IC-NRLF
R L U C L H
P
221
B28
1897
MAIN
t
of
ot
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
'erH
Received
Accession No.
GW^r**
Class No.
T H
SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
BY
ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL,
PRESIDENT OF THE PHONETIC SECTION OF THE MODERN LANGUAGE
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA.
THE VOLTA BUREAU,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
1897.
Copyright by
THE VOLTA BUREAU.
1897.
CONTENTS
PAGE.
Introduction, ..... 5
Vowels, ...... 9
Glides, 25
Consonants, . 27
Aspirate, 40
r o*-
Whisper, .... 40
Trills, . 41
Clicks, 41
Teaching the Deaf, " . ... 42
Fluency, . . . . . .43
Impediments of Speech, ... 44
Articulative Defects, . . . .45
Management of the Breath, . . 46
Articulative Impulse, . . .47
Expulsive Clicks, .... 48
Articulation in Singing, . . .48
Pharyngeal Exercise, ... 49
English Elements, . . . .50
Index, ...... 53
INTKODUCTION.
In the present work an explanation is of-
fered of all the actions of the mouth and the
vocal organs which produce speech.
In the System of Visible Speech, the ele-
ments of languages are exhibited in symbols,
which, to the initiated, are self-explanatory.
That system may therefore be considered as
a species of SHORTHAND FOR THE MECHANISM
OF UTTERANCE,. The present work describes
the same elements, WITHOUT SYMBOLS; the
formation of the sounds being fully ex-
pressed in their NOMENCLATURE.
Some beginners are apt to be repelled at
sight of unknown symbols^ under the im-
pression that the latter must be difficult to
learn. But this idea soon gives way, before
the lucidity and simplicity of the exponent
symbols of Visible Speech.
For the purpose of REPRESENTING language
the symbols cannot be dispensed with
() INTRODUCTION.
forming, as they do, a Universal Alphabet ;
but, for communicating a knowledge of the
elements of languages, description may take
the place of symbolism. Such is, at least, the
hope of the author, in preparing this work.
At present, a great part of the knowledge of
linguistic science is locked up in the symbols
of Visible Speech. This knowledge is now
made accessible to all readers.
There is, undoubtedly, an advantage in be-
ing able to enter at once on a study without
the necessity of first mastering a new medium
of instruction. No such necessity exists in
connection with the study of the Science of
Speech, as here presented. The whole sub-
ject, from first to last, is expounded in ordinary
language. This book may therefore be put
into the hands of pupils in schools and col-
leges, without explanatory preparation. Some
ready means of studying the Science of
Speech has long been wanted. This little
book is specially designed to furnish the
means, and supply the want.
INTRODUCTION. I
This work will also prove useful as an in-
troduction to Visible Speech. Few teachers
of Modern Languages have as yet taken the
trouble to study that system, and apply it in
their classes ; although it would be found to
be of unique assistance, in removing all diffi-
culty from the mastery of foreign pronunci-
ations. Nor have teachers in the Public
Schools availed themselves, to any great ex-
tent, of the manifest advantages of the system
for native learners. Only among teachers of
the DEAF have the benefits of a training in
Visible Speech been duly appreciated.
This backwardness to accept the help of
such a phonetic instrument is, no doubt, to
be largely attributed to the imaginary diffi-
culty of learning the symbols. Here, only
the meaning of the symbols is taught. Repre-
sentation of sounds is everything in " Visible
Speech." In the " Science of Speech " DIS-
CRIMINATION is all, and representation is
nothing.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH,
VOWELS.
The question has been often asked : " How
many vowels are there ? " It might as well
have been : " How many colors are there ? "
We have shades of red, and green, and vio-
let ; and compounds of each, with any, or all,
of the others; and every tint may be, to a
greater or less extent, diluted with white or
with black; so that the total number of
recognizable varieties is practically beyond
computation. So with vowels.
Back, Top, and Front Vowels.
Certain vowels receive their color, or
characteristic quality, from the back of the
tongue, directed to the back of the mouth ;
certain others from the top of the tongue
directed towards the roof of the mouth; and
10 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
a third set from the front surface of the
tongue directed to the front of the mouth,
or the alveolar arch.
Each of these three sets is subject to fur-
ther modification by contraction of the aper-
ture of the mouth the lips. We have thus
four varieties of vowel "color," produced by
the back, the top, and the front of the
tongue, and by the lips.
The lips have 110 independent action in
vowel formation. They merely modify the
effect of lingual action. In forming Back,
Top, and Front vowels the lips should be
kept out of the way; so as to preserve the
series of unlabialized vowels distinct from
the series of labialized vowels. For labial- {
ized vowels, the lips cover the teeth to a
greater or less extent. For unlabializedi
vowels the teeth are visible. This criterion
should be a convenience to the learner.
Labialized Vowels.
Any lingual vowel may be labialized, and
any labialized vowel may be delabialized, by
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 11
spreading the lips apart, while the tongue
maintains its position unchanged. In this
way, a learner gains perfect command over
the whole gamut of vowels ; and even pro-
duces, with certainty, sounds which he may
never have heard before he utters them.
