The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel
WILLIAM NEWTON BEST.
AS THE YOUNGEST OF A LARGE
FAMILY IT WAS MY CUSTOM IN
CHILDHOOD TO BRING MY EXAM-
PLES AND COMPOSITIONS TO MY
BROTHERS AND SISTERS FOR THEIR
CORRECTION AND APPROVAL. SO
NOW I BRING TO THEM THESE PAGES,
WHICH REPRESENT THE LABOR OF
MANY YEARS SPENT IN MAKING EX-
HAUSTIVE TESTS, LESS CONFIDENT
OF THEIR APPROVAL, BUT MORE FUL-
LY APPRECIATING THEIR LOVE. TO
THESE DEAR ONES, WHO EACH
IN THEIR OWN WAY, AIDED AND
ENCOURAGED ME IN MY CHOSEN
CALLING, I AFFECTIONATELY DEDI-
CATE THIS BOOK.
IWlifii? The ' ; : _
Science of Burning
Liquid Fuel
A Practical Book for Practical Men
BY
WILLIAM NEWTON BEST
Engineer in Caloric, Member American Railway Master Mechanics'
Assn., American Society Mechanical Engineers, and
American Institute Mining Engineers.
The burners, furnaces and various installations described in
this book are fully protected by Letters Patents,
and all are in successful operation.
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY WILLIAM NEWTON BEST.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1. Liquid Fuel, Its Origin, Production and
Analysis 15
Chaper II. Atomization 21
Chapter III. Oil Systems 30
Chapter IV. Refractory Material 42
Chapter V. Locomotive Equipment 46
Chapter VI. Stationary and Marine Boilers 55
apter VII. Ovens 75
Chapter VIII. Furnaces 83
Index . , 154
333753
The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel,
The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel.
Introduction.
The author of this book began the study of
liquid fuel while Master Mechanic and Superin-
tendent of the Los Angeles Electric Railway in
the year 1887. We used the Daft system of elec-
tricity. This system had previously operated an
electric railway in Boston, Mass. They, however,
did not have the overhead wire, but used the third
rail system. Ours was the first overhead system
of electric railroad in the United States, if not in
the world. A view of the electric motor car then
used on this road is here given. You can also see
the first electric locomotive with two trailers at-
tached. It may be of interest to here state that
after building the Myrtle Avenue branch of this
road (which was a branch of the main line to
Pico Heights), I reported to the Board of Direc-
tors that we should purchase motor cars for the
branch line and not use the electric locomotive
and trailers, because the latter was more costly
to operate, but I also made the statement that in
a few years electric locomotives would be used
instead of steam locomotives in certain branches
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THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 3
of work and for that service they would be better
than electric motor cars. This portion of my
report caused considerable merriment as there
were grave doubts in the minds of many as to
the fulfilment of this prophecy.
The boilers to which I first applied oil as fuel
were the "Hazelton," and manufactured in New
York City. The burners, if such they could be
called, were made of gas pipe, and produced a
round flame. These were soon changed to the
flat type by simply flattening the pipe in a black-
smith's forge so that the nozzle would, in a meas-
ure, produce a flat flame, but which in reality pro-
duced a very uneven, irregular flame. The steam
and the oil passed out in the same direction
through the one orifice which often resulted in
much carbon forming therein, and necessitated
the apparatus being removed quite frequently in
order to remove the carbon which collected in
the mouth piece. The equipment was exceeding-
ly crude. I have since thought it was even more
crude than the oil we were attempting to burn.
We were, however (after much experimenting),
able to get the normal rating of the boiler, but
several months passed before this was accom-
plished. The oil was very heavy, being between
14 and 18 gravity Baume and of asphaltum base.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
While endeavoring to obtain information from
those in the Eastern States and in Russia who
claimed to have burned oil, I found that they
were laymen in the art of burning the new fuel,
and that I would have to put out to sea without
any compass to guide me.
We obtained our supply of crude oil from
wells in the Puente fields about 30 miles from Los
Angeles. Often it was reported that the supply
was about exhausted and at times we were not
sure of getting enough for our requirements.
Again too, the coal interests were endeavoring to
protect themselves from inroads by the oil com-
pany which made the consumer doubly careful.
A number of firms installed oil fuel upon their
boilers but had difficulty with the elements of
the boiler being injured or with not being able to
maintain the required steam pressure. Thus be-
coming disgusted with the new fuel, nearly all of
these firms returned to the use of coal, believing
that the 'kind of crude oil which we had in South-
ern California was not commercially a success as
a fuel. The author however, was never discour-
aged but was alert to each new development in
the changes of brick work, different locations of
the burner and the air openings through which
the air could enter to effect combustion until he
became convinced that it was the fuel of the
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 5
twentieth century. In order to obtain satisfactory
results I realized it had to be scientifically burned
and that careful consideration was necessary in
order to achieve the highest efficiency and the
strictest economy. After twenty-five years of
study, I take pleasure in giving to the world some
of the results achieved by the use of this incom-
parable fuel.
After we had had the new fuel in service for
several years, other manufacturers became im-
pressed with the fact that the California crude oil
could be successfully burned and began to adopt
it as a fuel.
The first locomotive I endeavored to equip
was while I was Master Mechanic of the Los An-
geles and Redondo Ry. Many, many were the
discouragements encountered before success
crowned our efforts and demonstrated that crude
oil was a God-send to both the engineer and fire-
man as this fuel increased the tonnage of the lo-
comotive fully 15% over coal and they could
maintain the steam pressure at just below the
limit required to prevent steam escaping through
the pop valves. So successful was it on this road
that I received a call to another road which had
attempted but failed to burn this fuel. It was while
Superintendent of Motive Power and Machinery
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 7
of this road (The Los Angeles Terminal Ry.,
which afterwards became the San Pedro, Los An-
geles & Salt Lake R. R.), that I invented my own
burner. The locomotive which carried my first
locomotive burner is shown in Fig. 2. I had tried
every form and type of burner up to that time
and saw imperfections of construction and opera-
tion which I strove to obviate by making a burner
foreign to all others.
My experience in burning liquid fuel in fur-
naces began while I was Superintendent of the
California Industrial Company's Rolling Mill in
Los Angeles. We manufactured commercial iron
(bar iron of all sizes and shapes) from scrap iron
and soft steel. Many people have stated that oil
can not successfully weld iron and steel while
others, who have successfully used oil as fuel, state
that oil is the only fuel for this class of work as
it does not change the nature of the metal. As we
only had scrap iron and soft steel to make the
bar iron from and as crude oil was our only avail-
able fuel, it was necessary to weld it perfectly;
and, without fear of contradiction, will say that
no better iron can be made than that produced
with oil fuel, as oil, when properly used, is a puri-
fier of metals.
Since leaving the Rolling Mill I have in-
8 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
stalled oil burners and supplied designs for the
construction of nearly every form of furnace in-
cluding the following: Annealing, asphaltum
mixers, babbit heating, bolt making, brass melt-
ing, brazing, bread ovens, etc., brick and art tile
kilns, case hardening, cast iron melting, cement
kiln rotary, channel iron heating, chocolate bean
roasters, continuous heating, copper plate, core
drying, crematories, crucible brass melting, cru-
cible steel melting, drop forge work, enameling,
flue welding, glass lehrs, glass melting, incinera-
tors, indirect-fired, japanning ovens, ladle heat-
ing, locomotive steam raising, locomotive tire
heating, malleable iron, mould drying, ore smelt-
ing, plate heating, pipe bending, pipe flange weld-
ing, portable torches, rivet making, rolling mill
work, rotary kilns, shaft and billet heating, sand
drying, sheet steel heating, steel melting, steel
mixers, tar stills, tempering, welding scrap iron,
wire annealing, wire making. This book will
show some of the different installations and the
results obtained therefrom.
The burning of liquid fuel is a science, It
can be burned either wastefully or economically.
In order to obtain the highest possible efficiency
and strictest economy from any installation the
oil system must be installed and operated upon
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 9
scientific principles. I am aware that many arti-
cles have been published on oil burning. Some
have contained much valuable information, while
others it has simply been a waste of time to read,
because of the fact that the writer himself was
not familiar with the subject. Several years ago
I read an article on the different methods of burn-
ing oil and when I visited the city in which the
author resides, I called upon the gentleman, for
I desired to ask him several questions on points
not clear to me. This man acknowledged that he
had never burned a gallon of oil in his life and
that his article was simply a compilation of reports
on tests made by others, he not even having been
present at any of the tests. The burners described
in his treatise all seem to fit perfectly and operate
without the slightest difficulty. The equipment
which he described reminded me of an artist's
girl friend who, in describing the ability of the
artist, stated that one of the portraits which she
painted of a gentleman was so perfect that it had
to be shaved twice a week. My point is that if
a man wishes to write a treatise on welding iron,
he should first learn how to make a weld himself
for sometime he is liable to meet a man from
Missouri "who will want to be shown," and Mr.
Author might then be humiliated because of his
imaginary ability. Theory is needed but without
io THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
practical knowledge it is like faith without works,
it is dead. To say the least it is disappointing, es-
pecially in regard to the subject of heat,
which we have been studying for centuries
and by the knowledge of which we have
raised ourselves above the brute creation
and the Stone Age. A short time ago while ad-
dressing some students I asked, "What is the pro-
pelling power of a steam locomotive?" They
thought long and hard, and at last after mention-
ing almost every part of the locomotive one stu-
dent in desperation said "Heat," which of course
is the propelling power of a steam locomotive.
While it is not possible for an engineer in
calorics to tell you how many gallons of oil are
required to run a locomotive over a division of a
railroad without knowing her tonnage and the
average grades or to tell you how much oil a bur-
ner will burn without having full particulars in
regards to installation, or to even guess how much
oil will be used in a furnace without knowing its
exact form and proportions, temperature re-
quired, the size and quantity of metal to be heat-
ed in the furnace per hour or per day, yet he
should have such a knowledge of his business and
the capacity of the oil burner that he can recom-
mend an installation which will not prove a farce.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL n
If it is a copper refining furnace (such as is des-
cribed in this book) he should know the size of
burner required, the amount of air needed to
reduce and refine a given charge of such metal,
or if an annealing furnace he should be capable
of figuring out the graduated size and location of
heat ports necessary to give an even distribution
of heat throughout the entire length, width and
height of the furnace. I consider that a man is
simply playing or guessing who first installs three
or four oil burners in a furnace and then if they
do not give the required heat, installs three or
four more. This is not the intelligent way of sol-
ving an engineering problem. It is simply the
old "rule of thumb."
I have been asked if every man or firm makes
a success of burning liquid fuel. To this I always
answer "No. Many cannot burn oil successfully."
The next inquiry is "Why not?" My answer is
"Some men cannot learn to play the piano, others
the harp. Some women are good cooks but can-
not sew, and vice versa. Many men cannot burn
coal or wood advantageously, and therefore I can
frankly make the statement that many cannot
learn how to burn liquid fuel." I have been often
amused at men wanting to run tests on boilers
and furnaces, using all the different types of burn-
12 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
ers which they can borrow for the occasion. The
men conducting the tests, never having had any
theoretical or practical experience in the burn-
ing of oil or tar, their efforts are not a compliment
to any of the burners. The result is as absurd as
though two men, neither of whom had ever pre-
viously shot off a gun, were to institute a shooting
contest, borrowing as many weapons as they
could from the various gun manufacturers, assur-
ing them that the result of the contest would be
of great advantage to the firm that was fortunate
enough to win in the contest. Let me assure the
reader that the man who has never shot off a gun
(or the man who has never operated a burner)
had better become familiar with their construc-
tion and operation before exhibiting the results
of the contest as otherwise there might be some
people who would not consider their efforts a
criterion, and if their statement is incorrect they
might have to meet the result of said decision in
after years. I have known officials to be dis-
charged because they selected an inferior article
and after years had elapsed, another test with one
of the same burners revealed the fact that the su-
perior device had been rejected at the first test,
resulting in irreparable loss to their firm of hun-
dreds of dollars in fuel and thousands of dollars in
output. Under such circumstances any man
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 13
should be dismissed for incompetency. The most
dangerous man on earth is an egotistical "Jack of
all trades." Personally I would just as soon give
my watch to be cleaned or repaired to a man who
has never repaired one as to give a burner to an
inexperienced man to run one of these so-called
tests.
