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LI  E>  R.AR.Y 

OF  THE 

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Of    ILLINOIS 


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v.Z 
cop. 2 


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THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS. 


FINANCING,  BUILDING 


AXU 


MAINTAINING. 


Capitalization,  Location,  Buildino  and  Keeping  Up  of  the 
oudanization  and  property  ok  3?ailroai)s  and  the 
EcoNO.Aiic  Questions  Surrounding  these  Subjects 
— Magnitude  op  the  Interests  Involved 
and  their  intricacy  and  vast  import- 
ANCE— Influences,  Purposes,  Prin- 
ciples AND  Methods  that 
Govern. 

with    illustrations 

OF  THE 

Inception,  Growth  and  Evolution  of 
F'RINIITIVE    TRANSPORTATION. 


15Y 

MARSHALL  M.  KIRKMAN. 


IN    TNAAELVE    VOLUMES  — VOL.    11 


CHICAGO : 

The  World  Railway  Publishing  Company. 

1894. 


copyeight  by 
The  World  Railway  Publishing  Company. 

1894. 
AH  rights  reserved. 


3?S 


PRIMITIVE  CARRIAGE. 


The  illustrations  of  iDrimitive  carriage  con- 
tained in  this  and  the  accompanying  books  will 
excite  various  degrees  of  interest.  But  in  regard 
to  one  phase  of  the  subject  I  think  there  will,  in 
the  end,  be  no  difference  of  opinion,  namely,  that 
in  picturesqueness  and  variety  of  method  the 
carriers  of  India  surpass  all  others  of  the  world; 
the  architecture  of  the  country;  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  people,  their  dress,  habits  and 
picturesque  means  of  transportation,  make  India 
a  never  ending  panorama  of  beauty  and  varied- 
ness.  The  magnificence  of  the  elephant  as  a 
carrier  adds  to  the  beauty  and  impressiveness  of 
the  scene.  The  camel,  while  less  impressive,  in 
his  trappings  and  leonine  aspect  divides  with  the 
elephant  our  admiration  and  never  ending  in- 
terest. Even  the  cattle  used  in  India  as  carriers 
are  different  from  others  in  conformation  and 
stature;  they  vie  with  the  horse  not  only  in  size 
but  as  travelers,  being  able  to  draw  the  same 
load  as  he  and  keep  pace  with  him  on  the  public 
highway.  From  whatever  standpoint  we  view 
the  native  of  India,  he  is  interesting,  picturesque 
and  unique. 

(3) 


4  PBIMITIVE  CABBIAGE. 

Directly  the  reverse  of  India,  Africa  is  the 
least  varied  in  its  methods  of  carriage;  there 
primitive  forms  peculiar  to  savage  peoples  still 
generally  predominate,  and  it  is  to  Africa,  conse- 
quently, that  we  must  go  to  find  in  its  most 
perfect  state  the  germ  of  transportation.  Here 
the  labors  of  carriage  that  are  elsewhere  per- 
formed by  animals  or  the  mechanical  con- 
trivances of  man,  are  still  borne  by  men  and 
women.  In  every  country,  however,  it  will  be 
observed,  primitive  methods  of  transportation 
are  still  more  or  less  practiced;  but  the  burdens 
are  light  and  the  service  local.  In  the  interior  of 
Africa,  however,  all  the  drudgery  connected  with 
the  carriage  of  passengers  and  goods,  far  and 
near,  is  borne  by  men  and  women. 

In  the  ten  volumes  that  succeed  this,  the 
reader  will  find  the  Illustrations  of  Primitive 
Carriage  to  grow  in  number  and  interest.  Nearly 
a  third  of  a  century  has  been  occupied  in  mak- 
ing the  collection  of  these  beautiful  pictures. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

I.  Capitalization — Basis  and  method  of  capitalization         17 

II.  Capitalization — Method  of  capitalization  and  man- 

agement in  different  countries, 33 

III.  Capitalization — Relation  of  capital  to  earnings  and 

expenses, 47 

IV.  Capitalization — Relation  of  different  securities  to 

each  other, •         55 

V.  Capitalization — The  so-called  "  watered  "  stock  of 

railroads, 71 

VI.  Capitalization — Advice  to   foreign  and   other  in- 
vestors in  railway  securities, 81 

VII.  Capitalization — ( "apital  stock  and  shareholders,     .         89 

VIII.  Capitalization — Details  of  mortgage  bonds,  leases, 

etc., 97 

IX.  Capitalization — Particulars  of  sinking  funds,    .      .  107 

X.  Construction — Railway  construction  and  evolution,  113 

XI.  Construction — Methods  of  construction,       .     .     .  131 

XII.  Construction — Particulars  of  construction.  .  149 

(5) 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK.  PAGE. 

XIII.  Coirstruction — Elements  of  construction,      .     .      .       167 

XIV.  Maintenance — Cost  dependent  upon  supplies,  ap- 

pliances, traffic,  physical  conditions  and  orirani- 
zation, 175 

XV.  Maintenance — Cost  of  operating  affected  by  con- 
struction features, 183 

XVI.  Maintenance — Elements  of  cost  of  operating,    .      .       197 

XVII.  iSIainteuance— Elements  that  affect  cost  of  oper- 
ating— Terminal  charges, 213 

XVIII.  Maintenance — Unalterable   expenses  of    operation 

— Fixed  expenses, 223 

XIX.  Maintenance — Cost  of  operating  affected  by  facili- 
ties,        241 

XX.  Maintenance — Taxation, 251 

XXI.  Maintenance — Cost  arising  from  natural  decay  and 

traffic — Various  details  of  maintenance,    .     .     .       281 

XXII.  Maintenance — Things  involved  therein  with  espe- 
cial reference  to  track  details — Snow  and  ice,  rails, 
joints,  spikes,  splice  bars,  plates,  alignment,  pre- 
miums, and  other  matters, 335 

XXIII.  Maintenance — The  use  of  wood  by  railways — How 

it  may  be  preserved — Its  substitutes — Metal  ties — 
Investigations  of  governments  and  experiences 
of  railways, 381 

XXIV.  Maintenance — The  construction,  maintenance  and 

care  of  a  roadway  and  track, 407 

XXV.  The  railway  track  and  its  evolution, 463 


CONTENTS.  7 

PACE. 

Appendixes  : 

Appendix  A— English  methods  of  capitalization      50") 

Appendix  B— Exhibit  showing  the  relation  that 
the  cost  of  various  classes  of  track  labor  bear 
to  each  other. 509 

Appendix  (' — Exhibit  showing  the  relation  that 
the  various  classes  of  maintenance  bear  to  the 
total  cost  of  maintenance, 510 

Appendix  D— Exhibit  showing  the  percentage  of 
the  total  cost  of  oi)erating  that  is  due  to  main- 
tenance of  organization  and  the  prevention  of 
destruction  of  a  property  from  natural  causes,      511 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Frontispiece— The  Post  of  the  Desert. 

Carriage  in  Africa, 18 

Zulu  Carrier,         ........  24 

Primitive  Carrier, 30 

Carriage  in  Ancient  Assyria, 32 

Kaffir  Carriers, 36 

Madagascar  Carrier,              42 

Armenian  Carriage, 49 

Thibet  Carriers  (Yaks), 53 

Carriage  in  India,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  58 

Tartar  Carrier, G4 

Carriage  in  Ancient  Egypt, 68 

Medieval  Carriage, 70 

Dutch  Carrier,  16th  Century,            ....  73 

Carriage  in  Chile, 78 

Carriage  in  Arabia, 80 

Chariot— Ancient  Britain 82 

Prankish  King  and  Queen,  8th  Century,  ...  86 

Carriage  in  Agra,  India, 88 

Burmese  Carriers, 90 

Rural  Carriage,  Turkey, 94 

Carriage  in  Lower  Egypt, 98 

Transportation  in  Greenland, 106 

Indian  (American)  Carrier, 109 

Carriage  in  India, 112 

Carriage  in  Bengal, 114 

(9) 


10  LIST  OF  ILL  US  TEA  TIONS. 

PAGE 

Carriage  in  Central  Asia, 118 

Carrier  of  Moroe-co, 124 

Spanish  Form  of  Carriage,  16th  Century,      .         .         .  128 
Chinese  Emperor's  Carriage,  IGth  Century,       .         .        133 

Carrier  of  Constantinople, 138 

Carriage  in  the  Arctic  Eegions,  ....       144 

Carriage  in  Terai, 148 

Carriage  in  Servia, 151 

Rural  Carriage,     .         .         .         •         .         -         •         .154 

Transportation  in  Gibraltar, 160 

Carriage  in  India,         .......  166 

Carriage  in  Madras, 168 

Carriage  on  Cabul  Eiver, 172 

Carriage  in  Ancient  Japan, 176 

Carriage  in  the  Middle  Ages, ISO 

Carriage  in  the  Society  Islands,        ....       184 

Carriage  in  Venice,       .......  188 

Carriage  on  the  Nile,         ......        192 

Carriage  in  Interior  Hungary, 196 

Carriage  on  the  Hudson,  ......        202 

Cantalever  Bridge, 205 

Truss  Bridge, 209 

Carriage  on  the  Coast  of  Normandy,    ....  212 

Steam  Shovel, 214 

Construction  Cars, 219 

Ballast  Car, 222 

Kail  Car, 224 

Wire  Fence, 227 

Cattle  Guard, 232 

Snow  Shed, 237 

Carriage  in  Central  Asia, 240 

Water  Tank, 243 

Modern  Locomotive  Supply  Station,    ....  246 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTIiATFONS. 


11 


PAGE 

Cameron's  Tramway  Car, 

250 

Kail  Joint,    . 

252 

Spike,       .... 

258 

Spike,  .... 

263 

Action  of  Spike  on  Tie,    . 

268 

Track  Bolt,  . 

273 

Action  of  Kail  on  Tie, 

276 

Kail  on  Tie  Plate, 

•■••••    Jia 

Track  Level,     . 

282 

Tender  Picking  up  Water  from  Feed  Trough  (English),  287 

Hand  Car, 

292 

Hand  Car,     . 

297 

Sail  ( !'ar,  .  '       . 

302 

Track  Inspection  Car,  . 

307 

Flat  Car,  .... 

312 

Flat  Car  with  Stakes, 

317 

Box  Car, 

322 

Gondola  Car,    . 

327 

Stock  Car,     . 

333 

Tank  Car, 

336 

Stock  Car,    . 

340 

Logging  Truck, 

345 

Car  Replacing  Device,  . 

351 

Clearing  Track  of  Snow, 

350 

Coupling  Link  and  Pin, 

362 

Automatic  Coupler, 

3G6 

Continuous  Draw-bar, 

370 

Car  Wheel  (Paper), 

377 

Action  of  Wheel  on  Rail  Joint, 382 

Journal  Bearing, 

....        388 

Freight  Truck,     . 

....  394 

Passenger  Truck, 

398 

Brake, 

400 

12 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTBATIONS. 


Lubricating  Device, 
Lubricating  Device, 
Carriage  in  Western  Africa, 
Track  Gauge, 


Keplacer,  ...... 

Track  Jack,  ...... 

Track  Drill, 

Track  Drill, 

Track  Saw, 

Car  Seal, 

Bumping  Post,  ..... 

Miller  Platform,    ...... 

Safety  Gates  on  Passenger  Coach,     . 

Vestibuled  Car, 

Vestibuled  Tender,  .... 

Steam  Snow  Plow, 

Steam  Road  Carriage,  A.  D.  1827,     . 

Eight  Wheel  Passenger  Locomotive,  A.  D.  1894, 

Locomotive,  A.  D.  1894,    .... 

Carriage  in  Saxony, 

Edge  Rail,  A.  D.  1789,        .... 

Edge  Rail,  A.  D.  1797, 

Tram  Rail,  A.  D.  ISOl,       . 
Hexagonal  Rail,  A.  D.  1802,  .... 
Tram  Rail,  A.  D.  1803,       .... 
Concave  Rail  for  Wagons,  A.  D.  1803,   . 
Tram  Rail,  A.  D.  1804,       .... 
Wrought  (rolled)  Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1811, 
Wrought  Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1820, 

Edge  Rail,  A.  D.  1816, 

Fish-Belly  Rail,  A.  D.  1829, 
English  Rolled  Rail,  A.  D.  1833,    . 
Stevens  Rail,  A.  D.  1830,  .... 


PAGE 

403 
.  404 

406 
.  408 

411 
.  414 

416 
.  419 

422 
.  424 

427 
.  429 

433 
.  430 

439 
,  443 

446 
.  448 

452 
.  462 

464 
.  464 

464 
.  465 

465 
.  465 

466 
.  467 

467 
.  467 

467 
.  408 

468 


LIST  OF  U.LUSTRA  TIONS.  13 

PAGE 

Englif^h  Fislj-Belly  Rail,  A.  D.  1832,  .  .  .  .469 
Stone  Stringer  :uul  Strap  Rail,  A.  D.  1833,  .  .  409 
Standaril  Track,  Canuleii  c^-  Ambo.y  Railroad,  A.  D.  1837,  470 
Track,  Camden  <S'  Aniboy  Railroad,  A.  D.  1837,  .  470 
Stevens  Rail  and  Cast  Iron  Chair,  A.  D.  1837,  .  .  471 
Wooden  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  A.  D.  1837,    .         .        471 

Rectangular  Rail,  A.  D.  1838, 472 

Stevens  Rail,  A.  D.  1841, .472 

Compound  Rail,  Wood  and  Iron,  A.  D,  1841,  .  .  473 
First  Rail  Rolled  in  America,  A.  D.  1844,  ...  473 
Ninety-two  Pound  Rail,  A.  I).  1848,       .         .         .         .474 

T  Rail,  A.  1).  1850, 474 

T  liail,  A.  D.  1855, 474 

Sixty-two  Pound  Pear-IIeaded  Rail,  A.  D.  1853,        .        474 

Stevens  Rail,  A.  D.  1854, 475 

Pear-Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, 475 

Pear-IIeaded  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, 475 

Pear-IIeaded  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, 475 

Pear-Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, 475 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855,      .....        475 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, ......  476 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855,      .....        476 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, ......  476 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855,      .....        476 

Box  Rail,  A.  D.  1855, 476 

Stevens  Rail,  A.  D,  1855, 477 

Barlow's  "Saddle  Back"  Rail,  A.  D.  1856,  .  .  .477 
Wooden  Stringer,  Capped  with  Iron,  A.  D.  1857,  .  478 
Seventy-three  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1857,  .         .         .         .478 

Bull-Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1858, 478 

Bull-Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1858, 479 

Bull-Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1858, 479 

Bull-Headed  Rail,  A,  D.  1889, 479 


14 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTBATIONS. 

PAGE 

"Box  Rail."  A.  D.  1858, 479 

Stevens  Rail,  A.  D.  1858, 480 

Fifty  Pound  Ashbel  Welch  Rail,  A.  D.  1866,  .  .  480 
Sixty-two  Pound  Ashbel  Welch  Rail,  A.  D.  1866,  .  .  480 
Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D.  1866,  .        481 

Sixty  Pound  Rail,  A,  D.  1868, 481 

Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D,  1870,  .        481 

Fifty-six  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1870, 481 

Sixty-seven  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1870,  .  ...  482 
Rail  Proposed  by  O.  Chauute,  A.  D.  1874,  .  .  .482 
Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D,  1875,  .        482 

Fifty  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1875, 482 

Sixty-six  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1879,  ....  483 
Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D.  1879,  .  483 
Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D.  1881,  .  483 
Rail, '-Meat-Yard  "Pattern,  A.  D.  1884,  .         .         .483 

Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  A.  D.  1886,  .  484 
Eighty-five  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1887,  .  .  .  .484 
Sixty-seven  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1880,  ....        484 

Sixty-six  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1885, 485 

Stevens  Rail,  A.  D.  1888, 485 

Standard  Rail,  Belgian  Railways,  A.  D.  1889,  .  .  485 
Sixty-six  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1890,      ...         .486 

Seventy  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1890, 486 

Cross  Tie,  Whole  Log  Hewn  Both  Sides,  ...       486 

Cross  Tie,  Split  Half  Log, 486 

Cross  Tie,  Split  Quarter  Log, 486 

English  Permanent  Way, 487 

Metal ''Pot"' Tie  System,  India,  A.  D.  1889,  .  .  487 
Metal  Track,  Queensland,  A.  D.  1889,  .  .  .  .487 
Metal  Track,  England,  A.  D.  1889,  ....  487 
Metal  Track,  England,  A.  D.  1889,  .         .         .         .488 

Metal  Track  System,  Germany,  A.  D.  1889,      .         .       488 


LIST  OF  lI.LUsr RAT  IONS.  16 

PAGE 

Metal  Track,  Belgium,  A.  I>.  1889,  .         .         .         .488 

MetalTrack,  Holland,  A.D.I  889,     ....  488 

Metal  Track,  Egypt,  A.  D.  1889, 488 

Metal  Track,  France,  A.  D.  1889,       ....  489 
Metal  Track,  Germany,  A.  D.  1889,        .         .         .         .489 

Metal  Track,  Argentine  Rei)u))lic,  A.  D.  1889,  .         .  489 

Metal  Track,  Spain,  A.  D.  1889, 489 

Steel  Tie  and  Permanent  Way,  England,  A.  D.  1885,  490 

Half-Lap  Joint,  Hetton  Rail,  A.  D.  1824,        .         .         .  491 

StoneBlock,  Rail  and  Joint  Tongue,  A.  1).  1831,       .  491 

Joint  Chair  and  Wedge,  A.  1).  1832,       ....  491 

Ring,  Joint  and  Wedge, 492 

Single  Splice  Bar  for  Rail,  A.  D.  1855,  ....  492 

Double  Splice  Bar  for  Rail,  A.  D.  185G,     ...  492 

Rail,  Ends  Stamped  for  Bracket  Splice,  A.  D.  1857,       .  493 

Double  Splice  Bar  for  Rail,  A.  D.  1857,     ...  493 

Wooden  Joint  Block,  A.  D.  1860, 494 

Joint  Fixture,  A.  D.  18G9, 494 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1868, 495 

Plain  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1870, 495 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1875, 495 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1879, 496 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1880, 496 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1885, 497 

Fisher  &  Norris  Joint  Fixture,  A.  D.  1888,    .         .         .497 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1890, 498 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1890, 498 

Double  Angle  Sayre-Fritz  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1890,     .  499 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1890, 499 

The  First  Frog, 499 

Frogs,  A.  D.  1825, 500 

Switches,  A.  D.  1825, 500 

Frog,  about  A.  D.  1835, 500 


16  LIST  OF  IL  L  US  TEA  TIOiYS. 

PAGE 

Rjiil  Frog,  A.  D.  1859, 501 

A  Staple  Iron  used  as  a  Makeshift  for  a  Frog,  A.  D.  1831,  501 
Switch,  with  "Ball"  Counterweight,        ...        502 

Cross-Over,  A,  D.  1894, 502 

Frog,  A.  D.  1894, 502 

Split  Switch,  A.  D.  1894, 502 


SCIENCE  OF   RAILWAYS. 


CHAPTEK     I. 

CAPITALIZATION — BASIS     AND    METHOD   OF   CAPITALI- 
ZATION. 

The  risks  that  attend  the  investment  of  capital 
in  new  railroads  or  the  improvement  of  old 
ones  where  the  return  is  doubtful,  enforce  abnor- 
mal rates  of  interest.  The  discount  suffered  in 
disposing  of  securities  under  such  circumstances 
will  depend,  as  in  other  cases,  on  the  plentiful- 
ness  of  money  and  the  probal)le  productive- 
ness of  the  property,  the  latter  being  under 
rather  than  over  estimated.  When  money  is 
scarce  or  the  security  doubtful,  or  the  temper  of 
the  people  unfriendly,  the  rate  of  interest  on 
railway  securities  will  be  high  and  the  price  that 
they  will  bring  will  be  low. 

The  influences  that  affect  the  capitalization  of 
railways  are  very  imperfectly  understood,  and 
the  methods  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  follow 
in  order  to  secure  the  money  needed  in  the  con- 
struction of  these  enterprises  have  been,  and  are 
still,  severely  and  unjustly  criticised.  Criticism 
is  not  confined  to  any  particular  country.    It  is 

(17) 

9 


18 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


Carriage  iu  Africa. 


OAPITALIZA  TION.  19 

the  common  property  of  idealists  everywhere. 
The  practical  realities  of  life  never  conform  to 
the  illusions  of  these  people.  They  approach 
business  propositions  in  the  spirit  that  a  child 
does  the  construction  of  a  block  house,  or  the 
mathematician  the  solution  of  a  problem  wherein 
the  processes  are  preconceived  and  the  result 
always  the  same.  The  necessities  of  business 
and  the  compromises  of  conflicting  interests 
they  know  nothing  about  and  do  not  regard;  dif- 
ferent circumstances  and  surroundings  are  as  if 
they  were  not;  the  peculiarities  of  men  and  the 
requirements  of  capital  cut  no  figure  in  their 
child  world.  It  is  their  happy  fortune  to  be 
always  superior  to  facts.  They  live  in  a  Utopia, 
a  world  quite  apart,  where  men  are  not  led  to 
achieve  results  because  of  a  love  of  money, 
but  are  animated  by  a  lofty  public  spirit;  a 
world  where  mankind  labor  for  the  public  good 
while  their  children  starve.  This  class  com- 
prises a  large  number,  but  not  all  who  criticise 
railroad  corporations.  It  looks  upon  itself  as  a 
public  guardian.  To  it  the  acquisition  of  wealth 
in  railroads  is  treated  as  a  misfortune  and  not  a 
thing  in  which  the  people  equally  share.  It  speaks 
of  railway  corporations  indifferently  as  extortion- 
ists and  railway  managers  as  robbers.  It  does 
not  recognize  that  owners  have  either  wisdom 
or  honesty.  Naturally,  it  is  a  warm  advocate  of 
public  interference,  public  supervision,  public 
regulation. 
Generally  speaking,  the  capitalization  of  rail- 


20  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

ways  represents  their  cost,  neither  more  nor  less. 
It  includes  commissions  paid,  interest  during  the 
period  of  construction,  and  discount  suffered  on 
the  securities  sold.  If  the  credit  of  a  company 
is  such  as  to  enable  it  to  sell  its  securities  at  a 
premium,  the  amount  realized  goes  to  reduce 
capital. 

Cost  per  mile  varies  greatly  upon  different 
roads;  the  extent  of  a  property,  it  is  apparent, 
depends  on  the  industrial  character  of  the 
country  and  the  traffic  to  be  handled.  Cost  is 
especially  affected  by  alignment,  grades,  price  of 
material,  labor,  sidings,  amount  of  equipment, 
and  right  of  way.  Many  items  of  cost  are  af- 
fected favorably  or  otherwise  by  the  nearness  or 
remoteness  of  markets.  How  far,  if  at  all,  a 
company  may  issue  shares  to  its  owners  at  par 
to  cover  construction  work,  when  such  shares 
command  a  premium,  is  a  subject  about  which 
men  differ.  In  some  cases  the  practice  is  fol- 
lowed ;  in  others  it  is  forbidden  by  law. 

The  relative  increase  of  capital  account  per 
mile  since  the  inauguration  of  railways  has  been 
much  greater  in  England  than  elsewhere.  This 
is  attributable  partly  to  extraordinary  outlays 
for  new  facilities  at  terminal  points  and  partly 
to  large  investments  in  collateral  enterprises. 
The  comparatively  small  increase  in  the  United 
States  is  owing,  in  a  measure,  to  the  fact  that 
much  of  the  construction  work  has  been  paid  for 
out  of  earnings  and  has  not  yet  been  capitalized. 
In  other  words,  profits  instead  of  being  divided 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  21 

in  full  among  owners,  in  the  shape  of  dividends, 
have  been  used  to  make  improvements. 

The  basis  of  capitalization  of  railways  is  cost. 
If  America  has  departed  from  this  rule,  it  has 
been  on  the  safe  side,  on  the  side  of  reduced 
capitalization.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
theories  and  general  impressions  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

In  reference  to  the  methods  of  raising  money 
for  the  construction  and  improvement  of  rail- 
way properties,  they  vary  so  greatly  that  it  is 
hardly  worth  while  to  attempt  a  description  of 
them.  Railways  are,  however,  coming  more  and 
more  to  be  built  under  the  subvention  of  com- 
panies already  well  established.  These  latter 
are  guarantors.  In  many  instances  they  issue 
their  own  securities,  hypothecating  those  of  the 
new  enterprises.  Thus  the  latter  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  credit  of  the  established  company. 

The  importance  to  be  attached  to  statements 
and  estimates  of  the  cost  of  railroads  to  be  built 
and  their  probable  productiveness  afterward, 
depend  upon  the  Character  and  Experience  of 
the  men  making  them,  the  location  of  the  prop- 
erty, and  the  care  with  which  surveys  are  made. 
It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  for  cost  to  be  double 
or  treble  the  estimates,  thus  compelling  those 
who  have  provided  money  to  put  up  the  added 
amount  in  the  hope  of  saving  that  already  fur- 
nished. Investors  should,  therefore,  always 
scrutinize  the  character  and  practical  knowledge 
of  men  back  of  railway  enterprises. 


22  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

To  be  of  value,  estimates  of  cost  must  be 
made  by  capable  and  responsible  engineers. 
Abundance  of  time  must  be  taken.  Men  of  en- 
tirely different  experience  and  talent  are  required 
to  forecast  the  future  of  properties.  It  may  be 
done  with  reasonable  accuracy.  The  many  in- 
stances in  which  estimates  of  cost  and  forecasts 
of  business  have  proven  delusive  should  teach 
those  having  money  to  invest  in  enterprises  of 
this  character  to  exercise  circumspection. 

The  value  of  the  securities  of  prospective  rail- 
ways, unless  guaranteed  by  a  stable  concern,  is 
always  more  or  less  a  question  of  doubt.  Such 
properties  are  largely  speculative,  and  like  all 
speculative  enterprises  must  be  liberally  dis- 
counted. They  should  never  come  within  the  do- 
main of  those  who  can  not  risk  the  loss  of  a  part 
or  the  whole  of  their  capital.  They  afford  a  field 
only  for  capitalists  and  others  who  are  able  to  as- 
sume such  risks.  The  extent  of  the  risk  run  in 
the  past,  in  the  United  States,  may  be  seen  in  the 
number  and  character  of  bankrupt  and  unproduct- 
ive railroads.  The  number  of  promoters  and 
speculators  who  by  specious  arguments  and  false 
representations,  have  induced  the  people  of  Eu- 
rope to  invest  in  worthless  railway  securities 
in  the  United  States,  can  liardly  be  counted.  The 
result  has  been  highly  disastrous  to  the  credit  of 
the  country  and  an  enormous  injury  to  the  people 
who  have  placed  confidence  in  their  statements. 

Up  to  this  time  little  has  been  written  aliout 
railroads  by  those  familiar  with  their  practical 


CAriTALIZA  TION.  23 

working.  Men  engaged  in  railroad  work  have 
but  slight  taste  for  such  matters.  Theorists  have 
occupied  the  field.  A  few  phases  of  railway 
administration,  such  as  pools,  accidents  and  rates, 
they  have  been  able  to  grasp.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, confine  themselves  to  such  subjects.  They 
are  cosmopolitan.  Each  has  his  theme,  each  his 
particular  subject.  He  sees  in  it,  however,  the 
all  in  all  of  railway  life.  One  finds  it  in  height- 
ened facilities ;  another  in  abolition  of  class  priv- 
ileges; another  in  better  protection  of  life; 
another  in  lower  charges;  another  in  more  stable 
tariffs;  another  in  the  abolition  of  traffic  distinc- 
tions; another  in  the  abolishment  of  passes; 
another  in  government  supervision;  another  in 
government  ownership;  another  in  the  the  en- 
forcement of  agreements  between  railroad  com- 
panies; another  in  restricted  railway  construction; 
another  in  prevention  of  fictitious  capital; 
another  in  securing  more  adequate  returns 
and  accounts;  another  in  better  management; 
another  in  prevention  of  speculative  tendencies 
on  the  part  of  owners;  another  in  greater  inter- 
est in  the  welfare  of  railway  employes;  another 
in  curbing  the  prejudices  and  passions  of  the 
people;  another  in  preventing  hasty  and  incon- 
siderate legislation.  The  subject  is  an  endless 
one.  Each  writer  pursues  his  theme  with  fervor 
amidst  the  acclaim  of  friends  and  ignorant 
lookers  on.  All  these  writers  are,  in  the  main, 
honest;  all  are  fully  assured  of  the  efficacy  of 
their  panacea;  each  believes  it  to  be  the  thing 


24 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WATS; 


necessary  to  enforce  efficient  service,  shield  the 
innocent  and  punish  the  wrong  doer.  The  most 
of  the  views  thus  put  forth  are  empirical.  They 
take  no  account  of  the  restorative  qualities  of 
nature,  of  natural  adjustment.  A  doctor  is 
necessary!  Wherever  their  advice  is  followed 
bad  matters  are  made  worse. 

Every  fault  in  railway  ad- 
ministration contains  within 
itself  the  germ  of  its  own  cure 
by  natural  means.  When  thus 
the  cure  is  effected,  it  is  equit- 
able and  lasting.  Railway 
critics  will  not,  however,  await 
so  slow  a  process. 

The  capitalization  of  rail- 
way property  has  always  been 
a  favorite  theme  with  writers 
and  speakers.  It  has  not  been 
necessary  for  them  to  know 
anything  about  the  subject; 
they  have  had  simply  to  cry 
injustice,  fraud,  wrong!  How- 
ever, the  capitalization  of  hold- 
ings in  railway  property  has 
been  based  on  equitable  and 
The  exceptions  are  unworthy 
of  notice.  But  they  have  differed  as  widely  as 
the  practices  of  men  in  other  matters.  Thus, 
owners  of  railroads  have  differed  very  much  in 
regard  to  the  disposition  they  have  made  of  their 
surplus  revenue.    In  Europe  it  has  been  very 


Zulu  Carrier. 


business  grounds. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  25 

generally  the  rule  to  divide  it  among  the  pro- 
prietors to  the  last  farthing,  every  cent  spent  for 
construction  being  capitalized  so  that  it  may 
return  something  to  the  owner  from  the  start. 
In  the  United  States  it  has  been  very  generally 
the  custom  of  railway  companies  to  invest  a  por- 
tion of  net  earnings  in  needed  additions  and  im- 
provements.. In  some  cases  this  is  capitalized, 
but  more  often  not.  Such  use  of  a  company's 
surplus  is,  however,  always  in  the  nature  of  a 
loan.  In  making  it,  the  owners  clearly  do  not 
relinquish  the  right  to  recall  it  at  pleasure;  do 
not  relinquish  the  right  to  capitalize  it  whenever 
their  interests  will  be  benefitted  thereby.  Loose 
and  ignorant  writers  sweepingly  designate  in- 
creased capital  of  this  kind  as  watered  stock. 
This  is  wrong  from  every  point  of  view.  Its 
immediate  effect  is  to  greatly  injure  the  owners 
of  railways  in  the  minds  of  the  public.  They 
are  blamed  for  the  actual  benefits  they  confer  on 
the  community.  These  and  kindred  facts  suggest 
the  need  in  the  United  States  of  a  self  respecting 
class  which  will  frown  down  unwarranted  criti- 
cism of  railroad  corporations  with  the  same 
spirit  that  they  would  condemn  efforts  to  destroy 
the  credit  of  merchants,  manufacturers  and 
banks.     The  result  is  equally  bad. 

The  era  of  railway  construction  has  been  one 
of  perpetual  change,  of  financial  evolution; 
periods  of  great  prosperity,  succeeded  by  ex- 
panded values,  followed  by  distressing  reverses. 
It  is  the  same  with  these  properties  as  with  other 


^6  SCIENCE  OF  KAIL  WA  YS; 


great  interests.  Whenever  more  money  is  pat 
into  them  than  the  community  can  spare,  or  it  is 
unwisely  placed,  reaction  follows,  as  in  the  case 
of  over  investment  or  unproductive  outlay  else- 
where. 

The  cost  of  railway  construction  in  the  United 
States  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  it  is  said, 
about  equals  the  savings  of  the  i|)eople  from 
reduced  rates.  The  added  facilities  that  have 
been  needed  have  been  constructed  out  of  profits 
saved  to  the  community.  "Had  the  actual 
quantity  of  merchandise  moved  by  the  railroads 
in  the  year  1S80  been  subjected  to  the  average  rate 
per  ton  per  mile  which  was  charged  from  1866  to 
1869  inclusive,  the  difference  would  have  amount- 
ed to  at  least  five  hundred  millions  of  dollars 
and  perhaps  eight  hundred  millions  of  dollars 
more  than  the  actual  charge  of  1880."* 

Political  economists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
ratio  they  think  the  capital  of  a  railway  should 
bear  to  gross  earnings.  It  has  ])een  estimated  that 
it  should  not  exceed  ten  times  the  yearly  receipts.! 

*  Edward  Atkinson,  "  The  Distribution  of  Products,"  page  236. 
To  cite  special  cases,  it  appears  from  statistical  returns  that  the 
reduction  in  rates  in  Xew  York  for  1883  as  compared  with  the 
rates  of  1S70  amounted  to  S74.ri49.000,  and  in  Ohio  to  S89.400.000. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  reduction  of  rates  {i.  e.,  the  amount 
saved  to  the  people)  in  the  year  1SS3  for  the  country  at  large 
amounted  to  §400.000,000.  ^I-  ^I-  K. 

t"It  has  been  held  by  high  financial  authorities  that,  iu  order 
to  be  a  commercial  success,  a  railway  shoulil  not  cost  more  than 
ten  times  tlie  amount  of  its  yearly  traffic;  or  in  other  words,  the 
annual  traffic  should  be  10  per  cent,  of  its  capital  cost."—/.  S. 
Jeans,  '■'Bailwaij  Problems"  page  23. 


CAPITALIZA  TIOK  27 

Estimates  of  this  kind  are,  in  the  main,  unprofit- 
able and  harmful.  The  cost  of  operating,  quite 
as  much  as  the  earnings  of  a  railroad,  determines 
the  percentage  of  profit.  So  long  as  it  costs  in 
one  case  fifty  per  cent,  of  gross  earnings,  and  in 
another  seventy  per  cent.,  to  operate  a  property, 
it  is  apparent  that  no  uniform  standard  of  capi- 
talization based  on  gross  earnings  is  possible.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  a  safe  statement  to  make  to 
say  that  a  property  should  not  be  capitalized 
beyond  a  moderate  return  on  its  business.  Cost 
should  be  restricted  as  much  as  possible  consist- 
ently with  the  object  the  property  is  intended  to 
serve. 

The  excessive  cost  of  operating  the  English 
roads  consequent  upon  their  prodigal  outlay  for 
safety  appliances  is  said  to  seriously  cripple 
England's  internal  industries,  rates  being  neces- 
sarily so  high  as  to  prevent  competition  with 
more  favored  localities.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
low  rates  of  American  railways  will  ultimately 
drive  the  interior  manufacturers  of  England  out 
of  the  market  if  their  carriers  do  not  find  a  way 
to  reduce  rates.  America  is  indel)ted  for  her  low 
rates  to  free  railway  construction  and  active  com- 
petition. England  has  not  been  subjected  to  the 
stimulating  effect  of  the  former.  The  extra 
safety  devices  of  English  roads  have  added  much 
l)oth  to  cost  of  construction  and  working.  The 
hypothetical  safeguards  there  thrown  around  life 
have  grievously  l)urdened  the  country  at  large; 
they  have  made  the  cost  of  food  and  clothing  dear 


28  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

in  order  that  the  reckless  aud  careless  in  the  com- 
munity may  not  be  rim  over;  they  have  denied  the 
poor  many  necessities  and  comforts  of  life  in  order 
that  the  absent  minded,  the  tramp  and  the  drunk- 
ard may  be  safe.  This  is  an  extreme  way  to  state 
the  case,  but  its  essence  is  true. 

It  is  fashionable  to  claim  that  every  safety  de- 
vice introduced  is  a  gain — a  step  forward.  This 
is  a  superficial  way  of  viewing  it.  Practically 
every  safety  device  that  adds  to  the  cost  of  doing 
business  (over  and  above  its  savings)  is  a  Per- 
petual Tax  on  the  community.  It  is  like  money 
sunk  in  any  other  enterprise  that  does  not  yield  a 
return.  It  is  in  matters  of  this  kind  that  the  prac- 
tical common  sense  of  business  men  is  a  safer 
guide  than  the  theories  of  the  engineer  or  publi- 
cist. The  business  man  provides  only  when  the 
urgency  is  great;  Avhen  the  time  rii^e.  The  others 
provide  as  a  matter  of  course  wherever  necessary 
to  perfection.  In  the  case  of  the  engineer,  per- 
fection is  necessary  to  substantiate  his  skill  and 
reputation.  He  is  an  idealist.  Cost  is  a  secondary 
matter.  Nor  do  governments  or  communities 
stop  to  think  of  the  outlay;  they  simply  know 
that  an  additional  safeguard  may  be  made  avail- 
able; the  hardships  that  unwise  expenditure  of 
capital  engenders,  the  industries  it  prevents,  the 
heightened  cost  of  food  and  clothes  it  entails, 
they  do  not  for  a  moment  consider.* 

*  The  matter  of  the  safet  j-  appliances  of  railways  finds  more 
proper  reference  in  the  volume  on  "Operation  of  Traius."  I 
can  not  forbear,  however,  referring  to  it  here.    The  disposition 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  29 

The  safety  appliances  of  railroads  resolve 
themselves  finally,  like  everything  else,  into  a 
purely  practical  question,  a  question  of  finance. 
Governments  will  not,  however,  view  the  subject 
as  a  practical  one.  To  them  a  thousand  people 
starving  in  silence  is  not  so  distressing  as  the 
dramatic  death  of  a  single  man  at  some  railway 
crossing.  The  subject  should  be  stripped  of  sen- 
timent. The  limit  of  expenditure  for  safety  ap- 
pliances can  not  be  fixed.  It  must  be  determined 
for  each  property  apart.  It  should  go  as  far  as 
circumstances  warrant,  no  further.  And  in 
making  such  expenditures  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  every  dollar  saved  to  the  owners  of 
railroads  in  this  direction  is  a  dollar  laid  away 
for  business  purposes,  for  future  improvements, 
to  build  and  operate  railroads,  factories,  mercan- 
tile houses,  and  to  endow  hospitals,  schools  and 
kindred  institutions. 


to  sink  monej'  in  romantic  efforts  to  surround  life  on  railroads 
with  safeguards  not  esteemed  necessary  on  our  common  high- 
ways, strikes  nie  as  heing  the  acme  of  extravagance  and  folly. 
Thus,  the  block  system  has  been  made  compulsory,  practically,  on 
all  Englisli  railroads.  Its  effect,  while  satisfying  the  romantic 
element  of  society,  strikes  those  less  emotional  with  a  chill.  It 
greatlj^  increases  the  cost  of  operating  and  thus  renders  the  prof- 
itable working  of  many  properties  very  difficult.  It  also  absorbs 
money  needed  for  other  and  more  necessary  things.  The  action 
of  the  British  government  in  making  every  road  conform  to  a 
particular  system  is  in  accordance  with  governmental  methods;  in 
accordance  with  their  craze  for  imiformity.  If.  instead  of  mak- 
ing the  poor  roads  conform  to  the  block  system,  it  had  prescribed 
a  reduction  in  the  speed  of  trains  and  adopted  other  simple  de- 
vices, it  would  have  shown  greater  practical  sense  and  interest  in 
the  people.     But  its  action  would  not  have  been  so  dramatic. 


30 


SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 


Many  countries  seek  systematically  to  prevent 
extravagant  railroad  construction  by  methods  of 
capitalization.  Thus,  England  sought  through 
the  law  to  compel  tv^o-thirds  of  the  money  to  be 
raised  by  the  sale  of  stock;  only  one-third  could 
be  raised  by  bonds  or  debentures.  In  the  United 
States,  on  the  other  hand,  ninety-nine  per  cent, 
of  the  cost  has  more  generally  than  otherwise 

been  raised  by  bonds;  indeed, 
as  a  rule,  its  railways  are  con- 
structed entirely  from  the  pro- 
ceeds of  bonds.  The  difference 
in  practice  does  not  imply 
wrong.  It  is  necessitated  by 
different  conditions.  In  one 
case  the  investment  has  been 
practically  secure,  in  the  other 
speculative;  in  one  country 
money  has  been  plentiful,  in 
the  other  it  has  been  scarce. 
Differences  in  method  of 
capitalization  in  England  and  America  are  not 
more  noticeable  than  differences  in  cost.  Greater 
cost  in  the  former  country  is  occasioned  largely 
by  the  high  price  paid  for  right  of  way  and  the 
ideal  thoroughness  with  which  the  work  is  done 
before  the  roads  are  thrown  open  for  business. 
Government  aid  has  been  a  factor  in  railway 
construction  on  the  continent;  in  Great  Britain, 
however,  the  government  has  never  in  a  single 
instance  guaranteed  the  debt  of  a  railroad.  The 
wealth,  courage  and  commercial  enterprise  of  the 


Primitive  Carrier. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  81 

people  have  rendered  such  a  course  unneces- 
sary. Guarantees  have,  however,  been  freely 
made  in  tlie  British  colonies.  In  all  new  coun- 
tries the  aid  extended  to  railroad  companies 
commonly  takes  the  form  of  concessions  of  land 
and  local  assistance.  This  is  the  form  it  has 
taken  in  the  United  States,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  Pacific  roads,  which  the  government,  for 
political  reasons,  aided  by  guarantees. 

The  gro.wth  of  railway  enterprise  is  not  uni- 
form. Thus,  the  rate  of  increase  has  been  in  re- 
cent years  much  greater  in  the  United  States 
than  in  England.  For  the  fifteen  years  ending 
1884  the  increase  was  one  hundred  and  ninety 
per  cent,  in  the  former  and  only  forty-five  per 
cent,  in  the  latter.*  In  considering  these  great 
advances,  so  important  to  the  development  of 
the  country,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  they 
are  the  outgrowth  of  individual  enterprise;  are 
wdioUy  due  to  the  foresight,  courage  and  savings 
of  private  citizens  unaided  by  the  government. 

*  J,  S,  Jeans,  "  Bailway  Problems,"  page  28, 


(32) 


CHAPTEK    II. 

CAPITALIZATION  —  METHOD   OF    CAPITALIZATION    AND 
MANAGEMENT   IN    DIFFERENT    COUNTRIES. 

Wide  fluctuations  in  the  dividends  of  railroads 
suggest  many  widely  different  causes.  In  the 
case  of  corporations  paying  small  dividends,  or 
paying  no  dividends  at  all,  we  are  led  to  enquire: 
Were  the  roads  needed;  were  they  built  in  advance 
of  their  time;  will  they  ultimately  be  productive; 
were  they  wisely  located  and  properly  con- 
structed; are  they  efficiently  managed;  are  they 
oppressed  by  the  government;  are  they  permitted 
to  base  their  rates  on  Economic  Laws,  on  what 
the  traffic  will  bear,  or  are  they  treated  as  things 
apart? 

The  productiveness  of  railway  property  varies 
greatly  in  different  sections  of  the  same  country. 
Thus  the  average  for  the  northwestern  portion  of 
the  United  States  has  been  scarcely  one-third 
what  it  has  been  in  the  eastern  states.  The 
agrarian  spirit  that  characterized  that  section  at 
one  time  seemed  likely  to  increase  the  disparity 
rather  than  diminish  it.  Happily  conditions  have 
changed,  so  that  it  is  probable  in  the  course  of 
time  that  the  railroads  of  this  section  will  be  as 
productive  as  any  in  the  world. 

(33) 
8 


84  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

Under  normal  conditions  railway  investments 
should  grow  steadily  stronger,  steadily  better, 
because  the  property  should  grow  stronger  with 
the  development  of  the  country  it  does  so  much 
to  occasion.  Wherever  improvement  is  lacking, 
it  indicates  want  of  commercial  enterprise,  or 
other  unfavorable  influences. 

The  English  companies  have  very  generally  paid 
dividends  from  the  start.  No  American  company 
has  done  this,  and  only  the  higher  classes  have 
made  any  return  on  their  stock  up  to  this  time. 
Only  the  securities  of  these  last  are  consequently 
generally  dealt  in  by  the  public — and  these  only 
to  a  limited  extent.  Wide  fluctuations  in  the 
price  of  railway  securities  have  caused  the  Amer- 
ican public  to  generally  distrust  them.  Mortgage 
bonds  have  been  the  favorite  form  of  investment. 
In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  capital  stock  has 
been  the  popular  form.  With  the  growing  cost 
of  railroads  and  increased  capitalization,  however, 
debenture  stock  (which  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
a  mortgage)  is  taking  its  place. 

The  growth  of  railways,  both  in  mileage  and 
productiveness,  has  been  greater  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  other  country.  This  result 
has  been  achieved  without  injury  to  any  and  with 
advantage  to  all.  Improved  methods  of  business 
have  kept  pace  with  increased  growth,  while  de- 
crease in  rates  has  been  steady  and  marked. 
'This  decrease  amounts  at  this  time  to  about 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  original  sum.  Reductions 
in  rates  have  been  scarcely  perceptible  in  other 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  35 

countries.  How  much  further  progress  will  be 
possible  iu  America,  it  is  impossible  now  to  tell. 
Much  will  depend  upon  the  law  making  power 
and  the  spirit  in  which  the  laws  are  enforced. 
Both  must  conform  to  the  laws  of  trade  and  the 
commercial  needs  of  the  country. 

The  ability  of  a  railroad  company  to  capitalize 
its  property  on  favorable  terms  depends  upon  the 
plentifulness  of  money,  upon  the  security  offered 
and  the  confidence  felt  in  the  ability  of  the 
property  to  earn  a  return  on  the  investment.  The 
last,  it  is  manifest,  depends  upon  the  productive- 
ness of  the  country,  its  friendliness,  the  economy 
and  skill  used  in  construction  and,  finally,  the 
experience  and  fidelity  of  managers.  This  last, 
generally  speaking,  may  be  said  to  be  assured. 

There  is  no  difference,  so  far  as  injury  to  the 
public  is  concerned,  between  improvident  man- 
agement of  private  owners  and  that  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Productiveness  is  the  sine  qua  iion  of 
property,  of  railroads  as  well  as  of  everything 
else.  Railroads  that  will  not  pay  a  return  on 
the  capital  invested  should  not  be  built.  The 
injury  that  a  community  suffers  from  the  con- 
struction of  unproductive  roads,  extravagant, 
wasteful,  inexperienced,  unfaithful  or  reckless 
management,  can  not  be  measured  in  dollars 
and  cents;  it  finds  reflection,  however,  in  the 
market  value  of  the  securities  of  such  properties. 

Every  dollar  lost  or  wasted  in  railway  con- 
struction or  administration  impoverishes  the 
owner  and  the  community  to  that  extent.     If 


36 


SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 


roads  do  not  earn  what  they  might  be  made  to 
earn,  if  they  cost  more  to  maintain  and  operate 
than  they  should,  the  loss  falls  on  the  owners  and 
through  them  on  the  community.  Railways  that 
do  not  earn  a  return  on  their  capital  are  like  un- 
profitable manufactories,  a  curse  to  the  country. 


Kaffir  Carriers. 

In  the  United  States  and  England,  where  com- 
mercial needs  have  been  left  free  to  govern  the 
construction  of  railroads,  only  such  properties  as 
are  needed  should  have  been  built  and,  conse- 
quently, only  productive  properties  (present  or 
prospective)  should  exist.     That  the  contrary  is 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  37 

s 

true  is  due  to  excessive  enterprise,  the  result 
partly  of  overzeal,  partly  of  speculation. 

Wherever  a  line  is  located  on  other  than  busi- 
ness grounds,  whether  to  conserve  military  or 
other  ends,  it  becomes  a  perpetual  tax  on  the 
community,  just  as  much  as  the  army  or  navy 
of  a  country. 

So  far  as  comparison  can  be  made  between 
governmental  methods  and  those  of  private 
owners,  Germany  makes  the  most  favorable 
showing  for  the  former.  This  is  due  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  its  civil  service  is  the  best  in  the 
world  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  most  pro- 
ductive railways  of  the  country  w^ere  early  taken 
possession  of  by  the  government.  The  interven- 
tion of  the  German  government  has  been  greatly 
influenced  in  many  cases  by  inability  of  govern- 
ment lines  to  compete  successfully  with  those 
owned  by  private  parties.  The  government  was 
compelled  to  absorb  the  latter  in  order  to  save 
what  it  already  had.  In  view  of  this  fact, 
whether  Germany  has  been  benefitted  or  not  by 
the  transfer,  the  reader  may  judge.  Military 
objects  are  also  believed  to  have  influenced  the 
German  government  in  assuming  the  ownership 
and  management  of  railways.  The  experiments 
of  German  officials  with  classifications,  methods 
of  rating  and  other  forms  of  railway  business, 
have  been  such  as  might  be  expected  from  phil- 
osophers and  professors  governing  under  l)ureau- 
cratic  methods  rather  than  commercial  instincts 
and  needs.    The  experiments  have  not  been  such 


88  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

as  to  encourage  further  departures  from  estab- 
lished usages.  The  Germans  are  learning  that 
commercial  laws,  rather  than  a  desire  to  be 
isolated  or  peculiar,  animate  railroads  quite  as 
much  as  they  do  manufacturers. 

Nowhere  do  railroads  cost  so  much  per  mile  as 
in  England.  Correspondingly,  however,  their 
trafhc  is  larger.  The  English  roads  are  honestly 
constructed  and  are  ably  and  efficiently  managed. 
The  return  on  the  capital  invested  is  generally 
satisfactory.*  The  expense  of  operating  English 
roads  is  more  per  train  mile  than  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  is  less  than  in  the  United  States.  The 
average  train  load  is,  however,  much  less  than  in 
the  United  States.  On  the  basis  of  cost  per  ton 
or  per  passenger  per  mile — the  only  true  basis — 
the  expense  of  maintenance  and  working  is  much 
greater  in  England  than  in  America.  The  rela- 
tive cost,  progressively,  per  unit  of  increase  of 
net  revenue  is  also  much  greater  in  England  than 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  United  States  four 
millions  has  been  found  sufficient  to  increase  the 
net  earnings  seventy-two  millions;  in  England 
ten  millions  has  been  needed  to  increase  the  net 
earnings  six  millions. f 

The  difference  in  cost  of  railways  per  mile  in 
the  United  States  as  compared  with  those  of 
Europe,  although  very  large,  is  not  so  great  as 
appears  from  the  accounts.  The  disparity  is  due 
in  part,  as  I  have  explained  elsewhere,  to  the  fact 

■^"Riiilway  Problems,"  page  5G. 

fFor  particulars  in  regard  to  details  of  capitalization  of 
English  railroads,  see  Appendix  A. 


CAPl  TALIZA  TION.  39 

that  much  of  the  construction  work  in  the  United 
States  has  been  paid  for  out  of  net  earnings  and 
is  not  yet  capitalized.  But  after  allowing  for 
this,  the  cost  of  right  of  way  and  station  and 
yard  facilities  in  the  United  States  has  been  very 
much  less  per  mile  of  road  or  unit  of  service 
than  in  any  other  country  w4th  which  its  railway 
system  may  properly  be  compared.  The  cheap- 
ened cost  of  American  roads  is,  however,  in  the 
main  due  to  the  fact  that  the  owners  of  railroads 
were  not  held  to  any  hard  and  fast  rule  by  gov- 
ernment officials  as  regards  bridges,  crossings, 
and  other  details,  but  were  left  free  to  build  ac- 
cording to  their  judgment  of  what  was  best. 
The  country  thus  got  the  benefit  of  their  prudent 
and  economical  methods.  Government  inter- 
ference in  the  United  States  has  come  too  late  to 
make  her  railroads  dear,  but  not  too  late,  if  ill 
advised,  to  make  their  operations  w^asteful  and 
injurious  to  the  country. 

The  policy  that  different  governments  first 
adopted  in  regard  to  railways,  they  have  gener- 
ally followed  to  the  end.  In  some  countries  final 
ownership  by  the  government  was  contemplated 
at  the  start  and  the  thought  that  suggested  the 
idea  has  borne  fruit  in  its  consummation.  New 
authorizations  of  railroads  have  not,  however, 
been  the  same  from  year  to  year,  but  have 
changed  as  experience  or  interest  suggested. 
Thus,  rights  freely  accorded  early  railroads  have 
been  grudgingly  granted  or  wholly  denied  later 
applicants.     But  no  great  hardship  has  followed. 


40  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  Y8; 

In  the  United  States  railroads  are  chartered  by 
the  various  states,  some  under  general  laws,  some 
under  special  acts.  The  railroads,  while  more  or 
less  amenable  to  the  police  regulations  of  every 
township  through  which  they  pass,  are  governed 
generally  by  the  regulations  of  the  state.  Each 
state  has  the  right  to  determine  the  methods  of 
capitalization  of  railroads  within  its  boundaries 
and  fix  the  amount  of  taxes.  The  general  govern- 
ment has  jurisdiction  only  over  interstate  traffic. 
Both  the  general  government  and  the  various 
state  governments  have  commissioners  to  look 
after  their  interests,  respectively.  Their  action 
is  generally  subject  to  revision  by  the  courts. 

In  France  the  railway  system  is  of  a  mixed 
character— it  is  owned  partly  by  the  state  and 
partly  by  private  companies.  Government  inter- 
ference, however,  hg.s  been  very  active.  It  was 
the  original  contemplation  that  all  railways 
accorded  guarantees  and  immunities  by  the 
government  should  become  the  property  of  the 
state  at  the  expiration  of  a  certain  period.  In 
1883,  however,  because  of  the  financial  troubles 
of  the  government  and  the  strong  competitive 
position  of  private  companies,  the  government 
found  it  necessary  to  surrender  the  right  of  pur- 
chase except  upon  practically  prohiliitive  terms. 
In  regard  to  railroads  constructed  after  that  date, 
the  arrangement  in  the  main  is  that  the  compa- 
nies shall  contribute  a  certain  amount  of  money 
per  mile  for  construction  and  equipment,  the 
balance  is  borne  by  the  state,  the  companies, 


CAPITALIZA  TIOK  41 

however,  providing  all  the  money  in  the  first  in- 
stance, the  state  to  make  annual  payments  to  the 
companies  on  account  of  interest  on  the  amount 
advanced  and  to  create  a  sinking  fund  to  extin- 
guish the  principal  by  the  time  the  concessions 
terminate,  when  such  lines  will  become  the 
property  of  the  state.  The  French  government 
designates  the  territory  each  railroad  shall  own 
and  protects  it  therein.  The  larger  portion  of 
the  French  lines  is  owned  and  operated  by  private 
companies,  occupying  distinct  territories.  The 
price  the  public  pays  for  the  intervention  of  the 
French  government  is  absurd,  and  greater  than 
would  1)0  allowed  if  the  value  of  independent 
management  of  railways  was  properly  under- 
stood. Thus,  the  French  government  requires 
the  free  transportation  of  its  mails  and  a  very 
low  rate  for  its  military  and  civil  servants,  and 
in  addition  to  other  enactments,  levies  a  duty  or 
income  tax  amounting  to  ten  per  cent,  on  certain 
classes  of  earnings.  Governmental  interference 
in  France,  like  that  in  Germany,  is  not  such  as 
to  suggest  imitation  elsewhere.  It  has  greatly 
lessened  individual  interest  and,  through  its  cum- 
bersome exactions,  has  materially  modified  rail- 
way enterprise.  The  French  system  is  said  to  be 
extra va-gant  and  top  heavy;  the  government  in 
its  zeal  to  protect  everybody  has  carried  its  in- 
terference in  many  directions  so  far  that  its 
savants  only  understand  the  technicalities  of  the 
service  or  the  rights  of  carrier  and  patron.  Thus, 
business  is  retarded     The  supervisory  power  of 


42  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

the  French  government  is  said  to  be  both  costly 
and  annoying.  Intended  to  protect  the  people, 
it  has  ended  by  becoming  a  l)urden.  But  this  is 
the  effect  of  government  management  every- 
v^here  and  under  all    circumstances.     It  is  not 


Madagascar  Carrier. 

special  to  France.  Its  eilect  is  more  noticeable 
in  the  case  of  railroads  than  in  other  things 
because  of  the  vast  importance  and  complex 
character  of  these  properties.  No  matter  how 
admirable  government  management  may  be,  it 
can  not  be  so  v^ise,  so  attentive,  so  alert  to  the 


CAPITALIZATION.  43 

needs  of  trade  as  private  ownership.  It  is  always 
expensive,  slow,  cumbersome  and  officious. 

The  debenture  or  bond  system  of  capitaliza- 
tion is  more  favorably  viewed  by  the  French 
people  than  any  other.  Stocks,  unless  guaranteed, 
are  too  uncertain  for  these  thrifty  and  cau- 
tious people.  They  require  definite  guarantees; 
specific  agreements  as  to  the  extent  of  the  return 
and  dates  of  payment.  The  French  are  greatly 
to  be  admired.  No  people  are  so  apprehensive 
of  commercial  results  as  they,  so  quick  to  take 
advantage  of  them,  or  so  careful  in  preserving 
the  fruits  of  their  industry,  frugality  and  fore- 
sight. 

Germany  exercises  a  supervision  over  its  rail- 
roads such  as  we  might  expect  from  a  strictly 
military  government.  It  requires  to  be  consulted 
in  advance  in  regard  to  the  route  roads  propose 
to  traverse,  the  nature  of  their  construction  and 
equipment,  capitalization,  sinking  funds  and 
working  arrangements.  The  state  has  from  the 
start  extended  more  or  less  aid  to  its  railroads, 
and  it  has  the  right  to  purchase  at  pleasure,  sub- 
ject to  certain  conditions  as  regards  time  and 
compensation.  The  German  government  enters 
with  military  precision  and  autocratic  power 
into  every  detail  of  operation.  It  undertakes 
to  scrutinize  with  particularity  construction 
work,  fitness,  adequacy  and  handling  of  equip- 
ment, administration  of  property,  expense  of 
operating,  details  of  receipts,  and  finally,  the  in- 
spection of  trains  stations,  and  other  property. 


44  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

Its  admirable  bureaucratic  system,  tne  result  of 
a  century  of  patient  and  systematic  growth  un- 
der a  stable  and  honest  government,  in  a  meas- 
ure redeems  its  operations  from  the  cruel  hard- 
sliips  and  gross  inefficiency  that  generally  char- 
acterize government  management.  But  its  rail- 
roads would  be  operated  with  greater  economy 
and  efficiency  if  left  in  the  hands  of  private 
citizens. 

In  Austria  the  bulk  of  the  railway  securities 
are  guaranteed  by  the  government  and  the  prop- 
erties, save  their  equipment,  revert  to  it  at  the 
expiration  of  ninety  years.  The  Austrian-Hun- 
garian government,  like  that  of  Germany,  has  a 
creditable  civil  service  and  performs  what  it  un- 
dertakes with  more  than  average  efficiency. 
It  is  not  able,  however,  to  supply  the  place  of 
private  endeavor  and  interest.  It  has  striven  to 
throw  around  railway  construction  and  manage- 
ment every  needed  safeguard.  But,  as  a  rule,  its 
regulations  are  more  specious  than  valuable. 
Thus,  one  of  them  provides  that  in  the  event  pro- 
fits exceed  fifteen  per  cent,  the  government  shall 
have  the  right  to  reduce  them  to  that  figure!* 

In  Belgium  the  government  has  interested  it- 
self directly  and  actively  in  the  operation  of  rail- 
roads  from  the  start.  It  first  took  upon  itself  to 
provide  the  land  they  needed.  Afterward  its 
intervention  extended  to  the  work  of  construc- 

*This  is  one  of  the  reservations  governments  make  that  seem 
so  sagacious,  but  that  are  really  unuecessarj',  unbusinesslike 
and  absurd. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  46 

fcioii  and  management.  It  practically  owns  all 
the  railroads.  In  some  cases  they  are  leased  to 
private  parties,  but  in  many  instances  are  man- 
aged directly  by  the  state. 

The  Italian  railroads  were  built  partly  by  the 
state  and  partly  by  private  partieo.  Its  guaran- 
tees were,  however,  important.  The  govern- 
ment exercises  a  general  and  strict  supervi- 
sion over  affairs.  At  the  present  time  the  rail- 
roads are  vested  in  two  great  companies  having 
leases  for  sixty  years,  with  the  right  to  relinquish 
at  the  end  of  twenty  or  forty  years.  The  rental 
paid  is  based  on  a  reciprocal  division  of  receipts. 

In  Holland  the  state  railways  were  constructed 
by  the  government  with  public  moneys.  The 
working  of  the  roads  is,  however,  entrusted  to 
jDrivate  parties,  the  state  participating  in  the 
revenues  on  an  agreed  scale. 

The  numl)er  of  railways  built  and  managed  by 
private  corporations  in  Russia  is  greater,  rela- 
tively, it  is  said,  than  in  any  other  country  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  Private  management 
it  is  thought  will  not  continue  permanently,  the 
nature  of  the  country  and  the  military  exigencies 
of  the  government  rendering  possession  of  the 
railroads  by  the  government  necessary.  How- 
ever, the  autocratic  powers  of  the  Czar  are  such 
as  to  give  him  control  tantamount  to  that  of  in- 
dividual ownership.  The  growth  of  railroads  in 
Russia  has  been  fostered  by  governmental  aid, 
conditioned  upon  the  lines  reverting  to  it  under 
certain  conditions. 


46  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS. 

Such  is  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  railroads  of 
some  of  the  great  countries  of  the  world  In 
comparing  the  methods  that  have  attended  the 
inception,  growth  and  administration  of  rail- 
roads, the  superior  wisdom  and  sagacity  of  the 
English  government  is  apparent.  It  has  believed 
from  the  start  that  the  greatest  good  was  to  be 
attained  by  encouraging  individuals  to  take  the 
initiative,  and  by  granting  them  sole  power  and 
responsibility  of  management.  It  has  not  re- 
served to  itself  powers  that  could  by  any  possi- 
bility embarrass  owners  or  cripple  the  earnings 
or  capacity  of  properties.  Its  intervention  has 
never  extended  further  than  to  prevent  two  roads 
being  built  where  one  only  was  needed.  Wisdom 
such  as  it  has  displayed  is  rare  in  the  history  of 
mankind,  but  such  as  we  might  expect  from  a 
nation  of  business  men,  who  by  their  conserva- 
tism, energy  and  wise  administration  of  affairs, 
have  made  their  country  the  greatest  the  world 
has  ever  known.  The  business  men  of  America 
are  not  less  wise,  not  less  conservative,  not  less 
energetic  than  their  English  cousins.  The  action 
of  England  and  the  United  States  has  from  the 
start  been  based  on  purely  commercial  principles. 
It  has  been  such  as  the  greatness  of  the  occasion 
and  the  exigencies  of  railway  property  required. 
It  may  well  find  favor  and  imitation  in  other  less 
progressive  and  worldly  wise  countries. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CAPITALIZATION  —  RELATION    OF     CAPITAL   TO    EARN- 
INGS   AND   EXPENSES. 

In  capitalizing  railways  care  should  be  exer- 
cised not  to  issue  a  form  of  security  that  may  at 
some  future  time  make  those  holding  it  antago- 
nistic to  the  best  interests  of  the  property;  that 
may  prevent  a  conservative  course  being  followed; 
that  may  have  the  effect  to  trench  on  necessary 
revenues  or  suggest  reckless  financiering  in  other 
directions.  Circumstances  will  sometimes  com- 
pel such  a  course.  The  financial  situation  of  a 
property  may  be  such  as  to  prevent  full  consider- 
ation of  future  contingencies.  The  vicissitudes 
of  business  afford  continual  illustrations  of  this 
kind,  in  private  life  as  well  as  in  corporate  ex- 
perience. While  they  are  to  be  deplored,  they 
can  not  be  remedied  or  their  consequences 
avoided.  Business  men  live  in  a  practical  world 
and  provide  as  best  they  may  for  its  wants  as 
they  occur,  leaving  it  to  their  successors  to  do  the 
same.  However,  an  emergency  that  compels  a 
disregard  of  the  future  in  corporate  existence 
must  be  real  and  pressing.  Nothing  else  can  ex- 
cuse it.  Such  an  occasion  may,  for  instance,  jus- 
tify the  issue  of  an  income  bond  or  a  stock  upon 
which  no  dividend  can  be  paid  until  a  certain  re  • 

(47) 


48  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

turn  has  been  rendered  on  a  prior  security.  But 
sucli  conditions  will  be  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to 
create  antagonisms  between  holders  whose  in- 
terests should  lie  together.  When  this  occurs 
the  scales  of  justice  can  not  be  so  evenly  balanced 
or  properties  affected  so  impartially  administered 
as  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  all.  Whenever 
it  is  in  the  power  of  a  particular  class  of  holders 
to  take  advantage  of  another  class  of  holders,  we 
may  be  certain  that  sooner  or  later  they  will  do 
so.  Such  struggles  teach  men  wisdom,  self  re- 
liance, foresight,  prudence.  They  are  therefore 
not  an  unmixed  evil. 

The  holders  of  different  kinds  of  railway  securi- 
ties represent  different  classes  of  people.  Those 
whose  fortunes  require  a  definite  and  sure  in- 
come are  exceedingly  conservative  and  invest 
only  in  securities  of  a  higher  class.  Many  busi- 
ness men  and  capitalists  also  are  attracted  only 
by  securities  of  this  kind.  Those  not  so  conserv- 
ative or  to  whom  present  income  is  not  a  matter 
of  especial  concern,  take  into  account  future  pos- 
sibilities. The  speculative  classes  invest  in  any- 
thing they  think  they  may  extract  money  from; 
they  are  like  the  fireflies  that  glimmer  in  the 
dusk  of  a  summer's  evening,  now  here,  now  there, 
affording  neither  light  to  guide  nor  fire  to  warm. 

Under  normal  conditions  railway  securities 
command  a  price  based  on  present  returns  con- 
ditioned on  future  probabilities.  Capital  here  as 
elsewhere  is  sensitive  to  extraneous  influences 
such  as  unfriendly  legislation,  possible  reverses, 


CAPITALIZA  TION. 


49 


and  so  on.  Many  securities  do  not  command  a 
price  proportionate  to  their  value  because  of  not 
being  known  to  those  who  have  money  to  invest 
in  enterprises  of  this  character.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  securities  command  a  much  greater 


Armenian  Carriage. 

price  than  their  intrinsic  worth  warrants  because 
of    being   known  and  generally  traded  in. 

The  holders  of  railway  securities  are  both  ap- 
preciative and  apprehensive.  In  nothing  is  their 
businesslike  character  so  quickly  and  unmistak- 


50  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

ably  evinced  as  in  condemnation  of  attempts  to 
bolster  up  properties  by  such  fictitious  aids  as  the 
payment  of  unearned  dividends  or  a  division  of 
profits  required  to  be  kept  in  the  property.  Such 
action  always  results  in  weakening  the  security 
affected.  Thus  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
payment  of  a  dividend  will  depreciate  a  stock  to 
a  much  greater  extent  than  the  amount  divided. 
So  well  is  this  understood  in  the  United  States 
that  men  of  conservative  judgment  who  manage 
railways  and  are  allowed  discretion  will  not  de- 
clare a  dividend  for  a  sum  greater  than  the 
actual  financial  affairs  of  the  company  warrant, 
erring,  if  they  err  at  all,  on  the  side  of  a  reduced 
rather  than  an  expanded  sum. 

In  the  inception  of  railways  they  were  con- 
structed wholly  from  the  proceeds  qf  capital 
stock.  But  the  discretion  such  form  of  security 
accorded  those  charged  with  the  management 
(as  to  time  and  amount  of  return  to  be  rendered 
holders)  did  not  long  sati-sfy  investors.  Not  that 
managers  were  generally  unfaithful,  but  that 
results  did  not  realize  the  expectations  of  owners. 
They  did  not  have  the  control  over  their  property 
that  they  desired.  Hence,  while  the  use  of  stock 
was  not  wholly  abandoned,  mortgage  bonds  and 
other  definite  forms  of  security  as  regards  returns 
took  its  place.  The  wisdom  of  this  course  can 
not  be  doubted. 

The  construction  of  railways  is  attended  by 
an  infinite  variety  of  influences;  an  infinite  va- 
riety of  conditions,    Upon  these  the  amount  and 


^v^v.  •- 


CAPITALIZATION.  51 

nature  of  capitalization  depend.  This  capital, 
whatever  its  amount  or  form,  represents  the 
property.  It  is  the  axis  about  which  every- 
thing revolves,  the  center  of  expectation  and 
desire.  It  is  the  tangible  evidence  of  owner- 
ship, of  accumulated  wealth,  of  hope  of  income 
or  gain  in  the  future.  Its  fluctuations  in  the 
market  are  consequently  marked  by  gladness 
or  sorrow,  comfort  or  deprivation,  abundance  or 
want. 

The  general  uniformity  of  relation  that  earn- 
ings, expenses  and  net  income  bear  to  capitaliza- 
tion over  the  world  is  an  evidence  of  the  wisdom 
and  good  management  of  the  capitalistic  class. 
It  proves  that  notwithstanding  the  vagaries  of 
governments  and  peoples,  the  expectations  of 
capital  in  all  financially  strong  countries  have 
not  generally  been  disappointed. 

Because  of  necessary  and  unavoidable  limita- 
tions, investments  in  railways  can  never  exeeed, 
if  they  equal,  average  rates  of  interest  in  other 
directions.  But  they  should  not  fall  far  below, 
and  when  they  do,  it  indicates  abnormal  condi- 
tions requiring  to  be  remedied. 

The  greatest  possible  differences  exist  as  to  the 
relation  earnings  and  expenses  of  railroads  bear 
to  each  other.  It  is  said  that  the  latter,  includ- 
ing taxes,  for  railroads  as  a  whole,  is  about  sixty- 
two  per  cent.  The  relation  that  expenses  bear 
to  earnings  is  generally  construed  as  indicating 
the  relative  value  of  properties  or  the  economy 
exercised  in  working  them.    It  will  be  found  to 

LIBRARY 

UMiVEssmr  of  jumws 


52  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

vai7,  however,  very  much  from  year  to  year,  also 
in  the  case  of  particuhir  properties. 

Special  statistics,  such  as  those  based  on  train 
mileage,  while  of  great  value  are  oftentimes  mis- 
leading. Results  are  never  to  be  taken  as  a  whole. 
It  is  said  that  the  average  receipts  per  train  mile 
decrease  with  the  multiplication  of  trains;  in 
other  words  rates  naturally  fall  with  increased 
business.  This  is  probably  true  of  railroads  as  a 
whole,  but  is  frequently  not  the  case  in  particular 
instances.  Natural  laws  govern.  In  the  United 
States  where  trains  are  heavily  loaded  and  are 
run  at  a  moderate  rate  of  speed  the  greatest  re- 
sults in  the  shape  of  net  receipts  from  the  train 
mile  standpoint  are  attained.  But  in  order  to 
determine  the  value  of  a  property,  cost,  expense 
of  operating,  and  earnings  in  gross  must  be 
ascertained.  Earnings  are  not  an  indication 
alone;  they  must  be  considered  with  expendi- 
tures. The  latter  depend,  as  I  show  elsewhere, 
on  climate,  character  of  the  country,  con- 
dition of  property,  price  of  labor  and  material, 
and  the  skill  and  fidelity  of  those  in  charge. 

Railways  generally  may  be  depended  upou  to 
show  the  best  results  w^hose  organization  is  the 
best.  Wisdom  and  skill  in  organizing  precede 
and  attend  wisdom,  skill  and  fidelity  in  manag- 
ing. Only  the  securities  of  such  companies 
afford  safe  investments;  only  such  should  be 
traded  in.  Others  may  be  stable  for  a  time,  but 
are  sj)eculative  and  unsafe. 

Men  differ  greatly  in  regard  to  the  relative  efB- 


CAPITALIZA  TION. 


53 


ciency  of  management.  From  results  achieved 
and  investigations  made,  I  am  led  to  believe  the 
administration  of  railroads  in  the  United  States 
to  be  the  best  in  the  world.  That  no  others 
equal  it  in  ability  to  achieve  great  ends  with  so 
little  friction  or  at  so  small  a  cost.  Moreover,  it 
grows  each  day  more  and  more  effective;  each 
day  the  management  becomes  better  balanced, 
more  accountable. 

Corporations   managed  by  private  owners  are 
the  most  effective,  the  most  useful  to  the  com- 


Thibet  Carriers  (Yaks). 

munity.  In  France  the  percentage  of  expenses 
to  earnings  in  the  case  of  private  ownership  is 
very  much  less  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  public 
management.  This  is  in  part  explained  by  the 
fact  that  private  properties  are  the  more  product- 
ive; but  aside  from  this,  government  manage- 
ment, it  has  been  demonstrated,  is  more  expen- 
sive than  that  of  individuals.  In  Austria-Hun- 
gary the  expense  of  private  management  is  forty- 
five  per  cent,  as  against  ninety-two  for  the  gov- 


54  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

ernment;  in  Belgium  it  is  fifty-two  per  cent, 
as  against  sixty- two;  in  Germany  the  result 
is  also  against  the  government,  ])ut,  because 
of  the  fact  that  the  most  productive  lines 
are  operated  by  it,  the  result  seems  to  be 
more  favorable  to  such  form  of  management; 
but  it  is  only  seeming;  the  government  here  as 
elsewhere  is  not  as  efficient  as  private  manage- 
ment. In  considering  the  difference  in  cost  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  loss  to  the  com- 
munity is  only  represented  in  part  by  the  differ- 
ence in  expense  of  working  under  government 
management  and  under  that  of  private  persons. 
Extravagant  expenses  represent  high  rates; 
economical  management,  low  rates.  Under  one 
many  industries  that  are  impossible  may  be  car- 
ried on  profitably  under  the  other.  Extrava- 
gance in  the  management  of  railways,  therefore, 
means  a  great  deal  more  to  the  public  than  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  the  expense  account. 
Of  the  factors  that  affect  the  productiveness 
of  capital  invested  in  railways,  the  cost  of  niain- 
tainiug  and  operating  is  of  the  greatest  conse- 
quence. From  past  experiences  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  for  a  considerable  period  continued 
decrease  in  cost  of  both  of  these  items.  But  on 
the  other  hand  they  may  be  offset  by  possible 
exactions  of  labor  and  enforced  requisitions  of 
governments  under  one  specious  pretext  or 
another. 


CHAPTER  ly. 

CAPITALIZATION — RELATION    OF    DIFFERENT    SECURI- 
TIES   TO   EACH   OTHER. 

The  capitalization  of  railways  takes  on  that 
form  which  best  conserves  the  interests  of  the 
property,  taking  its  whole  life  into  consideration. 
Instances  where  this  is  not  so  are  exceptions — 
exceptions  that  may  properly  be  guarded  against 
but  are  not  to  be  made  the  basis  of  laws  or  sys- 
tems of  administration. 

The  forms  of  capitalizing  railways  are  few 
and  simple,  and  such  as  investors  understand. 
Men  will  not  place  funds  in  ventures  difficult  to 
comiDrehend  or  that  they  are  unused  to. 

If  the  law  takes  cognizance  at  all  of  methods 
of  capitalizing  railways,  it  should  prevent  stocks 
or  bonds  being  issued  except  for  bona  fide  consid- 
eration, for  new  property  or  improvements. 
However,  the  intervention  of  the  law-making 
power  is  not  necessary,  except  to  legalize  what 
is  done.  Buyer  and  seller  may  be  safely  left  to 
adjust  details  and  arrange  prices  and  methods. 
Private  citizens  are  quite  able  here  as  elsewhere 
to  guard  their  own  interests. 

Forms  of  capitalization  arranged  by  individuals 
familiar  with  such  matters  and  personally  con- 
cerned in  their  success  will  always  be  wiser  than 

(55) 


56  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

those  suggested  by  persons  unfamiliar  with  the 
requirements  of  business  or  the  necessities  ol 
particular  cases.  It  is  a  purely  practical  ques- 
tion, to  be  settled  between  practical  and  self 
adaptive  people. 

While  evils  have,  no  doubt,  attended  the  incor- 
poration of  particular  railroads,  personal  surveil- 
lance and  self  interest  are  more  powerful  to  con- 
trol and  keep  such  matters  in  check  than  any  other 
influences.  The  state  on  the  whole  has  not  suffered 
because  of  laxity  in  this  respect.    On  the  contrary, 
enormous  advantages  have  accrued  to  it  from  the 
successful  launching  of  railways,  through  indi- 
vidual enterprise,  that  would  have  been  impos- 
sible under  a  more  complex  form  of  government. 
Men  who  invest  money,  as  a  rule,  look  carefully 
to  the  security  they  get,  and  may  be  depended 
upon  to  hold  in  restraint  those  with  whom  they 
trade.      If    they   fail   to   do  so,   the   experience 
gained   through   their  losses  is  money  well  in- 
vested.   Men  are  thus  taught  self  reliance.    On 
the  other  hand,  governmental  interference  per- 
petuates indefinitely  the  evils  it  seeks  to  prevent. 
It  fosters  ignorance  and  builds  up  a  dependent 
instead  of  a  self  reliant  people. 

In  all  matters  of  a  commercial  character  man's 
coyetousness  will  crop  out— will  lead  him  to  do 
things  he  ought  not  to  do  and  omit  to  do  things 
he  ought  to  do.  It  has  been  so  from  the  begin- 
ning and  will  be  to  the  end.  Acquisitiveness  is 
the  instinct  of  trade,— its  aroma.  We  make  a 
mistake  in  attaching  undue  importance  to  many 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  67 

of  the  practices  it  occasions.  Railway  owners 
have  been  singled  out  for  especial  animadversion 
in  this  respect;  kindred  practices  on  the  part  of 
merchants,  manufacturers,  bankers  and  others 
have  passed  unnoticed.  Those  who  own  and 
operate  railroads  compare  favorably  with  others 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits.  Their  failures 
are  not  on  the  whole  prejudicial  to  public  good. 
Their  lapses  from  virtue  are  not  more  frequent 
than  those  of  editors  and  farmers.  When  lapses 
occur,  it  is  wrong  to  attribute  to  them  the  im- 
portance of  conditions.  They  should  be  treated, 
if  criminal,  as  we  treat  criminal  acts  in  other 
walks  of  life.  But  the  whole  community  should 
not  be  bound  over  to  keep  the  peace  because  of 
them. 

An  extreme  instance  of  deliberate  wrong  doing 
is  the  case  of  those  who  build  railroads  without 
reference  to  their  need  or  earnings  power,  with  a 
view  to  making  money  out  of  their  construction, 
capitalization  or  sale.  Such  transactions  may 
properly  be  prevented  by  law,  if  it  can  be  done 
without  creating  in  the  mind  of  the  people  a 
further  desire  to  interfere  through  the  legislature 
in  commercial  matters.  A  law  requiring  the 
projectors  of  railroads  to  secure  the  approval  of 
an  Impartial  governmental  board  of  Experts 
w^ould  be  an  advantage. 

The  necessity  of  concentrating  the  savings  of 
many  in  the  ownership  of  railways  has  suggested 
similar  concentration  in  other  departments  of 
industry;  has  in  fact  precipitated  the  grow^th  of 


58 


SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 


corporations  without  number.  We  see  it  im- 
itated in  the  combinations  and  exactions  of  labor. 
Natural  antagonisms  will  preserve  the  equilib- 
rium of  interest  between  these  organizations,  as 
it  will  between  them  and  those  they  cater  to. 
Legislative  interference  will  only  aggravate  the 

evil. 

It  is  said  that  the  capital  invested  in  railroads 
represents  a  tenth  of  the  wealth  of  the  world  and 


Carriage  in  India. 

a  third  of  its  invested  capital.  Its  preponderance 
over  other  industries  is  more  likely  to  increase 
than  diminish  with  time.  If  wisely  governed,  its 
growth  will  be  rapid;  if  unwisely  governed,  its 
growth  will  be  slow  and  uncertain.  Each  day 
adds  to  our  experience  and  fits  us  to  cope  with 
greater  problems.  Thus,  consolidation  has  suc- 
ceeded the  disposition    of    early   companies  to 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  59 

operate  continuous  lines  under  different  forms  of 
management.  This  amalgamation  will  go  on  as 
fast  as  we  fit  ourselves  to  cope  with  it.  In  time  a 
few  great  properties  will  be  formed  out  of  the 
many  that  now  exist. 

Within  the  bounds  of  effective  management 
concentration  is  a  convenience  to  the  pul)lic  and 
a  profit  to  owners.  But  it  must  be  attended  by 
enlarged  and  adaptable  methods  of  administra- 
tion. When  a  property  passes  beyond  the  imme- 
diate eye  of  its  owner  or  general  manager,  when 
he  can  no  longer  watch  each  man  and  see  what 
he  is  doing  from  hour  to  hour,  responsible, 
co-operative  government  must  take  the  place 
of  personal  surveillance.  The  trouj^le  at  the 
start  is  that  those  affected  by  the  change  do  not 
know  anything  about  responsible  methods  of 
government,  or,  if  they  do,  will  not  always  con- 
form thereto.  Such  cases  call  for  quick  and 
energetic  action  wherever  it  is  expected  proper- 
ties will  be  Permanently  productive. 

The  benefits  of  consolidated  properties  have 
been  added  to  by  the  practices  of  railroads  of 
sending  traffic  through  over  connecting  lines 
without  changing  cars.  Such  arrangements 
have,  so  far  as  the  public  is  concerned,  many  of 
the  practical  advantages  of  a  continuous  line; 
they  add  to  the  convenience,  comfort  and  profit 
of  the  people  and  stimulate  their  patriotism  and 
broaden  their  understanding  by  leading  them  to 
undertake  distant  journevs  that  they  would  not 
otherwise  attempt. 


60  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

In  the  construction,  capitalization  and  opei*a- 
tion  of  railroads  it  is  inevitable  that  unfair  ad- 
vantage should  sometimes  be  taken  of  owners 
by  their  representatives.  Such  occurrences  are 
a  mere  incident  of  the  situation,  neither  frequent 
nor  important.  I  do  not  make  them  a  feature 
of  my  writings  because  such  evils  are  unavoid- 
able and  carry  within  themselves  the  seeds  of 
correction.  They  are  well  known,  and  the  owners 
of  railroads  may  be  safely  trusted  to  apply  nec- 
essary remedies.  It  is  idle  to  inveigh  against 
them  or  formulate  speculative  remedies.  They 
can  only  be  reached  effectively  and  hnally  by  the 
owner;  his  self  interest  will  prompt  action  and 
quicken  his  intelligence. 

The  capitalization  of  railroad  properties  may 
be  safely  left  to  those  concerned, — to  the  corpo- 
ration that  sells,  to  those  who  buy.  Public  solici- 
tude here  as  elsewhere  is  not  only  injurious  but 
futile.  When  men  are  beguiled  into  unprofitalde 
trades  it  teaches  them  wisdom;  the  wisdom  thus 
acquired  is  a  part  of  our  commercial  greatness. 
Business  could  not  be  carried  on  without  it.  It 
can  not  be  obtained  in  any  less  practical  way. 
Governments  can  not  teach  it,  nor  can  laws  render 
its  possession  unnecessary  in  life.  The  struggle 
l)etween  those  who  have  something  to  sell  and 
those  who  wish  to  buy  is  incessant;  out  of  it  the 
equililirium  of  trade  is  secured  and  approximate 
fairness  maintained.  Great  injustice  is  oftentimes 
done,  but  it  can  not  be  prevented  by  statutes  or 
police  regulations;  good  eventually  flows  from  it. 


CAPIT^iLIZA  TION.  61 

In  the  capitalization  of  railway  properties  in- 
vestors do  not  always  get  the  security  they  think 
they  do.  This  is  especially  true  of  mortgage 
bonds.  In  the  United  States  it  arises  in  one  in- 
stance from  the  habit  of  building  and  equipping 
railways  wholly  with  the  proceeds  of  bonds.  A 
mortgage,  to  be  valuable,  should  be  for  a  part 
only  of  the  cost.  Those  who  make  loans  on  real 
estate  only  advance  a  portion  of  the  value.  The 
mortgage  bonds  of  railways  should  be  similarly 
supported.  There  would  then  be  fewer  roads  in 
the  hands  of  receivers,  fewer  disappointed  bond 
holders.  The  precaution  is  a  reasonable  one.  If 
there  is  any  demand  for  a  property,  if  it  is  likely 
to  be  profitable,  those  interested  will  be  able  to 
furnish  necessary  -guarantees. 

When  properties  are  built  wholly  with  the  pro- 
ceeds of  bonds  such  securities  are  not  as  good  as 
capital  stock  would  be  under  similar  circumstan- 
ces. Such  ventures  lack  financial  elasticity.  They 
can  not  adjust  themselves  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
business,  and  because  of  this  are  likely  at  any  time 
to  occasion  a  crisis  highly  detrimental  to  owners. 
Reasonable  safety  requires  that  only  a  portion  of 
the  cost  of  a  property  should  be  covered  by 
bonds  or  that  such  securities  should  be  guaran- 
teed ]jy  more  stable  properties.  When  thus  sup- 
ported, they  offer  greater  attractions  to  the 
majority  of  investors  than  capital  stock  and  may, 
therefore,  as  a  rule,  be  sold  to  better  advantage 
than  stock. 

The    English    generally   divide    their    capital 


62  .SCIENCE  OF  liAILWATS; 

between  bonds  (debentures)  and  preferred  and 
common  stock.  The  value  of  this  division,  and 
the  relation  each  part  sustains  to  the  other  so  as 
to  secure  the  most  advantageous  results  (espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  established  properties)  is  por- 
trayed by  an  English  writer  on  the  subject.*  He 
says: 

"  The  smaller  the  percentage  of  bonds  the 
greater  the  likelihood  of  some  dividend  being 
paid  on  the  shares.  Thus  the  proportion  of  capital 
upon  which  no  dividend  is  paid  is  twice  as  great 
in  the  United  States  as  in  the  United  Kingdom.f 
A  large  percentage  of  boncTs  has  another  very 
important  consequence,  namely,  that  it  renders 
the  line  more  susceptible  of  becoming  bankrupt 
or  falling  into  a  receiver's  hands,  or  being  wound 
up,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  loss  of  earnings  which 
in  the  case  of  a  line  with  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
bonds  would  only  involve  a  diminution  of  the 
dividend,  might  in  the  case  of  a  line  with  fifty 
per  cent,  of  bonds  involve  the  appointment  of  a 
receiver.  Now  the  defaults  which  have  occurred 
on  American  lines  have  been  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  prevalent  distrust  of  American  railway 
securities.  Thus  a  practical  means  of  improving 
the  credit  of  American  railways  would  be  by 
raising  further  capital,  when  required,  by  the 
issue  of  shares  instead  of  bonds.:|:   ....    The 

*  Charles  Eason,  Jr.,  M.  A. 

fThe  reason,  as  he  points  out,  is  that  in  the  United  States  a 
greater  preponderance  of  bonds  is  issued  to  stock  than  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  M.  M.  K. 

X  The  owners  of  bonds  as  a  rule  do  not  have  any  voice  in  the 
selection  of  directors.  /.  e.,  are  not  allowed  to  vote.  Interest, 
however,  has  to  be  paid  on  them  before  it  can  be  paid  on  any- 
other  form  of  security.    There  are  sometimes  several  mortgages 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  68 

difference  between  English  and  American  rail- 
ways is  marked.  In  the  United  Kingdom  rather 
more  than  half  the  share  capital  consists  of 
guaranteed  and  preference  shares;  while  in  the 
United  States  only  about  thirteen  per  cent,  of 
the  stock  is  preferred.  .  .  The  English  compa- 
nies consider  it  more  beneficial  to  raise  capital 
by  the  creation  of  preferred  stock.  A  too  large 
creation  of  preferential  stock  has  disadvantages. 
It  renders  the  ordinary  stock  more  exposed  to 
variations  of  dividend  and  the  company  more 
liable  to  the  discredit  of  not  paying  full  dividend 
on  preference  shares,  and  also  impairs  the  control 
of  the  line  by  the  ordinary  shareholders,  who  are 
most  interested  in  its  successful  management. 
It  is  not  clear  to  me  why  the  American  lines  have 
created  so  little  preferred  stock:  for  example, 
the  Pennsylvania  railway"  company  has  no  pre- 
ferred stock.  Now,  this  company  would  find  the 
same  advantages  from  raising  capital  by  means 
of  preferred  stock,  as  are  obtained  by,  say,  the 
London  and  North- Western.  The  advantages 
are  (1)  as  against  the  issue  of  bonds  it  has  the 
advantage  of  giving  additional  security  to  the 
payment  of  interest  upon  existing  mortgages, 
and  (2)  as  against  ordinary  stock,  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  not  tending  to  reduce  the  dividend 
upon  the  ordinary  stock,  which  a  creation  of 
ordinary  stock  would  have  unless  the   capital 

on  the  same  propertj^  taking  precedence  in  tlie  order  thay  are 
named.  Preferred  stock  lias  a  voice  in  the  election  of  a  manage- 
ment, and  dividends  must  be  paid  on  it  before  tliey  are  on  other 
stocks.  Ordinary  or  connnon  stock  is  allowed  to  vote  in 
the  election  of  directors,  but  the  return  on  it  {i.  e.,  dividends) 
comes  only  after  all  other  securities  have  been  satisfied  in  this 
respect.  31.  M.  K. 


64  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

expended  yielded  the  full  rate  of  dividend  already 
being  paid  upon  the  ordinary  shares.  Thus,  sup- 
pose $5,000,000  of  capital  to  be  required,  the 
net  revenue  yielded  will  in  no  way  be  affected 
by  the  mode  in  which  the  money  is  raised,  whether 
let  us  say  by  bonds  at  three  and  a  half  per  cent,  or 
preferred  stock  at  four  per  cent.,  or  ordinary  stock 
on  which  a  seven  per  cent,  dividend  is  being  naid. 


Tartar  Carrier. 


Let  US  suppose  that  the  expenditure  yields  a 
net  revenue  of  $150,000.  In  case  1  the  debent- 
ure interest  is  increased  by  $175,000,  there  is 
$25,000  less  for  division  among  preferred  and 
ordinary  shareholders,  and  the  margin  of  earn- 
ings over  interest  is  diminished  to  this  extent. 
In  case  2,  the  preferred  stock  requires  an  addi- 
tional $200,000  per  annum.  Thus  the  sum  avail- 
able for  ordinary  shareholders  is   diminished  by 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  65 

$50,000;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  margin  of 
earnings  over  interest  is  increased  by  $150,000. 
In  case  3,  the  margin  over  earnings  is  increased 
as  in  case  2,  but  the  net  revenue  is  dehcient  by 
$200,000  of  the  sum  required  to  pay  seven  per 
cent,  dividend  upon  ordinary  stock,  and  the  divi- 
dend must  therefore  be  diminished.  The  course 
to  be  adopted  in  any  particular  case  must  depend 
upon  the  proportions  of  the  capital  already  exist- 
ing and  the  dividends  that  are  being  paid. 
Taking  the  case  of  the  Pennsylvania  railway,  a 
preference  stock  would  be  the  best,  for  the  pro- 
portion of  bonds  is  large  enough,  and  as  it  is 
not  likely  that  the  new  capital  will  earn  eight 
per  cent,  the  creation  of  preference  stock  would 
tend  to  maintain  the  dividend.  It  is  an  obvious 
objection  that  a  new  stock  might  be  less  market- 
able on  account  of  its  novelty,  custom  having  a 
great  deal  of  infiuence  in  such  matters;  but 
the  essential  soundness  of  the  policy  would  soon 
be  perceived  by  investors.  It  is  a  sine  qua  non 
of  a  sound  issue  of  preference  stock  that  a  divi- 
dend should  have  been  for  some  time  steadily 
paid  upon  ordinary  stock,  otherwise  the  prefer- 
ence  is  one  in   name   only 

Fluctuations  in  receipts  render  the  value  of 
stocks  uncertain,  and  thus  tit  them  for  being 
the  subjects  of  speculation.  It  is  the  small  pro- 
portion of  stocks  to  bonds  which  enables  a  small 
combination  of  capitalists,  or  even  a  single  capi- 
talist, to  control  entire  railways  and  to  manipu- 
late them  at  pleasure.  The  only  practical  way 
to  mitigate  such  power  is  by  operating  upon  the 
causes  which  form  its  basis.  It  is  important  to 
observe  how  the  various  circumstances  combine 
to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  propei-ties  under 


66  SCIENCE  OF  JtAILWAYS; 

the  circumstances  mentioned.   First  the  earnings 
power   of  railways  is   liable  to  great   variation; 
second,  tliis  renders  manipulation  of  the  traffic 
and  earnings  difficult  to   detect;  third,  the  small 
percentage   of  share    capital   renders   the   divi- 
dends very  sensitive   to  variations  in  earnings; 
and,  fourth,  this   causes  a  large   proportion  of 
lines  to  pay  no  dividends  or  very  small  dividends; 
fifth,  the  value  of  the  shares  being  depreciated, 
and  standing  very  much  below  par,  only  a  small 
amount  relatively  is  necessary  to  purchase  a  ma- 
jority of  the  stock,  and  thus  obtain   control  of  a 
line;     sixth,    the    non-existence    of    any    large 
quantity  of  preference   stock   further  facilitates 
such  operations.    Voting  power  attaches  to  pref- 
'erence  stock,  but  not  to  bonds.     Hence,  a  large 
quantity  of  preference  stock  ^vould  make  it  more 
difficult  to  get  a  preponderance  of  voting  power." 
The  matter  of  fact  way  in  which  railways  have 
been  built  and  capitalized  in  the  United  States 
is   characteristic    of   business    men.     The  scant 
means  there  were  to  build  with,  the  high  rate  of 
interest  that  prevailed,    and  the    risk   that  at- 
tended such  ventures,  occupied  the  people  much 
more  than  questions   of   future   administration. 
Construction  and  capitalization  were  such  as  the 
resources  of  a  versatile  people  suggested.     The 
American   method   of    capitalization    has    lieen 
good  for  America.    It  has  resulted  in  the  rapid 
development  of  the  country  and  its  unexampled 
growth  in  wealth.     If  it  had  not  been  generally 
fair  and  equitable  this  would  not  have  been  the 
case.     Under  the   practice  followed  very  gener- 
ally in  the  United  States  of  using  more  or  less 


CAI'ITALIZA  TION.  67 

net  earnings  from  time  to  time  to  add  to  or  im- 
prove the  propert}^  the  existence  of  preferred 
shares,  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Eason,  may  appear  to 
be  objectional)le,  as  the  burden  in  such  case 
falls  for  the  moment  perhaps  wholly  on  the 
common  holders.  However,  this  may,  it  is  pos- 
sible, be  avoided  by  an  equitable  division.  But 
it  is  scarcely  probable.  The  capitalization  of 
these  construction  expenditures  in  preferred  hold- 
ings at  a  low  rate  of  interest  may  offer  in  some 
cases  an  escape  from  the  hardships  pointed  out. 
But  of  the  expediency  of  this  no  one  can  judge 
without  knowing  the  particulars  of  the  case. 
It  is  not  a  field  for  statesmen  or  writers,  but  a 
practical  question  for  business  men. 

The  peculiar  environment  of  railways  in  the 
United  States,  coupled  with  the  extreme  conserv- 
atism of  those  who  own  them,  first  suggested 
the  reservation  of  a  part  of  the  net  earnings  for 
use  in  improving  the  property.  Many  insti- 
tutions have  thus  been  saved  from  discredit  that 
would  otherwise  have  met  with  disaster.  It  is  a 
simple,  homely  means,  and  such  as  only  practical 
business  men  could  be  induced  to  adopt.  Re- 
ferring to  it,  Mr.  Eason  says  : 

"What  are  the  advantages  of  carrying  for- 
ward these  balances,  and  how  are  they  em- 
ployed? They  are  required  to  give  additional 
security  to  the  bondholders,  and  are  rendered 
necessary  by  the  excessive  proportion  of  inter- 
est bearing  capital,  and  consequent  interest 
charges.  They  are  employed  as  capital,  but 
as  they   do  not    bear  interest,  whatever    they 


68  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

yield  ^'oes  to  increase  the  surplus  for  interest  and 

dividend The  effect   is  shown  in 

the  maintenance  of  the  earning  power  of  a  line 
and  in  its  power  to  maintain  it  in  the  face  of 
competition  of  other  companies.  The  value  put 
upon  the  permanent  way  in  the  company's  hal- 
ance  sheet  is  merely  nominal ;  the  true  measure 


Carriage  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

of  value  is  the  net  revenue  that  the  company  can 
earn.  In  deciding  upon  the  appropriation  of  net 
revenue  and  the  method  of  providing  the  capital 
for  further  expenditure,  wdiether  on  lines  open 
for  traffic,  making  new  lines,  or  investments  in 
securities  of  other  lines,  the  important  point  for 
consideration  is  wdiat  wall  be  the  effect  upon  the 
net  revenue.     If  the  additional  exj)enditure  will 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  69 

yield  net  revenue  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest 
upon  the  sum  expended,  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  be  provided  for  by  the  issue  of  an 
additional  capital.  If  it  is  provided  for  out  of 
income,  the  additional  net  revenue  would  become 
available  for  payment  of  dividend  upon  the  exist- 
ing stock,  and  the  rate  of  dividend  woulcl  in- 
crease. 13ut  it  may  happen  that  competition 
may  so  reduce  rates  that  the  earning  power  of 
the  capital  may  diminish,  so  that  the  yield  on 
total  expenditure  may  not  be  increased.  In  this 
case,  if  the  expenditure  had  been  provided  for  by 
creation  of  fresh  capital,  the  dividend  must 
diminish,  but  if  provided  for  out  of  income  the 
rate  of  dividend  may  be  maintained.  ...  It 
may  be  that  the  capital  expended  has  added  to 
the  earning  powder  of  the  line,  but  the  net  reve- 
nue may  remain  stationary  in  consequence  of  a 
decline  in  rates,  and  it  may  well  be  that  it  was 
recognition  of  the  liability  to  a  loss  of  profit 
from  this  cause  which  leads  a  company  to  devote 
surplus  income  to  permanent  expenditure.  The 
company  adopting  such  a  policy  has  a  clear  ad- 
vantage over  a  rival  company  which  has  no  sur- 
plus income  and  has  to  obtain  the  funds  for  con- 
struction by  the  creation  of  additional  capital. 
This  latter  company  may  be  gradually  driven 
into  default  by  competition  with  a  strong  com- 
pany adopting  another  policy." 

It  is  mainly  to  meet  the  eventualities  of  the 
future  that  the  provident  owners  of  railroads  are 
led  to  invest  a  part  of  present  income  in 
strengthening  their  properties.  The  wisdom  of 
their  course  has  been  proven  too  many  times  to 
need  demonstration  here. 


Medieval  Carriage. 


(TO) 


CHAPTEE    y. 

CAPITALIZATION — THE     SO-CALLED     "  WATERED" 
STOCK   OF    RAILROADS. 

Most  of  our  literature  in  regard  to  railroads 
emanates  from  men  unfamiliar  with  their  affairs. 
It  is  as  a  rule  severely  critical.  Men  who  have 
filled  prominent  railroad  offices  without  being 
railroad  men  have  also  favored  us.  Their  views 
are  optimistic.  They  generally  afford  food  for 
demagogues  and  serve  to  greatly  alarm  the  igno- 
rant. Up  to  this  time  railway  men  have  had 
little  leisure  to  devote  to  abstract  thought. 
Moreover,  the  labor  of  correcting  the  misrepre- 
sentations of  the  class  referred  to  has  appeai'-ed 
as  too  Herculean  a  task  to  be  undertaken.  Time 
alone  seemed  equal  to  it. 

What  is  needed  in  railway  discussion  is  com- 
mon honesty  based  on  experience  and  knowledge 
of  economic  laws.  The  last  above  all.  Faithful 
portrayal  is  impossible  otherwise. 

The  belief  (more  general  formerly  than  now) 
that  the  stocks  of  American  railroads  are  gener- 
ally watered  is  due  to  lack  of  information.  The 
subject  is  much  harped  upon.  It  is  a  fad.  As  a 
pleasantry  it  is  well  enough,  but  seriously  is  all 
wrong.  It  is  not  true.  The  securities  of  American 
railroads  are,  as  a  rule,  hoiia  fide.     Indeed  few 

(71) 


72  SCIENCE  OF  liAILWAYS; 

properties    are    fully    capitalized.       The    small 
average  cost  per  mile  is  sufficient  to  prove  this.* 
But  it  is  probable  that  the  charge  will  continue 
to  be  made  so  long  as  railroads  are  run  and  people 
may  acquire  popularity  by  misrepresenting  them. 
The  theme  is  an  endless  one  for  those  who  seek 
to  catch  the  public  ear  through  its  passions  and 
prejudices.     Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  to 
them  are  as  soap  bubbles,  and  particular  instan- 
ces of  wrong  have  the  force  of  universal  custom. 
If  an  individual  sins,  they  fasten  his  crime,  like 
a  blanket,  on  the  whole  human  race.    It  becomes 
a  rallying  cry  and  a  means  of  spreading  distrust. 
Actual  instances  of  wrong  doing  are,  however, 
few    in    number    and   unimportant.      However, 
their  misrepresentations  are  made  the  subject  of 
unjust    accusations    and    outrageous    demands. 
They  afford  an  excuse,  an  entering  wedge.    They 
are  used  to  create  dissatisfaction  between  carrier 
and  patron  and  between  employer  and  employe. 
Warfare  on  property  takes  on  many  aspects. 
It  is  never  open  and  manly;  always  insidious  and 
covert;  always  cowardly.     Whatever  its  aspect, 

*The  total  capital  expend i tines  for  railroads  of  the  world  in 
1883  (the  last  j^ear  for  which  I  have  the  figures)  amounted  to 
$25,013,745,000,  or  an  average  of  $94,489  per  mile.  The  total  mile- 
age of  the  world  was  264,728  miles.  The  cost  of  the  railways  in 
the  Unitied  States  averaged  855.400  per  mile  and  the  mileage  in 
the  United  States  was  120,551  miles.  I'his  shows  an  average  sav- 
ing per  mile  of  road  to  the  people  of  the  United  States,  compared 
with  the  average  of  the  whole  world,  of  §39.029.  This  does  not 
indicate  the  presence  of  "water"  in  the  securities  of  American 
railways,  hut  the  greatest  business  shrewdness  and  pinching 
economy  upon  the  part  of  those  who  built  them. 


CAPTTALTZA  TION. 


73 


its  purpose  is  bad;  its  aim  the  aggrandizement  of 
the  improvident  at  the  expense  of  the  industrious 
and  saving.  It  can  not  be  restricted  to  railway 
property.    If  encouraged,  it  will  extend  to  man- 


Dutch  Carrier,  16tli  Century. 


ufactures,    newpapers,   banks,   farms  and  other 
industries.     As  we  sow,  so  shall  we  reap. 

The  issuance  of  stocks  and  l)onds  in  England  is 
jealously  guarded  by  the  state.     While  great  lax- 


74  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

ity  has  existed  in  the  United  States,  the  for- 
bearance of  the  government  has  as  a  rule  been 
respected.  Good  business  usage  has  governed  in 
this  matter,  as  it  must  and  does  in  all  things 
where  men  deal  on  equal  terms  with  each  other. 

The  capital  stock  of  American  railways  does 
not  bear  the  authoritative  stamp  of  the  govern- 
ment. This  fact  has  undoubtedly  had  its  in- 
fluence in  determining  owners  to  use  their  in- 
come to  improve  and  strengthen  their  properties. 
It  has  made  them  conservative  and  circumspect, 
as  responsibility  always  does.  The  practice  is 
peculiar  to  America;  those  who  own  its  railroads 
have  sought  in  the  cases  referred  to,  to  make 
assurance  doubly  sure.  Undoubtedly  cases  of 
wrong  doing  have  occurred  and  will  continue 
to  occur.  They  cau  not  be  prevented.  The  par- 
ties in  fault  are  the  greatest  sufferers  thereby. 
Sins  of  this  kind  react  on  pi'operties  just  as  sins 
react  on  men;  atonement  must  be  made  in  like 
manner. 

Many  makeshifts  are  necessary  in  connection 
with  railway  development  in  a  new  country  that 
are  unknown  in  older  and  wealthier  communi- 
ties. Thus,  bonuses  must  be  offered  and  dis- 
counts suffered  that  are  unnecessary  in  the  lat- 
ter case.  But  no  man  thinks  of  repudiating  a 
note  because  he  has  to  sell  it  at  a  discount.  In 
old  and  established  communities,  w^hen  money  is 
not  forthcoming  on  easy  terms,  it  is  evidence 
that  the  field  is  not  ripe  for  its  use.  It  is  different 
in  new  countries.     It  must  be  eagerly  sought. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  76 

Those  Avlio  will  study  the  methods  and  needs 
of  a  railway  company  will  in  every  case  end  by 
becoming  warm  admirers  of  its  adaptability  and 
skill.  The  practices  of  railway  corporations  of 
buying  up  the  stock  of  other  companies  and 
issuing  their  own  in  lieu  thereof  (depositing  the 
stock  of  the  purchased  company  with  a  trustee 
as  collateral),  while  much  criticised,  are  business- 
like and  have  been  found  eminently  useful. 
Dividends  are  paid  only  on  one  security.  It  is  a 
common  practice  for  a  company  in  extending  its 
lines  to  organize  a  new  company,  the  stock  and 
bonds  of  the  parent  company  being  issued  in  lieu 
of  those  of  the  new  company.  The  securities  of 
the  older  corporation,  being  known,  can  be  sold 
to  much  better  advantage  than  the  new.  Now, 
while  the  stock  and  bonds  are  technically 
duplicated,  they  are  only  represented  in  the 
market  by  one  kind  of  security.  No  one  is 
injured,  while  everj^one  is  benefited.  I  cite  this 
particular  practice  of  railroads  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  many  others  that  are  assailed  without 
reason  or  justice. 

In  some  instances  the  so-called  watered  stock 
of  railways  represents  the  premium  paid  for  the 
risk  involved.  To  illustrate,  we  will  suppose 
that  money  in  British  Columbia  is  worth  four 
per  cent,  per  month;  in  London  it  is  worth  four 
per  cent,  per  annum.  Why  the  difference?  Be- 
cause money  is  scarce  in  British  Columbia;  the 
risk  is  also  greater,  or  not  equally  well  known. 
But  the  transactions  that  occur  in  British  Colum- 


76  SCIEXCE  OF  BAIL  WA  TS; 

bia  are  just  as  fair  and  equitable  as  in  London; 
must  be  respected  the  same.  And  so  it  is  where 
stocks  are  sold  at  a  discount  or  indeed  given, 
when  necessary,  as  a  bonus  to  purchasers  of 
bonds.  The  obligation  is  as  bona  fide  as  if  a  pre- 
mium had  been  received.  The  instances  where 
the  capital  of  railroad  companies  is  not  repre- 
sentative, Avhere  it  is  not  hona  fide,  are  so  few  in 
number  and  unimportant  that  the}^  are  not 
worthy  of  notice,  save  as  exceptions  to  a  gen- 
eral rule. 

Much  of  the  misunderstanding  that  exists  in 
regard  to  so-called  watered  stock  is  due  to  the 
imperfect  bookkeeping  of  railroad  corporations. 
In  the  main,  however,  it  is  due,  as  I  have  fre- 
quently pointed  out,  to  the  conservative  practices 
of  those  who  own  railroads:  in  other  countries 
where  the  issue  of  stocks  or  bonds  is  co-existent 
with  the  improvements  they  represent,  no  one 
dreams  of  denying  owners  such  representation 
or  of  referring  to  the  securities  thus  issued  as 
fictitious. 

While  we  are  accustomed  to  look  upon  rail- 
roads long  in  use  as  finished,  they  are  ever  in  a 
state  of  evolution.  Sometimes  the  transforma- 
tion is  so  rapid  and  of  such  magnitude  as  to 
attract  attention.  Great  outlays,  it  may  be,  are 
singled  out  and  embraced  in  the  returns  under 
the  head  of  construction  and  capitalized.  This 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  extent  of  a  rail- 
way company's  construction  account  proper.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  principal  addi- 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  11 

tions  to  a  propertj^  are  made  np  of  myriads  of 
petty  improvements  so  small  as  to  escape  the 
attention  of  all  but  the  accountant.  The  use  of 
two  nails  where  only  one  has  been  charged  to 
construction  is  an  improvement,  and  affords  the 
basis  of  further  capitalization. 

No  railway  is  so  perfectly  constructed  in  the 
first  instance  that  it  is  not  improved  by  the 
adding  of  new  ballast;  by  adjustment  of 
grade;  by  widening  of  cuts  and  ditches;  by 
better  alignment;  by  improved  bridges  and 
culverts;  by  greater  weight  and  better  quality 
of  rail;  by  added  office,  station  and  yard  facili- 
ties; by  new  machine  shops;  by  filling  up  of 
grounds;  by  accumulation  of  personal  prop- 
erty, and,  generally,  by  the  substitution  of  ap- 
pliances of  modern  construction  for  those  of  an 
old  pattern.  Thus  properties  grow.  Their 
growth,  however,  may  not  be  noted  in  the  re- 
turns; may,  for  the  moment,  have  been  wholly  at 
the  expense  of  the  stockholder.  He  may  have 
loaned  the  needed  money,  instead  of  receiving  it 
in  dividends.  Manifestly  it  is  his  right  and 
privilege,  at  his  pleasure,  to  require  a  return  of 
the  amount  thus  loaned. 

In  those  cases  where  the  capital  of  a  railroad 
has  been  watered,  the  conservative  instincts  of 
subsequent  owners  generally  lead  them  to  make 
good  the  amount;  to  supplement  it  with  actual 
expenditures  for  construction.  The  cases  are 
extremely  rare  where  a  return  is  earned  on 
watered  values.    Such  securities  are  generally 


78 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


worthless  so  far  as  income  is  concerned  and  are 
so  esteemed.  If  profitable,  they  invite  the  con- 
struction of  new  lines,  of  active  competition. 
They  have  no  effect  on  rates  whatever.  The 
competition  of  carriers  and  markets,  not  the 
actual  or  assumed  cost  of  a  property,  determines 
these.* 


Carriage  in  Chile. 

The  enormous  bonuses  that  must  be  paid  for 
railroads  and  other  improvements  in  a  new  and 
poor  country  cease  when  the  momentary  risks, 
real  or  imaginary,  that  attend  such  ventures 
become  normal  and  money  grows  plentiful.  The 
embarrassments  that  attend  the  opening  of  rail- 
roads under  such  circumstances  necessitate  pecu- 
liar practices  that  are   not  known   in  wealthy 

*  See  "Economy  of  Eates." 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  79 

countries  or  in  the  case  of  established  and  pro- 
ductive properties. 

Whenever  earnings  are  used  for  construction 
purposes,  not  onl}^  is  the  owner  entitled  to  repre- 
sentation therefor,  but  also  to  interest  thereon, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  original  investment.  He 
should  be  free  to  capitalize  the  outlay  at  his 
pleasure;  whenever,  in  fact,  his  interests  will  be 
best  conserved  thereby.  It  is  purely  a  practical 
question,  and  he  should  be  allowed  to  meet  it  in 
his  own  time  and  way.  We  have  no  more  right 
to  deprive  him  of  this  privilege  than  we  have  to 
rob  him  of  his  watch.  So  acute,  however,  is  the 
feeling  on  the  subject  that  the  most  absurd  laws 
have  been  passed  regulating  so-called  watered 
stock.  Thus,  one  state  forbids  railroad  com- 
panies issuing  capital  stock  to  cover  disburse- 
ments for  construction,  but  allows  them  to  issue 
bonds  therefor.  Was  ever  greater  inability  to 
deal  with  an  economic  question  shown? 