High, Mid, and Loiv Vowels.
Now bear in mind the three radically dif-
ferent vowel colors produced by the back,
the top, and the front of the tongue, and we
shall be prepared for another step in vowel
classification.
The vowel Ee is a Front vowel ; and it
has the tongue RAISED within the palatal
arch, in the highest possible degree, consist-
ent with the maintenance of a free channel
for the sound. But the TOP of the tongue
may be equally raised, toward the roof of
the mouth, forming, as it were, an ee at the
middle of the tongue. And the BACK of
the tongue may be equally raised, towards
the back of the mouth, forming, as it were,
12 THE SCIENCE OF SPPIECH.
an ee at the back of the tongue. We have
thus, clearly discriminated, three HIGH vow-
els, High Back, High Top, and High
Front.
Deldbializing Vowels.
To show the directive effect of these rela-
tions of sound to sound, take an example :
The High Back vowel is a Gaelic sound,
which has probably never been heard by
nine-tenths of those who may read these
words ; yet, this unheard sound will be pro-
duced, with uniformity, by every person, at
the first effort. Proceed thus : Sound the
vowel oo, and, while doing so, separate the
lips with finger and thumb ; and, instead of
oo, the High Back vowel will be heard.
The technical name of the vowel oo High
Back Round explains the mechanism of the
sound. The tongue is in the High Back posi-
tion, and the sound is labialized. Separating
the lips delabializes the sound, and thus the
pure High Back vowel is involuntarily pro-
duced.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 13
Nine Vowels.
The tongue may maintain its back, top, or
front presentation at any degre of elevatiom
within the mouth. Perfectly definite vowel
"colors" are obtained at the three eleva-
tions: High, Mid, and Low. High vowels
have the tongue nearest to the palate ; and
therefore the cavity of the mouth is of mini-
mum size : LOW vowels have the tongue
most depressed from the palate; and the
cavity of the mouth is therefore of maximum
size : MID vowels have the tongue, about
midway between High and Low. Our three
organic vowels Back, Top, and Front have
now become nine ; each of them individual-
ized to the mind, and absolutely located in
the mouth ; namely :
High Back, High Top, ; High Front
Mid Back, Mid Top, | Mid Front
Low Back, Low Top, Low Front
.
14 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Primary and Wide Vowels.
There are two phonetic varieties of each of
these nine vowels: (1) the primary, or most
definite in quality; and (2) the Wide, or com-
paratively indefinite. The High Front vowel
is ee(l) ; and the High Front Wide vowel
is i(ll). To continue the color analogy :
Suppose the High Front vowel to be a pure
red, then the High Front Wide vowel will
be red dulled with a neutral tint. The na-
ture of this neutral quality, which changes
Primary vowels into their Wide counterparts,
may be understood from the explanation, that,
behind the aperture of the primary vowel,
the cavity of the mouth is expanded for Wide
vowels, so as to weaken the organic quality
of the sound, whether Back, Top, or Front.
Eighteen Vowels.
Every Primary vowel has its Wide con-
gener ; therefore the nine vowels already in-
troduced, at once become eighteen, nine
Primary and nine Wide. The nomenclature
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 15
of these sounds will give a clear conception of
the mechanical cause of each variety. Thus :
High Back
High Back Wide
Mid Back
Mid Back Wide
Low Back
Low Back Wide
High Top
High Top Wide
Mid Top
Mid Top Wide
Low Top
Low Top Wide
High Front
High Front Wide
Mid Front
Mid Front Wide
Low Front
Low Front Wide
A Vowel Discover ij.
The distinction between Primary and Wide
vowels is one of the discoveries of Visible
16 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Speech. I had been haunted, for years, by a
sound, which I was constantly hearing from
Scotch speakers, but which would not fit into
any of my experimental Tables. It was
like the Mid Front, and also like the Low
Front ; but was not exactly either ; nor was
it an intermediate sound. The difference
was ultimately discovered to lie in the en-
largement of the cavity behind the aperture
of the Mid Front vowel. This became the
key to the entire vowel scheme. In fact, but
for this discovery, the System of Visible
Speech could not have been invented. The
erratic vowel, thus at last fixed in its true
location, is the Mid Front Wide vowel a
common Scotch sound, heard in ill, yes, her.
The general characteristic of Wide vowels
has been stated to be, comparative weakness
of organic quality that is, of Back, Front,
or Top " color." This will be manifest by
comparing the Primary and the Wide sounds
in the following Front vowels.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 17
Sounds of Front Vowels.
High Front eel
Mid Front ale
Low Front ell
High Front Wide ill
Mid Front Wide ill (Scotch)
Low Front Wide an
Back Wide Vowels.
Back Wide vowels have a clearer sound
than their primaries, because the guttural
quality of the latter is necessarily lessened
by the widening of the resonance cavity.