W. N. BEST.
CHAPTER I.
LIQUID FUEL— ITS ORIGIN, PRODUCTION,
AND ANALYSIS.
Scientists tell us that petroleum is the result
of the decomposition of vegetable matter and
fish during the antediluvian ages. It was first
discovered in the United States in 1859 at Titus-
ville, Pa. During the first year only 2,000 barrels
(42 gallons each) were produced. Since then,
each succeeding year the production and demand
have increased, until the world's consumption
now aggregates 1,000,000 barrels a day. In the
year 1911, the United States alone produced 220,-
440,391 barrels or 63.80% of the total world pro-
duction. Six of the leading states produced as
follows:
California 81,134,391 barrels of oil
Oklahoma .... 56,069,637
Illinois ^; . ^ . 31,317,038 " V "
Louisiana 10,720,420 "
West Virginia . . 9,795,463 " " "
Texas 9,526,474 " "
There are two kinds of oil or petroleum, one
having parafine base and the other asphaltum
16 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
base. Either may be used as fuel in its crude
state, but both are largely distilled in order to
obtain the more volatile oils, such as gasoline,
benzine, kerosene, etc. The residue is called Fuel
Oil and is used in every class of service where
coal, coke, wood or gas can be used. It has proven
a most superior fuel because the operator has the
fire under perfect control at all times and can at-
tain and maintain the heat required.
The analysis of Fuel Oil is as follows:
Carbon 84.35%
Hydrogen 11.33%
Oxygen 2.82%
Nitrogen 60%
Sulphur 90%
Gravity, from 26 to 28 Baume.
Weight per gallon, 7.3 Ibs.
Vaporizing point, 130 deg. Fahr.
Calorific Value varies from 18,350 to
19,348 B. T. U. per Ib.
Analysis of Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil:
Carbon 84.60%
Hydrogen 10.90%
Sulphur 1.63%
Oxygen 2.87%
Gravity, 21 Baume.
Weight per gallon, 7.5 Ibs.
LIQUID FUEL-ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, ANALYSIS 17
Calorific value, 19,060 B. T. U. per Ib.
Vaporizing point, 142 deg. Fahr.
Analysis of California Crude Oil: (heavy oils)
Carbon ....................... 81.52%
Hydrogen .................... 11.01%
Sulphur ........................ 55%
.................... 6.92%
Oxygen j .....................
Gravity varies from 12 to 36 Baume.
Weight per gallon, 7.6 Ibs.
Calorific value varies from 18,462 to
20,680 B. T. U. per Ib.
Vaporizing point, 230 deg. Fahr.
Analysis of Mexican Crude Oil: (Tampico Fields)
Carbon ....................... 82.83%
Hydrogen .................... 12.19%
Oxygen .................. . ..... 43%
Nitrogen ........................... 1.72%
Sulphur ...................... 2.83%
Gravity varies from 12 to 23.8 Baume.
Weight per gallon, 7.82 Ibs.
Calorific value, 18,493 B. T. U. per Ib.
Vaporizing point, 175 deg. Fahr.
Note. — The British unit of heat, or British thermal unit (B.T.U.)
herein referred to, is that quantity of heat which is required to
raise the temperature of i Ib. of pure water I deg. Fahr. at 39 deg.
Fahr., the temperature of maximum density of water.
18 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
At this time the oil fields of Mexico are at-
tracting a great deal of attention because of their
magnitude. The proven territory of oil produc-
ing land in Mexico is considered by many scien-
tists the most valuable fields on this planet, and
those who have carefully examined the fields and
are competent to judge, prophesy that that coun-
try will produce more oil than the combined pro-
duction of all other sections of the world. The
Mexican oil is high in calorific value per gallon,
and is especially adapted for fuel in its crude state
but not for refining. It is therefore fortunate that
these fields have been discovered in order to sup-
ply the growing demand for crude oil, but I be-
lieve that other new fields will be discovered and
developed with the ever-increasing demand until
every coal-producing country will have an abun-
dant supply of petroleum. The crude oil of Rus-
sia, Roumania and Borneo has approximately the
same calorific value as that of the Beaumont
fields in Texas, while the oil thus far discovered in
Argentine Republic, Chile and Peru, is of approx-
imately the same calorific value and gravity as
the California petroleum.
Oil tar is a by-product of the water gas system
used in numerous gas works. Coal tar is a by-pro-
duct from coke oven benches. When either of
LIQUID FUEL— ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, ANALYSIS 19
these tars are heated sufficiently to reduce their
viscosity, they are a most excellent fuel. Per
pound their calorific value is less than that of oil
but as they weigh from 9.5 to 10 Ibs. per gallon,
while fuel oil only weighs 7.3 Ibs. per gallon, their
calorific value per gallon is greater than that of
fuel oil. Oil tar has a calorific value of 16,970
B. T. U. per Ib. or 161,200 B. T. U. per gallon,
while that of coal tar is 16,260 B. T. U. per Ib. or
162.600 B. T. U. per gallon.
Analysis of London Tar and Tar from Domin-
ion Coal:
Carbon
Hydrogen
ISTitroapn
London
77.53
6.33
1.03
Dominion
81.50
5.68
JL « A V* ^ ^^ Al
Oxygen
Sulphur
14.50
.61
12.45
.37
20
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
The following list showing typical value of
the various kinds of fuel may be of service to the
reader:
KIND
B. T. U.
Per Lb.
Lbs.
Per
Gal.
B. T. U.
Per Gal.
Liquid
Fuel Oil (residium of Petroleum) ....
Beaumont crude petroleum
19,000
19,060
7-3
7-5
138,700
142,950
California
Lima
Pennsylvania crude
19,500
1 8 O40
7.6
7-5
7.5
147,200
141,150
142,050
Kerosene • • •
16120
7-2
116,000
Gasolene
14 20O
S-9
83.780
Denaturized Alcohol
T? i An
S-7
74,900
Alcohol (QO per cent) . . .
10 080
5.6
56,500
16260
10. 0
162,600
Oil "
1 6 970
9-5
161,200
Solid
Pocahontas coal
I ^ 301
Bituminus " (Pittsburg)
T2 141
" " (Illinois)
10 506
Anthracite
n 180
Coke
13.000
Gaseous
Illuminating Gas (City coal gas)....
Natural Gas ....
PerCu. Ft.
550 to 650
800 to i ,000
Producer Gas
130
3>l/4 Bbls. Oil (42 gals, per bbl.) — 5000 Ibs. Hickory.
3% Bbls. Oil (42 gals, per bbl.) = 4550 Ibs. White Oak.
CHAPTER II.
ATOMIZATION.
Thousands of patents have been issued by our
government to inventors covering oil or tar atomi-
zers or burners. Many of these inventions involve
the same principle and all may be grouped in three
distinct classes, viz.: mechanical, internal mixing
and external atomizing. Many people have sup-
posed that by simply mashing down a piece of pipe
and coupling it to a steam or air and oil supply
line, they have evolved a cheap burner; a burner
which in 99 cases out of 100, they have seen work-
ing in some other shop. They very seldom state
just where they have seen it in operation and often
claim that it is their own invention and that it only
cost about fifteen or twenty cents to make. But
there is another side to be considered. The first
cost of an article may be a trifle but that is no sign
that the article is really cheap. One must consider
what the device will have cost in time, labor and
fuel at the expiration of a year or more. One of
the greatest abuses of liquid fuel is the endeavor
to use it with burners that do not thoroughly atom-
ize the oil and evenly distribute the heat through-
out the entire fire-box or the charging space of
22 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
the furnace. A burner should be of such construc-
tion that it can be filed or fitted to make a long
narrow flame or a broad fan shaped blaze fitting
the entire length and width of a fire-box or fur-
nace as evenly as a blanket covers a bed. A burn-
er, wherein the base of the fuel carbonizes over
the fuel passage, is absolutely worthless for it
should be capable of atomizing any gravity of fuel
procurable in the open market without either
clogging or carbonizing, no matter whether it be
fuel oil of very light gravity or crude oil, oil tar
or coal tar. A burner is not worthy of considera-
tion unless it enables the operator to burn any
gravity of liquid fuel, for no manufacturer should
be limited to the purchase of one particular kind
of fuel. There should be no internal tubes, needle
points or other mechanism which will clog, wear
away, or get out of order readily. Each burner
should be thoroughly tested, so that when it leaves
the shop where it is made, the manufacturer knows
that it will fill the requirements for which it is
being furnished. With high pressure air or steam
as atomizer a burner, having the oil orifice below
the atomizer orifice and independent of same, is
preferable because there can be then no liability
of the fuel solidifying or carbonizing over the
atomizer slot at the nose of the burner.
ATOMIZATION
•23
AIR OR
DRY STEAM
OIL OR TAR
Fig. i. High Pressure Oil Burner.
As the fuel passes out perpendicularly, it is struck by the
atomizer coming out horizontally and atomized so thoroughly
that each drop of fuel is dashed into 10,000 molecules and looks
like a spray or fine mist.
The first time a burner is operated there is usually some
difficulty because of red lead, sand, scale or small particles of
solid matter being in the pipes. As the fuel orifice is large, any-
thing in that line of pipe is readily expelled but as the atomizer
orifice is very small (ordinarily only 1-32 of an inch in height),
a hinged lip is provided so that by slackening a set screw and
turning on the atomizer, the lip is raised and the foreign sub-
stance blown out.
This burner can be filed to throw either a long narrow
flame, or a fan shaped blaze 9 ft. wide.
24 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Considering that air contains 20.7 parts oxy-
gen and 79.3 parts nitrogen, at 62 deg. Fahr. 1 Ib.
of air occupies 13.141 cu. ft. At 100 deg. Fahr.
this air occupies 14.096 cu. ft. Theoretically it
requires 13y2 to 14y2 Ibs. of air to effect the per-
fect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil. Allowing 14 Ibs.
at 62 deg. Fahr. it would require 183.97 cu. ft. of
air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib. of oil or
at 100 deg. Fahr. it would require 197.34 cu. ft.
of air. Practically it requires from 17y2 to 19y2
Ibs. of air to effect perfect combustion of 1 Ib.
of oil. Allowing 19 Ibs. at 62 deg. Fahr. this air
occupies 249.68 cu. ft. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it oc-
cupies 267.82 cu. ft. Allowing 1 gal. of oil to weight
7y2 Ibs., practically it requires 142y2 Ibs. of air to
effect the perfect combustion of 1 gal. of oil or
18726/7 cu. ft. of air at 62 deg. Fahr. or at 100 deg.
Fahr. it will require 2009y4 cu. ft. It is therefore
essential that liquid fuel be thoroughly atomized
so that the oxygen of the air can freely unite with
it. Except where mechanical burners are used,
the fuel is atomized by means of high or low pres-
sure air or steam. Compressed air or steam is
preferable to low pressure air because it requires
power to thoroughly atomize liquid fuel. With
low pressure or volume air, you are limited to the
use of light oils, whereas with compressed air or
steam as atomizer, you can use any gravity of
ATOMIZATION
Fig. 2. Low Pressure or Volume Air Burner with
Oil Regulating Cock.
The construction of this burner is such that the air supply is regu-
lated at the mouth of the burner; thus you get the benefit of the full
impact of the air against the fuel at the mouth of the burner.
The oil flows downwardly through the sheet of air.
Low oil pressure can be used and is preferable.
There are no internal tubes, needle points or other mechanism to
wear out, clog, carbonize or get out of order.
Used only with light crude oil or fuel oil.
