
by comparing the word in question with the word answering to it
in the Coptic language, of which we shall have presently to speak.
Let us add that the phonetic signs may be either simply alphabetical
— that is, expressing, for instance, one consonant only — or else
syllabic — that is, denoting a full syllable. But in either case their
transcription is, of course, equally easy.
The figurative signs are true images, or pictures, and are placed
at the end of words written in phonetic letters, their object being
to determine more precisely the sense of these words. At times,
however, the text contains none but figurative characters, and then
they present a serious difficulty to the reader, who, in such cases,
must have recourse to any possible duplicates of such texts.
In Egyptian there are two genders, the masculine and the
feminine, the latter being denoted by the characteristic suffix t.
Thus son = brother ; sont = sister. Observe, however, that this t
may also be placed before the noun.
The dual endings are: ui masculine, ti f eminine ; sonui = two
brothers.
The plural is a for both genders: sonu = brothers, tefu = fathers,
from son and tef.
Of declension properly so-called there is no trace.
The article is occasionally used, especially in the more recent
* Brugsch, " Grarnmaire Hk'roglypliique." Leipzig, 1872.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION". 177
language. It is pa or pe for the singular masculine, ta or te for the
feminine. Thus nuter = god ; nidert = goddess ; pa nuter = the god ;
A< ivdert = the goddess. In the plural »a or «e for both genders:
ua nuteru =the gods.
The adjective, as a rule, immediately follows its noun, agreeing
•with it in gender and number : sat urt = elder daughter ; dmu urn =
great masters, where in the first example t marks the feminine
singular, in the second // denotes the plural.
The subject is placed sometimes before the verb, but the usual
order is — verb, subject, direct object, indirect object, adverb.
In the verbal forms the personal element is suffixed :
Uonk = thou art (masculine).
Uont = thou art (feminine).
Uonf = he is.
Uons = she is.
Uonten = you are.
Uonu = they are.
At the opening of this paragraph we spoke of the hieroglyphic
writing only. But it will be easily imagined that this system
must have been simplified in course of time, becoming considerably
modified in order to adapt itself to the wants of every-day life.
Thus arose the two cursive writing systems known as the hieratic
and demotic. In his second book Herodotus speaks of the twofold
Egyptian writing -the sacred and the popular. The hieratic,
running from right to left, is merely a cursive and often much
shortened form of the old hieroglyphics. It is seldom tnel with
on the granite monuments, and occurs mostly on the papyrus
documents. It was the learned and religious writing, of which the
demotic itself was in its turn a more curtailed form, though still
containing a number of real ideographic signs. This was tin- popular
style, employed in transcribing the language in current use,* a
which helps i.. explain many differences between tin' old
Egypl ian and the < Jopl ic.
Ca/j/ir derives directly from the ancienl Egyptian, its litei
period extending from the second to the seventh century of our
* Brugach, " Qrammaire D¬ique." Berlin, In5.">.
178 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
era. It is a purely Christian, though somewhat copious, literature,
brought to a sudden close by Islamism, which ruined the Coptic
language, supplanting it by the Arabic wherever it was still
vernacular. It continued, however, for some time to eke out a
precarious existence in some few monasteries, but is now quite
extinct.
Coptic phonology was richer than the old Egyptian, though its
grammar did not greatly differ from it. Any one familiar with
Coptic may easily leam Egyptian, or vice versa, though the Coptic
vocabulary includes rather a large number of Greek words. As
in Egyptian, Coptic marks the feminine by prefixing t to the noun ;
and we have seen that the old language cordd use this element as a
prefix as well as a suffix. The plural sign is u, also as in Egyptian ;
but there is a second form, i, which may combine with the first :
sbd — teaching ; sbuui = teachings. Of cases there are no traces,
their want being sxipplied by prepositions.
The Coptic verb possesses the twofold formation of prefixes and
suffixes, which may easily be compared with the double Semitic
formation above spoken of. But to the two Coptic forms no
special value can be attributed, such as can be to the Semitic*
Thus the masculine pronoun k = thou, is sometimes prefixed to the
verbal theme, and sometimes suffixed, without any apparent
difference of meaning. The different tenses, past, future, &c., are
distinguished by means of auxiliary verbs placed before the verbal
theme.
The Coptic alphabet is nothing but the Greek, written somewhat
in a fuller and rounder form, and occasionally slightly inclined
backwards to the left. To this alphabet, however, have been
added some characters to denote sounds peculiar to the Coptic, and
uidcnown to the Greek, such as the sh of she.
In Coptic there are distinguished three dialects — the Memphitic,
which possessed the aspirates Jilt, fh,ph; the Theban in the south,
and a northern dialect.
* Fr. iliiller, " Reise der Oesterr. Fregatte Novara,' Linguistischer Theil,''
p. 63. Vienna, 1867.
Chap, t.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 179
§ 2. — Tlie Libyan Gfroup.
The ancient Libya occupied the north of Africa west of Egypt,
and it was in this region that the Punic, or Phoenician of Africa,
found a home. The grammar of the ancient Libyan has not yet
been compiled, but it is beginning to be known through its inscrip-
tions. Of these, General Faidherbe has recently published an
important collection, about 200 altogether, including several
bilingual ones, one accompanied by a Phoenician text, and others
by a Latin.*
The present Libyan is known by no generally received name,
though that of Berber may perhaps become ultimately adopted.
Those of Kabyle, Ta-masheq, and many others are merely the
names of particular dialects, which cannot therefore be applied to
the whole group, f
It is difficult to define the limits of the Berber language. It
seems to occupy the whole country to the south of Tripoli, Tunis,
; i i. and Morocco, at certain points reaching even to the coast,
as in Algeria, from Dellys to Bugi, and even farther east (Kabyl),
'■n Tenes and ShersheLJ
The phonetic system of the various Berber dialects is tolerably
Mils. As in the other Hamitic tongues, t is the sign
of the feminine, placed occasionally at the beginning only, but
more usually both prefixed and suffixed at once. Thus. akli =
i ; ekahi = cocls.; but taM.it - negress; tehahit —hem ; amaher =
a Tuareg; tamaher—& Tuareg woman. The Berber verb has one
form only, a sort of aorist to which a present or future idea is
imparted by purely accessory proc<
A dumber of Arabic mads have crept into the Berber dialei
*u( i pifcte dee Inscriptions Numidiqnefl," "Memoires de la
, ... de Lille," 3rd series, viii. p. 361. Paris, Lille, l s 7o.
fYetthese terms aro constantly bo misapplied by English philoli
. . - j 1 1 number of The 8aturd ■ ■ - usually
"the Bern i or Amazigns," as convertible terms.
June 17. L876, p. 7&7. - \< ator.
J Hanoteau, " Esaai de Grammaire do la Langoe Tamaoliek," in fine.
Paris, 1869.
N 2
180 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH—INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
and, with the exception of the Ta-masheq, they have all lost
whatever special graphic systems they may have ever possessed.
The Ta-masheq, composed of tolerably regular characters, is difficult
to read, the vowels not being expressed nor the words separated in
writing. To decipher it one must therefore, in the first place, be
acquainted with the language itself.
M. Hanoteau estimates the Berbers of Algeria at upwards of
855,000, of which 500,000 are in the Government of Constantine
alone. How many there may be in the regions stretching south
from Algeria it is impossible to say.
It may be stated in conclusion that the language of the Guanches,
the aboriginals of the Canaries, Avas connected with the Libyan
group.*
§ 3._ The Ethiopian Group.
The idioms composing this group, which has not yet been very
well defined, are not to be confused with the Semitic tongues of
Abyssinia, such as the Tigre, Amharic, and others above spoken of.
These latter have sometimes been called Ethiopian, whence the
confusion ; to avoid winch we reserve this name, as is now generally
done, for the Hamitic branch of the languages of Central Africa
spoken towards the south of Egypt.
Of this group there are six principal members :
Somali, in the extreme eastern point of the continent, stretching
south from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb nearly to the Equator.
Galla, Avest of Somali, south of Abyssinia, and north of the
Bantu system.
Beja, spoken by the Hadendoas, and by some of the Beni-Amer,
between the Kile and the Bed Sea, north of Abyssinia.
Saho, Dankdli and Agaii, in Avestern Abyssinia.
The classification, hoAvever, of these idioms is not yet settled,
and all that can for the present be done is to group them together
in connection with the Hamitic family, to Avhich they clearly
belong.
* Sabin Berthelot, "Memoire sur les Guanches," deuxieme partie,
" Memoires de la Soc. Ethnologkiue," ii. p. 77. Paris, 1815.
Ciiap. v.] THIED FOEM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 181
Thus in Beja the feminine element is t, which, as in Egyptian,
may be placed either before or after the noun. Thus the masculine
suffix b is replaced by t in the forms crab = albus ; erat = alba. At
times the feminine element occurs both at the beginning and end
of the word.
In Ta-masheq the verbal causative sign is s : erh in = to be ill :
serhin=to make ill. En. Beja it is es : edlub = to sell \ esdelub =to
cause to sell. In Gatta, za : gua =to be dry ; guaza =to make dry.
So with conjugation itself, where in Saho, as in Coptic, we have
a form in which the personal element precedes, and another in
which it follows the root. It precedes it in nekke = we were, and
follows it in kino = we are (ne-kke, ki-no). So with the Galla:
gigna=we went, and nefdeg = ire lost (gig-na, ne-fdeg), where the
first is a perfect, the second an aorist, or indefinite form. The
process is analogous to that employed by the Semitic tongues in
like circumstances.
(C) The Aryan Languages.
We shall have to enter into fuller details concerning tins
important family than we have given of any others, and the reason
must be obvious enough. Their importance is immense from every
point of view. They serve nowadays as the instruments of
modern culture after having been the interpreters of most of the
older civilisations. No forms of speech have lived so much, if not
as regards the actual term of their existence, at least in respect of
the manifold periods thai they have passed through.
Another consideration interests us in a special manner. The
alone possess a real comparative grammar. 'While
the grammar of the Semitic family has still to he compiled, that of
the Aryan is already nearly complete, not merely in its -rand out-
lines and general features, but in a vasl number of minor details.
\ man of genius, Bopp, was the first to demonstrate the identity
of the great buli of the Aryan tongues, lie did aol live definitely
to codify their phoneti their processes of word-formation,
and his "Comparative Grammar" is now merely a historical
monument, though bis name is nut the ], .- |„ nnanently associated
182 THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
with one of the discoveries that do honour to the nineteenth
century.
In all his writings Bopp had aimed at establishing the close
affinity of Sanskrit, Zend, Persian, Greek, Latin, the Keltic,
Teutonic, Slavonic, and Lithuanian groups. This great truth once
thoroughly secured, the science of the Aryan tongues made new
and rapid strides. Prom the affinity of all these idioms some
older form was assumed, whence they all sprang ; a form, doubtless,
extremely remote, and lost for ever, but which might possibly be
restored. And here it is but just to mention two names, those of
Schleicher and Chavee, which the science of language never can
overlook without ingratitude. To them we owe the first realisation
of the fruitful conception of a common primeval Aryan mother-
tongue. In the introduction to an important work published
nearly thirty years ago, Chavee was able to write: "These lan-
guages are for the philologist merely varieties of some one primeval
form of speech formerly spoken in central Asia. Convinced of
this truth, we have undertaken to restore the words of this
primitive language organically, by everywhere re-establishing the
original type by means of its better preserved varieties."* This
contains the very essence of the modern science of language.
Schleicher, in his turn, produced that admirable manual, which
may doubtless be revised, supplemented, improved, but which
must still ever remain the foundation of Aryan philological
studies, t
• § 1. — TJie Common Aryan Mother-Tongue.
Before speaking of the various members of this family, and
inquiring into the degree of affinity that knits them together, we
must sketch a general outline of the common mother-tongue that
gave birth to these different idioms. It is sufficiently known in its
main features to enable us to reproduce its general characteristics,
and at times to go even stiU farther. It is, indeed, merely a language
* " Lexicologie Indo-Europeenne." Paris, 1849.
f " Compendium der Vergleichenden Gramxnatik der Indo-Germanischen
Sprachen," 3rd edition (posthumous). Weimar, 1871.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 183
that lias been restored, and of which there remains no written
record. Bnt the comparison of the various idioms sprung from it
shows clearly enough wherein consist the organic and primitive
elements of each, what they still possess of the common inheritance,
and what we are to think of their phonetic variations and diverse
forms, much in the same way as a classical scholar is enabled to
restore the original form of a lost manuscript, of which there may
exist unlv a certain number of defective or imperfect copies.
The common Aryan speech possessed the three vowels, a, i, ",
with their corresponding long sounds, d,l,u. Sanskrit, and certain
Slavonic tongues, such as Croatian, have a lingual r vowel-sound,
which is usually considered as quite secondary. But some writers,
with whom we agree, believe that the common tongue also
possessed a vowel r,* though the matter being still controverted, it
need not further detain us here.
An important fact to be noted is the variation of the radical
vowel, which occurs in two ways. The first is what is called the
"gradation"' of the vowel, consisting in the introduction of a short
a before the radical vowel, the radical i thus becoming ai, u
becoming au, and a becoming a, that is aa. Tims the root / to
go, gives in the indicative present the organic form aiti = h.e goes,
whence the Sanskrit <ti, the Latin it for &it, the Lithuanian eiti.
It is now difficult to Bay whether this first variation of the radical
1 was the only one known to the common Aryan tongue, 01
whether it had also another, consisting in a fresh insertion of the
vowel a, whence ai, au, for aai, aau.
It is no less difficult to understand in what way this modification
of the radical vowel effects certain changes in tli' E the
word Itself. Have we here a real inflection in the e, an
internal modification of the root, such as has hern above described I
It may I"- bo, but it has imt yet been clearly proved.
There can, however, be no doubt that the Becond proa
a true inflection. It • ■ in the change of the
•"Menu Pronunciation ei la PrinMrdiaUtedn'B' Vooal San-
skrit." Paris, L872.
184 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
vowel a of the pronominal elements ta, na, to i, u ; these elements,
which were previously passive, thus acquiring an active force.
This will he made clear hy an example. Take the root ma = to
think, to which may he suffixed the demonstrative ta, as a deri-
vative element, producing 'mata = thought, the thing thought of.
Now, if the vowel of the derivative pronoun hecome i, the sense
"becomes active, mati meaning the act of thinking. These are the
Sanskrit forms mata-, mati-. ]S T o more striking instance could he
given of true inflection, that is of the process of changing the
relational sense of a root hy means of an internal modification of
the root itself.
The common Aryan consonantal system was extremely simple,
consisting of the three explosives k, t, p, of their corresponding
softs g, d, b, and of the aspirates gh, dh, bh, making altogether
nine explosives. Besides these the two nasals n, m, one dental, the
other lahial, the liquid r, the dental sihilant s, and a r, uttered
doubtless as is our v (and not as w, as has "been supposed). Had it
"been so pronounced it would have "been a semi-vowel, and not a
consonant. The system, however, did possess the semi-vowel y.
Here then was a system simple enough in itself, and to Avhich
the various Aryan tongues have added more or less. The Indian,
Iranian, and Slavonic groups developed the so-called palatal
sihilants sh, j, and various kinds of sibilants. The Hellenic
changed the soft aspirates gh, dh, bh, to the corresponding sharps,
Jch, th,ph; while the Teutonic, Latin, and Keltic groups remained
more faithful to the original consonantal system, though these also
produced some new sounds, as, for instance, /. The liquid I was
unknown to the common Aryan speech, this sound developing
itself more or less rapidly out of the old liquid r throughout all
the "branches of the family.
We shall not dwell at any length on the Aryan process of word-
formation, which is extremely simple, "being effected generally hy
suffixing an element of pronominal origin to one of verbal origin,
as in mata-, mati-, ahove quoted. The hyphen attached to this word
denotes that it represents a radical form only, or, in other words,
that it constitutes merely a simple theme. We shall presently see
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 185
li'Av the case and personal suffixes are added to the theme, thus
making it a true word — that is, either a declined norm or a con-
jugated verb. Derivation is said to he on a verbal basis, when the
clement to which the derivative element is attached is a verbal root.
In the same way it is said to rest on a pronominal basis when the
derived element is itself a pronominal root; a case which, though
less frequent than the other, is far from rare. An instance is the
theme AIKA, whence the Sanskrit e&a = one, one alone, one and
the same, and the Latin cequo-, in the nominative singular masculine
cequus = equal, united. Here the derivative element is the pronoun
K.\ = who, and the derived element is the determining pronoun I
(the Latin is, id), which has become ai by "gradation," that is by
a being prefixed, as above explained.
Let us add, that derivation may also be effected by means of a
verbal instead of a pronominal element, though this is of much
rarer occurrence. But it should be carefully noted that in all
cases derivation always takes place in the Aryan tongues by
means of suffixes, and never by prefixes, and this is a characteristic
feature of the family.
The common Aryan declension included the three genders —
masculine, feminine, and neuter; the three numbers — singular,
dual, and plural ; and eighl cases — thus being in every respect
more complex than the Semitic system of declension.
The gender is denoted, in principle, by the case-ending itself.
Thus, in themes ending in a, the element of the nominative
alar is •--, which in the neuter is m, the same as the accusative.
Thus AKVAS = horse (Sanskrit, a$vas; Latin, equus); ?ugam =
■ oskrit, yugam; Latin, jugum). The plural sign follows,
in principle, that of tin' case ; but this sign is not always the same,
and it is often very difficult to discover its primitive form. In
many case* it is simply the consonant 8, the remnant of an element
formerly -ecu in it integral form.
It must not he forgotten thai fchi e suffixe some indicating
lumber- were originally independent forms, which in
course "I' time became merely secondary elements, adapted to
indicate the n and manner of being of other i""i . Bui
186 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
the numerous attempts to discover the primitive form of these
elements have hitherto remained without any definite results.
Many more or less probable conjectures have been proposed, but
the problem remains still to be solved.
The common Aryan noun had, as stated, eight cases — two
direct, the nominative and accusative ; and six indirect, the locative,
dative, ablative, genitive, and a twofold instrumental. The organic
form of these suffixes was in the singular, as follows : Nominative,
s, generally persisting, but in the derived languages occasionally
disappearing, in virtue of certain euphonic laws ; accusative of
themes ending in a consonant, am, of those ending in a vowel, M,
as in the Latin sororem, where the theme is soror, and in sitim,
Avhere the theme is siti ; locative singular, I, which we shall see
has passed in Greek to the dative, and in Latin has not been quite
lost ; dative singular, ai, strictly retained by Zend and the Indian
languages only ; ablative, sometimes at, sometimes T ; genitive,
usually as, occasionally s, and when the theme ends in a, sya.
The first instrumental a, the second hid.
These various endings are applied to all nouns substantive,
adjective, and participial, which threefold division has nothing to
do with the form itself of the word, Avith Avhich we are uoav
concerned. The vocative is not, strictly speaking, a case at all,
being in principle the same in form as the theme itself : akva =
horse; AVI = sheep; agni = fire. But in course of time
certain Aryan tongues have sometimes assimilated it to the
nominative, or, to speak more correctly, have sometimes used the
nominative in a vocative sense.
The Aryan verb has tAvo voices, one transitive — I hear, I strike ;
the other intransitive— I hear myself, I strike myself ; both, hoAV-
ever, being active. These different senses are expressed by the
pronominal element placed at the end of the verbal theme. In
other Avords, there are tAvo kinds of personal suffixes — transitive
and intransitive. Thus, in the third person singular, for instance,
the suffix of the transitive voice is ti, and of the intransitive tai,
Avhere we recognise the Greek form rat of the voice spoken of by
the grammarians as passive, which in Greek really has this sense,
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 187
but the primitive meaning of which was simply intransitive or
reflective. There is no doubt that the personal suffixes of the
intransitive voice derive from those of the transitive, that of the
first person evidently meaning / myself; that of the second,
thou thyself; and that of the third, he himself, in Lai in ego me,
tu te, HI'- se. This point has not yet been definitely settled, but it
is hard to believe that it will not be sooner or later.
While the Semitic system possessed two tenses only, one
expressing complete, the other incomplete action, tin' common
Aryan tongue had six, four simple and two compound tenses.
The simplest form of the present is the theme itself, followed by
the personal suffix. At times the root vowel has been augmented
in the manner already explained, as when the root I = to go,
becomes Al : AiTi = he goes (Sanskrit eti, Lithuanian eiti). At
times the verbal root itself is derived. Thus, in the case of a
complex form, such as bhara, where bhar is radical and a deri-
vative, we shall get the present bharati = he hears. But in any
case the present is always a simple tense, whether the root itself
or. some derivative form of it is to be conjugated.
The imperfect is formed i>\ prefixing the augment a to the
m theme, whether it lie simple or derived, the personal
endings being further shortened, ti of the third, to /. and ,„', of
the first, to ///. Thus from the present miAR.vn = he bears, we
get the imperfect adiiakat - he was bearing.
The simple aorist, like the imperfect, is denoted by the augment
and the personal endings contracted, being distinguished from the
imperfect by its departure from tin- form of the present, [n Greek,
for instance, the root, 0? = to put, is doubled in the present, giving
Ti6tT( - you put ; to this reduplicate form the imperfect prefixes the
augment, making eridere = you were pulling. I'.ui l he simple aorist
the reduplical ion, ■ dtre.
The perfect i^ characterised by reduplication of the root. To
four tenses there are added, as stated, two compound one . of
which one is the future, which is composed of the verbal rooi ami
, a, s,va, v. hoc primitive ense seems to have been
■ .)' ■•'.liming at," whence the San kril ddsyaii he will give.
188 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
The compound aorist, preserved by Sanskrit, Zend, the Slavonic
tongues, and Greek (this last under the name of first aorist), is
characterised by the element sa.
In the common Aryan tongue these six tenses are completed
by three moods — the indicative, conjunctive, and optative. The
indicative has no characteristic, here the tenses remaining in their
simple form. The conjunctive is marked by an a placed between
the theme and the personal suffix ; thus the indicative present
being ASTi = he is, the conjunctive will be asati. The opta-
tive, sometimes called potential, is formed by inserting the element
ya, ya*, between the verbal theme and the contracted personal
suffix : asyat = may he be !
The table here presented of the different organic forms of the
primitive Aryan system is doubtless but little developed. We
trust, however, that it' may suffice to convey some idea of the
general spirit of this system. When we come to speak of the
different members of the Aryan family, it will be impossible for
us to do more than point out, in a summary way, what each of
them has preserved or lost of the common inheritance ; but enough
has already been stated to show, at least in a general way, the
nature and the wealth of this inheritance.*
The Aryan family is divided into eight great branches : The
Indie, Iranic, Hellenic, Italic, Keltic, Teutonic, Slavonic, and Lettic.
These Ave shall now pass in successive review, noticing their special
features, the sub-divisions of each, their history and then- literature.
Wc shall have also to inquire into the degree of affinity by which
certain branches of this great family may be more closely related
to each other, and shall, in conclusion, devote a few words to
the region where in all probability the Aryan mother-tongue was
spoken.
* Here follow some remarks on the terms " Indo-Germanic," " Indo-
European," and " Aryan," by which this family has been variously known.
The writer, on very insufficient grounds, rejects "Aryan," and retains "Indo-
European " for want of a better. But, the cmestion having been practically
settled in Germany and England, and, indeed, in France itself, in favour of
" Aryan," the passage lias been omitted, and Aryan everywhere substituted
for Indo-European in this translation. — Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIKD FORI! OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 189
§ 2.— The Indie Branch.
As early as the sixteenth century, an Italian named Filippo
Sassetti drew attention to Sanskrit, the old and sacred language of the
Hindus, going so far as to compare certain words of his own mother-
tongue with it,* Two hundred years thereafter, towards the end of
the eighteenth century, the friar Paulinusa Sancto Bartholomseo pub-
lished at Rome the first Sanskrit grammar composed in a European
language. Some years previously, the Frenchmen Coeurdoux and
Barthelemy, had communicated to the Academy their views on the
affinity of Sanskrit with Latin and Greek. Lastly, the works of a
great number of Englishmen, amongst whom, Sir William .loins,
Colebrooke, Carey, AVdkins, prepared the way for and rendered
possible the really fundamental work of Bopp.
It was on Sanskrit that the whole structure of Aryan comparative
grammar was now based. Not that this old language could be
regardd. even in its most ancient monuments, as the common
mother of the Iranian, Creek, Latin, Slave, and other members of
the 8ame family ; but it departed, on the whole, far less than any
of them from the now lost tongue, from which they all equally
sprang. Greek, Latin, and their congeners, no more derive from
Sanskrit than do Hebrew and Phoenician from Arabic. Eence
the .Tin " Sanskritic," as sometimes applied to the Aryan tongues,
is altogether out of place. Doubtless the Sanskrit forms are often
more correct and better preserved than those of the cognate ton
but these last, in their turn, often surpass the Sanskrit in these
respects, approaching more closely to the common type whence all
derive. And what is here, stated is quite as applicable to the
;:ril of the Vedas as it is to the classic Sanskrit (of a later
period).
The Indie branch eml . i tie cl only of idioms,
out ■ ■'■>>'■ are very old, while others are .-till b mce
we shall i hem under I rate beadi]
* " i. p. 416 fin I i ! Larenoe, L855i
190 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
(1) TJie Ancient Hindu Languages.
The word SansJcrta means "perfect, finished; "hence the Sanskrit
is the perfect, the finished language. This name was given to it
in contrast with the term prakrta, which means " natural," and is
applied to the old vernacular, or, to speak more correctly, to the
various dialects of the vulgar tongue. Sanskrit had "become the
language of religion, law, and letters, while Prakrit was the current
popular form of speech, which was not at first a written language
at all.
Sanskrit possessed the vowels a, i, u, long and short, the lingual
vowels r, I, the first of these also long, e and 3 representing the old
diphthongs ai and au ; lastly, the diphthongs ai and an. Its conso-
nantal system was rich; besides the explosives I; t, p, g, d, I,
comprising the palatal explosives ch and j, and some linguo-dental
explosives, borrowed seemingly from the Dravidian family, and
usually transcribed by a t and a d, with a clot underneath. More-
over, while the only aspirates known to the common Aryan tongue
were gh, dli, bh, Sanskrit possessed, side by side with each simple
explosive, its corresponding aspirate, as, for instance, Teh, fh, pli,
making altogether twenty explosives, of which ten were simple and
ten aspirate. The common Aryan tongue had only two nasals, m
and n, while Sanskrit had one for each order of its consonants, a
labial, a linguo-dental, &c, five altogether. Instead of a simple
sibilant, s, it had four, besides an aspirate h, and lastly y and v.
The Sanskrit euphonic laws are very intricate, and can be-
mastered only by long practice. They are exceedingly strict, and
while depending in general on perfectly intelligible acoustic prin-
ciples, they may be said to be characterised at times by an almost
excessive nicety of utterance, which it is somewhat difficult to
understand.* The euphony of the Slavonic tongues, with all its
delicacy, is far from being so nice as that of the Sanskrit, in com-
parison witli which, that of Latin and Greek is no more than an
essay of a very rudimentary nature.
* In our " Enphonie Sanskrite," we have endeavoured to draw up as
simple a scheme of them as possible. Paris, 1872.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 191
On the other hand, the formation of the words offers no very
great difficulty, owing to the high state of preservation in which
the language still exists. The elements entering into the derivation
of the words are far more easily detected in Sanskrit than in any
of the cognate tongues, the (old) Iranic idioms alone perhaps
excepted.
The Sanskrit declension may be said, on the whole, to represent the
common Aryan system very closely. The greatest discrepancy betwe< m
the scheme of a Sanskrit declension and that of the corresponding
organic form would be connected with the euphonic modifications
I i which Sanskrit is subject. Not however that, apart from this,
sclension can be said to be perfectly organic. Tims, it preserves
the true form of the ablative singular in those nOuns only whose
theme ends in a; hence the old Latin form smabud, navaled, and
rs, have nothing analogous to them in Sanskrit. But this, on
the whole, is but an exceptional case, and Sanskrit declension
may. speaking generally, be said to reflect faithfully enough (hat
of the common mother-tongue whence it flows. In this respect it
unquestionably surpasses the ancient Iranian declension, though
this also is fairly well preserved.
iskrit retains the six organic Aryan tenses, present, imperfect,
simple aorist, perfect, future, compound aorist, to which it lias
added the conditional, a new creation of its own. This conditional
thing but the future with the augment prefixed, and its
I suffixes contracted Thus, from bhotsyaH= he will know,
^Jidtsyat =h.e might or would know. The Sanskrit con-
ditional is therefore to the future what the imperfecl is to the
■ nt.
The ancient Vedic I relatively but. little from the
is, the Sanskrit of the Hindu epics, the points
nee in no way affecting the <■- tence or constitution of the
. it it would he impossible to dwell mi this subject
without entering in! of needle detail .
Tip' Hindu graphic -•. item, known as the I >■ vandgari, ox "divine
writiic_ r ," is composed of some fifty Bimple cl . read from left
bt, and of a multiplicity of compL containing two or
192 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
three simple letters blended together. It has the great advantage
of being able to be transcribed in Eoman letters, furnished with the
necessary diacritical marks. A consonant in principle is never read
alone, being always followed by an inherent vowel a, unless some
secondary sign denote that the vowel thus following is other than
a. If a word end in a consonant and the next begin with a vowel,
the two words are connected in writing ; a difficulty which, with
some others equally serious, renders the Devanagari of little
practical use.
The oldest Hindu inscriptions were cut on rock surfaces, about
the third century before our era. The origin of these characters
seems now fairly established, and it is generally connected with the
old Phoenician alphabet above explained.* The Hindu alphabet
did not remain confined to a corner of India, but is now, under
various forms, employed by nearly all the modern dialects of the
peninsula. The Tibetan also is derived from it, as well as the
Javanese, besides a number of other alphabets.
Amongst the Prakrit, or vulgar forms, that were cm-rent side by
side with the sacred and literary language, there was one which
was reserved for quite a special career. This was the Pali, the
instrument of Buddhist propagandism, the special language of a
religion endowed with an enormous power of expansion. Hence
the importance of the literature of Pali, which seems to have been
no other than the vulgar speech of the district of Magadha, in
north-eastern India; a language itself extremely ancient, and in
some respects showing a marked superiority even over the old
Prakrit documents embodied in ancient Hindu dramatical literature.
Thus, it does not, for instance, change y to j, as we shall see is the
•case with the neo-Sanskrit idioms. It has, moreover, retained certain
forms of the old declension lost in the other tongues, and its con-
jugation also is more highly synthetic than theirs. The Sanskrit
vowel r has disappeared from Pali, being mostly replaced by a ; the
Ion" vowels also become short in certain positions; the three
sibilants are confused in a single s ; the assimilation of the con-
* A. Weber, "Indische Skizzen," p. 125, Berlin, 1857; Fr. Miiller, "Reise
der Oesterr. Fregatte Norara, Lingnistischer Theil," p. 219, Vienna, 1867.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 193
sonants is more and more developed, and all words must end either
in a simple vowel or a nasal vowel. In the declension the dual is
entirely lost, and the dative is absorbed in the genitive. Such are
some of the leading peculiarities of Pali.
Of all Aryan tongues there are hut few whose literature can
compare with that of ancient India. Hindu literature was dis-
tinguished not only by its wealth and variety, hut also by the
excellence of a great number of its productions. A. Weber has
given a rapid hut very accurate sketch of it.* The ancient Vedic
literature comprised, in the first place, the Rig-Veda, the Sama-
Veda, the two collections of the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-
Veda. The first of these Vedas is a collection of songs and religious
hymns ; the second and the third contain prayers and formulas to be
recited at the sacrifices ; the fourth is much more recent than the
others, especially than the Eig-Veda. Besides the collections of
hymns, Yedic literature also includes the. " Brahmanas," writings
that contain a great number of religious ordinances, traditions,
expositions, and the " Soutras," a sort of appendix to the preceding
compilations.
Tli- classic period is much more varied. It is illustrated at the
outset by its grand national epics, then by the drama, lyric poetry,
fables, narratives, and pmverlis. Lastly, it produced important
works on grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, and
a number of technical works. Then follows the Buddhist literature,
of which Pali, as above stated, was the principal instrument.
(2) Modern Indian Languages
Are spoken by about 140 millions of people in the north of
India, and occupying approximately about two-thirds of the entire
peninsula.
They do nol derive directly from Sanskrit, but from tl Id
Prakrits, or vulgar forms of Bpeech, spoken (for a time) side by
ride with San krit itself. They arc generally said to have been
* " Akadcniische Vorlcsuugcu iiber Indiaohe Literatorgesohiohte." Berlin
L862.
o
191- THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
formed towards the tenth century of our era, possibly a little
earlier. But by this we are merely to understand that their present
form may date from somewhere about that period. They are, of
course, otherwise much older, being after all nothing but the
ancient vulgar Prakrits continuously spoken (though hero and
. there more or less affected by Persian, Arabic, and other foreign
elements).
Of these neo-Hindu idioms there are a considerable number,
some possessing but few written records, while others boast of a
highly-developed literature. Amongst the principal are the Bengali,
Avhich retains many features of the ancient literary language; Assam,
differing little from the foregoing; Uriya, spoken with the two
previous in the north-east. In the north-west, towards the mouth
of the Indus, the Sindhi, Multani, Gujarati. In the north the
Nepali and Kashmiri. In the centre, Hindi and Hindustani,
called also Urdu, and a little more to the south the Mardthi.