Thus the Low Back Wide vowel, aA, is dis-
tinctively the purest in tonality of all vowels,
because freest from friction. The vowel aw
depresses the root of the tongue a little
more, so as to direct the sound against the
lips ; but, keep off labial quality, and, stretch
the organs how you will, you cannot get a
lower tongue-attitude than that for ah.
18 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Sounds of Back Vowels.
High Back laocLh (Gaelic)
Mid Back up
Low Back up (Scotch)
High Back Wide . . -tion
Mid Back Wide. .. ask
Low Back Wide . . ah
Uncovering Lingual Vowels.
Just as the High Back vowel is uncovered
by the delabializing of oo (seepage 12) so the
Mid Back vowel is obtained by delabializing
o ; and the Low Back vowel by delabializing
aw.
The student should repeat all these ex-
periments in order to satisfy himself of the
reality of the relations.
Sounds of Top Voivels.
High Top er, ir, ur (Amer.)
Mid Top (ohn)e (German)
Low Top zur (Prov. Eng. )
High Top Wide. . er, ir, ur (Amer.)
Mid Top Wide... (sof)a
Low Top Wide. . . err, her, sir
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 19
The Top vowels are phonetically associated
with the letter R The High Top and High
Top Wide are heard in the American pro-
nunciation of er, ir, ur ; the Low Top is a
Provincial English variety ; and Low Top
Wide is the ordinary English pronunciation
of ei\ ir, yr. Mid Top and Mid Top Wide
are the sounds, respectively, of unaccented
e, in German, and a, in English.
The Natural Vowel.
The Mid Top vowel has been called not
inaptly the natural vowel, because the
tongue is central in the mouth, with neither
Back, Front, High, nor Low modification.
Round Vowels.
The formation of eighteen vowels has now
been explained, and their verbal usage illus-
trated. Each of these sounds is susceptible
of being " Rounded " or labialized. And
here a principle of symmetry prevails. In
proportion to the height of the tongue within
20 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
the mouth, is the narrowness of the aperture
between the lips. Thus High Round vowels
have the smallest lip aperture ; Mid Round
vowels have a medium lip aperture ; and
Low Round vowels merely have the corners
of the lips rounded off. The three degrees
of labial aperture are exemplified in the
vowels
oo, o, aw.
Thirty-six Vowels.
By adding symmetrical labial modification
to each of the eighteen vowels already de-
scribed, the number of vowel elements is in-
creased to thirty-six. For all practical pur-
poses, this number has proved to be ample ;
but, theoretically, the gamut of vowels might
be extended, if desirable for any purpose,
by recognizing more than three divisions be-
tween High and Low, and between Back
and Front. Labialized vowels might also be
further increased by recognizing non-sym-
metrical labialization such as narrow lip
aperture with Low vowels, and broad^ lip
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 21
aperture with Higli vowels. These specula-
tive classifications are merely indicated here,
as possibilities. Their use would require an
auricular perception, and an oral precision of
utterance, far beyond the capability of aver-
age speakers or students.
Guttural .Rounding.
tt
Round vowels will now be understood to
be symmetrically labialized lingual vowels.
It is possible to imitate the effect of labial
modification by guttural contraction. This
expedient is employed by ventriloquists, who
speak without visible use of the lips ; but
we may dismiss non-labial rounding with
mere mention, as beyond ordinary require-
ments. Labial modification is, normally,
something that may be added to a lingual
vowel without affecting its formation; or
that may be removed from a round vowel
without altering the position of the tongue.
The labializing of vowels may be experi-
mentally illustrated by means of the hand
22 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
on the mouth. Put the fingers of the right
hand on the left cheek, or of the left hand
on the right cheek, and gradually cover the
mouth with the hand while you soiled ah.
The quality of the vow^el will be changed by
every movement of the hand; becoming, in
succession, aw o oo. This experiment proves
that merely a diminished labial aperture is
required, to form from ah, the sounds of aw,
o, oo ; and that, consequently, there is no
iieerf for the pouting of the lips which is so
ungracefully common.
Sounds of Back Round Vowels.
High Back Round pool
3^id Back Round soul
Low Hack Round >. . all ,
High Back Wide Round .... pull
Mid Back Wide Round soar
Low Back Wide Round or
The Back Round vowels are all English
sounds, and they are perfectly discriminated
in general usage.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 23
y Sounds of Top Round Vowels.
High Top Round . . u (N. Ir.)
Mid Top Round homme (French)
Low Top Round ii (Ir.)
High Top Wide Round.
Mid Top Wide Round..
Low Top Wide Round. . out (London)
The Top Round vowels are, for the most
part, dialectic sounds, sonae of which are not, j
as yet, definitely a^dwated with linguistic
key-words. ^ ^
Soiind^f Front Round Vowels.
High ^rpn^t Round ii (Ger.)
Mjd Front Round u (French.)
Low Front Round 6 (Ger.)
High Front Wide* Round, gude (Scotch.)
Mid Front ^Vide Round ...
Low Front Wide Round . .
The 'Front Round vowels are all foreign
sounds, but their Primary forms are, in gen-
eral, well discriminated, and fixed in usage.