26 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
crude oil, fuel oil, kerosene or tar which will flow
through a i/2" PJpe. For stationary boilers, steam
at boiler pressure is ordinarily used to atomize
the fuel. In furnaces the most economical method
of operation is the use of a small quantity of com-
pressed air or dry steam through the burner to
atomize the fuel, while the balance of the air nec-
essary for perfect combustion is supplied inde-
pendently through a volume air nozzle at from 3
to 5 oz. pressure. Every particle of moisture which
enters a furnace must be counteracted by the
fuel and it is therefore essential, if steam is used
as atomizer, that it be as dry as possible. It is
folly to attempt to use steam as atomizer on a
small furnace especially if the equipment is loca-
ted some distance from the boiler room, for oil
and hot water do not mix advantageously. Nu-
merous tests have proven that with steam at 80
Ibs. pressure and air at 80 Ibs. pressure, by using
air there is a saving of 12% in fuel over steam, but
of this 12% it costs 8% to compress the air (this
includes interest on money invested in the neces-
sary apparatus to compress the air, repairs, etc.),
so there is therefore a total net saving of 4% in
favor of compressed air.
As the use of steam means a waste of fresh
water (which is a very scarce article on sea-going
ATOMIZATION 27
vessels), mechanical burners are attractive for
marine service and many vessels have recently
been equipped with them. With many of these
burners you are, however, limited to very light
crude or fuel oil and there has been considerable
difficulty experienced in preventing the parafine
or asphaltum base of the fuel from clogging the
delicate mechanism of the burner. The grade
of oil required for the average mechanical burner
can not be obtained in every country and as that
capable of being refined, is being so largely dis-
tilled in order to obtain the more volatile and
valuable oils, the supply of this light oil is very
limited. A centrifugal air compressor operated
by a modern type of turbine engine (fig. 4, page
40), has been developed, which, in the opinion
of the writer, will attract a great deal of attention
from marine engineers because with this system
any gravity of liquid fuel procurable in any sec-
tion of the world is thoroughly atomized, perfect
combustion is effected, and as the system is pro-
vided with condensers, there is no appreciable
waste of fresh water. This apparatus is light, com-
pact, durable, and efficient, and furthermore,
high pressure is not required on the fuel. 20 Ibs.
air pressure is carried with this system to atomize
the fuel.
28 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 3. Mechanical Burner.
This type of burner is particularly adapted for marine service
to prevent waste of water or in works where steam or compressed
air are not available.
It is necessary to use from 80 to 400 Ibs. pressure on the 'oil
supply line to the burners, this varying, of course, with the gravity
of fuel. The oil used through this burner should be heated to
just below the vaporizing point. The internal construction is
such that the fuel is atomized while passing through the body of
the burner and out of the nose.
ATOMIZATION
29
Fig. 4. Burner for natural or commercial gas. Can be made to
produce a long narrow flame or a fan shaped blaze according to
requirements. Operated with either volume or compressed air.
Fig. 5. A flat flame pulverized coal burner. The flame can be
supplied to any width of furnace desired. The apparatus is simple
to operate and has no intricate working parts.
CHAPTER III.
OIL SYSTEMS.
The method or manner whereby liquid fuel
is supplied to the burners is commonly called the
"oil system." Requirements vary according to
the type of the installation and the fuel burned,
but any one who has burned oil for a short time
appreciates that the designing of an oil system is
quite an engineering feat for so much of the suc-
cess of the equipment depends upon the oil sys-
tem. Perfect combustion is C02, imperfect is
CO. If you have one moment carbon dioxide
and the next moment carbon monoxide, you can
readily see the fuel is not scientifically consumed
and this results in irreparable loss in time and
fuel. The air pressure should be constant and the
fuel should flow to the burner under a constant
steady pressure, no matter whether that pressure
be 1 lb., 20 Ibs. or more to the square inch. Light
oils, which vaporize at about 130 deg. Fahr., need
not be heated but heavy oil or tar must be heated
sufficiently to reduce the viscosity so that it will
flow readily. This is ordinarily done by means
of steam coils. Care, however, must be taken not
OIL SYSTEMS
Of TH£K*OM&r£R
SUPPLY /*lf£
*^ F#OM f9 ° TC Z60 °
O/i. SUPPLY A»/f//V
OH
A7/9//V
Fig. i. Above cut illustrates manner of placing thermometers on
main oil supply lines or on oil supply pipe to burner.
It is highly important to never guess at the temperature when
heating heavy oils or tars. These fuels must be heated to just below
the vaporizing point, and no one can intelligently guess at this temper-
ature. Thermometers should be placed at various points throughout
the works, and one should be conveniently placed for the man who is
responsible for keeping the proper temperature upon the fuel.
32 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
to get the fuel too hot, for if it vaporizes you can
not pump it. The vaporizing point of the various
fuels has already been given in this volume, and
as steam at 100 Ibs. pressure is 338 deg. Fahr. you
can readily see that it is possible to heat the fuel
above the vaporizing point. In laying the piping
care must be taken to keep the oil supply pipes
below the level of the burner in order to prevent
the formation of vapor pockets, which are liable
to entirely shut off the flow of fuel. All pipe fit-
tings should be malleable iron. All unions on
pipe lines must be either ground joint or flange
unions with lead gaskets. Rubber gaskets can
not be used because liquid fuel soon disintegrates
the rubber. The use of a paste of litharge and
glycerine on all pipe joints will prevent their leak-
ing. It is essential to place a strainer made of
wire netting in the tank to prevent lamp black
or other foreign substances from getting into the
pipes and valves and clogging them.
No sane person to-day would venture near
a storage tank with a lighted pipe, cigar, torch or
any light, other than electricity, but in or-
der to prevent conflagration and serious loss of
property through a steel storage tank being
struck by lightning, or getting on fire through
some accident, it is wise to run a large steam
OIL SYSTEMS 33
pipe line from the boiler room into the top of the
tank. There should be a large number of holes
in the pipe in the tank so that when the steam
valve in or near the boiler room is opened, the
steam will be widely diffused over the fuel in the
tank.
Of course, the most simple system is that of-
ten used in gas works, mines and other places,
where there are no insurance regulations or city
ordinances to prevent one from placing the tank
so that the fuel will flow by gravity, the supply
being controlled by the necessary valves. The
bottom of the oil tank is ordinarily placed from
four to six feet above the level of the burners
but in gas houses often the tank is placed on top
of the boiler so that the heat in the boiler room
will heat the fuel sufficiently to reduce its vis-
cosity.
Fig. 2 shows an oil supply system which con-
forms with the Underwriters' requirements and
which is used in hundreds of plants. The storage
tank, placed at some distance from any building,
is covered with two feet of earth. As the average
oil tank car contains about 6000 gal. I always rec-
ommend oil storage capacity of 10,000 gals, if
the plant is on a railroad siding. Either one large
tank or small ones coupled together as shown
OIL SYSTEMS 35
may be used. A reciprocating pump is preferable.
I never advocate a rotary pump except when
nothing but light oils will be used and even then
a rotary pump has a tendency to churn the fuel
into a foam, thereby causing slight but noticeable
explosions in the fire-box or furnace. By means
of the pump, pulsometer and a pressure release
valve (set at 12 Ibs. pressure), with this system
12 Ibs. pressure is constantly maintained on the
main oil supply line whether one or a dozen burn-
ers are in operation. While light oil which vapor-
izes at about 130 deg. Fahr. does not need to be
heated, oil of 16 gravity Baume is first heated by
means of a steam coil in the storage tank and then
by the exhaust from the pump so that after pass-
ing through this heater, it is fed to the burner at
just below the vaporizing point.
As the base and residium of very heavy oil,
oil tar or coal tar has a tendency to clog the pres-
sure valve used in the above system and render
it worthless, it is sometimes advisable to install
a "valveless system" similar to that shown in Fig.
3. In this case that portion of the oil pumped
which is not used by the burners, flows into a
column or stand-pipe of sufficient height to give
six or eight Ibs. pressure on the oil line, and then
back again to the storage tank. With this arrange-
OIL -SYSTEMS 37
ment there can be no fluctuation in the oil pres-
sure. Should the fuel be accidentally heated at
any time above the vaporizing point, you will
note that this vapor can readily pass out of the
top of the standpipe through a vent pipe extend-
ing above the roof of the building and ten feet
from any smoke stack.
In Fig. 4 is shown oil system used for heating
hotels, office buildings, etc. An electric motor
operates an air compressor which supplies air to
force the fuel from the storage tank to burner and
also the air required through the burner to atom-
ize the fuel. This system is absolutely reliable
for should a fuse burn out, the oil and air supply
to burner are stopped simultaneously. Or an oil
or gas engine may be used and the compressor
operated by a counter-shaft. In this case should
the engine stop or belt break, the compressor
will at once cease to force the fuel to the burner.
Both these systems are simple, safe and sane.
For marine service, where the prevention of
the waste of fresh water requires careful consider-
ation, a turbine engine with condenser may be
used to operate the oil pump and a compressor
of adequate size to furnish air at sufficient pres-
sure to atomize the gravity of oil obtainable in
any port and to distribute the heat in the fire-box,
also the additional air required in the boiler room.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 4. Compressed Air System.
Adequate for light crude oil or fuel oil only.
OIL SYSTEMS 39
This system as shown in Fig. 5 is very compact,
efficient and economical. While oil used exclu-
sively as fuel cannot compete with the price of
coal in many localities, it is very necessary to use
it to aid the coal fire while carrying peak loads.
To effect the strictest economy, crude oil or
tar must always be heated to just below the vapor-
izing point. With the heavy oil, such as is pro-
duced in Mexico, it is sometimes advantageous
to use an oil superheater so that, as for instance
on a locomotive, if the oil is not heated sufficient-
ly in the storage tank of tender or if the tank has
just been refilled at the end of a division, by pass-
ing through a superheater just before it reaches
the oil regulating cock, it will be fed to the burn-
er at just below the vaporizing point. (See Fig.
6, page 53). When burning heavy oil in furnaces,
if the fuel must come considerable distance, it is
often essential to preheat it near the burner even
if there is a steam heater pipe immediately under
the oil supply line from the storage tank. A su-
perheater is also valuable for heating tar between
the storage tank and the burner so that it will be
of such consistency that it can be readily atom-
ized.
When an ordinary globe valve is used to reg-
ulate the fuel supply, and the valve is partly
OIL SYSTEMS 41
closed, the small opening between the valve pro-
per and the seat acts as a strainer and any resi-
duum or foreign substances in the oil finally
closes the opening and cuts off the supply. We
have here shown an oil regulating cock provided
with a V-shaped, knife-edged, opening in the
plug, which not only has a shearing action on
heavy liquid fuels, but enables the operator to
secure the finest possible adjustment. It is unne-
cessary to make comparison between this cock
and an ordinary globe valve or plug cock to any
intelligent man who has had experience in hand-
ling liquid fuel. When a furnace is working con-
tinuously on one class of work, this cock can be
set by the adjusting screw so that when the burn-
er is stopped for noon hour, or at night, it can be
returned to the same adjustment when again
started.
Fig. 6. Oil Regulating Cock.
CHAPTER IV.
0
REFRACTORY MATERIAL.
Poor fire-brick should never be used as it is
most disappointing both to the builder and owner
of the furnace. It takes as much time and labor
to construct a furnace of poor fire-brick as of
good brick. Poor brick is dear at any price, no
matter what may be the fuel used.
The excessive heat which can be obtained
from liquid fuel, makes it necessary in many in-
stances to use a very superior grade of fire-brick.
For example, in welding furnaces the lining
should be capable of withstanding 3,000 deg.
Fahr. without dripping or melting away, while
in crucible melting furnaces the fire-brick must
be capable of withstanding the high temperature
required to melt fourteen pots of crucible steel at
one heat. These bricks must be non-expanding
for if they were to expand in the same proportion
as silica brick, the furnace lining would become
six inches too long; which amount of expansion
would ruin the construction of the furnace. The
analysis of brick for crucible furnaces is as follows:
Silica 56.15 %
Alumina . . 33.295%
REFRACTORY MATERIAL 43
Peroxide Iron 0.59 %
Lime 0.17 %
Magnesia 0.115%
Water and inorganic matter 9.68 %
In open hearth furnaces a silica brick is es-
sential because it will withstand the required high
temperature and as these furnaces are operated
continually, the expansion and contraction of this
brick has not the detrimental effect in this class
of service which it has in a furnace which is only
operated eight or ten hours daily. In annealing
furnaces owing to the lower temperature required
for the heat-treatment of metals, it is not neces-
sary to use such good quality of brick. It is, how-
ever, essential that these bricks do not expand
nor contract. It is also very necessary that the
furnace be carefully constructed by a competent
furnace builder for the bricks should not be laid in
layers of fire clay the way ordinary red bricks are
laid with mortar but should simply be dipped in
very liquid fire clay solution, and then laid in
place. It is advisable to use special shaped bricks
for lining small furnaces, owing to the fact that
it does not require a skilled mason to place these
blocks in position. For example, two blacksmith
helpers can reline a furnace, having charging
space 18-in. wide, 22-in. deep, by 16-in. high, with
44 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Furnace with front casting removed to show special shaped brick lining.