The name of Hindui is given to a language which, during the
medieval life of the Indian idioms, had a great literary expansion,
and is now represented by certain dialects in the north-western
provinces. It has been rightly remarked that Hindi is nothing
but the modern form of Hindui. As to Hindustani or Urdu, that
is the " Camp " language, it was formed about the eleventh century
under Mussulman influences. Its vocabulary teems with Arabic
and Persian words, and, unlike the other neo-Sanskrit tongues,
whose alphabets derive from the Devanagari, it employs the Persian,
that is the Arabic (slightly modified and) increased by a few
additional letters. [But it would be more correct to say that Urdu
is so written by the Mussulman popidation, the Hindus still using
a slightly modified form of Devanagari. The former also affect an
Arabo-Persian vocabulary, while the latter remain more faithful to
the Sanskrit and Hindi elements, both in writing and speaking. It
is as if an English writer, affecting a Gorman or Book-Latin style,
should prefer royal or regal in all cases to the Saxon or Old English
kingly J\
There is a considerable contemporary neo-Prakrit and Hindi
Chap, v.] THIED FORI! OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 195
literature, and Hindustani especially gives daily proofs of an
activity that promises it a protracted future.*
The general character of the phonetics of these idioms is a
strong tendency to assimilation, the substitution of the sound j
for an older y, the rather frequent change of r to d, the simplifi-
cation of the classic system of sibilants, the substitution, also
frequent enough, of the simple aspirate // for the older aspirated
explosives /,-//, gh, dh, Sec. The neuter gender has disappeared in
nearly all the neo-Hindu tongues, and themes ending originally in
vowels often reject these vowels, thus terminating now with a
consonant. The plural, again, and the cases are expressed by par-
ticular suffixes, giving these idioms a very modern air, and clearly
marking their transition from an older synthetic to an analytic state.
[Thus in Urdu all real cases have entirely disappeared, their place
being taken by postpositions attached to the theme, either modified
or slightly changed in the singular, and in the plural increased by the
nasal on, as in larka = the hoy ; larke-Jco — to the boy; larkorirko — to
the boys.] Conjugation also has become analytical, the old
Prakrit forms having disappeared, and the actual changes being
now (mostly) res! Lcted I i presenl participial or past participial
forms.
(3) Gipsy Dialects.
The language of the Gipsies is nothing hut a neo-llindu dialect
It is difficult to determine | the time of their emigration
and of their first incursions westwards through Asia, into Europe.
Still their arrival here would not seem to have taken place much
later than the twelfth or thirteenth century of our era.
Their speech is essentially Hindu — a corrupt and often very
rit. The p-ocabulary, hov full of foreign
elements borrowed from the various peoples met with in the
westwards, or with whom they may b I d for a Longer or
c period.
* Garcia <!•• Ta y, "Hirtoin dela Littfrature Hindoni e< HindonBtani.''
2 vols. Paris, 1889-47.
'J
196 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. t.
Miklosich has availed himself precisely of the state of the
vocabulary of the different Gipsy trihes in order to endeavour to
determine their line of march from India to Europe. The Persian
and Armenian elements occurring in it would seem to point at a
former residence in those Asiatic regions Avhere the Iranian tongues
are spoken. "When they reached Europe they found themselves
first of all in a Greek-speaking country, as shown hy the fact that
amongst all the Gipsy trihes of Europe, without exception, the
presence of elements "borrowed from the Greek has heen certified.
Erom Greece they proceeded towards Eumania, Hungary, Bohemia,
Moravia, Germany, Poland, and Lithuania, Russia, Scandinavia,
Italy, the Basque districts, England, Scotland, and Spain.* This
refers of course to the European Gipsies only. On those of Asia,
and on the amount of foreign elements introduced into their
dialects, our information is much more limited.
§ 3.— TJ/e Iranic Brunch.
To the Sanskritist the study of Zend and Old Persian, the two
oldest memhers of this group, presents hut little difficulty. Indeed
of all the Aryan tongues the Iranian are most closely related to
Sanskrit, As a rule, their phonetic system is less complex and
less delicate than the Hindu, though on many points allowing of
comparison with it. The Zend and the old Persian of Darius and
Xerxes may even he said in some respects to surpass the Sanskrit
itself, approaching more nearly to the common Aryan mother-
tongue. One or tAYo examples will suffice to estahlish this truth.
Whdst Sanskrit changes to a simple b the organic diphthong au,
Persian preserves it intact, and Zend only modifies it to ao. San-
skrit again substitutes the genitive for the old ablative in at (except
in the case of themes ending in the vowel a), whereas Zend always
retains the old ablative ending. On the whole, however, Sanskrit
is nearer to the common Aryan type than is the Zend. For
* Miklosich, " Ueher die Mundarten und die Wandernngen der Zigeuuer
Europa's," 2nd part. Vienna, 1873.
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION'. 197
instance, it Joes not possess the great wealth of sibilants occurring
in the Iranian tongues.*
The classification of the Tranic tongues has not yet been
thoroughly established. A very few of them may possibly nol I e
directly related to each other, and it is at least certain that not any
one of them can boast of having been the common mother-tongue
of all the rest, Old Persian in .some respects surpassed the Zend,
while in others surpassed by it. Altogether the only possible
classification of the members of this group must for the present
be purely chronological, depending on the epochs when they were
spoken. Thus, amongst the older tongues will be grouped the
Zend, old Persian, and old Armenian. To the Medieval period
will belong the Huzvdresh, Parsi, and classical Armenian ; and
amongst the modern idioms must be included the Persian, neo-
Armenian, Afghan, Beluchi, &c, and this order will here be
followed.
(1) Zend.
Towards the middle of the last century a Frenchman named
Anquetil-Duperron, in his twenty-third year, embarked as a simple
.-old in- fur India, being unable in any other way to undertake the
distant journey that he wished to make. The object of this brave
man, whose name science can never forget, was to stud}- the
languages of the country on the spot. Disappointed in his hope
of being able to learn Sanskrit at Chandernagor, be made bis way
to Pondicherry, alone and without means, and exhausted by a
march of a hundred days. from the shores of the Bay of
J lie directed hi- -tej,- towards the e.M-t of .Malahar, reached
Mahe, and thence pushed on to Surat. n was here that, gaining
the confidence of Borne Parsee priests, he was by them initiated
into a kn ; /end and Huzvaresh. lie returned to Era
* Here again the wi remark on the Tern Iranian, for which he
would snbstitate the older form Eranian. Bnt, f or th itedinthe
note al p. 188, the form Iranian is retained in this translation,
7 Vans
198 THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
in 1762 in possession, not of a fortune, but of over a hundred
precious manuscripts.
Zend is the language in which was composed the old text of the
" Avesta," the sacred book of the Zoroastrian religion. We cannot
here discuss the question of Zoroaster's personality, nor of the
contents of the sacred writings attributed either to him or to his-
disciples. It will be enough to remark that, of the books of the
" Avesta " a small portion only has reached us — the Vendidad, the
Vispcred, the Yapia, and a number of devotional pieces, private
meditations, and the like, known as the " Little Avesta."
AnquetiTs translation of this work was very faidty, having been
executed on the uncritical data supplied to him by the Parsee
priests. But when consigning his manuscripts to the Royal
Library, he furnished his successors with the sole means of
revising, correcting, and prosecuting his labours. This task
devolved on another Frenchman, Eugene Burnouf, who has been
equally distinguished by his studies on ancient Persian, a sister
language to the Zend. Burnouf was not only the real founder of
Zend grammar, but was also the head of the traditional school of
interpretation of the Zend writings — a school at present represented
chiefly by Spiegel.
It seems now settled that Zend was the language cvu'rent in the
eastern Iranian regions, limited, according to Burnouf, on the
north by Sogdiana, by Hyrcania on the north-west, and on the
south by Arachosia. It was owing to the general adoption of this
opinion that Zend came to be called the Baktrian language — a
name in itself otherwise perfectly justifiable. The term Zend,
applied even to the language of the old texts of the "Avesta," is
piu-ely conventional, the primitive meaning of which has not yet
perhaps been quite satisfactorily determined, but which it would
now be difficult to dispense with, in the new sense it has acquired.
The Zend alphabet is purely alphabetical, that is to say, each of
its letters denotes either a vowel or a consonant. There are very
feAv ligatures, and its reading, Avhich is from right to left, presents
little difficidty. It is certainly of Semitic origin, but does not
seem to be very ancient ; nor is it now known what graphic system.
Chap, v.] THIRD FOEM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 199
was in use amongst the eastern Iranians at the period when theii
Persian neighbours on the west were employing the cuneiform
characters.
Zend comprises two varieties — the ordinary dialect and the
language of the " Gathas," the term applied to a number of pieces
in the Yacna, whose interpretation still presents the greatest
difficulties. The two dialects are closely related, that of the
I leing generally considered the most ancient, and supposed
to have been spoken in the highland regions of the country, though
the point is not yet settled.
The Zend vowel system is not very complex. Besides a, i, v,
long and short, there is a long e, and another which seems to have
been very short, besides two other e's, and two kinds of o, of
which the quantity varies; also a nasal a and a strong labial a.
We have stated that Zend, herein more primitive than Sanskrit,
had not reduced to one single vowel the old diphthongs of the
common Aryan tongue. The first of these it represented by ae, the
second by ao ; the Persian, in this respect still purer, preserving
the primitive diphthongs unchanged.
Passing fco the consonants, we may observe that the sibilants
readily interchange with each other; a change, however, which is
common to the whole Iranian group. On the other hand, the
oant of different orders interchange to a very limited degree —
o contrasting strikingly with the Sanskrit.
The Zend declension is, on the whole, well preserved; retaining,
as ah marked, the old ablative singula]' in <d — which has
fared 30 ill in aearly all the other Aryan tongues. Conjugation
also is very perfect, reflecting with tolerable fidelity the primitive
it .-prang.
The question of the antiquity of the Zend language can be
we believe, with Borne approach to accuracy. It is no
difficult to pronounce definitely on its first and remol
■ n on the time when it ceased fco be spoken : bul ii may well
i ipposed to have been at Lven period contemporary of
the ancienl Persian. This la-t we are doubtle acquainted with
onlj through the monuments of the Achsemenides, ranging over the
200 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. V
sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries before our era, but it is possible,
and even probable that it had been spoken long previous to this
•epoch. On the other hand the language of the " Avesta," and the
very contents of its various texts, do not permit of their being
removed from the time of the Persian monuments. Hence, as
stated, the two languages must have been contemporaneous at that
particular point of time — Zend in Eastern, Persian in Western
Iran.
(2) Old Persian.
The triglot inscriptions in cuneiform characters discovered in
Persia on the ruins of the ancient palaces and on the surface of
the rocks were composed in Persian, Assyrian, and a third language,
of which but very little is still known. We have spoken higher
up of the various attempts at interpreting the text of the middle
column composed in this unknown tongue (p. 139), and we have
seen that Assyrian, the language of the third column, was a Semitic
idiom.
It was in the year 1802 that the learned Hanoverian, Grotefend,
attempted to decipher the first column, composed in Persian, or as
it is often called, in old Persian. His starting-point was simple
and ingenious. Setting out with the idea that inscriptions, some
of which must have cost considerable labour, naturally referred to
historical events, and could scarcely be other than royal records, he
first of all noted the frequent recurrence of a certain group of
characters, to which he assigned the meaning of " king." This
group was often followed by the same group, increased by some
additional signs. Grotefend concluded that this last was but the.
genitive plural of the first, and he interpreted the two together as
meaning " king of kings." The name preceding these two groups
was necessarily a proper name, and the constant repetition of these
same groups made it clear enough that we had here to do with a
series of genealogies : " Such a king, king of kings, son of such a
one, king."
The researches of Grotefend were the starting-point for the
deciphering of the Persian inscriptions, though they went no
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 201
farther. Bask, the Dane, added a little, but it was reserved for
Eugene L'urnouf and Chr. Lassen to give a real version of these
inscriptions and to construct their grammar. Their essays appeared
simultaneously in France and Germany, in the year 1836,
and from that time the structure of old Persian was finally
established. It had been systematically compared with that of the
Sanskrit and Zend, and the way was opened for those who have
carried its study to the state it has now reached in the hands of
Rawlinson, Spiegel,* Oppert, and BLossowicz.
The inscriptions of the Achaemenides comprise but a small
number of words, some four hundred altogether, including a great
many proper names. Still there is enough for the grammarian ;
and the phonetics, declension and conjugation of old Persian no"W
no longer present any mystery. Some writers have fancied that
this language is older than Zend, whilst others hold, on the contrary,
that Zend comes nearer to the common Aryan type. But we think
a third view might be taken, namely, that Persian, as alreadj
remarked, surpasses Zend in some respects, and in others is sur-
passed by it. Both have in principle changed the original A
sibilant 8 to h } but Persian, herein less correct than Zend, often
drops this aspirate where the sister-tongue preserves it. Thus the
'.lit asmi — 1 am, in Lithuanian esmi, becomes ahmi in Zend,
and amiy in Persian. On the other hand, old Persian retains the
common Aryan diphthongs ai, au\ which in /end are modified to at
and ao. Thus each in it- turn might claim the superiority in these
examples, which it would be easy, though needless, to multiply.
The cuneiform characters of the first of the trilingual texts are
far from being as numerous as those of the two other columns.
There are about sixty, all alphabetic, thai is, representing not
syllables but vowels and consonants. 'I heir number is greatlj
I.;. the fact that some of the consonants are sometimes
represented by a different sign, according as they precede or follow
certain vowels, Each word is separated by an oblique v.
which circumstance has greatly facilitated the leading of the Persian
* " Die Altpersuohen Keftinechriften." Leipzig, L8G2 (
202 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
fcexl s. The question of the origin of this alphabet has not yet "been
clearly settled ; still the Persian cuneiforms may "be regarded as
merely a particular variety of the general system of this graphic
method, and it is most assuredly by far the simplest, or rather the
most simplified of any of them.
(3) Armenian.
Armenian seems to have detached itself at a very remote period
from the other Iranian tongues. Anyhow a special and somewhat
independent place must be assigned to it in the Iranic family. Of
its primitive state we know little beyond the few allusions occurring
in the classic writers. Its first period closed with the opening of
the fifth century of our era, when the classic epoch begins with the
formation of the Armenian alphabet by Mesrobius. Both it and
Georgian, Pr. Miiller* thinks, are based on a Semitic form, and
more particularly on the Aramean variety of it. The golden age of
Armenian letters lasted about seven hundred years, between the
fifth and the beginning of the twelfth centuries. Its literature was
copious, its dialects somewhat numerous, and one of these, that of
the province of Ararat, soon acquired the position of the standard
literary language. There are still spoken a considerable number of
Armenian dialects, that it woidd be a mistake to look upon as mere
patois of the literary form, which seems to have acquired a certain
fixedness, whereas the actual varieties are but modern forms of the
older dialects. As early as the eleventh century they were em-
ployed for literary purposes, to the detriment of the classic tongue.
They seem now to be divided into two tolerably distinct groups —
the eastern, embracing the dialects of Armenia, Georgia, south-
eastern Eussia, Persia, and India; and the western, comprising those
of Hungary, Poland, and the Crimea.
One of the leading features of modern, or at least of western,
Armenian is the change of the old sharp explosives to soft, and of
the old soft to sharp ones. Thus Jc, t, p, become g, d, b, and
<j, d, o, become li, t, p. The voAvel and consonantal system is
* "Ueber den Ursprung der Arraenischen Schrift." Vienna, 1SG5.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 203
fairly developed, including, besides the explosives just mentioned,
a considerable number of sibilants, and two sorts of r. The
Armenian declension is much fuller than the (modern) Persian, of
which we shall have to speak presently, and it still to some extent
ins the old case-endings. Its conjugation is still more wealthy,
in fact retaining all the old tenses except the perfect, while it has
created three new ones — a perfect, a pluperfect, and a future — by
employing participial forms in conjugating the verb. Thus of all
the ne: >- Iranian idioms still spoken Armenian has preserved most
of the common stock of the original mother-tongue.
It^ vocabulary, like that of all the cognate Iranian languages,
contains a considerable number of foreign words, some derived
from the Greek in medieval times, others, in still greater numbers,
borrowed at an earlier period from the Aramean. But the essence
of its vocabulary, as well as the whole of its grammar, is still
Iranian.
At a very early period Armenian was written, if not constantly,
certain documents, with cuneiform letters. Inscriptions
of this sort have been found, more particularly in the ruins of
Armavir, not far from Mount Ararat. The Armenian cuneiform
writing is not alphabetic, like the Persian, but syllabic, each sign
denoting, not a vowel or a consonant, but a full syllable.
(4) Huzvdresh.
The "Avesta," or rather those books of the "Avesta" thai were
.-till extant in the Middle Ages, were at that period translated intoa
which we know not only by this translation, but also by
a number of numismatic legends, and a very important cosmogony,
I ill'- •• Bundehesh." At first this language ceci i\ ed the name of
i PeJilevi and Pahlavi, this lasl form by E. W. West,
who I recently collecting fresh materials for the study of
Pahlavi literature, and is altogether one of the luthorities
on the subject], but this term imewhal too vague. Thai of
// town I., Joseph Midler and Spiegel,* is
• " Grammatflj iter Snzvfti p. -I. Vienna, i-
204 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
its proper name, and the only one it 1ms borne. It is now generally
admitted that this language was spoken in the western district
of Sevad. Nothing very definite is known as to its origin, but the
Huzvaresh coins of the dynasty of the Sassanides show that it was
still current in the middle of the seventh century of our era.
Huzvaresh deserves to be mentioned as one of those languages
that have been most affected by foreign influences. It has been,
so to say, penetrated by Aramean on all sides, of which it betrays
the most unmistakable proofs in its vocabulary, its grammar, and
phonetic system ; so that if such a thing coidd exist as a mixed
language, Huzvaresh would be one of the most striking examples of
such a phenomenon. But hybrids of this sort cannot be [a state-
ment to be received with some reserve], and Huzvaresh is in truth
an Iranian tongue, quite as much as English is a Teutonic. [But
the comparison does not hold, because English grammar is purely
Teutonic, and wholly unaffected by French, Latin, or any other
foreign element.]
Besides the Aramean elements present in the language of the
time of the Sassanides, that of the "Bundehesh" includes some
Arabic forms, betraying its more recent composition, probably by
some learned Persian intimately acquainted with the language into
which the sacred books were translated.*
The Huzvaresh grammar shows a great falling off from the
correctness and fidelity to the older forms that characterise the Zend
and old Persian. Gender is no longer distinguishable by the
ending of the nouns, and the dual has disappeared ; the accusative
has no more special ending than has the nominative ; the genitive, or
rather the idea answering to that expressed by the old genitive, is
rendered by an element i, the remnant of an old relative pronoun ;
while the conception corresponding to the old dative is expressed
by means of particles, that is of true prepositions. Conjugation is
equally fragmentary, but in any case the language has still re-
mained essentially Iranian. This appears clearly from the fact
that Huzvaresh possesses compound verbs, formed not only by
* F. Justi, " Der Bundehesch," preface, p. viii. Leipzig, 186S.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 205
Iranian root and preposition, but also by Iranian root and Semitic
prefix, by Semitic root and Iranian prefix, and, what is much more
remarkable, by both Semitic root and prefix. And yet Semitic
itself, unlike the Aryan, possesses no compound verbs at all, no
forms, for instance, answering to our ap-prehend, com-pre7iend, re-
prehend, under-take, over-take, par(t)-tdke, and the like.
There are few alphabets more defective than the Huzvaresh.
One and the same sign often denotes several different senses,
and there are a great many ligatures, or agglomerations of several
characters all blended together (like so many monograms). Hence
in philological treatises Huzvaresh words are seldom quoted in their
own characters, but are mostly transcribed in Roman, or even in
Hebrew or Arabic letters.
(5) Parsi.
Parsi has occasionally been incorrectly named Pazend. Modern
orientalists look on Zend and Pazend as the titles of books, not
the names of languages, and their opinion on this matter seems
perfectly reasonable. No doubt Zend has supplanted all other
names as applied to the languageof the " Avesta ;" but Pazend has
not met with such general acceptance that it may not be set aside
for the much more appropriate term Parsi, that is, language of the
! ' -''es.
Parsi wis undoubtedly contemporary of the Huzvaresh, but
survived it by several hundred years, and was at once the current
and the literary language. It was, moreover, spoken in a more
jiun of [ran, so thai we do not meet in it that abundance
of Aramean elements possessed by the Huzv&resh.
Its grammar, however, has equally diverged from the ancient
standard by which Zend and old Persian are marked. Withoui
being in this respect much removed from the Huzvaresh, it
approaches much nearer to the Persian, while still considerably
surpassing it in the fulness of its forms. Thus it preserves much
more of the old pr minal elements, and retains a great many verbs
that have disappeared from the Persian. Burnouf and Spiegel
206 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
believe that Parsi may have been spoken till the time of the poet
Firdousi, that is, till the beginning of the eleventh century.
Parsi has no peculiar writing system, employing sometimes the
Zend and sometimes the Arabic characters. The Parsees are
settled chiefly in Bombay, Surat, Baroda, Gujerat, and are variously
estimated at 50,000, 80,000, and 150,000.
(6) Persian.
Of all the modern Iranian tongues Persian, or neo-Persian, is
the most diffused and the best known. It is an Iranian dialect
that became a literary language about the year a.d. 1000. Its litera-
ture, with which we are not here concerned, has been one of great
importance, simultaneously embracing poetry, history, and the
sciences. The "Book of Kings" (Shlh-Nama) of Firdousi
(" the Homer of Persia"), who flourished at the close of the tenth
and the beginning of the eleventh century, is a national epic that
may well rival the chief productions of many other literatures.*
Persian has adopted the Arabic alphabet, increased by the four
letters, p, ch, j (French), and g hard.
Declension has disappeared, the dative and accusative being
expressed simply by prepositions joined to the noun. The idea of
the genitive is denoted, as in Huzvaresh and Parsi, by inserting
(between the two words) the element i, a remnant of an old
relative pronoun : dast-i-pusar = the child's hand; pusar-Unan =
my child. As much as to say : the hand which (is that of) the
child ; the child which (is) mine. (So also Koli-i-nur = the moun-
tain of light). So that we have here a purely syntactical process
(supplanting inflection).
Conjugation has been equally simplified. The personal suffixes
have been fairly well preserved : m for the first person singular and
plural, d (for an older t) for the third person. But the tenses have
shared the fate of the case-endings, being now expressed by modern
processes; in other words, Persian has become an analytical
language. Its vocabulary contains a large number of Arabic words.
* Mohl " Firdousi : Le Livre des Rois," publie en Persan, avec tine
traduction Francaise en regard. Paris, 1838.
Chap.t.] THIKD FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 207
Besides the literary Persian tongue, there are a number of
current varieties, such, for instance, as the Mazandaran, each of
them presenting certain peculiarities, either lexical, phonetic, or
even occasionally grammatical.
(7) Ossetian, Kurdic, Beluchi, Afghan, $c.
Although here grouped together under one heading, these
various idioms are no more closely related to eacli other in the
Iranian family than are some of the other members of the same
family above spoken of.
The Ossetian declension is fuller than the Persian, while its
conjugation is somewhat analogous to it ; so that, on the whole, it
approaches more to the older Iranian forms such as they still exist
in Armenian, Huzvaresh, and Parsi. Ossetian is spoken both
north and south of the Caucasus, in the neighbourhood of Dariel,
and is split up into a number of local varieties.
Kurdic may, in a genera] way, be said to be allied to Persian,
though perhaps rather to the popular dialects than to its literary
form. Its phonetic system seems more changed than the Persian.
There are several dialects, of which the principal is the Kurmanji,,
in the west between Mossul and Asia Minor. The Zam % is in
some less, in others more, corrupt than its congeners.
mbles Kurdic; it contains a considerable number
of foreign elements, especially of words borrowed from the Arabic,
would seem inclined not to look on the Afghan
or Pahkhtof as a pure Iranian language, considering it as an inde-
pendent idiom, for i if, and related to the Hindu
* Ob as discussed at the last meeting of the International
C burg in i he month of Septeu
L876, was the connection of tin's Zaza dialed with the other Kurdish
Mi<. ins. But no very definite result seems to bave been arrived at.
hij T,
f Here the form /' I been substituted Eor the more usual, but
as i he author writes it, " paohto "a pouch.
The form Pakkhto a1 once connects this people with the iraervts of
whom he places in bhe region ai present occupied bj the
ad horn whom ti little doubl t bat t bej tided.
Their own popular belief of their descent from the lost tribe.-; of Israel —
20S THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
quite as much as to the Iranian family. But Fr. Miiller thinks
otherwise, regarding it as an eastern Iranian dialect, the direct
descendant of some old Bactrian idiom. Its conjugation is inferior
to that of the Persian, having entirely lost certain ancient forms of
the present tense retained in Persian, and usually employing the
verbal theme for that tense. Its vocabulary includes a number of
Persian and Arabic words.
This is far from comprising the whole of the modem Iranian
idioms. Besides those here spoken of, and which may be con-
sidered the most important and the best known, there are some
others, such as that of the Lurs (Bachiari and Feili) related to the
Kurdic, but concerning which we have but few particulars, and
that of the Tats, in the south-east of the Caucasus, and not unlike
Persian.
It is, moreover, quite certain that many other Iranian tongues
have perished during the course of ages. It is quite possible that
amongst the races spoken of by the ancients, and especially by the
Greeks, under the name of Scythians, there may have been some
Iranians. For this opinion there is some presumptive evidence,
but the documents so far available are too limited to enable us to
pronounce definitely on the subject, Certain languages of Asia
Minor have also been included in the Iranian family, as for
instance the Phrygian, which has been grouped more particularly
with the Armenian, Lycian, Carian, and some others, though this
classification is, perhaps, somewhat premature ; but our remarks on
these idioms must be reserved till we come to speak of certain
languages which are evidently Aryan, but whose true position in
this family has not yet been definitely settled.
§ 4. — Tlte Hellenic Branch.
Of all the Aryan languages spoken in Europe, Creek is most
a belief still shared in by many English writers, who ought to know better
—no longer calls for any special refutation. With those who persist in
believing that an Aryan race could possibly be " Bani-Israil," that is, " Sons
of Israel," and therefore Semites, there is no reasoning. "Non ragionam
di loro, ma guarda epassa."— Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 209
closely allied to Sanskrit and the Iranian group. A better know-
ledge of the Aryan idioms of Asia Minor — Phrygian, Lycian, and
others — may possibly, and even probably, some day, show that the
relationship is even closer than is generally supposed. We shall
revert farther on to this question of the various degrees of affinity
of the several Aryan groups, and it will be enough here to guard
the reader against the idea, at one time very generally adopted,
and still common enough, that Greek and the Italic tongues form
together a separate branch of the great linguistic family of which
they are members. Greek has doubtless many intimate relations
with Latin ; but it has others, quite as intimate, with Sanskrit and
Zend. Latin, on the other hand, is in many respects more closely
allied to the Keltic idioms than it is to the Hellenic.
Greek has much better preserved the vowel than the conso-
nantal system of the common Aryan mother-tongue, in this respect
closely resembling Zend and old Persian. For instance, it retains
the old diphthongs, reduced in Latin as well as in Sanskrit to a long
vowel With regard to the consonants, which it has less faithfully
preserved, one of its most striking changes is that of the (soft)
aspirates gh, dh, bh, to the corresponding (sharp) aspirates, 1,-fi, th,
ph. It would be difficult to say how this modification was
occasioned, hut the fact is certain and constant. Thus the Sanskrit
dirghas = long, bhardmi = l bear, appear in Greek as dolikhos
(8o\ixos), and phero (4> f pw). far from retaining, as Latin does, the
primitive < in all cases, it frequently changes it to // and even to t.
Thus th'- Latin quis, quinqw, are in Greek tls, rrefine and Treire.
But it is in tie' letters •-•, y, v that it departs most widely from the
common primitive type, here showing itself inferior to all the other
Aryan tongues of Europe, without any exception. 'Words beginning
with 8 are usually chan^-d to the rough (breathing or) aspirate (')
generally transcribed by h. Thus hedtcs (q8w) corresponds fco the
! ,ji svddu8 sweel ; hepta («rra) is the Latin septem = seven; and
hekuros (impos) j eocer father-in-law. This sibilant, occasionally
disappears altogether, especially when occurring between two
vowel-, which is also the case with the primitive y in the same
position. Hut at the beginning of words y become either z(pro-
p
210 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. t.
nounced dz) or the rough breathing. Tims zugon (&yov) and hagios
(dyiot) correspond to the Sanskrit yugam = yoke, and yqg'yas = htly.
The primitive initial also disappears, or becomes u in classic
Greek. Thus the original Aryan kvans — hound, becomes in
Sanskrit cvd, and in Greek kuoii (kv<*v), where w has changed to u
(which u was very probably pronounced as the German ii or the
French u). In the words neos (^os), oikos (oikos), and ois (ois)
corresponding to the Sanskrit navas= ship, «V(.s = house [or wick,
wich, as in Greenwich], avis = ewe, the ■?; has disappeared altogether,
though, as we shall presently see, preserved in certain dialects
under the 'form of the digamma : vefos, [oikos, of is. This di-
gamma however, was not retained in the Attic dialect, which,
owing to political [and other] circumstances, became the preponder-
ating and classical language of Greece.
Though less complex than the Sanskrit, still the phonetic laws
of Greek are important enough in themselves, and are mainly based
on a strong tendency to assimilate consonants of different orders
when thrown together. " Zetacismus " also plays an important
part in all the Greek dialects, resulting in the organic combinations
q + y d + y changing to z. Thus Zeus (Zeus) answers to the Sanskrit
dyaus. Greek admits of no final consonants except s and n (also k,
as in «c). Hence the m of the accusative singular everywhere
becomes n, or is dropped, as in (pepovra, vaw, which in Sanskrit
are bTmrantam, navam (and in Latin ferentem, navem).
The Greek declension is well preserved, for, if it has lost the
ablative singular, it has retained the old locative, both in the
singular and plural. This locative serves also as a dative, p-r] T P l =
to the mother; vskvl = to the dead; iroipevi = to the shepherd; but
its form has otherwise nothing to do with that of the organic
dative the sense of which it has merely accpiired in course of time.
The plural locative is in si (o-i) : vavo-t = in the ships ; Ativan,
OXvfmiaai, which classic grammars wrongly treat as so many datives.
Greek possesses also under the single form of (pi, the instrumental
singular bhi, and the instrumental plural bhis, which so many other
Aryan tongues have lost. The grammarians treat this syllable (pi as
a mere addition, but it is really a true case [which appears in the
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 211
Latin ibi, ubi, sibi, and the plural ibus]. The dual is only partly
retained, the genitive and locative having disappeared. But,
speaking generally, the Greek declension may he said to he the
"best preserved, next to the Sanskrit and ancient Iranian types.
Passing to its conjugation, we find that it retains the old in-
transitive voice (XvofMai, Xverut.) which has disappeared from the
Italic, Keltic, Slavonic, and Lettic groups. It also preserves fairly
well the six organic tenses, besides creating some new ones,
amongst which, a pluperfect, built on the reduplicated perfect.
Altogether, Greek has remained tolerahly faithful to the common
Aryan type in all that regards its accidence, while departing greatly
from it in many points of its phonetic system.
Its dialectic varieties are mainly of a phonetic character. The
numerous dialects may all he easily grouped under four special
forms, the iEolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic, which are themselves
sometimes reduced to two main divisions, one comprising the ^Eolic
and Doric, the other the Ionic and Attic.
The iEolic, properly so called,* was spoken in Asia Minor, in
the Lesbos variety of which Alcseus and Sappho wrote. It pos-
sesses the digamma corresponding to the organic v, and is fond of
doubling the liquid consonants, as in e/x/ii (for et/«) = I am ; it also
frequently retains the primitive d, winch in Ionic becomes ,\
Another of its characteristics is the greater abundance of verbs in
ut, as in (jjiXiim (for the ordinary </nAa>) = I love. Boeotian, belonging
to the same group, retains the digamma, contracts the diphthongs
into one Inn-- vowel ; keeps the old a for the Ionic e, and often
substitutes d for the ordinary z , the Attic x^r, C v y° v thus appealing
j u Boeotian ae Deus, dugon. It has Left but few literary remains.
Thesealian also was included in the iEolic group; it was con-
sidered at Atheii i a rude dialect, but has left scarcely
anything whereby to judge of its true character.
Doric was spoken in nearly the whole of the Peloponnesus, in
Crete, and in the Greek colonies in Sicily, Libya, and Southern
[taly. Pindar wrote in Doric, which was also the language of
* Alirena, " De Gnocao Liuguas Dialcctis." 2 vols. Gottiugcn, 1881MB.
P 2
212 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
pastoral poetry. It is subdivided into two branches, of which one
is more severe than the other. It retained the digamma, as well as
the organic t, which in the classic language becomes s ; hence SiScon
(for SiSojo-i) and {wan, \eiKan (for eiKoa-i) = twenty.
Of the Ionic there were two periods — the old, or epic, embracing
the language of Homer and Hesiod, and the new period, represented
by Herodotus. It was spoken in certain districts of Asia Minor,
in Attica, and in a great many of the islands.
Many writers connect Attic with Ionic, from which indeed it
differs so little, that it may be considered an Ionic dialect. It was
the language of Athens, the mother-tongue of ^Eschylus, Sophocles,
Euripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides, and Demosthenes ; it was the
dialect that ultimately prevailed over all the others, and that the
reformers of the Greek language ever look to as their standard.*
Each dialect, as stated, had its OAvn literature ; still the Attic
dialect gradually gained the ascendant, thus becoming the common
written language, 17 kolvtj 8m\€ktos, of all Greek-speaking races. But
this somewhat unnatural expansion was precisely the cause of
its decay and corruption. As spoken by Greeks outside Attica, and
more especially by the " barbarians," the " common dialect " Avas
no longer what it had been in Athens ; it gradually became
" Byzantine," the Byzantine language of medieval times.