24 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Thus the High Front Round vowel has the
tongue in the position for ee and the lips in
the position for oo. The Mid Front Round
vowel has the tongue as for a and the lips as
for <?; and the Low Front Round vowel has
the tongue as for a (Ger.) and the lips as
for aw.
The student should exemplify these facts,
by delabializing $, ?/, b. In this way lie will
uncover the High, Mid, and Low Front
vowels.
The High Front Wide Round vowel has
the tongue as for I and the lips as for oo.
This sound is heard in the pronunciation of
the word gude (Scotch). Representative
words in French or German will, no doubt,
be found for the other Front Wide Round
vowels, when native orthoepists undertake
the investigation. Meantime the student
should remember that the SOUNDS ARE
REALITIES ; and he should be able to produce
them, irrespective of keywords, from the data
furnished in these pages.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 25
Good Pronunciation.
All who aim at a good pronunciation will
be careful to preserve the minor differences
in vowel sound. Nothing can be more
pleasing to the ear than a clear phonetic
syllabication, in which every element is per-
fectly individualized. This quality of beauti-
ful speech is a rare and distinguishing mark
of refinement. But with this distinctiveness
must go correctness; which can only be at-
tained by training, study, and observation. A
Table of English elements will be found at
page 50. These should all be practised until
the ear can recognize, and the operating
organs can satisfactorily reproduce, every
variety.
GLIDES.
Vowels are syllabic sounds ; that is to say,
every vowel makes a syllable ; but the vowel
may be changed in quality without making a
new syllable ; the radical sound may slide
towards another position at the close of the
same syllable.
26 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
English Glides.
Thus we have a series of GLIDES, or
non-syllabic vowel-like sounds, which play a
very important part in pronunciation. The
diphthongs /, Oi, Ow, unite an open radical
vowel with a gliding" approximation to the
closest vowel positions, ee and oo ; and the syl-
lables air, ear, ire, ore, unite their respective
radical sounds with the vowel-like quality of
r. Any radical vowel may be united with
any other terminal quality, as a Glide ; but
the English Glides are only three in number,
namely, approximations to the sound of Y,
(ee,) W, (oo,) and R, (er).
The reader will distinguish between these
articulative Glides and vocal inflections. The
latter are slides of the voice from one pitch
to another. The Glides here described are
transitions from one position to another of the
oral organs.
The name-sounds of the letters A and O
are, in Anglican usage, pronounced with
glides : Thus, A ee, oo.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 2(
CONSONANTS.
To feel, and to make manifest, the differ-
ence between a vowel and a consonant, let
the student perform the following experi-
ments :
1. Prolong the sound of the vowel ee,
and, while doing so, strike the tongue mo-
mentarily upwards with the point of a. fin-
ger, from below the chin, and the sound
ee ee ee ee ee
will be changed to
ye ye ye ye ye,
at every impact of the finger.
2. Prolong the sound of the vowel oo,
and, while doing so, gently strike the lower
lip upwards with the point of a finger, and
the sound
00 00 00 00 00
will be changed into
woo woo woo woo woo,
at every impact of the finger.
From these experiments we learn that the
oral channel of a vowel has a fixed configu-
28 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
ration, through which the voice issues unob-
structedly from the throat to the oral aper-
ture ; while the oral channel of a consonant
is constricted or obstructed at some part, so
as to produce an organic flap in passing
from one position to another, or to cause a
degree of friction on the passing breath.
Vowels, then, are throat-sounds which are
merely moulded, by the shape and direction
of their oral channel, into Back, Top, or
Front formations; but Consonants have a
superadded effect, originating in the mouth.
The organic identity of the sounds Ee and
Yj and Oo and W, accounts for the confu-
sion into which orthoepists have been led in
classifying these elements. Y is ee, and W
is oo, with organic compression added. Re-
move compression from Y and W and these
elements are vowelized into ee and oo ; add
* compression to ee and oo, and these elements
are consonantized into Y and W.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 29
Sounds 'of It.
Other vowels may be consonantized, and
other consonants may be vowelized. The
sounds of R illustrate both these conditions.
Before a vowel R is consonantized, and be-
fore a consonant R is vowelized. The
sounds of
V, Dh, Z, Zh, L
may all be vowelized, by pronouncing them
without friction. And this is a common
source of indistinctness. Consonants depend
on their fricative or their flapping quality
for clearness of utterance.
Experimental Exercise.
We have seen that the High Front posi-
tion of the tongue yields the consonant Y,
and that the High Back position, labialized,
yields the consonant W. But the same
Back position, unlabialized, will yield
another consonant. The student will form
the latter by delabializing oo, and conso-
nantizing the resulting vowel.
30 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
The three Back positions which, when
labialized, yield the vowels Oo and Aw
will also yield three unlabialized consonants,
formed at the High Back, Mid Back, and
Low Back positions. The student should
exemplify each of these elements. Al-
though they do not all occur in English
speech, they should be formed experiment-
ally, to give control over the organs, and to
qualify the speaker for the mastery of the
mouth.
Sounds of German cli.