REFRACTORY MATERIAL 45
13 large accurately shaped blocks in forty min-
utes. As these shapes are interlocking and as the
number of the joints is greatly reduced, this lin-
ing lasts about three times as long as a furnace
lined with ordinary standard size fire-brick. This
fully demonstrates the theory that every fire-
brick joint in the furnace shortens the life of the
construction.
As magnesite brick has no affinity for iron, it
is often used for furnace bottom in welding fur-
naces, etc. For air furnace bottoms a special
grade of sand is necessary, the analysis of which
is as follows:
Silica 89.94
Oxide of Iron 2.64
Oxide of Aluminum 3.26
Magnesia trace
Lime trace
Total Alkali 2.62
Loss on ignition 1.50
CHAPTER V.
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT.
Hundreds of locomotive firemen are to-day
rejoicing because of the discovery of liquid fuel
for instead of their runs being a continuous ardu-
ous task of shoveling coal, they are riding like a
prince on their seat in the cab, gazing out of the
window at the track ahead, safe-guarding their
own lives as well as those of the traveling public
in the train. One hand rests upon the lever of an
oil regulating quadrant by means of which they
can instantly increase or decrease the flow of fuel
Fig. i. Oil Burner.
Only one required for the largest locomotive.
passing into the fire-box. When a locomotive is
changed from coal to oil, its tonnage is increased
15%, for you can at all times maintain the full
boiler pressure of steam. Even while going up the
highest grade or mountain, the steam pressure in
boiler is not lowered and there is absolutely no
smoke. As there are no smoke or sparks emitted,
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 47
the danger of setting fire to forests, bridges, build-
ings, etc., is eliminated, and because of this fact,
oil burning locomotives are used in coal mines,
on divisions passing through timber lands, etc.
Before oil was introduced, timber of inestimable
value was destroyed by sparks in Louisiana, the
Adirondack Mountains, etc.
Great advances have been made in the equip-
ment of locomotives but the types are so numer-
ous, it is difficult to specifically describe these
changes. Formerly it was customary to bolt the
burner to the mud ring below the fire-box door,
directing the flame toward the flue sheet under
an arch made of A-l fire brick. This arch was a
source of great difficulty as it often fell or wasted
away, thus deflecting the heat against the crown
sheet. Again too, often if the flues began to leak,
the water dripping down upon the arch, penetra-
ted the fire-brick, thus generating steam which
caused the structure to crumble and fall. The
most modern practise is to eliminate the arch en-
tirely, the burner being placed at the flue sheet
end of the fire-box substantially as shown in Fig.
2. This insures a reverberatory movement of the
flame and heat for the burner directs the flame
against the fire-brick cross wall at the rear of the
fire-box where it is deflected and drawn forward
48 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 2. Most modern type of locomotive equipment.
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 49
by the exhaust to the flue sheet end of the fire-
box. The grates, of course, are always omitted.
By means of the inverted arch with dampered air
opening, the quantity of air necessary for perfect
combustion is regulated according to require-
ments. When the locomotive is going forward, the
rear damper is open, and while the locomotive is
going backward the front damper is open.
I show but one type of inverted arch, but will
say that these vary in construction. Some have
damper controlling devices by which the fireman
can accurately control the admission of air pass-
ing into the fire-box, while others admit the air
through openings in the burner end of the inver-
ted arch. A fireman who uses judgment in the
operation of the damper type, secures the highest
economy in fuel by admitting just sufficient air
while at the same time allowing no smoke to pass
from smokestack — in other words, he effects per-
fect combustion. Careless firemen who do not
use good judgment in controlling the damper,
make a better record in fuel economy by the use
of the type of inverted arch with air openings at
the burner end. Care should always be taken not
to admit a superfluous amount of air into the fire-
box, as it requires additional fuel to heat excess
quantity air to the temperature of the fire-box.
50 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
The fireman's regulating quadrant takes the
place of the coal shovel on an oil burning engine.
The early history of liquid fuel equipment shows
that many locomotive fire-boxes were ruined be-
cause the fireman inadvertently shut off the fuel
supply while drifting down a long grade or com-
ing into a station. He thought he had a light fire,
but there being none, the cold air, rushing in,
damaged the fire-box and started the flues to
Fig. 3. Fireman's Regulating Quadrant.
Fig. 4. Locomotive Oil Regulating Cock.
leaking. This difficulty is now entirely obviated
by the use of a quadrant attached by means of a
rod to an oil regulating cock (Fig. 4), having a
V-shape knife-edge orifice in the plug, through
which the fuel enters and passing out through a
much larger orifice. With this apparatus you can
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT
Fig- 5- Oil tank placed in former coal space of locomotive tender.
52 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
have the pops operate going up the steepest grade
on any mountain if so desired, or you can hold
the steam at any pressure without varying 5 Ibs.
over the division of any railroad. While drifting,
the lug of the lever or handle of the quadrant en-
gages with a set screw in the hinged latch, which
insures a constant light fire sufficient to maintain
steam pressure and operate the air pump. When
speed or maximum power is required, the lever
is moved towards the left, which increases
the flow of oil. When the engine is placed
in the round house, the hinged latch is thrown
back, and the lever is moved to the right as far as
possible and the top thumb screw tightened. In
this position the lever is stationary and the fuel
supply to burner entirely shut off.
An oil tank, such as can be placed in the for-
mer coal space of the locomotive tender to supply
fuel over a division, is shown in Fig. 5. This tank
can readily be filled. Means are provided for heat-
ing the oil in this tank substantially as shown; also
splash plates in order that the oil may be carried
in this tank the same way as water is carried in
the tender tank. The bottom of the tank is ordin-
arily only one foot above the burner, but with the
form of atomizer shown in Fig. 1, which has a sy-
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT
53
Fig. 6 — Oil Superheater
54 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
phoning action, this pressure is sufficient so that
air is not required to force the fuel to burner.
When heavy oil is cold and viscous, the loco-
motive can not pull her tonnage, and carbon will
lodge on the fire-brick lining of the inverted arch.
Although heated by steam coils in the storage
tank of tender, it is often wise to have heavy vis-
cous fuel pass through a superheater just before
reaches the regulating cock so that it will get to
the burner heated to just below the vaporizing
point. The superheater shown in Fig. 6 is both
simple and durable, and is operated by a globe
valve conveniently placed for the fireman, which
allows the steam to surround the oil pipe, all con-
densation passing out of the drain cock at the bot-
tom of the superheater. Such a device is really
a necessity when the oil tank has been filled at
the end of a division for it takes some time for the
cold heavy oil to become sufficiently heated by
the steam pipe in the tank.
CHAPTER VI.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS.
In some sections of the country where oil is
cheap, it is extensively used in stationary and ma-
rine boilers. For this purpose it is most excellent,
for it insures perfect combustion and a constant
even fire, whereas, in the burning of coal it is im-
possible to keep up an even heat because of its
being necessary to so frequently replenish the
fuel supply. There is no expense for the handling
of fuel and ashes. One man can fire and water-
tend a battery of twelve oil-fired boilers.
In traction power houses where, for about
three hours in the morning and three hours in the
evening, it is necessary to develop twice as much
power as during the rest of the day, the engineers
with oil have no difficulty in developing double
the normal rated horse-power of each boiler with-
out injury to the elements, thus entirely obviating
the necessity of keeping extra boilers with banked
fires. In some plants where coal is ordinarily used
as fuel the boilers carry the peak loads by using a
combination of oil and coal; the burners being
placed in side of fire-box as shown in Fig. 2. Oil
is used in some power plants where they have sto-
56 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
High Pressure Oil Buiner iviuunted for Marine or Stationary
Boilers burning oil or tar exclusively as fuel.
The burner is connected to piping of sufficient length to go
through the front setting of boiler.
By means of the by-pass valve any foreign substances that may
enter the oil pipes can be blown out.
The atomizer lip is hinged and held tight against the body of
the burner but means are provided for raising the lip to blow
out the atomizer pipe in case any foreign substance such as
scale, red lead, etc., should lodge therein. This can be quickly
accomplished without removing burner from boiler.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS
57
Fig. 2. Boiler equipped for the use of oil or tar to aid coal or
breeze fire in carrying peak loads.
58 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 3. Oil or Tar Burner mounted with swivel joints.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 59
kers and where a boiler is called into service
quickly. In this case the oil burner is mounted
with swivel points (see Fig. 3), and when called
into use, it is simply swung from its position at the
side of the boiler and plays its fire over the bed of
coal until the green coal fire has been properly
ignited, after which it is swung out of position and
the burner opening in the side of fire-box is closed
by fire-brick of the exact size and form required to
fill the burner opening.
Another service of great importance and of
growing demand is in large electric light plants
which formerly had a long battery of boilers car-
rying banked coal fires, for during a storm or
threatening weather, many lights are turned on
simultaneously throughout a city, thus necessita-
ting the immediate replenishing of electrical
energy. A number of plants have been changed
to oil by placing the burner in the front end set-
ting of boiler, the grates being covered with a
checker-work of fire-brick, the opening in the
checker-work being of such proportions as to ad-
mit sufficient oxygen for the consuming fuel. A
gas pilot light is constantly kept burning and
when the boilers are suddenly called into service,
the oil burner is started in five seconds by simply
opening the two operating valves and in ten min-
60 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
utes, 150 Ibs. of steam is on the boiler. Of course,
when not under fire, hot water is constantly pass-
ing through these boilers, this being the same
practice as is used in fire-engine houses.
With the average fluctuating load in station-
ary boilers, it requires approximately 147 gallons
of oil having calorific value of 19,000 B. T. U. per
Ib. and weighing 7.5 Ibs. per gal. to equal one long
ton of bituminous coal (2240 Ibs.) having calorific
value of 14,200 B. T. U. per Ib.
The analysis of one of the best coals is as fol-
lows:
Carbon 82.26%
Hydrogen , 3.89%
Oxygen 4.12%
Nitrogen 64%
Sulphur 49%
Ash 8.60%
Total 100 %
Calorific value per Ib. 15,391 B. T. U.
However, the average of good coals has a cal-
orific value of 14,200 B. T. U. per Ib.
There are many types of stationary boilers,
ail of which play their particular part in the manu-
facturing world. Along the lines of railroads old
locomotive boilers, discarded from railway ser-
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 61
Fig. 4. Locomotive Boiler equipped for Stationary Service.
62 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
vice, are often used in water pumping stations.
Oil is an excellent fuel for this work, for the fire-
man can adjust the burjier and have plenty of time
to care for the pumping plant, as he does not have
to regulate the burner for three or four hours at
a time, but of course, he must give attention to
the water supply for the boiler. In Fig. 4 is shown
the manner of equipping such a boiler.
Fig. 5 shows the most modern method of
using oil in marine boilers. Note the combustion
chamber and its construction. This refractory
material aids combustion and insures an even dis-
tribution of heat. The end lap seam of the cor-
rugated fire-box should be protected by fire-brick
and also the shell and staybolt heads should be
protected by a 4l/2 inch cross wall as shown. With
this equipment, by simply raising the cast iron
manhole door, the inspector can readily examine
the boiler.
In a Stirling boiler (Fig. 6), the grates should
be lowered and the burner placed between
the two ash-pit doors. Unless the width of the
fire-box exceeds 7y2 ft., only one burner
giving a fan-shaped flame, is required. Never
remove the arch or arches over the grates for these
are necessary to deflect the heat to and through
the elements of the boiler.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS
Fig. 5. Scotch Marine Boiler Equipment.