Out of this grew the Modern Greek, to which has been given
the name of Romaic, a reminiscence of the eastern empire of
Kome. But it is an unfortunate misnomer, apt to lead to con-
fusion, and which we have therefore discarded.
The position of modern in relation to ancient Greek can scarcely
be compared with that of the Bomance tongues in relation to Latin.
These have, in truth, departed far more from their common source
than the Greek of the present day has from that of antiquity.
Modem Greek, however, includes a great many dialects, differing
perceptibly from each other ; and these are met with not oidy in
* Thus Dr. Donaldson remarks that a Greek scholar should aim, not at
being a Hellenist merely, but at being an Atticist, as the highest type of
Helenic literature. " Greek Grammar," p. 4.— Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 213
the islands but also in the mainland, as, for instance, the Zaconic,
spoken in the heart of the Morea. But the literary, or common
form, is really but little removed from the Hellenic as written
2,000 years ago. It is this very resemblance that has suggested to
some Greeks the idea of a reformation, based on a return to
the forms, and even the very expressions, of the language of
Thucydides. J kit nothing coidd be less practical, and any such
attempt must end in failure. The present Greek differs doubtless
but little from the classic ; still the difference is very marked and
clearly defined. Thus, it has lost both the dual and the dative,
this last being employed only in the more elevated style, and could
not be used in conversation, or even in current literature, without
affectation. The old infinitive in eiv (e\detv = to come) has also
disappeared everywhere except from the pseudo-classic literature.
It is usually replaced by a conjunctive form, as in 0eAa> va e\65> =
I wish to come ; literally, " I wish that I come." The future has
also become analytical, being expressed, amongst other ways, by
the present preceded by a conjunction. The Greek conjugation
presents many other instances of a decided transition to the
analytic state, which need not here be dwelt upon.
It is further distinguished from the old Greek by a feature
which, though not affecting accidence itself, is not the less
important. A 'rem has here taken the place of quantity. In
other words, it is the accented syllable in modern Greek that is
long, and the unaccented one short. This phenomenon is not
peculiar to Greek, and in the chapter devoted to the Teutonic
tongues we shall see that it also constitutes one of the features of
modern < Icrnian. In Middle High (iernian (twelfth to fifteenth
century), the radical syllable was sometimes Long, sometimes short;
while in the present language, being accented, it is always Long —
all which is quite a modern tendency.
Greek Ls Bpoken not only in Greece, but also in many parts of
Turkey, a □ I hi aly, where it comes in contact with Albanian to
the we- 1 and Bulgarian towards the nrnth. It is spread overall
the northern coast of the iEgean, and makes the complete circuit
of the gea of Marmora, reaching at some points far inland, as, for
214 , THIKD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
instance, to Adrianople in Rumelia. In Candia it reigns every-
where supreme, except in a single central district occupied by
Turkish. Altogether the Greeks in the Ottoman Empire are
estimated at about 1,000,000. In Russia also Greek is spoken, on
the north coast of the Sea of Azov, at two points between
Taurida and the Don Cossacks. It further occupies the three
shores of Asia Minor, from a point opposite Cyprus as far as the
mouth of the Kizdirmak in the Black Sea (a little to the east of
Sinope).
We come now to a secondary, though not uninteresting, question
— that of the pronunciation of ancient and modern Greek.
jSTo less than six characters — three simple and three compound —
answer in modern Greek to the sound of i (ee). These are rj, i, v ;
6i, oi, vi, the other vowels being pronounced as written. On the
other hand, the groups av, ev, rjv, ov, are pronounced av, ev, ir, ov.
In the consonants, & answers to the English th hard, as in three ;
S to the English th soft, as in the ; </> sounds as /; x> as the ch of
the German words noeJi, nach, bueh, or as that of ich, fechten,
according to the accompanying vowels ; y before e or t as the French
or English //.
There is obviously a great difference between this pronunciation
and the so-called classic, attributed to Erasmus; yet there is a
wide school of Hellenists who consider that the modern Greek
pronunciation should be applied to the ancient language, and who
are zealously agitating for this change, absolutely unscientific though
it be. To read Greek in this modern fashion is a mistake, as
►Schleicher very justly remarks, due to complete ignorance of the
laws of phonetics and of the life of human speech. And, in truth,
the theory is utterly indefensible by any a ■priori or a posteriori
arguments.
A mere comparison of ancient Greek with the cognate Aryan
tongues shows that the sounds c, i, u, answered to the vowels a, i, if,
and were accordingly from the first perfectly distinct, having only
gradually become idtimately all three confused in the single sound
of i. The mutual transcription of the Greek -q by the Latin c, and
of the Latin e by the Greek n clearly shows that the sound of the
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 215
old Greek ?/ was not that of ». Thus we find Krjvo-cop, AvprjXiovs for
censor, Aurelius. Nor can it he doubted that the vowel u was
anciently in Greek pronounced like the Latin u (or English oo) j
during the classic period it answered to the French u* while the
diphthong ov (that is o + u) was reduced during the same epoch to
the simple vowel u (or oo). Thus the Latin words Tititts, tuum,
circuitum are translated in Greek as Tmovr, rovop, Kipicovirovp. It
is no less certain that originally the Greek /3 was uttered like our A,
and not like v, as it now is. Lx the classic Greek writings the
bleating of sheep is denoted by £9, £»?, which it woidd he ricUcidous
to pronounce vi, vi. At a certain period no doubt the Greeks took
to transcribing the Latin v by then* ; but they had previously
denoted it by ov, as hi Ovappco, OvaXepLos, OvepyiXios, for Varro,
Valerius, Virgilius, &c. The change of b to v took place probably
at an early period, at least in some dialects, but originally b had
everywhere its true and proper sound. When the Greeks began
to transcribe Latin names, their was far from having always and
where its present value, for at this very time it is still regularly
: to transcribe the Latin b, and it is only in connection with ou
oi o that it is at this period employed to represent the Lathi r.i
Lastly, there can be no question as to the utterance of the old
aspirates <f>, 6, x> which had the sound of p, t, k aspirated, that is:
p + h, t + lt, k + h (as in the English shep-herd, hit-Aim, hach-him,
or better still, in the Urdu phul = blossom, thorn = little, and
khand = to eat), so that these letters in no way answered to the
English th hard, to/, or to either of the two ch sounds in Genua n.
These consonants are now no doubt fricatives, but they were
originally true aspirates, which might be easily proved in many
ways.} One proof maybe drawn from the shifting nature of the
aspirates accompanying the simple explosives p, /, /,-. Thus the
* This is also the opinion of Mr. A. J. Ellis, for which see a led ore by him
on Greek Pronunciation, delivered ai the College of Preceptora, in L875, and
'Educational Times" of January, 1876. -Note by Tram lator.
t G. Gun in-, '■ Gnmdzuge der Gricchischen Etymologic," liii ed. D, 571.
Leipzig, L873.
X Ibid., p. l\C.
216 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
reduplication of the theme 6e gives Tidepev (not 6idep.ev\ ; and so with
the reduplication of </> and x by tt and k. In the same way the
Sanskrit reduplicates dh, bh by the simple unaspirated explosives
d, h, as in dadhdmi = I put, bub/tdu = l have shone. In forms like
Tpe</)co, I nourish, and dpe^a, I will nourish, the shifting nature of
the aspirate is equally obvious. Here, as in the preceding case,
the (p and 6 are evidently not fricatives, but real aspirated explosives ;
and to this the Sanskrit forms bandhami, I bind, and bhatsydmi,
I will bind, are perfectly analogous. It may also be remarked that
certain dialects readily displace the aspirate in the body of the
word, the ordinary Greek evravda, x^av becoming evOavra, kiBcov. The
Barbarians introduced on the stage by Aristophanes are made to
replace the Greek aspirates (p, 6, x by the simple unaspirated p, t, Tc,
which is again conclusive as to the real sound of these letters.
Another similar argument is deduced from the way in which the old
current Latin renders these same Greek aspirates, which it does by
simply dropping their aspirates ; and even in the fourth century
Gothic represents the Greek x by a Jc.
Lastly, many modern Greek dialects have a pure unaspirated
rxplosive instead of the aspirated consonant of the literary language.
There can be no doubt that these dialects in this reflect a very
ancient period, which, for the rest, is often enough the case with
dialects. In a word, the old Greek aspirates had uncpiestionably
the force of p + It, t + h, lc + h, passing in later times only to the
fricative order of letters.*
It would, hoAvever, be idle to attempt to fix the ej)och when the
change in the pronunciation of Greek was brought about. Speaking
generally, two principles were at work in effecting these various
changes — time and place. Some modifications occurred at one time
* At the same time it is not easy to understand how these aspirates
could have been so pronounced when found in juxtaposition, as in e\(^6r)u
— elekhtlien, or when followed by a, p, or other consonants, as in ^pt^0^fi ?
= 'klirim$'ht}ieis. Nor is the difficulty at all diminished if recourse be had
to the archaic spelling, as in emcpa-efpto, e8ox<rev, occurring on the recently-
discovered treaty-stone between Athens and Chalkis in Euboea, and which
would have to be somehow pronounced epip-hsep-hio, edoJchsen, which seems
intolerably harsh. — Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORil OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 217
in one place, which were not effected in others till long after, and
which in yet another place, may have been already long previously
established. Hence, in studying the old Greek pronunciation,
special details only can be taken into account. Later on the results
of these special investigations may perhaps be collected, and some
general deductions drawn from them. Meanwhile, however, it will
be wise to keep to the so-called Erasmian pronunciation, faulty
though it be, in preference to the still more defective modern
system.
§ 5.— The Italic Branch.
Until the bases of comparative Aryan grammar were definitely
settled, Latin and the other ancient Italic idioms allied to it may
well have been supposed to derive from the Greek language One
of the residts of the great work of Bopp was precisely to show
that Latin no more derived from Greek than did Greek from
skrit; and that all three flowed from a common source, from the
mother-tongue, whence also sprang the Iranic, Slavonic, Lettic,
Teutonic, and Keltic groups. Comparative grammar, in fact,
teaches us that Lathi teems with forms more ancient than the
corresponding Greek ones. In its phonetics, for instance, Latin
retains the initial s, which Greek changes to a rough breathing, as
in septem, sex, socer compared with inra, i£, eicvpos. It retains also
the old semi-vowel y (represented by j), where Greek changes it
either to z (sounded dz) or to the rough breathing : jecur, jug
contrasting favourably with w°p} C v y° v - In the same way the
primitive k, in Greek often changed tojp and t: quinque, quis being
ilder than Tvefint, ns.
It i- of course by systematic comparison alone with the other
Ai;. in tong i thai we can ascertain the purity of these differenl
i 1 the corrupt state of their Greek equivalents.
In its declension also we find that Latin has preserved the
ingular, no longer known to the Greek, while in its conju-
gation the - 'iid person plural suffix is more correel than the
Greek : estis you are, coming nearer to the organic astasi than do
'. ek core, the Lithuanian <•-/<, or the Sanskrit atha.
218 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
On tlie other hand, it is often surpassed by Greek, especially in the
conjugation, Avhere the latter has better preserved the primitive
tenses. Thus both have their strong and weak points ; so that, after
all, neither of them can boast of being more correct, purer, or older
than its congener.
In this section we shall have to treat successively of the old
Italic tongues — Latin, Umbrian, &c. — and of the Eomance or neo-
Latin languages, now spoken in the south-west of Europe, and on
the Lower Danube.
(1) Primitive Italic Languages.
Latin is the great representative member of this group. Com-
pared Avith it the Oscan and Umbrian play but an insignificant
part, though they cannot be altogether overlooked. A number of
other idioms belonging to this same family were also spoken in
Italy, but being still almost unknown Ave shall have to pass them
over unnoticed. ]S"or shall Ave here speak of the Etruscan language,
Avhich may possibly have been a member of this group, and sister
to the Latin, Oscan, and Umbrian. But in our opinion this re-
lationship is not yet sufficiently established to allow of its being
unreservedly accepted. We shall refer to it, hoAveA~er, after con-
cluding our survey of the different Aryan groups, and shall then
include it amongst the Aryan tongues, whose classification has not
yet been finally settled.
The old Latin forms, occiirring down to the middle of the third
century before our era, that is, before the time of the first Punic
war, and knoAvn to us by a number of inscriptions, do not differ
essentially from the classical Latin forms. The differences that do
occur are mainly phonetical, and affecting more particularly the
voAvel system.
Classical Latin may at once be said to differ from the older tongue
by a very marked tendency to reduce the ancient diphthongs to simple
voAvels ; in fact it is more than a tendency, it is a decided and very
prominent feature, from Avhich the diphthong ait. almost alone has
escaped, the others nearly everywhere becoming long A'OAvels. Thus
the old Latin forms : loumen, jous, oiniis, oitile, ploeres, ceivis,
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 219
leiber, veicus, become in classic Latin : lumen, jus, vnus, utile,
plures, civis, liber, metis. At the time of the Gracchi, a hundred
and thirty years before our era, the old diphthong ai had definitely
become ae, which <ie in its turn changes to e, at first in the popular
speech before the Christian era. and then in the written some
three or four centuries later on.*
Certain changes of the simple vowels effected during the
transition from old to classic Latin, though relatively of less con-
sequence, must still be regarded as characteristic Thus o occa-
sionally becomes e, as in verto, vester, for the older vorto, voder;
u becomes i as in opUmus, decimus, memcipium, replacing optumus,
decumus, mancupium; i becomes e, as in navem for navim. These
various changes, besides a considerable number of analogous
variations, are doubtless not regulated by special laws, nor are they
as uniform as the contraction of the primitive diphthongs into
simple vowels ; still they produce a certain general effect which
cannot be mistaken by those at all accustomed to the ordinary
classic forms.
The euphonic laws affecting the Latin vowels are far from
numerous. An organic a changes readily to e before a nasal in
final syllables, as in septem, nomen, patrem; after v it usually
becomes o, as in vomo, vos, volvere, volo, and at times even before
,-, as in novus, oris. A comparison with the other Aryan tongues
show- that here the o replaces a in the primitive Aryan tongue. In
other respects the Latin vowel scheme is of the simplest, closely
resembling the Greek, which differs mainly from it by its more
I J retention of the ancieni diphthongs.
on tb other hand, the Latin consonantal system is more faithful
than the Greek to the primitive type. Lithuanian alone, of all the
Aryan tongues, has better than Latin preserved the organic s of the
common mother-tongue. In Latin it at times becomes r between
two vowels, as in generis, genitive of germs, or at the end of words,
as in arbor for the older arboe. But this solitary modification is of
* CorKsen, " Ueber Aussprarhe, YokalisrniiH and BetomiSg der L:\v hi-
ischen Bpraohe," 2nd ed., i. p. G'J5. Leipzig, 1868.
220 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
far less consequence than the development of so many new frica-
tives peculiar to Greek, Slavonic, Iranic, and Sanskrit.
While Greek changed to the sharp aspirates ph, th, Teh, the soft
bh, <lh, gh, of the common Aryan tongue, Latin, especially in the
middle of the word, rendered them in principle by the correspond-
ing unaspirated explosives b, d, g, as in nubes, lingo, compared with
the Greek ve(f>os, A«x w . But it modified these primitive aspirates
in two other ways, especially at the beginning of words, where they
become sometimes h and sometimes /. Thus fero = I bear, answers
to the Greek fopa and the Sanskrit bharami. At times both forms
occur, as in Jiordeum and fordeum = barley ; horda and forda.
This change of the primitive aspirates to h and/ has been variously
explained, but the point is not yet quite cleared up.
Another peculiarity of Latin phonetics is the change of d to I :
lacrima = teax, levir = brother-in-law, lingua — tongue, olere = to
smell, for the older dacrima, devir, &c. This explains a number of
double forms, such as impelimenta and impedimenta; delicare and
dedicare, olere and odor.
The Latin consonants are readily affected by the niceties of at
least a rudimentary system of assimilation. This is often partial
only, as in actus, where c stands for g, as seen in ago ; but it is
sometimes complete, as in summus, where the mm stand for pm, as
shown by super, supremus. Again, if a word begin with two con-
sonants, the first of these often disappears. Thus notus, nomen
were formerly preceded by a ;/, as shown by the compounds cognosco,
cognomen. At the beginning of words also the group dv may
change to b, as in bis and bonus, for the older forms dvis, dvonus,
while bellum and dvellum coexist.
With regard to the pronunciation of Latin, we may remark that
it is a question many have essayed to solve without even so much
as suspecting the nature of the conditions on which its solution
depended. ]S T ow, however, it may be said to be settled, at least in
a general way. The work of Corssen, quoted higher up, has collected
all the results hitherto arrived at, and which may be safely looked
on as conclusive. On the pronunciation of a good many consonants,
p, b,f, d, in, n, r, I, &c, there is no diversity of opinion, so that we
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 221
need not dwell on these, and our remarks will be restricted to such
points as may still seem to present any doubt.
It is generally admitted that before the vowels a, o, u, and before
consonants, the Latin c had the same sound as k ; but what was its
pronunciation before e and i? Did it sound like ch, as in Italy, or
like fo, as in Germany, or like s, as in France [and England] 1 Did
the Latins say Chichero, Tsitsero, or Sisero ? We are now in pos-
session of more than sufficient materials to decide this point, and
the transcription of foreign words in Latin, and of Latin words in
foreign languages, ought alone to remove all doubt. The Goths, for
instance, when borrowing from Latin the terms lucerna, farcer, ace-
tum, changed them to liilcnrrt, TcarTcara, aikeits, while the Greeks
Wrote npiyyicnrta TrarpiKiovs, Krjvcrap, Kevrvpia, for pr't ')/<■/ 'pin, &C On
the other hand the Latins at all times represented by c the * Greek,
as in the forms Cerasus, Cimcm, Cecrqps, and Corssen justly con-
cludes that down to the sixth or even seventh century of our era
the Latin c had the force of k before all the vowels.* Besides the
old Latin grammarians t never say that the sound of c differs
according to the vowel by which it may be followed, and we may
feel satisfied that if it was at all changed to s before e and i previous
to the seventh century, this took place in the vulgar speech or in
the provincial patois alone.
!: Eore i pure, that is followed by another vowel, as in jusHMa,
8ervitium; t also remained hard, not till much later on becoming
a fricative, at least in Latin. In Oscan and Umbrian the change
occurred at an earlier period, but was not regularly adopted in
I Latin pronunciation till the fifth century, although traces of
it occur BO early as the third.
The letter*/ also, before the vowels e, i, may with equal certainty
lid to have had the same sound as before a, o, u. Later on it
often became i, but only in the vulgar speech.
* i >j). cit., torn. i. p. 48.
f AmongBt others Quintilian, whose language is conclusive <>f tho con-
trary: Nam ft qmdem in oullis verbi atendum puto, nisi quae aignifioat,
etiam at sola ponatur: boo eo non omisi, quod quidem earn, quoties a
sequatnr, neccssariam credunt, emu Bit c Littera, qua ad omnes vooales vim
Buam perferat. " [nBtitutiones," i. 7.— Note by Translator.
222 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. t.
The aspirate h was perhaps distinctly heard at a certain epoch,
hnt it gradually lost its force, and was omitted altogether in a
numher of words, snch as anser, whoso root is the same as that of
the Greek xn v [and the English goose].
The sound of j is not at all doubtful, being always like our y in
you. On this point the evidence of Priscian (sixth century) leaves
no room for equivocation.
Altogether a reformation in Latin pronunciation is perfectly
feasible, and we may add desirable, though we cannot hope that it
ever will be realised.* It is well, however, that hi any case the
pronunciation of the classic period should be known, and especially
that no attempt should be made to cause the adoption of any of
the systems current in Italy, France, Germany, or elsewhere, which
are all alike defective.
Besides, any reform of the kind should be based on a strict
observance of the laws of quantity. In Latin there successively
prevailed two systems of accentuation. The second, which was
that of classic times, was regulated by quantity, and may be said
to have been extremely simple. The fundamental principle was
that the accent should fall invariably on the penultimate syllable
when long, as in candmus, but on the antepenultimate when the
penultimate is short, as in cdmmus. This, of course, in case the
word has three or more syllables, for in words of two syllables the
accent falls necessarily on the penultimate whatever be its length.
Thus : fecit, nobis, where it is long ; dens, tenet, where it is short.
Hence the accent may shift its place in the declension and
conjugation according to the number of the syllables, as in
amdbimur = we shall be loved, where it falls on a long ante-
penultimate, and in amabimini = you will be loved, where it falls
on a short antepenultimate. In fact, in these two examples the
penultimate is short, and it is the quantity of this syllable, as
* In England such a reform has already made a good beginning, and has
received a certain stimulus from the advocacy of Mr. A. J. Ellis, who has
embodied his views in a valuable little work entitled " Practical Hints
on the Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin." London, 1874. — Note by
Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 223
stated, that decides as to the position of the accent, independently
altogether of the quantity of the other syllables.
Hence, in order to settle the position of the accent, we must be
first acquainted with the laws of quantity, which, however, are
neither difficult nor numerous. And herein precisely lies the
advantage of the practice of Latin verse in schools, as the only
means of ascertaining whether the learner is acquainted or not
with quantity. If he knows it, he can also place the accent,
which we shall see plays a chief part in the formation of the.
Kmnance tongues, and especially of French, in which the very
form itself that the word has assumed depends on the position of
the Latin accent.
Eeturning to the subject of grammar, we find that Latin has
lost the dual, which Greek has at least to some extent preserved,
and is therefore so far superior to its congener. In respect of the
case-endings, they are each of them superior in some points and
inferior in others. We have stated that Greek has lost the old
ablative retained in Latin. Here the organic ending was t for
themes ending in a vowel, and in Latin this t has become <1, whence
the forms : sententzad, preivatod, magistratud, marid. However,
tliis d die I at an early period. The organic form of the
dative singular was ai, reduced in Sanskrit to e, whence in Latin
the old forms pqpidoi, Romanoi, which subsequently became
populo, Romano. The organic form of the old locative was i,
which is ii"! always lost in Latin; where, however, it becomes
/, owing to a secondary Cause thai, we are not here c -erned
with. Anyhow, '/<-//"', humi, belli, are true locatives, wrongly
treated in grammars as genitives. In the plural we may notice the
total disappearance of the locative, still retained in Greek.
Coming to conjugation we find that the personal endings are
red, though of the "Id mi= I, of the pre n at
tense, tic only traces n<>w left are the two forms sum ami inquam.
Of the - ; ". primitive ten"- Latin has retained the present, a few
reduplicate perfects, such as cecinimus = we have sung, and perhaps
Inc.-, of the. .simple aoriflt. lint this was at best hut little,
•md C6C0B oily had to fresh formations. The perfecl
224 THIRD FORM OF, SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. t.
in si (luxi, clixi), the perfect in ui or vl (monui, amavi), as well as
the imperfect in bam (amabam), the future in bo (amabo), and a
number of other analogous formations, were all amongst those
subsequently developed. But we cannot dwell upon this subject,
and will merely add, that of the old Aryan tongues Latin is one of
those that have given birth to the greatest number of such new
forms, some of which may doubtless seem even superfluous.
There is one of them, however — that of the middle, or passive,
voice— which cannot be passed over in silence. In the Italic, as
in the Keltic tongues, there was created a middle voice, which
later on acquired a passive sense, and which was formed by adding
to the verb the reflective pronoun. Thus, amor stands for an older
form amos, which again stands for amo-se. Lithuanian also has
developed a middle voice by an analogous process.
Of all the Italic tongues, sisters to the Latin, and destined
gradually to disappear before it, the Oscan and the Umbrian are
the most important. Umbrian was spoken in the north-east of
the peninsula, and the Volscian dialect is generally believed to
have been allied to it. Oscan was spoken in the south, and was
related more to the SabeUian [or Sanmite]. But all three, Umbrian,
Oscan, and Latin, sprang from one source ; and although neither
preceded any of the others, still a comparison of their phonetics and
of their forms shows that of the three Oscan came nearest to the
common type, from which Umbrian departed more even than
Latin.
Oscan was spoken in Samnium, in Campania, and in the neigh-
bouring districts,* and is known to us through some important
inscriptions, the bronze tablets of Agnone and Bantia and the
Abella Stone. Oscan is particularly distinguished from Latin and
Umbrian by its careful preservation of the ancient diphthongs,
and by its retention of the organic a often replaced by an i in Latin.
Thus the Oscan coder represents the Latin inter. These are not
the only primitive features of its vowel system, but they may be
mentioned as the most striking. With regard to its consonants,
whde in some respects inferior, it is also often superior to the
* Rabaste, "De la Laugue Osque." Rennes, 1865.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 225
Latin. Its inferiority is shown especially in the substitution of
p for the primitive k, as in pam for the Latin quam. Before a t it
replaces k by h, as in Ohtavis for the Latin Octavius. But in
many cases its superiority is very marked. Thus it does not, as a
ride, change the s to /■, as Latin does ; and it also avoids a number
of assimilations, writing kenstur where the Latin has censor for
censtor. A phonetic peculiarity distinguishing it from Latin
consists in its frequent change of the organic aspirates to / in the
body of the word, a change which in Latin scarcely occurs except
with initial letters. Thus the Oscan sifei stands for the Latin
sibi.
Umbrian we are acquainted with through a very important
monument, the bronze tables known as the "Eugubine Tables,"
from Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium, where they were discovered
hi the middle of the fifteenth century (1446). These tables for a
long time taxed the ingenuity and sagacity of the old linguists, but
it was reserved for Aufrecht and Kirchhoff to satisfactorily de-
cipher them, reducing their grammar to a scientific basis, in a work
on the Umbrian language, to which all subsequent essays on the
subjecl are largely indebted.*
The Umbrian vowel system is more closely related to the Latin than
is tli'- 1 >scan, while showing a still greater tendency than the former to
reduce the ancient diphthongs to a single vowel ; and, what is still
mure remarkable, it frequently omits many vowels altogether.
'J'h'is it lias nmiiiir for the Latin iimniiii. Like the Oscan it some-
times changes the primitive k to />, whence pis for the Latin guts.
As in Oscan also it substitutes/ for the organic aspirates, which in
Latin become simple explosives, whence the Umbrian tefe, ife,
answering to the Latin tibi, ibi. As in Oscan also it, changes the
-> /,/. to l>t. rehte, corresponding to the Latin recte. In certain
the primitive d becomes /■, which seems to have had a some-
what peculiar utterance, and which is usually denoted by a dot
underneath: arveitu, rere, runum thus answering to the Latin
adv( I'll", dedit, <i<>itn>it.
*"]iie i Sptachdenkm&ler," Berlin, L849-51 ; Andre Leferrs,
I. Italiqucs : L'Ombrien," Paris, 1874.
226 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
But these few remarks will probably be sufficient on tlie two
Italic tongues, sisters to the Latin, from which, they do not in fact
differ essentially, not more perhaps than do the various Greek
dialects from each other, and certainly much less than the neo-
Latin or the Keltic languages do amongst themselves.
L,et us conclude with a few words on the old Italic characters,
which, according to Corssen, derive all of them from two Greek
alphabets. [Op. cit., i. p. 1.) One of these, the old Doric, or
some allied system, would seem to have been the parent of the
Samnite, of three Etruscan systems, of the Umbrian, of the
Euguhine Tables, and of the Oscan of the Abella Stone. All these
varieties, except the last, possess two signs to denote the s, that is,
the Greek capital sigma, represented either in the usual way, or else
inclined one fourth to the right, so as to look like a sort of M.
A more recent Doric alphabet seemed to form the basis of the
Falisean and the Latin, the oldest documents of which last date
from the end of the third century before our era. The old Jc had
already disappeared except in certain words, the c having long de-
noted as well the sound of g as of k, and being at last replaced for
the first of these functions by the new letter g, itself derived by a
slight modification from c. From about the middle of the second
to the middle of the first century before our era, that is for about
a hundred years, the practice seems to have prevailed of denoting
the long vowel by doubling it, thus aara, ree, Muucius \fov art i, <te.].
About a century before our era the long i was denoted by giving it
a longer or higher form than that of the other letters of the same
word : dIvo, vlcus ; at times also this sign was employed to denote
the semi-vowel j (our y in sound), as in Ius, maIor.
In the middle of the first century after our era the Emperor
Claudius essayed to enrich the Latin alphabet with three new
letters. In order to distinguish the consonant v from the vowel
he proposed to denote the first by the Greek digamma reversed.
For the combinations ps, bs he suggested an inverted c, and lastly
the sign |— for the sound of the French u, that had been introduced
into certain words. But none of these innovations took root, and
the Roman alphabet remained in the same state as beret, .fore.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 227
(2) Tlie Neo-Latiii Languages.
At the beginning of the present century a strong belief prevailed,
still shared in by many, that French came of a Romance tongue,
which towards the end of the [Western] Empire and during the first
centuries of medieval times, had succeeded to its direct progenitor,
Latin. The writings of the illustrious linguist Eaynouard con-
tributed not a little to the spread of this theory. It was readily
adopted ; much was written on the Romance tongue ; its texts
were commented on, and many still persist in looking on the
present Provencal as this Romance idiom. Eaynouard had un-
fortunately trespassed beyond the field of his proper hnguistic
studies, intruding somewhat rashly and without method on the
domain of philology ; hence his theory of a Romance language was
fated to disappear soon after its author.
Li truth, no such language ever existed, nor did Latin give birth
so much to a single Eomance form as to several leo-Latin tongues.
At the same time we must avoid the mistake of supposing that
new idioms are merely a sort of corrupt Latin. They are,
on the contrary, the vulgar or popular Latin, as spoken in Spain,
Portugal, France, the Grisons, Italy, and on the Lower Danube.
Li fact, by the side of the literary standard there co-existed an
ordinary current Latin, diffused by the legionaries and the settlers
throughout Iberia, Gaul, and Dacia. It was this vulgar speech
that became gradually modified, reappearing in one place as
Spanish, in another as French, elsewhere as Rumanian, just as in
Italy itself it became Italian. Meantime the literary Latin, be-
comirj id less intelligible to the vulgar, passed at last to the
condition of an ancient, classic, or dead langu
"When Latin." says M. Littre, "had finally caused the in-
digei of Italy. Spain, and Gaul to disappear, there was
but one literary standard for these three great countries, but the
vulgar speech (thai is, of course, the Latin mlgar speech, scarcely
any other having Burvived) was everywhere respectively different.
This, al i hai the Romance bear vritness to by
their very existence. Ead Lati I been spoken somewhal
differently in each place, the I i Bowing from it would
q 2
228 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
possess no distinctive features, and would be confused together.
But these Italians, Spaniards, and Gauls, having all alike been
brought, by the force of circumstances, to speak Latin, spoke it
each of them with their own peculiar accent and sense of euphony.
. . . . Those great regions that we call Italy, Spain, Provence,
and France, stamped their special character on this language, just
as those smaller districts did which we call provinces. And these
discrepancies were themselves governed by laws from which there
was no escape. These laws lie in the geographical position,
involving essential and characteristic differences amongst the in-
habitants. French, the farthest removed from the Latin centre,
was that which modified it the most ; I speak of the form only,
for the common Latin groundwork is as pure in French as in the
other idioms. Provencal, placed by the lofty Alpine barrier in
the Gaulish zone, but on its verge, is intermediate ; nearer than
French, somewhat less so than Spanish, to the Latin form. Spain,
again, skirting the Mediterranean, and so closely resembling Italy
in its soil and climate, resembles it also in its speech. Lastly
Italian, being placed in the very centre of Latinity, reproduces it
with the least change. And there is for this theory of the for-
mation of Komance, a negative proof, which, like all the others, is
conclusive. In truth, were such not the law that regulated the
geographical distribution of the Eomance tongues, Ave should here
and there light upon some break in the type peculiar to each region,
some evidences of types peculiar to other districts. Thus, f < >r in-
stance, in the French domain, in the remote parts of Xeustria, or of
Picardy, Ave should meet with Provencal, Italian, or Spanish for-
mations; in the heart of Spain we should come across French,
Provencal, or Italian forms ; in the extremity of Italy Ave should
encounter Spanish, Provencal, or French peculiarities. But it is
not so. The local type once established, undergoes no further
deviation, no return to the type of any other locality; everything
takes place regularly under the local influences, AAdiich may be
considered partial, Avhen contrasted with those of the larger
regions."*
* " Dictioimaire die la LaDgue Franchise," ;. i. p. xlvii. Paris, 18G3.
Chap, v.] THIKD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 229
This Latin origin of the Romance tongues is now a firmly-estab-
lished fact, that can no longer be called in question. The grammar
of Frederick Diez, first published some forty years ago,* has once
for all disposed of those Iberian, Keltic, or other theories, which
nevertheless still crop up from time to time. French may no doubt
be derived from Keltic, but so might Latin, in the same Avay, from
Hebrew. This Keltomania is in fact a thing beyond discussion,
fur it rides over French, Latin, the Keltic languages themselves ;
ami perhaps this is its only excuse.
But we do not, at the same time, deny the existence of a tolerably
important foreign element in the neo-Latin tongues. French, for
instance, possesses a certain number of words of Keltic origin :
arpent, lime, dune, alouette; but even this element is far from
being as extensive as might be siipposed, and it may be well to
remark that all such terms, before becoming French, were first
latinised; that, in a word, they passed through the Latin into the
French language. The invasion of the barbarians, again, introduced
some four hundred words of Teutonic origin, while contact with the
Easl also contributed its share ; but the grammar remained essen-
tially Latin.
There are reckoned altogether seven neo-Latin tongues : Portu-
:_!!'•->■. Spanish, French, Provencal, Italian, Ladin, and Rumanian.