The sound of ch in nacli (German) is a
Back consonant, formed by squeezing the
breath between the Back of the tongue and the
soft palate ; and the sound of ch in ich (Ger-
man) is a Front consonant, formed by squeez-
ing the breath between the front surface of
the tongue and the upper gum. Sometimes
the latter sound is formed farther back, or
nearly at the Top of the tongue. The neces-
sities of assimilation between proximate ele-
ments as well as the habits of individual
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 31
speakers will often thus vary the precise
point of an articulation.
Voice Consonants.
Each of the organic positions hitherto de-
scribed, yields a second consonant when the
formative breath is vocalized. Thus, pass
VOICE fricatively over the back of the
tongue, and you hear the Back Voice conso-
nant Gh or smooth guttural R. Pass voice
fricatively over the point of the tongue, and
you hear the Point Voice consonant R.
Mixed Consonants.
Consonants called MIXED have the breath
or the voice modified simultaneously at two
parts of the mouth. Thus the Top Mixed
consonant (Sh-Zh) has the Top of the tongue
raised, while the Point is also raised subordi-
riately; so that the fricative quality is de-
veloped over the Top of the tongue. The
Point Mixed consonant (S-Z) has the Point
raised, while the Top is also raised subordi-
32 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
nately ; so that the fricative quality is de-
veloped over the Point of the tongue. The
sound of Wh-W is Lip Mixed (with Back),
with the fricative quality on Lip. A gut-
tural sound, heard in sough (Scotch), is Back
Mixed (with Lip) with the fricative quality
on Back.
Divided Consonants.
The principle will now be understood
which forms either a vowel or a consonant
from any given position of the tongue. All
the elements hitherto introduced have a
centre-aperture for the emission of the
breath or voice ; but there are other frica-
tive consonants which issue through side-
apertures, while the central passage is
stopped. These are called Divided conso-
nants.
Sounds of Divided Consonants.
Back Divided is a Gaelic sound, not easily
formed by unaccustomed organs. The
centre of the back of the tongue touches the
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 33
soft palate, while the voice issues over the
sides of the tongue. Top Divided has the
convex tongue raised within the palatal arch,
while the sound passes through high side-
apertures, as in gli (Ital.). Point Divided
(L) has the flattened point of the tongue laid
.on the upper gum, while the breath passes
over the free sides of the tongue.
The apertures for L are so large that the
voice passes through them without friction.
This consonant, therefore, has a vowel-purity
of vocality. Hence it is often used to form
a syllable without a vowel, as in
little^ middle, etc.
By contracting these large side-apertures
of Point Divided (L) a lateral hissing or
buzzing effect is produced, as heard in LI
(Welsh) and in the vocalized form of the same
articulation a Zulu sound of L.
Point Mixed Divided (Th-Dh) has the
tip of the tongue touching the teeth (or the
gum), leaving interstitial apertures ovei the
34 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
sides of the tip, while the middle of the
tongue is spread out, to prevent issue over
any other part of the tongue.
Point Mixed (S) and Point Mixed Divided
(Th) have in all respects the same attitude of
the tongue, save for the contact of the tip for
the latter. Divided formation may take
place at any part of the mouth. We have
already seen
Back Divided (Guttural L)
Top Divided (gl)
Point Divided (L)
Point Mixed Divided (Th-Dh)
and now we have to include
Lip Divided (F-V)
For this latter articulation the lower lip
touches the edges of the upper teeth, while
the breath or voice passes through lateral in-
terstices between the lip and the teeth.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 35
Exercise.
The student should make himself perfectly
familiar with the difference between centre-
emission and side-emission, by alternating the
following sounds without vowels :
s th
s th
s th
s th
zdh
zdh
zdh
zdh
wh f
wh f
whf
whf
W V
W V
W V
W V
rl
rl
rl
rl
Shut Consonants.
Another series of consonants results from
{complete stoppage of the mouth-passage.
Thus : Back Shut means closure of the back
of the tongue on the soft palate (K-G-) ; Top
Shut means closure of the top of the tongue
on the roof of the mouth (Palatal T-D);
Point Shut means closure of the forepart of
the tongue on the alveolar arch (T-D) ; and
Lip Shut means closure of the lips (P-B).
The sounds of these shut consonants are,
36 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
of course, incapable of prolongation. Their
vocalized forms (G D B) are, therefore, heard
only as momentary murmurs ; and their non-
vocal forms (K T P) receive their only audi-
bility from the act of removing the organic
contact. Thus the pronunciation of the word
" stop " does not end with the closing of the
lips, but with their separation after contact.
This separation is generally further audible
in the little puff which results from previous
compression of the breath.
A Principle of Organic Action.
This principle of organic separation, as a
part of consonant action, applies to fricative
as well as to shut consonants. The rule may
be laid down thus : A consonant consists of
two parts a position and an action; the
position, one of conjunction the action one
of separation : and both are necessary to
perfect articulation.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 37
Nasal Consonants.
Each of the shut positions yields a Nasal
consonant. The oral channel being entirely
closed, the top of the soft palate is depressed
and the breath or voice flows freely behind
it, into the nose.