Carriage  in  Arabia. 


(80) 


CHAPTEK   yi. 

CAPITALIZATION — ADVICE    TO     FOREIGN    AND    OTHER 
INVESTORS   IN    RAILWAY    SECURITIES. 

Money  makers  are  the  same  the  world  over. 
They  have  not  changed  for  three  thousand  years. 
Their  practices  conform  within  the  law  to  their 
desires.  Persistent,  aggressive  effort  to  achieve 
fortune  is  commendable.  What  one  possesses 
others  strive  to  obtain.  This  is  called  enterprise. 
Acquisitiveness  is  the  animating  cause  of  com- 
mercial activity;  possession  of  wealth  the  goal 
of  mankind.  If  these  truths  Avere  more  gener- 
ally kept  in  mind,  men  would  be  more  wary  in 
making  investments;  more  painstaking  in  look- 
ing after  investments  already  made. 

Those  w^ho  have  money  to  invest  in  railroad 
securities  should  not  buy  without  investigating, 
nor  hold  without  guarding.  Men  who  own  valu- 
able horses  do  not  leave  them  unguarded.  In- 
vestors in  corporations  will  be  wise  if  they  exer- 
cise equal  foresight.  It  will  be  only  common 
business  prudence. 

So  long  as  men  will  buy  securities  without  in- 
telligent investigation,  so  long  will  they  be  dis- 
appointed in  their  investments.  I  do  not  say 
that  securities  selling  below  par  or  at  merely 
normal  rates  may  not  be  valuable;  they  may  be 

(81) 

e 


82 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


more  desirable  than  those  selling  at  a  premium. 
But  wise  men  will  not  touch  a  security  without 
careful  investigation.  Those  who  do  are  the 
most  reckless  of  gamblers  and  unworthy  of 
sympathy  if  their  ventures  turn  out  unfortunately. 
Those  who  have  money  to  invest  will  also  be 
wise  in  avoiding  a  state  or  country  that  does  not 


"^^Sn^^  ^a^^  :==^ 


Chariot,  Ancient  Britain. 


^^^■ii>M^-^^^^ 


accord  corporate  capital  the  same  treatment  as 
other  property.  A  country  animated  by  such  a 
spirit  is  as  unsafe  as  a  powder  magazine  infested 
by  children. 

In  making  investments  in  railways  the  prop- 
erty into  which  it  is  proposed  to  buy  should  be 
scanixed  with  reference  to  its  particular  merits 
and  demerits.     It  must  be  considered  generally 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  83 

and  particularly:  the  country  it  sujiplies,  its  ex- 
tent, popularity,  condition,  the  amount  of  its 
bonds,  stocks,  leases,  floating  debt,  contracts, 
agreements,  and  so  on.  The  nature  of  the  man- 
agement, its  adequacy,  fitness  and  trustworthiness, 
are  also  all  important.  A  railway  with  an  in- 
adequate or  defective  plan  of  government  is  as 
untrustworthy  as  a  corrupt  or  weak  civil  govern- 
ment. All  these  details  must  be  carefully  looked 
after  by  investors  in  every  country. 

Investors  in  new  countries  are  more  apt  to 
neglect  necessary  precautions  than  in  older  com- 
munities; they  lack  the  wisdom  that  comes  with 
experience.  In  England  shareholders  in  corpora- 
tions consider  it  a  duty  to  be  present  at  meetings; 
their  commendation  or  sharp  crticism  is  heard  in 
every  meeting.  In  America  the  owner  of  railroad 
stock  rarely,  if  ever,  goes  to  a  meeting  of  share- 
holders unless  he  has  sufficient  holdings  to  control 
the  board  or  is  a  director;  to  do  so  is  thought  to 
be  effeminate,  weak,  intrusive.  This  feeling  is 
assiduously  cultivated  by  his  more  robust,  aggres- 
sive and  powerful  brothers  who  have  control ;  his 
absence  is  grateful,  his  presence  irritating.  This 
is  natural.  Criticism  is  always  offensive.  How- 
ever, stockholders  should  not  be  deterred  from 
doing  their  duty  because  of  this.  No  one  should 
ever  give  a  proxy  if  he  can  be  present  personally. 
It  is  common  sense,  simply  business  prudence  not 
to  do  so.  The  practice  should  not  be  waived  in 
the  case  of  railways  any  more  than  in  the  case  of 
manufactories,  breweries  and  banks.    It  is  a  duty 


84  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

property  holders  owe  to  society,  but  above  all  to 
themselves. 

While  men  should  not  buy  railway  securities 
without  investigation,  they  should  not  sell  with- 
out reason.  Mere  rumor  should  not  disturb 
them.  Stocks  and  bonds  are  ever  the  subjects  of 
manipulation.  The  effort  to  induce  the  public 
to  sell  when  the  market  is  going  up  and  to  buy 
when  it  is  going  down  never  for  a  moment  ceases. 
Representations  conform  to  these  ends  and  mar- 
kets are  manipulated  accordingly.  Speculative 
classes  are  kept  alive  by  the  dupes  who  believe 
their  misrepresentations. 

Much  good  advice  has  been  given  the  English, 
Dutch  and  Germans  in  reference  to  investments 
in  other  countries,  especially  America.  I  do  not 
remember,  however,  to  have  noticed  any  refer- 
ence to  a  safeguard  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
them,  namely,  proper  representation  on  the 
ground.  The  losses  foreigners  have  suffered  in 
America  have  not  been  the  result  so  much  of 
dishonesty  or  trickery  on  the  part  of  local  owners 
and  manager  as  of  the  rascality  and  gross 
stupidity  of  those  who  represent  foreign  holders. 
These  representatives  are  generally  of  the  same 
nationality  as  their  principals.  They,  as  a  rule, 
know  nothing  about  American  methods  or  men, 
and  are  not  in  sympathy  with  its  people.  If  not 
foreigners,  they  are  not  generally  trusted  at 
home.  The  honorable  exceptions  to  this  rule 
only  make  it  the  more  noticeable. 
As  a  rule  the  representatives  of  foreign  capital 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  86 

in  America  know  little  about  the  business  they 
are  hired  to  look  after  and  their  avenues  of 
information  are  neither  influential  nor  trust- 
worthy; not  such  certainly  as  to  secure  the 
objects  they  have  in  view.  Foreigners  investing 
in  America  will  And  it  to  their  interests  to  select 
their  agents  from  among  Americans;  from  among 
its  reputable,  practical  business  men,  and  gener- 
ally from  among  those  who  do  not  solicit  such 
trusts;  from  men  already  employed  in  similar 
positions.  In  order  to  find  fit  agents,  foreign  in- 
vestors must  visit  the  country  and  select  their 
representatives  from  among  those  who  have  had 
experience  and  who  possess  the  confidence  of  the 
business  world.  Such  men  do  not  go  abroad  to 
solicit  trusts  or  to  place  loans.  Nor  are  they  to 
be  found  in  the  lobbies  of  hotels.  The  same  rule 
must  be  observed  that  is  followed  in  selecting  a 
cashier  or  superintendent.  If  investors  will  do 
this  they  will  not  have  to  complain  of  being 
over-reached  by  local  speculators. 

The  men  that  English,  German  and  Dutch 
investors  have  sent  abroad  as  agents  have  not 
been  such  as  to  justify  a  reputation  for  shrewd- 
ness or  common  business  knowledge.  Their 
investments  will  never  be  wisely  placed  nor 
securely  held  until  they  change  their  methods 
in  this  respect. 

In  many  cases  the  representatives  of  foreign 
holders  in  America  have  been  knowingly  or  un- 
knowingly the  dupes  of  those  who  are  not 
trusted  by  their  own  neighbors.    When  foreign- 


86 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


ers  have  controlled  stable  companies  in  America 
they  have  not  been  able  to  maintain  them;  when 
they  have  controlled  weak  companies  they  have 
grown  weaker.  In  the  majority  of  cases  their 
purchases  have  been  such  as  were  designed  to 
attract  the  credulous  and  unwary,  those  Avho 
look  for  exorbitant  returns,  who  seek  a  royal 
road  to  wealth,  or  who  do  not  observe  the  pre- 
cautions of  business  men. 


Prankish  King  and  Queen,  8th  Century. 

But  if  those  who  represent  foreign  investors  in 
other  countries  lack  ability,  experience,  adapta- 
l)ility,  and  oftentimes  common  honesty,  how 
shall  we  characterize  the  majority  of  Americans 
who  visit  Europe  to  negotiate  loans  or  sell  prop- 
erty? They  are  rarely,  if  ever,  representative 
men.  They  are  not  generally  trusted  by  their 
own  countrymen.  Birds  of  passage,  their  migra- 
tory errands  indicate  a  lack  of  capital  at  home 
that  does  not  really  exist.    While  many  honora- 


CAPlTALIZAriON.  87 

ble  men  go  upon  such  errands,  the  majority  of 
them  are  unworthy  to  be  trusted.  They  sin 
doubly,  first  in  inducing  people  to  invest,  and 
afterward  in  representing  them.  They  first 
fleece  the  public  by  misrepresentations  and  rob  it 
afterward  as  agents.  What  are  we  to  think  of 
the  commercial  acumen  of  people  who  have  been 
so  systematically  imposed  upon  as  the  English, 
Hollanders  and  Germans  have  in  this  respect  in 
America? 

Generally  speaking,  foreign  investors  will 
always  exercise  a  wise  discretion  if  they  decline 
to  buy  into  enterprises  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
give  the  properties  the  reputation  of  being  con- 
trolled by  them.  Such  reputation  attracts  unfa- 
vorable attention.  The  more  unobtrusively  for- 
eign investments  are  made  and  held,  the  more 
likely  they  are  to  be  satisfactory;  the  less  likely 
they  are  to  occasion  owners  anxiety.  Not  that 
there  may  be  any  special  enmity  towards  for- 
eigners, but  nationality  and  patriotic  prejudices 
run  high  among  every  people,  and  w^ise  men 
never  run  counter  thereto  in  business  matters  if 
they  can  avoid  it. 


Carriage  in  Agra,  India. 
(88) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CAPITALIZATION — CAPITAL   STOCK   AND   SHARE- 
HOLDERS. 

As  I  have  already  pointed  out,  the  practice  in 
England  in  capitalizing  railway  property  is  for 
the  stockholders  to  put  such  a  quantity  of  money 
into  the  enterprise  as  to  constitute  a  substantial 
investment  and  a  material  security  to  bondhold- 
ers. It  will  be  a  good  general  rule  to  follow  in 
America  hereafter,  in  the  inauguration  of  new 
companies  not  backed  by  old  and  well  established 
corporations.  The  practice  has  been  to  pay  a 
nominal  sum  on  the  stock  and  issue  bonds  to 
cover  the  balance.  The  custom  was  a  necessity, 
and  under  such  circumstances  will  always  be 
proper.  I  have  no  criticism  to  make.  Other 
countries  can  not  go  far  wrong  in  handling  rail- 
way enterprises  if  they  follow,  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances, the  lead  of  the  United  States.  Its 
railroads  have  been  admirably  managed  and  their 
officers  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other 
countries.  A  very  clever  Englishman  *  has  writ- 
ten a  book  of  advice  to  his  countrymen  who 
have  investments  in  American  securities.  He 
might  have  claimed  for  it   a    wider    field.    It 

*John  Swann,  M.  A. 

(80) 


90  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

is  in  the  main  good.  But  there  is  no  cut  and 
dried  fomiula  that  can  be  followed  in  capi- 
talizing a  property  or  in  making  investments 
in  it  afterward.  I  have  referred  to  this  phase 
of  the  subject  very  fully  in  another  chapter. 

The  total  cost  of  a  company's  property,  in- 
cluding the  supplies  and  working  fund  required 
in  its  operation,  is  the  proper  basis  of  its  capital- 
ization.   In  the  United  States  this  is  represented 


Burmese  Carriers. 


largely  by  mortgage  bonds  and  what  is  called 
capital  stock.  The  latter  should  more  properly 
be  called  shares  capital.  The  term  capital  stock 
in  the  sense  it  is  here  used  is  misleading,  l3ecause 
applied  to  a  security  that  represents  only  a  frac- 
tion of  the  cost. 

In  England  they  speak  of  the  capital  stock  of 
railways;  never  of  cost.  The  former  at  one 
time  implied  the  latter. 

Every  company  should  l)e  empowered  to  cause 


CAPITALIZATION.  91 

its  cost  to  be  represented  either  with  interest 
bearing  bonds  or  shares.*  Any  excess  of  cost 
over  such  issues  should  stand  upon  the  books 
under  the  head  of  capital  account  until  such 
time  as  the  proprietors  see  proper  to  give  it  life. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  capital  as  much  as  the  first 
dollar  paid  tow^ards  the  venture. 

Whatever  a  company  may  earn  over  its  liabili- 
ties for  operating  expenses,  taxes,  rentals,  inter- 
est, and  other  accounts  chargeable  against 
income,  belongs  to  the  owners  of  its  shares  and 
should  be  equitably  apportioned  among  them. 
It  is  called  a  dividend.  This  division  is  fre- 
quently delayed.  In  some  instances  it  is  never 
made,  but  withheld  by  the  owners  for  use  in 
building  up  the  property.  But,  however  proper 
such  action  may  be,  it  is  in  the  nature  of  a  forced 
loan.  It  should  not,  therefore,  be  covered  up  in 
the  accounts  or  lost  sight  of,  but  should  be  paid 
over  to  the  shareholders  the  same  as  if  it  were 
a  note  of  hand,  if  the  exigencies  of  business  will 
ever  permit. 

A  majority  of  the  shares  of  the  capital  stock 
of  a  property,  or  a  majority  of  those  voting,  ac- 
cording to  the  by-laws  of  the  company,  elect  its 
directors.  These  control  its  operations  for  the 
period  of  time  for  which  they  are  elected.  In 
the  event  of  foreclosure  and  sale  of  a  property 
the  shareholders  (who  are  the  company)  possess 
the  right  of  redemption,  but  in  the  event  this 

*The  English  speak  of  the  obligations  of  goveruinents  as 
stocks;  the  securities  of  railroads  as  shares. 


92  SCIENCE  OF  n  AIL  WAYS; 

right  is  not  exercised   their  shares  become  in- 

''\'he  par  value  of  a  share  of  capital  stock  in  a 
railroad  is  usually  one  hundred  dollars     In  some 
cases  the  shares  are  fifty  dollars  each   Frequent^ 
Iv  two  kinds  of  shares  are  issued.  Their  printed 
form  is   substantially   alike.f     But   they  have 
different  rights  and  privileges.    The  higher  grade 
is  called  preferred  stock  or  preference  shaies  the 
subordinate  grade,  common  or  ordmary  stock 
The  rights  these  shares  severally  enjoy  and  the 
maxinuim  amount  of  each  that  may  be  issued 
are  set  forth  in  the  articles  of  incorporation,  and 
this  limit  can  not  subsequently  be  exceeded  with- 
out formal  consent  of  the  parties  m  interest. 

-;^,;;^,„e  of  t.e  shares  o,  cjpM  ^'°*  »{  *,%'.""™;^: 

cash  used  in  improving  the  property. 

t  Form  of  certificate  of  capital  stock-100  shares: 
No.m  ,,^     ,  PREFERRED.  3,,,,3  .^oo  eaclJ!^ '"""• 

MlXXElpOLfs    &   SOUTH   PACIFIC   RAILROAD    CO. 

^  STATE   OF  MINNESOTA.  .oNr-    HUNDRED 

THIS  CEKTXPXES   that   JOHN    1K)E   is  th^^^^  111^^.^- 

K^o°J.Sfn-  UaTsl^-bTeo^^^^  the  Co^mpany  on  surrender  of 

'^' WnNESs'fhe  signature  of  the  President  and  Secretary. 

Dated  April  !".>,  IS**-  P   q   PHILLIPS,  President. 

HUGH  GRAY,  Secretary.  ^-  ^-  " 

The  certificates  for  common  shares  are  similar  to  the  above, 
except  thaUl';  word  Common  is  substituted  for  Preferred. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  93 

Many  companies  have  more  than  two  classes  of 
shares.'"  The  rehition  they  sustain  to  each  other 
and  to  the  property  is  determined  by  the  peculiar 
circumstances  that  necessitated  the  diversity  of 
interest.  When  a  company  in  poor  credit  is  com- 
pelled to  raise  money,  the  best  terms  attainal)le 
are  accepted.  Sometimes  mortgage  bonds  are 
created;  sometimes  new  shares  are  issued  (at  a 
large  discount,  perhaps),  which  shares,  by  consent 
of  the  holders  of  existing  securities,  frequently 
take  precedence.  It  is  in  ways  such  as  these 
that  different  classes  of  shares  and  l)onds  are 
brought  into  existence.  The  rights  enjoyed  by 
holders  of  preferred  and  common  shares,  on 
different  roads,  are  rarely  the  same.f 

Where  there  are  two  classes  of  stock,  preferred 
rights  usually  extend  no  further  than  a  division 
of  net  earnings.  Or,  in  other  words,  while  the 
holders  of  a  preferred  stock  may  be  entitled  to  a 
certain  return  before  inferior  shares  can  receive 

*  The  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Company  of  Caimda  has  five 
classes  of  stock,  viz  :  Ordinary  Stock;  Ordinary  Stock,  new 
issue  of  1873;  First  Preference;  Second  Preference;  and  Third 
Preference.    It  has,  besides,  various  kinds  and  grades  of  bonds. 

fThe  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Company's  preferred 
shareholders  are  entitled  to  an  annual  dividend  of  seven  per 
cent,  before  a  dividend  can  be  paid  on  the  common  shares.  The 
preferred  shares  of  the  Tjake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railway 
(which  amount  to  only  .|ir)33,r)00)  are  entitled  to  an  annual  divi- 
dend of  ten  per  cent,  on  their  par  value  before  the  ordinary 
shares  can  receive  any  return.  No  dividend  can  be  paid  on  the 
common  shares  of  the  North-Western  road  during  any  year,  out 
of  the  receipts  of  such  year,  until  seven  per  cent,  has  been  divided 
among  the  holders  of  preferred  shares.  Other  diff'erences,  still 
more  marked,  might  be  cited. 


g^  SCONCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

,.vfhina  still  in  the  event  the  property  is  fore- 

holderexteud  to  a  division  o    the  Pi-Pfy. 

Dividends  are  declared  by  the  b«ard  of  duect 
ors      Tl>e  meeting  at  which  a  dividend    s  c^ 
c  ared  must  be  legally  convened  and  m"^  in  a^ 
respects  conform  to  the  statutes  and  the  com^ 
pany's  by-laws.*    The  amount  of   the  contem 


Rural  Carriage,  Turkey. 


'''cTStare  paid  to  the  order  of  the  persons 
wi?o  a?^ar  npoi  the  stock  ledger  as  owners  at 
the  time  the  books  are  closed. 

-.^-STT^eek-s  „o,U.e  m„.t  ^g^^ ^''^^St:^ 

*•    -,\^f  thP   i:)ireotors;  when,  ho^ve^e^,  aii  luc  x^ 
L";tS,,tr,on,;aU,y  may  l-e  Oispensea  ,vlt.. 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  95 

A  period  averaging  from  ten  to  thirty  clays 
usually  elapses  between  the  declaration  of  a  divi- 
dend and  the  closing  of  the  books.  The  reason 
is  that  there  are  many  shares  passing  from  hand 
to  hand  (as  they  are  bought  and  sold)  without 
being  transferred  on  the  books.  When  a  certifi- 
cate is  sold  by  the  original  holder  the  power  of 
attorney  on  the  back  is  signed,  in  blank,  l)y 
him.'^'  This  enables  the  holder,  whoever  he  may 
be,  to  take  it  to  the  ofhce  of  the  registrar  at  any 
time  he  pleases  and  have  it  transferred.  But 
shares  frequently  change  hands  many  times  with- 
out transfer  of  ownership  appearing  on  the 
books.  So  far  as  the  latter  show,  they  are  still  in 
the  hands  of  the  original  holders. 

When  a  dividend  is  declared,  every  person  who 
owns  a  certificate  registered  in  the  name  of 
some  one  else  usually  (but  not  necessarily)  has  it 
tranferi-ed.  It  is  in  order  to  facilitate  these  trans- 
fers that  a  period  of  time  is  allowed  between  the 
declaration  of  a  dividend  and  the  closing  of  the 
books.  While  the  books  are  closed  details  re- 
garding payment,  such  as  the  drawing  of  checks, 
etc.,  are  performed. 


*Forin  of  Transfer  and   power  of  attorney  printed  on  back 

of  certifieate  of  stock : 

For  value  received do  hereby  sell,  transfer  and   assign  to 

the  within  mentioned  Shares  of  Stock,  and  do  hereby  constitute  and  appoint 

as Attorney,  irrevoea))le,  to  transfer  said  stock  on 

the  iJooks  of  tlie  within  named  ("ompany,  and  to  make  and  execute  all  neces- 
sary acts  of  assignment  and  transfer  required  by  the  regulations  and  by-laws 
of  said  Company  eithcrin  person  or  by  such  other  Attorney  or  Attorneys  as 
may  appoint  or  substitute  for  that  purpose. 

Witness hand  and  seal  this day  of 18.... 

Signed  and  Delivered  in  the  presence  of 

(Thos.  lioUnson.)  JAMES  JONES. 


96  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS. 

Corporations  are  required  to  give  timely  no- 
tice of  the  payment  of  dividends;  also  of  meet- 
ings of  stockholders.  They  are  not  allowed  to 
close  their  stock  books  without  giving  public 
notice  in  advance,  specifying  the  date  the  books 
are  to  be  closed,  when  they  will  be  reopened, 
and  the  reason  why  they  are  closed.  A  period 
of  from  thirty  to  forty  days  generally  elapses 
between  the  closing  and  reopening  of  the  books 
for  a  meeting  of  stockholders.  The  stock  books 
are  closed  jDreparatory  so  such  meeting  in  order 
that  a  correct  list  of  those  legally  entitled  to  vote 
may  be  made.  Holders  of  stock  are  entitled  to 
one  vote  for  each  share  standing  in  their  names 
when  the  books  are  closed.  During  the  time  the 
stock  books  are  closed  no  transfer  of  shares  can 
be  made  thereon. 


CHAPTEK    VIII. 

CAPITALIZATION — DETAILS   OF   MORTGAGE   BONDS, 

LEASES,    ETC. 

The  amount  of  the  bonds  issued  in  the  United 
States  with  which  to  build  and  equip  railroads  is 
called  the  Funded  Debt.  A  mortgage  is  an  abso- 
lute lien  and,  in  the  event  the  interest  or  princi- 
pal is  not  paid  as  agreed,  may  be  foreclosed  and 
the  property  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  Bonds 
representing  the  funded  debt  are  commonly 
signed  by  the  president  and  secretary  and  counter- 
signed by  the  trustee.  The  latter  is  a  contingent 
agent  of  the  bondholders. 

Bonds  vary  in  amount  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars. 

When  there  is  more  than  one  mortgage  upon  a 
property,  the  relation  of  the  mortgages  to  each 
other  is  indicated  by  their  designation,  as  first, 
second,  third,  and  so  on.  It  frequently  occurs 
that  a  mortgage  will  be  a  first  lien  upon  one 
piece  of  road  and  occupy  a  secondary  place  else- 
where. Each  bond  recites  upon  its  face  the 
property  it  covers  and  the  rights  its  holders  pos- 
sess. 

Owners  are  called  bondholders.  Sometimes  a 
company  sells  its  bonds  directly  to  investors,  but 
frequently  through  brokers.    In  the  latter  case  a 

(97) 

7 


98 


SCEEXCE  OF  BAIL  TI'J  YS; 


commission    is    usually    paid.      Bonds    run    for 
various  periods,  from  one  year  upwards. 

To  enable  bondholders  the  better  to  protect 
their  interests  thay  are  sometimes  allowed  to 
vote  at  annual  and  special  meetings  the  same  as 
stockholders.     Such  a  course  naturally  insures  a 


Carriage  in  Lower  Egypt. 


very  conservative  management,  as  it  is  the  inter- 
est of  bondholders  to  divide  as  little  of  the  sur- 
plus as  possible  among  stockholders,  and  expend 
as  much  as  possible  in  improving  and  building 
up  the  property,  every  dollar  thus  expended 
adding,  of  course,  so  much  to  the  security  of  the 
bondholder. 


CAFITALIZA  TION.  99 

The  necessities  of  a  company  are  sometimes 
such  as  to  compel  it  to  mortgage  its  surplus  in- 
come— /.  ('.,  the  balance  left  after  meeting  exist- 
ing obligations.  The  securities  thus  issued  are 
called  Income  Bonds.  Specific  articles  of  prop- 
erty, such  as  a  building,  bridge,  engine,  car  or 
piece  of  machinery,  are  also  sometimes  separately 
mortgaged.  Mortgages  of  this  character,  as  well 
as  those  based  on  income,  generally  run  only  for 
a  short  period. 

The  extent  to  which  a  road  may  be  properly 
encumbered  depends,  of  course,  upon  its  net 
receipts.  Great  conservatism  is  usually  exercised. 
The  multitude  of  properties  that  have  passed 
into  the  hands  of  receivers  represent,  generally, 
risks  well  understood  from  the  start. 

There  are  sometimes  as  many  as  five  distinct 
mortgages  upon  a  piece  of  property.  A  fifth 
mortgage  does  not  seem  to  be  a  very  valuable 
security;  yet  it  may  be  preferable  in  every  way 
to  a  first  mortgage  in  another  case.  Its  obliga- 
tions may  be  promptly  met  and  it  may  command 
a  premium  in  the  market,  while  a  first  mortgage 
in  another  case  is  discredited.  The  various  mort- 
gages on  a  property  represent  its  different  stages 
of  progress  and  are  usually  evidences  of  pros- 
perity. 

The  objection  to  a  mortgage  on  a  railway  is  its 
lack  of  flexibility.  It  makes  no  distinction  be- 
tween a  property  destitute  of  value  in  itself  and 
one  requiring  only  time  to  build  it  up.  Many  of 
the  mortgages  that  have  been  foreclosed  and  the 


100  SCIEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

properties  sold  at  a  deplorable  sacrifice,  would 
ultimately  have  been  paid  in  full  with  interest  if 
the  owners  had  been  compelled  to  wait.  For 
this  reason  a  mortgage  is  too  rigid,  too  exact- 
ing, to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  situation. 
Instead  of  protecting  its  holders  it  may  be 
made  the  means,  under  false  representations, 
of  freightening  them  into  sacrificing  their  in- 
vestment. 

Every  mortgage  provides  for  one  or  more  trus- 
tees, whose  duty  it  is,  if  the  interest  and  princi- 
pal are  not  paid  when  due,  or  within  a  specified 
time  thereafter,  to  advertise  and  sell  the  prop- 
erty, if  called  upon  by  the  holders  of  the  bonds. 
The  manner  and  form  of  action  are  prescribed. 
The  minimum  amount  of  bonds  required  to  com- 
pel action  upon  the  part  of  the  trustee  is  also 
indicated.  This  amount  is  commonly  made  so 
small  as  to  protect  all  the  holders.  In  the  event 
of  default  the  trustee  may,  of  his  own  volition  in 
many  cases,  go  ahead  and  foreclose  without  being 
called  upon  by  holders.  He  is  supposed  to  act 
always  in  their  interests. 

Mortgages  take  precedence  according  to  their 
dates.  Thus,  the  foreclosure  of  a  third  mortgage 
does  not  affect  those  of  a  prior  date.  But  the 
foreclosure  of  a  first  mortgage  invalidates  all 
others;  but  if  there  remain  any  surplus  over 
and  above  the  amount  required  to  satisfy  such 
mortgage,  it  must  be  divided  among  the  holders 
of  the  next  succeeding  mortgage,  and  so  on 
until    it   is    exhausted.    In    the    event   of   the 


CAPITALIZA  TION.  101 

foreclosure  of  a  first  mortgage,  or  of  any  mort- 
gage, the  holders  of  the  next  succeeding  mort- 
gage usuall}^  redeem  the  property  if  its  worth 
justifies.* 

Debenture  stock  is  a  favorite  form  of  security 
in  Great  Britain.  It  has  a  fixed  rate  of  interest 
and  is  a  positive  lien  upon  the  property,  but  there 
is  no  trustee,  no  definite  form  of  procedure  in- 
volving the  whole  issue  in  case  of  default.  A 
holder  can,  if  his  interest  is  not  paid,  levy  upon 
the  company's  property  wherever  found  and 
place  his  name  upon  it  and  hold  it  until  liis 
claim  is  satisfied.  Co-operation  with  other  hold- 
ers is  not  obligatory  and  the  sale  of  the  property 
proceeds  no  farther  than  is  necessary  to  reim- 
burse the  disaffected  holder. 

In  some  portions  of  the  United  States  mort- 
gages must  be  recorded  upon  the  books  of  the 
recorder  of  deeds  or  other  desiginated  officer 
for  each  county  in  which  the  property  is 
located.  In  other  cases  it  is  only  necessary 
to  record  the  mortgage  at  the  state  capital. 
An  unrecorded  mortgage  has  no  value  as  against 
a  recorded  mortgage  or  the  judgment  of  a 
court. 

Attached  to  every  mortgage  bond  issued  by 
railroad  companies  are  diminutive  notes  of  hand 

*  In  the  event  the  requirements  of  an  inferior  mortgage  are 
not  satisfied,  the  holders  of  such  mortgage  have  in  some  cases 
the  right  to  compel  the  holders  of  prior  mortgages  to  become 
parties  to  the  foreclosure  jjroceedings,  thus  forcing  the  holders 
of  such  prior  bonds  to  accept  payment  for  the  same  in  advance 
of  the  time  originally  specified. 


102  SCIENOE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

called  coupons.*  Each  installment  of  interest 
covered  by  a  bond,  whether  annual,  semi-annual 
or  quarterly,  is  represented  by  one  of  these 
coupons.  The  number  of  coupons  attached  to  a 
bond  is  sometimes  very  great.  A  coupon  when 
due  is  in  the  nature  of  a  sight  draft  on  the  com- 
pany issuing  it. 

Every  bond  specifies  on  its  face  where  the 
interest  and  principal  are  payable;  also  in  many 
cases  the  form  of  payment,  whether  gold  or  silver. 

Registered  bonds  are  somewhat  different  from 
coupon  bonds:  both  principal  and  interest  are 
•payable  to  order.  A  registered  bond  can  only  be 
collected  by  the  person  in  whose  name  it  is  reg- 
istered upon  the  books  of  the  corporation;  this 
name  is  inserted  in  the  body  of  the  instrument. 
No  coupons  are  attached  to  registered  bonds. 
When  interest  matures  it  is  forwarded  to  the 
address  of  the  person  in  whose  name  the  bond  is 
registered.  The  expense  and  annoyance  of  trans- 
ferring registered  bonds  when  they  change  hands 
detract  somewhat  from  their  marketable  value. 
They  are,  therefore,  never  issued  except  upon 
request. 

The  bonds  of  railroad  companies  and  those  of 
the  government  are   much  alike  in   form.     The 


*  On  the  first  day  of  January,  A.  D 

The  IVIiNNEAPOLis  &  South  Pacific  Railway  Company 

Will  pay  to  the  bearer  hereof  THIRTY-FIVE  DOLLARS,  IN  GOLD  COIN, 
at  its  office  or  agencv,  in  the  citv  of  New  York,  or,  at  its 
option,  SEVEN  POUNDS  STERLING,  at  the  office  or  "l 

(jtqr    agency  of  the  BANK  OF  MONTREAL,  in  the  city  of     On       -*- 
T'^*-'    London,  England,  being  SIX  months'  interest  due  on    "^ ' 
that  day  on  its  (?1000)  First  Mortgage  Gold  Bond,  No. 
236.     Dated  JUNE  21st,  1879.  L.  C.  JONES, 

Secretary. 


CAPITALIZATION.  103 

manner  of  paj^ing  interest  is  also  much  the  same. 
The  interest  on  different  issues  of  bonds  does  not 
all  fall  due  at  the  same  time;  no  rule  save  the  con- 
venience of  the  company  or  of  proposed  purchasers 
of  bonds  is  followed  in  fixing  the  date  and  place 
for  paying  interest.  In  some  cases  interest  is  paid 
only  once  a  year;  in  some  cases  quarterly;  the 
general  rule,  however,  is  to  pay  it  semi-annually. 

Interest  on  bonds  constitutes  a  separate  item 
in  the  income  or  profit  and  loss  account.*  It  is 
called  with  rentals  and  guaranteed  dividends,  a 
fixed  charge. 

Such  are  some  of  the  details  connected  with 
mortgage  bonds.  Where  properties  are  leased, 
the  amount  paid  as  rental  takes  the  place  of  in- 
terest on  bonds  in  the  accounts  and  returns  of  the 
lessee.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  interest  on 
the  funded  debt  of  the  property  leased  is  as- 
sumed by  the  lessee,  in  which  case  it  may  thus 
appear  in  the  returns  in  lieu  of  rental  or  as  part 
payment  of  rental. 

The  same  diversity  that  is  noticeable  in  other 
operations  of  railways  chavticterizes  their  leases. 

*  The  rt'turns  of  the  United  States  government  require  that 
the  amount  sluill  be  entered  on  the  books  of  a  company  eacli 
montli  as  it  aeerues,  estimating  the  interest  for  six  months  in 
advance,  from  the  commencement  of  tlie  fiscal  year  (July  1st) 
on  the  basis  of  the  bonded  debt  at  the  time  the  estimate  is  made. 
In  this  way  one  sixth  of  the  interest  for  tlie  half  year  is  entered 
up  monthly;  any  ditterences  that  may  occur  in  consequence  of 
bonds  l)eing  withdrawn  and  cancelled  or  new  bonds  issued 
during  the  half  year  being  considered  in  tlie  charge  to  "  Interest 
on  Bonds  "  for  the  sixth  month.  Many  companies,  however,  do 
not  brin<r  the  interest  charge  on  to  their  books  until  it  falls  due. 


104  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

A  description  of  the  basis  of  the  latter  is,  there- 
fore, impracticable.  Their  scope  and  purpose 
find  expression  in  the  provisions  that  hedge  them 
about.  The  consideration  is  never  the  same  in 
any  two  cases.  The  manner  of  paying  rentals 
for  leased  lines  also  varies.  Sometimes  a  fixed 
sum  per  annum  is  paid.  But  more  frequently  the 
amount  is  dependent  upon  the  earnings  of  the 
property  or  is  based  on  the  number  of  passengers 
and  tons  of  freight  transported.  Sometimes  on 
the  earnings  per  train  mile.  AVhatever  the  basis, 
the  instrument  fixes  the  manner,  time  and  place 
of  payment.  As  the  value  of  a  railroad  is  de- 
pendent upon  tlie  fidelity  and  skill  exercised  in 
its  maintenance,  the  obligation  of  a  lessee  to 
operate  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results  is  usually 
set  forth  in  the  instrument  at  great  length.*  Ar- 
bitrators are  usually  provided  for  in  every  lease 

*  I  flnd  the  following  iu  reference  to  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject in  an  old  lease :  '*  And  the  lessee  agrees  that  at  all  times 
during  the  existence  of  this  agreement  he  will  faithfulh'  main- 
tain and  efficiently  operate  said  railroad,  and  keep  the  same  in 
good  repair  and  condition,  with  appurtenances  and   incidents 

•  *  •  furnish  and  supply  at  all  times  a  sufficient  and  ample 
amount  of  motive  power,  and  iiassenger  and  freight  and  other 
cars,  to  do  advantageously  and  in  a  proper  manner  all  tlie 
freight  and  passenger  business  which  may  be  otl'ered  or  pro- 
cured for  said  road,  and  which  may  be  secured  to  the  said  line 

•  •  •  and  will  in  all  ways  furnish  all  needful  and  proper 
facilities  for  the  increasing  business  of  said  line,  and  the  grow- 
ing demands  of  the  country  by  its  increasing  production,  or  by 
the  extension  of  said  railroad  communication ;  and  will  further 
adopt  such  judicious  and  efficient  measures  as  may  tend  to  make 
the  said  line  a  main  and  prosperous  line;  the  lessee  further 
agrees  that  during  the  term  hereby  granted,  he  will  operate, 
maintain,  and  keep  in  repair  the  said  demised  premises,  pay  all 


CA  PITA L IZA  TION.  105 

(in  the  event  differences  arise),  the  manner  of 
their  appointment  and  the  rules  governing  their 
action  being  carefully  prescribed.  A  lessee 
usually  pays  the  taxes  on  the  property  leased  and 
makes  full  returns  of  its  affairs  to  the  lessor.  It 
is  customary  for  the  latter  to  reserve  the  right 
to  examine  the  books  and  accounts  of  the  lessee 
at  pleasure.  It  is  a  duty  of  the  lessor  to  keep 
up  the  legal  organization  of  the  property.'"  He 
is  also  required,  as  a  rule,  to  maintain  the  lessee 
in  peaceable  possession  and  pay  all  liens  or  in 
cumbrances  on  the  property,  including  the  ex- 
penses incident  thereto.}-      In  addition  to  the 

taxes  assessed  upon  it,  and  indemnify  and  save  harmless  the 
said  lessor  against  and  from  all  costs,  expenses  and  damages 
growing  out  of  the  maintaining,  repairing,  operating  and  using 
the  said  road." 

*  "  And  the  lessors  hereby  covenant  and  agree  that  they  will,' 
during  the  term  in  which  the  j^rovisions  of  this  indenture  shall 
be  in  force,  preserve  and  continue  the  legal  organization  of  said 
leased  road ;  will  hold  meetings,  keep  records,  pass  votes,  and 
api^oint  othcers.  so  far  as  necessary  to  enable  the  lessees  to  carry 
into  full  force  and  effect  the  objects  of  this  instrument ;  and 
that  they  will  give  such  further  assurances  as  may  be  necessary 
therefor,  and  that  they  will  at  any  and  all  times  hereafter,  when 
thereunto  requested  by  the  lessees,  use  their  corporate  powers, 
and  do  and  perform  in  their  own  corporate  name,  any  and  all 
acts  and  things  that  may  be  necessary  fully  to  protect  said 
lessees  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
herein  granted." — Extract  from  old  lease. 

t "  And  the  lessors  further  covenant  and  agree,  that  they  will 
at  all  times  protect  the  lessees  in  the  quiet  possession  and  en- 
joyment of  the  premises  and  rights  hereby  granted,  or  intended 

so  to  do,  on  said  line  of miles,  and  will  assume  and  pay 

all  liens  and  incumbrances  at  any  time  found  to  exist  thereon, 
with  all  costs,  damages,  and  legal  cliarges  by  reason  thereof." — 
Old  lease. 


106 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS. 


leasing  of  railroads  as  a  whole,  many  leases  are 
made  to  cover  particular  things,  such  as  use  of 
tracks,  terminals,  buildings  and  docks.  In  this 
way  two  or  more  companies  frequently  use  prop- 
erties in  common. 


Transportation  in  Greenland. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

CAPITALIZATION  —  PARTICULARS   OF    SINKING   FUNDS. 

A  majority  of  people  have  only  a  vague 
idea  of  what  constitutes  a  sinking  fund.  Many 
who  are  otherwise  attentive  to  what  transpires 
about  them  refuse  to  consider  the  term  at 
all  when  they  meet  it  in  print,  but  dodge  it 
as  they  would  a  weak  spot  in  the  ice.  They  look 
upon  it  as  an  enigma  of  finance  that  only  a 
few  favored  mortals  may  understand.  Webster, 
defining  the  verb  "sink"  says,  "To  cause  to 
sink;  to  put  under  water;  to  immerse  in  water, 
as  to  sink  a  ship;  to  depress;  to  make  by  digging 
or  delving,  as  to  sink  a  pit  or  well."  This  ex- 
planation, though  lucid,  affords  no  clue  to  the 
term  used  in  the  vernacular  of  corporations. 

A  sinking  fund  is  something  set  apart  for  a 
particular  purpose.  It  does  not  necessarily  con- 
sist of  money.  We  will  suppose  that  a  gov- 
ernment or  railroad  company  has  certain  bonds 
that  will  become  due  at  a  specified  time  in  the 
future;  to  insure  the  payment  of  these  bonds,  a 
fixed  sum  is  laid  aside  annually,  or  semi-annually. 
This  sum,  or  the  proceeds  thereof,  can  be  used 
in  the  payment  of  the  bonds  specified,  and  for 
no  other  purpose.  The  sum  tlius  laid  away  is 
called  a  sinking  fund. 

(lOT) 


108  SCIENCE  OF  B  AIL  WAYS; 

The  custodian  of  the  fund  is  the  trustee. 
Sometimes  there  are  two  or  more  of  these  offi- 
cers.* In  many  cases  a  trust  company  acts. 
The  last  named  practice  is  growing  more  and 
more  in  favor.     It  offers  many  advantages. 

The  value  of  a  security  for  which  a  sinking 
fund  is  provided,  is  dependent  somewhat,  as  may 
readily  be  supposed,  upon  the  character  of  the 
trustee.  His  discretion  is  oftentimes  large;  he 
may  rigidly  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  instru- 
ment or  he  may  evade  them.  No  penalty  usually 
attaches  to  him  for  neglect.  In  the  case,  how- 
ever, of  trust  companies  they  are  usually  held  to 
a  more  rigid  responsibility  than  individuals; 
their  duties  are  better  defined;  they  are  better 
paid. 

The  holders  of  a  security,  for  which  a  sinking 
fund  is  provided,  are  permitted  to  call  upon  the 
trustee  to  ascertain  if  the  requirements  of  the 
trust  are  complied  with,  but  this  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
done.  People  who  think  about  such  things  at 
all  take  it  for  granted  that  the  trustee  is  perform- 
ing his  duty,  and  so  let  the  matter  drop. 

Another  phase  of  the  sul)ject  presents  itself. 
When  a  sinking  fund  is  payable  in  cash,  as  it  is  in 
many  cases,  what  is  to  prevent  the  trustee,  if  a 
private  person,  from  appropriating  the  amount 
to  his  own  use?  His  honesty!  He  rarely,  if 
ever,  gives  a  bond. 

*Provifjiou  is  usually  made  in  the  instrument  creating  the 
sinking  fund,  for  the  appointment  of  trustees  in  the  event 
those  specifically  named  die  or  cease  to  act. 


CAPITALIZA  TION. 


109 


Frequently  no  provision  is  made  in  a  mortgage 
for  a  sinking  fund.  As  a  rule,  however,  if  the 
amount  is  large,  the  most  careful  forethought  is 
exercised  to  protect  holders  in  this  way.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  the  creation  of  a  sinking 
fund  is  esteemed  imperative  by  investors.    The 


Indian  (American)  Carrier. 

object  sought  is,  of  course,  to  strengthen  the 
security;  to  insure  the  fulfillment  of  all  the 
obligations  of  the  mortgage,  including  the  pay- 
ment of  interest  and  principal  when  due.  The 
company  issuing  the  mortgage  binds  itself  to 
place  a  specified  sum  at  fixed  periods  in  the 


110  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

hands  of  the  trustee.  Sometimes  these  pay- 
ments are  in  cash;  sometimes  in  bonds  of  the 
issue  for  which  the  fund  is  created;  sometimes  in 
other  specified  securities.  Provision  is  also  made, 
or  shoukl  be,  in  regard  to  investing  the  accretions 
of  the  sinking  fund,  /.  e.,  the  interest  and  premi- 
ums that  accrue  on  the  amount  in  the  hands  of 
the  trustee. 

In  case  uncancelled  ("live")  bonds  are  deposited, 
the  provisions  of  the  fund  usually  require  that 
the  interest  on  such  l)onds  shall  be  collected  by 
the  trustee  and  added  to  the  fund.  Whatever  the 
amount  the  trustee  of  a  sinking  fund  may  have 
in  his  hands  at  the  time  the  bonds  mature  he 
uses  in  the  payment  and  cancellation  of  the 
mortgage.  To  prevent  any  improper  use  of  bonds 
thus  deposited,  the  fact  that  they  are  held  in 
trust  should  be  plainly  stamped  upon  their  face. 

Sinking  funds  should  never  be  paid  in  cash. 
Either  the  bonds  for  which  the  fund  is  created 
should  be  purchased,  or  in  the  event  that  is  im- 
possible, then  government  or  other  stable  se- 
curities. 

In  many  cases  it  is  provided  that  in  the  event 
sufficient  bonds  can  not  be  purchased  at  a  specified 
price  in  the  market  to  satisfy  the  sinking  fund, 
the  trustee  may  draw  by  lot  the  number  of  bonds 
required,  the  holders  of  such  bonds  being  com- 
pelled to  deliver  the  same  at  a  stipulated  rate. 
This  plan  is  a  very  good  one,  but  is  objectionable 
to  the  holders  of  bonds  as  it  makes  the  duration 
of  their  investment  uncertain.    This  lessens  its 


CAPITALIZATION.  Ill 

market  value.  Such  provision  is,  therefore,  held 
ill  the  place  of  a  stable  security,  as  undesirable. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  sinking  funds,  that 
which  requires  the  keeping  alive  of  the  bonds 
and  the  collection  of  the  interest  thereon,  and  in- 
vestment of  the  same  by  the  trustee,  affords  the 
greatest  security. 

But  whatever  method  may  be  adopted,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  trustee  should  give  guarantees 
for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duty.  Trust 
companies  should  afford  this  in  their  subscribed 
capital  and  in  the  character  of  their  officers  and 
stockholders. 

In  reference  to  the  treatment  of  sinking  funds 
in  the  accounts  they  are  in  the  nature  of  unrep- 
resented capital.  A  sinking  fund  takes  the  place 
of  obligations  that  at  one  time  represented  cost. 
It  has,  therefore,  the  same  rights  as  the  original 
investment;  the  right  to  be  represented  by  bonds 
or  shares.  It  is  not  chargeable  against  income 
account  any  more  than  any  other  capital  expend- 
iture. The  reason  why  we  so  often  find  it  in- 
cluded in  the  income  account,  is  because  of  the 
extreme  conservatism  of  proprietors.  This  is 
another  way  they  have  of  strengthening  their 
properties.  It  is  similar  in  effect  to  making  im- 
provements with  net  earnings.  While  it  appears 
to  trench  on  the  rights  of  stockholders,  it  is  not  to 
be  hastily  condemned.  The  fact  that  it  is  done  by 
sagacious  and  practical  business  men  is,  in  itself, 
sufficient  evidence  that  it  is  necessary,  proper  and 
wise. 


Carriage  in  India. 


flJ2) 


CHAPTER    X. 

CONSTRUCTION — RAILWAY     CONSTRUCTION     AND 

EVOLUTION. 

That  form  of  railway  construction  is  most  to 
be  commended  which  best  answers  the  commer- 
cial wants  of  a  community;  that  restricts  cost 
to  the  narrowest  practicable  limit.  Anything 
beyond  this  is  a  perpetual  burden  on  a  country. 

It  is  the  dream  of  idealists  that  particular 
kinds  of  engines  or  cars  should  be  used;  that  cars 
should  be  lighted  or  heated  in  a  particular  way; 
that  tracks  should  be  straight  or  level;  that 
bridges  and  buildings  should  be  of  stone  or  iron ; 
that  ballast  should  consist  of  a  particular  kind  of 
material;  that  rails  should  be  heavy;  that  ties 
should  conform  to  a  particular  pattern;  that 
crossings  should  be  above  or  below  grade;  that 
trains  should  run  fast;  that  artistic  features  of 
construction  or  landscape  gardening  should  re- 
ceive greater  attention  and  outlay.  All  these 
questions  are  purely  practical  ones,  however. 
Sentiment  has  no  proper  place  in  the  economy 
of  railway  construction  or  management  any  more 
than  it  has  in  developing  or  operating  farms. 
They  are  matters  of  business  merely;  of  good 
judgment  and  common  sense;  of  freedom  from 
bias;  of  making  outlay  conform  to  income, 

(113) 

8 


114 


SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 


That  the  disposition  will  grow  to  add  items  of 
luxury  to  railroads  without  reference  to  their 
revenue  producing  qualities,  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  Estheticism,  sentimentalism,  idealism, 
will  contribute  to  bring  about  such  a  result;  but 


Carriage  in  Bengal. 

let  us  put  it  off  as  long  as  possible.  It  is  not  in 
the  interest  of  the  people;  of  their  good  or  the 
good  of  railroads. 

Railroads  should  be  constructed  and  operated 
solely  with  a  view  to  handling  traffic.  Ideal 
questions  should  not  be  considered.     At  least 


CONSTRUCTION.  115 

not  now.  Questions  of  need  and  practical  util- 
ity should  alone  receive  attention.  In  any  event 
the  operation  of  railroads  should  harmonize  with 
their  income  the  same  as  with  individuals.  An 
extravagance  not  in  accord  therewith  is  paid  for 
with  multiplied  usury.  Luxuries  accompany  a 
plethoric  purse,  not  an  empty  one.  In  the  case 
of  railroads  extravagance  in  this  direction  is 
generally  the  outgrowth  of  excessive  competi- 
tion, and  may  not,  therefore,  be  avoided  at  will. 

The  wise  location,  economical  construction 
and  efficient  management  of  railroads  are  all- 
important. 

•  Railway  economy  acts  and  reacts  on  the  com- 
merce of  a  nation.  Railways  if  managed  effi- 
ciently and  economically,  greatly  stimulate  the 
commercial  growth  of  a  people;  if  mismanaged, 
greatly  retard  it. 

The  impossibility  of  telling  in  advance  exactly 
what  is  needed  is  apparent.  It  is  especially  difficult 
in  a  new  or  undeveloped  country.  The  most  glar- 
ing contrasts  everywhere  present  themselves. 
Thus,  India  wdth  a  population  equal  to  twenty 
thousand  people  per  mile  of  railroad  transports 
less  freight  per  mile  than  Canada  w^ith  a  population 
of  only  five  hundred  per  mile  of  road.  The  lat- 
ter is  the  home  of  a  virile  commercial  race; 
the  commerce  of  the  former  is  light. 

The  trading  capacity  of  a  people  is  evinced  in 
the  use  it  makes  of  its  railroads.  George  Stephen- 
son, speaking  of  England,  said  that  "  the  making 
of  the  railroads  would  be  the  making  of  the  coun- 


,jg  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

trv  "    The  truth  of  this  has  been  evinced  in  every 
land  ^vhere  the  industrial  thrift  of  a  people  has 
warranted  the  construction  of  a  railway  system 
"Railways  were  known  in  the  tune  of  ancxen 
Rome      The   rails  were  of    stone.     Tramways 
^,ere  of  later  invention.    They  possessed  no  ex- 
tended value,  however,  until  the  introduction  and 
uWization  of  the  locomotive.    Stephenson  first 
accomplished  this  in  1829.    The  first  railway  m 
England  is  thought  to  have  been  constructed 
al,out  the  year  1600  to  aid  in  moving  coal  fn,m 
the  mines  near  Newcastle  on  Tyne     The  rails 
were  of  timber,  straight  and  parallel    o  each 
oTl ler-  on  these,  carts  made  with  four  rollers  fit- 
ting the  rails,  traveled,  the  carriage  being  so  easy 
tha^  one  horse  is  said  to  have  been  able  to  draw 
"  four  or  five  chaldrons  of  coal." 

Stenhenson  was  a  machinist  and  an  engineer. 
A  genius.    He  did  not  consti-uct  the  first  locomo- 
tive (the  Rocket)  but  he  made  it  useful     He  de- 
vised the  apparatus  by  which  it  was  made  to  gen- 
erate steam  at  will  and  in  sufficient  quantities 
The  relation  that  the  weight  of  the  locomotive  of 
sixty  years  ago  bore  to  the  load  it  could  haul,  as 
compared  with  the  weight  and  carrying  capacity 
of  the  locomotive  of  today,  shows  how  much  it 
has  improved.    Formerly  it  was  only  able  to  haul 
to  thies  its  own  weight;  today  it  can  haul  fifty 
times  its  own  weight,  even  more. 

^T^ZTii^t  welKhed  tour  tons  ami  hauled  forty  tons.  Looo- 
^ot^,  es  ^f "odl,  we°igh  si.ty  tons  and  haul  three  thousand  tons. 
Nor  is  the  limit  yet  reached. 


CONSTRUCTION.  117 

The  locomotive  followed  naturally  a  suitable 
roadbed,  as  the  wagon  and  carriage  followed  a 
suitable  highway.  The  railway  track  was  first 
suggested  in  connection  with  the  handling  of 
coal.  The  bulk  of  the  latter,  and  the  necessity 
for  cheapening  its  price,  made  some  simple 
appliance  for  transporting  it  absolutely  neces- 
sary. "The  earliest  railways  were  laid  in  the 
coal  mines  and  from  the  mines  to  the  adjacent 
watercourses.  These  ways  consisted  of  squared 
timber  rails  laid  in  the  ground,  held  to  gauge  by 
cross  timbers,  to  which  they  were  fastened  by 
wooden  pins."*  Horses  were  used.  The  cost  of 
transportation  over  these  tramways  w^as  about  ten 
per  cent,  of  that  over  the  turnpike. 

Rails  wTre  first  cast;  afterward,  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  they  were  rolled.  At  first  a 
wooden  rail  was  used.  Then  one  of  wood  and 
iron,  a  strip  of  metal  being  laid  on  the  wood  to 
support  the  wheel  and  save  wear  and  tear;  this 
was  called  a  "strap"  rail.  The  present  form  of 
"T"  rail,  with  its  supporting  base,  was,  it  is  said, 
devised  by  Robert  L.  Stevens,  of  the  Camden  and 
Amboy  Railroad,  in  1830.  The  especial  value  of 
his  rail  consisted  in  the  fact  that  it  rendered  the 
use  of  cheap  wooden  ties  practicable.  It  also 
obviated  the  necessity  of  the  expensive  chair  and 
other  devices  then  in  use.  Inability  to  pay  for 
these  appliances  in  America  necessitated  adopting 
something  whereby  the  expense  might  be  avoided. 

*  "  The  Development  of  the  American  Rail  and  Track,"  by  J. 
Elfreth  Watkins. 


118 


SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 


CONSTRUCTION.      .  119 

However,  notwithstanding  its  wide  base,  the  rail 
is  found  to  cut  more  or  less  into  the  tie.  With 
the  constantly  increasing  weight  of  equipment 
and  load  this  defect  is  accentuated.  One  of  the 
means  of  overcoming  it  is  the  use  of  a  "chair," 
or  metal  plate,  placed  between  the  rail  and  its 
support.    Another  the  use  of  a  metal  tie. 

The  evolution  of  the  rail,  with  its  support  and 
fastenings,  is  both  curious  and  instructive.  Illus- 
trations tell  the  story  better  than  words.  These 
will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  They 
afford  a  connected  study  of  various  forms  of  rails 
that  have  been  used,  the  different  kinds  of  stone, 
wood  and  metal  supports  that  have  been  tried, 
and  the  splices,  chairs  and  fastening  that  liave 
been  invented  and  used  from  time  to  time. 

No  single  item  of  construction  equals  in  im- 
portance the  track  rail.  It  has  been  the  subject 
of  study  and  experiment  by  chemists,  manufac- 
turers and  railway  managers  and  operatives  since 
railroads  were  first  opened.  And  while  the  text- 
ure and  pattern  have  been  greatly  improved, 
they  are  yet  far  from  satisfactory.  No  particular 
form  has  been  adopted  that  is  everywhere  recog- 
nized as  superior  to  all  others.  Uniform  patterns 
for  different  uses  are,  however,  of  the  greatest 
importance  on  many  accounts.  They  would 
cheapen  manufacture  because  they  would  lessen 
the  machinery  of  manufacturers  and  render  it 
unnecessary  to  keep  a  great  variety  of  patterns 
on  hand.  Once  a  uniform  pattern  had  been 
agreed  upon,  the  manufacturer  could  carry  it  in 


120  SCIEN-CE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 

stock  tlie  same  as  other  standard  material.  It 
would  furthermore  assist  those  in  making  selec- 
tions who  know  little  about  such  matters. 

Rails  differ  widely  in  form,  texture  and  weight. 
The  strain  they  are  subjected  to  is  constantly 
changing.  Each  year  the  tendency  is  to  increase 
the  load.  The  speed  of  trains  also  grows  greater. 
There  must  be  harmony  throughout.  A  rail  that 
will  answer  for  light  use  will  not  do  for  great 
weight  or  high  speed. 

The  adoption  of  standard  rails,  while  having 
advantages,  would  also  have  disadvantages.  Un- 
less engineers  and  others  fitted  for  the  work  should 
continue  their  experiments  and  studies  afterward 
with  fidelity  and  zeal,  there  would  be  great  danger 
that  progress  would  be  stayed.  But  if  enquiry 
and  experiment  could  continue  unabated,  the 
danger  that  always  attends  the  adoption  of 
standard  forms  might  be  measurably  avoided. 

Railway  development  is  influenced  by  the 
demand  that  exists  for  its  product  and  the 
treatment  that  such  properties  receive  from  the 
public.  Unfriendliness  on  the  part  of  a  people 
affects  unfavorably  the  construction  of  new  lines. 
Railways  are  the  natural  adjuncts  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  their  growth  is  assured  wherever  pro- 
tection is  accorded  them;  wherever  they  are 
allowed  free  scope  to  prosecute  their  lousiness 
within  necessary  and  proper  limits.  Refusal 
or  neglect  to  do  this  will  prevent  their  construc- 
tion, except  in  those  cases  where  prospective  gain 
outweighs  possible  risks. 


CONSTRUCTION.  121 

Railways,  like  other  industries,  adjust  them- 
selves naturally  to  the  countries  they  serve;  to 
the  instincts  and  hal)its  of  a  people.  Their  con- 
struction depends  upon  the  demand  there  is 
for  them,  the  plentifulness  of  money,  the  rate 
at  which  it  can  be  obtained  and  the  protection 
accorded  them. 

Where  wealth  is  plentiful,  where  a  people 
are  accustomed  to  stable  conditions  and  per- 
manent structures,  where  industries  are  grounded 
in  the  soil,  so  to  speak,  the  physical  structures 
of  railroads  usually  conform  thereto.  In  new 
and  poor  countries,  makeshifts  are  the  rule; 
the  ingenuity,  the  genius,  of  man  is  taxed  to  the 
utmost  to  lessen  cost,  to  avoid  expense,  to  be 
economical  where  his  inclinations  lead  him  to  be 
profuse.  The  marvelous  railway  development  of 
the  United  States  is  a  demonstration  of  the 
truth  of  this. 

Every  invention  that  lessens  cost  is  a  gain  to  a 
community.  We  are  indebted  to  such  devices, 
not  only  for  the  marvelous  growth  of  railways 
in  the  United  States,  but  also  for  the  great  re- 
duction in  rates  that  has  attended  their  prog- 
ress. 

It  is  noticeable  of  railways  in  different  coun- 
tries that  the  particular  patterns  or  devices 
they  first  take  on  cling  to  them  afterward. 
The  form  of  equipment  adopted  in  Great  Britain 
shaped  the  gradients,  curves,  bridges  and  tun- 
nels of  its  railroads.  They  can  not  now  be 
changed.     In  the  United  States,  where  money 


122  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

was  scarce  and  credit  poor,  it  was  necessary  to 
adopt  something  less  expensive.  The  effect  was 
to  change  the  English  method  of  construction 
and  at  the  same  time  simplify  and  cheapen  it. 
Railroads  were  made  to  conform  to  resources. 
They  are  different  from  those  of  Europe  in 
alignment  and  grades;  in  the  protection  afforded 
at  stations  and  crossings;  in  bridges,  culverts 
and  tunnels,  and  finally  in  the  roadbed  itself. 
While  European  companies  built  their  perma- 
nent structures  of  stone,  America  built  of  wood; 
piling  took  the  place  of  great  embankments, 
trestles  of  arched  masonry.  While  cheaper  in 
the  first  instance,  the  cost  of  maintaining  in 
America  was  somewhat  greater.  However,  such 
practices  nurtured  economical  habits  and  the 
exercise  of  prudent  foresight;  expensive  roads 
were  not  built  where  cheap  ones  were  sufficient. 
The  roads  that  were  cheaply  built  are  now  being 
improved  out  of  the  earnings  of  the  property  or  by 
increased  capitalization,  as  circumstances  render 
desirable.  In  this  way  great  properties  in  the 
United  States  have  been  built  up;  others  are  being 
built  up.  Canada,  Mexico  and  South  America 
are,  in  many  respects,  following  a  similar  policy. 
Particulars  of  railway  construction  can  not  be 
described.  They  are  not  exactly  alike  in  any 
two  countries.  The  devices  of  one  differ  from 
those  of  another.  Thus  the  wooden  bridge,  so 
familiar  to  Americans,  has  never  been  known  in 
Europe.  The  wooden  structure  is  being  replaced, 
not  with  stone,  but  with  steel. 


CONS  TB  UC  TION.  123 

The  word  "permanent,"  while  much  used  in 
railway  nomenchiture,  has  no  proper  place:  change 
is  the  rule.  It  was  suggested  in  the  first  instance 
by  the  solid  wall,  coped  with  smooth  cut  stone, 
used  to  support  the  rail,  in  place  of  the  cross  tie 
that  we  use  today.  It  was  called  the  permanent 
way.  It  was  as  nearly  permanent  as  anything 
could  be.  But  it  lacked  elasticity  and  so  was 
quickly  abandoned. 

Preliminary  construction  work  is  interesting. 
An  excursion  is  first  made  over  the  proposed  rail- 
way line  by  a  competent  person  or  committee 
and  the  topography  of  the  country  carefully 
noted,  necessary  enquiries  are  made  and  statis- 
tics collected.  The  route  having  been  deter- 
mined upon,  it  is  methodically  surveyed  and  the 
right  of  way  obtained.  Afterward  the  plans 
and  maps  are  passed  upon  and  such  alterations 
made  as  circumstances  suggest.  Sometimes  re- 
peated surveys  are  made.  The  importance  of  a 
proper  location  is  supreme;  upon  it  depends  cost 
of  construction,  the  load  that  may  be  hauled, 
the  business  that  may  be  secured,  the  expense  of 
maintenance  and  operation. 

After  a  line  is  agreed  upon,  the  next  thing  in 
order  is  to  j)repare  specifications  of  cost  for  use 
of  engineers,  contractors  and  others.  In  many 
cases  the  owner  himself  builds  the  road,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  extensions  of  old  lines.  But 
in  every  instance  the  duty  of  supervising  the 
work  falls  to  the  engineer.  It  is  his  duty  to 
stake  out  the  proposed  line,  make  estimates  of 


124 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


work  done  as  it  progresses  and  arrange  for  pay- 
ments.    This  is  his  natural  field  and  in  it  he 
is  supreme.    His  duties  are  at  once  laborious  and 
of  the  highest  responsibility.     They  entail  close 
application,  long  hours  of  work,  exposure,  and 
the  attendant  hardship  that  progress  through  an 
open  country  away  from  comforts  and  conven- 
iences naturally  entails.* 
The  exact  location  of  a 
railway  and  the  wise  and 
economical  expenditure  of 
the  money  used  in  its  con- 
struction depend  largely 
upon  the  engineer.    The 
growth  of  his  office  has 
been   great   and   marked. 
In  no  other  branch  of  the 
service  was  there  less  con- 
ception   originally   (espe- 
cially in  new  countries)  of 
just  needs  than  in  the  en- 
gineering department.    It 
was   extravagant,  ill  advised  and  self  sufficient. 
This  condition  of  affairs  did  not  long  continue. 
From  being  an  abstractionist  or  a  creature   of 
formulas  merely,  the  engineer  has  added  to  his 
acquirements  adaptability,  practical  knowledge, 
financial  skill,  business  training.     The  status  of 
the  engineer  in  the  early  history  of  railroads  was 

*  The  duties   and  peculiarities  of  the  civil   eno-jneer  are   re- 
ferred to  more  fully  in  the  volume  "  Or«,^anization  and  Forces." 


Carrier  of  Morocco. 


CONS  TB  UC  TION.  125 

much  misunderstood.  He  was  supposed  to  be  wise 
above  liis  fellows.  The  contrary  was  the  case.  In 
America  responsibility  for  location  and,  largely, 
of  method,  was  early  taken  out  of  his  hands  by 
men  who  studied  the  means  as  well  as  the  ends 
to  be  achieved.  But  as  he  has  grown  in  worldly 
wisdom  and  commercial  sense,  the  work  has  been 
given  back  to  him  and  he  has  gradually  resumed 
his  natural  and  proper  place: 

"In  its  earliest  development,  engineering  was 
hardly  more  than  an  art,  a  trade  acquired  by 
example  and  experience  progressing  slowly  by 
small  degrees  from  precedent.  .  .  The  domi- 
nant spirit  today  is  scientific;  the  application 
of  principles  without  much  regard  to  precedent. 
Only  conclusions  derived  by  logical  methods 
from  exact  data  and  applied  to  conditions  which 
have  been  fully  valued,  inspire  respect.  Ex- 
perience is  also  demanded,  that  experience  in 
the  application  of  forces  and  materials  which 
gives  practical  skill  and  confidence,  but  not 
in  the  nature  of  that  precedent,  which  is  too 
often  a  handicap  under  different  conditions. 
.  .  The  profession  is  losing  its  transient  char- 
acter. Tenure  of  position  is  more  secure  and 
work  on  many  lines  is  done  throughout  wide 
sections  by  engineers  from  a  central  office  or 
headquarters.  The  engineer  is  assuming  more 
the  position  of  counsellor,  is  more  the  executive 
factor  in  the  conduct  of  large  operations,  is 
retained  more  as  an  adviser  on  the  staff  of  in- 
dustrial enterprises.  All  this  gives  stability, 
material  rewards  and  independence;  gives  the 
engineer  a  fixed  abiding  place  and  makes  him  a 
factor  in  the  community  in  which  he  lives;  en- 


126  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

ables  him  to  develop  the  social  qualities  he  needs 
and  leads  to  that  preeminence  enjoyed  by  our 
profession  in  older  lands."* 

In  locating  railways,  the  nearer  level  they  are, 
or  can  be  made  without  too  great  outlay,  the 
cheaper,  relatively,  it  is  to  operate  them;  the 
greater  the  load  they  can  haul,  the  greater  their 
ability  to  stand  the  strain  of  competition.  This 
last  every  company,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
sustains.  If  anticipated,  it  may  be  met  with  less 
embarrassment.  Every  obstacle  that  will  impede 
traffic  or  the  continuance  and  rapid  movement  of 
trains  is,  so  far  as  practicable,  avoided.  The 
speed  of  trains,  directness  of  route,  the  load  that 
may  be  hauled,  and  cost  of  maintaining  and  oper- 
ating, are  determining  factors.  These  the  en- 
gineer is  required  to  keep  constantly  in  mind. 

Under  all  well  established  and  stable  govern- 
ments, save  ours,  no  road  is  allowed  to  be  built 
that  does  not  answer  a  possible  want;  that  does 
not  open  up  a  new  held;  that  will  not  presuma- 
bly have  sufficient  income  to  pay  cost  of 
maintenance,  operation  and  fixed  charges.  The 
exception  is  the  case  of  roads  built  to  meet 
military  or  political  aims.  In  America,  however, 
from  the  start  railway  construction  has  been  free. 
Whoever  could  raise  the  means  might  build.f 

In  our  day  the  location  of  railways  determines 
the  center  of  communities,  just  as  the  highways 

*L.  E.  Cooley,  C.  E. 

fThis  phase  of  the  subject  is  referred  to  in  the  vokime 
"  Economy  of  Eates." 


GONSTBUCTION.  127 

of  the  past  did.  An  animated  contest  has  been 
waged  by  railways  with  the  watercourses  of  the 
w^ould  from  the  start.  At  first  it  was  for 
supremacy.  Afterward  for  revenue.  At  the 
present  time,  so  far  as  rivers  and  canals  are  con- 
cerned, it  is  a  fight  on  the  part  of  the  latter  for 
existence. 

The  construction  and  operation  of  railways 
invite  speculation  and  have  occasioned  many 
grave  financial  crises.  Such  evils,  however,  carry 
their  own  cure.  Legislation  can  do  nothing. 
The  uncertainty  of  the  business  of  railroads 
invites  more  or  less  speculation.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  their  earlier  stages.  Within  cer- 
tain limits  it  is  not  harmful.  Except  for  specula- 
tion, no  great  enterijrise  attended  with  uncer- 
tainty w^ould  be  carried  out.  We  owe  the 
development  of  our  railroads  to  men  wdio  are 
walling  to  take  certain  risks  because  of  the  pros- 
pect of  large  gains.  "  Speculation  is  a  necessity 
of  modern  life.  Modern  business  involves  large 
risks.  ...  It  rests  with  individuals  to  learn 
the  lessons  of  each  crisis,  and  protect  themselves 
as  best  they  can  from  a  recurrence  of  the  same 
evils.  ...  A  new  permanent  investment  is 
almost  necessarily  speculative."  * 

Each  year  that  a  railroad  exists  it  becomes  more 
and  more  a  permanent  geographical  feature.  In 
time  it  will  become  like  a  navigable  river  or 
inland  sea  wdiich  supplies  a  particular  territory 

♦Arthur  T.  Hadley,  " Kailroad  Transportation."  pages  49,  50 
and  51. 


128 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


or  affords  intercommunication  between  far  dis- 
tant places.  It  can  rarely,  if  ever,  be  considered 
distinctively  as  a  local  enterprise.  But  whatever 
complexion  it  may  take  on,  the  property  interests 
of  those  who  own  it  can  never  be  disregarded. 
The  original  interests  that  fostered  its  growth 
must  also  be  remembered. 


Spanish  Form  of  Carriage,  U!th  Century. 

The  political  importance  of  railways  can  not  as 
yet  be  fully  estimated.  In  the  easy  intercom- 
munication they  afford  between  widely  separated 
peoples,  all  prearranged  ideas  of  local  environ- 
ment or  national  exclusiveness  vanish.  Their 
effect  on  exchanges  and  the  habits  of  mankind  is 
marked  and  progressive.  Their  tendency  is 
to  foster  great  enterprises,  to  swell  the  volume  of 
business,  to  increase  the  importance  of  trade,  to 
obliterate  political  lines,  to  create  new  social 


CONii  TB  UC  riON.  129 

conditions.  In  time  the  means  of  intercom- 
munication they  alTord  and  the  common  markets 
they  create  will  tend  to  make  the  commercial 
world  a  unit;  to  make  possible  the  visions  of 
philanthropists  and  dreamers. 

In  the  inception  of  railways  expectation  ran 
high  as  to  the  probable  speed  trains  would  attain. 
These  expectations  have  not  been  realized.  On 
the  other  hand,  rates  are  much  lower  than 
it  was  supposed  they  could  be.  Growth  of  traffic 
has  contributed  especially  to  this.  Rates  are 
always  and  everywhere  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  business;  a  great  traffic  makes  possible 
a  low  rate. 

Low  rates  are  also  accelerated  by  cheapening 
appliances,  improved  methods,  better  manage- 
ment and  increased  facilities.  Under  these 
co-operating  influences  the  impossible  has  be- 
come possible;  isolated  and  struggling  villages, 
otherwise  unimportant,  become  great  cities; 
primitive  continents  have  in  a  decade  become 
settled  and  civilized. 

In  the  location  of  American  and  English  rail- 
roads their  military  value  has  been  little  re- 
garded; this  feature  has,  however,  been  a  dis- 
tinguishing mark  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
In  all  countries,  it  is  probable,  railw^ays  will 
afford  the  lines  upon  which  the  battles  of  the 
future  will  be  fought. 

In  the  early  history  of  railroads,  legislation 
concerned  itself  almost  wholly  in  fostering  their 
growth.    Latterly  it  has  turned  its  attention  to 

9 


130  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

their  control,  to  an  attempt  to  regnlate  their 
business,  to  prescribe  their  methods,  to  say  what 
they  shall  do  and  what  they  shall  not  do. 
Wherever  these  efforts  have  not  conformed  to 
economic  laws  they  have  been  hurtful  both  to  the 
owners  of  railroads  and  the  people.  Mistakes  of 
this  kind  have  been  numerous  and  glaring. 
Their  correction  is  exceedingly  difficult;  it  re- 
quires time  and  a  juster  appreciation  of  the 
rights  of  property  and  the  regulations  of  trade. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

CONSTRUCTION — METHODS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  term  construction  has  a  well  understood 
meaning  in  railway  parlance.  It  embraces  the 
original  or  first  cost  of  a  property;  all  disburse- 
ments, expenses,  costs,  commissions,  salaries  and 
debts  incurred  in  connection  therewith  or  inci- 
dent thereto.  It  also  includes  all  interest  that 
accrues  while  the  property  is  in  course  of  construc- 
tion and  before  it  has  been  opened  for  business; 
all  disbursements  and  losses  suffered  in  the  sale 
or  disposal  of  bonds,  shares,  securities  or  assets, 
the  proceeds  of  which  are  used  for  construction; 
also  all  expenditures  on  account  of  rights,  fran- 
chises and  appurtenances.  These  constitute  the 
first  cost  of  a  property — its  construction  expendi- 
tures.* 

Some  of  the  the  differences  noticeable  in  rail- 
way construction  upon  different  roads  are  in- 
herent; others,  again,  are  of  method  merely.     The 


*  Construction  accounts  and  classification  are  treated  of  in  the 
volume  "Fiscal  Aft'airs,  Disbursements."  Construction  is  also 
referred  to  more  or  less  extensively  in  connection  with  the 
Maintenance  of  railways  in  the  last  part  of  this  volume.  The 
two  subjects  are  so  inseparably  intertwined  that  a  description  of 
the  maintenance  of  railroads  incidentally  involves  a  description 
of  maiiv  important  features  of  construction. 

(131) 


132  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 

loam  ballast,  for  instance,  that  answers  upon 
the  upland  roads  of  Colorado  will  not  do  at 
ail  in  India,  where  rains  are  heavy  and  pro- 
longed. Such  differences  are  inherent.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  use  of  w^ood  and  metal  ties  are 
largely  differences  of  method,  although  it  is  true 
that  the  destruction  of  w^ood  by  ants  and  damp- 
ness in  hot,  humid  climates  renders  the  use  of 
something  less  destructible  highly  desirable.* 
The  practice  of  one  engineer  to  lay  i-ails  wdth 
broken  joints  and  to  anathematize  all  who  do 
differently  is  an  instance  of  method  merely. 
Others  claim  both  ways  may  be  right.  One  en- 
gineer advocates  supported  joints  for  rails,  wdiile 
another  does  not;  both  may  be  right  here  also. 
On  one  railroad  fish  plates  forty-six  inches  long 
will  be  used,  wdiile  on  another  eighteen  inches 
is  esteemed  sufficient.  Both  practices  may  be 
right,  taking  into  account  roadbed,  speed  and 
w^eight  of  trains,  shape  of  rail,  plate  and  so  on. 
Variations  in  construction  that  are  not  neces- 
sary entail  added  cost  and  should  be  avoided 
if  possible.  Such  differences  arise  from  lack  of 
experience  and  study.  They  are  oftentimes  the 
result  of  prejudice  or  indisposition  to  learn.  Ig- 
norance is  especially  arrogant,  supercilious  and 
self  sufficient,  I  remember  once  spending  three 
months    writing   rules  and    regulations  govern- 


*It  is  noticeable  in  railway  operations  generally  that  the 
wooden  tie  each  jear  costs  more  and  more.  Limitation  of 
supply  occasioned  by  the  destruction  of  forests  occasions  this. 
This  will  bring  about  the  use  of  metal  ties  ultimately. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


133 


ing  a  particular  phase  of  railway  business. 
An  officer  of  a  road  adopted  the  method  they 
covered,  but  said  he  had  not  adopted  the  rules 
and  regulations,  indeed  had  not  read  them  be- 


Chinese  Emperor's  Carriage,  IGth  Century. 


cause  he  wished  to  adopt  something  original. 
This  spirit  too  often  animates  corporate  officers. 
It  is  the  result  of  arl)itrary  exercise  of  power 
without  financial   risk;  of  overweaning  egotism; 


184  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

of  jealousy  and  narrow  mindedness.  As  the  ser- 
vice fills  up  with  men  of  education,  they  will 
esteem  their  ow^n  wisdom  less;  will  avail  them- 
selves of  the  knowledge  of  others  more.  That 
is  where  an  educated  man  has  the  advantage 
of  those  who  are  not.  It  is  in  the  main  useless 
to  attempt  to  teach  an  ignorant  man;  he  is 
superior  to  books;  he  can  not  appreciate  how 
superhcial  his  knowledge  is;  how  much  we  may 
be  benehtted  by  study  and  comparison;  he  is 
all  sufhcient;  that  is  his  proud  prerogative. 

Uniformity  in  railway  construction  and  method, 
while  desirable  wherever  possible,  can  not  be 
enforced  arbitrarily.  That  would,  if  nothing  else, 
stifle  interest;  would  put  a  stop  to  invention; 
would  retard  advancement.  That  is  the  objec- 
tion to  standard  forms  and  methods  of  all  kinds. 
Wherever  introduced  they  must  be  attended  by 
continued  inquiries  and  experiments;  by  system- 
atic provision  therefor.  Unless  such  a  course 
is  followed,  interest  will  quickly  die  out  and 
with  it  hope  of  further  advancement. 

In  constructing  a  road  much  depends  upon  the 
topography  and  business  of  the  proposed  line, 
much  upon  the  financial  a])ility  of  the  company. 
Necessary  things  are  oftentimes  long  delayed  for 
lack  of  funds.  After  the  opening  of  a  line  fur- 
ther work  is  only  undertaken  after  the  most 
searching  enquiry.  After  being  passed  upon  by 
local  officials  it  is  referred  to  the  board  of  direct- 
ors for  authorization,  unless  the  expenditure  is 
an  unimportant  one. 


CONSTRUCTION.  135 

The  circumstances  attending  the  expenditure 
of  money  for  new  construction  work  are  the 
same  in  different  countries,  except  that  the 
scrutiny  of  the  directory  is  more  minute  in  some 
instances  than  in  others.  English  directors  are 
noticeable  in  this  respect.  They  require  to  be 
kept  advised  of  everything.  Englishmen  possess 
an  especial  aptitude  for  working  in  committees. 
Their  political  wisdom  and  adaptability  they  also 
evince  in  the  government  of  private  corporations. 
Their  practices  in  regard  to  improvements  and 
additions  to  railways  are  thus  described  by  one 
skilled  in  such  matters:* 

"Recommendations  for  increased  accommo- 
dation at  stations  and  depots  undergo  a  very 
searching  examination  before  any  effect  is  given 
to  them.  We  will  suppose,  for  example,  that 
a  goods  [freight]  agent  conceives  it  to  be 
neccessary  for  an  additional  siding  to  be  laid 
at  a  station.  He  makes  a  report  to  that 
effect  to  the  manager  of  the  district;  the  latter 
enquires  into  the  facts  on  the  spot,  and,  if  he 
concurs  with  the  necessity,  reports  his  recom- 
mendation to  the  general  manager.  The  latter 
consults,  in  the  first  instance,  the  chief  goods, 
manager  or  the  superintendent  of  the  line,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and,  if  his  report  be  favorable, 
authorizes  the  engineer  to  prepare  a  plan  and 
estimate.  The  plan,  when  ready,  is  subjected  to 
the  criticism  of  the  district  officer,  the  chief 
officer,  and  of  the  general  manager,  and  if  all 
are    satisfied   the   directors  are   next  asked  to 

*  Colonel  George  FincUay,  "The  Working  and  Management 
of  an  English  Kailway  "  page  19. 


136  SCIENCE  OF  ItAILWAYS; 

authorize  the  necessary  outlay.  But  even  this 
is  not  all,  for,  finally,  the  plan  has  to  be  signed 
by  the  chairman  of  the  company  l)efore  the 
engineer  commences  operations,  and  that  gentle- 
man, who  keeps  a  watchful  guard  over  the  com- 
pany's purse  strings,  has  to  be  convinced  that 
the  expenditure  is  not  only  desirable,  but  actu- 
ally unavoidable,  before  his  signature  is  ob- 
tained." 

This  is  substantially  the  practice  of  railway  cor- 
porations everywhere.  So  manifest  is  the  waste 
where  proposed  improvements  will  not  be  remu- 
nerative that  they  are  never  undertaken  except 
after  the  most  careful  enquiry. 

The  managers  of  American  railroads  have  no 
superiors  in  the  world  in  constructing  and  oper- 
ating railroads.  This  is  evinced  in  many  ways. 
America  differs  from  Great  Britain.  The  rail- 
roads of  the  latter  are  costly  and  the  rates  high; 
her  roads  are,  however,  well  built  and  efficiently 
managed.  So  far  as  faithfulness  in  the  discharge 
of  trusts  reposed  was  concerned,  it  is  probal)le 
that  the  owners  of  English  railroads  had  less 
cause  to  complain,  in  the  early  history  of  these 
enterprises,  of  their  agents  than  owners  in  other 
countries  where  business  methods  were  not  so 
well  systematized,  and  fiduciary  responsibility  not 
so  well  enforced.  The  cases  were  very  rare  indeed 
in  England  where  the  servants  of  railroads  laid 
themselves  open  to  the  suspicion  of  improper 
practices,  of  having  taken  advantage  of  their 
position  to  enrich  themselves  at  the  expense 
perhaps  of  their  employers. 


CONSTRUCTION.  137 

So  far  as  railroads  as  a  whole  are  concerned, 
rates  are  dependent  on  cost  to  the  extent  that  if 
not  remunerative  no  more  roads  will  be  bnilt. 
A  remunerative  railroad  system  means  multi- 
plied construction.  Unremunerative  railroads 
mean  cessation  of  railroad  l)uilding.  In  respect 
to  low  capitalization  America  has  the  advantage 
of  Europe.  The  first  cost  was  less,  while  subse- 
quent charges  to  construction  have  been  more 
discriminative.  The  owners  of  European  rail- 
roads have  generall}^  charged  every  improvement 
to  construction,  capitalizing  the  amount  from 
year  to  year.  America,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
used  a  portion  of  its  surplus  to  improve  and 
strengthen  its  properties,  charging  the  amount 
to  operating.  Abroad  the  suri)lus  has  l)een 
devoted  to  dividends.  The  result  is  capital  ac- 
count has  increased  until  many  railroads  are 
unable  to  make  an  adequate  return  thereon;  the 
resources  of  others  are  greatly  strained,  wdiile 
the  system,  as  a  whole,  approaches  the  danger 
line.  Under  the  American  system  of  paralleling 
and  constructing  railroads  not  needed,  the  com- 
petition engendered  has  in  many  cases  prevented 
maintenance  of  rates  or  the  payment  of  divi- 
dends. The  monopoly  that  the  railroads  of 
other  countries  have  possessed  has  enabled  them 
to  maintain  rates  and  pay  interest  on  gross  cost 
from  the  start.  They  may  be  able  to  continue 
this.  The  situation  is,  however,  such  as  to  excite 
apprehension  in  the  minds  of  many  familiar  with 
the  subject.     "On  a  survey  of  the  whole  matter. 


138 


SCLEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


there  would  appear  to  be  too  much  reason  to 
believe  that  the  financial  position  and  prospects 
of  English  railway's  are  going  from  bad  to  worse. 
Our  railway  boards  have  not  as  yet  adequately 
realized  this  great  fact,  and  have  consequently 

done  little  or  nothing  to 
stem  the  tide  of  insolvency 
that  threatens  to  overtake 
them."* 

In  the  building  of  rail- 
ways America  had  the  ad- 
vantage over  Europe  in  this, 
that  she  was  not  wedded  to 
any  particular  kind  of  work; 
had  no  theoretical  standard 
to  attain.  Her  aim  was  to 
make  cost  conform  to  means 
in  hand  and  Probable  Earn- 
ings. The  result  is  a  com- 
paratively cheap  railway  system.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  owners  found  it  necessary  to  avail 
themselves  of  cheap  appliances  in  every  direc- 
tion, of  wooden  bridges,  Avooden  culverts,  wooden 
piling  and  trestles,  cheap  l)uildings,  light  rails, 
scant  ballast.  These  necessitated  slow  trains, 
but  trains  in  the  main  quite  on  a  par  with  their 
ability  to  earn  money.  The  engineers  of  Europe 
could  not,  if  they  would,  have  constructed  such 
a  railroad.  It  w^as  too  flims}^,  too  ephemeral;  too 
repugnant  to  ideas  acquired  by  hundreds  of  years 
of  stable  construction  and  progressive  work. 

*J.  S.  Jeans. 


Carrier  of  Constantinople. 


CONS  TB  UC  TION.  189 

Nevertheless,  the  American  system  is  the 
proper  one,  if  a  doubt  exists  as  to  the  product- 
iveness of  a  property.  First  cost  should  be 
adapted  to  possible  income  and  improvements 
made  afterward  as  events  justify. 

Another  means  of  lessening  first  cost  has 
been  the  construction  of  narrow  gauge  roads. 
Whether  this  device  has  on  the  whole  been  a 
good  one  or  not  is  doubtful.  In  many  cases  it 
has  not.  Where  there  is  a  prospect  of  through 
business  requiring  a  standard  gauge  a  narrow 
gauge  road  is  in  many  respects  an  expensive  de- 
vice to  cheapen  cost  in  the  first  instance. 

Whenever  practical^le  railways  should  be  per- 
fectly built  before  being  opened,  /.  c,  they  should 
be  suitably  built  to  accommodate  the  work  they 
are  expected  to  do;  the  speed  trains  are  expected  to 
make;  the  loads  they  are  to  haul.  The  extra  ex- 
pense that  attends  the  wear  and  tear  of  track  and 
machinery  on  a  poorly  constructed  road  required 
to  run  favst  and  heavy  trains  is  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  saving  in  interest  on  the  added 
cost  needed  to  have  put  it  in  proper  condition  in 
the  first  place. 

In  new  countries  men  are  satisfied  to  get 
through  today  safely;  tomorrow  is  left  to  take 
care  of  itself.  It  is  necessary  oftentimes  to  dis- 
regard permanent  interests  to  save  present  out- 
lay. Thus,  cheap  temporary  structures  are 
built  and  rebuilt  over  and  over  again  at  an  ex- 
pense so  near  wdiat  it  would  cost  to  construct 
first   class   edifices  in  the  first  place,  that  in- 


1 40  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

al)ility  to  build  dura1)ly  at  the  start  is  paid  for 
many  times  over  with  usurious  interest.  Such 
makeshifts  are  not  necessary  in  old  countries. 
Practices  tend  to  the  other  extreme. 

In  constructing  a  railroad  there  is  no  fixed 
ratio  of  cost  to  gross  earnings  that  it  is  safe 
to  follow,  even  if  w^e  could  tell  in  advance  w^hat 
a  road  would  earn.  It  has  been  stated  as  a 
safe  guide,  however,  by  those  who  profess  to 
be  versed  in  such  matters,  that  cost  should  be 
limited  to  ten  times  the  earning  power  of  a 
property  and  that  equipment  outlay  should  be 
limited  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  gross 
receipts.  Capitalization  in  the  United  States  is, 
in  lioth  instances,  less  than  these  estimates. 

The  people  of  England  and  Eastern  and  Cen- 
tral iMirope  may  be  said  to  have  no  cheap  rail- 
roads. Their  methods  of  operation  are  also,  gen- 
erally, expensive  as  compared  with  those  of 
America.  They  are,  therefore,  so  far  as  cost  gov- 
erns, at  a  disadvantage.  The  conditions  that 
attend  freight  traffic  in  the  United  Kingdom  are 
directly  the  reverse  of  those  in  the  United 
States;  the  speed  of  its  freight  trains  is  great, 
while  the  paying  load  is  small.  In  America  the 
speed  is  moderate,  while  the  paying  load  is 
great.'^- 

*  "  The  average  English  freiglit  car  carries  a  load  of  eight 
tons,  and  weigli.s  five  tons,  being  1.0  to  1  ;  the  American  box 
freight  car  carries  fifty  thonsund  ponnds  and  weighs  twenty- 
three  thousand  pounds,  being  2.13  to  1." — Edward  Bates  Dorsfiy. 
The  dift^>rence  at  the  present  time  is  still  greater  in  favor  of 
the  American  car.  M.  31.  K. 


CONSTRUCTION.  141 

The  cost  of  maintaining  an  English  railroad 
is,  in  some  particulars,  much  less  than  main- 
taining an  American  road.  This  is  because  it 
is  better  built.*  The  English  companies  pay 
lower  wages  than  American;  but  the  number  of 
employes  per  unit  of  traffic  handled  is  much 
greater.  Generally  their  methods  are  such  as 
Americans  would  call  extravagant. 

Economy  in  railway  construction  and  opera- 
tion has  been  greatly  facilitated  in  America 
by  the  use  of  what  is  called  the  bogie  truck;  a 
device  that  adjusts  itself  easily  and  naturally  to 
the  track,  rendering  shorter  curves  possible 
and  producing  much  less  friction  than  the  rigid 
wheel  base  in  use  abroad. 

The  practice  of  loading  freight  for  various 
points  in  one  car  and  unloading  same  from  sta- 
tion to  station  as  the  train  proceeds  has  also  de- 
creased the  cost  of  handling  traffic  in  America. 
Its  methods  of  accounting  are  also  much  sim- 
pler and  cheaper  than  any  other.  There  is 
less  red  tape,  greater  directness. 

The  cost  of  operating  English  railways  is  much 
increased  l)y  the  exclusiveness  on  the  part  of 
patrons  that  they  permit  and  encourage.  Also  by 
the  retail  Imsiness  they  perpetuate.  The  small 
carrying  capacity  of  their  cars  and  the  practice  of 
allowing  shippers  to  partially  load  vehicles,  is  a 
burden  that  American  companies  are  exempt 
from. 

*  However,  cost  of  maintenance  is  greatly  increased  in  En^jland 
because  of  certain  peculiarities  of  equipment,  noticed  elsewhere. 


142  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

The  wide  differences  that  exist  in  cost  of  oper- 
ating railways  in  different  countries  will,  in 
many  respects,  grow  less  and  less  marked  as  they 
are  able  to  adopt  the  best  appliances  of  each 
other.  But  no  two  systems  will  ever  be  exactly 
alike.  Differences  in  construction  and  environ- 
ment will  prevent  this.  But  so  far  as  inherent 
differences  of  circumstances,  places  and  men  will 
permit,  the  good  points  of  each  system  will  be 
finally  adopted  by  all.  Business  men  are  not 
tenacious  of  their  methods  when  the  effect  is  to 
deprive  them  of  income.  The  difficulty  in  the 
way  will  not  be  with  the  l)usiness  man,  the  owner, 
but  with  his  agents.  The  latter  will  l)e  more  or 
less  stubborn,  more  or  less  firm  in  the  Ijelief  that 
their  systems  are  the  best,  more  or  less  intent 
upon  devising  and  dwelling  upon  something 
original. 

It  is  a  necessity  that  rates  should  be  lower  in 
America  than  in  Europe  in  order  to  move  traffic 
over  the  vast  distances  that  must  be  traversed. 
This  has  been  realized  from  the  start  and  has  re- 
sulted in  lessening  construction  outlay  and  cost 
of  operating;  in  the  adoption  of  simple  substi- 
tutes in  building  and  in  keeping  down  the  num- 
ber of  employes  and  in  increasing  the  efficiency 
of  such  as  were  employed.  The  result  is  that 
cost  of  operating  in  America,  taking  everything 
into  consideration,  is  the  lowest  in  the  world. 

While  rates  have  steadily  tended  downward  in 
America,  railway  property  has  appreciated.  Car- 
riers have  met  decreased  rates  by  increased  loads; 


CONSTRUCTION.  143 

by  multiplying  the  capacity  of  their  equipment 
and  by  better  appliances  generally.  The  limit  of 
low  rates,  however,  can  not  be  far  off,  if  not 
already  reached. 

While  active  railway  competition  increases  ex- 
penses in  some  directions  and  lessens  earnings  in 
some  particular  instances,  it  is  not  without  advan- 
tages. To  its  stimulating  effect  we  owe  all  the 
substantial  advances  that  have  been  made  since 
railways  were  first  opened.  Had  there  been  no 
competition,  had  not  men  been  incited  to  invent 
and  adopt  better  appliances  to  secure  the  favor  of 
the  public  and  lessen  cost,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  that  we  should  be  using  su])stantially  the 
same  appliances  that  were  adopted  in  the  first 
instance.  Men  progress,  not  because  they  love 
to  progress,  but  because  of  strife  and  friction; 
because  of  rivalry;  of  a  desire  to  secure  advan- 
tages, to  distance  neighbors,  to  acquire  and  re- 
tain property. 

In  comparing  the  equipment  of  England  with 
that  of  America  we  hnd  that  the  type  used  in 
England  is  not  susceptible  of  economical  con- 
struction : 

"Stephenson  and  his  colleagues  mounted  the 
old  stage  coach  body  on  car  wheels,  which 
became  the  type  of  passenger  cars;  the  coal 
wagons  that  were  then  in  use  in  the  collieries  were 
put  on  the  railroad,  and  became  the  type  of 
freight  cars;  and  before  the  conservative  English 
character  thought  that  they  ought  to  be  improved, 
and  should  l)e  changed,  the  trunk  lines  had  been 
built,  adapted  to  this  narrow   and  low  type  of 


144 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


rolliii^^  stock.  To  have  made  it  wider  and  higher 
hiter  would  liave  required  tlie  removing  and  re- 
construction of  tlie  masonrj^  phitforms,  the 
raising  and  widening  of  bridges  and  tunnels — in 
fact,  almost  a  reconstruction  of  the  road.  This 
wdll  prevent  the  use  of  high  and  wide  cars.  It 
is  not  fair  to  blame  the  modern  English  engineer 
for  continuing  the  use  of  this  description  of  cars, 
which  he  can  not  change  at  any  justifiable  ex- 
pense.    .     .     The  English  railroads  have  cost  per 


Carriage  in  thie  Arctic  Regions. 

mile  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  the 
American.  .  .  One  of  the  principal  items  of 
the  greater  cost  is  the  necessity  of  having  much 
straighter  alignment  or  easier  curves,  so  that  it 
can  be  safely  operated  by  the  rigid  and  long 
wheel-base  rolling  stock  in  use  there.'"  The 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  is  a  sample  of  what 
can  be  done  with  the  American    rolling  stock. 

*  It  lias  been  estimated  that  the  long  rigid  wlieel  base  of  the 
English  equipment  makes  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  way, 
locomotive  power,  and  repairs  and  renewals  of  cars  double 
what  it  is  on  American  roads  for  like  service,  M.  M.  K. 


CONSTRUCTION.  145 

This  road  is  built  throiiji^li  a  very  difficult  and 
ruijjged  country,  which  couipelled  a  very  poor 
alignment,  with  nearly  one  half  of  the  entire 
length  in  curvature,  which  curves  run  up  to  six 
hundred  feet  radii,  and  long  grades  running  up 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  per  mile.  The 
country  affords  no  natural  advantages  whatever. 
Yet,  with  all  these  drawbacks,  this  road  does  a 
very  large  and  prohtable  business  and  operates 
its  passenger  trains  safely  at  very  high  speed. 
All  this  is  done  on  a  road  that  could  not  be  oper- 
ated with  rolling  stock  built  on  the  English 
system.  The  extra  cost  of  enlarging  these 
curves  to  adapt  them  to  English  rolling  stock 
would  be  so  great  as  to  l)e  commercially  imprac- 
ticable. It  is  not  difhcult  to  appreciate  the  great 
difference  in  cost  of  construction,  in  an  extremely 
rough  country,  of  a  railroad  with  curves  six 
hundred  feet,  or  twenty-six  hundred  and  forty 
feet  )-<idii.  Unquestionably  the  American  system 
of  construction  is  the  best  for  new  countries,  or 
where  cheapness  of  construction  is  desirable. 
The  American  rolling  stock,  with  the  bogie  truck, 
will  run  safely  and  rapidly  over  roads  of  inferior 
construction,  or  sharp  curves  that  would  be  im- 
possible for  rolling  stock  constructed  on  the 
English  type  of  long  and  rigid  wheel  base.  The 
American  type  is  especially  adapted  for  military 

purposes Through  an  ordinary  rough 

country,  a  railroad  to  be  operated  with  the  Amer- 
ican type  of  rolling  stock  could  be  constructed 
in  one-fourth  of  the  time  and  for  one-fourth  of 
the  money  that  one  suitable  for  the  English  roll- 
ing stock  could  be  built.* 

♦Edward  Bates  Dorsey,  "English   and   American  Railroads 
Compared,"  pages  2,  70,  77  and  78. 

JO 


146  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

America,  in  the  construction  of  her  railways, 
was  happily  free  from  many  prejudices  and  habits 
that  operated  to  the  disadvantage  of  older 
countries.  Its  railways  were  made  to  conform 
to  practical  needs.  If  a  road  was  not  expected 
to  do  a  large  business,  its  cost  was  made  to  con- 
form thereto.  If  it  was  not  expected  to  require 
more  than  one  train  a  day,  it  was  built  to  accom- 
modate one  train.  This  adjustment  of  outlay  to 
income,  however,  is  seriously  threatened  in  some 
sections  of  the  country.  Thus  the  railroad  com- 
mission of  Texas  assumes  to  fix  arbitrarily  the 
number  of  trains  that  shall  be  run;  to  make  in 
fact  a  political  tribunal  the  judge  of  the  com- 
mercial situation.  Actual  needs,  paying  loads, 
profits,  precedent,  all  go  for  nothing.  Capitalists 
may  not,  if  this  spirit  is  to  spread,  hope  longer 
to  build  railroads  based  on  traffic,  but  must  con- 
sult the  peculiarities,  passions  and  ambitions  of 
politicians  and  parties.  However,  capitalists 
need  not  make  investments  under  such  circum- 
stances, and  that  the  action  of  the  Texas  com- 
mission w^ill  tend  to  keep  them  from  making  in- 
vestments in  Texas  there  can  be  no  doubt.  But 
where  this  spirit  does  not  prevail,  capital  will 
continue  to  seek  investment  in  railways  so  far  as 
traffic  needs  warrant.  But  no  further.  Nothing 
has  heretofore  been  allowed  to  interfere  seriously 
with  a  proper  business  conception  of  railroads  in 
America  and  it  is  not  likely  to  permanently  in 
Texas.  Supply  and  demand  have,  in  the  main, 
gone  hand  in  hand.      Expenditures  have  oon-" 


CONS  TB  UC  TION.  1  i7 

formed  to  income.  There  has  been  no  straining 
after  theoretical  ol)jects  in  any  direction;  esthet- 
icism  has  been  allowed  to  lie  on  the  shelf;  trains 
have  been  run  to  accommodate  traffic,  to  con- 
form to  its  profitableness;  ever3^thing  has  been 
practical.  In  Europe,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
more  particularly,  perhaps,  in  England,  railway 
operation  has  had  to  conform  more  or  less  to 
custom,  to  firmly  fixed  habits,  to  preconceived 
ideas  of  what  was  needed.  Thus,  in  construct- 
ing railways  very  little  distinction  has  been  made 
between  productive  and  non-productive  property. 
Everything  must  be  stable  and  of  the  hrst  class. 
"Unless  it  be  in  lighter  rails,  there  is,  in  England, 
practically  no  difference  observable  in  nature  of 
construction  between  a  short  branch  line,  on  which 
a  small  train  runs  to  and  fro  three  or  four  times 
daily,  and  the  main  line  carrying  numerous  fast 
expresses.  There  are  the  same  substantial  In-idges 
over  and  under  mere  country  cart  tracks,  and  all 
the  usual  culverts,  fences  and  expensive  station 
building,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  amount  and 
nature  of  the  traffic.  Expensive  brick  freight 
sheds  are  found  at  many  stations  where  the  traffic 
is  almost  nil,  and  these,  which  can  not  possibly  be 
paid  for  by  the  volume  of  traffic  they  serve,  must 
go  very  far  in  the  way  of  swamping  the  returns 
from  the  larger  towns."*  Extravagances  like 
these  are  the  penalty  men  pay  in  business  affairs 
for  permitting  old  time  prejudices  or  preconceived 
notions  to  govern  instead  of  practical  needs. 

♦  W.  II.  Booth,  in  "  Eailroad  Gazette." 


Eh 


<1> 

be 
m 


(148) 


CHAPTER    XII. 

CONSTRUCTION — ^PARTICULARS   OF   CONSTRUCTION. 

The  cost  of  constructing  railways  has  been 
greatly  reduced  by  the  cheapening  of  appliances 
and  the  introduction  of  better  methods  and  im- 
plements. To  enumerate  these  would  involve  a 
history  of  railway  evolution;  particular  mention 
of  every  article  used,  because  every  article  has 
been  changed,  bettered  or  cheapened.  The  ob- 
ject has  been  to  lessen  cost,  to  save  work,  to  ex- 
pedite business,  to  render  it  generally  more  satis- 
factory. 

Every  device  that  the  ingenuity  of  man  could 
suggest  has  been  brought  into  requisition  to 
lessen  cost  of  constructing  and  operating.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  mankind  are  in  accord  in  devis- 
ing ways  to  reduce  the  number  of  men  engaged 
in  building  railroads;  in  cutting  down  cost  of 
labor;  in  substituting  therefor  mechanical  de- 
vices. But  such  is  not  the  case  everywhere. 
Men  can  sometimes  be  had  cheaper  than  ma- 
chines; cheaper  than  horses.  This  is  the  case  in 
India.  There  myriads  of  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren take  the  place  of  steam  dredges,  shovels  and 
other  devices  for  preparing  the  roadl)ed.  As  a 
rule,  the  work  is  carried  on  by  hand,  a  common 
hoe  and  wicker  basket  being  used.    The  natives 

(149) 


150  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

often  work  in  families;  the  head  of  the  family 
digging  the  earth  and  filling  the  basket  while  the 
wife  and  children  carry  it  away.  There  are 
sometimes  two  or  three  thousand  people  thus 
engaged  on  a  mile  of  track.  Labor  is  plentiful 
and  cheap  and  the  progress  of  the  work  rapid, 
unless  the  supply  of  food  fails  or  an  epidemic 
breaks  out.  The  latter  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pens on  account  of  the  lax  habits  of  the  natives. 
Cholera  is  common.* 

The  means  for  building  railroads  seldom  come 
from  the  localities  where  the  properties  are  situ- 
ated. In  America  a  part  comes  from  other 
countries.    Local  interests,  however,  gather  the 


*The  embankments  of  the  Indian  railways  are  allowed  to  set- 
tle during  the  rainy  season  before  use;  they  sink  one  to  two 
inches  per  foot  according  to  the  quality  of  soil.  Wooden 
bridges  and  cast  iron  girders  are  never  used.  Tlie  bridges  are 
built  with  stone  or  brick  abutments  and  wrought  iron  girders. 
The  waterway  allowed  is  very  large  because  heavy  rain  falls  and 
floods  are  frequent  at  certain  seasons,  when  little  streams  be- 
come wide  rivers  in  a  few  hours.  Stone  ballast  is  generally 
used.  Sandstone,  slate  and  other  soft  ballast  becomes  useless 
within  a  few  years,  but  burnt  clay  has  been  used  successfully. 
Steel  rails  are  generally  laid,  the  best  roads  using  thirty  feet 
rails  of  the  double  headed  type;  the  weight  varies  from  seventy- 
two  to  eighty-two  pounds  a  yard.  Steel  or  iron  ties  are  very 
generally  used,  as  wood  is  scarce  and  high  priced.  No  oak  is 
used  for  this  purpose;  the  best  wood  is  a  native  timber  called 
sal,  but  it  is  scarce.  Creosoted  fir  from  Norway  has  been 
successfully  used,  but  as  the  price  continually  advances  re- 
course is  Ijeing  had  more  and  more  to  metal  ties.  Especial  care 
has  to  be  taken  to  provide  for  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
the  rails  in  track  owing  to  extreme  changes  of  temperature, 
and  devices  for  rail  joints  are  adapted  to  this  end.  Suspended 
joints  opposite  each  other  are  the  rule. 


COXS  Tli  UC  TIOK  151 

rich  fruits  that  foUow  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
road; they  feel  the  stimulus  of  increased  popula- 
tion; of  new  industries;  of  general  appreciation 
of  values,  including  land.  They  are  the  principal 
beneficiaries.  And  this  without  any  risk;  with- 
out the  expenditure  of  a  cent.* 

As  the  capital  of  railroads  is  raised  outside  of 
the  immediate  community  where  they  are 
located,  it  follows  that  it  adds  so  much  to  the 
wealth  of  the  community  in  which  it  is  dis- 
bursed.   This  accession  of  wealth,  with  the  new 


Carriage  in  Servia. 

enterprises,  increase  of  population,  and  general 
enhancement  of  values  it  brings,  the  community 
receives  in  consideration  of  certain  rights,  of  no 

• 

*ln  reference  to  tlie  enhancement  of  values  consequent  upon 
the  introduction  of  railways  in  Cireat  Britain.  Sir  Eowland  Hill 
sajs  (Royal  Com.  p.  cviii.).  "The  possessors  of  land  and  other 
fixed  property  in  all  districts  traversed  by  railways  have  been 
enriched  by  the  increased  value  of  their  possessions  to  the  ex- 
tent, probably,  in  many  instances  of  four  fold."  While  the  in- 
crease in  the  I>ritish  Isles  may  not  have  exceeded  Sir  Rowland's 
estinuite,  it  falls  much  below  the  appreciation  realized  by  pro- 
perty owners  in  America:  this  difTerence.  it  is  hardly  necessary 
perhaps  to  state,  is  occasioned  by  the  greater  extent  of  country, 
its  comparative  newness,  and  the  meagre  facilities  it  enjojed 
for  inter-comnuinicatiou  previous  to  the  introduction  of  railways. 


152  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

particular  value  to  it,  which  it  confers  in  ex- 
change. The  most  important  of  these  is  the 
right  of  eminent  domain.  This  right  is  made 
much  of  l)y  railway  critics  and  superficial 
writers  on  railway  su1)jects.  It  is  not  a  gift. 
Those  who  exercise  it  pay  for  everything  they 
get.  Nor  is  it  an  exclusive  privilege,  Avliere  rail- 
way construction  is  free.  It  is  general.  More- 
over, its  exercise  by  railroads  is  much  more 
valuable  to  the  community  than  to  those  upon 
whom  it  is  conferred.  It  is  like  widening  or 
deepening  the  channel  of  a  river  before  unnavi- 
gable;  or  opening  a  passage  through  a  moun- 
tain previously  impassable.  Its  exercise  creates 
new  sources  of  supply,  new  markets,  new  lines 
of  travel,  new  means  of  intercourse,  new  sources 
of  wealth.  Those  who  provide  the  capital  for 
constructing  the  railroad  by  which  these  results 
are  brought  about  derive  no  other  benefit,  as  a 
rule,  than  a  reasonable  (oftentimes  meagre)  re- 
turn on  their  investment.  Their  gain  is  slight 
indeed  compared  to  that  of  the  community  at 
large. 

While  the  first  cost  of  a  road  is  generally  in  the 
nature  of  new  capital  brought  into  a  community, 
the  expense  of  operating,  taxes,  improvements 
and  additions  also  adds  annually  a  large  sum. 
So  that  practically  nothing  is  ever  taken  away. 
What  is  not  disbursed  for  expenses  is  reinvested. 
Thus  the  community  is  benehtted  in  every  way. 

These  simple  and  suggestive  facts  occur  forci- 
bly to  those  who  study  the  railway  subject  in  the 


CONSTRUCTION.  158 

light  of  the  public  criticism  and  condemnation 
that  so  often  assails  these  corporate  properties. 
However  apparent  they  ma}^  be  to  students,  they 
do  not  receive  from  a  large  class  of  the  commun- 
ity the  consideration  they  merit. 

In  considering  the  disbursements  of  railroads, 
those  relating  to  the  cost  of  the  property  are 
naturally  the  lirst  to  receive  attention.  The  ex- 
penditures on  this  account  embrace  several  dis- 
tinct objects,  all  subservient,  however,  to  the 
main  purpose.  Let  us  consider  them  in  their 
order,  and  first  Ave  may  note  the  cost  of  the  char- 
ter or  permit  to  build;  the  outlay  for  legal 
advice,  notarial  expenses,  the  company's  seal  and 
other  items  of  a  like  character.  These  dis- 
bursements vary  greatly  with  different  compa- 
nies. In  some  of  the  states  of  the  Union  it  is 
required  that  a  company  shall  procure  a  charter 
from  the  legislature;  this  charter  is  the  substance 
or  embodiment  of  a  law  specifying  the  duties  and 
prerogatives  of  the  company  and  the  territory  it 
may  occupy.  This  is  the  manner  of  procedure 
followed  in  the  United  Kingdom.  There  the 
authorization  of  parliament  must  be  secured  in 
every  case.  It  is  both  expensive  and  tedious.  In 
some  of  the  states  of  the  Union  railways  are  built 
under  a  general  statute.  There  is  no  limit  to  the 
number  that  may  be  organized.  It  only  requires 
a  permit;  the  expenditure  of  a  few  dollars.  The 
cost  is  much  greater  for  a  charter  than  a  permit. 
Wliere  a  special  charter  is  required  the  expense 
varies  in  proportion  to  the  necessity  for  the  pro- 


154 


SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WAYS; 


Rural  Carriage. 


CONS  Til  UC  TION.  155 

posed  road,  the  fidelity  and  skill  with  which  the 
matter  is  pressed  upon  the  legislature,  and  hnally 
the  industry,  intelligence  and  good  intention  of 
the  latter  body.  A  law  must  be  drafted,  and 
men  skilled  in  the  arts  of  legislative  practice  em- 
ployed to  press  it.  This  requires  time  and  neces- 
sitates a  considerable  outlay. 

Where  railroads  are  organized  under  a  general 
law,  the  process  is  very  simple.  A  company  has 
only  to  perfect  arrangements  in  conformity 
therewith,  and  file  for  record  the  necessary  pa- 
pers. In  return  it  receives  a  formal  permit  to 
build.  A  certain  percentage  of  the  capital  stock 
is  required  to  be  paid  up  before  a  railroad  com- 
pany can  go  ahead  to  construct,  but  the  propor- 
tion of  capital  stock  to  the  total  outlay  may  be 
ridiculously  small. 

After  the  procurement  of  a  charter  or  permit 
the  amount  necessary  to  be  disbursed  to  perfect 
the  organization  is  very  small.  However,  it 
forms  a  part  of  the  cost  of  the  property  and  is 
placed  to  its  debit  with  other  items  of  greater 
consequence. 

Preparatory  to  the  location  of  a  line,  one  or 
more  preliminary  surveys  are  made,  as  I  have 
pointed  out  elsewhere.  It  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  explore  several  routes  before  it  is  possi- 
ble to  decide  intelligently  which  has  the  greater 
advantages  or,  perhaps,  which  is  the  least  objec- 
tional)le.  This  labor  requires  time  and  skill  and 
frequently  involves  the  expenditure  of  a  large 
sum  of  money.    Under  the  most  favorable  cir- 


166  SCIENCE  OF  BAILW AYS; 

cumstances  the  work  of  locating  a  property,  if 
conducted  intelligently  and  with  a  view  to  ulti- 
mate outlay  and  income,  requires  the  exercise 
of  patience  and  judgment.  Not  only  must 
the  engineer  prepare  a  general  description,  or 
profile,  of  the  different  routes,  but  he  must  de- 
termine the  approximate  cost  of  the  various 
structures,  embankments,  cuts,  tunnels,  bridges 
and  culverts;  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  earth 
that  must  be  moved  and  the  distance  it  must 
be  moved;  the  cost  of  track  and  other  sup- 
plies, including  ballast;  and,  finally,  the  maximum 
load  that  may  be  hauled  in  either  direction 
over  the  whole  line  and  over  its  different  sec- 
tions; in  connection  with  the  cost  of  each 
route  surveyed,  traffic  advantages  have  to  be  care- 
fully studied. 