Befoi ing of the geographical distribution and special
features of each of these idioms, it will be necessary to draw
attention to two leading facts which form the groundwork of the
whole subject. One of these is the play of the tonic accent in
the formation of the neo-Latin words; the other is the transition
from Latin declension to the analytic state of these idioms.
Of all the members of this group it may be said in a general
. thai the formation of their words is based on the persistence
of the tonic accent.*} The accented syllable in Latin is still the
yllable in French and Italian. This is the fundamental
* "Grammatik der EtomaniBohen Sprachen," i^ml ed. Bonn, L856-60.
f I ji t tii', " Histoire de la Langne ITrancaise," 6fch ed., t. i. p. -\~, Paris,
1 373; '■• Pi Bfcnde snr le R61e de L'Aoo La i dans la Langae
oaise," Pari , L862.
230 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Ciiap. v.
principle which remains unaffected by secondary laws. Let us
illustrate it by what occurs in the French language.
Side by side with the continuance of the Latin accent, French
discloses two secondary principles. One is the suppression of short
unaccented vowels preceding the toned syllable ; the other is the
disappearance of certain consonants in the body of the word.* Thus
the accent is on the vowel a in the words bonitdtem, liberdre,
sanitdtem, and it remains on the corresponding vowel in the French
horde, livrer, sante, and we see that in these three examples the
unaccented vowel i or e has disappeared. So also in Her, doner,
the middle consonants g and t of ligare, and dotare have dropped.
Observe, also, that French sacrifices everything that follows the
accented syllable. Its masculine final syllables, as in essaim,
peupU, hotel, are always the toned syllables, while in the so-called
feminine endings, as in meuble, esclandre, the accent is still on the
last syllable (here eu and a), because the final is now silent,
possessing merely an artificial existence in poetry. Practically
esclandre, semaine are dissyllables, whose last, that is an and at, are
toned.
But a time came in the history of the French language, when the
vocabulary flowing continuously from the old Latin vulgar tongue
was found to be no longer sufficient, and then such terms as were
needed began to be taken bodily from classic Latin. But this fresh
supply could not of course be subjected to the fundamental principle
regnlating the play of the tonic accent, any more than to the
secondary laws affecting medial consonants and untoned vowels.
To this new stock the name of "learned words" was given, as
might almost seem by a sort of bony, while that of "popular
words " was applied to the really natural and genuine French
element. Nor was the fabrication of such book-Latin terms limited
to those the want of which really existed, but a crowd of others
was introduced, which had already assumed a popular, correct, and
genuine French form. Thus the accent, for instance, is on the first
syllable in the Lathi debitum, cancer, and in French these two
* Brachet, " Gram. Historique de la Langue Francaise," introduction,
sect. ii. Paris.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 231
words were regularly modified to dette, chancre ; but the "learned''
formation again adopted them, and, neglecting the tonic accent,
fabricated the really barbarous forms debit, cancer (where the tone
falls on the last, thus violating the fundamental principle regulating
the formation of French words). The terms operer, cumuler,
separer, and numbers of others have no doubt the accent on the
same syllable as their Latin prototypes qperare, cumulate, s¶re ;
but they are, nevertheless, mere pedantic and secondary forms
when compared with the genuine *■ n-< ,-. rambler, ouvrer, which (not
only preserve the accent but also) omit, as they ought to do, the
untoned vowel preceding the accented syllable. So also Her, dauer,
answer exactly to the Latin ligare, dotare, of which the coined
forms liguer, doter, retaining the middle consonant, are merely
arbitrary imitatii ins.
We come now to tin- second, and no less interesting main
feature of the neo-Latin tongues, the already-mentioned transition
from the synthetic- Latin, with its declensions and case-endings, to
the analytical state, in which every trace of declension has
vanished.
In the oldest Spanish and Italian records we meet with languages
already reduced to complete analysis (that is, as regards nominal
and adjectival declension, the verb still remaining largely synthetic).
Bui this is tli'- case neither with the old French nor with the old
Provencal, which ai a certain period show not merely the traces of
ease-endings, but two genuine cases — the nominative and the
accusative. "At tin- time." writes M. Littre, "when a modern
ipeech was being formed in Caul, Latin, as still spoken, was in a
peculiar Btate in respect of its rieh declension. It employed the
nominative correctly enough j butil confused the remaining cases,
using them indifferently ha- each other. This at least is what we
timl in the monuments of the period, which teem with solecisms.*
* As in the following, where we have the accusative for the ablative, the
masculine genitive fox il"- feminine genitive, the ablative for the acousativei
and the accnaative plural is w forth idea d for i, e for
t, u tor o, e tor i, he. "In jure adque domenaoione Sanoti Maria el spun.
i Christi iu prsBdioto loom oontententig," which should ba "In jaaatque
282
THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
The new language, then budding, with a sort of instinct infused
regularity into all this chaos by retaining the nominative, and of all
the rest making one single case — the objective. Hence, in its
primitive state, French was not an analytical tongue, like modern
French, or like Spanish and Italian in their oldest records. It had
a synthetic, consequently, an older character, expressing the
relations of the nouns to each other and to the verb, not by
prepositions, but by true cases It is, as Ave see, a sort
(if half Latin syntax, which Flench has in common with Provencal,
so that these two languages of Gaul, possessing each of them two
cases, resemble each other more closely than they do either Spanish
or Italian, while these two in their turn are more nearly akin to
each other than they are to the Langue cVdil or the Larujuc d'oe.
"This inheritance of two cases, and of a half synthetic syntax, was
no passing feature of the French tongue, leaving behind it no train's
except for the curiosity of the learned. It continued in this state
fur three centuries, from the eleventh to the thirteenth, during
which this syntax formed the ride of the written and the spoken
language. Latin, which for us is a classic tongue, is much praised
for the way in which its declension directs the thought. I am not
discussing the relative superiority of languages with and without
cases, but a portion of this praise should fall to the share of old
French, whose declension, though curtailed, is still a reality, and
which on this account ranks so far with Latin." — (Op. cit. ibid.)
The old French declension is very simple. In the case of forms
answering to the Latin declension in us, such as domains, the
nominative singular retains the s of this ending m ; the objective
plural also ends in s, which again corresponds to the s of the Latin
accusative plural domino*. The two other forms, that is the
nominative plural and the accusative singular, remain in the simple
state (the corresponding Latin endings of domini and dominum
here simply disappearing in virtue of the accessory laws above
explained in connection with the tonic accent).
dominationem Sanctce Maria? et sponsarum Christi in praedicto loco con.
sistentium." M. J. D'Arbois de Jubainville's "D6clinaison Latine en Ganle
a l'Epoque Merovingienne," Paris, 1872, p. 109. — Note hy Translator.
Chap, v.] THIED FOEM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 233
We thus get the subjoined table of old French declension :
Singular — Nominative : li chevals = caballus.
Accusative : le cheval = caballuui.
Plural — Nominative : li cheval = caballi.
Accusative : les chevals = caballos.
We shotild exceed our limits were we to dwell further on this
subject, nor is it possible here to give a complete history of the declen-
sion of the Langue d'oil or of that of the Langue d'oc. It is enough
to establish the fact that these two languages had a period of true
declension, which cannot he detected in the oldest texts of the other
II. nuance tongues. Hence, as M. Littre remarks, we cannot speak
of an old Spanish or an old Italian language in the same sense as
we can of an old French and an old Provencal tongue.
This point settled, we may now pass in rapid review each of the
seven branches of the neo-Latin family.
(a) French.
The indigenous Keltic idioms had in tin" first century of our era
been already supplanted in Caul by tin' vulgar Latin (that is by
the sermo plebeius, as opposed to the classic standard). This
resull was brought about by numerous ami irresistible causes,
foremost amongst which was the strong interest the Gauls had in
assimilating themselves to their masters. The literary Language
al-o was sown introduced, and the Gaulish schools, developed under
Latin culture, acquired a well-earned reputation. Nevertheless,
vulgar Latin alone contributed to the developmenl of the popular
speech, which derived exclusively from it. The classic language,
for instance, wrote urbe, iter, oeculari, 08, hebdomas ; hut it is the
popular forms, villa, viaticum, basiare, bucca, septimana, that re-
appear in tic- modern ville, voyage, baisei; bouche, semaine. 'I lie
• of the French language, thai is of the Langue d'oil, at thai
t an.- wa lingua romana rustica, and in the eighth century the clergy
preached in this "lingua rustica," which was the French oi Hie
234 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
period. The glosses lately discovered at Beichenau,* and which
date from this epoch, are the oldest French texts yet discovered
(being anterior even to the famous " Serment des tils de Louis le
Debonnaire," which bears the date of 842).
But the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries were the
golden age of the Langue d'oiL " Then was developed," says Brachet,
"an absolutely original poetic literature, a graceful or sparkling
lyrical, and a grand epic poetry, of which the ' Chanson de Eoland '
remains the most perfect example. Italy, Germany, Spain, adopt
our poetry and our romances, translating or imitating them, &c." —
(Op. cit. ibid.)
The declension with two cases, as above described, died out in
the fourteenth century, after which period the French becomes de-
cidedly a modern and analytic tongue, like Italian and Spanish.
From the moment that we are able to observe it, French conjuga-
tion seems to have become entirely analytic, f Side by side with the
tenses flowing from the Latin, tenses such as the present j' crime, it
developes others by the modern process: fed aime, favcds aime.
Such also is the origin of the future; aimerai = aimer ai, as is
placed beyond all doubt by the corresponding old Spanish and
Provencal forms. Besides, classic Latin itself recognised this
analytical future form, expressions such as dtcere habeo occurring
even in good writers. The conditional j'aimerais also is merely an
artificial formation, based in some way on the future.
* Found in 1863 by Holtzmann, in a MS. in the library of this place. It is
referred to the year 768, and it contains many contemporary forms explain-
ing the difficult words of the vulgate. These words are written in two
columns, thus :
Latin. French of 8th century,
tugurium cabanna
sindones linciolo
minas manatees, &c.
(Note by Translator).
f This is certainly an extraordinary statement. Analytical forms have
doubtless been added to the French verbal system, and the old future has
perished. But enough remains to render French conjugation still highly
synthetic. Thus, it retains both participles, the infinitive, both presents,
both pasts, and the imperfect indicative — all purely synthetic forms. — Note
by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIED FOBH OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 35
In medieval times a number of French dialects existed, inde-
pendent of each other, and all possessing a special literature, It
could scarcely have been otherwise under the feudal system. Still
these various dialects differed mainly in their phonetics. Those of
Burgundy, Picardy, and Normandy, were in any case compelled to
give place to that of the Isle of France after the famdy of the
Capets had finally chosen Paris as the centre of the kingdom.
Tiny gradually sank to the position of mere patois, "in which a
careful study still detects the features of the old dialects as they
existed previous to the literary productions of the Middle Ages.
Hence those patois are not, as is generally supposed, the literary
French corrupted in the mouth of the peasantry ; they are the re-
mains of the old provincial dialects, reduced by political circum-
stances from the position of official and literary to that of merely
spoken tongues."— (Brachet, op. clt., p. 47.)
The Wallon dialect maintained its independence for a long time.
It had two varieties, that of Liege and that of Namur* which have
been wrongly grouped with the Picardy dialect, from which the
Wallon is quite distinct. It is now merely a patois^, having
yielded in common with the other medieval dialects to the literary
standard.
We have had several times to refer incidentally to the actual limits
of the French language. On the north it meets the Flemish a little
above Calais, whence it stretches through Saint-Omer, Armentieres,
Tourcoing, and Ath, to Liege and Verviers. On the east it is
inclosed by the German, by aline including Verviers, Longwy,
Metz, Dieuze, Saioi Die, Belfort, Detemont, Friburg, and Sion,and
farther Bouth by tin- Italian. In the centre it, now occupies the
whole domain of the Provencal dialects, of which we shall pre-
sently speak.
1 1, Switzerland French is the native speech of about 600,000
people,inthe I n of NeufchateL Geneva, Vaud, the greater
part of Friburg and of the Calais, and a fifth of Heme. In Belgium
it is spoken by aboul 2,000,000, occupying the whole south-eastern
portion of the kingdom, and in Germany bj over 200,000 about
•Cluivr.-, ' ■ I'.Mi.oi .■.<■! Wallon. ' Paris. IS.77.
236 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Malmedy, Metz, and Chateau-Salins. It is also still spoken in the
English colonies of Mauritius and [parts of] Canada.
(/3) Provencal.
The opinion of some writers that both the Langue d'oil and the
Langue d'oc, or Provencal, derive indirectly only from vulgar Latin,
through an intermediate form common to both, rests so far on
nothing hut empty and utterly ungrounded statements, and we may
add that in itself it is highly improbable. The current Latin
speech cannot have modified itself uniformly throughout the whole
of Gaul. It would be even surprising if in this vast region it
assumed no more than two distinct types, those of the Langue d'oil
and the Langue d'oc. Anyhow, in the absence of all proof it will
be prudent to doubt whether there can have at any time existed a
common Franco-Provencal speech. The northern and the southern
dialects, no doubt, resemble each other the more closely the more
ancient are their texts, but this is simply because the older they
are the more closely do they approach their common (vulgar Latin)
origin.
Provencal, as already observed, had, like the Langue d'oil, its
semi-synthetic period, during which it possessed the declension with
two cases, the nominative and the accusative. Its conjugation is
quite as analytic as that of the Langue d'oil, and it is in Provencal
that we meet with the old form of the future dir vos ai=je rims
(Urn!, which so clearly shows the mechanism of the modern tense.
The meaning in which the term Provencal is used is now
thoroughly understood. Here a part is taken for the whole, for
the language of Provence proper was and is one dialect only of the
Langue d'oc, which includes also those of Languedoc, Limousin,
Auvergne, Gascony, and part of Dauphiny. The question has
often been asked whether it should not also comprise the Cata-
lonian, at present spoken in Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic
Isles, and formerly diffused thoughout the territory of Aragon, or
whether this variety should not rather constitute a distinct neo-
Latin group by itself. The point is not yet settled, nor can the
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 237
view be altogether condemned which includes Catalonian amongst
the Provencal dialects.
Provencal literature nourished mainly in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, but its oldest records are anterior to this
period. It received a fatal blow with the defeat of the Albigenses,
after which French gradually encroached upon the whole country
as far as the Pyrenees, and the southern dialects have now fallen to
the position of mere patois, unconnected with any literary language.
The actual limits of the northern and southern patois have not
been very carefully determined. The last information on the
subject fixes the extreme frontier of the Langue d'oil on the
west at Blaye, Angouleme, Confolens, Montlucon, and Saint-Etienne.
Towards the east the frontier is more difficult to settle, but it
seems to reach the Alps a little above Grenoble.
(y) Italian.
As known to us even in its oldest records, Italian is unques-
tionably the best preserved of all the neo-Latin tongues, both in its
structure and vocabulary. Diez calculates that not a tenth part of
its vocabulary can be referred to other than Latin sources. If so,
this would certainly be not a little remarkable; but in any case
Italian certainly contains far less German terms than docs the
French.
In the tenth century what we now understand by Italian was
already spoken — thai i< to say, the vulgar Latin had already at
this epoch been sufficiently modified in Haly to he entitled to this
name. Hut its written monuments do not date farther hack than
the twelfth century, nor was it till the following centurj thai the
language of literature was developed in Tuscany a purely literary
language that never was spoken.* Anyhow, the [talian of this
period hid the same general features of the Italian of the pre enl
* This i . (strong. Amongst the educated cla es, esp ally
in Borne and Florence, tic oorreni Bpeecfa does qoI materially, if at all,
differ from the ordinary language of literature; ami certainly all educated
foreig [talian adhere verj oloserj to the literary foi
by T
238 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
day ; so that there was no old Italian in the sense that there was
an old French and an old Provencal tongue.
In Italy there are a great number of dialects — a circumstance
readily explained by the configuration of the country. These
dialects have always been clearly distinguished from each other,
and in his treatise "DeVulgari Eloquio," Dante reckons fourteen
altogether, which he divides into eastern and western, or else into
cis-Apennine and trans-Apennine dialects. This division, however,
has been advantageously replaced by that of upper, central, and
lower Italian dialects, the last class comprising the Neapolitan,
Calabrian, Sicilian, and Sardinian. In the second are included
the Tuscan, Koman, and Corsican ; while the northern division
embraces the Genoese, Piedmontese, Venetian, Emilian, and
Lombard varieties. Each of these dialects possesses a copious
literature, and many of them have monuments dating from the
period of the Renaissance, while some, such as the Neapolitan and
Sardinian, are still older.
Towards the north Italian crosses the political frontier, beino-
spoken by a population of about 140,000 in the Canton of Ticino,
and in the south-eastern portion of the Grisons in Switzerland. In
Austria also, in a portion of Southern Tyrol, as well as in a narrow
strip along the west coast of Istria, Italian is current.
(S) Ladin,
Known also as the language of the Grisons, the Rheto-Romanee,
the Rumonsh, and Rumansh. But it seems best to call it simply
Ladin, with Ascoli, who has recently devoted an important work
to its elucidation.* According to this writer it comprises three
distinct groups : on the east that of Friuli, spoken by upwards of
400,000 people in Italy on the banks of the Tagliamento, and in
Austria as far as Goritz ; in the centre, two tracts in Austrian Tyrol,
at some distance from either bank of the Adige, by upwards of
90,000 persons; on the west, under the name of Rumansh, it
* "Archivio Glottologico Italiano," vol. i. Saggi Ladini. Rome, Turin,
Florence, 1873.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 239
stretches across the greater part of the Swiss canton of the Grisons,
being there spoken by about 40,000 ; making altogether 580,000 —
a number which, though inconsiderable, cannot deprive the Ladin
of its claim to be regarded as a true language. Its central and
eastern groups have been wrongly connected with the Italian
system, from which they differ altogether both in their substance
and phonetics, while closely allied to each other in those respects.
The literature of the western branch, that of the Grisons, is but
little developed. Its oldest document is a version of the New
Testament dating from the sixteenth century, while those of the
Friuli dialect are referred to the twelfth century, consisting, no
doubt, of rather short inscriptions, but long enough to enable, us to
characterise the language of that period.
(e) Spanish.
Spanish departs most from Latin in its phonetics andA'ocabularv.
which latter, amongst other foreign elements, contains a consider-
able number of Arabic words; but in the formation of its words it
remains very faithful to its prototype. Its oldest texts belong to
the middle of the twelfth century, still somewhat scanty at that
period, hut growing more and more abundant in the following
iry. But there exist older traces stil] of the Spanish language
consisting mostly of words occurring in the writings of S. Isidore of
Seville, who flourished in the seventh century.
Spanish is al present confined on the west by the Portuguese, on
the- north by the Basque, whose limits are given at p. 109, and in
the east il is spread throng] I Catalonia and Valencia, hut as the
literary standard only, the current speech here being the Catalonian,
referred to in our notice of the Provencal Or the other hand,
Spanish has occupied Axagon, where Catalonian was formerly
ken, and it is also encroaching on the southern frontier of the
. .lie, which it has already driven from Vitoria, Estella, Pam-
pluna, and N . while Bilbao and A.glZ already occupy ;i
mixed /one. Tim- Basque L losing ground much more rapidly on
the south than on the north of the Pyrenees; beci [ready
, .plained, it findfl it-elf in Spain directly opposed DJ ;m
240 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
language, while in France it comes more directly in contact with
Gascon, a Langue d'oc dialect, whose own existence is already
imminently threatened by French.
(f) Portuguese.
Though nearly allied to Spanish, Portuguese cannot be looked
upon as a Spanish dialect. With Galician, spoken in the north-
west corner of the peninsula, it rather forms an entirely independent
branch of the Eomance family. Its oldest records are more recent
than the Spanish, dating apparently only from the last years of the
twelfth century. The stock of Arabic words occurring in Spanish
is much the same as that found in Portuguese, which, however,
also contains a number of French terms foreign to Spanish. They
are supposed to have been introduced during the rule of Henry of
Burgundy, at the end of the eleventh century.
(rj) Rumanian
Derives from the vvdgar Latin, introduced into Dacia by the
.Roman legionaries settled there by Trajan, during the first years of
the second century of our era. " The Roman soldiers released from
further service," says Picot, "together with the honesta missio,
obtained th& jus connubii and the jus commercii, that is the right
of trading and intermarrying with the barbarians. Thus forever
cut off from their native land, and stationed for five-and-twenty
years in the same outposts, the legionaries became attached to the
country Avhere they had lived and fought, and availed themselves
of the opportunities afforded them by the law, to settle down there
permanently. It was thus that were formed on the banks of the
Danube the first centres of a Roman population, and these veteran
settlers were soon joined by other colonists from all quarters of the
empire, and especially by the barbarians attracted thither by the
allurements of trade. The military colonies were very numerous
in Dacia, at the period Avhen the Romans were compelled to with-
draw from that province. The purely Roman population may be
supposed to have followed the legions to the right bank of the
Danube, Avhilst the issue of the unions of the veterans and the
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 241
barbarians, remained in the country of their birth, retaining the
language they had adopted from their masters, and from these
doubtless are sprung the modern Rumanians."
We shall have to speak farther on of the old Dacian tongue,
whose position in the Aryan family is far from being yet settled.
Rumanian very probably retains in its vocabulary some remains of
this ancient language, though what they are, it might be somewhat
difficult to determine. To do so, it would be necessary in the first
place to know more of the old Dacian idiom than wc now do, or
than Ave are ever likely to do. However, a list, not without im-
portance, has been made of the elements borrowed by the Rumanian
from the Slavonic tongues, in historic times ; and besides these
there are a number of words derived from the Greek and other
sources.
Rumanian was long supposed to be a Slavonic dialect; an error
due not only to the Slavonic words existing in it, but also to the
circumstance that it was till recently written in Cyrillic letters,
that is, with the same alphabet employed by the Russian, Serbe,
and Bulgarian. In certain cases this alphabet offered considerable
advantages, but was in other respects very inconvenient, so that it
lias been at last finally abandoned for the Roman letters. When it
was found necessary to make a selection of the diacritical signs
needed to supplemenl the Roman alphabet, there were several
systems <>i' transcription to ehoosc from. Hence no complete agree-
ment was arrived at, though tins much-to-be-desired result will
doubtless, some day be achieved.*
The Latin vowels, as shown by Mussafia, have undergone two
main modifications in the mouth of the Dacian populations. < >n
the one hand, the vowels e and o, when toned, have in certain eases
been changed to ea and oa, that is, they have become diphthongs ;
on the other, many yowelfl have acquired a very deep ami almost
nasal sound. This double phenomenon constitutes one of the
le iding Eeal urea of the Rumanian tongue.t
* riem. "La Soci&e* Litteraire de Bucarest et I'Orfchographie de la
Langne Roumane." Paris, L867.
f "Zor Bomaenigchen Vocalisation*" Vienna, 18G8.
R
242 THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
It possesses an article which, however, as iu Bulgarian and
Albanian, it suffixes instead of prefixing: omul — mau,-the. This
agreement of three perfectly distinct idioms, but spoken in the same
geographical zone, is not a little remarkable. But whether it is to
be looked upon as a relic of some common speech, such as the old
Dacian, which may have left this inheritance to the various tongues
supplanting it in these regions, is still a moot question.
Rumanian is very homogeneous, more so than any other neo-Latin
speech. The meaning of certain terms may vary from place to
place, but this is not enough to constitute distinct dialectic varieties;
There is scarcely any true dialect except the Macedo-Eumanian
spoken in Rumelia, Thessaly, and Albania.
With the exception of this detached subdivision, Rumanian is
singularly uniform and compact, forming a sort of irregular circle of
over a hundred leagues in length, from the Dniester to the Danube,
and about the same in width from Arad to the mouth of the
Danube. Besides Wallachia and Moldavia, that is Rumania proper,
it comprises the north-east of the principality of Servia, the banat
of Temesvar, a great part of eastern Hungary, the greater portion of
Transylvania, South Bukovina, Bessarabia, and the Danubian delta.
It is at present spoken by perhaps 9,000,000 of people, about
half of whom are in Rumania proper. The name of Wallachians
(that is Walsch = Welsh = foreign) given to them by the Germans,
they naturally repudiate, calling themselves Rumanians, and their
speech Rumanian, herein anxious above all to perpetuate the
memory of their origin.
§ 6. — TJie Keltic Languages.
Few words have given occasion to more anthropological, ethno-
graphical, and archaeological misconceptions than this of Kelt and
Keltic. Amidst all this confusion erroneous theories of language
and races have played a larger part than elseAvhere, but the matter
seems at last fairly set at rest. Caesar's tripartite division of Gaul (at
the opening of the " Commentaries ") into Aquitania on the south,
Keltica in the centre, and Belgium on the north, was quite correct.
Budding upon this classification, which is moreover confirmed by a
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 243
great number of other passages, anthropology has shown that the
present people of Auvergne and the Low Bretons are the principal
French representatives of the small and swarthy Keltic race, which
neither had nor has any connection with the tall, fan, blue-eyed
and soft-complexioned neighbouring race that we may call by the
name of Galats, Wallem, Belgian, or Kyniric. This latter people
has often bat wrongly been spoken of as a Keltic race, and. as
M. Broca has conclusively shown in an excellent essay on the
subject, it never had any claim to this title.*
The confusion that has too long obscured the subject was largely
due to the name itself of " Keltic languages,"' applied in too general
a way to the Kelts and the Galats of the north-east. From the
feet that these last spoke a language called " Keltic," they were
converted into " Kelts," whose languages and races were again con-
fused. It would have been just as reasonable to apply the term
Gralat to the Keltic tongues, and that this has not been done is
undoubtedly due to the fact that the Kelts, a small, dark, bracky-
cephalous race, had invaded the region known afterwards as Gaul,
Long before the Galats, allied to them in speech but not in race, also
arrived there.
To explain this now ascertained fact of two very dissimilar vans
speaking closely connected varieties of the same Language, it must
be admitted that they both at some period lived in close intimacy.
But this is nothing mora than what is taking place everywhere at
the present moment. Thus, for instance, there is no such thing as
. bat rather many races speaking Freneh; no Italian
i many ra© speaking [tauan ; no ( iermanic raee, bul
rather many races speaking German.
It would be Impossible accurately to determine the region where
the Galats and Kelts, Living almosi in eon inity, spoke idioms
•.n after* "Keltic;" but all the anthropological
* "La I ique Anoienne et Bfoderne, Arvernea et Arcnoricans,
.-,"'• Revue d*Anthropologie," ii. p. 577 j :"><1 bj
ax ['Anthropologic de ta l''rancc
en genera B en particuHer," " Memoires de la Boo.
d'Anthropo iiL p. 1 17.
i: 2
244 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
arguments point at a country situated towards the south-east of
Europe, and -\ve have elsewhere suggested that it may very well
have been the region of the Dnieper and the Lower Danube.*"
Without, however, dwelling on this side of the " Keltic question,"
without even inquiring as to which of the two branches of the
Keltic tongues is to be referred to the Galats and which to the
Kelts, we shall at once deal with the purely philological question,
with which we are here alone directly concerned.
The Keltic tongues are divided into two distinct and clearly
defined branches. One of these has received the names of
Hibernian, Gaedlielic or Gaelic, the other those of Breton [Welsh)
and Kymric. Following the usual practice, and for the purpose of
avoiding &\\y misunderstandings, we shall speak of them under the
names of Gaelic and Kymric. Xor do we pretend to assert that
there may not formerly have been other branches of the Keltic
family besides these two. The fact is even probable, if we admit
the wide diffusion of these idioms in very remote times. It does
not seem quite impossible that documents may yet be brought to
light in central Europe, perhaps in the region of the Danube,
tending to confirm this supposition. But pending the discovery of
such documents, our remarks must be limited to the two groups
above mentioned.
The Gaelic Branch comprises three languages, Irish, Erse, and
Manx, all three closely allied to each other.
Owing to its better preservation and to the wealth of its
literature, the importance of Irish for the study of the Keltic
tongues is very considerable. Its literary wealth is doubtless
relative only, that of the cognate languages having been so little
developed. The oldest Irish documents consist more particularly
of more or less lengthy glosses occurring either in the margin or
between the lines of Latin manuscripts as old as the eighth century.
The old Irish inscriptions in the so-called " Ogham " characters
cannot be more recent than the fifth century, that is the epoch
when Latin writing spread among the Irish and Bretons. But the
* " Bulletins de la Soc. d' Anthropologic de Paris?," 1874.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 245
origin of these characters is as yet far from heing cleared up, ami
we cannot therefore further occupy ourselves with them here.
Irish letters reached their greatest height in the Middle Ages,
and of this period there remain a number of chronicles and tales,
besides translations of foreign works. At the time of the Uenais-
sance the language entered on the period of decay and ultimate.
extinction. At present there are at the utmost not more than
950,000 speaking both Irish and English, and not more than
160,000 speaking Irish exclusively, all restricted to the west [and
south-west] part of the island.
Its geographical position has better preserved the Erse, or Scot*-!,
Gaelic, from the encroachments of the English language. Still, it
is now spoken by scarcely more than 400,000 individuals, many of
whom also speak English. And it would be rather difficult to say
how many are acquainted with Gaelic alone. It occupies all the
north of Scotland, except a small tract on the extreme north-east,
besides the west and [a portion of] the centre, say, approximately,
tip- south of Caithness, Sutherlandshire, Ihvemessshire, Argyleshire,
and the west of Perthshire. It also extends over the neighbouring
Hebrides, but is unknown in the Orkney and Shetland islands.
Though 1' ss ancient than the Irish, the Gaelic literature of
Scotland has the greal advantage of having more faithfully pre-
i the memory of the old traditions (a statement which would
probably be warmly contested by Irish writers). The apocryphal
poems of Ossian, which gave rise to so much controversy about a
hundred years ago, had unquestionably a groundwork of truth ;
and even now the Scotch Highlanders are Ear from having forgotten
all the Legends of their forefathers.
The dialect of the [ale of Man is of but secondary interest, and
Ls now spoken by scarcely a fourth, if even BO many, of the
inhabitant
The Kymric Branch comprises Welsh, Cornish, /.<<"• Breton, and
Gaulish, of which two only .-till survive (the Welsh and
Breton).
Of all the Keltic literatures thai of Wales shows al presenl the
. mptomS of vitality. Welsh glosses OCCUI as early as the
246 THIltD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
eighth century,* consequently as old as the Irish glosses above
alluded to ; though otherwise in every respect of far less import-
ance. The flourishing period of Welsh literature extends from
the eleventh to the thirteenth century, during which time were
produced a number of chronicles and poems. The Benaissance
seemed at first to threaten Welsh letters with extinction, but they
subsequently recovered to some extent, and Welsh is still a written
language.
Corn i all, on the contrary, became extinct in the last century. Its
most ancient monument is a glossary with the title of " Vocabula
Brittanica," dating from the thirteenth or (more probably) from the
twelfth century. [It is marked Vesp. a 14 in the Cotton Col-
lection in the British Museum, and has been carefully arranged
alphabetically, and printed by Mr. Edwin J>~orris in his " Cornish
Drama," vol. ii., and also by Zeuss in his " Grammatica Celtica,"
less correctly.] Some other Cornish writings may be referred to
the period of the Benaissance, more particularly a sort of Christian
mystery on the Bassion, into which a number of English words
have already found their way. [Of this poem there are four
copies extant, and it has been more than once printed. But the
corrected edition by Whitley Stokes in the " Transactions of the
Bhilological Society of London," 1862, supersedes all the others,
which were almost worthless. It is accompanied by a translation.]
Breton or Armorican possesses no documents of any great
antiquity, and those referred to a period anterior to the fourteenth
century are doubtless not so old. [Yet the chartularies of the
monasteries of Bhedon and Landevin belong partly to the tenth
and partly to the eleventh century. Some of them have been
printed by Courson in his "Histoire des Beuples Bretons," Baris,
1846.] The best known Breton work is the life of St. iNbnna
* The oldest Welsh records of this sort probably are the vellum MSS.
in the Bodleian — Auct. F. 4 — 32, in Wanley's Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon
MSS. 2. 63. It includes accounts of weights and measures in Welsh,
intermixed with Latin, the alphabet of Nemnivus giving the forms of the
letters and their names in Welsh, the grammar of Eutychius with interlined
Welsh glosses, &c. These glosses Zeuss refers to the eighth or ninth
century. — Note by Translator.
CiiAr. v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 247
(or Nonita) and her son (referred by Zeuss to the fourteenth
century, and published under the title of " Buhez Santez Nbnn,
ou vie de Sainte JNTonne et de sod iils Saint Devy," Arc., with a
French translation by M. Legonidec, in 1837). Breton literature,
however, may now be said to be entirely extinct. All that survives
of the old songs and traditions is being rescued from oblivion, though
tin- publication of some more or less apocryphal pieces oughi not to
be allowed to cast a doubt on the genuine nature of many others.
Breton is spoken in the department of Finistere and in the
western parts of the Cotes-du-Xord and of Morbihan. It com-
prises four dialects, that of Leon being the best known and
seemingly the most important.
The twenty- four inscriptions Ave possess in the old GnuliSh
language were mostly discovered in the region of the Middle
Saone, though some come from the Lower Rhone, from eastern
Normandy, and from other places. Written in Latin characters,
and occasionally in Greek, as, for instance, that of Ximes, these
Gaulish records still remain undeciphered, though they have given
-ion to some really valuable essays, such as that of Pictet : ' f and
others. But we have moreover the names of localities and of other
proper names occurring in the classic writers, all of which together
is more than enough to allow of the old Gaulish being classed
with tic KLymric branch of the Keltic tongues ; hut we shall again
reveri to this subject a little farther on.
The incursion of the Gadatians into Asia Minor, where the\
settled, is an historical event. Bui their speech, which, according
to the old authorities, resembled thai of the inhabitants of
Treves (Lower Moselle), disappeared during the first centuries of
our i r;i. certainbj not later than the fourth.