In their non- vocal forms the nasal conso-
nants have but little audibility because of
the absence of compression, and consequently
of fricative quality ; but in their vocal forms
the nasals are, from the same cause, as purely
sonorous as vowels. Thus the sound of n is
often used to form a syllable without a
vowel ; as in
given, dozen, eaten, cfec.
The Nasal consonants are :
Back Nasal n in ink
Top Nasal
Point Nasal n in front
Lip Nasal m in tempt
Back Nasal Voice . - ng
Top Nasal Voice. . gn (French)
Point Nasal Voice . n
Lip Nasal Voice. . . m
38 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Nasalized Vowels.
Vowels immediately before or after nasal
consonants are very apt to be nasalized ; and
the nasalizing habit is not infrequently ex-
tended to vowels in all positions. To cure
this tendency, the ear must first be made
conscious of the difference between a purely
oral and a partially nasal sound. Then, the
learner should make a slight break between
nasal consonants and adjoining vowels, until
the requisite power of fluent sequence is
attained.
English Nasals are purely nasal, but all
English vowels should be purely oral. The
French elements e?i, in, on, etc., are semi-
nasal vowels, the sound being emitted partly
through the mouth, and partly through the
nose.
Test for Nasality.
The student can easily test himself, and
find out whether his vowels are nasalized, by
repeatedly pressing his nostrils while he
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 39
prolongs a vowel sound. If the voice is
purely oral, pressure on the nostrils will
have no effect; if the voice is in any degree
nasalized, a pulsation of the sound will in-
form him of the fact.
Throat Consonants.
Contraction of the throat-passage above
the glottis, creates a friction on the breath
which is heard as an element of speech
(vocalized) in Ghain (Arabic). The name of
this element is Throat ; when vocalized,
Throat Voice ; when nasalized, Throat Nasal,
and Throat Nasal Voice.
Pseudo Voice.
The throat sound is also heard as a pseudo
voice, in growling, and in strong stage
whisper. These effects are produced by
vibration of the epiglottis. Another semi-
vocal crackling sound is formed in the glottis
as a pseudo voice ; that is, a sound on which
articulation may be based. This has a chok-
ing effect.
40 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Throat Shut.
Closure of the throat-passage creates an
element which is used in some dialects as a
substitute for k. This is the same effect
which is heard at the commencement of a
cough. French phoneticians call it coup de
la glotte. The name of this element is
Throat Shut. Of course this sound cannot
be vocalized, because it has no issue of
breath.
Aspirate H.
A frictionless emission of breath through
the open throat is the effect of the Aspirate
H. H may be considered as a non- vocal
form of all vowels, because the position of
the mouth is assimilated to that for the
vowel that follows the h. Thus h before e
may be called a formative e, before o a
formative o, etc.
Whisper.
Such formative vowels are silent, because
the throat passage is too open to give fric-
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 41
tional audibility to the breath. True non-
vocal vowels receive a degree of compression
in the throat which renders them distinctly
audible. This effect is called Whisper.
Trills.
When the organ acted on by the breath is
lax and free to vibrate, it is made to
shake and rattle. Thus the throat yields a
trill of the epiglottis; the soft palate
yields a trill of the uvula; the forepart of
the tongue yields a trill ; and the lips yield
a trill. These are called Throat Trill, Back
Trill, Point Trill, and Lip Trill.
Clicks.
In ordinary utterance the breath is in con-
tinuous outward flow, with momentary in-
terruptions from shut positions of the mouth ;
but the elements called Clicks are suctions.
The breath is held in, either at the throat, or
by a Back position of the tongue, while the
anterior organs the forepart of the tongue
and the lips move suctively from shut po-
42 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
sitions. The resulting sounds are elements
of speech, in Zulu and other African
tongues.
Inter jectional Clicks.
The Clicks are also used by ourselves, as
Interjections. Thus the Top Click and the
Point Click are common expressions of im-
patience or annoyance ; the Side Click is
used to incite a horse to motion : and the
Lip Click is used as a call to a dog. The
latter is also familiarly heard in the act of
osculation. In linguistic use the Clicks offer
no more interruption to the flow of voice
than do our p's and t's and k's.
Teaching the Deaf.
Students of Articulation, and especially
the Deaf, are very apt to give undue promi-
nence to the different organic actions.
Speech is thus made heavy and labored;
and fluency is the last quality acquired.
The opposite order should be the aim of
instruction, namely, to give fluency first,
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 43
and leave accuracy to the last. A prattling
infant may be taken as the best model for a
beginner, in the Art of Speaking. The in-
fant makes a continuous sound, and moves
his lips and tongue at random. This babble
is fundamental speech. It only needs to be
regulated, and conventionized to become in-
telligent language.
Fluency.
So, a deaf learner should first be taught to
make a continuous sound, of any vowel
quality, and, with lip and tongue in random
motion, make all possible changes, until the
relation, and the difference, between voice
and oral action is felt and understood. Then
wall be the proper time to begin a discrimi-
nation of the elementary actions, and to
teach them as parts of speech.