Expenditures  for  surveys  involve  disl)urse- 
ments  for  implements,  wages  of  men,  clerical 
and  supervisory  force  at  headquarters,  and  the 
incidental  expenses  of  the  men  in  the  field. 
This  outlay  belongs  to  the  engineering  depart- 
ment. 

While  the  surveying  parties  are  still  engaged, 
or  preliminary  thereto,  the  capital  outlay  in- 
cident to  the  construction  of  the  proposed  road 
must  be  considered  by  its  projectors.  There 
are  two  ways  of  raising  money;  by  the  sale  of 
mortgage  bonds  and  capital  stock, '^'  Both  are 
usually  employed,  but  not  in  equal  degrees.     Ex- 

*These  methods  are  frequently  supplemented  by  a  large 
floating  debt  before  the  road  is  opened. 


CONSTUUCTION.  157 

penditures  incident  to  the  preparation  of  mort- 
gage bonds  and  shares  capital  and  the  pkicing 
of  the  same  on  the  market,  vary  greatly. 
Among  them  may  be  eml)raced  printing,  engrav- 
ing, registering,  commissions,  exchange,  and  ex- 
penses connected  with  the  sale  and  delivery 
of  the  securities.  The  discount  suffered  in  the 
sale  of  securities  forms,  in  many  cases,  a  very 
large  item.  It  is  chargeable  to  cost  of  property. 
Ability  to  dispose  of  the  securities  of  a  corpora- 
tion upon  favoral)le  terms  depends  upon  the  prob- 
able value  of  the  proposed  road,  familiarity  with 
the  suliject  by  capitalists,  the  condition  of  the 
money  market,  the  character  of  the  men  in  charge 
or  the  credit  of  guarantors. 

An  important  item,  chargeable  to  construc- 
tion, is  interest  on  the  capital  while  the  road  is 
being  Imilt.  It  varies  greatly,  of  course,  but  is 
considerable  in  every  instance.  Up  to  this  point 
it  is  apparent  nothing  of  a  tangible  value  has 
been  secured,  although  the  disbursements  have 
been  large  and  continuous.  We  now  come  to 
the  outlay  for  real  estate,  for  roadway,  station 
houses,  supply  depots,  shops,  yards,  gravel  pits, 
sidings,  docks  and  offices.  In  the  procurement 
of  its  realty  a  company  requires  agents  pos- 
sessing especial  aptitude  and  men  withal  of 
approved  integrity  and  discretion.  The  success- 
ful and  honorable  fulfillment  of  their  duties  re- 
quires patience,  tact,  skill  and  fidelity. 

Except  in  isolated  cases  it  is  the  experience 
of  every  company  that  the  price  put  upon  the 


158  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

land  which  it  buys  or  condemns  is  much  greater 
than  its  actual  value.  The  price  is  based  upon 
neighborly  accommodation,  interest  and  thrift; 
rarely,  if  ever,  upon  bona  fide  sales  to  private 
parties."^ 

Railways  never  strive  to  acquire  land  at  less 
than  its  value;  all  their  efforts  are  directed  to 
escaping  the  payment  of  grossly  fictitious  sums. 
The  expense  of  procuring  the  realty  the  com- 
pany requires,  aside  from  the  cost  of  the  realty 
itself,  varies  greatly.  In  new  or  sparsely  settled 
districts  the  number  of  transactions  is  compara- 
tively small,  and  the  general  desire  of  the  com- 

*  This  is  probably  the  case  in  every  country  where  railways 
are  built  except  in  those  cases  where  the  appraisement  is  made 
by  disinterested  and  capable  officers  of  the  general  government. 
The  disposition  to  exaggerate  the  value  of  propertj'  required 
by  railway  companies  has  been  the  subject  of  frequent  public  com- 
plaint in  Great  Britain.  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  in  his  report  referred 
to  elsewhere,  says  :  "  In  the  purchase  of  land  for  railway  pur- 
poses the  amount  actually  paid  is,  as  already  stated,  often 
several  times  the  antecedent  value.*'  Mr.  A.  Sinclair,  C.  E.,  in 
his  interesting  notes  on  British  railways  says,  in  reference  to 
the  excessive  demands  made  upon  the  English  companies  for 
the  land  they  require  and  for  land  damages :  '•  In  the  cost  of 
British  railways,  right  of  way  has  proved  an  expensive  item. 
As  the  land  is  mostly  divided  up  into  large  estates,  a  company 
negotiating  for  right  of  way  has  not  a  multitude  of  property 
holders  to  contend  with.  But  if  the  land  owners  are  few,  they 
are  perfect  Trojans  to  tight  for  compensation.  There  is  a  curi- 
ous laxity  of  principle  among  a  great  many  people  in  their 
dealings  with  railway  corporations.  Noblemen  who  are  popu- 
larly credited  with  the  possession  of  sentiments  as  elevated  as 
their  titles,  clergymen  with  reputation  spotless  as  their  neckties, 
have  been  known  to  swear  that  a  railway  going  through  their 
grounds  would  inflict  an  amount  of  damage  exceeding  the 
market  value  of  their  whole  estates."' 


CONS  TR  UC  TION.  159 

miinity  to  have  the  roads  constructed  renders  the 
holders  of  land  more  tractable.  Where  the 
population  is  dense  and  the  people  wealthy,  the 
outlay  to  which  a  company  is  put  for  land  and 
the  expenses  of  juries,  commissions,  arbitrators, 
experts,  witnesses,  and  other  court  costs,  is  a 
severe  tax  on  the  wealthiest  corporation. 

To  avoid  imposition  as  far  as  possible  railway 
companies  do  not,  when  they  can  avoid  it,  defin- 
itely locate  their  lines  until  the  realty  they  re- 
quire has  been  contracted  for.  Thus  many  acts 
of  extortion  are  avoided  or  alleviated. 

Those  who  procure  the  right  of  way  for  a  com- 
pany require  to  be  allowed  wide  discretion  to  en- 
able them  to  secure  the  most  advantageous  terms 
possible.  It  will  be  the  policy  of  these  agents, 
as  it  is  of  the  company  employing  them,  to  rep- 
resent that  the  location  of  the  line  is  dependent 
(as  it  should  be)  upon  the  facilities  afforded  and 
the  amount  the  company  is  required  to  pay  for 
right  of  way,  depot  grounds  and  yards;  also  upon 
the  general  friendliness  and  fairness  of  the  peo- 
ple. Under  a  method  so  discreet  property  own- 
ers will  perceive  that  the  benefits  they  hope  to 
derive  from  the  contemplated  enterprise  will  not 
be  realized  if  they  are  unreasonal^le  in  their  de- 
mands; public  sympathy  and  interest  will  be  ex- 
cited and  thus  the  more  rapacious  of  the  com- 
munity will  be  held  in  check.  Disbursements 
for  notaries,  registers,  attorneys,  clerks,  abstracts, 
deeds,  and  kindred  items,  swell  the  cost  of  a 
company's  property.    Aside  from  these  are  the 


160  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  \VA  YS; 

salaries  and  expenses  of  the  agents  engaged  in 
procuring  the  land.  This  outlay  may  be  deter- 
mined approximately  in  advance,  but  it  will  vary 
with  different  localities,  periods  and  circum- 
stances. 

Matters  relating  to  the  lands  of  a  company  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  fully  closed  at  the  time  of  the 
opening  of  its  line.  Years  sometimes  elapse 
before  court  proceedings  and  private  negotiations 
are  brought  to  a  close,  and  requisite  deeds  passed. 


Transportation  in  Gibraltar. 

Whenever  a  company  finds  it  impossible  to  come 
to  an  amicable  arrangement  with  the  owners  of 
property,  proceedings  of  condemnation  are  insti- 
tuted and  the  work  of  building  pushed  on,  leav- 
ing the  matter  of  compensation  to  be  determined 
afterward  by  the  courts  or  boards  of  arbitration. 
Disl)ursements  for  construction  increase  in  vol- 
ume as  the  work  progresses.  At  first  small  and 
infrequent,  they  grow  in  number  and  magnitude 
with  the  lapse  of  time,  just  as  a  storm  oftentimes 
progresses  from  a  few  preparatory  drops  to  a 
blinding  tempest.  With  the  active  inauguration 
of  the  w^ork  of  construction,  those  who  provide 


CONSTRUCTION.  161 

the  capital  must  meet  the  cost  of  grading  and 
ditching;  protecting  the  roadbed;  buikling  bridges; 
constructing  culverts;  boring  tunnels;  excavat- 
ing cuts;  raising  embankments;  clearing  away 
impending  objects;  constructing  dykes;  laying 
ties  and  rails,  and,  finally,  ballasting  and  surfac- 
ing. Concurrent  with  these  expenditures,  or 
following  them,  the  work  of  constructing  fences, 
telegraph  lines,  depots,  warehouses,  platforms, 
sidings,  engine  houses,  workshops  and  machinery 
and  supply  depots  progresses  with  more  or  less 
activity.  Finally,  the  vast  panorama  is  closed 
for  the  time  being  by  the  purchase  of  necessary 
furniture  and  fixtures  for  offices  and  buildings 
and  the  procurement  of  needed  equipment  and 
supplies. 

All  the  expenditures  enumerated,  or  incident 
to  them,  form  a  'part  of  the  cost  of  a  property 
and  appear  in  the  returns  as  construction.  In 
some  cases  the  work  is  done  directly  by  the  com- 
pany, but  more  often  by  contractors.  At  one 
time  it  was  the  custom  to  let  railway  work  in 
small  contracts,  but  this  has  latterly  given  place 
to  the  practice  of  letting  the  work  to  one  con- 
tractor of  large  experience  and  means.  It  is 
thought  the  work  is  thus  simplified,  cheapened 
and  expedited. 

The  cost  of  railroads  per  mile  varies  greatly 
in  different  localities  and  under  different  cir- 
cumstances, as  I  have  had  frequent  occasion 
to  explain.  It  is  affected  by  climate,  the  char- 
acter of    the   soil,   the   cost  of  lal)or  and   sup- 

11 


162  SCIENCE  OF  UMLWAYS; 

plies,  the  profile  of  the  country  and  the  changes 
it  undergoes.* 

The  excess  of  cost  of  European  railroads  over 
all  others  is  occasioned  in  part  by  the  expense 
they  were  subjected  to  for  right  of  way  and  sta- 
tion and  shop  grounds.  The  railway  companies 
found  the  land  occupied,  and  the  great  bulk 
of  it  highly  improved.  In  new  countries  vast 
tracts  were  still  but  sparsely  inhal)ited,  while 
prices  in  the  most  densely  settled  localities  were 
comparatively  low.  Differences  in  cost  are  further 
explained  by  the  fact  that  European  roads  were 
constructed  in  a  more  permanent  manner  and 
with  greater  reference  to  the  possilile  wants  of 
the  future  than  the  financial  condition  or  judg- 
ment of  owners  warranted  elsewhere.  Differ- 
ence in  nominal  cost  is  further  heightened  by 
differences  in  bookkeeping.  In  one  instance 
everything  has  been  scrupulously  charged  to  con- 
struction and  capitalization,  while  in  the  other  a 
large  part  has  been  charged  in  many  cases,  as  I 
have   explained,   to    operating    expenses.      The 

*  This  last  mentioned  feature  is  illustrated  in  the  report  of  S. 
S.  Montague,  chief  engineer  of  the  Central  Pacific  llailroad: 
"Changes  are  taking  place  in  the  regimen  of  many  of  the 
streams  crossed  by  your  lines,  notal)!}'  the  Yul)a  river  at  Marys- 
ville.  The  channel  of  this  stream  has  been  filled  to  a  depth  of 
twenty  or  more  feet  in  many  places,  and  at  the  point  of  crossing 
by  the  railroad,  it  has  shifted  its  position  several  hundred  feet 
since  the  construction  of  the  bridge,  the  main  channel  being 
now  near  the  northern  or  Marysville  bank.  Two  additional 
spans  were  constructed  last  year  to  provide  for  this  channel, 
and  it  is  probable  that  a  further  extension  will  be  required." 
Such  changes  are  common  to  many  streams. 


COiXi)  Tli  UC  TION.  163 

extent  of  the  latter  practice  has  been  very 
great.  I  can  not  better  describe  it  than  by 
quoting  what  the  raih-oad  commissioners  of  Con- 
necticut have  to  say  in  regard  to  the  additions 
and  improvements  raih'oads  are  making  in  that 
state : 

"  A  comparison  of  the  present  with  the  former 
condition  of  the  raih'oads  of  the  state  enables 
us  to  realize  the  extent  and  importance  of 
the  improvements  being  made  from  year  to 
year.  Take,  for  instance,  the  size,  appearance, 
cost  and  convenience  of  the  station  ])uildings  in 
most  of  the  important  business  centers  as  com- 
pared with  those  which  preceded  them.  The  old 
structures  still  remaining  in  various  parts  of  the 
state  emphasize  this  contrast.  Still  more  strik- 
ing is  the  contrast  between  the  strong,  perma- 
nent stone  and  iron  bridges  which  now  span 
most  of  our  large  waterways,  and  the  wooden 
structures  which  were  displaced  by  them.  Even 
the  long  pieces  of  pile  bridging,  which  must  nec- 
essarily remain  for  a  long  time  to  come,  are 
gradually  being  floored  and  guarded  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  increase  their  strength  and  safety 
in  case  of  derailment.  Heavier  steel  rails  than 
those  formerly  used  are  being  laid  upon  those 
doing  the  largest  amount  of  business.  The 
amount  of  stone  ballast  is  yearly  increasing.  In 
no  one  particular  is  the  progress  being  made  so 
apparent  as  in  the  character  of  the  passenger 
equipment  now  being  brought  into  use  upon  our 
important  roads.  This  is  made  forcibly  evident 
when  it  becomes  necessary,  on  some  special  oc- 
casion, to  bring  out  and  use  the  equipment  which 
was  in  use  many  years  ago.     The   amount  ex- 


164  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

pended  by  the  various  companies  during  the  past 
year  for  repairs  of  roadbed,  track,  bridges,  build- 
ings and  for  new  equipment,  indicates  that  sub- 
stantial progress  has  been  made  in  each  of  these 
departments.  The  increased  weight  of  the  loco- 
motives and  other  equipment  used  and  the  in- 
creased tonnage  of  freight  cars  require  a  more 
solid  roadl)ed,  heavier  rails  and  bridges  of  larger 
safe  carrying  capacity  than  were  formerly 
needed,  and  the  companies  are  realizing  and 
meeting  these  requirements."  * 

What  is  being  done  in  Connecticut  is  being 
done  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 

The  total  disbursements  of  railroads  for  con- 
struction purposes  can  not  be  accurately  deter- 
mined. Upon  the  books  of  no  company  proba- 
bly is  cost  fully  set  forth.  There  are  difficul- 
ties of  accounting  that  prevent  it,  even  in  those 
cases  where  there  is  the  greatest  desire  to  ascer- 
tain and  make  known  the  amount.  Figures, 
therefore,  that  profess  to  give  these  facts,  are  in- 
complete. 

But  in  every  expenditure  that  a  railway 
company  makes  for  construction  purposes,  no 
matter  how  charged  on  the  books,  no  matter 
whether  capitalized  or  not,  the  community  is 
deeply  interested.  All  classes  are  favorably 
affected  by  it,  from  the  man  who  digs  coal  to  the 
dealer  in  pins;  from  the  common  laborer  to 
the  banker;  from  the  manufacturer  of  scientific 
instruments  to  the  farmer  who  plows  his  ground 
or  tends  his  flock. 

*  Report  1888. 


CONSTRUCTION.  165 

A  railroad  is  never  completed;  the  commun- 
ity's interest  in  its  disl)nrsements  for  construc- 
tion never  ceases.  It  is  always  growing.  New 
wants  are  constantly  suggested  by  the  needs 
of  l)usiness  and  the  discovery  of  cheaper  and 
better  appliances.  These  involve  further  outlay 
and  will  do  so  as  long  as  men  continue  to  in- 
vent or  railroads  are  needed.* 


*In  this  connection  I  beg  to  refer  the  reader  to  tlie  volume  on 
the  '•Economical  Purchase,  Care  and  Use  of  Material.''  It 
treats  of  a  subject  that  aft'ects  construction  and  several  of  its 
chapters  are  devoted  wholly  to  construction  work.  The  subject 
is  also  referred  to  in  the  volume  on  "Fiscal  Affairs,  Disburse- 
ments." 


Carriage  in  India. 


(166) 


CHAPTEE    XIII. 

CONSTRUCTION — ELEMENTS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Cost  of  construction  is  dependent  upon  the 
character  of  the  road,  the  nature  of  the  country, 
season  of  the  year  when  built,  distance  from 
source  of  supplies,  kinds  of  material  used,  amount 
and  kind  of  business  to  be  accommodated,  cost  of 
labor,  the  ability  and  experience  of  the  engineer, 
and  the  skill  and  fidelity  exercised  in  procuring 
the  real  and  personal  property  needed.  A  road 
built  during  a  period  of  inflated  prices  will  cost 
more  than  one  constructed  at  a  more  opportune 
time.  Certain  portions  of  the  year,  moreover, 
are  more  propitious  for  work  of  this  character 
than  others;  the  work  is  more  satisfactory  and 
the  cost  of  operating  afterward,  perhaps,  less. 
Favorable  surroundings  govern  cost;  a  road  that 
may  be  built  for  a  few  thousand  dollars  per  mile 
in  Nebraska,  with  its  peculiar  soil,  its  monotonous 
level  and  cheap  lands,  costs  more  where  circum- 
stances are  not  so  favorable.  Character  also 
governs  co.st;  a  broad  gauge  road  is  not  only  more 
costly  than  a  narrow  gauge  line,  but  its  machin- 
ery and  equipment  are  correspondingly  expen- 
sive. A  road  constructed  to  accommodate  a 
large  traffic  has  more  elaborate  and  expensive 
facilities  than  a  property  built  to  accommodate  a 

(167) 


168 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


light  business.  The  traffic  that  must  be  hauled 
to  market  over  heavy  grades  requires  larger  and 
more  costly  engines  than  a  line  where  there  are 
no  grades;  the  cost  of  constructing  the  road  is 
also  greater. 

Roads  are  oftentime  built  to  handle  a  particu- 
lar kind  of  business;  its  nature  may  be  discerned 
in  the  character  of  the  equipment  and  the  nature 
of  the   facilities  provided.      The  appliances  of 


Carriage  in  Madras. 

railroads  are  unique  and  exhaustive.  Equipment 
is  adapted  to  the  traffic  it  handles.  The  supply 
from  which  to  choose  is  large  and  varied.  The 
expense  of  operating  and  the  measure  of  profit  are 
largely  dependent  upon  the  adaptaliility  of  equip- 
ment. If  the  load  to  be  hauled  is  a  light  one,  a 
light  locomotive  is  employed;  it  costs  less,  con- 
sumes less  fuel  and  lubricants,  is  less  destructive 
to  the  track,  less  expensive  to  keep  in  order.    If 


CONSTRUCTION.  169 

the  load  is  heavy,  the  locomotive  will,  for  many 
reasons,  be  made  to  correspond. 

The  roadbed,  superstructure  and  rails  of  a  line 
doing  a  small  business  are  much  lighter  and, 
therefore,  cheaper  than  where  the  traffic  is  large. 
Facilities  are  never  the  same  in  kind,  quantity  or 
cost;  a  company  handling  ores  uses  different  cars 
from  one  handling  merchandise ;  the  necessities  of 
the  passenger  business  are  different  from  those  of 
the  freight  business.  Upon  one  line  expenditure 
for  freight  will  be  very  light,  while  the  outlay  for 
passenger  business  will  be  very  great;  upon 
another  line  these  peculiarities  will  be  reversed. 

The  products  of  a  country  and  character  of 
its  people  fix  the  status  of  a  property.  "A 
densely  populated  district,  occupied  by  a  manu- 
facturing or  a  mining  population,  has  far  different 
wants  from  those  of  an  agricultural  population. 
The  mountain  districts  of  Scotland  or  the  sparsely 
inhabited  portions  of  Ireland  could  be  supplied 
with  railway  communication  suited  to  their 
wants  by  means  of  a  very  different  mode  of  con- 
struction from  that  necessary  for  South  Stafford- 
shire or  the  metropolis."* 

Many  lines  are  constructed  wholly  with  a  view 
to  through  business.  Local  wants  receive  little  or 
no  consideration.  On  other  roads  the  traffic  may 
be  wholly  local.  When  the  traffic  of  a  line  is  of  a 
varied  character  it  is  discernible  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  station  and  yard  facilities,  in  the  character 
of  the  cars  and  the  adaptability  of  locomotives. 

*Koyal  Commission  on  Railways,  Keport,  p.  xliii. 


170  SCIEXCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

A  glance  at  a  property  is  sufficient  to  distin- 
guish a  prosperous  company  from  a  poor  one.  It 
appears,  first,  in  the  nature  of  the  construction 
work,  and  afterward  in  its  condition.  One  will 
be  well  kept,  the  other  lean;  one  will  be  vigor- 
ous and  animated,  the  other  feeble  and  lacking 
in  purpose;  the  roadbed  of  one  will  be  generous 
in  proportion  and  of  durable  character,  rails 
heavy  and  well  preserved,  cross  ties  broad  and 
well  together,  bridges  admirably  proportioned 
and  of  durable  material,  culverts  constructed  of 
stone  or  iron  and  ample  to  meet  the  contingencies 
of  tempest  and  flood,  buildings  large  and  well 
arranged,  equipment  extensive  and  well  adapted 
for  work;  the  other  will  be  pinched  and  circum- 
scribed, with  a  contracted  roadbed,  more  or  less 
overgrown  with  weeds,  with  light  rails,  ties  wide 
apai-t,  Imildings  small,  cheaply  constructed  and 
mean  in  appearance,  fences  old  and  patched, 
gossamer  like  bridges,  consumptive  culverts, 
wheezy  engines,  cars  scant  and  uncomfortable. 
When  an  unproductive  line  does  not  present 
these  peculiar  appearances,  it  is  because  the 
owner  pays  more  than  his  share  of  the  losses  its 
operation  entails.  This  last  is  frequently  the 
case,  especially  where  it  forms  a  part  of  a  gener- 
ally lucrative  property. 

Many  short  roads  are  constructed  from  year  to 
year  to  accommodate  local  wants.  They  consti- 
tute a  class.  They  are  cheaply  built.  Their 
wants  are  few  and  accommodations  are  limited 
and  simple.    They  should,  however,  be  built  of 


CONSTRUCTION.  171 

durable  material  according  to  approved  plans  by 
men  versed  in  such  matters.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, their  construction  falls  into  the  hands  of 
inexperienced  men.  When  this  is  so,  the  work 
is  not  likely  to  be  such  as  to  facilitate  economical 
operations. 

The  opportunity  for  making  money  through 
construction  contracts  and  otherwise  suggested 
the  building  of  lines  in  the  United  States  that 
otherwise  would  not  have  been  thought  of.  The 
community  was  at  one  time  much  harassed  by 
enterprises  of  this  character,  and  investors 
suffered  great  hardships.  Neighl)oring  enter- 
prises were  also  greatly  crippled  for  the  moment. 
The  construction  of  these  speculative  enter- 
prises occasioned  temporary  activity,  quasi  pros- 
perity, in  the  community,  followed  by  corre- 
sponding depression.  A  railroad  that  is  not 
needed  absorbs  the  resources  of  a  country  with- 
out return,  and  until  the  amount  has  been  re- 
stored by  savings,  hardship  ensues.  A  country 
is  probably  never  the  richer  for  railroads  that 
parallel  existing  lines;  for  a  duplicate  line. 
This  benefit,  however,  is  derived.  It  intensities 
competition.  It  stimulates  men  to  do  their  best; 
to  invent  new  and  cheaper  and  better  appliances; 
to  economize;  to  be  more  attentive  in  the  dis- 
charge of  duty;  to  be  more  circumspect,  more 
anxious  to  i)lease  their  customers;  to  do  more 
and  better  work  than  they  otherwise  would. 
These  benefits  may  compensate  for  the  ills  en- 
tailed.   A  road  built  by  speculators  is  not  usually 


172 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


CONSTRUCTION.  173 

well  constructed.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
needs  of  the  traffic  it  is  to  accommodate.  It  is 
built  to  sell,  and  the  slight  interest  of  its  pro- 
jectors in  its  future  leads  them  to  do  many  things 
that  they  would  not  under  different  circum- 
stances. The  securities  of  such  properties  are, 
moreover,  frequently  placed  in  the  hands  of 
agents  and  brokers,  to  dispose  of  at  figures  that 
would  destroy  their  credit  if  known.  Inferior 
material  is  used  and  the  work  slighted  wherever 
possible.  Large  profits  are  also  made  by  collu- 
sion with  those  who  furnish  construction  supplies 
while  the  equipment  is  superabuadant  and  poor. 
The  full  extent  of  the  profligacy  of  the  builders 
is,  however,  not  apparent  until  after  the  property 
is  completed  and  the  cost  of  operating  it  com- 
pared, year  by  year,  with  gross  receipts  and 
the  expenses  of  neighboring  lines.  Then  defects 
are  seen  and  the  full  amount  of  the  wrong 
becomes  apparent.  At  one  time,  in  the  heyday 
of  railway  enthusiasm,  the  construction  of  spec- 
ulative railroads  was  a  common  thing.  With 
lapse  of  time  and  greater  knowledge,  however, 
they  have  been  rendered  less  frequent  because  of 
inability  to  dispose  of  their  securities.  The  les- 
son Avas  a  severe  one  to  the  community,  but  has 
not  on  the  whole  been  unprofitable. 

The  intelligence  and  experience  of  corporate 
agents  are  evinced  in  the  purchase  of  needed 
property.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  of  a  suitable 
character.  When  not,  the  fault  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  action  purposely  inimical  to  owners. 


174  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS. 

It  arises,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  from  lack  of 
experience  or  too  much  haste.  As  a  rule,  the 
agents  of  railroad  corporations  are  men  of  keen 
appreciation  and  good  judgment,  acting  only 
after  mature  reflection,  and  then  wisely  and 
well.  Nor  can  they  be  accused  of  being  too 
sanguine,  too  precipitate,  overzealous.  They 
fear  the  accusation  of  extravagance  too  much 
for  this.  They  are  extremely  cautious,  and  be- 
cause of  this,  opportunity  is  sometimes  allowed 
to  pass  liefore  action  is  taken.  More  fre(j[uently 
than  otherwise,  however,  the  owners,  and  not 
the  agents,  are  to  blame.  Timidity  or  ignorance 
oftentimes  leads  the  former  to  place  undue  re- 
strictions on  their  representatives.  The  product- 
iveness of  properties  is  in  this  way  sometimes 
seriously  crippled.  In  many  cases  lack  of  credit 
or  the  limited  fortunes  of  the  owners  render  it 
impossible  to  do  necessary  w^ork.  In  such  cases 
there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to  wait. 

But  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  excep- 
tional cases,  the  amount  of  a  company's  outlay 
for  construction  is  generally  governed  by  just 
needs;  by  the  character,  extent  and  profitable- 
ness of  the  business  to  be  accommodated,  and  if 
for  any  reason  property  is  acquired  in  excess 
of  just  wants,  such  disposition  is  made  of  it  as 
is  most  advantageous  to  the  nroprietors. 


CHAPTER    Xiy. 

MAINTENANCE — COST  DEPENDENT  UPON  SUPPLIES, 
APPLIANCES,  TRAFFIC,  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  AND 
ORGANIZATION. 


(Note:  For  a  complete  understanding  of  the  subject  of  the 
maintenance  and  operation  of  railways,  a  knowledge  of  the 
methods  of  accounting  employed  in  connection  therewith  is 
desirable.  The  reader  will  find  this  important  branch  of  the 
subject  fully  elucidated  in  the  volume  "  Fiscal  Affairs,  Disburse- 
ments.") 

The  cost  of  maintaining  a  railroad  is  depend- 
ent upon  cost  of  material,  fuel  and  labor,  the 
condition  of  the  property,  the  amount  and  nature 
of  the  traffic,  length  of  road,  climate,  etc.;  also 
upon  the  stability  and  permanent  character  of 
the  In'idges,  culverts,  buildings  and  platforms, 
nature  of  ballast,  adequacy  of  drainage,  weight 
of  rail,  and  kindred  things.  Cost  of  conducting 
a  traffic  depends  upon  its  nature,  the  gradients 
and  alignment  of  the  road,  its  sufficiency  in  both 
directions,  nature  of  climate  and  cost  of  labor 
including  its  experience,  interest,  intelligence 
and  loyalty.  In  no  country  is  the  price  of  labor, 
so  high  as  in  the  United  States;  in  no  country  is 
it  so  low  as  in  India. 

The  general  tendency  of  railway  operations  is 
to  lessen  cost.    This  is  more  noticeable  in  the 

(1V5) 


176 


■SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Carriage  in  Ancient  Japan. 


MAINTENANCE.  177 

United  States  than  in  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  It  is  because  of  this  that  we  have  been 
able  to  lower  rates  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
stock  raisers  of  Wyoming  are  able  to  send  their 
products  to  market  in  competition  with  the  pro- 
ducers of  England  and  other  countries  accessible 
by  sea.  The  rapid  and  favorable  development  of 
the  United  States  is  directly  attributal^le  to  the 
intelligence  with  which  our  railroads  have  been 
constructed  and  operated;  to  the  fortitude  of 
railway  owners,  and  the  boundless  ambition  and 
skill  .of  managers.  This  spirit  must  be  fos- 
tered if  we  are  to  compete  with  other  countries 
in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

A  railway,  like  the  human  body,  is  constantly 
undergoing  change,  yet  so  gradually  as  not  to  be 
noticeable.  Not  only  does  everything  wear  out, 
but  many  things  yet  stable  are  put  away  to  give 
Xjlace  to  something  better.  Thus  light  engines 
have  been  supplanted  by  heavy  ones,  small  cars 
by  large  ones.  These  changes  have  necessitated 
structures  capable  of  bearing  the  increased 
weight,  heavier  rails,  better  fastenings,  stronger 
bridges.  Thus  track  scales  that  answered  every 
requirement  in  the  early  history  of  carriers  have 
been  replaced  with  others  capaljle  of  handling 
greater  loads  and  longer  vehicles.  In  railway 
experience  necessity  has  been  the  mother  of  in- 
vention. To  want  a  thing  has  been  to  induce  its 
invention.  This  is  seen  in  the  introduction  of 
the  truss  bridge,  the  swivel  truck  by  which  rail- 
way vehicles  adjust  themselves  more  readily  to 

12 


178  SCIENCE  OF  EAILWAYS; 

the  track,  and  the  equalizing  beams  of  locomotives 
by  which  their  adhesion  is  increased  and  their 
hauling  capacity  multiplied. 

Advances  in  railway  appliances  are  not  con- 
fined to  any  particular  department  of  the  service. 
They  cover  every  field,  from  the  kind  of  ballast 
used  to  the  form  of  check  with  which  dividends 
are  paid.  They  are  seen  in  the  substitution  of 
steel  for  iron;  of  the  fish  bar  for  the  old  fashioned 
chair;  of  sixty  ton  locomotives  for  those  that 
weighed  six;  in  improved  forms  of  axles,  springs, 
splices,  spikes,  signals,  the  tread  flange  and 
center  of  wheels,  and  all  the  multitudinous  ap- 
pliances of  a  railroad,  each  in  its  way  tending  to 
render  transportation  quicker,  safer  and  cheaper.* 

To  know  the  gross  cost  of  maintaining  a  par- 
ticular property  as  compared  with  any  other 
property,  is  not  to  possess  anything  of  value  to 
operating  officers,  unless  we  have  the  details. 
Greater  cost  one  year  may  be  offset  by  losser  cost 
in  a  succeeding  year.  Differences  may  be  occa- 
sioned by  variations  in  the  amount  paid  for 
material,  or  in  greater  mileage  of  trains.  Use 
here,  as  elsewhere,  occasions  wear  and  tear  and 
other  increased  expenses.  A  property  that  is 
used  much  wears  out  more  quickly  than  one  that 
is  not.  In  order,  therefore,  to  compare  the  cost  of 
maintenance  of  two  or  more  roads  intelligently, 

*  However,  knowledge  of  the  exact  worth  of  each  appliance 
requires  that  its  adaptability,  cost  and  wearing  capacity  should 
be  compared  with  other  devices  of  a  generally  similar  nature. 
This  necessitates  carefully  kept  records  of  breakage,  use,  time, 
facility,  etc. 


MAINTENANOE.  179 

we  must  know  all  the  facts  that  enter  into  cost; 
how  far  differences  are  inherent,  how  far  they 
are  the  result  of  traffic,  of  bad  management,  or 
temporar}^  causes.  The  cost  of  maintaining  rail- 
way property  is  less  and  less,  relatively,  each 
year.  This  is  in  a  measure,  though  not  entirely, 
due  to  the  better  establisliment  of  the  roadbed. 
Better  and  cheaper  material  and  labor  have 
also  much  to  do  with  it.* 

Thorough  effectiveness  requires  that  the  main- 
tenance of  a  property  should  contemplate  its  ulti- 
mate perfection.  This  is  the  standard.  Long  de- 
lays may  be  involved  and  temporary  makeshifts, 
based  on  the  character  of  the  business  and  the 
income  of  the  property,  adopted,  but  the  building 
up  of  the  property  to  the  standard  of  a  perfect 
model  should  be  the  aim.  This  involves  syste- 
matic organization,  a  machine  capable  of  intelli- 
gent and  consecutive  action.  Nothing  credita- 
ble or  permanent  can  be  attained  in  any  other 
way.  Work  without  system  will  involve  the 
affairs  of  a  railroad  in  the  same  confusion  that 
similar  work  will  involve  other  industries.  It  is 
not  an  unusual  thing  in  the  history  of  railway 
property  to  see  the  greatest  perfection  attained 
in  one  branch  of  the  service  while  everything 
will  be  crude  and  unfinished  in  a  neighlK)ring 
field.      This    fact,    while    illustrating    different 

*In  Great  Britain  there  was  a  decrease  of  fifty-four  per  cent, 
in  the  cost  of  material  per  mile  of  road  in  1885  as  compared  with 
1S7(J,  and  this  notwithstandinc?  the  increased  mileage  of  trains. 
The  reduction  in  the  cost  of  lahor,  however,  was  only  fourteen 
per  cent. 


180 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


capacities,  shows  how  distinct  the  different  de- 
partments of  a  railroad  are  from  each  other 
while  acting  in  common  in  the  attainment  of  a 
general  purpose.  Men  are  not  alike  blessed  with 
wisdom,  experience  or  capability.  The  ignorant, 
the  dull,  the  obstinate  and  vicious  everywhere 
retard  the  efforts  of  their  more  amiable  brothers. 
In  the  general  progress  of  work  on  a  railway 


Carriage  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

much  depends  on  the  general  manager.  But 
capability  here  can  not  supply  the  place  of 
mediocrity,  indifference  or  worthlessness  else- 
where. To  overcome  the  inertia  of  unfit  men 
there  must  be  active  sympathy  and  co-operation 
throughout  all  the  parts  of  a  property.  Super- 
vision must  be  wise,  intelligent  and  faithful.  In 
no  other  way  can  a  systematic  organization  be 
built  up  or  the  best  results  achieved.    Uufortu- 


MAINTENANCE.  181 

nately  we  have  no  present  means  of  fitting  men 
for  tlie  railwaj^  business  as  we  have  for  lawyers 
and  doctors.  Men  must  be  educated  after  they 
enter  the  service.  This  involves  a  long  appren- 
ticeship, capable  instruction,  competent  instruct- 
ors. Over  every  department  of  railway  service 
there  must  extend  active  supervision  by  a  single 
man,  supplemented  by  capable  and  trusted  assist- 
ants. Only  in  this  way  can  responsibility  and 
uniformity  be  secured.  An  organization  thus 
effected  must  be  supplemented  by  exhibits  of  re- 
sults so  that  comparisons  may  be  made  between 
the  cost  of  things  generally  alike.  Without 
these  comparisons  it  will  not  always  be  possible  to 
distinguish  between  capable,  industrious  and 
economical  men  and  those  of  a  contrary  nature. 

In  railway  operations  prevention  is  a  govern- 
ing factor.  To  stop  the  leak  in  the  roof  promptly, 
to  strengthen  the  crumbling  wall  without  delay, 
is  to  prevent  the  disintegration  of  the  structure, 
perhaps  an  accident.  This  applies  to  the  equip- 
ment, buildings,  bridges,  fences  and  other  struct- 
ures of  railways  as  much  as  it  does  to  private 
houses.  Not  only  is  the  destruction  of  property 
prevented  by  such  measures,  but  cost  of  mainte- 
nance is  reduced.  Moreover,  if  action  were  not 
prompt  and  minute,  those  entrusted  with  tlie 
work  would  quickly  become  disheartened  because 
of  the  greatness  of  the  expense  involved  and  the 
immensity  of  the  field  to  be  covered. 

The  question  of  railway  maintenance  is  by  no 
means  simple  or  limited;  a  proper  understanding 


182  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS. 

of  it  involves  a  knowledge  of  all  the  details  of 
railway  construction  and  operation — an  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  the  topography  of  the 
country  traversed  and  of  its  climate,  population, 
financial  resources  and  distance  from  the  base  of 
supply;  knowledge  must  also  be  had  of  the 
methods  of  taxation  in  vogue,  the  personnel  of 
,the  force,  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  appli- 
ances available,  the  amount  and  kind  of  traf- 
fic, etc.  The  maintenance  of  a  railway  means 
something  more  than  the  preservation  of  the 
track,  bridges,  buildings  and  other  structures. 
It  means  a  competent  and  trustworthy  organ- 
ization and  proper  grouping  of  forces,  without 
which  a  property  is  unwieldy,  cumbersome  and 
unprofitable.  This  phase  of  the  subject  finds 
reference  in  nearly  every  chapter  and  volume 
that  make  up  these  works. 

A  feature  incidental  to  railway  maintenance  is 
the  inherent  differences  in  railway  construction, 
in  cost  of  operating  and  maintaining.  They 
form  a  part  of  the  great  question  of  maintenance 
in  its  broader  sense.  The  subject  engages  the 
constant  attention  of  railway  managers.  Its 
thorough  comprehension  is  necessary  to  a  proper 
study  of  railways  and  a  comparison  of  results 
achieved  by  them.  Before  entering,  therefore, 
into  a  description  of  the  more  practical  and  me- 
chanical details  of  railway  preservation,  let  us 
glance  for  a  moment  at  some  of  the  differences, 
inherent  and  otherwise,  between  railroads. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

MAINTENANCE  —  COST     OF     OPERATING   AFFECTED    BY 
CONSTRUCTION    FEATURES. 

The  disbursements  of  a  railroad  are  influenced 
favorably  or  otherwise  by  the  peculiarities  of  the 
country  through  which  it  passes,  and  until  these 
are  determined  we  can  not  estimate  the  cost  of 
operating. 

The  circumstances  surrounding  the  cost  of 
constructing  a  road  first,  and  operating  and 
maintaining  it  afterward,  change,  moreover,  with 
every  succeeding  mile  of  country;  no  two  miles 
are  alike.  The  distinction  is  more  marked  in 
some  cases  than  in  others,  doubtless,  but  it  exists 
everywhere  and  at  all  times.  In  one  case  it  will 
be  the  difference  between  a  road  located  upon 
the  summit  of  a  mountain  and  another  located 
in  a  valley;  between  one  that  surmounts  a  steep 
and  dangerous  ascent  and  one  constructed  upon 
a  perfectly  level  plain.  In  another  case  the  dif- 
ference will  be  less  marked ;  it  will  depend,  per- 
haps, on  the  elasticity  of  the  roadbed,  or  the 
sufficiency  of  the  drainage,  or  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  ballast  used,  or  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  applied.  But  however  small  it  may 
be,  it  will  affect  the  cost  of  working  the  property 
and  should  influence,  in  a  corresponding  ratio, 

(183) 


184  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWATS; 

the  price  charged  for  doin^i^  l)usines,s.  The  differ- 
ence in  cost  will  varj^  from  a  few  cents  per  mile 
to  hundreds  of  dollars.  The  extent  of  the  dif- 
ference can  only  be  estimated  after  a  careful  and 
exhaustive  survey  of  the  property.  In  some 
cases  it  will  be  so  marked  as  to  make  itself  per- 
ceptil)le  to  the  dullest  comprehension,  but  many 
of  the  nicer  distinctions  will  not  be  understood  or 
suspected,  even  by  those  versed  in  such  matters. 
A  road  with  costly  bridges,  high  embankments, 
pt-ecipitous  grades,  sharply   defined   curves    and 


Carriage  in  the  Society  Islands. 

expensive  tunnels  will,  it  is  manifest,  cost  more 
to  operate  than  a  line  devoid  of  these  objectiona- 
ble features.  Casual  observation  will  establish 
this  fact;  but  where  the  differences  are  less 
clearly  defined  they  will  remain  unnoticed. 

In  considering  the  relative  cost  of  operating, 
as  affected  l)y  the  peculiarities  of  a  country,  we 
are  only  able  to  notice  the  more  important  dif- 
ferences. 

Generally  it  may  be  stated  as  true  that  a  road 
traversing  a  level  country  adapted  to  grazing  and 


MAIKTEXANCE.  185 

agricultural  pursuits  is  more  cheaply  worked 
than  a  line  differently  located.  Its  drainage  may 
sometimes  be  difficult  and  a  sufficient  supply  of 
ballast  will  not  be  obtainable,  i^erhaps,  except  at 
considerable  expense,  but  these  objections  are 
more  or  less  common  to  all  roads,  and  are,  as  a 
rule,  more  than  offset  by  the  obstacles  that  must 
be  surmounted  in  maintaining  a  line  located  in  a 
mountainous  or  hilly  country.  The  grades  and 
curves  of  a  road  determine  the  load  it  is  possible 
to  haul  under  normal  conditions.  A  company 
whose  property  is  favorably  located  as  regards 
grades  and  alignment  can  haul  the  maximum 
number  of  cars  of  which  a  locomotive  is  capable 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances;  the  re- 
verse will  be  true  in  proportion  as  the  line  falls 
short  of  this  standard.  Thus  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  upon  a  line  located  in  respect  to 
gradients  and  curvatures  so  as  to  present  the 
minimum  resistance,  a  machine  of  given  power 
will  perform  three  times  the  service  possible 
upon  a  line  presenting  the  maximum  resistance. 

Not  only  is  a  locomotive  capable  of  hauling  a 
greater  load  upon  a  line  favorably  located,  but 
the  wear  and  tear  of  equipment  is  less;  the 
danger  of  accident  is  also  diminished,  while  the 
expense  of  keeping  the  road  in  good  condition  is 
relatively  smaller. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  drainage  of  a  road  that 
winds  around  the  edge  of  a  mountain  range  or 
passes  over  a  light  and  sandy  soil,  differs  in 
facility  and  expense  from  that  of  a  line  on  an 


186  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

alluvial  plain.  The  first  named  cases  present  the 
most  favorable  characteristics  possible  for  eco- 
nomical and  effective  drainage;  an  advantage  of 
the  greatest  consequence  to  a  company  and  of 
greater  importance  than  from  a  hasty  or  superfi- 
cial investigation  of  the  subject,  w^ould  seem 
possible. 

To  the  superficial  observer  the  difference  in 
cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  between  a 
track  susceptible  of  perfect  drainage  and  one 
that  is  not  is  trifling.  He  will  class  them  both, 
very  likely,  under  one  head  and  impose  common 
obligations  upon  them  without  reference  to  the 
differences  they  engender. 

Imperfect  drainage,  besides  being  an  evil  in 
itself,  implies  many  collateral  evils.  Thus,  a 
road  not  susceptible  of  perfect  drainage  can  not 
perform  the  service  otherwise  expected  of  it;  the 
ties  embedded  in  its  surface  will  rapidly  decay 
and  its  rails  speedily  become  unfit  for  use.  To 
counteract  these  and  other  evils  a  large  force, 
supplied  with  necessary  machinery  and  tools, 
must  be  kept  constantly  employed,  and  frequent 
renewals  of  the  track  itself  will  be  required. 
Moreover,  these  expenses  will  spread  in  every 
direction,  until  they  embrace  practically  every 
department  of  the  service;  they  will  not  only 
appear  in  excessive  disbursements  for  keeping  the 
road  in  condition,  but  in  the  payment  of  lawyers' 
bills  for  defending  suits  for  injuries  and  losses. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  an  imperfectly  drained 
track  is,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  indefinitely  mul- 


MAINTENANCE.  187 

tiplied.  For  these  reasons  managers  are  espe- 
cially alert  to  secure  ample  drainage.  In  many 
instances,  however,  the  nature  of  the  soil  or  the 
character  of  the  country  renders  it  impossible 
to  secure  this.  In  such  cases  the  load  becomes 
a  permanent  one. 

No  other  phase  of  railway  operations  possesses 
so  interesting  a  variety  of  aspects  as  the  ques- 
tion of  drainage,  and  none  requires  greater 
knowledge  and  skill.  It  is  not  only  essential 
that  the  person  in  charge  of  such  work  should 
possess  in  a  high  degree  practical  qualities  of  en- 
gineering to  enable  him  to  utilize  to  the  utmost 
the  topographical  features  of  the  country, 
but  he  must  understand  the  action  of  water 
upon  different  kinds  of  soil;  he  must  be  able  to 
distinguish  between  that  which  will  absorb  water 
without  especial  detriment  to  the  roadl^ed  and 
that  which  must  be  quickly  relieved  in  conse- 
quence of  its  density  or  retentive  properties;  he 
must  understand  the  law  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion and  take  measures  to  remove  beyond  the 
reach  of  this  influence  the  water  that  falls 
or  is  precipitated  upon  the  roadway;  he  must,  in 
fact,  understand  the  subject  both  in  its  practical 
and  scientific  aspect.  The  instances  noted  are 
only  the  commonplace  phases  of  the  subject;  it 
abounds  in  innumerable  conditions,  sul)tle  in 
character  and  impossible  of  enumeration  or 
description. 

The  question  of  temperature  is  also  a  prime 
factor.    In  a  cold  region  the  cost  of  generating 


188 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WATS; 


O 

a 
> 


bo 


(Si 


MAINTENANCE.  189 

steam  in  locomotives  is  much  greater  than  in 
a  milder  climate;  the  load  hauled  is  less  and  the 
danger  from  broken  and  defective  rails  and  ma- 
chinery is  increased.  The  absence  of  elasticity 
in  a  roadbed  when  frozen  increases  wear  and  tear 
of  machinery,  hastens  destruction  of  the  rails 
and  retards  active  prosecution  of  business.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  cost  of  keeping  the 
track  free  from  snow  and  ice.  The  disburse- 
ments on  this  latter  account  are  far  reaching; 
they  appear  in  the  cost  of  snow  plows  and 
other  appliances;  in  supplies;  in  wages;  in  the 
use  of  locomotives  and  cars;  in  the  added  cost 
of  fences  and  snow  sheds,  and  in  loss  of  trade 
and  delay  of  business.  Beside  these  a  multitude 
of  petty  disbursements,  impossible  to  enumerate, 
will  appear.  Upon  many  lines  located  within  the 
northern  belt  the  expense  of  keeping  the  track 
free  from  snow  and  ice  forms  no  inconsiderable 
proportion  of  the  total  cost  of  operating.  From 
these  and  kindred  expenses  lines  lying  further 
south  are  happily  free.  On  the  other  hand,  how^- 
ever,  they  will  have  their  own  disadvantages, 
such  as  the  rapid  deterioration  of  material 
caused  by  influences  peculiar  to  a  hot  climate, 
etc. 

Difference  in  the  cost  of  fencing  also  affects  the 
relative  cost  of  operating.  Upon  some  roads  no 
fences  are  required;  upon  others  their  erection 
is  impossible;  upon  some  lines,  therefore,  the 
outlay  will  be  little  or  nothing,  while  upon 
others  it  wall  be  very  large.    Moreover,  when  a 


190  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

company  is  contiguous  to  the  supplies  it  requires 
for  such  purposes  the  cost  will  be  much  less  than 
upon  lines  located  at  a  distance.  It  may  be 
noticed  also  that  local  laws  defining  a  legal  fence 
are  not  the  same  so  that  the  relative  expense 
for  construction  and  maintenance  is  further 
aggravated  by  this  cause. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  and  operating  a  road 
is  greatly  affected,  as  we  have  noticed,  by  the 
number  and  character  of  its  grades.  Every  foot 
of  ascent  or  descent  entails  an  expense  more  or 
less  marked  according  to  its  abruptness.  A  line 
so  located  as  to  necessitate  the  use  of  heavy  and 
expensive  engines  can  not  be  worked  as  cheaply 
as  a  line  where  light  engines  are  sufficient.  The 
cost  in  this  respect  varies  enormously  upon  dif- 
ferent roads  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
country,  the  judgment  employed  in  locating  the 
line,  and  the  money  expended  in  the  first  place 
in  overcoming  the  obstacles  that  the  surface  of 
the  country  opposes  to  a  level  road;  and  while 
experts  do  not  concur  as  to  the  ratio  of  expense 
that  each  foot  of  elevation  attained  occasions, 
we  know  that  it  is  relatively  much  greater  when 
the  rise  is  abrupt  than  when  gradual;  thus  the 
cost  of  operating  and  maintaining  a  line  where 
the  maximum  grade  is  one  hundred  feet  to  the 
mile  is  much  greater  than  where  the  grade  is  but 
fifty  feet. 

We  also  know  that  the  collateral  outlay  w^hich 
the  gradients  of  a  road  entail  are  not  relatively 
the  same;    thus  the  difference  in  the  cost    of 


MAINTENANCE.  191 

maintaining  a  track,  under  the  variable  circum- 
stances described,  is  not  relatively  the  same  for 
fuel,  lubricants,  wear  and  tear  of  machinery,  etc. 
In  each  case  the  enhanced  cost  is  governed  by 
laws  peculiar  to  itself  and  must  be  determined 
separately. 

The  curvature  of  a  track,  hardly  less  than  its 
grades,  affects  the  cost  of  maintaining  and  work- 
ing, though  the  fact  is  not  so  generally  recog- 
nized. 

Another  important  feature  in  the  economy  of 
a  road  is  its  alignment.  Defective  alignment 
affects  the  cost  of  the  property  in  the  first  place 
and  the  expense  of  maintaining  and  working 
it  afterward.  If  the  alignment  of  a  road  is  bad 
the  inconvenience  and  cost  entailed  continues 
without  sensible  modification  until  the  mistake 
is  remedied;  but  as  defective  alignment  often- 
times involves  questions  of  policy  or  purely 
scientific  analysis  of  expense  entailed,  as  well  as 
the  manner  and  cost  of  correction,  it  follows 
that  defects  of  this  kind  are  of  much  longer 
standing  than  they  would  be  if  they  came  within 
the  easy  comprehension  of  the  practical  men 
who  look  after  the  roadway  and  track;  an  abrupt 
or  unnecessary  curve  in  the  line  these  men  may 
see,  and  without  much  difficulty  remedy,  but 
errors  in  the  alignment,  affecting  considerable 
sections  of  it,  they  do  not  discover,  or  if  they  do 
are  unable  to  demonstrate  them  as  such;  and 
even  if  demonstrated  the  finances  or  convenience 
of  a  company  may  not  warrant  rectification. 


192 


SCIENCE  OF  llAILWAYS; 


'^^paPa     "'—^-^-^ii-^ 


Carriage  on  the  Nile. 


MAINTENANCE.  193 

Many  peculiarities  or  differences  other  than 
those  noticed  are  apparent  in  the  affairs  of  rail- 
roads, and  affect  directly  the  cost  of  operating 
them.  Thus  a  company  that  is  com2)elled,  either 
by  the  nature  of  its  traffic  or  the  peculiarities  of 
its  lines,  to  sever  and  reunite  its  trains  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  must  necessarily  include  in  its 
estimates  of  disbursements  the  considerable 
extra  expense  that  this  involves;  an  expense 
varying  with  the  length  of  the  haul  and  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  load.  Expenses  of 
this  kind  represent,  measurably,  the  difference 
between  through  and  local  business;  many  of  the 
terminal  expenses,  however,  involved  in  the 
latter  are  modified  or  wholly  wanting.  This  is 
noticeably  the  case  where  the  change  occurs 
through  the  necessity  of  diminishing  the  l)urden 
or  of  delivering  it  bodily  to  some  other  line. 

The  relative  cost  of  operating  a  road  is  greatly 
affected  by  the  density  of  the  population  through 
which  it  passes,  and  the  frequency  with  which 
towns,  villages  and  cities  occur  along  its  line. 

Cost  of  operation  is  also  affected  by  the  num- 
ber and  character  of  the  tunnels,  viaducts  and 
road  crossings  or  the  necessity  that  exists  for 
such  structures.  Every  tunnel,  viaduct  and 
road  crossing  presupposes  a  state  of  affairs 
that  increases  the  cost  of  doing  business;  a  line 
thickly  dotted  with  signals  and  crowded  with 
watchmen  can  not,  it  is  manifest,  be  worked  as 
cheaply  as  a  road  running  through  a  country 
where  these  precautions  are  unnecessary.    Any- 

13 


194  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

thing  that  interferes  with  the  free  movement 
of  trains  or  that  increases  or  diminishes  the 
speed  best  suited  to  the  load  hauled  adds  to 
the  expense  of  operating.  Thus  the  amount  of 
fuel  used  by  a  locomotive  is  greatly  increased  by 
the  additional  force  required  to  start  its  load 
over  what  would  be  required  to  preserve  its 
momentum  when  once  in  motion.  Experts 
estimate  the  loss  of  power  occasioned  by  stopping 
a  train  traveling  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles 
an  hour  as  sufficient  to  carry  it  a  mile  for- 
ward on  its  journey.*  The  consumption  of  fuel 
and  the  loss  of  power,  it  is  also  to  be  remem- 
bered, are  only  lessened,  not  avoided,  while  the 
locomotive  is  momentarily  idle.  Further  than 
this,  the  wages  of  the  men  employed  in  con- 
nection with  the  idle  machine  experience  no 
abatement;  in  addition  to  these  items  of  expense 
involved  we  have  the  extra  cost  of  wear  and 
tear  of  road  and  equipment,  besides  other  ex- 
penses of  a  miscellaneous  character. 

And  in  connection  with  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  proper  to  note  that  anything  that  re- 
tards l)usiness,  increases  its  cost,  multiplies  the 
restrictions  under  which  trains  are  operated,  or 
heightens  their  expense,  adds  to  the  burden  of 
the  people  by  whom  they  are  supported,  for  the 
reason  that  the  cost  must  eventually  be  reim- 

*"  The  direct  loss  of  power  in  stopping  a  train  running'at  a 
speed  of  twenty-five  miles  per  hour  would  be  sufficient  to  run 
the    train   over    a  mWQ."  —  Arthur  M.    Wclliwjton" s    ''Economic 

Theory  of  the  Locomotion  of  liuilwmjs;'  page  22. 


MAINTENANCE.  195 

bursed  by  them.  Whatever  the  cost  of  an  arti- 
cle may  be,  that  cost,  we  know,  falls  ultimately 
ui)on  the  consumer,  and  in  the  case  of  railroads 
(whether  operated  by  incorporated  companies  or 
by  governments)  the  general  public  is  the  con- 
sumer. If  the  latter,  therefore,  suggests  or  per- 
mits the  harassment  of  its  servant,  the  car- 
rier, and  thereby  heightens  the  cost  of  doing 
business,  it  increases  by  just  so  much  its  own 
burdens.  These  facts  always  understood  by 
the  wise  and  thoughtful,  are  becoming  more 
perceptible  in  communities  where  the  principles 
of  political  economy  are  not  well  grounded;  the 
lesson  has  been  a  very  costly  one;  it  is  still  but 
partially  learned. 


:;rLL/-;' 


08 

60 

a 

W 


03 


03 


(196) 


CHAPTEE    Xyi. 

MAINTENANCE  —  ELEMENTS   OF   COST     OF    OPERATING. 

Construction  acts  and  reacts  forever  on  the 
operating  expenses  of  railroads.  The  cost  of  oper- 
ating is  never  the  same  relatively  upon  any 
two  lines,  nor  is  it  the  same,  except  by  chance, 
for  any  two  years,  or  other  period  of  time,  upon 
any  particular  line. 

The  same  influences  that  contribute  to  swell 
the  first  cost  of  a  road  above  the  average,  serve, 
in  the  majority  of  cases  at  least,  to  increase  its 
operating  expenses  afterward. 

In  investigating  the  subject  of  railway  econ- 
omy each  enterprise  must  be  judged  according 
to  its  environment,  of  which  it  is  the  creature. 
In  no  other  way  can  its  status  be  accurately 
ascertained. 

The  causes  that  produce  differences  in  the 
cost  of  operating  a  property  are  so  numerous 
and  so  complex  in  their  character,  that  we  can 
only  notice  the  more  important.  A  thorough 
analysis  embracing  a  statement  of  the  sequence 
they  engender  would  require  more  space  than 
can  be  given  in  a  work  such  as  this.  But  a  par- 
tial analysis  and  explanation  is  within  our  abil- 
ity, and  it  will  be  useful,  not  for  the  informa- 
tion and  guidance  of  experts,  but  for  those  whose 

(197) 


198  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

facilities  for  observing  the  multitudinous  details 
of  railway  operation  are  limited. 

The  influences  that  occasion  differences  in  cost 
of  operating  open  up  incidentally  the  whole 
vista  of  railway  administration.  I  shall  only  con- 
sider one  phase  here.  Let  us  take  up  this,  and 
without  attempting  to  give  the  subject  exhaust- 
ive examination,  notice  some  of  its  more  salient 
features. 

And  first,  in  regard  to  supplies.  In  attempting 
to  ascertain  the  cost  of  these,  including  fuel, 
we  must  not  forget  that  to  the  first  cost  must  be 
added  the  expense  of  handling  and  the  cost 
of  transportation.  These  may  be  said  to  con- 
stitute the  incidental  cost.  Actual  cost  thus  be- 
comes dependent  upon  the  expense  of  handling 
and  the  distance  the  distributing  point  is  from 
the  place  of  manufacture  or  supply. 

To  illustrate,  the  first  cost  of  fuel  is  very  small 
to  many  companies,  but  the  expense  of  haul- 
ing and  the  absence  of  economical  facilities  for 
unloading  from  the  cars  into  the  storehouses,  and 
afterward  placing  it  upon  the  tenders,  makes 
the  actual  cost  of  the  article  much  greater  than 
upon  other  lines;  much  greater  even  than  is 
discernible  from  the  accounts.  The  expense  is 
aggravated  in  the  case  of  many  companies 
by  their  having  no  return  load  for  their  cars. 
Upon  many  lines  the  traffic  moves  mainly  in  one 
direction;  when  this  current  runs  in  the  direc- 
tion the  supplies  must  be  moved  the  situa- 
tion becomes  perplexing  and    adds  greatly  to 


MAINTENANCE.  199 

the  cost.  Much  of  this  cost,  however,  appears  in 
the  returns  under  foreign  headings  and  thus  re- 
mains unsuspected  even  by  the  most  acute  ob- 
servers. 

In  describing  the  expenses  of  a  raih'oad  v^e  can 
not,  if  we  would,  group  in  the  accounts  or  else- 
where, under  one  heading,  all  the  expenses  inci- 
dent to  a  particular  article  of  material  consumed. 

To  the  first  cost  of  supplies  we  must  add 
the  shrinkage,  and  in  the  case  of  fuel  and  oils 
this  is  very  great,  varying  in  amount  from  five 
to  fifty  per  cent.  The  cost  of  substituting  new 
material  for  old,  when  the  former  is  used  for  pur- 
poses of  repairs  or  renewals,  must  also  be  remem- 
bered. With  many  classes  of  material  the  cost 
of  substitution  equals  or  exceeds  the  first  cost. 
It  is  considerable  under  the  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. The  disbursements,  for  instance, 
that  attend  the  substitution  of  new  track  mate- 
rial for  old  and  worn  out  material  of  the  same 
character  are  very  great;  this  is  noticeably  the 
case  with  rails  and  ties.  It  is  the  same  with 
machinery  and  fixtures  that  appertain  to  bridges, 
buildings  and  other  structures. 

In  attempting  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  any 
kind  of  material  we  must  also  consider  it  rela- 
tively. Thus,  in  weighing  the  value  of  a  partic- 
ular quality  of  fuel  we  must  consider  its  heating 
capacity  and  effect  upon  the  locomotive.  These, 
therefore,  and  not  the  price  asked  for  the  coal 
by  the  dealer,  determine  the  value  of  the  article 
and  its  availability. 


200  SCmXCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

To  purchase  an  article  without  ascertaining 
the  ultimate  expense,  as  determined  by  its  direct 
or  collateral  effect,  would  be,  in  many  cases, 
to  occasion  a  loss  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  the  transaction. 

Ability  to  pay  for  the  material  promptly  affects 
very  sensibly  the  price  for  which  it  can  be  bought. 

Interest  on  the  money  invested  in  supplies 
forms  a  part  of  the  cost. 

The  attention  expended  upon  an  article,  and 
the  accounting  that  it  involves,  must  also  be  con- 
sidered. Nor  must  the  cost  of  storage  room  and 
outlay  for  insurance  be  overlooked. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  multiplicity  of 
things  are  to  be  considered  before  the  final  cost 
of  an  article  can  be  known. 

Roads  operated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
adequate  markets,  as  a  rule,  buy  more  cheaply 
than  lines  located  at  a  distance.  Their  presence 
in  the  neigh1)orhood  of  the  dealer  exercises  a 
favorable  influence;  they  are,  moreover,  able  to 
keep  better  posted  in  reference  to  the  market.     ( 

A  company  that  concentrates  its  purchases 
within  well  defined  and  responsible  bounds  can 
buy  upon  more  advantageous  terms  than  one 
that  entrusts  its  purchases  to  a  number  of  persons 
or  to  officers  not  skilled  in  the  way  of  buying 
advisedly  or  cheaply.* 

*  Xo  one  ever  connected  with  a  railway  company  in  a  respon- 
sible position,  it  may  be  said  in  this  connection,  can  have  failed 
to  be  impressed  by  the  great  importance  which  the  responsible 
managers  of  railroads  attach  to  the  organization  and  perform- 
ance of  the  duties  connected  with   the  purchase  of  supplies;  to 


MAINTENANCE.  201 

The  necessities  of  a  company,  real  or  imagi- 
nary, sometimes  induce  it  to  purchase  supplies  of 
an  inferior  quality.  When  this  is  so  the  loss  oc- 
casioned thereby  can  only  be  traced  indirectly,  as 
in  the  case  of  fuel,  already  referred  to.  At 
different  periods  in  the  history  of  railroads  the 
rails  in  the  tracks  of  many  of  them  were  of  in- 
ferior quality.  Times  were  not  propitious;  busi- 
ness was  unprofitable;  the  companies  were  poor 
and  the  desire  to  buy  things  at  a  low  figure  was 
strong  upon  them.  This  was  so  in  the  inter- 
mediate period  between  the  use  of  iron  and  Bes- 
semer steel.  Manufacturers  had  lost  the  art  of 
making  the  former  cheaply  and  well  and  had  not 
yet  acquired  the  ability  to  produce  the  latter  at 
a  rate  the  railroads  felt  able  to  pay.  The  effect 
upon  the  companies  of  the  use  of  poor  metal  in 
their  tracks  was  quickly  discernible  in  the  con- 
sumption of  the  rails  laid.* 

It  was  also  seen  in  many  ways  outside  of  the 
greatly  increased  cost  of  keeping  the  track  in 
condition.  It  was  perceptible  in  the  account  for 
injuries;  in  the  fees  of  coroners  and  surgeons;  in 
the  account  for  losses  and  damages  to  property; 


the  limiting  of  the  purchases  to  as  few  officials  as  possible,  and 
to  the  placing  in  such  positions  only  men  experienced  in  the 
wants  of  railroads  and  in  the  knack  of  buying  cheaply;  men 
withal  accustomed  to  the  discharge  of  acts  of  trust  and  of  long 
tried  and  approved  integrity. 

*  The  length  of  time  a  rail  will  last  is  dependent  (even  upon 
a  line  having  a  light  traffic)  upon  its  quality,  the  care  with  which 
it  is  laid,  the  number  aud  quality  of  the  ties  and  the  character  of 
the  roadbed. 


202 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Carriage  ou  the  Hudson. 


MAINTENANCE.  203 

in  expenditures  for  legal  services,  for  nurses, 
medicines,  etc. ;  in  repairing  broken  down  bridges 
and  culverts;  in  repairs  of  equipment,  machinery 
and  tools;  in  labor  of  various  kinds;  in  fuel  used 
by  locomotives;  and  finally  in  diminished  receipts. 

Many  companies  were  slow  in  discovering  the 
loss  occasioned  by  the  use  of  poor  rails;  not  a 
few  were  dilatory  in  effecting  a  remedy  after  the 
discovery.  Why?  Because  it  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  railways  that  every  proprietor  does  not 
and  can  not  hope  to  possess,  to  enable  him  to  ap- 
preciate the  fact  in  all  its  bearings,  that  unless  a 
company  maintains  a  good  roadl)ed  and  track 
favorable  results  will  not  long  attend  its  oper- 
ations. We  can  readily  believe  in  such  igno- 
rance and  can  excuse  it,  but  in  all  practical 
questions  the  proprietor  should  accept  the  judg- 
ment and  experience  of  the  management. 

The  smoothness  and  elasticity  of  a  track  af- 
fect directly  the  cost  of  keeping  the  rolling  stock 
in  condition,  and  the  cost  of  a  poor  track  is  quite 
as  apparent  in  expenditures  for  keeping  the 
equipment  in  serviceable  order  as  in  the  dis- 
bursements for  the  track  itself. 

Only  an  experienced  manager  can  withstand 
the  seductive  glamour  of  an  article  of  prime  neces- 
sity offered  at  a  low  rate.  The  fact  that  its  ulti- 
mate cost,  if  of  poor  quality,  Avill  be  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  temporary  saving  is  lost  sight  of. 
The  immediate  and  visilile  reduction  in  the  cost 
of  operating  and  the  glory  of  effecting  the  reduc- 
tion is  too  strong  for  a  weak  man  to  withstand. 


204  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

This  would  not  be  the  case  to  the  extent  it  is  if  so 
great  a  proportion  of  the  loss  which  a  company 
suffers  in  consequence  of  the  purchase  of  inferior 
material  were  not  covered  ujj  under  foreign  head- 
ings and  remained,  therefore,  unsuspected.  The 
track  of  a  railway  is  its  largest  single  expense, 
and  it  is  in  connection  with  this  that  the  great- 
est, and  in  many  instances  the  most  unadvised, 
efforts  at  economy  are  attempted.  The  harm 
arises  largely  through  collateral  losses.  It  is  im- 
possible to  determine  these  even  approximately. 
We  can  only  estimate  the  actual  outlay  for  the 
track  itself;  it  involves  the  cost  of  transporting 
the  new  rails  and  the  movement  of  the  old,  the 
cost  of  loading  and  unloading,  the  expense  of 
handling,  the  loosening  of  the  old  rail  and  the 
insertion  of  the  new,  the  value  of  the  chairs, 
spikes,  plates  and  bolts  destroyed  during  the 
process,  the  wear  and  tear  of  tools  employed  in 
connection  with  the  work,  the  delay  of  business, 
more  or  less  marked,  and  the  expense  incident 
thereto,  the  increased  wear  and  tear  arising  from 
imperfect  alignment  of  track  which  the  change 
temporarily  occasions,  the  injury  to  the  ties 
caused  by  the  change,  and,  finally,  the  destruc- 
tion accomplished  before  tlie  worn  out  and 
battered  rail  is  taken  out  and  a  better  one  sub- 
stituted. 

The  actual  cost  to  a  company  on  account  of 
many  of  these  items  can  not  be  ascertained,  but 
whatever  the  amount  may  be  it  is  supplemental 
to  the  first  cost  of  the  rail  and  recurs  as  often  as 


MAINTENANCE.  205 

the  track  is  renewed.  It  is  only  by  keeping  these 
facts  in  mind  that  we  can  appreciate  the  impor- 
tance to  a  company  of  purchasing  good  rails  and 
of  laying  them  properly.  Only  a  wealthy  com- 
pany, it  is  apparent,  can  do  otherwise  without 
endangering  its  safety.  Indeed,  the  importance 
of  a  durable  track  is  so  essential  to  the  pros- 
perity of  a  company  that  it  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say  the  introduction  of  the  Bessemer  process, 
whereby  the  duration  of  the  rail  is  greatly  pro- 


Cantalever  Bridge. 

longed,  has  enabled  many  properties  to  earn  fair 
and  continuous  dividends  that  would  otherwise 
not  have  been  able  to  do  so. 

The  duration  of  an  iron  rail,  whether  new  or  re- 
rolled,  varies  according  to  the  usage  and  the  acci- 
dent of  quality  (the  latter  being  quite  beyond  the 
control  of  the  manufacturer),  from  forty-eight 
hours  to  five  years;  some  w411  not  last  the  stipu- 
lated forty-eight  hours.  It  is  manifest  that  the 
drain  upon  the  resources  of  the  company  using 
such  material  can  not  but  be  out  of  all  propor- 


206  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

tion  to  the  infinitesimal  saving  effected  in  the 
first  phice  by  purchasing  iron  instead  of  steel. 

What  we  have  said  in  relation  to  inferior  track 
rails  applies  with  even  greater  force  to  inferior 
ties.  A  poor  rail,  when  no  longer  of  use,  may 
be  sold,  but  a  tie  is  practically  worthless  when 
no  longer  available  for  use  in  the  track.*  Be- 
sides the  fact  that  a  worn  out  tie  possesses 
substantially  no  value,  its  removal  is,  in  many 
cases,  much  more  difhcult  than  the  removal  of  a 
rail,  and  the  alignment  of  the  track  more 
seriously  disturbed.-}- 

The  expensiveness  of  a  poor  bridge  is  rela- 
tively much  greater  than  of  a  poor  rail  or  tie. 
The  cost  of  removing  such  a  structure  frequently 
exceeds  the  original  outlay,  it  being  necessary 
(notably  in  the  case  of  drawbridges)  to  build  a 
temporary  structure  by  the  side  of  the  one  re- 

*IIuntiugton.  in  liis  imique  treatise,  page  100,  on  railroad 
track,  however,  points  out,  though  in  a  somewliat  forced  way, 
some  of  tlie  uses  to  wliicli  old  and  worn  out  ties  may  l)e  put, 
namely:  "'To  patch  temporarily  broken  fences;  to  make  footings 
for  washing  embankments:  for  temporary  platforms  for  piling 
rails:  fuel  for  drying  sand  at  sand  stations:  fuel  for  section  men. 
Sawing  up  old  ties  for  wood  is  also  profitable  to  a  company  in 
many  localities."  They  may  also  be  used  by  a  company  for  fuel 
for  starting  fires,  and  other  purposes. 

fries  manufactured  from  what  we  call  soft  woods  are  not  only 
not  able  to  withstand  the  wear  and  tear  of  a  heavy  business,  but 
they  decay  much  more  quickly  than  oak  and  other  hard  wood 
ties.  The  cost,  however,  of  transporting  the  latter  and  inserting 
them  in  the  track  is  not  greater  than  for  the  former;  it  is,  there- 
fore, manifestly  for  the  interest  of  every  company  to  use  the 
latter  when  the  dift'erence  in  the  purchase  price  is  not  greater  than 
the  subsequent  dilVerence  in  the  length  of  time  the  ties  will  last. 


MAINTENANCE.  207 

quiring  removal,  while  the  permanent  structure 
is  being  erected.  Leaving  out  of  consideration, 
however,  all  the  peculiar  circumstances  immedi- 
ately connected  with  the  maintenance  of  cheap 
bridges,  the  incidental  outlay  they  involve  for 
persons  killed  or  injured,  for  property  destroyed 
or  damaged,  for  injury  suffered  by  the  equipment, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  of  revenue  a  company 
suffers  by  the  distrust  engendered  in  the  mind  of 
the  community,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
saving  effected  by  the  erection  of  an  unsafe 
structure  of  this  kind. 

In  reference  to  the  structures  of  a  temporary 
character,  such  as  depots,  round  houses,  work 
shops  and  water  stations,  that  we  find  clustered 
about  many  new  enterprises,  the  ultimate  loss  to 
the  company  erecting  them  is  in  many  cases 
treble  the  cost  of  a  first  class  edifice;  makeshifts 
at  best,  their  facilities  are  inadequate,  the  cost  of 
keeping  them  in  condition  large,  and  their  ulti- 
mate destruction  or  removal,  with  all  the  ex- 
penses incident  thereto,  inevitable. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  erection  of  such 
structures  is  inexcusable,except  in  those  instances, 
not  so  frequent  as  supposed,  where  the  resources 
of  a  company  render  it  unavoidable. 

The  injury  that  may  be  done  to  a  company's 
rolling  stock  and  machinery  by  the  use  of  in- 
ferior lu])ricants  well  illustrates  the  folly  of  buy- 
ing material  of  inferior  quality.  The  difference 
in  the  first  cost  is  so  marked  as  to  secure  in  many 
cases  the  purchase  of  the  latter  article.    When 


208  SCIENCE  OF  liAILWAYS; 

this  is  so  the  direct  charge  upon  the  books  and 
in  the  accounts  for  lubricants  is  greatly  reduced. 
This  reduction  is  quite  likely  to  excite  the  admir- 
ation and  astonishment  of  the  directors  and 
owners;  it  is  the  wonder  of  all  except  those  who 
understand  its  significance. 

The  actual  cost  of  lubricants  when  of  poor 
quality  is  never  known;  comparisons  will  exhibit 
an  increased  consumption,  perhaps,  that  is  all.  The 
destruction  engendered  appears  in  the  returns 
under  other  headings,  which  seemingly  have  no 
connection  with  it,  and  remain,  consequently, 
unnoticed.  The  extra  outlay  the  use  of  unfit 
oils  involves  appears  in  disbursements  for  repairs 
and  renewals  of  equipment,  for  new  axles,  brasses 
and  other  parts  of  machinery,  and  in  all  the  ac- 
counts incident  to  the  working  of  trains,  such  as 
repairs  of  equipment,  disbursements  for  people 
killed  and  injured,  for  losses,  damages,  and  for 
the  services  of  lawyers  and  doctors.  Nor  does 
the  increased  cost  end  here,  but  may  be  traced 
step  by  step  through  all  the  labyrinths  of  the 
service,  in  the  stoppage  of  trains,  in  the  dimin- 
ished usefulness  of  the  plant,  in  the  wages  of  un- 
employed men  and  in  the  myriad  of  expenses  in- 
cident to  the  detention  of  business.  All  such 
expenditures  follow  in  the  train  of  hot  journal 
boxes,  broken  axles,  tracks  torn  up,  trains  de- 
railed and  kindred  mishaps  that  attend  the  use  of 
unfit  lubricants. 

In  considering  the  cost  of  car  and  locomotive 
wheels,    axles,  frames,  springs,  bolts,    nuts  and 


MAINTENANCE. 


209 


kindred  appliances,  we  find,  as  in  the  case  of  oils, 
that  the  relative  cost  of  a  good  and  a  bad  arti- 
cle is  not  alone  manifest  in  the  hrst  price.  It 
will  appear  in  added  disbnrsements  for  deaths 
and  injuries,  for  losses  and  damages,  for  all  the 
multitudinous  expenditures  that  attend  upon  ac- 
cidents to  trains,  including  the  cost  of  repairing 
tracks  torn  up  by  derailed  trains,  tiie  interruption 
of  business  and  its  manifold  losses,  the  swelling 
of  the  Coccount  for  wages  and,  finally,  the  cost  of 
repairing  the  injured  equipment. 


Truss  Bridge. 

Other  interests,  entirely  foreign  to  the  imme- 
diate purpose  of  the  outlay,  always  attend  the 
use  of  supplies.  It  also  frequently  occurs  that 
the  purchase  of  material  is  made  to  accomplish 
an  auxiliary  purpose,  such  as  the  securing  of  busi- 
ness or  the  placating  of  some  one  necessary  to  be 
reached.  When  this  is  so  the  price  not  only  rep- 
resents the  value  of  the  article,  but  the  benefit 
derived  from  its  purchase.  Many  other  things, 
such  as  a  desire  to  foster  the  growth  of  local 
manufactories  and  interests,  affect  the  source 
from  which  supplies  are  drawn,  inducing  the 
purchaser,  it  may  be,  to  pay  a  rate  above  the 

14 


210  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

market  price.  In  such  cases  the  indirect  gain  is 
expected  to  reimburse  the  direct  loss.  Practices 
of  this  kind  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Gener- 
ally, however,  it  may  be  said  that  the  emergency 
that  will  warrant  going  out  of  the  general  mar- 
ket to  purcliase  presupposes  an  extreme  case,  an 
event  of  more  than  jiassing  interest  and  there- 
fore not  to  be  considered  as  a  factor  in  any 
general  review  of  the  purchase  of  railway 
material. 

The  interests  of  a  railroad  are  identical  with 
those  of  the  country  in  which  it  operates.  It 
endeavors,  consequently,  in  every  way  to  advance 
the  affairs  of  its  co-laborers,  the  local  producer 
and  consumer.  But  this  assistance,  however 
valuable  and  real,  never  appears  directly  on  the 
books  of  the  railroad.  When  aid  is  extended,  as 
we  have  shown,  the  added  cost  to  the  company 
can  not  be  accurately  fixed  under  any  head  in  its 
accounts;  the  separation,  therefore,  is  not 
attempted,  the  total  price  paid  for  the  material 
being  considered  as  the  first  cost,  although  a 
portion  of  such  cost  might  wdtli  more  propriety 
be  charged  to  traffic,  or  something  else.  But  as 
this  is  impracticable  the  gross  amount  is  debited 
in  the  accounts  to  supplies  and  appears  ultimately 
in  the  accounts  to  which  the  material  is  finally 
apportioned.  These  accounts  are  thus  burdened 
with  disbursements  foreign  to  their  purpose. 

Before  attempting  to  fix  the  cost  of  operating 
a  company's  property  w^e  must  know  all  the  cir- 
cumstances attending   its  purchase  and   use  of 


MAINTENANCE.  211 

materials,  including  price,  indirect  purpose  to  be 
attained,  the  distance  supplies  are  hauled,  the 
cost  of  hauling,  service  of  equipment,  cost  of 
substitution,  storage,  shrinkage,  interest,  insur- 
ance and  literal  and  cgnstructive  effect. 

The  difference  between  railway  affairs,  as  they 
exist  and  as  they  are  supposed  to  exist  in  the 
purchase  and  use  of  supplies,  illustrates  very 
fairly  the  difference  between  practice  and  theory 
in  railway  operations.  To  the  amateur  the 
problem  is  like  a  shallow  cistern,  to  be  fathomed 
with  a  walking  stick  or  dipped  dry  with  a  drink- 
ing cup;  but  to  the  practical  worker  and  thinker 
it  represents  in  its  economy  every  problem  of  a 
highly  civilized  society. 

The  management  of  railroads  requires  that 
those  who  direct  their  affairs  shall  be  men 
trained  in  the  discharge  of  business,  men  fitted 
to  govern,  men  whose  judgment  has  been  trained 
by  years  of  observation,  practical  w^ork  and  re- 
straint, men  that  are  self  controlled  and  self 
contained,  forcible,  luminous  in  their  conception 
of  great  problems  and  capable  of  employing  the 
most  simple  and  economical  expedients;  men 
possessing,  in  fact,  the  business  ability  of  a  trader 
with  something  of  the  executive  force  of  a  gen- 
eral or  statesman.  These  men  must  be  educated 
in  minor  capacities.  No  railway  can  afford  to 
educate  an  officer  in  the  position  of  an  officer; 
it  is  too  expensive  and  demoralizing;  excites 
too  much  disgust  throughout  the  force. 


d 
o 


OS 

o 

a> 

•(-■ 

o 

« 

bo 
OS 

•E 

as 


(212) 


CHAPTEE    Xyil. 

MAINTENANCE  —  ELEMENTS     THAT     AFFECT   COST   OF 
OPERATING — TERMINAL   CHARGES. 

The  cost  of  working  a  property  is  greatly 
affected  by  the  quality  of  the  traffic  and  the 
length  of  haul.  This  is,  perhaps,  more  particu- 
larly the  case  with  freight  than  passenger 
business,  for  the  reason  that  the  former  entails 
current  expenses  unknown  to  the  latter. 

The  expenses  of  railway  companies  for  loading, 
unloading  and  storing  freight  are  in  some 
respects  foreign  to  the  original  intent  and  pur- 
pose of  common  carriers  and  in  many  instances 
not  necessarily  a  part  of  their  office. 

In  many  countries,  notably  in  England,  railway 
companies  often  contract  with  teaming  com- 
panies or  employ  carts  of  their  own  for  hauling 
light  and  valuable  merchandise  to  and  from  sta- 
tions. Much  of  the  freight  transported  by 
English  companies  is  loaded  by  the  shipper  di- 
rectly upon  the  cars.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said 
to  be  the  exception  where  this  is  not  the  case.* 

*The  box  or  enclosed   freight  car  so   universallj^  in  use  in 

America  is  little  known  upon  English  lines,    the   flat  or  open 

car  being  employed  by  them,  mercliandise  loaded  upon  it  being 

covered,  when  necessary,  with  a  tarpaulin.    This  vehicle  is  much 

lighter  than  the  liox  car.  indeed  it  is  much  shorter  and  lighter 

than  the  Hat  or  open  car. 

(213) 


214 


SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 


The  rate  charged  by  English  companies  is  under- 
stood not  to  include  either  the  cost  of  loading, 
unloading  or  covering  the  freight.  When  such 
services  are  performed  by  the  railway  it  makes 
a  special  charge  therefor;  it  also  makes  an 
additional  charge  in  special  cases  for  cost  of 
building  and  working  side  tracks;  indeed,  I  am 
not  certain  that  this  latter  practice  does  not  ap- 
ply in  all  cases.    In  America,  on  the  other  hand, 


steam  Shovel, 

it  is  usual  for  the  railroad  companies  to  load 
and  unload  all  kinds  of  miscellaneous  freight, 
and  while  they  do  not  attend  in  any  case  to  col- 
lection or  delivery  of  the  freight  at  terminal 
points,  they  nevertheless  place  it  in  a  secure 
warehouse,  which  they  own  and  control.* 

*The  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  express  companies, 
who  conduct  what  in  England  is  denominated  "the  parcels 
traffic;"  these  companies  not  only  collect  much  of  tlie  freight 
transported  by  them,  but  deliver  it  (in  large  towns)  to  the  con- 
signee, the  charge  for  this  service  (within  certain  limits)  being 
embraced  in  the  general  rate. 


MAINTENANCE.  215 

No  direct  charge  is  made  in  America  for  load- 
ing or  unloading,  no  matter  what  the  length  of 
haul;  nor  is  anything  exacted  specifically  for 
the  use  of  the  company's  warehouses  except 
in  those  cases  where  goods  are  permitted  to  re- 
main for  an  unreasonable  length  of  time,  say 
over  forty-eight  hours.  A  charge  for  demurrage 
is  also  made  in  the  case  of  cars  that  are  not  un- 
loaded within  a  reasonable  time,  when  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  consignee  to  unload  the  freight. 

No  specific  charge  is  made  by  American  com- 
panies against  their  patrons  for  the  use  of  side 
tracks. 

In  England  a  special  charge  is  made  when 
traffic  is  hauled  only  a  short  distance.  The  rate 
for  six  miles,  or  any  fraction  thereof,  being  the 
same  as  for  twelve  miles;  this  is  in  addition  to 
the  supplementary  charge  for  loading,  unloading, 
etc.  Our  custom  with  respect  to  this  class  of 
business  is  doubtless  in  practice  not  materially 
different,  but  the  basis  for  the  charge  is  not 
generally  so  well  understood;  this  omission 
doubtless  operates  in  favor  of  the  shipper.'" 

The  practices  in  this  country  in  connection 
with  loading,  unloading  and  care  of  freight  have 

*In  reference  to  the  manner  of  settlement  between  the  dift'er- 
ent  lines  for  through  tralFic,  or  that  which  passes  over  several 
lines  of  railway,  it  is  said  to  be  the  custom  in  England  to  deduct 
from  the  gross  amount  charged  for  performing  the  sorvicy  a 
specilied  sum  for  terminal  expenses,  varying  in  amount  as  l)e- 
tween  London  and  provincial  towns;  this  sum  is  apportioned 
between  the  companies  receiving  and  delivering  the  trafllc,  after 
which  the  balance  is  divided  \ipon  the  basis  agreed  upon,  what- 
ever it  may   be,  between  the  difi'erent  lines. 


216  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 

assumed  the  habit  of  a  fixed  custom,  though  the 
duty  does  not  properly  fall  within  the  province 
of  a  carrier.  This  is  demonstrated,  if  demon- 
stration were  necessary,  by  the  discrimination 
which  companies  make  against  particular  classes 
of  freight,  which  discrimination  the  public 
acquiesces  in.  It  is  perhaps  true  that  labor  can 
be  performed  by  the  railway  to  better  advantage 
and  at  less  expense  than  by  its  patron;  but  this 
does  not  alter  the  fact.  It  was,  curiously  enough, 
at  one  time  supposed  that  the  community  would 
provide  all  the  cars  required  to  do  business  and 
Avould  attend  personally  to  the  loading  and  un- 
loading of  freight,  while  the  railway  company 
would  simply  provide  the  necessary  tracks,  and 
in  some  cases,  perhaps,  the  motive  power. 

It  is  the  office  of  a  carrier  to  transport  the 
freight  that  is  offered,  not  necessarily  to  load 
and  unload  it;  that  is  the  business  of  the  owner. 
However,  it  is  our  purpose  in  this  connection  to 
notice  merely  the  custom  as  it  exists,  not  to  sug- 
gest its  change  or  modification. 

Practices  are  not  uniform  as  to  the  articles 
which  owners  must  load  or  unload,  but  vary  ac- 
cording to  real  or  supposed  necessities  of  busi- 
ness. Usually,  however,  carriers  discriminate 
against  only  very  coarse  articles  of  freight  such 
as  are  exceedingly  bulky  and  not  easily  damaged 
or  displaced,  such  as  coal,  grain,  live  stock,  lum- 
ber, ores,  pig  iron  and  similar  articles. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  apparent  that  a  com- 
pany's outlay  for  station  labor,  warehouse  and 


MAINTENANCE.  217 

yard  room  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  its  business;  if  made  up  of  freight  that 
the  carrier  undertakes  to  handle  the  terminal 
charges  will  be  much  greater  than  in  other  cases. 

Terminal  charges  are  incidental  in  character 
and  contemplate  an  outlay  for  grounds,  tracks, 
warehouses,  platforms,  yards,  elevators,  depots 
and  other  machinery  necessary  to  an  economical 
and  expeditious  discharge  of  business,  and  vary 
so  greatly  that  before  attempting  to  compute  the 
expense  of  conducting  a  traffic  their  cost  must 
be  carefully  ascertained. 

Terminal  facilities,  it  is  noticeable,  that  cost 
but  little  at  one  point  involve  enormous  outlay 
at  another.  Thus  the  depot  grounds  and  yard 
room  that  can  be  provided  for  a  few  dollars  in  an 
interior  town  will  cost  millions  in  a  great  city. 
The  interest  upon  the  capital  invested  in  these 
facilities,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  a  fixed  charge 
upon  the  property  and  must  not  be  overlooked 
in  determining  the  cost  of  doing  business. 

In  reference  to  the  relative  cost  of  handling 
different  kinds  of  traffic,  the  greatest  difference 
exists,  but  the  extent  of  this  difference  is  little 
appreciated.  Thus  the  expenses  upon  one  line 
for  station  labor  in  connection  with  the  move- 
ment of  fifty  thousand  cars  of  coal,  earning  per- 
haps a  million  of  dollars,  will  hardly  be  more 
than  that  of  a  neighl)oring  corporation  for  hand- 
ling a  few  crocks  of  butter  or  the  worn  out 
effects  of  an  itinerant  preacher.  Differences  of 
this  character  continually  occur  in  the  operations 


218  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

of  railroads  and  will  ever  confound  those  who 
would  seek  to  make  a  law  or  institute  a  practice 
that  will  tit  all  alike  or  place  them  upon  a  com- 
mon level.  As  soon  might  we  prescribe  a  given 
quantity  of  food,  drink,  air  and  clothes  for  men 
without  reference  to  their  appetite,  health,  labor 
or  size.  But  the  laws  of  America  have  all  been 
in  this  direction.  Terminal  expenses,  permanent 
and  incidental,  are  never  governed  by  the  reve- 
nue derived  from  a  business,  but  are  the  same  in 
all  cases  whether  the  traffic  is  desirable  or  other- 
wise. Nor  are  terminal  expenses  affected  by  the 
length  of  the  haul;  it  costs  as  much  to  handle  a 
consignment  of  merchandise  destined  to  a  neigh- 
boring town  as  to  a  point  a  thousand  miles 
away;  the  number  of  laljorers  required  is  the 
same  in  either  case,  the  clerical  force  the  same, 
the  facilities  the  same,  the  risk  of  accident  and 
theft  at  the  termini  the  same. 

The  through  trafhc  of  railroads  may  be  said  to 
represent  the  long  haul  in  contradistinction  to 
local  business,  which  represents  the  short  haul, 
and  while  the  terminal  expenses  are  the  same  in 
either  case,  local  traffic  necessitates  frequent 
stoppage  of  trains,  with  all  the  expenses  incident 
thereto,  some  of  which  are  noticed  elsewhere. 
They  form  a  sensible  burden,  an  unknown  quan- 
tity in  railway  management,  never  to  be  lightly 
considered  or  overlooked  in  estimating  the  diffi- 
culties and  expenses  of  operating. 

Within  certain  bounds,  therefore,  it  is  manifest 
that  the  profitableness  of  a  business  is  largely 


MAINTENANCE.  219 

dependent  upon  the  length  of  haul.  It  is  an 
aphorism  in  ]'ailway  management  that  the  equip- 
ment of  a  company  earns  money  only  when  in 
motion;  anything,  therefore,  that  retards  that 
motion,  or  prevents  it,  acts  to  the  disadvantage 
of  a  property. 

To  continue  our  illustration,  the  station  facili- 
ties necessary  to  accommodate  the  suburban 
travel  of  a  metropolitan  road  must  be  quite  as 
elaborate  as  for  a  more  profitable  business — for  a 
long  haul,  for  instance.  The  expense  that  at- 
tends it  is  much  greater  than  for  ordinary  traffic, 
because  fixed  in  cities  or  in  their  immediate 


Construction  Cars. 


neighborhood,  where  values  have  reached  the 
maximum.  This  business,  instead  of  paying  a 
higher  rate  than  traffic  requiring  less  costly  ac- 
commodations, is  awarded  a  much  less  rate.  This 
difference  is  oftentimes  more  than  is  justified  by 
the  increased  quantities  of  business  handled.  It 
is  occasioned  by  a  desire  to  stimulate  the  growth 
of  the  traffic.  It  represents  also  the  difference 
to  a  railway  company  between  a  wholesale  and  a 
retail  business;  the  suburban  residents  represent 
an  average  haul  each  day  equal  to  so  many  trains, 
a  fixed  and  determinate  quantity,  while  isolated 
passengers,  gathered  at  widely  separated  points, 


220  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

in  uncertain  quantities,  represent  the  retail  ele- 
ment of  trade. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  terminal  expenses  in- 
cident to  traffic  are  generally  and  carefully  con- 
sidered in  fixing  the  rate,  it  is  also  true  that  here- 
tofore no  recognized  or  uniform  practice  has  been 
observed;  the  judgment  of  the  compiler  of  the 
tariff,  the  peculiarities  of  the  business,  and  in 
some  cases  the  law  of  the  state,  determine  the  rate 
without  reference  to  terminal  expenses.  Perhaps 
a  more  formal  basis  is  not  practicable;  however 
that  may  be,  the  length  of  the  haul  and  accom- 
modation afforded,  in  conjunction  with  the  term- 
inal expense,  should  in  every  case  govern  the  rate. 

Wherever  this  principle  is  disregarded  it  can 
not  but  result  in  a  company  doing  business  fre- 
quently for  less  than  the  revenue  derived.  Much 
of  our  local  traffic,  having  only  a  short  haul, 
does  not  pay  its  pro  rata  proportion  of  the  cost 
of  the  facilities  it  enjoys;  this  has  been  markedly 
so  since  the  introduction  of  cumulative  tariffs. 

Few  or  none  of  our  great  companies  could  pro- 
vide the  terminal  and  other  facilities  they  do  if 
their  trade  were  wholly  local;  the  profits  they 
derive  from  through  business  render  it  possible. 
Through  business  has  ever  contributed  more  than 
its  just  proportion. 

It  has  l)een  a  generally  accepted  belief  that  the 
local  business  of  a  road  is  the  more  remunerative, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  subjected  to  the  dis- 
turbing influences  that  surround  through  traffic. 
This  might  have  been  the  case  at  one  time,  but 


MAINTENANCE.  221 

has  long  ceased  to  be  so.  The  multiplicity  of 
roads  in  operation,  paralleling  and  intersecting 
each  other,  compels  them  to  compete  for  their 
local  business  quite  as  much  as  for  their  through 
traffic;  and  where  this  is  the  case  the  rates  re 
ceived  for  local  business  are  not  more  satisfactory 
than  for  through  traffic. 

The  relative  cost  of  soliciting  business,  which 
may  be  briefly  considered  here  in  connection 
with  the  terminal  expenses  of  railroads,  varies 
greatly  upon  different  lines. 

It  also  varies  greatly  for  the  different  kinds  of 
traffic. 

The  expense  of  one  line  for  advertising  matter 
and  for  soliciting  agents,  for  illustration,  may  be 
treble  that  of  another.  This  difference  may  be 
occasioned  by  the  disadvantages  of  a  company's 
lines  as  compared  with  those  more  favorably 
located.  Or  it  may  be  occasioned  by  the  special 
character  of  the  business.  In  the  former  case  it 
is  necessary,  perhaps,  to  ignore  the  expense  in 
fixing  the  rate,  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  cer- 
tainly pertinent,  for  the  reason  that  the  traffic 
sought  is  dependent  upon  the  effort  made  to 
secure  it.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  reference 
to  such  lousiness  as  excursionists',  colonists',  tour- 
ists' and  pleasure  seekers'  generally. 

In  so  far  as  the  practice  of  advertising,  or  other- 
wise soliciting  business,  is  carried  on  upon  just 
principles  of  business,  the  expense  incurred 
ought,  it  is  clear,  to  be  considered  in  fixing  the 
rate  charged. 


222  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  and  imperfect  con- 
sideration of  the  subject  it  is  apparent  that  the 
cost  of  handling  and  soliciting  traffic  is  an  im- 
IDortant  element  in  the  economy  of  railway  man- 
agement not  to  be  overlooked  in  studying  the 
extent,  object  and  usefulness  of  railway  disburse- 
ments and  the  return  they  may  be  expected  to 
render  the  companies  making  them.  This  fact 
should  be  remembered  by  legislators  and  others 
in  fixing  the  rate  railways  may  charge.  Each 
company  should  be  considered  apart  and  its  cost 
and  the  conditions  attending  its  traffic  duly  and 
exhaustively  considered. 


Ballast  Car. 


CHAPTEK    XYIII. 

MAINTENANCE — UNALTERABLE    EXPENSES   OF    OPERA- 
TION— FIXED    EXPENSES.* 

Expenditures  do  not  grow  relatively  with  a  traf- 
fic. The  outlay  upon  a  heavily  worked  line  is  not 
IDroportionately  as  great  as  upon  a  line  less  busy. 
One  of  the  reasons  is  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  disbursements  of  a  company  come  under 
what  are  called  fixed  exjDenses.  Many  of  the 
expenses  of  this  character  are  not  affected  at  all, 
or  only  remotely,  by  an  increase  or  decrease  in 
business;  these  expenses  are  never  the  same  rela- 
tively upon  different  roads,  but  they  are  large  in 
every  case. 

Fixed  expenses  may  be  termed  the  minimum 
cost  of  operating;  after  they  are  provided  for 
every  dollar  of  income  that  a  property  can  be 
made  to  earn  without  increasing  such  expenses, 
represents,  obviously,  a  profit;  this  fact  is  well 

*The  term  fixed  expenses  or  charges  is  used  in  a  double  sense 
in  railway  nomenclature;  first,  it  applies  generally  to  the  oper- 
ating expenses,  interest  and  rentals  of  railroad  companies,  and 
second,  to  those  expenses  connected  with  the  innnediate  work- 
ing of  the  property  that  are  not  aftected  at  all,  or  only  lightly, 
by  the  amount  of  its  traffic,  such  as  superintendence,  salaries  of 
station  agents,  flagmen  at  crossings,  l)ridge  tenders,  etc.  The 
last  named  should  be  called  "fixed  operating  expenses"  or  "fixed 
expenses,'"  while  the  former  should  be  called  "  fixed  charges." 

(223) 


224  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

understood  and  represents  a  principle  that  lies  at 
the  foundation  of  the  practice  of  granting  a 
reduced  rate  when  the  trade  offered  is  unusual 
in  quantity  or  can  be  handled  without  adding 
relatively  to  the  cost. 

The  difference  in  the  relative  fixed  expenses  of 
roads  varies  in  proportion  as  their  business 
approaches  the  maximum  capacity  of  which  the 
property  is  capable. 

A  brief  summary  of  these  expenditures  may 
properly  be  given  here;  and  first,  we  may  men- 


Ran  Car. 

tion  those  relating  to  organization.  This  must 
be  maintained  with  little,  if  any,  reference  to 
the  amount  or  profitableness  of  the  business 
done;  all  of  a  company's  affairs  are  immediately 
dependent  upon  the  preservation,  unimpaired,  of 
its  legal  status.  This  obligation  is  imperative, 
and  while  the  disbursements  on  this  account 
may  be  small  compared  with  many  other  ex- 
penses, they  are,  nevertheless,  considerable  each 
year. 

Many  expenses  incident  to  the  conduct  of  busi- 
ness intervene,  without  much,  if  any,  reference 
to  the  amount  of  the  traffic;  thus  the  mail  must 


MAINTENANCE.  225 

be  carried  and  delivered  punctually,  no  matter 
how  small  it  may  be;  the  convenience  of  the 
public  must  be  studied  and  provided  for  at 
stations  and  elsewhere;  the  number  of  trains 
which  the  custom  of  the  country  or  the  charter 
of  the  company  compels  it  to  operate  must  be 
run  each  day,  and  so  on.  In  matters  such  as 
these  the  discretion  of  a  management  is  very 
limited  indeed. 

The  outlay  incident  to  the  movement  of  trains, 
so  far  as  they  are  operated,  is  the  same  for  wages 
of  men  engaged  whether  the  cars  they  contain 
are  loaded  to  repletion  or  travel  comparatively 
empty;  this  is  also  true,  relatively,  in  reference 
to  other  train  expenses,  such  as  fuel,  oil,  lights, 
attendance,  wear  and  tear,  etc.  Some  one,  also, 
must  be  on  hand  at  stations  to  open  the  com- 
pany's waiting  rooms,  see  that  they  are  kept 
clean  and  comfortable;  to  preserve  order  in  and 
about  the  l)uildings,  keep  the  platforms  and 
track  unobstructed,  ticket  such  passengers  as 
present  themselves,  receive  and  discharge  goods, 
and  answer  the  questions  asked  by  the  patrons 
of  the  line. 

The  wages  paid  the  incumbents  of  these  offices 
must  be  such  as  to  secure  faithful  men,  com- 
petent to  perform  the  maximum  amount  of  ser- 
vice required.  And  so  it  is  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  force  as  a  whole;  with  the  general 
and  local  officers,  the  superior  and  petty  heads 
of  departments,  and  the  foremen  and  persons  in 
charge,  including  their  principal  or  chief  assist- 

15 


226  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

ants.  Each  of  these  must,  in  his  place,  be  com- 
petent to  perform,  at  a  moment's  notice,  the 
greatest  amount  of  service  that  the  necessities 
of  the  company  may  at  any  time  exact;  an  exi- 
gency arises  and  passes  like  the  flight  of  an  ex- 
press train;  there  is  no  time  for  consultation,  no 
time  to  study  text  books,  no  time  to  examine  rules 
and  regulations,  or  to  write  to  superior  officers 
for  instructions;  the  company  must  have  some 
one  on  hand  competent  to  act.  These  necessi- 
ties must  be  provided  for  without  reference  to 
the  general  run  of  business,  and  in  so  far  as  this 
is  so,  constitute  a  fixed  expense. 

An  agency  that  may,  at  any  moment,  be  called 
upon  to  handle  a  hundred  carloads  of  freight 
can  not  with  safety  be  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a 
person  who  could  perhaps  manipulate  half  that 
number  with  facility  but  would  break  down 
under  the  greater  responsibility.  The  agent  must, 
in  his  turn,  select  subordinate  servants  with  a 
view  to  like  contingencies.  What  is  true  in  this 
respect  of  the  agent  and  his  assistants  applies 
with  equal  force  to  conductors  of  trains,  foremen 
of  shops,  track  bosses  and  superintendents  of 
bridges.  It  applies  with  redoubled  force  to  the 
corps  of  managers.  The  exigencies  of  railway 
service  require  men  of  special  training,  of  pecu- 
liar qualifications,  of  minute  practical  knowl- 
edge. There  are  no  important  exceptions  to 
this  rule  in  any  department  or  branch  of  the 
business.  Supervisory  officials,  and  especially 
those  in  immediate  charge  of  the  property,  must 


MAINTENANCE. 


"ian 


be  relativelj^  as  well  skilled  as  the  directing 
manager.  They  must  possess  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  the  offices  they  fill  as  well  as  a  particular 
acquaintance  with  the  immediate  position  they 
hold.  This  general  and  particular  knowledge 
involves  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
property,  its  defects,  resources  and  peculiarities. 
This  intimate  acquaintance  presupposes  long 
association,  years  of  observation  and .  thought. 
Its  attainment  is  impossible  otherwise.  Without 
this  prolonged  association  the  knowledge  officials 


Wire  Fence. 


bring  to  the  discharge  of  their  duties  is  incom- 
plete, oftentimes  unwise  and  impracticable. 

The  personnel  of  a  railroad  organization  may 
not,  therefore,  be  changed  hastily  or  unadvisedly 
without  detriment,  for  the  property  is  largely 
the  creature  of  the  operative  and  its  value  de- 
pendent upon  his  capacity  and  fidelity;  he  must 
consequently  ever  be  considered  in  forming  an 
estimate  of  its  present  or  prospective  value. 

In  every  department  of  railway  service  we  dis- 
cover carefully  selected  men,  men  of  capacity 
and   resources;  the   superiors   of   their  fellows. 


228  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

singled  out  with  reference  to  emergencies,  either 
23resent  or  prospective.  From  the  character  of 
these  men  we  may  judge  intelligently  of  the  dis- 
cernment and  trustworthiness  of  the  managers 
in  charge. 

The  importance  of  the  duties,  present  and 
prospective,  performed  by  the  various  classes  of 
officials  is,  as  we  have  stated,  apparent  in  the 
compensation  allotted  them.  The  official  in 
charge  of  a  pass  high  up  on  a  mountain  side,  or 
having  the  care  of  a  difficult  morass  or  hazard- 
ous piece  of  track,  no  matter  where  it  may  l^e 
located,  is  paid  a  higher  rate  of  wages  than  his 
neighbor,  whose  skill  and  responsibility  are  less. 
Selections  in  every  case  are  to  be  based  upon  fit- 
ness. A  track  foreman  who  might  be  trusted 
with  safety  in  the  absence  of  danger  could  not 
be  depended  upon  to  act  with  intelligence  and 
precision  in  case  of  a  wreck  or  the  washing  away 
of  a  roadbed;  a  bridge  superintendent  who,  per- 
haps, understands  how  to  keep  in  repair  the 
property  entrusted  to  his  charge  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  might  be  exceedingly  awkward  if 
called  upon  at  a  moment's  notice  to  construct  an 
entire  structure;  in  the  same  w^ay  a  conductor 
who  might  know  how  and  when  to  start  or  stop 
a  train,  might  know  how  tickets  should  be  col- 
lected or  cars  received  into  or  detached  from  a 
train,  would  not,  perhaps,  know  what  to  do  in 
case  his  train  was  thrown  from  the  rails  or  had 
lost  its  right  to  the  track.  All  these  things  have 
to  be  thought  of  and  anticipated;  and  the  care- 


MAINTENANCE.  229 

fulness  with  which  this  is  done  illustrates  the 
talent  of  those  in  charge. 

In  the  selection  of  men  to  fill  petty  offices  of 
responsibility,  as  well  as  those  of  greater  degree, 
each  varying  circumstance  that  governs  must  be 
carefully  considered  by  the  appointing  power. 
The  selection  of  the  fittest  and  the  continuance 
of  an  incumbent  in  the  service  require,  frequently, 
the  payment  of  extra  wages.  And  thus  extra 
wages  are  paid  oftentimes  to  meet  exigencies 
that  never  arise,  just  as  expenditures  of  a  similar 
character  are  unavoidably  incurred  in  other 
branches  of  the  service.  These  we  may  term 
constructive  expenditures.  They  are  much  the 
same  upon  all  lines,  without  particular  reference 
to  the  business  done. 

The  cost  of  caring  for  a  property  is  not  affected 
by  wdiat  it  earns  to  so  great  an  extent  as  we 
might  suppose.  A  competent  and  trustworthy 
manager  must  be  employed  to  look  after  its 
affairs  and  preserve  its  integrity.  The  amount 
paid  him  for  such  services  is  of  necessity  dictated 
by  the  extent  of  the  property  and  the  ability 
and  faithfulness  of  the  man,  rather  than  by  what 
it  earns.  This  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  of  all 
the  officers  of  a  company.  The  salaries  of  minor 
officers  are  more  dependent  upon  the  business 
done  than  those  of  their  superiors.  This  is  also 
true  of  many  subordinate  servants,  but  a  large 
proportion  of  the  amount  paid  is  a  fixed  expense, 
not  dependent,  except  remotely,  upon  the  busi- 
ness done. 


280  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

At  the  headquarters  of  every  company  a  com- 
plicated and  expensive  force  must  be  maintained 
in  addition  to  the  officers;  it  is  the  second 
or  subsidiary  brain  of  the  enterprise,  without 
which  the  organization  woukl  fall  to  pieces  of 
its  own  weight.  It  consists  of  skilled  assist- 
ants, clerks  and  others.  They  carry  out  the  de- 
termination of  the  company  as  expressed  day 
by  day  by  its  officers.  They  must  be  experi- 
enced and  discreet,  disciplined  in  their  office 
and  capable  of  exacting  respect  from  others. 
The  number  and  salaries  of  these  assistants  are 
not  materially  influenced,  either  favorably  or 
otherwise,  by  the  fluctuations  of  trade,  except 
when  it  extends  over  a  considerable  period 
of  time.  They  may  be  said  to  be  fixed  in  the 
offices  they  occupy.  Increase  or  decrease  of  traf- 
fic does  not  affect  them.  The  explanation  of 
this  is  found  in  the  difficulty  of  filling  their 
places.  The  knowledge  they  possess  is  the  result 
of  laborious  training,  of  years  of  familiarity  with 
their  particular  duties,  and  therefore  not  easily 
acquired.  Except  where  business  is  depressed 
for  a  very  considerable  period  it  is  inexpedient  as 
well  as  expensive  for  a  company  to  make  any 
change  or  reduction  in  its  general  office  force. 
A  reduction  of  their  wages  is  practicable,  but 
not  a  reduction  in  their  number. 

The  traffic  of  a  company  may  be  paralyzed 
by  a  great  storm,  or  its  business  partially  dis- 
turbed by  the  failure  of  a  crop,  by  the  diversion 
of  trade,  by  the  occurrence  of  a  disastrous  epi- 


MAINTENANCE.  231 

demic  or  from  any  other  of  many  canses,  but  its 
fixed  disbursements  remain  undisturbed.  And 
herein  lies,  as  we  have  said,  a  partial  explanation 
of  the  ability  of  a  company  to  lessen  its  rates, 
when  necessary  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  trade. 
Up  to  a  certain  point  addition  to  trafhc  is  not 
followed  by  corresponding  increase  in  either  the 
number  or  wages  of  employes.  There  is  no  per- 
ceptible increase  in  the  number  or  pay  of 
watchmen  at  crossings  and  bridges,  track  patrol, 
persons  in  charge  of  tunnels  or  bridges;  no 
increase  in  the  number  of  agents  at  stations, 
of  the  principal  ticket  sellers,  of  the  men  em- 
ployed in  connection  with  the  customary  trains, 
of  foremen  and  their  assistants  busied  in  keep- 
ing the  track  in  order,  or  of  the  minimum 
force  at  shops  and  round  houses  and  at  depots  of 
supply,  and  so  on. 

When,  however,  the  traffic  of  a  company  in- 
creases beyond  a  certain  point,  expenditures 
for  wages  will  increase,  temporarily  at  least,  be- 
yond what  the  comparative  profitableness  of  the 
traffic  warrants;  this  relative  increase  will  con- 
tinue until  the  traffic  again  reaches  a  point  where 
the  maximum  amount  of  labor  possible  is  ex- 
acted of  the  force. 

Within  certain  limits,  not  possible  to  clearly 
define,  the  elasticity  inherent  in  every  organiza- 
tion enables  it  to  accommodate  an  increase  of 
business  without  any  addition  to  its  machinery 
or  the  number  of  its  servants.  Just  as  a  consid- 
erable increase    is  possible    in  the  number  of 


282 


SCmXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


guests  at  a  hotel  without  any  addition  to  the 
force  of  attendants;  let  us  suppose  the  maximum 
of  this  increase  to  be  fiftj^  guests;  this  num- 
ber may  be  added  without  increased  cost  for 
service  to  the  proprietor;  but  at  this  point  the 
addition  of  a  single  guest  will  necessitate,  we 
will  say,  the  employment  of  an  additional  clerk, 
another  waiter,  an  assistant  porter,  and  so  on 
through  the  list  of  attendants.  This  outlay  is,  of 
course,  out    of  all    proportion  to    the   income 


Cattle  Guard. 


derived  from  the  additional  guest  and  has  besides 
the  further  effect  of  increasing  the  relative  cost 
of  operating  the  house;  but  it  is  unavoidable. 
And  so  it  is  in  the  working  of  railroads.  We  will 
suppose  a  passenger  train  is  added  to  the  list  of 
those  already  operated  by  a  company.  Only 
a  small  percentage  of  the  patrons  of  this  new 
train,  we  may  suppose,  is  made  up  of  new  pas- 
sengers. The  traffic  of  the  line  has  simply  re- 
adjusted itself  to  conform  to  the  increased  facili- 
ties afforded  it.     The  convenience  which  the  new 


MAINTENANCE.  233 

train  offers  the  public  may  add  a  few  passengers 
more  or  less,  but  there  has  been  no  marked  addi- 
tion to  the  business  in  consequence  of  it,  and  un- 
til there  is  an  increase  of  traffic  commensurate 
with  the  added  facilities,  the  company  is  a  loser 
by  the  transaction,  for  the  reason  that  under 
the  new  order  of  things  its  train  service  is  per- 
forming only  the  minimum  labor  of  which  it  is 
capable,  while  before  it  performed  the  maximum 
amount. 