The Keltie ' ],;r]< what the Teutonic possess,
Leading feature such as tic (regular) interchange of con
sonanl . Bui whilst showing strong affinities as well fco the
Teutonic 1 on the one hand, as to the Italic mi tin- other,
* " : gologiqne," L867, i>. -7-'; Tbid., Alfred Maury, L866, |». 8.
Wilis |< Inscriptions;" aJ o in bhe "Beifcrage max Vet-
gleiohendeu Bprachforschung," ii. p. 100.
248 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. y.
they do not the less present a very striking character of their own.
It would be impossible, perhaps, to define this character very
exactly, hut it is the result of a perfectly definite aggregate. All
the Keltic tongues in the matter of word-formation may he said to
have shown a strong tendency towards contraction. We saw
higher up how French, resting mainly on the Latin toned syllable,
often disregarded the unaccented ones, as in porche from portions,
livrer from liberdre, regie from regula, leur from Riorum. It may
possibly have inherited this tendency from the Keltic-speaking
inhabitants of Gaul, before the vulgar Latin had there become
(what we now call) French. Hence the contracted and condensed
state of the Keltic words themselves might be supposed clue also
to an analogous tendency. But what was the law regulating the
play of accent in the prehistoric or primitive Aryan Keltic 1 Un-
fortunately this is a point that it is now impossible to settle, and
it consequently leaves a wide scope for conjecture.
A glance at the vocalismus of the old Irish readily shows that it
is closely akin to that of the Latin language. Thus the vowel a
of the common Aryan speech frequently becomes e, as in Irish
rrlt — Latin equus = primitive Aryan aJcvas = horse. The diph-
thongs also are contracted, as in Irish fkli = Latin view for veicos
= Aryan vaikas. The final vowels are, moreover, usually sacri-
ficed, as may be seen by these two examples. What we have said
of the old Irish is equally applicable, not only to the other Gaelic
dialects, but also to those of the Kymric branch. Both of these
branches resemble each other very closely in their consonantal
systems also. Thus each in certain cases aspirates the common
Aryan consonants Tc t p. But this is less common in Kymric than
in Gaelic : thus Breton and Welsh have dec for the old Irish deich
(the ch = x) = ten, which in modern Irish becomes deag, the
aspirates being again corrupted to simple explosives.
The Kymric and the Gaelic phonology, again, are distinguished
from each other by a very general and striking characteristic. The
organic 7c of the common Aryan continues in the Gaelic group
(except its occasional change to an aspirate as above), whereas in
the Kymric it becomes j> as a rule. Here are a few examples of
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 249
this important fact: Welsh peduuar, pedwar = four ; Breton peuar,
pevar, where the primitive k has become^, in the Gaelic branch
continuing, as in the Irish eethir (c = Jc) compared with the Latin
quotum and the Lithuanian Icdnri. So with the Welsh pimp, pump
and Breton pemp, compared with the old Irish eoic, modern Irish
I'ui'j and Latin guinque.
This change of k to p is clearly seen in the old Gaulish, and is
one of the reasons for grouping this language with the Kymric.
We know, for instance, that the Latin quvnquefolium = cinquef oil
or "five-fingered grass," was named pempedula, which compare
with the Welsh pump and Breton pemp^&ve, as above; nor is
this an isolated instance.
Irish declension has suffered much, the primitive case-endings
having generally been very seriously corrupted, and occasionally
disappearing altogether, .rendering it difficult to determine at a
glance the case of the noun. [This corruption of the amlaut had
already affected the oldest historical forms of the Irish to such an
extent as to render their comparison with the primitive Aryan
almost impossible without assuming two or three intervening stages,
as thus :
Primitive Form. Prehistoric Form. Oldest Historic Form.
Singular — Nom. ballas balls ball
Acc. Italian balln ball
Dat. ballui or ballu balln baul
Plural— Dat. ballabis ball (a) bis ball (a) ib, &c]
< >M pronominal forms, assuming the force of true articles or
prepo i ime to I"- employed as a remedy for the confusion
thence arising. Tim-- the form athir -. father, has, as it stands, the
force of no particular case, bul intathir becomes the nominative
pater, and sinnathir the accusative /»'//•<///. Declension may be
said to fare still worse in tin- Kymric group, all trace of case-
endings having well-nigh disappeared, whilst the article itself has
e. Thus iii Breton /■<«/> kin-, means at
once /■'.'■. i /' . A-.-., ii,,- article "/' always preceding it: <m
!•■■■: ; "/' /■'" Hence tic- relational value of the
noun is determined solely bj the ai npanying prepositions, just
250 THIRD FOEM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
as in the English: to the man, of the man, from the man, for the
man, beyond which analysis cannot go.
The Gaelic and Kymric conjugation follow essentially the same
system, which is one that presents great difficulties to the learner,
in fact constituting the real obstacle to the acquisition of the
Keltic tongues. And here again, as might be expected, the Kymric
group is much more corrupt than the Gaelic.
It would be an endless task to attempt to specify all the mon-
strous absurdities that have been written concerning the Keltic
languages. Even now, it is by no means rare to hear of Phoenician
and Etruscan being interpreted by Keltic roots, and stdl less rare
to hear of the Basque being explained by Kymric or Irish words.
]Jut of even more frequent occurrence are those theories, cropping
up almost intermittently, which, in spite of all that has been said,
written, and proved, over and over again, respecting the origin of
the Eomance tongues, still insist upon deriving them from Keltic
sources.* This obstinacy of the Keltomanian school is solely due
to its utterly ignoring three essential elements in the calculation —
that is the Keltic, the Latin and the neo-Latin tongues themselves.
All the adherents of this school are etymologists, and etymology is
the essential condition of Keltomania.
Thus the Erench un looks more akin in appearance to the Welsh
and Cornish un, and the Lreton eun than to the Latin unus, hence
the irresistible conclusion of the etymologist that the French un
comes from the Keltic un. Lut nothing can be further from the
point, two important factors being here entirely overlooked. One
is the old form of the French un, the nominative of which in the
eleventh century (when there were two cases) was uns, where the
Keltic un utterly fails to account for the final sibilant s, explained
at once by the Latin vm/us. Again, before speaking of a Keltic un
the Keltomanian has forgotten to compare the Welsh and Cornish un
itself with the Gaelic Sin, and thus reduce them both to some
* But even these visionaries are outdone by Charles Mackay. who has in
some recent numbers of the Athericrum been amusing the public by his in-
genious attempts to explain Shakespeare by means of Irish and the cognate
tongues. — Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 251
common form. But lie does not concern himself -with the scientific
method, he is a pure etymologist, and were he not one, he would
not he a member of the Keltomanian school.
A i the same time, no one pretends to say that the Keltic tongues
have not furnished a certain number of words to the vocabulary of
the neo-Latin languages, though even this is by no means con-
siderable, consisting mainly of geographical terms, such as the
names of the Danube, Alps, and Ardennes. The words Mem, dtme,
alouette, and others, are also of Keltic origin, but only indirectly,
that is, as already explained, by filtering through the Latin.
[The progressof Keltic philology, in the scientific sense, is marked
by the names of Dr. Prichard : "The Eastern Origin of the Celtic
Nations," 1832, in which he, for the first time, sought to prove
the true affinities of the Keltic tongues, with the cognate Sanskrit,
Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Slavonic branches of the Aryan family ;
Adolph Pictet, "De lAffinite des Langues Celtiques avec le
Sanskrit," 1837, a study based mainly on the Irish, and still
valuable ; Bopp, "Die Celtischen Sprachen," 1839, containing
many important discoveries, and forming a sort of supplement to
his Aryan " Comparative Grammar," in which Keltic had not been
included; J. Kaspar Zeuss, "Grammatics Celtica," 1853, a fun-
damental work on Keltic philology, ami an imperishable monument
of the author's -cuius ami industry ; Dr. Hermann Ebel, a disciple
of Zeuss, several important contributions to the study of the
Keltic tongues, contributed to the " Beitrage Zur Vergleichenden
Sprachf orechung, vols. Land \L, passitn ; Dr. Lottner, "Celtisch-
[talisch," also in the " Beitrage," ii. 309; Whitley Stokes, •• Irish
Glosses, a Mediaeval Tract on Irish Declension," including the
"Lorica" of Gildas, Glosses from the "Book of Armagh," &c., edited
for the liidi Arch. Dr. W. K. Sullivan, papers
in the "Atlantis," based on Ebel, and resumed, with valuable
additions, in his " Celtic Studies," 1863; Rev. U. Burke, of Tuam,
. not always sound; and Thomas Stephens, "The
Literature of the K\ nny. ' 1849 and 1876.
In Keltic archaeology, the most distinguished names are
l»r. Petrie, "The Round Towers;" Eugene O'Curry, "The Brehon
252 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Laws;" O'Donovan, Todd, Stokes, Reeves, &c. But in spite of
the labours of all these, and other scholars, the race still nourishes
of the Vallenceys, Pinkertons, Yam, Kennedys, Bethanis,
Maekays, and other "Milesians," who continue to identify the
Kymric and Gaedhelic tongues, nut only with Phoenician, Etruscan,
Basque, and Romance, but even with the Leni Lenape Indians of
]North America, with the Lappish of the sub-arctic regions, the
Ostyaks and Tungus of Siberia, with the Jaloffs of northern, and
the Hottentots of south Africa, and with the English of Shake-
speare. Such is the vitality of national prejudice when fostered
by ignorance !]
§ 7. — Tlte Teutonic Tongues.
The terms German, Germany, Germanic, to explain which several
unsuccessful attempts have been made, do not appear to be of
Teutonic origin, and ought, doubtless, to be replaced by the word
Tudesk (or Teutonic), representing the modern German Deutsch,
the old High German diutisc, and answering to a still older
tliiudisks, an adjective primarily meaning popular, national. Still
the name of Germanic has become too general now to be replaced
by any other ; and the Germans themselves, while protesting against
this term, still speak, somewhat inconsistently, not of the Indo-
Teutonic, but of the Indo-Germanic languages. [But English
philologists having long ago very properly rejected the term
Indo-Germanic for Indo-European, and this latter now mostly
for the simple word Aryan, they are not affected by this argument ;
as they have, moreover, shoAvn a preference for the more correct
Teutonic over the foreign Germanic, Teutonic is retained in this
translation, as the generic term of the race. It would be hopeless
to attempt to revive its modern form Dutch, restricted as this now
exclusively is to one little section of the race, occupying mainly
the delta of the Rhine ; though there are writers who affect to
speak of High Dutch and Low Dutch, instead of High German and
Low German. From these examples it will be seen that while
Teuton and Teutonic are by English use reserved for the whole
people, in the widest sense, German and Germanic are con-
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 253
veniently employed in speaking of any section or subdivision of
them. Hence we say the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family,
but the High German or Low German subdivision of that branch,
and so on. When, as is here the case, convenience and accuracy
can be reconciled, we should be slow to forego the corresponding
advantages, out of deference for foreign usage.]
The Teutonic system is divided into four distinct groups : the
Gothic, Norse, Low German, and High German. But before treat-
ing of these in detail, let us cast a glance at the general system of
all the Teutonic tongues.
Its main feature consists in its peculiar treatment of the organic
Aryan explosives: h, t, p ; g, d, b; gh, dh, bh, which it always
strengthens. The aspirated Aryan explosive thus becomes un-
aspirated, and the soft becomes a strong explosive, while the strong
Aryan explosives become fricatives, k changing to h, /> tot) and t to
the English th hard, as in three, thank. Hence where the Sanskrit,
faithful to the organic explosives, says bhrdtd, the Gothic has
brdfhar, changing the aspirate to a non-aspirate, and the strong to
a fricative. So also the Sanskrit ajras = tbe Greek nypos- and Latin
";/',■, in Gothic becomes akrs = acre, the weak explosive changing to
a strong one.
Nothing is simpler or more uniform than this law. being always
constant except when interrupted by some physiological impediment,
as when an * precedes the explosive that, would have to lie made
strong, in which case it remains unchanged. Thus the Sanskrit
asti and Lithuanian esti answer to the Gothic ist = i&.
This Leading characteristic of the Teutonic system, in its broad
outlines, was in tie- course of ages further developed ami com-
pleted, but it still remained tie- vnv groundwork of the whole
in.
B idea tie- new fricatives,/, h, th, hard ami soft, and z, the old
Teutonic tongue added Little to the common stock of th organic
Aryan consonants. < m the other hand thej Losl the three i
ated i v/', dh, bh, which, as explained, ha\ e I u com erted
into three simple explo i
In their vocalismus the Teutonic tongues are. Less pure, having
254i THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
greatly modified the original Aryan system, and developed a great
wealth of diphthongs. Their old declension, though not so well
preserved as that of most of the other Aryan groups, is still organic
enough in many respects ; hut the conjugation has suffered con-
siderable losses, including nearly all the organic tenses.
(1) Gothic.
But for the generally received practice, we shoidd lie tempted to
discard the li and spell this word more correctly as Gotic, and as the
Goths themselves wrote it. The difference is material, because, as
already remarked, the th of the old Teutonic tongues was a true
fricative, and not a more or less aspirated explosive. The Romans
wrote correctly Goticus, and the Greek liistorians alone are respon-
sible for the vicious spelling Gothic.
Gothic was long supposed to be the common progenitor of all the
Germanic tongues. But this was not the case ; and though as a
whole more correct and more akin to the common Aryan than any
one of them individually, it is still in some respects inferior to its
congeners. It must, in fact, be placed by the side of the old
Icelandic and of the two Low German idioms, also often on the
same level as the old High German, though this last, on one special
point, is far inferior to all the kindred tongues. Doubtless marry
High and Low German forms are explained by the Gothic, but
none of them derive directly from it. In a word, Gothic, Norse,
High and Low German, all descend from one common source,
which none of them now adequately represents.
"When this common Teutonic mother-tongue was spoken is a
question that wdl scarcely ever be settled. The Gotliic we are
acquainted with in the form it had assumed in the fourth century
of our era, in the version of the Old and New Testaments, due to
"Wulfila (a.d. 318-388), the Ulphilas of Greek writers, bishop of the
Goths, settled in Mocsia. It continued to be spoken for five
hundred years thereafter, finally dying out in the ninth centurr.
Its vocalismus is the least complex of all those of the old Teutonic
tongues. We will merely observe that it usually changes the
organic a to e or 6, herein often inferior to the High German idioms.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 255-
The old diphthongs ai, au, also changes it as a rule into ci and 121
respectively.
We have spoken of the general tendency of the Teutonic
tongues to strengthen the explosives of the common Aryan. After
rigorously applying this law. Gothic afterwards further modified
the fricatives thus obtained. Thus at times /1, representing an
older /.-. becomes g ; tit, from an older t, changes to d ; and /, from
an older p, passes into b. This phenomenon is very remarkable,
and the numerous examples of its occurrence have frequently been
wrongly cited as so many exceptions to the general principle of
strengthening the organic explosives. M. Cliavee has given it the
title of "law of polarity," and Ave shall see how the expression may
be justified, when speaking of the Low German tongues, in which
this secondary law may be detected in actual operation. Meanwhile
it will be enough to have noticed its effects on the Gothic language,
where, though less general, it still exists.
The laws of Gothic phonology are important enough without
being very numerous. One of the most characteristic is that in
words of mure than one syllable the vowels a and i preceding
a final consonant disappear. Another important phonetic law
peculiar to Gothic is that which as a rule changes i to ai and u to
au before r and h.
In the nominal declension < rothic has lost all thi dual Tonus, and
. .'. bile nearly all the datives are borrowed from the
vocative. Of the organic conjugation it has retained the present
and theold reduplicate pasl only, the Latter ai least, for a portion of
its verbs; but no vestige remains of the two aorists, the LmperJ
and future. It expresses the future by present forms, and for the
hulk of derivative verbs it has developed a sort of pasl tensi .
Gothic disappeared without leaving any issue, as was the case
my other Teutonic tongue pok naboul the same period —
those, for in tance, of the Vandals, fferuli, and Burgundians, of
m no record 1m\ e survived.
I
The old Noj e jpeech was trail planted to [celand by the
256 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Norwegian settlers ; and in consequence of the slow development of
civilisation in this remote and inaccessible island, it was here able
to maintain itself much more easily than in the other (Scandinavian
countries. In fact the modern Icelandic differs little from that old
tongue : and its superiority over all its European congeners, not
only of the Teutonic, but also of the Slavonic, Keltic, and neo-
Latin groups, would be uncontested but for the existence of the
Lithuanian. The weak point in modern Icelandic is its subjection
to the. already described law affecting the organic explosives, a law,
however, common to all the Teutonic family, and from which it
could not therefore escape.
The old Norse phonology is much more delicate than the Gothic,
embracing some twenty different vowels, long and short, besides
several diphthongs. There are also twenty consonants, including,
besides the sharp and soft explosives, the two fricatives /, h, and
the English th, hard and soft. Norse is, moreover, distinguished
from the other cognate Germanic tongues by a greater tendency to
assimilate its consonants. Its declension, as a rule, is as well pre-
served as in Gothic, and its conjugation has suffered the same
losses. It has developed a futare, a conditional, and a new past
tense by analytical processes.
In Iceland were composed the noblest monuments of old
Norse literature — the two " Eddas," consisting of a collection of
old mythical tales. The first, which is in verse, dates from the
eleventh century ; the second, which is in prose, is more recent,
forming a sort of supplement to the first.
There are four modern Scandinavian tongues : Icelandic, Nor-
wegian, Sviedish, and Danish. According to some writers, Icelandic
alone derives directly from old Norse, the three other Scandinavian
tongues coming from different though nearly related varieties of
that old language. Others, on the contrary, hold that old Norse
is the common parent of all four. In any case the greater affinity
of Icelandic Avith Norwegian, and of Swedish with Danish is un-
questioned. They may thus be divided into two tolerably distinct
groups.* Icelandic and Norwegian, for instance, retain the old
* M. Mobius, " Diinische Formenlehre," p. 2. Kiel, 1871.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 257
diphthongs, which Swedish and Danish change to long vowels :
these last again preserve certain initial consonantal combinations,
lost or only partly pronounced in Icelandic and Norwegian.
Norwegian, whose literature is purely popular, lias lost much
ground, to the advantage of Swedish, which possesses a genuine
literature. Swedish not only occupies a large part of the Scandi-
navian peninsula, lmt is also spread over two tracts of the Finland
roast, one on the Gulf of Bothnia, with Vaza as its central point,
about fifty leagues in length, but very narrow. The other, which
is more important, occupies the western portion of the northern
shores of the Gulf of Finland, with Helsingfors for its central
point. Landwards both of these territories are encircled by
Suomi or Finnish-speaking races.
Swedish may, in a general way, be said to have preserved the
main features of old Norse better than has the Danish. The con-
sonants, k, f, p, for instance, when final, are weakened to g, d, b,
in Danish, while they remain unchanged in Swedish. In fact, of
all the Norse tongues actually spoken, Danish is the most modern
in its forms. It is not only spoken in Denmark but currently
written in Norway, and spoken there by the educated classes,
Norwegian having sunk to the position of a purely vulgar
tongue. Danish is also diffused over the northern portion of
Slesvig, including the city of Flensborg. However, there are
several varieties. Its oldesl records date from the thirteenth
century, lmt its presenl form seems to have grown out of the
Zeeland dialect in tie- sixteenth century. Its vocabulary includes
a number of foreign words, borrowed from Latin, Swedish. French,
and especially < lernian.
(3) '/'/" Low German Ch'oup.
Tin i branch of the Teutonic tongues is splil up into a considerable
number of offshoots. It would seem to have firsl of all given birth
to two distinct varieties, the Saxon and tie- Frisic, the former again
giving rise directly or indirectly to some half-dozen languages, the
s
258 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
whole being usually comprised in some such scheme as the sub-
joined :
Anglo- Saxon — English
/Saxon/ /Low German proper (Platt-Deutsch)
\01d Saxon/ /Dutch
^Frisic Netherlandish^
x Flemish
"We have no direct knowledge of the common primitive Low
German form of speech, any more than of the common primitive
Saxon tongue, whence came the Anglo-Saxon and the old (or
Continental) Saxon. These two last, however, are historic languages,
thoroughly well known.
The Old Saxon was spoken from the Rhine to the Elbe, to the
south of the Frisic, which occupied the extreme north (western)
districts of Germany. Of this old Saxon tongue we possess an
important record in the Christian poem of the Heliand = Healer =
Saviour, extant in two manuscripts of the ninth century.* Anglo-
Saxon (literature) dates from the seventh century, at least in
England, to which period is referred its great epic " The Beowulf."
[But the MS. of this poem in British Museum, Cott. Vitellius, a 15,
is referred by Grein to the tenth century, though it probably
represents the West-Saxon speech of the seventh.] The forms of
these two old Low German languages did not greatly differ, though
presenting certain strongly marked divergences, especially in their
phonology. The old Saxon vowel system is much simpler than
that of the Anglo-Saxon, which is very complex, and its vocalismus
remarkably complete.
Anglo-Saxon is divided into two periods, the first, the Anglo-
* "Heliand: Poema Saxonicum Sseculi noni," Edidit I. Andreas Schrneller,
Monachii, Stuttgartise, Tubinga;, 1830; also, " Glossarium Saxonicum e
poemate Heliand," 1840. — Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. 259
Saxon period proper, reaching to the beginning -of the twelfth
century; the second, a semi-Saxon, to the middle of the thirteenth.
[The term semi-Saxon is now mostly discarded by English philo-
logists, though they have scarcely yet hit upon a convenient
substitute for this transition period. In his history of the English
language, 1861-7-\ the translator has used the term Broken Saxon
for lack of a better.] The first stage of early English is about
equally long, extending from 1250 to about 1350, and with it there
begins a rapid decay of forms (and endings, which, however, had set
in long before). Of the old cases there now remains the genitive
only, which is itself often replaced by relational particles. In the
middle of the fourteenth century begins the middle English period,
which lasts for two hundred years, and during which the process of
disintegration goes on with accelerated speed, so that when the new
era. or modern English period, sets in, about the middle of the
sixteenth century, the language is found to have become almost
entirely analytical. *
* It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that no two authors arc
quite of accord as to the proper distribution of the various stages of the
English language. Some learned and noisy pedants will even insist upon
rejecting the nomenclature by which the old or synthetic is clearly distin-
guished from the modern or analytic state of the language. They will not
hear of the convenient, and in fact almost indispensable, terms Saxon and
Anglo-Saxon, and will have nothing but English and old English for all the
stages of a language that differs much more at its two extremes than does
the modern Italian from classic Latin. The grounds of their violent
opposition to the terms Saxon and Anglo-Saxon are based partly upon a
mistaken national sentiment, partly upon the practice of Alfred, and partly
upon the supposed danger <>f destroying bhe l" to ic continuity of our
ing of its different stages under different names. This last
■nt being the weakest of all, is thai which, as usual, is mosi insisted
Upon. [t 18 as if an Italian Bhould object io lib died liihjuo,
1 • ■ or ,"" Italiana, lest its lineal descent from Latin might bo
therel d. And ye' the Italian bas really far more righl to speak
of liis tongue as Latin than we have to confound the languages of Alfred
and of Shakespeare under one nomenclature, the difference between the
first two being so much less than thai i a between the latter, Or, to
the argument a step farther, it is as it' a French philol u mad
should object to his speech ! oribed as French or Romance, or even
Deo-Latin, and insist upon its being called [ndo*European, bo show it*
a -i
260 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
The English dialects are numerous, but they may all be said to
have reached the same state of grammatical simplicity. They,
however, all of them / in common with the literary standard, retain
enough grammar to show the essentially Teutonic character of the
language. The introduction of a large number of French (and
book-Latin) words into its vocabulary in no way affects its grammar,
as has been supposed and asserted. English is not a mixed tongue,
but thoroughly Teutonic (in its structure), though its accidence has
suffered more than that of any other cognate language.
Returning to the second, or old Saxon branch, we have already
remarked that its vowel system was much simpler than the Anglo-
historical connection with the Aryan inflectional system, and lest it might
be mistaken for some agglutinating or polysynthetic form of speech. Let it
be borne in mind that the two extremes of our language differ materially in
two essential points — their structure and their vocabulary — the one being
largely synthetic and homogeneous, the other being of all non-isolating
languages the most analytical, and of all cultivated tongues the most
heterogeneous in its vocabulary, the Persian, perhaps, alone excepted.
Hence the inconvenience of speaking of the whole historic period under one
name is so great that if two terms did not exist it would be desirable to
invent a second. Alfred's practice is nothing to the point. Whatever he-
called it, the language he spoke and wrote iu was Southern — that is, a West-
Saxon dialect, and nothing else — and hence is now properly called Saxon.
If the term " Englisc " began in his time to be spread southwards, it was
simply due to imitation mainly of Bede, who, being a Northerner and
writing in Latin, properly spoke of his people as Angli, though also in many
places using the term Saxon, even when speaking of all the Teuton
inhabitants of Britain collectively, just as the Englishman Boniface in the
middle of the eighth century spoke of his country as Saxonia transmarina,
in a letter to Pope Zachary. It should be also remembered that the
Northern, or Anglian, dialect was the first to be cultivated, whence the term
Etujlisc, correctly used by the northern writers, came readily to be adopted
in the south when the southern dialect began to be written. But, however
called, the fact remains that nearly the whole of extant Anglo-Saxon
literature is composed in this Southern or West-Saxon dialect, and is there-
fore scientifically not English, or Anglian, at all, but Saxon in the strictest
sense of the word. Thus, then, this term is in every way justified, and will
doubtless hold its ground in spite of all the empty clamour to the contrary.
It has national instinct on its side, which is a more potent factor than false
sentiment, and often quite as correct as the soundest scholarship. — Note by
Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 261
Saxon, possessing far less vowel sounds. The same holds true of
its modern representatives, whose vocalismus is also far less complex
than the English. Of these there are two divisions — the Low
< rerman proper and the Netherlandish.
The Low (ii rman proper, or Piatt Devisch, is the current
speech of the lowlands of north Germany. Eastwards it has en-
croached considerably on the regions Avhere were formerly spoken
Slavonic, and even Lettic idioms, such as old Prussian ami Lithu-
anian. But it has never risen to the position of a cultivated
tongue, all essays made in this direction having been rendered for
ever fruitless by the preponderance of High German.
The Netherlandish, or second branch of the Old Saxon, is divided
into two varieties, closely akin, if not almost identical — the Dutch
and Flemish. The latter is often wrongly regarded as a dialect of
the former. They stand both on the same level, being so nearly
related that they have justly been said to differ in pronunciation
alone. Flemish is still spoken by about 2,500,000 people, and
Dutch approximately by 3,500,000, making altogether about
C.i ii mm ii ii i. including the French Flemings of the Departement du
NorcL
The frontier line between French and Flemish passes in the math
below (Iravelines, Hazel aouck, Courtrai, Halle, Brussels, Louvain,
and Tongres \ in the south above Calais, Saint-Omer, Armentieres,
Tourcoing, Ath, Nivelles, I.; - . and Verviers.
We have so far spoken of one branch only of Low German, that
is the Saxon. The other is immeasurably Less important, compris-
ing the Frisic only, a somewhat ancient variety spoken on the
coast of the North Sea, as well on the mainland as in the Islands
facing it. The Frisians seem to have shrunk from taking part in the
migrations that the other Low German tribes undertook, preferrinj
t'. remain in their native homes, where their speech retained ci i
very old characteristics, in spite of the influence exercised mi it by
the neighbouring Dutch, Danish, and Piatt Deutsch dialects. [This
statement about ih I home " character of the Frisians must
he received wi jerve, there being ■ I grounds ha
pecting ila' existence of a good deal of Frisian blood in almost
262 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
every part of England and the Scotch Lowlands.] Frisic has long
ceased to he cultivated, having heen, like the Piatt Deutsch, com-
pletely overshadowed hy the High German literary standard.*
When speaking higher up of the Gothic tongue, allusion was
made to a Teutonic phonetic principle secondary to the general law
hy which the organic explosives are strengthened, and which
prevails throughout the four "branches of this family. And we
remarked at the time that this new phenomenon is nowhere more
easily to he detected in active operation, than in the various
members of the Low German branch. This statement we shall now
proceed to illustrate.
We know that in virtue of the general principle already ex-
plained, the organic explosives Jc, t, p, became in the Teutonic
system true fricatives, h, tit, f. The new phenomenon Ave now
come to, consists in a further modification of these letters, which at
times became g, d, b, and this in all the Germanic tongues. But
this change was not effected abruptly, there having been an inter-
mediate stage betAveen h and g, th and d, /, and b. And it is here
that the Low German idioms are of such extreme importance,
often, in fact, showing the simultaneous existence of these various
terms of the series. Thanks to them we knoAV that the intermediate
betAveen the sharp fricative and soft explosive Avas the correspond-
ing soft fricative. Thus the transition from / to b is effected by v ;
from h to g hard by a soft h ; from the English th hard to the soft
* The oldest Frisian records extant are some legal documents referred to
about the middle of the thirteenth century. There has recently appeared
an extraordinary work under the title of " The Oera Linda Book, from a
MS. of the thirteenth century. The original Frisian text, accompanied by
an English version of Dr. Ottema's Dutch translation, by W. R. Sandbach,"
London : Triibner and Co., 1876. This MS., its Dutch editor asks us to
believe, is but a copy of an older one still, that being in its turn a copy of
another, and so on back to the original, composed mainly in the year B.C.
559. It purports to give an account of the wanderings and earliest settle-
ments of the Frisian people, but teems with such gross absurdities and
glaring anachronisms, both philological and chronological, that it is not likely
to deceive anyone at all competent to form an opinion as to its authenticity.
As literary forgeries the poems of " The Monk Rowley " were triumphs of
genius compared with this clumsy and impudent fraud.— Note by Translator,.
Chap, y.] THIED FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 263
d by the English th soft, making altogether three successive stages,
which will be made clear by one or two examples. The organic
pronoun ta, by passing from a strong explosive to a sharp fricative,
appears in Gothic as tha (th hard), while in the English article the,
this sharp fricative has become soft, and in the Dutch and Flemish
de we see the evolution fully carried out. Thus also the Dutch
doom answers to the Gothic thaurnus — thorn, voor to faur — iov,
vol = fulls — fall. At the same time the English does not always
stdp at the intermediate letter on the one hand, nor does it on the
other always pass over to that letter, but the frequent occurrence
of th hard showing it still in the first period ; the word just quoted,
thorn, for instance, standing with the Gothic in the first stage,
as compared with the Dutch doom in the third. But this in no
way affects the principle, and a time may be confidently anticipated
when every th in English will have become d, as is already the case
in Dutch and Flemish. A number of English dialects have
already arrived at this third period, as shown by dey for they, de
for the, in Kent and Sussex, and vor for for in the Isle of "Wight,
/ becoming v in the same way in Dorsetshire, Devonshire, and
Somersetshire. The literary standard will, in its turn, have
eventually to suffer the successive modifications that its dialects
are now passing through. [On the other hand, the literary standard
■. and the spread of education, are meantime acting as a most
powerful check against this very tendency, so that the modifications
above spoken of, instead of being further developed, are actually
dying oul in many parts of the country, where a corresponding
t in in favour of the older pronunciation. Tims,
in the lde of Wight, where even the bard th had in some cases
i ov< r to the soft d, such expressions as "dree or war years
common enough some years hack, are now rarely heard,
pi among the extremely old and extremely young. The
School Board here, as elsewhere, show-, itself the implacable enemy
I dialectic variety, and is everywhere effecting changes in the
' ervative interest, thai is. running counter to the tendency
spoken of above. ]
26-4 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chai>. t.
(4) The High German Group.
New High German occupies a wide domain in the very heart
of Europe. In the northern lowlands it is the literary and culti-
vated language of countries where Low German proper is spoken,
and as such it reaches as far as Flenshorg, in South Sleswig.
Towards the north-east it extends almost to the Kussian frontier.
where, however, a narrow Lithuanian strip maintains itself, helow
Memel and Tilsit. A more extensive Polish tract shuts it off from
the frontiers of Poland ; but even here it at least occupies all the
chief places, such as Graudenz, Thorn, Posen, and Oppeln. In-
closing east and west the Tzech or Bohemian territory, and coming
southward by the neighbourhood of Pilsen and Budweis, towards
Briinn, in Moravia, the German frontier reaches Presburg, for some
forty leagues skirting the Magyar territory, and takes in north
Styria (Gratz), north Carinthia (Klagenfurt), the greater part of
Tyrol, and three-fourths of Switzerland. Leaving Belfort on the
west, it returns northwards by the Yosges, as far as Strasburg,
then turns obliquely towards the north-west so as to inclose Thion-
ville and Arlon. Thence extending to Aix-la-Chapelle, it henceforth
folloAvs very closely the Netherlandish frontier. In the Austrian
Empire it is spoken by about 9,000,000, and in Switzerland by nearly
2,000,000.
New High German dates from the sixteenth centurj'. The
Teutonic branch, which it represents, had previously passed
through two stages — the old High German and the middle High
German. With these our survey of the Teutonic tongues must
conclude.
Of High German there are two kinds, the strict grammatical
language, and the current speech that has not conformed to the
common law. These, however, are not two distinct languages, but
one and the same substantially, each containing about ecmal parts
(if the two elements. This, as we shall see, is owing to the fact
that German was developed in the atmosphere of the courts, and
does not therefore represent any particular dialect that has passed
from the vulgar to the literary state.