64 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 6. Stirling Boiler Equipment.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 65
There are two methods of equipping a Heine
boiler. One is known as the Low Setting and the
other the High Setting. The latter is simply plac-
ing a burner through the firing door as shown- in
Fig. 7, and covering the grates with a checker-
work of fire-brick, leaving a space of % inch be-
tween the bricks, so that the air required for com-
bustion can readily pass up there through. Care
must be taken to have the proper distance be-
tween the flame and the refractory material cov-
ering the grates. I have experimented a great
deal in order to ascertain this distance, and have
found that with a burner giving a fan-shaped
flame there should be 8 in. between the nose of
burner or the Line of Blaze from the burner and
the top of the fire-brick checker-work. In the
"Low Setting" (Fig. 8) the grates are removed
and rows of support brick laid in the ash-pit. On
these the checker-work is placed, leaving % in.
space between bricks if the stack is high or a
greater distance if there is only a short stack. The
"Low Setting" is always preferable because by
removing the grates, you increase the size of the
fire-box thus correspondingly increasing the effi-
ciency of the boiler. With the "Low Setting" you
get practically iy2 Ibs. greater evaporation per
Ib. of fuel than with the "High Setting" and there
66 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 7. Equipment of Heine Boiler — High Setting.
68 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
is no liability of the elements being injured, even
when forcing boiler far beyond its normal rated
horse power. With either the High or Low Set-
ting, the bridge wall is cut down level with the
top of the checker-work so that the heat may be
even throughout the entire length of the fire-box.
In our early attempts to equip a Babcock &
Wilcox boiler, we covered the grates with a check-
er-work of fire-brick, placing the burner in the
front end setting and directing the heat rearward-
ly. Our chief difficulties were the inadequate
size of the chamber in which combustion took
place, a concentration of the heat at the rearward
end of the first pass and an insufficient amount
of heat at the header-end of the boiler. Finally
we removed the grates, placing the fire-brick
checker-work on rows of support brick laid in ash-
pit, and constructed a deflection arch or ledge to
deflect the heat forward, as shown in Fig. 9. Fur-
ther experimenting revealed the fact that the very
best results are obtained by having a distance of
3 ft. between the base line of the setting and the
floor line, and constructing the deflection cross
wall as shown in Fig. 10. It may seem costly to
make the setting so low but this cost is soon offset
by the economy in fuel and efficiency effected
because of your getting the benefit of an even
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 69
Fig. 9. Equipment of Babcock & Wilcox or Altman-Taylor Boiler.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. 10. Most modern and efficient manner of equipping a Babcock
& Wilcox or an Altman-Taylor Boiler.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 71
distribution of heat throughout the first pass of
the boiler.
A return tubular boiler may be equipped by
simply placing checker-work on the grates and
cutting the bridgewall down level therewith as
shown in Fig. 11 but personally I recommend the
"Low Setting," similar to that described under
Heine boiler, see Fig. 8.
Admirable results are obtained from Vertical
Boilers by placing the burner so that the flame
enters the fire-box tangentially, for this causes
a reverberatory movement of the flame and heat
and prevents impingement upon any of the ele-
ments of the boiler. To start the boiler shown in
Fig. 12, when cold in a pumping station or when
used as an auxiliary boiler, we simply break up
a few boxes and pass them in through the fire-
door and in a few moments ten or twelve Ibs. of
steam is raised on this small boiler, which is suffi-
cient to operate the oil burner on this boiler, and
this boiler in turn furnishes steam to operate the
burners of a large battery of boilers.
The Steam Engineering Department of the
United States Navy in 1904 conducted a series of
tests upon a water-tube boiler using oil as fuel.
The Bureau at that time was under the charge of
72 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. ii. Return Tubular Boiler Equipment. "High Setting.
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS
7J
Fig. 12. Tangential Flame Equipment as applied to Vertical Boiler,
74 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
the late Rear-Admiral George W. Melville, and
the tests were conducted by a competent board
of efficient naval engineers, viz.: John R. Edwards,
Commander (now Rear- Admiral), U. S. Navy;
W. M. Parks, Lieutenant-Commander, U. S. Navy;
F. H. Bailey, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. Navy;
and Mr. Harvey D. Williams and Mr. Frank Van
Vleck, two oil experts who served the Board as
secretaries. These gentlemen faithfully dis-
charged their duties and gave to the United States
and, in fact to the whole world, a most accurate
and exhaustive report on the burning of oil in
boilers which still remains the highest authority
on boiler equipment and has done much toward
the introduction of oil in the manufacturing
world as well as in the navies and merchant ma-
rine. We owe this Board a debt of gratitude for
their untiring efforts in our behalf.
CHAPTER VII.
OVENS.
In steel foundries oil is especially attractive
for large mould drying ovens because of the fact
that, if desired, the moulds can be dried 50%
quicker and more thoroughly than by the use of
coal, coke or gas. I can almost hear my reader,
who is the superintendent of a steel foun-
dry and who has never used oil as fuel
on his mould drying ovens say, "I ,do not
care to use a fuel that will heat so quickly
for it would simply ruin the moulds," but my
friend, coal or coke gives a localized heat
whereas by the use of the method of burning oil
shown in Fig. 1 an absolutely even distribution
of heat is obtained throughout the entire oven
which in this case is 44 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 12
ft. high in the clear. This oven is operated with
only one burner. In the combustion chamber,
which runs through the center of the entire length
of the oven, a temperature of 2000 deg. Fahr. is
maintained which insures your securing the high-
est possible efficiency from the fuel. You will
note also that the combustion chamber has heat
ports of graduated size and such location as to in-
76 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
MINIM MM MM MM II I r-H+H-H hH I H -\\\
3-
r
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Fig. i. Oven 44 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. high in the clear
operated with one burner.
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78 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
iff
The above cut illustrates manner of equipping an ordinary Core
or Mold Drying oven in which coke or coal has heretofore been
used. One burner is placed in the former ashpit of each fire
box, and the combustion of the fuel is so perfect that no soot
ever settles on the cores. The Controlling Valves and Oil Regulat-
ing Cock, you will note, are placed in positions convenient for the
operator. As the operator has the fire under perfect control, he
can dry the material as quickly or as slowly as is desired. Liquid
fuel gives a more penetrating heat than coal or coke, and it has
been found, that, if desired, as many cores can be dried in twenty-
five minutes as in three hours while using coal as fuel.
OVENS 79
sure an even distribution of heat. The heat ports
at the farther end of the combustion chamber are
smaller than those at the burner end. These open-
ings must be carefully figured out for the success
or failure of the installation depends largely upon
these ports. The vents for the escape of moisture,
also the consumed and inert gases, should always
be located in the oven roof or arch. Never use
the old stack method. Give the money ordinarily
spent for the construction of a stack to the poor
of the city or to some hospital where it will be of
some service to humanity.
The same form of construction as shown in
Fig. 1 may be used under long battery of Millet
ovens, the heat ports being provided with dampers
so that the supply of heat for each individual oven
may be controlled according to requirements.
Core ovens and ovens for black japanning are
equipped in like manner, but for all light colored
japanning the muffle type of oven is necessary in
order to prevent products of combustion from dis-
coloring the charge.
Enameling ovens are of various types. Us-
ually the muffle oven is used, but if not of this
form, the oil burner is operated before the charge
is put in the furnace. That is, the vessels are
80 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Muffle Furnace for Baking Enamel, Annealing, etc.
OVENS Si
charged into the oven after it has been brought
to the required temperature and the burner shut
off. After this charge has been baked the required
length of time, it is removed and the burner light-
ed so as to heat the oven for the next charge.
Guessing at the temperature of a core or
mold drying oven is simply a waste of time, fuel
and material. If a recording pyrometer is a neces-
sity on a heat-treatment furnace, certainly it is
equally as essential to use a recording heat guage
on the ovens so that the actual temperature may
be a matter of daily record.
82 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Oil Burning Equipment as Applied to Bread Baking Oven.
The bread, etc. is evenly baked for the baker can always regulate
the temperature just as he wishes. No smoke or odor when the oil
is properly handled.
CHAPTER VIII.
FURNACES.
It has been said that we are on the eve of a
new industrial day in shop practice. Experts
have found that many presumably scientifically
equipped modern shops have not reached 70%
efficiency while many, many plants are not ope-
rated above 30% efficiency. The dividends are,
of course, no larger than the production efficien-
cy and yet, to the astonishment of the efficiency
engineers, the proprietors or officials all seem
quite satisfied with the equipment and methods
employed as well as the quantity and quality of
output. I regret to have to further add that my
conclusion after examining the apparatus and
methods employed by numerous plants in the
burning of liquid fuel is that the average plant
does not reach 30% efficiency. Strange as it may
seem, the men in charge will point with pride to
a furnace modelled after that used by Tubal-cain,
who according to the Bible, was this world's first
artificer in iron and brass. One can but smile
as he listens to them orate about an equipment,
which they consider the fruit of their ingenious
minds, but which you know has been used for
84 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
ages and is costing that firm their reputation in
the manufacturing world. It is similar to com-
paring a lathe or drill press made thirty years ago
with our modern apparatus. Modern furnace
construction is an asset which spells out efficien-
cy and profit while an antiquated type of furnace,
constructed by "rule of thumb" is a disappoint-
ment and a constant source of expense.
This is the day of specialists. If your eye has
been injured, you consult an oculist. If an opera-
tion is necessary, the most skilled surgeon is called
in and not the old-time family doctor. A square
box has its place in the world but even when
lined with A-l fire-brick it does not make a mod-
ern oil furnace. Each and every furnace should
be carefully designed and constructed to meet
the requirements of the shop in which it is placed.
As liquid fuel always contains more or less water,
there should always be refractory material near
the burner, heated above the igniting tempera-
ture of the fuel so that after there has been a pock-
et of water, the heat from the brick will at once
ignite the fuel again as soon as it leaves the bur-
ner. Again, too, the heat from the refractory
material aids combustion. As the products of
combustion occupy more space than the fuel and
atomizer did, this refractory material or combus-
FURNACES
85
Furnace serving two Bolt Headers. (Note absence of flame from
charging openings). A furnace of this type is often placed between
a bolt header and a rivet making machine. In either case, it will
serve both machines to the limit of the physical endurance of the
operators. If desired for rivet heating in larger quantities, various
sizes can be heated at one time.
86 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
tion chamber should flare, and be proportionate
to the size of the furnace; or in other words, of
such form and proportions that the consuming
fuel can unite with the air necessary for combus-
tion before it reaches the charging space of the
furnace. This prevents oxidization of the metal
while being heated. Wherever possible only one
burner should be used but the flame from this
burner must fit the combustion chamber and tho-
roughly fill it with heat. Oil gives a rolling flame
and therefore the arch must be of such form that
the flame and heat will reverberate perfectly upon
the charging space of the furnace. In many plants
the arch unfortunately is the hottest portion of
the furnace, but in a scientifically designed weld-
ing or melting furnace where the flame and heat
reverberate perfectly, you can remove an arch
brick, lay it in the charging space and it will be
melted down like soap, while the remaining bricks
in the arch will not even be dripping. I never rec-
ommend the use of a stack except where absolute-
ly necessary as that means you are limited by cli-
matic conditions for we all know a furnace cou-
pled to a stack will not operate as well on a stor-
my or hazy day as when the sky is clear. It re-
quires 2009 cu. ft. free air at 100 deg. Fahr. to
effect perfect combustion of one gallon of the
FURNACES
87
A large coal-fired forging furnace changed to oil fuel by simply
building a combustion chamber of proper form and proportions
in the former fire-box and placing a burner at the end of this
combustion chamber. With this slight change the operator has
now an oil furnace wherein the fire is under perfect control and
from which he obtains a maximum quantity of output of superior
quality.
When a furnace of this type is changed from coal to oil, the
operator almost invariably wishes to operate the furnace just
the same as when burning coal. That is, by having an abundance
of flame (about 2 ft. high) passing out of the door opening. You
might thus run an oil-fired furnace for days without getting a
welding heat, but when the oil fire is regulated so that only a
greenish haze about 6 in. long passes out of the door, CO2 is effected
and in a few moments in the interior of the furnace can be seen a
glow which insures a welding heat, thereby giving not only the
highest efficiency from the fuel but also the greatest output from
the furnace.