The  same  rule  applies  with  equal  force  to 
freight  trains  and  is  noticeable  in  all  depart- 
ments of  the  service. 

At  a  certain  time  in  the  growth  of  a  traffic  the 
outlay  it  induces  is  much  greater  than  the  imme- 
diate income  from  it  justifies.  The  subsequent 
growth  of  business  may  warrant  the  increase,  or 
it  may  not;  in  determining  such  questions,  and 
they  are  of  continual  occurrence  in  the  opera- 
tions of  a  railroad,  the  judgment  of  the  officer 
upon  whom  the  reponsibility  rests  is  sometimes 
colored  and  confused  by  influences  of  a  more  or 
less  personal  nature,  so  that  intelligent  action  is 
not  to  be  expected  in  every  case.  The  average 
sagacity  the  officer  displays  must  be  the  test  of 
his  fitness;  so  far  as  the  writer's  observation  ex- 
tends the  only  definite  means  of  testing  the 
possi])ilities  of  a  company's  traffic  is  to  continue 
to  put  on  trains  as  long  as  they  continue  to  fill 
up,  /.  e.,  to  bring  increased  business. 

There  is  this,  however,  alwa5^s  to  be  remem- 
bered in  connection  with  additions  that  are  made 


284  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

to  the  force  of  a  well  appointed  railway  company 
in  contradistinction  to  a  new  enterprise,  its  disci- 
plined organization  enables  it  to  utilize  the 
cheapest  quality  of  labor  of  the  kind  needed;  an 
impossibility  in  the  other  case.  The  increase  in 
the  number  of  its  operatives  is  not  attended 
with  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  wages  paid, 
its  organization  requiring  an  increase  of  mechan- 
ical force,  not  of  constructive  ability.  The  effect 
of  additions  under  such  circumstances  is,  of 
course,  to  reduce  the  average  cost  of  doing  busi- 
ness, a  consummation  every  manager  labors 
unceasingly  to  accomplish. 

I  have  pointed  out  above  the  influence  certain 
determinate  expenses  have  on  the  relative  cost  of 
labor.  The  effect  is  quite  as  marked  in  other  de- 
partments of  the  service.  Thus  disbursements 
for  interest  and  dividends  are  not  affected  even 
remotely  by  fluctuations  of  business.  This  is 
equally  true  in  many  states  with  local  taxes, 
assessments  being  based  on  the  value  of  the 
property  rather  than  upon  revenue. 

Many  of  the  guarantees  also  which  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  business  compel  a  company  to  enter  into 
are  not  affected  one  way  or  another  by  the 
amount  of  earnings. 

The  amount  paid  for  rent  of  buildings  and 
grounds  is  only  nominally  affected  by  an  increase 
or  decrease  of  earnings.  Any  permanent  decline 
in  a  business  of  course  in  the  end  necessitates  a 
readjustment  of  contracts  and  leases,  but  as  the 
buildings    and  grounds  are  usually  imperative, 


MAINTENANCE.  235 

and  the  agreements  connected  with  them  entered 
into  for  a  series  of  years,  the  expenses  they  entail 
can  not  be  lightly  or  hastily  diminished. 

The  cost  to  a  company  of  keeping  its  fences, 
gates  and  crossings  in  order  is  not  increased  or 
diminished,  perceptibly  at  least,  by  the  bnsiness  it 
does.  The  amonnt  disbursed  for  these  purposes 
is  dependent  upon  other  causes,  over  which  a 
company  has  comparatively  little  control. 

The  expenses  of  keeping  up  the  permanent 
structures  of  a  company  depend  quite  as  much 
upon  natural  influences  as  upon  the  business 
done;  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances 
bridges  and  culverts  will  crumble  to  pieces, 
buildings  will  fall  to  the  ground  or  become 
unfit  for  use,  fences,  gates  and  crossings  will 
succumb  to  merely  climatic  influences,  embank- 
ments and  cuts  will  l^ecome  unsafe,  ditches  will 
become  clogged  or  filled  up,  the  roadbed  will 
become  worthless  for  lack  of  ballast  and  careful 
attention,  and  ties  will  decay,  while  the  rails 
they  support  and  hold  in  place  will  become  unfit 
for  use;  all  these  things  will  be  brought  about 
by  natural  causes  alone,  whether  Imsiness  be 
light  or  heavy,  if  a  constant  stream  of  money, 
proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the  property,  be 
not  poured  out  from  day  to  day. 

The  expenses  of  a  company  depend  largely 
u]oon  the  nature  and  extent  of  renewals;  these 
are  influenced  by  the  length  of  time  the  prop- 
erty has  been  in  operation  and  l)y  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  it  was  originally  constructed. 


286  SCIEI^CE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

At  first  the  expense  will  be  very  light  upon  a 
well  constructed  property,  but  with  the  lapse  of 
time  it  will  steadily  increase,  the  maximum 
being  reached  at  the  point  at  which  the  average 
life  of  durability  of  railroad  property  may  be 
said  to  reach;  this  period  will  vary  in  different 
sections  and  under  different  circumstances,  ac- 
cording to  the  climate,  the  nature  of  material 
used  and  the  amount  of  business  done.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  this  average  should  not 
be  reached  under  eight  years,  the  average  dura- 
bility of  rails,  ties,  spikes,  equipment,  platforms 
and  fences  being  in  that  neighborhood,  while  the 
durability  of  buildings,  permanent  bridges,  cul- 
verts and  similar  property  will  be  longer. 

Generally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  amount  of 
business  done  will  determine  the  duration  of 
the  machinery  employed,  while  the  weight  and 
velocity  of  the  load  will  measurably  determine 
the  duration  of  rails,  ties,  roadbed,  etc. 

Turning  to  another  feature  of  the  case,  the 
machinery  of  railroads,  we  find  that  the  differ- 
ence between  the  wear  and  tear  of  used  and 
unused  machinery  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  it 
would  seem  at  first  glance.  The  expense  of  pre- 
serving unemployed  property  of  this  description 
in  good  order  is  not  noticeably  less,  as  every 
manufacturer  is  aware,  than  the  cost  of  keeping 
it  in  good  condition  when  actively  employed. 

The  subtle  influence  of  idleness  is  as  destruct- 
ive in  this  case  to  man's  work  as  idleness  is  to 
man  himself.    The  machinery  he  constructs  with 


MAINTENANCE.  237 

such  infinite  care  and  labor  requires  the  occu- 
pation and  attention  designed  by  him,  and  with- 
out it  rapidly  deteriorates  in  value  and  useful- 
ness. The  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  haul  the 
minimum  load  is  a  fixed  charge;  and  we  know 
that  the  fuel  consumed  by  a  locomotive  hauling 
thirty  cars  is  not  relatively  as  great  as  when 
hauling  one  third  that  number,  while  all  the 
appurtenances  necessary  to  the  successful  opera- 
tion of  the  train  are  practically  the  same.    The 


Snow  Shed. 


lubricants  used  upon  the  locomotive  are  sub- 
stantially the  same,  whether  the  number  of  cars 
hauled  be  ten  or  thirty.  The  lights  and  furnitlire 
are  the  same.  The  conflagrations  which  the  loco- 
motive causes  are  the  same.  The  accidents  are 
practically  the  same.  The  same  number  of  in- 
cautious people  are  killed  or  injured.  The  same 
number  of  vagrant  cattle  are  run  over  and 
crushed.  The  same  number  of  switches  must  be 
turned  at  meeting  points.  The  wages  of  the 
train  force  are  the  same.    The  telegraphic  orders 


288  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

that  jjass  back  and  forth  between  different  train 
officials  are  the  same.  All  the  varied  expenses 
connected  with  the  nse  of  water  are  practically 
the  same,  from  the  cost  of  the  fuel  used  for 
pumping  to  the  amount  of  alkali  expended  in 
cleaning  the  boilers  of  locomotives. 

As  we  have  stated,  the  expenses  for  keeping  up 
the  organization  of  a  company  are  not  noticeably 
different,  whether  business  is  large  or  small,  pro- 
ductive or  otherwise.  All  the  varied  expenses 
which  the  complicated  laws  require  must  be  met 
without  much  if  any  reference  to  receipts;  bulle- 
tins must  be  exhibited  as  the  law  prescribes; 
tariffs  must  be  promulgated,  agreements  must  be 
made,  notices  of  elections  posted,  trustees  re- 
munerated, traveling  expenses  met,  numerous 
complicated  and  expensive  exhibits  and  returns 
rendered  the  state,  lawyers  employed,  and  such 
insurance  as  the  nature  of  the  property  demands 
duly  provided. 

These  expenses  are  inherent  and  in  nowise  de- 
pendent upon  the  volume  of  business  or  its  pro- 
ductiveness. 

When,  therefore,  we  observe  a  partially  loaded 
train  winding  its  way  across  the  country,  or  re- 
mark a  storehouse  or  yard  filled  with  idle  equip- 
ment, we  must  not  jump  liastily  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  owner  thereof  has  reduced  his  expenses 
so  as  to  make  them  conform  to  the  amount  of 
business  he  is  transacting,  or  that  it  is  possible  or 
practicable  for  him  to  do  so;  on  the  contrary,  we 
may  truthfully  believe  that  the  bulk  of  his  ex- 


MAINTENANCE.  239 

penses  have  not  been  abated  at  all,  being  so  cir- 
cumstanced and  governed  in  their  nature  as  to 
render  any  reduction  impossible. 

And  we  may  properly  remember  the  further 
fact  here  that  the  owners  and  managers  of  a 
property  are  never  disregardful  of  the  circum- 
stance that  profits  arise  out  of  business  carried 
on  after  fixed  expenses  are  met,  and  hence  in  the 
securing  of  such  business  and  in  fostering  its 
growth  they  need  no  spur;  to  them  may  be  safely 
left  the  development  of  the  business  properly 
belonging  to  their  lines,  l)ecause  out  of  it  grows 
their  profit  and  without  it  their  roads  are  worth- 
less. No  one,  therefore,  can  be  so  much  inter- 
ested in  the  situation  and  its  development  as 
they,  nor  so  wise  in  its  proper  and  equitable 
solution. 


Carriage  in  Central  Asia. 


(240) 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

MAINTENANCE — COST    OF    OPERATING     AFFECTED     BY 

FACILITIES. 

Cost  of  operating  is  affected  favorable  or  un- 
favorably accordiug  as  the  facilities  are  ample  or 
otherwise. 

To  enable  a  company  to  secure  the  most  favor- 
able results  possible  it  must  be  able,  for  instance, 
to  carry  forward  its  repairs  and  renewals  at  the 
most  convenient  season  of  the  year  and  must 
possess  the  appliances  best  fitted  to  their 
economical  and  rapid  performance;  in  other 
words,  it  must  be  in  good  condition  financially 
and  must  possess  machinery  amply  fitted  to  its 
wants  and  adequate  to  carry  on  its  work  with 
the  least  outlay  possible. 

The  diff'erences  so  noticeable  in  the  cost  of 
working  railway  properties  are  in  a  measure  at- 
tributable to  differences  in  facilities  enjoyed. 

A  company  that  does  not  make  adequate  pro- 
vision for  transporting  its  traffic  as  it  arrives, 
that  is  not  provided  with  adequate  equipment  for 
doing  its  business,  will  be  compelled  to  suffer 
many  expenses  and  losses  that  might,  under 
different  circumstances,  have  been  avoided.  It 
w^ill  not  be  able  to  perform  the  service  at  the 
opportune  moment,  and  will,  in  consequence,  be 


242  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

put  to  such  additioual  expenses  as  the  delay  en- 
tails. In  addition  to  this  loss,  the  traflBc  that  is 
for  the  moment  without  accommodation  will, 
when  it  can,  seek  other  channels  and  the  revenue 
from  it  will  be  lost.  Thus  current  expense  of 
working  will  be  increased  in  many  cases^  while 
the  loss  of  business  will  swell  the  proportion  of 
operating  expenses  to  revenue. 

A  superabundant  equipment,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  a  source  of  expense  to  its  owner;  its  posses- 
sion involves  an  annual  loss  of  interest  on  cost, 
also  the  current  expense  of  keeping  it  in  order 
and  the  outlay  incident  to  its  care  and  storage. 
In  addition  to  these  simple  and  direct  losses  the 
effort  to  give  it  employment  is  quite  likely  to 
lead  its  owners  into  excesses,  thus  adding  to  cost 
of  maintenance  losses  arising  from  a  more  or 
less  ruinous  competition. 

The  disposition  of  railway  companies,  we  may 
say  in  passing,  to  encroach  upon  the  territory  of 
each  other,  coupled  with  a  belief  inherent  in  the 
breasts  of  those  who  serve  them  that  they  can 
create  business  of  a  profitable  character  by  ex- 
penditures or  concessions,  has  been  the  cause  of 
many  of  the  disasters  that  have  wrecked  railway 
properties. 

What  we  have  said  in  reference  to  the  neces- 
sity of  restricting  the  machinery  and  rolling 
stock  of  a  company  within  necessary  and  proper 
bounds,  applies  equally  to  its  property  as  a  whole. 
While  a  property  must  be  maintained  at  a  point 
commensurate    with  the  wants  of    business,    it 


MAINTENANCE, 


213 


should  end  there.  Contingent  wants  that  may 
perhaps  never  occur  should,  under  no  circum- 
stances, be  anticipated,  but  should  be  left  for  the 
exigency  as  it  arises. 

While  the  owners  of  a  property  must  thus  re- 
strict themselves  in  reference  to  indefinite  wants 
they  will  remember  that  prosperity  ean  not  be 


Water  Tank. 


maintained  without  adequate  accommodation. 
When  wants  are  inadequately  or  improperly  pro- 
vided, revenue  that  should  be  available  for  ex- 
tending or  strengthening  the  property  or  that 
might  be  divided  among  shareholders  will  be  re- 
quired to  meet  current  expenses.  A  company 
thus  unhappily  placed  can  not,  it  is  needless  to 
say,  compete  successfully  with  a  more  alert  rival; 


244  SCIENCE  OF  EAILWAY8; 

it  will  be  avoided  by  people  who  would,  under 
other  circumstances,  give  it  encouragement  and 
support,  while  its  expenses  will  be  swollen  by  the 
usury  that  ever  attends  improvidence. 

There  are  but  few  railway  managers,  it  must 
be  said,  who  do  not  understand  the  importance  of 
keeping  the  property  entrusted  to  them  in  good 
condition.  The  difficulty  is,  and  always  will  be, 
to  make  the  owners  equally  alive  to  the  fact. 
Absorbed  in  the  prospect  of  a  dividend,  secure  in 
the  belief  that  the  management  will  provide  the 
necessary  ways  and  means  for  meeting  improve- 
ments, they  frequently  lack  apprehension  and 
interest.  They  do  not  refuse  to  make  provision 
for  the  company's  wants,  they  simply  ignore  the 
matter.  To  me^t  together  from  time  to  time 
and  authorize  an  expected  dividend,  is  the  con- 
summation of  earthly  bliss  and  responsibility. 
They  listen  with  approval  to  the  remarks  of  the 
chairman,  congratulate  the  manager  upon  his 
energy  and  efficiency  and  disperse,  leaving  him 
to  get  along  as  best  he  can.  Thus  the  wishes  of 
managers  are  often  disregarded  and  their  strength 
wasted.  The  truthfulness  of  this  is  apparent  in 
many  ways;  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  losses 
resulting  therefrom  (when  want  of  action  results 
in  tieing  the  hands  of  the  management)  are 
always  disproportionate  to  the  temporary  saving 
effected 

Innumeralile  instances  might  be  cited,  if  nec- 
essary, to  illustrate  the  necessity  of  a  company 
supplying  itself  with  every  auxiliary  appliance. 


MAINTENANCE.  245 

A  company,  it  may  be  said,  that  does  not  possess 
adequate  tracks,  convenient  sidings  and  sufficient 
yard  room  can  not  handle  its  traffic  with  the 
celerity  and  economy  it  could  if  it  possessed  such 
facilities.  The  company  that  is  able  to  make  its 
track  repairs  and  renewals  at  the  period  of  the 
year  most  advantageous  for  such  work  will  be 
able,  manifestly,  to  do  so  more  economically  and 
effectually  than  its  less  fortunate  neighbor. 

It  is  essential,  above  all  things,  to  the  prosper- 
ity of  a  company,  that  it  should  be  able  to  make 
its  repairs  and  renewals  as  occasions  for  them 
arise ;  an  unsafe  bridge,  an  insecure  culvert,  or  a 
defective  axle  or  car  wheel  may  involve  the  de- 
struction of  a  train  which,  with  the  losses  collat- 
eral to  it,  wall  amount  to  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  dollars,  extending  over  a  long  period  of  years. 
The  losses  that  result  to  a  company  from  acci- 
dents of  this  kind,  whatever  they  may  amount 
to,  can  never  be  known,  even  approximately,  for 
the  reason  that  they  entail  loss  of  confidence  in 
the  safety  of  the  company's  property  and  in  its 
methods  of  business;  thus  to  the  known  losses 
there  must  be  added  the  indirect  losses  occasioned 
by  diversion  of  traffic  and  other  causes. 

It  is  in  details  of  operation,  however,  that 
losses  accruing  from  improvident  management 
are  most  marked;  this  is  especially  apparent  in 
connection  with  the  road  of  a  company;  thus,  a 
worn  and  battered  rail  left  in  the  track  of  a 
busy  line  will  so  disturb  and  rack  the  equipment 
passing  over  it  that  the  cost  of  repairs  to  the 


246 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


OQ  flj  O 

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MAIXTEXANCK  247 

latter  which  it  necessitates  will  many  times 
outweigh  the  value  of  a  new  rail  required  to 
replace  it;  the  same  is  true  of  a  line  imperfectly- 
ballasted,  or  one  where  the  alignment  is  faulty. 

The  cost  to  a  company  of  keeping  its  locomo- 
tives and  machinery  in  good  condition  will 
depend  very  much  upon  the  carefulness  with 
which  they  are  kept  cleaned  and  housed  when 
not  in  use.  The  rolling  stock  that  is  kept  well 
painted  and  in  good  repair  will  not  be  so  expen- 
sive to  maintain  as  the  equipment  that  is 
neglected;  and,  while  present  outlay  for  cleaning, 
housing  and  painting  may  be  a  tax  upon  a  com- 
pany, its  due  observance  can  not  but  result  in 
more  satisfactory  returns  to  owners  than  a  con- 
trary course. 

And  what  we  have  said  in  reference  to  ma- 
chinery and  rolling  stock  applies  to  ever}^  branch 
of  the  service.  The  increased  disbursements,  to 
illustrate,  of  a  company  to  meet  interest  on 
money  expended  for  overhead  bridges  and  via- 
ducts at  busy  points  will,  in  many  cases,  be  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  the  increased  economy 
of  operation  that  will  follow,  in  the  saving  in 
wages  and  other  expenses  at  crossings,  and  in 
freedom  from  accidents  of  all  kinds  and  the  out- 
lay they  involve.* 


*  These  facts  are  well  understood  by  railway  managers,  and 
wherever  the  finances  of  the  companies  will  admit  of  it,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  case  warrant,  the  oflicials  in  ques- 
tion are  as  a  rule  everywhere  busy  correcting  the  mistakes  of 
early  construction. 


248  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

The  wisdom  of  providing  the  best  appliances 
for  conducting  business  is  perceptible  in  reduced 
expenses.  Thus  the  introduction  of  a  new  piece 
of  machinery,  a  copying  press,  a  patent  ink,  a 
new  blank  or  other  contrivance  intended  for 
simplifying  and  cheapening,  frequently  renders  a 
material  reduction  of  the  force  possible,  or  pre- 
vents an  otherwise  inevitable  increase.  Innum- 
erable illustrations  of  this  might  be  cited. 

The  usefulness  and  perpetuity  of  a  plant  is  .in- 
definitely heightened  and  prolonged  by  mainte- 
nance at  a  high  state  of  efficiency;  this  is  par- 
ticularly the    case  with  machinery  a.id    equip- 
ment.    Such  property  should  be  maintained  at 
the  maximum  state  of  efficiency;  the  duration  of 
a  car,  locomotive  or    stationary  engine  may  be 
indefinitely   prolonged   by  prompt    and   careful 
repair  of  the  various  parts  as  it  is  rendered  nec- 
essary, while    neglect  will  hasten  the    general 
breaking  up  of  the  whole  structure.     The  neces- 
sity of    protecting  and  maintaining  a  property 
at    an    adequate    standard  is    well    understood 
by  railway   managers;  they   are,  however,  very 
often  overruled  in  the  matter,  not  l)eing  allowed 
the  funds  necessary  to  carry  out  what  they  know 
to  be  for  the  best  interests  of  the  property,  es- 
pecially when  it  involves  a  reduction  of  dividend. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  shortsightedness 
of  such  a  policy.     A  company  that  does  not  con- 
tinually adjust  its  dividends  to  its  ability  to  pay 
IS  an  unsafe  enterprise  to  invest  in.     The  fixed- 
ness of  dividends  is  admirable,  so   long  as  war- 


MAINTENANCE.  249 

ranted,  so  long  as  surrounded  by  an  adequate 
surplus;  no  longer.  No  one  who  knows  the 
needs  of  these  properties  but  Avill  feel  safer  and 
more  willing  to  buy  the  stock  of  such  a  road. 
Dividends  should  be  governed  by  current  events, 
net  income,  and  present  and  prospective  needs  of 
the  property — never  by  a  tradition  or  formula. 


(250) 


CIIAPTETI    XX. 

MAINTENANCE  —  TAXATION. 

The  questions  attending  the  taxation  of  rail- 
way property  are  most  perplexing.  It  is  hard  to 
conceive  of  a  basis  that  will  not,  under  conditions 
likely  to  occur,  work  hardship  to  either  the  state 
or  the  carrier.  If  the  tax  is  based  upon  realty 
the  difficulty  of  determining  the  valne  thereof  is 
apparent;  if  based  upon  gross  earnings  its  hard- 
ships and  the  temptations  to  abuse  that  it  sug- 
gests are  obvious.  In  fixing  the  tax  it  is  apparent 
that  different  methods  should  be  found  from 
those  in  force  in  the  case  of  private  property,  for 
the  reason  that  railroads  are  surrounded  by  leg- 
islative and  other  restrictions  (not  known  in 
other  cases)  that  in  many  resiDects  greatly  retard 
their  earnings  capacity.  These,  it  is  manifest, 
under  any  just  system  of  taxation,  must  be  care- 
fully considered.  Many  different  methods  of 
taxation  for  railroad  property  are  in  force.  Dif- 
ferences seem  to  be  almost  as  i)revalent  here  as 
in  other  matters  affecting  the  operation  of  rail- 
ways. A  brief  description,  however,  of  the  sys- 
tems of  taxation  pursued  by  a  few  representative 
governments  and  states  will  be  found  interesting. 
And  first  let  us  take  the  Belgian  system.  It 
seems  to  be,  on  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory. 

(1251) 


252  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

The  Belgian  fiscal  system,  as  is  well  known, 
presents  in  many  respects  a  most  satisfactory 
solution  of  questions  of  this  nature.  Under  its 
operation  taxes  are  levied  upon  railroads  on  the 
basis  of  net  earnings.  If  there  are  no  net  earnings 
no  tax  is  paid.  In  other  words,  if  the  owners  of 
a  property  do  not  receive  anything  for  its  use 
they  are  not  asked  to  supplement  their  loss  by 
further  losses.  Taxes  upon  real  or  personal  prop- 
erty are  unknown.  A  small  tax  on  capital 
stock  owned  by  Belgian  citizens  is  exacted.  But 
the  law  does  not  require  holders  to  register  their 
shares.  The  tax,  therefore,  can  be,  and  is,  evaded. 


Rail  Joint. 


Indeed,  the  evasion  is  apparently  designed,  the 
purpose  being  to  make  net  income  the  measure 
of  assessment. 

In  Great  Britain  the  general  tax  on  railway 
property  is  based,  like  that  in  Belgium,  on  net 
earnings.  Following  the  custom,  however,  en- 
forced prior  to  the  introduction  of  railroads,  a 
tax  of  five  per  cent,  is  levied  on  gross  passenger 
earnings;  fares  that  do  not  exceed  a  penny  per 
mile,  maintained  for  the  poorer  classes,  are,  how- 
ever, exempt.  No  direct  tax  is  levied  on  freight, 
express,  mail  or  miscellaneous  earnings,  as  such. 
Taxes  are   based   on   net  annual   profits,  which 


MAINTENANCE.  253 

must  be  paid  before  dividing  the  surplus.  Thus, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  tax  on  a  portion  of  the 
passenger  traflic,  nothing  is  exacted  in  the  event 
there  is  no  surplus  over  and  above  operating  ex- 
penses. It  must  be  remembered,  however,  in 
connection  with  the  English  method  of  taxation, 
that  the  practice  of  mortgaging  railroads,  pur- 
sued in  the  United  States,  is  hardly  known  there. 
The  money  raised  to  build  railroads  in  that 
country  is  largely  based  on  capital  stock;  the 
government  tax  takes  precedence  of  any  divi- 
dend on  this  stock.  It  is  the  same  as  levying  a 
tax  in  the  United  States  on  earnings  before  de- 
ducting the  amount  paid  as  interest  on  bonds  and 
dividends. 

A  committee  of  state  commissioners  appointed 
several  years  ago  to  examine  the  question  of  tax- 
ation, especially  commended  the  English  system, 
but,  in  the  recommendations  they  make  I  am 
unable  to  hnd  anything  that  conforms  to  its 
operation.  The  conclusions  of  the  committee 
seem  to  be  a  tax  on  gross  receipts  without  refer- 
ence to  net  income. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  does  not 
levy  any  tax  upon  railroads.  During  the  period 
of  the  civil  war  (1860-1864),  however,  a  heavy  tax 
was  levied  on  gross  earnings,  but  this  was  in  every 
case  added  specifically  to  the  tariff  rate  by  the 
carrier  so  that  he  acted  simply  as  the  agent  of  the 
government  in  collecting  the  tax  from  the  people. 
A  tax  of  three  per  cent,  (afterward  increased  to 
five)  was  levied  on  disbursements  for  interest  and 


254  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

dividends.'*'  A  stamp  tax  on  the  bank  checks  of 
raih'oads  was  also  levied.  All  these  taxes  were 
considered  to  be  of  an  extraordinary  nature  con- 
sequent upon  the  expenses  of  the  war  and  were 
one  and  all  permitted  to  lapse  with  the  occasion 
that  gave  them  birth. 

The  taxes  levied  by  the  different  states  in  the 
United  States  are  not  relatively  the  same.  Fre- 
quently two  or  more  methods  are  pursued  in  the 
same  state;  the  basis  will  be  different,  the  rate 
paid  different  and  the  method  of  assessment  and 
levy  different.  Each  state  pursues .  a  system, 
partly  its  own,  partly  borrowed.  The  annoyance 
these  differences  occasion  are  aggravated  by  the 
fact  that  the  lines  that  separate  the  states  have 
no  commercial  significance.  Moreover,  the  dif- 
ferences in  taxation  are  so  marked  in  some  cases, 
so  discriminative  in  their  nature,  as  to  influence 
the  cost  of  doing  business  upon  roads  owned  by 
contiguous  and  rival  companies,  to  the  extent  of 
two  or  three  per  cent,  of  their  gross  earnings.f 

To  those  familiar  with  the  subject  it  requires 
no  difficult  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  picture, 

*  The  tax  on  capital  was  usually,  lii  the  case  of  mortgages,  de- 
ducted by  the  companies  from  the  amount  of  the  interest  the 
holders  of  the  bonds  would  otherwise  have  been  entitled  to  re- 
ceive. In  the  case  of  dividends  it  frequently  happened  that  the 
amount  of  the  government  tax  was  deducted  from  the  amount 
that  would  otherwise  have  been  paid  by  the  company;  in  other 
cases,  however,  the  amount  of  the  tax  was  paid  by  the  company 
in  addition  to  the  dividends  declared. 

t  Thus  in  ]Michigan  the  tax  is  two  per  cent,  on  roads  earning 
less  than  84.000  per  mile,  while  in  Wisconsin,  across  the  border, 
the  tax  is  four  per  cent,  on  all  roads  earning  over  §3,000  per  mile. 


MAINTENANCE.  255 

under  such  a  state  of  affairs,  a  line  so  taxed  as  to 
afford  a  company  pursuing  a  different  route,  and 
not  so  heavily  handicapped,  a  margin  on  its  busi- 
ness equivalent  to  a  fair  profit  on  its  invest- 
ment, sufficient,  in  fact,  if  divided  among  its 
patrons,  to  offer  inducements  to  shippers  that 
the  first  named  company  could  not  meet  without 
ruining  it  or  putting  an  undue  strain  upon  its 
resources. 

This  is  discrimination  in  its  most  malevolent 
form. 

When  a  state  discriminates,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case,  betw^een  railways  within  its  own  bor- 
ders, exactly  the  same  results  are  produced;  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  tax  levied  affording 
the  favored  line  a  margin  which  it  may  use  to 
the  ruin  of  its  adversary's  traffic. 

A  description  of  the  different  methods  of  taxa- 
tion in  the  United  States  would  in  itself  fill  a 
volume.  For  the  purpose  of  illustration  the  sys- 
tems in  force  in  a  few  representative  states  may 
be  given. 

In  Wisconsin  taxes  are  based  on  gross  earnings. 
The  tax  is  levied  by  the  state  and  is  payable 
yearly  in  two  equal  installments,  six  months 
apart,  in  the  year  following  that  for  which  the 
tax  is  levied.  Towns  and  cities  are  permitted  to 
levy  a  special  tax  for  the  improvement  of  streets 
within  their  borders  occupied  by  railroads.  The 
Wisconsin  tax  is  based  upon  annual  gross  earn- 
ings per  mile  of  road  operated.  When  the  earn- 
ings exceed  $3,000  per  mile   of  road   a  tax   of 


256  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

four  per  cent,  of  such  gross  earnings  is  levied; 
when  earnings  are  over  $1,500  per  mile  and 
under  $3,000  per  mile,  the  tax  is  two  per  cent,  of 
gross  earnings ;  when  gross  earnings  are  under 
$1,500  per  mile  the  tax  is  five  dollars  per  mile 
of  road.* 

The  advantages  afforded  the  second  and  third 
class  roads,  while  they  may  be  just  and  proper  in 
the  main,  are  capable,  it  is  apparent,  of  being 
used  to  the  serious  detriment  of  lines  paying  a 
higher  rate  of  taxation.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
picture  a  road  of  the  second  or  third  class  that  is 
earning  more  on  its  capital  than  those  having  a 
revenue  of  over  $3,000  per  mile.  Of  course  the 
presumption  is  that  the  low^er  grade  roads  are 
only  able  to  pay  a  small  tax,  but  this  presump- 
tion, while  perhaps  in  the  main  true,  is  not  ten- 
able in  every  case,  and  when  not  true  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  favor  extended,  the  discrimination  in 
its  favor  may  be  used  to  reduce  rates  to  the  seri- 
ous detriment  of  roads  of  a  higher  class.  It  is 
apparent  that  a  road  that  pays  only  $5  per  mile 
annual  tax  is  in  a  condition  to  do  business  at  a 
much  less  rate  than  one  paying  $200  or  more, 

*Ac'cordino;  to  the  operation  of  the  Wisconsin  law  the  tax  on 
a  mile  of  road  earning  §5.000  is  .$200;  on  a  mile  of  road  earning 
§1,500  it  is  §5;  and  on  a  mile  of  road  earning  §500  it  is  also  §5. 
The  decrease  of  percentage  in  favor  of  the  road  earning  §1,500 
per  mile  as  compared  with  a  road  earning  §5.000  per  mile  is  3% 
or  OliVij  per  cent,  of  the  tax  levied  on  the  latter.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  road  earning  §1,500  per  mile  has  an  advantage  over  the 
road  earning  §500  per  mile  of  two-thirds  of  one  per  cent.,  the 
tax  heing  the  same  on  both  roads.  On  a  road  earning  less  than 
§500  per  mile  the  discrepancy  would  be  relativelj'  greater. 


MAINTENANCE.  257 

and  may  use  the  advantage  thus  gained  through 
the  operation  of  the  state  to  undermine  and  de- 
stroy other  properties. 

Michigan  levies  a  tax  of  three  per  cent,  on  gross 
earnings  when  they  exceed  $4,000  per  mile  and  a 
rate  of  two  per  cent,  in  other  cases.  Taxes  are 
levied  for  the  calendar  year  and  must  be  paid  in 
July  succeeding.  The  operation  of  this  tax,  as 
in  Wisconsin,  is  discriminative;  this  discrimina- 
tion amounts  to  one  per  cent,  of  the  gross  earn- 
ings of  second  class  companies.  Michigan  also 
levies  a  tax  of  three  per  cent,  on  receipts  from 
passengers  carried  in  any  palace  or  sleeping  cars, 
or  any  car  for  which  an  extra  price  is  paid;  also 
a  tax  of  two  per  cent,  on  gross  receipts  derived 
from  the  leasing  or  hiring  of  cars  by  fast  freight 
and  other  lines.  Railroads  incorporated  before 
1850  are  subject  to  an  annual  tax  of  three-fourths 
of  one  per  cent,  on  their  capital  stock  and  loans 
used  in  construction.  Lands  owned  by  a  com- 
pany in  Michigan,  but  not  required  in  connection 
with  the  operation  or  maintenance  of  its  road, 
are  treated  in  all  respects  as  if  owned  by  private 
individuals. 

In  Minnesota  the  tax  is  based  on  gross  earn- 
ings; but  the  iDractice  is  not  uniform;  railroad 
companies  organized  under  certain  charters  may 
pay,  in  lieu  of  all  other  taxes,  one  per  cent,  of 
their  gross  earnings  for  the  first  three  years,  two 
per  cent,  for  the  next  seven  years  and  three  per 
cent,  thereafter,  or  they  may  accept  the  provisions 
of  the  general  law  applicable  to  all  property. 

17 


258  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

Iowa  fixes  the  valuation  of  railroad  property 
^vithout  the  intervention  of  local  assessors,  by 
a  state  board,  consisting  of  the  governor,  secre- 
tary of  state,  auditor  and  treasurer;  the 
assessment  is  also  made  by  this  l)oard. 
The  tax  is  fixed  arbitrarily  at  a  certain 
amount  per  mile  of  road.  The  amount 
assessed  is  apportioned  by  the  l)oard  to 
the  various  taxing  districts  through 
which  the  line  runs,  upon  the  basis  of 
the  relation  that  the  mileage  of  the  road 
in  such  districts  bears  to  the  total  mile- 
age. Under  this  method  of  taxation 
Spike.  |.|^g  relative  value  of  the  property  in  the 
various  taxing  districts,  it  will  be  seen,  does  not 
affect  the  amount  allowed  them  liy  the  state 
board,  the  basis  being  the  numl:)er  of  miles  of 
main  track.  The  tax  thus  assessed  and  paid  to 
the  local  authorities  along  the  line  includes  real 
and  personal  property  of  every  description,  but 
does  not  prevent  taxation  for  special  improve- 
ments by  cities  and  towns.* 

Illinois  has  a  more  complicated  system  of  tax- 
ation than  any  we  have  noticed.  Taxes  are 
based  directly  on  the  value  of  the  property.  The 
assessment  is  made  partly  by  a  state  board  of 
equalization  (elected  by  the  people)  and  partly  by 
the    local    authorities.    Taxes   are   paid  to  the 


*  In  Iowa  the  holder  of  the  securities  of  a  railroad  company 
located  within  the  state  is  taxed  on  such  securities  the  same  as 
on  other  personal  property,  although  the  railroad  has  already 
been  taxed  on  its  full  value. 


MAINTENANCE.  259 

treasurers  of  the  various  counties.  The  value  of 
the  property  in  the  various  taxing  districts, 
coming  within  the  cognizance  of  the  state  board, 
is  certified  to  such  board  by  the  local  authorities. 
The  state  board  then  fixes  the  value  upon  which 
the  assessment  shall  be  made.  A  railroad  in 
Illinois  is  understood  to  include  the  right  of  way, 
tracks  and  other  improvements  thereon.  The 
value  of  the  rolling  stock  is  determined  by  the 
state  board  and  apportioned  to  the  local  taxing 
districts  on  the  basis  that  the  mileage  in  such 
districts  bears  to  the  total  mileage.  Real  and 
personal  property  not  included  in  the  assessment 
referred  to  above,  such  as  wdiarves,  shop  grounds, 
supply  depots,  storage  houses  and  the  contents 
thereof,  including  furniture,  tools,  machinery  and 
fuel,  are  assessed  directly  by  the  local  authorities. 
Moreover,  if  the  funded  debt  of  a  company  and 
the  market  value  of  its  shares  exceed  the  value 
of  the  real  and  personal  property  ascertained  in 
the  manner  described,  the  company  may  be 
taxed  for  such  excess.  This  latter  may  be  called 
a  capital  tax. 

California  taxes  the  credits,  bonds,  stocks,  dues 
and  franchises  of  railroads.  A  state  board  of 
equalization,  also  county  boards,  are  provided 
for.  The  state  board  assesses  the  franchise,  road- 
way, roadbed,  rails  and  rolling  stock  of  lines 
running  through  more  than  one  county,  at 
their  actual  value,  and  apportions  the  tax  to 
each  county  and  municipality  in  proportion 
to  length  of    road  therein.    Other  property  is 


260  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

assessed  in  and  apportioned  to  the  place  in 
which  located. 

Massachusetts  taxes  the  railroads  on  the  basis 
of  the  market  value  of  the  capital  shares  on  the 
first  of  May  preceding  the  assessment.  The  rate 
is  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  whole  amount 
to  be  raised  by  property  taxes  in  the  state  during 
the  year.  Railroads  are  taxed  locally  on  the 
assessed  valuation  of  real  estate  and  machinery, 
but  the  amount  of  this  tax  is  deducted  from  the 
capital  stock  tax  described  above. 

Such  are  the  methods  of  taxation  pursued  by 
the  states  named.  Further  inquiry  into  the  dif- 
ferent systems  would  prove  interesting,  but  the 
illustrations  given  are  sufficient  to  explain  the 
general  methods  in  vogue.  It  is  observable  that 
the  manner  of  applying  the  tax  is  never  exactly 
the  same  in  any  two  cases.  The  systems  differ 
in  detail,  and  many  of  them  in  principle.  None 
affords  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question. 
It  is  possible  that  no  such  solution  is  attainable. 
To  be  entirely  satisfactory  the  method  must  take 
cognizance  of  the  local  environment  of  each  com- 
pany, must  be  entirely  equitable  in  its  application, 
and  honestly  enforced.  These  are  things  hardly 
to  be  expected,  because  they  presuppose  a  perfect 
enlightenment  and  unselfishness.  We  should 
not,  however,  cease  to  strive  to  attain  this  stand- 
ard, because  to  do  so  would  be  to  acquiesce  in 
imperfection  and  wrong  and  lessen  the  zeal  of 
those  whose  duty  it  is  to  devise  more  perfect 
methods.    The  more  fair  and  enlightened  among 


MAINTENANCE.  261 

the  officials  of  the  various  state  governments 
appreciate  heartily  the  inequalities  and  objec- 
tions to  the  systems  of  taxation  they  enforce. 
This  feeling  found  expression  a  few  years  ago  in 
the  appointment  of  a  board  of  state  railroad 
commissioners  to  examine  fully  into  the  subject. 
This  committee  recommended  a  tax  on  gross 
earnings  as  the  best  attainable  basis,  supple- 
mented by  a  tax  on  realty.  In  its  report  it  said: 
"The  conclusion  at  which  your  committee 
arrived  was  that  all  the  requisites  of  a  sound  sys- 
tem were  found  in  taxes  on  real  property  and  on 
gross  receipts,  and  in  no  others — in  fact,  that 
when  these  were  properly  imposed,  no  other  taxes 
would  or  could  be  necessary,  as  nothing  would 
escape  untaxed.  Under  this  system  the  real 
estate  of  the  railroad  corporations,  held  for  cor- 
porate use  outside  of  their  right  of  way,  would 
be  locally  assessed,  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  the 
real  estate  of  private  persons  or  of  other  corpora- 
tions adjoining  it  was  assessed.  There  would  be  no 
distinction  made  in  regard  to  it.  It  is  the  ordinary 
tax  on  real  property.  Beyond  that  a  certain 
fixed  percentage,  established  by  law  and  of  gen- 
eral application,  should  be  assessed  on  the  entire 
gross  earnings  of  the  corporations,  and  this 
should  be  in  lieu  of  all  forms  of  taxation  on  what 
is  known  as  personal  property.  Under  this  sys- 
tem the  rolling  stock  of  the  corporation  would 
not  be  assessable;  nor  its  securities,  whether 
stock  or  bonds,  either  indirectly  through  the  cor- 
poration or  directly  in  the  hands  of  those  own- 
ing them.  The  entire  burden,  be  the  same  more 
or  less,  would  be  imposed  in  one  lump  on  the 
corporation  and  levied  directly.      It  does  not 


262  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

need  to  be  pointed  out  that  this  system  is  per- 
fectly simple;  that  under  it  taxation  is  fixed  l)y  a 
general  law  and  not  by  local  valuations;  that  it 
is  thoroughly  proportionate,  inasmuch  as  the 
amount  levied  depends  on  the  volume  of  gross 
receipts;  finally,  it  can  be  ascertained  by  anyone, 
and  can  by  no  possibility  be  evaded." 

Let  us  examine  for  a  moment  the  method  they 
suggest,  and,  as  they  have  themselves  pointed 
out  its  merits,  we  may,  without  unfairness,  con- 
fine our  examination  to  its  objectionable  fea- 
tures. 

And  first  of  all  it  is  apparent  that  the  property 
outside  the  right  of  way  would  be  doubly  taxed 
for  the  reason  that  earnings  are  based  on  total 
cost;  a  tax  levied  on  property  outside  the  right 
of  way  would  therefore  be  supplemental  to  the 
tax  on  gross  earnings.  A  tax  levied  on  earnings 
covers  every  species  of  property  so  far  as  such 
property  is  necessary  or  contributes  in  any  way 
to  earnings.  The  fatal  objection  to  this  basis 
seems  to  be  in  supposing  that  property  outside 
the  right  of  way  does  not  in  any  manner  con- 
tribute to  the  earnings  powder  of  a  road.  Might 
we  not  with  equal  reason  say  that  the  brain  is 
not  a  part  of  the  man;  that  he  is  made  up  wholly 
of  legs  and  arms? 

A  system,  moreover,  which  permits  a  company 
to  be  taxed  by  the  state  authorities  and  also  by 
the  various  districts  through  which  it  runs,  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  invites  in  its  operation 
measures  of  the  most  objectionable  and  oppress- 
ive character. 


MAINTENANCE.  2G8 

The  ra.te  of  taxation  under  the  proposed  law  is 
varial)le;  if  earnin^i^s  exceeded  a  certain  amount 
per  mile,  to  be  hxed  by  law,  then  a  certain  rate 
is  to  be  enforced;  if  the  earnings  do  not  exceed 
this  amount,  then  a  different  rate  intervenes. 
The  distinction  contemplated  in  favor  of  compa- 
nies whose  gross  earnings  reach  only  the  mini- 
mum sum  is  ol)jectionable,  as  already  pointed 
out. 

The  operation  of  a  tax  based  on  gross  receipts 
without  reference  to  the  cost  of  a  property  or 
the  expense  of  operating  is  objectionable,  as 
its  effect  is  to  confiscate  its  net  revenue  in  many 
cases.  A  tax  on  gross  earnings  does  not  recog- 
nize the  equities  of  finances  or  the  nice  dis- 
tinctions of  business,  —  the  difference  between 
a  profitable  and  an  unprofitable  business.  If  the 
amount  of  capital  invested  in  different 
roads  or  different  parts  of  the  same  road 
were  the  same,  the  cost  of  maintenance 
the  same,  the  amount  of  business  the 
same,  the  cost  of  operating  the  same,  and 
if  there  was  a  uniformly  sufficient  margin 
of  profit  after  deducting  expenses  of 
maintenance  and  operating,  then  a  tax 
on  gross  earnings  would  not  be  objec- 
tionable. But  unfortunately  these  con- 
ditions do  not  exist  in  a  single  instance.  ^'^^^^' 
The  cost  is  never  the  same  for  different  roads, 
and  for  the  same  road  one  portion  will  cost 
more  than  another.  The  expensive  part,  how- 
ever,   is    as  necessary    to    the    system  as    the 


264  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

other.  But  while  gross  earnings  amounting  to 
$1,500  per  mile  may  afford  a  fair  margin  of 
profit  on  the  cheaper  line,  earnings  amounting  to 
$10,000  per  mile  might  be  insufficient  on  a  more 
expensive  portion.  A  tax  levied  on  gross  earn- 
ings does  not  recognize  the  nice  distinctions 
between  these  widely  different  classes  of  prop- 
erty, and  in  so  far  as  it  fails  to  do  this  is  objec- 
tionable. 

Discrimination  between  railroads  through  the 
levy  of  a  different  rate  of  taxes  on  their  gross 
earnings  respectively  is  in  the  nature  of  a  subsidy 
granted  to  one  enterprise  and  denied  to  its  neigh- 
bor. The  subsidy  is  allowed  without  reference 
to  relative  net  receipts,  and  is,  therefore,  in 
many  cases  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  fund 
which  the  receiving  company  may  retain  at 
pleasure,  or  may  use  in  the  procurement  of 
business  to  the  ruin  or  serious  detriment  of  its 
rivals.  In  Michigan  this  prospective  rebate 
amounts,  as  we  have  show^n,  to  one  per  cent,  of 
gross  receipts.  In  Wisconsin  it  exceeds  three 
per  cent,  in   some   cases. 

A  tax  based  on  gross  earnings  is  objectionable 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  even  if 
applied  uniformly  to  all  companies  without 
reference  to  the  amount  they  earn.  The  direct- 
ness and  simplicity  of  assessment  and  levy  un- 
der such  a  system  invites  the  constant  interfer- 
ence of  legislators  and  others.  Its  processes  are 
too  easy,  too  simple. 

That  is  one  of  its  chief  defects. 


MAINTENAXCE.  265 

If  taxation  were  a  blessing  to  be  encouraged 
by  the  people,  then  the  case  would  be  different. 
Unfortunately,  howevei-,  it  is  the  reverse  of  this, 
and  one  of  the  chief  concerns  of  mankind  is 
to  restrict  by  every  means  in  its  power  the 
amount  of  the  annual  tax  levy. 

Under  the  system  of  assessing  gross  earnings 
legislators,  ambitious  of  cheap  renown,  would 
see  in  the  addition  of  a  slight  per  cent,  to  the 
tax  on  railroads  an  easy  way  to  relieve  their 
immediate  and  more  pressing  constituents  with- 
out risk  or  loss  of  local  popularity;  and  thus 
difficulties  brought  about  by  the  weaknesses  of 
legislators  would  be  forever  fastened  upon  the 
railway  interest.  Or,  in  the  absence  of  any  in- 
citing cause,  the  burdens  of  the  community 
would  be  placed  upon  the  railroads  simply  be- 
cause they  represented  a  small  and  unpopular 
minority,  the  process  for  fixing  the  tax  upon  them 
being  simple  and  unmistakably  certain  in  its 
results.*    The  community  thus  apparently  re- 

*"In  certain  states  railroads  are  apparently  looked  upon  as  a 
species  of  windfall  from  which  everythino^  that  can  be  exacted  in 
the  way  of  taxation  is  so  much  pure  gain/" — Report  of  Conv- 
mittpp  of  State  Railroad  Commissioners  on  Taxation;  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Convention  of  Railroad  Commissioners,  page  i7,  A. 
This  disposition  would  only  be  aggravated,  we  may  believe,  by 
simplifying,  on  the  basis  proposed,  the  processes  whereby  the 
railroad  (companies  may  be  harassed  by  the  states  in  question. 
In  such  localities  our  efforts  should  be  directed  to  rendering  it 
ditlicult.  if  not  impossible,  for  the  ignorant  and  vicious  to  make 
a  football  of  the  railway  interest.  Surely  we  would  not  be 
accomplishing  this  by  the  adoption  of  gross  earnings,  so  easily 
ascertained,  so  generally  known  as  a  basis  of  taxation.  That 
would  be  to  invite  the  very  evil  we  deprecate. 


266  SCIEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

lieved  of  its  burdens  would  cease  to  exercise  that 
supervision  over  the  acts  of  its  servants  which 
is  so  necessarj^  to  good  government  and  with- 
out which  good  government  is  impossible.  Only 
one  termination  to  such  a  state  of  affairs  could 
be  possible.  A  tax  on  gross  earnings  is  also 
objectionable  on  other  accounts.  If  the  business 
of  a  company  were  unprofitable  the  greater 
the  amount  of  business  the  greater  the  burden. 
We  can  easily  conceive  of  circumstances  en- 
gendered by  active  competition,  depression  of 
trade  or  the  restrictive  laws  under  which  rail- 
roads are  operated,  whereby  the  profitableness  of 
a  company's  traffic  might  be  destroyed;  where  it 
might  have  large  gross  earnings  but  no  net 
revenue  at  all.  The  additional  Inirden  of  a  tax 
on  gross  receipts  under  such  circumstances  would 
greatly  accelerate  its  road  to  bankruptcy.  When- 
ever the  business  of  a  railroad  is  barely  profit- 
able, a  tax  based  on  gross  earnings  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  prohil)itory  enactment,  forbidding  its 
further  continuance.  Taxation  based  on  gross 
earnings  is  objectionable  l^ecause  it  discriminates; 
because  it  takes  no  account  of  the  cost  of  prop- 
erties or  their  real  earnings,  namely,  their  sur- 
plus after  paying  expenses.  There  are  other 
objectionable  features  that  we  can  not  stop  here 
to  notice.  It  seems  apparent,  therefore,  that 
wherever  taxes  are  based  on  gross  earnings  the 
amount  of  such  taxes  should  be  added  specifically 
in  each  case  to  the  tariff  rate.  In  no  other  way 
can  the  baneful  eff'ects  that  are  likely  to  follow 


MAINTENAXCE.  2G7 

siich  a  S3\stein  of  taxation  be  obviated.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  tax  based  on  cajDital  stock  or  bonded 
debt  is  even  more  objectionable  than  a  tax  on 
gross  earnings.  However,  it  has  few  advocates 
and  we  may  dismiss  it  without  further  consider- 
ation. While  apparently  correct  in  its  conclusions 
in  many  ways  it  is,  like  a  tax  on  gross  earnings, 
fallacious  in  application  and  unjust  in  operation. 

Taxation  based  on  real  and  personal  property, 
the  assessment,  as  in  the  case  of  individuals, 
being  made  by  persons  on  the  ground  and  famil- 
iar with  local  values,  seems  to  be  the  least  ob- 
jectionalile  of  all  the  methods  that  have  been 
tried.  Such  a  tax  does  not  invite  class  legisla- 
tion to  the  extent  that  a  tax  on  gross  earnings 
or  capital  shares  does.  Valuations  are  real, 
being  based  on  the  condition  of  the  property 
situated  in  the  various  taxing  districts.  The  tax 
on  gross  earnings  and  capital  is  based,  in  many 
instances,  upon  merely  nominal  values.  The 
realty  tax  is  more  houafide  and  permits,  more- 
over, of  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  an  equita- 
ble conscience.  The  objections  to  it  are  that 
assessments  are  not  always  made  by  persons 
competent  to  determine  the  true  value  of  the 
property.  The  justness  of  such  an  objection 
can  not  be  disputed  or  answered,  but  it  may, 
with  equally  good  reason,  be  made  against  our 
whole  system  of  taxation,  and  is  as  marked  in 
the  case  of  individuals  as  of  corporations. 

A  more  serious  objection  to  the  realty  tax  is 
that  it  fails  to  take  cognizance  of  the  profitable- 


268 


SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 


ness  of  the  companies'  earnings,  the  tax  being 
the  same  whether  the  enterprise  is  productive  or 
otherwise.  This  objection  is  fatal.  80  long  as 
the  state  claims  the  right  to  hx  the  rates  rail- 
roads shall  charge  or  otherwise  restrict  their 
operations,  it  is  bound  to  ascertain  the  effect  of 
its  action  before  determining  the  responsibility 
of  the  carrier  as  a  tax  payer.  If  the  state  exer- 
cises the  right  to  circumscribe  the  earnings  of  a 
property  it  must  circumscribe  in  like  manner 
the  taxes  it  imposes.  The  duties  of  sovereignty 
are  not  simply  coercive  in  the  case  of  corpora- 
tions— they  are  protective  as  well,  or  should  be. 
When  a  government,  by  direct  or 
incidental  action,  reduces  the  in- 
come of  a  property,  the  amount  of 
that  reduction  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
tax  and  the  effect  must  be  fully  con- 
sidered before  proceeding  to  impose 
an  additional  burden.  The  essence 
of  railway  property,  as  of  all  other 
productive  property,  is  its  net  earn- 
ings. For  this  railroads  are  built; 
for  this  they  are  operated ;  this  is  the 
Mecca  of  owners;  here  we  discover 
the  true  basis  of  taxation  for  this 
Action  of  Spike  dcscription  of  property.  Railways 
°°  '^^^'  are  the  slaves  of  the  state,  dependent 
upon  it  for  their  income ;  they  require,  therefore, 
special  and  exceptional  consideration  at  its 
hands.  If  the  state  restricts  their  earnings  it 
must  not  impose  burdens  inconsistent  therewith. 


MAINTENANCE.  269 

And  herein  lies  the  unanswerable  objection  to 
any  method  of  taxation  of  railway  property  not 
based  on  net  earnings.  So  long  as  the  state 
restricts  railways  in  their  operations  the  amount 
the  property  yields  its  owners  must  be  the 
gauge  of  the  latter's  responsibility.  The  various 
systems  of  taxation  that  our  states  pursue 
do  not  make  this  just  and  necessary  distinc- 
tion. Whatever  surplus  remains,  if  any,  after 
paying  working  expenses,  is  properly  subject  to 
taxation.  In  all  matters  relating  to  the  worth 
of  railroads,  the  estimates  of  investors  are  pre- 
dicated upon  net  earnings,  for  the  reason  that 
railroad  property,  outside  its  uses  for  railroad 
purposes,  has  no  value.  This  suggests  the  only 
true  method  of  railway  taxation.  If  a  railway 
earns  nothing,  then  the  public  which  has  enjoyed 
the  benefits  it  confers  without  rewarding  its 
owners  should  not  make  further  claim  upon  it.* 
If  the  net  earnings  have  been  meagre,  then  the 
tax  gatherer's  portion  should  be  correspondingly 
meagre.  If  the  net  receipts  have  been  fair,  then 
a  fair  proportion  should  be  allotted  the  people  for 

*  It  may  be  said,  perhaps,  that  this  rule,  if  applied  to  rail- 
roads should  also  be  applied  to  individual  cases.  Under 
exactly  similar  circumstances,  yes;  not  otherwise.  Many  of  the 
industries  of  our  citizens  are  especially  protected  by  a  tariff 
designed  largely  for  that  purpose,  and  in  those  cases  where  pro- 
tection is  not  extended  the  individual  is  left  free  to  derive  from 
his  business,  trade  or  calling  such  profit  as  his  experience,  fore- 
sight and  capital  render  possible.  The  railroad  companies,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  already  stated,  are  hampered  by  special  laws 
and  in  many  cases  their  income  expressly  limited  by  legislative 
enactment. 


270  HCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

the  support  and  protection  awarded.  If  the 
earnings  have  been  bountiful,  then  the  tax  may 
correspond  in  amount.*  Herein  I  conceive  to 
lie  the  true  principles  upon  which  the  method  of 
taxing  railroad  property  should  be  based.  Under 
so  benificent  a  system  the  community  of  interest 
as  between  the  state  and  its  servant,  the  railroad 
company,  would  in  this  respect  at  least  be  com- 
plete. Under  so  benign  a  system  the  state  would 
be  concerned  in  fostering  the  interests  centered 
in  railroads  rather  than  in  harassing  them.  This 
direct  and  personal  concern  upon  the  part  of  our 
states  is  lacking;  they  levy  taxes  without  refer- 
ence to  the  ability  of  the  company  to  pay,  after 
having  fixed,  without  reference  to  the  subject 
of  taxation,  the  rate  of  compensation  it  shall 
exact  for  its  service.  During  the  time  rail- 
ways are  being  constructed  and  l3efore  they 
are  opened  for  business  the  method  now  gener- 
ally in  vogue  for  taxing  private  parties  seems 
to  be  in  every  respect  right  and  proper.  But 
whatever  the  method  of  taxation,  whether 
before  or  after  completion,  whether  based  on 
property,  shares,  bonds,  gross  receipts  or  net 
earnings,  such  tax,  when  levied,  should  be  final 
and  in  lieu  of  all  other  assessments  whatsoever. 
Very  little  has  been  written  or  said  in  regard 
to    railway    taxation    that    has    been    printed. 


*Uncler  a  niethod  of  taxation  such  as  is  here  suggested  a 
company  owning  in-operty  not  required  by  it  in  tlie  operation 
or  maintenance  of  its  roads,  would  be  taxed  as  in  Michigan,  tlie 
same  as  private  individuals. 


MAINTENANCE.  271 

Sources  of  information  in  this  direction  are, 
therefore,  very  meagre.  Mr,  C.  C.  Harvey,*  who 
has  given  the  subject  considerable  thought,  in  an 
article  on  railway  taxation,  submitted  to  the 
Association  of  American  Railway  Accounting 
Officers,  says  as  follows: 

"In  Ohio  the  county  auditors  constitute  a 
board  of  appraisers  and  assessors  and  report 
annually  to  the  Auditor  of  State  for  the  use  of 
the  State  Board  of  Equalization  of  Railroad 
Property,  the  amount  assessed  against  each  rail- 
road, specifying  the  total  sum  and  the  amount 
distributed  to  each  county,  city,  incorporated 
town,  township  and  village.  In  addition  to  the 
tax  paid  thereon,  there  is  a  privilege  tax  of  one 
dollar  per  mile  charged  l)y  the  state  for  each 
mile  of  main  track  and  siding. 

"In  Kentucky  the  railroad  commissioners  (three 
in  number)  constitute  the  board  of  assessors  and 
equalization,  the  valuations  found  by  them  being 
used  for  state  purposes  and  also  for  each  city, 
town,  county  and  tax  district. 

"In  Tennessee  three  railroad  assessors  appointed 
by  the  governor  assess  the  distributable  prop- 
erty, /.  e.,  the  roadbed,  rolling  stock  and  personal 
property  having  no  actual  situs,  every  two  years 
for  state  and  municipal  taxation,  deducting  from 
the  valuation  $1,000  before  apportioning  the 
amount  per  mile  to  each  county,  town  and  dis- 
trict. All  other  property,  real,  personal  and  mixed, 
including  depot  buildings,  yards,  etc.,  is  assessed 
by  county  assessors  and  by  the  assessors  of  mu- 
nicipal corporations,  who,  however,  submit  the 

*Yice  President  and  Comptroller  of  the  Cincinnati,  New 
Orleans  &  Texas  Pacilic  IJaihvay. 


272  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

returns  to  the  state  railroad  assessors.  The  gov- 
ernor, secretary  of  state  and  treasurer  of  state 
constitute  a  board  of  examiners  upon  the  valua- 
tions found  upon  the  distributable  property,  and 
their  action  thereon  is  final.  It  is  provided  that 
the  assessors  in  making  their  valuations  of  dis- 
tributable property  shall  have  in  view  and  look 
to  the  capital  stock,  property  and  franchises  of 
each  company  as  well  as  the  gross  receipts,  the 
individual  stock  of  each  shareholder,  and  the 
schedules  filed.  The  local  property  (depots, 
shops,  yards,  material,  etc.)  is  assessed  like  other 
taxable  property  by  county  and  municipal  assess- 
ors upon  the  basis  of  the  marketable  value  of  the 
property.  The  assessment  can  be  reviewed  at 
the  instance  of  either  party  before  an  equaliza- 
tion board  and  the  assessments  altered  as  the 
facts  may  warrant. 

"In  Georgia  the  comptroller  general  passes  upon 
the  returns  made  by  the  railroad  companies, 
and,  if  dissatisfied  with  the  same,  reports  to  the 
governor,  who  shall  then  appoint  three  competent 
and  disinterested  persons  to  examine  and  assess 
the  property.  If  the  railroad  company  is  dissat- 
isfied, the  state  permits  the  question  to  be  de- 
cided by  arbitrators,  one  to  be  chosen  by  the 
state  and  one  by  the  railroad  company.  The  law 
provides  that  the  property  shall  be  valued,  as 
far  as  may  be  practicable,  to  be  taxed  as  other 
property  of  the  people  of  the  state. 

"In  Alabama  the  governor,  secretary  of  state, 
treasurer  and  auditor  of  state  constitute  a  board 
of  assessment  and  the  valuation  found  by 
them  must  be  taken  by  the  county  assessors. 
Eeal  estate,  fixtures,  etc.,  are,  however,  assessed 
as  other  property  owned  by    private    citizens. 


MAIX7'EXA\CE. 


273 


The  law  provides  that  the  vahiation  of  railroad 
property  shall  be  made  upon  the  same  principles 
as  the  valuation  of  other  species  of  ])roperty, 
namely,  what  it  would  sell  for  under  the  condi- 
tions under  which  that  character  of  property  is 
most  usually  sold.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary 
tax,  a  privilege  tax  of  one-tenth  of 
one  per  cent,  is  charged  by  the  state. 
"  In  Mississippi,  the  auditor  of  pub- 
lic accounts,  treasurer  and  secretary 
of  state  form  the  board  of  assessors, 
the  valuations  found  by  them  per 
mile  being  valuations  to  be  used  for 
state  and  county  purposes  and  incor- 
porate towns;  but  the  local  property 
of  any  railroad  in  any  city  or  incor- 
porated town  may  be  taxed  to  the 
extent  allowed  by  law  upon  a  valua- 
tion made  upon  the  same  basis  as 
the  property  of  individuals.  In  lieu 
of  this  plan  as  to  state  and  county  taxes,  a  priv- 
ilege tax  ranging  up  to  $125  per  mile  of  main 
track  is  fixed,  two-thirds  of  the  amount  being 
placed  by  the  state  to  the  credit  of  the  counties, 
and  in  some  cases  cities  and  towns  are  allowed 
to  impose  a  privilege  tax  equal  to  one-half  that 
levied  by  the  state  in  lieu  of  the  ad  valorem 
tax. 

"In  Louisiana  the  police  jury  of  each  parish  is 
required  to  elect  one  of  their  number  or  some 
other  property  tax  payer  of  the  parish  to  act  as 
a  board  of  assessors  on  the  assessment  of  railroads 
passing  through  the  parish;  the  assessment, 
which  shall  be  uniform,  found  by  them,  is  re- 
ported to  the  assessors  of  the  different  parishes 
and  is  to  be  final  unless  changed  by  suit  for  re- 


Track  Bolt. 


18 


274  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

duction,  said  suit  to  be  filed  and  conducted  in  the 
parisli  in  which  the  president  of  the  ])oard  may 
live.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  Mississippi  the 
railways  may  pay  a  privilege  tax  per  mile  of 
main  track  in  lieu  of  the  state  and  county 
taxes.  This  system  of  so-called  'privilege' tax 
is  in  vogue  in  other  states. 

"In  Wisconsin  a  tax  on  gross  earnings  is  levied 
in  lieu  of  other  taxes,  the  rate  being  four  per 
cent,  on  roads  earning  $3,000  per  mile  or  over; 
$5  per  mile  and  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  earning  in  excess  of  $1,500  per  mile 
upon  roads  earning  less  than  $3,000  per  mile  and 
more  than  $1,500  per  mile. 

"Maryland,  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Vermont  and 
other  states  also  tax  gross  earnings.  The  valua- 
tion per  mile  of  road  placed  upon  railroad 
property  for  taxation  purposes  also  differs  very 
materially  in  different  states;  for  example,  the 
assessed  value  per  mile  of  road  in  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  is  about  double  the  assessed 
value  in  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois.  In  like  man- 
ner the  percentage  that  taxes  bear  to  gross  earn- 
ings varies  very  much  in  different  states  and  for 
different  railways. 

"As  to  the  basis  upon  which  railways  should  be 
taxed,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  the 
rules  governing  the  assessment  of  other  than 
railway  property  should  not  apply  also  to  rail- 
ways; the  valuation  of  the  distributable  property 
per  mile  of  road,  however,  should  be  uniform  in 
each  state,  as  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  railway 
depends  upon  its  integral  feature,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  correctly  assess  the  road  separately  by 
tax  districts;  it  should  be  valued  as  a  wdiole  and 
not  as  a  collection  of  separate  properties.    The 


I 


MAINTENANCE.  275 

claim  that  because  railwa3^s  are  monopolies,  quasi 
public  in  cliaracter,  the.y  should  in  common  with 
similar  monopolies  be  subjected  to  greater  bur- 
dens, is  not  founded  upon  justice.  Unless  there 
is  an  agreement  as  to  special  taxation,  a  railway 
company  has  the  right  to  expect  equal  treatment 
with  other  property.  Railways  are  subjected  to 
governmental  regulations  of  no  ordinary  nature; 
in  addition  to  the  control  exercised  by  the  inter- 
state commerce  commission,  which  affects  their 
revenue  and  entails  heavy  expenses  upon  them, 
many  states  see  proper  to  recluce  railway  rates, 
and,  by  various  regulations,  by  demands  for  al- 
leged improvements  to  rolling  stock  and  for 
special  station  accommodations,  greatly  increase 
the  operating  expenses.  They  thus  reduce  the 
resources  of  the  railway  companies  and  certainly 
should  not,  in  addition,  demand  special  taxes 
from  them. 

"The  question  is  frequently  asked.  How  is  the 
taxable  value  of  a  railroad  to  be  ascertained?  I 
am  of  the  opinion  that  net  revenue  (the  differ- 
ence between  gross  earnings  and  operating  ex- 
penses) should  be  the  chief  factor  to  determine 
the  value;  gross  earnings  may  be  large,  but  the 
value  of  the  property  will  mainly  depend  upon 
the  net  earnings,  which  will  be  all  that  can  be  re- 
lied upon  to  compensate  the  owners  for  the 
money  invested.  Capital  looks  for  a  return 
upon  its  outlay  and  will  not,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, invest  in  property  that  will  not  pay 
a  dividend  upon  the  investment,  and,  however 
large  an  amount  a  road  may  have  cost,  or  how- 
ever great  its  earnings,  the  property  can  not  be 
expected  to  luring  in  the  open  market  more  than 
it  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  pay  a  dividend 


276  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

upon.  The  character  also  of  the  roadbed  and  the 
condition  of  the  track  will  be  reflected,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  in  the  net  revenue  of  the 
company.  Poor  rails  and  unballasted  track  will 
entail  heavy  working  expenses  for  maintenance 
of  way  and  for  repairs  to  rolling  stock  and  prob- 
ably in  wrecks  that  might  otherwise  Ije  avoided. 
Except  as  a  going  concern  a  railroad  is  worth 
very  little;  the  cost  of  grading,  bridging,  tunnel- 
ing, cross-ties,  ballasting,  etc.,  would  he  abso- 
lutely lost  and  but  a  small  amount  obtained 
from  the  right  of  way,  station  grounds,  buildings, 
shops,  machinery,  rails  and  the  other  essentials 
of  a  railroad  if  the  road  should  cease  to  be  oper- 
ated. 

"It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  recently  in  Eng- 
land, the  Southwark  &  Deptford  Tramway  Com- 
pany successfully  appealed  against  an  assessment 
for  taxation,  and,  by  proving  that  from  various 
circumstances  and  the  low  fares  at  which  they 
were  obliged  to  run,  their  expenses  were  greater 
than  their  receipts  and  that  if  the  tramways 
were  in  the  market  to  let,  no  tenent  could  be 

found  to  rent,  the  company 

^^L— j<^^^^  practically  obtained  exemp- 
^^J^^^^=^^<^  tion  from  assessment.  There 
'^^^^^^Si^^^^y'   are   so    many    circumstances 

^^^^^^s^"^^      affecting  the  net  earnings  of 

a  railroad — the  actual  compe- 

Action  of  Rail  on  Tie.  ^.^-^^^    ^^    ^^^^^^    ^j^^     pOSSiblc 

competition  of  tomorrow,  reductions  of  rates, 
poor  harvests,  dullness  of  business,  labor  strikes, 
increased  demands  necessitating  heavy  operating 
expenses  or  perhaps  capital  outlay,  accidents  that 
the  most  careful  management  can  not  guard 
against — that  a  liberal  rate  should  be  allowed  by 


MAINTENANCE.  277 

which  to  estimate  the  par  value  of  the  property. 
Probabl}'  ten  per  cent,  would  be  neces.sary  as  a 
basis  for  par  value,  to  place  railroads  upon  an 
equality  with  other  property.  Upon  this  basis  a 
road  earning  $1,000  per  mile  net  would  be  valued 
at  $10,000  per  mile  and  a  road  earning  $3,000  per 
mile  net  would  be  valued  at  $30,000  per  mile, 
this  valuation  to  be  subject  to  such  reductions  as 
might  be  customary  on  other  classes  of  property 
in  the  state.  The  annual  accounts  required  by 
the  interstate  commerce  commission  are  so  com- 
plete that  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  results 
of  the  yearly  operations  can  be  obtained  there- 
from. Assessors  have  more  reliable  means  at 
their  disposal  by  which  to  make  a  fair  valuation 
of  railway  property  than  for  any  other  species 
of  property;  they  have  the  sworn  statements  of 
the  railroad  companies  and  can  refer  to  the  an- 
nual reports  made  to  the  stockholders,  to  the 
annual  reports  made  to  the  interstate  commerce 
commission,  and  in  many  cases  to  reports  made 
to  state  commissioners. 

"Unfortunately  there  is  an  increasing  tendency 
to  heavily  tax  corporations.  The  taxes  paid  by 
them  are  generally  of  large  amounts  and  are 
easily  collected  with  small  cost,  whereas  the 
sums  paid  by  individuals  are  comparatively 
small.  The  heavier  the  taxes  on  corporations, 
the  lighter  the  burden  on  individuals,  and  the 
individuals  are  voters.  A  serious  objection  to 
taxing  railroads  by  special  laws,  by  a  gross  reve- 
nue tax  or  by  a  privilege  tax  per  mile  of  road,  is 
that  the  tendency  induces  legislators,  perhaps 
unconsciously,  to  unduly  increase  the  burdens  on 
railroads;  and,  consequently,  to  decrease  the  bur- 
dens on  individuals;  in  other  words,  to  discrimi- 


278  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

nate  against  one  class  of  propertj^  As  an  in- 
stance, the  Mississippi  code  of  18S0  fixed  tlie 
privilege  tax  per  mile  on  certain  railroads  at  $80 
per  mile,  $70  per  mile  and  $60  per  mile  respect- 
ively. In  1884  these  taxes  were  increased,  the 
$80  and  $70  per  mile  tax  to  $100  per  mile  and 
the  $60  per  mile  tax  to  $80  per  mile.  Two  years 
later  (in  1886)  there  was  a  further  addition,  the 
taxes  on  all  railroads  being  increased  twenty-five 
per  cent,  over  the  amount  fixed  in  1884.  In  1888 
another  increase  was  made  by  amendment  to  some 
local  statute,  which,  however,  was  not  signed  by 
the  proper  authorities  and  did  not.  therefore,  be- 
come a  law.  The  increase  actually  made,  how- 
ever, between  the  years  1880  and  18\86,  amounted 
tg  over  fifty-six  per  cent,  on  the  $80  tax,  to  over 
seventy-eight  per  cent,  on  the  $70  tax,  and  to 
nearly  sixty-seven  per  cent,  on  the  $60  tax,  while 
reference  to  Poor's  manual  shows  that  very  little 
improvement,  if  any,  took  place  in  the  net  or  gross 
earnings  of  the  companies  in  question  during  that 
time.  For  other  classes  of  property  the  increase 
in  taxation  was  comparatively  light.  The  ob- 
jections to  a  tax  on  gross  earnings,  beside  that 
of  principle,  are  that  it  operates  against  those 
roads  which,  for  various  causes  beyond  control, 
are  worked  at  a  higher  cost  per  cent,  of  gross 
earnings  than  other  roads  (possibly  their  com- 
petitors) within  the  state;  and  also  that  it  is  un- 
fair to  those  companies  that  do  business  at  low 
rates,  as  the  relative  profit  on  low  rates  is  less 
than  on  high  rates." 

Thus  we  have,  in  this  and  the  preceding  chap- 
ters, endeavored  to  present  a  summarization  of 
differences  in  cost  of  building  and  operating  rail- 


MAINTENANCE.  279 

roads.  They  are  too  numerous  and  too  complex 
to  be  described  in  detail.  I  have  only  mentioned 
those  of  the  greatest  consequence,  namely,  dif- 
ferences in  the  cost  of  supplies;  in  the  price  paid 
for  labor;  in  the  cost  of  transporting  material 
and  men;  in  the  character  of  supplies  available; 
in  the  effect  of  local  environment,  namely,  cli- 
mate, nature  of  country  and  natural  facilities; 
the  character,  adequacy,  condition  and  extent  of 
the  property;  quality  of  its  repairs  and  renewals; 
its  facilities  and  terminal  expenses;  the  direc- 
tion, nature  and  volume  of  its  business;  season 
when  moved;  length  of  haul;  the  uninterrupted 
movement  of  its  trains,  their  speed  and  dead 
weight;  the  amount  of  fixed  expenses;  and,  finally, 
the  amount  of  its  taxes.  The  subject  is  a  pro- 
lific one  and  may  be  pursued  indefinitely.  It 
would  be  well  if  it  were  more  generally  under- 
stood by  railway  owners  and  by 
those  who  make  laws  for  railroads. 
I  have  only  attempted  to  point 
out  the  more  salient  features  of 
the  subject  and  the  line  of  inquiry 
that  must  be  pursued  to  compre- 
hend its  full  scope  and  signifi- 
cance ;  to  make  clear  to  those  who  ^"" "" ''''  ^^^''• 
impose  obligations  upon  railroads  the  necessity 
of  their  exercising  discrimination ;  of  tempering 
the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb,  so  to  speak;  of  re- 
membering that  while  uniformity  may  simplify 
the  question  to  those  who  do  not  understand  the 
subject,  it  will  be  fatal  to  the  properties  them- 


280  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS. 

selves;  that  the  business  of  a  raih-oacl,  like  every 
other  business,  is  a  matter  of  detail  and  personal 
ai)plication  and  must  be  so  conducted  in  order  to 
be  successful.  It  would  be  just  as  proper  to  make 
hats  of  a  uniform  size  for  all  men  as  to  prescribe 
uniform  conditions  for  railroads;  just  as  proper 
that  the  expenses  of  conducting  the  government 
should  be  collected  by  a  uniform  charge  per  head 
on  men,  women  and  children,  without  reference 
to  their  ability  to  pay,  as  to  seek  to  make  one 
railroad  the  measure  of  all  or  all  roads  the  meas- 
ure of  one. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

MAINTENANCE — COST  ARISING  FROM  NATURAL  DECAY 
AND  TRAFFIC  —  VARIOUS  DETAILS  OF  MAINTE- 
NANCE. 

(XoTE — The  separation  of  the  work  of  operating  a  railroad 
from  the  duty  of  maintaining  it  is  entirely  practicable,  though 
that  may  not  be  the  best  way  of  carrying  on  such  enterprises. 
It  is  as  practicable  as  it  is  for  a  party  to  furnish  power  for 
manufacturing  industries  carried  on  by  others ;  as  practicable  as 
it  Is  to  operate  a  great  store  the  dift'erent  departments  of  which 
are  owned  by  dift'erent  proprietors;  as  practicable  as  it  is  to  main- 
tain a  canal  used  by  a  nuiltitude  of  carriers.  However,  such 
joint  use  involves  careful  systemization,  the  supervision  and 
directing  care  of  those  anxious  to  see  it  succeed  rather  than 
those  anxious  to  see  it  fail,  of  those  who  believe  in  it  rather 
than  those  who  are  sceptical,  of  those  who  would  gain  by  its 
success  rather  than  lose.) 

Railway  maintenance  presents  itself  to  us  un- 
der various  aspects.  First,  the  maintenance  of 
the  economic  conditions  that  appertain  to  com- 
mon carriers;  the  due  and  full  preservation  of 
the  rights  of  railways  under  their  charters  or  acts 
of  incorporation.  Second,  the  maintenance  of 
the  esprit  de  corps  of  a  railway  force,  a  matter 
of  vital  importance  to  the  public,  the  owner 
and  the  employe.  Third,  the  dissemination 
among  railway  officers  and  employes  of  reliable 
knowledge  of  a  general  and  specific  nature  in 
regard  to  the  operation  of  railroads.     These  vari- 

(281) 


282  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  Y8; 

ous  phases  of  the  subject,  especially  that  relat- 
ing to  organization,  claim  more  or  less  atten- 
tion throughout  these  works;  they  are  woven 
into  the  subject,  no  matter  from  what  stand- 
point viewed,  and  find  incidental,  if  not  direct, 
reference,  wherever  the  question  of  railway  ad- 
ministration is  spoken  of. 

The  particular  phases  of  railway  maintenance, 
however,  that  I  design  to  treat  in  this  chapter 
relate  mainly  to  the  physical  preservation  of  the 
property  and  the  effect  thereon  of  climatic  in- 
fluences and  traffic  respectively. 

The  possibility  is  suggested  elsewhere  that, 
through  the  unwise  exactions  of  labor,  it  may  be 

found  necessary  to  close 
up  a  railway  or  group  of 
railways  for  a  longer  or 
Track  Level.  shorter  pcHod;  that  it 
may,  in  fact,  be  found  impossible  to  procure  men 
to  operate  them  faithfully  and  intelligently.*  To 
be  sure  such  a  contingency  does  not  seem  likely. 
Neither  did  it  seem  probable  before  the  strike  on 
a  great  southern  railroad  a  few  years  ago  that  a 
great  system,  extending  over  several  states,  could 
be  paralyzed  for  causes  so  trivial.f  Yet  such  an 
event  actually  occurred.  Moreover,  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  were  such  as  to  suggest  the 
likelihood  of  similar  cessations  of  labor  not  only 
upon  a  particular  railroad,  but  upon  groups  of 
railroads.    In  such  an  event,  operations  would 

*  In  the  volume  "Organization  and  Forces." 
fThe  Missouri  Pacific  Eailway. 


MAINTENANCE.  283 

manifestly  be  impossible.  No  other  course  would 
be  left  but  to  temporarily  close.  Where  labor 
has  the  disposition  and  facility  to  organize  and 
act  in  concert  over  a  great  empire  without  refer- 
ence to  the  rights  of  others,  everything  is  possi- 
ble. The  nineteenth  century  is  an  age  of 
centralization.  It  is  especially  so  in  business. 
We  observe  it  in  the  growth  of  corporations  and 
manufactories  and  other  great  enterprises.  It  is 
this  vast  concentration  of  capital,  possibly,  that 
suggested  the  centralization  of  labor;  the  delega- 
tion to  agents  of  the  right  to  arbitrarily  control 
the  many.  The  organization  of  labor,  however, 
is  much  more  extensive  than  that  of  capital. 
The  latter  is  restricted  and  isolated  in  its  efforts. 
Labor  seeks  to  group  great  masses  of  men 
employed  in  widely  diversified  industries,  and 
extending  over  enormous  areas  of  country.  If 
the  effort  is  successful,  and  the  vast  association 
of  men  thus  formed  is  not  wisely  governed,  it 
will  involve  corresponding  centralization  of  cap- 
ital. Certainly  it  will  render  the  continuance  of 
business  under  present  conditions  impossible. 
Not  only  will  the  railway  system  as  at  present 
operated  be  broken  up,  but  other  industrial 
interests  will,  temporarily,  collapse.  Let  us  hope 
that  these  contingencies  will  not  occur. 

In  the  event  railways  were  closed  under  the 
circumstances  named,  the  duration  of  the  suspen- 
sion would  depend  on  the  disposition  and  power 
of  the  people  to  reassert  the  just  and  necessary 
condition  of  property,  namely,  its  security  and 


284  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

the  protection  of  individuals  in  their  right  to 
work.  The  calamities  that  would  grow  out  of 
such  an  upheaval  and  the  distrust  it  would  en- 
gender would  require  many  years  to  heal.  The 
possibility  that  a  railway  company  may  be  com- 
pelled to  stop  business  suggests  the  conditions 
that  would  attend  such  an  act.  Can  the  owners 
of  railroads  permit  their  property  to  lie  idle? 
Passiveness  is  one  of  the  greatest  elements  of 
strength  capital  has.  Herein  lies  the  secret  of 
its  power;  its  growth  and  beneficent  influence; 
its  ability  to  perpetuate  itself.  When  it  no  longer 
possesses  this  it  will  cease  to  exist. 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  idleness  upon  rail- 
road property?  Wherein  would  it  deteriorate? 
What  would  be  the  amount  of  the  deterioration? 
What  expense  does  the  maintenance  of  a  railway 
engender?  Would  it  be  wiser  for  owners  to  suffer  a 
known  loss  in  an  effort  to  maintain  the  rights  of 
property  (and  incidentally  of  mankind),  or  should 
they  effect  a  settlement  with  their  employes,  no 
matter  what  the  sacrifice? 

It  is  upon  such  a  question  that  the  contingency 
of  a  railway  company  closing  its  affairs  for  six 
months,  or  a  year,  or  two  years,  may  hinge. 
Upon  the  wisdom  and  courage  that  governs  those 
making  the  decision  the  future  of  mankind  may 
depend. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  railway  company  decides, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  can  no  longer  operate 
its  property  in  harmonywith  honest  usage  or  good 
government,  that  it  will  close  its  business  until 


MAIXTENANCE.  285 

such  time  as  just  and  necessary  rights  are 
accorded  to  it,  what  would  be  the  expenses 
attending  the  maintenance  of  a  property  under 
such  conditions? 

The  question  is  an  interesting  one  abstractly 
considered,  but  especially  so  in  the  concrete.  It 
invites  investigation  at  the  hands  of  experts,  and 
demands  the  most  careful  and  minute  inquiry. 
Yet  it  has  been  little  discussed. 

In  the  event  of  the  suspension  of  railway  oper- 
ations, what  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  prop- 
erty? What  would  be  the  minimum  amount 
that  it  would  be  necessary  for  a  company  to  ex- 
pend in  order  to  preserve  its  property  from 
deterioration?  Having  no  income,  the  cost,  it  is 
manifest,  w^ould  have  to  come  from  assessments 
levied  upon  the  proprietors,  or  from  reserves  laid 
by  against  such  a  contingency.  Of  the  wisdom  of 
every  company  possessing  a  reserve  fund  propor- 
tionate to  its  operations,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
It  need  not  be  unproductive.  If  judiciously 
placed  it  would  be  a  source  of  income  as  well  as 
strength  to  its  owners.  Its  effect  would  be 
evinced  in  the  price  of  the  company's  securities. 
It  would  be  a  perpetual  guarantee  against  the 
vicissitudes  of  business.  It  would  enable  its 
possessor  to  meet  every  expenditure,  thus  render- 
ing him  the  master  instead  of  the  slave  of 
circumstances.  With  such  a  fund,  taxes  could 
be  paid,  sinking  funds  met,  interest  on  mortgages 
satisfied,  and  the  expense  of  maintenance  pro- 
vided for. 


286  SCIENCE  OF  I? AIL  WA  YS; 

It  may  be  assumed,  I  think,  that  in  the  event 
a  company  found  it  necessary  to  suspend  busi- 
ness, its  bondholders  would,  if  called  upon, 
waive  interest  payments  for  awhile.  The  con- 
tingent fund  would  provide  a  reasonable  sum  to 
meet  accretions  of  this  character.  The  amount 
of  the  contingent  fund  should  depend  upon  the 
annual  burden  for  taxes,  interest,  tolls,  sinking 
funds  and  expense  of  maintenance.  Expendi- 
tures for  the  last  named  purpose  are  imperative. 
They  must  be  met  as  they  accrue,  otherwise  the 
owner  Avill  suffer  enormous  usury  for  neglect  to 
preser^^e  his  property  from  decay.  What  sum 
would  the  cost  of  maintenance  require?  Would 
it  be  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  proprietor  meet- 
ing it?  I  think  not.  The  cost  of  maintenance 
may  be  determined  with  approximate  accuracy. 

Stripped  of  the  glamour  of  public  ignorance 
and  comment,  railway  property  does  not  differ 
from  other  property  used  in  manufacturing,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  scattered  over  a  wider  territory. 
In  the  case  of  private  manufacturers,  their  prop- 
erty lies  within  a  narrow  limit  and  when  not  in 
use  the  gates  are  shut  and  the  public  excluded, 
so  that,  no  matter  how  great  its  value,  its  guar- 
dianship is  compassed  within  the  care  of  a  few 
watchmen.  These  not  only  serve  to  protect  the 
property,  but  prevent  its  deterioration,  thus 
answering  a  double  purpose.  Unfortunately  this 
simple  disposition  is  impossible  in  the  case  of 
railroad  property.  Spread  abroad,  it  is  every- 
where exposed.    Its  greatest  security,  however, 


MAINTENANCE. 


287 


under  every  condition,  is  in  the  difficulty  of  de- 
stroying or  removing  it.  This  renders  it  possible 
for  the  police  force  of  a  country  to  compass  its 
protection  (if  it  is  so  inclined),  without  material 
extra  outlay.  This  would  be  of  especial  value  to 
a  company  compelled  to  stop  business.  Only 
that  portion  of  its  property  rendered  insecure  by 
fire  would  require  especial  guardianship,  and  even 
here  the  risk  would  be  slight.  Moreover,  in  con- 
sidering the  safety  of  railroad  property  under 
abnormal  conditions,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 


Tender  Picking  up  Water  from  a  Feed  Trough.    (English.) 


the  state  must  protect  the  proprietor,  he  being  a 
tax  payer,  or,  in  the  event  it  does  not,  must  re- 
imburse him  for  any  damage  he  suffers.  Losses, 
therefore,  that  arise  from  the  acts  of  mobs  or 
lawless  combinations  are  public  burdens,  not  to 
be  thrown  upon  the  proprietors  of  railroads, 
except  in  so  far  as  they  are  taxed  with  others  to 
meet  the  damage.  The  exercise  of  reasonable 
diligence  in  the  preservation  of  one's  property 
is,  however,  under  all  circumstances  a  duty. 
This  duty  railw^ay  companies  least  of  all  disre- 
gard.   So  that,  in  the  event  they  closed  their 


288  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WA  YS; 

properties,  they  would  still  exercise  a  general 
and  constant  watchfulness.  This  would  be 
chargeable  to  maintenance.  Would  it  require 
special  watchmen,  or  would  the  slight  force  re- 
quired to  keep  up  the  organization  be  sufficient? 
I  think  the  latter.  In  determining,  therefore, 
the  extent  of  the  force  necessary  to  keep  up  the 
organization  of  a  property,  we  also  cover  its  pro- 
tecting force,  except,  perhaps,  in  isolated  cases. 

The  question  of  maintaining  the  property  of  a 
railroad   suggests    many    interesting    enquiries, 
innumerable   speculations.      It    involves    many 
conditions  manifestly  not  capable  of  demonstra- 
tion in  advance,  contingencies  that  no  one  can 
predetermine.        These     contingencies     depend 
largely  upon  the  peculiar  features  of  the  property, 
largely   upon   its  surroundings.     In   considering 
the  cost  of  maintaining  a  road  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  organization  must  not  be  overlooked. 
This  latter,  however,  in  the  case  of  a  property 
temporarily  closed,  would  depend  upon  whether 
the  cessation  was  for  a  long  or  short  period.     If 
the  former,  the  cost  would  be  not  nearly  so  great 
as  if  the  stoppage  were  for  a  short  period.     If 
the  cessation  were  likely  to  extend  over  a  long 
period,  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  look  to^  the 
preservation  of  the  physical  part  of  the  property. 
The  traffic  organization,  or  that  portion  of  the 
force  connected  with  or  growing  out  of  the  con- 
duct  of    business,   would    be    wholly   dispensed 
with,  or  so  greatly  reduced  as  to  be  no   longer 
distinguishable  as  an  organization.    If,  however, 


MAINTENANCE.  289 

the  stoppage  were  only  for  a  short  or  indefinite 
period,  it  would  be  necessary  to  preserve  the 
nucleus  of  an  organization;  such  portion  of  the 
force  as  would  render  the  resumption  of  busi- 
ness practicable  without  great  delay  or  expense.* 
If  the  stoppage  were  likely  to  continue  over  a 
long  period,  many  expenses  that,  under  other 
circumstances  would  be  necessary,  might  be 
avoided.  Thus,  the  cost  of  keeping  up  the  road 
at  a  point  that  would  permit  the  movement  of 
trains  would  not  be  required.  It  would  not  be 
necessary  to  repair  from  day  to  day  the  ravages 
of  storms  or  the  damages  caused  by  frost;  ex- 
penses attending  the  use  of  bridges,  culverts, 
buildings  and  machinery  might  be  wholly 
avoided,  as  it  would  be  necessary  to  give  them 
only  cursory  attention.  Effort  would  be  directed 
wholly  to  preserving  the  property  from  perma- 
nent injury.  Thus  maintained,  considerable  time 
would  be  required  to  place  it  in  shape  for  re- 
suming active  operations  when  the  embargo 
ceased;  buildings  would  have  to  be  put  in  order, 
tracks  repaired,  bridges  and  culverts  looked 
after,  and  a  thousand  things  attended  to  before 
general  resumption  would  be  possible.  This 
would  require  a  month,  perhaps  six  months.  It 
would,  however,  be  unavoidable,  as  the  resources 
of  the  strongest  company  would  not  warrant  it 


♦Unless,  iiuleetl.  it  was  assumed  that  the  force  might  he 
brought  togetlier  again  at  will,  in  which  event  the  whole  traffic 
force  might  be  dispeusetl  with.  This  is  what  would  i)robably 
be  done. 

19 


290  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYH, 

in  attempting  to  keep  up  its  property  at  the 
maximum  point  of  efficiency  throughout  a  long 
or  indehnite  strike. 

In  attempting,  therefore,  to  determine  the  cost 
of  maintaining  a  property  under  the  circum- 
stances named  (without  reference  to  traffic),  all 
the  conditions  must  be  known.  If  resumption 
w^ere  likely  to  be  immediate  or  within  a  reason- 
able time,  the  expense  of  maintenance  w^ould 
not  be  much  less  than  during  active  operations. 
The  disintegration  of  property  from  natural 
causes  is  very  nearly  the  same,  wdiether  used  or 
not.  If  cessation  of  business  were  likely  to  ex- 
tend over  an  indehnite  period,  the  advisability  of 
reducing  expenses  would  be  so  great  that  we  may 
be  sure  every  outlay  would  be  cut  down  to  the 
low^est  possible  figure.* 

The  maintenance  of  a  property  covers  expenses 
arising  from  natural  and  artificial  causes;  from 
climate  and  traffic.  Little  has  been  done  to  de- 
termine the  relative  amount  of  these  expenses. 
Few  things  are  less  understood.  Every  expense 
being  primarily  due  to  traffic,  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  effect  a  separation.  The  conduct 
of  business  being  the  incentive  to  construct  a 
railway,  the  whole  cost  of  operating  is  properly 
chargeable   thereto.     Thus,   the   rates  that   are 


*  It  is  possible,  in  tlie  event  a  railroad  company  found  it  im- 
possible to  operate  its  property,  that  the  wisest  course  to  pur- 
sue would  lie  to  dismiss  the  whole  force ;  that  such  a  course 
would  be  the  safer  one  to  pursue  and  the  one  most  likely  to 
bring  about  a  quick  and  satisfactory  settlement  of  its   troubles. 


MAINTENANCE.  291 

charged  must  conform  as  a  whole  to  the  cost  of 
operating,  including  outlays  incidental  thereto. 
If  they  fall  short  of  it,  loss  or  bankruptcy  inter- 
venes; if  they  exceed  it,  natural  causes  intervene 
to  correct  the  evil.  The  importance  of  a  neces- 
sary expense  does  not  depend  upon  whether 
it  is  due  to  traffic  or  other  cause.  In  attempting, 
therefore,  to  separate  the  cost  of  maintenance 
arising  out  of  natural  causes  from  that  due  to 
traffic  and  organization,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  un- 
derstood as  intimating  that  such  expenditures 
are  in  any  way  distinct  from  traffic  or  that  traffic 
has  no  ol)ligation  to  bear  the  burden.  It  has. 
Any  attempt  to  separate  the  fixed  expenses  of 
maintenance  from  those  occasioned  by  traffic 
must  in  many  things  be  largely  speculative,  must 
be  largely  hypothetical,  must  be  based  on  collat- 
eral data  and  the  estimates  of  experts.  A  separa- 
tion, however  imperfect,  can  not  but  possess  great 
practical  value  to  those  who  own  and  operate 
railways.  It  will  enable  them  to  view  many 
questions  from  a  higher  standpoint  than  they 
otherwise  would  and  will  prove  valuable  in 
directing  enquiry  into  other  and  collateral  sub- 
jects of  importance.  Knowledge  is  not  of  so 
much  value  for  the  specific  thing  learned  as  for 
its  contingent  revelations  and  the  other  thoughts 
it  suggests.  And  so  it  will  prove  here.  Even 
the  most  imperfect  conception  of  the  expenses  of 
maintenance  of  railways  will  afford  suggestions 
in  other  directions  to  those  who  will  not  regard 
the    information    in  itself    of    especial    value. 


292 


SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WA  YS; 


Tliiiy,  while  they  may  not  care  what  relation 
fixed  expenses  of  maintenance  bears  to  the  total 
outlay  as  a  whole,  yet  the  information  may  be 
exceedingly  valuable  to  them  in  particular  in- 
stances. Take  the  case  of  track  rails  for  illustra- 
tion. Experts  in  such  matters  Avith  whom  I  have 
communicated  as  to  the  relative  deterioration  of 
rails  from  climate  and  traffic,  have  stated  that  a 
rail  would  remain  fit  for  use  forever,  if  trains 
did  not  run  over  it.  Others  put  the  deterioration 
from  climatic  causes  at  two  per  cent.;  others  again 

at  five  per  cent.,  and  so 
on.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  deterioration  of  rails 
from  climatic  causes, 
while  not  great,  is 
marked  and  cumulative. 
Deterioi'ation  of  other 
material  from  a  similar 
cause  is  much  greater. 
However,  I  do  not  pro- 
pose here  to  enter  into  a  scientific  estimate  of  the 
effect  of  climatic  influences  upon  different  classes 
of  material.  It  belongs  -more  properly  to  the 
scientist.  I  merely  cite  the  case  of  rails  to  illus- 
trate the  lack  of  information  on  such  subjects  by 
those  whose  duties  lie  wholly  in  this  particular 
department  of  railway  operations. 

The  natural  decay  of  railway  property  is  in 
many  cases  much  greater  than  the  damage 
occasioned  by  use.  Where  a  business  is  so  great 
as  to  produce  immediate  deterioration,  the  rela- 


Hand  Car. 


MAINTENANCE.  293 

tion  that  the  fixed  expense  of  maintenance  bears 
to  traffic  will,  of  course,  be  less.  Whatever  a 
property  suffers  from  natural  decay  is  a  fixed 
expense.  I  will,  therefore,  speak  of  such  outlay 
hereafter  in  connection  with  the  maintenance 
of  railway  property  as  a  fixed  expense.  Cost 
of  organization  is  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  a 
fixed  charge.  It  is,  however,  never  relatively  the 
same.  Thus,  it  is  much  less,  relatively,  for  a  com- 
pany actively  engaged  than  when  the  contrary  is 
the  case,  for  the  reason  that  in  the  former  in- 
stance a  greater  proportion  of  the  cost  is  merged 
with  current  business.  Thus,  a  superintendent 
will  not  only  exercise  direction  over  the  main- 
tenance of  the  property,  but  will  also  superintend 
the  conduct  of  its  business.  In  either  case  he 
is  essential,  and  while  he  must  possess  greater 
diversity  of  knowledge  in  order  to  enable  him 
to  attend  to  both  these  duties  than  he  would  to 
attend  to  either  singly,  yet  the  increased  ex- 
pense occasioned  by  the  multiplication  of  duty 
is  not  great. 

The  number  of  skilled  laborers  required  in  the 
o^Derations  of  railroads  is  much  greater  than  is 
commonly  supposed.  They  form  a  part  of  the 
organization.  They  embrace  innumerable  men 
that  are  not  usually  classed  under  this  head. 
Everyone  understands  that  a  locomotive  engi- 
neer must  be  technically  qualified.  The  value 
of  skill  and  experience  in  the  locomotive  fireman 
is  also  well  understood.  The  necessity  of  technical 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  machinists  is  well  known. 


294  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

But  the  officials,  agents,  clerks  and  foremen 
of  railroads  must  possess  skill  of  a  high  order, 
and  must,  moreover,  possess  practical  knowledge 
of  the  geography  of  the  property  and  its  business 
and  wants.  This  is  not  so  well  known.  It  is 
probable  that  no  class  of  labor  possesses  such 
great  technical  knowledge  and  skill  as  the  clerical 
force  of  a  railroad;  and  by  clerical  force  I 
mean  the  whole  body  of  employes  concerned  in 
the  movement  of  traffic,  including  those  con- 
nected with  the  accounts  and  finances.  They  are 
the  fingers  of  the  organization  and  afford  much  of 
its  intellectual  force.  The  affairs  of  a  railroad 
are  so  great,  and  extend  over  so  wide  a  range  of 
country,  that  managers  can  do  little  more  than 
avail  themselves  of  the  information  the  cler- 
ical force  collects  for  their  disposition.  This 
force,  in  the  ev^entof  the  stoppage  of  business  on 
a  railroad,  would  have  nothing  to  do  and,  there- 
fore, might  be  dispensed  with. 

Only  those  wdio  have  watched  the  grow^th  and 
maintenance  of  a  railroad,  and  the  patience  and 
skill  required  to  build  up  an  efficient  force,  can 
estimate  the  loss  its  abandonment  would  entail. 
But  it  would  be  unavoidable  in  the  event  a  dis- 
turbance of  any  kind  necessitated  a  stoppage  of 
business.  Necessity  does  not  recognize  either 
values  or  utility.  If  through  the  upheavals  of 
labor  or  other  social  disorders,  railways  were 
compelled  to  suspend  business  indefinitely,  they 
would  come  out  of  the  struggle  without  an  or- 
ganization.     In  attempting    to  determine    the 


MAINTENANCE.  205 

fixed  expenses  of  organization,  therefore,  I  shall 
not  consider  the  case  of  such  railroads.  The 
fixed  expenses  of  organization  for  properties, 
under  normal  conditions,  are  the  officers  and  em- 
ployes necessary  to  the  conduct  of  the  minimum 
traffic  of  a  line.  This  force  would  embrace  the 
general  management,  heads  of  departments  and 
chiefs  of  bureaus  and  their  immediate  assistants; 
those,  in  fact,  possessing  a  knowledge  of  the 
workings  of  the  departments  and  versed  in  the 
requirements  of  the  company's  affairs,  and  nec- 
essary to  its  operation.  Such  a  force  can  not  be 
secured  at  will,  and  business  can  not  be  dis- 
charged without  it.  It  is  the  staff,  and  grows 
with  the  growth  of  a  corporation,  and  under 
right  conditions  should  become  more  and  more 
efficient  every  year.  The  necessary  force  of  a 
road  embraces,  also,  the  agents  at  stations  and, 
where  business  is  great,  their  immediate  assist- 
ants. Those,  in  fact,  who  possess  high  techni- 
cal knowledge.  They  constitute  a  fixed  charge. 
Common  laborers,  and  those  engaged  in  mechan- 
ical or  simple  employment  about  the  general 
offices,  warehouses  and  other  buildings,  do  not. 
They  may  be  replaced  at  will.  The  cost  of 
watching  a  property  is  not  a  fixed  expense,  as 
this  duty  may  be  performed  by  employes  pos- 
sessing technical  skill,  who  form  a  part  of  the 
fixed  cost.  The  nucleus  of  a  train  force  is  a 
fixed  expense  of  maintenance.  In  the  case  of 
conductors  and  baggagemen  it  embraces  probably 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  force.    The  skill  of  this  body 


296  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  TS; 

will  constitute  the  nucleus  of  a  complete  organ- 
ization. In  the  same  way  ten  per  cent,  of  the 
engineers  and  firemen  of  a  compan}'  may  be  de- 
nominated as  fixed.  Such  a  train  force  would 
prove  ample  to  guard  the  rolling  stock  and  main- 
tain it  in  a  much  higher  state  of  efficiency  than 
that  which  ordinarily  characterizes  it  when  em- 
ployed. The  engineers  would  be  able  to  keep 
the  equipment  and  machinery  in  repair,  while  the 
auxiliary  force  would  look  after  its  care  and  pro- 
tection. 

The  technical  force  that  is  essential  to  a  com- 
pany may  be  utilized  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
property,  and  thus  serve  a  double  purpose.  Those 
occupied  in  advertising  and  in  soliciting  business 
do  not  constitute  a  fixed  expense.  Personal  in- 
juries, damages  to  property,  contingent  expenses, 
stationery,  printing,  supplies,  advertising,  oil, 
waste  and  tallow  belong  wholly  to  traffic,  or  if 
any  portion  is  chargeable  as  a  fixed  expense  it  is 
nominal  only. 

As  a  rule  the  forces  of  a  railroad  that  consti- 
tute a  fixed  charge  would  find  active  employ- 
ment, even  if  the  property  were  closed  to  busi- 
ness. However,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  there  could  be  no  reduction  in  the  wages  of 
this  force.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  probable  that  a 
very  large  reduction  might  be  made  if  it  became 
necessary.  The  necessity  of  such  a  course  and 
its  justness  in  the  event  of  a  general  strike  would 
be  apparent  and  would  be  cheerfully  acquiesced 
in.      The  amount  of  this    reduction    would,  I 


MAINTENANCE.  297 

think,  approximate  fifty  per  cent.  That  it  would 
involve  hardship,  goes  without  saying,  but  as 
this  hardship  would  extend  to  the  owners  of  the 
property  as  well,  it  would  be  borne  cheerfully. 
If  the  suspension  were  likely  to  be  of  long  con- 
tinuance, the  reduction  might  be  even  greater. 
However,  fifty  per  cent,  may,  I  think,  be  stated 
as  the  average  sum.  So  that  in  determining  the 
fixed  expenses  of  organization 
we  may  deduct  that  amount 
of  wages  and  salaries  paid 
particular  persons  under  nor- 
mal conditions.  In  reference 
to  the  force  that  it  would  be 
necessary  to  discharge  (in  the 
event    of  suspension),   it  is  Hand  car 

probable  that  the  majority  of 
the  men  would  quietly  await  re-employment. 
This  would  certainly  be  the  case  if  the  stoppage 
were  not  likely  to  be  of  long  duration,  or  if  the 
circumstances  attending  dismissal  did  not  involve 
personal  animosities.  It  could  not  1)ut  be  ap- 
parent to  men  thus  situated  that  their  interests 
would  be  more  likely  to  be  conserved  by  quietly 
awaiting  re-employment,  than  by  seeking  en- 
gagement elsewhere,  accompanied  as  it  would  be 
by  the  necessity  of  commencing  anew.  It  might 
be  necessary  in  some  cases  (as  it  would  indeed  be 
both  politic  and  wise  wherever  possible),  to  allow 
the  force  thus  dismissed  a  small  sum  monthly. 
Such  a  course  would  be  eminently  humane,  if 
the  resources  of   a  company  permitted.    I  as- 


298  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

sume,  of  course,  in  suggesting  this  gratuity,  that 
harmony  of  relationship  exists  between  employer 
and  employe. 

The  best  of  feeling  should  ever  exist  between 
railroad  companies  and  their  employes.  It  is 
possible,  indeed  probable,  that  the  latter  may  have 
grievances,  but  that  these  grievances  are  such  as 
to  engender  lasting  hatreds,  indifference  or  dis- 
loyalty is  impossible.  Nor  can  they  be  so  great 
as  not  to  be  more  likely  to  be  corrected  by  con- 
ciliatory measures  than  by  strikes  or  other 
violent  means.-  The  interest  of  the  proprietor  in 
those  who  operate  his  property  is  too  intimate, 
too  vital,  to  permit  him  to  disregard  their  wel- 
fare or  to  refuse  to  remedy  j  ust  causes  of  com- 
plaint. And  above  all,  employes  should  not,  in 
enumerating  their  grievances,  forget  those  of  the 
employer.  No  intelligent  person  who  has  ob- 
served the  operation  of  properties  carried  on  by 
hired  agents  but  must  have  noticed  innumerable 
instances  of  gross  neglect  on  the  part  of  such 
agents,  of  manifest  inefficiency,  gross  wasteful- 
ness, inattention  to  duty,  idleness,  and  other  evi- 
dences of  a  disregard  of  the  interests  of  the 
ow^ner.  Every  such  instance  is  a  legitimate  and 
proper  subject  of  complaint  on  the  part  of  the 
proprietor,  and  while  he  may  and  does  seek  to 
rectify  such  acts  whenever  known  to  him,  still 
his  efforts  in  this  direction,  no  matter  how  watch- 
fully or  intelligently  directed,  can  never  wholly, 
or  even  partially,  correct  the  evil.  Employes, 
therefore,  while  enumerating  their  grievances, 


MAINTENANCE.  299 

should  not  l)e  nnmindfiil  of  those  of  their  em- 
ployer. To  neglect  to  do  so  evinces  thoughtless- 
ness, lack  of  regard  for  the  rights  of  others. 

In  the  case  of  a  railroad  the  interest  of  the 
proprietor  is  so  impersonal,  so  covered  np  in  the 
multiplicity  of  owners,  in  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  the  service,  in  the  acts  of  managers,  and 
in  the  fulminations  of  legislatures,  that  we  can 
not  wonder  the  employe  sometimes  forgets  there 
is  an  owner;  fails  to  recognize  the  rights  and 
prerogatives  of  the  latter  and  forgets  his  own 
duties  and  responsibilities.  If  the  owner  pos- 
sessed greater  personality,  were  present  on  the 
ground,  were  a  person  to  whom  the  employe 
could  listen,  could  appeal,  if  necessary,  he  would 
appreciate  his  existence  much  more  vividly.  In 
considering,  therefore,  the  relations  that  exist 
between  capital  and  labor  in  connection  with 
railroads,  the  first  thing  for  the  employe  to  do  is 
to  dismiss  his  prejudices,  to  remember  that  if  he 
has  grievances,  so  also  has  the  owner,  and  that, 
in  the  generality  of  cases,  the  grievances  of  the 
latter  are  far  more  real  than  those  of  the  em- 
ploye. No  railway  employe,  not  blinded  by  pas- 
sion or  who  does  not  deliberately  shut  his  eyes  to 
the  fact,  but  knows  that  employes  are  fairly 
treated.  If  not  fairly  treated,  the  injury  is  not 
of  the  owner's  making.  The  grievances  that 
employes  have  are  often  more  imaginary  than 
real,  and  whenever  real  arise,  not  from  the  acts 
of  the  owner,  but  from  those  he  is  compelled  to 
trust.    The  remedy  does  not,  therefore,  lie  in 


300  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  Y8; 

strikes  or  indiscriminate  attacks  upon  proi)erty, 
but  in  an  appeal  to  owners.  Too  great  care  can 
not  be  exercised  by  employes  of  corporations  not 
to  confound  the  owner  with  his  managers.  The 
owner  will  never,  it  is  safe  to  say,  wilfully  or 
persistently  disregard  the  welfare  of  his  em- 
ployes; their  interests  are  so-  inalienably  con- 
nected with  his,  that  to  treat  them  unfairly 
would  be  suicidal.  This  truth  is  not  always 
regarded  by  employes,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
proprietor  is  frequently  to  blame.  Wherever 
this  is  so  it  should  be  remedied.  No  one  who  is 
dependent  upon  the  good  will  and  fidelity  of 
others  for  the  maintenance  of  his  interests  can 
afford  to  permit  them  to  remain  in  ignorance  of 
his  good  intentions  toward  them.  On  the  con- 
trary, his  duty  and  interest  alike  demand  that  he 
should  cultivate  such  relations  with  them  as  may 
be  necessary  to  assure  them  of  his  constant  and 
friendly  interest  in  their  welfare. 

When  it  is  necessary  that  men  should  entrust 
the  management  of  their  property  to  others  they 
must  do  so  unqualifiedly  and  heartily,  but  such 
delegation  of  power  should  never  extend  so  far 
as  to  relinquish  the  right  and  duty  of  enquiring 
into  the  welfare  of  subordinate  employes.  A 
proprietor  will  ever  consult  his  welfare  by  such 
manifestation  of  interest  in  his  servants,  and  any 
general  or  prolonged  neglect  to  fulfill  this  cardi- 
nal duty  of  ownership  will  redound  to  his  great 
and  permanent  injury.  By  many  owners  such 
manifestation  of   interest  is  thought  to  be  sub- 


MAINTENANCE.  801 

versive  of  discipline.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
where  the  owner  of  a  railroad  can  not  come  in 
contact  with  his  emplo3'es  without  jeopardizing 
discipline  it  ought  not  to  require  an  outbreak 
among  his  servants,  or  the  destruction  of  his  prop- 
erty, to  convince  him  that  there  is  a  radical  de- 
fect somewhere  in  the  method  of  administration. 
The  discipline  of  an  organization  that  is  depend- 
ent upon  terrorism,  upon  ostracising  or  seques- 
trating the  employe,  upon  separating  him  from 
the  acquaintance  or  sympathy  of  the  owner,  is 
manifestly  a  gross  perversion  of  responsible 
methods  of  government,  and  wherever  practiced 
evinces  mismanagement  and  may  be  accepted  as 
evidence  of  an  outrageous  disregard  of  the  rights 
of  owners  by  those  who  represent  them.  If  the 
history  of  corporations  in  the  United  States 
teaches  one  fact  more  clearly  than  another,  it  is 
that  the  owners  of  such  property  must  personally 
interest  themselves  in  the  affairs  of  their  em- 
ployes, lest  the  personality  of  the  owner  be  lost 
and  his  property  confiscated.  The  possession  of 
property  presupposes  the  duty  of  guardianship, 
including  a  paternal  interest  in  the  operative, 
and  its  preservation  to  the  owner  will  ever 
depend  upon  the  general  and  wise  exercise  of 
this  duty. 

Continuing  our  consideration  of  the  cost  of 
maintaining  a  railroad,  it  is  apparent  that  this 
cost  is  much  increased  by  the  delays  and  embar- 
rassments attending  the  conduct  of  business. 
Thus,  repairs  of  track  are  interfered  with  by  the 


302 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


passing 


<y 


of  trains  and  the  thousand  and  one 
diverting  infiuences  that  attend  their  movement, 
while  necessary  repairs  to  equipment  and  ma- 
chinery are  oftentimes  delayed  because  of  the 
pressing  need  of  their  use. 