Cuap. v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 265
The fundamental but extremely simple principle of this gram-
matical style consists in a further strengthening of the organic
explosives. We have seen that the primitive Aryan gh, dh, bh
had become g, <K h, in Gothic, Low German, and Norse. They are
now further strengthened to k, t, p, in High German. Again, the
organic g, d, b, having become k, t, p in the Low German group,
they are in the, same way further strengthened in High German,
/• changing to // (also written Iih and eh), p to /(also written pf or
////). while t, instead of becoming /// fricative, changes to ts written
as ::. The organic explosives, k, t, p, having become h, th, f, in the
Low German idioms, High German retains the h and /, which
were incapable of being further strengthened, while to the /// soft
it applies the law of " polarity," this third series thus reappearing
in Eigh ( rerman as A, d, f.
This is the reason why a German d answers to the English th,
i/i-r, dorn, drei, diinn, standing for the, thorn, three, thin. And
here again, as in all the other cases, English is thus one degree
(sometimes two) purer than German, zcihmer, zcihre, zu, zwei being
in this respect less pure than tame, tear, to, two. Hence the
absurdity of deriving English from High German, from which it
would lie just as reasonable to derive the Gothic itself. They are
two parallel branches, the phenomenon of a further strengthening
of certain consonants rendering German unquestionably inferior to
English
All the High German dialect, have changed to /, z, </. thee?, th, /
of the Low German group \ ami on this account they so far belong
to the strict High German division. Bui the case is differenl with
tic- two other orders of consonants, some only of these idioms
having changed /.■ aid g of the first stage to A, /,-, and /\ b, to/, p.
Thai i- t>. say, some only of them have worked out the principle to
dlesl extent. Whil-t Gothic, foi in tance, says brinnan — to
hum. some High German dialects say, prinnan, and the e con
quently belong to the stricl division; hut others have not
strengthened the &, and the presenl literarj German writes bn
The (lot hie galeiks like, appears in the Btricl old High German as
kilih, lnit the literary language again writes gleich. So also the
26G THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Gothic laivuan = to ken, to know, becomes in the strict High
German chunnan (where rh=h), and in literary German fcennen.
But, as stated, the evolution has been completely worked out in
the case of the dental series.
Old High German comprises three principal dialects, themselves
sul (divided into a number of less important varieties.. The three
main divisions are : The Franhish, Alamanno-Swabian, and Austro-
Bavarian, their literary remains ranging from the seventh to the
eleventh century. The leading feature of these idioms is their
retention of the old vowel endings : nimu = I take ; nimit = he
takes ; nemat = you take. With the twelfth century we shall see
that these vowels began to change to e or disappear altogether.
Old High German had, properly speaking, no national literature ; it
possesses a number of versions of religious works and some
Christian poems, but no genuine Teutonic records.
Middle High German sets in with the twelfth century, when its
literature returns to the old traditions and legends neglected by the
old High German ; but these national subjects are now contem-
plated through the medium of Christian thoughts and conceptions.
This period, which lasts about four hundred years, is the age of the
renowned Minnesingers, Walther von der Vogelweide, Wolfram
von Eschenbach, Mthart, Heinrich von Morungen, Tanhuser.
The chief characteristic of the language of this period is the
absorption in e of the different vowels of the final grammatical
syllables. Thus the old High German gibu now becomes gibe =
I give. The various old High German dialects were also subjected
to tliis law, whilst continuing each to preserve its own individuality
and special character. There was, however, formed a literary and
Court standard, based on the Swabian dialect,* which had no
precedent in the foregoing period.
Two striking facts, says Schleicher, distinguish middle from
modern High German. In the first the radical syllable is some-
times long and sometimes short] in the second it is always long
and accented. Hence accent in modern German determines the
* Schleicher, "Die Deutsche Sprache," 2nd ed. p. 103 and following.
Stuttgart. 1869.
Chap, v.] THIED FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 267
length of the syllable it falls on, that is the radical. The other
point he thus explains : " In old High German we have to do only
with the dialect of whoever happened to he writing. There was
no literary standard in general use, and claiming superiority over
the other dialects. During the period of middle High German a
more general language was developed, that of the Courts. Modem
German is still less a particular dialect than was the middle High
German of the Courts. It is not the speech of any particular
locality, having never been spoken by any community. This is
tin- reason why German is so artificial, and why in its phonology
and formations it is often so unnatural But on the other hand,
from the very fact of its unprovincial character, it accpiires the
power of serving as a bond of union between the various Germanic
branches." — {Op. cit. ibid.)
German can be traced step by step from the time of Luther down
to the presenl day. During this period of three hundred years it
has doubtless undergone many modifications, but it is, in substance,
always one and the same language. We see it taking its rise in
the Chancelleries in the sixteenth century; we see the diplomatic
documents borrowing arbitrarily from the various current forms of
speech, so that German, in a sense, is born on paper. Thanks to
the hitltieiiee of these official deeds, thanks above all to the spread
of Lutheranism, it gradually makes its way, penetrating into the
sanctuary, into the schoolroom, into the courts of justice. The
vulgar idioms yield slowly before it, until at last they find them
banished to the rural districts.
[t must, however, be confessed that the eccentric orthography
with which it was handicapped was not at all calculated to speed
its literary diffusion. There is nothing more arbitrary [excepl the
h and English systems] than this orthography. To lengthen
vowels an // is sometimes placed after bhem, a Letter answering
t', absolutely nothing in the pasi lih- of the word thus dis-
figured; long vowel i d ted bj doubling them, and as
their Length ;- on other ■ denoted \<\ no expedient al all, il
follows that a Long a may be rendered in three differenl ways by
i iple ". by ah, and bj aa, as i the ca e with the three words
268 THIRD FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
zicar, wahr, haar. Again, instead of a simple i, we often meet with
ie, while i alone frequently occurs where historical etymology
would require ie. Lastly, what is no less whimsical, t is often
replaced by th. Many efforts have been made at effecting at least
a partial reform of modern German spelling, and these efforts will
no doubt be renewed, but we can hardly believe they will ever
prove successful.
§ 8. — The Slavonic Languages.
The Slavonic tongues during Medieval times (seventh, eighth,
and ninth centuries) occupied extensive tracts where German alone
is now spoken. .Such were Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Branden-
burg, Saxony, West Bohemia, Lower Austria, the greater part of
Upper Austria, Xorth Styria, and North Caxinthia. Slavonic
tongues were thus spoken in the localities now occupied by Kiel,
Lubeck, Magdeburg, Halle, Leipzig, Baireuth, Linz, Saltzburg,
Gratz, and Vienna.
The Slavonic tongues are generally divided into two principal
groups. But before specifying them, or attempting a general
classification of all the members of this family, it Avill be first
necessary to broach the subject of the old ecclesiastical Slavonic
language.
In the seventh century the Slave races had reached their extreme
western limits, where they found themselves exposed to the
influences of Christianity on the east and south, from the two
central points Constantinople and Borne,* The Bulgarians, Serbes,
and Bussians were visited by the missionaries from Constantinople,
whose triumphs were extremely rapid. With Christianity a regular
liturgy was introduced into the Slavonic language.
The apostleship of the brothers Constantino (Cyrillus) and
Methodius gave a decisive impulse to this movement. Towards the
middle of the ninth century Cyrillus remodelled the Greek alphabel
for the use of the Slaves and Bulgarians, and translated the Gospels
and a number of liturgical pieces, thereafter proceeding with his
* Schafarik, " Gescliichte cler Sudslavischen Lifcteratur," iii. Prague, 1865.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 2(19
brother to the Slaves of Moravia. Methodius, Bishop of Moravia
and Pannonia, outlived his brother, dying in a.d. 885. The gospel
of Ostromir, dating from a.d. 1056, is the oldest manuscript of the
language used by CyriUus and Methodius, and which, on account
of its being employed in the church service, is known as Church
Slavonic, besides being called by some other titles, as we shall
presently sec.
The modification of the I rreei alphabet effected by CyriUus came
to 1)«- called Cyrillian or Cyrillic, and is still in use in an almost
identical form amongst the Russians, Bulgarians, and Serbes [or
at Last such of the latter as belong to the "orthodox" Greek
Church — that is, the Church independent of Rome.] The Runia
nians, though speaking a neo-Latin tongue, had also adopted this
alphabet, but have fortunately since discarded it and returned to
the Roman system, adding a number of more or less conventional
bols for sounds peculiar to their language.
It is to lie hoped that a day may come when Russian literature
also may in its turn give up its traditional alphabet. Without
anticipating the circumstances that may bring about this great and
fruitful change, we may believe that they will not be long deferred,
advantageous as the reform would prove to the civilisation of both
extremities of Europe.
Th- Slaves of the Latin rite made use of another alphabet, also
known as the Glagolitic, tic origin of which is still obscure. Some
have thought that it was the older of the two, hut the most
nd likely opinion now is that it is nothing hut a perver-
ii the Cyrillian. It is supposed to date from the end of the
eleventh century, owing its origin to the desire of the south-western
preserve, by means of incomprehensible characters, a
liturgy that had been condemned by a council, lint however this
:i m!I but proven thai I he I rlagolil ic alphabel has no
other origin than the ( !yrj fcem.*
* This view would nol seem to lie .pi |, ,.,-,.
implied. I' is certain!] not entertained by Miklosich, a great authority on
"l A Iphabet," I lr, Lopi iu remarl a thai,
'•'ill,- Glagolitic i ba ■ '! oi itional alphabet wbioh originally w <
270 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
It is impossible now accurately to determine the geographical
limits of Church Slavonic in the ninth century, and those
who have essayed to clear up this obscure point have not arrived
at the same conclusion. Some think it was spoken in the south-
west of the present Eussia ; others in Moravia, and others again in
the regions of the present Carinthia, Croatia, Slavonia, and Servia ;
while some suppose that it spread over the whole territory between
the Black Sea and the Adriatic. According to~Dobrovsky, whose
opinion must always carry great weight in all questions of Slavonic
philology, it was spoken northwards on the right bank of the
Danube, from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, passing through
Belgrade and southwards as far as Salonika — that is in Servia,
Bulgaria, and Macedonia.
Church Slavonic has entirely disappeared as a spoken idiom, but
survives, as stated, as a liturgical language; not, however, with-
out having undergone some slight changes, due especially to the
influence of the living tongues, in the midst of which it was
employed as a dead language. These changes have been investi-
gated and are well understood, now forming the basis of the two-
fold division into old and modern Church Slavonic. It is the first,
of course, that philologists so frequently avail themselves of in the
study of the Slavonic tongues, although it should not be looked on
as the common source of all of them.
The Slavonic idioms now spoken are the Russian, Rutheman,
Polish, Tsech, Slovalcian, the two Sorbian dialects, Bulgarian,
Servo-Croatian, and Slovenian.
The limits of Russian, northwards and eastwards, are difficult to
determine, as it here comes in contact with the numerous Uralo-
Alta'ie idioms (Samoyede, Wogul, &c), which it is gradually
encroaching on. Towards the Baltic it scarcely touches the coast-
line occupied by the Finnic idioms (Suomi and Esthonian), the
taken from the Greek, but was remodelled in the ninth century and adapted
to Christian literature by the two Slavonic apostles, Cyrillus and Methcdius,
brothers : " 2nd ed. p. 143. The Cyrillian Dr. Lepsios attributes to St.
Clemens, who introduced it soon after the other, about a.d. 900. Ibid., p. 147-
— Note by Translator.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 271
Swedish (at Helsingfors), and the Lettic (Riga, Mitau) ; a little
farther south it comes in contact with Lithuanian. From Grodno
fco about a hundred leagues southwards, and in nearly a straight
line, it is flanked on the west by Polish ; and lastly, on the south it
meets the Ruthenian, of which presently.
These limits, however, comprise the so-called " White Russian "
dialect, spoken by about 3,000,000. to the north of Ruthenian,
to the west of Russian, and east of Lithuanian and Polish, at
Vitebsk, Minsk, Mohilev, but whose literature is insignificant.
Great Russian, or simply Russian, as -written, is not quite the
same as the spoken form, the literary style having borrowed largely
from the Church Slavonic. The oldest Russian monuments, whose
records can be traced to the eleventh century, consist of laics and
narrative poems. Luring the eighteenth century the language was
reduced to uniformity, thanks partly to the famous scholar and man
of letters Lomonosov (1711-66), after which epoch it has shown
signs of an originality and literary vitality that is too seldom
appreciated.
Russian grammar, unfortunately, presents serious difficulties to
the student familiar with the Romance and Teutonic tongues alone.
[ts phonology Is somewhat complex, nor is thesound of the trowels
always the same. Tims, a, in untoned syllables, is somewhat like
e, while e itself is sometimes open and sometimes shut. In un-
toned syllables o is uttered like a, as in kolokol = hell, where the
aeei.ni being on the first, the first o alone retains its force, the others
becoming a : Jcolakal. Moreover, Russian accent itself, like that of
some cognate tongues, is not at all easy ; though well enough known,
its laws are far from all being yet determined.
Russian declension is much the same as that of its congeners, tin-
only pant to be noticed being lie' phonetic laws more or less
peculiar to it. in its conjugation, it is distinguished by the com-
plete loss of two of the old tenses- the aorist and the imperfect
• in Ruthenian, but retained in Servian and I
and trace-: <>f which are to be detected in the oldesl Polish and
Tsech monument . Tie \ are replaced in Russian by a participle :
on dal=he has given (mas.), dala fern., dala neuter, dali plural of
212 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. V.
all genders, a periphrasis which has somewhat the sense of " I am
having given, Ave are having given."
JRuthenian, called also Rusnialc and Little-Russian [and even
S7nall-Mussian\, is not a Russian dialect, though nearer akin to it
than any of the other cognate tongues. It occupies approximately
one-fourth of European Russian, south of a nearly straight line,
passing above Vladimir in Volhynia, Kiev, and Kharkov. In
Austria, it is spread over the greater part of Galicia, skirting
Hungary on the north-east, above the Magyar and Rumanian.
The Russian Ruthenians, including the Cossacks, are about
11,500,000 and those of Austria upwards of 3,000,000, making
a total of over 14,500,000 speaking Little-Russian.
Their literature, like that of the southern Slaves, and like that of
the- Russians themselves, is above all national and traditional. A
.great number of compositions in Ruthenian have within the last
fifty years been published under the titles of popular songs of
Ukrania, national songs of southern Russia, of Galicia, and
Volhynia.
Though diverging little from Russian, Ruthenian still distinctly
differs from it. Thus, it does not convert into liquids all the con-
sonants that may be so treated in Russian, amongst others the
labials p, b, v, m. It changes the older k and r/ to ck and French
j oftener than Russian does ; its accent often differs ; it has lost the
present participle passive retained in Russian, and it possesses
infinitive forms with diminutive meanings. These, with some other
more or less noteworthy peculiarities, have sufficed to cause it to be
treated as a distinct and clearly-marked idiom.
Polish comprises a number of dialects, the whole covering a vast
extent of territory, divided between Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Its eastern frontier extends from Grodno to Jaroslav, partly follow-
ing the course of the Bug ; but its western limits are less distinct,
being daily encroached on in this direction by German, which has
already occupied all the more important localities. In Austria
Polish is restricted to western Galicia, a tract much less in size than
the eastern portion of the same region, occupied, as above stated,
by the Ruthenians. German has gained considerably on the Polish
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 273
domain, its whole eastern territory, even in Russia, being inter-
spersed with. German-speaking communities, some reaching almost
to the gates of Warsaw; nor has Galicia escaped this invasion,
due mainly to the spread eastwards of the German Jews.
The number of Poles in Russia is set down at 4,700,000, in
Prussia at 2,450,000, and in Austria and Hungary at 2,465,000,
making an approximate total of 9,615,000 still speaking Polish.
Its phonology is simple enough, and the alphabet employed by
it may be looked on as one of the most defective. Thus the sound
of <:h (as in church), instead of being denoted by a single symbol,
such as the c Tsech and Croatian, is expressed by the combination
cz, while sz is made to do duty for the Tsech and Croatian s
answering to our sli, and instead of the Croatian or English v it
uses w in the German fashion. Nor are these the only short-
comings of its method of transcription, so that should the pre-
sent efforts at reform prove successful, there will be good grounds
for congratulation.
Besides the rowels a, c, i, o, u, y (somewhat like French v), e
(very like i in sound), 6 (resembling the English oo), there are two
nasal vowels, answering to some extent to the French an and in,
but in certain cases, especially at the end of words, 1 icing uttered
as o and e. In short they correspond to two nasal vowels of the
old Church Slavonic, which seemed to have answered to the French
072 and in. The variations of the Polish consonants, according to
their juxtaposition with certain other consonants, are somewhat
important, as in the ca e of the fricatives, which often undergo such
permutations as to render the origin of the word very obscure.
A< nt is very simple, falling always on the penultimate, except in
foreign word-, whereas in Russian and Ruthenian, as already
remarked, it may fall on any syllable, and we shall see that the
i- the case in Slovenian and Croato-Servian, while in Tsech
and Sorabian it affects the first syllable. Eence Polish La in this
ct clearly ■ hied from its congeners.
Polish literature is at once important and original, dating from
the end of the tenth century, and including a great number of
chroniclers and poei , ome of then as old as the twelfth. It
T
274 THIRD FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. t.
continues still to flourish, and a statement published in connection
with the last Exhibition of Vienna gives three thousand and
upwards as the number of works either printed in Polish or pub-
lished by Poles in foreign tongues during the single year 1871.
The actual limits of Tsech and of SlovaJcian, which is closely
allied to it, are not easy to determine. The region occupied by
them, comprising all Bohemia, except a strip on the west and north,
the greater part of Moravia, and the tract to the south of the Polish
domain, stretches from Pilsen to the Carpathians, for a distance of
about one hundred and fifty leagues, varying in breadth from
twenty-five to fifty. The last official returns estimate the number
of Tsechs, Moravians, and Slovakians at about 6,500,000.
Prom the time of its earliest records, dating from the eighth
century, the Tsech language has undergone serious modifications, a
fact to be attributed to the important political movements of
which Bohemia has been the scene. Nor do we refer merely to
orthographic differences, due to the fact that in the oldest Tsech
documents the Eoman letters were used in their simple state, with-
out being supplemented by the necessary diacritical signs; the
changes alluded to affect the structure itself of the language. The
reform of the Tsech orthographic system, begun some centuries
back, was completed in 1830, by the substitution of the ordinary
Eoman for the medieval Gothic characters, and the finishing stroke
was given to it some twenty years ago, by discarding the Polish and
German w for the Latin v. This reform, so urgently needed in
itself, was of the greatest consequence for the language also, and for
its development and diffusion. Nothing was more uncertain than
the old Tsech writing system, in which one and the same sound was
often denoted in three, four, five, and six different ways. Thus s
was transcribed by z, s, sz, szs, zz, and ss indifferently, k by c, k, q,
ch, ks, ck, and so on. On the other hand, a single Eoman letter
often stood for three or four totally different sounds, so that the
difficulty of correctly settling the old Tsech texts may easily be
conceived, with such a system, or rather utter want of system, as this.
The Tsech vowels, a, e, i, o, u, y (usually pronounced as i) have
all their corresponding long vowels now marked with an oblique
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 275
stroke : d, e, &c. Another Tsech vowel, pronounced ye, has no
diacritical sign to denote its long sound. Tsech also possesses the
vowels r and /, always short in the ordinary dialect, but which may
be long in Slovakian. But the Polish nasal vowels are unknown,
nor have any traces of them been discovered in the oldest texts.
The Tsech vowels are somewhat shifting, being especially affected
by contact with a j (pronounced y), which changes, for instance, to
e and i the following a and e, and to e the preceding a. The
consonantal system is rich, including some liquid dentals, a peculiar
/• answering to the Polish rz, and with the force of the French rj,
besides some fricatives readily affected by contact with certain other
sounds. It has been above stated that in Tsech, the accent falls on
the first syllable of every word. Let us observe, in conclusion, that
the old Tsech conjugation was in a good state of preservation, but
that the modern language, like most of the cognate tongues, has lost
the old imperfect and aorist.
Tsech literature dates, as already stated, from the eighth century,
its first records being the celebrated manuscripts of Kralovdor
rigenhof) and of Zelenohora (Grunberg), discovered in 1817,
and the genuineness of which is now established. They beloi
the transition period from heathendom to Christianity, and are as
important philologically as they are for the study of the old
Bohemian religious myths. There are also several fragments dating
from the tenth century. Down to the epoch of the Hussite war,
:nia, which had struck the first note of religions freedom,
p ,1 the mo8l important of all the Slavonic literatures. When
it Eel] under German rale, its national speech was rigorously
sribed, whoever attempted to restore it td its pristine honour,
becoming the victims of the Jesuits. [TheTe seems here to he a
trifling anachronism, Bohemia having hern finally broughl within
the German political system on the conclusion of the Bussite
. in l 137 ; thai is to a century before the
foundation <>f the order of the ■■ bj Loyola, 1 1 '. » 1 L556.]
is nol till towards the end of the lasi centurj thai Bohemian
rs were again r.-vi\
The- Serbian, or Bordbian, called also Wendic, or l/ueatian
r 2
276 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
comprises two distinct varieties, High and Loio Sorbian [or, according
to some Sorbian writers, High Lusatian and Wendic]. Its whole
territory is now reduced to about twenty-five leagues by twelve,
watered by the Spree, two-thirds in Prussia, and the rest on the
south in Saxony, its most important points (Kottbus, Bautzen)
being already absorbed by the surrounding German. A tract of
about twelve leagues separates the Sorbian frontier southwards from
the northern Tsech frontier. About the middle of the sixteenth
century the Lusatian territory was twice as extensive as at present,
and it is being still constantly encroached on from the north, west,
and east by the German, so that it now contains scarcely more than
a popidation of 130,000 speaking Slave dialects.
The oldest printed Wendic document is a book of Catholic
devotion, published in 1512. During the seventeenth century there
were a number of works written in Sorbian, but at the beginning of
the ninteenth this literature was almost entirely extinct. Attempts
were later on made to revive it, and in 1845 a society was formed,
around which the literary life of the country has rallied.
The Servian, or Croatia?!, or better still, the Servo-Croatian, with
its two great intellectual centres, Belgrade and Agram, or Zagreb,
occupies a considerable position not only amongst the south
Slavonic, but amongst the Slavonic tongues generally, a position it
is entitled to on the threefold ground of its history, philology, and
geography. It is spread over the principality of Servia, Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Montenegro, a portion of south Hungary (Zombor), Sla-
vonia, Croatia, nearly the whole of Istria and Dalmatia, a region
embracing altogether a popidation of about 6,000,000. In such
a wide domain the dialectic varieties are naturally somewhat
numerous ; they may, however, be grouped in three main divisions —
the western, less cultivated than the others; the southern, mostly in
Dalmatia ; and the eastern, in Servia and south Hungary, on the
banks of the Danube. The leading feature of these three varieties
is the different pronunciation of a vowel, which was originally
undoubtedly an e. In Belgrade, south Hungary, and Sirmia it
still retains this sound, but in the Avestern dialect it becomes i, and
in the southern je or ije (pronounced ye or iye). But whether you
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. -77
say vera, vira, or vijcra = heliei ; reha, rika, or rijeka = river, you
will be readily understood from the Adriatic to the Rumanian
frontier. The Croato-Servian language is unfortunately burdened
with a twofold writing system, in the east the Cyrillian, in the
west the Latin alphabet, supplemented with some accessory symbols.
This much-to-be-regretted discrepancy is the result of the old
religious schism, and must for a long time delay the union that
European civilisation has so much interest in seeing effected between
the Serbes of Turkey and the triple Dalmato-Croato-Slavonian
territory. Xot that an important step had not already been made
in this direction at the beginning of this century, notably by the
sort of unification and codification effected by the celebrated Vouk
Stephanovich Karajich for the languages of the Servian principality
and of south Hungary.
When Vouk undertook the work he was enabled so successfully
to carry out, the Servian tongue could scarcely be said to have yet
been settL 1. Most of the literary class considered as their national
speech a somewhat artificial idiom formed of old Church Slavonic
elements blended with those of the really living and current tongue.
The latter was otherwise treated by them as merely a vulgar patois.
Vouk, however, proposed to adopt this national speech, such as it
was, and to radically reform its orthography. The struggle Lasted
for half a century, but he succeeded in the end, thanks bo his
perfect knowledge of the Servo-Croatian tongue, as well as to the
accuracy and scientific character of his labours.
The essence of the Servo-Croatian literature is the ballad, or
national song, the P , Pisma, or Pjesma. A great number of
these pieces have been collected and published. Many are un-
doubtedly very old, and the very form in which they still exist
shows how little the language has been changed during the cur-,'
of centuries. Bui whilsl its grammar has remained intact, the
; tally of the eastern varii Lmitti -1 far to,.
a Qumber of Turkish words, to which musl be added the
inroad of German and French terms into the current scientific and
i ech.
uid the Slavonic countries belonging to the eastern rite
278 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
have had a special literary development, which, if little known, is
not unimportant in itself. It dates at least from the beginning of
the thirteenth century, although the documents belonging to this
early period are of but little intrinsic worth. Before this time, and
at most before the twelfth century, there are no records of the
Servian tongue beyond a series of words, and of proper names
occurring mainly in the Greek and Latin writers.
The written monuments of the western Servo-Croatian territory
date from the twelfth century, but the choice literature of Ragusi
was not developed till the sixteenth. Nor was it till the 4 end of
the same century that the local Croatian literature begins, a
literature that at present occupies such an important position in the
domain of historical criticism and the science of language.
The special study of the Servo-Croatian tongue is of the greatest
importance in the general study of the Slavonic group, ranking
perhaps in this respect next to the Church Slavonic itself. In fact,
of all the members of this family, the' Servo-Croatian and the
Slovenian are those that have least suffered in their phonology, and
as we have already seen, it is precisely phonology that forms the
groundwork of all philological studies. The Slavonic comparative
grammar of Miklosich,* a fundamental work for the study of the
idioms of this group, at every step supplies the most striking proofs
of the vast importance of Servo-Croatian, and the perusal of the
excellent works of Danichich, Jagich, and JSTovakovich must
remove the last doubts that could be possibly entertained on the
subject.
Servian phonology, which is by no means complex, comprises
six vowels, a, e, i, o, u, and r ; and its consonantal system is no less
simple, nearly all the sounds possessing English equivalents, with
the notable exception of the two liquid palatals 6 and gj. The
c has the force of t followed by the Scotch ch, and gj that of an
analogous d. The Servian accent is very difficult for a foreigner.
There are usually reckoned four kinds of accent, which, however,
ought to be reduced to two, a strong and weak, each both long and
short. Servo-Croatian also has a great advantage over most of its
* " Vergleichende Gram, cler Slavischen Sprache." Vienna, 1852.
Chap, v.] THIED FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 279
congeners, in the retention of the organic aorist and imperfect, bih
=fui, bijah = eram; besides possessing a perfect, formed by means
of a participle : sam bio, smo bih' — I have been, we have been.
Slovenian, spoken by upwards of 1,200,000 persons in south
Carinthia and south Styria, Carniola, and a part of north Istria,
is near akin to the Servo-Croatian, and partakes of its important
philological position. Its written literature dates from the middle
of the sixteenth century, and though not lacking in merit, was
doubtless prevented from acquiring a brilliant future by the
preponderance of Servo-Croatian letters. The Protestant works
printed at Tubingen are the most important monument of
Slovenian literature in the sixteenth century. During the two
following centuries it was ably represented by some eminent
writers. Murko and Kopitar shed a lustre on their epoch, though
the latter wrote in German, an example followed by his fellow-
countryman and pupil Miklosich, whose works place hhn in the
foremost rank of scientific writers of Slavonic race.
Bulgarian occupies the greater part of European Turkey, north-
wards following the course of the Danube from "Widdin to
Silistria, and even beyond that point westwards, confining with
Albania, southwards being separated from the iEgean and Sea of
Marmora only by some narrow strips along the coast, where Greek
and Turkish are spoken, and eastwards at several points reaching
the Black I sharing with Turkish the extreme north-east
corner of the empire. The number of those Bpeaking Bulgarian
will easily amount to G, 000,000, if we include those settled in
western Russia and in Bessarabia, ceded to Rumania by the
i of Paris.
Of all the Slavonic tongues, modem Bulgarian is the most
pt. In common with Rumanian and Albanian, it has the
peculiarity of suffixing the article to the end of the word [ta
bulary also lias been greatly affected by the influence of the
neighbouring tongues — Turkish, Greek, Albanian, and Rumanian,
However, notwithstanding the alteration of its forms, Bulgarian
retains some traces of the old Slavonic nasals that have entirely
disappeared from it- other southern con
280 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Bulgarian literature is quite recent ; the few original Bulgarian
writers until the middle of this century employing either Bussian or
the old liturgical language, largely mixed with Bussian. Latterly
education has spread among the rising generation, which possesses
periodicals and a literature daily on the increase. The obstacles
thrown by the Turks in the way of the development of the
European nationalities in Turkey, unfortunately compel the Bul-
garians to study abroad, and there publish then works. A literary
society, already occupying a position of some influence, has lately
been founded at Braila, in Bumania.
We may conclude this notice by mentioning the old dialects of
the Elbe Slavonians, known by the name of Polabish, idioms now
extinct, and whose scanty records, greatly affected by German
influence, date from the seventeenth and beginning of the
eighteenth century.
Beference has already been made to the great importance of the
Church Slavonic for the study of the other members of this
family. Still it would be in vain to expect to find in the grammar
of this tongue a very faithful reflex of the primitive Aryan
speech. Its phonology is subject to far more serious modifications
than is that either of Lithuanian or Greek. Its vocalismus is not
certainly very complex, although the frequent nasalisation of
certain sounds is an infallible proof of decay, while the final
vowels are greatly affected by certain very uniform laws. On the
other hand, its consonants are subjected to laws of attraction and
assimilation both very numerous and very delicate; nor, indeed, is this
one of the least difficulties presented by the study of the Slavonic
tongues. To a series of rather complex phonetic laws must also be
added the multiplicity of the consonants. The Slavonic tongues,
above all others, may be said to require a careful study of the
phonetic elements of speech and of the rides regidating then-
recurrence. Doubtless the conjugation is relatively simple, but the
declension has only too frequently departed from the formula of
the common Aryan tongue, while the intricacy of the phonetic
laws often presented by the clash of the theme with the endings
enhances the difficulty not a little.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 281
A rapid glance at the grammar of this old language will at the
same time give us an insight into the general structure of all the
Slavonic tongues.
Church Slavonic has the vowels a, e, i, o, u, y (probably
French a), a shut e, sometimes pronounced as ya ; further, an i and
a a semi-mute ; and, lastly, two nasals, answering in sound to the
French in, on.
The organic Aryan diphthongs have disappeared, or rather have
been contracted to single vowels, and the hiatus is usually avoided
either by an intercalated j (the English semi-vowel y) or by a r,
both purely euphonic, and both occurring also at the beginning of
words formerly commencing with a vowel. Thus the common
Aryan astasi, the Sanskrit stha, the Greek eare, the Latin estis, the
Lithuanian esie, becomes jeste in Church Slavonic; and this
" preiotation," as it is technically called, is a leading feature of all
the Slavonic tongues, as in the Tsech and Serbian jeste, whence
ste.
Coining to the consonants^ Church Slavonic, together with all
its congeners, has changed to the simple explosives g, d, b, the
Aryan aspirates*//,, dh, bJi. On the other hand there have been
developed a number of fricatives, such as sh, z, and the French/,
all unknown to the common Aryan, while the influence of strict
phonetic laws has often changed the organic k to ch, transcribed l»y
the sign c. The various forms of assimilation have also acqub
great development, so much so that the study of the Slavonic
tongues must aecessarily be preceded by at least a rapid inquiry
into their various laws of assimilation assimilation, complete 01
partial, of consonants with the preceding or the lull. .win- letter,
and so on. For wanl of al leas! some genera] notion of these laws
the most mistaken ideas are apt to be formed on word formation.
The principle regulating the suppree ion of final consonants is
al ' great importance. In Church Slavonic all final con onants
musl b L
p, ; ;. the ordinary nominal. declension, including adjectives,
participli . numerals, and ome pronouns, and the pronominal
declension proper, < Ihurch Slavonic po i died compound
282 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
declension, peculiar to the Lithuanian also, and (with a fresh
element) to the Teutonic tongues. It is composed of the ordinary
adjectival forms, to which is added the pronoun i, also declined.
Adjectives, as a rule, admit of both declensions, the normal and
the compound, their employment being a question of syntax ;
when inflected by the compound declension, the adjective is said to
be definite, and has the meaning of the Greek or German adjective
preceded by the article. All the Slavonic tongues possess this
compound declension ; thus the Servian says vast visoJc = a lofty
oak ; vlsoTil rast = the lofty oak.
Church Slavonic has retained in its conjugation the three
common Aryan numbers, singular, dual, and plural, but the dual
has disappeared from the Servo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Euthenian, and
Russian. Of the four simple organic tenses, Church Slavonic has
lost the reduplicate perfect (the Greek XeXoma) and the imperfect,
but has retained nearly all the various forms of the present and
aorist. It has also, at least in part, preserved the two primitive
compound tenses, future and aorist, whilst further developing
a compound imperfect.
Of all Slavonic tongues still spoken the Servo-Croatian and the
Slovenian, closely akin to it, possess the clearest and simplest
phonology. Not that we do not here also meet with the
numerous euphonic laws affecting consonants in juxtaposition, and
above mentioned in connection with Church Slavonic. On the
contrary, they exist here also, and are quite as exacting as in any
other member of the family ; but the phonetic element itself is
much less complex in Servian than elsewhere, besides which its
pronunciation offers no difficulty, while in this respect Polish and
Tsech present formidable obstacles. As for Bulgarian, the changes
it has undergone in the lapse of centuries ' have rendered it the
most corrupt of all Slavonic tongues.
The classification of these idioms has given rise to serious con-
troversies, which can scarcely be said to have yet been settled.