88 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
average liquid fuel, but only approximately 20%
of this amount is oxygen, while the balance is
inert gases which unfortunately must be heated
to the temperature of the furnace and expelled
as quickly as possible. In a scientifically designed
furnace, this is readily done by the aid of the bur-
ner. If allowed to pocket or remain stationary in
any portion of the furnace, the inert gases cause
uneven temperature. If these essential features
are all carefully considered, the operator has a fur-
nace in which he can at all times attain and main-
tain the temperature required, the heat is evenly
distributed throughout the entire charging space,
and the fuel consumption reduced to the mini-
mum for the full calorific value of each heat unit
is utilized.
In the heat-treatment of steel we must re-
member that the value of the steel depends wholly
upon the heat-treatment which it receives. Steel
is not like copper, but is a very complex artificial
product. In its annealed state a piece of .90 car-
bon tool steel is composed of ferrite and pearlite,
but these minerals are decomposed when heated
to certain temperatures and others formed. For
example, in heat-treating this tool steel, there is
no perceptible change until 1360 Fahr. is reached:
but if the temperature is increased to 1460, ferrite
FURNACES
Indirect-fired Furnace.
The fire chamber is below the charging chamber and there are
heat ports of graduated size through which the heat is evenly dis-
tributed and as the currents of heat are constantly revolving, this
insures the expulsion of all consumed and inert gases. This type of
furnace is particularly adapted for annealing, case-hardening and
tempering for by optical pyrometer test the temperature does not
vary over ten degrees Fahr. in any portion of the charging space.
90 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
View showing how the heat m an indirect-fired furnace passes
from the heat chamber through graduated heat ports of such size
and location that the temperature is absolutely even throughout
the entire charging space. As long as the fuel and atomizer supply
remains constant, the burner, without any adjustment, will operate
for hours without the slightest variation in the temperature of the
charging space. This type of furnace is used for all classes of anneal-
ing, case-hardening and tempering where the metal must be kept
away from direct flame.
FURNACES
91
Double Shell Annealing Furnace.
The two ovens are heated from below, and the perforated cast
iron drums are revolved by power. The drums are rolled out on
the brackets in front to charge or empty the shells.
92 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
and pearlite have been decomposed and marten-
site is formed. Quenching at this point preserves
the martensitic condition and the metal is hard
and brittle. In carbon steel, martensite is very sen-
sitive to heat and decomposes readily, i. e., if the
steel is heated sufficiently, martensite disappears
and ferrite and pearlite are again formed. For
every variation of heat, there is a variation in- the
grain of the metal. This steel anneals between
1300 and 1350 deg. Fahr.
How important it is therefore to have a fur-
nace of such construction that the temperature
in any portion of the charging space does not vary
more than 10 deg. Fahr.
For the average size indirect-fired furnace,
only one burner should be used, but for a furnace
approximately 18 ft. wide, 22 ft. long x 7 ft. high,
two burners are required. More than two burners
should not be used for it is impossible to regulate
a larger number of burners so as to have the heat
as evenly distributed throughout the entire
length and width of the furnace as it should be in
order to perfectly heat-treat the metal. If this is
important in the annealing or tempering of steel,
it is equally as essential in the case-hardening of
metals.
•FURNACES
93
<$e<:r/ert frr f-f-e-c
Csise H/tRaenifis & tffifif#iM?e fi/A
Indirect-fired Car Annealing Furnace (18 ft. x 22 ft. x 7 ft.) The
end walls of furnace being carried on the cars, it is a very simple
matter to pull them in or out of the furnace. While two cars are
being heat-treated, others are being charged.
94 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Overhead Oil-fired Car Annealing Furnace operated with only
one burner.
FURNACES 95
An indirect-fired furnace is not suitable for
the heat-treatment of high speed alloy steel for
this requires a much higher temperature than car-
bon steel. As the temperature should be above
2000° Fahr., I recommend a direct-fired furnace
having combustion chamber of such form and pro-
portions as to insure the ignition of the oxygen
necessary for perfect combustion with the atom-
ized fuel before it reaches the furnace proper,
thereby reducing the oxidization of the metal to
the minimum.
96
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
A — Oil burner, B — Oil regulating cock. C — Air pipe. D — Oil pipe.
E — Deflection blast pipe. F — Auxiliary blast.
Furnace often used for dressing drills and other high speed steel
tools. It is also valuable for a wide range of forging in smith shops,
etc. Placed between two bolt heaters, a furnace of this type with
charging opening on each side, will serve both machines to the
limit of the men's ability to handle the blanks. A furnace with two
charging openings will produce double the output of the same size
furnace with only one opening, with increase in oil consumption
of less than 30%.
FURNACES
97
A — Oil burner. B — Oil regulating cock. C — Oil pipe D — Air pipe.
E — Deflection blast.
Furnace designed for dressing and tempering high speed tools,
(60 carbon upwards), such as lathe, planer, shaper, slotters, chisels,
flats, capes, etc.
Instead of the blacksmith heating but one chisel at a time as is
the case while using a coal forge, with this furnace seven chisels
can be heated at once without injury to the metal. The heat
being held at the required temperature constantly, a much superior
tool is produced than could possibly be made by the use of coal or
coke. A forging heat can be obtained eight minutes after starting
the cold furnace and it is not necessary to speak of the output as
that is up to the endurance of the man operating the furnace. There
is no waste of fuel while the furnace is not in use.
98 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
7'x?' ANHEAUNG T EM PEKING AND
WITH RtTARY TABLE
7 ft. x 7 ft. Annealing Furnace with Rotary Table.
By means of differential gears the speed of the table is regulated
according to the size of the stock being heat-treated, so that when
the table has made one revolution, the charge is ready to be re-
moved from the furnace.
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FURNACES
101
Fig. i. Semi-pit Furnace for Annealing, Case-hardening or
Heat-treating, with bung arch which can be removed with a crane
or by air hoist. This furnace, operated with one burner, has
charging space 12 ft. long, 5 ft. wide x 4 ft. high.
102
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
For the annealing or heat-treatment of sheet copper or brass in
rolling mills, it is essential that the furnace be accurately and
evenly heated, and for this purpose, oil, scientifically applied, is a
fuel which connot be surpassed. In a furnace, about 8 ft. 6 in. wide
by 30 ft. long, two burners should be installed, while for a smaller
furnace only one burner is required. I know some firms have
equipped these furnaces by installing a large battery of burners,
but the results have always been unsatisfactory as the complicated
operation of all these burners is simply a source of worry to the
operator.
FURNACES
103
PLATE HEATING FURNACE
SPACE 4* wee X9'o*««
Plate Heating Furnace, charging space 8 ft. x 9 ft.
io4 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Plate Heating Furnace, charging space 18 ft. x 30 ft.
This furnace, equipped with only one burner, shows the size of
furnace which can be successfully operated with a burner which
distributes a blanket of flame evenly throughout the entire length
and width of the furnace.
In some places it is advantageous to have a plate heating furnace
in which plates of various lengths can be heated. In the furnace
shown above there are two bag-walls. That is, when only short
heats are required, the first burner is used. For longer heats the
first bag-wall is removed and two burners are used. For full
length heats both bag-walls are removed and all three oil burners
are operated.
FURNACES
105
Lead, Oil or Solution Bath Furnace.
For small deep pots the best results are obtained by placing the
burner tangentially so that the flame and heat will encircle the pot
and not impinge upon any portion of it. For larger or more shal-
low baths, it is a very simple matter to construct a combustion
chamber proportionate to the size of the bath, but care must be
taken to have the. neat ports and combustion chamber such that
the temperature in any portion of the bath will not vary over
twenty-five deg. Fahr. Oil is ideal for this class of service for
after the burner has once been adjusted, the bath can be constantly
kept at the required temperature.
106 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
A modern flue welding furnace, the capacity of which is 60 welds
of safe ends on 2-in. or 2%-in. locomotive boiler tubes per hour,
while with a coal forge 16 flues per hour is considered good prac-
tice. With either fuel the blacksmith requires two helpers, the dif-
ference being that with coal a blacksmith has to work much harder
than his two helpers do, for he must keep turning the flue or he
will burn a hole in it and he must constantly be putting on borax
and sand or other welding compounds, whereas in this modern oil
furnace his helpers can charge and remove the flues, no welding
compounds being necessary. Three flues (instead of only one) are
charged at a time. Oil welded flues are not water-tested as the welds
are all perfect, there being no corrosion or oxidation of the metal.
No time lost while waiting to renew or coke the fire. 58 gallons of
oil are equivalent to a ton of good bituminous coal in this class of
service. When a smith, who all his life has been using coal for this
class of work, discovers these facts, he concludes that oil is the mar-
vel of the 20th century. A shop still using coal for this class of work
is hopelessly behind the times and cannot expect to compete with
its more modern neighbors.
Flue welding furnaces are usually supplied with extra slide plates
so that for welding larger size flues, the plates with the small open-
ings can be removed, the plates for larger size flues put on and the
openings in the brickwork cut to the required size. In handling
6-in. superheater flues ordinarily only tivo flues are welded at a
time.
FURNACES
107
^ e;/ we *
S'M£ fa
Fig. 2. A Pipe Welding Furnace operated with one burner
and used for welding a flange on 20 in. pipe, for van-stoning, etc.
108 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
A small furnace which is used for a wide range of work in small
shops. For instance, in many plants one of these little furnaces
is used for forging, rivet heating, annealing, hardening dies, dress-
ing high speed steel tools, and by placing a muffle in the charging
space it is used as a muffle annealing and tempering furnace. It
heats rivets uniformly and on 2^/2 gallons of oil per hour is equal
to four coal forges, the maximum capacity being eight thousand
34-in. x 3-in. rivets per day (ten hours).
Either compressed air or dry steam can be used to atomize the
fuel. The burners on about 60% of these furnaces are operated
with steam.
109
FURNACES
A self-contained portable outfit with 20 gallon oil tank, which
can readily be moved around from place to place and which is used
for heating 8,000 ^-in. x 3-in. rivets in ten hours, as well as for
forging, tool dressing, etc. Very convenient for small work in
shops not equipped with the regular oil system as well as for
work where portable outfit is necessary.
Compressed air at pneumatic tool pressure is used to operate
this outfit. That is, the full pressure is used through the burner to
atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, and through the deflection
blast in front of the charging opening to deflect the heat from the
operator and to retain it in the furnace, but the air used on the
tank to force the oil to the burner is reduced from pneumatic tool
pressure to 12 Ibs. as it passes through a pressure reducing valve.
This device is most essential to prevent excessive pressure on the
oil tank and safe-guard human life.
110 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Drop Forging Furnace.
The man or firm who intends to continue in business and com-
pete with modern methods must of necessity use liquid fuel for
the manufacture of drop forgings as with this can be produced the
maximum quantity of output of superior quality in minimum time.
Anyone who has used oil as fuel quickly notices the softness of
the heat. That is, oil produces a penetrating heat so that the metal
is thoroughly heated throughout its entirety, while that heated with
coal, coke or gas is subjected to an abrasive heat so that the out-
side of the blank or forging is heated much hotter than the center.
Because of the penetrating heat produced by liquid fuel, oil heated
blanks and forgings are forged quicker, with less power, and there
is also a saving on the dies. Furnaces for this purpose should be
of such design that the heat will be evenly distributed throughout
the charging zone and a proper size combustion chamber used to
reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum.
FURNACES
111
D — Oil pipe E — Deflection blast pipe F — Auxiliary blast
A i2-in. billet (charged into this furnace after it has been shut
down over night) can be brought to a forging heat in 45 minutes.