The  insurance  of  property  is  under  every  cir- 
cumstance normal,  except  so  far  as  it  covers  the 
traffic  of  a  line.     Practices  in  regard  to  insurance 

are  not  uniform  upon  rail- 
roads. In  some  cases  it  is 
the  policy  to  insure  the 
property  generally;  other 
companies  restrict  their 
insurance  to  particular 
and  ascertained  instances 
of  special  importance; 
others,  again,  do  not  insure 
at  all,  preferring  to  as- 
sume the  whole  risk.  I  do 
not  know  that  the  circum- 
stances likely  to  attend  a 
cessation  of  business  would  be  such  as  to  require 
that  a  company's  policy  in  this  respect,  whatever 
it  might  be,  should  be  changed;  the  risk  incurred 
from  the  movement  of  trains  and  the  conduct  of 
business  generally  would,  it  is  apparent,  be 
much  less  than  under  normal  conditions,  while 
all  damages  arising  from  the  acts  of  mobs  would 
be  made  good  by  the  government.  No  two  com- 
panies view  the  question  of  insurance  from  the 
same  standpoint,  and  no  fixed  sum  can,  therefore, 
be  stated  as  the  extent  of  a  company's  expendi- 


Sail  Car. 


MAIN  TENA  XCE.  303 

tiires  in  this  connection.  After  considerable 
observation  of  the  effects  of  insurance  and  non- 
insurance  by  great  corporations,  I  should  not 
think  a  company  justitied  in  expending  any  large 
amount  in  this  direction  unless  its  surplus  were 
abundant  and  well  assured.  The  variety  and 
magnitude  of  its  interests  render  it  quite  proper 
and  feasible  for  it  to  assume  risks  of  this  nature, 
and  while  exceptions  may  be  made  in  particular 
cases,  it  is  manifest  that  general  insurance  of 
railway  property  will  prove  burdensome  in  the 
majority  of  cases. 

The  cost  of  insuring  the  property  of  a  company 
may  be  safely  reduced  ninety  per  cent.,  in  the 
event  of  stoppage  of  business  from  a  strike  or 
otherwise.  The  other  ten  per  cent.,  therefore, 
constitutes  a  fixed  charge. 

Considered  from  the  standpoint  of  organiza- 
tion and  proprietorship,  the  taxes  of  a  property 
constitute  a  fixed  expense  wdthout  reference  to 
how  they  are  applied.  In  this  respect  the  widest 
differences  exist.  In  some  cases  taxes  are  based 
on  real  and  personal  property;  in  others  upon 
earnings;  the  amount  and  value  of  outstanding 
capital  is  sometimes  a  factor.  When  the  tax  is 
based  on  property  the  levy  would  be  the  same  if 
the  road  were  not  operated.  It  is  possible  a  re- 
duction might'  be  allowed  under  such  circum- 
stances. Certainly  it  should  be,  as  it  is  manifest 
that  property  of  this  kind  that  is  earning  nothing 
is,  constructively  at  least,  w^orth  nothing  and 
ought  not  to  be  taxed  except  upon  a  merely  nom- 


304  SCIENGE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

inal  basis.  Practically,  however,  only  a  small  re- 
duction would  be  made.  When  taxes  are  based 
on  earnings  it  is  manifest  that  cessation  of  earn- 
ings means  cessation  of  taxes,  unless  the  stop- 
page were  so  prolonged  as  to  suggest  some  other 
basis.  We  can  not  measure  the  extent  of  a  com- 
pany's obligations  for  taxes  in  the  case  of  an  idle 
property,  but  whatever  it  is,  it  is  a  fixed  charge. 
What  proportion  of  the  cost  of  maintaining 
railway  property  arises  from  natural  or  climatic 
causes?  Here  only  is  there  any  similarity  be- 
tween railroads.  The  moment  that  the  cost  of 
wear  and  tear  arising  from  traffic  enters  into  the 
question,  the  volume,  speed  and  character  of  the 
traffic  intervenes.  Tw^o  methods  suggest  them- 
selves by  which  we  may  determine  the  extent  of 
climatic  influence  upon  railway  property.  The 
first  is  by  a  careful  survey  of  the  property,  in 
which  every  feature  is  carefully  ascertained  and 
considered.  This  method  is,  undoubtedly,  the 
best,  if  practicable.  But,  unfortunately,  it  is  not 
practicable.  The  second  method  that  suggests 
itself  is  through  the  relation  that  the  cost  of 
maintenance  bears  to  the  total  cost  of  operating. 
This  is  the  basis  I  have  adopted,  and  while  par- 
ticular expenses  vary  greatly  according  to  method 
of  construction,  extent  of  traffic  and  nature  of 
climate,  they  are  generally  the  same  for  railway 
property  as  a  whole.  Different  climatic  influ- 
ences do  not  affect  railway  properties  alike.  Thus 
the  railways  of  the  north  and  the  south  have 
different  conditions  to  contend  with.    Each  in 


MAINTENANCE.  805 


a 


their  way  have  peculiar  outlays.  Thus,  the  de- 
terioration of  wood  in  the  south  is  much  quicker 
than  in  the  north,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
northern  roads  suffer  greatly  by  frost  and  snow 
and  the  abrupt  climatic  changes  peculiar  to  the 
north.  The  conditions  most  favorable  to  the 
preservation  of  material  are  a  mild,  dry  climate, 
but  cost  of  renew^als  in  such  localities  is  usually 
greater  than  elsewhere.  The  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  localities  are,  therefore,  about 
equal. 

More  than  anything  else,  the  fixed  expense  of 
maintenance  of  a  railroad  is  dependent  upon  the 
quality  of  the  material  used,  the  measure  of  in- 
telligence evinced  in  locating  and  constructing 
the  line,  and  the  skill  and  foresight  exercised  in 
protecting  the  property.  The  nature  of  the 
structure  is  especially  important;  a  stone  culvert 
is  more  durable  than  one  of  wood ;  a  brick  struc- 
ture is  more  lasting  than  one  of  grout.  But,  in 
either  case,  the  duration  of  the  structure  is 
largely  dependent  upon  the  care  with  which  it  is 
constructed.  In  the  same  way,  the  value  of  l)al- 
last  is  largely  dependent  upon  its  quality  and  the 
care  exercised  in  placing  it. 

The  extent  of  a  business  has  much  to  do  with 
the  relation  that  fixed  charges  for  maintenance 
bear  to  traffic  expenses.  If  a  traffic  is  such  as  to 
quickly  w^ear  out  the  equipment,  machinery, 
rails,  ties  and  kindred  appliances,  manifestly, 
the  proportion  that  wear  and  tear  from  traffic 
bears  to  natural   causes  must  be  greater  than 

20 


306  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

when  tlie  business  is  less.  The  accompanying 
data  are  based  upon  the  average  conditions  of 
properties  located  in  a  temperate  climate,  subject 
to  such  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  as  are  to  be 
found  in  the  great  lake  region  of  the  United 
States.  Conditions  here  as  regards  wages  and 
cost  of  material  are  those  of  American  railways 
generally. 

In  the  maintenance  of  railways  the  track 
is  the  source  of  the  greatest  single  expense. 
This  we  may  divide  under  its  several  natural 
heads.* 

And,  first,  in  regard  to  rails.  Natural  deterio- 
ration for  this  kind  of  material  arises  wholly  from 
rust.  Other  classes  of  material  suffer  from  fires 
and  acute  injuries.  But  in  the  case  of  iron,  oxida- 
tion is  the  sole  enemy  it  has  to  contend  with. 
Deterioration  from  this  cause  is  much  greater 
in  some  localities  than  in  others.  The  damage, 
for  instance,  is  greater  near  salt  w^ater  than 
elsewhere.!  Ability  of  rails,  therefore,  to  resist 
the  effects  of  climatic  influences  depends  some- 

*  These  heads  and  the  relation  they  severally  bear  to  each 
other  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

PER  CENT. 

New  Rails  (less  value  of  old) 16.13 

Handling  Rails  {i.  e..  laying  the  new  and  taking  up 

the  old) 2.34 

Ties 13 .  97 

Handling  Ties 5.18 

Miscellaneous    (general)    Repairs,    Roadway    and 

Track 62.38 

100.00 
tit  is  also  great  in  tunnels.    The  durability  of  ties  is  also  lesg 
in  tunnels  than  elsewhere. 


MAINTENANCE. 


307 


what  upon  location.  We  have,  unfortunately, 
no  accurate  data  as  to  the  percentage  of  deterio- 
ration from  climatic  causes.  It  is  a  question  about 
which  metallurgists  have  collected  little  definite 
information.  It  is  generally  understood,  how^- 
ever,  that  steel  is  less  able  to  resist  rust  than 
iron.  The  deterioration  of  metal  from  oxida- 
tion is  not  uniform,  but  proceeds  with  increased 
momentum  as  the  cause  of  decay  deepens  and 
spreads,  each  new  inroad  affording  an  additional 


Track  Inspection  Car. 

storehouse  in  which  the  destructive  elements 
multiply  and  extend  themselves.  The  increase 
in  the  destructive  power  of  rust  may  be  likened 
unto  the  cumulative  malignancy  of  a  cancer;  as 
it  grows  wider  and  deeper  it  destroys  the  fibre 
and  absorbs  the  tissues  of  the  body,  increasing 
in  intensity  with  what  it  feeds  upon,  until  the 
object  attacked  is  no  longer  able  to  withstand 
the  slightest  strain.  Oxidation  is  obviated  by 
the  exclusion  of  dampness.  This  would  not  be 
necessary  if  the  article  could  be  preserved  free 


308  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

from  abrasion  or  contact  with  surrounding  ob- 
jects; for  while  dampness  is  the  propelling  or 
primary  cause  of  rust,  it  is  not  operative  except 
in  case  of  abrasion  of  the  metal,  or  its  contact 
with  some  particle  of  matter.  Either  of  these 
precipitates  vapor  by  rendering  condensation  of 
moisture  possible,  thus  inducing  oxidation. 
Wherever  there  is  a  scratch  upon  a  piece  of 
metal,  or  wherever  a  particle  of  dust  (however 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye)  adheres  to  it,  there 
moisture  collects,  evaporation  ensues  and  rust  is 
engendered.  An  abrasion,  or  particle,  affords  a 
vantage  ground  for  the  retention  of  moisture. 
From  this  vapor  arises,  precipitating  the  condi- 
tions described.  It  is  believed  that  rails  in 
actual  use  suffer  less  from  rust  than  those  not  in 
use.  The  friction  of  the  wheel  polishes  the  sur- 
face of  the  rail,  while  the  vibration  of  passing 
trains  prevents  the  retention  of  moisture.  Pro- 
fessor Carhart  of  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  in  answ^er- 
ing  a  question  in  regard  to  the  destructive  ten- 
dency of  rust  and  the  length  of  time  that  a  rail 
will    resist  its  effects,  says: 

"It  is  well  known  that  a  polished  iron  or 
steel  surface  does  not  rust  so  soon  as  a  rough 
surface  when  exposed  to  the  same  conditions. 
Rough  lines  and  sharp  points  appear  to  serve 
as  nuclei,  about  which  water  condenses.  Moist 
air  when  expanded  suddenly  precipitates  its 
vapor  as  a  cloud,  if  dust  is  present  to  furnish 
centers  of  condensation.  Frost  crystals  form 
first  along  scratches  on  glass.  So  moisture  ap- 
pears to  condense  more  quickly  and  freely  on 


MAINTENANCE.  809 

a  rough  surface  of  iron  than  on  a  clean  polished 
one.  Rusting  takes  place  only  in  the  presence 
of  moisture.  A  clean  plate  in  dry  air  never 
rusts.  Mixture  of  explosive  gases  do  not  ex- 
plode when  the  electric  spark  passes,  unless 
vapor  of  water  is  present.  When  a  metal  sur- 
face is  once  covered  with  rust,  the  rusting  pro- 
ceeds much  more  rapidly  than  at  first,  because  the 
rust  is  hydroscopic;  moisture  is  taken  up  and  con- 
ducted inward  toward  the  metal;  hydratic  oxides 
of  iron  are  thus  formed,  and  fresh  metal  under- 
neath is  attacked  because  of  the  presence  of 
moisture  or  of  the  hydratic  oxides  on  the  out- 
side. A  coat  of  iron  rust  hastens  the  rusting  pro- 
cess except  when  the  metal  is  coated  with  the 
black  oxide  of  iron.  It  can  then  be  exposed  to 
any  weather  without  rusting.  But  the  black 
oxide  is  formed  only  at  a  high  temperature. 
The  scales  that  fall  from  the  rails  as  they  come 
from  the  rolls  are  largely  black  oxide  of  iron." 

In  a  climate  such  as  we  are  treating  of,  it  is 
probable  that  fifty  years  of  exposure  would 
render  a  rail  unsafe  for  use.  If  this  is  so,  the  de- 
terioration from  natural  causes  is  two  per  cent, 
annually.  With  a  moderate  traffic  the  average 
period  of  usefulness  of  a  Bessemer  steel  rail  is 
fourteen  and  six-tenths  years.  It  is  probable  (for 
the  reasons  we  have  already  specified)  that  a  rail 
will  last  longer  under  mild  usage  than  if  not  used 
at  all,  provided  its  strength  is  commensurate  with 
the  load.  Under  ordinary  usage,  the  rapid  deteri- 
oration of  rails  is  occasioned  by  the  speed  of 
trains.  Speed  not  only  intensifies  the  friction,  but 
increases  the  weight  through  its  centrifugal  force. 


310  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

Enquiries  in  regard  to  the  percentage  of  decay 
of  rails  from  natural  causes  elicit  the  most  extra- 
ordinary differences  of  opinion,  and  ignorance  as 
well.  They  serve  to  show  how  little  attention 
the  subject  has  received  from  practical  men.  In 
some  cases  deterioration  is  ascribed  wholly  to 
traffic.  The  highest  rate  ascribed  by  any  one  to 
climatic  causes  was  fifty  per  cent.  In  consider- 
ing the  deterioration  of  rails  from  natural  causes, 
the  damage  would  not,  as  already  stated,  be  the 
same  relatively  for  railroads  doing  a  great  busi- 
ness that  it  w^ould  in  the  case  of  those  doing  a 
small  business.  When  a  rail  is  worn  out  quickly, 
relative  deterioration  from  rust  is  not  nearly  so 
great,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  weakened  from 
this  cause,  especially  where  defects  of  any  kind 
exist  as  receptacles  for  moisture.  Herein,  un- 
doubtedly, lies  the  secret  of  the  sudden  and  inex- 
plicable collapse  of  rails  that,  according  to  the 
law  of  averages,  should  last  many  years.  Just 
what  the  difference  of  deterioration  from  climatic 
causes  between  a  rail  in  use  and  a  rail  not  in  use 
is.  is  not  known.  In  answer  to  enquiries  on  this 
subject  one  waiter  saj^s:  "I  do  not  know  how 
long  rails  would  be  effective  for  fast  running 
trains  if  laid  down  and  not  used,  but  will  allow 
a  hundred  years;  a  track  that  is  used  would  last 
about  ten  years."  Another  writer  says:  "  The 
expense  of  maintaining  rails  is  almost  exclu- 
sively dependent  on  the  traffic.  If  entirely  idle, 
the  loss  by  rust  would  be  considerable  in  rails  by 
weakening  the   hbre  of  the  metal,  and  causing 


MAINTENANCE.  311 

rapid  wear  and  breakage  when  again  brought  in 
use.  Under  ordinary  conditions  ninety-five  per 
cent,  is  due  to  traffic."  Another  writer  says: 
"There  would  be  a  slow  destruction  of  rails  from 
rust,  which  might  take  off  three  or  four  per  cent, 
of  the  expense  chargeable  to  traffic."  Another 
writer  says:  "  If  no  trains  were  run  there  would 
be  no  wear  of  rails,  except  such  as  might  be  inci- 
dent to  the  action  of  the  elements.  A  rail  laid 
in  track  twenty-four  years  would  deteriorate 
from  rust  to  such  an  extent  as  to  necessitate 
renewal  in  order  to  put  the  track  in  first  class 
condition."  An  authority  upon  the  subject  says: 
"  The  average  life  of  sixty-four  rails  we  are 
studying,  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  worn 
out  when  they  have  lost  eight  pounds  per  yard, 
and  that  the  yearly  tonnage  is  eight  million  tons, 
is  thirteen  years.  If  we  are  able  to  obtain  steel 
rails  as  good  in  quality  as  thirty-two  slower 
wearing  rails  we  have  under  test,  the  average  life 
would  be  almost  twenty  years."  The  road  mas- 
ters in  their  meeting  of  1884  state  that  "The 
average  life  of  a  steel  rail  may  be  taken  at  nine 
years."  The  source  of  information  is  not  stated, 
but  the  duration  of  the  rail,  it  will  be  noticed,  is 
very  much  less  than  is  generally  given  and  is  too 
small  except  for  roads  doing  an  unusually  heavy 
business.  From  numerous  enquiries  extending 
over  a  large  area  of  country,  and  addressed  to 
practical  men  actively  engaged  in  the  care  and 
maintenance  of  track,  I  find  that  they  estimate 
the  average  deterioration  of  rails  from   natural 


812  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

causes  in  the  lake  region  of  tlie  United  States  at 
about  seven  and  a  half  per  cent.;  at  interior 
points  less,  not  exceeding  two  per  cent.  One 
piece  of  rail  that  has  been  in  use  thirty  years  was 
submitted  to  an  expert  in  such  matters.*  He 
says:  "The  roughness  of  the  surface  indicates 
that  some  inroads  have  been  made  upon  its 
integrity.  The  fracture  recently  made  reveals 
a  highly  fibrous  texture  of  the  iron.  I  do  not 
detect  much  evidence  of  granular  or  crystalline 
structure.  The  iron  left,  therefore,  is  in  good 
physical,  or  perhaps  molecular,  condition  to  do 


Flat  Car. 

service."  The  metals  used  by  a  railway  outside 
of  its  track  suffer  from  the  same  general  causes 
as  iron  and  steel  rails. 

Next  in  order,  in  connection  with  the  fixed  ex- 
penses of  maintaining  the  track  of  a  railroad,  we 
may  consider  the  question  of  ties.  The  cost  of 
this  item  is  great  and  exceptional.  No  class  of 
material  used  by  railroads  suffers  so  greatly  from 
the  action  of  the  elements.  No  matter  how 
favorably  placed,  as  regards  quality  of  ballast, 
deterioration  is  noticeable  and  rapid.  The  kind 
of  wood  and  how  seasoned  influence  perceptibly 

*  Professor  Carhart. 


MAINTENANCE.  813 

its  duration  and  usefulness.  Quality  and  arrange- 
ment of  ballast  have  much  to  do  with  the  preser- 
vation of  the  tie  from  decay.  But  ballast  is 
intended  to  serve  several  other  necessary  pur- 
poses besides  acting  as  a  filter  to  protect  the  tie 
from  dampness.  It  serves  to  increase  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  tie,  strengthen  the  roadbed, 
increase  the  elasticity  of  the  latter,  and  render  it 
more  uniform.  Broken  stone  and  slag  are  the 
kinds  of  material  most  useful  for  preventing  the 
decay  of  ties.  Next  in  order  are  cinders,  gravel 
and  sand.  The  expense  of  handling  ties  (/,  e.,  re- 
placing) is  much  greater  w^here  slag  or  broken 
stone  is  used,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
removal,  including  labor  of  readjustment.  This 
disadvantage  is,  however,  more  than  compen- 
sated by  the  great  advantages  of  such  mate- 
rial. Where  soil  or  clay  is  used,  the  interior  of 
the  tie  oftentimes  rots  before  it  is  injured 
by  the  weight  of  the  traffic.  Where  the  business 
of  a  line  is  heavy,  ties  receive  material  harm 
from  respiking  and  resetting  of  rails,  and  if  of 
inferior  wood  are  frequently  cut  down  and  split 
by  the  rail.  Ties,  if  properly  ballasted,  receive 
little  detriment  from  the  wear  and  tear  of  light 
traffic,  except  upon  curves.  The  natural  dura- 
tion of  a  tie  is  dependent  upon  the  kind  of 
wood  of  which  it  is  made,  how  it  is  seasoned, 
nature  of  climate,  and  quality  of  the  ballast  in 
which  it  is  laid.  All  these  must  be  considered  in 
arriving  at  a  result.  The  most  serviceable  tie 
that  we  have  for  all  conditions  of  use  is  white 


3 1 4  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

oak.  It  is  able  to  sustain  a  great  load  and  affords 
very  satisfactory  resistance  to  the  elements.  Re- 
sults of  enquiries  made  of  practical  men  in  refer- 
ence to  the  duration  and  value  of  ties,  while 
exceedingly  interesting,  are  not  altogether  satis- 
factory, for  the  reason  that  the  premises  upon 
which  they  base  their  conclusions  are  nowhere  the 
same.  This  difficulty,  however,  besets  the  student 
at  every  turn  in  attempting  to  arrive  at  general 
conclusions  from  isolated  instances.  One  writer 
says:  "A  tie  will  last  about  seven  years.  With- 
out traffic,  it  would  probably  last  ten  years. 
Cedar  ties  would  not  last  as  long  with  traffic  as 
oak,  but  without  traffic  would  last  longer.  The 
life  of  a  hemlock  tie  would  not  be  as  long  with  or 
without  traffic."  Another  writer  says:  "Thirty 
per  cent,  should  be  charged  to  traffic  account  for 
damage  by  rails  cutting  into  the  tie  and  injury 
arising  from  driving  and  pulling  of  spikes,  ren- 
dered necessary  in  changing  rails  and  regauging 
the  track."  The  greatest  ignorance  exists  here  as 
elsewhere  among  so-called  experts.  Thus,  one 
writer  says:  "A  tie  will  last  just  as  long  in  a  track 
that  is  operated  as  it  will  in  a  track  that  is  not 
operated."  Another  writer  of  unusual  intelli- 
gence says:  "Natural  decay  of  ties  ballasted  with 
the  best  material,  such  as  broken  stone,  gravel 
or  cinders,  would  be  much  less  than  where  poor 
ballast  was  used.  I  should  think  twenty-five 
per  cent,  less,  as  a  tie  would  lay  perfectly 
undisturbed  and  dry,  and  would  not  be  cut  into 
by  the  rail.     In  poor  ballast,  such  as  soil  and 


MAINTENANCE,  815 

clay,  the  middle  of  tlie  tie  would  decay  before 
its  surface  was  damaged."  The  relative  deterio- 
ration of  ties  from  natural  causes  and  from  wear 
and  tear  is  dependent  upon  so  many  contingen- 
cies that  estimates  for  particular  properties 
would  not  apply  generally.  However,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  expense  of  maintenance  for  ties 
under  the  conditions  of  climate  such  as  we  are 
dealing  with,  can  not  be  far  from  seventy  per 
cent.,  leaving  thirty  per  cent,  as  chargeable  to 
wear  and  tear  of  traffic.  The  greatest  difference 
of  opinion  exists  among  practical  men  as  to  the 
damage  arising  from  decay  and  wear  and  tear, 
respectively,  one  writer  insisting  that  no  portion 
of  cost  of  maintenance  should  l)e  charged  to  traffic, 
while  another  not  only  insists  that  the  tie  is 
injured  by  the  weight  of  passing  trains  and 
changing  of  spikes,  but  that  the  movement  of 
passing  train  loosens  the  soil  enveloping  the  tie, 
thus  greatly  hastening  its  decay. 

I  have  not  attempted  in  the  foregoing  to  dis- 
cuss the  question  of  railway  ties  except  in  its 
simpler  aspects.  The  various  questions  as  to  the 
best  and  most  economical  tie  are  discussed  at 
length  elsewhere  herein.  The  subject  grows  each 
year  more  and  more  important  to  railways  and 
to  the  public.  The  great  cost  of  wood  ties,  the 
destruction  of  timber  their  use  engenders,  the 
ever  increasing  difficulty  of  procuring  those  of  a 
suitaljle  nature,  render  it  more  and  more  impor- 
tant each  year  that  their  durability  should  be  in- 
creased or  that  a  substitute  should  be  found  to 


816  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

take  their  place.  To  those  who  are  interested  in 
the  subject — and  all  who  are  interested  in  eco- 
nomic subjects  are  thus  interested — I  beg  to  refer 
to  what  is  said  elsewhere  in  regard  to  the  timber 
supply  and  its  preservation,  the  qualities  of  wood 
best  adapted  for  ties,  how  the  duration  of  wood 
ties  may  be  prolonged  by  preservative  processes, 
and  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  with 
metal  ties. 

The  cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  of  roadway 
and  track,  outside  of  the  cost  of  rails  and  ties, 
is  made  up  largely  of  labor.  In  the  appendix 
hereto  will  be  found  a  table  of  expenses,  classi- 
fied under  appropriate  headings.""''  This  classi- 
fication is  the  result  of  many  years  of  carefully 
collated  statistics  upon  many  hundred  miles  of 
railways  and  covering  many  millions  of  dollars. 
It  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  conclusive  for  the  location 
it  refers  to,  namely,  that  of  the  great  lake  region 
of  the  northwest. 


*  Appendix  B.  While  the  matter  is,  perhaps,  not  strictly 
germane,  it  is  proper  to  refer  the  reader  here  to  the  classification 
of  track  material  and  labor  embraced  in  the  volume  on  "  Fiscal 
Affairs.  Disbursements."  The  track  accounts  of  railways  are  the 
most  difficult  of  all  to  keep,  because  of  the  limited  facilities  pos- 
sessed by  those  who  have  charge  of  such  work.  Detailed  infor- 
mation in  reference  to  track  expenditures  is.  upon  many  roads, 
very  meagre  and,  in  some  cases,  wholly  wanting.  Yet  an  effect- 
ive system  of  track  accounts  is  necessary  to  the  economical  and 
effective  management  of  railways.  It  plays  a  most  important 
and  necessary  i)art  in  their  physical  maintenance.  I  do  not 
pretend  to  say  that  the  system  of  accounts  referred  to  is  the 
best;  it  is  simple. economical,  easily  kept,  and  affords  a  graphic 
account  of  the  divisions  of  track  expenses.  So  far  as  I  know 
it  is  the  most  complete  system  of  track  accounts  in  vogue. 


MAINTENANCE. 


817 


The  general  repairs  of  roadway  and  track  em- 
brace all  classes  of  material  used  in  connection 
with  the  track,  save  rails  and  ties.  It  includes 
ballast  and  the  tools  and  supplies  of  trackmen. 
The  material  embraced  under  this  head  is  quite 
as  quickly  and  vitally  affected  by  wear  and  tear 
as  rails  or  ties.  Bolts,  spikes,  splicebars  and 
nuts  receive  marked  and  rapid  deterioration 
from  both  climate  and  traffic,  while  the  tools 
used  by  trackmen  (and  they  comprise  a  consider- 
able list)  are  quickly  consumed.  General  re- 
pairs   of   roadway    and  track    embrace  various 


Flat  Car  With  Stakes. 


classes  of  material  and  include  cost  of  surfacing 
the  track,  ditching,  drainage,  freshet  repairs, 
track  watchmen,  clearing  track  of  snow,  and  re- 
moving weeds,  brush  and  grass.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  different  expenses  of  roadway  and 
track  elicits  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of 
them  is  directly  chargeable  to  traffic.  The  ex- 
pense is  increased,  moreover,  by  the  fact  that  the 
traffic  of  a  line  greatly  interferes  with  repairs 
and  renewals.  The  necessity  of  this  work  being 
carried  on  without  reference  to  weather  or  the 
accommodation  of  business  adds  greatly  to  cost. 


318  ■        SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

The  added  expense  on  this  account  is  much 
greater  than  those  not  familiar  with  the  work 
would  suppose.  Safety  and  the  progress  of  busi- 
ness regard  neither  convenience  nor  economy. 
An  occasion  arises  and  it  must  be  met,  no  matter 
how  great  the  waste  involved.  The  significance 
of  this  is  startling  even  to  railway  men.  Work 
is  carried  on  in  every  instance  at  a  disadvantage, 
and  in  many  cases  involves  large  expense  over 
what  would  be  necessary  if  it  could  be  pursued 
with  reference  to  the  economical  use  of  labor 
and  the  procurement  and  choice  of  material. 

The  most  surprising  diversity  of  opinion  ex- 
ists among  trackmen  as  to  the  proportion  that  is 
chargeable  to  fixed  expenses  of  maintenance  of 
roadway  and  track.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the 
peculiar  circumstances  that  attend  such  expendi- 
tures. It  arises  also  in  part  from  differences  in 
conditions  and  cost  in  different  localities.  The 
superintendent  or  roadmaster  whose  track  is 
carefully  and  abundantly  ballasted  with  broken 
stone  or  slag,  if  asked  as  to  the  cost  of  its  main- 
tenance, or  the  relative  wear  and  tear  of  ties,  or 
the  duration  of  the  ballast,  will  return  an  answer 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  official  whose 
road  is  ballasted  with  sand  or  common  soil.  The 
effect  of  this  local  coloring  must  be  constantly 
guarded  against  in  any  attempt  to  arrive  at  gen- 
eral conclusions  about  railroads.  People  speak 
of  things,  not  as  they  are  commonly,  but  as  they 
see  them  from  day  to  day.  No  one  is  superior 
to  influences  of  this  nature,  and  but  few,  even 


MAINTENAXCE.  319 

among  the  most  thoiightfiil,  can  rise  wholly 
above  them.  As  already  stated,  the  relation  of 
fixed  expenses  for  maintenance  to  traffic  expenses 
is  governed  largely  by  the  amount  of  business. 
Wear  and  tear  increase  with  increased  use,  but 
expenses  arising  from  decay  are  not  materially 
increased  on  this  account,  except  in  the  case  of 
rolling  stock.  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood, 
however,  as  saying  that  Avhile  wear  and  tear  in- 
crease with  business  the  cost  of  repairing  in- 
creases in  a  like  ratio.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
relatively  cheaper  to  maintain  a  track  with  the 
maximum  amount  of  business  than  with  the 
minimum  amount,  for  the  reason  that  it  permits 
concentration  of  work  within  narrower  limits. 
In  the  operation  of  properties  deterioration  is 
oftentimes  due  largely  to  traffic;  in  other  cases 
almost  wholly  to  natural  causes.  The  interven- 
ing gradations  are  infinite  in  detail  and  com- 
plexity. In  classifying  expenses  for  ditching, 
freshet  repairs,  and  removing  snow,  weeds,  brush 
and  grass,  however,  we  are  not  beset  by  any  diffi- 
culties. The  movement  of  traffic  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  filling  up  of  ditches  or  the  growth  of 
vegetation.  The  movement  of  trains  does  not 
materially  affect  the  cost  of  ditching  or  remov- 
ing snow,  weeds,  brush  and  grass.  In  some  cases 
it  increases  the  cost,  in  other  cases  the  work  is 
assisted  thereby.  However,  the  cost  of  repairing 
damages  by  freshets  is  greatly  increased  be- 
cause of  the  movement  of  trains,  because  of  the 
urgency  of  the  work  and  the  inconvenience  at- 


820  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

tending  it.  The  expense  of  keeping  a  track  free 
from  snow  and  ice  under  normal  conditions  is 
lessened  by  the  movement  of  trains.  Except  for 
such  fortuitous  help,  cuts  would  in  many  cases 
soon  fill  up  with  snow,  which,  through  the  alter- 
nation of  heat  and  cold,  would  quickly  turn  to 
ice,  rendering  removal  both  expensive  and 
tedious.  The  movement  of  trains  with  the 
cursory  assistance  of  trackmen  keeps  these  cuts 
open.  If  a  road  were  closed  indefinitely,  it 
would  matter  little  whether  it  was  imbedded  in 
ice  or  snow.  The  movement  of  trains  from  day 
to  day  also  lessens  the  expense  of  keeping  a  track 
free  from  weeds,  brush  and  grass;  excej)t  for  the 
continual  passage  of  trains  and  track  forces 
these  obstructions  would  quickly  block  the  road.* 
Another  important  item  of  track  expense  is  the 
cost  of  watchmen.  This  is,  however,  wholly 
chargeable  to  traffic,  for,  while  they  perform  an 
important  and  necessary  duty,  they  would  not  be 

*  1  remember  ^oing  over  a  piece  of  road  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Dakota  in  1874  that  had  been  abandoned  for  several  months. 
The  train  consisted  of  an  engine  and  two  cars  and  three  days 
were  required  to  travel  eighty  miles.  The  weeds  and  grass 
were  from  six  inches  to  six  feet  in  height.  Everywhere  the 
roadbed  was  tunneled  with  the  burrows  of  jack  rabbits  and 
ground  squirrels.  The  weeds  and  grass  rendered  the  track  so 
slippery  that  it  was  necessary  for  laborers  to  place  sand  and 
gravel  on  the  rails  as  we  proceeded.  Water  was  procured  with 
the  aid  of  syphons  from  ponds  along  the  road,  and  the  trestles 
and  bridges  swayed  under  the  weight  of  the  train  like  trees  in  a 
tempest.  When  eventually  this  particular  piece  of  track  was 
opened  for  business  it  was  found  necessary  to  rebuild  it  entirely, 
although  the  abandonment  had  only  extended  over  a  period  of 
five  years. 


MAINTENANCE.  821 

necessary  except  for  the  constant  i^assage  of 
trains.  In  the  enquiries  I  have  had  occasion  to 
make  in  regard  to  the  expenses  connected  witli 
the  maintenance  of  track,  the  marked  intelli- 
gence of  those  in  charge  of  work  of  this  kind, 
and  the  purely  speculative  knowledge  they  have 
evinced  in  connection  with  it,  has  been  appar- 
ent. Thus,  in  connection  with  the  expenses 
connected  with  snow,  one  writer  says:  "To 
keep  an  idle  road  in  condition  so  that  business 
might  be  done  at  any  time,  would  require  that  a 
snow  plow  should  be  used.  The  clearing  off  of 
snow  also  causes  the  track  to  heave,  and  makes 
shimming  necessary."  Another  writer  says:  "A 
road  would  not  be  in  first  class  shape  (if  tem- 
porarily closed  to  lousiness),  buried  under  six 
feet  of  snow,  and  yet  the  snow  could  not  be  kept 
off  at  ordinary  expense  unless  there  was  a  regu- 
lar train  service."  Another  roadmaster  says: 
"Climatic  canse  is  the  largest  source  of  expense, 
as  we  should  have  to  keep  the  track  free  from 
snow  by  special  means  in  the  absence  of  regular 
trains." 

While  there  is  no  great  divergence  of  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  deterioration  of  roadway  and 
track,  there  seems  to  be  the  greatest  diversity  of 
opinion  among  practical  men  as  to  the  propor- 
tion chargeable  to  climatic  causes  and  traffic, 
respectively.  The  question  is  a  new  one  to 
many.  With  more  reflection,  it  is  probable  they 
will  be  able  to  harmonize  their  differences.  Men 
experience  difficulty  in  forming  an  opinion  as  to 

21 


322 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


the  relation  iititural  expenses  bear  to  traffic  ex- 
penses, because  of  the  fact  that  the  whole  is  pii- 
marily  due  to  traffic.  This  is  true  in  the  sense  I 
have  explained  elsewhere.  Every  such  outlay 
belongs  to  traffic.  But,  in  an  enquiry  that  seeks 
simply  to  determine  what  the  local  exigencies  of 
a  property  are,  what  proportion  of  its  expenses 
is  due  to  wear  and  tear  of  business,  and  what  ex- 
penses arise  from  natural  causes,  we  may  attempt 
a  separation  of  cost  without  fear  of  being  mis- 


Box  Car. 


understood.  Every  expense  must,  of  course,  be 
borne  by  the  revenue  of  a  property,  but  that  fact 
does  not  make  the  ascertainment  of  the  source 
of  the  expense  any  less  interesting  or  less  val- 
uable to  its  possessor.  But  the  confounding  of 
forms  with  principles  always  occasions  more  or 
less  confusion  in  the  minds  of  enquirers  and 
renders  them  liable  to  decide  every  question  ac- 
cording to  preconceived  notions.  It  is  partly  in 
consequence  of  this,  no  doubt,  that  in  some  in- 
stances those  especially  familiar  wdth  the  oper- 


MAINTENANCE.  323 

ations  of  track  ascribe  an  enormous"  preponder- 
ance of  expense  to  traffic,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  men  of  corresponding  intelligence  ascribe 
it  to  natural  deca}^  In  attempting  to  arrive  at 
the  truth,  the  testimony  of  all  extremists  of  this 
kind,  it  is  apparent,  must  be  eliminated.  After 
throwing  out  evidence  of  this  character,  I  find 
that  the  differences  of  opinion  among  practical 
men  in  reference  to  natural  expenses  are  not 
great.  According  to  their  estimates  fifty-seven 
per  cent,  of  the  expenses  of  roadway  and  track, 
excluding  rails  and  ties,  is  considered  to  be  due 
to  climatic  causes,  and  forty-three  per  cent,  to 
traffic.  In  other  words,  if  a  railroad  were  to 
cease  to  do  business,  it  would  only  reduce  its  ex- 
penses for  miscellaneous  track  material  and  tools 
and  track  labor  forty-three  per  cent.,  unless  the 
suspension  were  permanent,  or  likely  to  extend 
over  a  period  of  a  year  or  more.  Fifty-seven  per 
cent,  would  be  required  to  maintain  the  track  in 
a  condition  to  resume  Inisiness  at  any  time.  This 
is  the  careful  and  considerate  judgment  of  prac- 
tical men.  The  investigation  would  l)e  more 
clear  if  we  knew  the  expense  for  track  tools 
separately  from  miscellaneous  track  material, 
but  with  this  knowledge  we  would  still  be  unable 
to  determine  what  proportion  of  deterioration  of 
tools  was  due  to  natural  and  traffic  expenses, 
respectively.  An  ol)stacle'in  the  way  of  a  sepa- 
ration of  natural  and  traffic  expenses  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  determining  the  proportion  of  the  ex- 
pense of  ballasting,  surfacing,  tamping,  etc.,  due 


324  SCLENCE  OF  liAILWAYS; 

to  the  weight  and  vibration  of  moving  trains 
apart  from  the  damage  occasioned  l)y  natural 
causes.  These  obstacles  prevent  an  accurate  ac- 
count of  relative  expenses  for  decay  and  traffic, 
respectively,  so  far  as  the  track  is  concerned.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  the  estimate  given 
above  is  approximately  correct. 

Next  in  order  comes  the  cost  of  maintenance 
of  bridges,  culverts  and  cattle  guards.  In  con- 
nection with  these  it  is  apparent  at  a  glance 
that  expenditure  is  dependent  on  the  nature  of 
the  structure  and  the  quality  of  material  used. 
Manifestly  a  wooden  bridge  will  decay  much 
more  rapidly  than  one  of  stone  or  iron  or  steel. 
The  process  of  decay  is  constant  and  can' not  be 
prevented.  A  large  percentage  of  the  expense 
of  renewing  wooden  bridges  is  due  to  climatic 
causes.  Decay  is  also  accelerated  by  the  opening 
of  the  fissures  in  the  material,  the  straining  of 
the  fibre  of  the  wood  caused  by  the  weight  of 
passing  trains.  To  this  extent  the  damage  is 
chargeable  to  traffic.  Repairs  and  renewals 
occasioned  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  traffic  are,  as 
a  rule,  proportionate  to  the  business  done.  This 
truth  finds  illustration  in  the  experience  of  every 
bridge  builder.  He  quickly  discovers  that  ex- 
penses for  repairs  where  traffic  is  great  are  much 
larger  than  where  traffic  is  small.  This  is  so 
marked  as  to  be  a  constant  subject  of  notice  to  him. 
Where  business  is  small  great  circumspection 
is  possible,  permitting  the  use  of  bridges  that 
would  not  answer  at  all  where  traffic  w^as  great. 


MAINTENANCE.  326 

The  duration  of  an  iron  or  steel  bridge  can  not 
be  determined  in  advance,  as  the  extent  to  which 
the  strain  upon  tlie  metal  will  affect  its  fibre, 
impair  its  elasticity,  or  weaken  its  strength,  can 
not  be  estimated.  The  frightful  accidents  arising 
from  the  breaking  down  of  iron  and  steel  bridges 
apparently  stable  make  it  apparent,  however, 
that  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed 
suffers  constant,  and  in  many  cases  rapid,  de- 
terioration from  the  start.  The  damage  that 
arises  from  use,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  of 
course  chargeable  to  traffic.  The  relation  that 
the  track  and  the  bridges  and  culverts  of  a  line 
bear  to  each  other  and  the  difference  in  degree  to 
which  they  respond  to  the  action  of  frost 
render  their  adjustment  a  source  of  constant 
expense  and  anxiety.  Not  only  is  the  align- 
ment different,  but  they  do  not  settle  or  rise  uni- 
formly. The  jar  and  weight  of  trains  affect 
bridges  and  culverts  so  perceptibly  as  to  continu- 
ally require  their  readjustment.  The  expense 
of  preventing  the  channel  under  or  above  these 
structures  from  becoming  obstructed  and  dam- 
ages from  freshets  constitute  a  fixed  charge  for 
maintenance.  Experts  place  the  duration  of 
wooden  bridges,  under  a  light  traffic,  at  eleven 
years.  It  is  variable.  The  life  of  an  iron  or 
steel  structure  is  much  longer.  The  expense  of 
protecting  iron  and  steel  structures  is  much 
greater  than  for  wooden  bridges.  They  require 
to  be  painted  at  frequent  intervals;  durability 
may  be  further  prolonged  by  protective  measures 


326  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

In  the  case  of  a  stone  arched  culvert,  the  mate- 
rial of  which  is  of  durable  quality,  properly  laid, 
and  of  sufficient  strength,  expense  from  natural 
decay  is  merely  nominal.  The  expense  for  re- 
pairs and  renewals  of  bridges  and  culverts  arising 
from  natural  causes  depends  upon  the  climate 
and  the  nature  of  the  structure,  the  care  ex- 
pended upon  it,  and  the  voluuie  of  traffic.  Tak- 
ing the  railway  system  in  its  entirety  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  annual  expense  occasioned  by  nat- 
ural causes  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  seventy- 
five  per  cent.  My  investigation  in  regard  to 
these  structures  has  extended  over  a  considerable 
mileage  of  road  and  there  appears  to  be  little 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  expense 
for  maintenance  from  natural  causes  and  traffic. 
The  percentage  I  have  given  is  that  of  experts. 
Whatever  the  percentage  of  expense  due  to 
climatic  influences  is,  it  will  grow  less  rela- 
tively in  every  instance  with  increase  of  traffic 
and  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  structure. 
Some  of  the  communications  I  have  received 
on  this  subject  are  exceedingly  interesting. 
Thus,  one  writer  says:  "A  bridge  will  lay  still 
all  summer,  but  as  soon  as  winter  sets  in  it  is  all 
out  of  shape.  It  heaves  by  frost  up  and  down 
and  sideways  and  out  of  line,  causing  it  to  be  cut 
down,  shimmed  and  respiked.  Wooden  bridges 
are  very  short  lived,  their  life  being  ten  or 
twelve  years.  Traffic  affects  them  a  little  by 
shaking."  Another  writer  says:  "The  relative 
exi)ense  depends  upon  whether  the  bridges  are 


Maintenance. 


•d-n 


built  of  iron  or  wood;  whether  heavy  or  light 
structures,  if  of  wood.  If  light  they  will  dete- 
riorate more  rapidly  under  moving  trains  because 
the  timber  will  spring,  disturl)ing  the  hbre  and 
opening  the  grain  for  the  admission  of  water, 
thereby  causing  decay."  Another  writer  says: 
"  I  notice  that  the  cost  is  much  greater  upon 
some  lines  than  upon  others.  It  is  partly 
attributable  to  the  difference  in  traffic.  The 
bridges  that  we  use  where  the  traffic  is  light  and 
that  we  derive  good  service  from  would  not 
answer  at  all  where  the  business  was  great." 


Gondola  Car. 

Of  the  multitudinous  details  incident  to  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  railroads,  no 
phase  of  the  subject  interests  the  enquirer  more 
than  those  connected  with  bridges;  the  feat  of 
carrying  the  track  safely  and  economically  across 
the  streams,  canons  and  valleys  that  beset  its 
course.  The  maintenance  of  bridges  afterward 
does  not  involve  special  knowledge  or  art,  but 
their  construction  and  development  have  elicited 
the  thought  and  life  la])or  of  many  eminent  men. 
Yet,  it  is  probable  that  in  this  field,  as  in  many 
others,  the  great  advances  made  are  only  the 
precursors  of  others  more  great  yet  to  come. 


828  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

The  technicalities  of  the  subject  do  not  properly 
find  a  place  in  a  book  of  this  kind.     They  are  to 
be  sought  in  the  works  of  engineers.     Countless 
volumes  have  been  v^ritten  on  the  subject.    But 
while  I  can  not  take  it  up  in  detail,  I  may  be 
pardoned  if  I  quote  here  what  an  eminent  engi- 
neer* has  said  in  regard  to  the  development  of 
the  art  of  bridge  construction  and  the  experi- 
ences of  American  railroads  in  this  direction.    It 
falls  into  line  directly  with  our  subject.  He  says: 
"In  the  early  history  of  railways  in  Europe, 
substantial  viaducts  of  brick  and  stone  masonry 
were  generally  built;  and  in  this  countrv  there 
are  notable  instances  of  such  constructions. 
.     .     In  this  country  the  wooden  bridge  has  been 
an  important,  in  fact  an  essential,  element  in  the 
successful  building  of  our  railways.     Timber  is 
also  used  extensively  in  railroad  construction  in 
the  form  of  trestles.     .    .     .     The  fundamental 
idea  of  a  bridge  is  a  simple  beam  of  wood.    If 
metal  is  substituted  it  is  still  a  beam  with  all 
superfluous  parts  cut  away.     The  result  is  what 
IS  called  an  I  beam.     When  greater  loads  have 
to  be  carried,  the  I  beam  is  enlarged  and  built 
up  of  metal  plates  riveted  together,  and  thus  be- 
comes a  plate  girder.    These  are  used  for  all 
short  railway  spans.    For  greater  spans  the  truss 
must    be    employed.      .      .      .      Except    under 
special   circumstances  of  location  or  length  of 
span,  the  truss  bridge  is  a  more  economical  and 
suitable  structure  for  railway  traffic  than  a  sus- 
pension  bridge.     The   advance   from   the  wood 
truss  to  the  modern  steel  structure  has  been 

*  John  Bogart. 


MAINTENANCE.  829 

through  a  number  of  stages.  Excellent  bridges 
were  built  in  combinations  of  wood  and  iron,  and 
are  still  advocated  where  wood  is  inexpensive. 
Then  came  the  use  of  cast  iron  for  those  por- 
tions of  the  truss  subject  only  to  compressive 
strains,  wrought  iron  being  used  for  all  members 
liable  to  tension.  Many  bridges  of  notable 
spans  were  built  in  this  way  and  are  still  in  use. 
Tlie  form  of  this  combination  truss  varied  with 
the  designs  of  different  engineers,  and  the  spans 
extended  to  over  three  hundred  feet. 
The  substitution  of  wrought  for  cast  iron  fol- 
lowed, and  until  quite  recently  trusses  built  en- 
tirely of  wrought  iron  have  been  used  for  all 
structures  of  great  span.  The  latest  step  has 
been  made  in  the  use  of  steel,  at  first  for  special 
members  of  a  truss  and  latterly  for  the  whole 
structure.  The  art  of  railway  bridge  building 
has  thus,  in  a  comparatively  few  years,  passed 
through  its  ages  of  wood,  and  then  of  iron,  and 
now  rests  in  the  application  of  steel  in  all  its 
parts." 

In  connection  with  the  maintenance  of  bridges 
and  culverts,  the  necessity  of  preventing  their 
injury  or  destruction  by  floods  becomes  an  inci- 
dent of  our  subject.  The  expense  is  a  natural 
one.  However,  none  the  less  real.  It  frequently 
happens  in  practical  experience  that  because  of 
lack  of  skill  upon  the  part  of  the  engineer,  or  on 
account  of  undue  economy  on  the  part  of  a  com- 
pany, sufficient  space  is  not  left  underneath  the 
bridge  or  culvert  to  carry  off  the  water.  In 
such  cases  the  proper  way  would  be  to  enlarge 
the  channel ;  but  as  the  necessity  for  this  will  not 


830  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

in  every  case  be  appreciated,  or  perhaps  be  prac- 
ticable, the  only  common  sense  course  left  for 
those  in  charge  to  pursue  is  to  see  that  the  water 
course  is  kept  free  from  obstruction  underneath 
the  structure,  also  above  it,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  rublnsh  that  ])y  collecting  might 
choke  up  the  stream  and  thus  undermine  or 
carry  away  the  structure. 

Expenses  attending  the  care  and  maintenance 
of  buildings  are  analogous,  in  many  respects,  to 
those  connected  with  bridges  and  culverts.  How- 
ever, these  expenses  are  not  uniform  upon  differ- 
ent railroads  or  even  upon  the  same  lines.  They 
are  like  those  of  other  structures.  The  wear  and 
tear  of  machinery,  furniture,  implements  and 
hardw^are  used  in  and  about  buildings  is  almost 
wholly  chargeable  to  traffic.  The  platforms,  doors 
and  windows  of  warehouses  and  depots  are  also 
greatly  injured  from  this  cause.  The  imper- 
ceptible wear  and  tear,  the  attendant  accidents 
and  mishaps  of  business,  occasion  more  or  less 
damage  to  every  building,  as  may  be  readily  sup- 
posed, but  its  extent  is  not  uniform.  The  nature 
of  the  structure  has  much  to  do  with  its  ability 
to  resist  deterioration  from  natural  causes.  But 
while  brick  and  stone  buildings  require,  rela- 
tively, little  or  no  attention,  the  doors,  windows, 
roofs,  floors  and  other  appurtenances  of  such 
structures  require  constant  attention,  and  the 
cost  of  maintenance  is  not  materially  different 
from  that  of  other  buildings.  In  addition  to  the 
wear  and  tear  from  traffic  are  the  losses  from  fires 


MAINTENANCE.  B8l 

chargeable  to  the  same  cause.  Cost  rendered 
necessary  by  traffic  will  depend  largely  upon  its 
nature  and  extent.  The  ability  of  a  structure  to 
resist  deterioration  will  depend  upon  climate, 
material  used  in  construction,  and  the  care  with 
which  the  structure  is  built,  but  differences  in 
this  regard  are  not  so  great  that  we  can  not  de- 
termine with  reasonable  accuracy  the  proportion 
chargeable  to  natural  causes  for  railroads  as  a 
whole.  From  careful  enquiries  of  experts  in 
such  matters  and  from  other  sources,  we  find  this 
expense  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  seventy  per 
cent. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  of  fences,  road  cross- 
ings and  signs  is  largely  due  to  material  causes. 
The  damages  arising  from  fires  ignited  by  passing 
trains  and  slight  injuries  to  crossings  are  about 
the  only  expenses  connected  with  this  account 
chargeable  to  traffic.  It  is  apparent,  however, 
that  the  damage  occasioned  by  fires  is  extremely 
variable.  Where  wire  is  used  the  expense  is 
merely  nominal.  In  the  case  of  timber  fences  it 
is  fully  twenty-five  per  cent.  As,  however,  the 
use  of  lumber  is  giving  place  to  other  material, 
our  estimate  may  be  placed  upon  the  general  use 
of  the  latter.  Taking  this  as  the  basis,  the  pro- 
portion of  this  account  chargeable  to  natural 
causes  may  be  placed  at  ninety-five  per  cent. 

The  cost  of  keeping  rolling  stock  in  repair  is 
enormously  increased  by  the  outlay  required  to 
prevent  deterioration  from  natural  causes.  This 
deterioration  is  much  greater  when  the  plant  is 


882  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS, 

actively  emplo5^ed  and  subject  to  the  vicissitudes 
of  weather  than  if  carefully  housed  and  pro- 
tected, as  would  be  the  case  if  not  in  use. 
While,  however,  the  facilities  of  railroads  every 
day  become  more  ample  and  better  regulated, 
they  do  not  yet  generally  contemplate  the  plac- 
ing of  passenger  and  freight  cars  under  cover 
where  they  will  be  protected  from  rain  and  snow 
when  not  in  use.  A  writer,  speaking  of  the  cost 
of  preserving  machinery,  says:  "A  locomotive 
taken  into  the  shop  and  covered  with  tallow 
would  be  ready  for  service  with  very  slight  repair 
to  the  stack  and  other  parts.  The  atmosphere 
would  have  a  greater  effect  upon  freight  cars,  and 
it  would  be  necessary  to  paint  them  at  periods 
(probably  of  considerable  length),  even  if  not  in 
use,  as  they  would  suffer  from  dry  rot  and  other 
causes.  With  regard  to  passenger  cars  on  the 
same  basis,  the  percentage  would  not  be  so  great 
as  freight  cars,  as  the  material  and  finish  are  bet- 
ter, but  they  would  require  a  coat  of  varnish,  at 
long  intervals,  to  preserve  the  outside  paint." 
The  upholstery  of  passenger  cars  suffers  constant 
deterioration  whether  in  use  or  not,  no  matter 
how  careful  the  attention.  The  wear  and  tear  of 
equipment  from  traffic  is  proportionate  to  its 
use.  Cost  depends  largely  upon  the  intelligence 
and  promptness  with  which  repairs  are  made. 
If  locomotives  are  not  properly  painted,  cleaned 
and  housed;  if  passenger  cars  are  not  kept 
cleaned,  painted  and  varnished;  if  freight  cars 
are  not  kept  painted  and   repaired  as   needed; 


MAINTENANCE. 


383 


if  machinery  is  not  carefully  looked  after,  deteri- 
oration will  grow  with  neglect.  In  estimating 
the  percentage  of  deterioration  I  assume  that 
due  diligence  and  skill  are  exercised  in  mainte- 
nance. For  equipment  in  use  expense  arising 
from  natural  causes  is,  for  locomotives,  eight  and 
a  half  per  cent.;  for  passenger  cars,  nine  per 
cent.;  for  freight  cars,  ten  per  cent.  For  equip- 
ment not  in  use,  locomotives,  five  and  two-thirds 
percent.;  passenger  cars,  six  and  four-fifths  per 
cent.;    freight    cars,    nine    per    cent.     Expense 


stock  Car. 


arising  from  natural  causes  for  the  telegraphic 
apparatus  of  a  company,  including  lines,  furni- 
ture, tools,  machinery,  batteries,  instruments, 
and  other  appurtenances,  is  about  ten  per  cent. 

While  it  is  apparent  from  the  foregoing  that 
differences  exist  among  experts  as  to  the  amount 
of  the  expenses  of  railroads  arising  from  natural 
causes  and  the  relation  they  bear  to  traffic,  there 
is  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  fact  that  cost 
of  maintenance  is  never  exactly  alike  in  any  two 
cases.  It  is  ever  dependent  upon  the  location  of 
the  road,  the  volume  of  business,  the  speed  of 


834  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS. 

trains,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  property  is 
constructed  and  maintained.  The  most  accurate 
data,  therefore,  in  regard  to  a  particukir  road  is 
not  conclusive  in  regard  to  otliers.  It  will,  how- 
ever, afford  an  approximate  estimate,  for  however 
greatly  railways  differ  from  each  other  in  particu- 
lar things,  they  are  generally  uniform.  If,  there- 
fore, accurate  data  were  obtainable  for  several 
railroads,  this  average  would  afford  a  glimpse,  at 
least,  of  railway  enterprises  generally.  We  have 
this  data,  covering  a  period  of  twenty  years,  for 
railways  embracing  two  thousand  miles  of  road. 
The  results  are  embodied  in  the  appendix  hereto.* 
They  show  the  relation  that  particular  items  of 
maintenance  bear  to  the  total  cost  of  mainte- 
nance; also  the  proportion  that  cost  of  mainte- 
nance bears  to  other  expenses.  They  also  show 
cost  arising  from  climatic  causes;  also  expense 
of  maintaining  the  nucleus  of  an  organization. 
I  have  not  attempted  to  exhibit  the  aggregate 
cost  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  have  sought  to  show 
the  relation  that  this  cost  bears  to  the  current 
cost  of  operating  railroads,  so  that  the  reader 
has  only  to  ascertain  what  the  different  classes 
of  operating  expenses  amount  to  upon  'a  road  in 
order  to  ascertain  approximately  what  its  fixed 
expenses  are.  The  accuracy  of  these  figures  will 
be  questioned  by  many.  The  subject  is  so  en- 
tirely new  and  the  data  so  meagre,  that  any  con- 
clusion arrived  at  may  very  justly  be  criticised. 


*Appendices  C  and  D. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

MAINTENANCE — THINGS  INVOLVED  THEREIN;  WITH 
SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  TRACK  DETAILS — SNOW 
AND  ICE,  RAILS,  JOINTS,  SPIKES,  SPLICE  BARS, 
PLATES,  ALIGNMENT,  PREMIUMS,  AND  OTHER 
MATTERS. 

The  maintenance  of  a  railway  involves  many 
things  beside  keeping  up  the  property.  A  pro- 
per organization  must  be  maintained.  Its  super- 
vision must  be  looked  after;  its  legal  rights 
maintained.  The  efforts  of  those  who  would  de- 
stroy its  usefulness  or  profitableness,  whether 
knowingly  or  ignorantly,  must  be  warded  off. 
The  property  must  be  kept  open  for  business. 
Nothing  must  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the 
regular  routine  of  work,  neither  the  march  of 
contending  armies,  the  difficulty  of  getting  sup- 
plies, or  the  complications  of  labor.  It  is  the 
duty  of  managers  to  look  after  the  property  as 
a  wdiole.  However,  these  phases  of  railway 
maintenance  are  discussed  elsewhere.  It  is  de- 
signed here  to  treat  more  particularly  of  the 
physical  property  of  railways.  Its  maintenance 
involves  a  constant  struggle  with  the  elements; 
the  frosts  of  winter,  the  floods  of  spring,  the 
storms  of  summer.  Each  part  of  the  property 
has  its  peculiar  risks.    In  one  case  it  is  danger 

*  (335) 


386  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAY8; 

of  breakage;  in  another,  the  risks  from  fire,  from 
frost,  from  flood,  from  drought,  from  neglect, 
from  lack  of  proper  understanding.  Each  thing 
must  be  looked  after,  must  be  especially  consid- 
ered. It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  vicissitudes 
of  railway  property  particularly.  The  most  that 
can  be  done  is  to  take  up  those  of  paramount 
importance,  those  that  appeal  to  us  as  vital,  as 
matters  of  such  importance  as  to  constitute  con- 
ditions, as  questions  precedent.  The  keeping  up 
of  a  property  implies  its  being  kept  open.    This 


Tank  Car. 


is  not  the  least  of  the  difficulties  that  beset  man- 
agers. Railways  of  different  localities  have  dif- 
ferent obstacles  to  contend  with.  In  the  tropics 
they  arise  from  excessive  growth  of  vegetation. 
In  the  north  from  frosts  and  snow,  more  espe- 
cially the  latter.  Thus  many  northern  companies 
have  great  difficulty  in  keeping  their  roads  free 
from  snow  during  many  weeks  and  months  of 
the  year.  At  one  time  it  was  not  an  unusual 
thing  for  roads  to  be  closed  up  for  many  weeks 
or  months  each  year,  because  of  the  impossibility 
of  keeping  them  free  from  snow  and  ice.  The 
question  has  been  much  simplified  of  late  years, 


MAIXTENANCE. 


837 


however,  owing  to  a  better  iinderstaiidiiig  of  the 
subject,  the  use  of  more  effective  suow  plows 
and  the  construction  of  snow  sheds  and  fences 
better  adapted  to  their  purpose.  The  protection 
of  railroads  from  snow  has  received  much  atten- 
tion from  track  men.  I  am  indebted  to  them  for 
the  information  I  have  on  the  subject. 

With  a  sharp  and  high  wind  snow  accumulates 
with  astonishing  rapidity  wherever  obstruction 
is  met  with.     Under  other  circumstances  it  does 
not  drift  much,  if  any.     Protection  of  the  track 
depends  much   upon  the  temperature  and  upon 
the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind.     In  locat- 
ing snow  fences  they  should  be  placed  at  right 
angles  with  prevailing  winds.    Trees  afford  the 
best  protection  where  snow  sheds   are  impos- 
sible.    Of    these    willows   and   similar    growths 
that  may  be   planted   compactly  are   the   best 
They  must,  however,  be  located  at  a  distance 
from  the  track.    Where  it  is  necessary  to  depend 
upon    fences,  as  many    should    be    erected    as 
necessary,  the  first  one  being  placed  one  hundred 
feet  from  the  track,  the  next  two  hundred    and 
so  on.    It  would  be  well  if  each  fence  were'  sup- 
plemented by  a  portable  fence;  when  the  snow 
has  drifted  to  the  top  of  the  permanent  fence 
the  portable  structure  should  be  erected  thereon' 
it  may  be  raised   higher  and  higher  as  the  snow 
accumulates.   In  constructing  a  road  in  an  open 
country  it  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  avoid  cuts  as 
much    as    possible.    When  it  is    necessary    to 
depress  the  track  the  ground   on    either   side 


338  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

should  be  cut  away  at  least  seventy  feet,  sloping 
gradually  to   a  foot  below  the  rail.    A    fence 
should  be  so  strongly  constructed  as  to  withstand 
the  most  violent  storm.    It  should  be  eight  teet 
hio-h     However,  the  higher  it  is  the  better.    Pre- 
cautions such  as  these  will  enable  a  company, 
with  the  aid  of  snow  plows,  to  keep  its  track 
open   under  the  most  trying  of  circumstances 
In  a  mountainous  country  snow  sheds  alone  wiU 
answer.     Their   nature  will   depend    upon  the 
country     On   some   roads  they  will  have  to  be 
built  so  as  to  protect  the  track  from  avalanches. 
They  must  be  strong  and  so  placed  as  to  carry 
the   snow  forward   and   over  the  track  without 
impediment.    In  the  majority  of  instances,  how- 
ever  simple  snow  sheds  are  all  that  is  needed. 
The  question  of  the  protection  of  a  railroad  from 
snow  is  a  great  one.    Its  complete  elucidation 
will  be  the  work  of  time  and  experience. 

In  maintaining  the  property  of  railways,  nat- 
urally the  greatest  importance  attaches  to  the 
track.    This  is  the  artery  of  life,  the  vital  thread. 
If   not  effectively  maintained,   risk   and   disas- 
ter follow  as  certainly  as  a  weak  truss  or  other 
defect  in  a    bridge   precipitates  disaster.    JNot 
all  railways  are  maintained  at  the  same  high 
standard,  nor  do  different  railways  involve  simi- 
lar expenditures  for  maintenance.     The  routine, 
however,  that  is  observed  upon  different  roads  is 
substantially  the  same.    Here  as  well   as  else- 
where,  wisdom  and    experience  mark  elhcient 
from  inefficient  management. 


MAINTENANCE.  389 

The  secret  of  the  smoothness  and  stability  of 
track  and  freedom  from  accident  is  not  the  re- 
sult of  chance,  but  of  far  seeing  care  and  sagac- 
ity; of  constant  inspection  and  tests.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  wait  until  a  structure  breaks  down 
to  demonstrate  its  weakness.  The  mishap  may 
be  averted  by  timely  inspection  and  subjection 
to  proper  tests.  Herein  lies  the  secret  of  the 
luxury  and  security  of  railway  travel.  If  equal 
care  and  intelligence  were  exercised  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  highways  of  the  world  that 
railways  observe,  their  cost  would  not  be  one- 
third  what  it  is  today,  while  they  would  be  an 
ever  increasing  source  of  profit  and  pleasure  to 
mankind. 

"  The  province  of  labor  is  to  make  the  track 
stable,  and  to  securely  fasten  and  unite  its  parts 
so  as  to  prevent  independent  motion.  Elasticity 
of  bearing  does  not  imply  loose  and  shifting 
parts;  flexibility  of  material  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  yielding  and  inadequate  support. 
The  impact  due  to  low  joints,  bad  surface,  poor 
line  and  defective  gauge  greatly  augments  the 
destructive  effects  of  increased  wheel  pressure, 
and  the  deterioration  of  track  is  much  accele- 
rated when  deprived  of  proper  care.  This  brings 
us  to  the  quality  of  section  labor  and  the  atten- 
tion paid  to  details.  .  .  In  nothing  do  our 
track  men  need  to  be  so  fully  drilled  as  in  the 
matter  of  thorough  and  conscientious  track 
work,  particularly  in  tamping,  to  stand  the  ser- 
vice to  which  our  tracks  are  subjected.  .  . 
Thorough  track  work  implies  tight  joints,  the 
use  of   track  level,  true  gauge,  and  conscien- 


310 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


tioiis  tamping  and  attention  to  minor  details. 
.  .  .  As  early  in  the  year  as  settled  weather 
will  permit,  the  section  gang  should  be  increased 
to  its  maximnm  strength  and  the  work  of  renew- 
als should  be  substantially  completed  by  the 
commencement  of  the  hot  season.'"'" 

Every  detail  connected  with  the  maintenance 
of  a  property  would  be  interesting  if  it  could  be 
so  generalized  as  to  come  within  our  compre- 
hension. This  is  not  possible,  however.  The  de- 
tails connected  with  the  maintenance  of  machin- 


Stock  Car. 


ery  and  equipment  are  things  that  only  machin- 
ists can  explain  or  comprehend.  To  others  the 
subject  is  a  hidden  book.  They  only  know  in  re- 
gard to  such  matters  that  renewals  must  be  made 
promptly  and  effectively  as  they  are  about  a 
house,  otherwise  the  damage  is  multiplied  in- 
definitely. The  same  is  true  of  buildings,  fences 
and  other  paraphernalia  of  railways.  It  is  true 
of  the  track,  except  that  here  the  routine  is  more 
easily  comprehended  by  the  lay  reader.  An 
English  writer  thus  describes  the  maintenance 

*  Benjamin  Reece. 


MAINTENANCE.  841 

of  the  track  on  an  English  road.*    It  is  not  notic- 
ably  different  from  our  methods.    He  says: 

"  In  Enghmd  three  men  with  a  foreman  form  a 
gang.  This  gang  has  charge  of  the  inspection 
and  maintenance  of  about  two  miles  of  double 
line  of  railway.  An  average  of  one  man  to  each 
mile  of  single  line.  The  exact  number  depends 
upon  the  extent  of  trafhc  and  consequent  wear 
and  tear;  also  the  number  of  junctions  and 
sidings  which  have  to  be  maintained.}-  Every 
ten  or  twenty  gangs  are  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  an  officer  known  as  an  inspector.  Every 
seven  or  eight  inspectors  are  under  the  control 
of  a  chief  inspector,  who  has  also  under  him 
traveling  gangs  of  ballasting  men  and  relayers, 
who  are  employed  in  renewing  the  permanent 
way  and  carrying  out  alterations  and  additions. 
Each  division  of  road  has  also  a  full  complement 
of  artificers,  joiners,  masons,  bricklayers,  painters 
and  blacksmiths,  with  their  foremen  and  inspect- 
ors, whose  duty  it  is  to  repair  the  bridges,  tun- 
nels, stations  and  buildings  of  the  company.  All 
these  men  with  their  chiefs  and  inspectors  are 
under  the  direction  of  a  civil  engineer  of  experi- 
ence, who  has  a  staff  of  suveyors,  draughtsmen 
and  clerks,  located  at  the  most  important  centre 


♦Colonel  Geo.  Fimllay.  "  The  AVorkini>' and  Management  of 
an  English  Eailway,"  pages  59  to  61. 

fThe  length  of  track  allotted  different  gangs  in  the  United 
States  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  track  and  tlie  amount 
of  traffic  passing  over  it;  also  somewhat  upon  the  cainicity  of 
the  foreman.  Four  miles  is  ahout  the  maximum,  except  in  the 
ease  of  single  track.  A  section  must  not  be  so  long  tliat  those 
in  charge  can  not  inspect  it  at  frequent  intervals,  can  !U)t(|uickly 
reacli  any  point  in  the  event  of  disaster.  < 'onsidcraf  ions  such 
as  these  fix  arbitrariij-  the  limits  of  track  sections.     M.  M.  K. 


342  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  TS; 

of  traffic  on  his  division.  The  duties  of  the  track 
force  comprise  the  daily  inspection  of  every  por- 
tion of  the  section  of  line  under  its  charge,  and 
the  repairs  of  the  permanent  way,  fences,  drains 
and  roads.  Track  foremen  are  required  to  report 
anything  they  may  observe  to  be  amiss  with  tele- 
graph wires,  signals  or  passing  trains,  ihis 
duty  is  especially  imperative  during  storms,  togs 
or  heavy  falls  of  snow.  It  is  made  their  duty  to 
furnish  inspectors  with  a  statement  of  materials 
needed,  used  and  on  hand.  Each  official  through- 
out the  corps  is,  in  his  order,  responsible  tor  the 
work  of  men  under  him.  The  stalnlity  ot  the 
permanent  way  and  works  of  a  railway  is  tre- 
quently  threatened.  Ceaseless  vigilance  has, 
consequently,  to  be  exercised." 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  force  described  by  Colonel 
Findlay,  with  its  graduated  service,  from  an  ex- 
perienced civil  engineer  down  to  a  common 
la])orer,  to  exercise  a  surveillance  not  only  over 
the  track,  but  the  property  and  buildings  con- 
nected therewith. 

On  some  of  the  French  railroads  a  novel  sys- 
tem of  maintenance  is  adopted  which  is  claimed 
to  lessen  cost.  Instead  of  making  repairs  as  the 
necessity  develops,  the  whole  road  is  periodically 
gone  over  and  repaired.  At  these  times  the  bal- 
last is  re-adjusted,  new  ballast  being  applied  if 
necessary,  the  ties  are  tamped,  the  track  cleared 
of  weeds,  the  rail  fastenings  cleaned  and  in- 
spected, chairs  examined,  the  gauge  tested  and 
corrected,  rails  adjusted,  and  defects  of  every 
kind  remedied.  The  intervals  between  these 
periodic    overhaulings  vary    according    to    the 


MAINTENANCE.  843 

traffic;  thus,  main  lines,  over  which  more  than 
forty  trains  pass  daily,  will  be  gone  over  once 
each  year;  track  over  which  twenty  and  not 
more  than  forty  trains  run  daily  will  be  over- 
hauled every  two  years,  and  so  on.  It  is  not 
asserted  by  those  who  practice  this  system  that 
other  repairs  beside  these  periodical  overhaulings 
are  not  required,  but  it  is  claimed  that  under 
this  plan  occasional  repairs  are  reduced  to  the 
minimum. 

In  the  maintenance  of  the  track  of  a  railway, 
the  foremen  in  charge  of  the  gangs  of  men  that 
patrol  the  line  from  day  to  day  are  greatly 
trusted,  because  of  their  experience  and  relia- 
l)ility.  They  are  not,  however,  as  a  rule,  men  of 
high  education.  They  are  practical  men  who 
have  entered  the  service  as  common  laborers. 
With  the  lapse  of  time,  however,  it  is  probable 
that  superior  officials,  including  civil  engineers, 
will  climb  to  preferment  through  positions  of 
this  kind.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  civil 
engineer's  efficiency  would  be  greatly  enhanced 
if  he  had  the  practical  knowledge  of  track  mat- 
ters that  is  acquired  by  the  use  of  the  pick  and 
shovel  and  by  the  actual  management  of  a  gang 
of  men.  Men  may  have  experience  in  railway 
matters  and  not  be  so  valuable  as  those  without 
it,  because  of  lack  of  general  knowledge  and 
comprehension.  But  experience  adds  to  the  value 
of  every  man's  usefulness  and  understanding.  A 
civil  engineer  in  charge  of  roadway  and  track 
who  has  came  to  his  position  through  the  various 


3U  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWATS; 

grades  of  the  service,  has  a  much  better  grasp  of 
affairs  than  one  who  has  not.  He  is  without 
prejudice  and  has  an  enlightened  undei'standing 
of  tlie  possibilities  and  practices  of  every  posi- 
tion under  him.  This  knowledge  can  not  be 
acquired  in  all  its  fullness  except  by  such  exper- 
ience. Not  only  would  the  efficiency  of  the 
civil  engineer  be  increased  through  his  filling  the 
various  positions  under  him,  but  the  efficiency  of 
such  officers,  from  the  track  foremen  up,  would 
be  greatly  heightened  thereby.  If  there  is  any 
value  in  education,  in  knowledge,  in  connected 
and  consecutive  thought,  it  would  in  this  way  be 
secured  for  the  lowest  offices  in  the  service  as 
well  as  the  highest. 

In  the  things  that  go  to  make  up  the  physical 
structure  of  railroads  there  has  been  a  tendency 
from  the  start  to  conform  to  particular  patterns. 
This  tendency  in  the  United  States  has  been  a 
healthy  one  because  voluntary,  based  on  enquiry, 
discussion  and  experiment.  There  has  been  no 
compulsion  about  it,  nor  suggestion  of  compul- 
sion. The  selection  has  been  based  on  natural 
grounds;  on  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  Inherent 
differences  in  properties  have  been  recognized 
and  attempts  have  not  been  made  to  harmonize 
elements  naturally  antagonistic.  Unification  so 
far  as  it  has  extended  has  been  predicated  upon 
similar  conditions.  The  theories  of  doctrinaires 
nowhere  find  expression. 

The  standard  articles  used  l)y  railroads  em- 
brace things  that  are  alike,  such  as  the  flange 


MAINTENANCE. 


815 


and  form  of  wheel,  the  tread,  the  interposition 
of  springs  and  equalizing  bars  to  relieve  the 
blow,  the  gauge  of  tires,  driving  wheel  centers, 
couplers,  gauge  of  wheels,  journals,  axles  and 
many  other  items  connected  with  the  running 
gear  of  locomotives  and  cars. 

But  after  patterns  have  been  formally  agreed 
upon,  they  continue  to  be  the  subject  of  ani- 
mated discussion  by  railway  officers  and  others. 


Logging  Truck. 

So  that  the  service  does  not  remain  stationary 
or  deteriorate  from  lack  of  continual  interest  and 
attention,  as  it  would  if  devices  were  intro- 
duced and  enforced  by  arbitrary  means.  The 
work  is  only  just  begun.  It  is  probable  that 
a  standard  rail  section  for  different  kinds  and 
weights  of  metal  will  sooner  or  later  be  adopted. 
Interest  in  the  matter  spreads  continually. 
Manufacturers  and  those  connected  with  the 
permanent  way  give  the  subject  constant  atten- 


846  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

tion.  It  is  of  great  importance  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  railroads.  It  forms  a  preponderating 
item  in  the  permanent  way.  And  in  regard  to 
this  latter,  it  is  the  key  of  the  railway  situation. 
It  dominates  all  other  interests  from  the  stand- 
point of  construction  and  maintenance.  The 
sul)ject  is  most  interesting  and  varied.  It  is  prac- 
tically inexhaustible. 

The  permanent  way  of  a  road  consists  of  the 
rails,  their  supports  and  fastenings  and  attendant 
switches  and  frogs;  the  alignment  of  tangents 
and  curves;  the  superstructure  of  stone,  gravel 
and  dirt;  the  bridges  of  stone,  iron  and  wood. 
This  coml^ination,  this  mass,  must  be  so  con- 
structed and  blended  that  trains  may  pass  over 
it  safely  and  smoothly  with  the  minimum  wear 
and  tear  to  both  equipment  and  permanent  way. 
An  interesting  writer*  to  whom  I  am  indebted, 
speaking  of  American  railways,  says  further  in 
regard  to  permanent  way  matters: 

"  Rails  should  be  curved  before  laying  on  any 
curve  that  exceeds  two  degrees;  they  should  be 
curved  with  some  form  of  machine  which  will 
not  produce  sudden  concussion  on  the  rail. 
Angle  bar  joints  should  not  be  over  twenty-four 
inches  long,  of  such  weight  and  shape  as  not  to 
break,  and  to  give  proper  support.  The  ties 
should  not  be  less  than  eight  feet  long,  seven 
inches  thick,  witli  face  at  least  seven  inches, 
using  at  least  twenty-eight  hundred  to  the  mile. 
The  split  switch  with  the  automatic  stand,  with 
a  flexible  tie  or  switch  rod,  should  be  used  not 

*Wm.  F.  Ellis. 


MAINTENANCE.  847 

ouly  on  the  main  track  but  on  inside  track 
switches  where  there  is  any  amount  of  switching 
done,  and  at  side  track  switches  where  a  derail- 
ment from  an  open  non-safety  automatic  switch 
would  stop  the  traffic  on  the  main  track.  I 
would  also  recommend  a  guard  rail  to  be  used  at 
the  points  of  all  split  switches  where  same  are 
not  trailing  switches.  A  spring  rail  frog  should 
be  used  in  all  cases  except  where  there  is  nearly 
the  same  wear  on  each  wing  of  the  frog  and  at 
yards  where  the  rigid  rail  frog  is  used.  The 
best  form  of  guard  rails  at  frogs  is  the  follow- 
ing: Length,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  curved  a 
true  curve,  with  a  radius  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  or  a  hundred  and  seventy-tive  feet;  center  of 
guard  rail  set  six  inches  ahead  of  point  of  the 
frog,  securely  spiked  and  fastened  with  three 
braces,  one  opposite  the  point  of  the  frog,  and 
one  on  either  side.  This  would  be  a  correct 
guard  rail  for  rigid  rail  frogs,  but  for  a  spring  rail 
frog  the  guard  rail  would  have  to  be  parallel  to 
the  main  rail  wdtli  a  flangeway  of  one  and  three- 
quarter  inches  for  at  least  nine  feet  of  its  length 
at  center  of  same  and  w^ell  braced  its  entire 
length.  Alignment  of  tangents  once  in  ten  years, 
and  especially  of  the  curves  once  in  five  years, 
should  be  corrected  by  transit.  Elevation  should 
be  such  as  the  speed  of  trains  and  traffic  demand. 
Ballast  should  be  of  broken  stone  when  circum- 
stances permit,  or  good  gravel  with  proper  drain- 
age to  same,  and  at  last  once  in  five  years  in 
the  surfacing  of  the  track,  slight  raising  of  the 
same,  where  possible  to  be  done.  All  highway 
crossings  should  be  carefully  cleaned  out  each 
year  and  renewed  with  fresh  ballast.  Culverts 
should  be  of  stone  and  covered  with  ballast  if 


848  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

possible.  Where  arches  of  stone,  through  cost 
or  location,  can  not  be  used,  iron  bridges  should 
be.  They  should  be  constructed  with  a  view  to 
carry  Avith  safety  not  only  the  weight  of  the 
present  rolling  stock,  but  a  proportional  increase 
in  the  same  as  the  last  ten  years'  progress  has 
indicated  what  it  may  be,  and  with  these  bridges 
a  floor  and  guard  rail  should  be  used,  in  which 
the  ties  should  be  ten  feet  long,  eight  by  eight 
inches  square,  eight  inches  apart,  secured  in 
place  by  timber  six  by  six  inches  square,  gained 
on  to  each  tie  near  the  outer  end  and  bolted 
firmly,  an  iron  guard  of  railroad  iron  on  the 
inside  of  the  track  rails  and  eight  inches  from 
them,  and  approaching  the  centre  of  the  track 
at  about  thirty  feet  from  the  ends  of  the 
bridge  and  connected  together  by  the  old  point 
of  a  frog;  the  long  bridge  ties  for  the  distance 
of  about  thirty  feet  should  be  j^ut  in  on  the 
ground  at  each  end  of  the  bridge  and  the  outside 
guard  rail  should  be  extended  on  same,  sjDread- 
ing  at  the  ends  about  three  feet  outside  of  the 
main  track  rail.  To  this  I  would  add  the  use  of 
a  rerailing  device.  The  metal  used  in  a  track 
should  be  such  as  the  speed  of  trains  and  ton- 
nage require.  Material  should  be  renewed  at 
the  proper  time  and  when  renewed  maintained." 

While  cross  ties  are  very  generally  used  as  a 
support  for  rails,  the  use  of  longitudinal  l^earings 
is  more  or  less  practiced.  This  is  especially  the 
case  in  Germany  and  Austria.  They  have,  how- 
ever, never  been  generally  popular  l)ecause  of 
certain  defects  and  greater  cost.  But  the  increase 
in  weight  of  locomotives  and  cars,  and  the  possi- 
bility that  such  increase  will  go  on  indefinitely, 


MAINTENANCE.  349 

indicate  a  necessity  for  further  strengthening 
the  track.  Exactly  how  this  will  l)e  done  has 
not  yet  been  determined.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  use  of  longitudinal  supports  for  the  rails 
in  connection  with  the  cross  tie  would  meet  the 
situation.  The  requisites  of  such  a  longitudinal 
system  are  thus  described  by  Thomas  C.  Clark, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.: 

"1.  The  longitudinal  bearer  under  the  rail 
shall  be  stiff  enough  to  transmit  the  load  to  such  a 
distance,  on  each  side  of  the  wheel,  as  will  limit 
the  pressure  to  not  much  over  two  tons  per 
square  foot  of  liearing  surface,  without  requiring 
excessive  width.  Experience  has  shown  that  a 
greater  pressure  than  two  tons  per  square  foot 
will  sink  ties  too  deep  into  the  gravel  or  broken 
stone. 

"  2.  The  next  thing  is  to  attach  the  rails  and 
bearers  together  by  a  form  of  fastening  strong 
enough  to  resist  all  strains  and  shocks  and  yet 
allow  of  freedom  of  the  rail  to  expand  and  con- 
tract independently  of  its  bearer.  It  must  also  be 
held  to  its  bearer  so  that  creeping  of  the  rail  on 
the  bearer  may  be  prevented,  and  that  without 
any  notching  or  cutting  of  the  rail  that  will 
impair  its  strength.  The  rails  must  break  joints 
w^ith  the  bearers.  The  fastenings  must  l)e  so 
made  that  the  rails  can  be  quickly  removed  and 
replaced  by  new  ones  without  disturbing  the 
bearers.  The  fastenings  must  be  able  to  hold 
for  a  time  a  broken  rail  so  that  it  will  safely 
pass  the  trains,  and  no  system  but  the  long- 
itudinal can  do  this. 

"3.  The  bearers  and  rails  should  be  united 
firmly  together   by   light  metallic  gauge  ties, 


350  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

placed  near  enough  to  properly  preserve  the  accu- 
racy of  the  gauge. 

"4.  The  bearers  and  gauge  ties  should  be  of 
such  shapes  as  can  easily  be  tamped  with  gravel 
or  broken  stone;  as  will  stay  in  place  vertically, 
laterally  and  longitudinally,  and  will  allow  of 
drainage  to  pass  between  them. 

"5.  The  sj^stem  should  be  so  planned  that  no 
difficulty  of  construction  can  occur  at  curves, 
either  in  alignment  or  elevation  of  outer  rail. 
Also  it  should  be  so  made  as  to  easily  join  to 
the  ordinary  form  of  T  rail  at  turnouts  and 
switches. 

"6.  Beside  the  obvious  advantages  which 
such  a  construction  gives,  there  are  two  others: 
The  upper  rail  can  be  made  of  a  harder  and 
better  worked  steel,  while  the  bearer  can  be 
made  of  a  softer  and  tougher  quality  of  metal. 
Probably  basic  steel  would  do  for  this.  Owing 
to  the  rails  being  supported  under  their  en- 
tire length  by  continuous  bearers  they  can  be 
made  of  less  depth  and  sectional  area  in  their 
flanges  than  at  present.  The  metal  so  saved  can 
be  put  into  the  head  of  the  rail,  where  it  is  most 
needed. 

"  It  is  believed  that  rails  can  be  designed  for  a 
longitudinal  system  with  heads  three  inches 
wide  and  instead  of  Aveighing  one  hundred  and 
ten  pounds  to  the  yard,  they  need  not  weigh  over 
seventy  pounds  to  the  yard.  This  saving  of 
metal  can  be  aj^plied  to  reducing  the  cost  of  the 
whole  system.  The  wear  being  confined  to  the 
upper  rail,  the  amount  of  metal  which  goes  into 
the  scrap  heap  is  the  least  possible." 

The  use  of  metals  is  becoming  so  general  in 
railway  practice  that  questions  affecting  their 


MAINTENANCE. 


851 


strength  and  wearing  qualities  grow  each  year  in 
interest  and  importance.  Many  experiments, 
undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
relation  between  the  wear  of  metals  and  their 
chemical  and  physical  properties,  have  been  con- 
ducted, but  never  under  entirely  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. But  few  statistics  have  been  col- 
lected by  railroads  on  the  subject.  The  matter  still 
requires  study.  Conclusions  now  thought  to  be 
established  will  not  stand  the  test  of  further  light. 
The  wear  of  metals  is  understood  to  be  the 
tearing  off  of  minute  particles  of  the  substance 


Car  Replacing  Device. 

by  friction.  Conclusions  arrived  at  have  been 
drawn  from  practical  experiments.  Up  to  the 
present  time  chemists,  so  far  as  known,  have  for- 
mulated no  theory  in  regard  to  wear.  It  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  particular  conditions  under  which 
it  takes  place,  such  as  lubrication,  speed,  temper- 
ature, pressure,  rolling,  friction,  etc.  Up  to 
this  time  railways  have,  for  various  reasons,  been 
handicapped  in  their  experiments,  and  the  par- 
tial conclusions  drawn  from  the  experiments 
that  have  been  made,  the  future  will  quite  likely 
upset.  It  is  stated,  however,  by  experts  in  such 
matters  that  metal  having  fine  granular  struc- 


852  SClENt'E  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

ture  (provided  its  tensile  strength  and  elongation 
are  equal  to  those  of  a  coarser  description)  will 
wear  less,  for  the  reason  that  the  particle  of 
metal  torn  off  is  smaller  and,  therefore,  less  de- 
structive. This,  however,  is  disputed.  Actual 
tests,  meagre  as  they  are,  show  that  metal  which 
may  be  extended  (elongated)  most  without 
breaking  will  w^ear  best.  Thus  rails  of  mild 
steel,  if  properly  made,  are  thought  to  be  less 
liable  to  fracture,  crushing  and  disintegration 
than  harder  rails.  The  fact  has  been  disputed, 
but  preponderance  of  evidence  seems  to  be  in 
favor  of  the  conclusion  up  to  this  time.  The 
same  is  claimed  to  be  true  of  the  wear  of  the 
tires  of  driving  wheels.  When  tires  taken  from 
wheels  of  the  same  locomotive  have  come  into 
the  shops  for  returning  it  has  been  noticed  that 
more  metal  had  to  be  removed  from  the  soft 
than  from  the  hard  tires,  thus  proving  that  the 
wear  of  the  latter  was  greater.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  experiments  conducted  in  alloys  used  as 
bearings  show  that  wear  is  greater  with  metals 
which  are  brittle,  than  w^ith  those  which  are 
more  pliable.  The  reason  for  this  is  thought  to 
lie  in  the  fact  that  in  metals  of  higher  temper 
the  rupture  of  small  particles,  because  of  their 
brittleness,  occurs  more  easily  than  in  more  duc- 
tile metals.  The  more  brittle  a  metal  the  larger 
its  granular  structure. 

Conclusions  arrived  at  up  to  this  time  in  re- 
gard to  metals  appear  to  be  that  the  greater  the 
elongation  of  a  metal  while   still  retaining  its 


MAINTENANCE.  853 

tensile  strength,  the  less  the  wear;  that  high 
tensile  strength  with  great  elongation  and  tine 
structure  give  the  best  results  in  actual  service. 
Such  are,  briefly,  the  conclusions  of  experts.  On 
the  other  hand,  tests  made  on  a  state  railroad  of 
The  Netherlands  seem  to  disprove  them  in  some 
respects;  these  tests,  it  is  said,  demonstrate  that  a 
soft  rail  wears  much  more  rapidly  than  a  hard 
one.  In  making  the  tests  a  number  of  experi- 
mental rails  were  placed  in  both  single  and 
double  tracks.  The  point  selected  was  on  a  level 
and  straight  track  sufficiently  distant  from  a 
station  to  avoid  the  use  and  effect  of  brakes. 
The  rails  were  carefully  selected,  weighed  and 
measured.  Their  tensile  strength  varied  from 
sixty-seven  thousand  to  one  hundred  thousand 
pounds  per  square  inch.  At  first  effort  was  made 
to  ascertain  wear  by  means  of  measurement 
with  a  micrometer.  These  measurements  were 
not  satisfactory  inasmuch  as  the  least  inclina- 
tion of  the  rail  removed  the  point  of  wear  to 
one  side  of  the  center.  The  instrument  would 
not,  because  of  this,  record  the  actual  wear. 
A  number  of  the  rails  were  then  taken  up  and 
after  l)eing  carefully  cleaned  of  dirt  and  rust 
with  a  steel  brush  were  weighed.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  first  and  second  weighing  gave 
the  wear  due  to  the  passage  of  trains  and  to 
rust.  The  conclusions  drawn  from  the  data  thus 
oljtained  showed  that  the  wear  of  the  soft  rails 
had  been  al)out  twenty-seven  per  cent,  more 
than  that  of  the  hard  rails,  or  inversely  to  the 

28 


354  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

tensile  strength  of  the  rails.  From  these  prac- 
tical tests  it  would  seem  that  the  harder  the 
rail  the  l)etter  the  wear.  But  as  the  wear  of  the 
rails  in  question  was  due  somewhat  to  rust,  it  is 
claimed  that  definite  conclusions  can  not  be 
drawn  until  the  rails  are  used  up  to  the  extreme 
limit,  as  it  is  yet  to  be  determined  whether  the 
interior  of  the  rail  will  wear  as  well  as  the  sur- 
face or  not. 

Each  year  witnesses  some  improvement  in  the 
track  of  railways;  the  decrease  in  derailment 
of  trains  from  an  unstable  roadbed,  from  the 
spreading  of  the  track,  from  broken  rails  and 
defective  switches,  evinces  this.  These  improve- 
ments are  the  result  of  greater  experience  and 
added  ability  on  the  part  of  carriers  to  supply 
their  wants. 

In  the  maintenance  of  the  permanent  struct- 
ures of  a  company  the  payment  of  premiums  for 
manifest  excellence  has  been  found  advantageous. 
It  has  been  found  especially  efficacious  in  secur- 
ing a  good  roadbed,  in  maintaining  and  improv- 
ing the  tracks  and  yards.  Awards  are  made  under 
different  systems  by  different  companies.  One 
company's  schedule  of  premiums  is  given  below.* 

*.'$UJO  to  the  roadmaster  having  the  best  yard  on  his  division. 
#100  eacli  to  tlie  roadmasters  having  the  best  roadmaster's  divi- 
sion on  each  superintendent's  division  of  100  miles.  #75  to  the 
section  foreman  having  the  best  section  of  two  and  a  half  miles 
on  his  division.  #60  to  each  section  foreman  having  the  best 
section  on  his  superintendent's  division,  including  yards.  #50  to 
the  section  foreman  having  the  best  section  on  each  roadmaster's 
division.  #100  to  the  roadmaster  having  the  best  line  and  sur- 
face for  the  whole  length  of  road.    #50  to  the  second  best  ditto. 


31  A  IN  TEN  A  NCE.  855 

Its  effect  in  securing  greater  interest  and  intel- 
ligence has  been  marked.  In  its  practical  oper- 
ation the  recipients  of  a  premium  are  not 
allowed  to  compete  for  lower  premiums.  The 
inspections  upon  which  the  premiums  are  based 
are  made  yearl}'.  The  men  for  whom  the  re- 
wards are  instituted  themselves  make  the  in- 
spections, each  for  the  other.  The  premiums  are 
aAvarded  under  the  supervision  of  the  employing 
company.  The  system  has  been  in  vogue  ten 
years  and  has  been  found  to  stimulate  the  ambi- 
tion of  men  and  to  increase  and  l)roaden  their 
understanding.  It  intensifies  their  desire  to 
learn,  to  increase  their  knowledge,  to  possess 
themselves  of  the  wisdom  and  experience  of 
others,  instead  of  relying  wholly  upon  them- 
selves. The  question  of  paying  premiums  for 
superior  service  is  taken  up  more  fully  in 
another  volume.'^'  The  su])ject  is  an  interesting 
one  and  of  great  importance  to  railway  companies. 
Wherever  properly  regulated  the  practice  will 
be  found  beneficial.  Men  are  differently  consti- 
tuted; some  are  more  conscientious  than  others. 
But  the  interest  of  the  best  will  be  stimulated 
by  prospective  reward.  If  this  is  true  of  a  con- 
scientious man,  how  much  more  true  it  is  of 
those  differently  constituted,  who  need  the  spur 
of  incentive.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that 
the  zeal  of  everyone  who  labors  for  another  will 
be  heightened  by  the  hope  of  special  reward  for 
faithful  and  intelligent  service.    Wherever  the 

*  "  Operation  of  Trains." 


35G 


SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 


practice  has  lieen  properly  tried  it  has  lieen  found 
lieneficial,  especially  in  regard  to  the  track  and 
train  service. 

The  maintenance  of  a  railroad  means  many 
things  and  covers  many  practices.  It  means, 
among  other  things,  freedom  from  risk,  from  ac- 
cident, from  delay,  from  unnecessary  exjoense, 
the  adoption  of  due  safeguards.  One  of  the 
greatest  sources  of  anxiety  to  railroad  managers 
is  the  care  of  bridges  and  culverts,  their  protec- 


Clearing  Track  of  Snow. 


tion  from  fires,  from  the  undermining  effects  of 
water  and  frost,  from  the  floods  of  summer  and 
the  ice  of  winter.  The  struggle  is  a  never  ending 
one.  Each  month  takes  on  some  new  phase. 
Each  structure  has  its  peculiar  risks,  its  attend- 
ing dangers.  In  addition  to  the  dangers  that 
menace  l)ridges  and  culverts  from  the  streams 
they  cross,  their  immediate  stability  is  threatened 
by  the  trains  that  pass  over  them.  The  risk  here 
is  a  double  one,  that  of  destruction  of  both  the 
bridge  and  the  train  with  attendant  loss  of  life. 


MAINTENANCE.  857 

The  prevention  of  this  double  calamity,  it  is  ap- 
parent at  a  glance,  is  one  of  supreme  import- 
ance. Yet  the  risk  is  not  so  great  or  imminent 
as  to  have  made  the  question  a  vital  one.  Acci- 
dents are  only  occasional  and  do  not,  therefore, 
greatly  impress  themselves  upon  either  the  man- 
agers or  the  public.  Nevertheless,  as  railway  prac- 
tice grows  older  and  men  have  more  time  to  think 
and  carriers  have  greater  means  and  leisure  to 
accomplish  results,  they  interest  themselves  more 
and  more  in  precautionary  measures  and,  among 
other  things,  in  preventing  the  mishaps  that 
arise  at  bridges  from  the  passage  of  trains.  The 
devices  adopted  for  this  purpose  are  manifold. 
The  great  bulk  of  them,  however,  are  manifestly 
inadequate  and  are  recognized  to  be  so  even  by 
those  w^ho  gravely  use  them.  In  many  cases 
they  do  not  knovv^  of  any  better  device;  some- 
times, possibly,  they  do  not  appreciate  the  gravity 
of  the  situation.  The  subject  is  not  one  that 
can  be  decided  off-hand,  nor  can  any  particular 
device  be  recommended  as  being  better  than 
another  or  as  ansvv^ering  the  purpose.  This  can 
only  be  determined  by  careful  investigation,  by 
actual  use,  by  the  most  thorough  experiments. 
The  device  must  answer  certain  conditions.  A 
recent  writer'"  on  the  subject  says: 

"The  device  must  be  so  arranged  that  it  can 
not  in  any  way  cause  the  derailment  of  a  car.  It 
should,  therefore,  leave  abundant  room  for  the 
passage  of  wheels,  making  allowances  for  the  con- 

*J.  W.  Post. 


358  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

clition  of  wheels  and  tires  that  are  badly  worn,  as 
well  as  those  that  are  new.  Account  must  also  be 
taken  of  the  use  of  cars  from  other  roads.  It  must 
not  touch  the  weak  points  of  a  derailed  car,  and 
must  be  so  arranged  as  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  running  gear  only.  It  must  direct  the  wheels 
of  a  derailed  car  back  upon  the  track  without 
violent  shocks,  either  in  a  horizontal  or  vertical 
direction,  and  must  bring  them  back  before  they 
reach  the  bridge.  It  must  keep  on  the  track 
during  the  passage  over  the  structure  cars  which 
may  have  been  derailed  from  any  defect.  It  must 
be  constructed  of  durable  materials,  and  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  not  fail  when  needed.  It  must 
have  no  very  heavy  pieces,  so  that  its  putting  in 
place,  repair,  etc.,  can  be  easily  done  by  an  ordi- 
nary track  gang.  It  must  permit  the  tamping  of 
ties.  It  must  be  cheap  to  make,  to  put  in  place, 
to  keep  in  order  and  to  renew.  In  other  words, 
it  must  be  easy  to  handle,  and  of  small  cost." 

The  track  of  a  railway  must  be  sufficient  to 
support  the  weight  and  rush  of  a  country's  com- 
merce and  travel.  That  it  should  be  well 
moored,  should  have  a  strong  wall  and  a  tena- 
cious fiber  goes  without  saying.  The  moorings 
of  a  track  are  its  ballast,  including  the  fastenings 
that  hold  the  rail  to  the  tie.*    The  devices  used 


*  '•  Where  there  is  not  sufficient  ballast  to  give  elasticity  to 
the  track,  the  rail  wears  out  twice  as  fast  as  on  level  ground  or 
an  embankment.  A  large  stone  or  piece  of  rock  uniler  a  tie  will 
soon  show  itself  by  the  rail  wearing  out  over  it.  Clamp  a  pair 
of  angle  plates  to  the  center  of  a  rail  where  there  is  no  joint 
and  in  six  months  the  rail  will  be  worn  down  in  a  rut  directly 
over  the  plates,  showing  clearly  that  any  extra  resistance  pro- 
duces extra  wear." — James  Churchward,  C.  E. 


MAINTENANCE.  859 

for  track  fastenings  have  been  improved  in  many 
respects,  nevertheless  no  device  has  yet  been 
found  that  will  hold  the  rail  securely  to  the  tie. 
It  may  be  too  much  to  expect  this.  The  strain 
is  perhaps  too  great.  However,  if  such  a  thing 
can  be  attained  it  will  lessen  greatly  the  wear 
and  tear  of  the  tie,  add  smoothness  to  the  road- 
bed and  lessen  depreciation  of  track  and  equip- 
ment. The  instrument  that  fastens  the  rail  to 
the  tie  has  two  great  purposes  to  serve,  first,  to 
prevent  the  rail  from  spreading,  and,  second,  to 
resist  the  effort  to  lift  it  vertically  from  its 
socket.  The  lateral  pressure  of  a  train  passing 
over  a  track  would  cause  the  rails  to  spread 
apart  unless  the  fastenings  prevented  it.  Again, 
the  effect  of  the  passing  train  is  to  depress  the 
rail,  and  with  it  the  tie.  The  reaction  of  the 
rail  and  the  tie  is  not  coincident.  The  rail 
springs  back  first.  The  result  is  to  throw  the 
weight  of  the  tie  and  the  surrounding  ballast 
with  the  added  strain  on  the  head  of  the  spike. 
This  explains  why,  in  examining  a  track,  ])ut  few 
spikes  are  found  to  press  firmly  against  the  rail. 
Because  of  this  the  rail  is  allowed  greater  or  less 
freedom  of  motion  in  every  direction.  Among 
other  evils  engendered  by  this  is  the  accumula- 
tion of  sand  and  dirt  between  the  rail  and  the 
tie,  precipitating  the  destruction  of  the  latter. 
The  difficulties  of  the  situation  are  aggravated  in 
winter.  Thus,  when  the  ground  is  frozen  it  is 
impossible  for  the  spike  to  lift  the  mass  in  which 
the  tie  is  imbedded.    It  consequently  gives  way. 


860  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

It  is  possil)le  that  a  fastening  that  will  hold  the 
rail  and  tie  compactly  together,  making  them 
one,  will  sometime  be  discovered.  The  value  of 
such  a  device  can  not  be  overestimated.  At 
present  a  common  spike,  driven  perpendicularly 
into  the  tie,  is  the  chief  fastening  used,  as  it  has 
been  from  the  first.  This  spike,  while  far  from 
perfect  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  never- 
theless, under  favorable  conditions,  gives  fairly 
good  satisfaction.  A  committee  of  experts 
having  the  matter  under  consideration  con- 
demned it  as  not  the  best  possible  design  to  re- 
sist the  vertical  pull  of  the  rail,  due  to  the  theory 
of  wave  motion,  or  elasticity,  under  the  moving 
train.  How  much  this  strain  amounted  to  they 
were  unable  to  tell,  but  believed  the  weight  of 
the  train  able  to  resist  the  reaction.  They 
thought  the  danger  sufficiently  great  on  bridges 
to  recommend  an  interlocking  bolt  as  a  precau- 
tionary measure.  What  is  needed  is  a  sjDike 
larger  than  the  one  at  present  in  use,  made  of 
steel,  that  shall  be  driven  vertically  on  each  side 
of  the  rail,  thus  securely  interlocking  the  latter, 
that  will  resist  lateral  pressure  or  any  sudden 
derangement  of  the  machinery  whereby  extraor- 
dinary outward  strain  is  thrown  on  the  rail,  that 
has  a  strong  head,  that  can  be  used  over  and 
over  again,  that  will  cut  and  compress  the  fibre 
of  the  wood  and  not  l)reak  or  mash  it,  that  holds 
tenaciously  to  the  w^ood  and  is  thus  prevented 
from  being  loosened  or  withdrawn,  a  spike  that 
will  hold  the  tie  and  the  rail  securely  together. 


MAINTENANCE.  861 

A  steel  pointed  spike  with  corrugated  sides  has 
been  invented  that  it  is  claimed  substantially 
accomplishes  all  these  things. 

"A  spike  possesses  adhesive  resistance  on 
account  of  the  friction  between  the  sides  of  the 
spike  and  the  wood  into  which  it  is  driven; 
this  friction  depends  upon  the  amount  of  com- 
pressive stress  exerted  by  the  wood  against 
the  spike,  and  the  friction  will  be  greater  or 
less  according  to  the  character  of  the  surfaces  in 
contact. 

"In  driving  a  spike  the  wood  is  compressed 
laterally.  The  resilience  or  tendency  to  spring 
back  again  gives  the  pressure  against  the  sides  of 
the  spike.  The  greater  the  compression  of  the 
wood  the  greater  will  be  the  compressive  stress 
until  the  wood  splits;  the  limit  of  adhesive  re- 
sistance is  therefore  that  which  is  due  to  a  com- 
pression of  the  fibres  which  splits  the  wood. 
Care  must  l)e  taken,  however,  in  driving  the  spike 
that  the  libres  are   not  too  abruptly   displaced. 

"With  spikes  of  large  cross  section  dimensions 
there  is  a  tendency  to  carry  along  some  of 
the  fil)res  in  front  of  the  blunt  point,  and  leave 
cavities  next  the  body  of  the  spike  instead  of 
solid  wood  in  close  contact."* 

It  matters  not  how  well  a  track  is  ballasted, 
it  will  not  remain  in  good  surface  unless  the 
rails  are  held  securely  to  the  ties.  Moreover, 
a  "  rail  ])eing  free  allows  sand  and  dirt  to  ac- 
cumulate between  itself    and    the  tie,   so  that 

*Jaraes  E.  Howard,  Mr.  Howard  thinks  that  if  it  is  required 
to  materially  increase  the  adhesive  qualities  of  the  spike  ex- 
periments should  he  made  in  the  direction  of  larger  spikes 
with  bored  holes  to  receive  them. 


862  3CIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

the  movement  of  the  rail  from  passing  trains 
becomes  a  gigantic  rasp  to  cut  the  tie.  When  it 
has  once  commenced  to  cut,  the  rate  of  disin- 
tegration is  vastly  increased.  The  wood  under- 
neath and  around  the  edges  of  the  rail  is  mashed 
so  that  it  holds  water;  incipient  rot  is  the  im- 
mediate result.  To  make  a  tie  last  its  natural 
life,  the  first  cutting  must  be  prevented."*  It  is 
a  question  whether  so  much  shimming  or  block- 
ing in  winter  would  be 
required  if  rails  were  per- 
fectly fastened,  because 
the  tie  being  securely 
fastened  to  the  rail  would 
bring  it  up  to  its  own 
Coupling  Link  and  Pin.  levcl  and  prevcut  its  freez- 
ing down  in  the  track.  The  friction  of  the  tie 
meantime  against  the  ballast,  caused  by  its  mov- 
ing up  and  down  as  trains  pass,  would  detach 
particles  of  ballast,  thus  tamping  it  to  a  fair 
surface.  "Accidents  frequently  arise  from  the 
rail  cutting  away  the  tie  underneath  the  outside 
flange,  causing  the  rail  to  roll  completely  over. 
This  trouble  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  inside 
flange  of  the  rail  is  not  securely  held  down. 
Many  European  roads  guard  against  this  by 
canting  their  rails  inward."* 

Upon  many  roads  the  rail  is  laid  directly  on 
the  tie  and  spiked  thereto  as  described  above. 
The  placing  of  a  plate  or  chair  on  the  tie  for  the 
rail  to  rest  on  has  many  advocates.   It  is  thought 

*James  Churchward,  C.  E. 


MAINTENANCE.  868 

by  them  to  prevent  the  rail  from  cutting  the 
tie,  give  it  steadiness,  and  compensate  for  a 
narrow  rail  base.  "Ties  are  made  more  dur- 
able by  this  plate  and  can  be  kept  in  service 
until  rendered  useless  by  decay.  The  cheapest 
kinds  of  wood  will  wear,  except  for  decay, 
as  long  as  the  most  expensive.  Wearing  away 
of  the  tie  by  the  rail  is  the  direct  result  of 
the  creeping  and  oscillating  movement  of  the 
rails  caused  by  the  impact  of  the  weight  pass- 
ing over  them.  There  are  also  indirect  causes 
which  contribute  largely  towards  the  wear, 
such  as  sand  or  grit  between  the  rail  and  tie; 
also  water  under  the  base  of  the  rail  injected 
into  the  tie  by  the  pressure  of  passing  trains, 
making  the  wood  soft  and  spongy  where  it 
should  be  hardest.  The  plate  overcomes  these 
difficulties.  Being  fastened  to  the  tie,  it  receives 
the  wear  arising  from  any  movement  and  fric- 
tion of  the  rail  and  thus  a  combination  is 
obtained  which  furnishes  the  wearing  quali- 
ties of  an  iron  or  steel  tie  at  a  reasonable 
cost.  These  plates  render  possible  the  use  of 
soft  wood  for  ties, —  cedar,  for  instance,  which 
makes  only  a  poor  tie  without  the  use  of  a  plate 
or  chair;  it  is  very  light  and  soft  and  is  soon 
ground  away  under  the  attrition  of  the  rails 
which  imbed  themselves  in  the  timber  weaken- 
ing the  tie,  which  quickly  breaks  under  the  line 
of  the  rail.  Wear  plates  prevent  this  and  thus  a 
cheap  tie  is  rendered  as  effective  as  a  wliite  oak 
tie  costing  much  more.  The  value  of  the  rail 
plate  is  becoming  more  marked  dail3\from  the 
increased  weight  that  passes  over  the  track.  The 
portions  of  the  tie  where  the  strain  comes,  where 
the  spike  more  or  less  injures  the  fibre  and  where 


864  SCIE^X'E  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

the  crushing  by  the  wheels  is  most  destructive, 
these  plates  perfectly  protect  from  the  weather. 
Under  the  plate  there  is  no  tendency  to  rot,  even 
^vhen  the  sun  and  rain  have  damaged  other  por- 
tions. Moreover,  the  weight  is  better  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  tie,  and,  as  the  area  under 
pressure  is  thus  considerably  larger,  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  on  the  timber  is  reduced."* 

The  durability  of  rails  and  ties  is  directly  de- 
pendent upon  a  proper  alignment  of  the  track; 
upon  the  preservation  of  an  even  and  firm  sur- 
face to  the  rail,  especially  at  the  point  of  junc- 
ture. Track  men  believe  that  a  proper  main- 
tenance of  the  joint  (junction  of  the  rails)  is  of 
supreme  importance.  It  is  ever  an  object  of 
solicitude  to  them.  If  the  joint  is  inadequately 
supported,  the  rail  head  will  be  quickly  battered. 
The  seriousness  of  this  as  regards  the  effect  on 
equipment  and  roadway  does  not  need  elal)ora- 
tion.  Track  men  are  practically  a  unit  in  be- 
lieving that  the  joint  should  be  afforded  such 
support  as  will  prevent  its  sinking  with  the 
weight  of  passing  trains.  This  requires,  if  the 
joint  is  not  supported  by  a  tie,  constant  readjust- 
ment of  the  support  afforded  by  the  angle  bar 
to  meet  the  ever  increasing  weight  of  trains. 
Upon  many  great  and  well  managed  roads  the 
joint  is  not  thus  placed,  but  is  supported  only  by 
a  splicebar, — a  bar  fitting  to  the  rail  on  each 
side,  lapping  at  the  point  of  junction  and  securely 
bolted  to  the  rail.     Each  method  has  its  advo- 


*James  Churchward,  C.  E. 


MAIN  TEN  A  NCE.  866 

cates.  The  form  of  the  rail  and  the  pattern  of 
the  splicebar  are  factors  that  must  be  considered 
in  discussing  the  merits  of  the  support  to  be 
afforded  the  joint.  Mr.  Churchward,  whom  we 
have  already  quoted,  thus  passes  j  adgment  in  the 
matter: 

"Present  joints  are  a  failure.  The  principal 
way  of  fastening  the  ends  of  the  rails  is  by 
means  of  splice  bars  in  some  form  or  other. 
This  is  the  correct  way;  they  form  a  bridge  or 
support  to  uphold  the  ends  of  the  rails,  and, 
bearing  against  the  head  of  the  rail  as  well  as 
the  flange,  keep  the  rails,  where  they  join,  in 
line  and  continuity.  The  objections  to  any 
fastening  that  does  not  bear  against  the  heads  of 
the  rails  as  well  as  the  base  are:  on  curves,  as 
the  heads  of  the  rails  are  in  no  wise  held  in  con- 
tinuity, it  is  a  question  whether  with  a  heavy 
engine  swerving  against  a  light  rail,  the  engine 
would  not  l)end  the  loaded  rail  slightly  over,  pre- 
senting the  face  of  the  receiving  rail  for  the 
flanges  of  the  wheels  to  strike,  thus  causing  de- 
railment; and  another  question  is  whether  the 
wel)  or  base  of  the  rail  would  not  break  also,  the 
leverage  on  it  being  greatly  enhanced.  The  pres- 
ent angle  or  splice  bars  are  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes.  They  w^ear  and  crush  down  underneath 
the  ends  of  the  rails;  a  cavity  thus  forms  in 
their  center.  The  fault  is  not  with  the  plates 
but  with  the  rails.  The  bearing  surface  under- 
neath the  head  of  the  rail  for  the  splice  bar  (in 
the  present  shaped  rails)  is  only  about  half  an 
inch,— often  less.  This  half  inch  bearing  or  face 
has  to  sustain  the  lilow  and  weight  of  great  en- 
gines ever  increasing  in  weight.    It  is  impossible 


866 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


for  this  face  to  withstand  the  blow  it  receives. 
DoAvn  it  goes,  forming  first  a  loose,  then  a  low, 
joint.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  suspended  joint 
satisfactory  with  the  present  shaped  rails  and 
the  ordinary  shaped  splice  bars.  The  only  thing 
that  can  be  done  is  to  make  the  joint  on  a  tie 
with  the  plate  underneath  the  ends  of  the  rails 
to  help  the  splice  bars  withstand  the  blow  and 

weight  of  the  load.  If 
a  suspended  joint  is 
used, — /.  c,  where  the 
ends  of  the  rails  con- 
nect between  two  ties, 
— it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  have  a  base  or 
auxiliary  plate.  Initial 
wear  under  the  rail 
must  be  prevented,  as 
tightening  of  bolts  aft^r 
they  have  once  started 
can  not  make  the  joint 
solid  again.  Each  suc- 
ceeding blow  from  the 
wheels,  from  its  length- 
ened drop,  falls  heavier 
than  the  previous  one,  making  the  cavity  deeper 
between  the  end  of  the  rail  and  upper  bearing  of 
the  splice  bar.  The  lower  bearing  of  the  angle 
plate  on  the  flange  of  the  rail  never  shows  the 
same  wear  as  the  head,  simply  because  the  lower 
bearings  are  wide  enough  to  withstand  the  blow. 
We  therefore  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
not  practicable  to  form  a  perfect  joint  with  angle 
or  splice  bars  without  the  aid  of  an  auxiliary 
base  plate.  It  is  yet  to  be  demonstrated  which 
is  the  best  form  of  plate.    It  must  not  be  too 


Automatic  Coupler. 