Church Slavonic was at first looked on as the common source of all
the others, whence the name of Palaio-Slave or Old Slavonic, even
still occasionally applied to it. !Nb one, however, at present
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 283
engaged in the study of the Slavonic group dreams of upholding
this theory. But after setting aside the pretended paternity of
Church Slavonic, the cpiestion arose whether it should be placed on
the same level as its congeners, and assume that all had alike
sprung from a more primitive but now lost common type 1 With-
out stopping at this hypothesis, Dobrovsky and Schafarik divided
the Slavonic idioms into two principal brandies : the western,
comprising Polish, Tsech, Lusatian, old Polabish ; and the eastern,
including all the rest. At first Schleicher proposed some objections
against this distribution, but ended by adopting it, and his view of
the matter may be conveniently summed up in the subjoined
scheme :
! Ancient and modern Bulgarian
01 \ Servian
Servo-Slavonian >
( Slovenian
Branch ) Eas tern Slavonic \ Great Russian
Primitive ] ^ ( Little Russian
Slavonic ^ fTsech
Western \p n s h
Branch j Sorbian
(^Polabish
Schleicher may be said to base this division on one solitary fact.
In the first group d and I before n or / are suppressed, while they
.are retained in the second. Thus, for instance, the Tsech oradlo =
a tool or instrument, is more correct than the Church Slavonic
oralo, and than tie- Servo-< Jroatian rdlo. 1 lanitchitch dues m>t accepl
the force <>f this argument, and shows that this d and / at limes
disappear in "Id and modem Tsech also, as well as in Polish and
Sorbian, at tie- same time proving that they wen- nut always sup-
pressed, in Church Slavonic and Servo-Croatian. While Schleicher
looks on Church Slavonic as the old form of the modern Bulgarian,
^r i \- i 1 1 _r it tie- name "f ancient Bulgarian, Miklosich thinks that the
old language La now represented by Slo'v >nian, as well as by
Bulgarian, and calls it ancient Slovenian. This theory waa warml]
• bleicher, who, in ouropini triumphantly proved "ii
phonetic grounds that tie- presenl Slovenian could aol derive from
Church Slavonic, and that, on the other hand, the Servo-Croatian
284
THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
and Slovenian ought to be grouped together, an opinion also shared
in by Schafarik.* Danitchitch also has recently, on purely phonetic
grounds, broached a very ingenious classification of the Slavonic
tongues. His essay being written in Servian is unfortunately
accessible to but few readers ; but his conclusions may be resumed
as under :
Primitive Slavonic
( Polish with Polabish
( Tsech with Sorbian
Ruthenian
Russian
j Bulgarian
( Slovenian
Servo-Croatian
J
Church Slavonic
Several other classifications have been proposed, and we have
doubtless not yet seen the last of them. Meanwhile, to the two
preceding schemes, we may add the following, which a number of
authorities seem disposed to accept as final :
j Russian
\ Ruthenian
( White Russian
Church Slavonic
Bulgarian
J Servo-Croatian
South-Eastern
Branch
' Russian
Bulgarian
Primitive Slavonic
Western Branch
Servo-Slovenian \
( Slovenian
S Tsech and Slovakian
Polish
Sorbian of Lusatia
Polabish
The question, if the truth must be spoken, still seems obscure,
and the only points definitely settled appear to be the purity of
the Servo-Croatian forms, and the great corruption of Bulgarian.
But as to the more or less intimate degrees of kinship existing
between the various groups, as to the more or less intermediate
common forms that may have at some time existed, as, for instance,
* Schleicher, " 1st das Altkirchenslawische Altslowenich ? "
zur Vergl. Sprachforschung," i. p. 319.
Beitr'age
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 285
a common Tsecho-Polono-Sorbian, Ave can say nothing, or at least
nothing positive. The future may possibly confirm in part, if not
wholly, conclusions already arrived at. Possibly also the day may
come when all these Slavonic tongues will come to be looked on as
merely a series of so many collateral varieties springing directly
from some common source, always, most probably, excepting modern
Bulgarian, as deriving from Church Slavonic. Doubtless this
would not prevent Ruthenian from resembling Russian more than
it does Slovenian or Sorbian, or Polish from being more akin to
Tsech than it is either to Bulgarian or Ruthenian. But in the
absence of historic records all classifications of this sort should be
received with great reserve. And this is no less applicable to the
great linguistic classifications, than to more special distributions,
such, amongst others, as those of the Slavonic tongues.
§ 9. — The Lettlc Group.
On the south-east coast of the Baltic, in the Russian provinces
of Courland and Covno, and in the extreme north-east of the
German province of eastern Prussia, there still survives a little
group of Arj'an tongues, hemmed in on the west by German, on the
south by Polish and Russian, on the east also by Russian, on the
north by the Dralo-Altaic idiom, Esthonian. This group, which
must eventually disappear before the Russian and German, is called
the Letfic, and was formerly represented by three branches: Old
/', sian, Lithuanian, and Lettish ; bu1 .-it present by the last two
only, Prussian having « 1 i * -* 1 out two hundred years ago.
< >f all the Aryan tongues, the members of this group are those
which in Europe adhere most faithfully to the primitive Aryan
type. Our attention must be devoted more particularly to the
Lithuanian, which i- in truth the most important member of tho
group.
(1) Lithuanian,
Spoken in Germany by from 150,000 to 200,000 persons, in a
1 1-' -if i iliirt j to thirl in length, and occupying I he
me north-eastern frontier of I'm ia, but even here in the rural
2S6 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap, vj
districts only, having disappeared from all the important localities,
such as Memel and Tilsit.
The Lithuanian territory in Russia is much more compact, and
those occupying it are estimated at 1,300,000, approximately.
Without quite reaching Grodno southwards, and "Wilna eastwards,
it is limited on the north by the Lettish, of which we shall have
presently to speak. This northern Lithuanian frontier stretches
in nearly a straight line for a distance of upwards of ninety leagues,
the most important place within the Lithuanian-speaking district
being the little town of Covno.
Schleicher had divided Lithuanian into two dialects, Low Lithu-
anian, or Jemaltic, and High Lithuanian, which, however, did not
correspond with the political distribution of the Lithuanians into
Russians and Germans ; the Low Lithuanian being spoken in the
north, both in Prussia and in Eussia, while High Lithuanian
occupies both countries southwards. According to Schleicher,
the difference between the two varieties consisted mainly in the
fact that the combinations tl, di, retained before vowels in Jemaitic,
were changed in High Lithuanian to cli and j ; the transition,
however, being very gradual from one to the other.* This two-
fold division has been warmly assailed ; amongst others by Kurschat,
who, while admitting that in Prussia, in the neighbourhood of
Memel, the sounds ch and j do not occur, believes that the division
cannot be supported by a sufficient number of undisputed facts.
The language of the vicinity of Memel may doubtless present some
peculiarities, but not enough to constitute it a true dialect, f
The Lithuanian vowel system is very simple, and, next to
Sanskrit and the old Iranian tongues, may be said to approach
nearest to the common Aryan primitive type. Instead of an or-
ganic a, it sometimes has a long o, as in moters = Sanskrit rad-
taras — Greek fx-qrepes = mothers. But a more serious change is
that of long to short vowels at the end of words. As regards the
consonants we may note, amongst other deviations, the substitution
* " Handbucb der Litauiscbeu Spracbe," i. p. 4. Prague, 1856.
t " Worterbucb der Litauiscben Spraebe," first part, p. viii. Halle, 1870.
Chap, v.] THIRD FOKM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 287
of the simple unaspirated for the primitive aspirated explosives,
the Sanskrit gh, dk, hh, hecoming g, d, b. Lithuanian, liko the
Slavonic group and Zend, possesses the French/, -which it often
substitutes for g, or for the organic gh. It is transcribed by a ::,
with a dot over it. Lastly, by its retention of the sibilant s,
Lithuanian shows itself superior to Sanskrit, and to nearly all the
other Aryan tongues, -which generally replace it by a series of new
fricatives.
The Lithuanian declension has been perfectly preserved ; it
retains the dual forms, and its case-endings are nearly always a
faithful reflex of the organic terminations. Lastly, in the conju-
gation it retains the present and future forms, but having lost the
four other organic tenses denoting past time, it has developed a new-
perfect and an imperfect. The first, as a rule, is distinguished
from the present by separate endings, while the second is a com-
pound tense, formed by the root and the past tense of the verb
to do.
Lithuanian accent is extremely difficult, nor is it much better
understood than is that of certain Slavonic tongues. Its orthography
is not yet reduced to conformity, several systems prevailing, some
of which are more phonetic, and others rather etymological. Each
has doubtless its special advantages, rendering a reconciliation all
the more dillicult.
Lithuanian possesses an important literary monument in the
poem of "Th " by Donalitius, in three thousand lines,
published by Rhesa, with a German translation, in 1818; by
Schleicher, at St. Petersburg, in L865, and by Nesselmann, in
1 3 19. Donalitius (1711 80) besides "The Seasons,'' composed s e
other poetic pi of which are extant, the whole <
tuting oearly all the Lithuanian literature we possess. A number
of national Bongs, known as " dainas," besides some proverbs and
t.,i, m prose, have also been collected, supplying altogether
sufficient materiah forthestudy of this valuable language, which,
though i1 numbered, beverbe remembered a one of
the most remarkable instances of the vitality of human peei h.
288 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
(2) Lettish.
The number of those speaking Lettish is estimated at about
1,000,000, more or less. The northern Lithuanian frontier forms
its southern limits ; eastwards it confines on the Eussian, and on
the north with the Uralo- Altaic Esthonian. It occupies the north
of Courland, the south of Livonia, and the west of the province
of Vitebsk, and its chief centres are Riga and Mitau.
The Lettish grammar is essentially the same as the Lithuanian,
and need not therefore further occupy us. It may, however, be
remarked that its grammatical forms are, as a ride, not so well
preserved as those of its congener, from which Lettish is certainly
not derived, though its main features are less correct and more
modern. Like many other languages that possess no other
literature, Lettish boasts of a certain number of national songs.
(3) Old Prussian,
"Which disappeared about two hundred years ago, occupied the
shores of the Baltic from the mouth of the Vistula to that of the
Memen. After the conquest of all the old Prussian territory by the
Germans, the natives were compelled gradually to give way before
feudalism and Christianity, which overspread the country in the
thirteenth century, having had recourse to the most violent and
unscrupulous means to effect their purpose.
In 1561 the German catechism was translated into Prussian,
and this work now forms one of the most important monuments
for the study of the language, of which, however, it is not the
oldest record. ISTesselmann published some few years since a
German-Prussian lexicon, containing rather more than eight hundred
words, dating from the beginning of the fifteenth century.
Less incorrect than modern Lettish often is, old Prussian inclines
more to the Lithuanian. Its forms are perhaps less antique,
though at times by far surpassing its congener in this respect.
Thus the old Prussian nevints = ninth, becomes in Lithuanian
devinats, the organic nasal being here changed to d.
The Lettic group is doubtless nearly connected with the Slavonic,
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 289
and it is generally supposed that at some remote period both groups
were united in one common type, -whence they subsequently
diverged. Our view of this theory will be given a little farther
on ; meantime the fact of their great resemblance cannot be gain-
said. It is so striking that many have been deceived by it to the
extent of classifying the Lettic tongues with the Slavonic. This,
however, involves a fundamental error, for however akin they may
be to each other, the two groups are no less essentially distinct
than are, for instance, the Sanskrit and the Iranic.
§ 10. — Unclassified Aryan Tongues.
The greater part of the Aryan tongues, both living and dead,
have been by one writer or another compared, grouped, and
classified with one or another language of the same family. In
fact, the tendency has always been towards premature classifications,
though too great haste in this respect is generally more injurious
than profitable, it being in our opinion better not to class at all
than to do so on too slight or insufficient grounds. Bopp himself
was no1 proof against the temptation, having at one time essayed
to include the Caucasian and the Malayo-Polynesian groups with
the Aryan family. The attempt of course proved a failure, but it
helped to show how hard it La even for the soundest and most
critical minds to avoid at times yielding to the love of such
generalisations.
When treating in our fourth chapter of the agglutinating tongues,
we may possibly have separated certain groups which may yet he
shown to he related. Still we did aot hesitate meantime to keep
them apart, in the belief that a certain reserve is frequently prm.i'
of a sound judgment, while ra one bul too often merely betrays
,-i lack of scientific method.
At the same time if is quite possible for a given language to bo
ii to belong in a general way to such and such a family,
though we may be unable perhaps to det< rmine its particular place
in thai family ; thai i , to poinl out the special group with which if.
ought to be included, or yel to assert confidently that it. Eon
Bpecial divi i >n of ii own within the family.
u
290 THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Such is the case with several Aryan tongues, living and dead,
as, for instance, Etruscan and Albanian, and we shall here devote
a few words to some of these unclassified tongues.
(1) Etruscan.
Pew languages have tested the sagacity of linguists to the same
extent that Etruscan has, and few have at the same time more
readily lent themselves to the most contradictory and unscientific
theories. So early as the fifteenth century it was already derived
from Hebrew or Chaldee, while some writers even now assign a
Semitic origin to it in a general way, if they do not connect it
directly with Hebrew. But with Lanzi originated the now generally
received opinion that Etruscan is an Italic language in the same
sense that Latin, Oscan, and Umbrian are. His famous work
appeared in 1789, but it unfortunately necessarily lacked the
scientific process, at the time of its composition Aryan comparative
grammar not having been yet established. Nor had Lanzi the
opportunity of consulting the numerous inscriptions since dis-
covered, and which now supply abundant materials for the study
of Etruscan.
Corssen has essayed to resume, in a very important work, the
results so far arrived at by those writers that have treated this
subject on sound principles, and amongst them he has himself
secured a distinguished position.* Etruscan would seem to be
decidedly an Italic language, akin to Latin, Oscan, and Umbrian.
The forms of all the cases, besides a certain number of verbal and
pronominal formations, seem to have been already recognised.
Nearly all the Etruscan inscriptions are sepulchral, some being
bilingual (Latin and Etruscan), found mostly in the north of
Etruria, and these, as may well be supposed, have been of the
greatest service in deciphering the language.
The Etruscan alphabet forms, with the Umbrian and Oscan, a
branch of the Italic alphabet already spoken of. HoAvever, it is
divided into several distinct classes, which are successively examined
* " Uebcr die Spracke der Etruskcr," i. Leipzig, 1874.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 291
by Corssen in the -work above referred to. The reader may also
consult the writings of Conestabile, which have proved a valuable
contribution to the progress of Etruscan epigraphy.*
As regards the language itself, if it is eventually to be classed
with the Italic idioms, side by side with Latin, Oscan, and Um-
brian, we for our part do not, at all events, believe that the time
has yet come for doing so, though it may possibly not be far
distant. Doubtless it would be hard to say what Etruscan is, if
its right to membership with the Italic group be denied. But that
is not the rpiestion, for it might still be looked on as simply an
Aryan tongue, without forthwith identifying it with the Italic
idioms. But in truth, whether it be altogether independent, or
belong to some other connection, or is after all akin to the Latin,
are points that still remain to be settled. Meantime there is
nothing to prevent us from holding this last hypothesis as at least
probable enough, though not yet absolutely proven.
(2) Darl 1 1 a.
The old Dacian, limited southwards by the Danube, on the north-
east by the Dniester, and on the north-west by the Theiss, com-
prised the regions now forming the Hungarian circle beyond the
-. Transylvania, Bucovina, the Banat of Temes, Wallachia,
Moldavia, and Bessarabia.
Of the Dacian language there have survived but scanty frag-
ments — a few names of plants quoted by the physician Dioscorides,
and a number of geographical terms, all of which have undoubtedly
an Aryan aspect. Thus propedula recalls the Gaulish form
pempedida = cinquef oil But whether Dacian was Keltic, Teutonic,
or Slavonic, or belonged other Aryan group, or constitutes
of itself a distinct and independent branch of the Aryan family,
which in the present state of our knowledge it is
impossible to answer.
The Rumanian writer Eajden, who Lb al pre 1 in a
■ national historical work, fearlessly interprets all the Dacian
iphical ii irring in Ptolemy, Strabo, and the table of
• " [Bcrizioni i. L868.
i 2
292 THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Peutinger. ' !Nay more, he fancies he has lighted upon the old
Dacian alphabet, in an alphabet surviving till the last century
amongst the Szeklers of Transylvania. But he has altogether
overlooked the preliminary question, to what group of languages
Dacian may belong.
(3) The Aryan Languages of Asia Minor.
That a large number of these idioms were Aryan seems now
placed beyond doubt,* and this is unquestionably the case with
Phrygian and Lycian. We possess a tolerably large number of
Lycian inscriptions, some of which bilingual, in Greek and Lycian,
a circumstance which wdl doubtless greatly facilitate the attempts
made at deciphering this language. Its alphabet also may be said
to be already all t but definitely settled. Of Phrygian also we have
some inscriptions found in Phrygia itself, besides a series of words
occurring in the classic writers. The number of these words is
considerable, and as their meaning is clearly determined in the
passages where they occur, they may serve as a groundwork for the
study of Phrygian. Nor need their transcription be assumed to be
radically faulty, though doubtless more or less inexact. In com-
paring the other Aryan tongues with Greek, or with Iranic, or
especially Avith Armenian, the transcription of their different words
in Greek must be relatively correct enough. The old Iranian
idioms Avere in fact not greatly removed from the Greek dialects,
and the Aryan tongues of Asia Minor may fairly be supposed to
bring these two groups still closer together.
They would thus seem to belong neither to the Iranian group, as
many have thought, nor yet to the Hellenic branch, but would
rather seem to form a special division of their own, equally allied
to Greek, Armenian, and old Persian.
This, however, is a mere hypothesis, which time may or may not
confirm. And it may also be discovered that, if certain idioms of
Asia Minor are closely related, as for instance the Carian and the
Lycian, there are others again but very remotely connected together.
* Eenan, " Histoire des Langues Semitiques," i. ch. 2, § 2.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. 293
It may even be necessary to group them in two classes, one leaning
towards the Iranic, the other towards the Hellenic family. But
the question has not yet advanced beyond the first stage of inquiry,
and these various idioms must meantime be included amongst the
number of those that still await definite classification.
(4) Tlie so-called " Scythlc " Aryan Tongues.
In the nineteenth paragraph of our fourth chapter we said that
the expressions " Scythian," " Scythic," were merely geographical
terms, being applicable to a large number of tribes, differing in race
and language. \Ye further stated that certain peoples spoken of
by the aneients as "Scythic,'' spoke an Aryan language.* The
reader is referred to this passage, as the matter cannot detain us
further here.
(5) Albanian.
The questions of the origin of Albanian and of its position in the
Aryan family have sorely tried many philologists, nor is the problem
yet solved.
Albanian occupies the portion of the Turkish Empire watered by
the Adriatic, the Strait of Otranto, and the Ionian Sea. It con-
fines northwards with the Slaves of Montenegro and of the
Servian principality, eastwards with the Bulgarians to the north, and
with the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire to the south, southwards
also with the Greeks. The greatest length of this territory is about
ninety-five by an average width of thirty leagues. To the north
of Scutari it includes some rather important Servian communities,
and in the centre, especially southwards, and to the east of Janina,
some no less considerable Armenian communities. The Albanians
axe ■ it about 1,500,000,80 that, while much less numerous
than the Slavs of Turkey, they on the other hand outnumber the
Turks themselves, as well as the Greek subjects of the empire.
Their real name is SMpetar, or Highlander.
* Guard de Rialle, " Bulletins <!e la Sue. d' Anthropologic de I'urie,"
1869, p. 46.
294 THIRD FOEM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
Some writers have endeavoured to connect Albanian with the
Slavonic idioms, but all such attempts have proved abortive, as they
are always likely to do. A more generally received opinion con-
siders it as rather closely allied to Greek, but this view cannot be
said to have been scientifically confirmed. Others again have sought
to establish a more or less intimate relationship between Albanian
and the Italic group, nor woidd Ave venture to say that they are
nearer the truth than the champions of the Hellenic theory. The
matter remains in fact still a moot question. The Albanian
adjective we know possesses a sort of ending of pronominal origin,
like that of the Slavonic tongues, also that the article is suffixed to
the noun, as in Eumanian and Bulgarian ; but all else, and especially
the conjugation, is very obscure. We therefore hold that, till
further proof, Albanian must simply be looked on as an Aryan
tongue; so much is certain, but we are scarcely entitled to go
further, and connect it forthwith with any particular Aryan group.
i
§ 11. — On the Ramification of the Common Aryan Speech, and
on its Primitive Home.
(a)
Scarcely had the affinities of the various Aryan tongues been
ascertained, scarcely had their descent been acknowledged from
some primitive idiom, of which history has lost all record, when
the work of their classification was undertaken. The question was
how to group them according to then respective degrees of kindred,
to reduce them to families, and thus connect in their turn these
families with each other, according to their various mutual relations.
In a word, the question was how to divide the common Aryan stock
into branches, the branches into offshoots, and so on.
The first connection thus established was -between Greek and
Latin, an inevitable consequence of the traditions of classical
linguistics. It was accordingly assumed that one and the same
idiom, breaking away from the main Aryan stem, had given birth
to two sister tongues — Greek and Latin. This Graeco-Latin rami-
fication seeming to need a name of some sort, was called Pelasgic,
than which no title was ever less justified. Far from knowing who-
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 295
these Pelasgians were, the very existence of any such people at any
time could scarcely be verified, the few passages in Herodotus
referring to them, being of a nature calculated to prevent any serious
writer from attributing to them any definite meaning.
The labours of Burnouf and of Lassen in the Zend and old
Persian domain, enabled the Iranic idioms to be brought into the
closest relationship with Sanskrit. A common Indo-Iranian speech
was therefore assumed as the source of the Sanskrit on the one
hand, and of the Iranian tongues on the other. In the same way
the striking resemblance of Lithuanian to the Slavonic group sug-
gested a common Letto-Slavonic speech, which in its turn had a
common origin with the prehistoric Teutonic tongue, aud so on.
Several systems, all defined with equal distinctness, thus came to
challenge acceptance. Some writers, for instance, have adopted the
subjoined scheme :
x , T . [ Sanskrit
C Indo-Iranic \ _
\ ( Iranian
Ar ya»j ( Grseco-Italic \ T Gr , ck
( \ ( Italic
^ European ■< Keltic
v. Slavo-Lctto-Teutonic ) , r,efcfcio
( Slavo-Lettic ]
' Slavonic
Schleicher, taking a different view of the Aryan dispersion,
tabulated his conclusions as under:
( Teutonic
( Letto-Slavo. ] Lt , ttic
Teutonic ( Letto-Slavo | glftvonio
. ' ,. Tf , ( Italo-Keltic |*
Mother- 1 ongue ( Grsooo-Italo- Italic
Aryo-GneooJ K " luo
V Italo-Keltie f , ( Iranian
Ar - van I Bindn
I,, thj | ible, therefore, we have no longer any special European
speech, some European idioms being more akin to Sanskrit and
Iranic: than to the other Europe This theory, in spite
of t!i author's oam< . o to have
296 THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
found much favour, the broad division into Indo-Iranic and Euro-
pean being more generally preferred.* Certain writers, however,
while admitting this twofold partition, took different views of the
subdivisions, some for instance connecting the Keltic more with
the Teutonic group, and others more with the Italic.
E"or is the theory itself of the migrations of the common Aryan
stock universally accepted. It has been simultaneously assailed in
France and in Germany, in two entirely independent essays,
published separately, but at the same date. One of these is by the
present writer, t the other by J. Schmidt. J Schmidt still admits a
linguistic Indo-Iranian unity, and a Letto-Slave unity, but he
declines to go farther. He endeavours to show that while on the west
the Slavonic and Lettic tongues are indissolubly related to the
Teutonic, they are no less intimately related to the Iranian and
Indie languages in the east. Hence, he argues, not only was there
never a common prehistoric Letto-Slavo-Teutonic speech, but
neither was there a special European tongue, clearly distinct from
Sanskrit and Iranic. Greek, on the other hand, would be quite as
inseparable from the two Asiatic groups as from the Italic, while
the Keltic branch could be grouped on no more just grounds with
the Italic than with the Teutonic. But this is one of those
intricate questions which are not to be settled with a few moments,
study.
As regards ourselves, we hold that no intermediate groups have
existed between the Aryan mother-tongue, and the Iranian,
Hellenic, Teutonic, and other great arteries. Doubtless some
Aryan idioms are more allied, all things considered, to some than
to others of their congeners ; Latin, for instance, more to the Keltic
than to the. Iranic. But from this Ave cannot deduce the existence of
* Havet, " I/Unite" Linguistique Europeenne," " Memoires de la Soc. de
Linguistique," ii. p. 261.
f " Notice sur les Subdivisions de la Langue Commune Indo-Europeenne,"
"Comptes-rendus de la Premiere Session de l'Association Franoaise pour
l'Avancement des Sciences," p. 736. Bordeaux, 1872.
X " Die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen."
Weimar, 1872.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 297
a common Italo-Keltic speech. "We shall probably never know the
motives that determined the migrations of the Aryan-speaking
races ; but it may safely he assumed that before splitting asunder,
they occupied a somewhat Avide domain, within the limits of which
their common speech must necessarily have undergone diverse
changes and corruptions amongst the diverse tribes dwelling in this
territory. Such modifications could not possibly have been the
same everywhere ; in one place, for instance, they would affect the
fricatives, in another the explosives, elsewhere the forms of the
words themselves, and so on. It may be further presumed that
in all probability the changes current in one tribe would, on the
whole, resemble those taking place in the neighbouring districts,
while the more remote the groups, the more such tendencies to
corruption woidd be differentiated. In other words, there must
have been a wider severance between the extreme eastern and
western groups, than between the latter and any given central
group. This kind of gradation and continuity is quite natural in
itself, and is no more than what is still met with in modern patois.
This is not the place to investigate the causes that determine the
general tendencies peculiar to the various tribes ; they will probably
never be discovered, bui we may still confidently believe that the
intermediate branches jusl spoken of, the pretended [talo-Keltic, or
Graeco-Italic languages never did exist, and never would have been
invented but for an excessive love of classification Still such
assumed prehistoric forms of speech have gone on multiplying, nor
would it be difficult in the same way to "restore" a common
Helleno-Slave, Lrano-Kelt, or [talo-Teuton mother-tongue. Once
launched on the wide water, of imagination, there can be no reason
for stopping short at any particular point.
w
i: fore Leaving the Aryan family, we may be allowed a few
remark- on the much debated question of the primitive home of the
Aryan Bpeech. And Let us in the fir I place di tinguish at once
,,. n the question of race and of peech. Ln dealing with the
very formation of articulate peech itself, the elem< ni of race La not
298 THIED FORM OP SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
only all important, but absolutely paramount. The acquisition of
the faculty of speech, the formation of the first linguistic systems,
and of the first races of mankind are all coincident and simultaneous,
as explained in our second chapter, to which no further allusion
need here be made. We will merely insist upon the obvious
fact that, if the European races come from Europe, or have been
developed in Europe, such at least as they now exist, it does not at
all follow that the Aryan languages of these regions have also taken
their rise here. This distinction, though often overlooked, is
essential. We may even say more, and assert that if it is reasonable
to speak of Aryan tongues, it is absolutely illogical to speak of
an Aryan " race." Such a race has no existence, and those alone
may describe and trace its frontiers, and grow eloquent on the
theme, who have never entered an anthropological museum. Let
us go a step farther. If it is certain that a common Aryan mother-
tongue was ever at any time spoken in any region whatsoever, it is
not at all certain that those who spoke it belonged to one and the
same race. The common Aryan speech was doubtless formed in
a single centre by individuals perfectly resembling each other. But
its formative period once passed, there was nothing to prevent it
from spreading over other tribes very different from each other, as
we have seen the " Eomana Rustica " spread over the neighbouring
tribes of the Guadalaviar, the Somrne, and the Lower Danube.
Many theories have been advanced on this subject, but after all
there is but one well-attested fact that can be relied upon — that is,
the existence of this common Aryan tongue, apart altogether from
the question of race.
So much established, we may approach the question at issue
without fear of further misunderstandings.
Some twenty years ago the home of the common Aryan tongue
was generally supposed to be " the vast plateau of Iran," as Pictet
writes, " that immense quadrilateral stretching from the Indus to
the Tigris and Euphrates, from the Oxus and Jaxartes to the
Persian Gulf."* This region answers to the present Persia and to
* "Les Origines Inclo-Europeennes, ou les Aryas Pritnitifs." "Essai de
Paleontologie Lingnistique," i. p. 35. Paris, 1859.
Chap, v.] THIRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 299
the countries "bordering on it east and west [Afghanistan and
Beluchistan on the east, portions of Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and
Armenia on the west]. But such an extensive area was felt to he
much too vague, and attempts were made to restrict it. Relying on
the traditions of the "Avesta," it was suggested that Bactriana ought
to he looked on as the home of the pretended Aryas, that is of the
people speaking the common Aryan tongue. But this was in fact
giving to the Iranian tradition a much wider meaning than it really
had. The "Avesta" may, strictly speaking, have still had reminis-
cences of an older Iranian land ; hut to assume that such a home
was at the same time the cradle of the whole Aryan family was a
conclusion not at all warranted "by the premises. This was readily
seen, and it hecame also evident that philology must he the safest
guide in our attempts to solve the difficulty.
Extremely vague, however, is the information to he gleaned from
the comparative vocabulary of the Aryan tongues concerning
geographical and topographical terms, the names of rivers, moun-
tain-ranges, metals, plants, and animals. They are all equally
applicable to a multitude of localities — to Bactriana, for instance,
as well as to Assyria, to Assyria no less than to Bactriana.
The most weighty and seemingly the only convincing argument
is drawn from the general aspect of the various Aryan tongues. It
may he readily admitted that those on the whole most faithfully
■ring to the common Aryan type are also those that have
least wandered from tic regions where this common type was
spoken. We have already seen that not, any one of the Aryan
rior on all points to its congeners, there being none
of them but presenl i some weak side or other. Tims Sanskrit,
changi • /'■'- to ch is herein surpassed by Latin,
which retains them alL But this does no1 prevent certain idioms
from being, all things considered, much more primitive than others.
In tli'- very first rank we must, unhesitatingly place Sanskrit and
tic- "Id [ranic tongues, '/.>w<\ and ancieni Persian. Nor is il
n that tic- Keltic idiom: urn I occupy tlm Lowesl position in
the icale. Bence our first conclusion: Of all the Aryan ton]
bit and [ranic have migrated hit from the common Aryan
300 TniRD FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. [Chap. v.
centre, while the Keltic group has wandered farther from it than
have any of the cognate idioms.
In the next hest state of preservation may he included the
Hellenic dialects in the south-east and the Lettic and Slavonic in
the north-east of Europe. A third stage would comprise the
Teutonic group in the north and the Italic in the south, each of
these branches confining on the Keltic, which, as stated, stands in
the fourth or lowest rank.
Pictet, whom this unquestioned fact did not escape, drew a
conclusion from it. Describing a somewhat oblong ellipse, he
makes the focus to the right represent the point Avhere the common
Aryan tongue was spoken. A little to the right of this focus he
places Sanskrit below and Iranic above [that is, at the extremities
of two lines radiating from the focus either way to the right].
Then diverging somewhat to the left, he places the Slavo-Lettic
and the Hellenic in central positions, above and below respectively,
these two branches thus still remaining near the right focus, though
less so than Sanskrit and Iranic. Coming stdl farther to the left,
he places the Teutonic and the Italic in the same way above and
below respectively, in the same relative position to the left focus
that Sanskrit and Iranic occupy towards the right focus. Con-
tinuing still to the left, he places the Keltic branch at the
extremity of the horizontal transverse line of the ellipse, between
the Teutonic and the Italic groups, Keltic thus occupying the
farthest point from the right focus — that is to say, from the
assumed centre of departure.
This diagram may easily be constructed [as thus :
Teutoni c
Iranic
Kelti c
r^T^ — -^—- 1- Sanskrit 1.
Italic Hellenic J
The scheme is doubtless very ingenious, and at first sight one
feels strongly tempted to adopt it, agreeing, as it also does, with
the supposition of Eactriana being the region where the common
Chap, v.] THIED FORM OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 301
Aryan tongue was spoken. But it is in reality liable to two
different interpretations, and to two distinct applications, the first
being that of Pictet himself. Here is the second : The common
centre may possibly not have been in the right focus of the ellipse,
but more to the right, and even outside the ellipse itself, that is
towards the Chinese frontier. In this case Sanskrit and Iranic
would still occupy the first position, Greek and Slavo-Lettic the
second, Teutonic and Italic the third, and Keltic the fourth and
last.
For our own part, we do not pretend to pronounce on the merits
of either of these hypotheses ; we merely set them forth without
judging, while still expressing our decided opinion as to the Asiatic
origin of the Aryan linguistic fannly.
Latham seems to have been the first to suggest a European origin,
which has been adopted by a few writers, some of whom have
endeavoured to give a scientific aspect to their view, while others
have simply settled the matter offhand with as much boldness as
incompetence. Thus certain writers, observing that the Keltic words
were shorter than the Sanskrit, have argued that they were also
simpler, more primitive, and less removed from the common type,
thereby applying the rule of "long measure" to the science of
language. By this process Anglo-Saxon would derive from English,
Latin from French, Zend from Persian.