But, remembering that the formation of
Shut consonants, and even of Suction Clicks,
does not interfere with the continuity of
voice, let the student ever keep this con-
44 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
tinuity in view, in his efforts to master any
of the details of articulation. In practising
on a new element, for example, let him first
" babble " it on a stream of vocal sound, and
so secure fluency as the primary requisite.
Impediments of Speech.
The babbling exercise described in the
preceding section is one of the most useful
in removing impediments of speech. These
impediments called Stuttering and Stam-
mering are interruptions of vocal con-
tinuity, accompanied by stoppages of breath,
pressures, and suctions, such as are legiti-
mately used in speech, but which become
faults, when they are obtruded obstruc-
tively, on the pathway of vocal sound.
The action of the oral organs in speech
should be from close to open positions that
is, from consonant to vowel ; so that the
vowel sounds are practically continuous, and
the consonant sounds are only momentary
transitional interruptions.
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 45
In stammering and stuttering, the action
of the organs is from open to close positions
that is, from vowel to consonant ; and the
organs thus brought into contact are pressed
together, so that voice can find no egress ; or
they start off, jerkingly, and repeat the act
of contact again and again, before a steady
channel for the voice can be obtained.
These faults of speech are mainly habits^
which can be corrected by training. A
knowledge of the Science of Speech is the
best director of efforts to remove the impedi-
ments.
Articulative Defects.
Other defects of speech such as Lisping,
Burring, Lallation, <fec. consist merely in
the substitution of one organ for another, or
one mode of organic action for another. The
most common of these defects are : Guttural
instead of Lingual vibration for R ; Divided,
instead of Centre, emission, for hissing
sounds as tli for s ; Point, instead of Back,.
46 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
Shut positions as t for k ; Non-vocal instead
of Vocal formations, or vice versa; Nasal
instead of oral emission ; Obstructed nasality,
<fec All these errors, save in the rare cases
of congenital malformation, are susceptible of
perfect correction.
Management of the Breath.
Breath being the material of speech, the
management of the breath is a matter of first
importance, to the health, comfort, and vocal
power of the speaker. There is no suction
needed to fill the chest with air. The bony
framework has only to be raised, and atmos-
pheric pressure will immediately fill up the
cavity so created within the chest.
Students, both of speaking and singing,
have been bewildered and misled by erro-
neous teaching in regard to vocal respiration.
Raise the chest, and keep it raised, and you
need not think of the breath at all. It will
attend to itself.
The chest may be considered as a curtain-
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 47
rod, from which the abdomen hangs as a
curtain. Keep the rod high, and the curtain
entirely passive, so that it may be free to
move, inward or outward, independently of
the chest : Or, consider the chest as a frame
of cast-iron, incapable of motion, whose
whote function is to support the soft organs
pendent below it ; and, if the throat-passage
to the lungs be but open, the breathing will
be easy, regular, silent, and full, without
effort. Speaking and singing, so conducted,
are among the most healthful of exercises.
Articulative Impulse.
Speech uses very little breath. The
throat-passage in the glottis is contracted to
a mere fissure in the formation of voice ; and
there is so little waste, that the speaker's
pauses are as much to let off superfluous
breath, as to replenish the lungs. Then,
consonants are often mere motions, which
involve scarcely any expenditure of breath.
And, besides, the impulse of articulation
48 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
does not come from the chest, but from the
pharynx ; and affects only the breath within
the mouth. Any amount of compression
and percussion may be given by the pharynx
to the confined breath ; so that emission
from the lungs is not necessary to the audi-
bility of consonant actions.
This last fact is one on which the reader
may well ponder. The firm extrusive im-
pulse of the pharynx, which it implies, is a
power that may be new to him in theory, but
which will prove its reality by cultivation.
Expulsive Clicks.
The consonant actions, p, t, &, may be
formed with strong explosiveness, without
emission from the lungs; thus producing a
series of what may be called expulsive clicks,
in contradistinction to suctive clicks.
Articulation in Singing.
All that has been said here, in reference
to the articulation of speech, applies equally
to the articulation of song. We ought to
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 49
hear the singer's every syllable ; and that
without the slightest detriment to his vocali-
zation. One who does not articulate his
words is a mere Instrumentalist upon the
Larynx, and
NOT A SINGER,
An exercise for the development of pharyn-
geal power will form a fitting conclusion to
this treatise.
Pharyngeal Exercise.
Hold in the breath at the throat, and read,
without issue of either voice or whisper. All
the actions of articulation including even
the organic separations of m, n, I, f, th, s,
cfec. should be audible, without throat-sound
of any kind. After a little practice, this voice-
less mouth-reading should be fairly intelli-
gible to a near-by listener ; although words
containing only h and vowels will yield no
audible effect. The next and culminating
step will be, to unite this crisp articulation
with vocality, and so, form that rare speci-
men of scholastic art,
A GOOD SPEAKER.
50 THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH.
ENGLISH ELEMENTS,
WITH THE TERMINOLOGY OF VISIBLE SPEECH
AND KEY- WORDS.