A lo-in. square ingot or billet can then be brought to a forging
heat in 32 minutes. This furnace is used for annealing, tempering,
heating, forging and welding large billets, shafts, etc. As there
are two charging openings opposite one another, heats can be
taken on any portion of long shafts or billets. In many plants
this furnace is operated with compressed air as long as that is
available. When the air is needed for pneumatic tools, etc., by
simply opening a by-pass valve, steam at boiler pressure is used
to atomize the fuel. Either steam or volume air (at from 3 to 5
oz. pressure) is used through the deflection blast in front of the
charging opening to deflect the heat from the operator and retain
it in the furnace.
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FURNACES
113
SECTION AT n-A
Fig. i. A Continuous Billet Heating Furnace, 66 ft. long, 10 ft.
wide, in which two rows of 12 in. square ingots 40 in. long are
heated.
114 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Many attempts to burn liquid fuel in Air Fur-
naces have failed because of the operator not
being able to melt the full charge or to get the
metal as hot as when burning coal. Often the
charge was oxidized to such extent that what
metal did become molten was practically worth-
less. Usually a number of burners, each giving
a round flame, have been placed in the side wall
of the furnace, and as the number of burners was
increased the equipment became more and more
intricate. Something had to take the blame for
the wasted time, material and effort, so oil was
condemned as being unworthy of further consid-
eration.
As oil has a much higher calorific value than
coal the natural conclusion is that it ought to be
able to melt the metal in a much shorter period
of time. Not only that, but it should also be able
to bring the metal to the temperature required
for even the smallest castings. It can do both if
properly applied, and furthermore, the quality
of the metal is improved, for by chemical analy-
sis and numerous tests, it has been found that the
castings contain no more sulphur than the metal
did when charged into the furnace, and the ten-
sile strength is consequently greater than that of
metal melted by coal fire. As the melter has the
furnace under perfect control, the heats can be
116 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
taken off much quicker than while burning coal,
and the temperature of the charge while being
tapped can be maintained without varying more
than 25 deg. Fahr. until all the charge has been
run from the furnace. The operation of skimming
is materially decreased — this is a very noticeable
improvement which is especially appreciated by
the melter. The high calorific value of oil also
enables the melter to estimate within a few min-
utes as to the exact time when the charge will be
ready to tap, which is a great contrast to con-
ditions while burning coal especially in rainy
weather when climatic conditions are unfavorable
and the stack draft is materially affected.
The change from coal to oil is a very simple
matter. In the original fire-box I construct a com-
bustion chamber of such form and proportions
that the air necessary for perfect combustion can
unite with the atomized fuel before it reaches the
furnace, which prevents oxidization of the charge.
Also this chamber causes the heat to be deflected
upon the entire surface of the bath. In the end of
the combustion chamber I place a hydro-carbon
burner which makes a fan-shaped blaze, filling the
entire chamber with flame. A very small quantity
of compressed air is used through the burner to
atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, while
FURNACES 117
the balance of the air necessary for perfect com-
bustion is supplied at from 3 to 6 oz. pressure
through a volume air nozzle.
The furnace is charged in the usual manner.
The burner is started by opening the air valve,
holding a piece of burning waste (which has been
well saturated with kerosene) by means of a pair
of pick-up tongs under the burner and then turn-
ing on the oil. The operation is so very simple
that one must see it in order to appreciate that you
can get as intense heat with it in a few minutes as
from burning coal for several hours.
The reduction in the time required to get the
charge ready for tapping is not the only point
wherein oil is more economical than coal. There
is no handling of fuel and ashes consequently the
services of the fireman and coal passers are dis-
pensed with. There is great saving in floor space,
for the oil tank is placed underground and the
former coal bins used for other purposes. The
fire-brick lining of the furnace lasts 20% longer
than with coal. Poor castings or imperfect ones
caused by the metal being cool or sluggish are ob-
viated entirely, for with liquid fuel, the question
is not "How hot can you make the metal," but
"How hot do you wish it." All these items should
ii8 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
be taken into consideration when comparing the
relative costs of using oil and coal in air furnaces.
During years of close observation, I have par-
ticularly noticed one point in this class of service.
It is this. Using the combustion chamber herein
described, a burner giving a flame to fit this com-
bustion chamber and admitting volume air
through an air nozzle located below the burner,
insures not only the hottest portion of the fur-
nace being where it is most needed, viz. : the bath
or charging space, but also the elimination of the
detrimental effect of any sulphur which may be
in the oil or tar. This is accomplished with this
construction for the following reason, — the air ad-
mitted between the flame and the bath or charge
must pass through the atomized consuming fuel
and thus the sulphur is consumed before it reaches
the furnace proper. The gases rising therefrom
being lighter, quickly ascend to the arch of the
furnace. If, however, the air is admitted around
the burner or above the burner, and no combus-
tion chamber is used, the sulphur is not consumed
in the manner above described, but is absorbed
by the metal.
Strange to relate, the first air furnace in which
oil was successfully burned was located on the
identical spot where the first malleable iron was
made in the United States by Seth Boyden at 28
Orange Street, Newark, New Jersey.
FURNACES
119
ATOM/Z/NG VAL VE
OIL
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COCK
FAN BLAST NOZZLE-
Proper place to hold torch when lighting a furnace burner.
120 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
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122
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
A 10,000 Ibs. bottom pour ladle in steel foundry heated by a
furnace which can be swung up and out of the way as soon
as the ladle has been brought to the temperature required. The
cover is then removed and the ladle placed in position to receive
the charge.
FURNACES
123
I24 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
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126 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
A copper refining furnace must be so equip-
ped that the operator has the fire under perfect
control at all times. That is, at times a reducing
flame is necessary, while at other times an oxidiz-
ing flame is required. Only one burner should
be used in a 125 ton furnace as shown in accom-
panying cut, but this must spread a blanket of
flame over the entire surface of the bath or char-
ging space, which in this case is 14 ft. wide by 26
ft. long. I am aware that attempts have been
made to use a large number of burners, installed
along the sides of the furnace, with operating
valves for each burner, but the operation of the
furnace under these conditions was so complica-
ted, the operator could not accurately regulate
the flame and if during the refining process, the
metal is oxidized, it becomes porous and when
rolled into copper wire, the porousness ruins the
conductivity of the wire. With the one burner a
small quantity of superheated steam or com-
pressed air is used to atomize the fuel and distri-
bute the heat in the furnace but by far the greater
portion of the air necessary for combustion is
admitted through the volume air nozzle under
the burner.
At the end of the furnace you will note the
FURNACES
127
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128 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
door used during the refining process for poleing
the charge (agitating the molten metal with a
long wooden pole). In this door is a peep-hole
through which the burner can be plainly seen at
the opposite end of the furnace and all the oper-
ating valves are so placed that the operator, while
viewing the burner, can quickly and accurately
adjust the air and oil supply according to the re-
quirements for the proper treatment of the metal.
FURNACES
129
Fig. i. Crucible melting furnace for melting brass, copper and
other alloys. The capacity of this furnace is either a No. 60, No-
70 or No. 80 crucible. This furnace has a combustion chamber of
such form and proportions that the tangential flame and heat en-
circles the crucible and is evenly distributed without any cutting
effect upon the crucible. The air necessary for perfect combustion
unites with the consuming fuel in the combustion chamber before
it reaches the crucible; thus the life of the crucible is prolonged
because of oxidization being reduced to the minimum.
130 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
For a number of years oil has been used for
the melting of brass and kindred alloys but unfor-
tunately direct-fired oil furnaces were recom-
mended for this purpose which resulted in the
alloys, which melt at a lower temperature than
copper, being sacrificed, thus causing an irrepara-
ble loss in metal, to say nothing of the attendant
change in the composition of the metal. It was
indeed a sad day when crucible furnaces were
discarded for the direct-fired oil furnace, but now,
thanks to the ability and fighting qualities of
young metallurgists in (or who should be in)
every brass foundry, we are again returning to
crucible melting furnaces. In Fig. 2 is shown a
modern crucible brass melting furnace, six pot
capacity. You will note that the furnace is rever-
sible. That is, one burner is in operation until
the metal in the three crucibles in the first cham-
ber is ready to pour, and during this time the
waste gases passing in through the second cham-
ber on their way to the stack have preheated the
metal in the second chamber, thus using the waste
gases as much as possible. After the metal in the
first chamber has been poured and the crucibles
refilled, the dampers to stack are reversed, the
plates over burner openings reversed and the
second burner is started. The first chamber then
becomes the preheating chamber. The heat in
FURNACES
131
Fig. 2. A Modern six pot brass melting furnace.
132 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
the flue to stack is utilized to preheat the incom-
ing air. Note the combination of the damper
or air opening in flue with the flue damper. The
apparatus is so arranged that when the flue dam-
per is closed, a lug automatically raises the air
damper on top of the flue so that the air is pre-
heated while passing through the flue to burner
end of furnace then in operation. By this means
the air necessary for perfect combustion is pre-
heated by heat which would simply have been
wasted in the ordinary type of furnace construc-
tion. Convenient means are provided for operat-
ing both dampers and covers. This furnace is
constructed for various sizes and numbers of
crucibles and besides being efficient and econ-
omical, it reduces the loss in metal to the
minimum.
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FURNACES
135
Fig. i. A portable furnace, resting in fire door opening, firing
up a locomotive boiler.
136 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Until quite recently wood was used for firing
up boilers in boiler shops for testing purposes, or
in locomotive works for raising steam to set pops
when the locomotive is completed. By using oil
instead of wood for this purpose there is 50%
saving in time and cost. With an apparatus such
as shown in operation in Fig. 1 the operator has
the fire under perfect control, and one man can
look after 5 or 6 furnaces at a time. For the lar-
gest Mogul engine we use either one furnace such
as shown in Fig. 2 which gives a fan-shaped in-
candescent flame 18" to 10 ft. in length, at a point
6 ft. from the furnace the flame being 4 ft. wide;
or two of the smaller portable furnaces shown in
Fig. 3, which gives a round incandescent flame 1
ft. long, 3" in diameter to 6 ft. long and about 10"
in diameter. For a smaller size locomotive ordi-
narily one of the furnaces shown in Fig. 3 is used.
These furnaces are also used for a multitude
of other purposes such as setting up corners of
fire-box sheets to mud-rings; flanging, laying on
patches, heating crown sheets, heating and weld-
ing band rings; bending pipe up to 16" diameter
without sand filling; (straight pipe is laid on
bending table with a shaper arranged to suit
curve; one end of pipe is clamped, and pipe bent
after heat is applied to outside of bend, thus
FURNACES
137
Fig. 2. A portable furnace such as is shown in operation in Fig. i.
A — Oil burner C — Compressed air connection D — Air reducing valve.
E— Oil hose. F— Air hose.
Fig. 3. Portable Furnace with hose and tank on a truck.
138 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
stretching metal on the outside, without buck-
ling inside of bend) ; straightening bent frames
after a wreck, etc., etc.
Referring to Fig. 3, you will note that com-
pressed air (pneumatic tool pressure) is used to
operate this equipment. The full pressure is used
through the burner to atomize the fuel and dis-
tribute the heat, but the air used to force the fuel
from the tank to burner passes through a reducing
valve which reduces it from pneumatic tool pres-
sure to 10 Ibs. on the tank. To safeguard human
life this pressure reducer is most essential.
FURNACES
139
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140 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUFT
A— the insert (or Dutchman) 2. Furnace in operation.
3- Note the constancy of heat
and perfect combustion.
4- A — The perfect weld.
5- The little giant which did the trick.
FURNACES 141
There are three ways of welding locomotive
frames. Thermit and Oxy-acetylene are efficient
but very costly, while with oil in about 40 min-
utes with a few gallons of oil, a perfect weld is
made. Of course the expense entailed for labor
in making the weld is the same in either case.
Complete story of a perfect weld with oil is shown
in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
The oil furnace shown in Fig. 5 is operated
with a small quantity of compressed air and may
be used for various other purposes, such as flang-
ing, laying on patches and laps, heating crown
sheets, firing up and testing boilers in boiler
shops; brazing and filling castings, ladle heating,
melting or keeping metals hot in foundries; braz-
ing, annealing and heating of all kinds in copper
shops; removing propeller wheels, straightening
and bending on board vessel rudder frames, stern
posts, keel, etc., pipe bending, etc.; melting metals
in small quantities for laboratory tests, etc., heat-
ing rails for bending, etc.