MAINTENANCE.  367 

heavy,  otherwise  it  will  present  an  extra  resist- 
ance to  the  wheels,  the  effect  of  which  will  be 
as  damaging  as  low  joints.'^'  If  a  four  bolted 
angle  plate  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
wear  commences  about  the  second  l)olt  and  in- 
creases past  the  hrst,  obtaining  its  maximum 
directly  underneath  the  end  of  the  rail.  Many 
of  our  roads  are  increasing  their  angle  plates  to 
nearly  double  the  old  length  to  prevent  the 
crushing  over  and  in  front  of  the  first  bolt.  What 
is  required  is  sufficient  ))earing  and  strength,  not 
extra  length.  A  splice  should  never  be  over 
twenty  inches,  and  eighteen  would  l)e  better; 
but  it  must  have  the  necessary  bearings  to  with- 
stand crushing,  and  an  elastic  limit  equal  to  the 
same  length  of  rail.  The  objection  to  long 
joints  is,  they  commence  to  strengthen  what  is 
not  weak,  and,  stopping  the  elastic  wave  of  the 
rail,  they  cause  the  wheels  to  jump  and  ricochet 
over  the  joint,  thereby  turning  the  even,  gliding 
movement  of  the  wdieels  into  a  direct  hammer- 
ing blow  on  the  weakest  part  of  the  construction 
—the  joint,  A  false  mechanical  function  has 
been  placed  on  the  plates  now  in  use.  They  are 
slotted  or  punched  to  receive  the  spikes  to  pre- 
vent the  rail  from  creeping.  Originally  they 
were  only  intended  to  keep  the  ends  of  the  rails 

*"  What  is  absolutely  required  for  a  perfect  joint  is  a  set  of 
plates  whose  elastic  limit  shall  be  at  least  equal  to  the  same 
length  or  span  of  the  rail.  These  plates  should  have  a  bearing 
under  the  head  or  base  of  the  rail  sufficiently  large  to  prevent 
crushing  down  under  the  weight  of  the  maximum  load ;  this 
bearing  to  be  always  kept  solid  by  a  sufficiently  strong  auto- 
matic power — a  power  that  will  force  the  plates  to  this  solid 
bearing  as  the  scale  wears  off  and  retain  them  there  under  the 
maximum  load,  so  that  the  joint  has  never  any  movement  inde- 
Dcndent  of  the  rail." — James  Churchward^  C.  E, 


868  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

up  and  in  line.  This  is  enough.  They  are  now 
clamped  to  the  rail  and  spiked  to  the  tie  in  such 
a  position  that  with  every  passing  wheel  the  rails 
and  plates  are  antagonized  and  all  repose  de- 
stroyed. The  spiked  angle  plate  resists  creeping; 
with  every  passing  wheel  the  rails  are  pushed 
forward  and  again  brought  back  with  the  plates. 
Every  movement  involves  friction  between  the 
two  surfaces.  Metal  is  displaced  by  each  oper- 
ation. If  the  loss  is  infinitesimal,  multiply  the 
atoms  by  the  wheels  passing  over  the  joint  and  it 
will  be  plainly  seen  why  the  joint  is  so  quickly 
ruined.  How  is  creeping  to  be  stopped?  By 
putting  a  separate  fastening  on  the  receiving  tie, 
so  that  the  rail  is  fastened  to  this  tie.  There  are 
three  or  four  forms  of  these  fastenings, — simple, 
effective  and  cheap. 

"One  can  not  hnd  on  any  road  with  heavy 
traffic  a  joint  that  is  perfect  at  the  end  of  two  or 
three  years'  wear.  They  are  all  more  or  less 
worn  and  low.  Every  one  of  these  joints  is 
below  the  center  of  the  rail,  and  goes  lower 
every  day.* 

"No  angle  plate  has  yet  been  constructed  that 
has  an  equal  perpendicular  strength  as  the  same 
length  of  span  in  the  rail;  consequently  when 
the  weight  of  a  passing  load  comes  on  the  ends 
of  the  rails,  it  bends  the  plates  down,  and  in  a 
short  time  forms  a  permanent  set  in  them.    Many 


*  He  attributes  this  to  the  form  of  rail  in  use,  first,  in  the 
preponderance  of  metal  in  the  head  over  the  base  and  the  effect 
of  the  sun's  rays  on  it,  and  second,  because  the  elasticity  and 
compactness  of  the  fibres  are  less  in  a  thick  headed  rail  head 
than  in  its  base,  for  the  reason  that  the  metal  being  so  much 
thicker  in  the  liead  does  not  get  compressed  by  the  rolls,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  web  and  base.  M.  M.  K. 


MAINTEXANCE.  869 

roads  appreciating  this  fact,  are  placing  the  ends 
on  a  tie,  to  give  atUlitional  support  to  the  plates. 
It  is  but  a  short  time  before^  the  ends  of  the  rails, 
bending  the  plates,  start  to  dent  the  wooden  tie 
underneath,  so  that  the  evil  of  a  low  joint  is  only 
partially  obviated  by  placing  the  joint  on  a  tie. 
When  the  tie  has  been  dented  down,  and  the 
loaded  rail  can  sink  below  the  receiving  rail,  it 
strikes  the  latter  wdth  a  leavy  blow  in  taking  it, 
which  batters  and  burrs  out  the  end,  and  finally 
ruins  the  joint.  The  tie  plate  referred  to  else- 
where prevents  this,  because  the  loaded  rail  can 
not  crush  the  tie,  consequently  the  loaded  rail  is 
always  kept  up  on  a  level  wdth  the  receiving  rail. 
This  does  away  with  the  blow  before  mentioned, 
and  extends  the  life  of  a  joint  in  a  very  marked 
degree." 

The  effect  of  a  depression  in  a  rail,  in  the  joint 
or  elsewhere,  is  felt  outside  of  the  increased 
wear  and  tear  involved  on  roadway  and  ma- 
chinery. It  involves  loss  of  power;  a  constant 
lifting  of  the  vehicle  from  the  declivities  or  sink- 
age  in  the  track  into  which  it  falls.  The  power 
is  proportionate  to  the  number  and  depth  of  the 
depressions  and  the  velocity  of  the  moving  vehi- 
cle. Moreover,  a  weak  spot  in  a  rail  involves  an 
undue  strain  on  the  rail  opposite  caused  by  the 
increased  weight  it  must  bear.  Depressions  in 
the  track,  as  already  noticed,  are  occasioned  by 
defective  joints,  by  lack  of  support  for  the  tie 
and  by  the  tie  being  cut  into  by  the  rail. 

Track  fastenings,  whatever  they  may  be,  must 
adjust  themselves  to  the  form  of  rail  in  vogue. 
The  patterns  that  answer  with  one  form  will  not 

21 


370  SCIEXCE  0  F  LA  IL  WA  YS; 

answer  ^vith  another.  Thus,  the  device  used 
with  the  form  of  rail  in  the  United  States  would 
be  entirel}^  out  of  place  in  India,  where  a  different 
pattern  is  used. 

Upon  bridges  and  curves  the  spike  we  use  is 
frequently  supplemented  by  a  bolt.  The  pre- 
caution is  a  natural  and  wise  one.  In  early  use, 
rail  joints  Avere  supported  by  a  piece  of  metal 
called  a  "  chair."  The  device  was  far  from  satis- 
factory. It  was  replaced  by  the  splice  bar 
already  described.  The  latter  added  greatly  to 
the  agreeableness  of  travel  and  measurably  re- 
duces the  wear  and  tear  of  track  and  machinery. 


Continuous  Draw  Bar. 


It  is,  however,  as  has  been  shown,  far  from  per- 
fect. The  form  that  will  replace  it  will  depend 
upon  the  form  of  rail  and  the  speed  and  weight 
to  be  supported. 

In  considering  what  has  been  done  by  railways 
in  connection  with  the  track,  it  is  impossible  to 
resist  the  conclusion  that  advancement  in  this 
department  of  the  service  has  not  kept  pace  with 
that  elsewhere.  Greater  familiarity  with  the 
subject  upon  the  part  of  directing  engineers  and 
other  ofticials  will  perhaps  remedy  the  discrep- 

ancv. 

The  details  connected  with  the  care  and  main- 
tenance of  track  are  infinite.    I  can  not  hope  to 


MAINTENANCE.  371 

deal  here  with  anything  except  its  vital  parts. 
These  have  been  noticed.  Perhaps  amply.  Yet 
1  can  not  close  what  I  have  to  say  on  the  subject 
of  track  joints  without  quoting  what  a  very  in- 
teresting and  intelligent  writer*  has  to  say  on 
the  subject.     He  says: 

"First.  The  splice  bar  must  hold  the  two  ends 
of  the  rail  at  the  same  level;  not  allowing  the 
slightest  depression  in  one  end  without  an  equal 
depression  in  the  other. 

"Second.  The  strength  to  resist  a  vertical  stress 
or  shock  downwards  at  the  joint  should  be  fully 
twenty-liye  per  cent,  greater  than  the  strength 
of  the  rail  to  resist  a  similar  stress  or  shock  at 
any  point  in  its  length. 

"Third.  When  the  joint  contrivance  is  tight- 
ened securely  in  all  its  parts,  in  a  condition  to 
meet  the  above  requirements,  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  rails  should  be  absolutely  un- 
hindered; otherwise,  the  rails  will  be  bent  while 
expanding,  and  the  track,  in  extreme  cases,  be 
buckled  or  spread. 

"Fourth.  At  the  same  time  the  rails  must  be 
held  so  hrmly  that,  with  good  ties  and  ballast, 
the  creeping  or  running  of  the  track  will  be 
effectually  prevented. 

"Fifth.  The  joint  device  should  not  require  a 
form  of  rail  which  is  uneconomical  in  the  dis- 
position of  metal,  or  which  for  any  reason  is  not 
as  well  suited  as  another  form. 

"In  addition  to  this,  there  is  also  that  very  im- 
portant consideration,  the  ease  of  manipulation, 
as  governing  the  convenience  and  rapidity  of  lay- 
ing   track.     Thus  if  a  joint  is  cumbersome,  in 

*F.  A.  Delano. 


372  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

many  parts,  and  slow  to  lay  track  with,  such  dis- 
advantages should  be  taken  into  account  in  figur- 
ing the  hrst  cost  of  the  joints. 

"Passing  briefly  over  this  list  of  requirements 
in  order,  let  us  consider  the  good  points  and  the 
bad  of  the  common  types  of  joints  now  on  the 
market. 

"1.  The  fish  plate  and  angle  bar  type  meet 
the  first  requirement  very  well  while  they  are 
new  and  the  bolts  are  tight;  but  if  for  any  cause 
the  bolts  get  loose  or  broken  the  two  rail  ends 
are  not  held  at  the  same  height,  or  if  the  joint  is 
neglected  the  bar  is  nicked  or  bent  and  loses  at 
once  its  principal  value,  no  matter  how  much  at- 
tention it  has  afterward. 

"2.  All  hsli  plates  and  most  angle  bars  are 
sadly  dehcient  in  strength,  making  the  strength 
at  the  joint  only  partly  as  strong  as  the  body  of 
the  rail,  whereas  it  should  be  twenty-five  per 
cent,  stronger  than  the  body  of  the  rail.  With 
rail  sections  having  wide,  thin  heads  which  are 
now  being  so  widely  adopted  in  this  country,  it  is 
possible  to  make  the  angle  bar  far  stronger  than 
it  has  been  possible  to  do  with  rails  having  deep 
and  narrow  heads;  but  after  all  the  strength  of 
the  angle  bar  is  only  effective  when  the  bolts 
hold  it  fiiglit  in  its  position. 

"3.  Every  roadmaster  knows  that  fish  plates 
and  angle  bars  when  tightly  liolted  up  do  not 
meet  the  third  requirement,  and  it  is  well  known 
that  if  the  track  bolts  are  too  tight  in  summer 
the  angle  bars  clutch  the  rail  with  so  much  fierce- 
ness that  the  track  is  liable  to  be  kinked  or 
buckled  sooner  than  let  the  rails  take  up  the  full 
space  which  has  been  left  for  expansion.  Know- 
ing that  this  is  the  case  with  angle  bars  twenty- 


MAINTENANCE.  378 

six  inches  long  with  four  bolts,  it  seems  to  me 
poor  wisdom  to  make  the  bar  forty-four  to  forty- 
eight  inches  long  with  six  bolts.  Indeed,  it  seems 
to  me  that  this  question  of  expansion  and  con- 
traction in  rails  is  too  little  regarded  in  the  con- 
sideration of  rail  joints,  and  many  of  the  patented 
devices  which  aim  at  curing  the  faults  in  the 
angle  bar  type  of  joint  tuml)le  into  the  fault  of 
making  no  provision  for  the  unhindered  expan- 
sion and  contraction. 

"4.  One  much  heard  of  and  advertised  device, 
while  containing  many  good  features,  allowing 
free  expansion  and  contraction,  places  no  limit  on 
the  distance  apart  that  the  rails  might  be.  In 
this  respect  the  angle  bar  is  good  and  prevents 
creeping,  especially  if  anchored  to  three  ties. 
Some  of  the  patent  devices  attempt  to  hold 
the  rail  from  creeping  by  notching  it  in  the 
flange,  which  is,  of  course,  a  bad  practice,  as 
it  makes  the  rail  very  liable  to  break  through 
the  notch. 

_  "5.  Angle  bar  and  fish  plate  joints  are  at  fault 
m  respect  to  the  fifth  requirement  in  as  much  as 
such  a  type  of  joint  requires  flat  finishing  angles 
(the  more  nearly  horizontal  the  better),  small 
internal  fillets,  so  as  to  reduce  the  area  of 
support  as  little  as  possible,  and  small  corner 
fillets,  to  increase  this  area  of  support  as  much 
as  possible.  To  make  a  rail  for  the  angle  bar 
involves  a  sacrifice  unquestionably,  and  while 
I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  sacrifice 
IS  not  worth  making,  I  do  think  it  is  one  which 
should  be  admitted  and  its  value  in  money,  as 
nearly  as  it  can  be  estimated,  added  to  the  cost 
of  the  joint  when  considering  it  in  comparison 
with  other  devices. 


874  SCIENGE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

"6.  Lastly,  to  take  up  the  question  of  the  ease 
of  manipulation,  etc.,  probabl}^  nothing  will  ever 
be  made  which  surpasses  the  angle  bar  or  fish- 
plate joint  for  convenience  in  rapid  laying,  and 
undoubtedly  the  extra  time  and  labor  incident  to 
laying  rail  with  other  devices  should  be  charged 
as  part  of  the  first  cost  of  the  joint." 

Mr.  Delano  thinks  that  the  perfect  rail  joint 
has  yet  to  be  devised.    He  concludes  as  follows: 

"A  good  track  joint  depends  a  great  deal  on 
the  man  who  lays  the  steel  and  the  man  who 
takes  care  of  it.  Rails  which  are  laid  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  apart  in  midsummer  when  they  should 
be  close  together  can  not  give  the  best  results, 
no  matter  how  good  the  subsequent  maintenance 
may  be.  However,  irrespective  of  the  care  which 
joints  may  get,  they  have  a  tendency  to  get  low. 
Firstly,  because  there  is  a  blow  at  the  opening 
between  the  rails  to  cause  this,  and  secondly,  be- 
cause the  rolling  of  the  wheels  tends  to  lengthen 
the  head,  while  the  base  remains  the  same,  thus 
arching  the  rail  to  the  detriment  of  the  joint. 
The  hrst  difficulty  can  not  be  wholly  avoided, 
but  possibly  the  second  might  be  partly  over- 
come by  making  the  rails  a  little  low  in  the 
center.  I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  the  rail 
should  show  this  hollow  when  in  the  track,  Init 
simply  that  when  on  supports  fifteen  feet  apart, 
and  seven  and  one-half  feet  from  each  end,  the 
rail  should  be  hollowed  enough  to  be  one-quarter 
to  one-half  an  inch  lower  at  the  center  than  at 
the  ends." 

It  is  possible  that  rails  will  be  ultimately 
welded  together  in  the  track  by  electricity,  so  as 
to  make  a  continuous  rail.    If  necessary  to  re- 


MAINTENANCE.  876 

pair  any  defect,  the  same  power  will  be  used  to 
sever  the  rails  and  reattach  them. 

The  maintenance  of  a  railway  involves,  as  we 
have  already  pointed  out,  innumeral)le  things. 
Some  of  these  I  have  referred  to  directly;  others 
I  have  only  hinted  at.  It  involves  the  procure- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the  books,  blanks, 
forms  and  stationery  of  a  company;  its  furni- 
ture, fixtures  and  appliances;  a  proper  system  of 
accounts;  the  telegraph;  responsible  methods  of 
handling  money;  the  purchase,  inspection,  care 
and  use  of  material;  the  proper  employment  of 
labor;  the  responsibilities  of  officers  and  em- 
ployes; the  government  of  the  corporation;  the 
handling  of  traffic  and  its  appurtenances;  the 
issuance  of  tariffs,  rates  and  classifications;  the 
movement  of  trains.  Each  one  of  these  is  in- 
volved in  the  maintenance  of  a  railway.  I  have, 
however,  given  them  more  or  less  full  exposition 
elsewhere.  I  desire  here,  as  already  explained, 
to  treat  more  particularly  of  the  physical  opera- 
tions of  a  railway,  its  track,  equipment  and 
attendant  structures. 

Much  is  said  about  the  track.  The  theme  is  a 
great  one.  Questions  connected  with  the  main- 
tenance of  machinery  and  equipment  are  even 
more  varied,  more  prolix;  but  less  understood. 
Only  those  who  have  practical  experience  are 
capable  of  understanding  such  matters.  Such 
persons  acquire  their  knowledge,  not  from  obser- 
vation or  the  reading  of  books,  but  from  actual 
experience.    To  attempt,  therefore,  to   describe 


376  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

the  construction  or  maintenance  of  equipment 
and  machinery  woukl  he  time  thrown  away.  A 
hrief  reference,  however,  to  the  salient  features 
of  the  suhject  may  not  he  out  of  place.  It  will 
he  merely  descriptive.  As  those  familiar  with 
such  matters  know,  railways  repair  and  renew 
their  equipment  at  shops  conveniently  located 
along  the  line  for  that  purpose.  Each  company, 
however,  has  a  central  shop  where  important  re- 
newals are  made.  The  ohject  is  to  reduce  plant, 
economize  in  the  supervisory  force  and  keep 
down  the  quantity  of  material  on  hand  to  the 
minimum.  Lesser  shops  are  expected  to  make 
only  such  current  repairs  as  the  equipment  may 
need  to  keep  it  in  continual  use.  When  an  en- 
gine or  car  requires  general  repairs  or  rehuilding 
it  is  sent  to  the  central  shop,  where  facilities 
are  especially  adapted  to  the  work.  In  addition, 
however,  to  the  various  shops  that  a  company 
maintains,  it  has  scattered  along  its  line  at  vari- 
ous places  particular  men  or  groups  of  men 
whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  the  care  and  main- 
tenance of  the  equipment.  It  is  their  place  to 
inspect  all  cars  that  pass  their  stations;  to  see 
that  the  wheels  and  other  running  gear  are  in 
good  order  and  lubricate  them.*  At  particular 
points  forces  are  kept  to  cleanse  the  interior  and 

*The  effect  of  lubrication  is  to  separate  the  surface  of  the 
bearing  by  a  layer  of  lubricant.  Thus  the  brass  passes  quite 
out  of  contact  with  the  journal,  so  that  if  the  lubricant  were 
pure  and  sufficient  in  quantity,  there  woukl  never  l)e  any  wear 
whatever,  friction  between  the  parts  being  entirely  overcome. 
Wear  arises  from  the  solids  held  in  suspension  in  the  lubricant 


MAINTENANCE. 


%11 


exterior  of  cars,  to  look  after  the  lights,  to  sup- 
ply them  with  fuel  and  see  that  they  are  prop- 
erly heated  for  use,  and  perform  other   duties 
incident  to  the  care  and   maintenance  of    the 
rolling  stock.    These  duties  refer  wholly  to  cars. 
The   care   and  maintenance  of   engines   passing 
over  the  line  is  looked  after  by  those  in  charge 
Machinery  at  shops  is  kept  in  repair  by  those 
immediately  in  charge,  by  purchase  of  the  thing 
needed  or  otherwise.    As  a  rule,  an  article  may 
be  bought  in  the  market  for 
less  than  it  can  be  made  or 
repaired  at  the  shops  of  a 
company.   The  maintenance 
of  the  machinery  and  equip- 
ment of  a  road   require  the 
most   painstaking    and 
thorough   organization   and 
foresight  to  keep  it  at  a  point 
that  is  effective    and  safe. 
Inefficiency  here  can  hardly 
be  estimated  in  its  disastrous  results  to  a  company. 
In  the  maintenance  of  cars  the  draw  bar  and 
its  fixtures  succumb  most  frequently  to  the  wear 
and  tear  of  use;  next  to  these  the  running  gear, 
brakes  and  wheels.    The  process  of  repair  and 
renewal  commences  immediately  with  the  use 

or  injected  afterward.  This  solid  matter  has  a  corrodiiicr 
effect  on  the  bearing  surfaces.  It  is  less  harmful  if  the 
particles  are  fine  and  the  quantity  of  the  lubricant  ample  so 
that  the  particles  have  opportunity  to  adjust  themselves  in  the 
lubricant.  If  the  lubricant  is  scant,  wear  is  more  quick  and 
destructive. 


Car  Wheel  (Paper). 


378  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

of  an  engine  or  car  and  goes  on  with  ever  in- 
creased nionientum  until  the  object  becomes  so 
worn  and  strained  that  it  must  be  relegated  to 
the  shops  for  general  repairs  or  to  be  broken  up. 

The  machinery  required  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  various  parts  of  a  locomotive  or  car  is  sug- 
gested by  the  thing  itself  and  is  forthcoming 
with  the  need.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  skill  and 
inventive  genius  of  draftsmen  and  machinists. 
Perfection  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  require- 
ment. Around  each  great  principle  or  thought 
multitudes  of  collateral  thoughts  revolve.  ^  The 
machines  that  have  been  invented  and  are  in  use 
are  in  their  number  and  integral  parts  more 
numerous  than  the  stars  of  heaven. 

In  the  maintenance  of  the  equipment  of  a 
company,  painting  and  varnishing  are  important 
factors.  They  constitute  an  ever  recurring  ex- 
pense. Painting  equipment  does  not  serve  alone 
an  esthetic  or  ornamental  purpose,  for  while 
incidentally  it  achieves  this,  its  more  important 
function  is  the  preservation  of  the  equipment 
and  its  protection  from  the  elements.  The  mate- 
rial used  requires  to  ]:»e  of  the  best.  Oils  and 
varnish  fresh  from  the  manufactory  are  unfit  for 
use.  They  must  be  allowed  to  settle.  In  the 
preparation  of  paints,  the  necessary  ingredients 
must  be  carefully  weighed  and  measured  by  a 
particular  person.  The  material  must  be  pure 
and  finely  ground.  Colors  should  be  harmonious 
and  permanent.  The  work  should  at  no  stage 
be   hurried.     Varnish  must    be  thoroughly  dry 


MAINTENANCE.  379 

and  hard  before  being  exposed,  and  in  order  to 
secure  this  plenty  of  covered  space  is  required, 
well  lighted,  ventilated  and  heated.    If  the  con- 
dition of  the  atmosphere    requires  it,  artificial 
means  of  dr5'ing  must  be  resorted  to.     In  order 
to  secure  the  best  results,  varnish,  after  it  is  ap- 
plied, should  be  well  rubbed  in,  so  as  to  close  the 
pores;   in  England,    where  much   attention  has 
been  given  to  the  subject,  a  coat  of  raw  linseed 
oil,  from  which  all  the  fatty  material  has  been 
extracted,  is  applied  to  the  varnish.     In  cleaning, 
care  must   be  taken   to   avoid    harmful   or   de- 
structive methods,  such  as  the  use  of  very  hot 
water  or  chemicals.     The  varnish  on  a  car  may 
be  ruined  within    a  month  after  it  leaves  the 
shops  if  improperly  looked  after.     The  question 
of  color  is  not,  as  would  seem  at  first  glance,  en- 
tirely a  matter  of    taste.     Advocates  for.  light 
colors  claim  that  the  varnish  holds  better  when 
a  light  colored  paint  is  used;  that  it  is  easier  to 
clean;  that  it  wears  better;  that  it  does  not  ab- 
sorb the  heat  as  much  as  dark  colored  paint.    On 
the  other  hand  dark  colors  show  the  dirt  less  and 
require  less  material. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  it  may  be  proper  to 
repeat  what  I  have  so  frequently  reiterated  else- 
where, namely,  that  cost  of  maintenance  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  nature  of  the  structure,  the 
care  with  which  it  was  built  and  the  foresight 
and  wisdom  exercised  in  keeping  it  in  order. 
Temporary  and  cheap  structures,  so  character- 
istic of  many  new  roads  and  a  few  old  ones,  cost 


380  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS. 

much  more  to  keep  in  order  than  more  stable 
structures.  Wooden  fences,  buildings,  bridges 
and  culverts  require  frequent  renewals  and  con- 
stant watchfulness.  Danger  from  fire  is  much 
greater  than  in  other  cases.  Temporarj^  and 
cheap  structures,  a  poor  equipment,  an  ill  main- 
tained track,  greatl}'  swell  the  loss  and  damage 
account  of  a  railroad  and  what  it  must  pay  for 
loss  of  life  and  injur5\  Under  the  most  favora- 
ble circumstances  these  items  are  large.  They 
may  be  kept  down  by  constant  watchfulness  and 
the  exercise  of  prudent  foresight  in  maintaining 
and  renewing  the  various  parts  of  a  property  as 
they  become  weakened  or  impaired. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

MAINTENANCE — THE  USE  OF  WOOD  BY  RAILWAYS — 
HOW  IT  MAY  BE  PRESERVED — ITS  SUBSTITUTES 
— METAL  TIES — INVESTIGATIONS  OF  GOVERN- 
MENTS  AND   EXPERIENCES   OF   RAILWAYS. 

The  kind  of  material  used  by  railways  depends 
on  the  facilities  of  a  company.  Where  wood 
is  plentiful  and  cheap  it  will  be  used.  Where  it 
is  not,  iron  and  steel  will  usurp  its  place  in  the 
construction  of  cars,  buildings  and  other  struct- 
ures, including  the  track.  The  practices  of  one 
country  will  not  be  followed  by  other  countries 
any  further  than  economy  dictates.  These  dif- 
ferences make  comparisons  difficult. 

Heretofore  railways  have  been  constant  and 
large  consumers  of  timber;  with  improved  pro- 
cesses, how^ever,  for  making  iron  and  steel,  these 
latter  more  and  more  take  its  place.  Coal  for 
fuel  has  very  generally  become  a  substitute  for 
wood.  These  changes  are  fortunate,  as  no  coun- 
try can  long  withstand  so  great  a  drain  on  its 
forestry.  We  have  seen  many  illustrations  of 
the  effects  of  the  destruction  of  the  forestry  of  a 
country.  Lands  once  possessing  immense  agri- 
cultural resources,  the  centres  of  a  vast  popula- 
tion, are  today  barren  and  desolate  because  of  it. 
This  is  so  of  Palestine,  many  parts  of  Northern 

(381) 


382  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

Africa,  Central  Asia  and  vast  regions  in  other 
countries.  Uniformity  of  rain  fall  and  an  equa- 
ble climate  depend  upon  a  moist  atmosphere. 
This  in  turn  depends  upon  the  verdure  of  a 
country  except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  large 
bodies  of  water.  In  North  and  South  America 
and  in  Africa,  where  wood  is  plentiful  and  cheap, 
little  or  no  effort  has  been  made  to  preserve  it  or 
to  economize  in  its  use  or  increase  its  durability. 
This  waste  must,  however,  soon  cease,  from  ex- 
haustion if  from  no  other  reason.    A  solution  of 


Action  of  Wheel  on  Rail  Joint. 


the  difficulty  invites  the  attention  and  interest 
of  every  enlightened  person.  Economy  in  the 
use  of  wood  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered. 
This  is  to  be  obtained  by  the  substitution  of 
other  material  whenever  possible,  and  by  increas- 
ing the  durability  of  such  timber  as  we  do  use. 
Considerable  thought  has  been  given  to  the 
subject  of  preservation  of  wood  against  the 
common  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  and  also 
against  the  teredo.  But  the  preservatives  sug- 
gested will  not  be  used,  however  much  w^e  may 


MAINTENANCE.  883 

deplore  the  fact,  except  when  i!:  is  clearly  for  the 
interests  of  the  consumer  to  do  so.  But  it  is 
probable  that  effort  is  not  made  to  preserve 
wood,  because  of  supposed  extra  cost,  in  many- 
cases  when  it  would  be  economy  to  do  so.  Those 
interested  in  forestry  have  given  the  subject 
much  attention.  The  measures  of  economy  they 
suggest  cover  not  only  the  preservatives,  but  the 
more  careful  use  of  wood. 

The  kinds  of  wood  used  vary,  of  course,  with 
every  country.  I  have  only  the  statistics  for  the 
United  States.  It  appears  that  the  different 
kinds  of  wood  used  here  for  ties  are  in  about  the 
following  proportions:  Oak,  sixty-two  per  cent.; 
chestnut,  five  per  cent. ;  pine,  seventeen  per  cent. ; 
cedar  (red,  white  and  California),  seven  per  cent.; 
hemlock  and  tamarack,  three  per  cent.;  cypress, 
two  per  cent. ;  redwood,  three  per  cent. ;  various, 
one  per  cent. 

The  number  of  ties  per  mile  of  track  is  about 
two  thousand  seven  hundred.  The  average  dura- 
tion of  a  tie  when  no  preservative  is  used  is  about 
eight  years.  The  reader  may,  therefore,  estimate 
the  number  of  ties  required  annually.  The  mass 
is  enormous;  the  inroad  it  makes  upon  the  forests 
alarming.  Those,  therefore,  who  have  sugges- 
tions to  make  as  to  how  the  life  of  a  tie  may  be 
prolonged,  should  be  listened  to  gratefully.  Mr. 
B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief  of  the  Forestry  Division  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
suggests  the  following: 

"1.    Using  only  the  most  durable  timbers. 


884  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

"2.  Giving  proper  attention  to  the  cutting  and 
piling  of  ties  before  they  are  used. 

"3.  Paying  attention  to  the  drainage  and  bal- 
last material  of  the  roadbed. 

"4.  Replacing  ties  in  the  roadbed  which  have 
rotted  from  the  attack  of  a  specific  fungus  by 
ties  of  a  kind  not  liable  to  attack  by  the  same 
fungus,  so  as  to  avoid  its  spread. 

"5.  Boring  spike  holes  and  filling  the  old  ones 
when  respiking,  and  the  use  of  more  permanent 
rail  fastenings. 

"6.  The  use  of  tie  plates  in  order  to  reduce 
flange  cutting. 

"7.  The  use  of  preserving  processes  to  lengthen 
the  life  of  the  timber. 

"8.    Cutting  ties  at  the  right  season  of  the  year. 

*'9.     Increasing  weight  of  rail. 

"10.     Careful  drainage. 

"11.    Care  in  laying  the  tie." 

Various  methods  are  suggested  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  wood.  Creosote,  chloride  of  zinc  and 
sulphate  of  copper  are  the  preservatives  generally 
used.  In.  Europe  creosoting  is  practiced  more 
than  any  other  method.  Ties  thus  treated  are 
stated  to  have  an  average  life  of  about  twenty- 
five  years.  More  or  less  preparation  has  been 
made  in  the  United  States  for  chemically  pre- 
paring ties.  But  experience  has  proven  that 
a  tie  prepared  in  a  particular  manner  satisfac- 
tory in  one  locality  oftentimes  fails  to  give  satis- 
faction in  another  locality.  Different  kinds  of 
wood  also  require  different  kinds  of  treatment.* 

*  Wood  preservatives  do  not  act  alike  in  all  countries.    Thus 
in  India,  owing  to  sudden  changes  in  temperature  and  other 


MAINTENANCE.  885 

Creosotiiig  will  never  be  as  beneficial  in  the  United 
States  as  in  Europe,  unless  W3  make  use  of  tie 
plates.  Creosoting  softens  the  fibre  of  the  wood, 
and  ties  thus  treated  are  quickly  injured  by  the 
increased  cutting  of  the  rail  flange  when  plates 
are  not  used;  some  other  method,  therefore, 
which  will  harden  the  wood  while  preventing 
disintegration  w^ould  be  better  for  our  use.  The 
use  of  metallic  salts  has  been  found  to  give  good 
results  in  this  direction. 

The  economy  which  railways  may  i)rofitably 
use  in  the  consumption  of  timber  for  ties  may  be 
supplemented  by  them  in  other  directions  with 
good  results.  This  is  particularly  true  in  re- 
gard to  buildings  and  fences.  The  wire  fence, 
woven  and  otherwise,  is  now  happily  taking  the 
place  of  all  other  kinds  of  fences  in  the  United 
States.  Hedges  have  been  suggested.  Unfortu- 
nately, our  climate  is  not  so  favorable  for  this 
kind  of  fence  as  that  of  England. 

In  the  use  of  wood  for  telegraph  poles,  little 
economy  has  heretofore  been  practiced.  Under- 
ground lines  are  not  popular  and  but  little  effort 
has  been  made  to  introduce  tubular  poles.  The 
durability  of  the  wooden  pole  might  be  greatly 
prolonged  by  painting  or  whitewashing,  and  by 
charring  the  base. 

climatii;  influences,  creosoting  does  not  preserve  wood.  The 
timber  under  the  rail  decays  so  that  the  duration  of  ties  does  not 
exceed  ten  years,  except  in  tlie  case  of  certain  kinds  of  wood  in- 
digenous to  that  country.  The  difficulty  of  preserving  wood  in 
India  has  led  to  the  extensive  introduction  of  metal  ties  in  that 
country. 

25 


38G  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

Bridges  of  steel,  iron  and  stone  are  rapidly  re- 
placing those  of  wood.  However,  wood  will  be 
used  more  or  less,  owing  to  its  cheapness.  In 
the  construction  of  buildings,  steel,  l)rick  and 
stone  will  be  more  and  more  generally  used. 

A  large  amount  of  wood  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  rolling  stock.  The  tendency,  how- 
ever, is  to  substitute  metal  therefor.  Cars  con- 
structed wholly  of  metal  will  ultimately  be  used. 

Such  are,  briefly,  the  ways  in  which  wood  is 
used  by  railways,  also  some  of  the  means  sug- 
gested whereby  its  durability  may  be  prolonged 
and  its  consumption  reduced.  The  subject  is  one 
that  invites  the  earnest  attention  of  the  owners 
and  managers  of  railroads. 

The  following  description  by  an  English  engi- 
neer of  the  creosoting  process  is  interesting  and 
instructive: 

"Creosoting  has  both  a  chemical  and  a  mechan- 
ical aspect.  Chemically  it  may  be  looked  upon 
as  a  process  which  renders  wood  fibre  distasteful 
to  fungoid  growth  or  boring  worms  and  insects, 
the  material  being  fatal  to  such  types  of  vitality. 
Mechanically,  certain  forms  of  creosote  act  like 
so  much  wax  or  paint,  filling  up  the  pores  of  the 
wood  and  thereby  preventing  the  access  of  water 
or  air.  Clearly  the  mechanical  effect  can  only 
endure  while  the  creosote  continues  in  the  pores. 
When  the  mechanical  process  has  been  only  half 
carried  out  the  wood  is  protected  upon  its  ex- 
terior surface  and  to  a  depth  inward  of  half  an 
inch  and  upward,  according  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  process  has  been  carried.     The  process 


MAINTENANCE.  387 

of  creosoting  is  one  requiring  care  in  the  selec- 
tion of  a  chemically  proper  creosote  and  in  the 
mechanical  process  by  which  snch  creosote  is 
put  into  the  timber.  .  .  .  Timber  can  only 
be  said  to  be  properly  treated  when  it  is  pene- 
trated l)y  the  creosote  to  its  very  center.  Where 
complete  saturation  has  not  been  effected,  it  is 
only  a  matter  of  time  for  cracks  to  develop  and 
fungi  to  grow  upon  the  untreated  portions  thus 
exposed."* 

Mr.  H.  W.  Reed,  in  his  interesting  treatise  on 
the  maintenance  of  timber,  thus  discourses  on 
wood  preservatives: 

"  The  destruction  of  timber  by  decay  is  as- 
cril)ed  by  Liebig  to  '  eremacausis  or  a  slow  com- 

*  In  France  "  ties  as  delivered  are  piled  and  seasoned  in 
the  open  air.  They  are  then  adzed  and  bored  by  a  special 
machine,  loaded  on  trucks  and  run  into  a  drying  oven,  where 
they  remain  twenty-four  hours  or  more.  After  drying  at  a 
temperature  of  about  176  degrees  Fahr.,  they  are  run  into 
a  metal  cylinder  six  feet  three  inches  in  diameter  and  thirty- 
six  feet  long,  which  is  hermetically  closed.  The  air  is  then 
exhausted  and  a  partial  vacuum  is  maintained  for  about 
half  an  hour.  Communication  is  then  opened  with  reser- 
voirs of  dead  oil,  which  is  allowed  to  flow  in  at  a  temperature 
of  17G  degrees  Fahr.,  under  pressure.  When  the  oil  ceases  to 
flow  under  moderate  pressure  it  is  forced  in  by  a  pump  up  to  a 
pressure  of  eighty-three  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  this  press- 
ure is  maintained  for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  quarter.  ( "om- 
munication  with  the  oil  reservoirs  is  then  opened  again  and  the 
excess  of  oil  not  absorbed  by  the  timber  flows  back  into  the 
reservoir.  The  cylinders  hold  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  ties 
each.  The  quantity  of  oil  absorbed  is  measured  by  determining 
the  difterence  in  volume  of  the  oil  ])efore  and  after  operation. 
The  wood  used  is  principally  oak  and  beech.  The  oak  ties  absorb 
from  2.4  to  2.7  quarts  per  cubic  foot;  beech  ties  from  8.7  to  10 
quarts  per  cubic  foot.  The  whole  operation  takes  about  four 
hours." 


388  ,s<'Jh\\CE  OF  n  AIL  WAYS; 

))iisti()n  '  ])y  oxidation.  Pasteur  and  Tyndall  at- 
trilnite  it  "to  the  action  of  livinj?  germs  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  latter,  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, found  that  on  phicing  putrescible  mate- 
rials in  a  tube  and  excluding  the  air,  which  is 

laden  with  clouds  of 
living  germs  or  agents 
of  decomposition,  pu- 
trefaction ceased  indef- 
initely or  until  the 
material  was  again  ex- 

Journal  Bearing.  POSCd       t  O     t  ll  6     atulOS- 

phere.  This  is  the  gen- 
erally accepted  theory,  and  conforms  very  nearly 
to  the  results  of  modern  observation.  It  has  been 
determined  by  repeated  experiments  that  a 
thorough  preservative  of  timber  must  possess 
chemical  antiseptics  for  the  coagulation  of  al- 
bumen and  power  as  an  insecticide,  and  also  the 
mechanical  property  of  excluding  the  atmosphere 
by  hlling  the  pores  and  surrounding  the  fibres 
with  a  substance  impenetrable  by  the  atmosphere. 
The  atmospheric  germ  theory  seems  to  find  addi- 
tional support  in  the  fact  that  timber  constantly 
under  water  does  not  decay.  Wood  which  is 
constantly  dry  decays  slowly,  due  probal)ly  to 
the  coagulation  of  the  albumen.  Timber 
thoroughly  seasoned  by  heat  decays  less  rapidly 
than  if  treated  by  any  other  mechanical  means, 
because  of  the  more  thorough  coagulation  of  the 
allmmen.  Timber  subject  to  alternate  dryness 
and  moisture  decays  most  rapidly,  owing,  doubt- 
less, to  the  repeated  softening  of  the  albuminous 
substances  of  the  timber,  which  renders  it  more 
certain  of  attacks  by  atmospheric  germs. 

"  There  are  four  conditions  under  which  tim- 


MAINTENANCE.  889 

ber  is  used  which  require  different  properties  in 
the  preservatives  employed.    They  are: 

"1.  Submersion  in  water  and  su])jection  in 
sea  water  to  attack  of  the  Teredo  Navalis  and 
other  sea  worms. 

"2.  Exposure  to  alternate  moisture  and  dry- 
ness. 

"3.    Exposure  to  the  atmosphere  only. 

"4.    Subjection  to  transverse  strains. 

"  Of  the  many  preservative  agents  employed, 
those  of  value  may  be  resolved  into  two  classes, 
viz.: 

"1.  Those  derived  from  the  distillation,  at 
high  temperature,  of  vegetable  tars,  albuminous 
and  oily  substances. 

"2.     Those  having  a  mineral  acid  as  a  base. 

"Under  the  first  head  we  have  creosote  as  the 
only  known  preservative  capable  of  resisting  for 
an  indefinite  time  the  attacks  of  the  Teredo,  de- 
struction by  atmospheric  germs  and  leaving  the 
structure  of  the  timber  in  its  normal  condition. 
Creosoting  is  the  only  process  known  that  meets 
all  the  requirements  of  a  wood  preservative, 
only  one  element,  its  expense,  mitigating  against 
it.  The  value  of  creosote  is  attributed  by  an 
eminent  English  authority,  Samuel  S.  Boulton, 
to  the  presence  of  acridine  ('an  intensely  acrid 
and  pungent  substance '  and  '  one  of  the  alkaloids 
or  bases '  of  creosote  oil),  and  naphthaline,  a 
substance  less  volatile  than  the  tar  acids;  the 
latter  is  recognized  in  the  thick  yellow  appear- 
ance given  to  the  outside  of  creosoted  timber, 
which  afterward  becomes  darker  by  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere.  These,  Mr.  Boulton,  as  well  as 
other  English  scientists,  agree  are  more  power- 
ful as  permanent  ^preservatives  than  the  tar  acids. 


390  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 

which  are  more  active  at  first  in  coagulating  the 
albumen  but  exceedingly  unstable,  passing  away 
in  a  comparatively  sliort  time.  Acridine  and 
naphthaline  remain  permanently,  closnig  the  ap- 
proaches, both  chemicalb  and  mechanically, 
acniinst  the  attacks  of  atmospheric  germs  ilieso 
sSl)stancesare  among  the  residual  products,  alter 
distillation,  of  coal  ta.r  at  a  temperature  exceed- 
ing 450  degrees  Fahr."  .  .      , 

"Under  the  second  head  we  have    kyanizmg, 
'  burnettizing,'  and  the  '  boucherie '  process 

"The  foregoing  are  the  oldest  methods  and  have 
shown  the  best  results.  Creosoting  consists  of 
the  treatment  of  timber  with  dead  oil  or  tar; 
kvanizing,  with  bichloride  or  mercuiy  (corrosive 
sublimate);  burnettizing,  with  chloride  of  zmc; 
and   the    boucherie    process    with    sulphate    ot 

^^"  Creosoting  deals  with  the  outer  surface  of  the 
tie,  charging  the  wood  cells  nearest  the  surface, 
varving  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  m 
depth,  according  to  the  density  of  the  wood,  the 
bulk  of  the  oil  penetrating  the  ends  of  the  ties, 
which  prevents  the  further  passage  of  water  or 
air  bevond  the  outer  cells.  It  is  also  insoluble  m 
water:  The  weak  point  of  the  creosote  system 
for  ties  is,  that  this  outer  coating  is  broken  by 
spiking,  by  rails  cutting  in,  and  by  picks  when 
drawing  them  into  place  m  the  ti-ack,  so  that  the 
moisture  has  a  free  passage  to  the  heart  ot  the 

^^^'' Kvanizing,  burnettizing  and  the  boucherie 
processes  consist  in  the  use  of  mineral  salts, 
which  ]ieing  soluble  in  moisture  or  water,  are 
practicallv  useless  for  treating  ties,  unless  the 
roadV)ed  is  ballasted  with    good  clean  material 


MAINTENANCE.  891 

and  properly  drained.  The  track  must  also  be 
in  a  favored  location,  where  it  will  not  be  liable 
to  be  Hooded. 

"  The  boucherie  process  is  also  practically  use- 
less on  account  of  the  chemical  action  of  the 
preservative  on  iron;  because  of  this  ties  require 
to  be  coated  with  coal  tar  where  the  rails  rest, 
and  the  spikes  must  be  galvanized. 

"  Kyanizing,  ])urnettizing  and  the  boucherie 
processes  harden  the  fibre  of  the  W'Ood,  offering 
greater  resistance  to  the  cutting  of  the  tie  by  the 
rail;  for  this  reason  better  results  are  oljtained 
from  the  treatment  of  soft  wood  than  oak  ties, 
the  fibre  of  the  oak  being  too  dense  to  readily 
admit  the  antiseptic.  These  preservatives  will, 
however,  penetrate  the  wood  more  thoroughly 
than  creosote. 

In  treating  ties  better  results  are  olitained  if, 
before  creosoting,  the  ties  are  adzed  and  the 
spike  holes  l^ored,  so  as  to  allow  those  parts  to  be 
treated  that  are  otherwise  soonest  liable  to  fer- 
ment and  decay.  Treated  ties  should  be  laid  in 
the  track  wdth  tie  plates  to  prevent  the  rails  cut- 
ting in  and  through  the  crust  of  the  ties.  A  tie 
that  costs  95  cents  in  the  track  and  that  will  last 
without  creosoting  ten  years  will,  when  creo- 
soted,  last  twenty  years  and  cost  $1.50  in  the 
track.  The  saving  effected  will  equal  $17.60  per 
mile  per  year.  A  tie  that  costs  73  cents  in  the 
track  and  that  will  last  without  creosoting  six 
years  will,  when  creosoted,  last  eighteen  years 
and  cost  $1.18  cents.  The  saving  effected  will 
equal  $48.40  cents  per  mile  per  year.  These 
figures  will,  of  course,  vary  on  different  roads 
according  to  the  cost  of  ties,  labor  and  creosote, 
but  they  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  substan- 


892  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

tial   value  of    creosoting  under  the  conditions 
named." 

Processes  for  preserving  wood  are,  under  the 
most  favoral)le  circumstances,  unsatisfactory. 
This  is  especially  so  in  regard  to  ties.  Because 
of  this  substitutes  for  the  latter  are  sought.  At- 
tention is  turned  to  steel  and  iron.  Until  re- 
cently their  use  has  been  merely  experimental. 
Much  misapprehension  existed  in  regard  to  them. 
Greater  familiarity  will  enlighten  and  clear 
away  prejudices.  In  India  and  in  several  Euro- 
pean countries  metal  ties  are  used  almost  en- 
tirely. Careful  and  painstaking  experiments  not 
only  demonstrate  their  practicability,  but  their 
great  superiority  over  wooden  ties.  Considering 
the  relative  durability  of  wooden  and  metal  ties, 
and  the  expense  attending  the  changing  of  ties 
in  a  track,  metal  is  the  cheaper  of  the  two  ex- 
cept in  favored  localities  where  suitable  wood  is 
plentiful  and  cheap.  A  metal  tie,  if  properly  laid, 
is  more  safe  than  one  of  wood  because  of  its 
greater  strength  and  durability;  it  affords  an 
elastic  and  smooth  track  at  once  noiseless  and 
durable.* 


*The  use  of  steel  ties  is  now  strongjly  advocated  for  tropical 
countries  where  the  use  of  timber  is  open  to  many  objections. 
In  the  oftu'ial  report  on  tlie  projected  ^lombasa-Victoria  T-ake 
Railway,  for  opening  up  conununication  with  tlie  interior  of 
Africa,  it  is  recommended  that  general  use  be  made  of  steel  ties 
rather  than  creosoted  fir  or  ijingado  wood  for  the  following 
reasons:  A  permanent  way  of  this  ronstruction  is  practically 
indestructible  to  natives  with  such  few  niedianical  appliances  as 
are  to  be  met  with  in  East  Africa.    The  custom  of  firins:  the 


MAINTENANCE.  393 

The  use  of  metal  ties  has  advanced  beyond  the 
experimental  stage.  Among  its  advantages  are 
reduction  in  cost  of  maintenance,  less  frequent 
renewals,  and  avoidance  of  the  danger  and  ex- 
pense thereof;  also  greater  safety  because  of 
greater  stability.  The  metal  tie  is  the  tie  of  the 
future.  In  order  to  be  satisfactory  it  must  be  of 
sufficient  weight  to  make  a  firm  track,  yet  easy 
of  manufacture  and  of  reasonable  cost.  It  must 
be  convenient  to  handle  and  simple  in  construc- 
tion; must  be  of  a  pattern  adapted  to  the  par- 
ticular locality  in  which  it  is  used;  must  be  so 
made  that  it  can  be  removed  from  or  replaced  in 
the  track  without  interfering  with  traffic.  It  is 
desirable  that  it  should  be  adopted  for  use  in 
conjunction  with  wooden  ties,  so  that  a  change 
from  wood  to  iron  may  be  made  gradually.  The 
fastenings  must  be  simple  and  effective.  Those 
patterns  devised  by  experienced  and  practical 
men  have  hitherto  been  most  successful.  A 
trouble  experienced  in  the  use  of  metal  ties 
arises  from  the  wear  of  the  holes  for  fastenings. 
Time  will  obviate  this.  The  average  duration  of 
the  metal  tie  depends  upon  several  causes.  It  is, 
however,  many  times  that  of  the  wood  tie. 
Moreover,  at  the  expiration  of  its  usefulness  it 
has  a  value,  the  same  as  old  rails.     The  wooden 

grass  at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  and  the  temptation  to  use 
the  timber  slc'ei)ers  for  fuel  or  huttino^  purposes,  would  expose 
a  line  laid  with  timber  ties  to  nuuiy  risks.  Wliite  ants  are 
numerous  in  the  country  and  conunit  trreat  ravages.  The  steel 
tie  has  also  no  tendency  to  float  and  be  carried  away  by 
flood  water,  which  is  the  case  with  timber. 


394 


SCIENCE  OE  RAILWAYS; 


tie    when   no   longer  fit   for   use   is   practically 
without  value. 

At  first  metal  ties  were  made  of  iron;  mild 
steel  is,  however,  now  generally  used.  The  ten- 
sile strength  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  tie. 
No  particular  pattern  has  been  universally  rec- 
ognized as  the  best.  Ties  made  of  mild  steel 
have  up  to  this  time  proven  superior  to  all  others. 
They  are  not  easily  broken,  even  when  subjected 
to  the  shock  of  derailment.  Danger  of  fracture, 
for  a  long  time  feared,  has  proven  groundless. 


Freight  Truck. 

In  the  construction  of  a  metal  tie  it  is  usual 
to  make  it  of  uniform  thickness  throughout  its 
length.  A  more  economical  distribution  of  the 
metal  is,  however,  thought  possible.  In  order  to 
reduce  the  weight  of  the  tie  to  the  minimum  the 
tendency  is  to  decrease  its  dimensions.  This 
must  not,  however,  be  carried  too  far,  since  it 
is  evident  that  vibration  and  attendant  noise  will 
be  less  with  a  heavy  than  with  a  light  tie.  The 
weight  of  the  tie  must  be  such  as  to  secure 
stability  lest  increased  expense  for  maintenance 


MAINTENANCE.  396 

and  wear  and  tear  of  machinery  be  incurred. 
Moreover,  if  too  light  it  can  not  withstand  the 
concussions  to  which  it  is  subjected,  without 
breaking  or  distortion.  The  lightest  metal  tie 
found  practicable  under  ordinary  conditions  of 
wear  weighs  about  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
pounds.  When,  however,  a  track  is  subjected  to 
extraordinarily  heavy  traffic  the  weight  must  be 
increased.  Experience  shows  that  in  ordinary 
gravel  or  dirt  ballast  there  is  very  little  corrosion. 
It  occurs,  however,  with  slag  or  cinder  l^allast, 
and  in  tunnels  and  damp  places.*  To  prevent 
corrosion  ties  have  been  painted  with  a  composi- 
tion of  oil  and  tar;  generally,  however,  they  are 
used  as  they  come  from  the  mill. 

Much  difficulty  has  been  found  in  fastening 
the  rail  to  the  tie  so  as  to  hold  the  former 
securely,  and  prevent  vibration,  noise,  wear  and 
tear.  The  fewer  the  parts  a  track  has,  the  more 
desirable,  and  the  less  the  friction  and  expense 
for  construction  and  maintenance.  It  is  import- 
ant, therefore,  that  whatever  fastening  is  used  it 
should  not  be  complicated;  it  must  be  simple, 
easily  understood  and  handled  and  such  as  to 
effectively  hold  the  rail  firm. 

In  order  to  deaden  the  noise,  heavy  paper 
soaked  in  tar,  also  asbestos  sheets  and  tarred  can- 
vas, have  been  placed  between  the  rail  and  the 
tie.    Such  devices  are,  however,  unnecessary,  if 


*Tliis  is  owing  to    the  effect  upon  the  ties  of  the  acids  in 
the  ballast  and  smoke. 


896  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

the  fastenings  are  properly  secured.  The  fasten- 
ings should  be  made  tight  and  kept  so. 

The  first  cost  of  the  metal  tie  is  estimated  to 
be  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-hve  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  per  cent,  greater  than  wood. 
The  cost  will,  however,  exceed  this  until  its  use 
has  become  more  general.  The  saving  to  be 
effected  is  in  greater  durability  and  saving  in  re- 
newals. The  cost  of  laying  a  metal  tie  is  greater 
than  laying  one  of  wood,  owing  to  difficulty  of 
handling  and  the  complications  of  the  fastenings. 
This  is  more  than  offset,  however,  l)y  the  saving 
in  renewels  and  maintenance  and  the  value  of 
the  tie  when  no  longer  fit  for  use  in  the  track. 
A  metal  track  after  it  has  become  firmly  settled 
is  more  stable  than  where  wooden  ties  are  used. 
Wherever  metal  is  used  it  is  the  practice  to  use 
wooden  ties  at  switches  and  frogs.  There  seems 
to  be  no  good  reason  for  this.  The  first  cost  of 
metal  is  greater,  but  if  laid  with  proper  fastenings 
and  well  surfaced,  it  is  preferable  here  as  else- 
where. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  metal  ties 
wooden  blocks  have  been  placed  under  the  rails 
to  give  increased  elasticity  to  the  track.  It  is 
unnecessary,  however.  If  properly  constructed 
the  metal  tie  is  elastic  without  extraneous  aid. 

Each  year  the  discovery  of  a  practicable  substi- 
tute for  wood  in  railway  construction  and  main- 
tenance grows  more  and  more  imperative;  each 
year  timber  becomes  more  and  more  rare.  It  is 
found  necessary  to  haul  it  greater  distances.    It 


MAINTENxiNCE.  897 

is  more  and  more  costly.  The  danger  to  the 
country  its  use  involves  is  more  and  more  immi- 
nent. Anything,  therefore,  that  promises  relief, 
invites  attention  and  interest,  is  worthy  of  the 
closest  regard.  In  this  connection  the  investi- 
gations of  the  United  States  government  regard- 
ing the  preservation  of  wood  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  metal  for  it  wherever  possible,  especially 
for  railroad  ties,  are  both  interesting  and  valua- 
ble. I  can  not  do  better  than  close  what  I  have 
to  say  on  the  subject  here  with  a  resume  of  its 
labors.* 

Mr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  chief  of  the  department  of  forestry,  places 
the  present  consumption  of  ties  for  construction  and  renewal 
in  the  United  States  at  seventy-three  millions  a  year.  Kailways 
are  further  consumers  of  wood  for  fences,  telegraph  poles, 
bridges,  culverts,  trestles,  buildings,  platforms,  and  for  fuel. 
He  points  out  that  not  only  the  different  species  of  wood  in 
practical  use  "show  varying  durability,  that  is,  resistance  to 
decay,  but  the  same  species  exhibits  variation  according  to  the 
locality  where  it  is  grown,  and  the  part  of  the  tree  from  which 
the  wood  is  taken,  and  even  its  age  seems  to  influence  dura- 
bility." Young  wood,  it  is  observed,  is  more  susceptible 
of  decay  than  old  wood;  sap  wood  is  less  durable  than  the 
heart.  "The  idea  that  young  wood  is  more  durable  because  it  is 
young,  which  seems  to  prevail  among  railway  managers,  must 
be  consiilered  erroneous.  On  the  contrary,  young  wood,  which 
contains  a  large  amount  of  albuminates,  the  food  of  fungi,  is 
more  apt  to  decay,  other  things  being  equal,  than  the  wood  of 
older  timber.  Sound,  mature,  well  grown  trees  yield  more 
durable  timber  than  either  young  or  very  old  trees.  Rapid 
growtii,  exhibited  in  broad  annual  rings  and  due  to  favorable 
soil  and  light  conditions,  yields  the  most  durable  timber  in  hard 
woods,  and  only  as  far  as  the  growth  in  the  virgin  forest  has 


*  "Practical  economies  in  the  use  of  wood  for  railway  pur- 
poses and  the  substitution  of  metal  for  wood  in  railway  ties." — 
Beport  of  the  United  tStates  Department  of  Agriculture,  1S90. 


398 


SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 


been  slow  ought  there  be  aditVerence  in  favor  of  second  growth 
timber.  In  conifers,  however,  slow  growth  with  narrow  rings, 
which  contain  more  of  the  dense  summer  wood  in  a  given  space, 
yields  the  better  timber."  In  piling  ties  he  recommends  that 
they  sliould  be  placed  in  squares,  with  not  over  fiftj-  ties  in  a 
pile,  "  in  such  a  manner  that  one  tier  shall  contain  six  to  nine 
ties,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  space  ecjual  to  about  the 
width  of  the  tie ;  the  next  tier  to  consist  of  one  tie  placed  cross- 
wise at  each  end  of  the  first  tier.  The  bottom  tier  should  con- 
sist of  two  ties,  or  better,  poles,  to  raise  the  pile  from  the 
ground.  The  piles  should  be  live  feet  apart.  The  piling  ground 
should  be  somewhere  in  the  woods,  or  at  least  away  from  the 
sun,  wind  or  rain,  so  as  to  secure  a  slow  and  uniform  seasoning; 


_,Q fi>. 


^'^'^ 


Passenger  Truck. 


if  dried  too  rapidly,  the  wood  warps  and  splits,  the  cracks  col- 
lect water,  and  the  timber  is  then  easily  attacked  and  destroyed 
by  rot."  He  points  out  that  '•  the  best  method  of  obtaining 
proper  seasoning,  in  a  shorter  time,  without  costly  apparatus, 
is  to  immerse  the  prepared  timber  in  water  from  one  to  three 
weeks,  in  order  to  dissolve  aiul  leach  out  the  fermentable  matter 
nearest  the  surface.  This  Is  best  done  in  running  water — if  such 
is  not  at  hand,  a  tank  may  be  substituted,  the  water  of  which 
needs,  however,  frequent  change.  Timl)er  so  treated,  like  raft 
timber,  will  season  more  qviickly  and  is  known  to  be  more 
durable.  The  application  of  boiling  water  or  steam  is  advan- 
tageous in  leaching  out  the  sap."  Referring  to  the  decay 
of  railway  ties,  he  ascribes  the  lack  of  durability  to  two 
causes,  "namely,  a  mechanical  one,  the  breaking  of  the  wood 
fibre  by  the  flange  of  the  rail  and  by  the  spikes,  and  a  chemical 
or  physiological  one,  the  rot  or  decay  which  is  due  to  fungus 
growth.  These  causes  work  either  in  combination  or,  more 
rarely,  independently." 

The  cutting  of  the  wood  may  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  tie 
plates.    The  damage  caused  by  the  spikes  may  be  lessened  as 


MAINTENANCE.  899 

pointed  out  eli«p\\i)oro.  In  roferonco  to  <1raina<je  ho  s\ic:^oi«ts 
that  •■  rock  ballast  is  best  drained,  and  hence  tli(!  iK'st  record 
eoines  from  such  roadbeds:  p^ravel  is  next  l)est  and  clay  or 
hiam  is  about  tlie  worst.  On  the  otlier  hand,  whore  soft  wood 
ties,  like  chestnvit.  are  used,  the  hard  rock  ballast,  while  unfavor- 
able to  decay,  reduces  their  life  by  pounding  and  cutting.  Sand 
ballast  .seems  to  vary  considera])ly;  a  sharp,  coarse  silicious  (not 
calcerous)  sand  with  good  under  drainage  should  ])e  next  to 
gravel,  while  some  reports  give  a  heavy  black  soil  and  loam  as 
better  than  sand.  The  reason  why  sand,  although  oflering  good 
drainage,  is  favoraljle  to  decay,  may  be  sought  in  its  groat 
capacity  for  heat,  which  induces  fermentation."  IJeferring  to 
wood  preservatives.  Mr.  Fernow  says  in  France  wooden  ties  are 
universally  sul)jected  to  preservatives:  that  similar  practices  are 
quite  general  in  England  and  throughout  Europe,  caused  by  the 
scarcity  of  wood  and  its  great  cost.  He  ascribes  lack  of  inter- 
est in  the  subject  in  the  United  States  to  ignorani-e,  to  unwise 
economy,  to  cheapness  of  wooden  ties,  and  to  the  fact  that 
the  flange  cutting  of  the  rail  is  even  more  destructive  than 
decay.  He  recommends  the  use  of  tie  plates  in  order  to  prevent 
this.  The  cutting  of  the  tie  not  only  disturbs  the  poise  of  the 
track,  but  serves  as  a  cup  in  wiiich  to  collect  dampness,  thereby 
superinducing  decay.  There  are  many  different  patterns  for 
these  plates.  A  rail  chair  is  used  in  England.  A  hard  wood 
plate  let  into  the  tie  is  also  in  use.  A  plate  of  felt  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick  placed  between  the  rail  and  the  tie  has  been  used 
satisfactorily  in  France.  Lead  sunk  into  the  wood  has  also  been 
used  as  a  plate.  Where  plates  are  used  there  is  practically  no 
wear  to  the  tie.  Their  eft'ectis  to  secure  a  •'more even  distribu- 
tion of  rail  pressure  over  a  greater  area  of  the  tie;  retardation 
of  the  mechanical  destruction  of  the  tie  by  cutting;  avoidance 
of  danger  of  tilting  of  rails;  prevention  of  the  lateral  bending 
of  spikes  or  screws  thus  loosening  the  rail ;  the  increased  resist- 
ance of  screws  and  spikes  against  lateral  motion  or  the  spread- 
ing of  the  rails."'  The  pattern  of  plate  must  be  such  as  to 
secure  these  results  most  effectively. 

The  use  of  tie  plates  with  preserving  processes  makes  a  wooden 
tie  almost  as  satisfactory  as  a  metal  one  as  far  as  durability  and 
safety  are  concerned.  They  also  greatly  extend  the  durability 
of  ties  of  soft  wood.  Mr.  Fernow  does  not  endor.se  any  particular 
preserving  process.  He  thinks,  however,  that  if  what  is  known 
as  vulcanizing  (i.  e.,  subjecting  unseasoned  wood  to  a  hot,  dry 


400 


SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 


air  under  ^reat  pressure)  accomplishes  wliat  is  claimed  for  it, 
it  promises  exceedin<^ly  favorable  results.  The  cost  of  this  pro- 
cess is  said  to  not  exceed  three  cents  per  tie.  its  advantages  are 
"that  unseasoned  timber  is  pieferablj^  used;  that  the  fibre  of 
the  vvooil  is  not  w<;akeued  by  the  process:  that  the  timber  may 
be  worked  after  treatment  without  exposing  any  untreated 
parts,  as  the  wood  seems  to  be  permeated  through  and  througli; 
that  the  timber  is  unatlected  by  atmospheric  changes,  being 
thorouglily  seasoned  by  the  process."  Mr.  Fernow,  concurring 
with  practical  railway  men  in  such  matters,  very  wisely  points 
out  that  the  lirst  cost  of  material  is  frequently  not  the  most  im- 
portant factor;  tliat  it  is  oftentimes  overshadowed  by  the  ques- 
tion of  maintenance  and  renewal;  by  perfection  of  roadway  and 
appliances;  the  safety  and  comfort  of  travelers.    lie  tlierefore 


.-u. 


Brake. 


recommends  the  use  of  preservatives  wliere  wood  is  employed 
and  the  adoption  of  such  other  devices  as  are  calculated  to 
lessen  the  consumption  of  timber.* 

As  a  means  of  lessening  the  consumption  of  timber  Mr.  E.  E. 
R.  Tratman.  an  engineer  of  tlie  United  .States  government,  lias 
made  most  extended  and  careful  enquiries  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  metal  for  ties.  lie  obtained  his  information  directly  from 
official  sources.  It  is,  therefore,  reliable.  His  enquiries  covered 
two  years'  work,  besides  much  preparatory  labor.  Tliey  are, 
consequently,  exhaustive.  lie  finds  that  the  condition  of  a  road, 
its  traffic  and  rolling  stock  must  be  considered  in  using  metal 
ties.    His  investigations  cover  twentj'-five  thousand  miles  of  rail- 


*He  states  that  the  consumption  of  lumber  in  the  United 
States  amounts  annually  to  681,000,000  feet. 


3IAIX  TEN  A  XCE.  401 

road  laid  witli  sik-Ii  ties.  lie  finds  that  the  use  of  metal  ties  lias 
long  passed  the  mcroly  t'xix'riineiital  stage:  tliat  their  i»raetieal)il- 
ity  and  value  have  heeu  measurably  well  estalilislied.  He  observes 
a  growing  interest  and  knowledge  of  the  subjeet  in  the  United 
States.  He  believes  their  introduction  and  use  here  will  cheai)eii 
maintenanee  and  heighten  ellieieney.  He  finds  from  the  result  of 
his  enquiries  that  mild  steel  is  best  adapted  for  manufacture  of 
metal  ties;  that  reduction  in  the  depth  of  such  ties  saves  materially 
in  ballast  over  a  wooden  tie;  that  the  pattern  up  to  this  time  most 
generally  satisfactory  is  that  invented  and  improved  by  Mr.  Post, 
the  engineer  of  permanent  way  for  The  Netherlands  state  rail- 
ways,—  however,  the  developments  of  a  day  may  change  this; 
that  in  regard  to  the  use  of  metal  ties  their  efliciency  is  greatly 
enhanced,  as  in  other  departments  of  railway  work,  by  intelli- 
gence and  efficient  handling. 

Metal  ties  have  not  been  generally  introduced  in  i^higland, 
though  experiments  have  been  made  with  them  by  all  the  princi- 
pal roads.  These  experiments  are  generally  satisfactory  and 
promise  to  lead  to  imi)ortant  results. 

The  railways  of  France  have  not  definitely  adopted  the 
ntietal  tie,  but  are  experimenting  with  a  view  to  its  adapta- 
bility and  the  discovery  of  a  suitable  pattern.  M.  Vautherin, 
a  French  engineer,  has  up  to  this  time  designed  what  is  con- 
sidered to  be,  all  in  all,  the  most  desirable  form.  The  use 
of  preservatives  in  France  has  made  substitutes  for  timber 
less  necessary  than  they  otherwise  would  be.  They  find  that 
when  a  metal  tie  is  used,  tie  plates  are  not  necessary.  French 
railways  use  the  suspended  joint,  spliced  by  fish  plates  and  four 
bolts.  On  the  outside  the  ballast  is  brought  up  even  with  the 
rail  head;  on  the  inside,  even  with  the  bottom  of  the  rail.  No 
breakage  has  occurred  in  connection  with  the  use  of  metal  ties, 
nor  have  difficulties  arisen  with  the  fastenings.  Their  use  is 
thought  to  lessen  cost  of  maintenance  and  to  increase  the  solid- 
ity, smoothness  and  safety  of  the  track.  Atmospheric  agencies 
do  not  appear  to  afiect  tlie  ties  which  are  laid  without  any  coat- 
ing or  other  preparatory  measures.  AVlien  laid  in  tunnels  or  low 
places,  however,  or  in  ballast  containing  sulphurous  material,  it 
is  noticed  that  tliey  corrode  more  or  less. 

In  Holland  most  of  the  railroads  are  using  metal  ties,  and  have 
been  doing  so  for  several  years,  notwithstanding  the  pleutiful- 
ness  and  cheapness  of  suitable  wood.  Altogether  the  greatest  in- 
telligence and  interest  seem  to  have  been  observed  in  that  coua- 

26 


402  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

try  in  connection  with  the  use  of  metal  ties.  The  results  have 
been  entirely  satisfactory  from  every  point  of  view.  Of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  metal  ties  laid  since  IbSO.  not 
one  has  had  to  l)e  removed.  Ties  of  this  pattern,  after  being  in 
use  upon  a  particular  road  for  twenty-five  years  with  a  service 
of  sixteen  trains  per  day.  are  found  to  be  substantially  as  good 
as  new.  They  find  that  the  metal  track  is  safe,  elastic  and 
agreeable  for  travelers.  Its  use  is  growing  and  promises  to 
wholly  supersede  every  other  form. 

In  Belgium  the  metal  tie  was  originally  introduced  through 
pressure  brought  to  bear  by  labor  agitators  and  unions,  and  was 
ill  considered  before  its  adoption  and  hastily  and  imperfectly 
tried.  Because  of  this  its  use  was  not  generally  satisfactory. 
Later  enquirj-  and  observation,  however,  have  induced  the 
government  to  take  up  the  subject  again  more  deliberately. 

The  growing  use  of  metal  ties  in  Germany  evinces  their 
popularity.  It  is  found  there,  as  elsewhere,  that  great  improve- 
ments can  be  made  in  the  original  device.  The  early  forms  in- 
troduced were  too  weak  for  present  conditions  of  traffic.  Longi- 
tudinal ties  are  quite  extensively  used  in  that  country,  but  are 
being  abandoned  because  of  added  cost  of  maintenance  and 
the  difficulty  of  properly  draining  the  track.*  The  minimum 
of  durability  of  metal  ties  is  placed  at  forty  years;  it  may  be  ex- 
tended to  seventy.  Information  on  the  subject  there,  as  else- 
where, is  exceedingly  meagre.  Mistaken  econtomy  and  a  desire 
to  encourage  forest  industries  have  retarded  the  introduction  of 
metal  ties  in  Germany.  Lumber  used  for  the  purpose  is  very 
generally  subjected  to  preservative  processes.  Tie  plates  are 
also  very  generally  used.  The  growing  use  of  metal  ties,  and  the 
fact  that  the  government  places  them  on  its  railways  at  switches 
and  frogs,  evince  appreciation  and  value. 

Austria  and  Hungary,  the  most  favored  of  all  countries  as 
regards  abundant,  suitable  and  cheap  timber,  while  making  care- 
ful and  protracted  experiments  upon  metal  ties,  have  not  gener- 
ally adopted  them  up  to  this  time.  They  are,  however,  used 
upon  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  miles  of  track.  They  are 
laid  in  both  longitudinal  and  cross  sections.    Metal  tie  plates  are 


*  The  use  of  cross  ties  is  not  by  any  means  universal.  Longi- 
tudinal ties  are  also  sometimes  used.  Upon  many  roads  a  cast 
iron  or  steel  bowl  or  plate  is  used  in  lieu  of  a  tie,  being  con- 
nected by  cross  rods  or  tie  bars. 


MAINTENANCE. 


403 


very  generally  eniploye<1  when  wooden  ties  are  used,  Tliey  are 
not,  however,  used  on  every  tie,  except  at  sharp  curves.  'I'lie 
spike  passes  throui^li  the  plate  and  holds  both  the  rail  and  tlie 
plate. 

Metal  ties  are  in  very  general  use  in  Switzerland  and  are  in 
high  favoi.  "They  have  boon  given  a  thorough  trial  with  cini- 
nently  satisfactory  results,  bonie  of  the  railways  have  now  deli- 
uitely  adopted  them.  At  present  they  are  used  mainly  on  lines 
having  the  heaviest  tranic;on  these  lines  the  metal  ties  give 
greater  security  than  wooden  ties,  if  of  sufficient  weight,  have 
well  proportioned  dimensions,  and  the  right  means  of  attach-, 
ment  are  employed."' 

The  glowing  scarcity  of  wood  in  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy, 
and  the  probal)ility  of  still  greater  scarcity  in  the  future,  have 
induced  those  interested  in  such  matters  to  give  attention  to 
suggested  substitutes  therefor,  and,  while  no  general  attempt  has 
been  made  to  introduce  metal  ties,  careful  experiment  is  being 
made  with  them.  There  is  no  prejudice  against  them,  and  the 
investigations,  so  far  as  they  have  been  carried  on,  are  satisfac- 
tory. But  so  long  as  wood  ties  are  cheaper  they  And  favor  even 
where  the  ultimate  cost,  taking  into  account  maintenance  and 
renewals,  is  greater.  However,  this  is  probably  the  case  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  every  other  country. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  in 
every  country  of  Europe,  indeed,  in  every 
country  of  the  world,  experiments  more  or 
less  carefid  and  full  are  being  made  with 
metal  ties.  Out  of  this  will  grow  practical 
forms  and  efficient  methods.  Care  should 
be  taken  by  railways  to  collect  and  preserve 
the  records  of  these  experiments. 

From  his  investigations  Mr.  Fernow 
concludes  tliat  the  use  of  a  metal  tie  under 
difterent  conditions  has  conclusively  dem- 
onstrated the  fact  of  its  practicability  as  a  substitute  for  wood. 
Its  advantages  are  economy,  efficiency  and  safety.  He  thinks 
that  the  experimental  stage  has  been  passed  as  shown  l)y  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  used  and  its  steadily  increasing  introduc- 
tion, and  that  it  remains  for  us  to  profit  by  the  experience 
already  on  record,  making  use  of  the  improvements,  modifi- 
cations and  warnings  suggested  by  actual  practice  elsewhere. 
The  main  advantages  presented  by  a  good  system  of  metal  track 


Lubricating  Device. 


404 


SCIEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


he  sums  up  as  follows:  "Reduced  expenses  for  maintenance 
and  renewals,  owing  to  the  solid  construction  and  the  greater 
durability  of  the  parts;  a  better  class  of  track,  owing  to  improved 
fastenings,  etc..  and  the  fact  that  the  roadbed  is  not  torn  up  (as 
with  wooden  ties)  for  frequent  renewals,  so  that  it  gives  the  best 
road  with  the  least  amount  of  work  for  maintenance;  increased 
safety  for  traffic,  owing  to  the  superiority  of  the  fastenings  over 
those  used  with  wooden  ties." 

The  conclusion  of  men  who  have  given  this  subject  most 
study*  is  that  if  in  comparing  the  cost  of  ditterent  systems  of 
track  account  is  taken  of  every  expense,  namely,  first  cost, 
transportation.han<lling.  laying,  maintaining,  renewing,  interest, 
and  the  value  of  the  old  material,  there  are  few  countries  or 
railroads  where  the  exclusive  use  of  wood  for  ties  is  the  cheap- 
est.   Mr.  Fernow,  who  possesses  great  skill  and  experience  as  an 


Lubricating  Device. 


engineer,  sums  up  the  results  of  his  observations  and  enquiries 
in  regard  to  the  requirements  of  a  successful  metal  tie  as  follows, 
namely :  That  it  sluill  be  "•  heavy  enough  to  hold  the  rails  down 
well  and  make  a  firm  track;  light  enough  to  be  of  reasonable 
cost;  metal  enough  to  stand  wear  and  tear  and  give  ample 
strength;  easy  of  nlanufa^•ture.  and  reijuiring  a  minimum  of  shop 
work;  not  liable  to  lateral  motion  in  the  ballast;  easy  to  be  laid, 
removed,  or  ballasted ;  fastenings  simple  and  efficient,  with  as  few 
parts  as  possible,  capable  of  adjustment  for  widening  the  gauge 
at  curves,  etc. ;  price  such  as  to  enable  an  actual  ultimate  economy 
to  be  shown ;  proper  quality  of  metal  to  sustain  shocks  without 
injury;  elasticity  enough  to  give  an  easy  riding  track." 

The  value  and  character  of  the  metal  tie  has  been  discussed 
frequently  and  exhaustivel}'  at  the  various  congresses  of  rail- 


"Xotably  Mr.  Post  of  The  Netherlands  railways. 


MAINTENANCE.  406 

waj'^s  held  in  Europe  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  con- 
clusions of  the  congress  held  in  Paris  in  1889  were  that,  while 
metal  ties  present  many  favorable  and  advantageous  points,  the 
experience  with  them  has  not  been  sudicient  to  justify  any  final 
decision  in  their  favor  against  wooden  ties.  It  recommends  that 
each  management  should  select  two  trial  sections,  laying  one 
with  metal  tics  and  the  other  with  wooden  tics;  both  sections  to 
have  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  conditions  of  grade,  align- 
ment, roadbed,  ballast  and  traffic;  that  the  trials  should  last  long 
enough  to  enable  definite  conclusions  to  be  arrived  at;  that  the 
special  i)oints  to  be  considered  should  be:  first  cost;  cost  of 
maintenance;  cost  of  renewals;  approximate  life  of  ties;  eft'ect 
on  the  rails;  best  types  or  forms  of  ties,  and  general  cost, 
takin"-  renewals  into  account.* 


*In  another  chapter  will  be  found  illustrations  of  the  various 
kinds  of  metal  ties  used  in  ditt'erent  countries. 


Carriage  ia  Western  Africa. 


(40C) 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

MAINTENANCE— THE   CONSTRUCTION,  MAINTENANCE 
AND  CARE  OF  A  ROADWAY  AND  TRACK. 

(XOTE — An  effective  and  thorough  system  of  track  ac- 
counts is  necessary  to  a  proper  understand ing  of  track  mainte- 
nance and  its  due  and  economical  enforcement.  Such  a  SJ^stem 
will  be  found  in  the  volume  "Fiscal  Affairs,  Disbursements.") 

As  this  is  the  salient  feature  of  a  railway,  it 
naturally  excites  greater  interest  and  specula- 
tion among  managers  than  any  other  part  of  the 
property.  Upon  it  our  lives  depend  and  the 
safety  of  our  property.  Other  structures  con- 
nected with  a  railway  are  the  work  of  archi- 
tects, machinists,  plumbers,  carpenters  and  kin- 
dred accessories.  We  use  the  same  agents  in 
building  and  repairing  our  houses.  We  possess 
more  or  less  practical  knowledge  of  their  meth- 
ods. The  track  of  a  railway,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  a  thing  apart,  new,  special,  unknown. 

A  good  track  is  commonly  an  indication  of  a 
solvent  company,  a  wise  manager,  a  skillful  staff, 
careful  and  trustworthy  employes.  Much  might 
be  written  aljout  it  of  a  theoretical  nature.  The 
sul)ject  is  such  as  to  excite  the  imagination  and 
fancy.  T  prefer,  however,  to  lay  before  my 
reader  only  that  which  will  prove  of  practical 
use,     I  have  given  the  subject  considerable  at- 

(407) 


408  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

teiitioii  myself,  but  feel  I  can  not  say  anything 
so  good  or  so  pertinent  as  those  practically  fa- 
miliar with  the  subject.  I  beg  the  reader's  in- 
dulgence, therefore,  if,  instead  of  attempting  to 
write  something  original,  I  venture  to  avail 
myself  of  what  has  been  well  written  ])y  those 
wise  in  such  matters.  Under  an  invitation  from 
an  association  interested  in  railway  track  mat- 
ters, Mr.  Andrew  Morrison  and  Mr.  H.  W.  Reed 
addressed  themselves  especially  to  the  subject. 
Their  work  deserved  the  praise  it  received  for 
fullness  and  versatile   knowledge.    There  is  no 


Track  Gauge. 


danger  of  what  they  say  growing  old  or  becoming 
obsolete  in  railway  use,  except  possibly  in  minor 
practices  of  a  local  nature.  Their  articles  sup- 
plement each  other,  and  together  form  a  com- 
plete picture  of  track  life— its  wants,  necessities 
and  vicissitudes. 

Mr.  Reed,  whose  comprehensive  knowledge  and 
inhnite  grasp  of  detail  evince  his  talent  and 
wide  experience,  takes  up  the  subject  at  the 
point  where  the  roadbed  is  ready  for  laying  the 
ties  and  rails.  He  assumes  that  the  contractors 
have  finished  the  work  of  grading;  that  the 
culverts  and  bridges  have  been  constructed;  that 


MAIXTENANCE.  409 

the  ties  have  been  bought  and  are  piled  at  con- 
venient places  along  the  road,  that  their  surfaces 
have  so  far  as  possible  been  prepared  ready  for 
the  rail,  and  that  they  have  been  seasoned  for  at 
least  one  year;  that  the  timber  for  switches  is 
conveniently  placed  and  similarly  seasoned;  that 
the  rails  and  splices  are  ready  for  delivery  as 
required.  Here  he  takes  up  the  subject,  in  sub- 
stance, as  follow^s: 

There  will,  it  is  probable,  be  several  places  at  which  it  may  be 
possible  to  coninience  laying  track.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  organize  one  or  more  gangs  of  tracklayers;  also  a  con- 
struction train  for  each  gang,  and  surfacers  for  each  gang.  It 
will  usually  Ije  necessary  to  prepare  the  roadbed  for  the  track 
before  putting  these  gangs  to  work.  This  preparatory  work  is 
commonly  known  as 

Tkimmino. — This  is  work  which  contractors  are  very  likely 
to  do  imi)erfectly  or  neglect  entirely.  Thus  a  most  important 
part  of  their  work  is  left  for  the  track  department  to  do,  if  a 
company  is  desirous  of  having  good  track  so  as  to  save  expense 
in  later  years.  The  roadbed  in  cuts  shoidd  be  prepared  with 
great  care,  especially  in  regard  to  drainage.  The  center  of  the 
bed  should  be  eight  inches  higher  than  the  ditches  for  single 
track,  and  eleven  inches  higher  for  double  track.  The  roadbed 
for  double  track  should  have  its  summit  of  drainage  at  the 
center  of  each  track.  This  provides  efficient  drainage  between 
these  points  l)ut  not  for  the  space  between  the  track  centres. 
This  is  why  longitudinal  drains  with  cross  branches  to  the 
ditches  are  often  necessary  to  drain  the  inner  two  halves  of  the 
track.  The  roadbed  for  double  track  should  slope  from  the 
summit  of  drainage,  at  the  rate  of  one-half  inch  to  the  foot, 
until  it  reaches  the  extreme  outer  ends  of  the  ties,  from  which 
it  should  slope  to  form  the  ditch,  six  inches  below  this  point;  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  should  ])e  six  and  a  half  or  seven  feet  distant 
from  the  near  rail  of  each  track.  Single  track  should  be  in  pro- 
portion. All  holes  should  be  filled  solid  uniform  with  the  surface 
of  the  bed.    When  this  is  completed  gangs  can  be  ])ut  to  work. 

('oNSTRL'CTiox  Train. — The  numl)er  of  construction  trainmen 
and  foremen  will  depend  upon  circumstances.     It  is  their  duty 


410  jSCIEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

to  load  and  unload  material.  "Work  can  be  economized  by  using 
as  few  eno^ines  as  possible.  One  engine  can  be  made  to  do 
the  work  of  two  by  placing  the  cars  for  loading  and  unload- 
ing material  while  it  attends  to  other  work.  If,  however,  the 
haul  is  too  great  to  admit  of  this,  an  extra  engine  is  neces- 
sary. 

Track  T.ayincj. — A  trai'k  laying  gang  should   consist  of  as 
many  men  as  can   be  worked  conveniently.     Small  gangs  can  be 
worked   more  economically   than    large    ones.     The   best  men 
should  be  kept  at  the  front.     If  one  man    in   each   sub-gang  is 
paid  five  or  ten  cents  a  day  more  than  the   others   (but  known 
only  to  those  who  receive  it)  he  will  encourage  his  fellows  to 
greater  exertion  than  a  foreman  can.     The  foreman  of  a   track 
laying  gang  should  be  smart  and   ingenious.     The  following  is 
about  the  force  required  to   lay  the  track  of  a  new  road  under 
normal  conditions:  nine  men  to   load  construction  material  on 
the  truck,  eight  men  to  unload  the  truck,  one  man  with  a  horse 
to  haul  material,  four  men  to  lay  out  rope  for  lining  and  spac- 
ing  ties,  six   men  to   put  on  splices,  and  a  proper  number  of 
spikers.    A  track  laying  gang  will  lay  on  an  average  one  mile  in 
two  days.     Sometimes   less,  sometimes  more.    Portable   turn- 
tables are  used  for  the   convenience  of  loaders  and  unloaders. 
AVhen  a  truck  is  unloaded,  and  the  horse  has  hauled   back  the 
empty  truck,  the  driver  will  put  the  turntable  on  the  track  and 
haul  the  empty  truck  off"  oix  two  cross  ties;  he  will  then  hitch 
on  to  the  loaded  truck  and  haul  ahead  to   be  in  turn  unloaded ; 
the  loaders  will  then  run  the  returned  empty  truck  back  to  its 
position  for  reloading.     Should  the  unloaders  have  their  truck 
vmloaded  before  the  d liver  arrives  with  the  next  load,  they  will 
put  the  turntable   on  the  track   and  run  it  oft'  when  the  next 
loaded  truck  is  hauled  to  position.     Should  the  driver  reach  the 
unloaders  before  their  truck  is  empty.it  will  be  his  duty  to  place 
the  turntable.     The  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is   the  keeping  of 
imloaders    constantly    supplied    with   material.    An    ordinary 
truck  load  is  six  rails  and  sufHcient  cross  ties  to  lay  that  number 
of  rails,  with  a  supply  of  splices,  bolts,  nut  locks  and   spikes. 
It  is  better  and  cheaper  to  lay  ties  complete  than  to  lay  them  for 
joints  and  quarters  only, allowing  the  intermediate  ties  to  be  un- 
loaded aftei'ward  and  pulled  beneath  the  rails.     It  requires  the 
track  to  be  raised  in  order  to  accomplish  this,  and  it  is  injurious 
to  the  rails  and  roadbed  to  run  a  train  on  such  a  track.    As  fast 
as  the  ties  are  laid  sufficient  for  each  half  rail  length,  the  rail  is 


MAINTENANCE.  411 

laid  down,  partly  spliced  aud  spiked,  and  the  truck  then  moved 
ahead.  The  splicers  and  spikers  do  the  principal  part  of  their 
work  l)ehind  the  truck.  The  spacers  will  locate  the  places  for 
the  joint  ties,  using  a  pole  of  the  proper  length  and  lajing  the 
rails  with  broken  joint.  Ou  curves  the  rope  is  first  laid  in  posi- 
tion the  same  distance  from  engineers"  stakes  as  on  tangents; 
then  put  to  curve  by  measuring  oft"  the  middle  and  intermedi- 
ate ordinates  from  the  straight  line  first  given  by  the  rope. 
The  rope  is  placed  on  the  proper  side  for  lining  ties,  namely, 
on  tangents  of  double  track,  the  right  hand  side  in  the  direction 
the  trains  run :  and  on  the  inner  side  of  curves.  The  splicers 
will  space  the  rails  by  tightening    up  the  rear  bolt  aud  then 


Replacer. 

inserting  the  round  end  of  their  wrench  in  the  forward  hole  of 
the  splice  aud  rail,  which  will  give  sufficient  leverage  to  move  the 
rail.  They  should  be  provided  with  a  suitable  rail  spacer. 
When  they  have  adjusted  the  joint  and  bolted  it  up,  the  spiking 
may  be  done. 

Gauging  and  Spiking. — Joints  and  centers  should  be  gauged 
and  spiked  first,  so  as  to  bring  the  rails  to  their  proper  position 
on  the  ties.  This  facilitates  intermediate  spiking.  Each  tie 
should  be  gauged  as  it  is  spiked.  Curves  of  three  degrees  and 
over  should  have  their  gauge  widened,  so  that  the  longest  rigid 
wheel  based  engine  can  pass  around  the  curve  without  crowdnig 
or  spreading  the  track;  this  will  vary  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
on  a  three    degree  curve    to  one  and  one-fourth  inches  on  a 


412  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WAYS; 

twenty  degree  curve.  The  widening  of  tlie  gauge  should  begin 
back  on  the  tangent  and  be  full  gauge  at  the  beginning  of  the 
curve  and  continue  all  the  way  round  to  the  Ijeginning  of  the 
tangent,  being  then  run  off  on  the  tangent  as  before.  Slotlioles 
in  llanges  of  splices  should  be  si)iked  to  prevent  creeping  of 
track.  All  spikes  shouhl  be  driven  ])iunib  and  snug  to  the  rail; 
they  should  not  be  struck  laterally,  as  they  are  thereby  bent  and 
consequently  lit  improperly  against  the  rail.  Striking  the  rail 
should  1)e  i)robibited  ;  it  is  the  result  of  carelessness  and  is  in- 
jurious to  th(^  rail.  A  fracture  on  the  base  of  a  rail,  caused  by 
striking,  is  liable  to  result  in  a  broken  rail.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  manufacture  of  T  rails  the  base  cools  faster  than 
the  head,  and  as  the  head  contracts  in  cooling  the  base  is  forced 
to  form  the  outer  ring  of  a  circle;  to  overcome  this  tendency  it 
is  curved  in  the  opposite  direction  when  red  hot — hence  the 
strain  on  tbe  base  when  cooled. 

IjAYINc;  Tiks. — Those  who  unload  the  ties  should  select  those 
for  joints;  the  latter  should  be  as  near  a  ten  inch  face  as  possi- 
ble, not  over  that  width.  Xo  intermediate  tie  should  have  a  face 
of  less  than  seven  inches.  Ties  should  be  spaced  with  a  maxi- 
nnun  distance  of  fourteen  inches  and  a  minimum  distance  of 
twelve  inches  between  them.  The  butt  end  of  the  tie  should  be 
placed  on  she  inside  of  curves. 

Specifications  for  Cross  Ties. — Hewed  ties  require  to  be 
adzed  level  for  the  rails,  and  scribed  for  the  outer  side  of  rail 
bases.  This  facilitates  track  laying.  The  end  which  is  to  be 
placed  on  the  lining  side  of  the  track  should  be  indicated  bj^ 
adzing  of!"  a  small  corner,  care  being  taken  to  select  the  butt  end 
of  the  ties  for  the  lining  of  curves  and  to  pile  them  separately. 
Ties  should  be  of  young  and  thrifty  tindjer  (usually  the  second 
growth)  which  possesses  the  greatest  toughness  and  elasticity. 
Trees  should  be  felled  during  the  winter  months  when  the  sap 
is  down.  Ties  thus  made  are  less  liable  to  immediate  attacks  of 
fungi.  The  bark  should  be  removed  from  all  such  trees  to  facil- 
itate the  seasoning  of  the  wood  and  prevent  the  bad  effect  of 
bark  upon  ties  when  in  the  track. 

Ties  for  Tkack. —  Ties  for  main  track  curves  should  be  of 
the  highest  grade.  Those  for  tangents  may  1)e  of  the  second 
order.  No  tie  with  a  face  less  than  seven  inches,  or  more  than 
ten,  should  be  used  in  the  main  track.  'I'ies  should  be  of  a  uni- 
form thickness  of  seven  inches.  'I'hey  should  approximate  in 
length  doidde  the  gauge,  so  that  the  rail  may  be  equally  distant 


MAINTENANCE.  413 

from  the  end  and  center  of  the  tie.  This  will  greatly  obviate 
the  track  becoming  center  bound  and  secure  greater  ])earing  sur- 
face on  the  roadbed.  Ties  should  be  spaced  so  that  the  maximum 
distance  from  face  to  face  will  be  fourteen  and  the  minimum 
twelve  inches.  The  object  sought  is  to  distribute  the  weight  of 
trains  uniformlj-  on  the  roadbed.  Ties  wluch  are  furthest  apart 
have  the  greatest  weight  to  sustain,  and  will  be  the  first  to  show 
a  weak  point  in  the  surface.  Second-class  or  "cuir'  ties  may  be 
used  in  sidings  and  yard  tracks.  Hard  wood  shguld  be  used  on 
curves.  Soft  wood  may  be  used  on  tangents.  Ties  when  re- 
ceived should  be  piled  so  as  to  allow  free  circulation  of  air 
around  each  tie  and  shed  as  much  water  as  possible.  Two  old 
ties  should  be  used  as  a  foundation  for  each  pile.  The  only  ties 
that  seem  to  meet  the  requirements  of  main  track  use  are  white 
or  rock  oak,  chestnut  and  yellow  pine.  Oak  ties  should  be  used 
exclusively  on  curves  and  other  kinds  on  tangents  only.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  use  oak  in  tangents,  instead  of  soft  wood 
ties,  as  the  spike  has  greater  adhesion  in  an  oak  tie.  Chestnut 
or  yellow  pine  ties  are  altogether  too  soft  to  use  on  curves. 

TiK  Plate:?. —  By  using  tie  plates  on  chestnut  and  yellow 
pine  ties,  they  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  oak  ties  on 
curves.  The  plates  must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  overcome 
the  turning  up  tendency  they  possess.  They  increase  the  lateral 
resistance  of  the  spike.  It  is  a  question  whether  it  will  pay  to 
use  tie  plates  on  tangents,  as  the  tendency  of  the  rails  to  cut  into 
the  ties  is  slight  in  comparison  with  that  on  curves.  As  soon  as 
a  low  place  is  found  on  a  curve,  it  should  be  tamped  to  surface; 
such  places  on  tangents  may  usually  remain  till  it  is  convenient 
to  repair  them.  Tie  plates  used  on  tangents  are  liable  to  rattle 
and  are  in  the  way  when  blocking  or  shimming  is  to  be  done. 
Track  on  tangents  is  apt  to  heave  more  than  on  curves,  because 
the  latter  are  dug  out  and  usually  well  drained  and  ballasted, 
whereas  on  tangents  this  work  is  not  so  necessary  for  safe  and 
fast  running. 

DAMA(iE  TO  Cross  Ties  BvSriKiNti. — Experiments  show  that 
driving  the  spike,  without  previously  boring  for  the  same, 
lessens  the  adhesion  of  the  s])ike  and  injures  the  wood.  When  a 
spike  is  so  driven  in  an  oak  tie,  the  woody  fibres  are  driven 
downward  with  the  spike,  extending  around  the  same  for  about 
half  an  inch,  and  inclining,  on  an  average,  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees.  By  removing  the  spike  and  splitting  the  tie 
through  the  spike  hole,  it  will  be  found  that  the  fibres  have 


414 


SCII'LXCK  OF  RAILWAYS; 


sprung  back  until  tlie  hole  is  nearly  lialf  dosed ;  they  will  also 
Ite  foimd  to  lie  perfectly  pliable,  liaviiiy  lost  almost  all  power  of 
adhesion :  tlicy  arc  thus  in  good  condition  to  receive  moisture, 
which  engenders  decay.  To  obviate  this,  a  hole,  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch  less  indianicter  than  the  thickness  of  the  spike,  should 
be  bored  the  full  depth  that  the  spike  will  l)e  driven  in  the 
wood.    This  prevents  injury  to  the  fibres  and  increases  adhesion, 

which  latter  is  the  principal 
point  gained  by  boring  hol<!s. 
A  spike  with  a  diamond  point 
will  give  better  satisfaction 
than  the  ordinary  chisel  pointed 
spike.  The  ordinary  spike,  on 
account  of  its  sharp  edges,  has 
a  tendency  to  drift  from  the 
direction  of  the  hole.  Tlie 
diamond  pointed  spike  will 
go  straight  home.  The  spike 
should  have  a  short  point  com- 
mencing half  an  inch  from  the 
end  and  tapering  uniformly  on 
its  four  sides.  The  holes  should 
be  made  in  ties  before  they  are 
put  in  track. 

InspectinCt  Eails.— Kails  should  be  insjjected  with  a  view  to 
their  composition,  length,  Haws,  line  and  surface.  Each  end  of 
the  rail  should  be  filed  underneath  the  head  and  top  base  to 
remove  projecting  sharp  edges  caused  by  sawing  and  allow  the 
splices  to  fit  snugly. 

Clkvino  Eails. — Kails  for  curves  of  over  five  degrees  should 
be  curved  with  a  rail  bender,  but  an  allowance  of  curvature 
equal  to  that  due  to  a  curve  of  five  degrees  should  be  made  to 
allow  the  lining  of  track  to  spring  the  rails  that  amount.  This 
amount  of  spring  in  the  rails  is  not  injurious  and  will  take  out 
kinks  made  incurving.  A  kinked  rail  in  a  curve  soon  forces 
the  track  into  the  natural  position  of  the  rail  resulting  in  a  bad 
riding  track  and  continual  expense,  as  rails  frequently  requi)'e  to 
be  removed  from  this  cause.  The  rail  ];ender,  while  the  best 
means  of  curving  rails  at  pre.sent.  is  imperfect  because  the 
curving  is  a  series  of  small  bends,  while  it  should  be  a  perfect 
curve.  The  simplest  manner  of  testing  the  curving  of  rails  is 
to  stretch  a  string  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  rail  and 


Track  Jack. 


MAINTENANCE.  415 

mark  the  rail  oflF  into  quarters;  from  the  string  to  the  rail  at  the 
center  mark  will  be  the  middle  ordinate  juid  at  the  quarter 
marks  the  intermediate  ordinatcs,  these  ordinates  beini^  calcu- 
lated according  to  the  degree  of  curve.* 

Splices. — Splices  should  be  carefully  inspected  as  to  quality 
of  material  and  make,  care  being  taken  to  reject  all  that  are 
bent  or  twisted  in  any  manner.  Only  straight  splices  should  be 
used.  A  splice  bent  laterally  will  prevent  the  track  from  lining, 
and  bent  vertically  will  prevent  the  joint  from  surfacing  and  be 
liable  to  break.  Turned  up  corners  on  the  ends  of  splice  bear- 
ings should  be  filed  level  with  the  surface. 

Suri'OKTED  AND  SUSPENDED  JOINTS. — This  Subject  can  not 
be  given  the  consideration  it  deserves  here.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  the  mitre  jointed  rail,  where  used,  has  all  but  settled  the 
controversy.  The  square  jointed  rail  leaves  more  or  less  of  an 
opening  for  wheels  to  fall  into;  in  time  this  depression  becomes 
greater  bj-  the  rail  ends  fattening  and  the  joints  becoming  low 
so  that  the  break  in  the  line  of  rail  offers  an  opportunity  for 
each  wheel  to  strike  a  blow  proportionate  to  the  opening  weight 
exerted  and  speed  of  travel.  The  mitre  jointed  rail  practically 
overcomes  this  blow;  with  its  use  the  splice  acts  as  its  name 
suggests  and  makes  the  joint  as  strong  as  the  unbroken  part  of 
the  rail  while  furnishing  slot  holes  to  enable  the  track  to  be 
spiked  without  injuring  the  base  of  the  rail  by  punching  slot 
holes.  The  splice  should  have  sufficient  bolts  to  overcome  the 
tendency  of  rails  to  pass  each  other  and  form  a  lip.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  the  supported  splice  joint  has  all  these  re- 
quirements and,  in  preference  to  the  suspended  joint,  allows  of 
an  additional  tie  under  the  rail  ends  or  center  of  splice,  thereby 
securing  the  aid  of  this  tie  to  act  in  resistance  to  the  rail's  run- 
ning as  well  as  furnishing  greater  bearing  sux-face  at  this  weak 
point  of  the  rail.  But  there  are  objections  to  these  points, 
namely,  the  punching  of  slot  holes  so  near  the  center  of  the 
spice  renders  the  splice  liable  to  break  at  its  weakest  point,  and, 
in  the  case  of  square  cut  rails,  the  placing  of  a  tie  underneath 
the  rail  ends  prevents  to  a  certain  extent  the  free,  elastic  action 


*  One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  calculating  the  middle  or- 
dinate is  to  square  half  the  length  of  the  rail  and  divide  the  re- 
sult by  twice  the  radius  of  the  curve,  thus:  Mid.  ord.  ''^^  i\'' 
The  intermediate  ordinate  is  three-fourths  of  the  middle  ordi- 
nate. 


416  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

of  the  split'c.  thereby  increasiuo;  the  blow  and  weight  to  be  sus- 
tained at  that  point.  Further,  this  center  tie  can  not  remain  at 
good  .surface,  as  it  receives  tlie  IjIows  exerted  l)y  tlie  wl)eels 
directly  and  must  necessarily  soon  get  low.  When  the  tie  be- 
comes below  surface,  it  ceases  to  be  a  support  and  acts  as  a  sus- 
pended joint.  The  same  is  true  of  the  mitre  jointed  rail,  though 
to  a  less  extent. 

Raisinc;  Track. — The  gang  for  surfacing  will  vary  in  num- 
ber according  to  the  kind  of  ballast  used.  Track  should  be 
raised  to  grade  in  two  lifts,  tamping  with  shovels  only.  In  sur- 
facing track,  both  rails  should  be  raised  and  tamped  at  the  same 
time  to  obviate  unevenness. 

Tajiping  Track  with  Bars.— This  work  should  be  done 
several  days  after  surfacing,  so  as  to  allow  the  track  to  be  par- 


Track  Drill. 

tially  consolidated.  When  square  cut  rails  are  used,  the  inside 
and  outside  of  the  joint  ties  should  be  well  tamped  and  sur- 
faced slightly  high;  the  outside  of  the  intermediate  ties  should 
be  well  tamped  and  the  inside  lightly  a  distance  of  twelve  inches 
from  the  rail.  Ballast  should  be  simply  packed  around  the  cen- 
ter of  ties  so  as  to  prevent  the  track  becoming  center  bound. 

Center  Bound  Track.— This  is  due  to  settling  of  the  ends 
of  ties  caused  bj'  their  elasticity  and  the  unevenly  distributed 
weight  passing  over  them;  this  weight  is  more  on  the  ends  ol 
the  ties  than  the  centers.  The  track  thus  becomes  more  solid 
at  the  center  than  at  the  ends.  Center  bound  track  shows  it- 
self by  the  oozing  of  mud  or  water  from  the  ends  of  the  ties  in 
wet  weather  and  the  rising  of  dust  in  drj-  weather.  Sometimes 
a  track  becomes  so  center  bound  that  the  ends  of  the  ties  will 
depress  from  two  to  three  inches.    This  is  a  drag  on  motive 


MAINTENANCE.  417 

power,  destructive  to  machinery  antl  expensive  in  every  way. 
Eacli  depression  forms  a  grade  to  be  overcome.  Time  spent 
in  repairing  such  a  track  is  useless.  It  must  be  raised  from  its 
old  bed. 

Lining  Track. — This  is  very  important.  All  curves  should 
have  spiral  ends  to  allow  trains  to  enter  and  leave  them  gradually 
and  also  allow  a  proper  elevation,  since  the  elevation  should 
increase  with  the  spiral.  Curves  on  new  roads  should  be  laid 
out  with  spiral  ends  because  it  entails  enormous  expense  to  re- 
lieve old  track  in  this  manner,  requiring  the  purchase  of  addi- 
tional right  of  waj%  cuts  and  fills,  and  the  building  of  new 
bridges,  etc.  The  great  defect  of  the  trackman  in  correcting 
engineer's  stakes  by  throwing  in  the  points  of  curves  is,  that 
while  he  lightens  the  curve  points  he  increases  the  curvature 
further  in  on  the  curve,  thereby  transferring  the  swing  of  the 
cars  towards  the  center  of  the  curve;  but  as  the  greatest  centrif- 
ugal force  to  overcome  is  at  the  point  of  curve,  he  has  removed 
the  objectionable  lining  to  a  point  requiring  less  lateral  resist- 
ance, which  is,  however,  a  move  in  the  right  direction.  A  good 
practice  in  correcting  engineer's  stakes  when  dealing  with  old 
track,  or  even  new  track,  is  to  examine  the  nearer  obstructions 
along  the  inside  of  the  curve  and  determine  how  far  it  can  be 
thrown  towards  its  center  without  interference  with  such 
obstructions;  then  set  stakes — or  measure  the  required  distance 
from  the  engineers  stakes  (if  such  have  been  given) — the  dis- 
tance it  can  be  moved;  throw  the  track  to  these  stakes  all  around 
the  curve,  except  the  last  hundred  feet  or  so  (according  to  the 
distance  thrown),  and  line  with  the  eye  the  ends  of  the  curve 
so  as  to  run  out  on  the  tangent  about  the  same  distance 
from  the  point  of  curve  as  the  point  first  started  to  line  from  is 
ahead  of  the  original  point  of  curve.  This  is  simply  throwing 
the  curve  points  out  instead  of  in,  thereby  lightening  instead  of 
increasing  them.  The  lining  up  of  a  curve  should  be  done  by 
sighting  on  the  outer  rail;  better  work  can  be  done  by  bending 
down  to  bring  the  eye  near  to  the  rail  than  by  standing.  This 
is  more  necessary  on  curves  than  on  tangents,  because  it  is 
necessary  to  be  nearer  the  bars  on  the  former  than  on  the  latter. 
Curves  on  old  tracks  should  be  lined  with  a  sixty-two  feet  line, 
first  obtaining  the  average  ordinate  by  trying  each  joint  around 
the  curve,  then  going  around  again  and  taking  out  all  its  irreg- 
ularities; this  is  the  only  true  and  easj'  manner  of  testing  curves, 
as  the  eye  is  deceiving  in    lining  as  well   as  in   leveling.    A 

27 


418  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

sixty-two  feet  line  sliould  be  used  because  with  a  curve  of  that 
]eii>;th  each  inch  of  the  middle  ordinate  represents  that  num- 
ber of  degrees  of  the  curve.  Stakes  should  be  set  for  all  tan- 
gents as  it  is  impossible  to  get  them  correct  otherwise. 

Elevation  of  Curves. — The  outer  rail  of  curves  should  be 
elevated  according  to  the  degree  of  curve  and  the  speed  of 
traffic,  taking  the  slow  trains,  however,  also  into  consideration, 
as  well  as  the  grade  of  track,  as  grade  and  curvature  usually 
determine  speed.  The  outer  rail  at  point  of  curves  should  have 
the  full  elevation  carried  back  on  the  tangents  at  about  the  rate 
of  fifty  feet  per  degree  of  curve  (if  the  tangent  is  sufficiently  long 
for  the  purpose),  and  should  decrease  at  this  rate  for  curves 
beyond  six  degrees.  It  often  occurs  that  the  engineer  has  left 
tangents  of  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  between 
the  points  of  curves  as  a  matter  of  economy  in  construction, 
and  as  for  a  length  of  a  passenger  car  at  least  the  track  should 
be  level  between  the  two  elevations  of  outer  rails,  the  trackman 
discovers  that  he  will  require  to  make  the  elevation  very  sud- 
denly, and  can  only  give  half  the  required  elevation  at  the  point 
of  curve  instead  of  full — shortening  the  run  oft"  on  the  tangent 
in  consequence.  Should  such  a  case  occur  on  double  track,  the 
elevation  on  the  run  off"  end  should  l)e  reduced  considerably 
further  back  on  the  curve,  thereby  terminating  its  elevation 
nearer  to  its  point ;  this  will  allow  more  room  for  the  elevation 
to  enter  the  next  curve  on  the  run  on  end,  which  is  vastly  more 
important.  Should  the  two  curves  be  in  the  same  direction,  it 
is  good  practice  to  carry  a  •  certain  amount  of  the  elevation 
throughout  the  entire  tangent  intervening,  as  in  such  case  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  leave  any  level  space  on  the  same  for 
the  cars  to  partially  gain  their  equilibrium.  No  fixed  propor- 
tion for  the  elevation  of  curves  can  be  given,  as  the  lighter 
curves  require  much  more  elevation  per  degree  of  curvature 
than  the  heavier  curves  without  detriment  to  slow  trains.  The 
elevation  for  light  curves  can  be  calcidated  so  that  the  fast 
trains  will  have  their  centrifugal  force  equalized,  but  nothing 
more.  The  elevation  on  heavy  curves  should  be  such  that  the 
outer  rail  will  not  require  bracing  to  prevent  its  spreading; 
the  inner  rail,  in  lieu  thereof,  should  be  braced  to  prevent  its 
spreading  and  turning.  There  should,  however,  be  a  brace  put 
on  the  outer  rail  opposite  the  inside  braces  to  prevent  the 
tie  pulling  through,  as  the  spike  will  be  insufficient  to  prevent 
it  from  doing  so.    A  good  manner  of  determining  the  proper 


MAINTENANCE. 


419 


elevation  for  fast  trains,  and  what  will  bo  safe  for  slow  trains,  is 
wlien  tlio  i)assen2;er  car  will  ride  perfectly  level;  should  the 
outer  side  ride  above  this  level,  the  elevation  is  too  great;  if 
below  this  level,  it  is  too  small. 

r>K<MvK\  vs.  KvKN'  Joints. — Broken  joints  are  the  custom 
upon  .some  of  our  best  roads  having  tracks  ballasted  with 
broken  stoMC.  gravel,  slag  and  anthracite  engine  cinder.  Kven 
joints  are  the  custom  on  some  roads  where  the  diircrent  kinds 
of  material  the  road  passes  through  govern  the  kind  and  (quan- 
tity of  ballast.  Hence  roads  having  poor  ballast  are  laid  witli 
the  joints  even,  and  those  having  good  ballast  are  laid  with  the 
joints  broken.  It  is  .self  evident  that  the  softer  the  ballast  the 
quicker  the  joints  will  become  depressed,  and  the  opposite  is 


Track  Drill. 


true  the  harder  the  material.  We  might,  therefore,  assume  that 
low  joints  are  in  proportion  to  the  quality  of  the  l)allast,  other 
things  being  equal.  When  a  wagon  cros.ses  a  ditch  at  right 
angles  so  that  each  pair  of  wheels  will  descend  at  the  same  time, 
tlie  jar  is  lighter  than  if  the  wagon  crosses  so  that  one  wheel 
dcscemls  befoi'o  the  other.  As  a  wagon  goes  along  an  ordinary 
road  with  slight  depressions,  the  jars  are  so  slight  that  they  are. 
practically,  of  no  consequence.  This  is  true  of  rolling  stock  on 
the  track.  Broken  joints  are  less  likely  to  depress,  since  the 
ballast  is  superior,  the  depressions  not  being  of  such  conseciuence 
as  to  refjuire  special  adjustment,  whereas  the  opposite  is  true  of 
even  joints.  Even  joints  would  answer  the  same  purpose  on 
good  ballast,  if  it  were  possible  to  lay  them  perfectly  even, 
which  it  is  not.     Again,  on  curves  it  is  out  of  the  question  to 


420  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

liiive  even  joints,  as  the  outer  rail  is  continually  falling  behind 
tlie  inner  rail.  Therefore,  since  even  jointed  rails  are  praeti- 
eall}'  impossible,  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  joints  in  one  rail 
come  as  nearly  opposite  the  center  of  the  other  as  possible. 