Others again, arguing from the fact that the fair blue-eyed type
is found more especially in German-speaking countries, conclude,
one scarcely sees why, thai the common Aryan mother-tongue was
spoken in Germany, herein confounding race and language, or
rather language and races. It matters little whether the Aryan-
tribes were fail 01 dark, or whether both types wen-.
represented amongsi them. The question we are concerned with is
one ii'. t of race but of language. Nor shall we even appeal to the
aid of archaeology, which yet clearly teaches that at an epoch when
the easl had reached a certain degree of civilisation, the west was
still in a sava or not far ivuiow<| fnnii it. The proofs
furnished by philology musl suffice, and the fact of this
of languages departing more and more from the common type,
302 ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. [Chap.vi.
according as they are situated more to the west, speaks convinc-
ingly enough of itself alone. JSov can it matter much whether the
home of the common Aryan speech be placed in Armenia, or in
Bactriana, or in any other still more eastern region. This is now a
question of but secondary interest.
CHAPTER VI.
ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH, AND TRANSMUTATION OP
LINGUISTIC SYSTEMS.
Having thus come to the end of this long survey, though still
necessarily curtailed at almost every page, it remains for us to cast a
comprehensive glance at the field travelled over, and in a final
chapter sum up its more prominent landmarks. And we must, at
the very outset, touch once more on the question of the scientific
process, which was the first to challenge inquiry, and must be the
last to engage our attention. By it is swayed all present science, or
rather they blend together as but one body, the inalienable union of
science and method, which cannot be too strongly insisted upon,
forming, as it does, the essential characteristic of this new phase
of human thought.
§ 1. — How to Recognise Linguistic Affinities.
Many writers but indifferently acquainted Avith the science of
language, will often unhesitatingly group together linguistic families,
that really competent authorities do not venture to bring into the
same category, or will at times even declare to be radically distinct.
It is here above all that we see the danger of etymology, which in
truth rides recklessly over all obstacles. Its baneful tendencies
have been especially fostered by biblical prejudices, it being a fore-
gone conclusion for theological writers, that all the languages of the
universe are connected, either directly or collaterally, with the
Semitic family. The hope of making Hebrew the origin of all
Chap, ti.] ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. 303
speech they 'were fain at last to give up, hut they still felt the
necessity of identifying all languages, Hehrew itself included, with
some one common source or mother-tongue.
This theory has now heen placed "beyond the pale of discussion,
and still to speak, even with hated breath, of a so-called common
primeval speech, is simply to betray utter ignorance of the science
of language. ,
In comparing idioms, we must, above all, take no heed of the
mere likeness of words to each other. Two words of nearly or
even absolutely simdar meaning in two different languages, may
possibly have nothing in common, so that lexical apart from
grammatical agreement is nothing to the purpose. The etymologist
pounces upon such resemblances, rests satisfied with them, and
refuses to look farther afield, while the philologist passes them
unheeded. In his eyes the analysis alone of two more or less
similar terms can prove their affinity, but he never ventures to
compare together two words ready made. Should their formative
elements and their roots themselves be the same, they may rightly
be looked upon as answering to each other, and as derived from a
common source. But should these conditions not be verified, the
two terms in question cannot be identified, however homophonous
they may happen to be.
The comparison of hundreds of ready-made words in two
tages whatsoever, would never advance by a single step the
in of their mutual relationship. What requires to be proved,
is not the existence of these casual resemblances, but the identity
of the roots when reduced to their simplest form, the identity of
the formative elements, theidentity of the grammatical functionsof
these elements j in a word, the grammatic identity of the languages
compared.
The so-called comparative studies not based on these inexorable
principl F can be no 1- ken into account; all such trilling
;s to a bygon ■ day.
304 ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. [Chap. ti.
§ 2. — Original Plurality of Linguistic Groups and Consequences
thereof.
Not only is there no common grammatical point of identity
between the Semitic and Aryan linguistic groups, hut, as already
explained, inflection itself is differently treated in each of these
systems. Their roots are totally distinct, their formative elements
essentially different ;* nor have the . functions of these elements
anything in common. The abyss separating the two systems is
not merely deep, it is impassable.
" "When," asks Chavee, " can two languages be scientifically held
as two radically distinct creations 1 In the first place, when their
roots, reduced to their simplest forms, have absolutely nothing in
common, either in their phonetic elements or in their syllabic con-
stituents. Secondly, when the laws regulating the first combinations
of these simple roots differ essentially in the two systems."*
This is the case with the Semitic and Aryan tongues no less
than with a large number of other linguistic systems ; and the
consequences of this fact are all important. If the faculty of
articulate speech constitutes the sole fundamental characteristic of
man, as explained in our second chapter, and if the different
linguistic groups known to us are irreducible, they must have taken
birth independently and in quite distinct regions. It follows that
the precursors of man must have acquired the faculty of speech in
different localities independently, and have thus given birth to
several races of mankind originally distinct, t
* " Les Langues et les Races," p. 13. Paris, 1862.
f This seems to be a very sweeping conclusion to come to on very slight
and not yet fully- established premises. In fact, the learned author would
appear to be here trespassing beyond the legitimate field of the strict
science of language in its present state, and verging on the domain of
pure metaphysics, which he himself elsewhere so eloquently denounces.
Nor is the statement at all so generally established as he would have us
suppose, that families now distinct — such, for instance, as the Aryan and
the Semitic — are utterly incapable of being identified. The question cannot
here be enlarged upon, and it may be perhaps enough to refer to Andreas
Raabe's " Gemeinschaftliche Grammatik der Arischen und der Semitischen
Sprachen," Leipzig, 1874, which work may possibly have escaped the
Chap, ti.]
ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH.
305
"The French anthropologists," says General Faidherhe, "were
usually of accord that articulate speech alone distinguishing man
fundamentally from the hrute creation, the precursors of man were
not entitled to this name hefore they had acquired the faculty in
question. But we readily see that this is merely a question of the
conventional use of words. The only important point is to know
whether he, this being, called man or not, acquired the gift of
speech in one place only and at one particular time, or in more
ways than one, both as regards time and place. Xow the impos-
sibility of reducing human speech to one source proves the truth
of the second hypothesis. Had man acquired this faculty, the
consequence of the progressive development of his organisms, in
one way only, language would have remained substantially the
same to the present time, or at least we should detect in all
languages some traces of then* common descent. The extreme
diversity of idioms and of then* formative processes, proves that
they were created independently of each other, and probably at
author's notice. It is certainly based on the strict scientific method, and
would seem to point at totally different conclusions from those here so
confidently proclaimed. Thus, he points out that the perfect is the oldest
organic tense both in Aryan and Semitic, and that the un reduplicate Aryan
perfect, often occurring in the " Vedas," shows a strong likeness, to the
Semitic perfect, as thus :
Aryan (unreduplicate perfect).
Sing. 1. apatha
•j.. apathitha
3. apatha
1 l . apal liimfi
-• a]
'.',. apathuh
Hebrew.
\n-QN
n-
fem. r\
-QK fern. rTQN
I- T T ; |T
■am*
:i~ t
DiTDN fern. (/TDK
TUN
Ethiopia
abadeku
abadeka, fern, abadekl
abeda, fern. ab£dat
abadena
abadekemmuj fem.
abadi ■kenn
abfidu. fem. abi da
A^ Baabe remarks: "Th< ; ambiance of the Aryan and Semitic
paradigm i • (p. '-■'•)■ ln ■<■">' '' ;iS1 ' ,l "' author's
dogmatism on this subject would seem to be a< Least somewhat premature.—
Xotc i»j Translator.
306 ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SrEECH. [Chap. yi.
very different epochs. As, moreover, the principal irreducible
linguistic systems correspond in a general way to the leading races
of mankind, we argue that speech has sprung up independently
amongst sundry distinct varieties of what Fr. Midler calls the
homo primigmvus, and French anthropologists the precursors of
■mini."
Thus philology furnishes a new and formidable argument to the
polygenists, who were already supplied Avith so many before.
[But it is an argument that the polygenists, who are all necessardy
evolutionists in the Darwinian sense, cannot consistently make use
of. For surely no form of speech that ever has existed is more, or
so much, removed from any other form of speech than is man
himself from the lower orders of the animal kingdom, from which
on then showing he must yet be descended. Hence, if the im-
possibility of reducing man now to, say a mollusc, is no argument
against the original identity of man with a mollusc, why should the
impossibility of now reducing any two or more linguistic systems
to a common source be any argument against the original identity
of those systems 1 Speech changes much more rapidly than do the
higher orders of the animal kingdom ; hence, if there has been time
for an oyster to become an elephant or a man, according to the
different lines of development it may have taken, why should there
not have been time for Chinese, or any other isolating tongue, to
become Hebrew or Sanskrit, according to the different lines of
development it may have taken through the several isolating,
agglutinating, and inflectional phases of its prehistoric and historic
life 1 Thus no argument based on the present disparity of human
speech ought to have any force for a consistent evolutionist as
against the possible primordial unity of all human speech.]
Language being a product of nature herself, being the function
of a new organ, it is evident that two irreducible linguistic systems
point at two different productive organs. We will not folloAv
Haeckel in reducing to a single race the so-called Indo-Europeans,
Semites, Bascpies, and Caucasians; philology teaches, and would of
itself suffice to show, that Ave have here four distinct races. Their
differences may be A'ery slight in all other respects besides that of
Chap, vi.] ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. 307
language, but in this last respect it is decided ; and, as philologists,
we must conclude for the impossibility of a common origin.
History tells us that a large number of linguistic families have
perished without issue, and this is but the result of the struggle for
existence pervading all nature in all time and space. The. farther
bade we go, the more numerous do we find the independent
linguistic families, and the same is the case with the races of man.
It may be asserted without rashness that the precursor of man
must have in many places at the same time or successively acquired
the faculty of speech that was destined to raise him to the dignity
of man. And this is the result that the science of language leads
to, in revealing to us a multiplicity of irreducible linguistic systems.
§ 3. — In their Historic Life Language and Race mag cease to be
Convertible Terms.
Thus we see, as already stated, that in the historic period of man
no new linguistic systems can arise. The origin of language, the
acquisition of the faculty of articulate speech, being coincident with
the formation of the first races, it follows that the precursor of
man once extinct, the development of new linguistic systems is
absolutely impossible. Every effeel needs a cause, and the cause
disappearing the effect ceases.
Bui after entering on the historic stage, languages, like ran -.
may die nut. Thus it is that modern German has extinguished
Polabish, a Slavonic idiom, and old Prussian, a Lettic dialect.
Thus also Latin lias absorbed her own sister . Oscan and I'lnbiian ;
: -li is eradicating Basque \ and English is sweeping away the
North American idioms. In France the Normans lost their Norse
tongue, and the Burgundians their Teutonic dialect, as did the
Lombards in Italy.
Other languages, again, have attempted violently bri unsucc
fully to usurp foreign domain, at : e with two CJralo Altaic
i Europe. < >ne of th< - i the Turkish, which ha i in vain
penetrated to the hearl of Europe, bul no longer occupies more
than a very mall portion of European Turkey itself, while in
X 2
308 ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. [Chap. vi.
Candia nearly all the Turks have taken to Greek. The other is the
Magyar, which is now rapidly decaying in Hungary, notwithstand-
ing the great privileges it enjoys, and the official countenance given
to it at the expense of the surrounding tongues.* But its dis-
appearance may confidently he predicted sooner or later.
Different races often speak one and the same language, just as
one and the same race may speak several different languages, facts
which are well known, and of which a multiplicity of examples
might he adduced. Some of the Bascpies — the Spanish or genuine
Basques — still speak Escaldunac in the neighbourhood of Durango,
Tolosa, and Saint, Sehastian, while others speak Spanish in the
neighbourhood of Yitoria and Pamphma. Some of the Bretons,.
again, speak French, while others still retain their Keltic tongue.
Many Finns speak Suomi, but many also speak Bussian exclusively ;
and in Central Asia other TJralo-Altiac tribes have in the same
way adopted Persian. But it would he tedious to prolong the list.
§ 4. — T7ie Permutation of Spedes in Philology.
Once launched on their historic life, the phonetic system and
forms of languages soon begin to change, and become gradually
modified. Consonants and vowels often change to stronger or
weaker consonants, to sharper or more open vowels. Both also fre-
quently influence each other mutually, and such influence becoming
more and more pronounced the various branches of a given family,
each with their peculiar modifying tendencies, depart daily farther
and farther from each other. Persian and French are much more
different from one another than were old Persian and Latin ;
English and German than Anglo-Saxon and old High German.
And not only do the forms become modified, but they at times
perish altogether. The common Aryan mother-tongue possessed
eight cases, of which Latin retained scarcely more than two-thirds,
reduced in the Langue d'oil to two, while in modern French they
have quite disappeared. So also the three primitive Semitic cases
have been preserved in literary Arabic alone.
* " Les Serbes de Hongrie," p. 310. (Anonyme.) Prague, 1873.
Chap, vi.] ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. 309
But this is so far a degradation rather than a transformation.
True transformation, with which we are now concerned, is a varia-
tion of species, a phenomenon in philology which has long heen
scientifically demonstrated, and which those alone will venture still
to doubt who confound etymology with the science of language.
It lias been shown in the course of this work that all languages
were divided according to their structure into three distinct classes,
••the isolating, the agglutinating, and the inflectional. In the first
class avo have neither prefixes nor suffixes, the root itself in its
crude state forming the word, so that here the sentence consists of
nothing bui a series of independent, free, and isolated roots. In
the second class the word is formed of two, three, four or more
elements, oiu • of these roots alone preserving its full primitive force,
while the others, losing a part of their original meaning, are
attached to the principal root as relational, that is, secondary
elements. In the third class not only are diverse elements aggluti-
nated, as in the preceding, but the root itself may become modified,
changing its vowel with its change of meaning. These three stages
have been described in their place, with examples calculated to
clearly illustrate their peculiar features.
It is now well ascertained that the languages of the second class
have passed through the first stage before arriving at their present
. while those of the third have successively passed through the
two previous stages. Before being agglutinating, the Uralo-41taIc
idioms were isolating or monosyllabic, and before becoming in-
flectional, the Semitic had been firs! monosyllabic and then
il inating.
The proof of ihis permutati f linguistic species is self-evident.
Thus all the monosyllabic tongues betray clear proofs of a more or
realised tendency towards the agglutinating process, while
several agglutinating idioms in the ame way manifest tendencies
rds inflection. Lastly, in the inflecting tongues themselves
there occur numerous traces of the agglutinating and even of the
isolal ing pha w.
Thus we have Been thai Chine e grammar already distinguishes
the roots into full and empty (p. 37), a distinction which is the
310 ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. [Chap. vi.
first step towards agglutination. Nothing was in fact further needed
than to solder the empty on to the full roots, in order to pass com-
pletely from the first to the second phase. ( )f all the isolating
tongues, Tibetan seems to show the most marked tendency towards
agglutination, so much so that it has at times been wrongly taken
for an agglutinating language.
The transition from agglutination to inflection is quite as easy
to understand, and all who have studied the Uralo-Altalc group are
aware that the first traces of inflection are much more marked in
the Finnic than in the other groups, especially the Tungus.
But the most curious point to observe is the passage from the
agglutinating to the inflectional state. Thus a number of Aryan
forms are still in the agglutinating period, as, for instance, the
vocative, which is nothing but the theme itself: aJcva = Sanskrit
ag,va = Latin eque = horse! where the radical ami derivative
elements are intimately connected, neither presenting any trace of
phonetic modification or of inflect ion. Nay more, unmistakable
traces of the monosyllabic period still linger in the Aryan tongues,
as in Sanskrit, which has a somewhat numerous class of nouns,
whose theme is nothing but the monosyllabic root itself. It little
matters that it modify the vowel, -or suffix the case-endings, the
fact remains, that we are here evidently dealing with a primitive
monosyllabic element. In conjugation also, the augment a, pre-
fixed to the imperfects and aorists (old Persian abara = Greek
e<fiepe), is nothing but an old monosyllabic form of the first period.
However, if it is easy to detect in the more recent stages vestiges
of the older periods, it is no less easy unhesitatingly to group the
various families of languages in their respective periods or classes..
Here the broad features are an unerring guide.
The absence of intermediate stages between the existing and the
older forms has often been urged as an objection to the theory of
transmutation. ~\Ve have not here to pronounce on a cpiestion of
zoology or botany, but we would remark that where language is
concerned the objection has no force whatsoever, for the process
of evolution is here easdy followed, and in fact detected in active
operation. The transmutation of species is here a patent fact, and
Chap, vi.] ORIGINAL PLURALITY OF SPEECH. 311
one of the fundamental principles of the science of language.*
And is not this in itself a fresh and brilliant proof of the truth
discussed at the opening of this work, that philology is above all a
natural science 1
One word in conclusion. We have spoken successively of
plurality of origin and of transmutation, terms which to some may
contradictory, but which are easily reconciled. The doctrine
of the original plurality of languages and races in no way pretends
tn clash with the more general doctrine of cosmic unity. After all,
we must still acknowledge that all existing forms, without excep-
tion, are but varied aspects of matter, which is one as it is infinite.
But this unity does not at all prevent such and such identical, or
even analogous forms from being developed simultaneously in
different centres, nor from being reduced directly and without
intermediate links to one common form. But whether such ana-
logous but distinct forms have sprung from one original source or
not, it is now impossible to determine.
Eowever, this matters little, and the ascertained impossibility of
reducing a multiplicity of linguistic families to a common centre is
for us sufficient proof of the original plurality of the races that have
been developed with them, the acquisition of the faculty of articu-
!i heing coincident with the appearance of man himself on
the earth, [lint see Translator's remarks a1 p. 306.]
* V, ■■ Language and the Si inly of Language," 3rd ed., p. 175.
London, 1S7U.
312
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313
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INDEX.
Abyssinia, Semitic languages
of
Accadian, Double meaning of
Accent, Latin ...
., Its influence on the
Xeo-Latin tongues ...
Afghan, Eastern Iranian dia-
leot
Agglutination, Second lin-
guistic form ...
„ Its various kinds
Albanian, An unclassified
Aryan tongue
I m'.i, Grammar of
American languages, Their
great number
„ Their common features
No! distinct from other
agglutinating tongues
,, Vocabulary of...
Amharic, Akin to the '•
...
,, Tho term vindicated
Annameup, An independeni
language
,, An isolating idiom ...
Anthropoids, Arrested in
their developmenl ...
Arabic, Group of the B
family
,, Proper, Its alphabet ...
„ Its position
„ Dialects ><f
Aran-'
an, at Breton
.'■ of ili" term
Family <.f lai
Asia .'•
170
140
222
229
207
44
45
293
131
123
125
127
l:il
172
258
259
II
II
:;•>
L66
L68
168
L70
I :,.-,
-n;
188
lsi
292
PAGE
Asia Minor, Greek spoken in 214
„ Turkish spoken in... 103
Assyriam-, A Semitic tongue 157
Australia, Languages of ... 07
" Avesta," Sacred book of the
Zoroastrians ... ... 1S8
,, The Huzvuresh trans-
lation 203
Bactrian, Zend, So-called ... 198
Bantu group {African) ... 59
Basque, Limits of ... ... 109
„ Yielding to Spanish ... Ill
„ Isolated position ... 113
„ Oldest traces of ... 114
,, Numerous varieties of 115
,, Phonology of ... ... 11(5
„ Word formation of ... 116
„ Incorporates the direct
object... 117
„ Not allied to the
American tongues ... 119
„ lis vocal mlary ... 120
,, Origin of ... ... 121
Beja (Bishura), An Ethiopian
dialed 180
Beluch, An Iranian tongue ... 207
/.'' rbi /•, 1 leneral nam" of
modern Libyan ... ... 179
81 e Vsech.
Burman, An isolating tongue 12
Buryetic, Its importance in
r if Mongol lti >u 1 > ... ... L06
Bushman I" ... 51
A Kill K- idiom ... 2 16
■ m, Limits of ... ... 27!)
[ts forms ii.i'iu pre-
1 ed ... ... 27!'
Medii ral Greek ... 212
336
INDEX.
PAGE
Cases, The three common
Semitic 153
„ The eight common
Aryan 186
Two in the old French 232
Catalonian, Grouped with the
Langne d'oc ... ... 236
Caucasus, Languages of ... 136
Chain" ee, Its place in the
Aramean group ... ... 155
Canaanitic, Group of the
Semitic family ... ... 160
Chinese, Dialects of ... ... 34
,, Its grammar purely
syntactic ... ... 35
„ Its graphic system ... 38
Coptic, Eepresents old Egyp-
tian ... ... ... ... 177
Corean, Agglutinating, but
little known ... ... 76
Cornish, A Kymric dialect . . . 216
■Croatian, See Servo-Croatian.
Darian, Not yet finally classi-
fied 291
Banish, Its place in the Norse
group ... ... ... 257
Danl-ali, An Ethiopian dialect 180
Bevanagari alphabet ... ... 191
Bravidian, Extent of its do-
main ... ... ... 77
„ Languages ... ... 77
„ Former limits of ... 79
,, Simple grammatical
system ... ... 81
„ Poverty of its vocabu-
lary ... ... ... 85
Patch, A Netherlandish dialect 261
Egyptian, A Hamitic tongue 175
,, Its grammar ... ... 176
Ehhili, Alan to the Himyaritic 171
Elbe, Slavonic of the 280
Elu, or Sinhalese 137
English, Different periods of 259
Erse, Scotch Gaelic 2 ±5
Escuara, Original name of the
Basque ... ... ... 112
Ethiopian group of the Ha-
mitic tongues ... ... 180
Etruscan, Different opinions
on irs origin ... ... 290
5 Belongs to the Aryan
family 291
PAOH
13
14
90
261
31
44
146
230
Etymology, Dangers of
,, Its true nature and pro-
vince ...
Finnic group of the Uralo-
Alta'ic tongues
Flemish, A Netherlandish
dialect
Forms, Threefold, mono-
syllabic
,, Agglutinating...
,, Inflecting
French, Formation of
,, Two classes of words in 230
„ Two cases in its old
declension ... ... 232
„ Dialects of old ... 235
Friuli, Eastern Ladim ... 238
Frisic, A Low German branch 261
Fulu, or Pul, An African
language ... ... ...
Gaedhelic, or Gaelic branch of
the Keltic ...
Galatian, Old ...
Galician, Akin to Portu-
guese
Galla, An Ethiopian dialect...
Gdthds, Zend dialect of the ...
Gaulish, Ancient
German, Characteristics of
modern
Its orthography
64
244
247
240
180
199
247
266
267
Gheez, South Arabic group... 171
Gipsy dialects... ... ... 195
Glagolitic alphabet ... ... 269
Gothic, Its proper spelling ... 254
,, Position of in the Teu-
tonic family ... ... 254
Ch'eelc branch of the Aryan
family 208
„ Not to be grouped with
the Latin 209
„ Grammar ... ... 210
„ Dialects 211
„ Common dialect of ... 212
„ Bvzantine 212
„ Modern 212
,, Extent of modern ... 213
,, Pronunciation of ancient 214
Hamitic family ... ... 174
„ Inadequate title ... 174
,, Hypothesis on former
limits of ... ... 171
INDEX.
337
Hamitic Akin to the Semitic
family ... ... 174
„ General Grammar of... 175
„ Divided into three
branches ... ... 175
Harari, Akin to Ghees ... 172
Hebrew, Various periods of ... 160
„ Its grammar ... ... 162
„ Its alphabet 163
High German, Three periods of 264
„ Two kinds of 267
Himyaritic, Member of the
south Arabic group ... 170
: , Its limits in medieval
times ... ... ... 194
Hindu group of the Aryan
tongues ... ... 190
„ Neo- Hindu languages 193
„ Phonology of ... ... 190
Hottentot language ... ... 47
•resh version of the
"Avesta" 203
,, Aramean influence on 204
,, Its grammar ... ... 204
„ Its alphabet ... ... 205
theory... ... ... 121
'Icelandic, Its place in the
Norse group ... ... 256
Incorporation differs from
polysynthesis ... 128
„ In Basque ... ... 119
,, In the American tongur- L28
„ In the Uralo- Altaic
tongues ... ... 97
Bee Iryan.
I r finic, Inadequate
title ... 188
Inscriptions, Cuneiform, Lan-
b 8e< and
ii "f ... ... 139
,, Assyrian ... ... L57
„ Persian 200
ttion, Importance of
in the isolating tongue* ... .'J 1
roup of the Aryan
family ... ... ... L95
Irish, of in Hid
mp.., ... 2 1 !•
,, Grammas ... ... 240
... 1. 'J I
•
ip ..
PAGE
Italian, Its dialects 238
Japanese, wrongly grouped
with other agglutina-
ting idioms ... ... 72
i, Grammar ... ... 75
Kabyle, A Lib3 r an dialect ... 179
Kafir languages ... ... 59
Kasdo-Scythic, or Sumerian ... 141
Keltic group ... ... ... 212
„ Two branches of ... 244
Keltomania ... ... ... 250
Kurdish, An Iranian tongue... 207
Kutnric, Branch of the Keltic
family ... ... . . . 245
Ladin, The three groups of 237
Languages, The life of ... 8
„ Mixed do not exist ... 8
„ Isolating and mono-
syllabic ... ... 31
„ Original plurality of ... 304
,, Affinities of, how de-
tected 302
,, Not always identical
with race 307
Latin, Its degree of affinity
with Qreek 217
„ Old and classic ... 218
„ Phonology of ... ... 219
„ Pronunciationof classic 220
„ Accent 222
„ Vulgar, the source of
the Romanoe tongues 22"
Lettic group ... ... ... 285
„ Its dialects ... ... 285
,, Distinct from Slavon
Lettish, Limits of 2SS
,, More corrupt than
... 2SN
mp of t he Eamitio
family ... ... ... 17!'
Linguistics distinguished from
philolog] ... ... 1-7
„ It a real domain ... '-i
its dm in philology ... I"
f.ititun. > rved 286
„ Limits of ' ...
,1 Grammar ... ... 2^7
. 272
:> ... ... 2. '.7
,, Proper, or 1 h 261
1 itian ... ... ... 27">
333
INDEX.
Lycian, An Aryan idiom
(Asia Minor) ... ... 292
Magyar, Its importance in
the Finnic group ... 94
,, Its limits and grammar 95
Malay group of the Malayo-
Polynesian family ... ... 68
Malayo-Polynesian family clas-
sified ... ... ... 68
,, Their common origin 68
„ Form an independent
system ... ... 69
,, Grammar of ... ... 70
Maltese, Its Arabic origin ... 170
Man distinguished by the
faculty of speech ... 18
„ The precursor of, and
Philology 30
Mandchu, A member of the
Tungus group ... ... 103
Manx, A Gaedhehc idiom ... 244
Metamorphosis, Period of ... 9
Mongolian group of the Finno-
Alta'ic tongues ... ... 105
Monosyllabic languages ... 31
,, Their grammar ... 32
Morphology, Its meaning ... 9
,, Cannot alone determine
affinity ... ... 14
Mosarabic, Of Arabic origin... 170
Neo-Latin languages ... ... 227
„ Formation of 227
,, Foreign elements in ... 229
„ Their seven groups ... 229
„ Play of accent in their
formation ... ... 230
Negrite languages of Africa... 51
Netherlandish ... ... ... 261
Norse, Ancient ... ... 255
Norwegian, Its place in the
Norse group ... ... 256
Nubian languages ... ... 66
Oc, Langue cl', Dialects of ... 236
,, Present limits of ... 236
0'il, Langue d', in the Middle
Ages 234
„ Dialects of ... ... 235
„ Present limits of ... 235
Oscan, An Italic tongue .., 224
Ossetian, An Iranian dialect... 207
Pali, Place of in the Prakrit
tongues ... ... ... 192
PAGE
Papxias, Their dialects ... 66
Parsi, A medieval Iranian
tongue ... ... ... 205
Pdzend, Parsi, Incorrectly so-
called ... ... ... 205
Pehlri, or Pahlavi, See Huz-
vuresh ... ... ... 203
Persian, The widest spread
of modern Iranian
tongues ... ... 206
,, Ancient discovery of... 200
,, Cuneiform inscriptions 201
Phanician, A member of the
Canaanitic group ... 164
„ Nearly related to He-
brew ... ... ... 165
,, Of Africa, or Punic ... 166
Philology, Distinct from lin-
guistics ... ... 1-3
„ Its true province ... 4
Phrygian, An Aryan idiom ... 292
„ Akin to the Iranian
tongues ... ... 292
Physiology and philology ... 19
Plurals, Broken or f ractas . . . 168
Polabish, or Slavonic of the
Elbe 280
Polish, Limits of 272
,, Its grammar ... ... 273
Polyglot,~Not to be confounded
with philologist ... ... 11
Polysynthesis, How differing
from incorporation . . . 129
Portuguese ... ... ... 240
Prakrit, Its relation to Sans-
krit 192
Provencal, Langue d'Oc ... 236
,, Its semi-analytic period 236
Prussian, Old, an extinct Lettic
idiom 288
Pul, See Fula.
Punic, Phoenician of Africa ... 166
Pace, Not always convertible
with language ... ... 307
Romaic, or modern Greek ... 212
Romance, or Neo-Latin idioms 227
,, Language, Theory of... 227
Root, Definition of ... ... 32
,, In the isolating idioms
it constitutes the word 32
,, How modified in the in-
flecting tongues ... 147
INDEX.
339
Boot, Semitic, how far re-
ducible 1-19
Rumanian, Its place in the
Xeo-Latiu group ... 240
,, Its article, phonology,
&C 211
wkschyor Western, Ladin... 238
Rusnialc, or Rutheniam ... 272
m, Limits of ... ... 270
Its grammar 271
White, dialect 271
Ruthenian, Limits of.., ... 272
How differing from
isian ... ... 272
Saho, Ethiopian dialect ... 180
Samoyede group of the Uralo-
Altai'c tongues ... ... 89
rlt, First essays on ... 189
„ Place in the Aiyan sys-
tem 189
„ Grammar ... ... 191
Alphabet 191
., Literature 193
. Old 258
Ian, See Norse.
language, mythical ... 138
,, A geographical ex-
pression ... ... 138
inflection ... ... 152
Kadically distinct from
Aryan... ... ... 148
The term defective ... 151
,, Eoots, how far reducible 152
., Noun 152
7erb 153
Alphabet 1 5 I
i, 155
., Primitive, where spoken 17)
ll"v, i-i ■! :,:, d i" Bamitio 175
fan ... 276
., Limit i i ... ... 276
Dialects of 277
Literal axe of ... ... 278
[mportance of... ... 278
' ■ ■■"""" of ... ... 278
• in"; idiom .. 12
l lifneuli to classify 137
ronp ... ... 268
., Limit i ( ,f, i n medieval
268
„ Alphabet 269
Slavonic Tongues, now spoken 270
„ Classification of ... 283
„ Church, its limits and
grammar ... ... 280
Slovakian, Akin to Tsech ... 274
Slovenian, A south Slave
tongue 279
', An Ethiopian dialect 180
ian, or Lusatiam ... 275
Spanish, Its place in the neo-
Lat in group ... ... 239
„ Absorbing the Basque 111
Species, Permutation of, in
philology 308
Sub- Arctic idioms ... ... 135
Sumerian, Meaning of ... 141
Suonvi, Its importance in the
Finnic group ... ... 90
Swedish, Its place in the Xorse
group 256
Syntax, Precedes accidence ... 33
Syria?, Its place in the Ara-
mean group... ... ... 155
Syro -Arabic, Synonymous with
Semitic ... ... ... 151
Ta-Masheq, A Libyan dialer 179
Tamil, Importance of in the
Dravidian family ... 77
„ Its alphabet, &c. ... 86
Tatar, or Turkish group ... <J9
,, Crimean ... ... 100
Telugu, A Dravidian idiom ... 78
TenseSjThe two of the common
Semitic tongue ... 153
„ The eight of the com-
mon Aryan ... ... 187
nic group ... ... 252
,, Meaning of the term .. 252
,, Characteristics of ... -'■::
„ Posil ion of Gothic in... 25 1
. An isolating ton ae 18
\i.in to Ohei 172
'lone, [mportance of in the
isolal ing idioms . .. 34
,, In Chinese ... ... 38
,, In Assamese ... ... 12
,, In Siamese ... .. l^
In Barman ... ... I::
or J ", Limit of -7 !■
., lis or! bography ... 274
It b grammar ... ... 'i~~,
1'uhi, A Dravidian idiom ... 77
310
INDEX.
Twngus group of the Uralo-
Alta'ic family ..• ..» 103
Turanian, A meaningless term 144
„ Languages, false theory
of 145
Turkish group of the Uralo-
Alta'ic tongues ... 99
,, Its grammar ... ... 101
TJmbrian, An Italic language 224
Uralo -Altaic family, its five
groups ... ... 88
„ Their differences ... 88
„ Their common features 89
„ Their incorporating
system ... ... 89
„ Their vowel harmony 106
Verb, Semitic ... ... ... 153
,, Aryan ... ... ... 186
Wallon , A dialect of the Langue
d'oil 235
Welsh, A Kymric tongue . . . 245
Wendic, See Sorbian.
Writing, Chinese system ... 38
„ Annamitic system ... 42
,, Siamese ,, ... 42
PAGE
Writing, Tibetan „ ... 43
„ Japanese „ ... 73
„ Malayo-Polynesian ... 72
„ Corean „ ... 76
Tamil ... „ ... 86
„ Semitic „ ... 154
„ Assyrian „ ... 158
„ Arabic... „ ... 167
„ Himyaritic „ ... 171
„ Egyptian „ ... 176
,, Devanagari ,, ... 191
„ Zend ... „ ... 198
„ Persian „ ... 201
„ Armenian ,, ... 203
„ Huzvaresh ,, ... 205
„ Italic ... „ ... 226
„ Slavonic „ ... 269
Zaconic, a modern Greek
dialect 213
Zend, Discovery of „ ... 197
„ An Eastern Iranian
tongue ... ... 198
„ Its grammar ... ... 199
„ Its epoch, &c-... ... 199
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