142 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Portable furnace brazing exhaust pipe of automobile engine.
This furnace is mounted on a 5 ft. standard so that the apparatus
can be adjusted to any height or angle needed for all kinds of heat-
ing purposes where it is desired to heat a small portion of the metal.
The furnace may be removed from the stand and used as a blow
pipe for straightening or setting up work difficult of access.
The tiny furnace is lined with refractory material. This be-
comes heated lily-white and insures a constant steady flame even
when the oil supply is cut very low. With apparatus having a metal
combustion chamber not lined with refractory material there is al-
ways more or less difficulty with the fire not burning steadily. The
(refractory material also aids combustion and prevents oil being
thrown out with the flame.
FURNACES
143
Hand Torches, made in various sizes, are very economical and
efficient for all classes of light heating purposes, such as skin-dry-
ing moulds, lighting cupolas, heating tires, light brazing, burning
paint off steel cars, etc.
144
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Portable Asphalt Mixer equipped with oil burner.
For rotary dryers in either portable or sta-
tionary asphalt plants, it is most essential that the
burner be capable of atomizing any gravity of
liquid fuel for in some localities you can get fuel
oil, other places heavy crude oil, while in other
localities nothing but oil tar from a gas works
may be obtainable. Burning liquid fuel in the
vertical or other type of boiler used to operate a
portable asphalt plant is a great convenience and
it eliminates the smoke nuisance.
FURNACES
145
Equipment of Ore or Sand Roaster and Dryer.
Oil is particularly adapted for all kinds of ore roasters and is
especially valuable for desulphurizing iron ores for it enables the
operator to attain and maintain the temperature required at all
times.
Rotary Cement Kiln Equipment.
146 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Fig. i. An ordinary brick kiln, having 40 eyes, the capacity
being 500,000 brick.
Oil is the ideal fuel for this class of work, if you use burners
capable of giving a very light fire until the water smoke has been
removed from the brick, after which the burners should be forced
to their maximum capacity.
FURNACES
147
Fig. 2. A bee-hive brick kiln or terracotta kiln, changed from
coal to oil, by simply covering over the grates with a checker-
work of fire-brick, and bricking up the firing door as shown.
148 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
FIRE BOX EQUIPTMENT WHICH I RECOMMEND
OF POTTERY K»U1X
Two ways of equipping a pottery kiln, the type of construction
shown in the upper views being the most modern.
FURNACE'
149
Glass Melting Furnace.
(Fig. i)
150
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
(Fig. 2)
In the melting, bending and annealing of
glass, oil, if properly installed, is a fuel which in-
sures success. There are many types of glass
melting furnaces; regenerative, recuperative, and
the ordinary tank type. The equipment of the
latter is illustrated in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 shows
lehrs 80 ft. long equipped with only one burner.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 151
CONCLUSION.
The author has endeavored to the best of his
ability to give as much information to the reader
as is possible without his knowing in detail the
exact service of the boiler or the furnace, or the
size of the metal which is to be heated or heat-
treated in the furnace, and has endeavored to
treat each subject from a practical rather than a
technical standpoint.
As the light fuel oils heretofore used in this
country are now being refined and redistilled by
new processes by which a higher percentage of
the more volatile components, such as kerosene
and gasoline, etc., are obtained, the price of this
oil has materially raised. It is therefore necessary
to utilize the heavy crude oil being shipped in
large quantities from California and Mexico, but
the use of this fuel necessitates many changes in
the oil systems heretofore used. Many people
have attempted to burn this fuel and failed be-
cause they tried to use it under the same condi-
tions as they did fuel oil of about the same con-
sistency as water. Investigation of these failures
has shown that often a rotary pump has been used,
34" or 1" oil mains arid no means employed for
heating the fuel. Under such conditions, heavy
]52 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
oil can not be successfully burned, and in many-
cases, in fact, the heavy oil is so viscous that it
could not be pumped out of the storage tank.
Some firms when they could not successfully burn,
this heavy fuel with their present equipment, sim-
ply condemned the fuel, while others of a more-
persevering and ingenious turn of mind delved
deeper into the subject or profited by their neigh-
bors' experiences, and eventually have been able
to successfully utilize the heavy oil. I have heard
so many complaints about liquid fuel and have
seen it condemned so often under conditions
when the supply system or method of atomizing
the fuel was at fault that I have compiled a list
which may awaken a deeper interest in this:
subject.
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 153
Don't Blame Oil
If YOU haven't INCREASED YOUR DAILY OUTPUT;
If you can't get 50 per cent. OVERLOAD FROM YOUR BROILER;
If the SMOKE ROLLS OUT OF THE STACK;
If you BURN out tfce TUBES or SHELL of your BOILER;
If you have to USE COAL or COKE TO KEEP THE OIL or TAR
BURNING;
If you have to use more than ONE BURNER IN A BOILER having
fire-box less "than 7 ft. wide;
If you are using MANY BURNERS GIVING FUNNEL-SHAPED
FLAMES instead of ONE BURNER with a FAN-SHAPED
BLAZE;
If your LOCOMOTIVE DOESN'T INCREASE ITS TONNAGE or
steam well;
If you INJURE the LOCOMOTIVE FIRE-BOX;
If you CAN'T ATOMIZE HEAVY OIL or TAR AS WELL AS
LIGHT OILS;
If your PURNER CLOGS or CARBONIZES;
If the MOUTH of the burner WEARS AWAY;
If you ARE NOT GETTING PERFECT COMBUSTION;
If you have NO SMOKE but a LOSS OF FUEL because of an
EXCESS OF OXYGEN;
If you cannot CONTROL THE HEAT IN THE FURNACE;
If you don't get REVERBERATORY MOVEMENT of the HEAT;
If the HEAT IS NOT EVENLY DISTRIBUTED;
If you have DIFFICULTY in getting a WELDING HEAT;
If your MEN have to WAIT ON the METAL;
If you can't ATTAIN and MAINTAIN the REQUIRED TEMPERA-
TURE;
if you OXIDIZE or SCALE THE METAL;
If you can't get BETTER RESULTS WITH OIL than with coal, coke
or gas;
If you can't keep the BURNER LIT WITH A LIGHT FIRE;
If you use the old style PAN SYSTEM in your CRUCIBLE MELT-
ING FURNACES;
If you are troubled with SMOKE PASSING OUT OF FURNACE;
If your CORE or MOLD DRYING OVENS are TOO HOT ON ONE
END and TOO COLD AT THE OTHER;
If your JAPANNING OVEN SMOKES;
If you CAN'T BRAZE.
If you have any of these conditions IN YOUR PLANT, why blame
the fuel? It is because you are BURNING AT OIL, instead of really
burning it in such a manner as to effect PERFECT COMBUSTION
.and UTILIZE ITS FULL CALORIFIC VALUE.
INDEX.
Page
Air Furnaces 1 14
Air, Quantity required for combustion 24
Analysis :
Air Furnace Bottom Sand 45
Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil 16
Brick for Crucible Furnaces 42
California Crude Oil 17
Coal 60
Fuel or Residuum Oil 16
Mexican Crude Oil (Tampico Fields) 17
Tar — London and from Dominion Coal .... 19
Annealing and Tempering Furnaces:
Indirect-fired 89, 90
Indirect-fired Car 93
Overhead Oil-fired Car 94
Muffle 80
Rotary — Cold Punched Nuts, etc 100
Rotary Table 98
Semi-pit IOI
Shell 91
Sheet Copper and Brass 102
Asphalt Mixer (Portable) 144
Axe Head Tempering Furnace 99
Billet Heating Furnaces in, 112, 113
Boilers :
Apparatus for Firing Up and Testing. ... 136, 141
Babcock & Wilcox (Altman-Taylor) 68
Coal and Oil or Tar Combination Equipment 57
Heine 65
Locomotive Type — Stationary Service 61
156 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Page
Return Tubular 71
Scotch Marine 63
Stirling 62
Vertical • 73
Bolt Making 85, 96
Brass Melting 125, 129, 131
Brazing 142
Bread Oven 82
Brick Kilns 146, 147
British Thermal Unit 17
Bull Ladle Heating 122
Burners :
Gas — Natural or Commercial 29
High Pressure 23, 56, 58
Locomotive 46
Low Pressure or Volume Air 25
Manner of Lighting 119
Mechanical 28
Pulverized Coal . , 29
Car-type Annealers 93, 94
Case Hardening Furnaces 89. 90, 93, 101
Cement Kiln (Rotary) 145
Centrifugal Air Compressor 27, 40
Coal — Analysis 60
Combustion Chambers 85
Comparison — Various Kinds of Fuels . . . . : 20
Compressed Air Oil System 38
Compressed Air versus Steam 26
Continuous Billet Heating 113
Copper and Brass Annealing 102
Copper Refining 126
Core Ovens 76, 78
Crucible Brass Melting 129, 131
Crucible Steel Melting 133, 134
Crucible Steel Furnace Brick 42
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 157
Page
Die Hardening 108
Drop Forging no
Dryer and Roaster (Sand and Ore) 145
Electric Locomotive (first) 2
Enameling ... * 79
Ferrite 88
Fireman's Regulating Quadrant 50
Firing up and Testing Boilers 136, 141
Flanging Furnace • . . . . 87
Flue Welding Furnace 106
Forging Furnaces 87, 108, in
Frame Welding (Locomotive) 141
Glass Melting, Bending and Annealing. . . . 149, 150
Gravity Feed Oil System 33
Hand Torches • 143
Heat-Treatment : 88
Inverted Arches (Locomotive) 49
Japanning Oven 79
Kilns :
Brick 146, 147
Ore Roaster 145
Pottery • . . 148
Rotary Cement 145
Laboratory Furnace 141
Ladle Heating 122, 123, 124
Lead Bath Furnace 105
Lehrs 150
Locomotive :
Burner 46
Fireman's Regulating Quadrant 50
First Electric 2
Frame Welding 141
Inverted Arches 49
158 THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL
Page
Oil Regulating Cock 50
Oil Superheater 53
Oil Tank 51
Stationary Boiler 61
Testing Apparatus 136
Low Pressure Oil Burner 25
Martinsite 92
Mechanical Burners 2&
Melting Furnaces 125
Millet Ovens 77
Mould Drying 75, 78
Mounted Burner 56, 58
Muffle Furnace, annealing, baking, enamel, etc. . . 80
Multiple Ladle Heating Furnace 123, 124
Oil :
Analysis 16
Bath Furnace 105,
Discovery 15
Production 15
Pumps 35
Regulating Cock 41
Superheater 53
Tank 33, 51
Open Hearth Furnace 120
Overhead Oil-fired Furnace 94
Pearlite • 88:
Pipe Bending 136
Pipe Flange Welding 107
Plate Heating Furnaces 103, 104
Portable Furnaces • 109
Pottery Kiln 148
Pulverized Coal Burner 29
Pumps - 35
Pumping Systems 34, 36
Pyrometers • 81
THE SCIENCE OF BURNING LIQUID FUEL 159-
Page
Regulating Cocks 41
Return Tubular Boiler 71
Rivet Heating 108, 109^
Roasters • 145
Rotary Furnaces 98, 100
Rotary Kilns 145
Rudder Welding 139
Sand Dryer • . . 145,
Scotch Marine Boiler 63
Scrap Iron Welding 7
Semi-pit, Bung Arch Annealing Furnace • 101
Shaft Heating Furnace in
Shell Annealing Furnace 91
Shingling Furnace 87"
Soaking Pits 121
Solution Bath Furnace 105.
Steel Heat-Treatment • 88, 95
Superheater (Oil) 53:
Tangential Flame 73,
Tanks 33, 51
Tar 19
Thermometers 31
Tool Dressing 96, 97-
Valveless Oil System 36-
Vanstoning 107
Vertical Boiler 73
Welding:
Locomotive Frame 141
Rudder 139.
Scrap Iron 7, 1 12-
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DA
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETU
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENAL
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOUR
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH D
OVERDUE.
MAY Z\ T<3b
JAN 20 1944
MAR 2 IHflO
WIHl\ ff I3OU
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