Ballast.— Ballast  usually  consists  of  broken  stone,  slag, 
gravel  or  anthracite  engine  cinder.  Each  has  its  peculiar  quali- 
ties. Tlie  extremes  are  broken  stone  and  cinder;  the  mean,  slag 
and  gravel. 

Broken  stone  is  superior  to  any  other  ballast  for  cleanness, 
durability  and  absence  from  dust;  for  drainage  and  distributing 
the  weight  over  the  entire  roadbed ;  also  for  use  on  grades  to 
prevent  the  track  from  creeping.  It  should  be  placed  twelve 
inches  deep  below  the  bottom  of  the  ties  and  well  tilled  iu  be- 
tween them.  It  is,  however,  the  most  expensive  ballast  to  pre- 
pare and  also  to  deal  with  iu  the  track.  Section  men  will  per- 
form twice  as  much  work  in  cinder  ballast  as  in  stone.  With 
stone  ballast  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  good  surface.  It  is  not 
the  liest  preventive  of  track  heaving  from  frost.  Where  the 
roadbed  is  of  a  muddy  nature  the  soil  will  ooze  up  through  the 
stone,  unless  the  ballast  is  deepened  to  prevent  it.  It  is  also 
destructive  to  soft  wood  ties,  their  lower  corners  being  rounded 
by  the  sharp  edges  of  the  stone  when  .tamping,  and  the  tie 
greatly  damaged  by  the  stones  cutting  into  the  wood. 

Slag  is  a  good  ballast.  When  the  rougher  slag  is  selected  for 
ballasting  underneath  the  ties,  and  the  finer  from  that  point  up 
to  the  surface,  it  may  be  said  to  possess  all  the  good  qualities  of 
broken  stone  and  cinder,  excepting  the  lasting  qualities  of  the 
former. 

Gravel  is  a  good  ballast.  It  should  be  carefully  selected  and 
the  larger  stoues  removed.  It  should  be  clean  and  clear  of  loam. 
It  may  be  classed  as  a  fourth  class  ballast.  It  has  good  drainage 
qualities  and  prevents  the  heaving  of  the  track  from  frost, 
though  to  a  less  extent  than  slag  or  cinder.  An  objection  to 
"•ravel  ballast  is  the  roundness  of  the  stoues  composing  it, 
which  is  the  opposite  of  what  stone  for  ballast  should  be.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  little  value  for  holding  track  on  grades.  It  also 
shakes  from  the  ties  from  vibration  caused  by  traffic  and  is, 
therefore,  of  little  value  for  distributing  weight. 

Anthracite  cinder  is  the  best  ballast  to  prevent  heaving.  It 
can  be  worked  more  cheaply  than  any  other  and  the  finest  sur- 
face and  line  can  be  obtained  with  it;  it,  consequently,  makes 
the  easiest  and  smoothest  riding  track.    It  is  more  elastic  than 


MA  IX  TEX  A  XCE.  421 

any  other  ballast,  and,  when  new,  adheres  well  to  the  ties.  It 
must,  however,  be  renewed  from  time  to  time  as  it  worlvs  tine 
and  makes  dust.  This  feature  obliterates  its  tine  qualities. 
However,  it  may  be  remedied  by  having  it  watered  when  tirst 
laid,  after  which  it  will  give  little  trouble. 

Strkkt  ('kossin'c^s.— One  of  the  l)est  methods  of  preparing  a 
street  crossing  is  to  place  a  guard  rail  on  the  inside  uf  each 
rail,  so  that  their  two  bases  will  butt  against  each  other.  The 
guard  rail  shoulil  be  one-fourth  of  an  inch  lower  than  the 
main  rail.  The  ends  of  the  guard  rails  on  each  side  of  the 
crossing  should  have  a  sharp  curve  towards  the  center  of  the 
track,  so  that  the  end  of  the  guard  rail  will  be  about  four 
inches  from  the  main  track  rail,  having  the  outer  corner  of 
head  chamfered  at  each  end.  Previous  to  placing  the  guard 
rails,  a  piece  of  oak  that  will  fit  underneath  the  railheads  and 
base  should  be  so  placed  between  their  webs.  This  strip  of 
wood  tilling  overcomes  the  objectionable  feature  to  such  guards, 
namelj',  the  catching  of  horses'  toe  calks  under  the  rail  heads. 
The  space  between  the  two  guard  rails  should  be  filled  with 
three  and  one-half  inch  white  oak  plank  spiked  to  the  tics.  If 
the  track  rails  are  four  and  three-fourths  inches  high,  the  plank 
should  have  one  inch  oak  undershoring  extending  the  full 
width  and  length  of  the  tie  so  planked,  a  twelve  inch  plank 
being  used  on  the  outside  of  each  main  rail,  up  to  which  it  is 
paved  between  tracks.  On  crossings  of  little  tratiic,  guard 
rails  may  be  omitted,  having  in  place  of  them  a  plank  beveled 
so  as  to  lap  over  the  rail  base  and  up  to  the  web,  to  prevent  dust, 
dirt  and  snow  from  working  underneath  and  heaving  it  up. 
The  plank  should  be  beveled  on  the  upper  surface  sufilcient 
to  clear  the  wheel  flanges,  the  upper  edge  of  the  bevel  being  dis- 
tant from  the  gauge  line  of  the  rail  two  and  one-half  inches. 

Guard  Rails  for  Bridges. — Bridges  should  be  provided 
with  guard  rails.  Old  rails  as  near  the  height  of  the  main  rails 
as  possible  should  be  used;  these  rails  should  be  placed  as  near 
the  main  rails  as  the  splices  and  spikes  will  allow,  and  on  the 
approach  end  of  the  bridge  should  be  carried  parallel  for  at  least 
thirty  feet,  where  they  should  convei'ge  to  the  center  of  the 
track  so  as  to  line  into  the  old  point  of  a  frog;  at  the  point 
where  they  diverge  from  the  running  rail  rerailing  castings 
should  be  i)laced.  Three  or  four  braces  should  be  placed  on  the 
inside  of  each  guard  rail  between  the  castings  and  the  frog 
point ;  these  guard  rails  should  be  spiked  on  each  tie,  and  as  a 


422 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


foot  guard  for  the  frog  point,  a  piece  of  twelve  inch  plank  (oak) 
three  and  one-half  inehes  thick,  cut  to  tit  tlie  frog  point  from 
where  the  rails  are  twelve  inches  wide  up  snugly  into  the  sharp 
point,  should  ])e  placed  and  spiked  to  the  ties,  finishing  the 
twelve  inch  end  hy  leveling.  The  run  oft"  end  of  the  bridge  for 
double  track  need  not  have  a  rerailing  apparatus,  but  the  guard 
rails  should  be  continued  about  thirty  feet  beyond  the  bridge, 
where  they  may  terminate  in  a  slight  curve  distant  from  the 
main  rail  about  six  inches. 

Cattle  Guards.— Such  guards  should  be  placed  at  all  farm 
and  public  road  crossings  where  there  is  no  protection  by  gates 
or  otherwise ;  to  prevent  cattle  running  along  the  track,  a  fence 
Should  be  built  from  the  right  of  way  fence  on  both  sides  of  the 

opening   to  as  near    the  rail   as 
practicable.     There    are    various 
forms  of  cattle  guards.     One  plan 
in  particular  commends  itself,  be- 
ing eft'ective  and  cheap.    It  is  a 
space   of  not  less    than   six  feet 
stretching  the  entire  width  of  the 
track   parallel    to  the    road,  laid 
with  two  and  one-half  by  four  inch 
oak  pieces  laid  across  the  ties  par- 
allel to  the  rails,  cut  to  a  sharp 
edge  on  the  upper  face,  spaced 
with  two  inch  spacing  blocks,  and 
spiked   down  to  the    ties.     The 
most  effective  plan,  however,  is 
to  build  a  pit  the  entire  width  of 
the  road  about  six  feet  wide  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  enable 
a  cow  to  drop  entirely  clear  of  the  trains.    This,  however,  is  too 
expensive,  requiring  the  building  of  retaining  walls  and  bridged 
for  the  rails  only.    This  style  of  a  cattle  guard  is  perfectly 

eft'ective.  ,  ^  ... 

SuH'ES  AND  Drainage.— Cuts  should  be  sloped  to  an  incli- 
nation arrived  at  after  careful  examination  of  the  material 
composing  them.  In  ordinary  earth  cuts  a  slope  of  one  and 
one-half  to  one  will  be  sufficient,  while  it  may  be  necessary 
to  o-ive  some  cuts  a  slope  that  an  engineer  would  not  approve. 
Jn  all  cases  they  should  have  slopes  that  will  obviate  land  slides. 

Fills.— Fills  made  of  rock  and  good  sharp  material  will 
give  little  or  no  trouble,  but  those  made  in  a  careless  manner 


Track  Saw. 


MAINTENANCE.  423 

will  be  a  source  of  continual  expense.  Engineers  should  pro- 
hibit the  use  of  material  tliat  will  slide  at  a  slope  of  more 
than  one  and  one-half  to  one,  unless  it  be  along  the  tail  of 
fills  where  the  weight  is  comparatively  slight.  To  prev^ent 
fills  and  cuts  from  sliding,  in  slight  cases,  willow  cuttings  or 
shrubbery  of  a  rooty  and  spreading  nature  may  be  planted. 
In  severe  cases,  broken  stone  or  slag  dumped  down  the  fat-e, 
so  that  it  will  be  about  one  foot  deep  at  the  top  and  two  or 
three  feet  at  the  bottom  (or  of  a  greater  thickness  if  neces- 
sary) will  prevent  sliding. 

Rock  Cuts. — Rock  cuts  should  be  examined  and  all  loose 
material  removed.  Trees  that  might  fall  on  the  track  should 
be  cut  down. 

Slope  Dkainage.— Earth  cuts  should  have  a  berme  ditch 
on  both  sides  (except  side  hill  cuts,  where  one  on  the  upper 
side  is  sufficient)  to  intercept  surface  water.  The  ditches 
should  be  of  sufficient  width  and  depth  to  accommodate  the 
maximum  drainage.  At  the  tail  of  the  cut  they  should  di- 
verge sufficiently  from  the  track  so  that  the  water  will  flow 
ofi".  Ditches  should  be  run  parallel  to  the  track  in  all  cuts, 
and  wherever  the  adjoining  ground  is  higher  than  the  road- 
bed, the  bottom  of  the  ditch  should  be  for  single  track  eiirht 
inches,  and  for  double  track  eleven  inches,  lower  than  the  center 
of  the  roadbed,  and  seven  feet  from  the  near  rail. 

Springs  on  Slopes. — Cuts  showing  springs  of  water  should 
be  provided  with  a  system  of  surface  drainage.  A  good  plan  is 
to  dig  ditches  straight  or  diagonally  down  the  slope,  intercept- 
ing all  such  places;  the  nature  of  the  material  will  determine 
the  depth  and  distance  apart.  These  ditches  should  be  filled 
with  stone  of  a  size  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  water  to  pass 
through  their  interstices.  Should  the  flow  of  water  be  too 
copious  for  such  a  drain,  a  pipe  or  ordinary  square  built  drain 
will  answer  the  purpose. 

Sodding  and  Sowing  Grass  Seed  on  Ejibankments  and 
Cuts. — Earth  cuts  and  enbankments  should  either  be  sodded 
from  the  sod  saved  by  stripping  the  surface  or  by  sowing  grass 
seed  and  white  clover.  Should  they  not  slide  before  a  sod  has 
been  formed,  this  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  slipping. 

Tunnel  DRxVINAGE. — Good  drainage  in  a  tunnel  is  necessary 
to  secure  safety  to  traffic  and  enable  the  trackman  to  do  his 
duty.  Tunnels  have  proportionately  more  water  to  be  drained 
off  than  other  parts  of  the  track  owing  to  the  surface  water 


424 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


permeating  to  them ;  moreover,  the  strata  being  interfered  with 
in  the  building  of  a  tunnel,  it  receives  the  dniinage  for  a  greater 
or  less  extent  of  country.  The  roadbed  of  a  tunnel  for  double 
track  should  have  a  uniform  grade  from  the  sides  to  the  center, 
with  a  fall  of  six  inches  emptying  into  a  drain  at  its  center  run- 
ning the  length  of  the  tunnel  and  emptying  into  the  ditches  at 
each  end :  this  drain  should  be  eighteen  inches  wide  and  twelve 
Inches  deep  with  a  covering  stone  to  allow  the  tracks  to  be 
filled  up  between.  Where  the  l)ed  is  other  than  rock,  this  ditch 
should  be  made  by  laying  a  bed  stone  wide  enough  for  a  stone 
on  each  side  to  rest  upon  it.  these  forming  the  sides  of  the 
drain;  the  covering  stone  should  rest  upon  the  side  stones. 
Where  the  bed  is  rock,  the  drain  should  be  excavated  as  near 

the  required  form  as  possible,  and 
where  it  is  too  wide  side  stones 
should  be  used  to  support  the  cover- 
inir  stone.  All  large  holes  should  be 
filled  and  carefully  packed  to  a  uni- 
form surface,  so  as  to  assist  the  flow 
of  water  to  the  drain  and  prevent  its 
accumulation  in  pools.  The  grade  of 
the  track  in  long  tunnels  usually  has 
its  summit  in  the  center,  so  as  to 
drain  toward  both  ends.  Broken 
stone  is  the  best  ballast  for  use  in 
tunnels,  the  larger  sized  stone  being 
put  below  the  ties  and  the  5ner  from 
thence  up  to  the  surface.  If  the  bed 
is  poor,  an  inverted  arch  should  be 
built  as  a  bed,  both  for  advantage  of  drainage  and  to  support 
the  side  walls  and  arch. 

Switches.— The  split  switch  has  long  been  in  use  and  is  the 
favorite  for  all  purposes.  It  is  the  cheapest  (in  the  long  run) 
yet  invented.  The  split  switch  should  be  planed  to  the  lightest 
possible  angle,  without  having  the  rail  too  long:  the  best  length 
and  angle  being  twenty-one  feet  long  with  a  spread  of  six  inches 
at  the  heel,  which  is  just  enough  to  clear  the  base  of  the  splice 
from  lapping  on  to  the  base  of  the  stock  or  main  rail.  The 
split  or  point  rails  should  be  planed  straight  on  both  sides 
(except  for  special  use)  and  chamfered  three  feet  back  from  the 
point.  All  split  switches  should  be  fitted  with  adjustable  rods. 
The  best  form  of  side  plates  are  made  of  one  inch  cast  steel. 


Car  Seal. 


MAINTENANCE.  426 

The  objection  to  wrought  iron  plates  is  their  bending  and  the 
imperfect  manner  in  wliich  the  projections  for  the  point  rails  to 
slide  on  keep  the  main  rails  in  position.  The  point  rails  should 
crown  one-fourth  of  an  inch  above  the  main  rails,  which  gives  a 
good  shoulder  in  securing  the  main  rails  and  especially  when 
lining  up  the  track  at  the  time  the  switch  is  being  put  in. 

Switch  Sills. — Sills  for  switches  should  be  of  good,  sound 
white  oak,  .seven  by  ten  inches,  well  seasoned.  They  should  be 
prepared  in  sets  by  cutting  the  line  side  square  and  the  turnout 
side  to  the  required  bevel.  The  most  convenient  manner  to  cut 
sets  of  switch  timber  is  to  prepare  a  board  one  inch  by  ten 
inches,  planed  and  sufficiently  long  to  mark  the  longest  sill 
thereon,  The  length  and  bevel  of  each  sill  should  be  marked  by 
a  scribe  line  on  this  board  laid  off  from  the  square  or  line  end, 
having  a  line  indicating  the  outer  base  of  rail  on  the  line  end, 
for  guidance  when  putting  them  in  the  track;  on  the  turnout 
end  of  the  board  the  number  of  each  sill  should  be  marked  for 
Its  corresponding  line.  These  numbers  should  be  marked  on 
the  end  of  each  sill  and  lettered,  thus,  R-10  or  L-10,  indicating 
the  number  of  the  frog  the  set  is  for  and  whether  it  is  a  right  or 
left  turnout. 

Fuo(tS. — As  the  stub  switch  is  to  the  split  switch,  so  is  the 
cast  iron  frog  to  the  rigid  rail  frog,  and  the  rigid  rail  frog  to  the 
spring  rail  frog.  Spring  rail  frogs  have  been  long  tested,  and 
have  stood  the  test,  except  at  places  where  trains  run  at  great 
speed.  The  damage  to  the  spring  rail  frog  by  fast  running  is 
either  in  the  breaking  of  the  spring  or  spring  rail,  or  damage 
to  the  wheels  of  rolling  stock.  But  this  has  been  overcome  by 
the  use  of  heavier  rails.  While  the  cost  of  a  spring  rail  frog  is 
but  slightly  more  than  of  a  rigid  frog,  it  lasts  three  times  as 
long.  Rigid  frogs  should  not  be  longer  than  will  allow  of 
splices  being  put  on  without  cutting  the  base;  in  no  ca>je  should 
they  be  shorter  than  six  feet,  as  a  short  frog  has  a  tendency  to 
tilt  whenever  the  wheels  strike  either  end,  thus  depressing  the 
sills.  The  distance  from  the  toe  to  the  point  and  point  to  the 
heel  should  be  even  feet.  This  will  enable  trackmen  to  remem- 
ber the  different  parts  of  the  frogs  more  readily  and  prevent 
mistakes.  The  distance  from  the  toe  to  point  of  spring  rail 
frogs  should  not  be  less  than  seven  feet,  and  the  distance  from 
the  point  to  the  heel  the  same  as  that  of  rigid  frogs;  this  will 
save  cutting  when  there  is  occasion  to  replace  one  by  the  other. 
It  has  been  found    satisfactory  to   rivet    (not  bolt)  rigid  and 


426  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

spring  rail  frogs  to  a  plate;  it  increases  their  bearing  surface  on 
the  sills  and  more  securely  fastens  their  parts  together.  The 
plate  is  somewhat  expensive  at  the  beginning,  but  it  can  be  used 
over  and  over  again. 

Turnout. — The  simplest  form  of  a  switch  on  straight  line  or 
curves  is  a  turnout.  To  locate  a  turnout  on  a  straight  line,  the 
heel  of  the  frog  should  be  placed  at  a  joint  if  possible,  so  as  to 
save  a  cut  and  allow  the  guard  rail  to  be  placed  clear  of  a  joint 
on  the  opposite  rail ;  this  obviates  the  use  of  a  fish  plate.  The 
distance  from  point  to  heel  of  frog  should  next  be  laid  oft",  mark- 
ing the  point  on  the  outside  of  the  head  of  the  rail,  and  the  lead 
should  be  laid  off"  to  the  point  of  switch  from  the  last  named 
point,  marking  it  in  like  manner.  When  splices  are  two  feet 
long  and  the  switch  twenty-one  feet,  and  bend  in  turnout  rail 
two  feet  ahead  of  switch  point,  then  the  joint  of  the  bent  rail 
can  be  seven  feet  ahead  of  the  last  named  point,  while  the  joint 
on  main  line  side  can  be  three  feet  ahead  of  same  point,  thus  al- 
lowing them  to  break  joints  by  four  feet  at  point  and  six  feet  at 
heel  of  switch  on  main  track;  this  clears  all  joints  so  that  there 
will  be  no  two  butting  against  each  other,  and  no  necessity  of 
cutting  the  splice  base  or  using  fish  plates.  If,  however,  thirty 
inch  splices  are  used,  the  only  way  to  clear  joints  will  be  to  put 
joint  of  bent  rail  five  instead  of  seven  feet  from  point  of  switch, 
the  main  rail  joint  remaining  the  same.  After  the  rails  are  cut 
for  the  main  track  side  opposite  to  which  the  frog  is  located, 
they  should  be  put  in  first,  the  switch  timber  being  next  put  in 
and  spiked  to  the  side  already  put  in,  spacing  them  properly  for 
all  joints  as  they  should  appear  when  the  switch  is  completed. 
AVhen  putting  in  the  sills,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the 
switch  plate  on  each  as  far  as  these  plates  extend  underneath  the 
switch,  spiking  them  on  the  above  named  side,  but  only  as  much 
on  the  opposite  side  (as  well  as  for  the  remainder  of  the  sills) 
as  will  be  necessary  to  hold  the  rails  safely  in  position.  When 
all  the  rails  to  complete  the  main  track  are  ready,  the  frog 
should  be  put  in  place,  then  the  switch  laid  and  rails  bent  to 
place.  Next  the  track  should  be  spiked  throughout,  spiking  the 
turnout  rail  not  any  further  ahead  than  its  bend,  which  should 
be  done  to  gauge.  Next  the  main  track  should  be  lined  up; that 
done,  the  bent  rail  should  be  spread  at  heel  of  switch  the  cal- 
culated distance  and  lined  perfectly  straight  between  the  end 
and  bend  already  spiked.  The  switch  plates  should  be  tapped 
up  snugly  against  the  rail  and  spiked.    This  will  allow  the  split 


MAINTENANCE. 


427 


rail  to  fit  properly  to  the  bent  rail,  and  line  nicely  for  the  main 
track.  Since  the  split  rail,  while  beiny-  made  and  after  the  base 
is  planed,  will  curve  more  or  less  in  consecpieuce  and  will  re- 
quire to  Ije  straightened,  the  back  of  the  split  rail  should  be 
planed  perfectly  straight,  so  that  wlien  put  in  place  in  track  and 
thrown  over  against  the  straight  part  of  the  spiked  l)ent  rail,  it 
will  straighten  up  in  its  proper  position.  The  bend  in  the  turn- 
out rail  should  be  according  to  the  angle  of  the  split  rail.  In 
order  to  secure  a  true  bend  that  will  guard  the  point  to  its  full- 
est extent,  the  rail,  after  being  marked  wliere  the  bend  is  to  be 
put,  sliould  be  lieated  enough  to  boil  a  spittle;  then,  with  a  rail 
bender,  it  should  be  given  the  calculated  bend.  A  line  should 
then  be  stretched  between  these  two  points  on  the  gauge  line 
and  the  calculated  distance  measured  to  this  line  from  the  line 
so  stretched.     If   this  rail  is  bent   properly,  there  will  be  no 


Bumping  Post. 


trouble  in  securing  a  good  and  easy  working  switch.  The  turn- 
out lead  is  next  to  be  put  in.  If  tlie  dift'erence  in  length  of 
curve  lead  over  that  of  the  straight  lead  is  not  known,  tlie  switch 
sliould  be  squared  and  rails  measured  and  cut  accordingly. 
These  rails  are  next  to  be  curved  to  calculated  ordinates,  allow- 
ing for  tlie  etiuivalent  of  five  degrees  of  curvature  to  be  put  in 
by  lining;  the  splices  must  also  be  sliglitlj^  bent  as  the  degree  of 
curve  requires.  The  lead  should  be  calculated  so  as  to  enable 
the  frog  and  switch  to  be  placed  naturally,  i.  e.,  straiglit  as  they 
are  built,  except  for  special  cases,  and  sliould  not  be  distorted  in 
the  track  to  a  curve.  A  frog  distorted  will  not  remain  in  any 
such  forced  condition  and  will  thus  spoil  the  lead.  Should  the 
turnout  side  be  curved  to  suit  the  turnout  lead,  it  necessitates 
the  use  of  right  and  left  hand  frogs.  This  is  objectionable. 
They  should  only  be  used  for  special  cases  when  it  is  desirable 


428  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  Y8; 

to  lighten  curves  to  the  minimum.  Engines  can  not  pass 
through  curved  frogs  unless  the  throat  is  made  wider  to  prevent 
the  rigid  wheels  hinding;  and  the  wider  the  throat  the  less  the 
point  is  protected  and  the  quicker  it  will  wear  down.  In  lining 
up  the  turnout  curve,  a  line  should  be  stretched  from  the  lieel 
of  the  switch  (the  latter  being  thrown  over  to  position)  to  the 
end  of  curve  at  frog  tangent;  this  distance  should  be  divided 
into  quarters  and  the  curve  tacked  at  these  points  according 
to  calculated  ordinates.  It  is  necessary  in  spiking  the  frog 
to  see  that  the  frog  as  well  as  heel  of  switch  is  spiked  at 
proper  spread,  otherwise  these  ordinates  will  be  of  no  con- 
sequence. The  curve  should  then  be  lined  between  these 
points  and  spiked  down. 

Frog  Guard  Rails.— Guard  rails  may  be  made  of  slightly 
lower  rails  than  those  of  the  track  (never  higher),  and  should  be 
of  steel  in  preference  to  iron,  as  the  latter  wears  more  rapidly, 
consequently  widening  the  opening  of  llangeway.  Guard  rails 
should  be  made  of  old  rails  removed  from  curves  where  the 
rails  have  never  been  changed  to  the  lower  side  or  turned,  their 
original  height  being  nearly  retained.  Each  guard  rail  should 
be  cut  in  two  and  bent  to  a  uniform  curve  throughout,  so  that 
the  maxinunn  opening  at  the  ends  will  be  three  and  one-half 
inches  and  the  minimum  opening  at  the  center  one  and  seven- 
eights  inches,  thus  allowing  the  wheels  to  be  drawn  to  the 
guard  point  with  the  least  possible  jar.  When  curving  these 
rails  the  unworn  side  shoidd  be  kept  to  the  outer  side;  the 
base  of  the  outer  side  should  be  planed  so  as  to  clear  the  spikes, 
the  ends  having  the  rail  heads  chamfered  on  each  side.  In 
making  guard  rails,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them  perfectly 
level.  They  should  be  placed  in  the  track  so  as  to  extend  over 
one  more  sill  ahead  of  the  frog  point  than  behind  it.  letting 
each  end  lie  uniform  relative  to  the  sills;  this  will  bring  their 
centers  opposite  a  point  between  the  throat  and  point  of  frog. 
Each  guard  rail  on  a  curved  track  should  be  supported  by  not 
less  than  four  braces  and  on  straight  track  by  not  less  than  two. 
As  the  gauge  of  the  track  is  widened,  the  guard  rail  must 
be  set  correspondingly  wide  from  the  track  rail. 

Three-Way  Split  Switch.— A  three-way  switch  is  simply 
two  turnouts  beginning  at  the  same  point,  or  with  the  point  of 
one  switch  far  enough  behind  the  other  to  allow  it  sufhtient 
room  to  work  between  the  main  turnout  rail  of  the  first  switch. 
These  turnouts  can  be  arranged  one  on   each  side  of  the  main 


MAINTENANCE. 


429 


track,  or  both  on  the  same  side,  accordin*?  to  the  f  ro^  used,  so  that 
the  curve  of  the  second  turnout  may  not  ])e  too  lieavy.  Wlien 
one  switch  is  l)ehiiid  the  other,  it  is  necessary  to  make  oblong 
holes  in  the  wel)  of  the  turnout  rail  of  the  first  switch,  through 
whicli  the  rods  of  the  the  second  switch  work.  I'sually  tlie 
first  or  second  rods  are  all  that  require  to  be  dealt  with  in  this 
manii'M-,  the  reniuindcr  l)eing  bent  down  at  right  angles  close  to 
the  split  rail,  low  enough  to  pass  under  the  turnout  rail  of  the 
first  switch.  All  crotch  frogs  should  be  ''specials."  built  to  the 
proper  angle  and  curved  to  the  same  curve  as  that  of  the  turn- 
outs. A  three-way  switch  consisting  of  one  turnout  to  the  left 
and  the  other  to  the  right  will  require  two  bent  rails  opposite 


Miller  Platform. 


each  other;  if  both  turn  out  to  the  same  side,  one  bent  rail  is  all 
that  is  required,  but  it  must  be  bent  to  a  much  greater  angle. 
The  main  line  frogs  can  be  either  opposite  each  other  or  one 
ahead  of  the  other.  The  crotch  frog,  if  not  built  on  a  plate, 
should  be  sui)ported  by  not  less  than  four  braces  so  as  to  secure 
its  position.     80  should  all  such  heavy  angled  frogs. 

Cross-Overs  on  Straight  Lines. — A  cross-over  is  a  turn- 
out in  two  adjoining  tracks,  located  so  that  one  will  connect 
with  the  other  by  a  straight  line  between  frogs,  or  curved,  as 
the  ca.se  may  be ;  the  latter,  however,  is  only  done  where  room 
is  deficient.  The  exi)lanation  given  to  the  turnout  is  applicable 
to  this,  Imt  care  nnist  be  exercised  in  setting  the  frogs:  they 
must  be   carefully  spread  to  the   calculated  angles  or   distance 


480  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

apart,  and  the  tracks  lined  to  their  true  centers,  before  spiking 
down,  otliervvise  it  will  be  impossible  to  secure  a  line  between 
them. 

Turnouts  and  Cross-Oveks  on  Curves. — The  same  leads 
as  are  required  for  straight  lines  will  practically  suit  on 
curves,  the  only  difference  in  their  construction  being  more 
or  less  angle  in  the  bent  rail,  and  making  the  turnout  curve 
longer  or  shorter  than  the  main  line  curve,  according  as  the 
turnout  is  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  a  curve, — beingless  when 
on  the  outside  and  greater  when  on  the  inside.  Leads  with  a 
heavy  curve  should  have  their  gauge  widened,  as  provided 
for  curves  on  ordinary  track,  and  when  so  widened  the  guard 
rails  must  he  placed  correspondingly  wide.  Guard  rails  on 
turnout  side  should  have  six  braces  to  the  rail,  and  on  main 
track  four. 

Double  Cross-Overs. — A  double  cross-over  is  a  cross-over 
passing  directly  through  another.  It  is  a  convenient  system 
of  switching,  and  greatly  economizes  space.  It  is  more  expen- 
sive than  two  single  cross-overs,  though  it  requires  less  timber. 
It  requires  a  set  of  crossing  frogs;  the  two  center  frogs  l)eing 
double,  and  the  extreme  frogs  either  double  or  single.  If  the 
parallel  tracks  are  less  than  eleven  feet  on  centers,  the  two 
frogs  in  the  main  track  on  one  side  and  the  nearest  center 
crossing  frog  on  same  side  require  to  be  built  in  one,  and 
should  be  on  one  plate;  the  two  remaining  corner  or  extreme 
frogs  should  be  built  single.  No  special  rules  can  be  given  for 
putting  in  this  system  beyond  those  heretofore  described. 

Crossings. — A  crossing  is  where  one  track  passes  directly 
through  another  without  switches.  All  the  frogs  may  be  double 
or  the  center  frogs  double  and  the  extreme  single.  Should 
the  crossing  be  on  straight  lines,  it  is  more  economical  to  make 
all  frogs  double  and  reversible  so  that  they  may  be  changed, 
as  the  wear  is  greater  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  If.  how- 
ever, the  crossing  is  curved,  this  is  impossible;  but  the  center 
frogs  may  be  made  double,  though  not  reversible,  and  the  ex- 
treme frogs  single.  It  it  not  absolutely  safe  to  use  double  cross- 
ing frogs  on  a  less  angle  than  fifteen  degrees,  as  thej-  then  cease 
to  be  self  guarding,  esiiecially  so  on  curves.  Instead  of  using 
double  frogs  for  center  frogs,  it  is  much  better  to  use  a  system 
of  movable  points  admitting  of  any  angle  being  used.  The  frogs 
for  a  crossing  should  be  built  very  carefully,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  secure  a  good  line  and  gauge  unless  they  are  strictly  true. 


MAINTENANCE.  481 

Sup  SwrmiKS  — Slip  or  diaiiiond  switches  have  become 
miK'Ii  achnircd  in  this  country  for  their  compactness,  and  he- 
cause  they  embracer  nearly  all  other  kinds  of  switdies  in  the 
space  reciiiired  for  one  of  thcni.  What  is  known  as  the  number 
seven  fro^  is  the  ant;i(!  usually  adopted,  so  that  the  center 
double  crossing  frogs  may  be  as  near  an  anj^le  that  will  be  self 
guarding  as  the  degrees  of  curvature  on  the  tiirnout  sides  will 
permit.  A  single  slip  switch  is  a  crossing  with  a  turnout  on 
one  side  only;  a  double  slip  is  a  crossing  with  a  turnout  on  l)oth 
sides.  The  rods  of  the  switches  are  depressed  near  the  split 
rail  so  as  to  pass  uiuler  the  other  switch  and  crossing  rails.  If 
the  points  are  opposite  each  other,  the  distance  between  the 
diamond  or  crossing  rails  at  the  point  of  switches  should  not 
be  less  than  twelve  inches,  so  as  to  allow  suflicient  working 
room  for  the  points;  if  not  opposite  each  other,  one  point  may 
he  placed  nearer  to  the  frog  and  the  other  further  from  it.  It  is 
important  with  crossing  frogs  of  all  kinds  that  they  be  built 
true,  otherwise  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  put  them  in  correctly, 
and  they  invite  disaster.  The  construction  of  this  system  is 
similar  to  the  turnout,  so  far  as  the  bent  rails  and  side  plates  are 
concerned,  only  the  joints  should  be  brought  nearer  to  the 
switch  points  (in  using  number  seven  frog),  so  as  to  save  a  cut 
on  the  outer  or  turnout  rails.  It  is  customary,  however,  to 
build  these  split  switches  for  a  number  seven  frog,  especially,  so 
that  thej'  can  be  built  on  a  curve ;  when  such  is  the  case,  there 
should  be  no  bend  in  the  rails  referred  to,  but  they  should  be 
curved  to  correspond  with  the  switch  rail,  the  curve  starting 
sufficiently  far  ahead  of  the  point  to  allow  the  turnout  and 
crossing  track  to  gauge. 

Movable  Points  ix  Lieu  of  Crossing  Frogs. — To  enable 
slip  switches  to  be  used  on  curves  and  to  light  angled  frogs,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  system  of  movable  points,  or  split  switches, 
in  lieu  of  the  center  double  crossing  frogs.  The  outer  rails  at 
the  crossing  points  should  be  bent  to  the  crossing  angle  at  that 
point,  and  the  points  of  the  movable  switches  placed  so  that 
tliey  will  come  six  inches  or  more  from  each  other  at  the  cross- 
ing point,  their  heels  being  connected  with  the  diamond  or 
crossing  rails.  These  points  work  on  plates  extending  under 
the  turnout  rails  and  offset  for  the  movable  points,  as  is  custom- 
ary in  ordinary  swit<:'lies.  so  as  to  raise  the  split  rail  above  the 
main  rail.  This  system  of  movable  points  is  more  economical 
than  the  double  crossing  frogs,  as  they  will  last  as  long  as  the 


432  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WA  YS; 

main  rails,  whereas  the  frogs  would  require  to  be  removed 
every  two  years  or  more,  according  to  the  traffic.  In  addition 
to  this  matter  of  economy,  they  are  absolutely  safe  when 
properly  attended  to.  It  is  quite  common  on  examining  num- 
ber seven  crossing  frogs  to  find  marks  squarely  on  their  points 
made  by  the  flange  of  wheels  on  imperfect  axles;  as  the  angle 
decreases  in  crossing  frogs,  the  danger  is  proportionately  in- 
creased. The  above  system  is  very  desirable  for  yard  purposes, 
where  space  must  be  economized.  It  gives  access  to  tracks  in 
four  difl'erent  ways.  When  put  in  correctly,  so  that  all  its  parts 
fit  snugly,  it  will  stay  in  better  line  than  any  other  system  of 
switches.  This  is  due  to  its  numerous  combinations  of  rails 
and  frogs  so  constructed  that  each  part  braces  another.  The 
plates  for  these  switches,  except  for  the  movable  points,  can  be 
made  the  same  as  the  cast  iron  plates  used  in  the  ordinary 
switches  or  turnouts. 

Switches  on  Outside  of  Curves.— All  facing  point  split 
switches  on  outside  of  curves  in  main  track  should  be  "spe- 
cial," having  the  point  rail  on  that  side  at  least  two  feet  longer 
than  the  inside  point  rail,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  guard  rail  being 
placed  opposite  to  prevent  the  wear  of  this  rail.  There  is  more 
or  less  of  an  angle  at  the  point  of  all  split  switches,  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  wholly  impracticable  to  plane  them  to  the  theoret- 
ical point  of  curve— the  consequence  being  the  dropping  of 
wheels  into  this  angle,  creating  a  great  lateral  strain  and  con- 
sequent wear  on  the  split  rail  point;  but  by  placing  the  guard 
rail  as  above,  it  will  be  sufficiently  long  to  guide  the  wheels 
clear  of  this  angle. 

Derailing  Switch.— Each  side  track  leading  to  or  from  the 
main  track,  on  which  cars  are  allowed  to  stand,  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  safety  throw  off  or  derailing  switch  (except  where 
grades  make  this  unnecessary).  It  should  be  placed  not  nearer 
to  the  main  track  switch  than  the  point  at  which  the  siding  l)e- 
comes  parallel,  and  arranged  so  as  to  throw  the  cars  off  the  side 
track  and  prevent  them  from  entering  upon  the  main  track. 
This  switch  may  be  either  a  point  rail  of  an  old  split  switch, 
or  one  especially  constructed  for  the  purpose.  It  should  l)e  put 
in  similarly  to  a  turnout  rail  of  an  ordinary  split  switch,  having 
side  plates  and  bent  rail;  the  bent  rail  should  be  carried  straight 
along  the  point  rail  as  far  as  the  rail  head  planing  extends, 
whence  it  should  diverge  from  the  track  so  that  its  end  will 
spread  at  least  five  inches  from  the  gauge  line  of  the  near  track 


MAINTENANCE. 


433 


rail,  so  as  to  clear  the  wheel  treads.  This  switch  can  either  he 
operated  by  :i  stand  coiuici'ted  therewith  for  that  purpose,  or 
connected  with  the  main  track  switch.  In  either  case  it  should 
be  provided  with  a  lock  and  kept  locked  when  cars  are  on  the 
track. 

C'LKARANCK  P0ST6. — All  tracks  leadint?  to  or  from  the  main 
track  should  have  a  distance,  clearance  or  tail  post  set  in  the 
ground  between  these  tracks  immediately  beyond  the  safety 
switch,  and  not  nearer  to  the  main  track  switch  than  eleven 
feet  on  centers.  These  posts  are  usually  made  of  chestnut,  four 
by  four  inches  by  four  feet,  planed  square  and  rounded  on  top, 
the  lower  half  being  placed  in  the  ground;  they  are  painted 
white,  and  tops  black. 


Safety  Gates  on  Passenger  Coach. 


Maintenance  of  Track. — A  railroad  is  by  ho  means  a  per- 
manent piece  of  work ;  as  soon  as  traffic  commences  repairs  are 
necessary.  To  provide  for  this  necessity  section  gangs  are  or- 
ganized, and  a  certain  amount  of  track,  termed  a  "  section,"  al- 
lotted to  each.  A  section  of  double  track  should  be  four  miles 
long,  and  of  single  track  six  miles  long.  On  roads  having  a 
large  traffic,  each  section  gang  should  consist  of  a  foreman  and  one 
and  one-half  men  per  mile  of  double  track,  with  an  additional  al- 
lowance of  one  man  for  every  two  miles  of  sidings.  On  single 
track  each  gang  should  consist  of  a  foreman  and  one  man  per 
mile  of  track,  with  an  additional  allowance  of  one  man  for  every 
two  miles  of  sidings.  Taking  these  proportions  as  a  basis,  sec- 
tions may  be  varied  in  length  as  locality  and  circumstances 
make  necessary ;  no  section  should  be  so  reduced  in  length  that 

38 


434  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 

its  proportionate  allowance  of  force  would  be  less  than  six  men 
and  a  foreman :  watchmen  should  be  counted  extra.  All  extra 
work  sliould  be  calculated  to  be  done  by  a  special  gang  and 
gravel  train,  or  extra  men  should  be  allowed  section  foremen. 
Each  section  should  have  a  tool  house  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  hand  car  and  a  full  complement  of  tools. 

Si'KiNG  Repairs. — AVhen  the  snow  has  disappeared  and  the 
frost  is  going  out  of  the  ground,  the  track  should  be  cleared  of 
rubbish  and  dirt  accumulated  during  the  winter;  then  should 
begin  the  work  of  reducing  and  removing  the  blocking  as  the 
track  settles.  As  soon  as  this  work  is  done,  spring  work  will 
have  fairly  begun.  Ditches  should  then  be  opened,  low  joints 
raised,  and  the  track  lined. 

Rknewing  Ties — Old  Track. — The  foreman  should  test  and 
mark  each  tie  that  needs  to  be  removed.  lie  will  thus  know  the 
number  of  ties  required,  and  where  they  should  be  unloaded. 
The  foreman,  when  ready  to  renew  faulty  ties,  will  divide  his 
gang  into  sub-gangs  of  three  men.  Before  taking  out  a  tie,  the 
spikes  should  be  started  far  enough  to  allow  a  spike  to  be  placed 
between  the  rail  and  tie,  when,  by  raising  the  rail  with  a  bar, 
the  old  tie  can  be  readily  removed,  and  the  new  one  put  in  with- 
out raising  the  adjoining  ties  from  their  beds.  This  avoids  the 
likelihood  of  ballast  getting  under  adjoining  ties.  Previous  to 
removing  the  old  tie,  the  ballast  should  be  dug  out  on  either 
side,  making  it  lower  on  one  side  than  the  tie  bed ;  the  tie  should 
then  be  pulled  on  one  side  into  the  ditch  thus  made,  where  it 
can  readily  be  pulled  out.  The  new  tie  is  next  pulled  into  the 
same  ditch,  lifted  up  to  the  rail  and  drawn  to  its  place.  If  it  is 
too  thick  to  go  in  on  the  old  bed  without  raising  track  too 
high,  the  bed  should  be  lowered  accordingly.  The  old  bed 
should  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible.  It  is  customary  with 
most  section  foremen  to  allow  their  men  to  lower  the  old  bed, 
and  as  this  can  not  be  done  with  exactness,  the  result  is  that 
the  new  tie  will  be  from  one  to  three  inches  too  low;  this  ne- 
cessitates tamping  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  make  its  bed  as 
solid  as  that  of  the  old  tie.  Every  ten  years  at  least  a  track 
should  be  raised  from  one  to  three  inches  above  the  old  bed,  to 
prevent  its  becoming  center-bound;  all  low  spots  should  be 
raised,  however,  when  ties  are  renewed.  Old  ties  taken  from 
track  should  be  piled  on  the  last  day  of  each  week,  so  as  to  give 
the  track  a  neat  and  tidy  appearance;  this  allows  them  to  dry 
either  for  use  as  cribbing,  lire  wood,  or  burning  on  the  ground, 


MAIXTEyAyCE.  485 

Ties  should  be  adzed  level  to  secure  the  better  fitting  of  the 
rails  and  wheels.  Rails  will  not  turn  on  tangents,  nor  on  the 
outside  of  curves,  if  properly  elevated.  To  overcome  the  turn- 
ing of  rails  on  the  inside  of  curves,  rail  braces  should  be  used; 
they  will  also  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  track.  In  order  to 
perform  the  latter  office  properly,  a  brace  should  be  placed  on 
the  outer  rail  opposite  each  brace  on  tlie  inner,  otherwise  the 
spike  will  bend  over  and  the  tie  pull  through.  Ties  sliould  be 
renewed  for  the  season  by  the  end  of  September;  from  that 
time  (ill  winter  the  track  sho\ild  be  surfaced  and  trimmed,  and 
the  ditches  put  in  good  condition  for  the  winter. 

Grass  axd  Weeds.  —  Grass,  weeds  and  brush  on  the  right 
of  way  should  be  cut  sufficiently  often  to  prevent  the  weeds 
running  to  seed.  Generally,  one  cut  in  the  first  week  in  Au- 
gust will  be  sufficient.  Brush  cut  at  this  time  is  not  likely  to 
sprout  again.  Brush  and  weeds  should  be  gathered  into  piles 
and  burned. 

<  'iiAX(iiX(T  Rails. — On  roads  liaving  heavy  traffic,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  change  rails  on  Sundays,  preparing  the  track  on 
week  days.  On  roads  with  light  traffic  rails  can  be  changed  at 
anv  time.     One  side  of  the  track  should  be  changed  at  a  time. 

PUEPARIXG  TUAClv  MATERIAL  FOR  SuNDAY  AVORK.— Rails  and 

splices  generally  require  to  be  filed  on  the  ends  to  a  uniform 
surface,  so  as  to  remove  projections;  this  work  is  therefore  in- 
cluded in  preparing  the  track,  though  properly  speaking  it 
should  be  done  at  the  mill.  The  following  is  the  organiza- 
tion  of  men  for  sucli  work,  namely:  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  put  four  men  on  the  car  of  splices,  two  on  each  end,  to 
file  and  inspect  the  splices,  each  man  having  a  small  bench 
to  lay  the  splice  on  to  facilitate  the  filing;  after  they  are  filed 
they  should  be  thrown  on  a  car,  laying  them  at  right  angles 
to  each  other  the  full  length  of  the  splice;  this  will  facilitate 
their  being  counted.  When  the  men  have  sufficient  room  on 
the  car  they  are  filing  on,  they  should  pile  the  splices  behind 
them  in  like  nuuiner.  Rails,  splices,  bolts,  nut  locks  and  plugs 
should  be  distributed  at  the  same  time  as  the  rails.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  have  half  of  the  cars  which  are  loaded  with 
rails  turned  on  a  turntable  or  Y  block  to  admit  of  their  beinir 
unloaded,  with  the  brand  on  the  outside  of  the  rails  as  they 
will  be  put  in  the  track. 

Unloading  Rails. — Care  should  be  exercised  in  unloading 
rails.    Rails,  on  gondola  cars  esj^ecially,  should  be  let  down  to 


436 


SCIEXCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


the  ground  on  skids,  and  each  skid  should  be  provided  with 
a  pulley  on  the  upper  end,  placed  below  its  surface:  a  rope 
with  a  hook  sutliciently  large  to  receive  a  rail  should  be  used 
through  this  pulley  for  lowering  the  rails  to  the  ground ;  each 
skid  should  be  provided  at  its  lower  end  with  a  round  iron 
projection,  around  which  the  rope  is  turned  for  the  purpose 
of  controlling  the  rails  while  being  lowered.  Two  men  on  the 
ground,  operating  the  ropes,  raise  the  hooks  to  the  upper  end 
of  the  skids,  when  one  foreman  and  twelve  men  (handling 
seventy-six  pound  rails)  will  place  the  rail  in  the  books  and 
lower  the  same  to  the  ground.  The  first  named  two  men,  in 
addition  to  lowering  these  rails,  will  lift  the  skids  as  the  car 
is  moved  ahead.  On  another  oar  are  the  rails  for  the  other 
side  of  the  track,  the  men  being  similarly  organized.  Unload- 
ing a  rail  on   each  side  prevents  moving  the  train  so  often  and 


Yestibuled  Car. 


obviates  the  men  passing  from  one  car  to  another.  Time  may 
be  saved  by  unloading  two  rails  from  each  car  before  moving 
the  train  ahead,  unloading  the  next  two  rails  one  rail  length 
ahead  of  the  last  two.  Two  men  t)n  the  splice  car  will  distrib- 
ute the  splices,  bolts  and  nut  locks,  and  two  men  with  a 
basket  will  distribute  the  plugs  from  the  supply  car. 

Filing  Rails,  Etc. — As  soon  as  the  rails  are  unloaded,  men 
should  be  set  at  work  to  file  the  ends  of  the  rails  underneath 
the  heads  and  upper  side  of  the  base.  After  the  rails  are  un- 
loaded, the  inen  should  be  organized  as  follows,  namely:  One 
foreman  and  eight  men  with  tongs  should  string  the  rails  along 
the  outer  edge  of  the  ties;  one  man  with  an  adze  should  level 
any  projecting  ends  of  same,  and  one  man  should  tack  spike  all 
unspliced  ends  of  each  four  rails.  For  six  bolted  splices, 
six  men  should  bolt  the   rails  and  lay  the  splices,  bolts  and 


MAINTENANCE.  437 

nut  locks  at  each  unspliced  eud.  Four  men  should  remove  all 
the  bolts  that  can  l)e  removed  with  safety  from  the  rails  in 
the  track;  these  men  should  also  put  the  nut  locks,  or  washers 
and  nuts,  on  each  bolt  as  it  is  removed.  Four  men  should  pull 
tlie  spikes  that  can  be  pulled  with  safety,  those  rcmainin'-- 
beinj^  left  slightly  started.  On  tangents  four  spikes  to  each  rail 
are  sulHcient  to  leave  unpulled,  leaving  one  of  these  spikes  at 
each  joint;  on  curves  six  spikes  to  the  rail  should  be  left,  and 
one  in  the  slot  hole  as  above.  These  spikes  should  be  pulled  on 
the  inside  when  the  same  sized  rails  are  to  be  used,  and  when  of 
different  base  the  inside  of  one  rail  aiul  outside  of  the  other 
should  be  pulled,  which  will  admit  of  their  Ijeing  laid  retain- 
ing the  same  gauge.  When  pulling  spikes  on  curves,  they 
should  be  pulled  on  the  side  having  the  ties  cut  down  the 
least,  which  will  more  readily  admit  of  ties  l)eing  adzed.  Four 
men  should  be  at  work  score  adzing  each  tie  on  the  side  from 
which  the  spikes  are  removed,  keeping  well  on  the  outside  of 
the  spikes.  As  each  sub-gang  finishes  its  work,  it  should  clear 
the  ballast  between  the  ties  and  underneath  the  rails;  the  other 
foreman  should  look  after  the  sub-gangs  except  rail  stringers. 
Two  boys  should  be  engaged  in  carrying  water  for  the  men.  In 
all,  forty  men  will  prepare  in  the  above  manner  one  mile  of 
track  per  day.  On  double  track  one  track  should  be  used  to  dis- 
tribute from,  allowing  schedule  trains  to  pass  on  the  other,  flag- 
ging all  other  trains  and  allowing  them  to  pass  as  they  arrive.* 


♦Gang  for  Changing  Rails  on  Sunday.— The  same  gang 
of  men  that  prepared  the  track  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  per  day 
will  change  the  rails  at  the  same  rate,  organized  as  follows, 
namely : 

Men  removing  bolts.. 4 

Men  throwing  out  rails  2 

Men  adzing  ties 13 

Men  spiking  rails,  joint  slot  holes,  quarters  and  centers 4 

Foremen   2 

Men  pulling  spikes 4 

Men  plugging  spike  holes 2 

Man  guiding  and  testing  adzing  with  single  headed  spotting 

boards  with  face  one-half  inch  broad 1 

Water  boys 2 

As  adzing  is  more  or  less  on  account  of  ties  being  cut  into, 
these  men  will  require  to  be  increased  or  diminished  accord- 
ingly. The  remainder  of  the  spiking  can  be  done  by  this  gang 
the  "next  day,  as  well  as  tamping  uj)  all  ties  that  are  loose  or 
low.  especially  the  joint  ties.  Tiu\v  should  also  go  over  all  bolts 
with  wrenches  and  tighten  them  up. 


438  '    SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 

JoiNTiNO  Kails.— As  it  is  impossible  to  eiiange  rails  and 
have  tlieui  joint  on  the  old  ties,  it  is  necessary  that  these  ties 
be  changed  to  admit  of  the  slot  holes  being  spiked,  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  rails  from  running. 

MoviNd  Olu  Track.— Improvements  of  line,  espei-ially  double 
tracking,  when  the  old  line  is  l)eing  improved  at  the  same 
time,  render  it  necessary  to  either  take  up  ami  relay  the  old 
track  or  move  it  over  to  the  new  line.  When  the  change  of 
line  is  within  twenty  feet  throw,  it  is  cheaper  to  move  the  track 
than  to  take  it  up  and  relay.  This  work,  like  changing  rails, 
is  usually  done  on  Sundays.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  be  done 
in  the  week,  if  there  is  an  occasional  half  hour  or  so  between 
trains.     It  requires  skill  and  scientific  ability. 

Proper  Care  of  Ex(ii\EERS-  Stakes.— Grade  stakes  set  by 
engineers  for  top  of  rail  for  new  line  should  be  set  so  as  to  be 
clear  of  the  track  when  it  is  being  moved  to  place.  If,  how- 
ever, the  same  grade  is  to  be  retained,  the  foreman  in  charge 
should  put  two  intelligent  men  to  transfering  the  level  of  the 
lower  rail,  using  a  long  straight  edge  and  track  level  for  this 
purpose.  The  engineers'  center  line  stakes  are  liable  to  be  in 
dilferent  positions  relative  to  the  old  track  to  be  moved,  neces- 
sitating the  latter  passing  over  these  stakes  in  many  cases.  In 
order  to  obviate  as  much  as  possible  the  liability  of  their  being 
moved,  they  should  be  driven  sufficiently  low  to  clear  the  bot- 
tom of  the  rail.  Another  manner  of  dealing  with  these  stakes 
is  to  pull  the  spikes  out  of  each  tie  surrounding  the  same,  so  as 
to  allow  of  the  track  being  moved  and  leave  those  ties  lui- 
touched.  This,  however,  entails  considerable  expense.  Another 
manner  of  dealing  with  these  stakes  is  to  trs.usfer  them  so  as  to 
I)e  entirely  clear  of  the  track  when  moving.  Too  great  care 
can  not  be  taken  witli  these  stakes,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
lining  and  surfacing  of  the  track  so  changed. 

Preparing  Track  for  Sunday  Work. — The  bed  for  the 
track  on  a  new  line  sliould  be  ballasted  and  leveled  oft'  on 
tangents,  and  elevated  on  curves  so  that  the  bed  will  be  within 
two  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  ties.  It  is  necessary  to  prepare 
this  bed  with  more  than  ordinarj^  care,  so  that  when  the  track 
is  moved  over  to  its  new  position  trains  can  be  allowed  to  pass 
without  tlie  necessity  of  holding  them  until  the  track  is 
tamped.  All  trains,  however,  should  run  slowly  over  this 
track.  When  old  track  is  to  be  thrown  entirely  clear  of  the  old 
bed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dig  it  out  between  the  ties,  but  only 


MAINTEXANOE. 


489 


to  loosen  it  up  with  a  pick,  so  as  to  make  it  easier  to  throw. 
Thi.s  loosenin<^  might  be  omitted,  but  in  that  case  it  would  take 
half  as  many  more  men  to  pull  the  track  out  of  the  old  bed.  If 
old  track  is  to  be  thrown  less  than  the  length  of  a  tie,  the  part 
occupying  the  old  bed  should  be  dug  out  slightly  below  the  bed 
of  the  ties,  and  the  remainder  loosened  with  a  pick.  This  being 
done,  the  track  is  ready  to  be  thrown. 

MoviNd  TiiK  Track  ox  Suxdav. — It  is  necessary  that  good 
judgment  be  used  in  determining  what  amount  of  track  can  be 
moved  to  allow  necessary  trains  to  pass  without  being  held,  and 
also  to  determine  the  proper  place  to  cut  the  track  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  necessitj-  of  pulling  it  longitudinally  more  than  one 
foot  each  way.  The  men  may  be  divided  into  sub-gangs  of  not 
more  than  thirty  men  with  two  foremen  each,  and  a  certain 
piece  of  track  allotted  to  them.  This  number  of  men  will 
admit  of  being  divided,  using  one  gang  behind  the  other  in 
throwing  the  track,  or  have  one  surfacing  while  the  other  is 
tinishing  the  lining  and  surfacing  later.  When  throwing  the 
track  it  should  not  be  moved  more  than  twelve  inches  at  any 
time;  this  saves  the  rails  and  splices  and  prevents  twisting  the 
ties.  Rail  cuts,  to  allow  for  expansion  or  contraction,  should 
be  at  the  center  of  curves,  or  at  as  many  more  places  as  the 
degree  of  the  curve  and  dis- 
tance to  be  thrown  render 
necessary.  Not  less  than  six 
men  should  be  placed  at  each 
cut,  so  as  to  employ  three  in 
cutting  rails  and  three  drill- 
ing; they  should  first  remove 
the  splices  from  two  joints, 
one  on  each  rail,  and  pull  the 
spikes  on  the  sides  opposite  to 
which  the  track  is  thrown,  so 
that  the  ties  will  be  taken 
along  as  the  track   is   moved. 

In  order  to  pass  trains  after  curves  have  been  moved  the  line 
should  be  changed  on  the  tangents  by  reversed  curve.  When 
the  track  is  in  place,  two  men  in  each  gang  with  sledge 
hammers  should  be  put  at  work  tapping  the  ties  to  proper 
space  and  square  to  the  rail.  Track  in  cinder  may  be  tamped 
only  with  shovels  and  tamped  with  bars  later  after  it  has  con- 
solidated. 


Vestibuled  Tender. 


440  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

To  Move  Track  Diuino  the  "Week.— After  tlie  track  is 
prepared,  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  much  shorter  or  longer 
it  will  be  when  moved.  This  can  be  ascertained  by  setting  tem- 
porary stakes.  They  should  be  placed  on  the  line  of  rail  where 
its  position  will  be  when  changed,  measuring  along  this  new 
line  to  the  similar  rail  of  the  old  track,  after  which  this  latter 
rail  should  be  measured  between  the  same  points;  thus  the 
difference  between  them  is  obtained.  This  can  only  lie  done  cor- 
rectly by  using  a  steel  tape.  When  moving  track  during  warm 
weather,  the  track  to  be  changed  should  be  first  examined  and 
for  every  tight  or  close  joint  one-eighth  inch  allowed  for  ex- 
pansion; the  sum  of  these  allowances  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  ascertaining  the  difference  between  the  two  rails. 
The  rails  should  then  be  cut  and  drilled  ready  for  use.  When 
the  time  selected  to  make  the  change  arrives,  and  the  last 
schedule  train  has  passed,  gangs  should  begin  to  throw  the  track, 
always  throwing  towards  the  point  or  points  cut  loose.  As  soon 
as  the  throwing  of  the  track  is  started,  the  rails  at  these  points 
are  replaced  Ijy  those  already  cut.  When  the  track  is  finally 
thrown  to  position,  the  ends  can  be  spliced  and  bolted. 

WixTEH  Repairs,  Gexehal  Routine. — The  principal  work 
during  winter  is  blocking  track,  clearing  snow  and  ice,  and 
keeping  ditches  open.  Where  track  heaves  badlj'.  the  rails 
should  be  marked  on  the  wel),  and  in  the  spring  such  places 
should  be  dug  out  and  ballasted  with  clean,  sharp  material.  No 
digging  out  of  such  places  should  be  done  during  winter,  other 
than  lowering  ties  to  overcome  too  high  blocking,  as  it  is  too 
expensive. 

Blocking  or  SniMMiNti. — Generally,  the  maxiiimm  blocking 
should  not  exceed  two  inches.  On  curves,  the  blocking  should 
be  spiked  to  the  tie,  and  holes  bored  for  spikes.  Good  and 
cheap  blocking  can  be  had  from  car  shops,  where  oak  off'als  can 
be  had  of  any  thickness.  These  offals  should  be  from  four  to 
six  inches  in  width.  Extreme  blocking  on  tangents  maj'  be 
four  inches  thick;  the  rail  block  should  be  braced  by  fitting  one 
end  into  a  notch  in  the  tie  and  the  other  underneath  the  head 
of  the  rail;  the  block  should  be  spiked  to  the  tie  at  the  notched 
end  and  should  incline  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  An- 
other manner  of  dealing  with  extreme  l)locking  of  from  four  to 
six  inches  high,  is  to  have  the  blocking  in  two  pieces,  the  first 
being  two  feet  long  the  width  of  the  tie  and  securely  spiked 
thereto,  while  a  second  block   of  the  same  size  is   laid  on  top  of 


-fuller's  Patent,  1845. 


Bes&emer's  Canopy,  1847, 


Atwc¥3d's  Covered  Passageway,  1855. 
The  Evolution  of  the  Vestibule. 
(440A) 


-Wallers  Face-Plate  buffeis,  li;i 


Smith's  Car-Platlorm  Hood.    I&82 


PULLMAN     VESTIBULE     189+ 
The  Evolution  of  the  Vestibule. 
(■Ito-Uj 


MAINTENANCE.  441 

the  first  and  spiked  through  holes  hored  for  the  purpose.  The 
rails  shouhl  he  track-spiked  through  half  inch  holes  bored  in 
the  blocking.  When  blocking  more  than  one  inch  thick  is  used 
on  curves,  the  safest  and  cheapest  method  (and  the  least  injuri- 
ous to  ties,  especially  when  the  track  is  braced)  is  to  spring  the 
ties  from  their  bed  and  drive  a  wedge  shaped  block  of  wood 
underneath  until  the  rail  rises  to  surface.  During  snow  storms 
sullicient  force  must  be  kept  on  hand  to  keep  switches,  cross- 
ings, station  platforms  and   llangeway  of  track  open  for  traffic. 

Trackwalkers  ok  Watchmen. — The  number  required  de- 
pends on  location.  The  least  should  be  one  by  day  and  one  by 
night.  It  is  the  duty  of  these  watchmen  to  clean,  light,  put  up 
and  take  down  switch  lamps;  to  tighten  bolts  and  remove  ob- 
structions from  drainage.  When  more  than  one  track  walker 
is  employed,  each  should  be  allotted  a  certain  distance,  commonly 
called  a  '"beatr  this  beat  he  should  patrol  ahead  of  schedule 
trains  as  nearlj'-  as  possible.  A  shanty,  with  a  stove,  should  be 
provided  for  each  beat,  in  which  watchmen  can  take  shelter. 

Inspection  of  Road.— The  roadmaster  should  ride  over  the 
track  and  examine  it  from  the  rear  end  of  trains  as  often  as 
possible.  He  should  do  this  at  least  twice  a  week.  He  should 
note  all  irregularities  in  the  track,  marking  oft'  on  i>revious 
notes  what  has  already  been  attended  to  and  making  any  addi- 
tional notes  concerning  the  work.  He  should  keep  informed  of 
the  work  each  gang  is  doing  and  as  to  the  number  of  men  at 
work.  His  orders  to  foremen  .should  be  given  verbally;  by  so 
doing  the  work  will  be  executed  with  less  trouble  and  at  less 
expense.  lie  should  make  frequent  visits  to  the  foremen  and 
walk  over  their  sections  with  them;  these  opportunities  should 
be  improved  to  draw  section  foremen's  attention  to  the  items  of 
work  requiring  to  be  done — explaining,  advising  and  en- 
couraging them.  Section  foremen  should  walk  their  track  as 
often  as  possible, — at  least  once  a  week.  Trackwalkers  should 
report  all  defects  or  obstructions  of  the  track  to  the  foreman ; 
.should  anj'  such  be  found  likely  to  interfere  with  traffic,  ap- 
proaching trains  must  be  flagged  until  the  trackwalker  has  an 
opportunity  of  being  relieved  or  of  sending  word  to  the  fore- 
man ;  the  foreman  should,  in  turn,  notify  the  roadmaster  and  ask 
for  such  assistance  as  may  be  necessary  if  it  requires  more  force 
than  his  own  to  remedy  the  defect  or  remove  the  obstruction. 

Premium  System. — Xothing  is  more  encouraging  or  stimu- 
lating to  men  engaged  in  any  work  than  the  fact  of  having  an 


442  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

object  in  view.  The  payment  of  preminms  is  a  recompense  in 
acknovvledi^nient  of  superior  iibility:  it  creates  a  stimulus  to 
tlirift  and  eneri^y  that  can  not  be  aroused  in  any  other  manner, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  it  does  not  injure  the  feelin>^s  or  lessen 
the  ambition  of  those  less  successful.  The  mere  intrinsic  value 
of  the  premium  otl'ered  is  not  the  sole  encouragement  given, 
the  contest  for  i^re-eminence  is  a  valuable  aid  in  the  attainment 
of  what  is  desired. 

Mr.  Andrew  Morrison,  who  has  had  great  prac- 
tical experience  in  connection  with  the  con- 
struction and  maintenanceof  railroads,  especially 
that  part  relating  to  track,  is  recognized  every- 
where as  an  authority  on  such  matters.  The 
paper  he  submitted,  and  to  which  I  have  already 
referred,  is  at  once  able  and  exhaustive.  His 
grasp  of  the  subject  is  that  of  a  manager  as  well 
as  an  expert.  He  believes  that  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  vast  expenses  incurred  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  way  and  the  necessity  for  rigid  econo- 
mies in  the  face  of  an  equal  necessity  for  perfect 
conditions  illustrate  the  importance  of  a  wise  and 
progressive  management.  This  can  only  result 
from  careful  training  and  judicious  selection  of 
the  men  who  manage  these  expenses,  either  as  a 
whole  or  in  part;  tlierefore,  to  obtain  competent 
men  is  the  first  requisite  of  any  well  conducted 
railroad.  How  to  obtain  such  men  is  governed 
largely  by  local  considerations,  but  some  system 
of  training  and  examination  must  be  instituted 
for  the  men  w  ho  are  to  fill  the  responsible  posi- 
tions on  our  railways. 

In  the  roadw^ay  department  there  is  especial 
need   for  a  thorough  system  of   accountability, 


MAINTENANCE. 


448 


which  can  only  be  exacted  by  superior  governing 
intelligence,  and  must  be  executed  by  well  drilled 
subordinate  talent.  Railroading  has  advanced 
from  the  experimental  theoretical  stage  to  the 
plane  of  practical  business.  The  roadmaster,  or 
engineer  of  maintenance  of  way,  should  know 
just  how  much  labor  and  material  are  required 


steam  Snow  Plow. 

under  certain  conditions  to  maintain  and  equip 
every  element  of  his  roadway,  and,  knowing  this, 
he  should  draw  standards  of  efficiency  and  econ- 
omy, and  every  man  who  fails  to  work  to  these 
standards  should  be  dismissed  as  incompetent. 

Roadbed. — The  roadbed  is  tlie  foundation  upon  vvliicli  is 
built  the  superstructure  or  track.  If  tlie  foundation  is  defect- 
ive, its  imperfections  will  develop  a  rough  riding  and  dangerous 


444  SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  \VA  YS; 

track.  The  material  of  the  roadbed  is  of  first  consideration. 
It  should  be  the  l)est  soil  or  earth  obtainable  in  the  locality — 
soil  that  will  hold  its  position,  become  compact,  resist  the  action 
of  storms,  and  possess  elasticity.  Rolling  logs  into  a  roadbed 
is  pernicious,  as  they  decaj'  and  allow  of  sudden  and  dangei-ous 
pitfalls:  large  rocks  or  boulders  are  also  objectionable,  as  they 
allow  an  uneven  and  rigid  bearing,  and  permit  the  too  free  per- 
colation of  water,  that,  in  time  of  heavy  rains,  may  develop  a 
washout;  clay  and  sand,  in  about  equal  quantities,  generally 
give  about  the  most  satisfactory  results.  The  size  and  shape  of 
the  roadbed  will  1)6  determined  bj-  the  importance  of  the  road 
and  the  character  of  the  material ;  as  a  rule,  it  should  never  be 
narrower  at  the  top  than  six  feet  added  to  the  gauge  of  track, 
and  generally  eiglit  feet  should  be  added  to  the  gauge  of  track, 
for  single  track  roads.  The  slope  of  embankments  should  be  at 
an  angle  of  one  and  one-half  feet  horizontally  to  one  foot  verti- 
cally, and  a  space  of  at  least  three  feet  of  the  natural  earth 
should  be  left  between  the  base  of  embankment  and  the  inside 
edge  of  side  ditches.  This  space  is  called  the  berme,  which 
should  be  kept  intact. 

Drainage  of  the  roadbed  is  the  process  of  preventing  its 
saturation  and  erosion  by  water.  Thorough  drainage  is  neces- 
sary. Ordinarj'  drainage  is  provided  by  a  sj'stem  of  side 
ditches,  surface  ditches,  ballast,  and  the  improvement  of  natural 
waterwajs.  Extraordinarj'  drainage,  by  special  methods  to 
suit  particular  obstacles  to  be  overcome.  Side  ditches  should 
l)e  straight,  with  a  uniform  gradient  toward  their  outlet.  It  is 
not  customary  nor  expedient  to  make  side  ditches  of  sufficient 
capacit}'  to  provide  for  the  largest  recorded  rainfall,  as,  in  such 
cases,  ordinary  prudence  would  dictate  the  suspension  of  traffic, 
and  the  the  construction  of  such  ditches  would  entail  useless 
expense  ujjon  the  road ;  but  it  is  essential  that  side  ditches 
.should  be  so  made  as  to  provide  for  carrying  off",  with  greatest 
directness  and  rapidity,  all  the  water  falling  within  fortj'  feet 
of  the  rail;  beyond  that  limit  surface  ditches  should  be  pro- 
vided. In  alignment,  side  ditches  should  conform  generally 
to  the  alignment  of  the  road,  and  should  not  be  deviated 
around  stumps,  boulders,  etc..  as  such  obstructions  decrease  the 
efficiency  of  the  ditches  and  detract  from  the  good  appearance 
of  the  road :  therefore  such  obstacles  should  be  removed,  and 
ditclies  made  straight,  except  where  they  emerge  from  a  cut  and 
join  the  ditches  along  the  embankment,  when  they  should  be 


MAINTENANCE.  446 

connected  by  a  ditch  of  gentle  curvature,  and.  at  such  connect- 
ing ditches,  the  earth  removed  in  their  construction  should 
form  a  dam  on  the  side  toward  the  roadbed,  to  prevent  the 
water  from  the  cut  overflowing  the  ditch  and  damaging  the 
embankment.  Side  ditches  along  einbaiikiiients  should  be  made 
of  a  cross  section;  the  bottom  of  ditch  should  be  made  to  slope 
away  from  the  road,  as  any  wash  will  then  oc(!ur  on  the  side  of 
the  ditch  where  the  water  is  deepest,  and  away  from  the  road. 

Ditches  should  be  maintained  to  a  depth  of  at  least  two  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  cross  ties,  as  an  earth   roadbed 
will  absorb  water  to  the  height  of  two  feet  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion ;  they  should  gradually  increase  in  size  toward  their  outlet. 
Surface  ditches  should  be  constructed  on  all  slopes  that  tend  to- 
ward the  roadbed  in  cuts;   they  should  be  made  of  the  same 
general  cross  section  as    the  side  ditches  along  embankments, 
except  that  the  earth  should  be  thrown  on  the  side  of  the  ditch 
toward  the  roadbed.    This  affords  ready  access  for  the  water 
coming  from  the  slope,  and  prevents  overflowing  on  the  side  of 
the  road.     The  size  of  surface  ditches  should    be  sufficient  to 
carry  off"  the   rainfall  from  the   slope  on  which  they  are  dug; 
they  should  be  straight,  free  from  obstructions,  and  increase  in 
size   toward   their   outlet,  which   sliould   be   directed    into   the 
nearest   natural   waterway.     On     new   roads  the   track   forces 
should  watch  the  drainage  system  with  special  vigilance  during 
storms,  as  some  weakness  is  almost  sure  to  exist,  which  will  de- 
velop at  such  times.    If  the    quick  construction  of  a  ditch  is 
necessary,  it  should  be  started  at  the  lower  end,  as  it  will  thus 
drain  itself  as  it  is  made.     Where  a  roadbed  is  in  a  saturated 
condition,  the  constant  passage  of  trains  will  cause  the  track  to 
sink  in  the  wet  earth,  and  "churn,"  resulting  in  a  rough  riding 
track.    To  prevent  this  and  also  the  "heaving"  of  track  by  frost 
in  winter,  a  layer  of  porous  material  called  "ballast"  is  intro- 
duced between  the  ties  and  roadl^ed  proper;  thus  the  weight  of 
passing  trains  is  distributed  uniformly  over  the  entire  surface 
of  the  yielding  roadbed,  producing  a  uniform  surface  under  all 
circumstances.    Stone    broken  uniformly    into  cubes  of  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  on  the  side,  clean  gravel,  furnace  slag, 
clay  burned  with  coal  into  hard  lumps   from  one  inch  to  two 
inches  in  diameter,  and  coarse  sand,  are  valuable  for  ballast  in 
the  order  named.    The  last,  however,  is  exceedingly  dusty,  and 
is  of  too  unstable  a  character  to    make  good  ballast.    Broken 
stone  has  the  advantage  of  freedom  from  dust,  dirt,  weeds  and 


446 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


grass.  Broken  stone  and  gravel  also  wear  mueh  better  than 
furnace  slag  or  burnt  clay.  To  ensure  a  good  track,  ballast 
should  be  uniformly  placed  for  a  depth  of  at  least  one  foot  below 
the  ties.  Probably  the  ideal  ballast  is  a  layer  of  broken  stone 
from  eight  inches  to  one  foot  thick  on  the  roadbed,  and  a  layer 
of  from  four  to  six  inches  of  gravel  above  the  broken  stone,  and 
immediately  under  the  ties.  This  ensures  perfect  drainage,  and 
renders  the  track  easy  to  keep  in  surface.  The  top  of  the  road- 
bed, under  the  ballast,  should  slope  both  ways  from  the  center, 
so  that  water  filtering  through  the  ballast  may  pass  off  imme- 
diately into  the  side  ditches.  Where  ballast  can  not  be  obtained 
except  at  such  an  expense  as  to  be  prohibitory,  it  is  important 
to  secure  perfect  drainage  in  other  ways.  In  such  cases  the  top 
of  the  roadbed  should  slope  both  ways  from  the  center  of  track 


steam  Road  Carriage,  A.  D.  1827. 


to  the  bottom  of  the  ends  of  cross  ties,  to  afford  an  opportunity 
for  rain  water  to  run  off  rapidly  into  the  side  ditches.  This  is, 
however,  only  a  partial  remedy,  as  the  roadbed  will  ultimately 
become  saturated  with  continuous  rains.  The  surface  of  such 
track  should  never  be  l)rokeu  during  rainy  weather,  as  the  looser 
the  earth  the  more  rapidly  it  absorbs  the  water.  After  contin- 
uous rains,  the  earth  of  a  roadbed  frequently  becomes  so 
thoroughly  saturated  with  water  as  to  render  it  uufit  for  tanjp- 
ing  under  the  churned  ties;  in  such  cases  it  is  necessary  in  the 
absence  of  ballast  and  dry  earth,  to  use  some  other  coarse  mate- 
rial as  a  temporary  substitute  until  dry  weather;  ordinary 
grass  sods,  long  coarse  grass,  or  even  brush,  particularly  pine, 
may  be  tamped  under  the  ties;  this  will  sustain  the  track  at  soft 
spots  in  a  passable  condition  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 


MAINTENANCE.  447 

The  next  element  of  ordinary  drainage  is  the  improvement 
of  natural  waterways;  they  i-onstitute  the  main  arteries  of  a 
drainage  system.  The  small  natural  streams  should  be  exam- 
ined for  a  considerable  distance  above  and  below  a  road,  and  all 
obstructions  that  tend  to  affect  the  natural  flow  of  water  should, 
if  practica])le.  be  removed ;  old  timlwr  from  bridges,  logs  and 
other  debris  should  never  be  allowed  to  ol)struct  them. 

In  reference  to  extraordinary  drainage,  the  protection  of 
slopes  and  banks  is  an  important  feature.  Generally  some  short, 
creeping,  long  rooted  variety  of  grass  will  be  ample  protection 
for  slopes  and  banks,  both  from  the  efliects  of  rainfall  and  of  flow- 
ing water.  It  frequently  becomes  necessary,  however,  to  fur- 
nish additional  protection  at  abuttments  and  along  embankments 
where  there  is  a  swift  running  stream.  Kock  revetments  or 
"riprap"  can  be  employed  to  good  advantage  in  such  places, 
or  a  wooden  revetment  or  walling  made  of  old  bridge  timber  is 
a  good  substitute. 

This  walling  should  project  into  the  trestle  opening  at 
least  six  feet,  so  that  the  current  passing  around  the  corner 
of  the  revetment  walling  will  form  an  eddy  sufticiently  far 
from  the  abuttment  not  to  undermine  it.  In  severe  storms, 
where  revetments  have  not  been  built,  or  have  been  washed 
out  from  any  cause,  a  good  temporary  substitute  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  bank  is  found  in  tree  tops  or  large  bushes,  placed 
so  that  the  bushy  ends  of  limbs  will  spread  over  the  side  of 
bank  as  deep  in  the  water  as  possible,  the  butt  ends  being  laid 
in  a  direction  up  stream  against  the  top  of  bank,  and  held  in  that 
position  by  timbers  or  earth  piled  on  them.  Springs  occurring 
in  cuts  can  generally  be  sufticiently  drained  by  means  of  porous 
drain  tile  run  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  track,  about  two 
feet  below  the  ties,  the  ends  opening  into  the  side  ditches. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  excavate  an  opening 
in  the  roadbed  for  several  feet  below  the  ties  out  to  the  side 
ditches,  fiilling  the  bottom  with  coarse  rock  and  the  top  with 

sand  or  gravel. 

Track.— The  prevailing  material  for  cross  ties  is  timber. 
The  qualities  required  of  timber  for  cross  ties  are  durability, 
to  resist  decay;  hardness,  to  resist  wear;  toughness,  to  resist 
breaking;  and  elasticity,  to  save  the  rail  and  rolling  stock  and 
to  hold  spikes  in  position. 

The  size  of  cross  ties  will  be  regulated  largely  by  the  timber 
supply  on   different   roads.     Where    suitable    timber    can  be 


< 

> 
o 

a 

o 
o 
o 

« 

60 


a> 

V 

no 


MAINTENANCE.  449 

obtained  in  abundance,  a  cross  tie  seven  inches  thick,  ten  inches 
wide,  and  nine  feet  long  is  probably  the  best,  though  on  many 
roads  it  becomes  necessary  as  a  measure  of  economy  to  use  ties 
from  six  to  eight  inches  wide  and  eight  to  eight  and  a  half  feet  long. 
But  whatever  the  size,  the  total  l)earing  in  a  given  distance  is 
the  important  feature;  tlie  thickness  of  the  tie  should  be  fixed 
at  not  less  than  seven  iuclies;  the  length  not  less  than  eight  feet, 
and  from  that  to  nine  and  a  half  feet,  bearing  in  mind  that  with 
the  increased  length  should  come  increased  thickness,  and  the 
width  from  seven  to  ten  inches.  The  distance  apart  of  ties  in 
the  track  should  be  regulated  according  to  their  width,  so  as  to 
maintain  a  uniform  bearing  surface.  The  usual  limits  of  this 
bearing  surface  require  that  ties  shall  not  be  placed  farther 
apart  than  one  and  one-half  times  their  width,  nor  nearer 
than  a  space  equal  their  width,  for  if  they  are  closer  there  will 
not  be  sufficient  room  between  the  ties  for  proper  tamping. 
Above  all  things,  the  size  of  ties  and  the  distance  between 
them  must  be  uniform  to  ensure  good  track. 

Fences. — The  best  material  for  a  cheap  fence  is  wire,  and 
barbed  wire  is  the  most  eftective.  Wire  is  practically  inde- 
structible, is  cheap  in  first  cost,  requires  the  minimum  number 
of  posts,  and  is  more  rapidly  put  up  than  any  other  kind  of 
fence.  A  top  rail  or  board  should  be  added  as  a  brace  for  the 
posts  and  as  a  protection  to  stock  that  can  not  see  the  wires.  A 
flat  wire  ribbon  with  projecting  points  is  used,  as  stock  can  see 
it  better. 

Cattle  Guards  are  the  means  of  continuing  fences  across 
railroad  tracks  without  interfering  with  the  passage  of  trains. 
They  form  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  expenses  of  a 
road,  and  therefore  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  a  device  as  simple 
as  possible,  and  yet  it  must  effectually  exclude  all  stock  from 
the  enclosure.  A  framed  pit  sufficiently  wide  for  the  connecting 
fences  to  afford  proper  clearance  for  the  cars,  and  with  stringers 
for  the  rails  to  i*est  on,  was,  until  recent  years,  the  form  in  most 
general  use.  The  danger  of  stringers  spreading  and  the  disas- 
trous effect  of  a  derailment  at  these  pits  led  to  the  addition  of 
ties  and  guard  timbers ;  these  additions  permitted  a  much  shal- 
lower pit.  As  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  learned  to  walk  these  ties 
or  guard  timbers,  it  became  necessary  to  have  them  chamfered. 

^lany  other  forms  of  stock  guards,  principally  surface 
guards  intended  to  do  away  with  the  pit  entirely,  have  been 
suggested  and  patented. 

29 


450 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Road  Crossings. — The  intersection  of  a  liij^hway  with  a 
railroad  at  an  elevation  common  to  both  is  called  a  road  cross- 
in*^.  At  such  points  it  is  essential  to  provide  an  easy  and  safe 
means  of  passage  for  vehicles  over  the  track.  Grade  road 
crossings  in  cuts  and  on  or  near  curves  should  be  avoided 
whenever  possible.  At  road  crossings  the  grade  of  highways 
immediately  approaching  the  track  should  not  exceed  one  foot 
in  ten.  Public  road  crossings  should  be  sufficiently  wide  for 
two  teams  to  pass  easily  abreast,  and  in  cities  the  width  should 
be  regidated  to  suit  local  requirements.  Eight  feet  is  suffi- 
ciently wide  for  private  crossings,  and  twelve  to  eighteen  feet 
for  public  roads;  this  width  should  be  carried  out  to  the  limits 
of  the  right  of  way,  if  on  banks,  by  a  '"ramp"'  of  the  same 
width  as  crossing;  culvert  pipe  should  be  used  under  the 
''ramp"  to  prevent  obstruction  of  drainage. 

Tools. — The  character  of  a  workman  maybe  determined  by 
his  tools.  If  found  in  proper  order  and  ready  for  any  emer- 
gency, he  may  be  classed  as  a  first  class  foreman.  Good  tools 
are  necessary  for  good  work.  Formerly  most  roads  made  their 
own  tools;  but,  as  a  rule,  tools  are  now  purchased  from  manu- 
facturers for  a  lower  price  than  roads  can  afford  to  make  them, 
and  certainly  of  a  better  quality  and  finish.  Foremen  should 
be  provided  with  suitable  boxes  and  racks  for  their  tools,  and 
should  not  allow  them  to  become  mixed.* 

There  should  be  a  systematic  inspection  of  tools  by  the 
roadmaster.  Every  foreman  should  be  required  to  have  his 
full  number  of  tools  in  efficient  condition  at  all  times.     Spirit 


*  The  following  list  of  tools  is  suggested  as  a  proper  outfit 


for  every  section  gang: 

Adze 1 

Auger,  \\i  inch 1 

Axes,  club 2 

Axe,  hand 1 

Bars,  to  three  laborers 2 

Cans,  oil 2 

Car,  lever 1 

Car,  pole 1 

Chisel,  \}4  inch 1 

Chisels,  track 4 

Drills,  track,  with  six  bits 1 

File,  8-inch  M.  S 1 

Gauge,  track I 

Grindstone 1 

Hooks,  bush,  to  each  man 1 

Jacks,  track 2 

Keg,  water 1 


Lanterns,  red 2 

Lanterns,  white 2 

Level,  track 1 

Line,  ditch,  100  feet  long 1 

Lock,  with  five  feet  of  trace  chain.  1 

Mauls,  spike  'A 

Picks,  tamping,  to  three  laborers..  2 

Saw,  cross-cut I 

Shovels,  for  each  laborer t 

Signals,  danger 2 

Spike  puller 1 

Square 1 

Torpedoes 12 

Wire,  telegraph,  feet 30 

Wrench,  screw,  14-inch ...  1 

Wrenches,  track,  for  each  laborer..  1 


Foy  each  five  sections,  one  rail  bender  and  one  rail  straightener. 


MAINTENANCE.  451 

levels  should  be  tested  and  adjusted  at  each  inspection.  Every 
division  of  road  should  be  provided  with  a  hand  derrick  car, 
and  a  box  car  with  wire  rojies,  blocks  and  falls,  levers,  jacks 
and  blocking,  and  on  every  road  where  the  traffic  is  of  much 
importance  there  should  be  a  steam  derrick  of  at  least 
thirty  tons  capacity,  and  a  car  fitted  up  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  a  considerable  wrecking  crew. 

Steam  ditchers  and  ballast  unloaders  are  also  an  essential 
part  of  the  equipment  of  any  first  class  road,  for  they  perform 
the  services  of  very  large  forces  of  men  at  much  less  cost,  and 
are  ready  for  immediate  service  when  it  is  frequently  impossi- 
ble to  secure  a  suflicient  amount  of  labor  at  the  time  required. 

Management. — There  are  two  distinct  features  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  organization  of  the  roadway  department.  The 
first  is  the  execution  of  that  which  is  to  be  done ;  the  next,  the 
inspection  of  that  which  has  been  done.  Under  some  circum- 
stances, the  duties  of  execution  and  inspection  are  combined 
in  one  individual;  in  the  broadest  sense,  however,  there  should 
be  no  community  of  interests  between  the  inspector  and  the 
man  who  is  directly  responsible  for  the  work.  The  man  who 
executes  or  directs  the  execution  of  work  is  naturally  inclined 
to  magnify  its  excellences  and  excuse  Its  imperfections,  but  he 
who  views  it  with  the  practiced  eye  of  a  critic,  whose  judg- 
ment is  not  tempered  with  self  interest,  will  give  an  estimate  of 
certain  and  just  value.  Road  inspection  will  therefore  be  con- 
sidered under  a  separate  heading,  as  a  distinct  system  insti- 
tuted to  meet  the  increasing  exaction  of  modern  railroading. 

In  the  organization  of  the  roadway  service  there  should  be 
no  division  of  authority  or  responsibility;  all  orders  should 
proceed  from  a  responsible  head,  and  all  reports  should  ulti- 
mately reach  his  office  and  be  consolidated  by  liini  for  the 
information  of  superior  officers.  This  head  is  variously  termed 
the  roadmaster,  superintendent  of  roadway,  engineer,  etc. 
Under  this  officer  come  the  supervisors,  division  roadmasters, 
or  assistant  engineers,  as  the  case  may  be;  also  timljer  in- 
spectors, pump  inspectors  and  frequently  bridge  and  building 
inspectors;  then  come  the  gang  foremen,  etc.,  who  in  turn  em- 
ploy their  own  laborers,  lender  such  an  organization,  with  a 
proper  system  of  rules  and  accounts,  a  road  may  be  extended 
to  almost  unlimited  proportions  by  a  simple  addition  to  the 
number  of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  and  an  enlargement  of 
the   central   office.    A  division    roadmaster    or    supervisor   is 


452 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 


rarely  capable  of  supervising  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
of  single  track  or  fifty  miles  of  double  track  road.  On  our 
more  important  lines,  a  section  of  single  track  should  not  ex- 
ceed six  miles,  and  section  houses  should  be  placed  as  near  a 
telegraph  ofiice  or  station  as  possible. 

The  foreman  should  have  the  care  of  track  and  property  of 
the  company  on  his  section,  and  should  be  held  accountable  for 
their  proper  care  and  maintenance. 

As  far  as  possible  the  roadmaster  should  lay  out  the  work 
for.  his  foremen.  Foremen  should  be  shown  the  value  of 
thorough  system,  of  planning  the  week's  work  ahead  so  as  to 
economize  time  and  to  accomplish  a  little  more  than  the  proper 
week's  allowance.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  essential  for  the 
roadmaster  to  establish  the  proper  allowance  of  labor,  and  to 
issue  a  little  in  advance  of  requirements  the  necessary  material. 
Foremen  should  not  be  permitted  to  work  portions  of  a  day  at 


Locomotive,  A.  D.  1894. 


points  widely  separated,  as  the  loss  of  time  in  going  from  one 
place  to  another  will  easily  consume  a  large  percentage  of  the 
day's  time.  The  regular  inspection,  which  foremen  should  be 
required  to  make  at  least  twice  a  week  over  every  part  of  their 
sections,  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  use  as 
little  time  away  from  their  regular  work  as  possible. 

The  following  rules  are  suggested  for  guidance  of  employes 
in  the  roadway  department: 

''General  Rules. — Each  employe  whose  duties  require  it 
must  have  the  book  of  rules  with  him  while  on  duty. 

•'Any  employe  who  does  not  clearly  understand  the  rules 
must  ask  an  explanation  of  his  superior  officer. 

'•Employes  must  report  violations  of  rules  by  other  em- 
ployes which  endanger  life  or  property,  or  which  prevent  them 
from  discharging  their  own  duty. 

"Employes  while  on  duty  must  refrain  from  profane  or  vio- 
lent language,  personal  altercation,  and  from  using  intoxicating 
drinks. 


MAIN  TEX AXCE.  458 

''Each  employe  is  hereby  warned  that  while  on  the  tracks  or 
grounds  of  the  company,  or  in  workinj^  with  or  being  in  any 
manner  on  or  with  its  cars,  eaulnes.  machinerj^or  tools,  he  must 
examine,  for  his  own  safety,  the  condition  of  all  machinery, 
tools,  tracks,  cars,  engines,  or  whatever  he  may  undertake  to 
work  on  or  with,  before  he  makes  use  of  or  exposes  himself  on 
or  with  the  same,  so  as  to  ascertain,  so  far  as  he  reasonably  can, 
their  condition  and  soundness;  and  he  is  required  promptlj'  to 
report  lo  bis  superior  officer  any  ilefect  in  any  track,  machinerj^ 
tools  or  property  of  said  company  affecting  the  safety  of  any 
one  in  operating  upon  or  with  the  same. 

"Supervisors,  inspectors,  foremen  and  conductors  must  keep 
a  daily  record  of  their  occupation,  showing  in  detail  the  work 
done,  material  used,  and  the  time  of  each  person  employed 
under  their  immediate  supervision. 

"lied  must  not  be  worn  in  a  conspicuous  manner. 

''Supervisors,  conductors,  section  foi'emen.  and  foremen  of 
all  other  gangs,  during  work  hours,  must  not  leave  their  re- 
spective division,  train,  section  or  gang  without  written  per- 
mission from  the  roadmaster. 

"In  case  of  accident  to  train  or  road,  the  highest  officer  in 
the  roadway  department,  or  the  oldest  foreman  in  continuous 
.service  present  at  the  time,  will  have  charge  of  the  work  until 
relieved  by  some  one  higher  in  authority. 

"Supervisors  must  pass  over  their  divisions  on  trains,  and 
foremen  over  their  sections  on  hand  cars,  during  stormy  weatlier, 
and  must  know  that  all  is  safe  before  allowing  trains  to  pass. 
Conductors  must  keep  in  telegraphic  communication  with  the 
roadmaster  and  the  master  of  trains  during  the  continuance  of 
storms,  and  be  prepared  to  move  on  shortest  notice. 

"Hand  cars  must  not  be  towed  at  the  rear  of  trains,  and  must 
not  be  on  the  track  after  dark,  nor  in  foggy  weather,  unless  pro- 
tected by  proper  signals  in  front  and  rear. 

"Standard  plans  and  specifications  for  the  construction  and 
location  of  all  structures  will  be  furnished,  and  officers  and 
foremen  must  inform  themselves  of  such  standards,  and  work 
entirely  in  conformity  with  them. 

"Trains  must  be  expected  at  all  times. 

"Foremen  and  officers  must  i)rovide  themselves  with  reliable 
watches  before  entering  upon  their  duties,  and  see  that  they  are 
always  in  order  and  conform  to  standard  time. 

"\Vhen  watchmen  are  left  with  danger  signals,  they  must  be 
supplied  with  tools  and  required  to  work. 

"When  dangerous  places  are  found,  or  while  work  is  being 
done  that  renders  the  road  unsafe  for  the  passage  of  trains,  the 
person  in  charge  must  attend  to  the  placing  and  maintaining  of 
danger  signals  on  the  engineer's  side  of  track  in  both  directions. 
In  no  case  must  they  be  nearer  than  fifteen  telegraph  poles,  and 
on  a  continuous  down  grade  in  the  direction  of  the  work  the 
signal  must  be  placed  at  least  twenty  telegraph  poles  from  the 


454  SCIENCE  OF  BAILWAYS; 

work.  When  such  points  come  on  a  curve,  the  signal  must  be 
placed  at  the  further  end  of  the  curve.  If  either  sio^nal  can  not 
be  clearly  seen  from  the  work  and  from  an  approaching  train, 
a  watchman  must  be  left  with  it. 

"Whenever  signals  of  the  roadway  department  are  dis- 
regarded, immediate  report  must  be  made  to  the  roadmaster. 

"Slow  boards  must  be  posted  at  a  distance  of  ten  telegraph 
poles  on  each  side  of  the  place  where  the  speed  is  to  be  re- 
duced. 

'•When  two  or  more  hand  cars  may  be  following  each  other 
over  the  road,  they  must  maintain  an  interval  of  at  least  two 
telegraph  poles  apart. 

"Sl  I'EKVisoRS  OK  Assistant  Koadmasters  :  Must  test  track 
levels  once  a  week,  and  see  that  they  are  used  in  surfacing  track. 

"Must  see  that  foremen  are  supplied  with  the  full  number  of 
tools  required,  and  that  they  are  in  proper  order. 

"Must  carry  with  them  on  their  hand  car  a  standard  track 
gauge,  an  axe.'six  torpedoes,  a  red  and  white  lantern,  and  a  red 

flag. 

"Must  examine  switches,  frogs  and  turntables  once  a  week, 
and  see  that  thev  are  in  proper  order. 

":Must  see  that  turntables  and  car  guards  are  provided  with 
proper  means  to  securely  lock  them. 

"Must  see  that  their  f'oremen  are  provided  with  the  proper 
forms  for  making  reports,  and  with  copies  of  all  rules  and 
schedules. 

"Must  pass  over  their  respective  divisions  at  least  one  a 
week  on  a  hand  car.  once  a  week  on  an  engine,  and  often  as  pos- 
sible on  the  rear  of  a  train. 

"Must  see  that  signs  are  placed  where  required,  and  are  kept 
in  proper  order. 

"Must  see  that  fences  are  kept  in  proper  order. 

"Keports  of  the  resignation,  discharge,  removal,  suspension, 
transfer,  death,  injury,  sickness,  or  marriage  of  any  foreman 
must  be  sent  at  once  to  the  roadmaster. 

"FouEMi'.N :  ]Must  be  familiar  with  the  regular  code  of  signals 
and  the  proper  position  and  use  of  torpedoes. 

"]\Iust  work  when  their  entire  attention  is  not  required  in 
directing  their  men. 

".Alust  report  promptly  in  detail  to  the  supervisor  any  acci- 
dents to  persons  or  trains. 

"Must  notice  the  signals  carried  by  passing  engines. 

"Must  examine  every  switch,  frog  and  guard  rail  on  their 
respeitive  sections  at  least  three  times  every  week,  and  must 
keep  them  in  good  order.'' 

Nuts  and  bolts  must  be  kept  tight. 

Eoad  crossings  must  be  kept  in  good  order. 

Foremen  must  watch  the  telegraph  lines,  especially  after 
storms,  unite  the  wires  when  broken,  and  keep  poles  free  from 


MAINTENANCE.  455 

grass.     They  must    promptly  report  to  the   roadmaster  any 
derangement  of  wires  they  can  not  repair. 

Old  ties  must  be  piled,  on  the  day  after  they  are  taken  out, 
not  less  than  thirty  feet  from  the  rail,  piles  to  be  not  less  than 
one  telegragh  pole  apart.  Old  timber  that  is  unserviceable  must 
be  burned. 

All  rails  or  scraps  of  metal  must  be  neatly  piled  at  mile 
posts,  stations  or  section  houses,  not  less  than  six  feet  from  the 
rail.     Serviceable  material  must  be  kept  separate. 

Foremen  must  see  that  scattered  wood  or  trash  around  wood 
racks,  station  grounds  or  water  stations  is  properly  piled  up  or 
burned. 

Foremen  must  repair  promptly  any  break  in  fences,  and  re- 
port the  facts  to  the  supervisor. 

Bushes  and  weeds  within  the  limits  of  the  right  of  way  must 
be  cut. 

Foremen,  when  working  on  track,  must  see  that  earth  is  not 
piled  up  in  such  a  way  as  to  touch  any  part  of  a  train. 

Track  must  never  be  raised  off  the  roadbed  where  drainage 
is  complete;  the  low  places  should  only  be  brought  to  a  surface 
with  the  high  places. 

Track  must  be  raised  level  with  track  jacks.  Ties  must  be 
uniformly  spaced  and  tamped.* 

Spikes  must  be  driven  perpendicularly  —  outside  spikes 
three  inches  from  the  edge  of  tie  nearest  and  inside  spikes 
three  inches  from  the  opposite  edge  of  tie,  except  at  joint. 
Ties  must  be  placed  square  across  the  track. 

Track  must  be  kept  in  proper  gauge,  and  on  curves  of  Ave 
degrees  and  upwards,  guard  rail  braces  must  be  placed  on  out- 
side of  both  rails  at  intervals  of  six  feet. 

The  ends  of  ties  put  in  must  be  lined  on  the  side  of  track  on 
which  the  mile  posts  are  located. 

Ditches  must  be  kept  free  from  obstructions. 


*  The  following  rules  will  be  observed  in  laying  new  rail : 
a.    Defective  ties  must  be  removed  where  rail  is  laid,  and 

ties  properly  spaced  and  lined. 

-     b.    Track  must  be  put  to  true  gauge,  level,  line  and  surface. 

c.  Shims  of  proper  size  for  the  degree  of  temperature  must 
be  used. 

d.  Spikes  must  be  placed  in  the  slots  of  angle  plates. 

e.  The  full  number  of  bolts  must  always  be  used.     Nuts 
must  be  screwed  up  tight. 


466  SCmXCE  OF  BAIL  WA  YS; 

When  a  foreman  takes  charge  of  a  gang,  he  must  receipt  for 
all  company  propertj'  delivered  to  him  Ijy  his  predecessor. 

Foremen  will  be  held  accountable  for  the  proper  care  of  the 
company's  property  on  their  sections. 

Hand  cars  and  tools  must  be  properly  secured  when  not  in 
use. 

Conductors  of  Railway  Trains:  Will  report  directly  to 
the  roadmaster.  They  must  comply  with  the  requisitions  of 
the  supervisors  upon  whose  divisions  they  are  working. 

They  must  report  by  telegraph  every  afternoon  to  the  road- 
master  their  probable  work  limits  for  the  following  day. 

They  must  report  to  the  roadmaster  every  cause  of  delay. 

They  will  report  to  supervisors  all  material  hauled  to  and 
from  their  respective  divisions. 

When  hauling  earth,  they  must  see  that  the  ditches  and  cuts 
where  they  are  working  are  left  in  proper  condition.  They 
must  not  leave  piles  of  material  so  high  as  to  be  struck  by 
trains. 

They  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  careless  handling  of 
material.  Steel  rail  and  fastenings  must  be  lifted,  not  thrown, 
from  the  cars. 


Details  concerning  the  track  are  infinite.  In 
anotlier  volume*  will  be  found  those  relating  to 
the  duties  of  trackmen  in  connection  with  the 
operation  of  trains.  In  addition  to  such  rules 
and  in  addition  to  those  already  given,  the  fol- 
lowing suggest  themselves  as  necessary  to  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  subject.  The  major 
portion  of  them  were  compiled  by  me  years  ago 
—many  of  them  from  original  sources.  I  do  not 
claim  them  as  my  own. 

Laborers  must  be  in  gangs  of  such  number  and  force  as  the 
roadmaster  may  direct:  to  each  gang  there  must  be  a  foreman, 
who  must  work  constanth' with  his  gang,  and  be  held  respousi- 


Operation  of  Trains.'' 


MAINTENANCE.  457 

ble  for  the  faithful  and  efficient  execution  of  the  work  under 
his  care.* 

The  safety  of  life  and  property  requires  that  sectlonmen 
should  be  especially  vigilant  in  foggy  weather  and  during  and 
after  storms.t 

They  must  see  that  all  obstructions  upon  the  track,  or  likely 
to  fall  thereon  so  as  to  endanger  the  safety  of  trains,  are 
promptly  removed. 

In  no  case,  except  in  the  most  absolute  necessity,  is  a  rail 
to  be  displaced  or  any  other  work  to  be  performed,  by  which 
an  obstruction  may  be  made  to  the  passage  of  trains  during  a 
fog  or  snow  storm;  the  times  for  effecting  repairs  which  in- 
volve the  stopping  of  trains  must,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  so 
selected  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  passage  of 
traffic! 

Gravel  or  ballast  unloaded  along  the  line  must  be  promptly 
spread  upon  the  track,  so  as  not  to  endanger  the  safety  of 
trains. § 

In  lifting  the  permanent  way,  no  lift  must  be  greater  than 
three  inches  at  once,  and  then  it  must  be  effected  in  a  length 
of  at  least  twenty  yards,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  occasion 
any  sudden   change  of  gradient.    Both   rails    must  be   raised 

*  "  In  each  gang  of  platelayers  or  men  repairing  the  permanent 
way,  there  shall  be  a  foreman  or  ganger."— £«^;<s/i  Standard. 

t'-They  must  see  that  after  all  heavy  winds,  rains  and  other 
storms,  and  during  the  same,  the  men  are  out  on  the  road  ready 
to  render  such  assistance  as  may  be  required,  and  to  give  proper 
warning  to  the  trains,  and  to  repair  such  damages  and  remove 
such  obstructions  as  are  necessary.  In  foggy  weather,  when  a 
train  can  not  be  seen  at  three  hundred  yards,  all  the  foremen 
and  laborers  must  leave  their  ordinary  work,  and  the  foreman 
must  range  them  along  his  portion  of  the  line,  over  which 
they  must  walk  up  and  down,  driving  such  spikes  and  keys,  or 
doing  such  other  work  as  needs  attention,  and  be  ready  to  give 
notice  of  danger  to  the  signalmen  or  the  trains."— 1854. 

I'-In  all  cases,  before  taking  out  a  rail,  the  platelayer  must 
have  at  the  spot  a  perfect  rail  in  readiness  to  replace  itr— English 
/Standard. 

§"  No  ballast  must  be  tlirown  up  to  a  higher  level  between  the 
rails  than  three  inches,  and  it  must  be  thrown  as  much  as  possi- 
ble on  the  outside  of  each  line,  and  between  the  two  lines,  and  be 
replaced  as  .soon  as  possible.  The  rails  must  be  kept  clear  of 
gravel,  ballast,  or  any  other  material."— Emjlish  Standard. 


458  SCIENCE  OF  HAIL  WAYS; 

equally  and  at  the  same  time,  and  the  ascent  must  be  made  in  tlie 
direction  in  which  the  trains  run.* 

Trackmen  must  keep  the  fences  in  good  order  at  crossings 
and  at  each  side  of  the  track;  they  must  see  that  all  breaks 
are  repaired  without  delay;!  that  cattle  guards  are  kept  in  re- 
pair; that  all  gates  that  are  found  open  are  closed,  and  that  all 
bars  found  down  are  put  in  proper  condition.! 

When  watchmen  are  employed,  they  must  walk  over  the 
track  and  carefully  inspect  the  same,  at  intervals  between  the 
passage  of  trains.§  It  is  the  duty  of  watchmen  (and  switchmen 
and  agents  as  well)  to  signal  trains  that  disregard  the  regula- 
tions prescribing  the  time  and  distance  that  must  elapse  be- 
tween trains  that  are  following  each  other.|| 

*  English  Standard. 

t"  Surely,  it  is  far  better  to  stop  a  hand  car  and  repair  a 
fence  than  to  subject  a  company  to  damages  for  killing  stock, 
with  the  additional  expense,  occasionally,  of  a  wrecked  train. 
In  a  word,  men,  when  passing  over  a  road  with  a  hand  car, 
should  be  prompt  to  remedy  every  defect  they  discover.  It 
should  be  a  rule  never  to  postpone  any  work  of  repairs  that 
can  be  done  on  the  instant."  —  T/ie  Roadmasters'  Assistant, 
page  118. 

t  "Gangers  must  close  and  fasten  all  gates  they  tinil  open, 
and  report  the  circumstances,  in  order  that  the  persons  who 
are  re(iuired  to  keep  such  gates  closed  and  fastened  may  be 
charged  with  the  proper  penalties.  The  gangers  must  take  care 
to  maintain  proper  scotches  on  all  sidings  requiring  them.  — 
English  Standard. 

&••  Whenever  any  person  has  occasion  to  walk  on  the  rail- 
way he  must  not  walk  on  either  line  of  rails,  but  on  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  line,  off  the  ballast,  clear  of  passing  engines  or 
tr-iins ''—(rrmt  Northern  Bailway  of  England,  "(dangers  must 
order 'off  the  railway  all  persons  trespassing  witliin  the  fences, 
and  must  do  their  best  to  obtain  the  trespasser's  name  and 
address  If  any  trespasser  persists  in  remaining  they  must 
take  him  to  the  nearest  station  and  give  him  in  charge  of 
the  stationinaster  or  police  there;  or  (if  any  police  constable 
be  nearer  than  the  nearest  station)  gangers  must  give  the 
trespasser  in  charge  of  such  constable,  and  report  at  once  hav- 
ing done  so  to  the  nearest  station."— G^rea^  Western  Railway  of 

England.  ^  ,      i      <. 

II -The  foreman  and  other  men  of  the  squads  must  look  at 
every  passing  train,  and  if  they  see  a  train  running  on  the 
same,  track,  within  ten  minutes  of  another  train,  or  anything 
wrong,  they  must  signal  the  engineman  with  a  red  signal,  and 


MAINTENANCE.  459 

Each  ganger  is  requireil,  in  the  event  of  storms  or  floods, 
to  examine  carefully  the  action  of  the  water  through  the  cul- 
verts and  bridges  on  his  length  of  line;  and  should  he  see 
anj'^  cause  to  apprehend  danger  to  the  works,  be  must  immedi- 
ately exhibit  the  proper  signals  for.  the  trains  to  proceed  cau- 
tiously, or  to  stop,  as  necessity  may  require,  and  inform  the 
inspector  thereof;  and,  until  the  inspector  arrives,  he  must 
take  all  the  precautionary  measures  necessary  for  securing  the 
stability  of  the  line.* 

They  must  see  that  water  courses  under  the  bridges  and  cul- 
verts are  not  allowed  to  become  clogged  or  obstructed.! 

In  wet  weather,  and  during  and  after  snow  storms,  they 
must  use  every  effort  to  prevent  delay  or  accident  to   trains.J 

Track  foremen  must  carefully  walk  over  and  inspect  every 
portion  of  the  section  under  their  charge  at  least  once  each 
ilay.§ 


they  must  report  to  the  trackraaster  when  an  engineman  does 
not  obey  the  signals." — 1854.  "  Where  the  line  is  not  worked 
under  the  block  telegraph  regulations,  if  a  passenger  train 
approach  within  ten  minutes  of  a  goods,  cattle,  mineral  or 
ballast  train,  or  light  engine,  the  men  repairing  the  line  must 
give  the  engine  driver  of  such  passenger  train  a  signal  to  go 
slowly." — English  Standard. 

*Great  Western  Railway  of  England. 

i-"They  will  be  particular  not  to  allow  standing  water  upon 
any  part  of  their  line,  but  keep  the  ditches  open  and  free  at 
all  times,  and  keep  floodwood  away  from  the  culverts,  bridges 
and  water  courses." — 1853. 

J  "Their  whole  time  will  be  devoted  to  their  duties  in  the 
service  of  the  company,  and  generally  their  services  are  more 
urgently  required  in  bad,  inclement  weather  than  at  any  other 
time.  In  winter  it  is  as  much  their  duty  to  keep  the  track  clear 
from  snow  and  ice,  as  far  as  it  is  possible,  as  to  keep  it  in  re- 
pair. At  this  season  every  possiljle  effort  should  be  made  to 
keep  the  road  open,  and  insure  the  regularity  of  trains." — 
1853. 

§"  Each  ganger  must  walk  over  his  length  of  the  line  every 
morning  and  evening  on  week  days  (except  where  the  engi- 
neers consider  once  each  day  sulhcieni,  and  have  laid  down 
such  instructions  in  writing)  and,  where  passenger  trains  are 
run,  once  on  Sundays,  and  tighten  up  all  keys  and  other  fasten- 
ings that  may  be  loose;  and  he  must  examine  the  line,  level  and 
gauge  of  the  road,  and  the  state  of  the  joints,  marking,  and  if 
necessary  repairing,  such  as  are  defective." — Great  Western  Rail- 
way  of  England. 


460  SCIENCE  OF  RAIL  WA  YS; 

Each  ganger  must,  when  going  over  his  length  of  line  to 
examine  the  keys  and  fastenings  of  the  rails,  have  with  him  a 
keying  liaiTimer  and  spanners  or  nut  keys,  and  be  prepared 
promptly  to  supply  keys,  nuts,  packings,  fastenings,  or  other 
parts  of  the  permanent  way  that  may  be  required.* 

No  wagon  or  otlier  vehicle  employed  in  the  permanent  way 
department  must  be  left  in  any  siding  without  the  wheels 
nearest  to  the  entrance  into  the  main  line  being  properly 
blocked  aud  secured. f 

Old  and  unused  material  of  every  kind  upon  the  line  of  the 
road,  or  at  stations  or  shops,  must  be  carefully  collected  and 
preserved.! 

All  luggage,  goods  or  articles  found  on  the  line  must  imme- 
diately be  taken  to  the  nearest  station,  and  a  report  made  con- 
taining tlie  best  information  that  can  be  obtained  respecting  the 
train  from  which  they  may  have  fallen. § 

Trackmen  working  in  a  tunnel,  when  trains  are  approaching 
in  both  directions,  must,  if  unable  to  reach  any  recess  in  tlie 
walls,  lie  down  either  in  the  space  between  the  two  lines  of 
rails,  or  between  tlie  line  and  the  side  of  the  tunnel,  until  the 
trains  have  passed.  The  width  of  the  space  depends  on  the 
construction  of  the  tunnel,  with  which  every  man  must  make 
himself  acquainted  in  order  that  he  may  select  the  place  which 
aft'ords  the  greatest  safety.|| 

Trackmen  must  desist  from  work  upon  a  train  approaching, 
and  must  not  cross  over  to  the  other  lines,  but  move  to  the 
side  of  the  road,  clear  of  all  the  lines,  to  secure  themselves 
from  the  risk  of  accident  by  trains  running  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. 


*  Great  Western  Railway  of  England, 
t  English  Standard. 

t"  They  will  protect  the  materials  or  property  of  the  com- 
pany (whether  new  or  old)  upon  their  line  from  depredation, 
loss  or  injury,  and  keep  it  properly  and  neatly  piled  up,  ready 
for  use  or  removal." — 1853. 

§  English  Standard.  "Anything  which  may  have  been  lost 
from  a  passing  train,  such  as  a  casting,  nut,  screw  or  bolt,  or 
any  piece  of  machinery,  piece  of  freight,  baggage,  or  other 
matter,  they  will  pick  up  and  carry  to  a  regular  station,  and 
deliver  to  the  station  agent."— Oirf  Bule. 

II  English  Road. 


MAINTENANCE.  461 

In  the  event  of  any  fire  taking  place  upon  or  near  the  line, 
employes  must  take  immediate  measures  for  putting  it  out.* 

Bridges  and  culverts  should  be  carefully  inspected  after  the 
passage  of  each  train ;  but  where  this  is  impossible  they  must 
be  examined  daily,  or  oftener  if  sectionmen  have  occasion  to 
pass  over  them.  All  defects  should  be  promptly  remedied,  and 
in  the  event  sparks,  burning  waste,  fuel  or  fire  of  any  kind  is 
observed,  it  should  be  put  out.f 

Before  removing  any  traveling  crane,  the  person  in  charge 
of  it  must  see  that  the  jib  is  properly  lowered  and  secured,  and 
so  fixed  that  it  will  pass  under  the  gauge,  and,  when  it  has  to  be 
removed  by  train,  it  must,  when  practicable,  be  so  placed  that 
the  jib  will  point  towards  the  rear  of  the  train. 