Vowels and Glides. Key- Words.
High Front eel
High Front Wide ill
Mid Front with Y glide ale
Mid Front Wide with K glide air
Low Front ell
Low Front Wide an
Mid Top Wide a (article)
Mid Back Wide ask
Low Back Wide ah
Low Top Wide with R glide en-
Mid Back : up
Low Back W T ide Round doll
Low Back Round all
Mid Back Wide Round with R glide ore
Mid Back Round with W glide old
High Back Wide Round pull
High Back Round pool
Mid Back Wide with Y glide isle
Mid Back Wide with W glide owl
Low Back Wide Round with Y glide oil
Y and High Back Wide Round with R glide cure
Y and High Back Round cue
THE SCIENCE OF SPEECH. 51
Consonants. -Key- Words.
Back Shut ......................... speak, keep
Back Shut Voice .................. beg, get
Back Shut Nasal Voice .............. song
Front ...... ...................... hew
Front Voice ........................ yew
Top Mixed ......................... ash, she
Top Mixed Voice ................... rouge, giraffe
Point Voice .... ........ ............ errand, run
Point Divided Voice ................ all, law
Point Shut ........................ eat, tea
Point Shut Voice .................. add, day
Point Shut Nasal Voice ............. own, no
Point Mixed ....................... ace, say
Point Mixed Voice .................. ease, zeal
Point Mixed Divided ................ oath, thin
Point Mixed Divided Voice .......... with, then
Lip Divided ....................... safe, fail
Lip Divided Voice .................. save, veil
Lip Mixed ........................ wheel
Lip Mixed Voice ................... weal
Lip Shut ..... ............... ...... ape, pay
Lip Shut Voice ..................... ebb, bed
Lip Shut Nasal Voice ................ aim, may
Aspirates ........ hay, he, high, hoe, who, how, hoy
Point Shut and Top Mixed .......... each, cheek
Point Shut and Top Mixed Voice ..... edge, gem
Back Shut and Point Mixed ......... expect
Back Shut and Point Mixed Voice. . . exalt
INDEX.
The following Index will be useful in furnishing a
basis for questions in the examination of learners.
For example :
What is the organic cause of vowel quality ?
What is a Back vowel ?
What is a Top vowel?
What is a Front vowel ?
What is meant by delabializing a vowel ?
&c., &c., &c.
Vowels.
PAGE.
Organic Cause of vowel quality 9
Back, Top, and Front vowels 9
Effect of the lips on vowels 10
Labialized vowels , 10
Elevation of the Tongue in forming vowels 11
High, Mid, and "Low vowels 11
The delabializing of vowels 12
Nine vowels individualized and located 13
Primary and Wide vowels 14
Cause of Wide quality 14
54 INDEX.
PAGE.
Eighteen vowels tabulated 15
Wide vowels a discovery of Visible Speech 15
Sounds of the Front vowels '., .. 17
Back Wide vowels clearer than their Primaries. . 17
Sounds of the Back vowels 18
Sounds uncovered by delabializing Round vowels 18
Sounds of the Top vowels 18
The letter R associated with Top vowels 19
The Natural vowel 19
Rounding of vowels 19
Symmetry between tongue elevation and labial
aperture 20
Gamut of Thirty-six vowels 20
Possibilities of theoretical increase 21
Guttural imitation of Rounding. 21
Illustration of Rounding by the hand 22
Sounds of Back Round vowels 22
Sounds of Top Round vowels 23
Sounds of Front Round vowels 23
Delabializing Front Round vowels 24
Sounds are realities 24
Good pronunciation 25
Glides.
Non-syllabic, vowel-like sounds 25
The English Glides 26
INDEX. 55
Consonants.
PAGE.
Difference between vowels and consonants 27
Consonantizing vowels and vowelizing consonants, 28
Sounds of R illustrate both classes 29
Back consonants at different elevations 30
German sounds of ch 30
Vocalized consonants 31
Mixed consonants 31
Centre-aperture consonants 32
Divided aperture consonants 32
Sounds of Divided consonants 32
L a syllable 33
Exercise on centre emission and side emission. . . 35
Shut consonants 35
Organic separation as a part of consonants 36
Nasal consonants 37
N a syllable 37
Sounds of the Nasal consonants ... 37
Nasalizing vowels 38
Test for nasality 38
Throat consonants 39
Pseudo voice 39
Throat shut 40
The aspirate, H 40
Formative vowels 40
Whisper 40
Trills.. 41
56 INDEX.
PAGE.
Clicks 41
Interjectional use of clicks 42
Teaching the Deaf 42
An infant model 43
Fluency 43
Impediments of Speech 44
Oral action from close to open positions 44
Articulative Defects ... 45
Management of the Breath 46
The Chest 46
Articulative impulse from the pharynx 47
Expulsive Clicks 48
Articulation in singing 48
Pharyngeal Exercise 49
English Elements 50
Index., 53
LIST OF WORKS BY A. MELVILLE BELL.
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