*" Careless  firemen  frequently  throw  overboard  handfuls  of 
dirty  waste,  which  at  any  time  may  be  ignited  by  a  spark  from 
a  passing  locomotive.  Fire  may  be  carried  thence  into  the  dry 
grass  by  the  roadside,  afterward  into  the  fence,  and  so  on  to 
haystacks,  buildings,  wood  piles,  etc." —  The  Boadmasters''  As- 
sistant, page  116. 

fWhen  a  gang  of  trackmen  engaged  at  work  discover 
smoke  on  a  line,  they  should  at  once  attend  to  it.  It  should  be 
a  rule  at  all  times  never  to  neglect  the  least  indication  that  a 
fire  has  caught  on  the  line.  On  more  than  one  occasion  expen- 
sive bridges  have  been  destroyed  owing  to  a  neglect  to  stop  the 
hand  car  and  remove  a  live  coal  of  fire  dropped  by  a  locomo- 
tive, or  to  put  out  a  fire  caused  by  a  spark  from  a  smoke  stack 
lodging  in  a  decayed  spot  of  timber.  Some  of  the  worst 
wrecks  on  record  have  been  taken  out  of  culverts  where  a 
stringer  has  been  nearly  burned  through." — Ibid.,  pages  116-117. 


Carriage  in  Saxony. 


(462) 


CHAPTER    XXy. 

THE    RAILWAY    TRACK   AND   ITS   EVOLUTION. 

The  track  of  a  railway,  next  to  its  motive  power, 
represents  the  central  idea  of  such  properties. 
Its  evolution  has,  generally  speaking,  kept  pace 
with  improvements  in  other  branches  of  the 
business.  The  devices  that  have  been  used  in 
connection  with  the  track  and  abandoned  afford 
quite  as  much  instruction  as  a  presentation  of 
those  that  have  succeeded  them.  I,  therefore, 
embrace  in  the  accompanying  illustrations  de- 
vices of  earlier  days  as  well  as  those  of  the 
present  time.  Each  illustration  speaks  for  itself. 
Little  or  no  explanation  is  needed.  From  the 
cuts  which  are  given  the  reader  can,  without 
labor  or  weariness,  trace  the  successive  steps 
by  which  railroads  have  reached  their  present 
high  standard  in  regard  to  matters  relating  to 
track. 

For  the  graphic  illustrations  that  I  am  able  to 
give  of  the  evolution  of  track  I  am  in  the  main 
indebted  to  J.  Elfreth  Watkins,  Esq.,  Curator  of 
the  section  of  transportation  and  engineering. 
United  States  National  Museum. 

(463) 


464 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


Jessop's  Patent  Edge  Rail,  A.  D.  1789. 

Rail  of  cast  iron  made  in  England  in  1789  and  patented  by  William 
Jessop,  and  used  on  a  road  in  Loughborough.  "The  rail  was  fish-bellied, 
and  was  not  supported  by  a  chair,  the  wood  or  stone  block  being  hewn  to  fit 
the  end  of  the  rail.  Near  the  ends  the  rail  had  a  flat  projecting  base,  in 
which  there  were  holes  for  the  bolts  which  fastened  them  to  the  wooden 
block  or  sleeper." 


sec. 
Edge  Rails,  Lawson  Colliery,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  A.  D.  1797. 

Rail  cast  in  1797  with  joints  and  supporting  chairs.  "  These  were  the  first 
chairs  adopted,  and  were  cast  the  reverse  of  the  ends  of  the  rail,  having  two 
bolts  through  the  stem  of  the  rail  at  each  joint.  They  were  laid  on  the 
Lawson  Main  Colliery  Road,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England,  and  were  at  first 
supported  by  timber  but  finally  by  stone  blocks." 


^fi  v/£^. 


Tram  Rail  Designed  by  Charles  Le  Cann,  Llannelly.Wales,  A.D.  1801. 

Cast  tram  rail  designed  in  1801.  It  required  neither  bolts  nor  spikes,  and 
the  inventor,  Charles  Le  Cann,  of  Llannelly,  Wales,  received  a  premium  of 
20  guineas  from  the  Society  of  Arts  for  the  device.  "  It  was  ingenious  in  con- 
struction. Projecting  pins,  pyramidal  in  shape,  were  cast  on  the  bottom  of 
the  tram  rail  at  the  points  where  the  stone  supports  came  under  the  rail,  the 
joints  being  dovetailed  into  each  other;  the  need  of  any  other  form  of  joint 
fixture  was  thus  dispensed  with.  The  rails  were  about  five  inches  wide,  and 
weighed  forty-two  pounds  per  yard." 


MAINTENANCE. 


465 


Wyatt's  Hexagonal  Rail,  Bangor,  North  Wales,  A.  D.  1802. 

Cast  edge  rail  manufactured  in  ISOi.  It  was  four  feet  six  inches  long  and 
was  used  in  a  slate  (juarry,  near  Bangor,  North  Wales.  "  The  general  shape 
of  the  cross  section  of  this  rail  was  hexagonal.  At  each  end  of  the  rail  a  dove- 
tail block,  two  inches  long,  was  cast  at  the  bottom.  This  was  slipped  into  a 
chair,  which  had  previously  been  attached  by  a  bolt  to  the  wooden  or  stone 
support." 


S£C  AiAA, 

Tram  Rail,  Surrey  Railway,  A.  D.  1803. 

Cast  tram  rail  of  1803,  used  in  Surrey,  England.  It  had  a  "  flange  higher 
in  the  middle,  and  a  nib  under  the  tread  to  add  strength.  This  rail  had  a 
rectangular  notch,  half  square,  in  the  ends,  the  points  being  completed  by 
one  square  headed  iron  spike,  which  was  countersunk." 


^ 


P£RSP£Cr/V£  V/EW 


in 


BOTTOM  vieyv 

Woodhouse's  Patent  Concave  Rail  for  Wagons,  A.  D.  1803. 

Cast  rail  with  concave  top,  used  in  1803.    It  was  intended  to  be  ^mbeddecl 
common  roads  for  use  by  wagons, 

3Q 


466 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Tram  Rail,  Penydarren  Works  to  Glamorgan  Canal, 
Wales,  A.  D.  1804. 


Two  cast  tram  rails,  three  feet  long,  with  stoue  supports,  used  in  the  Peny- 
darren Works  in  Wales.  These  rails  formed  a  portion  of  the  original  track 
upon  which  Trevithick's  first  locomotive  ran  in  1804.  The  rails  themselves 
are  in  the  United  States  National  Museum. 


MAINTENANCE. 


467 


^ 


Lord  Carlisle's  Wrought  (rolled)  Iron  Kail,  A.  D.  1811. 


1 


Wrought  Iron  Rail,  Patented  by  John  Birkenshaw,  A.  D.  1820. 

Wrought  iron  rail,  patented  by  John  Birkenshaw,  England,  in  1820.  It  is 
partially  described  thus:  "  The  upper  surface  to  be  slightly  convex  to  reduce 
friction.  The  upper  part  to  rest  on  supporting  blocks,  chairs  and  sleepers. 
The  wedge  form  is  used  because  the  strength  of  a  rail  is  always  proportioned 
to  the  S(iuare  of  its  breadth  and  depth.  Hence  this  (wedge)  form  of  rail 
possesses  all  the  strength  of  a  cube  equal  to  its  square.  The  joints  are  made 
with  a  pin." 


Edge  Rail,  Patented  by  Losh  and  Stephenson,  laid  on  Stockton  and 
Darlington  Railroad,  A.  D.  1816. 

Cast  rail,  patented  in  England  by  Losh  and  George  Stephenson,  in  1816. 
"  A  half  lap  joint  was  used,  through  which  a  horizontal  pin  was  passed 
transversely  and  joined  the  rails  together,  at  the  same  time  fastening  them 
to  a  cast  iron  chair.  A  large  portion  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railroad 
was  laid  with  this  rail  in  1825." 


SeCrflfU7'Cfi/ilR. 


Fish-Belly  Rail,  Designed  by  George  Stephenson  and  laid  on  the 
Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway,  A.  D.  1829. 

Fish-bellied  wrought  iron  edge  rail  used  by  Stephenson  in  1829.  Chairs 
were  used  at  the  joints;  the  rails  were  fifteen  feet  long  and  weighed  thirty- 
five  pounds  per  yard;  the  supports  were  three  feet  apart. 


468 


SCIENCE  OF  J! AIL  WAYS; 


English  Rolled  Rail,  Clarence  Pattern,  laid  on  the  old  Portage 
Railway  of  Pennsylvania,  A.  D.  1833. 

Cross  section  of  the  original  rail  laid  on  the  old  Portage  Railroad  over  the 
Allegheny  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania.  These  rails  were  imported  from 
England  in  1832. 


Stevens  Rail  rolled  with  (Convex  Top  and  Base,  designed  by  Robert 
L.  Stevens,  A.  D.  1830,  generally  used  on  American  railroads  since  1836. 
Shaded  section  shows  rail  as  originally  designed,  1830.    Section  not  shaded 

shows  rail  as  rolled,  1831. 


Original  design  of  the  present  rail.  This  rail  was  fastened  to  stone  blocks 
with  hook  headed  spikes;  at  the  joints  were  iron  tongues  fastened  to  the  stem 
of  the  rail,  put  on  hot.  This  was  the  standard  rail  of  the  Camden  and  Amboy 
Railroad  from  1831  to  1840.  A  few  years  after,  on  much  of  the  Stevens  rail 
laid  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad,  the  rivets  at  the  joints  were  discarded 
and  the  bolt  with  the  screw  thread  and  nut,  similar  to  that  now  used,  was 
adopted  as  the  standard. 


MAINTENANCE. 


469 


ftglL- 

"""^                           •NfHj 

Jl 

-^.JTPlilil 

miiii  ■ 

' 

1 

"^ 

1 

L.. 

—J 

8 /a" 


English  Fish-Belly  Rail,  laid  ou  the  New  Jersey 
Railroad  near  Newark,  A.  D.  1832. 


Stone  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad,  A.  D.  1833. 


Old  Strap  rail  and  the  method  of  supporting  same  commonly  used  in  the 
early  history  of  railroads  in  America. 


470 


SCIENCE  OF  n AIL  WATS; 


standard  Track  of  the  Camden  and 
Amboy  Railroad,  A.  D.  1837. 
.4.9- .«-= 


Track  of  tlie  Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad.    Rails  laid  on 
Piling  through  Marshes,  A.  D.  1837. 


MAINTENANCE. 


471 


The  Stevens  Rail  supported  by  Cast  Iron  Chair, 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad,  A.  D.  1837. 


Wooden  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  Albany  and  Schenectady 
Railroad,  A.  D.  1837. 


472 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Thick  Rectangular  Rail,  laid  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Port  Deposit  Railroad,  A.  D.  1838. 


if 


C-]^0»/Ai^ 


The  Stevens  Rail  as  laid  on  the  Vicksburg  and  Jackson 
Railroad,  in  Mississippi,  A.  D.  1841. 


MAINTENANCE. 


473 


Cross  TU  3'i/'S  and  7 Feet  Zon^ 


Compound  Rail,  Wood  and  Iron.    Designed  by  B.H.  Latrobe, 
A.  D.  1841,  for  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad. 


i/a> 


First  Rail  Rolled  in  America,  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad,  A.  D.  1844. 


474 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


CAMDEN  SflMBOYR.R. 


%" 


92  pound  Rail,  7  inches  high, 
Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad, 
A.  D.  184.S. 


T  Rail,  Boston  andWorcester 
Railroad,  A.  D.  1850. 


T  Rail,  Hempstead  Branch, 
Long  Island  Railroad,  A.  D.  1855. 


C-2  Pound  I'ear-Headed  Rail, 

Boston    and    Lowell    Railroad. 

Showing    -Nvear    after   two 

Years  Service,  Bottom 

Upward,  A.  D.  1853. 


MAINTENANCE. 


475 


Stevens  Rail  adopted  by  the 
Royal  Railway  of  Sweden, 
A.  D.  1854. 


Pear-headed  Rail,  A.I).  1855. 


Pear-headed  Rail,  A.D.  1855. 


Pear-headed  Rail,  A.D.  1855. 


Pear-headed  Rail,  A.D.  1855. 


S.HEW  YORK  CENTRAL   R.R.;JySS 

Compound  Rail,  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  A.  D.  1855. 


476 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  WAYS; 


»    *•      t 


Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855. 


Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855. 


Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855. 


Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855. 


Box  Rail,  Great  Western  Railway  of  Canada,  A.  D.  1855. 


MAINTENANCE. 


477 


WuUrnRillway  of  TrsriM, 
Swiss  .Cordova. and  Sevillt. 


Stevens  Rail  in  use  on  the  Western  Railway 
of  France,  A.  D.  1855. 


Barlow's  "Saddle  Back"  Rail;  laid  without 
Supports,  A.  D.  1866. 


478 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


C  R  P'S  3     Xj  E    "'^ ^(  WO  O  0.) 


Triangular  Wooden  Stringer  Capped  with  Iron,  Great 
Western  Railway  of  England,  A.  D.  1857- 


73  Pound  Rail,  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,   Mountain    Division. 
Under  Head  Planed  for 
Splice,  A.D.  1857. 


Bull-Headed  Rail,  Avignon 
and  Marseilles  Railway, 
A.  D.  1858. 


MAn\TENANCE. 


479 


Bull  -  Headed 
Rail,      Strasbourg 
Railway,  A.D, 
1858. 


Bull-Headed 

Rail,  Bath    Branch 

GreatWesteniRail- 

way  of  England, 

A.  D,  1858. 


Bull  -  Headed 
Rail,     London     and 
Northwestern  Rail- 
way, A.  D. 

1889. 


"Box  Rail,"  Great  Western  Railway  of 
England,  A.  D.  1858 


480 


■SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Stevens  Rail  laid  on  Great  Western  Railway  of  England, 
(.Longitudinal  System),  A.  D.  1858. 


*f 


50  Pound  Ashbel  Welch 
Rail,  A.  D.  1866. 


62  Pound  Ashbel  Welch 
Bail,  A.  D.  1866. 


MAINTENANCE. 


481 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethle- 
hem Iron  Company,  Ashbel  Welch 
Pattern,  62  Pounds,  A.  D.  186C. 


60  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1868. 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Beth- 
lehem Iron  Company,  C  and 
V.  W.    Railroad    Pattern, 
50  Pounds,  A.  D.  1870. 


56  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1870. 


31 


482 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


/,'     Stan  OARo'  of  1870, 


67  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1870. 


Rail  Proposed  by  O. 
Chanute,  A.  D.  1874, 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Beth- 
lehem   Iron    Company,    Lehigh 
Valley  Railroad   Pattern, 
40  Pounds,  A.  D.  1875. 


50  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1875. 


MAINTENANCE. 


483 


66  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1879. 


Rail   Rolled  by  the  Beth- 
lehem Iron  Company,  St.   Louis 
and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  Pat- 
tern, 52  Pounds,  A.  D.  1879. 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Beth- 
lehem Iron    Company,  ISIissouri 
Pacific    Railroad    Pattern, 
52  Pounds,  A.  D.  1881. 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Beth- 
lehem Iron  Company,  "  Meat- 
yard  Pattern,"  A.  D.  1884. 


484 


iSClLWCE  OF  i; AIL  WAYS; 


Rail  Rolled  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Company,  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Pattern,  90  Pounds,  A.  D.  1886. 


85  Pound  Rail,  A.D.  1887. 


yyyyy/yyy^STAN  OARD  or  iSSOy 
V//////////////////////////////////^, 

67  Pound  Rail,  A.D.  1880. 


MAINTENANCE. 


486 


66  Pound  Rail,  A.D.  1885. 


Stevens  Rail,  Chemin  de  fer 
du   Nord,  France,  A.  D.  1888. 
(Called  the  ViRnole  Rail 
in  Europe.) 


Standard  Rail  of  Belgian  Government  Railways,  A.  D.  1889. 
Sandberg  Section. 


486 


SCIEXCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


66  Pound  Rail,  A.D.  1890. 


70  Pound  Rail,  A.D.  1890. 


Cross  Tie,  Whole  Log  Hewn  Both  Sides. 


Cross  Tie,  Split  Half  Log. 


Cross  Tie,  Split  Quarter  Log. 


MAl2\TENAXCL\ 


487 


English  Permanent  Way. 


Metal  "  Pot "  Tie  System,  Midland  Railway  of  India,  A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Normanton  Line,  Queensland,  A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Midland  Railway  of  England,  A.  D.  1689. 


488 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


^W^ 


Metal  Track,  London  and  Northwestern  Railway 
of  England,  A.  D.  1889. 


Bergh  and  Marche  Metal  Track  System,  Elferfeld 
Railway,  Germany,  A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Great  Central  Railway  of  Belgium,  A.D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Holland  "Post"  Tie,  A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Egyptian  Agricultural  Railway,  A.  D.  1889. 


MAINTENANCE. 


489 


Metal  Track,  Vautherin  System,  France,  A.  D.  1889. 


Haarman  Longitudinal  Metal  Track,  Right-Bank-of-the-Rhlne 
Railway,  A.  D.  1889. 


-~-C-:  %.  — ~ 


Metal  Track,  Central  Railway,  Argentine  Republic,  A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  Track,  Bilbao  and  Las  Arenas,  Spain,  A,  D.  1889. 


490 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


steel  Tie  and  Permanent  Way,  London  and  Northwestern 
Railway,  A.  D.  1885. 


MAINTENANCE. 


491 


|0 

E^MI^^M 

[ 

^ 

k 

Pa.l 

'    io-'^i^ 

1 

iBillllllll 

Bf   i  ; 
--i — i--i — 

.     (  iiPB*^=" 

^ 

X ; 

'   ■      1 

HI     '^ 

1' 

\\ 

HETTON  RAIL. 
1824. 

•1 

Half-Lap  Joint,  Hetton  Rail,  A.  D.  1824. 


Stone  Block,  Rail  ami  Joint  Tongue  laid  on  Camden  and 
Amboy  Railroad  in  A.  D.  1831. 


Joint  Chair  and  Wedge,  Old  Portage  Railroad,  A.  D.  1832. 


492 


SCIENCE  OF  nMLWA  YS; 


i^jij^^i^^^^^mm^. 


Ring,  Joint  and  Wedge  used  on  the  West  Jersey  Railroad. 


Single  Splice  Bar  for  Rail, 
Rolled  by  the  Phoenix  Iron 
Company,  A.  D.  1855. 


Double  Splice  Bar  for  Rail, 
Rolled  by  the  Phrenix  Iron 
Company,  A.  D.  1866. 


MAIXTEXAN(JE. 


493 


Erie  Rail  with  Ends  Stamped  for  Adams'  Cast-iron 
Bracket  Splice,  A.  D.  1857. 


Double  Splice  Bar  for  Rail,  Rolled  by  the  Phcenix 
Iron  Company,  A.  D.  1857. 


494 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


—- — -"ill^ii?^ 


Wooden  Joint  Block,  New  Jersey  Railroad,  about  A.  D.  1860. 


Joint  Fixture  used  on  Western  Railroads,  A.  D.  1869. 


MAINTENANCE. 


495 


■     !•     . 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad, 
60  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1868. 


Plain  Splice  Bar,  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad,  A.  D.  1870. 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  A.  D.  1875. 


496 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Standard  of  1879. 

X\\\\\\N\v\\\\N\\\\\^X'<\\\-<\\w- 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroad,  66  Pound  Kail,  A.  D.  1879. 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Pennsylvania  Railroad, 
50  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1880. 


MAINTENANCE. 


497 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroad,  66  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1885. 


Fiflher  &  Norris  Joint  Fixture  as  improved  by  Clark  Fisher,  A.  D.  1888. 


39 


498 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Standard  for 
85  Pound  Kail,  A.  D.  1890. 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Standard 
for  70  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1890. 


MAINTENANCE. 


499 


Double  Angle  Sayre-Fritz  Splice  Bar,  Lehigh  Valley 
Bailroad,  A.  D.  1890. 


Angle  Splice  Bar,  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroad,  66  Pound  Rail,  A.  D.  1890. 


The  First  Frog. 


600 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS; 


Frogs,  Colliery  Kailroads  of  England,  A.  D.  1825. 


Switches  in  Colliery  Railroads,  England,  A.  D.  1825. 


Frog,  Old  Portage  Railroad,  about  A.  D.  1835. 


MAINTENANCE. 


501 


OfmidlirKjhOwUTmdc 


Rail  Frog,  invented  by  Joseph  Wood,  New  Jersey,  A.  D.  1859. 


-O-  Staple  Iron  used  as  a  Makeshift  for  a  Frog,  Camden  and 
Amboy  Itailroad,  A.  D.  1831. 


502 


SCIENCE  OF  BAIL  VTA  YS. 


Switch  with  "  Ball "  Counter  Weight. 


Crossover,  A.  D.  1894. 


Frog,  A.  D.  1891 


Split  Switch,  A.  D.  1894. 


APPENDIXES. 


(503) 


appe:ndix  a. 

ENGLISH    METHODS    OF   CAPITALIZATION. 

The  capital  of  English  railroads  is  generally  represented  by 
capital  stock  (called  share  capital),  debentures,  and  debenture 
stock.  The  distinction  between  debentures  and  debenture  stock 
is  this:  The  former  mature  at  a  given  date,  while  the  latter  is 
perpetual.  In  the  early  years  debentures  were  generally  used, 
but  of  late  they  have  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  de- 
benture stock. 

Dividends  may  be  declared  at  pleasure  up  to  the  maximum 
sum  fixed  by  the  government  on  capital  shares.  They  may  be 
paid  at  any  time,  or  may  be  wholly  omitted  if  the  interests  of 
the  company  require.  It  is  a  matter  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
directors.  In  regard  to  debentures,  the  interest  or  dividend  is 
payable  at  a  particular  time,  the  same  as  on  a  mortgage. 

The  share  capital  is  generally  of  two  kinds, — preferred  and 
ordinary,  the  former  being  entitled  to  a  certain  percentage  of 
dividend  before  any  allotment  can  be  made  to  the  latter.  In 
some  cases  the  ordinary  stock  is  of  two  classes,  namely,  pre- 
ferred ordinarj^  and  deferred  ordinary,  the  relation  of  these  two 
in  respect  to  dividends  being  the  same  as  above  stated  in  re- 
spect to  preferred  and  ordinary  stock.  Often  there  are  found 
special  stocks  which  are  known  by  various  names  and  on  which 
there  is  a  guaranteed  dividend,  or  whose  dividend  is  drawn 
from  specified  sources  of  revenue. 

In  order  that  a  company  may  issue  debentures  or  debenture 
stock  the  assent  of  the  government  must  first  be  obtained.  De- 
bentures are  generally  issued  to  the  extent  of  one-third  of  the 
authorized  share  capital;  but  before  same  can  l)e  issued  at  least 
lifty  per  cent,  of  tlie  share  capital  must  be  paid  up.  Hallways 
are,  however,  allowed  to  issue  debentures  and  debenture  stock 
in  excess  of  the  amount  of  one-third  of  the  share  capital  as 
above  referred  to,  to  enable  them  to  make  additions  to  their 
plants  by  the   introduction  of  interlocking  and  block   systems 

(505)  .^ 


606  APPENDIX  A. 

and  continuous  train  brakes,  which  are  chargeable  against  capi- 
tal account,  provided,  however,  that  such  additions  are  first 
ordered  or  approved  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  each  case 
specific  authorization  must  be  given  by  the  Board  of  Trade  for 
the  issuing  of  such  debentures  or  debenture  stock.  The  pro- 
ceeds of  debentures  or  debenture  stock  issued  under  these  con- 
ditions can  be  used  only  for  the  construction  work  for  account 
of  which  they  are  issued. 

The  money  realized  from  the  issue  of  share  capital  and  de- 
bentures is  usually  received  through  the  company's  banks.  In 
the  case  of  share  capital  certificates  of  deposit  are  issued  by  the 
banks  to  the  investors  for  the  various  installments  paid  in, 
which  receipts  are  exchangeable  for  share  certificates,  a  sepa- 
rate certificate  being  given  for  the  nominal  value  of  each  share. 
When  the  shares  have  been  fully  paid  up  these  certificates  are 
converted  into  stock,  a  certificate  being  given  for  the  total  num- 
ber of  shares  each  investor  may  have,  or  for  such  multiples 
thereof  as  he  may  desire. 

Money  realized  from  the  issue  of  share  capital  and  deben- 
tures and  debenture  stock  is  applicable  only  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  railway  and  works  authorized  by  the  act  of  incor- 
poration, and  for  the  equipping  of  same  with  necessary  motive 
power,  rolling  stock  and  machinery. 

Interest  warrants  or  coupons  covering  the  entire  length  of 
time  the  debentures  are  issued  for,  are  issued  with  them ;  these 
warrants  are  usually  payable  semi-annually  upon  presentation. 
Debentures  are  often  so  drawn  that  they  can  be  renewed  for  a 
further  period  from  the  time  on  which  they  are  first  stated  as 
falling  due. 

In  reference  to  details  of  accounting  the  warrants  for  inter- 
est payable  on  debenture  stock  are  made  from  the  stock  ledger 
kept  for  same,  the  amount  being  first  summarized  in  a  record 
kept  for  this  purpose,  on  the  dates  on  which  the  interest  is 
payable.  Warrants  for  the  payment  of  dividends  on  the  share 
capital  are  likewise  made  from  the  ledgers  kept  for  the  same. 
The  ledgers  for  both  these  classes  of  stock  are  declared  closed 
for  a  certain  period  of  time  preceding  the  date  on  which  inter- 
est or  dividends  are  payable,  and  transfers  made  in  such  stock 
during  the  period  the  books  are  closed  are  recorded  after  they 
are  opened.  The  warrants  for  the  interest  on  debenture  stock 
and  for  dividends  on  share  capital  are  posted  directly  to  the 
holders  of  the  stock.    The  records  connected  with  the  capital  of 


APPENDIX  A.  507 

railroads,  while  not  complicated,  are  more  or  less  extensive,  as 
they  must  give  a  clear  and  full  history  of  the  entire  matter,  and 
a  complete  statement  of  the  status  of  the  various  classes  of  the 
capital  at  all  times.  Among  the  more  important  information 
which  the  records  show  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  The 
name,  address  and  description  of  each  holder  of  securities,  the 
amount  of  same,  the  number  and  date  of  certificate  or  certifi- 
cates, when  interest  or  dividends  are  due  and  payable,  when 
same  are  paid,  in  what  manner,  etc. 

LIST  OF  PRINCIPAL  RECORDS  KEPT  BY  ENGLISH  ROADS  IN  CON- 
NECTION  WITH   THEIR  VARIOUS   CLASSES  OF  CAPITAL. 

Debenture  Sealing  Book. — Gives  record  of  money  received 
by  company  through  its  banks  and  the  debentures  to 
be  issued  therefor.  This  record  is  used  by  the  proper 
officers  in  executing  the  debentures  to  be  issued. 

Register  of  Debentures. — Gives  the  number,  date  and  amount 
of  the  debenture,  name,  address  and  description  of  holder, 
number,  date,  and  to  whom  transferred  (if  transferred), 
date  of  maturity,  and  when  renewed,  if  renewed. 

Record  of  Debentures  Transferred. — Gives  name,  address 
and  description  of  party  from  whom  and  to  whom  trans- 
ferred, also  date  and  number  of  debenture.  (The  Register 
of  Debentures  is  written  up  from  the  Debenture  Sealing 
Book  and  the  Record  of  Debentures  Transferred.) 

Record  of  Debenture  Interest  Coupons. — Gives  record  of 
interest  falling  due  on  various  dates  on  each  debenture 
and  the  number  and  amount  of  each  coupon. 

Record  of  Debentures  Falling  Due. — Gives  record  of  de- 
bentures falling  due  on  various  dates,  number  of  debent- 
ures, date  of  same,  date  of  maturity,  amount,  etc.;  also 
date  and  through  what  bank  paid,  or  if  not  paid  what 
disposition  is  made  of  same — whether  renewed  or  con- 
verted into  debenture  stock. 

Debenture  Stock  Sealing  Book. 

Register  of  Debenture  Stock  Certificates. 

Record  of  Debenture  Stock  Transfeured. 

The  above  three  books  give  same  information  concerning  de- 
benture stock  as  do  the  similarly  named  records  for  debentures. 


508  APPENDIX  A. 

Debenture  Stock  Ledger. — Gives  name,  address  and  descrip- 
tion of  owner  of  stock,  amount  of  stock  owned  by  each. 
Entries  in  tliis  record  are  posted  from  the  ''Register  of 
Debenture  Stock  "  and  the  '"^Transfer  Eecord." 

Dei5ENTi:ke  Stock  ADDRESS  BooK. — Tliis  book  is  practically  an 
index  and  trial  balance  to  the  Debenture  Stock  Ledger; 
it  gives  the  name,  address,  description  and  amount  of 
stock  of  each  holder,  and  the  folio  of  the  ledger  on  which 
the  account  is  found. 
Debenture  Stock  Interest  Register. — This  book  gives  name 
of  holder  of  debenture  stock,  his  address  and  description, 
amount  of  stock  held  on  which  interest  is  pa^-able,  period 
for  which  interest  is  payable,  rate,  amount  of  interest, 
deduction  for  income  tax,  net  amount  payable,  number  of 
warrant  issued,  and  when  and  through   what  bank  it  is 
paid.     This  book  is  written  up  at  the  dates  when  the  in- 
terest is  due,  directly  fi'om  the  Stock  Ledger,  the  latter  be- 
ing closed  for  a  number  of  daj-s  to  allow  of  thisbeing  done. 
The  warrants  are  drawn   from  the  data  furni.shed  by  this 
record. 
The  records  kept  in  connection  with  the  share  capital  of  the 
companies  are  practically  the  same  as  those  kept  for  debenture 
stock  as  explained.     A  separate  set  of  records  is  kept  for  each 
of  the  various  classes  of  stock.     One  '•  Address  Book,"'  however, 
is  made  to  answer  for  all  stocks,  the  name  and  address  being 
given  in   the  middle  of  the  page,  on  the  left  hand  of  which  are 
separate  columns  for  the  folios  of  the  respective  ledgers,  and  on 
the  right  hand  columns  for  the  amount  of  holdings  of  the  various 
classes  of  stock.     In  connection  with  the  issuing  of  new   shares, 
providing  that  an  allotment  is  made,  is  kept  an  '"Allotment  Book," 
which  shows  the  number  and  nominal  value  of  the  new  shares 
allotted  to  each  stockholder  according  to  the  terms  of  the  resolu- 
tion governing  the  issuing  of  same.     This  book  also  shows  what 
portion,  if  any,  of  the  allotment  was  renounced  by  the  stockholder 
and  what  portion    was  taken    and    payments    made   therefor. 
In  connection  with  this  is  also  kept  a  share  register  showing  the 
amount    of  cash  payments   made  by   each    stockholder    on  the 
shares  taken  by  him,  also  the  number  of  such  shares  transferred, 
if  any,  before  the  same  have  been  converted  into  stock. 


APTENDIX  B.  509 


appe:n^dix  b. 

EXHIBIT  SHOWING  THE  KELATION  THAT    THE    COST    OF    VARIOUS 
CLASSES  OF  TUAClv   LABOU  BEAU  TO  EACH   OTHEK. 

Labor,  handling  rails 4.12  per  cent. 

Labor,  handling  ties 9.11  " 

Labor,  l)allasting 13.25  " 

Labor,  ditching G.ll  " 

Labor,  freshet  repairs 1-32  " 

Labor,  watching   track 1.59  " 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  snow  and  ice G.82  " 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  weeds  and  grass  6.42  " 
Labor,    general    repairs    to    trai^k,    (in- 
cluding cutting  rails) 51.26        " 

100.00 


TRACK    EXPENSES. —  RELATION    THAT  THE    VARIOUS  CLASSES    OF 
TRACK  EXPENSES  BEAR  TO  TOTAL  TRACK   EXPENSES. 

Labor,  handling  rails 2 .34  per  cent. 

Labor,  handling  ties 5.18  " 

Labor,  ballasting 7 .  54  '". 

Labor,  ditching 3 .47  " 

Labor,  freshet  repairs 75  " 

Labor,  watching  track 90  " 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  snow  and  ice...     3.88  " 
Labor,  clearing  track  of  weeds  and  grass    3.65  " 
Labor,    general    repairs    of    track,    (in- 
cluding cutting  of  rails) 29.16  " 

Rails,  ties,  miscellaneous  track   material 

and  tools 43.13 


100.00 


510  APPENDIX  0. 


APPENDIX  C. 


EXHIBIT  SHOWING  THE   RELATION  THAT  THE  VARIOUS  CLASSES  OF 
MAINTENANCE  BEAR  TO  THE  TOTAL  COST  OF  MAINTENANCE. 

Maintenance  of  track 43 . 76  per  cent. 

Maintenance  of  bridges  and  culverts. . .  6.33     "        " 

Maintenance  of  buildings 9.03     "        " 

Maintenance  of  fences,  gates  and  cross- 
ings   1.95    " 

Maintenance  of  equipment 38.93    "        " 

100.00 


PROPORTION  THAT  THE  COST  OF  MAINTAINING  THE  PROPERTY 
OF  A  ROAD  FOR  TWENTY  YEARS  BEARS  TO  ALL  OTHER 
OPERATING    EXPENSES. 

Maintenance  of  property 42.62  per  cent. 

Other  operating  expenses 57 .  38    "        " 

100.00 


APPENDIX  D. 


611 


APPENDIX    D. 


EXHIBIT  SHOWING  THE  PEUCENTAOK  OF  THE  TOTAL  COST  OF 
OPERATING  THAT  IS  DUE  TO  MAINTENANCE  OF  ORGANIZ- 
ATION AND  THE  PREVENTION  OF  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  A 
PROPERTY  FROM  NATURAL  CAUSES. 


Name  of  Account. 


Percentage  of  the  Total 
Amount  Chargeable  as  an 
Operating  Expense  that 
Comes  Properly  Under  the 
Head  of  Fixed  Charges. 


Renewal  of  rails 

Renewal  of  ties 

Repairs  of  roadway  and  track. . . . 

Repairs  of  bridges,  culverts  and 
cattle  guards 

Repairs  of  buildings 

Repairs  of  fences,  road  crossings 
and  signs 

Repairs  of  locomotives 

Repairs  of  passenger  cars 

Repairs  of  freight  cars 

Telegraph  expenses  (mainte- 
nance)   

Agents 

Clerks  

Train  force 

Salaries  general  officers  and 
their  chief  assistants 

Law  expenses 

Oil,  waste  and  tallow 

Stationery  and  printing 

Contingencies  (and  miscella- 
neous)   

Insurance  

Fixed  Charges  Other  Than 

Operating. 
Taxes 

Interest  on  funded  debt 

Sinking  fund  requirements 

Leases,  contracts  and  agree- 
ments   


2 

70 
57 

75 

70 

95 

8. 

9 
10 

10 
50 
25 
12. 

50 
50 

1 

1 

1 

10 


100 


100 
100 

100 


i  ^      In  the  case  of  a 
I  railroad    not    in 
r  operation  the   ex- 
J  pense  would  be . . 


In  making  these  es- 
timates the  wages  of 
J>  the  force  retained  are 
reduced    fifty    per 
cent. 


Except    where 

taxes    are   based    on 

>  earnings    or    special 

reductions     can    be 

secured. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Accidents 237,  245,  247,  357,  362 

Account,  Capital "20,    91 

Accounts,  Track 31G,  407 

'•  Treatment  of  Sinking  Funds  in Ill 

Acquisitiveness 56,    81 

Advertising,  Expense  of 221 

Advice  to  Investors 81 

Africa,  Carriage  m— Illustration 18 

Africa,  Carriage  in — Illustration 406 

Agents,  Cliaracteristics  of 174 

"      Real  Estate 157 

Selection  of  Subordinates  by 226 

"      Skill  of ' 294 

Agra,  Carriage  in — Illustration 88 

Agreements,  Making 238 

Alabama,  Railway  Taxation  in 272 

Alignment •^•^o 

"        Correction  of 347 

"        Effect  of,  on  Cost  of  Operation 191 

Faulty 247 

"        Importance  of 364 

"        Influence  of,  on  Traflic 175 

America  (See  also  "United  States.") 

"        Advantage  of.  Over  Europe  in  Building 138 

"        Capitalization  in 137 

"        Downward  Tendency  of  Rates  in 142 

"        First  Rail  Rolled  m— Illustration 473 

"        Necessity  of  Low  Rates  in 142 

"        Payment  of  Dividends  in 34 

American  Railways,  Securities  of 71 

Angle  Bars.    (See  also  "Splice  Bars.") 

"        "        Dimensions  of 346 

Use  of 364,365,366,367,368,371 

Angle  Plates.  (See  "Angle  Bars.") 

Ants,  Destruction  of  Wood  by 132 

Appendix  A 505 

B 509 

"  C 510 

D 511 

Appendixes , •  503 

(513; 
98 


614  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Appliances,  Advances  in 178 

"  Best.  Effect  of  on  Expenses 248 

"  ( "ost  of  Maintenance  Dependent  on 175 

"  Effect  of  (  heapening  of 149 

"  Improvements  in 178 

•'  Knowledge  of,  Worth  of 178 

"  Necessity  of.  Adequate 244 

Arabia.  Carriage  in — Illustration 80 

Arbitrators 104 

Arctic  Kegions,  Carriage  in — Illustration 144 

Armenian  Carriage — Illustration 49 

Articles,  Standard — Uniformity  in 344,  345 

Asia,  ( "entral — Carriage  in — Illustration 118,  240 

Association  of  American  Kailway  Accounting  Officers 271 

Assyria,  Ancient — Carriage  in — Illustration 32 

Atkinson.  Edward 26 

Austria-Hungary,  Kelation  of  Expenses  to  Earnings  in 53 

Austria,  Status  of  Railways  in 44 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 402 

Axles,  Defective 245 

"    Improvements  in 178 

Ballast 317,  445,  446 

"        Car — Illustration 222 

Cinder 420 

"        Different  Kinds  of 313 

Effect  of,  on  Metal  Ties 395,  401 

Effect  of,  on  Rails 358 

Effect  of,  on  Ties 314,  315 

"        French  Method  of  Eaying 401 

"        Gravel * 420 

"        Influence  of,  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

"        Kinds  of 420 

"        Purpose  of 313 

Slag 420 

Stone 420 

"        Use  of 347 

Ballasting,  Expenditures  for 161 

"  Imperfect 247 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad .   144 

Banks,  Protection  of 447 

Basis  of  Capitalization 17-31 

Taxation 268 

Bearers,  Longitudinal 349 

Belgium,  Relation  of  Expenses  to  Earnings  in 64 

"        Railway  Taxation  in 251,  252 

"        Status  of  Railwavs  in 44 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 402 

Bengal,  Carriage  in — Illustration 114 

Block  System,  English 29 

Blocking 362,  440 


INDEX.  515 

PAGE 

Bogart,  John 328 

Bolts.     (See  also  Track  Bolts.) 

Bolts 317 

Bonded  Debt,  a  Basis  for  Taxation 267 

Bondholders 97 

Security  of 89 

Voting 98 

"  Waiving  Interest 2SG 

Bonds,   Commissions  on 157 

Details  of 97-106 

"        Duplication  of 75 

"        Expenditures  Incident  to 157 

"        Income — Issue  of 47 

"        Issue  of 55 

"        Issue  of, in  the  United  States 74 

"        Issue  of,  in  England 73 

"        Mortgage 34,    61 

"        Mortgage— Use  of 50 

"        Payment  of,  by  Sinking  Funds 107 

"        Registering 157 

"        Relation  of,  to  Stock 62,  63,  64,  65,    66 

"        Sale  of 156 

Bonuses  74 

"        Payment  of 78 

Bookkeeping,  I  mperf ect 76 

Books,  Stock — Closing 95,     96 

Booth,  W.  H 147 

Boulton,  Samuel  S 389 

Boucher ie  Process,  Description  of 390,  391 

Box  Car — Illustration 322 

Bridge,  ViiiitA\e\ev— Illustration 205 

Superintendents,  Qualifications  of 228 

"      Truss 177 

"      Truss — Illustration 209 

Bridges 386 

"        Accidents  on 357,  358 

"        Building — Expenditures  for 161 

Care  of 181,  348,  356,  357 

"        Construction  and  Maintenance  of 327,  328,  329,  330 

"        Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

"        Cost  of  Maintenance  of 324 

"        Deterioration  of 325 

"        Duration  of 325 

"        Eftect  of,  on  Cost  of  Operation 184 

"        Eftect  of  Traffic  and  Climate  on 326,  327 

"        Evolution  of 328,  329 

"        Guard  Rails  for .421 

"        Influence  of,  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

"        Inspection  of 461 

*'        Life  of 236 


516  INDEX. 

FAQE 

Bridfjes,  Overhead— Cost  of 247 

Poor — Expeusiveness  of 206,  207 

ITnsafe 245 

Wooden 122 

British  Chariot,  Kncient— Illustration 82 

Brusli.  Eemoving 317 

Buildings,  <  arc  of 181 

"  Care  and  Maintenant-e  of 330 

"  Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

"  Influence  of,  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

Life  of 23G 

Bulletins,  Display  of • 238 

Bumping  Post — Illustratinn 427 

Burmese  Carriers — Illustration 90 

Burnettizing  Process,  Description  of 390,  391 

Business.  Ettect  of  Extent  of 305 

"        Fluctuations  in — Eflect  of  on  Disbursements 234 

Retail,  of  Railways 219 

Relative  Cost  of  Soliciting 221 

"        Wholesale,  of  Railways 219 

Cabul  River,  Carriage  on — Illustration 172 

California,  Railway  Taxation  in 259 

Camden  &  Amboy  Railroad 117 

Canada,  Quantity  of  Freight  Transported  in 115 

"        Railway  Construction  in ,.  122 

Cantalever  Bridge — Illustration 205 

Capital  Account 91 

"        Amoimt  Invested  in  Railways 58 

"        Concentration  of 283 

"        Foreign — Representatives  of 84,85,86,    87 

"        — How  Represented 90 

**        Interest  on.  During  Construction 157 

"        Passiveuess  of 284 

"        Railway — AVhat  it  Represents 20 

"        Raising 156 

"        Relation  of,  to  Earnings  and  Expenses 47-54 

"        Relation  of,  to  Gross  Earnings 26 

Secret  of  Power  of 284 

Stock 89-96 

"        Stock,  a  Basis  for  Taxation 267 

"        Stock  par  Value  of,  for  Railroads  of  United  States. . .     92 

Capitalists 22 

"        Investments  of 146 

Capitalization 17-111 

Basis  of 21 

"  Criticism  of  Methods  of 17 

"  English  Methods  of 505 

"  Forms  of 55 

"  In  England 61,    62 

**  Proper  Basis  of . . . , , , , . , , ,..-.?    90 


INDEX.  517 

PAGE 

Car,  Ballast — Illustration 222 

( Jameroirs  Tramway — Illustration 250 

Box,  American — Capacity  of 140 

Bo^— Illustration ". 322 

Flat— Illustration 312 

P'lat— With  stakes— Illustratio7i 317 

Freight — English — Capacity  of 140 

Gondohi— Illustration ' 327 

n&ua— Illustrations 292.  297 

Logging — Illustrutiun 345 

HaU— Illustration 224 

Replacing  Device — Illustration 351 

Sail — Illustration  302 

Heal — Illustration 424 

iitofk— must nrt ions 333,  340 

Tank — Illustration 33G 

Track  Inspection — Illustration 307 

Carhart.  Professor 308,  312 

Carriage,  8th  Century — Illustration 86 

Effect  of  Highway  on 117 

"        in  Agra — Illustration  88 

"        in  Ancient  Assyria — Illustration 32 

"        in  Ancient  Japan — Illustration 176 

"         in  Arabia — Illustration 80 

"        in  Arctic  Regions — Illustration 144 

"        in  Bengal — Illustration 114 

"        iu  Central  Asia — Illustration 118 

"     ■•  "  "    —Illustration 240 

in  Chile— Illustration  78 

"        in  India — Illustrations 112,  166 

"        in  Interior  Hungary — Illustration 196 

"        in  Lower  Egypt — illustration 98 

"        in  Madras — Illustration 168 

"        in  Middle  Ages — Illustration 180 

"        in  Normandy — Illustration 212 

"        in  Saxony — Illustration 468 

"        in  Society  Islands — Illustration 184 

"        in  Terai — Illustration 148 

"        in  Venice — Illustration 188 

"        in  Western  Africa,— Illustration 406 

"        Medieval — Illustration 70 

"        of  Chinese  Emperor,  16th  Century — Illustration 133 

"        on  Cabul  River — Illustration '. 172 

"        on  the  Hudson — Illustration 202 

"        on  the  Nile — Illustration 192 

"        Rural — Illustration 154 

"  "        in  Turkey— Illustration 94 

"        Steam  Road — Illustration 446 

Carrier,  African — Illustration 18 

"      American  Indian — Illustration 109 


518  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Carrier,  Armenian — Hhistration 49 

"       Burmese — Illustration 90 

"      Dutcli,  16th  (Jentury — Illustration 73 

"      Primitive — Illustraiion 30 

"       Spanish,  16tli  Century — Illustration 128 

"       of  Afriva— Illustration 36 

"       of  Cabul  River — Illustration 172 

"      of  Greenland — Illustration 106 

"      of  Madagascar — Illustration 42 

"       of  Morocco — Illustration 124 

"      of  Servia — Illustration 151 

"       of  Tartary — Illustration 64 

"      of  Thihet— Illustration 53 

Cars,  Cleansing 376,  377 

"       Construction — Illustrntion 219 

"      English 143 

"      Freight,  Care  of 332,  333 

"      Heating 377 

"      Inspection  of 376 

"      Lighting 377 

"      Metal 386 

"      Passenger— Care  of 332. 333 

"      Partially  Loading  in  England 141 

"      Smallness  of — In  England 141 

"      Vestihu\e(\— I Ihcstration 436 

Cattle  Guard — Illustration 232 

Guards 422.  449 

"  "        Cost  of  Maintenance  of 324 

Centerbound  Track 416 

Centralization 283 

Central  Pacific  Eailroad 162 

C^hair,  Displacement  of — By  Fish  Bar 178 

Chairs,  Rail 399 

Use  of 362,  370 

Charges,  Fixed 223 

Terminal 213 

Chariot,  Ancient  British — Illustration 82 

"  "         Egyptian — Illustration 68 

Charter,  Cost  of 153 

"        Procurement  of 153 

Chicago  &  Xorth-Western  Ry 93 

Chicago.  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Ry 93 

Chile,  Carriage  in — Illustration. '. 78 

Chinese  Emperor's  Carriage,  IGth  Century — Illustration 133 

Chloride  of  Zinc,  Use  of 384 

Churchward,  James 358,  362,  364,  367 

Clark,  Thomas  C 349 

Clearance  Posts 433 

Clerks.  Skill  of 294 

Climate,  Effect  of— On  Bridges 32G,  327 


INDEX.  519 

PAGE 

Climate,  Influence  of— On  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

•     "  "  — On  Propertv 282 

_0n   Hallways 304,30") 

—On  Traffic 175 

Coal,  First  Transportation  of — By  Kail 110 

Commissions 20 

Commission,  Connecticut  Kailroail 103 

"  Interstate   (onunerce  277 

"  Texas  Railroad 140 

Commissioners,  Railroad — Committee  of — On  Taxation..  .201.  205 

Community,  Interest  of — In  Construction  Expenditures 104 

Comparisons,  Necessity  for ISl 

Competition,  Effect  of 143, 171,  242 

Relation  of— To  Taxation 2GG 

Condemnation  Proceedings 100 

Conditions,  Physical — (^o.stof  Maintenance  Dependent  on. . .  175 

Conductors,  Qualifications  of . .    228 

"  Rules  Governing 450 

Conflagrations 237 

Congresses,  Railway — European 404,  405 

Construction 113-175 

"  Cars — Ilhistration 219 

"  Companies 21 

"  Cost  of— I'pon  What  Dependent 167 

"  Differences  in 142 

"  Effect  of 305 

Effect  of  Free 27,  137 

"  Effect  of— On  Cost  of  Operating 183 

"  Elements  of 107 

"  Extravagant — Prevention  of 30 

"  Imperfections  in 77 

"  Inherent  Dift'erences  in 182 

"  Issue  of  Shares  for 20 

"  Items  Included   in 131 

"  Meaning  of  Terra 131 

"  Particulars  of 149-105 

"  Railway— Cost  of 26 

"  "        —Era   of 25 

"  Raising  Money  for 156 

"     '      Train 409 

"  Use  of  Earnings  for 79 

"  Work,  Capitalization  of 20 

"      Preliminary 123 

Constructive  Expenditures 229 

Connecticut  Railroad  Commission 103 

Contraction.  Eft'ect  of — On  Rail  Joints 371.  373 

Contracts,  Construction 171 

Cooley,  L.  E 126 

Corporations,  Growth  of 58 

(See  also  "  Railways.") 


520  INDEX. 

PAGB 

Corporations,  Tendency  to  Increase  Taxes  on 277 

Cost  of  Jlaiiiteuance,  on  What   Dependent 175 

"      Operation,  by  Whom  Borne 194, 195 

Cost,  Kehition  of — To  Gross  Earnings 140 

"     The  Basis  of  Capitalization 21 

Coupling  Link  and  Pin — Ilhistratiun 362 

Coupons 102 

Covetousness 56 

( 'ranes,  Traveling — Use  of 461 

Creeping  Kails.  Cause  of 363 

Creosote.  Effect  of— On  AVood 385 

I'se  of 384,  385,  389,  390 

Creosoting,  Description  of 386,  387 

t-ritics  of  Hail  way  Capitalization 19 

Critics.  Kailway 153 

"      Statements  of 72 

Crossings 430 

Care  of 347 

"        Cost  of  Keeping — In   Order 235 

"        Expenses  of 247 

"        Eoad 450 

"        Road— Efiect  of— On  Cost  of  Operation ■ 193 

Street 421 

Crossover,  A.  D.  1894 — Illustration 502 

Crossovers 429,  430 

Double 430 

"        On   Curves 430 

Culverts,  Care  of 356,  357 

"        Constructing — Expenditures  for 161 

"        Construction  and  Care  of 347,  348 

"  "  and  Maintenance  of 329,  330 

"        Cost  of  Keeping — in   Order 235 

"  "      Maintenance  of 324 

"        Duration   of 326 

"        Influence  of — on  Cost  of  Maintenani-e 175 

"        Insecure 245 

"        Inspection  of 461 

"        Stone 305 

"        Wood 305 

Curves,  Crossovers  on 430 

"        Effect  of— on  Cost  of  Operation 184.  191 

"        Elevation  of 418 

"        Rail  Joints  on 365 

"        Switches  on  Outside  of 432 

"        Turnouts  on 430 

Custom,  Effect  of — on   Construction 147 

Cuts,  Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

"      Excavating — Expenditures   for 161 

"      Rock 423 

"      Sodding 423 


IN-DEX.  521 


PAGE 


Dampness,  Destructiveness  of— to  Wood 132 

Dakota,  Railway  Taxation  in ';^'  J= 

Debenture  Stock ^^ 

Debt,  Funded f 

Decay,  Cause  of j'j^ 

"      Natural— Cost  of j°^ 

Delano,  F.  A I^lj 

Departments,  Differences  in -'  ^i 

"  Railway 22/,  228 

Depots,  Expenditures  for 161 

Directors,  Authorization  of  Expenditures  by 134 

'•        Declaration  of  Dividends  by 94 

"        Election  of '-*! 

"        English— Authorization  of  Expenditures  by 135,  136 

"        Functions  of 91 

Disbursements,  Influences  tliat  Att'ect 183 

"  Railway 1^3 

Discount ." 20,  74,    76 

Discrimination  in  Railway  Taxation 2o5,  264,  266 

Discussion,  Railway— Needs  of •  •  •     71 

Ditches ^'*'  ooE 

'•      Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

Ditching - 317 

"        Expenditures  for ioi 

Dividends •  •  ••  •  •     91 

"        Declaration  of 50,  94,    9d 

"        Disbursements  for 234 

"        Fluctuations  in 33 

"        Notice  of  Payment  of '^    96 

Payment  of 94,  95,  248,  249 

"        Payment  of — in  America 34 

"  "        —in  England 34 

"        Total  Amount  Paid  in  United  States 92 

"        Unearned— Payment  of 50 

Dorsey,  Edward  Bates oi-;'  VoV  iS 

Drainage 317,  422,  444 

Eft'ect  of  Ballast  on 399 

Imperfect— Evils  of 1^6 

"        Influence  of— on  Cost  of  ISIaintenance 175 

"   Operation 184,185 

Slope 423 

Tunnel 423,  424 

Drawbar,  Conthmons— Illustration  370 

Drill.  Trsnik—Tllustratiuns 416,  419 

Dutch  Carrier,  16th  Century — Illustration 73 

Dykes,  Constructing— Expenditures  for 161 

Earnings  and  Expenses.  Relation  to  Each  Other 51 

"        Gross— A  Basis  for  Taxation.  .261,  262,  263,  264,  265,  266 

"  *'    —Relation  of  Cost  to 140 

Improvements  Made  From 25 


u. 


622  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Earnings,  Relation  of  to  Capital 26,  47,     54 

Restriction  of— by  State 208,  269 

Use  of — for  Construction 79 

Eason,  Charles,  Jr '     \     q^, 

Education,  Effect  of— on  Railway   Officers ,*  134 

Egypt,  Carriage  in — Illustration [ . .  *     93 

Egyptian  Cheviot— Illustration 68 

Elections,  Notices  of 238 

Electricity,  Use  of— in  Welding  Rails 374 

Elements  of  <  "onstruction 167 

Ellis,  William  F '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  U^ 

Embankments,  Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

Effect  of — on  Cost  of  Operation 184 

Raising— Expenditures  for 161 

Sodding 423 

Eminent  Domain ...'.'. ....  152 

Emperor  of  China,  Carriage  of— 16th  Centwry—il'lustration.'.  133 

Employe,  Influence  of— on  Corporate  Property 227 

Employers,  Grievances  of 298,  299,  300,  301 

Employes  at  Headquarters 230 

Employes,  Increase  in  Number  of ..V.233,  234 

Qualifications  Required   in .'  226 

"  Relation  of— to  Employers 298,  299,  300*  301 

England,     (See  also  "Great  Britain.") 

1^        Capitalization  of  Railwaj^s  in 61,    62 

Practices  in 30 

Collecting  and  Delivering  Freight  in 213,  214 

"        Decrease  of  Cost  of  Labor  in I79 

"  Material   in 179 

General  Similarity  of  Construction  in '.  147 

Growth  of  Railways  in 3I 

"        Increase  of  Capital  Account  in 20 

"        Maintenance  of  Railway  Tracks  in 341*  342 

"        Management  of  Railways  in .'    33 

"        Manufacturers  of ]     27 

No  Cheap  Railways  in 140 

"        Payment  of  Dividends  in ...',     34 

"        Railway  Taxation  in '  252 

"        Sagacity  of 46 

"        Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 401 

English  Equipment ' " '  * ' '  143 

Engineer,  Duties  of— in  Construction !i23-126 

^  Functions  of— in    Construction 156 

Supervisory  Duties  of 123    124 

Engineers,  European— Ideas  of ..... . . .'  133 

Enginehouses,  Expenditures  for 161 

Engines,  Use  of— in   Construction ! ...     410 

Engraving ] !  157 

Equipment,  Care  of I81 

^^  Comparison  of  English  With  American 143 

Cost  of  Maintaining 247 


INDEX.  523 

PAGE 

Equipment,  Differences  in 168 

Earnings  of 219 

"  Effect  of — on  (Jonstructiou 121 

"      Track  on 203 

"  Expenses  of  Inadequate 241,  242 

Superabundant 242 

Life  of 236 

IMaintenance  of 375,  370,  377,  378 

Painting 378-380 

"  Purchase   of lOl 

"  Repair  of 376 

"  Restriction  of 242,  243 

Varnishing 378,  380 

Estheticism,   Influence  of 114 

Europe,  Capitalization   in 137 

Cost  of  Railways  in 38 

Eastern  and  Central — No  Cheap  Railways  in 140 

Higher  Rates  in 142 

Methods  of  Preserving  Wood  in 384 

Military  Features  of  Railways  in 129 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 392,  403 

Exhibits,  Compilation  of 238 

"        Necessity  for 181 

Expenditures,  (Jonstruction 131 

Constructive 229 

Expenses  and  Earnings,  Relation  to  Each  Other 51 

Caused  bv  Climate 290,  291,  304 

"    "    Traffic 290,  291,  304 

Effect  of  Competition 143 

"      "  on  Rail  Joints 371,  373 

Fixed 223,  293 

"      Maintenance 291 

"      Traffic 291 

Influence  of  Traffic  on  231,  232,  233 

of  Operation,  Unalterable 223 

Reduction  of — by  Ceasing  Business 323 

Relation  of— to  Capital 47-54 

Separation  of  Natural  from  Traffic 323,  324 

Track 306 

Facilities,  Influence  of — on  Cost  of  Operation 241 

Fastenings,  Track 359,  360 

Feed  Trough,  Tender  Picking  up  Water  from — Elustration. .  287 

Fence,  Wire — Illustration 227 

Fences 385,  449 

"    Care  of 181 

"    Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

"  "■      Maintenance  of 331 

"    Effect  of  on  Cost  of  Operation 189 

"    Expenditures  for 161 

"    Life  of 230 


624  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Fences,  Snow— Use  of 337,  338 

Fernow,  B,  E 383,  397,  -^03,  -104 

Fills 422 

Findlay,  Colonel  George 135,  341 

Fires 461 

"     Damages  from 331 

Fish  Bar,  Substitute  for  Chair 178 

Fish  Plates.     (See  "Angle  Bars.") 

Fixed  Charges 223 

"      Operating  Expenses  223 

Flanges,  1  niprovenients  in 178 

Flat  Car — Illustration 312 

"      with  Stakes — Illustration 317 

Floating  Debt 156 

Force,  Additions  to 233,  234 

"       Advertising 296 

Clerical— Skill  of 294 

"       Soliciting 296 

"       Technical 296 

Foreclosure 91 

Foremen,  Construction 409,  410 

Skill  of 294 

Track 452 

Forestry,  Elfect  of  Destruction  of 381 

France,  Relation  of  Expenses  to  Earnings  in 53 

"        Maintenance  of  Kailway  Track  in 342,  343 

"        Status  of  Hallways  in 40 

"        Treatment  of  Ties  in 387 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 401 

Frankish  King  and  Queen,  8th  Century — Illustration 86 

Freight  Cars,  English 143 

Use  of  in  England 213 

Freight  Collecting  and  Delivering  in  England 213,  214 

"        Loading — Economy  in  Prai-tice  of 141 

"  "  and  Unloading — ( 'barge  for  in  England  . . .  215 

Charge  for  in  U.  S 215,216 

' by  Owners 216 

in  United  States 213,214 

Freight,  Storage  of 213 

"        Traffic,  Conditions  Affecting,  in  England 140 

in  I'nitcd  States   140 

Cost  of  AVorking 213 

"        Tr\\(ik—Illmtration    394 

Freshet  Repairs 317 

Frog,  A.  D.  lS2')—Illustr((tinns 500 

"      ISSl  —  nbtstration 501 

"  "      lS:iri— Illustrations 500 

"  "      lSr,d— Illustration 501 

"      lS9i— Illustration 502 

"     Guard  Rails 428 


INDEX.  625 

PAGE 

Froff,  The  First— Illustration 499 

FroSs 425,426 

'*       Crossing 431 

Use  of.' 347 

Fuel,  Cost  of 108,  237 

"     Inlluencc  of,  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

Funded  Delit 5>7 

Fund,  Contingent 286 

"      Reserve 285 

Funds,  Sinking 107-111 

Furniture -37 

Purchase  of IGl 

Gangers.  Duties  of 459.  460 

Gangs.  Tracklaying 410 

Gates,  ( 'ost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

Safety,  on  Passenger  Coach — Tlltistration 433 

Gauging 41 1 

Gauge,  Track— /««.s<rff«;o?i 409 

Georgia,  Ilailway  Taxation  in 272 

Germany,  Government  Supervision  in 43 

"  Kelation  of  Expenses  to  Earnings  in 54 

"  Status  of  Kailways  in 37,    43 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 402 

Gibraltar,  Transportation  m— Illustration 160 

Gondola  Car — Illustration 327 

Governmental  Methods 37 

Government  Bonds 102 

Duty  of 268 

Governments,  Policj^  of 39 

Grades,  Ettect  of,  on  ( 'ost  of  Operation 184,  190,  191 

Gradients,  Influence  of,  on  Traffic 175 

Grading,  Expenditures  for 161 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  of  Canada 93 

Grass,  Cutting 435 

"     Removing 317 

Great  Britain,  1  )ebenture  Stock  in 101 

"  "        Railway  Construction  in 121 

"      'Taxation    in 252 

Great  Northern  Railway  of  England 458 

Great  Western  Railway  of  England 458,  459 

Greenland,  Transportation  in— niustration 106 

Guard,  Cattle — Illustration 232 

Guards,  Cattle 422 

Guard  Rails 421 

"     Use  of 347,  348 

Hadley,  Arthur  T 127 

Hand  C-dv- Illustrations 292,  297 

Harvev,  C  C 271 

Haul,  'influence  of  on  Profits 218,  219 

Headquarters,  Force  Employed  at 230 


626  INDEX. 

PAGB 

Hedges 385 

Highway,  Effect  on  Wagon  and  Carriage 117 

Hill,  Sir  Rowland 151^  158 

Holland,  Status  of  Railways  in 45 

Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 401 

Horses.  Use  of,  on  Early  Railways   117 

Howard,  James  E 361 

Hudson,  Carriage  on  the — Illustration 202 

Hungary,  Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 402 

'  Interior — Carriage  in — Elustration 196 

Huntington 206 

Ice,  Clearing  Track  of 335 

Idealism,  Influence  of 114 

Idealists,  Dreams  of 113 

Idleness,  Efl'ect  of,  on  INIachinery 236,  237 

Illinois.  Railway  Taxation  in 258 

Income  Account 103 

"       Bonds 99 

"       Mortgage  of 99 

"       Net — Relation  to  Capitalization 51 

"       Use  of,  to  Strengthen  Properties 74 

India,  Carriage  in — Illustrations 112.  166 

"     Construction  in 149 

"    Labor  in 150 

"     Quantity  of  Freight  Transported  in 115 

"    Railways  of 150 

"    Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 392 

Indian  (American)  Carrier — Illustration 109 

Inspection  Car — Illustration  307 

"  of  Road 441 

Insurance 238,  302,  303 

Interest 20 

"      Abnormal  Rates  of 17 

"      Bookkeeping  Required  by  Government 103 

"      Disbursements  for 234 

"      on  Bonds 103 

"      Payment  of 103 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission 277 

Invention,  Necessity  of — in  Railway  Operations  177 

Investments,  Railway — Improvement  in 34 

"  Railway — Rate  of  Interest  on 51 

Investors 21,  22,    56 

"      Advice  to 81 

"      Dutch 8-J,    85 

"      English  84,    85 

"      Foreign 84,    85 

"      German 84,    85 

Iowa,  Railway  Taxation  in 258 

Iron,  Replaced  by  Steel 178,  201 

"      Resistance  of,  to  Rust 307 


INDEX.  527 

PAGE 

Italy,  Status  of  Railways  in 45 

"      Use  of  ISIetal  Ties  in 403 

Items  Jnduded  in  Construction  Expenses 131 

Japan,  Ancient— Carriage  in— Illustration 176 

Jeans  J.  S 2D,dl,  loo 

Joint  Block^  A."  D."  ISm— Illustration 494 

Joint,  Rail— xi.  D.  \%2A—IUmtr'ition 491 

"      1831— Illustration 491 

"     1832— Illustration 491 

"        "  "      l85o— Illustration 492 

"        "  "      18nG— Illustration 492 

"        "  "      18^1— Illustration 493 

"        "  *'      \8Q8^Illustration 495 

"        •'  "      ]  m^— Illustration 494 

"  "     1810— Illustration 495 

"        "  "     \81b— Illustration 495 

"        "  "      187Q— Illustration 496 

"     1880— Illustration 496 

"        "  "     1885— Illustration 497 

"        "  "     1888— Illustration 497 

"        "  "     I8d0— Illustrations 498-499 

"    —Illustrations 252,  492 

Joints.  (See  also  "Rail  Joints.") 

Joints ^^^ 

"      Broken 419 

"      Even 419 

"      Supported 415 

"      Suspended 415 

KaflSr  Carriers— Illustration 36 

Kentucky,  Railway  Taxation  in 271 

Knowledge,  Value  of •  •  •  •  291 

Kyanizing  Process,  Description  of o9U,  d9l 

Labor,  Cost  of— Influence  on  Traffic 175 

"     Cost  of,  in  Repairs  and  Renewals  of    Roadway  and 

Track 316 

"      Decrease  of  Cost  of— in  England 179 

"      Influence  of— on  ( 'ost  of  Maintenance 175 

"      Organization  of 283 

"      Quality  of— Influence  on  Traffic 175 

"      Station— Extent  of 216,  217 

"      Track— Relation  of  Cost  of  Various  Classes  to  Each 

Other p09 

liaborers,  Skilled 293 

Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railway 93 

Land,  Price  Paid  for  by  Railways 157,  158 

Laws,  Economic- Necessity  of  Knowledge  of 71 

"      Regulating  Issuance  of  Stock 79 

Lawyers,  Employment  of ■  •  238 

Leases,  Details  of ^'~J;o 

Legal  Advice,  Cost  of lod 


628  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Legislatures,  Granting  of  (Jharter  by 155 

Lessees,  Obligations  of 104 

Lessors,  Duties  of 105 

Level  'n-iwXi— Illustration 282 

Lights 237 

Liebig 387 

Lines,  Unproductive 170 

Lining 417 

Link  and  Pin — Illustration 362 

Tjiterature,   Railway 71 

Loading,  Expenses  of 213,  214 

Location,  Eflect  of 185,  305 

Loading  Freiglit,  Economy  in  Practice  of 141 

Location,  Importance  of 123 

Locomotive,  A.  1).   1894 — Illustration 452 

Development  of 116,  117 

Effect  of  Koadbed  on 117 

"  Eight  AVlieel  Passenger — Illustration 448 

"  Introduction  of 116 

"  Supply  Station — Illustration 246 

"  Utilization  of 116 

Locomotives,  Care  of 332,  333 

Cleaning 247 

"  Cost  of  Keeping  in  Kepair 247 

"  Equalizing  Beams  of 178 

Housing 247 

"  Improvements  on 178 

Logging  Truck — Illustration 345 

Lost  Articles,  Disposition  of 460 

Louisiana,  Railway  Taxation  in 273 

Lubricants 237 

Inferior— Eft'ect  of  Vse  of 207,  208,  209 

Lubricating  Device —  Illustrations 403,  404 

Lubrication,  Ettect  of 376,  377 

Lumber,  Annual  (Consumption  of,  in  United  States 400 

Luxury,  Disposition  to  Add 114 

Machinery,  (Jost  of  Keeping  in  Repair 247 

"  Depots,  Exi)enditures  for 161 

Life  of 236 

Maintenance  of 375,  376,  377,  378 

Madagascar  Carrier — Illustration 42 

Madras,  Carriage  in  —  Illustration 168 

Mail,  Delivery  of 225 

Cost  of  in  England _. .  141 

Maintenance 175-502 

"  Cost  of— on  What  Dependent 175 

"  Relation  of  Various  Classes  of,  to  Total  Cost  of 

Maintenance 510 

Managers,  American- Unsurpassed  in  Constructing  and  Op- 


IXDEX.  529 

I'AUK 

Managers.  Functions  of 229 

Need   of 229 

"        Requirements  of  tlie  Ofliec 211 

"        Their  Int-entives  to  Foster  Business 2:{9 

"        Wages  of 229 

Management, Discretion  of 225 

Effect  of  Consolidation  on 59 

''  Imprudent — Effect  of 35 

Losses  of  Improvident 245 

"  Methods  of,  in  Difterent  Countries 33-4G 

Railway— Eft'ect  on  (Jommerce 115 

Relative  Etliciency  of 53 

Marjland,  Railway  Taxation  in '         . .  274 

Massachusetts,  Railway  Taxation  in 200 

Material,  Conditions  Favorable  to  Preservation  oJf 305 

"      Decrease  of  Cost  of,  in  England 179 

"      Effect  of  Quality 305 

Influence  of,  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

Old — Disposition  of 460 

Medieval  Carriage—  Illustration 70 

Metal,  Effect  of  Rust  on 307 

Metals,  Deterioration  of 312   313    314 

"       Use  of  by  Railways ". . . .".". .'. . .  .'.350^  351 

,r  L    T^^?'^^  ^^ 351,  352,  353 

Method  of  Capitalization 17-46 

Methods,  English 141 

of  Construction 131-147 

Differences  in 132 

Mexico,  Railway  Construction  in 122 

Michigan,  Railway  Taxation  in .254,  257  264 

Middle  Ages,  Carriage  \n— Illustration '        '  ISO 

Miller  'Platlorra— illustration " ' " '  429 

Minnesota.  Railway  Taxation  in .257,  274 

Mississippi,  Railway  Taxation  in '273'  278 

Missouri  Pacific  Railway '  282 

Moisture,  Effect  of,  on  Metal '.'.'.  .307,  308   309 

Money  Makers,  Practices  of .'    si 

"      Methods  of  Raising 21 

"      Plentifulness  of \        17 

"      Raising,  for  Construction. 156 

"      Scarce— Effect  of '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.     75 

"      Scarcity  of 17 

Morocco,  Carrier  of — Illustration 124 

Morrison,  Andrew 408   442 

Mortgage  Bonds.    (See  '"Bonds.")  ' 

"  Definition  of 97 

Montagu,  S.  S 162 

Netherlands,  The,  Te.st8  of  Rails  in .... . . . . . . .' ." .' ." .' .' ." ' ." .' ' ." ." .' ."  353 

Nile,  Carriage  on  the— Illustration 192 

Normandy,  Carriage  in— Illustration ...!.....  213 

94 


580  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Notarial  Expenses,  Cost  of 153 

Nuts 317 

Officers,  Education  of 211 

AVay-es  of 229 

Offices,  Filliii>  Petty 229 

"       Furniture  and  Fixtures  for — Purchase  of 161 

Officials,  Skill  of 294 

Supervisory — Qualiflcations  Required  in 226,  227 

Wages  of . .' 228 

Ohio,  Railway  Taxation  in 271 

Operating.     (See  also  "  Operation.") 

Cost  of 27 

"  "      — Affected  by  Construction  Features 183 

"  "      in  America 142 

"        Differences  in  Cost  of 142 

"        Expense  of — on  AVhat  Dependent 168 

"        Percentage  of  Total  <  "ost  of.  Due  to  JIaintenance  of 
Organization  and  the  Prevention  of  Destruction 

by  Natural  Causes 511 

Operation,  Cost  of — by  whom  Borne 194,  195 

Effect  on  Rates 291 

Influences  Aft'ecting 198 

"  "        Tendency  of 175 

"        Differences  in  Cost  of 197,  198 

•'        Elements  Affecting  (Jost  of 213 

"        Elements  of  Cost  of 197 

"        Influence  of  Facilities  on 241 

"        Minimum  Cost  of 223 

"        Obstacles  to 336 

"        Unalterable  Expenses  of 223 

Uniformity  in 279,  280 

Operative.  Influence  of  on  Corporate  Property 227 

Ordinate.  Middle — Method  of  Calculating 415 

Organization,  Changes  in  Personnel 227 

Cost  of 224,  293 

"  Cost  of  Maintaining 288 

"  "      Maintenance  Dependent  on 175 

"  Expenses  of 238 

"  Fixed  Expenses  of 295 

"  Maintenance  of 335 

"  Necessity  for 179 

"  Preservation  of  Nucleus  of 288 

Overhead  Bridges,  (Jost  of 247 

Owners 24,  25,  57,    60 

"        Conservatism  of 77 

Duties  of 30; 

Grievances  of 298,  290.  300,  301 

Relations  of.  to  Employes .298,  299,  300,  301 

"        Their  Incentive  to  Foster  Business 239 

Qxidatiou,  Ett'ect  of ,...,.....,..  .306,  307,  308,  309,  3iq 


INDEX.  g3j 

Oxidation,  Preventive  of  ^^^'^ 

Paintiiio:  Equipment  .    307.  308 

Parallel  Eailways,  Effect  'of 378,  379,  380 

Passenger  Cars,  Englisli. 137 

TrafHc.  Cost  of  Workin'.'- 1^3 

Trui^li-Illustration  ...  * 213 

Pasteur 398 

Patterns,  ( 'onformi'ty  to 388 

Pen^aueut,  origin  0^,  Tenuin  Eailway  Nomendature.-.V'"'  ?g 

Plates 3G2 

1'    f^?^^^'    (See  "Angle  Bars.") 335 

Tie '' 

"    Use  of  . . . .'.'  ■  ■,■; 413 

Platform,  mWev-lllusiraiioii 3G2,  369 

^^        Expemlltures  for  429 

"        Ll?e' oT'  ''^'  ''^  ^'^'^'^^  Maintenance:  \  ]  [  [  [ ; ;  :::;:•  J75 

Plows,  Snow-Steam->//,;;«;.„<-^;; .■.'.■  236 

Points,  Movable  ...  443 

Population,  Effect  oif,  on  Cost  of  'f)\^^^,\'- 431 

Portugal,  Use  of  Metal  Ties  in       ^^'^^  ^*^«" 193 

Post,  Bumping— /;fes«»-a^wn.      403 

Post,  J.  W 427 

Posts,  Clearance  .".'. 357,  404 

Practices,  Uniform.       433 

Preliminary  Construction  Work 218 

Premiums 123 

"        Payment  of 335 

Premium  System. . .  354,  355,  356 

PreserA-atives,  ^V^ood . .  441 

Primitive  Carrier-//fesimV^« 384,  385 

Printing 30 

Profit  and  Loss  Account 157 

Profits,  Division  of  103 

Property,  Cost  of  Caring  for 50 

^^        Preservation  of 84 

^^        Productiveness  of  282 

u        Kailway-Average  Li'fe  oif .' ." .' ! .' ." .JJ 

-Cost  of  Watching. . .       J30 

—Deterioration  of    . .    ^9o 

"        ~H>'^  «f  <  'limate  on .'. '. '. ". VnV  In- 

u        -Effect  of  Idleness  on ^^^^  ?22 

«  ^j         —Essence  of ^°4 

,,  — Guardine-  AA 268 

'*         -Maintena^nce  of 2^^'  ^87,  288 

•...,...,..,  339 


632 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Property,  Railway — Natural  Decay  of 292 

"  "        — Necessity  of  Keeping  in  Order 244 

"  "       — Necessity  of  Maintaining    at  Adequate 

Standard 2AS 

—Preservation  of 287,289 

—Safety  of 287 

"       —Similarity  of  to  Other  Property 286 

Real  and  Personal— A  Basis  for  Taxation 267,  268 

Warfare  on 72 

Proprietors,  Duties  of 301 

Grievances  of 298,  290,  300,  301 

Relations  of,  to  Employes 298,  299,  300,  301 

Proxies,  G  iving 83 

Public,  (  onvenience  of 225 

"      Effect  of  Unnecessary  Railways  on 171 

Rail.  A.  D.   1789— Illustration 464 

1797— Illustration 464 

ISOl— Illustration 4»>4 

1S02— Illustration 465 

1803— Illustration 465 

\80A— Illustration 466 

ISU— Illustration 467 

IS1(J— Illustration 467 

IS20— Illustration 467 

1S29— Illustration 467 

1831— Illustration 468 

1832— Illustration 469 

1833— Illustrations 468,  469 

1837— Illustration 471 

1838— Illustration 472 

18il— Illustrations 472,  473 

18ii— Illustration 473 

1848— Illustration 474 

1850— Illustration 474 

1853— Illustration 474 

1855— IllustralioHs  474,  475,  476,  477 

185Q— Illustration 477 

1857— Illustration 478 

1858— niustrations 478,  479.  480 

18m— Illustrations    480,  481 

18ij8— Illustration 481 

1870— II histratio7is    481,  482 

187 A— niustration 482 

1875— Illustrations 482 

1879— Illustrations 483 

1880— Illustration 484 

1881— Illustration 483 

1884— Ilhistration 483 

188(3— nhistration 484 

1887— niV'Stration  , ,,...,..,  484 


Rail,  A   D.  ISSS-Il/mtratmn.  ^'•^"'^ 


^         '        1890- I/histratio,i  ^'^■^  'i^o 

^    Action  of,  on  Tie-IllustraUon '.'. 486 

^^     (_  HT—Illustfation  ..  276 

Evolution  of . . . 224 

^^     Fastenings,  Evolution  of ^^^'  "^'  ^-0,  464 

„     Jomt,A.tion  of  VVheel  in^-Jllustration:: "? 

^j  — illustration <>o2 

^    Joints 252 

"    Low....         364-374 

"     Suspentleci    366,  367 

«     ^  Tie  ^^^•^^^^-niustration. '. 366 

Plates,  l^se  of.  27!) 

"      Value  of 362,366,367 

R^ils, 363,  364 

Battering  of 306,  335,  464 

Rails,  Changing '.'. 364 

1^      Continuous. 435,  437 

"      Contraction  of 374 

u      ^l^^^  of  Keeping  in  Order 349 

^^       Creeping  of  . . .  235 

Curving 34!),  3(;3,  368,  373 

"      Deterioration   of 346,  414 

Durability  of . .    2!>2,311,  312 

l;      Ett'ect  of  Ballast  on 364 

Friction  of  Wheels  on.  ' ?^^ 

Passing  Trains  on.  ^^8 

u  ^         Rust  on 359 

tt  u         Speed    on. . . .  i ' 31 1 

u  ,,         Sun's  Ravs  on 309 

Traffic  oil 368 

„      ^     "         Weakness  in 292 

Ji/xpansion  of . . .    .  369 

Filing 349 

,,      J  rog  Guard 436 

,,      Guard 428 

Handling 421 

[[      Inferior— Use  of 306 

;;  iXe"«ng'7"° <^--«»'iwntenan;.e:::.:.:::::::::; ^l 

^      Iron— Life  oif .  414 

\      Jointing 205 

^      Laying V.".V.V.".".'.V. •,   •  •  ^38 

I      T  •«  "     ~E^'Penditures  for '^^^'  ^^^ 

,      Life  of 161 

,       Light 201,  286,  311 

Loose 365 

361,  362 


684  IXDEX. 

tAoa 

Rails,  Securing  to  Ties 3G1 

Spiking 362,  3G3 

Standard 345 

Stone IIG 

Stringing 436 

Tests  of 353 

The  First 116 

1  nloading 435 

ITnused— Life  of 309,  310 

lised— Life  of 309,  310 

Wear  of 352,  353,  354 

Worn 245 

Railroads.     (See  '•  Railways.") 

Railway  Administration,  Cure  of  Faults  in 24 

''         Agents,  <  haraeteristiL's  of 174 

"        Aft'airs,  Ditterence  Between  Theory  and  Praetiee  in  211 

'•        Business,  Educating  Men  for 181 

'•         Capitalization 17-111 

"         Construction 113-174 

"        Development,  Influences  on .  120 

"  "  iu  Xew  Countries 74 

"        Discussion,  Xeeds  of 71 

•'        Economy,  Effect  on  Commerce 115 

Evolution 113-130 

"        Maintenance 17.5-502 

"        Management,  Effect  on  Commerce 115 

"        Men  as  Writers 23,    71 

Sale  of 91 

"        Securities,  Advice  to  Investors  in 81 

"  "  Buving 84 

"  ••  Selling 84 

"        The  First 116 

"        The  Idealist's 113 

Railways,  Ability  of,  to  Capitalize 35 

'•        Adaptability  and  Skill  of 75 

"        Additions  to 76,    77 

"        Amalagamatiou  of 58 

"        American — Low  Rates  of 27 

"        Bankrupt 22 

"        Benefits  of— to  Localities 150, 151,  152 

'•        British — Different  from  American 136 

"        By  Whom  Built 21.  123 

"        Capitalization  of 17-111 

"  '•'  in  America 66 

"  "  in   England 61,    62 

"  "  —To  Whom  Left 60 

"        Capital  of — Where  Raised 151 

"        Cau.se  of  Failures  of 242 

"        Changes  in 177 

Cheap 170 


INDEX.  -Q^ 

bob 

Railways,  Olosiiiff „o^  „„„         ^^^^ 

;;        Com-en'tration  of;;.":; 282,283,284,  285 

Consolidation  of  •''»9 

;;        Constructed  to  Suppiyf/oeal' Wants." ." .' Jfr, 

^^        (-  oustruction  of . .  1'" 

,        ^         ''  of-in  AniVrk-a';;; "^*'    J^ 

Cost  of-Disburseuients  Relatin-  to i  -S 

—Estimates    of  ••   ^'''^ 

;:      ::  -p  England...;. :.•;;.•.•;.•.•;;;. ^i,  22 

-in   Enroi)e ,^» 

c.  ;;".'  ^  '.'1^*^''  states ; : ^^ 

Maintainliiir ^» 

"     Operating.    .          •^>^ 

"        Cost  Per  Mile              54 

Criticism  of. .  .■.■.".■.'.■.■. ^^'^  ^^1 

Dilt'erences  in •  •  •  •  25 

Constr;u:tionV.V. ^''^^  ]^^ 

Co.st  ....  i?9 


(( 


(; 


;;        Disbursements  of-by  Whatiniiuenmi: .'  V. jss 

"        -Po^iT,    /-.       X       ~for  Con.struction iri 

J^arly— Construction  of  ^^^ 

^^  "      History  of \ '^0 

"     Knowledge  of  ^^^ 

Effect  of  Law  .Making  on IJ? 

Remunerative :::.:;; 107 

jj  Lnnecessary  ...  ^r* 

V     r  »     J^; "remunerative' .".■.■.■.■.■.■.■ to? 

^^        English— Cost  of 137 

u     ^.  "  .%^-atiug.'.'::;;; ■.■..: :;:;:; ^tt 

u       -financial  Prospects   of....  too 

u        -p,     .       -Safety  Devices   of....  \?5 

"        Environment  of-in  United    Wtates.'  W. ^j 

European— Construction  of  ,  ^A 

■c.     "^     —Great  Cost  of... i^f 

Ever  Changing  1^2 

"        Floating  Debt  of 177 

Forms  of  Capitalizing. . ." H'? 

"        Growth  of 55 

«        XT       '^    J"  United'states;  .'.".■;.■.■ V, 

How  Cost  is  Affected. . .  H 

improvement   in  V     ^^' 

"        Interestsof  163,164 

;;        Legislative  Interference"  Vvith.V.V. iVq   J-!!! 

J^ocating ^-•'<  J<J*' 

Location  of . . .     1 26 

;;        Less  Caused  by  "stoppage  "of  .".".".■. ^''^^'  Jn? 

Making  Investments  in  . .  ~^i 

Narrow   Gauge. . .  ^^ 

Necessity  of  139 

^       177 


536  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Railways,  Never  Completed 76,  165 

"        Northern — Climatic  Influences  Affecting 305,306 

"        Organization   of 52 

"  '•  —Under  (  barter 153,155 

"        Organization  of  Under  General  Law 155 

Parallel— Benefits  of 171 

Paralleling— Ettect  of 137 

"        Political  Importance  of 128 

Poor 170 

"■        Private  Management  of 53 

"•        Productiveness  of 33 

"        Permanence  of 127 

"        Prosperous 170 

Purpose  of 268 

"        Relation  of,  to  Country  in  Which  They  Operate 210 

Relation  of,  to  State 268 

"        Risks  Attending  Investment  of  Capital  in 17 

Securities  of 71 

Should  be  Perfect  When  Opened 139 

"        Southern — Climatic  Influences  Affecting 305,  306 

Speculative 22 

—Construction  of 171,173 

"■        Status  of  in  Austria 44 

'•    Belgium 44 

"    France 40 

"  "  "     Germany 37,    43 

"    Holland 45 

"    Italy 45 

"    Russia 45 

"    United  States 40 

Taxable  Value  of T 275 

The  Earliest 117 

"        The  Necessary  Force  of 295 

"        Total  Cost  of  in  United  States 72 

"        Total  Expenditures  for  the  World's 72 

Total  Mileage  of  for  the  World 72 

"        Ultimate  Perfection  of  the  Proper  Standard 179 

"        Unnecessary — Effect  of 171 

Unproductive 22,35,    36 

"        Value  of — Determination  of 52 

Value  of  Securities  of 22 

Who  Should  Invest  in 22 

Rates 137,  291 

Adding  Taxes  to 266 

Decrease  in 34,    52 

Downward  Tendency  of 142 

Ettect  of  States  Fixing,  on  Taxation 268 

Granting  Reduced 224 

in  Europe 142 

Influence  of  Cost  of  Advertising  on 221 


INDEX.  537 

PAGE 

Rates,  Influence  of  Terminal  Expenses  on 220 

"    Influences  on 129 

"     Limit  of  Low 143 

"    Low,  of  United  States 177 

"    Necessity  of  Low,  in  America 142 

"    Reduced— Savings  from 26 

"    Reductions  in 34 

"    Uniform 218 

Real  and  Personal  Property,  a  Basis  for  Taxation 267,  268 

Real  Estate,  Outlay  for 157 

"      "      Procurement  of 157 

Realty,  a  Basis  for  Taxation 261,  262 

Receipts,  Average  per  Train  Mile 52 

"        Gross,  a  Basis  for  Taxation 263 

Records,  English,  Relating  to  Capital 507 

Reed,  H.  W 387,  408 

Reece,  Benjamin 340 

Registered  Bonds 102 

Renewals,  ( 'ost  of 235,  236 

"  Influence  of  on  Expenses 235 

Time  for  Making 242,  245 

Rentals 103,  104 

Repairs,  Time  for  Making 242,  245 

Winter 440 

Replacer — Illustrations 351,  411 

Rerailing  Device,  Use  of 348 

Reserve  Fund 285 

Returns,  Annual,  to  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 277 

Revenue,  Capitalizing 67,  68,    69 

Right  of  Way,  Obtaining 1 23,  159,  160 

Rivers,  Changes  of  Channels  of 162 

Road,  Inspection  of 441 

Roadbed 443,  444 

"        Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order 235 

"        Elfect  on  Locomotive 117 

"        Preparation  of 409 

"        Erotectiug — Expenditures  for 161 

Road  Crossings 450 

"        "        Cost  of  Maintenance  of 331 

Roadmasters,  Duties  of 451,  452 

Roadway  and  Track,  Cost  of  Repairs  and  Renewals  of 316 

"      Miscellaneous  Repairs  to 306 

"        Department,  Organization  of 451 

Rules  Governing 452 

"        Maintenance  of 407 

"Rocket."  The 116 

Rolling  Stock.  American 144 

Cost  of  Keeping  in  Repair 331,332 

Cost  of  Maintaining 247 

Eft'ect  of  Track  on 203 


538  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Rolling  stock,  Use  of  Metal  in 386 

Use  of  Wood  in 386 

Rome,  Railways  in 116 

Route,  Determination  of 123 

Routes,  Explorations  of 155 

Royal  Commission  on  Railways 169 

Report  of 151 

Rules,  English 458,  459,  460 

"      Governing  Roadway  Department 452 

Rural  Carriage,  Turkey — Illustration 94 

—Blustration 154 

Russia,  Status  of  Railways  in 45 

Rust,  Effect  of 306,  307,  308,  309.  310 

"      Prevention  of 307.  308 

Rents,  Disbursements  for 234,  235 

Safety  Devices 27,  28,    29 

"      Gates  on  Passenger  Coach — Illustration 433 

Sail  Car — Illustration 302 

Sale  of  Securities 157 

Salts,  Metallic— Use  of 385 

Salt  Water,  Effect  of  on  Rails 306 

Saw,  Track — Illustration 422 

Saxony,  Carriage  in — Illustration 462 

Seal,  Car — Illustration 424 

•'     Cost  of 153 

Sections,  Length  of 433 

Securities,  Advice  to  Investors  in 81 

"         Commissions  on 157 

"         Discount  on 17 

"         Fluctuations  in  Price  of 34 

"         Interest  on 17 

"         Investigation  of 82 

"         Railway — Different  Classes  of 48 

Holders  of 49 

Price  of 48 

Safe 52 

"         Registering 157 

"■         Relation  of  Different  Kinds  to  Each  Other 55 

Sale  of 75.  157 

Forms  of 47 

Sentimentalism,  Influence  of 114 

Sentiment,  Place  of  in  Railway  Economy 113 

Servia,  Carriage  in — Illustration 151 

Service,  Railway — Exigencies  of 226 

Shareholders.     (See  also  "Stockholders.") 

Shareholders 89-96 

Duties  of 83 

Meetings  of 83 

Shareholders,  Practices  of  American 83 

"   English 83 


INDEX.  539 

PAGE 

Shareholders,  lleaemption  by 91 

Shares,  <  'hisses  of 93 

"       Denominutioii  of 92 

"       — Enylisli  Use  of  Term 91 

Issue  of 20 

"       Preferenee 92 

"       Sale  of ^95 

Shed,  Snow— Illustration 237 

Shiininiii^ 302,  440 

Shops 3^U 

Shovel,  Steaiu— ///((s;/'(/«/o/i ^i-i 

Sidings.  Expenditures  for 161 

"        Necessity  for  <  'ouvenient 245 

Signals,  Effect  of  on  Cost  of  ()i)eration 193 

"         Improvements  in 1^8 

Signs,  Cost  of  Maintenance  of 331 

Sills,  Switch 425 

Si«K-]air,A ■■^-  1^8 

Sinking  Funds 107-111 

Slopes 422 

"     Drainage  of 42d 

"    Protection  of 447 

"     Springs  on 423 

Snow,  Clearing  Track  of 317,  335 

"    Expense  of  Clearing  Track  of 321 

"    Fences,  Use  of 337,  338 

"    Plow,  Steam— lUustr  at  loll 443 

"    Plows,  I'se  of 337 

"     Shed— I Uustratio7i 237 

"    Sheds,  Use  of 337,  338 

Society  Islands,  Carriage  in— Illustration 184 

Soliciting  Business,  Cost  of 221 

South  America,  Kailway  Construction  in 122 

Southwark  &  Deptford  Tramway  Co 276 

Sovereignty,  Duties  of 268 

Spain,  Form  of  Carriage  in,  16tb  L'entury— Illustration 12b 

Spain,  Use  of  :Metal  Ties  in 403 

Specifications,  Preparation  of 123 

Speculation 127 

Speed,  Eft'ect  of.  on  Cost  of  Operation 193 

Spike  — Illustration    203 

"     Action  of,  on  Tie— Illustration 208 

"    Ellect  of,  on  Rails 309 

Spikes 317,335,301,414 

"     Damage  Ijy 3  J8 

"      Eft'ect  of  Passing  Trains  on 3^)9 

"      Improvements  in 1 ' ° 

"      Life  of 236 

"      Use  of 3b0 

"      Use  of  on  Bridges < 370 


540  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Spikes,  Use  of  on  Curves 370 

Spiking 411 

Daniaii^o  to  Ties  bv 413 

Splice  Bar,  A.  1).  l^T^T^—Illmtrntinn 492 

•'       ISod—If/Hstration 492 

"  "         "       iSo7— III, (str/ition 493 

"  "         "       1870— Illustration 495 

"     Angle— A.  D.  ISm— Illustration 495 

"  "        "'  "       1875— Illustration 495 

"         "  "       -I87d— Illustration 49G 

1880— Illustration 49G 

"       1885— Illustration 497 

"      18Q0— Illustrations 498,  499 

•'      Bar.  Use  of 3G4,  365, 360,  367.  368,  371 

"      Bracket,  A.  D.  1857— Illustration 493 

Splice  Bars 317.  335 

Splices 415 

"      Improvements  in 178 

Springs,  "'  178 

Stakes,  Engineers' — Care  of 438 

State  Commissioners,  Committee  of  on  Taxation 253 

State,  Effect  of  Kailways  on 56 

"      Liability  of,  for  Damages 287 

"      Kelatioii  of,  to  Railways 268 

"      Railway  Taxation  by 254 

"      Duty  of 268 

Station  Expenses 225 

"      Facilities 219 

"      Locomotive  Supply — Illustration 246 

Statistics,  Value  of 52 

Steam  Road  Carriage — Illustration 446 

Steam  Shovel,  Illustration 214 

Steel,  Resistance  of  to  Rust 307 

"     Substitution  of  for  Iron 178,  ^01 

Stephenson 115,  116 

Stevens,  Robert  L 117 

Stock.     (See  also  ''  Capital  Stock.") 
(See  also  "  Shares.") 

Stock 61,  89-96 

"     Books,  Closing 95,    96 

"     Capital — of  American  Railways 74 

"     Car— Illustration 333-340 

"     Common 92 

"     Debenture 34-101 

"    Duplication  of 75 

"     Form  of  Certificate  of 92 

"    Issue  of 47-55 

"    Issue  of,  in  England 73 

' United  States 74 

''    Par  Value  of 92 


u 
u 
u 


INDEX.  f... 

541 

Stock,  Preferred ^^^-^ 

^"      Rela tioii  o'f-to  Bonds ." ^'^-  ^''''    ^2 

^^      Purcliase  of-of  Other  Companies '.V. ^'^'    ^l 

•sale  of . . . .  /5 

"      Transfer  of  . . .' Oo,  156 

"      "AVatered" 95 

«f  "  1 1  ^y-;itered-Elfeet  o.i  Kates'. '.'. ^^'    ^9 

otockhoklers 78 

Duties'  of! ;."..' .' «9-9G 

Notice  of  lileetiiig's  of .'.'.' .' ^t 

^  otes  of.  9G 

c*  ,  "^    Ri,i?i't.s of..; .■.■;; 96 

Stocks,  Enf!:lisli  [se  of  'J'erin 93 

i&r?S|s  '■:""^' "'  »■■  '^"^  °'  '"--«o" :  ■ : : : : . : :  ^ : : ;  'A 

Strikes ' 421 

Structures,  Brick. ..'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.". 2<2,  283,  284 

"  Care  of 305 

Cheap  Teini,'o'r'a'r'y'^EireJt  of .' .' .' ! ]?J 

Cost  of  Keeping  in  Order  {ii 

Durability  of 23o 

Grout \    \    305 

c  1    "  ,.        Temporary— Cost  of -^^'^ 

Subordinates,  Selection  of  207 

Suburban  Traffic  226 

Sulphate  of  Copper,  Use  'of 219 

Supervision,  Xecessitv  for 384 

Supplies,  Cost  of 181 

::         ?X'  9f  Mah'iten'anc'e  bepen'dent  on ''■'•  ??? 

^  Inferior-Effect  of  Use  of \\ ,- •  ll\ 

Mr.         T  Of  on  Track...        'on? 

Money  Invested  in  204 

Payment  for  200 

^      '  Purchaseof... VrVA/.A 200 

Supply  Depots,  Expenditures  for '  ^^^'  ^^'*'  ^^9,  210 

Station,  Locomotive— /;/?,"sV;y/«/o« ^^^ 

Surfacing ^'t"At/ aaon 246 

"         Expenditures  for 317 

Surplus  Revenue,  Disposition  'of 161 

Survey  of  Route...  24 

Surveys,  Expenditures  for " 123,  155 

Svi'ann.  John  ...  156 

Switch.  A.  D.1894-Z.;....^^^^^ 

swi^^he '^"*' ^'-  ^-  i894-/^^-.;-«.^o«;::::::::;::;:::::;;;;  ^1 

Derailing  .".■.■.■.■ 346,  347,  424,  425 

"        on  Outside  of  Curves '^32 

Slip 432 

''       Three-way  Split. 431 

*  428,429 


542  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Switzerland,  Use  of  Metal  Ties  in 403 

System,  Necessity  of 179 

T  Rail 117 

Tank  Car — Illustration 33G 

"      Water — Illustration 243 

Tamping 416 

Tarift"s,  Promulgation  of 238 

Tartar  Carrier — Illustration 64 

Taxation 251-280 

"        Committee  of  Railroad   Commissioners  on 261,265 

"        Dift'erences  in  Systems  of 260,  261 

"        Discrimination  "in 264,  266 

"        True  Basis  of 268 

"  "     Method  of 269,270 

Taxes 303 

"    Collection  of — From  Corporations 277 

"     Disbursements  for 234 

"    Payment  of — by  Lessees 105 

Telegraph  Lines,  Expenditures  for 161 

Poles 385 

Temperature,  Eflect  of — on  Cost  of  Operation 187,  189 

Tender  Picking  up  AVater—  Ilhistration 287 

"       yefitihnled— Illustration 439 

Tennessee,  Railway  Taxation  in 271 

Terminal  Charges 213,  217,  218 

'•         Expenses 217-221 

"         Expenses,  Manner  of  Settlement  for — Between  Dif- 
ferent JAnes  in  England 215 

"        Facilities 217 

Terai,  Carriage  in — Illustration 148 

Texas,  Commission  of 146 

Theorists  as  Writers 23 

Thibet  Carriers — Illustration 53 

Tie,  Action  of  Rail  on — Illustration 276 

"  "        of  Spike  on— Illustration 268 

"    PUte— Illustration 279 

"    Plates  413 

"         "    Use  of. .'.'.'  ['.'.'.[...[...[........... . ".  362,  369,  398',  399 

Ties 306,  447,  449 

'■    Causes  of  Decay  of ' 398 

"    Cause  of  Wear  *  of 363 

"    Cedar 383 

"    Cost  of 312,  315 

"  "    Keeping  in  Order 235 

"  "    Preserving 391,  392 

"    Cutting  of— by  Rails 362 

''    Cypress 383 

"    Damage  to 313 

"  "      —By  Spiking 413 

*'   Dimensions  of .,.....,, , ,.,.,,,,,,,,.,....,  340 


INDEX.  643 

PAGE 

Ties,  Durability  of 364 

Duration  of 312,  314,  383 

Eft'ect  of— on  Rails 201 

"       Passintj  Trains  on 359 

"       Spikes  on 361 

Gauge 349 

Handling 306 

Hard  Wood 206 

Hemlock 383 

— Illustrations 486 

Inferior— Eft'ect  of  Use  of 206 

Kinds  of  Wood  Used  for 383 

Laying 412 

Laying — Expenditures    for 161 

Life  of 236,  312 

Longitudinal— Use  of 348, 349,  402 

Metal 381 

Metal — Advantagesof 403,  404 

"     —Construction  of 394,  395 

"     —Cost  of 396,  404 

"     — Fastenings  for 395 

"     — Requirements  of 393 

"     —Use  of 392, 393,  394,  395,  396 

"  "     in  Austria 402 

"  "      "  Belgium 402 

"  "      "  England 401 

"  "      "  Europe 403 

"  "      "  Foreign  Countries 400,  401 

"  "       "  France 401 

'  Germany 402 

'  Holland 401 

'  Hungary 402 

'  Italy 403 

'  Portugal 403 

"  Spain 403 

"  Switzerland 403 

"     — Requirements  of 404 

Number  Per  Mile 346,  383 

Oak 383 

Piling 398 

Pine 383 

Prolongation  of  Life  of 383,  384 

Redwood 383 

Renewing 434 

Seasoning 398 

Securing  Rails  to 361 

Soft  Wood 206,  363 

Speciflcations  for 412 

Steel— Use  of— in  Tropical  Countries 392,  393 

Tamarack ,,,,,,,,,..,.  383 


(( 

(( 

(( 

(( 

11 

u 

544  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Ties,  Treatment  of— in  France 387 

"     Use  of 412 

"      Use  of  Plates  on 363 

"      Wooden — Increasinjj;  ('ost  of 132 

"      Worn  Out— Uses  for 206 

Timl)er,  Annual  ( "onsumption  of — in  United   States 400 

"        Causes  of  Decay  of 387,  388 

"        Consuini)tion  of — ])y  Railways 381 

"        Economy  in  Consumption  of 385,  386 

"        Seasoning  of 388 

Tires,  Wear  of 352 

Tools 317 

"      of  Trackmen 317 

"      Track 450 

Topography  Influence  of — on  Cost  of  Operation 184 

Track  Accounts 316,  407 

"     A.  D.   l^'il— Illustration 470 

"    Advances  in 370 

"    Bolts,  Use  of 366 

"        "  "    — on  (Jurves  and  Bridges 370 

"    Care  of 407 

"    Center  Bound 416 

"     Construction   of 407 

"     Cost  of  Maintenance  of 318 

"  '•      Eepairs  and  Renewals  of 316 

"    Details 335 

"    Department,  Organization  of 451 

''     Dr\\\— Illustrations 416,  419 

"    ElTect  of  Climate  on 321,  322,  323 

"  '•        Idleness  on 320 

"  "        —on  Rolling  Stock 203 

"  "        Use  of  Inferior  Material  in 204 

"     'Engiifih— Illustration 487 

"    Evolution  of 463 

—  Illustrations 464,502 

"    Expenses — Relation  of  Various  Classes  to  Total ... 509 

"    Fastenings 359,  360 

Use  of 369 

"    Foreman,  Qualifications  of 228 

"  "  Inspections  by 459 

"     Gauge — Illustration 409 

"    Greatest  Source  of  Expense 306 

"    Importance  of  Maintaining 338,  339 

"    Improvements  in 354 

"    Inspection  Car — Illustration 307 

"    Labor — Relation  of   Cost  of  Various  Classes  to  Each 

Other 509 

"    Laying 410 

"    J.q\q\— Illustration 282 

Lining    ••|,tt|i;ttT**rt''<ttt'<t<tll<1T>>>>>t1t><ltt>       ii  I 


INDEX.  545 

PAGE 

Track,  Maintenance  of 343,  407,  433 

"      Maintenance  of,  in  England 341,  342 

"      France 342,343 

"      Material.  Preparing  for  Sunday  Work 435 

"      Metal,  Advantages  of 403,  404 

"       lAQXAl—IUustriithns 487-490 

"      Moving  During  AVeek 440 

"      on  Sunday 439 

"      Necessity  for  Adequate 245 

"      Nuniber'of  Ties  per  Mile  of 383 

"      Old— Moving 438 

"      Old— Kcnewing 434 

Preparing  for  Sunday  Work 438 

"      Rail.    (See  "RaUs.") 

"      Raising 416 

"      Repairs  of— Interference  with 301,  302 

"■      Re(iuirenients  of  the 358 

'Saw— Illustration 422 

"      Spring  Repairs  to 434 

"      Tamping 416 

"      Tools 450 

"      Uniformity  in  Appliances 344,  345,  346 

"      Watchmen 317 

Trackmen 343,  344 

Duties  of 458,  459,  4G0,  461 

"  Payment  of  Premiums  to 354,  355,  356 

Province  of 339,  340 

"  Supplies  of 317 

Tools  of 317 

Trackwalkers 441 

Traffic,  Cost  of  Conducting 175,  281 

Handling 222 

"  "         Maintenance  Dependent  on 175 

Soliciting 222 

Differences  in 168 

"       Effect  of,  on  Bridges 326.  327 

"       Efi'ect  of,  on  Construction 169 

"       Influence  of.  on  Cost  of  Maintenance 175 

"       Influences  of,  on  Expenses 231,  232,  233 

"       Local 218,  220,  221 

"       Organization.  Dispensing  with 288 

"       Relation  of,  to  Expenditures 223 

"      Relative  Cost  of  Handling  Difterent  Kinds 217 

'•       Suburban 219 

Sufliciency  of— Eft'ect  on  Cost 175 

"       Through 218.  220 

"       Track  Expenses  of  Chargeable  to 317.  318,  319,  320 

Train,  Construction 409 

Expenses 225 

"     Force,  Nucleus  of 295,  296 

35 


546  .       INDEX. 

PAGE 

Trainmen,  Oonstruction 409 

Trains,  Cost  of  ISIovenient  of 225 

EflFect  of,  on  Rails  and  Ties   359 

Spikes 359 

"      Manipulation  of — Eflt'eet  on  Cost  of  Operation 193 

"      ISIovement  of— Effect  of  on  t^ost  of  Operation 193 

Number  of 225 

Partially  Loaded 238 

"      Stopping — Effect  of  on  Cost  of  Operation 194 

Tramways,  Invention  of 116 

Transfer  of  Stock.  Form  of 95 

Transportation,  Cost  of  on  Early  Railwajs 117 

"  in  Gibraltar — Illustration 160 

Tratman,  E.  E.  R 400 

Trimming 409 

Truck,  Bogie — Advantages  of 14o 

■•'    •       "         Effect  of  Use  of 141 

Yji^'ight— Illustration 394 

'Logging— Illustration  345 

Passenger — Illustration 398 

"      Swivel 177 

Truss  Bridge — Illustration 209 

Trustee  of  Sinking  Fund 108 

"        Mortgage 100 

Trustees,  Remuneration  of 238 

Tunnels,  Boring — Expenditures  for 161 

Drainage  of 423,  424 

Dura])ility  of  Rails  in 306 

Durability  of  Ties  in 306 

Effect  of,"  on  Cost  of  Operation 184,  193 

Metal   Ties 395,  401 

"       Trackmen  Working  in 460 

Turkey,  Carriage  in — Illustration 94 

Turnouts 426,  427,  428 

"        on  Curves 430 

Tyndall 388 

Uniformity  in  Construction 134 

United  States.     (See  also  '"America.") 

"  "      Annual  ('onsumptlon  of  Timber  in 400 

'•      Cost  of  Railways  in 38 

"■  "      Department  of  Agriculture 383 

—Report  of 397 

"      Development  of  177 

"  "      Efficiency  of  ]\Ianagement  in 53 

"  "      Environment  of  Railways  in    67 

"  "      Government,  Railway  Taxation  by 253 

"      Growth  of  Railways  in 31.    34 

"  "      Increase  of  Capital  Account  in 20 

"      Low  Rates  in 177 

"  "      Railwav  (Construction  in 121 

"  "      National  Museum 463 


u 


INDEX.  647 

PAGB 

rnited  States,  Status  of  Kailwaj-s  in 40 

"  "      Unrestricted  Construction  in 36 

Unloading,  Expenses  of 213,  214 

Vautlierin,  ISI 401 

Variations  in  Construction 132 

Varnishing  Equipment 378, 379,  380 

Venice,  Carriage  in — Illustration 188 

Vermont,  Kailway  Taxation  in 274 

Vestibuled  <  "ar — Illustration 436 

Tender— Illustration 439 

Viaducts,  Cost  of 247 

Efteot  of,  on  Cost  of  Operation 193 

Voting  by  Bondholders 98 

Rights  of  Stot-kholders 96 

Vulcanizing  Process 399,  400 

"Wages 225,  228,  229,  230,  237 

"      American I4l 

"      English 141 

'•      Reduction  of 290,  297 

Wagon,  Effect  of  Highway  on 117 

Warehouse  Room,  Expenses  of 216,  217 

Warehouses,  Expenditures  for 161 

Warfare  on  Property 72 

Watchmen,  Duties  of 458 

"  Effect  of,  on  Cost  of  Operation 193 

Track 317, 320,  441 

"  Watered  •'  Stock 72-79 

Water  Tank —  Illustration 243 

AVaterwaj's 447 

Watkins,  J.  Elfreth 117.  463 

Wealth  of  AVorld,  Proportion  Invested  in  Railways 58 

"      Possessic-n  of 81 

Weeds,  Cutting 435 

"      Removing 317 

Wellington,  Arthur  M 194 

Wheel,  Action  of  on  Rail  .loiiit — Illustration 382 

Wheels,  Car— Defective 245 

Friction  of— Effect  on  Rails 308 

"       Improvements  on 178 

Wire  Fence — Illustration 227 

Wisconsin,  Railway  Taxation  in 254,  255,  256,  264,  274 

Wood,  Cause  of  Decay  of 387,  388 

"      Destruction  of 132 

"       Economy  in  Consumiitiuu  of 385,  386 

Effect  of  Creosote  on 385 

"       Kinds  of,  I'sed  for  Tie.^ 383 

"      Preservation  of 381 

"       Preservative — Used  in  Europe 384 

'•      Quantity  of.  Used  for  Ties 397 

"      Seasoning  of 388 


648  INDEX. 

FAGE 

Wood,  The  Best  Kind  for  Use 397 

"      Use  of  by  Kuihvays 381 

Workshops,  Expenditures  for 161 

Writers  on  Kailway  Subjects 22 

Wyoming,  Stoekraisers  of 177 

Yaks  as  ( 'arriers — Illustration 53 

Yard  Room,  Expenses  of 217 

"           "    Necessity  for  Sutficlent 245 


KIRKMAN'S   FISCAL   METHODS: 

HOW   A  UAILUOAD  MAY  SAVE  $120,000  A  YEAR. 


Railways  may  increase  the  responsibility  of 
their  fiduciary  agents,  add  clearness,  accuracy 
and  fullness  to  their  accounts,  and  at  the  same 
time  greatly  reduce  their  operating  expenses, 
by  adopting  Marshall  M.  Kirkman's  fiscal 
methods.  The  Chicago  &  :N'orth  -  Western 
Railway  effected  an  annual  saving  of  $120,000 
in  this  way. 

In  addition  to  economy  in  clerk  hire  and 
prevention  of  waste  of  stationery,  new  safe- 
guards are  thrown  around  the  revenues  of 
railroads  and  increased  responsibility  and  effi- 
ciency attained  in  other  directions. 

Mr.  Kirkman's  rights  have  been  acquired 
by  The  American  Accounting  Company  of 
Chicago,  and  it  is  prepared  to  introduce  his 
methods  and  otherwise  organize  the  accounts 
of  railways,  on  practical  and  scientific  prin- 
ciples. Also  to  examine,  audit  and  revise  the 
fiscal  methods  of  railways,  manufacturers,  mer- 
chants and  other  business  men. 

AmERICAN^  AcCOUJfTIKG  COMPANY, 

353-357  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  Ills. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS. 


HOW   TO   RUN   A    RAILROAD,  INCLUDING   ITS  LOCA- 
TION,  CAPITALIZATION,   CONSTRUCTION, 
MAINTENANCE,  OPERATION  AND 
GOVERNMENT. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH    SIXTEEN    HUNDRED    PICTURES, 

PORTRAYING  THE  INCEPTION,  GROWTH  AND 

EVOLUTION   OF   PRIMITIVE 

TRANSPORTATION. 


BT 
IVIARSH  A.IvI>     VC     KIRICIVIAN. 


VOLUMES: 

1.  OKGANIZATION  AND  FORCES. 

2.  FINANCING,  BUILDING  AND  MAINTAINING. 

3.  OPERATION  OF  TRAINS. 

4.  PASSENGER  BUSINESS. 

5.  FREIGHT  BUSINESS. 

6.  BAGGAGE,  EXPRESS  AND  MAIL  BUSINESS. 

7.  ECONOMICAL     PURCHASE,    CARE     AND     USE     OF 

MATERIAL. 

8.  ECONOMY  OF  RATES. 

PRIVATE  versus  GOVERNMENT  CONTROL. 

9.  FISCAL  AFFAIRS.    DISBURSEMENTS. 

10.  FISCAL  AFFAIRS.    COLLECTION  OF  REVENUE,  AND 

THE  PRINCIPLES  GOVERNING  IT. 

11.  GENERAL  FISCAL  AFFAIRS. 

12.  FISCAL  DUTIES    OF   AGENTS   AND    CONDUCTORS. 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


Sold  only  in  Sets.    Price  of  Twelve  Volumes,  $30.00. 


The  World  Railway  Publishing  Company, 
353  TO  357  Dearborn  Street,  CHICAGO,  ILL, 


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